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HHlemoirs of the, Museum of Comparative Zoology
Ba: AT HARVARD COLLEGE.

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Vot. V. \ No. 1.

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES.

BY

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

WITH TWENTY PLATES, fs

CAMBRIDGE:

WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY,
University Press,

1877.

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PREFACE.

Tue Plates which accompany this volume* have now been drawn on
stone for more than twelve years. It was the intention of the late Pro
fessor Agassiz to add to them the anatomy of several of our more com-
mon species, but the duties connected with the care of the Museum pre-
vented him from accomplishing this task. Although during the last twelve
years several important papers have been published on the anatomy of
Echinoderms which would necessitate a complete re-examination of the
anatomy of Starfishes, it has been thought best, since there was no proba-
bility of being able to finish within a reasonable time the necessary ana-
tomical investigations to complete this volume as originally planned, to
publish the Plates as they were left by Professor Agassiz; all that has
been added to them is the lettering necessary for their proper explana-
tion. _However incompletely the subject of Starfishes is thus presented,
these Plates cannot fail to be of value not only as illustrations of a
number of our American Starfishes, and as showing the systematic value
of characters thus far almost completely neglected, but also as determining
the homology of several genera not previously figured, the solid parts
of which are given in detail. As several European naturalists are at the
present moment engaged upon the study of the Starfishes, it appeared

judicious to issue these Plates before they became antiquated.

* They were intended to accompany the text of the fifth volume of the “ Contributions to the Natural
History of the United States,” by L. Agassiz.

ee PREFACE.

The Memoir on the Embryology of the Starfish, Part I., has been repub-
lished substantially as it originally appeared in 1864, in advance of the
remainder of the volume. I have added notes in brackets on the points
where additions have been made by subsequent investigations for the sake
of calling attention to the present condition of the subject, and I beg the
reader to remember that it was written thirteen years ago.

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

Museum or CompaRATIVE ZOOLOGY, }
CAMBRIDGE, April, 1877.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE.

PART I. EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

CHAPTER FIRST. ArtiriciaL FrecuNDATION, AND HIsTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LaRVA, p. 3.

CHAPTER SECOND. History or THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STARFISH PROPER, p. 30 ;
RECAPITULATION, p. 36.

CHAPTER THIRD. EmpryoLoGicaL CLASSIFICATION OF STARFISHES, p. 59.
CHAPTER FOURTH. Examination oF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF FORMER OBSERVERS, p. 66.

CHAPTER FIFTH. On tHe Puan or DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS, p. 75.

PART II. Own THE Souim Parts or somE NortH AMERICAN STARFISHES.

HomoLogigs oF ECHINODERMS, p. 87; DEscRIPTION OF THE Harp Parts oF SOME NoRTH
AMERICAN STARFISHES, p. 94; ASTERIAS, p. 94; ECHINASTER SENTUS, p. 97 ; CROSSASTER,
p- 98 ; PYcNoPODIA HELIANTHOIDES, p. 100; Bristn@a, p. 102; Lurpra GuinprNat, p. 105 ;
ASTERINA FOLIUM, p. 106 ; ASTEROPSIS IMBRICATA, p. 106 ; PENTACEROS RETICULATUS, p. 108 ;
SOLASTER ENDECA, p. 112 ; CRIBRELLA SANGUINOLENTA, p. 113 ; ASTROPECTEN ARTICULATUS,
p. 114; Lumpia cLaTHRATA, p. 117 ; FascioLes or STARFISHES, p. 119.

NOTE, p. 121.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES, p. 122.

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EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

By ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

[Part I., together with Plates I.-VIII., was published in December, 1864; the text included in
brackets has been added with the subsequent part. |

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EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

CHAPTER FIRST.
ARTIFICIAL FECUNDATION, AND HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LARVA.

Differences of the Sexes.— Since the existence of different sexual organs
in separate individuals was first pointed out among the lower animals,
the tendency of every additional advance in our knowledge of their struc-
ture has been to bring out more fully the differences of sex between them.
But recently, we did not even know that among the Meduse there were
male and female individuals; and yet, at the present day, it is a com-
paratively easy task to distinguish, among the larger Jelly-fishes, the
males from the females. The difference of coloring is very striking. The
spermaries of the males are often brilliantly tinged, while the ovaries of
the females are of duller hues. We thus find among Jelly-fishes the first
indication of an almost universal law in the animal kingdom, and which is
nowhere carried out to so great a degree as among Birds. A casual ob-
server could not fail to distinguish a male from a female Aurelia, — though
the great difference in the coloring of the males and females had not been
perceived by naturalists till it was first pointed out by Professor Agassiz,
in Aurelia flavidula Pér. e¢ Les. In Melicertum, in Turris, in Staurophora,
in Circe, a glance will suffice to determine the sex of the individual;
while a single look through a magnifying-glass will reveal to us the sex
of the smaller species, such as Eucope, Pennaria, Euphysa, and the like.
The difference of the sexes of some Echinoderms is easily perceived by
their difference of coloring at the time of spawning; among them are
our common Starfishes and our Sea-urchins.

The males and females of our common species of Starfishes, Asteracan-
thion pallidus Agass. (A. vulgaris Sfimp.?), and Asteracanthion berylinus
Agass., can readily be distinguished by their difference in coloring: all

2

4 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

those having a bluish tint being invariably females; a reddish or reddish-
brown color indicating a male. Among the many specimens I have had
occasion to open, I have thus far never found a single exception. When
cut open, so as to expose the genital organs, the difference between the
males and females is still more striking. The long grape-like clusters of
reproductive organs extending from the angle of the arms, on both sides
of the ambulacral system, to the extremity of the rays, present very
marked differences in the two sexes. The ovaries are bright orange,
while the spermaries are of a dull cream-color. At the time of spawning,
which is very different in the two species mentioned above, the genital
organs are distended to the utmost, filling completely the whole of the
cavity of the ray; the abactinal system itself being greatly expanded by
the extraordinary development of these organs.

Artificial Feeundation.—If we take a male and female Starfish in this
state, and cut a portion of the genital organs into small pieces, we shall
find that the eggs and spermaries escape in such quantities. as to render
turbid the water in which they are placed. Throwing these small pieces
of the genital organs into shallow dishes containing fresh sea-water, and
stirring the mixture thoroughly to insure the contact between the sper-
maries and the eggs, will be sufficient to fecundate the latter. In order
to make the operation perfectly successful, some precautions are neces-
sary: all the pieces of the genital organs, which are left after repeated
stirring, must be carefully removed; there must not be too many eggs
in one dish, so that the water can have free access to them in every
direction. The removal of the remnants of the ovaries and spermaries
is very necessary, as the pieces which remain clotted together decom-
pose very rapidly, and endanger the safety of the eggs, even when the
water can be changed with the greatest facility. As soon as the fecun-
dation is fulfilled, the water in the dishes must be repeatedly changed
until it becomes perfectly clear, for the presence of too many spermaries,
rendering the water milky, prevents a favorable result. It is best only
fo use one male and one female for the mixture in each vessel, as eggs
taken from many individuals lessen the chances of success. The eggs
sink to the bottom, so that the water can be poured off and changed
without much danger of throwing them away. Immediately after the
mixture is made, the water should be changed three or four times in
succession; after that, every halfhour, until the fourth hour, when an

CHANGES IN THE EGG. 5

interval of two to four hours may elapse before renewing the water. As
it is extremely difficult to change the water after the embryos have
hatched and are swimming freely about in the jar, without losing many
of them, it is advisable, before they hatch, which is about ten hours after
the fecundation, to reduce the water to a minimum volume, and then
simply to add a little fresh sea-water and remove the contents of the
vessel to larger and larger jars. In this way the water can be main-
tained sufficiently pure, until the young embryos have taken the habit
of swimming near the surface, when it may all be drawn off by means
of a siphon. A great deal of time and trouble will be saved by this
mode of procedure, and fewer specimens lost. The jars containing the
eggs should be kept in a cool place; the most convenient method of
securing a low and even temperature is to place the small jars in large
tubs filled with cold water.

Changes in the Egg.— At the time of spawning, the eggs in the ovaries
are so closely packed that they are pressed into all sorts of shapes, tri-
angular, polygonal, elliptical; but when placed in water, and allowed to
remain a short time, they soon become perfectly spherical (Pl. I. Fig. 1).
The following numbers are the ratios of the diameters of the yolk, the
germinative vesicle, and the germinative dot, the outer envelope being 1:
the yolk is 0.75, the germinative vesicle 0.22, and the germinative dot
0.08. The formation of the egg in the ovary, and its changes up to the
time of spawning, I have had neither time nor opportunity, thus far, to
examine,

The spermatic particles, which swim about with great rapidity on
escaping from the spermaries, soon find their way to the outer envelope
of the egg to which they attach themselves, beating about very viclently
the whole time. The particles remain imbedded in the thickness of the
outer envelope, and are sometimes so crowded as to form a halo round
the egg (Pl. I. Figs. 1-4). I have not, in a single case, seen any of
the particles penetrate through the outer envelope and reach the yolk
itself.

Probably a great deal of the difference of opinion prevailing among
Physiologists, as to whether the spermatic particles penetrate through
the successive envelopes of the egg to the yolk itself, is due to the want
of precision still existing in our knowledge concerning the envelopes
of the yolk in the different branches of the animal kingdom. We do not

6 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

know whether what we call the outer envelope of the egg of an Kchino-
derm is homologous to the outer envelope of the egg of an Acaleph, of a
Polyp, or of Worms, Insects, or Crustacea, or how far these envelopes are
found in the ovarian eggs of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. And
before we can come to a satisfactory result as to the place in the egg
which the spermatic particles reach before changes can be observed to
take place in the yolk, the eggs of the different classes of Animals must
be carefully compared with reference to this point. The first phenome-
non which precedes any change in the egg is a rotary motion given to
the whole egg by the constant beating of the spermatic particles; the
germinative vesicle disappears (Pl. I. Fig. 2) soon after this, and next the
germinative dot (Pl. I. Mg. 3). The yolk has then all the appearance of
an egg which has undergone segmentation, and the yolk of which should
consist of innumerable small spheres. The yolk has the same granular
structure previous to segmentation which has usually been considered to
belong to it only after the segmentation is complete. [The phenomena
preceding segmentation, the structure of the yolk, the mode of forma-
tion of the Richtung’s-Blaschen, the manner in which the germinative
vesicle disappears, are subjects which since the preceding investigations
were made have all received considerable attention. The explanations
given of these points are therefore all subject to revision and to correc-
tion. See more particularly the papers by Lupwie, C. Semper, Lan-
KESTER, Hartwic, For, AverBAcn, BALFour; sundry Embryological Me-
moirs by E. Van Brenepen, Composition de lceuf, 1870; KowaLewsky
A. Mem. Akad. St. Peters, XVI, 1871; Buitrscui1, Die Eizelle; Harcxen
EK, Die Gastrea Theorie; Srrasspurcer, Die Zelle.] The resemblance
between these two stages is still more marked in the eggs of Cteno-
phore, where the ratio between the diameter of the yolk and that of
the outer envelope is large, and in which the segmentation is carried
on until the whole yolk consists of such minute spheres that it is impos-
sible at first sight to distinguish an egg of a Ctenophorous Medusa, which
has undergone complete segmentation, from one in which the segmenta-
tion has not even begun, after the germinative vesicle and dot have dis-
appeared. The disappearance of the germinative dot is accompanied by
“ separation of the yolk from the inner wall of the outer envelope of
the egg (Pl. I. Hig. 3); this is the first step towards segmentation, and
the presence of such a marked interval would greatly facilitate the detec-

CHANGES IN THE EGG 7

tion of spermatic particles upon the surface of the yolk, if any of them
had penetrated through the outer membrane. The first trace of segmen-
tation consists in a depression of the yolk, visible on one side of the
sphere (Pl. I. Mg. 4), and is soon followed by a similar change on the
opposite pole.

The segmentation takes place very rapidly, passing in about eight
hours from the stage represented by Pl. I. Fig. 3 to that of Pl. L Fy. 21,
immediately before the escape of the embryo from the egg. The spheres
in the earlier stages of segmentation are well separated (Pl. I. Figs. 7, 9,
11, 13). They have a centrifugal tendency, and, as they increase in
number, arrange themselves in a shell-like envelope, which eventually
becomes the wall of the embryo. This tendency is already apparent
when there are not more than eight spheres (Pl. I. Figs. 13, 14); and
as early as the stage represented on Pl. I. Fig. 16, where there are only
thirty-two spheres, the envelope is quite prominent. The rotation of the
spheres of segmentation commences before this (Pl. I. Mig. 6), and is
entirely independent of the motion given to the whole egg by the sper-
matic particles; this stops soon after the rotation of the spheres of segmen-
tation has commenced.

As the egg of the Starfish presents nothing peculiar in its process of
segmentation beyond what has been just remarked, I refer the reader to
the explanation of the plates for the details concerning every successive
step of this process, as observed in Asteracanthion berylinus.

The Richtung’s-Blaschen of Schultze, which he first noticed in the seg-
mentation of Mollusks, and which were afterwards seen by Lacaze-Duthiers .
and by Robin, who traced their mode of development, were also observed
in the segmentation of the yolk of our Starfish. They are noticed, before
the yolk has been divided into halves (PI. I. My. 5), as three or four
small granules, situated at the extremity of the axis which is to divide
the yolk into two portions (Pl. I. Fig. 6). They are developed from the
yolk itself as a slight swelling, which afterwards becomes entirely distinct
from the mass of the yolk (Pl. I. My. 7), retaining always throughout
the whole process of segmentation the same relative position to the axis
of segmentation (Pl. I. Figs. 9-17). What part they play in the sabse-
quent history of the embryoI have not been able to ascertain. Without
doubt they always hold the same relation to the first axis of segmenta-
tion, and are, as far as I have observed them in the segmentation of

8 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Asteracanthion and of Toxopneustes, invariably at one pole of the first
axis of segmentation.

The Embryo after Hatching. — At about the end of the tenth hour after

fecundation, the segmentation has been carried so far that the walls of the
future embryo have become quite conspicuous, and it is now ready to hatch
(Pl. I. Fig. 21). When the outer envelope is torn, the young rotate slowly
about, around a shifting axis, by means of very minute cilia placed over
the whole surface; the walls are everywhere of the same thickness, and
the embryo is perfectly spherical. A difference soon becomes evident; the
walls thicken at one pole of the sphere (Pl. I. Mig. 22, a), and the thick-
ening is accompanied by a flattening of the same side (Pl. IL. Mig. 23, a);
the embryo has lost its regular spherical shape and its homogeneous walls
(Pl. I. ig. 23, a2). The next change consists in a slight depression at this
flattened pole (Pl. I. Hig. 24, a); the wall bends inward, forming a very
shallow depression, growing deeper and deeper, until it forms a pouch
extending half the length of the embryo (Pl. I. Figs. 25, 26, d, 27, d).
[This stage has become well known as the gastraea stage of Haeckel; for
a fuller discussion of the gastrea theory see my Memoir on the Embry-
ology of the Ctenophoree, Mem. Amer. Acad., 1874, p. 379.] While a
cavity (d) is thus formed by the simple folding in of the outer wall, the
embryo is constantly lengthening and becomes more cylindrical; the walls
of the extremity opposite the pouch becoming attenuated, while, imme-
diately round the opening of the cavity, the walls have not lost their
original thickness (Pl. I. Figs. 26, 27, a). Water flows freely into and
.out of this cavity; currents are established, running in different directions
along opposite walls of the pouch, showing this opening to be for the
present a mouth; the pouch, or digestive cavity, sustains the same relation
to the whole body as in the most regular and circular radiated animals,
such as young Actinis, or young Porites. The motion of the embryo,
which immediately after escaping from the egg is an extremely slow
rotation, increases in rapidity as it lengthens, and by the time the cavity
equals half the length of the embryo (Pl. I. Fig. 27, d), the motion is
much accelerated. Instead of a simple slow rotation, with scarcely any
motion of translation, the latter is now quite rapid, and is accompanied
by a slow rotation round a vertical axis, through the centre of the longer
diameter of the animal; the opening leading into the ccecum is foremost
during their motion.

THE EMBRYO AFTER HATCHING. g

At the end of about twenty hours after fecundation the embryo has
reached the condition just described; it is now somewhat pear-shaped,
with rounded extremities (Pl. I. Fig. 27), having at one end an opening
(a), leading into a pouch (d), which extends half the length of the cylin-
der.* We have now the embryo in a condition which can best be com-
pared to the embryos of other Radiates; for there is as yet nothing of
the complication hereafter introduced in the subject by the development
of bilateral parts, obscuring the plan upon which the embryo is _ built.
It is an embryo closely resembling those of the other Radiates, in which,
however, the class-characters, distinguishing it from the embryos of the
other classes of the type, are already developed beyond question. In
the young Polyps the earliest appearance of the class-characters is de-
noted by the presence of a few radiating partitions, dividing the cavity
of the embryo into distinct chambers. In the Acalephs, in the most
rudimentary stages, we already find the chymiferous tubes pushing their
way through the spherosome; while in our larve the echinodermoid
class-character, that of having distinct walls, forming the different organs,
is already plainly visible from the mode of formation of this digestive
cavity. What unites all these embryos in one great type is, that we
have in them all an axis around which are arranged the different elements

* So far, the changes which have been observed do not differ materially from what we know of
the earlier stages of Echinoderm larve, from the observations of Derbes, Miiller, and Krohn. As I
have shown, in the Memoirs of the American Academy for 1864, the earlier stages of the Echinus larve,
as they have been figured by Derbés, agree in the main points with what has been observed of the
earlier stages of our American Echinus larve (Toxopneustes drébachiensis). With the exception,
however, that Derbes, not having followed all the intermediate stages between his figures 15 and 16
in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1847, did not see the transformations the digestive cavity
undergoes, and committed, therefore, the very natural mistake of supposing that the first-formed opening,
which we have described as a mouth, retained the same function afterwards. He, however, correctly
noticed the separation of the three cavities, the cesophagus, the stomach, and the alimentary canal,
into which this primary cavity is gradually differentiated, and has given a correct description of their
relation to each other. Muller has taken up this same subject rather where Krohn and Derbés have left
it, and although he has traced the development from the egg of several Echinoderm larva, yet he has
not given us as detailed descriptions and figures of the earlier stages, as of those which were more
_ advanced, and says simply, that in the main points his observations coincided with those of Krohn
and Derbés. Krohn, who has artificially fecundated Echinus lividus, gives us in his figures some of
the missing links in the chain of the observations of Derbés, and shows distinctly for E. lividus,
that the first-formed opening becomes the anus eventually, and in what way this is brought about by
the bending of the bottom of the digestive cavity towards one side of the larva, as is the case in our
Starfish, and the formation at that point of a second opening, which becomes the true mouth, while
the first-formed opening henceforth assumes the function of an anus.

10 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

of which they are composed. Our young Echinoderm in this condition
(Pl. I. Figs. 23-28) can be strictly homologized with the earlier stages
of a Polyp at the time when the digestive cavity is first formed, before
the appearance of the partitions; and with an acalephian embryo, where
the digestive cavity alone is developed, previous to the pushing of the
chymiferous tubes through the gelatinous mass. The stages subsequent
to the condition of the embryo here described, represented in Pl. I. Fig.
24, not having been traced very carefully by previous observers, we have
not had before us the means of forming a true conception of the mode
of development of the Echinoderms; for to obtain a clear and precise
idea of the functions of those problematic bodies which have puzzled
Muller during the whole of his investigations, it is necessary to follow,
step by step, the changes taking place in the pouch of the embryo, which
is in this early stage its digestive cavity (d); for it is as much a diges-
tive cavity as that of a young Actinia or a Scyphistoma, where the
same opening serves as mouth and anus. The mode of formation of the
digestive cavity is entirely different in the two classes; in the Polyp
it is hollowed out of the interior of the embryo, while in the Echino-
derm the bending in of the wall forms the stomach. Hence the two
cavities are not homologous, and the openings which lead into them,
though performing similar functions —those of mouth and anus — are
likewise in no way homologous, though they are in all built upon the
plan of radiation. This opening always retains its double function in
the Polyps and some of the Acalephs, while in the Echinoderms it becomes
the anus after the true mouth has been formed, and the currents have
ceased to circulate in the extremity of the pouch and to pass out through
the same opening which admitted them.

If there is any doubt that Echinoderms, Acalephs, and Polyps belong
to the same great type of the animal kingdom, a comparison of the
young Echinoderm, Acaleph, or Polyp in their earlier stages of growth,
at a time when the spherosome has not yet been divided into its com-
ponent spheromeres, will show how great is their identity of development,
and how little there is in nature to justify the separation of this most
natural great division of the animal kingdom, the Radiates, into Echino-
derms and Coelenterata. I shall return to this point when speaking of the
homologies of the larvae of Echinoderms.

Formation of the Mouth. —The perfect symmetry of the larva (Pl. I.

FORMATION OF THE MOUTH. 11

Fig. 27) is soon modified, and in the next stages of development (PI.
Il. Figs. 2, 4), the digestive cavity (d) no longer runs in the centre of
the larva, but is bent slightly to one side. If we examine one of the
embryos about forty hours old (PI. Il. Migs. 5, 6), we find that great
changes have taken place in the thickness cof its walls. The outer wall
has everywhere become much thinner, except near the opening thus
far called mouth, where the decrease is not so marked. The walls of
the digestive cavity, which were of an equal thickness for the whole
length, have become exceedingly attenuated at the bottom of the sac,
and have dilated to a considerable extent, forming a sort of reservoir
with very thin walls at the extremity of the pouch (PI. Il. Figs. 4, 6, d,
magnified and isolated, Fig. 1, d). These changes in the thickness of
the walls, and in the form of the internal cavity, are also accompanied
by corresponding changes of form in the embryo as a whole. The ex-
tremity opposite the so-called mouth has increased in bulk, and greatly
exceeds in size the perforated extremity (PI. II. igs. 4, 6) of the body.

When seen in profile (Pl. II. Figs. 2, 4, 5), still greater changes are
visible; there is a decided difference between the two sides of the em-
bryo, forming what is to become above and below; calling that part
below, where-the mouth is situated in the adult larvae, and which is ear-
ried downward in its natural attitude while moving. The dorsal portion
of the larva projects beyond the so-called mouth, so that the perforated
extremity has become bevelled; the narrowing of the central portion
of the larva has increased, and the digestive cavity which, in younger
embryos, occupies the centre of the cylinder (Pl. I. Figs. 27, 28), is bent
towards the lower side (PI. Hl. Figs. 2, 4, 5, d). The outer wall has be-
come thickened at a point opposite the bent extremity of the digestive
cavity, and the thickening of the wall, together with the bending of the
digestive cavity, goes on till the closed end touches the lower side at m.

The changes which have taken place during the time elapsed since the
twentieth hour have been very gradual. The embryo now enters into a
state where the changes are exceedingly rapid and important; so much
so that at the end of the third day the embryo has, in a rudimentary
state, all the parts characteristic of older, fully developed larve.

At the end of the second day the reservoir at the extremity of the
digestive cavity has changed its outline from a circular to a lobed one

(Pl. Il. Fig. 8, 0); the lobes widen towards the sides, almost forming
aoe

12 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

~_

diverticula (#, w’), from the digestive cavity. During this time the main
digestive cavity has entirely lost its cylindrical form; it has become nar-
rowed at the extremities and bulging in the centre (Pl. IL Fig. 8, and
isolated, Fig. 9). When seen in profile, and comparing it with earlier
stages (Pl. Il. Figs. 2, 4, 5, 7, isolated, Fig. 10,a), it is at once noticed
that the opening at one end, the present mouth of the larva, has little
by little changed from a position at one extremity of the embryo (PI. I.
Figs. 27, 28,a) to a slightly eccentric one (Pl. IL. Figs. 4, 5, 7). While
the present mouth is changing its position from a terminal to an eccentric
one, and while the digestive cavity has been expanding at the bottom
into a large reservoir, its closed end is bending more and more towards
one side (Pl. Il. Ags. 2, 4), until it finally touches the outer wall of the
embryo at m (Pl. Il Fy. 5). At this poimt of junction an opening is
formed, leading into the bottom of the digestive cavity (Pl. II. Fig. 7);
this second opening (m) is now the true mouth, and performs hereafter
all the functions of a mouth, while the first-formed opening of the young
embryo (a, Pl. Il. Figs. 2, 4, 5, 7) is restricted in its functions, and per-
forms hereafter only those of an anus; although in the early stages
(Pl. I. Figs. 25, 26, 27, 28; Pl. IL Figs. 2, 4, 5, 6) it had performed the
functions of a mouth. We have thus an apparent anomaly in the fact
that the first opening becomes the anus, while the true mouth is only
formed afterwards; but this difficulty is readily explained if we compare
the functions of this first-formed opening, the so-called mouth, with what
we find among Polyps, where one and the same opening performs the
double functions of mouth and anus throughout life.

The diverticula (w, w’, Pl. IL Figs. 7, 10) do not extend, as would seem
when seen from above (Pl. II. Mig. 8), at right angles from the main
cavity, but trend obliquely upwards, as seen in profile (Pl. Il. Fg. 7),
towards the other extremity of the embryo, as in Figs. 7, 10, Pl. II. The
outer wall, which had formed a connection with the closed extremity of
the digestive cavity, on the lower side, has been drawn out in the shape
of a slender cone (0, Pl. I. Figs. 7, 10, 11, 14, 17), and becomes the
cesophagus, which leads to an opening (m, the mouth), connecting the
ventral side with the digestive cavity.

Nomenclature. — It will materially assist in the explanation of the sub-
sequent changes of form, and obviate a great deal of cireumlocution, if we

at once call the different organs by their true names. The original open-

FORMATION OF THE WATER-TUBES. 13

ing (a), which performed at first the functions of the*mouth, is hereafter
the anus (a); the second opening, the true mouth (mm), is not formed until
the embryo has arrived near the end of the second day; it is placed in
the middle of the lower surface, and from this time forward the former
mouth assumes the function of an anus. That portion of the digestive
cavity which leads from the mouth to its bulging portion is the cesopha-
gus (0), the bulging portion is the true digestive cavity, or stomach proper
(d), the short tube leading from the stomach to the anus is the intestine
(c), while the diverticula (w, w’) are the two branches of the future water-
system. The reasons for calling these parts mouth, anus, oesophagus,
stomach, intestine, and water-system will become apparent as we trace
the development of the embryo in its more advanced stages, in the fol-
lowing pages.*

The currents, which before had entered through the mouth (a), passed
to the extremity of the cavity (a), and been expelled again through the
same opening (a), now change their course completely; there is a current
which enters the mouth (m), flows through the cesophagus (0) into the
diverticula (w, w’), then into the true stomach (d), and is finally rejected
through the anus (a). From this time forward it is quite an easy thing
to observe the course of the food; it is taken into the mouth by means
of the currents produced around its opening, passes rapidly through the
cesophagus, rotates for some time in the spherical stomach (d), and then
passes out slowly through the opening (a) of the alimentary canal (c).
As these currents are more and more distinct as the larve grow older,
there can be no doubt that the function of the first-formed opening is
eventually confined to that of an anus, after having performed the func-
tion of mouth during the first stage of growth of the larva.

Formation of the Water-Tubes. — By water-tubes I mean the bodies which
have received from Miiller the name of problematic bodies, in their earlier
stages of growth, and which he has called Schlauchsystem, when they
appear, in the older larve, as broad tubes running on each side of the
cesophagus and stomach. These parts he considered as independent sys-
tems, but as they are only different stages of the same thing, as will
appear below, they have received here the name which denotes most

* Other terms are also frequently used, to denote the differerit parts of radiated animals, which are
not usually adopted; they will be found fully explained in the third volume of the Contributions to
the Natural History of the United States, by Prof. Agassiz, p. 73, and seq.

14 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

appropriately the function they assume of circulating water through the
body of the larva.

The water-tubes (w, w’), at first (Pl. Il. Figs. 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14) only
diverticula from the main digestive cavity (d), become less and less con-
nected with it; and by the end of the second day the constriction at the
point of attachment has almost entirely separated them from the diges-
tive cavity (Pl. Il. Figs. 15, 16, w, w’). A marked difference is noticed
in the rapidity of growth of these two bodies; the right-hand one (w’),
when the anus is placed in advance, and the mouth downwards, increases
more rapidly, extending towards the dorsal side, which it eventually reaches,
opening into the surrounding medium by a small aperture (PI. II. Fig. 17, 4),
the water-pore, or, as Miller has called it, the dorsal pore. A comparison
of Figs. 8 and 18 of Pl. II. will perhaps render more evident the trans-
formation of the diverticula (w, w’) from the digestive cavity into two
separate bodies. All we have to do is to swell out the lobed pouches
(w, w’) of Fig. 8, Pl. IL, then cut them off, removing them a short distance
from the digestive cavity, and we shall have the two mdependent bodies
(w, w’) of Pl. IL Ag. 18, which have little by little been changing their
relation to the digestive cavity, as described above. ‘This transformation
I have actually observed in every stage of its progress, as it is repre-
sented here isolated (Pl. Il /igs. 9-16).

The walls of the oesophagus (0), of the digestive cavity (d), and of the
intestine (¢c), which up to this time are of nearly the same thickness, quite
rigid, capable of very limited expansion and contraction (Pl. I. Figs. 2, 4,
5, 7, isolated, Figs. 10, 11), lose their uniform character with the gradual
circumscription of these three regions. The walls now become quite dif
ferent in their appearance, and the more marked the separation between
these three organs, the greater the difference in the character of the walls
which cireumscribe them (Pl. IL. Figs. 17, 19, 21, 23). In proportion as
the stomach (d@) grows more’ spherical, the angle between it and the intes-
tine (¢) is more acute, and the intestine (c) becomes a longer and narrower
tube, with walls much less thick than those of the stomach (d). The walls
of the cesophagus (0) are even more flexible; the conical tube, leading
from the mouth to the stomach, widening and taking a pistol-shaped form,
the walls have become so movable, that the opening leading into the
stomach can be closed and opened by the greater power of expansion and
contraction of this part of the walls (Pl. I. Figs. 23, 25). The mouth (m),

FORMATION OF THE WATER-TUBES. 15

as it increases in size, grows triangular, with rounded corners; the de-
pression in which it is placed divides the larva into. two very distinct
regions (Pl. II. Figs. 19, 23, 25). Since the formation of the mouth, and
the change of position of the first-formed opening to an eccentric one, we
find the mouth and anus placed on one side of the larva. These open-
ings present, at this stage (Pl. II. Fig. 17), the same relations as the mouth
and anus of Clypeaster and Scutella-like Echinoids, while at a much earlier
period they are more like Pygorhynchus.

If we now return to the water-system, we find that the two diverticula
(w, w’), mentioned above (Pl. Il. Figs. 15, 16), have entirely separated
from the digestive cavity (Pl. IL vy. 18), and are now distinct cavities,
having no connection whatever either with the cavity from which they
originated or with one another; one of these cavities is entirely closed
(w), the other (w’) connects with the surrounding medium by means of
a very small opening, the dorsal pore (4, Pl. Il. F’y. 25, and isolated,
Fig. 17). Such is the appearance of an embryo at the close of the second
day after fecundation.

Miiller never knew the origin of the water-tubes; in his last paper
only he becomes aware that they are independent at first, but subse-
quently unite. It must be remembered, in reading his earlier papers, that
he sets at rest, in his last memoir, the doubts he expressed concerning
the independence of the two branches of the water-tubes; in fact, to
obtain a clear conception of Miiller’s views, it is advisable to read his last
memoirs first, to be able to adopt at once the corrections he himself
makes during the laborious course of his investigations. The problem-
atic bodies, however, still remained a puzzle to him, even at the time of
his last memoirs, as he was never aware that they were simple diver-
ticula of the digestive cavity, and were finally transformed into the two
independent branches of the water-tubes, uniting, in subsequent stages
of growth, to form the Y-shaped water-system. Van Beneden saw, in the
young Bipinnaria (Brachina Van Ben.), that the water-tubes are at first
separate, but he did not trace their mode of formation, and no other
observer has since returned to this subject.

[Metschnikoff states that in some cases there is but a single water-tube,
and that I have mistaken an accumulation of cells for a second water-
tube. I can only state that I have frequently repeated my observations
on the Pluteus of Starfishes, Ophiurans, and Echini, and have invariably found

16 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

two water-tubes present, but I have also seen in Starfishes and Ophiurans,
as he has well shown in Ophiurans alone, that the whole rosette of the future
ambulacral system is developed only upon the surface of one of these, the
one communicating with the exterior through the dorsal pore, the future
madreporic body. |

Appearance of the Chords of vibratile Cilia. —The cilia, spreading over the
whole surface, which moved the embryo so rapidly at first, have almost
entirely disappeared, and are no longer capable of propelling such a large
mass; consequently, at this last-mentioned stage (Pl. II. Fig. 20), the larva
is very sluggish, advancing but little, and rotating slowly about a longt-
tudinal axis at the same time. During the third day, the movements
become still more sluggish; it is then that we find the first appearance
of the organs which are to propel the larva in future. The general out-
line does not change during the third day; the principal transformations
are the greater bending and extending of the cesophagus and alimentary
canal, the increase in size of the mouth, of the water-tubes, and the
appearance of slight projections, small clusters of vibratile cilia, near the
anterior and posterior sides of the mouth, which are the beginning of
rows, extending in older larve in continuous lines all round the body, and
their only means of locomotion (Pl. IL 2, v', Figs. 20-28). These rows
are at first two very short ares (2, 2’, Pl. Il. Fig. 22), with their convexi-
ties placed opposite one another on each side of the depression in which
the mouth is placed (v, o, Pl. Il. Mig. 21).

The general outline of the larva has, up to this stage (PI. IL Fig. 20),
undergone but slight modifications, the changes taking place principally in
the digestive organs. The phases through which the larva passes in the
next three days are of a very different character; the alimentary canal,
the stomach, and the oesophagus become more circumscribed by the
increasing difference noticeable in the walls of these regions. The stom-
ach (d/) is always marked by the greater thickness of its walls ; while,
With increasing age, the walls of the oesophagus (0) become more attenu-
ated, and capable of greater expansion and contraction (Pl. IL. Figs. 25,
0,27). We observe, also, a rapid increase in the growth of the water-tubes
(w, w), which by the end of the sixth day (Pl. Il. Migs. 27, 28) extend
as far as the corners of the mouth and along the edge of the walls of
the stomach, towards the anal extremity (Pl. II. Figs. 24, 26, w, w’).
When viewed in profile (Pl. IL Figs. 25, 27), it will be seen that the

APPEARANCE OF CILIARY CHORDS. 17

plane in which these water-tubes run is not parallel to the longitudinal
axis, but inclined to it in such a manner, that the oesophagus passes
between these two tubes. It is in these stages, represented in Pl. IL.
Figs. 20-28, that the passage from the initial, truly radiate form to a
bilateral one is the most obvious, and it may be well to dwell for a mo-
ment on the changes which are going on here, and compare them to what
we find in other Radiates. Miiller has always maintained that, the Echi-
noderm larvee being bilateral, we had a passage from a bilateral symmetry
to a radiate type, while in reality this seeming bilaterality is subordinate
to a truly radiate plan of structure. The first question to settle with
regard to this is, whether we have a strictly bilateral form among the
larve or not, and whether we do not find here a repetition of what is so
constantly met with in the animal kingdom,—the undue preponderance
of some parts, hiding effectually the plan upon which the whole animal
is built; in fact, the engrafting of a subordinate type upon the type which
remains predominant. With the gradual development of the plastrons
alluded to, as formed from the chord of vibratile ‘cilia, the embryo assumes
more and more a shape which renders it quite difficult to perceive the
original plan of radiation, concealed, as it gradually becomes, by the sym-
metrical arrangement of the edges of these plastrons, which leads one
involuntarily to mistake their mode of execution for the plan upon which
the animal is built. This apparent passage from a strictly radiating form
to a seeming bilateral one is nothing more than what we find constantly
among the adults of this same class, and yet no one has attempted, for
that reason, to make bilateral animals of the Echinoderms. The Spatan-
goids might as well be called bilateral, and not radiating animals, on
account of the perfectly regular symmetrical arrangement of the fascioles,
extending over all the spheromeres composing the body of such Spatan-
goids, and in which even the ambulacral system presents marked fea-
tures of bilateral symmetry. The case is exactly a parallel one; this
chord of vibratile cilia, and the chord of fascioles, arranged so regularly,
simply conceals in both cases the plan upon which the animal is built,
but does not, in either case, change the plan of radiation into that of
bilaterality. As little should we be justified in removing some oi the
Holothurians, such as Cuviera and the like, from the Radiates, simply
because the greater preponderance of some of the ambulacra has brought
out, in these animals conspicuously, a dorsal and a ventral side, and an

18 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

anterior and posterior one. In the embryo of our Starfish, which told
so plainly, in its early stages, of the plan upon which it is built, that
plan is now lost sight of in the extraordinary bilateral development of
some of the parts. But, until Spatangoids and flat-soled Holothurians are
proved to be truly bilateral animals, and not genuine Radiates, with sub-
ordinate bilateral features, these seeming bilateral Echinoderm larve must
be considered as truly radiate, with bilateral features engrafted upon
them. |

Development of the Plastrons. —'The cylindrical shape, characterizing the
earlier stages of the larva, disappears soon after the appearance of the
first trace of the appendages which give to these larve such a peculiar
appearance, and they now assume the features of the adult. The depres-
sion (Pl. IT. Figs. 25, 27, m), in which the mouth is placed, becomes more
marked ; we have a greater separation of the oral (v’) and anal (v) swell-
ings of the vibratile chord, little by little changed into two independent
breastplates, the edges bound with chords of powerful vibratile cilia, be-
coming the locomotive organs of the larve (Pl. IL. Figs. 20, 22, 24, 26,
28). These plastrons, at first mere crescent-shaped shields (Pl. Il. Figs.
20, 22, 24), extend gradually towards either extremity, become elliptical,
and then somewhat triangular. The outline of the anal shield becomes
sinuous, slight indentations point out the position of the future arms (PI.
II. Fig. 26, é& &, Fig. 28, é& &, &” é”’); the rows of cilia creep gradually
round the edge of this anal shield, turn towards the mouth again, and
extend, on the dorsal side, along the whole length of the larva (Pl. IL
fig. 25); this chord of cilia makes a complete circuit, while the cilia,
extending along the edge of the oral plastron, do not meet.

The formation of these plastrons is attended with great changes in the
general outline of the larva; the anal extremity becomes pointed, trian-
gular, with rounded edges; the body, on each side of the oral opening,
bulges out beyond the general outline, and the oral plastron is more and.
more pointed, as it separates from the rest of the larva. This change of
shape can perhaps be better appreciated when seen in profile, and by
comparing the drawings of larve three days and six days old; compare
Pl. Il. Hig. 19 with Pl. IL. Figs. 25 and 27 seen from opposite sides. The
great elongation of the oral extremity and the marked separation made
by the opening of the mouth between the anal and oral plastrons cannot
fail to be noticed.

COMPARISON OF LARVA OF ASTERACANTHION. 19

Comparison of Larve of Asteracanthion pallidus and A. berylinus.—Up to
this time all the larvae described were raised by artificial fecundation
from eggs taken out of the ovaries of Asteracanthion berylinus Ay.
When I first discovered the larve of our Starfishes, I immediately
examined the ovaries of our two most common species, the A. bery-
linus Ag. and A. pallidus Ay. I found that the eggs of the former
were not sufficiently advanced to be fecundated, while those of the second
species (A. pallidus) had all escaped. I am, therefore, positively certain
that all the larve I am about to describe belong to the second species,
as they were all found swimming about previous to the time of spawn-
ing of the A. berylinus. As the interval between the time of spawning
of these two species is not less than three weeks, I had been able, during
this period, to make a general sketch of the whole development, from the
youngest larva found (Pl. IIL My. 1), to the time when the Starfish is
formed, before beginning the artificial fecundation of the species just
described, the A. berylinus Ag.

I thus obtained a general knowledge of the changes these larve un-
dergo, and was enabled, when making the artificial fecundation, to pay
special attention to the development of those parts, the origin of which
was not easily traced in older larvae. I was able in this way to carry
on, at the same time, the comparative study of the development of two
closely allied species, belonging, undoubtedly, to one and the same genus,
and to see how far differences could already be noticed in their early
stages of growth; a glance at the figures of the young of one species (A.
pallidus Ag.) on Plate HI., compared with the figures of Plate II. of the
second species (A. berylinus Ag.), will show how far the development of
allied species diverges. What is particularly characteristic is the fact that
specific differences make their appearance so early. Soon after it became
evident that the embryos we were studying belonged to Echinoderms, it
was apparent that they were different species. The order of appearance
of the characters of the classes, the orders, the families, and genera, is one
of the greatest importance in a zodlogical point of view; and we owe to
Professor Agassiz to have pointed out, that the characters which make
their appearance first are by no means those which have been usually
supposed to take precedence; in the present case we do not find it
possible to discern the class, the ordinal, the family, the generic and the

specific characters, in the order in which they are here mentioned. On
4

20 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

the contrary, the specific characters are early stamped upon the embryo,
and did we but know how to recognize individual differences among the
lower animals as well as we can already in some of the Fishes, we might
find that with Echinoderms, as has been shown for Fishes by Professor
Agassiz, the stamp of individuality is very early impressed upon the
embryo. Long before we can tell that a young Perch belongs to the
genus Ctenolabrus, we can already say with certainty whether it will be
colored red or gray or brown or green.

The time of spawning of Starfishes is very short, as, three or four days
after the A. berylinus began to spawn, it was quite difficult to find females
with eggs; and a week after the beginning of the spawning, I never suc-
ceeded in finding a single one. Owing to this great difference in the
time of spawning and its short duration, there can be no doubt, from the
date at which I first caught the Starfish larve floating about, to which of
our two species they belong. A careful comparison of the youngest speci-
mens also shows very striking differences, and will always enable an
observer to distinguish readily the larvae of the two species, even in their
earliest stages. Compare Pl. III. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with Figs. 22-28 of
Plate II. These differences become more marked as they grow older, as
will be seen when we describe adult larva. In fact, the larva of A. bery-
linus is pear-shaped, with the thick end at the oral extremity, while in
the larva of A. pallidus the thick end of the equally pear-shaped, but
relatively shorter body is at the anal extremity.*

The principal points of difference in the young larve of this second
species (the A. pallidus), from those previously described, are differences
of proportions. The larve of the A. berylinus are elongated cylindrical ;
the oral extremity is somewhat broader and more prominent than the
anal. The larva of A. pallidus can at once be recognized by its short-
ness; the small size of the oral extremity, when compared to the anal,
the latter being by far the most prominent.

Water-System. — Before going on with the description of more advanced

* Though we now consider the further progress of development of our larve in a different species
from the first, we proceed without interruption, as the phenomena of growth are identical in both ;
and we link them here together only because our most complete observations for the younger stages
relate to A. berylinus, and to A. pallidus for the older stages. Had we presented these changes for
a single species only, the one would have been defective in the beginning, the other in the end. As
it is, our history is tolerably complete, the course and nature of the changes being identical_in both

species.

CHANGES OF FORM OF THE LARVA. 21

stages, I will take up the development of the water-tubes at the point to
which we had traced them (Pl. Il. /iy. 28) in the larve of A. berylinus.
After the ends of the water-tubes have extended beyond the oral opening
(Pl. Ill. Fy. 4), the tubes increase rapidly in diameter (PI. IIL. Figs. 6, 8,
w, w), bending at the same time towards the longitudinal axis (PI. IIL.
Figs. 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, w, w’), the other extremity of the tubes creeping round
the stomach until they touch, but without uniting (Pl. HL. Migs. 6, 8, 10,
w,w'). The tubes at the oral extremity bend towards each other (PI. IL
Fug. 4), come in contact (Pl. III. #vg. 6), and, soon after, a communication
is made, the water-system assuming the shape of an elliptical ring (PI. ILL.
Fig. 6, ww’); and the water which enters into the right tube through the
dorsal pore (Pl. IIL. Figs. 2, 5, 7, 6) passes into the other branch on the
opposite side of the stomach, through the fork at the oral extremity, and
not round the stomach, where the water-tubes simply touch, but do not
communicate. The small tube leading from the dorsal pore to the main
branch of the water-system widens and becomes funnel-shaped as it ap-
proaches the main tube. The dorsal pore is cut obliquely across the end
of this small tube, giving it an elliptical shape. By the time the two
branches of the water-system have joined (Pl. IIL Fig. 6) at the oral ex-
tremity of the larva, it has assumed an entirely different outline from
any we have met with in the former species. The anal extremity is
very much flattened, the corners of the anal plastron project slightly be-
yond the general outline, the indentations have become very distinct,
the oral plastron has grown rectangular with rounded angles and concave
sides, the oral triangular opening leads into a deep pouch. The sides of
the body are marked by three strong indentations (Pl. III. Fig. 8). The
oral extremity of the water-system changes rapidly from a rounded to a
pointed outline (Pl. IIL. My. 8, ww’); it advances more and more towards
the oral extremity. In proportion as the dorsal region projects beyond
the oral plastron, the water-system extends into this projection, sending
off, at the same time, two branches leading into small appendages (PI.
I. Figs. 10, 11, f, f), (only developed in more advanced larve), which
have, in the adult larvee, a peculiar structure (PI. IV. Figs. 4, 5, 6).
Changes of Form of the Larva. —The prominent changes now going on
are only changes of degree. The larva has completely lost its cylindrical
shape, and even the pear-shaped form it assumed afterwards; it has be-
come rectangular, with deep indentations, gradually assuming the char-

99 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

acter of short arms. The transformation from the pear-shaped (PI. III.
Fig. 1) to the rectangular flattened larva, with undulating outline (PI. II.
Fig. 6), can readily be traced by comparing the successive stages here
represented. After the digestive cavity of the younger embryo (PI. II.
Fig. 7) is bent at the extremities, bringing the mouth and the anus on
the same side of the larva, the anal and oral extremities increase rapidly
in bulk, and the larva, when seen from above (PI. II. /y. 18) or in profile
(Pl. II. Fg. 19), becomes somewhat dumb-bell shaped. The depression
thus formed grows deeper, especially on the lower side, at the time when
the chords of vibratile cilia make their appearance (Pl. II. Fig. 21), and
the mouth (PI. Il. /g. 21, m) is placed in the convexity of a deep curve.
As the oral and anal vibratile chords extend towards the oral extremity,
slight grooves arise (Pl. IL J/g. 23), starting from the depression in which
the mouth is placed, and extending towards the oral extremity. These
grooves are gouged out from the oral extremity; they extend but little
way towards the stomach, forming a very well-marked channel separating
the anal from the oral vibratile chord (Pl. Il Figs. 25, 27). The oral is
less broad than the anal plastron ; the former retains its shield-like shape,
while the sides of the latter become somewhat undulating from the bend-
ing of the ciliary chord (Pl. II. digs. 26, 28). These slight undulations,
as the larva grows older and more elongated, increase in size, giving it
more and more a rectangular outline (Pl. IL. Figs. 27, 28; Pl. Il. Figs. 3,
4). With its quadrangular shape, the larva assumes also a more flattened
character, and loses its cylindrical form, as will be readily seen on com-
paring Figs. 21 and 27, of Pl. Il. These slight undulations of the ciliary
chord are formed at points where accumulations of pigment cells have
taken place. The ciliary chord, at first simply a wavy line (Pl. Il. Fig.
4), soon becomes quite deeply indented by the formation of loops at these
indentations (Pl. III. Fig. 6). ‘The loops, at first, scarcely project beyond
the general outline of the larva (Pl. IIL. Figs. 6, 7). Little by little they
increase in length (Pl. JIL. Figs. 8, 9), extending slightly beyond the edge
of the outline, like short arms; until, passing through somewhat older
stages (Pl. Ill. Fig. 10), these loops are gradually transformed into larger
and larger arms (Pl. III. #igs. 11, 12), and finally attain the shape of the
long, slender arms of the adult Brachiolaria (Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2, 4; PI.
VII. Fig. 8). During the process of the formation of the arms, the cut
in which the mouth is placed becomes deeper (Pl. Ul. Migs. 25, 27; PI.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMS. 23

III. Figs. 2, 5, 7, 9, 12; Pl. IV. Fig. 4), as well as the groove extending
along the sides of the larva, which runs from the median anal arms (¢)
to the oral extremity, and separates the anal from the oral plastron. In
all these larvee the ventral part of the anal and the oral plastron are
much narrower than the dorsal portion of the anal plastron. This differ-
ence is at first slight (Pl. Il. Figs. 26, 28; Pl. IIL. Figs. 3, 4); it becomes
more marked with advancing age, passing through the different stages
represented in Pl. III. Figs. 6, 8, 10, 11); Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2; Pl. VIL. Fig.
8; and in proportion as all the ridges and edges are more prominent,
the surfaces circumscribed by them become flattened and more spreading.
yomenclature of the Arms.—¥or the sake of brevity, I shall call the rudi-
mentary appendages by the names proposed for them in the adult larvae,
and shall adopt the names given by Miiller, with slight modifications, viz.
ventral side, that on which the mouth is situated; dorsal, the side on
which the water-pore is placed; anal plastron, what Miiller has called
“anales Bauchfeld,” or “hinteres Bauchfeld”; oral plastron, what he
calls “antorales Feld,” or “vorderes Bauchfeld”; the oral region (m) is
situated between these two plastrons. The arms are designated accord-
ing to their position by the following names: the median anal pair
(é e’); the dorsal anal pair (e” ¢’); the ventral anal pair (e” e”); the
dorsal oral pair (e”” e””); the ventral oral pair (e° ¢); the odd anterior
arm (e°), from which projects, at the base, a single arm of a different char-
acter from the others; the odd brachiolar arm (/”); and another pair
of smaller brachiolar arms (ff), connected with the oral ventral pair
(e? e°) of arms (Pl. III. Fig. 11). The brachiolar arms are provided at
their extremity with wart-like appendages (Pl. IV. Figs. 4, 5, 6; Pl. VII.
Fig. 8); the other arms have nothing of the sort, but are surrounded by
chords of vibratile cilia, making a complete circuit from the anal extrem-
ity round the dorsal side, while on the oral side it is not closed.
Development of the Arms. —In adult larve the arms have, at their ex-
tremity, clusters of orange pigment cells. These colored cells make their
appearance early in the younger stages, and it is easy to trace the first
appearance of the arms by the presence of these pigment cells. Before
the appearance of the arms, the course of the chord of vibratile cilia is
very sharply defined; it is like a narrow binding extending round the
outline of the larva, seen either from above or from below (PI. IIL Figs.
3, 4, 6, and Pl. II. Figs. 26, 28). When seen in profile (Pl. III. 2, vy

24 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Figs. 2, 5, 7, and Pl. IL. 2, v’, Figs. 25, 27), it follows the two edges of
the deep groove which separates the dorsal from the ventral side. The
median anal arms (¢ ¢) are the first to make their appearance (PI. III.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7); these arms take the greatest development in the
adult larve; the other arms appear also at the same time, but as simple
bulgings of the ciliary chord. The anal ventral pair (e” e”) and the
odd dorsal arm (e°) are both developed about the same time (Pl. IIL
Figs. 8, 9, &); the odd anterior arm increasing in size, and changing its
shape more rapidly at first than the median anal pair. The next set of
arms formed is the dorsal pair (e” ¢”); then follows the oral dorsal pair
(e” é”), and next the ventral oral pair (e° ¢’). These develop very rap-

idly, and soon attain as large a size as the dorsal oral pair, which had —

preceded them (PI. III. fi. 10). In this same figure we see the first
trace of a small thick arm (/”), cut off square at the extremity, placed
at the base of the odd anterior arm (e°), and also a similar arm (f/f) at
the base of each of the ventral oral pair (é ¢); the water-system branches
into this small pair of arms which are not surrounded with vibratile cilia
(Pl. III. Figs. 9, 10, 11). Of the brachiolar arms, the one which is odd
precedes the two that form a pair.

The chord of vibratile cilia keeps pace with the growth of the arms,
and extends to their very extremity; the most important change which
takes place, from the time when the median arms first appear, is the
extraordinary increase of one of the diameters of the water-tubes. The
portions (w, w’) extending along the stomach become much flattened ;
when viewed from above (PI. III. Figs. 8, 10, 11), their great increase in
size is not seen, and it is only when examined in profile that the changes
the water-system has undergone in the vertical diameter, compared to the
transverse, can best be appreciated (Pl. Ill. 2vgs. 9, 12, w).

It is in this condition that Miller has seen the greatest number of his
larve; struck by their symmetry, he has, throughout his memoirs, in-
sisted upon the bilateral symmetry of the Echinoderm larva, as contrast-
ing directly wich the radiate structure of the adult animals. It appears
to me that this interpretation of the form of the larve of Echinoderms is
incorrect ; they are radiate animals, and are no more bilateral than a large
number of Radiates exhibiting, as will be shown hereafter, bilateral char-
acters, such as Arachnactis, the Ctenophore, the Spatangoids, and the

Holothurians.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMS. 95

The larvee figured on this plate (Pl. III.) correspond to the larve
observed by Van Beneden, and called by him Brachina; the latter resem-
ble more our larve than any figured by Miller. I am strongly inclined
to believe that Van Beneden’s Brachina will eventually prove to be the
larvee of the Asteracanthion rubens Jf. 7’, or of a closely allied species.
The more advanced specimens of his Brachina began to show signs of
the brachiolar appendages, though Van Beneden did not notice them.
See Fig. 8 of the Plate accompanying his notice in the Bulletin de
Académie des Sciences de Belgique for 1850. These larve are easily
distinguished from ours by the shortness and thickness of the arms, as
well as the less elongated shape of the larva. The time of breeding is
also different; the European species spawning during the end of March
and beginning of April. The A. berylinus spawns in the last part of
July; by the 26th no eggs could be found in any of the females, and
the other species (the A. pallidus) spawns during the third week in
August. These facts are additional proofs of the specific difference be-
tween our species of Asteracanthion and the Asteracanthion rubens of
Europe.

[I have retained in this memoir the specific names adopted in 1863. .
At that time no description had been published of Stimpson’s A. vulgaris ;
his name has subsequently been adopted by writers on American Starfishes,
although the figure given on Pl. VIII., had it been baptized and described
as a new genus and species, and subsequently proved to be the young
of A. vulgaris, would have obtained precedence; but failing to give it
the mythical diagnosis, this memoir was not entitled to recognition by
the strict rules of systematic zodlogy !

It is only comparatively recently that A. berylinus and A. arenicola
of Stimpson have both proved to be probably identical with A. Forbesii
of Desor, so that the name of pallidus would at any rate have to give
way to that of Desor.]

When seen in profile (PJ. IL. Figs. 9, 12, w, ww’; Pl. IV. Fig. 4, w, ww’),
the water-system runs in an arch, from the alimentary canal to the opening
of the mouth; here the diameter increases, forming a reservoir (w’),
from which are sent off small pouches (f’/’), leading into the braciiolar
arms (ff); the whole of the oral opening is placed below the water-
system. When seen from above or below (PI. Il. Migs. 6, 8, 10, 11;
Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2; Pl. VIL Ay. 8) the water-system is an elliptical ring

26 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

tapering to a point in the odd brachiolar arm, enclosing the stomach and
oesophagus, which form, as it were, a solid axis to this elliptical envelope.
On one side of the stomach appears a large hole (Pl. V. Fig. 7, h, anal
part only; Pl. VII. Hg. 8), the opening of a cul de sac of one branch of
the water-system passing between the stomach and the intestine. The
portions of the water-system extending along the stomach appear to be
made up of distinct chambers (Pl. V. Figs. 6, 7, 8, w, w’): these cham-
bers are merely the result of an optical delusion, arising from the greater
or less flattening of certain parts of the tube; this gives it the appear-
ance of having been divided off into segments.

The Adult Larva.—The anal part of the larva, in its adult condition
(PL IV. Figs. 1, 2), has become pointed; the general shape is still some-
what rectangular; the ventral and dorsal side are separated by a deep
groove (PI. IV. Fig. 4), extending from the stomach, from the base of
the median anal pair of arms, to the base of the ventral oral arms, thus
separating the larva into very distinct dorsal and ventral regions (PI. IV.
Fig. 4), from the earliest stages of its growth. The body of the larva
itself is capable of great motion; nothing is more common than to see
the larve almost broken in two, by the strange habit they have of bend-
ing the oral extremity upon the opening of the mouth as a pivot, to such
an extent as to make quite an angle with the anal part (Pl. IIL. Pg. 5).
The larve generally assume this position when disturbed, and usually
remain stationary in the same attitude, simply striking violently up and
down with their extremities (compare Fig. 5 and Fig. 2, where the larva
is at rest). The whole substance of the body is tinged with yellow, and
is made up of large transparent cells with irregular nuclei, giving the
mass about the consistency of a Salpa; very minute granular epithelial
cells cover the whole surface. The powerful contraction of portions of
the body is simply that of the cells themselves, and what has frequently
been mistaken by Miller, when describing these larvae, for muscular striae,
are strings of such contracted cells. The extremities of the arms are
tipped with orange, the stomach and the alimentary canal are of a slight
yellowish-brown color, the chords of vibratile cilia are somewhat darker.
The cesophagus is perfectly transparent, capable of violent movements;
it expands and contracts by sudden jerks, forcing open violently the
passage leading into the stomach, when the contents of the cesophagus

rush in, and are set slowly rotating in the stomach. The interior surface

_ eae

MOTION AND HABITS OF THE LARVZ.. 27

of the oesophagus is covered with vibratile cilia, so closely crowded that
the walls appear striated from the regularity of these rows (Pl. IV. Fig. 1;
Pl. VII. Fig. 8); they are particularly powerful round the opening of the
mouth.

The rejection of the digested food takes place quietly, and there are
none of those violent jerks attending its admission into the digestive
cavity. The anal opening simply expands, and the fecal matter is forced
out slowly, in a constant stream, until the whole of the contents of the
alimentary canal, which had become very much distended before the
operation, has been cleaned out. |

Motion and Habits of the Larve.—The adult larve move about rapidly
by means of the cilia; their natural position is more constant than when
young. The oral extremity is kept in advance while in motion, and
the larva still rotates about a longitudinal axis, though not frequently ;
it generally moves with either the dorsal or ventral side uppermost, and
quite frequently in such a way as to show the lateral groove.” When
at rest, the larvae invariably assume one and the same position; the
anal extremity is the lowest, and the oral extremity inclined to the ver-.
tical ; in this attitude they often remain a long time, drifting about with
the currents; their only movements being the expansion and contraction
of the oesophagus and the play of the arms. The movements of the
arms are exceedingly graceful ; comparatively longer and more slender
than the tentacles of the Tubularians, they have none of the stiffness of
their movements, the constant curving and thrusting in every direction

* The position in which the larve figured in this memoir have been placed requires a short ex-
planation. To be able to compare readily the different stages, it is necessary to have them all in
the same position, and this should, if possible, be the natural attitude. But in the younger stages
of the larva the body of the embryo is not loaded down at one extremity by the young Starfish,
thus compelling the larva to assume always one and the same general attitude when in motion, It is
more common, in the younger stages, to see the embryo moving with the anal extremity uppermost ;
it would be as unnatural to turn these younger stages upside down, as it would be to represent an
adult larva in anything but its natural attitude (Pl. VII. Fig. 8) with the anal extremity downward.
I have therefore compromised, by representing all the stages in the same position in which they are
generally represented by Miuiler, to facilitate the comparison with his figures, and have given one
figure of an adult Brachiolaria, in its natural attitude (Pl. VII. Fig. 8), with which the others can be
readily compared in their theoretical position. The figures here given are drawn from the larve as
they appear swimming through the water; and I have endeavored, as much as possible, in repre-
senting them, to give an accurate idea of the mobility of the arms; avoiding, in this way, the un-
natural stiffness which characterizes drawings made under compression, like the majority of those of
Miller.

28 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

reminding us rather of the motions of the tentacles of Phyllodoce and
similar Annelids. They are never at rest, being always kept.in motion
to produce currents round the mouth of the larve; and, in addition to
the action of the powerful vibratile cilia placed round the mouth, are
continually bringing fresh water into the cesophagus.

The large triangular mouth (Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2, 4, m; Pl. VIL Fig. 8)
opens into a rectangular pouch (Pl. IV. Fig. 4, m’, m’), extending back
from its posterior edge; from this pouch the cesophagus tapers rapidly,
and attains, near the apex of the mouth, the size (0) which it retains till
it joins the stomach. The surface of the cesophagus (0) presents a more
or less corrugated appearance near its junction with the digestive cavity,
owing to the somewhat greater thickness of the walls (Pl. IV. Fig. 1).

Brachiolar Arms. — The brachiolar arms (ff, f”) are appendages belong-
ing only to adult larvae. Our larva has three of them (PI. IV. Figs. 1, 4,
5, 6), one pair (ff), and a somewhat larger odd arm (f”), placed at the
base of the oda anterior arm (é°); the branches of the water-system ter-
minating in these arms proceed from a large pouch (ww’) in the oral ex-
. tremity (Pl. IV. Fig. 4). The brachiolar arms are, like the others, tipped
with orange, but have, in addition, wart-like terminal appendages, each
having six to eight nipples, according to the age of the larva (Pl. IV.
Figs. 4, 5, 6, 8; Pl. VIL ig. 8). These knobs give to the short arms
the appearance of the hind feet of Sphinx larve. In the hollow between
the base of the brachiolar arms there is a small elliptical disk (f”, PI.
IV. Figs. 4, 5, 6; Pl. VIL Fig. 8), reminding us of the madreporic body
of a Starfish, and a row of similar disks, two or three on each side of the
odd brachiolar arm, the pair of small brachiolar arms having no such ap-
pendages. It has been found convenient to retain for these peculiar arms
the name of brachiolar, used by Muller to distinguish one of his genera
(Brachiolaria) of Echinoderm larve. I have not succeeded in ascertain-
ing the functions of the disks; the terminal buttons undoubtedly are used
in the last stages of growth of the larva as supports, by means of which
they can attach themselves, while the young Starfish is resorbing the
larva; for during that process the larve never float about, but invari-
ably sink to the bottom of the jar in which they are kept, and remain
attached, apparently by means of the brachiolar arms, during the resorp-
tion of the larval appendages.

rT) . . .
These larve are found floating in large numbers at night near the

BRACHIOLAR ARMS. 29

surface, among cast-off skins of barnacles, which furnish them with food
during the time when they swim freely about, in company with multi-
tudes of small Crustacea, Annelids, and Hydroids. They seem to be noc-
turnal, as I have only found here and there single specimens when fishing
for them under exactly the same circumstances of tide and wind during
the daytime.

CHAPTER SECOND.
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STARFISH PROPER.

We have thus far described the changes the embryo undergoes from
the time it leaves the egg, and have traced its gradual transformation
into the complicated being called Brachiolaria. All the phases through
which the embryo passes thus far have not the least resemblance to a
Starfish, nor have we yet alluded to any of the changes which must take
place to produce the Echinoderm proper. However wonderful the process
by which an animal seems to pass from a radiate form to an apparently
bilateral one be, the changes we shall now see taking place, by which
this seeming bilateral animal is again reduced to a strictly radiate struc-
ture, are perhaps still more remarkable.

For the development of the Starfish itself, we must turn back and ex-
amine the larva in some of its younger stages, in order to trace the first
changes in its anal extremity. There alone transformations take place
affecting the development of the Echinoderm proper, until the whole of
the complicated framework upon which the Starfish is fastened has dis-
appeared, being resorbed by the very Echinoderm it has helped to
raise. The Brachiolaria is completely drawn into the body of the young
Starfish, before it leads an independent existence. This is contrary
to the observations of Miiller and of Koren and Danielssen respecting
Bipinnaria asterigera; where it is said that the Starfish and the Bipin-
naria separate, both becoming free. [Metschnikoff’s and my own observa-
tions on this point seem to throw doubt on the separation of the Pluteus
and of the Echinoderm, so that renewed observations are necessary regard-
ing the Bipinnaria of Koren and Danielssen to establish the fact which thus
far is contrary to all the observations of Miiller, Metschnikoff, and myself
on the Starfish Pluteus, and on the other orders of Echinoderms.] The
process by which the young Starfish eventually resorbs the Brachiolaria
(Pl. IV. Figs. 7, 8, 9) is similar to that observed by Sars in the develop-

FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE STARFISH. $1

vw

ment of Echinaster, where the whole larva and all its appendages are
gradually drawn into the body, and appropriated during the growth of
the young Starfish.

' It has already been shown that the anal portions of the water-system,
as they increase in size, spread little by little over the surface of the
stomach; the edges creeping towards each other and surrounding the
stomach on both sides, like a cap, yet without uniting. The funnel leading
from the dorsal pore shortens as the water-system extends towards the
dorsal region, and the anal extremities of the water-tubes come so near
together (Pl. V. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, w, w’) that we might almost be tempted
to believe they join, like the oral portions, and thus form a complete
eircuit (Pl. III. Fig. 10); this, however, is not the case, as an examina-
tion in profile of the above figures readily shows.

First Appearance of the Starfish.—In the drawings here given to illus-
trate the development of the Starfish, only a small portion of the Brachio-
laria is figured, that which has direct reference to the Starfish itself; as
this part is limited to the anal extremity of the larva immediately sur-
rounding the stomach, the anal extremity alone of the Brachiolaria is
drawn, with the arms cut off, somewhat beyond the opening of the anus.
To make the references to the figures of Plate V. more satisfactory, a
reference has also been made to a drawing of a whole Brachiolaria, in
a stage of growth nearly identical, in order to show more readily the
relation of the Starfish to the whole framework of the Brachiolaria.
These stages are so similar that, with this explanation, it will always be
possible to refer the anal extremities, upon which we are tracing the
development of the Starfish in its different phases of growth, to some
figure of Brachiolaria, very nearly representing its actual condition. The
stages of development figured in Plate V. have been selected simply
for the sake of the young Starfish, without reference to the Brachiolaria,
and would, if drawn on the same scale as the other figures of the
Brachiolaria here given, show no differences, which would make the mode
of growth of the young Echinoderm more intelligible. For instance, the
earlier stages of the development, such as vgs. 1—7, correspond to the
stage of Pl. II. Fig. 10; while the more advanced Fig. 8 corresponds to
that of Pl. III. Fg. 11, and the others to the adult stages of the Brachio-
laria on Plate IV., when the Starfish undergoes extensive changes, while
none take place in the general appearance of the Brachiolaria.

32 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Up to the stage of the larva represented on Pl. III. Figs. 6, 7, the out-
line of the Jeft water-tube (left when seen from above in its natural attitude),
in a profile view, is that of a flattened cylinder (Pl. V. Fig. 1, w’), with
the end slightly bent towards the anal opening. Near the point where
the upper line of the water-tube bends downwards, a marked indenta-
tion is formed, having in the centre a slight projection. There appear,
soon after starting from the anal edge of this depression, five very
faintly defined folds, the first trace of the future ambulacral system, ex-
tending obliquely across the water-tube (w’) (Pl. V. Mg. 2,7; Pl. UL
Fig. 8). If we examine the other side of the anal extremity, {we find
deposited opposite the angles of these folds (Pl. V. Fig. 2, 7’), five rods
of limestone; the anal part of the larva having at the same time lost
its former transparency, and assumed a dull yellow color. These two parts
are the first traces of the future Starfish. The limestone rods, and the
whole of the granular surface covering the sight water-tube, with the dorsal
pore, forms eventually the abactinal area of the adult Starfish; while the
folds, running obliquely across the /eft water-tube, are the first rudiments
of the future rows of suckers extending along the lower side of the fu-
ture rays; the rods are placed exactly opposite what will hereafter be
the extremity of the rays.

It is apparent, from the above description, that the abactinal area (the
rods), and the suckers (the folds across the water-tube), are not situated
in one plane, or even in parallel planes. The are containing the rods
and the are passing through the folds make an acute, nearly a right
angle, as is better understood by referring to older stages. It will also
be seen, by a glance at the drawings (Pl. V. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5; Pl. II.
Figs. 7-10, ¢), that the folds denoting the place where the suckers will
make their appearance, and the rods (7’, 7”) marking the position of the
future rays, are neither of them closed curves, but are always open, forming a
sort of twisted crescent-shaped are. When describing the young Starfish
immediately after it has resorbed the larva, and is ready to crawl about
by means of its suckers, I shall show how these curves become closed ;
and also point out the changes these parts undergo to form diverging
rays, as well as the manner in which the warped surfaces developing the
actinal and abactinal regions are brought into parallel planes.

Relative Position of the Actinal and Abactinal Areas. —The folds of the water-
tube (w’), which forms the actinal area, are not contained in one plane,

RELATIVE POSITION OF THE AREAS. 33
but are placed upon a spiral; the same is the case with the five lime-
stone rods situated on the surface of the other water-tube (w), which
forms the abactinal region. When we look at the Brachiolaria from the
side, that is, when facing the groove which separates the ventral from
the dorsal side, as in Pl. IV. Fig. 4, or in the corresponding profiles, from
the side of the right and left water-tubes of Pl. V. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, 10,
11, 12, we see either the actinal or abactinal side of the Starfish. We
look in one case at the water-tube (wv) upon which is developed the
abactinal system; while in the other profile, drawn from the opposite
side, we see the water-tube (w’) which develops the actinal system; the
two water-tubes are placed on different sides of the stomach, and have
no connection whatever at this extremity, but are separated by the whole
diameter of the stomach, over parts of which these tubes have spread
like a cap. It will at once be noticed that, in any of these figures, each
side of the future Starfish makes an independent open curve; these curves
form what appears to us, when seen from the profile view, part of a cir-
cular arc. On looking, however, at the same sides from the ventral or
dorsal view of the larvee, as in Pl. IV. vgs. 1, 2, or the corresponding views
of Pl. V. Figs. 4, 6, 7, 8, 9,18, 14, we do not see the are formed by these
sides projected as a simple straight line, as it would be were it all con-
tained in one plane. The extremities of the arc, both of the actinal and
abactinal area,—that is, the two ends of it which are nearest, one to the
water-pore, and the other to the anus,—are seen, as in Pl. V. Figs. 1,
2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 12, one on one side of an axis passing through the centre
of symmetry of the Brachiolaria, and the other on the other side. The
only curve which fulfils the conditions of such a projection is that of a
warped spiral, so that, in reality, when passing (in Pl. V. Fig. 10) from
ri, along the edge of the disk, to 7y, ry, 74 73, we do not move ina
plane, but are constantly winding, somewhat as when ascending a spiral
staircase; this is seen in Pl. V. Ig. 9, when passing from rj, the arm
placed nearest the anus, along the edge of the abactinal area, to ry, the
arm next to the water-pore (>). It is the same for the actinal are,
which forms a spiral identical to that of the abactinal area, only bent in
the opposite direction.

The actinal and abactinal regions are, in reality, two warped spiral
surfaces, making an angle with one another, separated by the whole
width of the stomach. This is best seen in a view from the dorsal or

34 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

oral side (Pl. VII. Fig. 8), when the folds are distinctly visible one above
the other, but so arranged as to be all seen at the same time (Pl. V.
Figs. 4, 6, 7, 8; Pl. IL. Figs. 8, 10, 11). Three of the folds are near the
edge, while the other two are placed close to the digestive cavity on the
ventral side. This spiral, seen from the dorsal or from the ventral side,
has all the appearance of the foot of a bivalve (¢, Pl. V. Figs. 4, 6, 8).
The spiral position of the five rods indicating the position of the future
rays of the Starfish (7{'-7) is also apparent from the same point of
view. ‘T'wo of the rods are placed on the dorsal side of the larve, run-
ning somewhat obliquely (7'y, 7;), the three others (73, ri, 7;) turning
away still more from the median line; the last (7';) placed very near
the edge, on the ventral side, close to the base of the median arms
(Pl. V. Figs. 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, r'{-r;'); the nearest distance between these
two spiral surfaces being fully as great as the width of the water-tube:
in fact, it seems as if the rudimentary tentacles and the dorsal system
had as yet no connection whatever with one another (Pl. V. Figs. 6, 8).
It is very important that this oblique position of the actinal and abac-
tinal areas, as well as their great distance apart, should be distinctly
kept in mind; as it will explain many of the errors committed by pre-
vious writers on this subject, and greatly assist us in correctly understand-
ing many points in the anatomy of Echinoderms hitherto unexplained.
From what has been shown thus far, it is self-evident that the water-
tubes, the problematic bodies, as Muller has called them in their early
condition, are the surfaces from which the future Starfishes are developed,
and not the surface of the stomach. The spiral of tentacles is developed
by folds placed on one side of the stomach (PI. III. Figs. 6, 8, 10, 11), on
one of the water-tubes (w’), that with the water-pore (+); while round
the other water-tube (w), placed on the other side of the stomach, is
formed the spiral surface of the abactinal system. The stomach has re-
mained as it was before, and has in no way contributed to the formation
of the young Starfish. A glance at any figure of the larva, either in pro-
file or from above or from below, will show that no change has taken
place in the shape of the stomach, or any part of the alimentary canal,
as Miller believed (Pl. V. Figs. 1, 8; Pl. ILL. Figs. 1-11), but that a
kind of cap has been formed round it by the water-tubes. Owing, how-
ever, to the accumulation of very fine granules of limestone, the anal
extremity has by this time lost its transparency; this would be easily

FORMATION OF THE AMBULACRAL SYSTEM. 35

mistaken for an encroachment on the stomach itself. In proportion as
the abactinal region becomes solidified (Pl. III. Fig. 11; Pl. IV. Figs. 1,
2; Pl. VII. 2g. 8), the stomach loses its globular shape, and becomes
from this time forward flattened and pear-shaped. Previously to the for-
mation of the Starfish on the surface of the two water-tubes, placed on
opposite sides of the stomach, we could trace no change of form in the
stomach itself. From the time, however, when the Starfish encroaches
little by little upon the anal extremity of the larvae, it pushes the stom-
ach and the intestine slightly to one side, owing to the great increase in
bulk of its actinal and abactinal areas. The anal portion of the water-
tubes now swells and contracts in such a way as apparently to divide that
portion of the water-tubes into chambers; but, on watching the circula-
tion of the fluid in the water-tubes for any length of time, the currents
can be followed flowing from one of these elliptic chambers to the other,
plainly showing the different planes in which the ventral and dorsal part
of the tubes are placed to be the only cause of this delusion.

Miller has distinctly stated, over and over again, during the course of
his investigations, that the young Echinoderm was formed by encroaching
upon the stomach itself ; I am satisfied, from repeated observations of this
point, in Starfish, Sea-urchin, and Ophiuran larve, that this is not the
case. The mistake arises from the fact that the water-tubes, by their
extension and increase, cover and conceal part of the stomach, forming a
sort of hood over it; while the two sides of the young Kchinoderm,
separated by the whole width of the stomach and the thickness of the
two water-tubes, form upon the outer surface of the latter, and do not in
any way encroach upon the stomach, which is simply enclosed by the
actinal and abactinal areas of the Echinoderm. Had I not traced this
with the greatest care, I should scarcely venture to doubt the statements
of Miiller, but I am satisfied that he was mistaken in this explanation of
the mode of the formation of the Echinoderm.*

Formation of the Ambulacral System.— We have already seen that the
very first changes which take place in the water-system (w, w’) consist
of the five folds (¢, Pl. V. Avg. 2) extending obliquely across the exterior
surface of one of the water-tubes (w’). From the fact that these folds

* Tt may not be out of place to say, that Professor Agassiz, during this investigation, satisfied him-
self of the accuracy of every point which seemed in the least contradictory to the statements of
Miiller.

6

36 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

develop across the surface of an elliptical tube, the five folds naturally
form a twisted spiral, with a pentagonal outline, each side of this spiral
forming the first nucleus of the five ambulacral tubes. I speak con-
stantly of pentagonal spirals, pentagonal ambulacral system, and pentago-
nal abactinal system. In using these terms, I do not mean a pentagon
with five equal sides, the adjacent sides making equal angles with one
another and surrounding a closed surface, but simply that we have five
sides limiting an open space, the two extremities of this five-sided figure
being separated by the whole vertical diameter of the water-tubes. One
extremity of the ambulacral five-sided open figure is placed at the water-
pore (J, Pl. V. Fig. 2), the other at the opposite side of the water-tube
on the surface of which the ambulacral system is developed. The two ex-
tremities of the abactinal open five-sided figure are placed, one above the
water-pore (d, Pl. V. Figs. 8, 9, 18, 7‘), the other on the opposite side of the
water-tube, which develops the abactinal surface on one side of the anus
(a, Pl. V. Fig. 14,73). A glanee at the figures of the Brachiolaria from the
dorsal or ventral side (Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2; Pl. VIL Fig. 8; Pl. V. Figs. 8,
9, 15, 14) shows that the two surfaces, upon which the actinal and abac-
tinal areas are developed, do not correspond to one another, or fit into
each other as in the full-grown Starfish. That is, if the ambulacral system
were projected upon the abactinal system, in order to bring these two
surfaces into the same relation which they hold in the adult Asteracan-
thion, we should find the ambulacral system projecting beyond the out-
line of the abactinal system, and placed nearer the mouth of the Brach-
iolaria, while a portion of the abactinal system — that which is placed at
the anal extremity of the larva — would, in the same way, project be-
yond the outline of the ambulacral system. ;

The sides of this twisted pentagonal spiral are somewhat concave, and
the apex of the angles of adjacent sides are rounded. It is in conse-
quence of the changes taking place at the apex of the sides of this irregu-
lar ambulacral pentagon that we have the simple apex transformed, by
its gradual extension beyond the general outline of the open pentagon,
into the five-folded loops (Pl. V. Figs. 10, 12), each of which corresponds
to an ambulacral tube and its accompanying suckers in an adult Star-
fish.

The ambulacral pentagon with concave sides and rounded angles, seen
in profile (Pl. V. Figs. 2, 5; Pl. Ill. Figs. 7, 9, 2), changes its shape

FORMATION OF THE ABACTINAL SYSTEM. 37

rapidly ; the convex cavity becomes greater, the apex of each angle of
the pentagon more prominent and less pointed, a double line is formed
by the ruffling of their folds (Pl. IIL. 4%. 11), and each apex of the pen-
tagon has the appearance of a small loop projecting beyond the curved
sides; the loops grow larger and larger, untii they have reached a size
somewhat less than one third of the diameter of the water-tube, when
they stand out freely from the pentagon, and seem to form no part of
the water-tube (Pl. V. Figs. 10, 11, 12, ¢; Pl. IV. Wg. 4). When seen
either from above or from below, the folds appear as small flaps on the |
broad side of the foot-like appendage projecting from the surface of the
stomach, formed by the folding of the water-tube (Pl. V. Figs. 4, 6, 8, 9,
he, fee el TT. Fags 10, 11 PL TV. Figs 1, 23; PL VEL Pig-8).” “These
small folds are, in reality, nothing but open bags communicating with
the main water-tube (w’); small pouches leading from it. The outer and
inner fold of each loop do not remain concentric, and we can soon trace,
in the inner fold, changes similar to the first folding of the water-tube.
The rounded end of the inner fold becomes triangular; this is the first
“indication of the formation of the separate suckers (Pl. V. Figs. 10, 11,
12,¢¢¢¢¢). The ambulacral pentagon remains in this state until the
Starfish has resorbed the many appendages of the larva.

Formation of the Abactinal System.— Let us now follow the corresponding
changes of the abactinal system, accompanying the modifications, just de-
scribed, of the ambulacral pentagon. On examining the anal extremity,
at the time when the larva has reached the state represented on PI.
Il. Fig. 10, we are at once struck with the fact that the outline of the
abactinal system has undergone analogous changes to those of the actinal
pentagon. Instead of remaining a uniform spiral, the two ends of which
are separated by the whole height of the water-tube, while the two areas
are divided by the combined width of the stomach and the two water-
tubes, it has a slightly lobed pentagonal outline, the convexities corre-
sponding to the apex of the pentagon of suckers (Pl. V. Fig. 5, rj-r; ; Pl.
Ill. Fig. 10). The rods, simple at first (7, Pl. V. Fig. 2), have increased
in size; small Y-shaped appendages have developed at their extremities.
We also see that in the intermediate spaces, corresponding to the con-
cavities of the lobes of the actinal system, a second set of small rods (7,
Pl. V. Fig. 5), of a similar character to the large ones, have developed.
The whole of the abactinal system has become coated with a very fine

88 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

granular deposit of limestone; and the edge of the surface, connecting
the two extremities of the abactinal pentagon, can readily be seen in
profile (Pl. V. Fig. 5). The five large rods placed in the middle of the
sides of the spiral abactinal pentagon, and the five small ones placed in
the angles of this same pentagon, are the first trace of the plates com-
posing the abactinal surface of the young Starfish.

The water-pore (4, Pl. IL Ig. 10; 4, Pl. V. Figs. 7, 8) remains open,
the only change being an accumulation of limestone matter round the
opening, forming a sort of solid tube to protect it. This water-pore, as
we shall see hereafter, eventually becomes the madreporic body; and
the canal formed by the deposition of limestone is the stone canal of the
full-grown Starfishes.

Abactinal System.— The double line on the edge of the abactinal pen-
tagon (Pl. V. Fig. 2) is formed by the thickness of the surface of the
abactinal system. This double line, at first only slightly undulating, be-
comes gradually more indented (Pl. V. Figs. 3, 5); at the same time,
additional rods arise round the primary ones with such rapidity that we
soon find a complicated network of limestone rods, forming ten clusters
(PL V. Figs. 8, 9, 13, 7’, 7”), five large (r’) and five smaller ones (7”) round
the original rods. This network is produced by the addition of a Y-
shaped rod, at each extremity of a simple primary rod; presently, eight
Y-rods arise upon the shanks of the first set of Y-rods, followed by a
third set upon the shanks of the second set, and so on; in this manner
are formed the closed polygons composing the clusters of the patches of
limestone deposit (Pl. V. 2%. 9, 7’, 7”). The small granular cells, filling
the larger meshes of the network, increase in number, rendering the
whole abactinal system somewhat opaque; when the larva is seen in
profile from the abactinal side, the outline of the stomach (Pl. V. Fi%g.
5) can be traced exactly as it was before the Starfish had begun to form ;
and outside of it, the edge of the future back is distinctly visible (Pl. V.
dig. 5).

As the two water-tubes are placed on opposite sides of the larva, it fol-
lows that when seen in profile (Pl. V. Figs. 11, 12), from the left or from
the right, it presents, in the one case, a full view of the tentacular pen-
tagon (¢), and only the lower oral edge of the abactinal system, the net-
work of limestone meshes being quite indistinct, as seen through the
thickness of the abactinal surface (PL IIL. Fig...75) Bl, Diego) Pee

FORMATION OF THE SPINES. 59

Figs. 10, 12); while, in the other case, a full view of the abactinal pen-
tagon (Pl. WIL. Fig. 10; Pl. IV. Fig. 4; Pl. V. Figs. 5, 11) is obtained, and
the arrangement of the different rods forming the plates of the limestone
network is distinctly seen. A view of the larva from the dorsal side
(Pl. IM. Fig. 11; Pl. VIL Fig. 8; Pl. V. Figs. 8, 9, 13) shows the abac-
tinal system extending in such a way as to surround the stomach en-
tirely on one side, while the tentacular pentagon covers it on the oppo-
site side. This attitude gives us the position of the lobes (r;{—r;), the
future rays of the Starfish, next. to the water-pore (77, 72), while a view
from the oral side (Pl. V. Figs. 4, 14) indicates the trend of the lobes
on the opposite extremity of the spiral of the abactinal system (7{, 7;).

[Metschnikoff was able to trace most satisfactorily the development of
an Ophiuran in which the formation of the abactinal system was shown
to be identical in every respect with that here given of the Starfish. In
the Ophiuran of which I had previously * traced the growth the forma-
tion of the plates of the disk could not be seen. These I on'y traced
at that time in one of the viviparous species. |

Formation of the Rays of the future Starfish.—The plates of the abactinal
system early reach a condition when the changes they undergo are merely
quantitative, and the only modifications affecting the appearance of the
Starfish take place on the edge of the disk. A depression is formed in
the middle of the convexity of the lobes of the abactinal area; this is
soon followed by two other depressions in the middle of the small arcs
thus formed, dividing each lobe of the pentagon into four smaller lobes ;
at the same time the indentations between the original sides of the pen-
tagon have grown much deeper, separating these five lobes in a very
marked manner. We can now no longer mistake the true character of
the lobes; they are the five rays of the Starfish, but as the actinal and
abactinal regions are not yet fitted together, as in the adult (Pl. V. Figs.
10, 11, r'{-7/; Pl. IV. Fig. 4), they represent only the dorsal sides of the
rays. A glance at Mig. 9 of the same Plate (Pl. V.), seen from the dorsal
side, will show how far the suckers (¢) are removed from the abactinal
portion of the arm which is to protect them. The position of the water-
pore (4) is immediately on the edge of the disk, at the extremity ef the
dorsal end of the pentagon (Pl. V. Figs. 10, 13, 6).

* Mem. Am. Acad. 1864.

40) EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Formation of the Sjines. — Such is the state of the abactinal system
when the pentagon of tentacles is composed of simple loops; let us now
examine this system in more advanced larve, at the time when the inner
fold of the loops has become triangular at the extremity. When seen
from the ventral side (PI. VII. Fig. 8), we find that the small lobes have
become wart-like projections, surrounding the whole edge of the abactinal
system (Pl. V. Jy. 9). These projections are composed of accumulations
of Y-shaped rods, connected with the system of network in the larger
plates. The surface of the abactinal system has also become covered
with these wart-like projections, rendering the outline irregular. In an
abactinal profile, smaller tubercles are seen on each arm, identical, in every-
thing except size, with those of the edge; the tubercles are young spines,
arranged in regular lines (Pl. VI. Figs. 2, 4, 6); one row of four alternat-
ing on the edge of the abactinal system with one row of three, this again
with one of two, followed by single tubercles, forming a pentagon, placed
in the apex of adjoining rows, in the angle between two arms; the older
tubercles are those nearest the edge.

When the young Starfish has reached this state, it has the rudiments
of nearly all the external parts of the adult. I shall, therefore, apply
to these rudimentary organs the names usually given to them. .The spines
are warts, not rising much above the general level of the abactinal region,
and they are arranged in regular rows. The position of the network
of limestone meshes has become well circumscribed, the plates formed by
them occupying the position of the original rods. The five smaller plates
in the angles of the arms are arranged round a central plate, the larger
plates alternate with them and occupy nearly the whole of the surface
of the arm; this arrangement is identical with that of the plates of the
abactinal surface, as shown in Pl. VI. Mig. 10, 7, 4, &. The indentations
of the rays are now so well marked (Pl. V. Figs. 12, 13) that there is
quite a large open space between the outer spines on the edge of any
two adjoinng arms. On examining the plates formed by the network
of limestone meshes, we see that the cells are polygonal; they are usually
hexagonal, and are more or less quadrangular near the exterior of the
plate. The original rod can be recognized by the larger cell it has de-
veloped (Pl. V. Figs. 9, 13, r’); and it is from this central cell that the
others diverge, growing smaller and smaller as they approach the edge.

In the present stage of the young Starfish the anal extremity of the

il

RESORPTION OF THE BRACHIOLARIA. 4]

Brachiolaria (Pl. VII. Fig. 8) has almost entirely disappeared, and the
embryo Starfish has taken its place (Pl. V. Pigs. 9-14). This embryo
is so heavy that, when floating about, it loads down the anal part, which
is always the lowest, and the larva is compelled to move always more
or less obliquely, having to drag this great weight after it. The water-
pore remains in the position in which it was at first, in the angle of the
arm (7{'), which opens the pentagon, and is encased in a stronger deposit
of limestone.

Resorption of the Brachiolaria.— While the Starfish is growing upon the
outer surfaces of the two opposite water-tubes, and is gradually becoming
apart of the Brachiolaria, no changes take place in the external appear-
ance of the larve (Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2; Pl. VII. Fig. 8). But when the
Starfish has become so far advanced as to occupy a very prominent posi-
tion at the anal extremity of the larva (Pl. IV. Fig. 4; Pl. VII. Fig. 8),
the complicated appendages designated as arms, which have served for the
development and for the locomotion of the Starfish, are resorbed by the
little Echinoderm.

We now come to a most interesting period in the history of our Star-
fish. The larve, very active up to this time, grow sluggish; the body,
which, with the exception of the anal portion, is, in the early stages,
perfectly transparent and clear, becomes cloudy and opaque. Changes
are first visible in the side arms (Pl. IV. Figs. 7, 8, 9); they contract,
and apparently divide into many large cells. Next in turn the anal ven-
tral arms, and, lastly, the dorsal arms, contract in the same manner. This
contraction of the arms is accompanied by a corresponding shrinking of
the anal part of the larva, beyond the mouth (Pl. IV. Fig. 9), so rapid
that in a few hours the anal arms have shrunk to quite a small compass
(Pl. IV. Fig. 9); the oral dorsal arms and the oral ventral arms contract
in their turn, until there remains nothing but the brachiolar arms, brought
close to the Starfish by the shrinking of the mass of the body (PI. IV.
Fig. 8). They soon follow the rest, and we can actually see the gradual
disappearance of this complicated fabric. It has served its purpose of
developing and feeding the young Starfish, which has now reached a state
when, in a few hours, it will move about independently, having resorbed,
for what purpose is not known, the whole of the framework. Not a@ single
part ts dropped off, the whole of the larva passes into the Starfish, and, before
twelve hours have elapsed from the commencement of the first sign of

42 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

contraction of the anal tentacles, nothing is to be seen of the larval ap-
pendages, except a few indistinct swellings on the actinal side of the little
Starfish (Pl. VI. Hg. 1).

The Starfish after the Resorption of the Bipinnaria.—The process of resorp-
tion, which I have frequently had the opportunity to examine and trace
in all its stages, leaves no doubt, at least in this case, that the young
Starfish does not separate from the Brachiolaria. We cannot, therefore,
consider the Starfish and the framework (the Brachiolaria) as two indi-
viduals, leading a separate existence at different stages of growth, but
must regard them both as one and the same thing. This is in direct
contradiction to the statements of Miiller, and of Koren and Danielssen,
with regard to the Echinoderm, the development of which they have had
occasion to watch. I must add that my own observations concerning the
development of Echinoids and of Ophiurans have led me to an entirely
different opinion from the one they have expressed; see my remarks on
the Embryology of Echinoderms, in the Memoirs of the American Academy
for 1864.

Closing of the Actinal and Abactinal Areas. — Although the young Starfish
has now resorbed all the appendages of the Brachiolaria (Pl. VI. Figs.
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7), it is very different from the adult; the rays do not yet
make a complete circuit, nor are they similar to each other; the penta-
gon of tentacles is still open, and the first step, preceding any other great
change, is the closing of the actinal and abactinal areas, by which the
two regions are brought into their proper relations. While the arms of
the larva are shrinking away, the tentacular and abactinal pentagons are
drawn closer together by the contraction of the water-tube. The ex-
tremities of the two open pentagons approach each other simultaneously
by the flattening, in opposite directions, of the two pentagonal spirals,
until the surfaces are brought into parallel planes, and the space, still
separating the two ends of the pentagon (Pl. VI. Fig. 4) gradually dimin-
ishes, when they finally join; the Starfish is then in its normal con-
dition, and the circuit is completed, though the embryo is by no means
symmetrical.

[Metschnikoff has since also shown the same thing in his development
of an Ophiuran. See 1. e, Pl. IV]

Development of the Ambulacrval Tentacles of the Starfish. — While the closing

of the spiral goes on, the pentagon of the tentacular side is undergoing

AMBULACRAL TENTACLES. 43

great changes. We will follow these until the tentacles have acquired
their normal shape, and then return to the changes of the abactinal sur-
face. The points of the inner folds of the tentacular pentagon, as seen
in Pl. V. Figs. 11, 12, ¢ ¢ ¢, become rounded, forming a rosette, dividing
each loop into five lobes. The terminal lobe in its turn goes through
the same process; two smaller lobes are developed on each side of it
(Pl. VI. Figs. 3, 5), thus dividing the original simple loop into seven lobes,
a terminal one (¢’), and three pairs (¢ ¢ ¢) arranged symmetrically on the
sides. The first-formed lobes retain their greater size until the tentacles
are well developed, which at first is always in proportion to their prox-
imity to the base of the loop. The odd lobe, from which the last pair
of tentacles was formed, does not participate in the rapid growth of the
others, and is soon outstripped by all the lobes formed along the side of
the original loop (Pl. VI. Figs. 3, 5). The point at which additional
tentacles are formed is plainly seen in this early stage of growth; a pair
is always added at the outer extremity of the arm, immediately at the
base and on the side of the odd tentacle (the eye-bearing tentacle), which
remains at the termination of the ray during the whole life of the Star-
fish. It is quite the reverse with the additional spines of the abactinal
surface of the disk; they are always formed upon the disk, and are
pushed out upon the arms by younger spines growing up nearer the
centre of the disk. This will be plainly seen when describing more ad-
vanced conditions of the young Starfish. As the loops increase, they ex-
pand, lose their character of simple folds, and soon become quite extensive
sacs (¢ ¢ ¢, Pl. VI. Fug. 8), opening into the main tube (¢’), from which
they were formed, until, finally, they attain the shape represented upon
Pl. VI. Fig. 9. They soon grow long enough to be quite movable; they
contract at the base, the walls thicken towards their extremity, and they
become club-shaped. The result of this contraction is a change of the
tentacular cavity into a rudimentary radiating tube (¢”), with the ten-
tacles attached to it; it also draws together the first pair of tentacles,
which are usually seen in such a way as to appear like knobs (PL VL
Fig. 5). This basal pair does not lengthen so rapidly as the second pair,
which in a couple of days becomes the longest (Pl. VI Fig. 9). Before
the base of the radiating tube (¢’) has contracted, the adjacent basal ten-
tacles of adjoining loops are placed nearer together than those of the

same basal pair, the basal tentacles thus forming five pairs of tentacles
7

44 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

(Pl. VI. My. 8, ¢ 2), separated by the radiating tube (¢”). In proportion
as the tentacles elongate, the separation between them and the radiating
tube is more distinct, and very soon the tentacles appear like club-shaped
branches projecting from it (Pl. VI. Fig. 9); the first pair of tentacles
are somewhat shorter and stouter than the second, which is the longest,
while the three terminal tentacles have nearly the same size, the odd
tentacle (¢) not showing as yet the slightest tendency to become club-
shaped, though developed so much earlier than the larger basal pairs at
its base.

Formation of the Sucker of the Tentacles of the Starfish. — When the ten-
tacles have reached the state of Pl. VI. Fig. 9 they. develop rapidly; the
walls at the extremity of each tentacle thicken so much, that the cavity
becomes a pointed tube set into a somewhat conical head, which grows
more club-shaped, and projects beyond the walls of the tentacles as they
increase in length, so that, when the basal pair of tentacles equals again
in length the second pair (Pl. VI. Fig. 12), the clubs at the extremities
are supported upon comparatively narrow bases. This club-shaped termi-
nation is the future disk of the tentacle, the sucker, by means of which
the Starfish adheres so firmly to rocks. From an early period, even
when there is only one large pair of tentacles at the base of the ray,
and when the others exist only in the most rudimentary condition (Pl. VL
Hig. 5), these tentacles are used by the embryo in adhering to the sur-
faces upon which it is placed; and, though they are not provided with a
regular sucking disk, they fasten themselves so firmly, by means of these
loops, that it requires considerable force to make them loose their hold.

‘ormation of the Eye.—We have seen that, unlike the others, the odd
terminal tentacle does not become club-shaped, but increases slowly in
length alone, the walls retaining a uniform thickness. It is not till all
the pairs of tentacles are well developed that we begin to perceive slight
changes (Pl. VIII. Fg. 5). The opening leading into the radiating canal
contracts, the basal portion of the tentacle swells, and it assumes a some-
what pear-shaped form, the swelling at the base increases, principally on
the oral side, and we soon trace in it an accumulation of pigment cells
(Pl. VIL. Fig. 6, e), which, by the time the other tentacles have developed
knobs, and equal in length the diameter of the arms, has become a brill-
iant carmine spot (PI. VI. Mig. 12, e; PL VIL Fig. 6, e, and Pl. VIII.
fig. 5, e). This odd tentacle, placed at the extremity of the radiating

' oe

MOUTH OF THE STARFISH. 45

tube, is the ocular tentacle. Ehrenberg discovered the presence of eyes
in Starfishes, but their true relations to this odd terminal tentacle was
first pointed out by Professor Agassiz, in his Homologies of Radiata.

[The nature of this terminal tentacle in the young Starfish and all
young Kchinoderms seems to have been entirely overlooked by all writers
who have described the eye of the Starfishes, which they have usually
represented as an organ totally unlike any other Kchinodermal ap-
pendage.

The Embryology of Echinoderms certainly shows most distinctly that
the eye of the Starfish is only a modified tentacle, an organ of sense, such
as we find at the base of the marginal tentacles of Acalephs.]

Formation of the Mouth of the Starfish.— From the manner in which the
tentacles are formed by folds of the water-tube, it is plain that, in the
younger stages of the Echinoderm, the two ends of the circular tube must
remain disconnected; the rapid accumulation of limestone particles on
the lower surface prevents us, however, from ascertaining this point.
Soon after the larva has disappeared, the whole actinal surface between
the pentagon of tentacles is covered by a membrane; this membrane, in
the centre of which is placed the mouth, is the remnant of that part of
the larva situated in the groove between the anal and oral plastrons
(m, Pl. VI. Fig. 12; Pl. VII. Fig. 1). The mouth of the Starfish, how-
ever, is not in reality the mouth of the larva. During the shrinking of
the larva the long cesophagus has become shortened and _ contracted,
bringing the opening of the mouth of the larva to the level of the open-
ing of the cesophagus, which becomes eventually the true mouth of the
Starfish.

Before the limestone particles have accumulated sufficiently to cover
the base of the radiating tubes, the mouth is movable, shifting its posi-
tion from one side to another indifferently (Pl. VI. Figs. 3, 7, 8, 12, m;
Pl. VII. Fig. 1), though by the time the deposit of limestone has formed
a small pentagon inside of the base of the radiating tubes, it has lost its
mobility. The water-pore (Pl. VI. Fig. 12, 6), or the madreporie body,
connects with the circular tube through a long, narrow tube, and is
placed on the actinal side in the angle between two rays; it is, as yet,
only a simple opening, protected by a thick funnel-shaped limestone pro-
jection (Pl. VI. Fig. 12, 6). The young Starfish has no other anus than
that of the larva, which is placed on the very edge of the disk; but,

46 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

with the rapidly increasing deposit of limestone cells, it is soon hidden ©
from view, and I have not been fortunate enough to find it again in
more advanced young. I am therefore unable to say where the anus opens
outside, though it undoubtedly discharges, at this time, through one of the
many limestone cells. Owing to the difficulty of tracing its opening in
the deedalus of round cells, I am not able to state this positively, never
having seen, from any point, discharges of fecal matters. Like the mad-
reporic body, it is not yet upon the abactinal area, but on the actinal
side, near the edge of the disk. The madreporic body itself would
have been lost in a similar manner, had it not been possible to track it
by means of its connection with the circular tube (Pl. VI. Mig. 12); and,
even then, it was only by the closest attention, and at moments when
the position of the young Starfish was especially favorable for the inspec-
tion, that the opening of the madreporic body could be distinguished
from that of the surrounding limestone cells.

[With regard to the functions of the mouth of the Pluteus and its sub-
sequent fate in the young Starfish and Ophiuran, my observations as well as
those of Metschnikoff would show that it becomes the mouth in both,
This does not seem to be the case in Auricularia, and the fate of the
openings (both the anal and oral) of the Pluteus of Echinoderms is not
yet definitely known for all the orders. Additional observations are needed
on this point. Embryological studies on Mollusca would seem to favor
the formation of a new mouth distinct from that of the early stages of
the embryo, but the direct observations on Echinoderms all tend to prove
that there is no new opening formed, and that the mouth of the Pluteus
passes directly into that of the young Echinoderm.

Selenka shows for Holothuria also that the original opening of the Plu-
teus becomes the permanent anus. |

Formation of the Actinal Limestone Surface. — The actinal side of the disk
is at first a narrow flat band (Pl. VI. Fig. 3), following the general out-
line of the rays. This band increases in breadth, loses its convex outline,
and soon reaches the terminal tentacle, when the actinal band has assumed
a pentagonal shape. Inside of this small pentagon is situated the ambu-
lacral system, entirely independent, as yet, from the limestone deposit on
the actinal surface, the whole rosette of tentacles expanding and contract-
ing, with perfect liberty, in every direction. This freedom soon ceases;
the points of the limestone pentagon develop rapidly towards the centre

SPINES OF THE YOUNG STARFISH. 47

of the disk, and soon reach the base of the radiating canal (PI. VI. Fig. 7).
There they unite by bridging the intervening spaces, and form five tri-
angular openings, enclosing the tentacles, which are still at liberty, with
the exception of this band across the base of the radiating tubes (Pl. VI.
Fig. 9). The additions made to this deposit of limestone take place more
rapidly near the bridge, where additional limestone cells are sent out,
enclosing at first the basal pair of tentacles, but leaving the remaining
five still unconfined. The next pair is then imprisoned by a similar pro-
cess, without, however, interfering with the terminal tentacles. Finally,
the last pair of tentacles is surrounded in a like manner, and all the ten-
tacles are now confined somewhat as we find them in the adult (PI. VI.
Fig. 12; Pl. VIL. Fig. 1). A row of limestone cells, extending along
the median line, separates the base of the suckers, while transverse bands
join the larger cells of adjoining spaces. It is plain that the transverse
bands correspond to the ambulacral plates of the adult, and that, in the
earlier stages, the embryo Starfish has no trace whatever of any inter-
ambulacral system. This mode of formation of the ambulacral system may
explain the absence of interambulacral plates in the Crinoids and Ophi-
urans. The deposit of limestone is not sufficiently transparent to allow a
good view of the radiating canal, or of the formation of the vesicles of
the tentacles.

Formation of the Spines of the young Starfish.— We have seen that, at the
time of the closing of the young Starfish, the abactinal region is already
covered with regular rows of spines (Pl. VI. Fig. 4). These spines are,
however, simple warts, slight protuberances, in which limestone cells are
formed, connecting with the general network. The cells of these spines
are arranged in regular tiers one above the other; the younger cells,
formed at the base, being always more numerous, and pushing up the
older ones. All the cells send off Y-shaped appendages, which unite,
forming stories (Pl. VII. Figs. 3, 4, 5) of circular cells; the cells of the
spine near the edge do not close, but project beyond the margin, giving
the spines the appearance of small Gothic spires. ‘

The spines of the first row — viz. those immediately on the edge
of the rays— increase rapidly, curving sideways, expanding at the tip,
and assuming as fantastic shapes as those of Rhabdocidaris Orbygniana
(Pl. VI. Figs. 10, 11, 12, p p). The other rows of spines, diminishing in
size as they approach the centre, are exactly similar to the former (~,

48 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

ps), but not so broad at the extremity, and somewhat more slender.
New spines are always added between those originally at the extremity
of the rays and the centre of the disk; the latter always remain the
most advanced and most prominent of the spines, even when the young
Starfish has assumed many more of the features of the adult than it has
at present, and has reached a stage when it would not be mistaken for
anything but a Starfish, closely allied to our common species.

Network of Limestone Cells.— As we have seen in the earliest stages of
the Starfish, there are, on the abactinal area, rods from which, by the
addition of Y-shaped processes, clusters of polygonal cells are gradually
formed (Pl. VII. 4g. 7); one cluster in the middle of each ray (PI. VL
Fig. 10, 4), one around the smaller rod placed in the angle of the rays
(/,), and a still smaller one round the rod placed in the very centre of
the abactinal area (/). The large clusters extend and unite along the
edge of the rays, forming a continuous network; it is from the cells of
the edge that the limestone deposit is formed, which extends over the
abactinal surface. The clusters of cells placed in the angle of the rays do
not unite laterally, though they become indirectly connected in the more
advanced stages of our Starfish, joing with the plates of the rays by a
few cells (Pl. VI. Fig. 10). The central plate remains unconnected with
the others in the most advanced of the young which I have raised from
the Brachiolaria. The whole of the network is quite movable, and the
plates, before they become united, are capable of independent motion by
the contraction of different portions of the abactinal area.

[Lovén has given excellent figures of the young of Asterias glacialis,
corresponding to some of the stages here figured. They differ, however,
in having the plates more distinctly separated even in the young stages
(Pl. VI. Fig. 19). The reticulation is compact, so that it is only in cer-
tain stages of expansion that the original composition of the abactinal
surface can still be traced.

It is from the careful! comparison of these young stages (Pls. VI. VIL.
VIII.) with the corresponding stages of the young Ophiurans, given by
Metschnikoff, Pl. IV. of his memoirs, and in my memoir on the Embry-
ology of Kchinoderms, Figs. 29, 32 (Mem. Am. Acad.), and of young
Kehini with the young of Comatula figured by Allman, Carpenter, and
Thomson, that we can make out a satisfactory homology of the test of

Echinoderms as has been so successfully done by Lovén in his superb

OUTLINE OF THE YOUNG STARFISH. 49

Memoir on Sea-Urchins,* where he has most thoroughly proved the homol-
ogy of the basal and radial plates of Crinoids with their corresponding
plates, still readily to be traced in the young Starfish, and with their
homologies in the apical system of Echini.

An admirable paper by Selenka in the Zeits. f/ Wiss. Zool. (June, 1876)

. gives us a complete history of the development of Holothuria, showing

an entire agreement in its general features with the Embryology of other
Echinoderms in the mode of formation of the water-system as diverticulum
for the alimentary canal, forming eventually (as in the Starfish) the cir-
cular canal with the ambulacral system. ]

Change of Outline of the young Starfish. —With advancing age, the outline
of the young Starfish is greatly modified; at first, when the actinal and
abactinal areas are not yet closed, while the larval appendages are still
visible on the lower side of the young Starfish (Pl. VI. Figs. 1, 2), im-
mediately after the larval appendages have disappeared, and the surfaces
of the actinal and abactinal areas are brought nearer together (Pl. VI.
Figs. 3, 4), it is hardly more than an irregular pentagon, with slightly
convex sides, and small rounded notches cut in at the angles (Pl. VI.
Figs. 3, 4). These notches become deeper, the arms of the Starfish as-
sume more the appearance of a Greek cross (Pl. VI. Figs. 6, 7); the sides
of the rays are strongly concave, and the concavity is increased with the
development of the spines to such a degree that the extremity of the
ray is almost twice as broad as its base (Pl. VI. Figs. 10, 11, 12). The
outline of the inner wall of the disk can be easily seen through the lime-
stone network. The pentagonal form, so different from that of the
adult, is still less like it when seen in profile (Pl. VII. Mig. 2). The abac-
tinal area rises like a high, rounded cone, supported upon the spines ( /)
of the edge of the disk; the tentacles project far beyond the edge on
every side (Pl. VII. /%g. 2). In fact, the regular rows of spines, their great
size, the convexity of the disk, are features so unlike our usual concep-
tion of a Starfish that, without closer examination, one would readily mis-
take this Echinoderm, at first sight, for a young Sea-urchin, like the flat,
conical Kchinocidaris.

The tentacles are longer than the rays, extending far beyond the edge
in front and on the sides. The pairs of tentacles move in every direc-

* Kongl. Svenska Vets. Akad. Handl. XI. No. 7. Etudes sur les Echinoidées par S. Lovén.
Stockholm, 1874.

50 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

tion; but the odd tentacle is always curved upward, and carried between
the two middle spines of the extremity of the rays. When we see the
Starfish in profile (Pl. VIL Fig. 2), the red eye-speck appears prominent
near the edge of the disk, surmounted by the upturned tentacle (¢ 7),
of a slight rosy hue. This manner of carrying the terminal tentacle re-
minds us strongly of the way in which A%ginopsis, as well as the young
of so many of our Hydroid Medusze, carry their marginal tentacles: Ne-
mopsis, Staurophora, Turritopsis, Willia.

This is the most advanced stage of the young Starfishes (Pl. VI. Fig.
11) which I have succeeded in raising in confinement. When we com-
pare this with an adult, having long, slender-pointed rays, four rows of
suckers, its surface covered with pediceilariz and water-tubes, surround-
ing individual spines, like so many wreaths, we cannot fail to be struck
with the astonishing changes of form which must still take place to bring
this pentagonal star to any shape resembling a slender five-rayed Star-
fish. In fact, when we remember how rarely embryologists continue the
study of the egg beyond the moment of hatching of the embryo, it is
not to be wondered at that this same young Starfish should be intro-
duced to us again and again, in its different stages of growth, under half
a dozen new names, both generic and specific. It is only by a thorough
knowledge of all the changes of form through which these young em-
bryos pass, from the first moment of their existence till they are full-
grown, that we can hope to remedy this evil.

The next state of our young Starfish is, when magnified (Pl. VIL
Fig. 1), even more different from the adult than the pentagonal state
of Pl. VI. Fig. 11. The young Starfishes figured on this Plate (PI.
VIII.) were all found attached to roots of Laminaria, thrown up on
the beaches, in the neighborhood, after a storm; and from their differ-
ent stages of growth, as compared with the oldest Starfish raised from
a Brachiolaria (Pl. VI. Mg. 11), specimens of which were also found
upon these roots, it is probable that the sizes here figured are one (fig.
1), two (Fig. 8), and three (Fig. 10) years old. A considerable number
of specimens were picked up in this way, and they could all be arranged
into very distinct groups, representing the Starfishes of the present and
of two previous seasons. There seemed to be no gradation from one
group to another, such as we have among the young Sea-urchins, which,

in consequence of their manner of breeding during the whole year, form

OUTLINE OF THE YOUNG STARFISH. 51

series, the relations of which it is impossible to determine. In this con-
nection I would say, that by arranging the Starfishes found upon our
rocks into series according to their size, we are able to obtain a rough
estimate of the number of years required by them to attain their full de-
velopment; this I presume to be somewhere about fourteen years.*
They begin to spawn before that time, as specimens have been success
fully fecundated which evidently were not more than six or seven years
old. It is during the fourth year that the rate of growth seems to be
most rapid. A young Starfish, measuring one and a half inches across
the arms, was kept, during five months, alive in Mr. Glen’s tank at the
Museum, and during that space of time it grew to three inches.

In the youngest specimens (Pl. VIII. /%g. 1) it is easy to see how the
young Starfish has changed its outline from a pentagonal cross (Pl. VI.
Fig. 11) to the one here represented. The original plates are sufficiently
distinct to enable us to trace the process. The arm-plates at the ex-
tremity have been pushed away from the body by the addition of new
spines formed at the base of the ray, and on each side of the interradial
plates (4) (the ovarian plates?). The terminal plate (4) is perfectly well
defined at the extremity of each ray, and, by cutting out the remainder
of the arm, and bringing the extremity of the ray close upon the disk,
we should have our former pentagonal Starfish almost identically the
same; the only change being the greater stiffness of the suckers, the
more rounded character of the spines, as well as their greater number
upon the original radial plates. The spines have almost entirely lost
their fan-shaped embryonic type, and are gradually assuming the aspect
of the full-grown rounded spines of the adult Starfish. Here and there,
however, a spine still occurs which has retained its fan-shaped out-
line.

Owing to the elongation of the ray, the single median line of spines
stands out very prominently, and this, together with the rows of large
spines extending from the interradial plates on each side of the rays,
gives to the young Starfish the appearance of a small Oreaster. The
median line of spines is supported by a long, narrow limestone plate, ex-
tending distinctly from the basal plate almost to the terminal radial,
plates totally independent, also, of the prolongation of the ovarian plates

* For an account of the method adopted by Professor Agassiz for ascertaining the age of many

of our marine animals, see Proceed. Essex Inst., 1863, p. 252.
8

52 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

(p.), Which make a broad binding on each side of the ray, uniting with
the terminal plate so as to form a continuous limestone cord round the
edge of the Starfish. The interradial plate projects from the angle of the
rays towards the basal plate, spreading somewhat, to fill up the space be-
tween the median arm-plates. We find, in this stage (Pl. VII. Fig. 1),
the first dorsal water-tubes (d’); there are five pairs, one tube on each
side of the ovarian plate (p,). But, as yet, no pedicellarie have appeared.

From the lower side, no trace of the plates of the interambulacral sys-
tem can be seen, beyond the spines which have formed at the extremity
of the ambulacra. The ambulacral pores are arranged in a single row
on each side of the median line, and the slender last-formed tentacles
are placed at the extremity of the ray, nearest to the odd ocular ten-
tacle ; while the tentacles nearest the mouth are quite skort and stout,
having a large sucking disk, "and resembling, in all respects, those of the
adults. The separation of the different ambulacral plates is very faint, and
does not become well marked till a later stage. The odd ocular tentacle
has retained its function; the eye-speck has increased greatly in size, as
well as the bulb to which it is attached, while the walls of the tentacle
are nearly as thin as in the younger stages (Pl. VIII. Fig. 5), exhibiting
no trace of the formation of any sucking disk. Nearest to this are found
the last-formed tentacles, easily recognized by their length, and the some-
what less developed sucker. These and subsequent stages of the young
Starfish show undoubtedly that new tentacles are formed at the extremity
of the rays, while new portions of the upper part of the arm are formed
at the base; that is, the actinal system is developed at its periphery,
while the abactinal system is developed at the centre.

In young Starfishes of two years (Pl. VIL Fig. 8) the median plate
is longer, more closely crowded with spines; the terminal plate being
less prominent, though still distinct, while the processes from the median
and lateral plates are quite large. No additional dorsal water-tubes have
been formed since the last stage (Pl. VIII. Fig. 1). When examined from
the oral side, the median line is becoming more strongly marked, and
the lateral and ambulacral spines more prominent. These features give
to the young Starfish a more pointed appearance, and the resemblance to
the adult now becomes more apparent. .

In somewhat older specimens (three years old) (Pl. VIIL Fig. 10), we
finally trace the first appearance of pedicellarie (Pl. VII. Figs. 2, 3, 4,

=

OUTLINE OF THE YOUNG STARFISH. 53

P; p’), the dorsal tubes (Pl. VIII. Fig. 10, d’ d’) are found arranged
in greater number along certain portions of the rays; while the median
and lateral plates have increased so much in size that the terminal plate
has lost entirely the preponderance which it had in younger stages, and
the extremity of the arm actually assumes a rounded outline. The dorsal
tubes (d”) are found numerous on both sides of the median arm-plate,
and along the edge of the oral lateral plates (d’), diminishing somewhat
in size as they approach the extremity of the ray; they are not open
at the tip. The central basal abactinal plate is still distinct from the
others.

The development of the pedicellaria around the base of the spines
gives us no clew as to the function which they perform in Starfishes
(Pl. VIII. Figs. 2, 3, 4). At first a simple projection, they early assume
the character of the head of pedicellariz without stems, the rounded
swelling becoming conical, after which the fork of the head begins to be
distinguished. In Plate VUI. Figs. 2, 3, 4, we have the different stages
of the spines (p), and the pedicellariz (p’, p”), found at their base. It
was impossible in these young Starfishes to discover the place of the
madreporic body.

[Professor E. Perrier has published a very elaborate and beautifully
illustrated memoir on the Pedicellariz of Echinoderms in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelles. For the discussion of the nature of Pedicellariz see
an account in the Revision of the Echini, Part IV., by A. Agassiz, and an
article in the American Naturalist, Vol. VII.]

From the oral side these Starfishes (PI. VIII. Fig. 9) exhibit scarcely
any difference from those of the stage last described, with the exception
of the somewhat more crowded ambulacra. There is a row of median
ambulacral spines (w’), quite small, defining the plates distinctly, as well
as the presence of a very distinct row of spines (w), the ambulacral
spines, along the edge of the ambulacral plates. In the most advanced
of these Starfishes we must specially call attention to the absence of a
well-defined interambulacral system. The young Starfish is still emi-
nently ophiuroid in its most important embryonic features.

Professor Sars, in his Norge’s Echinodermer, has described a new
genus, which he has named Pedicellaster. I think there can be but
little doubt, on comparing the figure he has given of his Starfish and the
different stages of our Asteracanthion, that his Pedicellaster will turn out

5d EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

to be the young of one of the species of Asteracanthion of the northern
coast of Europe. The single row of ambulacral pores, the ocular ten-
tacle, the arrangement of the pedicellariz, the size, all confirm the idea
of its being only the young.

Successive Phases of Development of the Larve of Starfishes. — Before apply-
ing the information thus far obtained to the solution of more general
problems, it may be well to consider what are the normal stages of growth,
at different periods, in the history of our Starfish larve. During the
earlier stages of its existence, the young developed from the egg (Pl. I.
Figs. 22—28) laid by one of our Asteracanthion has no resemblance what-
ever to the future Starfish. This first condition we might call the pyri-
form, or Scyphistoma stage; when it is simply a symmetrical radiate
animal, reminding us of earlier stages of Polyps and Acalephs. It then
assumes the shape of a dumb-bell, becomes slightly one-sided (PI. I.
Figs. 2-19), and has, in its most advanced state, no other appendages
but the simple crescent-shaped, slightly undulating, vibratile chord (PI. II.
Figs. 20-24). The simple, straight digestive cavity is now differentiated
into three distinct regions. This second stage we might call the Tornaria
stage, from its resemblance to the Echinoderm larvex, called Tornaria by
Miiller, in which all the parts of the adult larva are simply hinted at in
the most rudimentary form, and during which it is eminently cylindrical.
[This Tornaria has been proved by Metschnikoff and myself to be a
young Balanoglossus.] Another well-marked epoch is that during which
the larva passes from the cylindrical, or, as we have called it, the Tornaria
stage, into a quadrangular, somewhat compressed form; and the compli-
cated system of locomotive appendages, so greatly developed in the Brachi-
olaria, is gradually laid out, thus preparing the larva for the last stages
of its existence, characterized by the development of the young Echino-
derm. This third stage, corresponding to that observed by Van Beneden,
may appropriately be called the Brachina stage. During this period the
former independent water-tubes (w, w') of the Tornaria stage (the prob-
lematic bodies of Miller) become united, and are gradually transformed
into the Y-shaped, elliptical water-system (the Schlauch-System of Miil-
ler); this present stage (the Brachina stage) is therefore marked by the
great modifications of the water-system (Pl. Ul. Pigs. 25-28; Pl. IIL.
Figs. 2-10). In the last stage, which we shall call, with Miiller, the
Brachiolaria stage (PI. II. Fig. 11; Pl. VI. Figs. 1, 2, 4; Pl. VIL.

CHARACTER OF THE DEVELOPMENT. 5d

Fig. 8), the rudimentary locomotive organs, laid out during the Brachina
stage, attain their greatest development, as long, slender arms. The great
changes which take place on the anal extremity of the water-tubes on
both sides of the stomach, characterize the present stage (the Brachiola-
ria stage). These changes upon the surface of the two branches of the
water-tube lead to the formation of the future Starfish. But the incipi-
ent Starfish is, as it were, a part of the Brachiolaria, or rather the Bra-
chiolaria is undergoing local transformations which lead to the fermation
of a Starfish. They present thus, for a time, the appearance of a double
existence, as if a new being were forming in one which had completed
its growth. This third period, during which the twofold nature is pre-
served, is the one which constitutes the Brachiolaria stage. In the Bra-
chiolaria stage there are several marked periods: the parts which appear
at. first on the surfaces of the water-tubes have no connection, and stand
in such indefinite relation to each other, that they do not seem to tend
towards a common result. But in proportion as the young Echinoderm
progresses in its development, the relations of the two areas, formed on
the surfaces of the two water-tubes, are more apparent; and we finally
reach the last of the strictly larval stages, when the Brachiolaria, with
its complicated system of locomotive appendages, becomes secondary to
the young Kchinoderm and is completely resorbed by it, when the em-
bryo enters into its truly echinodermoidal condition (Pl. VI. Fig. 1), the
different stages of which we have already described.

Exanunation of the Character of the Development.—The mode of develop-
ment of Starfishes, thus divided into phases as observed in our Astera-
canthion, cannot be called a case of alternate generation, nor is it a
metamorphosis in the ordinary sense of the word. It is a mode of
development peculiar to Echinoderms, entirely different from that of
any other class of Radiates. It is not an alternate generation, for the
Brachiolaria can in no way be called a nurse, as each Brachiolaria pro-
duces but one Starfish, and the whole of the larva is resorbed by the
Starfish, not an appendage being left out. Nor is it strictly a metamor-
phosis, as the changes which take place are so gradual that at no time
can the line of demarcation be drawn between two stages with any
degree of precision, as in Crustacea or Insects, where the casting of an
envelope marks distinctly different epochs. There is, however, something
in these successive phases of development which reminds us of the meta-

4

.
56 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

morphoses of Insects. There is a sort of general similarity between this
process of resorption and the growth and changes in the chrysalis of
Lepidoptera, ending in a butterfly. In the latter case, the chrysalis,
though retaining its character throughout the whole growth and develop-
ment of the Insect, has an earlier stage when it seems to be purely chrysa-
lis, and a later one immediately before the hatching of the perfect Insect,
when the butterfly seems to be gaining the ascendency, and the whole
outline of its form may be seen through the chrysalis, which now seems
to be only its envelope. And yet the character of the development of the
Starfish during its Brachiolaria stage recalls also vividly the phenomena
of alternate generations. It is, nevertheless, strictly echinodermoid, and
whether we observe it in the Ophiurans, the Sea-urchins, or the Holo-
thurians and Crinoids, there seems no doubt, from the observations of
Miller, Busch, Thomson, Krohn, and Agassiz, that it is carried on according
to one and the same plan in all the orders of the class, where we have
corresponding differences in their various modes of development. With
reference to the separate existence of the larva and of the Echinoderm,
urged by other observers, I can only say that nothing of the kind has oc-
curred in those Echinoderins the changes of which I have traced, whether
it be an Ophiuran, an Echinus, a true Starfish, or a Holothurian.

RECAPITULATION,"

I shall, in a few words, recapitulate the development of these Star-
fishes, in order to be able more fully to compare my observations with
those of previous writers, and to explain the differences, when they exist.

Changes of the Yolk.—The yolk, after fecundation, separates slightly
from the outer envelope. The segmentation takes place rapidly; as soon
as the yolk has divided into eight portions, they arrange themselves in
such a manner as to enclose the remaining space, which is more and
more separated as the spheres increase in number, until, finally, there is
a complete envelope formed of spheres of segmentation.

Seyphistoma, or pyriform Stage.—At the time the young escapes from
the egg, it is spherical, and the walls of the envelope are of the same
thickness. One side becomes thicker, the embryo flattening at this ex-
tremity, which is bent in so as to form a slight cavity, in which fluids

circulate. This cavity extends half-way the length of the larva, then

RECAPITULATION. 57

swells at the extremity, the walls become thinner, the pouch formed at

the end of this cavity develops laterally, forming two smaller pouches,

which afterwards become hollow bodies, entirely separated from the main
cavity, whence they originated (the problematic bodies of Miiller).

Tornaria Stage. —'The main cavity bends slightly towards one side, and
eventually unites with a depression formed there. This depression be-
comes the mouth; the other opening, which was the first to be devel-
oped, and served the purpose of a mouth, is changed to an anus. This
agrees with the observations of Krohn, who shows that in an Echinus
larva the mouth is formed after the anus. The bent tube, or cavity,
divides into three distinct regions, forming the cesophagus, the stomach,
and the alimentary canal.

Brachina Stage.—The small disconnected hollow bodies (the water-
tubes, the problematic bodies of Miiller) are not alike; the left one (Ut,
when seen from above) connects with the surrounding medium by means
of an opening, the water-pore. This opening in the Starfish is the mad-
reporic body. The water-tubes elongate so as to reach beyond the
mouth, when they approach each other and unite, forming a Y-shaped
tube.

Bracholaria Stage. — Arms are developed from the sides of the larva,
edged with rows of vibratile cilia. Some of these arms are of a different
character, having peculiar appendages, the so-called brachiolar arms. It
is on the outer surface of the water-tubes that the Starfish is developed
(not from the stomach, as stated by Miiller); one of the tubes, the left,
when seen from above, developing the actinal or ambulacral side, the
other developing the abactinal area. These two areas are open, pentago-
nal, warped, spiral surfaces, making almost a right angle with each other.
The open pentagons do not close till after the Starfish has resorbed the
whole of the larva.

Echinodermoidal Stage. —The complicated system of arms and the whole
of the Brachiolaria are resorbed by the Starfish, which does not separate
from the larval stock, as seems to be the case of Bipinnaria, from the
statements of Miiller and of Koren and Danielssen. The arms of the
Starfish are broad and short in the young, and not symmetrical; the
suckers are pointed, have no terminal disk, and are arranged in two rows,
the sucking disk being developed later. The embryo, if compared to Aca-
lephs, might then appropriately be said to be in its Ephyra stage. The

58 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

odd terminal tentacle has an eye at its base, and no disk is ever formed
at the extremity of this tentacle. The abactinal surface is very arched,
the spines are arranged in regular rows, and the arrangement of the plates
reminds us of the plates of Crinoids; the plates first formed retaining
their embryonic or crinoidal character. ‘The anus opens near the edge of
the disk, on the lower side; the madreporic body is situated on the
edge, but moves to the abactinal area, in more advanced stages. About
a fortnight is required for the egg to pass through its different stages,
or the embryo to be hatched, and the larva to have reached the condi-
tion when the young Starfish is ready to resorb the Brachiolaria; and
another week must elapse before it reaches the stage represented in PI.
VI. Fig. 11. Those which I raised from eggs artificially fecundated re-
tained this shape four months.

CRAP EER. PHIRD.
EMBRYOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF STARFISHES.

Tue study of the young forms, or morphological embryology, if I may
so call it, is destined to play an important part in Systematic Zodlogy ;
though investigations of this kind can only be carried on under peculiar
advantages not easily obtained. The fact that many marine animals live,
in their early stages, under stones, or firmly attached to roots of Lami-
narians, in deep water, and are only occasionally thrown upon the beaches
after storms, when their small size prevents us from obtaining them in
any great number, increases the difficulty of this kind of observations.
We must, therefore, limit ourselves-to those animals which pass the greater
part of their lives near the surface of the water, or within the limits of
tide-marks. A commencement has already been made in this direction, in
the study of Fishes, the young of which live among the eel-grass, and in
that of the young of the several species of Ctenophorz, so abundant
during the summer months along our coasts. For an account of these
investigations, I would refer the reader to the Illustrated Catalogue of the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy.*

Comparison of Young and Adult Starfishes.—The difference in appearance
between the young and the adult of our Starfishes is so great, that they
would not be placed in the same family by one unacquainted with their
transformations. The young has characters which, if taken singly, recall
a variety of families; in fact, the combination of characters belonging to
different families is almost always a sign that these features will disap-
pear, or become modified with age.

Here I must again insist on the importance of the constant comparison
of the younger stages of growth with the adult. We are but little accus-

tomed to consider these younger stages in our description of animals,

* [See also my papers on Young Stages of Annelids, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist.; Young Echini, No.
VII. Ill. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zoél.; Embryology of Ctenophore, Mem. Am. Acad. 1874.)
9

60 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

and we necessarily lose many elements of the greatest importance, when-
ever we attempt to associate the adults of any class in natural groups,
without taking into account the characters of their young. Natural-
ists, who have not yet entered upon this method of study, cannot con-
ceive what extraordinary facilities this kind of investigation affords for
tracing the more complete affinities among animals. One of the principal
reasons why embryologists have overlooked these investigations may be
found in the fact that they rarely examine more than one species of each
type at a time. Who would place the young Echinus, with its Cidaris-
like spines and straight simple ambulacra, among the true Echinidx, or
take a young Spatangoid for anything but an Echinus? What has the
pear-shaped outline and long tentacles of a young Bolina

which is, in-
deed, a diminutive picture of a Pleurobrachia—in common with the
adult, with its long, twisting rows of ambulacra, and wing-like projections
of the spheromeres beyond the actinostome? Yet these embryonic char-
acters remind us of familiar forms, and cannot fail to give us an insight
into the relative standing of the forms through which they pass.

Let us commence with our embryo Starfish at the time when it is just
forming, and when the first outlines of the abactinal region can be traced.
Suppose its development were to stop there (Pl. V. J%g. 5), and that
the slight lobes should close soon after the formation of the coating of
limestone granules over the abactinal area, we should then have a condition
strongly reminding us of a Culcita, with its arched back, its almost cireu-
lar outline, and the total absence of any very prominent spines. In the
next stage (Pl. V. J/g. 12), the cuts between the rays have become some-
what more marked, the plates of limestone cells are well developed, and
there are tubercles in place of future spines. The resemblance of this
stage to such forms as Anthenea, Pentagonaster, and the pentagonal
Starfishes, in which we find a great development in the abactinal plates,
is at once apparent. In a somewhat more advanced stage, the rays are
slightly more marked, the spines quite well developed; this type is rep-
resented among living Starfishes by such forms as Pteraster, Paulia, Pen-
taceros, Artocreas, Oreaster: unless it were known beforehand that PI.
VII. Fig. 1 represents a highly magnified young Starfish, the figure
would readily pass for a new species of Oreaster. The corresponding
changes of the actinal surface are not the less important. In the early
stages the tentacles are pointed, they have no disk (Pl. VI. Figs. 3, 9);

EMBRYOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 61

it is only afterwards that they are developed (Pl. VII. Fig. 1; and PI.
VI. Figs. 10, 11, 12). In fact, the tentacles of our young Starfish, in its
earlier stages, resemble those of Astropecten, Luidia, and Ctenodiscus.
We are, therefore, at once provided with a set of characters taken from
the young, enabling us to decide the comparative value of the various
features, and the order in which they are to be taken. From the tenta-
cles alone we are fully justified, upon embryological data, in placing
Starfishes with pointed tentacles lower than those which have disks, like
Asteracanthion. Another embryological feature is the fact that the em-
bryo has only two rows of tentacles, while in the adult Asteracanthion
we find the tentacles arranged in four rows. [The arrangement of the
ambulacral tentacles into furrows seems due simply to the crowding to-
gether of adjoining plates in consequence of increasing age, and has not
the systematic value formerly assigned to it.] Combining these charac-
ters, as we find them in the adults, we have at once good and conclu-
sive reasons for placing all those Starfishes which have, like Ctenodis-
cus, a pentagonal outline, and at the same time pointed tentacles, low-
est in the scale; next in order would come the Starfishes with pointed
rays and pointed tentacles, without suckers, like Luidia and Astropecten ;
above them pentagonal Starfishes, with plates like Anthenea and Hippas-
teria, and two rows of tentacles, provided with suckers; then those with
more prominent rays, and tentacles also ending in suckers, like Penta-
ceros and Artocreas; higher still, the Starfishes, with long slender arms,
and only two rows of tentacles with suckers, such as Cribrella, Ophidi-
aster, and the like; while highest in the order we should place the gen-
uine Asteracanthion, with four rows of tentacles, with suckers, and highly
developed spines on the abactinal area.

The same principles applied to the different families would place Star-
fishes having plates without spines lower than those in which the net-
work of limestone is covered with spines on the abactinal surface. This
classification is not very different, as far as regards the order from that of
the three families proposed by Miiller and Troschel. It differs materially,
however, from the standing given to pentagonal Starfishes in a short paper
by Professor Agassiz, in the Proceedings of the Natural History Society
of Boston. From this it is plain, that the mere study of the adult is not
a sound foundation for a natural classification. The echinoid characters
of the young Starfishes were not known at that time, which would natu-

62 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

-~

rally give the pentagonal Starfishes an entirely different position. Nor
is it always sufficient to have traced the development of any one species;
unless it happen to stand highest in its group, its different phases would
not tell us anything of the relative standing of the other members of the
group with which the adult is associated. Embryologists should, there-
fore, whenever it is possible, select those species for investigation which,
upon anatomical evidence, stand highest in their group.

There are other embryonic features, recalling not simply families of the
same suborder, but characters of other lower orders. The situation of
the anus on the actinal side, the presence of the madreporic body on
the same area, are features of the Crinoids and Ophiurans. These pecul-
larities are soon lost, and the madreporic body gradually finds its way
to the abactinal area. The opening of the anus next to the mouth is
eminently crinoidal, and it is accompanied by other structural details
reminding us still more of that order. Were there a stem on the
central plate of its abactinal area, the young Starfish, when seen from
the abactinal side, would have all the appearance of a Crinoid. The
central plate corresponds to the basal plate (Pl. VI. F%g. 10), the set of
five plates in the angles of the arms to the interradial plates, and the
arm-plates themselves to the radial plates of a Crinoid; and, to make
the resemblance still stronger, the anus opens near the mouth, on the
same side with it, as in Comatula. This analogy had already been
pointed out by Professor Agassiz, in his Lectures on Embryology; and
it shows conclusively that Starfishes are built upon the same plan with
other Echinoderms, contrary to the views long entertained by Johannes
Miller. This comparison to the plates of a Comatula can be carried out
to its fullest extent, and is exceedingly instructive if made with the
young Comatula, of which an admirable figure has been given by Pro-
fessor Allman, in his valuable memoir on the prebrachial stage of Coma-
tula, in the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1863. The
arrangement strikes one, at once, as identical, though the plates are by
no means homologous. The central plate oecurs in both, but the most
prominent plates, occupying indeed the greater part of the abactinal re-
gion of the young Starfish, are the same plates which eventually develop
with others at the base of the arms, those at the angle of the arms
being but little developed. It is quite the reverse with Comatula, in

which the arm-plates are but small at this stage; though, according to

POSITION OF THE MADREPORIC BODY. 63

Professor Allman, who quotes Carpenter, these small radial plates event-
ually encroach upon the others, at the time of the appearance of the
arms, the rest of the calyx being formed by the five large interradial
plates. I cannot agree with Professor Allman in considering the central
plate otherwise than as a solidified homologue of the basalia of the other
Crinoids figured by him; the only difference being that in some cases
the plates composing this piece are soldered together, as in Comatula,
while in others they are kept distinct, as in Coccocrinus, and the like.
From the peculiar way in which young tentacles are formed in Starfishes
may not the strange toothed plates noticed by Professor Allman, at the
base of the tentacula (or cirri, as he calls them), be young tentacles?
Their position seems to me to make this very probable.

Position of the Madreporie Body.— There has lately been a great deal
of discussion among writers on Echinoderms, as to whether the madre-
poric body was, or was not, a proper point to start from in determining
the axes of the body; Agassiz, on one side, maintaining that the madre-
poric body was constantly in the same relation to the different parts of
the Echinoderms, while Miiller, Cotteau, and Desor have warmly opposed
this view. The mode of formation of the madreporic body seems to me
to decide this question in favor of the former view. The madreporic
body is invariably formed on the left water-tube of the Brachiolaria, and
is placed, during the development of the Starfish, at the angle of the
upper arm. The future position of the madreporic body opposite the
third arm of the open pentagon is therefore, after it has closed, the nat-
ural consequence of its position. The opening of the anus, on the con-
trary, has no such clear and precise relation to the middle arm. At any
rate, however this may be, one thing is perfectly apparent, viz. that
the madreporic body is always placed in the suture of the terminal arms
of the pentagon, which brings it opposite the third arm. Thus the mad-
reporic body gives ‘us the means of dividing the Starfish into symmetrical
halves, and of determining the position of the odd arm. The case of the
Echinometradz and Salenidx is constantly quoted to show that the mad-
reporic body is not connected with any definite axis. But might it not
be that a stage which is embryonic in the young Starfish— viz. that
preceding the closing of the actinal and abactinal areas—is probably re-
tained in those Echinoid families in which the process of closing is not
completed? And may not the unsymmetrical position of the madreporic

64 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

body in such cases be owing to the continuance’ of this embryonic char-
acter?— the natural result of which would be, to throw the madreporic
body slightly on one side of the middle line, so that, though still retain-
ing its position opposite the third arm, an axis passing through them
both would not divide the spherosome into symmetrical portions. If
there were in nature such forms as asymmetrical Starfishes, analogous to
the Echinometrade, they would be represented by the embryonic Star-
fishes of Pl. VI. Figs. 1-6, in which a line drawn through the madre-
poric body and the middle of the odd arm would not divide the Starfish
into symmetrical halves. Suppose the flattenmg of the young to be
completed without the loss of this want of symmetry, and we have a
form representing Echinometra-Starfishes, if any such exist im nature.
The fact that in some of these Echinometradx the axis, passing through
the madreporic body and this long arm, crosses the median line from
opposite sides, could be easily explained on the supposition that the
former is placed on the ventral instead of the dorsal side of the larva, —
an assumption which is not unfounded, as this occurs in Ophiurans and
in young Starfishes. In this way the change of position in the direction
of the axis which is found in Acrocladia and Podophora on one side,
and in Echinometra on the other, could be easily explained. [For fuller
discussion of the bearing of the positions of the madreporic body deter-
mining the anterior axis of the Echinoderms, see my Revision of the
Kehini, Part 1V., and the description of Salenia. Consult also the Memoir of
Lovén (Etudes sur les Echinoidées).] In Echinoids the actinal and abac-
tinal areas are formed upon the exterior surfaces of the water-tubes, as
in Starfish larve. This I have shown in the paper referred to above,
published in the Memoirs of the American Academy for 1864. The
earlier appearance of the tentacular pentagon in Echinoids and in Ophiu-
rans is that of a spiral on the surface of the water-tubes, similar in plan
to that observed in our Starfish larva; it is evident that the additional
plates formed in a young Sea-urchin arise spirally, and from what is
known of the mode of formation of the young Echinus and young Ophi-
uran, it follows, necessarily, that the ambulacral system in both must
have been open pentagons, becoming connected only by the closing of
the surfaces upon which the young Sea-urchin or Ophiuran were de-
veloped.

An examination of the figures of our young Starfish, just after the re

POSITION OF THE MADREPORIC BODY. 65

sorption of the larva (Pl. VI. Figs. 2, 3, 4), in which a line, drawn from
the madreporic body through the middle of the odd arm, would by no
means divide the Starfish symmetrically, confirms the above explanation
of the eccentricity in Echinometra. Supposing the spiral to have been
formed from the other side, the obliquity woull be in the opposite direc-
tion. Of course this is simply a supposition on my part, which future
- examination alone can verify; but it seems to me such a natural expla-
nation of the whole difficulty, that I give it here for what it is worth.
The multiplication of madreporic bodies in many Starfishes need not in-
validate the view I have taken of its value, as we need only ascertain
which is the original one, the others being supplementary. I have found
larvee with two water-pores (madreporic bodies), but have never succeeded
in raising them.

CHAPTER. FE O@UA TH,
EXAMINATION OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF FORMER OBSERVERS.

Review of Miiller’s Observations. — It is with the greatest diffidence that
I enter upon this part of my subject. It seems the height of presump-
tion, for one who has scarcely any claim to recognition, to begin by
criticising so many statements of one of the great masters of our science.
Yet I hope to show, from Miller's own figures, that the observations I
have made upon the development of our Starfish, though they do not
agree with his earlier memoirs, yet coincide entirely with a few figures
which he has given on the last plate of his great memoirs on the em-
bryology of Starfishes; and that it is only because Miller neglected the
earlier stages of development, that he failed to arrive at the conclusions to
which I have been led by the above investigations. I trust that I have
succeeded in describing the successive stages in this development with clear-
ness enough to enable me now to draw a comparison, which the reader may
easily follow, with the last drawings made by Miller, and to show that,
had he had the good fortune to see so complete a series as that which
I have traced, he would undoubtedly have entirely remodelled his former
views, with the same frankness which has characterized all his memoirs.
No preconceived theories, no observations, however careful, have ever
been allowed by him to interfere in the least with his subsequent obser-
vations. Hence the great difficulty of following Miiller in his intricate
discoveries ; each memoir modifying, correcting, and sometimes entirely
contradicting, the previous ones, so that we must, as it were, begin his
book at the end, in order rightly to understand his meaning. Any one
who has tried to follow the development of a single animal, so that noth-
ing should be wanting in the evidence of the successive stages, will easily
understand how later observations continually modify and explain what
had previously been considered as well understood.

Although Sars was the first who followed the development of an Echi-

BIPINNARIA AND BRACHIOLARIA. 67

noderm, which, at first sight, did not seem to differ very materially from
what was known of the development of other Radiates, yet Miller was
the first to trace the wonderful changes of the young Echinoderms ; his
memoirs have been the basis of all subsequent investigations, which are
Insignificant when compared to the immense amount of labor involved in
his researches. Not alone the history of a single animal, but the history
of a whole class, is gradually unfolded in his successive memoirs. The
very fact that so little has been done in the embryology of Echinoderms
since the days of Miiller— for, in fact, with the exception of Krohn
and Thomson, no one has followed these transformations — is a sufficient
proof of the great difficulty attending investigations of this kind. It
must also be remembered that these animals are so small that it re-
quires the most practised eye to detect their presence; their habits also
are such that we may spend days in watching for them, without obtain-
ing a single specimen, and again be overwhelmed with such an amount
of material as to be at a loss where to begin. This can but heighten
our admiration of the untirimg zeal and perseverance of Miiller in fol-
lowing out the development of so large a number of species, in a field-
where everything was unknown, and where his powers as an observer
must have been taxed to the utmost.

Bipinnaria and Brachiolaria.— A glance at the figures of Bipinnaria and
of Brachiolaria of Pl. LX. of Miiller’s seventh Memoir will show how dif-
ferent they are, with few exceptions, from the figures of the same larve
in his former memoirs; compare Pl. VII. of his third Memoir and PI.
II. of his second Memoir. From the figures and explanations given by
the author, it is evident that he had observed, in the last larve of Star-
fishes found by him, the very characters which have enabled me to
correct his observations. He has seen the two Y-shaped water-tubes ex-
tending the whole length of the Bipinnaria. He has seen, also, that
the pentagon of the future back of the Starfish was open in its younger
stages, though he did not succeed in tracing the position of the tentacu-
lar pentagon, nor does he perceive the connection of these two pen-
tagons with the water-tubes. And, finally, if he had kept his Bipinnaria
alive but a short time longer, he would have seen brachiolar appendages
develop, and have satisfied himself that Brachiolaria is only an adult
state of what he calls Bipinnaria. It must be remembered, however,

that the original Bipinnaria of Sars, the Bipinnaria asterigera, has en-
10

68 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

tirely different characters from the Bipinnaria of Miller. Judging from
the development of our Starfish, it seems to me that Miuller’s Bipmnaria
von Helsingér, second Memoir (PI. I. Figs. 1-7), is probably nothing
but a younger stage of his Brachiolaria von Helsingér (Pl. II. Figs. 4,
5; and Pl. IlI.). Van Beneden’s Brachina, in its turn, is a still younger
stage of the same thing, or of an allied species. A comparison of the
above figures of Miiller, and of the figures of Pl. III. of this Memoir,
will leave no doubt on this subject. For the same reasons the Brachio-
laria of Marseilles is probably only the adult of a Bipimnaria, closely
resembling that of Marseilles (second Memoir, Pl. I. Figs. 8, 9), if it is
not the same species. In the Brachiolaria figured on Plates II. and UL
of the second Memoir of Miller, the young Starfishes are evidently on
the point of resorbing the arms. The larve present all the appear-
ance of contraction and distortion usually accompanying this process, and
Miiller’s figures agree entirely with the various -attitudes which they as-
sume during this resorption.

If we now turn to his fourth Memoir, which contains the fullest de-
scriptions, we shall see that although in many of the figures of Miller
the Starfish, or at least one side of it, has been drawn correctly, yet his
statements and some of the figures which he gives cannot be reconciled

with one another. On Plate I]. Figs. 5, 6, of his fourth Memoir, we

have the evidence, from his own drawings, that his Bipinnaria had two
water-tubes ; yet, in the subsequent stages, Miller says positively that
it has only one water-tube, the one with the water-pore,—a statement
entirely contrary to the earlier stages of his Bipinnaria. From what I
have shown of the mode of development of these water-tubes, of
their increase in size in proportion to the age of the larva, it is quite
improbable, notwithstanding the statement of Miller, that one of them
should disappear; he also says that they are not to be confounded with
what he calls “ wimpernder Schlauch,’ while our observations of Astera-
canthion go to show that these two systems are but one.

The discovery of the water-pore in Miiller’s Bipinnaria was a great
step towards solving the question of the origin of the madreporie body,
which he rightly conjectures to be nothing but the water-pore. He also
notices the rosette of tentacles, or, more properly speaking, the five radi-
ating tubes from which the tentacles eventually branch. He fails, how-

ever, to notice that this rosette, like the cap of the Starfish, as he calls

BIPINNARIA ASTERIGERA. 69

the back, is open; and although he has occasionally represented it as
such, he has not perceived the true relation between the positions of
these two areas. He says distinctly that the cloak-like envelope, or the
abactinal area, originates upon the surface of the stomach, whereas it lies,
in reality, upon the surface of the second water-tube, which he says does
not exist in his Bipinnaria; while the water-system, or the ambulacral
system, originates on the water-tube in such a way that the two open
warped pentagonal surfaces, the actinal and the abactinal areas, make a
very large angle with one another; Miller, however, did not notice that
they were open and warped surfaces.

Van Beneden’s observations, in which he says that the two branches
of the Y-shaped water-tubes are separate in the young, and become united
in the adult, are fully confirmed by my observations. Miller has called
these small bodies, while they are still separate, problematic bodies; he
says they disappear in older larve, and have nothing to do with the
“Schlauch-System.” It is evident, from my observations, that the Schlauch-
System is only the advanced condition of the problematic bodies, which
are isolated on each side of the body in the young larve (see Pls. IL,
Ill. of this Memoir, and Van Beneden’s Brachina), and become united
in a Y-shaped water-system (Schlauch-System), when they reach the con-
dition of Bipinnaria of Miiller. It would seem, from his figures, as if
the abactinal pentagon closed, while the Bipinnaria is still visible. I am
rather inclined to think that more advanced larve will be found to be
Brachiolaria-like, as is the case with our Starfish and the Brachiolaria
from Messina; and that this apparent closing up is due to the fact that
the larva is not in its normal state, or that the drawings are made some-
what foreshortened. In the second Memoir of Miiller, on Plate I., we
see that the Y-shaped water-system (Schlauch-System) has been noticed
in two of the larve (Figs. 4, 7), while in the intermediate stages, and
in younger larvae, it has escaped his notice. It is undoubtedly to Miller's
want of acquaintance with the earlier and later stages of his Bipinnaria
that we must ascribe the discrepancies in his observations. Many of the
more important points in the structure of the young larve naturally es-
caped Derbés and Krohn, who were not familiar with the adult larve ;
neither of these observers tells us anything of the presence of the water-
tubes, or of the first appearance of the young Echinoderm.

Bipinnaria asterigera. — Miller’s views concerning the different organs of

70 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Bipinnaria asterigera of Koren and Danielssen are undoubtedly correct.
What they took for a respiratory opening, leading into the cavity, is the
mouth; they had correctly seen the anus, as well as its connection with
the intestine of the Starfish, Judging from the figures of Muller, and
of Koren and Danielssen, there are evidently striking differences in the
termination of the intestinal canal, from that of our Starfish. In Bipin-
naria asterigera the anal opening is on the abactinal side of the Starfish,
while in our young Starfish it is still on the actinal side. The position
of the young Starfish, with reference to the stomach of the larva, seems
still to require further investigation, as it is not possible to say, from
the figures of Miiller, or from those of Koren and Danielssen, what is
its true relation, and whether it has the same oblique position which it
occupies in our young Starfish. The investigations of younger specimens
than those examined by Miiller, or Koren and Danielssen, will at once
settle this point, as well as determine the mode of formation of the mouth
of the young Starfish, and the question of its separation from the Bipin-
naria. From the figure given by Miller, in his third Memoir (Pl. VIL.
Figs. 5, 6, 7), 1 am led to think that the position is also an oblique one;
and that, though the Starfish may separate from the Bipinnaria, yet it is
undoubtedly the opening of the cesophagus into the stomach, which be-
comes the future mouth of the Starfish, as in our Asteracanthion. In
his third Memoir Miller shows conclusively that the madreporic body is
not the scar left by the junction of the young Starfish with the Bipinnaria,
but corresponds to an opening leading into a short tube between two
of the arms; and also points out the probability of its correspondence with
the opening leading into one of the water-tubes which he had noticed in
Auricularia. This supposition is fully confirmed by the observations we
have made of the coincidence of the water-pore and of the madreporic body.
The slit in the Starfish, noticed by Miller and by Koren and Danielssen,
was probably owing to the fact that im their young specimens the spiral
was not yet closed and flattened, as is the case in older Starfishes.

From the drawings of Sars, and of Koren and Danielssen, it would seem
as if a large tube extended into the long appendage opposite the arms.
If this is truly so, it leaves no doubt that the long, tail-like appendage
of the Bipinnaria is homologops to the brachiolar appendages of our larve,
only developed to a much greater extent, and with all the arms placed

nearer together, immediately round the mouth. A comparison, after care-

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LARVA“ "1

ful examination of the position of the Starfish in the Bipinnaria asterigera
with the mode of development as noticed in Echinaster (Cribrella) A. flac-
cida, and A. Miilleri, will give the means of settling the true affinities of the
singular ventral appendage of these larvae, and of deciding whether they
are, as I have suggested, the homologues of the brachiolar appendages, —
a result which seems probable from the observations made by Professor
Agassiz, of a circulation in this peduncle, in a species of Asterias (A. flac-
cida, Ag.) closely allied to Asteracanthion Miilleri, the mode of develop-
ment of which is identical with that observed by Sars in Echinaster.

Professor Thomson, who has had occasion to study the sedentary mode
of development of several Echinoderms, has given us the most accurate
description of the structure of this peduncle, in a species which he calls
Asterias violaceus. A glance at his figures and descriptions will suffice
to show us the complete identity between the brachiolar appendages and
this peduncle, in which there is a circulation arising from a branch of the
water-tube, and at the base of which, at the point of junction of the three
arms, we find a peculiar disk, having the same structure as the elliptical
disk, noticed at the base of the brachiolar arms in our Starfish larvae. But
we cannot agree with Professor Thomson, that this peduncle is the first
sign of an ambulacral tentacle, the ambulacral tentacles being developed
at a totally different part of the water-tube.*

Different Types of Larve.— Miller did not suspect that his Bipinnaria
and Brachiolaria were the larvxe of different species of Asteracanthion.
The observations of Sars, who had traced the embryology of Asteracan-
thion Miilleri, in which the eggs attain their full development without
leaving the mouth of the parent, seemed to preclude the possibility of
these nomadic larve belonging to the same genus. He even went so far
as to say that his Bipinnarie belonged to the same genus as the Starfish
of the Bipinnaria asterigera. This is undoubtedly an error, for the Star-
fish of the Bipinnaria asterigera, as figured by Miiller, and by Koren and
Danielssen, has already the characters of a Pteraster ; and it is evident
that the Bipinnaria of Miller, being a young Brachiolaria, which I have
shown to be the larva of an Asteracanthion, cannot belong to that
genus.

The larve which I raised by artificial fecundation from Asteracanthion

* [See also a most interesting paper by Thomson in the Journal of the Linnwan Society, Vol. XUL
p. 57, 1876.]

792 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

berylinus and Asteracanthion pallidus — species which have their representa-
tives in Europe, and which have, up to the present time, been included in
the same genus with Asteracanthion Mulleri— are free-swimming larve,
resembling the Bipinnaria of Muller. These facts can, therefore, leave but
little doubt that Muller and Van Beneden have observed the larve of
Asteracanthion rubens JZ 7’, and of allied species, the larve of which
have been called by them Bipinnaria, Brachiolaria, and Brachina, and are
only different stages of one and the same generic type. The difference of
the two modes of development of A. Mulleri and A. pallidus is so great,
that these two groups of species have been separated into two genera by
Professor Agassiz. [Verrill has subsequently placed A. Milleri in a separate
genus (Leptasterias), to which have been added Asterias tenera and A,
compta. The former is probably what I have seen called A. flaccida. See
also Memoirs Am. Acad. Fig. 54, 1864, for an account of its mode of de-
velopment. Compare also the development of Pteraster militaris, M. Sars,
Norges Echinodermer, 1861. (Pl. VI. Figs. 3-15).] The Brachiolaria from
Trieste and Messina present very striking differences from the northern
Brachiolaria. These larve are probably the young of Asterias tenui-
spinus, so common in the Mediterranean. In his revision of the Starfishes,
Professor Agassiz has also separated this species from the true Asteracan-
thion, under another generic name. We have next the Bipinnaria asteri-
gera, still another type of larva, belonging in all probability to another
family, differing from both the other larval forms. As Bipimnaria asteri-
gera can only be the larva of a Pteraster, a Ctenodiscus, an Astropecten,
or of an Hippasteria, either of which belong to families distinct from the
Brachiolaria type of larvae, we find differences in form, modified by struc-
tural features, characterizing the larval conditions, as well as the adult
stages of families of the same order; while structural peculiarities in the
larvae characterize the different generic divisions more plainly than in the
more advanced conditions. It is evident, from the observations of Pro-
fessor Agassiz and of Sars, that the Asterias violaceus of Thomson, the
embryology of which he has traced in the Microscopical Journal, must
be placed in the same genus with A. Mulleri, and may, perhaps, be iden-
tical with it, unless the true A. violaceus Z. has also a similar mode of
development. [This would most certainly prove that A. violaceus, at least
what the English call A. violaceus, cannot be the male of the European

of A. rubens, as has been suggested by several European writers on Star-

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LARVZ. 73

fishes.]| There is still another type of Echinoderm larvae, which in all
probability are the larve of Starfishes, viz. the Tornaria type. [For
the history of Tornaria, which has been proved to be the embryo of Bala-
noglossus, see my paper in the Memoir of the American Academy, Jan. 1873,
where the relations of Balanoglossus and Tornaria to Echinoderms and their
mode of development are fully discussed.] In this type there is not the
excessive development of the ciliary chord into long, slender arms, charac-
teristic of the Brachiolaria; there are only slight, wavy indentations, cor-
responding to the position of the arms of the Brachiolaria, as we find
them in the younger stages of the larve (Pl. III. Mg. 4; Pl. IL Fig. 26).
In fact, this type of larva, in its adult condition, seems to be a permanent
embryonic type of the younger stages of the Brachiolaria. I would infer
from this that the Tornaria will probably prove to be the larva of Cteno-
discus, Astropecten, or Luidia, or of some Starfish with pointed ambulacral
suckers. Having had the opportunity to examine several of the Tornaria
type of larvee at Naushon, in different stages of development, i hope to
return to this subject at a future time.

[The only important embryology relating to Echinoderms in general: pub-
lished since the distribution of copies of this Memoir in 1864, is that of
Metschnikoff.* He has confirmed the explanation I had given of the mode
of development of the Echinoderm upon the surface of the water-tubes,
the spiral nature of the young embryo, the mode of development of the
water-tubes as diverticula of the original imaginated cavity, and the re-
sorption of the pluteus by the young Echinoderm in Starfishes; he has
also been able to follow very carefully the mode of development of the
water-system of an Ophiuran, and showed its entire agreement with the
changes I have traced in the development of the Starfish as far as relates
to the formation of the abactinal system and the ambulacral system.
Although Metschnikoff has added some new points to the development of
Echinoids, still the mode of formation of the original plates composing
the test of the young sea-urchin is not yet clearly shown, beyond the
very earliest stages. As far as relates to the development of Auricularia,
we can form a better idea than formerly of the nature of the change from
the Auricularia to the young Synapta; and certainly in a general way this
development is different from the normal growth of some of the other

* Studien iiber die Entwickelung der Fehinodermen und Nemertinen, Mem. Acad. St. Petersb.
XIV. No. 8. 1869.

74 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Echinoderms (Starfish, Echini, or Ophiurans). The changes in the rela-
tive position of the organs remind us strongly of the mode in which the
Tornaria gradually passes into a Balanoglossus by a mere difference in
the topography of the organs of the Pluteus and of the enclosed Synapta
The mode of development of Holothurians seems to be intermediate be-
tween the pelasgic pluteus, with its gigantic arms (Starfish, Ophiuran,
Echinus) and the sedentary or viviparous development of certain Ophi-
urans, Starfishes, and Echini. See also the excellent paper by Selenka on
Holothuria in Zeitscrif. Wiss. Zool., Vol. XXVIT.]

FIFTH CHAPTER.
ON THE PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS.

We have constantly insisted, during the whole of this Memoir, upon
the radiate plan of our Starfish larvee in their different stages of growth.
We have, however, seen that this radiate plan of structure, at certain
periods of their existence, is so far hidden by the apparent bilateral
arrangement of the locomotive appendages as readily to escape notice.
We have also had occasion, in discussing the development of these appar-
ently bilateral appendages, to show that Miiller’s views of the bilateral
nature of these larvae were founded upon mistaken analogies. It now
remains for us to examine, somewhat in detail, the theory put forth by
Huxley, in his review of -Miller’s observations, concerning the articulate
nature of the Echinoderm larve. The facts already stated respecting
the development of these larvae show that they have only a very remote
analogy to some of the larval forms, quoted by Huxley in order to strength-
en his interpretation of the investigations of Miiller. Misled, perhaps, by
the names which Miller has given to some of these larvee (“ Wurmfirmige
Larven”’), he has allowed this analogy to influence him so far that he revives
the old opinion of Oken, and refers the Echinoderms to the type of Articu-
lates. [See my Memoir on Balanoglossus, for a later review of the views
of Huxley, Haeckel, and others, who have urged the affinities of Echino-
derms with worms.] Huxley has given us no observations of his own,
bearing upon the subject, but endeavors to justify his assertion by redu-
cing all these forms to one hypothetical type, having an elongated form,
a straight intestine, with the mouth at one extremity, the anus at the
other, and girded by a circular ciliated fringe, just like the larvae of some
Annelids. The region in front of the ciliated fringe he calls pretrochal,
and the region behind the fringe postrochal; and then, by an imgenious
process, he shows how all these different forms might be produced by

the greater or less development of one or other of these region. He
11

76 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

then attempts to prove, further, that there is an intimate connection be-
tween the point where the young Echinoderm is developed, and the po-
sition. of the rows of vibratile fringes; Starfishes being, according to him,
developed in the postrochal and the Echini in the preetrochal region. Any
one who has observed these larve alive cannot fail to see that whatever may
be the position of these vibratile fringes, the young Echinoderm, whether it
be an Kchinus, a Starfish, or an Ophiuran [also a Holothurian Selenka], is
developed in exactly the same spot on the sides of the stomach, upon the
outer surface of opposite water-tubes, one of them forming the actinal, the
other the abactinal surface of the future Echinoderm. The hypothetical
form of Huxley is indeed one which has never been observed, as in all
larve of Echinoderms the mouth and anus are always on the same side,
viz. on the lower surface of the larva. It is only during the first few days,
after hatching from the egg, that the so-called mouth is placed at one
end; this, however, is not observed beyond the time when this open-
ing performs the double function of mouth and anus, and leads into a
very short digestive cavity. By the time the true mouth begins to be
formed, the future anus, which has served the purpose of mouth thus far,
has already changed its position to the lower side. The mouth is, in fact,
never formed at one extremity, but always in the centre of the lower
surface, and only some time after the anus, which performs the functions
of a temporary mouth. This has been demonstrated by Krohn and my-
self, with reference to the Echinus larve, and I trust that the preceding
pages have shown it to be also the case with our common Starfish. [See
also Selenka for Holothuria.] The division into rings, of what Miller calls
the Wurmfdrmige Asteridenlarve, is only an optical delusion, due to the
lines formed upon the abactinal surface during the closing of the pentagon.
The radical difference in the mode of formation of the cesophagus,
stomach,.and intestine, in the Echinoderm larve, as compared with the
larvee of Annelids, a number of which, including those most resembling
Echinoderm larvee, I have examined myself, will, perhaps, be the strong-
est proof that they do not belong to one and the same type. The diges-
tive cavity of Annelid larve is formed by the liquefaction of the interior
of the larva, while in the Echinoderm larve the digestive cavity is formed
by the bending in of the outer wall of the larva itself. The superficial
resemblance of Annelid larvae to those of Echinoderms is due to the append-

ages surrounding the mouth, while the principal appendages of the Echini

—_—— —_

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS. 77

and Starfish larvee are developed from the vibratile chord developed round
the anus. Nothing is more characteristic of the Echinoderms among Ra-
diates than the isolation of the digestive cavity by means of distinct walls.
This feature is so strongly marked that a larva can be recognized as an
Echinoderm larva before its radiate characters are developed. It is only
later that the circular tube, the water-system, is formed, while the ciliary
appendages, which have nothing to do with the formation of the Echino-
derm, make their appearance later still long after the first rudiments of
the Echinoderm (the water-tubes) are present.

It seems to me that the different modes of development in Holothu-
rians, Echini, true Starfishes, Ophiurans, and Crinoids, different as they are
apparently, may easily be reduced to a single type. [See the Memoirs
of Metschnikoff on the affinities of Echinoderms, in Siebold’s Zeitschrift for
1874. Since this paper was written Haeckel has put forth his views of
the relationship of the Sponges and Ccelenterates, and of the Echino-
derms and Worms. As the whole subject is intimately connected with the
history of Tornaria and Balanoglossus. I would refer to my Memoir* for
an analysis of the modifications which these views are likely to bring
about regarding the classification of Echinoderms and of Ccelenterates ;
also to my Memoir on the Embryology of Ctenophore, Mem. Am. Acad.
1874.] We have in Ophiurans two different modes of development, — one
by means of the Pluteus, the other by means of the viviparous mode of de-

velopment observed by Krohn and Schultze. We have two similar modes of

development in the Starfishes,—the one as observed by Sars and Agassiz
in Echinaster, the other in which the embryo assumes the shape of a Bi-

pinnaria or Brachiolaria; and, finally, in the Holothurians we have these

two modes represented by the Auricularia type and the type of the
“Wurmférmige Holothurienlarve.” [See also for Echini Thomson’s paper
in Journal Lin. Soc. and A. Agassiz, Viviparous Echini from Kerguelen,
Proc. Am. Acad. 1876.] The difference between these two modes seems
to be one of time; in one case, the eggs are retained by the parent
until they have passed through many of their changes, and are freed
in a stage corresponding to that of our young Echinoderm after it

has resorbed its Pluteus, its Brachiolaria, or its Auricularia. In the

other case the egg goes through all these changes after it has left the

parent, developing this complicated system of arms, which seems to be

* A. Agassiz Balanoglossus and Tornaria in Memoirs American Academy, 1873.

78 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

simply a means of locomotion for the young Starfish till it shall have
acquired a sufficient size to be able to take care of itself, and use its
suckers as organs of locomotion.

Have we not here, in Echinoderms, something analogous to what we
have in Discophorous Medusee? In Cyanea and Pelagia, for instance,
where, in one case, the young Acaleph passes through a Scyphistoma
stage before it reaches the Ephyra condition, while in Pelagia, on the
contrary, the Ephyra is at once produced from the egg, without passing
through the Scyphistoma stage.

I think it can be easily shown that there is, in reality, no difference be-
tween these two modes of development ; it is merely a question of quantity.
In Cribrella, in Pluteus, in Brachiolaria, or in Auricularia, the young Echi-
noderm is developed on the outer surface of the water-system. The
water-tubes obtain a great prominence in Auricularia, in Brachiolaria,
and in the Pluteus-like form of the Ophiurans and Echini, while in types
of development like those of Echinaster they remain more rudimentary ;
the only appendages developed in this last type being those which cor-
respond to later periods of growth in the Starfish larvae, viz. the
brachiolar appendages. The peduncle and its appendages, by means of
which the young Echinaster fastens to the rocks, are strictly homologous
to the brachiolar appendages of our Starfish larve. In fact, when the
young Starfish has resorbed all the arms, and there is nothing left of
them, except a few swellings on the actinal side, to mark their former
position, the brachiolar appendages are in exactly the same position
as that occupied by the peduncle of the Echinaster larva. Had we known
nothing of the previous modes of development, and found those young
Starfishes in the open sea in this stage, nothing would have been more
natural than to have assumed that they had reached this condition by the
same mode of development. The cavity noticed in the peduncle of the
Echinaster larvae is part of the water-system, corresponding to the branch
of the water-system leading into the brachiolar arms of our Asteracan-
thion larva.

The same is the case with the two modes of development of Ophiurans
and of Holothurians; they are shorter ways of arriving at the same point,
whether they pass through what we shall call hereafter the Pluteus type
of development or the Echinaster type; in either of the orders it is one

and the same thing differently carried out. The larve of our Cribrella,

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS. 79

which I have had frequent occasion to examine, have satisfied me that
the process of development is the same, with the exception that it is
shorter. The larve of Ophiurans examined by Professor Agassiz at
Charleston would lead to the same conclusion with reference to the
Ophiurans; while, from the drawings of Muller, it is easy to satisfy one’s
self, with the above data, that the two types of development of Holo-
thurians examined by him are only modifications of each other. As the
only larve of Holothurians which I have seen belong to the “ Wurm-
formiger” type, I am unable to state this from actual observation. It is
evident that we have also in Comatula these two types of development.
Professor Agassiz frequently observed that in a species of Comatula found
in Charleston, 8. C., the young embryos remain attached to the par-
ents; while Thomson and Busch have found the larve swimming freely
about.

[An important paper on the development of Comatula by Goette, in
the Archiv fur Microscopische Anatomie for April, 1876, gives us the
early stages of its embryo. Goette shows conclusively that the type of
the crinoidal development is echinodermoid. We have, as in Echini,
Starfishes, Ophiurans, and Holothurians, an original digestive cavity, from
which arises the water-system, as diverticula. This observation is in
direct contradiction to that of Metschnikoff, who distinguishes the Cri-
noids from the other Echinoderms by the absence of these processes.
Goette’s observations of the early stages are, however, in complete agree-
ment with the usual mode of development among Echinoderms. Unfortu-
nately the subsequent stages are all figured from embryos preserved in
osmic or chromic acid, and while I have the greatest respect for Goette’s
technical skill, the very fact that in so many general pceints he differs,
both from Metschnikoff and myself, throws considerable uncertainty on
the whole of his memoir. He begins by stating that the larval mouth
(the subsequent anus of the other Hchinoderms) is entirely obliterated. As
he has not followed this from living embryos, we must be pardoned if,
knowing, as we do, the difficulty of tracing the gradual changes in
living embryos of the most transparent kind, we doubt many of his
conclusions obtained from the study of opaque embryos acted upon Ly re-
agents. Although Goette has derived his knowledge of the present paper
from the excellent abstract in Leuckart’s Jahresbericht, he has not only
credited me with a very indifferent treatment of the embryology of

80 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

Echinoderms, but also with several errors contained neither in the ab-
stract nor in the original. He does not appear to know my paper on
the Embryology of Ctenophorz, nor on Balanoglossus, published in the
Memoirs of the American Academy in 1875 and 1874, and distributed
at the time; consequently, in what he now writes, the older views re-
garding the affinities of Echinoderms with Coelenterata and Annelids, which
had been discussed from a different standpoint, do not receive the least
recognition.

The mode of development of these two types having been shown to be
on one and the same pattern, modified in such a way that a like re-
sult is reached either by fewer stages or by a greater or less rapidity
in the process, it remains for me to show that the larve we have had
before us, in the complicated form of a Brachiolaria or a Pluteus, is really
built upon the radiate plan. We find a good starting-point in the water-
tubes, which, as I have shown, become the circular tube of the young
Starfish, from which the ambulacral system is afterwards developed. This
water-tube, it is true, is not circular; it is not continuous, and yet it is
the homologue of the circular tube of Acalephs, the radiating tubes being
developed only afterwards, when the pentagon of tentacles is formed.
The mouth is placed within this circular tube; and the fact that the
mouth of the larva is brought, by the contraction of the oesophagus, close
upon the stomach, does not change its position with reference to this
circular tube. The water-system contracts with it, changes its position,
and surrounds eventually the new opening, by the flattening and closing
of the Starfish.

The Brachiolarian and Plutean stages are the Acalephian stages of the
“chinoderms, corresponding to the Hydrarium forms of the Acalephs, in
their Polyp stage; while the arms of the Pluteus stage, with their cords
of locomotive cilia, recall strongly the strange filiform appendages of por-
tions of the spheromere, covered with locomotive flappers as in Euramphzea,
and other Ctenophora. The resemblance of the larve of Echinoderms to
Ctenophor had already been pointed out by Baer, and more recently by
Professor Agassiz, who was not then acquainted with the observations of
Baer. This comparison seems to have found but little favor with more
recent investigators. Leuckart, in his Bericht for 1862, simply says that
no further proof has been adduced by Professor Agassiz to show that the
homology holds good. A writer in the Natural History Review for 1861

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS. 81

seems to consider the whole comparison so puerile as not to be worth
even a moment’s consideration ; and the offhand way in which he dis-
misses the whole subject shows his total want of appreciation of the argu-
ments by which this view is supported. If the writer of the said article
had ever seen the young of Brachiolaria, of Pluteus, or, still better, the
young of Tornaria, swimming about amongst crowds of young Ctenophore,
such as Idyia, Pleurobrachia, Mertensia, or Bolina, he would not have
passed such a sweeping judgment on this comparison. The motions of
a Tornaria are so similar to those of young Ctenophore, that I venture
to say that many a skilful naturalist would be deceived as to their true
nature, on first seeing them moving about together in the water. The
Tornaria has no appendages developed into long arms as in the adult
Brachiolaria or Pluteus. The appendages remain always abortive, the
Jarvee in their adult condition resembling young Ctenophore. From an
examination of drawings given by Miiller, Professor Agassiz was induced
to make the same comparison already hinted at by Baer, and we have
seen that it is sustained in every particular. Gegenbaur has also noticed
the resemblance between young Trachyneme and Echinoderm larve.
From what has been said, it is evident that the plan of radiation un-
derlies this apparent bilaterality of the Brachiolaria and of the Pluteus.
The throwing of the whole of the stomach and the alimentary canal on
one side, the complicated system of arms arranged with perfect symmetry
on each side of the axis, passing through the mouth and the anus, does
not change, though it partially conceals, the radiate plan. We have Holo-
thurians which always creep upon three of their ambulacra, where a dorsal
and a ventral side, an anterior and a posterior region, are subordinate to
the plan of radiation; and the same takes place to a less extent in Spa-
tangoids. Among Polyps even, which are, as it were, the simplest type
of radiate animals, an anterior and a posterior region are strikingly shown
in the case of Arachnactis. The additional spheromeres are all added at
one extremity of the mouth-slit, and yet the Actinia is made up of radi-
ating spheromeres. The earliest stages of the larvae of Echinoderms, be-
fore the appearance of the water-tubes, reminds us forcibly of the young
Actinia soon after it has escaped from the egg, or of the first stages of
growth of a Scyphistoma, after it has attached itself to the ground, pre-
vious to the formation of tentacles, Let us now consider what constitutes
the difference in the structure of these animals in their primary stages

82 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE STARFISH.

of growth, as far as the different classes of the type are concerned. They
are all built according to one and the same plan, yet this plan is so car-
ried out as to be eminently echinodermoid in one instance, acalephian in
another, and polypoidal in a third. In young Echinoderms, as in young
Ctenophorz, we find nothing of the remarkable preponderance of certain
parts which gives these young their bilateral appearance in more advanced
conditions. Their radiate character is extremely prominent at first, but
becomes gradually obscured and hidden under the guise of this bilateral-
ity, which is, after all, due only to the excessive development of certain
spheromeres as compared with the others.

The case of these larve is only an additional example of what we find
so often in nature, that a plan of structure which seems to prevail is
in reality only an external analogy produced by great predominance in
certain parts, but subservient to the primary plan, even though the latter
be perceived only on closer examination. This view solves a question
which has hitherto perplexed all investigators of this subject, viz. how
it was possible that a larva, which has always been considered as bilateral,
should produce a radiate animal by a process of internal gemmation. It
is, indeed, a bilateral larva, but built upon a radiate plan; a larva recall-
ing a lower class of this branch of the animal kingdom, an acalephian
larva giving rise to an Echinoderm, which, from its very beginning, is a
radiate animal, having all its spheromeres developed at the same time,
and equally.*

These transformations are, however, peculiar to the class of Echino-
derms; they constitute neither a metamorphosis nor a case of alternate
generation. The egg becomes the embryo larva, nothing essential is lost
during the process, no intermediate individual comes into the cycle. It
is the yolk which becomes the larva, the latter being, in its turn, trans-
formed into the young Echinoderm. This larva is, in short, an Acalephian
larva, reminding us somewhat of the twin individuals of free Hydroids,
the Diphyes, though adapted to the mode of development of the Echino-
derms. But in the latter we have no intermediate condition corresponding
to the Polyp-like Hydroid in Acalephs from which the Meduse or repro-
ductive individuals arise, and in their turn, bring forth the Hydroid again,
which completes the cycle by developing another set of Meduse.

* For a closer comparison of young Ctenophore and Echinoderm Larve, see the Chapter on Cte-

nophore, Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, No. II.

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ECHINODERMS. 83

a

If the views here taken of the plan of development of Echinoderms be
correct, they introduce a new set of facts respecting their affinities with
the Polyps and Acalephs, which cannot fail to have an important bearing
on the question of the separation of the Echinoderms as a distinct type
from the two latter groups. The Echinoderm plutean form, with its mouth,
stomach, intestine, and with its water-system originally forming a part of
the digestive cavity, bears, as it seems to me, the same relation to the
~ Ctenophorze which the Hydroid Polyps hold to the true Polyps. The Cte-
nophore may be considered, as it were, the prototype of the Echinoderms,
as the Polyps are the prototype of Acalephs. We have in the Ctenophor»
a digestive cavity, from which branches the water-system, and that peculiar
funnel opening outwards, through which the fecal matters of the Cteno-
phore are discharged, reminding us at once of the almost identical arrange-
ment of an Echinoderm Pluteus, in the relations of the intestine to the
stomach. The plutean forms certainly show that the plan upon which the
Echinoderms are built does not differ from that upon which the Acalephs
are built, and that we have between the Echinoderms and Acalephs the
same connection, based upon identity of plan, as exists between the Acalephs
and Polyps. We cannot, therefore, admit that the views so frequently
urged and so universally admitted, in support of the separation of the
Acalephs and Polyps as a distinct type (Coelenterata), from the Echino-
derms, have any real foundation in nature; and still less can we concur
in them when we remember that the main argument in their favor rests
upon the assumed total want of connection between the ambulacral system
and the digestive system. This connection has been shown by Pro-
fessor Agassiz to exist in the adult of many Echinoderms, while the facts
above stated prove that it also exists in the early stages of the embryonic
development, where, in fact, the water-system is formed from the digestive
system. With this evidence falls the strongest argument for the validity
of a classification by which the type of Radiates would be broken up, and
the Polyps and Acalephs separated from the Echinoderms, as a dis-
tinct type, under the name of Coelenterata. We are, therefore, justified
in affirming that the type of Radiates constitutes an independent type
of the animal kingdom, containing three equivalent classes, — Echinoderms,

Acalephs, and Polyps.

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ON THE SOLID PARTS OF SOME NORTH AMERICAN
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HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS.

CoMPARATIVELY little use has been made thus far, in the study of
Starfishes, of the structure of their hard parts. With the exception of
the short paper by Gaudry, the occasional references to them in sundry
memoirs of Miller, Duvernoy, Agassiz, Perrier and others, only show
that we know but little of the solid frame concealed under the mass
of appendages covering a starfish. The study of these solid parts is
instructive, as it throws new light on their homologies with other Echi-
noderms, and enables us to form a better idea of the relationship be-
tween Ophiurans, Echini, and Starfishes. The homology between these
orders, as usually understood, can be stated in a general way as follows;
the great development in Starfishes of what has been called the tergal
system, covering the centre and arms, forming a system where no special
regular arrangement could be traced, joined to the presence of distinct
ambulacral and interambulacral plates, limited to the furrows occupying
the lower face of the arm; also the absence of specialized genital plates,
or anal plates, and the presence (in some genera) of a special ocular
plate. The essential character in a general way of the Ophiurans as
distinguished from Starfishes is the presence of genital plates, and the
limitation of the tergal plates to a comparatively simple casing, con-
sisting of few plates enclosing an ambulacral system, no interambulacral
system having been traced; while in Echini the tergal system is re-
duced to a minimum, ocular and genital plates being present, and the
ambulacral and especially the interambulacral plates greatly developed.

From the more careful examination of Echini a hypothetical Echino-
derm was formerly established, which has served as the type to which
the other Echinoderms were to be reduced, and with which they should
homologize. In the absence of embryonic data, however, the fundamentel
facts derived from the study of young Echinoderms already point to

£8 HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS.

a different interpretation of the Echinodermoidal homologies. Taken
in connection with our knowledge of the hard parts of Starfishes as
compared with those of Ophiurans and Echini, they throw much light
upon many imperfectly known structural features of Crinoids. The liy-
ing Crinoids, on account of their small number, have till recently seemed
to promise but little help in explaining the fossil forms. The collec-
tions of the Challenger include, however, a variety of stalked Crinoids,
and until the information to be derived from them is on hand it does
not seem advisable to extend the comparison of the hard parts beyond
the more common orders.

All young Echinoderms, while still in the Pluteus stage, or soon after
its resorption, are strikingly alike. They all have an actinal and an
abactinal area. The actinal area is occupied almost entirely by the
ambulacral canals radiating from the central ring enclosing the actino-
stome, with their lateral ambulacral tubes existing as mere loops, the
different tubes not being as yet encased in any limestone plates. The
abactinal surface consists of the outer integument, in which rudiment-
ary plates begin to appear, made up in the early stages merely of Y-
shaped rods, more or less closely connected together, so as to form
patches of reticulated network to become in the future the solid plates
of the Echinoderm.

Thus far all Echinoderms are alike, and show no structural difference
between the different orders. We shall greatly facilitate our examina-
tion of them by beginning our comparison at this early and uniform
stage, so that we may see how far we can, by merely tracing the devel-
opment, explain the mode of differentiation by which the orders gradu-
ally assume the structural features of the adults.

Before proceeding any further in this comparison, I must state that
I have given already in detail* my reasons for considering the Echi-
noderms as more closely related to the Polyps and Acalephs in oppo-
sition to the view lately revived of their affinity to Worms. I have
stated the objections mainly on embryological grounds, by comparing
the development of the most Echinodermoid larva among Annulata, that
of Balanoglossus, with other vermiform Echinoderm Plutei. Haeckel has
recently strongly urged, on theoretical grounds chiefly, their annulate

* See A. Agassiz, Embryology of Ctenophore ; Revision of the Echini; The History of Bananoglossus

anl Tornaria.

HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS. 89

affinity, and has assumed the composite nature of Echinoderms, which he
considers as a colony of five persons united at the buccal extremity in a
somewhat similar way to that of a colony of compound Ascidians hay-
ing a common cloacal opening.

He considers each arm of a Starfish, for ‘nstance,—and it will apply
equally well to any Sea-urchin,—as made up of a series of distinct ar-
ticulations, just as well marked as the articulation of any Annelid. To
a certain extent this analogy is correct; we find a repetition of very
similar parts, a remarkable vegetative capacity in all Echinoderms, which
at first glance might seem to be of great importance as confirming their
articulate affinities. Yet the earliest stages of the young Echinoderms
in the Pluteus show beyond doubt that they have nothing in common
with a community.

As well might we compare the simple chymiferous tube of an Aca-
leph with a single individual, and make a many-rayed Zygodactyla a
community of individuals with a single central digestive cavity. The
very fact that we can trace the passage between an Acaleph with a
polymeral chymiferous system like Zygodactyla and a Siphonophore zoid
in which we can trace but a single chymiferous tube, shows, at any
rate, that the number of ambulacral tubes should not be taken as any
proof whatever of a composite structure. When we come to the ar-
ticulation of the arms, can we consider that as anything beyond the
adaptation of the ambulacral system to the deposition of limestone plates,
allowing certain limited movements? In the whole order of Echinoderms
traces of this adaptation can be seen, as in some genera of Echini,
which, like Astropyga and the Armored Echini, retain a more or less
movable test, while in Holothurians the limestone deposition is reduced
to a minimum, the latter showing the range of a dermal and closed
ambulacral system, while the Ophiurans show the limits within which
the articulation can be developed in the Starfishes proper (Crinoids not
being in question at present). In consequence of this articulation and
their presumed Annulose affinities, Haeckle does not hesitate to derive
Echinoderms from worms, but as far as the orders of Echinoderms now
known are concerned, it seems impossible to imagine, even with the
light paleontology has thrown upon their appearance, how they have
succeeded one another, much less whence they have been derived. We
can readily see from the presence of several of the orders of Echino-

90 HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS.

derms in the older geological deposits, that, if any development from
one order to another has taken place, it must have been during much ©
earlier geological periods. As far as we now know, paleontology throws
no light whatever upon such a transition, however possible it may seem
from embryological data. Starfishes, Ophiurans, Echini, and Crinoids ex-
isted in the oldest-known Echinodermoid fauna, having all the typical
features of Echinoderms of our day, or only so far modified as to be
readily homologized with them. If there has been such a thing as a
single ancestral Echinoderm, his primordial descendants early assumed
different lines of development diverging to a great degree, and retain-
ing their characteristics from the earliest-known geological period. This
at least appears to be the case with Starfishes* and Ophiurans; while
the different groups of Crinoids which have appeared and vanished are
numerous as compared to those of the other orders.

The Echini again continued to develop until the secondary period with
very little modification, and only after the Jurassic period did the marked
changes begin through which they subsequently pass; changes fully equal-
ling those of the Crinoids in their earlier geological history.t And yet, great
as these changes have undoubtedly been, were we to measure them sim-
ply by palzontological evidence, we must remember that they are not
greater in degree than the changes known to take place among the
Echini of the present day during their embryological development. But
while the successive appearance of the great types of Echini in geologi-

cal time —in other words, their paleontological development—is in the

strictest harmony with what we know of their embryological develop-
ment,t we as certainly know nothing whatever of the causes which have
brought about their sequence in time, in such striking agreement with

* The attempt made by G. O. Sars to prove Brisinga to be the living representative of the palao™
zoic Starfishes seems to be very far-fetched, and I must acknowledge I have been unable to see
any such radical difference between Brisinga and ordinary Starfishes (Solaster, Crossaster, and Pyeno-
podia, for instance) as Sars insists upon in his Memoir on Brisinga. The type of Starfishes, as I have
already shown, has been remarkably persistent from the earliest geological periods to the present
day, and there is no indication that the Starfishes now living have undergone such changes as to
make the agreement of Brisinga or other genera with the older forms a matter worthy of especial
notice as survivals or representatives of the earlier types.

See also the view taken by Liitken in regard to the affinities of Protaster in his OpLiur. Add. IIT. ;
he does not agree with the view taken by Sars.

t See A. Agassiz’s Revision of the Echini, Part TV.

{ See Part LV., Revision of the Echini, by A. Agassiz.

HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS. 9]

the sequence in their phases of growth. All we can say at present is
that the course of the embryological development of the Spatangoids is
such that we can, as it were, read off upon it the sequence of echinoidal
development since the Jurassic time in the developmental history of
some genera of that group. In the one case, however, this development
is accomplished in the course of a few years, in the other it stretches
over a comparatively infinite period. We have no data for any such
comparisons in the other orders of Echinoderms.

The case of successive modifications of the ancestral horse, which has
so often been brought forward as conclusive regarding the genealogy of
the group, although more familiar, is far less complete and much more
limited in time than the succession to be traced from the paleontological
evidence of Echini. But while natural selection gives a plausible explana-
tion of like problems among Vertebrates, it fails utterly when applied
to the majority of the Invertebrates, and we have completely failed
thus far to find any causes for their paleontological development dif-
fering from those acting upon their successive embryological stages at
the present day, of which we know absolutely nothing.

Let us return now to the comparison of the changes undergone by
the embryo Echinoderm from its earliest post-Pluteus stages, until the
structural features characteristic of the several orders are clearly differ-
entiated. The actinal and abactinal surfaces of the embryo Echinoderms
in the different orders are, as has been stated, identical; and it would
be impossible to characterize them from early stages immediately follow-
ing the resorption of the Pluteus, in the same way as from the adult.
The abactinal surface consists, in all cases, of a central plate, round which
‘are arranged radial and interradial plates, while the actina! surface is en-
tirely occupied by the pentagonal rosette of the water-system, held by the
abactinal system as it were in a cup,—a combination which is strictly
erinoidal. It is only later that ordinal distinctions appear, but in such
succession as to show that the homologies of the several orders as usually
understood are not correct.

In the case of the young Starfish the radial plates of the abactinal system,
which form the dorsal part of the arms, gradually extend towards the edge
of and.down on to the actinal side, enclosing the water-system little by
little, and finally, as has been described, covering the ambulacral tube, leav-

ing only openings for the passage of the tentacles. This is a stage which
13

92 HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS.

is passed through by Ophiurans and Kchini as well as Starfishes, the only
difference in the subsequent development being that the Ophiurans always
remain in an embryonic condition, closely resembling the one just described.
In the Starfishes the actinal plates formed by the bridges separating suc-
cessive pairs of tentacles become resorbed along the central line, the edges
forming inwardly by spurs the true ambulacral plates, and the plates which
little by little develop so as to form the edge of the arms are likewise
formed from the plates originally a part of the abactinal system. Those
which are on the outside of the tentacles become the interambulacral
plates, but differ in no way from the plates forming the sides of the arms.
In the case of the Starfishes these side arm-plates are often very numerous;
in the case of the Ophiurans they are reduced to a minimum, the upper
arm-plate being, as in young Starfishes, very prominent and distinct, while
the lower arm-plate is formed by the junction of opposing spurs of the
interambulacral plates, as can readily be imagined from a comparison with
Brisinga, where we find a spur from the interambulacral plates extending
nearly one third across the arms. We must only remember that in Ophiu-
rans the lower arm-plates represent the original plates derived from the
abactinal side extending across the tentacles, while in Brisinga and Star-
fishes the median part of the plate has become resorbed, so that the
tentacles passing between the ambulacral plates are inside of the inter-
ambulacral plates, while in Ophiurans they pierce the connected inter-
ambulacral plates (or the lower arm-plate).

Something analogous to what takes place in Ophiurans occurs in Echini.
The plates which cover the water-system never become resorbed (as in
Starfishes); there is no internal ambulacral system of plates developed,
from the fact that new plates in the Echini are always developed near
the basal plate (the apical system), while new plates in Ophiurans and
Starfishes are invariably formed at the extremity of the arms. In Echini,
therefore, the extremity of the water-system (the ocular tentacle) remaining
connected with the original apical system, the water-system thus forms a
loop, one end of which is attached to the so-called ocular plate, while the
other connects with the circular canal at the mouth, and hence, both ends
being fixed, the new plates must necessarily cover the water-system, while
in Ophiurans and Starfishes, one end alone being fixed, it is possible, as in
the case of Starfishes, for the water-system, owing to the resorption of the

central part, to appear in a peculiar position. But in spite of this similarity

EE ———— —_—

HOMOLOGIES OF ECHINODERMS. 93

in the position of the water-tube in Echini and Ophiurans, the latter are
really more closely allied structurally to Starfishes than to Echini. This
will readily account for the position of the water-system inside of the test
in Ophiurans and Echini, contrasted to the Starfishes. We can also
homologize Holothurians with Echini by supposing that in that group
the limestone plates never form ambulacral and interambulacral plates,
but that the abactinal system of the embryo, as it elongates, covers
irregularly the water-system, the suckers of which pierce the plates as
they do in the embryonic stages of other Echinoderms. In fact, the
external limestone plates forming the test of a Sea-urchin, the reticulated
network of the actinal and abactinal surface of a Starfish together with
the ambulacral and interambulacral plates and the plates forming the disk
of an Ophiuran, the upper, lower, and side arm-plates, as well as internal
skeleton, are all directly derived from the simple system of limestone
plates of the abactinal surface of the Echinoderm embryo. This system
consists, in all cases, of a basal plate, five radial and five interradial
plates. In Ophiurans the genital plates are formed from the angles
of the five interradial plates; similar plates can still be traced in the
young Starfishes, while in the full-grown Starfishes their presence is
shown by the interbrachial partition, on each side of which the ovaries
discharge. Thus there exists a complete homology between the genital
plates of Ophiurans and the interbrachial partitions of Starfishes, a ho-
mology fully carried out in its details when we examine the relations
held by the genital plates to the ovaries in Ophiurans and by the inter-
brachial partitions to the ovarian openings in Starfishes.

From the primitive number of plates existing in the disks of all em-
bryo Echinoderms, it is evident that paleontologists have laid altogether
too much stress upon the arrangement of the plates of the arms in
Crinoids. The study of the solid parts of Starfishes, while valuable as
accessories, would certainly furnish no very’ satisfactory data for a classi-
fication, at least if this were based entirely upon an examination of the
hard parts of the abactinal system alone, as is so frequently the case in

Crinoids.

HARD PARTS OF SOME NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES.

ASTERIAS.

In the genus Asteracanthion (Asterias) the true character of the plates
of the abactinal and actinal surfaces is far more difficult to trace than in
other genera where the plates retain more or less homogeneous features.

In Asteracanthion, although in the younger stages (as shown in Plate
VIII.) the reticulation consists entirely of plates readily distinguished
one from the other, yet in the adult the plates have become changed
to a mere irregular network anastomosing in all possible directions (PI.
IX. Mig. 3), and thus rendering it quite difficult, if not frequently impossi-
ble, to trace the connection of the actinal and abactinal reticulation with
the interambulacral plates.

In the majority of species of this genus the plates adjoining the inter-
ambulacral plates are cross-shaped (Pl. IX. Fig. 6), connecting with ad-
joining plates at three ends, in front, behind, and towards the abactinal
surface ; the other end connects with the interambulacral plates. These
plates lose their regularity as they ascend towards the abactinal side on
the edge of the arms, the prongs becoming gradually short processes,
and finally simply rods or irregularly shaped plates all more or less
imbricating (Pl. IX. dv. 4). The spines are generally attached to the
rods by a very shallow socket fittimg into a rudimentary tubercle and ring.
The spines of the interambulacral plates are movable, those of the actinal
and abactinal less so, and frequently soldered to the reticulation.

Asteracanthion berylinus.
Asteracanthion berylinus * Aa., A. AG. 1868. Proc. Amer. Acad. Boston.
Asterias Forbesii Des. 1848. Proce. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Il. p. 67.

Pl. IX.

The base of each of the interambulacral plates at its junction with

the ambulacral plates is marked by a pore for the passage of a water-

* For the typography used to explain the synonymy, see A. Agassiz, Revision of the Echini, p. 26.

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 95

tube (Pl. IX. Figs. 5, 6) between this plate and the following reticula-
tions, forming a part of the sides of the arms; similar pores are found
arranged like the first row of pores in a line parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the arms. The other water-pores are irregularly placed over the
surface of the arms.

Near the mouth the interambulacral plates come together in the angle
of the arms and form the mouth-papille so called. They are readily
seen in a Starfish examined from the lower side (Pl. IX. Mig. 5) when
denuded of spines. Seen from above (Pl. IX. Fig. 6, an interior view),
the connecting plate between adjoining ambulacral systems is formed
by the rising of the outer edge of the plate (the outer pore not being
present) towards the limestone network formed by the junction of the
interambulacral imbricating pieces which constitute the framework of the
abactinal system.

This structure is best seen in large specimens of A. vulgaris, in which
the alternate arrangement of the ambulacral plates commences at once at the
base of the arms, and where the interbrachial fold at the angle of the arms
is high and well set off from the pores left for the passage of water-tubes.

The spines placed on the junction of the interambulacral plates (a’, Pl.
IX. Fig. 5) form the papille (Pl. TX. Fig. 6), near the actinal opening ;
they differ in no respect from the other spines.

The arrangement of the pores in double rows (Pl. IX. Figs. 5, 6) for
the passage of the ambulacral suckers is, as is well known, only due to
age, owing to the crowding of adjoining plates; in large specimens there
is no trace of the original linear arrangement of the ambulacral pores
beyond the plates nearest the actinostome or at the extremity of
the arms. But while the ambulacral pores thus alternate, the plates
themselves extend entirely across from the median line to the interam-
bulacral plates; they are wedge-shaped, the broad and pointed ends
of adjoining plates alternately extending to the median line of the arm
or to the edge of the interambulacral plates (Pl. IX. Figs. 5, 6). See
a note on the fecundation of A. berylinus and A. vulgaris in Archives de
Zool. Expér., which suggests a plausible cause for the great number of
varieties of the genus Asterias. A. Forbesii (berylinus) extends from Hali-
fax, N. S, to Florida, while A. vulgaris (pallidus) has a more limited
southern range, and extends farther north, from Labrador to Long Isl-
and Sound. In Massachusetts Bay the two species are about equally

common.

96 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

Asterias ochracea.
Asterias ochracea Br. 1835. Prodrom.

Pe AA:

The striking differences which apparently exist on a cursory examina-
tion of the species allied to A. ochracea are not found to be of suffi-
cient importance, when analyzed, to warrant us in considering the genus
Pisaster, as recognized by Professor Agassiz, anything more than a con-
venient systematic generic subdivision ; the special points of difference are
the great width of the ambulacral system, its elongated plates, the breadth
of the furrow forming the median ambulacral ridge (seen from the
interior) (Pl. IX. Fy. 5), the proximity of the openings for the passage
of the ambulacral tubes on each side of the median ridge, with the cor-
responding slender interambulacral plates carrying only one row of long
spines at the outer extremity. When denuded of spines the reticulation
of the actinal surface of the arms adjoining the interambulacral plates
forms a close pavement with small interstices (Pl. XI. Fig. 4); the tubercles
carrying the spines are arranged in three or four rows at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the arm; they have a deep slit at the top of
the boss; these tubercles are connected laterally by a comparatively low
ridge. In the reticulation of the abactinal surface of the arms the
primary spaces are quite large, but these are greatly subdivided by a
secondary system (Pl. XI. Migs. 1, 2) (more or less prominent), consisting
of smaller plates, most irregular in shape, which encroach upon the
primary areas and subdivide them again, or materially reduce the area
through which the water-tubes can be protruded. The reticulation of
the actinal surface carries large club-shaped spines of moderate length,
while the spines of the upper surface are shorter but similarly shaped,
presenting the appearance of having been ground down so as to form
nearly continuous walls on the separating ridge of the reticulations (PI.
XI. Hig. 1). The interambulacral papille are generally cylindrical, some-
times pointed or somewhat club-shaped at the tip, contrasting with the
generally ~ flattened and slightly spatulate interambulacral spines of
Asteracanthion proper. The interbrachial partition (Pl XI. Fig. 5) is
naturally very well developed, owing to the great number of narrow
interambulacral plates from which the brachial reticulations arise. The
whole reticulation of the arms ts far more solid than in any other

group of species of Asteracanthion (Asterias); compare Pl. IX. Fig. 6, the

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 97

corresponding interbrachial partition of A. berylinus, and also Pl. XI. Fig. 4,
the prolongation of the plates separating adjoining ambulacral systems
in A. ochracea and in A. berylinus (Pl. IX. Fiy. 5). To show the differ-
ence in the thickness of the limestone reticulation of the abactinal and
actinal systems compare Pl. XI. Fig. 3, and Pl. LX. Fig. 4, which are simi-
lar views of the interior of the abactinal systems of A. berylinus and A.
ochracea, or compare the horizontal sections shown in Pl. XI. Fy. 5, and
Pl. IX. Fig. 6. The range of Asterias ochracea is from Sitka to San
Diego, California; it is the most common species of Starfish on the coast
of California.

Echinaster sentus.
Asterias sentus Say, 1825. Journ. Acad. Nat. Scien. Phila., V. 143.
Echinaster sentus VERR. 1867, Notes on Radiata.

Pl Xs

The meshes of the abactinal limestone network are larger than in
Asteracanthion, especially near the centre of the disk, where the irregu-
lar polygonal spaces covered by the abactinal membrane are quite large
(Pl. X. Hvg. 3). The same loose structure extends a short distance along
the abactinal surface (Pl. X. Fig. 4) and the sides of the arms; but
towards the extremity the meshes become smaller, and on the actinal
side, immediately adjoining the interambulacral plates, the limestone work
is quite compact (Pl. X. Figs. 5, 6), and leaves only a few small openings
for the passage of the water-tubes.

In addition to the water-tubes in the actinal surface of the arms,
there is a row of very large tubes (Pl. X. Fug. 1’) passing between the
interambulacral plates. The madreporic body differs considerably from
that of Asteracanthion, and is not as well separated or as distinct from
the general abactinal surface as is the case in that genus.

The interambulacral plates, forming the so-called teeth, are larger than
the others; they form the extremity of the single lateral rows (Pl. X. Fig.
5), and do not make a partition or division-wall between adjoining am-
bulacra, as in Asteracanthion proper, the actinal part of the limestone net-
work extending nearer the actinostome. The solid character of the
actinal part of the limestone network covering the arms is well shown
in an interior view (Pl. X. Mig. 6). This figure also shows how far the
ambulacral and interambulacral plates become soldered together with the

98 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

actinal limestone network. The small size of the first set of ambulacral
plates is characteristic of the genus as well as of other Starfishes with
two rows of suckers; the plates of the actinal are scarcely more promi-
nent than the other ambulacral and interambulacral plates, forming a strik-
ing contrast to the immense development they take in Asteracanthion
and allied genera. The interambulacral plates, as is well shown on Pl. X.
Fig. 5, are remarkably uniform in size; the secondary ambulacral plates
forming the brachial limestone network adjoiing them are compactly
soldered together. In this genus the spines of the limestone network
are completely sheathed by the outer membrane covering the whole abac-
tinal and actinal system (Pl. X. Jigs. 1, 2); they are large, sharply pointed,
generally placed only at the angles of the limestone polygons, and form
irregular longitudinal rows, from the central part of the abactinal part
of the disk, gradually diminishing in size towards the extremity of the
arms. ‘This species is particularly abundant in the West Indies and Florida,
and extends northward to New Jersey.

CROSSASTER.
Crossaster M. T. 1840, Monatsb. d. Akad. Berlin, (emend.) A. Ac.

The genus Crossaster, as originally established by Miiller and Troschel
in the Monatsbericht d. Akad. d. Wiss. of Berlin, was identical with So-
laster of Forbes, which had the priority of a year. In the System d. Asteri-
den, Miller and Troschel adopted Forbes’s genus. From an examination
of the hard parts, it is evident that Solaster papposus and Solaster endeca
should not be included in the same genus, having really nothing in com-
mon beyond the great number of arms. The accompanying descriptions
will fully show my reasons for placing these two species in different gen-
era. In order not to multiply names, I have retained the genus Cros-
saster, which is quite closely related to Pyenopodia, only limiting it to S.
papposus, and have kept Solaster for 8. endeca and its allies, which are
more nearly related to Cribrella.

*

a + 2 ale ieee

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 99

Crossaster papposus.
Crossaster papposus M. T. 1840. Monatsb. d. Akad. Berlin.

Re aed.

In Crossaster the membrane covering the abactinal system, like that
of Pyenopodia, forms a mere film, but it is strengthened by a regular
reticulation, with open meshes, carrying, at the points of junction of the
horizontal limestone plates, prominent club-shaped processes, upon the tip
of which are attached minute slender spines, forming more or less promi-
nent tufts (Pl. XII. Mgs. 3, 4). The interbrachial partition consists of a
membrane, without limestone plates, extending towards the base of the
arms, connecting the few limestone plates reaching from the actinal plate
to the abactinal surface with the triangle formed by the rising of the
actinal floor at the point of junction of adjoining arms (Pl. XIL Fig. 3).
The actinal floor, with the exception of the plates of the interambulacral
area, is entirely composed of a compact pavement formed of small irregu-
larly shaped imbricating plates, gradually passing into the open reticula-
tions of the abactinal surface, along the sides of the arms (Pl. XII. Fv. 2).

The ambulacral plates of this genus are broad and well separated; the
ambulacral groove is broad and prominent (PI. XII. Fig. 2); at the june-
tion of the ambulacral and interambulacral plates the former are well
separated; they are pointed, bulging in the central portion, leaving a

wide opening for the passage of the sucker. The basal plates take an

unusual development, forming a prominent ring round the actinostome ;
they are well separated by the interbrachial basal plates, forming the
base of attachment to the limestone plates, which constitute the basal
part of the interbrachial arch (Pl. XI. Figs. 2, 3). The actinal side of
the interambulacral plates forms a series of slightly curved plates, at
right angles to the ambulacral groove, carrying tubercles diminishing
in size as they recede from the edge of the arms; these plates form a
prominent row along the edge of the arms on the actinal surface (PI.
XII. Fig. 2); the tubercles of the interambulacral plates, arranged in
narrow belts, carry slender spines, similar to those of the tufts of
minute spines found on the abactinal surface. The basal interambuiacral
plates, like their corresponding ambulacral plates, are immensely developed,
projecting far into the large actinal ring, and carrying, like all the
interambulacral plates, long, slender spines; these form powerful papille,
14

100 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

saa surrounding the mouth; though their use, as in
all Starfishes, is evidently very limited, the prin-
re cipal work of digestion being done by the
: stomach itself, which folds over the substance
to be introduced, and thus gradually dissolves it.

The accompanying woodcut (Fi. 1) shows
somewhat more plainly than Fig. 3 on Pl. XII.
the plates composing the parts round the acti-
nostome and base of the arms.

This species is common to both sides of the
Atlantic ; it is found in Norway, Denmark, Great

Britain, on the west coast of France, in Ireland, Greenland, and extends
on the east coast of America as far south as Massachusetts Bay.

Pycnopodia helianthoides.
Pycnopodia /lianthoides Strmps. 1861. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., VIIL

Asterias helianthoides Br. 1835. Prodrom.

PsA Ee

In Pycnopodia the opening at the end of the large ambulacral plate
near the actinostome is best seen in profile (J%y. 2); it differs in no
way from the structure of the corresponding plates in Asteracanthion,
though apparently, on first examination, the actinal plates forming the
actinal ring seem quite peculiar, owing to the disappearance near the
mouth of the interbrachial membrane, and the isolation of the interbra-
chial partition; this connects the actinal and abactinal reticulated surfaces
by a mere film only. The large plate at the actinal ring, forming the
base of the interbrachial partition (Pl. XIII Fig. 6 cp), is entirely discon-
nected from the interambulacral system, as can easily be seen by an
exunination of the actinal extremity of the arm from the inside of

* Fig. 1. Crossaster papposus. — Internal view, seen from above, the abactinal surface of the plates at
the base of one of the arms, round the actinostome, removed. c’ c’, attachment of muscular bands con-
necting adjoining ambulacral plates; a 0, @ 0, openings for passage of ambulacral suckers; a’d, a’b, am-
bulacral plates with projecting spur ; im, termination of film forming the interbrachial partition ; c’p, spur
from interambulacral plates forming connecting floor of actinal surface; c’b, large muscular plate at base
of the arm; tp, interbrachial plate to which the film forming interbrachial partition is attached (when
it extends to that point) at the base of the arms; sp, spur of interambulacral basal plates forming
the base of attachment of the interbrachial partitions ; mp, interambulacral plates forming the so-called

mouth-papille ; p’, spines of mp.

2
a

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 101

the actinal ring, showing the plate rising up on the side of the two
large ambulacral plates of the actinal ring. The Fig. 2.*

interambulacral plates (Pl. XII. Mig. 7) form small
scale-like plates near the base of the arm, carrying slen-
der pointed spines; they increase somewhat in size
at a distance from the base. They are followed on

the edge of the arm by two lozenge-shaped plates,

with extended points, carrying large club-shaped
spines forming a thin low wall for the support of the line of at-
tachment of the abactinal membrane covering the abactinal surface of
the arms. This membrane extends also over the central part of the
disk; over the abactinal surface it is strengthened here and there by
a few small limestone plates or rods, placed at the base of the large
spines irregularly scattered on the surface of the abactinal region; these
plates sometimes form in the disk a very irregular disconnected retic-
ulation, the lines of which are composed of small irregularly shaped
rounded plates. Within the space where the arms are united the am-
bulacral plates rise nearly vertically, but towards the extremity they
gradually slope more and more, inclining towards the actinostome, so that
the ambulacral plates form a hard flat area, occupying nearly the whole
of the actinal surface of the arms.

The genera Pycnopodia and Crossaster are specially interesting on
account of the close relationship they have to Brisinga. In fact,
compared with Brisinga, they prove conclusively that the latter genus,

* Fig. 2.— Profile view of actinal extremity of arm of Pycnopodia (the dermal covering of arm removed).
e’r, small plates forming the ridge, covering the ambulacral groove,
repeated along the whole length of the arm. a’c, the correspond-
ing plate of the second interambulacral plate. The upper projecting
part of this plate is the support of the basa! plate of the interbrachial
partition, and below it is seen the plate which strictly corresponds to
it. This plate a’c also covers in part the plate a’s of the basal am-
bulacral plate a’, at the base of which is situated the interambulacral
plate aip carrying the short spines forming the mouth-papill.

The relative position of the plates a’s to the basal plate of the
interbrachial partition is well shown in Jig. 3, which represents an
inside view, seen from above, of a part of the actinal ring. a’s, a’e,

the same as in Fig. 2, ip, the interbrachial partition, reduced in this

genus to a few scale-like plates, supported on spurs of the interam-
bulacral plates. c’, longitudinal groove, line of junction of ambulacral plates. c’r, ridge of connecting

plates forming groove c’.. ao, opening for passage of ambulacral suckers.

102 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

far from being so exceptional in its structure as has been generally
supposed, is structurally very intimately connected with Pycnopodia and
Crossaster. We might readily transform a Pycnopodia or a Crossaster
into a Brisinga by reducing the actinal and abactinal interbrachial spaces
into a minimum, which would give us a Starfish with a small disk, in
which the ambulacral plates adjoining the actinostome assume a great
development, and thus the numerous arms would appear quite discon-
nected (as in Brisinga). The connection of the arms in Starfishes does
not depend so much on the greater or less development of the ambu-
lacral and interambulacral systems, as upon the greater or less increase of
the limestone network forming the interbrachial spaces, which, although a
feature greatly affecting the physiognomy of the Starfish, yet influences
but slightly its internal structure.

The range of this species is from Sitka to Mendocino City, California. In
the Gulf of Georgia and at Mendocino it is a very common species in shallow
water and at low-water mark.

BRISINGA.

The genus Brisinga, with its long slender arms, the whole actinal side
of which, with the exception of the large interambulacral plates forming
the edge of the arm, is occupied by the ambulacral plates, shows us very
distinctly how we can pass from the Starfish to the Ophiuran by the
joining of the large interambulacral plates on the lower surface, and their
becoming soldered together into one plate to forni a lower arm-plate, so
that the absence of interambulacral plates, which has always been cited
as the great difference by which Starfishes and Ophiurans could always
be distinguished, is readily explained; the lower arm-plates of Ophiurans
being only modified interambulacral plates. We further find, on examin-
ing, in Brisinga, the secondary imbricating plates forming the arches
which support the abactinal membrane covering the arms, each of which
carries only a single spine, and is arranged in more or less regular
curves, that we have some approach already to the side arm-plates
so characteristic of Ophiurans, the separation of the so-called disk from
the arms, — which, although so striking a feature of the genus, is less im-
portant than it seems at first sight, — being merely brought about by the
reduction to a minimum of the lateral spreading of the actinal part of
the secondary and interambulacral plates. In the case of Brisinga this

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 103

forms at once an arch over the arms without expanding, as in other
Starfishes, into a flat actinal floor of greater or less extent on the side of
the interambulacral plate, from the extent and shape of which the vari-
ous families are determined. This obtains its maximum of development
in the extreme forms like Culcita and Palmipes; in one case the actinal
and abactinal floors are well separated, in the other closely united by
vertical shafts and walls. The analysis of the structure of Brisinga gives
a most satisfactory explanation of the general homologies existing be-
tween Starfishes and Ophiurans, and reduces the gap hitherto unfilled
between Starfishes and Ophiurans to a comparatively unimportant method
of development.

As the madreporic body of Starfishes is placed in one of the interbrachial
arches, and this arch reduced as it often is to a minimum (Solaster), or lim-
ited sometimes to the mesenteric support of the stone canal, we have a ready
explanation of its position in the Ophiurans on the homologous plates in
the interbrachial spaces, namely, the single plate in the continuation of
the line of the interambulacral plates; at the same time the homology
between the genital plates and the single interbrachial plate found in
some Starfishes at the angle of the arms is fully carried out, as it is
well known that it is on each side of the interbrachial arch that the
ovarian openings are found. An examination of the base of the arms of
Brisinga near its junction with the disk shows already quite a constric-
tion, and of course a corresponding reduction in the length of the inter-
brachial arch. The great extension of the interambulacral plates across
the space covering the ambulacral canal reduces it to its minimum at
that point. The mode of articulation of the ambulacral plates of joints
in the arms of Brisinga has been compared rather with Ophiurans than
with Starfishes, but the articulation of the internal skeleton in Ophiurans
is not specially different, although somewhat more perfect, from the artic-
ulation of the joints of arms in the Starfishes proper, and the homology
between the internal skeleton of Ophiurans and the ambulacral system
of Starfishes can be clearly established. If we imagine for each primary
interambulacral plate but a single row of secondary interambulacral plates
composed of a small number of plates, we shail of course have a side urm-
plate and an upper arm-plate; the lower arm-plate being formed of
the opposed interbrachial plates, which have become soldered together,
and through which the tentacles have pierced their way.

104 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

The abactinal membrane of the disk of Brisinga is eminently Asterian ;
it is only slightly strengthened by a few minute limestone plates, as is
the case in Crossaster and Pycnopodia, and in spite of the general re-
semblance, at first glance, of this well-defined disk to an Ophiuran disk,
we have nothing whatever corresponding to the arrangement of the cen-
tral plates so characteristic of the disk of Ophiurans. But we have in
a great many genera of Starfishes the central part of the disk, show-
ing in the young stages only, as regular an arrangement of the plates
of the abactinal system as in any Ophiuran, though it is lost in the
adult. Such a young stage is figured in Pl. VIIL, a corresponding stage
has also been recently figured by Lovén in his Memoir on the Echini
(1875), and a similar structure of the disk will undoubtedly be found to
exist in the very youngest stages of each genus, as it seems to be a
general structure of the young of all Starfishes, as far as observed.

While Brisinga is a most important form, as showing the relationship
between Starfishes and Ophiurans, there certainly is nothing. in its strue-
ture or in its affinity to Protaster to warrant the paleontological importance
ascribed to it by the younger Sars; and it cannot be considered, any more
than several other genera of Starfishes now living,* as the representative
at the present day of the oldest-known Echinoderm. I think we can
show from the study of the hard parts of Starfishes that they have been
a remarkably persistent type, and that the apparent changes of form
due to the excessive increase or diminution of the interbrachial lime-
stone deposit is a very secondary feature, which, though greatly modi-
fying the external appearance of the Starfishes, yet does not affect the
main structure, which, as has been stated, is remarkably uniform through-
out the order. While fully admitting the many important points (so
well brought out by Sars in his Memoir on Brisinga) wherein the genus
differs from the other Starfishes, yet I must call his attention to the
fact that many of the structural details which he strongly insists upon
as specially characteristic of Brisingat are common to the other Starfishes,
and do not constitute features by which this family can be contrasted
with the remaining Starfishes.

* Pycnopodia, Crossaster.

+ For an opportunity of examining both dry and alcoholic specimens of Brisinga, I must thank Sir
C. Wyville Thomson, and Dr. G. O. Sars. Brisinga endecacnemos is found in deep water off the Lofoten

Islands, Norway. It has been collected by the “ Challenger” in eighty fathoms, on the La Have Bank off

Nova Scotia.

;

be
a
*

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 105

Linckia Guildingii.
Linckia Guildingii Gray, 1840. Ann. Mag., VL

Pl. XIV. Pigs. 1-6.

A longitudinal section of one of the arms (Pl. XIV. Fig. 6) shows the
great thickness of the irregularly shaped polygonal plates composing the
limestone network of the abactinal surface. The plates (as seen in Fy. 4,
Pl. XIV., when they are denuded of the finer granulation covering them,
Pl. XIV. Fig. 1, and the intervening spaces) are very closely packed; the
processes connecting plates laterally often do not exist in the median space
of the arm, and appear only as short rods along the sides of the arms and
on the outer edge of the lower surface (Pl. XIV. Fg. 3), where they are
closely packed, forming in older specimens a compact pavement, and
losing on this surface the imbricating arrangement to be traced only
along the sides of the arms or to be seen in a transverse section. The
fine granulation mentioned above extends over the whole actinal surface
of the arms, concealing almost completely the three to four longitudinal
rows of small plates immediately succeeding the interambulacral plates
(compare Jigs. 2 and 3, Pl. XIV.; see also Fig. 2’).

The top of the large papilla (Pl. XIV. Ig. 6) attached to the interambu-
lacral plates forms a close pavement when seen from the actinal side;
these large papillae pass very rapidly into the minute granules covering the
lower side of the arms (PI. XIV. fg. 2). Toward the actinostome the pa-
pille flare inwardly, forming several rows placed one behind the other, and
appear, when seen in section, as if there were a series of secondary inter-
ambulacral plates forming the mouth-papille, but on examination we find
that the structure of the actinal interambulacral plates is that of other
Starfishes. Seen from the interior on the actinal floor, the interbrachial
plate is sunk far below the level of the ambulacral groove; the inter-
brachial arches are reduced to the thickening produced by the junction
of the arms, which extend in wedge shape a short distance toward the
actinal ring; the space in which the limestone canal is situated alone
connecting by a low ridge with the actinal ring.

This is specially a West-Indian and Florida species.

106 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

Asterina folium.
Asterina folium LUtrx. 1859. Vidensk. Meddel.

Pl. XIV. Figs. 7-9.

In Asterina, as in the bulk of the pentagonal Starfishes, the great
lateral development of the secondary interambulacral plates introduces
some modifications in the structure and position of the hard parts in this
genus. The plates forming the actinal and abactinal floors are irregularly
lozenge-shaped, imbricating at the extremities of the adjoining points,
leaving thus a greater or less free space for the passage of the water-
tubes; the plates of the two floors at the ridges of the disk become sol-
dered together, thus forming, as it were, a new system of plates, which in
some genera are regularly arranged and often furnish characteristic spe-
cific distinctions. At the actinal ring the interbrachial arches exist only
as columns rising directly from the actinal to the abactinal floors in the
interambulacral spaces. As in all the species of the genus, the lozenge-
shaped plates of the actinal and abactinal surface carry short slender
spines, with a more or less regular fan-shaped arrangement on the abac-
tinal side; the spines are less numerous on the actinal side, some-
what longer on the interambulacral plates, especially near the actino-
stome, forming mouth-papille of considerable prominence (Pl. XIV. Figs. 7
and 7’).

The simple structure of the short, pointed terminal tentacle at the ex-
tremity of the arm is well seen in this genus (Pl. XIV. Migs. 8’, 8); adjoin-
ing tentacles are, as in Asterias, long, slender, without a prominent suck-
ing-disk. The water-tubes are specially large in this genus (Pl. XIV.
Fig. 9).

This species has the same range as Linckia Guildingii.

Asteropsis imbricata.

Asteropsis imbricata GruBr, 1857. Wiegm. Archiy., XXIII.
Pl. XV.

The abactinal limestone reticulation of this species consists of flat, irreg-
ularly star-shaped plates, from which diverge longer flat pieces, connect-
ing the adjoining centres of radiating plates (Pl. XV. Fig. 2); the plates
and their connecting links are all imbricating. Towards the central part
of the disk the larger spaces between the rods are partially closed by

shorter spurs, and are further separated by disconnected plates into ellip-

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 107

tical areas, through which the water-tubes are protruded (Pl. XV. Fiys. 1, 2);
the network becomes closer towards the tip of the arms, and there are a
great number of small areas for the passage of the water-tubes (Pl. XV.
fig. 3). In the living state the limestone skeleton is deeply imbedded in
a thick epidermis, completely covering the upper and lower surface of
the disk. Compare Pl. XV. Figs. 1, 1’, with the figures Pl. XV. Figs. 2, 3,
showing preparations of the plates of abactinal surface from the exterior
and interior. The interbrachial arches are reduced in this genus to a
mere vertical column, consisting in portions of not more than a single
plate placed close to the actinal ring, and leaving a large open space be-
tween it and the edge of the arm (Pl. XV. Fiz. 6).

The plates of the actinal floor form a regular pavement, diverging from
the interbrachial angle parallel to the axis of the arms; the actinal and
abactinal systems of plates form, at their junction on the edge of the arms,
a double row of large plates forming a binding at the periphery (Pl. XV.
Fig. 4), one row placed on the actinal side, the other on the abactinal
side (see Pl. XV. Figs. 4 and 2). There is a well-marked abactinal ori-
fice near the centre of the disk (Pl. XV. Fig. 1).

In Gymnasteria, otherwise closely related to Asteropsis, there is no
special difference between the plates of the actinal and abactinal systems ;
they are more distinct, and not arranged quite so regularly as to form a
pavement.

In the greater number of the pentagonal Starfishes we find the same
general distinction between the pavement-like plates of the actinal
side, extending to the junction of the actinal with the abactinal sys-
tem, although we do not always find so regular a peripheric series of
plates. This is the case in Culcita (see Figs. 4, 5). Where the actinal
plates acquire a great thickness, forming a lower floor through which
the passages between the plates and beams make an intricate system of
openings placed at different levels (Fig. 4), while the abactinal system is
reduced to a comparatively simple series of rods having the general ar-
rangement of triangular network with the longer or shorter rods separat-
ing them set on edge and imbricated (#¥g. 5). The whole limestone sys-
tem is, as in Asteropsis, entirely imbedded in the thick epidermal iayer
in which the plates have been deposited, so that but a trace of the lime-
stone network appears when seen either in a natural condition or merely

in dried specimens. The interbrachial arch of Culcita is reduced to a few
15°

108 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

vertical plates rising close to the actinal ring from the interbrachial in-

terambulacral plate.

Fig. 4.*

This species of Asteropsis occurs on the West Coast, from Vancouver's
Island to San Francisco.

The general arrangement of the limestone plates of the European As-
teropsis pulvillus does not differ materially from the one here figured.
The European species carries spines on the edge of the marginal as
well as of the interambulacral plates, and the interbrachial arch is more
fully developed, separating adjoining arms more completely.

Pentaceros reticulatus.
Pentaceros reticulatus Linck, 1733. De Stellis Marinis.

tag Mie ge 2

Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, on Pl. XVI, show the extent to which the lime-
stone network of the actinal and abactinal surfaces is hidden by the
spines and granules covering the plates and rods of the two surfaces.
Seen from the abactinal side, the network consists of a central plate
more or less hexagonal, with projecting angles connected together by
short stout rods, overlapped by the plates, so as to form an open tri-
angular network, covered by minute granules, and in their interstices
giving passage to the thickly clustered water-tubes (Pl. XVI. Mig. 1).
The same granulation covers the plates and rods as well as the greater

* Fig. 4 is an interior view of the actinal plates of a Culcita, as seen in an alcoholic specimen, of
which the abactinal floor has been removed to show the intricate system of passages lying between the
limestone rods. a 6, abactinal system; s, section across a limestone rod; jf, interior muscular sheath con-
necting limestone rods; 0, passages between adjoining plates.

+ Fig. 5, edge of a Culcita, to show the gradual passage of the open reticulation of the abactinal

surface into the closely packed vertical wedges mp, forming the outer edge of the disk of a Culcita.

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 109

part of the spines scattered over the abactinal area, leaving but a short
piece of the end of the spines bare. The meshwork of course becomes
closer towards the extremity of the arms; the plates and rods are of
considerable thickness, as is seen in their section along the edge of the
arm (see My. 5, Pl. XVI.).

The junction of the actinal and abactinal systems forms a double row
of large contiguous plates carrying a heavy spine (see Figs. 4, 5, Pl. XVI).
The pavement-like plates of the actinal surface are arranged in rows
parallel in a general way to the longitudinal axis of the arms (Pl. XVI.
Fig. 4), and also in indistinct rows at right angles to this (Pl. XVI.
Fig. 2). They are well covered by a coarser granulation than that of
the abactinal surface, the central part of the plate carrying a cluster of
three to five larger granules, becoming in some cases nearly fixed spines ;
these granules, on the actinal surface of the interambulacral plates, become
a large flat pointed movable spine, with smaller flat lateral spines, rounded
at their extremity. Round the edge of the interambulacral pieces forming
the jaws they increase materially in size, becoming very prominent mouth-
papille (Pl. XVI. Figs. 2, 3).

In all the pentagonal Starfishes the fact that the jaw pieces are simply
the modified interambulacral plates of the last joint is very apparent, as
well as that the interbrachial plates forming the base of the interbrachial
arch are also only a modified part of the interambulacral plates formed
by the soldering together of the inner lateral spaces of the opposite
interambulacral plates of the joint of the jaw.

The interbrachial arches are composed of comparatively few large solid
plates ; their breadth varies materially in different specimens, either nearly
filling the whole space between the actinal ring and the angle of the
arms, or limited to a shorter wall next to the mouth. The ambulacral
system is composed of tall plates rising well above the actinal floor,
forming a broad median groove, seen from the abactinal side (PI. XVI.
Fig. 5); when seen in profile (Pl. XVI. Wig. 7), large elliptical spaces are
left for the passage of the powerful ambulacral suckers (PI. XVI. Fig. 2).
The interambulacral plates are large, distinct, and of great thickness, with
their actinal face well developed (see Figs. 4, 7, Pl. XVI.); the last joints
of the plates of the actinal ring are prominent, raised high above the
interbrachial plates. The jaws are large, projecting far into the central
actinal space (Pl. XVI. Migs. 4, 5, 7); the papille when extended meet,

110 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

nearly closing the actinostome, only leaving (Pl. XVI. Figs. 2, 3) a small
pentagonal opening.

The interambulacral spines, when the suckers are drawn in close, com-
pletely cover the ambulacral furrow (see Mig. 2, Pl. XVI., where they
are closed over a portion of the ambulacra at the base of one of the
arms).

Pentaceros reticulatus is found on both sides of the Atlantic, at Cape
Verde Islands, and in the West Indies, extending north to South Carolina.
Several other West India species of Echinoderms are also found at Cape
Verde Islands and on the main coast opposite.

In the pentagonal Starfishes the plates forming the so-called jaws are
huge interambulacral plates extending far towards the centre of the
mouth, where they nearly meet, to form, with the papille, the so-called
jaws and teeth of Starfishes. So far we have not been able in any way
to homologize the teeth of Echini with any of the solid parts of Star-
fishes or Ophiurans; the auricles of the *regular Echini and the peculiar
spur of the interior of the test near the mouth of some Spatangi being
the only processes which appear to have analogous position. For a com-
parison of the Starfish mouth parts with those of Ophiurans compare the
figures here given with those of Lyman in the Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoil.,
Vol. IIlL., from which it is evident that in Starfishes and Ophiurans the
mouth parts are strictly homologous, and are formed by the terminal
oral interambulacral plates. Comparing profile figures of the oral ex-
tremity of one side of an arm in Culcita (/¥%. 7), Acanthaster (F%y. 6),
and Solaster (7g. 8), we cannot fail to be struck with the great size
of the terminal oral interambulacral plate aip, carrying the mouth-
papillae mp.

In the views of the arms, seen from the interior (the abactinal sys-
tem being removed), the great development of the oral terminal plate
(ac) is well shown. In J%g. 6’, Acanthaster, Fug. 8’, Solaster, and Fig. 9,
Anthenea, the lettering corresponds to the profile figures. The only addi-
tional notation introduced is 7p for the interbrachial partition, and 7 p
for the spur forming the basal plate of the interbrachial partition. The
mobility of the arms of Starfishes depends entirely upon the comparative
width of the ambulacral and interambulacral plates compared in their
length, upon the solidity and extent of the interbrachial partition, and

the extent to which the abactinal system corresponds in its articulation

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES,

111

to the number of plates of the ambulacral system. Genera where there
are large marginal plates, as in Astropecten, and the pentagonal Star-

Fig. 6’.
aie mp
Fig. 8’. y, = 5 am .
°g f y ‘ | aap
a f} us h -
7 if ‘ i er
—

5.
ad

S
&

=.
f

Gig

——
i
ze
rc

Ub i

Cok
1g

\

—

et

ale
See

5
—_
iii}
—
oe
a
——-

\ My ’ a
sp a ao 7
cu ep

* In Figs. 6, 7, 8, c!r are the small plates or spurs forming the ridge covering the ambulacral groove ;
a’ c, the corresponding plates of the ambulacral plates a’; ao, the opening for passage of ambulacral ten-
tacle; ai, the interambulacral plates carrying papille p., The large terminal plate @’c at the actinostome
encroaches upon the corresponding ambulacral plate, so as to cover it by a spur a@’s, so much so that,
when seen from above, this plate appears to be directly connected with the terminal interambulacral
plate aip, but the profile view clearly shows in all these genera that the terminal plates, although of
different proportions, do not differ in their arrangement from those forming the bedy of the arm.
The spur a's of the terminal oral plate a’c sometimes forms a secondary cup-shaped plate along the
edge of the arms; in Figs. 7, s a’, and 8, a's, this plate is quite prominent; while in Jy. 6 it is less

developed,

112 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

fishes, or Starfishes in which the abactinal system is stiffened by -heavy
interbrachial partitions extending from the oral ring to the angle of the
arms, or Starfishes where the abactinal reticulation is extremely solid, as
in Ophidiaster, are all capable of but slight movements. On the contrary,

Starfishes in which, as in most of the Asteracanthidz, the

Fig. 10.
, reticulation is loose, the interbrachial partitions reduced often

« toa film, or to a mere arch of limestone plates, and in which
¢' the ambulacral plates are high, are much more flexible.
; ™~°’ The extremes are found in such forms as Anthenea and

aes Brisinga. In some genera the arms are rendered more stiff
by long flat spurs extending on the inner side of the actinal surface from
the sides of the ambulacral plates towards the edge of
the arms (see a’ 6, Fig. 1, and a’ b, Fig. 8’). These spurs
are also highly developed in Cribrella (/%y. 10), where,
as in the preceding figures, they conceal the interam-

Fig. ll.

bulacral plates, which are small compared with the
ambulacral plates of Culcita, Anthenea, Acanthaster, and
the like. The interambulacral plates retain their pre-
ponderance even towards the extremity of the arms
quite near the tip, where the ambulacral and interam-
bulacral plates become separated from the abactinal system proper (see
Fig. 11, the tip of an arm of Culcita).

Solaster endeca.
Solaster endeca Fornes, 1839. Mem. Wern. Soc.

Asterias endeca LIN.

Po AVE

In Solaster endeca the arrangement and general structure of the am-
bulacral and interambulacral plates are identical with those of Crossaster ;
the plates are, however, more closely articulated, and the basal ambu-
lacral plates attain a still greater prominence even than in Crossaster.
The mouth-papille are also more powerful. The fundamental difference
between these genera, Crossaster and Solaster, lies in the structure of the
abactinal floor (compare Pl. XVIL /%y. 1, and Pl. XII. Fig. 4). The ac-
tinal floor between the arms is composed of small, somewhat elongated
plates, arranged in more or less regularly diverging rows, quite similar
to those of Crossaster, The interbrachial partitions can hardly be in-

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 113

tended for the support of the abactinal floor, either in this genus or in
Crossaster. In Solaster it forms a broad band when it connects with the
abactinal surface, and is gradually changed into a mere chord at the point
of attachment to the interbrachial basal plates. These partitions are
all exactly similar to the one supporting the stone canal. At the base
of the arms the sides of adjoining arms come together, forming rounded
angles, and do not, in the specimen examined, form an interbrachial par-
tition for the support of the abactinal floor (see Pl. XVII Fig. 3). The
reticulation of the sides of the arms and of the abactinal region is com-
pact, composed of small meshes forming diagonal lines across the arms,
and more or less irregularly radiating lines from the centre of the disk.
All the plates of the actinal floor carry tufts of small spines (Pl. XVIL
Fig. 2), arranged usually in parallel rows, corresponding to the long axis
of the plates; so that on the actinal side the spines of the interambu-
lacral plates are at right angles to the arms; on the plates forming the
triangular interbrachial space, the spines diverge from the actinostome,
while those of the plates at the angles of the arms, of the arms themselves,
and of the abactinal surface, form more or less circular tufts arranged
on the lines of the plates of these surfaces.

Solaster endeca and Cribrella sanguinolenta are both found on the two
sides of the Atlantic, occurring in Norway, Denmark, Great Britain, the north-
west coast of France, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and as far south as Massa-

chusetts Bay ; C. sanguinolenta extending as far south as Long Island Sound.

Cribrella sanguinolenta.
Cribrella sanguinolenta LUTK. 1857. Vidensk. Meddel.
Asterias sanguinolenta O. F. Mtiu. 1776. Zool. Dan. Prod.

Pl. XVIII.

The genus Cribrella is most closely allied to Solaster. It has, like So-
laster proper, a compact system of limestone network, forming, when de-
nuded of spines, small meshes on the abactinal surface (Pl. XVII. Fig. 1),
while the actinal surface and a part of the edge of the arms are covered
with larger plates, forming longitudinal rows parallel to the longer axis
of the arms, with more or less irregular shorter rows at right angles to
the axis (Pl. XVIII. My. 4). The arrangement of the spines on this net-
work is very similar in the two genera, consisting of short sharp spines
placed on the abactinal surface, either in clusters or in semicircular fan-

114 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

shaped rows as they approach the edge and lower surface of the arms;
the sharp spines often become quite blunt in larger specimens. On the
actinal surface the spines are longer and sharper, usually arranged in lines
parallel with the longitudinal axis of the plates upon which they are
earried (Pl. XVIII. Fig. 2). They gradually increase in size towards the
ambulacral furrow; the spines of the interambulacral plates are still longer,
and those which form the actinal papille attain the greatest develop-
ment (Pl. XVIII. Fig. 3). The above features this genus has in common
with Solaster, differing from it, however, in not having in the interbrachial
angles the sharp line of demarcation between the arrangement of the
plates and rods forming the actinal and abactinal surfaces. The genera
differ also greatly in the structure of the interbrachial arch. In Cri-
brella the arch is well developed (Pl. XVUI. Fy’. 7), starting from
the angle of the arms and extending the whole way, between the
two floors, towards the actinal ring, while in Solaster the arch is lim-
ited to a free loop, swinging between the abactinal surface and _ its
basal interbrachial plates at the actinal ring in the interambulacral space.
The last actinal joint of the ambulacral system is large, the ambulacral
plates distant, and the interambulacral plates prominent, with a wide
actinal face, upon which are placed numerous spines of different sizes,
arranged in rows at right angles to the ambulacral furrow (Pl. XVII.
Fig. 2).

On the actinal surface two to four water-tubes pass through the free
space enclosed by the limestone rods; the water-tubes on the actinal sur-
face are less numerous, but longer.

Astropecten articulatus.
Astropecten articulatus M. T. 1842. Syst. d. Ast.
Asterias articulatus Say, 1825. Journ. Acad. Nat. Scien. Phila.

Pt. AIX

On account of the great prominence of the marginal plates of the
actinal and abactinal surfaces in this genus, the limestone network is
reduced to a small surface. This is particularly the case on the actinal
surface, where the reticulation corresponding to the actinal surface of
the arms is reduced to a few minute plates between the interambulacral
and marginal plates placed at the angle of the arms near the base of the
Jaws (see Figs. 4, 7, Pl. XLX.). The remainder of the lower side of the

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES 115

arm is occupied by the marginal plates; these project beyond the mar-
ginal plate of the abactinal surface ; forming, when seen from above, what
appears like a second row of marginal plates (see I’. 3, Pl. XIX.). The
abactinal limestone network extends over the disk and over the narrow
elongate space left on the upper side of the arms between the marginal
plates (Pl. XIX. Figs. 1, 3, 6). The marginal plates are firmly soldered
together, leaving no space between the floors where they are placed,
with the exception of a single large opening for the passage of water-
tubes along the line of junction of two plates, across the arms; the whole
space in the arms between the plates being thus reduced to a narrow
flattened space, of which the larger part is occupied by the ambulacral
plates (Pl. XIX. Fig. 5).

The interbrachial arches are reduced to a thin partition at the angle
of the arms, where the abactinal marginal plates attain their greatest
height. The abactinal limestone network is, when seen from above, found
to be closely covered by short club-like spines, often with a broad base
and constriction in the middle below the head, attaining their greatest
diameter a short distance from the base of the arms, passing gradually
into mere granules towards the extremity of the arms and the centre of
the disk ; these spines are attached to the abactinal limestone network
(Pl. XIX. Fig. 3) by a very shallow sucker, shaped like a saucer, with
edges slightly turned up. On the tip of these spines are arranged concen-
trically a number of minute spines more or less cylindrical, with rounded
ends, often completely filling the interval between adjoining spines, so
that they appear to form at first glance a smooth surface (Pl. XIX. Fig. 1)
over the whole space lying between the marginal plates. The grooves
between the adjoining marginal plates are lined by similar, but even
more delicate spines, which appear to perform the same functions as the
delicate spines on the fascioles of Echini, namely, to sift the foreign matter
contained in the water admitted to the water-tubes.

Seen from the actinal side, the abactinal floor consists of small circular
plates (Pl. XIX. Fig. 6) corresponding to the flat saucer-like plates of
the centre of the disk; seen from the opposite side, these gradually pass |
into the flattened plates closely soldered together, which extend into the
arms, leaving only, however, on each side of the solid central band, a
number of passages for the water-tubes (see PI. XIX. Fv. 6). The gen-
eral surface of the marginal plates of the abactinal side is covered by

16

116 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF SOME

short rounded spines passing mainly into granules similar to those cover-
ing the abactinal surface of the arms; they are in addition provided with
one or two long flat triangular movable spines similar to those covering
the outer edge of the actinal side of the marginal plates, which are
arranged in irregular diagonal lines across the plates, varying in size,
generally flattened and triangular; but we find with them, along the
edge of the furrows separating the plates, slender spines similar to those
of the grooves of the abactinal side.

The interambulacral plates carry flat spatula-shaped spines placed at
right angles to the longitudinal axis of the arms; these plates, when
denuded, are seen to be in contact with the marginal plates, except near
the actinal ring (Pl. XIX. Fig. 5). Spines similar to those carried by the
interambulacral plates, only shorter, cover the actinal side of the jaws
(Pl. XIX. Mg. 2).

The ambulacral plates seen from the interior of the arm occupy, with
the base of the interambulacral plates, the whole space between the mar-
ginal plates; the median furrow formed by the junction of adjoining
plates is deep; the ambulacral plates themselves are narrow, elongate,
spreading somewhat at their junction with the interambulacral plates,
leaving a wide space for the passage of the ambulacral feet.

It is not uncommon in this genus to find the ambulacral and interam-
bulacral plates soldered together, either wholly or in part, so that it be-
comes difficult to trace the line of contact.

In Astropecten and Luidia the interambulacral plates of the last basal
joint of the adjoining arms are connected together, forming a prominent
point at the angle of the arms; but those plates which carry the mouth-
papilla are not, as in other families of Starfishes, at a lower level than the
adjoining interambulacral plates. The jaws are on the same level, in direct
continuation of the other interambulacral plates, only somewhat more
prominent (see Pl. XIX. Migs. 7, 8).

Astropecten articulatus and Luidia clathrata extend from New Jersey
to the West Indies. Luidia clathrata is one of the most common Star-
_fishes of the sandy coasts of North and South Carolina.

NORTH AMERICAN STARFISHES. 117

Luidia clathrata.
Luidia clathrata LturK. 1859. Vidensk. Meddel.
Asterias clathrata Say, 1825. Journ. Acad. Nat. Scien. Phila.

y i ee D.&

The genera Astropecten and Luidia are most closely allied, not only
by their possessing but two rows of pointed ambulacral suckers (PI. XX.
Fig. 2), but also by the structure of the limestone network of the two
surfaces of the spines and other appendages covering them. As in Astro-
pecten, the actinal limestone network is limited to a small triangular
area close to the mouth in the angle between two arms; this area reminds
us of the interbrachial space on the actinal side covered by small plates in
such genera as Solaster and Crossaster; with the latter they are closely
connected. The rest of the actinal surface of the arms is covered by
the narrow elongated marginal plates which correspond in number to the
ambulacral and interambulacral plates (Pl. XX. Mg. 4).

The actinal marginal plates are, as in Astropecten, separated at the
surface by deep grooves edged by minute spines less numerous along
the main lines of the grooves than in the grooves of Astropecten, but
much more crowded at the openings near the interambulacral plates, form-
ing a regular sieve from plate to plate. The spines when removed leave
upon the face of the plates markings exactly similar to those found as
bands upon KEchini, and known as fascioles. The spines carried upon
these minute granules are similar in every respect to the spines of the
fascioles of Echini. Their function is evidently identical, namely, that of
filtering and clearing the water before it reaches the water-tubes. Their
use is much more apparent than in the Spatangoids, where the bands
of fascioles are really of use only when lining the edges of the. sunken
ambulacra of such genera as Hemiaster, while their extension from the
tip of one ambulacral rosette to the other seems to be a remnant of a
structure having at the present day in Echini but little if any use, while
in Spatangoids it still performs its function of accumulating minute
muddy particles floating in the water, which would to a certain extent
impede the access of clean water to their lobed ambulacral tentacles.
I have not observed these fascioles in other genera besides Astropecven
and Luidia. The presence, however, in some genera of minute spines
arranged in tufts on a solid basis projecting above the general surface
shows us a regular transition from the closed area formed by them on

118 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARD PARTS OF STARFISHES.

the abactinal surface between the marginal plates in such genera as
Astropecten and Luidia, to a somewhat looser arrangement in Solaster
endeca and Cribrella. This arrangement is still further modified in
Crossaster papposa and Pycnopodia, and leads to such spines as are
found in Asterina and Palmipes, where the tufts consist of a smaller
number of minute spines more uniformly scattered over the surface, thus
forming an approach to the usual distribution of spines in Asteracan-
thion. Finally we pass to genera where the spines are long and few in
number, and do not, as in the genera of the Asteriade proper, perform
the part of sieves.

In place of the single row of large marginal plates along the abactinal
eage of the arms, we find in Luidia~a series of much smaller plates, cor-
responding in number, as on the actinal side, to the number of ambula-
cral plates. There are sometimes four or five rows of such plates, form-
ing regular longitudinal and transverse rows (Pl. XX. Fig. 3), followed
towards the median band of the arm by more irregularly arranged plates.
These plates form the base of prominent pillars, somewhat constricted in
the centre, flaring at the extremity, surmounted at the tip by short spines
or merely granules articulating in a shallow socket. These spines are
so closely packed as to leave but very narrow passages between ad-
joining rows (see Pl. XX. Fg. 1), generally mere slits edged by
minute spines, so that longitudinal and transverse passages run _ the
whole length of the arms for the passage of water, which must be all
carefully sifted before it enters either through the passages protected by
the fascioles or through those screened by the minute spines of the abac-
tinal surface.

The plates of the abactinal limestone networks are completely sol-
dered (Pl. XX. Ivy. 6), leaving but few irregular rows of holes for the
passage of the water-tubes to the abactinal side, where they are com-
pletely sheltered under the floor formed by the minute spines of the
abactinal surface of the arms.

In no other genera of Starfishes do we find so great a simplicity in
the structure of the plates of the actinal ring as in Astropecten and
Luidia. Usually the ambulacral and interambulacral plates of the arms
differ in no essential way except at the actinal ring formed in most Star-
fishes by such a modification of the last joint as to make it somewhat
difficult to trace the homology of all the parts. This last joint is extremely

FASCIOLES OF STARFISHES. 119

simple in Astropecten, being but slightly modified and differing from the
others mainly in length. Thus the homology I have attempted to trace
between the jaws can there be seen in its simplest form (PI. XX. Figs.
4,5, 8). The plates of the extremity of the arms are soldered together
when seen from above (Pl. XX. /%gs. 9-11), forming a prominent knob
with a deep groove on the actinal side for the passage of the ambulacral
tentacles.

The spines of the actinal side increase slightly in length towards the
outer edge of the arms, where there is found a prominent row of larger
flattened spines fringing the edge of the arms.

The actinal face of the jaw-plates is prominent and thickly studded
with irregularly arranged minute spines, forming a marked feature at
the actinal angle of the arms, between adjoining ambulacral rows (Pl. XX.
Fig. 7).

The madreporic body is often irregular in outline (Pl. XX. Fig. 12),
and is frequently completely hidden by the surrounding spines of the
abactinal surface.

FASCIOLES OF STARFISHES.

The description of the accompanying figures of Luidia and of Astro-
pecten will explain the disposition of the minute spines of those genera
which I have homologized with the fascioles of Echini. Jy. 12 repre-
sents a transverse section of an arm of Astropecten,
ad being the ambulacral, a7 the interambulacral, plate,
with its spines p. Jp is the plate on the edge of ts
the lower side of the arm, and /p’ the correspond- oe
ing plate of the upper edge of the arm, ¢p being

the small columnar plates surmounted by tufts of
minute spines forming the close covering of the central part of the
abactinal side of the arm. Tbe surfaces s of the upper and lower plates
on the edge of the arm are the articulating surfaces which rise somewhat
above the surrounding edge of the plate, leaving a flat space g” on the
lower arm-plate, g’” on the upper arm-plate, and from g to g/ between these
two plates, through which water from outside can circulate as in a groove
all round the articulation, and thus find its way between the columnar
plates of the abactinal surface of the arm. ‘The smail papilla which

120 FASCIOLES OF STARFISHES,

cover these marginal plates, but more especially the minute spines

LA

crowded upon the surfaces of the grooves g, g’, g’, and gy” form an effective
sieve, and in thus freeing the water from its impurities before it circu-
lates through the channels between the abactinal plates, act exactly
like the fascioles of Echini. Only in Starfishes we can much more
readily see their great use in the economy of the animal, while their
action in the Echini is much less efficient. In a profile view of a part of
the edge of the arm of Astropecten (F%y. 13), the openings, left for the
passage of the water, which are lined by these so-called fascioles are very
plainly defined. 7p and /p’ are the lower and upper marginal plates, with
the deep grooves g” between the lower plates and the furrows g’” be-
tween the upper plates, these furrows being completely arched over by
the minute spines.acting as meshes of a sieve. At the angle of the
junction between the shallower horizontal grooves

Fig. 13.

and the deeper vertical grooves a prominent open-
_ ing g is formed for the passage of the bulk of
the ipsa shai is —_ admitted to ous —

In Luidia tke a difference in the mateo
of the fascioles is the greater number of openings through which the
water is admitted to circulate between the columnar plates covering the
abactinal surface and a part of the arms. In Fig. 14 we have a section
of the arm of a Luidia, corresponding to Pig. Fig. 14.

12 of an Astropecten. The lettering is the same,
only, there being a larger number of upper
marginal plates, the passages between them (g,
G,95,9 59) ave more numerous. The lower

marginal plate alone is as prominent as in
Astropecten. The articulation forms a continuous ring
round the arm, broken by the columnar plates sur-
mounted with their tufts of minute spines. These tufts
are so thick as to form a uniform ‘shield almost solid
and unbroken on the abactinal surface of the arms.
Seen from below (Fig. 15), the deep groove g of
the lower marginal plate edged with minute spines, the fascioles, is well

shown. <A view of the edge of the arm of Luidia (ig. 16, correspond-
ing to Fig. 13 of Astropecten) shows the small rectangular areas into

FASCIOLES OF STARFISHES. 121

which the edge of the arm is divided by the deep furrows, allowing
the passage of the water; at their crossing, the furrows form larger,

more prominent openings; the edges of all these rectan- Fig. 16.
gular spines are crowded with fascioles. The genus Cri- pe
brella is interesting as showing the gradual transition of ; Lp'
the interambulacral and marginal papille into tufts of # eh Bee
such minute spines that the difference between them Bait 69

and true fascioles is hardly appreciable. In fact, in So-
laster we have already certain parts of the surface covered by such

: minute spines that we must consider them as rudi-
ein mentary fascioles and as probably acting as such.
Ig. 17, a cross section of Cribrella, shows a close
approximation to the cross section of Luidia as far as

the tufts of spines are concerned; these need to be

but slightly more crowded to form a
most effective sieve. Seen in profile in a section (Fi. 18),
the tufts of spines, the interambulacral papille, are seen oto we
to be somewhat more crowded into tufts than is the case
in such genera as Asteracanthion. A similar arrangement
is also found in Solaster (see Fy. 8), where the spines of the interam-
bulacral plates, with the exception of those of the so-called jaws, are

arranged in closely crowded tufts.

NOTE.

The arrangement of the Starfishes into families from the study of their
hard parts does not differ materially from the families adopted by Perrier
in his Revision of the group.* He himself has in a general way made
use of the characters furnished by the skeleton to limit the families he
has recognized. The modifications we should suggest go so far as to
transfer Pycnopodia from the Asteriadz proper, and Crossaster from the
Echinasteridze, placing them in close proximity to Brisinga, while Solaster
(limited) and Cribrella would be placed with the Asterinidx.

The disposition of the digestive cavity and its appendages does not
appear to furnish systematic characters of great value. The anatomy of
the ovaries of the coecal appendages of the digestive cavity proper with

* Asteriade, Echinasteride, Linckiadew, Goniasteride, Asterinide, Astropectinide, Pterasteride,

Brisingide.

122 FASCIOLES OF STARFISHES.

its abactinal pouch is remarkably uniform in groups apparently differing so
widely as the extreme pentagonal Starfishes, and the long slender-armed
genera like Ophidiaster, Asteracanthion, or even the apparently abnormal
group to which Brisinga, Pycnopodia, and Crossaster belong.

I do not give a list of our North American Starfishes, much less a
Synonymic Catalogue, as it would be most incomplete and premature.
Quite a number of species collected by Mr. Pourtalés in deep water be-
tween Florida and Cuba are at present in the hands of Professor Perrier
for determination; of these several are undoubtedly new to our fauna.
Numerous additions have recently been made by Professor Verrill, while
engaged on the dredgings made in connection with the United States
Fish Commission. In addition the “Challenger” expedition, while cruising
in the Atlantic from Halifax to Bermudas, hence to New York, and then to
St. Thomas, added quite a number of remarkable forms to our American
species. As these collections are either in process of identification or
about to be worked up, any general list now given would soon become
antiquated. The Starfish fauna of North America, as far as now known,
can be made out with sufficient accuracy from the articles by Professor Per-
rier on the “Stellérides du Musseum in the Archives de Zoologie Expéri-
mentale’ for 1875 and 1876, although the Synonymy he has adopted
for several of our species will probably be modified when larger material
than is now available has been collected. The principal localities of speci-
mens in the Museum collections are added.

™~

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

To avoid useless repetitions in the description of the Figures, the same letters are used, throughout these Plates
[I. - VII.], to denote identical parts. It wili greatly facilitate the reading of this memoir to become familiar with

the notation here adopted.

EXPLANATION OF THE LETTERING ON PuiATes I.-VIII.

a, anus.

b, dorsal or water pore, madreporic opening.

c, alimentary canal.

d, digestive cavity, stomach.

d’, abactinal water-tubes in angle of rays of young
Starfish.

d'', water-tubes of lateral line of rays of young Star-
fish.

d'', water-tubes of median line of rays of young Star-
fish.

e, eye of Starfish at base of odd tentacle (¢’).

e', median anal arms of Brachiolaria.

e'’, dorsal anal arms of Brachiolaria.

e/’’, ventral anal arms of Brachiolaria.

ée!’"!, dorsal oral arms of Brachiolaria.

e5, ventral oral arms of Brachiolaria.

e®, odd terminal oral arm of Brachiolaria.

J, brachiolar arms.

J’; branch of water-tube (w w’) leading into f

Jf", odd brachiolar arms.

Jf!" surface-warts at base of odd brachiolar arm (/7’).

h, hole of cul de sae of water-tube w.

1, central abactinal plate of young Starfish.

1,,1,,1,, . . interbrachial abactinal plates of young
Starfish.

a> !9, lg, . - brachial plates of young Starfish.

m, mouth.

m’, pistol-shaped oral pouch of esophagus.

m!', anal pouch of cesophagus.

n, opening for passage of ambulacral sucker.

0, esophagus.

Pp, spines on edge of ray of Starfish.

P,, spines of exterior rows along abactinal surface of
rays.

Po) spines of middle row on abactinal surface of rays.

Ps, central spine of abactinal surface of Starfish, on
central plate (/,).

Pz plate at junction of adjacent rays (ovarian plate).

p', p", different forms of pedicellariz.

r, abactinal surface.

r', first set of five limestone rods which appear on
abactinal surface, and which eventually become
the brachial plates (/,).

r'', second set of five interbrachial limestone rods,
which eventually become the interbrachial plates
(h).

ril!—rll!, rays of young Starfish; rj’ being ray next
to madreporic body, when Brachiolaria is seen
from the dorsal side.

stand s, actinal region.

t, t, t, . . tentacles of the young Starfish.

t’, odd tentacle.

tv’, ambulacral tube.

u, lateral ambulacral plates, surmounted by spine.

u’, median ambulacral plates with very small spines.

v, vibratile chord, anal part.

v', vibratile chord, oral part.

w, water-tube, developing abactinal area.

w’, water-tube of Brachiolaria leading to madreporic
opening (b), developing actinal area.

w w', portion of water-tube of Brachiolaria formed by
junction of w and w’.

In all the figures of the Brachiolaria (Plates I.-IV.),
the attitude which has been given to them is not
a natural attitude. This has been done pur-
posely, for the sake of making the comparison
with the memoirs of Miiller easier. The only
ficure of a Brachiolaria which is in its natural
attitude is that of Pl. VIII. Fig. 8. The young
Brachiolaria does not, however, move with the
anal part below, till the latter is loaded down by
the development of the Starfish, and we see
them swimming about, before that time, almost
in every possible attitude,

124 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puates I., 11. Emsryotocy or ASTERACANTHION BERYLINUS Ag.

Pl. I. Figs. 22-28, Pl. Il. Figs. 2-19, Seyphistoma stage ; Pl. II. Figs. 20-24, Tornaria stage; Pl. Il. Figs. 25-28, Brachina stage.

PLATE i

Fig. 1. A mature egg, surrounded by spermatic particles, soon after the artificial fecundation. The egg
has assumed a spherical shape, and contains the germinative vesicle and dot. ‘There is no trace of
any interval between the yolk and the outer envelope.

Fig. 2. The germinative vesicle has disappeared, but the germinative dot remains.

Fig. 3. The germinative dot is no longer visible; the yolk has contracted, and is separated by a slight
space from the outer envelope. The egg has all the appearance of having already gone through the
segmentation ; the whole yolk being made up of small spherical cells, resembling very minute spheres
of segmentation, although the segmentation has not yet commenced. Two hours after fecundation.

Fig. 4 shows the first trace of segmentation, consisting in a depression on one side of the yolk.

Fig. 5. The yolk has become flattened on opposite poles; the Richtungsblischen are visible on one side
of the yolk. ‘a

Fig. 6 shows the yolk divided into two united ellipsoids, the whole yolk rotating slowly, always in one
direction, from right to left. The Richtungsblischen are at one pole of the axis of segmentation.

Fig. 7. The two segments of the yolk have entirely separated. The Richtungsblischen are likewise iso-
lated at one pole of the axis of segmentation.

Fig. 8. First trace of a further segmentation; one half of the yolk is partially divided.

Fig. 9. The two yolk segments are about to separate into four.

Fig. 10, The four yolk segments are all distinct, and almost transformed into regular spheres.

Fig. 11, Different view of Fig. 10, showing the position of the segments.

Fig. 12. The yolk about to separate into eight spheres.

Fig. 13 shows eight spheres of segmentation, all of which are more or less spherical; the spheres are
arranged in two clusters of four, on opposite sides of the envelope.

Fig. 14. This view of the egg shows the tendency of the spheres of segmentation to arrange themselves
on the circumference.

Fig. 15. The yolk is divided into sixteen spheres.

Fig. 16. ‘The shell of segmentation is composed of thirty-two spheres ; owing to the position from which
the egg is viewed, only half the shell of segmentation is visible.

Fig. 17. The thirty-two spheres are again subdivided.

Fig. 18. The spheres of segmentation are still smaller than in the preceding figure.

Fig. 19. These spheres have become so small, that the walls of the spherical shell formed by them can be
readily distinguished

Fig 20. The walls have become still more distinct in consequence of the close packing of the small
spheres, which are now somewhat polygonal, owing to their pressure upon each other.

Fig. 21 represents an egg ten hours after segmentation; the spheres are still more polygonal; the rotation
of the yolk is quite rapid, and the embryo is ready to break through the outer membrane; the shell
envelope is very distinct from the inner contents, and has a uniform thickness,

Fig. 22. An embryo after its escape from the egg; the wall is no longer of the same thickness through-
out, but has become very much thickened at one pole (a), while the spheres of segmentation are
somewhat indistinct.

Fig. 23. The embryo has been slightly flattened at the pole (a), where the wall is thickest; the planula,
if we may so call it in its present condition, reached this stage at the end of about eleven hours.

Fig. 24. The wall of the flattened pole has been pressed in so as to curve slightly inward (a).

Fig. 25. The depression (a) has become much deeper, and the spheres of segmentation have entirely dis-
appeared, twelve hours after fecundation. The depression at @ assumes here somewhat the aspect of
a digestive cavity.

Fig. 26. Seventeen hours after fecundation; the embryo has lost its spherical shape and has become
somewhat pear-shaped ; a transverse section is still circular. The depression made by the thickened
walls has increased in depth; the opening (a) performs the functions of a mouth and anus; d indi-
cates the bottom of the digestive cavity.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 125

Fig. 27. Twenty hours after fecundation ; the depression has the appearance of a small pouch (/) hang-
ing in a pear-shaped body with circular section, showing no deviation from the absolute radiate type ;
the opening (a) still performing the double functions of mouth and anus. Currents of water circulate
in this cavity, as they would in the digestive cavity of any Polyp or Acaleph in about the same stage
of development.

Fig. 28. Twenty-two hours after fecundation; the embryo has become somewhat more cylindrical, losing
its pear-shaped form, but is still circular when seen ia a transverse section. The cavity (¢) has
slightly expanded at the closed extremity, and is comparatively deeper and wider; the walls of the
body are much reduced in thickness, except at the perforated region. The body is somewhat translu-
cent, and slightly tinged with ochre color. The opening (a) still serves as a mouth, although, in
more advanced stages, a second opening is formed, which is the true mouth, at which time the present
mouth then becomes the anus.

PLATE II.

In Figs 1, 3, 9-17, the digestive cavity alone is represented.

Fig. 1. The digestive cavity of Fig. 2, seen by itself from above, has expanded into a large reservoir at
the extremity, the walls of which are quite thin.

Fig. 2. The embryo of Fig. 1 seen in profile; the cavity is no longer in the axis, but is bent to one side.
The larva has also lost its symmetrical outline, and the dorsal part of the perforated extremity projects
somewhat beyond the opening of the present mouth (the future anus).

Fig. 3. The digestive sac of a larva somewhat more advanced than Fig. 2, in which the present mouth (a)
(the future anus) has been brought to the lower side.

Fig. 4. The larva of Fig. 3 seen in profile; the pouch at the closed extremity of the bent digestive cavity
is now nearer the lower side than in Fig. 2, having approached the slight depression (m) placed in the
middle of the larva.

Fig. 5. A larva somewhat more advanced, seen in profile, in which the pouch has actually come in con-
tact with the wall of the lower side at m. The dorsal region of the perforated extremity projects
still more beyond the opening of the present mouth (a) (the future anus) than in the preceding
stage (Fig. 4). The digestive cavity is not yet divided into distinct regions.

Fig. 6. The same larva as Fig. 5, seen from above, forty-two hours after fecundation; large epithelia-
cells have appeared on the surface.

Fig. 7. A somewhat more advanced larva, seen in profile; the digestive cavity is no longer a simple bent
tube, as in Fig. 5; it is strongly contracted near the extremities, one of them projecting upwards (w).
At the point of contact of the digestive cavity with the outer wall at m, a second opening has been
formed, connecting by a short tube with the pouch of the digestive cavity. This second-formed open-
ing (m) is the true mouth, while the first-formed opening (a) now becomes the anus, after having, up
to this stage, performed the functions of mouth and anus; end of the second day.

Fig. 8. The same larva as Fig. 7, seen from above, to show the position of the lobes (w, w’) formed on
each side of the pouch of the digestive cavity (¢), which in Fig. 7 appear like projecting angles (vw).

Fig. 9. Isolated digestive cavity of a more advanced larva, showing still more plainly the transverse con-
tractions of the digestive cavity by which the esophagus (0), the stomach (d), and intestine (¢) are
gradually formed, and also the greater projection of the earlets of the pouch, which have become quite
elongated laterally ; the opening (0) in the centre is the tube leading to the mouth.

Fig 10. The same as Fig. 9, seen in profile; the tube (0) now connects very freely with the mouth (m),
formed in the depression, mentioned in Figs. 4, 5, and with the digestive cavity; the currents now
change their course, and circulate in the opposite direction. While the larva was in the state repre-
sented by Fig. 6, the currents of water enter at the mouth, the future anus (@), cireulate in the pouch
(d), as well as in the earlets formed from the thickening of the wall, and then issued again from the
same opening (a). Now the water enters through the mouth (m) (the last-formed opening), passes
through the narrow conical tube (0) into the digestive cavity (d), communicating with the earlets
(w, w’), and out through the anal opening (a), which was the first formed, and formerly performed
the functions of mouth.

Fig. 11. Isolated digestive cavity, seen in profile, showing the tube leading from the mouth (m) to the
digestive cavity (d), and earlets (w, w’), more developed than in Fig. 10.

Fig. 12. The same seen from above.

Fig. 13. Oral end of an isolated digestive cavity, in which the earlets, formed by the pouch, are more

126 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

distinct from the digestive cavity than in any of the former stages. There is a slight constriction at
their base of attachment, the first indication of their final separation from the alimentary canal.

14. Isolated digestive cavity seen endwise, to show the tube leading from the mouth to the digestive
cavity, at right angles to the pouch of the earlets.

g- 15. Isolated digestive cavity seen from above, in which the earlets (w, w’) (the future water-tubes)

are so far differentiated as to be quite distinct from the digestive cavity. The walls of the earlets are
exceedingly attenuated, and are scarcely connected with the main digestive cavity.

g.16. The same as Fig. 15, seen from below, to show the position of the mouth and anus on the same

side of the larva.

g.17. Part of the same larva seen in profile: on account of the obliquity of the earlets, one of them

(w’), as it increases in size more rapidly than the other, soon reaches the outer surface of the larva
and opens into the surrounding medium by means of a small aperture (b). The walls of the tube
(esophagus) leading from the mouth to the first swelling of the digestive cavity (d) (the stomach),
and of that part of the tube leading from the stomach to the anus, have a very different thickness.
They are sufficiently distinct in their character to enable us to distinguish readily three regions ; forty-
eight hours after fecundation.

ig. 18. The two small bodies (w, w’), the former earlets of younger stages formed from the pouch at the

closed end of the digestive cavity (the problematic bodies of Miiller), have entirely separated from
the digestive cavity from which they were formed; seen from above, the three divisions of stomach,
intestine, and cesophagus are plainly marked out.

g.19. The same larva in profile.
g. 20. The same figure from below, shows the presence of short crescents of vibratile cilia (v, v’) placed

in opposite directions near the mouth and anus; sixty-five hours after fecundation.

g. 21. A somewhat more advanced larva, seen in profile; the anal crescent (v) of vibratile cilia is seen

as a small wart between the mouth of the anus, the oral crescent (v’) projects beyond the general out-
line. The division into esophagus (0), stomach (d), and intestine (c) is quite prominent. The
stomach has a tendency to approach the anal dorsal extremity.

g. 22. The same as Fig. 21, seen from below, to show the triangular shape of the mouth (m). The

greater size of the problematic bodies (w, w’) (the water-tubes), which increase independently at an
unequal rate, and also the position of the oral and anal vibratile crescents.

. 23. The same larva seen in a profile, to show the position of the mouth in a strongly marked depres-

sion; the great increase in size of the oral part of the cesophagus; the swelling out of the stomach,
and the bending of the intestine back towards the mouth, so as to make a small angle with the
trend of the stomach; at the end of the third day after fecundation.

24. Larva seen from above. The only difference in this stage from the preceding is in the greater
increase of the vibratile crescents, forming two small plastrons, and of the water-tube. The intes-
tine also bends so as to make almost a right angle with the stomach, which is pushed out further
towards the anal extremity.

g- 25. More advanced larva, seen from the left profile, in which the oral pouch has assumed its charaec-

teristic pistol-shape. . The stomach and intestine make a sharp angle with each other, the latter being
much longer than the stomach proper. In its present aspect it closely resembles a retort, the stomach
being the receiver, the intestine the tube. The anal and oral vibratile crescents have greatly ex-
tended, the one on the oral and the other on the dorsal side, to the extremity of the body.

26. The same as the preceding, seen from below; the oral plastron is quite large, projects beyond
the sides of the body; slight indentations can already be traced in the anal plastron, indicating the
position of the future arms (e’). The water-tubes have increased in length, and extend half-way
from the base of the stomach to the oral plastron.

g- 27. A larva six days after fecundation, seen from the right profile, the water-tubes extend beyond the

opening of the mouth. The tube leading from the water-pore (b) (dorsal pore) to the water-tube
(w’), is quite distinctly seen.

g. 28. The same larva as Fig. 27, seen from below; the intestine, as in Fig. 26, is thrown to one side

of the axis of the larva. The water-tubes extend also along the sides of the stomach towards the anal
extremity; the sinuosity of the anal ciliary chord indicates the position of the future anus.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 127

Puates II.—VIII. Empryrotocy or AsTERACANTHION PALLIDUS Ay.

POATE It.

Owing to the transparency of these larve, it is not easy to ascertain whether they are seen with the mouth
downwards or upwards, unless we ascertain the position of the madreporic body. In all these fig-
ures, whenever the water-tube w’ is on the left of the figure, the mouth is turned upwards.

Fig. 1. The youngest larva of this species, seen from the mouth side, corresponding to Pl. IL Fig. 20;
a comparison of these two figures will show the great difference between the larve of these two
species of Starfishes. In the former, the chords of vibratile cilia appear much earlier, and the oral
plastron is well defined; while, in the other species, it is not before it has reached the condition of
Pl. II. Fig. 26, that the oral plastron is as well developed.

Figs 2-10. Brachina stage.

Fig. 2. A larva seen from the left profile, corresponds to the stage of Pl. II. Fig. 27, of A. berylinus;
with the exception of the size of the water-tubes, the larva of this species is much stouter, shorter,
and the anal portion is the most prominent, while the larva of the A. berylinus is quite slender and
elongated.

Fig. 3. The same larva as Fig. 2, seen from the dorsal side.

Fig. 4. A more advanced larva, seen from the dorsal side; the undulations of the ciliary chord indicate
the future arms, the water-tubes extend beyond the mouth, and have already begun to bend towards
each other.

Fig. 5. The same larva seen from the left profile, to show the bent attitude frequently assumed by the
larva when disturbed.

Fig. 6. This larva, seen from the mouth side, is more developed than any raised by artificial fecundation
from the eggs of A. berylinus. The water-tubes have greatly increased in diameter; they have united
beyond the mouth, and extend on each side of the stomach so as almost to meet, but without uniting.
The mere indentations of the previously figured larve correspond to accumulations of pigment cells,
and to the thickening of the vibratile chord, accompanied by the formation of rudimentary lobes,
which indicate plainly the position of the median arms (e’), the dorsal anal (e”), the ventral anal (e’”’),
and dorsal oral arms (e¢’””). The greatest accumulation of pigment cells, and the thickening of the
vibratile chord, is found at the rudimentary median arms (e’). The anal ventral pair of arms (e’”’) is
especially well marked.

Fig. 7. The preceding figure seen in profile, the mouth to the right, shows the great development which
the oral position of the water-tube has taken; also the mode of formation of the oral ventral pair of
arms (e*), as well as the first sign of the odd brachiolar appendage (/’”).

Fig. 8. Larva seen from the dorsal side. The arms have increased greatly in size since the stage repre-
sented in Fig. 6. The oral portion of the water-tube has become very pointed; it extends into the
odd oral arm (€), which has also elongated, and stands out prominently beyond the oral plastron.

Fig. 9. The same figure seen in profile, with the mouth downward. The vibratile chord is a deeply
undulating line, following the edge of the arms, which extend beyond the general outline. The
water-tube, it will be seen, forks also at the oral extremity; one branch extending into the odd
arm (¢), the other toward the angle made by the base of this arm and the pair of oral ventral
arms (e°). The great increase in size of this odd arm will be seen when compared to Fig. 7 of

this plate.
Fig. 10. Larva seen from the mouth side. Thus far the arms had altered but little the character of the
outline of the larva. In this figure, however, some of them are sufficiently developed to be capable
. of extensive motion. The median arms (e’) especially are far in advance of the others. All the anal

arms develop so as to become more slender at first, and assume their true character sooner than the
oral arms, which, during the early stages, are always more heavy, and take their final shape later than
the anal arms. At the angle, where the oral ventral arms and the odd arm come together, at the
base of the oral arms, slight swellings are formed (f), which are the first trace of the pair of brachi-
olar arms (ff), the odd brachiolar arm being only seen in the profile view (Fig. 12, 7’), though it can
be traced as a double outline of the odd arm (/”). We can already see a constriction in the
water-tube as it passes into the odd arm, and from this (nearer the mouth) are sent off two small
pouches (f’ f’), which enter into the brachiolar pair of arms (/). The first trace of the actinal area
of the future Starfish is also plainly visible (¢) on the water-tube (w’), on the left of this figure.

128 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

a

Fig. 11. A more advanced larva than Fig. 10, seen from the mouth side, in which the oral arms have
assumed all the characters of the anal appendages. The brachiolar arms are quite well developed ;
the intestine and the stomach are slightly crowded to one side by the greater increase of the actinal
area (t) of the Starfish; the ambulacral pentagon of the future Starfish is still more marked (¢) than
in previous stages. Brachiolaria stage.

Fig. 12. The same as Fig. 10 seen in profile, with the mouth downwards.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Seen from the mouth side. A larva with its arms fully developed and in full activity; no fur-
ther changes take place in the general aspect of the larva, with the exception of those of the anal
part where the Starfish is developing, and those of the brachiolar arms. All the arms are nearly
equally advanced, with the exception of the median arms (e’), which still retain their greater size.
The odd terminal arm (¢*) has also greatly increased in length, as well as the brachiolar arms (ff),
which are capable of motion, and into which the branches of the water-tubes can easily be traced.
Brachiolaria stage.

Fig. 2. The same larva, seen from above, on a somewhat smaller scale, shows in what way the stomach
and the intestine have been pushed to one side, by the great development of the actinal part of the
Starfish, on the right of the figure (s 4). The shape of the mouth (m) is particularly well seen, in a
dorsal view, at this stage of growth,

Fig. 3. The same larva on a different scale, seen endways, from the oral end, to show the connection
between the pair of brachiolar arms (ff) and the oral ventral pair (¢°), as well as the position of the
odd brachiolar arm (f”) at the base of the odd terminal arm (e’*).

Fig. 4. An adult larva seen from the right, actinal profile ; the arms are in the position which they take
when moving rapidly, arched towards the median arms, the brachiolar arms alone being curved in the
opposite direction from the others, Here the crescent-shaped ambulacral pentagon, as well as the
lobed pentagonal outline of the abactinal area are plainly seen.

Fig. 5. A magnified profile view of the brachiolar arms.

Fig. 6. The brachiolar arms seen from the ventral side of the larva, to show the position of the single
disk and of the double row of disks at the base and on each side of the odd brachiolar arm, somewhat
less magnified than Fig. 5.

Fig. 7. ‘The anal part of the larva soon after the shrinking of the arms has begun. The whole of the
terminal anal part of the larva has gradually been absorbed, so that the disk of the Starfish occupies
the whole of the space between the median arms, seen from the ventral side; the oral extremity of
the Brachiolaria is unchanged and not represented.

Fig. 8. The shrinking has gone so far that the whole of the anal part has been affected, and the oral ex-
tremity alone, with the brachiolar and the terminal arms, retain their original shape and proportions.

Fig. 9. A different view of the anal part of a larva from that of Fig. 7; in a slightly more advanced
condition than that of the preceding figure, showing the great height of the abactinal region of the
young Starfish ; the oral extremity of the Brachiolaria is omitted, as it remains almost unchanged.

F LAA ey
DEVELOPMENT OF THE STARFISH PROPER.

The Figures on this Plate show the gradual development of the actinal and abactinal regions of the Star-
fish, and the figures represent simply the anal part of the Brachiolaria, which is alone affected during
this development.

Figs. 1-7 correspond to a Brachiolaria, having reached a state about as advanced as that of PI. III.
Fig. 10.

Fig. 8 is a Starfish developed on the Brachiolaria of Pl. IV. Fig. 11; while Figs. 9-14 are stages of
development which are only found on Brachiolarie having their full complement of arms, and in
which, except these changes of the Starfish, but slight modifications take place.

Figs. 1, 2, 10, 12, represent that profile of the anal part of the Brachiolaria, in successively more advanced
stages, which shows the water-tube upon which is developed the actinal area.

Figs. 3, 5, 11, represent the opposite profiles of the anal extremity of the Brachiolaria, showing the water-
tube, upon which is developed the abactinal area.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 129

Figs. 4, 14, represent the ventral side of the anal extremity of the Brachiolaria, showing the extremities of
the actinal and abactinal areas of the Starfish.

Figs. 6-9, 13, represent the dorsal side of the anal extremity of the Brachiolaria, in the successive
stages of growth of the young Starfish, showing the opposite extremities of the actinal and abactinal
areas of the Starfish.

Owing to the partial transparency of the Brachiolaria, either the actinal or the abactinal area is always
projected upon the other, when the larva is seen in profi’e. In the dorsal or ventral views, the angle
made by the actinal and abactinal areas becomes visible.

Fig. 1. Actinal profile of the anal part of the water-tube (w’) of the Brachiolaria, previous to the appear-
ance of the pentagon of lobes. In stage of Pl. III. Fig. 7.

Fig. 2. Somewhat more advanced actinal profile, showing the ambulacral pentagon, as well as the posi-
tion of the five rods of limestone, opposite the angles of the actinal pentagon, seen through the thick-
ness of the larva on the surface of the other water-tube (w). In Stage of Pl. IIL Fig. 8.

Fig. 3. The same larva seen from the opposite profile, to show the abactinal area; small Y-shaped rods
have appeared at the extremities of the simple rods.

Fig. 4. The same larva seen from the ventral side of the Brachiolaria, to show the relative position of
the pentagons of the two areas; only two of the rods of the abactinal side are seen, while the edges
of three of the actinal folds () can be perceived, one above the other, on the foot-like projection
formed by the folding of the water-tube w’.

Fig. 5. A more advanced Starfish, in stage of Pl, III. Fig. 10, from the “abactinal profile ; the Y-shaped
appendages of the original rods have increased in number; smaller independent Y-shaped rods have
made their appearance in the intervals between the larger ones, in the spaces corresponding to the
middle of the pentagon of the actinal side. The angles of the actinal pentagon are formed of a double
fold, the sides of which are concave; the stomach is almost concealed by the great accumulation of
limestone granules on the abactinal area.

Fig. 6. The anal part of a larva from the dorsal side, to show the apparent dividing into elliptical com-
partments of the water-tubes (w, w’), made by folding and the bending of the extremities of these
tubes (Pl. II. Fig. 10).

Fig. 7. The same larva from the dorsal side, to show the manner in which the first fold (#) is made on
the exterior surface of the water-tube (w!), and the greater size of the right water-tube extending
over the digestive cavity to the madreporic opening (6).

Fig. 8. A Starfish from the dorsal side of the Brachiolaria (PI. III. Fig. 11) ; shows the lobes formed by
the two arms which are in view, with the large cluster of rods in the centre of the lobe, and the
small cluster in the space opposite the angle of two lobes.

Fig. 9. The same view of a more advanced embryo, somewhat older than Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2; the lobes of
the arms have become indented, the arms themselves are separated by a deep cut, the Y-rods extend
so as to form almost a continuous network over the whole abactinal area. The actinal pentagon has
assumed the shape of prominent loops projecting beyond the foot-like, oblique fold of the water-tube.

Fig. 10. The same embryo, seen from the actinal profile; the tentacular loops stand out independently
from the surface of the water-tube; the stomach and nearly the whole length of the intestine are
enclosed by the abactinal area.

Fig. 11. Seen from the abactinal profile in stage of Pl. VII. Fig. 8; tubercles have formed upon the sur-
face, the Y-shaped rods extend into them, the lobes of the edge of the disk are deeper, the second
set of clusters of limestone cells have greatly increased.

Fig. 12. The same embryo from the opposite profile ; the inner tentacular folds have become tipped with
a triangular point. ‘The thickness of the abactinal surface prevents the network of cells on the edge of
the arms from being seen.

Fig. 13. A view of the embryo from the dorsal side of the Brachiolaria; the madreporic body (8), the
opening of the water-pore, is placed at the edge of the upper arm (r,/’’), the tubercles on the edge of
the arms are well shown by the great accumulation of small Y-shaped rods.

Fig. 14. The same from the ventral side of the Brachiolaria (Pl. VIL. Fig. 8). This figure shows, per- .
haps better than any other, the relative position of the extremity of the two pentagonal warped sur-
faces. The rough outline of the Starfish is due to the manner in which the tubercles of the abactinal
surface project above. The Starfish in this condition is at the point of resorbing the larva, and of
closing the actinal and abactinal areas.

130 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Pris Te “Ts
THE YOUNG STARFISH AFTER THE BRACHIOLARIA HAS BEEN RESORBED.

1. A young Starfish, seen from the actinal side; the anal and oral clusters of arms of the Brachio-
laria appear like small knobs, placed on opposite sides of the new mouth. The future rays are mere
lobes, and are not symmetrical.

2. The same embryo, seen from the abactinal side, to show the arrangement of the network of lime-
stone meshes.

3. A more advanced embryo, in which all traces of the appendages of the larva have entirely
disappeared. Lach side of the pentagon of suckers is a rosette made up of seven loops; the limestone
particles are deposited so as to project at the angle of the arms between these loops. The mouth is
movable, the pentagon is not closed, and the Starfish is not yet symmetrical ; the shape of the different
rays is not identical.

- 4. The same embryo, seen from the abactinal side, showing the arrangement of the successively

formed rows of rounded spines and of the plates. The two ends of the open pentagon have approached
nearer than in Figs. 1, 2; the outline is not yet regular.
5. Magnified view of one of the ambulacral tubes, with its rudimentary tentacles.

. 6. The young Starfish, in which the two pentagons have almost closed, and been brought into

parallel planes. There has been a great increase in the size of the cut between adjoining rays; the
spines also have grown longer and more pointed; the limestone points of the angle of the rays
have advanced nearer the centre. The Starfish is not quite symmetrical, nor are the arms exactly -
alike.

7. The same embryo, from the actinal side, shows the great increase of the ambulacral system, the
tentacles being distinct pouches on each side of the main tube. The basal tentacles of one system are
much further apart than all the others, and this is the last indication that the ambulacral pentagon is
not closed.

8. A more magnified view of the actinal side, when the ambulacral pentagon is entirely closed, and
the Starfish has become symmetrical, and all the basal suckers are equally distant.

9. The ambulacral system of one arm, when confined by the circle of limestone which has been
formed round each ambulacral system; the first two pairs of tentacles begin to develop disks; they
become club-shapel; the three terminal tentacles are still closely connected, and show no sign of
any disk.

g- 10. An abactinal view of one ray and the centre of a young Starfish, in which the spines

project far beyond the edge of the disk. The arm-plates and the interradial plates have be-
come connected by a nariow bridge. The limestone rods are so much thickened by additional
deposits, that they form elliptical cells which have entirely lost the polygonal character of the
younger stages.

g. 11. One arm and a portion of the centre, from the abactinal side of the most advanced of the young

Starfishes which have been raised by artificial fecundation. The spines are very prominent, long,
somewhat spreading, and becoming even fan-shaped. The limestone cells are gradually assuming the
character of the limestone cells of the adult, small cells within larger ones ; the cut between the rays
is very deep,

12. The same young Starfish as Fig. 11, seen from the actinal side; the three pairs of tentacles
have suckers; the deposit of limestone of the actinal area having the same cellular structure as that of
the abactinal area, though formed by the increase of small cells instead of rods. This Starfish also
shows the position of the madreporic body, immediately on the edge of the disk of the lower side; the
eye is very prominent at the base of the odd terminal tentacle. The young Starfish (Figs. 11, 12)
is about four months old.

PLATE VII.

1. Two rays and the centre of the Starfish (Pl. VI. Fig. 10), seen from the actinal side. All
the tentacles are encased separately by the limestone deposit of the actinal region. The ten-
tacles have grown so long that they extend beyond the edge of the arm. The pair of terminal
tentacles has, as yet, increased but little in comparison to the other pairs. The odd terminal
tentacle has, at its base, a bright carmine spot, the eye, which appears about this time. The

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 131

mouth, limited by the limestone deposit, takes the shape of a pentagonal opening; the ambulacral
tube is concealed.

Fig. 2. The same Starfish as Pl. VI. Fig. 11, seen in profile, to show the great development of the abac-
tinal area, and the Echinus-like arrangement of the spines in the young Starfish. ‘The odd tentacle
is seen turned up, between two of the spines, with the eye at its base.

Figs. 3-5. Spines of the young Starfish in different stages of growth.

Fig. 6. An enlarged view of the terminal tentacle, to show che position of the eye at the base of the odd
tentacle.

Fig. 7, An enlarged view of the meshwork of limestone cells, to show the mode of formation of additional
cells, by means of Y-shaped rods.

Fig. 8. A greatly magnified figure of a full-grown Brachiolaria in its natural attitude, at rest, with the
Starfish almost ready to resorb the larva; the obliquity of the planes, in which the actinal and abac-
tinal pentagons are situated, is especially well seen in the pointed anal extremity of this Brachiolaria.
No letters have been added to this figure, as the different parts can readily be distinguished by com-
paring it with Pl. IV. Figs. 1, 2, 4.

PLATE Vitt.

Fig. 1. Young Asteracanthion about one year old, seen from the abactinal side.

Figs. 2-4. Magnified views of spines (p), and of rudimentary pedicellariz (p’, p’’).

Fig. 5. Odd terminal tentacle of a Starfish in the stage of Pl. VIII. Fig. 10, at the extremity of the arm
with the eye-speck (e).

_ Fig. 6. One of the abactinal water-tubes (d’) at the angle of the rays.

Fig. 7. One of the abactinal water-tubes (d/') along the edge of the rays.

Fig. 8. Abactinal view of the arm of a young Starfish, probably two years old.

Fig. 9. Actinal view of an arm of a young Starfish in its third year.

Fig. 10. Abactinal view of a young Starfish, in which the rudimentary pedicellarie have made their
appearance, also having median and lateral lines of abactinal water-tubes along the arm. Probably
three years old.

PLAT B. Dk

ASTERACANTHION BERYLINUS.

Fig. 1. Living specimen, seen from the actinal side.

Fig. 2. Living specimen, seen from the abactinal side.

Fig. 3. Preparation showing the calcareous network, abactinal side.

Fig. 4. Abactinal calcareous network seen from the interior.

Fig. 5. Preparation showing the connection of the solid parts, seen from the actinal side.

(ai) Interambulacral plates, with two rows of pores at base.
(a’) Ambulacral plates, showing the alternating arrangement of the ambulacral pores penetrat-
ing between the ambulacral plates.
(a) Base of interbrachial partition.
(c) Ambulacral groove.
(1) Lateral imbricating pieces forming the calcareous network of the abactinal surface.
Fig. 6. The same, seen from the interior. Lettering as in Fig. 5.
(c) Dorsal groove of ambulacral system.
(ip) Interradial partition formed by soldering of the imbricating pieces attached to the interam-
bulacral plates.
Fig. 7. Longitudinal section of preparation of arm, to show the formation of the interradial partition by
the soldering of the imbricating lateral pieces of the interambulacral plates.

All Figures natural size.

The color of this species, as of all the species of the genus Asterias, varies greatly; it ranges from dark chocolate (on
the abactinal side) to light violet. The actinal side is of a much paler shade of the same color. The general tint of the
abactinal side depends also greatly upon the state of expansion of the water-tubes and the development of the light-colored
pedicellariz clustered around the spines.

Ee EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE X.

T-cHINASTER SENTUS.

Fig. 1. Living specimen seen from actinal side.

Fig. 1/. Portion of arm of Fig. 1, somewhat more magnified.
Fig. 2. Same from the abactinal side.

Fig. 2/. Water-tubes of part of abactinal surface.

Fig. 2”. Madreporic body.

Fig. 3. Caleareous network of abactinal side.

Fig. 4. Internal view of abactinal surface.

Fig. 5. Calcareous network of actinal side (same as Fig. 3).
Fig. 6. Inner view of actinal calcareous network.

All Figures natural size, except Figs. 1’, 2/, 2’, which are somewhat enlarged.

The color of this species varies from a dark reddish-brown to a pale violet, sometimes more or less yellowish-brown or
purple. The water-tubes are light pink or violet.

PLATE -X1.

ASTERIAS OCHRACEA.

Fig. 1. Single arm and disk, seen from the abactinal side.

Fig. 2, Single arm, seen from the abactinal side, with the spines of the limestone network removed.

Fig. 3. Interior view of limestone network.

Fig. 4. Actinal view of the disk and arm, to show the narrow ambulacral plates, the marginal interam-

bulaeral plates, and the adjoining actinal limestone network.

Fig. 5. Inner view of the same, showing the huge spaces left between the pillars forming the marginal
support of the limestone work adjoining the interambulacral plates.

Fig. 6. Portion of half of the arm, to show the arrangement of the ambulacral and interambulacral plates,
seen from the actinal side near the base of the arm-plates forming the median groove on top.

Fig. 7. Profile view of a similar portion of the arm (as Fig. 6) toward the central part of the arm, seen
from the interior of the arm.

All Figures natural size, except Figs. 6 and 7, which are somewhat magnified.

This is often a very brilliantly colored species. Brandt has separated as species the extreme variations in color. The
most common coloring is a dark orange, passing in some specimens to an almost pure yellow, or in the other direction to
a rich chocolate color, We find also frequently violet as the prevailing tint. The ridges, on the abactinal network, are
invariably of a lighter tint than the ground-color.

PLATE XII.

CROSSASTER PAPPOSUS.

Fig. 1. Seen from the actinal side, with the spines of the interbrachial surface, and of the lower surface
of the arms. (The abactinal surface has been removed.)

Fig. 2. Seen from the actinal side, with the spines removed to show the structure of the plates carrying
the spines along the edge of the arms, round-the actinostome, and of the limestone plates strengthen-
ing the interbrachial membrane; the limestone network of the inner surface of the abactinal surface
is seen through the opening of the actinostome.

Fig. 3. Fig. 1, seen from the interior (from the abactinal side), showing the portion of the membrane ex-
tending as a division wall between arms, and forming the support as well as the connection between
the actinal and abactinal surfaces; this membrane is often a mere film strengthened with limestone
plates only at its outer and inner extremities, where it connects by more numerous and stronger
plates the two surfaces of the interbrachial space. The plates near the actinostome are frequently
drawn out into a long comma-shaped support on the abactinal part of the connecting membrane.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 503

Fig. 4. Same as Fig. 2, seen from the abactinal side, to show the network of the abactinal surface and
the projecting knobs forming the support of the clusters of spines of that surface.
Fig. 5. Longitudinal section through the median line, seen in profile.

Ali figures natural size.

The coloring of this species is of all shades, between a brilliant red and a light orange or a dark violet.

PLATE XIII.
PYCNOPODIA HELIANTHOIDES.

Fig. 1. Portion of disk, seen from abactinal side, with papilla fully expanded (from life).

Fig. 2. Same as Fig. 1, seen from the actinal side.

Fig. 3. Actinal view of central part of the disk, showing the connection of the arms around the central
opening.

Fig. 4. Limestone network of part of the abactinal membrane, with the pillar separating adjoining arms
seen from the interior.

Fig. 5. Profile view of the extremity of one arm.

Fig. 6. Interior view of the arm; the abactinal membrane is removed, showing the mode of connection of

g.
adjoining arms at actinostome, ambulacral vesicles all removed.
Fig. 7. Same as Fig. 6; seen from below, the soft parts all being removed.
ig. 8. Profile view of Fig. 6.

F

Fig. 9. Section across Fig. 6,

Fig. 10, 10’. Profile views of two of the large spines of the abactinal surface.
Fig. 10/,10"’. The same spines, 10, 10", seen from above.

Figs. 1-5 are natural size; all others slightly enlarged.

The color of the abactinal surface varies greatly in this species, from a brilliant carmine to yellow, violet, or bright
vermilion, with the intermediate shades of orange.

PLATE XIV.

Linckia GUILDINGII.

Fig. 1. Seen from above.

Fig. 1’. Enlarged tip of one of the arms.

Fig. 2. Fig. 1, seen from the actinal side.

Fig. 2’. Magnified portion of arm of Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Preparation of actinal side, showing the limestone plates after the granulation is removed.

Fig. 31. Magnified view of opening of actinostome of Fig. 2.

Fig. 4. Preparation of abactinal surface, showing the limestone plates of that surface.

Fig. 4’. Enlarged view of madreporic body.

Fig. 5. Interior view of abactinal surface of one of the arms, showing the small openings left between the
nearly united plates. ?

Fig. 6. Section across one of the arms, to show the depth of the ambulacral furrow, with its single line of
ambulacral pores.

Linckia is generally of an ashy-violet color, with darker spots scattered over the abactinal surface of the arms.

ASTERINA FOLIUM Liith.

Fig. 7. Actinal view prepared to show the plates of that surface.

Fig. 7/. Enlarged view of plates, forming edge of actinal cpening, in Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. Somewhat enlarged view, natural attitude, with suckers expanded.

Fig. 8’. Enlarged view of arm, showing ocular tentacle, at base of pointed terminal ambulaeral tube.
Fig. 9. Water-tubes of abactinal surface somewhat enlarged.

_

Figs. 1-7, natural size; others somewhat enlareed.
oO ? ’ >

The abactinal surface of Asterina is of a pea-green color. The actinal surface is more yellowish. Specimens frequently
occur of a yellow color on both sides,

134 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XV.
ASTEROPSIS IMBRICATA.

Fig. 1. Seen from above; in two of the arms the water-tubes of the abactinal surface are represented as
fully expanded, while they are drawn in on the others.

Fig. 1’. Actinostome with the tentacles drawn in, taken from life; the plates, except the marginal ones,
are all imbedded and hidden in the membrane of the actinal surface.

Fig. 2. Preparation showing the irregular limestone plates and needles of the abactinal surface.

Fig. 3. Portion of abactinal surface; seen from the interior, showing the original reticulation, which is lost
in the exterior view from the abactinal side.

Fig. 4. Fig. 2, seen from the actinal side, to show the arrangement of the limestone plates.

Fic. 5, Interior view of the actinal floor, showing the broad ambulacral groove, the connection of the
ambulacral plates round the actinostome, and the position of the pillars connecting the actinal and
abactinal surfaces.

Fig. 6. Same as Fig. 5, seen in profile, to show the interbrachial arches and the great height of the am-

bulacral plates.
Fig. 7. Section across the arm near the tip; the ambulacral plates almost touch the abactinal surfaces.

All figures are natural sizes.

On the actinal side Asteropsis is of a brownish color, with yellow edge along the ambulacral furrows. The abactinal
surface is most brilliantly colored with large patches, irregularly arranged, of vermilion, bright green, blue, yellow, with
prominent carmine spots enclosing the areas for the passage of the water-tubes.

PLATE: 294°

PENTACEROS RETICULATUS.

Fig. 1. Arm and portion of the disk with water-tubes fully expanded and ambulacral tubes extending |

beyond the edge of the arms near the tip, seen from the abactinal side.

Fig. 2. Same as Fig. 1, seen from the actinal side, the two rows of tentacles drawn in and ambulacral
furrow almost closed near the face.

Fig. 3. Actinostome natural size, with the ambulacral tentacles at base of furrow fully expanded.

Fig. 4. Actinal view of the lower surface, showing the limestone plates of the margin of furrow sup-
porting the papille, and the plates covered by the granulation of Fig. 2.

Fig. 5. Interior view showing the ambulacral system, the connection of the ambulacral plates round the
actinostome, the thick abactinal surface with the nearly solid interbrachial limestone arches.

Fig. 6. Central portion of the abactinal surface of the disk, natural size, showing the massive reticulation
of the surface.

Fig. 7. Section through the centre of the ambulacral system, seen in profile, with the interambrachial
arches.

Figs. 3 and 6 somewhat enlarged ; others, natural size.
The general coloring of this species is yellowish or pinkish brown, sometimes bright carmine. The ridges separating

the spaces for the passage of the water-tubes are a darker shade of the general color. On the actinal edge the plates are
of a darker brown color, while the actinal surface itself is faintly colored gray.

PLATE 279i

SOLASTER ENDECA.

Fig. 1. Limestone network of the abactinal surface.
Fig. 2. Dried specimen, with spines bordering the ambulacral furrows and covering the actinal surface.
Fig. 3. Interior view of the actinal floor, showing the narrow furrow of the ambulacral system, its con-

nection round the actinostome, the absence of a prominent interbrachial arch separating the central
arm-spaces,

>.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 135

er
q

ig. 4. Same as Fig. 2, only denuded of spines to show the plates of the actinal surface supporting
them.
Fig. 5. Longitudinal section through the median line of the ambulacral furrow,

All Figures natural size.

This species is generally, on the abactinal side, a dirty orange yellow, passing into red; more yellowish and lighter in
shade on the actinal surface.

PLATE 724-3 EE.
CRIBRELLA SANGUINOLENTA.

Fig. 1. Seen from the abactinal side, to show the minute spines covering the whole disk and arms.

Fig. 2. Fig. 1, seen from the actinal side.

Fig. 3. Enlarged view of spines round the actinostome and base of the arms.

Fig. 4. Actinal view; specimen denuded of its spines to show the close system of limestone plates form-
ing the actinal surface.

Fig. 5. Interior view of the abactinal surface, showing its close reticulation.

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section across the central line of the ambulacral furrow, somewhat enlarged.

Fig. 7. Interior view of the ambulacral system of one of the arms and its central connection, somewhat
enlarged.

Figures 3, 6, 7 are somewhat enlarged ; all others, natural size.

This species varies in color from brilliant orange-yellow to dark purple or dull violet.

PLATE. 3.12.
ASTROPECTEN ARTICULATUS.

1. Dried specimen, from the abactinal side.

Fig. 2. Fig. 1, seen from the actinal side.
Fig. 3. Abactinal view of denuded specimen,
Fig. 4. Actinal view of denuded specimen.
Fig. 5. Interior view of actinal floor, showing ambulacral system, the interbrachial arches, the connection
of ambulacra round the actinostome.
g. 6. Interior view of the abactinal surface.
Fig. 7. Actinal region of specimen somewhat larger than Fig. 4.

ig. 8. Longitudinal section through arm, showing the great thickness of the marginal plates.

All Figures are natural size.

The marginal plates are of a light brown color with darker edges; the abactinal surface of nearly the same shade, some-
what lighter than the plates. The color is sometimes arranged in darker rectangular patches along the edge of the arms
on the abactinal side, The marginal plates are also bright yellow, enclosing a violet abactinal surface.

PLATE XX.

LUIDIA CLATHRATA,
1, Abactinal view from life.
2, Same, seen from the actinal side, showing the two rows of pointed tentacles,
Fig. 3. Same view as Fig. 1, denuded specimen.
4. Preparation showing the plates of the actinal surface.
5. Interior view of actinal floor, showing ambulacral system and mode of connection round actinal
opening.
Fig. 6. Interior view of abactinal surface.
Fig. 7. Actinal view of central part of disk, with tentacles contracted, showing the spines along the edge
of ambulacral furrows and at their junction.
Fig. 8. Longitudinal section of arm.

Was - = J ’ ae rs aay aed a te ee caf
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136 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. a
Fig. 9. Terminal knob of arm seen from above. &i a
Fig. 10. A terminal knob, seen from the actinal side.
Fig. 11. The same, seen from the end. “=

Fig. 12. Madreporic body.
All Figures natural size, with the exception of Figs. 9-12, which are somewhat enlarged.

i ia
The coloring of this species is quite dull; it has a grayish hue, with large square patches of brown arranged along the i

margin of the arms, The color of the abactinal surface is frequently in lines, one in central part of the arms, the others ~ 1a

along their margin. The ambulacral tentacles are yellow. 1 it

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AT HARVARD COLLEGE.

Vou. V. No. 2.

REPORT

ON THE

ey ROLD A

COLLECTED DURING THE EXPLORATION OF THE GULF STREAM BY L. F. De POURTALES,
ASSISTANT UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY.

(PUBLISHED BY PERMISSION OF PROFESSOR BENJAMIN PerIRce, SUPERINTENDENT U. S. Coast Survey]

BY

GEO. J. ALLMAN, M.D,, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA, Cor.M.Z.S.L, F.R.C.S.L,

PRESIDENT OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
EMERITUS REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH,
ETC,

WITH THIRTY-FOUR PLATES.

CAMBRIDGE:

WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY,
Gniversity Bress.

1877.

INTRODUCTORY,

THE collections of Hydroids obtained by Mr. de Pourtalés during the ex-
ploration of the Gulf Stream between Florida and Cuba, while assistant
of the Coast Survey, were sent to me by Mr. Alexander Agassiz for deter-
mination. The collection, which had been put up in spirits and is, for the
most part, in an excellent state of preservation, proves to be a very large
one, and to contain a great number of undescribed species. The determi-
nation of the specimens, and the drawing and description of the new
species, have occupied more time than I had anticipated, and with the
pressure of other avocations have caused more delay than I could have
wished in the publication of the results.

All the enlarged drawings and details of structure have been carefully
made by myself, while most of the drawings representing the natural size
of the hydroid, as well as the completion of some of my sketches and the
drawing of the whole on stone, have been executed by Mr. Hollick; and
I must here bear testimony to the truthfulness of his work and the almost
photographic actuality with which he has reproduced the natural form of
the specimen.

One of the most striking features of the collection consists in the large
number of undescribed species, and the small percentage which can, with
probability, be referred to forms known to exist on the European side
of the Atlantic.

Leaving out of consideration a few specimens whose characters, in con-
sequence of their imperfect preservation, could not be ascertained, the
collection consists of seventy-one species. Sixty-four are here figured and
described for the first time, and none of these have as yet been known to
occur beyond the area to which the exploration was confined. There thus
remain only seven species which, so far as their identification is possible,

9 INTRODUCTORY.

are already known as European forms. These are Félellum immersum, Hale-
cium muricatum, Sertularella polyzonias, Sertularella Gayi, Antennularia ramosa,
Plumularia catharina, and probably Tubularia indivisa, whose identification is,
in consequence of the absence of all the soft parts, less certain than in the
others. :

One of the specimens here described, Halecium capillaris Pourtalés, has
been already examined and named (7'hoa capillaris) by Mr. de Pourtalés
in No. 6, Bull. M. C. Z., Vol. I. Mr. de Pourtalés has also described Tubularia
crims, but this has not been received by me in a condition sufficiently
perfect to admit of further examination.

The Gymnoblastic genera sufficiently well preserved for satisfactory de-
termination consist of nine species, all new and referable to two genera,
Eudendrium and Bimeria. Species of Tubularia would also seem to exist
in the collection, and one of these, as just said, is probably the Zwubularia
indivisa of the European seas; but as in none of the specimens of apparent
Tubularia does anything remain beyond the tubular perisarc, the characters
needed for a reliable determination are entirely wanting.

Several of the specimens referred to Eudendrium have, on the contrary,
their soft parts well preserved, and leave no doubt of the correctness of
this determination; while others may, with a provisional reservation, be
referred without much hesitation to the same genus. In the little hydroid
referred to Bimeria the soft parts are well preserved both in the tropho-
some and the gonosome.

Of species referable to Calyptoblastic genera fifty-six are here described
and figured. Of these, fifty-five are now recorded for the first time, while
I have figured one form which occurs also on the eastern side of the At-
lantic, and has been elsewhere* described by myself as a variety of Sertu-
lurella Gayt.

Of the fifty-five new Calyptoblastic species forty-five belong to the Ser-
tularine and ten to the Campanularine.

The collection is especially rich in the Plumularide ; no less than twenty-
eight out of the seventy-one determinable species belong to this beautiful
family. Of these, twenty-six species are now described for the first time,
the remaining two, so far as it is possible to determine specimens in which
no gonosome is present, are identical with the An‘ennularia ramosa and the
Plumularia catharina of the European shores.

* Reports on the Hydroids collected during the Expeditions of H. M. S. Porcupine, Trans. Zoil.

Soc, London, February, 1873.

i

INTRODUCTORY. 3

It is thus obvious that the region from which the present collection has
been obtained, and which includes an area between the Florida Reef on
the north and west, and Cuba, the Salt Key, and Bahama Banks on the
south and east, is characterized by a very distinct hydroid fauna, and must
form part of a special province in the geographical distribution of the
Hydroida. How far the same forms will be found to extend beyond the
limits of the exploration must remain for future researches to decide.

The European species which was met with in greatest abundance over
this area is the Sertularella Gayi, which occurred chiefly in the condition of
the strong irregularly branched variety already referred to. It was among
the most widely distributed species of the area, and was obtained from no
less than nineteen different dredgings.

Among the specimens of Gymnoblastea the gonosome is present in a
considerable proportion of species. So also a large proportion of the
Plumularidz is provided with the gonosome, and presents some interest-
ing and beautiful modifications of this part of the hydroid colony. From
the other Calyptoblastic forms, however, the gonosome is in almost every
instance absent. The very rare cases in which it is present are from some
of the deepest dredgings made.

Among the new species are many which must be regarded as representa-
tives of new generic groups. Indeed, throughout the whole collection we
meet with features many of which are of great interest and significance in
their general bearing on hydroid morphology.

Bathymetrical Distribution. — With very few exceptions a careful record had
been kept of the depths from which the specimens had been dredged.
These depths varied from that of quite shallow water to four hundred and
seventy-one fathoms. The following table will show at a glance the relative

richness in hydroid life of the various depths explored :—

Species whose Species whose
depths have Depths from which the species have depths have Depths from which the species have
been recorded. been dredged. been recorded. been dredged.
10 Between 1 and 10 fathoms. 0 Between 200 and 250 fathoms.
2 s LQ “ss 26 & 6 “ 250 “ 300 “
5 SS 20:5% 7030 a 2 . 300 “ 350 =
13 ee Oe 8s E00 A 0 a 350 “ 400 "
10 a 100" * 150 : 2 = 400 “ 450 es
6 “ 150 “ 200 ? 2 450 “ 500 -

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.

In the descriptions of the genera and species I have adopted the terminology which I have used
on other occasions, and these descriptions will perhaps be rendered more intelligible by giving here
definitions of the principal terms employed.

Hydrosoma. The entire hydroid colony.

Ectoderm. The more external of the two organized layers of which the body of every hydroid
is composed.

Endoderm. The more internal of the two organized layers of which the body of every hydroid
is composed.

Perisarc. The unorganized chitinous excretion by which the soft parts are to a greater or less ex-
tent invested.

Zooids. ‘The more or less independent products of non-sexual reproduction, forming by their asso-
ciation the hydroid colony.

Trophosome. ‘The entire assemblage of such zooids as are destined for the nutrition of the colony.

Gonosome. The entire assemblage of such zooids as are destined for the sexual reproduction of
the colony.

Hydranths. The proper nutritive zooids, or those which carry the mouth and proper digestive
cavity, and which are almost always set with tentacles.

Hydrotheca. The cuplike chitinous receptacle which protects the hydranth in the Calyptoblastic
genera.

Intrathecal Ridge. An imperfect septum by which in many Plumularide the cavity of the hydrotheca
is transversely divided into a distal and a proximal portion.

Hydrophyton. The common basis of the hydrosoma by which its zooids are connected into a
single colony.

Hydrorhiza. The proximal end of the hydrophyton by which the colony fixes itself to other
bodies.

Hydrocaulus. All that portion of the hydrophyton which intervenes between the hydrorhiza and
the hydranth. It is polysiphonic or fascicled when it is composed of several mutually adherent tubes ;
monosiphonic, when consisting of a single tube. In some species the cavity of its perisare may be divided
by annular ridges or imperfect septa,— sepral ridges. The rachis is that portion of the hydrocaulus along
which in the Plumularide the hydrothece are arranged.

Ceenosare. The common organized fleshy portion of the hydrophyton; the living bond by which
the zooids are organically united to one another.

Nematophores. Peculiar bodies developed in certain genera from definite points of the hydrosoma,
and consisting of a chitinous receptacle with sarcode contents in which thread-cells are usually im-
mersed. They are eminently characteristic of the family of the Plumalaride. They are supracalycine
when situated one on each side of the orifice of the hydrotheca; mesial when situated on the mesial line
of the hydrotheca or rachis.

Gonophore. ‘The ultimate generative zooid which gives origin directly to the generative elements,
— ova or spermatozoa.

Gonangium, An external chitinous receptacle within which in the Calyptoblastic genera the gono-
phores are developed,

Acrocyst. An external sac which in certain hydroids is formed on the summit of the gonangium,
where it constitutes a receptacle into which the ova are discharged in order to pass within it through
some of the earlier stages of their development.

Corbula. A basket-shaped receptacle which encloses groups of gonangia in certain plumularian hy-
droids.

Phylactogonia. Special branches intended for the protection of the gonangia in certain plumularidans.

Gymnoblastic. The condition of a hydroid when no external protective receptacle (hydrotheca or
gonangium) invests either nutritive or generative buds. GyYMNOBLASTEA, the name of one of the sub-
orders of Ilyproipa.

Calyptoblastic. The condition of a hydroid when an external protective receptacle (hydrotheca or
gonangium) invests either the nutritive or generative buds. CALYPTOBLASTEA, the name of one of
the suborders of Hyproipa,

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW GENERA AND SPECIES.

Suporper GY MNOBLASTEA.
Famty EUDENDRIDZ.

Genus EUDENDRIUM Enurenpere (in part).

Eudendrium eximium.
Pl. I. Figs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about six inches, much
branched, with the main branches and subordinate ramuli alternate and
distichous ; main stem and origin of the principal branches fascicled ; ulti-
mate ramuli with nearly obsolete annulation at their origin. Hydranths
with about twenty tentacula.

Gonosome. — Female sporosacs springing irregularly from the body of the

hydranth and from its supporting ramulus.
Dredged from a depth of 43 fathoms off the Florida Reef.

This is a fine species, rendered conspicuous by its size and by its profuse
ramification. All the branches, both the primary ones and the subordinate
ramuli, are in the same plane. The main stem is strongly fascicled, and
towards its base acquires a thickness of nearly two lines.

From £. ramosum of the European coasts the present species differs in
the more extensive fasciculation of its main stem, in the disposition of its
ultimate ramuli, which are not, as in /. ramoswn, confined to one side of
their supporting branch, and in the absence of very decided annulation at
the origin of the branches.

All the specimens preserved in the collection are female, and the hydranth

of the sporosac-bearing ramulus shows no tendency to atrophy.

6 EUDENDRIUM ATTENUATUM.

Eudendrium exiguum.
Pi. I. Figs. 3, 4.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, irregularly

branched, fascicled in main stem; principal branches and ultimate ramuli
slender, mostly annulated at their origin. Hydranths with about twenty
tentacula.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged from a depth of 98 fathoms off the Florida Reef.

This is a small species; it is strongly fascicled towards the proximal end
of the main stem, but the branches are for the most part monosiphonic, very

slender, and with very thin perisare.

Eudendrium fruticosum.
Pi IT Figs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, much
and irregularly branched; main stem and base of principal branches fasci-
cled. Hydranths with about twenty tentacles.

Gonosome.— Male gonophores bithalamic, springing in a verticil of about
ten from the body of the hydranth. Female gonophores oval, also spring-

ing in a verticil from the body of the hydranth.
Dredged off Key West from a depth of 135 fathoms.

This is a strong, confusedly branched form. The annulation of the peri-
sare is either altogether obsolete or is at most represented by a few obscure
rings at the origin of the ultimate branches, or an occasional group of rings
near the middle of their length. The stem is thick and strongly fascicled
below, where it resolves itself into numerous hydrorhizal filaments.

In the hydranths which carried the gonophores there was no tendency to
atrophy in the male, and but little in the female.

The specimen was loaded with small spherical capsules, — probably a
mollusean or annelidan nidus,— which adhered to the stem and branches

in dense clusters.
Eudendrium attenuatum.
Pi. II. Figs. 3, 4.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, not

fuscicled, very slender, alternately branched; ultimate ramuli short, given

EUDENDRIUM GRACILE. 7

off alternately at short and nearly equal intervals along the stem and
branches; main branches and ramuli annulated at their origin; stem with
a few annulations here and there.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged S. S. W. of Tortugas from a depth of 60 fathoms.

The specimen was destitute of both gonosome and hydranths, but its very
slender non-fascicled stem, and short regularly disposed hydranthal ramuli,
afford characters sufficiently diagnostic. In the absence, however, of hy-
dranths and gonosome, the species is only provisionally referred to Eu-
dendrium.

Eudendrium laxum.

ta a

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, irreg-

ularly branched, not fascicled; ultimate ramuli alternate, rather long, and
with a few annulations at their origin. .
Gonosome. — Sporosacs (male) bithalamic, springing in a verticil of about

ten from the body of the hydranth.
Dredged off Sand Key from a depth of 100 fathoms.

This is a loosely branched, somewhat straggling species, with unusually
long, flexile, hydranth-bearing ramulli.

Imbedded in the ccenosarcal walls of the lower end of the hydrocaulus
and in those of the hydrorhiza, there occurred in the specimen clear
spherical bodies of whose nature I am unable to give any satisfactory
account. They showed no trace of a nucleus, but are too regular to be
mere lacune. Their real nature can scarcely be determined without an
examination in the recent hydroid.

Eudendrium gracile.
Pi. IV. Figs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of upwards of an inch,
slender, fascicled at extreme base, alternately branched; ultimate ramuli
with nearly obsolete annulation at their origin.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged at Double-Headed Shot Key from a depth of from 3 to 4 fathoms.

This is a slender and delicate species. The hydranths were well pre-
served in the specimen, but no gonosome was present.

8 BIMERIA HUMILIS.

Eudendrium tenellum.
Pi.IV. Figs. 8, 4.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about half an inch, very
slender, not fascicled, irregularly branched; branches annulated at their
origin; main stem and branches with groups of two or three annuli at
distant and irregular intervals.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Double-Headed Shot Key from a depth of 471 fathoms.

Eudendrium tenellum is a minute and very slender form, perhaps the most
slender species as yet referred to the genus Eudendrium. Its reference to
this genus is probably correct, but as neither hydranths nor gonophores
were present in the specimen, it may possibly have its true place in some
other.

The specimens were obtained along with Sertularella amphorifera from the
deepest dredgings made.

Eudendrium cochleatum.
PLS. Fig tee:

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of between two and three
inches, not fascicled, alternately branched; main branches and ultimate
ramuli with very distinct oblique annulation at their origin, and here and
there with groups of three or four ordinary transverse annuli.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Cape Fear River from a depth of 6 fathoms.

The strongly marked screw-like annulation at the origin of the branches
forms a characteristic feature of this species. Some of the hydranths were
well preserved in the specimen, but no gonophores were present.

Attached to it were numerous specimens of a little tube-dwelling crus-
tacean.

Famity BIMERIDA.

Genus BIMERIA Srr. Wriear.
Bimeria humilis.
Pl. V. Figs. 8, 4.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about a line and a half,
springing at intervals from a creeping and ramified stolon, sending off

an

OBELIA MARGINATA. if)

short, alternate hydranth-bearing ramuli which are marked at their origin
by spiral corrugations, and which, increasing in thickness towards their distal
ends, gradually pass into the piriform body of the hydranth; perisare very
opaque. Hydranths large, assuming for the most part a drooping attitude.

Gronosome. — Gonophores (male?) oviform, supported on short spirally
corrugated peduncles, scattered on the hydrocaulus.

Dredged at Tortugas in shallow water.

The massive-looking hydranths and the enlargement of the hydrocaulus
towards their base give a peculiar aspect to this little hydroid. The peri-
sarc, which is very opaque, is apparently continued for some distance over
the tentacles, as in J. vestita Wright, the only species of the genus hitherto
described. In the condition of the specimens of B. humilis, however, it was
not possible to make this out satisfactorily.

The massive hydranths and comparatively slight development of the
hydrocaulus distinguish this species from B. vestita. In both species the
hydranths exhibit a tendency to assume a drooping attitude.

It occurred in considerable profusion, creeping over the surface of a sea-
weed which it covered with a low but rather dense growth.

Susorper VALYPTOBLASTEA.
Trine CAMPANULINA.

Famity CAMPANULARIDZ.
Genus OBELIA Peron & LESUEUR.

Obelia marginata.
Yt gl A 2 an eee

Trophosome. — Stem attainmg a height of nine inches, monosiphonic, pin-
nately branched; pinne alternate; stem and pinne gently zigzag, with a
strong short process given off from the salient angle of each geniculation,
and with a joint at the distal side of the process. Hydrothec supported
on short stout peduncles which rest on the processes of the stem and
pinne, large, nearly cylindrical, slightly oblique at the inner side of the
base, and with a circular even orifice which is margined by a narrow, more
transparent rim.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged off Logger-Head Key from a depth of 9 fathoms.
2

10 THYROSCYPHUS.

This is a very large, strong form, rendered striking by its regularly pin-
nate hydrocaulus, and its large, nearly cylindrical hydrothece, with perfectly
even orifice margined by a narrow clear band.

Without a knowledge of the gonosome its reference to Obelia must be
regarded as purely provisional.

The beautiful little Lafoéa venusta crept over the stem and pinne of one
of the specimens.

Obelia longicyatha.

Pl. VII. Figs. 4, 5.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of nearly an inch, fascicled
below, alternately branched; main stem annulated for a short distance above
each ramulus; ramuli annulated at their orig; hydrothecal peduncles of
moderate length, more or less annulated. Hydrothece narrow, deep, nearly
cylindrical above, and then tapering towards the base; the orifice cut into
about twenty acute, deep, narrow teeth.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged from a depth of 90 fathoms off the Florida Reef.

The specimens were found attached to Halecium macrocephalum. It is a
delicate species with the hydrothecez very thin and compressible. No gono-
some was present, and its reference to Obelia is therefore only provisional.

THYROSCYPHUS A.LiMAN nov. gen.

GENERIC CHARACTER. Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus divided into internodes,
each internode carrying a hydrotheca. Hydrothecz pedunculate; orifice
closed by an operculum which is formed by four converging valves.

Gonosome not known.

The small and definite number (4) of valve-like segments composing the
operculum of the large and strong hydrothecs, combined with the very
definite division of the hydrocaulus into distinct and equal internodes, dis-
tinguishes the genus Thyroscyphus from the other operculate genera of the
Campanularide. It is highly probable that if we were acquainted with
the gonosome other and still more important characters would be found.

LAOFEA VENUSTA. 11

Thyroscyphus ramosus.

Pl. VI. Figs. 5, 6.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, much
and rather irregularly branched. Hydrothecze alternate, large and deep,
oblique at the inner side of the base, supported each on a short peduncle
which consists of two oblique rings and which springs from the summit of
a short thick process given off from the distal end of the internode ; orifice
with a narrow border; opercular valves broadly triangular.

Gonosome not known. .

Dredged south of Sand Key from a depth of 10 fathoms.

Thyroscyphus ramosus is a large and strong species, rendered striking by
its large valvular and bordered hydrothece. It contrasts markedly with
the other operculate Campanularine, which are all, so far as is known, small

and delicate forms.

Genus CAMPANULARIA Lamarck (in part).
Campanularia macroscypha.
Pl. VIET. Fegs. 1, .2.

Trophosome. — Peduncles short, rismg from a creeping stolon, marked with
a few distant-annulations, and having a discoid internode just below the
hydrotheca. Hydrothece large, cylindrical from above downwards for the
greater part of their length, and then tapering rapidly to the base; orifice
cut into about twelve conspicuous, rather blunt teeth.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Sand Key from a depth of 120 fathoms.

This is a simple creeping species, and though of humble growth is re-
markable for the large size of its hydrothece.

Famity LAFOEIDA Lanovrovx.
Genus LAFOEA.*

Lafoéa venusta.
Ph. VI, Figs. 3, 4.

Trophosome. —Hydrophyton minute, creeping. |Hydrothece borne on
moderately long, slightly corrugated peduncles, which spring at short in-

* It is difficult to find characters for the definition of the genus Lafoéa. I regard, however, as an
essential character of the genus the absence of any definite floor to the hydrotheea, a character which

12 LAFOEA CONVALLARIA. ;

tervals from the creeping filament, cylindrical, deep, slightly curved in one
aspect, regularly annulated ; orifice circular with everted lip.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged along with Obelia marginata at Logger-Head Key from a depth of 9 fathoms.

This elegant little campanularian was found creeping over the branches
of Obela marginata.

Lafoéa tenellula.

Pl. VIII. Figg. 3, 4.

Trophosome. — Hydrothece very minute, slightly curved, contracted below
into a short thick peduncle, springing at intervals from a creeping tubular
filament.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged south of Marquesas from a depth of 140 fathoms.

This is a very minute species. The form of the hydrothece resembles
that of the hydrothece of ZL. dumosa, but the whole hydroid is more minute
and delicate. The hydrothecz are usually marked by rings of elongation
behind the orifice.

Lafoéa convallaria.
Pi AX.

Trophosome.— Stem attaining a height of about an inch, simple, fascicled
below, sending off simple, non-fascicled, alternate pinne. Hydrothece
stalked, alternately disposed along the main stem and pinne, tumid towards
the base and contracted towards the orifice, which is turned towards one side.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged from a depth of 152 fathoms off the Florida Reef.

Lafoéa convallaria is a beautiful little hydroid. Its cornucopia-like hydro-
thecze on their short stalks, with their regular symmetrical disposition along
the main stem and pinne, give to the entire hydrophyton a remarkable and
very elegant aspect.

The form of the hydrotheca appears to change somewhat by age, for
while in some the distal end is turned only slightly to one side, in others

it possesses in common with the operculate genus Cuspidella. The cavity of the hydrotheca thus passes
uninterruptedly into that of the supporting peduncle, or if the hydrotheca be sessile, into the cavity
of the stem or branch which carries it. Admitting the correctness of this view, it appears to me
very doubtful whether many of the species referred to Lafoéa are rightly so placed.

CUSPIDELLA PEDUNCULATA. 13

the orifice is turned quite downwards by a curving of this part of the
hydrotheca. In many of the hydrothece annular indications of growth
show themselves just behind the orifice. The peduncles are nearly equal
in length to that of the hydrothece which they support.

The pinne of one side are not given off irom the middle point of the
interval between two pinnz of the opposite side, but rather nearer to
one of these than to the other.

The species is probably correctly referred to the genus Lafoéa, but in
the absence of all knowledge of the hydranths this determination must be
taken as only provisional.

Lafoéa coalescens.

Pl X.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining’ a height of about half an inch, alter-
nately branched, fascicled below, springing from a network of tubular fila-
ments. Hydrothece borne on the summit of peduncles which are for the
most part given off from the sides of a common tube to which they become
immediately adnate until within a short distance of their extremities. Hy-
drothece very deep, tubular, tapering towards the base, and again slightly
narrowing towards the margin, which is itself slightly everted.

Gonosome not known.

_ Dredged south of Marquesas from a depth of 140 fathoms.

The adnate condition of the hydrothecal peduncles gives to this elegant
little hydroid a remarkable character. This must, however, be regarded as
a continuation of the fascicled state of the lower part of the stem. Occa-
sionally hydrothece occur which are borne on shorter peduncles springing
from the main stem, but free in their entire course, while there are also
some which are borne on free peduncles springing from the hydrorhiza.

The hydrothece in every case pass gradually into the supporting pedun-
cle without any basal diaphragm.

Genus CUSPIDELLA* Hincxs.

Cuspidella pedunculata.
Pl. VIL. Figs. 5, 6.
Trophosome. — Hydrosoma very minute. Hydrothece springing by

* The genus Cuspidella was instituted by Hineks for certain minute operculate Campanularine which

he separated from Calycella (Campanularia syringia of authors) on the ground of the sessile condition

14 OPLORHIZA.

rather long peduncles from a creeping filament, very delicate and filmy,
deep, tapering toward the base, where they gradually pass into the peduncle
without any definite line of demarcation.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged south of Tortugas from a depth of 260 fathoms.

OPLORHIZA ALLMAN nov. gen.

GENERIC CHARACTER. Trophosome.— Hydrothec tubular, provided with
a floor and having the orifice cut into thin collapsible segments; borne by
peduncles which spring from a creeping network of tubes. Hydrorhizal
network carrying peculiar appendages which are in the form of tubular re-
ceptacles with an orifice in the summit, and which enclose a granular, fleshy
column, supporting a cluster of thread-cells,

Gonosome not known.

The genus Oplorhiza is nearly allied to Lafoéina Sars. In Lafoéina,
however, the hydrothece are absolutely sessile on the hydrorhiza, and their
cavity passes directly into that of the hydrorhiza without the intervention
of an infrathecal diaphragm or floor.

The genus Lafoéina was established by Michael Sars for a little Lafoéa
like hydroid (Lafoéina tenws) obtained off the Norwegian coast, and essen-
tially distinguished from Lafoéa by the presence of peculiar urticating
appendages which are borne by the hydrorhiza.* These appendages in
Lafoéina are long, filiform, and flexuous, while in Oplorhiza they are short
and cup-shaped. In both genera they remind us strongly of the nemato-
phores of the Plumularidz. Like these they consist of a chitinous receptacle
with fleshy contents which are probably of a simply sarcodie nature, and in
which thread-cells are immersed. In the species on which the genus Oplo-
rhiza is founded, these contents extend through the proximal part of the
appendage in the form of a cylindrical column, which towards the summit
becomes enlarged into a bulb in which numerous very long, curved thread-
cells are imbedded. A very similar condition exists in Lafotina tenws.

of the hydrothecew. A more important character, however, will be found in the absence of any defi-
nite floor or basal diaphragm in the hydrothece. It is the only known operculate form of the Cam-
panuline in which the cavity of the hydrotheca thus passes uninterruptedly into that of the supporting
tube as in the non-operculate genus Lafoéa. The sessile or pedunculate condition must be regarded
as of merely secondary or specific value.

* G. O. Sars, Bidrag til Kundskaben om Norges Hydroider. Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-selskabet i

Christiania, 1873, p. 119.

HALECIUM FILICULA. 15

Lafoéina and Oplorhiza afford the only known instances in which organs
resembling true nematophores occur outside of the family of the Plumularide.

Oplorhiza parvula.
Pl. VIL. Figs. 1-3.

Trophosome. — Hydrosoma very minute, scarcely attaining a line in height.
Hydrothece deep, narrowing towards the summit and towards the base;
peduncles with about two rings just below the hydrotheca, and several less
distinct ones at their origin from the hydrorhiza. Hydrorhizal appendages
very minute, clavate, scattered over the upper side of the hydrorhiza.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged south of Marquesas from a depth of 296 fathoms.

Famiry HALECIDA.

Genus HALECIUM OKEn.

Halecium filicula.
Plex. Figs. 1 —4,

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about three inches, alter-
nately branched; branches pinnately disposed; internodes rather long; main
stem and principal branches fascicled, but becoming monosiphonic toward
their distal ends. Hydrophores* with one or more usually oblique and
irregular annulations at their base, then gradually widening from the most
distal annulation to the summit, where they terminate in a circular and
abruptly everted margin.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged south of Marquesas from a depth of 140 fathoms.

This species is rendered striking by the graceful trumpet-shaped form of
its hydrophores. Many of these are provided with a double or even triple
margin, caused by the hydranth in its growth leaving behind it the old
dilated extremity of the hydrophore, and becoming encircled by a new one,
—acommon occurrence among the various species of Halecium.

* The genus Halecium is destitute of true hydrothece, and the term hydrophore is here used for
the appendages of the stem which take the place of the hydrothece in giving support to the hydranths.

16 HALECIUM MACROCEPHALUM.

Just within the everted margin of the hydrophore is the circle of minute
brilliant points which is scarcely ever absent in any species of Halecium.

Halecium capillare.

Thoa capillaris Pourra.Es. Bull. M. C. Z., I. No. 6.
Pi. XI. Figs. 5, 6.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attains a height of about an inch and a half,
slender, irregularly branched, fascicled at the origin of the main stem and
principal branches; internodes rather long. Hydrophores short, nearly
cylindrical.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged five miles S. 8. W. of Sand Key from a depth of from 90 to 100 fathoms.

This is a small and delicate species. The circle of brilliant points which
in almost every species of Halecium occurs just within the margin of the
hydrophore is not here obvious.

This is one of the specimens examined by Mr. de Pourtalés, who has

assigned to it the specific name here adopted.

Halecium macrocephalum.
Pl. XIT. Figs. 1-5.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, rigid,
stout, and very irregularly branched in all directions; main stem and
principal branches fascicled, becoming monosiphonie distally; internodes of —
moderate length. Hydrophores suppressed. Hydranths very large, sup-
ported directly on the fixed lateral processes of the stem.

Gonosome. — Gonangia springing from the sides of the lateral processes
which support the hydranths; female slipper-shaped, with the orifice situ-
ated near the middle of one side; male smaller than female, cylindrical,

with truncated summit.

Dredged off Sand Key from a depth of 120 fathoms.

Halecium macrocephalum is remarkable for the suppression of the hydro-
phore, whose sole representative is found in the narrow membranous lip,
which is here quite sessile on the fixed bracket-like process of the stem.

In some of the specimens the form of the hydranths was well retained.
These were very large, reaching when fully extended the height of about

two internodes of the stem.

CRYPTOLARIA CONFERTA. 17

In their slipper-shaped form the female gonangia come very near to those
of H. Beanii. The orifice, however, in the latter is more exserted than in
the present species.

Halecium macrocephalum, in the suppression of its hydrophores, and in the
great size of its hydranths, comes very near to H. sessile Nordman. It is,
however, a. much stouter form than H. sessile, which, moreover, judging from
the figures and descriptions of that species, has a monosiphonic instead of a
fascicled stem.

As a rule, the hydranths are relatively large in the various species of
Halecium, and this fact, taken in connection with the absence of a true
hydrotheca, is not without significance.

Trine SERTULARINA.
Famity GRAMMARIDA.

Genus CRYPTOLARIA Busx.

Cryptolaria conferta.
Pl. XII. Figs. 6-10.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, much
and irregularly or subdichotomously branched, fascicled except towards the
terminations of the branches. Hydrothecz adnate for somewhat more than
half their height, and in the fascicled portion of their stem deeply immersed,
then becoming free and arching outwards; adnate portion slightly narrowing
downwards , free portion cylindrical, with circular and entire orifice behind
which the walls are marked by several annular striz.

Gonosome ?

Dredged off Cojima, Cuba, from a depth of 450 fathoms.

Cryptolaria conferta forms crowded entangled tufts. The proximal portions
are strongly fascicled, but towards the extremities the fascicled condition dis-
appears. Here the whole form of the hydrothece is frequently visible, but
farther down the greater part of every hydrotheca is immersed and con-
cealed in the fascicled portion.

The hydrotheca where fully seen in the non-fascicled portion of the hy-

droid is found to have a distinct floor perforated by an offset from the coeno-
3

18 CRYPTOLARIA CONFERTA.

sare of the branch. It is possible that this floor disappears with age, and
that the older hydrothece, where they are immersed in the fascicled stem,
are without it. In Cryptolaria longitheca, another species occurring in the pres-
ent collection, the hydrothecz appear to pass continuously into the tubes of
the hydrocaulus without the intervention of a perforated floor. I have had
no opportunity of examining the nearly allied genus Grammaria, but accord-
ing to Sars the hydrothecz in this genus form continuous tubes passing un-
interruptedly into the tubes of the fascicled stem and allowing of the entire
retraction of the hydranth from the hydrothece into the tubes of the stem.

On the branches of the specimen here described there occurred here and
there certain very remarkable bodies, the real nature of which I have not
succeeded in placing beyond doubt. They are of an irregularly fusiform
shape, and at the spots where they occur surround the branch like minute
sponges. A closer examination shows them to consist of a multitude of flask-
shaped, apparently chitinous receptacles (Figs. 9, 10), adnate to one another
by their sides, and springing by a narrow base from an irregular network of
tubes which encircles the branch. The distal extremity of each is prolonged
into a free neck-like extension which terminates in an even circular orifice.

Each receptacle gives exit after a time to a single spherical body, which
is retained for a period in an external membranous sac connected by a nar-
row neck to the orifice of the flask-shaped receptacle (Fig. 9, a, a).

It is scarcely possible not to recognize in these bodies an assemblage of
true hydroid gonangia, each giving origin within it to a single ovum, which
is subsequently expelled from its cavity and lodged in an acrocyst in which
it continues to be for some time retained.

With the exception, indeed, of there being no apparent hydrothece in-
tercalated among the gonangia, the bodies in question resemble in all
essential points a colony of Coppinia. For, just as in Coppinia, we have
here a colony of mutually adherent gonangia, each containing a sporosac
with a single large ovum, which after a time is carried out and retained
within an acrocyst. The absence of apparent hydrothecsw, however, will
not allow us to make too close a comparison with Coppinia or to regard
these enigmatical bodies as constituting a hydroid colony complete in itself.

Another view, however, suggests itself. May they not represent the
gonosome of the hydroid with which they are associated? In favor of this
interpretation it may be urged that nothing else which can be regarded
as a gonosome occurs in the specimen, and that if we look upon them as

CRYPTOLARIA LONGITHECA. 19

merely a parasitic hydroid we should have in these bodies a gonosome
without its correlative trophosome. Further, the tubular base from which
the gonangia spring forms a close irregular plexus which embraces the fas-
cicled stem of the supporting hydroid, and I believe I have traced a com-
munication between this plexus and the cavities of the outermost tubes of
the stem.

If we admit the reasonableness of this view, we may compare the entire
hydroid to a Coppinia in which the trophosome, instead of consisting of
« number of sessile hydrothece intercalated among the gonangia of the
gonosome, as in the only known species of Coppinia, is further differentiated,
and assumes the form of a branching hydrocaulus with the hydrothece
distributed along its length.

I do not wish, however, to lay too much stress on this view. I do not
feel that I have been able to place beyond all doubt the reality of a com-
munication between the tubular base of the incrusting body and the tubes
of the stem, while the fascicled condition of the stem increases the difficulty.
Against its constituting the proper gonosome of the supporting hydroid,
may also be urged the facts of its irregular form and of its sometimes ex-
tending in such a way as to embrace a portion of more than one branch,
exactly as a foreign incrusting growth might do. The question, however,
of its exact relation to its associated hydroid must await for its solution

the examination of recent specimens.

Cryptolaria longitheca.

Pl. XIII Figs. 4, 5.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, pin-
nately but not profusely branched ; fasciculation disappearing towards the
ends of the branches. Hydrothecx cylindrical, adnate in the non-fascicled
portion for about half their height, then becoming free and bending out-
wards; margin circular and even, surrounded by annular striz.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Double-Headed Shot Key from a depth of 315 fathoms.

Oryptolaria longitheca is a far less profusely branched species than €. conferta,
and from this species it further differs in the pinnate disposition of its
branches and in being a stronger form with larger hydrothece. The hy-
drothece, moreover, where a complete view of them can be obtained, as in

20 CRYPTOLARIA ELEGANS.

the unfascicled portion of the hydrocaulus, are cylindrical throughout, pre-
senting no diminution of their diameter towards the base as in @. conferta.
They appear also to pass continuously into the tubes of the hydrocaulus,
no distinct floor being apparent in the hydrothecze of any part of the
specimen.

The circular striz which surround the margin of the hydrothece are here
as in other species most probably indications of successive elongations occur-
ring during the growth of the hydroid.

Cryptolaria abies.
Pi. XII. Figs. 1-3.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, irreg-
ularly branched, with a pinnate disposition of the ultimate ramuli. Hydro-
thecze, where completely visible, near the ends of the branches where the
fasciculation ceases, flask-shaped, adnate by somewhat more than half their
height, and then bending outwards; margin circular, even, and without
obvious annular striation.

Gonosome not known.

The hydrothece of this species are considerably smaller than those of
either C. conferta or C. longitheca. They can be seen, too, in the distal,
non-fascicled portions of the hydrocaulus, where they are fully exposed, to
be of a very different shape from those of the two former species, being here
of an elongated flask-shape, tumid below and gradually. narrowing towards
the orifice. Here also they are plainly provided with a distinct floor, and
in all respects resemble a typical sertularian hydrotheca. In the fascicled
portion of the stem, where they are in great part immersed and concealed,
their form cannot be satisfactorily determined.*

Cryptolaria elegans.
Pi. XIV. Figs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, delicate,
pinnately and very regularly branched; pinne alternate fascicled only at
their base or entirely monosiphonic. Hydrotheex alternate, tubular, nearly
cylindrical, narrow, adnate for somewhat more than half their height on
the distal portions of the hydrocaulus, with the free part bending outwards

* The label placed with the specimens of this species had become effaced, so that neither their exact

station in the area explored nor the depth from which they were dredged could be ascertained.

SERTULARELLA CONICA. |

at nearly a right angle to the adnate part. Margin circular, even, frequently
surrounded by annular strize.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged from a depth of 152 fathoms off the Florida Reef.

This is a much smaller and more delicate form than any of the other
species of Cryptolaria in the collection, its hydrothece having only about
half the diameter of those of C. abies, the species which in this respect
approaches it most nearly. The fasciculation is not carried to the same
extent as in the other species, for it usually disappears from the pinnz at
a short distance from their origin, and those pinnze which are given off
near the summit of the stem are generally quite monosiphonic.

In the monosiphonic portions the hydrothecz are seen to arise from the
sides of a common tube to which they are generally adnate for more than
half their height; they are here provided with a distinct floor, and are
entirely differentiated from the supporting tube. In the fascicled portion
they are, as in all the other species, deeply immersed and in great part
concealed.

The pinnez are so disposed that those of one side do not arise from the
middle point of the space opposite to the interval between two pinne of ~
the opposite side, but from a point quite near to one end of this space.

Fanny SERTULARIDA.
Genus SERTULARELLA Gray.

Sertularella conica.
Lt. AY¥.. Figs. GT.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch and a
half, simple or with an occasional short branch, not fascicled. Hydrothece
distant, each springing from a point close to the distal end of an internode,
tumid towards the base, much narrowed towards the orifice, slightly marked
with transverse corrugations on its upper side.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged southwest of Tortugas from a depth of 60 fathoms.

Sertularella couca is a rather rigid species. It is distinguished from S.
polyzonias by its nearly simple habit, by the greater distance of the hydro-
thece from one another, and by their more conical form, resulting from
their rapid narrowing towards the orifice. }

92 SERTULARELLA GAYI.

Sertularella amphorifera.
Pl. XV. Figs. 8-10.

Trophosome. — Uydrocaulus very slender, dichotomously branched ; inter-
nodes long, attenuated, each carrying a hydrotheca near its distal end. Hy-
drothece nearly cylindrical, deep, adnate to the internode for about their
proximal third, then becoming free and bending outwards; margin with
three teeth, one internal and two lateral.

Gonosome. — Gonangia springing each from a point near the base of a
hydrotheca ; obovate, strongly annulated, rapidly narrowing to its point of
attachment, and terminating distally in a conical neck, which carries on its
summit a small circular orifice with everted margin.

Dredged off Double-Headed Shot Key from a depth of 471 fathoms.

Sertularella amphorifera is very closely allied to the S. tricuspidata of Alder.
It is destitute, however, of the two or three oblique annulations which at
intervals give to the stem in S. ¢ricuspidata a twisted appearance, while
the disposition of the teeth of the hydrotheca is also different, there being
an anterior but no posterior tooth in Alder’s species. Further, the gonangia
of the present species become much more rapidly narrow towards their
point of attachment, a condition which makes them closely resemble in
form the old Roman amphora.

The specimens in the collection were mere fragments, so that the full size
to which the species grows could not be ascertained. They were obtained
from the deepest dredgings of the exploration

Sertularella Gayi var. RoBUSTA.
Pl. XV. Figs. 3-5.

I have assigned to the well-known species Sertularella Gayi the hydroid
here figured, which I regard as one of the many variations of that species,
from the typical form of which it differs in its more irregular ramification
and stouter habit. The specimens examined had attained a height of two
or three inches, and sprung from a hydrorhiza composed of a dense tow-
like mass of fine tubular filaments, formed by the disunion, free exten-
sion, and repeated division of the tubes which constitute the fascicled stem.

The valvular apparatus by which the orifice of the hydrotheca is closed
was well seen in some of the specimens, and the four bands by which the
valves are connected with the body of the hydranth were in some cases
visible (Fig. 4).

SERTULARIA TUMIDA. 23

These bands, so far as I am aware, have not been hitherto described.
I have found them in many other Sertularidans, and they are especially
obvious in young hydrothecs. They are destitute of fibrillation, and appear
to consist of a cord of protoplasm enclosing nucleus-like bodies, and are
plainly intended to close the valves forming the operculum of the hydro-
theca during the retreat of the hydranth.

Specimens of the same variety, but in which the strong, robust habit
was still better marked, were dredged by the “ Porcupine,” in the eastern
parts of the North Atlantic.*

Genus SERTULARIA Linnzvus (in part).

Sertularia marginata.
PU x VES Figs 3 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, simple ;
internodes elongated, attenuated below every pair of hydrothece. Hydro-
thecze opposite, deep, tubular, free, and divergent above for about three
fifths of their height, slightly tumid below; orifice entire, with a broad rim
formed by close striz, which run in a circular direction round the distal
end of the hydrotheca.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged from a depth of 324 fathoms, off Florida Reef.

The species is remarkable for its distant pairs of long tubular hydro-
thece, with the orifice surrounded by a band of delicate circular strie.
The specimen is destitute of gonangia; it is possibly immature, and may
become ramified before attaining its adult condition.

Sertularia tumida.

Pi. XVI. Figs. 3, 4.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of ¢ of an inch simple;
internodes of moderate length, thinning away for some distance below
each pair of hydrotheces. Hydrothece opposite, short, tumid below, adnate
to the stem for about half their length, and with the distal half free and
diverging at nearly a right angle.
Gonosome not known.

Tortugas, shallow water.

_ * See Report of the Hydroids collected during the Expeditions of H. M. S. Porcupine, Traas. Zool. Soe.
London, 1873.

24 SERTULARIA EXIGUA.

The present species resembles in its general habit Sertularia pumila,
and might, without examination, be mistaken for it. It is, however, dis-
tinguished from that species by its tumid hydrothece, and by the wide
angle at which their distal portion diverges from the stem; as well as
by the greater length of the internodes and consequent separation of the
pairs of hydrothece. =

No gonangia were present, and the specimen may not have attained
its full growth. In some of the hydrothece the hydranths were fairly
preserved, and the opercular bands were recognizable.

Sertularia tubitheca.
PLAX Ud Figs. 5, 6.

Trophosome. —Hydrocaulus attaining a height of upwards of an inch,
branched ; branches opposite ; internodes of moderate length, thinning away
below every pair of hydrothece. Hydrothecse long, tubular, cylindrical,
free, and divergent for a little more than their distal half, with the orifice
circular, abruptly but slightly everted, and having close behind it an
annular ridge resembling the margin of a former orifice.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms at the Tortugas.

Sertularia tubitheca is a small but elegant species. The double-lipped
condition of the hydrothecs: was constant in the specimens examined, and
seems due to the existence of an earlier orifice, to which the present one
has succeeded. It is possible that indications of more than one such earlier
orifice would be found in older specimens.

Sertularia exigua.

Pl. XVI. Figs..7, 8.

Trophosome.— Hydrocaulus minute, simple, attaining the height of about
; of an inch; internodes very short, not prolonged by an attenuated con-
tinuation below the pairs of hydrothecee. Hydrotheex opposite, not tumid
below ; free and divergent on their distal half, and with the opposed sides
of each pair parallel to one another.

Gonosome unknown.

Dredged off Cape Fear from a depth of 9 fathoms.

This little Sertularia might be mistaken for S. pumila; unless, however,

DESMOSCYPHUS. 25

the specimens are immature, and would have acquired a greater develop-
ment in their adult state, it is a much smaller form than S. pumila. Fur-
ther, in S. pumila the opposed sides of the hydrothecze composing each
pair converge from above downwards, while in S. ezigua they are parallel.

Sertularia distans.
BE AVL: Figs. 9, 20.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, simple
or with an occasional branch; internodes rather long and prolonged by an
attenuated extension below each pair of hydrothece. Hydrothece tubular,
with the distal half free and divergent, and the opposed sides of the proxi-
mal halves parallel.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Tennessee Reef from a depth of 21 fathoms.

This species bears considerable resemblance to S. pumila, from which,
however, it differs in the much greater length of its internodes and con-
sequent distance of its pairs of hydrothece. The orifice of the hydrotheca
is cut off obliquely above and below, so as to present two broad lateral
teeth, and the intervals between these are closed by two thin membra-
nous valves. Each of these valves is composed of delicate superimposed
laminz, which may be usually seen partially separated from one another, as
thin exfoliating films.

The species resembles also S. gracilis Hassall in the length of its inter-
nodes, but it is a larger form.

In the absence of gonosome it is impossible to approximate it closer
to any European form.

DESMOSCYPHUS AttMan nov. gen.

Generic CHARACTER. T'rophosoime. — Hydrocaulus jointed, each internode
corresponding to one or more pairs of hydrothece. Hydrothece adnate to
one another in pairs, each pair adnate to the side of the hydrocaulus.

Gronosome. — Gonangia simple, borne along the front of the hydrocaulus.

The genus Desmoscyphus was originally constituted for a hydroid trom
the New Zealand shores.* It resembles most of the species of Thuiaria in
the extent to which the hydrothece are adnate to the hydrocaulus, but it

* Allman on New Genera and Species of Hydroida, Journ. Linn. Soe. Zodlogy, Vol. XIL
4

26 DESMOSCYPHUS LONGITHECA. ,

differs from this genus in the fact that the hydrothece are also adnate
to one another in pairs, and thus brought all to one side of the hydro-
caulus; while a still further difference is found in the fact that the inter-
nodes may in some cases carry each a single pair of hydrothecs, as in Ser-
tularia.

In the New Zealand species, Desmoscyphus Buskii, the main stem is divided
into internodes of variable length, carrying each a variable number of pairs
of hydrothecx, while the branches are regularly divided into equal internodes
each with one pair of hydrothece. In the species here described from the
Gulf Stream (D. longitheca), the entire hydrocaulus is regularly divided into
internodes, each carrying a single pair of hydrothece.

Desmoscyphus longitheca.

Pl. XIV. Figs. 3-6.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, pinnately
branched ; pinnee alternate, much contracted at their origin; main stem and
pinne divided into regular internodes, each internode carrying a single pair
of hydrothece. Hydrothecx long, tubular, with semicircular orifice, which
is closed by a valve-like lid; along the branches and the greater part of
the main stem adnate to one another in pairs for nearly their entire height,
but becoming free and diverging from one another close to their distal ends;
towards the basal end of the stem the hydrothece of each pair receding
from one another and ultimately disposed on two diametrically opposite
sides of the internode.

Gronosome not known.

Key West, shallow water.

Desmoscyphus longitheca constitutes an interesting transition form by which
the genus Desmoscyphus becomes connected with Sertularia. For while in
D. Buskii the branches alone are divided into equal internodes, each carry-
ing a single pair of hydrothece, the main stem being composed of internodes
of variable length, each with a variable number of hydrothece, in the present
species both stem and branches possess the Sertularian character of division
into equal internodes, with a single pair of hydrothecse upon each.

Further, in D. longitheca the hydrotheee composing each pair, where they
approach the base of the main stem, begin to recede from one another, the
separation gradually increasing, until just above the hydrorhiza they are

situated upon opposite sides of their supporting internode exactly as in a

THUIARIA PLUMULIFERA. 27

true Sertularia; while the resemblance of this part of the hydroid to a Ser-
tularia is further increased by the occurrence of a deep constriction be-

tween each internode.

Genus THUIARIA FLeminc.

Thuiaria distans.

PL AVIT,: igs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Stem attaining a height of about four inches, simple, non-
fascicled, sending off alternate pinne, which extend from its distal end to
within a short distance of the base; pinnz with transverse joints at distant
but uncertain intervals; main stem with an oblique joint just above the
origin of each pinna. Hydrothece distant,-alternate, borne upon the stem
and pinn, to each of which they are adnate for very nearly their entire
height; short, tubular, slightly enlarging upwards and bending outward,
with a somewhat wavy margin destitute of teeth, and with a narrow, though
distinct border.

Gonosome not known.

Tortugas, shallow water.

Thuuria distans is remarkable for the length of the intervals by which
the hydrothecz of each side are separated from one another. The inter-
nodes of the stem are regular in length, and support each three hydrothece ;
those of the pinne are irregular in length, and vary in the number of hydro-
thecze to which they give support.

The coenosare of the stem is canaliculated.

Thuiaria plumulifera.

Pi. XVII. Figs. 3-6.

Trophosome. —Stem attaining a height of about six inches, slender, flexile,
emitting numerous pinnate branches which are disposed from distance to
distance rather irregularly on all sides of the stem, and which carry the
hydrothece both upon their axis and pinnx; pinne alternate, much con-
tracted at their origin. Hydrothece alternate, deep, adnate for nearly their
entire length ; orifice with two strong, broad teeth, beyond which the walls
of the hydrothecx are continued as a thin, membranous, collapsible tube.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Cape Fear from a depth of 9 fathoms.

28 THUIARIA SERTULARIOIDES.

Thuaria plumulifera has a good deal of the habit of Hydrallmama falcata.
The pinna-bearing branches are regularly divided into equal internodes,
each internode carrying three hydrothecz and giving off a pinna from
alternate sides just above its proximal end. The pinne are much contracted
at their origin, and united to the branch which carries them by a very short,
nearly globular internode. The joints of the pinne are at distant and
uncertain intervals.

The hydrothecz at their distal ends are thin and collapsible, so that it
was very difficult to determine the true form of the orifice. In some cases,
however, where the parts were well preserved, it could be seen that the
thin collapsible portion was a tubular prolongation of the walls beyond
the true orifice, which was provided with two strong, broad lateral teeth.

The gonangia had all fallen, but the indications of their attachment

were visible just below many of the hydrothece.

Thuiaria pinnata.
Pl. XV. Figs. 1, 2.

Tyophosome.— Stem attaining a height of nearly three inches, sparingly
branched, fascicled below, alternately pinnate; pinne given off at nearly
right angles to the stem, jointed at distant and uncertain intervals.
Hydrothece borne both by stem and pinne, deep cylindrical with
obscurely 4-toothed margin, adnate to the axis in their whole length.

Gonosome not known.

Double-headed Shot Key from a depth of 3 to 4 fathoms.

Thuaria pinnata is a strong, rather rigid form, rendered somewhat
striking by the very open angle at which the pinnx are given off from
the stem. Some of the hydranths were well preserved in the speci-
men, and it would appear that they are capable of extending them-

selves far beyond the orifice of the hydrotheca.

Thuiaria sertularioides.

Pl. XVI. Figs. VW, 42.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of three inches, slender
cylindrical, sending off short, simple branches which spring from the
anterior aspect of the axis. Hydrotheee opposite, with the. distal half

free and divergent, gradually narrowing from the base to the orifice,

PLUMULARIA FILICULA. 29

which is obliquely cut above and below so as to present two broad
lateral teeth.

Gonosome not known.

In its opposite hydrothecse adnate to the axis for only half their
height, and disposed in distant pairs, this hydroid has so much of the
aspect of a Sertularia that it might at first sight be easily referred
to that genus. The fact, however, that the pairs of hydrothec are not
separated from one another by a joint removes it from Sertularia, and
notwithstanding the freedom of the hydrothecz for so considerable a
portion of their height, brings it into the genus Thuiaria.*

It is a slender form, with a somewhat rigid habit which it would seem
to owe to the non-jointed condition of the axis.

Famiry PLUMULARIDA.

Genus PLUMULARIA, Lamarck (in part).

Plumularia filicula.
Pl VIG Pigs, 1. o.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, simple
or with an occasional branch close to the root, not fascicled; pinnz alter-
nate, one borne by each internode of the stem, immediately below a joint,
where it is supported on a long process of the internode; proximal inter-
node of the pinne short and destitute of hydrotheca; following internodes
elongate, every alternate one carrying a hydrotheca, the hydrotheca-bearing
imternodes slightly longer than the intervening ones. Hydrothece small,
each borne near the middle of its supporting internode. Supracalycine
nematophores large ; a single mesial nematophore borne by the hydrothecal
internode at the proximal side of the hydrotheca, two by each of the inter-
vening internodes, and a single one by the short proximal internode.

Gonosome. — Gonangia elongate, oval, smooth, narrowed below into a

* I regard the presence of a joint at regular intervals between every two or every two pairs of hydro-
thece as an essential character of the true Sertularidans (Sertularia, Sertularella, Diphasia) quite irrespec-
tively of the extent to which the hydrothecx are adnate to the hydrocaulus. in Thuiaria, on the other
hand, the joints occur at distant, and for the most part irregular intervals, thus allowing numerous hy-
drothecz to follow one another without any intervening joint. See Journ. Linn. Soc, Zodlogy, Vol. XU.

p- 267.

30 PLUMULARIA ATTENUATA.

short peduncle, by which they spring from the axils of the pinne, open-
ing on the summit by a wide oblique aperture.
Off Alligator Reef, from a depth of 88 fathoms.

This species grows in tufts, numerous undivided stems springing from
a common base. It is of a rather rigid habit; the pinne are close set;
besides the nematophores of the pinnze we find on each internode of the
stem two large, alternately placed, solitary nematophores, and two pairs
of nematophores which are borne by the lateral process on which the
hydrothecal ramulus is supported.

Plumularia macrotheca.
Pl. XVID, Figs. 3} 4.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, simple,
fascicled, springing from an entangled mass of fine tubular filaments; pinnz
very slender, alternate, composed each of a succession of long internodes
alternating with short ones, each of the long internodes bearing a hydro-
theca. Hydrothecze deep, tubular, with very slightly everted margin.
Supracalycine nematophores springing each from a short process which pro-
jects from the long internode, just below the margin of the hydrotheca,
one mesial nematophore carried by the same internode at the proximal
side of the hydrotheca, and another on each of the short internodes.

Gonosome not known.
Off Cojima, Cuba, from a depth of 450 fathoms.

Plumularia macrotheca is remarkable for its long narrow hydrothece.
Its very slender pinnx are rather widely set upon the stem, which is fas-
cicled, and, like other fascicled stems, resolves itself below by the separation

of its component tubes into a loose plexus of hydrorhizal filaments.

Plumularia attenuata.
Pil. XVIII. Figs. 5, 6.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus branched, fascicled below; pinnz alternate,
each arising from a point of the stem close to the distal end of an inter-
node; internodes of pinnew elongated, becoming abruptly slender in the
distal two thirds of their length. Hydrotheex small, borne by the thicker
basal portion.
Supracalycine nematophores springing from tooth-like processes which

PLUMULARIA MEGALOCEPHALA. 31

flank the hydrotheca on each side; mesial nematophores, one at the distal
and one at the proximal side of each hydrotheca.

Gonosome not known.
Off Boca Grande, from a depth of 105 fathoms.

The abruptly attenuated distal portion of the internodes of the pinnz
is sufficient to distinguish this species. The internodes of the stem are
short, and the pinne are in consequence close set, resembling in this respect
those of P. jilicula. In the stem each internode carries two nematophores
which are placed laterally and alternately, and one pair of nematophores
which is borne by the lateral process.

Plumularia megalocephala.
Pils AEX. get, 2

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus irregularly branched, not fascicled; pinne
alternate, each borne close to the distal end of an internode of the stem,
where it is supported on a long stout process of the internode; proximal
internode of pinna short and destitute of hydrotheca; following inter-
nodes longer, every alternate one carrying a hydrotheca, and slightly
longer than the others. Hydrotheczx small and shallow, each borne near
the middle of its internode, and supporting a very large hydranth. Besides
the supracalycine pair of nematophores, each hydrotheca-bearing internode
carrying a single mesial nematophore at the proximal side of the hydro-
theca; intervening internode carrying two mesial nematophores, and short
basal internode carrying one.

Gonosome not known.
Off Alligator Reef, from a depth of 14 fathoms.

The specimens from which the description has been written were im-
perfect, and the height to which they had attained could not be determined
with certainty, but it was probably about two inches. The internode
intercalated between the hydrotheca-bearing internodes was sometimes
present, sometimes absent, and was of variable length. The internodes
of the stem carry two nematophores placed laterally and alternately, and
one or two pairs on its lateral process.

Some of the hydranths in the specimens were sufficiently well preserved
to afford a sketch of their outline. They are of enormous size in com-
parison with the hydrothecx, into which they could never have been
retracted. The very large pear-shaped body was supported on a slender
stalk, the only part which lay within shelter of the hydrotheca.

a2 HALOPTERIS.

Plumularia geminata.
Pl. XX. Figs. 1-4.

Trophosome. —Stem attaining a height of about one inch, dichotomously
branched ; internodes towards the distal extremity of the branch alternately
longer and shorter; each shorter imternode carrying near its middle a
hydrotheca, on each side of which springs an ultimate ramulus, also com-
posed of alternately longer and shorter internodes; each shorter one
carrying a hydrotheca. Hydrothecze campanulate with slightly everted
margin, free for about its distal half. Lateral nematophores borne each
on a strong tooth-like process of the internode; mesial nematophores
carried upon both the hydrothecal and the intervening internodes.

Gonosome. —Gonangia pyriform, borne on short two-jointed peduncles
which spring from the mesial line immediately below the hydrotheca, the
narrow proximal end of the gonangia carrying a nematophore on each
side. ;

Off Sand Key, from a depth of 120 fathoms.

Plumularia geminata is a very remarkable form; the ultimate ramuli given
off in regular pairs from the principal branches confer upon it a very
striking aspect. All these pairs of ramuli are directed towards one side
of the branch from which they spring. The proximal joint of each hydro-
theca-bearing internode in the ultimate ramuli is very oblique, the distal

one transverse. This internode carries a single mesial nematophore, which

is situated at the proximal side of the hydrotheca, while each intervening
internode of the ramulus carries three. In the main branches each hydro-
theca-bearing internode carries also a nematophore at the distal side of
the hydrotheca, while four nematophores are borne on every intervening

internode.*
HALOPTERIS ALLMAN nov. gen.

GENERIC CHARACTER. 'rophosome.— Hydrosoma pinnate plumose; stem
and pinne divided into internodes. Hydrothecw adnate to side of pinnae,
unilateral. A pair of nematophores flanking the hydrotheca, one on
each side, and adnate to it. Mesial nematophores two (or more), not
adnate to the hydrotheca, fixed, monothalamic, with an oblique aperture
continued into a lateral slit.

Gonosome not known.

* See Addenda, p. 56.

HALOPTERIS CARINATA. 33

The genus Halopteris constitutes an intermediate form between Aglao-
phenia and Plumularia. To Aglaophenia it shows an affinity by its
paired nematophores being adnate to the hydrothece, and by its fixed
monothalamic mesial nematophores with slit-like aperture. To Plumularia
it is connected by having more than one azygous nematophore seated
on each internode of the pinne, and all at a distance from the hydro-
theca, by the wide separation of the hydrothecx from one another, and
by their even margin.

Halopteris carinata.
Pl. XIX. Figs. 3-7.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches,
simple, non-fascicled ; pinnz alternate, springing one from each internode
of the stem, near its proximal end; internodes of pinnz separated from
one another by oblique joints, each carrying a hydrotheca near its mid-
dle. Hydrothece very large, adnate to internode for about two thirds of
their height, and then becoming free, deep, nearly cylindrical in lateral
aspect, infundibuliform in front aspect, margin even, with a slightly
prominent cusp in front, from which a slight keel is continued for some
distance along the front of the hydrotheca. Lateral nematophores in
the form of a long tubular stalk which springs from the internode at
a point near its middle, and thence passing obliquely across the side of
‘the hydrotheca, reaches the margin, where it terminates in a cup-like
dilatation. Mesial nematophores free, fixed by a narrow base, two on
each internode, one being just below the hydrotheca, and one at a
little distance above it.

Gonosome not known.
Off Carysfort Reef, from a depth of 35 fathoms.

This is a remarkable hydroid, rendered striking by its long tubular lat-
eral nematophores, and by the peculiar form and large size of its hy-
drothece. The stem carries between the pinne longitudinal rows of
short fixed nematophores whose oblique aperture is continued into a
lateral slit. Though the mesial nematophores of the pinne are attached
by a narrow base, they are firmly fixed, thus, along with the nemato-
phores of the stem, contrasting with the movable and easily detached
nematophores of the true Plumularie. In this respect, and in their
oblique and slit orifice, they resemble the nematophores of Aglaophenia.

5

34 ANTENNOPSIS.

Genus ANTENNULARIA Lamarck.

Antennularia simplex.
Pl. XXI. Figs. 1, 2.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about three inches,
simple; verticils closely set, each composed of about five ramuli; ramuli
borne each on a stout process from the stem, and composed of long,
nearly equal internodes, every internode carrying a hydrotheca near its
proximal end. Hydrothece small, campanulate, flanked on each side by
a short tooth-like process from the internode. Supracalycine nemato-
phores borne on the tooth-like processes; two mesial nematophores on
each internode, one at the proximal and another at the distal side of
the hydrothecx; a pair of nematophores borne on the basal process and
single nematophores scattered over the common stem.

Gonosome not known. ‘

Off Alligator Reef, from a depth of 86 fathoms.

The present species comes very near to Antennularia ramosa, from
which, however, it differs in its simple habit, and in the position of
the hydrothecx, which are here situated further towards the proximal
end of each internode.

ANTENNOPSIS ALLMAN nov. gen.

Grenerio CHARACTER. Zyophosome.— Stem jointed, sending off scattered
jointed ramuli which carry the hydrothecse. Hydrothece with entire
margin, unilateral, associated with a pair of movable supracalycine nemato-
phores and with movable azygous nematophores borne along the hydrothecal
side of the ramuli.

Gonosome. — Gonangia not protected by corbule or other appendages.

The genus Antennopsis differs from Antennularia, to which it is closely
allied, by the scattered disposition of its ramuli, which in Antennularia
are verticillate.

In all the species of Antennularia which I have examined, the coeno-
sure is canaliculated in the stem, the hydrosomal cavity being there
represented by a network of interecommunicating canals. In Antennopsis
hippuris the hydrosomal cavity is of the ordinary simple type, but we do
not yet know enough of the species which may compose the genus
Antennopsis to enable us to regard this as a true generic character.

HIPPURELLA. 35

Another feature in which Anfennopsis hippuris differs from the species
of Antennularia consists in the absence of the tow-like mass of fila-
ments which forms the hydrorhiza of the various species hitherto referred
to the latter genus, the place of these entangled filaments being here
taken by a small knot of free tubular fibres. |

Antennopsis hippuris.
Pl X XT, digs. 3, 6.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches, spring-
ing from a cluster of distinct tubular fibres; stem simple, non-fascicled,
divided into rather short internodes; ramuli slender, supported each by
a thick process of the rachis which is given off from all sides irreg-
ularly, every alternate internode of the ramulus supporting a hydrotheca.
Hydrothece small, cup-shaped. Hydrothecal internodes carrying besides
the supracalycine nematophores two mesial nematophores, one at the
proximal and one at the distal side of the hydrothece; intervening
internodes with two mesial nematophores.

Gonosome. — Gonangia shortly pedunculate, borne singly in the axils
of the ramuli; male? elongated oval, with an oblique terminal orifice ;
female? slipper-shaped with the distal end curved over to one side,

and with a sub-terminal orifice.
Off Double-Headed Shot Key, from a depth of 195 fathoms.

Antennopsis jippuris is a small and rather delicate species. Like almost
every other hydroid, it is dicecious, and the collection contains specimens
of each sex, which differ from one another considerably in the form of
the gonangia. The contents of the gonangia were not well enough pre-
served to enable their nature to be determined, and it is therefore with
hesitation that, guided by the analogy of some other forms, I have
regarded the long oval gonangia as male, and the shorter slipper-shaped
ones as female.

HIPPURELLA ALLMAN nov. gen.

GENERIC CHARACTER. T'rophosome. — Hydrocaulus branched, ultimate
ramuli pinnate on the proximal portion of the branches, but distributed
on all sides towards their distal. extremities. Hydrothece borne on the
ultimate ramuli, unilateral, with entire margin, associated with a pair of

36 MONOSTAECHAS.

supracalycine nematophores, and with azygous nematophores along the
hydrothecal side of the ramulus.
Gonosome not known.

The genus Hippurella unites in itself the characters of a Plumularia
and of an Antennularia or Antennopsis. Indeed, the genera Plumularia,
Antennularia, Antennopsis, and Hippurella differ from one another mainly
in the disposition of the ultimate ramuli. The characters thus afforded
have long been recognized as of generic value in the separation of
Antennularia from Plumularia, and the application of the same principle
to other forms necessitates the construction of Antennopsis and Hippurella
as legitimate genera. |

Hippurella annulata.
PL RRL, igs. 1 )8.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about three inches,
springing from a dense bundle of tubular filaments, fascicled throughout
the main stem, which sends off numerous non-fascicled branches, which
are pinnately disposed below, but given off irregularly towards the distal
end of the hydrocaulus; ultimate ramuli alternate and pinnate towards
the proximal ends of the branches, but towards the distal ends surround-
ing the branch on all sides, and here either scattered or regularly verticil-
late ; each composed of alternate long and short internodes with inter-
vening groups of very short ring-like internodes, each of the long internodes
carrying a hydrotheca. Hydrotheczx deep, thimble-shaped, with slightly
everted margin. Besides the supracalycine pair of nematophores, there

are two mesial nematophores, borne by the ramulus, between every two
hydrothece.

Gonosome not known.
Off Pacific Reef from a depth of 283 fathoms.

The species is rendered striking by the large size and deep thimble-

shaped form of its hydrothecee, and by the annulation, at intervals, of its
ultimate ramuli.

MONOSTAZCHAS ALiMAN nov. gen.

GENERIC CHARACTER. Zyophosome.— Stem branched ; hydrothecal ramuli
confined toone side of their supporting branches. Hydrothecx unilateral

er

5
j

r
4

MONOSTACHAS DICHOTOMA. 37

with entire margin, associated with a pair of supracalycine nematophores,
and with free mesial nematophores.

Gonosome. — Gonangia not contained in corbule, or connected with special
branches.

The unilateral disposition of the hydrothecal or ultimate ramuli on the
main branches is very remarkable, and, being absolutely constant, becomes
a character of generic value.

Monostzchas dichotoma.
Pil. XXII. Figs. 1-5.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch and a half,
pellucid, dichotomously branched ; every alternate internode of the hydro-
thecal ramuli carrying a hydrotheca and separated from the others by a
transverse distal joint, and a very oblique and more strongly marked
proximal one. Hydrothece rather large cup-shaped, flanked on each
side by a prominent tooth-like process of the internode. Supracalycine
nematophores borne by the tooth-like processes, one mesial nematophore
borne by the hydrotheca-bearing internode at the proximal side of the
hydrotheca, and two by the intervening internode; numerous nemato-
phores borne in a single series along the opposed sides of the bifurcat-
ing branches.

Gonosome. — Gonangia pyriform, contracted below into a short stalk, which
springs from a slightly prominent process of the internode, just below the
base of the hydrotheca, and carries a nematophore on each side of it.

Off Pacific Reef, from a depth of 283 fathoms.

The present species closely resembles, in several important characters,
the Plumularia catharina of Johnston. In the form and position of the
hydrothecse, in the internodes and nematophores of the ultimate ramuli,
and in the form and position of the gonangia, the resemblance is so close,
even in minute details, that it is impossible to find in these parts any
characters by which the one hydroid can be distinguished from the other.

It is entirely different, however, with the ramification of the species for
which I have here founded the genus Monostacuas. This ramification is
of a very remarkable kind, so much so, indeed, that I regard it as affording
a character of generic value. It has not only no resemblance to that of

Plumularia catharina, but belongs to a type which has no representative

, in any other known Plumularidan,

38 ANTENNELLA GRACILIS.

ANTENELLA ALLMAN nov. gen.

Generic CHARACTER. — Trophosome.— Hydrocaulus consisting of simple
stems, which spring from a congeries of tubular filaments; stems divided
into internodes, destitute of pinnz, and directly bearing the hydrothece.
Hydrothece with entire margin. Nematophores free and movable.

fronosome not known.

If in a true Plumularia the rachis had never been developed, and the
pinne had thus come to stand immediately on the hydrorhiza, we should
have a form with the essential characters of Antennella.

Antennella gracilis.
Pl. XXII. Figs. 6, 7.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about an inch, simple
or with an occasional division near its base, springing in dense tufts from
a mass of creeping, tortuous, inosculating, and entangled filaments, divided
into internodes by very oblique joints, and with an intervening obscure hori-
zontal joint, also generally apparent. Hydrotheex borne along the hydro-
caulus from its distal end to within a short distance of its base, rather large,
cylindrical, deep, with a circular margin, free for about half their height.
Supracalycine nematophores borne each on the extremity of a long hollow
process which flanks the hydrotheca on each side ; mesial nematophores
usually four between every two hydrothece.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Carysfort Reef from a depth of 60 fathoms.

A form nearly allied to the Antennelia gracilis of the present Report has
been dredged off the British coast by Hincks, who regards it as a variety
of Plumularia catharina Johnston, and believes it to be identical with the
Antennularia cyathifera of Dana, and with the Sertularia secundaria of Cavolini.
That all these belong to the form for which I have constituted the genus
Antennella, there can, I think, be little doubt.

Throughout that section of the Plumularidw which is characterized by
its movable nematophores, and of which Plwnularia setacea may be taken
as the type, the modifications of ramification as expressed in the disposition
of the hydrothecal or ultimate ramuli admit of being thrown into a series
whose members present a definite relation to one another.

Taking as our point of departure such forms as Plwnuiaria setacea of

AGLAOPHENIA RAMOSA. 39

the European shores or P. /jilicula, etc. of the present Report, we find that
the hydrothecal ramuli are given off on two opposite sides of the simple or
branching stem from which they spring with a regularly alternate arrange-
ment. In P. catharina the hydrothecal ramuli, instead of being alternate,
are exactly opposite. In P. geminata, while the points of origin of these
ramuli are opposite to one another, as in P. catharina, the ramuli themselves
are all directed to one side, and thus lie in unilateral pairs along the sup-
porting branch. In the genus Monostxchas, as represented by the single
species I. dichotoma, the main stem is dichotomously branched, and every al-
ternate prong of the forks gives off—from one side only —the hydrothecal
ramuli. In Antennella the whole of the main stem has disappeared, and the
hydrothecal ramuli come to be borne directly on the hydrorhiza.

Again, in Antennularia the hydrothecal ramuli are disposed in regard-
verticils along the stem. In Antennopsis they also surround the stem,
but instead of being disposed in verticils they are scattered. What An-
tennularia is to P. catharina with its opposite distichous ramuli, Anten-
nopsis is to P. sefacea with its alternate distichous ramuli. Finally, in
Hippurella we have a transition between the alternate and distichous
ramuli of P. setacea and the scattered ramuli of Antennopsis or verticillate
ramuli of Antennularia; the proximal parts of the branches having their
hydrothecal ramuli disposed as in P. setacea, while towards the distal
extremity these ramuli become scattered as in Antennopsis or verticillate
as in Antennularia.

Each of these modifications is in itself so well marked that it may be
justly taken as characterizing a distinct specific form, or, in some cases, even
a generic group. Any one of them, however, may be regarded as an easily
understood derivation from others, while all may obviously have descended
from a single ancestral form

Genus AGLAOPHENIA Lamovrovx (in part).

4 Aglaophenia ramosa.

Pl. XXUUZ. Figs. 1-4.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about, six inches, sub-
dichotomously branched, fascicled in main stem and branches, and becoming
monosiphonic only near the distal ends; pinne given off at an acute angle
from the anterior aspect of the branches; internodes of rachis with a

4() AGLAOPHENIA RHYNCHOCARPA.

strongly marked septal ridge on a level with the intrathecal ridge, and
with a less distinct one at the base of the supracalycine nematophores.
Hydrothece deep, with strongly dentate oblique margin, and with the
intrathecal ridge extending obliquely upwards across the entire width of
the hydrotheca. Supracalycine nematophores strong, overtopping the
hydrotheca; mesial nematophore attaining nearly the level of the margin
of the hydrotheca, and adnate to it for nearly its entire height; cauline
nematophores forming a longitudinal series on front of the stem.
Cronosome not known.

Florida Reef, from a depth of from 2 to 3 fathoms.

This is a tall-growing species, with a loose, somewhat straggling habit.
In the absence of all knowledge of the gonosome, its reference to Aglao-~
phenia is only provisional.

Aglaophenia rhynchocarpa.
Pl. XXII. Figs. 5-8.

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches,
non-fascicled, simple, springing in dense plumose tufts from a network
of tubular fibres; internodes of pinnz divided transversely by three or four
strongly marked imperfect septa. Hydrothece incurved in front, margin
deeply dentate with the anterior tooth strong and bifid; intrathecal ridge
well marked, stretching obliquely upwards across the entire width of the
hydrotheca. Supracalycine nematophores slightly overtopping the margin
of the hydrotheca; mesial nematophore adnate for nearly its entire length
to somewhat less than the proximal half of the hydrotheca.

Conosome. — Corbule closed, with the rachis continued beyond the distal
end in the form of a beak; leaflets each with a strong process at its base
directed outwards and towards the distal end of the corbula; nematophoral
ridges not rising in prominent crests.

Key West, Triangle Shoal, 3 to 4 fathoms.

This is a very beautiful species, and presents several well-marked char-
acters. ‘The hydrothecw are rendered striking by their rather prominent
base giving rise to a sinus-like depression of the anterior wall, and by
the bifid anterior tooth of the margin. It is, however, in the corbula that
the most marked characters are to be found. The prominent beak-like

distal extension of the rachis forms a striking feature, while the processes

e
J

AGLAOPHENTA APOCARPA. 41

which the leaflets of the corbula give off at their base form a series of
pinn upon each side of the rachis, very obvious when the corbula is viewed
either from above or below. These pinne-like processes carry nemato-
phores along their upper side, and when viewed from below are seen to
send off a somewhat triangular, flat, wing-like expansion from the lower.
The beak-like extension of the rachis carries also on its upper surface
nematophores which are disposed in two pairs. The peduncle of the cor-
bula carries a single hydrotheca.

Aglaophenia lophocarpa.
Pl. XXIV. Figs. 1-4.

Trophosome.— Hydrocaulus attaining a height of between two and three
inches, simple, not fascicled; pinne alternate, springing from a point near
the distal end of each internode. Hydrothecz deep, somewhat tumid below,
margin slightly everted, with nine equal very distinct teeth; intrathecal
ridge transverse. Supracalycine nematophores slightly overtopping the
hydrothecze ; mesial nematophore adnate to within a very short distance
of its summit, and attaining nearly half the height of the hydrothece ;
cauline nematophores two on each internode of main stem, one close to the
axil of the pinna and the other near the proximal end of the internode.

Gonosome. — Corbula with about ten pairs of leaflets; leaflets broad,
united into a completely closed corbula, the distal margin of each carry-
ing numerous well-developed denticles, and projecting from the sides of
the corbula in the form of a pectinated ridge which is continued as a
free serrated crest beyond the roof; a spur-like denticle at the base of
each leaflet; peduncle of corbula carrying a single hydrotheca.

Off Tortugas, from a depth of 68 fathoms.

The corbula of this species, with its pectinated ridges and crests, is a very

beautiful object, and affords a well-marked specific character.

Aglaophenia apocarpa.
Pl. XXIV. Figs. 5 -9.

Trophosome. —Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about two inches,
simple, not fascicled; pinne alternate; internodes of pinne somewhat
bent backwards at their proximal end so as to give rise to a slight
angular bend at the point of junction of every two internodes. Hydro-

thecee deep; margin with about nine deeply cut teeth, slightly everted ;
6

42 _ AGLAOPHENIA GRACILIS.

intrathecal ridge transverse. Supracalycine nematophores stout, slightly
overtopping the hydrotheca; mesial nematophore attaining nearly half
the height of the hydrotheca, adnate for nearly its entire length; two
cauline nematophores on each internode of stem, one of which is situated
close to the axil of the pinna, and the other near the distal end of
the internode.

Gonosome. — Corbula with about ten pairs of leaflets; leaflets quite free,
narrow, with denticles nearly equaily developed on each edge and with
a spur-like denticle at its base; peduncle of corbula carrying a single

hydrotheca.
Off Sand Key, from a depth of 100 fathoms.

In its trophosome this species comes very near to Aglaophena lophocarpa.
It differs from it, however, in the occurrence of a slight angular bend be-
tween every two internodes of the pinne, and more especially by its open
corbule.

There can be little doubt that the open condition of the corbule is
not here the result of an immature state of these bodies. Like a similar
condition of the corbule of other species, it is of considerable morpho-
logical interest as a persistent state of a condition elsewhere transitory.

The nature of the denticles along the edges of the leaflets is very
obvious in this species. They are plainly seen to be nematophores of
the ordinary Aglaophenian type. Their cavity communicates by an aper-
ture in the base with the interior of the leaflet, and through this
aperture their contents become united with the ccenosare of the leaflet.
The ccenosare does not uniformly fill the leaflet, but is disposed in the
form of a loose, irregular network of intereommunicating channels.

Aglaophenia gracilis.
Pl, XXV. Figs. 1-4.

Trophosome.— Wydrocaulus attaining a height of about three inches,
sparingly branched, not fascicled; pinne alternate, springing from a point
near the distal end of each internode; internodes of pinnz with two
strong but short septal ridges, one on a level with the short, strong
intrathecal ridge, the other on a level with the base of the supracaly-
cine nematophore. Hydrothece deep, slightly widening towards the

orifice, with strongly toothed margin; intrathecal ridge strong and short,

q

AGLAOPHENIA RIGIDA. 43

situated near the bottom of the hydrotheca. Supracalycine nemato-
phores scarcely overtopping the hydrotheca; mesial nematophore adnate
to less than half the height of the hydrotheca, and with a short, free
extremity ; cauline nematophores two on front of each internode of the
stem, one of these close to the axil of the pinna, and the other near to
the proximal end of the internode.

Gonosome not known.
Off Carysfort Reef, from a depth of 52 fathoms.

This species comes very near to Aglaophenia rigida in the form of
its hydrothece. The hydrothecal internodes, however, are longer and
narrower than in that species. A. rigida, moreover, is a much more
ramified and a taller form.

Aglaophenia rigida.
Pl, XXV. Figs. 5-9.

Trophosome.— Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about nine inches,
springing from a mass of tortuous filaments, non-fascicled, slender, wiry,
much branched towards the distal ends of the stems; branches given
off from a point on the anterior side of the stem, from which they
frequently spring in pairs; pinnz alternate, springing from a point
a little below the distal end of each internode; hydrothecal inter-
nodes short, each with two short septal ridges. Hydrothece closely set,
deep, slightly widening towards the orifice, and with strongly toothed
margin. Supracalycine nematophores slightly overtopping the hydro-
theca; mesial nematophore adnate to about half the height of the
hydrotheca and terminating in a short, free extremity.

Gonosome. — Corbulze completely closed, long, nearly cylindrical, with
about fourteen ridges rising into slightly prominent crests; denticles of
ridges cup-shaped, with the basal one in the form of a tubular diver-

gent spur.
Off Cape Fear, from a depth of 9 fathoms.

The pinnz appear to be easily detached in this species, for most of
the specimens were nearly destitute of them, and presented little more
than a cluster of long, naked, wiry stems.

The ramification is peculiar, the branches springing from the anterior
side of the stem, where each is usually accompanied by a second from

44 AGLAOPHENIA DISTANS.

the same point of origin, the twin branches then directing themselves
forwards and remaining nearly parallel to one another.

The hydrothece are so closely set that the summit of each is on a
level with the base of the next above it.

This species closely resembles the preceding, A. gracilis, of which it
may possibly be regarded as a variety.

Aglaophenia distans.
Pl. XXVI. Figs. 1-8.

Trophosome.— Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about four inches, sim-
ple, rooted by an entangled bunch of tubular filaments, fascicled below,
becoming non-fascicled above, and here divided into equal internodes,
each of which carries a pinna on alternate sides; pinne distant, attain-
ing the length of nearly an inch. Hydrothece deep, nearly cylindrical
above, narrowed below; margin crenate, with a single long tooth-like process
in front ; intrathecal ridge not conspicuous. Supracalycine nematophores
not overtopping the hydrotheca ; mesial nematophore attaining about a
third of the height of the hydrotheca, to which it is adnate for its entire
length.

Gonosome.— Corbulze composed of numerous pairs of ribs, which are
quite free from one another, each carrying a small hydrotheca near its
origin, and having numerous tooth-like nematophores along its distal

edge; peduncle of corbula rather long, carrying three hydrothece.
Dredged off Pacific Reef, from a depth of 283 fathoms.

The present species is rendered very distinct by the long tvoth-like
process on the front margin of the hydrotheca, and by its remarkable
open corbula. The form of the hydrotheca is not absolutely constant,
and occasionally there may be seen on the same pinna with the ordi-
nary form others in which the narrowing of the hydrotheca towards
the base is much less marked. (Fig. 4.)

The corbulx, which closely resemble those of Aglaophenia bispinosa, are
in the highest degree instructive, and afford a beautiful example of
morphological transformation. Like the corbule of other species they
are metamorphosed pinne, but the change here undergone is of such a
character as to bring out very distinctly their true morphology. The
pinna (Fig.) 7, which is here to become a corbula, retains nearly its ordi-

AGLAOPHENIA SIGMA. 45

nary form for some distance from its origin. It is, however, somewhat
more attenuated, while its hydrothece are slightly smaller than in the
ordinary pinne. In the specimens examined these hydrothecz were three
in number, and the first and third internode carried each a small accessory
mesial nematophore (not represented in the figure) at the proximal side of
the principal one. After the third internode the principal transformation
of the pinna suddenly commences and continues to its distal end.

This transformation consists in the hydrothecx ceasing to be adnate
to the rachis of the pinne, and becoming elevated on short stalks while
they become at the same time approximated and thrown alternately to
the right and left, so that the pinna carries now two alternate rows
of short processes, each bearing a little cup similar to that of the ordi-
nary hydrotheca except in being somewhat smaller.

With the elevation of the hydrotheca above. the level of the rachis
the supracalycine and mesial nematophores are carried up with it (Fig. 8).
The former (0) retain nearly their ordinary shape and size, but the mesial
nematophore (c) becomes enormously developed, being not only greatly
increased in length, but becoming broad, flattened, and somewhat sabre-
shaped, while a row of small tubular nematophores is developed along
the distal edge of each, as well as along the proximal edge of the stalks
(a) which carry them.

It is the mesial nematophores thus singularly transformed which
mainly constitute the ribs which form the sides of the corbula. Be-
tween these and the mesial nematophores of the proximal portion of
the pinna, which remains nearly unaltered, there is no gradual transition,
but it is interesting to note that the internodes of this part of the
pinna differ from those of the ordinary pinne in carrying a smail acces-
sory mesial nematophore, which is repeated and multiplied on the short
stalks which form the bases of the ribs in the corbula.

The jomts, which are very distinct in the proximal portion of the
pinna, become obsolete in the corbula.

Aglaophenia sigma.
Pil. XXVI. Figs. 9, 10.
Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about six (*) inches,

simple, fascicled almost to the tip; pinne alternate, with their origin
from the front aspect of the stem. Hydrothece deep, nearly cylindrical,

AG AGLAOPHENIA BISPINOSA.

with the margin cut into rather shallow teeth, and with the cavity divided
into a distal and proximal portion by a distinct intrathecal ridge of a
sigmoid form. Supracalycine nematophores not overtopping the hydro-
theca; mesial nematophore adnate to the proximal fourth of the hydro-
theca, becoming free only close to its point.

Gonosome not known.
Dredged off Alligator Reef, from a depth of 110 fathoms.

The remarkable sigmoid form of the intrathecal ridge constitutes a
very distinctive character of this species. Another striking feature is
found in the numerous well-marked septal ridges by which the inter-
nodes of the pinne have their cavity divided into intercommunicating
chambers. It is a strong, rather rigid species, and attains a considerable
size; but as the specimen had lost its hydrorhizal extremity, the entire
length attained by it could not be determined with certainty.

In the absence of the gonosome its reference to the genus Aglao-

phenia is of course only provisional.

Aglaophenia bispinosa.
Pis. XXVII, and XX VII.

Trophosome.— Stem attaining a height of eight inches, stout, simple,
rising from an entangled mass of branching tubular filaments, fascicled
below, and presenting from distance to distance knot-like projections ;
pinne alternate, attaining a length of nearly an inch and a half. Hy-
drothece deep, widening upwards; margin with a single, strong tooth-like
process in front, and with short, blunt teeth in the rest of its extent;
intrathecal ridge not conspicuous. Supracalycine nematophores stout,
not overtopping the hydrotheca; mesial nematophores two in number,
the distal one adnate to the hydrotheca, along which it extends for
about one third of the height of the hydrotheca, the proximal one forming
a short, stout spine-like process just below the distal.

Gonosome. — Corbulee open, formed by two alternate or sub-opposite
series of free, rib-like processes, each of which carries near its base a
small hydrothecal cup, and along its distal margin a series of numerous
tooth-like nematophores; the rachis of the corbula continued towards
the common stem as a long peduncle carrying about five unchanged
hydrothece,

Dredged off Alligator Reef, from a depth of 156 fathoms, and off Tennessee Reef, from a depth

of 200 fathoms.

AGLAOPHENIA CONSTRICTA. AT

Aglaophenia bispinosa is a beautiful species, and is surpassed in size by
very few hydroids. The proximal part of the stem is composed of a
congeries of tubes (Pl. XXVII.), which at rather regular intervals become
curiously contorted into knot-like projections, and which, at the extreme
proximal end, become separated from one another, and here form a large
entangled mass of hydrorhizal filaments. Knot-like projections of quite a
similar kind occur in the European Aglaophenia myriophylla. Towards its
distal extremity the stem loses its polysiphonic or fascicled condition and
becomes monosiphonic. In the specimens examined the pinnz were borne
along somewhat less than the distal half of the stem.

The hydrothece are remarkable for the long, strong tooth which
projects from the front of the margin; but a still more remarkable
character is found in the presence of a second mesial nematophore
situated on the internode, just behind the normal one and unconnected
with the hydrotheca. (Pl. XXVIII.)

The corbule (Fig. 3) are very beautiful. They closely resemble those of
A. distans, present the same elements in their formation, and, like these,
afford a most instructive illustration of the essential morphology of the
organ. The peduncle which connects them with the common stem, and
which consists of the proximal portion of the pinna, which, in its ter-
minal portion, becomes transformed into the corbula, is unusually long
(Fig. 4), and consists of five scarcely altered internodes with their hy-
drothece ; an additional mesial nematophore, however, is developed near
the proximal end of each of these internodes.

Aglaophenia constricta.

Pl. XXIX. Figs. 1-4.

Trophosome. — Stem attaining a height of about eight inches, thick,
fascicled, springing from an entangled mass of wiry filaments, and send-
ing off numerous, irreguiarly disposed, simple branches, which carry
alternately disposed pinnx, three pinnx springing from every internode.
Hydrothecz with the distal half expanded and separated from the proxi-
mal part by a deep constriction; margin with four broad teeth. Supra-
calycine nematophores slightly overtopping the margin of the hydro-
theca; mesial nematophore nearly equalling in length the height of
the hydrotheca, to which it is almost entirely adnate; cauline nema-

48 AGLAOPHENIA PERPUSILLA.

tophores two on the axil of each pinna, and one immediately below
the pinna in front.

Gonosome not known.
Off Conch Reef, from a depth of 30 fathoms.

This is a well-marked species. The expanded summit of the hydro-
theca and the deep constriction between this and the proximal por-
tion are striking features. No gonosome was present in the specimen;
and it is quite possible that if this were known we should find it
necessary to remove the species from Aglaophenia.

Aglaophenia perpusilla.
PL, XX1X. Fras, bs

Trophosome. — Hydrocaulus attaining a height of about one fourth of an
inch; stem simple, non-fascicled ; pinnz alternate, each springing from
the anterior aspect of an internode in the axil of a strong tocth-like pro-
cess, which carries on its proximal side a fixed nematophore, and just below
which another strong fixed nematophore also springs from the internode.
Hydrothece deep, slightly widening upwards; margin with about nine
strong and deeply cut teeth, the anterior tooth continued into a narrow
keel, which runs down the front of the hydrotheca; intrathecal ridge dis-
tinct, horizontal, situated at the junction of the lower and middle third
of the hydrotheca. Supracalycine nematophores strong, overtopping the
hydrotheca ; mesial nematophore scarcely reaching the intrathecal ridge,
adnate as far as its oblique terminal orifice.

Gonosome not known.

Dredged off the Quicksands from a depth of 34 fathoms.

Aglaophenia perpusilla is the most minute of all the hitherto described
species of Aglaophenia, and is further rendered very distinct by certain
special characters. The tooth-like processes given off from the anterior
side of each internode of the stem have not been found in any other
Aglaophenia. These processes appear bifid from the fact of their carrying
in front a strong nematophore, while just below this another similar nemato-
phore is also borne by the internode. <A peculiar feature in the mesial
nematophore of the hydrotheca consists in the constriction of its cavity
by a process which projects transversely into it from its anterior wall.

The species occurred sparingly, growing over a seaweed. No gonosome

CLADOCARPUS. 49

had been developed in the specimens obtained, which were possibly ex-
amples of young individuals; but though the entire colony might increase
in size with age, it is not probable that older specimens would present
any important change of form.

In the absence of a gonosome the reference of the species to Aglaophenia

is provisional.*
CLADOCARPUS ALLMAN nev. gen.

Generic CHaracter. TZrophosome. — Hydrosoma pinnate, plumose. Ne-
matophores fixed; supracalycine nematophores one on each side of the
orifice of the hydrotheca ; mesial nematophores either adnate to the front
of the hydrotheca or free.

Gonosome.— Gonangia not included in corbulx, but borne on the sides
or at the base of special protective branches (phylactogonia), which are
appendages of the pinne.

The genus Cladocarpus was originally defined by me for the reception
of a remarkable Plumularidan obtained in the eastern parts of the North
Atlantic during one of the expeditions of the “Porcupine.”t Its most
important character is found in the possession of peculiar branching ap-
pendages, which are destined to support the gonangia, or in some other
way to afford protection to them. It is convenient to have a special name
for these appendages, and that of “ phylactogonium” is suggested by the
function which devolves upon them.

The phylactogonia differ essentially from the corbule, whether open or
closed, of the Aglaopheniz ; for they are not, like corbule, metamorphosed
pinne, but appendages superadded to the normal pinne.

In Kirchenpauer’s subgenus Macroryuchia the gonangia are also borne
on special appendages, but the pinnze which in Cladocarpus retain their
normal form, and support the phylactogonia, are here suppressed, and are
represented only by short stunted processes destitute of hydrothece.

The macrorychial Aglaopheniz of Kirchenpauer are further distinguished
from Cladocarpus by the form of the mesial nematophores, which are very
long, usually far surpassing the height of the hydrothecx, and which, as
Kirchenpauer first pointed out, are always provided with a lateral as well
as a terminal orifice after they cease to be adnate to the hydrotheca.

* See Note on p. 56,
+ Report onthe Hydroida collected during the Expeditions of H. M. S Porcupine, Trans. Zool.

Soc. Lond., Vol. VIII. Part VIII.
(é

50 CLADOCARPUS DOLICHOTHECA.

To the genus Cladocarpus I must also refer a Plumularidan dredged by
Oscar Sars in the North Atlantic, and described by him under the name
of Aglaophenia bicuspis.*

In the Cladocarpus paradisea of the present Report the gonangia are borne
exclusively on the sides of the phylactogonia; while in C. dolichotheca and in
C. ventricosus they are borne only on the main stem, the phylactogonia
arching over them so as to afford them protection in the manner of the
leaflets of a corbula. In @. formosa of the Porcupine Report, the gonangia
are borne both by the phylactogonia and by the main stem.

Cladocarpus dolichotheca.
Pl AACA

Trophosome. — Stem attaining a height of about an inch and a half, carry-
ing alternate pinnex for a short distance from its distal end, and with three
four or very oblique internodes just below the pinnate portion. Hydrothece
widely separated from each other, deep, tubular, with the margin carrying
a single long tooth in front, crenate in the rest of its extent; each hydro-
theca overarched by the portion of the pimna which intervenes between
it and the next above it; intrathecal ridge obsolete. Supracalycine ne-
matophores tubular, overtopping the hydrotheca; mesial nematophore not
adnate to the hydrotheca, but springing from a point just below its base,
where it forms a free tubular spine-like process with a long oblique slit-like
orifice.

Gonosome. — Gonangia ovate, with a latero-terminal orifice, borne on the
front of the stem, each one singly, close to the axil of one of the distal five
or six pinnx, which become here more or less diminished in length, and
carry each near its origin a dichotomously divided branch (phylactogonium)
which forms three bifurcations, and arches over the front of the stem, and

the gonangium there situated.
Dredged off Pacific Reef from a depth of 283 fathoms.

This is a remarkable and beautiful species. It is rendered very striking
by its deep and widely separated hydrotheex, each overarched by that
portion of the rachis which intervenes between it and the next above it;
the freedom of the mesial nematophore from the hydrotheca is also a well-

* G. Oscar Sars, Bidrag til Kundskaben om Norges Hydroider, Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet
i Christiania, 1878, p. 98, Tab, IL, figs. 7 - 10.

an

CLADOCARPUS DOLICHOTHECA. 51

marked character. The parts of the rachis to which the backs of the hydro-
thece are applied are divided, by imperfect septa (septal ridges), into
numerous very distinct chambers, while a few similar ridges also project
into the cavity of the intervening portion.

Where the stem ceases to give off pinne, it becomes divided into three
or four internodes by very oblique joints, so as to assume, for some way
down, the appearance of being twisted, and then continues towards the
hydrorhiza as a simple continuous tube (Fig. 5). Along nearly the whole of
its course from the termination of the pinnate portion to the base, the stem
carries a longitudinal series of tubular nematophores, which are situated
at short and equal intervals from one another, and give to this part of the
hydrosoma a close resemblance to certain forms of graptolites.*

The phylactogonia, or protective appendages of the reproductive cap-
sules, resemble in form the antlers of a stag. Their branches are set with
large tubular nematophores. They arch over the front of the stem, their
branches crossing one another from opposite sides, and forming a cage-like
roof over the gonangia. They occur only on some of the pinne, which are
situated close to the distal end of the stem, one springing from each pinna
close to its origin. Though the pinne which carry them retain their normal
form, they are all more or less shortened, most of them supporting only
a single hydrotheca.

It is difficult to form any well-founded opinion as to the exact homology
of these «ppendages. The nature of the changes which have resulted in the
formation of a corbula in certain species of Aglaophenia might lead us to
suspect that in Cladocarpus dolichotheca the phylactogonium represents the
mesial nematophore of the proximal hydrotheca of its supporting pinna.
The fact, however, that this nematophore is at the same time present in its
normal state renders such an explanation untenable. The phylactogonium
probably represents, in a greatly modified condition, the mesial nematophore
of a hydrotheca, which had itself been totally suppressed.

The sex of the gonophores could not be determined in the specimen.

* T have elsewhere (Gymnoblastic Hydroids, p. 176) endeavored to show the probability that the den-
ticles of graptolites represent the nematophores of the Plumularide, the hydrothec being entirely sup-
pressed ; and I have attempted to support this view on both anatomical and embryological grounds. As
the nematophores of the Plumularide are filled with sarcode capable of a rich development of pseudopodia,
the graptolites would by this comparison be brought into close relation with the Rhizopoda. They would
thus represent an ancestral form in which the affinities looked on one side to the Hydroida, and on the
other to the Rhizopoda. No hydranths were developed in them, for the hydroid characters had not yet
gained that ascendency over the rhizopodal which we see in the existing Plumularide, which, according to

this hypothesis, have inherited their nematophores from the extinct graptolites.

52 CLADOCARPUS VENTRICOSUS.

Cladocarpus ventricosus.

rs Se. @. 0.4 &

Trophosome.— Stem attaining a height of about an inch and a half,
not fascicled, simple; pinnz alternate, each springing from a rather long,
lateral process of the stem, somewhat waved. Hydrothece distant; front
wall with a depression just below the margin, then greatly inflated ;
margin with a long, strong tooth in front, and with shallow crenations
in the rest of its extent; intrathecal ridge strong, transverse, springing
from a projection of the posterior wall of the hydrotheca near its fun-
dus, and reaching a point about midway between this and the anterior
wall. Supracalycine nematophores scarcely overtopping the hydrotheca ;
mesial nematophore quite detached from the hydrotheca.

Gonosome. — Phylactogonia springing from the proximal internodes of
a certain number of the pinnz, which are situated near the distal end
of the stem, twice bifurcating; gonangia springing from the stem in
groups, each group close to the axil of a pinna, obovate, with the sum-

mit curved over the termino-lateral orifice.
Dredged off Sand Key from a depth of 100 fathoms.

This is a well-marked form; its singular ventricose hydrothece, and
the complete removal of the mesial nematophore from the hydrotheca, at
once distinguish it. In Cladocarpus dolchotheca the mesial nematophore,
while equally free from the hydrotheca, originates close to its base, but
in the- present species its point of origin is removed much farther back,
and the entire nematophore is adherent to the front of the internode.
The septal ridges of the hydrothecal internodes are very distinct.

Where the stem towards its proximal end ceases to carry pinne, it is
provided with two or three very oblique joints, each of which carries a
fixed nematophore, and similar nematophores are continued down the
stem in a longitudinal series, at short and equal intervals (Fig. 5); here,
again, as in Cladocarpus dolichotheca, strongly suggesting the disposition of
the denticles in one of the single-sided graptolites. Near the base of the
stem the nematophores may become biserial and opposite. Cauline nema-
tophores are also situated, one on the axil of each pinna and one on
the stem in the intervals between the pinne. The sex of the gonan-
gia could not be determined. The phylactogonium has a single bifur-

cation close to its origin, and one of its branches again bifureates.

—

CLADOCARPUS PARADISEA. 53

There are thus two bifurcations in this species, while in Cladocarpus doli-
chotheca there are three. This difference appears constant.

The branches of the phylactogonia are all provided with well-devel-
oped tubular nematophores, which are arranged along each branch in
a single longitudinal series.

Cladocarpus paradisea.

Pils. XXXII, and XXXII.

Trophosome. — Stem attaining a height of fourteen inches, irregularly

branched, fascicled, and thick below, gradually losing its fascicled condi-

tion, and becoming monosiphonic towards the distal ends of the main
stem and branches; pinne alternate, rather distant, attaining a length
of about one inch and a quarter. Hydrothece large, deep, widening up-
wards ; margin with two strong teeth in front; rest of the margin des-
titute of teeth; intrathecal ridge faintly marked, forming a waved line
which stretches across the middle of the hydrotheca. Supracalycine nema-
tophores bracket-shaped, not overtopping the margin of the hydrotheca ;
mesial nematophore attaining about one third the height of the hydro-
theca, to which it is adnate to within a short distance of its extremity.

Gonosome. — Gonangia-bearing appendages (phylactogonia) in the form
of pinnately branched offshoots, which spring each from a pinna of the
trophosome close to its origin, and is set with cup-shaped nematophores
along its stem and branches; branches of phylactogonia alternate; female
phylactogonium larger than male, and carrying a single gonangium in front
of the axil of each of its branches; male with a cluster of gonangia
at the base of each branch; female gonangia obovate, with a latero-
terminal transversely elongated orifice over which the summit of the
gonangium bends in the manner of a hood; male gonangia smaller
than female, obovate, with a sub-terminal orifice not arched over by the

summit.

Dredged off Tennessee Reef, from a depth of 174 fathoms, and off Samboes, from 123 fathoms.

Cladocarpus paradisea is a magnificent species. I take for granted that
the difference presented by the gonosomes in the specimens examined
is a sexual one, for there is no difference in the trophosomes; but
though I believe I am right in regarding the larger gonosome (FI.
XXXII. Fig. 3.) as the female, [ could not from the specimens determine
this point with certainty.

54. HALICORNARIA SPECIOSA.

The two strong teeth on the front margin of the hydrotheca are so
situated, that with the slightly everted intervening portion of the mar-
gin they give to this part the appearance of the lip of a jug, and con-
stitute a striking character. The pinnz arise somewhat from the anterior
aspect of the stem, and their internodes exhibit four well-marked septal
ridges.

There are usually three or four male gonangia (Fig. 5) in a cluster, and
of these one is always placed in front of the axil between the stem of
the phylactogonium and its branch; towards. the distal end of the phy-
lactogonium the clusters are often reduced to a single gonangium.

The branches of the female phylactogonium carry two longitudinal
series of large cup-shaped nematophores. (Figs. 3,6.) These are situated
exactly opposite to one another, one on the front, the other on the back
of the branch, each series extending from the base to the apex of the
branch, and formed by about three equally distant nematophores. Along
the stem of the phylactogonium two series of similarly shaped nema-
tophores also occur. These are confined to the front of the stem, and
are disposed alternately. There is farther on the back of the phylacto-
gonium in each axil a somewhat bracket-shaped nematophore. (Fig. 4.)

In the male (Fig. 5) the phylactogonia as well as the gonangia are much
smaller than in the female. Both stem and branches carry cup-shaped
nematophores as in the female, but in the male these are all confined
to the front. A bracket-shaped nematophore is carried on the back of
the phylactogonium over the axil of each branch, as in the female.

Genus HALICORNARIA Busxk (modified).*

Halicornaria speciosa.

Pi. XXXIV.

Trophosome.— Stem strong, attaining a height of about five inches,
simple, monosiphonic pinnate almost to the base; internodes of stem
each giving off two pinne, which are opposite, or nearly so, towards
the base of the stem, but more alternately disposed towards the distal end,
where the internodes become longer and more oblique. Hydrothece wide ;

* The genus Halicornaria founded by Busk, who used it in a wider sense, is here intended to include

a .
only those Plumularide which, with a trophosome formed on the general type of Aglaophenia, have gonan-

gia which are never included in corbule or protected by phylactogonia.

|

HALICORNARIA SPECIOSA.

Or
Or

margin with wide, rather shallow crenation ; intrathecal ridge springing from
the anterior side of the hydrotheca about midway between the margin
and base, and extending transversely to about the middle of its lateral
walls. Supracalycine nematophores stout, overtopping the margin of the
hydrotheca ; mesial nematophore reaching ihe margin of the hydrotheca,
and adnate to it in nearly its entire length.

Gonosome. —Gonangia cylindrical, with a broad, truncated summit, con-
tracted below into a short, stout latero-basal peduncle, which springs

from the front of the stem close to the origin of a pinna.
Double-Headed Shot Key, from a depth of from 4 to 5 fathoms.

Halicornaria speciosa is a strong, handsome species. The pinnz are abso-
lutely lateral, showing no disposition to arise from the anterior aspect
of the stem. The stem is unusually thick for a monosiphonic or non-
fascicled form, and each of its internodes carries four nematophores, one
just above and one just below the point of origin of the pinna at each
side.

The gonangia in the specimen are small in proportion to the size
of the trophosome, and are possibly immature.

ADDENDA.

See Text, Pace 32.

Plumularia geminata.

Between the present species and the Plumularia catharina Johnston there
is a close relation. The form of the hydrotheca, of the gonangia with
their basal nematophores, and of the internodes in the ultimate ramulli, is
very similar in the two species, while between the same parts in Plumu-
laria catharina and Monostechas dichotoma (see p. 37) a corresponding identity
of form will be found.

Foot-NOTE TO PAGE 49.

I am indebted to Miss Gatty for an opportunity of examining a second species of the same remarkable
form, which may well constitute a subgenus of Aglaophenia. From Aglaophenia perpusilla this differs
chiefly in the width of the keel which runs down the front of the hydrotheca, and in the presence of a
shallow constriction between that portion of the hydrotheca which lies at the proximal side of the
strong intrathecal ridge and that which lies at the distal side. A decided bithalamic character is
thus given to the hydrotheca. The specimens scarcely surpass A. perpusilla in size. They are from
the Gulf of Mexico, are attached to Gulf Weed, and are destitute of gonosome. I have assigned to
the species the name of A. late-carinata,

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PEATE i,

Figs. 1,2. Eudendrium eximium.
Natural size.
Fig. 2. Portion of a colony with female gonophores, magnified.

rey
we
Q

_

Figs. 3,4. Eudendrium exiguum.
Fig. 3. Natural size.
Fig. 4. Portion, magnified.

PLATE II.
Figs. 1- 2%. Eudendrium fruticosum.

Fig. 1. Natural size. A cluster of capsular bodies; probably a molluscan or annelidan nidus has become
attached to the stem and branches.

Fig. 2. A portion with hydranths and male gonophores, magnified.

Fig. 2°. A ramulus with hydranth and female gonophores, magnified.

Figs. 3,4. Hudendrium attenuatum.
Fig. 3. Natural size.
Fig. 4. A portion, magnified.
PLATE. LIL,
Figs. 1-4. Eudendrium laxum.
Fig. 1. Natural size.

Fig. 2. A portion with hydranths and male gonophores, magnified.
Fig. 3. A portion of the hydrorhiza magnified, showing the clear spherical bodies in the ccenosare.
Fig. 4.. A portion of the stem with similar bodies, still further magnified.

PiA'P ie PV;

Figs. 1,2. Budendrium gracile.
Fig. 1. Natural size.
Fig. 2. A portion with hydranths, magnified.

Figs, 3,4. Hudendrium tenellum.
Fig. 3. Natural size.

Fig. 4. A portion, magnified.
PIZATE Vi

Figs. 1,2. Eudendrium cochleatum.

Fig. 1. Natural size. The tubes of a little tubicolous crustacean are seen attached to some of the

branches.
Fig. 2. A portion with hydranths, magnified.

Figs. 3,4. Bimeria humilis.

Fig. 3. A colony growing over the surface of a seaweed, natural size.
Fig. 4. A portion magnified, with hydranths and male (?) gonophores.

58

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PLA TS. V2:

Figs 1,2. Obelia marginata.
Natural size. Drawn from a small specimen.
A branch, magnified. Creeping over it is a colony of Lafoéa venusta.

Figs. 3,4. Lafoéa venusta.

Natural size. It is seen creeping over a branch of Obelia marginata.
A portion, magnified, creeping over Obelia marginata.,

Fig 5,6. Thyroscyphus ramosus.
Natural size.

A portion of a branch, magnified.

PLATE. Nit.

Figs. 1-3. Oplorhiza parvula.
Natural size.
Portion of a colony, magnified.
(a, @) Hydrorhizal appendages.
One of the hydrorhizal appendages, still further magnified.

Figs. 4,5. Obelia longicyatha.
Natural size.
Portion of a colony, magnified.

PLATE, WILE,

Figs. 1, 2. Campanularia macroscypha.
Natural size.

Portion of a colony, magnified.

Figs. 3,4. Lafoéa tenellula.
Natural size,

Portion of a colony, magnified.

Figs. 5,6. Cuspidella pedunculata.
Natural size.

Portion of a colony, magnified.

PLATE ..1X.
Figs. 1, 2. Lafoéa convallaria.

Entire colony, natural size.
Distal portion of a colony, magnified.

PLATE X.
Figs. 1,2. Lafoéa coalescens.

Entire colony, natural size.
The same, magnified.

PLATE XI.

Figs. 1-4. Halecium filicula.
Natural size.

Portion of a pinna with hydranth, magnified. .
Portion of main stem near its distal extremity, carrying hydrophores and a pinna; magnified.
Distal extremity of a hydrophore with double margin, still further magnified. ,

Figs. 5,6. Halecium capillare.
Natural size.

Portion of a branch, magnified.

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fie

ig. 4.
ig. 5.

i

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 59

PLATE XII.
Figs. 1-5. Halecium macrocephalum.

Entire colony, natural size.

Portion of a branch with hydrophores and hydranths, magnified.
Portion with two hydrophores, still further enlarged.

An internode carrying a male gonangium.

An internode with a female gonangium.

Figs. 6-10. Cryptolaria conferta.

An entire colony, natural size.
(a) One of the clusters of flask-shaped bodies associated with it.
A portion taken from a point near the proximal end where the stem is still fascicled; magnified.
A portion taken from a point near the distal end where the stem is monosiphonic ; magnified.
A portion of one of the associated clusters of flask-shaped bodies as seen in section, parallel to

the axis of the cryptolaria stem; magnified.

gol,
2.

(a, a) Acrocysts (?) into which the contents of the capsule have escaped.

g.10. A portion of the same as seen in section transverse to the axis of the stem.

(a) Flask-shaped capsules with their contents still included.

(, 6) The basal tubes seen in tranverse section and surrounding the larger and thicker-walled
tubes (c, c) which form the fascicled stem of the cryptolaria, and are here also seen
in transverse section.

PLATE Xitl.

Figs. 1-3. Cryptolaria abies.
Natural size.

Portion of a branch taken from a point near its distal end, where it has lost its fascicled condi-

tion ; magnified.

ee

Portion of stem with the proximal parts of two branches showing the fascicled condition of the

hydrocaulus; magnified.

. 3.
ig. 4.

4,5. Cryptolaria longitheca.
Natural size.

Portion of a colony, magnified,

Pare ee er Ve
Figs. 1, 2. Cryptolaria elegans.

Entire colony, natural size.
Portion taken from the distal extremity of the colony, magnified.

Figs. 3-6. Desmoscyphus longitheca.

Several stems attached to some foreign body, natural size.
Front aspect of a portion of a colony from a point near the basal end of the stem; magnified.

The lowest hydrothece have begun to recede from one another.

5B
g. 6.

Portion of stem viewed laterally, magnified.
Proximal extremity of stem, magnified. The hydrothece of each pair have receded fiom one

another, and now occupy opposite sides of the stem.

PLATE XV.
Figs. 1,2. Thuiaria pinnata.

Entire colony, natural size.
Portion of a pinna with hydranths, magnified.

3-5. Sertularella Gayi var. robusta.
Natural size.
Portion of a branch with hydrothece and gonangium, magnified. In the uppermost hydrotheca

60 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

contractile (?) bands are seen passing from the inner side of the hydrothecal valves to the body of
the hydranth.
Fig. 5. Portion of branch with front view of the hydrothece ; magnified.

Figs. 6, 7. Sertularella conica.
Fig. 6. Natural size.

Fig. 7. Portion magnified.
Figs. 8-10. Sertularella amphorifera.
Fig. 8. Natural size.

Fig. 9. Portion of a colony with gonangium ; magnified.

Fig. 10. Hydrotheca still further enlarged.

PLATE. AVI:

Figs. 1,2. Sertularia marginata.
Fig. 1. Natural size.

Fig. 2. Distal end of colony, magnified.

Figs. 3,4. Sertularia tumida.
Fig. 3. Natural size.

Fig. 4. A portion, magnified. In one of the hydrothece the hydranth and two opercular bands are still
visible.
Figs. 5,6. Sertularia tubitheca.

Fig. 5. Entire colony, natural size.
Fig. 6. A portion, magnified.
Figs. 7,8. Sertularia exigua.

Fig. 7. Colony growing on a seaweed; natural size.
Fig. 8. A portion, magnified.

Figs. 9,10. Sertularia distans.
Fic. 9. Natural size.

Fig. 10. A portion, magnified.

Figs. 11,12. Thuiaria sertularioides.
Fig. 11. Natural size.

Fig. 12. A portion, magnified.
PLATE AY iL,
Figs. 1, 2. Thuiaria distans.

Fig. 1. Entire colony, natural size.
Fig. 2, A portion, magnified.

Figs. 3-6. Thuiaria plumulifera.

Fig. 3. Entire colony, natural size.

Fig. 4. Portion of a branch with pinne, magnified.
Fig. 5. Hydrotheca more enlarged, lateral view.
Fig. 6. Same, front view.

PLAT E 7. ¥.GRi.

Figs. 1,2. Plumularia filicula.
Fig. 1. Natural size.

Fig. 2. A portion with gonangia, magnified.
Figs. 3,4. Plumularia macrotheca.
Fig. 3. Entire colony, natural size.

Fig. 4. A portion of a pinna, magnified.

Figs. 5,6. Plumularia attenuata.
Fig. 5. Natural size.

Fig. 6. Portion of stem with pinna, magnified.

Ste ore 6a

mB wp

no
. °

2 P go

SY

Si als) A

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 61

PLATE XTX.

Figs. 1,2. Plumularia megalocephala.
Natural size.

A portion of a branch with pinne, magnified.

Figs. 3-7. Halopteris carinata.

Entire colony, natural size.

Portion of stem with pinnz, magnified.

Portion of a pinna, still further magnified ; lateral view.
Same, front view.

Same, back view.

PLATE XxX.

Figs. 1-4, Plumularia geminata.
Natural size.

A portion, magnified.
A portion, still further magnified ; front and back view of pinne.
Lateral view of pinna.

PLATE XXI.

Figs. 1,2. Antennularia simplex.
Natural size.

A portion, magnified.
Figs. 3-6. Antennopsis hippuris.
Natural size.
A portion, magnified; with male (?) gonangia.
Portion of a pinna, still further magnified.
Portion of a colony with female (?) gonangia.

Figs. 7, 8. Hippurella annulata.

Entire colony, natural size.
Portion of a branch with pinne, magnified.

PLATE XATE:

Figs. 1-5. Monostzchas dichotoma.

Entire colony, natural size.
A portion, magnified.
Portion of a pinna, still further magnified; front view.
Same, lateral view.
Young gonangium.
Figs. 6, 7. Antennella gracilis.

Entire colony, natural size.
One of the pinna-like stems, magnified.

PLATE. SELL.

- Figs. 1-4, Aglaophenia ramosa.
Natural size.

Portion of a branch with pinne, magnified.
Hydrotheca, still further magnified ; front view.
Same, lateral view.

Figs. 5-8. Aglaophenia rhynchocarpa.

An entire colony, natural size.

Portion of a pinna, magnified ; lateral view.
Hydrotheca of same; front view.

Corbula, magnified.

62 | DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXIV.
Figs. 1-4. Aglaophenia lophocarpa.

Fig. 1. Natural size.
Fig. 2. Portion of pinna, magnified ; lateral view.
Fig. 3. Portion of stem with pinnz, magnified ; front view.
Fig. 4. Corbula, magnified. '
Figs. 5-9. Aglaophenia apocarpa.
Fig. 5. Natural size.
Fig. 6. Portion of a pinna, magnified ; lateral view.
Fig. 7. Portion of stem with pinne, magnified; front view.
Fig. 8. Corbula, magnified.
Fig. 9. Part of a leaflet of a corbula showing the lateral nematophores; still further magnified.
PUA hay.
Figs. 1-4. Aglaophenia gracilis.
Fig. 1. Natural size.
Fig. 2. Portion of a pinna, magnified ; lateral view.
Fig. 3. Same, front view.
Fig. 4. Portion of stem with pinna, magnified; oblique view of pinna.

Figs. 5-9. Aglaophenia rigida.

Entire colony, natural size.

Portion of pinna, magnified ; lateral view.

Same, front view.

Corbula, magnified.
Part of one of the ridges of the corbula, still further magnified.

~
-
3
SSE SI GOs

PLATE XXVI.
Figs. 1-8. Aglaophenia distans.
Fig.

o. 1
Fig. 2. A portion, magnified. =
Fig. 3. Portion of the hydrotheca, still further enlarged to show the anterior tooth-like process.
Fig. 4. A hydrotheca differing somewhat in form from the normal hydrothece, but associated with these
n the same colony; magnified.
g. 5. Orifice of hydrotheca viewed from above.
Fig. 6. Portion of a pinna with two hydrothece viewed in front; magnified.
Fig. 7. Corbula, magnified.
Fig. 8. One of the leaflets of a corbula, still further magnified.
(a) Peduncle of leaflet.
(b) Supracalycine nematophores but slightly altered.
(c) Mesial nematophore greatly enlarged and altered in form. The slightly altered hydrotheca
is seen included between the supracalycine and mesial nematophores.

Entire colony, natural size.

me

Fic.

Figs. 9,10. Aglaophenia sigma.
Fig. 9. Natural size.
Fig. 10. Portion of a pinna, magnified.

PLATE XXVIII.
Figs. 1-8. Aglaophenia bispinosa.

Fig. 1. An entire colony, natural size; front view.
fo) ? ’

Fig. 2. The same, lateral view.

Fig. 8. Distal portion of the stem, magnified,
o ’ f—)

Seo Nae

_
al
3

PES Saks Roa i

>

Fig. 1 .
Fig. 2.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 63

PLATE XXVIII.
Figs. 1-5. Aglaophenia bispinosa.

Portion of stem and pinna, magnified ; front view.
Portion of pinna, magnified; lateral view.
Corbula, magnified ; viewed from above.
Peduncle of corbula, more magnified.
(a, a) Internodes of peduncle showing the three mesial nematophores borne by each internode.
Base of proximal rib of corbula, still further magnified.

(a) Supracalycine nematophores slightly altered.

(5) Base of mesial nematophore which has become transformed into a rib of the corbula.
Between a and 6 is seen the slightly altered hydrotheca with a hydranth still visible
in it,

PLATE XXIX.
Figs. 1-4. Aglaophenia constricta.

A specimen, natural size, with some sponges growing over its stem.
Portion of stem with the proximal ends of the pinne ; magnified.
Portion of a pinna, still further magnified ; viewed laterally.

Same, viewed in front.

Figs. 5-7. Aglaophenia perpusilla.

Entire colony, natural size.
Portion of a pinna, viewed laterally ; magnified.
Portion of stem with the proximal ends of two pinnez, magnified.

PLATE XXX.
Figs. 1-5. Cladocarpus dolichotheca.

Entire colony, natural size.
Distal end of a colony, magnified.
(a, a) Phylactogonia.
Portion of a pinna with hydrotheca, magnified ; viewed laterally.
Same, front view.
Portion of stem near proximal end, showing nematophores disposed like the denticles of a grapto-

PLATE XXXI.
Figs. 1-7. Cladocarpus ventricosus.

A colony, natural size.
Distal end of a colony, magnified.
(a, a) Phylactogonia.
Portion of a pinna, still further magnified ; viewed laterally.
Same, front view.
Portion of stem near the proximal end, with a longitudinal series of nematophores ; magnified.
Gonangium, magnified; lateral view.
Same, front view.

PLATE XZXHI.

Cladocarpus paradisea ; an entire colony, natural size.

PLATE! XXII.
Figs. 1-6. Cladocarpus paradisea.

Portion of a pinna, magnified ; lateral view.
Portion of stem with proximal end of pinna, not so highly magnified ; front view.

64 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 3. Proximal end of a pinna carrying a phylactogonium; magnified. |
(a) Pinna. |
(b) Phylactogonium with gonangia; female (?); front view.

Fig. 4. Portion of a phylactogonium from a point near its distal end, carrying a single young gonangium ;

female (?); back view.

Fig. 5. Portion of a pinna with a phylactogonium, magnified.
(a) Pinna.
(b) Phylactogonium with gonangia; male (?).

Fig. 6. Portion of one of the branches of a phylactogonium with two of its nematophores ; still further

magnified.
PLATE XAAXITY.,
Figs. 1-5, Halicornaria speciosa.
Fig. 1. Natural size.
Fig. 2. A portion taken from a point towards the proximal end ; magnified.
Fig. 3. Same, from a point near the distal end.
Fig. 4. Portion of a pinna, still further magnified; front view.
Fig. 5. Same, lateral view.

D*

——

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Aglaophenia
Aglaophenia apocarpa
Aglaophenia bicuspis
Aglaophenia bispinosa
Aglaophenia constricta
Aglaophenia distans

~ Aglaophenia gracilis

Aglaophenia late-carinata .
Aglaophenia lophocarpa.
Aglaophenia myriophylla
Aglaophenia perpusilla
Aglaophenia ramosa
Aglaophenia rhynchocarpa .
Aglaophenia rigida
Aglaophenia sigma
Antenella

Antenella gracilis
Antennopsis

Antennopsis hippuris .
Antennularia

Antennularia cyathifera
Antennularia ramosa
Antennularia simplex

Bathymetrical distribution
Bimeria

Bimeria humilis

Bimeria vestita

Bimeridee

Calycella

Calyptoblastea .
Campanularia
Campanularia macroscypha
Campanularia syringa
Campanularidz
Campanulinz
Cladocarpus. : é
Cladocarpus dolichotheca
Cladocarpus formosa .
Cladocarpus paradisea .

44, 46

PAGE

44, 47

41, 42

48, 56

50, 33

Cladocarpus ventricosus
Coppinia .

Cryptolaria .
Cryptolaria abies
Cryptolaria conferta
Cryptolaria elegans .
Cryptolaria longitheca
Cuspidella

Cuspidella pedunculata
Definition of terms
Desmoscyphus
Desmoscyphus Buskir
Desmoscyphus longitheca

Eudendridz
Eudendrium

Eudendrium attenuatum .

Eudendrium cochleatum
Eudendrium exiguum
Eudendrium eximium .

Eudendrium fruticosum .

Eudendrium gracile
Eudendrium laxum .
Eudendrium ramosum .
Eudendrium tenellum

Filellum immersum

Grammaridz
GRAPTOLITES
Gymnoblastea .

Halecidee

Halecium .

Halecium Beanwt
Halecium capillare .
Halecium filicula

Halecium macrocephalum

Halecium muricatum
Haleciwm sessile
Halicornaria

PAGE

. 50,52
18

¥7-

20, 21
17, 19, 20
; 20
18,19
13

13

TINO n Oo” o o

Oo oO

2

17
51, note

66

Halicornaria speciosa
Halopteris

Halopteris carinata
Hippurella
Hippurella annulata
Hydrallmamia falcata

Lafoéa.

Lafoéa coalescens
Lafoéa convallaria
Lafoéa dumosa .
Lafoéa tenellula
Lafoéa venusta
Lafoéidee
Lafoéina tenwis

Macrorynchia
Monostzchas
Monostzechas dichotoma

Obelia .
Obelia longicyatha
Obelia margiata
Oplorhiza
Oplorhiza parvula

Plumularia .

Plumularia attenuata
Plumularia catharina
Plumularia filicula .
Plumularia geminata
Plumularia macrotheca
Plumularia megalocephala

PAGE

29
: 30
2, 37, 38, 56
: 29
32, 39, 56
30

31

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Plumularia setacea
Plumularide
RHIZOPODA

Sertularella

Sertularella amphorifera
Sertularella conica . :
Sertularella Gay . : =
Sertularella Gayi var. robus
Sertularella polyzonias :
Sertularella tricuspdata. .
Sertularia :
Sertularia distans

Sertularia exigua

Sertularia gracilis

Sertularia marginata .
Sertularia pumila

Sertularia secundaria
Sertularia tubitheca .
Sertularia tumida

Sertularide . ; ‘
Sertularinz 3 4 :
Thoa capillaris

Thuiaria

Thuiaria distans

Thuiaria pinnata

Thuiaria plumulifera
Thuiaria sertularioides
Thyroscyphus . ‘
Thyroscyphus ramosus *
Tubularia crinis

Tubularia indivisa

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PLATE ff

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PLATE V.

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TELEGRAPHS,
TRANSPORTATION ROUTES,
FOREIGN COMMERCE,
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH JAPAN.

[From THE SuMMARY oF CoMMERCE AND FINANCE FOR DeceMBeER, 1901. ]

O. P. AUSTIN,
Ch ief of Bureau.
TREASURY DEPARTMENT,
Bureau of Statistics.

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COMMERCIAL JAPAN IN 1900.

Recent events so much increase the interest which the people of the United States feel, and have for many years felt, in Japan

that a brief review of present conditions in that country compared with those of earlier years seems justifiable. Japan has, during the
past few years, assumed an important rank in the list of commercial nations, and in doing so has vastly increased her commerce with the
United States, the nation instrumental in first opening the doors of that country to commerce with the world. Within the last few years
new treaties have been made with the principal countries of the world, by which their citizens are given equal privileges with the
citizens of Japan in all parts of the Empire and made subject to the laws of that country, which have been recently revised, new

commercial codes established, new currency adopted, new tariffs created, and new ports opened for commercial intercourse with the
world.. Lastly, by reason of more recent events, Japan and the United States have become near neighbors, physically as well as
otherwise, Japan’s northern territory, the Kurile Islands, lying within 500 miles of our Aleutian Islands, and her southern extreme,
Formosa, lying within 200 miles of the Philippines, thus making a complete chain along the Pacific front of Asia. From Yokohama, her
most important port of entry, the distance to Manila as a trade center is practically the same as that to Hongkong, which has proved so
important a distributing point for British trade; from Yokohama to Honolulu, a distance of 3,400 miles, Japanese steamships now
regularly ply; and from Yokohama to the Pacific coast ports of the United States the distance is far less than to the ports of any other
great commercial nation, while the opening of an isthmian canal would greatly lessen the water route between Japan and the Gulf and
Atlantic ports of the United States, from which she draws so large and constantly increasing a proportion of her supplies.

EARLIER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS.

The earlier commercial relations of Japan to the world, and the part which the United States has had in developing them, are so
well known that they need not be recounted in detail. Portuguese adventurers, who were the first to establish commercial relations in
China, soon extended their trade to Japan, the first Portuguese sailors landing on her soil in 1542, and within a few years an active
commerce was established. Encouraged by that success, the Dutch East India Company in 1598 dispatched five merchant vessels to
Japan, one of which reached it in 1600, and in 1609 other Dutch ships arrived and were well received by the Japanese, who conceded
thera a port on the island of Hirado and the privilege of establishing a ‘‘factory’’ or trading post and settlement. The hostilities
between the Portuguese and Dutch, however, and the extreme demands of the Portuguese, who considered themselves already established
in the commerce of Japan, coupled with dissatisfaction with the attitude of foreign missionaries toward the popular religion of Japan, led
to the exclusion of all traders except the Dutch, who were permitted to take up their residence on a small island, Deshima, where they
remained for more than two centuries in undisturbed monopoly of the entire European trade of Japan. In 1852, serious complaints of
mistreatment of American sailors wrecked on the coast of Japan having been made, Commodore M. C. Perry, with a fleet of American
vessels, was sent by the United States Government to demand from Japan a treaty by which American vessels should be allowed to enter
one or more of its ports to obtain supplies, and, if practicable, that Americans should also be given general trading privileges in these
ports. This undertaking was peacefully carried to a successful termination, a treaty being signed March 31, 1854, by which the ports of
Shimoda and Hakodate were opened as harbors of refuge, supply, trade, and consular residence to the United States. This action was
quickly followed by a successful demand for similar privileges by the British, Russian, and Dutch governments, and by 1860 the ports of
Hakodate, Kanagawa, Nagasaki, and Niigata were opened to the commerce of the leading commercial nations of the world.

From this time forward the commercial relations of Japan with the world made rapid progress. In 1860 and 1861 a Japanese
embassy visited the United States and Europe. The decade 1860-1870, while largely occupied by dissensions and, in some cases,
hostilities between the elements favoring commercial relations with the world and those preferring former methods, saw marked
developments within Japan, the beginning of the adoption of the customs and methods of western nations, and laid the foundation of
the progress which has since been made. In 1871 an embassy consisting of the embassador and junior prime minister, Iwakura, the
vice-embassador, Kido, Count Ito Hirobumi, the three ministers of the cabinet, and several inferior officers and secretaries, numbering
49 in all, sailed from Japan to visit all the nations having treaties with that country. Count Ito, in an address at San Francisco, the first
landing place after the embassy had left Japan, said: ‘‘Our mission, under special instructions from His Majesty the Emperor, while
seeking to protect the rights and interests of our respective nations, will seek to unite them more closely in the future, convinced that
we shail appreciate each other more when we know each other better. * * * Held in absolute obedience by despotic sovereigns
through many thousand years, our people knew no freedom or liberty of thought. With our material improvement they learned to
understand their rightful privileges, which for ages had been denied them, Civi’ war was but a temporary result. Our ‘daimios’
magnanimously surrendered their principalities, and their voluntary action was accepted by the General Government. Within a year
a feudal system, firmly established many centuries ago, has been completely abolished. By educating our women we hope to insure
greater intelligence in future generations. Japan can not claim originality as yet, but will aim to exercise practical wisdom by adopting
the advantages and avoiding the errors taught her by the history of those enlightened nations whose experience is their only teacher.”

The development of Japan which followed this tour of observation and intercourse with other nations of the world was very
rapid. Schools were increased, students Were sent abroad to obtain a higher education and study foreign methods; internal highways
were made, steamships built, and communication with foreign countries was increased; manufacturing industries were encouraged and

“a 2219

2220 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Decewser,

multiplied, and business men from other countries welcomed to participate in the commercial and business development of the country
As a consequence the foreign commerce of Japan, which in 1878 amounted to less than 60,000,000 yen, in 1898 was over 484,234,480 yen
while the development of railroads, manufactures, and internal industries had been equally great.

The progressive spirit of the Japanese and the rapidity with which they are adapting themselves to modern methods is shown in the
increasing proportion in the trade of Japan conducted by Japanese. In 1890 the relative share of the exports from Japan by Japanese
and foreigners, respectively, was, Japanese, 6,123,961 yen; foreigners, 48,767,635 yen. In 1900 the relative share was, Japanese,
73,381,634 yen; foreigners, 124,681,912 yen. Of the imports in 1890, the value of 19,521,764 was by Japanese, and 61,033,109 by
foreigners; in 1900, the value of 112,737,050 was by Japanese and 173,433,883 by foreigners. Taking the total of imports and exports,
the share of the Japanese in 1890 was 25,645,726 yen, or 18.9 per cent of the total; that of foreigners, 109,800,745 yen, or 81.1 per cent of
the total; while in 1900 the share of the Japanese was 186,118,684, or 33.4 per cent of the total, and that of foreigners 371,497,429 yen,
or 66.6 per cent of the total. Commenting upon this subject, the Austrian consul at Yokohama called attention to the fact that the number 3
of European and American firms established in Japan is decreasing. At Yokohama in 1899, he says, the number was 303, while in
1900 it was but 248. The number of Japanese merchants in China and Korea is increasing, and it is expected that as soon as things in
China return to their normal state a large contingent of Japanese merchants will proceed thither to compete with foreigners in that
trade. The consul adds that in Korea Japanese merchants have already made competition impossible, and states that Japan is becoming
more and more an important commercial factor in Asiatic and generally in international commerce. A table showing the share in the
commerce of Japan conducted by Japanese and foreigners, respectively, will be found on another page.

SHARE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE COMMERCE OF JAPAN.

The United States, which has been constantly and actively associated with the development of Japan, has participated largely in
the growth of her commerce. Thousands of young men from Japan have visited the United States as students, and thousands of mer-
chants and business men from the United States have visited Japan as instructors in educational and commercial lines. As teachers and
professors in schools and colleges, as editors and publishers, as merchants who engage in both importing and exporting, as manufac-
turers, as constructors of railways and telegraphs, and in establishing modern electrical aids to commerce, citizens of the United States
have been active in Japan. As a consequence, the trade relations between the two countries have grown with greater rapidity than
between Japan and any other nation. In 1881 the imports from the United States formed less than 6 per cent of the total importations
into Japan, while in 1900 they formed 21.93 per cent of the total importations. Meantime, Great Britain’s share in the imports of Japan
fell from 52.57 per cent in 1881 to 25.03 per cent in 1900. The United States is also Japan’s largest customer, by reason of the fact that the
chief export products of Japan are articles required by the manufacturers of the United States, and which can not be produced in this
country. The total exports from Japan in 1900 amounted to 198,063,547 yen in value, and of this amount 52,566,395 yen went to the
United States; 39,177,455 to Hongkong; 31,871,576 to China; 19,150,423 to France, and 11,262,997 to the United Kingdom.

The exports of Japan to the United States, as already indicated, are chiefly of articles which are not produced in this country, and
in a majority of cases are those required by our manufacturers. Of the 52,566,395 yen in value exported to the United States in 1900,
the value of 26,710,050 yen consisted of raw silk, 5,972,012 manufactures of silk, 6,930,475 of tea, 3,002,519 mats for floors, 1,011,923 rice,
1,743,671 chemicals, drugs, etc., while manufactures of bamboo, lacquered ware, and other products peculiar to the Japanese have also
figured largely in the list. Exports from Japan to the United States have steadily grown, especially since the development of the silk-
manufacturing industry in this country. In 1893 the value of her raw-silk exports to the United States was 11,078,748 yen; in 1894,
22,457,348; in 1895, 27,826,245; in 1896, 14,080,981; in 1897, 32,262,900, and in 1900, as already indicated, 26,710,050. The United
States is the largest purchaser of raw silk from Japan, whose total exportations of raw silk exceed 50,000,000 yen annually. France is
the next largest customer in this line, her purchases of raw silk from Japan in 1900 amounting to 10,861,352 yen in value, against
26,710,050 yen by the United States, while Italy took raw silk to the value 6,092,140 yen; England, 374,927 yen; Russia, 429,304 yen, and
other countries 189,256 yen. The total exports from Japan to the United States in 1881 were 11,056,464 yen in value, being 36.5 per
cent of the total exports of that year, and in 1900 were 52,566,395 yen, or 26.05 per cent of the total exports of that year.

Japan’s imports from the United States have grown with even greater rapidity than her exports to the United States. In 1881
they amounted to but 1,781,108 yen, and in 1900 had reached 62,761,196 yen in value. They have grown with much greater rapidity
than the total importations of Japan, our share of her import trade having increased from 5.72 per cent in 1881 to 21.93 per cent in
1900, while the United Kingdom, our principal competitor in that market, which furnished, in 1881, 52.57 per cent of the total imports
of Japan, supplied, in 1900, 25.03 per cent. A detailed examination of the supplies furnished by the United States to Japan can perhaps
be better made from our own standpoint measured in dollars. In the fiscal year 1892 our total exports of domestic merchandise to
Japan amounted to $8,288,282, and in 1901 to $18,656,899. Of this total the largest item of export was illuminating oil, which aggregated
$4,784,350; the next largest item being manufactures of iron and steel, with a total of $4,649;287. Third in rank is raw cotton, with a
total of $4,086,317; other important items being breadstuffs, $1,107,235; provisions, $399,684; scientific instruments, $376,068; leather
and manufactures, $285,551; tobacco and manufactures, $238,890; clocks and watches, $237,381; paper and manufactures thereof, $206,586;
lubricating oil, $197,342, and paraflin, $167,118; while many other articles of less importance have found a place in the markets of
Japan. Taking up the great class of iron and steel and examining its details, it is found that the exports of locomotive engines in 1901
amounted to $372,162 in value, builders’ hardware, $121,697; sewing machines, $30,979; firearms, $42,512; car wheels, $20,773; other
machinery, $1,481,796; and miscellaneous manufactures of iron and steel, $2,579,368.

A detailed study of the exports from the United States during the decade is presented on another page, the purpose being to
determine the articles most in demand in that country and those in which the export trade has most rapidly grown. It will be found
that the exports of raw cotton have grown from but $85,211 in 1890 to $4,086,317 in 1901. Illuminating oil, the exports of which
amounted in 1890 to $3,559,395 in value, showed in 1901 a total of $4,784,350, despite the active competition of Russian and Sumatran
petroleum, and the further fact that Japan is now herself supplying a part of her consumption of illuminating oil. Exports of flour
increased from $127,120 in 1890 to $1,035,893 in 1901. This increase is evidently due to a growing disposition among the Japanese to
consume more of this class of food rather than to rely upon rice, as in former years, since the number of foreigners in Japan other than
Chinese and Koreans amounts to less than 4,000, and has not materially increased during the period in which our exports of flour to
that country have increased sevenfold. In paper and manufactures thereof our export trade with Japan has grown very rapidly, the
total exports in this class being, in 1890, $1,606; in 1896, $10,126, and in 1901, $206,586. Instruments for scientific purposes increased

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ye Sf

from $9,441 in 1890 to $34,600 in 1894, and $376,068 in 1901. In 1890 the value of the canned beef exported from this country to Japan
was but $11,212; in 1901 the total was $140,648; while exports of pickled beef advanced from $638 in 1890 to $72,325 in 1901. Leather
and manufactures of leather find a steady demand in Japan, owing to the fact that the number of cattle and other animals whose skins
are used for tanning is comparatively small, the total number of cattle in Japan, according to the last census, being but 1,433,583, or 30.24
for each 1,000 inhabitants.

THE COTTON TRADE AND INDUSTRY OF JAPAN.

Exportations of cotton cloths to Japan have fallen by reason of the rapid increase in the manufacture of cotton cloth in that
country, the total for 1901 being but $37,891, against $141,264 in 1897. Meantime, however, exportations of raw cotton to Japan have
rapidly increased, being, as already indicated, $4,086,317 in 1901, against $85,211 in 1890. This is largely due to the increase in the
manufacture of cotton goods in Japan, though American cotton has grown in popularity with the manufacturers there within the past
few years. Experience has shown them that cotton from the United States is more satisfactory for use in manufacturing than that which
Japan had been accustomed to obtain from India and China, the staple in American cotton being longer, thus giving better results. As
a consequence, imports of American cotton now form a much larger percentage of the total importation into Japan than in earlier
years, although the raw cottons of China and India have largely the advantage, both in the matter of proximity and cheapness of labor
utilized in their production. Japan also produces a considerable amount of cotton of her own, though it can scarcely be expected that
this will increase in a manner to at all keep pace with the growth of her cotton-manufacturing industry. The entire area of Japan is
but-161,245 square miles, or less than the State of California, while but about 12 per cent of its land is under cultivation, and but a com-
paratively small proportion cultivable, since mountain ranges and rocky islets and shores occupy a large proportion of its area. It must
be remembered that Japan, with her small cultivable area, has a population of 43,760,815, and must therefore devote most of her arable
land to the production of food stuffs, while her natural products of silk and tea are so much in demand the world over that they are not
likely to be displaced for cotton, which can be so readily brought from other and comparatively adjacent countries. Cotton manufactur-
ing in Japan has, however, grown very rapidly, the total number of spindles in 1899 being 2,074,475, against 5,456 in 1863. It is thus
apparent that Japan will continue to purchase from other parts of the world a large proportion of the raw cotton which her rapidly
growing cotton mills will consume, and as the cotton from the United States has already made rapid headway against that from the
nearer countries of China and India, it is reasonable to assume that the market for American cotton will continue to grow, especially if
an isthmian canal gives opportunity for direct water shipments from the cotton-growing section of the United States to the ports of Japan
without breaking bulk.

IRON AND STEEL.

In iron and steel there seems no reason to doubt that the demand upon the United States will continue. The importations of
manufactures of iron and steel into Japan have grown very rapidly. It is apparent that the demand for manufactures of this class will
continue to increase with perhaps greater rapidity. The various manufacturing and mechanical industries are being encouraged by the
Government and by Japanese capitalists, as are also the construction of railroads, the building of ships, and other enterprises of this kind,
which will require great quantities of iron and steel and their manufactures. While considerable quantities of iron ore are known to
exist in various parts of Japan, it is not believed that they will prove sufiicient to seriously interfere with or take the place of the
supplies now being furnished from other countries, especially since there are few places where iron and coal are found in conjunction.
In addition to this, it may be said that while the coal supply is now such as to have become quite an article of export, rivaling that of
Australia and other localities in that part of the world, it is believed that it will not be sufficient to meet the great demand upon it for
all classes of manufactures for any considerable term. Besides, the large capital required for the construction of establishments for the
manufacture of iron and steel, coupled with the extreme cheapness of production in the United States, through proximity of coal and
iron mines, also makes it improbable that the market in Japan for manufactures of this class will be seriously impaired by local
production and manufacture.

One factor which enters into this question of local manufactures in Japan, as a competitor with those of other countries which have
formerly held that market, is that of labor. Upon this subject all recent writers who discuss this feature of conditions in Japan agree
that rates of wages in that country have very much increased in the last few years and are likely to continue to increase, and that the
fears formerly expressed that a combination of modern manufacturing developments with the cheap labor of the Orient would result in
driving the manufacturers of other parts of the world out of the markets do not seem to have been justified by the experiment thus far,
A table showing rates of wages in the principal industries for a term of vears will be found on another page.

THE DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

In products of agriculture other than cotton and tobacco the demand of Japan is up to this time comparatively small. Importations
of rice in 1898 were heavy, but this was due to a short crop. Asarule Japan produces rice sufficient for her large population, and as
this cereal is the most important food article with the masses the importations of food stuffs are, up to this time, comparatively light.
That there is a growing demand for meats, however, is shown by the figures already quoted, which indicate that the exports of meats
from the United States to Japan have increased at a reasonably rapid rate in the past few years, and with a growing demand for food
stuffs of this class and the extremely small number of animals which can be utilized for this purpose, the prospect for a market for
provisions, including meats, butter, cheese, etc., seems fairly satisfactory. Of petroleum, as already indicated, the importations continue
heavy, though in this the oil fields of Russia and Sumatra are proving active competitors of those of the United States, resulting both in
a reduction of price and something of a reduction in quantity exported.

A STUDY OF JAPANESE IMPORTS,

Those desiring to study the import trade of Japan in its broadest sense and to determine the class of articles for which a market is
to be found in that country will find on another page a table showing the importations into that country in the order of their greatest
value in 1898, with a comparative statement showing the importations, article by article, beginning with 1892, the year the marked
growth of imports into Japan began. Cotton importations, as already indicated, have increased very rapidly, being 11,026,637 yen in
1892 and 51,500,002 yen in 1900. Sugar forms the next article of importation in relative value, being 26,606,528 yen in 1900, against

No. 6 12

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2222 COMMERCIAL JAPAN, ee
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9,519,612 yen in 1892. Sugar importations up to this time have been largely in the form of the refined material ready for use. —
tariff recently adopted, however, makes the rate of duty on refined sugar about three times that on raw sugar, the intention presumably — +
being to encourage the sugar-refining industry in Japan. Cotton yarns show no important gains in the seven years in question, but,on
the contrary, a decrease since 1896, this being due to the rapid increase in the cotton-spinning industry of Japan, which has not only
proved able to supply the local demand of the cotton mills, but is making a large market for itself in China, and thus increasing the
-cotton cloth manufactures of that country. Kerosene oil imports from 1892 to 1900 increased from 3,328,398 yen to 14,162,651 yen, thus
more than doubling in value, while the exports to Japan from the United States in those years barely kept pace with the general growth.
The growing demand for food products other than rice is illustrated by the fact that importations of beans, pease, and pulse have
increased from 2,712,044 yen in 1892 to 8,822,111 yen in 1898, and 4,817,767 yen in 1900. Another article which shows a rapid growth
in importations into Japan, and one which the manufacturers of the United States may find worthy of attention, is that of oil cake for
fertilizing. The importation of this article in 1892 amounted to 824,651 yen, 3,220,600 yen in 1896, 4,614,967 yen in 1898, and 5,696,453
yen in 1900. The extremely limited cultivable area of Japan, coupled with the large demand from its 45,000,000 population whose wants
are rapidly growing with increased earnings and greater activity, calls for the most careful attention to the producing possibilities of the
soil, and with the small number of domestic animals from which to obtain supplies of fertilizers there is a growing demand ior fertilizers
of other classes. This doubtless accounts for the rapid increase in the imports of oil cake for fertilizing, a product of which our own
exportations have rapidly grown, while the possibility of introduction of other fertilizers, of which our supply is now so large, may be
also worthy of consideration. The United States now supplies a large share of the phosphates of the world used for fertilizing purposes,
and this, coupled with the almost unlimited capacity of production of oil cake, makes this rapidly growing Japanese market for fertilizers
one worthy of attention.
Another line of imports into Japan which has rapidly grown in the last few years is that of woolen goods, especially those classed as
‘¢mousseline de laine.’’ This single line of manufactures has increased from 2,448,899 yen in 1892 to 4,373,988 yen in 1898, and 7,364,991
yen in 1900. Recent writers on Japan indicate a growing disposition on the part of the people of that country to utilize woolen goods for
garments, and as wool is not produced in any considerable quantities in that country the demand for woolen cloths is constantly increasing.
All efforts to introduce sheep for wool-producing purposes have been unsuccessful, the physical conditions of the soil and climate as well
as its grasses being such as to make it improbable that Japan will become a sheep-producing country, so that the growing disposition to
utilize woolen cloths will increase the market for raw wool or woolen goods, as is shown by the single item alluded to above. Other
classes of woolen cloths have also increased from 640,417 yen in 1892 to 2,969,763 yen in 1900, while wool yarn increased from 427,992 yen
in 1892 to 1,798,535 yen in 1900, and cloths made in part of wool from 196,618 yen in 1892 to 2,433,758 yen in 1900.
One curious and interesting feature of the importations of Japan is that which relates to clocks and watches. The opinion was
expressed a few years ago that the cleverness of Japanese workmen in reproducing articles of delicate workmanship brought to their
attention would soon reduce to a minimum the importation of clocks and watches and other articles of this character. Experience,
however, has not justified this belief. The importation of clocks and watches into Japan, according to the official figures of the Japanese
Government, has increased from 687,734 yen in 1892 to 3,419,727 yen in 1898, and 1,840,503 yen in 1900.
Other articles-in which the increase in importation has been rapid and suggestive to manufacturers and exporters of the United
States are rails for railways, which increased from 67,437 yen in 1892 to 4,753,371 yen in 1900; other materials for railways, from 51,865
in 1892 to 2,514,232 in 1898; printing paper, from 217,309 in 1892 to 2,036,844 in 1900; satins of cotton, from 523,459 in 1892 to 3,662,658
in 1900; plate and sheet iron, from 240,583 in 1892 to 4,080,543 in 1900; iron pipe, from 55,814 in 1892 to 2,981,693 in 1900; cotton prints,
from 436,544 in 1892 to 2,002,732 in 1900; nails, from 906,422 in 1892 to 2,181,064 in 1900; white shirtings, from 330,558 in 1892 to
1,325,142 yen in 1900, while numerous other articles whose values are stated in smaller sums show equal and even greater relative
growth in the importations, the details of which will be shown by the table printed on another page.
AREA, POPULATION, AND PRODUCTION.

The geography of Japan is so well known that details need not be discussed. From the northernmost of its group of Kurile Islands,
adjacent to Kamchatka, to the southernmost extremity of Formosa is over 4,000 miles, or more than the distance from the northern
boundary of Alaska to the southern extremity of California. Its principal islands of course are Hondo, or Niphon, with a total area of
87,485 square miles, about equal to the State of Kansas, and a population, as shown by the census of December 31, 1898, of 33,327,935,
or an average of 381 inhabitants per square mile; Hokkaido, or Yesso, with an area of 36,299 square miles, about equal to that of Indiana,
and a population of 610,155, or an average of 16.8 per square mile; Shikoku, lying next south of Hondo, with an area of 7,031 square
miles, or a little less than that of Massachusetts, and a population of 3,013,817, or 428 per square mile; and Kiushiu, still farther south,
with an area of 16,840 square miles, about the same as the combined area of Vermont and Massachusetts, and a population of 6,808,908,
or 404 per square mile, making for these four principal islands a total area of 147,655 square miles, or about the sameas that of the State
of California, and a population of 43,760,815, or an average of 296.4 per square mile. In addition to this the population of the island of
Formosa, ceded to Japan by China after the war between China and Japan, was given on December 31, 1898, as 2,690,096.

The Kurile Islands, stretching northward from Hokkaido to Kamtchatka, which were obtained from Russia in exchange for a part :
of Saghalin, number about 25, with an area of 3,070 square miles, and a small population, subsisting upon hunting and fishing, :
the products of which they barter to American, Portuguese, and Dutch traders. The Riu Kiu Islands, which lie between Japan and
Formosa, also belong to Japan, and likewise have a small population, subsisting chiefly by fishing and barter. Hokkaido or Yesso, the ” —
most northerly of the islands, has but a comparatively small population, the climate being severe and large portions of the surface :
unsuited to agriculture. Indeed, the fact that the large proportion of the Empire of Japan is yoleanic and that lines of mountains, some b=
of them active volcanoes, run through the center of the islands with merely a frontage of low lands on each side and yalleys between
these mountains, renders the cultivable area relatively small, the land now under cultivation being estimated at but about 12 per cent of
the total area, This is, however, very carefully tilled, mostly by hand, with spades, hoes, and implements of this character, plows and —
other agricultural implements being but comparatively little used. Rice is the largest and most important crop agriculturally, supplying, _
as it does, the principal food of a large part of the population, though wheat, corn, barley, and millet are grown in certain localities in J
quantities bearing but a small relative proportion to that of rice. As to natural products for exportation, silk is by far the most impor-
tant, the exports of raw silk in 1900 amounting to 48,818,347 yen. Tea is the next in importance among the natural products,
exports of 1900 being 9,035,819 yen in value; rice, 3,576,569 yen; cuttle-fish, 1,158,794 yen; camphor, 3,070,701 yen. Of the mine

nea
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is,

1901.) COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | 2223

coal is the most important in export value, the exportation of 1900 being 13,703,655 yen; those of copper, refined, 12,680,185 yen, while
the chief of the manufactured articles exported were cotton yarn, 20,589,263 yen; silk goods, 23,512,116 yen; cotton tissues, 6,099,261
yen; mats, 3,310,042 yen; porcelain and earthenware, 2,660,478 yen. Of the cereals, rice cecupied in 1899 6,958,885 acres, against
1,105,000 in wheat, 1,605,000 in barley, and 1,677,000 in rye, the number of bushels of rice being, according to the Statesman’s Year-
Book for 1901, 196,367,997, as compared with 20,126,043 bushels of wheat, 41,690,025 of barley, and 32,767,134 bushels of rye. The
production of tea for 1899 is given at 7,543,997 kwan, or 62,454 pounds avoirdupois, the kwan being equal to 8.28 pounds; sugar,
14,615,473 kwan (in 1898); raw silk, 3,277,404 kwan; silk cocoons, 2,512,562 koku, the koku being equal to 4.96 bushels,

THE COAL §SUi’PLY.

Coal, the most important of the minerals of Japan, is found in the northernmost island, Hokkaido, and in the northern part of the
island of Hondo, and in large quantities in the most southerly island of the group, Kiushiu. Coal has been mined systematically during
the last thirty years, formerly by the Government, but more recently the management has been transferred to a prominent financial]
firm of private citizens, who promptly established trading stations, not only in Japan but in China, Straits Settlements, Burmah, and the
Philippine Islands, their product rapidly taking the place of Australian coal, upon which steamships in that part of the world were
formerly compelled largely to rely. Locomotive engines from the United States and electric power have been introduced into the mines
to take the place of horses, and branch railways convey the coal to ports 50 miles distant, where steamships can have constant access to
the docks and depots of supply. The coal veins at the most important of these mines range from 8 to 20 feet in thickness, and the area
is believed to be such as to justify the expectation that Japan will, for many years at least, prove an important coal producer and
distributor in the East, while the fact that enormous coal deposits, easily worked, are in China, simply awaiting transportation methods
to render them available, shows that the coal supply of the Orient can from this time forward be relied upon as sufficient for ordinary
requirements. And when it is remembered that the supply of natural water power in the mountains of Japan must necessarily be very

great and that this may now be conveyed in the form of electricity to accessible points for use in manufacturing, the manufacturing
' possibilities of Japan, with its large industries and skillful population, will be apparent.

r

TRANSPORTATION METHODS.

Methods of communication and transportation, which play such an important part in the productive possibilities of any country,
have so rapidly improved in Japan during the past few years as to add greatly to its industrial prospects, whether agricultural, mining,

7 or manufacturing. Railway lines now stretch along the coast on either side of the principal islands, the total length of railroads being
over 3,000 miles, with a large additional mileage proposed and in many cases under construction; telegraph lines form a network ove
Er the entire group of islands, while large sums of money have recently been expended by the Government in the construction of highways

for transportation connecting the railways, the chief lack, however, being in horses, of which, as already indicated, the number is but a
little over 1,000,000 for the 45,000,000 population of the Empire.

Of the 11,684 foreigners residing in Japan in 1900, 11,561 were classed as ‘‘ merchants and other professions,’’ while of the 1,296
from the United States 1,282 were classed as ‘‘merchants and other professions.’’ Of the 2,113 British subjects 1,994 were thus classed,
and of the 532 Germans 518 were so classified. The number of foreigners residing in Japan is only about one-ninth as great as the
number of Japanese residing in foreign countries. The Japanese census of December 31, 1899—and it is interesting to observe that the
Japanese take a census each year—showed 99,039 Japanese residing in other countries. Of this number 71,315 were in the United
States, so that 62 per cent of the Japanese now residing abroad are subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. Of the remaining
27,724 Japanese residing abroad 15,068 were in Korea, 5,681 in England and English colonies, 4,021 in Russia and Russian colonies, and
2,442 in China. Of the 71,315 residing in the United States 282 were students and 1,983 merchants. It is interesting to observe that
the disposition of the Japanese is apparently to look almost exclusively to the United States in educational matters, as the total number
of Japanese students residing abroad, as shown by the census figures, was 605, and of this number 282 were in the United States, 147 in
Germany, 37 in Russia and Russian colonies, 35 in England and English colonies, 49 in China, 15 in Korea, and 17 in France.

The new relation in which the foreigners in Japan stand to its citizens, laws, and Government is especially important because of
the unusual relation they hold to its foreign commerce. Both the import and export business of Japan are conducted largely by
foreigners residing in that country. About 63 per cent of the exportations from Japan and more than 61 per cent of its importations are
conducted by foreigners. Of the total exports from Japan in 1900 over 124,000,000 yen were sent abroad by foreign merchants doing
business in that country and 73,000,000 by Japanese merchants, while of the total imports of the year 173,000,000 yen in value were
imported by foreigners and 112,000,000 yen in value by Japanese merchants. That the Japanese have proved apt pupils in the study of
foreign commerce as an art is shown by an examination of the record of Japan’s foreign trade during the past few years. In i883 only
Fe 4.85 per cent of the imports into Japan and 14.4 per cent of the exports were made by Japanese merchants. By 1888 the percentage of
S importations made by Japanese merchants had increased to 17.8 per cent; by 1894 they had reached 29.2 per cent, and in 1900 39.4 per
cent of the total imports were made by Japanese merchants. Meantime their share in the exportation business has also inereased, reaching
18.4 per cent in 1894, 25.8 per cent in 1896, and 37.05 per cent in 1900. The total value of imports by Japanese merchants in 1883 was
1,383,101 yen, and in 1900, 112,737,050 yen, while the total value of the exports by Japanese merchants, which in 1883 was 5,149,078 yen,
was in 1900 73,381,634 yen. ‘The fact that three-fifths of the exports of Japan still find a market through foreigners residing in that
country, and that a like proportion of the imports is brought in and distributed by foreign merchants doing business in Japan, adds
greatly to the importance of the new relations which now exist between the Japanese Government and foreigners residing and doing
business in that country.

CURRENCY.

“ae Naturally the banking and currency of a country which is so rapidly increasing its commercial relations with the United States is
__. amatter of especial interest. The gold standard, as is well known, was established in Japan in 1897, and its general banking iacilities,
__ 48 well as its currency, are considered stable and satisfactory. The total coinage issued from the mint from its foundation in 1870 up to
i “March 31, 1900, exclusive of recoinage, was, according to the Stateman’s Year-Book of 1899, 431,246,052 yen. The paper money,
e “egensae the same authority, consists of Nippon Ginko, or Bank of Japan notes, exchangeable for gold on presentation, and the

_ amount in circulation on April 1, 1900, 217, 809,333 yen. In 1899 the Nippon Ginko, or Bank of Japan, had a paid-up capital of

« - es
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2224 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.’ ee

| “ee
--—_-- 80,000,000 yen; notes in circulation, 217,809-333 yen; loans, 786,117,640 yen; deposits, 1,725,404,724 yen. ‘In 1898 ihicents ere J
=? private banks, with a paid-up capital of 190,292,740 yen; loans, 1,576,200,337 yen; Avpsonite, 3,393,044,548 yen. In 1899-99, 1,56 i

persons deposited 37,921,508 yen and withdrew 15,430,590 yen from the post-offices, which agt as savings banks. In — same
: there were 413 savings banks, with a paid-up capital of 14,966,242 yen, and deposits aggregating 93,659,013 yen.
The following table shows the amount of coinage issued in the fiscal years ending March 31, 1896 to 1900:

COINAGE. 1895-96 1896-97 * 1897-98 1898-93
Yen. Yen. Yen. on Yeus
OIA CMO aoa as sc aecan anon acceasr se swespherms|, 01, 420,700 952, 433 76, $24,311 21, 385, 797
SUVEU CONS she oxaese sen ee ress enon dees sop ae oeonaen 20, 007,377 12, 927, 034 10, 298, 085 17, 000, 000
OR CUOOIIS acco snares seen nen eee ee anak ameare 51, 500 650, 000 600, 000 750, 006
IBYONZE COMMIS. 2220s ssnceom “AePR OPE FADO CH Aa Co Wer ipsees Set He a epee be eee tine 100, 000
OUI cos Saccn een aer poaee eae ss seamen amen ee 21, 482, 627 | 14, 529, 467 87, 722,396 39, 235, 797

‘The following table shows the condition of banks in Japan in 1898:

|
Head | Branch soa 7 cap- .
| BANKS. offices. | offices, tal. Deposits. Loans.
Yen. Ye Yen.

' ee GInkoie eee crencasdane cane a anenaeeneene eeeaee 8 36, 000, 000 1, 725, 404, 724 786,117,640
: = st Industrial Bank. esesebeaed 2.600; 000) 12, 5>- >. Sshase vee 6, 776, 609
ohama Specie Bank. 2 10, 500, 000 842, 014, 934 209, 777, 971
ool banke-...5:. 3! 1 399, 000 6, 682, 266 2,981, 879
Acricultural-Industrial osc scavecsosscescmpecuressac! & bly Sa acscacmees 8, 798, 020 962, 686 4,356, 337
PE OtO estan erences sa 904 190, 292, 740 3, 393, 044, 548 1, 576, 200, 337
453 14, 966, 242 93, 659, 013 , 84, 056
1, 368 257, 447, 002 6, 061, 768, 165 2, 659, 064, 829

In January, 1899, there were 4,481 miles of State roads and 15,362 miles of prefectural roads.

Railways are of two classes: (1) State railways; (2) railways owned by private companies, 42 in number, two of them supported
in a certain way by the Government.

The following table gives the railway statistics for 1898-99:

Length.in miles). 222... . cn enncecncnceevsveereecencdcenss st esue-=r cathe ee =aaeE ae Lae =a eres 2, 652
GTOSS INCOME «occ cenecconscoecnnwcsnrcccececmerevicd@h este esos een eee ete eee eee En ae yen..| 11,143,742 21, 841, 458
BXPenditure . ccacddcwesscvcccetecevcduceudoncscrgeecuceuccucee te] === seems scouseeeeaeee do....| 6,343,030 12, 059, 674
Goods Carrled . 2... cccccoccosanncesccccasemuicdue cus su wcnbineee ame eG pee eee eee eee tons..| 1,857,227 8,141,315
PASSED ZCIS: . on ccc cceeweceuces seu cu sueeduleccenncenn eink emee ee ite o ee eee eee number..| 31,720,787 66, 816, 330
The following are postal and telegraphic statistics for four fiscal years: :
1896-97 1897-98 | 1898-99

Letters and post: Cards....--..sc-scsaa-caneaatoeueene semanas 403, 818, 612 4

: 54, 052, 108 505, 002, 412 501, 960, 680

Newspapers and periodicals. ........cccscunccuncnce kuseeded 86, 801, 875 88, 750, 347 91,519, 154 110, 064, $13
BOOKS’. - = ict covlendcaussanuctnevaecnkn sees eee euemee neal 6, 617,114 7, 363, 932 7, 663, 751 8, 079, 462
BAMples; O62 iss. cccecctonuucweiwacsc Hews sceccCc ses aence™ 898, 190 1, 053, 116 1, 164, 327 1, 341, 151
Registered: Packets <..ccoccucauncvactoctpuwcceuscaneeeaeaee 6, 223, 891 6, 498, 199 7, 409, 388 8, 424, 703
WOLSCOIB: . .tiocesruaccnduapeeecouumasuammouy cond eee te pe 2,737,138 4, 213, 849 5, 076, 648 6, 016, O11

DOE] cnn wan cs etnv anne nunaah Kuh ws Seimei a eee eee 506, 096, 820 561, 981, 651 617, 835, 680 635, 886, 810
POBCOMGES::..ncxctcsexvoewsecucestleennanmeweuaee a ecmerenene 4,270 4, 285 4,337 404
LOLEORTAINS CEMVCLG. wacnsconcuveunucumounnenweene auuemamene 10, 978, 153 14, 186, 012
TOlORTADNIG ING. .ccacccavacsscueecweuueantanauweee miles.. 11,517
INGIORTADLIG WIG oc cancaasnd twine aRuaaene sen genes dons 87, 654 44, 801
SUDMETING CADIS We. «spun ccncnanevauneee ne eeeneusmeee 50 fo es 387 ‘
BOOMATING WiTGr..: wchicdeenneoeccesu nea xteeeotrewenee Ggere « 481 1, 691
reeks OMLOGIB'. ssn nnvccxucssapanusseseekiianoeeeeerrene 1,114 1, 255
Post and telegraph OmiGera .> 2. .canvecancte cuaeununeeeen 17, 050 18, 464
Post and telegraph income .%.<.i.essasconnecdessakeun yen.. 9, 221, 833 10, 797, 093
Post and telegraph expenditure.........ccccsecscces do.. a , 625, 725 > 7

In March, 1899, there were 1,562 miles of telephone (31,273 miles of wire), with 18 exchange offices, 40 calling offices, and 8,083
subseribers.

EDUCATION IN JAPAN.

Educational conditions in Japan are the subject of very favorable comment by those who haye had opportunity for thorough
investigation, while the official reports of the Japanese Government show that the number of schools, teachers, and pupils has rapidly
increased during the past few years. The number of primary schools on January 1, 1899, as shown by the official reports of the Japanese
Government, was 26,824, with a total attendance of 4,062,418, of which number 2,582,277 were boys and 1,480,141 girls. Special te val
schools also number 268; ordinary normal schools, 47; and these, with others of various designations, brought the total number of g pub! slic

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1901.] | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2295

schools and educational institutions up to 28,479, against 25,611 in 1893; while the total attendance was 4,183,507, against 3,459,446 in
1893, 3,055,380 in 1888, and 2,833,350 in 1887. In addition to these the universities and institutions of higher grade founded by the State
include the Imperial University of Tokyo, with 2,696 students, while there are also superior schools with an attendance of over 5,000,
schools of music, schools of art, schools for the blind and dumb, and schools for instruction in military and nayal matters. Mr. Stafford
Ransome, C. E., whose views regarding the effect of the new treaties are quoted elsewhere, discussing the educational conditions in Japan,
estimates that 61 per cent of the Japanese of school-going age were, according to the latest available information, receiving at all events
an elementary education based on modern principles,.and adds that his investigations showed that so far as the masses are concerned
education is making its most effectual progress in the quiet and outlying districts which are undisturbed by foreigners and modern
methods. ‘‘ Roughly speaking,’’ he says, ‘‘we may estimate that there are in Japan at the present day 30,000 schools of all sorts, 100,000
teachers, 500,000 graduates, 5,000,000 pupils of both sexes, and that the annual outlay in one way and another to maintain them has
reached about £1,500,000,’’ or $7,500,000.
PORTS AND TRADING CENTERS.

Naturally the principal trading centers of Japan are the treaty ports where commerce has flowed in and out and where foreign

vessels have been permitted to land and foreign merchants to do business. Especially this is true in view of the fact that the large

proportion of the foreign commerce of Japan is conducted by citizens of other countries residing in that Empire, and necessarily residing
only at the treaty ports. A table published on another page shows the amount of imports into each of the principal ports of Japan in

1900. It will be seen that the largest imports of 1900 were at Kobe and Yokohama, those at Kobe being 137,484,281 yen and those at

Yokohama 109,775,317 yen; Nagasaki being next with 15,427,338 yen, followed by Osaka with 9,741,437 yen. Of the 62,761,195 yen
imports from the United States in 1900, the value of 37,553,855 yen entered at the port of Kobe, 19,022,004 yen at Yokohama, 3,610,307
yen at Nagasaki, 368,842 yen at Hakodate, and 2,214 yen at Osaka. Yokohama still continues to be the favorite port with imports
from Great Britain, as 35,108,611 yen of the imports from Great Britain in 1900 entered at the port of Yokohama, 28,404,815 yen at
Kobe, 6,552,257°yen at Nagasaki, and 578,946 yen at Osaka. Yokohama still continues to hold the largest percentage of the German
import trade also, the imports at that port from Germany in 1900 being 15,409,225 yen; at Kobe, 12,240,284 yen; at Nagasaki, 211,323
yen, and at Osaka, 156,054 yen.

SHIPPING.

Of the 6,630 vessels entering Japanese ports in 1900, 2,685 were foreign steamships, 2,645 Japanese steamships, 1,172 Japanese
sailing ships and junks, and 128 foreign sailing ships. Of the 9,825,622 tonnage of the vessels so entering, 6,243,095 tons were foreign
steamships. Of the total foreign ships entering the ports in 1900, 1,590 ships, of 3,819,804 tons, were British; 411, of 1,068,914 tons,
German; 163, of 340,032 tons, American, and 137, of 297,801 tons, French. Of the total shipping in 1900, 1,075 vessels, of 1,974,428 tons,
entered Nagasaki; 766 vessels, of 1,850,043 tons, entered Yokohama, and 1,361 vessels, of 2,816,949 tons, entered Kobe. In 1898 the
merchant navy of Japan consisted of 1,130 steamers of European type, having a total tonnage of 447,430 tons; 1,914 sailing vessels of
European type, of 170,894 tons, and 19,097 Japanese craft above—‘‘koku’’ each, of 3,320,284 koku (koku equals 180.4 liters).

CHANGES IN VALUE OF THE STANDARD OF THE CURRENCY.

In closing this discussion it is proper to call attention to the fact that the value of the yen, in which all statements of the value of
imports and exports of Japan are made, has fluctuated with the value of silver during the years under discussion, prior to the date at
which the gold standard was adopted, and that this fact should be borne in mind in considering the statements of imports and exports.
The following gives the value of the yen in United States money on January 1 of each year from 1885 to 1899, as shown by the Annual
Report of the Director of the Mint:

Value of yen on January 1, 1885, in United States money, 85.8 cents; 1890, 75.2 cents; 1891, 83.1 cents; 1892, 74.5 cents; 1893, 66.1
cents; 1894, 55.6 cents; 1895, 49.1 cents; 1896, 52.9 cents; 1897, 51.1 cents; since 1898, 49.8 cents.

Monme=27.0067 grains troy. Picul=1334 pounds avoirdupois, catty=1} pounds, tael=14 ounces,

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCE IN JAPAN, AND ITS EFFECT ON CIVILIZATION
IN THAT COUNTRY.

By Conn Surrasv, A. M.
(A native of Japan).

INTRODUCTORY,

The first glance we cast upon the history of nations enables us to perceive an incontestable fact, that civilization representing the
highest degree of culture attained by man at different periods does not continue in the same places, but passes from one country to
another, from one continent to another, following a certain order. Man can not struggle at once against human oppression and the

_ hindering and destructive forces of inorganic nature. It would hence seem that the physical adaptation of different portions of the earth
to the use and enjoyment of man is a matter so strictly belonging to mightier than human powers that we must accept geographical
nature as we find her, and be content with such soils and such skies as she spontaneously offers. Nature and history, the earth and
man, stand in the closest relations to each other, and form only one grand harmony. Thus it is apparent that civilization arose in fertile
lands and then spread abroad. But it is certain that man has reacted upon organic and inorganic nature, and thereby modified, if not
determined, the material structure of his earthly home. ~ That early civilization in which the food question played so important a part
was wonderful. There must always be some commerce, some intercourse, means are continually to be sought. Valleys and islands had
every condition favorable to the growth of civilization. Egypt had, by the aid of nature, a rich soil on which the overflowing river
spread every year a fruitful loam, where the plow is almost useless; an equable, warm climate, securing to the inhabitants of these
fortunate regions plentiful harvests in return for light labor—the most favored spot for early civilization. Being completely protected
from enemies, by her isolation, she produced wonderfully, and was well situated to maintain a high civilization. Phoenicia formed an
early civilization of the races of two continents mingled, and also by the aid of nature, with the facility of coast line, she became the
great commercial nation of the world. Her sails dotted the entire Mediterranean Sea, her colonies were on its coust, and from her
trading posts radiated long routes of land travel, by which articles were conveyed from the interior of the continents to the seaboard.
She was the common carrier of the world. The civilization of the above two countries, the one a fertile valley, the other a favorable
coast line, influenced the entire Mediterranean region, Carthage and Greece, and Rome and Spain. Greece was once quite densely
populated and most highly civilized. Her islands were closely connected to the mainland and had safe. harbors within them. She
extended her civilization by colonies and conquest. Greece drove the Phcenician from the seas and succeeded to their commerce.
Europe is complicated in its geographical structure, linking together various natural features, a vast number of valleys, rivers,
harbors, and islands, terminating in peninsulas. The Roman Empire, succeeding Greece, spread its power into further territory.
Then civilization passed to Spain and Gaul, and even Britain. Each of these early civilizations was in turn either overthrown by
enemies and surrendered to hopeless desolation, or was at least greatly reduced in its material productiveness and population, especially
incommerce. Civilization flowed into the interior of the European continent by way of the Danube, through Bavaria and Bohemia to
the Carpathian Mountains, and over a plain of thousands of square miles, including Hungary, Bosnia, and Servia, to the “ Iron Gate.”
The decay of these once flourishing countries is partly due to that class of geographical causes whose action we can neither resist nor
eek and Lott also to the direct violence of hostile human force. But it is, in a far greater degree, either the result of man’s ignorant
isregard of the laws of nature, or an incidental consequence of civil war and ecclesiastical tyranny and misrule. Thus, for an early
civilization, there must be protection against natural forces and barbarians. Agriculture is the basis of civilization, cultivation of soil
permits a dense population. But just as no civilization comes without food, so it does not come without commerce. Forests and moun-
tains prevent invasion of enemies, by hindering theirapproach. Early civilization was an exchange of products between forest countries
and those having a dry climate, as in the western part of Asia; between those with fertile region, where food could be derived and the
more distant and inhospitable regions. In all cases variety of products and available water courses were a necessity. The polar region
can never hope to be occupied by man. The Eskimos live in little rooms with no considerable property; in such conditions there is
no hope of civilization. Even inthe United States there was not suitable food for a large population and for domestic animals, and no
advanced: civilization till after the soil had been cleared and several crops had been produced; then came the foundation—sufficient
food for a civilization. Wherever population has not grown it is because of the food question and of domestic animals. But when rail-
roads were built and gave facilities for supplying food, civilization suddenly developed. In the earliest ages of the world Asia shone
.alone. She was at once the cradle of civilization, and of thase nations which were the only representatives of culture, and which carried
it, in their day, to the extremities of the world. Asia, its gigantic proportions, the almost infinite diversity of its soil, and its central
situation rendered it suitable to be the continent of the germ and the root of the immense tree which afterwards bore such beautiful fruit.
But Asia has yielded to Europethe scepter of civilization for two thousand years. At the present day, Europe is still unquestionably
the first of the civilized continents. North America has also entered the list and is advancing with geometrical ratio; for it has
not to recommence the work of civilization; civilization was transported thither ready-made. The three continents of the south-
ern hemisphere, Africa (except Egypt), Australasia, and South America, have not been the birthplaces of any of the great civiliza-
tions which have exercised an infiuence on the progress of the race. Japan has just been added to high modern civilization
of the European sense and is preparing herself to play a part of the first importance. The natural advantages of the Japan Islands
are immense. These islands consist of four large mountainous islands, and comprise many small ones distinguished by their
oe condition. This country has a healthy and moderate climate, fertile soil, variety of vegetable and mineral products, and natural
lities for the transportation and distribution of exchangeable commodities, advantages which are not possessed in an equal degree by
any other country in the Orient. Its productions are rice, tea, cotton, and silk, and are the great staples, furnishing the principal food,
drink, and clothing of its people. Manufactures, having the benefit of the competition of different countries in supplying raw materials,
are the chief features of the present commerce and wealth. These manifold blessings, the temperature of the air, the distribution of the
rains, relative disposition of land and water, the plenty of coast lines, the composition of soil, and the raw materials of the manufacturing
__ arts are wholly gratuitous gifts. The native products of China and Korea were naturalized in these islands, and gradually improved by
_ the art of man, while centuries of persevering labor was expelling the wild vegetation and fitting the earth for the production of a more

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2228 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Dee

_ generous growth. Early civilization was introduced from China, but now the Japanese surpass the Chinese in advancement and mere:
skill, as the world has abundantly seen. Thirty years ago the Japanese themselves thought they were far behind the Chinese. The
‘late victory and success of Japan over China, it goes without saying, was because she has a better geographical position. The question —
may arise, ‘‘How such small islands escaped the invasion of the Chinese?’”’ The answer is, Because no ancient scientist left any accurate —
maps of the coast lines and the course of voyage; and also there was a lack of ships to cross with, although the islands were well known ~
to the Chinese; and also on account of their jealousies and their perpetual wars in their own country. But the intention of invasion by ~
both countries was clear enough. The history of Japan tells us that the ancient Empress Jingo, in 200 A. D., and again Taiko, the
famous warrior and ruler in the seventeenth century, sent their armies and subjugated Korea; the latter with the hope of going into —
China. The great Mongol conquerer, Ho-oe-li, in 1281, invaded and sought to overwhelm Japan, to make a descent upon the south- —
western island, with forces numbering 100,000 men; but, fortunately for Japan, a storm dispersed his fleets. ; $ a
Interesting parallels may be drawn between the relative positions of the United Kingdom and Japan to the continents which they ~
respectively adjoin; and the resemblance of the geographical situation of the British Isles on the fringe of Europe to that of the islariie
of Japan on the extreme eastern edge of Asia is so striking as to have attracted universal attention. But Japan has a far greater range
of temperature and climatic variation than prevails in the British Isles. The great ocean currents exert their beneficial influence upon
both groups of islands, so they enjoy this most excellent gift of nature, and the greatest facility for transportation. The Japanese islands
are particularly rich in harbors, having 56 large ones; and the development of a trade in coal and silk must inevitably bring more oi them
into prominence, but the number already in constant use,'as shipping ports for local produce, has grown to be very considerable. Some
ports are already well known to the Europeans, and, whea the country is all opened to foreign trade, it is more than likely that they
may become ports of call for the mercantile fleets of the world. : i tie AF a
Thus Asia, Europe, and North America are the three grand stages in the life of humanity in its march through the ages. Asia is
the cradle where man passed his infancy; Europe is the school where his youth was trained, where he waxed in strength and knowl
grew to manhood, and learned at once his liberty and his moral responsibility; North America is the theater of his activity during th
period of manhood, the land where he applies and practices all he has learned, brings into action all the forces he has acquired, and
where he is still to gain the complete development of his being and his happiness. England in Europe, the United States in North
America, and Japan in Asia are preparing to act the parts of three sisters of the twentieth century in the development of the commerce
of the world. The recent war in China showed that Japan has a most excellent army and navy, and she has shown herself to be one of
the strong countries in the world. She has shown those forces which accompany the development of commerce, and whose civilization
increases with the increase in population and wealth. Hence, as society advances it is absolutely necessary that the facilities of
transportation and communication be also developed. Japan, in every view, has all natural advantages, and recently has been rapidly
improving in her industrial products, and can compete with the world. In order to act with credit her part with her other two sisters
in the twentieth century, she must improve more and more of her facilities of transportation, her industry, and her commerce.
Now, let us go back and trace her history and see how she has grown, and then look upon her present condition, which shows her
prosperity, and, lastly, discuss her future and how to improve it.

Chapter I.
THE HISTORY OF THE COMMERCE. | sd

ARTICLE I. PRIMITIVE AGE TO 800 A. D.

Ancient history is never trustworthy, and it is difficult to trace with accuracy the record and get results worth much. Japan, like
England, is a country surrounded by water, the coast abounds in capacious harbors, and she had navigation facilities early in her
unknown history. According to the law of geographical progress, in places where there are good facilities for navigation and an abundant
food supply, an increase of population and rapid improvement in every way and in commerce will occur. The general feature of the
country 1s long; there is one great range of mountains running through the middle, with rivers making their ways on both sides to the sea.
Population occupies the country, first along the seacoast, and thence spreads along the navigable rivers, although many of them obstruct
easy passage by their shortness and rapidity. Then it extends along the line of the highways, which were long ago necessarily opened
and improved into the interior to make transportation easier and more rapid. Pack horses and oxen were then used for transporting
goods and for traveling purposes. Stations were established at the distance of a days’ journey apart. In 313 A. D., rivers were
bridged. Not only was attention paid to improvements in inland transportation but their eyes were opened to the advantages of water
transportation. The subjugation of Korea in 200 A. D., by the Empress Jingo, is the important fact that shows their advancement in
maritime power, and it is wonderful that they crossed the sea with many thousands of warriors and with ships, and returned successfully.
Trade, or the exchange of commodities, was by barter, as is seen in other countries; a bearskin was exchanged for 60 pounds of cotton
in a trade with Korea in 650 A. D. They employed only things made by themselves, and each group or neighborhood was —
confined to its own resources. Consequently, chiefly physical strength was needed. Their dwellings were simple, built of wood;
sharpened and burnt posts were put into the earth, and the joints of the building were fastened with twine. From earliest times they
used iron utensils for various purposes, after a short stage of using stone. People were industrious, and though without scientific
knowledge, knew how to clean off the dust and perspiration of their bodies after their work by taking hotownten bation allowing good
circulation of blood. Then continental civilization came into the country and with it its religion. With increase of population in the
country they began to exchange their surplus products. Silk was known early in this period and was highly valued. Dyeing and needle
work were also known and practiced. Oil was made from the seeds of a plant and was used for lighting purposes. Their food was _
limited pretty much to rice, barley, and wheat. Birds and wild animals were food only in the hunting districts, and fish on the sea-
shore and river sides. Wines made from rice were highly appreciated by the people. Such was the state of living, and people were
quite contented with their situation. This simple and direct condition of life could not last long, and was followed by an increase
population and a struggle for means of subsistence and a better style of living.

When communities became sufficiently advanced a different state of things developed the necessity of means of exchange, division —
of labor and of regulation of peace and order, and the idea of carrying on commerce. They began to produce more than they needed
for their own requirements. The necessity of exchanging the surplus with others taught them to travel to other communities and to seek
better terms. So the peddler was known as early as 457 A.D. In 701 A. D. the systematized market was established, giving the idea of
value to things. The bill of sale was signed and sealed, either by marking with the thumb or with a stamp. Lean and borro
even interest-bearing at not over one-eighth of the principal in sixty days, and not twice in four hundred and eighty days, began P
prevail in the eighth century. Officers and priests were prohibted from lending at interest, by which they were prevented from
the money of the official treasury. The loan on crops was limited to one year for redemption. The borrower needed a guarantor, who-
was responsible to compensate the creditor if the borrower failed to return the loan, as is the case at this present time. A law of
measurement and the ratio of prices to commodities was enacted in 701 A. D. It regulated, by a central office, the prices of the whole
country, speept as large cities, where the municipal governments were already independent and separated from the central office, and
sanctioned themselves. a

Exchange of commodities with China and Korea began in 697, but was not very active, and was only in luxurious things. Kore
produced gold and silver long before Christ, but did not know how to mint or use either for ornament or means of exchange. ta 2

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2229

i va and use r orn ; e first production of silver in the country was in 675, and of gold in 749. Copper was
high] lued and used for ornament. The first product f sil tl try 675, and gold 49. Cop
produced in antiquity and used for mirrors, then iron was used for the same purpose, by polishing a side of a plate of the me tal. The

consequently exchangeable goods were not in great quantity, and the transaction of business was so small and of so little value that the

little finger, and for quantity a handful, and for broadness the width of shoulders of a man. As early as 250 A. D., lineal measure was
applied, for they paid great attention to building, which necessitated a fixed measurement. In 690 the Government sent a messenger to

The development of the mechanical industry of the country largely depended upon religious believers and upon the wars of the
country. Engraving was encouraged by the making of idols of Buddha, and fine fighting weapons of iron were in great demand by the
warriors. These arts gave the people great skill in hand work, although their scope of working was very small and they used rude and
simple instruments pertaining to individual hand work. Skill in work was considered the treasury of the family or house, and was
inherited by the descendants. Most of the industries of the country originated in China and Korea—there were very few original ones.
Silk-spinning instruments (nct machine at this time) were introduced from Chinain about 215. In 540 Korea presented a gift of leather
clothing to our country, and since then people have used it for general wear.

Earthenware was used already in 29 B. C., said to have been introduced from Korea. Black japan ware was used in 71 A. D., and
in 673 red ware was added. Glass plate and balls existed in 697. engraving was the wonder of those ages, and, under the influence of
Buddhism, the making of idols for worship, and they paid special attention to making fine ones. In those times communication with
China was only for the purpose of getting their manners and customs, or rather continental civilization, and trade was not in view,
although they did trade in luxuries and a few other things. Chinese literature was brought in and influenced many officials, as no one
could get official position unless he knew something of this literature.

ARTICLE II. 800-1540.

In 805 the Emperor made his permanent residence in Kioto, which continued, reign after reign, until the present Emperor remoyed
to Tokyo, in 1868. As Kioto became the capital of Japan everything concentrated there, and it became the center of the commerce and
finance of the country. Prior to this there was no fixed place for commerce; but only those ports where transportation facilities existed
were doing business gathered from neighboring places. The country was not well settled; fighting occurred among the lords, and battles
took place almost everywhere in the country in order to extend their own territories by defeating the weak and striving for power;
disorder and conflict prevailed everywhere. Thus commerce and trade were neglected. But those ports to which neighboring towns
brought their products which they could not take into the interior, and which were deposited with the wholesale merchants to be
protected by guards, made great profits. Then the bill of exchange began to exist for the benefit of producers.

In a few reigns after the removal of the Emperor’s seat to Kioto the central government lost its power; it went into the hands

of the normally appointed yet actually self-imposed ruler, who was the most famous warrior of that time, having defeated all others.
He issued laws as he pleased, but for the benefit of the people at this time. In transacting business the price of goods was fixed in
order to prevent unjust dealing and the cheating of the people; and where there was scarcity of money, rice was used as.a medium
of exchange. The transfer of real estate was licensed and guaranteed and needed the agreement of both partics. In 960 lead was
"minted for money. While the country was in disorder and war prevailed, minting operations were neglected, and Chinese money
was found in circulation. The roads were opened and improved merely for facility in transporting troops, and this was a great benefit
to foot travelers; and the planting of trees on both sides of the road gave shelter. But the inconveniences can be easily imagined, for
it is said that they made bundles of grass for their pillows and passed the night under the trees. Interstate communication was almost
undeveloped, goods being carried on the shoulders of man. Communication with China and Korea was also destroyed, with the exception
of some private transactions. Many pirates along the coasts were very powerful, and boarded the ships and robbed them of their cargoes.
Therefore transportation on water almost ceased. Only the officers of the ruler were very luxurious after great victories, and so some
ornamental articles were brought into trade. All industries for a long time were almost annihilated by internal troubles, except the
art of making armor, especially swords, and this produced many noted armorers. Lacquer and japan ware were used for their ornaments
and the arts were improved. Engraving and painting, on the other hand, were improved by the influence of Buddhism. The paper
industry, which was introduced from Korea, was considerably improved for the use of painting and printing. Printing originated in
1171 and gave great benefit to the people, and the constitution of the country was for the first time printed in this reign.
In 1170 the Government collected money or compulsory labor for the purpose of building dikes, which should protect from high
waves and also from the invasion of enemies. This somewhat improved the ports and facilitated water transportation. In 1200, for the
purpose of repairing a temple, priests and their believers collected money by borrowing, with a certain payment of interest. This is
the origin of the bond. In 1250 loaning without pledge was prohibited, and the result was that burglars brought stolen things to loan
offices for pledges, and lawsuits occurred occasionally in this case, consequently they began to write the name and residence of the
ledger for the contract. Real estate can not be pledged for more than twenty years. The ruler established his own court, separate
rom the Emperor’s court, in the best naturally fortified place, which made a second large concentrated place, and communication with
the capital began. The road between the Emperor’s court and the ruler’s was improved, and towns sprung up and prospered. The
country was in good order and peace under this ruler, and people sang for joy, being tired of massacre and robbery for awhile. In
May, 1281, a great invasion of 100,000 armed troops, with 4,000 war vessels from China, was reported. They landed on a small island,
but the people fought well, and a storm broke the enemy’s ships into pieces. This great event was a good lesson to the Japanese, and
they began to pay attention to shipbuilding. Japan now became a power on the sea; still the people were afraid of the revenge of
China, and prepared for it. Since then trade with China was entirely checked until 1842, though many private vessels sailed to China
and acted as pirates. They all feared our pirates so much that the seacoast of China was deserted. Meanwhile they sent an embassy
demanding the opening of intercourse, but as internal war was again raging in Japan it was not complied with, But trade with Korea
was considerably active, and in 1466 there was more than 120 vessels floating on this route, and more than 45 houses and 1,650 Japanese
immigrants were found in Korea, From these the improvement of our navigation and our earnestness in business can be judged.

At about 1470 the ruler’s power was weakened, naturally resuliing irom his luxury and extravagance, while the empire was
divided up, and several lords were governing their own small provinces, overpowering the weak, issuing their own laws, and charging
tolls on travelers for their revenue. These lords prohibited their subjects from selling their tenancies, and persecuted both parties if
they violated the law. The law was so strict that subjects also began to leave off trading. This leaving off of trade became a custom
- for a long time to the subjects; thus the economic idea was neglected. During these times there was no fixed price of goods; transactions
in generally useful things were made by mutual exchange. But the wholesale merchant in the ports and cities, where the powerful

lords had their residences, made a good deal of profit. Trade-marks or store marks began to exist by this time for giving sign to the
_ guards by which these houses were protected. The great inconvenience of travel made it necessary to set up milestones in every 24
miles, and the lords gave warning not to travel after dark. During this period of disorder of the country people could not produce
ugh supplies, consequently Chinese goods were brought in by messengers, sent by the lords, for their own use. Drugs, dyeing

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2230 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

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materials, brocade, embroideries, and other articles of clothing were imported, and exchanged for sealskin, sulphur, lacquer

ld, and co per. The prices were enormous, and the profits were accordingly great. But international trade aap unopened. y
fhe end of this period people again began to give attention to literature, but the priests were the only instructors. Chinese and Kor
bronze money were in circulation again, and smuggling and counterfeiting prevailed all over the country. Interest on loans ran from
to 7 per cent, limiting their redemption to twenty years, doubling the amount in ten and three times in twenty years. If overdue, ai
mc borrower, three times the pledge would be forfeited by the action of law. A _son was responsible for his father’sdebt. A
about 1521 the first silver mines in the country were opened, and many utensils were made of silver, and coins were minted s.
Tron and brass were minted for a one-tenth of a sen (perhaps this was the unit of value at this time, 1535); but on account of their
inconyenience and because they were not made of good metal for circulation their use ceased. :

ARTICLE Ill. 1540-1636. BEGINNING OF FOREIGN TRADE.

After the long war panic of the country was over trade with China and Korea was reopened. With the reaction of the long
interruption the trade was enormous, as one can never imagine. Of course there was no statistics taken, but it is said that more than
2,000 Chinese merchant vessels came yearly to Japan, and mostly silk was brought. Prior to this the Japan Islands were made known
to European nations by an Italian, who lived long years in China, and was doing business in trade at about 1280. The first navigation
line from Europe to Japan was established in 1541 by three Portuguese merchants, who sailed for China from Siam, whose vessel was
wrecked and was saved by two Japanese vessels, which met them on their way to China. In August, 1543, more than a hundred
Portugese merchants came to Japan, a Chinese acting as their interpreter by writing on the sands, and opened intercourse with our
country. They traded in woolen goods, leather, and silk clothing, with gold, silver, and copper. Rifles were first introduced into the
country at this time. This trade with Portugal was the first of our trade with European countries. In 1549, a young Japanese murdered
his friend, and ran away to Portugal, and told them about the prosperity of Japan and the possibility of spreading Christianity, Next
year many Catholic priests arrived in Japan. In 1548 Spain came ‘hext to the Portuguese, en route from the Philippines to Mexico, and
stopped to secure a food supply. The country allowed them to trade only at Nagasaki, a southern port of the country. The field gun
was introduced by the Portuguese in 1570. In 1592 cotton cloths were imported from China and took the place of silk, which was imported
by the Portuguese merchants, but people never used it, so it remained useless in store. gin

Prior to this, Buddhism spread all over the country, and was powerful, consequently the ruler allowed Christianity to counteract
the power of Buddhism; but afterwards he regretted this, because the new religious believers got the same power as Buddhists, and a
few years later he persecuted thousands of Catholic believers. By this time the navigation of the country was considerably improved,
and many vessels were sent to other countries for commercial purposes. As the Catholics got power, one of the lords earnestly believed
and sent messengers to Rome to pay his respects to the Pope in 1583, being the first message to European countries. They sailed
through the Indian Ocean, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, along the western coast of Africa, arriving at Lisbon, Portugal; Madrid,
Spain; then crossing the Mediterranean Sea they arrived at Rome, having sailed 7,000 miles in nearly three years. They came back in
1591. They were entertained and welcomed whereyer they stopped, and brought back some knowledge of European civilization. Other
lords followed him in 1585, 1587, 1591, respectively. Of course, these voyages were made in consequence of their earnestness of religious
belief, but one can easily imagine how hard it was, how brave they were, and how they were interested in the improvements of
navigation, sailing in such small, imperfect, and unscientific sailing boats, without full-knowledge of the ocean route. This great
experience helped the knowledge of navigation in Japan. ;

In 1601 the Holland Dutch came, and from 1609 they began their trade by the name of the Dutch East India Company, which
gave itself out as an agent of the King of Holland, on behalf of commerce. Rigas Se .

Tobacco was brought in 1605, and the Government considered it luxurious and useless, and ee its imports in 1609; but the
people planted it in their own gardens, and used it secretly, so the Government was obliged to change the law. ‘Then the product was
greatly increased. In 1596 printed books were introduced from China, and soon afterward, about 1610, people used copper for printing.
After prohibiting the circulation of Chinese copper money in 1604, the country minted gold in large plate, and silver and copper for
fractional coin. Lead was once coined, but the people suffered by counterfeiting. e

The communication with the Philippine Islands, Annam, Siam, and India began before 1500, and there were more than five
hundred Japanese emigrants living near ahcab Manila and thousands in Siam. But the natives were afraid of the Japanese, and never
had close communication with them. For a short while the Philippine Islands were under the control of Japan. Japan advanced the
trade with those southern islands, and encouraged the building of ships large enough to carry crews of 300 men, haying guns
and weapons against ag Their trade was copper, lacquered wares, umbrellas, fans, screens, sulphur, camphor, cloths, and wheat,
with which they purchased from these islands onions, silk, rugs, sugar, and woods.

In 1600 William Adams, of England, was wrecked in the Pacific Ocean and arrived at Japan. He became naturalized
being the first naturalization of a foreigner in the country. In April, 1611, ve John Davis was sent by King James I, arriving in
Japan in 1613. Heconsulted Adams about trade, and began the English trade; but there were Spanish and Portuguese already in active
business and the English could not compete with them, and finally left the country in 1623. In September, 1611, the world atlas was first
introduced into the country, and people learned that there were three other large continents beside Asia, and they resolyed to open
communication and trade on a grand scale. Two schooners of foreign styles, of 80 and 120 tons, respectively, were built by the design
and assistance of William Adams, and were sent to Mexico to trade. This route has been kept open eversince. This is the first opening
of the Pacifie Ocean to North America, being only eighty years after Columbus discovered America. This progress in navigation was
the pride of the country. There were 198 trading ships licensed during 1605-1618, trading with 20 different countries. ere were
over 1,000,000 emigrants found in Annam, Siam, and Philippine Islands, establishing villages there, and they brought back some useful
things. While European trade excited such great interest in the people, that with China was somewhat neglected, or rather prohibited.
But the people, who gained pone in trade with China would not give it up, and over 300 were peer pest + to death and 300 intermarried
persons were driyen out of the country for violating the laws. In these days the quotation of gold and silver was 1 to 10 or about so,
while in Europe it was 1 to 15 or 16, and European trade gained a large premium in exchanging goods for gold. It is no wonder
many foreign merchants came to the country to trade, even though transportation was conducted under great difficulties. During this
period the ‘‘Refined Bohemianism’’ prevailed in the country, and the ‘tea ceremony’’ was one of their fashions. For this reason
planting of tea began in many places. The colored porcelain which was introduced from China for the use of the ceremony began to be
useful, and soon afterwards it was exported to China.

The difference of the characters of foreigners necessitated their having different ports for their trading places; consequently the
country opened several ports along the southern coast, which naturally improved, aceording to their business activity, and some
them remain very important ports of the country. The first navigation law had regard to the captain and the consignor to and
was issued because the art of the building of ships had so progressed and navigation was so improved that such a law was n ed.

As Christianity spread over the country and gained influence over citizens, the officers in the Government began to suspect the
action of the Christians. A suspicion of their motives was aroused by the remarks of the captain of a Spanish yessel, who said ““We got
Mexico and Peru by sending Catholic priests first, and letting them report the manners and customs of the se and then we sentan —
army and took thei by foree.’’ Consequently, in 1636, the Government prohibited this religion, together with traders, to come to the
country. The communication and trade with Spain and Portugal, which were very active, were abeotabely abolished. land
also included in this list, for she had an intimate intercourse with Spain. But Holland, who was jealous of Spanish and tuguese —
merchants, and never mixed religion and trade, alone took their places. The trade with China acute very active n. By this
religious prohibition the interest in navigation suddenly collapsed. ‘The Government being yet afraid of foreign religious influence over
the people, andon account of the enormous exports of gold, issued the most conservative law of “the closed door,”’ shutting up the ports,
confiscating all ships large enough to cross the sea, and prohibiting shipbuilding. Even Holland and China were allowed to tr le in

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COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2231

only one port, and the Government levied a tax on all imported commodities; 60 per cent on Chinese, and 15 per cent on the Dutch
Company, and 65 per cent on individual trade; this at one time raised $500,000 yearly revenue. This is the origin of our customs tariff.

During this period of communication with foreign countries the industry of the country improved wonderfully, and produced
many noted men in all lines. Japanese products were exported to the continent of Europe for ornamental purposes, as Oriental
curiosities, but not for general use. The art of engraving alone lagged behind because of the spread of Christianity, which was opposed
to Buddhistic ornamentation. During this period the commerce of the country developed the most that the country had ever seen,
and foreign trade was carried on with all parts of the world.

ARTICLE IV. A. 1636-1868; FROM THE “CLOSED DOOR” TO THE REVOLUTION.

While Japan was in restriction of communication with foreign countries she improved her facilities of land transportation. The
origin of the mail system began by a private messenger between Osaka and Yedo, to which latter place the ruler removed in 1606, and
the concentration of people there made everything improve. At this time the people were advocating what was really the Physiocrat
doctrine, and rice was considered the source of the wealth of the country, and prosperity depended upon the production of it. Prior to
this period literature, art, jurisprudence, and religion had greatly improved, but the economic idea was not yet aroused. As the ruler of
this time was fond of reading books, his subjects followed him, and they began to pay attention to economic views, and economic subjects
were greatly discussed among learned men. But they were never interested in navigation, and they thought it ridiculous to discuss
foreign tradeandcommunication. This wealth-producing rice was brought fromall parts of the country into Osaka, where the water facility
for transportation was developed, being near to the capital. The.lords also sent their products to this city, building storehouses, selling
: in the market, preventing the monopoly of the wholesalers and giving the benefit to the consumers. The quotation of rice was reported
S by flags, and torches in night, to distant places. People concentrated at Osaka, improved the streets, facilitated commerce by building

: canals, so commerce became prosperous. In consequence of the increase of population in this city, the muncipality now developed into
full power. For convenience of market, almost all products were sent to this city and then distributed to other parts of the country. In
payment they brought back useful things, and for any balance they received credit in the market on which they could draw drafts in case

aka of necessity. The Government also helped the circulation of money by lending in the-market without interest. Osaka became the
S center of commerce and finance of the country. There was a money exchange market and drafts could be easily cashed. In 1637 the
___~ Government enacted a law for bills and notes, which were in private use before this time. They were made by farmers. On these they
ae wrote the measure of silver that was equivalent to the goods exchanged. These were signed by a rich neighbor, made payable to bearer,
. and indorsed by the last payee only; because of the danger of carrying bulky money. a fe appreciated this convenience. Draits,

a notes payable on demand or on sight, depository notes, bills of exchange, notes of the exchange ofiice, bills of storage of sugar and rice,

a etc., were in circulation, limited for three years. The house tax began in 1636, levied according to the width of the front of the house,
for the purpose of improvement of the streets and roads.

_ After the prohibition law of 1636 and the Christian riot in 1637, trade with Holland and China became less active than before. The
Government limited their trade, reducing their number of trading ships year after year, until only one ship for Holland and ten ships for
China yearly, were allowed in 1790. Their trading goods were silk, woolen cloths, lumber, buffalo bone, leather, candle, sugar, camphor,
coral, musk, perfume, glass, and dyeing materials from Holland; sugar, matches, ivory, buttons, lead, mercury, wood, porcelain, camphor,
rugs, medicine, calico, turtle shell, silk, brocade, crepon, wool, brushes, fans, umbrellas, ink paintings, coral, playthings, cloths, leather,
matting, etc., from China; and in payment, copper, porcelain, embroidery, lacquer wares, umbrellas, screens, dried fish, oil papers, rice wine,
sauce, tobacco, tea, etc., to Holland; and dried fish, copper, rice, etc., to China, were exported. The export of silk, cotton, hemp, silver, and

a weapons to other countries were prohibited.

= It is worth while to study the development of the mail system of this time. At first private messengers of the lords reported to
ce their produce dealers in Osaka after the ruler had removed to Tokyo (Yedo); afterwards the merchants began to send their private
messengers between the two cities. In 1663 only one person served as a messenger for public purposes, and he made the round trip only
three times every month. In 1672 money was sent by the messenger’s company, six members being incorporated for this business. As
commerce increased between the two cities, people began to urge the importance of faster communication, then horses came into use and
the number of messengers was increased, and a great improvement was made in 1740. In the same year communication by public
messenger was made with other important places. Then parcels were also sent by the messengers, and in 1747 bills of lading, bills of
exchange, and insurance for transferred goods began to be used. By doing this the corporation made considerable profit and the
Government levied a tax of 50 yena year since 1781. The charge of the messages differed according to the speed. The distance between
Osaka and Tokyo is 356 miles; the charges-were as follows:

In six days |In twenty days
(pounds of sil- | (pounds of sil-| Three and one-half days.

ver). ver).
Pa SOR bee A oe OP aa ee 1/60 1/400) :
Bo DERES! HOLS WOMIUGS < oo... ean caine wie onsen 1/6 1/12 By special agreement.
Gold coin per 100 pieces ............- ee 55/120 11/120 |J

Thus, transportation facilities were opened to all parts of the country and the rate reduced yearafter year. But there was no regular
system until the Government established the post-office in 1871, when necessitated to do so by the importance of communication.

In 1688 a gold coin was minted, having its fineness 86 per cent of gold and 14 per cent of silver, weighing 15.39 grains, and sold at
40 shillings. It was amended to 9 grains of 57 per cent of gold in the nineteenth century. Schools and libraries were established in 1697,
and were greatly encouraged by the ruler, who was much interested in reading. <A series of books of 635 volumes was published at this
time.

As the Shogun made his permanent residence in Tokyo, this obliged all lords to live there at least three months in the year. The
streets were improved, a great many people concentrated in that city, and it soon surpassed Osaka. The commerce of the country divided
among three cities—Osaka, representing the center of commerce; Kioto, representing the capital; Tokyo, the largest city in the country.
A market for rice and other products was opened also in Tokyo, and it gathered all the products of the north, and competition with
the southern products arose. aah! i ; 7
og During 1764-1805, the silk industry was revived and enough was produced in sixteen different provinces to meet the internal demand,
-__ and therefore the importation was naturally decreased. In 1764 colors were added to printing papers and used for the illustration on
‘novels; this colored printing is at present highly valued in Europe and America. ,
=. In 1842 the harvest was comparatively small and prices rose, so the Government issued a law that wholesale and retail trade must
a be carried on at the former wholesale stores, and its ratio was given; rice being limited as to price other necessary things were equalized

___ thereto. Commission sale and bailment were known at this time. The interest on loans was fixed at 15 per cent in 1848, but this
dered business and it was obliged to be given up. The idea of saving was advised by the Government. The former common market
s changed, and a rice and stock exchange system took its place. ] ; eh ;

Bncland. having lost America, began to pay attention to Oriental countries, and tried often to open communication with Japan, but
in, spending over $200,000. In August, 1803, she sent a squadron to Japan, asking, or rather, demanding the opening oi the country.
ember of the same year, Russia sent her messenger for the same purpose. From this time on the people began to discuss the
m of foreign communication. European countries were much interested in Japan, and began their race to conclude treaties of
i ip, and to open communication; the Dutch in 1845, the United States in June, 1852; Russia the same year; the Dutch

sf = ; : : ' . We , : 4 j Gor ae

2232 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. an

. ¥
ae { . S ; °

in in 1853 sent their squadrons and messengers. Their actions were haughty, the officers and crews showed very disgraceful mai
Satis cattle and food, ana firing houses, as they did in China recently. The people feared subjugation by an alliance with
foreigners, and the Government, the people, and the country as a whole, were busy in preparing to fight against them, and they g 12
all their ports. Prices of food and weapons of war went very high, while other goods were driven off from the market, the stock and
rice exchange was closed, and the country lost its internal commerce. In 1854 the United States sent General Perry urging the opening ~
of friendly intercourse. These Americans were, unlike the others, very kind and friendly, so people respected them and treated them
very nicely. Thereupon in September, the Government ceased its conservative policy, and awoke from along dream of two hundred —
years. This policy had restricted foreign trade by narrow legislation, and was inclined to look fpon the foreign merchant as an enemy,
and to forbid the export of money and to prohibit the import of manufactured commodities. While European countries were impro s
by the invention of labor-saving machines and utilities in everything, Japan lagged behind. Now, people began to pay attention to :
navigation, and light-houses were erected and gave great benefit to commerce. In 1853 tea was for the first time sent abroad, to Europe +
and the United States by samples, then exported on an order from England. ‘The exportation of tea increased year after year, and
became one of the most important articles of export of the country. Lead was used for the first time for printing in 1854. Then books,
newspapers, and pictures were printed and gave great help to the public. ; r ;

In July, 1858, the Government concluded a temporary treaty with the United States—then with Russia, England, France, and
Holland—to open five ports, one in the south, two at the middle part facing on the Pacific Ocean, one facing the Japan Sea, and one in
the north, of which the ports of Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Hakodate opened in October, 1865, and Kobe, in May, 1863. Then amend-
ment and addition were made in the treaty, and it was concluded with other countries. Thereby the commerce of the country was
rapidly increased and developed, and raw silk and other articles were exported to Europe and America. At this time the mercantile
doctrine began to prevail in the country. The attention of the ge was turned to foreign communication; European science and arts
began to be diffused. In July, 1861, Holland made a present of a man-of-war to Japan and advised a naval system, which advice the
country followed two years later and employed Holland professors and oflicers to teach in the navy. Many large vessels were built and
the Government owned 44 and the lords owned 94 vessels at the close of the feudal system. But there were still many high officialsand
people who believed a short-sighted policy would be better for the country, and in 1863 the English legation was attacked by mobs and
two officials were killed. Trouble between the people of Japan and the people of European countries happened oftentimes. ~

The first embassy to foreign countries was sent to the United States in January, 1860, and then to other countries. In 1864 the
Government built a dock, iron factory, and shipyard, spending $2,400,000. This was the first time that many laborers were employed
in a large factory using labor-saving machines. The dock remains one of the best in the Orient. Industries, manufactures, and every-
thing were improved. In 1864 an embassy was sent to France, which was shown many things of European civilization, and brought
home new knowledge of their manners and customs, science and arts, which gave great satisfaction to the people. _ ‘

As a natural result of the opening of ports and of free trade, European civilization came into the country and gained many admirers
of mathematics, the new calendar, the use of guns, and photography; and later on people began to read and to translate books and to
study medicine, physiology, electricity, printing, ete. ; ;

Mining during this period was very active and prosperous. Copper was produced in all parts of the country, 200,000 pounds every
year, even as early as 1700. Gold was produced much in 1711, but the ratio of gold to silver varied from 1 to 4 to 1 to 12, while European
countries varied from 1 to 14.83 to 1 to 16.17 during 1687-1874. Then, of course, Gresham’s law acted most vigorously, and exportation
of gold took place:

2 1644-1738, gold was exported more than 300,000 pounds; 1709-1858, $17,000,000; 1858-1872, $14,000,000.

Norre.—Aggregate amount of export of gold in three hundred and thirty years, between 1532-1872 was $642,000,000, and if accurate
calculation was made until the present day there must have been over $1,000,000,000 worth of gold taken out of the country, while
its production was in two hundred and seventy-six years, between 1592-1865, 1,230,348 ounces, or $62,000,000; total coinage issued
284,782,821 yen during 1870-1897.

Thus, silver coin alone was left in circulation. A French atlas of 1700 figured out that ‘‘Japan was the most fertile and gold
producing country in the world.’’ Coal was said to have been mined and known as a “‘ burning stone,’’ and used for fuel, but it was not
generally used till after the American vessels visited the country. Since 1854 the Government has encouraged the production of this
most useful fuel. With the introduction of dynamite in 1861 mining made a great advancement, by using it for breaking rocks and
stones.

B. 1868 TO PRESENT TIME.

Tn 1868 occurred the greatest event in the history of Japan. The lords magnanimously surrendered their principalities to the
‘mperor, and their voluntary action was accepted, and the administrative power returned to the Emperor, having been in the hands of
rulers for about seven hundred years. Then the feudalsystem was completely abolished. All kinds of monopolies and business privil
which the lords held ceased to exist. This revolution was the victory of European civilization over conservative feudalism, and
admirers of the Western civilization gained the majority in the Government. They sent messengers and scholars to those countries for the
purpose of observing and examining their social, political, and industrial systems, with a view to transplanting to their own country
whatever seemed most applicable. The first thing done was to issue full credit paper money, as a natural result of the scarcity of coin;
this helped the eredit of the Government. The germs of many new things were introduced and civilization began to shine all through
the country. Cotton spinning machines were imported from France, and astonished thousands who were spinning with small insignificant
machines worked by hands.

The Imperial Court removed from Kioto to Tokyo, for His Majesty’s permanent residence. Then Tokyo became the commercial
center of the country, while Osaka took long strides in industrial developments. Here was located the Government mint in 1868; brush,
pepe napkin, cotton spinning, and several other manufacturing enterprises, and a brewery conducted on a large scale; and Osaka has
yecome a manufacturing city of great importance. It has ample transportation facilities either by river, canal, sea, or railroad, which
haye done great work in developing the city.

In 1869 light-houses of foreign styles were built and greatly helped navigation. Next year the Government adopted the German
army system and compulsory recruiting took place. Horse carriages and coolie carriages began to run on the streets, giving quick and
easy street passage. In 1871 the American monetary decimal system was adopted. On account of the growth of wealth and population,
resulting from active trade and transportation facilities, round gold coin aoe to be minted for convenience of circulation. This coin
being the latest improvement for foreign exchange, the yen was made standard or unit; its fineness and weight were fixed. The
post-office and the telegraph office were established. The people admired these new establishments and new things, and a craze for
civilization arose. The first proposal to compile a commercial code was made in 1870. The Government issued a law that people should
not wear swords, which it had been the custom to do from time immemorial. My late father once petitioned the Government,
ago, to do away with this custom, but his request was rejected and he was laughed at. By this law the disputacious character of the
people was softened to friendship. In 1872 a large printing press for newspapers was introduced and the people began to learn of the —
world’s enterprises; this was a great benefit and help to the progress of the country in civilization. : aa

The American national-bank system was introduced, but with no success, because notes were issued only on 60 per cent of the —
capital, with Government bonds for security. In 1876 this act was amended and the bank note was made a legal tender for all payments, —
except for the payment of custom duty and interest on Government bonds. It was convertible into Government money, ond aad issue
of 80 per cent of the capital was allowed to be issued. Under this favorable condition 153 banks were organized during 1876-1879, with
a capital of 48,816,100 yen. The first steam-railroad construction was completed in February, 1872, between Tokyo and Yokohama,
about 18 miles, and began its operation in September in the same year, under the Government control. This was a sudden break of the
people’s dream of ages, and their admiration of foreign civilization became greater and greater, although day laborers feared to lose
their work, as other countries had done, with the invention of labor-savying machines. Gaslight now put away the dark, dim lig
crude kerosene and seed oil, and the terrible fires caused by the upsetting of lamps decreased. The European calendar began to b

A

a.

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2233

from this time. A stamp tax on the license permitting the transfer of property, etc., began to be used, bringing a good revenue and yet
reducing the expense of the Government by leaving out revenue officers. The world’s fair took place at Vienna in 1873, and the
Government sent delegates. After the exposition European goods became more and more welcomed, and imitations of those European
articles were manufactured in all parts of the country. This gave great advancement to the industry of the country. In 1874 the
Government entered into the Universal Postal and Telegraph Convention. In 1877 the internal exposition took place and gave
encouragement and improvement for both export and import articles. In 1881 the Specie Bank, with a capital of 6,000,000 yen, was
chartered for the purpose of foreign exchange, to afford facilities to foreign trade in the direct exportation of several exporting firms.
It was the prevalent desire to improve, develop, and protect the home manufactures and products and to check importation. By this
time communication with western countries was very intimate and trade became very prosperous. In 1882 the Bank of Japan was
established with a paid-up capital of 10,000,000 yen (one-half of its capital), having the privilege of a legal limit to issue 75,000,000 yen
~ on Government bonds, treasury notes, and other reliable bonds for security. When the bank deems it necessary to increase the amount
it may issue notes binding itself to pay a tax of not less than 5 per cent on the issue, according to the condition of the money marke
with the consent of the secretary of treasury, thus giving a monetary elasticity as in Germany. This legal limit was amended and
increased to 85,000,000 yen, and in 1897 increased again to 120,000,000 yen, with the increase of paid-up capital to 30,000,000 yen in!

The Bank of Japan, as the central bank of the country, is the organ of financial administration; it displaces the inflated currency that

was inuse. It gives a smooth circulation, increases capital available for trade and industry, discounts bills, and transfers Government
bonds, as the Bank of England does. Its issue department is separated from its business department. Since 1889 treasury notes have
been handed over to the bank, and the national banking’system was so amended that only the Bank of Japan could issue notes.

Prior to 1872 there was no incorporated navigation company in the country, though in January, 1870, an express company ran its
business by steamships, but failed ina year. Hence, in September, 1875, the Mitsubishi Navigation Company was founded, receiving a
subsidy of 250,000 yen a year from the Government for mail service and general transportation. Later on it became the most powerful
company on the water, having contracted to help in case of an emergency of the country, and it greatly assisted in the transporting of troops

and their supplies in 1874, 1877, etc., when the rebellions took place. About 1882 many worghipers of Western ideas advocated the
parliamentary system of government for the better development of the country, and in 1883 the first political party was organized. In

1884 a telegraph line was laid on the bottom of the sea between Korea and Japan. In 1885 a patent law was enacted, and gave privileges
and advantages to inventors. In 1885 the Mitsubishi Navigation Company was consolidated with a rival company, which was established
in 1884 with the same privilege and subsidy from the Government, and named The Japan Mail Steamship Company, with 12,200,000
yen of capital. Seventy-six vessels, of 59,870 tons, belonged to this company, and its navigation (over a course of 2,949 miles) extended
irom Yokohama to Shanghai, Jinsen, and Vladivostok. Since then great improvement has been made, and 607 steamships, of 95,588
tons, and 835 sailing ships, of 50,000 tons, were afloat in the country in 1892. In later years the Government contracted to give 880,000
yen subsidy yearly to this organized company. bee

In 1889 Dr. Roesler, a German jurist, who was one of the counselors of the department of justice, compiled a commercial code
under the supervision of the minister to the department, but this code did not take effect owing to the deficiency of its provisions. In
Tebruary, 1890, the constitution of Japan was issued to be the motive power of all the laws of the country, and in November Parliament
was opened. A great step has been taken in adopting Western civilization. In the annual session of the Imperial Diet, in 1893, a proposal
to organize a committee for the revision of the commercial code was made to the Government. According to this proposal a committee
was organized, consisting of members of the Imperial Diet, professors of the law department of the Imperial University, higher civil
officials, eminent judges, and learned barristers. The committee worked vigorously under the direct control of the minister president
atthe time. To revise the former code which had been compiled by Dr. Roesler was the original intention of the committee, but in
the course of the work so many changes had to be made that the result was what is substantially a new code, in which the German
system is followed even more closely than in the former ones. In the extra session of the Imperial Diet in 1898, this new commercial
code passed the Diet by a large majority, and took effect at the end of the year. This commercial code is divided into five books,
according to systematic, scientific, and logical principles. The first treats of commerce in general; that is, of the application of the code,
trade, commercial registration, trade names, trade books, and trade assistants and agents. The second is entirely deyoted to commercial
companies, prescribing general provisions, ordinary partnerships, limited partnerships, joint stock companies, joint stock limited
partnerships, and foreign commercial companies and penal provisions. The third treats of commercial transactions; that is, of general
provisions as to sale, current account, anonymous association, brokerage, commission agency, forwarding agency, carriage, deposit, and
insurance. The fourth covers bills; that is, general provisions as to bills of exchange, promissory notes, and checks. ‘The fifth treats
of commerce by sea; that is, of ships and shipowners, mariners, carriage, sea damage, insurance, and ship’s creditors.

The rapid improvement and development of the transportation facilities on land and water aided the rapid increase in population
and production and enabled the Government to raise the enormous revenue which it spent in the development of the country, and also
on its defensive and offensive power, increasing and improving the army and the navy to face the European powers. This preparation was
unexpectedly shown, to the great surprise of the world, by the victory over China in 1894-95. Enormoussums were paid in that war for
the transportation of troops and their supplies, and this was a-great aid to the navigation and railroad companies. But these sums were paid
back to the Government by the enormous indemnity exacted of China. By the vast importation of this indemnity from London a great
distribution of money was made in the interior of the country, which naturally resulted in extravagance among the people and caused
the importation of luxuries from western countries. However, this great achievement over China gave a new era to the country. A
new treaty, on equal footing with the first powers of the world, was signed with the United States and all European countries, to take
effect after July 17, 1899. By this new treaty foreigners living in Japan are made subject to the laws of the country. It amended the
customs tariff, by which Japan before this could not levy a duty greater than 5 per cent ad valorem. Its policy was toward regular free
trade.

With the advantage of the Chinese indemnity in gold, Japan became a gold-standard country in 1897, by which stability of exrreney
was gained, as well as international banking facilities. The effect of this change was great. It has been most beneficial to the steady
and natural development of both imports and exports by causing a feeling of security on the part of shippers owing to the stability of
exchange, except in silver-standard countries. As Hon. O. P. Austin has written, ‘‘Now that the capitalists of the gold-standard
countries have become assured that they will no longer be in constant danger of suffering unexpected losses from investment made in
the country on account of fluctuations in the price of silver, they seem to show a growing tendency to make such investments at low
rates of interest. This tendency, if encouraged, will doubtless bring about a closer connection between Japan and the central money
markets of the world.”’

Another effect of the war was an educational development. During the war the newspaper reports and telegrams were of very
great interest to the whole people of the country. Every man, woman, and child talked about the war, and newspaper sales were more
than ten times larger than in former years. Even farmers, peasants, hunters, and fishermen, who never before had any interest in the
world’s affairs, being satisfied with their small incomes, enough to support their families in a most humble way, began to learn to read.
This was shown in the statistics of recruits, which show that only 25 per cent of the recruits before the war above 21 years of age could
read and write their names, while the percentage went up to 60 or 70 per cent a few years later, and still is increasing year by year,
aided by compulsory education adopted in the country. f‘ : ; c 4 :

During this period, especially right after the war, manufacturing industry made rapid progress. Several factories and industrial
firms were founded one after another. Foreign trade wonderfully increased, both in business done by foreigners and by our people with
their increased facilities for transportation, especially in navigation. During the first ten years after the restoration, the principal items
of export of the country consisted of natural products and raw materials, while manufacvured goods were imported from the western
countries; but now the fact is quite the reverse.

, The food of the natives was comparatively simple, being rice, wheat, fish, and vegetables; now beef, mutton, pork, and chicken
are the principle courses of the meals, although hunters enjoyed meats of deer, bear, rabbit, and partridge from time immemorial. This
eating of simple food was only because of the abundant production of rice and wheat and the economical doctrines of the Buddhist

-

2934. COMMERCIAL JAPAN. : a

priests. Wearing apparel, such as silk and cotton clothes, has greatly improved since the restoration, both in arts of manufact
quantity of production in all parts of the country. Now it meets the demand of home consumers, and also is becoming one of t
commodities of export; while engraving and sword-smithing, which at one-time were highly developed, when Buddhism and war w
popular, have fallen away. :

ARTICLE V. CONCLUSION,

Commerce in Japan was not thought. of for a long time, and facilities of transportation were only for armies to invade the territories’
of neighboring lords. After communication with China and Korea had been established many things were brought in, especially
Chineseliterature; but there was no active exchange, because when our people were strong they thought that China and Korea belonged —
to them, and so made them give yearly compulsory presents, and those countries, in turn, when they were strong wanted our country
under their command, and often they made invasions, but in vain. When our country was prosperous, those countries were in the —
trouble of rebellions. Then only luxurious goods were exchanged. Even up to the sixteenth century people were satisfied with self —
produced food supplies. They ny for themselves, made their own clothing, and all fuel was gathered in near forests; consequently
there was little exchange. In fact, the country was only semicivilized islands. After communication with America and European
countries had been established rapid progress was made. Transportation facilities and increased income from their products and increase
of manufacturing industries gave our people the idea of exchange. But an antiforeign spirit arose with the treacherous motives of the
Spanish and Portuguese merchants mixed with their Christianity, and the Government persecuted the believers and drove those
merchants and priests out of the country. This was exactly like the present condition of China, but the European countries were not very
strong, for lack of transportation,and could not disturb our affairs. But this shows that our people were very strong in fighting ability
and, at least, not barbarians. The physical geography of the country is advantageous to transportation by water. Its fertile land along
the seacoast and the water supply for irrigating their lands furnished by the vast number of rivers. gives a large food production and a
rapid growth of population. Prosperity, followed by wealth and peace, sometimes flourished, then declined, disappeared, and again
arose, and each new era brought better results. Pie

After China lost its last opportunity for invading Japan, our sea merchants discovered that it would be far more profitable to
become pirates than to make money in general bargaining. This made a great improvement in the art of shipbuilding, and the
navigation power over Asiatic seas fell into the hands of our country.

Looking at the history of the fifteenth century of Europe, one sees that great changes were made in navigation and trade. The
discovery of America and navigation from Europe to the Orient by the Cape of Good Hope brought great profit to the Europeans. If
the Japanese pirates had had a far-sighted view of the world’s commerce in place of practicing piracy, and had continued their maritime
power, they would now, in my opinion, hold the place which England has in the commerce, and all commercial power would have fallen
into the hands of our country. Moreover, the prohibition of Christianity in itself was not bad administration, but it was foolish for the
majority to close the doors against foreigners, which act prohibited the people for over two hundred years from crossing the ocean or
building large ships, and destroyed all the art of shipbuilding. This, of course, had the indirect result of checking the development of
home industry, as well as foreign trade. It is sad to think that the great power on water which the country early developed went into
the hands of foreigners. Notwithstanding this the country might be a large maritime power in the Orient, parallel with E 3
because the location is advantageous, and hundreds of vessels were floating in the Japan seas, going sometimes as iar as the ippi
Islands, and sometimes even to Mexico, in the early history, but for this policy of the ‘‘closed door.”’

Immediately after the country opened its doors to Europeans, new knowledge of civilization poured in. The old civilization has
advanced, and with intellectual effort and influence has reconstructed civil society and promoted material wealth, and has raised the
people from ignorance. Railway, navigation, and banking systems were most beneficial to the development of our commerce and were
the warp of the fabric of our civilization. Every decade finds it more full and comprehensive. The railroads and navigation gave
facilities of transportation by land and sea, and naturally caused the increase of products and population, and brought great benefit to
the people. Country places came into cultivation, mines were opened, and advancement in commerce was very great. All heavy and
bulky articles which are very troublesome to transport, such as lumber, mining products, etc., were handled more readily, and they became
the staple products of the country. The banking system developed the idea of saving, and those accumulations of deposits from which
the people got a safe income created a financial reserve. The banking system directs and sustains the commercial ises and
industrial activities, and serves as the medium by which the business of the country is carried on, just as the Bank of England is c
the necessary funds in her war with France and as the Bank of North America loaned money to the Government in its financial troubles
in the Revolutionary war. :

The war and triumph over China gave a most interesting experience to our people. The Japanese once believed in the tradition of
betterment by defensive and offensive alliances, but this war destroyed this fancy in our people, for at the first of this war
opposed Japan and then changed her mind entirely at the end, when Japan had accomplished this great achievement. Russia, Germany,
and France paid great respect to our country at first, but reversed their action after we had gained our victory. The only ent
and beneficial policy for our people is to improve our industry and develop our trade, and make our own country wealthy and powerful.
The United States and England are the strongest countries because of their much improved industry and trade and their wealth. So
the Government encourages commerce and trade by sending officials to study Western civilization, giving subsidies to the necessary —
business firms, giving the right of eminent domain to railroad companies, establishing chambers of commerce, mercantile museums, *
commercial clubs, banks, exchanges, markets, commercial corporations, and commercial schools. And our people have followed in the
same track in recent years, and the progress of our country is so rapid as to be without parallel.

Chapter IL.

PRESENT CONDITION,

One of the most striking features of modern times is the growth of international relations of ever increasing complexity and —
influence. Means of communication and transportation have so rapidly improved as to add greatly to industrial prospects, whether of
agriculture, mining, or manufacturing. Facilities of communication have produced competition of the different countries in
The United Kingdom held a monopoly on machinery, locomotives, and railroad materials for a long time, but now the United is

coming rapidly to compete with or rather surpass the former, and European and American articles are found in Japan, giving great
advantage to our consumers. an
Before the war with China, in 1894-95, Japan’s economic condition was fair, both in commerce and finance, and even during the
war things went very smoothly, the enormous sum of 150,000,000 yen being borrowed in the country without much trouble. The
victory over China gave the people great encouragement as to the future prosperity of the country. And as part of the war expense

*Mercantile museums, exhibiting (1) home products, staple commodities of export, articles capable of future exportation, and articles to com ith
imported commodities; (2) foreign products of articles serving as models for home manufactures, articles competing with home in foreign :
articles apprehended as future competition with home export commodities, articles commanding large sales in foreign ; rh
countries and vapable of being manufactured in the country, staple commodities of imports, articles promising future importation, and raw dus

—

hae
oo COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2235

back and was distributed to the soldiers, laborers, merchants, and pensioners, business excitement ran high. New factories,
, and corporations arose, one after another, and new navigation lines were opened, extending to London, Seattle, South America,
1 Australasia. These figures show the increase of capital of several corporations in yens:

CAPITAL INVESTED IN—

Commerce:

: 4 : | Percentage
YEARS, Agriculture: |Dry goods, Taw! yanufactur- of increase
Raising of silk} cotton,ex- | ing ineludin in capital
worms, pastur-| change, ware- ao te me Railroads, Banks, Total. ale es
ing, fishery, |houses, foreign ret cif
ete. trade, insur- -
ance, ete.
rs ae ey, - hap Paes Bee Si es - mt ce a
ss ~ Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
oe Ne pari RR a a a 2, 924, 102 87, 474, 305 20, 010, 513 12, 129, 500 9), 734, 911 53, 273, 331 100
"i SERCO MG a civisiesick sus casts se nw-cens an naw aniniwiatemyaia'w delat ae} oe 8, 229, 982 61, 881, 332 77, 529, 926 47, 390, 000 160, 215, 837 295, 246, 977 15]
a ri oc OOS Se Sree Cotes set er sé ae RAS ee 1, 884, 475 57, 168, 500 74, 585, 457 $4, 028, 000 165, 064, 079 392, 721, 411 232
soe tendap aad dvvenwens 3, 941, 288 144; 995, 680 175, 689,956 | © 238,095,000 | © 364,399;124 |...............- a5)
aExpectation of the opening of the Parliament next year. > During the war. ¢ 1898. 4 About.
PAID-UP CAPITAL.
YEARS. : Agziculture.| Industrial. Commercial. Eh RS
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.

Ie ee ee ee rode nach wa cen atte 1, 188, 203 44,589, 762 20, 014, 874 82, 569, 279

| ein eee ie saiiicars Spee snecananen sai lane peal ichie in 1, 526, 409 58, 728, 636 23, 835, 358 89, 969, 835

Reisen alle gare ae wae ee ocidk we tiv ceanaciaciveaniceciecenncddawas'cse 2,336, 720 122, 066, 653 300, 039, 664 197, 233, 421

An increase of fivefold in a decade.
—_ i

ag Thus the country suddenly became a strong power, and made a jump from agriculture to the industrial arts. Altogether it has

_ been most successful. The new treaty resulting in the increase of customs reflected accurately the expansion of trade. The people's
purchasing power increased, general price of commodities and wages went up;* in fact, the standard of living of the people was rapidly

raised. Average increase in price of commodities and wages in two largest cities are as follows, taking the year 1892 as 100:
a

OSAKA AND TOKYO. TOKYO. | OSAKA AND TOKYO. | TOKYO.
COMMODITIES. ——_—— COMMODITIES. SSS
1892 1895 1897 1899 1892 1895 1897 | 1899
ae pe eaodeeesae==oe5 100 120 159 192 || Silk:
BE) inna iaininisi caine oe RSS BS eseoe 100 117 155 187 EUW) SRC in sn cans acnasamaeenenn 100 97 By Ripa a Ree 5
RA carat » Ee otras daawanceoes 100 99 141 155 Js Le Se ee a ee 100 140 151 | 156
- Sp ot aaa 100 118 154 164 APRON do lee, as ck et Rae cee om 100 122 159 1%
Eas see side sala ss asin eaielote we 100 72 178 OSs PMB. 5 seh ocdes sctcas evauaaochueccace 100 185 183 lll
BPREE INE Ge chen eile cine ain mse on misie 100 102 152 OP EMCO ts oe et Seon i ce ania 100 87 97 96
Se Siecle ne a miaeieisieie cic. cineucaeene 100 182 199 234 || Iron:
EES oe Saralcin oc. cwcid'cenie asian aa’ 100 73 84 122 PMPAMESE. 5 Jos ataanen vonaaes a 100 237 215 130
Been tODACCO......2......% Rasetaee see 100 170 205 RI Sete OLCIEM ane ace aeaua seem. senneeaee 100 98 115 122
ays Cut REE eS Seo SSic onesies sic ae 100 158 142 Rh Oe Eres aceteeaws «aha yescased 100 145 161 168
Fano i 100 163 215 ES i REETORCUINS +. nsec amcescuce sc cues vous 100 135 128; ~— 124
Sugar: = PMROO CHUL w.S0> cotta mentee weldn ace dae 100 112 140° 12
RIPIBALESE WLLC 2. .ccncwceccecicnce 100 107 152 DS OR ORCRIID SI tae twlecamdceccnd 100 208 305 218
See POTEsO DTOWD - --sccucccenncsoe 100 133 191 125 |} Manure:
BLOTGIET WHITE 5. cccciccdececnees 100 127 120 126 Dried sardines. ............ estan’ 100 102 1388 200
BP MOLCIPT DIOWD 5-200 ose scececceees 100 103 123 136 Refuse of Berrings.. ......<<naescans 100 121 148 165
Cotton: OEE oe ee ce catenins 100 140 170 215
; PRB ARESS TOW «oan eo nceinnic cena we 100 112 125 111 ——- --- oe
Japanese spun ..... eo Soh SR = 100 120 121 101 ET CPC cin nniitannaunnninenina ss 100 | >143-°128 | >169--155 /......... =
_ Forcign raw ...... Sana ake 100 120 126 114
OO es oer ic 100 151 152 118
Ree) Sens Selasiabais aa aS 100 130 178 100
HSA eee pana texans pines 100 138 age 114
: I
‘ <_< ————— es
, 4 OSAKA AND TOKYO. : OSAKA AND TOKYO.
WAGES. : ES WAGES. =
1892 1895 1897 1892 1895 1897
C208. jon Se eSo ee ee Maer 100 164 De ead Be ap cians eS a ee ee ee ee 100 178 173
ULS- Sl Se Seer nese Piicewcets 100 164 TEN GSS a SL eae vc ae CC 100 115 192
= SES ee Tas See 100 125 161 |} Agricultural laborers:
2 a 9 a ee 100 189 144 cn Sp RE Re oh ie A SER Se LE 100 163 185
RMS DiS noe twas aacidclielomcen ae 100 153 153 | Ce a ie SS Tae SY 100 1s 158
I Beans sama easiness ee 100 127 158 || Silkworm raisers:
WRN nin aan ddcen wanntcbne select sp ot 100 119 167
es oe eee ee 100 167 150 Nth aS Re SE a ne a are 100 im 183
2: Oo Door One ee Cane Sc enr ee 100 136 TE SEU SPIRMOIS 50. cic une wave ateecsuscbunces~ss 100 83 143
Sacerapeneseewes 100 130 AU | SOP ORVOIS, TOMRION Soc op annncene snk Gnancuaccuns 100 8s 135
Pa arentedtece 100 159 GAO) RSG OLE GI Sat annctncacaccnwncsnecceusdebune 100 240 229
apr 100 170 139 |. $a —______—
s 100 148 164 Py a es 6 Se Saceeeemacae 100 | ° 1635-117 | >192-«118
cauee. 100 167 128 :
et . 606-615 and 623-532, the Nineteenth Annual Census of Japan, and pp. 29 and 47, Resume Statistique de ]’Empire du Japon, 1900,
Se
a
+ +s
vee

=
“a

something left for wine, clothing, and cther comforts.

2236 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. a

4

ee.
The wages gencrally paid do not compare favorably with those in the United States and Europe and the standard of living is al
not so high Z Agi pists neg the labor market being for the most part supplied by those who are satisfied to live under conditic
which Americans would not accept. The wages are very low—there is not much margin left for the ordinary laborer—yet there 3

Great amounts of rails, machinery, useful materials, sugar, liquors, tobacco, watches, and woolen goods were imported into the

. ol
ountry to the excess of 113,334,222 yen over export in 1899; 53,831,714 yen in 1897, against the excess of export over import of 6,831, £5
rat in 1895. At the same time the total ecen trade was increased enormously; 265,372,756 yen in 1890 was increased to 289,517,235
yen in 1896, and in 1899 was rapidly increased to 440,558,820 yen, against only 96,711,933 yen in 1887, or an increase of 262 per cent in
export and 294 per cent in import in 1895, and 418 per cent in export and 628 per cent in import in 1899, compared with 1887. But the
indemnity of 300,000,000 yen from China, which the people thought was to be spent in increasing the productive facilities of the country, —
the Government used for the improvement of the army and the navy (the estimate for this purpose was increased to 60,000,000 yen in
1897, against 16,009,000 yen before the war), the telegraphs, harbors, a subsidy for navigation, and the expenses of the new territory of
65,000,000 yen annually. The extravagance which almost inevitably follows a successful war has led to a lavish expenditure of the
ublic money, partly due to the increase in price of commodities and labor. In consequence of the increase of national expenditure, the
fiaget always finds an excess of expenditure over receipts, which necessitates an appropriate Increase in revenue, and the question of
raising the land tax was discussed in the Imperial Diet. The budget of the country, only 80,000,000 yen before the war, was raised to
more than four times that sum. The Government expenditure and revenue for the last fiscal year (1899-1900) were substantially as

follows:

Yen.
Expenditure. 22222: -.0 0.2 c 0. coe e ce cccnn ncn cew nn an ties oon wmeeenssece=snsesaseeensssssseesanee= 253, 662, 841
OPGinary <2 0S -eseece ps tenes cvepewecssscawareeus Speers = —n 45> saan n aaa ee eee eee 137, 314, 631
EXAOPOIBALY oo owe wcicccid wee ces coe nd poche eakee dade aan tee = meen eer a we ae eee 116, 348, 210
Tnteveb ant debt. 22 -22n en seameanemam ae cee tee eee ee 54,278, ee 4
War department .. 2.2... 22 eee een n nn een n nee n cee nent ee en ncn eee een n ee meen cen ne seceecen== 16, 876, 231
1 ;
Navy department ee 47, 066, 796
Communication department... s.c2 000 ve - cat nee es occ cn emer ern oe saree oe een eae a 38" de
ReCVENUG: - .nvccesesndne tases sobeun Je eb ens de on nee n= apect seewes ae Peeters 253, 682, 356
Ordinary 2oos ube. peor eee ance ae ate ae eee ee 0 So Ae anes aeons 176, 749, 819 ;
Extraordinary «2 0% science cescsee seabeenses cass ccees saree aeabe > ease ase eee ee eee ee ee 76, 932, 537
All taxes 2.20. ccccacccccccaseese senda setnne see one aun eases eee ae) Sone eee eee 125, 504, 331
Stamp taxes .......sc0cccscancesccwccnennnassencaesecadnen seereseuenesaeness 5-5 e=en= ieee aeee 11, 935, 531
Quaal private ........cccce csc cccceneseceennecns sh aenwes= cheev ees esen =ses 6s = seen aan 34, 709, 059
BONS: jase oinc'cic wm wc wien mw 5 wen mi creme a el ee a 35, 172, 362
Indemnity .. 2. ..0c.<sneesssecche qeame ue cme me oats ee a ammeter 32, 638, 630

This increase of public expenditure caused a stringency of money, hindering new enterprises and stopping the free flow of capital
into promising ventures. Business began to suffer from a shortage of funds. The reaction from a too-rapic pica of the country came
as early as 1897, when prices of stocks began to decline. In 1898 the dispute about the return of the indemnity to the people who
contributed to the war in the form of loans arose, and the Government redeemed 35,000,000 yen of the loan. Stillthe Goyeiament was
necessitated to sell war bonds of 43,000,000 yen in London. The income tax, the tax on sake, the customs dues, tonnage tax on ships
at ports, charges for postal and telegraph service, on railroads, freight and passenger traffic, and on tobacco were in The burden
on the people was, per capita:

YEARS. Country.| Local. Borough.} Total.
¢
BOOS ccnp sacewunen cuenta namin: 1.47
1806... wescececccaeheamecen enone 1.68

Germany took in direct taxes in 1896 7.50 yen per capita, more than double ours.

The Government tried to rescue the people from the business trouble, which reached a climax in 1898, and in 1899 borrowed —
100,000,000 yen in the London money market and loaned it to the business men. The public debt had also increased suddenly sines the
war. In 1893 it was 283,519,624 yen. It hadincreased to 419,380,217 yen at the end of 1896, and still increased at the end of 1899 to
505,166,702 yen, most of it bearing interest at 5 per cent. Then the present Chinese trouble blocked the export of eotten goods, —
porcelain, ete., and added more disaster to business. Of course, it could not be called a panic—it was merely tightness of money—for
work was plenty, factories were going at full blast, and wages were as high as they had ever been, if not higher. As was well said by Count
Matsugata, ex-premier and secretary of the treasury, ‘‘The present condition of the country’s economics is just like a young boy who has —
eaten too much and is troubled with indigestion, but nevertheless growing day by day, finds himself weak after his sickness. He ~
will be all right when he takes a dose of industrial and trade development.’’ Such enormous expenditures of the country show the
improved ele we ole and the people’s power to meet those expenditures, as they become wealthier and the desire for a higher _
standard of living develops. -

llowever, the great achievement over China advanced the transportation facilities and other important matters necessary to the
improvement of the commerce as a whole. Mechanical appliances supplanted slow processes of production, and the railroad, navigation, —
and mail services were great helps to the development. Now Baldwin locomotivesare on our tracks, trolley cars, telephones, electric”
power, machinery; in fact, all the best and latest appliances are coming more and more into use. The banking system is one which can
easily be adapted to the demands of business. Statistics show the following figures of banks and loan oflices:

PERCENTAGE TO
CAPITAL.

YEARS. Number.| Capital. | Reserved | not profit. | Dividends | J
Net profit. | Dividends,
Yen. Yen. Yen,
Sn TE i es ina Caan 862 {101,409,881 | 80,231,153 | $8,777,836 | 20,
al p k le a , S 2O 1,019 [127,807,715 | $4,623°518| 44,622°320| 18,
NN oan. or tn dontrace tava whccertctccsccconsctceie eek 1,875 (257,447,002 | 40,705,188 | 17,458,796 | 10,

*
J

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2237

Paper Money 1N CIRCULATION.

Treasury National-bank | Convertible to
FISCAL YEARS. | notes. notes. gold and I Total.
Yen. Yen, Yen. Yen.
TROD eee nn eer jos st ek ot eet 13, 020, 517 21, 300, 375 124, 524, 590 158, 845, 482
Dieters fates can wees else u dale ales terme 10, 679, 236 20, 293, 887 149, 035, 640 180, 008, 763
Ee ee Snadeadpnebe's ceca esld aun Sue encae 5, 112, 265 1, 632, 818 179, 769, 782 186, 514, 865

Metratiic Money Issurp ror CrrcuLATIoN.

YEARS. Gold. | Silver. Nickel. Copper. Total.

Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
LAMPS eee osicovoreeratnae ee 66, 146, 237 138, 786, 085 5, 487, 349 12, 418, 051 222, 837, 722
1894-95... 2 1, 583, 088 28, 539, 445 30, 472, 533
1895-96. 1, 422, 750 20, 007, 277 21, 482, 627
1896-97. 952, 433 12, 927, 034 14, 529, 467
1897-98. -| 76,824, 311 10, 298, 085 87, 722, 396
PESOS oO Os a Melee letetaa aio wiatomicaa sis rare 21, 385, 797 17, 000, 000 39, 235, 797

ToraL CIRCULATION AND ITs Per Capita,
YEARS. Circulation. | Percapita.| Population.
Yen. Yen.

PS 7 le Se Fe Me 2 ee nr ER. Cel Oe 72, 712, 817 2.196 33, 110, 825
LST ae fee Wein oa ac ae Mme ot aan Mc done Sa sseew a 153, 831, 028 4, 48 34, 338, 404
MESS aeeen ems an oneness recesen Dasbas sins ceacivice cen ines cole 203, 994, 169 5. 61 36, 358, 994
1S nS SRR CORA NEI EC HITE E CHE COOHBEAC COPS. CSS hare eae 181, 131, 029 4. 748 38, 151, 217
TSS 0s SoS reas Oo a Eatescaeretr Petes Sea oe ee ED Sa aaee ae 205, 483, 263 5.08 40, 453, 461
ESOG eee caste cisias .aeocncuaeetbes ockeel tee hee Bee Seiniw ernie ainra 293, 168, 224 6. 893 42, 682, 560

The amount of checks and bills cleared at the clearing houses, one in Osaka and one in Tokyo, has remarkably increased
to 1,000,000,000 yen in 1897, notwithstanding the business stagnation everywhere; so that one may conclude that business transactions on
credit have come to prevail more widely and freely than before. The raising of the general intellectual standard of the country by
improving the village schools in necessary features is an encouraging point of view in the present educational outlook. Municipal
government is now in full operation. The mayors are elected by the common votes. Thecare of parks, drainage, education, and the fire
system are all under municipal direction. The police is under direct control of the department of the interior. City improvements are
made, water pipes run as far as 14 miles from river into large cities, streets are widened and trees are planted. The commerce of the
country is keenly watched by all the nations of the world, and the United States is publishing yearly ‘‘The Commerce of Japan,”
containing its area, population, produciion, railways, telegraph lines, transportation routes, its foreign trade, and the trade of the United
States with Japan, and is studying these constantly by means of consul-general’s reports. Laboriously worked out statistics,* the
“Résumé Statistique de l Empire du Japon,” and ‘‘The General View of Commerce and Industry in the Empire of Japan”’ are published
yearly in Japan, and supply abundant data for a full and careful estimate, not simply of the facts of extended trade, but also of its amount
compared with previous years, and fully illustrate the present condition, and so give approximately a correct idea of the quantity and
relative proportion of the national growth of wealth. Consequently, it is not necessary to repeat them here, but for the convenience of
understanding its chief items let us look at the subject, dividing it into transportation, industry, and trade of the country:

4 ARTICLE I. TRANSPORTATION.

Professor Mayo-Smith states: ‘‘In early times the coasting ship was the cheapest means of transportation, and the most effective
one. Railroads have reached an enormous development for inland transportation, but the extension of the world’s trade has kept
shipping of equal importance with railroads. In fact, the two now supplement each other; railroads bring the commodities to the sea-
shore, and ships carry them to other countries. Even in direct competition with railroads, shipping still plays an important part on
account of its superior cheapness. Transportation facilities enable individuals to command commodities of distant lands; it makes labor
most productive by carrying it to the place where it can best be employed; it encourages capital to invest itself in new undertakings; for
the products can find an outlet. The history of civilization shows constant advance in the efficiency of the means and methods of
transportation. Postal service was also improved by the improvement of transportation facilities. Telephone and telegraph service are
equally important in the development of the country. Highways, bridges, and canals are also a great help to the development of a
country, and are of special local importance.’ Unfortunately our statistics have not yet reached a sufficient proficiency, so we observe
only those subjects of greatest importance. As transportation facilities are an important feature of the country the establishment of these
increased as follows:

1898 | 1895

Number | . - | Number: . .
of compa- mae capi- | of eompa- re capi-

nies. - | nies.

Yen. Yen.
NE VIPSOUAN Uns ccatectucscdccabtcmsetsencwwacce 196 38, 985, 588 97 18, 695, 009

(| ASeD hota Lae a ceo ae OR oS ae Sas 64 155, 881, 965 30 73, 252, 797 4
OCH Era scans a neeee ne eeaeee Robe ckcncuibn naccetence 2 276 2, 952, 868 110 3, 013, 029
Motul cooc onc wee eee eae aes wee secede ec cece s 536 197, 233, 421 |

237 | 89, 960, 885

aI am very sorry to say that the latest statistics did not reach my hand before the time required for this thesis,

No. 6 14

I. NAVIGATION. .

Our natural facilities for navigation are unsurpassed. Among the many directions in which the country has been pus!
economic expansion in recent years, none is more remarkable than the development of the maritime interests, which include i
ss carrying power, and harbor improvements, together with its protection from foreign attack. Sea interests and sea powers are
a corollaries of trade interests and industrial power, and they to-day take a leading place in the country.

(A) VESSELS.
-<

All countries have discovered that if they are to find a market for their growing surplus, they must have theirown ships. Within — P

the past years our Government has been increasing directly its subsidies, to encourage the enlargement of the shipyards and the ©
construction and operation of steamships. Independently, however, of this artificial stimulus shipbuilding is yearly progressing, —_
encouraged by the daily increase and improvement in methods of production and by the gradually increasing facilities oi carnage, the
natural results of the industrial and trade prosperity. About the middle of the last century Europe and America began to give attention
to gaining the controlling power over the Pacific Ocean, and with the increase of traffic, an increase of vessels, both foreign and domestic,
entered and cleared the Japanese ports. According to the statistics showing the increased number of the vessels entering and clearing
our ports Japan improved very rapidly in later years. .

,

=
>
i,

a”
’

VESSELS WHICH CLEARED THE PorTS OF JAPAN.

DOMESTIC.

Steamers. | Sailing. Steamers.

Vessels. | Tonnage. | Vessels. | Tonnage. |} Vessels.

327, 818

VESSELS ENTERED THE Ports or JAPAN.

DOMESTIC. FOREIGN.
YEARS. Steamers. Sailing.

Vessels. | Tonnage. | Vessels. | Tonnage.

93, 505 834 22, 634
277, 385 837 20, 921
318, 163 616 23, 757

®1895 shows the effect of Chino-Japanese war, while sailing vessels of the country and foreign steam and sailing vessels.
are not affected by it, yet there is the steady substitution of steamers for sailing vessels. The sailing vessels of the country
are increasing as well as the steamers, while foreign sailing vessels are decreasing more rapidly than fercign steamers.

Shipping, since 1891, shows an enormous development in its total capacity; showing relative growth as follows:
STEAMERS. .
UNDER 100 TONS. | 100 To 500 TONS. | OVER 500 TONS.

Tons, Vessels. Tons. | Vessels,

While the number of ships is increasing, the size is also increasing, especially of steamers. In 1891 the average size of steamer
157 tons; in 1895 became 258, and in 1898 increased to 422 tons. During the same period sailing vessels increased only from 60 to §
Thus the country is utilizing immensely the facilities of navigation.

cia COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2239

-

ji The standing of Japan’s merchant marine in comparison to that of the world was given by Professor Mayo-Smith:

Worup’s Vessers Over 50 Tons or Capacrry 1 1893.

f
STEAMERS. SAILING. | TOTAL.
COUNTRIES. oe an as wnt: |

Number.| 1,000 tons. || Number.) 1,000 tons. Number. | 1,000 tons.

— = emo 4) cu gree. | Ee

CUpUiited Gigteg ©2225 5 isan wane oe 2, 372 825.7 || 4,853 | 1,573.7 || 7,225 | 2,399.4 |
1. Great Britain and ireland ......... {| 5931" | 6,183.3 || 7749 | 2891-1 |] 13,080 | 9}074.4
DA NOLW EY = cn aawne aoc eeawstemes F 542 246.1 || 3,559 1, 420.5 4,101 1, 666.6
if (GORI EThy a teenies eee ee a Bape e CEP Coen h Oreo 867 783.3 1, 427 686.9 2,294 1,479.2
5, France..... as oes Fo igs ste sees 599 621.5 1, 634 288. 4 2, 233 909.9
agit 1 eer EER ETT RA EE ee tae 224 223.6 1,738 529.7 1,962 753.3
8. Sweden.. Re a 429 145.6 1, 506 325.0 1, 935 470.6
Se SDA ee eR Me Ua nt Se ca cawewmed 367 202. 4 733 138.5 1,100 449.9
LE POR Getl Hae ae ae ein aisle on a alaielels\s niv=ciniac coe na ioe wan 201 108.3 1, 649 213.2 1, 850 321.5
PASTY! aril te nee ees code oe a acu ne egeceaee 150 177.6 47 121.4 597 299.0
I aOR es one eae ainsi x ciciw'e ess ee be mapinmes 240 122.6 885 158.1 1,125 280.7
14. Greece’ eo 1 oe. a ee ae ee ee 118 80.1 852 192.9 97 273.0
Lie ASU yen NO aon oe anes p neve ss cciseeriennsicses 132 118.1 241 96.7 373 214.8
TRNAS ea 2s SESS ee a 63 39.5 630 125.2 713 164.7
20 SPORES) aininin Meistac te ateataabicemaeinch ae at aa maaain as 51 42.6 211 44.6 262 $7.2
Fee SET 5S ee oe ee a 47 69. 4 6 1.0 | 53 70.4
Pei Raee OV eis en EE aca ho Be «de waa wb -| 10,049 9,290.0 24, 126 7,436.9 34,175 | 16,726.9
FSP STE Se eRe RE ee Soe oe | 300 80.9 3, 416 761.9 3, 716 $42.8

! 751 169.5 5 # 351

1,077 96.4 1 204.7
282 65.2 458 146.3
149 76.5 185 105.2
| 56, 264 | 10, 450.9 | 50, 518 | 21, 234.2

‘In this table Japan stands next to Austria-Hungary, in the sixteenth position, having only 22.2 per cent of the average tonnage of the
total, which average is 92,300 tons, and only 8 per cent of the average tonnage of 2,488,100 tons of the six great nations, England, United
States, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia, and only 2.2 per cent when compared with Great Britain and Ireland. But since 1893
Japan has made her most rapid improvement; in 1899 she had increased her-tonnage to three times as much as in 1893, and her comparative
standing to-day would be as high as Sweden, or perhaps as Italy.

(B) CREWS AND OFFICERS.

No accurate statistics have been taken since 1892 which -will give an idea of this matter.

Japanese. | Foreign. Total.
ABRs STIR Gh GREE PLO Ole se ee ate ie eit de ole a aceite ofaln wialietnlntn nies aia isiniwieisie'ninnele sw a'qnins seme en'=in | 752 652 1,404
IER UGA ROW Ons h- = Sasadeadeag - Pete a aee or ence Qo Ger BO OUD E DEO OC EEC Hc eee Oe SEC ener 1, 802 52 1,854
Licensed for'small vessels). ... 22. -enncwecce-scecceenae Ran ash oeeseaaees siete edosec 1,061 |.----------- 1, 061

In 1891 there were 1,442 vessels in the country, which shows that only three men were employed to one vessel. This fact is due to
the less demand for crews, smallness of compensation for their rough work, and less comfort in yoyages, which naturally causes dislike
for the work. The majority of these men were employed in the coast lines, and only one-third were employed for vessels abroad, and
only one-sixth of all that go abroad are Japanese, foreigners being employed in the more important voyages. Oi the officers licensed
the division was as follows: .

Engi- | Special

Captains.| “Mates. neers, pilots,

READ AGH Otainnin either a stele aieinim a 3) Oe Soe aoe a a emnt alee waene was oem ctaanspasecteswnae d's 93 150 175 4
Foreign ....--.-..----222eeeceeeeeeene eos ee EE eo oncle Oe wan eaapcioesasececes

These figures plainly show the poorness of marine interest at that date.
(Cc) NAVIGATION LINES. —

; Recently the Japanese navigation lines ‘to different countries have made remarkable progress, and a5 present the Japanese flag is
ss. peeling over all waters. Hitherto all shipments to foreign countries were made in foreign vessels, which enjoyed this privilege fora
long time.

a : (1) Vladivostock line.

_-— _—s (2) Korea lines, two companies.
ct (3) Tientsin, Manila, Niuchwang, Singapore, Sidney, and Bombay line. : ag 2

(4) Shanghai, Hongkong, London line, to consist of 12 steamers of over 6,000 tons, with minimum speed of 14 knots an hour,
nning fortnightly, with a subsidy of 1,331,600 yen. ,

(5) Australasia line.

(6)*South America, irregular. :

t7} North America: (a) San Francisco line, 3 steamers, 6,000 tons each, 17 knots; (5) Seattle line, 3 steamers, 6,000 tons each, 13

The above lines are controlled by Japanese companies. Beside these there are— _ : ,
‘England: (a) Canadian Pacific Railway Company, every four weeks; (/) Peninsular and Oriental, running between London
apan yia Oriental ports; (c)'Castle Company, running between London and Japan via Oviental ports; (d@) Glen Company, running
en London and Japan viaOriental ports; (e) Ocean Company, running betweev London and colonial China, with annex to Japan.

2240 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

(2) The United States: (2) Occidental and Oriental, running between Hongkong and United States via Japan and Hawaii; (6)
Pacific Mail, running between Hongkong and United States via Japan and Hawaii; (c) Northern Pacific, ranning between Tacoma and
Japan, and to Shanghai if necessary; (d) Great Northern, running between Portland and Japan, irre s ; bs
(3) France: Compagnie des Messageries Maritimes, running between Marseilles and Japan via Oriental ports, with aggregate tonnage
of 192,600, annex to London. :
4) Germany: Norddeutcher Lloyd, running between Hongkong and Japan, annex to Germany, with 199,000 tons aggregate.
5) Austria Lloyd Company, between Port Said and Japan via Oriental ports.
6) Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, Hongkong and Japan. : ; |
Thus, facilities on the ocean are increasing most favorably, and by their competition improving their accommodations, speed, and
all other details.

(D) TRAFFIC POWER.

Before the war (1894) the carrying trade was almost entirely in foreign hands, but after the war, with the improvement of
shipbuilding, the traffic power increased and came into Japan’s vessels, and the traffic that passed through Japanese ports in 1898 was
the largest in her history. Its relative power was as follows:

1894 1895 P

IMPORTS. Yen. Yen. Yen. <

PLCAIN cee eras attain tec Pet ea Saco spor emus une pees ares 10, 353, 694 2, 971, 196 63, 819, 992 4

Raninie’ seen este nows ar et rancid denne eeues ameee ome seeee 422, 064 884, 694 2, 448, 747 .

cs ee aoe EE Se ER Re See 10, 775, 758 8, 855, 890 7

‘Total trate Carried - o. soccscecoanccuvevesscnonwaeee coe 109, 278, 986 124, 618, 573 7

Percentage of Japan’s power to foreign ..............-- 9.75 3.1 P

EXPORTS. ;

SUCAI so, cons caver wee ceca cscde~soneoess snap eeaee aaa 5, 746, 869 3, 453, 299 )
SAUNT. cc caaen pees feacece suse ssampawsiels one nereneradseee 307, 870 477,121

Mota ee. este ota e eee ee ee ee 6, 054, 739 3, 930, 420 ‘
Totelitraiie carried — Ja: $ooc22c anode eee ecey lore eee 111, 284, 986 133, 513, 036
Percentage of Japan’s power to foreign ...............- 3.9

Percentage of Japan’s power to foreign, both exports
And Imports secces oeeesienccns ae ecs eee see ee ee aeeree 7.6 3.5
Thus the traffic power is on a steady increase. e

(£) SHIPBUILDING.

The shipbuilding of the country has made considerable progress, 5 large steamers, of 15,650 tons gross capacity, and 177 steamers
and sailing vessels, of 16,822 tons gross, were built during the year 1898. The Mitsubishi, the largest of the shipyards, made 2 steamers,
of 6,000 tons each, although the materials were imported from abroad. There are at present 160 shipyards, both state and private
establishments, but their constructing power is only about 40,000 to 50,000 tons yearly.

(F) DOcCKs.
There are now about 20 docks in the country, all under private management, and all very prosperous.
(G@) TONNAGE DUES.
For the charges of ports and light-houses the custom-houses collect 5 sen per registered ton upon a ship’s entry into a port.

(11) COAST CONVEYANCE, LIGHT-HOUSES, AND BUOYS.

The coast line of the country is about 15,185 miles, excluding Formosa, and the survey of it isall completed. The light-houses and
buoys were placed by the Government, the Government and private persons together, and by private persons. The figures show:

LIGHT-HOUSES, DAY.

YEARS. Light Light | Light ‘a
reaches reaches reaches ndica-
Number.| inder10| 10 to 20 | over 20 || BUOYS. | “tions, | Other.

miles, miles, miles.
MSOS WisiSceccctcbanveccctevdivecgduateesee metReNe 137 67 57 18 24
LOMO nb 6S ak kecue oc bia ne um balms mor kloan ike aCe ee } 1381 67 54 10 22
LOUO chweseatvarceenuasecd ane cuaea dul Guus THEME ENE 149 91 61 26
LONE pian se Unwh et Gib oun as wWa dda schnell eaeieiehe mane 138 87 44 7 21

One light-house in every 111 miles, most of their lights reaching only 10 to 20 miles, shows, roughly speaking, that coast steamers
and sailing vessels were running every 90 miles without any directing light. It is not comparable with European countries as can be
seen by the following table: :

COUNTRIES. Coast line.| iht | per mile.

EENGiANG . .naeccasdennbecddnannninneadtanhneaeneneae 12
BIOS vane ceesanuawnnauudls awh s AGaunrneEenee 38
1
4

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2241

(1) INSTITUTIONS.

Many institutions were built for the encouragement and improvement of maritime interests. They are a feature of the country, an@
there are 927 students in these institutions.

Before closing the subject of navigation I would like to add a few lines concerning the business of navigation. Just recently the
Japan Mail Steamship Company published its semiannual report for 1900, from which is summarized the following:

(a) Coast lines.—The economic condition of the country was not very active, but, as usual, in the latter half of the year the traffic
movement was great. The business was fairly done, as the company ran five extra vessels for the transportation of crops. Suddenly the
outbreak of the Chinese trouble compelled the company to hire thirteen vessels to the Government, and consequently the company was
forced to hire five vessels from other companies, and a decrease of the traffic was unavoidable. But the company did the best it could for
transportation, running extra vessels to the necessary places.

(b) Oriental lines.—All were affected by the Chinese trouble and stopped all direct lines to northern China or decreased the number
of trips. But the passenger trafic was great, and rather more prosperous than in previous years.

(c) European lines.—For the outward trip the freight from the country does not yet exceed one-fifth of the capacity, but is on the
increase. And to the Straits Settlements, which are the most important export places of this line, a great decrease has followed since the
Transvaal trouble. But by reducing their prices, and giving some advantages, they have found some increase of traffic since last August.
On return trips only iron and the remainders of old orders were brought home. On account of the reaction in Japan against the great
excess of imports new orders were almost stopped. Only-8 per cent of the whole capacity of the ships, including the goods brought to
the Straits Settlements and elsewhere, was occupied. After July the traffic was fair in coal and other supplies to China, and the
. passenger traffic was prosperous.

(d) American line.—On the outward trips the competition of different companies reduced the price lower and lower, but at the
: ‘ end of April a committee was selected for the arrangement of charges, and the recovery of prices was made. But the ships now building
.

are not ready to use, and the ships which are in use are slow compared with other competing lines, therefore valuable goods which need
prompt delivery all go to other companies. On the return trips large shipments of flour to Oriental countries made a heavy traffic. The
passengers were almost all emigrants.

(e) Australasia line.—Both trips generally increase their traffic, and the improvement is going on. Passengers increased about 30
per cent in first and second classes and 16 per cent in third class compared with previous year. Competition was expected with
Norddeutschér Lloyd Company.

(f) Bombay line.-—The important feature of this line is in the raw cotton traffic. As the Chinese trouble has affected the cotton
trade, the demand for raw cotton has almost disappeared, therefore the business was very poor, and naturally the trips decreased.

’ (9) Revenue and expense of the company.—The Chinese trouble and the great need of public service caused vessels which had been

+ in the Oriental and Bombay lines to be utilized in places where they were needed.

~ Yen. Yen.

ps Pemette 10 LYANAPOLtAtION. -... 2. ew ee cece cence nace 7,762,471 | Reserved fund by commercial code ............-.---- 147, 986

LTS) DEG 2 sa BORE See ee Oe Bee tars Semeur Dae Hoc), oo | tond‘reserveditor dividend. ...-20 2. 5. 2s. esses 940, 000
0 NG ne i, 012,004 | OCOMpenbation £0. directors: .. 2.2 co ccee cc cneccmcwcecs 94, 711
Doth PiU GTI GES Sas ae ee eee as ee es ae 35998; 009") Extra-reward for employees: =o... 222252222225 -- 125, 000
> oy Live) iil 5 Sa ee ee ee er ree 025560 | Diyadends: 10 per centia, years -4=2s2- - 52252. -2 22. 225 1, 100, 000
peer tound for building ........cccaccascccscsccene 12,870 | Extra dividends, 2 per cent a year...............---- 220, 000

II. Raiiways.

' The most important means of inland transportation is the railroad. The success attained of late years in industry and trade in
’ Japan is due to the measures taken for the extension and regulation of the railway system, because it gave great facilities for transportation
4 of surplus products, and also brought progressive ideas among peasants. The railroads of the country were started in 1872, with only
‘ 18 miles, between Yokohama and Tokyo, under Government control. Progress was rapid, and in March, 1900, there were 3,635 miles,
; of which 833 miles belonged to the Government and 2,802 miles were managed by fifty-eight private companies. Only five companies

have more than 100 miles in operation. Railroad capitalization in March, 1899, was 234,567,634 yen; that is, 67,354.50 yen per mile.
| The longest mileage under one company was 857.07 miles, and the shortest 8.06 miles. There isa uniform, stable, and reasonable
‘ railway tariff, which is fixed in accordance with the general national interests in industry and trade. The passenger tariff is cheaper
thanin other countries. Railroadsare built largely for the passenger traffic, running along the coast lines, where many densely inhabited
cities are located, and many railroads have their destinations at the famoustemples. The natural effect is that this business is eminently
satisfactory. The growth of railroads is wonderful, as is shown by the following tables:

: ; ConsTRUCTION oF EAcH Y®BAR, 1873-1896.

: [Report of Bureau of Railroad Communication Department.]

‘ :

: 1873-1877 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 | 1895 1896

A .

Government:

> AUT Le SNe ts aan ei ce ss Saca seule sigeielatle 224. 40 200. 59 LOSE ace aemesesec See arecoasice Maan eRe ene 7 23.20 12. 33 88.40
: WambA ECVEN)| ca cuedeccstesccasecenrecne 22,447,622 | 7,349,811 | 1,820,915} 1,142,493 | 1,480,663 | 1,177,493 684,255 | 4,288,202 | 8,311,552 5, 363, 077
’ Private:

A 293. 24 118. 14 118. 64 262. 60 283.18 17.28 47.51 169. 36 142. 42 120.14
* 6,702,924 | 5,130,641 | 8,532,175 | 12,021,880 | 7,359,667 | 2,558,697 | 4,408,195 | 8,640,118 | 10,130, 063 ' 15, 619, 811

Railroad
Per cent =
YEARS. Mileage. ofin- | Proposed. | Stations. sg ib tes
crease. Shes
miles.
Go t 828.77 OR
vernment.. 28.7
pined ene Sa cewdeuecsqencauscaiaasc/anunecccases acs Private ....... 2, 652.13 18 4, 412.01 913 2.36
2, 944. 33 16 8, 691. 32 746 1.98
2,501. 47 10 8, 034. 51 582 1.69
2) 273.17 7 | 2'794.84 525 1.54
2,118. 24 10 2, 580. 69 462 1.45
1, 925. 46 8 2, 236. 69 894 1.34
1,87 1 gl DER Ra Ul meh ay dicta EA te es
170 ee Cee oS Ce eee Mea

~

OP det PS Ee ees nT
: bee Foe: wa oy “a

COMMERCIAL J.

= The carrying capacity of railroads is partly indicated by the total number of locomotives and cars. This table
_ on March 31, 1899:

b112 every 100 miles. ¢413 every 100 miles.

232 every 100 miles.

* The total capacity is sufficient to accommodate 145,139 passengers and 94,350 tons of freight.

7 wz
(B) RAILWAY TRAFFIC FOR THE GENERAL AND PUBLIC SERVICE. “Aft
FISCAL YEARS. ‘
.
Compared with other countries: ee =
rs a
COUNTRIES. |
*
Tug asl (UOGF) 20. shoud wheat F 2
United States (1900) .........----e0c00 a
MTRNCC (1806) 2. -- ceeman cw aeee cements . i + ie
Germany (1891) 32352 ~ uit oe ee ee eee <t39 -
Austrisy <2 oc cmsoes ann oaeietile 3 gi ee ee 205. 000 P
Russia. (1806) 2. sose cs waunadeneew sae uae anaes 7
Maly (1887). coticversve ws ceeds Cer na enao ese "
Cathtada (ISSA) 6. caccdeduce colette covaassdeen ised
Argentine (4906) -os:cniew's co wsedastwicte rns caus donad ‘¥
al
Compared with the United States in 1897: fg a
Japan. United States.
Passengers .......-...- wovsutdacsddaaseetewnell 84, 453, 362 489, 445, 198 .
“Passengers carried 1 mile ....... <.s-s00s+0 1, 443, 317, 956 12, 256, 939, 647
Passengers carried 1 mile per mile of line -. 2,426 66,
TONS CATTIO€ s<c. = Jonaxvoc'st punetwndin ae 8, 688, 388 741, 705, 946
Tons carried 1 mile........ So eae ae 396, 798, 680 95, 139, 022, 225
Tons carried 1 mile per mile of line ........ 249.5 519, 079
Average number of passengers in train ..... 939.5 37
Average journey per passenger (miles) ..... 10. 09 25. 04
Average number of tons in train............ b6.8 204. 62
Average haul per ton (miles) ......-....0--+. 45. 67 128, 27 :
Total train: Mi6are |... c.ccucpweucecueeeeee 18, 788, 437 799, 980, 847
Average passengers i mile per day .....-. 1,596.5 0 ,
Average tons per mile per day .............. 395.9 ° on
828 per cent. » 46 per cent. “—s
¢ Train mileage of passengers and freight is not taken separately. SS bg
The following shows the movement of cars in 1897: =
Potal mileage of the year .......0...<sewerewswwleoersneien pellet nat aavaincdanninbeens=med cls paige
Average trip to terminals............ccccsesesessusespscenaesuan eee + = aS Sere SES 6 ESE 1c > =
Average number of cars per trip .......00-sccencsenpupes sseuee ae ay ge 13.6 6 = ‘es
Average weight of engine (f0N8) 22... a00--n<ssnceneW op ccedsseeu neha een Rees cee eee AP aS 38.6 a ia 2
Average tse of engine (per Cent)... «cewenahesccencecuhsssauusenennnne esa eane Aas si, sds tenis nd 92
(c) EMPLOYEES. ‘
March 31, 1899, of eleven leading companies and the Government railroad the following were employed:
BERR TOGRALS 4 one ance c ep edden ana nddmten aawensinntmaale 689. | Hiremen...--.sseeeeeeee eS ee ee te eee
PEMIBLALIY RUALION TANLOLS «5 cet. o cas desc oes cnn upecanducnen 588 Assistant firemen......... = arora niteshisus lems pec aera eects
Extras RR me 48 Yardmen ee eee eee ee RRR RR ee eee
ERT ca ee alae. wc bala arn't ie acaba edn wis ches os lie dea 1, 268. |. Signaimen.......ccasesee eee denccndunececeuppepashasaben
ETC aru onal nam me dwn a waives cae ut nidmmiooee 98. | Switehmen.._....ceas ee a ee
MOLSMION Of. CN GMOS .caccncancnccnnncescccecsdeccsncescen 28 | Signal and switch MOM +++ 2+ se eee eeee eee e eee e eee eeeee
* BEDGINEMEN « « - ne nnnnnccccnne cccnecnccnncssesccscesacecn 1, 165 ‘4
‘ et. “iss. cadgbicnatauaaaucanancenansuce 7 | TURE. comes occccncccccccsancscsccncsu=eseuee
is
A io a
r ial © , a
ew : - .

5 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2243

(D) COsT OF SERVICE.

REVENUE.
Per cent
; of passen- cent
YEARS. Passengers. Freight, Other. Total. ger reve-

] of freight.

nue to tota
revenue.
Yen Yen. Yen Yen
Tee aaa py oreise aces mma ete eielcinets e’= Stare e+-| 24,460,000 12, 690, 000 1, 050, 000 38, 210, 000 65 33
thot SES ere Sora = axe ae pene] 20,020, 107 10, 299, 038 2,162, 405 32, 985, 200 62 36
102 a eee 2 eee eee 18, 727,172 5, 937, 368 1, 482, 544 21, 147, 084 65 23
TROD cg ae o «nap Supers wee aa ewes} 11,796,653 5, 820, 512 1, 169, 630 18, 786, 795 63 31
BOB cain = 7 20 dptembietes done 7,394, 773 3, 576, 470 621, 670 11, 594, 474 64 21

Passenger revenue includes revenue from postal service and charge of excess of weight on baggage, and freight includes cattle and
carriages. Total income shows an increase of 6,500,000 yen compared with 1898, due to the rase of fares and better traffic.

>
- EXPENSE.
yr
7 Maintenance A Transporta- Net
a Z YEARS. of ways. Train tOTL Other. Total. revenue.
ct” Yen Yen. Yen. Yen Yen. Yen
4 ROSES 85 on is ee Bb ie es 8,941, 509 8, 239, 306 4,172,344 2,049,545 | 18,402,704 | 14,582,496
SED nee eiweinlepaiope Piciais etsun ote a aletaip et aete ate oTe 2, 582, 311 3, 669, 625 2,122, 987 1, 006, 192 9,381, 115 11, 765, 969
SOQ sao cia os RSI One Bees 1, 899, 656 3, 040, 918 1, 635, 644 1, 087, 348 7, 663, 566 11, 123, 229
= NBO sec ad alaic poe as es eso cdpiasies Saas 1, 384, 943 1, 593, 750 1, 002, 170 996, 480 4,977,343 |. 6,617,131
N
b
PM 2 . ~~ - ~ or
, The percentage of net revenue to the total revenue is: 1898, 44.21; 1896, 55.64; 1895, 55.27; 1893, 57.06.
i
.! of | United States.
Z 1598
: 1890 | 1896
Revenue per passeneer per mile’ (cemis):~ .-j..ceeescecscccsnensnces (ks SE eae ae 2.16 2.06
Revenue per ton per mile (eee) Bae ee ee eee alanis nica nie dis eciwetalarteiciaw ad 4.1 . 94 -8
BOOT OMI EREDAR CLINE LO EL Die Ses tae etna hs Sey Sa facials jp uigtaneaimepeyarmainciiele 175 144 138
Average cost of running @ train 1 mile, all trains (cents) .....-......ccceenncececcseseceee 81 96 93
Percentage of operating expenses to operating income ...............---seseceeeeceeeeeeee 44.21 65. 80 67. 06
Revenue Wen witie, WASseMmPen (VEIN: ~- opescss oss ccs cu sce cedtemce secs Cacasevucdeseacceceas 5, 895. 76 ae 9,475.51 yen
‘ Revenue per tino ener NON ao ee ote Sac neg netic cn oduwce anecs con aceuebec'eecccouns 2, 958. 42 a ee ee
= Revenue pends per mile, DASSCUSED (VCD) cvnane sins = Snincinine cn tacwarmaccce nc veqceueawecmece 16. 23 i = 24.70 yen
Mevene pevcny poenille, Teeth (FCM). sie va dies ococ atc do saben's deecacne wap owmcdannwe none | | Pe a ot
EPG EHAC HM OMmEMeN VY Cll rem iecr saan tees aa cteceels aayoe wae tierey ee ka ca Se ehlow SadS scesc's seus 5, 286.48 |
-. FOE FOVOHUC 1D OR TALO WY CBN i oan turetninte apenter pera ciaraio Cig ae wre Sree eretencretal arate re eterenhenensaetaianemere 4,189.03 |
——. Net revenue per mile per day (yen)........- Bo Sg concn p Ie em ot See Ean Sere aeons 11.48

No statistics of traffic according to commodities have been taken. The comparison of the cost of service with that of other
- countries was made.

> ;

‘ Reyenue. Expense.

SCHMPTATC Peden coc dees cduesaess cote ce sie pounds sterling..| 91,066, 038 55, 960, 543
RECO. Le Otine. gcid tele ced aaeiac osc oases 1,000 franes..| 2,595,300 1,373, 200
Germany, 1896......... Ee ee ee 1,000 marks..| 1,604,375 856, 722
Aastriay, [BGs semalee ssa. an Bie tetie sicaes wate 1,000 florins. . 263, 955 153, 896 -
RIP PISO scare one op oes tena alegre cae 1,000 lire... 257, 072 178, 460
OS eS eee BOE ee 1,000 rubles... 398, 628 232, 787
PAPAIN, LOIOS cso. nccuw ue coadedeaccaccccedeccnwe wees yen..} 38,219, 000 18, 230, 000

: -The percentage of net revenue of Japanese railroads is the largest in the world.

Government roads show a good income but heavy expenses. ‘The cost of construction of railroads is largely increased, the average
of 1897-98 being 54,472 yen per mile; that of 1898-99, 62,007, an increase of 7,535 yen per mile. :
‘ In comparison with other countries, Japan shows one of the cheapest costs of construction, the cost for 1897 being:

_ YR SSE ee es eee le | Bele te ee oe oe SLOG 9S) | Rrante 22.202... <c~ - ae ot enna ee
IMM oe tt aa oe ajar ata or oo, tue.) Austria... 2m, -. ook ste aya Pe a ME TO ots: vote. 20a er wk Se -- ~ “G2 R87
Ol 22. Se ae eee Pi eeOanoo }"Oandda. =. .sccaaees cers oh ee ee. 54,910 | United States .........-. Pema me EC
7 = 95,0L% | Japan ..... - ahem 88 a 4a Scees.*) 27,200

_ All roads of Japan are under public administration. As construction of competing lines is forbidden, unreasonable discrimination
cut-throat competition are avoided. This gives great favor to the railroad business. The tendency to railroad consolidation has been
ry apparent, but this is not due to competition but to the attempt to get better economy with better management, or, in short, better
iciency.
esides steam railroads there are horse cars, trolley cars, and other vehicles for inland transportation.

2244 | COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Number
YEARS. of com- | Capital. | Mileage. | Number

panies.

Horses, | Passengers. wigs Revenue. | Expense.

III. Mart, TeveGraPH, AND TELEPHONE SERVICE.

All three are under Government ownership and control, adding their revenue to its budget. Although they are supplementary to
transportation, they indicate the business condition of the country and the development of those relations which are indicated by |
correspondence, by the transmission of money orders, and by the use of the post-office as a receptacle of private deposits. In consequence ‘
of the increase of population, growth of cities, transportation facility, and advancement of industry and trade the mail, telegraph, and .
telephone systems are also improved.

NuMBER OF Post-OFFICES AND EMPLOYEES.

1
POST AND TELEGRAPH OFFICES

Coes, POST-OFFICES. TELEGRAPH OFFICES. .

YEARS. i

Number. | Carriers. pap ate Number. | Branches.) Carriers. — Number. Branches.) Carriers. — |
OUD vols pine'o-div'e nasicelwicie'mas wie So nano m melaweee 1, 144 10, 611 14,175 2, 668 596 6, 292 7,532 27 132 100
ELS SSCA COED RIS tore SIC eC E LOC resem od 648 6, 591 8, 389 8,076 523 6, 910 8,573 41 96 110
UDO 2 Meters Ob wane isan a Siclad aie wibwee Dama amre 590 6,116 7,393 3,128 563 6, 908 8, 225 46 80 118

These figures show the increase of combined offices and decrease of single offices. This means the Government is improying the
business with comparatively less expenses.

DoMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL Marit MATTER.

: Number of |
YEARS. — of — of la Books. | Samples. foreign let- ase Parcels.
" ; t ae
157,514,549 | 329,933, 823 | 91,519, 154 17,554,040 | 7,409,388 | 5,076,648 /617,
109, 401,244 | 228,502,113 | 78, 962, 299 18, 237,885 | 4,679,471 | 1,686,977 |448,
72,122,576 | 133, 260,175 | 50,829, 700 12, 929,437 | 3,514,310 40, 682
=
ForrEiGN Mart Service—Torat Mari Marrer Sent ABROAD. kw
YEARS. Sent. Increase. | Received. | Increase.

The rapid enlargement of the mails shows the increase in the number of people who are utilizing the system. The estimated
number of letters sent through the post-office increased 217 per cent from 1892 to 1898; postal cards, 248 per cent; parcel, 12,479 per cent;
books, 151 va cent; samples, 358 per cent; registered mail, 228 per cent; pamphlets, 180 per cent, and the total, 222 per cent. In the
foreign mail service letters sent increased 297 per cent in 1898 compared with 1892; cards, 769 per cent; pamphlets, 337 per cent; sampl
139 per cent; registered mail, 236 per cent; parcels, 6,271 per cent, and total, 323 per cent; and letters received, 195 per cent; cards, 29
per cent; printed matter, 159 per cent; samples, 358 per cent; registered mail, 216 per cent; parcels, 4,254 per cent; total, 185 percent.

Statistics were taken of the percentage of our mail service in relation to other countries, 1898:

British | Whole |
Corea, | China, Ania. Ana. England,

Ger-
many.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Se ena eabGoneduudavectcuecusecceusussacacteus 28.8 21.9 5.2 46.4 9.7 6.2 3.6 22
Pe eicecaddnunancpaecesanavcehunnancnnace 21.9 8.4 4.5 83.9

This shows the communication of the country is largely with Asia, its neighbor, but the United States is in very intimate co
both in commercial and social affairs,

*%

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2245

The number of letters unmailable, stolen, and burned varies according to the circumstances, as—

Undeliver-| Stolen and
YEARS, able. burnt.
UBS Nes 2 ctcccnken ah ccs nvesne walan aapie atte cdounoaeesun es ae 94,703 7,489
ee OeE ae ae ae mee 27 Saar BoE sis ee Tae 59, 143 3, 263

Money orders and deposits are rather in the nature of social correspondence, with small amounts, and they are not of very much
help to transportation.

LenetH or TELEGRAPH RovurTtEs.

Number

YEARS. Length of | Length of Number of per 100 of

es. wires, messages. | nopulation.
TARTS a enor ee contac capes enone sear. 12, 923 50,171 | 15,342,535 32.75
TE oson geen onbcgeosooe oop eee 9,449 29,798 9, 097, 102 21.13
IB O2 Wi 5 ae Se 5 eR 8, 432 22, 255 5, 360, 452 12. 86

YEARS. Sent. Increase. | Received. | Increase.
B08 ees nica ms niaw side crac aremacianpe! 161, 165 314 166, 622 306
AC eg SRSA SME II aOR It aaa tee ae 120, 500 235 120, 997 222
LOH Wee. SBA S Son cette ee ieee Ba cacan 148, 071 288 165, 053 303
RSC ea. wee ee ee an teat tee oeo ae 51, 300 100 54, 343 100

2The war effected a considerable change in 1895.

REVENUE AND EXPENSE oF Post-OFrFICE AND TELEGRAPH.

REVENUE. EXPENSE.
YEARS. Telegraph
Post-office. and tele- Total. Operating. Other. Total.
phone.
Yen. Yen Yen. Yen Yen.

3,336,180 | 11,025,492 6, 340, 019 1, 793, 680 8, 133, 699
2) 520, 362 8, 341, 042 4, 080, 996 1, 352) 829 5, 433, 825
1, 683, 074 5,518, 913 3, 358, 935 1, 140, 092 4, 499, 027

The net revenue of the department in 1897 was 2,891,793 yen, an increase over 1892 of 1,871,907 yen, equal to about 174 per cent.
The telephone system is being constantly extended throughout the country.

|
. | Employ-| Length | Length | Costofcon-| Sub- =
. YEARS. Stations. |Branches.| ~~ 6. of lines. | of wires.| struction. | scribers. | PeVe2Ue-| Expense.
Miles. Miles. Yen. | Yen. Yen.
. USGRs Sess see Cm atin cman eaee 13 40 778 1, 562 81,273 | 1,896,119 8,083 | 574,382 | 324,038
SOD cuca tine soe tebe waemeemens 4 24 201 433 5, 261 40, 897 2,858 | 142,431 90,117
BODE Soo cee tous aiamane Caciieas 2 18 51 224 1,573 64, 283 821 30,121 21,840

The net revenue of the department in 1898 was 250,294 yen, an increase over 1892 of 241,013 yen, about 269 per cent.

ARTICLE II. INDUSTRY.

After the war the industry of Japan made wonderful improvement in all lines, especially in manufacturing, being helped somewhat
by the amendment of the customs tariff. A near approach was made to the English principle of levying customs merely for revenue,
and not for protection. Hitherto treaty conventions restricted the levy to not more than 5 percent. The actual state of industry is best
explained by statistics.

A. AGRICULTURAL, FOREST, AND ANIMAL,

Maintaining that the broad foundation of the wealt of the country rests upon its honest farmers and its skilled agriculturists,
farming was the principal source of industry for a long time, having quite a variety of products such as rice, wheat, pease, corn, radishes,
__ ginger, onions, teas, potatoes, indigo leaves, cocoons, rape seed, cotton, tobacco leaves, hemp, flax, all kinds of papyrus plants, sugar cane,
~ mushrooms, bamboo, fuel, charcoal, timber, persimmons, sweet oranges, grapes, and other fruits, cattle, horses, other domestic animals,
_ ete., many of which are of benefit to the manufacturers for their supply of raw materials. Rice for home use, cocoons for silk, and tea
lor export are the most important and staple products of the country, and many areas are cultivated in all parts of the country.

No. 6 15

iw

2246

The cultivated area and products look stationary, but average yield per acre is increasing slightly.

No statistics are taken showing the classifcation of population. If accurately estimated a great percentage would be found to be

agricultural.

All forests of the country are under public administration, of which 33,072,380 acres were directly under Government control, with
but 17,903,965 acres under the lease of private citizens, in 1897.

YEARS.

The marine products are important for both food and fertilizers. There is quite a variety, such as trout, tunny fish,
turbot, shellfish, bechedemer, dried sardine, herring, bonito, shrimps, gomame, salmon, mackerel, dried tunny fish,
agematti, konbu, funori, tsunomata, nori, wakame, hijiki, colle vegetable, sardine, fish oil, and shark's fins, — :

Propor- ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED. 1 ae
tion per 1m aie SLAUGHTERED.
Cows. | Oxen. Total. 1,000 | Mares. | Horses.| Total. ~
popula- Pe pe = \\
tion. , Beeves. |Calves. Horses. Sheep.| Hogs. — Horses.
-++| 742,412 | 488,054 | 1,230,466 | 28.12 | 873,617 | 714,080 | 1,587,697 | 36.21] 1,315 |) 157,866 |........ 41,478 }........ 108, 217 ) ae eousesen
....| 818,245 | 593,739 | 1,406,984 | 82.55 | 874,663 | 718,208 | 1,592,871 | 36.85 | 1,163 || 151,22 7,277 | 41,049 | 68.05 | 107,034 18.6 2.6
} 06 | 454,072 | 1,186,278 | 27.16 | 852,567 | 678,036 | 1,530,603 | 36.59 988 || 154,815 | 5,771 | 36,026 | 46.64 | 41,419 22.7
.-.| 648, 292 | 451,507 | 1,094,799 | 26.64 | 837,984 | 716,668 | 1,554,652 | $7.84 |........ Tl tie i me ee
i

ESTIMATED AREA DEVOTED TO AGRI-
CULTURE.

» Kwan. bK wan, 1891.

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE.

1892

1898 1895

Field planta- F ; ,

YEARS. tion of mul- | Production Tea.
berry trees.

of cocoons. A

Plains dis-
YEARS. Government. Private. tinct from ,
forests.
Acres Acres. Acres.
189. 20s veusdeqcccusn sueu ance @anmmnenneen 83, 117, 512 17, 974, 891 14, 066, 141
1808... cucscocwapecccab sensu len nui neanees 29, 029, 039 17, 334, 746 14, 118, 976

B. FISHERIES.

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2247

PRODUCTION.
piprener i
of com- -
“ 4 Vegetable :
YEARS, eel oie glue and
in. Fresh fish. | Dried fish. | Salted fish.| Seaweed. Rcwcnirie: Manure. | Fish oil.| Other.
fisheries. | tured of
fish oil.
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. / Yen. | Yen.
LOL ee Wandin naa dae aciveles Unis aie pe ceesaane 29 | 614,225 |} 31,103,631 | 8,997,336 | 2,257,887 | 1,748, 449 | 658,705 | 10,515,196 | 239,746 | 5,555,609
LL SES ee ee ee patton Mee Cll GU [feet ee aamesele noes os Wes on neces calees--2-s-0-|soccecssnees Sep ee emaenNS arate sts
Sees ene ele et he ion aia reiaiaie aicisieae'cecesieacctonestws 15 | 177,765 || 14,489, 146 6, 164, 778 1, 450, 860 1, 340, 279 337,236 | 7,413,519 237, 342 2, 870, 632
ene en ase toa e ee. cate a deta Sakis deus dae otapsnaadv sas slcecoadoucs||se~sceecassc 6, 785, 527 2,541, 067 1, 723, 113 | 626,940 | 4,529,766 | 1S SOB: esky Sanstate

Cc. MINING.

Coal and iron are the most important minerals. The more widespread the material prosperity the greater the need of these two
minerals in all the processes of production and transportation—coal as a motive power, iron as a fundamental metal for all industrial
purposes. Statistics show the steady increase of the iron output year by year. The coal mines are very prosperous and produce all the
country requires for consumption. But most of the raw irons which are needed in the manufacturing industries of the country are not

i produced in the country. Gold and silver are also important for the substantial wealth of the country, but their production is not very

4 great, although it is yearly increasing. Copper is found in great abundance.

; aa

j NONMETALLIC.

. YEARS.| Gold, | Silver. | Copper. Iron, | Lead. Tin pe eg sie and Cop- | Mer- |Sulphated) coal.

3 . | peras. | cury. iron.
, Petro- | gyiphur. | @™2Ph-
fa fe | ite.
Ounces.| Ounces. Kwan. Kwan. | Kwan, Kwan.| Kwan. | Kwan.) Kwan. | Tons. Kwan. Kwan. | Kwan.

1897 ..... 33, 385 | 1,748, 609 | 5,437,155 | 7,464, 364 | 205,577 12, 692 | 4,112,239 | 3,477} 1,120] 714 | 2,033,716 | 5,188,157 | 9,248, 840 | 3,621,899 | 103, 984
1895 ..... 29,101 | 2,526, 699 | 5,098,085 | 6,879, 306 | 519, 133 12, 833 | 4,563,209 | 1,955 | 222,343 | 128 | 1,686,519 | 4,766,670 | 5,979,880 | 4,141,480 | 20, 442
1892 ..... 21,540 | 1,916,549 | 5,536,061 | 5,182, 427 | 236, 859 11,011 | 1,338,200 | 1,434 |......... 3, 955

3,176,840 | 537,640 | 5, 462, 818 | 160,074

The increase of the production of petroleum is something wonderful. There are (April, 1900) over thirty companies in the oil
districts; some of them possess a capital of over 1,000,000 yen, and the aggregate capital amounts to 12,000,000 yen.
: The total production of coal in the world in 1900 was estimated in round numbers at 700,000,000 gross tons, of which the United
States had 255,000,000 tons, or 32 per cent, and England comes next, after a large home consumption, she exported 45,000,000 tons in
1900. A few years ago Japan entered the list of coal-producing nations, the production of which has been wonderfully increased, and
she not only drove away the imports from Great Britain, but even exported to the western shore of the United States and oriental ports,
where vigorous competition with Indian and Australasian coal began. Being superior in its quality, with the advantage of facility of
transportation and cheapness of cost of production, it defied competition.* Its production amounted to 6,000,000 tons in 1900, of which
45 per cent was exported to India, China, Korea, Hawaii, Hongkong, the Philippines, Siberia, United States, and Australasia. The ships
on the Indian Ocean began to use Japanese coal instead of Welsh and Northumberland coal. Coal is abundant in Formosa and will be
a great addition to the supply in the country.

The construction of railroads, the building of ships, and the manufacturing industries need great quantities of iron and steel. A
considerable quantity of iron is known to exist in various places, but not in conjunction with coal, and therefore its local production and
manufacture is seriously impaired.

The copper market continues to present a very brisk aspect, owing to an active demand for export for electrical uses in other
countries.

———

D. THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES.

Innumerable variety and species, and enormous quantities of these form the principal resources of the country; such as all kinds of
wares of gold, silver, copper, bronze, and other metals, porcelain, earthen, glass, bamboo, wood, cloisoné, lacquerware, and leather;
mattings of all kinds, thread, and fabrics of silk, cotton, hemp, and other fibers; many kinds of paper works; writing, and painting
brushes of all kinds; implements of carpenters, smiths, and other mechanics; manufactures of straw, hides, bones, tortoise shells, conch
shells, and tusks; many kinds of dyeing materials; all kinds of oil, camphor, sulphuric acid, sugar, white wax, soap, rouge, face powder,
and other toilet materials; matches, cloths, knitting, toys, tobacco, shoyu, and many kinds of liquors.

The new era, since the restoration and peace after the war with China, resulted in immense gains to our manufacturers in the
demand for goods of various descriptions which our people are preeminently fitted to provide. The various manufacturing and mechanical
industries are being encouraged by the Government and by capitalists, and recently a strong disposition has been shown to seek for
investments in manufacturing undertakings. Heretofore native capitalists have, with some rare exceptions, invested their money almost
exclusively in lands. Many forms of industry that were in their infancy twenty years ago are now flourishing and not only increase in
quantity but also improve in quality. Articles that used to be exclusively imported are now manufactured at home. The total exports
of industrial products have increased from 66 per cent in 1888, to 78 per cent in 1897, and total imports have decreased from 92 to 60 per
cent during the same period. The capital used by the manufacturing companies in 1897 is twice that in 1894; the amount of paid up
capital $18,000,000 in 1894 became $37,000,000 in 1897. } ; ee ds

The development of manufacturing industries depend greatly upon the invention of machines, which is due to the progress of
‘science, and also to the encouragement and protection of patents. The patent system began in 1871, when the Government issued
a patent law, but it was inapplicable and was abolished the next year. In 1885 a law was issued again; but being too crude it was

, eee Se eee ee a a ee

8CosT OF COAL PRODUCTION.

8. d. a a re
CNet cnn ns ne se cinsccsecediecece SBad is Gs aig Ee SRE RRO eS SCEE Eee SLT New Zealand <2 50c; cccutwane Jek vnacaswanukoene 10
RRM ee eeinisis ciacine aes necan= nano evecesnaes 6 2 | United States -............. cece ee eee cece enee 450-9. |) GORGE nn et eee nce on < sone ee ak acon ec ee $, 9
Ieee an einai ne sia cee ene sccce 7 RGLetie oe etc tues SGC barsw cs tnhibaeuascGn ess RR 3a hag ot tC ne ae Rg Se ee eae Sen tae ee 10
EE Ee anaes cinnjcceic S.acteweseceecee Dal 1 EIR! 0 ona a siete POR ERS eNS Debt wawannce cate 10 JOPSD cacncdadauecunscugauchehnenas sencneeomeeee 5
a ee ot Smee iwicecic wciwacwaseceetene Sih ial, NOW SORBED I WALOS 5 . 5 cccennem conan snnencuencne 5 9
DEE asec cnc 5 See sh ite Celnceasinwnsiceacnes Ge De Qucenislane etek see me ih ia lswnnls'e en seacunee 6; 4

2248 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. —

amended in February 1889, taking the form of the United States law, and the system was then complete. Statistics show the number .
of licenses of various patents since 1885:

YEARS.

In 1896 an estimate was made of patents on machinery. Of 73 patents on silk, 10 were made in a silk district; of 30 on tea refining,
11 were made in a tea district; of 41 on matting, 27 were made in a matting district; of 8 on matches, 6 were made in a maich district.

IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING INDUsTRY: 1897.

Silk spinning 2

ROB Sr ode Ne A ti uieinl els cictermsties a aie oie eo a a |e | eee 777, 944 £0470) 180 ie ee
POTTONY Sooo once oe aos eae eee a ee ee eee ee 5,157 b5, 163, 070 . 25, 667
DACGUED sco ona tebcaue cliece sev auwac tome ee sdaacn nase See eee aan | ee ee ee 5,191 b 4,116, 088 18, 708
Bronze WATE: ci osetia ds scteu te cmeere Job see oat ae ee Weee eal ee cen Ue aes 1, 240 b1, 130, 642 5,277
LIQUORS. os veces mine ddkebindsinenincamtedeh ap attideaae meee 125 3,901, 196 14, 470 04 718,008. | news cestanenen
SAUCOS oc an sicisce worn Uninc weleb'ncis.c Sune uicaeea duateaes de caeee se |asaneeeel<oee ee eee 10,177 SDONDHA Toscewnceseeaee
GRUUO cade sen aclecewas goewaies foe aweewaeeonneee de eeere. 187 9,171, 895 665, 356 b 105, 984, 922 1, 041, 229
PRUOIM oie vada wen suecos so rce coe te eee ee ee 81 , 685, 66, 363 pita) el eee ee see
CH naa genet Ee cs): 55 ee aE en, Smee emp onie 6 Ihe ce Rel lh on 8 109, 100 Lge a Re: ih eee eae
RUGS «51 ch occ sadceventactecaaleadecsncsnpeusnouucaratenee sel Uweeas cela ee 2,000 43, 18,000
Matehes\... 22ctocaonsacos cones geeieecn toe ae eee yi Eee ee Pema nin b 6, 548, 492 47,724
Grain 08. 2-s-5.5- Ra a ee ee ee ere tel ee en ese 8, 247 WG69SI9: GOS Tso Seceren
Wegetable Wart fab acdccnens wclenucw kcede fe cnn tentan see aes [eee ane eae eee 2,619 DD, GOA DO eo en casas
COMO: 22352 Sone cee rede ata aireccele el Soe ete heteeiet ane ae 16 2 808 COD hoon Set mewng 2] aeianaekeiee tema a aeease
Pharmacy... 2.ceenenc seat oes amene oes eeee ee eee 83 pA Oyo al Be eee. Bae ee: see Poe ee
BIT. 3 aieic won aw gence Sete nea eee apm ate n ate tee oe tee eee 9 WEG OOO i.wwowewe see OAD AE Tid | een ape
Blectric light. -s:scecenenccucncotenase sca kee oaameseeeaes 42 By 610.704 oh sec eens io ea i Ge ae
Cotton Spinning. Lio bet ence oe an ce eee ean eee 85 S410 088 pach cece Eee ee eee Se Somme
SUPER aa n)- cis wastein manltda sin a'eneids oe eee es Mea eee ae etre eee 5 1, 667, 570 C1 IGF ns siicemena teas ete aaa

«Kwan. > Yen. ¢ Koku. 4 Square yards.

Industries for which materials are locally produced.—They are the manufacture of silk, tea refining, pottery, clay pipes, matches, iron
and other metal, ete. The iron and steel industry has now attained great proficiency in every kind of production, and is advancing
daily. The iron industry, under Government control, was established in 1896 with 4,090,000 yen, and it improved its investment to
6,470,000 yen in 1898. The inconveniences of material transportation caused the Government to give a bounty in opening a port to
facilitate the transportation of coal, iron, and machinery. The capital was increased again to 8,630,000 yen in 1899. Match factories
are kept very busy. There were 278 factories, with 19,229 employees, in 1899. They produced 5,871,506 gross, and 58,906,665
were exported in 1899. Our pottery and clay pipes are favorites in the world, and imitations of our porcelain is seen in the Netherlands.
In 1899 tea was produced to the amount of 33,451,528 yen, of which 8,387,598 yen was exported. In the silk factories haying more
than ten employees in 1896:

Production. | Machinery. |Hand work.

COCOON US0G 2... sco c:cemane nme oduacmciceeac ete aee ee kokus..| 1,036, 849 887, 098 149, 751
Silk produced:=...ioccc ccc clk tedanmkne ene aoe pounds..| 6,031,738 5, 140, 627 891,111
Silk produced im. 1898). .ccisis sraetog= mn ceases Ceara a een aa DO nnecls vik eeackensee 8, 381, 008 428,413
WOrsted) SEE. un «= ois agin n'a sm octetee en niente tine eae ae GOn< we 1, 522, 383 1, 302, 912 219, 471
BMployees <2... ce cch aus achucpeetecuates veetuna eee eee number.. 172, 901 12, 444 48, 460

This table shows that the producing power and efficiency are great in machine work and machines are going to be used more and
more. ‘The factories of silk manufacture are getting larger and the number of employees is increasing.

FACTORY EMPLOYING—

More than 10 persons:
OD. MACHINES wcnwan xs wnnensvce.nn 0.0.0ceb mun oboe eke sheen
By hand
More than 50 persons:
ON MAGHINGS wo... cack news veinn bohow nadie eile Cae ene aseucaccus

IBY. DANG 6 oi ccc ween cuasinntuisen com's ae eee ner ete ome octet
More than 100 persons:

ONL TACTICS aia sawn. a:p's:c0 0c 0 a:l’ew peleeete ama ae ieneao eri ee re

BY DGDG. .0 i tenis oa wmuciwiin enw 6 uvelaunih en © ae ue’ e sini in ennai tsnnnnnn ernie
More than 500 persons;

OP, MAGHINGR on asin oc ccc duncncccccenn cat cack MineneeeMeauden aenenan

BY DANG . ons ncanon wacccncucaucesncu iaucaseeven NORE eNGREGAnen ane eMen

Total:
OM MACHINES .... ccacccnesndcceveunceaentacsttctsausauns teGeneene
IS MENG sc ccenansncwauawd kkihile daaeexte aan iemenenmae eccucescee ee

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2249

SHors WHERE MAcHINERY Is USED,

NUMBER OF FAC-
TORIES. Decrease
(—) oF
increase

1896 | 1893 (+).

DU, SLC ao dec emwcncaadehanknaaneaaAamicong=adewa nace a SSS Ee 829 613 +316
IY) Wetheltectons aeeeeace te on ne eee n eae n teen ce Bocas sonlcrneccone 1,077 1,151 — 74
994 1,539 —545
Steam power is going to take the place of water power and men.
EMPLOYEES IN FACTORIES UsING—
Per cent
increase
1896 | 1893 | meorcas
crease
Mia chine ioilen a eertewscctvenc istatcuscecsewatcs a aweldimae ewan eases oes = 130, 753 85, 988 +52
RIO WOURNMONILON fe ain gic 3atic ae seme ee atin as vlncus aun cte Seeetee cece ncueeeste ae 47,514 19, 169 —74

EXXPENSE FOR EVERY 100 Pounps SILK.

1897 1893
Yen. Yen.
Machine 126 110
Mande = 20 108 82

Silk, flax, and ramie machines have been mostly supplied from England, although a small numher of them haye come from
Germany and France.

Industries for which materials are imported from abroad.—A few materials are partly supplied at home, such as cotton, wool, sugar, ete.

The manufacture of woolen goods is yet in an infant condition, not more than 2,000 spindles being at work.

The manufacture of textiles has become one of the most important industries of the country. Its product:

Mixture
YEARS. Silk. cotton and | Cotton. | Hemp and Total.
silk. others, ,
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen,
TRORS SS cae sate 73, 936, 028 17, 240, 317 48, 728, 404 8, 834, 449 143, 739, 198
BOHR ere’. 4, 647, 401 10, 281, 272 37, 088, 757 2,350, 805 96, 187, 235
ASG es) 19, 347, 885 7,807,364 | 19,113,409 2, 671, 978 48, 940, 536

There are many companies for cotton spinning located at various places in the country. The supply of raw materials is great, and
there is active competition between the United States and India in furnishing them. The manufactured goods are mostly exported to the
Orient. More than $14,000,000 worth of yarns was exported in 1900. The growth of this industry was very rapid, the total number of
spindles in 1899 being 1,353,125 against 5,456 in 1863. The quantity of raw materials worked up during the year 1898 totaled 27,343,000
pounds, and the output of yarns was 23,773,000 pounds.

The following shows the cotton-spinning condition in September, 1898:

er ee rere eae ee ae re ete ree en ar on CE ica eon age nano a ienGa te naadaemucvanans 910, 441
egemdee Gti Gicnr Or COAL DOR IRON 25 a 4- a2sm anc ace ace nnennccunemacecchecsutecnaous pounds... 53, 219, 168
rnp Ene Rniie PRONE CIP ES OGIO er te. Ane ek ee ee oe ce ee kwan.. 2,728, 695
Employees—
Ee Rape ees Rr ele ead tea i te, te ee Oe re ara nen n ooo Sa woe poem ae eee wa bease 14, 811
See a Oe oe eee ER, ie 2 ES RE ae ee no ee ae ee ee 49, 608
pee arena Uae ot ene eS Sao een ae 8 a ce ee ale 28, 367

Other statistics:

First half | Second half

/
of 1898 of 1897. Increase. | Decrease.
Number OF COMPANIES . o.oo cceane nen cenaweqgeam= 67 63 4 a ee
ING HOU CRUG: sete meni cavicld Jacinuts enteric Cenc Sewers Ukiga 1,701,163 1, 274, 660 426, 503 . Reset Oa
Surplus FUN. ... 20.05. seeee eee eeese cece cee eeeeen sees 613, 249 249, 683 So a ae eee
TOE OXRCR es ec a clei aisle a teietireranc ciniciastcle ete aoahe tare es 815, 650 pS ae aoe See ; 40, 986
TROP CON Gy etiaee acer tae ale orern worn warrew SaaS pice towiae'a 26.5 CGE Pie gewcate tas ' 5.1
Netteyenue per compamy «..- 2... .smees-~cenewecns 25, 391 20, 232 OL PEPE sence
Surplus fund per company .........--.--e0--.e----- 9, 153 3, 963 nah Le ee eS
re ID VIC O Der COMDAILY «<< «<nines cae acacUG- os saq-sane 12, = Vee id eae eae iy “
|

Per Gent Per COMPANY Tu... 5. ce... caede nswastes cece 5 | See ee es

—_ -—

The best systematized manufacturing business in the country is cotton spinning. To understand the condition of the factories,
employees, etc., it is best to study this industry. ;
After the war this industry made wonderful progress and the demand for laborers increased enormously. Consequently, where

_ machinery was used and many laborers were employed it began to feel a lack of labor supply, and had to meet the demand by getting

i

2

2250 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

them from a distance at great expense and much loss of time. Many companies sent agents over 200 miles to get employees. As to the
~ efficiency of the work of those brought from a distance, few are found to quit the company, although they need a few days’ careful drilling,
while those who come from neighboring towns are found to need no practice, for they have seen and heard in their surroundings. But
they very readily quit work, for they come just to get money; therefore, if they are told of better wages, they are easily influenced to quit _
the place. The defects of the former are that when they return to their homes for festivals, funerals, and so forth, they stay a long time;
the latter, having their homes in the near neighborhood quickly quit in case of slight sickness and other circumstances. Very few
children come by their own desire; most come by their parents’ financial trouble, i. e., parents send them for work and get their wages.
People who can support themselves hate to send their children, because the associations are not good, and nothing can be learned except
todo that particular work. The employees, especially the females, are children of very poor people, as of peasants, fishermen, and coolies.
They have no idea of sanitation or the health of their bodies, and have no proper education; therefore they have no patience in their
work and no ideas of saving; they spend all they earn for insignificant things. Employees from the city or town, where there are facilities
of communication, are smart in work, but these facilities give them opportunities to return to their homes, and they never stay long for
work. On the other hand, those who come from a distance remain comparatively longer, but take a longer time to become acquainted
with the work. The reason of their quitting is very simple—change of their customs. They have not grown up under strict rules of
conduct, and the factory system makes them as uncomfortable as if they were working in imprisonment. Employers want to have as
many employees from a distance as possible, but there is considerable expense to this, as for sending agents, commission for reeommenders,
outfit of clothing and traveling expenses given to employees, and adyance payments which often are never returned. Another defect is
the competition of employers to get these employees, which gives the latter some favorable considerations. Still another is that
employees are cheated by the commissioner, and often complain to the company for breach of contract.

The contract is written, the time is from three to five years, and their ages from 10 to 60 years, because the older employees demand
generally that their young children be employed with them.

‘In October, 1897, in seventy cotton-spinning companies there were 71,301 employees, as follows:

Female. | YEARS, Male. | Female.

814 WnGer 20s 2o ze se ser 6,166 14, 414
1,875 Under 40% 5025-00 2, 481 3, 656
7, 684 Under 002. <2... 911 1, 420
6,071 || Wedae Oh oo... Sie ee 302 27 |

19, 734 / OVE? 005 oes on wascunee ae 10

___ Thus, female children under 12 years of age form only 3.8 per cent of the total and 4.8 per cent of total female employees, and male
children under 14 years of age only 1.8 per cent of total and 8.7 per cent of total male employees.
Their length of employment, October, 1897, in the seventy firms was as follows:

YEARS. | Male. | Female.

Under Luwcscccstishcnomescen. ste eeee aides oak eaten ares , 486 26,470
0p Co (:) p/n ne On a ey a tee ee SE A 3, 755 12, 872
Under 5.5.6. cc22. tenon cece de cee ce caste eseteee dep ates eee eneeemas 2, 024 7, 462
Under 4.4... eset cd eos. cee eee en ene ea eae ee , 165 4,297
Unier 6.2.22 ons scenes wo me been he see eee ae a ae te aera 829 2,489
UMGEY 7. oc cinwiw s'b:5.5 :o.niniantm nie ain te'a erminleieet aan ee eee eee RE St 579 1, 826
1 0) os (-5 9 | Beare EE aE eI PS RE aA 374 512
Over 10... 1c cveccccususscccvccedcctut douse tess ae pee ae a aeae 87 76

TOtAl . 02.225 2lenvidanstconenke epee a meeee ne ene | 15, 299 56, 004

HOURS OF LABOR.

Generally speaking, they change their work from day to night every other week or every ten days, although changes are made
according to weather and season. They work ten to eleven hours, having recess one to one and one-half hours every three or four hours.
The hours are never different with mate, female, old or young, but the kind of work differs. A discussion took place about the question
of night work. Some say it is too hard.

To discuss this question intelligently, the first thing is to observe the custom and degree of civilization, and also the benefit of the
country; therefore, all Huropean and American methods can not be taken into consideration. Eleven hours of work are short com
with the hours of clerks and salesmen, who sit in stores from twelve to eighteen hours. Of course, the work on the machines is not
very easy, needing constant watching of the movements under fixed arrangements, and of careful study. As to the night work, the
rather prefer it in winter, because they are largely poor people and lack bedclothing and fuel at home; so they prefer to come to wo
and save expenses, and also on account of the larger wages in night work. In summer the factory is cooler than their little houses.

Waces, Precework AND SALARY ToGerner, OcTroBer, 1897.

PER DAY, Male. | Female. | PER DAY.

|

Sen. Sen.
Woder 6 vcausceccecuswenesee 52 418 Under 25 .aneasseekeiietiasatn
UNGGL 3 Fics nvecuddancwa amet 222 2,108 || Undér 80... .s.. scp ameemanbenn
Dunder 10": stascusauniesioenees 577 8,050 || Under 85.:..:...00eseeenesenen
Under da’: wait csc crea 736 8,772 || Underd0........ sl .seeeeeenee
UNGOr 15s uc wnciencucenwes cee 1,536 10,615 || Under 600...<..c.ccneenseeeeee
MIIGUIUL ec cwwewecececSuMnenee 1,718 8,924. || Under 60.......sccusasnaeeeee
CRUG 20 ct cucncuccecuueceees 2, 689 6,004 I] Over 60ocaccnsnceeneaueenenene

-1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2251

SANITARY CONDITION OF FACTORIES.

All companies pay attention to the health of their employees, but the laborers, as said before, have no ideas in this regard. When
they get their wages they spend them for eating and drinking, spoil themselves, and the attention of the employers to sanitation is in vain.
They furnish doctors and examine the patients, but if the examination is too strict the latter dislike itandrunaway. Theexpense to which
62 large companies went for sanitary improvements for three summer months was 12,405 yen in 1897, with average of 200 yen per company.
But there is a hopeful decrease in the amount of sickness among the laborers.

i Sickness in thirty-five factories, from October, 1896, to October, 1897, is shown as follows:

Agegre- =

gate. Deaths

MORPEOTOMMCISCANOS ocean cous ae cea oU seen acces cdcleseweass 908 42
Developmental and exhaustive 735 5
GRIM AMC MNSCIC sci cenicces.tc sem eegperess 2, 807 3
RORET AIL [OWS <i-1..cjyc once omnes aces cle 8,015 6
I DUMRVEHBCIA o- 2 oc pecans she soaps «coca is 235 12
STIL OHIIN = a cits aod oct os dec Dawemeatensaceemecass yes moss 6, 220 2
ENG SULUT LENO reer es cio ce ae ron ee ane cece cncllaecccceuees dae 10, 220 104
DR frat sete Pe stent ia tateioinlw ben <i ae oclaln onal a oes oiwisieisniee'weneseianaoe 14,115 39
ICT MC aeree erat a ein tenisioe.ciclcings cise nin cin cic'a’sioiniawewwigia a'assislae'cin e's 872 17
Kidney and reproductive orgams...........20-.cesccccccecccce 1,547 LE
Seiko S) SS USS OAS oe ee BAe Ee a nae eee 2,375 2
MUSE SAME OSes ce sats. ne creeb ies adenddcdessasredscdaces 1, 220 6
JOE eee se pe SOC SC Con DELO: GEC IREEICOCOCt ECC C COOP CAA cee 44, 270 249

The above table shows the greatest number in the diet list, and the next is in throat disease, caused by drinking.
BUILDINGS.

Recently great improvement has been made in factory buildings, which are now erected under the supervision of technical
_architects, who have studied the European and American factories. Most of them are of brick or stone, but on account of earthquakes
most are of one story and very seldom of three stories. They pay attention to light, ventilation, and especially to the prevention of
fire. To keep the factory clean they sweep it all over three or four times a year, besides the daily sweeping. Dormitories are not in
the foreign style at all; they are made for the convenience of our laborers, which the foreign style of dormitory would not be.

EDUCATION.

First of all, labor and education can not run parallel; the employees work all day and come home almost worn ont, and it is
impossible to pour learning into such dull heads. Moreover, they had not proper education when they came, and if they are compelled
to attend lectures they dislike it and run away. But on account of the improvement of machinery and the division of labor, they need
more education. Some companies give lectures by priests, and inculcate morals; some use shadow pictures and explain the redress of
wrong and try to improve their personality; others give lessons in sewing to female laborers, and this last is the only successful method.

in thirty-seven large factories, October, 1897, there were 6,041 males and 21,463 females who could read, and 1,211 males and 17,471
females who could not read; there were 521 males and 3,124 females under 14 years of age who could read, and 405 males and 3,808
females who could not read.

SAVINGS.

Three to 6 per cent of the wages are reduced compulsory for savings, on which the company gives 5 to 10 per cent interest, and
this they never allow to be drawn out during the employment, unless it is needed. But, as stated before, the laborers are ignorant and
never understand the principle, and think that the sum taken away has gone as a contribution or commission to the officers of the
company, although as time passes they begin to know the value of the idea. The result was:

1) Some idea of savings for need was given and at the same time their extravagance was stopped.
tS When sickness occurred in their families it gave great help.
(3) When expiration of employment came they had some capital.
4) As the amount of savings increased they became more and more studious to save.
5) If they violate the by-laws those saved amounts are forfeited, thus insuring their good behavior.
(6) Naturally they change their customs and tendencies and become good employees and get more wages.

Thus the system is of great benefit to the company as well as the employees themselves. Besides these savings the company takes
their deposit on voluntary savings and gives interest a little higher than the market rate. The company also sends their remittances of
money to their homes without any charge.

ee 5 war “Y dinate 7

a 7 KC - =
‘ grei> Saeed = r A
rn 7 J a ? f = »
r =
COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | : a4
- °
PENSION. | ; :
For long service the company gives pensions according to the length of employment and rate of wages.
Facrories or Atu Kinps Emptoyina More tHan 30 Men 1n Japan Decewser 31, 1897.
BY MACHINE POWER. HAND POWER. ~" :
7 ,
ARTICLES. Number | Number Horse- Number =a
of facto- of ma- ee Employees.| of iacto- Employees. —
ries. chines, | POWEr- ries.
PUN CA I ms Sal Fs 1S ero wicivn'e wineru + seater esis oa ox ema ER Ue a mele nals te ite ae Ee ae ae 1,939 2,721 19, 796 161,345 153
RAE OMEN a cocaine & = 2am nian wae Cote oma RCO E eR er eee eben on. See 159 278 18, 526 130, 133 5
LATER LOM Soetn a Soe al oa ac's cen a See oi estedic Soe ete oe Sat eee 16 >. SA 1, 055 3,771 120
(Gloliea nA TOS ahh oS a en eerie an Pe Sea Jn en) ee ee Oe See eee ae 15 19 2, 792 5,793 187
Machine aid instrument for Vessels. 3. foascus sree peers Meee o a-'ne woee ence eee 144 192 64, 373 30, 737 44
ith. a iPr ene se). 50S ie he tee SS eee Pee gay eek 328 1, 074 48, 462 124, 027 115
ROLMCCO tesa a's sOae anemia =o dae sO oo SO ee ee ne ae 42 72 1,193 5, 809 143
RECOM etree tn alee cide de' a aces cea cicia eet een tee Se eee Ne od) Se a 5 Sa ht AA eee 4 4 18 1,026 259
Lain 17 (Oe ete AN OPI OE Li > SNR brig ct OEE Bo EEE BORE eae Eee 29 40 798 1,425 1
CARMA ai ow sm es Ge Pirin aS SRD ere rie Mesa hs oR ac ee ee an SN Sa Se eae 52 63 650 5, 962 41
PCMAG ENG a15 one wasaw tan ccceses tesa sxcnaenbas ens ve cosh tener ee ss oe eter eae 13 13 391 1, 453 99
RADE Fc wiv ie'a a:a'oo eae onl vos scaee des b's cise ae ais awa cer apn ace aon ep Osos en ren one sae ee il 13 85 804 19
PIE coe ate So aicininscinrd mein cba weebih sia 07am oeiee sc ote alyc tae ce ee ae ae ae 10 16 400 1,144 138
SONS ete sc Seem e io «vane a Sw ao pa ewe Mk noe ei tee od OSS ere Ee ee 9 il 156 1,238 28
AD OUR 2 Win sew alc’ coe nals a6 ne oad pals pauilnoe duets dee BSUS see ee ae ee 47 125 5, 693 6, 403 47
CHULGEY ene a Pet ain. c'no aoa olaipia o's ew be ci ose oop eos eee Sew ee ee 5 38 407 53
MistGhiaeoks |... ..acsecese cated utp an eee oe een eae se eee eee ee eee eee 14 81 128 1,519 2B
PLOUADSPORIUICS! 23, os bcnacn towns ad cinema cach an aod cee kb os Ue semen Tae eee ee eee ne eee 6 14 1,030 2, 762 a
RIEXOD TYCHO S icihencekieoc cont cee seco ape wo emus woe Bae e ee ee tee ee nee Sarre ne ee ae 13 13 394 3, 606' |. ...coc552-e eee
MIISTORG 25> Face Studdes ve vide ea ea goes ad acme eae eee oeate ee 11 15 553 B, 400 4o shee
CUFGKSE iene chedeu vole hues save pve dence Seale coe tae cette mwalcete Tie ae aoe eee 29 88 252 3, 482
SERA JDTALG, 55 ono ania ed picin asc ve wes ncicicedcenScammwcaweehe ce ahes same mee recs ae me Dees eel eee ae en ais 36
IANO Bie Soca ae par cw eciwad vain boon ob ie Sees beak bes fe ee ee ee ee tee ane ome | PSERE eee pnd © See ays 24 | Pee S 106
DONOR femee = Sn aint cae a cow wos wai caso eee eee eee en Oe ae | 22 44 | 2, 660 4,015
WOU nic cec tice civcts.gac coco s ptneswied babi coo e waa e we cca hie Oe eee eee eee eee ee ee 14 15 429 1, 691 {
WVILO 5 Edis oace clve cows sab cvew nc coedodavehbasbeca bodes scone Deere ees eee an nae 5 5 36 188 |) os. ccnsnseep eee
FLEET Cl cracls si oicin okie vw cbc «dia aba emis de autos Bees panel ee wre ee ee a a eee 4 26 1,732 iy | aS Nera. Slee
MAGA alee wane ccnp ss naccicc enna sane tans meise decom canoe ac accw ue oe Mbp cman me nen nis penis Spe mae atest are teers ieee eee ae ee see 36 1,392
OANIG i ciaiwn's ale p cisle cree valve tie nccecce eles sceccun done see tes Cone na aes eee. see eee eee 1 z 75 30 3 166
COTO MATING. <.ca:c\eeciecu vosdine ce aee viene dicmenutans aw odetac's c tees eae teat ee eee 5 5 460 805 42 736
Springs Secjece dianaiwised asians s aadnedececnnnnces eedthcus cpabceera pers cenenet DoeeEes eee aaeee mene tae aoe a Oe || eee ee 4 216
INS OONCR Wa ofa.s unio asp ie s'e:0:Sieiddia'w anew t ew apres vaeeremes ba ee pee ees Ree See eae oe 2 2 60 1D Bee Ape bane eee 2
RRL ON psn cto mca wo a Panis eo aiclw wala mead wimp a alm e's ole min mi eal eie re ee oe 4 4 76 5, O08 4 scnasem cam
WWOOGEN tHDES < fen. cans wcoddv accion nice omgubaceeJactckeeun neste oe ee eee & 7 71 465 4c ee BS SOR
INGE cin upalels vKciere wine wives awe oou.c osle'd d acids ote debnaala ata ee 7 21 202 257, |. .«5s ms acca
LnE a ee ee LE eta deecae ono bee nnincisles aha S ec anep ee eee RE ee eae eae eae 8 16 238 Le Ee
DLN cis cemiccncuvcccaces ec ouncececic vicdelawine oll ciucdea ene cnte aeeeete tetas ar see eee anes 2: iO. 10 366 G68). Sec
CAMEO soos ctw rnc cew cece wa dntecwcuclbee sch wines stuido eae Memeie Sle sete ae eee ae eee een ee ena ee eee | eee aoe
OW GCL anc ebiricnacnccn pous'nw onan ahnine swinp = sare qunive pen Decigneld panGe dates opie ate eee 5 5 73 191 | ....~as0=s08 ee
NECA SULED ow exono cr nace m= soe <o0ny aamsl oa\sigicw acid a npeics am ae Sanne a aiaaate lester aa eee ee 2 2 9 160 11
MIGRUCL ROOUB s ccce. iapinsin ovcivc-esenawnacwsamcce cla cam onawemaan suas bs cetenee eee oe aa eae eee 8 14 80 2, 594 11
ROCA DIC ID 1c cre werkieinc marnew elec cule ae oe entniniete late Spr Ure oe coe Shae Cele chee ae eee ee eee juvcie be awia miiate's | tele istam aera beetet ia a aoe ace dS Jenne ener eeeee 4
[Uohs (ol te a a en a aa nomen esa moe ee tS Dearne HES ee Sete eer: TE oe eas 4
MOA OLE aan eo Seven coc se vccaueeteues sebinacnc su deduce dona nmeeun dette Cee Ee ee | 3 3 58 ) 104 3
Be CURTAIN ain owen ace aie wn wrwin nein ani ainw'vid erewalee ee aia Sow iaiape a's tenia ae I le lao ee 2 104 20 192 |. .weedecdee}useeeeeee
MOUSE elit wip’ aon. ia:0'0 nw om x w:0'e'e on seca Wan nwie.ocien va une assem s «oa cme ccn un aee nee ena ea arene | a ee 2 a ee lcm cceceusr i een atepebs wee 3
ANB Ree 2 Coc ce's cox moe ce vovetwscecbseesececcuscssen en cshon etree eet ee ee ot Saas eee aS ee | anesnUEeee 18
RID OOV WOLD seins enna encc caves caccverasdrccanswavtnsluseces see luece cone ae een Beier pabees i Sees Pe sceeer eae | AS See 3 7
DROME ME new on uaact si ya's veces ola ckiel.ssucale cup wbce sank eases ce eee oem ee ae eee eee 2 2 36 | 116 11
BISORON DOOR a tiada nods nonin ocnk snmaend cnachephn dasndm ces bnn dabanh bn nde COE Eee 2 2 29 73 2 7
SAG. vc cue cwerccndns uwnccewececdapsnccevececcanncaccannecun ease sn'en spn omgew nap clns sun piime ac cee) sete ae amma een ee ea 4 =
RMU Goa Ub ends ues swewad neue sonuebune acc a'ge'secwicns woo meee ne cotreeet tae ne BAe SL! fa Uh cee ee SS 8 [Se Sauk cemee | ee Sas Be 9
DUCE ILOULCUES 5 <cnn vic ends ccucccccseesedovcscesccecencch we suieauecaeauntnete Ute ems wnat 2 4 194 106 | idee
UMN vers cwctcocnsccesccacedaecaceenuuats de sc0neeku come aimneae rie eee 6 22 310 S42 |. ~-wecestmneleueeeee
WCRITGMIG Wo sch ue'c's'a'saansccvedet Geawewa vibe aennwl qunepebcun 6 pean Gea eee tee eae 8 3 47 158
MUONS CHO Ke wwe puic'ccvvenwsswesenisteveecckcawnevanmueanmeeceh mhicpeanu tas Sheen stn 4 4 30 240 5
BOCILOK 06 encaw ap amin 6's cineir an vanjae bs 6.u0S'o:ds'aw hun d’asian'e'y\n apie eis oats scale mnie te ote anee dcucubechecms apa neti So ans tel Be cawianee 3
WOME tneaisnlolcv o's ta s'sinawan,ccns'etennleca t.u'uesibcacieaech ds cin ose uiet wpepi asa atee ae 6 10 1, 084 2,680 2
NVLCD cue a win 0.06 cere'n hin c'sw 0's © 9 oie.ece'u'n cm n'u'h.dje.0'06 moat We Ga. u'p-ajapliaeces meen Ea neal 2 2 16 120 2
(hptrnmonts Tor lamps... 5 cas vc cds owes einannn a neha nine ollnee cui dae pepe Cop eee Rene een 4 4 40 TBD |. cedoua cicucdemupeeniee
BERL TROREINS ecco ac arta oma, a0 arn em arly too wip oe emt lr ec by ee eee Se acy oeeoles dctraNenienneeein ee ee aietane
POTMBOLS, DONG 5 v.nn pan vnce sine nenmswats avyeciem on mam p cinvae-chnceceidwacw en aes as aaa 2 2 50 116
PROMOS aw vpn etna Fale. ae xn a.0\6 60.9010: ame'h: mob pimpsn 0.0 Se elnino em eee bs oN ol ere eee 1 1 8 CE epee
MOTO N eve uriecnycccdecnevsecscosnacuvappevgnacas cuapEneeman tase mee took aimee een ieee 4 12 144 900 |... .dss0 cel seeueeeneee
DULUGYOR WAGE vccccccanncedevestcobbuusavévtadennanncheacateeerandens CeeUe ete En aeT Cuan a cf 5 $2 |. ccnatsvnenlawhn Glennie
BUSTY clic as Wd dacncsncccsusccuncinconsiunveccesecaculcacd ete cen teee eee del t cenit ae 2 8 400 130
a WeReee bends dulaceeducedus vane aad nukcdecvecenecebenponkauu tener eet Aen 2 4 12 234 weeceee See eee ewww ween
ROU DOU irda tie Wee e'd sow iin xsew6sienscccw ois 06stv0ed ucudeuniinen nee tiae demon tei etCennnE 2 4 216 118 |.....<0..tscleumeeneeenin
ARTICLE III. TRADE.

That the amount of foreign trade is the sole and sufficient measure of material progress is stated asa mercantile principle. Internal
trade is likewise important, especially in a country like the United States, but this indicates only a part of economic improvement and
is commonly free and unimpeded. Therefore let us observe the foreign trade here. be

The restoration in 1868 abolished all unsuitable features and developed all the favorable systems and regulations of trade, industry,
laws, transportation, etc., and trade became vastly more prosperous. The development of our foreign trade in the past few years has”
been simply wonderful, and within that period it has expanded to the western countries, where it has been very great. These western
countries have offered us great competition for the trade of China; the excellence and uniform cheapness of our products defy competition.
For instance, as Professor Mayo-Smith stated, ‘‘Down to the beginning of the seventies China was almost the only source of tea supply
for the Western World; then Japan came in as a competitor and now exports more than $4,000,000 worth.”” The increase of manufactures, —
the application of steam on veg and sea, the growth of population, and a more liberal commercial policy developed the country’s trade
with marvelous rapidity. The moyement of trade is accurately measured by the statistics of imports and exports, if all invoice y
are true. i
Ane

:
soe

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN, 2253
Tora, VALUE or Imports AND Exports,
[In round numbers, yen.]
EXPORTS,
Japanese pro- | Foreign pro- Export per
YEARS. duce. duce. Total. capita.
GPR ee Sar Saar BA AOE OE er Ee) an EE, e) -e EAR Ee nOee 15, 553, 500 | tea as
NB ioieren de os wacwaasec ued sbceedaWs Houses ota e he cra ccatileccsdecwccsecvees Of GBB; 400 foe oe Sere
BLS masa Satetiase sare erate as Op err aace- a oa See 25, 988: 000 1 a ales
UD aa ae eed ale eta ace a aie OE Tee de crnnciesll ani dan ace namnnage 3, 2h OO To recanted
TERR on ae ceeene tere dels ttn wc on bende Petes cage tt. Se eS ee 65,703,500 © lonccsdeen
1896)... 2-8 af EE —Peeiene Ae" 88, 950, 000 762,900 89, 712, 900 2.18
MOOD oe pene a Gata amencun ce vale cence 134, 991, 000 1,121,100 136, 112, 200 3.26
: A) Sa es 0h Pee ee 162, 903, 200 2, 850, 500 165, 753, 800 3.83
TSOO) Se ee eee ec euocaat tema eeceneenss 212, 952, 100 1, 977, 800 214, 929, 900 4, 92
TOOK x ccceiee remains debicscesuelcecs cen seule deemed cctiemescsliisdwos cacecncces LOG OA, PA a. xe cdi eens

wonderful.

“oct eae tibet Hic ee Boece oes Ae Se ee TOGO O00) iio: 2. 5 8
We ae ee 2 eee Sh eT a ol | PST Ee 1) ES Re
ar p2oceee sececheeechiceods SERGE SSP oad Lee pee one the oe ais he Sets OO losoadencs so
SSH OSCR UCORS SOUS. SSNS coOA CREE REE) Bie ERA = Se RSS Pe eae PEGE SOO ewes Jawa
aaa ate sete re sioeiata ter aetets etches 5 cis atallis saints mala ae bie el ecient Gay4Abo: 200") |sas~ cecss=
88, 187, 600 88, 257, 200 2.15
129, 083, 300 129, 269, 600 3.09
277, 270, 700 277, 502, 200 6.42
220, 051, 000 220, 401, 900 5. 04
ak Seep eat omer ON BR ee ea IST AUBIGON™ Vsc0s255525s
TOTAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.
EXCESS.
YEARS.
Imports Exports
TSBSe ds Roe ines aR eo}. ESN DUGOAIRGO! |eaee ooo wet tees as 4, 860, 400
(sy oe Se OL OS Se eT ie ae oN 49, 142, 800 eA zs GOs oa ace 2
TST Ss Sax Se We A Oe TEER Os VERS SOR 58, 863, 100 BeBBey 700" sf. os hae eS A= See
TEC cee SR ce tn a aa a ok NCE ERR mnt GUTIONGNO sts. o oese onsen oncom 7, 823, 200
Joss sein secocigcos DEMEL Song ease cea orcnceen- Ua tOG, LO focumsaecesocess seca 250, 300
UCN Be ae Sc Re SSA COMB Roar e Tener Se ae Ope. Seceee EVI OOOO | Wake oe faite nc ee eae 1, 455, 7
HS Tas epee eS cena aR le RD Ce OFFS TL ee a ee 6, 851,
TS tn I vig ie ee ee Oe 443, 255, 900 PAE 7ASe AGO") ee BNE
LBOGR ORE aR oes Reif ae re nek teem 435, 330, 800 BAP eee eee ela Ss
AUT Da ae eRe tp de ne Rip nee 491, 113, 300 SE OO CREE [ucts se i ta

The foreign trade of the country has increased more than fourfold in the last twenty years and its rapidity far exceeds the rate of
the world’s progress, while England, Germany, and France increased only 10 to 30 per cent.
The total value of the whole trade of 1900 shows an increase of 108,677,483 yen over 1897 and 201,596,097 yen over 1896, or

Even in later years the progress is

over 28 and 52 per cent, respectively. The corresponding figures of 1890 show an increase of over 300 per cent in a decade. Total trade

per capita was also increased from 3.45 yen in 1890 to 9.96 yen in 1899.

Statistics OF GOLD AND SILVER.

EXCESS,
: YEARS. Export. Import.
Export Import
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
TEGO cee epcenous ates Sg anew ee SiwinWie\= cieeoiciecte 13, 778, 500 1, 200, 600 BBL 677/900" feces cc nee ute
102 Bee ee eae Ai ESTO Re eon on no Sete 12, 289, 200 11, 186, 500 SOR TOO be aetwemins
1. Ua Oe Ee Rae ee pe FS 27,301, 700 5, 874, 200 SE SSAT ROO bene o ee an
MESH swieeoeees < PA a nSuetinties wan eaawncwaan ws 11, 598, 900 BQ TAR OU | los sccccocacees 27, 543, 300
NSO) wiciccnaeawacaccnenat slabenenaceesscdenees 19, 219, 200 Gi 466-200} 2 cz concn co rece 62, 247, 500
DRO. Sete She hick ohat ache Tutor en ene ns 86, 987, 500 42, 563, 800 44, 28 TOG Rice eecawas
ROOD : tae MMRANA dng #8 tote Be NS 11, 178, 200 DO. 168 DOD... ise 225 4c eres 8, 985, 200

Though the development of foreign trade is very great, when we compare it with
we see at once that the country is still in the kindergarten state.

COUNTRIES. 1891 1899 COUNTRIES. | 1891 | 1899
Million Million | Million
yen. yen. yen.
United Kingdom 7, 297 Switzerland ............ 508 a712
TANGO e cos nous 3,133 Sweden and Norway 408 a 674
Germany ...... 84,572 Brazil ... 400 >’ 470
United States 94,149 China ... 330 8530
1s Coll Ys DR Re ee ee 22,649 Forkey:. 2. cc. 251 © 325
INGtHBTIAIGSie cc cae a onhaesie ae 2, 649 Areentine <6. 34652525 246 608
BOlSTUNTE cons ances Seems 1, 498 Denwiarle 506 233 9418
PUTISSG = cee s wciwac.ciowameiet eae 1,335 SMG oe Soe eee eee 202 9197
Austria-Hungary .......... a 1, 440
RCCTESS - 2 ee OP eens 1,134
Rlisietleern cot ecnn cut es oar ecnee 2 682
|
21898, b1897. ©1896.

Pe 0 |
2254 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.
The above figures show that the total trade of Japan was only 5.5 per cent compared with the United Kingdom, and only

cent compared with the average amount, 3,754 million yen, of the six strong countries—the United Kingdom, the United States,
France, Belgium, and Austria. . : ; f
The following is the share of trade conducted by foreign and Japanese merchants, respectively, in yens:

IMPORTS.

Japanese. Percent.| Foreigners. | Percent.

1, 383, 000 2, 704, 900 95.2 ~
11, 635, 000 17.8 53, 820, 000 82.2
, 694, 000 19 70, 903, 193 81
90, 472, 259 104, 127, 000 67.4
EXPORTS.
TF ON aE Ee ees ed aE ro - 5, 149, 000 14.4 20, 557, 000 85.6
LESS) oi cree pee soe ei ben avs a'n/o 0 ea di a's sea 7,081, 500 11.1 56, 599, 000 88.9
Ee eal ee epee oe pes aia ea 13, 655, 000 15.5 74, 436, 000 $4.5
SOS ors se ater tet woe sat eran a Fee pap rere eo 55, 060, 500 33.7 107, 736, 000 66.3
TOTAL PER CENT.
YEARS. Japanese. ‘Foreigners,

9.6 90.4

14.4 85.5

17.2 82.8

33.2 66.8

This shows that Japanese merchants are invading the domain formerly monopolized by foreigners, for in 1898 the direct exports by
Japanese merchants represented only 11.1 per cent out of the total exports, whereas in 1898 they rose to 33.7 per cent. In importsa
decade ago only 17.8 per cent was conducted by Japanese merchants, whereas in 1898 they rose to 32.6 per cent. Japanese merchants
have labored to get rid of the foreign middlemen, and they have somewhat succeeded.

CLASSIFICATION OF COUNTRIES WITH THE TRADE, IN YEN.

1899 |
COUNTRIES. | an
Exports. Imports. Total. i Total.

H :
NORE SUR EGM a), 2 stican'u eh cig ga icteal = ns SIRS oe mee oid te pe oa 63,919,270 | 38,215,894 | 102,235, 164 | 558 |. 58,406,115
BENZ AN. .... 2.0 enceerccecenscnvcsencnnccncccerccnscmecaceccwsvecsecnsususesncsen 11, 270, 771 44, 836, 994 56. 107, 765 |! S74 48, 140, 072 “
NI Bes oo ck tend whan wd o's doth we aic oy wate Se Bh ape ee ne 40,257,034 | 28,687,731 | 68, 914, 765 || 507 26, 325, 494
BRC TEIE ER LIAULIGY 5 5s o'slo’a'o.aiclae nnn curlers neva Ueig eee clu u'c sonia ee binate Seite aocteee aera ae ne ee 6, 062, 049 43, 883, 886 49, 945, 935 448 14, 248, 607 ©
EQN soba o.com cle won oe cnes ssuebin ov aaa slam cabs se opmcnoe caren eae aaee eee 34, 291, 308 7, 338, 455 41, 629, 763 | 718 15, 199, 199 -
NE PEMENG i beac be Cec uv. necne ss anemans.es ¥aehin cas uncic ic cu mampum oes anceln mee stae me tetee 3, 796, 927 17, 613, 191 21,410,115 S42 9,427,001
LCE Dawid a vowel Un vote wa ws onsis necu ck bec Sass Capwe vues waluhe one me awe eee eames 29, 247, 837 5, 768, 180 35,016, 017 O48 233,846,824
Ree MLO aie sia mn fein clea warawdin gn Gerbera ae Sh cide ce ee ees Eee wo in eee oes 161, 048 4, 489, 326 4,650, 374 147 62, 286, 670
PROMO iret uw oa eck s wena shape ne denen s Bimaeh Wakes en eek OREM Te aCe eee eee 6, 995, 931 4, 976, 167 11, 672, 098 313 4,548,425 —
PRTG oes ace SSoci c= va wave cx ab'vonc rin coaclaccen aRaReL tee eee 331,415 5, 415, 810 5, 747,225 19, 480 1, 201, 121 1,220, 601
RMU UIE CRORE. < sis vicina cisco audad sucsse cnescks se aekele rr nciete tree teeee ene eee 2, 556, 003 4, 524, 120 7,090, 123 992, 755 1, 165, 306 2, 158,061
SS RU Ire teres pic'is wv my wiece,c'w ap mere aun avin aa vlecdé man a scim win oom eee cere cram Celerant ee 26,614 757, 030 783, 644 2, 953 618, 859 621, 812
PETROL oy. ud naidsevies vs cwksev avauckuwwcietadte’s oulumspitwtbe teu as seen 111, 518 1, 676, 669 1, 788, 187 103, 021 629, 208 1,332,209
URE GC UG ded ow baduaubcccvuldeteenwevelve qlewan sh ocennc adele aan cstece sae seen 8, 581, 709 236, 988 3, 818, 697 2, 900, 390 170, 340 3, 070, 730
PORODINEN, fn. cpeensavdvncaedccccnusuvt.tpbuscancss,absd pedi nae iene 286, 772 2, 383, 874 2) 670, 646 220, 587 1, 698, 819 1, 919, 406
PATIMURCIOOULL pox comnn etnias sew de ax wheeddeNden knead + cee tan Sener cee ners eae ene 2, 169, 921 1, 708, 670 3, 878, 591 1, 098, 066 534, 763 oa ’
NERNEY oa es Win i.n0 0 ein’ c waeie Saetle 'esia.cre'e, mpien a lelarsipve, cic we me arate Sere etn aa eee ee 2, 358, 099 182, 018 2, 540, 107 2, 211, 687 45, 395 2,257,082
INCLU aa natn waste cand nad nnwvisSeoebaudn> nin nglsice anny aiewiee trae anaes eaten ane 674, 527 1, 250, 218 1, 924, 745 465, 186 19, 820 485, 006
PRUE ow civa vce wie voles diets pau sw'n's.0'c, le viv wee mille « <> nucleic mo ott ales state nteie ete a aaa 1, 351, 950 5, 623 1,357,573 313, 908 6,148 320, 056
MPOUATIG on ova va dden sdceccdnccesecewcudschud Sunk MGe ee. enna ee en anna 322) 155 914, 406 1, 236, 561 136, S71 30,174 167,045
OUI SD kee pahiawwamwawinuvle up's civew sala aw otie th web wClartee mae mene cee pte eee nen 616, 802 49, 123 665, 925 27,594 8, 468 36, 062°
RPMI Se caw susie daidewo aunec au weltacn wists ctu cage gee eee re aCe ae a a 57, 732 101, 718 159, 450 52, 307 43, 463 95,770
BP OOEI ALG NOL WAY. «ccna nas vuisisicceasuesabuscnqpeastedns siamese = ttasee face 12, 043 120, 664 132, 707 576 18, 623 19, 199
SU RARGtarn Rig Wiel 6.0.00 as-die'a. wera, u'Son.h nei. y 6.0.0 coc arn-a 8 6:e/q Obras wie ane ate te ier ot 92, 651 26, 053 118, 704 16,744 3,446 20,290
IPORELCODIUNIOG Svecetcaaasn ep cwiaeec cues az ono cece aise Alite ae aei Sle een en Wie a meee 943, 189 5,196, 013 6, 139, 202 . 4,223 898, S47 152, 070
DOMMES MO DSA DOL cc wens ocackdeevvunaenewessvoeh cuetuan OfcmR EES as epee eens 3, 434, 560 oe pts eseera 1,948, 396 |...... occescas|vausreuannaenes

The trade with the United States is at the head of the list, having the greatest number of cargoes and price, as over one- 7
total trade of the country was with that country, and also the United States is the field of the most promising trade in the future.

and Hongkong trade are next important for the export trade. All oriental countries and Australasia are favorable to our export

He

1899
Export Import.
}
Yen. Yen.
BG. oc iincidenndsddahanhvatunwetscceusdhve san dale taaeeeneeey 90, 349, 987 4, 666, 715
BOULONO apiles nv cunwsmntass ceCadsassobrn tule cesssVGEURCe EERE 50, 187, 945 78, 046, 222
INGTEDMATINOTION ew Adunwckdaceneunesn exe vlenules haste eeemieen 66, 286, 923 38, 397, 40
A INERAGAINIRLDL % Gwlvie » nitew eau Anite nota Wee eee emee Gahan marae aeen aan 2, 169, 921 1, 708, 670
Gunercontinents and islands.; occ. sc. ccccacacavcdeenchnaue 2, 550, 559 7, 582, 379
Sold to ships in ports..... MRANend dWanntgechteenada Kit weweuew ) 3, 494, 500 Jue scsttcdeeceume

AUR etek GA WEK Ones cen nn saws we ua pees Vusv uN ee ceeeeeen | 214,929,895 | 220,401, 926

1901.) |

furnishing supplies to Japan.

UNITED STATES, 1899.

Exports to:
PPE eee ate pabeesesucesdcesetsssacscecscce

TOE See Sees ere MOA ae LS Te
Imports from:
i eer Lee a ae
Siapetuoleum 2155 eee es oe See Sees sot sk
Com mCOULOIE = 2 OE ea ees: eS ee es ee
Locomotives
Up@in Tay eS SSeS A ee ee ee ee
Tobacco

wee we ee ee ee ee ee we ee ee te ee ee ee ee ete eee eee

ENGLAND.

Exports to:
i Ee SS See eee
[5.3 INE ape OAS Coe nO See ae eS
ANE TNE TAG NEES OWS ip A ee
UE ee ae eee ee
rade and sheet copper ...-.. 2. < acces -- eens.
Imports from:

ee ee

eT a ps BS Se ee a
“CUO, RENT SE ae So ee
Satin

Cotton-spinning machines..........---------L-+-
Locomotives

CHINA.

Exports to: ,
BE SUE oe orca nino Sec nas ciciacaslonce acum aac
iG Se a ee
Ee a eee eee
Ses Gees Soret ae nek Sete ole oat siniela'a sia cinie
Matches

Imports from:

; Pease and other beans
rainot PrOGuch Gl.Oll. 2... one news e oe on nee ee
Eas Rais ela os osm Sin a cine nine wcescmased
Raw cotton
Hemp
LS or ee
Wool

ee

ee ee

wee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee
wee er ee ee eet ee ee

eae ke ons c scence ewecnseeadiees
Raw cotton

ee

39, 931, 057
743, 641
685, 811

1, 333, 676
5, 436, 622

16, 476, 899

883, 597
1, 497, 560
4, 839, 923

407, 922

2, 226, 042

1,507, 918
1, 323, 048

515, 999

680, 276

909, 191

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Our largest trade is with Asia, and Japan has recovered her balance of trade there which she lost long ago.
1 The United States is very favorable to our country, and the excess of our exports to that country is great.
The chief trade relations with important countries in important articles are:

5, 406, 894 |

22,911, 535
779, 900

2, 020, 056

~ 479, 418

6, 665, 098

6; 047, 238. |

823, 088
4, 350, 148
611, 024
2, 880, 267
810, 617

1, 077, 523
807, 642
1, 686, 539

796, 762

39, 165, 995

2255

Europe is always

HONGKONG.

Exports to: Yen.
DTG. SSE eee See so ie ee ess Sa 2, 387, 027
USE Gh VE ee en ee apie iy ae eae oe 3, 469, 524
i a aa ee en ee 2, 872, 220
1 20th he ee es, ee eee es 1, 168, 660
RAD ehe sete os See et ee Belo
oe Se ece er ee es ener seen es cocoa sceces soos sacesss “ oe

PRMD tee = ta 52 Sas. ee eee eee oes 939, 2
Qrude:and sheet capper. 22-2222. ceacohoncann-o- 7, 944, 607

Imports from:

Sugar eI eS ae Uk OS oR ee 6, 203, 444
OR ee ame SS a ee 852, 224
GERMANY

Exports to:

IRS oe a Se SE ee ae ee ee Ae 803, 360
oe MIME BHOCROOPPCE 22-9255. 52--1<.5ecnt=s <5 1, 190, 017
ret CGP dL gS SY Ce SE A SS ee ae ee 314, 273

Imports from:

Sa tae oe wer ts eo eee ee ee eee 1, 863, 453

NING roll tRe = ke eee ee 616,592

ASTIN LON CS ee oc ae hon eet Be ons aoe e ae 783, 411

TOTALS Ste Set oe Cat 657, 318

RVWiO0 aie ere ee es Se ee ee 1, 665, 850

BA CMOT Aen wen. oe See soe sos cae we 1, 768, 857
FRANCE.

Exports to:

SDE SRE nee RO Saas tes ee ee ee 19, 183, 785
Lean) WR tee eae ae ois es ae ee a 5, 925, 106
SOU skim Octane ree repens ty Sie eS ee 829, 372
WOTSLeC MSIL eee ene Le TSE FA Se en aca 1, 202, 341

Imports from:

Wousselinie’de; nie: Jes a Serer FE eee 2, 832, 664
IW OGINENREAGD= ) tras iat eee eee ee 172, 064
KOREA

Exports to:

OOTEON MANNS eas asta as 2 ee eas weet an Sele 2, 137, 913
Wihitercottomiclothnws2ca: oc SPS oes ck ce ones 984, 959
OC ee ee ee cook eco debe aes 453, 967

Imports from:

PLC Gane ek. OS ets Rane ORG ct ree dota n ls eee 1, 689, 909

iRease’andtGthner, Deane ss— 26 aoe ses. 2oesee Sosa 2, 110, 847

Gory a rs tee es Se ee eo ee eats 408, 200
FRENCH INDIA.

Imports from:

DC GE See tere Ss ee coe a her ela oes 3, 354, 096
BELGIUM.

Imports from:

IPIatedtOn= 2. 255 2a whee Sain wot eeatan cones 515, 017

Rartironetecccc ss ae ee See ae a 1, 564, 710

Glass hee She Pes eles Ser cans he ete ee 1, 165, 480
ITALY

Exports to:

Silke Seen Sok Sk cee re eee Ss See re 2, 851, 108
AUSTRALASIA.

Exports to:

Ritcet Soe ae Ot eee ee ete es atacweeee ous 867, 88S
EPS pilteiieeers cae aee Ce eee OE Sin ee cr aa ate 316, 312

Imports from:

WiGO) sae ho octee ae weenie sur etre. oie c Soa 941, 117
CANADA.

Exports to:

fC ee Se Se ea Ce ee eee 1, 293, 963
ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Imports from:

GUS (22 fo TR EE ea = ee ee See 2, 429, 456

“ 2a5e . COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

The United States and England have a variety of important articles to trade.

GENERAL ARTICLES, IMpoRT AND Export, 1898.

1898 1896
IMPORT.
Yen. Yen.
Arms, clocks, watches, instruments, apparatus, tools, and eee 20, 526, 973 12, 674, 506
. Beverages and COMESIDIES ... 2-22-00 en ne eee ne ee ecco eee nn ewe nc cenccnecee 4, 820, 339 2,473,740
Clothing and @CCESEOTICS.....-.--assssessacescecsse Aes pee de ee 1,054,177 947, 126
Drugs, chemicals, and medicines........- Sane seen aeav awnree ames 7,919, 373 4, 273,145
DCS, COLON AYU WHIMS fo coe s eons nosso swmppwisccecs be arden osm ememnneenee 5, 160, 594 3,710, 893
Ginss.and clagnmanntactires. -2 92500) 6o Sic. scene db aecwomeeonene app See 917, 237 774,710
Grains and RECUR asics a ects tet enisst ae pe caced afeabsosamearesssoaas 56, 205, 492 9, 669, 437
Horns, ivory, skins, hair, shells, etc .........--..- pS ae elas oe, 3, 077, 509 2, 902, 854
Metals and metal manufactures—iron and steel..........2..--.--------- 20, 281, 049 14, 815, 622
Metals and metal manufactures—others .............-------------- ence 3, 365, 110 2, 737,921
OU aad “Wasser dee woe padres enw atae recast ace nes «meee oe 8, 553, 570 7,105, 694
Paver Ad RIAMOnEEN ras]. csn.eeoets Je o0 el coerce pases cee ean one ea rime 4,009, 476 1, 937, 330
RURAL, - - << nme wanna ne mera seotomenarecass <aennpas recs vens sens ssew=s ena oome 28, 619, 563 13, 858, 844
Tissues, yarns, threads, and raw materials thereof:
SOULE co se oot alae oe weve ncn an omecees aaa eugene eeaened AR ee 65, 624, 587 55, 788, 354
WOO) oo ccctcs coe niss ow cam coun east bencovae rhea sta eaten aes 13, 069, 870 18, 268, 460
Dk Sepcasve een ccevevanvores Swat Pedests scene ts pape ease ACEO 1, 920, 492 1, 543, 520
Hemp, Sax; ANG Ute css inepwesnck casas doccse ee Pe ea oe Spe eae” 1, 086, 914 1, 463, 266
Other coche as ec eed ane eS a 1, 803, 577 3, 200, 842
PODROCO. ooo) bse sWe cence caused sob ceer Cede neem eae See rae ee 6, 628, 210 843, 340
Wines; liquors, avid Spirits) .2-Sosscssea sacs ap oee enema ne eae ae 1, 398, 338 790, 112
Miscellaneous ...........-- eee Seamed oceans seems ES spat aan 21, 228, 278 a& 684, 877
a eee
217, 270, 729 171, 459, 556
Reimported...... Groancgemmte Mlbssdeddadbewssccestesrcecucepeoussewcnees 231, 428 214, 918
Motel: Tampotte. 2.22.5 «2S vnn-ersPepetaees- aes oaape-k ese "277,502,157 | 171,674,474 |
EXPORT. 7
Beverages and comestibles:
MOR. o. cade. toe. Souecn eactet Ooe teen eee ee eee ane Wagewees 21 6, 372, 329
GUAIDE occ wcioes s ooze coats ok Eee ee cee eee 8,118, 081 ’
Maritie productlous.: 22.2222. nsem-snus teonee es ae nee ane en ie 3, 864, 899
C019 51-5 x San a amine earn, Reaper mene TL Rae eae eae Soe eS = ae, 1, 920, 268 (
Clothing ‘and accessories: oi... 2 scorn eee woe wacecen coe oon ee en eueonee 913, 674 j
Drugs, medicines, chemicals, dyes, and paints............-.-...2--se00e 2, 978, 086
Metals and metal manuiaciiwepiccd <.-smasec coos camo detas eeeaie- ees acu anne 6, 673, 950
Oland Wwax-e 220552). saeeeeaee 754, 658
Paper and paper manufactures 1, 020, 712
Skin, hair, shells, horns, Ciel -- 582,765
Tissues, yarns, ete.:
SHINE soos anwin soe wove ces eee ee eee 236,111
736, 202
165, 830
aw cite Dae ets 245, 383
MiscellaneOus..... 0s oasis etscccance seamchnas oauuen owe amas aaane mee Beas 973, 631

116, 575,579

RCOZPOLE < cw denesas SPP ee arr hn tage ache Po eee ee ean 1, 267, 182
Total Oxport...i:aicdescevccdnccecces sweep canes ape eeeme =e sae 165, 753, 753 117, 842, 761
ARTICLES.
MUTICUILOTEL DIOGUCHS «occ nvanceseccenennesanasenh awe ueccassiu veh op etn nimwis.wnielen ee iene amen
PTRUTEAPURT EVDO LUN aicig's sine vib apne con wiewepae aces ee wins where astern ‘esi e1em-e'a wig ma wane © Ue ainlae oc clace titan ee ee
IST OD TUATING DYOOUCIH: cc ewcccciccccnveccedescanauvusnansasnGuaeaesueei aan Ee Pee en ee
AMUN soe cece dc dawwessnccced nnldcccecasccucnccccececedunecccaethuwew 6 ese eum ahah a nm a aierie a e maemo sts tee
AMINE GN Ol] PYOCUGHS .....ccccsseccacccccentvsescavasweuseenuac cen essen omesdcopiie a: oan me eeee nem
Chemicals, dyes: and medicines. 225.00. cc 2 cnccwes cunanc@esceescunsceuawauanseecageupenen == eaenn ===
OOO MN TEE avin an 0.0 kun wae cine 9 ot ew emcee wwe ois weeaits tier waist duntalailia SOI ete eter Ia i ee cae ee
SEL UP COLIILIG, visas onic wm nse ue aeceb0o.0.nnw du.400 bone uu sn claw .u.e'e\s We eile n'a mnie aeisiael nutes oli alate iene
UAULOUIILOG BOOS < scsaccnvcencscccetcnncvccassene pbestagueases tes ton eens@unennaeresaemme nana
PML SAT ti seh cel ccusconst ives cnuxcnusinddess tnakulee enema 9 00a 65 cdke yUvkaveseceeuePaneeneeen ee
Exports. Imports.
SESRIGUACUTEL DYOCUCES 22 occccscwccescuescncncuen Grain, vegetables, tea ............cecccesssccccescasnsasss} Grain, vegetables, tea.
: TODACCO leak .. occ nsec since cancceceusecundaGeneeenammeE Coffee.
RUMI sasdduu ne ctu andud Uskdddwnennscdqeasad]nccnbd den scewnadana meen noes » Tawnvaccdvctecccs <nUn wh ane Cattle, horses, ete.
SIRE ae t.0d viv oN ena dave wb be cducieecececs Seaweed, fish,
RIE. dev catudukdiustwansatovcsstsanenctec All kinds.
WMIRUM GI Ol... cscs ccccncveveataccsensescaces Coal, metal, and petroleum. »
CRUEL av ace ce veas'sacctaanbanunwsecuuc’ | Food, other than grain, such as salt, sauce, ete .......... Wine and mineral water.
MEIN co Ge vie Vaten ne tudsddhmamubie ss Cotton, feathers, bamboo, and timber.................... Feathers, leather, bone, shell, ivory, cotton, wool, hair,
stone.
DIRT MULOd DIOUUCU Es nee scccuunsscacdbovwas= Cotton, silk, textiles, clothing, several kinds of wares, | Cotton, silk, wool mixture of three textiles, wearing

soap, Wax, pottery, glass, boots and shoes, fans and things, many kinds of wares, pottery, metal, paper,

other ornamental ‘goods, books, paper, matches, and hemp, soa 5 wae — arms and dynami te, carriages

miscellaneous, and Vessels, scientific machines and apparatus, and
miscellaneous, -

*Tron and steel are mixed up with raw rand manufactured products, and in this figure include in the latter, amounting to 15,504,256 in 1899 and 16,545,434in
1893 on items of import. .

|
|
|

1901.] | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2257
ee ImporTANT ARTICLES CLASSIFIED.
1
{ } EXPORT. IMPORT.
ARTICLES. |
1899 1893 1899 1893
Agricultural: Yen. Yen. ' Yen. Yen.
Ri 10, 282, 012 5,001,158 | 5, 960, 166 | 3, 254, 842
8, 498, 783 FyRAL DEL: Cen na dso reese | See eS SG STS,
SOT Ce Perr CF asuecdpaktcwenll 1, 383, 540 | 611, 20
Be ag Ves EN vee a Bea + es 3, 446, 636
780, 009 AL | ie eee ES A eee Be
1, 362, 068 pe. el. | ne Kees SEPT Cs. T
ee oe eee eee ee oe eee F 6,791, 813 } 599, 893
15, 164, 867
11, 383, 358 :
1, 754, 496 :
Raw materials: i
Pell on enh Ser an ae a ene ane cnc parent cscae see son Jajdmesise doawendewemeacwanaen acncale 62, 627,721
SUNES rersloth Shaye Pie] Gens els Dy Bnei Boe ee ESI CS a ei a Da ee re a 4, 074, 085 |
Seago ete tenet eat eh els etale ee tore oietaaecs saline ee et anie Sores o nics sa claas se sass ba ce sclse sateen ceeness| acces’ cust colecleteccesecsancaas 62,210, 717 15, 234, 398
OO ee eet ee te ere Ee eae one ae oats Sans ak sea aw deidoe oa Sedna esea sas Sena ee ee wand baeheeonnske we iecelonemcescenns 4, 324, 427 425, 120
LWP DRED «ate treot soho Se 6: SBOE eee ee ee Oe eae ae ee 965, 44 743, 553
ee TBS RS eee ee ete ie nan ae ee an oie sala e niece aie eine pine siaa'a nies o's Saw wea Rawr ope cmdmee Casts eanoon commewonc licen e hc oceans A eee eee
Mireiete at eens eee ce aes I See Sass Soe Se eee coe s sce bees acawsedeteecc oe ees cnc sade lice updauecccs Home See ere | 2, 603, 677 975, 787
RRC hae tat eee cee eerie eee sa cc manattncs soe cae eee saa siseucmon sbalkgsee waa seeatnaee anuul eee ceeds ments een aoe bused oe 3, 139, 141 30, OS
MOL TARy RCRA LOLS ata ae wise = at clenia neste sic sgineceemancnan.cans SATE RELA RE IER Se Ne el (SPREE coaiene, (Seen a ah es Baa Tl 78, 331, 510 17, 769, 456
Manufactured articles:*
iiedabniess .o 958 ila ceeasl cced sec ceus poe e a eeem sic steam aes ance Sea ben sae teemasn ese eax sae ce ae 15, 799, 014
pb tegmlrreina Cl oer ENS te ate incre nitcieiieiciniaease eiciaele e wicia’e ticle. lelaie’ajclale.a steisnjnig-ere'sateh wale qeGcnmemepadscsoeeaee 3, 461, 572 /
OPS Bee Se ee ee eee oo ancncngioeaeasacmeniacce cules ctncuicicas oem 28, 521, 438
PADIS oe weira a sien cwiclc case cee ssactasarcctcsvclese es 2,770,178
AVES ANG TOA IME. sc ccemccnceesceees 3, 717, 489
Wisi ES! ssi nceee 5, 890, 666
EMTDNCM A S pas emerge cian oiaicininicineine 933, 547 Art (| Plena pi pe RON 6.
Porcelain and earthenware 2, 181, 336 LB77ISE See 4s Dae es eS
SBE» - .sondngeggnagcook ospgoan apacEe ones MASA Ga SBE race SAOD ORE OA END See mare ners see pee eur Cm Uts SoM Deis + 0 aie ug [EM eee Ce 17, 645, 230 10, 452, 026
Dea Olean pe nee arent ashe nas aoEe seen n'<apneniae eda ph sah =ate<ns -sabasapseepadeee= <- asesoac|—o Sosa =e See ee 2, 903, 829 444, 208
ATES BO Oca boc 582 aeSheeeag Bada. gosbe bet ane gaCUne a onc Seer San recncae sale Sccanbeeee Mae oeas Reese eae ee eee Ee ee 904, 013 405, 047
CHMIIOES Son ced oA Bas Gest Codceeheo obacece Sad SSP OSC SERCO CE REE ADOC OES Sao PERCE LOE SRO OR COE EE CEE) gee! Han pe Cen Mammal ile iia sane oe 3, 575,191 2, 315, 124
BES HEN He CLEC SOU UN elo ter te mieteleesn nm ole (aint minle imi ain atnie winnie sane A inoaelo(emiatel eis me niacin nna cies eiscentu alain ane ae@teacet lactose aecenesaqaalen «snack ceeeaaqs 1, 438, 245 635, 903
Pear eee ite ere sta ms ete stain ela oles otal minisieoiotaie im ib aistatslaln's\siats'= aie ain ls <a =eegennenimane nmin ao nae emaecae|sdeee everest mcr|becnewssasconces 949, 750 $55, 998
MOGI GLOUD os 580 "Sages BOBS SAS BEC OG SoSE DED he SE ORNC OSS dee SUSpOr ROPE AbOe Cee eee ERE see eee seams Ba: ae) eee eee 2,004,198 $01, 408
MH ANE CC CMa OM ene eee am sane ance ienane aaa sincins eiieeia cakes mawsseueebie ce auctca demanecenneane | wacweuccaccune. | BEES Seer ene 4, 350, 934 2, 305, 505
a asta ne ere A ots Seat ca keen taleece rg dndtndd svuc nsovena ebeunteoatfundcdeccswaewuce Rope aM 374, 959 1,389, 714
I oo ioe alae wen mnie we min wine meen wn sicme a ewan nm a nnn canna manor cecens necsnecececemaanssaclecceesccsecces= eee ee 1,132,575 , 489, 305
es eee ea ae aca a ae ele cinialn an cebnmeneeloaech eae acape.densrimaechseanccce cicc|vasceccsccne ees Ce ee eed 435, 054 667, 108
SHTDEN RY UE NS poate ota ra a nice aio ainie | ecaicinie wis a iclaininiaicla oivistwivleicivieinie cicintuia as Nwaheictndin «'s/simmin eR Se Be I: Bee ee ae eee ee eee eee eee 2, 223, 432 887,7
Tron pipes ...----- 2-2-2222 e ee eee eee eee eee eee eee cee tence ence eee e nce e eee e ee ee eee n nee n cece 933, 436 484, 086
VW GNROINGS | song nadenoes seonnse SoOc pe eIpooe matt IMeIRS CAC SOO Ser SOO OOBOO SOS OCIGEC SSeDEC Betmcccossce 237, 716 2, 960, 211
SUTRAS ROMS PHINONU DS ee Se eo oe CSO SOO nS SU Be ose Sa yee aces ge ne eee 3, 088, 762 1,912, 013
IL OROWA SUIS cose sac caonsco eco osc bode sap Sees mCebish ce MOS0e Ge eC Sc Ocecbocogr Sco aenees / 1, 968, 374 1, 580, 273
LCHIMeTS—. ce c<— === wee ee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee tence eee meee e ete e ne nnn lence ene e ee cne eee 3, 620, 982 8, 202, 49
Cigarettes............ ae a ea aoe eae miele oe oa f ee eeeee eee sera 760, 594 232, 344
PaesaTS Tat ASMT UCC UIA a eto tmie anette ale eta cainlnfeimie ele wlan lain sinaiaielninivly enw own mminclvalateo eeeicc cane rencesasuesab}secanancconewoes|aeccaatenencas ce 748, 414 257, 857
ROLES Were a teeta a eects s aaielesiainnine nie stem leGimninamn nate newieinanea nena ans dk nnns sep meen seam sincs=|[pessemeensnadhen|s srsakesaeercees ' 7, 918, 149 4,401, O41

® Raw silk and other threads and straw braid may both be counted as raw material and manufactured articles, for there are many factories manufacturing
raw silk from cocoons.

Trade movements show that the country is becoming more and more a manufacturing one, increasing in her imports of raw materials
and machinery and decreasing in imports of manufactured goods, except sugar and petroleum, which are necessarily imported to a larger
and larger extent with the increase of population, transportation, industry, trade, and the wealth of the nation. The imports of raw
cotton are enormous, but at the same time the export of the goods manufactured from it is equally great.

The whole trade shows a general increase and is very prosperous.

ARTICLE IV. CONCLUSION.

The invention of the steam engines, and application of electricity, and the adaptation of mail facilities gaye the world quick and
easy communication, and western civilization is due very much to them. These facilities, especially in transportation, were the greatest
phenomena of the nineteenth century, giving opportunity for domestic industry and for transporting the products to market. The United
States has grown in the midst of this exciting era, being born in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and has gradually developed,
till at the present time she is the star of the world. Unfortunately these facilities reached Japan only at the middle of the century, and
only now isshe beginning to get into the partnership of civilization. Gradually the countay has been adopting every means of cheapening
production and transportation, making the most intelligent use of her workmen instead of treating them as mere machines, evolving
plans and schemes of labor saving, discarding worn-out methods, adopting tools and machines suitable for special purposes, giving close
study to the best and most economical forms of power applicable to the particular business, adopting the most effective means of
adyertising her productions, and generally keeping in the march of progress. Thus transportation, industry, and trade have flourished
the passed few years in an extraordinary and perhaps unprecedented manner, and a continuance of this prosperity is anticipated with the
utmost confidence, especially the development of the manufacturing industry, which, having a number of immense firms, is beeoming more
prominent. The increase of the wealth of the country is shown by the enormous increase of the budget of the country, which the people
can stand for the payment of immense amounts of taxes, to feed the great standing army and to maintain the magnificent men-oi-war,

NUMERICAL STRENGTH OF THE ARMY AND Navy.

aStanding. | Navy (De
cember 31 cember 31,
1898). 1899).
Cine NemMtC Ger eke cas So ecean Geubo bone paamee 125, 345 24, 575
REsevVed HEVVICE eecdasecncnee cs ecc keke ce ah aoa eekn we 115, 666 2,512
Territorial service ..... a aee cna Ne Ro REE SR ee 74, 797 1, 623
TOs deer sean not cae k dere map eeee pus can ueudeceune 315, 808 228,710

a And 226,170 tonnage of fleet.

¢™

2258 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. , [Deceunen,

The constantly decreasing number of paupers, the increased deposits in sayings banks and _post-offices, the increased utility of the
bank system are evidences of the generally improved condition of the mass of the people. The figures show a great decrease in the
number of convicts sentenced for negligence in paying their land taxes:

The source of this increase of wealth is the development of commerce and the consolidation of small scattered sums of money into
incorporated enterprises. ;

Just lately the tightness of the money market and the Chinese trouble had a mischievous effect on the industry of our oe
But this should not be regarded as a symptom of economic retrogression, for new industries are being founded, improved on the old
ones, which diminish our consumption of foreign merchandise. The economic moyement is most actively reflected in the table of
exports which shows a steady increase. There is no doubt that the productive power of the country is increasing, and therefore there
is no basis for the pessimistic conclusion that the country is in a stagnant condition. Toillustrate more forcibly this expansion of forces,
silk and manufactured goods will be named. The export of silk has more than doubled both in quantity and yalue, and the increase of
imports of raw materials demonstrate the fact that the country has achieved real economic progress, both in consumption and production.
The immense and yearly increasing imports of raw materials, such as cotton, wool, hides, iron, steel, etc., absolutely necessary for
manufacturing industries, which they could not possibly do without, show the great development of the industry of the country. ¢
Though the country is very dependent on foreign countries for her supplies of raw materials, yet they are her markets for her industrial
productions. The tendency is for the country to become a manufacturing one, toward which it is progressing favorably. The rise of the
price of coal and iron shows its development, whereas agriculture seems less promising and will doubtless for many reasons remain d
comparatively stationary, as it is in England, although the country has mighty forests, large rivers, great lakes, mountain ranges, broad, ,
high prairies, fertile valleys, and inexhaustible mines and fisheries.

It is difficult to state accurately the progress of the commerce of the country, but if it be compared with that of the world I am

sorry to say the country is still in its infancy. The supply of coal, which is the motive power of manufacturing, though small compared :
with European countries, yet exceeds the home demand, and this shows the need of more manuiacturing industry, although the home }
demand for coal is greatly increasing.

The entire State expenditure, though in fact not more than the expenditure of the city of Paris, is still a little too heavy a burden q

upon the people, and caused the recent economic troubles. The mines of gold, silver, copper, nickel, iron, and coal are only
to be developed.

Chapter III.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS.

As I have stated in previous chapters on the history and the present condition of commerce, Japan is still in need of economic
study in regard to future development—the necessity, possibility, and consideration of the ppg of articles whose production is
thus so enormously increased. Geographical location, natural facility of transportation, etc., are worthless unless they are utilized.

ARTICLE I. TRANSPORTATION.

The subject of transportation is one of the most important in the whole field of economic investigation.

With the improvement of home navigation the movements of trade have also improyed. In 1898, 21 per cent of total trade of the
country was carried by Japanese vessels, against 7.6 per cent in 1894 and 0.02 per cent about twenty years ago. The improvement is
wonderful; but on the other hand this fact plainly shows not only that navigation is not fully developed, but that it is insufficient to
serve the country. The improvement of navigation is the most urgent demand of the country.

At the time of the civil war the United States lost her power in navigation, having stopped her subsidy policy, but lately she has
regretted her loss, and in March, 1891, Congress revived the policy, and the country has recovered most rapidly her trade and power on
water. Japan has taken up the subsidy policy, having paid 2,673,894 yen on her European lines; 654,030 yen on the Seattle line, and
1,013,880 yen on the San Francisco line. The most important form of subsidy is by postal contracts for mail service by quick steame
though it is frankly acknowledged that other important objects are kept in view throughout, such as the indirect advantages that woul
accrue to trade, the coveted means of favoring home industries, and the privilege of using the ships as cruisers in time of war. The
charters of nayigation companies speak accurately on the latter subject, but in fact only one steamer was used as a cruiser in the Chino-
Japanese war, and this one caused undeniable hindrance to action in the battle on account of its lack of speed and other defects. So far,
the facilities of navigation are increasing sufliciently fast, but there is no encouragement given to the subject of auxiliary cruisers by
which steamers are used for transportation service in peace and for cruisers in war, as seen in the Canadian Pacific, the French Mail, the
German Lloyd, and lines of all other strong companies. A navy is to encourage commerce in time of peace and protect it in time of
war. Japan has improved her naval power wonderfully since the war, but yet it is necessary to continue its progress to secure the
balance of power as well as her commercial interests. A system of auxiliary cruisers would be beneficial and economical to the country;
it would decrease the expense of the navy and at the same time give great facilities and improvements in navigation, and also encourage
the marine interests.

For the advantage of navigation the improving of ports is also demanded. Breakwaters or dikes for safety of anchorage to protect
against gales, piers constructed of iron and steel at which vessels may receive and discharge their passengers and cargoes, abolishing the
tardy movement of goods in lighters, and docks for repairs must all be provided. The iron and steel industry must be established and
encouraged. ‘These are the most important matters to consider. If these are not in complete shape natural facilities will never give
permanent benefit. Owing to the lack of good docks in the country, all vessels hurry to Shanghai for repairs.

As the means of communication develop, bringing nearer the relations of countries, competition in trade becomes more active, and

rompt shipments are a great advantage to trade. The reason of the supreme power of England on water is her farsighted improvement
in shipbuilding, using steel instead of wood, employing steam engines instead of sails, thus paying regard to speed. The impro
of ocean transportation lies in the direction of larger vessels of rapid movement; competition is always to the advantage of the vessel of
large capacity and speed. Japan’s trade is increasing by strides unparalleled in her history, and her lines of steamships are running toall —

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2259

important parts of the world, but the improvement in transportation is not equal to that of trade. Merchants are paying an enormous

ercentage of their profits to alien vessels for carrying their cargoes, and other nations are making every effort to keep our vessels out of this
ucrative field. This fact is due to our small number of large ships, their slow speed and small number of trips. To have our own freight
service is essential to the proper increase of our trade. Of course it seems ridiculous to build large vessels of great speed when the cargoes
are not sufficient, but, as stated above, the tendency of the world is to build large vessels with sufficient speed, for it is penny wise
and pound foolish to try to compete with small capacity and less speed, although it would be cheaper.

No nation can be prosperous without good inland transportation. The general advantage of railroads to our country is well shown
in the development of the interior and the increase of freight carried. In the last twenty years there has been an increase of railroads of
4,822 per cent in mileage, due mainly to the growing prosperity of the country, but also in part to the individual efforts of those
concerned in the management of the railways. Railroads, it goes without saying, as a means of defense, finance, and economics, are the
most important media of the progress of a country. The way to utilize these media is to build them all over the country with the
latest improvements, cheapening the cost of transportation and giving quick delivery of products in the markets. Comparing Japan’s
with the railroads of the United States and Europe per capita, per mile, and also with traffic, | am sorry to say the fact is our railways
do not compare favorably with the railroads of those countries.

Suggestion as to the improvement of railways is very hard to make without a knowledge of civil engineering. The social, political,
and economical significance of this subject will be greater in the future than now, and the country feels it. Railway councils haye been
appointed, composed not only of representatives of the various government departments, and the army and navy, but also of prominent
representatives of commercial interests, of the learned and practical men of the country, and their earnest effort and efficiency, no doubt,
will improve the system. Let me mention some things here: :

1. The removal of the law of maximum price, which is fixed the same all over the country, is needed. It would be extremely
difficult to make a general law for large and small towns, since the development of business varies radically in different districts. The
manager of each company wants to have the largest amount of net income by the increase and decrease of the fare. The formula is
(x--c) dy—y dx=0 (Hadley). Let the companies decide what is best to be done under proper control by the Government, allowing
them a reasonable rate of profit and preventing them from injustice to the people.

2. Rails ought to be improved, together with the improvement of engines, their speed, and also increase of traffic. Improvement
has been made; steel rails have been substituted for iron, but the 60-pounds-per-yard rail was used from the beginning and is still used,
while the weight of engines increased from 22 tons to 80 or 85 tons and the speed from 14 (in Government) to sometimes 50 miles per
hour. With the improvement of rails the roadbed and ballast ought to be studied by specialists. The rock ballast is used in the United
States railroads, and the drainage of the road is well provided for, which is very important to keep the tracks in good order.

3. Tracks: The single-track system is almost inadequate to meet the growing demands. Double tracks, or quadruple tracks, should
be more generally used for quick delivery of goods and also for safety from collision and other accidents.

4. Water supply: The country has an immense number of rivers and abundant water, and therefore the method of getting water
supply from the track while the train is running should be used, which will certainly save time and also work of the manager. Often
it is the case that trains stop fora long time to fill their tanks. nat

5. Scarcity of locomotives and cars: The number of locomotives and cars per 100 square miles is very smal! compared with the United
States and England, as follows, in 1896:

Passenger | Freight

Engines. cars. cars.
DMPMINETS Jo. cee se olate cic pasmecomn ace scee 26.3 100 366.4

MMe G States. cccassecaswe.cliscaniecesios 19.8 184 718

MN SLA oie cds snimaiewise ea ouside cee oslesiece ees 87 275 2, 907

While the hauling power of mileage per one year is:

- Passenger | Freight

Engines. cars. cars.
PAPO eae eau accel a tocsaaes tan tesssogeuaes 21, 621 29, 783 770
Wt eds States: Ser cek eee ae ceo aees cae eS ets 20, 348 16, 375 529

totes Ae ee ee ee ee ee eee 18, 170 15, 826 533

So more cars should be used, although in the passenger traffic the character is entirely different, as one small car carries 80 third-class
passengers, while in the United States such a car carries about 30.

6. Much has been said about the improvement of stations—lack of storerooms; but I may say that the improvement of yards should
be preferred, in order to shift the freight cars according to distance and importance.

7. It is advisable to abolish the uniform classification of freight by the Government, because where there is competition by water,
lines handling heavy and bulky goods should be classified differently from those lines where there is no competition. The kind and
location of goods to be carried should also be considered; therefore the classification on freight ought to be fixed by each different line.

8. Division of labor: The road should be divided into parts, and superintendents shouid be appointed for the divisions, to whom
epreme power should be given over the tributaries to it, and under whom the engineer, the supervisor, ete., would each have his own
share of work. | ;

9. There should be established a society or club of employees in order to improve themselves as in the Young Men’s Christian Asso-
ciation of the Pennsylvania Railroad, instead of continuing to employ unprogressive but cheaper men. Of course the standard gauge
might be preferable from the point of efficiency, but the expense would not allow it at present. But I hope that when a new construction
of railroad is undertaken there shall be some preparation for wide gauge when needed.

The subject of State purchase of railways was the most exciting question in 1899. The twelfth Congress of the country thoroughly
discussed the matter and finally decided to let it remain as it was. But this question can not be said to have disappeared entirely, for the
railroad history recalls that the subject was repeated three times in 1881, when the first private railway corporation came into existence.
There was great agitation for State ownership, not only among those who are interested in railways, but in every quarter of the country,
but private ownership won. In 1890, when the industrial disturbances occasioned by the great earthquakes made the railroads unpros-

erous, their purchase by the Government was urged to rescue them from the panic. ‘The Government refused and won its struggle.
if 1893, when the railroads were very prosperous, everybody began to talk about improving the means of transportation, and complaint
arose of the management of the State road, which was about 376 miles long. The insufliciency of the funds of the Government was the
cause of this agitation in favor of transferring all railways to private corporations. The railroad association opposed. The popular reasons
‘of the advocates of State ownership were: ~
1. As a part of one consistent scheme of national defense; by army officers. : ee aS
_ 2. Simplification of freights, together with greater uniformity and cheapness, preventing unreasonable discrimination; by

_ merchants.
sh

es LO develop the whole country’s resources, so that those places which would otherwise be left without means of transportation
yuld be helped by the paying portion of the lines and the public should be generally benefited; by country gentlemen.

*
ei

2260 | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Decemen,

4, Feared that foreigners might come into possession of the railways, unless Government secures them; by short-sighted non-
- economists.

5. Good fiscal policy; by treasury officers. , :

6. Large combinations of industry under one management are beneficial to the community; by nonstockholders.

7. Remedy of scarcity of business capital or tightness of money market; secured by foreign loan; by self-interested money wanter.

8. Competition of private railways favor large towns; by country gentlemen. : ;

I am sorry to state that it has been suspected from the outset that many of the so-called advocates of State ownership were the motive
power in the movement, and published stories for the purpose of ‘‘rigging”’ the market. The failure of the party of State ownership in
1899 was due to the insufficiency of their method of purchase, and in consequence of the lack of funds in the Government. I am oi the
opinion that the railroads should be kept in their present state and am glad of the decision of the Congress. I may oppose it if in the future
the case occurs again: y A : :

1. In Germany and France, whose boundary lines are contiguous, the State ownership of railroads is entirely necessary, but in
Japan, being well protected from invasion, as I have said in the introduction, it would be better to leave the matter to private
corporations.

; 2. Of course cheap rates would give increased commercial activity, but often governments utilize the railroad revenues for the deficit
of the public finance; therefore the cheapening of the rates may never come. :

3. If the country had plenty of revenue, it would be possible; otherwise it would increase the burden of the people; better give
some special privileges to private companies. ‘ i

4. If the Government has proper control or regulation over them, there is no fear of their going into the possession of foreigners;
if not, it is desirable that they should, if improvements would result from their better management. Siew?

5. A merely fiscal policy is in conflict with Nos. 2 and 3, and also it is doubtful whether the Government is wise enough to
manage as well as private business men. : :

6. Large combinations of industrial organization are good for any business, but private companies could combine most effectively
under circumstances where the locality is favorable.

I am in favor of the purchase of private railroads by the Government if a foreign loan can be secured low enough, but to buy up
all private railroads at a fair and just figure is impossible. The only way is to buy them in the daily market, fixing the maximum price
on the Government side. As to the importation of foreign money, it is desirable not only to improve railroads, but also industry and
trade, but when it comes to this question the country must show to lenders prosperity and safe security, which is now lacking in the
country; the only way is to improve industry and make the country prosperous, and this will naturally cause an inflow of foreign money.

8. Competition among private railroads, etc.: The most striking influences of the growth of railroads are seen in the concentration of
people in cities. The cities are growing larger and larger, although the small town is growing year by year, especially fast where the
factories are. Competition is a good thing for the community if it is not ‘“‘cutthroat.’’

The best enterprises have been constructed entirely by individuals. This gives mental education, a mode of strengthening their
active faculties, of exercising the judgment, and better improvements of the road because of self-interest and of competition. This would
avoid the great evil of adding unnecessarily to the power of the government. Mill says: ‘‘To avoid class feeling, which is the great evil
of society, and to give equal opportunity to all fellow-citizens who are fit to use it, and to avoid increasing the burden of government
obligations is the wisest plan.’’? President Hadley says: ‘‘Government management involves corruption unless the civil service is
improved. Therefore let us have private railroads.”’

Postal, telegraph, and telephone systems are in a sufficiently good condition, although many complain of misdeliveries. It can not
be stated here as to the utility of telegrams in trade, for the statistics do not distinguish the number of public, private, and merchants’
dispatches and receipts. An enormous amount was collected in the telegraph office, but the fact is that almost all of it was for political
and diplomatic uses and very little for trade purposes. I hope that the country merchants will utilize this facility more and more, and
with quick communication take advantage on their sales. ;

ARTICLE II. INDUSTRY.

The nation as a whole has held the physiocratic doctrine and has thought the only proper way is to cultivate the land in rice and
other agricultural products. Different conditions in different districts, as weather favorable to one crop and unfavorable to others,
produce a variety of crops, but rice is generally a good crop everywhere. The food of the people is mainly rice, and this rice crop was
thought the only source of growth of the country. The majority (about 70 per cent of the people) is classed as farmers or peasarts, as
compared with 40 per cent in the United States and 15 per cent in England. This great amount of agricultural products is of great
importance to the workmen, whose comfort and family happiness are largely due to the price of rice. On account Bg lack of funds
among the agriculturists, the method of cultivation, the implements used, and the manures are not sufficiently studied, although great
improvements have been made. These agricultural products have only one harvest in a year, and they depend on escaping the annual
storm, which usually occurs at the change of the season from summer to autumn, when rice is blooming. This storm oiten destroys
considerable products, and the labor which they spend with a hope of a good harvest return is gone without compensation. So our
agriculturists should study all the scientific appliances in use in western countries, as manures, latest implements for labor saying, and
should utilize the machinery for obtaining a water supply instead of depending on the water afforded by rivers about which they struggle
when dry weather comes; and they should also give attention to controlling the river flood. The recent rise of prices gave prosperity to
farmers, but the total production for years has remained almost stationary, and the area under cultivation also has not changed, showing
that the stage of increasing returns has already reached its maximum, and almost all cultivatable places have been touched with the plow
and are getting into the stage of diminishing returns. But the increase of population is enormous, about 400,000 being added yearly, and
therefore most of the arable land must be devoted to the production of food stuffs; the country must strive to establish manufactures and
endeavor to export largely and receive raw materials and food stuffs in exchange. Even now the country has to import a part of its
food supply, and the physiocratic doctrine has gone out of existence for us. But the maintenance of home agriculture is, from a military
point of view, most necessary in order not to be entirely dependent on a foreign food supply, although a blockade of the whole pee
1s inconceivable. Economically, also, agriculture, especially of the mulberry tree and the tea plant, should be studied and improved.
The great factor of our safety is an improved method of transportation which would enable us to produce rice and other crops where they
can be raised to greatest advantage, creating new areas of cultivation which no application of capital and labor can otherwise overcome.
Prof. Mayo Smith says: ‘‘The grand fact indicated by the statistics of agriculture and of agricultural production is that Europe is
depending more and more upon new countries for its bread, meat, and the raw materials of manufactures. In 1890 41 per cent of the
imports of Great Britain consisted of articles of food and drink; 30 per cent of raw materials of manufactures. England is supplied with
food and raw material by new countries, while it employs its labor in turning out manufactured goods which it exchanges for them.
From 1852 to 1859 Great Britain produced three-fourths of the wheat it consumed. In 1889-90 it produced only 31 per cent of what
it consumed and imported the remainder. England gets two-thirds of its wheat supply from abroad, all its cotton, most of its wool, and
a great deal of its iron ores.”’ The great fertile plains of North America, South America, Australasia, and Russia have become the world’s
producers of grain and provisions and are increasing their demand for textiles, while Japan stands ready with her silk and tea. Africa
tenders its gold, diamonds, ivory, and native tropical products, all of which are required by the great manufacturing centers of the United
States and Europe, which can give in exchange their manufactures of cotton, wool, silk, iron, and steel. Thus commerce is constantl
increasing its volume by its own activity. The advantages of industry and trade depend upon the principle of division of labor. Ea
locality in general produces that which it can produce to the best advantage cheaper than others, and each country should prefer what
is most profitable to it. Japan can be turned trom rice growing to an industrial country and the production of silk and tea, which are
so much in demand the world over. This would be advantageous to Japan because she would make a greater profit by this exchange,

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i an COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2261

and all sorts of labor would be more productive and would command more real wealth. Owing to natural advantage of situation and
to facilities for obtaining abundant supplies of raw materials, both at home and from abroad, the policy of manufacturing is by far
the most advantageous to the country. Moreover, rice is not the general food of Europe and the United States, and their supplies of rice
in Europe come from Calcutta, 45,700 tons; Siam, 37,401 tons, and French Indo-China, Burma, 716,000 tons; Saigon, 160,619 tons in
1896, which countries have an advantage over Japan in the cost of transportation and in quick delivery. The only place for export is to
China, but there are immense rice fields in China, producing immeasurable crops and promising to export all their surplus when the
present trouble is over. British India, French India, and Javaare also great rice-producing countries, iad the United States would come
to produce it if other countries demanded it by an increase of consumption which would warrant an increase of production. Still more,
the agriculture of the country is unlike that of the United States, where large amounts of capital are invested and the most improved
machines are used and the fields are cultivated by many laborers, by which the division of labor is utilized as in factories. In Japan
agriculture is conducted on a very small scale, most of the farmers cultivating by themselves, getting just enough products to support
their families. Again, the country has a supply of natural water power in the mountains and rivers which can be easily conveyed in
the form of electricity to accessible points for use in manufacturing, affording opportunity for the skillful and energetic workmen using
the latest machinery. In every point of view the profits of manufacturing are steadier than the cultivation of rice, which largely depends
on rain and wind. Then, is not manufacturing preferable and most suitable for the permanent development of the country’s economy?
Let us observe the relative importance. :

I. The silk industry will naturally come first. The difference of food for the silk worm, land, and climate produces different kinds
of cocoons. Mr. Fukazawa, one of the most experienced authorities, states:

‘“(a) From the leaves of either very young or very old trees: Lands distant from the ocean, having a dry hot climate with few fogs,
when a chlorate fertilizer is used will produce easily good, elastic, bright cocoons, but in small quantities. ’

“(b) From the leaves of young trees on newly cultivated land: Lands near the ocean, having a moist, cold climate with heavy fogs,
where a carbonate fertilizer is used, will produce hardy, fat cocoons, in good quantity, but not good quality. ;

“Tt is impossible to get perfect cocoons. The manufacturer ought to select that kind most suitable for his own business.” Japan
as a whole, in its climate and location, is suitable for the production of the latter kind, although it produces different kinds in summer
and spring. Thus Japan has its peculiarity in the cheaper qualities, which the United States and European continents are not able to
produce, and the consumption of silk in the world has a tendency toward cheaper quality; that is, the people of the United States and
Europe are beginning to use silk dresses for general wear, and the use of goods of high quality has begun to decrease. The only competing
countries are France, Italy, Switzerland, and China, but Japan’s cheapness of production defies all competition, so in France the
manufacturers can not continue their work unless the Government gives enormous subsidies or bounties, amounting to $2,000,000 a year,
or $100 per 100 pounds. This cheapness was not due to competition, but to the depreciation of prices, which was caused by our Japanese
merchants selling silk goods without a knowledge of the quotations of gold and silver. When gold appreciated the nominal price in silver
was larger in our market, while the New York price remained the same, and in fact our merchants sold goods under value. Thus, the price
of silk was lowered, while the consumers of silk are increasing year by year. This is in contrast to the law of demand and supply.
Nevertheless, this is the actual condition; yet it is not too late to cure this evil by better management among silk dealers.

II. Heretofore raw silk was exported and thought to be the most stable manufactured commodity. Silk clothing or spun silk was
exported to the amount of only several thousand dollars in 1887, but in 1899 the export was—

1899 1896

: , : Yen. Yen.
SILER ESIDNIGN ene Jeno, fen ete ens Oeolias caetecaes ecabiaastas 15, 799, 014 7,052, 217
Sin SOG) SCA} a CEA es ee a SE eee eg See ee a 1, 451, 952 233, 80°
Silk hand kerchiels'n.4. scabs swwcvesls wascacese = pene ses 3, 461, 572 4,617,720
Rotella s sorts. Noes dares coe oe Boas ceibe Sodbaaaees 20, 712, 588 11, 903, 746

24 per cent of the total silk export of 86,116,096 yen in 1899. This comes next to spun cotton, and is about three times as large as
the export of tea, 7,699,625 yen. This would be the most important export article in a few years if proper improvement were made,
because the country has plenty of raw materials near at hand. It has skillful laborers, and also the people have an intelligent idea of
‘design. In fact, all the conditions are advantageous to this industry, it having no large competing fields in Europe and America.

II. The future of cotton yarn, matches, straw braid, matting, the porcelain and pottery industries looks most promising, as is
evident from the incréasing amount of yearly production and the growth of exports.

ARTICLES. 1887 1895 1898 1899

Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
COM OREMETIE cco cia ctawd mniciateltaire cintnia npn sw nrgaaniarae moeena 1, 034, 479 28, 521, 438
WE TCS ee A 941, 577 1, 843, 637 4,672, 811 5, 890, 666
Straw braids. coi. ceccsccece 350, 450 193, 776 1, 387, 643 2,770,178
MIGOR Nah hos. Ssocedeackas 36, 296 656, 123 3, 461, 370 3, 717, 489
IPODREW: <a eniccsedckcnanaaaes 1, 311, 901 1, 287, 026 1, 955, 060 2,181, 336
BLO geese eee nae coaie tes 226, 742 418, 549 964, 690 1, 357, 626
Greem ea. co swecise.yencecee 5, 761, 176 DEBZ6 0020 feseaduckn cee 7, 699, 625

The demand for cotton yarn, matches, and pottery will be greater when peace with China is declared, since these industries are
supplied to that country with raw materials most advantageously. Recently the exportation of porcelain and earthenwares to all parts
of the world, especially to the United States and China, has increased, not only those of original styles, but of «ll kinds. Imitated styles
for parlor ornaments can be seen in almost every house in the United States. The merchants are trying to produce lighter colors, whieh
would be appreciated, being much cheaper than American and European made, although its frailty would lessen its general use. If it
could be made lighter in color and more substantial it would be more profitable to the merchants as well as to the consumers. The
number of paper factories will be very large, because there is future promise for their growth. :

VY. Besides industries for export, there are many important industries which would meet domestic demands; such as brushes,
soap, woolen goods, clocks and watches, and would diminish imports, especially in woolen goods. In 1897 the import of wool was
1,062,398 yen, but increased to 4,324,427 yen in 1899, while the importation of manufactured goods decreased from 9,479, 719 yen in 1897
to 8,252,750 yen in 1899. The importation of clocks and watches has increased from 687,734 yen in 1892 to 3,298,295 in 1898, and
decreased to 455,559 yen in 1899. The cleverness of workmen in reproducing articles is promising for the future of exports to China and
other Oriental countries.

It would be too tedious to enumerate the various other branches of industry. ;

~ However, the future of manufacturing is assured, though it is still in its infancy, as can be seen in the small demand for coal in the
country and the retrogression of lacquer ware manufacturing, which goods were once exported to Europe and America to the amount of
- more than a million yen. But the heat on the voyage melted the glue in the ware, and when used with hot water the whole thing was
_ spoiled, and now the export is only to Oriental countries. This subject is not one for pen and ink discussion, but for practical improve-

No. 6 17

2262 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. : ocr

<
ments. Manufacturing needs complicated machinery, and the more the industry improves with the increase of invention of labor-saving —
machinery the more is there need of highly skilled laborers, who know, at least, the movements of machinery and its processes. Our —
day laborers at present are personally good for little, but labor is the greatest and most important factor of the wealth of a country. It
is worth while to study how to improve the condition of the laborers, to increase the standard of intelligence among them, and to give
them industrial education and make them fully acquainted with the work, and thus increase their usefulness; otherwise the y
would become a place where the ignorant and the lower class would be gathered and industry would retrograde; pauperism woul
increase and finally destroy all the resources of the country. a

As to the betterment of industrial conditions, industrial improvement, and the elevation of workingmen, Mr. Victor H. Olmsted
gives some very interesting summaries in the United States: ‘ / ; : J

‘1, Club organizations, in which employees are banded together for social, educational, recreative, and other purposes incident to
such associations.

“2. The encouragement of physical culture by means of gymnasiums, calisthenics, base ball, bicycle, and similar exercises.

‘©3. The improvement of intellectual conditions by means of free lectures, libraries, kindergartens, and educational classes.

“4. The increasing of industrial efficiency through industrial schools and manual-training classes.

“5. The advancement of spiritual life by means of Sunday schools and general religious work—making people moral and creating
intellectual aspiration. :

““6. The cultivation of musical taste and ability by means of concerts and musical entertainments for employees, and the
encouragement of musical clubs and organizations among them.

‘7, Promotion of improved social conditions by means of social gatherings, summer outings, meeting places, and game rooms for
employees, banquets, dances, etc.

“8. Profit sharing with employees. :

‘9 The promotion of the personal interest of employees in the successful conduct of the business by encouraging and assistmg
them to purchase shares in it, thus, in effect, taking them into partnership.

‘10, The improvement of domestic conditions by means of improved dwellings, instruction in sewing, cooking, and housekeeping,
and in landscape and kitchen gardening, and the exterior and interior decoration of homes.

“11, The care for employees’ health and comfort by means of bathing facilities, dining and lunch rooms, the furnishing of hot
lunches to female employees, and by improved sanitary construction and appliances.

‘‘12. The care of sick and disabled employees and their families by means of free insurance, free medical attendance or hospital
“facilities, and by the encouragement of beneficial organizations.

‘13. The cultivation of thrift through savings-bank facilities, building associations, or provident organizations, and by the giving of
prizes for valuable suggestions of employees and rewards for faithful service or the manifestation of zealous interest in their employment.

' 14, The rendering of financial aid to employees in case of hardship or distress.

‘‘15. The manifestation of interest in the personal affairs of individual employees, the cultivation of cordial and even confidential
relations with them, and the promotion of their welfare in all possible ways.”

These are worthy of general adoption.

As to the improvement of industry, this would naturally follow from competition with other strong countries. Then the great
economical subjects to be studied are the effect on wages, profits, and improvement of laborers.

The defects in the manufacturing industry of our country at present are—

1. Factory: (a) Insufficiency of ventilation, as in our printing, tobacco, textile, rug, match, and iron factories; (b) lack of space,
as in factories of large employment, as in matches, bookbinding, tobacco factories, etc.; (c) too small entrances, often resulting in
blockades in cases of panics; (d) narrowness and disorder of gateways in factories; (¢) uncleanness of dining, resting, bathing, and toilet
rooms.

2. Machinery: (a) Leaking of poisonous gas; (b) the insufficient care of dangerous chemicals; (c) imperfect arrangement in
to dust; (d) carelessness in handling machines; (e) lack of protection or remedy against accidents by machinery; (/) imperfect methods
of fireproofing; (g) unsafe lanterns or light.

3. Laborers: (a) Difference in hours of labor; (b) difference in wages on extra work; (c) lack of uniformity in recess hours; (d
work in recess hour; (¢) no limit as to age; (f) no limit on hours for child laborers; (g) no system of instruction ior child laborers; 3
depending too much on foreman as to the laborers, employment, discharge, and wages; (i) no by-law on compensation for damages when
discharged; (j) food and goods given as payment; (k) imperfect system for the care of the sick and the injured among laborers; (7) no
regulation as to assistance on the death of laborer while at work; (m) mixture of male and female workers; (n) no supervision over
apprentices; (0) no regulation about the running away of employees; () many defects in the method of securing employees by commission;
(q) no penalties for damage of machinery or other things by the bad intention of employees.

4. The articles produced: (a) The variety of quality, caused by the lack of large factories and by small capital; (4) cheap quality,
lack of capital investment, which does not allow the factory to buy machinery with the latest improvements; (c) uncertainty of time
of contract. This is also caused by the lack of large factories. All factories which exist to-day are on a small scale, except a few in
cotton spinning and a few others, and they buy their raw materials with the money just got from the sale of goods, and never look
forward to improvements, but seek merely the present small profit, and can not even repair machinery. When a large order comes
the merchants can not meet it because there is no factory large enough. The only thing for the merchant to do in this case is to go
round to several other small factories and get their help, which from the difficulties in finance or other economical circumstances
often can not fill their orders at the proper time. Nor do they care very much about their promises; therefore there is no confidence, —
for if there comes any higher bidder for the ordered goods they are easily tempted to sell. (d) In finished goods they can not follow
the fashions. All sorts of luxurious things have usually a fashion. Without a cultivated taste the manufacturer can not anticipate the ~
coming fashions abroad, and therefore can not make any new design, but must weave just according to the foreign order. So to meet this
the managers or designers ought to read art magazines and newspapers, and go often to the countries with which they deal and study for
themselyes.

Generally the mode of remedying the above four defects is to establish large factories, put in the latest machinery, employ good
managers, keep the firm in good order, contract for sufficient raw materials, and produce the best possible quality, which then can be
sold by samples. The economie principle of the relation between production and consumption is: The more we produce, the cheaper
we can sell; the larger, therefore, the consumption. An increase in the demand proyides more hands with work, at higher wages, and
consequently results in a further increase in the consuming capacity of the nation; and this again leads to a further opportunity for

extension of production. The tendency to concentrate business organization finds expression in our country. The Government holds
an absolute monopoly in the sale of camphor and tobacco in all its forms. The word ‘trust’? has not become hateful, and the subject is
popularly discussed. Thus the concentration of capital and production on a large scale will be the system of our future, As it is, ve
many of the smaller units have disappeared and are all in favor of further amalgamation. The result of the organization of trusts an

the establishment of the syndicate system has been to cheapen production, to control and maintain profitable prices of the output, to
give advantage to laborers with the greatest possible saving of materials, to apply newest machinery and newest technical improvements,
and to improve the quality of the product in order to get more consumers; for competition allares by the prospect of gains, gives confi-
dence to the producers. Large organizations of capital enable better managers to be obtained by giving better salaries, and this enables
these organizations to offer strong inducements to commerce and to increase the future greatness of industry and trade. But for the
good order of the community there is need of public supervision and control. j

There are many agricultural institutions for study and investigation, but there are no institutions for the investigation of industry.
The establishment of an institution of this kind, which would undoubtedly be of great benefit to manufacturers, is expected. ny,
for instance, has spent considerable money for this purpose, shows great improvement.

The exports of minerals are increasing very ately, as coal, copper, etc.; they are important products of the country, and

this line. ~

laborers would be improved by the better system which I have described. Combinations would also be expected in

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~-1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2263

Fertilizers were imported to the amount of 7,934,189 yen in 1899. If improvements were made in our marine interests these
enormous imports would be superseded by our own country, as the country is located most advantageously for securing fertilizers, and
it has good customers for them in its near neighbors. This industry would be great in the future, and would have a great influence on
the wealth of the country, for the natural field is very great and the product is exhaustless. The only thing needed is encouragement
from the Government.

ARTICLE III. TRADE.

as Trade is the result of differences in comparative cost of producing the articles traded in, though this law is limited by the natural
hindrances to trade and the competition of different countries. A country derives great advantages from foreign trade, which is in one
point of view a development of the division of employments, and is at once a cause and an index of civilization. Questions of trade are
every day becoming more prominent in Japan as well as political questions, of Oriental diplomacy, and they occasionally even overshadow
political ones. Competition for the world’s markets must necessarily become keener as the struggle for existence becomes more severe.
The means to secure this trade must be carefully considered by the state and individuals, and are already being carried out with method
me and zeal on all sides.
‘ Not only are almost all commodities of our country transported in foreign vessels, but the trade of the country is also carried on by
foreign merchants. More than 67 per cent of our exports and imports in 1898 were by foreign merchants. Why, having the best location,
in the center of the Oriental trade, with the best facilities, can not we conduct our own merchandising? Of course trade never exists
without the development of internal and external transportation and industry. Now, it is the chief duty of our people and the Goyern-
ment to investigate this matter; for the country has already many customers in the United States and Europe, and it ought to control
f the Oriental trade. Let us observe the trading power of the Orient and of other countries with which our trade is not yet very active.
- : 1, China in a few years, whether division of that country takes place or Russia controls it or the country stands independent,
will be a great customer for our copper, marine products, pottery, matches, cotton goods, and silk; and in payment we can get food and
other supplies. The demand which China will make upon us will be the greatest she makes on the world, because she has over
400,000,000 population. Many lines of railway are going to be built, giving facilities for transportation, and the present trouble will
surely result in the introduction of modern civilization. The more she develops, the more will be the demand for our products. The
relation between China and Japan is very similar to that between the United States and England, or perhaps we have a greater
advantage because of nearness and the larger population in China.

2. Trade with eastern Russia will also become great in the future. Our imports of her abundant crops and meats and her general
demands on Japan for manufactured goods in payment will be very great.

3. The trade of Korea is already in our hands, but needs more development.

4. With the Philippines, Sumatra, Annam, Siam, and the neighboring islands trade will be great in exchanging silk goods, fans,
pottery, copper, and coal, for which we will get sugar, hemp, etc., for these countries usually exceed in exports; so there is opportunity
to increase our exports of manufactured goods.

5. British Australasia is still in process of development, having about 3,000,000 square miles, with near 4,973,900 population, and is
going to be very prosperous. Japan will be able to exchange her tea, silk and other manufactured goods with that country for wool and

a other luxuries. Great attention must be paid to Australasian trade, for it has great promise.
YEARS. Exports. Imports.

x Yen. Yen.
: Se eee 5 a 438, 000, 000 91, 000, 000
; TOIT SOR ples As SEA «te ee Aa a 535, 000, 000 32, 000, 000
a TIS T1527 ea pe aa, ga nN 575, 000, 000 228, 000, 000

Gi eG ek i te AERIS pe ap ee RR ER 765, 000, 000 668, 000, 000
2 6. India: England contro}s everything; but India needs our cotton goods, pottery, wood ware, and copper in exchange for raw cotton,

salt, and pine and oak lumber.
, 7. New York and-Boston trade: The Nicaragua Canal would reduce the cost of transportation from Japan to New York and Boston
r. _ by about 30 per cent; for the charge by railroad is five times greater than ship transportation, though the latter takes a longer time.

' 8. The southern United States cotton and wheat would come to China and other Oriental countries, and on their return trips the
ships could carry our silk, tea, and other manufactured commodities at reduced rates to American markets. Also the vessels from Europe
a to the Orient would take the route by way of the United States, and Japan would become their Oriental terminus; and if our country

< should have good docks and shipyards she would be the place for repairs, coaling, etc., and thus our trade would become more prosperous
Zz and our coal trade would be great.

f Owing to the great attraction of Oriental commerce, competition for that trade will become greater, and commerce will concentrate
in the most convenient places. Asthe greatest market is in the East, the East will attract the merchant fleets of all nations. Its favorable
situation at the starting point of an important line of transport will undoubtedly cause Japan to flourish. It is a proud and high duty

g to bring our country to the center of this great Oriental trade of the whole world.

i I would like to add two more suggestions before the conclusion. The important thing in foreign trade is to gain intimate acquaint-
: ance with the customers; to know their tastes and discover the articles which they can not produce, or the high cost of production of
which forbid them to compete. If nothing better oifers, let our consular officers go into business circles and endeavor to find in foreign
ports new outlets for the products of our country, and seek to develop the trade already existing. For instance, Japan can make
handsome bonnets, but does not know how to meet the requirements of fashion in the United States and Europe. Therefore the bright
and active consul abroad, with a perfect knowledge of foreign wants, tastes, and methods, is necessary. Another very important and
necessary thing is to give the people technical and business education. Through lack of this education merchants are not trustworthy,
delaying the date of orders, changing contracts, selling things ordered to other and higher bidders, and often furnishing goods of lower
quality. Hence our merchants can not sell goods by samples. England made great progress in business by her sales by samples. So
sales by samples ought to be made in our foreign trade, and we should transact business in foreign markets with the prices fixed on the
samples.

ARTICLE IV. CONCLUSION.

The world’s statistics show that where there are great facilities of transportation industry and trade flourish. Where industry is
__ prosperous transportation and trade are very active, and where trade is steady the other two improve; the three are always supplementary
to one another. One feature is not prosperous without the others. The better the improvement of transportation the easier the
communication, the more benefit to industry and trade. The more improvement in industry the more production, the more increase of
___ trade the less will be the cost of transportation. The opening of the Suez Canal brought European civilization fully to the Orient. The
reat chain of railway through Siberia, and the Nicaragua Canal, which will be completed within the next few years, will bring more
ommercial prosperity to the Orient. Japan will become the great battlefield for the world’s commerce, both for the termini of foreign
_ trade routes from Europe to the United States and for the trade itself. The importance of internal and external transportation will

become still greater, and it will be necessary to have a great surplus of manufactured products in the commodity fight to win the game.

* >

_ The abundance of water in rivers running down in such narrow channels, and the enormous fields of coal, with railroad facilities,

-

= a :

2264 | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | [Decemper, 1901.]

will enable us to produce electrie power to run our manufactories. The country is making considerable progress in finance, transportation,

and trade. However, progress in these three merely does not make internal prosperity, but a nation’s financial condition depends on
the material prosperity of its people, the bulk of which in Japan is in the manufacturing industries. These have the advantages of
near-by customers, motive power of electricity, and great opportunities for procuring raw materials and cheap wages, thus being the best-
fitted country for manufacturing. Anda proper combination of labor and capital in the superior organization of industry will yield a
much greater return and will contribute largely to the total wealth of the country. i

The people participate in every effort which promises them a cheaper market, or one in which they can purchase superior goods at
equal prices. It is gratifying to be able to state that the commerce of the country shows a marked increase in the practical intelligence
of the manufacturers and exporters in promoting trade, and presents a mass of evidence as to the steady growth in popularity in foreign
markets of our goods, as well as of our raw materials and minerals. The danger is in a falling off in the standard either through
carelessness or the mistaken desire to obtain large present profits by lowering the quality. The foreign trade represents the foreign
policy of the nation, its relation with other countries, the extension of its influence abroad; its position in the world and its prosperity
at home. To make a joint effort toward securing regular and economical means of transportation the Government and people have to
inaugurate a policy of vigorous internal development, and to concentrate their efforts on enlarging the export trade. The free-trade
policy of Japan is of great importance, for retaliation is a dangerous weapon, costly at the best, and in case of failure hurtful to sound
— hei relations with other countries; and a protective policy is suitable only to new, large, and influential countries, like the United

tates.

Our country is young in commerce, and has a great opportunity to adopt the best methods and improvements, which other older
civilized countries got after many years of discussion and experience. If, as I stated in a previous chapter, to give laborers better
education, to improve manufacturing industries, with better facilities of transportation, and to give a larger field for foreign trade will
not disturb the trade balance, why, then commerce will develop and bring wealth to the country. Thus by prudently and gradually
developing the resources of the country the large expenditure of the Government, which now hinders the industry and burdens the
people, will be most willingly contributed by the people, although the maintenance of constant watchfulness to prevent waste and a
further reduction of fiscal burthens are to be hoped for soon.

In the recent trouble in China in the international alliance Japan held a inost important place. This shows that she has made most
rapid improvement since a few years ago, and it displays the power of a nation acknowledged to stand parallel with European and
American civilization. Now is the time for Japan to show her ability and her progress; and the twentieth century will show the
greatest measure of her commerce, with the United States and England as ‘‘the three sisters of the century.”’

:

———————

THE ADOPTION OF THE GOLD STANDARD IN JAPAN.

The statements which follow regarding the adoption of the gold standard in Japan are from an official report upon this subject
issued by the Japanese Government in 1899, entitled Report on the Adoption of the Gold Standard in Japan, by Count Matsukata
Masayoshi, His Imperial Japanese Majesty’s minister of state for finance. The report occupies more than 400 printed pages, and its
complete reproduction is therefore impracticable. The statements which follow are, however, as far as practicable, verbatim extracts,
with only such necessary condensations of the less important features as are required to render the statement a continuous and fairly
complete history of the transaction.

The detailed statement is prefaced by an official letter from Count Matsukata Masayoshi, minister of finance, addressed to the
minister president of state, which gives in outline the history of the conditions leading up to the change in the standard of curreney in
Japan and the methods by which the change was accomplished. In subsequent pages of the volume a brief statement is given of the
effect of the newly adopted system so far as tested at the date of the report (May 1899), and these statements are in this presentation
placed in immediate conjunction with the outline history of the event itself, thus presenting in continuous form a condensed statement
of the cause, the action, and the effect, for the convenience of those who do not desire to study in detail the more elaborate statements
of facts which are presented in subsequent pages.

The complete volume from which these extracts and condensations are taken is on file in the library of the Bureau of Statistics of
the Treasury Department, and may be consulted by those desiring additional details.

OFFICIAL STATEMENT OF THE JAPANESE MINISTER OF FINANCE ACCOMPANYING THE REPORT UPON
THE ADOPTION OF THE GOLD STANDARD.

DEPARTMENT OF Frnancet, May 13, 82d Year of Meiji (1899).

’To His Excellency Marquis Yamacata AriTomo,

His Imperial Japanese Majesty’s Minister President of State.

Your Excetiency: I have the honor to present to your excellency herewith a report on the particulars relating to the
accomplishment of the monetary reform recently undertaken by the Government. ‘To establish gold monometallism in place of a de
facto silver standard is indeed a thoroughgoing change, and the influence of that change on the future economy and finance of the
country will doubtless be great and far-reaching. The coinage law (Law No. XVI of the 30th year of Meiji) which brought about this
great change went into operation on the 1st day of October, 1897, while at the same time the Government began the process of exchanging
and withdrawing from circulation 1-yen silver coins, which process was closed on July 31, of 1898. The disposal of the silver yen thus
withdrawn from circulation was also completed in December of the latter year.

The coinage system in vogue at the time of the restoration (1868) was based on the system that was first established in the 6th year
of Keicho (1600 A. D.), and since that time, for more than two hundred and sixty years, no change had ever been introduced into the
system. Yet, owing to the growing financial distress, the Shogunate Government frequently resorted to recoinage as its inyariable
relief measure, which in every case, excepting the solitary case of Kioho time (1715 A. D.-1734 A. D.), brought out coins of lighter
weight and poorer quality. The coinage system was thus, though nominally kept intact, practically destroyed in the end through
successive debasement. Besides, some of the Daimios (feudal princes) often took the liberty of secretly coining money, while the
practice of issuing paper money for circulation within their separate jurisdictions had become well-nigh universal. In a word, the
currency system of the country at the end of the Shogunate period was in a most disordered condition. :

Soon after the restoration the Imperial Government saw the necessity of reorganizing the existing system of coinage on a sound
basis, and in May, 1871 (fourth year of Meiji), thenew coinage law was promulgated, which opened the way for the final establishment
of the gold-standard system. This isa fact that must be particularly noted in order to clearly understand the monetary system of
modern Japan. However, the gold standard could not yet thus be at once established. In those days the universal medium of exchange
in the trade of the Far East was the Mexican dollar, and the Government thought the interest of foreign trade would best be served by
issuing, aside from the standard gold coins, the silver 1 yen (or trade dollar), equal in size and quality to the Mexican dollar, and by
making it legal tender only within the limits of the treaty ports. So the provision was made in the new coinage law of 1871 for the
coinage of the silver yen to be called Boyeki ichi yen gin (or trade silver dollar). At the same time the disordered condition of finance,
especially the issuing of inconvertible paper money, drove gold coins out of the country with enormous rapidity. Under these
circumstances, situated as the country was in the midst of the silver countries of the East, it was found impossible to maintain the gold
standard. These reasons, as well as the inconvenience of maintaining the two kinds of money—one for foreign and the other for home
trade—led the Government to issue Imperial ordinances Nos. XII and XIII in May, 1878 (eleventh year of Meiji), which made the
trade dollar legal tender throughout the country, side by side with the gold coins. From this time on the country no longer maintained
in reality a gold standard, but a gold and silver bimetallic system. This change must be regarded as one deviating step in the development
of our monetary system.

The Government of that time should not, however, be too severely judged. The expenses of the revolutionary wars were very
heavy, and the financial need was most pressing. Almost the only resort of the Government was the issuing of papermoney. Moreover,
when feudalism was abolished, in 1871 (fourth year of Meiji), the Imperial Government was obliged to take over all the paper money
which had been issued by different Daimios, and for the adjustment of this class of paper money the Imperial Goverhment was again
obliged to issue further a large amount of paper currency. All these causes combined to raise the amount oi the inconvertible paper
money to an enormous figure.

The credit of these notes was at first exceedingly bad. This was doubtless due largely to the lack of credit of the Imperial Government
itself, but also to the fact that the people could not free their minds of the sad experiences of the losses they had incurred on account of
the various inconvertible notes of feudal times. The new paper money was shunned by the people, even at a large discount, so much so
that the Government felt compelled to take steps to reduce its amount by exchanging it for the Government bonds, bearing 6 per cent
interest, which were issued under the Kinsatsu (literally gold note) exchange bond regulations. Through these measures, as well as
owing to the increase of the Government’s credit, the hatred for paper money gradually wore off, the people finally eyen coming to prefer
it because of the convenience of handling.

2265

2266 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Matters were progressing favorably when, in 1877 (tenth year of Meiji), a rebellion broke out in the southwestern provinces. The
Government was again obliged to resort to the issuing of a large amount of inconvertible notes, which brought on an inflation and
consequent depreciation in the value of these notes. There was also another cause for this result, namely, the increase after 1876 of the
amount of national-bank notes, due to increase in the number of national banks (owing to certain amendments in the national-bank
regulation, which took place through Imperial ordinance No. CVI). The effect of this depreciation was felt in various directions; for
instance, prices rose rapidly, gold and silver left the country, the imports soon came to exceed the exports, the farmers contracted
habits of luxury, the industrial classes became over-excited with vain hopes of speculation. Thus was brought about the great financial
distress of 1880-81. That disastrous results would inevitably follow if inconvertible paper money were made the standard of value
might have easily been foreseen by mere common sense, but the measures adopted by the Government at this crisis seemed to show
that the authorities did not grasp this simple truth. They regarded the difference in price between silver and paper as an indication,
not of the depreciation of paper, but of the appreciation of silver. They attempted, therefore, to stop the rise of the price of silver by
increasing the amount of its circulation. The Government sold silver coins, opened places for the exchange of Mexican dollars, and”
established the Yokohama Specie Bank in order to call forth the coins hoarded by the people. But the more these methods were
resorted to, so much more rose the price of silver. The Yokohama Specie Bank finally became almost bankrupt, and no one knew how
far the paper currency would go down in the scale of depreciation.

At last, however, the true method of relieving the financial distress began to dawn on the minds of the men in authority. From
September, 1880, the Government began to take steps to redeem a part of the paper money in circulation. The depreciation, however;
still continued without a sign of abatement. It was at this crisis, in October, 1881, that I received the portfolio of finance. It occurred
to me, as I studied the case, that in order to effect the object in view the Government should, side by side with the redemption of a
portion of the paper money in circulation, take steps to increase the specie reserve of the Government preparatory to the resumption
of specie payment. Moreover, in order to put the country’s finance on a sound basis and relieve the pressing distress of the time, I
felt the need of a central bank having the sole privilege of issuing convertible notes. I submitted a scheme for the establishment of
such a central bank to the consideration of my colleagues. In the cabinet council which followed my suggestions were approved, and in
June, 1882, by Imperial ordinance No. X XXII, the Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan) was established. Two years later, in May, 1884,
by Imperial ordinance No. XVII, the Bank of Japan was empowered to issue convertible notes. After the necessary foundations were
in this way laid, the Government used every means in its power to raise on these foundations a sound financial superstructure. The
method of receiving and disbursing the Government revenue was changed, and the strictest economy was practiced in the expenditures
of the different departments. One half of the surplus obtained in this way was devoted to the redemption of paper money, while the
other half was added to the specie reserve of the Government. Besides, after the latter part of 1881 this reserve fund was employed
for discounting foreign bills of exchange with a view to encourage the export trade of the country, which in its turn would lead to
the importation of specie. Thus the Government took every possible measure, and left no stone unturned for the establishment of a
convertible-notes system.

Thus took place on the one hand the gradual redemption of paper money, and on the other hand the increase of the specie reserve
of the Government, so that not long after, about the close of 1885, the credit of the Government rose so much that the difference between
the value of silver and that of paper almost disappeared. The opportune moment seemed now to have arrived to effect the substitution
of the convertible notes for the inconvertible. The Government therefore gave notice by Imperial ordinance No. XIV, of June, 1885,
that specie payment would be resumed after the Ist day of January, 1886. Thus at last was overthrown the system of inconyertible
paper money, together with all the evils resulting from that system.

Previous to this the Government saw that the notes of the national banks were also in need of adjustment, and through Imperial
ordinance No. XIV, of May, 1883, certain amendments were introduced in the national-bank regulations, the main point in those
amendments being a method of conjoined redemption of the notes of allthe banks. Thus the redemption of the bank notes began to take
place, 2s also that of the Government paper money. ‘The circulation of them both will cease altogether on the 31st of December, 1899.

While the evils of inconvertible paper currency were thus swept away, on the other hand, however, one effect of all these reforms
was to make Japan a de facto silver-standard country. This was, perhaps, an inevitable step the country had to take in arriving at last
upon a sound financial footing. The authorities knew, of course, that in order to give a healthy financial development Ja would
have to enter sooner or later the international economic community, and that in order to do this she would have to adopt a gold standard.
That the Government pursued a policy which led to the inevitable result of making Japan a de facto silver country was owing mainly
to the great difficulty of at once accumulating a large gold reserve necessary for the establishment of gold monometallism. It was thought
advisable, therefore, to leave the latter, as the second end to be aimed at, to some more favorable time. ;

The first cause of the recent rapid depreciation of silver we must attribute to Germany’s adoption of a gold standard in 1873, in
consequence of which she began to sell silver. Among other main causes may be mentioned the limitation and final cessation of the
coining of silver in the countries of the Latin Union and the discovery of the rich silyer mines of North America. When, howeyer,
in 1893, India, the greatest silver country in Asia, took steps to reorganize her currency system, the sudden fall in the price of silver
was exceptionally noticeable. At that time Japan, being a de facto silver country, the effect upon her of this sudden fall was very great.
- Fluctuations in foreign exchange now became exceedingly frequent and unreliable. Business men lost a constant standard of value
and became compelled to pay constant attention to the changes in the money market, so that foreign trade tended to become largely a
matter of monetary speculation. It became more and more hopeless to expect to see the healthy growth of trade, both home and
foreign. Thus was impressed most clearly upon the minds of the financiers of the country the necessity of adopting gold as the standard
coinage in Japan, that metal being least subjected to changes in its price and most fitted for use as the medium of exchange.

The reform so necessary was, however, very difficult to undertake. Unexpectedly the reception of the Chinese indemnity seemed to
offer the desired opportunity. Now, according to the terms of the treaty of peace, Japan was to receive her indemnity in Kuping taels.
It occurred to me then that, on account of the inconstancy in the price of ¢ilyer, as well as in view of the possible adoption of a gold
standard by our country, it would be greatly to our advantage to receive the payment of the indemnity in British instead of Chinese
money. The minister president of state, Marquis Ito, acting on my suggestion, negotiated with the Chinese authorities, which led to
our receiving the indemnity money in pounds sterling.

_Not long after, on my appointment to fill the post of the minister president of state, my efforts were immediately directed toward
making preparations for adopting the gold standard. In February, 1897, the bill for effecting the reform was drawn — There was,
however, no little opposition. Some said the fall in the price of silver would rather encourage trade with the gold-standard countri
while the adoption of a gold standard by Japan would tend to decrease the amount of our exports to those countries. Others sai
Japan, situated as she was in the midst of the silver countries of the East, would be placed in a position of much disadvantage in her
trade with these countries if she adopted gold monometallism. Some others said Japan did not produce a suflicient amount of gold to be
able to maintain permanently a gold-standard system; yet again, others said the silver yen exported to foreign lands exceeded one
hundred millions, and if all these coins came back forexchange, as might possibly be the case, the national treasury would have to
suffer an immense loss. In the midst of all these oppositions the Government stood firm in its purpose, and the bill was introduced into
the Imperial Diet in March, 1897, which, after being passed by both houses of the diet, was sanctioned by the Emperor and promulgated
as law No, XVI on the 29th day of the same month. It must be looked upon as a most fortunate event, considering the future of the
country’s finance and the development of our national economy, that the gold standard was thus finally established.

lor successfully carrying out the radical change that was thus accomplished I believe that the Government has been careful to take
every necessary precaution. For instance, a part of the earlier installments of the indemnity was converted into gold bullion and
conveyed to this country, to be minted as fast as possible into coins in the Government mint. In buying bullion much care was taken
to secure it in the time and place most advantageous, so that so large an amount of bullion was bought altogether the process was
accomplished without too great a disturbance of the market and without loss to the Government. The gold thus turned into coins

between July, 1897, and April, 1898, amounted to 74,455,735 yen, which was kept in reserve for the exchange of silver yen. The process —

of exchanging was begun on the Ist of October, 1897, and closed on the 3ist of July, 1898.

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2267

The total number of 1-yen silver pieces that had been coined since the opening of the Government mint at Osaka amonnted to
165,133,710. Of this amount it is estimated that 99,508,740 yen were exported into foreign countries and never returned; 11,028,633 yen
were taken abroad at the time of the war with China (1894-1895); 5,732,027 yen were sent to Formosa after the cession of that island by
China and never brought in for exchange. *

On the other hand, the total amount exchanged for gold coins between October 1, 1897, and July 31, 1898, was 45,588,369 yen.”

Besides these, 460,904 yen had been recoined by the Government mint into subsidiary coins.

These different sums amounted to 162,318,673 yen, which still leaves 2,815,037 yen whose whereabouts can not be traced. Most
probably they have heen lost or worn out or been taken away by foreign visitors when leaving the country.

To make an estimate of the amount of the silver yen which would probably come back from abroad for exchange was no easy
thing to do. Accordingly I had the most careful researches made as to the amounts of those coins circulating in Shanghai, Hongkong,
the Straits Settlements, etc. It was made clear as the result of these researches that no inconsiderable part of them had either marks of
private stamp, which unfitted them for circulation at home, or had been recoined into Chinese taels. Then, besides, a large quantity
was being used as a medium of exchange in the Straits Settlements and neighboring islands, so that there was little prospect of their
coming back. In view of these facts I estimated that no more than 10,000,000 yen would come back for exchange. It was gratifying
that the result proved the almost literal correctness of that estimate.

Besides these silver coins there existed the promissory notes of the mint for the payment of silver yen, which had been given in
exchange for silver bullion deposited at the mint by private parties. When silver coins were minted, these were to be handed over in
exchange for those notes. Now the latter, which amounted altogether to 29,505,453 yen, were also all exchanged for gold coins.

The total amount of silver thus retired by the Government reached the sum of 75,093,822 yen. Of these, 45,588,369 yen came in
partly through exchange for gold coins, and partly as taxes or in other forms of public payment; the rest consisted of the promissory
notes of the Government mint.

It should be noted that the period of ten months allotted to the work of exchanging the silver yen was a comparatively short one,
in view of the magnitude of the work to be accomplished. The authorities were not, indeed, without sense of the risk they were
running; for should there be a slight hitch in the management the whole thing might have proved a failure. Yet on the other hand,
if the time limit was much longer extended, it was feared that the return of the exported silver yen might become, in view of possible
changes in the price of silver, unexpectedly great and thus embarrassing to the Government. It was also feared that chances for
counterfeiting might perhaps be opened. For these reasons the time limit was made comparatively short, and exceptional care was
taken to facilitate the process of exchange. ThecentralGovernmenttreasury, as well asthe 447 Government treasuries and subtreasuries
scattered all over the country, besides the Yokohama Specie Bank, which served as agency for the Bank of Japan, and its Kobe branch
office, were all directed to take charge of the work of exchange. Moreover, special permission was given to the people during the time
allotted for exchange to pay taxes and make other public payments in silver yen. That no report has reached the authorities of any
which failed to get exchanged seems to prove that the whole work has been well accomplished.

The Government had to find some proper method of disposal of these silver coins now suddenly brought in. They amounted, as
mentioned above, to the sum of 75,093,822 yen. This large sum was disposed of as follows: 27,567,012 yen were recoined into subsidiary
coins between the thirtieth and thirty-second fiscal years of Meiji (1897-1900); 40,786,662 yen were sold in Shanghai, Hongkong, and
elsewhere; 6,740,148 yen were taken over to Formosa, Korea, and elsewhere, and expended in those countries. The whole amount was
thus disposed of in just one year and three months after the new coinage law was promulgated. In thus disposing of the silver yen the
Government took every precaution to sell them as speedily and as dearly as possible. At first it was feared that, owing to the fall in the
price of silver, the Government would incur a loss of more than 10 per cent, but it was fortunate that the actual loss only amounted to 7
per cent, and that the sale was completed within a little over one year. The rate realized was even slightly higher than the average
price of silver bullion in London at the time.

In disposing of these silver yen the Government incurred the loss of 5,397,581 yen, while the necessary expenses connected with
the process was 155,731 yen, the two sums together making 5,553,312 yen, which had to be defrayed by the Government. This was,
however, more than made good by the manufacture profit of the mint, amounting to 5,651,961 yen, which was obtained from the mint-
ing of subsidiary coins between the thirtieth and thirty-first fiscal years of Meiji (1897-1899).

As thus narrated, the new coinage law has been successfully put into effective operation and the disposal of the silver yen com-
pleted, so that Japan is now really a gold-standard country. I regret much, however, that I can not as yet present before your excel-
lency in the present report the practical proofs of the advantage which that change has conferred upon the country. In the first place
a sufficient time has not elapsed to test the real working of the new system, and in addition to the sudden industrial expansion due to
the fact of the victorious war with China, the partial failure of the rice crops, as well as the going into effect of the new tariff laws, all
combine to make the present financial condition of the country exceedingly complicated. Yet, judging from the condition of things
after October, 1897, I can not but think that at least a part of the object aimed at has been attained. One good effect of the coinage
reform is seen in the steadiness of the exchange value of money. While the prices of things have risen and fallen, according to the
economic laws of supply and demand, no part of these changes was due to the result of a change in the value of money. For these
reasons the industrial classes need be now no longer under constant apprehension of some unexpected changes in the value of money.
Trade with gold-standard countries has been greatly facilitated through the unvariable rate of foreign exchange, as may be seen from
the fact that since October, 1897, the rate of exchange on London has fluctuated only between 2s. 0.1611d. and 2s. 0.8071d. The trade
with silver countries has also shown much activity. The exports to these countries have increased from some 54,200,000 yen in 1897 to
some 69,800,000 yen in 1898. The imports also have increased in the same period from 65,450,000 yen to 77,170,000 yen. The hope of
inviting capital at a low rate of interest from gold-standard countries, in order to help on the industrial growth of the country, will
doubtless be realized before very long. These are, of course, but minor observations. That in the long run the advantages of the gold
standard will be deep and abiding, conducive to the healthy industrial growth of the country, scarcely seems to admit of any doubt.

On one point, however, particular care needs to be exercised. It is possible that the state of coinage in Formosa may act as a
disturbing factor in the successful working of gold monometallism in Japan. Much as it was desired to establish a pure and simple gold
standard in the island of Formosa, it was found impossible to do so in view of the great difficulty of changing the usages and customs
of the Chinese population in that island, and also because of the exceptionally close commercial relationship that is maintained between
Formosa and the mainland. For these reasons while gold is made the standard of value, yet for a limited period of time the silver
yen is to be allowed to circulate as legal tender at a value fixed by the Government from time to time.

There is no doubt that in order to lay the foundations of a national currency system firmly and lastingly it is highly desirable to
supply enough hard money for ordinary transactions. It was for this reason that as soon as the Government took steps for the
substitution of the convertible notes for the inconvertible paper money an increased appropriation was made for coining 10 and 20 sen
silver pieces, so that as fast as produced they were issued in exchange for the paper money of smaller denominations consisting of 50,
20, and 10 sen pieces, the last-named 10-sen pieces being finally withdrawn from circulation on the 30th of June, 1887. The 50 and 20
sen pieces yet in circulation have -been reduced now to an insignificant proportion. Besides, at the time the coinage law was
promulgated there were in circulation more than 66,000,000 yen of the 1-yen convertible notes of the Bank of Japan, which were being
used by the people in their smaller daily transactions. The plan adopted by the Government was to make the further issue of 40,000,000
yen of various subsidiary coins, consisting of 50 sen and other smaller denominations, and in exchange for these to retire the 1-yen silver
notes of the Bank of Japan. When the plan is realized the total amount of subsidiary coins in circulation, consisting of silver, nickel,
and copper piéces, will reach the sum of 81,820,000 yen, making about 2 yen per capita of the population. It seems to me that, in
view of the present economic condition of the country, this is just about what the people would need. Up to the end of March, 1899,

‘about 27,000,000 of these silver coins had been minted and made to circulate in place of l-yen convertible notes, which are now being
gradually withdrawn from circulation. It will not be long before the object aimed at by this measure will be fully attained.

® Most probabiy these were taken over to the mainland by the Chinese. Ee y
b Of this amount 10,846,465 yen were sent back from abroad to be exchanged and the rest were in circulation at home.

2268 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

To recapitulate, it will be noted that there are four periods in the coinage history of modern Japan. The first period extends from
1868 (first year of Meiji) to 1871, in which the beginning was made of the establishment of the new currency system by the promulgation
of the new coinage regulations of 1871. The main effort of the finance ministers of those days was directed to the adjustment of the
disordered condition of finance and coinage, created by the revolutionary state of affairs at the close of the Shogunate régime.

The second period extends from 1872 to 1879. ‘This period is marked for the founding of the Government mint and the issue of
new coinage, but more marked for the enormous issues of inconvertible paper money, which brought about all the evils of inflation. —

The third period extends from 1880 to 1885, in which the efforts of the Government were directed to replacing the inconyertible
paper money with the convertible notes, which prepared the way for the final inauguration of the gold-standard system, though for a
time it resulted in the establishment of a de facto silver standard. ; :

The fourth period extends from 1886 to 1898, in which the silver standard was changed into a gold monometallic system. ‘

It will be noted that the first, second, and third periods are marked by efforts directed to the adjustment of the coinage system, in
view of the condition of things at home, while the fourth period is marked by the attempt to adapt.the national coinage system to the
conditions of things abroad, these conditions of things being chiefly characterized by sudden and great fluctuations in the price of silver,
endangering the cafe economic growth of our country.

In conclusion, I can not refrain from expressing my humblest and deepest gratitude to His Majesty the Emperor, that, owing to
his overruling gracious wisdom, the councils of his ministers on financial matters have, during these troublesome times, been invariably
marked with wisdom and judgment, and the officials of all grades concerned have performed their duties well, so that there has taken
place thus far an orderly and progressive development in the financial affairs of the Empire.

It is plain, however, that in order to strengthen the foundations of the gold-standard system now established it will be necessary
in the future not only to keep up but to increase the gold reserves of the Bank of Japan. It will also be necessary that efforts be F
increasingly directed toward the development of the agricultural and industrial enterprises of the country, and the consequent growth oa
of foreign trade. In these efforts allow me to humbly assure your excellency that I shall not be found remiss, so that His Majesty’s ;
gracious intentions may be as far as possible realized. j

I have, etc. Count MatsuKkaTa MAsAYOSHI, ,
His Imperial Japanese Majesty's Minister of State for Finance. ;

EFFECT OF THE CHANGE IN STANDARD UPON ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN JAPAN.

Since the adoption of the gold standard our currency has been freed from constant fluctuations in its exchange rate, to which it
was subject before. Owing to this latter fact, moreover, the relations between the claims of the creditor and the liabilities of the debtor
became less subject to sudden and unexpected changes; business transactions were made safe; an improvement in credit took place in the
community at large; prices became more constant—in a word, the way was now opened for the steady and orderly growth of our
commerce and industry. :

Leaving out of account in this section the questions concerning the effect of the coinage reform on the foreign trade of the country,
it can be very clearly seen that since October, 1897, the prices of commodities have kept comparatively even; that while there have
been some changes, yet, when compared with the sudden and great changes which used to occur formerly, we must say that the
fluctuations were remarkably small. Besides, these small changes in the price of commodities can be amply explained by referring to
the partial failure of rice crops, to the sudden expansion of industry, and then to its as sudden depression, to a stringency in the money
market, as well as to some other causes. These changes in the price of commodities were due, therefore, to the natural working of the
economic law of supply and demand in the commodities themselves. If we notice the fact, moreover, that the amount of checks and
bills cleared at the clearing houses in’Tokyo and Osaka has remarkably increased during these recent months, notwithstanding the
fact that during this very time there prevailed much business stagnation everywhere, we can not but conclude that business transactions
on credit have come to prevail more widely and freely than before.

The beneficial result of the coinage reform is seen in another direction. Since now that the capitalists of the gold-standard countries
have become assured that they will no longer be in constant danger of suffering unexpected losses from investments made in this country,
on account of fluctuations in the price of silver, they seem to show a growing tendency to make such investments at low rates of interest.
This tendency, if encouraged, will doubtless bring about a closer connection between this country and the central money markets of the
world—a state of things which I believe we shall be able to see realized more and more fully as years go on.

So far as our trade with gold-standard countries is concerned, our adoption of the gold standard, which made us use the same
standard of value as those countries, has proved to be a source of great benefit. This may be inferred from the fact that changes which
have since taken place in the rate of foreign exchange have been but very slight, and these all traceable to changes in the condition of
the foreign trade of the country, and not all traceable, as formerly, to sudden changes in the price of silver. For this reason there was
eliminated from our foreign trade much of that speculative element which was caused by constant changes in the value of our currency,
so that the way was at last opened for the steady and natural development of the foreign trade of the country. Again, concerning our
commerce with silver-standard countries, contrary to the gloomy prospects indulged in by some critics, our trade with those countries
has not ceased to make a steady growth, and this in the face of certain events occurring in the interior of China, our greatest customer
eaten the silver countries—events such as natural calamities and disturbances, which have greatly hindered the commercial activity ~
of that country.

Since our coinage reform enabled us to avoid all the evil effects of fluctuations in the price of silver we stand now no longer, as
formerly was the case, under the necessity of making plans for financial matters with the currency constantly changing in value and
sometimes suffering unexpected losses and evils in times when those fluctuations are unusually violent. All those fears of miscalculation
and losses have now become things of the past. Most particularly in the last few years, when national expenditures for things bought
abroad, such as war ships, ete., have greatly increased in amount, we have doubtless been able to avoid, on account of our coinage
reform, great losses on the part of the national treasury. Besides, since our adoption of the gold standard, our Government bonds have
been sold in no small amount in the European market, so that their names appear regularly in the price list of the London Stock
Exchange. This fact at once converted our bonds into an international commodity and will, no doubt, lead to a closer relationship
between our home and the foreign money markets.

The discussion also quotes a report of the higher commission on agriculture, commerce, and industry, which, after an elaborate
discussion of the effect of the monetary system, closes by saying: ‘‘ We believe that the beneficial effect of our coinage reform on our
foreign trade has already been great, and we do not notice any material evil in connection with it. Besides, ouradoption of the gold

standard has made it easier for our country to enter into the economic community of the world at large, so that henceforth it will
become practicable for us to invite capital from other countries, where it is plentiful, to.be invested in our country. This will doubtless
be another of the benefits conferred upon the country by our coinage reform. We conclude, therefore, that the effect of the coinage
reform upon our foreign trade has been beneficial, without a trace of evil.’

THE REPORT OF THE HIGHER COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRY ON THE
ADOPTION OF THE GOLD STANDARD.

A report of the higher commission on agriculture, commerce, and industry, drawn in October, 1898, in response to an inquiry
made by the minister of agriculture and commerce concerning the effect of coinage reform on the foreign trade of the country, is quoted
by the minister of finance in his report, as follows: «wt

In replying to the question put before the present commission we believe it is well to say a few words in regard to the circumstances —
under which the recent coinage reform was effected. There is no doubt that in the case of any country the most important question to

1901.) COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2269

be considered in connection with a coinage reform to be effected would be as to the effect of that reform on the price of commodities at
home and on the responsibility and liability in eases of monetary contracts, and that the questions connected with the effect on the
foreign trade of the country must be looked upon as of lesser importance. Now, considered in relation to the effect of coinage reform
on the prices of commodities and on the responsibility and liability connected with monetary contracts, we believe that the reform was
undertaken at a most favorable moment. There were other causes, too, which made the reform easier. First among these causes may
be mentioned the fact that though our country had adopted a gold standard once before, soon after the restoration, it became changed
into a bimetallic system, so that while there were always gold coins in existence in the country, they were not used in the daily
transactions of the people. And later, when a de facto silver standard came to prevail, even then silver coin was scarcely used in daily
transactions, but the convertible note representing that coin, the latter being merely kept in the Bank of Japan as the conversion
reserve. The second fact to be noted is the smallness of the native output of gold and silver. The Ser acse of these metals produced
in the country is so small that Japan can scarcely be called a gold orsilver producing country. ‘he third cause is the fact that both
gold and silver coins, as well as bullion of these metals found in the country, were nearly all absorbed by the Bank of Japan, and but
very little was found among the people in general. Then, fourthly and lastly, there was but very little foreign capital directly invested
in industrial and commercial enterprises in the country. All these causes combined to make the conditions prevailing in Japan very
different from those in American or India, and made it very much easier to carry into effect the plan of coinage reform.

Another fortunate thing was the fact that the price of silver, which had shown a growing tendency to depreciate, remained almost
stationary at the time the reform was being effected; and since the price of silver which prevailed at tue time made our old l-yen gold
coin about equal to 2-yen silver, the Government was able, in establishing the new system, to fix upon the weight of our new coin at
one-half the weight of the old coin. For this reason, although the standard of our coinage was changed from silver into gold, yet the
value of our standard coinage remained almost unchanged. These favorable circumstances together enabled our country to accomplish
the reform without disturbing the prices of commodities or the responsibility or liability in cases of monetary contracts, and thus to avoid
evils most dreaded in foreign countries. We must therefore affirm that our coinage reform was successful in accomplishing the most
important object it had in view. What, then, has been its effect on the foreign trade of the country? There is no doubt, of course, that
this is a very important question. In trying to answer it we must remember that all of the countries of the world to-day, except a very
few, have now adopted the gold standard, and the volume of our trade with the gold-standard countries amounts to two-thirds of the
entire volume of our foreign trade, while the amount of our trade with the silver-standard countries comprises but about one-third. And
since it is clear that we have benefited greatly through reform in our trade with the gold-standard countries, we must conclude that the
effect of our recent reform on the foreign trade of the country has been, on the whole, wholesomeand beneficial. We are not indeed entirely
free from the danger that, in competing with the silver-standard countries in the market of the gold-standard countries, we may be
sometimes placed at a temporary disadvantage owing to the changes in the ratio between gold and silver; yet it is a fortunate thing that,
in regard to silk, which is our most important product, there is scarcely any such danger, since the silk that our own has to compete
with is not the Chinese silk, but the Italian silk, the former meeting different customers from ours. Some would indeed attribute the dull
state of commerce with China since last year to the effect of our coinage reform, but such critics perhaps do not understand the real state
of affairs in regard to our commerce with China. We need hardly to say that the growth or decrease of our exports to any foreign
country depends very largely upon the economic conditions of that country.

Owing to financial derangements consequent upon her war with our country, as well as to the failure of crops and of silk culture,
China was in no condition to buy from us, so not alone in her import trade with this country in cotton yarns, ete., but also in her trade
with other countries as well, she has not shown much activity. For this reason, the specie which was received in payment for the
exports was absorbed into the interior of that country and never came out. This produced a great scarcity of currency in Shanghai,
Hongkong, etc., raising the rate of interest to 20 or 30 per cent per annum. For this reason, and from the fact that the exports of some
articles, like matches and coal, which are in great demand throughout the Far East have not decreased at all, we may safely infer
that as soon as the business condition of China improyes our export of cotton yarn into that country will increase, as also indeed the
exports of other articles. Again, some critics would regard the reduction in the market price of our cotton yarn from 100 yen or there-
abouts of last year to 75 yen or thereabouts of this year as due to the influence of our coinage reform. This opinion, again, seems to rest
upon ignorance of the facts, for it must be remembered that last year’s cotton crop of America was very abundant, so that the price of
raw cotton fell from 22 or 23 yen to 15 or 16 yen, i. e., by about 20 to 30 per cent. When a raw material becomes reduced in price, the
article manufactured from it will, as a matter of course, also be reduced in price. There was perhaps another cause for the reduction in
the price of our cotton yarn, namely, its overproduction and oversupply in the market, owing to the greatly increased number of
spindles which were set up. In fact, India seems to be similarly suffering on account of the difficulty of selling its cotton yarn and the
consequent fall in the price. And when we remember that the currency of India is not a silver standard, but one which may most fitly
be called an artificially constructed gold standard, there does not seem to be any cause for alarm on account of our change of currency
from the Indian competition in the production of cotton yarn. ,

Such, then, being the case, we believe that the beneficial effect of our coinage reform on our foreign trade has already been great,
and we do not notice any material evil in connection with it. Besides, our adoption of the gold standard has made it easier for our
country to enter into the economic community of the world at large, so that henceforth it will become practicable for us to invite capital
from other countries where it is plentiful to be invested in our country. This will undoubtedly be another of the benefits conferred
upon the country by our coinage reform. We conclude, therefore, that the effect of the coinage reform upon our foreign trade has been
beneficial, without a trace of evil, so that there does not seem to be any need for adopting measures for the warding off of possible evils.

DETAILS OF THE COINAGE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

The above extracts present, in official form, a condensed statement upon the subject in question. For the convenience of those
desiring to make a more elaborate study of the subject, the following additional details from the report are presented:

The report proper, which follows the letter of presentation from the minister of finance, already quoted, states that the monetary
system in vogue when the restoration took place in 1867 consisted largely of debased coins issued by the various governments,
counterfeit coins, and depreciated paper money, and adds:

After the country was opened to trade with Western nations the Shogunate government was the first to realize the greatness of the
loss from which the country was suffering on account of the disordered state of coimage. Before any steps were taken, however, toward
reform the Shogunate régime was overthrown and the restoration régime ushered in.

The Imperial Government at once felt the pressing need of a monetary reform, and in April, 1868, while the revolutionary wars
were yet going on, a plan of recoinage was drawn up and adopted. Steps were immediately taken to found a Government mint, and in
November, 1869, it was determined to base the new coinage on the metric system, making silver the standard unit of value and gold
subsidiary. In November, 1870, the Government mint began to coin silver. While such steps were being taken at home there arrived,
early in 1871, a memorandum from Mr. Ito Hirobumi, vice minister for finance, then traveling in the United States. In that memoran-
dum Mr. Ito (now marquis) sets forth the advantage of adopting a gold standard. The memorandum runs as follows:

REASONS FOR BASING THE JAPANESE NEW COINAGE ON THE METRIC SYSTEM.
According to the coinage system recently adopted in Japan the silver yen is the standard unit of value, so that may be used as legal

tender in transactions to any amount; the smaller coins, various fractions of 1 yen, are to be the subsidiary medium of exchange, each
kind being permitted as legal tender in transactions amounting to one hundred times its value. There is, besides, the gold yen, but it

is subsidiary, and may be used in the payment of sums of not more than ten times its value, or 100 yen.

No. 6 8.”

/

2270 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

. The silver yen consists of 90 per cent of pure silver, its weight being 416 troy grains. It is equal in quality to the American dollar,
but slightly exceeds the latter in weight, for the American dollar weighs 4123 grains. The different fractional silver coins weighin __
proportion to the fraction of the unit yen. This system, now adopted by the Government, is based on the system adopted some years
ago by the English Government for coinage in Hongkong, only the subsidiary gold coin is a new idea. hon

The new coinage system of Japan is in many respects like the system in vogue in America and England, the chief difference being
that while in Japan the silver yen is made the standard unit of value, in England and America gold is the standard of value, gold coin
being legal tender to any amount. Silver coins are treated in these countries as subsidiary, the legal-tender circulation being limited to
small sums only—the sum of $5 in the United States, that of 40 shilling in England, being regarded asthe maximum amounts. In Japan,
gold being treated as subsidiary, its limit as legal tender is fixed at 100 yen—an exceptionally large amount. I presume the Government
is in hopes that on account of such exceptional treatment the gold coin will always remain abundant, while the silver yen will gradually
wear out through constant handling, so that in course of time gold will of itself become the standard unit of value. Should such hopes
be indeed realized, the Japanese gold coin being almost equal in value to the American gold coin, the prices of gold and silver in Japan
and California will tend gradually to be on a par.

3ut the Japanese 10-yen gold coin is lighter in weight than the American 10-dollar gold piece, for while the former weighs 248 grains
the latter weighs 258 grains. Not only is it lighter in weight than the American gold piece, it is even lighter than the English gold coins;
for 2 English sovereigns (1 sovereign is ] pound sterling) weight 251.1 grains. Still again, the Japanese coin is lighter than the French,
for the 50-frane pieces weigh 248.9 grains.

Just now there is under discussion in the House of Representatives of the United States a bill for establishing an international system
of coinage. The 10-dollar gold piece according to that system is to weigh 257.2 grains, or 167 grams. Now, if the Japanese gold piece
were slightly increased in weight so as to equal this international standard coin, it would seem that the coinage system of Japan would be
established on a sound basis and be forever free from all fluctuations of exchange value. In case the Japanese coinage system is to be ‘
thus remodeled the weight ofeach coin will have to be altered as laid down in the following table: ; My

Fineness. Weight of 1 yen. | Troy grains. i ;

ae a Ee ee a

: f

BULVERVeM acti baetee oat Standard unit >... xv | Fine silver=5 pentagrammes.............-..-.--- | Fine silver=385.80872. bh

GOLD WeU os. 008 aaa ne oem ns Subsidiary» ...... > | 5 tiers-grammes with j, part of copper...... Suae | gly pe sere ys part of which being copper. Fine gold= .
1485232.

Silver coins which are | Subsidiary........ yo | 5 pentagrammes with ¥, part of copper.........-. | 385.80872, 3, part of which being copper. Fine silver=

fractions of 1 yen. | 347.227848. e

ae

® Legal tender to any large amount. > Legal tender only up to ten times its value. 1

~

I give below a table for reference, showing the weights of different coins according to the proposed international system now under
discussion in the House of Representatives of the United States: :

Fineness. Weight of $1. " ‘Troy grains.

Bilver doors: ..s.csene- Trade dollar®.... ¥o | Fine silver=5 pentagrammes..................-.- Fine silver=385.80872

OIG {GOUATS. «ein. cece en en Standard unit >... yo | 5 tiers-grammes with ¥, part of alloy..........-.. pee eer or yo part of which being copper. Fine gold=
14 2.
Silver coins which are | Subsidiary>...... z¥> | 5 pentagrammes with y, part of alloy............ 385.80872, 4, part of which being copper. Fine silver=
fractions of $1. 347.227848.
® Legal tender to any large amount. > Legal tender up to $5.

The trade dollar in the above table is intended to be used for trade with China and other Eastern countries. The ratio of gold and
silver in the new coinage system of Japan is 1 of gold to 16.77 of silver. If this ratio should now be changed to 1 of gold to 16§ of silver,
basing it on the metric system, a 10-yen gold piece would contain 231.48 grains of fine gold. In that case at the fineness of nine-tenths
the weight of the coin would be 257.2 grains or 16% metric grams. The l-yen silver piece coined according to this ratio would contain
385.80872 grains of fine silver, which at the fineness of nine-tenths would make the coin weigh 424.38959 grains.

It will be remembered that according to the system already adopted the silver yen weighs 416 grains and the gold 10-yen piece 248

rrains.

P The metric system, according to which I suggest our coinage system be reestablished, is a system of weights and measures which
originated a France and has now passed into universal use throughout the world. The proposed international coinage system will be
based on this system.

Let me quote what Mr. Kelley, chairman of the American coinage committee, says in one of his writings:

“The United States of America has adopted the French metric system of weights and measures for the purposes of coinage and
postage. Now that we have adopted this system the nations of the world will be compelled to adopt it also. Our adoption of this
system was, therefore, not merely for our own advantage, but also for the ultimate benefit of the world at large. The metrie system of
coinage was for the first time adopted in the United States, it being three years afterwards that France followed our example.
too, followed our example, and is now using dollars and cents. There is no question that other nations will gradually adopt this system,
for the people of every country will come to see how easy and simple the monetary calculation becomes, either in subtraction or multi-
plication, if that system is adopted.”’

In regard to the question which metal should be made the standard of value the opinion of the economists all tend to coincide in
regarding gold as the fittest metal for standard. That Austria, Holland, and some other countries still maintain a silver standard is
probably due to the great difficulty of changing the old system. If a system of coinage were to be newly established by any of these
countries there is no question but that the gold standard would be invariably adopted. It will be a wise policy for Japan, therefore, to
consider the trend of opinion in Western lands and establish her new system in accordance with the best teachings of modern times. It
may be that for the time being, on account of the possible great loss to the country from the too sudden adoption of i en standard
a silver standard may have to be maintained. Otherwise, there is no question that gold is the best metal for the standard of value. ii
the gold standard is introduced silver may be fitly coined for a subsidiary medium of exchange, putting a limit to its legal-tender
amount. It may be as wéll to establish our system as laid down in the table given aboye—provisionally making silver the standard—
strictly keeping in view, however, the time when gold will be made to supersede silver as the standard of our system of coin

P, 8.—The foregoing memorandum was written necessarily in haste, and I must confess there are no few repetitions and some
confusion in statement. The main points I wanted to emphasize were:

Ist. The necessity of slightly reducing the weight of the unit of value of the silver coinage; and

2d. To determine the weight of the gold coin according to the metric system.

Written in America on the 29th day of December, 1870. i

(Signed. ) Hrronemt,

The above memorandum was chiefly instrumental in effecting a change in the coinage policy of the country. The Government —
eocced to adopt at once the gold standard, and issued the new coinage regulations on the 10th of May, 1871. These run as

ollows: nity

Ue |

:
:
:
4

1901] . COMMERCIAL JAPAN. yy

THE NEW COINAGE REGULATIONS.

The standard of unit of the new coinage shall be called yen, and all reckonings and calculations of money shall be made, whether
large or small, by the addition of numerals to the unit yen. Amounts less than 1 yen shall be estimated in terms of sen, or one-
hundredth part of 1 yen, and rin, or one-tenth part of lsen. * * *

LIMITATIONS IN THE CIRCULATION OF THE NEW COINAGE,

The standard coins are to be of gold consisting of 20-yen, 10-yen, 5-yen, 2-yen, and 1-yen pieces, of which 1 yen shall be the
standard unit of value. These gold coins are all legal tender and may be used in monetary transactions to any amount.

By the standard coin is meant the coin whose value is the standard on which the values of other coins are based. Hence there is
no need of limiting the amount in which they may be legally used in transaction. One yen gold is the standard unit of value, because
it is the standard on which the values of other coins are based.

The silver coins, which consist of 50-sen, 20-sen, 10-sen, and 5-sen pieces, are issued as subsidiary money. They are legal tender
either in one kind or in different kind up to the amount of 10 yen only.

The copper coins, which consist of 1 sen, one-half sen, and 1 rin, are also subsidiary money, and may be used as legal tender up
to the amount of 1 yen only.

By the subsidiary money is meant the smaller coins issued to assist in the circulation of currency. Their legal value is fixed by
Government regulations. Hence the need of limiting the amount beyond which they may not be used in transactions.

The 1-yen silver piece is to be coined during a limited period of time, particularly in response to the desires of individuals both
Japanese and foreign, in order to facilitate trade at the treaty ports. This silver yen shall be legal tender at the treaty ports, so that
they may be used in the payment of all customs duties and of taxes by the foreign residents, as well as in all monetary transactions
between the Japanese and foreigners. This coin shall not be legal tender outside of the treaty ports limits, though, of course, it may
be freely used in transactions where parties concerned mutually consent to its use.

The relative legal value of the silver yen and the gold yen at the treaty ports shall be 100 silver yen to 101 gold yen.

Thus, while there was introduced at this early date a gold-standard system in Japan, at the same time a silver yen was also to be
coined as legal-tender money in the treaty ports. This was due to the fact that the Mexican silver dollar was at that time universally
used in the commerce of the Far East, so that the coining of the silver yen was considered a necessity. In February, 1875, by imperial
7 ee No. XXXYV, the Government changed the name of the silver yen to boyeki gin, or trade dollar, and its weight from 416 grains
to 420 grains. :

The chief motive in making this change was to drive off the Mexican dollar and replace it with the trade dollar, but it was found
out very soon that the attempt was a failure. The Government soon ceased to coin the trade dollar and returned again to coining the
silver yen. : .

All these different measures were, however, not sufficient to maintain gold monometallism in healthy growth. The issuing of a
large amount of inconyertible paper money drove specie, especially the gold coins, out of the country. This and the smallness of the
natural output of gold in Japan both constituted reasons which, in 1878, led Mr. Okuma Shigenobu (now Count), at that time minister
of finance, to advise the Government to adopt gold and silver bimetallism as a policy more conducive to the country’s prosperity. The
Government, acting on his advice, by imperial ordinance No. XII, of May, 1878, sanctioned the free use of the silver yen and the trade
dollar as legal tender throughout the country. The silver-yen piece thus acquired the same legal value as one yen gold and the system
of coinage was changed from the gold standard to the gold and silver bimetallic system.

The above statements, which are referred to at various places in the report as the history of the attempted adoption of the gold
standard and the transition to the gold and silver bimetallic system, are followed by a detailed statement of the issue, and, finally, the
overissue by the Government of inconvertible paper intended originally purely as an emergency measure, the amount, however, being
increased from time to time antil the quantity in circulation became very large, and to this was added a series of national-bank notes
which, while originally converted into specie, were afterwards permitted to be convertible into Government paper money, which,
however, was itself inconvertible, thus making the bank notes another kind of inconyertible paper money. The report continues:

In this way rose, step by step, the amount of paper money issued by the Government, until by the end of January, 1878, it reached
to some 120,835,000 yen. Besides these the Government got into the habit of making temporary issues from the paper-money reserve to
fill up temporarily the deficits in the revenue, this paper-money reserve being a large stock of unissued paper money kept for the
exchange of worn-out notes. And since after 1878 the amount thus issued averaged, as a rule, about 20,000,000 yen a year, this much
must also be regarded as added to the amount of paper money in circulation.

_ Moreover, after the introduction of the amendments in the national-bank regulations as mentioned above, the number of national
banks rapidly increased, which brought about an increase in the amount of bank notes, so that in April, 1880, it rose to 34,420,000 yen.
The issuing of so large an amount of inconvertible paper money naturally brought about results disastrous to the healthy financial devel-
opment of the country; prices rose enormously; the imports came to always exceed the exports; the specie daily left the country for
abroad; people contracted luxurious habits of life; business men ran wild in speculation. All these evils reached their climax in the
years 1880 and 1881. The amount of inconvertible paper money in circulation reached its highest point in January, 1880, as may be
seen from the figures given below, according to the returns on the last day of that month:

Yen.
(GOR SH MNTT BEANE TOROS TONS NSS PhS Ne eS Be ae 113,831, 709
eee een Den MCL CR POTANT ISGUOC. = oo Se os lk a ens wa win wc ee cee ewe ence ew eeenes 22,188, 116
QRDE Gi hi Men Well ORIMA = sk ke ee ae Re Me Se pe eee ee re ee eee 34, 137, 652
ae Sols ee Soa She cock onet Be ote eRe HSS RSC ee a ee ae ae 170, 157, 477

At the beginning of the Meiji era there was a great difficulty in getting the Government paper money circulated, and at that time
its price very much depreciated. But with the return of peace and the increase of the credit of the new Government the credit of paper
money also increased. The amount issued, moreover, did not exceed the actual need of the country, For these reasons it came soon to
circulate at par with specie. Early in 1878, however, the Government issued quite suddenly another very large amount of paper money,
and from that time on its depreciation again commenced.

At first the ratio between silver and paper was 1 yen of silver tol yen and 7 or§8 sen of paper, butat the close of that year it
became more than 1 yen and ?1 sen of paper to 1 yen of silver. There seemed to be no end to depreciation. Unfortunately, there
prevailed at that time among the authorities an erroneous opinion that these differences in the value of paper and of silver were due not
to the depreciaton of paper, but to the appreciation of silver. The Government, therefore, made various attempts to keep the price of
silver down. The authorites, indeed, drew up at this time aplan for the redemption of Government bonds and of paper money; but their
more serious efforts were directed toward preventing the rise of the price of silver. For instance, the Government prevailed upon the
First and Second National banks, and the Mitsui Bank, as well as some other banks, to sell out silver coin; opened places for transacting
the exchange of Mexican dollars; in February established the Yokohama Specie Bank, with the object of inviting the people to invest
hoarded coins, so that these coins might be supplied to the financial market. The Specie Bank was, moreover, to engage in foreign

_ exchange in order to facilitate monetary circulation between Japan and foreign countries. The Government believed that, as in these
___ ways the supply of silver would be increased, its market price would necessarily come down. But, as a matter of-fact, the Yokohama

2272 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

bank suffered so much loss as to become almost ponies and other measures did not produce the desired result. The difference in
value between silver and paper kept on increasing, so that in April, 1880, the average ratio between the two was 1 yen 04 sen 9 rin of
paper to one yen of silver. When all these attempts had failed the Government at last opened its eyes to see the necessity of making
Taaaepon. With this ebject in view the ratio of tax on saké was doubled by imperial ordinance No. XL, of September 27, 1880, so that
the increased revenue on that score might be set apart as a redemption fund. Again, by imperial ordinance No. XLVIII, the spheres
of local taxation were increased, correspondingly lightening the financial burden of the central government, and at the same time the
Government expenditures were much curtailed, the surplus obtained in all these ways being also added totheredemptionfund. Besides
all these, the Government decided gradually to transfer by sale to private hands the Government factories which had been established
for the encouragement of industry, stopped making loans to companies and individuals out of the reserve fund in the treasury, and every
yen thus gained went to further increase the amount of the redemption fund. ‘

Yet the depreciation of paper did not stop. In April, 1881, 1 yen silver fetched on an average 1 yen 79 sen 5 rin of paper (the
lowest point reached in depreciation during that month being 1 yen 81 sen 5 rin). :

This was, indeed, the lowest point ever reached. At this time a plan to raise a foreign loan of 50,000,000 yen for the purpose of
redeeming paper money was advocated by some in the Government, but the plan was never adopted. With the appointment of Mr.
Matsukata Masayoshi (now count) to the portfolio of finance, on the 20th of October, 1881, the Government determined at last to adopt
the policy on the one hand of redeeming the paper money, and on the other of increasing the specie reserve of the Government as pre-
paratory to the introduction of a convertible note system. The amount of Government paper and of bank notes at this time in circula-
tion stood as follows:

Yen.
Government paper MONCY . -.-- 2002 -- +2 oe soso ow ees coon se ces eeee sane b ase eee one 105, 905, 212
Government paper money temporarily issued out of the paper-money reserve .........-------------- 14, 500, 000 :
Notes issued by national banks... 2.022 ...2-08 oc s = sido eawsce esp eee nee eee 34, 398, 030 7
| ee nner cron ST A le ee 154, 803, 242 |

The finance minister of the time (Count Matsukata) thought it an irregular practice to issue a part of the paper-money reserve for .
temporarily meeting the deficit of revenue, as had been the practice of the Government for some years past. In order to pay back once ‘
for all the amount thus utilized from the paper-money reserve, he introduced certain changes in the method of making receipts and dis-
bursements of the public revenue. He had, besides, the method of disbursing the expenditures of the Government departments changed,
so that henceforth these disbursements were all made at the exchequer, instead of having the amounts of the estimated expenditures
turned oyer in lump sums to the departmental authorities in the early part of the fiscal year. These changes were effectual, as may be F
presumed, in leading to economy in the State expenditure. Yet further steps were taken toward economy and the increase of the Goy- 4
ernment reserve by ceasing to make any further loans out of the Government reserve in aid of industrial enterprises, and at the same f
time by requiring that all the past loans should be paid back to the Government according to the terms of agreements. Now, with the
money which came into the treasury in these ways, as well as by temporarily utilizing the money which came in response to the Naka-
sendo railway bonds, issued about this time, the Government was able to pay back to the paper-money reserve in January, 1883, the
entire amount of the paper money which had been subtracted for temporary circulation out of the said reserve. A plan was now adop
on the other hand, of issuing the treasury bills to meet the demand of the exchequer for any temporary deficit in the revenue. * * *

While in this way was effected the adjustment of the troubles connected with the temporary issue from the paper-money reserve,
not quite so easy was the adjustment of the larger troubles which existed in connection with the paper currency proper.

The minister of finance of the time (Count Matsukata) felt that in order to effect the much needed adjustment of the Government
paper money it would be necessary to establish a great central bank, which should have the sole privilege of issuing convertible bank
notes; which should serve as a supreme organ for the regulation of the currency of the country; which should, moreover, discount the
foreign bills of exchange in order to regulate the influx and efflux of specie and bullion; which should still further be intrusted with
certain services in the treasury, so as to simplify the business of the exchequer.

The above recommendations of the minister of finance, Count Matsukata Masayoshi, for a great central bank were approved by
the Government, and in June, 1882, regulations issued authorizing its establishment.

At the same time with the establishment of the Bank of Japan the Government took measures to increase its revenue. In 1882
the Government first levied stamp duties on patent medicines and license tax on the brokers of the rice exchange and the stock
exchange, and reyised saké and tobacco taxes, and in 1885 taxes on soy and confectionery were levied for the first time. One-half of
the surplus of revenue which was secured through these means was devoted to the redemption of inconvertible paper money, while the
other half was added to the reserve fund with the object of employing it for securing the importation of specie from abroad.

The Government now established consulates in London, New York, and Lyons, the three greatest foreign markets for Japanese
goods, and by employing the reserve fund of the Government in discounting foreign bills of exchange tried to absorb specie from
abroad, as well as to encourage the export trade. To import foreign specie in some way was at the time an absolute necessity, since the
output of gold and silver from Japanese mines only amounted to 400,000 or 500,000 yen annually. As results of this policy the amount
of paper money was reduced at the end of 1885 to about 88,345,096 yen, while at the same time the Government was yet able to kee
about 42,260,000 yen of specie in the reserve fund. In view of these facts, the price of paper money ually kept rising unti 5 atonal
on a par with silver. The minister of finance, Mr. Matsukata (now count), now presented to his colleagues a pin of permitting the
Bank of Japan to issue a certain amount of convertible bank notes asa sort of experiment preparatory to the resumption of specie
payment,

The Government, on approving this plan, had regulations drawn up concerning covertible bank notes. Imperial ordinance No.
reat fs and the accompanying regulations in regard to convertible bank notes, which were issued on the 26th of May, 1884, run as

OLLOWS:

IMPERIAL ORDINANCE NO. XVIII OF THE 267TH DAY OF MAY, 1884.

The convertible bank-note regulations are hereby issued. They will go into operation on the Ist day of July, 1884. Imperial
ordinance No. C, promulgated in September of 1874, will cease to be effective one year after the day these regulations are issued.

THE CONVERTIBLE BANK-NOTE REGULATIONS,

Articie I, The convertible bank notes shall be issued by the Bank of Japan, in accordance with the provisions of Article XIV of
the regulations concerning the Bank of Japan. These bank notes shall be convertible with silver.

Arr. Il, The Bank of Japan shall keep a sufficient amount of silver coins as reserve fund for the conversion of its notes. :

Arr. ILI. The denominations of the convertible bank notes shall be 1 yen, 5 yen, 10 yen, 20 yen, 50 yen, 100 yen, 200 yen—seyen
kinds in all. ‘The minister of finance shall determine the amount to be issued of each kind.
! Art. LY. The convertible bank notes shall be legal tender in the payment of taxes and customs duties, as well as in all monetary

ransactions. A
Art. V. The convertible bank notes shall be manufactured by the Bank of Japan according to the shape, lettering, and |

fixed by the minister of finance, the amount manufactured being reported to the said minister from time to time. The minister of
finance shall previously notify the public as to the specimen of the note to be issued.
Ant. VI. Persons desirous of getting the notes exchanged for coins may get them so exchanged at the central or branch office of

bank at any time when the bank is open for business.
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Art. VII. Persons bringing gold and silver coins to be exchanged for the notes may get them so exchanged at the central or a branch

_ Office of the bank without fee.

Art. VIII. The bank shall prepare tables showing the receipts and disbursements of the notes for each day, as well as for the
month, and report the same to the minister of finance.

Art. IX. The minister of finance shall instruct the comptrollers to oversee all matters relating to the issuing of the notes; when
necessary, the comptrollers may examine the safes where the notes are kept, as well as the books recording the notes issued.

Art. X. The notes which get defaced or mutilated so as to be unfit for circulation may be exchanged, without fee, at the central or
a branch office of the bank.

Art. XI. All processes regarding the manufacture of the notes, their redemption, the exchange of damaged notes, etc., shall be
determined by the minister of finance.

Art. XII. All crimes respecting the counterfeiting and fraudulent alteration of the notes shall be punished in accordance with the
articles relating to the counterfeiting of paper money in the criminal code.

In accordance with these regulations the Bank of Japan began to issue convertible bank notes onthe 9th of May, 1885; and the
minister of finance (Count Matsukata), in view of the fact that every preparation was now fully made for the Government to resume
specie payment, presented the following memorandum to the Government:

Very soon after the restoration the Imperial Government was sorely pressed with the need of money to defray manifold expenses to
which the Government was subjected, and as the only measure of relief they decided to issue paper money. The paper money was thus
issued on the 19th day of the second (fourth) month of the first year of Meiji (1868), and the period of circulation was limited to thirteen years.

On the 28th day of the fifth month, second year of Meiji (1869), the system was changed, and it was publicly notified that the notes
would be exchanged with new coins which were then to be issued. But the demand for the Government expenditures continued to be
so great—owing to the facts that every piece of administration had to be newly begun, as well as to the fact that the Government had on
hand the task of adjusting the disordered state of affairs resulting from the war just closed—that the promised conversion of paper money
had to be practically abandoned. In the twelfth month of the fourth year of Meiji (1871) it was announced by imperial ordinance that
the various kinds of paper money would all be exchanged with the new paper money.* In the following year the Government put
forth a plan of redemption by inviting the people to have paper money exchanged with the Government bonds to be issued for that
purpose. The kinsatsu (literally, gold notes) exchange bond regulations were thus issued in the third month of the fourth year of Meiji

1872). Yet the amount thus exchanged was small, never accomplishing the purpose of reducing the amount of notes in circulation.

fter those days a series of political disturbances occurred, culminating in the rebellion in the southwestern provinces in 1877; and from
these causes the financial distress of the Government grew greater step by step, so that the Government was led to issue another large
batch of paper money. Thus, while the amount of paper circulating before the war of the rebellion stood at 93,323,156.3385 yen, it was
increased by the addition of 27,000,000, issued during the war, and also by the issue of a large amount of national-bank notes. In 1878
the amount arose to such enormons proportions, and their prices fell so rapidly, that in the years 1880 and 1881 the depreciation
amounted to as much as 50 per cent of the face value. This was due, doubtless, to their overissue, but also no less to the fact that the
notes being inconvertible could not command enough credit.

At the time the undersigned (Count Matsukata) accepted the present post the Government was most seriously engaged in an
attempt to find some fit measure of relief. The measures I had the honor to suggest having been approved by the Government, and
having received the august sanction, progress was made step by step in the line of financial reform. As such steps may be mentioned
the reduction of the expenditures of the Government with the view to the contraction of paper currency; the increase of the specie
reserve as preparatory to note redemption; the retirement of the paper money temporarily issued from the paper-money reserve; the
founding of the Bank of Japan, by which the financial organization of the country was perfected; the revision of the national-bank regu-
lations, by which a way was opened for the redemption of the national-bank notes; and lastly, the issuing of the convertible bank-notes
regulations. During the first part of the period the amount of paper in circulation was 154,803, 242.282 yen, of which 34,398,030 yen were
national-bank notes and 14,500,000 yen were the temporary issues from the paper-money reserve. But this amount has been reduced
during the past three years—including the present year, 1884—by the redemption of 34,133,754.25 yen, of which 14,500,000 yen were
issues from the paper-money reserve and 3,637,772 yen were the notes of national banks. Of the Government paper money that
remains, and is now in circulation, there are 89,909,230.032 yen. On the other hand, the increase of the Government’s specie reserve
has been not inconsiderable. In 1881 the specie reserve of the Government for the purpose of redemption amounted to but 7,385,997.16
yen. (This is the balance remaining of the amount of specie in the Government reserve on the 21st of October, 1881, after from that
amount has been deducted 1,288,176.722 yen, being the amount employed in discounting foreign exchange bills.) Now, after but little
over three years, in October of this year, the specie reserve will probably amount to 39,612,810.722 yen. Comparing this with the
volume of, paper money in circulation to-day, it comes up to almost half the amount of the latter. That somuch has been accumulated
in times when there have been so many calls for expenditures must be attributed largely—though, no doubt, partly due to certain
natural causes—to the earnestness of the Government in making the attempt to relieve the financial distress.

In view of past circumstances and of the probable direction of future affairs, I can not but think the present to be the most oppor-
tune moment for redeeming the inconyertible paper money. I pray most earnestly thatthe Government will approve these suggestions
and not let go the present opportunity. I have no doubt that if these reforms are now effected that all fear of certain unexpected dis-
turbances in commercial affairs will be quieted, and the much-needed. facilities finally offered for the circulation of currency. But cur-
rency reforms need to be effected with extreme caution on account of their many-sided influence. It will be well, therefore, to effect
the change now contemplated gradually—not too suddenly. The Ist day of January, 1886, may be fixed as the date on which the proc-
ess of redemption shall begin to take place. The present specie reserve may first be devoted to redemption, while the coins minted
out of the redemption fund, year by year, may be set apart, as fast as produced, as reserves for further exchange. Let the business of
exchange be intrusfed entirely to the Bank of Japan and that bank instructed to exchange all the Government paper money that may
come to that bank by way of ordinary circulation. Thus may the too sudden change be avoided and the reform effected smoothly and
quietly. If these suggestions shail happily receive the august sanction, not only will the Government be able to accomplish its original
purpose in regard to the paper money, but the credit of the Government, both at home and abroad, will be thereby assured, the national
finance placed on a firm basis, and the future happiness of the people greatly enhanced.

As the result of this memorandum the public was notified, through imperial ordinance No. XIV, of June, 1885, that the Govern-
ment would commence to pay specie in exchange for Government paper money on January 1, 1886. The ordinance runs as follows:

IMPERIAL ORDINANCE NO. XIV, OF THE 6TH DAY OF JUNE, 1885.

The paper money issued by the Government shall be gradually exchanged with silver coins from January, 1886, on, and the paper
money thus exchanged shall be canceled. Therules concerning the process of making the said exchange shall be fixed by the minister
of finance, and the business intrusted to the Bank of Japan.

As to the conversion of national-bank notes, the minister of finance, Mr. Matsukata (now count), saw the need of first amending
the national-bank regulations, with reference to which he presented a memorandum to the Government. * * *

The policy laid down in the memorandum was adopted by the Government, and by imperial ordinance of the 5th of May, 1883,
the Government introduced certain amendments to the national-bank regulations. According to these amendments the term of business
of national banks was to be twenty years, counting from the day they received their charters, and if they desired to continue their
business after the expiration of their term they were to do so as private institutions; moreover, each bank was required to keep asa
reserve fund for the redemption of notes money equal in amount of one-fourth the amount of notes issued by that bank, and effect

. redemption within its term of business according to the methods laid down in the following regulations. It was also stated in these

amendments that persons desirous of having the bank notes exchanged for currency might do so by taking them to the Bunk of Japan.

® Manufactured in Germany; these new ones also inconyertible as the old ones,

2274 | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. _ DeceMBen,

The various plans for the redemption of inconvertible paper money having been faithfully carried out, on the last dayof June,
1888, the amount in circulation was found to be much reduced, of the Government paper money there being in circulation some 49,337,247 ©
yen and of the national-bank notes some 28,059,486 yen. The minister of finance, Mr. Matsukata (now count), seized this opportunity
for introducing amendments into the convertible bank-notes regulations in order to establish the currency system of the country on a
sound basis. The following memorandum was presented by him to the cabinet council in July of the same year: __ ;

‘While the Government issued paper money—notes issued by the Daijokwan—at the beginning of the restoration as an emergency
measure for the relief of the financial distress of the time, the disadvantages of issuing inconvertible notes was plainly seen at the time,
and hence the period of circulation of these notes was limited to thirteen years. It was hoped that after the expiration of this term of
years the Government would be able to introduce a convertible system of paper currency. But the ever-increasing Government
expenditures—which were owing to the fact that every department of the Government as well as public enterprises of all kinds had to be
all at once either reformed or newly begun—compelled the Government to forego the first plan, and instead of redeeming the paper
money in circulation, they kept adding to that amount. In 1878 the depreciation of notes was so striking that the Government, getting
alarmed, made every e%fort to bring about the introduction of a convertible system. These efforts were now directed on the one hanc
toward the contraction by making partial redemption of the amount in circulation, and on the other toward increasing the specie reserve
which was intended to serve as a fund for redemption.

‘‘Owing to these measures the price of paper returned to its face value, and, in June, 1885, the Government publicly notified its
determination, as has been previously stated, to begin the gradual redemption of the Government paper money. After this decisive
measure had been adopted, still further steps were taken in succession toward effecting the entire redemption of the Government paper
money by substituting for it the system of convertible bank notes. Yet, on the other hand, the amount of the paper money already
issued was so great that, notwithstanding every possible effort on the part of the Government, it has not yet been all redeemed. This
is indeed to be deeply regretted. Now, after careful examination of the methods and processes of the banking operations of Europe and
America, which may possibly be taken as examples for our present case, I have come to the conclusion that to enlarge the privileges of
the Bank of Japan in regard to its power of issuing notes, and then to borrow a portion of its notes, at a low rate of interest or without
interest, and employ them for redeeming the Government paper money, would be, under the circumstances, the best possible method
that can be found. These reasons lead me to submit to the cabinet council for its careful consideration a draft of the amendments to be
introduced in the convertible bank-notes regulations, with a statement of reasons for these amendments, and some tables.”’

(Norz.—The above-mentioned statement of reasons and tables is now omitted. )

The policy embodied in this memorandum being approved by the Government, the public was notified, through imperial ordinance
No. LIX, of August, 1888, of the introduction of amendments in the convertible bank-notes regulations. These amendments run as
follows: z ;

IMPERIAL ORDINANCE NO. LIX, OF THE IsT DAY OF AUGUST, 1888.

Arrticir II. The Bank of Japan shall keep gold or silver coins, or bullion of those metals, as a conversion reserve, equal in amount
to the amount of the convertible bank notes issued.

The Bank of Japan may, outside the provisions of the preceding paragraph, further issue convertible bank notes, on the security
of Government bonds or treasury bills, or other bonds and commercial bills of a reliable nature, within the limits of 70,000,000 ven. Of
this amount, however, 27,000,000 shall be set apart to be issued after the lst day of January, 1889, in installment, from time to time, in
proportion to the amount of the national-bank notes redeemed. Ls

The Bank of Japan may, outside of the provisions of the two préceding paragraphs, make still further an issue of convertible bank
notes, in order to meet some special emergency of the market, and with the special permission of the minister of finance, on the
security of Government bonds or treasury bills, or other bonds and commercial bills of a reliable nature. The notes shall be subject
to a special tax of not less than 5 per cent per annum, the rate of interest to be fixed in each case by the minister of finance.

The Bank of Japan shall supply by way of loan not more than 22,000,000 yen to the Government, at the interest of 2 per cent
per annum, for the purpose of redeeming the Government paper money. The loan shall be without interest after 1898. The period of
time within which this loan shall be repaid by the Government and the rate of annual installment shall be fixed by the minister of
finance. * * *

In March, 1890, the Government adopted the plan of setting apart as a redemption reserve a sum of 10,000,000 out of the reserve
fund in order to accomplish the entire withdrawal of the Government paper money. * * *

In these ways both the Government paper money and the national-bank notes were all exchanged with the convertible silver
notes of the Bank of Japan. Asa result of thus replacing the inconvertible paper money with the conyertible silver notes, Japan now
became a de facto silver-standard country. * * * -

The report then details the methods adopted by the Government through additional taxation and otherwise for the creation of a
sinking fund and reserve fund, and adds: :

THE STATE OF AFFAIRS WHICH NECESSITATED THE COINAGE REFORM OF 1897.

The adjustment of the paper currency, accomplished in 1886, prepared the country to reap all the benefits of a scientific system of
coinage. The rate of interest now gradually became low, the commercial and industrial enterprises began to rapidly expand, the volume
of foreign trade of the country increased greatly; in a word, there took place a marked improvement in the economic conditions of the
country. Yet, on the other hand, Japan became a de facto silver-standard country, and all the fluctuations of the price of silver in the
world’s market came to exercise an immediate influence on her economic and financial condition.

THE DEPRECIATION OF SILVER AND THE COINAGE REFORMS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Before 1873 the price of silver did not show great fluctuations, the ratio between gold and silver standing, as a rule, at 1 of gold to
15.5 of silver. About 1871, however, there began to appear causes which finally led to its sudden fall in recent years. The chief among
these causes were two—the greatly increased annual output of silver since 1871, and the establishment of the German Empire.

The Government of the united Germany immediately took up the scheme of unifying the coinage systems in vogue in the different
portions of the Empire by replacing with gold coins the silver currency then in use. It issued, therefore, a new coinage law, sto
coining standard silver pieces, and in 1873 put into effect the gold-standard system. It soon began to sell large quantities of silver, which
had the immediate effect of causing depreciation. The bimetallic countries of Europe now saw the danger of being turned into silver
countries, so that they became constrained to adopt the lines of policy which had the tendency of making them gold-standard countries.
Now, these lines of policy all aimed at the expulsion of silver and the absorption of gold. In 1878 the United States of America adopted
a gold standard, stopped coining silver dollars (except silver trade dollars), and limited the legal-tender amount of the silver dollar to $5.
France puta limit to the amount of silver deposits received at its mints; and Sweden and Norway, too, adopted a gold standard,
discarding its standard siver coins, in 1874. The countries of the Latin Union also put a limit to the coinage of etandard ‘alter coins,
Holland stopping the free coinage of silver in 1875, and Switzerland deciding to cease entirely the minting of silver coins. In 1876
France, Belgium, Spain, and Russia followed these examples, and the United States of America took away the legal-tender qualifications
of the silver trade dollar, These measures all assisted to bring about the sudden fall in the price of silver, so that in 1876 the average
rate for the year stood at 1 of gold to 17.88 of silver. _.

At this stage the countries which had in posssession large stocks of silver, or which annually produced it in lange quantities, took
measures intended to stop the fall of the price of silver. In 1878 the Government of the United States promulgated what is called the _

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190i.] ji COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2275

Bland Act, according to which the American Government was to buy silver in order to coin it into money, hoping in this way to stop its
depreciation. In 1890, again, this Bland Act was replaced by the Sherman Act, which authorized the Government to greatly increase
the amount of its annual purchase of silver, These measures, however, did not have the least effect in checking the fall. The rate of
gold and silver, which was, on an average, 1 of gold to 18 of silver in 1879, became 1 of gold to over 19 of silver in 1885. After that
year the fall became still more marked, so that while the average rate in 1891 was 1 of gold to 20.92 of silver, it became in 1892 1 of gold
to 23.72 of silver, at last the fall reaching in 1893 the rate of 1 of gold to 26.49 of silver.

Thus the prospects of silver became daily more gloomy. This led Austria-Hungary in 1892 to adopt a gold standard and the United
States to repeal the Sherman Act in 1893. Russia, too, though it had allowed the free coinage of silver for a time, stopped it again in 1893.
In 1894 Persia took the same course, while India placed a tariff of 5 per cent on all the imports of silver. In 1895 Chile and in 1596
Costa Rica both adopted a gold standard; Russia at the same time showing signs of taking the same course, and in 1894 the fall in the
price of silver reached as low a rate as 1 of gold to 32.56 of silver (being the average rate for the year).

In 1895, however, silver showed signs of appreciation, the average rate for that year being 1 of gold to 31.60 of silver, and the rate
becoming, in 1896, 1 of gold to 30.66 of silver. Yet this appreciation was merely temporary, owing to certain obvious causes, one of which
was an erroneous supposition that the Chinese indemnity would be paid in silver, while the other was a widespread conjecture that the
silver party would win in the Presidential election of the United States. When, therefore, these suppositions were both proved to be
unfounded, in 1897 silver again began to fall, reaching at the lowest point to 1 of gold to 39.70 (or more) of silver, making the average
for the year 1 of gold to 34.34 of silver. * * *

CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH CALLED FOR THE COINAGE REFORM OF JAPAN, AND THE RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED BY THE COINAGE
INVESTIGATION COMMISSION.

As was narrated in the previous section, the depreciation of the price of silver grew daily greater, and there seemed to be no end to
sudden fluctuations. In consequence, foreign countries were led one by one to adopt a gold standard. Under these circumstances Japan,
as ade facto silver-standard country (since the establishment of the convertible paper-money system in 1885), could not but suffer from
this depreciation. The constant fluctuations in the rate of exchange took away from foreign trade an unchanging standard of value and
prevented it irom making normal and healthy growth. Asa result the price of commodities rose rapidly, the spirit of speculation became
rampant, and, finally, the State expenditures began to increase on account of this depreciation; in a word, there took place a general
derangement of the national economy. It was now feared that the further maintenance of a silver standard would be against the far-
reaching interest of the country. The finance minister of the time, Mr. Watanabe Kunitake (now viscount), presented a memorandum
on the llth of September, 1893, advocating the necessity of conducting investigations in regard to the monetary policy of the country,
advising for that purpose the appointment of a commission. The following is the text of the memorandum:

“‘The recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver have exerted an extraordinary influence on the economic affairs of the
world, and the governments of all countries have been led to pay the greatest attention to the method of averting further calamities
from the same source. In July of last year the Austrian Government adopted a gold-standard in place of the silver-standard system,
while the International Monetary Congress, which was to meet in Brussels, with the avowed object of discussing measures of the price
of silver, has not been convened. These things have tended to assist the rapid depreciation of silver. In addition to these, the Indian
government suddenly stopped the free coinage of silver, and the American Government seems to be strongly inclined to repeal the
Sherman Act; in fact, the bill for that object is now under consideration in the United States Congress. It is thus inevitable that the
depreciation of silver will yet continue to increase. For these reasons the ratio between gold and silver is in a constant fluctuation, in
some cases bringing international trade almost to astandstill. It is but natural, therefore, that silver-using countries of the world should,
with a view to the protection of their national interest, take steps to conduct investigations concerning the question of coinage. Some
countries have already put into effect the results of such investigations.

“The coinage system of our country was a gold standard, according to the new coinage regulations of 1871. However, when, in 1878,
the 1-yen silver coin, which had been coined for circulation within the limits of the treaty ports only, was made legal tender throughout
the country by Imperial ordinance No. XII of 1878, there came into vogue the double-standard system of gold and silver. But this has
been further changed, and we are living under a de facto silver-standard system. For this reason these fluctuations in the price of silver
exert an immense influence on the economy and finance of the country. Moreover, since the Indian government has recently under-

‘taken to reform its coinage, the people of all classes of our country have become excited witb the liveliest anxiety as to the probable

future of silver coinage. Discussions on the subject are rife all over the country, and business men are in fear and trembling, not
knowing what course to take. For these reasons it seems to me to be a most proper course to take for the Government to appoint a
commission, composed of men experienced and learned in economic matters; to instruct that commission to conduct investigations as to
the causes and efiects of recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver, especially their effects on the past, present, and future
of our national economy; to make inquiries on the question whether there be need of reforming the coinage system of the country; if
so, what system to choose and what means to adopt toward effecting that reform. I look forward to the time-when the researches of
such a commission will be completed, with hopes that the Government will then be able to pacify the present anxieties of the nation
at large, as well as to fix upon a line of monetary policy to pursue at this important juncture. I adjoin herewith the draft of the
Imperial ordinance respecting the appointment of the commission and of the estimate of the expenses connected with that commission.
These are now respectfully submitted for the consideration of the cabinet.”’

The scheme embodied in the preceding memorandum was adopted by the Government, and the regulations concerning the coinage
investigation commission were promulgated by Imperial ordinance No. CNIII, on the 14th of October, 1893.

According to these regulations the commission was appointed, and the first thing they did was to choose a subcommittee to make
preliminary researches, the result of which being reported to the commission, the latter held several meetings in which long and
exhaustive discussions took place. Finally, in July, 1896, the commission presented the report of its resolution to the minister of
finance. The main points in that report are as follows:

(1) The resolution respecting item No. 1 of Article I of Imperial ordinance No. CXITI, 1893.

On this subject the commission accepted the result of the researches conducted by the subcommittee, and after further investigations
concerning the recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver, as well as concerning the relative value of gold and silver as
against commodities, gave the following nine points as the causes of recent fluctuations:

a. Increase in the output of silver.

b. Reduction in the expense of producing silver.

c. The fact that there has been less demand for silver for coinage in proportion to its increased output.

d. Decrease of the demand for silver for works of art.

_e. The fact that the amount of silver in existence, which is directly influenced by the laws of supply and demand, is comparatively
small, while the yearly supply of silver is comparatively large. a*

j. The fact that the rate of increase in the output of gold is less than the rate of increase in the output of silver.

g. Increased demand for gold for coinage.

h. Increased demand for gold for works of art.

i. Increase of the tendency to hoard gold. : :

In regard to the general effect of the recent fluctuations the following resolutions were taken: First, as to their effect in silver
countries; second, in the gold countries, and, third, on the economic relations. between gold and silver countries.

First, as to their effects in silver countries:

a. Increase of exports.
b. Rise of the price of commodities.
c. Reduction in the liabilities of debtors and of the taxpayers paying fixed rates.

2276 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Deer

d. The prosperity in agriculture. Digs » tne eka eee
e. The OoWib in trade. a
f. Increase of the public revenue from tax and other sources.
. The increased demand for laborers.
. Increase of the State expenditures.
i. Sufferings of the people who live on salaries or wages.
j. Loss to the creditors.
i. The growth of speculative enterprises.
1. Rise in the price of commodities imported from gold countries and the consequent decrease of imports.
Second, as to the effects in gold countries:
. Profit to the creditors.
. Fall in the price of commodities imported from silver countries.
Reduction in the State expenditures.
. Fall in the price of commodities.
. The loss to debtors and to the taxpayers paying fixed rates.
. The stagnation of commerce and industry.
. Reduction in the rate of interest.
. Sufferings of the agricultural classes.
. Reduction of the public revenue from taxes and other sources,
. Sufferings of the employers who pay out salaries and wages.
. The reduced demand for laborers.
. Increase of the imports from silver countries.
Third, in regard to the effects on the economic relations between the gold and silver countries:
a. The stagnation of business transactions between the silver and gold countries.
b. Reduction in the investment of capital made from gold countries in silver countries.
(2) Resolutions in regard to item No. 2 of Article I of the Imperial ordinance.
. The increase of export.
. Rise in the price of commodities.
. Reduction in the liabilities of debtors and taxpayers paying fixed rates.
. The prosperity in agriculture.
. The growth of trade and industry.
. Increase of the revenue from taxes and other sources.
. Increase of the demand for laborers.
. Increase of the State expenditures.
. Sufferings of the people who live on salaries and wages.
. Loss to the creditors.
. The growth of speculative enterprises.
Rise in the price of commodities imported from gold countries.
. Growth of habits of luxury.
. The free coinage at the mint acts as inducement to the importation of silver.
. Stagnation of the business transactions between Japan and gold countries.
: Petiction in the investment of capital made in this country from gold countries.

In the discussion of the question whether the recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver were for the advantage or
disadvantage of the country, the commission was at first divided, one part holding the opinion that the economic effect of these fluctua-
tions was on the whole to the advantage of the country, while the other part held to the view that the effect was not for the permanent
and general adyantage of this country. On taking votes, however, the former opinion prevailed, which was accordingly reported as the
resolution of the commission.

(3) The resolutions of the commission in regard to item No. 3 of Article I of the imperial ordinance: ;

In regard to this item, the subcommittee took vote on the question whether there was an immediate need of making changes in the
present coinage system of the country, leaving out the question whether there may not be such a need at some future time, if not now.
When the commission came to take vote, however, the question was enlarged so as to include the latter question also, and the final decision
was, in consequence of this enlargement of the question, contrary to the conclusion of the subcommittee and in favor of i
changes. Yet, with reference to the reasons for making these changes, the kind of standard to be adopted, and the time and method
effecting these changes, the commission was by no means unanimous. It was, therefore, thought advisable to state se tely these
various opinions in the report, as also the opinion of the minority, who held that there was no need of making changes, the latter being
presented as a minority report.

wr Sso FQ Ba oee

R083 saweseuce &0 oR

MAIN OUTLINE OF THE OPINIONS.

I. That there is need of making changes in the present coinage system.

1. Its reasons: ;

A. The advantages that may accrue to the country from the recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver being limited
in time and sphere, we must not be misled by the thought of these advantages, but look beyond to the permanent and gen: good of
the nation at large, and adopt a coinage system which shall be in harmony with the coinage systems of the countries in closest relation
to our own.

B. That there are certain benefits which accrue to the country from the fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver we
willingly grant; but, on the other hand, we need to adopt a system of coinage which, while according to the traditions of our country.
shall also be able to meet the need of these times in view of the changed condition of things abroad, i. e., to keep this country in accord
with the economical progress made abroad and with the changes effected in the coinage systems of foreign lands.

C. We grant the greatness of the benefits which the country is enjoying from the recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and
silver. Yet there is a tendency abroad to bring about a reaction in the contrary direction. It will be needful, therefore, for Japan to
adopt a coinage system which shall be able to meet the effects of such a reaction.

PD. While we grant that the benefits to the country from the recent fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver are
comparatively large, yet, on the other hand, these fluctuations haye had the effect of greatly raising the price of commodities and bees
about the present economic derangement. Yor this reason it will be necessary to adopt a coinage system which shall be free from
fluctuations.

2. In regard to the kind of new standard to be adopted:

A. The gold standard. :

a. The unlimited circulation of silver coinage is not to be permitted.

». The 1-yen silver coin now in circulation to be permitted to circulate without limit at a certain fixed rate of exchange, but its free
coinage to be stopped. i

B. The bimetallic standard.

a. The alliance of the leading nations of the world needed for the purpose. se
b. The alliance of the leading nations not needed. ¢ a
C. As to the mode of effecting these changes. ‘ :
a. To begin making preparations at once, with a view of realizing the scheme —_
. q 7 ie
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:

Lois} C COMMERCIAL JAPAN. rye |

b. To stop for the present with making preparations only.

c. To wait for some future opportune moment.

II. That there is no necessity of making changes in the present coinage system of the country. (Report of the minority.)

The various opinions advanced in support of this proposition are:

A. The advantages to the country of the effect of fluctuations in the ratio between gold and silver are great. It will be to the
country’s benefit to maintain the present system in future.

B. Since the advantages accruing to the country from these fluctuations are great, it will be the best policy for the country to wait
without making changes till the formation of an international bimetallic union and then to join the union.

C. We grant the advantages the country is deriving from these fluctuations, but as to the future line of policy which the country
ought to pursue in regard to its coinage system we hesitate to express any opinion.

In making the above resolutions eight members voted for the resolution advocating the need of making changes, while seven voted
for maintaining the present system unchanged. Among those who advocated the necessity of making changes, six advocated the
adoption of a gold standard, while two advocated a bimetallic system.

Thus the majority of the commission were of the opinion that there was a necessity of making changes in the present coinage
system of the country, and the majority again of those who advocated the need of making changes were in favor of adopting a gold
standard. It was thus clearly shown that the coinage reform and the adoption of a gold standard was the pressing necessity of the time.
Yet the difficulty of creating at once the large gold reserve necessary in order to effect this reform kept the Government from taking
steps forward in that direction, until the Chinese indemnity enabled the Government to plan for creating this necessary gold reserve.

The report then states the methods by which the Chinese indemnity, which, under the original agreement, was to have been paid
in Kupong (silver) taels, was finally, under a new agreement, paid in British coin (gold), and the stock of gold thus utilized for use in
the adoption of the gold standard, and adds:

Since now the way was opened for the creation of a gold reserve, as was narrated in the last section of the previous chapter, the
finance minister, Count Matsukata, seeing that the time was fully ripe for putting into effect the plan of coinage reform, on the 25th
February, 1897 (thirtieth year of Meiji), submitted the drafts of the coinage law, with its subsidiary laws, to the cabinet council.

The policy sketched in the memorandum being adopted by the cabinet, the Government introduced into the Diet on the Ist day of
ery 1897, the drafts of the coinage law and other subsidiary laws. The first of these laws took place on the 3d day of

arch. ~

The bills recommended introduced to the House of Representatives were intrusted to a committee of 27 members, who approved
them asa whole. The committee reported on the bill to the House on the 10th day of March. During the discussion which followed
there were a few opinions advanced in opposition, and some attempts were made at amendment, but in the end these bilis were passed
in the House as a whole, without amendment, and were forwarded duly to the House of Peers.

In the House of Peers these bills went into first reading on the 15th day of March, and were intrusted to a committee of 15 members,
who reported on them to the House on the 23d, and the biils were passed by the House of Peers also without a single amendment.

In this way where the coinage law and the subsidiary law passed by the Diet, and, after receiving the august sanction, were
promulgated on the 26th day of March, 1897. * * *

The important sections of the new coinage law are given below, the sections omitted relating merely to the limit of deviation in
fineness, abrasion, etc.

THE COINAGE LAW.

Articte I. The power of minting and issuing coin belongs to the Government.

Art. II. The weight of 2 fiin of pure gold shall be the unit of the coinage and shall be called yen.

Arr. III. The coins shall be of nine denominations, as follows: Gold coin, consisting of 20-yen, 10-yen, and 5-yen pieces; silver
coin, consisting of 50-sen, 20-sen, and 10-sen pieces; nickel coin, consisting of 5-sen pieces; bronze coin, consisting of 1-sen and 5-rin pieces.

Arr. IV. The decimal method shall be followed in the calculation of coinage, one-hundredth part of 1 yen being called sen, and
one-tenth part of 1 sen being called rin.

Art. V. The quality of the coins shall be as follows:

1. Gold coin, 900 parts of pure gold and 100 parts of copper.

2. Silver coin, 800 parts of pure silver and 200 parts of copper.

3. Nickel coin, 250 parts of nickel and 750 parts of copper.

4. Bronze coin, 950 parts of copper, 40 parts of tin, and 10 parts of zine.

Art. VI. The weights of the coins shall be as follows:
. The 20-yen gold piece shall weigh 4 momme, 4 fiin, 4 rin, 4.4 mo (or, grams, 16.6665).
The 10-yen gold piece shall weigh 2 momme, 2 fiin, 2 rin, 2.2 mo (or, grams, 8.8333).
The 5-yen gold piece shall weigh 1 momme, 1 fiin, 1 rin, and 1.1 mo (or, grams, 4.1666).
The 50-sen silver piece shall weigh 3 momme, 5 fin, 9 rin, and 4.2 mo (or, grams, 13.4783).
The 20-sen silver piece shall weigh 1 momme, 4 ftin, 3 rin, and 7.7 mo (or, grams, 5.3914).
The 10-sen silver piece shall weigh 7 fiin, 1 rin, and 8.8 mo (or, grams, 2.6955).
. The nickel piece shall weigh 1 momme, 2 fiin, 4 rin, and 4.1 mo (or, grams, 4.6654).
. The 1-sen bronze piece shall weigh 1 momme, 9 fiin, and 0.8 mo (or, grams, 7.1280).
. The 5-rin bronze piece shail weigh 9 fiin, 5 rin, and 0.4 mo (or, grams, 3.5640).

Art. VII. The gold coins shall be legal tender up to any amount. The silver coins shali be legal tender up to any amount of 10
yen. The nickel and bronze coins shall be legal tender up to the amount of l yen. * * *

: Art. XIV. Should any person deposit gold bullion and apply to have it minted into gold coin, the Government shall grant the

application.

£0 G0 NID Uy Oo OP

APPENDIX.

i Arr. XV. The gold coins already issued shall circulate at double the value of the gold coins to be issued under the provisions of
this law.

Art. XVI. The 1-yen silver coin hitherto issued shall be gradually exchanged for gold coin, according to the convenience of the
Government, at the rate of 1 gold yen for 1 silver yen. Pending the completion of that exchange, l-yen silver coin shall be legal tender
to any amount, at the rate of 1 silver yen for 1 gold yen, and the prohibition of their circulation shall be announced six months in
advance by imperial ordinance. If these coins are not presented for exchange within the period of five full years, reckoning from the
day on which their circulation is prohibited, they shall be regarded thenceforth as bullion.

Art. XVII. The 5-yen silver coin and the copper coins hitherto issued shall continue in circulation as before.

Art. XVIII. From the day of the promulgation of this law, the minting of the silver 1 yen shall cease; but this prohibition shall
not apply to silver bullion deposited at the Government mint prior to that date.

Art. XIX. All laws or ordinances hitherto issued that conflict with the provisions of this law are hereby rescinded.

Art. XX. With the exception of Article X VIII this law shall go into operation from the Ist day of October, 1897.

LAW NO. XVII, OF THE 26TH DAY OF MARCH, 1897—REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE SPECIAL COMPTABILITE OF THE COINAGE ADJUSTMENT FUNDS.

Artictr I. The Government shall set apart a fund for the exchange and retirement of l-yen silver coin and of coins inconvenient
for circulation. The fund shall be called the coinage adjustment fund, and its income and expenditures kept as special comptabilite,

_ separate from the general account of the Government.

No. 6 19

2278 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

: _
Arr. II. All profits arising from seigniorage and other items at the mint, resulting under a special comptabilite after 1897,
turned into the coinage adjustment fund. : : : a
Art. III. When 1-yen silver coin withdrawn from circulation through exchange, or other coins withdrawn from circulation on
account of their inconvenience, are to be sold as bullion, such sales may be transacted by the Government by any contract it may choose
to enter into. rs
Now, such being the coinage law and the subsidiary laws, the main points in the practical scheme of executing the reform set on
foot by the finance minister may be stated as follows: : -
I. To mint the new gold coins with gold bullion bought with the Chinese indemnity money. _ ; ‘
Il. To exchange with gold coin the 1-yen silver coins and the silver promissory notes of the mint previously issued. y =,
Now that gold was made the standard of coinage, according to the coinage law, it is very clear that the silver 1 yen, which had
hitherto occupied the position of the unit of coinage, ought to be exchanged for gold coins. Shou!d, however, the actual amount of
these silver yen brought in for exchange exceed their estimated amount, it would not only be impossible to accomplish the work of
exchange, but also the latter fact would at once destroy the very basis of the new coinage system. _For this reason careful S$
were made as to the amount of the silver yen which would be brought in for exchange with gold coins.
The estimated amounts stood as follows: ;

Yen.
1-yen silver coin circulating at home....-.-..----.--------------2---- eee cee e eee cone ee eee ene e ee eee 39, 320, 000
1-yen silver coin which would be brought back from abroad for exchange.--...---------------------- 10, 060, 000
Silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint...........-..--------------- agai iate 30, 000, 000
Gta. olde bass vets oon ovat oon sees neste eee oft 2 = Se eee eee ae aan ee ee 79, 320, 000

III. As to the method of disposal of the silver yen withdrawn from circulation:
The total amount of the silver yen to be exchanged, some 79,000,000 in all, according to the estimate in the preceding paragraph,
shall be disposed of partly by minting them into subsidiary coins, according to the ec explained under Paragraph V, and partly
by transporting them abroad for sale, after disfiguring them so as to make them legally unfit for circulation at home. 2
IV. As to the disposal of the silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint: =
Although with the promulgation of the coinage law of 1897 the further coining of silver yen was to cease, there must be provided —
a means for the disposal of the silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint. It was intended now to dispose of it
in the same way as the silver yen, by partly devoting it to minting subsidiary coins and partly selling it abroad.
V. To be fe an increased issue of subsidiary silver coins, the gold piece which would correspond with 1 yen, if coined, would beso
small in weight as to be inconvenient for daily transactions. For this reason no provision was made in the coinage law for the minting _
of 1-yen gold pieces. Yet in order to keep firm the foundations of our coinage system the people must be ee erie with hard money for
the purposes of small daily transactions. There was therefore the more need of making an increased issue of subsidiary coins, since not
only were the Government paper money and national-bank notes to be retired, but the convertible 1-yen notes, which were being —
largely used in the smaller transactions among the people, were to be reduced in amount. For these reasons it was now planned to
make the increased issue of subsidiary coins, consisting of 50-sen and other smaller coins. ; sf
Such, in general, were the lines of policy according to which the coinage law was carried into operation. * * *

REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE EXCHANGE OF 1-YEN SILVER COINS. 2

In accordance with the Article XVI of the coinage law (law No. XVI of 1897), where it is provided that 1-yen silver coins shall
be exchanged gradually, at the rate of 1 yen gold for 1 yen silver, the Government now issued regulations concerning the exchange of —
l-yen silver coins by finance department notification No. LXI of September 21, 1897. The regulations run as follows: ne

FINANCE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATION NO. LXI OF THE 21sT DAY OF SEPTEMBER, 1897.

From the 1st day of October, this year, 1-yen silver coins hitherto issued shall be gradually exchanged with gold coins. Persons
desirous of having them thus exchanged may apply at the central Governmenttreasury. The application may be made at the Yokohama —
Specie Bank and its branch office at Kobe, both of which act as agencies for the aes ea Ginko, and the Government treasuriesin
see redatgh parts of the country, where the officials in charge will accommodate the applicants by getting the coins exchanged at the
central treasury. _

In regard to the circulation of the l-yen silver coins, there was issued on the 18th of September, 1897, imperial ordinance No.
CCCX XXVIII, as follows:

IMPERIAL ORDINANCE NO. CCCXXXVIII OF THE 18TH DAY OF SEPTEMBER, 1897. 5

Matsukata, finance minister at that time, presented to the cabinet a draft of the law for the shortening of the period allowed for the
exchange of l-yen silver coins. Yet, owing to the dissolution of the Imperial Diet, that draft was never laid before the houses. When

Count Inouye succeeded Count Matsukata as finance minister, he also saw the need of cutting short the five-year period, and the draft
of the law to that effect laid before the extraordinary meeting of the Diet was passed by both houses. The draft becameaaal No. V of

the 10th of June, 1898, and runs as follows:

LAW NO. V OF THE 10TH DAY OF JUNE, 1898.

No exchange of 1-yen silver coins shall take place after the 31st day of July, 1898.
While it had been the rule hitherto to exchange 1-yen silver pieces with gold coins and transact the business connected with that
exchange only at the central treasury (the treasuries in different parts of the country simply acconimodating themselves in a ag

applicants to get the exchange made at the central Government treasury), the Government regarded it necessary to make certain change
in connection with the process of exchange in order to make sure that there should be no 1-yen silver coins left over unexchan on
account of the shortening of the five-year period. These changes were embodied in the finance department notification No. of

June 15, 1898, and are as follows: .
FINANCE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATION NO, XLIX OF THE 15TH DAY OF JuNE, 1898.

I. Any person desirous of getting the l-yen silver coin exchanged for any kind of currency may apply during the period allowed
for its exchange at any of the Government treasuries and subtreasuries. ‘
II. The l-yen silver coin may be used in the payment of taxes or in otherwise making payment. to the Government during the
period allowed for its exchange. * * * ~~ -
The mint now immediately increased its working capacity, began minting these coins, and worked both day and night sea
without cessation, so that by the prescribed day—i. e., September 30—it succeeded in turning out 49,587,160 yen of the new coin
The original estimate of the new coins to be minted was now increased, and it was decided to coin by the 31st day of 1898,
addition to the amount mentioned above, 500,000 yen of 5-yen gold pieces and 24,500,000 yen of 10-yen gold pieces; total, 25,000,000 y:

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ee
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1901.] | COMMERCIAL JAPAN, 2279

making the revised total of the new gold coins to be issued 73,000,000 yen altogether. Accordingly the amount of new gold coins turned
out by the mint from October, 1897, to April, 1898, was altogether 24,868,575 yen.

The total sum of gold coins minted by the Government between April, 1897, and April, 1898, in preparation for effecting the
coinage reform was thus altogether 74,455,735 yen, and this amount was now devoted to making the exchange of silver yen.

THE MINTING OF SUBSIDIARY SILVER COINS.

In order to place the currency system of a country on a sound basis, it is essential that a sufficient supply of coins be provided for
the use of the community at large. Itis particularly important that coins be used by the people in their smaller daily transactions. Now,
the amount of 1-yen convertible notes issued by the Bank of Japan had reached the vast sum of over 66,000,000 (estimate at the end of
March, 1897). And since a greater portion of these notes was being used in daily transactions by the people, it was thought proper to
order the Bank of Japan to commence withdrawing gradually its 1-yen convertible notes, along with the adoption of the gold standard,
in order that the Government might issue hard money in their place; but in regard to the nature of the hard money to be thus issued in
exchange for these notes it was feared that 1-yen gold pieces, if coined, would be too small, and hence inconvenient for handling. For
this reason in the coinage law no provision was made for the minting of gold l-yen. Accordingly the Government adopted the plan of
issuing an additional amount of subsidiary silver coins, consisting of 50, 20, and 10 sen pieces, and of making them take the place of 1-yen
convertible notes, so far as these were being used in daily transactions by the people.

THE WITHDRAWAL FROM CIRCULATION OF THE 1-YEN SILVER COIN—THE PREPARATIONS FOR EXCHANGING 1-YEN SILVER COINS.

By Article XVI of the coinage law of 1897 (law No. XVI), it was provided that all the 1-yen silver coins then in circulation should
be, at the convenience of the Government, exchanged at the rate of 1-yen gold for l-yen silver. As this law was to be put in force on
the Ist day of October of the same year, the Government at once took up the work of providing the fund needed for the exchange of l-yen
silver coins. But early in July of the same year some of the foreign banks at our treaty ports, being doubtful as to the actual working
of the coinage law, sent out circulars to their customers notifying them to the effect that, after the lst of October, those banks should
exercise the liberty of choosing either gold or silver coins in making specie payments. Under these circumstances, the outlook was not
free from the danger that if things were allowed to proceed as they were they would eventually lead to a change in the market ratio
between gold and silver; and, perceiving that in order to prevent such a contingency it would be a matter of the most urgent necessity
to effect the change of 1-yen silver coins with all possible dispatch and promptness, the finance minister (Count Matsukata) decided on
adopting the following course:

1. On the 1st day of October to get all the 1-yen silver coins in the possession of the Bank of Japan and of the Yokohama Specie
Bank exchanged for the gold coins in the possession of the Government.

2. To allow foreign banks in the treaty ports to get the 1-yen silver coins in their possession exchanged for gold coins after the Ist
day of October, the transactions connected with this business to be intrusted to the Bank of Japan.

3. In view of the above-mentioned course taken by the Government, to instruct the Yokohama Specie Bank and its branches to use
gold in all their payments.

4. That the president of the Bank of Japan should endeavor to induce the foreign banks to also make their payments in gold.

Then, on the 15th of July, the following instruction was issued to the Bank of Japan:

Since the coinage law goes into operation on the Ist day of October of the current year, the Bank of Japan is hereby ordered to
undertake the exchange of 1-yen silver coins now in circulation according to the following method:

1. One-yen silver coins which may be in the possession of the Bank of Japan on the 1st day of October, as well as those that may
come into its possession after that date, the bank shall get exchanged for gold coins at the Government treasury.

2. As regards 1-yen silver coins in the possession of the Yokohama Specie Bank and of the foreign banks in the treaty ports after
the 1st day of October of this year, the bank shall endeavor to persuade their possessors to exchange them for gold coins.

3. As regards all payments made at the head office of the Yokohama Specie Bank, whether these payments are made by it as
an agency of the Bank of Japan or not, the Bank of Japan shall see that after the 1st day of October those payments are made entirely
in gold coins.

g The exchange of 1-yen silver coins for gold coins is a matter requiring great care on the part of the Government, since it is virtually
connected with the successful working of the coinage law; for it would be a very grave thing, indeed, if, on account of the lack of
promptness in exchanging 1-yen silver for gold coins, there should be produced a change in the ratio between gold and silver. Particular
care and caution need to be exercised therefore, both preceding and following the going into operation of the coinage law; and by entering
into a very thorough cousultation on this matter with the Yokohama Specie Bank, and also by ascertaining the state of feeling among
foreign bankers, the Bank of Japan shall regulate things in such a way as to bring about the successful completion of this work of exchange.

In accordance with the foregoing instruction, the Bank of Japan commenced making the necessary preparations for the coming
event, while the Yokohoma Specie Bank, after consulting with the Bank of Japan, sent out the following circular to its customers:

‘‘We beg herewith to state that on and after the Ist day of October of this year we shall meet all our obligations, which are already
due to our customers or which will become due, with gold coins, regardless of our promise to pay them in silver. Further, while this
bank will accept silver coin in payments made to it, silver coin will not be used in making our payments.

“We remain, ete.”

P. S.—We beg to further notify our customers that we have received orders to exchange for gold coin on demand alter the date
mentioned above the convertible notes of the Bank of Japan up to any amount.

This course of action had the effect of dispelling the doubt at first entertained by foreigners concerning the actual working of the
coinage law, and the foreign exchange also came to resume its normal] rate.

Then, besides, as stated in Section IV, Chapter V, the regulations for the exchange of 1-yen silver coins were issued by the finance
department notification No. LXI of the 21st of September, same year. In the meanwhile, the work of minting new gold coins to be
used for exchanging the silver yen having made good progress while that of coining subsidiary currency to fill the place of retired l-yen
silver pieces was also completed, the finance minister (Count Matsukata) on the 2d day of September submitted to the cabinet council a
measure for forbidding the circulation of the 1-yen silver coins after the 1st day of April, 1898. * * *

Accordingly the Government decided to prohibit the circulation of 1-yen silver coins after the 1st day of April, 1898, and to announce
the fact of that prohibition by imperial ordinance No. CCCX XXVIII of the 18th day of September. The imperial ordinance runs as
follows:

IMPERIAL ORDINANCE NO. CCCXXXVUII OF THE 18TH DAY OF SEPTEMBER, 189).

The circulation of 1-yen silver coins, hitherto issued, will be prohibited after the Ist day of April, 1898.
AMOUNT OF 1-YEN SILVER COINS AND OF THE PROMISSORY NOTES OF THE MINT WITHDRAWN FROM CIRCULATION,

The exchange of 1-yen silver coins, commenced on October 1, 1897, as stated in the preceding section, was concluded, according to
law No. V, of June, 1898, on the 31st of July of the latter year, as was related in Section IV, Chapter V. During the interval the
number of 1-yen silver coins exchanged for gold coins amounted to 45,588,369 yen. Of this sum 38,648,297 yen was received in direct
exchange for gold coins, and 3,977,099 yen was first received into the Government treasury in the form of revenues and other public
payments, and then exchanged for gold, while the amount received into the Government treasury at Formosa and there exchanged was

2,962,973 yen.
x. Seem these, there was the sum of 29,505,453 yen 4 sen 2 rin, which had been received into the mint bureau in bullion form
previous to the promulgation of the coinage law, and which had not yet been minted into l-yen silver coins, but against which the
_ promissory notes of the mint to pay silver yen had been issued. This amount of promissory notes, therefore, the Government was

2280 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. (Decemper, —

under obligation to exchange for gold coins. Now, a portion of these notes was redeemed previous to the passage of the ee law in
exchange for the convertible notes and turned into bullion, to be coined into subsidiary currency, while the rest was exchanged for gold

coins simultaneously with the enforcement of the coinage law. ; : : + , :
In other words, the total of 1-yen silver coins and the promissory notes of the mint withdrawn from circulation in connection with

,

the adoption of the gold standard was altogether 75,093,822 yen 4sen2rin. * *
CHAPTER X.—FINAL Disposal OF THE RetirED SILVER YEN.

The aggregate total of 1-yen silver coins retired in consequence of the enforcement of the coinage law (law No. XVI of the thirtieth
year of Meiji) and of the silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint to pay coins (also retired) was 75,095,822 yen
4sen2rin. Out of this total the sum of 27,567,011 yen 58 sen 4 rin was set apart for minting subsidiary silver coins, and the sum of
40,786,662 yen 45 sen 8 rin was sold at Hongkong, Shanghai, and elsewhere, while the sum of 6,740,148 yen was sent over to Formosa,
Korea, eic., to be placed in circulation in these countries. In this way in December, 1898, was completed the final disposal of tlie retired
1-yen silver coins and of the silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint (also retired).

Section LY.

The aggregate total of 1-yen silver coins withdrawn from circulation and the silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes
of the mint (also retired) was 75,093,822 yen 4 sen 2 rin, and; as stated in the preceding section, the disposal! of this whole amount was
completed in December, 1898, while the total price obtained from the sale of this whole amount was 69,696,240 yen 85 sen 3 rin. (This
price was on an average at the rate of 92 yen 81 sen 2 rin per 100 yen silver, which, reduced to the rate per ounce of English standard
silver, equals 27.0570d. per ounce; compared with actual average quotation on silver bars on both advance and immediate sales pe in
London, during the period in which the above-mentioned sale was effected, was higher by 0.2660d., the average quotation in London
being 26.7910d.) The transaction thus produced a discrepancy of 5,397,581 yen 18 sen 9 rin; added to this there were the expenses
incidental to the retirement and the sale, amounting to 155,730 yen 63 sen 1 rin in March 31, 1899, so that the total loss came upto the
sum of 5,553,311 yen 82 sen. In order to make good this loss the sum of 5,651,960 yen 91 sen, being the net profit realized by the mint
bureau for the thirtieth and thirty-first fiscal years of Meiji, was transfered to the currency adjustment fund special comptabilite, in
accordance with law No. XVII of March, 1897. (The profits to the mint bureau were mainly the profits arising from the minting of
subsidiary silver coins, whose amount for the thirtieth fiscal year was 2,035,860 yen 82 sen 1 rin, and that for the thirty-first year
3,616,100 yen 8 gen 9 rin.)

In looking back over the circumstances attending the retirement and disposal of the silver yen, we must note the fact that the scarcity
of money prevailed throughout the thirtieth fiscal year (1897) as a result of the sudden expansion of business and industrial enterprises
following the victorious war with China (1894-95); and it being impossible in consequence to float in the home market the Government
bonds issued as a post-bellum measure, the Government itself had to buy them by appropriating 14,670,000 yen out of the indemnity
money. Coming to the thirty-first fiscal year (1898), the stringency of the money market yet more increased, so that in order to
ameliorate this condition of affairs the Government made a further disbursement of over 36,990,000 yen out of the indemnity money for
buying Government bonds, and of over 3,040,000 yen for buying the bonds, to be newly issued, of the Industrial Bank of Japan. Even
yet the condition of the market did not allow the floating of a public loan. Under these circumstances the Government had to make
further temporary appropriations out of the indemnity money to the extent of over 70,650,000 yen to cover the expenditures which were
to be met by floating Government bonds and of over 15,000,000 yen to meet the deficit in the general account, owing to the delay in the
passage of the law for increased taxation. For these reasons it was apparent that if the retired silver yen were kept idle in the
Government treasury for any length of time it would become difficult to meet the annual expenditures. Although it was decided to
recoin a part of the amount of the retired silver yen into subsidiary coins, still there was also an immediate necessity for making proper
disposal of the remainder. This was, moreover, at a time when silver quotation in London was depreciated to the level of 23d. (A
1897). There was thus a peril that the rate might be yet further forced down, if a large amount of silyer were sold off just then, and the
transaction might have resulted in a loss of tenor, even 20 per cent. The situation, therefore, created much anxiety in the minds of men
in authority. But toward the winter of 1897 the price of silver rose at one time above 27d., owing to the tight money market which was
produced by the scarcity of currency in Shanghai, Hongkong, and their vicinities. While in this country it happened that the harvest
of 1897 proving unusually bad, large quantities of foreign rice were imported via Hongkong.

The situation offered a good opportunity for selling abroad 1-yen silver coins, and with the latter object in view an order was issued
to the Yokohama Specie Bank to forward to and sell off the retired yen silver in the above-named regions, to employ a part of the
money obtained in the payment of bills drawn against the imported rice, and to send home the rest in other forms of draft. At the
sae time here at home, the Hongkong and Shanghai and the chartered banks having requested the Government for the sale of silver
yen in order to meet the demand of silver in Shanghai and Hongkong, a considerable amount was sold to them. By March of 1898
(thirty-first year of Meiji) silver again showed signs of depreciating, but owing to the outbreak of the war between Spain and America
and to the policy of the Spanish Government to buy up silver, its price again commenced to rise. Under these circumstances our efforts
to sell silver in Shanghai and Hongkong were kept up with increased vigor, and the price obtained in payment was sent home either in
the form of immediate drafts on Japan or in drafts on London. In Formosa, as will be stated in Chapter XI, the stamped i-yen silver
coin now came to be put in circulation, while after the expiration of the period allowed for the exchange of silver yen, the same in its
original form was put in circulation, so that a portion of the retired l-yen silver coin was forwarded thither and disbursed at current
valuation. Other ways of disposal consisted of shipping certain quantities to Korea and there exchanging them for the convertible notes
of the Bank of Japan, and of making an attempt to circulate them in Weihaiwei, in both cases at the current rate of valuation. In these
latter places the prices obtained were higher than at others; but the demand for these coins never rose to very high figures.

In this manner, within a short period of about one year, by December of 1898 (thirty-first year of Meiji) the disposal of the retired
silver yen was entirely completed. The most satisfactory part of the whole transaction was that the disposal of this vast amount of
silver In so short a space of time not only did not cause any fluctuation in the price of silver abroad, but the rate realized was actually
higher than that quoted in the London market, while the loss resulting from the diserepancy between the amount retired and the price
realized from its sale was no more than about 7 per cent, and that loss was amply made good by the net profit from the minting of
subsidiary silver coins, and thus giving no additional burden whatever to the state.

Table XX XIX is herewith adjoined for reference concerning the present sections:

Taste XX XIX.—1. GenerAL Account oF THE RETIRED Sitver YEN Disposep oF By SALE.
Yen.

Total amount of 1-yen silver coins and of silver bullion corresponding to the promissory notes of the mint retired.... 75, 093, 822. 042

Items under the above:

Amount of the silver yen retired by being exchanged for gold coin between October, 1897, and July, 1898............ 38, 648, 297. 000
Amount of the silver yen retired by being received in payment of taxes and other public dues and then exchanged and
TOUTE... nen ccencccccccccnenanenat cusaccanenceceahhoneen oun nes om ne ums cp a eee 3, 977, 099. 000
Amount of the silver yen received in Formosa and then exchanged and retired ........................ccnceces evcces 2; 962, 973.000
Amount of the promissory notes of the mint exchanged for gold coins... ............. cc ce scuus suns seen cee 25, 678, 148. 840
Amount of the promissory notes of the mint retired before October, 1897, for the purpose of coining subsidiary silver
SIO wae cone ep mane.ces ees cincenwSunine ceqane a aceuanaaspin 6 ews.n wile Wpcie eis eileen ee ee
Oliva cuvic «dee en wswcece cauuacersectccccaudunces cans eanns ts asn ke mdac eee ene euccceses 70, 008, 822. 042
Arnoune OL retired silver yen deposed of by sale... sks. ce ceva ceccnc cunncecuaubusesuenanne eee

a.

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2281

THE EMPLOYMENT OF FUNDS IN THE GOVERNMENT TREASURY IN CONNECTION WITH THE COINAGE REFORM.

As may be seen from the preceding chapters, the coinage reform was effected by applying the gold coins belonging to the Chinese
indemnity fund as a gold reserve for the exchange of l-yen “silver coins. But this does not mean that a farthing out of the inde munity
money was consumed for the purpose. To explain, before being applied to various purposes for which the indemnity fund was appro-

priated according to the budget estimate, the gold coins belonging to the said indemnity were utilized for the exchange of 1-yen silver
coins, while the amount thus utilized was paid back and the expenditures for which that amount had been appropriated met with by
the money realized from the sale of the retired silver yen. In effecting all these transactions, funds in the Government treasury were

made use of under different comptabilite—i. e., the indemnity money special comptabilite, the currency adjustment fund special
comptabilite, and the mint bureau manufacture special comptabilite, in the following manner:

I. The indemnity money special comptabilite shall buy gold bullion with its fund deposited in London, ship the said bullion
home and deliver it to the mint bureau in order to be coined into money.

The mint bureau shall receive gold bullion from the indemnity money special comptabilite, coin it into gold currency, and
then return the latter to the said comptabilite.

Ill. The indemnity money special comptabilite shall exchange l-yen silver coins for the gold currency received from the mint
bureau, thus effecting their retirement.

IV. The indemnity money special comptabilite shall transfer l-yen silver coins which haye been exchanged for gold currency to
the coinage adjustment fund special comptabilite at their face value.

VY. The coinage adjustment fund special comptabilite shall sell at a market price the retired 1-yen silver coins received at face
value from the indemnity money special comptabilite.

VI. The coinage adjustment fund special comptabilite shall pay for the retired l-yen silver.coins received from the indemnity
money special comptabilite (Paragraph IV) with the money realized from the sale of those retired silver yen.

VII. The mint bureau shall coin subsidiary silver pieces with l-yen silver coins bought from the coinage adjustment fund
special comptabilite, and shall transfer to the same comptabilite the profits resulting from these subsidiary coins and from other items
of manufacture.

VIII. The coinage adjustment fund special comptabilite shall make good the loss resulting from balancing the price obtained
for the sale of the retired silver yen and the price at which the same were received, with the profits transferred from the mint bureau.

The indemnity money special comptabilite shall in the above manner receive from the coinage adjustment fund the payment
for the retired silver yen, and apply the money thus received in payment toward expenditures determined by the budget.

Thus, the indemnity money special comptabilite, while it exchanged 1-yen silver coins at its face value, did not suffer the least
loss since the said comptabilite transferred it to the coinage adjustment fund special comptabilite at its face value, while the loss which
the coinage adjustment fund suffered by receiving the retired silver yen at the face value and selling the same at current valuation was
made good by the profits realized at the mint bureau from the coining of the subsidiary pieces.

In this manner were accomplished the retirement and disposal of l-yen silver coin by employing funds in the Government
treasury, while the loss arising from the transactions was made good by the profits of the mint bureau.

COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS.

Commercial conditions in Japan, the demands of trade, and the methods which should be followed by those desiring closer business
relations with the people of that country, the prospects as to the effect of the new treaties, and commerce in general are discussed in
the following extracts from reports of consuls of various nations, excerpts from newspapers published in Japan, and other discussions by
those having exceptional facilities for information upon this subject. These extracts and expressions are followed by statistical tables
from Japanese official sources, which are very complete, since the Japanese Government not only publishes elaborate commercial statistics,
but takes an annual census of population, schools, railways, manufacturing and other internal industries, thus presenting recent and
complete statistical views of the condition of the Empire and its people.

AMERICAN FLOUR GAINING IN POPULARITY IN JAPAN.

From reports to the State Department, published in the Consular Reports for 1898, it appears that American flour is gaining in
popularity in Japan. Consul-General MclIvor reports to the Department as follows:

The Japanese have not been consumers of bread, but have used flour in the manufacture of confections, of which great quantities
are sold and used, not only as accessories (as with us), but as staple articles of diet. For years rice flour has been used in the preparation
of these confections, but they are beginning to use wheat flour, both for this purpose and, to a limited extent, in making biscuits. Almost
all of the wheat flour imported into Japan comes from the United States and the import is now increasing, as is shown by the following
table, taken from the official customs returns of the Empire for 1894, 1895, and 1896, compared with the table accompanying my report
for the years 1890-1893, dated April 30, 1894:

QUANTITY AND VALUE oF Imports oF WHEAT FLOUR INTO JAPAN DURING THE YEARS 1890-1893,

|
FROM THE UNITED STATES. Lewet OTHER COUNTRIES. | TOTAL.
YEARS. pe a |
Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value.
Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. Dollars.
SOO tate esta asic na\ecres' 8, 888, 032 179, 148 66, 940 2, 225 8, 944, 972 181, 373
SOG te ee canoe andteee 11, 952, 270 270, 655 118, 602 3, 348 12, 065, 872 274, 003
RO e Meats aalcniee wisicinitan'ae 10, 025, 250 191, 902 8, 918 6, 000 10, 034, 168 197, 902
JER adel ee ll, 862, 682 199, 067 158, 875 4,197 12, 021, 557 208, 264

YEARS, Quantity. Value.
Pounds. Dollars.

19, 758, 041 802, 049. 16

138, 866, 971 205, 422. 29

31, 408, 314 519, 508. 09

ee Ake a
7 .

* transportation facilities and lower freights from the Pacific coast.

‘Tacoma, Wash.

.

2282 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. cma

The first annual returns (1896) for the ports of Formosa (now a part of the Japanese Empire) show that the import of Ww
from the United States was 6,900,330 pounds, valued at 218,898.76 yen ($116.016.34).

A portion of the increase in the import for the year 1896 may be accounted for by the fact that it has been discovered that
rice diet encourages the tendency to a disease known as ‘‘kakke,”’ or beriberi. If wheat is used occasionally, this tendency is g g
reduced or removed, and the authorities have required the occasional use of wheat flour in the army and navy.

Almost all of the flour imported is the soft-wheat flour of Washington and Oregon. The importing merchants inform me that t
have made more than one effort to introduce the hard-wheat flour, but without success. The Japanese, accustomed as they are to the
white flour made from rice, object to the dark color of the hard-wheat flour. I understand that objection has also been made that this
flour is more gritty than that made from soft wheat.

In the past, the import of flour has been made almost entirely by the large foreign firms at the open ports of the Empire, but tk
Japanese are now evincing a desire to engage in direct trade, and three or four of their larger houses in Tokyo and Yokohama are now
I believe, importing flour.

Vice-Consul Sharp, of Osaka and Hiogo, also reports to the State Department as follows:
There is a steady market here for American flour, and, in my opinion, the demand is on the increase. In 1895, the statistics of the -
imperial customs here show the imports to have been 581,789 catties (775,718 pounds), valued at 29,894.31 silver yen ($14,947.16); in
1896, 2,437,541 catties (3,250,055 pounds), valued at 129,447.50 silver yen ($68,736.62), showing the increase for 1896 to have been
1,855,752 catties (2,474,337 pounds), valued at 99,553.19 silver yen ($53,789.46). This increase I believe to be due to the inereased -
The equivalents of the Japanese yen in United States gold have been computed at 50 cents for 1895 and at 53.1 cents for 1896. >
The American flour imported here comes principally from San Francisco, Cal., Pendleton and Portland, Oreg., and Spokane and

The demand for flour here is chiefly confined to the loi not only because the use of flour is making the greatest strides”
among the poorer classes of the country, with whom cheapness is the greatest desideratum, but because a large quantity is used for
making paste in the enormous paper industries, such as the manufacture of screens, fans, kites, and numerous other articles for which a
good and cheap quality of paste is necessary.

The higher grades of American flour are chiefly sold to the naval vessels and foreign bakers, who supply the local market with |
bread and cakes.

The uses of flour have become more general among the Japanese during the past few years.

The difference between the average price of American flour and Japanese flour is about one cent on the pound. This information 7
I have procured through the local government from the several provinces within this consular district.

There are two classes of Japanese flour, one manufactured from wheat and the other from rice, the latter being much smaller in
quantity than the former. Japanese flour is principally used for making vermicelli, macaroni, and cakes. ,

The method employed by the Japanese for the manufacture of flour is primitive, compared with that in the United States. The
rice or wheat, being cleaned, is then ground to a powder, or proper consistency, by means of a stone mortar, run usually by water
power, which is one of nature’s greatest gifts to this country. There are no flour mills of foreign construction within the limits of this
consular district.

In view of the small quantity of freight offered for the outward passages of vessels from San Francisco to Hiogo (Kobé), special
low rates have been made on flour, owing to its use as ballast or stiffening, instead of rock ballast. a

The principal importers of American flour here are Messrs. Frazar & Co. and Dodwell, Carlill & Co., both being agents of steame
and receive commission on their cargo, which enables them to lay flour down here at a lower figure than one engaged in other pursuits. —

The question of difference between hard-wheat flours and soft-wheat flours is unknown here, and therefore cuts no figure in th
flour trade.

As to whether there is a favorable opening in this consular district for hard-wheat flours, it is simply a question of price and ane
The long rail from Minnesota, or as far west as Great Falls, Mont., to the Pacific coast shipping points, is the problem to be solved,
as, according to the United States interstate commerce bill, a snbyetoy can not charge less for a long than a short haul, and wheat can be
produced in Washington at as low a cost as in the Middle West, Washington flour dominates this market. --

WHEATEN-FLOUR BUSINESS IN JAPAN,
[From the Japan Times, September 6, 1898.]

The flour business in this country is yet in its infant stages, and consequently there are no large mills, such as are to be found in

other countries. In Tokyo there is only one establishment of the kind, two or three in Osaka, one in Nagasaki, one in Hiroshima, while
a similar one was lately established in Sapporo, Hokkaido. At the one in Tokyo, where the latest improved machinery has hb

employed since 1896, the output of flour per month is said to amount to 16,000 bags on an average, about 4,000 koku (19,852 bushel) 0
Wheat being consumed every month. But the output of all the mills in the country together can not be expected to entirely meet th
demand of the ever-increasing number of consumers, thus necessitating the import of flour in considerable quantity. In 1892 the flour
imported, chiefly from America, amounted to 752 kin (1,002 pounds); and in 1896 the imports amounted to 24,000,000 kin (32,000, 00 )
pounds), with a marked increasing tendency, With regard to the quality of the home and American flour there is some difference, #

latter being perfectly white; and it is on this account that the American flour is widely consumed now in Japan. In order to rem nn
this state of things, some seeds of the American wheat plant have recently been introduced into Japan, and are now cultivated a
successfully raised in Joshu, Ibaraki, and other neighboring localities of the capital. It is therefore os that after the lapse o of
some years the import of American flour will be greatly reduced.

TRADE CONDITIONS IN JAPAN—OPENING FOR AMERICAN GOODS.
The following extracts are from the annual report of United States Consul Lyon, of Hiogo, in Commercial Relations, 1807-98:

Nothing serves better to illustrate the progressive spirit of the Japanese than their great anxiety for the introduction of fore
capital for business purposes. The efforts in this direction by the business classes are strongly supplemented by the vernacular 7
and by the Japanese chambers of commerce in Kobe and elsewhere. oe)

7
oe d
gn a

4

7.

ores oe COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2283

The foreign and Japanese chambers of commerce lately held an informal joint meeting in relation to this subject, at which time
it was plainly pointed out by the foreign chamber that the capital sought, being necessarily timid, required to be properly safeguarded
by a more liberal display upon the part of the Government, such as, for instance, the equalization of foreigners with Japanese in regard
to the holding of shares in stock companies and in reference to the ownership of land.

Japanese business people are slow, methodical, and cautious in their dealings, and it is characteristic of them to protect themselves
at every point. Business must be done carefully with them, as well as with others; their responsibility must be thoroughly investigated,
and also their general business reputation. There are mercantile agencies in this country which furnish financial ratings and some of
the representative Japanese houses have branches in one or more of the leading American cities.

It may be noted that there has of late been considerable complaint that goods have not been promptly taken upon arrival, and this
is said to be part of a scheme by some +to finally obtain them at a lower rate. The only way to do business successfully with this class
would be to require the deposit of a sum sufficient to reimburse the shipper in such cases. It has largely become the practice for even
reputable Japanese merchants to not only put up margins upon orders, but to fully secure the payment of large invoices upon delivery
of bill of lading.

There is a peculiarity about the Japanese that does not attach to any other people, and it is this: The average Japanese are very
suspicious of small wares that are not backed up with fancy trade-marks. They buy goods much more readily that carry a device or an
emblem or that bear a seal, and many a good article would be in danger of rejection because not put up fancifully.

They also attach importance to small, neat packages, not too many ofa kind together. This is more in keeping with Japanese
tastes. In America small articles are put up and sold by the dozen; the Japanese want them separate, and this is not only true because
things here are generally on a smaller scale, but there are financial reasons why it is so. Their means are limited, and they use
everything sparingly.

It is probably true that the German exporter understands the native taste better than any other. The markets here are full of
small wares from Germany, put up in attractive style and in small quantities to find ready sale. Another point in favor of German
exporters is the fact that they do not confine themselves to the quick and ready methods of others, but stay upon the ground until they
get the trade. It would be well for the Americans to note a little more closely the fact that the markets of the East can not be obtained
entirely by wide-awake methods, but that much patient and persistent effort is required.

SUPERIORITY OF AMERICAN GOODS.

The Japanese have no prejudice against American goods or manufactures; on the contrary, their superiority is freely admitted in
many lines. As an illustration, there was recently made at Tokyo, by the authorities of the locomotive department, a critical test of
‘4 English and American locomotives, and it resulted in favor of those made in America. The American locomotives were pronounced
superior in all respects, and it was especially noted that they worked more economically. Tests have also been made of American
machinery and many other manufactures from our country, and in regard to their quality the results have proved most satisfactory.
The chief difficulty in the way of the greater introduction here of American goods lies in the fact that our merchants and manufacturers
are not putting forth the same degree of effort for the Japanese markets as exporters from other foreign countries.

SENDING CIRCULARS AND PRICE LISTS.

Too much of this is done to the exclusion of personal effort. The hotel reading rooms and private offices are stocked with mail
matter from all parts. In the United States, circulars and price lists alone may produce some result; but they will avail but little 9,000
or 10,000 miles away from home, unless followed up by salesmen. One firm might deluge the market with trade literature for years,
and another could send an energetic man along and pick up all the business. It might be well to pave the way by advertising; but in
order to insufe sales the man nfust be upon the ground. He must be intelligent and persistent, and his firm should bear in mind that
this market is not worked any more easily than are the overworked markets at home.

CARE IN PACKING GOODS.

For the better protection of shippers’ interests, it may be said that much more care should be taken by them in packing their goods
for this market. Several well-founded complaints have recently been made in this respect concerning American goods, and while it is
true that the same fault attaches to other foreign shippers, that fact is not of much value to American exporters. As one instance of
many that have lately been brought to the attention of this consulate, it may be mentioned that one of our leading American houses
here recently received from New York an invoice of seven metal fireplaces for immediate delivery. They were fine specimens and just

; what would have suited, but when received they were all found to be in a badly broken condition, caused simply by being improperly

ee packed. ,

: Such cases as these not only entail considerable loss upon shippers, but they destroy the prospect of future orders. In connection
with this subject, attention should be called to several recent shipments of American cotton claimed by the consignees to be not up to
standard. Four cases of this kind have occurred at this port within the last four months. Upon application at the consulate, surveyors
were appointed to inspect the cotton and to extract samples from each baie, in order that they might be forwarded, under the consular

‘seal, to cotton experts in America for examination as to value.

This not only entails loss to the shipper, but, in the estimation of some here, it tends to lower the high standard of American eotton,
which export is by far the most valuable one from the United States to this port.

RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVES.

England started the railway system of Japan and was thus given a natural precedence in the railway development of the country,
_ but’she has not maintained her lead~ The United States has proved its ability during the last three years to compete with and outdistance
its great rival. In 1895 England exported locomotives to Japan valued at $380,935, against $142,165 worth from the United States. This
-— year exportations of locomotives to this country stand thus: Great Britain, $899,130; United States, $1,191,906.
‘This is a field of industry which has been properly worked and in which the superior merits of American locomotives have been
-__ recognized, or no such results could have been obtained.

(2284. COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

RAILROAD IRON.

The contest for supplying Japan lies between England and the United States, and it is likely that it will continue. In 1895 Great
Britain furnished nearly all the railroad iron imported into this country, a very small quantity having been exported from Belgium and
Germany; the United States supplied none. In 1896.the United States exported only a little more than one-sixth as much of railroad
iron to this country as England did; but in 1897 a very notable increase took place from the United States in such shipments, and
exportations from the two countries stood thus: Great Brttain, $810,110; United States, $615,018.

At this rate another year will show the United States to have left its competitor in this export far behind.

IRON NAILS, BOLTS, AND SCREWS.

In 1895 the United States exported to Japan but $33 worth of iron bolts and screws and $2,521 worth of iron nails, against which
we exported last year iron bolts and screws valued at $5,262 and iron nails valued at $469,689. Germany was the largest shipper of
nails to Japan in 1896, sending an amount equal to $469,485, against $116,160 worth from the United States; but last year these two
countries changed places, the United States having shipped a large amount, while Germany dropped to less than one-half her former
eau COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY.

The United States does not materially help to supply the vast quantity of spinning machinery required in Japan. This field is
one in which England seems to have always had a monopoly. Her exports here of such machinery during the last year amounted to
$2,632,509, against $4,557 worth from the United States and but little from any other country.

This state of affairs should be looked into carefully by enterprising American manufacturers of machinery, as cotton spinning in
Japan is rapidly on the increase, involving a brisk demand for equipment. 7

Japanese agencies for the purchase of spinning machinery are established in New York. Osaka is the chief cotton spinning and
weaving district, and manufactures immense quantities of cotton cloth, not only for home use, but for export to China, Korea, and F

Hongkong.
. PAPER-MAKING MACHINERY.

E -
The United States slightly leads in this export. Nearly all of it comes from there and England. In 1896 our country shipped ;
paper-making machinery into Japan valued at $65,466, against shipments of the same from England of $24,796. During the year under ,
review exports stood: United States, $197,000; England, $175,032. These latter figures show a largely increased demand for this
machinery, and it should be noted that the exports from the two countries named are now nearly balanced. Large paper mills are

established in this consular district.
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY.

The United States is well ahead in this export and should strive to maintain its lead, as there is no doubt that with the opening
up of Japan consequent upon the operation of the new treaties in 1899 the demand for this machinery will be greatly stimulated, as
will also be the case with many other foreign inventions and productions.

The following table gives the principal countries exporting this machinery and the value exported from each during the last
three years:

COUNTRY. 1895 1896 1897

Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.
United States. .au% oss. oe dee coaeen eee ee 34, 913 148, 143 341, 154

Great Britain’... 0-5. -n<<saesuseusseueueecsemeee 86, 854 131, 306 92,161
Germany es. iadon ccc cnt ccteseaneeeenhetee saa 20, 585 80, 643 83, 095

MINING MACHINERY.

This is used for the mining of coal, silver, copper, sulphur, and antimony. The imports were:

COUNTRY. 1896 1897

Dollars. Dollars.

Great Britain ... i100. cc tinennmeuwandbeenaws sew oe nee meee 34, 200 119, 231

United States... ...ciccccccchesecdvese se eeuen hate eee 12,533 31, 250

Germany: occcus . heath eceses ny a ke 2, 754 7,860
FLOUR,

Flour is a growing import into this country, and the United States supplies most of it, a very small quantity being shipped from
British America and China. The United States more than doubled its export of flour to Japan in 1896, but during the last year the
exports of this article gained only about 17 per cent, in consequence of its enhanced yalue at home, cheapness being an indispensable
condition to ready sale in this country. When the price of flour in the United States again becomes normal it will no doubt soon be
much more extensively exported to this country.

RAW COTTON.

Since 1895 British India has gained largely in the exportation of raw cotton to Japan, having more than trebled its shipments in
three years, while China has fallen behind about 50 per cent.

The United States gained more than 80 per cent in 1896 over the preceding year, and more than 70 per cent in the year ynder
review. In commenting on the increased import here of American cotton, the annual report of the foreign chamber of commerce at
Kobe states that from October to December last 120,000 bales were contracted for, and that in consequence spinners would in the near
future be using 40 per cent of American cotton against 12 to 15 per cent in former years. It was also stated in the report that the
working of American cotton both reduced the running expenses of the mills and increased their capacity to turn out the finished
product,

1901.] ‘COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2985

GROWTH OF AMERICAN IMPORTS INTO JAPAN.
[From British consular report in British Board of Trade Journal.]

In last year’s report attention was drawn to the fact that rails were exported from the United States of America to Japan for the
first time in 1896. The development in 1897 deserves attention from British manufacturers and merchants. The following table gives
the figures for all Japan:

| VALUE.

RAILS FROM— =|

| 1896 | 1897 |

ed eee

. CONGR e EN cela temo 2a ci bia date dua ale ieee an wile wee siow adm 168, 000 203, 000 °

United States of America ... je'ens 123,500 | 37,500

Da) FENN Te eee 29,000 | 9,000 |

Geniiariy eee ine 17,000 | 10,000 |

ect pitti Geena chiar
MORALE Cae ate oats wie ietets asl ieee ane aes wsiowe dace a eee = 332, 500 259, 500

In 1896 British rails were four-fifths of the total imported. In 1897 they were less than half. £73,000 more rails were imported
in 1897 than in 1896, but the import of British rails fell off by £40,000, while the import of American rails increased by £86,000. Belgian
and German rails also advanced slightly at the expense of the British.

In 1897 of railway material Great Britain had 613 per cent; United States of America, 16} per cent; Belgium, 13 per cent, and
Germany, 9; per cent of the imports. In 1896 Great Britain had over 77 per cent of it all; Germany nearly 12 per cent; Belgium, 6 per
cent, and the United States of America only 5 per cent. Although the railway the OE is less important than the rails, it is
nevertheless noteworthy that in this, as well as the rails, the States increased their exports to Japan to over treble the 1896 amount.

Previous to 1897 all the pig iron came from England, but this year about 8 per cent came from the States. The American pig
iron is not liked so much as the English, and what is used is mixed with British pig. The American compares favorably with the
English in price. Of all imported, perhaps 15 per cent is taken by the Government shops, and the balance in privately owned
foundries.

Of bars, 80 or 85 per cent is Belgian, and only 15 or 20 per cent is British. At the most, 10 per cent of the total is high quality;
this is all English. Probably 5 to 10 per cent of cheap quality bars now come from England; formerly all the cheap bars came from
Belgium. About 70 per cent of these bars are iron and the rest mild steel.

Of plates and sheets about 75 percent is English and 25 per cent is Continental, the greater part of the former being mild steel.
Crucible steel is practically all English.

Of wire nails, 62 per cent comes from the States, 32 per cent from Germany, 4 per cent from Belgium, and 2 per cent from England.

HINTS TO EXPORTERS TO JAPAN.

The following paragraphs are from the annual report of United States Consul Harris, of Nagasaki, in Commercial Relations, 1897-98:

‘“Wheneveran article of American manufacture has secured the favor of Japanese tradesmen, there is no reason for its not continuing
to monopolize the market (for the sentiment of the people is strongly in our behalf), provided the standard of quality be fully maintained
and an equal amount of care and attention be paid to the appearance of the packages and to the methods of shipping that are given to
such matters by European manuiacturers. There is a preference on the part of most foreigners and of many Japanese for glass jars for
all fruits, vegetables, ete., rather than tin cans, when the former are practicable. Whatever is put upon the glass in the nature of label
or advertisement should be so heavily varnished or shellacked or prepared in some way as to permit of its being washed without marring
the beauty or clearness of the label, while cans should be provided with labels other than those of thin paper, which do not allow the
can to be washed and have its appearance restored when it becomes flyspecked or shopworn. The methods adopted by most of the
French purveyors are recommended. In the matter of packing, it is very desirable that the initial jar or tin be as small as is practicable—
for example, butter in half-pound cans, fruit and vegetables in half-pound cans or pint jars, while cases of such size as can be carried
conveniently by a porter along rough mountain roads will find a much readier sale with the Japanese than the large cases containing two
dozen 2-pound cans. In the one item of biscuits (crackers), it is believed that the American bakers are gradually supplanting the
European, and there is no apparent reason why our merchants should not secure a monopoly of this business, provided the standard be
fully maintained. The present size of the tin boxes used rather checks the sale to the Japanese, and it is probable that tins of half the
size would sell much more readily. Besides the matter of cost, there is an additional reason for the preference for small tins in that the
biscuits soon lose their crispness in this moist climate.

“Tn textiles, machinery, implements, and all other articlesitis equally important thatthe standard of excellence originally established
when first soliciting orders be rigidly maintained, and also that the requirements of the Japanese dealers and consumers be carefully
ascertained and fully complied with. These may at times seem to be somewhat whimsical in that they differ so widely from established
customs in the United States—for example, as to the width of a piece of cloth, the length of the bolt, the number of pieces in a bale,
the dimensions of a package, or the size of a case of machinery; but it will always be found that there is good reason for these

requirements, either in the meagerness of the demand or the inadequate transportation facilities.

“It is worthy of note that the Western Light and Power Construction Company, of San Francisco, supplied to the recently opened
Nagasaki Hotel (one of the finest hostelries in the Far East, representing an investment of some 300,000 yen) its entire outfit of electrical]
apparatus, including engines, in competition with several other bidders. The same company has also secured another profitable
contract.

‘There is already a considerable importation of leather into this consular district, both sole and upper, all of which is used tor
making boots and shoes. Of this the bulk comes from the United States, and there is no reason why our tanners should not have a
practical monopoly of this business and largely increase their export of raw leather to Japan. There is little reason to expect a demand
for harness leather or for boots and shoes. The duty on leather after January 1, 1899, will be 0.0558 yen (2.77 cents) per pound,
specific, for sole, and 10 per cent ad valorem for other kinds.’’

No. 6——20

2286 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. wy

AMERICAN COMPETITION WITH BRITISH TRADE IN JAPAN.

[From the British Board of Trade Journal.]

The assistant Japanese secretary to Her Majesty’s legation at Tokyo, in a report to the foreign office on the trade «
1897 (Annual Series, 2109), states that the appearance of the United States as a serious competitor with Europe was, In 1896,
to the prevailing depression in the States, but the same reason will not account for the continued growth of this competiti
and other causes must be sought.

In the first place, it would seem that the period of prosperity experienced in the States until about 1893 or 1894 e
considerable overproduction in every branch of manufacture. The depression which ensued brought about an era of eco:
stimulated the deyelopment of labor-saving machinery and appliances of every description, and by their adoption the
maker has been able not only to meet the lower prices offered to him by his own countrymen, but in many cases to create
abroad*by selling his surplus at cost price and thus freeing the home market from any excess. wher? <a

In the second place, the development of an export trade from the United States has been taken up by large combinatio
interests, having as their object the collection and dissemination of such practical information respecting the world’s requ
will lead to an extension of commerce. These institutions stand ready to furnish gratis all details with regard to the re
industries of the States, and there can be little doubt but that this broad and comprehensive policy is of incalculable 2
those concerned in American trade. Another point to be mentioned is the development of direct steamship lines from
whereas formerly goods were sent to Liverpool or London for transshipment to Japan.

While the relative growth of Japan’s imports from the United States shows a very large increase in recent years, the an
exports from Great Britain has increased by a larger total value; but it must be borne in mind that the American invasion has ¢
commenced, that the ground has been prepared for large extensions in the future, and that unless some unforeseen changes
the tendency will be toward encroachment upon the trade hitherto belonging to Great Britain. The import trade to Japan of t
Statés is growing rapidly, more particularly in machinery, locomotives, and railway material—articles for which the United Kiz
hitherto held a monopoly. *s

A reference should also be made to the quick deliveries which can always be obtained from America. Asan instance, Engl
locomotive builders required two years for the delivery of an extensive order, while the Baldwin Locomotive Works turned th
the rate of two a day and shipped the whole quantity within eight or ten weeks.

Another case recently occurred where the English time for shipment of five locomotives was ten months and the price abc
gold, delivered in Japan; and American makers offered to ship in fourteen weeks at about $8,000 gold. The same speci
submitted to both countries. The time allowed for execution of orders by the Japanese buyer is always very short and the
to make it shorter still; consequently prompt shipments are a great advantage, and when, in addition, the shortness of the rai
route via the Pacific coast is taken into consideration, it is apparent that the British maker must, even on the same terms a I
offer strong counter inducements to insure successful competition. At the same time there seems to be no doubt in the minds of 1
Japanese as to the superiority of the British-made engine.

The total imports from the United States and Great Britain in 1890, 1895, 1896, and 1897 are shown as follows:

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO JAPAN.

FROM—
1890 1895 1896
; Yen. Yen. Yen. 2
United States... .:.......2+22..e0secnenanscvann 6, 874, 531 9, 276, 360 16, 373, 419
Great Britein -..2 502. 22... eden eee 26, 619, 102 45,172,110 59, 251, 780

The British vice-consul at Tacoma (U.S. A.), ina recent report to the foreign office (Annual Series, 2115), says that re:
commercial relations with China and Japan, in addition to the regular steamships of the Northern Pacific Steamship Company, four «
tered steamers have been employed for single yoyages to cope with the requirements of the traffic during the summer months; at th
time the question of the imposition of duties on tea, matting, and other products of China and Japan was under consideration by
Government; and importations that, under ordinary circumstances, would have been spread over an entire season, were hurried ac
within the second quarter of the year in the hope of arriving in the United States before the duty had been imposed. In conse
the volume of trade from the far East for the remainder of the year was comparatively small. On the other hand, the exports:
raw cotton, machinery, wire nails, steel rails, electrical material, and manufactures of all kinds from the United States to Jap
and the East generally show a perceptible increase; and the capacities of the steamers connected with the trans-Pacific lines h
taxed to the utmost on the western voyage to afford the shipping facilities required. The quantity of steel rails brought s Toss
American continent by rail from the manufactories in the vicinity of Chicago, and exported via Puget Sound to Japan, has aggre
about 15,000 tons; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the American manufacturers, under the disadvantage of the expense 0 2
miles transportation by rail, can successfully compete with English and Belgian firms selling railsin Japan. There has been som » fa
off in the number of bales of cotton domestics, with other textile manufactures, passing through the Puget Sound ports for Chit a,
exporters apparently finding cheaper shipping facilities by steamers running from New York via the Suez Canal. Exports from Ame
have, toan appreciable extent, been curtailed by the dearth of opportunities for shipment across the Pacific in consequence of thes
tonnage in the regular lines being insufficient to carry all the cargo offered, and the rates of freight not proving remunerative enough
induce outside steamers to run the risk of coming across from China or Japen in ballast for the return cargoes offering. : ky

The Nippon Yusen Kaisha, the Japan Mail Steamship Company, whose American terminus is at Seattle, has greatly improve
service during the year, the company’s boats having been carrying very full cargoes. The principal articles of export and impo “t te
from Seattle have been carried by this line, and an enormous amount of business done by the company. A very large inc nase

also be noticed in the cotton and textile manufactures, as well as in the iron manufactures, under which head are included
tions of steel rails to Japan and Korea, F

_=
2
- .

a

COMMERCIAL JAPAN, 2287

JAPANESE COMMERCIAL MUSEUM.

The Imperial Commarcial Museum of Japan has been recently established under the control of the department of agriculture and
ecommerce of the Japanese Government. The objects sought to be attained by the museum are of the same nature as those of the
‘@ P Philadelphia Commercial Museum.

, The regulations, forwarded to the Bureau of Foreign Commerce of the State Department, are as follows:

REGULATIONS OF THE IMPERIAL COMMERCIAL MUSEUM OF THE IMPERIAL DEPARTMENT OF STATE FOR AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE.

AnrrticiE I. Samples of the following articles of commerce shall be placed on exhibition in the museum:
(a) Home products.

(1) Staple commodities of export.

(2) Articles capable of future exportation.

(3) Articles to compete with imported commodities.

(4) Raw materials of industry.
(b) Foreign products.

(1) Articles serving as models for home manufactures.

(2) Articles competing with Japanese products in foreign markets.

(3) Articles apprehended as future competitors with our export commodities.

(4) Articles commanding large sales in foreign markets, imported thereto from other countries, and capable of being manu-

factured in this country.

(5) Staple commodities of import.

(6) Articles promising future importation.
cs (7) Raw materials of industry.
ew Arr. IT. Besides those specified in the preceding article, samples and mcdels of patents, registered designs, and trade-marks,
forwarded from the imperial patent office, shall be placed on exhibition.
Arr. III. The museum authorities will accept, in accordance with the rules provided for the purpose, and provided there is no
special reason to the contrary, exhibits on loan or donations from Japanese and foreigners of the articles enumerated in Article I, and
_ aspace shall be set aside for such exhibits in the respective departments classified under Article V.
Art. IV. In the ease of articles of an explosive, combustible, or otherwise injurious nature, only the covers used for packing may
be placed on exhibition.
‘ Arr. V. Exhibits will be classified and arranged in the following six departments: Agricultural products, forestry products,
a ~ aquatic products, mining products, manufactures, and patents, each of which is subdivided into several groups.
Arr. VI. An official catalogue will be published from time to time for distribution to those interested therein.
Art. VII. Explanation in regard to the articles on exhibition will be given to any visitor applying for same.
Art. VIII. The museum authorities will be in correspondence with commercia!, industrial, and educational museums and schools
at home and abroad, and will exchange printed matters as well as exhibits.
Art. IX. Any person desiring to purchase an exhibit will, on application, be referred to the exhibitor. In such case the museum
authorities.will not be held responsible for any difference arising from the transactions thereof.
Art. X. When any information is requested in connection with an article on exhibition as to its market price, freight charges,
customs duty, wholesale price, quantity available, credit obtainable on-the goods, etc., the same will be furnished after due investigation.
In special cases the expense (if any) required for such investigation shall be paid by the applicant for information.
Art. XI. An application to ascertain the demand for any article newly manufactured, and to have same introduced to a possible
purchaser, shall, after due investigation, be complied with, provided that the applicant shall defray any expense occasioned by such
investigation.
; Art. XII. An official bulletin shall be published by the museum, which will contain the home and foreign correspondence, reports,

and other matters connected with foreign commerce.

Arr. XIII. Those who are desirous of obtaining the bulletin shall send their names, addresses, and subscriptions to the publishing
_ Office; in special cases it may be furnished free of charge.
Arr. XTV. A reading room shall be provided in connection with the museum, where industrial and commercial reports and statistics,
maps and charts, books of reference, the Official Gazette, and detailed statements of patents, designs, and trade-marks, together with
newspapers and magazines, shall be kept for the use of visitors.
Art. XV. Applications of exhibitors for the prohibition of sketching, drawing, photographing, or otherwise reproducing articles
: placed by them on exhibition may be complied with and enforced.
Arr. XVI. Visitors shall be admitted free of charge.
Art. XVII. Strict observance of the rules and regulations of the museum is required of visitors.
Arr. XVIII. The museum will be daily open to the public, except on those days gape in Article XIX, during the following
hours, subject, however, to special closing or change of hours:
* From January 8 to February 28, 9 a. m. to 3 p. m.
From November 1 to December 24, 9 a. m. to 3 p. m.
From March 1 to July 10, 8 a. m. to 3 p. m.
si From September 11 to October 31, 8 a. m. to 3 p. m.
From July 11 to September 10, 8 a. m. to 2 p. m.
j: _ Art. XIX. The musuem shall be closed on the following days: The day folowing national holidays; from January 1 to 7; from

De cember 25 to 31.
ma

thy = »oea See

2288 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | a eR,

REGULATIONS RELATING TO THE EXHIBITION OF ARTICLES IN THE IMPERIAL COMMERCIAL MUSEUM.

panied by an inventory and detailed statement of each article, written in Japanese, English, German, or French, in accordance with the
forms annexed herewith. When several articles not of kindred nature are to be sent in by one exhibitor, they must be properly classified
before being sent.

Arr. II. After due examination, the museum authorities will communicate to the applicant the suitability or otherwise of his
articles for exhibition. :

Arr. III. As early as possible after receiving the notice of approval, the article or articles must be forwarded, securely packed.
Each package must be marked ‘‘ commercial samples,’ and addressed to the ‘‘Imperial Commercial Museum, Department of State for
Agriculture and Commerce, Tokyo,’’ with the name and address of the exhibitor appended thereon.

Art. 1Y. The exhibitor must prepare a list of his exhibits and place the same in the package containing them. He shall be
entitled to a receipt for the articles so forwarded, provided they conform in number and quality with the articles approved under
Article II. In case of disparity or damage thereto, the same shall not be accepted for exhibition.

Arr. V. Exhibitors may at any time change a portion or whole of their exhibits, or have them returned, while the mussum
authorities may notify an exhibitor to withdraw or change any or all of his exhibits when deemed necessary so to do.

Arr. VI, Any exhibits recognized to be of special importance or benefit may be purchased by the museum authorities.

Art. VII. Exhibits may be accompanied by tables showing their yearly production and sales, and by trade-marks and covers
generally used for packing them. :

Arr. VIII. The choice of location for the display of exhibits shall be determined by the niuseum Aes aR alone.

Arr. IX. Care taking for the exhibit may be undertaken by the museum authorities, or by the exhibitors or their agents if such
are located in Tokyo; in that case, the address of such care takers must be communicated to the authorities at the time of forwarding
the exhibits.

Art. X. Exhibitors may undertake, by consent of the authorities, to arrange their own exhibits; and, when deemed necessary, the
museum authorities may notify the exhibitors so to do.

Art. XI. Exhibitors are required to deiray only the packing expenses and freight charges to and from the museum; ail other
expenses for arranging exhibits shall be borne by the museum, and under special circumstances freight charges may also be defrayed by
same.

Arr. XII. For exhibition of specially valuable articles the museum authorities may, when deemed necessary, pay rent for same. —

Arr. XIII, Exhibitors may, by consent of the authorities, place special decorations around their exhibits, or place them in
decorated cases, at their own expense.

Art. XIV. In the absence of special conditions as mentioned in Article XI, any package for which freight charges have not been
prepaid shall not be accepted. If the sender of such package is not known, the museum authorities shall have power to deal with it
according to their discretion.

Arr. XV. The museum authorities shall take proper precautions for the safe preservation of all exhibits, but shall in no way be
held responsible for damage, stain, or loss caused by water, fire, robbery, or any other unavoidable cause.

Arr. X VL. When the applications for space for exhibits become too numerous, or when otherwise deemed necessary, the museum
authorities may temporarily decline to receive or arrange exhibits.

Arr. XVII. In regard to exhibition of machineries, only small articles shall be accepted for the present.

Date

APPENDIX.—FoRM OF APPLICATION.

To the Imperial Commercial Museum, Department of State for Agriculture and Commerce:
I (or we), the undersigned, do hereby apply for permission to exhibit on loan tau to present) the articles specified in the

accompanying inventory, and appoint (name and address) as agent, in conformity with the regulations of the museum.
Signature

Address ———,
FORM OF INVENTORY.

(1) Name of article and quantity.
(2) Nature and quality thereof, and measurement.
(3) Shape, color, and design.
(4) Price.
(a) Retail price.
(b) Wholesale price at the place of production. ‘
(c) Wholesale price after being landed in this country.
(5) Period to be exhibited.
(6) Disposal of the exhibit after the period has expired (return to owner, sale, or presentation to this or other commercial museum).

FORM OF DETAILED STATEMENT, *

(1) Place of production,
(2) Name of producer, manufacturer, or manufactory.
(3) Materials used in the manufacture and their respective places of production.
(4) Quantity annually produced at that establishment.
(5) Quantity annually sold.
(6) Percentage of discount (if any) for wholesale trade.
(7) Address of business offices (head office, branches, and agents).
(8) Places where each article is in demand.
*As a copy of this statement is intended to be placed on view with the exhibit to which it refers, items of information which the exhibitor does not desire to

make public must each be clearly marked “ not to be made public,” and will accordingly be omitted from the copy for exhibition,

: .
' Arricte 1. Any person desiring to exhibit articles in this museum must present to the museum authorities an application, accom-

* 4

*

‘e"s 's° "US

4

-1901.] COMMPRCIAL JAPAN. 2289

(9) Social class of principal customers.
(10) Seasons (if any) when chiefly required and when chiefly produced.
(11) Cost of packing (per ton).
(12) Freight charges (per ton) from the place of production to Yokohama or Kobe.
(13) Time occupied in transportation.
(14) Export duty (if any) and other charges.
(15) Amount of subsidy or other aid, if any.
(16) Any other useful particulars.

THE FINANCIAL FUTURE OF JAPAN.
[From Japanese-American Commercial Journal.]

The balance of English trade has of recent years been in favor of excess of imports over exports, the same amounting last year to
the large sum of £237,000,000. The Jiji’s explanation of this astounding condition is that England stands as a creditor nation toward
the entire financial world, by which fact she is not only able to import foreign products at cheaper rates, but furnishes and controls the
money market of the world with an enormous surplus fund. The steady increase of imports is the sign of her growing financial power.
This prosperous condition of the British trade sets the Jiji conjecturing upon the future of Japan’s finances. Thus far, it argues, our
financial relation with other nations has been confined to export and import transactions. True, we are at present under obligations to
foreign capitalists for the amounts of the old and new loans and interests thereon, but in future, thinks the Jiji, our indebtedness
toward foreign capitalists will grow much greater by our borrowing from them inevitably. This, according to the Jiji, will but be a
natural consequence to a greater proximity of relations between this and foreign markets. Foreigners will invest in our stocks and
participate in the liabilities accruing therefrom. But at the same time, the Jiji points out, they will be empowered, as a matter of
course, to sell their shares in the Japanese market, and get back their capital at any time. Or, if foreigners should start up their own
enterprise in this country, they will reap not only the interest on the capital they may invest, but also the profits of the business. For
the last two years our imports have been in excess of exports owing to the fact, so argues the Jiji, that we have not yet come to redeem
the war bonds that were sold abroad two years ago, and also to the fact that the Chinese indemnity fund was brought home, which
made Japan for the time being a creditor nation. On the expiration of the term of the bonds, however, the introduction of foreign
capital will become more urgently demanded. The situation will quicken the exportation of our products, undertaken by foreign
exporters, to whom we shall have to pay a large fee for the transaction. All these facts, then, the journal concludes, indicate that this
country will before long become a debtor nation, a fate exactly opposite to that of England. The Jiji’s opinion as to how we may best
cope with such a situation is to émploy the introduced capital with so much tact as to make it contribute to the gradual recovery of
the position of a creditor nation by increasing the amount of production far in excess of exports.

FOREIGN COMPANIES IN JAPAN.
Copies of ordinances recently published in Japan have been forwarded to the State Department by Minister Buck, of Tokyo, under
date of June 20,1899. They read as follows:
ORDINANCES FOR FOREIGNERS.

[Translated by Dr. Loenholm.]

I. Imperial ordinance. No. 172, of June 15, 1899, relating to branch offices of foreign commercial companies, and to commercial companies and
associations established by foreigners.

ArticLe 1. A foreign commercial company which has set up a branch office in Japan before the commercial code takes effect must,
within six months from its taking effect, register such fact according to the provisions of article 255 of the commercial code and appoint
a representative in Japan and register his name and domicile.

The provisions of article 257 of the commercial code and of article 202 of the law concerning matters not in contention apply

‘correspondingly to such foreign companies.

Art. 2. A commercial company formed by foreigners in Japan before the commercial code takes effect must, within six months
from its taking effect, make a company contract in accordance with the provisions of the commercial code and register the formation
of the company.

Art. 3. If a commercial company act in contravention of the provisions of article 2, the court may, on the application of the
public procurator or of its own motion, order the dissolution of the company.

The order of dissolution must be published in the same manner at registered facts are published.

Art. 4, As to commercial companies formed by foreigners in Japen before the commercial code takes effect, the legal relations
which will arise before the registration is made according to the provisions of article 2, or before an order of dissolution has become
finally binding, are governed by the law of the country to which the company belonged.

Art. 5. An association formed by foreigners in Japan before the commercial code takes effect, which has property of its own, must,
within six months from the date of the commercial code, change its organization into that of some kind of commercial company recognized

‘by the commercial code. The provisions of the preceding two articles apply correspondingly to such an association,

II. Imperial ordinance No. 278, of June 15, 1899, concerning foreign insurance companies.

ArtIcLE 1. If a foreign commercial company establishes an agency in Japan to carry on the business of insurance, it must appoint

- arepresentative in Japan. The provisions of article 62 of the commercial.code apply correspondingly to such representative.

Arr. 2. The foreign company must notify the Government of the name and domicle of its representative in Japan.

2290 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. _ . oe L

Arr. 3. The provisions of articles 95 and 97-101 of the law concerning the opernioniee the commercial code apply cort
to foreign insurance companies.

Arr. 4. If it appears to the Goveuntiont that the continuance of the business of a foreign insurance company is ee ery
the foreign company acts in contravention of an order of the Government, the Government may order that the presse of t]
business be suspended or the representative be removed. a

Arr. 5. Whenever a foreign insurance company makes an inventory and a balance sheet, it must, without delay, submit it to the
Government, together with a business report, an account of profits and losses, and a statement as to the distribution of the profits. e ,

Arr. 6. A foreign insurance company which has set up a branch office or an agency in Japan before the taking effect of the
commercial code must, within six months from its taking effect, obtain permission of the Government.

The provisions of article 95, 2, of the law concerning the operation of the commercial code apply correspondingly to such foreign
companies. a

Arr. 7. The provisions of articles 1, 2, 4, and 5 of this law and of articles 98-101 of the law concerning the operation of the
commercial code apply correspondingly to foreign insurance companies which have established a branch office or an agency in Japan
before the commercial code takes effect. : : ,

2: ;

~
r

FOREIGN TRADE IN JAPAN.
[From the British Board of Trade Journal.]

The following totals relating to the foreign trade of Japan during the years 1897 and 1898, taken from the customs returns, —
been published in the Japan Weekly Mail:

1897 1898
& Yen. Yen
a a ee Seeman oe tee ee & 163, 135, 077 165, 662, 304
Papome: 2 ee eee 219, 300, 771 276, 308" 526
CE EO a RR RR. ap a 382, 435, 848 442, 658, 830 :

The total growth of the ‘trade is the largest on record, the nearest approximation being the growth shown in 1894 as compared
with 1893, namely, 52,758,011 yen. But in the year 1894 the increase was tolerably evenly divided between exports and imports, the
increment in the case of the former being 24,000,000 yen, and the increment in the case of the latter 29,000,000 yen in round numbers.
In 1898, on the contrary, exports showed a development of only 2,500,000 yen, whereas imports increased by 57,500,000 yen. These
facts, however, must not be taken without analysis. Japan’s export trade is made up of raw products and manufactured goods, in the
proportion of 5 to 3, approximately, as seen in the following table:

e
1897 1898
Yen. Yen.
Exportiof raw proqguctd) . fcc: eke cen eoteiererets 117, 771, 632 106, 197, 206
Iexport of manufactured goods..............-..-...- 45, 363, 445 59, 465, 098

~

It appears therefore that whereas the export of raw products fell off by 11,500,000 yen, that of manufactured goods increased by
14,000,000 yen. Indeed of the twelve chief staples making up the export trade in manufactured goods only one failed to increase,
namely, carpets, which fell from 973,871 yen in 1897 to 850,879 yen in 1898. Nothing is more interesting in Japan’s foreign trade than —
the steady development of manufactured goods. The following table gives the figures for 1898, 1897, and 1889, so as to show not only the .
growth in those years, but also the growth that has taken place in a decade:

&

y
ad

Y ’

1898

Yen.
RGR acs dlsesin Rian ncdite danunaionnoeeeanl 12, 055, 506
Other ailk plete @n0ds. .....c<dessnessucss= 573, 551
Silk handkerchiets. i... ..scsapeseenee eee 3, 555, 144
Cotton: piece G00GS ie .as.cassndduwuawe uae ae 2, 601, 507

Carpets... ..ns\ in nnncndeneubs cals ansehen 850,
pT ne sen eee MES 6, 273, 572
Flowered matting. .cccsc«sscaceshact@nensel 3, 988, 218
Cotton: YRENS . ... 4c. cw ccrnvesadacecapuseee 20, 105, 671
Porcelain and pottery. .c«sccscesusemanssan 1, 989, 545
BACQUBE ao pen an ge unthakupasee edn aaacehmaanel 783, 134
Bratt PISIG: «os ananduicn hanesininenenea abel 5, 981, 125
MINDIGLUAS ...» nan conenpunhnpncnnbisnedsammuyen 687, 196
RGR iinin:d ds n ev wei nn eninedeemaane 59, 465, 048

It thus appears that the exported value of these 12 staples of manufacture increased ninefold in a decade. The Japan Wei
Mail, from which the above is taken, says that it would appear from these figures that Japan’s future will probably be industr
‘the other hand, the export of raw products is made up of seven principal staples, namely, silk, tea, rice, copper, coal, camph
marine products, The last, marine products, may be capable of great development. It is, perhaps, one of the fields where f

j
<a
BAL

901.) COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 9291

enterprise and foreign capital might be profitably employed, but its growth during the past decade has been insignificant. Taking the
other six staples, the following table shows the value of the exports:

1898 1897 1889
Yen. Yen. Yen.
PRIMES emtad iccrcceavdcne cadence cameras 44, 673, 342 58, 683, 102 29, 250, 052
SU OE Wel egy opens cibisinie ax naiaenidesaienats deta 8, 215, 991 7, 860, 460 6, 156, 728
LON LS Ce a pk Ie = oe, SO 5, 919, 230 6, 145, 249 7, 434, 653
a ee oS ene aw cae bois 7,267,074 5, 776, 774 2. 879, 335
a a ta rl nae es a 15, 299° 969 11, 545, 801 2,337, 804
: C0 1 (oe i ee Reale PUP Re hale SF de 1,174, 574 1, 318, 292 1, 391, 371

fea A all, Ni Na Bee a 82, 480, 180 . 91, 329, 678 | 49, 449, 943

The rate of development in this branch of the export trade does not bear comparison with the rate shown above in the case of
manufactured products; the rate for the principal staples of raw products being less than two to one and that for the manufactured
products more than nine to one. Further, the items that make up the list do not seem to suggest any prospect of large increment
hereafter. Tea, rice, and camphor may be set aside at once—tea, because the market for it is limited and shows no sign of growing: rice,

‘ because the domestic demand will probably keep the quotation at such a point that profitable export will be impossible; and camphor
because, whatever Japan’s product might become under careful husbanding, it tends at present and has for many years tended to diminish
; rather than increase. With regard, then, to the remaining three staples, the figures for silk seem at first sight encouraging. It used to
; _ be thought, indeed, that an almost unlimited field offered for the export of Japanese silk; but of late China, with her newly established
: filatures and her originally better product, has become a powerful competitor, and there is now reason not only to modify the hopes

once entertained for the Japanese staple, but even to apprehend that it may be partly driven out of the arena. At all events, the trade

in raw silk is shown by experience to be a delicate business, and the annual fluctuations are very heavy, as seen in the following table:

EXPORT OF RAW SILK DURING THE
« c YEARS. PAST SIX YEARS.

Yen. Miilions.
pais TS 5 lal Saeeiee ap eee ee eae
42,892, 751 Increase...
59, 928, 440 Incredse..
31, 666, 210 Decrease .
58, 683, 102 Increase
44, 673, 342 Decrease ...... 14

Apparently the export of this staple reached its maximum in 1897. As for coal, it shows a substantial increase—from 2} million
yen in 1889, to 15; millions in 1898. But the growth of manufacturing industry in Japan will involve a correspondingly increased
domestic consumption of coal, so that the portion available for export will become more and more limited. It is supposed that Japan
is not rich in coal. New seams may be discovered, but experts allege that even at her present rate of extracting the mineral, a fifty
years’ supply is not in sight. Coal, then, can not be regarded as a considerably expanding staple of export. Copper alone remains, and
are the same remark applies to it, that the sources of supply are comparatively small. On the whole, it can not be said that the future of

f the export trade in raw materials offers an encouraging prospect. The great hope seems to lie in manufactured products.
It might be supposed that the remarkable increase of imports—namely, 573 million yen—was in anticipation of the high rates
_ imposed by the new tariff, which went into operation from the beginning of this year. But whatever the influence of that factor may
have been, it does not make itself conspicuously apparent in the returns. Here are the figures for the regular staples which onght to be
chiefly aifected by an appreciation of import duties:

‘a ' |

1897 1898
: Yen. Yen.

} CO GHOTW MARIS creetetetene sisinisiacinina’s «(asa cewee valdiacacetecee 9, 625, 258 8, 547, 588
a PS PRE RR URARRote onan cis mse eieraicnaeretiam erence tccataasf . S885. Saiz 7, 082, 427
k CE SODA! A710 Get 9106 | eM Ee ee ee 2, 474, 023 2, 458, 090

Gamiletst ooo sch ests ane 4, 398, 427
Flannel! ....:. 1, 360, 283
Woolen cloth. frat 2, 803, 918
eee ee ae ee ao seein aicntee see Celasuey Ghucuciceaer 2, 960, 212

The total increase under these headings does not exceed 2} million yen. It is to the following imports that the greater part of the
growth in the returns must be attributed:

1897 | 1898
Ye Yen
(BRR CORED EES Cio a5. atnicety Geren ah termini oe oketons Se 43, 620, 214 45, 744, 899
RLS 2 19,799,092 | 28,256,359
oe: Mee te, ER TR as ae 21,528,429 | 48,204, 197
. 179 TT Reh arcage >: ser aaeatasbnenan tes 969,360 | 2,698, 039
af . “11° . 5 . . .
Sige These five articles account for 32 millions of the increase. Among them rice is the most remarkable. The import of rice under

“normal circumstances ranges from 4 to 6 millions of yen; but the exceptionally bad harvests of 1896 and 1897 created an extraordinary
de mand, which will “3 course disappear in the face of the fine yield for 1898. Should the rice crop: in the current yaaeee, of average

2202 °° --- COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | _— [Dsceunen,

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN.

The details of the textile industries of Japan, which differ in many particulars from those of the United States, are described by
Consul Lyons in a recent report to the State Department, and published in the Consular Reports of May, 1899, as follows: Z

The manufacture of textile goods in Japan is not confined to certain localities, as in the United States, but extends, by meansof —
hand looms, all over the country. The spinning wheel was formerly in general use, but during the last twenty years it has been almost
wholly displaced by spinning mills using machinery. More than 1,000,000 spindles are now thus operated, 47 mills in Japan producing
last year an estimated yield of 650,000 bales of cotton yarn of 400 pounds each. Present returns show that more than 200,000 bales will
be shipped to China during the current year, and the home demand for counts averaging 18s. will be nearly supplied by the remaining
450,000 bales. Only one of the spinning mills in Japan has imported the machinery necessary for spinning the higher counts above 30s.
The Nippon mill, of Osaka, has done this, but so far has probably not made a success of it. Higher counts are steadily imported from
England, and in greatly increasing quantities, to meet the home demand. When mill hands with greater skill are to be procured in
Japan, the spinning of the higher counts will increase more rapidly, in order to supply the domestic market and the demands from
China and Korea.

Increasing demand for the higher counts of cotton yarn explains the rapidly growing market for American cotton, from which it is
produced. It would be well for American cotton producers to note this fact with a view to educating a sufficient number of Japanese
workmen to become expert and teach others, in order to extend the sale of American cotton, from which the higher counts are made.

Many of the large class of persons formerly employed in spinning by hand are now engaged in weaving textiles on hand looms.
It has recently been computed that more than 600,000 hand looms are in use in Japan, and it is stated that they employ 890,000 women
and 50,000 men. As these hand looms are generally operated in private houses, giving a home character to the work, it can readily be
seen why such slow progress is being made in the introduction of power weaving machinery. The hand looms now in use are called
‘‘hattan,’? and are an improvement on those formerly used. They cost but about 5 yen ($2.50 gold) each, and take up little room in a
house, while a power machine would require a separate building, and with the necessary power would cost, say, nearly 500 yen ($250
gold). The hand loom will produce about half as much as a power loom, but one person could attend to perhaps four or five of the
latter at a time, and thus be able to turn out, say, eight or ten times the product with a power loom as with a hand loom. The
convenience, however, of having the hand loom in the house and the difference in its cost will perhaps be sufficient to delay the
introduction of power looms to any great extent for some time to come. The comparative cost of labor is about one to eight or ten in
favor of the power looms, and this should tend to crowd out the hand looms very fast; but it is not dcing so yet, though the progressive
spirit of the Japanese will no doubt ultimately cause them to substitute power looms for the hand looms now in use. In regard to
spinning machinery, the labor cost is about one to one hundred and fifty in favor of the machine, and this very great difference is of
course the cause of the rapid introduction of spinning machinery.

The hand looms are handmade, and are principally used in supplying some 1,000,000 pieces of goods, say 14 inches in width and
from 12 to 25 yards in length, to the home market and for export to China and Korea.

SILKS.

The Japanese manufacturers are very conservative in their business methods, and manufacture large quantities of goods only on
orders. The largest silk factory in Japan using power looms is the Kyoto Orimono Kaisha, of Kyoto. It imported these machines
from France. It was the intention of the company to manufacture silk fabrics for export, but after some years of unsuccessful attempt
the project was abandoned, and the company commenced making satins and “‘ obi’’ materials for home use. In these lines, it is said, it
has been very successful. This mill also manufactures curtain and upholstery materials, and it has found a good market for them in
England and Australia. The power looms first obtained have been copied here, and the company is using large numbers of them; but
they are not equal to the imported ones.

Silk in its various forms, from the raw material to the finished product, is mainly pein o from Yokohama. The industry dates
back to an early period, and is to-day in an advanced condition.

Exports of manufactured silks from Japan during 1897 were 4s follows:

ARTICLES.

Silk piece goods: Yen. Dollars.
Chirimen. (Silk crapes).....cccctcchusckepeesncneets pieces.. 1,005 11, 608 5, 781
Habutal: (pongeé) wc.cvs cccecccecavtuvaunknuneceuaene Owes. 642, S01 9, 530, 676 4, 746, 276
Others... ccdscvncetacpubensbeteessSipunatececaeeeen do.. 47, 433 297, 047 147, 929

Silk and cotton’ istures soocaesinccuses cuamaneendeeeeee do. 7,123 13, 57 6, 761

Silk handkerchiofa->... -.cceustucssusnvcuapsaluun nee dozen.. 1, 157, 913 8, 390, 145 1, 688, 292

Other silk manufactures «..0cccowesssccnnunuanossuulnecsen sent anna aannnnn 450.

WOOLENS.

There is no doubt a great misapprehension existing in our country as to the necessity for the use of woolen goods in Japan. The
climate is thought by many to be such as not to require warm clothing in winter, but this is not the case. During the last winter, which
was said to be not as cold as usual at this port, foreigners were clothed as warmly as persons need to be during the cold season in Wash-
ington, D. C., and the masses of the Japanese people needed, but did not have, the same protection; and it must be remembered that
this locality is a warm one in comparison with some other parts of the Empire. °

The manufacture of woolen goods is a new industry here and a small one, as only about 13 per cent of the woolen textiles used in
Japan are made in this country. The raw material is all imported from China, Australia, and London. The four woolen factories of
the country are located in Osaka and Tokyo. One is owned and operated by the Imperial Government, and manufactures supplies for
the army and navy. Some of the better grades of cotton and woolen yarns are made there, but they are mostly imported. A lange
proportion of the woolen cloths used are made on hand looms similar to those already referred to.

*

:
:

“

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2293

Importations of wool and woolen fabrics into Japan during 1897 were as follows:

ARTICLES. Quantity. | Value.
] Yen Dollars.
WO Ole sete odin eitwenscdutesawrceudaades catties (1} pounds)..} 2,702, 486 1, 337, 424 666, 037
NVOOLGMOLOUN Greets nets oe dn addece sete ben ceees cea yards.. 1, 613, 232 1, 943, 53 $67, 878
NEO OLOIE IER UTINON eta cis'eraucdnibae nav uvodadvecastneuse cent Cs ae 461, 764 290, 543 144, 690

Toran VALUE oF TExTILE AND Fiper Imports INTO JAPAN DURING 1897.

ARTICLES. | Value.
: | Yen. | Dollars.
All-wool fabrics, woolen mixtures, wool,and woolen yarns................-- 12,677,370 | 6,313,330
Raw GOuoMenarcoulonite DLIGRS 02-26 -,./5 biee ae ea oe aaa ~ oe cokes wade aan cece 63, 113, 602 31, 430, 574
1ithy palllef ree Hei egre sb. 4 bby = oy ae ee a a a ad a ee | 1,315, 661 655, 199
Raw flax; hemp, canvas, and linen Mixturesd)...5....scecceccccerccoccsersces | 1,060,680 | 528, 219
Other manufactured fabrics and goods, as cotton handkerchiefs, towels, |
velvets, felts, webbings, and other raw materials .......................0-- 1, 242, 936 618, 982
| eS
| 39,546, 304
|

A much more general use of woolen products is requisite for the comfort of the people, and all classes are constantly becoming
more able to purchase them; hence, there is no doubt that the demand for them will increase.

RUGS.

Japanese rugs have deteriorated in quality to such an extent as to greatly check the American demand. The materials used are
hemp, jute, cotton, wool, and silk, the two latter separately and in combination. They are made on upright hand looms, which vary
from 3 to 24 feet in width. The pattern is worked from the front. This is largely a ‘‘home industry.’? There are no large factories.
Only one or two employ more than 100 hands each. Kobé is the center of the rug-making district.

Mr. Brennan states in his report that in the neighborhood of Osaka and Hiogo there are some 2,000 establishments, employing in
1896 about 13,000 females and 5,000 males, producing some 3,000,000 square yards of rugs, at prices ranging from 6} to 20 sen (3} to 10
cents) per square foot.

Countries from which Japan imports hemp and flax for making rugs, and the value of such imports, are as follows:

COUNTRY. Value.
Yen. | Dollars.
EEULIP DUO SAMOS rata ctactesiesice saree calcined aden tem seine aie Uuisis ceisleie Seb dotiesece ae 202, 758 100, 973
PBS MN iis wacom aie cieeempe siov we oes Aenean walas's Secwcwas act acenmnsdeuscecnas 90, 202 44,921
CDE mama nee ane asec te eaestea teins cine ccc cece nar catiace cust cures cs awec create 390, 748 194, 592
Great Britanicescocss vt. aaeeetas wa ions aoc comeccleceerecseaeaeteles ee en edtamite 2,867 | 1, 428
|

Hemp and flax yarns were also imported to the value of 197,105 yen ($98,058).
KNITTING MACHINERY.

The first knitting machinery used in Japan was brought from England; some has since come from other countries, and the Japanese
have copied all, thus deteriorating it. The machines are of hand power, and operated in private houses, from one to five being found in
a house. The knitting business is not scattered through the country like weaving, but is concentrated in manufacturing centers, a great
deal being done in Osaka.

Large quantities of cheap underwear are made here, all from cotton yarn spun in Japan. Cotton and woolen yarns used in making
the better grades are imported. Not much woolen underwear is used, the demand being confined to the better classes of the Japanese
people, who also wear light-weight all wool with open meshes in summer. This light weight referred to has been made here for some
time for the Indian market. The Japanese children have lately begun wearing mixed knitted singlets in the central part of Japan, and,
on account of the comfort derived, they should be extensively used in the northern part of this country. They might be if furnished
at low prices; coarse quality would not hinder their sale.

SPINNING MACHINERY.

As stated in my annual report for 1898, nearly all the spinning machinery still comes from England. American manufacturers of
machinery have obtained large orders for other kinds, but they seem to have utterly ignored the constant demand for spinning
machinery and for all the other spinning-mill requirements, including engines and boilers. This may also be said in regard to almost
all the weaving machinery in the country. The first spinning machines used in Japan were sent from England, where a single firm has
supplied more than half the spindles. Another English firm supplies a complete mill equipment, including boilers and engines.
Weaving machinery is largely furnished by a third. French and German makers have supplied a considerable quantity of the silk and
woolen weaving machinery, and I learn that some woolen machinery for an Osaka mill came from the United States; but our country is

icall nding almost none of the large quantity of spinning and similar machinery constantly in demand.
_practically se g ge q } i s y ;

There are 52 spinning and 16 weaving establishments here using imported machinery. The weaving establishments with machinery
are located as follows: Five at Tokyo, four each at Osaka and Kyoto, and one at Nishinomiya, Sidzuoka, and Wakayama. There are
four flax (jute) mills making canvas and twine, located in Shimotsuke, Sapporo, Otsu, and Osaka.

No. 6 21

2294 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ; _ [Dece:

JAPANESE INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS.

The growth of industrial, and, especially manufacturing, enterprise in Japan is discussed in an address by Mr. Ariga Nawitawaee of *
the agricultural and commercial department of the Government, which is summarized as follows by the Hiogo (Japan) News, and
forwarded to the State Department by Consul-General Gowey:

““The actual state of Japanese industry is best explained by statistics. Taking the sum total of the exports to be 100, the ratio of
increase of industrial exports was 66 per cent in 1888, 64 per cent’in 1889, 67 per cent in 1890, 55 per cent in 1891, 67 per cent in 1892, 71
percent in 1893, 75 per cent in 1894, 77 per cent in 1895, 74 per cent in 1896, and 78 per cent in 1897. In short, the exports have increased
from 66 per cent in 1888 to 78 per cent in 1897. The decrease in the import of industrial products for the same period is shown by the
following figures: Ninety-two per cent in 1887, 87 per cent in 1888, 87 per cent in 1889, 73 per cent in 1890, 73 per cent in 1891, 72 per
cent in 1892, 76 per cent in 1893, 67 per cent in 1894, 71 percent in 1895, 71 percent in 1896, and 60 per cent in 1897. .That is, imports of
industrial products declined from 92 per cent in 1887 to 60 per cent in 1897. There is thus a tendency to decrease in manuiactured
imports and to increase in exports. ‘

‘“‘Of the capital used in Japanese industry no perfect statisties are obtainable with regard to moneys absorbed in industrial works
conducted by partnerships and individuals. But in regard to industrial companies, the increase of capital is from 56,000,000 yen
($28,000,000) in 1894 to 62,000,000 yen ($31,000,000) in 1895, 74,000,000 yen ($37,000,000) in 1896, and 151,000,000 yen ($75,500,000) in
1897. That is to say, the capital employed by industrial companies in 1897 is about three times that used in 1894. But all this capital
was not actually paid up. The actually subscribed sums were 36,000,000 yen ($18,000,000) in 1894, 41,000,000 yen ($20,500,000) in 1895,
48,000,000 yen ($24,000,000) in 1896, and 74,000,060 yen ($37,000,000) in 1897. Thus, the actual capital of industrial companies is
74,000,000 yen, to which debentures—4,000,000 yen ($2,000,000) in 1894, 4,900,000 yen ($2,450,000) in 1895, 5,500,000 yen ($2,750,000) in
1896 (that of 1897 is not yet ascertained )—have to be added. Of these debentures 610,000 yen ($305,000) in 1894, 420,000 yen ($210,000) in
1895, and 440,000 yen ($220,000) in 1896, were actually paid up. Briefly stated, the industrial capital in 1897 was three times that in 1894.

‘““The capital employed by companies carrying on Western industries is 140,000,000 yen ($70,000,000)—of which 74,000,000 yen is paid
up—with debentures, etc., as above stated. It consists generally of fixed capital, floating capital for the payment of wages, purchase
of raw materials, etc. The interest charged is very high. In the case of one company, 36,943 yen ($18,977) and in that of another
company 26,400 yen ($13,200) were paid in interest in the first half of 1898. It is thus inevitable that, with high interest and inefficient
workmanship, the companies sometimes suffer great losses.’’

CHEAP LABOR IN JAPAN.
[From United States Consular Reports, 1899.]

From a recent issue of the Japan Times, a daily newspaper edited and published in Tokyo by Japanese, I take the following
information relative to cheap labor in Japan:
‘“\ member of the Osaka Watch Company says that the wages paid to the workers in that factory are certainly much lower than
those paid in European or American factories; yet, despite this fact, the business of watch making is not a paying one in Japan. Lack
of skill among the mechanics is one of the reasons given for this state of affairs. The employment of men at 40 to 50 sen (20 to 25 cents
in American money) per diem would appear a much mere profitable method than paying workman $3 per diem, and such are the wages
said to be received by Western watchmakers; but against this it may be said that 10 of the latter can easily do work which would
require from 70 to 80 Japanese.”’
The Times goes on to say:
“We are apt to think that wages in Japan being very low at present, foreigners will take advantage of the cheap labor and make
very profitable investments of their capital when the revised treaties are put into practice. It is true that wages are low, counted by
yens and sens, but when we consider the nature of the labor, the wages will be found to be far from low.”

THE BANK OF JAPAN.

[The following article on the Bank of Japan is reproduced from the Bankers’ Magazine of April, 1899, by permission of Bradford
Rhodes & Co., of New York, by whom it will be reissued as part of a volume entitled History of the Great Banks of the World:]

Tue BANK oF JAPAN,
GROWTH OF THE JAPANESE BANKING SYSTEM.

In order to understand the organization of the Bank of Japan let us briefly study the growth of the Japanese banking business in
general. Before the restoration there were a number of rich merchants who kept what were known as “exchange honses’’ and who
acted as the financiers of the Shogunate Government and local feudal Daimios, They also received deposits and made advances to the
public, being the centers of the credit system of the time. There still exist some firms in Tokyo and Osaka which now carry on an
extensive banking business, which may be rightly regarded as the direct heirs of these exchange houses.

In 1869 ten discount companies were established under the special patronage of the new Government. Among many other
privileges they received a large sum of the Government paper money as the public deposit and acquired the right of issuing certificates —
with the security of gold, silver, or foreign coins. But these establishments shortly passed away without any success.

In 1870 Mr. Ito (now Marquis), then vice-minister of finance, advised the estsblishment of banks after the model of the national.
banking system of the United States. This suggestion was favorably received, and as its result the national-bank act was enacted in

1901.] | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2295

November, 1872. Under this acta bank was allowed to issue notes, convertible in gold, having as their securities Government bonds to
60 per cent of the capital, which was to be not less than 50,000 yen.* As a natural consequence of the political crisis, the new Imperial
Government issued a large amount of inflated currency. The Government, in establishing these national banks, had in view the
reduction of the amount of paper circulation by issuing the so-called gold redemption bonds, and with these bonds as the basis of
banking, to let the banks supply the vacancy thus created in circulation with their notes convertible in gold. But in this respect the
Government was disappointed. . Within six years there were but four banks organized under this act and they could issue only about
1,420,000 yen of bank notes out of 15,000,000 yen, which were beforehand printed in New York. Even these were rapidly retired, as they
lost specie reserve on account of the constant efflux of bullion.

So in 1876 the Government felt it necessary to introduce many important amendments to the national-bank act. Among many other
.changes the bank notes were made legal tender for all payments, except for the payment of custom duty and interest on Government
bonds, and became convertible into Government paper money instead ofstandard gold. Besides, the arnount of the bonds to be deposited
in the treasury by the banks was increased from 60 to 80 per cent of the capital and the kind of bonds was made optional so long as they
bore 4 per cent interest. The most important change, however, consisted in a gold reserve of 40 per cent of the capital being transformed

_into a paper reserve of 20 per cent.

These radical changes of the statute, combined with the issue of the Government loan to the amount of more than 174,000,000 yen
to pay off feudel pensioners in exchange for their hereditary rights, greatly facilitated the establishment of national banks. They
sprung up in rapid succession. Between 1876 and 1879 one hundred and fifty-three banks were organized in various districts of the
Empire, their total capital amounting to 48,816,100 yen. At last the organization of the banks became so prevalent that the bank act
was again amended, empowering the minister of finance to restrict, on the basis of population and taxation, the total amount of the
issue of the bank notes, which was fixed at 40,000,000 yen, as well as the number and ‘capital of the national banks. Their legal term
of existence was also limited to twenty years. Although there were some failures among these national banks, most of them enjoyed
good, prosperous business. Side by side with these national banks there also sprung up ordinary banks, which are at present regulated
by the bank act of 1890. They are either individual, partnership, or joint-stock concerns. When the legal term of national banks
expires, they usually continue their business as ordinary banks. These now number 1,485, their paid-up capital amounting to
191,028,716 yen.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BANK OF JAPAN.

The rise of national banks in rapid succession increased the evil effects of an inflated currency, The price of all commodities and
rate of interest rose by leaps and bounds, while the Government bonds lost their value. The proper regulation of the currency became
the prime necessity of finance. To relieve this situation the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) was organized in 1882. This was a part of
the broad scheme of Mr. Matsukata (now Count), then minister of finance.

He sets forth in his memorandum the object of this institution as follows:

(1) To promote the cooperation and assimilation of banks under a central bank; (2) to increase capital available to trade and
industry; (3) to reduce as well as to equalize the rate of interest; (4) to transfer to the bank various services in the treasury when its
business is firmly organized; (5) to discount foreign bills so as to regulate the influx and efflux of specie.

At the same time national banks were ordered to give up their right of issue.

In 1884 the convertible bank-note act was enacted, whereby it was aimed to replace both the Government and national-bank
notes with those of the Bank of Japan, so as to unify the currency system under this central institution. These objects were steadily
pursued. On October 10, 1882, the Bank of Japan commenced its business. In December of the same year it opened its branch
office at Osaka. Since then its business has grown to an enormous extent, and at present it has branch offices in Osaka, Moji, Nagoya,
and Hakodate, and subbranches in Otaru, Sapporo, Kyoto, and Taihoku (Formosa), besides many agencies for the management of
Government money.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE OF THE BANK.

At first the capital of the Bank of Japan was 10,000,000 yen. This was divided into 50,000 shares of 200 yen each. One-half of
this capital was subscribed by the Government with its surplus fund. This was afterwards transferred to the Crown property. The
expansion of business necessitated the increase of capital, and in 1887 it was increased to 20,000,000 yen, and again in 1895 to 30,000,000
yen. Its capital, which is all paid up, is divided into 150,000 shares. The shares are all registered, and their ownership is allowed only
to Japanese who have permission of the minister of finance to acquire it. The number of the shareholders now stands at 877.

For some years a distinction was made between the shares owned by the Government and those owned by people in the rates of
dividend, but since 1887 all shares are equally treated. The profit is semiannually divided in the following way: Out of the net profit
6 per cent is declared as the first dividend, and then at least one-tenth of the rest is added to the reserve and another one-tenth is
distributed as the bonus of the bank officers. The second dividend is to be declared out of the remainder, some part of which may be
carried to the reserve account. Since 1887 the sum of these two dividends varies between 10 per cent and 15 per cent per annum.

The reserve fund can be paid out only to make up for the losses of the capital or to equalize the annual dividends. This fund is
to be invested only in the purchase of gold, silver, or Government bonds, and the profit from the same is carried to the gross income
of the bank. The latest account of this fund stands at 12,570,000 yen. The successive directors of the bank always endeavored to
increase the fund so as to strengthen its credit. .

THE BUILDING OF THE BANK.

The bank now occupies a three-storied granite building, 110 feet by 115 feet. Its whole ground is about 3} acres. The plan of this
building was settled upon after a careful study of the European central banks. Strong rooms are built in its basement. Electric light,
water supply, and other conveniences are all up to the latest improvements. In spite of comparatively low wages and cheap materials
in Japan, it cost some 1,150,000 yen. It was due to the energy of the late Governor Kawada that such a magnificent building was
‘projected. And it is ails noticeable that the plan as well as the execution of this building is the work of a Japanese architect, Dr.

Tatsuno.
7 «The present value of the Japanese gold yen in American eurrency is about 50 cents ($0.498.}

2296 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Decemper,

ISSUE OF NOTES BY THE BANK.

At the time when the Bank of Japan was organized the market was flooded with inconvertible paper currency. The Government
paper money amounted to 115,381,292 yen, with denominations as small as 10sen. The notes of national banks were over 34,396,818
yen, which did not all pass with the same credit. The currency was inflated to such a degree that the premium on specie was once 79
sen per yen. Under such circumstances it was the policy of the Government to place the power of regulating the currency in the single
hand of the Bank of Japan, and to replace this inflated currency with the notes of the bank, which are elastic and redeemable in silver,
For this purpose the Government again issued gold-note redemption bonds to contract the circulation of depreciated paper and pur-
chased silyer and foreign bills to prepare the Way for the return to specie payment. Within three years the Government paper money
was withdrawn to such an extent that the Bank of Japan felt safe to issue its first notes in May, 1885, and the specie payment of all
paper currency was announced to be commenced on January 1, 1886.

The law which regulates the notes of the Bank of Japan is based upon the German system, yet there are some interesting differences.
The bank notes are of three kinds:

(1) The notes issued on metallic reserve. This reserve has been silver, but since the adoption of the gold standard on October 1,

1897, this is gold, save that one-fifth of the total metallic reserve may be kept in silver. But, like the Bank of England, this exception
is seldom availed of.

(2) Those issued on business assets within legal limit. This issne is limited at present to the amount of 85,000,000 yen. The limit
was at first 70,000,000 yen, but has been increased to the present amount since May, 1889. But the outstanding circulation of the Goy-
ernment and also the national-bank notes are to be counted into this amount, and it is meant to replace them gradually with the notes
of the bank. Again, for this privilege the bank advanced to the Government a sum of 22,000,000 yen without interest. This has been
used as the fund to withdraw the Government paper money. Recently there has been much discussion of increasing this authorized
amount of issue; and while the writer is preparing this essay the lower house of the imperial diet has just passed a Government bill pro-
posing to increase the amount to 120,000,000 yen. ’

(3) The emergency notes, or those issued upon business assets in excess of the above legal limit. These notes are subject toa
special tax. The rate of the tax is to be 5 per cent or more. In the German system, as we all know, this rate is fixed at 5 percent; but
in the Japanese system only the minimum rate is fixed, and the power of discretion is given to the minister of finance, who may charge
any rate above 5 per cent, according to the state of the money market. This is quite an effectual measure to prevent stringency of the
market, and at the same time to secure the immediate withdrawal of superfluous notes when the necessity is over.

That this system of note issue is admirably adapted to meet the varying demands of trade has been very well tested in the German
system. But this is especially so in the case of Japan, where, for the reason of her geographical situation, specie can not be called in
from abroad to respond to the immediate demand of trade. Since 1890 the emergency issue has been availed of seven times. That it is
effective in relieving the market is shown by the fact that Japan has so far been free from any serious commercial panic.

The notes of the Government and of national banks have been gradually retired, and the bank notes are taking their place. The
day is near at hand when the whole paper-circulating medium will be unified into the notes of the Bank of Japan. The following table
will show this fact:

TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CIRCULATION OF VARIOUS NOTEs.

Jan.1,1886. | Jan.1,1889. | Jan.1, 1899.

en. Yen.
The bank note ®......... 65, 547,249 | 193, 799,901
The Government paper . , 566, 086 5, 411, 726
The national-bank note: (ccc. sususeacubeneeaavuseenet-aseeee 30, 108, 129 27, 562, 931 1, 864, 620

* The notes of the Bank of Japan are of seven denominations: One yen, 5 yen, 10 yen, 20 yen, 50 yen,
100 yen, 200 yen; but 20, 50, and 200 yen notes have never been issued, and l-yen notes are being speedily
retired.

KINDS OF BUSINESS TRANSACTED BY THE BANK.

The kinds of business transacted by the Bank of Japan are mentioned in its statute, as follows:

(1) The purchase or discount of exchequer bills, bills of exchange, and other commercial paper.

(2) Dealing in gold and silver.

(8) To make loans upon gold and silver coin and bullion.

(4) To make collection of bills for banks, corporations, and individuals who are the regular customers of the bank.
(5) To receive deposits and accept the custody of objects of value and documents.

(6) To make advances in current account or in loans upon the securities of Government bonds, exchequer bills, or other bonds and
shares guaranteed by the State.

Besides these the bank performs a number of important services for the treasury without compensation. Not only does it receive
and pay out public revenues and expenditures for the State, but it also manages all operations concerning public debts, public deposits,
and the retirement of the Government and national-bank nptes. In fact certain parts of the bank are closely united with the various
departments of the treasury.

Bills and checks in modern forms are new things in Japan. For the last twenty years the Government as well as the bank has not
spared every encouragement to their use in commercial transactions. As the result of these efforts, the discount business has grown to
a considerable amount. The return of the clearing houses in Tokyo and Osaka during the last year amounts to 782,744,613 yen and
226,369, 144 yen, respectively. Bills offered for discount to the bank must be indorsed by at least two substantial names and be payable
within one hundred days. Those which bear a single name must be accompanied with collaterals, either in the form of warehouse
receipts of merchandise or of the shares and bonds classed as securities of good credit. These shares and bonds are mostly of domestic
railways, and are valued at 60 per cent of their market price.

The loans upon securities are much smaller in amounts than the discounts. These securities are the bonds of the Imperial
Government and of Tokyo and Osaka municipalities, and also those shares and bonds guaranteed by the State. Loans can be made for
a period of three months or less and renewal is allowed only once when necessary.

*

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2297

The bank receives deposits and makes advances in current accounts. The Bank of Japan does not pay interest on current deposits.
Customers place their surplus money in the vault of the bank to secure the convenience of drawing checks upon it. The banks of the
clearing-house association also settle their daily balances with their current accounts in the bank. Indeed, either in Tokyo or Osaka
the whole business of the clearing house is transacted in a room of the building of the Bank of Japan. The bank also issues deposit
receipts, draft and transfer checks. The distribution of various kinds of coins and bank notes to the different districts of the Empire
constitutes no inconsiderable portion of the business of the bank.

Hitherto the bank allowed loan and discount exclusively to bankers, being literally the bank of banks; but since June, 1897, the
way has been opened to deal directly with individuals and corporations which have good business standing. This measure has been
taken to extend the benefit of the low rate of interest to the general market, and to check the excessive profit often secured by other
bankers as a mere intermediary between the bank and the public. So at present the rates of interest announced by the bank are of
two sorts, namely, banker’s rates and private rates. At present they are as follows:

| !
| Discount! Current

| Loan. /j0¢al bill.| account.
|

EVV ECCT LC Bee, hoe crete ae cee e ne re nu aitine blanc Mie oO cathae oleae oemucle wake 2.5 1 op a pee eee
iS EI CR ERE Cee. See oid eh Acs oc daw doumuttie one aoe denemaneduadvuauoswee 25 2 2.5

*Interest is counted so much a day per 100 yen. For instance, 2.5 means 2 sen and 5 rin for 100 yen per day.

The change of the rates of interest on loans and discounts is subject to the sanction of the minister of finance. Their movements
from week to week are carefully watched in commercial circles as indicating the state of the money-market. They are determined not
to check the outflow of gold so much as it is in England, but they fluctuate chiefly with reference to the economic conditions at home.

The Bank of Japan has no direct dealings in foreign markets, but it uses its sister institution, the Yokohama Specie Bank, as its
foreign agent. Indeed, to encourage foreign commerce, the Bank of Japan assists this institution in many ways. Among other favors,
the former advances to the latter up the amount of 10,000,000 yen in rediscounting foreign bills at the rate of 2 per cent per annum.
Recently it has been proposed to increase the amount of this advance. The indemnity money lately received from China was also trans-
ferred from London to Japan through this institution, either by the purchase of bullion or by exchange operations. The whole sum of
money thus dealt with amounts to 363,446,464 yen, and this was carried within the space of only two years and a half.

The total business transactions of the bank for 1898 were 9,019,330,231 yen. The discount of commercial paper amounts to
287,746,025 yen, representing 105,515 pieces of various kinds of bills. The advances upon securities amount to 128,060,910 yen, in 3,751
separate transactions. In current account 530,579,883 yen were paid and 532,530,150 yen were received. The range of these discounts
and loans at one date fluctuate between a minimum of 55,134,193 yen and a maximum of 98,642,637 yen. Generally speaking, about
three-fourths of this business is done in Tokyo and Osaka, while the rest is distributed among the other three branches and one
subbranch. ‘The following figures will show the growth of business of the bank since its foundation:

Amount

Total business ar Total loans
transactions. siete mcg and discounts.
Yen. Yen. Yen.

157, 639, 152 14, 988, 494 5, 943, 950
2, 657, 655, 064 27, 245, 446 81, 007, 987
1, 888, 088, 536 216, 112, 764 159, 773, 825
9, 019, 330, 231 582, 530, 150 415, 806, 935

PERIODICAL REPORTS OF THE BANK.

The bank is required to advertise every week in the Official Gazette the average amount of its note issue. In the Bank of Japan,
as in the Bank of England, the issue department is quite separated from the business department. Since January, 1897, the bank has
felt it advisable to make public the statement of the condition of its business department at the close of every week. These two reports
are published every Wednesday in the Gazette. They are given herewith to show the latest condition of the bank.

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE BANK.

The Bank of Japan, being the only bank of issue, is not only placed under the control of the Government, but it is heavily
burdened in return for the privileges granted. It has, as said before, to perform the following among other functions:

(1) The receipt and disbursement of Government money.

(2) The call and payment of the principal as well as the interest on the national debt.

(3) The custody of money and the goods intrusted to the Governmert.

(4) The redemption of the Government paper money.

(5) The redemption of the national-bank notes.

(6) The rediscounting of foreign bills of exchange for the Yokohama Specie Bank, at specially low rates.

All these involve considerable sacrifice for the bank, but are done simply for the public convenience, as directed by the Government.

For the management of the Government money there are established 44 treasuries in the principal towns of the Empire, and each
treasury has a certain number of subtreasuries. These are all placed under the control of the central treasury, which is in the bank.
Most of the treasuries are intrusted to other banks as agencies of the bank, which are paid for their management.

In addition to all these, the bank is under an important obligation to support the public credit in times of financial emergency.
During the late war of 1894-95 it performed most valuable services for the country. Indeed, the war would not have been possible
without the effective cooperation of the bank. At the commencement of the war the negotiation of a foreign loan was quite generally
favored in influential quarters. But the bank opposed this idea, and was fully confident that it could depend upon the internal

2298

; ae ]
resources. While it supplied the Government with the necessary funds and did its best in collecting subscriptions to the war loan, t
bank was always active in providing capital to trade and industries. To the high credit of the bank, its notes circulated during the wa
even in the heart of the Leao Tung peninsula of China. The total cost of the war was 200,475,508 yen, but this was paid with out

causing any serious calamities in industrial circles.
ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY OF THE BANK.

COMMERCIAL JAPAN, 2!

‘The government of the Bank of Japan is composed of a governor, vice-governor (now vacant), four directors, and from three to five
auditors. The governor and vice-governor are appointed by the Government for five years. The directors are also chosen by the ~
Government out of the double number of candidates nominated at the general meeting of shareholders, and their term of office is four
years. The governor and the directors meet daily together and constitute the governing board, which decides all important questions —
of the bank. The auditors are elected by the shareholders for the term of three years. They constitute the board of auditors, which —
meets at least once a month, All important actions of the board of directors, such as the changes of the rate of interest and the rate of
dividend to be declared, are subject to their approval. They also inspect books and documents of the bank. The governor, the vice-
governor, the directors, and auditors constitute the general meeting of the bank, which deliberates upon questions proposed by the
governor. These officers must live in Tokyo, and during their terms of office they can not accept any other office either in the Goyern-
ment or other banks and corporations. The regular meeting of shareholders takes place semiannually, on the third Saturday of February
and August. Those who own ten shares or more have a voice at this meeting.

Besides these bodies, the Government appoints a certain number of comptrollers out of the high officers of the treasury department.
They have the power to stop any act either contrary to the laws and by-laws or deemed to be against the best interest of the Government.
They weekly visit the bank and receive various reports regarding the condition of the bank and its transactions. They can attend any
meeting of the bank officers and express their views in regard to the business of the bank.

The internal organization of the bank has passed through many changes since its foundation. At present it is divided into eight
departments and the office of the private secretary; namely, inspection department, business department, teller’s department, issue
department, state treasury department, secretary’s department, the department of securities, and accountant’s department. The control
of each department and of each branch or subbranch is intrusted to either managers or submanagers, who number at present twenty-
three. The total number of employees now stands at 1,102.

The bank has had already four governors, and the present incumbent is the fifth, in the person of Mr. Tatsuo Yamamoto. He has
already rendered very distinguished services to the bank, both as a director and as the chief of the business department. At the
resignation of Baron Iwasaki, in October last, he was promoted to the present office. He is still a young man of 43 and much is
expected in his future career.

&

COLLECTION OF DEBTS IN JAPAN.

In reply to the State Department’s instruction of March 17, 1899, Consul-General Gowdy states that the method of collecting debts
in Japan is in general similar to that prevailing in the United States, namely, by action at law simply or by action with attachment of
the debtor’s property.

The courts provided for this purpose are—

(1) Ku saibansho, or local courts, having jurisdiction over claims under 100 yen ($50) in amount. .

(2) Chiho saibansho, or district courts, having jarisdiction in cases involving larger amounts. From the chiho saibansho appeals
lie to the

(3) Koso in, or appeal courts, and to the <

(4) Daishin in, or supreme court of the Empire.

Foreign plaintiffs not residing in Japan should furnish their agents or attorneys with ample powers of attorney, with authority of
substitution. Such documents should be attested by a diplomatic or consular officer of Japan. Foreign plaintiffs are required to give
security for costs.

The period of limitation of actions arising out of contracts for the sale of goods is two years.

NEW LAWS IN JAPAN.

Mr. Herod, secretary of the legation at Tokyo, sends the State Department, under date of April 10, 1899, translations of recent
laws relating to the duties of consular officers and to the arrest and detention of mariners of foreign vessels, as follows:

LAW RELATING TO CONSULAR DUTIES.

ArticLr I, Restrictions with regard to matters in the treaties especially relating to the rights of consular officers aball, withing
limits prescribed by law, be fixed by ordinance.

Arr. Il. When provisions of law are wanting in regard to matters relating to the duties of consular officers under the treaties, in
cases where such provisions of law are required they shall be determined by ordinance.

Anv. 111. Consular oflicers and others who, in accordance with this law, are performing consular functions, shall perform their
duties in harmony with the provisions of the laws and treaties

Such oflicers, however, may conform to the usages founded on international law or to the special usages of the place of residence.

When a preceding clause can not be observed, special regulations may be fixed by ordinance.

An, When the date of the operation of a law in foreign countries is not fixed, the date of the operation of said law shall b
fixed hy i aah

Arr. V. The limits of jurisdiction relating to the duties of consular officers shall be fixed by notification.

Art. VI. Consular officers who, by treaty in usage, have authority to exercise consular judicial powers, shall perform their 4
relating to civil and criminal cases and to registration in harmony with Articles VII and XIII, ~

+1901.) : COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | 2299

Arr. VII. With respect to the duties mentioned in the preceding article, consular officers may, within limits not opposed to the
law, treaty, or usage, perform the functions of a district or local court of justice.

Art. VIII. Consular officers can not Conta? a trial for a major criminal offense. In minor criminal cases a preliminary
examination is not necessary.

Art. IX. The trial of cases of major criminal offenses, the preliminary examination of which has been conducted by a consular
officer, shall belong to the jurisdiction of the Nagasaki district court.

Art. X. When diplomatic correspondence is necessary relating to a case belonging to the jurisdiction of a consular officer, the
minister for foreign affairs may order the consular officer not to take jurisdiction, and may cause the accused to be placed in a prison of
the country.

In the case mentioned in the preceding clause the minister of justice shall, when the case falls within the province of a district
court, cause the public prosecutor of the Nagasaki court of appeals to apply to that court to appoint the place of trial; and when the
case belongs to the province or a local eourt, he shall cause the public prosecutor of the Nagasaki district court to apply to that court
to determine jurisdiction.

Art. XI. With respect to the petition and trial mentioned in the preceding article, the provisions of Article XX XIII of the law of
civil procedure shall be applied.

Art. XII. Appeal from a decision in a case tried by a whdaaiee officer belonging to the scope of a district court shall be made to
the Nagasaki court of appeals. Appeal from the decision in a case tried by a consul which falls within the scope of a local court shall
belong to the jurisdiction of the Nagasaki court.

Arr. XIII. A consular officer may cause a member of his consulate or a police officer to act in the capacity of public procurator
or clerk of court. When there is no suitable person to serve in the capacity of clerk of court as provided in the preceding clause,
the consular officer may select some Japanese subject residing within the district of his jurisdiction to perfogym the duties of clerk
temporarily.

Art. XIV. A consular officer may cause a member of his consulate or a police officer to perform the duties of public undertaker.

The person who executes the function mentioned in the preceding clause may, on his own responsibility, specially intrust the
performance of the duties to another suitable person.

_ Art. XV. Any person who desires to actin the capacity of counsel or attorney, except in accordance with the provisions of law,
must receive the permission of the consular officer.

Art. XVI. The provisions relating to contempt of court usually applied to courts of law shall not be applied to consular officers
or others performing their duties in accordance with this law.

Art. XVII. In case there is no person to perform the duties mentioned in Articles XIII and XIV, the minister of foreign affairs
may dispatch an official from another consulate in the same country to perform the said duties.

Arr. XVIII. A person who is not a consular officer can be appointed by ordinance to perform the duties of such officer, as set forth
in the provisions of this or other laws, only in a place where there is no consulate established.

° Arr. XIX. The terms ‘consul or consular officer,’’ as used in this law and other laws, designate consuls or their deputies who are
not honorary consuls.

{ Art. XX. Provisions necessary for the enactment of this law shall be fixed by ordinance.

Art. XXI. The regulations of consular courts in China and Korea shall be abolished from the date of enforcement of this law.

LAW RELATING TO ARREST AND DETENTION OF MARINERS OF FOREIGN VESSELS.

Arricte I. Assistance in the arrest or detention of mariners of foreign vessels, as provided for in the treaties of navigation and»
ecommerce and consular conventions with the various treaty powers, shall be given by the public prosecutor on the application of the
proper consular officer.

Art. Ii. In the following cases the public prosecutor can not comply with the request for assistance in arrest or detention:

(1) When the person to be arrested or detained is a Japanese subject.

(2) When a person is under trial for a major or minor criminal offense in Japan or undergoing punishment therefor.

(3) When a mariner has already been released according to Article VIII and application is again made on the ground of the same

offense.
a (4) When the consular officer does not include with the application a correct copy of the ship’s register and the list of names of
mariners or a certified document sufficient to identify the mariner.

(5) When the consular officer will not guarantee the costs connected with the assistance.

Arr. III. The public prosecutor, upon receipt of an application from a consular officer for the arrest or detention, if the request
appears to be a proper one, shall comply with the same immediately.

Arr. IY. When the public prosecutor orders the arrest of a mariner, he shall issue a warrant of arrest.

Art. V. The person to whom the order for the execution of a warrant of arrest is given shall, when the arrest is made, deliver
(the person) to the public prosecutor who issued the warrant of arrest.

Arr. VI. Im the case mentioned in the preceding article, the public prosecutor shall immediately inspect the person, and, when it
appears that he is without doubt the person designated, shall deliver him to the consular officer.
a Arr. VII. On application from the consular officer, the mariner who has been arrested shall be put in prison by the order of the
_ public prosecutor.
., Arr. VIII. A mariner who has been detained shall, on the application of the consular officer, be released; or he may be released

_ if within six months from the day of arrest no application has been received for his delivery.
_ Arr. IX. In regard to the issuance and execution of a warrant of arresi, the provision in the law of criminal procedure respecting

warrants of arrest shall be applied.
on Art. X. Application shall be made by the public prosecutor to the proper consular officer for the amount of actual expense
~ eonnected with the assistance.
|. Arr. XL The public prosecutor shall, on receipt of an application for assistance in arrest or detention, immediately report the
e to the minister of justice; likewise when the request appears to be one that can not be complied with, it shall be reported to the
minister of justice on the completion of the proceedings.

2300 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. :

LENGTH OF RAILWAYS IN JAPAN.
[From United States Consular Report, 18y9.]

Consul-General Gowey sends from Yokohama, under date of August,24, 1898, the following printed statement, showing authorized _
and completed mileage of railways of Japan on July 31, 1898: =

Author- TLencth _ Author-
NAME OF COMPANY. ized (total) aaea ted NAME OF COMPANY. ized (total)
length, | ©°™P | length.
Miles. Miles. | F Miles.
WADAD 6 os7ot as win bao sees senna pw 853.14 821.15 NAREAN cee code ens secre eeean ee 42.31
PANIKAL: Soo oe eseas seen eae eaeaeen 6. 22 6. 22 NENDOG > opera aceenae ean meee 12.38
AVON oeles cot sees wcovarsuetaaenetes 12.79 12.79 Hankaku- 327255 opeceee cane ee eee 68.58
BANG sat cosn ce se ec esrese nearer S 821.47 280. 05 AWS s2e ces sane ore eee ence ree 82. 34
MAUUDES:2>ocecnenenueceus se eeeae ee 27.19 27.19 MOVE oj see esuceee: ae ae 23.7
Kanshi tices. ss. aw wedvecneboeeonces 150. 63 140,57 || Chugokt\e oo 2 onan speeeecee meas 98.13
Opaika oa. soo scale aoe eee eae 45, 25 45, 25 NANSO? Sp occcchoecscsncenseceseeee 31.6
IODG & xo de neta es oan eee wens 26.77 26.77 SOW’ cck- cence -Seeee een ene 64. 75
KVUSHIN soa caceconas& ter arene soeeee 323.73 282. 51 pF +: eee ae ae ee al 25.4
SObU oo essere cccecee ecco aera 72 72 ZUSO . veo cc cuccndecoweereneweenenre 10.41 :
SADGU, 5 Sen tise ecdsel a se ee ees toe 26.15 26.15 bith: Cee ge EN a es eae 8.27
OSH So coe ote ee ness aeubeeasteee 59. 51 48. 34 Omi 25 esis oc tdeccareseeseeeee 27.45
ARV AR OY C-\k2 dea ntle dese cceuee Seema: 18.4 18.4 NWAMOGO once caus c= ores pecan eee 12.4
WIG ew sears hedssaecaee es 13 13 WKID 2 Son oc ce ete deena eee ene 13
BAUOt ot iwac cowaroe sccce eee ceaneeuas 9. 54 9.54 Bisel -2. 2 22.22% -somcecreecedesrnemes 15
WRENN Gace ent eama oe occ euence Coe 38.17 37.1 TSNPATU: sco asontactanwssboaeae eee 20
PIAA os ose e eee ode ree eee 71.14 30. 62 Kinng” -2scee accscconeee cee enenaeoe 260.74
NAHE Wor cscs cuacue sea pewar esse tees | 16.6 16.6 Uwaj ite, 4. tn oe eee eee 15.4
WONG we toes ae cae y Stee ae ae sek eee 53. 03 26.74 Ganyetst. 2 osc ict cesenc ee eae eee 108. 52
(0) a eye oe ee ee eae Ras Rell Cr a 12712 9.74 Tole .stae essen deere anne eerenee 140
MR Y O ewicee os casneanecccenesbeeeeae 6.65 6.65 TOMMNSHIMG canon eee eae ae eee 21. 56
WOLO se ia ween sneer cwece cet an eee ee 3.06 3.06 J OBR one ha tee Sete ee eee ere 52.12
Tov GLOW bviccsaawe ccc ec emesee teens 104. 06 6.27 SHRUNK Ol ico. wen beet eters ceueroesee 46.43
GHIVELAU pee oeance cee aeee Sees 22.6 18.4 VOR ae sa sce oo eee enee aeeaee <3 48.51
NCIS cots ae cot aia'ar a naan eee 31.79 24. 57 Ishinomalkd.. 5.. sswaeeevest peseeesie 39.52
HOKUy Clas: casas cet ees dete tusk omen 99. 06 66.47 MODUs225 -sascensucsrocsneamertee coms 32.37
ROZUKe eet ete eee eRe Tp 21 21 Ifo eye eis UNS ae ie ae le oe ae 31.26
TOVOKRWWssieeereewt cn noe easeeeeeee 18.55 13. 36 TANGO 2c 3cnc cccce eee eee 34. 45
KERVO cece os se cseeeecs capeetwaeen meee 11. 23 6. 06 TSULRG > .cccoccrsceuscoteeceaan Serene 13. 52
Karatau KOgYO: J.cv<<xpeedae cna vous TES Weaee seers
Nishinayt os <i cos tesopete te aes 3.52 3.52 | Polar cia hoes lak eee 3, 521.2 | 2, 231. 16

~

JAPAN AND THE NICARAGUA CANAL.
{From the New York Commercial.]

According to 8. Uchida, the Japanese consul at this port, the United States has found in Japan a strong champion in the building
of the Nicaragua Canal. Though the United States has gone steadily ahead in its determination to cut through the narrow neck of
Central America and thus join the two great oceans, rumors of international disputes have grown so numerous that even those who
have been most enthusiastic in the advocation of the canal have grown to fear the outcome of its construction.

From the Far East, however, recently came the report that the merchants and officials of Japan were heartily in favor of the canal,
and yesterday Mr. Uchida was willing to be quoted to the effect that his countrymen and his Government were particularly anxious
that the canal should be pushed through as rapidly as possible and that it should be controlled exclusively by the United States.

‘“My Government has always adyocated the building of this canal,’’ said Mr. Uchida, ‘‘and of course the hope has always been
entertained that it would be exclusively controlled by the Americans. Japan only desires fair treatment, which it will undoubtedly
receive, and will ask no favors. Should this canal be cut through, the shipping interests of the United States would not only be greatly
benefited, but I also believe that it would greatly encourage the shipping interests of Japan. At present most of the trade between the
United States and Japan is carried on from San Francisco and Seattle, but if the canal was completed to-day I am almost certain that
the Gulf and Atlantic ports would receive a large proportion of the trade from my own country, which probably would be quickly
doubled, Already several Japanese bottoms have appeared in the Gulf and on the Atlantic coast, but the trip around the Horn is
entirely too long to render it possible for any successful trading in native vessels. The big canal would solve the problem, and my
Government is heartily in favor of it.’’ '

From one of the most extensive Japanese importers in the country it was learned yesterday that quite recently a memorial was
addressed to the Japanese throne urging the Emperor and his cabinet to take a bold stand in support of the effort of the United States
to build the Nicaragua Canal.

‘At present the Japanese merchants are practically at the mercy of British shipowners,” said the Commercial’s informant. “The
appearance in the Pacific of the United States as a power gives sufficient reason to believe that once the Nicaragua Canal is built this
Government will be able to protect it, and, above all, able to control it absolutely. Japan is already weary of the domination of the
English and French shipping agencies, and hopes that with the building of the Nicaragua Canal not only to encourage her own shipping,
but also to see the advent of the Yankee ship as an important factor in Oriental commerce. At present nearly every ship that enters
the harbor of San Francisco laden with Japanese merchandise carries a British or a French flag. The day should not be far distant
when the products of Japan should be carried to this country in American bottoms and the American export trade in the Pacific handled
by the same shipping merchants.’’ :

Local exporters were greatly interested yesterday in the report that the Japanese Government had been making experiments in
buying at Gulf ports. The original news that three or four Japanese vessels had appeared at certain Southern ports, most noticeably
Mobile, during the last few months was not considered as of much importance, but a dispatch to one of the large exporting houses from —
its agent at San Francisco conveyed the intelligence that the vessels were really sent out, not by merchants, but by the officials of the —
Tokyo Chamber of Commerce, evidently for the purpose of seeing what advantages could be secured in the way of buying and selling”
in these ports. Whether or not this investigation is but part of the plan to demonstrate the value of the Nicaragua Canal to Japan
could not be ascertained. When Mr. Uchida was questioned upon the subject, he simply smiled and intimated that his Government
hed already made exhaustive experiments in that direction,

1901.] | COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2301

A BRITISH VIEW OF TRADE PROSPECTS IN JAPAN.

The London and China Telegraph of July 3, 1899, publishes the following from R. G. E. Forster, acting consul-general at Yokohama:

Very naturally, merchants and other residents, the bulk of whom are British, have been and are still anxious to ascertain the
conditions under which they will reside and trade hereafter. These conditions depend in a great measure upon recent legislation of the
Japanese Diet, which has been to a large extent directed to meet conditions consequent upon the abolition of extraterritorialty, but it
has now been more or less satisfactorily ascertained that a variety of laws, more particularly those governing the taxation of trades
and industries and merchant shipping (tonnage dues), which threatened to effect the foreign merchants unfavorably, have either been
amended or defined in a manner which should assure them that their ‘mportant interests will not be materially affected or their
enterprise be unduly handicapped. In respect of taxation, British merchants, if not others, recognize the justice of being now taxed,
though, after forty years of exemption from any tax whatsoever, the change can not be welcome.

While the future for the foreign merchant generally may not be full of promise, it should be a great comfort to the British trader
to think that he has been mainly instrumental in building up for Yokohama a foreign trade amounting last year to close on £20,000,000
or, roughly, 200,000,000 gold yen, whereas the foreign trade for the whole of Japan (treaty ports, not including Kobé-Hyogo) for six
months is, in a report dated February 21, 1860, described as follows: ‘‘In the midst of all these impediments, from $300,000 to $400,000
have been turned over by foreign merchants in the six months, there is reason to believe at an enormous profit and not without
considerable advantage to the Japanese engaged—a result which shows that the country possesses the elements of a flourishing trade.”’

For purposes of comparison the following figures are interesting: In 1888 the share of Japanese merchants in the import trade
was 8,499,788 yen, to the foreign merchants 53,820,246 yen, 1897 the figures being 79,560,939 yen and 138,879,084 yen, respectively. In
exports the Japanese merchants’ share in 1888 was 7,081,324 yen, that of the foreign merchants 56,599,289 yen, and in 1897 44,374,130
and 115,013,429 yen represented the respective shares after ten years’ development, mostly favorable to the Japanese merchants.

Though British trade does not go on increasing by leaps and bounds, and even occasionally shows a setback, its position is
eminently satisfactory. In 1898 Great Britain and the colonies’ share in the import trade of Yokohama was £9,680,628, or 76 per cent,
and in the export trade £1,891,488, or 23 per cent. However other countries may improve, there is no reason to suppose that British
merchants in Japan are not using their best efforts to keep what they have got.

In another respect also the British mercantile community may congratulate itself on being in possession of the lion’s share of such
lands held from the Japanese Government under perpetual leases, the interests in which are specially safeguarded in the new treaties.

Of the whole area constituting the foreign settlement in Yokohama—namely, 338,024 tsubo (1 tsubo equal 36 square feet; 1,200 tsubo

equal 1 acre)—173,987 tsubo, 51 per cent, are owned by British subjects. Smallas this area of 145 acres may seem, it is a most valuable
holding, for the land which passed into the possession of the foreign settler at an average price of £192 and £66 per acre is now, at a
moderate valuation, worth £9,000 per acre in the settlement, and £2,000 on the Hill Settlement. But the value of land in the
neighboring big thoroughfares of the native town of Yokohama is still higher, front lots being worth £36,000 an acre and rear lots
£20,000 an acre, and the rentals for such being at the rate of £1,470 per acre per annum. It should be stated, however, that Japanese
business premises do not as a rule occupy large spaces, though there is a tendency on the part of Japanese banks and similar institutions
to build in Western style—on a larger scale.

Yokohama, with its present population (Japanese) of 183,760 (foreign) 5,213, has become an extremely valuable spot in the
Japanese Empire, and owes its prosperity entirely to foreign trade.

In addition to the four foreign banks already existing, the Russo-Chinese Bank has established itself at this port, and it is not
unreasonable to suppose that sooner or later the requirements of German merchants and the prospects of business may induce a German
bank to start here. Seventeen Japanese banks, with capital aggregating 19,810,000 yen, or, roughly, £2,000,000, are established at
Yokohama. Four of them have capitals of 1,250,000 yen and upward.

Japan apparently does not rest satisfied with the extraordinary efforts already made by her for the development of her mercantile
marine and shipping trade. During 1898 the Nippon Yusen Kaisha added 6 vessels (five of which were built in England), aggregating
34,724 tons, to their fleet, and it has now running on the European line 12 steamers of a gross tonnage of 73,623 tons and 6 steamers,
averaging 3,000 tons, on the Australian and American lines. In addition, another Japanese company, the ‘‘Toyo Kisen Kaisha”’
(Eastern Steamship Company), represented at this port by the agents for the Pacific Mail and O. and O. companies, has started running
three new steamers of 3,000 tons each between San Francisco and Hongkong via Japan ports and Honolulu, and which are likely to have
a large share of the ever-increasing trans-Pacific passenger traffic.

_The gold standard has been most beneficial to both the import and export trades of Japan. The export trade was helped by a
feeling of security on the part of shippers that their neighbors would not, later on, be able to come into the market with lower prices
owing to a drop in exchange, and this must also have been the feeling on the part of buyers at home. The import trade was rauch in
excess of exports, and had it not been for the ability of bankers to ship gold to make up the balance to a large extent, there is no
knowing to what depth exchange might have fallen. Thus Japan has had to pay much less for her imports than she otherwise would
have had. The paper currency has not been displaced by gold for ordinary use, and thus still remains the ordinary circulating medium
representing gold instead of silver,

No. 6 22

r ae Sy ag een Ie eer = oe oe ~~ wes -
ee Me i +. Yh eee

= -33@@ COMMERCIAL JAPAN. — [Decestpze,

Dia 4 THE WEALTH OF JAPAN,

[From the Jepan-American Commercial Journal.]

Last October we published statistics compiled by a writer calling himself ‘‘ Onjoji Kyoshi,’’ with reference to the wealth of Japan. —
The total sum, according to his estimate, was 7,898,062,444 yen, and the items were as follows:

Yen,

Wade Boo oon sake a ot eee enh cae dite ne oe oaece kale eile eee sichidieiale 3, 527, 085, 739
Dive lode ioe 2s ko ep eee nein eens anne So makin’ bwmies apie ncebeieeeeieee een 59, 896, 722
RE oo ooo oo = Son ood non = eee oem emseine rm eta mn vve = fa al eettee a acne 1, 082, 597, 116
Wesesiterre- nnd Gt oo 2 iis oa ans Sales bese en eterna i his baie tae ea i apes thas Le 541, 283, 558
BaWayS . 2a. - oo win oon oo keen pee nm a Sa ene we el tl el nS a 116, 171, 819
UDP <a nn ba clearence bee dame enw ek own ns niing mint mmens Ren eiabees etait’ 28, 440, 536
IVT TEAR TRG isms rc Sneha Rec leat twas alas rps cn ao bien ma a ee ett eee bieeeees 428, 380, 142 -
Bpecio- and bullion: . - 2.22 cence seis ce ecm sean ons ame) aw rei ete iad 139, 721, 201
MMisCelANCOUS: .6 < 22 Xs aS eaten rience mince ian mec ie pate Spa 1, 974, 515, 611

Sareea iY ein Bsn cence hiner psi natn inact ama aie eel aie ee 7, 898, 062, 444

Referring to this table, we said:
The above figures are based on statistics for 1894 and 1895. In our opinion the value of lands should be nearly doubled, and that
of buildings increased by 50 per cent. It is worth noting that Giffen’s estimate of the wealth of the United Kingdom in 1875 was
£8,548,000,000, or over ten times the figure for Japan. On the whole, a yen in Japan is approximately the representative of a sovereign
in England.
Mr. Kusaka Yoshio has now undertaken the same calculation, and, after devoting six months to the work, has arrived at these

results:
Yen.

TAB ines. c = nee een cmp ee ie mimes oat oa 00 os epee og ai ea eee 10, 000, 000, 000
Lie SEO oie mein cient een oy ny nce mow myn le ie a 75, 000, 000
Beth im 9G am nm ide er mimes ye pt 1, 919, 000, 000
Farnitare and, works Of abi a,6.0%.00 nae <0:0.c.< pierce meine nena ai tea ae 788, 000, 000
Railways, telegraphs, ans BQ UOC ICE nm mm ecient apis aie Senin ade Ea 90, 000, 000
SSE RII PUIG ma am = i ea 5S icy a pl cp aicaaaetetel 98, 000, 000
TET yews © 9 ie nieccne np maine tn sch hp a 405, 000, 000
Marine products ..n 2.0/2 nn ssn m sine mie = =. -meconncs imele i i ae 272, 000, 000
Capital. (paid up) of companies:and. bas: - <5 seis am nmceina claws ie ee a 242, 000, 000
Specie and bullion»... 20 226 n02 one an = 55m am eee ee 176 000, 000
MEO U ST COUR a onward ps eln ! 1, 028, 000, 000 —

Total . 0 conc c nene soc cn cece cen de taln See See ees ite eee oe 15, 093, 000, 000 —

It will be seen that Mr. Kusaka’s total is nearly twice that of ‘‘Onjoji Kyoshi;’’ that he more than doubles the latter’s figure for
the value of arable and forest lands, and that he nearly doubles the figure for buildings. It appears to us that Mr. Kusaka’s estimate
is nearer the truth than that of the former economist. He arrives at his results thus:

LAND.

The total area of the land in Japan is 413,201, 088 tan (103,300,272 acres), of which 274,678,144 tan (68,669,536 acres) belongtothe

* Government and 138,522,944 tan (34,630,736 acres) to the people. Now, the total yearly produce of the people’s land is 1,000,000,000 yen _
annually, half of which must be set aside on account of labor and other costs of production, so that the net income derived from the
Jand is 500,000,000 yen; and if that be regarded as 5 per cent of the value of the land we get 10,000,000,000 yen as the aggregate value
of the privately owned lands. With regard to the lands owned by the Government there are no means of making any estimate, and
Mr. Kusaka consequently omits them altogether from the list.
It will be seen that Mr. Kusaka assesses the gross average yearly produce of the land at 28 yen an acre, approximately, and the —

net produce at 14 yen, or 28 shillings. That is a liberal estimate, especially since the question of forests and moors does not appear to
be taken into account. The area of forest land owned by the people is 7,300,000 cho (18,250,000 acres), and the area of moor land is —
1,060,000 cho (2,650,000 acres). Deducting these figures, we find that the area of arable land owned by the people is only 13,730,706
acres; and since we know that the gross income derived from the moors and forests certainly does not exceed 40,000,000 yen annually, it —
would appear that Mr. Kusaka estimates the yield of the arable land at about 72 yen gross per acre, or 36 yen net, whieh seems to us to —
be above the mark. Two years ago we also examined this question, and arrived at the conclusion that the gross produce of the land,
exclusive of root crops, concerning which no statistics are available, amounted to about 700,000,000 yen annually. There was thusa —
difference of 300,000,000 between our calculation and that of Mr. Kusaka, but without a more detailed statement of his method of
reaching his conclusion it is impossible to query his accuracy.

LIVE STOCK,

Yen.
Number of horned cattle, 1,091,360; total valued at 35 yen per head..............--....--- eccscceces 38,000, 000
Number of horses, 1,477,021; total valued at 25 yen per head..... 2.2... cece ce cnnnnncncccscas ----- 37, 000, 000
Total. 2.2 ccncscccnsectencacatoncaces sunceud cues ce umes am unmelnet einntn ---- 75, 000, 000

These figures are certainly not excessive. An average price of 70 shillings a head for cattle and 50 shillings a head for horses
although the former are diminutive in Japan and the latter mere ponies—seems to err on the side of conservatism. ‘

ot:
a

BUILDINGS. >
en.

Number of dwellings, 7,884,263; valued at 200 yen each....-2.. 2122 enon ee ownn ceeccccccnccceene- 1, 577, 000, 000

Number of shrines, 190,803; valued at 1,000 yen each. .. ccc cence ccc cccnene cee escccccececcencce 191, 000, 000

Number of temples, 71,831; valued at 1,000 yen each............ een ie ali a aah Md aidtsa ane 72, 000, 000

Pian eusGin, 20,608, walned at 500 yen cach. .... oo ncenpecacersncceccmececnccrccuvececceccocs 18, 000, 000

ne Voli mee OO) gen cael <8 ee eames oon nm moveradaaceseonsooe 16, 000, 600

a Departments of state, 10; valued.at 300,000 yen cach. op ecceennncawcesceceteccnccccescccceccecce 30, 000, 000

7 City and prefectural offices, 50; valued at 30,000 yen each.......-...----.0------02-ceceeeeeennee 2, 000, 000

a City and prefectural assembly buildings, 50; valued at 20,000 ven each ...........---.------------ 1, 000, 000

Local (district) offices and police stations, 1,700; valued at 1 000 |, eae Pee ee 2, 000, 000

iLL 60h, QL AD ON ASI, Sen cas, grits nimi eeeeni ne wood decode cocen chowavecsecsesecs 3, 000, 000

Military divisional buildings, 7; valued at 500,000 Rl eed criteria bo an «noun an aoe seme 4, 000, 000

Military brigade buildings, 28; valued at 100,000 yen each...........-------------2-- een nneneeeee 3, 000, 000

avelmare os Valued. 26 1000-000 yen C808 .<— oan pene vsnewcemnbentapwecccces ceccccectccsceucns 3, 000, 000

x een ere ee re ree eee eh 2, Od ae Dee So co ww coe c nn cearsccsneunbe 1, 919, 000, 600
‘ It will be observed that whereas barracks are included in the above list, fortifications are excluded, and so are arsenals, private

dockyards, harbors, and factories. As to harbors, dockyards, and factories, Mr. Kusaka doubtless includes their value in the paid-up

capital of companies. Arsenals, however, might fairly be added to the list, though fortifications are properly omitted.
FURNITURE AND WORKS OF ART.
The figure under this heading is obtained by allowing an average of 100 yen per house.
RAILWAYS, TELEGRAPHS, AND AQUEDUCTS.

The average net profit obtained from the State railways in the last four years was 4,000,000 yen, and if this be capitalized at twenty

e years’ purchasc, we have a value of son! 000,000 yen. Thus the figures stand:
. Yen.
“a EES SR 2 CO a a 8 eet nS ee 80, 000, 000
~ telegraphs, 12,212 ri (30,530 miles); valued at 450 yen per fi--... 22. -- 2.52.6. 2 esc ese n ee ccecc ees 6, 000, 000
Submarine cables: oo? Nautical mes; valued at 3,000 yen per mile...:....-..-.-....2.-------seweses 1, 000, 000
3 eee NER a a Rr oti ec re wate Sie on ae ee en vet oe pane snes oene aes ecewanscawee 3, 000, 000
i TE ween. Ss tg ee SCRE eee nee aes eee nee, 1 si ge 90, 090, 000

We can not regard this estimate as quite satisfactory. Considering that the mileage of the State railways has been steadily aug-
mented year by year for several years past, the net profit during the last year of working would bea more correct figure for the purposes
ag of such an account than the average profit for four years. But the difference would be only 20,000,000 or 30,000,000 at any rate. Mr.

; Kusaka omits the private railways, doubtless because the cost of constructing them appears in the paid-up capital of companies. The
> propriety of the omission may be questioned. At the lowest estimate the market value of the private lines now in operation is 140,000,000
P. yen, and if we substract that sum from the paid-up capital (242,000,000) of the companies and banks, we obtain 102,000,000 yen as the

value of all the factories, dockyards, and other movable and immovable property of industrial and commercial associations in the Empire.
That is surely too low an estimate.

SHIPPING.
Yen.
Foreign model ships, 254,692 tons, valued at 100 yen per ton..........22 2... eee penne eee eee ene eee 25, 000, 000
Japanese model ships, 2, 960, 887 koku, valued at 5 yen per koku....... 2.2... 2220-22-52 - occ e cee e eee 15, 000, 000
Fishing, pleasure, and rowing boats and lighters, 200,000 koku, valued at 5 yen per koku......-...---- 1, 000, 000
icnaomer 12 yao tons, varued at 500 yen per ton. ~~ ~~ ooo. nee ened mene cone necnesce 56, 000, 000
Torpean @iait, Lous tens, valued at.s00 yen per ton +... cee lo ee Sb ck nec ease ce seceececene 1, 000, 000
i et ey mete et oe ae rk ee ES ek ae we SRR AN a wes td ea bubewaeee ec aeeec 98, 000, 000

This is certainly a very conservative estimate so far as the navy is concerned. The figures for men-of-war must be at least
100,000,000 yen too small.

MINES.

The yearly yield of the mines is 40,506,833 yen, one-half of which may be regarded as the cost of working. Hence capitalizing at
twenty years’ purchase as before, the resulting value is 405,000,000 yen.

MARINE PRODUCTS.

The yearly yield is about 27,227,047 yen, half of which being regarded as net profit and capitalized at twenty years’ purchase, ihe
— yalue is 272,000,000.
4 CAPITAL (PAID UP) OF COMPANIES AND BANKS.
“ The total paid-up capital is 259,000,000 yen, from which has been deducted 17,000,000, being the value (already included under the
head of shipping) of the vessels (165,000 tons) belonging to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha.

COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2303

= F

2304 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Dece

MISCELLANEOUS.

There are no trustworthy data for estimating the value of miscellaneous properties. Mr. Kusaka has therefore followed Mulhall,
_who adopts a figure representing 6.8 per cent of the country’s wealth. That method of calculation gives 1,028,000,000 yen in Japan’s
case. It is difficult, however, to indorse such a manner of estimate. In Great Britain, objects such as jewelry, plate, and books
are included in the category of miscellaneous; and since they represent the accumulations of hundreds of years in a country where
conflagrations are comparatively rare, their value must reach an enormous figure. Plate and jewelry have practically no existence in
Japan, and the value of the public and private libraries does not, we think, amount to anything like as large a fraction of the national -
wealth as it does in Great Britain. Mr. Kusaka, it will be observed, estimates the miscellaneous objecis at a figure equal to one-tenth
of the value of the land. It is a pity that he has not explained precisely what he includes under the heading. Wedo not pretend to
assert that his figure is too large, however. What we desire to point out is the difference between England and Japan. If it be
correct to assert that ‘‘miscellaneous”’ objects in Great Britain represent only 6.8 per cent of the country’s total wealth, then it can not
be correct to say the same of Japan, where such objects are obviously of far less value comparatively than in England. On the other
hand, the estimates for England may be too low. A tolerably easy way of approaching the matter is to consider, as the main basis of the
estimate, the average value of the clothes, jewelry, books, household utensils, and other personal belongings of each unit of the nation.
Mr. Kusaka’s figure, 1,28,000,000 yen, gives 24 yen approximately per head of population, and that certainly does not appear excessive.
Mr. Kusaka’s principal object in making the above calculations is to obtain some means of determining what Japan’s yearly
national expenditure ought to be. He adopts as fundamental the rule that the State’s ordinary annual outlays should not exceed yj, of
its total wealth, and thus arrives at the figure of 150,000,000 yen for Japan, to which he adds 50,000,000 for extraordinary expenditures.
So far as we are acquainted with the Government’s estimates, there will soon be no difficulty in keeping the outlays within that total.
Tokyo newspapers publish some other statements which they attribute to Mr. Kusaka, with regard to the comparative wealth and the
burdens of taxation in occidental countries and in Japan. But we imagine that there is some mistake on the part of the reporter, for
the wealth of each unit of the British population is put at only 383 yen on the average, whereas it is really about 2,300 yen.

COTTON MANUFACTURING.

Cotton manufacturing in Japan continues to increase. A report to the British foreign office (annual series, 2277) shows that the
number of spindles in operation at the end of 1898 was 1,108,404, or more than 200 per cent more than six years ago.

The following table shows the number of spindles, number of employees, wages, and profits per spindle for the latter half of the
year 1898 in eighteen of the leading spinhing companies in Japan:

NUMBER OF EM- | DAILY WAGES.

Number PLOYEES. :
SPINNING FACTORIES. (9) \| — <a
spindles. | = °
| Male. | Female, | Male. | Female.
| == a

d. d 8s. d.

SOvtBl oxo pzndvewiecedeussiene hee bak wives ie aa eae 50,608 | 600 2, 400 agi adi bt

HUIVENO nen wa Soecweeaceundeeuek pecan t te-eeemee 38, 400 770 ay al 2 to 20 1} to 74 3 0

SOMAL i c¢ cece wens neetcretanec acaba rier emeoeee 16, 128 199 768 22 to 13} 1} to7 2, 6

MAYS: cicdeclewscaroanveeseaseuccceseeeeeneemeas 49, 712 632 1, 880 Sls. coe oes eee ee eee 8 8
WUMUVEMOD «<0 ooo. cece ccues coceen eee 13, 824 148 416 8} to 17} 1} to 8} | a -

OWED (icc wate tn Ons te wmawndes men Gey tome aes 80,104 | 294 1,477 2} to 9% 1} to $} Ss i

KOMPVRMAD, f0).0s cern ce nawarew ah acen enn cee eee 12, 956 273 769 1} to 15 1} to 6} i

Amagaseki .. wat 5 a) a | eee ee een (ee «ee ee” 2 ok

Kurashiki ... 158 1, 268 abi a3} ) 1 0

ORLES cas cat 914 3, 042 2 tol4 13 to Gs | 2s #4

LiGHBIY «vey waco ewana uaecee make knee meee | 220 7 43 to 15 to 8} 3 64

OKAVOIDG2. acs vem aeer ate EI SEE ees 36 | 384 1,158 | a6} a4} 2 5

POUT. ccdecuwudandacim pactheacs dace tee rete tenee ss | 178 763 a6} 83} bay

KBD SSS. suwaviencussnpeces scocemenen seer ,520 | 196 555 83} to 15 2 to7} 63 2

Tokyo Gas Spinning Factory...........cseceee- 20, 568 149 605 3} to 183 23 to 53 hel

ISHIWAU0R su ccxasnvcus dnvede nena Wieimeet eee 22,656 | 349 907 1} to 133 1 to6} 8 56

PUKUSHIM Riis dosscased annie seupuunan Uwe uhtent es 20, 000 155 615 2ito 7 2 to7 5 Ma? 8

WOATIRUO: «\50 cwuen wun a wekp wedenaareeeied aie te uee cas 11, 520 210 481 1} to 15 1} to 6}

'
* Average. » Loss.

‘

The rapid growth of cotton manufacturing in Japan indieated by the above statement accounts for the rapid increase in the exportation
of unmanufactured cotton from the United States to Japan, and for the decrease in the exportation of cotton cloths.
The following table shows the exportation of raw cotton and cotton cloths from the United States to Japan since 1893:

YEARS. Raw cotton,

—
at
2

Pep
EZESER°

8Y,
752,
356,
438,
525,
580,
529,

-
2

1901] COMMERCIAL JAPAN.. 2305

JAPANESE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
{From Japan-American Commercial Journal.]}

LONG MEASURE (SASHI). WEIGHT (HAKARI)—continued.

como OOO! haku). ...2......0..---..-- 0.000099 feet. ii Vy ot) a ri 5.7972 grains (avoirdupois).
JL ie (CID) SEE Seo a a 0.000099 feet. 1Lmomme (10 fan). ...<...----c« 2.1201 drams (avoirdupois).
5 eit (CLG) 0a) 6 i 1.4317 lines. Ekin, (160.momme) ........---.<- 1.3251 pounds (avoirdupois).
PMO on ren Soc cee aactacben n 1.1931 inches. 1 kwan (1,000 momme) ......... 8.2817 pounds (avoirdupois).
i Glacicl (GIG Ti0) ee ae 11.9305 inches. 193.7%. “ia i ee a 1324 pounds (avoirdupois).
gs i 1.9884 yards. CAPACITY (MASU).
1 jo (10 shaku) ---.-.--+---+++--++++++-+- 3.3140 yards. epliliea(gat) 905. dares 0.003973 gallon.
1 cho (60 ken) -.- +++ ++-+-++-++22+ 222222 e+ 5.4229 chains (q's m.) | APO, MOLNAR) ooo 22s Sos oe 1.2706 gill; 0.0199 peck.
A = ein ri) CES eT RT ie ees ees (23 m.) / i) (0-00: VE 1.5831 quarts; 0.1985 peck.

NS Se alae alata lhe a -1507 miles. legray {A} )1 0); 2 ee oe 3.9703 gallons; 1.9851 pecks.

DRY GOODS MEASURE (KUJIRA-JAKU). 1 koku (10 to) .................. 39.7033 gallons; 4.9629 bushels,
1 sun (0.1 shaku) .........--.---------:- 1.3913 inches. SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU).
1shaku (10 sun) .-...--------------+---- 14.9130 inches. iksquareahakwtss 235-25 2338 fos About 1 square foot.
: oa ee Dat aig ae ea aaa airaaie About 11 yards. 1 tsubo (36 square shaku).......- 3.9533 square yards.
Thiki ----.-.-------+++++-++++++---+---- About 22 yards. if ser (S50 TSO yeeros. seo Se About 119 square yards.
: WEIGHT (HAKARI). Tye Ua. Go) aes ieee a 0.2451 acre.

2. 111) jaf: 5 Rr ea ee 0.000008 pounds (avoirdupois). | 1 cho (10 tan) square....--..---. 2.4507 acres.
nD a) 0.000083 pounds (avoirdupois). | 1 square ri...........-....------ 5.9552 square miles,

NEW JAPANESE TARIFF, 1899.

The following is the new Japanese tariff as adopted by the Imperial Parliament and published in the Official Gazette. It went into
operation on January 1, 1899:
Customs Tarirr Law.

Law No. 14.—Sanctioned by His Imperial Majesty on the 26th day of the 8d month of the 30th year of Meiji (March 26, 1897). Promulgated
and published on the 29th day of the 3d month of the 30th year of Meiji (March 29, 1897).*

ArticLE I. On the importation of articles from foreign countries, those enumerated in Class I of the annexed tariff shall be subject
to import duties according to the rates of duty set forth in the said tariff; those specified in Class II of the said tariff shall be exempted
from import duties; and the importation of the articles named in Class III of the said tariff is prohibited.

The articles mentioned in group 15 of Class I of the import tariff are subject to the duty of alcohol, No. 69 of the tariff, when the
quantity of pure alcohol contained therein exceeds 65 per cent in volume at the temperature of 15° C.

Art. II. The dutiable value of imported articles shall be the actual cost of the articles at the place of purchase, production, or
fabrication, with the addition of packing charges, cost of transportation, insurance, and all other charges incurred up to the arrival of
the articles at the ports of importation.

Art. III. In regard to those articles enumerated in the annexed tariff, in respect of which it is found advisable to convert the
ad valorem rates of duty into specific duties, the articles and their subdivisions may be determined by Imperial ordinance.

The specific duties above mentioned shall be determined according to the rates of duty set forth in the annexed tariff, taking average
values for a period of six months or more, and calculated upon the basis prescribed in the preceding article.

Art. IV. In case of articles on which two or more rates of duty set forth in the annexed tariff are applicable, it shall be assessed
according to the highest of such rates.

Art. V. Import duties shall not be levied on the following articles:

No. 1. Articles imported for Imperial use.

No. 2. Arms, ammunitions, and explosives imported by the Imperial army or navy.

No. 3. Ships belonging to the Imperial navy.

No. 4. Articles intended for the personal use of diplomatic agents accredited to this Empire.

No. 5. Orders of decorations and medals.

No. 6. Records, documents, and other writings.

No. 7. Samples of commodities, which are only fit as such.

No. 8. Traveling effects, carried by travelers.

No. 9. Articles imported for permanent exhibition in Government, public, or commercial museums.

No. 10. Articles of Japanese origin, reimported from foreign countries within the period of five years from the date of exportation,
provided they retain the nature and shape in which they were exported, tobaccos in all shapes and spirituous liquors of all sorts being
excluded.

No. 11. Reimported articles which were exported to foreign countries for repair.

No. 12. Articles of the Government monopoly imported by the Government.

7

COIMP MP wd

* This law and tariff thereunto annexed contain the various amendments made to the same under—
1. Law No. 18 of the 13th day of the 2d month of the 32d year of Meiji (February 13, 1899, which entered into force on August 15, 1899);
2. Law No. 69 of the 15th day of the 8d month of the 32d year of Meiji (March 15, 1899, which entered into force on September 18, 1899).

2306 - COMMERCIAL JAPAN. a

Articles mentioned in Nos. 7, 8, and 9 of this article shall be subject to the approval of the customs authorities at the t

importation.
In case of articles mentioned in No. 11 of this article, the period within which reimportation is to take place must be declared to the
customs authorities at the time of exportation. va

Arr. VI. The following articles shall not be subject to import duties, provided they shall be reexported within six months from th e-
date of importation; in this case a sum of money equal to the amount of import duties payable or security thereof must be deposited in
the customs at the time of importation: : *<

No. 1. Articles temporarily imported for repair.

No. 2. Articles temporarily imported by travelers engaged in scientific research for the professional use.

No. 3. Articles temporarily imported for purposes of trial.

No. 4. Articles temporarily imported as samples by merchants, manufacturers, and commercial travelers.

No. 5. Articles temporarily imported for theatrical or other similar performances. -

Arr. VII. Whenever it is deemed necessary to make any modifications in the annexed tariff, such modifications shall be notified
at least six months prior to the date of enforcement. :

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGIN.

In virtue of ordinances No. 385 of the 27th day of the 10th month of the 30th year of Meiji ( October 27, 1897), and No. 362 of the 29th day of the —
12th month of the 31st year of Meiji (December 29, 1898). :

Arricir I. All goods imported into this Empire shall, in order to enjoy the benefits of conventional tariffs under the provisions of —
the treaties, be accompanied by certificate of origin.
In respect, however, of goods which are imported by parcel post or the dutiable value of which does not exceed 100 yen, no such
certificates are required.
Arr. II. The certificate of origin shall contain the marks, numbers, descriptions, number of packages, weights, and measurements _
of the goods, and the place of production or fabrication, as well as the place and date of departure; and shall be duly certified by the
Imperial Japanese consulate or commercial agency at the place of departure, or where there is no such consulate or agency, by the
custom-house, chamber of commerce, or other competent authorities of such place. }
The certificate of origin shall be valid for a’period of one year from the date of issue.
Arr. III. In case no such certificate is attached or, if attached, the particulars contained therein are incomplete, or do not agree
with the goods themselves, or in case the certificate shall be deemed improper by the customs authorities, the goods in question shall be
subject to the rates of duty provided in the general tariff. ;
If, however, a proper certificate shall be produced within the period of six months from the date of importation of such goods, the
duties imposed thereon shall be reduced to the ratio specified in the conventional tariff.

+o

°

EXPLANATORY REMARKS.
1. Conversion of ad valorem to specific rates of duty.

The general tariff as enacted by the customs tariff law consisted wholly of ad valorem rates. In virtue of Article IIT of that law
the several items which are subjected to specific rates of duty in the general tariff column of the annexed tariff were converted from ad _
valorem to specific rates by Imperial Ordinance No. 220, dated the 24th day of the 9th month of the 31st year of Meiji (September 24, 1898).

2. Conventional tariffs.

Conventional tariffs exist with the following powers: Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, and Great Britain.
The States with which conventional rates of duty have been established in respect of the several items appearing in the column of
the annexed tariff headed ‘‘Conventional tariff”? are indicated in the ‘‘Contracting States’? column by the following initial letters: A.=
Austria-Hungary; F.=France; G.—Germany; G. B.=Great Britain.

3. States and possessions entitled to most-favored-nation treatment in the matter of customs duties.

In virtue of treaty stipulations the produce and manufactures of the following countries and possessions on importations into Japan _
enjoy most-fayored-nation treatment in the matter ‘of the rates of customs duties: Austria-Hungary, including her customs union; —
Belgium; Brazil; Denmark, including Faroe Islands and Iceland, but excluding the Danish West Indian Islands; France, including
Algeria; Germany, inc ae her customs union; Great Britain, including her colonies and foreign possessions, excepting India, the
Dorinion of Canada, the Cape, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, West Australia, New Zealand; Hawaiian
Islands; Italy; Mexico; the Netherlands; Peru; Russia; Siam; Sweden and Norway; Switzerland; the United States of America. Zo

The following produc ts, not only of Portugal proper, but of Portuguese colonies, if exported from Portugal or Macao, enoys
importation into Japan, most-favored-nation treatment: : Cacao nut and its shells; coffee in the bean; candles, tallow and all other; 1
including felt hats; le athe r of all kinds; linen or cotton laces of all kinds; fruits of all kinds (fresh, salted, dried, pickled, and dress ed
with sugar, oil, vinegar, and preserved in the recipients of glass, earthen, tin plate, and all other wares); vegetable oil (olive o
ground-nut oil, sesame oil, cacao oil, and palm oil); mineral oil; vegetables, green or preserved; cork bark, worked; metal manufactures;
wares of cotton, woolen, and worsted, and linen tissues; wares of leather; lead, pig, ingot, and sheet; fishes, in oil or preserved; soap.

The produce and manufactures of all countries and poeetions not above enumerated are, on importation into Japan, subject to th
general tariff.

4, Rules for calculating ad valorem duties.

Duties payable ad valorem under the several conventional tarifis are calculated on the actual cost of the articles at ~ e place of
purchase, production, or fabrication, with the addition of the cost of insurance and transportation from the place of purchase, p
or fabrication to the port of discharge, as well as commissions, if any exist.

Duties payable ad yalorem under the general tariff are calculated according to the rule laid down in Article TI of the customs tari
law.

COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2307

5. Rule for the measurement of tissues.

In determining the dutiable width of tissues, fractions of an inch not exceeding one-half of an inch are discarded, and fractions of
an inch exceeding one-half of an inch are counted ag a full inch.
Selvedges are not included in the measurement of tissues.

6. Coins, weights, and measures.

Coins.—The yen is the legal monetary unit of Japan.

a” Weights.—The kin is equal to the catty, or 600 grams of the metric system of weights, or 1.32277 pounds English ayoirdupois
weight. The pound and ton are English avoirdupois weights.
’ Measures.—The square foot and square yard are the English surface measure, and are, respectively, equal to 0.0929 and 0.8361 of a

square meter. The cubic foot is the English cubic measure, and is equal to 0.0232 of a cubic meter. The gallon is the standard wine
measure of the United States of America. The liter and hectoliter are the measures of capacity of the metric system.
Notes.—Where a difference in nomenclature or classification exists between the general and the conventional tariffs, the provisions
of the latter are printed in italics.

’
i Where two or more conventional rates of duty exist in respect of the same article, the lowest rate only is inscribed in the tariff.
tea
x Tue Customs Import TARIFF oF JAPAN IN FORCE ON AND AFTER THE First Day or tHe First Monts or THE Tuirry-seconp YEAR

or Metz (January 1, 1899).

CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY,

“| ;
; . Conven- | « :
Tariff : General “Sided Contractin
No. ARTICLES. tariff. | tional | "States. vd
: | tariff.
i ;
Group I.— Arms, ammunition, clocks, watches, instruments, apparatus, tools, and machineries. - =
en. en
1 | Arms and ammunitions, such as cannons, muskets, pistols, side arms, projectiles, cartridges, ete ..............-- ad yal... 254
Pape em @ CS, 100 CHT InEN PE SCALCS ONTOS! = « cicle wid wicielo woe ctetetalaia wlctato cis eice ecw agte lectin lac cade de cedar ees snccesanwaceeenane oe 10%
Ere UREN et ee ee ieee a a 8 Se oat iia instante alo ai o)Scinieie swmine wicls Sbaplticaic(aae'socemncdeauccstsaeracacgsaecae do.... 10%
4 | Binocular glasses:
G7 LU DALTGN GOV Cred with GaUnOL-OPjOPANNO ele. <5. came snc dUdewclswencdecne dee cccdd Cveeesccudedcscwnqeccceevess do; ..- 15%
PPA OME © onesie toile ciuehicietbain ota a's sala Cit mines wale o ere aolalnie iwietwerte'els one one Tee ee. oe Ae ee a + eS 20%
Spyglasses, opera glasses, monocular and binoculcy field and marine glasses:
: a. Constructed with or mounted in shell, mother-of-pearl, ivory, gold, silver, plantinum, nielles (inlaid), enamelled or other-
wise, or other precious materials of fancy and luxury, or garnished with precious stones or pearls............++- ad val... 220% 60.750 | F.
iMpAULO CCH CITT Siam ata sn tee pata ree amt ln a ciicie anion Sea anise se aa dieivinie's ats aetna ee adauecceeudapepecsecape da.-=. *1lik b, 250 | F.
Beeiocics. Sandime and hanging, and parts thereof... 2-222 .c.s- ewecm nc ceccsseeseesennsseneseseces SSS. 20% 10% | G.
6 | Compasses and chronometers, mariners’, and parts thereof. . do... 10%
Wow enueibles Of all kinds~-...::5:...0..-. do... 10%
8 | Cutlery, not otherwise provided for es ee 20%
eRe Paeht CNACMELY CSS CLE OL ors ose acls oc ccc ac bebe wiow same sinence chiccencascwecicteersecescee see) 10%
10 | Electric-light apparatus OMTISin a ON te aE PATS HNOREOT = ook oe ta ain ccm civte nen en nner sce bene meio e eeesewnie -HDes.< 10%
ete at PUTAS LMCI BNC LLL OOO Lie Sohne ee acts ar sia aim mint ar pala waco cielsinicin ence acisledwedansnscenepewccaesncencecnss Bat". "Cee 10%
12}, Jmplements and’ tools of farmers and’ mechanics.and parts thereof. ......- 2-2. 2.22 e ence cece eee ec enecneeencececece= do:.-: 5
een MONA een OTC A OCORSOM Os <Aac civ aia slice Se aw ctsis Sapa d a aaca cwece on ce doe tp an wneetesarecuseccceseteaneeenees ee 1k
14a| Instruments, philosophical, chemical, surveying, surgical, and all other scientifical, not otherwise provided for...do.... 10%
RPA Se LITA OM Same TLC) OTH ON LINING = oe a aioe « 2 wlvintasoleiaCimrnys racial Winle 6,5 Snipe pewindien er pose caecce ca kadandecmedecsccenassseccens do. ... 10% lo F.
ie pkosiuMents Orapparatus, photographie; and: parte-hhareok «. <-.. 0.0. .nnec ced nacecccncwcccccencencuesccnstecesccenss eco 1
Pee MORENO IY Cle ewe 6. GC PRMESHICEO ONG 25-02 -h- oc Soa a Saed onc k cb cece ks cemencen ne naneneawae Ver teccwnerennuepenceueces is ee 10% 5s OG.
17a| Machineries or machines, engines of all kinds, and parts thereof, not otherwise provided for..............-..-...-- 80-45 10¢ !
aa ESO TE NaI At ee ak ee = eae aaa sate Saosin CSSA sels Aer WAKA Symi’ b wm Unn Sie wee NGies UeReRbetuiens Ck eenemeuseneens Sass. 10% 56 | F.
ee MMA HAD TA RNS TOT PURES UO RCO Ie alam coats «ete Tacha oa eae viaie a. doisic tis aac: Sawn Siebip sdicwes eee sw snc encoun. dstneSwsen wmecwanens siic=.. 10%
; ee RR TP CRN ATER ECS IONE HN OE C Obtains cininls dis Wntale ioe nie ew a Gc nivinin Sale due epost cians ae wes e edn unas ecesnceepenesiecteccneesys G0c..5 25%
20) | Pumps and parts thereof..........-...--... ease Banc (wa cas.aaaeetre ne Serine ao wee ghia, a teteahearaie sone adele deean cnn aes! do... 10%
= 21 | Sewing machines and parts thereof ..........-..-.--- Be ene e ee aan hc cere aries ncaa malntanwit Weucune fuk pane cmmes tan €02-55 10%
; oe MRNA a Ce SAEITTY PSPS EC Che feet ca cian iain at ainele aininim ciate aleiniciaje'= op n.c dowcemaw wana nelnngess sneer nde mcte a cencidscnueee ens aos 10%
ee SRR SIRI TASTING UTR E RC CORSO IIIS aie) ao gem owls sin viw nips pinie'sicie.& cia w.ciewe s,ccewa cone pececinmceceanpacasecscatengn anameachecee== do.... 25%
eee SOURIS) ANG PATS UROTCON «0 o ofis.cine nin nns.cac'a we win .cisielea nic on awn accmemetueencceceeuswaeucdeuccwaacevesss ado: 10%
Seno ood OR AES DA CTOOL I cians anim Saco elle wein ocivic Qniecicie ces niw's trie ccoeeseencecadewarascewauaqeacencseneanuennd=es do.... 10%
Sams sr Pn ee el ia nica ainsi sin piano oow aren medacaeensmenaunnecaaccnecnvecseaucccsans=a= doz. =: 10%
ROLES CTR See re ean rn chicka amas denecme mane cage cacecasamnh aig cdeeceantebaavascceeeassaces== do.... 10%
Drmn e RPS SRURSES ieP e ioie sisi mate ninjeinicige ania winielswiaanncascaice Se Tate Caine Sain Satin aan Reema a inte sackets ices do.... 10%
29 | Watches, watch cases, and accessories:
Ries Oe Nr Te REDNESS oisia ole pi wine oes ann aeinsieenenaclencudcececassasaacces sae aeaebeesemasne oe 30%
PRR Tra RUSE TIO aree eee t any co nninle'sic Sst cvine Wainis wc oapls ean arc eSsna.se ce sane cares naebesecnesasuebEpireseunaie rs eS 25%
PM Ce DSTNC MEMMCMIES ANC) DU MEHCMATCOL .0 gn gree cei cn wena cence nce nteenesccnewcccntccccaccncccpacnnsepesucnseanensencsss ee ,. lik
- Group II.—Bevcrages and comestibles.
31 | Beverages, nonalcoholic, such as mineral water, lemonade, and soda water ............ eee e eee cece ence eee cece eeeee UO2552 10%
32 | Biscuits: 5
MeO DIS QUA pine wipictejles ahve annie nin moolan ee amin nea eecmnenaewss cecntncewnasececeesasecsensacdecneenecccousnccaneets do.... 10%
DO. WaMCy: DIBCWIES: «po nici onc weeyen ane cin nn canna nintn sna neeamasesnnsaccectnencnnn scene secncsncnnnnacccenenecense- do... 15s
ied SUIGHER, << olen am assepin Re een oo on keane pases ouseaanvands Mardeeana ddacciethcacuccsmenweeen Seasanuninune kink 0. O86
o¢ | Cheese... .. «<<. SES eEe et TR SRA Oe ei ee RR SS reer Pee mere ee ee eee aes. 04
85a) Coffee other thansin the bean .........--...22- cece sce ccee sence nn ceee nec ce ee ence nena ecnnt aces ces ccennenccentsenenns ad val... 20%
Sis ial ORIEN ae es occa ca acauine siddetas<eanececterecasqnewapauccacscveneacaunpeetsnneensasas kin.. 0. 0S4
86 | Confectionery and sweetmeats........... 2... 2. eececeee eee e eee ee cee e een e nee e cece ene nnaeceneeeetnteeeeeceeseeerenss ad val.. 25%
BEB, TEES) oo. oes a~ = MNEs ters enn ene einen Je nac ce Cens + eva getapasss sass saneuaceasene > Np 1,000 pieces... 1.115
38a| Flour, wheat.............-. Ba isso nko gis sc eanasieoe ae aa Ses ance esna= anna nw ea ana sanqswa seas aca ea === 100 kins...) 0. 465
38b| Flour and meal of all kinds of grains and starches, excepting wheat flour .........--..---+------++ 20 eee eee ene eee ad val.. 10%
> 39'| Bruits, fresh or dried, and nuts not otherwise provided for... .. 2.2.2.2... 2... ces c eee e eee ee eee cnn e een n cess ees eeees do....! 15%
7 Sree reT ETT LYFE CO PR i nen ana wepesitaunenssen@eaceunetinwce COREE SRE: TRA RS ne OREO emcee kin.. 0. 065
oe aun ee ea. Cancun «Serene Kb eeek wany cane ee esas Reese 100 kins... 1,349
oily Se SAGO EAT SS. Sid Ree eae A eee ad val... Py oe ee
1-pound tins and proportionately for tins of other weight. ..........------.------ s 28 a: ap: 8
OTS creas yo 2 in ti ee ea RE aa a Rn _raenieeeea advaic:| 4154 64 | G.
Ee Pe RSCG C POO OR SING gg oe mic bo icine ca cwins.opsininpie gees ane ome maces cuquacacatsccunsaccanccsuseucessencecss pete 4
Salt sea and rock:
3 PROC ere mp «2 carn Fotis Hh
ee re et recat scl ste
a in th meral tariff under No, 4 b. ¢ Included in the general tariff under No. 4a or5
et = aan 4Included in the general tariff under No. 50.

2308

Tue Cusroms Imporr TArirr OF JAPAN IN ForCcE ON AND AFTER THE First DAy or THE First MontH oF THE THIRTY-SECOND Year ,

bi, MA |

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

oF Mew (January 1, 1899)—Continued.

CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

a ~

Tariff
No. ARTICLES.
Group IIl.—Beverages and comestibles—Continued.
46a) Salt meat, excluding salted beef and pork... -.--- oo 202 -2cce swe necccnnncnccerncmseccnceos FoR en ere ad val..
yd Salted beef and POLK.1nl Cask Sees. see Peed ecae cae denna usta s woene aw san updo ca dm ale'sin site see aoe ae eee 100 kins...
Sekikasai (sGlidinim cOrmeiMm)-< ooo fem be re coe sab ok ends cisrap dace est snrasedasss esa eee eee ae Eee ches
rn MORE corsets og Cee tian Oana a ns Dee Ue oe eae Sema ae on Scns bcc aan oe enhance eee ak tea eee Pacucteeccatees kin..
Ag eV ePeCta les PTCEN OLY, BH bed, OF Ut DENG h se oto .c soe cc cect 2a ciens bcc aewee sce see nae See eee ee eee 7-=2- Re FA,
DD PAR Other COMeSUDIES: .o2,ccwcrcs eran see ase ac cman cpa dacb wecclneccens seimem's weds cin laees sbmn noe cen dene tana eee eee MGEss
Group IIl.—Clothing and accessories.
Di boots Aud shoes Of Bl kinds... << os ccscecwaeweces dss sccsobedduasesscanic => cdo ctes seas seen a mee ee eee eee ad val..
62 | Braces or suspenders:
a; OLsilk, WHOMYi0Y In paths. ssesadcenvsce sor acs sn - 2-56. ee cans ate sap cera ee ae ee tee ae
Db. AMV Other. 2. one ens ciacoswercc coves sims ot co wees cee tennessee: ae oe eee eee ci (a ee
53 | Buttons, buckles 4, hooks 4, and eyes, excepting studs and sleeve or cuff buttons ..............-------0-----eeeee- ad yal...
BUUONE Of GUM B sonia tec www cnc cin wie o sien sw niin aS owidee ane b ie te vin. s ssc oan ay om as a aie a oe ee eee do.- =}
54 | Comforters, neckerchiefs, or mufflers:
a, Of silk, MDOUV ON ID PALE. |. o 3 oes cee ee sweep he ee esr eewcsdecceer suse eee Ree eS ee eat BS Seasee i eS
D; AU OWE Soya ree eon ead sce lub enwae ced oncnecepsewerswcbdeeensBalaee a ee re @Q-2-.
6bel}Gloves of all kinds’. o.oo c-fos aba sewewcrveesses= ab wee npemnce ae ea anaes ae eee eee BA ano een a ae do-:s.
56 | Hats, caps, and bonnets:
a. Bet with gold, silver, or GeMS, \CbC a3 asc cwoe a sen cencawne sew areeecenteel eS eare areas pee ae aera” eA ame
D:, OL SU os oan a nt Be cas cred tivce ccc wed wiaisals ccc cease =n se ete lida te cette tele ae a a go.2=2
ce. Allvotherkinds:: 2. cos ncn altos ce wie dete cases cca score wa deuce recat epee etn Ee ee ett | yee
Hate, Mmaudin gals0 NOLS Of fell << en -c ene macnn ns ice cesnan peace sone anne ape one e Re eee Sea peaaaee ee Nips.
57 | Scarfs and neckties:
@. OC eilk; wholly Or int partece oes ccmcwcccavenscceen cose since snneautee Te ete eee
Ds All OGRE in. 2 soon since cncineccwswapswecevedencscosesacces dues Geet eee EE eee
68 | Shawls:
a, Of wool, embroidered, or of silk wholly or in part...---. Aeeeee sooo ee ee ee eeee oe eee ee nee eee ee waetGOscnn
D, All Other .c-cc0cccsveeettnsedaceneenucn ceva ba- eran lac bee ecole omeeea aes ene aa a werent aG@z..<
BO) | Bhirte occ cece ccs ces cece caSncccas wnaceaccsacnncicssisen aaa om sn wees asp eee ee Cee ee ee (eee
60 | Socks, hose, or stockings, knit:
a; Of cotton; wool; or of \ycol and cotton): 2. <2. oc. eee neaseeses eee eae eee e ee ee wotanehedt donee aoe:
b. Of silk, w ‘holly OF 10. PATE. ooo sain eine 2.05 0 \snmen cep es ane one win tee Cee tne ee eel Se ee eee a do2=...
0. °AIl OtheE i. aoc cesee cceGucacccasay pews ccccbd capes Cols ae aes atone penanes Oana nnn vaceseeccuhe beesenoe OG.
61 | Studs, sleeve and cuff buttons or links:
Of gold. or platinum, set with, gems, or otherwise:. -5-5..22-ssens- ae eeee seep eeeeneeeeaneeeee ae es ee GO.
AL] OCHOL 8 5 oon oie oie aren wn oie m rein ginieicinle dos eget HST ets!S Sie She eer S Tone a d05~-
62 ieentaes of all kinds, such as braids, cords, ribbons, laces, fringes, gimps, tassels, knots, stars, metallic threads
and braids, ete., not otherwise provided for:
a. Of gold or silver, wholly or in part’... .<<0c0csace snes omc ce sen See Seen a nen ee ee see ee cintin caceaee ad val..
b. Of silk, wholly orin DATE. ons ccmeis cu accs nae am acne ue npsjee Cece em ae > oie Sie aaa teen
C. All OCNEL: ..- 5. 200 5 a ocie oe aca e alms oom own miele ere a pa meee erate eee eee ee
63 | Undershirts and drawers, knit
G. “Of COUON |... 52. c cect ecencecenccecuccercenscns commas sien eu meween sccm een ines =e een err ro ee
AOL Rollei. eescee
1. Of wool and cotton ..............-
b. Of silk, wholly or in part
C. All other... 00. .ceccpeosewnsccventcoednusnncieeae tees Gece Heese ee aaa Diaaicnvavee eRe amas om CEs: | eee
64 | Waterproof coats:
a. Of silk, wholly or in Part..o0 conc cc cece ncct eects ce cw cen mene ee emer ete nee teen ee Rae Et (= Ae as
Ds AL) OTOL: oi. ones alee canon ems cc decenvendalber cue ddetese sees Seana WGabeoweetenes ae hace = coun elOsune
65 | All other clothing and accessories:
a. Of silk, wholly or in part... oc... cccccnccccececwecctauasonenu ence Cee ate eee ee eee ee Geach
O, All OGMEr: oo. 2. acd. conve vecvcemeaep cvcorsnencce cn coc be Coe eee ee Eee aaa Sees onan aaa aan eeneiaee Goes
GrouP 1V.—Drugs, chemicals, and medicines.
66a) Acid, carbolic, In crystal. 200.00. scccciecuonencuceunpecacnwccasiscpam oe tease cee cee eE eee aniaeeaen kin...
660) Acid, carbolic, Tiquid:.......csncces ccccte ane smecwuciace mune cee cules mane anna eae a ad val..
67 AGIA, SOUCYIIC.. oon. a. nace ccncencccccnadeweewecncccuaneneme ace seen ae eee ne seni neta ia aaah ce kin...
68.) Acid, tartaric. ....2..cccnecccccceeccececccwwcecudup cue ccel Sec Senet tae ae ae lets elaine eee di.<s7
69 AlcOhO] ......c2c-ccecccccnccsasccveccecocsascucdbecuccdmlGancae slbccs llc go lscasi= === ad val..
70 | AlUM 24.02.00. coccecsccccvesncnwncnneceseeptenaccdacuesseuay ucla acm sutaee nc olen aie e eee tan 100 kins...
Tis LODTI I wise tcmaee ceuwkn ekeeie nen eee soeee o decitiecusdceechabbacecaeapws cad ceneas Janene Jen aumcae Same ad val..
72 | BP VIG 5 wisn aieaivowe'v din wclewanimuens wcwialie toms mee meee ae men tenn «ab ea denies alu See a eee Se ane GO; 5.
78 | Betel Nut... nceccccsaewecvavcrsncnsincccrc@ncccccseccuccecuneneuewe sole coe eee eens Gas: ot
74 | Blakujuteu (Radix atractylis ovata or GlbG). .. secececcacacucccusaccpetnunscccesssmebe cs eeeeunennaeaeeeE een 100 kins...
75 | Bismuth, subnitrate of . ewccccvesecdunncceceeGconad Secen Colonel ease nae toa
76 | Bleaching powder (c hloride of lime or calx chlorinate)....---c-opscscsesescccna sane ghela caeeeeennas san SacanmnEn ad val..
47, | Borax (blborate Of Koda)... -. suis egeeeae ee eae eee eee eee -100 kin...
78a| Camphor, Blumea or Ngal...........ccccosnces wee een e cece cece cee neem ncenseseeeesennnnes kin..
78b Camphor. BOIT€O 2... nnccccccccecescuncueweseeeedue unos aude uemup st an’ oulcetee an ieee eens ad val..
79 | Cassia and cinnamon bark .........ccccscuccusbuwawsuccnawenncccensccasccleeeseOGoe Sect en etna 100 kins..
60 | Cassia. and cinnamon Of] ..........sccssvenneenccecccncesensuausccecewcedasuceuuescen limite aie === kins...
81 | Cataria, leaf Of.......cccceccccccuvccncccccaacaccankevwceccneunsucwesoeccoes une sles aienninn==t== n= 100 kins...
§2\| Cinchona barks ......c..secnnnsancnnusccecreeuncuct snes aussie p Weal u/kn pip ainn ima ids cdc qanetdawipmas do....
8&8 | Cinchonine, muriate or sulp NALS Of... ccccesncrechoccecucualminus aus c Guu Sinn ee ntnnnnnn—n Pe dsiadedecence ddenctadans kin..
84 | Cinnabar (hydrargyri sulphuritum rubrum) ..........ccsccncncecccucscccecsceteuneneeen duet Seve ccaccuccecusesvuns Gone.
BD |} ClOVES. 2c ccnnccececccenanscccccccecccessrSsecucssaeucnnancusuae dees ae munwuoeeuecentielntntntnn==It===/———— ;.. 100 kins...
86 | Cocains bydrochlorate Of 2... cccncccnemcepanccacuscceccvancccenadlecseuuuee dean vankan shee wviwsinieaie aed Seseeee KIN...
B7'| Cod liver Ollv..c...ceccccnucsccusacncuavabetdunwabhancaseleecccacull sate an seamn ann sahab wthantas oscceeuvtil Wali.
88 | Collodium, photographic, with lodiger ...5....scccsvesccceccscecunnusudcdsdecdccuueun see ennananaaanE PE RR IORS 3) vipa
BP) | Colombo... cscesccencnunnsdpevencennuvcanuscccsuaedsuaceubwacauune anne lec dadueseeneen: ee A a ee 100 kins...
G0 | Cow. DOZOAL. 1 isc u.ccunscastnaccsescaccececsansetcustauc ccawedeenwkccnvisdccene dcnendawiameans eee ee
O1 | Cutch and gambler, 0. ccsuccncveesceuscscuccdsecacnnunewturnvencteceusecndewecuieceeen—E saduGde saveesdalu Giles
92°) Gentlan .. .. ccccvcccccccscncnaasececactsscaanauuneveccesenctnscececade sds ssne oulwanseenanneent======——————nE we eee wane O...
WO | GINSENT . nccescvnescccccscasnepweveuqnatecunehassetseuecunecueeunes sumed stan awabee alain o+-.80 Val...
G4 | GlyGerin.... .csccccccncccccvencunauautcncesceccaancccccacnnesaueuaususpeun genau wan einai tients kin..
MO NGUDD OLA UICo va sac agpdewhuchoouh soete yee nonwareesse rere nene 100 kins...
WO) UI, DOTEOIN uvscvccduvecuenusiecus o vesuusqudeduhy eadusmaean ats eaenennennn wis Oeste
MesteRULL, CALMOLL @ DLOOUs uncsrcanvunk ddeccnawennn svecec stl VOlLe
98 | Gum, myrrh QOS Ra Sens onccececcccnsurcusenehesendeaccdset Upauscaccuhuwbannesabaenunwe eccqaéusveuenn eccccecccnssdcasweaus ee
OY }| QUI OUDONUM wie snccnssanasqccusacsncens nensaevdedeaccaaecclssoteals conihes acne: aeeaannnannnn cu sccccoactccesshae 100 kins. .
100 Hops ake ew wale Peconeneccccedanacccunvecasnseccucecévaceestonsduchsnseeewaaw nhs name emi amis @iiimeiie nnn aucoliias

*See No. 450. > Ad valorem,

S3z2 BN EN ENEEE gue RR RRR REX BY BERR RRR RSLS |

oe

zs

Krosrsss se so

SRRESSSERSAEE RAE SA SEES IEEE ISRES

eres

~~
:

iff. States.
Yen.
10¢ A.
10¢ , G., G. B.
b10e G.
0.206 «G.
0.029 | G.

“

1901.]

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

2309

Tne Customs Import TARIFF OF JAPAN IN FoRCE ON AND AFTER THE First Day or tHe First Monty or tHe Tuirty-seconp YEAR

oF Mew: (January 1, 1899)—Continued.

CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

aTncluded in the general tariff under No. 136.
b Included in the general tariff under No. 1670.

23

No. 6

‘TW | General
ARTICLES. tariff.
Group IV.—Drugs, chemicals, and medicines—Continued. Toil
er Seat AGAR ee ee tele a oat Re eo le i =m ninic oe odin eS a cee Se aabe oe bahnaces queWyc acer ind bestocesceeacsvacassescer kin.. 0.51
eee ete hos eee ed ve aac matane nw sisiccestesiadsurantcawnedeldned soMeMaddaiwvsdractdeccsccvecssnaczvs 100 kins..| 26.620
Sees eet een me tere lvoe arate cline Seimrain ooo ain eae mies oe com eek ncconndvperveacechescanvousiwarcdd C0525. 4.581
noon tara ily Ose LOC) enema aiaat tas /Jen vie siectsu ane aRanciak ek coea wee han senewee russ anunwedsrnewacncrewosvescouccs fF 1,282
on sy coe es et ama ee eto iain cumin oticiio toe eine ne ceteereadeenk cananeeletceuae ae cchelbdcuwecdrecescssevedees do.... 0. 933
eRe ea Com BET es ERMC ILLUS latter tants tarot aiatane aatectal ae e Seisioree a Kale e wale ihn oA Dae daw aan eh cacines swivecececescécecccacncs [> 7 Saas 0.353
sa teen EL CHA SILCLOLOL si nerice eee qa tia a od unin/e wot wabag oaauee eh cose nea ecu wae te tase eles dcklabececcccnceceoveusen ad val.. 104
Rimnpicmiay GUO MIOU te OL SUbNNALO OL maoies.. act ec cnr pnessucce nue caticc ces Uscteceweccatereccuececpecccesecseevvoue kin.. 4.043
MITEL 5 oe ona go goo oping § Bo Gee SCD SDN Crea OCOP CTE CIE Ee ier, an tnpn Hann = > ann is age le Oye eel oe a ad val.. 1%
Brean emerges Penn se eI ee RON Se ree cc coe ae cone doc so tokcdn iewdvencdeceecacvanccceuas- do....| lig
tRCRONUS DC OIAAICL soba c'< laisse: ciaislew's cise sistbbacpiccuatenans ac e - Lise “ -100 kins. ‘| 1.520
Phosphorus, amorphous (abolished) ... as et a aca i oa wine 5 ae oe kin..| 0.165
RAUL eye cine pene UC) LUN OST CON Onder rice etic omic minctn cia\e aanate onan icrdiatea/ois arom aghswae waenreeaeeimeint peeaenenadanamnasneae ad val..| 104
i aot UMMA CL ONO Uarte sfaiel stats iaieiel oie et amie teins Miaieeiatn mis ome Scie woo ape aianie Canin cen nana nmannaeceeteradnmsnneanceraease sss kin.. 0.083
Pe AMEN Tee Cee cen te eerie aaa nein etal estates el stalasiecrci sid ata pit ain wlapints Gave aisis (nels tesa manwindele scotia ’necipavouinacea ad val.. 210%
anit TS RCoed eo Te eNCE ER MUOUER ECU etiam csc sais stsiese wate wie ele aoe a ae areinianie-c'a crace co cuedwecetacnewUsidcwarcesseuaveoccacs 100 kins... 2, 32
GOR SM MOCICS: Ole ciee aac ania ceiparcniswin oat sew as lscclae Sen see accent rela ese ee ee eee online ck oteica 2 -...84 Val... 10%
STO ced Sie ete Rees eater echo PE etat a tel ncie wicto miaictos » FSaine «eh acicc'ancenabecne accent oambateccandcndensecwona 109 kins... 1,410
CHORE CRC MA DOM MLCrOlc vaca acee cc cndamedhcoc’ cccccewacewnadcduccateewsecsmcecdemesvocceacccuwenacce ad val.. 104
SS SUN eae eae ee cel tn el nein isn clsinie myn eo cals tiajcicainilucvwteccameanseesapeemanceaceatsecetetcaevboncecacese 100 kins.. 0. 298
ITO Ao Omen CO MOU On MISC rn Rtn nic win’s neon ciciicivies sialcinlnsiaisle qeectasslectnaguamansccscecwdeasecencaccumuccendtona gat 1.3387
NERA STC I eet ta tate teen tte leo ge cients miata pe aine cin cisisivinie ainicis's s\aisiaigintdiaacnGidca sce ce walses Jace cacceeccccdcenvevescveuscdeuceawssewe kin.. 1.177
SP eaten (EUR ET ener OMB E LEISLN)) te taete tensed eke ea aide sis Se ciwis 3/7 ws dee eeloewa waste ae newe cas nnn lccconccesceccenceccncss 100 kins... 0.989
SSO eMC eee en es oe afer mena = Aecara Seige welelsiate ania Masa ad ene caeuc cede neces seeneceeescnweccne Oe Pee ee kin.. 0.380
BSED SEL PSHM LL A eerste dete atte eise see at eins win dle'snie ais ninis'sa osaccinpiclesjcnee wen cciaeelacicerecpuasenccecccesnccecdeccccer 100 kins..| 1.681
RSeROR SCs 0p eters atest Patt ei ela aie aren pias cle tets ciste minicioic sc ee, nace Sok navn a(ciatsem wav cisnae's sec clung vadeiwetense nse coer weeenacs GO: .- 1.522
Petite lh be deter fe atedetettete sisteya state sapatei iainieia =cetstate eisiaisie sjsie sinis's sicisia cine cccic eictein ene WSs seneiain vic cle pe siebe capascecnccevasavecsececctacs kin.. 0. 055
NKR AS Nae ays eieetetctetoinyniaine ects clsjsisliciewelsiejtis sda tee du,scigscccnacastcrececcsecmesceess “pperie Ae tp is Se Ae Sn Re ee eee 100 Eins... 0.351
Pea DICHEN OMA TOOL eee emer mace ake: cis ola ee sen dhe ea coerce toons cont avcme bow ebene Hedescpeceawbnschacuademsaceta Gs222 0. 457
CCE Hee CORNERS LT Crete eee Nee San Pena pk a lame kwindcms ances oa laces tpacwmmetridcdshisthaccanapuevesevccekdtawcneseeeecn do: .-- 0. 454
SCI ee CRU ALL eT CRANES PEMA OLL Oem atcicraic inte petainin(ninisleicion= wciee sisiiabe dec to dian eaeisienantlaeuie teiceinmaatneecisteg oneeceeiesagwess asap BO ce 0. 227
OMA SAMO WSC Olan mees oa ticijemesiastearioas Poms siotiowesina = ta pcemtice twicacericivsiccies ots walawatee cesisaaeudasnavae cscs ean att ees kin.. 0. 142
RE Clin (OA UCtats LUN UND UUS CUTe CL) fale anf eta) alel etal aba)ndptnl=of=lctn|ola)=lnia nian e/nlalelafele's)e)sisie]m(o\nicls(etwieinlee Gwin vies aves =~-n snes cenesaece 100 kins... 0. 462
el ete Ses Let ee eee Oe ee err Soe Se Ie a tcci e ais mimicltcce ca eci@rmt o steiescieipeie views vw Caweeiciedcwmdsgacsidceemnuneesnasce do.... 1.870
SETS an ES ae tg eg Teh onl micennstat nice o'<iciwfaie bi vintsw ctcteh sieta wie's bie apa ciel s che meme wie be mace vee nexwocgecancneseckne dol-s. 1. 642
WOROE (RCO a SCULCH OTE LGICCOMLPIO) aan cee jacaniscccensscsadveceecsce sme re repaint eteretan niet oe cine. pala gatas a Seton ce 0 eee 0.499
AIRC TEM Ones +GHOMI CHS OMG GCIMGS: gwen soci scicisiesssivieie oka soscwaewmevncceceaueccenncapies at QaweacawacwceeSan ad val... 10%
EXENG) GTR. © 1) SERA BER Batt oe EE SEO ee oe ce en a en ia Ie A ee peo Ur nee 100 kins... 2. 038
BETAS PINON CN cpeictet tors =hae vey can heater re Aesth eters ote Gal slaon cine nial olulsralale cistayalklnlo,e'aielele nr walwerneb les cvileleptele se owavemeadcoevelee. ad val.. 10¢
Re IEG Ker ae eee Se tee Grae ere aes iia Rice ici as wae disiein bielu einige ciakkauua wad aha aawiele apneic ce naneudaecedaasle 100 kins... 0.471
POS ON ONUS me LL Own (GU OLaSILOU) sate cin cree mixin mime rare Siaiawiciae ei aece sis isiemececs.onane/sian sacs secs eceesannccenonseceusbesnncacs do....} 12.353
; GROUP V.—Dyes, colours, and paints.
PSST ECHO TOM eet tevae sicta ln wat celeritete alaie stole c wi= co ca:e aiejcixioje viva awiSieMcicle'<'s.c siaeie cla cicuie Seesweseese Mc pew des onatend neon vase tte ad val.. 10¢
PR UC RCOR OS eee tase eR Retene ls rae lee sie 8 ic) wiavcinle an ela.aiaiasicloe sje cece ena Sciwmins'ee caecesendees Ganwewscedwasecccs ao.--- 10¢
MILE MEUS Pte OM cOn mL Cras EV ORM 2s cnc moans se@ence ntoeesvusec deueccedesc ccnbeneunee'sae wiactaanceccoee 100 kins... 6. 690
SSIS Neem ae ia 9 eta ea ofa o ay aie'minl wip mI=ia <a nial She win wine eg Pe esa aisinre e kle' wala niwe cleleleGraed evieleecccccedeteneseexen ad val.. 10%
Soa RTCL CACM eet ee erent ie ery nena ie nine Waitnniie ce auivia Pew aae aacew nace coe cae ct Sebceameceuodaeceacacecce= 100 kins..| 34.628
Cy rptental ciel Ree ete eee rare tara eles las atetaicielc cic mace aisistcis eiciniele aiaiele = wiaisléiwsraeisialaocuplanacsccavevc anes aweaceteadveceecessoens ad val.. 10¢
SEER ATieH KAS OTC Nee tet ore eae ate sree tetera aie c= alte eietine ele erotiat able cvicctwenisidcwecicmecn cacalccecu aioe des acecccneetencerenane do-2:- 10%
Sea UCase MUCK ae estate aan ee eon eee ame sb eecc ene semiccle ce sean wldcicdeccuac wseaducesabouvecteucceoessscecesce 100 kins... 1.715
(AMEN SWAG Jaane anes SER SoS ges one Sena cadGs Hab SB Obosoe sn Code Bane seonEaes Ee ane ne ae Se ne ee an Se doz... 6. 802
Ep SUL UNV gre Dal PEM Daa aaah aks UOT has Ae eS Se a ey ee ee ad val.. 1
BEYOND OLDS NOMEN fetta ieee Sie ots niece slo ieinis/acisiae siecle mic cotta wa wns Sinie ieee aera enjae wns ape wea ceRicle ee andi /aGlape a:eieie'eemtmediate 100 kins..| 12.953
TORO IACI 2a ois crac cie once win alare cain Ect cictee trees Mee mee aie aera eas cae cucwdes dent eeoneapase abnubesw tcc cuuedwsos ad val.. 10%
CRC L CUO CMTC Or COLI EGis ction se cesinam sistas Sacce ocheascn@eteceacbudrcesecseectencccuscsansuscuucwnMemins das. 10%
Mead als Colouns <5. «<<< +--+-—as = -100 kins... 1.070
RE Par Cee eaters amore stearate caliente miata a = niacin seas siaaieie els aan care'o as wecnanntwmecan mn ctaasenedacenk wean wanna ae ad yal.. 10%
Sta ROCA CNG Ratit' a te ate ret eet rset rian ej ml cterstate aiare yctetefcinie ntaiacieie cinverss oft viataici s aa wiacinn/enwiceccessceaenunuaativsacacneeaecana 100 kins... 2.397
a0 Wal.ok = 22s
REF RERO MELD Ae Kae tial =e sive alaiviowicisa ci ie risa eloe.sie[sinmawies saclacieaccemuaacs casinne SR dena ss nore ois as Wout a an nie na 100 kins... 0.119
ere eee Re ee eee ee ae ete R ee scenario cate e clots a nisic stash cee cecidsccnscUednwepnemncanancawss ncinenstanacne geen do-%.- 1.304
eT NN ee eee Perel ae tae ainsi ciay alas ean me wine nahn a cle oid, ocise aeiaue dew b es woe a ceideniamecauncensevadecla secaeuesduses ad val.. 10%
peer ed Tran VNC ON Chote Pata ERE eee tite tee ei a alee) inte sini a eininteywinininipin oot 5 sia din miniovs Sialke ania Bivens caine oe enles Meann oS e anhe mo 100 kins... 0. 235
Rest ee eee eers eaten noe neaie ce tafa, wim lo ceoacintie geiscisie oa Naeein al iGGd eSawde bce nwa sudepubeledesweuentcucnecsS@een aaah ad val.. 10%
RESET CHL e tc nicin aie eal om wo simie ciple site mle,c1=° een ce Siciwiaiainnin ee ante states aan cic cals epee a we aececcamecda atic awe emcee Waicnn'w 100 kins... 0.384
SRO eeke tReet ee rane aie eis fe wie ce winnie nao visi stiaeiniaigicis beemeicidcacaciw ee aancesswacws sees s~censmseannacs ans ao. 1.749
Pe eS nt Lee ee aya stata cate Creosote mys nTsnete ini nite elo Sieinicinjalais/ain ate cinisininieicasieisia emus qv cece qeccccwuwennsncescagmienuaneeeaes ad val.. 10%
SR Ts een ae er Seo oe nate telat ee stain ciciaterac\n alanis sicicls' a ela sale siniaimadlbn dtc cs mesuncincewaceeduacunseneasiaGens 100 kins. . 8.272
Sas ToC is ete eee ears ieee otis nial Sin aisaaicincicicin' ae coed saa ceive Gecsa'va anit eeerenapedsawceecWaquuaban=ms« do.... 2. 297
SNS ISSAC L CDE hes EPR a= foo v 2) Tein sin’ain'oiata'eii~ paicia winnie see. cie. ose Pee ae ae aerate ae on aac atin Gace mas paw an acee Games Sane kin.. 0.120
Sn TP Meee ee ee eee ce Moet oa to a cis atcnicls/s/a'ec cdeau acumen amcgaac’s and UxctssWhencavenneenestwaw as 100 kins... 5. 423
BENG ITT smi TE > ne rey Se ye A are tera ea er rater ae ue uld ois e a8 cain mage ve SEs Sink analy a= aeenecceaawpiaihmecaee don... 1, 230
PA PEGI CR CRS COLO TRS GMO AILIMUS oeia'sre c9.s(os am mateo iceecemene« sine wcln cue deccuaqanas ounce qncdinceusqecuecdcauhewsn=s ad val.. 10%
Group VI.—Glass and glass manufactures.
Glass, window, ordinary:
a. Uncoloured and unstained...... EEwiniw ote eieie eden nfo cia esialain sin nial Mim eld nielecsie(eina'a annie sin<ie.cisic'aas sine ane= Cs 595 anmn ms 100 sq. ft.. 0. 400
hy EAM GILES ee, ge OS eee ee err po 3 SRE Sat 3 5 ee Cee ne en eee ad val.. 1
COTE ESILUNEG MAIO MRO UG eo es cee ae aia aman cee oe Sane aint «a cin ais Sa Ueto anigsinw ausidieuen'seeiseccaatenaassices Ct ae dlis
fer Me eRe TOC OTS METCL ree ioe ate tn an aie heal dere watnidinne spree ee cee hak Ge Sen een cheese SoweanngnscwaserawaxdencenSs ue dGe-.. 20%
Glleissebi call Sunken Omen aeae MOTEL URNDECLOLS «wo ntwnrace,o ccleinicleiww sis.cins ein pw mine Sonu Mm qnas hanes ceeuaevescacsataeveceseuseess 7 20%
Glass, broken Or POWGErE ......---. 2. eee eee ee eect eee eee eect eee meee enn n nnn een enn eeeenescceeneeceemaeeeesn es do.... ot
Ree Ot rahe RE ete ee er Seis cou u awa cnmce ede mecmnscmawcomsleseneen se sepeancncdwus vcs weedenacnandassnns i ee 258
Glass all other manuractures:on not Otherwise provided for... - << cs cece sawn daw c cece meen vente eee ceccecegensscnes ao_<.i 208
Objects in glass, crystal and vitrification, excepting Window GlASS .........0.ecceeennnenccnsce cen cnneecceeceseeeceeenenes WO-u.. © 208
Grovur VII.—Grains and seeds.
LEAR e-8one ods eer BOC GAA LID Ere LECCE ECE One ER OO Coe tee rr eer ey eee eee Tree ere eee eee oe 100 kins... 0.101
PRR ee nts pes] Use sie eictale clee ace ws mia ere Clee mentee ais cle le sen in sw iwiwin'n ini ntete te wn n'u c'c'nin’a wai wewwinwie's nena wenebinvs'uwsen'claveeenwwahiwnan do....} 0,129
Beans, peas, and all other kinds of pulses excepting soja DeANS..... 2... cece cece eee n cence eee e nent e eee neesaeeces ad val.. tod

Conven- . P
' ‘tomt Contracting
| tariff. | States.
;
Yen.

0.165! G
0.445 |G
10¢ G
2.267 | G
1% |G
& ) G
;
0.499 | G.,G.B
5a | A,
10% | G.
10% | F.,G.
12.93] G. B.
2.150 | F.
105 | G.
1.304 | G., G. B.

0.302 | G., G. B.
10% | G., G. B.
108 | A.
10g | A.

eIncluded in the general tarifY under Nos. 169 and 172.

2310 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

. “}
Tux Customs Import Tarier oF JAPAN IN Force ON AND AFTER THE First Day of THE Finst Moxtu oF THE THIRTY-SECOND

or Mem (January 1, 1899)—Continued.

CLASS L—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

Tariff ARTICLES.
No.
le aie ee
Group VII.—Grains and seeds—Continued.
175 | Indian COMM ..... cc ccee cece cece cece cee cence nnn cnn ce nen ceccnnnceennencnannccrecwccnrencercancncccsaneccnsacneerancs ad val...
176 | OB once noc oc veda nmnwe os noecewenasanincaammreanacensaneenespcccemsnaedaasc scence secs cera wee s<~cnctnmnamsainaaneaaenenene do...-
977 | BOBBING oo oo oo a ccnc cine c cccccnecenteccecamm ms aacssrcciance senccenescennmeescaansanaman acne atnemamenlamanmm—enin es 100 a
VIS WHA. 2 oo ce occ se wns e wrow en necnceasiqcannname ssc ncqasensacecseenmans se secesesmecssnae ans snsememanan=ne——esier oso das
179a| Cotton seeds.........-------++2--00--20 2222277 Pppperererernrerer rrr rtete te ee do....
179b| All other grains and seeds, not otherwise provided for-.......-.---------- aja arias dh aja el ee a ad val._
Group VIII.—Horns, ivory, skins, hairs, shells, etc.
180 | Bones, animal... ... -.--.- 200 20c cere econcnaesemene seca cecseccwemsnninesinccassesenescarnomeowscesennersessc=nn 5¢
181 | Feathers and downs of all kinds........-..-2-------- 02-0 cece eee eee ee enter eee eee e etree rece ee ee ee eeecene : 25%
182 | Furs, dressed or otherwise ......-.---------------+++2-+--- ere d 2%
183 | Hair, animal, excluding wool, and goat's and camel’s hair 0 5
1843) Hairs ROMA 2220.6: caro ce eete een oe aan oe perrrrrr rere rr eree teeter eee eee 100 kins. - 5. 641
185 | Hides or skins, bull, ox, cow, and buffalo, raw, dried, salted or pickled, and undressed ........-...--------+------- do.... 0. 962
186 | Hides or skins, deer, raw, dried, salted or pickled, and undressed.......-..----------~--+-+-eeeee seen eee eeeee ee --- 00-2 1.588
187 | Hides or skins, Samba (Cervus clephas), raw, dried, salted or pickled, and undressed.....-.....---.-.-+----------- do..... 0. 661
188 | Hoofs, animal........-...2------cee eee eee e cece eee ene e cece neers nese nnncceeeneeectanassnecenscressecceree seen acenes do...- 0. 414
189 | Horns, bull, ox, cow, and buffalo ........---------+ +++ 222-222 - eee eee e eee eee tee rennet eee erent eee e eee e eee e eee ee 0. 504
190 | Horns, deer... ......- 2-2-2 cece cence ence ence e ence cent eect esee geen c nce cecneen cc cncscccenteesseesersccasseerccesnnnennn a 0. 654
191 | Horns, rhinoceros .........---00-ecece anne nee e eect e cee e serene enews ences eccnsnawccennmannsnecamancnarsrsascenccanna 10¢
192 | Ivory or tusks, elephant 0.298
193 | Ivory or tusks, elephant, waste --- 10%
194 | Ivory or tusks, narwhal or unicorn - 104
195 | Ivory or teeth of walrus or seahorse .. b 0.102
196 | Leather, sole ..._--.--.....----2-en eee ee eee sec nee seeceneces 7.44)
107 | Leather, all Otero 25.226 oo can noes cn en scese cece ce noe sanenwapeenseene i
198 | Tortoise Shes. ooo o.oo ce emen ccc nec cose mas emnseesscenpseencwu seas a==—ne= 15%
199 | Tortoise shells, waste ...........--- pernrrrerrere ett rrett tte eee eee do 154
200 | All other bones, horns, hides, or skins, raw, and shells.......-----.----------eeee cee e ee eee nee n ence wenn nee eeneneee 1h
201 | All other tusks or teeth of animals......-..--.+-+--+ +--+ 2022 - eee cece e eect eee eee et een e eee e ence eee eee eee e ees ae. 10%
Group IX.—Metals and metal manufactures.
202 | Antimony, ingot and slab.........--2- 2-222 22- eee eee eee eee ee tenner nee e ence een een ees e ce nneereenesecennns ad val.. im
Brass:
2030 Bar And LOG naa seid vciccln slate amcttsnm me a akan ies eae Se a 100 kins..| 3.070
203b Plate and sheet .. .. 2... 00cnccnnaccncmanncecncecenasaccncsaccumeesina wae I le do... 3. 086
204 Pipes and tubes ...-.. 2222-2222 tenn ence cence eee eee ene eee cence cece ete e ence cen e cece ree teesee ee nsnmeencnnen ad val.. 10%
205 BCYOWHs <0. seek scone opener pete cee eee eee cee ee eee ee eee eect e eee n eee cee ee nese eter eeeen erect teens i ae 10%
206 Brass, old, only fit for remanufacturing.......-...----- 2-2-2222 eee eee eee eee eter eee n new nee e ener enne 100 baie 0.915
Copper:
207 Ingot and Slab... 2.2.2... cecceeee nen cence cena n nee e cece eee e een esceaceccceenencnscancnccnncseces SSE pe ad yal.. 5a
208a Bar and rod... ...2. 2b cccctenccceecesveccecs nicce senses sccelus asec gaan de ee ema na = = Manassas =a n oe seine salam 100 kins. . 3. 464
208b Plate and sheet ........ccccccscccccceccccccccenewennccccenesec «= amass (-=ns=anbnas= === == =saeea ease sss = seen =r a6s5. 3.488
209 0 Een aM re St a ee Soc 8 SS dow... 3. 956
210 Pipes and ties ..... oe w anced onan cec scene once new cie atestietes s\eln a =e m= tee pets ete a et te ad val.. 10%
211 WILE oc oc cne ee ccc ce ccemmedin can son 00.50 ails on\nln\e loo wsin\eie mietete tata ate tee ieee ae ie see aos et bal et ota dee 7.496
212 Copper and nickel Coins .......2.... 222-222 e ence eee ence nee ence pee nen e enn cee en nns neem en enenceseseneneacannnns be
213 Copper, old, only fit for remanufacturing . 0.
German silver:
214a Miate, sheet, NG TO - occ de ccna ee Miaemececse 6.020
214b VLG isl cae ercgisioaie = wee ia wee eae miniese' a wiare'ns ome 01d\e wade eda ae pate 6. 257
Tron and mild steel:
215 Pig And INGOC 2. 6 cic see cece comwees ccc ace now cs ss 50d ane eee eee ee sais ase oe wrest aie chase rae 0. 083
216 Reemtled ge... 20. enc ceeded twcce ccc vce scien sccncsce cncuc smesig’ee smn neem aia ele eatin te ae ad val.. ie
217a Bar and rod exceeding one-fourth inch in any® diameter ...... 2.2.2.0. eee cence ene n eee e cece een ene een e eens 100 kins... 0. 356
217b Hoops and iband. ... ..- 2.02... cnc cent e cece cece conweceeensnereaecnsseeues sachs === se =—™ == asses SSeS Sane en-2.2 0.427
218 T, angle, and other similar manufactures .........-..2222--02 20 ecen nen e sew cec neces cw ene n wenn nn ncescecesnsnensnns i eae 0.313
2194 1 0 [a mg ee Res ede 0.297
219b| Bolts,» nuts,» chairs, dog spikes, and fish plates for Tails. ......2..2..0cccccncewnccc cnc cencennesensesesmeneseseserns ad val... 108
990a| Plate amd sheet. ooo... ce cece ew cwnc teens ccecanncccccccesauncaucinamk ese ae ees aie sea tessa tenses 100 kins... 0. 304
220b| Plate and sheet, ‘corrugated. .... ca... cccceaccwcenecccvvccccccubenstcsacesseecesecs=s= es ae == as shame nse Seat ad val... 10¢
221 | Sheet, galvanized, corrugated, or otherwise. ..............2--.2.202-- PPP 100 kins... 0. 853
92 | Plate, diagonal or: checkered .........cc2cccceccccccacaemsascsasssacsuess tapes nteneswUs Guanes n sa eaene sae een a sesame do...2 0.345
223 | Pipes and tubes... 0. ccccsenicccsieececcccennscuseecowecn sect p=ame ui pes sins sane a= tii «ad val...
224a| Nails, galvanized or otherwise, not otherwise provided for... .....<...0.cnsecsescekssseueeUneee aula eeeannEeLeaeeuslee do....
224b) Nails, : “ wire nails,° including spikes, sprigs, tacks, and brads:
Me Gc ate eaal acs toe tier akon eice
b. Galvanized
225a| Screws, bolts, and nuts, plain and galvanized
225b| Screws, bolts, and nuts not otherwise provided for
226 | Tinned plates or sheets:
G@. Plain 2... nn. cctcccccccncncnccccccsctunssusyaueuans¥b cen nels cecamsnslawe Sk as sists as ieee
B.. Orystalliged..... <<. cccccccescucccncesvccst semen sis =the wie is = inim/ sn sila pees ee rr
227a| Wire and small rod not exceeding one-fourth inch in diameter
227b} Wire and small rod not exceeding one-fourth inch in diameter, tinmed...................---.- acide was ccecune ad
228 | Wire, telegraph or galvanized. .......cccccecscoccvesccenseccccheccancncseuscuseseashsenne nent naa aes saneaeE
229a| Wire rope, galvanized. .......scccccacnnsccnvvccccavnuncscestesconbe=ssanauess sauna itn PaaunesesGeweuee
200b! Wire Tope, Otherwise. ........eceseusuccnscnvecuccccenbavubssh GGGse 5560 uae aan oases
280 | Wire rope, galvanized or otherwise, O10... 6... .ccccccnccennnnnscccecacncnsnssenk shen enneneee
231a) Old hoop iron, only fit for remanufacturing.......................0- Pero ee ee do.... 0. 103
231b = “oe and all other old iron or mild steel, only fit for remanufacturing. ...............-.... den Wuneulkptuaewen ad val... os
sean:
232 Pig, ingot; ANA SlAD. o.oo < ccucuccaucwccccdcuensauabay uieeetinbnwuwis weenie: eee y sainthot edwnbnce nae 100 kins... 0. 368
233 COU ues cvimntinn wee dase an ere wah wkietekt 0.7538
234 Pipes and tubes .............. 1
235 | Mereury or quicksilver..... = os 5.680
BGG | NAOMOl ingen cvves cevscucvancovcensssduecnceucsnveuCunesaa seen iin nennnH 3. 529
Platinum:
237 BOGOt oo on essssecesncccccccuessccewcecesncsunsauneusscsessmee emis cmb cialis cess emia itn 5s
238 Bar, rod, plate, sheet, and Wire. i. ....vsenecannncveucceusussedccuecucnukuasusenssua acuity tecvwcenanas Dison 10%
239 Holders Of All Minds 2... .cacccccvcccevsccscnnnnvnechasensvchs seep Uhnaensshheusaepeewn sn satan in usvescscecupewen do.... om
Steel, other than mild steel:
240 PIG A ANMOt, GNA BAD. oo nancccunnudenccuuscessuctenetsanauécau aiuunnnaueluGennne anna SO cccnecccccuccccchuan G6. <=. ie
241 SGT, TOS MN WONG IGE 0. 5 in iio neainkn'u nmin ipetdue. aie whawn dass (Necek wee ashsueealwa nnn ne anaes oe Meena rains 10%
242 PUDOR DIIG COGS x ona ce ccuscsacrcccecscensssepecdsseucuecdeedhenesasanepsauaueualnseuMu——n a 6ccannenseieeee 40. <<< 10% .
* According to the conventional tariff with France, © According to the conventional tariff with Germany.
> Included in the conventional tariffs with Great Britain and Germany under No. 225. 7

1901.) 7 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2311

j Tue Customs Imporr Tarirr oF JAPAN IN FORCE ON AND AFTER THE First DAy or THE First Monto or THE Tarery-seconp YEAR
or Mewr (January 1, 1899)—Continued.

CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.
Tariff 4 General | ©°2¥€D-) Contractin
hari ARTICLES. tariff, | tional States, =
tariff.
Group IX.—WMetals and metal manufactures—Continued,
Steel, other than mild steel—Continued: Yen. Yen.
Se ee aaa tk acta nc clenciwo a's siwia clasp oitiaien's amram demure wevcde Spt bced uwieceedscccacccenprocsenee ad val.. 20% fa | G.
eee Auer ear ns OO UU MMMNN OMG COTTUBCIED « » so occ en how veicenncwecasucs Sle s soccncecacccnccccccscccewaceccasace do.... 20% 10% | G.
Orn ge ne ann ad foe sen San 5 Sone aa cek a ee eeeman end aa wows a oTu anwa sn onnscecescecavecesantee ees 20% 10% | G.
243, Wire, and small rod not exceeding one-fourth inch in diameter. ....-.......-..-2-cceenccccncccccecccccccece 100 kins... 1.819 1.819 | G., G. B.
244 ree er ee OTe UOT ee el anialn in oc ine no Se new iw eae seme a eas ln ween vjccnnines=snvsveacnguaces do.... 2.145
245 Se SO) eR A en ee re eee Oe nas aie on win owiawin'c www ode eevewmannneundee do.... 1.647
Pat ieeeee CLO ante Den OILY fii Lois UOMiMEIERC OTIS . oho. - 1 cane ce ou acnwoce setae cumncecdvanevcscecccecceccecanccccncenbabe aa. 0.117
246b 2 Old tiles end-all other old'steel, only fit for remamutacturing. .. 2c. oe cies cece ccc wees ances scccccccccccecuce ad yal.. if
in:
247 SEC ered ORR a eet eer toe oe doe osiashanoed Gaia nates eee smc] ninied otdaiintniceintme eile meuaensaenecinte 100 kins... 1.992 1.992 | G.B.
248 Wo PPR Ss bocce WSR eRe one, a RE so a eee ee eee ad val.. 10% 104 | G.B.
Sree TIEN SERS Se eve Oe ee ee, oo as ba eee mete ieee cteuncacecceccencceat do.... ie
Yellow metal and muntz metal:
250 SPINE TE CIR ORER ne etal eka wie cinincin cap emiaua as ceadeet aan cbete eas emmmeSacecdeduocsdacccessanceces 100 kins. . 2. 871
251 ISNN Tae na te = eae ae ye ee Seo to odin deawe usweanaracegac cueuneccaeccccccnecsececee- do.... 2. 586
252 NO Lee ee ete aac Scie aac non oa Tica ou acces sc maies desincnaeneenccatnwaascneocecececcauseee ad val 10¢
253 LOUD GEG) WP 2S herion BOCs Sot AR EE RNS a eS SIS a en eee Pewee ann ee do 10%
e 254 = Yellow metal, and muntz metal, old, only fit for remanufacturing..............- 222 ccccececoceccccccccccee- ad val.. i
ine:
255. irae aan MRCS Ml oh ett eete ohana ele aie wicinfoaicteiaine cet an aire moc etwmd sca csanes sec ccedewgeachaceccsacraccede 100 kins. . 0. 451 0.400 | G.,G. B.
256a PSHEXS He PORE Ve EN a a I Se eee ea -cee neee ad val.. 104
i!1 Ys a ey oe ea 0.830 | G.,G. B.
2560 PERE CCUG) oo oops 2 a RR LR a oe ee i aes 0. 297 '
257 AIL other@ge Zinc. Only Ht tor Temanuiactoring ..... <2. . ccc cccencssecccucases en Uih fas. ae ease ee eee = ad val.. ie
258 | Nails, serews, bolts, and nuts of metals not otherwise provided for.......... nel SS NEE Sa ee ee oer ROOMS eee do.... 104
See rern Gres et Clu olitn Ge DLO RC Ty OMEN CEN mew ceca c oo acebemcbencmecrucetecesscaceutuccedeterctevevdenceneacas do.... 10%
BL) dOMSE Gade Shige fe te SSG Se ee ene eee ee ne a ee de.... 1%
oa ROTTEN IC IR Peden RTP ey eam ra hate niajaidnicia ig wicyjoinic-slel uyauaa «jnlainia’atwra' aici Un chtalne ofeld'wiecidiciesia'edidlvwcowdueweudows G0ia<c 1x
Pees Tea Achy CHL CT WEEN EG WIE TO le. = - = crcc'saocjeuceleicuinWsjcscecenccsaacccvcccectecs amaccoemssebsccccarctscecencee p32, 15%
Pe aR re, TEC OLES,, PERN ON OUO™ oo <.c.ccia Sajans cesceeqaecc aged a cen gacetdcodecdtedteen sd cciccncccquscacedaoescecns ee 1s
SOM emen NOWUeHOF COLE, GIUVED OF GENET MACtAIS: — oo soos 8c ccnin oc ccm cece ceucmaaceacesdévcccccccccesccunqersecesece Bae: .2. 154
z= eee RDM UC Se te ne OREN Cee LoS e Fee et ce Sana Renee eee oe oh once See ck cadcs ubebunmabbnene ae 100 kins..} 11.269
~ ay |, Gaala ated SLLWVGr Ware, NOt CURETWISS PTOVICOG FOR 3 oj oe sn eee cnce wee we ene e ccee cece merece ences ar ereeeedees ad val.. 3
266 | Gold anc silver plated ware, nob otherwise provide FOR. <6. cc nc cc cece ccc ae caccececuecececcusccneecccccnecess do.... 25%
PA@inaner EMO TN. Gt CS FANG Mines THELCOL: an dan kae oc cecacccinnenensccecauewneecvicce<oeacisn'ceenenacercesséccassactses os. 5. 206
PAS eateS NG: CASH: PORCS. . 0. = onc cam ec ecscmncscececseee Eee a aed Neots Baa a we ee ee ASS c cncd es Joan k aac eee Cea owd eee do. ... 206
CL PaMeNCy LL OS AIG TULIPS HRBEPOR. cco nine Ge wicin awicie o cicewnwwnescccencsucdhessciaee PRE Sp Oe ES 0h Se ane Sn One... 1%
NACE ICON CUDIL, RIL QUAET. LRON OF LPO GIN MUA WOES «osc cS ac ca ccacccececctscnceccccsscuccuvectecscucceccescen ee = 20% 5a | G.
270 | All other metals, not otherwise provided for.............. fs ee Gabi Bad
271 | All other manufactures of metal or metals, not otherwise provided for. ..-. : : do... 20%
Kitchen utensils or vessels made of enameled iron and steel, decorated or otherwise..... 22... ....22. eee cence eee e eee eeeeee do.... 8206 104 | A.
GROUP X.—Oils and waxes.
aa RESIS MnO S2TD TET oe Sc leh Ea a Soo cin pe Clmarlv www ie SaRRIa dine eo ele Sein wales ot eciawesisiciew eeeriomman shy uencdawanem 100 kins 3.522 2.146 | F.
SOE IGE Si Sects bo = ae Se ee Se ee ae ee ee ee ee ee ad val 10%
Sm RL ROE ae rae Ee a aha A yeidicici= ainlernin mic’ o.n tinsel ahleein ciel Sm BA GRR AOD cic wens nacudion case eedaawesebtioceseae 100 kins 0.747
OS MNSIES OUNCE Stee IETS ony OTN hein aciaaieieiece we cici= wieia wale e wows ve ble acwnnlisesiduecs ome ce cetaeacdacsssscecsneuewewseeeses 2 eae 1, 060
: Sam eRe asiOl eis pttrl oh Oe Ge RI ON FAIS. 6 cisco wccseremie cin sm pianic ann dkinc ae ce pmancmienena atsihis cicada seam auesion aauceeaee ad val.. 10%
¢ en OREE I (rere mt rn ieen ere nia Y 2S eos oe nye el in con ccm cee ae seett watcacdweerbscscnemebmustwealmee 100 kins... 1.181
F nr PORE RL Tah ORTON Se ae oe om Sara cisions ome al amihen aera eine clara &-cilwe iene mare Salton ee Gnieine don laeancncme ne aemeninwmene ae 1.122
278 | Oil, kerosene or petroleum: -
Pe aT RE oe eet vais amine ca 0 eine alwm nice = mlclb lieing Ua Ain niesie coe ean awama dacee wae oases Seeneccnens gallon.. 0.016
oT sso - Dipene oe 8 = Seen oe Ge ene ee ee ee SRE re eee Bianca 0. 010
ERT Lem MNS OREM INN CF) OAISEE ooo rala orn inl ew ecntore Cais claw ae slenisaes vdeinssactetaeenec Selbcmc Gee ticacecbesacewecd Seen some 100 kins... 1.724
Pee ee epee CU mem CORIO) LEST OCHS be elarcinionsieiieinel<icia= welwja ce acinie weiss date uence scesegeceebeNeccdscuesescceccsececes ad val.. 10%
Pee ren AR TREO SiS oe ao ou a) tka Se ae gin 2 cle cmiaaianrs) ssi ao ukide Cea dercwaceces ob ~ emmcnce ese setcwtecenweuee 100 kins... 2. 92
Pay OMEN Cox RRM ES LT) ELI ORF CRSIG 3 ook oc nits sia’ ws so winrSsicae seb eel eect vibe wom ecthinacogeusmmentckessquuenemests ame ad val... 10%
Jo! | ORL. iligsia7e.. So. - 8 ae SE ee ee ee ie es Fay eae ee Re a Ci: eee 10%
Si Gel GySeriii ..- 72 Page ES ae ee 2 een a ee ee eee a ae... . 10% 10 G.B
ae amie ELEN fr OLN MN CTA ANAC AEE) GUTS) OTS CASE Spe cin cictarnisinmraiclqw wividicinio's « ctociemcie es ve cee manic t quisssicciee cacesawwnwgceveccnesenn gallon... 0. 076
Peo ROUOnspial Ol maMpemtme: Emeepiie In Tim! OF CASSIE... sa. nate nce no ct geen ee smenicceteensameneocdsseunewenaes ..-.ad Vali. 10%
284 | Wax, Chinese white or insect 3 10
285 | Wax, paraffin (abolished)... Z 1, 088 05H G.G.B
7 PPB) Cede ey USI OLS NREIS WRX Ca [ia nttisincjannjainicinie oe nia’ winwincineeclowese ral... 10%
287 25%
288 1s
289 15s
290 154
291 1m
292 es . F ae
a. Not exceeding 24 pounds per ream of 500 sheets and measuring 1,086 square inches per sheet .....-+--.-++--- 00+ 100 kins 1.757 0.500 | G.
a Alter kandsiOF PrANTING/ PAPET = — 2 a0 < oso cen seen come n seen wos teninidens sac ce ccc ew gewe dew er ed sesewsseeeeeess do... 1. 757 1.163 | G., GB
Saree Ean Sea RO GEL Bel Se oe See ee ne Sao aoiein nian ae aren a nmcea ae sae So Ses tla ae eau cb awa wenicinceceeweuncetewamessees ad val... 1s 10) G.
294 | Pencils: -
Pere OCA, ULERY CAS ae om cin nism woe a's aisle dew oth vain 6S a nie galt an cele ny PURE aa Wen ew env ean Wath oteea Ese seswasens do... -| 30%
PRINCE eer nn enn EE er, Pils an alaiceiusealbla(s ciehica wand Sah hawee awk saa ge see Canes Rages 6K dy oe adee sane emand do... lie
295 | Pen nibs: .
RE CINE Ree arr ee om co Soc dinm anes bebice koma ges nansacine Penlcne Mate Cini quaen equ neweqaesadeasannaghll do... S08
aOR Tart eae ten te errata re et fe A One ee danke aa oe ee neck Ch uas csicee ec canwenecechetesmescesanes do / 15%
Soa aE nel oe Serpe ree Ce LS LS |. png ain cmenieialaciceiewinklice ar ose bSaneeaste neve acceceescuasmbeewessomeeeantios ee ou 154
A a SS ce a on in aidan ieee Oe sama misin Ge VEU ew nanee ne nSemeusenatanevesqaesewe do... ‘| 158
ERT er Rea T TT Ea fot CRESS ie cE AUR MEN NOSE RENN Weenie h see \eonte FARWEL RGus eacngetcen do.... 158
Group XI.—Sugar.
ae up to Nos it inelisiey Dutch standard In Colon. . Sage. <<... nice ewan anne en en menos ewes ccnensecsaeseneocseee 100 kins... 0. 204
r, refined: B a
= Brom Nou ito Nos. 20) Inelusive, Dutch stamdard im Color... 2. .we wns ene cc ween cence nc teen seen cece en esencceses da... 1.528 0.748 | G., G. B.
b. Upward of No. 20, Dutch standard in Color... ..... 2.2.2.2... e ee eee eee e eee ene nee eet e teen teen eee nees do.... 1.828 0.827 | G., G. B
Barrera oe tos Cle sas eee eee roe nine ca sans Swicn cman Gossecceasaanagn pe tonnt nnoscesuceceecensceceueseeseceet do.. 2.213
Pe Tea et ne ER ere es Se Ieee ents oS ILE Siw winnie vice kn ee dE Adda ceca Khaw we ped eemececcutbensswees cwneusease QB... 0.157
Sirup....... Seen enn iy GS ers etl SG Peet Rrctae Fag Sod cchnwnahenyedusweseawe des ccaesacdhnccsctsenedes ad val../ 108

«Included in the general tariff under No. 271. bSee No. 450.

2312

Tur Customs Import Tarirr or JAPAN IN Force oN AND AFTER THE First Day or THE First Monto oF THE THIRTY-SECOND YEAR

859
860
B61

862
863
864

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

or Mew (January 1, 1899)—Continued.
CLASS L—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

ARTICLES.

Group XIII.—Tissues, yarns, threads, and raw materials used therefor.

Part I.
COME SATUSIDLA OF OVER) co... os aaep Seen emnp ease here cress usedos sapdeewmocdsacceserere cess se sa= oencreeaeeemete 100 kins...
COLLOMMATCAOS Ss oe xc <'w sc aneo ence s'sp Fe iret eae eet eee eo nie Sciaipin «ae eso mo ole a ace ee le le ad val..
ey la Ried COLOR aces coc te een nae Semar da enwe se cm saree see pcinaman as ancea Jae tse eee ee ee nee ee eee do.- >)
COLONIA MSM eo Sot ae aie ra aol Ppiciieaptciom(s pine mwas cu oR pa nx au'e Sacemnien aaa pr omen nimi Sete ee eee do: =:
Comonm drills, dtuer thanicray Or DICACHE Soo. ces cece coc ain Volrce el nnd wo'w cin a a pac ein'ee eae h ees ohataie cles aetna aee eee dol?
COUCMIGEIE, RTAVIOY DICRCHEE sop cccc caer ieee ears pander dew nee aa ae oasis p teem tee oe ee a eae ea square yard..
SOD UOTE UG hire cee a wl eons ee ee se eee ampind te ane weld m wine a alee pintslsieidieln o's abi mimeo lee ciate ee ole tat ti ee do...
CObtOM PYINIS oo 5 2s. soem a te rene non eee neem semen er -ee new nnee esac cn ss cwen snes e=— Fs eae Pee eee ozeas
Cotton sateens, plain, figured, or printed, cotton brocades, cotton Italians, and figured shirtings ........... square yard...
COLLOH VElLVEE OL VELVELECIIA 2 ao poss accu cpmewiectoe ew tiem ein ala = clcinie w wiwie np ata ama a at ag2=22
GIN SDAA ho 25. ere te ax as em hee obec nmlemprleb eatin saa ewan dain's's Sip 2 sislowlew'ccige ob wie cane eee ass ttl eee ee ad yal..
BHITUN OS) STAY i505 2c 5 ce ope cob ht eo msenus pdevebeus ce cbue ssw ectwcacsacosc gees sare pan ee eee eee ae eee square yard..
Shirtings, white and pleached ste ss ele bo vcece neces ccacsan seve desdeccsc cs een scv ees caeeae p peer case an ae ere e reas
Sairtings, Twilled ys Msc Pc0ci2 esses oeaw ac awa dmewn eae conc oo weir swe tna pols occwl> 0 be Ue me Seer eee eae hire tenes ere do....
Shirtings, dyes se scc. sees cx ncscduwdbwevedccachcscrsdacessccsccebec tne ass snes s ces sate bh Seber ee en aaa eee ee de; ..-
PATA CHEIARS oo: wewicnemce uw ees caewbw oc ccels o's u'e nts sine Suociepine alcecie's nism os'eip sla’ 5 ce cin> AA eee eee ad val..
EGIOUD go crevtcnncis aware gle sic ova'diu ovina en'e naa oojn mata n'a'nia ein serercio alas sin a's nace Sie cla a arse ne ee pe ee square yard..
TUPKEV=TCC CAIMDTICS': c.ohc1cb oo cer cd evicccccedc club pnicn-sccwpbacmnec cseeasserer es’ Comment ee tee aaa ae ee dous.<
Wictoria lawiiss oo foe eee tet 2. ose cee ce anew s sop cess acieBe ceases tun peEs sea a eee meena alee Seen eee ee MOss as
All other sorts of pure cotton tissues and all tissues of cotton mixed with flax, hemp, or other fiber, including wool, the
cotton, however, predominating in weight, not specially provided for .....-.....----+--2---222eeeeeeenecenenee- ad val_.
PART Le

Woolen:and worsted or combed yarns, plain or dyed 2. co.cc ccs ecesewdc ccc concvecdecpeenscescnen cen =sencuspemes 100 kins...
8. HOP WEAUUTIG PUN OSES Sonne wo nner own rec ced Jovan osbeence coves y see see re ee Jc epes Saas eee nas a eee oe dos:
D.DLOn OLRt DUMP OBES anion ow aaminier ve teerecctddecoracsnenbeserssesese usp neces py odewce seats Meee eee a= tee eee ase aos...
AIDGCES To <\- <oh aise ca'nia'c's wwe nn ato.clelein ute ovate ee o's alsa tnt desu te omnia e ean eee ane een oe square yard...
BAI ZATING oe coed aie o vic owen min ep tin'e Seine be ae wie aise eles aiam mime ee celia py wien pial a ts at ones ee ee ad val..
BUMUNOS. oo Sadewd ce asian pos ehirnctinae an cea ace can eee ea tae atte ener ‘iwis.5:0’s fine incb ail ayo ae eee square yard..
Camlets, lastings;) and ‘crape lasting. ...0< << sc cccecsmnacwtnidiemeis anion ecie sm meine ms ote ele ete ete ee val..
Camlet:. Cords so0ccc vanscemaswwouwepose ocae Uaceweln's dy woe spe tine etree ahs wee mice tes ate ete ete eae an doz --=
Ching Heures .c sciet cocnnasccanawaaseu cer swmcesarener ence em senna niean «hee an ae ee eee eee ee d0..=.

Flannels: .
GQ. Of WOO] «a cewie ncceccciccicedicle oe Sewernjetmccimere enim zie dala ais laslelalote eens astm a aoe See ae are square yard..
b.OL wool and cotton a iccts aad manne cohen peasy eee eae got soneee since enmwcpenpnnae ce ansscaneswcnonesssmewab do....
poesia ce including, also, Italian cloth in which cotton predominates in weight ......02-0-ceccecc cece ce cccnecccenceee eee axe
LONG-C1IS . 2. cacaapensaicin ceiencaaue aoesciebeng nme pe eee cle omnis asic lel ee ee ete ele eee ote ae ae eee eet eae eae

Mousseline de laine, wholly of wool:

a. Gray and WHIte... ... ..icseezscc sme iecwnb cin uta we ws \nieiuiuniwinw'osa/e/a'mre Aiea eet oe eset mele tate tele ae ate a ae G0sca-
6. Dyed and printed... ..cc0.ceccccecaceccsuw an ensecue coves cineca creda tenet nit eee ee tee yee ae ae a do...-
C. All other Kinds. .0 occ cccod sanccwdesecess daeed cae sauistslldistececits any seca cement eee beeen ae atari ad val...
Orleans and lusters:..... 22 ccasccsda noes vet vebaceneepenue ena nemeen sean eaae manos a eee eee ite: ie ee eee ee een eT doi .<s
Serges, where the warp is worsted and the weft woolen coon cccccescecnec pases assseceneceeeeeEsdeeeeaseeeas square yard..
Serges of all other Kinds 22... coe scecoececeecce cau cceewacc cee lee ie nee ae eee ee eee ee ad val..
Spanish stripes. ....0c% sceccsavecawenscsecvraecuuensabupnietscish en Wynn cmeee ees atiee cee ese Ee tee ee eee ane doucik

a. Wholly of woolen or worsted yarn, or of woolen and worsted yarn such as broad, narrow, and army cloth, cas-
simeres, tweeds, and worsled coatings. .< 00s cence cccadaecccube mae ameee Hebe aacnerae Saeeeoe as aaa or spate yard...

b. In part of woolen or worsted yarn, and in part of cotton yarn such as pilot, president, and union cloth ....do...:
Woolenand worsted: daimasks-5.<.c.2 2. os. s se eee eee eee ad val..

Woolen felt... 0.0 ccccesesscnecearcwcncwaws che ce nencleeh See beieese hae mek een sete aaa ooneGObac2
All other sorts, pure or mixed with other materials, the wool, however, predominating in weight............ wees Gann

Part III.
Silk thrown, tama or dupioni, skin, waste, and wild cocoons Silk ............2----seccccccnccnccccccccecceces -----ad val...
SILK, LEW viene c.0csoccececece cece cdueneeehevbiabie ses cuwacwajeew'ets em acieamcece aed tn open iate tetra ate ina aaa 100 kins. .
Blk, FUSGAN. .. nana ccsccccscancccnceccccaens swacwecenwunnc tices e's wayle clos olate ec hieitel ce atelier ie ttetet tet ssinttne Goce
Billc, OSs... case cvwcveccccnnnccccceencannt@acucesscane nil bulu dmme seule Ciel mete eeteeelse ts stns tata ad _val..
Silk, spun, for weaving purposes, and silk yarns mixed with other fibers ... 2.2.52. 2.. 0. ccnnececncenccncccnsssscsus do. <5
Silk, threads, not otherwise provided for. ......cctcccuvescccecedavauanvsesscensescns TEnESSeneen ees Sn een naan Eee Goict:
Silk, crape, Chinese... 2... 22d ccccccencccuceeeccns sccmasci enn ss emp kin ethers cet Elec ete mete netstat ttn doz...
Silk, pongee, Chinese (Kenchu) ...........scccocssensncensoseawncussebelew spel bt cen. sles eee an meena aaa do....
Satin 110 81K... ccccccvedeccocvcccccesccenesecccauesceweubous Gun ccanen sa aie amine ee cle ae cet ee inant do=:.
Silk satins, Chinese ........ccccnsceuenccmacecseuwoleen enna ka welulvm abe wnih femmeeie ee see ei etnies een square yard..
Silk satins, figured Chinese..........-csececcanctbecesoncenenaubusiubwetpne® situs ems ne cmetite seietetee =n soa ad val..
Silk, faced cotton satins or satin in silk and cotton mized. .....cdcccusuysassucasesueeuuscueusCenunn cen eeaenn nna emane Goce
Silk, tissues, and silk and cotton tissues, embroidéred. ..... ccccccecu cece a secs ccdse sn paees ena eaeeneeEee nea =annae do....
All other silk tissues pure or mixed with other materials, the silk, however, predominating in weight............ d6..2¢

Part IV.
Flax or linen yarns; plain or. dyed. .:.... «ic. cusvecccenslcnscuue du sme ukuis Sule ae & melee een enn Rindacengs 100 kins. .
Flax or linen threads. ..... 000 ccesnsnccecescunecaseensnw=nmnan Ss inne asin be ewes cee os iiine a e ad val...
Flax or linen canyas........... square yard..
Linen, gray, bleached, dyed, or printed. ... 5... cecceccccesacncnsugpecccec sous cee sn mamta nana oii ad val...
Lined, GAMOASIA. 6 iain non scvcececcvcesnccncees.occucees nie pine amiietiihe ana cmantsnennn ann Sateen
All other sorte of linen tisees .....ccccercccccteccuccncccceenvuuseccencce cue caus ase eu /nieetnennnn ss Ocnas
All other linen tissues mixed with other materials, the flax, however, predominating in weight ................ ad val...

PART V.

Blanketing and whipped blankets in plain weave:

A. Of WOOL OF WOVEEM DUTE...0ccaccasenescanacacacsccsesscactinsenet seus usu ouseu cue nnnenn manves onl MAINO.
b. Of wool or worsted mixed with other materials, the wool, however, predominating in weight .........- eceuewssecses do:
Blankets of all kinds, single or in piece... ...cscccccnceccencecceusununshs ans she somal nan eembnneeennnnn dons o00cQU VAL.
Carpets and carpetings, Brussels 2... ...cnccccccvcuctwoseccesncnccnduutaunuuune aw cacawnien ame meee square yard...
Carpets.and carpetings, felt .....ccccccesacscncsvesssneucchentcncnsnanacnabeceuecbse ans uuue meine iantn=======—==———n GOs i05
Carpets and carpetings, Jute or hemp ....ncnccvucevscnannccevccvevucsnatewatcusvcccsenswunue seen nn nnnnnn=nnn————E Goins
Carpets and carpotings, patent tapestry... .ccsunesnccccacncucuescccuccUucnnceacuuccas cucuumitennsnanlniennnn==I==nnnE Ga.u.=
All other carpets and carpeting. ......sccccecccncusussscccsccusccduswouces sun uswae su mumanne than eee ad val..
GOUT s cscarhsveccerncunusnascceucstecashnescehs ann bpisenaincuac shoes dais mineany ain iiaentntnnE square yard...

Included in the conventional tariff under No, $22.
»bSquare yard.
*Included in the conventional tariff under No, 340.

aN
SESESRRRKE

10
mK

es esesse
ac

Se
soe
RS

=)
i=]
-_
u

Ses

$=
=
ow

eRRB

S

es sesso

BRSEEEe SRES RERBREESS x

es
_
~
-_

Be
RRR

eyewydugeaneey

4Ineluded in the general tariff under No. 351.
eIncluded in the conventional tariff under No. 356,
f Included in the general tariff under No. 357.

- is
Pars
Nae Ps
x 4 oy = +
ae ie a
DECEMBER, —
amen Tae
- sa

Yen.
4.180 | G., G.B.
210 | F..G.,G.B.
b0.016 F.,G.,G.B.
0.016 F.G.,G.B.
0.053! F.,G.,G.B.
0.012 F.,G.,G.B.
0.017 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.041 | F.,G.,G.B.
2104 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.006 | F.,G..G.B.
0.010 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.011 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.013 | F.,G.,G.B.
10% | F.,G.,G.B.
0.009 | F668.
0.012 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.006 | F, GG. 8.
loz F.,G.,G.B.
9.169 G.B.
8.000 | F.,G.
9.169 | G.,G.B.
0.075 | F.,G.,G.B.
©10¢.| F.,G.,G.B.
0.031 | F.,G.,G.B.
©104 | F.,G.,G.B.
©10¢ | F.,G.,G.B.
©10¢ | F.,G.,G.B.
0.044 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.030 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.029 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.036 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.015 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.021 | F.,G.,G.B.
>0.021 | F.,G.,G.B.
104 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.056 | F.,G.,G.B.
10s | F.,G.,G. B.
©10¢ | F.,G.,G.B.
0.093 | F.,G.,G.B.
0.039 | F.,G.,G.B.
10s | F.,G.,G.B.
10% | F.,G.,G.B.
10% | F.
10% | F.,G.,G.B.
6.527 | G.,G.B.
0.047 | G.,G.B.
©10% | G.,G.B.
e10% | G.,G.B:
10% G.,G.B
7.458 | F.,G.,G.B.
7.458 | F.,G.,G.B.

1901.} COMMERCIAL JAPAN. Zate

Tue Customs Import TARIFF OF JAPAN IN Force ON AND AFTER THE First Day or THE First Mont or THe Tuirry-seconp YEAR
oF Mew (January 1, 1899) —Continued.

CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.
I $$ ——$—$———————————————————— ee —
Tariff pea ae General | ©O9¥€D- | contractin
ARTICLES. ese tional - &
oe ~—— | tariff. | tariff. Dlates.
Group XIIL.—Tissues, yarns, threads, and raw materials used therefor—Continued.
peel Clute Part V—Continued.
urtains: Yen. Yen.
men Tasik SoU) ROTEL TD AUN Ciera eras tal clara reles eyes aioe Totes eas arcs Sew bes oe ES cre tladlewapionvenveetacdewanneimme ad val..| 2 |
fo, EMI R UTS 0 3 scrnc nee bas SISOS IE oo EOI pee ee PR Ia BI i NL a eR do....| 204, |
866 | elastic boot webbing: ;
Gh (ON RHINE, SI) [OFM 2 a PE ROR ECE Sc OSE ean e ECE ECE EOC ae een ©: tein a a a arr do 2 |
I SEAR CA Le eee capes re nS ee et Ie era 21g Seley cho Sol anicne als Sameer Pune nln etic deswele'ssiewecamsecceucaed do 15% |
Rotem e etleses hea UA aCe COL CS 9520 clea cles eet ete rere wie RR ot Eee NR I nS ne es oo comececwde do 1% | |
3868 | Handkerchiefs: ;
PPRCDRC CHI SEIBIECA LOM ena Oooo tole tana dela sedis AEE ao oe ono te atta fsaivoes'nb o\o Secs senccine ao... 15 |
oC CO OUR IBN CAD ICCC Hemme erate saa Nader sett Pinsent ocane caer ad omiteca sso dooce vaacsccsseclaenae=-SQUATe Yard..| 0.017 | 0.011 F.,G.,G.B.
Of cotton mized with other materials, the cotton, however, predominating in weight in the WIEME? oon )wetao some ad val..! 8154 10a =6CF., G., G. B.
CuGrincuouOminen and Coton single OL IM PLCS. 2. sosesrdcu-- ee cer cevecsvcecceccnsccancacececececccaccene ae 1s | ‘ ’
2
869 20%
370 0. 043
3871 0. 071
372 | Table cloth or covers:
a. Of silk, wholly or in part Le
GAPAUMOGn ere seca saecesmnes ce Pues eck fae 20%
378 | Lowels of all kinds, single or in piece...............0.cceececees 14
374 | Traveling rugs, single or in piece:
Goreme GC) sD ee I EL en PE EE yi taictat tale inc tty der eisicaraiae ele mista w clnnic Picci omilels nclSaceiduac adel Sect cbeeeees 2
Oe -Allotheria. = = 2.2 eerie teielet telat ate tare malate (eatin ala telalers comnts oom se aaictaine ae miemaaeica acne ce ouaeacenens oats cbabes 1M
DIUM wintestOL cotton, fax, hemp, jute; manila hemp; or china grass. . 02... <5 cece ccccecccccccccccacncccccocceseccnce do... 104
HoMevarisandthrerds of all kinds nob otherwise provided 08-2... --2cc< ccc cceecwee vende cenccsncccenccce-coececcccocvcce da:::. 1i¢
OIE eR UL COM ACTIN ALO DLE OMIT GID UNDO SCS otis a!-'s:< cishciela <is'a'd'e ninmivincialon eSsa Saqeunsesudeeceasacewacdelcvecscvreveesasoccss do:..- 154 | 8 G
CTO IEE SO Lm UCSD CCL LD ROVLOCE MON -\a ee. vie\caincie a's ols duc sie aibs ie oblasauis Saves os a SeccWcactoemsicde Secu secscucucc'ees™ do.... bldg | 10e G., G. B,
RS ilar Fite rr es oe Se Ne an. eu wntinidv, cuuabooe-occs adecs socuvevacdeucecs do... 154 |
378 | All other works of tissues: a
Gi, ORT, loro Hl for outhaly of: tae ee Ne ae ap es a ee ee Sees a SN Se ee RT ee ea G02. 2. 254
See N CU Gt aE eete eee sna aeteienn one eet ee natant: ob sa cimc cel vos one te unt res doeuccEk ae wc oune ces ea eeeeeeeneods ys Eee 20%
GrouP XIV.—Tobacco.
en LES Spreaders fata ete erate siete ci ciniainsfaincia nee wins cic ale nets ular erataw cieleioarel Sellen cede ols eau weicstewle vewevaceciocecbecbecccecceswoeee ad val.. 1004
MOM CCUG ULC Stee Sa snitns cate nace ca tne'seiaiaieabiarniseleatiewe cic vegies SRR eee mins eins aiaiokate otepees mics ata ae icin ie tebe eae ete ae rats Re 1004
Gepesiem Rresxi Linens ett ee re Pe clara ial) aan ata arate sieratatate oe aia cin aide wrcistamnin. ale bia Mateja nines en Sa ediouce eddanicovesasetouuacee cakes G02 100¢
ecm RG ORC CONG by ae amstes sie winiwieitaiatea elas s\eue ctelcieicera diy seinniaisicisiscioeicsanta'ioaecuc cous deta be dettees scntiaGnactacecubéncsbeecbas d02s5 100¢
SPE MRE LL COM LG Si ee fee Perla, Loraine octoaaleroree einttaiaals ain weicinwic't Usb bre’aldin'epcniniseniud cane nce deca soup cwuuccebewasccvswac'sdnccese do: <.; 35% °
Beamer DLE PATCH yLQOACCOn ssckinic cs eam neetaige es nic cic oft che mutins dina Raeracwisaterq tween ae tmien keen nasaed okeawewecleawodde do... -- 1004
GROUP XV.— Wines, liquors, and spirits.
885 | Beer, ale, porter, and stout:
Kee BR HeN NOI OMCCCOUME 2 LNG OM CH ctasia + ciniwe's asisimia isles cig Ne chau moneban avon acecdscacececcweeesccatousecce per dozen.. 0. 388
Pee BOCs aise eon mle ae rer CA CM ero ier ce sererelnaite oe oe voncbademcstaac caeadeksackicacesebaevSeawcseececce do:ss- 0.515
em UUCHSRRO te ALT eee oe meer sas Sater ee sate ce des Tass Seca ose nc cnnien nome cancseicetecad Qvewesuasuscsceceorescues ad val.. 25
WINS | TRIEDORVONT we Sco ccltieeiels 6 SOS RE GE Sct oS SOARES OE eat a a ee gee Spe ea do.. 40%
387 | Champagne and other similar sparkling wines, exclusively the produce of the natural fermentation of grapes, in case:
5. 425 1.550 | F
, y 5. 425 1.550 | F.
888 | Chinese alcoholic liquors of all kinds:
CSE le Oey a ateteeteie alee siataiera stale ae ste eines wists cisicisicjeinjatn se cle aie cect w cisls enn ciate eccdemicacneacneseeeeacbedeuecavceuewss 1004
eM OTIVOMTC Cae acre’ oct a /emaisin sts clea o seinlemne enc cae civics cmelenincebaeece 80%
aC) | (Ghele s s S ee : 40%
390 | Liquors of all kind 40%
Bole BE ONUWAILG. Crees cleo s anc cinseanee'e aes
ODPL ate elsiare malai< a soe so nash ic Scgess nodes sche eocScHeg cn eR Sr Corb Smiogie ace nese nOaao E CAR aap AS aA Bee SEE bass 40%
393 | Sake, resembling the home brewage nae 80%
een aes a ee le rte eta iota ieee enemies icici eee Snici niniu coinage niniea cin caste aleis’s die ee dacs co clgacceesescenccacsceverccuanevavcsee
Samy RaUCON ENE) Omer ayers a micteimstns) sepa ic cine ccla isiste eve sclawiucc ceaisieaccsavecieesascletcsceciaccanct as ceccucececenscbecaeemcuces a ote 354
aE iSO Re rane Si ee ayn eds ee as are peeyclnts wiccis nc cecicidic wea S¢ccs sew ceeecclee Setauannanauaandameumens aenes Sane 40%
897 | Wine, still, of all sorts, exclusively the produce of the natural fermentations of grapes:
Not exceeding 16 degrees of pure aleohol—
Kiem ltiRCH tice OTE ICT pee menace ie Sa Me cidicicin’s emieleicwee dalnace:eimicininn ma(ancivc-s qcleleis walce'e @uacnph@eeness cvemeewe ats 10 litres... 0.435 e1.242 | FP,
b. In case—
IMContaimiin 4 Dobler nobexeeedine A litre CAC. « aisicam «sei a coialssc cee tilecccdeccecescuceccasecenceuckwe per case... 2. 660 0.7 F.
2. Containing 12 bottles, exceeding 3 litre and not exceeding 1 litre cach........ ccc ceccecccccescaccecscces once. 2. 660 0.760 | F.
Exceeding 16 degrees and not exceeding 24 degrees of pure alcohol—
CLEC RaC DENTS Leeper et ta ta tee Meme na een ce Sok octebete wae mea See oad Cuvee oaeekensRuneedueusnammsaneane 10 litres... 2.774 07.925 | F.
b. In case—
PeeOonpsmaine 24 HoOrles, NOt.exCCGIMS S IMME CACH. a2 oa nce nen ncancnsnmncvecccccccavoteccceceacccecesaee 2. 380 0.680 | F.
. 2. Containing 12 bottles, exceeding } litre and not exceeding 1 litre each 2.380 0.680 | F.
898 | Spirits or distilled liquors of all other kinds.......... val. 100¢
899 | Wines or fermented liquors of all other kinds 80%
5 ; Group XVI.—Miscellaneous.
400 | Aloeswood ....-..... eee eee eee selene os oa cicaeaelapars Meike hay cameasnnachelssnane annua quseiasnesinucn anenanewenacn 100 kins... 8. 688
401 | Amber: :
a. Unworked 10%
Ds) WROLK EC anes weiaicecmceee Pee. oa ae eneue tact acca dea bindekin diane Noe Rude ae Geka REN wan hiaih a wan ia ne do.. 20%
402 | Animals: 7 :
Cattle, horses, asses, mules, sheep, goats, and domestic fowls - 5s
PELOUS Cate eee see tetera ante oiosig etsaim =) sik io. a aisielcin's ee w'cin'a S'Ulele(sivcin'dGineinclun a's < 54 Free. | A.
Pee mam AHIR CO TEY YEU ENTE) 16) 5 eee ter Ee nc wos own cinle melanie oe 6¢ee’e akin Gann sWatmwatics dueM ce gnueruchecccancuesccens au 10%
EE ASHE STOS eK RU CCU OM MOAN estes sa citer fae s sa alanis o ciun sca cnlces ocueebbe seine chenccvcnswadceqmandSguca cule uenencqnancaasies sceere os
405 | Bamboo, unworked ..... 2.2.2.2 ccne ec ccn enn c ene eect ence tence nce en eect ene eceeenneceee cnc eseenscssnaecenensanceeeenes a os
406 | Beltings of leather, caoutchouc, or canvas, and hose of caoutchoue or canvas, for machineries ..........-...--+--- do.... 10%
407 | Billiard tables and accessories........--.-------++-++-++-+s++:++22+: Bais dat citnnw cance nciiwsa estan sbuwwbsvanvee>-s5005ue do.... S08
408 | Blasting gelatine and other similar explosive compounds, including detonators and fuses................-.-e eee do.... 15%

} _ Included in the general and conyentional tariffs under No, 322,
‘id bIncluded in the general tariff under No. 376. ; ; f 3
¢Subject to the provision regarding alcoholic strength, port wine and sherry are dutiable as still wines under No. 297. :
___4Jn virtue of the conventional tariff with France, subject to the provision regarding alcoholic strength, yermouth is dutiable in the conyentional schedule
as still va under No. 397.
e itres,

2314 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Tue Customs Import Tanirr or JAPAN IN Force oN AND AFTER THE First Day or THE First Monru or THE Tarety-s

or Mer (January 1, 1899)—Continued. .
CLASS I.—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

Tariff ARTICLES.

Group XVI.—WMizcellaneous—Continued.

409 | Bricks and tiles for building purposes ......2 22222002222 cee cnn ncn cec cer ener nce nce ce ce cnnncccccceccnccasvnnsenneua
Min whrosice ATG DECOIS OF GL KINGS. 00. } occ. coe ewscicn reactor tap cancebertsecn- scopes fst pasaine, Sncapeeiae oa ee em rit ee.
Ada CADER, GIHEKS, ALO WHIPS... 2cce ence noc csnsceeccweweewrsene caste clot cas sccmranescwennssnsensseseasmane age cteeeetee “its REA
412 | Caoutchouc and gutta-percha:
a. Crude
b. Sheet : ;
¢c. Manufactures of, not otherwise provided for. ........ 222-222-022 - 2a n wen ee cence ee ee nnn mewn cnnn nnn enanecen=s
Manufactures of CQOUCHKOUC.. oneccenesccecenc-ocereee- Se aie Sie ane ie lino oe erat la oe ie
413 | Carriages, bicycles, tricycles, and parts thereof .........-.--------------- +2220 eee eee cece ne neneeee
414 | Cars or carriages, railway passengers’, and parts thereof...........-----.----2-2- eee nee e ence en en anne
415 | Cars and wagons, railway freight, and parts thereof. ....-..- 2... .22---0dse 20-20 - nee n enn ce nen ennnn= 4
416 | Cars and earriages, tramway, and parts thereof...... 2.222. -00- ee ence cen n ee ence nen e ene c ene nnnneneenecatennnncenens
417 | Cars and drays for conveyance of commodities . ... 22... i. cence ceca cacncererccancceseensmecsasamenssaseassne= Sete do
418 | Celluloid: :
G@; In ANCOR GY ROU Sac- oe ese 5-0 = ve mmo we reels owen re oe oa. s = > ae ere ee ke ee ee ae ee kin..
B. Worked ..22.. 2. ccc ccencenccccccecwccnecccecncccw nen nc cen ne nnsnanacerncn ccna aenenannnnscenarenrossensncrees= ad yal-..
Al9'|\ Cement, Portland. oo oc oo sew cremnmemer anes os ida ae conics si Deeccn eases r= nem se nbine nara ee ener aes aera an .-100 kins...
420) Chalk and whittte. .<.20.% cme no- ccc cccw cor ccsecens anes naecnsens swewsceecemsset Js aesemr=nxis = evens snwssce=— =
401 | Charcoal, wood'and animal <.. 2.02 cose c ne pec cc eter nene ccrwentacnc ieee cp eceseustees dens ome eee = a= See e ee = nae =e
422") Olay Of All KANG oo ono oon ewe vow wclelecn wc avian ecun sive penmonacennier decane mp eley veh = eaten ss = ee ae eee a eee i eae do
493.a) Coal briquettes, or patent fuel coal ....... 220 wn one tne n hacen = onnee sneer eens meen seesaw dae oneeaeeenae as aea nes aeee=e
GIBB) COB oad kak ects Se boo acres <eptie onic wie w erates w aoa win he ho ac ya ms mn ope a ca
ALAN CORGfo5 scar Sacco we ew be ek wns sed ww ade on dp lair aie toca Sie wpe a a le i th I kee ibe
425.| Corals, worked op otherwise... -- <0... 520026. 2 emcees ocemecme wes eve wowemeecinesees wn ees one Messina ee = teen nee
426 | Cordage and ropes of flax, hemp, jute, Manila hemp or China grass, for rigging or otherwise-..........-...-.--
ao |\iCOTm PAT pan se eee es emcceweeti aes asm paces :
OB COLMA Sa poes sae 2 arene os oenes neice een areas
490° |: DEAD GICG @lOAUREE Fa oa ox ao ohpene cee Incpoe enone sae ceeeeel =a aS as
MBO | Dymamlie <2. 225 8. - < een s caeemn none ce ese scar owcses cevdsbasnnc cnene eras we cece = teres er eg se eee ee kin..
AT PY BOTS eo eee wd cree wise a eben a stasis sm laa we a ee ae ener ad val..
482\| Emery cloths ‘and sandpaper... <.5..30--<sc ccs < swe cen seme nee sacar eh teak eniaims oo elec mem eee ee ae eee eee ee ere ao..-:
433 | Emery wheels, and grindstones of all kinds <2... 0.20502 ce cca venues ccsenncesnens apes see = = see ema Stee eee os eee do
434 | Felt, for ship's bottom, or for roofing .....-.----------- +22 222ee eee e eee ee eee ee eee eee ne eee eee e eect nee eeneeeeeee
486.) Fireworks of all RIMS ooo coe aie win eo hoic wis ania dinw wie wrelslwal own eins mee oles aie mie ee ee Go. 52
436 | Wishing guts (Tegusi) oo... nec e= 2a nice an cle dos wee wre cw sei male oie wim m i a mia wo pe eee 100 kins...
ABT NOU eo is 5 5 occa 5 cin oie ccmien ne eimic paw dm mm mimeo! ae erat mm wll el at a
488 | Flowers and biossoms, artificial: 2.2... cdsiesl ww temen sda seaccdnds ods 20e cae messes sui a ae ee eee ae eee eee ao
489. | Frames for pictures, and moulding’ . . 2.205 oo sc0s5.ssceceneeepeecesoewase mas aweeeie= tes eer ne ean aeae pew eee do
440 | Funori ( Gleopertis tntricate). 5.2 -- ~~ = cope eee be tee ne ere sane eee n eae hek ee =e eae eee Eee eee eee neers gute eketee 100 ki
441 | Furnitures, new and old, not otherwise provided for... ..- sowccesusce tec mccouapeuesebeceueesek nabs easessae eee eee ad val..
Furnitures of bant wood. of all tind... -<.cce= ose ns banca es aces deerh none see ene pee Beene eee een Cane aes alee do.
442 | Games, all articles of, used in playing tennis, cricket, chess, etc., not otherwise provided for ..............-...-----
443 | Glue, COMMON 4. ..v <2 occ s sce ccees se. emeie = 5a cece pei mas eee Te al op le eee ene
Add) Gun iouton . coas sees a'e ceeemn ©
445 a) Gunpowder, sntokeless ... ....2 is <cescecsesnsunsaeee coms i eee een see ee mie eee ciel Sere eee en ete ee Renee ae
445 b| Gunpowder of all kinds, excluding the smokeless powder ..........-------.c0ee-csenenccccnnnnceccececnnnnne ----100 kins.
446 | GYPSUM 2.2... ccc vc wwe cc cece cnwmn cer ene nns mc cnenanansasseheannsnansssemess seeasen ares aeeaseasseesssss== sss e=aaen anes
BAT | OY ooo coon ow nig di'n wos onic. oemmtamew emp mein 6 ean iolor Sas mye sat a
448 | Ivory, manufactures of, not ofherwire provided Tor. -. 22. c.2 oe owes eee cee ace eee ee do
449 | JOWEITY .....occce ence cecs cmeuee nis cms =item ina wemm'hs wate p Se nkaat bg ce ela sie Bea Se Pe, ees do
450 | Jewelry, imitation of.............. wee cc cece nc on cncccene seedy aces udu cesses ee Senne oe ete nase neeee ann

Imitation jewelry: ’
Small articles of luxury used for personal adornment made principally of common metals, such as aluminium, aluminium
bronze, nickel, German silver, argentine, copper, steel, zinc, lead, tin, iron, ete., or also of jet, hardened wood, beads,
shells, horn, celluloid, bones, and other similar cominon materials:
1° Gilt, silvered, treated with aquafortis, burnished, polished, varnished, tinned, enamelled, oxidized, or nickeled, garnished
- with ‘vitrification,’ enamelled (cloisonné) or not, false pearls, corals, both genuine and false, imilation precious

Yen.

ar)

e SPP

i
nr

°

BOY p BARTS REE EER S8t eect se eer Ianee Eee RRERVRERR BRR

ees)

y

SLOMNES «wn .n 2 0.00 n. 0.0 owns ewww a nnn an sine olbrcie winip alam ere al ie te ere et ad val.. >b308
2° Garnished with mother-of-pearl, ivory, tortoise shell; gold and silver plated if the value of the garnitures or plating does
not surpass the value of the principal composition, «<< -o<sc-2cenmnanone eos pee ees = elas ae e val.. >30%
Notre.—Jewelry most commonly used are rings, colliers, bracelets, ear pendants, medals, medallions, brooches, combs, orna-
mental hairpins and hat gee tie pins, breloques, buckles, hooks, snuffboxes, buttons (common buttons ex ),
coulants, pase, handles and ferrules of sticks, umbrellas, and parasols, coins (sequins), pencil cases, and yall
other small objects of adornment not mentioned herein.
451 | Labels for bottles, tins, €t¢ ........0.0ccecccsccccceencccnsevaswas on anne sa cUen eee a em ae ieee ne oe -ad yal... 1s
452 | Lamps.and lanterns, and parts thereof... ...5-..2.: s0cssssnsacescenwrcessehee eens cece ene eee eee enn do 206
Lamps and accessories and parts thereof in metal or Glaes .... 02. scis52cccntsnccees sb ucueenh= se OnGeae Eee eaeeaeenene 20%
458.) Lard, tallow, QMG@ QTOASG 6 2 os. ware can ccene wtbsenesesaccmebesks fe nete aes seen ne ie ae ne See ee 108
454 | Leather, manufactures of, not otherwise provided for... -.. -- .-.cmesesn= ssn anne Hane eee enne er
465 | MBG coin con nse coceeccecuneuéswcieu cess su calhinis Sn5/q/e'a'elw alls Wisie’y at inet eine tan woe wet cane meted en 0.
456 | Matches of all kinds... .. 2... 20. essscccccsccccnsccccectsscaunsiesceenmnu sun =c.s ee mua Wim eee eee eaten ee ee
457 | Matting, China, in rolls of 40 yards... .n..0.cdeanunveniens se ees bivismla\s ales Sy swiss suse ements Ge eee per roll.. 0.61
458 | Mattimg, COCOR. ...... 20.0: sccncsnnss see dh senataucucnmuanidiciew cic eateauis essa amin iit es -------8quare = 0.058
450 |- Mate aud matting, al) other... .nc0s000sanbeunua nine l Wn dien i alum clepeeeeeneennn poen niche paiete near tea aeaeieeaaaane val... 20%
460 | Mica. fn sheet. nc. c.ceccc cans cece scncneenns umn mem ns leo Wn mmm ease ues aie eee inetete ate neta se ae fin wpincomigls dapepcetttl
461 | OalM,.... cn cssnaeccccccccccdewence 0cesecceue Hue 6 eleid,eu'n.uwiels ust e 6 cies uni segs nein nat==t= eee 100 kins ono
462 | Packing, for steam engine ..........0..cccncescccceccacces seceeaeucns cuss ue ap pu amen/s/ enn nnnI= n= 10%
463 | Paintings, in oil or water colour, lithographs, chromolithographs, photographs, ealligraphical albums, and all other
paintings, pictures, and calligraphy, not otherwise provided for ................... in he datic wa ale gm ors iia ..ad yal...
464a) Piteh ost
4646) WO0d tar . oa nan nncnnnccccscawscnccavenceccauncvecssscpeans snes osu s ss S65 cele anennt === 0. 322
464.0) COOL NOR. 025 -sncnsecccceseape cans yceceunus decpenyvoun’ seach awewanscemee en i=nntnnnnnIn———n fd
465 | Plaster of paris .......... Ee ey gn ctadeansien 0.174
466 | Playing cards of all kindGs......cusvccoscccccccsvecesceceesencuesscucsucuenuimunep suai nie in iaaniannnt= nnn
467'| Plumbago or tiaek lead... «0 c0.sensannwscnatsanemmnn wyihs sin wen siaisliceesecneis mise eevee: ithichasnaeedeae 0.70
468 | Pottery, including yankee em and earthernware, not otherwise provided for .................... pe nadia pad 206
469 | Precious stones and pearls .i......00. 0. pov csnsnendcaveaseas suwwkynupasn uw akon sone SS 35s
470a| Precions stones and pearis, imitation Of ..... .ccscsienncssncscccacchbenuuuesundebanaeeananeeen ann qdenaithameps 303,
470b|) Precious stones.and pearls made Of glass ......cecesssvcesccececvceedeuun cn mnwninu eeu oneeeiennnnnnnetennEnn nnn
471 | Pulp, for making paper ......csccccccsaccccccdccssccceccvccteucucaccusscustuss cu salu upameenenn nnn 0.
BID PUB ccc cccccccccedsnnscccccecvceveneudymeceeneudune saeu.s.c.u a dw iGuide ulernune ieee lien 0.234
478;)) Retina) eplit:er OChGrwite &< .<cacsensaecoesesdeusewebunceuaauueien ee 0.393
474 | Saddles, bridles, and Harness, ....c..cscesvecccsccusnccssuewcusdesewiitnpe caldis unis uae speneiennenenennnnnnnnnn
A7E5 Banal wood . ...cccccnccuvconsucnspusaewecccduewsucnsees cans cccuwosillmn clu sm pirn weal ianeleee lei La
* Included in the general tariff under No. 441, * Included in : tariff ustria-Hungary under
» Included in the general tariff under No. 450. ee paps! = a

'
24,

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

or Mew (January 1, 1899)—Continued.

CLASS IL—ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY—Continued.

2315

_ Tne Customs Import Tanrirr or JAPAN IN Force oN AND AFTER THE First Day or THE First Monta or THE Tairtry-seconp YEAR

Tariff ‘ | General | C2@¥€D-| Contractin
No. ARTICLES. | “tari, | ‘tional States. .
: tariff.
Grovur XVI.—WMiscellaneous—Continued. ) Yen ' Yen
EOD) Ag aN SIR fo OGD GE ie lee. lt en i ie ee ad val..| 204
§ re oo Brmcles (articles ior use imamoking Opium are EXClUGEG) <2... 2. cece ce ecb accccccncccnccecccceccccserccuce do....| 20% :
: 7 oap: :
2 DONG os rosasec hoc CEE SDRC BEE EO AC EEE Sse Bees Men eee i Sh a eee mye.| 204 | *0.070| P.
: PE EEL LOE tee tartan tay a ete ee oe alo cals ie rine SA aces vince Co ea eee Moose caccawtd avtaccddenerinvsns 100 kins..| 1. 085 | 0.972 | F.
5 Cn eae eter eae eee eae ainc annie Sol ap ain ae casey ac eaese ee paian aa eae ns cee dweciescccccssennosaga ad yal..| 104
Bee mera pacman D On DO MO CLEC an etr oGe acne c o> ab saw eeederaendsberoestiasaen ido smddsvendnccnddeecseescencceess 100 kins.. 0.089
Seer OH TGESP eel Cy LTE MUS ELEM IU ER So ooo tees oem ae lice seeds op nas edema mae b ene ee rene cabrial ag wonwiSdcewectcececccscnceccs ad val.. 104
q ee sae eR eee eS ee Sen aes eee Son ae MM ai eiionac ave pac une cee iienca sentence denaucaccdaesecmecseceesune do.... Bes
482 | Stones and slates not otherwise provided for:
= q@. Rough or unworked, for building purposes, etc........2..-c-ececetuecsscccue in eaditn des canrcbadé cena res G05. 25 it
PV oLcecmomordamenta lh wOnkS Ox MUIMMLtORCS COs cc cceccs ccc ce sede crave sakccccqeersusscccaceveeseccseresvesecs Cis 204
c. Statutes and other, sculptured or engraveds............- eS ee EAE Bee OEE oa ee oo pee 2¥t
483 | Submarine telegraphic cables and under-ground telegraphic lines or cables ..........-..20cececee cee cececceeecceeee- do.... 10%
3 eee Ee tears tir l ra (SMH ie oe sate ocae ese cee ae eae im ce nie eatin w outs doe soak onc edctn buna tecoeenncdndenceecccace 100 kins... 0.175
av) | DRAG GZS 0 us Seat Bee. he ae oe 52 ea a ae a ee ee ee 100 cubic feet... 7. 628
486 | Timber, lumber, boards, and planks of all kinds, not otherwise provided for ................-----2ceceeeceeeeeeee ad val.. ie
eee EC Ne OtaC Nense CARCAE eats te cen nea a5 in ae a ancien s ies a oe oe wei anion anna cee ccawers cemeapsceesseweaesccncncesn- dgccs. 2 |
488 Payor or perfumed water, hair oil, dentifrices, and all other cosmetics and perfumery...............--.----------- AGses5 b 30s |
erfumery:
a. Toilet soap (see No. 478).
b. Liquid perfumery: Essences or extracts of scents, oils, vinegars, waters, and alcoholes of toilet or scent and other liquids
Po RACER REITER ster ain ae as Sec a2 eee Seren ba esas cnccdasoaebavenedsdeanceess ad val.. b30¢; 20.92 PF.
c. Dry perfumery: Salts, powder, cosmetics, pomades, pastes, and other nonliquid perfumeries jor toilet(¢) ... aA b 306 | 104 | F.
UME TORE Stel mEn teins Ole sme ace aoe | aaien oes So eremcicetomes ccdcnece nS ooscccncaSncctenewecssvccce 2 | :
: 8 ar ye es oa da vase adasaddcuabacngunveosodndessccectacosecactonssces 25%, |
Aimar ks. HOrIAnbentEx nan TtVvelLue OF COURER DAES. cocs-cn--edcwecioucecaccccwecanccceclscaveccucccecccecsscccncecce 202 |
; 492 | Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades:
Rem Orag SEMC AENVIELOOLL OSU ttn List Ura nfo erode aetare inc Riartam em ot nch scales sleaptnlanisaiseieeecec conn dosGeec cs aepuocenctSvedennceses 254
POGOe CLEP Meee eee eee aoe a ee ne see a win Sa wee an aeh aecuase noses pls (seb as voccddecocskboudebecestevuceecsecm 20%
493'| Umbrella sticks and handles (4), except those made of gold or Silver. ... 2.20... 0.2.2 ee cece n cen cccccccccccccnccccccce 20%
PEPamCSe | s SUCHRENG ERAN eA Ok DOM Ts ce amt poses Seman ase senses aeene ac shee so deuapueonsbe cloaca necucecBesescenns® 56
Dees ClisHn teem Omen On TMOG = > cee on cee ae ce skank sane cacd db de centunc acdc gtteedcesScceeccccuacevedee ds 254
ea Rope articles, raw Or Unmanutactured, not herein enumerated +. :. 2. J... 22 ct sence nese nenecenaceccccceccasccccccccus 104
497 | All articles, manufactured wholly or in part, not herein enumerated .............0c00ccccecceccncecncccccccnccccccce 20%
2 Kin.
» Included in the general tariff under No. 488.
noo sod artificial musk, civet, and gray amber are excluded from perfumery schedule of the conventional tariff with France,
ee No. 450.
» . CLASS II.—ARTICLES EXEMPTED FROM DUTIES.

498. Advertisements and signboards.

499, Animal bone ashes. 3 :
a 500. Atlases, maps and charts, and other scientific diagrams.
501. Bank notes, coupons, scrip, and all other negotiable papers.

502. Books, printed, including copy books, drawing books, pamphlets, periodicals, journals, and newspapers,

503. Bullion, gold and silver.
= 504. Cocoons of all kinds.
ov: 505. Coins, gold and silver.

506. Cotton,old. _

607. Cotton, raw, ginned.
‘608. Cotton, raw, in the seed.
> : 509. Cotton, waste. ;
A 610. Cotton, yarn, waste. | ‘
_——s«#11. _ Flax, hemp, jute, Manila hemp, and China grass, hackled or otherwise.

612. Guano.

513. Gunny bags, new and old.
-—«##14, Gunny cloth. J
——s«€141. Manure, artificial, and manures of all kinds not provided for in the tariff.
515. Mats, packing. ;
5151, Minerals, phosphatic. hes ;
: 516. Models and architectural and engineering plans.
P 517. Oil cake, in lump or powdered. 4
— 518. Opium for medicinal purposes, imported by the Imperial Government,
= 518l. Paraffin.
5182. Potash, chlorate of.
518%. Phosphorus, amorphous.
5184, Phosphorus, yellow.
519. Plants, trees, shrubs, and roots, shoots and bulbs thereof.
620. Rice and paddy. ;
_ * 521, Sardines (Iwashi), dried.
- 522. Tea-firing baskets and sieves.
623. Tea-firing pans.
524. Tea lead. .
625. Wool, goat’s hair and camel’s hair, new and old,
| 251. Zine sheet No. 2.

"

Bert

‘627. All articles for use in smoking opium.

regulations of the Empire.

7 7" ms! CLASS III.—PROHIBITED ARTICLES.

629. Articles in violation of patent, design, trade-mark, or copyright laws of the Empire. :
580. False coins of any kind, and imitations of coins which might be considered to be false coins.

1. Opium (opium imported by the Imperial Government for medicinal purposes is excluded from this prohibition).

. Prints, printed kooks, paintings, engravings, carvings, or any other articles, which in view of public security or mora

= 526. Adulterated drugs, chemicals, medicines, food, and beverages, considered to be injurious by laws, ordinances, and regulations of the Empire,

628, All articles which are considered dangerous to the public health for sanitary reasons or to the safety of animals or plants, under the laws, ordinances and

ls might offer any danger. \

STATISTICAL STATEMENTS

OF THE’

= ~ ave
ie Ye a=, =

2317

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.

ToraL ForvicN CoMMERCE oF JAPAN, AND SHARE or THE Unirep Srares anp Unitep KINGDOM THEREIN, DURING THE CALENDAR
, YeEArs 1881 ro 1900.

{Compiled from official reports of the Japanese Government.]

IMPORTS INTO JAPAN. EXPORTS FROM JAPAN.
YEARS. From United States. com United Kingdom. To United States. | To United Kingdom.
Total. SS a ee ee Total. _————
Value. | Per cent. Value. Per cent. Value. | Per cent. Value. . Per cent.
br
D Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
31,128,125 | 1,781,108 5.72 16, 364, 740 52.57 80, 282,563 | 11, 056, 464 36.51 3, 514, 476 11.61 \y
29, 441, 453 , 106, 758 10. 55 18, 956, 048 47.40 37, 240,914 | 14, 253,291 38. 27 4, 981, 46 13.37
28,431,939 | 3,187,114 LY. 21 12, 744, 943 44. 83 39, 706, 356 | 13,247, 840 37.10 4, 832, 007 13. 51
29,626,781 | 2, 489, 969 8.40 12, 758, 806 43.07 33, 061, 902 | 13, 130, 923 39. 72 3, 830, 634 1.6
. 29, 356,967 | 2, '751,320 9. 37 12, 456, 610 42,43 35, 792, 752 | 15, 639, 005 43.69 2, 453, 167 6.55
my 32, 168, 432 | 3,358, 986 10, 44 12, 703, 248 39.49 47,316, 893 | 19, 992, 429 42.23 4, 195, 355 8.56
44,204,251 | 3,309, 269 7.47 18, 970, 544 42.82 50, 551, 523 | 22,243, 441 44. 00 3, 478, 729 6.38
65, 455, 234 | 5,673, 843 8.36 28, 693, 567 43.81 62, 680, 613 | 23, 475, 806 37.43 8,710, 012 13.59
63,995,009 | 6,173,141 9.65 | - 26,067,934 40.73 68, 423,131 | 26, 109, 835 38.16 7, 664, 599 1.2
- 80, 554,874 | 6,900,190 8.56 26, 619, 102 33. 04 54, 891,597 | 20, 844, 252 37.97 5, 638, 980 10.27
61, 969,183 | 6,840, 047 11. 04 19, 996, 050 32: 27 77,915, 626 | 29,795, 754 38. 24 5, 633, 136 7.3
a 70,076,410 | 5, 988, 053 8.54 20, 789, 332 29. 67 $9, 339, 134 | 38, 674, 971 43.29 3, 921, 752 4.39
87,597,095 | 6,090, 408 6.95 27, 929, 628 31.88 88, 140,793 | 27,739,458 31.47 4, 995, S74 5. 67
116, 284, 050 | 10, 982, 558 9. 44 42,189, 873 36.29 | 111, 297, 689 | 43, 363,557 38. 96 5, 950, 197 6.5
127, 260, 844 | 9,276,360 7.29 45,172,110 35. 49 133, 516, 985 | 54,028, 950 40.46 7, 833, 091 5.90
) OTE ne Sa Be SS Se ee 169, 882, 595 | 16, 373,419 9. 64 59, 251,780 34.884] 114,615,783 | 31,532,341 27.55 9, 012, 398 7.36
‘a OC epeesne Steps es ee ea 218, 440, 623 | 27, 030, 537 12. 38 65, 406, 266 29.94 | 159, 388, 425 | 52, 436, 404 32.90 8, 481, 195 5.32 i
7 Ree Aa ok Riel cnc ee 274, 599, 260 | 40, 001, 097 14.57 62, 707, 572 22. 84 162, 796,651 | 47,311, 154 29. 06 7, 783, 6 4.78
> look. 2a: 6g See ey ee ee ena 219, 228, 647 | 38, 215, 894 17.43 44, 836, 994 20. 45 211, 495, 335 | 63,919,270 30. 22 11, 270, 770 5.33
Ne ee he eS Ee ee renee 286, 170, 933 | 62, 761,196 21.96 71, 638, 220 25. 03 198, 063,547 | 52,566, 395 26.53 11, 262, 997 5.6

Note.—Prior to 1891 Canada was included in Japanese exports to and imports from United States. Imports and exports by Japanese Government are not

-_ included in this table. h
¢ Value of yen on January 1, 1885, in United States money, 85.8 cents; 1890, 75.2 cents; 1891, 83.1 cents; 1892, 74.5 cents; 1893, 66.1 cents; 18%, 55.6 cents; 1895, 49.1
cents; 1896, 52.9 cents; 1897, 51.1 cents; 1898 and 1899, 49.8 cents.

ToraL Forrian ComMERCE or JAPAN AND THE SHARE ConDUCTED BY FOREIGN AND JAPANESE MERCHANTS, RESPECTIVELY, DURING THE
CALENDAR YEARS FROM 1883 to 1900.

[Compiled from official reports of the Japanese Government.]

‘
: IMPORTS INTO JAPAN. | EXPORTS FROM JAPAN.
—S ss sss |
YEARS. i a ee a ae |
By Japa- P t By foreign- Pow eck Total ! By Japa- Per venit By foreign- Percent Total =
nese. esos ers. iS ‘| imports. | nese : ers. | exports. |
OS Poke DOR emai ieee ORIG cay VT eS |
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. ren. |
pie eieicis ciaaio riage emicictetn aie wie cmiciciv ceteemsie 1, 383, 101 4.8 27, 048, 838 95. 2 28, 431, 939 5, 149, 078 14. t 30, 557, 78 8.6 35, 706, 356 .
IC 9 ee ee eee ee , 282, 913 Mend 27; 348, 868 92.3 29, 626, 781 | 5, 125, 459 15.5 27, 936, 443 $4.5 061, 02
ee eee Ne ete eS sce ain alu Rejeielc.e 3, 602, 720 12.3 25, 754, 247 87.7 29, 356, 967 3, 394, 423 9.5 32, 398, 329 90. 5 35, 722, 752
ee teiaer aieie sine am Sina iotninew coe clan fee ees 3, 834, 632 12.0 28, 3833, 799 88.0 $2, 168, 432 5, 713, 200 12. 7 41 x 633, 692 87. 3 47, 346, S33
ee eee ncn ee 6,938,548 | 15.6 | 37,365,703 | 84.4 | 44,904,251 || 6,550,436 | 12.9 | 43,996,085 | 87.1 | 50, 551,5 .
ee ete orate icles tnto< cme bciieinaeecie< 11, 634, 987 17.8 53, 820, 246 82.2 69, 495, 234 a: 081 A S24 By ei | 56, 599, 289 88. 9 68, 680, 613
MS tee. 2-2 avec n an. 9,645,761 | 15.2 | 54,349,247 | 84.8 | 63,995,000 | G7SLa87 | 9 | Lu. SIs | 91 | EAB ISL g
i ere 19,521,764 | 24.2 | 61,033,109] 75.8 | 80,554,874 |] 6,123,961] 11.1 | 48,767,635] 88. 5, SOL, 597
ee eee 14,276,380 | 23.0 | 47,692,808} 77.0 | 61,969,183 || 8,770,764] 13 | ola ssl | 88.7 | 77,915,628
1892. cs... ete eee eerie cei dces nadwes 13, 812, 662 19.7 56, 2638, 748 80.3 70, 076, 410 ll, 395, 210 13.0 77, 33, 923 $7.0 89, 339, 134
te Se pore | 20 | eee Rt | Gece wece| nt | oeeee|l ee een
PRC Ye ea fea Snluiias win ware doy ' 29. o f ) 2o4, 20, 400, 97% “ 90, S46, 7 m 297,
Rte a 38, 829,338 | 80.5 | 88,431,505 | 69.5 | 127,260,844 || 26,928,816 | 19.9 | 107,188,162] 80.1 | 183,516, 985
ee eian aa nie statins oe amicistetiecteaae cc See 51, 211, 805 30.0 118, 670, 789 70.0 169, 882, 595 29, 565, 47 8 25. 8 85, 050, 296 74.2 114, 615, rs)
nas irncitaieneicte alc acu cnaceaees 79, 560, 939 36.4 188, 879, 684 63.6 218, 440, 623 44, S74, 130 27. 8 115, O14, 294 72.2 159, S88, 5
Se ee 90,472,259 | 82.6 | 184,127,001} 67.4 | 274,599,260 || 55,060,559 | 38.7 | 107,736,092] 68.3] 162, 796, aL
ee ee eS ce se tcclanidiaceicia eoveee 89, 351, 617 40.76 | 129,877, 030 59. 24 219, 228, 647 79, 248, %1 35. 58 136, 246, 383 64. 42 211, 495, 335
ee oe oan cneccen 112, 737, 050 89.39 173, 438, 883 60. 61 286, 170, 9383 78, 381, 634 37.05 | 124,681,912 62.95 198, 063, 517

crts and ex orts by Japanese Government are not included in this table. z i :
-. : Value of yen ee) ands @ 1 1885, in United States money, 85.8 cents; 1890, 75.2 cents; 1891, 83.1 cents; 1892, 74.5 cents; 1893, 66.1 cents; 1894, 59.6 cents; 1899, 49.1

¥ cents; 1896, 52.9 cents; 1897, 51.1 cents; 1898 and 1899, 49.8 cents, .
ss ; 2319

ae

: eo

im as.
‘ da are ;

sm

: . + ;
: > : =~ ete

2320 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ~ : Deca

ARTICLES. 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1901
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

Raw cotton ... ui 132, 729 68, 423 360, 492 806,058 | 1,481,056 | 2,345,016 4, 086, 317
CEE DIE GILT) 35, ear a ae ae ma bariee smn oo.-| HR ea 820 7,340 12, 948 55, 124 228, 240
UCI V ON oe OS Sains Aicnia owa'e oles en ao 1, 798,792 | 1,710,480 | 2,209,070 | 1,591,751 | 3,060,797 | 4,029, 459 4, 784, 350
Iron and steel manufactures, not separately

BUC IGE. sab ae et cco eees cana wo scneee 83, 916 40, 552 35, 426 95, 731 357,217 | 1,509,173 2, 600, 141
UCTS. oS SS ee a ae ae 179, 246 193, 945 211,579 245, 122 286, 111 819, 620 1, 035, 893
Machinery, not separately specified ......... 57, 100 104, 594 32, 758 109, 332 286, 816 951, 653 1, 481, 916
IbOCOMOUVE CNPINES 5-8. onc cccecnseeaus AZ ORs ooo cceo8 115, 578 157, 434 173, 160 920, 130. 372, 162
IRANI a eeL SIDE ER tenes bio aewe Corr essensn 114, 148 179, 118 137, 895 75, 206 202,774 249, 503 9, 009
istlogepinlt Bas) 00882. ooesccceeeesseees! 55, 662 4, 639 4, 230 2, 469 7,22) 27,146 33,470
Paper, and manufactures of .............-.-- 1,371 4,745 2,569 5, 006 10,126 6, 952 206, 586
Instruments for scientific purposes .........- 6, 398 82, 587 34, 600 24, 861 98, 243 148, 271 376, 068
BID eHUNOt aes orien ase booed sccecs ede re eae 139, 384 147,071 115, 028 871, 479 474, 692 213, 853 224,371
CAOCES QUIG WAUCMCRs orice vives nace a viciceveors 134, 317 114, 694 44, 452 35, 654 99, 742 177, 607 237,381 -
PAT SIAUNV Re a reece eb waxes we dia\ce'Atislnco Ds 976 77, 824 73, 315 63, 858 127,001 171, 476 167, 118
PU DMACAMUB OG. checeh ce -cesebesv'eercadaonc> 13, 622 14, 492 Viedae 64, 691 88, 730 192, 918 197, 342
Chemicals, drugs, and dyes............--.--- 29, 812 20, 514 24, 687 81, 672 29, 037 46, 946 119, 875
ASME ALLL 0555 non nv’ a wi Myles come ctoe 48, 723 8, 866 40, 347 34, 446 45, 395 58, 766 118, 311
Tobacco, not elsewhere specified ............ 46, 373 53, 544 33, 009 22, 469 _ 57,724 58, 074 1, 641
India-rubber manufactures. ...............-- 22,774 27, 984 12, 699 19, 441 37, 833 42, 006 97,580
peer, salted or pickled. . 2. .condecse os ocapne 986 1,934 4, 961 34, 002 2,616 9, 457 50, 242 72,325
PRIA GECG sce. . otdadeverracdde sconces 26, 388 12, 706 28, 057 302, 649 38, 375 60, 013 33, 452 140, 648
WN BANANIN SS e dice aes aire cee rica ees abnor a's aes 41,048 80, 145 8, 707 6,012 21,475 32, 372 33, 433 42,512
Books, maps, engravings, etc.............+.- 15, 126 16,790 30, 367 14,177 18,516 23, 689 27, 608 43,933 |
Leather, not elsewhere specified............. 5, 4389 4,422 10, 614 2,792 19, 857 7,026 32,129 47,576
CO OTOMIGLOLUB cts cessc- Ses couiotipencacnesae 10, 330 9, 084 42,764 92, 590 92, 830 141, 264 47, 284 37,891
Wood manufactures, not separately specified. 1, 978 697 440 3,719 4, 627 5, 326 5, 530 51,892 -
PIIGSTS HATO WANOL. 2 wcrc cciden nomen ste omne wee 20, 763 10, 832 13, 401 22, 491 49, 847 44,914 76, 500 121, 697
Ike DYINLErE AUG OLY... ..4csecesns + haceee 31, 916 12, 229 8, 543 15, 020 39, 166 16, 493 25,040 33,975
NOM e st Doce tai p taeda sew code Saree wow oeeee 17, 395 15,478 14, 828 9,277 26, 012 17, 636 17, 252 28, 906 27,425
Breadstuffs, other than flour ...............- 10, 912 9,970 19, 486 25, 348 14, 829 80, 993 58, 204 189,101 73, 342
IOUNA CHICO 75, anon nosh cs ecceeeustnens 14, 810 11, 813 10,519 15, 853 11, 702 10, 345 14, 485 25,595 30, 311
Ut bObie sta 7 Meera iakos eeru soos a stese = = 10, 208 11, 402 11, 534 14, 007 18, 103 15, 654 23, 097 21,055 19, 359

. Cotton manufactures, other than cloths. .... 22,915 43, 418 7, 707 18, 552 12, 639 35, 344 16, 003 28, 989 31,060

RANMA fase aoe ae tire eas kn an we swede mesos 4, 608 5, 201 13, 999 5, 872 7,934 19, 200 16, 764 11, 780 17,187
HOMSEROIG AUTON 4. -2u Sean es nantcdsscerese 14,773 80, 351 28, 799 16, 927 20,094 27, 845 27, 424 18,799 21,107
PPPRCOMIMLEI Cs ANNI ts odhaus site ovens ae eee teen ae 4,206 18, 393 2, 931 4,112 4, 485 4,199 10, 588 18, 591 20,358
Lumber, other than boards and planks...... 16, 700 419 803 439 4,613 12, 955 5, 525 8,991 5, 354
MAE MICUOUS ean duis cis ocs dosevnaswrcectten crear 1,812 5, 104 5,919 4,217 13, 080 16, 730 6, 507 22, 283 32, 357
Bones, hoofs, horns, etC.........ssecese----> 16, 702 18, 055 19, 987 31,377 34, 202 24, 646 12, 307 8, 352 19, 044
Agricultural implements ....-......0s0s=-s-s 2,445 1,145 1,529 429 1, 323 7,276 8, 401 20, 790 42,399
WER GIADICS ances e ne ances eaten eae eee 1, 205 1,320 1,345 6, 892 2,913 1, 893 11, 473 7,181 24,132
Paints ANG COLON: - 2:22.30 cea cpancceeueweeeee 1, 156 1,731 2, 661 6, 542 4,033 14, 092 14, 583 13, 333 19, 774
Copper, manufactures Of. ........--20---0s00 2,376 2, 368 2, 900 8, 598 10, 676 83, 356 8, 469 27, 421 35, 368
Leather manufactures, not elsewhere speci- : r

MOG ccec eee’: tenniscscuzccpace omoneccus canned 5, 126 2,073 4,517 4, 060 8, 481 19,170 18, 072 9, 625 18, 754 13, 604
Meat products, not separately stated ........ 18, 811 10, 518 7,871 2,270 1, 584 2, 226 8, 564 8, 645 20, 506 20,189
MURPCMUMC, PITS Of. ince ene oes accueil es 1, 687 200 1, 355 2, 883 4,410 8, 651 4, 088 8, 476 16, 263 13,181
Soap, other than toilet... . 2.02500 eccenseens 4, 432 ~1,949 3, 263 2,192 4, 228 3, 288 6, 430 6, 890 11, 971 9, 545
Gunpowder and other explosives............ 9,977 8, 272 8, 004 19 7,457 14, 558 12, 886 6, 592 24, 016 21, 863
Boards; déals,and planks:.....2.<0505scaceee 9, 461 4,569 1, 297 4, 569 29, 386 172, 588 62, 287 6,312 52, 403 54, 552
UEESE we te ccce eee cwocksranobcsene senceneeen 1, 760 1, 355 1, 884 1, 553 38, 603 4, 433 38, 867 5, 965 6, 052 8,494
VOWEIIY OC. oct Sceccrdapsceeestecsenawacacea 517 2, 890 1, 454 2,621 9,729 5, 678 8, 982 5, 672 19, 640 2,146
PEWITA AMACHIMOH oos's'ccantrmneun@o delet semnne 1, 052 2, 499 1, 265 3, 465 9, 685 7, 275 5, 883 5, 270 11, 706 30, 979

.
.
-
i¢

7 Ne ; COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2321

Principal Imports INTO JAPAN DURING THE CALENDAR YEARS FROM 1892 To 1900, in OrpER oF MAGNITUDE oF VALUE IN 1898, BY
ARTICLES AND VALUES.

(Compiled from official reports of the Japanese Government.]

ARTICLES. 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 | 1897 | 1598 | 1899 1900
’
. ’ :
!
; Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. i Yen. / Yen. Yen.
LONGI Bae en Be a 2,052, 900 8, 254, 842 8, 413, 148 4,257, 096 5, 632, 336 21,528,428 | 48,219,810!) 5,960,166 9, 021, 536
Cotton, Taw »ginned Ce AOC APE OoeGe: Beene 11, 026, 637 15, 294, 897 19, 103, 922 24, 304, 814 32; 106, 275 43, 122) 262 45, 410, 457 61, 365,755 | 58,500,002
Rotten ees a tehetiades oS etinivicclcasccdcttes 9, 519, 612 11) 452; 025 13, 241, 596 11, 720, 106 13, 711, 738 19, 799,091 | 28,389,037 17,516, 039 26, 06, FB
WOULONMV APUG ama nt ce cccclecitviedcneecccutbsn 7,131, 947 7, 284, 242 7,977, 365 7, C82, 975 11, 372, 001 9, 625, 258 | 8,517,588 | 4,963,326 7, 043, 046
PDMRGRS NPRM Ae cee sc uneltrsciacaccideccits 431,875 865, 428 8, 202, 549 4, 700, 554 | 1, 724, 496 8, 232, 648 | 7,488,194 | 3,620,982 |.....-. So a
RRNONEMOG Ollecs svat cececcncccwccccenecnsbic 8, 328, 398 4, 401, 040 5, 135, 332 4 303, 928 6, 3319056 7, 667,350 7, 452, 880 7, 918,149 14,1
Beans, pease, and -pulse...2...5.22220.e00- 2,712, 044 3, 446, 636 2,977, 794 2) 554, 763 8, 475, 015 5, 889, 616 7,101,103 | 8,822,111| 4,817,767
PG DACCOnICA ANG CUG 2 occ cee derccccenenc 80, 200 150, 267 68, 567 99, 756 148, 628 425,112 4,700, 455 | &5, 086, 354 & 454, 292
Oflvexke-foriertilizing’..<. 2 ....20..- aie 824, 651 599, 893 $22,195 946, 000 8, 220, 600 3, 315, 587 4,614,967 | 6,791,813 5, 696, 453
SRIPEMIES PTRY- 0... 5... eect acne ro 1,727, 185 2,315, 024 2, 935, 033 8, 071, 495 4, 057, 763 3, 783, 208 4, 382, 509 | 3,575,191 5, 558, 004
Mousseline de laine, plain and white : 2,448, 899 2,305, 505 3, 150, 822 8, 633, 467 6, 498, 162 4, 408, 753 4,373,988 | 4,350, SA 7, BA, WL
Locomotive engines....... eee Le 200, 418 356, 533 1, 580, 272 1, 663, 694 1, 620, 767 4, 235, 616 4, 265, 854 | 1, 968, ¢ 1, 089, 209
PMY ANCE GUAT ON. % oics<.5 aie w'arate'e Sin.c's'Te'e © 871, 701 975, 786 1, 339, 033 2, 085, 684 2, 359, 704 | 3, 046, 131 4,061,805 | 2, 603, 676 5, 243,
Watches, and-parts thereof ...............- 485, 593 523, 126 404, 646 971, 938 1, 977, 571 | 1, 901, 813 3, 066, 331 | 399, 509
Woolen:cloths;-aH wool....2...........---- 640, 417 801, 407 |. 641, 270 2,951, 041 3, 407, 150 1, 943, 531 2,803,607 | 2,004,198
Cotton- -spinning ery Femte ens ee See ue (4) (4) (4) 1, 896, 195 2, 992, 360 5, 401, 701 3, 088, 762 | 773, D5
PRUCOMOLES on cee einai aces ddccecdveccecceees 392, 540 379, 476 174, 185 440, 904 481, 464 969, 360 2,699,982 | 2,060,800
MOR MBI WAYS H2. o..-04deoeese-ceccees 67, 437 667, 108 1, 209, 205 925, 531 2,595, 458 3, 325, 004 2,631,721 | 435, 054
Material for railways, other than rails .... 51, 865 147, 641 881, 805 a ke 253, 343 ig 302) 374 2,011, 465 BT Be of od ee ee
EMUCUC DUD CL ese cacaeannetessssscocce 217, 209 217, 694 257, 857 307, 699 723,437 856, 957 2, 283, 215 748,414
PGRN. 2 Sno coe ddised dees Jeweeees 386, 193 444, 208 329, 861 581, 369 1, 067, 357 1, 538, 021 2,270,815 | 2,903,529
ORME Oe cree ticle als cieicididntwSeccicdele ces 278,736 322, 641 641, 929 406, 854 994, 201 1, 156, 569 2, 022,413 1, 370, 857
DI PEMOTICR anes wack mee teicennaedaccaesmentes 170, 628 254, 639 232, 343 303, 871 574, 234 997, 237 1, 720, 827 | 760, 594
RSE Ol COLON on civic vec cracinas eniccisaetsomene 523, 459 842, 452 1, 254, 804 784, 302 2, 558, 450 1, 790, 082 1, 645, 229 | 949, 750
SUMMON eer ree of orale inslea e'eeiestee<c'tie.- 302, 501 425, 120 567, 197 1, 136, 951 998, 305 1, 057, 482 1,642,819 | 4,324,427
oS ae ee ee 1, 078, 742 1, 389, 714 308, 833 961, 000 1, 997, 244 1, 187, 656 1, 425, 650 495, 786
Plate and sheet i iron : 240, 583 3390, 097 726, 738 918, 458 1, 336, 885 1, 175, 266 1,405,855 | 2,220,415
EMRE eae aS. 2 Ieee lawl = wine tines waeco'sois 241, 316 446, 477 743, 552 673, 795 739, 555 934, 010 1, 381, 482 965, 544
Ereyw-pipe<:-....-.... 55, 814 122, 885 484, 086 604, 753 891, 339 894, 581 1, 332, 940 953, 436
Aniline dyes 2 418, 481 405, 047 543, 494 682, 137 1, 139, 929 931, 197 1, 218, 842 904, 013
Cotton prints - 436, 544 635, 902 521, 697 383, 364 1, 193, 162 986, 443 1,176,789 | 1,438,245
IIA 906, 422 887,790 1, 332, 637 1, 278, 056 1, 440, 253 1, 458, 294 1, 150, 343 2 223) 432
Tialian cloth 1, 062, 571 1, 489, 304 1, 759, 795 921, 741 2, 813, 096 1, 858, 581 1,068,270 | 1,132,575
Leather; other than'sole ...-./..---...---- 568, 263 436, 932 598, 810 1, 092, 821 1, 141, 866 922, 561 1, 050, 211 518, 061
Iron wheels, axles, and springs ..........- a a a a , 706 630, 407 od Pee ae
PRCA S AAI Som tc treeinie. cw om cvagaeee ase cpsivics's bd a) a) (8 717, 292 414, 408 S35; G18 tae wo eenseee
ROMO VELVCUS a) cn oe wivcic sen nina wecoccne 78, 374 489, 664 00, 150 486, 097 1, 001, 352 677, 050 813, 280 396, 141
SR rerImOL ETT eee etek owials ci Sst aes Sais siee Saree 427, 992 513, 930 563, 501 951, 035 1, 114, 872 1, 337, 424 785, 192 593, 337
SCLC LC SUL ee 219, 429 215, 702 281, 782 497,774 576, 584 462,524 716, 879 | 549, 029
Sirentim rsh WHUO! os fsol ces toh sc eescmes 330, 558 168, 304 337, 607 505, 719 655, 448 250, 863 708, 348 517, 808
Steam boilers and engines ................ 180, 547 157, 958 215, 155 431, 925 822, 694 1, 317, 260 697,173 327, 144
\ i a 160, 563 359, 314 246, 032 309, 801 570, 442 488, 090 669,807 | 1,256,577
Chiorateof potash .............s0ccceecsens 309, 960 742, 316 840, 640 419, 053 429, 042 497, 650 632, 060 418, 884
RR SRES ERC eet ron saraialereie cicinaie mc'acicie sie weisioieie 12, 064 44, 202 63, 197 107, 134 231, 035 495, 907 609,736 | 1,212,896
Flectric-light PPPATAUS: 22.255 ccc on cwnewnn 147, 109 138, 639 226, 193 811, 016 659, 711 591, 776 605, 901 437, 952
Binsh-or-velvet, silk and Cotton Mixtures.) . <0. .5.c-cccncleocnecccccsecsleceeccecccotan 32, 707 149, 128 838, 336 599, 495 675, 231
Flax, hemp, jute, GCL Seep ce nobecrocebne 213, 216 326, 337 587, 924 645, 840 708, 161 654, 791 590,517 | 1,245, 049
Hides, baftdlo.and:cow.....-..-..+.1-+---- _ 890, 152 412, 667 394, 892 695, 984 539, 675 846, 394 7,949 719, 930
Zine; sheet.........--.- : 225, 018 339, 027 426, 253 500, 862 453, 709, 734, 571 556, 443 907, 927
Dynamite tere pee aera cnte cinta icininjeisia is osaiercre 35, 284 84, 561 187, 506 231, 489 154, 274 325, 265 507, 591 244, 303
Cars, railway, passenger. ................-- 95, 840 152, 856 155, 100 643, 216 363, 161 905, 743 1, 100, 824 246, 936
oe anc dkce SSS ce Oe se SESS CuO UDSEnE Goocre 224, 932 268, 744 93, 985 218, 458 567, 590 463, 898 oe) eee ee
IR RMEE PR So eines oe nce asian come ek cebemains 70, 444 108, 055 56, 118 95, 206 300, 388 337, 169 492, 553 826, 960
EPPOSIMIEE EN tee contin tas aio s\a%s <icia nisoaielcre,s sic ciesieiwins 528, 973 811, 022 572, 808 1,569, 425 1, 932, 482 608, 928 519, 685 229, 035
Galvanized sheet iron (other than roofing) . 80, 156 121, 010 156, 740 112, 724 310, 190 641, 193 464, 466 902, 596
Woolen cloths (in part of wool)........... 196, 618 318, 798 175, 559 169, 265 706, 902 290, 543 444, 144 531, 554
Turkey-red Cambrics...........-.:--.----- 378, 335 863, 587 225, 285 418, 790 395, 088 494, 592 433, 894 416, 966
OSM ROO Son oa Ae Gu cictaccamactitscesteeccanc 1738, 009 192, 426 205, 466 234, 000 84, 263 229, 593 422,714 521, 852
PREPAC Maaco ane cic cccedeautereaiecceneas 52, 024 56, 267 352, 673 313, 644 250, 962 659, 909 411, 422 569, 923
Telegraph WU Osteo ania tsweie mnie onjeminin/cmlaeinina's 89, 294 121, 986. 142, 214 205, 714 506, 490 477,775 408, 842 817, 200
Getlilord.....cccccccenaes CeO UROReC COREE a) (8) a a 134, 552 174, 554 406, 678 244, 263
RIT GHOUND) OS. cots sine oclesiesciccvesicseevccs a) (8) a a 210, 113 334, 134 401, 344 289, 394
UGC n ams sais hae o cisieicisninidwtcmicicwwiecnes 105, 379 81, 707 472,707 853, 079 519, 380 578, 570 399, 189 937, 094
PRHONPMONES S <5 Sccctanne -cccicwniceewsanicecees 86, 085 166, 636 178, 231 260, 822 174, 897 280, 636 386, 304 ©216, 124 2
Roctie and galvanized iron .............. (8) (#) (*) (4) 218, 487 292, 525 882, 958 611, 715 781,121
«Not separately stated. > Leaf tobacco only. ¢ Amorphous only.

Value of yen on January 1, 1885, in United States money, 85.8 cents; 1890, 75.2 cents; 1891, 83.1 cents; 1892, 74.5 cents; 1893, 66.1 cents; 1894, 55.6 cents; 1895,
49.1 cents; 1896, 52.9 cents; 1897, 511 cents; since 1898, 49.8 cents,

2822. COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ;
Imports AND Exports or tox Unirep Sravres iy 17s TRADE neti ti BY ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JUNE
TO : ot ae

IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE FROM JAPAN.

QUANTITIES.
ARTICLES.
1893 1894 | 1895 1896 1897
FREE OF DUTY. |

Renner) Pe ee ee een. owecwe enews se dameu ea gedtumen aaah <<) va vobinvaccn=|ara=ean~ nceh| == ¥- parka sie > a= aemeee ee =e
Articles, the growth, ete., of the United * 15a tenecge v5 |areorne<awes| os cop epeeelis suey sulgaele ees] seen eae ee

States brought back,
0 On ee eee eer Reeen cme in «| WS pts oo a Gn peor waco’ > | psainre metal ghee | im ato ea ae
Books, maps, Cngravings, Cte -..----0--c-e-- [ec een ec ne enn |nene renee cer |e cece en cnn--|ene ence newee|ecescnncenaa|acecncereen

CHEMICALS, DRUGS, AND DYES:
Gums, camphor, crude..........--- Ibs.-| 1,577,329 | 1,258,116 804,490 | 1,222,866 827, 051
Sulphur or brimstone, crude ....- tons. . 12, 227 8, 307 4,777 14, 241 8, 997
DAMM ON ers coke a. we gina nce anreceesp soplesecden nae olves «ane BS aol eben oes ok eee a

Copper, pigs, bars, etc...-....---------- yo Sl ee eas Se 2 eee Bs | eames. oP ea eae pe Se

|
1

1,608,235 | 1,510,318] 1,436,636 567,475
7, 489 4, 328 aria 1 te |

Corton:
Unmaniigemred .....,-s0seceresn- lbs... TADS ODD AE... come foes 31, 620 35
Waste and flocks... . fic e<sssc0-=5 Ue NAL ak ey Fe 59, 200 20, 800 2,000
Mesthers ANG Gowns 100 DOUS. 6 = nc << leper leeean = oe selene dees = ely adeee eres |eagte> pa
Fruits, Pate PNG op Vales vw Sew sl SpA eae cpoe e oR ee habe n= note Iyer ern = | ae ae eee
PONG ANG) LLY APS MN OTOMED) oo <p acne ceawes<>bontbancesen=ssplswentop s->5s| eee ee
Hats; bonnets,and hoeds, materials for, cte-|..-.-----0--]- sce eee-sm0|-seonseensee|qeeonganme-= =
Hides and skins other than fur skins. -Ibs..
Monsehoid and personal! elects ete -. 5-4. sade ecco n|pacmiegessv orl pao geee =e colaae eta
(Pacey, MENON oo cc ene s cg ners cawesa oe ae Reae tiene Jee aspen” 10 |, Rees
Wattine: {Or HOOTs: OC sk. oo cake ox 2 nincws noel se acs Dey ealpelna veces celeron ate
Oils, fixed or expressed.......-.--.---- lbs. . 363 8, 640 £612) Sena
Pected stock: Rags other than woolen..Jbs..| 7,008,883 | 10,588,550 | 14,998,700 | 14,309, 703
Teh ap Ee: RES ieee ees EES oe c= Pome seem sety Mito ae Re U8 See j-ate poeers
a Rot Crt. op Maa MONeE Oyo.5 aa oe epee tee ands eee ee pce cenaee bel pee bees cee
ILK:
Unmarufactured, cocoons........- lbs. . 73,173 130, 653 129, 682 158,175
Raw, or as reeled from the cocoon.]bs..| 4,062,362 | 3,697,675 he 3, * a

15 |----5 —
4,765,091 | 4,658,111
61, 733 “3408
Lh epee eis 2, 548 coreuad cde oalewanias am

105,540 7,675 156, 468 lii
38, 552,467 | 45,465,161 | 22,698,308 |.......--..-/-.0 eT en

Cee eee wwe eee tee eee eee eee eee ee

Diy RODE Sn SE eRe APy ta, ee re Ibs. . 7, 757 11, 810 2
SPICES, UNGROUND:

Pepper, black or white...........- ie eee | eager oe 9,

A PUR OMe stents 2 ae naeeroedenense ot a ee eae 1,112 27,
RR eae yn vio ons gp >eesig eae =m ibs. .| 38, 622,956 | 39,602,519 | 37, 980,

Motel Sree: a8 ALY «ose nrne owe «ona heh ches -a2shdeads aeceeesen abees cece ne ek eee: |e Pod Ge Sat! DECI é es MP

——

Brb-WoOrks ..-20062 a ainteoink Siew toe epg ee “
Bone and horn, manwiactupesiol ..-. <1. 5 snlnee- <2 ens elpaneet ose aaloeee eee eee Cr hi ota ee

STI Re oe PRR Peto me ae 8 2" dl cian 0.0 <dtgy thee niclow lay oe cee ate olan I enone E SEES ca ce ce ee . ee ee

TOES 2 op ae ca ebvainine anavinnnpeesccavemtel mara © xan wpe ab cma as de] em eee ote mee ania ee eee
Chemicals; Grea and Ay ess. aus ooo n-deie see |e cn ncamcmv pal ewe palin’ = actus cuieiests me | tere ee aimee Sian eee ee
Coal, bituminous...-.....-.- - 4, 660 4, 630 13, 206 11, 760 2,972
Copper, manutactures of ....2.-2.,0-0> ee Ree e FE | ARES Fer Sey ie en ae Bae ne eee 5 Mes ee ae
COTTON, MANUFACTURES OF:

UE eno caai>s Sip Aja eae sq. yds..

ee ee ee ee eee Ce eee EERE EET Ee ee

Parthen, stone, and china ware .......-..e--leees-eeceree :
PEO EC CDS BRAM NOL, sence <hexr punpetiser mane Sons maae vom ee |
Feathers and flowers, artificial ...........2-|..-ccsssccce|acocecececce |
Wibers veretabie, etc., manufactures Of). 0.9)... cececgepelusysineascogc]eemcunsecice semen ers ee te ae el ap meee”
PNR TOIT MNLLS «55 Sic nie oon oc eeaxeatnak co tadoeely een nee | Bae eae: | es ie ee 0S 2 Tal RS Se BREE Tem

Dee eeeeeel e wee ween ene

ee eee ee wee ween

Rire NO VAAMMTPRCUNTCS OF WIP... sous pesnet|aawscresarpalnadaewees one
SIP OTIC RUGMNOLO .. cok racnlbecv.cn =m ewmbanelicce nants nepes Paka ce wes ge camante es
Dats; bonnets, and hoods, materials fOr ogi). sn. ccceporplonesnns onceelos coy epacens ieee es ceeeenl eee Ieee vas eiinataie

cio eA ol) ee eee ry 2 CBee oie bec ese e | descocoucisssfuguvrepekherte Geto ae es ites eee sabouncsen®

ee ee eee ee eee ee eee er tne ene

wee ewww lee Oe steer ee eee

Jewelry and precious stones .......-+,-22-0|,.----- BETS Cee eee es er ee ee TR haere weteeeeree
Leather, and jmannfacturce Ca gars|peceee isesee|eaencecesces|seesecnnnane|oatwan uneaee)smenevnesuen|ssvnesenunn| essen ‘ en
atting, for Hoors; etc .,........... oe Ba a Sn ne rer, es eee ys ej ames ye) CE a ee mh wall coho am ies | op ee seems
Metal, metal compositions, and manufac- a peoceenetnc=
tures of.
OILS;
Animal, whale, and fish ......... galls.. 2,398 191, 852 156, 456 31, 411
INLD at cee Sees we lela cm Sete SONA. nn Rtecktennl eee eee 5, 000
Vegetable, fixed or expressed ..... lbs... 1, 466 11, 782
Volatile or essential............... lbs.. 280, 453 625, 559
Paper, and manufactures Of ..s.5 coc cc cece clocceccuwenas|Geteemcees sas] cua es aiietnee] CeuneeaEnnnE
PIVOS AMO SINOKSIe’ GXUCIEN 02. cccacenaccu|lycncasmesess etekienee eee
Provisions; Meat products..........sscaeussse00]suehemsmasinn|seabin wes «apni te oe Sie aennl ee eenne ne
RiceaAnd Tice Meal... 1. cvecscccaucee lbs..} 26, 162, 463 | 18, 293, 273

he races Vena sehen Ph, Se DS..|. ..cccccccnclancneccveccelecscscpe cecal cc cute eis Stennett oo 2,099, 501 | 28,531,198 | 33,949,350
SACCO: P
MRC s Feb snniy an we Oar hc hale ew ae lbs... 660 1,100
RUC Se nieve Sales o's a.n o:w:a'.e's urn ha aie ¢ mW 00u,0-0,6.6 0 sce Scacin mcn ein mcl n Va ee eh atea ec Serrerrerritrrrerrr rer r rer rr rrr is
MEREELSEMRLISAD fara np ba, 0 950. wk cieipcee wera Peep RNIN IESEMEREL Sc] OE VSP Te
MISLED ediccd cada nnkonnnky AMG Mente Soe |
Woop, MANUFACTURES OF: |
Cabinetware and house furniture......
MUU RUU as ou covcucncatulaebose censknuin
WOOL, MANUFACTURES OF;
Carpets and carpeting ......... sq. yds.. 142 183
MLO oo cucs 5 <x asec adaccenwaseeosnd | igen vacetee leek nemnemace
All other dutiable articles................0. Akaka cacy al Geter

7,359 3,057

er

Total imports | |

PARR eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee

1901.1

2323

Inports AND Exports of THE — Srares in 17s TRADE WITH JAPAN, BY ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JuxE 20, 1892
” ro 1901.

IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE FROM JAPAN

COMMERCIAL JAPAN,

VALUES.
‘i ARTICLES.
1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1893 1899 1900 | 1901
" Doiiars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dovars. Dollars. Dollars. Dowars. ! FREE OF DUTY.
122 o1 1,¢ 22, 667 548 324 | 423 359 424 | Animals.
10, 834 20, 820 15, 383 9, 395 8, 408 23, 815 15, 274 1t, 781 74,449 16,710 | Articles, the omit etc., of the United
| = States, brought back
878 580 1, 025 2,449 8, 027 1, 645 pA) Ee eo ty ee ees Art works. ”
7 104 519 | 2, 802 1,550 1, 653 958 941 2,104 4,242 4,953 | Books, maps, engravings, ete.
m i CHEMICALS, DEUGS, AND DYES:
347, 303 302, 349 184, 550 219, 593 87,975 156, 309 286, 191 256, 474 $72, 451 518, 151 | Gums, camphor, crude.
213, 776 133, 455 62, 567 130, 988 95, 244 140, 426 146, 813 $1,818 186, 847 219,193 ) Sulphur or brimstone, crude.
. 32,387 58,032 99, 706 39, 267 16, 254 28,627 43, 573 | 32,470 65, 367. 49,531 All other.
Pe cage oe ORES OES SESS? sh ey EE ie apes ne i les Lo a ee = er 15, 223 321,510 | Copper, pigs, bars, etc.
Corton:
(eh Seer 2, 669 Las Ree ae A eee Aap ae ane eee | ae SF sem 139 Unmannufactured.
eecizcae = Cl 2,214 543 94 32 a a ee 165 98 46 25 Waste and flocks.
9 eee eee 1,151 191 2, 602 8, 227 ih | EE Se See ieee sae Feathers and downs for beds.
a ee 59 47 A 93 20 (N62 A SE ee eee | Fruits, ineluding nuts.
17,176 2, 369 10, 300 | 80,133 26, 873 2,896 75 994 3,425 5,076 | Furs and fur skins, undressed.
107, 244 119, 286 81, 001 166, 423 110, 001 3, 46: BT A Spe nee te a ha ee 3 | Hats, bonnets, and hoods, materials for,ete.
235 8 Sd Ae rae 80 205 365 8,078 | Hides and skins other than fur skins.
28, 543: 32, 182 24, = 16, 945 18, a 21, 272 12, 294 25,529 30,632 | Household and personal effects, etc.
es ee -ececeees eee] Se (eee Re Rene ee: OEE Be Cg Me te
540, 714 860,047 | 1,017,540 | 1,015,219] 1,989, 340 40, 169 (8) (*) (+) . Matting, for floors, ete.
"5 B74 113 aes 181 obi 136 ov 26 983 52 $03 7 ory, 67, 969° 165 36° 307 i ae F apeoeet.
9,04 D , 6,97 , 2, 825 , 96 4,165 6,207 | P. stock: Rags other than woolen,
12, 500 18, 680 12, 630 593 1, 076 429 1, 603 976 461 Seeds, n.e.s. - :
1,349 3,514 1, 488 1,535 1, 985 | 1,376 5, 808 3, 502 1,370 | shells, not cut or manufactured.
SILK:
47, 896 77, 948 86, 285 71, 744 33, 425 ee ee Unmanufactured, cocoons
13,116,579 | 14,784,432 | 8,024,743 | 10,284, 798 | 12,918, 599 16, = 406 | 14,920, 787 | 19,688, 132 Raw, as reeled from the cocoons.
’ 4, 024 7, 201 40, 497 87, 238 35, 781 8, 263 27,073 27,217 Waste.
r% ee UNGROUND:
0 ee ee 626 tte ee ae ee 739 205 a | ae eeeeren| Bee eee per, leek or white.
Seem os (i 793 2,491 16, 109 262 112 6, 440 Riese
5,508,317 | 5,699,582 | 5,504,411 | 4,601,041 | 4,911, 448 2,714, 679 (*) a)
81, 627 13, 282 11, 304 10, 707 21,815 25, 246 28, 933 30, 730 Wood, unmanufactured.
30, 830 44, 222 10, 785 121, 307 182, 839 99, 008 97, 789 54, 797 All other free articles.
20, 134, 718 | 22,295,110 | 15, a 802 | 16, 951, 055 | 20, 462, 456 | 18, 19, 963,715 | 15,553, 932 | 20,566, 198 Total free of duty.
DUTIABLE,
. 95 261 947 676 624 698 814 Animals.
1, 062 hod | Sa SePeec cel Sete ae ES 1,951 6, 410 19, 011 Art works.
6, 407 2,017 2,110 3, 393 4, 495 5, 023 5, O91 5 Bone and horn, manufactures of.
6, 503 10, 997 23, 320 34, 552 18, 414 10, 742 12, 851 ‘ Books, maps, engravings, ete,
1, 420 178 209 119 239 104 539 733 | Brass, and manufactures of.
25,618 57,268 59, 369 88, 165 101,256 128,613 130,093 Brushes.
28, 861 67,121 77, 566 78, 860 43, 864 44,116 59, 908 5 | Chemicals, drugs, and dyes.
14, 768 23, 206 7,397 3, 928 8,075 21, 412 38, 691 d Coal, bituminous.
904 13 162 628 4 183 330 Copper, manufactures of.
CoTTON, MANUFACTURES OF:
1, 937 70, 388 16, 028 3, 974 6, 643 5, 652 7,407 Cloths.
70,771 45, 854 102, 624 73, 754 34, 684 37, 340 63, 659 : Other.
$37, 839 196, 021 387, 591 440, 053 513, 712 290, 036 373, 269 59, Earthen, stone, and china ware.
(®) (®) 114, 231 151, 488 151, 320 120,628 |, 204,470 52,407 | Fans, except palm leaf.
0 517 321 812 187 350 544 3,217 : Feathers and flowers, artificial.
40,926 547, 731 484, 936 301,909 186, 153 125, 850 70, 600 - Fibers, vegetable, etc., manuiactures of.
2,388 3,573 4, 202 12,229 9, 775 12, 677 11,575 54 ; Fruits, including nuts.
769 164 314 2, 252 832 388 pO Furs, and manufactures of fur.
532 3, 786 6, 839 6,169 2, 535 654 2,942 Glass and glassware.
te eet ll heap nal eoio Boeae= ai ce Sos wien c|| brie sineiciese 207,123 325~823 503, 814 Hats, bonnets, and hoods, materials for.
-o 52 c6S2 2-36 BASE see 9, 974 8, 835 6, 039 10, 473 16, 220 20, 449 Ivory, manufactures of.
1, 768 935 1, 354 4,015 1, 592 i 707 854 15, 861 | Jewelry and precious stones.
¥ Lf 188 1,844 9, 386 730 4,242 1,970 4,235 | Leather, and manufactures of
EERE Ol nce aos. — peepee = clateene nace ail-ienbing hse ocfarbou sence a 863,578 | 1,674,158 | 1,497,634 | 1,699,819 | Matting, for floors, ete.
z 61, 700 92, 848 81,124 66, 575 98, 409 99, 721 75, 248 97, 087 132)061 116, 859 | Metal, — compositions, and manufac-
tures 0
OILs:
426 80, 746 24, 656 10,130 AST cehacee==- =< 0 Se 10 2 Animal, whale, and fish.
SOLS a. Ae | es Ce ae eee 1,193 HB) a ee ea = i eee 2 eee 1 Mineral.
> 561 38, 605 2,671 5, 537 4,515 2 766 48 4,312 2,042 Vegets vble, fixed or expressed.
11, 133 19, 404 9, 356 10,180 21,173 26, 239 87,715 14, 917 14, 844 18, 194 Volatile or essential.
1245, 713 B10, 986 209, 289 110, 612 192, 414 213, 289 199, 556 221,795 254, 887 284,243 | Paper, and manufactures of,
ri 302 379 1, 504 367 | 719 1, 544 967 2,078 608 2,177 | Pipes and smokers’ articles.
a ee = 101 176 270 936 d 59 67 8 815 2,105 | Provisions: Meat products.
ng 540, 084 324, 412 334, 356 522, 449 377, 678 629, 296 406,889 | 1,061, 724 491, fi 474,431 | Rice and rice meal.
SILK, AND MANUFACTURES OF:
229, 078 221, 538 51, 992 134, 258 254, 410 202, 339 67, 147 71, 200 74,014 79, 593 Clothing, ready-made.
—< 387, 327 930, 264 970,381 | 1,861,493 878,487 | 1,107,907 | 1,503,409 | 2,042,797] 2, 736, 788 2, 135, 727 Dress and piece goods.
i 21,819 31,944 47,189 66,030 61, 912 44, 690 84, 880 124,719 177, 924 126, 968 Laces and embroideries,
1,444,713 | 2,164,088 | 1,318,213 | 2,713,557 | 1,610,097 | 1,401,028 413, 232 435, 991 432, 418 500, 550 ATl other.
j 14, 919 14, 875 18, 332 4,327 12,319 5, 909 8, 781 7,402 62, 910 29,498 | Straw, manafactures of.
ee eee ee ale are aia stars asiamn cin oe'pialha anc s's!<:enie oblinaa.ce'e aisine =e 330,400 | 4, O16; 187 | 4,871,605} 4,966,303 | Tea.
ee TOBACCO:
84 550 414 28 CLC S ie Fog: || Sea See 56 37 Leaf.
22 595 1 437 3 292 105 589 385 Manufactures of.
36, 003 14, 474 16, 877 34, 429 23,478 23, 558 25, 552 $2, 672 35,620 | Toys.
1, 261 1, 689 396 474 555 UY Lo 508 3,426 | Umbrellas.
1,913 2, 245 1, 299 2, 545 3, 853 4,611 7, 104 26, 454 165,171 | Vegetables.
| WoopD, MANUFACTURES OF:
4, 693 3, 101 2,966 7,743 4, 804 2,134 1,318 1, 569 791 | Cabinetware and house furniture.
136, 281 182, 549 93,192 166, 318 | 139, 090 101, 871 87, 830 160, 677 208, 109 All other.
WOOL, MANUFACTURES OF:
329 6, 336 6, 642 4, 420 5, 653 18, 887 9,810 2, 884 3 Carpets and carpeting.
108 670 1 965 5, 489 21, 965 4,552 198 5, 495 1,399 All other. :
53, 644 10, 209 74, 959 40, 616 43, 296 65, 764 106, 652 167, 103 476, 965 ) All other dutiable articles.
8,695, 484 | 6,158,110} 4,045,720] 6,744,902 | 5,074,582 | 5,201,147 | 5,259,895 | 11,162,828 | 12, 182, 704 13, 133, 45 Total dutiable.
23, 790, 202 27, 454,220 | 19, 426,522 | 23, 695,957 | 25,537,038 | 24,009, 756 | 25, 228, 610 | 26,716,770 | 32, 748, 902 ) 29, 229, 43 Total imports.
«See dutiable, > Not enumerated.

2394 ; COMMERCIAL JAPAN. [Decemper, —

Imports AND Exports oF THE UNITED SrTaTes IN ITs TRADE wae J. ae By ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1892 _
to 1901—Continued. . :

EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE TO JAPAN.

QUANTITIES.

ARTICLES.
‘ 1892 1893 1894 1897 1898 1899
MME THUR UT IOIN GHIA Pitas. on So 7d eee wed oc eee nce Noratebstncnu|veesrconcwsrleasasvccemea
Aeyign ls Udi outs ie eG MCh is oe eee ed De Se S| | es i eee
ACM teat denne se deen sv acetenns aes |oemerennnass | peear ese = ol ipa see anna at) wie ow mein shee aie merece nm alee ota ae er ete ea ee
BUMPS MOOI OUR ICLE coma cn's soe t~ewen occ em [ue omer e waite la ences oxic [mo eenin ome ww nln ee realm mew fel a et lel re
BOOKS AUAPS/PURTAVAULE, CLO sc cccocccnccecc|berctrceccae |p occ rccwccra|nccresecsnns|Snrerenn= = en|>cecceenmmas|enmnneen eas |e cee meee eel aerate | tee eee
IBTAGH, BUC MATUMACHIICS OLeccscconccusccmsslosnone cece alosesccensaac|aanncaccewcslontesecnear|osnsine=saseln sseae so wem aly sede ae eee Sew ae ee
BREADSTUFFS:
WERE HODD eas d ces ta dsvcserccens bbls. . 88, 052 51, 836 68, 428 93, 889 103, 582 237,126 161, 654 226, 029 538, 406 354, 887
PALIT OURER ‘sacar acer oe dec lade cedures Ube adel = wee dkecdcen| vonmovce eas a|Scuwaeny cree | aan dele sce <cil aaa alten els ae wine eam aes ene oe ene te oe a ee
CANOE tate pe Sots so enecdenedue doeees lbs... 14, 208 2,000 9, 600 2, 400 9,470 2,520 3,550 5, 600 61, 780 49,180
Cars, passenger and freight, ‘and para of -..)- 55 oo seve c)ssecboccd se o|oensaebensur louse secsda~s|eseersecssnele seat ercepaeiaansase ses co] -Se> cee ee laa eee
Cycles, nid parts Of f22 ke soe s2 sce Sy eae Sar oop baton ea | Use eveene ccc) dsc maces ss lames ies ona ee le ay eee eae eee ee = eed 1 oe
CUCIDICAIS CYVGS AIC OTURB cc. cone neee saree | Se esccccee ee zccuwdocesce fap socccecnele ES nn eee Br se aeeee! SE (See ys meer | ooo
Clocks and watches, and HTB thos ereee ante ne peem ee eaale aa cape oacee lace ccde dee es |-aeenem tet eee gase|acwmmeepaniasloenonssnenai|eeossenecade|popeebuaeeee 1S oe
Copper WWANUIACHTes Ol etre! teres ae oe ean lectae. ae ae pete de ete wle es sos ca acs seamen oe eee ;
COTTON:
nmanutacthired)s2: soc.seese sess Tbs..| 1,574,315 793,242 | 4,801,595 | 11,064,859 | 20,194,174
Manufactures— ,
CLOUDS os nin cmnseeoasanebent yds.. 84, 286 89, 052 752,266 | 1,186,970 ; 1,438, 553
RIT OUMED o- cncacecancses septs Ubicdeicns|s=eatessre yn) sm w'sn'cowie'ss |<n ates oe imeiec all © une alate gt mello ile eee emer ee erase me
FRUITS: | :
Apples, green or ripe..........--- bbls.. 716 542 451 283 314
Praits, CAUMEG: vacu'c abn casiawc cane ude peicolasedecs one are | a'r cntec oat wate partie aceb alxtave'a la eine otpte wrs eae eeeente eet eas
Gigsiiandglasware sissies ss slat Le | cine oe cc ac ao eee eeeees bbe a ost Ee Ree an ee a
Gunpowder/and ofherexplosives!s.. csess-|oe- fe soccwss|oeocrer ences top midi wan oe eae ee ee eae
Hides and skins, other than furs...... IDS. 2\ separ canines oO oem mcs al edee ats ale ae ee eS
LOU, Servis con thee acne eter saan seetes lbs... 9, 391 5,981 7,971 9, 016 19, 299
india rubberand ‘gutta-percha, manuisc-s|- 22222... 55%,.|Maccesce acaa)ouls foetac an Sa wre ames eee setae
tures of.
Ink; printers’, and (other, --,2 122d. tae sles cccew cent aaa'se sm ccs os |aseaec cpa <> Re Reema een oar
Instruments; etc., for scienthiic PuUNpOsEB: <2 o)oe cers cwcnenlsccsessenese|scccee. a2 see |p eReene nena os
IRON AND STEEL, AND MANUFACTURES OF:
Pir wheels) .c0 sc on--cansness earns No.. 104 850 1,520. 3, 098 1,127
ITCATING 3 2:25.02. vecissedetenadestocoumec|oceeape each alup cube rec tele | sae easa tse wel aaa e eee Seemann
Locks; hinges, sais, AMG-tools. ..... .csescliswetwecs caclle scsecem een se csnee at cee eaten een eee ae eee
Sewing miachines 2. cv sceck bes sloencclsoetcuccsessloeccccescdeepsecemecuneee ase =r aeeeee lean aeee ee
Steam engines—locomotives ......No.. 23
Other machinery: 2 << 2505-552. 05. sont |sanmewssacctpascnsecce abe |hs ne akan ne wel name eee
AIP Other? vc. sev cence See
se at and manufactures of gold and See
silver.
Lamps, COANGCEIS) CLC. oc i500.0 dm eins nis aicios |aaaye Um teens [aes bawideec ea aie es wsteeietee earn ae ae SESE
LEATHER: ,
oy coer: DS: < 667, 682 637,051 | 1,754, 052 | 2,251,353 | 1,054,058 | 1,563,105 757,961 | 1,804,575
All other clecowecnccnnslrecevasecdetlucsescs enna |avi cove ncn welennndeseumeeticaswe «seem olen ai wesw ain ie mt meron e enn a
Mantifactures Of. oc sco. voc coe coca ans eseewans cc> 5] oten eae tan oo heen een | eee nn Lovo oe cae ees (a ee eee Be a
Malt liquors, in bottles ........ doz. quarts. . 4, 867 6, 393 5, 665 13, 308 14, 367 6, 784 15, 090 17, 982 33,
Marble'and stone, and manufactures Of .....|- 22. 2cceccce|cescwcdencee| awwcuuecuuan|sitea caine Wee olaam amet Gea a cteteateie eae aerate bears ee eee
NAVAL STORES: ;
ROR fe er ai Pacn an caeecccexceaeess bbls... 2,098 2,542 7,040 2, 454 8,470 8, 780 7,422 10,177 5, 928 Lf
Turpentine and pitch..... Pires oe bbls... 520 230 150 723 525 794 645 828 550
Turpentine, spirits of ............ galls.. 4,160 500 4, 000 8, 500 138, 400 27,750 12, 500 20, 200 31, 160 28,
OILS, MINERAL, REFINED:
MUMS ACCL TN woe cute pews mae once galls..| 23,761,930 | 26,869,510 | 37,272,450 | 24,298,170 | 33,701,038 | 46,252,501 | 51,621,050 | 32,705,180 | 51,297,805 299,
DFTAOHLIER fais sccensecdeee cacce galls.. 45, 410 53, 293 60, 299 238, 370 432,367 | 1,158,625 | 1,777,115 897,096 | 2,044, 167 244,
PAIN ANG Painters’: COLOTS . .. 02. ens ccces|eccccnsccecc|eccens voccaulsswoesacucac| selec ssl cena tap meeie es ool mime ieee ete ie ee eee
Peper RUC MUUIUPACtULES OL << 5505 o wn ccewduclecnec cues sacl asetasnvcecalenasccc nun colle moe ae ements eee menemeen ene een A ees ee
Paraffin and paraffin wax............. lbs... 15,841 | 1,530,081 | 1,842,548 | 1,620,399 | 8,062,790 | 4,313,395 | 4,380, 3,328,059 | 4,825,819 | 2,806,
PROVISIONS, COMPRISING MEAT AND DAIR
PRODUCTS: .
OGISCONTIGU ccc vance erate ese anes Ibs... 183, 020 85, 230 189,780 | 2,218, 022 261, 470 706, 490 227, 672, 345, 778 134, 350 972,
Beef, salted or pickled............. lbs... 20, 400 88, 000 94, 300 601, 800 51, 000 174,247 | 1,112,300 644, 250 126, 550 290,
BACOM ANG NAMING. cs cccasecantussns Ibs... 31,413 212, 896 20, 327 31, 366 32,771 $2, 371 83, 268 126, 576 107, 410 150,
POLE UCRIOU ve catedecweccteuscss Ibs... 6, 400 10, 500 22, 300 31, 420 42,750 20, 000 2, 700 6, 000 17, 600 18,
ERIULERG Cie vcuvenvnyduauewdacwesakah lbs... 23, 670 18, 680 13, 282 21, 880 33, 640 19, 847 24, 114 15, 150 438, 778 50,
OlGOMATTATING . 22... Sa cs cecmevucsce LDG tlwanawannnwielsteuaneekoke 6, 690 16, 520 20, 909 82, 653 381, 836 19, 185 41,509 62,
ELL OCG OGRE DTOGUGHE, cacancosrcn cans|sbune at ciune|s esedpdeccevlucecwntionemclssucenee seen seeme =a nnn Swe cccancfasteanecnascloenh hada ameivanaainn dé sence
Dairy products—
PUUCEL dn bivcuwedwecossnevudesss lbs... 44, 333 56, 664 58, 189 77, 001 101, 761 87, 180 115, 203 92, 495 101, 287 96,
agg We Cuaasanrnkvire cud kewen e lbs... 12, 675 10, 480 14, 153 18, 051 31, 960 40, 965 35, 594 52, 580 58, 294 7,
Hmet LOPeE TET OPT ELLED Rusunwadcurinars LDS... )<cak sn nwebin eES Gene ae 146, 000 20, 000 125, 600 250, 000 240,000 | 1,204,000 | 1,111,400 485,
Crt | es Same ud cease sahecauerenenunanccdulucsndnespnvaladugeeucutde[aybyauccdsus|sveUuuauanas |e tay aerancnnaneee SS ee ee es ae eee
SOAP: /
TOUSt OF TANOY: <a ecccodaunduganccevsces|snescsccamae|sunssies cuvec|sdapiaecghusu|w.s uk cu cles nu] seth leieiate silat nen tm aenat te Gl less aC eee
PU GURED A nVindnwendaceawnncsdeers lbs... 108, 900 62, 400 178, 140 60, 010 117, 478 94, 583 140, 557 182, 054 348, 275 298, 562
BDISLUs, CINCLION cwasuvevcccvane proof galls.. 251,911 9, 852 8,175 1, 450 4,903 67, 640 876,766 | 1,366,852 242,488 38, 329
Brationery, EXCEPt PANEY 5n..0..cccaccccccscluccescacusec|soucahun su cel sGeiawebews «ls kuawcesen nol Kuaeecessocsin Pee ees es et a. winnie onee
in ang MGHNIOG coscupidunesteceassbuasss lbs... 119, 851 135,447 | 3,150,387 428, 353 41, 302 44, 450 51, 306 48, 732 74, 230 90, 089
OBACCO:
DOMiap saver tos cwuenawasnidicactenss cclt wes cone btanlpeakes se eens 12, 087 73, 512 237, 041 861,677 | 2,751,246 | 24,198,879 | 3,104,472 | 2,249, 706
Manufactures of— :
Mi phon i ree M..| ® 89,424 102, 864 | 76, 580 49, 991 130, 493 215, 981 263, 363 297,143 78, 265 10, 003
OUNGE « ccoddencnnudncancuaseusece|esvncscccssuloweneccecicas|scuntic be saad] wee ties <= eam ph sec ale ile manne irene pe dunes enc ccluanwee ee Cane cnen
MN ca vnnoarcedden aniseed tect galls. . 1,140 | "4,030 790 1,440 | "6, 679 4, 469 3, 429 3,183 [6 372 7, 060
POS cwhscanebaceskscpes geuecCuWieiiwalsh exons acckn lnansevevccsclesnaed bovacdimanbes ou uss tne waite sks & Winer neler Gee 6 ae oe o ctrak tee
WINE: :
EI OUUGN <6 sccavesswacceny doz. quarts. . 500 199 451 210 428 557 274 251 919 201
In other coverings .............+ galls.. 42,705 41, 287 34, 843 23, 819 92,512 43, 660 49, 853 67, 865 77, 726 $1,835

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2325
Imports AND Exports oF THE : UNITED SraTES IN 1TS TRADE WITH JAPAN, BY ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JuNe 30, 1892
ro 1901—Continued.
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE TO JAPAN.
VALUES. ;
ARTICLES.
1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 | 1901 |
. |
Dollars. | Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dolars. | Dollars. Dollars.
2,445 1,145 1,529 429 1, 323 7,276 8,401 10, 461 | 20,790 42,299 Agricultural implements.
701 3950 ODOR raves v ewalceeectaaseae 562 3,000 : 319 | y ia I Se Art works: Paintings and statuary.
5, 939 8, 406 4,588 2,182 11, 410 4, 280 1, 864 4, 698 7,289 2,469 Blacking. ]
15, 702 18, 085 19, 488 24, 987 31,377 34, 202 24, 646 12,307 | 8, 352 | 19,044 Bones, hoofs, horns, etc.
~ 15,126 16, 790 30, 867 14,177 18, 516 23, 689 27, 608 36,163 | 48, 089 43,933 Books, maps, engravings, etc,
261 541 1, 399 2, 052 5, 732 4, 008 13, 640 16, 208 69, 695 | 41,837 Brass, and manufactures of.
| BREADSTUFFs:
179, 246 193, 945 211,579 245, 122 286, 111 819, 620 644, 039 722,710 | 1,554,739 | 1,035, 893 Wheat flour.
10, 912 9, 706 19, 486 25, 348 14, 829 80, 993 58, 204 21, 852 189, 101 | 73, 342 All other.
1,791 205 1,009 223 1, 060 287 310 483 6, 400 4,802 Candles.
2,182 719 1, 671 1, 356 5,870 513 7, 640 4, 025 23, 615 | 7,216 Cars, passenger and freight, and parts of.
- core. Sot be| RB ORE EES SoEe) BOSebere Boer Generac eee 27, 056 52,179 88, 905 117, 943 245, 866 | 252,200 | Cycles, and parts of.
29, 812 20, 514 24, 697 31, 672 29, 037 46, 946 39, 971 80, 498 131, 871 | 119, 875 | Chemicals, dyes, and drugs.
131,317 114, 694 44, 452 39, 654 99, 742 177, 607 163, 488 133, 307 201, 810 237,381 | Clocks and watches, and parts of.
2,376 2, 368 2,900 3, 598 10, 676 | 33, 356 8, 469 9,718 27,421 25,368 | Copper, manufactures of.
/ COTTON:
182,729 68, 423 360, 492 806,058 | 1,481,056 | 2,345,016 | 7,435,526 | 5,775,784 | 12,712,619 | 4,086,317 cane yori
i | Manufactures—
10, 330 9, 084 42, 764 92, 590 92, 830 141, 264 47, 234 33, 828 34, 629 | 37, 891 Cloths.
22,915 43, 418 7,707 18, 552 12, 639 35,344 16, 083 18,019 28, 989 31, 060 All other.
FRUITS:
1, 608 1,307 1,125 661 628 1, 287 1, 478 2,131 1, 745 891 | Apples, green or ripe.
14, 810 11, 813 10, 519 ~- 15, 853 11, 702 10, 345 14,485 19,.277 25,595 30,311 | Fruits, canned.
2,315 1,109 2,106 2, 256 1,910 3,188 1, 984 4,045 8,576 14,233 | Glass and glassware.
9,997 8, 272 3, 004 19 7,457 14, 558 12, 886 6, 592 25, 016 21,863 | Gunpowder and other explosives.
3, 792 541 1, 907 1,124 5,180 1, 892 1, 205 75 5,215 1,405 ; Hides and skins, other than furs.
1, 966 1, 489 1, 821 1, 304 1, 691 1, 404 1,125 3, 538 6, O88 3,513 | Hops.
22,714 27, 984 12, 699 19, 441 37, 833 42, 006 68, 440 57,579 83, 060 94,750 | India He sod and gutta-percha, manufac-
tures of.
31, 916 12, 229 8,543 15, 020 39, 166 16, 493 25, 940 26, 337 34, 989 33,975 | In, printers’, and other.
6, 398 32, 587 34, 600 24, 861 98, 243 148, 271 230, 197 232, 892 313, 076 376,068 | Instruments, etc., for scientific purposes.
IRON AND STEEL, AND MANUFACTURES OF:
953 7, 588 11, 576 24, 278 8,513 12,370 5, 617 3, 624 17,091 20,773 | Car wheels.
41, 048 30, 145 8, 707 6,012 21, 475 32,372 33, 433 38, 306 32, 361 42,512 Firearms.
20, 763 10, 832 13, 401 22,491 49, 847 44,910 76, 500 26, 498 106, 251° 121, 697 Locks, hinges, saws, and tools.
1, 052 2, 499 1, 265 3, 465 9; 685 7,275 5, 883 5, 270 11, 706 30, 979 Sewing machines.
AG Oi ietarcieteate a eim = 115, 578 157, 434 178, 160 920,180 | 1, 283, 865 529, 514 202, 981 372, 162 Steam engines—locomotives.
57, 100 104, 954 82,758 109, 332 286, 816 951, 653 701, 458 569, 691 846,537 | 1,481,916 Other machinery.
33, 916 40, 552 35, 426 95, 731 357,217 } 1,509,173 | 2,881,644 | 1,405,715 | 4,243,278 | 2,579,368 All other.
517 2, 890 1, 454 2, 621 9, 729 5, 678 8, 982 5, 672 19, 640 2,146 comely; and manufactures of gold and
silver.
1,376 3, 065 3, 345 2, 655 3, 596 10, £83 7,131 3, 437 10, 722 13, 686 cans chandeliers, ete.
EATHER:
139, 384 147,071 115, 028 371,479 474, 692 218, 853 327, 836 165, 603 442,109 224, 371 Sole.
5, 439 4, 429 10,614 2,792 19, 857 7, 026 32, 129 34, 383 53, 731 47,576 All other.
5, 126 2,073 4,517 4, 060 8, 481 19, 170 18, 072 9, 625 18, 754 13, 604 Manufactures of.
1,812 5, 104 5, 919 4,217 13, 080 16, 730 6, 507 14, 529 21, 833 32,291 | Malt liquors, in bottles.
1,331 1, 402 1, 948 1, 496 | 1, 346 573 1, 053 590 780 3,410 | Marble and stone, and manufactures of.
NAVAL STORES:
4, 608 5, 201 18,999 5, 872 7, 934 19, 200 16, 764 17, 663 11,780 17,187 Rosin.
823 378 298 1, 340 951 1, 246 998 1, 416 910 135 Turpentine and pitch.
1, 687 200 1,355 2, 883 4,410 8, 651 4, 088 8, 476 16, 263 13,181 Turpentine, spirits of.
OILS, MINERAL, REFINED:
1,798,792 | 1,710,480 | 2,209,070 | 1,591,751 | 3,060,797 | 4,029,459 | 8,592,587 | 2,341,922 | 5,149,082 | 4,784,350 Illuminating.
18, 622 14, 492 nears 64, 941 88, 730 192, 918 222, 5386 119, 553 259, 343 197, 342 Lubricating.
1, 156 1,731 2, 661 6,542 4, 033 14, 092 14, 583 10, 219 13, 333 19,774 | Paints and painters’ colors.
1,871 4,745 |: 2, 569 5, 006 10, 126 6, 952 491, 256 3950, 118 251, 912 206,586 | Paper, and manufactures of.
976 | 77, 824 73, 31d 63, 858 1277 001 171, 476 158, 305 132, 273 224, 469 167,118 | Paraffin and paraffin wax.
PROVISIONS: COMPRISING MEAT AND DAIRY
PRODUCTS:
26, 388 12,706 28, 057 302, 649 38, 375 60, 013 33, 452 40, 750 19, 897 140, 648 Beef, canned. _
986 1, 934 4, 961 34, 002 2, 616 9, 457 50, 242 42, 893 8, 357 72, 325 Beef, salted or pickled,
4, 206 18, 393 2,931 4,112 4,485 4,199 10, 588 15, 507 13, 591 20, 358 Bacon and hams.
450 788 1,516 905 3, 164 1, 263 175 225 1, 364 1,379 Pork, pickied.
1,995 2, 088 1, 235 1,811 2,511 1, 445 1,731 1, 160 3,358 4,338 Lard. ;
_opeansncee BSCE opeooene 976 1, 758 2, 828 3, 166 3, 217 1,970 4,412 5, 820 Oleomargarine.
18, 811 10, 518 7,871 2, 270 1, 584 2, 226 8, 654 8, 645 11, 372 8, 652 All other meat products.
| Dairy products—
10, 208 11, 402 11, 534 14, 007 18, 103 15, 654 23, 097 18, 592 21, 055 19, 359 Butter.
: 1, 760 1, 355 1, 884 1, 553 3, 603 4, 433 3, 867 5, 965 6, 052 8, 494 Cheese.
43, 723 8, 866 40, 347 34, 446 45,395 | . 58,766 76, 106 76,701 99, 433 118, 311 Milk.
noone CSocen tern Soneaer 438 78 409 1,181 804 2,810 2,485 5, 061 | Salt.
571 139 1,330 225 390 514 735 386 46 895 Seeds.
Soap:
F 1, 734 664 557 1, 965 1, 660 2,079 8, i71 2,517 18, 832 12, 474 | Toilet or fancy.
4, 432 1,949 3, 263 2,192 4, 228 3, 288 6, 430 6, 890 11,971 9,545 | —_Alll other.
55, 662 4,639 4, 280 2,469 eal 27,146 326, 844 414, 404 91, 886 33,470 | Spirits, distilled.
16, 802 14,174 5, 859 6, 248 17, 761 15, 628 11, 800 14, 595 34, 257 18,281 | Stationery except paper,
5,917 7,173 92, 745 12,876 2, 044 2,214 2, 466 2,148 2, 900 4, 180 Bones, rei ned.
| TOBACCO:
cee een ae ce eee 820 7, 340 12, 948 55, 124 197,036 | 2,414, 482 $22, 362 228, 240 | Lesi.
Manufactures of—
114,198 179, 118 137, 895 75, 206 202,774 349, 503 400, 42 445, 263 95, 988 Cigarettes,
46, 373 58, 544 33, 009 22, 496 B7, 724 58,074 73, 694 67, 955 11,214 All other,
1, 361 4,477 1,029 1,409 6,108 4, 264 3, 403 2, 930 5, 037
1, 205 1,320) | 1,345 6, 892 2,913 1, 893 11, 473 10, 360 7,181 ‘ »tes.
1, 976 874 1, 823 803 1, 845 2, 290 1,133 1,218 3, 446 _ 817 vn botUes. “
15,419 14, 604 13, 005 8,474 24, 167 15, 346 16,119 23, 109 25, 460 26, 608 In other coverings.

No. 6—-25

‘

2326 COMMERCIAL JAPAN,

ne Me

Imports 4ND Exports or THE Unirep Srares IN 17s TRADE WITH JAPAN, BY ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS ENDING Icxe 30,
to 1901—Continued. :

EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE TO JAPAN—Continued.

QUANTITIES.

ARTICLES.
1892 1893 1894 1895

Woop, AND MANUFACTURES OF:
Lumber—
Boerds, deals, and planks..M feet... 702 481 109 423
TY LLIMDOY ATIC TIEN oo scorn nade ceweccree- Avescewscccacluseenvcccccciamewsecnneh
Manufactures of—
ACTER I MIU oe ce rte cas no's sw enispan| ousenceeeusr]vewuswsseeae
iON ana te creole meter c ap neue achive paebewee oaEaw a niehits on ent amiow owes oma .
JSULW CH Eoin CL [Pie ee eA Se Ee ec Demers! Sere

Total domestic merchandise .........
Total foreign merchandise ..........-

See eee eee eee eee eee

Total exports of merchandise od eee Se oe weer ee

—__ EE ssSsSssSsSssS9S9sS$9s9sSsSsSsSsSss ST

GOLD AND SILVER.

ImM20RTS:
GOI oc cnn ccccccctcncwrcccowceursceccecss|«wecewecccs lewwrensscecelsmaseee coccelswabnwvescon|sdevnaulessces|=SemEen se ses] subunusecccsiasebew oa cc eal ceremets ames

Exports:
GONG oc conv ccncc ccccvcccwss covucwet secec|wawmenw coco d4h sunmuis o's sacl clccata win) 0am om taste el elie iel eee cle ied a ti es me el es a

COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2327

Tarrorts AND Exports or THE UniTep Sraves IN irs TRADE WITH JAPAN, BY ARTICLES, DURING THE YEARS EXDING JuNE 30, 1892
to 1901—-Continued.

7 EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE TO JAPAN—Continued.

VALUES,

ARTICLES.

1892 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901
WooD, AND MANUPACTUEES OF:
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Lumber— ‘
\ 9, 461 (172, 588 62, 287 6, 312 52, 403 5A, 552 Boards, deals, and planks.
16, 700 12, 955 5,525 15, 059 33, 055 28,517 Other lumber and timber.
Manufactures of—
14,773 27, 845 27,424 - 16,552 18,799 21,107 Household furniture.
1,978 5, 326 5, 534 30, 677 28, 013 51, 892 All other.
_ 86,461 74,014 149, 145 328, 244 815, 859 | *685,164 | All other erticles.
°8, 288,282 | 8,189,711 | 3,981,377 } 4,559, 242 13, 233,970 | 20,254, 689 | 17,158,970 | 29,042,536 | 18,656,899 Total.domestic merchandise.
; 1,829. 6, 788 5, 438 75,475 49, 435 21,508 30, 852 105, 718 44, 939 343, 7AL Total foreign merchandise.
| 8,290,111 | 3,195,494 | 3,986,815 | 4,634,717 | 7, 689, 685 | 18, 255, 478 20, 385, 541 | 17, 264,688 | 29,087,475 | 19, 000, 640 Total exports of merchandise.
E NN IEE EE EEE ———E—————— EEE ee eee
IMPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER FROM JAPAN,
h ‘oe ; ; IMPORTS:
a 326, 628 | 89, 274 43, 680 6, 400. 4,915 148,227 | 2,000,247.| 5,020,424 | 4,526,724 | 5,625,230 Gold.
‘ Bs aei os us| acece sete Beis ote See tier - 500- Td ee ae eee eee a 18, 000 165 40,139 Silver.
; ; 3 EXPORTS:
Piieeias seas 2,407 1,000. 2,921 : WS i Se Se Se) ane ae, Pe ee 4,210 220 Gold.
2,304,369 | 4,150,980 | 38,849,030} 4,440,768} 38,382,732 | 2,987,351 SISO a atc 64,290 , 1, 947 Silver.

a Including animals, $220,560,

2328

Imports AND Exports or THE UNITED Srares IN ITs TRADE witH JAPAN, By Customs DisTricts, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JUNE 30,
1892, ro 1901.

COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ~

IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE FROM JAPAN. -
CUSTOMS DISTRICTS. | 1892 1893 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 “1898 | 1899 1900 1901
Dollars. Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. ) Dellars.
Jolt iG 3G Ug at ee es Se ae ea 42,577 19,195 33, 053 | 72,014 104, 696 101, 227 - 73,769
RI MER etotains Sooo eva veineice erin occe oveclvcasacceeaacivaecaasre nan © - ao hse ae ore eae ee a ee ee ek le :
Bath, Me ..... aries pious et eae Sawaicivnscee ee rece ree st Sea ey ee } 5 '
MTEIRONNNE 505 cd cc avcbteaziccete PRS ET, 5 eee soe 2s )
Boston and Charlestown, Mass ....-....---- 21,722 49, 434
MSERTICCUOME RS ge oases a came ea ns osc cee ene Be hice ert eee
ase lehgS ee ee eiecrs snide Seance mass oe / SESS Poe AAS 3) EE eee
ohh ti bi Gaye yon 2a ee oe en SS ee al br ere A ee eee
MPPOTOCLOWII ND Cos costs Seceice nse cs os Soret 7, 5BA 2, 250 1,305 7,23 1, 303 132 7,719
spits cued oe ee eas eee oa ae ee ae 57,180 2,151 22, 639 ee = 32, aa 10, zee
Ce AS ea a eee rire Pee Sean ota aioe po Mei al oan ee ee ‘ Te é 52
EE a EE Made oheiol f elees cee sce eee eS ie 431 442 77 247
Now London, Conn eas alone SI Sak ae eee a | ee or | CF eee an Boe aoe ek leeasc eee 6B) ee ee oe re ee se ce cee ae
DIE INC WES) Bo vecn onan eactasecic caew olan eas o> apoda lame wes renls ol moininiewcinaasin ERE ee nesta to ) | ee Sees meen)
Mee Gres INS Xs s\c'o » Sorrento ete eoce piace 8, 274, 998 11, 767, 040 8, 591, 682 / 9,287,706 | 7,243,829 7,957,682 | 6,925,990
Norfolk and ee ee Soe n eee sae eee he oar A, © |oeweeree sees Jocececec sess |= ge === ==> 8 joreeseeeeees pies teeta pats
PAPAIN OUOCAY , MOW.'s > saa tom Sanaa so emontc | igoe ecco ite enone lel Ste are ee. 2] oe ae nei SAS eevee foes apes calee le soeeee ee
Priadelphia, Pa obo. sess by seas destoeen cee 12,711 | 33, 448 18,725 | 107,327 115, 563 103, 083 76, 834
Portland and Falmouth, Me..........-..---|-.--++++---- loResetstae 79, 493 45, 983 DD TAB ite Soe = oe han cece oret ls donne seeee
EMMI eHCe it, bas 4.) <aot ee eee et aeee oe leo eoe sees 1,518 4, 628 2,105 3, 728 1,182 210
BicrnOWS, VAs. .0c-.6.c-ccrcccscasdur ick: ee ol Ne iepembae | 182" |osocs alee ah Ge ann eee
RAVADMA LNG ite. ooo oop curses sore smears (een an ate ls wow aon demies| bine’ 6 n'cbweic) clcepiceaees wall ce see eteae nee ates aoe lene eee ee eee
WORMS LOMLSING Cus sas. scenes ccemeeeeen eee. [Ae fo ae | Oe oe ee bheie 3.8 | Gee Aan aera 22 | 6 4
CBIVERLOD LOX sc chc0 ov. cc csieses ieee antes Meee lees sae ys/s<e isto ee oe | 365 434 3, 152 Br leet ess clon See eee
cee ae 11 ae eo OMe Bi, ease Le ere aera. ene eenitdedied Wibediree eas Seeeee [teeee esses
MOUMORA Le toe caes opnetennaen esa ceat aces lieu ewe asae | SO pee sces sec] ede eee een PY De ee ee eee epee een
New OLlbAns LA sjcssceck ce renseescrcscess™ | 407 | 752 | 1, 881 5, 304 54, 891 53, 198 | 8, 852
PARIUGLINOUE LOK acoder crsccssseus ssecaectleesepasccens Ramer Per inemercmc Serie poi noe ert ines 8 Sis ses on een es ee PR
GIABCOL, H lvacnce outs scccica aes cansecsse \sovewbiesineee Vordmsteaicteisite lo cece Socal [oes Soe eae) Se aeeaeiaree eee peace ee Benen mre beeper ep
Martin Leki cn cl oacces euecace leet ores eet a Leceeegee aes Eases re BO ees cc ose Leet sees eS Saas: Biles aot eee
fam eM aad cole. i oh een, Bie ye | cea SS eae | Sar nas | igs ptr ee a Re TT ee ) opera ene ERA aay EARS (ae
JTS a Se re ea eee eee a Le Lk Sivie games laces enous cus lees b lca a are] oe oe ete eee eee [ED oveiebeeAp ustedes om aay ieee peters are 196"| =) Se
LSP, (G11, pak a Ne ein OE ape oS S eee ae th eer So! tn toe Ree cI ere meee | Meee eens eR a as EP a eS Ree aes RSS. 24, 484 699, 966
MOB UARIPOLCE: OH). 55:5. oc: seneaewencseoontees | heccpowe ene } 334 3,073 6,614 16, 583 | 6, 554 4,709 20, 995 23, S09 | 34, 726
ITO RN GALES ais dn’: aics.v olw'viw ans slocine doniaeinet Lame elem cram: hive Gmeeiemeaas 836 6, 080 «0 20 2 ON. ciccwkepen 108
hae tppacag tl eer corer er en / 27, 852 | 89, 400 106,189 487,133 | 2,272,183 | 4,770, = 2, 923,588 | 5, —— ae Son
BAC RO CO: ve ood anne wo durc vpiviee Moe bterlocclnss oes | 23S) | vieneeudead anes eee AON) <P WAN no ee . 1
BHU UTARICISCO, CA)’ scones vn ounneccew eee ane 12, 349,089 | 12,333,176 | 7,340,352 | 8,545,576 | 9,755,789 | 5,992,401 | 11,842,677 | 7, 601, 453 11, 426,407 | 9,927,618
VILIRIMOLUG HORE s cer ccscaswerean et sweceeeae 283, 837 134, 789 | 50, 127 72,758 143, 007 425,717 498, 181 769, 262 624, 5385 305, 855
IBURAILOUCTOC IN) Wi mo oie caleievnccidlsnacccciesce 28, 060 26, 716 49,592 16, 535 21,585 11, 543 176 3, 068 469
CONGUE lke are ances seanenccescesansrecse 2,118,389 | 2,164,590 | 2,086,930} 2,050,102 | 2,025,815 | 1,136,781 811,416 | 1,228,694 | 1,194,531 | 1,337,005
Cu yahoga Ohio SC aOR ie, 8,596 34, 857 80, 748 55, 464 96, 41,758 14, 421 51, 942 77,610 93,958.
TVGITOIO MAC Ls. san eens eeoe 97, 672 130, 933 151, 643 109, 027 123, 074 48, 381 19, 942 67, 065 157, 728 104, 917
PN Medd vevenaahenbeateriwnderess| Micedaseeoes 6, 295 15, 813 2,449 7,439 ro es oad a 5, 890 1, 886
BURGE ers one caw swe cwiocpeesgeatepevecnces cl daesnm cence | vce -cmbeoe eee] ae eiee eee emma Sette annette ,309 | BDL. 2 cance ase
Wen tae 9, 447 21,760 44, 634 21, 020 17, 547 | 21,715 13, 712 oa eo 53,195
MTOR MACE vais cae occurs cvcvccccvoccectecets| ais etes semen | a ouccupemce ol laremmcote eictele wince eee ee ates men etc ee la eacet ainets ae enna 3) DOD. | cee ee
NEU oes isis tak «uve p53 s0eae Soe 26 5, 919 12, 352 27, 906 6,110 19, 791 Cae 2 a ee 18) 058 25, 604 34, 183
Milwaukee, Wis LS GLa OS ENUM Wake oeep eee ies 22,053 64, 901 57, 452 49, 524 25, 628 18, 794 447 16, 142 17, 837 20, 665
REITICCOMO GAS NULLINL 5-2-0 visisie scinoew anew ta vellesene 177, 950 293, 272 256, 107 318, 294 567, 323 445, 080 106, 932 353, 924 362, 696 376,725
Morin and South Dakoths....c.. ccc ccewcee 4,715 12,179 673 2,709 1, 670 1, 063 4,970 ey Seyi se 1,003
PERMECKIO NG Ne secon eree nn decueanve-weee 151, 573 75, 926 79,260 | 2,121,487 | 2,345,847 | 2,381,021 | 1,638,809 | 3,512,476 | 5,386,239) 3,939,959
PIU OO vide ca tincxovecevcuctsasdwceees|ewauddeeteca|eecedunactes| <ertua bec cuctes souvemet cel weeaeemeeae he anievion seaseteneessw senate / <wendencsneeleeeee tate
RO ORC emir iG Gi «wan on ed vieshwielnd weer | naassebeeees iasnvnesenke | CRE Bee | ee RRR see a | ee Pesan | casecsoasvelcecnus cones einnnenn
LUO MUIDUOMER ep ike dels vcardbevenvewaideals Cast cec¥entlncecasmetoud ac cueeb ena eee eee amaee 1. 2 oaecoten oss <pcie wane |= <t sseey eee | a) sO RE ae. 401
.
oh a HR OEE ILE POEL Oe 152 sa al ae ne se 1, 604 4,585 | 185047) | occ ceeu cen | 3,070 RD a eee
ATER, GB... -ccrccnnnsevccoaccverccsccces|svcccconenss|svescoercen= Low ecinecninsics [ae ee decent a! gu paLRee Miaretemtets ates tat sete Ree Rs 26s SE A 1,632 3so
IOI Ch Osenwceencacccceeupecnceuace 949 1,372 802 15, 573 25, 256 | 25, 229 6,227 4, 534 14,530 18102
Pet al ngs Mh UKhW ison inmpue ti cate ens tet apee vaune| sean ween s el 549 18 2, 294 | 487 1,600 1,030 5, 918 $8,181
Sounci TTS, TOW Goons cuwuccanswasan ccvetclssccuccentus|oececnse 6 c60|c neces cums w.c'fciwec keith vici Whit pein ule le memes skelter tt i alee Siete te meee een 4,873
MMR Fp oA Us cco. cn vnc Siw Tene toss 22,844 | 12, 226 7, 587 3, 025 8, 360 3, 522 723 895 10, 951 17,130
MMI MRITIGR LOWE s cUcindduven cuted cucduevnncltectensces es Om ya) RR ER Ses 104 8, 485 5, 767 4,835 6,820 16, 899 14, 305
Asay ‘sik pared dc uevaen Kant ae second eu welt cGecamane es | 4, 607 a oon 44, 638 37, 380 14, 689 2, 363 25, 367 23, 688 23, 085
Po PMIMULM GML Ges se caw sti ene ace ew cscs nas chee eitayen laewombe toons ¥0004, csv snns cane] vente cannes] Opmuniees stellen weemeeaen te eee aS ree re ME
Grand Ra pids, MIG ss audits cceakeswchna tend inka ten seek as cemeen hone 7,759 2,458 25, 021 16,181 | 2,775 30, 901 25,410 12, 880
PUCUREUNDOMBA LNG sh bi uiwn dseuduns beaiven¥ naka 192 50 1, 292 1, 647 1,122 5 420 1,001 3, 751 4, 966
Kansas ‘ity, a ee SE EE SR TSS 4, 550 7, 254 14, 383 31, 461 50, 024 35, 380 20, 088 18, 542 144, 752 183, 601
TOMVALG, LOU vecaecencanvccsacscecceends|acnangws duruhacs¥auacccau|sencbe cosh owl eoncesw coe | sm eeeinuteee af etecwt unm eeeen tenemos 2 iscaucscpne =
Lincoln, Nebr SkVecupetuusacvsabuterceceuyss | 8, 553 12,210 10,779 6, 903 6, 629 4,110 38, 206 2, 985 4, 832 5, 830
LN VELLCU EO US etins dv cancun canasovensedadccetsscocwswnan >| aban eNeda ame cwetets S64 6,859 3, 823 7,691 550 21,250 29, 699
PEOUIORIM DAIL ceed au rsavmaneavea ce cee ce wee oats ae es ease 1s daustelina del adie Rare 182 80 20 42
IOGMPNAIIG OADM sce awacvenadcecosacas cred SB least one. 2,169 | 206 204 fice aie 934 7 as 43 748 1,057
SOEIDA, INOUE ai uwaeeseaalae wan we pe eetnend 47, 656 93, 888 124, 274 68, 803 76, 251 68, 409 6,122 67, 648 77, 764 88, 384
PUUSDUTE, PA ..... 2. seeeeeeeeenececscceesces 51 560 1,082 3,607 | =: 10, 057 11, 043 2,309 1,944 26,412 30, 697
St. Jose NIMS ad eck wera vas ku ean eheren sl shnuhaaweces 17,251 24,577 20, 876 19,519 |} - 17,587 69, 717 15, 987 41, 262 18, 600
Bt. Lou is, Ritu wh axacuweeebbdaNiwdecuweuse 7,689 21,375 47, 256 40, 803 141, 253 69, 101 2,144 $4, 577 111, 426 115, 680
PU AMCLEY ALONG snk vice vaccines auuwnedakee| saxnasenweee 4,414 11, 386 12,481 24, 871 21,369 80 23,178 23, 065 23, 102
OCMC. MOMS dea cen wu anenseman canta news enka ae 8&9 786 362 359 it a ees lt 119
PE CNIINT Ss bs ous wtia hare WA Win ake coals eee eels ) say cus SEE) aS eS acl a's ees Seen Sere eee aes Baer Pere ae ee 10, 418 40, 048 26, 639
GM aNEs ab as eC eeuvaas wenk Went cereus | 28, 790, 202 | 27, 454, 220 | 19, 426, 522 | 23,695,957 | 25,587,038 | 24, 009, 756 | 25, 223,610 | 26,716,770 ) 32, 748, 902

190}.}

64) 154

37,679 | "133, 203
~""543, 585 | 783,488.
33,608 | 11,781

1892. 1893 1894 1895 1896
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

ee ee ee ee ee eee

555, 380 590, 984
"1,661, 269 | 2,170,541
27, 580 116, 311 |
a Re Os eae:
ee
any, eae TW SC
17,461 30, 925

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

1892, To 1901.

EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE TO JAPAN.

1897 1898 1899

Dollars.

Dollars.

ea eee 10, 000

440, 971
73, 860
14/989

444, 696

a 23, 574.

2,216,991 | 4,234,383 | 2, 897, 259
a ee es oe ey 1, 142, 233
2,570,249 | 4,117,449 | 4.138296
235, 928 717,277 434, 016

56, 584

J al
ed

Dollars.
1, 298, 707

28, 463

Dollars.
’
|

ees ia |’ 39,000

4

145, 602
50,810

60, 486
54, 600

2329

Imports 4ND Exports oF THE Unirep Srares IN Its TRADE witH JAPAN, BY Customs Districrs, DURING THE YEARS ENDING JuNE 30,

CUSTOMS DISTRICTS.

Baltimore, Md.
Bangor, Me.
Bath, Me.
Beaufort, S.C.

| Boston and Charlestown, Mass.

Charleston, S. C.

| Delaware.
Fairfield, Conn.

Georgetown, D.C,

Hartiord, Conn

Newark, N.J.

New Haven, Conn.

New London, Conn.
Newport News, Va.

New York, N.Y.

Norfolk and Portsmouth, Va.
Passamaquoddy, Me.
Philadelphia, Pa.

Portland and Falmouth, Me.
Providence, R. I.

Richmond, Va.
Savannah, Ga.

256 BOR OE FA ath ey Be oe > ne eed be ee Wilmington, N.C.

Galveston, Tex.
Key West, Fla.
Mobile, Ala.

-| New Orleans, La.

Paso del Norte, Tex.
Pensacola, Fla.
Saluria, Tex.
Tampa, Fla.
Alaska.

Hawaii.

Los Angeles, Cal.
Oregon, Oreg.

Puget Sound, Wash.
San Diego, Cal.

San Francisco, Cal.
Willamette, Oreg.

Buffalo Creek, N.Y.
Chicago, I}.
Cuyahoga, Ohio.
Detroit, Mich.
Duluth, Minn.

Erie, Pa.

Genesee, N. Y.
Huron, Mich.
Miami, Ohio.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Minnesota, Minn.
North and South Dakota.
Oswegatchie, N. Y,

Roe Oe Sandusky, Ohio.

Superior, Mich,
Vermont, Vt.

Albany, N.Y.
Atlanta, Ga.
Cincinnati, Ohio,
Columbus, Ohio,
Denver, Colo.

Des Moines, Iowa.
Dubuque, lowe.
Evansville, Ind.
Grand Rapids, Mich,
Indianapolis, Ind.
Kansas City, Mo.
Knoxville, Tenn.
Lincoln, Nebr.
Louisville, Kv.
Memphis, Tenn.
Nashville, Tenn.
Omaha, Nebr.
Pittsburg, Pa.

St. Joseph, Mo.

St. Louis, Mo.

Weaneeceh aalnceuwataacue Sioux City, Towa,
SER oe ed AE eR Springfield, Mass,
Be ee Rare are Syracuse, N.Y.

18,656,899 | ** Total.

3,290,011 | 3,195,494 | 3,986,815 | 4,684,717 | 7,689, 685-| 13,255, 478 | 20,385, 541 | 17, 264, 688 | 29, 042, £36

2330 COMMERCIAL JAPAN,

Parrxcipat Imports into Japan From Various Forercn Countries ry Eacn Year From 1898 to 1900.
[Fractions of yen are omitted]

1898 .
ARTICLES AND

ARTICLES AND
i COUNTRIES

COUNTRIES
WHENCE IM-
PORTED.

Clocks, standingand
hanging (num-
ber):

Germany -......--
Great Britain ..-...
United States .....
Other countries...

Electric-light appa- |
ratus:

Germany.....-.---- Bieta
Great Britain ..... ase ee
United States ..:.-|..--— =.

Fire engines and
pumps:

pit US ea See Baba i pece es
United States .....
Other countries ...}....-.----

Implements and
tools of farmers
and mechanics:

Belgium .......-..
Branco! =. ee /
Germany, ......--- ai ee
Great Britain 5-7 ssp
United States .....].=....—_-]
Other countries ---}......---- :

paratus, photo-

Gerneary i. -]> <1. <. oe !
Great Britain ....- ies :
United States ..-.-10-2 02.2. / :
Other countries .../.......... kinds)
ee A ee ee EE EE eee umber):
0 Se Eee | S60 218)....._.:..] GR...) See Lee

Germany....
Great Britain
Switzerland...
United States

144,891 729,746,
J Serer eas

yo te Me ae yet
Germany....
Great Britain
United States .

Machinery, paper-
making:
So Se a ee
Great Britain .....
SIEGE BORGES po <cchennsovanes

Machinery, _ spin- 5
ning (all kinds): : Great Butain Paced 166, cost
Belgium ..........].......-.- 8, 92: | Holland .......... 4,126
Franice............|.....29--- 2, 37: 7,8 || Sweden and Nor- ;
Germany..........].......--- 70, linens some A 187,117 i eee 6,660
Great Britain ..... |-s2e-eseee 715, $49)|.......-0. | 680, 276)).....2.... 2,818.64 |} Switzerland...- 35, 324)
Switzerland...222.).0222.202. a | ee es Soom "328 || United States ..... 81, 325
United States .2222|2...0.022: 1) AGRMIE din Ba re 802 | Other countries... arr
eR Se ;
OS EIT AYE wie em | 800, @94]}.......... 778, 235))....... 762 |
= | _778, 235)|-..---.-+-/3, 088, 762 | Total......00«- 300, 227)

1901.]

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Pervcrpa Imrorrs intro Japan From Various Forercx Covnrrres 1x rach Year From 1898 ro 1900—Continued.

1900
ARTICLES AND P
COUNTRIES
WHENCE IM-
PORTED. Values Values
23, —_ mille): Yen. L.
ie sam Seiese 4 95, 540) 1, 238, 661 , 462
“ose teem a 3 , O84
Other countries ...|.......... 3 55
ROTA. oerewerenee 95, 880) 1,243, 064 492,553
Fish, salted (kin):
British America .. 2,674,116) 182,505 40,185
2 a 18, 926 1, 297 7
__o ee 66, 492 8,529 2,763
PIRSIED ic occa a oars 132) 43 | 3 1, 103
Russian Asia. ..... 40, 178, 092} 1, 945, 250)|23, 328, 1581, 186, 743} 8, 645,982) 475,536
_ United States ..... 901, 599, * 52, 14 "129, 681|’ 5,988] °641,757| 44,811
Other countries... 1,076 104) 1. 799 195, 445,159) 44,568
Total......-.--.|43,835, 533) 2,184, salon 23, 788, 203/1, 212, 896 |10, 612, 880| 609,736
Flour (kin): |
Australia... | 2,828,211) 127,761 272,896, 11, 807) 18, 750 940
Agatrin, ..~ =~ 107,111 5, 668 34, 287 Fi || Sees! Sean
British America -. 1, 023, 883 41,373 295,609) 14,771|) 467,175) 27,617
UNE T iy REESE | RE eee eee 61, 462 4,762 8, 475 337
‘Great Britain ..... 70, 694 "By 528 47 2} 192,675 9,776
Hongkong -........ 7,370 397 ‘22 B15 1,393}; 36,'825| ~ 2,166
Russia ...-........ 3 423) 95| 34,321] 1,762
United States ..... 80, 255, 208) 3, 703, 360)|28,.258, fe 333, 675) 38, 087, 424'1, 979, 359
Other countries ._- 6, 837 428) * 54,7 eS 800! ” 453

in|
POP ao 4, 84, 299, 5 BA2, 3, 882, 516) /29,001, s0Ht 370, 1, 370, 857/38, 854 854, 445 2, 022, 412
Hats, caps, and bon--

aoe): 7 132 3 2 320) 3,570
eee 5 ) O07
British India._---_ 30 599) 61, 1,294 46} 1,022
LOTS Tee aS tet 977 2,107 2,837 7, 670, 2,214 4,576
Wrance...........« id 156 4, 628 52
Germany. Rea cata’ 3,630) 45, 476 861
Great Britain ..... 15,935} 343, 615]! 8, 655)
IT a 342 4, 192
United States ..... 362 9, 073 283
‘Other countries... 803 1, 004 96
Total....-..|___21,742| | 13, 040
Acid, carbolic (kin): :
i 34, 716 18, 396 56,
@ermany.....---.. 116. 880) 47, 220; 108,737)
‘Great Britain ..... 332; 787, 157, 426) 561, 203
‘Other countries... 1 Zyl
Total. =. Bows 484,387) 223, 045|| 728, 305,
Acid, = oe (kin): ;
7° Fa 208,912) 167,318| 54,630
Great Soe ee ee Se ee eae ae 1, 698:
United States ..... 170) 152) 763|
Wistals Sc.) 209,082) 167, 470 57,091] 60,499| 231, 029| 256, S91
a +a
Alcohol (kin):
Sactria 28,7 3,217|| 191,516) 21,708 450 70
Daten aie "7°54 "55s ae “GR, 7% sol 383
Du 0 1 ar ie! ne (Gs: v| | a, RS eee 4, 820 1,38
Lh 9, 056 “ee 3a 12 318,060) 36, 74
Germany ......... 617, 182 67, 234 14, 927, 108)1, 768, 856)|23, 011; 576 2, 207, 315
Great Britain ..... 41 49 191, 176 54
VON... -<csc0 210, 729 23, 311 78, 317
SESS SSO PSR ee! | eee |
United States ..... "352, 220 35, 426)! 2, 062,424
@thericountries |... ..-|_--- ...-~ pa |
Total..........| 1,239,225] 132, 051/'17, 450, 57712,
"Glycerin (kin): |
Germany ......... 105, 896 35, 256|} 588,677
Great Britain ..... 170, 035 53,890} 313,063
OTIS Si ce ion cswreme|Os~ sae Sen Bere osata |
Teter OWS] wes peraee| ET ES ES ae | 31,720
Other countries ._- 146, < eenee
2 eae 89,293} 933, 460
‘|
Phosphorus, amor- | |
Oa Aaa 6,804
a “| -48,090} ie ais 82,497
iogeend Settee -_— 159,854} 101; 606)
TSE Se a ae 4,165
Other countries... io) an || SERS
Total-.........| 194,882} 244,978) 162,034] 216,124] 211,564] 298, 252 |
US Eeracmas eter

1 s 598
ARTICLES AND 5 ni nat .
uate ar / =, Se
NCE IM- | . 4
‘ | Quanti- | » | Quanti- | ,- Quanti- y-,),,..
PORTED. | “ties. Values. ties, | Values. ties, | Values.
:
he ae of | ‘ : :
in): en. ji | Yen. en.
Belgium ........-- 126,714 20, 6365! 20, 321 3,771 57,628 8,367
po) 1,624,647) 259, 064 610,263, 93,997 639,840 112.066
Germany ......... $58,350} 142 014) 266, $10 49,371 704,300 112,171
Great Britain ..... 1,540, 597) 252, 847)| 1,473,038 260,262 2,311,758 296,757
Bwatzeriana. . .. fs non eee 3 . 61,386 11,480 18, 900 2,777
Other countries... 29, 605) 4, 698 Joc ceeeeeee cece neces cere eee ces ceeeeeeee
i: Se 4,179,913} 679,312} 2,331,918 418,883 3,782,426 632,059
Soda-ash (kin): | :
Great Britain .....|12, 223,664) 482,808| 8,993,561 236,416 7,068,129 184,04
United States ..... 917) 68), 1,086,621, 36,800 29 5
Other countries...!.........- SD abescnred H 4,068 ft Seed Be aoa
2 SiS / 482, 877 |10, 084, 250 373,369 7,068,388 184,059
~~ rahi ad teil ap - ue oe bee
Great Britain ..... 920, 608) 11, 120; 878, 515,998 11,799,685 422,714
United States ..... 6, 618) 101, 931) eee Ee
Other countries ... ! 1Z 1, 964 Se. ee
ic 78, 929, 526 11,227,274, 521,851) 11,799,685] 42,714
Soda, nitrate of |
(kin): : )
British India... ... A 960) 12, 500}'- = 2&3 rm ere jrteteeeee
GEPIDIIET 0. soo , 921 9, 864)) Se Be
Other countries .. 5 18, 730, 4,949,090, 226,595 3,371,324, 117,319
eel |__“41, 114) 5,081,626, 231,488 3,371,324) 117,319
Alen oe 26, ie 16, = ge s, i 2 sud! eee Ber 1,653
ee St 5 ' 2, / ss
France..........--| 63,453 39,473), 47,1431 26,027) 16,437] 9, 31
Germany.........- 4; 326, 838) 1, 029, 498) 945,150 783,411 1,230, 9741, 124, 87
Great Britain ..... » — 1,073), 2) 438) yr
Holland ..........~ j 4, 652, 9,844) 5,5 4,245
Switzerland... ..... 304,715) 229, a 107, so 80,784; 100,7 76, 289
Other countries... 1, 000) 100} — ee |---------
Pola... asd 1,739, 970) 1, 328, = 1,114, 431) 904, 012 | 1,357, 7291, 218, 842
Indi ne et dry (kin): eis )
Bettish tadin 2,379, 34 “1, 412, 5422, 107, 067° 1,693, 2592, 110, 173
— 16:76 07: ore + 1,231, 957 290, 630) 639, 752 Ber 72,33
Oe ase ; “i Soa Geaianer Tae, Sor
french Es eee Dees { 22.858 43,671)... es
Gezmany ........- 111,390; 13, 113) +351,8@ 613) 3,395
Great Britain ..... 134, 797 5, , 493 9. 477 25,592, 38,269
Bollend —......<4 1, 685 | 20) p= SERENE CEs ——
Philip) er fee. een = Sa sail co saa 27,664 25,076
United States ..... 4, ; yl ES EE
Other countries... 32, 128 23,772 46,175 15, 269 t 21,0655
hj” t Se ee mR Bees 2B 673} 3,902,558. 1,768,728 2,903,829 1,806, 2762. 270, S14
Lacquer = i,
China 591, esl <=. 583, a7, 236, 352 527, a 204, 142
— 16, e21 3,555
237, 026 583, $27) 235, 32 544,277, Wi, 723
)
ra, rt: O54) 222,840; 518,860, 112,06 945,073 199,699
Germany ......-.. 89, 655 237,319, 47,973 130,479 +=29,813
Great Britain ..... 8, 752, 66,445 12,3822 21,40 4,24
United States ..... __ | SE, be 5, S98 1,377
Other countries... | SESE See 16, 880 2,879
Dede So.3s cae 321, 806 $22,624 172,421 1,139,750 S, 054
Paint in oil (kin) 7 aa ;
Waste 252.28 oe Se ere Bes
1 Ss Cee | Ee ee Pe FS 14, 680 3,150
Germany ~........ 3,281 8, 250 956 6,223 10,880
Greet Britain ..... 275,504) 1,459. 780 195,086 1,926,890 222 97:
Helland ........-. 1,842 14008. 1,StHees loge
United States ....- 1,137), 1,089 300 9,324 1,156
Other countries ... Ce, eae 4,095 593
Lh: a eee 1,997,160; 286,783) 1,483,573, 197,80 2,000,832 238,78
— —————
so = —
ase (kin):

Anstria eis bs A cecal 3,833) 960 5, 756 26 a =
RONG = 26 oss ad 1, 757 Re ee ee 25, 886 6
Germany .........- 40, 279) 19, 091 | 10,111 3, 748 12,831 2,235
Great Britain ..... 456,699) 201,615; 235,912. 110,121 313,96 110,498
Holland... . =... 71 261 5, 458 2,911 8,270 3,677
United States ..... 36,573, 4,917) «40,569 11,506, 15,606, 5, 077
Other countries.../......--.- —a 1,608 790)... .---+ +2) 2-22. -

Potel__......--. 539,414, 237,403, 319,406 131,618, 379,699 127,27

2332

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

1
ARTICLES AND — srieie! i
= j Quanti- Quanti- Quanti-
PORTED. es, Values. ties, Values. ies Values.
Iron, pig and ingot
(kk in): Yen. Yen. ; Yen.
Belgium. 2s2>-22 2,214, 989 58, 446 943,953) 18,930) 433, 5, 983
Ching. 22 oe ccet 3, 985, 537 71, 066) 7,708,370 146,466) 1,260, 19, 311
France 69, 300) 1,536] 252,691, 8,906 455] 6, 818
Germany ..... 13,410, 663| $29,531|| 1,920,578! 43,760 5,628,942 73,329
Great Britain ..... 17,877,025| 502,065!/31,655,977| 684, 958 75, 522, 841/1, 048, 726
United States ..... 13, 071 220)| 2,925, 733 62,520 22) 651,949) 226,915
Other countries... 4,891 43, poe noteaye) | Sas aes. | , 288 357
Total> t.> ee by RR 575, 476) 962, 910 45, 407, 202) 965, 543, 105,669811 1,381, 442
Iron, bar and rod |
(kin): /
"AUIBUIIG) cote ne see 852,010. 3 Op iy, | rs eee eee, | ee Soe
Belgium’ = 2275... 552 47, 847,634 2, 498, 803, 37, 289, 603)1, 564, 710 5 51, 890, 354) 1, 654, 509
NTA COtecc oe eae 2 31) 248) 642,421 23, 138) 1, 049, 034 40, 736
Germany 2:.-i2..2 13, 335,132) 758, 018) 4, 593, 320 196, 057 1 3,957,327) 458,617
Great Britain ..... 29,542,760 1, 854, 483 16, 041, 462 781, 309 51, 266, 040) !, 825, 697
FLOM ANG oy tse a eae eee soe RRR NG hee aie || 196,944 7,701
Sweden and Nor- |
Wa oe eo cnoee 368, 530) 25,304) 276,557; 16,065) 432,S1F| 20,613
United States ..... 1, 018, 381, 54,784)| 588,615) 22,336) 1,836,34¢) 53,685
Other countries... 8, 376| 601) 1,878 377,87 242
’
cc a a 92, 975, O54 elle lier 1, 061, 805
Rails (kin):
Bolen. ohn cc 2,782,823) 123,972 613, 153 75, 487
WYANCE ches cose owas er les rote eee 116, 624 9, 678
Germany. 5.2252 22 11,067,507) 562, 234 78, 302 134, 988
Great Britain ..... 20,537,073) 905, 763, 4, 464, 697 801, 802
United States ..... 73, 032; 447) 3, 161, 399 7, 381, 866 1, 609, 731
Other countwies .7-|hu.tecseteleoces ost ee SS Aes | Pen a= 32
Ota s 25 css 2,631,721

Fittings of rail (kin):
Belgium

Tron, corrugated and

Tron aSy and tubes

wee ewe
teen

Great Britain .....
United States

I

Sweden and Nor-
WAY snccccesc<coe

galvanized sheet

(kin):
Belgium
Germany..........
Great Britain
United States

141, od 6, 902

ee wee eee wee ee eee

on 376, 056

wee eee meee ee eee eee yeas

5, 744, 017)

emer 382, 958
Iron, galvanized-
sheet (kin):
Belgium
Germany ‘
Great Britain 11, 129, 093
Other countries ...}..........

———d

wee eee ee

8, 830
34, 976
1, 279, 509

Be ao wae aaa
Germany ......s05 ‘Ws
Great Britain Lasted

132, 790 17, 613, S34
2,293’ 656, S55
557,427 22, 441, 03°
260,477 | 4, 791, 288
446) * 24,763

ae 88, 6 S76
8,94 1,153)
, 458,641) 657, Sa 2,

587, 257 1 a7 0

Belgium
France
Germany .........
Great Britain

121, 631 11,718 _ 10i
‘ 590, ms
457, OF

» 658, SSS

wee ewe eee

1900 / 1898
ARTICLES AND “ait |
WHENCE IM ee ee Be
r. 4 2 +4 4 + 7
™ Quanti- Quanti- Quanti-
PORTED. Hes, Values. fies: Values. fea: Values.
Window glass (all ee EA) car A
kinds) (100 sq. } :
< en en.
153,765) 871, 806 er 624)1, iss, 480) 143,023) 509,948
See Cea es | “"2)500| ’ 12,393] 1,506, 5,424
4,075| 24,136! 5,063| 26, 423) 1,030) __4,286
9, 692 56, 731 9) 01g 52, 332 | 40, 832) 150, 147
Other countries ... 38 244 2 17) Be unease eeeeeeees
Motiiaeeeen ec 167, 570 952, 919), 43, 208/1, 256, 576 | 186, 401] 669, 806
Beans, pease, and ai 1 |
epee pica) 479 1, 362) 11,992} 36, 7201 3 20
NORD rice aicle te ea 818, 640} 2, 190, 642) Zs 365, 241)5, 666, 097)|| 1, 993, 832)5, 904, 583
OOTORs. csticnaiane ss 885, on 9 615, 466 701, 807 2 110, 846), 406, 861)1, 172, 300
LIN Choe hao 6 Fe Maser) PIR ee oredr 204 581)) 1, 481 5, 056
Russian Asia...... 3, 317 8, 646 5ST amet FR | Lae Sei Reese 7
United States ..... 182) L, 178) 930 5, 758, 3, 985 17, 555
Other countries... 68 465 21 222 345 1, 585
MOtAl os scents 1, 707, 742) 4, 817, 767), 3, 080, 786}3, 822, 110)| 2, 408, 507/7, 101, 103
Rice (picul): |
British India...... 249, audl 973, 747 58,827) 174, 507|| 2,663, 087|11,642,416
Ching Fei. 2 25ee 83,998, 327,673|| 60,328] 231;625|| "967, 216)3, 989, 422
aa or 1,131, 1787 4, 4, 694, 166)) 436, 716) 1, 689, 909 649, 570)2, 704, 887
Dutch India ...... 3 Dy BLO aicin clewicn las satewianelteeteninemad| manne ce
French India ..... 726, 859, 2, 739, 752!| 956, 142|3, 354, 095)! 6, 445, 390)25,762,726
SANT 2. Waco: coe 94,530] 284,178] 143, oe 510, 007 969, 4123/4, 114, 065
Other countries... 58 ”200)| 21) 1,576 6,290 |
+ — nil | eta
OTE Sc acura 2, 286, 979) 9,021, 536]| 1, 650, 592)5, 960, 166) ad, 696, 252/48,219,810
Seed sncotton” (itl). |e am etess] imeem] [eae
ICDIDR Stee feccase 18,944,035) 739,817) 61, 608, 801 aid saa 578, 504 |
Other countries 2, 954 39]| 5, 875 71) 761 6-
Motalsbss<ne 48, 946, 989) 739, 7am | ou, 814, 233| 61, 752,745] 578,510
Seeds, sesame (kin): a Ps EN Gale. i
British India. ..... 214, 570 9, 9.9901 726,114) 30,042 380,562} 13, 338 |
CHING S OE, codons 3, 688,479} 182, 884)! 3,554,619) 172,880!) 2,099, 025 97, 489 |
COLER tj cccealees 26, 961 1, 634! 53, 993 8,208}! 127,114 6, 044 |
BY CNICHOMNOIR oe tecl sennees anise == scaeee 42, ed 1.08 SRE e Co ALee| Nato ads
DLS COUMINESs.2|n. cma aem | cane ceaee 13) \cemecem ad nae seaman
TOtH tania a ai 38, 930, 10] 194, 509 | 4,377, = 207, 872|| 2, 556, 701) 116. 116, , 872 |! Iron, Bee and giber’
fe EEE RTECS ogee
Australia ......... 339, 84! 2G0N So's o's o'c eiem|'s ence uietaqce' | Nerelevte eta. | See
Ever oe naga 5,182, 533 7T goal 2,668,207) 71, 764)) 2, 770,755| 72,698
great Britain ..... 4 B, BOQ ccna spe ioou onto olen am cee eee
United States ..... 12, 370, 022 400, 829)| 395, toa 14, 697}; 2,039, 371 71,173
Other countries... 547 ry 27};
Motalesis.-.,s (22, 350, 397, 692, 341] 2,064,206, 86,489) 4, 811,686] 143, 913
Hides, bull;ox,cow, |__—_— a | pan Ges | oer
and Pe ed (kin): eo ate
Australia .... rly , 087) 2,040 564 12,128 2,293
British India. 116, 203 28, 354 538, 501 11, 455 237, 186 46, 540
China e 335, 612 66, 967, 689, 318) - 140, 323 1,532) 604 276, 202
Corea 1,642,476, 406,593) 1,649,528) 408,199 793, 007| 185,487
OC sweden wcaee's 1538, 993 52, 821) 108, 928 35, 248 24, 265 8, 061
French India cokes 250, 748 47, 283) 535,070) 107,411) 241,113 48,521
Great Britain ..... $4, 965 28, 820, 31, 907 9, 586 8, 1,195
EIOUGRONE .s00sc|sero02s0~ teenies ee | 15,858] 1,928 2, 841 570
eee Pe eecia hee 16, 824, 2y BLO] | ons cc's. we eu le aoeetetel |aencemenene lines oxene
Russian Asia...... 30, 934) 5, 006 1,472 145 8
United States ..... 32,648] . 12,113} 11, 186 4,332|| 65, 351 16, 708
Other countries...| 25, 688 4, 277) 5, 650 784 10,780] 2,343
MOHAN coc.s-c| 2, 696,662; 656, » 643) 3, 104, 458| 719, 930)| 2,922,936) 587, 948
Leather, sole (kin): aT ra |i ina anes
AVStAIA) oc ects 128,998] 75,760 52, 951| 28, 443 27,672} 18,472
British America .. 4.913 2) 995) 8,164| 8,776 9,471 4,424
—— IN GIR ys 505s 248, 513) 99, 155) 492,487) 164,401 497,287) 143,507
ya SS a a 8, 697 2, 451) 4, 047 2, 463 71 35
tei h India ..... 13, 323) 4,426 9, 088 3, 660 5,165 1, 350
PERL ect data tas lene ph oienn il bo ele.awo's of 3, 954 2, 986 46,746) 25, 401
Great Britain 23, 455) “16, 308 2) 841 843! 1,298} 1,107
United States .....) 1,066,578 782, 862) 535,375) 341, 994) 896, 14) 614,431
Other countries... 2,948) 837)) 1, 165 458) 44,195 18, 147
ROEM ss ecbeck 1,487,425, 984, 797] 1,110,072) 549, 028) 1,528, 419 716,879
ieeuer omer (kin) aa. =..|_. |. — Ss
Australia .. 2 ieuaie 1,155 733 1, 950 1,168 | 9, 083: 4,573
Belgium .......... 1, 642 3, 163) 50 80 4,163} 10,993
British India...... 874, 910 552, 257 808,200) 241, 626 817,046) 687,042
SURE Wastes wane ie 17, 118 10, 482, 28, 628 16, 865 143. 667 72; 515
PRMEEOU s was ws ap can’ 6, 958 16, 888 4, 388 10, 126, 5,441 13, 547
French India ..... 20, 663: 17, 096, 5, 986 3, 878 6, 875 3, 032
GOrMMmeny ioc .wsuse 63, 631 181, 630 19, 218 43, 392 27, 841 73, 608
Great Britain aunue 80, 689 168, 155 40, 537 94, 230 62,108) 142,649
OUGEOUGE desis cas 16, 636 18, 544 2, 640 1 (1) Peers ber
United States ..... 100, 151 185, 855 $1, 604 104° 917 117,909) 140, 942
Other countries... 9418 1, 428 18 31 i; oc 1, 306
OU cveswctchs 1,174, oe 1, 101, 188 498,219) 518, _518, 061)) 1,1 1,195 05, 427/1, 050 050, 211

1901.]

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Principal Imports 1nTO JAPAN FROM VARIOUS ForeIGN CouNTRIES IN EACH YEAR FROM 1898 Tro 1900—Continued.

ARTICLES AND ve
WHENCE IM
PORTED. Quanti- | Values.
Iron screws (kin): Yen.
eleium: 2...2. 2.4 4, 552 1327
Genmeny>.-.'% 4... 74, 751 11,801
Great Britain..... 1, 668,952} 200,016
United States..... 76, 737 14, 628)
Other countries... 1, 024 221)
Atfe) c e Se 1, 826,016) 227,795,
Tinned plate or
sheet (kin):
ICIP UUIY, <2 clnjawia cin 201, 477 21, 140,
PONMIAIY. se — oe cies 39, 380 4, 055)
Great Britain..... ie 420, 554) 806, 889)
United States..... 120 63)
Monten COUNTIES. 2) 25 2=250505)2-~ ce so- 2
ROTO. ose ine aieltn 7,661,531) 832, 149
Iron, wire, and small
rod (kin):
PATISERIA == 2 - cece 948, 530 65, 938
BSTOUITIM ae oc ate ccsn 1, 711, 741 99, 253
DELO Ca sectnic oa ere tan 1, 493 446
Germany. ..--....- 3, 339, 481} 258, 395
Great Britain ..... 9, 853, 398} 627,323
United States. ..... 599, 806 57,109
Other countries... 5, 080 340
OTA. fai elaic <= 16, 459, 529} 1, 108, 809
Telegraph wire(kin):
PANESUEIG, = mina no 52 om 127, 006 8, 920
13k) beaitboe ie eee eee 1, 109, 285 96, 402
MICE Mol oe- = <se 2,436,139] 173,292
Germany ........- 3,604,542) 324,588
Great Britain ..... 672, 169 57, 08d
United States ..... 5,342,366) 434, 984
MOA. ten stones 13, 291, 457) 1, 095, 574
Materials of bridges
and buildings
kin):
IReLeIU TNs 5.20 n.5 34, 303 4,132
Germany ..2....<- 2, 900, 338} 309, 901
- Great Britain ....-. 4. 418, 825) 409, 732
United States . FaacS 12) 807, 882 1, 156, 547
PRO talc we war winiae 20,161, 848) 1,880, 318
a EE
Steel, other than
mild steel (kin):
PATSUTT <3 sis(=n<'e sins 2,154)
Beleium’ ss... - 2) 496)
Prance..... 7, 694
Germany .. 125; 466,
Great Britai 909, 029
Sweden and Nor-
DMs cwcisialos lets 1,168,780} 100,539
SO IIASH Chats enn oe eee

United States
Other countries

7, 113, 832! 1, 158, 821

_ Brass tubes (kin):

Belew © 5. ces. 2, 662 1, 407
Germany <----...- 26, 116 14, 160
pone Britain sashes 268,694) 144, 902!
Bee ars Risen ice 3, 203 1, 555
United States RAP a 151, 414 79, 764
Other countries... 1, 013 381
ROta sass sii’: 453,102) 242,172)
‘Cap er tubes (kin
cia pete 833 1,275
BOLCAIIN . 25 aja n'cte.n 16, 489 10, 251
PRIPATICG ie ec ate, oto 2)> oe: 5, 058 8, 046)
Germany ....--<+» 17, 506 10, 879
Great Britain ..... 238, 262 152; 609
Wie ly cece aac nerereice' 10, 917 6, 657
United States ..... 55, 734 34, 654
Ober Commer Eee. onsen |--<<ncawise
TOR ch awee ae 344,749} 219, 373)
Lead, pig, ingot, and
slab (kin):
AGING ALIA) ciara ie's'aisis 8,096,314} 731,880
AUStria ....--0.2.-)- 2-22-22 -|-0e ee ee nee
17, 611 1,373
76, 985 5, 563
: 39, 796 3, 902
1, 874,672} 182,822
19, 882 1, 609
Hoasesecss 10,125,210} 927,152

1899 1898
scones Values. be Values.
Yen. Yen.
8,588 1,364 9, 588 860
99,594 7,702|| 13,6391 3,414
506,735} 58,076!| 1,105, 340| 115,974
127,799| 18,673|| °488,514| 28, 360
4,233 ee ee
746,949] 86, 187|| 1,617,081] 148, 610
29 Seay BOER Oe Bee | OS , ples fh 5
6,577, 527| 569, 916|| 6,663,667| 409, 673
20,062} 1,479
pent aU ier < 1g? 2) 540 263
6,57, 602) 569, 923|| 6,686,344] 411, 421
117,647} 6,944)| 202,280] 11, 750
| 2,431,952} 105,362|| 104/979| 5, 741
PB tSUG| tn GeCIOIs eee Joos see
| 1,263,221] 72, 357|| 1,558, 422| 92, 903
3,805, 130| 176,171|| ' 88,301] 3,986
1,015,803} 44,685|| 124/961| 5,541
820 7 aa | es i:
8,710, 969| 410, 582|| 2,073, 943} 119, 923
18g i 9 | ar ee
1,644, 712| 113,278|| 667,939| 35, 362
1 S69 910196 05l|ee ns | ee
3, 328, 239| 229’ 480\| 4,879,653} 247, 334
1,924) 152] 129, 540|| 2) 466,395} 119, 487
3,012,727] 202,945] 126,059 6, 657
11, 989, 521| 817, 200|| 8,140,046] 408, 841
$50,004] 77,976]! 4,767,914| 282,391
1, 159, 396] 107, 058|| 2; 411, 237| 216, 184
715,957} 56, 609|10, 460, 488| 628,787
666,926] 44, 198 14,097,147) 781,198
3,392, 283] 285, 841] '31, 736, 786|1, $08, 561
9,596} 1,204 537 121
150,958] 8,419]! 705,054 35, 012
51,418; 2°813|| 225,443] 14,385
§36,494| 59,633]| 1, 287,740| 74, 267
6,168,401] 818, 114]| 6,651,520! 793, 129
465,199} 34,254|| 481,739] 33, 004
Saeed 95,980| 1,794
436,797| 30,258'| 354,508] 12, 623
pie Wiss oa ies aad 232 14
8, 118 863] 954 699 9,732, 753| 964, 354
ok 4,528| 2, 193/| 12,384] 4,917
113,071] 59,731|| 377,228} 152, 067
“"""60, 483} 27; 418|| 28, 704] 10, 158
polit eos ee Se 4, 623 819
178,082|. 9,272|| 422, 9391 167, 962
Sn eee tr) | Ee ier eae
5,762; 3,908|| 16,423} 7,510
40,116] 19,458 2661) 1,175
62,195} 50,597|| 269,645] 121, 149
6,390] 4, 165, 1, 327 624
75,043| 44; 061 6,509| 2, 808
ered acne ae 1,779 332
192,987| 124,433] 298,344] 133, 601
3, 445, 386] 273, 691 3,042,911) 219, 098
698, 045|° 48, 780i]... -.ceeW. .f.....c...
182,934| 16,225] 178,428) 10,787

169,220} 14) 439 14

1,781 166| 281,948] 18,444
Bier MiGAMie sc coe | eae ta
741,246| 56,979| 1,675, 458| 116, 416
430 25) 7,559 460
5, 154,583| 412, 155| 5,186,318| 365,202

ARTICLES AND eg | om ns
eee ra —_——
HENCE IM- :
on uanti- uanti- | x, uanti-
PORTED. Qnantl- | Values. || Cuantl- | Values, || Wantl | values
i} -
wy ed (kin): | Yen. Yen Yen.
Tipenna tds ch Ol acateaeeculessieaureh rane tacddalseuke eaas 2,253 2,778
pa Britain ..... / 99,774 146, 752 109,098; 156,551 6, 610 76,315
a of Se ae 562 918) 2) 812! 3,40 1,14 1,012
nited States ..... 67, 876) 111,027} 42,280) 59,031 79,646, 96,053
Other countries ...|.........- Jrreerecres eeeee cere Spee re 112 143
dtl ses <2. Se 168 »212| 2 258, 695|| 154,190} 219,012) 145,746) 176,303
| Tin, block, ingot,
and slab (kin):
AURGIRIBM eee Scho oe wadclasdaccbes eases coee de ie 3, 322 1,382
British India...... 639,169) 455,922 538,705; 327,681 579,919, 219, 956
Chines, 225305 >50- 20, $78) 13,181 7M) ee ee eee
PMCRGMIGIA 255010: 2. cooclkova cease 14, 407) | oe eae Ca
Great Britain ..... 5, 080 3, 998 31,933} 17,086 6, 683 2, 413
Princ tSiANas |a- 52 Se oe eo eden e cae fs a eee 10, 012 3, HH
Other countrics...|.......... Ue eM 1, 569 Fy | Ee PER SS Tes
TOLER. 32 : 665, 127 473,103} 610,265) 361, 286 99,936, 227,257
ebsites for = =
Zine, block, ingot, i]
and slab (kin):
Hsing: iC ee 10 TEM. ota anal stacace cote 72, 199) 5, 1
IBGIPUGIE = eae feces 451, 301 59, 104 10,208; 12, O28). 25. cee eee eee
British imeitac cs. 156, 7! 16, 239 283,333; 29,750 5, aa 17, 224
Giimas ee ee 88, 106 360i: 1-22... en: SET 8 oe
French India..... 25, 910 2, 782 65,479) ._.5- F66N. see caalw ae eee
Germanys. --4.-—- 3,997,512] 550,416! 1,117, 022 474,830| 48,417
Great Britain ..... 318, 059 47,145|| 175, 696 5 120, 781 9, 094
Other countries... 9, 348 ik ‘ 018)| 2. 203) 224 13, $20) 653
Total tess! 5,047,946] 686, 080|| 1,718,936] 259,606| $87,054) 80, 991
es Se —— 4 | ————
Zinc, sheet (in- it :
cludes No. 2)
kin): )
Beletam j.-cceewas 1,296,047} 221, 255); 1, 429,362) 268,172 266,324) 32,401
RTaAnGe se. w aoe 12, 080 oc | ee aa PRES, ee eae Ae | ee
Germany........-. 2,535,235] 441, 117|| 2,293,775) 444,327) 2,917,357] 398, 210
Great Britain ..... 1,267,505} 217,996) 1,030,901] 195,071/ 923,324) 125, $30
Other countries - 35 12 2, 692 | eee eee
Potuls ee vo 5,110,902} 882, 731|| 4,756,730] 907,925) 4,107,005) 556,442
| / |
Oil, kerosene (galls.):)
Duteh Indigo: .<- 6; 465,829) - 975. SIS ese. oo cee ho =. eee
Russian Asia...... 8, 861, 761; 1, 378, 343/10, 625, 642)1, 276, 286 12,581,319) 682,349
United States ..... 5,519 * 1,340) a, ee 993 5, OS6Il< « «00s asteuncumeos
TOY Seon eee 14, 333, 109| 2, 355, 205) 110, 671, 63511, inion tn 12,581,319) 682,39
he |
Oil, kerosene,in :
cans (galls.):
PMD nde = acc. ecacedosates 7 -ameeee 313,630} 52,070) 3,735,720) 508,295
Russian Asia...... | 5,042, 505] 1, 033, 673)| 6,319, 62011, 153,170) 3,622,600) 451, 457
United States ..... /48, 466,710 10, 773, 775) 35, 116, 952'5 5, 431, 526 47, 965, 8165, 910, 774
Totals. 2a bs, 909, 215 11, S07, 48) 41, 700, 202 6, 636, 767 55,324, 136.6, 870, 529
Oil, linseed (kin): | | )
Great Britain ..... 890,118; 192,695, 577, ae 97,085 474,360, 63,382
United States ..... 89, 192) 18, 003 | Ee nee Ones sakes 8, 077 958
Other countries --.| 6,533, 1,451| “1,700 78U..... nde ee
Tatil 2.22. | 985,843] 212,150| 579,250| 97,364| 482,437) 64, S4l
|| Oil, lubricating | :
(kin): ; :
Girlie wt ce ls ance Meno ece Sor” 3 Onan ies eee
Germany ......... \"""90/017]-"""2;670) 11,263] 2) 654) 15,045) 2, 507
Great Britain’..... 42, 483 5, 552 7, 273) 1, 603 167, 266 16, 72
Russian eee et 29, 292 1,014} 18,939} 1, 298 7,013 S49
United States ..... 11, 385, 533) 615, 522)| 5,621,581} 282,597) 9,429,074) 380,122
Other countries -. -| 95) 68) 1,326) 171 6, 719 1,101
TBOAL. -nE obec 11, 477,520] 624, $28 5,668,888, 289,394 9,625,117) 401, 343
Paraffin wax (kin)
Germany.......... 23, 013) A OURN Eo - cn Lee 2, 290 242
Great Britain ..... | 410, 124! 66, G05 100, 926) 9, 136 572, 440 41,301
United States ...2. | 3,074,394) 440, S58 ) 3,133,408} 277,670 3,178,455) 228, 767
Other countries... 260 a Mn sine 75 4
Totelias...-Jve | 3,507, 79] 511, 559 | 3, 234,334, 286,806, 3,753,260 270,Més
i } = -
Paper, cigarette: |
ACHRUMGe aoe we nt wn | ae Res Oot 4 eee py ppt eee 8, @25
I AT Se el AAR ree OFS Uslek foakudkeses SU) ROPE ea Cee
WYUNCEs 5 ca<e< cca | ee 134 S85 cece ees 10, FOeaasaktaace 7, 964
Germany.........- beers 1d RES ee 1 47,356
Grent ream cba sckeee 1) | aa 2 7, 70B) oo 26 52 | 4,939
Other countries ...!........-- ae ae: RRR 331
Pobal. 42d, Seere 224,553 |.......--- A ee | 1299216

Prixcipat Imports Into JAPAN FROM Various ForrEicN CoUNTRIES IN EACH YEAR FROM 1898 TO 1900—Continued.

: 1900 1899 1898
ARTICLES AND | i |
WHENCE IM
N : :
Quanti- | Quanti- Quanti-
PORTED. ‘ties Values. thes. Values.. tien: Values. |
Paper, glazed, fancy |
Pein): Yen. Yen. Yen.
2 gt: eo 543, 288 64, 000 130;019; 15, $47)| 45, 794 5,016 |
Belgium . 170, 021) 37,91 137, 703 26, 71 i 153, oe 23, 227 |
France .. 5, 532) 1, 259! 19, 685 (| qt MOSSES cy
Germany.... 1, 555,508} + 216,997)} 903,980 129, 173; i 1, 144, 769) “37, 464
Great Britain ..... 98, 417; 12, 325 150,749} 19, 809 168,311) 23,589 |
=e and Nor- : |
eee. 39, 113 4,122 29, 669 foal Se ala cae woot
United States ..... 38, 568 5, 618 14, 978 Zz $37 19, 623) 8, 153 |
Other countries ...}.......-.. Joneeeceeee Perea | ere 2, kon 825 |
Pies: 3 2,450,447, 342,237 3| 201, wal a5 1,534,631) 193,277 |
Paper, match (kin): i
copa seeceeeceee 317, 196 rs al [ os 5 =
PACT ase.nc acetone > = eal eneiie oer 0 ;
[oP ae SS ie RO | 1,601), 29,819] 2,323 |
Gemnany ..........< 2,039, 576} 178, 487 130, 578!) 1,896,331, 140,897 |
Geen Wnitatns.. 22 iiscsesaecapeoccee hace ec ee cae oe | "100,3761 6,3:
Hovland. ......-.. 16, 900 1, 243 88, 748 5, 657 206,940 11, 978
Sweden and Nor- E | :
WHY. tice nee oSe 399, 810 82, 395, 209,639) 20,739) 68, 16 5, 548
Other Goumtries 22) <2 e ecaalnmenices ata 9, 775 /(: 74 Soon \Saeenomn er
GINS pea caus 2,773,482) 240, 159)) 1, 966, 909| 172, 629|| 2,428,845) 175,192 |

et rt aaa

in): :

ACERS es ictencsone 1,270,842! 123,499!) 528,975) 47,196' 93, 633 7,309
Pep IM soot aos 26, 024 3, 297) 79,057) 11,368 16,322 1,910
Germany: ......... 3, 022,562} $29, 859]) 2,071, 850 197, 7a7|| 2,190,003} 189,205
Great Britain ..... 60, 990 7, 706) 51, 706 5, 794|| 229,765} 19,167
Holland: ... i... 60, 891. 4, 100, 39, 48 2,168 31, 531 1, 668
URES eseeesove canopies 5, 508 1, 036 6, 075 1 DIBNS ooo See becaes
Swerlen and Nor-

WAL Cordes oa 538, 490 57,927|| 146,204) 14, 687 39,729 8,181
Biyitzenlant i: cal 2cc2sccscle see 19, 668 2, 922 9, 580! 1, 255
United States ..... 45, 645] 6, 151) 19, 520 8, 122 83, 185 7,016
Other countries... 13,7 00) BS a 3, 605 828) 3 136

MOP o5\< cic cise 5, 044, 652) 530, ,119) 2,966, 143| 287, =e “2, 694, 142 142| 280,799

ag printing /

in):
717.) lt: re 4,662,744) 3899, 338]) 113,973 | 1,975, 898} 139,209
Belgium: .........- 3,139,989} 351, 761 194, 795
British AMerica:..|...ctcececlassecncse|] 2ipOod wn eOROl pecans on ealeeaeee ess
al ape ERe, RARE EEE OE EP. eee Aes Sagal : 2, 284
Germany .. ..-| 2,982,447] 289, 928} 91,024) 8, 254, 889 605, 726
Great Britain .| 5,794, 897| 789, 108 272, 336,| 4,178,654) 451, 398
Holland .... 28, 702 1,514 2,582/, 11, 602 690

Sweden and

way
United States ....
Other countries

125, 547

: 11, 900
| 2,481, 015

193, 296

Total. .........|19, 160, 341) 2,036, 844)

asd ga

Pencils (gross):

Germany ......... 93,563) 169,920 28, 726

Great Britain ..... 13, 395) 29, 676) 9, 561

United States ..... 36, 767, 42, 046) 87, 150

Other countries... 312 631) 228)
Total.......... 144,037] 242,274! 75, 665)

Sugar (piecul):

Aoostrauig: ..4s...-. 4, 212 21, 773} 18, 01

ARIBITID: | ce. aes 8,657) 54, 723) Seep en |2 = eagle

British India...... 2,118 10, 770 1, 041

CHIR se cecns cone 655, 996 2, 758, O52

Dutch India ...... 446, 574) 2, 427, 562 87, 198)

GOrneny cv. cccsaia 74, — 479, 615 6, 690

GE OMI «o's cet omn. 0 0 © osertnal uireln « u’stmrenn|lietsiac « « © mane eae

ARLE a ecacsrin soos] boasnre so hlbtiad KiBts m ow: nrmegh 18, 234

Hongkong ........ 120,623] 792,277 133, 317

Philippine Islands
Other countries ..

358, 675) 1, 749, 586,
420, 126 2) 718, 271,

AC Nc aniles mona

Sugar, refined (all tins
kinds) (picul):

Auistralig .....c0cs 307) 1, 671)
BOs sccsc b's 430, 505) 3,049, 181)
BOSOM) ..5 ooo. ose 13,969} 101, 024)
Britis@America...|..ccccssss Nie che aka [te ine ae rarer eect
British India...... 1,055 6, sual
OOM Gii ves ectacnuce oa
Dutch India....... 1,417 871)
BVMUUO evs tsicvccuse 171 Fy "907|
GOMMAN Ys... ccces 404, 313) 2, 988; 987]
Great Britain ..... 1, 692} 12; 630)
PE iar ahi canal ative = 2 ninetals ev 3a. einocet
Hongkong ........ 1, 097, 824) 9, 448, 859)
Philippine Islands 156) 94
TCLs. hace oune 2, 333 18, 013)
United States ..... a 9, 655)) °
Other countries... 7)
LOU Lwe¥ennacas

670, 458)2 880, 266)

375, 215)1, 908, 021)
292) 013)1, 939, 305)

2,091, 7861, 007, 633) 1 , 602, 1848, 359, , 735)

1, 953, 999) 15, » 598, 8 893}) At 129, 633,9, 156, 803}

53,187)| 60,725] 104, 453
15, 215) 5,116] 11,993
30,545] 17,357] 14,869

395) 658 740
99, 344)| 83,754} 132, 056

eres

93, 529
5, 375)

527, 865 2, 034, 258

"519" 502|| 1217620) ” 68, 996
42, 989 455) 2,115 |
420} 2,260
118, BOOK dong ote
852) 223)| 181,806) 981, 285
659, 642'2, 825, 564

107, = 718, 317
1,619, 8907, 333, 699

|

68 517 118 752
107,145) 765, 254) 8,470} 24,050
1s 137) 5,498} 38,579

| 3,278] 27,145

49) | ee eS

8} 68 84,374] 672,798
2,082} 14, 846 40,035) 324,934
224 2, 377] 238) 1,978
251, 068'1, 863, 452 791, 4385, 266, 624
37,574) 300, 146 22, 003
A | RRR |S SE
730, 927 6, 208; 444) 1, 786, 726)14,586,871
53) 396 18,701; 141,472

9 14) 63 8,300

289) 8,587 11,526) 90,084

2, 749, 166) 21,105,594

| ARTICLES AND

Cotton, raw, ginned

Cotton, raw, in the

Cotton yarns (kin):

Cotton prints (sq.

te

COUNTRIES
WEB [oma

(picul):
Australia .--....--[--——... . -—-[------ - »=-[]---=---
Chim.

seed (pieul):
British India. ....- 167, 795
Chim - 232-252 -5 492, 665.
ORM Seca s ne 244
905

Sle

British India... ... ;
F.

é

198, | 279, 849

sz, | 236, 583

bt 75) 805

5, 185

ae: é Los

Wa Pe 602, 781

yards):
ig 3 (c See
Germany <......
Great Britain ...

weet ween

wate eee

Germany. ....-.---
Great Britain ..... 69,814,288) 5, 555, a2
Holland ....... eS

TOaT. ....se.de s 839, 980) 5, 558,

1901.]

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Principat Imports. INTO JAPAN FROM Various Foreign Counrrizs 1s rac YEAR from 1898 to 1900—Continued.

ARTICLES AND pmo 1408
WHENCE IME
ENCE -
- PORTED. Quantl- | Values.
Soe nc ern (sq.
yards); Yen.
Germany..-....:-. 10, 988) 1, 233 46, 97 3, 780
Great Britain ..... 4,657, 405| 489; 463|| 7,829, 202| 702) 781
Holland........... 225, 236 19,10 1 8, 000: 703
United States ..... 61,188| 7,789 9,107; 1,026
Other countries ... 883 zi 225) 55
305] 1 eae 4,955, 700| 517, 808)| 7,898,508] 708,348
Shirtings, twilled
(sq. yards): |
PTAA. a ainin ne 7,911 1,115 63, 593 7,793
ee Britain ..... 326, 336} 36,003} 865, 650) 101, 113
Hand Spe eee ee aa ee | ie Oe CES» Ae
fy Cave S| | See a el ae ieee | See ees) en ae 7,333) 1,210
PEE CIR STUUGN wees oe i ecieeME aes socal ane wees 24, 731 4, 458
ERECT GRMN DULOS eaten «ie eee cc oat eee a gcse onaallamiec sen ma L, 981| 329
ON) 384, 247; 37,118 963,288) 114, 905
Ae aid 5 arn
‘sq. yards i
To) 03 eth ES Se nee Aaa geen er es 32,000, 3,512
Great Britain ..... 3,452, 834) 408, 830)! 3,844,197) 395, 095
Switzerland....... 77,845} 8,135|| 335,720) 35,286
MOH... 0 casas 71|} 3,530,679) 416, 966)| 4,211, 917) 433, 894
Victoria lawns (sq.
yards): .
Great Britain ..... 4,151,833] 281,718] 2,699,280) 159,079 104, 096
Other countries ...j.....-.2.. poe cee 13, 808 cot | Ee ey see ee
POE ses Sock 4,151,833) 281,'718)} 2,718,088) 159, 913)| 1,819,737) 104,096
Wool (kin):
ASTANA, — 0.000000 1,117, 416) 760,.219)) 1,325,948) 941, 117)} 1,120,232) 722,881
Belem - 2. - 5-2-5. 568, 640) 824, 661 423,813] 520, 584 53,470) 55, 941
British India...... 62, 671 36, 738 365,056) 151,732 217, 147 77,441
moe = RS Se « $99,513) 282, 961)) 3,475,133} 810,616 a ne am a
Brame se eee ere |) ee oe ol ae , 728 , Bl
Rein Ge. 8s ic leas 101,683) 156, 055! 275,147) 315, 903 69,902} 66,099
Gemnany......... 1,070, 506} 1,258; ? 650) 1, 122, 868)1, 065, 850 341,195} 250,474
Great Britain ..... "593, 849} 600, ” 403| . 698,357) 494,993!| 337,879) 260, 35d
[linn lo IEC Cy Ce ea ee 60,192) 23,629 4, 620 2, 887
Other countries’. _. 20) 1 ee all se | ee | eas ee
Motaleesc asses 4,514,298} 3,919, 693/| 7,746, 50914, 324, 426|| 2, $38, 801/1, 642, $19
Woolen and worsted |~——_ |" _]
yarns (kin):
Belewim ....-...-- 5, 613 Eo Ce ee ee One| San eee ame ee
PRAIMCO oie sa aicicie aos 8, 838 19, 231 1,238 12,306) 15,058
CemMianiy 3... =< 1, 067, 544) 1, 601, 154) 420, 035: 627,448) 693, 140
Great Britain ..... 159, 662} ' 172) 764 172,063)} 82,336] 76,276
Other countries ... 10 1 323 eee Ree 749 717
Total.......-.. Ges 1,241, 667) 1, 798, 585 598, 337/| 722,839] 785,192
a aioe le commits 4, 455 ae 078
PASTAS SrSSs | |SeCoe haa Soames c 66 | ONS esac Do oe sete 5) , 07
Belgium .......... Ce: lee A eee 3,820] 2,087
WrANCe.2 SL... 22, 896 18, 200 524 9, 586 3, 974
Germany ..-......- 1, 456,631) 846, 076 347, 744)| 2 2; 680, 316)1, 195, 013
Great Britain ..... 89, 818 54, 881 26, 679|| 312 , 380 156, 933
Other countries... 595 516 i ee aera kee eee
MGS se seks order 1,575,181} 917, 931 374, 959; 3, 010, 557/1, 360, 037
Meannels; in part of |__| hl cece
wool (sq. yards) :
Belts 52 ec. =~ 9, 101 ee ian Plamiacta came 924
IBRAMNCO= 3. leo neo 3, 679 1, 759) C7) | eS ee ee
Germany ......... 139,981] - 85, 655 10, 822 5, 106
Great Britain ..... 749, 604] 350, 487 106, 055 59, 582
Holland .......... “LS | ae aaa |e as eae
Obhercoumibries scl. ocmasee asl cce eae a Feats Roepe ple
potas soos 907,914) 444, 835] 120, 826 65, 613
Haban cloths; sat. |-—_|__,
ins (sq. yards):
Auisirie’ <.5.<....<. 18, 598 FIN ee eee ee | A See See
Belgium EE ses 7 9, 802 16, 411 4, 093 2,402
Germany ........ 71, 156 58, 036 25, 288 386,979} 141,455
Great Britain ..... 2, 478, 872) 1, 032 on 3, 049, 004/1, 102) 627 24, 412
Other countries... cA 358) (25) | Reel > === ee
Rotal 2.2455. 7\| 3,124, 809)1, 132, 575) 3, 148, 495)1, 068, 270
Mousseline de laine = ane
1 ol (sq.
yards):
EXO 3 SERS ages ane os See ae ae lee scab aaa Bas” 1.779
Belgium ......... Z , 862 Beal) SOM ORES: )_ Seen
LNG ite a 16, 341, 269] 4,746, 741 11, 872, 54 2; 832, "664! 17, 947, 074.3, 763,330
Germany....... axe! 3, 434° — b 020, = 1, 649, 724 402, 201) 1, 308, 269} 278,783
> Great Britain...... 46, 001 9, 050, 57,212} 10, 593
Italy Ciersc: Hanee soe 35, 61 10, 730 8, 922! Deen <2 sce c- |e omen ce
Switzerland.......| 5, 331, S77 1 547, 4 4, 477, S911, 067 874)) 1,773,446] 354, 563
Other countries... 37 |. | ee] La

eee eee we eee eee

Total..........|25, 269, 594) 7, 364, 991|/18, 220, 344 4, 350, 934

21, 088, 920)4, 408, 752

|

ARTICLES AND
COUNTRIES
WHENCE IM-

PORTED.

Gemmany....:.....

Holland
Italy

Woolen and worsted
cloths (sq.yards):
Austria............

Woolen and worsted
cloths, in part of

2, 556, 792) 2, 969, 762 | 1,976,622 2,004, 198

1900 1599 1898
Quanti- | ~ Quanti , Quanti- | ...)...
ties, Values, | ” ties. Values ties: Values
Yen. | ¥en. Yen
| ee ee See OPEC SL
52, S81 A, 231 73 | aS Se SSS
292; 029|. 196,511 23,041} 15,556 11, 688 $648
| 1,034,338} 867,847 91,181) 61,875 56,487, 32,333
49,196, 36,020 2, «1, 0M)...
7, 903 Pty: | SSeS ee BME Sap
16) 11! 988 (SED Bs
1, 465, 893; 1,162,418; 117,479! 79,340 68, 175
——— as — a — =] —<—<—<—
i}
32, 171 41, 578 | 2,642, 2,534 1,712 2, 204.
117,579} 149,055 51,125} 52,608 19,798 22.012
30,6241 37,505 44,974, 52,607 79,187 61,065
936,967; 965, 944 22, 393; 616,592’ 1, 786, 4571, 379, 144
1, 394, 070) 1,733, 863; 1, 236, 463.1, 256, 508 1, 415, 200 1,334, 209
45,275} 41,527), 18,122) 12,499 4,123 3,23
19) 36 6 4 1, 051 1,127
87, 201 897) 842 630; 419

3, 308, 158 2, 803, G07

wool (sq. yards):

Co) ae 2, 952) 2, 659! 3, 068) 2, $32)) 4,124 1,323
Peli. 51, 435) 47, 273 i een Se et
WRRCOL oo... oe 41, 255 30, 556i) 968 SH 1,674 947
Germany 343,032; 304, 209 144,458, 93,560 156,178 78,750
Great Britain...... 3, 961, 593). 2, 028, 769 918, 656} 413,196 $53,900 362,522
Holland. ow. 24, 232 Yet ne | OP a Oee eee Cae aR Eo ae
Ue ee a a (= ae! ee || 3,627 ee eee See
Other eouptries..\-- 251) 206 | 500) 400

Total. . oso. 4,424,499) 2,433, 757|, 1,087,824, 531,553) 1,016,376 444,144

Cocoons (kin) i
CH a ee 589,813! 609,594)) 804,219' 639,951 458,445 211,901
OE Sonia ogee ato 1, 427) 1,189 3, 43} 2,271 1398 206
Mramee- - cers cece 5, 159 aa | See fee es ee
Switzerland....... 2, 600) yA” | EP REE Oe | bene sae! | aN aE 2S
ther eountnies< 2b.25-< .. 2-25 eae ae 5 15
Potals.. 22.25. . 598,999; 618,611 807,762) 642,229 ; 458,617, 212,133

Raw silk (kin): / }
Ging, Soe sso 5 3, 173) 25, 209) 167,948, 95 5 7,583 28,135
LSC yO ee een 22) $73 2,595 3 10
Other countries ... 93) i | 18} 151 Sy 5s
Potal...-..<..- 3,288; 25,800 168,839, 960, 359 7,608, 28,207

Korea

Chhimaere ss: .. eS

Satins (sq. yards):
(352112 6 aie ia eae ree

Plush or velvets,
silk and cotton
mixture (square

Germany
Great Britain

Flax, hemp, jute,
and China grass
(kin):

Australia
Belgium
British India......

wean

Great nian
Ttaly

Philippine Islands | 2, ws, 955

Other countries...

148, 237} 351, = 151,850) 375, 189: 15,760, 37,S71
19, 697 32, 604 2, 652} 2, 265 9,887 6,794
21, 100 12) 83-4)| 15) 5S 212) 4,58

rl 667 SS a fares Il, 162 a
299 2
‘

57, 439 94, 240)) 45, 409 73, 602 173,93) 224,412
1, 340 2) 933)| 793; (1,773) os) 484
921 1. 805) 51 181) 6,357, 4, S01
24 39) hij 279 8s 170
59,724) 98,320!) 46,370) 75,836} 180,946) 229, Sés
pe. |
1, 559 2,974) $4,124) 47,541 683} 1,205
9,371, 13,458 34,982) 41, 496 $2,342) 34, S91
690,583} 968,506) 426,864) 586,192) 394,649) 563,398
701,513} 984,934) 495,970} 675,230| 428, 174) 599,495
i
|
469,160) 61,949) 279,331) $6, 675}}..........]........ a
30, 360 9 RR. ME BoP | SRE | SR
7 3,450,014) 220,875) 2,191,794) 101, 149
04) 5,935,748) 611, 023 | 8, 786, 037) 3M, 47
220) 44, 900; 5, 9841) See faa) FAGET IC
it. eens ee | ee Te pee
2) 483) Dc | eee Permene ¢ tes
477, 297|| 2,899,279} $70, 276/| 1,252,904] 95,198
~_ 3, 347) 1, 524) 213) 2 ii! 121
i 514, M7, 1,700, a 796.1, 245, 048, Ex 590, 517

2336

ARTICLES AND
COUNTRIES
WHENCE IM-
PORTED.

Flax or_ linen
yarns (kin):
Austria .----------

British India...-..|----------|-------°

CHINA. «oo cases 02s
Great Britain ....-

Other countries..-|----------|---------*)[oro
492, 139 _ 361, 1,@2i) #70

France...---------
Germany ..-------
Great Britain ...--

RGSSIG aseo'- o--a= |

Other countries. -

Blankets (kin):
Austria ..-.----++-
Belgium ...-.-----
France....----- ea

Germany.---------

Great Britain -...-
Holland:<-----.---
Switzerland. -...--

United States .....
Other countries -.-

Cotton handker- |

chiefs (all kinds}:

France ...---------
Germany...--.---+|
Great Britain ..---!

Switzerland....-.--
Other countries .

Traveling rugs (kin):
Germany....------
Great Britain .-...
Other countries ...

Cigarettes, rolled in
paper (mille):
British America. .

CPIM oa i Soe asin
Eyypt ...----++--+-
Germany.------- oe
Great Britain .....
Nt Sees os won ee
Philippine Islands
RUSSID ..-2---cee-s
United States .....
Other countries ...

Tobacco, leaf (kin): |
CHINA oan aw vveccns
COLTER ccna cccecs|scencccces|-ssse0eces }
Dutch India ......|.-..--+--- er pee 93 /
Philippine Islands | permnenns™ \scamnwnorsts |
Turkey....-++++-+)-
‘United States ..... } 1,623, opt 39|

Other countries.

OULs cn wewcas' )

Wine,in casks (liter) :)
France .......eee}
Germany......-+++
Great Britain .....
TRL Gate e na nuwe weve
Portugal ......-...|
Spain ecccesnsscecs
United States .....

Other countries .

tGascncsnns

Celluloid (kin):
Belgium

FranC@.....ceseee:

Germany

Great Britain .....
Jnited States .....
Other contries . ‘|

Total.......--

2, BRAN Lit. Sesedealeeemee es

14,904} 22, 890

44, rl 14, 428, ri 838, 922
143

44, 292| 16, 238, 7i 57| 5, 086, 354

COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ;

Prrcipat Imports Into JAPAN FROM Various ForEIGN CouUNTRIES IN EACH YEAR From 1898 To 1900—Continued.

1898
Quanti-
ties. Values.
Yen
"403, 175) "70, 362
6, 322 4, 6:
360, 723 285, 199
470, 727) 250, 985

9,186] 17,682
169, ee 147, oon

178, 396} 165,571

1,400} 4,069
6,259} 14,087
#88| 7,267

’

15,527| 40,399
160,235) 423, 346
1,207} 9,118
15,850| 12,476
2,089| 5,247 |

618, 101 1, 203, 283
2N\ 1,530

1, 8471, 720, 827

9 24, 132, 1092, 904, 671
34,869} 3, 956
4,101) 1,427
16,248 1,904

14, 433} _ 16, 260

6, 607, 798 1, 598, 258
3.738) 1,175

(30, $13, 296 4, 527, 659

| 2,592,215} 296, 930
64, 894) 7, 221 |i

272) 895| 37, 649 |)

3, 302, 459) 382, 057

61, 896

B, si 170, 363 |)

215,286) 406, 678 |)

l
|
|

ARTICLES AND _— =
‘. Quanti- Quanti-
PORTED. ties. Values. ties.
Cement, Portland
(kin): Yen.
Belgium ....--.--- 8,595 154 7,582
FranCe..--.2--c-0-|- 2-2-2 -222|- "00 r-- 2 or 11, 196
Germany. .---- 2,747,938) . 58,310 at, §39

|
United States--..-
|
i

| Coke (tons):

Great Britain .

ager oe e 142, 504 2 25

eS en aa 106, 292)

United States | 16,557 238 8,328

Other countries . - 35, 507 810 16, 440

totals dost | 6,148,050, 120, 945)| 4, 984, 864

_ Coal (tons): |

@hinghs.2:ss- 15 104 See eter
Great Britain...-. 83, 062) 1,829, 490)| 51,118) 936, 653:
15, er 270, 1 140 28 355

318|| 8
98, sal 2,100,053 51,154) 997,094) 42 42,297) 399,189

———

Other countries -..

Australia -.------- 1,102 25,02 pe ie > ol ey
Belgium ...-.----- 259 8, 71l!|...-------|-------
British America... 300 10, 62
Germany.....----- 913 28, 636
Great Britain -..--- 7,357] 241, 612)
Other countries ..- 57

Total...-.----- 9,933) 314, 690)

/

tains J decwesesw en 17, 845 56, 730 6, 033

pe ae 576, 155!) 3, 899, 700| 487,125);

United States --... "25, 1218 303,223) 25, 460
otal! a: 2. <-2e 619, 219) 4,264,683) 468,

Bone, animal, for
manure (kin):

| Dried sardine, for
manure (kin):

ge | 1,289,411 41, 409), 5,300, 61 128, 282
ecaninn Asie coe beacehe ee laces 1211, ite 47, 884!|..-5-n-afe= sae

Oil cake (picul): . i} ‘

Cbinge. c-<s-5-<>—en 2,006, 336) 4, oe 824), 2, 616, 507 6, 047, 237 | a 098, 260 4, 610, 625
Korea 2.3 --<-ss==-5 4,883 §, 390), 3,893} 7, 0271) 3,068; 4,099
Russian Asia ...--- 269) pe 1, 146, 115|! 175, ol 737, 156 |..-------- lose ewes +:
Other countries -.- 370) 1,121) 390) 2 242

Total....-----< | 2,280, 687) 5,696, a aoe asl 705, 504 6,701, S12) 2,101, 410 4, 614, 967
Phosphatic manure : | a

| (kin): | i

| Australia ...-.+.-- 4, 247, 147 73, 115 17, 781. 722) ..---. +--+: jotace =

| Belgium ......----|]-.-----+-+|-----2"22° 169, 9, 342) 7,406, 1, 495, 887, 483
Briush India....-- 5/300, 421) 41,6 wae... Lets eae Pa
Germany «.-----<- su, 045 17, 470); 3, 998, 707, 97,959) 2, 234, 453: 51,6
Great Britain ..... 188722, _11,614)| 1,240,792, 40,997) 1, 487,37
United States. ...- 21, 913, 082 348, 474 18,981,710, 252, 960, 12,279, 4

| Other countriés ..- 15, 802, ban 296, 759, 29, 330,800) 293,579) 12, 87,

Total. ona <0 145,305,058, 789,106, 53,739,182 _ 693, 625, 30,34,

i}

AUSUTias is concen 659, 227 555i POOR Be hexeded
Belgium ......+--- 41,866] 3, 669). .....-..-|.-----s02/-o- senna sieveccncnee
British America... 486)
Denmark .....--.- 16, 934
| Germany ...------ 4, 815, 791
273 || Great Britain ....- 231, 969
/ Italy «..Jodaveonem= 16, 666 ert eS SS
| Sw eden and Nor-
| WAY ..2----0sneg «| 629, 648
|| United States ..... 294, 536 12,
| ——_
Total... ..cous 6,707, 118
| Timber, teak (eubie
| feet): ;
|| British India......)...+---s02)ee-++-0s05
Duteh India. ...... 2, 629 4, 564
French India .....|.....----- |. snGekemecnian
Siam ...s.scccceess 96, 981
Other countries ...|......-.0|eeee seers ed :
(Sonia
Tothl... «acces 99, 610) 81,542 142,502, 52,350, 91, 984

Timber, santalum,
and other Jum-
ber and planks:

Australia
British America ..
British India
China
Korea

Germany
Great Britain
Hongkong
Siam
Spain

Belting and hose, for
machinery:
Australia

7 Gatenek:

Caoutchouc, manu-
factures of:

Germany .........

Austria

Germany ..
Great Britain
Bees

2, 147, 608
3, 345, 431

Bieyeles and _ tri-
cycles:
Australia
British Americ
Germany
Great Britain
JS ot hak0! Cae oe eee eee
United States

ees ee es

ARTICLES AND i
WHEN
PORTED. Quanti- |) values.

363, 929}|.......... 232, 154|
Pi, | Dee 4,025
640, "756ll00-.--.+-. 394, 136

PrINcIPAL IMPORTS INTO JAPAN FROM VARIOUS

1899

Quanti-

ties, Values. |

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

1598

Quanti-

“
tics. Values.

29,181

5279
230; 898
347, 094

46
202
1,719
8,

510, 104

521, 070

2,426,891] 208, 663)

wee eww ee

18, 452 1, 425
352 60
1,167,987} 66, 209

15,844] 2,061

1, 229, 256} 138, 905

1, 388, 701

ee ery

7,913

217, 452 17,878
102, 840

|
|

|

10, 189 |;

2337

ForreiGN CounTrRIES IN EACH YEAR FROM 1898 ro 1900—Continued.

:
ARTICLES AND en } ont 1008
Seuete a a [Aad ace ——<—
HENCE IM- Tt
SORTED Quanti- | y Quanti- | Quanti- | v1.
PORTED. ties. | Values leat | Values. seer Values.
| Railway passengers: | Yen. || Yen ) Yen.
CG ea on ot Ps sa aalde selene ean clea taeea dos EiiasoeeccHeasededse | 15,272
Cpu ih, - ae oa | 86, OBGii os - senses Sia aes iateaetawe | 35,015
Great@iritain cl. .c6<.s0c. | (428 ORs a ye.” ) ae Se 1, 038, 090
Shy a el ae aie ee... Seas PEP aS Rea! hat”
United States -..../.---.2.... i C7 fei | Ee valle 30 eS 12, 445
Motalests ans oefoe. eee pS | Mee Ree Ee 1, 100, 823
Railway freight i E :
RIPE ss ab eels csc owe theca se Ue ties eee aes caxek 38, 731
IRN COs ea anoveabe ies vow oe ce C7 | ee ee pL | ee ee 5, 099
Germanys. 2 =. sites. o2s5- apc: | Pome t ee A) | Se ee 46,127
Great Britain... 2c.se2<-----: Gil Rene S08, SG on caasneoe | 221,504
United States <7. --|--........ Ve * SL SIDES aces <UL, SOM. ccocaascsl 8, 826
ROIS. sees lee na tec oe 804, 980}! 222... BA, 436)! 2.222222 320, 280
Corks (kin): } '
Belgium ...<2. 2.2 25, 677 iA) | ee em ee ee) MERE eels
MYanee 352 55-ea2.- 37, 569) 24,795 12, 059 8, 345 5, 7,774
Germany ......... 252,709} 179,792 117,498} 86,840 153, 074 95, 026
Great Britain ..... 79, 929 57, 692), 47,375) 44, 03 23, 8635 24,075
Holland s.22325.5 2, 995) DSO AN saad e s aele Leaves oa oe eee ee
Philippine Islands 91/895 AB ATs | Ee, Reena eee eS
Portugal .....5.>-. 6.665 1, 583 624) 260 4,870 . 620
Rpetrbes as leak 28, 264 10, 985 39,091} 19,596 59,426 21,198
Other countries 4, 361 1, 238) = 126) 1,503 2, 689 996
Tote beens 2 530,064 302,534|) 224,973] 161,149] 263,485, 150,762
Dynamite (kin): i |
Belem). se s2ch.3 37, 800 fT i7 || aes bel ae Soe 31, 875 13, 757
Germany... 22...- 292,872} 112,223); 331, 509} 131,007); 881,812) 395,071
Great Britain ..... 120, 959 59, 080 | 239, 87: 5| 113, 295 171,675, 98,762
Mota seo. 451,631} 187, 169)| 571, 384| 244,303) 1,085,362 507,591
Electric-light wire: I
Germany. Soe Si eeeeas ss 6,114 py: | ee Se 2, 008
Great Britain 42, 484) 35, rot. 168, 320
United States 128, 144) 108, 675) 151,170
; — ——_
ci ee eee Ut eee 176, 744)|. ....-.--- | 145, ve" See 321, 499
Mat. a (num- ‘ | |
er): j j :
CHUTES fweuast ase 4, 427,141 220, 490 3, 680,567) 169, 189), 3,483,592, 165,624
Hongkong ........ 21, 680 & 281) 227, 400; 10, 121)) orcs Aiea eta arm ae
Other countries - - . 1, 700 34 300! 7 7 2, 600 $1
Total .s2.-0-< 4, 450, 521| 221, 807)) 3, 908, 267; 179, 267/ 3,486,192 165,705
_——e |

Submarine tele-
graphic cables
and under-
ground tele-
graphic lines or

Germany
Great Britain
United States

185, 270

198, 900]: =

| |

hd et bm OR 0} eee @ J oe, \ ie me 4 ales 9 he
fat a; a yer ae At * Pe > i fie }é

EXPORTS. IMPORTS.
YEARS. ; :
isis at te ee . Total. | Foreign produce. sane Total.
Yen. Yen. Yen. | Yen. Yen. Yen. : ¥en. _
Wl ES ee 69, 306, 893. 81 758, 812. 01 70, 060, 705: 82 | 66, 041, 584. 27 62, 182. 33 66, 103, 766. 60 _ 136, 164, 472. 42
Lee orciains 55, 791, 846. 67 811, 659. 36 56, 603, 505: 63 | 81, 679, 354.36 58, 226.14 81, 728, 580. 50 138, 332,086.53 || 25,125,074. 47 |........

78, 738, 053, 76 789,218.58 |. 79,527/272:34 || 62,880,670.60 | 46,597.78 | 62,927,968.38||- 142, 454°540, 72 ||_............---

90, 404, 735. 05 698, 018.58 91, 102, 753: 63 71, 276, 942. 28 49,137.22 71, 326, 679. 50 162, 428, 833. 13

88, 956; 014.19 762, 850. 40 89, 712, 854. 59 88, 187, 628. 97 69, 542.74 83, 257,171.71 177, 970, 036; 30

112, 171,175. 47 1, 074, 910. 68 113, 246, 026.15 117, 371, 361.43 110, 594.03 117, 481, 955. 46° 230, 728, 041. 61
134,.991,029.82 | 1,121,148.10 | 136, 112,177.92 || 129, 083,297.32 | ° 177,280:96 | 129,260,578.28 || 265,372, 756.20 |.......-.-------
116,575, 578. 85 1, 267, 181. 77 117, 842, 760. 62 171, 459, 555, 85 ; 214, 918.40 171, 674, 474. 25 289, 517, 234. 87 53, 831, 713. 63°
* 161,459, 310. 78 it 675, 765. 54 163, 135, 077.32 | 219, 158, 356.14 145, 415.50 219; 300, 771. 64 | 2, 435, 848. 96 56, 165, 694. 32°

162) 903,212.36 | 2)850,540.52 | 165, 753,752.88
1899 212, 952,136.47 | 1,977,757.84| 214, 929, 894. 31
TM hse or cc-c 200, 178,993.38 | . 4,251,000.60 | 204, 429) 998: 98

277, 270,728.90 | 231,497.61 | 277,502,156.51 || 443,255, 909.39 || 111,748, 403. 63
220, 050,983.74 | 350,942.25 | 220,401,925.99 | 435,331, 820.30
286, 588,420.70 | 673,424.88 | 287, 261,845.58 || 491, 691, 839.56

?

5, of)
82, $31, SDI. 60. |.---------wenne

4

Value of yen on January 1, 1885, in United States mney; 85.8 cents; 1890, 75.2 cents; 1891, 83.1. cents; 1892, 74.5 cents; 1893, 66.1 cents: 1894, 5.6 cents; 1895, 1
cents; 1896, 52.9 cents; 1897, 51.1 cents: 1898 to 1900, 49:8 cents.

sd

Toran Vatur or Commopities Exrortep From AND ImporTED INTO JAPAN BY JAPANESE AND ForeIGNERS, RESPECTIVELY, IN EACH
CALENDAR YEAR FROM 1889 To 1900.

[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

EXPORTS BY—
YEARS.
| Japanese. Foreigners. Total. Japanese. Foreigners.
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.

6, 781., 587. 98 61, 641, 543.12 68, 423,131.10 9, 645, 761. 69 54, 349, 247. 96 63, 995, 009; 65 16, 427, 349. 67 115, 990, 791. 08
6, 123, 961.5 48, 767, 685. 82 54, 891, 597. 38 19,521, 764. 71 61, 033, 109. 96 80, 554, 874. 67 25, 645, 726. 27 109, 800, 745. 78 ;
8, 770, 764. 83 69, 144, 861. 87 77,.914,.626. 70. 14, 276, 380.05. 47, 692, 803.45 61, 969, 183. 50 23, 047, 144. 88 116, 837, 665. 32 t

11, 395, 210. 47 77, 943, 923.79 89,.239,.134..26. 18; 812, 662.45 56,.263,.748.15 70, 076, 410. 60 25, 207, 872. $2 134, 207, 677. 94
13, 654, 984, 51 74, 485, 809. 36- 88,.140,.793..87. 16,693, 902. 29 70, 993, 193..03 87, 597,095. 32 30, 348, 886. 80 145, 389, 002.39 |

¢ wal” 20s 450, 979. 38 90, 846, 710: 15. | 111, 297, 689, 53 33, 7, 596.12 82,336, 454, 38-| 116,284, 050.50 54,398, 575.50 | 173,183, 164.53

LOGS os oe 26, 328, 816. 42 107,.188, 169.46 || 133,.516,.985.88. || 38,829: 338. 48 88,431, 505.96 | 127,260, 844. 44 65, 158, 154. 99 195, 619, 675. 42

8 29, 565, 487. 03: 85, 050; 296.42: | 114, 615,788.45 51, 211, 805.76 | 118,670; 789.46-| 169, 882, 595. 22: 80,777, 222.79.|. 203,721,085. 88
5D See ee 44, 374, 130. 89 115, 014, 294.14 | 159, 388, 425. 03 79,560, 939.03.| 138, 579,684.60 | 218, 440, 623. 63 123, 935, 069. 92 253, 893, 978. 74. |.

TADBE oaoad ec 55, 060, 559. 41 107, 736,092.45 | 162, 796, 651. 86 90, 472,259.06 | 184,127,001.44 | 274, 599,260.50 145, 532, 818. 47 291, 863, 093. 89
1909)... oes 15, 248, 951. 29: 136, 246, 383.34 21T, 495, 334, 63. 89, 351, 617.34 | 129,877,029.79 | 219, 228, 647.13 164, 600, 568. 63 266,123,413. T3 |
nit: Ss See 73, 38%, Go 27 | 124, 681, 912.40 | 198, 063,546. 67 112; 737,050.27 | 173, 433,883..08 | 286,170, 933. 35 186, 118, 684. 54 371, 497, 429. 48 |

~

Toran Vatvur or Exports rrom AnD Imports into JAPAN, DistiINGuisHinG DuTIABLE AND FREB OF > Dury, IN BACH Canmxpar Yaar
From 1889 to 1900.

[Fron official reports of the Japanese Government.]

EXPORTS.

DUTIABLE.

FREE OF DUTY.

YEARS. oS -
Japanese produce. || Japanese produce.| Foreign produce. | Total.
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. :
Oe ois lea, ace 0 855 ane mds 66 pS ial v6 a. wee ee See ee ee 45, 121, 784. 02 24, 185, 109: 79° 753, 812: 01 24; 988; 921. SO |} 70; 060;
LOU sin vetds nas S0.ce dae cernnnd owe kun dewwcwies ea dk Maer eee 35, 962, 240. 97 19, 829, 605. 70 811, 659. 36 20, 641, 265. 06" = a
ONL Seinen owe daw &5'sinininaw wie» dninp one t.9'8.«, un ce, h mining = Wee eee 51, 073, 752.18 27, 664,301. 58 789, 218. 58 28, 453, 520. 16 ‘79, 527,
DOs a Sats weiter s 6 dale o 0'6'se: 0.8% sinh nal SAN me Ginter eee a 59, 184, 901. 14 81, 219, 833. 91 698, O18, 58 $1, 917, 852. 49 91, 102,
SOR igure eee Scho edue's's sus aewatececcuavkkaech cc slteeee ean 51, 531, 241. 68 37, 418, 772. 51 762, 850. 40 38, 181, 622. 91 $9,7
ABOU reed damian a Ws anwrisae as «i050 x's sire a wn'nk-okre nny cone 62, 860, 041. 23 49, 311, 134. 24 1,074, 910. 68 50, 386, 044. 92 113,
OGD POOR sey Ce pin ee snvare ticknvwaekuwsccadlane ath 72, 003, 836. 42 62, 987, 193. 40 1, 121, 148. 10 64, 108, $41. 50 112,
LOU saw tea nye 06¢ ne,c0 a Wp ah n:05.0'96in «a awn n.s.6:0 o70:p'se'n a tuw oi ee ee 50, 595, 375. 47 65, 980, 203. 38 1, 267, 181. 77 67, 247, 385.15 Ho
BOT ore crete ee cn cey es sceicn Sec ccet navies cain coe 80, 738, 471. 57 80, 720, 840. 21 1, 675, 765. D4 82, 396, 605. 75
LUC ne aseicnhnashccnenees ps o.cvecsnanacagunbnn 4s dave 5eee Cte ae 68, 067, 035, 52 94, 836, 176. 84 2, 850, 540. 52 97, G86, 717. 36 165, 753,
LOGO tcc es Mederaubawakek eau aie ckmcnwen tick cee ca Cotten Eee $2, 490, 317.95 180, 461, 818. 52 1, 977, 757. 84 182, 439, 576. 36 214, 929,
Mad ax we lary neva avCaols ms Mi une Nn ite'e oe corks bes ch ne eae eee cae 250. 00 200, 178, 743. 88 4, 251, 000, 60 204, 429, 743. 98 204, 429,

Ly COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2339

“Toran Vanor or Exports From AND Imports rxto JAPAN, DistincuisHinG Duttasve AND Free or Duty, rm gacn Catenpar Year
FROM 1889 ro 1900—Continued.

IMPORTS.
DUTIABLE. FREE OF DUTY.
YEARS. ; | Total.
i nes s
| q Foreign produce. poy oa Total ae produce —_ | Total
ny ’ }
2] | |
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
68, 403, 344. Be Bn Np 63, 403, 344. 60 |) 2, 638, 239. 67 62, 182. 33 2, 700, 422.00 | 64,108, 766. @
65. < 65, 795, 097. 97 || 15, 875, 256. 39 58, 226. 14 15, 953,482.53 | $1, 728, 330.30
64, 822, 790.71 || §, 057, 879.89 46,597.78 8, 104, 477. 67 62, 927, 268. 38
64, 299, 861.87 6, 977, 080. 41 49, 137. 22 7, 026,217.63 71, 226, 079.
. 79, 462, 140. 41 $, 725, 488. 56 69, 542.74 8, 795,031.30 88, 257,171.71
4 103, 195, 819. 67 || 14, 175, 541. 76 110, 524. 03 14, 286, 135.79 |} 117, 481, 955. 46
118, 680, 124. 61 10, 463,172.71 177, 280. 96 10, 580, 453.67 | 129, 260, 578. 2B
130, 431.093. 81 |) 41, 028, 462. 04 214, 918. 40 41, 243, 380. 44 171, 674, 474. 2
139, 975, 246. 22 | 79. 130, 100. 92 145, 415. 5 79, 325, 525. 42 219, 300, 771. 64
159, 387. 45 165, 522,486.46 || 111,777,679. 89 202, 040.16 111, 979, 720.05 277 , 302, 156. 51
hi 136, 477, 159. 07 12, 465. 85 136, 489, 624. 92 83, 573, 824. 67 338, 476 . 40 83, 912, 301. 07 220, 401, 925. 99
% 200; 439, 717.44 18, 289. 07 200, 458, 006. 51 | 86, 148, 703. 26 655, 135. 81 86, 808, 839. 07 287, 261, 345.58
*

® Dates before the year 1898 are unprocurable.

Toran VALUE oF ComMopiTiEs ImporTEeD: Into JAPAN FROM VARIOUS FoREIGN COUNTRIES IN EACH CALENDAR YEAR FROM 1892 To 1900.

[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

COUNTRIES |
WHENCE IM- 1892 1894 1895 1896 1897 i398 | 1899 1900
-- . PORTED. | |
cl. ; Silver yen. Silver yen. ¥en. Yen. Yen. ; Yen. Yen. ) Yen. ) Yen.
fs -Australia......:..... 272, 787.15 319, O34, 26 534,763.35 | 1,081, 725.05 835, 046. 40 897, 050.20 | 1,408, 436.08 | 1, 708,670.41 | 2,455, 985. 95
a ae 10, 265. 48 21 208. 88 19, 819. 70 25,121.18 40, 400.13 85, 943, 06 591,325.94 | 15250,217.44| 4,502,476. 87
Belgium..........-..| 951,537.45 985,000.83 | 1,201,190. 78 | 2,066,244.73 | 3,106,094.38 | 3,173,218.44| 4,316, 703.24 | 5,415,809.87 | 7, 949, 253. 50
British America .._1! 30, 754. 46 16, 629. 04 45, 394. 83 13, 717.7 51,524. 83 129, 129. 12 156, 989. 45 182, 018. 34 | 316, 669.29
‘British India ....212 7, 662,003.81 | 8, 679,029.05 | 10,560, 448.31 | 12,001,810.52 | 22,517) 424.54 | 29, 775,930.09 | 40,7647 244.96 | 43, 883° 885.62 | 23, 516.350. 66
ae 12) 509; 410.42 | 17,095,974.88 | 17,511,506. 67 | 22/985, 144.47 | 21,344, 521.92 | 29, 265, 845.35 | 30,523,860.78 | 28,687,730.80 | 29, 960, 740.02
Denmark............ 6, 157. 68 2) 143.07 3) 881.76 81319. 95 14,240, 92 | 7, 880. 28 14,182. 21 | 3,103.02 10,296.41
saan 3, 620,500.44 | 3,305,277.29.| 4,848,047.61 | 5,180, 134.76. | 7,682,346.70 | 5,147,591.51} _6,979,982.55 | 5, 768,180.31 | 8, 095, $19.49
IS RAE ia penal epee anont rane nanan 3, 382, 672.66 | _1,673,387.70 | _9,525,559.20 | 26,668,444.34| 47489,996.38 | 3 632 642.55
ee Genmtemy..........-. 6/375, 048,93 | "7/318, 133) 61 |" °7/909,343/31"| 19!9337 158.88 | 17/193/953.40 | 18;143)279.61 | 25/610,961.70 | 17,613.191.07 | 29, 199,695.93
Great Britain. 2.12.7) 90, 789, 332.07 | 27,929) 628.47 | 42' 189,873.62 | 45,172,110.85 | 59,251, 780.28 | 65,406,266.47 | 62,707,572.95 | 44°836,993.86 | 71,638, 219.71
ieeqeit)-...-......2. 647. 54 3; 689. 87 6, 147.78 2' 163.44 9; 926, 80 | 1, 414. 08 23° 950.86 | 5, 622. 74 | 5, 265. 36
Pur reMand._..:....- 5 17, 600. 13 32,618.97 30,173.78 61,535.28 62,799. 21 | 57, 992. 40 242" 868. 98 914, 405.47 | $09) 620. O4
_-‘Hongkong........... 6,985,722. 57 |* 8/268,071.13 | 8,999,718.10 | 8,078,189.52 | 9,133,777.66 | 12,027,197.39 | 15,904, 466.62 | 7,338,454.82 | 10,659,855.18
eS Tesi 2... eee 67,679. 96 86,578. 31 170, 339. 83 148, 465, 18 182, $23.85 213, 266.52 385, S18. 86 236, 988. 12 | 450, 105. 06
a “Korea 2020.20 20.2 3, 046,339.96 | 1,999,438.76 | 2,183,313.19 | 2,925/399.73 | 5, 118,925.05 | 8, 864,359.55 | 4,796,03229| 4,976,167.35 | 8,805,618. 20
= 6, 032. 28 9) 065, 22 433. 32 3,377.94 i 319. 06 | 288. 74 2) 984. 12 2) 438.18 10,681. 48
475, 122.58 567,138.47 | 1,698,818.67 | 1,220,744.55 | 1,804,914.41 | 2,675,300.34 | 3,204,182 83 | 2,383°873.59 | 2, 284. 298. 57
Se 6, 049. 94 6,126.57 4) 329.04 hee 15, 309.32 | 24, 025.48 Us 2 83,105. 41 qi 588-10
* A: "045. 97,955, 92 "932. 9: 7 290. 6 49, 123.36 297.15
835,395.12 | 1,871,113.47 | 1,173,774. 27 { 1,371,612.45 | 1,318,893.01 | 1,859,653.76 | 1,694,169.84| 4,534,119.77| 5, 716, 705. 24
we 4, 381. 88 54, 390. 52 618, 859. 15 143’ 095. 42 203,275.11 | 1,190,968.90 | . 4,173, 609.62 757,029. 54 585, 480. 40
toa 33,155.84 48, 164. 95 43, 463. 35 47,148.03 | + 86,495.57 93, 080. 85 130, 990. 67 101,718.49 74,837.82
Bes 49, 816, 24 7, 679. 34 18, 623,32 2087 335.23 117, 460. 60 85,279. 91 138, 46.39 1207 663.49 330,749. 85
lee pala 713, 650. 16 669, 301.19 629,207.60 | 1,040/211.52 | 2,534/217.39} 2,555,904.80 | 3,498,309.98 | 1,676,669.28 | 3, 012) 504.52
Sot se 813, 72 8, 992. 04 3, 446.24 5, 584. 39 328. 38 8, 226. 06 17, 288. 05 26, 052.89 25. 00
_.- United States of > 5 / .
| America..........-| -5,998,058.56 | 6,090,408.40 | 10,982,558.44 | 9,276,360.95 | 16,373,419.85 | 27, 030,537.56 | 40,001,097.52 | 38,215,894.42 | 62,761,196. 48
Other countries ..... 867,820.83 | 2,916,340.12 | 6, 5947350. 54 574, 973, 22 907, 819.56 | 1,007, 655.04 | 3,825, 135.16 | 5,190,471.95 | 10, 157, 007.35
- | ;

2340 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Va.vue or Commopiries Exporrep rrom Japan To Various Foreign CounTRiEs IN EACH CALENDAR YEAR FROM 1892 To 1900.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government.] a ~~

COUNTRIES TO

WHICH EX- 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896
PORTED. ’ |
* Silver yen. Silver yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.

AMAUMANIB) oc <te2 5 wien 2 731, 658. 69 890, 637. 44 1, 098, 065. 78 1, 281, 103. 91 1, 458, 253. 20 1, 875, 169. 76 1, 995, 679. 86 2,169, 921. 42 2,530, 524.7 eae
LN te 1 Me REE 841, 932. 20 $22, 120. 39 465, 186. 56 450, 625. 57 539, 278. 58 258, 371. 95 349, 826. 24 674, 527.25 497, 194.50
IBEISIWIN jc. coon conn 50,125.11 226, 284. 04 19, 479. 58 131, 944. 25 111, 467. 25 109, 311. 85 101, 164. 59 $31, 415. 37 295, 511. 66
British America..... 1, 088, 407. 02 1, 720, 559. 42 2,211, 686. 56 1, 986, 169. 23 1, 594, 045. 14 2, 054, 619. 85 2, 365, 620. 48 2, 358, 099.31 2, 950, 662.78
British India ........ 1, 422, 289. 00 2, 471, 079.16 3, 688, 158. 89 4, 359, 236. 00 4, 537, 652. 98 5, 563, 332. 74 6, 134, 449. 64 6, 062, 049. 00 8, 704, 318.31
CHIME. sabe eorex ce 6, 358, 859. 58 7,714, 420. 08 8, 813, 987. 38 9,135,108.66 | 13, 823,843.67 | 21,325,065.42 | 29,193,175.14 | 40, 257,034.10 31, 871, 576. 09 ,
Denmark. -c----5--2- 365. 00 1, 377. 00« 1, 125. 40 5, 347. 28 8, 358. 34 9,823. 69 66, 359. 80 21, 798. 07 18,955.69
NTOMCO Gee ceee mona bee 18, 093, 693.59 | 19,531,975.34 | 19,498,776.22 | 22, 006,386.03 | 19,027,389.31 | 26, 213,654.45 | 20,496,406.54 | 29, 247,837.06 19, 150, 422. 97
Tipidejete} av) ato bt: 9 epee oor Be ie eee ery (eee mec 24, 522. 98 17, 654.74 30, 459. 95 35, 513. 09 111, 420.79 161, 048. 38 114, 407.14
Germany ............ 940, 782.71 1, 380, 040. 44 1, 517, 548. 89 3, 340, 012. 75 2, 972, 136. 90 2, 207, 018. 41 2, 469, 241.57 3, 796, 927.37 3, 555, 613. 60
Great Britain........ 8, 921, 752. 83 4, 995, 974. 46 5, 950, 197. 94 7, 883, 991. 34 9, 012, 398. 02 8, 481, 195. 69 7, 783,643.21 | 11,270,770.44 | ~ 11, 262,997.46
POWELL oes ae ewdt 3 < 62, 136. 71° 197, 522. 69 313, 908. 17 393, 689. 54 513, 188.13 524, 179. 67 717, 336. 91 1, 351, 949. 85 1, 294, 789. 55 ‘
12 Fo) 1 Co A ae es 19, 550. 18 140, 683. 20 136, 871.30 283, 382. 89 231, 221. 55 261, 023.78 872, 997. 04 322, 155. 20 119,028.60
Hongkong .........- 13, 288,540.08 | 15,688,874.71 | 16,199,480.73 | 18,362,802.92 | 19,965,899.72 | 25,390,293.92 | 31,473,895.70 | 34,291, 307.89 39, 177, 455. 34
MGA crac on. oxy oe ae 1, 254, 330. 56 1, 631, 907. 68 2, 900, 389. 62 3, 590, 735. 95 2, 669, 106. 08 2, 981, 889. 02 2, 485, 361. 95 3,581, 709. 13 7,129, 310. 64
TKOREG/ fo sccbecsewes ca 1, 410, 699. 03 1, 301, 242. 87 2, 365, 111. 58 3, 831, 476. 96 3, 367, 693. 27 5,196, 572. 81 5, 844, 331. 73 6, 995, 931. 35 9, 953, 271. 84
Pern shee ve eee 1,011. 00 ERA al Pe errs ae 7, 180.34 1,931.15 7, 369. 70 1, 735. 50 4, 764.29 3, 426.00
Philippine Islands .. 96, 580. 69 120, 416. 98 220, 586. 84 194, 831. 66 187, 785. 72 186, 383. 13 115, 433. 04 286, 771. 92 1, 257, 125. 83
POTtNSAl« (022s seeed [see eaeeen ste SDs pUile aap aaceneaeer es estos ss tee ee 500. 00 550. 00 ar ig ems eee ES - 977.17
PR UIBSIA Os orca aeitoloe ae | 585, 695. 44 621, 838. 32 | { 27, 594. 30 75, 222. 55 129, 653. 70 177, 615. 59 460, 603. 82 616, 801. 61 623,325.15
Russian Asia .......- | ect re 992, 754. 68 1, 247, 523. 07 1, 780, 928.13 1, 861, 727.17 2,181, 971.49 2, 556, 003. 02 5, 541, 833.15
Slam asec e aces wee 3, 485. 60 6, 402. 75 2, 953. 40 7, 930. 44 9, 892. 21 , 466. 42 41,720.03 26, 614. 03 35, 621.57
SPAM. wesc e eee 3, 160. 93 6, 848. 65 52, 307.11 48, 422. 63 20, 705. 00 30, 700. 07 88,195.15 57, 731. 61 20, 03. 62
Sweden and Norway. 2, 863.78 165. 45 576. 00 185. 00 2,452.90 2, 841.38 9, 324. 28 12,042.71 |* 4,902.14
Switzerland ......... 159, 583. 66 227, 141. 23 703, 021. 00 467, 718.11 617, 707.01 897, 046. 97 236, 686. 32 111, 577. 72 117, 877. 66
pees | Renee zs 43, 646. 38 7, 619. 83 16, 744. 45 62, 215.79 37, 093. 53 33, 915. 50 44, 856. 97 92, 650. 56 4, 940. 25

nited States o :

(Ameriog .g.:- occurs 38, 674,971.36 | 27,789,458.31 | 48,323,557.06 | 54, 028,950.20 | 31,532,341.13 | 52,436,404.48 | 47,311,154.90 | 63,919,270.10 52, 566, 395. 49
Other countries ..... 783, 063. 13 1, 195, 295.18 753, 097. 11 358, 138. 57 432, 400. 88 1, 244, 368. 51 393, 282. 82 916, 625. 87 1, 209, 577.72

ToraL VALUE or CoMMODITIES EXPORTED FROM AND IMPORTED INTO EACH PorT OF JAPAN IN EACH CALENDAR YEAR FROM 1889701900.

[From official reports of Japanese Government. ]

YOKOHAMA. | KOBE. OSAKA. =
YEARS.
Exports. — Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. Imports.
Yen. Yen. | Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
ERB lees io sun op came te a os waa date vem ema te 41, 862, 129.11 34, 320, 917. 30 20, 331, 552. 73 26, 035, 330.99 || « 261, 013.29 2, 131, 442.08
[ROU eic sh meccec.casacenesey sun cesaere ee’ siemens 32, 331, 989. 74 40, 645, 761. 70 16, 955, 413. 11 32, 041, 003. 99 451, 180. 05 3, 350, 519.12
DUES Ree aie site cin clase o'w cw cians ee Be we ete Slice 49, 540, 893. 51 28, 982. 815. 63 21, 733, 717. 73 25, 700, 501. 48 981, 103. 01 4, 084, 704. 78 *
Cie ce rote ce te saeee a ad td seem eee 61, 552, 203. $7 31, 328, 904. 04 21, 295, 740. 34 30, 698, 176. 54 1, 258, 531. 59 5, 547,370.39
1 (C5) an SE ae See Bee a a eee Ok ee 55, 209, 586. 46 36, 305, 069. 01. 24, 968, 974. 26 41, 294, 276. 35 1, 212, 891. 62 6, 504, 997.16
Re atte tne tue abicace ha evic~ See mano amweits 73, 015, 678. 12 50, 447, 371. 64 29, 438, 113. 05 56, 910, 503. 26 764, 367. 50 4,014, 813.39 _
EMO iee eee tered cite eens sonpw nan ee eee ee eee 84, 791, 633. 51 56, 095, 829. 78 38, 307, 954. 53 63, 098, 426. 70 1, 134, 699. 58 2, 621, 261.49
MOO aniine b Wriaroee ee pwns ela wos cue Sone rse seas 61, 696, 108.13 72, 803, 798. 70 40, 317, 816. 97 82, 546, 592. 70 1, 141, 326.10 4, 213, 790.89
LBM cuiawew ode vewns ces tn hen ee ae oaawae 90, 700, 984. 57 86, 836, 855. 03 51, 408, 079. 75 110, 741, 830. 58 2, 342, 437.47 ~ 4,424,742.17
OLS a ee Cee ety Oren: pcre aae 80, 312, 435. 10 111, 014, 139. 55 60, 119, 645. 42 138, 133, 797. 61 3, 165, 0S1. 56 3, 555, 936. 75
Ep ORe eeu any rit ssl ea as Nes o's bs cniaslin One aa aenines 108, 278, 729. 49 76, 453, 005. 11 75, 320, 884. 41 120, 289, 524. 49 | 6, 244, 298. 30 6, 405, 091. 49
es ieee taints be we ele ate eee an melee aia cates | 96, 125, 275. 50 109, 775, 317. 03 ) 69, 706, 548. 92 137, 484, 281. 27 9, 626, 595. 06 9, 741, 436.59
a 1 ale s
NAGASAKI. HAKODATE.
YEARS
Exports. Imports. Exports Imports.
Yen. Yen. | Yen Yen. Yen. Yen. ; r
6, 193, 062. 538 2,912, 842. 75 781, 446. 59 117, 705. 59 631, 501. 57 585, 527.89
a an a >. a pr ae! on oo 676, 533. 95 1, 727, 497.83 1, 603, 809.39
, 842, 222. , 932, 133.00 | , 709. 217, 480. 61 2, 790, 626, 98 1,009, 682.88
8, 337, 335. 78 2) 931, 764. 96 | 782, 858. 55 12/100. 90 2’ 876, 083. 45 807, 762.67
S558, 71L20 | Beal80 747.62 | 608,479: 64 55,400.88 || 8,800,748. 6 G40, 088 OF
558, 711. ' 418, 747. 472. , 420. , 800, 743. 64 088. 67
4, 244, 197. 89 6, 370, 689, 25 748, 388. 46 160, 361. 88 6, 885, 308. 95 ort Os 18 ,
4, 948, 028. 81 10, 024, 383. 16 898, 706. 98 830, 716. 08 8, 840, 773. 63 1,755, 192. 72
5, 542,012.74 138, G01, 233. 64 1, 264, 266. 61 423, 723. 70 11, 877, 296. 18 3, 272, 386.57
6, 587, 275. 77 19, 698, 645. 59 1, 248, 719. 31 $20, 020. 13 14, 320, 595. 72 4, 279, 616. 88
6, 207, 771. 46 11, 147, 510. 08 / 2, 116, 050. 96 1, 726, 462. 14 16, 762, 159. 69 4, 380, 332. 68
6, 939, 120. 46 15, 427, 337. 60 | 2,127, 614.01 8, 009, 284. 25 19, 904, 839. 93 11, 824, 188.54
\
- >

1901.]

COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

[From official reports of Japanese Goyernment.]

2341 -

ToraL VALUE or Specie AND BuLiion Exporrep rrom AND ImporreD INTO JAPAN IN EACTE CALENDAR YEAR Prom 1889 ro 1900.

EXPORTS. IMPORTS. EXCESS or—
; YEARS. ara 4 : 7 i}
old coin an Silver coin an Gold coin and | Silver coin and ; —-
bullion. bullion. Total. bullion. bullion. Total. | Imports. Exports.
:
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
OT! 25 7S ee 268, 009.79 4, 920, 519. 68 5, 188, 529. 47 749, 923.51 13, 423, 322. 04 14, 173, 245. 5f
CT ea eee ae 1, 637, 605. 62 12, 090, 925. 77 18, 778, 531. 39 260, 242. 37 840, 365. 00 1, 200, 607. :
11: 2 aia ED 230, 446. 28 1, 222, 517. 64 1, 452, 963. 92 283, 144. 37 18, 605, 381. 88 3, 888, 526. 2!
ct eB neigh ile,2 5 8, 544, 523, 07 1, 185, 230. 00 9, 729, 753. 07 395, 493. 44 22, 488, 263. 50 22, 883, 756.4
MAS eee 5 ae 2, 302, 678. 14 9, 986, 510. OL 12, 289, 188. 15 496, 729. 94 10, 689, 756. 77 86, 486.
() ES ee ee eae 3, 547, 188. 16 80, 831, 973. 08 34, 379, 114. 24 55d, 966.14 | 26, 227, 686. 61 5, 783, 652. 75
24, 509, 746, 89 27, 301, 698. 64 1, 029, 912.27 4, 844, 252. 16 5, 874, 164. 4:
9, 602, 307. 86 11, 598, 883. 79 10, 217, 458. 21 28, 924, 750. 11 39, 142, 208. 3:
10, 355, 365. 51 19, 219, 163. 01 64, 313, 492.77 17, 153, 219, 75 $1, 466, 712,52
40, 706, 137. 62 86, 987, 480. 63 37, 027, 752.39 5, 536, 028, 13 42, 563, 781.
2, 409, 881, 99 11, 178, 247.14 20, 080, 695, 82 $2, 804. 92 20, 163, 500. 74 || :
4, 945, 443. 37 56, 707, 063. 05 8, 967, 198. 12 2, 550, 636. 99 SDE? GoOeEE Ws oo anos ees : 45, 139, 2277 aT

DECLARED VALUE OF ARTICLES EXPORTED FROM JAPAN IN VESSELS OF EACH NATIONALITY AND CLASS OF VESSEL DURING BACH CALENDAR
YEAR FROM 1893 To 1900.*

[From official reports of Japanese Government.]

EXPORTS.
NATIONALITY AND CLASS OF 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1399 | 1900
VESSEL.

Japanese: Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. : Yen.
isan Vy CRSCIS -« ghia coc ccs se apaers 6, 594, 278 5, 746, 869 3, 453, 299 12, 543, 114 23, 098, 787 39, 574, 417 65,410,628 | 62,573, 707.05
Sailing vessels .....-.....-0.-00- 2 260, 744 307, 870 477,121 537, 048 964, 563 788, 868 1, 037, 121 | 1, 125, 407.94

otal...» CaaS ana eee 6, 855, 022 | 6, 054,739 3, 930, 420 13,080,162 | 24,063, 350 40,363,285 | 66,447,749 | 63, 699,114.99

American: st > ae
Steam vessels ...........-. Bertie 7, 094, 235 10, 011, 732 12, 609, 343 7,330, 401 9, 405, 871 6, 518, 450 11, 658,606 | 7,625, 212.97
AINE VORSCIG cn aecenscx=-2--coer 1, 648, 610 2,073, 608 1, 340, 382 707,131 968, 620 864,733 703, 052 77, 680. 83

PUGH oem iansieaans de eras 8, 742, 845 12, 085, 340 18, 949, 725 8, 037, 532 10, 374, 491 7, 383, 183 12,361,658 | 7,802, 893.85

British: ee. Ok Fee See PSE HE Se.
Rigem vessels. ---..--.--.-p.0%s 0s 44, 682, 061 62, 936, 982 78, 269, 645 58, 899, 283 81, 551, 881 72, 206, 0S2 85,174,651 | 68,521, 486. 40
BAslIng-vessels =~ sa--c<:--0000 1, 068, 737 1, 667, 108 1, 699,178 16), 344 341, 232 160,519 310, $14 580, 441.50

eae oe ale A 780, 708 64, 604, 090 79,968,823 | 59, 059, 627 81, 893, 213 | 72,366,601 | $5,485,465 | 69, 101, 927. 90

French: re Per ee a Se ees ape ae
SGA. FESSCIE cea aces ---c5~5 a de 14, 279, 421 13, 045, 372 14, 014, 475 ss 738, 174 19, 042, 457 14, 767, 413 20, 652, 030 | 19, 546, 656. 16
Sailing vessels ....... Sei Se CURTIS ae gear pte el i Mea k= aie a A ON an ED lh Seely ns) a nie $2, 165.83

Total..... Bin USS coaaade sabes 14, 322, 437 18, 045, 372 14, 014, 475 13, 733, 174 19, 042, 457 14,767,413 | 20,652,080 | 19, 638,822. 04

German:

Steam vessels ....... Keaoh eae 9, 962, 150 12, 119, 428 16, 142, 602 15, 111, 469 17, 198, 081 19, 735, 210 20,632,724 | 30,616,142. 23
MELeMPVESSOIS 202. soc lesen ee 519, 467 279, 103 88, 930 UPR | EEC eee rae UR 0) eee 13, 759. 91
Tota). See ee oe 10, 481, 617 12, 398, 531 | 16, 231, 532 15, 158, 564 17,198, 081 081 | 19, 816, $23 | 20,632,724 | 30,629, 902.14

Russian: ' ae
Gtenm vessels’ ...-<.:.---2n0cess<s 190, 735 833, 504 307, 685 206, 379 192, 160 354, 458 859, 637 1, 271, 967.27
PRIMER CRS Sas cits e nice a emaw cle bef simcinitaciavenicems o i, 3,030 | 601 13, 455 | 9,571 9,468 | 10,173 5, O18. 25

CR A ee ae 190,735 | 836,584 | 308, 286 | 219, 834 | 201, 731 | 363, 926 | 859,810 | 1, 276, 985. 52

Norwegian hae = 7
Gtenmuycssele!s.sec~ ssc aesceosen- 474, 693 672, 406 2, 666, 594 3,707, 440 | 2, 433, 735 | 2, 993, 030 1,139, S24 2, 359, 266. 71
SHE mabey SS aSe7 et a 2A Pee peocbeal ac -caaa ect ees TAN ee Sees ee ORS | FR ET RS AER a oe eae ek

Metals ecco wee sh <<< e meee 474, 693 672, 406 | 2,684,707 | 3, 707, 440 2, 439, 785 2, $93, 030 1, 189, 824 2, 359, 266, 71

All other: mm Sik pa = 4 ‘ony z ; ea and
Car GSHOIS . «2c <..ie<amig dense 733, 119 1, 602, $49 2, 274, 148 1, 488, 698 4,095, 807 | 4, 625, 199 | 3, 839, 236 3, 300, 571. 71
Sailing vesseis ......... Savas eae jreteeeee Be etic oe Nee 78, 056 52, 658 200 | 62, 442 | 7,651 5, 561.19

re eM a so Seedencsar he ease, 219 1, 604, 626 2,352,199} 1,541,856 | 4,096,007 4,687,611 | 3,846,887 | 3,306,192.90

Total: i ie rd cs ry POP a
Steamicvessels -.< <5. -<cmsace-sooce 84,010, 692 106, 469, 142 129, 737, 786 113, 019, 958 | 157,018,779 | 160, 774,259 209, 367,386 | 195, $15, 010. 50
Sailing Vesselsii.ccc.<.ee02s0c+u. 8, 540, 574 4, 332, 496 8, 702, 881 1,517, 781 2, 290, 336 | 1, 967, 643 | 2, 068, S11 2, 000, 035. 55

THORNE Ao ett ls ia'a« 87, 551, 266 110, 801, 638 133, 440, 167 114, 537,689 | 159,309,115 | 162, 741, 902 211,436,147 | 197, S15, 046.05

iaomacnOws ss s<c5.teeccarccckesn 571, 528 $3, 348 72, 869 70, 444 re Ae ee 26, 788 212, 000. 62

ERO TEUE Sate ee aos aaa AO ces 88, 122, 794 | 111, 284, 986 | 133, 513, 036 | 114, 608, 133 / 159, 383, 425 ) 162, 741, 902 211, 462, 935 | 198, 027, 046. 67

»Exclusive of exports for ship's use.

No. 6——27

2342 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Deciarep VAtue or ArticLes ImrorTeD INTO JAPAN IN VESSELS OF EACH NATIONALITY AND CLASS OF VESSEL DURING EACH CALEX
YEAR FROM 1893 To 1900.4

[From official reports of Japanese Government.]

IMPORTS.
NATIONALITY AND CLASS OF =
VESSEL. 1893 1894 1895 1897
Japanese: Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. : - Yen.
fy as Ge Cte ee a 7, 054, 129 10, 353, 694 2,971, 196 42,163, 610 63, 819, 992
Bane VENClS os <c- cecetances ea 517, 993 422, 064 884, 694 2,573, 588 2, 448, 747
ATC ae tae a 7, 572, 122 10, 775, 758 | 3, 855, 890 44, 737,198 66, 268, 729 } 72, 999, 103
American: i; eas eee nak LL, aa be Pee
Steam vessels .......:.--2--ec0--- 1, 107, 384 1, 249, 687 1,167,349 2, 675, 659 2, 784, 782 3, 038, 761
Sailing vessels ......... : 206, 994 1, 152, 499 1, 066, 903 2,193, 303 1, 509, 084 124, 941
BOOTS 5). 502.2 cae ee 1, 314,378 2, 402, 186 2, 234, 252 4, 868, 962 | 4, 293, 866 3, 163, 702 25
British: LT > Tet ce een. LS ee [7 |. pee ale an incann ieee
SLCHI: VERNEls 22: 55.5505. Sheers 54,031, 811 65, 028, 949 80, 641, 923 109, 501, 621 132, 342, 697 97, 932,701
Sanline Vessels. 22. ssc soonoteeeaes 979, 585 1, 579, 404 1, 549, 504 2, 600, 468 , 153, 774 2, 705, 665
ce) Oe ed eee ee Ae Be 55,011,346 | 66,608,353 | 82, 191, 427 112,102,089 | 135,496,471 | 109, 639,366 | 133, 138, 620. 72
French: wa
Bieany veesels.. =... sc» eens 7, 202, 642 9, 197, 054 10, 465, 784 10, 113, 477 12, 611, 250 7,467,132 | 8,987,370. 50
Sailing vessels) 25.5422 ~ 1. aseceee 45,408: |< -2 «= <roo Sim bie/pe eit mesa aes Ge Ee ns ia hk cos Jone b eee e eee eeee eee e een e een e eee 45, 008.
ORANG ee cack a teoe tye ise Meee 7, 248, 110 | 9,197,054 | 10, 465,784 | 10,113,477 | _12, 611,250 7,467,132 | 9, 082,379.07
German: ra
BLCAMINVCSEClE Snecma ace recente ae 13, ne 512 17, 373, 809 19, 680, 612 28, 629, 255 38, 378, 439 22, 247, 550 38, 910, 895. 99
Salling vessels sor ost. shcp-sseceme 771 207, 106 83, 416 682, 294 973, 220 479, 978 2, 782, 228.09
yt ee SR TIO ee OA 13, 559, 288 17,150,915 | 19, 764, 028 | | 29,311, 549 39, 351, 659 22,727,528 | 41, 693, 124.08
Russian: =a
Steam Vessels oo sec seccc skecanewes 82, 616 70, 647 59, 270 103, 658 375, 307 548, 022.49
alling-vessels: «252000 - ca bocce dbal eaten es cee eeee 3, 983 118 22, 321 62, 724 39, 769. 97
Pi, ee aR Eie Sapte 82, 616 74, 630 59, 388 125, 979 | 198, 662 438, 031 | 587, 792. 46
Norwegian:
Steam vesselg.......c--c-eses-ecee 590, 444 962, 936 4,158, 097 4,979, 413 4, 641, 408 3,817,127 | 3,520, 628.25
AMINE VV CSSEIS) nse necate soma snone 98 Baile sen succup eee 25, 234 48, 767 130, 767 121, 069 267.75
calc .e eee Saek 619, 291 962, 936 4,183, 331 5, 028, 180 4, 772, 175 3,938,196 | 3, 520, $96.00
All other: i is a3 |
Steam vessels .........--.-+-+0+-- 1, 957, 651 1, 655, 036 1,734, 945 7 4,724, 076 , 959, 5,337,393 | 6,355, 954.97
aime iVESROIS) ses ccccstm ace esces 10, 218 | 20, 163 25, 365 32,500 28, 557 80 110, 688. 26
PRO Celers o atest aehi tee en ates cee 1, 967, 869 | 1, 675, 199 1, 760, 310 4, 756, 576 , 988, 25 5, 337, 473 | 6, 466, 643. 23
Total: . |
PIUCAIONVORSOIA Scco ones avcusiccccce 85, 305, 189 105, 891, 812 120, 879, 176 202, 899, 769 210, en 273, 003, 732. 74
Sailing vessels ......... ier meee 2, 069, 826 8, 385, 219 3, 635, 234 8, 153, 241 -|- 5, 725, 796 11, 379, 937. 51
"1 Ea, ep ee eae 87,375,015 | 109,277, 031 124,514, 410 211,014,010 | 269,981,079 | 216,701,581 | 284,383, 670.25
WIGS UMKNOWN vss. cct cde tose eae 849 1, 955 4,163 2, 924 4, 205 79, 227, 346. 86
11S GAS <2 SS 87, 375, 864 | 109, 278, 986 124, 518, 573 / | 211, 046, 934
® Exclusive of imports for ship’s use.
NuMBER or JAPANESE HAvinG AN OrrictaL Restpence Aproap DecemBer 31, 1899.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
Ret in " ous
‘OTINT RTTr , — . the service 0 ther pro-
COUN PRIES IN WHICH RESIDING. the Govern- Students. Merchants. fessions.
ment. Males. Females. Total.
i |
COMING tvasev nse ndet ears aca dan swan Gnird maaenueccea ade: ome ea 146 1,726 521 1, 886 556 2,442
MMS, wage een th al celina cecsceeecacdaie sohcke cota 400 7,828 6,825 8,507 6, 561 15, 068
UM eat haem Waser av awn dns. beesdh eo ckecaacces LEE Sete eee 6 Bt 31 52 pat 76
ORION IG. COLOMLGNS sos wand cwesccaCocccécesotoeaner Cena eieeee 69 287 5, 290 5,113 568 5, 681
RUUMM COIGMIGES scene boc uauncusswasucces soccer ovateds seen 16 255 8,713 2,019 2, 002 4,1
CMM cleat is.s sh aidin'e wie bia mana Rawts mich s acces eae tee oR Ronen 63 14 18 99 13 12
PIO pines dann Sv cnsndas cakhunoleessoedastcce arena dee 54 4 5 204 6 210
LUN ORS acini wie Unwin uae eek ov duckie’ bn duh Coc i ee 10 2 5 4 4 18
ey RMR Raia wax niwiae nid RS @ ae ale cee ee eC oe cae FEC 9 2 4 19 4 23
MME cake tiv uses paasna coco cae’ oere tks sak scented: coer ae ene 6 0 3 10 8 18
POD MEIMUON asin vs.covareckakus vilcbessaunwLe kal CamemeU Ch ca cueLe ee 4 0 0 3 1 “9
3 ‘or nog SUMING Sanh shwe ced con ct Unttw anh Wa COROT eee t eee e nl 0 0 6 1 6 2,315
PRU CUCM, Sains. v Soe cc ce cwe pun nanubunupunchisneceeierere amchdscoek $1 983 69, 019 663 652
EN tale os cues wa win aloth Ku nwhpihekuddaxetucaeminmema she ntxe 8 6 22 = 35 si 3 3
SCC Mte iin aa ekc ut Wn kus evaiveuw cvhcos iste coh t enti er ac cck 7 0 2 6 3: ji
ES nw Raae + > Wiad vckiusivanakcocrisnncesuadtt cto eereacete 0 0 1 2 0
a TED dens sng w Fa Newey vs nav’ Sencar swash 829 12, 140 85, 465 | 76, 633 22, 406
MAUD CUR San We chsh Sena nkl pues ob steracecewicteeetun ule b 770 11, 648 57, 792 63,114 (17,687 ‘d
1897 PRCSCPceCeScUtrvuwiNEGerKnhS bsSvaR eww eretanabunws ens 718 , 573 46, 029 43, 707 15, 078
DOU ee eR ENaC Cava acc in nakawnc ances eee 627 290 42, 063 40, 348 13, 9M

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2343

NoumsBer or Forreianers Resipine 1x JAPAN Decemper 31, 1899.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government. ]

Diplomatic Foreigners

|

PorpuLATION AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES IN CITIES OF JAPAN HAVING More THAN 20,000 INHABITANTS ON DECEMBER 31, 1898.
; [From returns of the Japanese census. ]

! Foreignersin | . aa - Merchants
NATIONALITIES. Paacans | thepublic | opored by | “and other Total.
ty service. Pp a | professions.
oe Ct (ook 24 STU Te CORR AST nen
a ee ate eee sees weenie nS adeinn cen Saiecescetenceewessonncasnccan 13 5, 011 1, 348 | 6,259 6,372
KOOTCADS 222 - onne on enw ence nen e cece nen ce none ensaccenecacnncscecssasncccccascnes 1 177 10 187 188
Ree seme an take Ginanalcsaninn anna SeReMane nes eieeea venus awe nese an acs aswisoneee 19 1, 243 751 1,994 2,013
CME es nakowadccuswscse ccc pate ee eere Set tall tc pt lal pram la i il 835 117 45/2 563
Germans) #: ...---.---s.ce--200e eo ceeeeccce wwe ecm a wen e nen c cease ncenennencccncccnccees 14 382 136 518 £32
URUSSIODIS © oan ce anne neem ao nnn -nnonnnananemadnsenscanaanaancanncccesennannaaanceccccssss- 11 80 43 123 | 1A
PHI INEE eins Sn non checs re cvcianouscobesmncs>cncusens Lert ygt Ska Se: 2 a 4 38 9 47 | 51
PRS ences aacece tastawecasa ceapeceeesas- sre. eee eee eee eee 15 5 2 26
eee eee sce mane eer sanae cn Seaaetiam ap oaoa sat mie sects «0 daw as. acuadtee'suceiecvavcce 1 61 32 93 91
Me seas ec sete meer canan orotic sca cn ben ate wenn ce ce naPaee cece ue A 4 52 29 | $1 85
OUUUSIOEO 2 coe feiss eee ene ose 3 99 56 150 18
eM es ene naan daccecussarcescneccaws ea ne waentetcenesssea ec mensct cereus it 6 35 9 44 | 50
‘ eM ST CUED ULET SRE TELTN oyna ain wore a aicG amr bind dd cece ioe mate clocks nw auinininy ameainwraic owicjeiuere 2 54 27 81 &3
; UM Bel ied a a a orm xininiw sini aisininiaini cw) a cle site awa cn eiwia'eislsn se eewoseie mn Sucuewesecteescevecducdesese 4 40 15 55 59
PEO SLUMS ONOMWORIADIA oc ots -ncchtoetdincccca sen. vavicudUcwans saccceccecncntcucaesdécvcs - 29 12 41 42
; ER thet eee a aeeice wanes aed eceecudwes any ae vncdecaepmeb e's w0Gkaiweresct sess 0 1 0 1 1
2 Op Se gee 552 BSE e ee sea aes ee a Serieee ning Fad oecne Chet ee scbaer io ceacir cage eae 14 750 532 1, 282 1,296
ae OLS mois ee mianincaian aes apices ee clbniabiniens on sAlcwinwisdewcclne wombs ete cet ececeoce 3 0 0 0 3
RAEI ee rte A ott aig ite Siaetntns Wee echo se ee cicaiie a tas unpicie csc wat cad Se ncceciencsse 1 0 0 0 1
| (Woo. 2008) 2 aStenga0 6 55 SSor CoC HOC Sng ES ene St OSC oor S CODES Sea COS S- COC eee COnC EEE EEE are 2 1 0 1 3
Se a te ee nein aaa eae eameaee an vex ate cls Oba m maavc/duien re == ania 3 16 11 | 27 | 30
| Bota] B09 «.0c. -oennn--ans AI AEE Se oa IE ee 123 | 8, 419 | 3,142 11,561 | 11, 684
PopuLATION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN ON DECEMBER 31 oF THE FoLLOWING YEARS.
4 [From official reports of the Japanese Government. ]
| INCREASE OF POPULATION.
: 2 Average
ersons increase
' YEARS. Males. Females. Total. | Excess of | heretofore yer 100 in-
| births over; unknown Total. abitants.
deaths. who had
registered.
. EMM hi eC oi See MEMS aE Toe rT a. iL er gps et oe |
22,072,758 | 21,688,057 | 43,760,815 475, 119 56, 833 531, 952 1.23
= 21,823,651 | 21, 405, 212 43, 228, 863 458, 288 62, 311 520, 599 | 1.2
; 21, 561, 023 21, 147, 241 42, 708, 264 | 369, 356 68, 288 437, 644 1.04
21, 345, 750 20, 924, 870 42, 270, 620 394, 005 63, 400 457, 405 1.09
21, 122, 899 20, 690, 316 41, 813, 215 368, 215 56, 687 424, 902 1.6
20, 906, 465 20, 481, 848 41, 388, 313 | 240, 784 57, 589 298, 373 ote
20, 752, 366 20, 337, 574 41, 089, 940 320, 046 51, 217 371, 263 91
= 20, 563, 416 20, 155, 261 40, 718, 677 233, 636 31, 580 265, 216 . 66
| 20, 431, 097 20, 022, 364 40, 453, 461 321, 656 59, 785 351, 441 9
7 20, 246, 336 19, 825, 684 40, 072, 020 401, 230 63, 556 464, 786 1.17
20, 008, 445 19, 598, 789 39, 607, 234 419, 895 117, 648 537,543 1.38
19, 731,732 | 19,337, 959 39, 069, 691 304,681 | 257,833 562, 514 1.46
a
:

ay , Number Popula- Number Popula-
. CITIES. df caries! tian CITIES. of families.| tion.
. ESO OOO) fer tet min minre = laiolaela Same weenie = ala wnclview see me SLB, De ie leASO LAE SAPS (GEOR oan onan nnn a= mamnewnals sieinietind -ateeooneexemes 4, 893
ChSS on, (OSD 7 ee a oe oem aise 185, 847 ale AoOs Un SNGIE re, CLOGHIPT) soa kce vaamdn=sench a odessa aman sns 6, 455
AITO UBLOUENUCD ierars ace sane selenieie cos cia wine eacteleccesenada sacar 66, 999 Sod oon Le RAO Mase OVEING) = o2c coeds a Rite osc cceceaanandmcacgsceccs 6, 507
ING BOV eR CAICDL)) ooo. = one nee we mw emne nce cecesnnecccenacee 56, 680 Po | (PG ICTR ONC 0000) ees I, SR ae ees 6, 326
SME PELO MO Neen cenin some cei oa moieinls acinciecawewmcnw nanan 59, 032 215; 780) || Nagono (Nopona) ~.. ~~~ <<... =. 5. nee wen Sane 9, 708
DCEMU PEFIE (MOANA PO WE) cise cima cemece coc ccicesccscicenc cesses 31, 765 DEB ACG 2 ME We sho) OES = ee eee eee 6, 361
PPecreseertey (EITOSMIING)) .o name coweceawaieesiacneaccieccencee 28, 811 TOE OG. ie hee esel eae CORT sce. Soc ee ith orcas ceoeon secs cennwed 5, 107
Tran ONCE Satara cas naivcameee-ismcasocicaeniwatnammcc'c 16, 559 107, 422 || Yonezawa( Yamagata) ........... REA Re ete nee 5, 453
Kanazawa (Ishikawa) 28, 507 SonGeen |e Nery (NOLS )\= Seca ke clo es See Gos ecacanbn nk causa manson 5,613
Sendai (Mayagi).-...... 14, 390 Soro e DAAC lta PARIIO We on. a dws a anngah Wena e heen Soak arene 6, 793
z 17, 886 78,040 || Wakamatsu (I'ukushima) 4, 795
9, 748 66,190 || Kurume (Fukuoka) ........ 4,819
11, 767 G3) COG le DORLOEL (VOLGOLT) © ~ a lw wae canis . 5, M7
12, 476 GLSHo le AwWwOROLl (A WOMOEL) 002. cdees Puen ecunaiindeensscccases 6,177
13, 784 BIS G SFG eATIAG Oy CNL TYO hose ons coe ee cane beeseeeaems oawene 5, 954
13, 883 Bou pose ecole (Ha OO Ka yo... face atGe Sonae cn da ecg dcaecs 3,:
SESS 7a ee DosUeba WC mInae (CREDA) = ee ooo... coe cnadetecawaaqnucesaetnnwnce 3, 568
7,723 GRE LAM ote eh ool 0 GT) |e ee ES Oe ee 4,
9, 459 DesAnlahe VOimmOICHT (MIGG) Cocke kc.sccwcs gen bwke Slade cceeeeeaweckos 4,435
10, 214 53,366 || Marugame aedalidee Se tele iat Oe Ratt ainsi isi mate cm 6,8
9,311 DO: Aon Pe NC AGGH ) Ae oes Ue tc euaceuapbuteccdnnamacences 5, 1
10, 119 BS esos |e STE CS IRENE ia narn open canes cmnamnaee es od meween 3,
7,565 ASG tee OCR LIL WORE Vic clean tan nas anes cscawe aus ene'aesuvduwe 5, 367
8, 691 GN ie || MUVCOs, PNGLBIO)) ac ccannepweancasncccenacuassemerucceccees ' 4, 249
7, 304 SU Oeee PRR RUN (CRETE EE rr. cence cawaecccenwanct scabs cccting 3, 4
6, 569 37,482 || Hachioji (Tokyo) 4,353
8,347 36,549 || Tochigi (Fochigi) 3,
8, 484 - 36,511 || Onomichi (Hiroshima) 4, 736
7, 548 35, 453 || Sakata (Yamagata) 3,
5, 253 35,3800 || Toyohashi (Aichi) 4, 996
9, 153 35, 282 || Washo (Hiroshima) 4,3
6, 441 S2areh [he busimg (KIO) =. vcccseccacenan 3, 57%
7,936 34,651 || Ashikaga (Tochigi) 3, 908
6, 448 fete Sen en ER CELIOR GD) esc wcicce~ ow a son Sana cn Renna a wenmandubeen 4,8
7, 844 34,416 ||} Fukushima (Fukushima) 3,585
: 5, 832 34, 225 || Tsuruoka (Yamagata) 2, %
Ibaraki) 5, 4383 33,778 || Toda (Kanagawa) 4, 070
toa LE) cet 3.22 Sie aOR 5, 821 Seo te a cate (De). ace oe Seda sole ceee ta Cuiw chen aes 3,715
SNE Le ere oiaettinesicliawe = bee oc oc cas cecicc case sssnac 5, 433 BOeSSSril, CV AVELIA. (MLVO) . edwin ceetnaetou ah GaehNean quae sacnas seinen 3,475

2344 COMMERCIAL JAPAN. =
Estmmatrep ANNUAL ArgEA DeyoTEep To THE CULTIVATION oF Rick, BARLEY, ETC., ALSO ToraL Propvuction.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
[Koeku=4.96 bushels. Cho C=2.45 acres.]

CULTIVATED AREA.

YEARS.
Cho C. Cho C. Cho Cae
AME IRS oe Pegs Soccs isc savepeene Ore so See ee eer ee ee a aie ae 2, 839, 550.2 654, 852.3 1, 794, 612.4
TC AAU RE IE a a eee ee re alate eee | Ap ee BELT EES, 2, 817, 624.0 659, 695. 5 1, 806, 667.4
Sati aap eee eat seh RIOR. | ee ee ee INN | cs, ee ee ae 2,788, $45.2 639, 884.0 1,749,571.7
1 stn Pps cig eR ce ieee SIMI ERS eras 9-2 Sine AREY Oe a tas rns 2,786, 989.4 | _ 650,503.6 1, 764, 690.6
aches ae eo corde want ioc 2 ceo Te oe eh ee en ee ON 2,779, 227.1 653, 204.5 1, 771, 023.6 —
ate ere ye ee IT, SS ete Rae ee a eee 5. eee Fae 2,721, 044.8 647, 982.7 1,751, 012.8
TS SE a a 5: eS Ree ARE d= eS A ae as My Bathe ae a an BS 2, 769, 478.9 653, 443.4 i: 7s, 010.3
[A A ened EERE cory 8 Me Ne 6 ge ce he | 2,755, 101.9 653, 266.6 1,727, 373.0
Koku. Koku. Koku. Koku. Roku, 5
MBdd Mecucseose teen APE agin Ee POOR dalle St 39,590,822 | 8,407,263] 6,606,277] 4,057,670 | 19.07: 210 0.97
clo ee Gee Riera i gan ye ae ca .-.--| 47,387,666 | 8,913,560 | 7,366,€05 | 4,181,888 | 20,4%.03 1.08
1EVieiceteonswws' stu edtes sonata tunes eteroe s+eee-| 33,039,293 | 8,028,698 | 6,165,792 | 3,811,000] 18,0u5 au .%
it a a eee aaah aers Nae EaS hia 36,199,771 | 7,849,285 | 5,923,247] 3,552,789 | 17,325. sz1 .88
ISOS Re RCO be. 7.8 Sacre Se eee meee Gee ee 39, $29,882 | 8,535,770 | 7,015,709 | 3,973, 19, 526, 122 1.04
TBGHS Mae Jo Me octee cr cean wate ee eee See eee 41,865, 893 | 8,528,408 | 7,314,304 | 3,967,253 | 19,809,966 '! Sti
1953 cee pitéhwcasicny ee eee pnbenae wsvecsenesecsesenes| 87, 199,663 | 7,196,569 | 6,146,126 | 3,291,146 | 16,633,541 | 94
abst) ped een Sy ee ee een yee aE a eres .--| 41,378,956 | 6,809,275 | 6,057,134] 3,074,867 | 15,941,276 } -93

Sirk CULTURE IN JAPAN.

[From official reports of the J apanese Government.]
{1 Kwan=8.28 pounds.]

Cards of
YEARS. silkworms’

eggs.

Number. Koku. Kwan. Kwan. Kwan.
3,795, 030 2, 512, 562 1, 754, 242 1, 523, 174 =
8, 936, 909 2,027, 342 1,479, 747 x 655, 118
3, 988, 569 2, 124, 238 537, 561 629, 375
3, 746, 139 1, 836, 672 1,442,720 610, 083 58,
3, 938, 388 2, 258, 173 1, 603, 311 696, 377 61,
8, 334, 294 1, 800, 596 1, 296, 783 590, 801 o—
8,091, 222 1, 686, 894 1, 288, 554 541, 267 56, :
2, 831, 159 1, 480, 705 1, 096, 088 522,544 57,121

Domestic TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN JAPAN.
[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

Number of

YEARS. manufacturing, Number of

looms.

households,
BROS es cas Jub cee NAG < oo ckeuseeneetancusk basesas wet ueseneteeetuwe é Gocenec teens qusbe@eece 654, 196
1 IAP os Cee Sur tiwaveriecesdtueen scunictoscnenéceucestucehs seecetie Seeucuxe 665, 356
(ae oe bebe ces lWeeensetecechepeneeenes veesecpeny heibtSECke DSkNES eRe TE NERS 687, 523
DBO vic coc ph ae WRer views con useStebtataspevenncteceteun Hu veretnccensnesessseesebneeen aevsss 660, 409
DOOM sincaccbsavntver ans avesadtebveus cucvessscvechansebastesecnne a eeneea—nn Susbactuece ae 600, 444

QUANTITIES AND VALvEs or Textures ManvuracrvureD 1x Japan, 1890 To 1898.

[From oficial reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]
FABRICS FOR CLOTHING.

—S—S— — — — ————————— ————
SILK AND OOTTON |
SILK, COTTON. arxe. TION | HEMP.
YEARS.
Pieces. Value. Pieces, Value, | Pieces. | Value. t
J Yen. Yen. | , Yea.

.+| 11,936,849 | 63,143,314 || 64, 644, 915 | 48,186,610 || 6,478,283 | 11,056,250 |, 2,762,919 | 8, Soa, 449
.| 11,248,510 | 54,987,876 |} 60,831,000 | 40, 894, 804 ) 5,448,064 | 8,501,166 | 4,748,884) 4,524,581
9,897, 756 | 45, 819, 364 |] 70,195,698 | 38,089,089 || 4,383,047 | 6,174,587 |) 1,706,427 | 2,668, 077
83 | 41,063,194 |] 63, 422, 144 55 658, 748 | 3,975, 602 | 5,982,376 || 2,055,728 | 2,350,805
sagan | Rosse | sasha Somes | Rane) BeCae| Seas
16, 825, 728 || 40,219 136 | 18,402) 874 || 3,618,735 3, 919, 200 | 1,543,338 | 2, 671, 978
4,882,296 | 12, 543, 666 |] 86,175,902 | 16,344,908 || 3,340,809 5, 167, 785 | 3,860,967 6,331,353
4,154,466 | 10,501,870 |} 30,044,876 | 13,098,442 || 2, 764, 967 2,978, 901 | 1,011,954 1,533,489

+

Norr.—A picce of texture for clothing is, at an average, 11} yards long and 38 yards and 5.6 inches wide.

1901,] COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

2345

QUANTITIES AND VALUES oF TexTURES MANUFACTURED IN JAPAN, 1890 To 1898—Continued.

FABRICS FOR SASHES, GIRDLES, ETC.

|
SILK, COTTON. | SILK AND COTTON MIXED. |
YEARS. Total value.
Pieces, Value. Pieces, Value. | Pieces. Value.
Yen. Yen. "en.

1, 582,785 10, 792, 714 957,322 591, 794 2,771, 534 6, 154, 067
282,710 8, 710, 898 1,761, 665 1, 359, 043 | 2, 130, 232 3, 163, 864
1, 238, 617 8, 276, 581 1, 300, 270 991, 012 2, 246, 068 2, 958, 951
805, 480 5, 408, 207 2,109, 679 1, 402, 979 2, 716, 262 4, 298, 896
750, 058 3, 783, 700 1,533, 980 726, 815 | 1, 958, 671 2, 826, 585
524, 245 2,904, 771 1,212,329 618, 117 1, 540, 383 8, 825, 317
468, 708 8, 022, 057 1, 526, 220 710, 535 1, 562, 102 3, 888, 164
851, 270 2,581, 345 1, 724, 263 581, 762 1, 410, 263 2,790, 191
639, 485 2,131, 360 2,189, 742 465, 161 1, 628, 940 2, 232, 020

Notr.—A piece of fabric for sashes or girdles is, at an average, 413 yards long. The width varies according to the sex and age of the respective persons for
whom the goods are destined.

Corton SPINNING IN JAPAN BY MEANS oF EuROPEAN MACHINERY.

- [From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

[1 kwan=8.28 pounds; 1 sen=¥, yen.]
YEARS Number of Number of Quantities of | Quantities of Spinning
: companies. spindles. cotton spun. | cotton used. waste.
Kwan. Kwan.
ASS) oe DO ScSc oom dee seeoccsSso—6 ose seccs Seacnwccewstcchrnucesccscpes samme’ 95 2, 074, 475 43,113, 790 51, 024, 761 6, 163, 707
SR Se ae teraia ma rale]oiatyc'siwiaim's eieim icinre|s ewe SOGTCE HEE ARSSnO eon 55 26 Seeie peer esas =a =so6 72 1, 027, 817 $2,163,239 | | 42,544,656 4, 980, 687
TO seco io ee a ee eee ee 74 768, 328 26, 134, 120 32, 068, 243 3, 706, 510
1896. ....--+---+--- 222 ee wee eee eee eee ccm en cee e nee e ene nee ccenm nn cnennnseeeeeeees 63 692, 384 20, 585, 485 24, 875, 0ST 2. 993799
Bioee 2, Ware eo ae see i ee age hc aioe cin ows See ae eee oouneetiees. 47 518, 736 18, 437, 011 21, 771, 346 2, 423, 261
ike a BEE a eee ee a SS ae ee eee eae 45 476,123 4, 620, 008 17,179, 274 i, 816, 333
Lo ees SS eo ee oe ee ee a ee eee -e. 40 381, 781 10, 666, 744 11, 531, 307 b B 178,068
1892.....-.-- rate Sate abt hon/m mre Se ee ee ee ee See eee eee eee ee 39 385, 314 9, 977, 208 12, 240, 793 906,116
| |
| DAILY AVERAGE WAGES
HORSE POWER OF MOTORS. | PER WORKER.
YEARS. Waste of || Coal con-
eotton. nh PRTG =
Steam. Water. | Male. Female.
/

Kwan. | Tons. || Sen. Sen.
756, 306 33, 626 1,819 AD TIB Bo on nc ck te ee
OS AUPE lesan eres Secale tame ins caren | Se | eee ok CES
1, 177,.099 26, 301 1, 352 241,791 || 22.9 13.6
328, 666 19, 244 216, 142 || 19.7 12.0
251, 879 14,781 187 156, 616 18.0 9.9
192, 017 12, 439 317 132, 120 fF | &.9
298, 466 8,110 470 84, 660 17.4 9.4
304, 851 8, 604 435 90, 389 | 17.4 3.9

MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN JAPAN.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

JAPANESE PAPER JAPANESE PAPER || Ess eer ar ee
Manuiac- |. CALLED “‘mitno”” CALLED “ HANSEI.” | Value of EUROPEAN FAPER. wad
RS. turin | all other | Y :
ree oeanne tie | kinds. || value.
Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. | Quantity. | Value.
/ i ;

Shime. Yen. || Shime. Yen. Yen. || Kwan. | Yen. Yen.
«DAS ES RR apie se ene it, iene ene 66,702 | 152,968 | 1,246,942 || 2,852,771 | 5,203,993 || 5,941,182 || 5,526,266 | 2,551,446 | 14,948,453
ae aa i RE EG” OL SAR 66,363 | 155,803 | 1,412,584 || 2}743.669 | 5,162,095 || 6,005,509 || 5,072,476 | 2654.7 | 1238910
0 OE ENING RSA ei ioe 4 oe Se ee 65, 226 164,546 | 1,063,973 |! 2,956,705 | 4,179,569 || 5,073,378 || 5,311,565 | 2,595,342 | 12'919° 969
cS. a eerie eas, aN 65,213 | 154,799 | "835,559 || 2,530,625 | 3,779,288 || 4,511,898 || 5,121,925 | 2395,914 | 1.5m sg
ene 2-5. aces beesadoe Ecc ccncecuss cua 62, 694 159, 299 570,073 || 3,548,666 | 3,132)265 || 4,358)779 || 4,747,705 | 2°1S8-171| 10/249" a8
Re hc aSaeRy Mat haw neyo cae |Isaduatacas)scesdaauawe| MDA AT Poetics 2s 2,143, 892 |} 2,279,488 |) 2 695,495 | "969,549 | 5,881,596
Pua er oP aR ee oxic Sons sin G[aacte Ses ens|vvres eee ses SL eee eee 2, 140, 920 |} 1,920,464 || 1,425,426} 410,057/ 5,010,080

Nore.—One shime of paper contains 10 soku, and each soku 10 jio. One jio of ‘‘mino” paper contains 48 sheets; 1 jiu of hanshi paper 20 sheets,

2346 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

MANUFACTURE OF MatTrinG AND MATS IN JAPAN.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

ae

meses | MATS. MATS CALLED “GOZA.” rae apaea ee
YEARS. turin
households. E :
Pieces. | Value. | Pieces. Value. Rolls.
ee ee eee ee
j Yen. |
SU ESE Meets Uti dcan obese tccnecep sok soseaeeres 101, 993 ee es pes 1,953,298 || 3,635, 461
RR Rat Soho iis Soc nan tiocs acd oe = ube enaeees 109, 100 { 3449) 457 \ 1,941,300 || 3,555, 916
SRO Nein a Sena Sw vi neue super ele 6ncaess'a Ser bor: 101, 792 10, 669, 436 2,160, 667 3, 279, 163
Oe cape aa siea aide Selaies naan esathpoens'dwade weet See ats 103, 044 5, 339,179 1, 506, 518 3, 622, 722
a Se ecw nwin wo nw viclos Uulnis' nine Sm male wminiom ewe a= 88, 084 5, 326, 659 1, 157, 698 8, 537, 891
Th SP SRO be a pe ae Rl ry RARE 5 cp aya tn al a eg So gg te | eee ee he
ie sets: Mare SDE oh See hs eens ae ee | Seon oe Recon eee « 668, || ees
* Number of packages. b Number of pieces.

Propucrion oF TEA IN JAPAN.
[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

{1 kwan=8.28 pounds. ]

Number of “‘Bancha”’ Number of
YEARS. households Tea. tea Total YEARS households |
engaged. ; engaged.
|
Kwan. Kwan Kwan
Bau Maaae eee scedes Coeicubscve ers ame 621,590 | 4,880,734 | 2,663,263 | 7,543,997
Pepesesseemedies smn ee sdaeeb isi vena 774,060 | 5,990,300 | 2,453,426 | 8,443,726
PEDO idtate icine’ side's s)a'a'eiera/atae =e elnip Jiaiela'= 777,944 | 6,074,164 | 2,396,018 | 8,470,182
BOD epee te states scorn wire oss a'sareere 762,634 | 6,044,549 | 2,456,196 | 8,500,745

VALUE OF THE PRODUCTS OF THE SEA AND River FISHERIES OF JAPAN.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

, Vegetable
glue and can-
YEARS. Fresh fish. | Dried fish. | Salted fish. | Seaweed. /dles tyre mag Manure. Fish oil.
tured o
oil.
en. Yen Yen Yen. Yen. Yen.
UE rents. ued «cWncW ssn an b'es.aice ceeir ah ulawcienadnew pw penne em sees hee 34, 818, 038 9, 155, 194 1, 875, 775 1, 237, 073 675, 711 7, 561, 334
Ge els Soe ee eaten a nicine's a ae'u'w ae mum owiehe o em amtewinws etsy oie 31, 103, 631 6, 997, 336 2, 257, 887 1, 748, 449 705 10, 515, 196
Thi 9 oe, 3 SNE CRS BES SIRS PE mi. CEE «Ga ao 27, 295, 545 7,165, 605 1,791, 678 1, 289, 385 581, 061 7, 861, 932
RT ee bio ette nek mida mn anne cheese Wh na a ew lin ie e atta oa eee 14, 489, 146 6, 164, 778 1, 450, 860 1, 340, 279 A 7,408, 519
NMP S fy wy. Suc Gurce son sc =v avemee antes waeeees oan danesh nae 11, 951, 822 5, 987, 459 1, 056, 243 703, 679 317, 265 7, 214, 107
ty ete ye cS SRGI w Wi oc dmecun cin ule winnie cecices aNule ACW di seeetaanaeta Staneene a 8, 102, 703 2, 699, 951 1, 922, 418 514, 110 6, 712, 072
WA eer Rene ula cat owkaoussemescenece sos tase eaEe ena eee i 6, 785, 527 2, 541, 067 1,723, 113 y 4, 529, 766
1 yep OR See ne eee ee piiacahdaavakcdecece eee oe a 6, 465, 902 1, 800, 241 1, 202, 594 222 750 5,171, 518
1 VR RETEST RE SER RSP. SANS TORR NL (a 7, 069, 740 1, 920, 054 1, 075, 755 ; 5, 086, 941
® No data.
—

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2347

Waaes Pam In THE Principat Occupations IN JAPAN DURING THE YEARS FROM 1892 To 1898.

[From official reports of the Japauese Government.]

|

|

1898 i} AVERAGE WAGES.
Niphon. | | | |
;
OCCUPATIONS. i}
Central. Base ee Lge a = : 3
Shikoku. | Kivghiu.| kaido or || 1892 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1598
Northern} Western Yezo. || :
Other part. part. I
Tokyo. | jocalties. \ |
|
’
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. || Yen. | Yen. | Yen. Yen. ) Yen. Yen.
ETT OCS i Ba eg lier ee a a 0. 74 0. 52 0.53 0.59 0.52 0.51 0.70 0.32; 0.35 | 0.36 0.43 0.49 0.54
LL a ee ee Rit ~51 04 57 «61 48 - 50 192 3D | 37 -43 50 | 33
RMRMELULCTN o0 Sais eo coe ewe me ce one sen oe eee +88 .55 . 60 . 66 56 . 50 . 80 36 | -40 2 -47 5 58
SY Ai eS ae oe ee eee 65 53 48 . 60 . 58 47 -70 || «Sl 30 | 37 42 | 4
Roofers (thatch, shingles, etc.) ........_... -70 55 48 56 .48 45 50 |} .30] 33 3 41 48 52
RRR ie ae giaheiet SP ee .78 -58 50 62 .57 46 50 |} 34] 38 / 38| .47| .54 56
MIC ME VOLS oo cinic eaadaigein ce as Sasha nena kace -70 58 -61 -49 - 80 +52 A Peer |} 44] 47 46) .56 -57
LOH AU1 UAE ns ie one . 67 47 .48 .49 44 .44 -50 |I -30 | Bs 35 3 4 47
Screen and door makers, etc..........-.--. 74 50 51 .52 50 47 -70 | -30| .33 36 40} .46 51
Pier ienper’.... 2-2 -.accucs.... 75 150 49 .53 46 143 50 || 182 33| :33] l40| 145 50
“0S a A a . 64 . 48. .48 .52 49 .49 70), . = 80 33| .35 5 45 50
MAU EMY Pe atte cen e says ised ch alee te wckwcins +62 42 39 41 42 42 715 | pees 29 30 .39 38 43
Wlosmakers:.......cs-cese 54 .37 39 44 45 -42 Diiiiteass ste 29 30 .33 38 41
Shoe and boot makers 69 53 48 51 54 .49 ( 1T| eee 39 39 | 41 46 51
Saddlers and harness makers 367. 46 .40 . 64 34 .49 S| Eee .30 36 | 40 46 -49
Wiheelwrenhts )...-:-2.....c. 51 .48 47 50 44 48 S(t | Peer +82] 881 36 -41 |} -48
Tailors (Japan dress) 165 "43 36 40 135 39 “50/28 31} :31| [36] 37] 41
Tailors (European dress) ...........------- aif - 66 51 74 .49 -55 70 49 5 51 -57 58 -61
Roeketbook makers: ..-.-5...2..losconecene .59 .38 .35 45 46 41 rch | Reet 29 33 34 41 | 41
IOUS Ae ee ee eee 243 .39 . 30 .38 41 -30 .o0 .25 -28 -29 -3l a 5) 37
AEOMEE UD OHPGIS 52% 5 o5so <n oa cian accccccncesaas 42 .37 +30 38 .32 -30 -55 -24 - 26 Bf | .30 | -3 | -37
Bre Ee ESE R IRN es roils one 0 Se coclasgcaianreiece suamiele,nie’='= - 62 . 48 -42 .06 45 .48 .50 31 36 -3d .42 48 | .49
Jewelers, diamond workers, etc.......-.-. 62 45 -49 -47 34 -42 31 | .33 37 -38 2 45
Mereioworkers....0......--.-r---002-20c0ce 155 52 149 158 149 148 27) Sears 26). ‘azteca | ..148) ee
Harthenware WOrkers .-.......ceceeeesecce[acceneeese 49 .30 45 .37 41 .50 ) .30 27 27 -32 38 | 42
Workers of varnished goods ..............- -69 .49 38 51 -43 44 -90 || .30 .35 .35 .38 -45 -47
RGU PAUNCTOLS. «aa cara cases wicceuncecscances's 53 42 31 SHES macios elem Bile eae ee | Peas - 26 -23 -27 33 -39
MBI SS ONS «oa ciocta cine ciniess cco nlacih <io v ciaie'siainn -50 44 34 42 48 Ce a i! - <26 28 -29 31 7 44
EUR OUR ONS - ciaccce cen scose ene enced vmms 52 «32 -38 69 36 43 -50 |)----...- .22 “22 - 26 .3 .37
CeO WOLKCIS 22628 e eee es eolcceccesee 59 -40 +43 47 - 46 42 -40 | 7) -29 .30 -34 -42 43
Compositors ......... Ac icgnnc de congnee arene 49 39 38 -40 32 38 - 66 29 -29 -33 34 36 -39
Le STS Ee an -52 +36 30 39 .33 36 45 «at -28 .30 34 35 | ‘Sz
Shipwrights .. .70 .58 52 -§2 41 .51 -90 .34 .36 -38 |. 44] 50 58
RBM MOUS) hota Sete! nclaaveeaaes sesaese 56 ol 59 54 43 46 AL) ee 34 ot .38 47 | .53
Agricultural day laborers:
Rare ee: cide Shs Shee cee .o4 31 .32 32 .39 32 45 || 19 21 -22 -25 30 .33
CRMs osc cae eae cicaicde Clyais wccie we! -20 20 Bp”) 20 -23 24 30 | 12 13 -14 -16 -19 -2
Silkworm raisers:
CURL co nS Pee ee et 34 33 . 28 34 -48 36 330 22 22 24 -27 33 3
VIMO MERAID (ala Se Se ae 20 22 21 24 34 25 . 20 15 .14 15 .18 21 4
DU SPMIMETS, WOMEN... <.2<0s02c-scersces- +25 21 25 24 31 28 30 | ie 17 18 -21 2 24
Weavers: i
RUNES re Se ee eS beaten dale tia cic a's <smince 44 .30 .30 42 5d .39 -50 | -16 21 2 -24 27 38
Micrmenne tie \ an feeccce amas Gsewtcencus 29 . 20 24 22 29 OE 35 | “11 14 -15{ .16 .19 -B
Flos (i.e 2S) A SS ee eC ee ee .70 54 ey oe .50 2400S. yee .31 34 37 42 .45 .48
HSCES Fee <n cmn cece eee nalinns neem eercenane 47 .39 42 40 48 .36 ra | Dee “26 "99 “33 “39 “40
{vcs ee ose Ss Soeoouaneaer puerepeerodeee || SOeE poner 59 43 40 44 .69 ar) fi | Ree 34 8') = <99 48 53
POM OLGIS: .. 2. aeicsuccuttiescasepes oaceate 47 36 ACY .39 .39 Phy 59 |] .22 24 .26 .30 34 .38
Wages per month: i )
MGUKOES OL: ORG. tcleaianniuininie ca csnisione 8.40 12.15 8.21 11. 86 15. 69 11. 20 11.00 |} 888 7.87 8.33 8.72} 9.94 11.47
Makers of ‘‘soy”’ 9.00 9.17 7.45 9. 64 12.31 8. 66 11.00 7.23 6.16 6.84 7.77 8.40 | 9.27
Confectioners... 14.70 i, 13. 07 11. 87 10. 84 10.79 13.50 5.74 7.62 7.76| 9.26/ 9.69 1.8
Domestics... - 4,25 2.53 - 3.14 2.31 4.15 3.98 6.00 ;, 2.12 2.16 2.20; 2.53; 28 2. 96
RIM MNNES smi oh Somicc wincicence sac cence <8 - 3.63 1, 45 1.84 1.35 2.00 2.19 3.25 |} 1.16 1.23 L277} 61.44] 160] 1.74
Farm hands— | :
NUECES aoe See aaecre 45.00 37.17 81.55 38. 00 40. 83 45.34 60260 [e.2.<-.2 24.54) 28.04; $2.12) 35.59 38.2
BOMDIREMS EIN sonra er 5 ence ca eto aie n= 20. 00 20. 66 17.47 19. 83 24.17 ) 25.57 ry. 1 | ee 13.13 | 15.24 16. 61 19. 6 21.48

Norr.—This table shows the average wages calculated for the months of March and September in certain localities of each district, For those laborers that
are at work but a certain period during the year, as tea and ‘‘sake” workers, figures relating to the respective periods are giyen.

“<2 ee eo ae
yi Le > P : “al ‘ = © :
COMMERCIAL JAPAN,
Current Prices or PrincrpaL ARTICLES IN THE City oF Tokyo DuRInGc THE YxEARs 1890-1899.
‘ [From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]
Unit of =
ARTICLES. quantity. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1834 1885 1896 1897
Yen. Yen. Yen. ‘Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
Pree ne oe Sie. Bose vis aeednnicn cen eee Reka. ser- 8. 84 7.35 7.47 7-49 8.93 8.63 10.19 12.22
eee eee eA Sonn Sain’ Gane sinain oA Se owe dGf2-)>.b.-- 8. 94 3.46 3. 28 3. 07 3.72 3.51 2.99 4.63
1) eas 0. SEES eee eee se eee "ee oes Sal Rae SRS AER RS So Meare sts Pie 5.34 4,51 5.20 6.80
WME IRR beac tos b a ainene Sewona washes | me cee “es (amen 4.98 5.27 5.21 5.15 5.53 4.60 5.99 8.26
inh 2 GS Seber Pe ae ee eet ae, rl Pees GO oes 5.32 4.91 4.81 5. 69 5.99 5.81 6. 29 6.94
Peer ee eee Ss bana ol ceeds usta toe elas tee Goveees oe. 1.85 L2% 119] 1.14 - 81 1.69 2.47 3.43
BavdVanencer BANCG) oS 252s os acc eee tee ace eats GOs. see: / 9.23 10. 72 10.08 10. 36 10.73 10.72 11.09 15.35
Sake, common (rice wine)-.-.........- Ae a aen | ES ve FooRepsa 5.2 eae 12. 83 11.538 12. 36 13. 60 16.55 19. $2 13. 93 24. 55 8
Paar eyie eee item acsio Pala eo c's a(a's\elaalewiraein AO SAE oe eee 28. 54 21. 68 23.77 27. 72 27.45 28.138 yf oe eg 39. 03 BS.
Tobacco:
UC ER M.S eee, = em: | eae BOE H. cnoace 18. 33 11.15 13.92 15. 61 2.63 23.75 12.35 23. $6 37.67
igino Reese spots oo winter i 1) ieee eee ae 30. 29 19.13 25. 33 23. 63 2.75 { 31.75 12.35 36.13 46.00
PAOUNEOS Senin > ection cineca ca coop wid aeeiace Kwan 2-2-2 -208- 1.39 1,52 1. $4 1.44 1.76 2.66 2.28 3.39 3.38
RGR a5 Pees oottaen kb cecmuact Veue eae oon LOO dein 228 es Se: Boise Ded ss sesh Se ee eee ees 11.63] 13.75 15.75 19. 83 15. 92
Sugar:
White. J A DANES 7 soest eee ree es wn meccee leans UO 5 oho Sapte 7.18 7.23 7.10 9.19 8.04 7.44 8.32 12.17 1.6
White: fOTGIPR ~ 022. 3cepes ss sete eers orerneleteee ro eS ee 1.47 6.45 7.12 8.22 9.05 9.08 §.92 8.04 8.99
STC, Wy) AD BMMCEE = seseien=apaeeoen ee beeleaeee eee ee 6.87 5. 78 6. 74 7.70 7.73 6.93 8.09 8.21 8.40
@ DOW, LOTCIOM =.=. ocak oss -nuswectadeeen sl samen GD oe seen 16.97 4.42 4.30 5.31 4.72 3.82 4.46 5.18 5.85
otion:
ROW MapRRPSG.. oo pun Serwemes. +2 - sober eS Co a 21.13 18.05 18.15 19. 23 20.40 21.78 22.73 24.51 20.19
TLE WAL CIS Doce cn asitepnn oceania ckebics ann) maeee GO 3 eee 18.18 17.38 17. 31 17.85 18.3 20.25 22.04 22.79 19.38
SOU PRR .-cemmen tapers ho eae sealenore 1 egMaiinor a Biooe} Uta A oR 24.27} , 24.23 |. 30 28.97 28.82 30.83 28.73 24.50
Bpumhorelerms. 9. 2 ei. ei eee St eecenleceba WO <-. sSaeeee 31. 93 30. 65 29.31 32. 86 39.15 38.92 38. 63 36.81 34.85
Blengped te 65 bas ees ep eee eee oa. Piege. . oS ssal> ot eee ees =25 -24 -25 .30 -28 -27 2
DSRS on ons Aaaoee eis vas Mee one ceca See vile aba peer a «25 . 28 26 .30 -38 -38 .32 3.26
IT OOGS WYMMELO. oS \stwncies clenth. aie see cine ncnmecalancre M0... capeee pee, .20 -28 .30 -39 -39 34 3.43
Silk, raw:
Superior quality. . cpices0conses as -aseccw 16D Baie Ss doped. oc oceade oe oh ee Oe ee ee 747.50 705.83 795. 00 878.75
MUGS QUAND) 2. locke ve~ combetirwackintt- sees MAO) a eel ee cee de oe are 727.50 649.31 752.50 $13.75
Abo. ge. 1, a eee ee armas mei . | c ppeeemn ol i ompm a SS SE Ee hd 707.50 599.31 689. 25 808.75
Texture, silk, called ‘‘hanairo”’.:........-... PaeGe ss. sceee 3.12 1.93. 2. 42 | 2. 68 3.03 4,22 4.42 3.49
PAM eUas he KAI) o.oo soc cmebaoks emeicecnle send INGE code cee 2.70 2.10 2.53 2. 67 3.25 3.94 6.56 3.96
PRONG © Se clei oa oct Salaie <0's\ccmmiss cee pempmiae Cotte w ioe IDO KAN 2 seen 20.00 19.19 22.26 26. 37 26.00 33.24 29.55 28. 63
Enaigo, GEG: ser SS. cco cbecd: Sena e cee ebee Kove’ -223.c-se5 “85 1.69 2.67 1.57 .1.38 1.95 2. 03 1.89
ron:
A IARIOUROR Con sia ante maiepprnie=.<iote sR PRR eee neers 0 aca nase 26 87 ~29 Ad 37 -35 -37 aad
NOWODPAN | 2:5, 10.2.0n 210 onisteje's 2 sean ian's saree eee DO nim eee 20 =. 5) Beare = Beene es 25 -24 5) -28
Pine wood (1sq. ‘‘shaku” by 2 “ken” long).| Piece ........... 2.05 2.10 2.54 3.22 2.88 3.40 4.36 4.70
Cypress, Japanese (same dimensions) ........].---- (0 22. hase 2.24 2.01 2.07 2. 62 2.66 2.39 4.10 5.70
Pine boards (6 “bu” thiek)..--ecceeccccmeene Tsubo .30 40 .3d 87 42 ot -67 .79
Cypress boards (4 ‘‘bu”’ thick) d 24 24 -82 29 2B i -39 -52 00
MO OTM IETID Be ise wc cece 0 = 24.19 23. 25 18.62 22.10 23. 85 27.08 29.76 32.72
Petroleum .. 1.86 1. 67 1.68 1.75. pe ci 2.23 2.20 2.10
COOH oon sie are 2 - orale oiein wis.0.0.0'010:0n 0 sin ptwio.w on dmssisire| | ORD ie oe tre ata cree seen ae ae 4.54 4.54 6.80 7.05 5.93 9.16
WVO0G (fat DUITIMNe) os.) sec nao 3 aceak eas ee reeee 12 .20 23 23 19 - 20 -22 -30
ROO HOC DPOB Sse seven cla ticietinra > s stnceee = am ameneel eee ~43 54 . 60 .61 -51 -89 1.10 1.17
Paper, Japanese:
(ef To CGR aa 6: eR eR, oe) pe Bo 480 leaves....... 81 91 83 . 86 -89 96 86 1.34
ie CAltod hamenl oo cusss-c steno »»nseeeee 200 leaves....... 13 15 -15 -15 17} aged. 19 25
fanure:
SH RAN OUIOS 5 aap ors wg ce Sberemm as neee ate 10 kwan ...-L2s< p leiy gk 1.59 1.95 1.73 2.02 1.64 2.35 2.39
Resuse Of MEMENES. cose sawed ea os poesne ee TO) a3 c<cecee. 2,42 2.29 2.16 2.22 2.29 2.48 2.98 2.95
Residuum of vegetable oil ..............- Stee UD) 5 poe oe actions sie eS Ne eee ee See 1.59 L9 1.79 1.93
|

Notre.—The prices of the above table are average prices, calculated on the basis of prices current during the months of March, June, September, and ©
December. For years prior to 1894 the averages are based on current quotations returned three times a month. For 1899 the prices relate to the second half year.
Koku=4.9629 bushels; kin=1.3251 pounds; kwan=8.2817 pounds; tsubo=3.9533 square yards. wt

is

Torat Propucr or MINes OPERATED IN JAPAN BY THE STATE AND Private INDIVIDUALS DURING THE YEARS FROM 189] To 1898.

[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

NAMES OF MINERALS.

| 1891 1882 1893 1894 1895
Metallic substances, melted or prepared quantities: Ounces. Ounces. Ounces. Ounces. Ounces. Ounces.
LM ee ch oa cn Me Wor oa Seine Se mah ewes ewes 22, 548 21,540 24,150 25, 553 29, 101
Rete en ea Gangs waskeewhve races swears sae | 1, 890, 010 1, 916, 549 2, 229, 906 2,338, 229 2,326, 699
| Kwan. Kwan. Kwan, Kwan, Kwan.
MEE add fe ni ycaieacktawwas dacee teaahee cae | 5, 064, 634 5, 536, 061 4, 797, 809 5, 308, 840 5, 098, 085
DOE Se ent Tes tV.cc nude cones 6 h.ciee cxtueieina ca ama] 4, 616, 785 5, 031, 466 4, 535, 306 5, 182, 427 6, 879, 306
MOM It iratar Wie Maar such ia Smart wk WwW wala, Cie nwa ow hate 213, 735 236, 859 293, 653 889, 943 519, 133
Antimony / 16, 656 11, 282 32, 544 107, 366 170, 48
r Rance AO ane eae ey 0586, 978 8357, 637 9406, 486 8311, 602 9278, 36S
PELs ee tee ace Meh he Kens oCe whine ep ee eed nes ewes 11, 807 11,011 10, 145 10, 801 12, 833
peoesnes OMREH ALAC APE BOR Oe ere Prec | b859,524 | 1,338, 200 b3, 771, 842 b3, 568, 518 > 4, 503, 209
PETE CEL scab xaamtudesie Wea cucedcerees éceaka many 1, 296 |. ccccvcaccces|oceccnnetsdeeu seh: Wess lessees ence cee
SII g in 6 Oya cw dcewi®as rahe pe Necedansw cite ncuceee 2, 273 885 1,434 1,955
DAT INAL s Coe ain ud a Wun oratachnin er Dax ae onal 0 Ris ow 2 +24 Al ee 204, 046 240, 767 222, 343
SLUM LG OF GCODDEL sca c sw oreneduawGine mayen wuapeess 6, 048 UR Se eee er a Sannce ccselasctaccceneseclecseccns
EMME Y She traivhad ae al wa enuNdue ape ael ti tneeteeaes / b45 b 3,955 »570 | 412 128
PAPUIUOLS sal sunt. doe Ct Cys patente mde eee EEO eon <waeeaiere 48 . PT ee
PARES CLCGEL LP OM as ned ut pucgcdbeu stp yaw eieesruracel «dpuwelcey ce ealwe cen aun 0116, 531 b1, 374, 256 »1, 686,519
Nonmetallic substances, gross quantities: Tons Tons. Tons. Tons. ons,
EEN Wea ueicnseuegenndeneedene tin mimics aces 3,168, 875 8,176, $40 3,317, 104 4, 261, 218 4, 766, 670
Kwan. Kwan, Kwan. Kwan. Kwan.
PE MOING wn aia w's ls stn win u aN ON Mine ww dl ole be Sleeh xc » 520, 480 0537, 640 6437, 640 +6, O79, 440 5, 979, SSO
PERG DER cata bans cvv vue eke wen teeaon dakaukcons 5, 847, 746 b5, 462, S18 6, 370, 302 5, 001, 147 b4, 141, 480
EC UROR Rudi dnskes ccpnutnarsiaattcawastn cece 655, 851 160, 074 6, 906 290, 400 20, 442
MELUMMNN GL Uewabitetnccch sks udeeetecns ualanncun waws 1,860 |... 20. ccudeweslaneebe caceccusleccenc suse 6 nue) kesh eta anee eT eee eet
MNOS e Cada seach tn vWsthcus pos rencacaddusbe apa. / Ae Reece |, SS ees
NC SU Cs adnan kasd nace se denne tan ai ' 9 SOB adcad sce ames cocaucsus | a voc sm acnem cle Sai cle nccawumelbibelbeanes sasctue6hs Sanu
*Sulphur, >Gross quantities,

190] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2349

Domestic PostaL Orpvers Issurp AND Parip In THE JAPANESE PosraL Service, 1891 ro 1900.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]}

|
i] GE AMOUNT OF
Number 7 POSTAL ORDERS soLD, || Charges POSTAL ORDERS PAID. | AVERAGE AMOUNT ©

20te ORDER.
’ post-offices | cep ancl || Charges :
YEARS. re eens 6 cote I —
posta of pay- | 7 on orders. Postal | Postal
orders. Number. | Amount. ment. | Number. Amount. | orders sold. orders paid

:
i
s en. s | Yen. Yen.
1899-1900 4,539 || 6,786,583 | 68,874,271 539, 510 | 6,779,799 | 68, 748, 520 2,198 |} 10.15 | 10.14
188-99 .. 3,406 || 6,338, 469 56, 201, 432 471,374 | 6,317,516 | 56, 227, 075 |} 1, 220 |} 8.87 | &.90
eS a 3,231 || 5,793,401 | 54,541, 423 439, 766 | 5,778,005 | 54,492,570 | 1,020 | 9.41 9.43
1896-47 eC DREEE Key epee Pe RD ne, oa 3,124 || 4,931,694 | 45,687,907 361,006 | 4,903,224 | 45,502,947 | 939 9.26 | 9.23
oon 2 ESS ae ae eee 2,500 || 4,486,346 | 42, 410, 621 330,866 || 4,476,934 | 42,316,361 |! 0 9.45} 9.45
os SS a a ee ee ee 2,495 || 4,022,903 | 34,013, 447 279,179 | 4,000,715 | 33,903, 499 || 615 | 8.45 | 8.47
eM in EE ala ke aia oa Gane oo ceineiwacacems eo 2,488 || 3,372,036 | 28,560, 744 228, 059 | 8,365,904 | 28,463,815 || 526 8.47 | &. 46
La iheshs SS a es a ee oe enema ae 2,276 || 2,944,622 | 23,872,453 190, 301 2,935,297 | 23,825,165 | 209 | 8.11 | $12
SEM SE oan aa natal wea. ca sueane dee 2,124 || 2,605,116 | 20,715,040 164, 2,599, 889 | 20, 691,015 |! 118 | 7.% 7.%
iH
NumBer oF Post AND TELEGRAPH OFFICES AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN JAPAN.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
| ' a
Combined pest B / Letter boxes
ranch post- Telegraph | Branch tele hlic ’
YEARS. sai iad Post-offices. aera | aro aly | graph offices. een =
1,200 2,613 651 36 one | 41,183
1, 086 2, 668 571 38 132 39,191
1, 086 2, 659 540 40 129 $8,131
965 2,770 535 37 112 36, 1S4
648 3,076 523 41 96 35,023
638 3, 080 535 42 so 31,244
590 3,128 563 46 80 33, 200
535 3, 169 554 32 64 | 31,9
340 3,356 544 41 55 27,710
219 COC Oe eee TR Ce One Seem enna oie Sey 28° OS toes

NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES.

|

NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED
IN COMBINED FOST AND TELE- POST-GFFICES. TELEGRAPH OFFICES.
GRAPH OFFICES.

YEARS. !
|
Employees. Messengers. Employees. Messengers. Employees. Messengers.

UIUE 0) 6 ne nee eee ee ee 14,772 11,810 |, 6, 353 7, $30 | 194 5
Sa a eR eee arent achive ome aroalanign aes nia 13, 439 10,285 || |. 6,292 7,532 | 179 } 300
FR aaa alate eee = ii ew ia relearn oa Come cewe nasim namie win's ainiasie'sin'geiwesin 12, 166 9,615 6,129 7,591 169 | 103
Se lass painter alin oye woo aie ss eae eee amine = owes ain = Se wine «== 10, 684 8, 373 6,241 7, $24 125 so
BB9G-$6 . . 2 ne ee ee enn erwin cee cece ene cn we ne ere rrewrowenceenes 8, 389 6, 591 6, 914 8,573 | 147 110
aN a oct eerste nln [clown Wew'ai sesame eel aelesenieide'e/s cums simaivwcwes 7, 872 6,510 6, 861 8,502 153 $3
ee ee eee 7,393 6, 116 6, 908 8, 225 | 1 118
oe nn aoe omni nereisiomnen aie niwaninn © seme aimensanancnca=s 5, 052 2,926 |} 8,291 13 136 | 116
lew es oo ene mnmecwemmne cmncenerecmacsecesaese sess: 38, 804 2,377 3, 410 14 |] 134 104

Notr.—The number of telegraph offices and branches for the years 1891 and 1892 is that for the end of the fiscal year, i. e., March 31; for the other years, that
for December 31.

No. G——_26

=

2350 | COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

INTERNATIONAL PostTaL SERVICE IN JAPAN, 1892 To 1897.

NUMBER OF LETTERS, POSTAL CARDS, PAPERS, PACKAGES, ETC., RECEIVED FROM AND SENT TO PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

FORWARDED. RECEIVED.

§ paneBevoh®

Ber BE
PZRSSERIESRSESSAS || F| SSESERIESES

Peper woo nk

oS som. sam-
3 plesand| Frank-| Reg- : - plesand
WARDED. Letters. Postal re com- |ed mat-| istered ae Total. || Letters. Fos Exinted com-
mercial} ter. | matter. ‘ *\mereial| ter.
articles. . articles.
ASIA:
REOTER eae ne dsinc<'s'aia ha 891,153 | 216,462 | 499,068 | 6,498 | 11,995 | 11,993 |....... 1, 137, 169 335,419 188,404 | 56,022 5
(Ghent ct: Tae eae eer 162, 862 | 10,900 | 165, 462 212 | 6,869 | 15,179 |....... 361, 544 153, 123 24 057 | 54,586
PAAR. ote ences woos 1,7 799 260 3, 692 TAT | oo edeciees PS eee, 6, 092 1. 87 949 1 946.2425.
iit Lee es eee 28, 418 2,704 | 24,528 208 FE 2) O90 |ne owns 68, 834 14,131 | 1,924 A Gh Rea eee
Io tokn {sie gi bite SC eee 1!, 833 637 | 12,753 ee Peer oe eh (| ee 32, 028 22,958 | 1, 10,842 | 1,846
English colonies ..... 100,100 | 2,262] 54,535] 1,196 Bag tb, 808: [be aoe 164,434 || 94,198 | 5,850] 57,720] 1,261
Spanish colonies ..... 5, 005 494 4,745 130 26 LE fay eee 11,137 4,485 | 1,495 2; 616)|- eee
French colonies...... 2,873 104 1, 261 Le oe ee Po. ee 4, 640 3, 42: 494 3,443 lee eee
Dutch colonies ......- 1,807 143 37) Eee Bene ee 444 | oP... 2,914 || 3, 939 117 1,105 | 1,157
Portuguese colonies .. 1,131 73 884 | 89 | cea ceeds ty al area 2,729 1, 742 52 1,014
All other countries... 624 13 PN ee Jecereeee / oy ae 910 130 |.s0-s22 52 SS ees
MOIAL Hered Fen es 710,561 | 234,057 | 777,682 | 9,344 | 19,501 | 41,286 |....... /1, 792, 431 || 685, 429 |224, 980 | 195,277,
EUROPE: | | |
Great Britain......... 200, 564 7,124 | 119,418 | 5,317 299 | 13,506 | 4,186 | 350,414 156,611 | 13,806 | 214, 942 ee
GCTWAHINY: -<...26 cairn ei 105, 547 59, 475 | 35,932 | 4,251 897 | 13,518 358 | 219,978 69,810 | 16,913 | 112,112 | 18,538
hich s (1 pe Oe 75, 520 1,976 | 26,962; 1,339 520 | 5,701 602 | 112,530 39,715 | 4,186 | 72,748 | 1,521
tale soon 5 eects ee eme 4, 394 468 3, 809 533 a TONY th, G4" bees ose. 10, 927 5, 681 689 5, 304 871
Switzerland .........- 7, 085° 1,157 3, 848 Bol fs Ja Ni 30: Oe Pape 13, 768 5, 161 715 2, 028 286
Austria-Hungary ..... 10,478 | 5,148} 3,653 299 OT | is 8B8 ieesoa 21,505 6,682 | 2,041] 5,382 481
POUDIE TUG «2 cee e > vo me 832 26 PO wep cee ' 13 iy Be ee 1,901 117 13 C's) Renee net reap
MONKEY << )2.08 sae dows Sim 585 130 247 | BAe ese: i 0 el (ae a 1,174 442 65 fis 229 Beers! Pee Tee
REMISUI Go). ceases cece 24, 505 1, 950 4, 095 169 19), ‘4 OB. (co See: 25, 369 14, 014 780 | 24,622 65
DGAUNE cepa ets sores coe 1, 703 377 767 24 13 pan Beaeetee 3,703 | 2,496 156 2,379 260
Netherlands.......... 4, 342 884 1,690 130 39 DL 1S See 7, 626 3, 432 221 7 eee
1o{o)|-ph ies a ee 4,706 1, 056 2,392 ZiS | ona veda Chains 9, 072 4,290! 1,092 3, 562 312
Bwedenic ens cos cee 884 273 338 52 . is See ASSN: ee 1, 682 $45 52 BOO) Caso ts
NOU AV iocicccocleacne ct 2, 600 156 4 ENE owas choc a ee 3,126 2,483 130 SA 7d ee es
Denmark............- 1,612 234 390 | bo Lee Ci eee 2,585 ) 2,028 65 OR Na ene
All other countries... 1, 001 286 | 455 78 | 26 152 ite see 1, 998 2, 054 637 1, 859 104
Dota fe. saeuren ace 446,368 | 80,730 | 204,334 13,130 | 2,002 | 44,848 | 5,046 | 796, 458 | 315, $61 | 41, 561
AMERICA: |
United States......... 288,093 | 18,642 | 166, 622 | 11, ae? | 1, 378 | 18, oe epee 500, 689 388, 063 | 37,674 | 385,255 | 14,196
MIGRTGO) cao ce ceuce eae 845 247 1,586 pec | een thy Nae Se 3, 361 1,131 104 1p! 1 Pe er
CANGOAS st acues ceases 42,185 1,365" | 6s vieal, iL, Ete 91} 1, 508 304 63, 061 26,013 | 3,562 | 14,235 | 2,054
Bite = Sac ecc ass ts 767 78 i Ppp tet | ER) eet 5 FA ee 2, 288 572 es: * 1) a
French colonies ...... NOZ=| sina cette 156 O84 Ese eeon ey ae 1,110 Sli) Bese re eed eo ee SE ae
All other countries... 1,586 234 936 65 26 ep ara ee 8, 281 1,521 13 ry ees oan
Mice re nc cans 334,178 | 20,566 | 187,279 | 13,143 | 1,495 | 15,825 | 304 | 573,790 | 417, 664 | 41,444 | 401,843 | 16,250 |
AFRICA: | 5
Lol AAR es eee ree 1, 404 169 377 65 13 Pi il 2,325 2, 704 611 a. 7) | Bee
British colonies ...... 676 78 Daly teit eam sete |o's msi mnie p64 | ne 1, 096 702 195 325 egmregieel
All other countries... Nez ooscas VC | ee oo eee 264). 2 ose 598 442 26 Pe eee
ROWS access sown s { 2,500 247; 7at] G5 | 1B ade] coos | 4,019 | 3,848 | 832] 1,573 | Sere
OCEANIA: | | |
EVENU EDL ciein iain ciakt tie men's: 163, 800 G,243 | 25,909 | 1,560 66:1) <b, SEL) leone 205, 888 188,060 | 18,681 | 41,756 | 687 |........
British colonies ......| 38, 922 767 | 15,340] 1,326 107 2: Sab |e eee 59, 323 34,060 | 1,053 | 8,567
Spanish colonies ..... 1, 118 130 130 rT Oe oe 19 ics eee 1,404 65 13 26
All other countries... OD eves wake |. stmaa a oe | eine eae See, 58 ieccoee 79 | 91 26 182 |
ae ae ee ee Leen ee eee eee ee eS OS eee ee eee
MEDAL steeds as 2a | 203,866 | 10,140 | 41,379 IE 2, 899 899 | 1e2\|- 6, 2B eves | 266, 694 ! 172,276 | 19,773 | 50,531 | 1,653
| A “5, 350 13, 433, 392 | 1, 545, 078 328, 590 |1,101,637 | “34, 236° 24,718 137, 014 | 8,424 | 8,229,747
|— -| = a a a a ee = =——
Total: | |
ESS G00 eww aiden ee & 1, 697, 482 | 345,740 1,212, 415 38, 581 | 23, 193 ‘110, 631 5,350 (3, 435,392 |1, 545, 078 328, 590 |1,101,637 24,718 4 014
DS GHSOU « ariatcecacnwe.es 1, 5038, 877 262) 851 3 23, 556 , 929 | 84,559 | 4, 578 |2,922, 663 | 1,375,183 (144, 943 1,056:410 86S | 95,339
ee ne SE Ee eee Be ie 474, on 417, 705 50, 097 94,481 | 4,035 /2, 841, 218 1, 338, 090 ‘344, 236 | 837,531 86, 110
§ 7 322° 685 918, 437 42, 042 70, 887 1,274 /2, 560,816 |1, 1938, 751 902" 287 | $40, 242 80, 409
So 201, 344 | 736,086 | 25,207 | 33,293 | 69, 672 358 (2/082; 092 | 1/202! 970 [$16,914 | 706, 880 85, 94
894-95 | 8, 93, 899 | 472, 992 25,961 | 13,481 | 58, 926 190 |1, 414, 088 / 899; 704 105, 976 686, OSS 74, 206
LBRO eile dee aWséseaace | . 700,726 | 58,877 | 311,584 |-21, 736 7,592 | 54,822 101 |1, 155, 438 749,502 | 71,942 | 687,858 50,471
OU sa a bis ne pte vino | 605,557 | 84,177 | 304,889 | 16, 861 6,968 | 35, 881 73 | 904,406 704, 509 | 51,961 | 662,246 44, 536

Lencrn or Postat Routes In JAPAN.

[From official ax hid. of the Japanese Government.]

1898-99
1897-98
1896-97
1895-96
1891-95
1893-04
1892-93

YEARS. | Land routes. | Railroads. | River routes. | Sea routes.

Ri. English miles.

DIET th caw a due onfem white 6 dy ne 6 11, 831. 46 3, 608. 48
Pane ahs awa bwcvckredaene ree 11, 635. 06 3, 438. 03

Erie s naeh a kuns4svcctunnucvata cebcansenesduaew ee nee hen aimnae ‘ 11, 499. 65 2, 863. 85

Pee Wak nae thw kc Vuvcucn hens coheuraanetsnvuateneh <aeuihoane Skeeaee 11, 769.19 2, 389. 35

Ree bieaceibatiih s cvs scviucauebvuveéscnueuUobguesuaeulmedel meatless “i 11, 577. 21 2, 238. 92

Pus awauseiud sans accnanvs cs cuss deasetesnceWskdaaeatctauitan vas pean me aes 11, 676. 32 2, 004. 86
nak chinvces op vsadtin nsudvengeweten bs se cebarnsaenueU Canes ahe eka ghee enema 11, 759. 92 1, 861. 66

PRU eh aw ahiiues Ss o8 Madealuh anni bev undeeonn Sika e me oma up Wk trate Ole w w Oc ipl © mG Gnas ets Steere 11, 543. 57 1, 794. 09

Ri=2.4403 miles. Marine ri=1.1507 miles.

Marine ri.
76

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2351

Domestic AND INTERNATIONAL Mar Matrer ForwARDED IN JAPAN,

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

Number of

Journalsand Samplesand| Franked Registered articles for-
YEARS. _ Letters. | Postal cards.|"Dinohicts, | Books. Se shee pam oni Parcels. Total. | Wanded per

inhabitant.

Tee ee a, a,

1899--1900 .....-+. : ae 145, 233,511 | 380,824,967 | 109,023,612 | 8,000,883 | 1,337,059 | 18,937,560] 8,127,975 5,838,326 | 627,323, 903 14.35
AS 154, 309,696 | 327,245,215 | 90,867,742 | 7,601,036 1,160.530 | 17,043,197 7,119,138 | 4,911,919 | 610,258, 473 13.9
oO 2 Sa ae 142, 862,727 | 287,062,803 | 88,264125| 7,327,299 | 1,047,625 | 18,110,775 6, 233, 130 4,104,453 | 555,012, 937 2%
ae 122) 351,940 | 262) 861,315 | 86,801,875 | 6,617,114 898, 1 18, 605, 357 5, 223, 891 2,737,138 | 506, 096, 820 11.86
BG OS Sa. Soecacueqeee 109, 401, 244 | 228°502'113 | 78,962,299 | 5,917,775 683,923 | 18,237,885 4, 679, 471 1,686,977 | 448,071, 687 10. 61
En. eeccree. 94, 453,978 | 190,691,321 | 80,415,390] 5, 257,376 484,634} 17,165,830| 4,049,933 | 1,206,849 | 393,725,311 9.44
1893-94 . 2.22. mee ae 80, 604,706 | 158,146,818 | 56, 968, 379 5, 391, 852 421,243 | 15,822,191 3,540, 704 734,615 | 321, 630,508 7.6
cw nt 0d soe 72, 122,576 | 133,260,175 | 50,829,700 | 5,087,360 325,064 | 12,929,437) 3,251,431 40,682 | 277,846,425 6.6

INTERNATIONAL PostaL OrpeRs Sop AND Pap In Japan, 1891-1897.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

ORDERS SOLD. ? || AVERAGE AMOUNT OF
Charges col- ee ORDER.
YEARS. lected on
|| orders. /

Number. | Amount. Number. | Amount. | Ordersold. Order paid.
1899-1900 5,222 | $137,984 1,508 || 23,651 | 1,547,431 26.42 | 65.43
1898-99 : i 4, 381 112, 678 1, 336 15, 051 869, 346 |) 2.72 | 57.76
1897-98 3, 960 108, 816 1, 280 12, 953 729, 833 27.48 56.34
1896-97 3, 581 93, 828 SLT 11, 097 580, 649 26.20 52. 32
1893-96 .... 3, 319 91, 640 1,145 10, 226 556, 075 | 27.61 54.38
1894-95 .. 2, 442 79, 464 829 7,214 379, 411 32.54 51. 87
1893-94 .. 2,429 68, 799 784 5, 100 240, 626 || 28. 32 47.18
1892-93 2,309 59, 938 780 3, 957 167, 699 || 25.96 42. 33
1891-92 2, 432 64, 729 932 2, 980 109, 270 | 26. 62 | 36. 67

EXTENT OF TELEGRAPH SYSTEM OF JAPAN AND NumBER OF Domestic TELEGRAMS FORWARDED.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government. ]
° | NUMBER OF TELEGRAMS FORWARDED. Number of
Length of Length of telegrams per
YEARS. lines, ri.* wires, ri.2 100 of md
| | Paid. Franked. Total. lation.
CE ee ae eae ee ee 5, 688. 23 24,342.73 || 12,929, 887 1,637,329 | 14,567,216 | 31.39
TSG oe) deca SEO Ob Sine (SUR oneO nad SEER Soca GENS EOE O46 6 Seen Se aee Eros 5, 295, 91 20, 561. 91 14, 129, 286 1, 213, 249 15, 342,535 | 33.06
ee trie ew tee ohe ctatel ate wialeg (ui =/= asta eit laine lmie sh ous’u vices owiniee io ma'm wid si 5, 189. 03 18, 360. 94 12, 998, 679 981, 193 13, 979, 87: 30.41
1896-97 .. 5 othe Aaa Reeoe ce S6e2 5: See ee SOS COSC SRE Cee mese: te 4,720.27 15, 431. 86 10, 199, 184 698, 469 10, 857, 653 24.96
Tati) SRS: o eaeon SMS Poa eee Cle SRO A Gee Ene SSE aCe BEES Ener ere 3, 881. 49 12, 212.29 8, 628, 264 468, 838 9,097, 102 21.13
LM St a SAE ce Ss Re erp gengoe coor: OSe cre Sec cenOprIOt. CRC HOR SC EEA ReEreErces 3, 846. 05 11, 502. 79 7, 730, 711 390, 251 8,120, 962 19.24
25 =f 2 hea ee =o Se Er Se A Oe I RISC CB EOE Ee ees ae 38, 709. 46 10, 232. 06 6, 158, 158 286, 305 6, 444, 463 15.32
Pepe Ne aea ira tetrs. Son SS h rock CRE sauee SaNeER Macaews cabueawocse hoe nes 3, 455.77 9, 920. 99 5, 132, 427 228,025 | 5, 360, 452 | 12.86
» Ri=2.44 miles.
Norr.—The figures in this table do not include submarine and subfluvial cables, 1,555 miles in length, with wires 1,690 miles long.
Number oF ForREIGN TELEGRAMS SENT FROM AND RECEIVED IN JAPAN, 1892-1900.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
/ TELEGRAMS SENT. | TELEGRAMS RECEIVED.
FISCAL YEARS. | . == 28
Paid. Franked. Total. i Paid. | Franked. Total.

iat te er Cra win a coca sonceneiiecceues cuncs deena enemiameecns 178, 122 18, 439 196, 561 179, 589 26, 128 205, 717
on inc c aw en enawh Mesa ccin Seaman sekuacipaaeaune aan 147, 507 13, 658 161, 165 | 148, 660 17, 962 166, 2
1897-98 . ..- = 02 eee eee cece eee e teen eee eee een teen ee ee eee eee ee eee ees 144, 304 11, 836 156, 140 142, 724 17,642 160. 266
SA Eas oes SI orelatn nyc) aiwinisin'ainemia's disisca ave safemawachn se au@me Sau 109, 745 10, 755 120, 500 107, 960 13, 037 120, 997
A) ae Sean icine setters eels ima eke c.aiu'vic cece veviecsnucedeouscwen are 1386, 297 11, 774 148, 071 132, 161 $2, 892 165, 63
1894-95..... ee eae ee Oo dec en Rirondiatioewaecemees 103, 034 7,823 110, 857 99, 517 28, 438 127,955
Te ee ia ain ain nia pioletetnietcteia ait aiaieieie/ Saisie ein ale Sub: a= a:a:0'= biel mein l/ate mw he 49, 586 3, 279 52, 865 48,514 10, 267 |} 5S, 781
TUG USS. 2 ae eR re Gabeotase dBc ase)! (SSCS es eee eee 7,791 3, 509 51, 300 47,327 7,016 &, 33

2352 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

ReEcEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF Post-OrricE AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENTS OF JAPAN, 1892-1899.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.}

RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURES.

FISCAL YEARS ENDING MARCH 31—
Post-Office | Telegraphs

an
Department. telephones.
Yen. Yen.
DDIO-O0 Secs on mance'aee WS cletnia's a ¢auannejnianimens’c’s o€ mmaninoma acs a aiteataalia ano. 8,589, 990 3, 829, 049
NOR OO as = eitdeerdecc cas duaccaqnnucah «ov agnccwmas ale poe eee a 7,689, 312 3, 336, 180
TTS Se = == ER Se pe I bo coe inky gy 6, 772, 645 2, 599, 632
Ss EOP: <= aaa eee ee Ate Ne ape OE 2 SA See 5, 820, 680 2, 520, 362
1894-95..... Seenawans wis ons clede seman oe ade Sale cma een poe ena Teas dae eee 5, 186, 957 3, 194, 092
gb he Se eS a eae a ee ee oe een ne 4, 426,398 2,061, 290
CE aaa ES SPORE ATR SEG ht (5 {oer 3, 835, 839 1, 683, 074
NumpBer or TELEPHONE STATIONS AND EXTENT oF TELEPHONE SysTeM, RecErpts AND EXPENDITURES, 1891-1900.
Number | Number Cost of | Number
YEARS. Se of em- | Tensth | Length of | construe- | of sub- | Receipts. | xpend-
ae) t saan rer: ployees. r tion. scribers :

/ Ri. Ri. Yen. Yen. Yen.
BG 1 a eS a a i Se fet he et AS RNC Eee a Daa 20 52 1,118 651.52 | 11,703.83 | No data. 11,813 | No data. | No data.
PROB OME eT eb oo watance cis = came wrebus See nae aren ene Saaanoe meee Cena 13 40 778 640.11 | 12,816.77 | 1,896,119 8, 064 574, 332 324, 038
TRB P-OS- 2 205 ol asccn tales sabe ware pet aes cae anseceinseiomase cies cab aun 8 30 472 315.81 6, 732. 45 , 460, G41 5,226 228, 303 179, 612
DRUO=O7 5 occ Sac aeere wet oon civk Samus anal mecca een ous eee aa eee ee ae 6 25 311 216.54 2, 822. 66 594, 201 3, 232 150, 444 112, 109
WRB OO os ooo milet Orla deine nidcle seeds otedenmunddla te leteeew ane Soman 4 24 201 177.51 2, 156. 18 40,897 2, 858 142,451 90,117
es 5 aoa sec gee an ae ew a dae oninn aoe Sew ewan sme Ame D a et eaters 4 24 190 176.03 1,894.19 101,428 2,843 132, $67 71,590
SEO E no a cin ma Melee oo acn ae rea aa aa ae A TE a ete ee Dee 4 24 165 165. 46 1, 804. 08 159, 068 6, 672 94,959 52, 849
DOG et ara in mnie’ maleate aie n'a can iaceatereleiniaca ove) etalaie cle ere oeeae atecel atte ee ee 4 20 100 153. 64 1,325.13 136, 555 1,504 48, 069 32,722
OP Se Pe eee Ae een: oe Sites Seen eae peo) 2 18 61 92.07 644. 76 64, 287 §21 30,121 21,840

Numser, Capirau, DIvIDENDS, ETC., OF JAPANESE BANKS.
. [From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
BANKS. Paid-in capi- | Revenue. Dividends.
——+f
Yen. Yen.

Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan). ..2. 20. i: nceenesoasteescemdecwalasam | 5, 3,600, 000
Yokohama Shokin Ginko (Bank of Issue) ...............c--eeee---- 6, 4, 687,500
Nippon Kwangio Ginko (Bank of Industry of Japan).....-....-..- ‘ 170, 000
Noko Ginko (Bank of Agriculture and Industry)................--- 712, 371
fi oat Chu glliel he ees Wee ir ere eer GP tg, ee aie eS 29, 16, 732, S10
PRAW ERE OEM staie rate a cco = « wi nn eich aipite wa ae samca eee eames a ee 8 , 209, 266

RGAE TMI Gio 5 Swi wig Rec Sas ge ee | 51,151,558 | 44, 27, 111, 947 |
NOM a hats Bean pnd gaoyicoowseg: See [1,873 | 257,447, 002 40, 795, 138 $8, 277, 336 20, 966, 022
ROU R eaten srccane ec GPa. ae waaay an ce cone aas Sense eee | 1.59% 211, 047, 470 36, 116, 252 44, 622, 320 18, 748, 876 |
LS ets sce Gee tra beet cians iclaie cre Ste nora se one ec ies ee ee ee 1, 321 167, 271, 488 55, 353, 268 46, 422, 600 14, 559, 163
BIS DO Wain: scar di wie,ote sia ware 5n/ai cm a: plo Seca eto aibip aikihce we he a OG nis Mia ool aie Rees ee 1 2eGED 127, 807, 715 34, 623, 518 26, 282, 162 16, 576, 158
PEO as oa eh ais ca ceatanes ceo cere 95 dome weer TRU eee ean 866 101, 409, 881 30, 231, 153 17, 453, 796 10, 204, 116

SPECIE PUT IN CrRcULATION IN JAPAN FROM 1870 To 1899-1900.
[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]
eee —sses—e—eoO——SOSSSSooo $$$ $a —————— 7
FISCAL YEARS. | Gold coin. | Silver coin. Nickel coin. | Copper coin. | Total.
:
sv tS «wee = 2
Yen Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.

SSO aoc: otc ne merece mies, ©.6. 6a. Sao rs eveapreleimn hs © u's) acal lr elope dc eteges oe tos eae ater alos eae ee 16, 491, 270 5, 500, 000 300, 000 65, 000 22, 356, 270
REMMI Ce 5 cis's'e aermrnien ecdidle's: « ore S:nieichaanlertsnie:s 0.0 «0 ain siltsecpcheshanasenesa tweeter iw apnea tae 21, 385, 797 17, 000, 0090 750, 000 100, 000 39, 255, 797
of Oa Pere et mr tere eee Scared pie atm NMG ke Cieotearsd aioe hitch en 76, S24, 31t 10, 298, 085 og ae 87, 722,396
ae wadmiorgdie nv oso maamusinaaes u's 0-0 ude etneed jc leg tcc amor 952, 438 12, 97, Ot Lg reer” 14, 529, 467
REI SC SE ae vce Wuemn ahec ects ¢vawcinemeai eb iw cata tte eames bie sak amen mere ae ieee i 1, 423, 750 20, 007, 377 Fg ee ee 21, 482, G27
BONN ease i’ sues e asane Vive wnommanegy Yl nhs cacbwemenene ack ed ne ee eee teens me 1, 583, OSS 28, 589, 445 ed ee 30, 472, 533
DUPE Ren cold eidus sccnmhddi amatede eumecs donee pele deucen ase Catt neta 1, 364, 612 13, 177,375 920; COD. co ccinem oan 15, 261, 987
NIE I escort id eines banister 64, 781, 625 125, 608, 710 4, 767, 349 12, 413, 051 207, 575, 735

[From official reports of the Japanese Goyernment.]

* Notes issued by the Bank of Japan and payable to the holder in silver (in gold since October 1, 1897}

Number or Companies, CORPORATIONS, ETC., AND THEIR Parp-In CAPITAL, IN JAPAN FROM 1894 To 1898.

1901.) COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2353
: Paper Money 1x Crrcunation 1x JAPAN From 1893 To 1898,
[From official reports of the Japanese Government.}
= ;
Treasury cer- | National-bank ae :
DATES. tificates. notes, Dakan ginken. * Total.
; en. Yen. Yen. Yen.
On April I tao 2,199, 453 54, 476 219, 741, 090 222, 535, 019
i 5, 112, 265 1, 632, $18 179, 769, 782 156. po
6, 995, 374 4, 099, 370 189, 421,770 200, 516,514
On April + BP a epee AT ST eae Ee ee eel a eee a, a ne ae 9, 045, 082 13, 610, 995 173, 473, 749 195, 12 29° 226
OV Weng Tah yee Be eee RR ES ee a en a eRe ee | Re 10, 679, 236 20, 293, 887 149, 035, 640 180, OR, 763
Se Lge 3A SENET ae 2 ale ee 5 ie ae ee ee eS a 13, 020,517 21,200,375 124,524, 590 | 158, $45, 482
On April 1, Te ete ge SEE Ga a ne Oe et as See ac Span. hye Ae ee 15, 704, 773 22, 285, 739 110, 493, 394 148, 463 908
On April ra pei rare ttre een mya en oe oS ee eC ae eo tinedeseancances 19, 200, O44 23, 623, 657 100, 230, aah 142, 04, 664

|
TRANSPORTATION COM-||

AGRICULTURAL COM- MANUFACTURING COMMERCIAL COM- roral.
| PANIES. COMPANIES. PANIES, | PANIES, LAND,SEA,ETC. | ~—
|

, Num- Paid-in Num- Paid-in Num- Paid-in : Num- Paid-in Num- Paid-in
: ber. capital. ber. capital. ber. capital. ber. capital. || ber. capital
; Yen. Yen. Yen. } Yen i} Yen.
166 2,336,720 || 2,164 | 122,066,653 || 4,178 | 300,039, 664 | 536} 197, 233, 421 || 7,044 621, 676,458
y 148 2,229, 627 1, 881 105, 381, 106 3,630 | 260,227,479 ; 454 164, 654, 165 6,113 532, 522,377
: 2317 1, 666, 160 1, 366 89, 900, 900 || >2,778 | » 192. 780, 712 334} 113,216,760 |} *4,595 |} %397, 564,532
} 2126 1, 522, 409 944 58, 728,656 || 91,151 | *23, 835,358 337 89, 960, 835 |) 2,458 174, 047, 258
2118 1, 188, 203 778 | 44,589, 762 2998 | #20, 014, 874 210 82,560,279 |} 2,104 148, 353, 118

: I
2 Exclusive of banks, for which see table relative to banks.

b Including number of banks and their paid-in eapital.
mensurate with the corresponding ones of the preceding years.

Thus the memes for 1896 for commercial companies, as well as the totals for that year, are not com-

NumBer AND Paip-up CapiTtAL OF CorPORATIONS IN JAPAN ON DeceMBeER 31, 1894 To 1898.
}
: [From official reports of the Japanese Government. |
a - 1 |
= 1894 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898
| SS SS ee eee | eee eee eee eee
; ees OF CORPORA TIONG. | Number F Number F | Number : Number : ) wohes! ;
Paid-ap : Paid-up Paid-up Paid-u | ee de Paid up
| . of cor | capital of cor | capita! ofcor- | capital. |] OfCO™ | capital. || CfCOr | capital
porations pita". |iporations ee porations el | Sait Li poston —-
Agricultural: Yen. Yen. | Yen. Yen. ) Yen.
Raising of silkworms.....-...... ACESe 31 190, 038 | 29 104, 991 31 177, 435 421, 867 | 53 118.399
| eesirirint pene es. 35 Se ees 21 108,103 | 26 227,725 20 179, 875 | 112,551 | 20 101. 930
TEESE Spa a am ota Sa 23 245, 136 | 15 177, 765 19 600, 678 614,225 | 38 673.557
MST sct hice ae na ea 43 G14, 926 | 56 1, 011, 928 708, 172 | 1, 080, 984 42s
——————— 4
PICA eet on SSC teinin-sis ctduicmemmesiasi 118 1, 188, 203 126 1, 622, 409 1, 666, 160 | 2, 229, 627
Manufacturing: ; _
Ee) ae anses Jam cosets wees e 158 2, 064, 174 185 2,300, 917 3, 869, 877 : 3, 292, S77 |
See oh ae ee ae a 538 14, 337, 596 64 19, 612, 622 28, 770, S47 5 , 106, O83 |
- Weaving ........- 48 | 3,915, 752 60 3,595, 876 4,204, 949 | 7
: Oa See oe ae ee oe eee 30 7, 234, 080 30 11, 543,121 8, 585, 560 | .
Alcoholic beverages .........s..0.00. 38 | 1,253,630 36 | — 1,322" 300 2. 058, 895
(Se PEie ee eee eae a ae ee ene il 705, 305 7 666, 621 1, 474, 106 5
Batigumeen esse caveat cuncilanioe « iA 244, 268 15 333, 455 257, 030
PORN oss cee ae siocim sane was oe cs ames mane oi 15 1, 210, 662 20: 1, 544, 100 2, 249, 734 :
Paper. eterna aay acts cia ahapae a persicae tiers 19 2, 786, 480 24 2, 590, 320 2, $72, 793 |
IiGuiniale 05 Babes Ss Se ae Ds eae ees 34 576, 215 46 649, 320 690, 067 | :
AGRE OLO MIN, cee fans choc Gama eaeae ans 70 a , 476 67 926, 382 1, 754, 369 2s
Ciena So oso cccmionenee aces 9 , 664 10 1, 012, 974 9, 500, 000
© SSCS RS ES Se a 11 1,267, 570 | 11 1, 302, 355 1, 330, 000 |) 3
mlectrical lamps... ccs. scsmwac ese ncs 22 2, 379, 193 | 26 3, 152, 165 4, 624,097 }) :
POURED. W254. 5 na nc na camwanceeemesiats 252 5, 027, 697 340 8, 206, 128 17, 660, 576 y y
BR a Eales o'aiaic's!a\c:nicniclateteteiate amie ones 778 44, 589, 762 944 58, 728, 656 || 89, 900, 960 i 1,881 , 106 |}
Commercial: | a
PDN SOOOS ee memetine ca < onc ccccleimers cecce 27 815, 683 30 1, 202, 830 51 1, 476, 355 |) 89 271, 887 ;
. aI COULOM EERE eos aca cniacdonewocese 5 486, 00: 5 324, 500 28 1,420,191 |} 33 7 $
Warehouses ........ 38 949, 861 52 1, 287, 750 2 1, 630, 270 |} 110 8
Foreign commerce. 12 915, 000 13 1, 465, 848 De 2,157, 250 |} 24 4 ‘
Banks and credit inst 232 3, 895, 850 222 3, 54, 240 1,277 | 146, 008, 482 1,583 | 203 , S06
iGets\borha(el awa Coe oe ee 56 8, 753, 581 102 4, 473, 235 120 7, 405, 741 || 103 9.
PAU OCHOD soccer eee eee eee aaa 628 9,193, 899 727 11, 527, 455 1, 243 32, 682, 423 1,688 34, 195, 039 1,992 36, Sf 38
otaliec: 2: ae acres eae es 998 | 20,014,874 || 1,151} 23,835,358 j| 2, 778 192, 780,712 |} 3,630 | 260,227,479 |} 4,178 | 900,099, 664
Transportation: | )
Sea and river transportation.......... ~ 81 18, 887, 310 97 13, 695, 009 101 20, 232, 475 148 31, G4, 388 196 38, 398, 588
PIES on acc eaineas cocdccencneseatincuc 32 65, 9738, 398 30 73, 252, 797 57 90, 103, S74 64 180, 653, 015 Ot 155, 881, 965
PARING IES siacisa sda en ctevacaleheuencs 97 2, 699, 571 110 3, 018, 029 176 2, 880, 311 242 2, 366, 762 | 276 2) 952) 863
HUG HME Os ow cos Sona aceacteces 210 | §2, 560, 279 237 | 89, 960, 835 334 113, 216, 760 454 | 164, 684,165 | 586 | 197,233,421
00 <a 2,104 | 148, 353, 118 | 2, 458 | 174, 047,258 || 4,595 | 397, 564,582 || 6,113 | 582,522,377 || 7,044] 21,676,458

2354 : COMMERCIAL JAPAN. ss

Sratistics or Lire InsuRANCE COMPANIES IN JAPAN.

[From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

Number Mahe Accumulated

Number of} of main funds held
YEARS. companies.| offices and ot ee accordi
branches. to law.
Yen.
eee aaae LoD eka ABM teen Bite. SA eee 25 10,178 ee Ons
: 7,210, 550
EAS oie ene ae le et aia ao oo ans wasn am win ee ote ose medeasae Mes Ae eee 26 8, 762 c 531, 459
157, 7
BMT «sewn oo aoe Dees 2a 2 eo pea nian osu hare vo Sony ee RISO SFO oar ae Raa ! 2% 6, 822 L4ay7 771
UNA as 256 so ie ane Se Bee ae eee reps emer a ae = EE ee ee eee 23 4, 764 3, 987, 334
SEES eee WAR via earclets'nta w'a's. viv. «t= vino w'o-0's che, Dae Ge See a Eas accion asee pe cine ears meee 9 1, 828 2, 781, 657
ae eee oa Soe ae cele Sctia'd enica vas abape sacar n tea oe peeks we mw caciate saan 8 1, 156 2, 07d, 348
SUD oe mee fn Sacn pbepis dam nkor sea ais sees ys Seer ner ne pe Eee ees as sees wasp ees 4 523 1, 458, 008
DAUD Ao vena Brit he's os ceclesierncnessharaebbnn rene tbere wns ope cee tmee toe r ms eek nae coe 4 423 1,001, 542
TAO ciate Pa Se eie oon wott Beeideeivedes dhe awe ee Rev ater oan a eee eee nase aa = aa eciae este d 332 690, 851
— . |
FUNDS FOR THE INSTRUCTION
caminbeal ii OF CHILDEEN.
YEARS Expendi- |*\fTeein. | Amount of | Amount of | DVCMeC.
" tures. sured insurance. premiums. | insurance. ||
Ps * | Number of| Funds sub- Prentmns)
) depositors.! scribed.
eee ee a
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
7,424, 436 688,053 | 166, 831, 987 5, 612, 756 242 6, 369 1,319, 900 59, 062
5, 374, 317 645,986 ; 152,194,277 4, 898, 116 236 6, 506 1, 336, 700 56, 457
4,012, 181 510,250 | 119, 662, 936 3, 837, 818 235 4, 423 978, 700 40, 742
2, 931, 336 347, 391 83, 185, 107 2, 712, 555 239 3,174 785, 650 28, 116
906, 614 157, 008 44, 551, 332 1, 499, 756 284 2,506 678, 300 28, S84
609, 393 103, 827 31, 909, 250 1, 080, 128 307 2,174 625, 100 27,392
382, 567 70, 218 23, 043, 650 734, 334 328 1,815 566, 500 25, 898
292, 640 51, 898 17, 548, 609 549, 871 338 1,705 546, 000 33, 302
216, 024 36, 662 13, 175, 820 391, 045 359 1, 496 470, 700 25, 963
2 Accumulated surplus.
Statistics oF Frre AND MARINE INSURANCE COMPANIES IN JAPAN.
[From official reports of the Japanese Government. ]
: Number of
: Number of | main offices) Numberof p,; _ Accumulated
YEARS. A } Paid-up capital. funds held ac-
companies. and ‘stockholders. | ;
branches. | . cording to law.
FIRE INSURANCE COMPANIES. _ Yen. Yen. .
TSOOM sc osu usdcbecesaccdacdccs soso ecerecc Sec cht; Soaps ceeetne es a aeee eae eae 7 1, 624 8, 841 3, 460, 000 err
WOOG“EMDD. occ cine cele dioveececeascccuericencemsebnimsiites Seeuwaeeueeeep selena aan 7 1,394 3, 929 $, 400, 000 72 ea
WAGPITROR Sci vac csv cc ccccce- ace evecevercutocouadulvsycetencemestwbaeg enema =aneane aaa 6 1, 222 2,172 2, 150, 000 ; bee
WSQG-1807...ncscecceccscencrecsnetarecececcsaeensinecenenansesecnenscsenasecseuy=seeesaphaneee 6 970 2,181 2,150,000 | ~ 409, 715
1895-1896 Be ccc icice nme ctw otto cae e's! tule ain atenicwin'v eels nialee iar oils ete men ae eee 4 693 1,749 7 9, 908 161, 9147
TBQI-IS9). 2 nena eee eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee nee e eee e eee e nee eee eee eee eee e eee eeeeeee ees 3 490 823 700, 000 67, S63
DBOB 180M. canes occ newer ce cc ave ne nenncenscinensahasesseastaeesceauna nn ams smite sicm= tase eetee 3 171 800 600, 000 27,553
DOC IBUB ocr Soice bwhine Was coe seen 0 bid.ab.ww wesaiee.e'b awieen mip oiein orale calm > ee a cet aslo at eet 3 100 736 600, 000 7,809
PSTADL fooeg. ce wccee we cekiscccawocegedcnucunwsccccn acs Snes wut eoee ee a Sae ener 2 62 $23 281, 180 6,355
I SS
MARINE INSURANCE COMPANIES.
AROS Gre mac ve cuktvecuddochectseateuisl ccccest Jevvececweeeecale cege sa Reae Sete aaa etc 3 8338 2,198 2, 500, 000 290, 000
MOOR Gob kmnace up de ccdve voewoeswuclbsnccWaes'ae wns cw mula meinae ip ate staan emi en tnnna na an 4 938 4,475 3, 250, 000 407, 900
MOOT a orci p.c1u bate mwa wane cu Wd Seeis dia meeleie'n cela aa ma w abaceretlena Sita ia ly ae. <ete pe eee eae ee 4 856 2, 483 3, 000, 000 345, 100
ROG es cece wopalsecVoctapucSirns cccsndeeddcnevenewueupine aoetpos © eee omnes 3 5AS 1, 899 2, 100, 000 475, 228
it) i er ee ea RR Ss 3 427 1,940 2, 100, 000 362,000
TRO U Swe o wie d eeieteit oc o cw stew ce bmn st an swwosece vic.co pis wcillwe Ku mantel me ae Men aaeele hee antenna 3 288 1,410 1,710, 000 516, 000
TOO a rane eb dite one dnc wie Cee o cawn wi aa dwecclsoenc.cleace news an ah lieetelenieen etal eareet eae ann 2 136 1,165 960, 000 510, 000
ADD etic de atie anes ac cv qe snwnn en conscwetecawalj coe e sce cets Ore ee meee ate seats nn 1 53 235 600, 000 455, 380
DADS os diceevedusnapnSvaduecvcededeasvenceacaecoesucdecndaihinan seek eehaety acs sacs Soa 1 45 241 600, 000 $31, 564

1001.} = *. COMMERCIAL JAPAN. | 2355

STATISTICS OF FrrE AND Marine INSURANCE CoMPANIES IN JAPAN—Continued.

i = Average
Expendi- | Numberof | Amountof | Amount of o>
YEARS. Receipts. tures, contracts. | insurance. | premiums. =e
,! ;

FIRE INSURANCE COMPANTES, Yen Yen | , |

en. en. Yen.
2,999, 430 1, 980, 486 111, 991 236, 201, 182
2,163, 057 914, 875 88,871 | 142,486,077 |
1. 755, 567 740, 529 74,488 | 108, 09%, 954 |
1,314, 901 556, 381 56, 365 73, 391, 164
796, 651 325, 118 33, 269 42,132, 869
559, 764 280, 916 23,776 | 23,796,697
446, 192 252, 074 19, 653 21,1, 662
206, 351 145, 442 11, 437 12, 631,316
95, 885 48, 739 4,808} 4,914,947 |
i
3, 469, 589 3, 027, 461 495,904 | 453,145,489 SANG he cetocadacee
5, 979, 275 5, 661, 685 693, 807 | 794, 058, 206 rh ee ae ea
4, 684, 438 4,119, 265 559,238 | 743,347, 152 CN | eee
8, 111, 652 2, 925, 188 374,219 | 442, 164,566 2, 298, 746 1,12
2,425, 077 2, 237, 746 215, 983 233, 04, 316 1, $57,517 1,313
2, 027, 988 1, 844, 284 98,822 | 201, 480, 066 1, 545, 738 | 2,039
1, 731, 631 1, 251, 973 60, 313 129, 992, 573 1, 417, 109 2,221
892, 108 145, 873 33, 944 81, 920, 020 803, 785 2,387
488, 344 69, 945 21,482 | 47,550,791 409, 708 2,214
7 » Special accumulated funds.
SraTIstics OF PRIVATE AND State Epucationay Insrirutions 1n JAPAN, DecemBer 31, 1897.
‘ [From official reports of the Japanese Government.]
TEACHING STAFF, | STUDENTS OR PUPILS. | GRADUATES. Per cent
j Nene. ee = ——
DESCRIPTION. of insti- | | —s
tutions. |! Males. |Females.| Total. Boys. Girls. Total. | Boys. | Girls. | Total. | number
: of pupils.
}
. emimany SCNOOISS 2. ace cals esjeece nec ee nie scene 26, 860 70, 618 8, 681 79,299 || 2,570,878 | 1,423,948 | 3,994,826 || 393,904 | 155,799 | 549,703 | 13.76
: Ordinary grdmmar schools.................-- 159 2, 285 23 2, 308 53, 332 359 53, 691 | 2,494 | 7] 2,501 4.66
q Superior schools or colleges .............----- 6 Die ee eee ss See 343 A ABS Ne 25 2a kee tt 4,436 i Seat 971 21.89
MEMOTIDL WNTVCISItICS= 6-05 eer oc esc awecenwe 2 Te eo Ce Se eee 198 yee) Ty eee eee 2,255 |} od CAPER 385 17.12
Superior military and naval schools ........-. 2 tS ee 44 232: Ml Ses eee 129 i > AS See 30 23.2%
z= WOrcinarynormal sChools:....2......s.e..ce t 47 677 43 720 8, 020 810 8, 830 | 1,497 ) 1,740 | 19.71
Superior Normal schools .....-........sececes 2 85 18 103 436 208 644 | 26 70 | 10. 87
: Special and technical schools.............--- 272 2, 532 57 2,589 33, 904 2,710 36, 614 | 10, 294 10, 632 29.04
Superior schools for girls..........ccccceseses 26 94 216 ST) Se ee eae 6, 799 oe a | See : ; 631 | 9.28
AITO DMEMBCHOOIS. ooccissciscicccencevcacccenccuss 1,182 2,295 725 3,180 53, 316 18, 671 71, 987 || 8,114 | 2, 266 10, 580 142
: 28, 508 79,171 | 9,763 | 89,094 | 2,726,706 | 1,453,505 | 4,180,211 |! 417,716 | 159,328 | 577,044 13.50
28,427 || 76,158 8,816 | 84,974 || 2,669,752 | 1,369,075 | 4,038,827 | 393,099! 138,719 | 531,S18_ 13.17
28, 185 73, 347 7,707 | 81,054 || 2,545,494 | 1,180,303 | 3,623,725 | 356,866 | 112,374 | 469,240 12.9%
; 25, 640 64, 784 5, 574 70, 358 2, 443, 422 1, 090, 987 3, 459, 445 3 3} 100,245 443, OSS 12.81
25, 611 64, 306 4,819 69,125 2, 368, 459 987,764 | 3,290,313 || 90, 023 = 12.56
25, 404 638, 410 4,278 67, 688 2, 302, 549 965,122 | 3, 285,394 |} 78, 105 11.36
- 27,289 72,925 5, 044 77, 969 2, 320, 272 935,589 | 3,224,014 | 63, 938 10.0
27, 898 71, 186 4, 540 7d, 726 2, 288, 425 908,826 | 3,155,560 | 53, 350 8.79
28, 052 69, 668 4, 142 78,810 || 2,246,734 885,813 | 3,055,380 || 39, 582 | 7.14
27, 946 66, 063 3, 754 69, 817 2,169, 567 $17,962 | 2,833,350 156,683 |_ 37,437 6.55
27, 500 60, 342 2,892 63, 234 |; 2,015, 388 | 826,503 | 2,995,890 203,623 | 82, 27% 8.81
30, 388 81, 575 38, 874 85,449 |) 2,079, 387 954,066 | 8,200,170 |} 116,579 | 40,367 4.90
26, 824 | 73, 665 | 9, 901 | 83, 556 | 2,582,577 | 1,480,141 | 4,062,418 | (4) ie Ge ()
—— =—_ . —- = _
®*No data
.
a

2356 5 COMMERCIAL JAPAN.

Epvucarionan Instrrvtions Marsrarxep By THE Stave iN JAPAN, 1892 to 1899.

(From official reports of the Japanese Government.]

NAMES OF INSTITUTIONS AND MINISTRY IN CHARGE,

Se nr

Superior normal school..........-------00ccc----2----2eenn 22 wen ene mn en ance onnwmen manne wowewewnnnsera seen
Ordinary grammar school, attached to the superior normal sChOOl].... 2... 2. = - ceacccccoscecocccccccesecsss<=-

Superior normal school for girls...---..--- Se eR ee oe eo pn ceenecasde ns tpiowss sent at ae = cartehe aap

Superior school for girls, attached to the superior normal school for girls.....--------- eS a reer

Agricultural school of Sapporo .-...-+++-2+02+2--seeeeeeenee eee e re eee sense cette

Superior commercial SChOO] .......-.0+--eeeee seen ee eeee een e ence cece en eeesseeee

Commercial normal schol] ........--.---0ceee sence nee reece eee ene ener nner receeee

Superior schools Or COMCgCS ....---- eee ene e one ene n en nn nen ene rene ener nner rset eeeee see eeeres

School of arts and trades at TOKYO ......----.+-2-+002-00cnceene ee nnn nec en nner ecetcete rc esceresesenesesscseses

Apprenticeship school, attached to the school of arts and trades at Tokyo
Jormal school of arts and trades ......--..----- 2-2 ene e nnn e enn enn n erence eer en tener teen resent aterececccenes

Preparatory school of arts and trades, attached to the normal school of arts and trades .........-----------

School of foreign Janguages at Tokyo ........-------------- 2222 ee ee ee ren cree scent etre er errr rr sree ene eos

School of fine arts at TOKYO .........----cecncceecnceece scene nnn cecacwesennenanmnsnns cocscsacsesreccesescces:

School of music at TOKYO 2... .-.ccceccccccccecccsncnncecccercecccecccwcnsscancnccersnccccccsacccscensccccores
School of arts and trades at Osaka .....-..sccecce cen cen cece cece ence cen een cena sens acer cere ccassencessawescrrn=
Institution for deaf-mutes at TOKYO ........2.-2--e2 cece cence ccc en cence nn censneecescnnceeeccscccaceesecascas

{

aad

—_———_——_

| —— st
| 1, 033 57 | 681
236 195

Ministry of imperial household: ]
Gakushia-in (special school for nobles) ...---.------------+-+---+-+++020+5° peppereerrrer trees 59 3 prrtetesee /

School for noble girls ....----------seseeceeeceeeeecneceecccceseeneressaransnnarsceccanccccnracncoassneasseres { D9) earresiaate: aah nnn er

Military:school ..22--22--<ae a0 ow a/a- amen doe sim nma= aimirinlnin alma me mesene mem aisle wm en a
Central Military ‘Prytaneum ” .....2222...000sccccee- coon sc nmewnsn cree en wceneanccsnncc caso ccacansssccs sao o= cP Re
Local Military ‘‘Prytanea” ...-- 2.22. --2222. cee cceee cece cnnmacesencce se snemawes saca=saansmecensnenecssccon= bg Re aS b’135 745
Toyama Gakko (school for officers-MONItOTS) ...--222. 0-22 enn e eee ence ee erence ne ee ee een esceneweenesernren rh Ce | Meee | Wh
School for noncommissioned officers -.....-------------- +++ +22 seer eres ete ee tees ieee Se ee eae ro Re en 14 |...
4 |. cncetaeee
i

School of administrators and stewardship
Other SChoOols .. nsoca02--essccnce so ecccsmemncsseca=

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g
$,.e288oue

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Minister of the navy:

Superior School of Marine Science ...-....++-2-+++----eeecesserneeeretee sre cseecees sesesecssasscasnons cesses |
Naval GCHOOls...-.----0n-<a00cease0-ncnmeemcenaennsadenns oh2qpeenp ewense~ au ee => eae Seq eee t=: === eae eae
School of Mechaniecs......-------------+-++-+-- en Semin wiley Ore oh eleass le ire is sel
Medical Schoo! of the Navy -.---.------.s20ceedeneee ances = <senmnnnes see semnr~ sehr nnn nmE Cen oa eae ea
School of accounting Officers ........---- eocwne se ceceerrs- ne cnwweececeesserpann ae 30s eumenmn <= aaa oem n nee ae |
School for work in naval construction........--.+------ 22-2 es cecennne nee c nest sentence nnne ress tssesnccncccss ns

Ministry of communication: |
Naval Commercial School of Tokyo -...-.--.--------------2-- = saer eee nn ne nase encer an smnanncnnn seen nnnesnas ;
Naval Commercial School of Osaka, attached to that of Toky0....---4.----++++--+---0--nne seem ennr enn nnn /
Naval Commercial School of Hakodate, attached to that Of TOKYO ....-..-6- ese ccecenewence seen senna s=qee==
School of Postal and Telegraph Matters .......-----------++-- cece eee e sees eee sc ssne ones atensoeassncmenancssss |

TOA]. ccccacacccaccccccccccccvewssccucccucuccdscnnssmee~seaenesnsinn omm mi=ssh@ c= css rire = nies saa ies

Government of Taiwan:
School of Japanese language ..........--eceevcccencnncnsnnanensnenccccesnonnnansunsrcccss=ss-7=ssnnaasaa ss: ,

Preparatory schools of Japanese language .....-----+++++----e+seeeeeeeeescsesetecssscecccoassccccssscssss cn: 1
Primary SCHOOMP ....020.ceccccseaescccecencneseennnncreseumesese meas 85 nv annme=—sia= = oeo sees et sie ;

TOtal . ccocaccdeccvcceveucctvccecetaccccvcccccevccnnenansesueuccwe anes enn smn em == mAunis mcm iiss ii

——————— ee ee ee

1899 (total number of institutions, 61)......-------eeeeeeereeeeneneeerecenecescrensscsscanscsnssacs sass sss nee eases: 1
1898 (total number of institutions, 55). ...c<ssesnsenncduceeseccscamenncusccsesseessvesss == =nue ===. see eam inns ly
1897 (total number of institutions, 44) .......-ssceseeeeeeceeccensecesceasenansrocsnsoscenenssancnses sens s MRSS aTs
1896 (total number of INStitutions, 41) ....cecsccencccccececccccccussvcnvccucsnceenetsssesuct@seus= = 5s nen == ss iimias
1805 (total number of institutions, 42) ......0-.....se+seenseececencenncccnancccesconenanssssecsassnsses Gs ias saa
1894 (total number of ins ttttlons, 48) ..cccccensnunesteuccccccccnetscsqccsencscccccansusaaes sons ==55==Gn EEGn aoa og \

1893 (total number of institutions, 44) .......+..eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeteeeeeeeeeeeeseneeescceeseccsecsesssssncessse ess: i

1892 (total number of institutions, 44) ........--seseeeeesenserereseeeesceceeesactsneccrarscscctessssssses sess ee es i

8 Girls. » Includes scholars and fellows.

eo

a a

EXPENDITURES OF THE TREASURY.

1901.] COMMERCIAL JAPAN. 2357
‘ Frvances OF THE JAPANESE GOVERNMENT.
[From official sources of the Japanese Government.]
RECEIPTS OF THE TREASURY.
CLOSED ACCOUNTS. | OPEN ACCOUNTS. aay
RECEIPTS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. 4 : a
1893-94 1894-95 1895-96 1896-97 1897-98 | 1898-99 | 1899-1900 1900-1901
—— eS Eee it Se ae 2

Ordinary receipts: Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. : Yen. l

[o LEG Sa eer e+ ayes cer 88, 808,680 | 39,291,495 | 38,692,868 | 37,640,235 | 37,964,727 || 38,440,980 | 44,797,669 ||

ThE CONE (2407) a. ee ee Gb awk tine ae eee set 2: 208, 7B 1, 358, 518 1, 497, 095 1, 810, 212 2,095,092 || 2,351,420 4, 736, S67 ||

TLS a SS EE RR ES TERS SS SRE SE: Cee eRe Ee Pel ope 52] 4,416,248 | 5,478,015 | 5,496,646 ||

Tax on the manufacture of sake.........ccccccsecess---- 16, 637,436 | 16,180,471 | 17,748,735 | 19,476,404 | 31,105,172 || 32,959,996 | 48, 689,268

Other internal imposts.........2.+------se0« RES 8,194,512 | 8,755, 639 , 973,286 | 10,732,060 | 11,311,098 || 9,306,413 | 5,826,990 |

Minor CUITLORY, 5 2 ais. cts aps ne eee ce soto scat ee me 5, 125, 372 5, 755, 456 6, 785, 640 6, 728, 323 8,020,513 || 9,092,592 | 15,936,791 ||

Public domain and industrial undertakings .. 11, 743, 268 | 14,116,733 | 15,951,093 | 17,768,679 | 19,772,916 || 25,410,061 | 34,709,059 |

iced ja, GUh EE eae ST REGS ee a Sa a ne eel se eee reas Sh eee a eee 5,377, 106 970,689 |} 6,163,095 | 11,935,531 ||

Den VIECOCIDES.--sauch 5 saan dense ans Unkeaeemacadunaecue 8, 221, 835 3, 308, 534 3, 727, 878 1, 108, 435 2,080,830 || 2 548,045 | 2,553,254 ||

ipterest OF GenOSits'>. | cco se sn aen dat wdamaraesdernweaweee 913, 214 1, 036, 608 1, 068, 057 1, 548, 193 1, 535, 679 . 1,099,000 | 2,024,281 |)

Funds devoted to the reduction of the debt incurred } . i

KOM PUIG WORKS Gr Narnia... 5 secs «csten yauwaneny nalls deenanianae Rese, dee eee ot Le A ee | Ee ae 23, 333 |}

EePOLIICS Ot (PAloram near n als arene ede a Sele ee ee oe ea aor mewcev ac|scescecmerso™ i RS eee | PO REPRE SEs) pee PS
Manes Ceyoued! (oO WONG IMSiNCTION ss. cnmecewee seep Semana cca nt|sadedie nm conen|maccnenwem~s Joeceeeeeeseee ote ee EEO CLE PERE eee mer oe

2 TROT oS oe ey eee isa aie ie ade e nwaneernignanas 85,883,080 | 89,748,454 | 95,444, 652 | 104, 901, 522 124, 222,964 || 132,849,617 | 176,749,819 || 193,720,180

Extraordinar¢ receipts: a oa ao (a a) So. lle pe ES

Proceeds of gifts made by private individuals.......... 19, 115 150 28, 900 19, 676 Soars Men | 0 seen teem 20,000 |} 215, 000
Proceeds of the sale of public domain .........-....--.- 678, 968 655, 683 645, 356 1,111, 031 922,500 | 820, 147 827, 800 $16, 916
Sina gies ons Eee oem ee em aE RS Tea 346, 031 156, 718 294,157 | 1,398,703 | 3, 862, 263 || 622, 13 391, 464 |} 825,579
Amount assigned to defray the expense of printing | Ht

and issuing Government bonds..............----.---- 48; O60) | - wane acim maas 488 1, 685 TOT Ney ws se ectaael anon awa dade | PERE 2
Supplementary credit for the construction of men-of- i} i}

UNDE “ceeds api lal cee eer ae ee ae ah eee oeeeeaer ae 1, 646, 492 1, 715, 348 1, 822, 714 1, 781, 771 836, 907 | A WO7 bcc nie ruta ce fais eden Aad
Indémnity received from the Chinese Government for : ;

(LETS GEE VOTED 8 ENTEN VST 5 oe EO Ree! | ee a ee UP Niet eae eee 741, 430 822, 524 | SGT | Sa ete S
Amount turned over to the central treasury by the : 1}

FORT aaR Sat MO CALs PUL RTLLG WW OMG hole a ora mee a wees ewe mata anucon|aeenaweaeacachowonean desman 324, 400 398, 200 | 664, 859 637,282 ‘| 1,246,976
LE LoL. Le a ee Sa a ae (SRN cee Menara 2,976,600 | 36,389,874 || 35,352,806 | 35,172,362 || 32,183,600
Chinese indemnity_-.....-.... ee ee eae eee wach acae nade eeatocasawncae o=-| eas Sate eS 11, 789, 389 | - 40,360,796 |} -46,187,071 | 32,638,630 || 23,752,739
Funds of the central institution to help the famine- H )

SUIT IEG ZONING ye 2 waa Se a eae nel apna nee Si 390, 464 145, 252 155, 069 1, 439, 790 410,106 || 28, 551 SE 908. Beccasdw eared
Amount destined for the special account of the indem- }} }

| AAPOR SES Se Si: i NO SE, ST SAE Leet neh) 8 «Sees 2 Seiaaieie ees Semen BS ee 3,000,000 |]...........-.
Funds devoted to administrative expenses of State for- |

oo SRS Sig Oe STE EE ee Er eee ERR Sell Sen eee Seas | ene 347,337 || 1,778,778
REN CSUMECC LOI OI MEL ONSe a aiteer a seeeic Sat esol acc ccclesiaensialsiesccemeccecc)aceecucccecae SPLAT, SION |e cocacee sere | <r ea eel (eee eS pte
Ree MGReS AC eS COMO RIS (ES REC eM ISSO = ees ay ee aD e ees onsc conc aape cee See mc oemeleMeic saan cincabe@icnaeats sean scnccvedeenns[fonmsacnecaca= S37, SOF O45. 2222 5.
Amount destined for conversion of the public debt..-..|..........--- teense aa a Wetessdoasee ERS ee ence) Peete aes | MERE eo (eh eee eae
erturnanvay Genie reese: oe oh ee ee eS. cee ae ce: ie ee oe Ene a aeEe EE Ae deed eee etree ad eine $, 200; 000 fi sat c oes
Balance of funds destined to the redemption of the ) :

(ehGhe TGS OU GOS Cras DEN ad Sy OE ee ren ee eee Se ae aa’ aes | aaa ene a ee ees =
Amount left over from the preceding fiscal year........ 24, 727,171 5, 748, 423 | 20, 041,385 | 33, 115,535 | 18,162,915 2,711, 279 yi Bae es ee

Bleep nae Seale note Se wie o/c ciclote see's bis aluivin'e cies nines cae. 27, 886, 301 8, 421,574 | 22,988, 069 | 82,111,920 | 102,167,159 || 87,204,504 | 76,932,537 60, $19, 638
Pens een eter Mee al tae Genes ciety citi see cicisiaje awiea mine 118. 769, 381 | 98,170,028 | 118, 432, 721 | 187, 013, 442 226, 390, 123 |; 220,054,121 | 253,682,356 || 234,349,818

: : wees BUDGET
CLOSED ACCOUNTS. I OPEN ACCOUNTS. ESTIMATES.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPENDITURE. / fo 2
| 1598-94 1894-95 1895-96 1896-97 1897-98 1898-99 1899-1900. 1900-1901
Ordinary expenditures: Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. | Yen. Yen. Yen.
(OOS L 1 LIC eee A Og eo a SE ne 3,000,000 | 3,000,000 | 3,000,000} 3,000,000 | 3,000,000 |} 3,000,000 | 3,000,000 3, 000, 000”
Publie debt... 2.22.22. eee nae cee ee eee cnsnewesenccce---| 19,455,918 | 19,721,143 | 24,190,858 | 30,504,172 | 29,504,731 || 28,379,828 | 34,278,956 35, 058, 193
Imperial cabinet and privy council ...................- | 472,221 427,790 487, 993 513, 729 464, 579 || 406, 660 367, 483 358, 683
Chambers ee peers and of deputies... 3.2. -.cesc-ceenn= 894, 753 610, 951 551, 647 555, 313 416, 817 |) 705, 730 1, 251, 713 1,277, 913
Ministry of—
Foreign affairs 623, 982 718, 627 1, 047, 050 1, 216, 104 1, 445,849 || 1,641,557 1, 929, 427 2, 189, $23
MOGETION « <\s-ce.c2-0~ a atsrpi=: j 2, 904, S54 2, 820, 589 2, 852, 265 1, 544, 468 1, 581, 695 } 1, 874, 761 4, 555, 312 7,527,222
ADIN AT GGA yee hera Seoe oie ra, ace mee sche ieekia aatetarare Sierel te ate 4, 429, 240 4, 589, 428 4, 539, 783 6, 635, 465 &, 470, 272 9,002,239 | 10,849, 104 764, 086
BROVV STs. Os he etc be vis oe moins oe ee eto cin aimoitae tems. a= 12, 419, 829 7, 828, 074 8,410,212 | 22,613,590 | 28,746,263 || 32,562,072 | 35,422, 674 37, 309, 975
MATING © pects). te ceca shan vcceie seme an aceite teen eaten s 5, 141, 475 4,573, 605 4, 913, 244 7, 351, $30 9,543,889 || 11,191,475 14, 572, 638 17, 513,354
J{OC CESS acc sept ee eeeron erie AA ACSC Egon tic Cee 8, 451, 911 3, 387, 608 3, 339, 5412 3, 452, 933 3, 543,489 || 3,825, 687 ; 4, 882,118
IPUDLIG tins we tomes se = 52cm ae tan ee een Semre 932, 562 923, 384 1, 047, 010 1, 422, 389 1,985,729 || 2,336,691 ; 4, 478, 278
‘Apriculttime arid Commerce. :. <<. .- sie sneer <n 928, 942 862, 344 9, 745 1, 142, 498 1,364,923 || 1,644,371
OVATE CRIN IS HINe wa eat we, eicjmatetereiers cletcic Stare mietala | §, 469, 524 6, 171, 286 7, 043, 250 8, 262,078 | 10,629, 496 14, 515, 000
COTATI, ec eaty SEA piers WS er at et -es Oe ae Aa LS (ad Ea Rg TR 7-083,928 | ~ 1,817,024 |] 2,916, 751 |... .-....-.~-ffe~...coweaces
PERO O te ALOU S carat ince Calectad ae wikia iain oe cation 125, 815 126, 716 126, 188 144, 966 193, 583 200, 405 202, 131
Court of administrative litigation 37, 321 36, 514 39, 255 40, 237 40, 797 39, 376 43, 031 44, @5
Provincial administration ......--..... 4, 757, 272 4, 673, 337 4, 649, 965 4, 732, 687 4, 945, 991 5, 830, 541 6, 140, 186 6, 004, S36
TR SkS Go? Tino ECC Dh ASB OSS B eaten SSC or cee Fe COR EGP SEE ACE Ae NSPE og| Ce mmc rors = hea SERS Sea Vann decenn neler ens ann nn a}te tosis cae en-fe nnn ee seen eee : 3, 000, 000
Strip las eS oes 5 on Sw cialeicic, sslemie nine aullelew'a'a'a’ee wnieinla 64,545,599 | 60,421,346 | 67,148, 007 | 100, 715, 887 | 107,695,127 || 119,072, 144 | 137,314,631 / 150, 40S, 534
a enary expenditures; oe ae ara ia ees eked ae es
I GILING Se eee 8 ee re ! a
Ministry OCR TC LS ORR eRisecinest op oiasmaleisinn innntta ess sinwz= = = | 700, COE hs can demo e Ue c eS edn accuse 6 ccaceaae tie eee
SHINO TRELLIS a tee meer wre nies cicars o occ caianem ses 19, 264 311, 888 300, 986 | 173, 674 118, 459 125, 185 | 101, 932 $1,388
SEO EGIS cele eee tae ae ee reat ae eens iam mw) Saw alee wagninte 11, 465, 283 2, 426, 552 8,668,978 | 11,025,291 10, 325, 660 7,159,593 | 17,251,226 15, O41, 460
EIN OL CO sae ee cle cine caressa Se anes cinicmisincimesaawece tan 1, 185, 170 4, 748, 561 2,051, 804 2,579,887 | 10,224,769 || 6,143,0% | 06, 764,055 5, 229, 385
RETO So cial niateteie ce ane demain sateen eh saeiaxwsseia dees 2, 301, 397 2, 580, 862 1, 605,723 | 30,628,934 | 31,401,725 || 21,335,581 | 16,876,232 15, 625, 910
RETAITOS coe a ates temee malawi cena esas ata aclacialcle areas 2, 959, 446 5, 679, 549 8, 607,025 | 12,654,428 | 40,850,645 || 47,388,427 | 47,066,796 23, 409, 626
AP Shi) a os SS eo eS See Renee 75, 561 51, 648 77, 259 162, 896 215, 016 |) 310, OSS 480,453 | 357, 726
PEreUID UTS LSETUCTIOIN ¢ «= aereinicm ois cielo nama wie'aiejeie © cewieln de es 135, 241 125, 305 106, 105 327, 095 626, S70 658,703 | 1,199, 741 2, O10, 616
Aeniculture and COMMerce........ so... - eee ee 493,177 333, 905 325, 975 488, 032 1, 514, 188 2,312,004} 4,918,965 10, 520, H6
MEMEMINICHUON «occ nctace sales vescbecneeaecitesadaaccs 1, 401, 734 1, 449, 027 1, 425, 317 4, 738,173 | 11,475,956 || 9,406,803 | 21,685,812 || 29, 864,527
CAS LTT - > 5 Se Rei Bes Bee oS NOE ORE one See) eee eer Jonsseeeens nee 4, 662, 262 9, 230,429 || 5, 895, 947 Fievene ch es necfin cn eae
PRC RR rs So siniow cid cicia sa claod/ewia Sauicnsarasin's'a 20, 036,273 | 17,707,297 18, 169, 172 68, 140, 622 / 115, 983,717 || 100,685,425 | 116,348,210 |, 102,141,234
TT Ge eee aa wera wala din'e vinmincamalccmausinhes.s 84, 581,872 | 78,128, 643 | 85, 317,179 | 168, 856, 509 223, 678, S44 I 219, 757, 569 253, 662, S41 | 234, H9, S18

DESCRIPTION OF DEBT.

Loan called ‘‘Kiukosai,” or ‘old debt.”

Without interest (debt of the old “‘Han” Yen. Yen. en. Yen.
(oy Eb, Th eth Cos-2) eRe Sea ie Ree a eee 6,803,090 | 6,583,635 | 6,364,181 | 6,144,726
a Loan called ‘‘Shinkosai,’’ or ‘‘new debt”
; ld ay, PEEL BOM LAs ote c. cas waco se ncleexe 10,541,275 | 10,535,925 | 10,525,925 | 8,530,375
] Loan for retiring the ‘“‘ Kinsatsu,” 6 per cent.) 11,890,000 | 11,850,600 | 1, 950; 800 | 22 -cteetseaclocnocacespecieeeeen toners eames
. Loan called “ Kinroku”’ (for redeeming the
ps - feuda) pensions), 5 per cent ........-..--. 30, 760, 020 | 30,750,020 | 30,740,020 | 30,730, 020
: Loan called ‘‘ Kinroku”’ (for redeeming the ;
feudal pensions), 6 per cent....... pee DAS 107 7405s \|924, O82, 70D || 18,928; O80) |2 -vccuee-+ sa) ose ecneerte s|-ternmaeiee
i Loan called “ Kinroku” (for redeeming the
— feudal pensions), 7 per cent .............- TB SO0U DAB O22 3 coe ra we sls ods Sele ews |e BOR a cca eee ee oo eee =
~ Loan for public undertakings, 6 per cent...) 10,700, 200 | 10,680,200 |. .....-----.|.------seene|onenne ween ne lan nnn cnn wnnn| anne anne ane nlennennnnnnnnlnonne :
Loan for the construction of the Nakasendo
TAUWAYS,-7 Per Cents se. nee ose e eee ee 13,923, 900) << permite ema es ee Sete we lean a sn ee one = eee ee ama ae ee eee
Loan for naval armaments, 5 per cent...... 000,000 | 16,990, 000
Converted debt, 5 per cent... -..-0.5.----... 88, 182, 300 |109, 858, 100 |154, 483, 000

Loan for covering additional expediture in
the construction of railways, 5 per cent ..| 2,000,000
Loan for the construction of railways, 5 per

2, 000, 000

(0:00) ee RE ae Ses eae ee eee ces MMP aie pe) errr eres oft pcre g to
Loan for the Hokkaido Railway,5 percent.|........ Sone ane | eee ets ee ee ee ees ee ee ee WS ke Sa
Loan for the war, piper Cent. 2 -.2. -.-5-s el oame meen, Boe} eee a oe | | =
Loan ioricommuanication works, fb: Per Cent . |i oo. ee son | eee wm eel pete ne lee eine ae Renate Sh cigs ee a a $
New foreign loan, 7 per cent...........-.+-. 5,180,120 | 4,488,624 | 3,748,816 957, 280 p22 AN EO ed Wee
GOERS Pe ees ek a Bere tele aie ae 243, 230, 655 |241, 743,709 |235, 126,272 |235, 814, 851
Loan for the suppression of the revolt, 7} 7
POM CONte cee pen see cecierein cote hacen nines 10, 000, 000

Loan for the redemption of the paper money
(without interest) 22,000,000 | 22,000,000 | 22,000,000 | 22,

onan for army purposes; 5 per cent~..<-.caliejneor=cose| ease acer seul cere cee nol eee e = 27,000,

Paper money in circulation .............--- 15, 704, 773 9, 045, 082

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