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ARTS AND SCIENCES

NEW SERIES.

ITI.

VOL.

‘

CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON
METCALF AND COMPANY

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PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.

1848.

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

NEW SERIES.

VOL. Tir.

LIBRARY
NE Ww YORK
BOTANICAL
GARDEN
CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON:
Mone CeASL by ZAON De © '@) MERcCAUIN Y;
PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.

1848.

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CONTENTS.

Eulogy on Hon. John Pickering, LL. D., President of the as a
By Dantet AppLeton Wuire.

I. Curoris Boreari-Americana : Illustrations of New, Rare,
or otherwise Interesting North American Plants, selected
chiefly from those recently brought into Cultivation at the
Botanic Garden of Harvard University, Cambridge. By
Asa Gray, M.D. Decade I. (With 10 Plates.)

II. Contributions to the Bryology and Hepaticology of North
America. By Wm. S. Bran: A.M. Part I.
(With 5 nee )

III. Occultations and Eclipses observed at Dorchester and Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, by Wm. Crancu Bonn, Director of
the eee Wn. C. Bonn, Jr., and Grorce P.
Bonp. . . : 0 : : : ‘

IV. An Account of the Nebula in Andromeda. By Grorer P.
Bonp, Assistant at the See a 8 (With
1 Plate.) : : : . -

V. Description of the Nebula about the Star 6 Orionis. By Wm.
Crancu Bonn, Director of the Cambridge Observatory.
(With 1 Plate.) : é : : : :

VI. Some Methods of Computing the Ratio of the Distances of a
Comet from the Earth, By Grorer P. Gor Assistant
at the Cambridge Observatory. :

VII. An Attempt to discriminate and describe the Animals that made
the Fossil Footmarks of the United States, and especially of
New England. By Epwarp Hircucock, D.D., LL. D.,
President of Amherst College, etc. (With 24 Plates, )

VIII. On Platygonus compressus : a new Fossil Pachyderm. By
Joun L. Le Contre, M.D. (With 4 Plates.) :

Appenp1x.— Report on the Discovery and Nomenclature of the Eighth
Satellite of Saturn. By Epwarp Everett, LL.D. .

Pace

57

67

75

87

97

OFFICERS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY,

FOR THE YEAR BEGINNING MAY 27, 1848.

President.
JACOB BIGELOW, M. D.

Vice-President.
EDWARD EVERETT, LL. D.

ASA GRAY, M. D., / 9 . Corresponding Secretary.
AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, M. D.,. Recording Secretary.

J. INGERSOLL BOWDITCH, A. M., Treasurer.

JOHN BACON, M.D., . .. Librarian and Cabinet- Keeper.

STANDING COMMITTEES.

EBEN N. HORSFORD, A. M., |
JOHN WARE, M. D.,
JOSEPH LOVERING, A. M.,

| Rumford Committee.
FRANCIS C. LOWELL, A. M.,

ASA GRAY, M. D., }
LOUIS AGASSIZ, LL. D., Committee of Publication.
WM. CRANCH BOND, A. M., j

AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, M.D., }
D. HUMPHREYS STORER, M. D., | Committee on the Library.
BENJAMIN PEIRCE, LL. D., j

AUG 7 = 1923

LIPFR ARE
NiY YORE
SU TANICAL

EULOGY ean

ON

JOHN, PLOCKRERIN Gy L L..D.,

PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

By DANIEL APPLETON WHITE,

FELLOW OF THE ACADEMY.

(Delivered before the Academy October 28th, 1846.)

Mr. PRESIDENT, AND GENTLEMEN OF THE American ACADEMY

or Arts AND SclENcES, —

Amone all the works of God, I know of no object of contem-
plation more delightful than a beautiful human character, pure and
lovely, ennobled by Christian virtues, and adorned by the accom-
plishments of mind. Such was eminently the character of our late
beloved associate and President, Joun Pickertne, whose death we
have been called to deplore, and whose distinguished worth we
have come together to contemplate and honor. The reluctance
which, as some of you know, I felt at becoming your organ on this
affecting occasion, arose from my conscious inability to do justice
to his profound erudition ; but the charm of his character overcame
my reluctance, and if I can succeed in drawing a faithful portrait
of his life and virtues, I shall rely on your goodness to pardon the
imperfect sketch I may give of his talents and learning.

That noble-hearted man, the late Judge Lowell, in commencing

a

il

his eulogy on the first President of the American Academy, recog-
nizes the obligation “to trace the path of the great, the virtuous,
and the wise, through all their exertions for the benefit of man-
kind, and to portray their characters as an example to the world.”
This, doubtless, is the highest purpose of eulogy, and most worthy
both of the living and the dead. The memory of great and good
men is most truly honored by that which, at the same time, most
benefits the world, — the study and practice of their virtues.

You will allow me, therefore, Gentlemen, in seeking to pay this
true honor to the memory of one who so richly deserved it, whose
life was so invariably virtuous, and who rendered himself so emi-
nently wise and useful, to give especial attention to those virtues
and exalted principles which enabled him to achieve his unsullied
fame, and which may enable others, stimulated by his example, to
pursue a like honorable career. Such a manner of proceeding on
this occasion well accords with the high ultimate design of the
American Academy ;— “to cultivate every art and science which
may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of
a free and independent people.” Of all arts conducing to this
great end, the most important, certainly, is the art of human im-
provement, and the most excellent of sciences is the science of a
good life. And both are best studied from original models of
excellence. Biography, still more than history, is philosophy
teaching by example the lessons of wisdom ; but, to fulfil its office,
it must teach in the spirit of philosophy, and unfold the means and
inculcate the principles upon which progress in excellence essen-
tially depends. ‘The life which is now presented for our contem-
plation, if exhibited with that truth and simplicity which were so
remarkably its ornaments, would beautifully illustrate the lessons

of wisdom, and make her ways as clear to the studious mind, as

ill

they are pleasant to the upright in heart. We care little for the
mere possession of talents or genius; real merit is above them
both. And where shall we look for one who in the meritorious
use of talents is greater than our departed friend? Such a life as
his cannot be traced too minutely, from its dawn to its close.
Genius and eloquence have already, on various occasions, bestowed
a rich and glowing eulogy on the learned jurist, the man of science,
of letters, and of worth, leaving us, in echoing the voice of praise,
little more to do than to enforce its justness, and to gather what
instruction we may from the virtues which have called it forth.*
The simple truth, Gentlemen, bestows the highest eulogy on our
lamented President, while it affords us the truest consolation and
the best instruction.

Joun Pickerine was the eldest of ten children of the late Colonel
Timothy and Rebecca White Pickering, and was born on the 7th
day of February, 1777. His ancestors were of a most worthy
character. The first of them known in this country was John
Pickering, who was one of the early settlers of Salem, and in 1642
bought of Sir George Downing’s father the farm on Broad street in
that town, which has ever since descended in the male line of the
family, and always, except in a single instance, has been owned
by a John Pickering, as it still continues to be. On it stands the
ancient and picturesque mansion, the late summer residence of our
deceased friend, who by his skilful arrangements converted the
greater portion of the farm into a beautiful and flourishing village.

Colonel Pickering was a vigilant and devoted father, but his

* See the noble tribute to the memory of Mr. Pickering, contained in the Law
Reporter (Vol. IX., p. 49), from the gifted pen of Charles Sumner, Esq. ; also his
admired Address before the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard University, at
their Anniversary, August 27, 1846.

iv

whole soul was so absorbed in his country at that alarming crisis
of her affairs, that he could bestow but a transient attention upon
his son’s early culture. Fortunately for this son, he was, like Sir
William Jones, whom in other respects he so strongly resembled,
blessed with a mother in every way qualified to fulfil the duties
of both parents. In his intelligent, docile, and sweet disposition
she beheld the image of her own gentle spirit, and she could
not fail in all her intercourse with him to exert a propitious influ-
ence upon his opening mind and character. He had an excellent
uncle, too, the Honorable John Pickering, who lived in Salem,
and who indulged for him all the feelings of a parent. John and
Timothy Pickering were only brothers, and their souls were knit
together in the closest friendship. Both were zealous Whig patri-
ots, renowned for their integrity and steadfastness. John was
graduated at Harvard College in 1759, four years before his
younger brother, and was one of the original founders of the Amer-
ican Academy. He sustained various important public trusts, and
at the time of his nephew’s infancy was Speaker of the House
of Representatives of Massachusetts. They had seven sisters, all
of whom were married and had families, some of which were
highly distinguished. Young John, bearing the favorite ancestral
name, and possessing uncommon attractions, was the object of
observation as well as interest, without being exposed to those fond
and admiring attentions which are so apt to foster vanity and
selfishness.

As it is our desire to show from his example how characters like
his may be formed, where natural gifts like his are bestowed, and
how human excellence is best attained, whatever may be the en-
dowments of nature, we shall freely avail ourselves of the most

authentic information we possess, without using the family corre-

vV

spondence, of the early development of his faculties and the progress
of his education. There are four periods which deserve distinct
attention ;— the five or six yeats of childhood, before he went to
any school; his years at school; his four years in college; and his
four following years abroad.

The first of these periods, though so little thought of generally,
was to him, perhaps, next in importance to his college life, for in
it was laid the foundation of his character and intellectual habits,
Providence appears to have ordered the circumstances of it better
for his improvement than human wisdom would have done. He
was in no common degree qualified by nature, both in his physical
and mental constitution, for self-direction and self-cultivation. His
senses, particularly his sight, hearing, and touch, were acute and
delicate; so, too, were all his faculties and feelings. He had a
curiosity all alive, together with a memory quick and retentive.
His mechanical ingenuity was as early manifested as his intellect-
ual vigor. Happy was it for him, that he was exposed to no lux-
urious gratifications or excessive indulgences of any kind. Happy,
too, probably, that he had no teacher but his mother, aided by the
influence of his admirable father, and that he was in so great a de-
gree left to be his own teacher.

During this period, his father, being attached to the Revolutionary
army, had no fixed place of abode for his family, and they resided
successively at Salem, Philadelphia, Newburgh, and then again at
Philadelphia and in its vicinity. It was not till their second residence
at Philadelphia that a good school could be obtained for John, which
was a subject of frequent regret with his mother, but doubtless all
the better for him. His lively curiosity and love of knowledge had
become remarkable before he was two years old, evinced particu-

larly by a continued attention and interest in his observation of

vi

things. Nearly at the same time he commenced his philological
career. Of his own accord he took it into his head to learn to
read; and, at the age of two years, he could repeat the letters of
the alphabet, and in speaking would readily join adjectives and
verbs to his nouns. Before he was five years old, he could read
without spelling, and spell without book, rarely missing a word
which he had once read, however little affinity the letters might
have to the sound. Such was the self-taught infant philologist.
We allude to these facts, not as being very wonderful in them-
selves, but as illustrating his natural powers and turn of mind, as
well as his intellectual habits. His early devotion to learning led
directly to those habits of observation, attention, and application,
which were among his greatest advantages as a scholar. Equally
fortunate was he in the early development of his affections and his
moral nature. Besides the kindest care, he received the most judi-
cious religious nurture, and constantly enjoyed the influence of ex-
amples which tended to produce in him the generous and noble vir-
tues. It was perfectly natural that he should become what he was,
truly magnanimous, and one of the most unselfish of human beings.
Thus prepared by himself, under the eye of his mother, he en-
tered his first school at Philadelphia when he was about six years
of age. His aptitude for wisdom and goodness, as well as for learn-
ing, had already inspired entire confidence, and disposed his parents
to seek for him the best advantages of education. At this school,
in addition to the usual English exercises, he attended to the
French language, and pursued his studies with so much ardor and
closeness of application, that some relaxation became necessary for
his health. With a view to this, his father, in 1786, sent him ona
visit to his uncle and other friends in Salem. He took only his

French books with him, expecting soon to return. But it was

vil

otherwise ordered. His uncle, who had now retired from public
life, and was living on the family estate with a widowed sister and
her only daughter, never having been married himself, became so
attached to his beloved nephew, that he could not consent to part
with him. Without formally adopting him, he ever after treated him
as a son, and never was any parent more blessed in an own son.
John, thus made a fixed resident in Salem, at the age of nine
years, soon resumed his studies with renewed health and energy.
His character, having received such a powerful impulse in the right
direction, could not fail to be carried forward in strength as well as
excellence under the somewhat sterner influences which were now
brought to bear upon him. In his uncle, alike dignified, wise, and
affectionate, he found the best of domestic guides. His master in
the Latin Grammar School was Belcher Noyes, an experienced
teacher, and a man of some classical learning, as it would seem
from a Latin grammar of which he was the author. His writing-
master was Edward Norris, of whom he took lessons every day,
for some length of time, with complete success. He was remark-
able for his handwriting before he left Philadelphia, and it deserves
notice here as one of his distinguished literary accomplishments.
The handwriting, it has been said, indicates the writer’s character.
In him, certainly, both were alike clear, simple, and beautiful.
Nothing perplexing was ever found either in his chirography or his
character. The rank which he speedily attained as a classical
scholar was high, as might be inferred from a fact related by a
venerable gentleman, now living, — which deserves remembrance,
too, as having served to swell the tide of good influences then bear-
ing upon him. When President Washington visited Salem, in 1789,
young Pickering was placed at the head of the Latin school in the

procession on that occasion. What more powerful incentive to all

Vill

that is good and great could he have received, than the honor of
thus meeting the saviour of his country and his father’s friend ?

Thomas Bancroft, a true scholar and gentleman from Harvard
College, afterwards the distinguished Clerk of the Judicial Courts
in Essex county, succeeded Mr. Noyes in the Latin Grammar
School, and completed Mr. Pickering’s preparation for the Uni-
versity. In this excellent instructer he found a no less excellent
friend, for whom he cherished a high regard. But, though fitted for
college by Mr. Bancroft, he was offered for admission by his father,
who took the liveliest delight in his son’s character and scholarship,
and came from Philadelphia, probably on purpose to enjoy the
pleasure of presenting him to the University at Cambridge. After
being honorably admitted, in July, 1792, he accompanied his father
to Philadelphia, where he passed a happy vacation.

On leaving his parents to join his class at Cambridge, he did not
leave behind him their good influence, which was blended with all
his thoughts and feelings, and kept alive by an affectionate and
frank correspondence with his father. He found, too, at the Uni-
versity a never-failing supply of good counsel from the friendship of
his cousin, the Rev. Dr. Clarke of Boston, who took a deep interest
in his welfare, and was honored by him as his “ oracle.” He found
also in his teachers and guides — in Willard, Tappan, Pearson, Web-
ber, and their associates — men of piety as well as learning, whose
whole example and influence pointed to heaven, and led the way.

These were distinguished advantages, but not more distinguished
than were his fidelity and wisdom in the improvement of them.
Dr. Clarke introduces those beautiful “ Letters to a Student in the
University of Cambridge,” which were addressed to him, by allud-
ing to other peculiar advantages. ‘‘ Your superior qualifications,”

he says, ‘for admission into the University give you singular ad-

1X

vantages for the prosecution of your studies.” “ Happy for you,
they who superintended your education were less anxious that you
should be early fitted than that you should be well fitted for the
University. You were, therefore, indulged with a year extraordinary
in preparatory studies.” ‘Thus informed, you begin the college
life with every advantage. You have anticipated the academical
studies, and, if you persevere, your future improvements must be an-
swerable to your present acquisitions. Four important years are
now before you.”

Important years indeed, — for good or for evil! ‘To John Picker-
ing they were full-fraught with good. To some others they have
proved calamitous. How is this to be accounted for? Here, Gentle-
men, is a problem worthy of your Christian philanthropy, and your
most profound philosophical wisdom. What problem in the material
world has stronger claims on your attention, as men of science and
learning, pledged to advance the best interests of humanity ? Since
the institution of your Academy, many of its expressed objects of
scientific inquiry have been successively assumed by other associa-
tions specially devoted to them. Why, then, may you not give
attention to some of your implied duties, and pursue inquiries in
the intellectual and moral world, — inquiries alike practical and
philosophical, and more immediately connected with the loftiest
object of your institution, —the advancement of the honor, digni-
ty, and happiness of a free people? Might not the laws of man’s
moral nature be more clearly understood? Might not the knowl-
edge of them be made more effectual for the attainment of his best
education ? Such inquiries would seem particularly appropriate to
the American Academy, which was originally designed to be sub-
servient to the great objects of our venerable University.

I pray you, Gentlemen, to pardon this suggestion, and accept it

b

x

as my apology, if I should appear to pay a disproportioned atten-
tion to Mr. Pickering’s academical life.

His advantages, upon entering the University, were certainly
great, and in some respects peculiar. But they did not consist in
his extraordinary intellectual acquirements, or his fine natural pow-
ers, or in both together, so much as in his complete moral and re-
ligious training, his cherished love of learning, his correct habits,
his filial piety, which made the wishes of his parents and uncle his
own, and that wisdom, so rare in youth, which led him to follow
experienced guides rather than prejudiced companions, and not
only to shun all noxious habits, but, like his prototype, Sir William
Jones, to avail himself of every “ opportunity of improving his in-
tellectual faculties, or of acquiring esteemed accomplishments.”
Such as these were his preéminent advantages. Some of those
students who have most signally failed in their collegiate course
were, like him, distinguished for their mental powers and prepara-
tory acquirements, wanting only his moral strength and his wisdom.
How it might have been with him, had his mother, instead of her
gentle religious nurture, given him lessons of frivolity and fashion,
and had his father and his uncle been as observable for their selfish
indulgences as they were remarkable for their public and private
virtues and their exalted Christian character, and had his teachers,
moreover, instilled into him the poison of an irreligious example,
we can only conjecture. So, too, we can only conjecture what
sort of a character King George the Fourth might have become,
had he received the nurture and education which blessed the youth
of John Pickering. But while we believe that the laws of the
moral universe are as fixed in their operation as those of the mate-
rial world, we cannot doubt that the result, in either case, would
have been essentially the reverse of what it was.

Xl

Mr. Pickering entered the University at a juncture when all his
strength of principle and all his wisdom were needed to guide him
through the trying scenes that awaited him. The tempests of ex-
citement and disorder Swept over his class, in their Sophomore
year, prostrating numbers of them apparently as strong as him-
self. Expulsion, rustication, suspension, all followed in rapid
Succession, for offences to which nothing could have prompted the
student but those maddening stimulants, the plague of which no
one then knew how to stay. Pickering’s virtuous sensibility was
outraged by the terrific ravages of this moral plague, as he mani-
fested at the time by a characteristic expression of his abhorrence,
— quoting those emphatic lines of Virgil : —

“Non, mihi si lingua centum sint oraque centum,

Ferrea vox, omnes scelerum comprendere formas

possim.”

It was at this period that the late Judge Lowell, then one of
the corporate body of the University, declared the exalted senti-
ment, that, rather than endure such evils among the students, he
would send them off till he had made college a perfect chasm, and
then start anew on the right ground.

Pickering’s moral indignation, however, bore no unkindness to
his offending fellow-students. His heart teemed with sentiments
of candor, generosity, and true honor. Nothing of the ascetic or
recluse appeared in his disposition or manners. He mingled freely
with his classmates in their pleasures and sports, their “jests and
youthful jollities,” insisting only, that, so far as he was concerned,
they should be innocent and proper. And this was a condition ex-
acted by his very nature, unconsciously as it were to himself.
His simplicity and singleness of heart were as remarkable as his

purity and elevation of mind. He Joined the various social as well

xii

as literary clubs, even the gayest of them, the more readily, doubtless,
from the very cause which might have restrained others, —a nat-
ural diffidence, which he felt it his duty to overcome. The musical
club, or Sodality, was best suited to his taste, and afforded him the
highest gratification. He cultivated music with delight, both as an
art and as a science, and was distinguished in college for his per-
formance on the flute and the violin, as well as for his skill in vocal
harmony. As president of the Sodality, he introduced an improved
style of music in their performances. Social music became his
favorite diversion, affording him through life a lively enjoyment and
recreation.

In the whole course of his studies, he manifested a genuine inde-
pendence and a wise foresight, as well as an energetic indus-
try. Upon his entrance into college, he was surprised to find in
what low estimation classical learning was held by the students.
Scarcely one among them could be found to do it reverence. ‘The
times, however, were very peculiar. ‘The innovating spirit of the
French Revolution was raging in the world, and ancient learning,
least of all, could expect to escape its baleful influence.

But no example or influence could tempt Mr. Pickering to for-
sake his first love. He faltered not for a moment in his devotion
to a liberal pursuit of classical studies, thoroughly mastering those
embraced by his stated exercises, and extending his knowledge
much farther both of ancient languages and the literature contained
in them. In all his voluntary studies he loved to have friendly
companions, and his literary attractions failed not to draw them to
him. One of my respected classmates, a learned scholar and
divine of this city, who sympathized with Mr. Pickering in all his
philological researches, has told me of the delightful hours they

passed together at Cambridge in reading various classic authors ;

xiil

and he remembers another classmate as having been attracted to
join them, now as distinguished at the American bar as he then was
in college. He remembers, also, the gratification with which they
welcomed the addition to their number of a fine classical scholar
from England, who entered Mr. Pickering’s class at an advanced
period, and most heartily sustained him in his favorite studies. I
take pleasure in alluding to these bright examples, as being illustra-
tive not only of Mr. Pickering’s character and influence, but also of
the tendency of classical learning itself to produce such examples.

These favorite studies, however, were not allowed to occupy more
than their due proportion of Mr. Pickering’s time in college. The
mathematics and natural philosophy were studied by him with
scarcely less ardor, and with equal success; nor was any branch of
learning overlooked by him, which he had an opportunity to culti-
vate. Academic honors had no influence in shaping his plans of
study or his rules of conduct. So far from this, he dreaded them,
as an unwelcome visitation, if they required his speaking before
the public. He pursued knowledge for its intrinsic value and be-
cause he loved it; and conducted himself nobly by following out
his inbred sense of propriety and Christian duty.

His father, being a member of President Washington’s admin-
istration, was too much engaged by his public duties to do more
for his son’s improvement in college than by occasionally writing to
him. Such a father, however, could not fail to do much in this
way, and to exert a powerful influence upon such a son. Their
correspondence, were it open to us, would afford the best illustra-
tion of Mr. Pickering’s condition and circumstances in college, as
well as of the motives which governed him, and the manliness and
moral beauty of his youthful character. An intimate college com-

panion remembers some of the father’s letters, and the excellent

XIV

instructions they contained. It is to be hoped, that, at some day,
they may be permitted to see the light.

Mr. Pickering enjoyed his college life in a high degree, and justly
appreciated its privileges; yet he felt the want of an instructer in
elocution, and, unlike some students of that day, he lamented the
inability of the professor who taught English composition to at-
tend to his class in that exercise, which he considered among the
most important in college. By such disadvantages he was stimu-
lated to greater diligence in supplying himself with instruction.
In the practice of speaking he found much aid from an ancient
secret society, composed of select members from the two middle
classes, called the Speaking Club, then in high esteem; the mem-
bers of which held regular meetings for declamation and mutual
improvement, and were alike faithful and kind in pointing out each
other’s faults of elocution, sometimes entering into discussions
which served to accustom them to extemporaneous speaking. At
that period, also, the resident members of the Phi Beta Kappa
Society, during the Senior year, were a working society for mutual
improvement in composition, reasoning, and elocution. ‘They had
frequent meetings within the walls of college, at which the mem-
bers, in turn, produced and read dissertations or forensic argu-
ments, which, with occasional colloquial discussions, were found
highly useful. Mr. Pickering could not fail to make them so to
himself. His leisure hours, too, whether given to social intercourse
and recreation, or to classical and other well-chosen reading, were
fraught with improvement of much value. His learned friend, Dr.
Clarke, was ever ready not only to advise him as to the course of
his reading, but to lend him the best books for his purpose.

In his knowledge of the French language he had greatly the
advantage of most of his classmates. His chief object at college in

XV

respect to this was to acquire a correct pronunciation of the lan-
guage, in which he was remarkably successful, his instructer being
a native of France, and particularly pleased to give him the atten-
tion which he desired. He had, indeed, a peculiar facility, in all
the foreign tongues which he studied, in acquiring ease and correct-
ness of pronunciation. His delicately tuned ear was in this an ex-
cellent guide. Thorough and complete knowledge was sought by
him in all his studies. Hence he accustomed himself to the prac-
tice of writing in the principal languages he acquired, —a_prac-
tice which he commenced at college in the French, and continued
afterwards in the Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Greek, and some other
tongues. No intellectual labor was irksome to him which looked
to the increase or improvement of his knowledge.

Though Mr. Pickering had no thought of ever becoming a medi-
cal student, yet, in pursuance of the principle to avail himself of all
opportunities of acquiring valuable information, he attended, in his
Senior year, Dr. Warren’s lectures on anatomy, and Dr. Dexter’s
on chemistry. With the former he was greatly delighted, as af-
fording him both instruction and entertainment ina high degree.
The latter, from the nature of the subject, were far less interesting ;
yet he was stimulated by them to unite with several of his class-
mates in pursuing the study by themselves, making such experi-
ments as with their small apparatus were in their power.

The peculiar delicacy of Mr. Pickering’s mind and feelings ex-
posed him, in early life, to no little suffering from diffidence, which
it required all his resolution and sense of duty to overcome, and
which, perhaps, he never entirely subdued. Yet few ever exceed-
ed him in dignity of mind, strength of character, and firm, uncom-
promising principle. From his modest reluctance to speak in pub-
lic, he would have gladly avoided his first college honor, a part in

XV1

an English dialogue, at an exhibition in his Junior year; but his
resolution enabled him to perform it to the gratification of his
friends, as it did also his second part, a finely written Latin ora-
tion on Classical Learning, a subject suggested to him by his ever-
attentive friend, Dr. Clarke. Great as was his enthusiasm for clas-
sical learning, he had, in college, as real a love for the study of the
mathematics, and highly distinguished himself in this department.
Near the close of his Senior year, he received the honor of a mathe-
matical part, which appeared to give him more pleasure than all
his other college honors. It afforded him an opportunity to manifest
his profound scholarship in a manner most agreeable to his feelings.
When he had delivered to the Corporation and Overseers this part,
containing solutions of problems by fluxions, he had the rare satis-
faction to be told that one of them was more elegant than the so-
lution of the great Simpson, who wrote a treatise on fluxions, in
which the same problem was solved by him. Such was the dis-
tinguished honor that crowned Mr. Pickering’s intellectual labors in
college.

At his Commencement, he had assigned to him a new part, one
never before introduced, which, with the subject, was intended by
the government as a particular honor to him, and his classical friend
before mentioned, from England. This was an English colloquy,
and the subject given them was, “ A Panegyric on Classic Lit-
erature.” The execution of the part was honorable to both, and
formed a suitable close to Mr. Pickering’s academical life.

At this important era, which fixed the character of his whole
earthly career, we may be allowed to pause for a moment to con-
template his attainments and his example. His education, in all
its essential objects, was now complete. ‘Together with the ac-

quisition of a rich fund of various learning, all his faculties were

XVil

so disciplined and improved, his love of knowledge so inflamed, and
his ambition so exalted, that he could not fail to extend his views,
and urge his pursuit of learning with increased energy. Alike
powerful in mind and pure in heart, amiable, intelligent, and armed
with all the strength of virtue and religious principle, he was pre-
pared to enter the world of action, temptation, and trial. He at
once inspired respect, together with the most entire confidence,
wherever he became known, in the stability of his principles. They
who intimately knew him would as soon have thought that one
of the planets would shoot from its orbit, as that he would depart
from his honorable course.

Whether, as many of his classmates affirmed, he bore from the
University the reputation of being the first scholar of his class, it is
of little consequence to inquire ; nor is it material to measure very
exactly the magnitude or extent of his talents ; “it is enough to
know that they were not so great as to raise him above the strict-
est virtue, or the least of moral obligations, and that in accomplish-
ing his education he made himself a model scholar, and laid the
foundation of his eminent distinction and usefulness in life. To
profit from his example, we must learn how he attained to such
excellence. For this purpose it is that we have traced so carefully
the progress of his education, and considered his advantages and
disadvantages, and the manner in which he improved them; for he
appears to have improved both, or rather to have made what were
regarded as disadvantages the means of greater improvement.
Though he regretted that more complete instruction was not af-
forded in some departments of education, yet it was doubtless bet-
ter for him, with his enlightened industry and wise disposition of
his time, to have too few than too many teachers, and to enjoy un-
disturbed the best hours of the day for study, than to pass through

C

xVill

the most skilful process of recitation. ‘The professors and tutors,
whom it was his good fortune to have through college, were able
teachers and admirable guides; and, if they taught not all things,
they misled in nothing. Had it been otherwise with them, it
might have been otherwise with him; for who can be safe, when
guides mislead? Mere defect of instruction he could supply for
himself, better perhaps than others, with some additional advan-
tages from the spontaneous and independent exertion of his facul-
ties. His fidelity in attending to his stated exercises and observ-
ing all the proprieties of a conduct at once courteous, manly, and
upright, was not more extraordinary than his industry and sagacity
in employing his leisure time to extend his classical and philosophi-
cal learning, and to acquire the most valuable accomplishments.
Even his hours of convivial recreation were subservient to the
erowth of his social and generous virtues, and his favorite pleasure
consisted in the cultivation and practice of one of the most de-
lightful of the fine arts.

Of all whom I have ever known, from our own or any other
University, no one appears better entitled than Mr. Pickering to
be regarded as the MopEL scHoLar. In saying this, I pronounce
his highest eulogium, and present his strongest claim upon the pub-
lic gratitude. Vast and comprehensive as was his matured learn-
ing, and valuable as were its fruits to his country and the world,
the finished model he has left for guiding the studies and forming
the character of the scholar and the man is infinitely more precious.
Any student, commonly well endowed, who has a soul capable of
aspiring to excellence, — and what young man, devoting himself to
a liberal education, is destitute of such a soul ?— may find in this
model an unerring guide to the attainment of his lofty object.
Faithfully following his guide, he cannot fail of success. One con-

xix

dition only is indispensable, —a condition, too, altogether in his
own favor. He must begin and persevere in the spirit of his
model. He must abjure every indulgence which has the least
tendency to impair his moral or his mental energies, or to induce
any injurious or unseemly habit. « Procul, O procul!” must be
the earnest exclamation of his heart against every form and aspect
of moral evil. Thus persevering, he will find his progress as de-
lightful as his success is certain.

The instructer, equally with the student, may gain wisdom from
the contemplation of such a model, —the model of a character
which it is his peculiar province to form. The faithful ship-builder
spares no pains in studying the best model of his art, and making
his work strong and complete. Much more will the faithful builder
of a human character, freighted with treasures of immortal value,
seek the highest degree of perfection in his work. Here, in this
noblest of human works, the “ wise master-builder” is deserving
of all honor. He entitles himself preéminently to the gratitude of
mankind.

I trust, Gentlemen, you will not regard these remarks, intended
as they are to elucidate Mr. Pickering’s distinguishing merits, as
an impertinent digression, or charge me with a waste of your time
in dwelling so long upon that portion of his life which is some-
times passed by with a single glance. It is more pleasing, I know,
to admire the ripened fruit than to watch the culture of the vine
or the tree which bears it; but the latter is quite as useful an em-
ployment as the former. Having witnessed the planting of a noble
tree, and carefully observed its early culture, its growth and expan-
sion, its full foliage and fair blossoms, we may not only admire its
fruit, but understand the means by which it is produced.

A smiling Providence appears to have guided Mr. Pickering at

XxX

every step of his progress. Upon leaving the University and re-
turning to his parents in Philadelphia, he found himself in the very
situation which, of all others, he must have preferred for his con-
tinued advancement in various excellence. His father, then Sec-
retary of State, introduced him at once into the most intellectual
and cultivated society, and afforded every desirable opportunity for
the gratification of his literary taste and ambition. Having chosen
the law for his profession, he entered the office of Edward Tilgh-
man, Esq., and closely pursued his legal studies for about nine
months, when he was appointed secretary of legation to William
Smith, who had been a distinguished member of Congress from
South Carolina, and was then to be our minister at the court of
Lisbon. Nothing could have been more agreeable to Mr. Picker-
ing than such an appointment. It opened a delightful prospect for
the indulgence of his curiosity in seeing Europe, and for the exten-
sion of his literary and philosophical researches. In Mr. Smith,
who was as remarkable for his amiable disposition as for his talents,
he was sure to find a most valuable friend and companion. .

During his short residence in Philadelphia, he generally devoted
his early morning hours, as well as his evenings, to classical read-
ing. He assured a friend, whom he had left a student at Cam-
bridge, and whom he wished to imbue with a genuine love of an-
cient learning, that, instead of seeing the inutility of the classics, as
many of his classmates had predicted he would, he was fully con-
vinced of their value, and was then pursuing them, particularly
Greek, with more ardor than ever. His ardor in the pursuit and
promotion of Greek literature, as we all know, never abated.

In August, 1797, Mr. Pickering, after a voyage of twenty-seven
days, arrived at Lisbon. On the passage he studied the Portu-

guese language, so that, by taking a few lessons after his arrival,

XXi

he was able to speak it with tolerable case. Most of his time in
Portugal was passed at Lisbon, except during the hot months of
summer, when Mr. Smith resided at Cintra, a beautiful rural re-
treat, much resorted to by the wealthy inhabitants of Lisbon.
Here Mr. Pickering, little inclined to mingle in the fashionable
amusements going on around him, had leisure for his own pursuits,
and found constant enjoyment among the orange and lemon groves
abounding there, and from the mountainous, romantic scenery of
the place. He used to speak of some other excursions from Lis-
bon. He visited the famous monastery of Batalha, a grand speci-
men of elaborate antique architecture, which made a deep impres-
sion upon his mind, and he often spoke of it afterwards with
enthusiastic admiration. He also visited the ancient University of
Coimbra, where the venerable professors paid him the kindest
attentions, and at parting embraced him as a friend. He had,
indeed, always a language of the intellect, heart, and manner,
alike intelligible and pleasing to all, which at once secured him
friends wherever he went.

He travelled little to see the country. Much as he loved nature,
he loved humanity more. Whatever related to the human mind,
or to human society, in any state or form of its existence, — insti-
tutions, laws, manners, arts, education, language, — engaged his
deep attention. In pursuing his studies at Lisbon, he felt at first
the want of books; but making friends, in his wonted manner, of
some learned monks, whom he visited in an old convent, he ob-
tained through their kindness those which he most needed. The
civil law and the law of nations, with the study of languages, were
the leading objects of his attention. He read Vattel’s Law of Na-
tions, in the original French, and entered upon Justinian’s Jnsti-
tutes. Meeting with a learned native of Damascus, where the

XXil

Arabic language was spoken in its greatest purity, he studied that
language ; and, at the same time, made it the occasion of acquiring
a more familiar knowledge of the literature and affairs of Portugal,
by conversations on these subjects with his friendly instructer, who
had lived many years in the country. He also studied the Italian
language at this time, and probably the Spanish. It having been
expected that Mr. Smith would be sent on a mission to Constanti-
nople, Mr. Pickering indulged the pleasing vision of seeing the
East, and treading the classic ground of Greece and Rome. With
this view, he undertook the study of the Turkish language ; but the
mission to that country was abandoned, and he never realized his
anticipated delight.

In Lisbon, as in college, music was his favorite social recreation.
Mr. Smith himself had a fine taste for music, and the musical par-
ties among his friends were to Mr. Pickering a source of instruc-
tion as well as entertainment. He joined them on the flute, and
thus acquired that correct taste and cultivation which he could
hardly have obtained at that time in his own country. He became
so well versed in the science of music, that in later life he took
much pleasure in explaining its principles to his young friends.
His mechanical ingenuity, which discovered itself so early in life,
was perhaps most manifested in his practical knowledge of the con-
struction of musical instruments.

The noble father kept a steady eye upon his son’s higher im-
provement, and therefore, satisfactory as was his connection with
Mr. Smith, he made arrangements for his removal to London,
where his advantages would be more ample. During the two years
he had passed with Mr. Smith, their mutual regard had ripened
into the sincerest friendship, and, on parting with him, Mr. Smith
expressed his exalted esteem, and his deep regret at losing the

society of so estimable a companion and friend.

XXili

Under the continued smiles of Providence, Mr. Pickering found
himself, in November, 1799, happily situated in the family of Rufus
King, our minister at the court of St. James, surrounded by the
most desirable means of intellectual progress and rational enjoy-
ment. He was honored by an intimate reception in the family of
Christopher Gore, then at London, residing in Mr. King’s imme-
diate vicinity. He gained the warm friendship of both these emi-
nent gentlemen, and met in their respective families the best soci-
ety, whether for his taste or his manners. His social pleasures
at this time were of a high order, and rendered altogether delight-
ful by the simultaneous arrival in London of a classmate of kindred
sentiment and taste, who afforded him all that exquisite enjoyment
of confidential intercourse which springs from college friendship.*
This beloved friend survives to honor his memory and bear witness
to his worth. He had access to his inmost thoughts and feelings,
and can put the seal of truth to the strongest lines of excellence
which I have drawn. I have only to regret that his skilful and
delicate pencil was not employed to paint the picture.

Our consul at London was Samuel Williams, Mr. Pickering’s
friend and cousin, who freely offered to advance whatever funds he
might desire for the purchase of books. His father having encour-
aged him to indulge his inclination in such an expenditure, he
availed himself largely of Mr. Williams’s kind offer, and selected and
brought home with him an extensive and choice library, which in
the end became a rich acquisition to the literature of New England.

Mr. Pickering was the private secretary of Mr. King, and also
the instructer of his sons in their vacations from school; but he

found much time for his literary pursuits. These were such as we

* Dr. James Jackson.

XXIV

should naturally suppose, from his taste and settled habits of study ;
and his proficiency was in proportion to the excellence of his habits
and his disciplined powers of mind. His ardent curiosity and love
of knowledge, his keen, philosophical observation, his clear per-
ception, sound, discriminating judgment, and close, penetrating
attention, with his strong and exact memory, all improved by con-
stant exercise, and aided by a judicious observance of order and
method, will go far to account for his acquirements at this period,
as well as for the vast accession afterwards made to his learning
and intellectual ability. ‘Together with his unremitting industry,
he possessed the mighty power of concentrating his whole atten-
tion upon the object before him, and pursuing it with intense ap-
plication. ‘This he acquired the habit of doing, like his illustrious
friend Bowditch, in the midst of his family, without being disturb-
ed by conversation carried on around him, or even diverted by
music, which he so loved; yet cheerfully submitting to necessary
interruptions, and instantly returning again to his laborious mental
work.

All his spare time, after fulfilling his duties to Mr. King and to
society, was devoted to the various juridical and philological stud-
ies which he pursued in so systematic and thorough a manner,
Taylor’s Elements of the Civil Law he completely mastered, mak-
ing it a point to read entirely through the various recondite Greek
quotations with which the work abounds, —an entertainment, we
venture to say, never before indulged in by any American lawyer.
In connection with this, he read parts of Livy relating to the Ro-
man law and constitution, investigating any matters of difference
between these authors. He, of course, kept up his intimacy with
the classic writers of Greece and Rome, and read various learned

works connected with them, among the most considerable of which

XXV

was Havercamp’s Sylloge Scriptorum de Lingue Grece Pronun-
tiatione. He generally took up first in the morning some ancient
author, most frequently Cicero, delighting at such moments to read
a portion of his ethical or philosophical writings. His practice
now, as in college, was to pursue different studies each day, min-
gling with the severer the more lively. Along with Taylor, which
he made a severe study, he read through Dryden’s prose works,
which, with his philological taste and views, were highly enter-
taining. With Euclid’s Geometry, Locke’s Human Understand-
ing, and the philological works of Harris and Murray, he read
a copious history of the French Revolution, and several works
of Edmund Burke on the same eventful subject, — an author with
whom he was greatly delighted on all subjects, and of whose
genius and sagacity he appeared through life to feel an increasing
admiration.

As Mr. King passed the summer seasons at Mill-hill, a fine rural
situation about five miles from London, Mr. Pickering availed him-
self of the Opportunity it afforded for the study of botany, and with
the aid of Professor Martyn’s lectures he acquired a competent
knowledge of that beautiful science, which became a source of re-
fined gratification to him, and never more so than when he had
the pleasure to impart it in his own family.

But Mr. Pickering was not so devoted to his studies as to over-
look any important means of information. He occasionally attend-
ed the meetings of Parliament and the courts of law, especially
the Admiralty Court, where Sir William Scott was the judge, in
the proceedings of which he was particularly interested, from its
connection with the law of nations, and from its having before it
various American cases. Though the theatre, in its ordinary per-
formances, had no attractions for him, yet he went to hear Kemble

d

XXV1

and Mrs. Siddons, and was deeply impressed by the transcendent
powers of the latter. In all his attendance on English speaking,
whether in the Parliament, the courts, or the theatre, he was a
strict observer of the use and pronunciation of the language, and
had already begun to note peculiarities of expression, with a view
to ascertain how far the true English tongue was corrupted in
America.

Mr. Pickering’s incessant occupations prevented his journeying
much in England. He failed not, however, to visit Oxford, where
he could find so much to gratify his highest curiosity. His classi-
cal and mathematical scholarship, but for his modesty, might have
made him feel more at home either at Oxford or Cambridge than
anywhere else in England.

Fortunately, he had an opportunity to visit the Continent before
his return to America. In the winter and spring of 1801, he
passed three or four months in travelling through France and the
Netherlands. In Paris, he was introduced to Madame de Staél,
the object of attraction to the literati and politicians of the day.
He saw Bonaparte at the height of his renown, with Italy at his
feet, whose noblest works of art he had transported to France.
As a lover of the fine arts, Mr. Pickering could almost visit Rome
in Paris. At Leyden, he became acquainted with the celebrated
Luzac, Greek professor in the University, who afterwards honored
him with his correspondence. In Amsterdam, he gained the friend-
ship of Dr. Ballhorn, who soon after published a learned juridical
work, dedicated ‘ Viro clarissimo Joanni Pickering.” ‘To a youth-
ful scholar such testimonials of merit must have been as gratify-
ing as they were honorable.

Soon after Mr. Pickering’s return from the Continent, he set his
face homewards. The extensive library, before alluded to, was

XXVIii

collected by him with great care, partly in Portugal and partly
during his travels in France and Holland, but principally among
the booksellers of London, through whom he found access to some
of the rarest treasures both of ancient and modern learning. This
library was no unworthy representative of the treasures stored in
his mind. He had been as wise and faithful in the use of books,
as he was skilful in the selection of them. No one better knew
the true value and purpose of books, or made them more effectually
the means of practical wisdom and goodness. Not the slightest
tinge of pedantry ever appeared in his conversation or manner.

“‘ Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes

Emollit mores, nec sinit esse feros.”

Mr. Pickering studied literature and the fine arts both with fideli-
ty and delight. Not only music, but poetry, painting, architecture,
and especially sculpture, gave him pleasure as lively as it was re-
fined. The influence of these favorite pursuits appeared in his
disposition, affections, and whole conduct, and, together with the
effect of the best society, gave a peculiar charm to his manners ;
which were so simple as not to arrest observation, and yet so re-
fined as to bear the closest scrutiny, and which, having their foun-
dation in his good heart, and being guided by the nicest discrimi-
nation as well as true delicacy of feeling, were sure to recommend
him to the favorable regard of all, and to the cordial respect of the
most worthy.

We might abundantly show the high estimation in which Mr.
Pickering’s character and talents were held by his eminent friends,
Rufus King and William Smith, were their correspondence with his
father at our disposal. But for this we must wait. till the long
hoped-for biography of this pure, ardent, and able patriot and

XXVIll

statesman is given to the world; —a service of filial piety, which
it was in the heart of our lamented friend to render, but which
now, alas! must be performed by another.

In November, 1801, Mr. Pickering, with his noble library, after
a stormy and perilous voyage of forty-five days, arrived in Boston.
Few scholars ever had a more brilliant return from abroad, or a
warmer welcome home. One disappointment, however, awaited
him on his arrival ; —he did not meet his revered father, who was
far away in the interior of Pennsylvania, out of office, enjoying
the purest reward of laborious patriotism, — the veneration of his
country and — an honorable poverty. This led to another disap-
pointment. Mr. Pickering, in the purchase of his precious library,
relying upon his father’s advice and resources, had incurred a debt,
which he had now no means of discharging but from the library
itself. To part with any portion of this cost him a struggle, but
the moment he saw it to be his duty the struggle was over. He
sold more than two thousand volumes by public auction, under such
favorable auspices as enabled him to cancel his debt, and to retain
the residue of his books, to him probably the most valuable part.

Thus a smiling Providence returned, but not to him only; the
friends of learning shared it with him. The distribution of such a
collection of books, together with his own bright example, gave an
important impulse to the pursuit of ancient learning. The classic
Buckminster soon after imported, on his return from Europe, a
similar collection, which, at his deplored death, were in like man-
ner dispersed through our literary community. The germ of the
Boston Atheneum, too, may, doubtless, be traced to the sale of
Mr. Pickering’s library and the effective impulse which it sent
abroad.

Colonel Pickering, ever watchful to secure for his son the highest

XXIX

advantages, had made some arrangements for the completion of his
law studies with the late eminent Theophilus Parsons, influenced
partly, perhaps, by an old family friendship, — Mr. Parsons having
been named for the Colonel’s uncle, the Rev. Theophilus Picker-
ing, and been consequently a welcome guest in his father’s family.
But the earnest wishes of the good uncle, whose unvarying affec-
tion had followed Mr. Pickering from infancy, prevailed with him
to return to Salem, where he entered the office of Mr. Putnam, af-
terwards a judge of the Supreme Judicial Court.

Here, attracted by Mr. Pickering’s well known character, I
joined him, to finish my own professional studies. While he had
been abroad, expanding his views of men as well as books, I had
been confined to a didactic sphere within the walls of college. On
emerging into the world, nothing could have been more welcome
to me than such a companion. His society was alike instructive
and delightful. It brightened the whole time I was with him, and
made it one of the sunniest spots of my life. From that moment,
I was for many years a close observer of him in public and in
private, at the bar and among his friends, in his walks and amid
his studies, in the bosom of his family and at my own fireside, and
to my view his whole path of life was luminous with truth and
goodness, — never obscured, no, not for a moment, by the slightest
shade of obliquity in him. I cannot withhold this cordial testi-
mony. ‘To the eye of reflecting age, truth and goodness are every
thing, mere genius and fame nothing, —in the comparison, abso-
lutely nothing.

It was while we were thus together in Mr. Putnam’s office, that
Mr. Pickering revised an edition of Sallust ; an edition pronounced
by an able critic in The Monthly Anthology to be “in every re-
spect preferable to the Dauphin Sallust,” and “not unworthy of
the classical reputation of the reputed editor.”

Xxx

Justly to appreciate this literary labor (if labor that may be
called which was a pleasant recreation), it is necessary to under-
stand the circumstances under which it was performed. Certain
booksellers in Salem, having determined to publish a reprint of
Sallust, asked of Mr. Pickering the favor to correct the proof-
sheets, which he was unwilling to grant without making it the oc-
casion of some valuable improvement. Hence the revised edition.
President Willard, of Harvard University, was consulted about it,
as the college government had recently made this author a prepara-
tory study for admission, and his suggestions were followed in the
undertaking, — an undertaking wholly gratuitous, and pursued
rather as an amusement than as a work of elaborate care. It was,
indeed, an interesting as well as liberal amusement, and I could
not participate in it without receiving a strong impression of Mr,
Pickering’s classical taste and knowledge. Nearly the whole of
this edition was destroyed by fire, before it had an opportunity to
be tested by public opinion.

As evidence of Mr. Pickering’s undiminished ardor in the pursuit
of Greek literature, it deserves mention, that, when he was thus
dividing his time at the office between Sallust and the law, he was
employing a portion of his hours at home in reading an old edition
of Homer with the scholia of Didymus. It appears to have been
his practice through life thus industriously to mingle literary occu-
pation with his domestic enjoyments.

In March, 1804, Mr. Pickering was admitted to the bar, and
commenced the practice of law in Salem. On the third day of
March, 1805, he was married to his second cousin, Sarah White,
and in the following May they became members of the First
Church in Salem, then under the pastoral care of the Rev. Dr.
Prince, of which Mr. Pickering was made one of the ruling elders.

XXX1

This continued to be his place of worship while he remained in his
native town, and also when he afterwards returned to it for his
summer’s residence. But on his removal to Boston, in 1827, he
with his family attended public worship in an Episcopal church.
He was truly liberal and generous, yielding in matters of opinion,
as in other things, more than he claimed; for, with the Apostle, he
attached less importance to particular tenets, than to “ love, joy,
peace, gentleness, goodness, faith.” In all his relations, civil and
religious, he was alike useful and exemplary, honored and beloved.

Though never inclined to a political life, Mr. Pickering some-
times acceded to the wishes of his friends so far as to partake
in the administration of public affairs within our Commonwealth.
For several years during the late war with England, he was a rep-
resentative from Salem in the General Court, and after the war,
for some years a senator from the county of Essex, then again from
Suffolk, and once a member of the Executive Council. He was
very early, as you know, elected a Fellow of the American Acad-
emy, and afterwards a member of the American Philosophical
Society, and of various other learned bodies at home and abroad.*
He also received the highest academic honors from more than
one university. But political and exterior honors appear of little
importance in connection with his intellectual career. His true
distinction springs directly from his intrinsic excellence.

In following Mr. Pickering through his education, and during his
residence abroad, — which was but an extension of it, —we have
traced his progress more minutely than is necessary in pointing out
the results of his education and learning. It is not so important
that we should have a complete view of his labors and literary pro-
ductions, as that we should clearly understand the spirit and the

* Note A.

XXXii

principles which actuated him in accomplishing them. Few may
expect to enter into his labors, or to attain to his distinction ; nor is
that material; but all, of whatever profession or employment, may
imbibe his generous spirit and act from his exalted principles, and
this is the essential thing.

His first publication, after his admission to the bar, was an ora-
tion delivered in Salem, on the fourth of July, 1804, which was
received by his political friends with distinguished marks of favor,
and published at their desire. Its sound and philosophical views of
government, and its able exposition of public affairs, and the spirit
and progress of parties in the United States, with its clear, appro-
priate, and manly style, give it a permanent value, and render it
particularly interesting, as one of Mr. Pickering’s earliest produc-
tions.

We are reminded by this oration of the opinion, which Mr.
Smith was known to express in Lisbon, that Mr. Pickering’s abili-
ties remarkably fitted him for a diplomatic career; an opinion
which became more manifestly just, as he advanced in the improve-
ment of his abilities and the acquisition of general learning. His
knowledge of jurisprudence, with his various literary and scientific
attainments, eminently qualified him for any station in the govern-
ment at home or abroad. And had the spirit of Washington con-
tinued to preside over the destinies of the country, such men as
Mr. Pickering would have continued to be preferred for high po-
litical trusts. But, I think, we cannot doubt that our honored
friend, both by nature and education, belonged to learning, and
not to politics, or even to the law, distinguished as he was in the
science of jurisprudence.

“‘ Spirits are not finely touched,

But to fine issues.”

XXXiil

Providence, in bestowing his rare philosophical and literary abil-
ities, destined him for the purest intellectual pursuits. Spirits far
less “ finely touched ” might, for that very reason, better succeed
in the ordinary conflicts of the forum ; conflicts, in which fine pow-
ers and finer feelings, like his, must be quite out of place. In-
struments of exquisite metal and polish are not suited to work
upon rude and rough materials.

When, therefore, upon the resignation of Dr. Eliphalet Pearson,
Mr. Pickering was appointed, in June, 1806, Hancock Professor
of Hebrew and other Oriental Languages in Harvard College,
many of his friends, as well as friends of the University, were very
desirous that he should accept the office, regarding it as a sphere
in which his extraordinary learning and accomplishments would be
most productive of benefit to the country and of honor to himself,
The late Dr. Bowditch, was, at the same moment, appointed to
succeed President Webber as Hollis Professor of Mathematics
and Natural Philosophy. A remarkable coincidence! These
eminent men, near neighbours and intimate friends, were doubt-
less better qualified for the offices to which they were respectively
appointed than any other two individuals in the whole country.
They were also admirably suited to codperate in giving a spring
to the University in all excellence, intellectual and moral. Both
were liberal, elevated, and disinterested in their views of educa-
tion and learning; both had an insatiable thirst for knowledge,
and a supreme love of truth and goodness; the one was devoted to
science, the other chiefly to literature ; both were exalted and spot-
less in reputation, alike raised above all suspicion of moral failing,
yet with some striking points of contrast; the one, quick and
ardent, would leap to a logical conclusion at a single step ; while
the other, cautious and patient, like Lord Eldon, could never weigh

e

XXXIV

his arguments or consider his subject too deliberately.“ Suaviter in
modo, fortiter in re,” was applicable to both ; but the one could put
aside his gentleness of manner when he felt it to be his duty ; the
other could hardly be brought to feel it a duty. Both were as ex-
emplary in Christian virtue, in the exercise of social benevolence
and the domestic affections, and in purity of habits, as they were
distinguished in literature and science ; and both would have dis-
countenanced by their powerful example those indulgences and
practices which often lead the young student into habits more in-
jurious to him than any amount of learning can be beneficial. But
both, to the deep regret of the University, declined their appoint-
ments.

Seven or eight years later, on the establishment of the Eliot
Professorship of Greek Literature, Mr. Pickering was still more
urgently pressed to be a candidate for the new professor’s chair.
A friend to him and to the University was authorized, by the Presi-
dent of Harvard College, to ascertain “‘ whether any and what
definite amount of compensation would induce him to accede to
the proposition.” But Mr. Pickering gave no encouragement for
proceeding to his election. ‘The literary duties, no doubt, were at-
tractive, but the disciplinary cares connected with them had a for-
bidding aspect. Some of his friends, moreover, very naturally de-
sired for him a sphere of usefulness which appeared to them more
eminent and extensive. Nor were they too sanguine in their views
of his future eminence. Yet who could now say that he might
not have been still more extensively useful, had the direct in-
fluence of his superior powers and virtues, his teachings and his
example, been exerted upon the numerous young men since edu-
cated at the University, and been diffused through them over our
whole country ?

XXXV

Mr. Pickering was a grateful and devoted son of the Univer-
sity, which so justly appreciated his merits, and which, at a subse-
quent period, bestowed upon him its highest honors. For many
years he was an efficient member of the Board of Overseers, al-
ways ready to exert his influence to advance the usefulness and
reputation of his Alma Mater. His last admirable report, as one
of the visiting committee, in 1840, embodies views and principles
of university education which ought never to be overlooked or for-
gotten.*

We need not dwell here upon his learning as a jurist, or upon
his excellent qualities as a practising lawyer. These have been
portrayed and exhibited on an occasion before referred to, in the
best manner for extending their influence in the profession of which
he was so bright an ornament. We should remember, however,
that, while pursuing his extensive literary researches, and perform-
ing numberless intellectual labors for the public and for individuals,
he was incessantly engaged, to the last year of his life, in the ar-
duous duties of his profession, — duties which not unfrequently im-
posed upon him a drudgery as irksome as it was laborious. He
felt the full weight of it, and but for those interesting questions
which led him to examine principles, his profession, as he some-
times remarked, would have been nothing but labor and drudgery.
Having ascended to the fountain-head of jurisprudence, and stored
his mind with great principles, he took delight in tracing these in
their practical application. In this view, he regarded his profession
as a most honorable one. The friends of humanity and learning,
however, will not cease to regret that the “labor and drudgery,”
which others might have well performed, should have taken so

* Note B.

XXXVi

much of his precious time from those noble intellectual pursuits
for which he was so peculiarly competent. Especially must they
regret, that, on removing to the metropolis, where his powerful lit-
erary influence was so important, he should have felt it necessary
to present himself only in his professional character. The office of
city solicitor, which he held for a great number of years, brought
with it much additional labor, though occasionally relieved by the
occurrence of those interesting questions which he loved to investi-
gate and settle. The numerous legal opinions which he was called
upon to give, we are assured, were as remarkable for their sound-
ness as for their learning.*

Mr. Pickering’s literary productions and labors, aside from the
practice of his profession, were so abundant and multifarious, that
it is not possible for us, on this occasion, to take a complete or
distinct view of them. We must classify them as well as we can,
according to their kindred relation, contenting ourselves with some
brief remarks.

First, we class together those writings which partake of a pro-
fessional character, while they are also made attractive to the gen-
eral reader. ‘The most considerable of these, perhaps, is the
able discussion of “ National Rights and State Rights,”’ which was
drawn from him by the case of Alexander McLeod, —a case involy-
ing a question of the highest public importance, —“ dignus vindice
nodus.” It was, indeed, worthy of his interposition, and his learn-
ing and logical ability were equal to its solution. He brought to
the discussion such a thorough knowledge of the subject, with such
clear views of our federal and state relations, urged with such
weight of argument, justice, and truth, that he settled this great

* Note C.

XXXVI1

national question upon principles which can never be shaken. For
this single service he is entitled to a grateful remembrance so long
as any value is attached to the union of the States.

The next of this class, in point of general interest, is the article
upon Curtis’s Admiralty Digest, published in the American Jurist,
little known, probably, except to lawyers ; yet I could not point to
any work which contains, within the same compass, more matter
of permanent interest to every reader of American history, and
which throws more light upon the foreign policy of our government
from the time of Washington’s declaration of neutrality, in 1793,
to the declaration of war, in 1812, under President Madison.

Another dissertation, published in the Jurist, entitled «* Remarks
on the Study of the Civil Law,” is highly useful to the classical
scholar, and, indeed, to every educated gentleman, though designed
more especially for civilians and lawyers, Early impressed with
the importance of this study, Mr. Pickering wished to draw the
attention of the bar to it as among the most effectual means of
raising the dignity and usefulness of the profession. He regarded
the civil law as a wonderful repository of human reason, the source
of a large portion of our common law, and the basis of that inter-
national code which governs us and all the nations that consti-
tute the great community of Europe. At the close, he expresses
a strong desire to see this branch of jurisprudence take its proper
rank in our law schools, as well as among our practitioners at the
bar. Alluding to an illustrious example of professional liberality in
the donation made by our late learned countryman, Dr, Dane, to the
University of Cambridge, for the advancement of American law,
he adds : — “ We earnestly hope that some benefactor of equal Jib-
erality will soon be found who will devote a portion of the well-
earned fruits of an honorable life to a chair for the civil law in
that ever cherished institution.”

XXXVIIL

As akin to this subject, we may glance at the article, written by
Mr. Pickering for the Encyclopedia Americana, on the “ Agrarian
Laws of Rome”; a correct view of which laws he considered in-
dispensable to general readers, as well as lawyers, who would have
just notions of the Roman history and constitution. Contrary to
the general impression, that those laws were always a direct in-
fringement of the rights of private property, he shows that the
original object of them was the distribution of the public lands, and
not those of private citizens, though they might sometimes violate
private rights; as certain laws of our State legislature, agrarian in
principle, made for the relief of illegal settlers on Eastern lands,
violated the rights of proprietors of those lands.

The “Lecture on the alleged Uncertainty of the Law,” deliv-
ered by Mr. Pickering before the Boston Society for the Diffu-
sion of Useful Knowledge, is an excellent production. Instead of
seeking for his auditors an hour’s diversion by indulging their love
of pleasantry at the law’s expense, he aims at what is true and use-
ful, and affords both entertainment and instruction. His object
was, to promote a just respect for the science of the law by se-
curing for it a proper confidence. ‘The science itself is as certain
as the sciences in general ; but when we come to apply it to the
innumerable objects to be regulated by it, then the same uncer-
tainty takes place, which is experienced in the other sciences, not
excepting the mathematics. The various learning and striking il-
lustrations with which this beautiful lecture abounds place it
among his most valuable writings.

The article written for the North American Review, entitled
“Egyptian Jurisprudence,” is as characteristic as it is curious.
No other American scholar, we think, would have attempted it.
For several years, he observes, the learned world had been in

XXXIX

possession of some original and very ancient legal documents from
Egypt; yet, though they had not escaped the notice of jurists on
the continent of Europe, he had not seen any allusion to them in
the juridical journals, either of Great Britain or of this country.
One of these extraordinary documents is an Egyptian deed of a
piece of land in the city of Thebes, written on the papyrus of that
country, more than a century before the Christian era, with the
impression of a seal, or stamp, attached to it, and a certificate of
registry on its margin, in as regular a manner, Mr. Pickering adds,
as the keeper of the registry in the county of Suffolk would certify
to a deed of land in the city of Boston at this day. Of this cu-
rious document, written in Greek, as was common while Egypt
was under the Greek dynasty, a learned and ingenious explanation,
together with a fac-simile of it, is given by Mr. Pickering. The
whole article is exceedingly interesting, and affords a beautiful
specimen, not only of his rare learning, but of his philosophical
taste and skill in the application of his learning.

Such are the chief, though not all, of Mr. Pickering’s writings
which have a professional bearing. In the second class we include
those which partake of a legislative character.

As a member of the legislature of Massachusetts, Mr. Pickering
rendered important public services, and made himself conspicuous
among the eminent men of the Commonwealth. His elaborate
“ Report on the Subject of Impressed Seamen, with the Evidence
and Documents accompanying it,” made to the legislature of 1812,
the first year of the late war with England, is a durable monu-
ment of his patriotism, as well as of his ability and learning. We
cannot justly appreciate this undertaking, without looking back to
his position, in the midst of that dreadful war, — most dreadful to
all reflecting men, who saw and felt that it bound us to fight the

xl

battles of Bonaparte against the civilized world. When this over-
whelming conqueror was on his triumphant march against Russia,
our government, at the very moment which seemed to suit his
views, declared war against England, the only remaining barrier in
his way to universal dominion. ‘The power of the elements over
him could not be foreseen. The repeal of the British orders in
council, the chief alleged cause of the war, having taken place
before its declaration, though not known here till afterwards, left
the impressment of American seamen, or rather the claim of a
right to take British subjects from the merchant-ships of the United
States, the only remaining pretext for prosecuting the war. In
relation to this subject, great errors had crept into the public docu-
ments, and great delusion existed in the public mind. Mr. Picker-
ing thought that he could in no way render a greater service to
his country than by correcting those errors and dissipating that de-
lusion. For this purpose, he introduced, in the House of Repre-
sentatives, an order “to ascertain the number of the seamen of
this Commonwealth impressed or taken by any foreign nation.”
On him, as chairman of the committee thereupon appointed, chief-
ly devolved the labor and responsibility of the undertaking. It is
sufficient to add, that it was accomplished in a manner alike hon-
orable to himself and satisfactory to the legislature. A great mass
of evidence was reported, comprised in more than fifty depositions,
taken from the principal merchants and shipmasters of Massachu-
setts, together with a just account of the previous practice of our
government in relation to impressments, and a clear exposition of
national law on the subject, all showing conclusively that the fur-
ther prosecution of the war was as unnecessary as it was dis-
astrous.

We cannot follow Mr. Pickering through his important legisla-

xli

tive labors. It must suffice to observe, that on great occasions, or
on subjects involving great principles or momentous consequences,
his learning and his pen were always in demand, and never with-
held. The contemplated separation of Maine from Massachusetts,
when he was a Senator from Essex, in 1816, was such an occasion,
and he reported the first bill for this purpose, “drawn,” says the
historian of Maine, “with great ability and skill.”* In 1817,
he was appointed, together with the late Judge Dawes and late
Dr. Dane, “to revise the laws relating to the Courts of Probate,
and the settlement of the estates of deceased persons, in one gen-
eral bill, with such alterations and amendments as were neces-
sary.” This great and protracted labor was cheerfully assumed by
Mr. Pickering, though the youngest member of the committee,
and was accomplished by him with his usual ability and success.
Whether the younger or the older in any working committee or
body, he was as sure to have the work to do, as others were that
he was the best qualified to do it. A similar and yet more exten-
sive service was devolved upon him, on the death of Professor Ash-
mun, in the revision of the whole body of statutes, in connection
with those eminent jurists, Judge Jackson and the late Professor
Stearns. The portion of the work which Mr. Pickering undertook
Was a revision of the statutes relating to the “imternal administra-
tion of the government,” divided into fourteen distinct titles, and
subdivided into fifty-eight chapters, some of which contain over two
hundred sections. When it is added, that to these chapters was
subjoined a great mass of explanatory notes, we may form some
judgment of the extent and importance of his labors in this ar-
duous undertaking. He accomplished it in a manner that entitled
him to the lasting gratitude of the Commonwealth.

* 9 Law Reporter, 52.

xl

While he was a member of the Senate from the county of Suf-
folk, in 1829, he took a leading part in the discussion upon the
bill respecting manufacturing corporations, which, being based upon
principles of justice and sound policy touching the individual lia-
bility of stockholders, engaged his strenuous and persevering sup-
port. His able speech on that occasion was published, and it af-
fords ample evidence of his thorough knowledge of the subject, and
his large and just views of public policy.

In this connection we would observe, that Mr. Pickering was
often engaged as counsel before committees of the legislature in
important cases. ‘These were interesting to him in proportion as
they led him into the investigation and enforcement of great prin-
ciples of public justice. He never, perhaps, spoke with more sig-
nal ability and effect than on the question of a second bridge be-
tween Boston and Charlestown, —a question which involved prin-
ciples and consequences of momentous concern to the people of
Massachusetts. His speech was a powerful support of private
rights and the public faith, and was alike honorable to his head
and his heart.

With this very imperfect notice of Mr. Pickering’s civil and
legislative services, we pass to the third class, including those mis-
cellaneous labors and writings given by him in private and social
life. His lively interest in all public improvements, scientific dis-
coveries, and literary undertakings, with his various ability, prompt
pen, and ever obliging disposition, pointed him out as the man to
be called upon for any sort of intellectual work, needed by so-
cieties or individuals. Was any report, memorial, or other docu-
ment required on any occasion, or was any project to be commend-
ed by an exposition of its merits, his judgment and his pen were
put in requisition for the purpose. So, too, if any young author

xiii

had a manuscript eager, but unfit, for the press, he might be relied
on to give it form and comeliness, and to usher it into the world
with a preface or introduction. In such cases he was ever con-
tent to remain unknown, and to leave the whole literary credit
where it was most desired. It would be difficult to say which was
the greater, his modesty or his generosity. In some of these va-
rious professional and benevolent efforts, he found a most cordial
helper in a cherished and admiring friend, whose genius and learn-
ing were as practical as his feelings were generous and Christian, —
I mean our late eloquent associate, that warm-hearted and noble-
minded gentleman, Leverett Saltonstall, — whose delightful image
mingles sweetly with the memory of the friend whom he so hon-
ored and loved.

These miscellaneous claims upon Mr. Pickering’s attention rather
increased than diminished upon his removal to Boston. His pro-
fessional robe could not conceal him from the eye of science, or
from the calls of benevolence. Almost immediately his pen was
engaged, at the organization of the Boston Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge, in drafting its constitution, writing its first an-
nual report, and commending its objects to the public regard. He
was also its first vice-president, Daniel Webster being at its head.
Among the latest of these disinterested services was the learned
report which he made as chairman of a committee of Boston gen-
tlemen, recommending the purchase and introduction into the
country of a telescope of the first class, and illustrating the prog-
ress and the importance of astronomical science. These are but
instances. His familiar acquaintance with European languages at-
tracted many foreign gentlemen, whose society was so highly val-
ued by him, that he could not fail to give to it much of his time.
American scholars, too, always found him ready to listen, and

xliv

bountiful both of his time and knowledge. The young student
was encouraged to repeat his visits by the manifest delight which
Mr. Pickering always took in imparting useful information, An-
noying applications for his patronage in matters of a dubious char-
acter were, perhaps, unavoidable, and these would sometimes be
intruded upon hours which should have been sacred to his repose
and recreation.*

We now pass to the fourth class, comprehending Mr. Picker-
ing’s writings and labors in the cause of ancient learning. We
have seen his constant devotion to the Greek and Roman classics.
The Hebrew and other Oriental languages also engaged his pro-
found attention. A competent knowledge of the original lan-
guages of the Bible he considered indispensable to the theologian.
He says, too, of the Hebrew, speaking of Harvard College, that,
‘¢ with a view to general philology, the student’s labors will find as
rich a reward in the study of this ancient and curiously formed
language, as in any one dialect of the tongues spoken by man.”
And he wished to see more attention paid to this study in all our
colleges.t It was his earnest desire through life, to diffuse the
love, promote the study, and raise the standard of classical learning
in our country. We can here take only a brief notice of his prin-
cipal efforts for the promotion of Greek literature.

Mr. Pickering, while he was in Europe, wrote to a member
of the college government at Cambridge, proposing, among other
improvements, “the adoption of uniformity in grammars and other
elementary books at the University.” This, whether from his
suggestion or not, was soon after carried into execution by the
selection of Adam’s Latin Grammar and the Gloucester Greek

* Note D. + Note E.

xlv

Grammar to be used in Harvard College. Connected with this
subject is the excellent little work, written by Mr. Pickering in
1825, which bears the unpretending title of Remarks on Greek
Grammars, yet abounds in various information, as interesting as it
is learned. The views it presents of the importance of a steady
uniformity of elementary books of instruction, and of resisting
the spirit of perpetual change in these “ instruments of learning,”
deserve the respectful attention of all our collegiate institutions.

The just tribute which is paid by Mr. Pickering to that “ sound
Greek scholar,” the late President Willard, and to the Emeritus
Professor of Greek Literature at Cambridge, whom he ranks among
“the most profound scholars of the country,” * will long be enjoyed
by those who love to remember solid and genuine excellence.
The glowing commendation of English literature at the close of
these Remarks is one of the most eloquent passages of Mr. Pick-
ering’s or any other literary discussions.

The translation of Professor Wyttenbach’s Observations on the
Importance of Greek Literature and the best Method of studying
the Classics, by Mr. Pickering, was first published in the North
American Review, for 1819; and was afterwards republished, with
an appropriate preface by the translator, and the addition of “ an
exemplification of the author’s method of explaining the classics to
his pupils.” This was printed at the expense of that kind-hearted
patron of letters and zealous agent in founding the Boston Athe-
neum, the late William S. Shaw, who deserves a grateful remem-
brance in this metropolis. Professor Wyttenbach, who was re-
garded in England as the best Continental scholar of Europe, and
who, for a great part of his life, had been a practical instructer,
was worthy of the attention bestowed upon him by Mr. Pickering.

* Rey. Dr. Popkin.

xlvi

The results of such a scholar’s experience and erudition could not
fail to be a valuable guide to those who are engaged in “the
arduous but honorable office of instructing our youth in classical
learning.” We think, too, that his noble example as a self-
teacher is worth almost every thing else. His own account of the
exertions and progress he made in studying the Greek authors is
exceedingly interesting; to which he adds, — ‘‘ Now, my intelli-
gent pupils, why should not you be able, with the assistance of an
instructer, to accomplish as much as I did without one, and by my
own industry alone?” We cannot forbear to repeat here, as
strikingly applicable to Mr. Pickering’s own style and writings,
what Professor Wyttenbach observes of the “ perfection of Xeno-
phon’s style, — which,” he says, “‘ has a healthy soundness, an ease,
simplicity, and grace, which give it the preference above all others
for the introductory studies of boys; whose fresh and youthful
minds will there imbibe nothing but the wholesome aliment of the
purest of fountains.”

In the course of his classical reading in England, Mr. Pickering
paid a thorough attention to the pronunciation of Greek, and went
over the whole controversy about the reform introduced by Eras-
mus, as contained in Havercamp’s Sylloge, and came to the conclu-
sion that Erasmus was right. But a personal acquaintance with
several natives of Greece, who arrived here in 1814, led him to a
revision and change of his opinion. ‘The result of his investiga-
tions on the subject is given in the memoir which he communi-
cated to the American Academy in 1818, and which attracted
the marked attention of scholars in Europe; and though it was
at first opposed by a distinguished professor of this country, it
afterwards received his sanction. It, indeed, bears full evidence
of Mr. Pickering’s candor and patient research, and is a beautiful

xl vii

Specimen, not only of his extraordinary learning, but of his judg-
ment, taste, ingenuity, and acuteness.*

But Mr. Pickering’s great work, his Herculean labor in the
cause of classical learning, was his Greek and English Lexicon.
How he could have had the courage and resolution to undertake
such a work, in the midst of professional toils, is inconceivable
without a knowledge of the man. In truth, he thought infinitely
less of his own ease than of good to his fellow-men. «A strong
conviction,” as expressed by himself, “that it would be rendering
an essential service to the interests of sound literature in our coun-
try, to promote the study of the language of Greece, whose authors
will be models in writing as long as her sculptors and architects
shall be models in the fine arts,” sustained him through all the
difficulties of this bold undertaking. He was early convinced of
the importance of a Greek lexicon with an English instead of a
Latin interpretation, and seeing no prospect of such a work in
England, he entered upon the execution of his contemplated plan
in 1814. After proceeding alone through about one sixth part of
the whole work, he associated with himself the late Dr. Daniel
Oliver, whose character both as a scholar and a man rendered
him worthy of such a connection. The prospectus was issued in
1820, and the first edition appeared in 1826; the rapid sale of
which made it necessary to prepare a second edition much sooner
than had been expected. Mr. Pickering, having become sole
proprietor of the work, was alone responsible for the second edi-
tion, published in 1829, enlarged by the addition of “more than
ten thousand entire articles and very numerous parts of articles,”
and greatly improved throughout. The next year it was reprinted,

* Note F.

xlviii

with additions, at Edinburgh, and recommended to public notice
as a “very useful and popular work.” In the advertisement to
the third edition, this is particularly alluded to, “in order to prevent
any misconception or suspicion of plagiarism on the part of the
American editor.” The preparation of the work for this “new
and extensively revised edition, adapted to the more advanced
state of Greek studies,” was among Mr. Pickering’s last labors,
and will serve to brighten his highest classical honors. Of his
brilliant success in this laborious undertaking my own judgment is
of little worth. I give you that of others. An eminent and expe-
rienced teacher of classical learning has publicly declared, that
*‘this legacy to American scholars is worthy of the distinguished
author,” —and that, “‘after groping amid the vagueness and con-
fusion of Donnegan, it is truly a relief to turn to the order, clear-
ness, and precision of Pickering.” A learned professor of the
highest authority, himself the author of a Greek and English lex-
icon of the New Testament, has pronounced “the lexicon of Mr.
Pickering, in its present shape, to be the best extant for the use of
colleges and schools in the United States, — for which, indeed, it
has been specially prepared.” A third eminent Greek scholar has
told the world, that what Mr. Pickering undertook to do in this
great work “has been admirably done.” *

With this brief and very imperfect notice of Mr. Pickering’s
classical achievements, we proceed to the fifth class, comprising
his publications and labors relating to the English language and
literature. We shall attempt little more than to invite attention
to their great variety and value. He spread the fruits of his vari-
ous erudition over the country with unstinted liberality, thinking

* Note G.

xlix

only of enriching others and paying the debt which every scholar
owes to humanity and learning. The Monthly Anthology, the
North American, the New York, the American Quarterly Reviews,
and the Annals of Education, with other periodicals, as well as
the daily journals, were honored by the productions of his pen, —
productions which, however occasional in their purpose or origin,
possess that intrinsic merit which gives them a permanent interest,
and entitles them to preservation in some durable form. We trust
that in due time they will be gathered up and presented to the
world in a manner, and with a biography, worthy of the author.

In all Mr, Pickering’s zeal for ancient literature, he never lost
sight of his native tongue. He loved the Greek authors ardently
for their incomparable excellence, but he valued them the more
highly as being the best models of writing to the English scholar.
The purity and improvement of the English language in America
engaged his early attention. During his residence in England,
he began the practice of noting Americanisms and expressions of
doubtful authority, and as he continued the practice after his re-
turn, the collection so swelled under his hands, that he was induced
to prepare them for publication, and, in 1815, completed the Vo-
cabulary, which formed the first of his learned communications
to the American Academy. He afterwards republished it, with
additions, for general use; and though he regarded it but as a
beginning, yet it was a work of long and patient labor, for which
he deserves the gratitude of every American scholar. The work
attracted attention even in Germany, where portions of it were
translated and published. With its preface and introductory essay,
it has served to guard the purity of our language and literature.*

* Note H.

]

Mr. Pickering had the same general design in his elaborate
and learned article on Johnson’s English Dictionary, first published
in the American Quarterly Review, for September, 1828, and justly
considered as one of his most interesting and useful publications.
Johnson and Walker were regarded by him as holding the first
rank in their respective departments in England, and he thought
them, of course, entitled to be received as standard authorities by
the lexicographers and orthoepists of America.

His excellent article on “Elementary Instruction,” published
in the North American Review, deserves particular notice as being
richly imbued with his classical and philosophical spirit, and as
containing hints and views important to all who are concerned in
the work of education, from the teacher of the alphabet up to the
head of a college.

The “Lecture on Telegraphic Language,” which he delivered
before the Boston Marine Society, of which he was an honorary
member, is another beautiful specimen of the familiar and pleasing
application of his various learning to the useful purposes of life.

Mr. Pickering’s eulogy on our great mathematician, the Amer-
ican La Place, in which he so happily traced the loftiest efforts
of philosophical genius, was alike worthy of his subject and of
himself, and it will ever rank among the richest treasures of the
Academy whose Memoirs it adorns.

But we must hasten to the sith class, which includes Mr. Pick-
ering’s studies and labors upon the languages of the American
Indians. His more particular attention appears to have been
drawn to this subject in 1819, by the publication of Mr. Du
Ponceau’s Report to the American Philosophical Society, and cor-
respondence with Mr. Heckewelder upon the Indian languages
of North America. The extraordinary facts disclosed by this pub-

li

lication kindled Mr. Pickering’s enthusiasm. Though deeply en-
gaged upon his Greek Lexicon, he could not resist the attractions
of this new field of labor, so suited to his genius and taste, and
in which he might hope to render such important service to science
and learning. He stopped not to inquire how profitable the em-
ployment might be to himself; it was enough to feel assured that
he could labor successfully in extending the boundaries of human
knowledge and advancing the improvement of mankind. He
immediately wrote for the North American Review an able article
upon Mr. Du Ponceau’s admirable Report, recommending it in
the strongest terms to the attention of the learned. In this article
he expressed the hope that “the Dictionary of the dialect of the
Norridgewock Indians, composed by Father Rasles,” would soon be
published ; and he also suggested ‘the necessity of establishing,
by common consent of the learned, a uniform orthography of the
spoken languages” of the aborigines of America; both of which
laborious undertakings were left for him to accomplish. In 1820
he published in the same Review another ingenious and learned
article upon Dr. Jarvis’s Discourse on the Religion of the Indian
Tribes of North America; which attracted the particular attention
of Baron William Von Humboldt, of Berlin, who thereupon opened
an interesting correspondence with Mr. Pickering on the Indian
languages, which continued without interruption till the Baron’s
death, when Mr. Pickering’s portion of the correspondence was
deposited in the library of the Royal Academy of Berlin.*

Among the most arduous of Mr. Pickering’s incessant labors in
this new field of science, and also the least attractive, except from

a view of their utility, was the republication of Eliot’s Indian
y P

* Note I,

hii

Grammar, and Edwards’s Observations on the Mohegan Language,
with introductions and notes. He used to speak of the former as
a German labor, and so, too, it was regarded by his friend, Mr.
Du Ponceau, who thanked him for the great service he had
thereby rendered to the cause of learning. Various other ancient
works, relating to the Indian languages, were brought into new
light by Mr. Pickering’s unwearied care. He prepared Roger
Williams’s Vocabulary of the Narraganset Indians for the Rhode
Island Historical Society, and Cotton’s Vocabulary of the Massa-
chusetts Indians, for the Historical Society of this State. But the
greatest work of this description which he undertook was the
publication of Father Rasles’s Dictionary, already mentioned, of the
Norridgewock, or Abnaki, language, with an introductory memoir
and notes, —a work which called forth expressions of admiration
from those of the learned, both here and in Europe, who could
best appreciate the severe toil it must have cost him.

The elaborate article which Mr. Pickering prepared for the
Encyclopedia Americana, on the Indian languages of North Amer-
ica, is as scientific as it is comprehensive, and exhibits the extent
of his researches and the depth of his learning on this copious
subject. It was translated into German and published at Leipsic
with marks of distinguished honor.

The able and spirited articles published by him in the New
York Review, in 1826, in reply to an article in the North American
Review, which had unjustly assailed the philological reputation of
two of his most distinguished friends, and traduced the character
of the Indians as well as misrepresented their dialects, shows with
what vigor he could wield the pen of a Junius, when truth and
justice demanded the effort, while it manifests his profound and
familiar knowledge of the whole subject.

iii

The preparation of a scheme for reducing spoken languages to
written forms, contained in his “ Essay on a Uniform Orthography
for the Indian Languages of North America,” communicated to the
American Academy in 1820, was, perhaps, of all his labors, the most
characteristic of his philological and philosophical genius and skill,
and, in its practical consequences, of the highest interest and value.
While it facilitates, in a simple and beautiful manner, the formation
of written languages and the study of comparative philology, it af-
fords an instrument of incalculable advantage in civilizing and Chris-
tianizing the barbarous nations of the earth. It has already been
sufficiently tested in Africa, and especially in some of the South
Sea islands, as well as among the North American Indians, to rank
its author among the distinguished benefactors of mankind.* ©

In Mr. Pickering’s learned article on Adelung’s Survey of all
the Known Languages and their Dialects, published in the North
American Review, in 1822, he represents the present age as the
epoch of a new science, — “ the comparative science of languages,”
which is to be studied, “as we study other parts of human knowl-
edge, by collecting facts, — by ascertaining what languages there
are on the globe, and collecting vocabularies, or specimens of
them all.” According to his estimate of the number of dialects
on the globe, they amount to about four thousand. Into this
ocean of languages he plunged too deep for me to follow him.
I lose sight of him entirely. I cannot fathom his research or enu-
merate his acquisitions.

We are now brought to the seventh class of Mr. Pickering’s lit-
erary labors, embracing those which relate to comparative philolo-
gy and ethnography, and, as connected therewith, the Oriental

* Note K.

liv

languages, including those of Africa, Asia, and the vast extent of
islands in the Pacific. Here a field was opened to him wide
enough for the employment of all his strength and all his time,
could he have devoted himself to it. He gave himself to it, as
far as he could, with untiring zeal. He hunted for specimens of
unwritten dialects, with as much ardor as Audubon hunted for those
of unknown birds; and he could give them forms as distinct, if not
as beautiful. He had always, indeed, been watchful of opportuni-
ties to collect materials for his philological investigations. Hearing,
once, of a stranger in Salem who had been among the Yaloffs in
Africa, he sought and obtained from him facts and information
which enabled him to study the interesting language of that people.
Shipmasters, and even common sailors, who had visited strange
lands, might be sure, not only of a welcome, but of assistance from
him, if they had any facts or knowledge to communicate, illustrative
of the inhabitants or their dialects. ‘The publication of Holden’s
* Narrative ” of his captivity and sufferings on Lord North’s Island
affords an interesting example of such assistance. When the United
States Exploring Expedition was in contemplation, Mr. Pickering
exerted all his influence to draw the attention of the government,
and those more immediately concerned in the undertaking, to “the
various native languages of the different tribes of people that might
be visited by the expedition.” He reminded them of the noble
example of the late empress of Russia, and endeavoured to stimu-
late their curiosity and interest by illustrating the real importance
of “this department of knowledge,” and by considerations of what
was due to the scientific reputation of our country. His corre-
spondence with J. N. Reynolds, Esq., in 1836, on this subject,
presented his own enlightened views so clearly, that, if they were
duly regarded, we cannot doubt, from the high reputation of the

lv

young philologist who accompanied the expedition,* that results
have been attained important to the world and honorable to
America.

The hieroglyphics of Egypt and the dialects of the South Sea
islands appear to have excited Mr. Pickering’s literary enthusiasm
in the highest degree. ‘These were fascinating topics, which he
was never weary of investigating or discussing. The Chinese lan-
guage was scarcely less interesting to him. The new views of
this language, presented to the world by his friend Mr. Du Pon-
ceau, called forth an able and very learned article from his pen for
the North American Review, in 1839, which was seized upon, as
other of his works had been, as a prize to British literature ; and
well might British writers be proud of such a prize.t The sister
language of Cochin-China (the history of the first American voyage
to which country was given to the public through his means) was
illustrated by him in another able article, published in 1841, in the
same Review. Both articles exhibit, in a striking manner, his fa-
miliarity with the profoundest philological speculations.

But I need only point your attention to the eloquent address
delivered by him before the American Oriental Society, at their
anniversary meeting in 1843, —a society of which he was the soul
as well as the head, — to show you the compass, variety, and depth
of his philological erudition, and the vast extent of his views and
plans for making his erudition useful to the world. The leading
objects of this society are ‘the cultivation of learning in the
Asiatic, African, and Polynesian languages,” and “ the publication
of memoirs, translations, vocabularies, and other works relative to

these languages.” Mr. Pickering’s Memoir on the Language and

* Horatio Hale, Esq. + Note L.

lvi

Inhabitants of Lord North’s Island, presented to the American
Academy during the last year of his life, —a memoir as touching-
ly interesting as it is beautifully written, — affords ample evidence
of the noble manner in which, had his life been spared, he would
have performed his part in this great literary enterprise.

But I must forbear. To do justice to Mr. Pickering’s learned
labors would require abundant time, with a genius and a pen kin-
dred to his own. In the cursory view we have taken of them,
many of his valuable writings have been wholly overlooked ; some
of which demand at least a respectful allusion. Of his article, in
the New York Review, upon the elegant History of Ferdinand and
Isabella, it is sufficient praise to say that it is worthy of its subject.
The comprehensive Introductory Essay to Newhall’s Letters on Ju-
nius gives us, in a more concise and pleasing manner than is else-
where to be found, the history and literature pertaining to the
Junius controversy. His biographical sketches of Bowditch, Spurz-
heim, Du Ponceau, and Peirce, published in the daily journals,
are marked by the various excellence of his just, delicate, discrim-
inating pen.* The mention of the last-named friend reminds us
of the estimable History of Harvard University, which was left un-
finished at the lamented author’s death, and completed for publica-
tion by Mr. Pickering; whose own article on the subject, in the
North American Review, contains one of the most graphic as well
as most just views which have ever appeared of Harvard College.

We must add as a supplementary or eighth class of Mr. Picker-
ing’s works, his numerous and important letters, addressed to various
learned men in this country and in Europe. ‘“ For many years,” says
a well-informed friend, ‘‘ he maintained a copious correspondence on

* Note M.

lvii

matters of jurisprudence, science, and learning, with distinguished
names at home and abroad; especially with Mr. Du Ponceau, at
Philadelphia ; with William Von Humboldt, at Berlin ; with Mitter-
maier, the jurist, at Heidelberg ; with Dr. Pritchard, author of the
Physical History of Mankind, at Bristol; and with Lepsius, the
hierologist, who wrote to him from the Pyramids in Egypt.” *

All Mr. Pickering’s writings are stamped with the excellence of
his clear, simple, graceful style, —a style unsurpassed by that of
any English author on similar subjects. With proper words in
proper places, and bearing the polish of refined taste, it yet flows
as naturally as if no thought or labor were bestowed upon it. Al-
most any one might hope to write in the same manner.

“ Sudet multum, frustraque laboret

Ausus idem.”

The most essential purpose of language is always attained by
Mr. Pickering’s diction. We see, at once, the ideas he would ex-
press, as distinctly as we behold material objects in a clear sky.
Nor was his style incapable of rising to an impassioned tone of
eloquence, as we have seen on one occasion, at least, when he felt
called upon to administer a suitable rebuke to philological presump-
tion. His indignation, if roused, could flash its scorching fires,
gentle and benignant as was his whole nature.

But Mr. Pickering’s strongest claims upon our admiration and
gratitude arise from the exalted spirit and principles which actu-
ated him in all his works. No selfish ends or views ever appear ;
nothing to set off his powers, or to gain notoriety ; while all his
important writings are imbued with his rare learning and_philan-

* 9 Law Reporter, 66.

lviti

thropy, and conspire to establish his fame. He spoke from his
inmost heart, when he reminded his brethren of the Oriental So-
ciety, in the elegant address just now referred to, that ‘“ to be ben-
eficial to our fellow-men” is “the great end of all our intellectual
labors.” He spoke, too, from his own deep experience, when he
declared, that “steady, unremitting labor on subjects of the intel-
lect, like untiring labor of the body upon physical objects, will
overcome all obstacles.” We see his own high aims in the
‘incentives ” which, at the close of the same address, he so elo-
quently urged upon his literary associates, — “‘ the love of learning
for its own sake, — the reputation of our beloved country, to whom
we owe so much, and whom we are all ambitious of elevating to
the same height to which other nations have attained by the cul-
tivation of learning.” Such was the lofty character of his litera-
ture throughout his long career of laborious study.

Mr. Pickering enjoyed excellent health till some time in the sum-
mer of 1845, when he experienced the first symptoms of a fatal
disease. Under the severe pressure of increasing illness, he pur-
sued his studies, and attended to his various active duties, while
he had any bodily strength. His mind continued clear and firm,
and he manifested, during all his protracted illness, that patience,
gentleness, and Christian resignation, which perfected the example
of his life. He died on the fifth day of May, 1846, leaving a
widow, an only daughter, and two sons, to mourn their irreparable
loss.*

All of you, Gentlemen, had the happiness to know Mr. Pick-
ering in his social as well as literary character, and need not that
I should speak to you of his kind and courteous manners, his

* Mrs. Pickering soon followed her lamented husband. She died on the 14th
of December, 1846.

lix

sweet temper and disposition, his benevolent virtues, the richness
of his conversation, and the delight which his society afforded.
He was, as you well know, a man universally respected, — who
never lost a friend, and never had an enemy ; whom once to know
was always to love and esteem.

In domestic life, he was all that could be wished; and, I may
add, all that could be imagined in amiable affections. Wisdom and
love were delightfully blended in his whole deportment.

Brilliant as is the reputation of the scholar and the author, we
lose sight of it in the superior excellence of the man. He was,
indeed, a true man. His sensibilities were tender, his whole organ-
ization delicate and susceptible, yet always sound and _ healthful,
with nothing of a morbid tendency to unfit him for the active du-
ties of life. Mild and gentle, he yet felt keenly and quickly; and
with all his patient forbearance, he was not wanting in spirit and
energy to assert his rights. He had a true enthusiasm, without
any extravagance. His ardent love of freedom and justice, and
his abhorrence of tyranny in all its forms, never partook of fanat-
icism. With much reserve in expressing his religious feelings, he
was profoundly conscientious, and lived in the fear and the love
of God.

Truly of him we may say, with Nature’s great poet, —

“ His life was gentle, and the elements
So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up,
And say to all the world, This was a man.”

Christianity, too, might rise up and set her seal of greatness
upon him. ‘The fundamental law of Christian greatness he nobly
fulfilled. He was, in the highest sense, “the servant of all,””» —a

true philanthropist, the benefactor of his race. His profoundest

lx

erudition and his severest toil were ever subservient to the good
of mankind. Usefulness was his glory.

Limited as our view of Mr. Pickering’s life has necessarily been,
we have not failed to see the wide extent of his active and benefi-
cent influence. Our laws as well as literature bear the impress of
his luminous mind. Education acknowledges him as one of her
most efficient friends. We have seen him the teacher of teachers,
the improver of authors, the enlightener of colleges, the pioneer of
civilization, affording a guiding light to all engaged in the acqui-
sition or diffusion of knowledge, from the humblest pupil to the
profoundest inquirer, from the classical instructer at home to the
herald of Christianity in heathen lands.

Some men’s learning is kept, as a standing pool, for their own
undisturbed gaze. Mr. Pickering’s was a living fountain, gushing
out in every direction, fertilizing the country around. Others
there are, who think only of rearing from their learning a monu-
ment to themselves, caring little for the world. Mr. Pickering
thought little of himself, but every thing of the world. So, too, in
the use of wealth, some are intent only on its accumulation, as if
its value consisted in its bulk, and the distinction thereby pro-
duced. Not so the “man of Ross.” He spread his wealth wher-
ever he could make it most productive of common blessings. Mr.
Pickering was the man of Ross in learning, — scattering his intel-
lectual treasures everywhere, as they were needed to bless his fel-
low-men.

“The admirable Pickering!” is already the exclamation of
fervent gratitude.* Admirable indeed ; — not for wonderful talents

perverted, or for dazzling, delusive genius; but for fine powers

* Note N.

Ixi

finely improved, and for noble qualities nobly applied. Admirable
for his prodigious industry and learning, and for his sterling integ-
rity and goodness. Admirable as a scholar, as a jurist, as a phi-
lologist, as an explorer of truth, as a guide to wisdom and learning,
and as a bright exemplar of virtue.

Such an illustrious benefactor inspires the gratitude of all en-
lightened men. Throughout this western continent, wherever
literature and science have their votaries, his memory is cherished.
That distinguished American writer, now in France, who has pass-
ed his life in reflecting the light of letters from one continent to
the other, repeats to us, with his own exalted admiration, the voice
of sympathy and of eulogy from the literati of Europe.*

The memory of Joun Pickxertne will live throughout the learned
world. So long as human language exists and is cultivated, his
name will be honored. If he sought not fame, he has found it the
more surely, and in a higher degree. His precious reputation rests
on ground as solid as his ambition was pure. It will extend with
the benign influences of his learning, and it will brighten as it
extends.

When will the people at large learn to appreciate their true
friends, their real benefactors? The military or political idol of a
day kindles their enthusiasm like a blazing meteor, which glares
for a moment and is extinguished for ever. Their literary admi-
ration blindly follows brilliant genius, however unsanctified by
virtue, and which continues its baleful glare, like the ignis fatuus,
to mislead and destroy. We would point them to a luminary of
the heavens, whose clear light irradiates the path of human duty
and human improvement, and guides surely and always to knowl-
edge, virtue, religion, and happiness.

* Mr. Walsh.

NOTES AND ADDITIONS.

Tue following passages are froma letter addressed to me by a classmate

and intimate friend of Mr. Pickering.

** A love of knowledge characterized Mr. Pickering from youth to old age.
Whatever was the subject of his attention, he acquired definite conceptions of it,
and these he fixed in his memory. His memory was exceedingly retentive; part-
ly owing, no doubt, to the diligent cultivation of it. If to this love of knowledge
and strong memory you add his uncommon diligence, you get the principal ex-
planation of his extraordinary acquisitions. It is, however, to be added, that his
mind was of a truly philosophical or scientific cast. He always referred phenom-
ena to principles, so far as he could; considering how far they went in support or
in contradiction of principles commonly maintained. His views of every subject
were comprehensive. When a partial discussion had led to a conclusion satisfac-
tory to common minds, he would bring forward the considerations which had been
overlooked, and thus prevent a too hasty or too confident decision. I can remem-
ber this trait of his character from the time when we were in college.

“ Mr. Pickering was pure in heart. Few men, if any, have I known as much
so. He seemed to have no affinity for evil thoughts, desires, and purposes.
They found no harbour in his breast. He had, as I believe, a true and sincere,
though unostentatious, piety. He certainly loved man, whom he had seen. He
was truly benevolent. To children he showed a tender care and kindness. He
was peculiarly liberal to all, and especially to the young, who were seeking to get
knowledge. And let it be noted, that this is much more than for the rich man to
be liberal in the use of his wealth. Such a one merits great praise, surely ; yet he
gives what he cannot use for himself. The man of learning does not, indeed, seem
to deprive himself of any thing, in helping the student. His own knowledge is not
lessened in doing it. But he cannot impart it without giving his time; and this,
like his heart’s blood. Mr. Pickering would patiently attend to the young student,
leaving even his business to do so; and then deprive himself of his sleep at night to

finish his business.

Ixiil

“‘The conversation of such a man must be full of instruction. It was most
agreeably so. I think I may say, that, for fifty years past, I have never spent half
an hour with Mr. Pickering in which I did not get some interesting or useful in-
formation, such as few men could give me.

“In his manners there was a peculiar polish, improved, undoubtedly, by his
intercourse with cultivated people abroad. His manners were so simple, as not
to arrest attention at first; but so refined and finished, as to bear the closest scru-
tiny, and to fit him for the most elegant society. He manifested in them the
nicest discrimination as to persons. Their foundation was in his good heart and

in his respect for the pleasure as well as for the rights of others.”

The following is a brief extract from a letter addressed to me by a learned
scholar and divine, alluded to in the discourse, who was intimately associated
with Mr. Pickering in the American Oriental Society.

fOlt gave me a great, although a melancholy pleasure, when we last met, that
you should request me to recall and write to you my recollections of the late
Dr. Pickering. I think it was my particular senior, the late Dr. Joseph McKean,
who introduced me to our departed friend, then in the class, as you know, next
above us. And this must have been between fifty-two and fifty-three years ago.
But from that period I ever entertained toward him the most respectful esteem
and regard, and have shared the privilege of his friendship, — a virtuous friendship,
productive, from its commencement, of literary and moral benefits. His acquaint-
ance was, to use the phrase of Waller the poet, ‘a liberal education.’

** You well remember his gentlemanly deportment in college. You recollect,
too, his high and just reputation in the various branches of mathematical science, —
a reputation fairly and laboriously earned. But he deserves remembrance at Har-
vard, also, for being most efficiently engaged in the resuscitation of classical lit-
erature. That was at a very low ebb, you know, in the early part of our time
there.

** With respect to the extent of his linguistic acquirements, about which you
wished me to inform you, I really am not able to give any satisfactory account. I

think, however, I can recollect as many as sixteen languages of which we have oc-

Ixiv

casionally conversed, at least. Of late years, the Chinese, in two or three of its dia-
lects, had engaged my lamented friend’s attention; and he gave some labor to the
Cochin-Chinese ; and paid great attention to the progress of discovery in regard
to the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The adaptation of his system of expression of
sounds by our own alphabet (of which he published a Memoir in the Transactions
of the American Academy) excited no small interest. Our missionaries adopted
his views in reducing to writing that dialect or derivative of the Malay which is
spoken in the Sandwich Islands, having effected the translation into it of the whole
Bible. This single thing is highly honorary to our country ; and I have wondered
that so little has been said respecting it by literary men among us, It must also
have a considerable effect. For, as the languages of the Pacific are mostly of
Malay origin, it can hardly be predicted to how great an extent the influence of it
may reach.

“In regard to ethnology, his attention was drawn to it almost necessarily by the
rapid progress made of late years in that branch of information, Indeed, living
as he had done in the midst of your Salem merchants and intelligent navigators, —
situated as he was, in connection, on the one hand, with the Academy, and pre-
siding in its researches, the results of which became familiar to him, — and on the
other, no inattentive observer of the progress of missionary enterprise, in which his
own labors, as regards the philosophy of language, were brought so often into
practical operation, — ethnology became, of necessity almost, a subject of indispen-
sable attention. It was so to me; and it was, therefore, of course, most frequently
the theme of our conversations, when we could pass together any portion of our
much occupied time. More especially has this been the case in the formation and
progress of our American Oriental Society, — an institution happily effected by his
consent to become its President, and giving it his valuable labors, influence, and
reputation. How it can live and flourish without him remains still to be seen, al-
though, as I hope, his example will have given an impulse, the effect of which may
continue.

“ One thing should be remembered in respect to classical literature in connec-
tion with the late Dr. Pickering. It is this;— his attachment to that literature
had a practical object. He did not become a critical scholar for the purpose of
vaunting his accuracy in taste, acuteness, or memory. He was ardently and pa-
triotically desirous of raising the scholarship of his country, and qualified himself,

and was preparing means for others, to the accomplishment of that end. Hence

lxv

his ‘lingering in the groves of Academus,’ or his intimacy with the ancient ‘ yo-
taries of the Muses,’ was not the reminiscence merely of youthful attachment ; but,
turning his acquirements into a channel of usefulness, he could contemplate them,
not as mementos of wasted labor, but even as fruits of enlightened public spirit.

“* How to express my own feelings I find very difficult. Indeed, it is not neces-
sary. You know his moral and intellectual worth, and can appreciate its value, as
well as the value of his literary excellence. His was a rare example of true mod-
esty united with distinguished and solid merit, of unassuming but efficient worth, of
gentleness of temper joined with decision of character, and of liberal study blend-
ed with practical usefulness, good learning with sound common-sense, and thorough
honesty of purpose and act; and I may add, of inflexible integrity in private, pub-
lic, and political life.” *

Aided by the recollections of several of Mr. Pickering’s most intimate
friends, I am enabled to add the following sketch, which, in the absence of an
engraved likeness, I am sure, will be acceptable to all his friends.

The personal appearance of Mr. Pickering was striking. It was both dignified
and attractive. His stature was tall, and his form rather slender than stout, but
well proportioned ; yet it was the expression of his countenance, and the fine in-
tellectual cast of his features, which were the distinguishing characteristics of his
person. The form of his face was oval, with a remarkably high and ample fore-
head. His mild, clear, hazel eye was expressive of the gentleness of his nature
and the vigor of his intellect; while a straight nose, slightly inclining to the Ro-
man, and a finely formed mouth, added to the regularity of his features. The ex-
pression of his countenance, when in repose, was grave and thoughtful; but his
eye kindled benignantly, and a benevolent smile played upon his lips, whenever
any object of interest came before him. It was this peculiar benignity of ex-
pression, joined to an entire freedom from the slightest assumption of superiority
in word, look, or manner, which attracted towards him the young, and those who
were seeking relief from poverty or distress ; while the intellectual refinement and
remarkable dignity of his personal appearance and manners commanded the in-
terest and respect of persons in all conditions of life.

* Rev. Dr. Jenks.

Ixvi

ANCESTORS AND FAMILY.

The following additional notices may be interesting to many of Mr. Picker-

ing’s friends.

The first-named John Pickering, as stated in Allen’s Biographical Dictionary,
came to New England about 1680, and died at Salem in 1657. “ February
7, 1637, he was admitted to the privileges of an inhabitant.” He left two sons,
Joun and Jonathan. The latter died in 1729, at the age of 90, without issue.
John, born about 1687, married Alice, daughter of William Flint, and died May 5th,
1694, leaving his wife, Alice, and sons, Jon, Benjamin, and William (who mar-
ried a Higginson), and daughters, Elizabeth (married to a Nichols), and Hannah
(married to John Buttolph). To John he bequeathed ‘“ Broad Field by the mill-
pond,” as stated in Felt’s Annals of Salem (whence these facts are principally
taken), who states also, that “‘ he was frequently of the selectmen, and a capable,
enterprising, and public-spirited man.” The third John Pickering married Sarah
Burrill of Lynn, and died June 19, 1722, aged 64, leaving his wife, Sarah, sons,
Theophilus and Timorny, and daughters, Lois (married to Timothy Orne), Sarah
(married to Joseph Hardy), and Eunice (married to her cousin, William Picker-
ing). ‘He was selectman and representative in the legislature. His decease
was a loss to the community.”

Timothy Pickering married Mary Wingate, and died June 7th, 1778, aged 75,
leaving his wife, Mary, sons, John and Timorny, and daughters, Sarah, Mary, Lydia,
Elizabeth, Lois, Eunice, and Lucia; all of whom were married (except John), and
had numerous descendants. ‘‘ Deacon Timothy Pickering sustained principal of-
fices in town, and was an intelligent, active, and useful man.” His elder brother,
Theophilus, deserves notice as one of the remarkable men of his time. He was
educated at Harvard College, graduating in 1719, and settled in the ministry in
that part of Ipswich which is now Essex. He was remarkable for his bodily
strength, mechanical ingenuity, and theological ability. Tradition says, that a cer-
tain man, who had the presumption to challenge him to a wrestle, was not only
thrown by him at once, but thrown over the wall. His friends thought him equally
successful against some of the New Lights of that day, who wrestled with

him in religious controversy. He died, unmarried, at the age of forty-seven.

Ixvii

The seven daughters of Timothy Pickering were married as follows: Sarah, to
John Clarke (parents of the late Rey. John Clarke of Boston, and Mrs. Francis
Cabot) ; Mary, first, to the Rey. Dudley Leavitt (parents of the late Mrs. Dr. Joseph
Orne, Mrs. William Pickman, and Mrs. Isaac White, whose daughter, Sarah, be-
came Mrs. Pickering), — second, to the late Chief-Justice Nathaniel Peaslee Sar-
geant; Lydia, to George Williams (parents of the late Samuel Williams, consul,
&c., Mrs. Pratt, Mrs. Lyman, and others) ; Elizabeth, to John Gardner (parents
of the late Samuel P. Gardner and Mrs. Blanchard) ; Lois, to John Gooll (parents
of Mrs. Judge Putnam, who, with her widowed mother, once formed part of the
family of her uncle, the Hon. John Pickering) ; Eunice, to her cousin, Paine Win-
gate, Senator of the United States from New Hampshire (parents of George Win-
gate, a graduate of Harvard College in 1796, and other children) ; Lucia, to Israel
Dodge (parents of the late Pickering Dodge, Mrs. Stone, Mrs. Devereux, and
others). The members of this family were remarkable for their longevity. Mrs.
Wingate’s age a little exceeded one hundred years, and her husband was for some
years the oldest surviving graduate of Harvard College.

The few particulars now mentioned may be sufficient to indicate these wide-
spreading branches of the Pickering family.

Colonel Timothy Pickering, who was born in 1745, and died in 1829, married
Rebecca White, and they had first eight sons, and then twin daughters, Mary and
Elizabeth. Their eighth son was Octavius Pickering, well known as a reporter
of decisions of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts. Of the father, whose
exalted character as a patriot and statesman is indelibly impressed on the history
of his country, we need say nothing here, except to notice one of his most gratify-
ing honors, which became intimately connected with the subject of our eulogy.
Washington, on retiring from the presidency, in 1797, presented Colonel Pickering,
his fellow-soldier and friend, with a splendid piece of silver plate, from his own
service, as a memorial of his cordial esteem and confidence. This treasure, of
priceless value, was bequeathed by the Colonel to his son, John, and by him to his
daughter, Mary Orne Pickering. May it always find possessors equally worthy of
such a treasure !

Mr. Pickering’s two sons, John and Henry White, graduated at Harvard Uni-
versity, the one in 1830, the other in 1831; both are happily settled in Boston,
the former in the profession of the law, the latter in commercial business. The

proprietor of the ancestral estate, in Salem, is still John Pickering.

Ixvi

Nore A. Page xxxi.

Mr. Pickering was a representative from Salem in the legislature of Massachu-
setts, in 1812 and 1813, and again in 1826; a Senator from the county of Essex
in 1815 and 1816, and from the county of Suffolk in 1829, and a member of the
. Executive Council in 1818. He received the degree of LL. D. in 1822, from
Bowdoin College, and, in 1835, from Harvard University. The following is copied
from the Law Reporter already referred to. 4

“The number of societies, both at home and abroad, of which he was an hon-
ored member, attests the wide-spread recognition of his merits. He was President
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; President of the American
Oriental Society ; Foreign Secretary of the American Antiquarian Society ; Fellow
of the Massachusetts Historical Society ; of the American Ethnological Society ; of
the American Philosophical Society ; honorary member of the Historical Societies
of New Hampshire, of New York, of Pennsylvania, of Rhode Island, of Michigan,
of Maryland, of Georgia; of the National Institution for the Promotion of Science ;
of the American Statistical Association; of the Northern Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Hanover, New Hampshire; of the Society for the Promotion of Legal
Knowledge, Philadelphia ; corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sci-
ences at Berlin; of the Oriental Society at Paris; of the Academy of Sciences and
Letters at Palermo; of the Antiquarian Society at Athens; of the Royal Northern
Antiquarian Society at Copenhagen; and titular member of the French Society of
Universal Statistics.”

Note B. Page xxxv.

The Report referred to was made to the Board of Overseers at their annual
meeting in January, 1841. The following brief extract will sufficiently indicate its
character.

“ Superficial observers, who measure the value of education by its direct ca-
pacity of being turned into money, or the immediate supply of the physical wants

of man, and not by its moral effects on the constituent elements of human society,

xix

are frequently disposed to undervalue some of the departments of knowledge, —
particularly ancient literature, — which have always been cherished, and justly so,
as an essential part of the university course. Those departments of study are too
often stigmatized as antiquated, and not adapted to the ‘ spirit of the age’; while
an urgent call is made for what is designated by the vague and undefined name of
useful knowledge. Such persons seem to mistake the true purpose of a university
education ; which is not to qualify a young man for any one particular profession
or business, but to develope the powers of his mind, and to store it with all that
general information in science and literature which shall be really useful to him,

by its permanent influence in any station in life.”

Note C. Page xxxvi.

In the Law Reporter, before referred to, it is justly said of Mr. Pickering, “ that
he was a thorough, hard-working lawyer, for the greater part of his days in full
practice, constant at his office, attentive to all the concerns of business, and to what
may be called the humilities of his profession. He was faithful, conscientious,
and careful in all that he did; nor did his zeal for the interests committed to his
care ever betray him beyond the golden mean of duty. The law, in his hands,
was a shield for defence, and never a sword with which to thrust at his adversary.
His preparations for arguments in court were marked by peculiar care ; his brief
was very elaborate. On questions of law he was learned and profound, but his
manner in court was excelled by his matter. The experience of his long life
never enabled him to overcome the native, childlike diffidence which made him
shrink from public displays. He developed his views with clearness, and an in-
variable regard to their logical sequence ; but he did not press them home by
energy of manner or any of the ardors of eloquence.

‘ His mind was rather judicial than forensic in its cast. He was better able to
discern the right than to make the wrong appear the better reason. He was not
a legal athlete, snuffing new vigor in the hoarse strifes of the bar, and regarding
success alone ; but a faithful counsellor, solicitous for his client, and for justice too.
It was this character that led him to contemplate the law as a science, and to

study its improvement and elevation. He could not look upon it merely as a

Ixx

means of earning money. He gave much of his time to its generous culture.
From the walks of practice he ascended to the heights of jurisprudence, em-
bracing within his observation the systems of other countries. His contributions
to this department illustrate the spirit and extent of his inquiries.”

Thus was the law the laborious as well as honorable business of Mr. Pick-
ering’s life. Literature, however intently pursued, was his amusement, his de-
lightful recreation. And this he enjoyed chiefly at home in the midst of his
family. Besides the fine law library at his office, he had at his house a large
miscellaneous one of choice books which gratified his highest wishes. But his
love for books did not seclude him from society or from domestic enjoyment. ‘The
claims of hospitality as well as of his family were sacredly regarded by him; and
when these encroached on hours which he had assigned to some favorite pursuit,
the early morning and the late evening would find him redeeming the time which
had been cheerfully given to the duties of social and domestic life. His extraordi-
nary faculty of abstraction, the readiness with which his mind could turn from one
subject to another, his unwearied industry, and a peculiarly calm and happy tem-
perament, all united in enabling him to accomplish what he did in the conflicting

pursuits of literature and the law.

Nore D. Page xliv.

It is not easy to give a just impression of the variety and extent of Mr. Pick-
ering’s kind and gratuitous services. At the moment the writer was engaged upon
this part of his subject, he received a letter from a friend, now a distinguished
author, containing the following grateful acknowledgment of assistance afforded
to himself. ‘ Mr. Pickering,” he observes, ‘‘ was in my eye the model of a high-
bred, courtly, and refined gentleman, — profound, yet unpretending. I have gath-
ered much wisdom from his lips, as well as his writings ; the first compositions I
ever put to press were revised by him.” Many an author has been ready to ac-
knowledge much more than this, and with equal pleasure. Mr. Pickering might
have justly applied to himself the remark which he made of his friend, Mr. Du
Ponceau, that, if he had been ambitious to claim all that he was entitled to, ‘* he
might in numberless instances have said, in the spirit of the Roman poet, — Hos

ego versiculos fect; tulit alter honores.”

Ixxi

In the pursuits of the young student Mr. Pickering always manifested a lively
interest, and the young were strongly attracted to him. With some of the gifted
students of our University he maintained a literary correspondence. Among those
of them who have passed away may be named Samuel Harris, with whom, many
years ago, he corresponded on the Hebrew and other learned languages, and whose
untimely death deprived the country of one who promised to be an accomplished
Oriental scholar.

We must not omit all notice of one of the most laborious of Mr. Pickering’s un-
dertakings in this class of services. Not long before his removal to Boston, a
protracted series of arduous and perplexing duties was imposed upon him as chair-
man of a committee “‘ appointed to inquire into the practicability and expediency
of establishing manufactures in Salem.” THis elaborate and able report on the sub-
ject was published in 1826, and affords striking evidence of his practical, as well as
his intellectual, talents.

A more characteristic instance of generous service occurs to our recollection,
which deserves mention as manifesting his ever vigilant attention to the interests of
learning. He promoted and prepared an ably written memorial to Congress, from
the principal citizens of Salem, in 1820, for the reduction of duties on the importa-
tion of certain foreign books. It was the first presented to the government on that
subject, though followed by others from various learned bodies, the object being

considered important to the cause of literature and science in the United States.

Note E. Page xliy.

Mr. Pickering, in his Address before the American Oriental Society, observes,
‘that the various new sources of information which modern perseverance and zeal
have opened to us have materially extended the boundaries of a liberal education ;
and it has become indispensable to unite with our Greek and Roman a portion of
Oriental learning. If there were no other motive for the pursuit of this branch of
knowledge, there would be a sufficient one in the fact, that the great parent lan-
guage of India, the Sanscrit, is now found to be so extensively incorporated into
the Greek, Latin, and other languages of Europe, and, above all, in those which

we consider as peculiarly belonging to the Teutonic or German family, that no

Ixxil

man can claim to be a philologist without some acquaintance with that extraordi-
nary and most perfect of the known tongues.”

In the Law Reporter, before referred to (p. 62), it is stated (doubtless within
bounds), that Mr. Pickering ‘“‘ was familiar with the French, Portuguese, Italian,
Spanish, German, Romaic, Greek, and Latin; was well acquainted with the
Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and Hebrew; and had explored, with various degrees of
care, the Arabic, Turkish, Syriac, Persian, Coptic, Sanscrit, Chinese, Cochin-Chi-
nese, Russian, Egyptian hieroglyphics, the Malay in several dialects, and par-
ticularly the Indian languages of America and of the Polynesian islands.”

Of late years, the Egyptian hieroglyphics possessed for Mr. Pickering a fasci-
nating interest. The history of the Egyptians, from the era of Herodotus down to
the latest discoveries of Lepsius, would have enlisted his enthusiasm as a lover of
literature and science; yet it was in connection with his cherished pursuit, the
study of languages, that the hieroglyphical inscriptions enchained his attention, —
speaking, as they do, through the medium of Champollion’s interpretation, a lan-

guage older than all othe rs bythe long interval of ages.

Nore F. Page xlvii.

Mr. Pickering’s memoir On the Pronunciation of the Greek Language was
hailed by the Greeks ‘as a vindication of their national honor”; and Asopius, a
learned Greek (a poet and professor at the University of the Seven Islands), was so
much gratified by reading it, that he sent Mr. Pickering a copy of one of the best
specimens of Romaic literature, as a token of his gratitude.

The North American Review, for June, 1819, contains a profound and very
learned article upon this Memoir, which the scholar who is curious in Greek litera-

ture will find exceedingly interesting.

Ixxili

Note G. Page xlyiii.

As we wish to give a just view of the character and merits of Mr. Pickering’s
great work, we adduce here some passages from several of the numerous other crit-
ical notices of it which have appeared in various parts of the country, and which extol
it in the same high tone of commendation as those before referred to. ‘ Liddell and
Scott’s,” it is said, “is the only work now extant that can come in competition with
Pickering’s.” And it is added,—‘* We do not hesitate to give the preference to
Pickering’s, because we regard it as better suited for use in colleges and schools.”
Mr. Pickering himself, in the Preface to his Lexicon, speaks of Liddell and Scott’s
as “a most valuable and important acquisition to all who wish to study Greek criti-
cally.” He was, indeed, the last man to depreciate the literary works of another.
But his object was, to make the best lexicon for the students of Greek generally.
This, for our country, appeared to be the desirable object. Those comparatively
few scholars who pursue their Greek studies to great extent and exactness will of
course supply themselves with various lexicons. That Mr. Pickering succeeded in
his object is abundantly manifest.

A learned professor (who speaks to us through the Hampshire and Franklin
Express) says of Mr. Pickering’s Lexicon: —‘‘ The recent edition is a new work,
restudied and rewritten, with the aid of all the best works of the kind which Euro-
pean scholars have so multiplied during the interval of ten or fifteen years which
have elapsed since the appearance of the first. And irrespective of national pref-
erences and grateful recollections, all prejudices apart, it is a work of vast labor,
great learning, excellent judgment, and elegant taste; it is, as we have said, in its
kind and for its use, a finished work. It is not, of course, as full and complete as
its larger rival; though, on some points, — as, for instance, the prepositions and
particles, — it will bear a favorable comparison in regard to completeness. In the
discriminating and felicitous translation of many and difficult passages, it is without
arival. The quantities of the doubtful vowels are marked with great care and ac-
curacy. The derived tenses of the verb are exhibited in distinct articles, much to
the convenience of the young student. It illustrates the words and idioms of the
New Testament more fully than any other lexicon of the classic Greek now in use.

In short, it accomplishes what it professes to; and to enumerate its excellencies

J

lxxiv

were but to repeat, as real and splendid achievements, what are set forth as modest
claims in the editor’s Preface.”

“ Of all Greek lexicons which have hitherto appeared,” says another competent
judge (through the Connecticut Weekly Review), ‘‘ we think Pickering’s will be
most useful to all classes of students. It will be the lexicon for the school-desk,
and for the collegian’s study; and it will be especially prized by the teacher who
wishes thoroughly to capacitate himself to communicate to others a critical knowl-
edge of this ancient language by the simplest method. It is sufficiently copious,
and has evidently been prepared with great care. We give it our unqualified
recommendation.”

A long list of similar testimonials might be given, but it is sufficient to add one
more, taken from a recent number of the Christian Examiner, and evidently pro-
ceeding from a high source.

“ The lexicon, in its present form, is in every respect an excellent one. It does
great honor to the ability, unwearied industry, and vast attainments of its author.
It is particularly adapted to the range of Greek works studied in the schools and
colleges of the United States; and American editions of the classics have been
specially referred to. It is well suited to the younger scholars, inasmuch as it con-
tains, in alphabetical order, the oblique cases and the principal dialectical or unu-
sual forms of anomalous nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, and the principal tenses
of anomalous verbs. But Mr. Pickering did not limit his task to this special object.
He used all the aids which the recent works in philology and lexicography pub-
lished in Europe, particularly in Germany, furnished him. Besides the contribu-
tions of Dunbar, and Liddell and Scott, Mr. Pickering diligently consulted the work
of Passow, both in the original German edition, and in the new one edited by Rost
and Palm, the lexicon of Jacobitz and Seidler, the excellent one of Pape, those of
Schneider and Riemer, besides numerous lexicons and yerbal indexes to particular
authors, and the new Paris edition, not yet completed, of Stephens’s Thesaurus.
Besides these lexicographical works, Mr. Pickering availed himself of special trea-
tises on the various branches of Hellenic antiquities. It is sufficient to mention
Boeckh on the Public Economy of Athens, and Platner on the Attic Process, both
of which, while explaining the financial, political, judicial, and other problems
growing out of the history of the Athenian commonwealth, have at the same time
supplied important materials for the lexicographer. Mr. Pickering’s professional
learning has been of great assistance to him in that portion of the lexicon which

Ixxv

contains the technical terms of Athenian law and the administration of justice.
We have found his lexicon excellent for the Attic orators. Indeed, we have some-
times found words in it which are wanting in the larger work of Liddell and Scott.
Mr. Pickering’s definitions are concise and exact; and though his plan did not
admit of a full historical development of every word, upon the principles partially
carried into effect by Passow, yet the reader of Greek literature will rarely turn
away unsatisfied.

“The work is very handsomely and accurately printed. It extends to 1456
pages, with three columns on a page, containing thus a vast amount of matter,
with a remarkable economy of space. It is in every respect a very convenient and
desirable book. Be

Note H. Page xlix.

The following passage from the learned article in the North American Review,
on Mr. Pickering’s memoir of the Greek language (referred to in a preceding
note), contains an allusion to his Vocabulary, with its title given at length. We
therefore adopt it here.

‘The author of this memoir is not a mere scholar. Like others of his country-
men who have deserved well of letters, he has been obliged to prosecute his stud-
ies, ‘not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic
bowers,’ but amidst the inconveniences and distractions of public life, and the
fatigues of his honorable profession. He is already well known to our readers as
the author of a Vocabulary of Words and Phrases which have been supposed to be
Peculiar to the United States of America. To which is prefixed an Essay on the
Present State of the English Language in the United States. And having thus
done no little service to American literature, he is the first to call the attention of

scholars in this country to the proper pronunciation of the Greek.”

lxxvi

Nore I. Page li.

“Tf, indeed,” says Mr. Pickering, in his review of Dr. Jarvis’s Discourse, ‘ our
only motive in the study of languages were to repay ourselves by the stores of
learning locked up in them, we should be poorly rewarded for the labor of inves-
tigating the Indian dialects; but if we wish to study human speech as a science,
just as we do other sciences, by ascertaining all the facts or phenomena, and pro-
ceeding to generalize and class those facts for the purpose of advancing human
knowledge ; in short, if what is called philosophical grammar is of any use what-
ever, then it is indispensable to the philologist of comprehensive views to possess a
knowledge of as many facts or phenomena of language as possible; and these
negiected dialects of our own continent certainly do offer to the philosophical in-
quirer some of the most curious and interesting facts of any languages with which
we are acquainted.”

“ Until within a few years past,” he observes, in his memoir on a uniform or-
thography for the Indian languages of North America, “these neglected dialects,
like the devoted race of men who have spoken them for so many ages, and who
have been stripped of almost every fragment of their paternal inheritance except
their language, have incurred only the contempt of the people of Europe and their
descendants on this continent; all of whom, with less justice than is commonly
supposed, have proudly boasted of their own more cultivated languages as well as
more civilized manners.”

‘“* Mr. Du Ponceau,” says Mr. Pickering, in his review of the Dissertation on the
Nature and Character of the Chinese System of Writing, ‘‘ was the first writer
who took a comprehensive view of the languages of the whole continent, and es-
tablished the general conclusion, that the American dialects, from one extremity
of the continent to the other (with perhaps some exceptions), form a distinct class
or family ; which, from their highly compounded character, he has happily desig-
nated by the term polysynthetic. Now these complex American dialects are at
one extremity of the series or chain of human languages; while at the other we
find the very simple and inartificial language of China; these two extremes, when
contrasted with each other, presenting this extraordinary phenomenon, that the
savage tribes of the New World, though destitute of all literature and even of writ-
ten languages, are found to be in possession of highly complex and artificial forms

of speech, — which would seem to be the result of cultivation, — while in the Old

xxvii

World, the ingenious Chinese who were civilized and had a national literature
even before the glorious days of Greece and Rome, have for four thousand years
had an extremely simple, not to say rude and inartificial, language, that, according
to the common theories, seems to be the infancy of human speech. This phenom-
enon well deserves the consideration of the philosophical inquirer, and especially
of those speculatists who have assumed a certain necessary connection between
what is considered the refined or artificial state of a language and the cultivation
of the human race.”

In reference to “the able and philosophical investigations of Mr. Du Ponceau,
and the interesting work of his experienced and worthy fellow-laborer, the Rev.
Mr. Heckewelder,” Mr. Pickering, in his memoir just now mentioned, says :—
‘For my own part, I acknowledge that they have occasioned my taking a deeper
interest in this apparently dry and barren subject, than I would have believed to
be possible in any one, however devoted he might be to philological pursuits ;
and I have in consequence been for a time allured from old and favorite studies,
to which I had intended to allot the whole of that little leisure which I could
spare from the duties of my profession.”

The original manuscript of the dictionary of Father Rasles or Raéle (for his
name is spelt both ways) was found among his papers after his death in 1724, and
came into the possession of Harvard College. ‘ Of all the memorials of the abo-
riginal languages in the Northern Atlantic portion of America,” observes Mr.
Pickering, in his introductory memoir, ‘ the following Dictionary of the Abnaki
language (or Abenaqui, as it is often called, after the French writers) is now among
the most important.” Mr. Pickering spared no labor in its publication. It may be
found in the first volume, new series, of the Memoirs of the American Academy,
extending over more than two hundred quarto pages.

Of “the printed books relating to these languages,” adds Mr. Pickering, “ the
wonderful work of Eliot, ‘the apostle,’ I mean his entire translation of the Old and
New Testaments, and his Grammar of the Massachusetts Indian language, are in
every respect the most remarkable.” Mr. Pickering’s admirable republication of
this grammar was entitled, —‘* A New Edition with Notes and Observations, by
Peter S. Du Ponceau, LL. D., and an Introduction and Supplementary Observa-
tions by John Pickering.” It first appeared in the Massachusetts Historical Col-
lections. So also did the “ New Edition, with Notes by John Pickering,” of Dr.

Edwards’s Observations on the Mohegan Language.

Ixxviil

Nore K. Page liii.

Those who feel an interest in the subject will not fail to recur to Mr. Pickering’s
beautiful philosophical essay On the Adoption of a Uniform Orthography for the
Indian Languages of North America, contained in the fourth volume of the Me-
moirs of the American Academy. Its perusal, indeed, would in most minds create
an interest, if one is not already felt.

Professor Robinson, in his Biblical Researches in Palestine, &c. (Vol. I., p. x-);
upon stating that the Syrian mission at Jerusalem had adopted “the system pro-
posed by Mr. Pickering for the Indian languages,” observes : — “Two motives led
to a preference of this system; first, its own intrinsic merits, and facility of adapta-
tion; and secondly, the fact, that it was already extensively in use throughout
Europe and the United States, in writing the aboriginal names in North America
and the South Sea islands; so that, by thus adopting it for the Oriental languages, a
uniformity of orthography would be secured among the missions, and also in the
publications of the American Board.”

After referring to the “ Essay, &c., by John Pickering,” Professor Robinson
adds: —‘“ The Indian languages of North America and of the islands of the Pa-
cific have mostly been reduced to writing according to this simple system.”

The following is a list of the principal languages which have been reduced to
writing, on the principles of Mr. Pickering’s system, by missionaries of the Ameri-
can Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and in which books have actu-
ally been printed : — the Greybo and Gaboon, in Africa ; the Hawaiian, Sandwich
Islands ; the Choctaw, Creek, Osage, Pawnee, Seneca, Abenaquis, Ojibwa, Otta-
wa, Sioux, and Nez Perces, North America.

Nore L. Page lv.

Mr. Pickering, in his biographical notice of Mr. Du Ponceau, thus describes the
new views presented in his Dissertation on the Nature and Character of the Chi-
nese System of Writing. ‘He published a few years ago a work unfolding new

views of the remarkable language of China, which has been long enyeloped in

Ixxix

almost as much mystery as the hieroglyphic system of ancient Egypt. Not agree-
ing with those who held the opinion, that the Chinese language is ideographic, that ,
is, that the written characters denote ideas of things, and do not represent spoken
words, — so that different nations of the East could understand each other by the
writing, when they could not by speaking, —just as the Arabic numerals are
understood alike, for example, by a Frenchman and Englishman, when written,
though not when spoken, — contesting this opinion, we say, Mr. Du Ponceau boldly
assumes the position, that the Chinese must be like other languages, and that the
written characters, or words, represent spoken words or sounds, as in all the lan-
guages of Europe. The sinologists of the Old World are acquainted with his
book, but are not prepared to adopt his views, though some of them are silently
making use of his terminology, and so far give countenance to his results. Yet, if
he is wrong, and if the language of the Chinese is not like other languages of the
human race in the particular in question, the fact will present a more extraordi-
nary phenomenon than any of the extraordinary characteristics hitherto known of
that singular people.”

Having reviewed this important work immediately after its publication, with the
profoundest attention to the subject, Mr. Pickering naturally felt much curiosity to
observe in what manner Mr. Du Ponceau’s new and striking views of the Chinese
language would be received by European scholars. ‘‘ Knowing the force of the
opinions which have been maintained by them for more than two centuries, re-
specting the language of the singular people of the ‘Celestial empire,’ we were
prepared,” say the North American Reviewers, in their article on the Cochin-
Chinese language, “‘ for a total dissent from the doctrines of our learned author,
if not a positive and direct attempt to refute them.” ‘ When we saw announced
in the contents of that long-established and able journal, the London Monthly Re-
view, for December, 1840, an article expressly upon this work, we felt no little
impatience to see the article itself, which we had understood to be highly commen-
datory of Mr. Du Ponceau’s work, and in perfect coincidence with his views.
Upon opening the London journal, what was our astonishment to find, at the first
glance, that the review was taken from our own article ; and, upon a closer com-
parison, to discover, that, with the exception of a few paragraphs (which in their
original form had American badges attached to them), the entire London article

was a reprint, without any acknowledgment, from our own pages !”

]xxx

Note M. Page lvi.

PETER S. DU PONCEAU, LL. D.

A few passages from Mr. Pickering’s interesting notice of the life and character
of his most distinguished literary and personal friend cannot be out of place here.*
They were doubtless first attracted to each other by their rare erudition, but their
friendship was cemented by that purity of heart and delicacy of taste and of feeling
in which they so entirely sympathized. Their correspondence, which was com-
menced in 1818, and terminated only by death, was as intimate and delightful as
it was learned.

Mr. Du Ponceau died in April, 1843. “To the writer of this notice,” says Mr.
Pickering, “ for whom he had long cherished an affection almost parental, his
death is an irreparable loss ; a long-tried friend and counsellor is no more!”

“ Mr. Du Ponceau was born on the third day of June, 1760, in the Isle of Ré,
which lies a few miles from the coast of La Vendée, in France.” His philological
genius, like Mr. Pickering’s, discovered itself very early, and in his case appears
to have determined his lot in life. ‘‘ As the smallest circumstances in the his-
tory of such minds as his,” continues Mr. Pickering, ‘‘ cannot but be interesting,
we will here add, — we have heard him state, that, while a child of only six years
of age, his curiosity to know something of the English language was intensely ex-
cited by his accidentally meeting with a single torn leaf of an English book, in
which he discovered the strange letters k and w,— for such they were to a child
who had never seen them in any book in his own language ; and this circumstance,
trifling as it may appear, first directed his attention to our language. At that time,
General Conway, who was afterwards somewhat conspicuous, during the American
Revolution, as a member of the British House of Commons, had the command of
a regiment stationed in the Isle of Ré, and, being struck with the remarkable
points of character ina child of so tender an age, and with his aptitude for the
study of languages, obligingly took pains to instruct him in English; and such
was his progress, that in a very short time he was able to read Milton, Shakspeare,
and other English classics, whose works are far beyond the grasp of ordinary
youthful minds. As he proceeded, he became so delighted with the great English

* First published in the Boston Courier, April 8. 1843.

Ixxxi

masters, that he never afterwards acquired a truly national fondness for the poetry
of France.”

When the well-known Baron Steuben was in Paris, on his way to the United
States to join the American army, and, “ being unacquainted with the English lan- .
guage, was making inquiries for some young man, who could speak English, to
accompany him as his secretary, he was informed of young Du Ponceau, who hap-
pened then to be in Paris, and an arrangement was made with him accordingly.
We recollect,” adds Mr. Pickering, ‘to have heard Mr. Du Ponceau say, that, at
that time, though he had never been out of France, he understood and could speak
English as perfectly as he ever could afterwards.”

‘“* Mr. Du Ponceau left Paris in the suite of Baron Steuben for the United States,
fired with the ardor of youth, and full of zeal in the cause of American liberty,
which he ever fondly cherished. He landed at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on
the first day of December, 1777, an event in his life which he often alluded to
with lively interest.”

‘* At the close of the war, he had fixed his mind on the profession of the law, —
and many years did not elapse before he attained the first rank.” — “ His purity of
purpose, incorruptible integrity, and independence, never suffered him, during pe-
riods of the highest political excitement, to deviate from the sacred duty of a faith-
ful legal adviser, even when pressed by the almost irresistible influence of national
feeling or partisan principles, or — what in our own time is a still stronger stimu-
lant — the corrupting lure of political advancement.”

‘‘ During the latter part of his life, after he had acquired a competent fortune
by his profession, he devoted most of his time to his favorite study of general phi-
lology, a science which has employed the first intellects of the Old World, from the
time of the great Leibnitz to that of the late illustrious Baron William Humboldt
in our own time ; and there can be little, if any doubt, that the labors of Mr. Du
Ponceau in that noble, but boundless field, have, among the profound scholars of
Europe, contributed more to establish our reputation for solid erudition than those
of any other individual in this country.”

Mr. Du Ponceau most heartily reciprocated the admiration entertained of him
by Mr. Pickering, whom he regarded as an honor and an ornament to his country,
and often alluded to the high estimation in which he was held by the first phi-
lologists and ethnographers of the Old World, — the Humboldts and the Prichards,
who sought and appreciated his correspondence.

k

Ixxxii

Nore N. Page Ix.

“In contemplating the variety, the universality, of his attainments, the mind in-
voluntarily exclaims, ‘ The admirable Pickering!’ He seems, indeed, to have run
the whole round of knowledge.”

“The death of one thus variously connected is no common sorrow. Be-
yond the immediate circle of family and friends, he will be mourned by the bar,
amongst whom his daily life was passed; by the municipality of Boston, whose
legal adviser he was; by clients who depended upon his counsels; by all good
citizens, who were charmed by the abounding virtues of his private life; by his
country, who will cherish his name more than gold or silver; by the distant islands
of the Pacific, who will bless his labors in every written word that they read ;
finally, by the company of jurists and scholars throughout the world.” —9 Law
Reporter, pp. 61, 66.

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MEMOIRS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY.

i:

Curoris Borrari-Americana: Illustrations of New, Rare, or oth-
erwise Interesting North American Plants, selected chiefly from
those recently brought into Cultivation at the Botanic Garden of
Harvard University, Cambridge.

By ASA GRAY, M.D.,

FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, ETC.

DECADE I.
(Communicated to the Academy, January 27th, 1846.)
,

Tus memoir is designed to contribute in some degree to the
advancement of North American botany, by illustrating several new
or scarcely known plants, especially those of which the floral struc-
ture, natural affinities, or generic characters have hitherto been
imperfectly made out, or in some respects misapprehended. The
subjects chosen for illustration in this first decade are none of them

1

2 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

absolutely new to botanists. Two of them, indeed, have been al-
ready figured, but without the analyses and details requisite to
elucidate their real structure, and settle the questions upon which
their ordinal or generic collocation depends. ‘The others, with one
exception, belong to genera or species which have not yet been
published in any systematic work, at least under their proper
names, or which, like the rare Schweinitzia, have hitherto been
very imperfectly characterized. Certain plants, which have been
first introduced into cultivation at the Botanic Garden under my
charge, and which are of special horticultural rather than of strict
botanical interest, may also be deemed worthy of occasional illus-
tration. Of this kind is the Gaillardia, represented in Tab. IV.

It will be noticed that the plant which forms the subject of the
first illustration is given under a name different from that which, if
my conclusions are correctly drawn, it must hereafter bear. ‘This
is explained by the fact, that the plate was engraved and the im-
pressions taken long before I was able to make the comparisons

which rendered the change of name inevitable.

OAKESIA CONRADII. 3

' OAKESIA CONRADII, Tuckerm.
TAB. I.
OAKESIA, Tuckerman in Lond. Journ. Bot., 1. p. 446.

Tuckermania, Klotzsch.

Flores dioici seu polygami, capitati, singuli bracteolis
nempe squamis 5—6 membranaceo-scariosis concavis
bi-—trifariam imbricatis suffulti. Perigonium proprium
nullum. Masc. Stamina 3, rarius 4: filamenta filifor-
mia: anthere versatiles, subgloboso-didyme, biloculares,
loculis per rimam longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Pistilli
rudimentum sepissime nullum. Fam. Ovarium obo-
voideum, triloculare, raro quinque—sexloculare, loculis
uniovulatis : ovulum anatropum ex angulo interno erec-
tum: stylus tenuis, brevi-exsertus, apice trifidus, nunc
quadri— quinquefidus ; laciniis subulatis, patentibus, se-
pius uni—bidentatis, intus stigmatosis. Discus hypogy-
nus (ut in ordine!) plane nullus. Hermaph. Pistillum
fl. feminei. Stamina 3, omnia antherifera, vel 1-2 ad
mera vestigia reducta: anthers sepius dimidiatim uni-
loculares. Drupa parva, subglobosa, sicca (epicarpio
pertenui), tripyrena, nunc quadri—quinquepyrena ; py-
renis cartilagineis, semine erecto impletis. Embryo
gracilis, in axi albuminis carnosi orthotropus, eodem
brevior: radicula infera: cotyledonibus brevissimis.

Fruticulus ericoideus depressus, ramosissimus, diffu-

4 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

sus ; foliis ter—quaternatim verticillatis sparsisve, con-
fertis, patentibus, linearibus, sub lente hispidulo-scabris,
convexo-planis, subtus sulco profunde exaratis. Flores
in capitulis terminalibus multibracteatis digesti, singuli
in axilla bractee aride squameeformis arcte sessiles.
Squame fulve: stamina longe exserta stylique rubi-
ginosi.

O. Conrapu, Tuckerman, l.c.; Hook. Ic. P1.6. t. 531.

Empetrum Conradii, Torr. in Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 4. p. 83
(1837) ; Bigel. Fl Bost., ed. 3. p. 393.

Tuckermania Conradii, Klotzsch in Erichs. Archiv., Apr. 1842, p. 248.

Corema Conradii, Torr. §- Gray, ined.

Has. In arenosis “ Pine barrens” dictis, Nove Ce-
saree, ubi primum detexit beat. S. W. Conrad, posthac
legerunt Rafinesque, Torrey, et Knieskern. Circa Ply-
mouth Massachusettensium, Oakes, Tuckerman, Rus-
sell, etc. In rupestribus aridis, prope Bath, Mainen-
sium, Gambell. Newfoundland, Cormack (ex herb.
Lamb. fide cel. Tuckerman). Primo vere floret.

The figure and analyses here given were principally made, in the
spring and summer of the year 1845, from specimens of the living
plant obligingly communicated to the Botanic Garden of Harvard
University, by Gustavus Gilbert, Esq., of Plymouth.

This low and spreading shrub, with its evergreen heath-like
foliage, blossoms at the same time as the Epigza, in early spring.
The staminate plants then present a very pretty appearance, each
branch being crowned with a capitate cluster, of which the slender

OAKESIA CONRADII. 5

tufted stamens, tipped with brown-purple anthers, are principally
conspicuous, and are persistent for a considerable period. It then
has the aspect of some Diosma, rather than of a Heath or a
Crowberry. The fertile flowers are by no means showy, except
when clusters are found which exhibit stamens as well as pistils,
which is not unusual. In this case, however, few of the flowers
are really perfect. For, when the pistil is well formed, the stamens
are commonly more or less reduced, either by the suppression, par-
tially or completely, of one cell of the anther, or by the reduction
of one or more of the filaments to mere vestiges. Three cases of
this sort, selected from a full series of such analyses, are represented
in Figures 6,7, and 8. The fertilized flowers are succeeded in the
course of the summer by clusters of small and juiceless drupes,
which, by the proliferous growth of the shoots of the season, now
usually appear to be lateral; as is shown in the right-hand figure
of the accompanying plate. The full generic character already
given, the explanation of the plate, which comprises the more requi-
site analyses, very carefully drawn by Mr. Sprague, together with the
ensuing historical and critical observations, render a further detailed
description of the plant unnecessary.

Dr. Torrey, in the article above cited in which this plant was
first made known, has recorded the history of its discovery, by the
late Professor Solomon W. Conrad, near Pemberton Mills, about
ten miles from Burlington, New Jersey, and subsequently by the
late Mr. Rafinesque at Cedar Bridge, in Monmouth county of the
same State; from which locality Dr. Torrey himself obtained a
supply of living specimens. It has since been detected by Dr.
Knieskern at other localities in the ‘ Pine barrens” of New Jer-
sey. Recognizing in this plant an interesting accession to the small

family Empetracee, Dr. Torrey referred it, though with some hesi-

6 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

tation, to the genus Empetrum itself. His faithful description, al-
though drawn from less perfect specimens than we now possess,
leaves little to be added, except the account of the fruit, which was
then unknown. He did not fail to notice its agreement in habit
and some points of structure with the Empetrum album, Linn., the
Corema of Don.* Had the latter plant been known to him other-
wise than by an imperfect and faulty description, the agreement
would certainly have been more insisted on.

In the autumn of 1840, Mr. W. Gambell gave me good speci-
mens of this plant, which he had gathered the preceding spring on
the rocky banks of the Kennebec, in the neighbourhood of Bath,
Maine. For the discovery of this station, I believe we are in-
debted, not to Mr. Nuttall directly, as has been stated,+ but to
his enterprising young friend and pupil just named. Previously to
this, however, namely, in 1838 and 1839, the Plymouth locality
had been brought to notice by Mr. Russell, Mr. Gilbert, Mr.
Tuckerman, who identified it with the Empetrum Conradii of Tor-
rey, and Mr. Oakes, by whom the ripe fruit was first detected.

Specimens having been communicated by Mr. Tuckerman to
Dr. Klotzsch of Berlin, this botanist was led to study the plant,
and to propose its establishment as a new genus, which he very ap-
propriately dedicated to Mr. Tuckerman. In the detailed generic
character of Tuckermania by Klotzsch, the nature of the fruit was
first made known.t The seed, however, was not examined ; its
structure, and that of the embryo, have been left for me to sup-

* Annals of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist. of New York, 1. c., p. 86.

+ London Journal of Botany, Vol. I., p. 445.

+ “ Fructus parvus, drupaceous, siccus, depresso-globosus, tri- abortu dipyrenus,
pyrenis cartilagineis monospermis. Semen?” Klotzsch, in Erichs. Archiv., 1. c.,
p- 250.

OAKESIA CONRADII. 7

ply. The points in which the generic characters by Klotzsch differ
from the detailed description by Torrey are few and slight, and, I
may add, not invariably correct. The rank of the scarious enyel-
opes of the flower, called by Torrey, with purposed ambiguity, the
“scales of the perianth,” and by Klotzsch distinguished into a « ca-
lyx triphyllus,” and a “corolla diphylla,” is of course a matter of
opinion. But they cannot, except in an arbitrary manner, be
divided into an outer and inner series; they are imbricated one
over another, in the manner of the scales of a winter bud, which
purpose they .subserve ; they vary in number from five to six or
more, and the only difference is, that the inner are successively
thinner and more hyaline, as in an ordinary bud. These have not
the petaloid appearance or texture of the “ petals ” of Empetrum,
which form apparently a true perigonium. It were perhaps best
to consider the whole of them as equivalent to the “six imbricated
scaly bracts ” of Empetrum. However that may be, they are ab-
solutely the same as the « calyx 3-phyllus; petala 3” of Corema,
Don, that is, when actually six in number, which is not uncom-
monly the case. Klotzsch’s character, “corolla (foem.) diphylla,”
should therefore be corolla 2—3-phylla, when it would agree with
Dr. Torrey’s description, though in other terms, In describing the
corolla of the sterile flowers, Klotzsch has unfortunately mistaken an
occasional and plainly accidental deviation for the regular struc-
ture.* Although these inner scales do sometimes grow together
more or less, in the manner exhibited at Fig. 4, yet this union is
quite casual and variable, and obviously of no moment, except as it
tends to show that these organs are not really petals. The sta-
mens, though generally three, are often four, as Dr. Torrey had

* “ Corolla (fl. masc.) tenuissime membranacea, cyathiformis, apice truncata et

minutissime denticulata, longitudinaliter fissa, deinde diphylla.” Klotzsch, 1. c.

8 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

stated. The ovary is merely said to be three-celled by Klotzsch ;
and by Torrey, with closer correctness, 3—4-celled. It is some-
times, though rarely, five-celled, the divisions of the style varying in
like manner; and, I may add, that these are quite irregular, and
often (as in Corema) a little incised or two-toothed. Dr. Klotzsch’s
summary of the points in which his genus is held to differ from its
nearest allies will be noticed presently.

On his return from Germany to England, in the summer of 1842,
Mr. Tuckerman, learning that the name which Dr. Klotzsch gave
to this genus had been already applied to a different plant by Mr.
Nuttall,* embraced the opportunity that now offered to dedicate such
an interesting New England plant to William Oakes, Esq. ; a bot-
anist whose name is “inseparably connected with the New Eng-
land Flora” which he has done, and is doing, so much to illustrate.
Mr. Tuckerman’s article was published in the first volume of Hook-
er’s London Journal of Botany, in the autumn of 1842. He was
enabled to extend our knowledge of the geographical range of the
plant, by detecting a specimen in the Lambertian herbarium, gath-
ered in Newfoundland + by Mr. Cormack, which the late Professor
Don had misnamed “ Ceratiola ericoides.” He also gave a good
history of our knowledge of the plant up to that time; and repro-

* Tuckermania, Nutt. in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.; Torr. and Gr. Fl. N. Amer.
2, p. 8355 ; a showy Californian Composita. Specimens likewise exist in the late Dr.
Coulter’s Californian collection.

+ Dr. Torrey (in Ann. Lyc., l. c.), having noticed that Pylaie had included Em-
petrum rubrum in the enumeration of his Newfoundland collection, inquires wheth-
er this may not be his Empetrum Conradii. Now that Newfoundland specimens of
the latter plant have been brought to light by Mr. Tuckerman, it becomes in-
teresting to answer this inquiry. An examination of Pylaie’s herbarium enables me
to state that his “ Empetrum rubrum? L.” is not E. Conradii, but is very like the
Magellanic species.

OAKESIA CONRADII. 2)

duced Klotzsch’s generic character, merely changing the name to
Oakesia. ‘This character was again repeated, soon after, by Hook-
er, accompanied by a figure of the plant, with some good anal-
yses of the flowers, which, he remarks, do not so well accord with
Dr. Klotzsch’s description as could be wished.* Hooker has well
represented the perianth or scales of the flower. He also detected
an abortive pistil in one of the sterile flowers. The fruit was un-
known to him, and, indeed, that possessed by Mr. Tuckerman and
Dr. Klotzsch was said to be abortive.

Good fruit, however, was gathered by Mr. Oakes, and communi-
cated both to Dr. Torrey and myself; it has also ripened in the
Botanic Garden at Cambridge. The mature drupes are represented
of the natural size in the right-hand figure of the accompanying
plate ; they are no larger than a pin’s head, and have, even when
fresh, only a thin coating of juiceless flesh. In the dry state, the
cartilaginous pyrene may be made to separate by considerable
pressure, when they incline to open by the ventral suture; but I
believe the fruit is never spontaneously dehiscent. ‘The erect seed,
which fills the cell of each pyrena, has a taper embryo in the axis
of fleshy albumen, of two thirds its length, the radicle being, of
course, inferior, and the cotyledons very short.

In order rightly to estimate the value of the characters assigned
to the genus Oakesia, it will be necessary to correct some errors
which prevail respecting Empetrum itself. The late Professor Don,
in drawing out the characters of the order Empetrez, stated that the
ovary rests on a fleshy disk ;+ which character is more strongly pre-

* Icones Plantarum, Vol. VI. (or II. new series), t. 531 (1843).
1S OVEN Sis BBE disco carnoso impositum.” Don, in Edinb. New Phil. Jour-
nal, Vol. II., p. 62.
2

10 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

sented by Lindley, namely, “ ovary seated in a fleshy disk,”* and
has been copied by Endlicher into the description of each genus
in the form of ‘Ovarium disco carnoso insidens.” + But I can
find no disk whatever, either in Empetrum nigrum or E. rubrum,
or indeed in any other plant of the family. Another mistake, re-
lating to the insertion of the seed and the pericarpic direction of
the embryo, appears also to have originated with Professor Don.
He characterized the seed in the whole order as erect or ascending
(at least by implication), and the radicle of the embryo as inferior, —
characters which have been adopted without scrutiny by succeeding
systematic writers, but which, though true as respects Corema,
Ceratiola, and Oakesia, are not applicable to Empetrum itself. The
only correct representation of the insertion of the seed in Empe-
trum is that in the well known Genera Plantarum Flore Germanie
of the younger Nees von Esenbeck.{ ‘The seed in E. nigrum (as
also in E. rubrum) is, in fact, suspended from the upper inner angle
of the bony cell, just as the artist has represented in Fig. 19 of the
plate in the work referred to. But in the longitudinal section of the
seed, at Fig. 20, the artist has depicted the embryo with the
radicle inferior, and the cotyledons next the hilum; or, in other
words (the seed being anatropous), has made the cotyledons, instead
of the radicle, povnt to the micropyle ! which is of course an impos-
sibility. Endlicher has cited the plate without correcting the incon-
gruity, but, probably supposing that the mistake regarded the seed
rather than the embryo, has rejected what was really correct in the

* Nat. System, ed. 2, p. 117, and Vegetable Kingdom, p. 285.

t+ Genera Plantarum, p. 1106.

¢ Even here the structure is misapprehended in the text ; the drupe being called
a berry, the pyrene, seeds, the hilum, an internal chalaza, &c. The correct view is

suggested, howeyer, in a parenthesis at the close.

OAKESIA CONRADII. el

figure, and adopted the error. But any botanist may readily satisfy
himself, by examination, that the radicle in Empetrum lies next the
hilum, and points to the apex of the fruit;* thus invalidating
the character on which Don and Lindley rely for distinguishing
the family from Euphorbiacez. Since the other genera of this truly
natural group differ from Empetrum in really possessing an erect
seed and an inferior radicle, I may remark, in passing, that we
have here a case in point against the adoption of a rule recently
laid down by M. Ad. Brongniart, namely, that the direction of the
radicle is of much higher importance considered with respect to the
pericarp than with respect to the hilum.t

The diagnosis of the genus Oakesia is stated by Klotzsch (I cite
from the translation by Mr. Tuckerman) as follows: — «We find
that Empetrum differs in having single axillary flowers supported by
three bracts, a three-leaved corolla, a 6—9-celled ovary sunk in a
fleshy disk, and a closely sessile radiately expanded 6 —9-cleft stig-
ma; that Corema, agreeing with this plant in the habit and inflo-
rescence, is yet distinguished from it by the want of bracts, bya
three-leaved corolla, an ovary sunk in a fleshy disk, and a radiately
expanded six-cleft stigma supported bya short style; and that Cera-

* In no case have I found the embryo eccentric, as it is figured and described in
the Genera Fl. Germania, but always directly in the axis of the albumen, and with
a slight curvature corresponding to that of the seed. Neither is it so long as
there depicted ; being scarcely more than two thirds the length of the albumen.
It is in the work here referred to, that the compound pollen of Empetracee has
alone been noticed; but it is most strikingly seen in Oakesia. It is singular, now that
this group is so widely separated from Ericacee (to which Jussieu appended Em-
petrum), that it should, after all, be found to accord with the Heath tribe in this
somewhat peculiar character.

+ Brongniart, Enumeration des Genres de Plantes cultiv. au Mus. Hist. Nat.
Par., p. ix. (introduction).

12 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

tiola, approaching it in its two-leaved corolla, differs in having axil-
lary flowers supported by four bracts, a two-leaved calyx, two sta-
mens, a two-celled ovary sunk in a fleshy disk, and a radiately
expanded six-cleft stigma, supported by a short style.” *

I have already observed, that I can find no fleshy disk in Empe-
trum ; and in the few flowers of Corema which I have been able to
examine there is certainly no more trace of a disk than in Oakesia
itself. There is usually a distinct though short style in Empetrum ;
but the scattered solitary flowers, proper petaloid perianth, 6—9-
celled ovary, and, above all, the direction of the seed and embryo,
which I have now pointed out, abundantly distinguish Empetrum
from the plant in question. Ceratiola is distinguished by its scat-
tered dimerous flowers and greatly developed laciniate stigmas ; the
latter, however, are two, deeply 2-parted, and incised, rather than a
“‘ stigma subsexfidum.” But as respects Corema, I can confirm
none of the distinctive marks that have been indicated. Where Dr.

” in Corema, he has, I fear,

Klotzsch refers to the “ want of bracts
misapprehended the phrase, “‘ Calyx triphyllus membranaceus, basi
nudus,” of Don, who evidently refers to the want of bracteole, be-
yond the six which he regards as calyx and corolla.t In this re-
spect, as well as in the texture and appearance of these envelopes,
Corema and Oakesia are quite alike, except that the number in
the latter is sometimes one fewer. 'The casual union of the inner-
most may surely be disregarded. The style and its branches are

shorter in the Portuguese than in the American plant, but the differ-

* London Journal of Botany, 1. c., p. 446.

+ If, on the other hand, Dr. Klotzsch refers to proper bracts, namely, the scales
of the capitulum subtending each flower, these certainly are present in Corema, as
well as Oakesia, though not so conspicuous, and are described by Don and Endli-

cher. In Oakesia they are rounded and pointless; in Corema, acuminate.

OAKESIA CONRADII. 13

ence is inconsiderable ; and, instead of a “stigma sexfidum” in the
former, I have only met with a style three-cleft at the apex, the lobes
thus answering to the cells of the ovary, and one or two of them
often more or less two-cleft at the apex. The pilosity of the recep-
tacle of the head of flowers in Corema is simply a continuation of
the pubescence of the branches, &c., in which Corema differs from
Oakesia, just as Empetrum rubrum does from E. nigrum. The
habit of the two plants is very similar; although Corema alba, in
its erect growth and slenderer leaves, has apparently more the as-
pect of our Ceratiola. I have not seen the ripe fruit of Corema,
but if the drupes figured by Gertner were full grown, they are
little larger than in our plant, and the pulp is sparing. A dif-
ference in the amount merely of the sarcocarp can be of no generic
consequence ; but beyond this I know of no tangible character to
distinguish Oakesia from Corema.

I have to regret, therefore, that such a poorly marked genus
should have been dedicated to so excellent a botanist as my valued
friend, Mr. Oakes. ‘The accompanying plate was lettered and en-
graved before I had made the examinations which have led to this
conclusion. In this view, I have perhaps been anticipated by my
distinguished associate, Professor Torrey ; for among my specimens
I find one ticketed by him “ Empetrum (Corema) Conradu.”

With our present knowledge, the diagnoses of the three genera

of Empetracez must, [ think, stand as follows : —

1. Empetrum, Tourn., Linn. (excl. sp.)

Flores in axillis foliorum solitarii, sparsi, triandri. Perigonium
proprium petaloideum. Stylus brevissimus: stigma 6—9-radiatum.
Drupa baccata 6—9-pyrena. Semina pendula; radicula supera! —
E. nigrum, Linn. E. rubrum, Vahl.

14 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

2. Ceratrota, Miche.

Flores in axillis foliorum solitarii vel pauci aggregati, diandri.
Perigonium proprium nullum. Stylus crassus: stigma foliaceum
circa 4-partitum, lobis inciso-pinnatifidis. Drupa dipyrena. Semi-

na erecta: radicula infera. — C. ericoides, Michz.

3. Corema, Don. (Tuckermania, Al. Oakesia, T'’uckerm.)

Flores capitati, bracteis squameformibus suffulti. Perigonium
proprium nullum. Stylus gracilis, 3- (nunc 4—5-) fidus, lobis an-
gustis. Drupa szpius tripyrena, parva. Semina erecta: radicula

infera. —C. alba, Don. C. Conradii, Torrey §- Gray.

Taz. I. Oakesia (potius Corema) Conradii, staminate, pistillate, and
fruiting specimens, of the natural size. Fig. 1. Leaves, magnified ; view
of the upper and under sides. Fig. 2. Capitulum of the sterile flowers, en-
larged. Fig. 3. Magnified staminate flower, with the three inner enveloping
scales (corolla, of Klotzsch) spread open (the stamens in this instance four
innumber). Fig. 4. Magnified staminate flower, with the two innermost
scales united on one side. Fig. 5. Pollen (consisting of four combined grains),
highly magnified. Fig. 6. A magnified subhermaphrodite flower, with its
scales spread open, showing an abortive pistil, and the one-celled anthers ; in
one of the stamens there is the rudiment of the second anther-cell. Fig. 7.
Enlarged hermaphrodite flower, with one dimidiate stamen, and two rudimen-
tary filaments ; the pistil normal. Fig. 8. Hermaphrodite flower, the sta-
mens all with dimidiate anthers. Fig. 9. Capitulum of fertile flowers, enlarg-
ed. Fig. 10. Magnified pistillate flower, with the inner scales. Fig. 11.
Magnified pistillate flower, with a four-cleft style, and the scales spread open.
Fig. 12. A drupe, cut across, magnified. Fig. 13. One of the detached
pyrene, cut across, and more magnified. Fig. 14. Vertical section of a
drupe, magnified ; the section passing through one pyrena, seed, and embryo,
and leaving the other pyrena entire. Fig. 15. The embryo detached, and
more magnified.

SCHWEINITZIA ODORATA. 15

“ SCHWEINITZIA ODORATA, El.
TAB. II.
SCHWEINITZIA, Ell. Sk. Bot. S. Car. § Georg., 1. p. 478.

Calyx quinquesepalus, marcescens ; sepalis carinato-
concavis, basi vix bigibbosis. Corolla campanulata, per-
sistens, breviter quinqueloba, carnosula, basi quinque-
gibbosa; lobis ovatis patentibus. Stamina 10, hypogy-
na: filamenta subulato-filiformia, glabra: anthere juxta
apicem introrsim affixee (in alabastro non reverse), di-
dymz, biloculares, loculis sacculiformibus vertice fora-
mine amplissimo hiantibus. Pollen simplex. Ovarium
subglobosum, basi disco hypogyno decemcrenato, den-
tibus staminibus alternantibus, cinctum, quinqueloculare,
loculis multiovulatis: stylus brevis, crassus: stigma
pentagonum, leviter quinquecrenatum, umbilicatum.
Saosin... .

Khizophytum hypopythoideum, humile, badium, gla-
berrimum ; floribus consimilibus spicatis, odorem Viole
spirantibus : corolla carnea.

S. oporata, Elll., l.c.; Nutt. Gen. 2. p. 270 ( Suppl.) ;
DC. Prodr. 7. p. 780.

S. Caroliniana, Don, Gen. Syst. 3. p. 867.

Monotropsis odorata, Schwein. in Ell., l. c.

Has. In sylvis, humi pingui, frondibus delapsis quan-

16 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

doque latens, Caroline Septentrionalis juxta Salem, ubi
detexit beat. Schweinitz ; necnon sub scopulo “ Table
Mountain ”
urbem Baltimore in Marylandia, cl. Griffith. Primo

vere floret. °

dicto cl. Sullivant mecum legit. Prope

Very few phanerogamous plants of the United States are so little
known as the Schweinitzia. Excepting the discoverer, whose
name it bears, no botanist had met with it until it was gathered
in the neighbourhood of Baltimore a few years ago by Dr. Griffith.
In the autumn of 1843, Mr. Sullivant and myself were so fortunate
as to find a few specimens at the base of ‘Table Mountain, North
Carolina.* Our specimens were growing in a cluster from the
roots of Galax, upon which they appeared to be parasitic. As we
removed the whole mass, with the hope of securing the plant in a
living state, we did not examine the mode of attachment, which is
so difficult to make out in other Monotropez, and which is’ so
doubtful in the case of Monotropa itself.t ‘The specimens already
(in September) bore well formed flower-buds, some of them nearly
full sized and ready for expansion in the spring. From them were
taken the specimens represented in the right and left hand figures
of the accompanying plate. ‘The central figure, from a specimen
gathered by Dr. Griffith, represents the plant soon after flower-
ing; when the short spike, which was before drooping, becomes

erect.

* Amer. Journal of Science and Arts, New Series, Vol. I., p. 18.
+ The development of Monotropa, and its mode of parasitism, if there be any, is
a subject upon which a series of original observations is greatly needed, and which

would well reward the attention of a careful observer.

SCHWEINITZIA ODORATA. A7

Several such simple stems spring in a cluster, from a coralloid-
fibrous and matted root, to the height of two to four inches. They
are purplish in color, and are thickly beset with the rather fleshy
brownish scales which take the place of foliage; these are ovate,
acute, one-nerved, spirally alternate, about three lines in length;
the upper becoming rather larger and more crowded, forming the
bracts of the spike, and partly enveloping the blossoms. The
flowers, usually six or eight in number, are borne on very short
pedicels, and are subtended by a pair of opposite bracteoles, which
resemble the bracts, and are intermediate in size and shape between
them and the sepals. ‘The calyx consists of five imbricative sepals,
as long as the corolla; these are scarious in texture in the dried
state, ovate-oblong or lanceolate-oblong, acute or acutish, more
or less concave, and slightly gibbous at the very base. The co-
rolla is about one fourth of an inch long, thickish, of a firm fleshy
texture, imbricated in estivation, and with five rather strong gib-
bosities at the base, corresponding with the lobes. The stamens
are a little shorter than the corolla; the anthers are nearly as broad
as long; the two short saccate cells are somewhat enlarged down-
wards, and are united by their contiguous faces without any con-
nective; they are attached to the filament by a point at or near
their summit on the outside, so that they are introrse. They are
not retroverted before anthesis, like those of Pyrola,* but are turned
inwards from the first. I notice, however, that, in the young

* By almost every writer, from Wahlenberg and Don to Koch, De Candolle, and
Endlicher, the anthers of Pyrola are said to open by basal pores, and to be inverted
during flowering. The pores, are, however, really apical, as in Ericaceze proper ;
the anthers are retroverted in the flower-bud, as is common in the order, and re-
sume the truly normal position soon after the flower opens. The correct view was
adopted by Dr. Torrey, in his Flora of the Northern and Middle States, p. 482,

3

18 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

flower-bud, the anther is usually turned nearly at a right angle
with the filament, so that the points which mark the apical fora-
mina are lateral. By the time the corolla expands, the anthers
have assumed their normal position, and appear pendent from the
filament, as is shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The open pores, if
they may be so called, through which the pollen is discharged,
are so large, that, like the mouth of a sac or purse, they now oc-
cupy the whole summit of the cell. At first, each anther-cell is
divided by a transverse septum, the vestiges of which are some-
times distinctly visible after the pollen is discharged. ‘The pollen
is simple, as in all other Monotropee. But in examining, with the
higher powers of the microscope, the pollen taken from autumn
flower-buds, I found that what before appeared like simple grains
consisted of mother-cells, each containing two, three, or commonly
four, distinct pollen-grains. These are shown in Fig. 9, under an
amplification of about three hundred diameters. The five-sided
umbilicate stigma is apparently composed of five erect and connate
lobes. A section of the ovary appears very much as in Monotropa.
The thick placental axis projects two lobes into each cell, which are
thickly covered with innumerable minute ovules. An apparently
fertilized ovule, or growing seed, as it appears when strongly mag-
nified, is given at Fig. 12. The mature seeds and the fruit are
unknown.

The late Mr. Von Schweinitz, the distinguished botanist who
discovered this remarkable plant, sent to Mr. Elliott the brief de-
scription published in the work before cited, which is excellent,
as far as it goes;— Mr. Elliott at the same time proposing to
change the name Monotropsis, given by Schweinitz, to Schweinitzia,
in honor of the discoverer. In the supplement to his Genera of
North American Plants, Mr. Nuttall has somewhat altered, but not

SCHWEINITZIA ODORATA. 19

improved, the character of the genus. ‘The anthers, according to
Nuttall, are «adnate to the filaments, one-celled, opening from the
inverted base by two naked pores.” The anthers are, however,
plainly two-celled at every stage, and their orifices were probably
assumed to be basal on account of their obvious resemblance to
those of Pyrola, which are (wrongly) so described by Nuttall and
most other authors. These characters were copied by Don,* and
the latter has been adopted by Endlicher,t and, on Nuttall’s author-
ity, by De Candolle, who, although he possessed a specimen of the
plant, appears not to have investigated the structure of the flower.
Sprengel cites Monotropsis as a synonym under Monotropa.t

The small group of Monotrope may be said to consist of Eri-
cine or Pyrolez without green foliage, and with the mode of life
and the aspect of Orobanchacez. They have apparently no other
combining character. The anthers of Schweinitzia open by pores;
those of Pterospora open longitudinally, though they are otherwise,
as well as the corolla, much the same as in Andromeda. The an-
thers of Hypopitys open by a continuous transverse line into two very
unequal valves; those of Monotropa, which stand transversely on
the apex of the filament, open by two terminal transverse chinks.
Lindley gives indeed another character, namely, that “there is a
difference in the position of the embryo, that organ being at the
apex of the albumen in Monotrope,” but at the base in other
Ericacee.§ But the embryo of Monotrope is entirely unknown,

* Gen. Syst. Gard. § Bot., Vol. I pa S67. oEhe name is here inadvertent-
ly changed to “ §. Caroliniana, Ei.”

+ Genera Plantarum, p- 761.

¢ Genera Plantarum, Vol. 1., p- 847.

§ Lindley, Introd. Nat. Syst., ed. 2, p. 219, and Veg. Kingdom, p. 452.

20 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

except as to Pterospora; and even with regard to this the obser-
vation greatly needs verification.

Tas. II. Schweinitzia odorata, of the natural size. Fig. 1. A detached
flower, enlarged. Fig. 2. A flower, enlarged, with the sepals spread open.
Fig. 3. Unexpanded corolla, from an autumnal flower-bud. Figs. 4, 5. Two
sepals of the same. Fig. 6. Corolla laid open. Fig. 7. Magnified flower,
the calyx and corolla removed. Fig.8. A stamen, more magnified. Fig. 9.
Pollen from young anthers, highly magnified ; the 2-4 grains still inclosed
in mother-cells. Fig. 10. Separate simple pollen-grains, equally magnified.
Fig. 11. Transverse section of the ovary. Fig. 12. A fertilized ovule, highly
magnified.

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 21

“OBOLARIA VIRGINICA, Linn.
TAB. III.

OBOLARIA, Linn. Gen. no. 778.

Calyx diphyllus ; sepala foliiformia, spathulato-oblon-
ga, patentia, in floribus axillaribus lateralia. Corolla
tubuloso-campanulata, marcescens, regularis, ad medium
eequaliter quadrifida; lobis ovali-oblongis, demum ob-
longo-spathulatis, parce denticulatis ; «stivatione imbri-
cativa. Stamina 4, in sinubus corolle inserta: filamen-
ta brevia, wqualia: anther subglobose nunc sagitti-
formes, loculis longitudinaliter dehiscentibus : pollen glo-
bosum, membrana tenuissima levissima. Ovarium ovoi-
deum, stylo brevi stigmatibusque 2 ovalibus subplanis
persistentibus coronatum, uniloculare, etsi processibus
endocarpii semi-bi—tri-loculare, vel sepius cruciatim
semi-quadriloculare, parietibus undique ovuliferis. Ovu-
la numerosissima, anatropa. Capsula polysperma, mem-
branacea, septicida? Semina immatura testa laxa cel-
lulosa donata, nucleum parvum includentia.

Herba spithamea, glaberrima, carnosula ; radice pe-
renni, ramosa, e fibris crassiusculis; caule subsimplici
tetragono; foliis oppositis, sessilibus, obovato-cuneatis,
sepe retusis, integerrimis, leviter quinque —septem-nerva-
tis, livido-viridibus et purpureo tinctis, plerisque versus
apicem caulis approximatis ; imis squameformibus vel

ae CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

obsoletis, quandoque alternis; inflorescentia centrifuga,
floribus terminalibus axillaribusque solitariis tribusve,
ad apicem pedunculi brevis inter bracteas foliuformes
sessilibus. Corolla albida, sepe lilacino vel purpureo
tincta.

O. Virerinica, Linn. Spec. 2. p. 632 (Gronov. Fl.
Virg., ed. 2. p. 95); Nutt. Gen.1. p. 103; Ell.
Sk. 2. p. 134; Darlingt. Fl. Cest., ed.1. p. 21,
t.2; Barton, Fl. N. Amer. 3. t. 90.

Obularia, Linn. Hort. Cliff., p. 323.

Orobanche Virginiana, radice coralloide, summo caule foliis subrotundis.
Moris. Hist., 3. p. 504, t. 16, f. 23.

Orobanche Virginiana, radice fibrosa, etc., Pluk. Alm., t. 209, f. 6.

Anonymos humilis, Aprili florens, floribus pallide rubentibus, ete., Clayt. Fl.
Virg., 1. c.

Schultzia obolarioides, Raf. in NV. Y. Med. Repos., 2. hex. 5. p. 350 ?

Has. In solo pingui sylvarum Nove Cesare, Penn-
sylvanie, Ohionis, Virginie, usque ad Carolinam Aus-
tralem et Texas, rarius; primo vere florens. ‘

This plant has been several times figured, but never with the
requisite analyses. On this account, and because its remarkable
peculiarities have remained unnoticed, and its place in the natural
system doubtful, I am induced to attempt its illustration.

Linnzeus founded the genus upon specimens sent from Virginia
by Clayton to Gronovius, transferring to it the name formerly pro-
posed by Siégesbeck for Linnzea.* He did not characterize it well

* “QObularia dicta fuit ob convenientiam foliorum cum figura obulorum, preser-
tim Ruthenicorum.” Linn. Hort. Cliff, p. 323.

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 23

in the Genera Plantarum, where the corolla is said to be unequal-
ly four-cleft, and the stamens didynamous. The genus was accord-
ingly placed in the class Didynamia, next to Orobanche. The two-
leaved calyx, if such it be, Linneus considered rather as a pair of
bracts. From the expression, ‘“ Capsula .... bivalvis, dissepi-
mento opposito,” it may be inferred that he took the ovary to be
two-celled. Nevertheless, Jussieu,* who professes to have derived
his generic character from Linnzus, ascribes to the plant a one-
celled capsule. He includes the genus in that section of his
order Pediculares (III. Genera Pedicularibus affinia), which an-
swers to his Orobanchez, subsequently so called.t Persoon briefly
remarks, that Obolaria is quite different from Orobanche in habit,
though agreeing with it as to the flower.{ By some inadvertence,
he has attributed to it a “calyx quinquefidus.”

To Dr. Darlington belongs the credit of having first shown that
the corolla of Obolaria was regular and the stamens equal, — points
which he indicated to Professor Barton, and afterwards to Mr. Nut-
tall.§ In the Genera of North American Plants, Mr. Nuttall, coin-
ciding in this view, describes the stamens as equal, and places the
genus in the Linnzan class Tetrandria. He describes the capsule
simply as ‘ one-celled, two-valved, many-seeded ; seeds minute.”
Premising that the plant is bitter (which it certainly is, though not
strongly so), and probably tonic, Nuttall makes the important
statement, that the genus “distinctly appertains to the natural order
Gentianee of Jussieu.” Dr. W. P. C. Barton, who, in the work

* Genera Plantarum, p. 101.

t Ann. Mus., Vol. XII, p. 445.

t Synopsis Plantarum, Vol. Il., p. 182.

§ Florula Cestrica, ed. 1, p.21, where there is a good description and a pretty

good figure of the plant in question, which is placed in the artificial class Tetrandria.

QA. CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

above cited, has given a tolerable figure of the plant, follows Nut-
tall in referring the genus to Gentianee. Sprengel appears to be
the only succeeding author who has adopted this view.* Elliott,
although he has introduced the genus under the class Didynamia,
states that the plant, ‘from the structure of the corolla and the in-
sertion of the stamens, certainly belongs to the class ‘Tetrandria.” +
He makes no remark respecting its natural affinity. But in his
account we meet with the earliest, and indeed the only, indica-
tion of any peculiarity in the structure of the ovary. He describes
the capsule as “ four-celled? or perhaps one-celled with the rudi-
ments of partitions.”

The late Professor Don,{ in a revision of the order Orobanchee,
appends to it a tribe Obolarie, comprising Obolaria and the (totally
unlike) genus Tozzia, which are merely said to differ from Oro-
banchee proper in being terrestrial instead of parasitical. Bart-
ling § also enumerates the genus Obolaria under Orobanchez. So,
likewise, does Lindley, both in his Introduction to the Natural Sys-
tem, and in the recent Vegetable Kingdom. Endlicher, on the other
hand, has placed the genus among the “ Scrophularineis affinia,”
remarking that it appears not to belong to the Orobanchez, but
may perhaps be referable to the Gentianez.|| The structure of
the ovary and of the capsule are described by Endlicher in some-
what incongruous terms. The ovary is said to be one-celled, with
two parietal placente, while the capsule is said to be two-celled, two-
valved, the valves placentiferous in the middle. Neither of these

* Genera Plantarum, Vol. 1., p. 110.

+ Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, Vol. II., p. 134.
t In Edinb. Phil. Journ., Vol. XIX., p. 118.

§ Ordines Naturales, p. 174.

|| Genera Plantarum, p. 695.

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 25

Statements accords with our observation. The dehiscence of the
capsule, however, I have not seen; but I can scarcely doubt that
it is septicidal, or, in other words, that the carpels separate from
their margins. Meisner* has followed Endlicher in appending
Obolaria to the order Scrophulariacee. Grisebach + has neither
included it in the order Gentianez, nor mentioned it among the
genera which have been referred to that order; the remark by
Nuttall and its adoption by Sprengel having probably been over-
looked by him.

It is manifest, from the foregoing summary of what is on record
respecting Obolaria, that its affinities are still unsettled, and that
the peculiar structure of the ovary has not been made known.
This peculiarity, which I have endeavoured to express in the de-
tailed generic character given above, and in the accompanying
analyses, was first noticed in the living plant by Professor Torrey
and myself, in the spring of the year 1843.

A view of the transverse section of the ovary, considerably en-
larged, is given at Figure 11 of the accompanying plate. The
parietes of the ovary consist, first, of a thin exterior coat, com-
posed of compressed cellular tissue alone, and quite similar to the
skin or epidermis, which readily peels from the stem, &c. This
coat is but slightly coherent with the parts subjacent, except at
the two longitudinal lines, which, alternating with the lobes of the
stigma, evidently correspond to the margins of the carpels, and
doubtless with the lines of dehiscence at maturity. The outer coat
does not follow the introflexions of the interior, or endocarpic, por-

* Plante Vasculares, p. 318.

+ Genera et Species Gentianearum, etc., 1839, and Gentianacem in DC.
Prodr., Vol. IX.

4

26 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

tion; and the intervening space is partially filled by a little very
loose and filmy cellular tissue. The inner portion of the parietes is
much thicker and more fleshy than the outer; it commonly presents
four equidistant projections or folds, which partially divide the
cavity in a cruciate manner; but occasionally one of these, or two
opposite ones, are partially or altogether wanting. These four
placentiform folds may be directly compared with the four nearly
equidistant placentae of Anoplanthus (Orobanche) uniflorus, with
which they agree in position; that is, two of them are borne on the
face of each carpel, about half way between its edges (marked by
the line alternating with the stigmas) and the axis (where the
midrib is represented by a slender line or cord of vessels, shown
in the middle of Fig. 12, which may be traced upwards through
the style to the stigma); so that they might be taken for sub-
marginal half-placente. But here we find a further peculiarity in
Obolaria, namely, that not merely these placenta-like processes,
but the whole lining of the cell, is equally and uniformly ovulifer-
ous! Of this, no parallel instance is known, I believe, in a uni-
locular compound ovary, although it occurs in a few plants with
apocarpous ovaries, and in one small family (Nymphzacez) with a
compound multilocular fruit; but to none of these does Obolaria
exhibit any other points of similarity.

The want of much cohesion, except at the sutures, between
what I have called the outer and the inner parietes of the ovary
naturally suggests another possible explanation of the anomalous
placentation of Obolaria; namely, that the inner ovuliferous portion
may consist of a pair of concave placente, completely lining the
ovary, much as in Hydrophyllum, but perfectly united where their
edges come in contact, and ovuliferous throughout their whole

sinuously biplicate inner face. But no trace of such union can be

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 2a

detected at those sinuses which correspond with the axis of each car-
pel; and besides, this same endocarpic portion certainly makes up a
part of the thickness of the style, as well as of the walls of the ovary.

Some points concerning the position of the flowers and their
parts deserve notice. The axillary flowers are often solitary, when
the short peduncle is bractless; otherwise they are three in a clus-
ter or cymule; the two lateral being sessile, or nearly so, close at
the base of the terminal, each arising from the axil of a bract re-
sembling the sepals, or, indeed, the leaves. When the flower is
solitary, the sepals (as we are obliged to term them) are uniformly
lateral, as in the diagram, Fig. 6. Where the lateral axis bears
three flowers, these are commonly disposed as is represented in the
diagram, Fig. 1; that is, the two additional flowers are placed
right and left, having, of course, the same relation to the central
flower which that, when solitary, has to the main axis. The
sepals of the central flower in this case are not lateral, but anterior
and posterior, namely, one next the axis, the other next the bracteal
leaf. It is obvious, therefore, that the same organs which stand for
the calyx of the solitary flower, Fig. 6, form the bracts of the
three-flowered cluster in Fig. 1; the calyx of the central flower in
this latter case being just the next pair of leaves of the branch,
decussating with the first pair, and therefore necessarily standing
fore and aft, as respects the primary axis and cauline leaf. This
gives some apparent confirmation to the Linnean view, that what
is called the calyx of Obolaria is no part of the flower, but rather a
pair of bracts. The three flowers of the axillary clusters are not
always thus disposed in a line at right angles (or nearly so) with
that passing through the stem and cauline leaf. This is the preva-
lent, but not the uniform, mode. Dr. Torrey called my attention

to the fact, that not unfrequently one or more of the clusters stand

28 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

in the opposite plane, the bracts being anterior and posterior, and
the three flowers consequently occupying the line that passes
through the cauline leaf and the main stem. An instance of the
sort furnished the diagram, Fig. 2.

The position of the two constituent carpels of the ovary to the
axis, and to the sepals, may be next considered. In the solitary
axillary flower, the lobes of the stigma, and consequently the car-
pels, are commonly right and left, and parallel with the sepals, as
in the diagram, Fig. 6, where the two oval figures placed in the
centre represent the lobes of the stigma, and the two outer lateral
lines, the sepals. Yet, in some cases, I have found the stigmas
placed anterior and posterior, the two sepals remaining lateral, and
therefore alternate with the sepals, instead of opposed to them, as is
usual in this plant. This remark is equally applicable to the lateral
flowers of the cluster of three. Although the stigmas are generally
opposed to the sepals, and consequently lateral as respects the
secondary bract, as in both diagrams, Figs. 1 and 2, yet in about
three cases out of thirteen the stigmas alternate with the sepals,
and are therefore opposed to the secondary bract and axis, that is,
are anterior and posterior.* This prevalent opposition of the car-
pels to the sepals (with which they happen in this case to agree in
number), so contrary to the general rule in Dicotyledones,+ might
be held to give additional probability to the idea that what are here
called sepals are really bracts, —a view taken by Linnzus, doubt-
less on account of their close resemblance to the proper leaves of
the plant, but which may also be maintained, as already intimated,

* Tn one cluster, the stigmas of one of the lateral flowers were seen to be ante-
rior and posterior, while those of the other flower were right and left.
+ R. Brown, Observ. Pl. Oudney, pp. 33, 38.

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 29

from the relation borne by what are called the sepals of the solitary
flower to the bracts of the cluster, as well as from their want of
agreement in number with the divisions of the corolla. But, on the
other hand, the Gentian family, with which Obolaria is to be par-
ticularly compared, presents one of these same exceptional cases ;
their carpels being commonly (although, as in Obolaria itself, not
uniformly) right and left of the axis, and consequently opposite
the lateral sepals.

It is now evident, that the only natural orders to which Obolaria
has any obvious relationship are those two to which it has been va-
riously referred, namely, Gentianaceee and Orobanchacee. The
singular introflexions or processes analogous to the double (or
rather separated) placente of some Orobanchaceze would seem to
favor its alliance with that order, in which, perhaps, the distribution
of the ovules over the whole surface of the cell might the rather
be expected. The (commonly) lateral position of the carpels
would favor the association of Obolaria with Orobanchacee as
much as with Gentianacez, if Lindley and Endlicher have cor-
rectly attributed this character to the former order. But against
this is the much higher authority of Brown, who believes the
carpels to be anterior and posterior in Orobanchee.* The weight
of this character, therefore, falls in favor of Gentianacez. The
regular corolla, equal and isomerous stamens, and opposite leaves,
are also points of difference from Orobanchaceze, and of agree-
ment with Gentianacez ; to which may be added the green foli-
age and terrestrial growth, which would be altogether anomalous
in the former family (although, on the other hand, one Gentiana-

ceous genus is parasitic). The only point essentially at variance

* Plante Javan. Rariores, p. 112, note. —'The carpels are certainly anterior
and posterior in Epiphegus.

30 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

with the admitted character of Gentianacez is, unfortunately, one
which is placed in the foremost rank by Grisebach, namely, the zs-
tivation of the corolla. In Obolaria, the lobes of the corolla are
imbricated in the bud, instead of convolute, as in the true Gentia-
nacez, or induplicate, as in the Menyanthez.* On this account, it
might be proper to consider the genus as the representative of a
third group, of equal rank with the Menyanthez ; and in this form
it will accordingly be appended to the order Gentianacez, in the
forthcoming portion of the Flora of North America, by Dr. Torrey
and myself.

* * One or two mistakes have been committed in the analyses on the accompanying plate,
which were not observed in time for correction. In Fig, 3, the leaves of the calyx are wrongly
represented as decidedly distant from the base of the corolla, while, in fact, there is no such
manifest interval. In Fig. 4, the sinuses of the corolla (laid open) should be of equal depth, and

should extend to the insertion of the stamens; the filaments, moreover, are rather too short.

Tas. III. Obolaria Virginica, of the natural size. Fig. 1. Diagram il-
lustrating the ordinary disposition, &c., of the three flowers of the axillary
cluster. Fig.2. Diagram of the occasional disposition of the same. In both,
the lower crescentic line represents a section of the subtending leaf ; the upper

circular one, a section of the axis; the outer pair of the smaller crescentic

* Perhaps there is a tendency at present to consider the characters drawn from
zestivation as more absolute and constant than they really are. Exceptional cases,
as well as variations in the same species, will be found by no means uncommon.
For example, although the estivation of the petals is deemed to be universally con-
volute or twisted in Geranium and its allies, yet they are sometimes regularly
imbricated in Geranium maculatum, or, in a greater number of cases, while four of
the petals are convolute, the exterior one is wrapped around the others in the bud.
I have also observed this anomaly in G. Robertianum, G. sanguineum, and G. colli-
num. So, likewise, the xstivation of the petals of Boykinia aconitifolia, Nutt., is
conyolute, or perhaps sometimes convolute with the outer petal imbricative, while

in other true Saxifragez the estivation is regularly imbricated.

OBOLARIA VIRGINICA. 31

lines stands for the bracts of the cluster ; the others are the sepals of the re-
spective flowers ; the circles they subtend stand for the corolla ; the figures
in their centre denote the position of the lobes of the stigma. Fig. 6. Dia-
gram of the solitary axillary flower, and the estivation of its corolla; the bract,
axis, sepals, and lobes of the stigma are represented as in the foregoing ; the se-
ries next within the sepals illustrates the wstivation of the corolla. Fig. 3. A
separated solitary axillary flower, with its subtending bracteal leaf. Fig. 4.
The corolla laid open, enlarged (corrected as above). Fig. 5. A stamen,
more magnified. Fig. 8. The pistil magnified. Fig. 9. Apex of the style,
with the stigmas, highly magnified. Fig. 10. A fertilized ovale, highly mag-
nified. Fig. 11. The fructified pistil, with a cross-section of the ovary,
showing the relation of the lobes of the stigma to the introflexed processes of
the parietes, and the attachment of the ovules to the whole face of the cell.
Fig.7. Diagram of the same ; the two oval approximate lines above denote
the lobes of the stigma ; the two minute circles placed right and left within the
thickness of the walls of the ovary stand at the middle of the carpels ; the in-
troflexed lines at right angles with these imdicate their margins or sutures.
Fig. 12. One of the carpels or valves, separated through the sutures, style,

and stigma, and spread open, the ovules having been removed.

32 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

GAILLARDIA AMBLYODON, Gay.
TAB. IV.

' G. ampiyopon : annua; caule ramisque diffusis hirtel-
lis ; foliis oblongis basi subauriculata sessilibus supra
medium denticulatis serratisve, inferioribus subspathu-
latis ; squamis involucri linearibus setaceo-acuminatis
hispido-ciliatis tri—quadriseriatis conformibus basi
callosa longiuscule coarctatis, mediis longioribus ; li-
gulis (croceo-flammeis) 12-14 confertis; dentibus
corolle disci ovatis obtusis ; fimbrillis receptaculi seti-
formibus crebris achenium parum superantibus; pappo
radii exaristato !

G. amblyodon, Gay, in Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2), 11. p.57; Torr. § Gray,
Fl. N. Amer. 2. p. 8367; Engelm. § Gray, Pl. Lindheim., no. 104.

Has. In arenosis provincie Texas, ubi collegerunt
Drummond, Lindheimer, Wright. Floret ineunte es-
tate; in horto usque ad ultimum autumnum.

This species, without doubt the most showy of the genus, was
first raised in the Cambridge Botanic Garden in the summer of
1845, from seeds sent from Texas by that assiduous collector, Mr.
Lindheimer. It ripened seeds freely, from which the species is
again cultivated the present season.

The plant grows after the manner of G. pulchella and G. picta,
but is ranker, branching freely, forming ample clumps, two to three

feet in height, and producing a succession of blossoms until it is

GAILLARDIA AMBLYODON, 33

arrested by frost. The foliage is of a lighter hue than is represent-
ed in the engraving. The leaves are rather thick and fleshy,
clothed with a minute and inconspicuous close pubescence ; and the
midrib beneath is sparingly fringed with bristly hairs similar to
those which beset the stem, branches, and involucre. The capitu-
lum, with the expanded rays, is fully two inches in diameter.
The callous bases of the scales of the involucre are more strongly
coarctate than in any other species. The spreading foliaceous part
of the scales is usually very narrow, but in some spontaneous speci-
mens the exterior are more or less dilated. The rays are closely
set, cuneate-oblong in shape, three-lobed at the apex merely; their
upper surface is of a deep cinnabar color, verging to orange towards
the tips, especially in fading, but gradually deepening to red-brown
next the base ; the lower surface is browner than the upper. The
tips of the exterior disk-corollas are very deep brown-purple, as are
also the exserted filiform lobes of the style ; while the central flowers
are generally yellow. The disk-flowers persist in fruit, when they
are quite showy, having much the appearance of a Scabious. The
pappus consists of six to eight scarious and chaff-like ovate-lanceo-
late scales ; those of the disk produced into awns, about the length
of the corolla, as in the other species of the genus, while those of
the ray-flowers are remarkable for being awnless. The specific

name was chosen by M. Gay to express this peculiarity. »

Tas. IV. Gaillardia amblyodon ; branch of the natural size. Fig. 1.
Ray-flower ; the involucellate villous tuft at the base of the ovary spread open.
Fig. 2. Disk-flower. Fig. 3. Capitulum, with the flowers removed, to show
the acicular fimbrille of the receptacle. Fig. 4. Two of the fimbrille de-
tached. Fig. 5. Achenium from the disk, with the pappus. All but Fig. 3
more or less magnified.

5

34 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

BRAZORIA TRUNCATA, Engelm. & Gray.

TAB. V.
BRAZORIA, Engelm. §- Gray, Pl. Lindheimeriane, p. 47.

Calyx late campanulatus, bilabiatus (labio superiore
breviter tri- inferiore bilobo), per anthesin inflatus, fructi-
fer auctus, membranaceus, reticulato-venosus, antice pla-
niusculus, postice gibbosus, e surrectione labii inferioris
clausus. Corolla tubo longe exserto, fauce inflata; limbi
bilabiati labio superiore erecto, subgaleato, apice bilobo
vel integro; inferiore tripartito, lobis patentibus vel re-
curvis rotundatis. Stamina 4, sub labio superiore ad-
scendentia, manifeste didynama: filamenta supra medi-
um corolle adnata, ubi pilosa, inferioribus elatioribus :
anthere per paria approximate, biloculares, loculis dis-
tinctis divaricantibus ad rimam plus minusve ciliatis.
Stylus glaber, apice subequaliter bifidus, lobis subulatis.
Achenia sicca.

Herbe annue Texane, erecte, Physostegie facie ;
foliis sessilibus oblongis denticulatis ; floribus in spicis
strictis quadrifariam congestis ; corolla rosea, fauce al-
bida vel luteola, purpureo guttata.

§ 1. Evprazoria. Calycis lobi latissimi, subzequales,
truncati. Corolle majuscule faux infra lobum anticum
intrusa, quodammodo palatum efficiente. Achenia trian-
gulata, pubera.

BRAZORIA TRUNCATA. 35

B. rruncara: caule pubescente ; spica densa; calyce
bracteam ovatam xquante basi hirta, lobis brevissi-
mis dilatatis labii superioris mucronulatis, inferioris
eroso-denticulatis ; labio corolle ad faucem postice
villose superiore breviter bilobo, inferiore sube-
qualiter tripartito, lobis reflexis apice bifidis emar-
ginatisve, omnibus crenulato-erosis.

B. truncata, Engelm. §- Gray, 1. c., no. 287 (excl. syn. Hook. Bot. Mag.).
Physostegia truncata, Benth. Lab., p. 505, non Hook.

Has. In provincia Texas (Berlandier, Drummond,
Wright), presertim secundum fluvium Brazos dictum
(unde nomen genericum), in campis arenosis, formiceta
derelicta diligens, ex Lindheimer. Floret estate.

This plant was first gathered by Berlandier, who communicated
to Sir William Hooker the “very indifferent specimens” from
which Bentham described it, in his excellent monograph of the
family, under the name of Physostegia truncata. Had he possessed
fruiting specimens, he would scarcely have joined to Physostegia a
plant so distinct in its floral characters, however similar in aspect.
Good specimens were afterwards collected by Drummond, who,
“in 1833 and 1834, found it abundantly about San Felipe de Aus-
tin, and communicated specimens and seeds to Europe.” * They
were distributed under No. 274% of his third Texan collection,
mixed, however, with those of a different species. It was from seeds
of this last species that the specimens were raised which Hooker
figured and described in the Botanical Magazine (t. 3494), mistaking

* Hooker, Bot. Mag., sub. t. 3494,

36 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

it for the real Physostegia truncata of Bentham, and altering the
specific character to make it accord with the plant before him.

These two species were subsequently gathered by Lindheimer,
and distributed as No. 286 and No. 287 of his collection for 1844.*
So numerous are their points of difference, that Dr. Engelmann,
who had noticed them with his usual accuracy, proposed to con-
sider the two as the types of distinct genera. I preferred, how-
ever, to combine them, in view of their entire agreement in habit,
and in the mode in which the enlarged and gibbous fructiferous
calyx is closed by the appression of the lower lip, notwithstanding
the striking differences in the form of the calyx as well as of the
corolla. ‘The character of Brazoria was accordingly framed so as
to embrace the two species, B. truncata and B. scutellarioides.
But, through inadvertence, the synonym of Hook. Bot. Mag.,
t. 3494, was cited under the former species, instead of being re-
ferred to B. scutellarioides, where it really belongs.

The genus is well distinguished, not only by the remarkable
calyx, but by the manifestly didynamous stamens, the divaricating
anther-cells, &c.

Brazoria truncata is a rather showy annual, with the stem nearly
simple, or else branched from the base, about a foot high, terminated
by a single spike, and sometimes with one or two lateral ones from

its base. The corollas are an inch long, dul! purplish rose-color,

* By a typographical error, the two numbers are transposed in the published ac-
count (Plante Lindheimeriane); where the first, namely, Brazoria truncata, should
be No. 287, and the second, B. (Stachyastrum) scutellarioides, should be No. 286.
There is also an obvious transposition in the description of the calyx of B. truncata.
The lobes of the ‘ lower lip of the calyx,” instead of the upper, are said to be

”

“merely mucronulate in the middle,” and “those of the upper,” instead of the

lower, as it should be, ‘‘ erose-denticulate.”
°

SS

BRAZORIA TRUNCATA. 37

slightly striped and conspicuously dotted with deep purple; the
lower lip is paler, and tinged with yellowish inside ; the tube is pi-
lose-annulate next the base. The stamens, inserted towards the
summit of the tube, are a little exserted. In fruit, the spike, cov-
ered with the four-ranked persistent calyxes with their bracts, attains
the length of six to nine inches. The calyx is then dry, scarious,
and finely reticulated ; the upper side is much more strongly gib-
bous than is shown in Fig. 9, so that the achenia are nearly con-
cealed in the cavity; this is closed by the lower lip, which is now
applied flatly against the upper, nearly covering its whole face. In
B. scutellarioides, the lower lip is smaller and much narrower than
the upper, but it covers the orifice in the same way.

The figure was made from specimens raised in the Cambridge
Botanic Garden, from Texan seeds sent by Mr. Lindheimer. "

Tas. V. Brazoria truncata. Fig. 1. Flowering stem, natural size.
Fig. 2. Spike, with the summit of the stem, in fruit. Fig. 3. A flower,
seen in front. (‘The lateral lobes of the lower lip are not represented as emar-
ginate or two-cleft at the apex, which they almost always are.) Fig. 4.. Up-
per lip of the corolla, with a portion of the tube. Fig. 5. Anterior part of the
throat seen from within, to show the sort of palate. Fig. 6. Calyx and style,
with the bract. Fig. 7. Fructiferous calyx, seen in front. Fig. 8. The same,
seen laterally. Fig. 9. Front view of the same, with the lower lip separated
and turned down. (The well defined and deep cavity at the base of the upper
lip, inclosing the achenia, is not well shown in this figure, which was taken be-
fore maturity ; nor is the fine reticulation of the calyx represented.) All

the analyses are more or less enlarged.

38 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

* SULLIVANTIA OHIONIS, Torr. & Gray.
TAB. VI.

SULLIVANTIA, Torr. § Gr. adnot. in Sill. Journ., 42. p. 22.

Calyx inferne cum ovarii basi connatus, quinquefidus,
estivatione imbricativa quincunciali. Petala 5, parum
irregulares, ovato-spathulata, acutiuscula, unguiculata,
in sinubus calycis inserta, marcescentia; estivatione
imbricativa quincunciali. Stamina 5, ad basin calycis
loborum inserta, iisdem opposita et breviora; anthere
cordato-ovate, apiculate, biloculares, longitudinaliter
dehiscentibus. Ovarium stylis 2 brevissimis (stigmati-
bus simplicibus) bicorne, biloculare, placentis crassis
dissepimento adnatis multiovulatis ; ovulis adscendenti-
bus. Capsula calyce fere inclusa eoque ad medium
accreta, ovoidea, bilocularis, polysperma, apice per
rostra brevia intus dehiscens. Semina sursum imbri-
cata, scobiformia, testa laxa reticulata utrinque mem-
branaceo-alata. Lmbryo fere albuminis carnosi longi-
tudine: radicula cylindrica; cotyledonibus oblongis.

Herba perennis, dodrantalis; radice fibrosa; foliis
plerisque radicalibus, glaberrimis, longe petiolatis, orbi-
culari-reniformibus sinu fere clauso, inciso-dentatis at-
que sublobatis, petiolis basi dilatatis; scapo gracill,
reclinato, inferne alternatim uni-—bifoliato, superne brac-
teato, paniculatim ramoso, una cum pedunculis laxe

SULLIVANTIA OHIONIS. Bi)

cymoso-trichotomis calycibusque glanduloso-pubescenti-
bus ; floribus parvis (corolla alba calyce triplo superan-
te); pedicellis brevibus, fructiferis decurvis.

S. Ontonis, Torr. & Gr., l. c.; Gray, Excurs. to
Mount. N. Carol. in Sill. Journ. & in Hook.
Lond. Journ. Bot., 1. p. 228; & Bot. Text-
book, ed. 1. f. 38.

Heuchera, n. sp. ? Sudliv. Cat. Pl. Columbus, Ohio.
Saxifraga ? Sullivantii, Torr. & Gr. Fl. N. Amer., 1. De Dias

Has. In comitatu Highland Ohionis, ad declivia
rupium calcariarum, in unico loco solum detexit cel.
Sullivant. Floret Junio. ”

It is with peculiar propriety that this well marked Saxifragaceous
genus bears its present name, since it has been found by no person
except Mr. Sullivant, and is, so far as known, restricted to the
State of Ohio. Indeed, it has yet been met with at a single local-
ity only, in Highland county, on limestone cliffs which border a
tributary of the Scioto, where, however, it grows in great abun-
dance. The living plants, which Mr. Sullivant several years
ago communicated to the Botanic Garden of the University, still
continue to flourish on the steep slope of a simple rockwork, along
with the allied Boykinia aconitifolia of Nuttall, the four species of
Heuchera indigenous to the United States, Savi raga erosa, S. Ca-

reyana, and an undescribed Saxifrage nearly related to the latter.*

" * Saxrrraca Caro.iniana (sp. nov.) : glanduloso-pubescens ; foliis omnibus ra-
dicalibus deltoideis ovatisve grosse dentatis e basi pl. m. truncata in petiolum margi-

natum abrupte angustatis; scapo paucibracteato paniculato-cymoso effuso ; petalis

40 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

The accompanying figure was taken from cultivated specimens,
which perfectly accord with the spontaneous plant.

In the Flora of North America, this plant, then known through
specimens in flower only, was doubtfully appended to a group of
ambiguous pentandrous species of Saxifraga. Afterwards, when
the fruit and seeds furnished additional characters, it was separated
to constitute a distinct genus, dedicated to the zealous and excel-
lent botanist who discovered it. At the same time, the transfer-
ence of the remaining pentandrous Saxifrages (S. Richardsonii and
S. ranunculifolia of Hooker) to Boykinia was proposed.*

Thus considered, the genus Sullivantia is clearly distinguished
from all its allies, except the remarkable Leptarrhena, by its scobi-
form and somewhat winged seeds; also from Heuchera by its two-

consimilibus ovatis subunguiculatis albis infra medium pallide bimaculatis sepala
reflexa duplo superantibus ; filamentis clavatis; carpellis discretis demum divarica-
tis turgidis calyce liberis. — Variat foliis ovato-oblongis vel rotundato-reniformibus,
basi aut subcordatis aut cuneatis. —Has. In declivibus humidis opacis montium
altiorum Caroline Septentrionalis. In horto floret Maio— Junio.

Living plants of this species were gathered by myself in the Alleghany Moun-
tains of North Carolina, and probably of Virginia also, in the autumn of 1843, along
with those of S. Careyana, which this species so nearly resembles that the difference
was not detected until both came into flower the ensuing spring. ‘The characters of
the two remain constant under cultivation. S. Caroliniana is distinguished from S.
Careyana by its reflexed (instead of barely spreading) calyx, its more strongly bimac-
ulate petals (those of S. Careyana prove to be spotted also but very faintly), and its
decidedly clavate filaments, which in S. Careyana are filiform. . Caroliniana be-
longs, therefore, to the section Hydatica. "

* Bot. Excursion to the Mountains of N. Carolina, in Sill. Journ., 1. c., p. 21. —
Mr. Fielding, in his Sertwm Plantarum, t. 57, has published a good figure of Boy-
kinia aconitifolia, justly remarking that it has no characters sufficient to separate it
from the pentandrous Saxifrages above mentioned. He therefore refers it to Saxi-

fraga. Ihave preferred to refer them to Boykinia.

SULLIVANTIA OHIONIS. 41

celled ovary; from Saxifraga, by its pentandrous flowers; and from
Boykinia, by its less adherent calyx, persistent petals, and very
short stamens, to which I may now add the imbricative xstivation
of its corolla. For in B. aconitifolia the petals are convolute in
estivation ; which character, if it shall be found to hold good in the
two Oregon species (a point that the advanced state of my speci-
mens does not allow me to verify), will abundantly confirm the

genus Boykinia.*

Tas. VI. Sullivantia Ohionis, of the natural size. Fig. 1. A cymule,
in fruit. Fig. 2. A flower. Fig. 3. Same, with the calyx laid open.
Fig. 4. Cross-section of an unripe capsule. Fig. 5. Vertical section of the
same. Fig. 6. A seed. Fig. 7. Longitudinal section of the same, display-
ing the embryo. All the analyses more or less magnified.

© This discovery strengthens the view I had formerly ventured to take, in ap-
pending Philadelphea to the order Saxifragacew (FI. N. Amer. 1, p- 594),
although other botanists think that there is only “ some collateral relationship ” be-
tween them. Excepting in the more numerous stamens, Philadelphus differs from
Saxifragacew-Hydrangew only in the valvate calyx and convolute zstivation of the
petals; the very characters which are unexpectedly exhibited in a true Saxifragea
by Boykinia. Of course I follow De Candolle and Zuccarini in referring Deutzia
— which has valvate petals and definite stamens— to the suborder Hydrangee ;
as also Decumaria, the petals of which, I believe, are not imbricated (as de-
scribed by Endlicher), but valvate, with induplicate margins, like Deutzia, and
which is very closely related to Schizophragma, Zucc., an undoubted Hydrangea-
ceous genus. (Vide F/. NV. Amer. 1, p. 593.) Lindley, however, in his Vegetable
Kingdom, still comprises both Deutzia and Decumaria in his order Philadelpha-

cez, although the ordinal character he assigns suffices to exclude them.

42 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

THERMOPSIS CAROLINIANA, M. A. Curtis.
TAB. VII.

“'T. Carouinrana: caule virgato simplicissimo glabro sub-
glauco ; foliolis obovati-oblongis margine subtusque
parce pubescentibus petiolo longioribus; _ stipulis
(magnis) rotundatis amplexicaulibus, supremis peti-
olum subzequantibus ; racemo spicato elongato stric-
to calycibusque pubescenti-villosis; floribus irregu-
lariter confertis verticillato-subternisve ; bracteis
ovatis pedicellem duplo excedentibus calyce parum
brevioribus ;_ staminibus vix persistentibus ; legumi-
nibus villosissimis lato-linearibus rectis planiusculis
rachi appressis.

T. Caroliniana, M. A. Curtis, in Sill. Journ. 44. (1843), p. 80; Benth. in
Lond. Journ. Bot., 2. p. 482.

Has. In sylvis montanis comitatuum Haywood et
Cherokee Caroline Septentrionalis hinc inde detexue-
runt Rev. M. A. Curtis (anno 1839) et S. B. Buckley
(1842). Floret Junio, Julio.

This is an upright plant, with remarkably strict, and, for the
most part, entirely simple stems, three feet high, terminated by a
single and rather compact raceme, or spike, of bright yellow blos-
soms. The foliage is light green, a little glaucous ; the leaves all
trifoliolate, with the leaflets varying from two and a half to four

inches in length, smooth and glabrous, except a sparing pubescence

THERMOPSIS CAROLINIANA. 43

beneath. The stipules, which are perfectly persistent, are one to
two inches long. The flowers are three fourths of an inch in
length, on pedicels which are only one or two lines long, so that
the inflorescence is rather to be called a spike than a raceme.
The upper lobe of the campanulate calyx is merely emarginate.
The vexillum, as in the remaining species, is clearly shorter than
the other petals; the inside below the reflexion is dotted with
brownish ; the summit is rather deeply two-cleft, which is not shown
in the figure. The stamens persist after the petals fall, but usually
disappear before the fruit is grown. The fruit-bearing spike is
eight or ten inches in length, frequently ripening twenty to forty
crowded pods. The legumes are erect and closely appressed,
densely silky-villous, quite straight, about two inches long and a
fifth of an inch wide, obtuse at the base and almost sessile, 10 — 12-
seeded, seldom at all constricted by the abortion of a part of the
seeds; the valves are rather convex till the pod is quite ripe, when
they are nearly flat. Seeds oval, slightly reniform. — ”

When the first volume of the Flora of North America was pub-
lished, the authors knew of no species of this genus indigenous to
the proper United States. Three species are now known, from the
State of North Carolina, and are in cultivation at the Cambridge
Botanic Garden. Two of them were proposed and characterized
by the Rev. M. A. Curtis, in Stlliman’s Journal for January, 1843 ;
and the same assiduous and excellent botanist was also, probably,
the first to detect, in the Baptisia mollis of Michaux, the third
of our species of Thermopsis.

Mr. Curtis discovered the entirely new and striking Thermopsis
Caroliniana in the summer of 1839, among the mountains of the
southwestern corner of North Carolina, near Pigeon river, in Hay-
wood county, and also on the Hiwassee river, in Cherokee county.

AA CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

It has since been met with only by Mr. Buckley at other localities
in the same region. I raised the plant in the Cambridge Botanic
Garden (where it is perfectly hardy) from seeds taken from a
fruiting specimen kindly communicated by Mr. Buckley. The
species appears to be most nearly allied to the Californian T. ma-
crophylla.

Mr. Brown distinguished the genus Thermopsis from Baptisia by
its persistent stamens and linear compressed legumes.* The first-
named character, however, is scarcely applicable to the present spe-
cies, and not at all to the two succeeding, in which the stamens are
quite as deciduous as in Baptisia. In fact, they differ from that
genus by their slender and flat pods alone. Mr. Bentham + relies
upon the persistent stamens, and some attenuation of the base
of the calyx (a character inappreciable in American specimens),
and admits two Himalayan species with oblong or ovate legumes,
which in one are slightly, in the other greatly, inflated. The
pods of 7. alpina are likewise said to be elliptical-oblong, but
compressed. It is very difficult, therefore, to make out the diagno-
sis of these two genera, unless, indeed, 7. inflata of Cambessédes
be referred to Baptisia, and the distinction be made to rest entirely

on the compressed legumes.

Taz. VII. Thermopsis Caroliniana, natural size. Fig. 1. Portion of
the raceme in fruit (when fully ripe the legumes are flatter). Fig. 2. Imma-

ture legume, with cross-section.

*® Hort. Kew., ed. 2, Vol. IL, p. 3.
+ London Journal of Botany, Vol. IL, p. 480.

THERMOPSIS FRAXINIFOLIA. 45

THERMOPSIS FRAXINIFOLIA, M. A. Curtis.
TAB. VIII.

“ 'T. rraxinirouia : glaberrima, subglauca; caule ramoso
ramisque flexuosis patentibus; foliolis ovato-oblongis
basi cuneatis petiolum subexcedentibus ; stipulis lan-
ceolatis petiolo brevioribus, summis preecipue rame-
alibus minimis nune deciduis; racemis laxifloris decli-
natis; pedicellis filiformibus sparsis patentibus calyce
triplo longioribus bracteas subulatas multoties su-
perantibus ; staminibus deciduis ; leguminibus elon-
gato-linearibus vix falcatis planis cinereo-puberulis
patentissimis.

Thermopsis fraxinifolia, M.A. Curtis, in Sill. Journ., 44. p. 81.

Baptisia mollis, Nutt. Gen., 1. p. 281, non Miche.
Baptisia fraxinifolia, Nutt. MSS., ex Torr. § Gr. Fl. N. Amer., 1. p. 387.

Has. In nemorosis ad ‘“ Table Mountain,” Caroline
Superioris, Nuttall, Curtis, etc.; atque in aliis locis
inter montes comit. Henderson et Macon legit S. B.
Buckley. Foret ineunte estate.

This species has much the habit of Baptisia alba. The stems,
which reach the height of about three feet, are more or less de-
clined, and the numerous geniculate slender branches are widely
spreading. These are nearly all terminated by a raceme, so that
a succession of flowers is produced nearly through the summer ;
while J. Caroliniana and T. mollis bear only a single raceme.

The stipules are quite variable ; the lowest being sometimes almost

46 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

as long as the petioles, though commonly much shorter; the upper
ones are smaller, but occasionally ovate instead of lanceolate ;
those of the lateral branches are quite minute and inconspicuous,
linear or subulate ; and all, though they cannot be called decidu-
ous, are apt to fall long before the leaves. ‘The foliage is bright
green, paler or glaucescent beneath; the leaflets about two inches
in length. ‘The declined racemes are very loosely flowered ; the
terminal ones are eight or ten inches long, and many-flowered ; the
lateral short and 10-—20-flowered. The inconspicuous bracts re-
semble the uppermost stipules, and are somewhat deciduous. The
spreading pedicels vary from half an inch to an inch in length.
The flowers are one third smaller than in T. Caroliniana. The
calyx is glabrous, the lobes or teeth much shorter than the tube,
tomentose-canescent inside, the upper one strongly two-toothed.
Corolla light yellow; vexillum slightly two-lobed. ‘The stamens fall
with the petals, or soon after, just as in Baptisia. The linear ovary
is canescent. ‘The minutely hoary legumes vary from two to three
and a half inches in length, though scarcely two lines in breadth.
They are quite flat, straight, or slightly curved, scarcely stipitate
and quite even when all the (twelve to twenty) seeds ripen; but,
from the abortion of a part, the pods are often constricted, and
also narrowed at the base, as if much stipitate. =”

The figure is taken from the living plant brought by myself from
Table Mountain. This is the very locality assigned by Nuttall to
his Baptisia mollis, which he afterwards proposed to call B. fraxini-
folia ; but that part of his description which relates to the height of
the plant, and its pubescence, is applicable only to the true Podaly-
ria mollis of Michaux.

Tas. VIII. Thermopsis fraxinifolia ; summit of a stem, with the terminal

raceme in young fruit ; of the natural size.

THERMOPSIS MOLLIS. 47

THERMOPSIS MOLLIS, M. A. Curtis, MSS.
TAB. IX.

''T. moxiis: cinereo-pubescens; caule humili parce ra-
moso ramisque flexuosis subdeclinatis; foliolis ob-
longo-ovatis vel cuneato-ovatis petiolum triplo exce-
dentibus supra glabratis; stipulis ovatis lanceolatisve,
caulinis petiolo vix brevioribus vetustate deciduis ;
racemo solitario decurvato; pedicellis subalternis
erectiusculis bracteas oblongas equantibus flore bre-
vioribus; staminibus deciduis; leguminibus elongato-
linearibus subfalcatis planis canescenti-puberulis de-
pendentibus.

Podalyria mollis, Miche. Fl. Bor. Am., 1. p. 264.
Baptisia mollis, DC. Prodr., 2. p.100; Torr. & Gr. Fl. N. Amer., 1.

pp. 387, 695 (excl. syn. Nutt.); M. A. Curtis, in Sill. Journ.; 42.
psi.

Has. In rupestribus comitatuum Mecklenburg (Mi-
chaux), Lincoln (Hunter), Stokes (Schweinitz), Or-
ange (Curtis), etc., Caroline Superioris, haud_ infre-
quens. Aprili— Maio floret.

This plant is about a foot high when it begins to flower; but as
the stem still elongates, and the branches continue to develope, it
attains twice that height, though it produces only a solitary raceme.
The foliage is dull green, and the whole plant hoary with a mi-

nute appressed pubescence. ‘The leaves, however, become nearly

48 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

glabrous with age. The stipules are variable ; those of the branch-
es smaller in proportion, often linear, and much shorter than the
petioles they subtend ; the cauline ones fall by the time the fruit
is matured. The raceme, of bright yellow flowers, is four to six
inches long, rather crowded, with the pedicels (which are scarcely
longer than the calyx) alternate, or occasionally some of them rather
verticillate-ageregated, or two to three from the same foliaceous
bract. The flowers are three fourths of an inch long. ‘The teeth
of the campanulate calyx are nearly as long as the tube, triangular,
and acute. The stamens are nearly as deciduous as in T. fraxini-
folia; and the ovaries, as well as the legumes, are much as in that
species. ;

This species, though still little known to American botanists, ap-
pears to be generally distributed throughout the middle and upper
parts of North Carolina, doubtless extending northward and south-
ward into the adjacent States; but, so far as known, it does not
reach to the mountains. The most eastern locality is at Hillsbor-
ough, from which live plants were communicated to the Cambridge
Botanic Garden by my esteemed friend, the Rev. M. A. Curtis.
When Mr. Curtis cleared up the confusion that prevailed respecting
this species and T. fraxinifolia, he still retained it in Baptisia, and
described the legume, from imperfect and apparently abnormal
specimens, as “ oblong and turgid.” But afterwards, on observing
the perfect pods, he at once recognized it as a congener of his i kg
fraxinifolia and T. Caroliniana.

Tas. IX. Thermopsis mollis ; whole plant. Fig. 1. Calyx and stamens.
Fig. 2. Ovary, the calyx cut away. Fig. 3. A legume. All the figures of

the size of nature.

GAYLUSSACIA URSINA. AS

GAYLUSSACIA URSINA, Torr. & Gr.
TAB. X.

"G. uRsina : ramis divaricatis, junioribus ferrugineo-pi-
losis; foliis membranaceis deciduis ovato-oblongis
acutis vel acuminatis mucronulatis viridibus puberulis
subtus minute resinoso-atomiferis; racemo nutante
5-9-floro ; pedicellis filiformibus bracteas caducas
(inferiores foliaceas) excedentibus ; corolla (viridi-
rubella) globoso-campanulata; antheris vertice vix
productis filamento ciliato brevioribus ; fructu nigro.

Gaylussacia ursina, Torr. § Gr. Fl. N. Amer., 2. ined.

Vaccinium ursinum, M. A. Curtis, in Sill. Journ., 44. p. 82.

Has. In sylvis montanis comit. Henderson, Hay-
wood, Macon, etc., Caroline Superioris, invenerunt
Curtis, Buckley ; necnon ad summum scopulum mira-
bilem ‘Table Rock” dictum, Caroline Australis, ubi
ipse legi. Floret Maio, Junio; fructus maturescit au-
tumno. *-

Although so long overlooked by botanists, this species is very
common through the mountains near the southwestern borders of
North Carolina, where the fruit is known to the inhabitants by the
name of Bear-berry, or Bear Huckleberry. It is doubless the plant
which I find mentioned by the elder Michaux, in the manuscript
diary of his travels through this region, under the name of « Vac-

7

50 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

cinium d’Ours” ; but it is not described in his Flora.* The Rev.
Mr. Curtis detected it, in the fruiting state, in the summer of 1839 ;
and Mr. Buckley gathered the flowers in the spring of 1842. The
next autumn I found it on the wooded summit of Table Rock in
South Carolina, as well as elsewhere, and obtained living plants for
cultivation in the Botanic Garden. Here it has blossomed, though
sparingly, every spring, although it fails to ripen fruit. ‘The shruh
is only two or three feet high; the flowers are inconspicuous ; and
the fruit, though edible, and indeed not unpleasant when fully ripe
(in September and October), has not the fine flavor of the other
species, and is seldom eaten, except by the bears.

"This plant, with the allied species, G. resinosa, frondosa, and
dumosa (the true Huckleberries, as distinguished from the Blue-
berries of our markets), must be separated from Vaccinium, on ac-
count of their remarkable ten-celled ovaries, and drupaceous ten-
seeded fruit. It is surprising that such an obvious peculiarity in
some of our commonest summer fruits should have been so gener-
ally overlooked. Among the earlier writers, the only notices I can
discover which point towards the true structure of the fruit are,
that Wangenheim describes and figures his Andromeda baccata
(which is Gaylussacia resinosa) as ten-seeded;+ and Clayton de-
scribes another species as eight-celled, “‘ with few osseous seeds.” f
Muhlenberg, also, in his manuscript FVorula Lancastriensis, ex-
pressly describes Vaccinium resinosum and V. frondosum as ten-
seeded. Quite recently, when elaborating the Vaccinie@ for De

Candolle’s Prodromus, the learned Professor Dunal noticed some

* This manuscript journal was presented, by the younger Michaux, to the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, where it is preserved.

+ Anpflanzung Nordamericanischer Holzarten, p. 111, t. 30, f. 69.

t Flora Virginica, ed. 2, p. 59.

GAYLUSSACIA URSINA. 51

fruiting specimens of one or more species with “ baccis 8 —10-
locularibus! loculis monospermis ?” But, instead of following this
clew to the solution of this curious anomaly, he merely introduced
a nominal species, V. decamerocarpon,* somewhat suspecting, in-
deed, that it might be a variety of V. frondosum, but unconscious
that his four succeeding species shared in the peculiarity.

The next notice, expressly stating that this character is common
to all the resinous-dotted species, and that the fruit is drupaceous
instead of baccate, was published by myself in January, 1842, and
the name of Decachena was proposed for the group or genus.t
In 1843, Mr. Nuttall established the same genus on the same spe-
cies, under the somewhat similar name of Decamerium.t About
the same time, on revising the Vacciniee for the Flora of North
America, | was convinced that these plants are not generically dis-
tinguishable from Gaylussacia, and therefore referred them to that
genus, from which they appear to differ in nothing but their decid-
uous foliage, —a character that will surely be deemed unimportant,
while both deciduous and evergreen species are embraced in Vacci-
nium. In inflorescence, and in other respects, they quite accord
with genuine species of Gaylussacia, and also in the resinous atoms
with which they are more or less copiously sprinkled, but which are

not found in any true Vaccinium. §

* “An genus distinctum? An Gaylussaciz sp. foliis caducis? An var. decem-
locularis V. frondosi?” Dunal, in DC. Prodr., Vol. VII, p. 566.

+ Botanical Excursion to Mount. N. Car., in Sill. Journ., Vol. XLII, p. 43;
reprinted in Hooker’s Lond. Journ. Bot., Vol. IIl., p. 234 (in a note). The seeds
were erroneously said to be ascending, instead of suspended.

t Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Part 8d of Vol. VIII.,
New Series (1843), p. 259.

§ Although Mr. Nuttall (in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1. c.) remarks, that the habit

of his Decamerium, as well as the geographical range, ‘is wholly different from

52 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

In the note already referred to,* I spoke of the fruit of these
plants as if really decacarpellary (which is probably not the case) ;
for, although I then stated that several of the more common true
Vaccinia “exhibit a more or less completely 8—10-celled ovary,
but with many ovules in each cell,” yet I was not aware, until af-
terwards, of the mode in which the proper cells of the ovary are
divided by a spurious partition, nor, indeed, has any account of it
yet been published. ‘The peculiarity in question, which was first
shown to me in Vaccinium corymbosum by Mr. Sullivant, and after-
wards by Dr. Torrey, in V. stamineum,—and which may be held
to explain the increased number of cells in Gaylussacia, — is, that
a projection of the back, or midrib, of each carpel extends into the
cell until it meets (and sometimes coheres with) the corresponding
placenta projecting from the axis, so as to divide each cell into two.
This is represented in Tab. X., Fig. 6, as seen in Vaccinium co-
rymbosum. A similar case has recently been brought to light,
by Mr. Bentham, in Nelitris and some other baccate Myrtacez.t

This character may be turned to good account in reducing the

Vaccinia to natural sections or subgenera. {

Gaylussacia,” yet, on the same page, one of his species is justly characterized as
having ‘‘ something of the habit of a Gaylussacia.”

* Bot. Excurs., &c., in Sill. Journ., 1. c., Jan., 1842.

+ London Journal of Botany, Vol. Il., 1843, p. 221.

t The North American species may be disposed under the following sections : —

VACCINIUM, Linn.

§ 1. Oxycoccus. Ovarium 4-loculare, septis spuriis nullis. Corolla 4-partita,
lobis elongatis revolutis. Antherz exaristate : filamenta pilosa. — Flores solitarii
axillares, vel in racemis fasciculisve terminalibus ; pedunculis filiformibus.

* Foliis deciduis, caule erecto, baccis insipidis. — V. erythrocarpum, Micha.

** Foliis persistentibus, caulibus prostratis, baccis acidis. — V. Oxycoccus, L.

V. macrocarpon, Ait.

GAYLUSSACIA URSINA. 53

It may be here mentioned that the flowers of Gaylussacia resi-
nosa and G. frondosa are subject to a frequent monstrosity, in
which the calyx and corolla become free from the ovary, somewhat
fleshy, and enlarged to eight or ten times their natural size; the
stamens being also thickened, misshapen, and imperfect. Of the
same nature are the fleshy bodies borne by Azalea viscosa and

§ 2. Viris-Inza. Ovarium 4 -5-loculare, septis spuriis nullis. Corolla cylin-
drico- vel globoso-campanulata, 4—5-dentata seu 4-loba. Anthere exaristate : fila-
menta pilosa. — Flores in racemis brevibus, bracteati et bibracteolati; foliis persis-
tentibus. — (Vaccinii et Metagoniee pars, Nutt.) V. Vitis-Idea, ZL. V. myrtifo-
lium, Michw. (V. crassifolium, Andr.) V. ovatum, Pursh.

§ 3. BaropEnpron. Ovarium pseudo-10-loculare. Bacce (vix edulis) loculi
abortu oligospermi. Corolla patenti-campanulata, 5-loba. Anthere dorso 2-arista-
te: filamenta pilosa. — Flores in axillis foliorum ramealium solitarii, quasi race-
mosi, pedunculis filiformibus ebracteolatis.

* Foliis sempervirentibus, antheris inclusis, baccis nigris. — V. arboreum, Marsh.
(V. diffusum, Ait.) (Gen. Batodendron, Nutt.)

** Foliis pallidis deciduis, antheris exsertis, baccis albidis. — V. stamineum, L.

(V. elevatum, Soland.) (Gen. Picrococcus, Nutt.)

§ 4. Evvaccinrum seu Myrtinius. Ovarium 5- rarius 4-loculare, septis spuriis
nullis. Corolla subglobosa vel urceolata, 5—4-dentata. Anthere dorso 2-aristate :
filamenta glabra. — Boreali-alpine ; foliis deciduis.

* Flores (szepissime decandri) in axillis foliorum solitarii.— V. Myrtillus, L. V.
Chamissonis, Bong. V. salicinum, Cham. V. myrtilloides, Michx. V. parvifoli-
um, Smith. V. ovalifolium, Smith. V. ceespitosum, Micha.

** Flores (sepius octandri) 2—4-nati e gemmis propriis. — V. uliginosum, L.

§ 5. Cyanococcus (id est Blueberry). Ovarium pl. m. pseudo-10-loculare.
Bacce (dulces) pleiosperme. Corolla cylindracea vel urceolata. Antherz exaris-
tatee: filamenta pilosa. —Americane ; fasciculis florum, vel racemis brevissimis,
e gemmis squamosis propriis.

* Foliis sempervirentibus.— V. Myrsinites, Lam. (V. nitidum, Andr.)

** Foliis deciduis. — V. corymbosum, L., cum spec. cognatis, vulgo Blueberries.

54 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA,

A. nudiflora, popularly known under the name of “ Swamp Ap-
ples.” These are altered flower-buds, which, possibly on account
of the puncture of insects (though of this I have seen no proof),
develope in the form of solid succulent excrescences, half an inch to
an inch in diameter, of irregular shape, but in which at first all the
parts of the flower, though misshapen and obese, can often be dis-
tinguished. They obtain their full size at midsummer, when they
have a not unpleasant acid flavor, and are greedily eaten by boys.

Since the foregoing account was prepared for the press, I have
fortunately detected a true evergreen species of Gaylussacia, in-
digenous to the United States. The plant I refer to is the ex-
tremely rare Vaccinium buxifolium of Salisbury, the V. brachycerum
of Michaux, which I have in vain sought for in the mountains of
Virginia, but which has lately been discovered in Pennsylvania (in
Perry county, near Bloomfield), by Professor Baird, of Dickenson
College. From the specimens which this accomplished naturalist
has obligingly sent me, I find that it has a ten-celled ovary, with a
solitary ovule in each cell, instead of presenting the structure ot the
section Vitis-JIdea, with which the plant agrees in habit; and the

fruit is evidently a ten-pyrenous drupe.*

* Gaylussacia brachycera: humilis, glaberrima; ramis angulatis ; foliis (Buxi)
ovalibus crenato-serrulatis ; racemis subsessilibus glomeratis ; pedicellis 2-bracteo-
latis brevissimis; corolla (rubro tincta) breviter campanulato-cylindracea ; anthe-
ris in tubulos vix productis filamento ciliato brevioribus. — Vaccinium buxifolium,
Salisb. Parad. Lond.,t. 4; Bot. Mag., t. 928; Bot. Cab., t. 648. V. brachyce-
rum, Miche. Fi. 1, p. 234. //

The habitat given in the Flora of Michaux is, ‘‘In Virginia, cirea Winchester” ;
but the specimen in his proper herbarium at the Jardin des Plantes is marked
“© Warm Springs.” There are specimens in the herbarium of Muhlenberg, ticketed
“Vaccinium Poxafolia, Krien Preyer,” in the unmistakable chirography and or-

thography of Matthew Kin; from which I infer that this collector found the plant in

GAYLUSSACIA URSINA. 55

Tas. X. Gaylussacia ursina ; flowering branch of the natural size. Fig.
1. Lateral view of a magnified stamen. Fig. 2. The same, seen from with-
in. Fig. 3. Fructified ovary magnified, with a cross-section showing the ten
uniovulate cells. (The dots are resinous atoms.) Fig. 4. A detached pyrena
of the fruit. Fig. 5. Section of the same, showing the seed. Fig. 6. Mag-

nified transverse section of an ovary of Vaccinium corymbosum.

*,* It may not be improper here to introduce a remark respecting certain
dubious Ericaceous genera which appear to border on Aquifoliacee, namely,
Cyrilla, Cliftonia, &c. Cyrilla was placed by Jussieu in his Ericee, and
Cliftonia was referred to the same family by Sprengel. Lindley,* however,
in 1836, referred them to the order Celastracee, with which they have little or
no agreement, except in habit. In 1838, it was suggested, in the Flora of
North America, that these genera, along with Elliottia, should constitute a
suborder, CyRILLE®, of the great family Ericacee, characterized by a poly-
petalous corolla, inappendiculate anthers opening longitudinally, and uniovu-
late cells of the ovary.t Endlicher, who had omitted Cyrilla and Cliftonia
from the body of his Genera Plantarum, afterwards appended them to Erica-
cee in his first Supplement ; but subsequently, with much acuteness, joined
the group Cyrillee to the order Ilicinee, from which he considers them to
differ only in the insertion of the petals and stamens (from the absence of a
disk) upon the receptacle, and in having a larger embryo.{ Recently, Dr.
Lindley has raised the Cyrillacee to the rank of an independent order, which he

places next to Olacacee in his most discordant alliance Berberales >§ distin-

Greenbrier county, Virginia. From this source, the fragment in the Willdenovian
herbarium, communicated by Muhlenberg under the name of “ Vaccinium coria-
ceum,”’ was doubtless derived.

* Introd. to Nat. Syst., ed. 2, p. 119.

+ Torrey & Gray, Flora N. Amer., Vol. I., p. 256; note under Celastracez.

t Enchiridion Botanicum, 1841, p. 578.

§ Vegetable Kingdom, 1846, pp. 432, 445.

56 CHLORIS BOREALI-AMERICANA.

guishing them, and indeed his whole alliance, from the Ericaceous group by a
sole diagnostic character (the anisomerous cells of the ovary) which would
not only exclude one of his genera, namely, Elliottia, but also embrace Cle-
thra, Loiseleuria, Leiophyllum, &c. During the present year, M. Plan-
chon has reéstablished the group as one of the primary divisions of Erica-
cee, with the diagnostic character of ‘‘ Ericez petalis liberis, antheris inappen-
diculatis, fructu indehiscente (an semper ?), loculis monospermis,” adding
a new genus, Purdiwa, which, with the habit and much of the structure of
Cliftonia, has a slender style, and anthers opening by terminal pores.*

The discovery of this interesting genus thus appears to prove that Cyrilla
and Cliftonia were rightly referred to Ericacez ; although, on the other hand,
Cliftonia is scarcely to be distinguished from the order Aquifoliacee except by
the want of an hypogynous disk, the double number of stamens, the dry, in-
stead of drupaceous, fruit, and the slender embryo. But Cyrilla further differs
in another particular, which it is the principal object of this note to record.
The seeds are indeed solitary, but the ovules are about three in each cell ; as
is well shown in some analyses kindly made for me, in the spring of 1839, by
M. Decaisne. J also find, on reéxamination with better specimens, that the
ovary of Elliottia bears several (6—10) ovules in each cell, which are so small
and so closely packed together on the short pendulous placenta, that they were
mistaken for a single ovulum. The fruit is still a desideratum; but, from the
appearance of the ovary, I suspect it will prove to be capsular and septicidal ;

so that, for the present, the genus should perhaps be placed next to Bejaria.

Correction. The name of Corema Conrani has already been taken up by Dr. Torrey
for the plant described in the first article of this memoir, in a letter to the late Mr. Loudon, cited
in the Gardener's Magazine, Vol. XVII.; and it is employed in Loudon’s Arboretum and Fru-
ticetum Abridged, p. 1092.

* Description d’un Genre voisin du Cliftonia, &c., in Hooker’s London Journal
of Botany, for May, 1846, p. 250, tab. 9.

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@) Shee gd eal

Tab. 10.

VE J :
@ Jey Cte ss tC MISE.

II.
Contributions to the Bryology and Hepaticology of North America.
By WILLIAM 8. SULLIVANT.

PART I:

(Communicated to the Academy, August 12th, 1846.)

1. PHYLLOGONIUM NORVEGICUM, Brid. Bryol. Univ. 2,
p. 674. — Musc. Alleghan. n. 188.

Ir may be doubted if this rare moss and the tropical Pterigynan-
drum fulgens, Hedw., the type of Phyllogonium, Brid., are refer-
able to the same genus. A striking dissimilarity in habit, mode of
growth, and in the position of the female flowers (which are termi-
nal in the one, but lateral in the other), as well as the structure
and reticulation of the leaf, all indicate their separation generi-
cally. The genus of our moss must remain uncertain until the
discovery of its fruit, which we may now expect, since a second
locality has been found, in Ohio, producing both male and female
plants abundantly. The notice of this moss in the Bryologia Uni-
versa is evidently founded on infertile plants alone, collected in
Norway, the original locality. Our Ohio specimens furnish the fol-
lowing additional particulars.

Caules plerumque simplices, rarissime e medio vel e summitate
innovantes. Folia, illis caulium sterilium exceptis, versus apicem

8

58 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRYOLOGY

caulis sensim majora ; floralia 4-6, erecto-patentia, longissime acu-
minata, acumine diaphano flexuoso subserrulato. Flores diceci,
in caule primario vel in innovationibus e summitate progredientibus
terminales: uterque flos diphyllus; archegonia 8-12 stylo longis-
simo instructa, stigmate magno dilatato; antheridia 10-14, elonga
to-fusiformia, brevissime stipitata; paraphyses haud numerose, te-
nerrime, genitalibus utriusque sexus immixte, atque in foliorum
superiorum gremio per paria nidulantes. Folia perichztialia et pe-
rigonialia floralibus similia, sed paulo majora.

It grows in large patches, pendent from the perpendicular faces of
sandstone rocks, in moist, shady places, six or eight miles south of
Lancaster, Ohio.

Tas. I.— Fig. 1. Plants of the natural size. Fig. 2. The same, mag-
nified. Figs. 3,4. Apices of cauline leaves. Figs. 5, 13,14. Transverse
sections of the leaf. Fig. 6. Cauline leaf. Fig. 7. Perichetial leaf. Fig.
8. Archegonia and paraphyses. Fig. 9. Perichetial leaves inclosing arche-
gonia. Fig. 10. Antheridia and paraphyses. Fig. 11. Perigonial leaves in-
closing antheridia. Fig. 12. Part of the stem. Magnified.

2, FISSIDENS MINUTULUS, Sulliv. Musc. Alleghan. n. 183.

Planta e perpusillis gentis, vitam annuam degens. Caules sim-
plices, assurgentes, circiter sesquilineales, basi radiculose, dense gre-
garie, sed nunquam inter se radiculis intertexte. Folia erecto-
patentia, 4—8-juga; inferiora minuta, remota, subsquamiformia; su-
periora in ascendendo magis magisque majora, oblique lineari-lance-
olata, acuta, fere ad medium usque conduplicata; lamina apiciali
subrepanda plus minus limbata; limbo haud incrassato e cellulis
elongato-fusiformibus diaphanis conflato; costa pellucida, in apice

evanescente percursa, rotundato-hexagone areolata. Flores diceci,

AND HEPATICOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 59

terminales. Folia perigonialia 2, basi ventricoso-vaginantia, parte
superiore conduplicature eroso-truncata, ceterum caulinis similia ;
antheridia 3—4, filamento brevissimo suffulta, paraphysibus nullis :
pericheetialia 2, caulinis superioribus conformia sed longiora. Cap-
sula erecta, symmetrica, ovalis, inferne attenuata, siccitate sub ore
dilatato constricta: pedicellus 1 lineam longus, e basi geniculata
flexuoso-ascendens, siccus sinistrorsum_tortus : peristomii dentes
erecto-incurvati, rubelli, apice ultra medium fissi, dense articulati,
cruribus inzequalibus subulatis granuloso-scabris : operculum conico-
rostratum ; rostro recto, aut vix curvato, dimidiam capsule partem
longitudine zquante: calyptra solum operculum obtegens, conico-
subulata, uno latere profunde fissa: spore majuscule diametro
equantes dentis basi dimidiam Jatitudinem.

This species grows on stones in the bed of desiccated rivulets, in
shaded places, near Columbus, Ohio; it fruits in July and August.

Besides other marks of less importance, the dicecity of this moss
readily distinguishes it from F. incurvus, Br. §- Sch., small forms
of which it much resembles. The character in the foregoing de-
scription, drawn from the relative length of the diameter of a
spore and the breadth of a tooth of the peristome near the base,
may be made available in many cases for distinguishing species.
In the present species and its nearest ally, F. incurvus, this char-
acter is efficient, since in the latter a spore equals one third the
breadth of the peristomal tooth. In the F. obtusifolius, Wils.,
the spores are unusually large, one being more than sufficient to
cover the breadth of a tooth.

Tas. II. 4.— Fig. 1. Plants of the natural size. Figs. 2, 4. Capsules.
Fig. 3. Calyptra. Fig. 5. Female plant. Fig. 6. Male plant. Fig.7. An-
theridia. Fig. 8. A leaf. Figs. 9, 10. Portions of a leaf. Fig. 11. Por-
tion of the peristome. Fig. 12. Spores. All except Fig. 1 more or less
magnified.

60 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRYOLOGY

3. FISSIDENS EXIGUUS, Sulliv. Muse. Alleghan. n. 182.

F. annuus, dioicus; caule simplici; foliis 5—9-jugis oblongo-lan-
ceolatis immarginatis integerrimis, costa sub apice dissoluta; cap-
sula terminali subobliqua vel erecta; operculo conico-rostellato ;
calyptra cuculliformi; flore masculo terminali.

Species precedente dimidio major, folia minus elongata immargi-
nata, capsula sepius inaequalis subobliqua, spore: minores.

It grows with the preceding species, and fruits at the same time.

Tas. II. B.— Fig. 1. Plants of the natural size. Fig. 2. Point of the
leaf. Figs. 3,6. Capsules. Fig. 4. Calyptra. Fig. 5. Female plant.
Fig. 7. A leaf. Fig. 8. Antheridia. Fig. 9. Male plant. Fig. 10. Sec-
tions of leaves. Fig. 11. Spores. All magnified.

4, SCHISTIDIUM SERRATUM, Hook. § Wils. in Drum.
Musc. Amer. n. 20.— Musc. Alleghan. n. 198.

This plant may be regarded as a highly developed state of the
European Phascum patens; from which it is distinguished mainly
by the firmer texture of the outer thecal membrane, and by a re-
duced form of opercular dehiscence. Its globose capsule separates
at maturity into two equal portions by a circumscissile line, of
which no traces are visible during the early stages of the plant, and
no alteration, other than a slight discoloring of the cells near the
line of separation, takes place; thus exhibiting an imperfect form
of dehiscence in a moss of the operculate division.

The accordance of this plant with Phascum patens appears to be

complete in all other important respects.

AND HEPATICOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 61

It may be here noticed, that the position and structure of the
male flower of P. patens has been incorrectly described and figured
by authors as terminal, and borne upon proper branches arising
from the base of the main stem. Such is by no means the case.
The male flower, as in Schistidium serratum, is situated near the
female, rarely mixed with it, in the axils of the floral or upper
leaves, either of the main stem or its innovations; the antheridia,
3-5 in number, are accompanied by paraphyses with globose ter-
minal cells; and rudimentary perigonial leaves are occasionally
present. All the North American specimens of P. patens, so called,
that have come under my observation, belong to immature states
of Schistidium serratum; but future examination may show that
the two plants are less distinct than is at present supposed.

Our plant, as now understood, cannot be referred to the genus
Schistidium of Bridel, much less to that of Bruch & Schimper; nor
does it agree with any other well defined genus. With Physco-
mitrium, Br. §- Sch., it has many characters in common, and, in
fact, the position of the male flower presents the only essential
point of disagreement.

The plant is annual, and is often met with in the Middle and
Western States, on rich soil, particularly near the margins of
streams subject to inundation; it fruits during the summer and

autumnal months.

Tas. II]. C.—Fig. 1. Plants of the natural size. Fig. 2. Part of a
plant, showing the capsule, operculum, and the position of the male flowers.
Fig. 3. Spores. Fig. 4. Calyptra. Fig. 5. Antheridia with paraphyses.
Fig. 6. Plant witha simple stem. Fig. 7. A portion of leaf. Fig. 8. A

plant with innovations. All magnified.

62 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRYOLOGY

5. MARCHANTIA DISJUNCTA, Sulliv. Muse. Alleghan. n. 286.

M. dioica ; receptaculo fcemineo excentrico subseptem-radiato,
radiis apice cuneato-dilatatis emarginato-crenulatis subtus dense
barbatis ; involucro 1 —3-carpo subintegerrimo ; receptaculo masculo
semicirculari 7-radiato, radiis usque ad brevem pedunculum dis-
cretis ; fronde dichotoma et articulatim innovante : cetera M. poly-
morphe.

This, the second species of the genus known to the flora of the
United States, differs strikingly from all others in its male re-
ceptacle. It has nowhere been found except on the high banks of
the Alabama river, near the town of Claiborne, where I met with it
in May, 1645.

Tas. III. — Fig. 1. Female plant, natural size. Fig. 2. Male plant, nat-
ural size. Fig. 3. Male receptacle, with a portion of the frond. Fig. 4.
Transverse section of a ray of the male receptacle. Fig. 5. A gemmiferous
cup. Fig. 6. Portion from the margin of the same. Fig. 7. Gemme.
Fig. 8. Female receptacles. Fig. 9. Perpendicular sections of the same.
Fig. 10. Perianth and calyptra. Fig. 11. A young pistil. Fig. 12. Chaffy
scales of the receptacle. Fig. 13. Transverse section of the peduncle.
Fig. 14. Spores and an elater. Fig. 15. Portion of a radicle. All the

analyses are more or less magnified.

6. ANEURA SESSILIS, Muse. Alleghan. n. 280.

Jungermannia sessilis, Spreng. — Lehm. Pugill. 4, p. 34.— Hook. § Wils. in
Drumm. Musc. Amer. n. 174.

The notices heretofore taken of this species appear to have been

drawn from imperfect specimens of the female plant. Aneura ses-

AND HEPATICOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 63

silis is dicecious, with the antheridia embedded in the upper and
concave surface of elongated tapering and deflexed processes, which,
in clusters of 2—4 together, proceed from the margin of the frond.
The capsule, in its normal state, is borne upon a long exserted pe-
dicel ; and even in cases where the capsule is apparently sessile
(whence the specific name), the pedicel is of the usual length, but
is folded up within the calyptra, whose thick substance resists its
protrusion.

This species belongs to the Southern States; it fruits copiously
in the cypress swamps around New Orleans, always growing on
decayed logs. It is occasionally found as far north as in central
Ohio, where, however, it requires artificial protection to mature its
fruit.

Taz. V.— Fig. 1. Female plant, natural size. Fig. 2. Male plant, nat-
ural size. Fig. 3. Portion of a frond, with marginal processes or male recep-
tacles. Figs. 4, 5,6. Male receptacles. Fig. 7. Portion of a frond, with
calyptra, pedicel, and capsule. Fig. 8. Young fruit. Fig. 9. Transverse
section of a calyptra. Fig. 10. Upper part of a ealyptra. Fig. 11. Valves
of the capsule in a dry state. Fig. 12. The same in a moist state. Fig. 13.
Upper part of a valve of the capsule. Fig. 14. Elaters and spores. Fig. 15.
Portion of a valve of the capsule. Fig. 16. Transverse section of the same.
Fig. 17. Transverse section of the frond. The analyses are more or less
highly magnified.

7. Amone the most remarkable of North American Hepatice
is one found near Salem, in North Carolina, by the late Mr.
Schweinitz, which he made known in his Specim. Fl. Amer. Sept.
Crypt. (1821), under the name of Targionia orbicularis, Subse-
quently, he proposed to establish for it his new genus Carpobolus,

of which he gave a detailed description and figure in the Journ,
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. (1822).

64 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRYOLOGY

Since the discovery, in Ohio, of two other plants, congeners with
that of Mr. Schweinitz, it became necessary to reform the generic
characters. The generic name has also been changed to Noto-
thylas ; the name of Carpobolus having been previously applied to
a genus of Fungi, which is still retained by some authors; further-
more, its etymology conveys an idea inapplicable to these plants.

The genus and its species are thus characterized in the Muser
Alleghanienses : —

NOTOTHYLAS, Sulliv. Musc. Alleghan. n, 289, 290.

Carpobulus, Schweinitz, in Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 2, p. 336. (1822).
Targioni spec., Schweinitz, Specim. Fl. Amer. Sept. Crypt. p. 23. (1821). —
NV, ab E., Europ. Leberm. 4, p. 317.

Monoica. Fructus dorsales, sparsi. Involucrum sessile, frondi
continuum, initio clausum, tandem superne fatiscens. Perianthium
nullum. Calyptra..... Capsula involucro inclusa, oblongo-
spheroidea, compressa vel ovato-cylindrica, brevissime pedicellata,
pedicello in bulbo incrassato affixo, sutura longitudinali ab apice ad
medium subbivalvatim, vel sutura deficiente frustulatim, dehiscens.
Columella linearis. Spore quaternatim aggregate, subglobosz,
leviuscule. Antheridia frondi immersa, elliptico-globosa. Frons
orbicularis, laciniata, tenera, papuloso-reticulata, margine undulato-
crispa, subtus radiculosa, massis granulatis hic illic immersis.

Plante annuz, terrestres, limicole, in umbrosis Ohionis, Caroli-
neque Septentrionalis observate.

1. N. orpicutartis, Sulliv. (Carpobolus orbicularis, Schweinitz, 1. c.)
involucro suberecto ; capsula oblongo-ellipsoidea compressa
cum vel absque sutura concolori: catera ut in LV. valvata.

AND HEPATICOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 65

Diagnosis secundum specimina Schweinitziana in Herb. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philad.

Has. In Carolina Superiore prope Salem.

2. N. vatvata, Sulliv.: fronde diametro tri-octolineari ; involucro
horizontali deflexo corniformi ; capsula elongato-cylindrica cur-
vula sutura colorata semper instructa; sporis luteolis subfus-
cisve.

Has. In humidiusculis circa Columbus Ohionis, sat frequens. —
Maturescit A’state-Autumno.

3. N. mevanospora, Sulliv.: capsula sutura omnino nulla; colu-
mella appendiculata ; sporis atrofuscis dimidio majoribus quam
in precedente : cztera conveniunt.

Has. In iisdem locis cum priore ; rarissima.

We have here a genus that cannot be placed in any of the tribes
of Hepatic as now circumscribed. Its station is between Antho-
cerotee and Ricciez. ‘The frond is undistinguishable from that of
Anthoceros, to which genus it also approaches in its tendency to
bivalve dehiscence, in the presence of a columella, and in the manner
of ripening the spores, which commences at the apex of the capsule
and proceeds towards its base, so as to present spores in all stages
of development. A relationship to Riccia is shown by the inclosure
of the subsessile capsule in the frond, or rather in a protruded por-
tion of it, as also by its embedded anthers, and the absence of any
thing like elaters. Unlike both of the above genera, the calyptra,
if present at all, vanishes at an extremely early stage of the plant’s
growth; for, in many dissections of N. valvata and N. melanospora,

at all periods of growth, I have never seen a calyptra. The only
9

66 BRYOLOGY AND HEPATICOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA.

indication of its existence is the bulb at the base of the capsule,
which may be the rudiment of that organ. Mr. Schweinitz appears
to have detected no calyptra, and my examination of authentic speci-
mens of the same species gave a similar result. I was, however, able
to verify the presence of the columella pointed out by him in his first
notice of the Southern species, but which, in his second and more
extended account, is not referred to. With regard to the three spe-
cies here given, it can hardly be questioned that N. orbicularis is
distinct from the Ohio species ; but that the two plants are equally
distinct from each other is not so entirely free from doubt. Still,
the specific characters assigned them have thus far proved con-
stant. What phases other localities may produce remain to be
seen ; for the present (with Nees), ‘malo peccare in discriminandis

quam in confundendis rerum nature cognitionibus.”

Tas. IV. A. WN. valvata. — Fig. 1. Plants of the natural size. Fig.
2. Portion of the frond, with an involucre and capsule. Figs. 3, 4. Involu-
cres and capsules. Fig. 5. A capsule dissected, showing the columella.
Fig. 6. Vertical section of an involucre and a portion of the frond, exposing
the capsule. Fig.7. A capsule dehiscing by its suture. Fig. 8. Spores.
Fig. 9. Upper part of a capsule, showing the line of dehiscence and reticu-
lation. Fig. 10. Portion of a frond, showing the imbedded anthers and
masses of granules. Fig. 11. Antheridia. Fig. 12. Mass of granules. All
magnified.

B. WN. orbicularis.— Fig. 1. Plant of the natural size. Figs. 2,3. A
portion of the frond, with fruit. Fig. 4. Involucre and capsule. Fig. 5. Cap-
sule bursting irregularly. Fig. 6. Spores. The analyses all magnified.

Co.tumsus, Onto, June, 1846.

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Occultations and Eclipses observed at Dorchester and Cambridge,
Massachusetts.

By WM. CRANCH BOND, A. M.,

DIRECTOR OF THE OBSERVATORY,

WILLIAM. C. BOND, Jr,

AND

GEORGE P. BOND.

(Communicated to the Academy, August 12th, 1846.)

Tue series of observed eclipses of the sun and moon, and oc-
cultations of stars and planets, which are herewith presented to the
Academy, were observed from three different stations. The first
portion of them from my late residence at Dorchester; the second,
from a position near Harvard Hall, in Cambridge; and the third,
from the new Observatory.

The relative bearings and distances of these points have been
accurately determined, and each one of them has been connected
with three points of the main triangulation of the State, by Simeon
Borden, Esq., superintendent of the State survey, and his assistant,
Charles O. Boutelle, Esq.

The latitude and longitude of each has been separately ascertain-
ed from astronomical observations, and the resulting positions are
given at the head of their respective divisions.

The whole series is now in process of final reduction, and, from

68 OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES

the close proximity of the stations, may be concentrated on the new
Observatory without danger of sensible error arising from an erro-
neous estimate of relative position. This important work would be
greatly facilitated by the communication of corresponding Europe-
an observations.

In the column headed “ Observer,” B. denotes that the observa-
tion was made by Wm. Cranch Bond; W., by W. C. Bond, Jr. ;
B.?, by G. P. Bond.

The instrument generally employed for the earlier observations
was a reflector of four inches aperture. For the last six years, two
achromatics of three and two and three fourths inches aperture, and of
nearly four feet focal length, equatorially mounted, have been used.

The occultation of Jupiter, March 29th, 1846, was observed with
an equatorial, of four and one fourth inches aperture, and five feet
focal length.

OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES,

Observed at Dorchester. Lat. 42° 1917”. Lon. 4° 44> 17* W.

ean Solar Time Obser-

Date- Nae of Star. of Occultation. ver- Remarks.
} a 8. |
1820, Nov. 14 Jupiter and his) 7 09 35 lim B. (th satellite
ae satellites 7 10 42 (Im. | B. [west limb of Jupiter.
S & 71215 |Im. |B. leas « «
2 “ rf 15 29 |Inm. B. Ist satellite.
oe 2 8 20 52 j|Em. | B. |west timp of Jupiter.
ss a 8 22 06 |Em.|B.|mx « «
1821, Aug. 26|Solar eclipse 22 30 13 |End| B. [Place of observation 15. E. of Ob-
1823, July 22Lunar eclipse | 8 51 30 Beg.| B. eee
os sc 9 58 30 B. |Beginning of total obscuration.
1824, June 26\Solar eclipse | 7 27 59 |Beg.| B.
Oct. 25|Unknown star} 6 09 33 |Im: | B.
1825, July 27\o Sagittarii 7 33 22 |Im. | B.
2 8 19 56 |Em.| B.
“) Ja Sagittarli |11 04 01 (Im. |B.
Aug. 8) Aldebaran 15 25 49 .|\Im. | B.
ce 2: 16 39 53 |Em.
cS Tauri 15 42 15 (Im. | B.
1826, March 15/Saturn 10 49 57 |Em.| B. centre.

OBSERVED AT DORCHESTER AND CAMBRIDGE.

Date.

1827, Feb. 10
Nov. 16

. 28
. 31
Aug. 16
1829, Aug. 21
6c

Sept. 12
cc

Sept. 17
“
Sept. 23
cc
Noy. 11
as

1830, Jan. 5
“

March 12
March 28
cc

July 15
Sept. 2
“c
“
(73

Oct. 4
ce

1831, Jan. 21
Feb. 4

73

Feb: +

cc

Feb.

“cc

Feb. 19

13

Mean Solar Time

Name of Star.
2 « Cancri a
Spica 0
s Piscium 5
it o« Cancri 6
1 Virginis 7
Aldebaran 11
oe 13
Lunar eclipse {12
Tycho 12
Aldebaran 21
“ce 22,
o Leonis 16
(73 16
Aldebaran 17
“ce 17
* Tauri 5
* ““c 6
* 73 6
160 Mayer w
« Tauri 10
(74 11
x Virginis 11
Aldebaran 5
“ 6
“ce ih
Lunar eclipse | 6
“cc 7
“ vg
(<3 7
SF Tauri 9
(74 10
ul Ceti 5
y Libra 17
“cc 19
Eclipse of sun/23
North cusp 0
D’seast limb | 0
z3 0
ce 0
Sun’s centre 0
South cusp 0
Venus 1
73 if
o Tauri 7

_ of Occultation.

m™.

19

54.0
24.0
03.2
39.4
43.6
54.5
35)
15.
AO.
33.6
49.0
57.8
36.8
35.5
57.5
50.0)
16.
57.
Ol.
51.0
50.
00.
01.0'Im.
51.0
37.0
30.
00.
15.
15.
01.0
33.0
54.6 Im.
05.9
13.0

12.3/Beg.

34.2
41,2
15.2
49.7
39.2
12.0
56.0 Im.
19.0 Im.
16.1 Im.

69

Remarks,

About noon. Star distinct.

Total obscuration of centre.

Doubtful.

Instantaneous on the )’s dark
(limb.

. |Uncertain 10s.

10’ south of )’s centre.
Near the )’s south limb.
Exact.

. |Not well observed.

A poor observation.

The Em. particularly fine, the star
[was projected on the )’s disk.

Aristarchus.
Tycho.
Manilius.

Moon’s west limb.

Star is faint.

Meridian observations inst. az. 5!
, - [west of south.
First wire.
Middle wire.
Third wire.

From transit of east limb.

| .
. |By one passage over first wire.

Im. of centre. ) is not visible in
[the telescope.
|Total Im.

70

1837, Feb.

OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES

Date. Name of Star.

1831, Feb. 19)91 Tauri

“ 9 Tauri
(q4 73

& * Tauri

“ * 6c
“ * “
13 ¥* 6c

« |Aldebaran
Feb. 28|y! Virginis
Aug. 28) f Tauri

ce
. 29\y Tauri
cc

& Aldebaran

. 14|7 Capricorni
- 21\u1 Ceti
Aldebaran

“

.15 wh Ceti

1832, Feb. 16)Saturn

iT (9

ce ce

July 28|Solar eclipse
cc

Sept. 7/5 Capricorni
cc

1834, March 13/* unknown
1836, May 15
13

Solar eclipse
cc

its cc

18)Mars
74 (73
74 ce
(79 73
ce (73

Aug. 10}/Antares

Mean Solar ‘Time
of Occultation.

i) umn: 8.
AA 04.6 Em.
AQ 44.6 Im.
36 11. :
44.6 Im.
13.6 Im.
00.6) Im.
41.
37.0 Im.
00.2, Em.
12.0 Im.
20.0' Em.
55.8\Im.
41.8 Em.
19.2 Im.
09.0 Im.
43.0 Im.
24.0 Em.
57.0 Im.
44.0 Im.
58.2 Im.
34.0/Em.
22.4\Im. ?
37.9\Im.
55.9|Im.
23.4|Im.
23.0/Em.
36.0|Em.
09.5|In.
58.3|Em.
07.1|Beg.
19.3|End
04.2\Im.
14.8/Em.
32.0\Im.
36.0\Beg.
56.6|End
34.5/Beg.
27.6|Im.
16.1\Im.
07.6|Em.
02.6) Em.
03.3\Im.
5 24 42.3)Em.
10 34 40.3\Im.

COrOr Sra HA EO MWIOMWON
Or
Ye)

Remarks.

Appeared good, but the star was
[quite clear of the )’s limb.
Uncertain several seconds.
Exact.
Exact.
[liancy as $1 and $2 Tauri.
Exact. Star is of the same bril-

Uncertain three oe four seconds.
Good. (Star very faint.

Dubious.
Good.

“

Very fine. Aslight projection.

flimb.
Among the mountains of )’s S.
Star tremulous on )’s dark limb.
Difficult to keep sight of the star.
Lingered two or three seconds on

aos
exact. [the )’s limb.

First contact of the ring.
as “¢ west limb.

Total Im.

|Ring first seen.

\Body of the planet appears distort-
(ed, though the ring is well defined.
|Projected from the )’s limb for
[five seconds.

The star is brighter at the last
[moment.

Ist Limb, Telescope used is a 5-ft.
'2Qd “
Ist ‘

Reflector, 7-in. ap.

. 30-in. reflector.

|Not instantaneous.

OBSERVED AT DORCHESTER AND CAMBRIDGE.

Date.

Name of Star.

1837, Sept. 13)
“

Oct. 13
éc

1838, Sept. 18

Nov. 5

Nov. 13

Dec. 27

1839, April 19
ce

April 20
“

June 19
June 20
June 23

July 1

July 6
Sept. 11
Nov. 20

6c
ce

Dec. 12

y Aquarii

ce

Lunar eclipse
79

*1 Pisclum
¥*2 ‘“

EL
2
*3

(73

cc

Solar eclipse

C. Geminorum

Spica

y Tauri

C. Geminorum
(4

» Geminorum
“cc
28 Virginis
68 Virginis
6 Virginis
» Aquarii
(73

C. Pleiadum
t Scorpil
6 Pleiadum
c 1 (73

co

|
4 Aquarii

Mean Solar Time

h.

8

08

8 51

5

WDWOWNININAON

8
8
10
10
8

51
18
38

of Occultation.

26.2
06.9
25.

25.

06.6
34.0
35.2
35.2
29.2
10.9
20.7
38.4
53 *
31.9
32.0
24.6
24.4
31.0
15.0
45.4
51.7)
33.4
32.5
15.0
03.4
09.1
27.4
04.7

Im.
Im.
Beg.
End
Im.
Im.
Em.
Em.
Im.
Beg.
Em.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Im.
In.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Em.
Im.
Im.
Im.
In.
Im.
(In.

DOWNS St

Obser-
ver.

Remarks,

Stars are both yery faint. Uncer-

[tain 5s.

Total obscuration.

« «

; [were observed.
The occultations of several spots

Very indifferent. ) is low.

. |Slightly projected.

* Sidereal time.

[Sh. 16m, 11.28.
Occulted by a mountain. 2d Im.

A double Im., interval 0.2 s,
Fine.

Fine.

Pretty good, on the north edge o:
| [the D
|

Projected.
Good.

72

Observed at Cambridge.

Date.

OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES

OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES,

Name of Star.

1840, Jan. 20\4 Leonis
July 10): Scorpii
iT (73

Oct. 6\d Capricorni
cc “ce

Oct. 13/* Pleiadum
¢

(73
ce

cc

Eg ‘
* “

Nov. 2}, Capricorni
¢

‘

Dec. 14/76 Leonis

1842, Jan. 21

* Tauri
* 73

April 12\e Arietis
June 20|Antares

1843, Jan. 24
ce

April 2

Aug. 12
Sept. 30
Nov. 3

Nov. 24

Dec. 11
1844, Feb. 22
May 23

Aug. 28

Sept. 4

'o Scorpil
«

; Arietis

x Piscium ?
39 Sagittarii
45 Piscium
104 Piscium
6 Leonis
104 Piscium
19 Sextantis
* unknown
105 Tauri

|

Lat. 42° 22’ 22”.

Mean Solar Time
of Occultation.

8

ee —

ee
ONOWDOODNDWDWMDANOOAOO WI ID

14
al

44
23
23

31.7\/Em.
A5.8\Im.
46.4|Im.
41.1\Im.
A43.2\Im.
34.2\Im.
24.9)Em.
45.7\|Em.
36.7\Im.
36.9\Im.
13.2|;Em.
04.6|Im.
26.0\Im.
19.6\Im.
01.4|Em.
29.3|Em.
29.6|Em.
35.0\Im.
25.4\Em.
A9.5\Im.
47.6\Im.
15.6 Im.
26.5\ Em.
23.2\Im.
32.1\Im.
05.8 Em.
47.6 Em.

Lon. 4" 44™ 30" W.

Remarks.

. |Observed with a telescope by Pl5pl.

SRR RR SRN Sh

Doubtful.
The stars are of the 8th or 9th mag.
Differing 12s. in A. R.

i-}

Doubtful.

Uncertainty in the reduction.

Appeared within the D’s border.

Eo BS EE do bb

OBSERVED AT DORCHESTER AND CAMBRIDGE.

OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES,

73

Observed at Cambridge Observatory. Lat. 42° 22’ 49”. Lon. 4: 44”: 32*.

Date.

Name of Star.

Mean Solar ‘Time
of Occultation.

Obser-
ver,

Remarks.

1844, Sept. 19
6c
Nov. 18

1845, Jan. 26
March 1
(73

April 11
May 5

74

July 16
July 17
“

Sept. 15
Sept. 22

ce
ce

Oct. 23
Nov. 10
“
Nov. 20
Dec. 6
| 1846, Jan. 13
| Feb. 4
Feb. 6

ce

Feb. 20
ce

iz4

ZLSORAS SUC:
6c

8 Piscium
ce

51 Tauri
«

‘Solar eclipse
ce

51 Aquarii
(74

87 Leonis

2033 A. 8. C.

ce

(666 A. S. C.

Kelipse of sun
ce

ce

58 Sagittarii

ce

29 Sagittarii
6
18 Piscium
57 Orionis
a3

64 Orionis
ce

60 Cancri
63 Piscium
ce

2 Leonis
22 Piscium
74
160 Cancri

74 Tauri
71 Orionis
a3

16 Sagittarii

6c

17 Sagittari

37.7
37.8
40.5
40.0
23.5
32.4
36.0
38.2
21.8
20.6

OOWWIM OOO OF

30.4
39.3
39.4
04.9
02.2
04.2
04.3
00.9
00.4
29.1
29.1
53.0
24.1
21.3
48.2
45.7
29.8

05.2
16.7
29.8
29.0

00.5
00.3

49.1
57.9

28.3)
27.4.Em.
45.7/Em.

Im.
In.
Im.
Im.
In.
Em.
Beg.
Beg.
Im.
Im.
Em.
Em.
Em.
Im.
End
End
End
Im.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Im.
Em.
Em.
Em.
Em.
Em.

06.0 Im.

In.
Em.
Im.
Im.
Em.
In.
Im.
Im.
Em.

B.
B.?

make
iM]

wo

~

w

2

wo

iw)

iw)

wo

ww wo

wm

ROP HN RRR RENEE eee PP

‘“

. |During the lunar eclipse.

a3

By Hon. Wm. Mitchell.

Uncertain, perhaps, 5s. Sun’s al-
[titude 3°. Atmosphere clear,
[but disturbed.

Well.

10

74 OCCULTATIONS AND ECLIPSES.

Date. Name of Star. Moan Seiac Hime hes rR emaril
: bh: eee: sa eel
1846,March 29) Jupiter 5 23 34.5)Im. | B. |rirst contact.
oe sf 24 43.5\Im. | B. |secona +

5
5 24 44.1)Im. |B.27} « «
6 33 54.2)Em. | B. |thira «
4 ee 6 34 58.8/Em. | B. |Fourth «
6 33 53.3)/Em.|B.2|Thira «
6 35 04.7 Em. B.? |Fourth

3 Preced. Satell.) 6 32 41.7/Em. | B.?

“ Follow. Satell.| 6 38 42.1/Em. | B.
March 31/97 Tauri 10 43 09.1|Im. | B.

a 10 43 08.7\Im. |B.? A

April 24Solar eclipse 23 14 17.2|\Beg. | B. |5-£. refractor.
43 20.7 Beg. B.? 46-inch refractor

te 26.8 Beg. R. T. Paine, reflector, 4-in. aper.
se er 35.2 Beg. Prof. Peirce, 20-in. Var. Transit.
April 25Solar eclipse | 1 52 23.0 End # §
A iY 14.6 End | B.
| te « - 12.0 End | B2
a e 09.1/End R. T. Paine.

8 54 02.9\Im. | B. |

8 54 02.9/Im. | B.?|

June 29'69 Leonis 8 26 57.9/Im. |B. |
a as 8 26 58.0\Im. | B.?

May 32 Leonis
(13

ce

* The first contact was evinced by a sudden flattening of the limb of the planet.
At the Emersion, one observer noted an elongation of the body of the planet in
the direction of the moon’s limb, and both saw distinctly a rectangular indenta-
tion on that part of the moon’s border which was in contact with the limb of the

planet.

VE:
An Account of the Nebula in Andromeda.

By GEORGE P. BOND,

ASSISTANT AT THE CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY.
(Read before the Academy, March 7th, 1848.)

Or the four thousand nebule which have been recognized, that
which forms the subject of the present account is the only one the
discovery of which preceded the invention of the telescope. The
evidence which history affords of its having been noticed prior to
the year 1612 is derived through Ismael Bouillaud, a writer of the
seventeenth century, author of the Philolaica Astronomica, and,
among other astronomical treatises, of one entitled, De Nebulosd in
Andromeda Cinguli Parte Bored ante Biennium iterum Orti ; con-
taining an ancient catalogue of stars, with charts of the constella-
tions, on which the nebula is represented of an oval form, and ac-
cording to Le Gentil, “ fait un angle avec le circle de longitude.”
By comparing the positions of the stars in this catalogue with mod-
ern determinations, the latter found that the date of its construction
was towards the close of the tenth century. As there seems to be
no reason for doubting the authenticity of this production, it is
probable that the great nebula in Andromeda was recognized at
least six hundred years before the invention of the telescope.

Its appearance in 1612 is described with some care by Simon

76 THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

Marius in the Preface to his Mundus Jovialis. It was then visible
to the naked eye, and appeared through the telescope to be com-
posed of rays of light (radi albicantes), increasing in brightness as
they approached the centre, which was marked by a dull, pale
light, — “* in centro est lumen obtusum et pallidum.” Its diameter
was a quarter of a degree, and it resembled the light of a candle,
at some distance, shining through horn. Its appearance is also
compared to that of the comet observed by ‘Tycho Brahe in 1586.*
From some of his remarks, it seems that this author regarded the
nebula as an object of extraordinary interest; and he expresses
his astonishment at its having been unnoticed by Tycho when ob-
serving the stars in its neighbourhood.

No further intimation of its having been seen is to be found
until 1664. In that year, the appearance of a comet having
directed the attention of astronomers to the region in the vicinity
of the nebula, it was again discovered, and has not since been
lost sight of.

In the treatise of Ismael Bouillaud before referred to, which was
published in 1667, the author maintains, from the fact of its not
having been recorded either by Hipparchus, Tycho, or Bayer,
as well as from what he had himself observed, that this nebula
is subject to periodical variations in brightness; an opinion which
was maintained by many during the succeeding century.

In 1740, Cassini defines its figure as nearly triangular. Méairan,
after stating that the description given by Simon Marius con-
formed to what he had himself observed in 1754, asserts that it
is subject to changes. ‘The same views are supported by Le

Gentil in a memoir, Sur les Etoiles Nebuleuses. From a careful

* As there was no comet in 1586, that of 1585 is perhaps intended.

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. ad

review of its past history, he concludes that the periodical vari-
ations of the nebula extend to its figure, as well as to its bright-
ness. His grounds for this conclusion may be briefly stated as
follows : —

1. The nebula is not found in any of the ancient catalogues.

2. It was visible to the naked eye in the year 995, and its form
was then oval.

3. For more than six hundred years afterwards it was unnoticed.

4. The description given by Simon Marius of its appearance
in 1662 does not accord, in an important particular, — that of
exhibiting a central condensation, — with the observations of Le
Gentil in 1750.

5. This condensation was not mentioned by Bouillaud in 1666,
who records an evident change of brilliancy between 1664 and
1666.

6. Cassini, in 1740, represents its figure as triangular.

7. Mairan, in 1754, regards the representation of Simon Marius
as essentially correct.

8. His own observations indicated a round figure, of uniform
density throughout, in 1749 ; and an oval figure with a central con-
densation, in 1757-8.

Although expressing himself convinced, by the foregoing con-
siderations, of the reality of a change, Le Gentil at the same time
suggests that these phenomena may be, in part, at least, explained
by referring them to the difference in the instrumental means em-
ployed by the several observers. His own telescopes were the
common refractors, of from three to thirty feet in focal distance,
in use before the invention of the achromatic object-glass, and
were of course very inferior to instruments of a more recent date.

As all subsequent accounts of this nebula can, without violence,

78 THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

be reconciled with its appearance at the present day, it may rea-
sonably be concluded that the views of Le Gentil, with regard
to its variability, are far from being supported by an amount of
evidence adequate to such a conclusion. Messier, in 1771,
remarks, that for fifteen years he had noticed no change in the
nebula; it always appeared to him bright at the centre, the light
fading away insensibly towards both extremities, its figure re-
sembling that of two cones with their bases opposed. In the
Philosophical Transactions for 1785, it is thus described by Sir
William Herschel.

‘¢ Tt is undoubtedly the nearest of all the great nebule ; its extent is about
a degree and one half in length, and, in even one of the narrowest places, not
less than sixteen minutes in breadth. The brightest part of it approaches to
the resolvable nebulosity, and begins to show a faint red color ; which, from
many observations on the color and magnitude of nebule, I believe to be an
indication that its distance in its colored parts does not exceed two thousand
times the distance of Sirius.

‘¢ There is a very considerable, broad, pretty faint, small nebula near it ;
my sister discovered it, August 27th, 1783, with a Newtonian two-feet sweep-
er. It shows the same faint color with the great one, and is, no doubt, in the
neighbourhood of it. It is not the 32d of the Connaissance des Temps ;
which is a pretty large, round nebula, much condensed in the middle, and
south-following the great one ; but this is about two thirds of a degree north-

preceding it, in a line parallel to 8 and y Andromedz.”

In the same memoir from which the above extract is taken

occurs the following passage.

‘¢ But it is nevertheless very evident that the united lustre of millions of
stars, such as I suppose the nebula in Andromeda to be, will reach our sight
in the shape of a very small, faint nebulosity ; since the nebula of which I

speak may easily be seen in a fine evening.”

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. 79

It ought, perhaps, here to be observed, that the views of this
illustrious astronomer, in later years, received some modification in
respect to the nature of many of the nebule.

The following is Sir John Herschel’s description, in 1826.

‘* At present it has not, indeed, a star, or any well-defined disk in its cen-
tre, but the brightness, which increases by a regular gradation from the cir-
cumference, suddenly acquires a great accession, so as to offer the appearance
of a nipple as it were in the middle, of very small diameter (10’ or 12”), but
totally devoid of any distinct outline ; so that it is impossible to say precisely
where the nucleus ends and the nebula begins.

‘* Its nebulosity is of the most perfectly milky absolutely irresolvable kind,
without the slightest tendency to that separation into flocculi above described
in the nebula in Orion, nor is there any sort of appearance of the smallest
star in the centre of the nipple. This nebula is oval, very bright, and of

great magnitude, and altogether a most magnificent object.”

The following passage, occurring in another connection, may

also be cited.

‘* The great nebula in Andromeda may be, and not improbably is, optically

nebulous, owing to the smallness of its constituent stars.”

In 1836, Dr. Lamont, of Munich, observed it with a refrac-
tor of great capacity; under a power of 1200, the diameter of
the nucleus was about 7”. His description accords with that of
Sir John Herschel.

The mounting of the great refractor of the Cambridge Ob-
servatory having been completed in the beginning of July, 1847,
an early opportunity was taken of directing it upon the neb-
ula in Andromeda, as being an object of prominent interest ;
and from that time, through the month of August, it was occasion-

ally viewed, though without particular attention. The most con-

80 THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

spicuous features were the sudden condensation of light at the
centre into an almost starlike nucleus; the vast number of stars,
of every gradation of brilliancy, scattered over its surface, which
yet had the undefinable, but still convincing, aspect of not being
its components ; and, lastly, what appeared to be a sudden ter-
mination of the light on the side of the nebula preceding in right
ascension.

But it was not until the beginning of the autumn that a careful
examination was commenced of the regions of the nebula remote
from the nucleus. On the 14th of September, a favorable oppor-
tunity offered for further investigation. By directing the attention
to the preceding portion of the nebula, as it passed the centre
of the field of view, it was evident that what had hitherto been
regarded as its boundary in that direction was rather a sudden
interruption of light, appearing like a narrow, dark band, in which
the eye could detect no deviation from perfect straightness, stretch-
ing, in the direction of the axis of the nebula, entirely across the
field of vision; exterior to this, with respect to the axis, was
another band or canal, closely resembling the former, but some-
what less distinct, of equal regularity, and so nearly parallel with
it as to make it difficult to decide, by simple inspection, whether
they were not perfectly so. What particularly commands admira-
tion here is the regularity of structure displayed, — the uniform
influence, made manifest to the senses, of the same law over
an immensity of space of which the mind can form no adequate
conception; since the distance at which Sir William Herschel
places this nebula requires that the length of the interior canal
should not be estimated at less than twenty times the distance of
Sirius from our system.

As a groundwork for the delineation of the principal features

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. 81

of this nebula, it was at first proposed to prepare, from micrometric
measurements, a map of the principal stars involved in the light.
But their great number,* and the consequent danger of confusion,
having rendered this impracticable, the circle readings of the equa-
torial were resorted to for the determination of all the positions
referred to in this memoir.

The extent of the region to be examined being from fifteen to
twenty times larger than could be included within a single field
of the telescope, the brightest portions, namely, from Dec.
39° 40’ to Dec. 41° 10’, were divided into eighteen sections,
each comprising five minutes of declination, and extending in
right ascension across the nebula. The telescope was clamped
in declination at the middle of each zone, and the examination
was commenced by moving the instrument with a quick motion
in right ascension, which was found necessary in order to deter-
mine with any certainty the limit of light on either side of the
axis. The nebula was then allowed to pass through the field by
its diurnal motion, and the times recorded when the different gra-
dations of light occupied the centre of the field, taking in each
transit, for the standard of brilliancy, that portion of the axis in-
tersected by the zone; the hour-circle was then read off, and the
instrument set for a new series. The different zones were finally
referred to a common unit of brightness, by a cross section from
the nucleus to both extremities of the axis. In this manner an
idea, though not a very accurate one, was obtained of the sit-
uation of the lines of equal brilliancy. The observations were
then charted, so as to present them at a single view, accom-
panied by such remarks as had been recorded at the time at

* Tt is estimated that above fifteen hundred stars are visible with the full aper-
ture of the object-glass within the limits of the nebula.

11

82 THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

which they were made. The chart thus constructed was used as
a guide in attempting the delineation of the nebula.

The figure which accompanies this memoir is necessarily on
much too small a scale to admit of the introduction of minute de-
tails. Though prepared with care, in the manner just described,
it must remain open to future correction. The chief source of
error has been the difficulty of referring every portion to the same
standard of brightness.

The observations generally were made under very favorable cir-
cumstances. In a large proportion, the altitude of the nebula
exceeded seventy degrees; in more than one instance, its zenith
distance was less than two degrees. ‘Those nights only were
employed in which the moon was absent, and the sky perfectly
clear. The power usually employed was one hundred and three,
with a field of twenty minutes. The following are the results
of the examination to which the nebula has been subjected.

The nucleus is nearly centrally situated with respect to the
general body of light, but perhaps nearest the side following in
right ascension. Its appearance cannot be better described than
by adopting the words of Sir John Herschel already quoted.

With high powers, minute stars are discerned on the borders
of the nucleus, but it has thus far yielded no evidence of res-
olution. About fifty stars are visible in the same field with it;
no other equal space occurs within the limits of the nebula con-
taining so few.

The region south-preceding the nucleus is somewhat brighter
than the opposite side ; this has been noticed by Smyth; it is also
so represented on Harding’s Atlas, whether by accident or design-
edly does not appear. ‘The axis of the nebula, which is for the

most part strongly marked, particularly in its south-preceding half,

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. 83

lies in a great circle passing near the nucleus. In some places, not
in the immediate vicinity of the nucleus, its resemblance to the
milky way, as it appears to the naked eye, both as to its structure
and in the number and disposition of the stars in it, is such, that
the comparison conveys a tolerably correct idea of its appearance
when seen under the most favorable circumstances.

The justice of this comparison received some additional confir-
mation on counting the number of stars visible in different fields of
view. It was thought that, in the richest regions, two hundred to
a single field was not an extravagant estimate.

The power employed being one hundred and three, having a
field of view of twenty minutes, the apparent field subtended an
angle of about thirty-four degrees. The portion of the milky way
included in a circle of the same dimensions described about a
Cygni contains about two hundred and ten stars, visible without
telescopic aid. It should be noticed that the presence of these
stars is no safe indication of resolution, since there is equal reason
for supposing that we are viewing the nebula through a dense
stellar stratum, which would produce the same impression on the
eye.

The nebula h 51 is involved in the light of the great nebula.
h 44 appears, under high powers, to be a coarse cluster of stars,
the direction of the axis being determined apparently by three
somewhat brighter than their companions ; there is little doubt of a
connection with the great nebula, by a continuation of the axis of
h 44 in the south-following direction.

h 45, which is registered as “‘a very large space filled with
nebulous matter,” is far within the limits of the great nebula. No.
7 of the catalogue of “ Extensive Diffused Nebulosities,” published
by Sir Wilham Herschel in the Philosophical Transactions for
1811, is also a part of the great nebula.

84, THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. ~

No. 8 of the same catalogue lies so near to the southern boun-
dary of the nebula, that, according to the dimensions assigned to it,
it should also be considered as connected.

The most interesting feature of the nebula is the existence of
the dark bands or canals before referred to. ‘That which is nearest
the nucleus is the longest and the most distinct. It commences
somewhat abruptly near a group of small stars, in A. R. 0" 32™ 36°
and Dec. 40° 07’; its breadth being about one minute and one half
of arc. For about half a degree, to A. R. 0® 34™ 10%, Dec.
40° 30’, it is marked with great uniformity ; its sides being to all
appearance perfectly straight, suddenly terminated, and slightly
diverging. Soon after passing the parallel of the nucleus, it ap-
pears to bend towards the following side, becoming fainter and less
regular ; beyond the parallel of 40° 50’ it can no longer be traced
with certainty.

The second commences at a point a few minutes north-preced-
ing the first, and is there distant from it about four minutes of are.
It closely resembles its companion, excepting that, as it occurs in
fainter light, it is less distinct, and is sooner lost after passing the
nucleus.

The two are inclined to each other by an angle of about three
degrees, their distance apart increasing towards the north. ‘Their
sides seem to have a common point of divergence.

Sir John Herschel, in his catalogue of nebulz published in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1833, refers, with an expression of
astonishment, to a structure evidently analogous to that just de-
scribed, though ona scale greatly inferior, which occurs in h 1357
and 1376; engravings of both, faithfully representing the originals,
accompany the catalogue. It may be noticed that these three
most interesting objects lie almost precisely in a great circle of

right ascension, which intersects the milky way at right angles.

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. 85

The following table contains the right ascension and declination
of the chief points of interest in the nebula. It should be ob-
served, that, where the light is faint, the positions given are liable
to a considerable degree of uncertainty.

A.R, 1850, Dec. 1850. Remarks.

1 0 30 50 +39 17 The axis may be traced to this point.

2 031 30 39 27 Light blends with the star-dust which fills the field;
the axis is about 5’ broad and not distinguishable
without attention.

3 0381 55 39 38 Axis suddenly widens and becomes brighter.

4 032 12 39 45 Light brighter and unequally diffused, with dark open-
ings ; many stars in clusters.

5 0 32 08 39 55 Suddenly much brighter. The peculiarity noticed in
4 is more strongly marked. The position given is
that of a spot much brighter than any other part of
the field.

6 03215 39 58 Axis 12’ broad and distinctly marked. The light is
more eyenly diffused, brighter and more nebulous in
its character, especially on the following side.

7 0 34 30 40 00 Companion nebula f 51. It is certainly within the
light of the great nebula; in the field preceding it
are multitudes of very small stars, on a ground of
very evenly diffused, milky nebulosity.

S 0 32 36 40 07 Southern extremity of the inner canal.

9 0 381 40 40 10 Light is here unequally diffused. On the side fol-
lowing the axis, it falls away more rapidly than on
that preceding.

10 0 33 40 40 15 The northern part of the field is brightest. Both
canals are well seen in this parallel. The light is
shaded off from them evenly on the preceding side.

Il 0 33 15 40 20 Both canals beautifully distinet. The light between
them is two thirds as bright as it is on the inner side
of that which is nearest to the nucleus. Both large

and small stars are very abundant in this parallel.

86

12

13

14

15

16 —

17
18

19

20

A.R, 1850.
D:. eee.
0 34 24
0 35 00
0 32 00

0 36 40

0 35 40

0 34 36

0 35 50

035-11

0:38:12 -

THE NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

Dec. 1850.
+40 26
40 36
40 36
40 36
40 50
40 58

40 57

+ 41208

Remarks.

The nucleus. The light shades off soonest on the fol-
lowing side.

The light is here broken up and unequal ; with numer-
ous stars. The canals in this parallel begin to incline
towards the following side.

Apparent continuation of h 44 in the south-following
direction towards the great nebula. ;

A dark opening in the surrounding nebulosity. In and
north of this parallel, the light is distributed with less
regularity than heretofore ; and the outer canal is fre-
quently interrupted. _

The inner canal is not to be traced with certainty be-
yond this point. ©. | :

Stars very numerous. ~ The light shades off more grad-
-uallyson the side’ following the axis than it does
nearer the nucleus.

A ridge of light, or of stars, parallel to the axis, gives

‘the ‘impression of a continuation of the inner canal.
Many small stars.

Light in decided: bright knots, with dark openings, as in

' + 4and 5. Great numbers of stars. This is the posi-

“+ tion of h 45; there is no uncertainty with regard to

41 20

: _ its being a part of the great nebula.

- Northern extremity of the axis.

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THE CREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA, 1847.

Lz
Description of the Nebula about the Star @ Orionis.

By W..C.. BOND,

DIRECTOR OF THE CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY.

(Read before the Academy, April 3, 1848.)

Tue nebula surrounding the star @ Orionis was first seen,
figured, and described by Huygens in 1659. During nearly two
hundred years it has continued to excite the interest of astrono-
mers, while every successive improvement in the telescope has
developed some new and remarkable feature.

It was the first object to which Sir William Herschel directed
his noble forty-foot reflector, in 1787, and it subsequently en-
gaged much of his attention. ‘To his distinguished son we are
indebted for the first delineation which could be called even an
approximation to its true figure.

The drawings and the description of this nebula, which Sir
John Herschel has given to the public in the second volume of
the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, were
founded principally upon observations made with his twenty-foot
reflectors during the years 1824-26. Every one joimed with
him, at that time, in the opinion that he had given a sufficiently
accurate representation to serve as a standard of comparison for

subsequent observers in regard to change of form or condition.

88 THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS.

The utmost care and skill had been devoted to the work, in
order to locate the stars justly, and to give all the different de-
grees of intensity and convolutions of the light with precision
and delicacy. Nevertheless, the first glance which Sir John
Herschel obtained of it under the more favorable auspices for
observation which he enjoyed ten years afterwards, during his
residence at the Cape of Good Hope, sufficed to convince him
of the necessity of executing a re-delineation. This improved
drawing, accompanied by a catalogue of the stars situated within
the boundaries of the nebulosity, as well as a general descrip-
tion, have been embodied in The Results of Astronomical Obser-
vations made at the Cape of Good Hope during the Years 1834 -
38, and published in 1847,

Other observers, as Derham, Godin, Fouchy, Mairan, Picard,
Le Gentil, Messier, De Vico, Lassell, Mitchell, and Lamont,
have given us the results of their observations on this interest-
ing object. The earlier observations have little value, owing to
the deficiency in optical power of the instruments used. As Sir
John Herschel’s publication embraces nearly every important point
connected with the subject which was known at that time, and
is founded upon the observations of so many years, made with
excellent telescopes, under favorable circumstances, it will be the
one principally referred to in this communication; his nomencla-
ture also will be adhered to, as it possesses the advantage of
being already well known.

For the purpose of obtaining a general knowledge of the re-
gion in which the great nebula of Orion is situated, I com-
menced my operations by making a cursory examination of about
four square degrees of the heavens in the neighbourhood of
6 Orionis.

THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS. 89

This examination developed the more prominent features, and
enabled me to fix upon a convenient scale for the intended
drawing. A system of sweeps was then instituted after the fol-
lowing manner. ‘The telescope, being clamped in declination,
was carried forward until it preceded the utmost limits of the
nebula. It was then fixed in right ascension, and the successive
fields carefully examined as they passed in review by the diurnal
movement of the heavens. ‘The different degrees of intensity of
the light were indicated by numbers. Thus, when the first
nebulous appearance reached the middle of the field of view of
the telescope, the time was noted by a sidereal chronometer, and
the degree of light, representing the faintest perception of light,
was recorded as 7. When an increase of light was discerni-
ble, the time was again noted, and the figure 6, indicating a
confirmation, was recorded ; this has been adopted generally for
the outline of the nebulous district. 5 shows a yet further in-
crease of light. In this way, the different portions included in
a single sweep were examined, 1 indicating the strongest light,
in the vicinity of the Trapezium.

When it was judged that the whole nebulosity had passed, the
hour-angle and declination circles were read off, the declination-
circle changed five minutes, and the examination of another par-
allel commenced. The results of these sweeps were then
reduced to right ascension and declination by differentiating on
6' Orionis, and, being corrected for convergence, were finally trans-
ferred to a chart, and are embodied in the drawings which ac-
company this memoir.

These sweeps were extended from half a degree north of the
star C Orionis to one degree south of the star v, 6' being con-
stantly referred to as the point of departure.

12

90 THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS.

This general method, however, would not answer for delineat-
ing the more delicate and intricate portions; for this purpose,
as well as for the accurate location of the stars, it became
necessary to have recourse to the micrometer. With -this instru-
ment, such stars as appeared to be favorably situated were ar-
ranged in groups by an eye sketch. ‘The star 6' being adopted
in the first instance as a primary station, differences of right as-
cension and declination, or of position and distance, were meas-
ured: when the distances became excessive, new stations were
occupied, taking care always to preserve the connection with the
preceding point by repeated measures.

A catalogue of the stars thus differentiated accompanies. the
memoir. No attempt has been made to locate every star that
was visible within the boundaries of the nebula, for the reason
that no apparent advantage, at all adequate to the great expen-
diture of time and labor which it would have required, was to
be expected.

In order to obtain a correct outline of the more important
points in the figure of the nebula, the stars contained in the
annexed catalogue were, in the first instance, laid down accord-
ing to their observed differences of right ascension and declina-
tion. All such parts of the nebula in the vicinity of the ‘Trape-
zium as presented definite outlines susceptible of being measured
were referred to @'. Guided by these points, the outline was
drawn and filled in, after many repeated examinations of the
object under different powers.

In the course of these examinations with different eye-pieces,
I was struck with a remarkable diversity in the appearance of
the Huygenian region. It seems, as we increase the power of
our eye-piece, that the clouds or clusters into which this region

THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS. 91

separates become less numerous, in a manner quite different
from that which would result from viewing it under a greater
angle merely. The clusters increase in magnitude, while they
diminish in number. Sir John Herschel, when describing this
portion, as seen at Slough with his twenty-foot reflector, compares
its appearance to that of “a curdling liquid, or the mottling of
the sun’s disk, only the grain is much coarser and the intervals
darker.” To me it appears composed of several clusters of stars,
the components being separately seen for a moment under fa-
vorable circumstances. This resolution I have noticed more par-
ticularly north of star No. 26, and likewise in the vicinity of No.
12 and No. 43; but where the nebula assumes a cirrous charac-
ter, as in the Messierian branch, I can see nothing of the kind.

There is quite a remarkable feature of the subnebulous region,
which I do not find has been noticed heretofore. It is that of
radiation, spreading and shooting southward from the stars Nos.
45, 50, and 61, near its base. I have noticed this appearance
only on clear nights, when the moon has been absent, but then,
on several occasions, it was very decided, and forcibly reminded
me of an active aurora borealis.

There is something of the same character belonging to the
light on the preceding side of the Huygenian region, but not so
delicate; it is there more abrupt.

The Messierian branch, although extremely well defined, and
presenting a bold outline on the preceding side from star No. 80
to No. 61, yet thence to its junction with the brightest portion
of the nebula it presents no certain outline on either side, but
fades insensibly into the Proboscis Minor on the one side and
into the subnebulous region on the other. {I mention this more

particularly, because Sir John Herschel’s last drawing exhibits a

92 THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS.

regular, well-defined outline all the way to its junction with the
Huygenian region; in this particular, I see it more like his early
drawing of 1824.

On the preceding side of the Huygenian region, there is a
strongly marked boundary, reaching nearly the whole distance
from its southern extremity to star No. 10. This boundary was
confirmed to me on the night of the 17th of January, while the
moon was shining brightly in the immediate neighbourhood of
the nebula. On comparing the sketch which I then made of it
with the ancient figures of Picard, Huygens, and Le Gentil, they
appeared less objectionable than one would have supposed possi-
ble without such a trial.

The Nebula Oblongata, which lies entirely south of a line join-
ing the stars No. 76 and No. 93, divides on the following side
into two branches. One of these branches curves towards, and
apparently terminates near, the star No. 93; the other inclines
southward, and connects with the Proboscis Minor. In the pre-
ceding direction, it can be traced to a junction with the nebula
encircling the star No. 60.

The stars Nos. 10, 12, 26, and 27 mark the present boundaries
of the Huygenian region, on the preceding and following sides,
very accurately. Provided they are not physically connected with
the nebula, they will serve as excellent landmarks for future com-
parison in regard to any change of form or position, should it
take place.

No. 10 is situated close on the preceding edge of this bright
region, and is closely followed almost in the same parallel by
No. 12, a star of the seventeenth magnitude, the latter being
within the boundary.

No. 27 is, as nearly as it is possible to determine with our

THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS. 93

telescope, on the very edge of the following side, at the bottom
of the Sinus Magnus, and is pretty closely preceded by No. 26,
of the seventeenth magnitude, within the bright part. I do not
find that star No. 27 has been noticed before; but when once
caught sight of, there will be no great difficulty in judging of its
situation in regard to the nebula, as it may be steadily seen.
No. 27 will bear illuminated wires.

There is a great diminution of light in the interior of the
Trapezium, but no suspicion of a star.

The connection of the main body of the nebula with that
portion which surrounds C' Orionis is traced by the north-pre-
ceding route. It is quite decided; the nebulous light condenses
strongly about C' and C*; indeed, the majority of the stars in
this neighbourhood are nebulous. CC! is closely double: this, I
believe, has not been noticed before.

No. 68 is also to me a new double star, the distance less than
a second. The light terminates abruptly on the following side
of C*. The star No. 54, with its companion No. 52, of the thir-
teenth magnitude, are both enveloped by the nebula. I notice
that, in Sir John Herschel’s figure, the light does not reach
either of these two stars.

There is nebulous light yet farther north; but as, at the time,
I did not succeed in tracing the connection, I have not included
it in my drawings; neither does the light of C Orionis connect
on the following side with the extensive fields about No. 92.

South of the double star No. 91, which is situated near the
termination of the Messierian branch, the light spreads in the
south-preceding direction, maintaining the cirrous character of the
branch. I was unable to satisfy myself how far it might be
possible to trace it southward, but certainly beyond Iota. Soon

after passing this star, it, however, becomes very faint.

94, THE NEBULA ABOUL © ORIONIS.

The small star No. 69 I do not find to have been noticed.
No. 34 is also, I think, a new addition; it follows No. 81 of
Herschel’s Cape Catalogue.

I do not find that No. 44 of the nineteenth magnitude has been
seen before ; it is situated in a brilliant district, and is a difficult
object to keep steadily in view; it follows No. 41 at a distance
of about six seconds; the direction of a line joining these two
stars is towards a of the Trapezium.

Sir John Herschel’s drawing shows the southern termination
of the Huygenian region strongly preceding a, whereas I have
repeatedly laid the micrometer-wire upon it, and have found it to
be of the same right ascension asa. ‘The difference of declina-
tion between this point and a is 161".

His star No. 75 is well seen, but No. 78, to which the same
magnitude is given in his table, has not been seen steadily by me.
Indeed, the observations on it at different times have been so con-
tradictory, that I could only account for the discrepancies by sup-
posing it to be a variable star of short period.

In respect to the evidence of change in this nebula, the follow-
ing points seem to demand attention.

In the first place, the regular, graceful, and well-defined out-
lines, indicated in Sir John Herschel’s figure, both of the Mes-
sierian branch and that from the Huygenian region, sweeping along
north of the stars Nos. 45-50 and 61 of my catalogue, certainly
do not exist at present; or, I should rather say, I have not been
able to trace them with our telescope at times when I could dis-
tinctly see stars that had escaped his notice. The outline of
the Messierian branch cannot be distinguished below the star

. No. 61, while the bright portion of the Huygenian region ter-

THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS. 95

minates abruptly and roughly at No. 50, and the nebula immedi-
ately assumes a totally different and a milder character.

Again, on the preceding side of the Messierian branch, near No.
75 of my catalogue, I do not find so bold an indenture as he has
given. It is in this neighbourhood only that I have found any
difficulty in identifying his stars. I presume that I have here two
new stars, but neither No. 75, nor the two next south of it,
agrees in position with any of the stars in his catalogue.

The preceding side of the Huygenian region in his figure has
the light gradually softened away into the “Regio Gentiliana.”
I here see a strong irregular outline, extending from the Sinus
Gentilii” to a little beyond No. 10.

The positions of the stars marked with an asterisk, in the an-
nexed catalogue, were determined by alignment only, from stars
in their neighbourhood which had been subjected to micrometrical
measurement. This approximate method was considered suffi-
ciently accurate in this case, as the stars in question were, from
their situation, of minor importance in regard to the principal ob-
ject which I had in view, namely, a true delineation of the nebula.

In this catalogue the stars are numbered in the order of their
right ascensions, and are all referred, in seconds and decimals of
seconds, of arc, to 6' (No. 22) of the Trapezium.

In the column headed x, — signifies that the star precedes, and
+ that it follows 6', by so many seconds, measured in the direction
of AR.

In the column headed y, + signifies that the star has greater,
and — that it has less, north polar distance than 6!.

96

THE NEBULA

ABOUT © ORIONIS.

CATALOGUE OF STARS OBSERVED IN THE NEBULA ABOUT © ORIONIS.
cm

No.

y-

Mag.

_ &

ODMDrNIonrkwnre

te

FEEL EEE HAE tHE t+ ttt ttt

ese eee Se

289.4
114.5
271.3
oe
118.0
510.1
385.2
513.0
120.1
23.6
22.6
181.0
273.4
1897.6

13
8
12
13
14
4

148.9
150.5
150.9
155.

156.3

180.2
190.0
194.8
200.0
208.0
215.6
227.3

235.
243.
244.7
277.4

320.4

338.2
340.2
340.2
375.4

378.3
385.4
405.0
423.8

455.9
475.4

414.7

527.
531.
547.
581.3
596.6
630.2
800.3

ELLE EEEEEAEELATEEEEEEAEETEFALTTETHEEET TEE TE

171.0 |

226.7 |

285.2 |
304.6 |
308.8

335.1 |

373.3 |

461.6 |
465.0 ©

424.4 |
520.4 |

4+. 1061.8 |

-+ 1136.4

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THE NEBULA SURROUNDING THE STAR THETA ORIONIS.

As seen with the Twenty three feet Refractor at Cambridge U.S. 1648.

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Some Methods of Computing the Ratio of the Distances of a Comet
from the Earth.

Bry GEORGE P. BOND,

ASSISTANT AT THE CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY,

(Communicated to the Academy, April 4, 1848.)

Tue object of the following communication is to present some
methods of computing the ratio of the distances of a comet from
the earth from three observed positions, separated by short inter-
vals of time, in which, if required, the computations may be made
directly from right ascensions and declinations.

If necessary, any unfavorable influence from the direction, rela-
atively to the sun, of the comet’s apparent motion may be avoided,
and account may be taken of parallax at the outset of the eal-
culations.

The frequent references made to Dr. Bowditch’s Appendix to
his translation of the Mécanique Céleste are denoted by the letter
B. prefixed ; thus, B. [5994] (357) refers to the equation so num-
bered on p. 821 of the Appendix.

I. If we denote by [rr'], [r'r'], and [rr"] double the areas of
the triangles included between the three distances 1, 7’, and r" of
the comet from the sun at the first, second, and third observations,
and the chords joining their extremities, and by z, 2, and 2" its
elevations above any fixed plane passing through the sun, we have

13

(@)

98 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

the following well-known relation, B. [5994] (266) to (279), de-
pending on the supposition that r, r', and r" lie in the same plane :
(2) 0O= [4 2") 2—[rr’!] 2 + [rr] 2".
Representing by ge, 0, and a, R, @, and ©, the polar coérdinates
(2a) of the comet and sun from the place of the first observation, and
accenting the same quantities for the second and third places,
e, R, &c., being the distances of the comet and sun respectively,
(3) and substituting z= sin. @— R sin. O in (2), it becomes

(4)0= Tt sin, o— i ) ¢/ sin. 6’ 9” sin. 6” — a R sin. 9 + a) R' sin. 0!
— R' sin. 0”.

Making 77] =m +4, and r= Ga +4’, and supposing R, R’,

and R" to lie in the same plane, the last three terms of (4) are

reduced to two by B. [5994] (362) ; and (4) becomes

®) @= e a o sin. e— o’ sin. 6+ 9” sin. 6’— AR sin. 0-4 J’ R’ sin. O'.

If t, 7, and t' denote the times for which a, a’, and a’, &c., are
(6) given, and t=k (t' —?), c =k (t'— 1), t' =k (¢ — 1), in which
log. k = 8.2355814, B. [5994] (319) to (360), we have, by neg-

lecting the powers of 1, &c., above the second:

Ny 1
(7) —— alee a fi— = (?— 2”) + &e.], == Hi 5[i- Gra (ot? it &e, ]

ry

cnt Ot

(8) I= “i A i (?°—1'”) (as— =a) +, &e.,and 4’ = <i 7 (t?—7'”) (m—) + &e.

7, t'”, &c., are supposed (1) to be small quantities of the second

= " =]
(9) order ; therefore ““? — + and “)=- may be assumed as ap-

(rr) [rr] x

proximate values.

(10) By putting the angles 6, 6’, &c., in (4) successively, either sep-
arately or in pairs = 0, that is, by changing the position of the
plane of z (2), any term of (4), or any two together, can be made
to disappear. But since the expressions thus derived from (4) will

contain angles referred, in each equation, to a separate system of

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 99

coordinates, the following method may be applied to refer them all
to the system to which the original values of «, 0, &c. (2a) belong.

Let P be the pole of this system, and let A and D, A’ and
D', be the angles corresponding to « and @, by which are refer-
red to P the two points B and B’, determining the position of (11)
the plane in (10) from whieh the transformations are to be made.

PB=90°—D, PB =90°—D', BPb=o—A, BPB=
A — A, BPb=A—o, bp=O0, =the per-
pendicular from 6 upon BB’; b P =90° —a,
Bb=o, bB B=, &c.: we are to find an
expression for sin. 0,, for any position of the
point 6, in terms of A, A’, D, D', o and a, pa LON ;
observing that sin. 0, may have any coefficient
which remains constant in all positions of 6, because this will
disappear when sin. 6, is introduced into (4).

We have sin. 6, =sin. o’ sin. £2, and by multiplying both sides (12)
of this equation by sin @”, it becomes

sin. 6, sin. w!’=sin. w’ sin. w” sin. 2.

sin? 69 sin.” w!! = sin.’ o! sin. sin.’ 2 = (1—cos.’ w) (1—cos.’ w!’) (1—cos.’ 2).

Substituting in the last member cos. 2 ===" """ (12) becomes
sin.? 0, sin.? w= 1-+ 2 cos. w cos. w’ cos. w!! — cos.” » — cos.” w!— cos .? w'. (12a)
cos. o=sin. D sin. g-+cos. D cos. w cos. (o—A), cos. w’=sin. D’ sin. z-+-cos. D’

cos. w cos. (A’—o), cos. w/’ = sin. D sin. D’-+-cos. D cos. D' cos. (A’— A).
These values of cos. @, cos. @’, and cos. @” being substituted in
(12a), it becomes, after reduction (see Memoirs of the Berlin
Academy, for 1783, p. 308 et seq.),
sin. 6, sin. w= [sin. (A/—c) tan. D—sin. (A’—A) tan. a + sin. (s— A) tan. D’]

cos. D cos. D! cos. a;

by means of which equation (4) becomes, by substituting suc-

cessively the proper values of a and o,

100 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

(13) 0 =[sin. (A’—a) tan. D—sin, (A’ —A) tan. 6+ sin. (@—A) tan. D']©27 9 cos. 6
— [sin. (A’—e’) tan. D—sin. (A’— A) tan. 6’ + sin. (a’— A) tan. D'] £1

-- [sin. (A! —e"’) tan. D—sin. (A’—A) tan. 6” ++ sin. (o”— A) tan. D’] 9! cos. 6”
—[sin. (A’—©) tan. D—sin. (A’/— A) tan. 9-+-sin.(© — A) tan. D’] a

+ [sin. (A’— ©’) tan. D—sin. (A’—A) tan. ’+ sin. (©O'—A) tan. D’] ro R' cos. 6!

— [sin. (A’/— ©") tan. D—sin. (A’— A) tan.9"- sin. (©"/— A) tan. D'] R' cos. 9".

(3a) The sum of the last three terms being by (5) and (8) of the

second order in t.

(144) By introducing in (13) the proper values of the arbitrary quan-

tities A, A,’ D, and D’, we can obtain all the equations which can

be derived from (4), by (10), in a form in which right ascen-

o' cos. 6!

Rcos. 9

sions and declinations may be employed directly in the computa-
tions, but not always with advantage over the simpler expressions
of (10), except in those approximations in which the effect of
parallax, and the quantities Zand J’ are neglected ; because the

(15) angles 0, 6’, &c., in the equations derived directly by (10) from
(4) have a definite geometrical meaning, which is an advantage
in computation.

(6) Putting 6’ and O in (4) and (5)=0, they become

(7) ae == a o sin. 6-+ 9! sin, 6 — raat R sin. 0 — R" sin. 0".

(18) C= a o sin. 6+ 9" sin. 6’ — 4 Rsin. 0.

(19) 0, O, &c., being here perpendiculars upon the great circle joining

the middle places of the sun and comet.
(17) and (18) may be expressed in terms of the original values
of 6 and a, &c., by taking in (13) for the points B and B’ (11)
the places of the sun and comet at the second observation, that
is, Aa’, D=— 0’, A’=0', D’=@’, which give
(20) 0= [sin. (©'— «) tan. é’— sin. (©! — @’) tan. 6+ sin. (w—a’) tan. O'] @ cos. 6
+ [sin. (©’— a") tan. 6’ —sin. (©!— a’) tan. 6+ sin («!— e') tan. @'] 9! cos. 6”
— [sin. (O'— ©) tan. 6’—sin. (O'/—«’) tan. 9+ sin. (© —a’) tan. O'] a Rcos.@
— [sin. (©’—O") tan. 6'—sin. (©/—w’) tan.o"+- sin. (©"—a’) tan. @'] R''cos. 9".

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 101

The sum of the last two terms is by (5) and (8), when 7 and
v’ are nearly equal, of the third order in t. If they are neglected,
(20) gives

oe! cos. 6! __ rx sin. (©! — a) tan. 6/— sin. (©! — 2’) tan. 6+ sin. (« — a!) tan. 0! ie

ecos,6 ~ t! sin. (@/— ca’) tan. 6!— sin. (©! — a!) tan. 4’ sin. (a/— a/!) tan. OF

(21)
terms of the third order in t when t=1”.

If we put 0’=0, that is, supposing a, 6, &c., to represent
longitudes and latitudes, (21) becomes identical with Olber’s equa-
tion for determining the ratio of the curtate distances of a comet
from the earth, at the first and last observations; (21) is therefore (22)
this equation adapted to direct computation from right ascensions
and declinations. The same values neglected give, from (18),
e=-3a sn", 9 and 6 having the signification stated in (19). (23)
It follows from (23), that in practice the accuracy of (17), (20), (24)
and (21) will be proportional to the sine of the angle which the
direction of the comet’s apparent motion makes with the great
circle joining the places of the sun and comet at the second ob-
servation.

When this angle is small, the terms neglected in (21) and (23), (25)
and errors of observation, acquire an important influence. The best
position is when the comet is near the ecliptic at the middle ob-
servation, and its motion is mostly in latitude. The equation (20),
on which the method of Olbers depends, has the peculiar advan-
tage of eliminating aos of which the approximate value (9) is less (26)
accurate than that of a which is retained.

If the motion of the comet is mostly in right ascension, the (27)
following equations may be employed, which result from substi-

tuting in (13) A4/=A=—a/, D'=0, and A’ = A=@', D'=0:

= sin. (a! — «) eae 9 cos. 6+ sin. («’ —u") @” cos. 6!’ —sin. (a! — ©) in] (28)

[rr'] [rr']

R cos. 9 + sin. («’ — ©’) = R' cos. 6’ — sin. (a’ — ©”) R" cos. 9".

102 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

(29) 0 = sin. («!’—«) a @ cos. @—sin, (a! — a’) mt g' cos. 6’ —sin. (a! — ©) 4

R cos. 9 + sin. («!’ — ©’) aa R' cos. 6! — sin. («’ — ©") R" cos. o".
In which a, 0, &c., represent right ascensions and declinations.

(30) Since the accuracy of the ratios om or ‘, on which may be made
to depend that of the resulting elements, will, under similar con-
ditions, be proportional to the sine of the angle which the direc-
tion of the comet’s apparent path makes with the great circle
BB’ (11), as may readily be shown; the best position of this
circle is that which is nearly perpendicular to the direction of

(31) motion. This condition is satisfied by putting in (28), 6 and
6"—0, and giving to a, ©, &c., their proper significations ;

(32) sin. (a’— ©) cos. O, &c., will then represent the sines of the
perpendiculars from the sun’s places, upon the great circle pass-
ing through the middle observation, which is nearly perpendicular

(33) to the direction of the comet’s motion. «'—«a and a'—a” will
then comprise the whole amount of the comet’s motion in the
itervals between the observations, and consequently, by the con-

(34) ditions, the coefficients of g and ge" are as accurate as the obser-
vations will give, and are independent of the direction of the
comet’s path.

(35) The same result is obtained by putting in (4), 6’ or 6”=0, and
giving to 6, O, &c., their significations as just stated (32).

(36) 0 = iH o sin. 0+ e” sin. 6!” — va R sin. 9 + = R' sin. o' — R" sin. @".

(37) 0= ae g sin. eo go! sin. 6’ — = R sin. ote R’ sin. 0! — R'"' sin. 0".

(33) The sum of the last three terms being of the second order in
t (13a).

These may be expressed in terms of right ascension and dec-

(39) lination as follows: — Let C represent the right ascension of a

point in the equator, the great circle from which passes through

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 103

the middle place of the comet, at nearly right angles with its path.

A change of twenty or thirty degrees in the position of C having (40)
seldom much influence, it may be taken of a convenient value for
computation in (41), (42). Substituting in (13) 4'= C, D'=0,
A=a', and D—4@’, it becomes,

[r! rity

0 = [sin. (C—«) tan. 6'— sin. (C —o’) tan. 6] irri] ¢ COS: 6+ [sin. (C —a@") tan. 6! (41)
— sin. (C—a') tan. 6") 9! cos. 6"— [sin. (C —©) tan. 6'—sin. (C—o’) tan.0]
= R cos. 6 +- [sin. (C — ©’) tan. 6’— sin. (C — o') tan. 6'] a R' cos. @!
— {sin. (C— ©") tan. 6’—sin. (C — a’) tan. 0") R’ cos. 0".

And in a similar manner is found,

[rity

[rr']
tan. 6” — sin. (C —") tan. 6’] ma g' cos, 6’ — [sin. (C — ©) tan. 6! —

sin, (C — e'’) tan. 0] rr) R cos. @ + [sin. (C— ©’) tan, 6” —sin. (C—a"’)

0 = [sin. (C — a) tan. 6 —sin. (C — a") tan. 6]

9 cos. 6— [sin. (C — a’) (42)

irr]
i j c =
tan. 6'] a R' cos. 6! — [sin. (C — ©") tan. 6” — sin. (C — #") tan. 0")
R" cos. 6".

As C in these equations is an arbitrary quantity, they may be made (43)
to satisfy other conditions, as C = 0; this value gives from (41),

sin. «!
tan. 6

. sin, 2!
0 = [sin. « — ena tans 6]

Pir

ary 9 cos. @-+ [sin. a!” —
sin. af [irl]

. . i eu
[sin.O — [= tan. 0] 7 R cos. o+ [sin. ©’ — ——~ tan. ']

tan. 6"] 9" cos. 6! — (44)
(rrt]
(r7"]

R' cos. 6!

sin. «f

— [sin. @"— = 5 tan. 0"] R" cos. 0”.

Neglecting the sum of the last three terms of (36), it becomes,
using (9), —f=5 a In which @ and 6" represent, nearly, (45)
the apparent motion of the comet during the intervals rt" and t.
Hence, in small intervals of time, the distance of a comet from
the earth varies nearly inversely as its apparent motion. When,
therefore, its motion is mostly in right ascension or declination, this
relation gives a rough approximation to the ratio of the distances
0, @, and 9”.

In all the equations here given, except those which contain the
quantities 4 and 4’, allowance for parallax may be made at the (46)

104 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

outset by correcting the tabular places of the sun for parallax
(47) and by applying to R, R’, and R” a small correction = — earth’s
radius X cosine of the sun’s zenith distance at the time of each
(48) observation. By neglecting terms of the second order in either
of the above equations, approximate values are obtained of the
ratios “ or £, which will be more or less accurate according as
the assumed values of “7? and £7? vary from the true.
II. For the correction of these latter quantities different meth-
ods may be employed, in the several cases which may occur ;
(49) in all of which the object in view is to obtain from the use of er-
roneous values new values, which shall be nearer the truth than

those from which they have been derived; the convergence of
the successive approximations depending on the amount of helio-
centric motion in the intervals between the observations.

Using in (4) 6'=06"=0,

5 Sele [r'r”] : Wt ”
(50) = a a 9 Sin. 8 — Toy R sin. of I) = sin. 6’ — R" sin. 0".
(51) o= "1 9 sin. 6—a4 Rsin. 0+ 4! R’ sin. @’.

[rr]
And in a similar manner,

(52) 0= eo) g' sin. 6’ — er R sin. @ et ir —t R’ sin. o' — R" sin. 9".
(53) 0 = — EF o' sin. 6’ — 4 Rsin. very R' sin. @!.

(54) 0 = o" sin. 6” — ro R sin. 9 + Ir aa R' sin. o' — R" sin. 9".

(55) 0 =o" sin. 6’ — 4 Rsin. 0+ 4' R' sin. @’.

These may be expressed in terms of right ascension and dec-

(56) lination. As, for instance, putting in (13), A=a, D=0, A=a’,

and D’=6"; or denoting by C’ the right ascension of the point

in the equator, where it is intersected by the great circle passing

through the first and last places of the comet, and putting in
(13), A4=a, D=0, A=C', D'=0:

THE DISTANCES: OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 105

OS =n (C= oy Se . 6) a oe’ cos. 6! — [sin. (C’ — @) — (57)

tan. 6

sin. (C!— «)
tan. 6

R' cos, o' — [sin. (C' — ©") — P= tan, 0") R" cos. 0".

tan,

— a
vr! R cos. 0 + [sin. (C'— @') — = a tan. of]

(rr! tan [rr’]

In which «@, 6, &c., represent right ascensions and declinations.
But the original forms are perhaps to be preferred. It is to be
observed that C’ is not here arbitrary, as C is in (41), (42), (43).

From these equations it is evident, that, when on an and on are
known, eg, @', or e” may be found; also, that 6, 6', and 6", in (58)

the coefficients of g, ge’, and ge”, which represent the deviation of the
path of the comet from the arc of a great circle, are of the same
order with 4 and J’, or of the second order, generally, in 7, but
affected by the whole amount of the error of the observed places.
There is still, however, even when the coefficients of e, @', and 9”
are 0, a relation to be sustained between a = and = eae which (59)
may be made use of in correcting their assumed ee 9), (48).
Excepting the case when the path of the comet is in the ecliptic ;
(50), (52), and (54) then becoming indeterminate. (60)
By assuming any probable value of g, from (48) may be found (61)
corresponding values of g' or 9", from which may be computed (2)
the quantities necessary in the equations of III. or IV. for obtain-

ing values of al and — which, when g has been correctly as-
sumed, will satisfy (50) or (52), &c.

It is here to be observed, that, in determining the five elements
of a parabolic orbit, there are given six conditions, dependent on (63)
a, a’, a’, 0, 6', and 6", to determine five unknown quantities ; and
therefore either of the quantities a, a', &c., may be rejected.
Where the direction of the error in a, a’, &c., is unknown, that (61)
should be rejected in which it has the greatest influence, which
is 6, 6’, or 6”, in (50), (52), and (54); and this is a reason for

14

106 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

not employing these equations in parabolic orbits for the final value
of @, where accuracy is desirable ; though they are sufficient for de-

(65) termining "J and aap which is the object at present in view.

[rr] rr']

(66) When the heliocentric motion is very small, and 7” and z near-
ly equal, 4 may be neglected in (53), which becomes

(67) e=ir 2 ® (gs—m)-
Since 9’ and r’ are necessarily positive quantities, 7’ will be greater
or less than R’, according as @' and 6' have the same or contrary
(6s) Signs ; that is, as the apparent path of the comet is convex or
concave towards the sun, a well-known connection between the
(68a) apparent and true orbits. (67) is another expression for the equa-
tion for finding g’ in the method of Laplace; and under different
forms it is used in all the differential methods.
By the conditions (66), without neglecting 4, using (8), (53)
(69) becomes g' = a+ %, a and b being known quantities. And tak-
ing 9’ for the angle between g' and A’, and z for that between

(70) g' and 7’, then 9’ = 2s"('+*) and r’ = 2s", which give

sin, z!

R' sin. (5! z)_ sin3z
(71) sin. z = 4+ basis a?

from which the unknown quantity z is found by trial, and thence

e, 0, @, &e.
The quantities P and Q, employed by Gauss, B. [5999] (38),
(39), (235), and (256), may also be used with (52), giving

5 P+1 : mae
(72) = (saree ore (R’ sin. 0! — o! sin. 6) — 1)2r'’.

In which the values of P and Q are approximately Q—tt" and
P=

(73) The equations (67) and (71) are approximations only when
the heliocentric motion is very small; in other cases it will be
necessary to proceed as indicated in (61).

In order to correct the assumed values of a) ok in the par-

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 107°

abola, it will be necessary to compute, either the three distances
from the sun r, 7’, and r’, or two of these distances, with the (74)
included chord or angle. In the former case, use may be made
of (77) and (80), or of Table III.; in the latter, (82), (83), &c., (75)
are to be employed. In either case, use may or may not be made
of (50), (52), or (54), as circumstances require.

III. If, in Lambert’s equation (wde Explanation to Table II.
of Bowditch’s Appendix to Mécanique Céleste) for fmding the time
t' required in a parabola to describe the angle between r and 7’,

when these are given together with the chord c", a quantity q' be
‘ .

. er n +rh2 — ~
substituted, such that V(@—q") q’ ==>, then ce! =F" (3—q") vq" (76)
and eg Seer (3—q)¥q. If from these equations q" and q be

32
found by means of Table IV., then, by using B. [5996] (40),
[rir r (3—dol! = [rt rl (3—qll = gt oe .
a — =, are ea and =F acer Hence it is evident (77)
that in the parabola these quantities depend only on the sums
of the radii and the elapsed times. Table III. contains the log- (7)

arithms of the quantities dist with the argument (=) (Mem. (79)
of Berlin Academy, 1778, p. 148). ‘

When equations (50), (52), and (54) cannot be employed to
test the assumed values of g, the above values of q, r, &c., may
be employed in the following equation, which should be satisfied.

D representing the perihelion distance,

Q—rllh2

(r—r)2
4D=(2—q") (r+ 1!) — am = (2-9 (e+ 9") — Sa (80)
This has no other recommendation than that by its use the com-

putation of the chord c is avoided.

Perhaps the following mode of testing the assumed values of
e, in which the use of (50), (59), and (80) is avoided, is to be (a1)
preferred. It is essentially the same as Olber’s method, with the

[r! rt]

. Ul) .
corrections of {4 and of ra taken into account.

r? = R’-+ 9°’ —2 Ro cos. 4. 7? = R'?-4+M?* o° —2 Mo R' cos. &:. (82)

108 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

1
rr

(83) cos. (vw! —v) = = [R R" cos. 6, —(R" cos. 5,-++ RM cos. 4;) op +- M ¢° cos. 46).

(84) In which M =", v'—v the angle between r and r”, and 4, 3,,
&e. the angles comprised between Re, R' oe’ = R' Me, &e.,
which are computed as follows :—

(85) cos. 6; =sin. @ sin. 6-1 cos. @ cos. 6 cos. (@ —«), &e.

When (31) is used, 6=6"=0, and then
cos. 6; = cos. 9 cos. (© — a), &c.

(36) The value of (1—q/’) (76) may be thus expressed: 1—q/=
ov ow. 4e'—0), which, substituted in 1’ = +2" (3 —q') v7, should
give the true value of 7’. Ordinarily q/ is not ascertained with
much accuracy in this way, it being uncertain in the same degree
as the value of the chord computed as in the method of Olbers:
in the present instance, the angle (v//— v) is adopted instead

of the chord, with a view to the correction of the assumed values

[rir'] [rr]
f [rr] d {rr'y°

5 e sin. (Wl — ol yl
(37) trial from the relations “=? — 7 a and (v//—v’) + (v/ —v)

The angles between r, 7’, and r” are found by

= (v’—v); or (v' —v) may be found directly from the equation,
in, (o! — >)
tan. (v—v) =a”
( ) a Tra tees. (o!'—v)

(3s) puted from r’ = rr as — r”, With these values of 7, r’, and r”,
(39) E4? and [i may be corrected by (78), or by (86) and (77), or
by Table V.

(90) IV. The values of “, &c., determined on the supposition of a

With (v/—v) thus found, r’ is com-

parabolic orbit, will be affected by the introduction of an eccen-
(91) tricity by terms of the order an) being the semi-axis of the orbit.
. — and a two heliocentric distances
must be found, with their included angle or chord, by suppos-
(92) ing (90) to be correct. Thence, by (87) and (88), the third

heliocentric distance and the remaining angles.

(91a) In order further to correct

(93) When (59) is employed, either of the above angles may be
found by the solution of the spherical triangle CEC", &c., in

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 109

which «@ and a’ are the geocentric, and C and x

C" the heliocentric places of the comet, and ©,

©", those of the sun; the angle at E, and Ea,

Ea’, are known, and if from (94) are found

z= Ca and 2 =Ca", then there are given the c

two sides EC and EC" and the angle at E, to find

the side CC" =v'—v. zandz" are found frome ° ol

and g’ by trial from the equation C+) — +, &c., sin. gain Rees (94)

Otherwise, when right ascensions and declinations are employed,
the included chord may be used.

C= (x"—2x)?+ (y"—y) + (z’—2z)’, this form being susceptible (%)
of more accurate computation from the tables, though it is less
convenient than the simpler expression which may be derived from
it, B. [5994] (106), &c.; x, y, and z here represent the heliocentric (96)
coérdinates of the comet. The assumed value of q’ (76)

sin. 7

q' (2—q') = i sin.’ n, (1 —q') = cos. n,q'= 4 eae 2sin2 in, (97)
substituted in Gauss’s equations B. [5995], (28), (39), [5997]
(101), &c., gives, by combining in one equation the expressions

for zt’ in all the conic sections,

he otis — he pas +2 sin.2 gl i Regie + 2sin.2}¢! ver (98)

JE T—q! —2sin.2 } 2! sec. h! I—q —2sin.2 4 hl sec. A

in which G’=[1 +4 sin?’ sin. g/+ &c.], and H=[1—.8, tan2 h'+ (99)
ds tan.‘ h’ — &c.]. The values of G' and H! being given in Ta-
bles I. and II. (98) contains but one unknown quantity, ¢’ when

the values of r, r’, and q' are elliptical, h’ when they are hyper- (100)
bolic, and g’ = h'=0 when they are parabolic. The quantity

within the brackets in (98) is the coefficient of [rr] in the equa-

tion t' “p =[rr"] y, where p is the semiparameter and (101)
a, q' +2sin.249/ Gi
y= EE ar eee Ne ? (102)

which can be found from (98) only by approximation.

110 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

(103) When the angle (v’—v) is used (93) instead of the chord, q’
may be thus found, B. [5995] (30), (31), and (86) :

(104) (rtr’) (l—q')=2 vrr’ cos. f';

(105) in which f/f’ = = (ve! —v), = = [(=4yY Vrr" + (vr — vr].
When y’ and g’ have been found from (98), g and g” are derived
from g' by the equations,

(106) sin. g= V7 ama . sin. g and sin. g’= V2 22-2" sin. 2’;

r r" sin. f!

or in the case of (98) being satisfied by the hyperbolic values,

(107) fn kV =F tan. h’ and tan. h’ v= and ve = tanh,

B. [5995] (70), ee (6), &c., which, used in (102), by chang-

ing the peenies will give y and y" and thence = 2 zr, and
vr; = 3, which are to be used in (50), (52), or (54). When

ae
these equations cannot be employed (60), two independent values,

g and q", are to be found from the assumed value of g (91a); when
this is correct, (98) will give the observed values of t and t”, or 7’.

V. The following example will serve as an illustration of the
preceding propositions. The positions employed are those of
Halley’s comet in October, 1836, computed from an ephemeris,
and corrected for aberration, but affected by parallax (46), (47),
as seen from a point on the earth’s surface in North lat. 42° 23’,
and Jon. W. 4° 44™

Tabular {Cor. of R

Sun’s) | Sun’s
= of |_ for Comet’s AR. | Comet’s Dec.

ital ==
Gr. M. S. T. | ts Tebnlar parallax Tabular (Parallax
in AR. Dec. | in Dec.

Parallax.

1836, Oct. 4.50000) 1 1.5, —5.9 — 42044] —56 o.geossar | +135 | = 167 27 38.0'5 +45 2 159
14 50000}199 19 24.2) —5.9 — S 10 21.7, —5.4 |0.9966131| +155 | 2! 233 57 21.1|3/+38 20 338
«« 93.50000|207 47 11.4, —6.0 —11 26 17.9) —5.2 |0.9941330| +172 | 24256 09 207" 0 06 59.8

To find the angles 4, 6, and 6”, we have

cos. 6 = sin. @ sin. 6-+- cos. @ cos. 6 cos. (© — a).
To find C’ (57)
cot. w = cot. («’ — «) (= sec. (a” — «) — 1), C=eae+u.

For computing the known terms in (57) they may be a little

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 111

simplified by putting m= sin. (C’—a) cot. é, by which they become
of the form sin. (C’— a’) — m tan. 6’, sin. (C’'— ©) —m tan. @, &c.
To find =, (28) may be employed, using right ascensions and
p!

declinations ; and for +, (4) may be used, with declinations alone,

since sin. 6", the coefficient of e”, happens to be very small, and
sin. 6, sin. @, &c., are elsewhere used.

For convenience in reference, the known coefficients in (57)
may be denoted, in the order in which they are then placed, by
tisy bo) €or Uo 3 those in (28), by a,, b,, Cy &e.

log. ag 8.4337430 sin. @ 9.8535231 log.” 9.2355814
log. bg 0.0830200 sin. 4’ 9.7926466 log.z —9.1898239
log. cy 0.0600656 sin. 6’'7.3086315 log.7! — 9.5143350

d,—1.0628875 sin. 9 88818844 —- 7” = 0.9989317—0.06931629 + ¢
log. a, 9.7505754 sin. 6' 9.1528482 rr? = 0.9932688 — 10974287 9! + 9!
log. b, 9.5773059 sin.0!9.2974047 rr’? = 0.988345 — 1.2953963 o!/+-9''*
log. ¢, 9.8388654 cos. d 85400370 log.=, 9.954245
log.d, 9.748'7023 cos. 0’ 9.7408130 og. + 0.2787536

e,—0.4297613 cos. 6 9.81389207

= Sy =

—

From the direction of the comet’s motion, it follows from (30)
that neither (28) nor (4) is the most favorable for determining
“and +; the terms neglected in (28) in the first approximation
have also somewhat larger coefficients than in (44) or (4). The
latter give for approximations, log. “ =0.112 and log. * = 9.742,

As the geocentric motion of the comet is very large, it is prob-
able that its distance from the earth is small, and we may as-

sume @ = 4, which gives,

First Approximation.

log. 9 9.523 r 1.0425 log. en 9.2518 log. 5 9.99767
2

log. 9! 9.265 r' 0.9085 log. a 9.2983 log. | 9.99710
2

log. 9!” 9.635 r!' 0.7848 log. (=! 9.5733 log. 5, 9.98935
2

112 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

The last values being taken from Table III.
log, “77 = log. 5 ¥ = 9.95367 log, 2

[rr (rr']

= 0.27043

With these is obtained from (57) a computed value of log. e' =
9.319, instead of the assumed value log. 9’ = 9.265, indicating
that the assumed value log. e==9.523 was too small by about
0.050. ‘Taking, therefore, for a corrected value, log. e—9.573,
and using the new values of a and “*7 in (4) and (28), they
give log. = 0.11546 and log. = = 9.74500.

Pe

Second Approximation.

Pa

1

log. 9 9.573 r 1,0548 Ey! 9.2507 =i 9.99768
roe

log. g! 9.317 r! 0.8993 c= 9.3070 = 9.99698
2

log. 9” 9.688 r! 0.7712 aay, 9.5736 =i 9.98934
2

[rr]

From the latter are derived log. a =9.95354 log. Fy, = 0.27041,
which give a new computed value, log. e’ = 9.3093, assumed log.
e' = 9.3170 ; and the corrected values log. © = 0.11541, and
log. “=9.74494, differing in the last decimal place from the pre-

vious values.

In these two assumptions the elements have been assumed as
parabolic ; further correction may be made by using the more gen-
eral method (IV.).

Third Approximation.
log. g 9.56486 r 1.05262 v’—v 111153 log. sin? g” 6.59134
log. 9’ 9.30930 r' 0.90063 vw’ —v' 13 44 49 log. sin” g 6.63464
log. o” 9.67977 4 0.77297 vw’ —vy 24 56 42 log. sin? g' 7.21514

log. y 0.0030007 log. F7? 9.9585654 Computed log. g! 9.30893
log. y! 0.0106495 log. =" 0.2704277 Assumed “ 9.30930

[rr]
log. y" 0.0023236

Whence the third approximation, taking into account the ec-

centricity of the orbit, gives log. > =0.1154807 log. “ 9.7449467 ;

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 113

with either of which the observed places may be satisfied to within
one or two seconds of arc.
The final values are log. “=0.1 154850 and log. = 9.7449468.
The limit of error allowable in these ratios will be nearly that (107)
of the errors of 5 and 55 which can be derived from the time
required by the comet’s apparent motion to pass over the probable
error of a, 0, &c. With the best observations, ¢, ¢’, and ¢” will
be liable to errors which will frequently affect the values log. =
and log. “ in the fifth place of decimals, a consideration which

p
may serve to restrict a useless refinement.

Explanation of the Tables.

VI. Table I. contains the logarithmic values of the expression

3 2g—sin. 2g
4 sin.3 g

and is used in finding y, as shown in (102), &c.

= G@=1+4;sin?g-+, &c., with the argument log. sin.’ g ;

It might also be used for finding the time required in an ellipse
to describe the angle between r and 7’, when these are given with

r+ri—e
4a

and sin?}e=tt"+*, then r= a? (e—sin. e—(z—sin.z)). Gauss,
Theor. Mot., p. 120. Which may be solved by means of ‘Table I.

It may also be used in computing an ephemeris in the following

the included chord c, and the semiaxis a. For, if sin? 4%=

way.

Reto), 12,5, Be.;) [rare ys =, and v—v,, be the values of the
heliocentric codrdinates x, x”, &c. of a comet at any two epochs
separated by the interval of time 7',; the first and last days of
the interval for which the ephemeris is to be computed may be
conveniently adopted. For any intermediate time we find from

known relations,

v alt r afl rv aH
POEM Sa My ge ay tye pee eee gt
tan. « = ¥-, tan. é cos. a, g! = ——_.*>___*.

X4+M2+M 5 ~X4+M54+M5 sin. 6!
15

=) mee SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

In which X’, - and Z are the sun’s geocentric codrdinates ;
M,= T* to, M= of 2 Yo, M,= Tl, “259 i = 4 = vy, and N,= = 2",

are known constant quantities ; t and t” are the known variables,
having the same signification as in (6); and S and a the unknown
quantities to be found from (108),

1 Wy ft tan. f'): Gi

(108) = Le Cine yl Au

a can therefore be found accurate to terms of the second order,

(109) when the error of tan. f" is of the first order. When v, — », is small,
the error of the first approximation to tan. f", as see by (87), will
be of the second order, and consequently that of os of the third.

Assuming for a first approximation z — 1,0 rea 5 == i
we may find (v'—v') and (v'— v), as in (87), by trial from the
equations = a a = L, and (v%—v.) = (v' —v) + (v!—v');

(110) or from the expression, tan. (v'—v) = -o™ C75.

Substituting the value thus obtained of tan. + (v'—v) = tan. f”
in (108), there results a corrected value of =. If the elements are
elliptical, G" is used, and its logarithm is taken from Table I. with

(111) the argument sin. g” = =5 oF

In the hyperbola H" is employed, and its logarithm is found from
Tables I. and II., with the argument tan! 4" =— TS.

If they are parabolic G’ = A" = 1.

Having from (108) found corrected values of 57 and =, they
are to be used for new values of tan. f” and tan. f- The smaller
the latter quantities are, the more rauie (109) will be the con-

and = 5; these may commonly be

vergence to the true values of 5
found with accuracy to seven places of decimals with five-figure
logarithms. The amount of allowable error in 5; and > may be
estimated from considerations similar to those pointed out in (107 a).

Table II. contains values of the logarithms of HG=1+ 4

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 115

tan.‘ hk’ -+,&c. This table therefore gives the logarithm of the co-
efficient, reducing 4 to H=1—3 tan2h+&c., H being the de-
velopment of the expression 3 *4—*"2% when sin.” h is negative ;

and is taken from Table II. with the argument log. tan.” h.

Table III. contains the logarithms of > in the parabola, with the
argument log. (eas =log. a. (Vide Mem. of Berlin Acad. for 1778,
pp. 148, 150.)

Table IV. contains the logarithms of ior in the parabola, with
the argument log. pate It is used in connection with (76).

Table V. contains the logarithms of y” in the parabola, with
the argument log. (1 —g") and may be used with (89).

Table VI. contains the corrections to be applied to the sun’s
longitudes, as taken from the Nautical Almanac, to refer them
to the mean equinox of Jan. Ist of each year; and may be used
in preparing the sun’s places for computing the elements of a
comet.

116

log. G.

0.000
0061

0003
0008
0013
0016
0020
0026
0032
0041

0052
0065
0082
0104
0130
0133
0136
0139
0142
0146
0149
0153
0156
0160
0164
0168
0172
0176
0180
0184
0188
0193
0197
0202
0206
0211
0216
0221
0226
0231

0237
0242
0248
0254
0260
0266
0272
0278
0285
0292
0299
0306
0313
0320
0327
0335
0343
0351

0359
0367
0376
0385
0394
0403
0412

Dif.

SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

Wwe
ODDO OD DN DNIWIIIIVWUVAAAMAAAAAIAAATE ATE EAE A RARE RO WWWAW IW OCAARWANW

| 7.

12 | 1718

13 | 1758

sin? ¢

TABLE 1:
log. G.| Dif. ||sin.2 gl log. G,
0,000 0.000
1758 7.76 | 7514
1799| 41) .77 | 7689
1841] 42) .78 | 7869
1884} 43 || .79 | 8053
1928] 44/| .80 | 8241
1973] 45 || .61 | 8433
2019} 46 || .82 } 8630
2066] 47 || .83 | 8832
2114] 48|| .84 | 9038
2163] 49|| .85 | 9249
2213] 50 || .86 | 9465
2265 | 52 || .87 | 9686
2318] 53 || .88 | 9912
2372) 54 || .89 |10143
2427| 55 || .90 |10380
2484] 57 || .91 |10623
2542] 58) .92 |10871
2601} 59 || 93 |11125
2662] 61 || .94 |11385
2724| 62|) .95 |11651
2788| 64) .96 |11923
2853] 65 || .97 12202
2919! 66) .98 |12488
2987] 68 ||7.99 |12780
3057 | 70 ||8.000|13079
3128] 71 || .001|13109
3201| 73 |) .002|13139
3276} 75 || .003|13169
3353] 77 || .004|13199
3431] 78 |) .005|13230
3511] 80 || .006/13261
3593] 82|/ .007|13292)
3676 | 83 || .008)13323)
3761] 85 || .009/13354
3849) 88 |) .010/13385)
3939} 90 || .011/13416
4031} 92|| .012/13447)
4125| 94 || .013/13478)
4221} 96 || .014|13509)
4319} 98 |) 015113540,
4420 | 101 || .016|13571)
4523 | 103 || .017/13602,
4628 | 105 || .018|13634)
3 | 4737] 109 || .019) 13666
4848) 111 || .020/13698
4961 | 113 || .021|13730)
5077 | 116 || .022|13762
5195 | 118 || .023|13794
5316 | 121 || .024/13826
5440 | 124 || .025/13858
5567 | 127 || .026/13890
5697 | 130 |) .027|13922
5830 | 133 || .028/13954
5966 | 136 || .029|13986
6105 | 139 || .030/14018
6248 | 143 |} .031)14050
6394 | 146 |) .032/14082
6543 | 149 |) .033/14115
6695 | 152 |) .034)14148
6851 | 156 || .035|14181
7011 | 160 |) .036)14214
7175 | 164 |) .037|14247
7343 | 168 |) .038) 14280
7514 | 171 |/8.039|14313

Dif. ||sin.* g| log. G.

216 | .049 14747
221 || .050/ 14681
226 | .051)14715
231 || .052)14749
237 || .053)14783
243 || .054/14817
248 || .055) 14851

254 | .056| 14885
260 || .057/14920
266 || .058/14955
272 || .059/14990
279 || .060|15025
286 | .061/15060
292 || .062) 15095
299 || .063)15130
30 || 06415165
30 || .065|15200
30 | .066}15235
30 || .067/15270
31 || .068)15305
31 || .069/15341
31 || .070/15377
31|| .071/15413

31 || .072)15449} ¢

31 || 073, 15485)
31 || .074)15521

31 |) 07515557) :

31 || .076)15593

31 || .077/15629) ¢

31 || .078/15665
31 || .079,15701
31 || .080/15738
32|| .081/1577.

32)| .082 15811
32 || .083/15847
32)|| .084 15884
32|| .085/15921
32 || .086|15958
32 || .087 15995

32 |) .088/16032
32) .089)16069
32) .090/16106
32 || .091/16143

32|| .092,16180
-093 16217
32 || .094 16254
32 | .095 16292
33 | .096 16330
33 || .097/16368
33 | .098)16406
33 || 09916444
33 | .100 16482
33 | .101 16520

33 |8.102 16558)

sin.” g| log. G.
0.00
8.102) 16558
| 103 16596
| -104)16634
105) 16673
-106 16712
| .107)16751
-108 16790
109) 16829
110 16868
|| 111 16907
|, .112 16946
-113)16985
|, .114,17024
-115|17064
11617104
11717144
-118/17184
-119\17224
-120'17264
121 17304
.122/17344
.123)17384
12417424
125 17464
-126)17505
12737546
| .128)17587

|

| .130/17669
.131/17710
|| 132)17751
13317792
.134/17833
-135|17874
136 17915
137 17956
138 17998
139 18040
140 18082)
141 18124
142 18166
143 18208
144 18250
145 18292
146 18334
147 18376
148 18419
|| .149 18462
150 18505
151 18548
152 18591
153 18634)
154 18677
155 18720
156 18763
157 18806
158 18850
159 18894
160 18938)
161 18982
162 19026
163 19070
164 19114

-129/17628)

8.165 19158

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 117

TABLE I.—(Conrinvep.)

sin.” g|log.G.| Dif. ||sin.*g} log.G.| Dif. ||sin.* g/ log. G.| Dif. |] sin.2g! log. G.| Dif. ||sin.2g} log. G.| Dif. ||sin.2g|log.G.) Dif.

0,00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
8.165}19158) 8.230)22272 8.295/25896) 8.360) 30114 8.425/35027 8.490/40751
-166}19202} 44 || .231 22324) 52 || .296 25956] €0 || .361/30184] 70 |} .42635109) 82 || .491/40846, 95
.167|19247| 45 |} .232,22376] 52 || .297/26016) 60 || 36230254) 70 || .427/35191] 82 || .492\40941| 95
-168}19292) 45 || .233)/22428) 52 || .298)/26076) 60 || .363/30324| 70 || .428/35273) 82 || .493/41037} 96
.169]19337| 45 || .234/22480] 52 |) .299/26137) 61 || .364/30395) 71 |) .429/35355| 82 || .494/41133] 96
.170}19382) 45 || .235'22532! 52 || .300/26198] 61 | .365/30466) 71 || .430!35437| §2 || .495!41290| 96
.171|19427| 45 || .236/22584) 52 |) .301/26259)/ 61 || .366/30537| 71 || .431/35519| 82 || .496/41325| 96
.172|19472) 45 || .237/22636) 52 || .302/26320) 61 |) .367/30608] 71 || .432!/35602) 83 || .497/41422| 97
.173]19517| 45 || .238/22689) 53 || .303/26381) 61 || .368,30679) 71 || .433/35685) 83 || .498/41519| 97
.174|19562) 45 || .239/22742) 53 || .304/26442) 61 || 369/30750) 71 || .434/35768) 83 || .499/41616| 97
.175}19607| 45 || .240:22795| 53 || .305/26503) 61 || .370/30822| 72 || .435/35851) 83 || .500/41713| 97
.176]19652) 45 || .241/22848) 53 || .306/26565] 62 |) .371/30894] 72 || .436/35935| 84 || .501/41810) 97
-177|19698) 46 |] .24222901) 53 || .307/26627| 62 || .372/30966) 72 || .43736019] 84 || .502/41908) 98
.178)19744| 46 |) .243 22954] 53 || .308/26689) 62 || .373/31038) 72 || .438/36103] 84 || .503/42006) 98
.179}19790| 46 || .244/23007| 53 |) .309/26751} 62 || .374/31110| 72 || .439)36187] 84 || .504/42104) 98
.180}19836) 46 |] .245/23060) 53 || .310|/26813) 62 || .375/31182| 72 || .440/36271] 84 || .505/42202) 98
.181/19882| 46 || .246,23114) 54 || .311/26875) 62 || .376/31255) 73 || .441/36356] 85 || .506/42301| 99
.182|19928) 46 || .247/23168) 54 || .312/26937] 62 || .377/31328] 73 || .442/36441| 85 || .507/42400) 99
.183}19974| 46 || .248'23222) 54 || .313/27000] 63 || .378/31401| 73 || .443/36526) 85 || .508/42499| 99
-184/20020) 46 || .249/23276) 54 || .314/27063] 63 || .379/31474| 73 || .444/36611| 85 || .509/42598| 99
-185|20066) 46 || .250/23330) 54 |) .315/27126} 63 || .380/31547| 73 || .44536696] 85 || .510/42697| 99
-186)20113) 47 .251)/23384 54 || .316/27189) 63 || .381/31620) 73 || 44636782) 86 || .511/42797) 100
-187/20160) 47 || .252 23438) 54 || .317/27252) 63 || .382/31694] 74 || .447/36868] 86 || .512/42897) 100

-183}20207] 47 || .253/23493) 55 || .818/27315) 63 || .383/31768) 74 || 44836954! 86 || .513/42997| 100
.189)20254) 47 || .254/23548) 55 || .319/27379] 64 || .384/31842) 74 |) 44937040) 86 || .514/43097| 100
-190/20301| 47 |) .255/23603) 55 || .820)/27443) 64 || .385/31916] 74 || .450/37126) 86 || .515/43198) 101
-191/20348] 47 || .256/23658) 55 || .321/27507| 64 || .386/31990| 74 |) .451/387213) 87 || .516/43299) 101
-192/20395| 47 || .257/23713] 55 || .322/27571] 64 || .387/32064| 74 || .452/37300) 87 || .517/43400) 101
-193}20442) 47 || .258/23768) 55 || .3823/27635} 64 || .388/32139) 75 || .453/37387] 87 || .518/43501! 101
-194/20489| 47 || .259/23823) 55 || .324)27699) 64 || .389/32214) 75 || 45437474) 87 || .519/43602| 101
-195|20537| 48 || .260/23878] 55 || .3825/27763] 64 || .390/32289) 75 || 45537561) 87 |) .520|43704| 102
-196/20585| 48 || .261/23934) 56 || .3826/27828] 65 || .391/32364) 75 || .456/37649] 88 || .521/43806| 102
.197|20633] 48 || .262/23990} 56 || .327/27893) 65 || .392)32439| 75 || 45737737) 88 |) .522)43908) 102
-198}20681| 48 || .263/24046) 56 || .328/27958) 65 || .393/32515| 76 || .458/37825) 88 || .523/44011) 103
-199]20729] 48 || .264)24102) 56 || .329/28023) 65 |) .394/32591] 76 || 45937913) 88 || .524/44114| 103
-200/20777| 48 || 265)24158) 56 || .330/28088] 65 || .395/32667| 76 || .460/38001| 88 |) .525)44217| 103
.201/20825| 48 || .266/24214) 56 |] .331/28153] 65 || .396/32743] 76 || .461/38090) 89 || .526/44320) 103
.202)20873} 48 || .267/24270) 56 || .332/28218| 65 || .397/32819) 76 || .462/38179] 89 || .5627/44424/ 104
.203/20921| 48 || .268/24326) 56 || .333/28284] 66 || .398/32895) 7 .463)/38268] 89 || .628/44528) 104
.204/20970| 49 || .269|24382) 56 || .334/28370) 66 || .399/32971| 76 || .464/38357] 89 |) .529/44632) 104
.205/21019} 49 || .270)/24438) 56 || .3835/28416] 66 || .400/33048) 77 || .465/38446) 89 || .530/44736) 104
.206]/21068) 49 || .271/24495) 57 || .336/28482) 66 || .401/33125] 77 || 46658536) 90 || .531/44840) 104
.207/21117| 49 || .272)24552) 57 || .837/28548] 66 || .402/33202) 77 || .467/38626] 90 || .582)44945) 105
.208}21166] 49 || .273/24609| 57 || .338/28614] €6 || .403/33279! 77 || .468/38716] 90 || .533/45050) 105
.209/21215| 49 || .274)/24666) 57 || .339/28681] 67 || .404/33356] 77 || .469/88806] 90 || .534)45155) 105
.210)21264| 49 || .275/24723) 57 || .340/28748] 67 || .405/33434] 78 || .470/38896] 90 || -535)45260) 105
.211]21313] 49 || .276/24780) 57 || .341/28815) 67 || .406)33512) 78 || .471/38987| 91 || .536/45366) 106
.212)/21362) 49 || .277/24837] 57 || .342/28882) 67 || .407/33590| 78 || .472/39078] 91 || .637/45472| 106
.213/21412] 50 || .278/24895| 58 |) .343/28949) 67 || .408/33668| 78 || .473/39169| 91 || .538/45578) 106
+214)21462| 50 || .279|/24953) 58 || .34429016) 67 || .409/33747| 79 || .474/39260) 91 || .539/45685) 107
.215/21512) 50 || .280/25011| 58 |} .34529083) 67 || .410/33826| 79 || .475/39351| 91 |} .540/45792| 107
.216/21562} 50 || .281/25069) 58 |} .846/29151] 68 || .411/33905] 79 || 476/39443] 92 |) .541/45899) 107
| .217/21612) 50 || .282)25127| 58 || .84729219] 68 || .412)33984) 79 || .477/39535| 92 || .542/46006| 107
.218/21662} 50 || .283)/25185) 58 348) 29287 68 || .413/34063) 79 || 47839627) 92 || .543/46113) 107
.219)/21712) 50 || .284/25243] 58 || .349/29355} 68 || .414/34142) 79 || .479/39719| 92 || .544/46221| 108
| -220121762] 50 || .285/25302) 59 || .350/29423) 68 || .415/34222) 80 || .480/39812) 93 || .545/46329) 108
.221/21813) 51 |) .286/25361| 59 || .351/29491) 68 || .416/34302| 80 || .481/39905) 93 || .546/46437, 108
| -222/21864) 51 || .287/25420) 59 || .352/29560) 69 || .417/34382) 80 || .482)39998) 93 || -547|46546) 109
-223/21915) 51 || .288)/25479| 59 || .353/29629] 69 || .418)/34462] 80 || .483/40091| 93 || .548/46655) 109
.224/21966) 51 .289/25538) 59 || .354)/29698] 69 || .419/34542| 80 || .484/40185| 94 || .549/46764) 109
| .225/22017| 51 || .290/25597| 59 |) .355/29767] 69 || .420/34622| 80 || .485/40279] 94 || .550/46873) 109
+226/22068) 51 || .291,25656) 59 |} .356/29836) 69 || .421/34703) 81 || .486/40373) 94 || .551/46983) 110
-227/22119) 51 || .292/25716) 60 || .357/29905| 69 |) 42234784) 81 || .487/40467] 94 || .552/47093 110
| .225/22170) 51 || .293/25776/ 60 || 85829974] 69 || 42334865] 81 || .488)40561] 94 || .553/47203 110
229}22921] 51 || .294/25836] 60 || .359/80044| 70 424/34946 81 || .489/40656) 95 || .554 47313) 110
8.230/22272) 51 |/8.295'25896) 60 |/8.360/30114\ 70 |/8.425:35027! 81 |/8.490/40751| 95 ||8.555|47424 111

118

+586
O87
588
589
590
O91
592
593
594
599
596
DYT
598
599
-600
-601
-602
-603
-604
-605
-606
-607
608;
-609)
610
611
-612
613
614
615
616
617
-618
619

2 cl log, G.
547424
47535

$)47757
2)48204
3)48317

48657
3|48885

3)49460

3/50042)

9)50159)

3/50630)

0.00

47646)

47368)
47980
48092

48430)
18543)

45771

48999
49114
49229)
49344

49576)
49692
49808
49925

50276
50394
50512

50748
50867
50986
51105
51225
51345
51465
51585
51706
51827
51948
52070
52192
52314
52437
52560)
52633
52306
52930)
53054
53178)
53303
53428
53953
53678
53804
53930.
54056
54183)
54310)
54437
54565:
54693
54821
54949
55078

8.620

—_
=

SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

log. G.| Dif.

0.00
55207
59336] 129

2)55466)| 130
3)55596) 130

55726) 130

9/5587) 131
55988) 131

56119) 131

}56250) 131
9/56382) 132

56514) 132
56646) 132
56779] 133

3/56912) 133

57045) 133
57179) 134

57313) 134

57447) 134

8/57582) 135

339/57717| 135

57853] 136
57989) 136
58125} 136

343/58262| 137

59207

58399) 137

5|58536) 137
5/58673) 137

58811) 138
58949] 138

9/59087| 138

59226) 139
59365) 139
59504) 139

359644) 140

59784) 140
59924) 140

}/60065) 141

60106, 141

8/60247) 141

60389) 142
60631) 142
60773) 142
60915, 142
61057) 143
61201) 143
61345, 144
61489 144
61634, 145

5|61779) 145

369/61924) 145

62070) 146
62216 146
62362) 146
62509) 147
62656 147

562803) 147
}/62950, 147

63098) 148
63246] 148

9/63394) 148

63543) 149
63692) 149

'2)53842) 150

63992) 150
64142) 150

64293) 151

TABLE I.—(Continvep.)

log. G.
0.00
64293)

64444

64595,
64747

389/64899

695
69E
697
.698
G99
-700
701
-702
703
704
705

-706)

707
-708
-709
710
711
712
713
7H4
715
716
17
718
719
-720
721

722
723)
724

725
726
727
128
729
-730
731
.732
-733
734
733
736
.737
738
.739
-740
EDI
-742
743
744
745
-746
747
748
749

65052
65205
65358
65512
65666
65820)
65975:
66130
66286
66442
66598
66755
66912
67069)
67227
67335)
67544
67703)

7562)
68022
63182
63342
68503)
68664
68826
68988
69150)
69313
69476
69639)
69803)
69967
70131
70296)
70461
70627
70793
70960
71127
71295
71463
71631
71800
71969
72138
72308
72478
72649)
72820
72992
73164
73336
73509)
73682
73856
74030
74204
74379)
74555
74731

8.750

Dif, ||sin.g

8.750
151 || .751
151 || .752
152 || .753
152 || .754
153 || .755
153 || .756
153 || .757
154 || .758
154 |] .759
154 || .760
155 || .761
155 || .762
156 || .763
156 || .764
156 || .765
157 || .766
157 || .767
157 || .768
158 || .769
158 || .770
159 || .771
159 || .772
159 || .773
160 || .774
160 || .775
160 || .776
161 || .777
161 || .778
162 | .779
162 || .780
162 || -781
163 || .782
163 || .783
163 | .784
164 || .785
164 || .786
164 || .787
165 || .788
165 || .789
166 | .790
166 | .791
167 || .792'
167 || .793
168 || .794
168 |} .795
168 || .796
19 || .797
169 | .798
169 || .799
170 || .800
170 || .801
171 || .802
171 || .803
172 || .804
172 || .805
172 || .806
173 | .807
173 || .808
174 || .809
174 || .810
174 || .811
175 || 812
176 || .813
176 || .814
176 ||8.815

74907

log. G.

0.00
74907
75084
75261
75439
75617
75795
75974
76153
76333
76513
76693
763874
77055
77237
77419
77602
77789
77969
78153)
78337
78522)
78707
73893
79079
79266
79453
79641
79829
80018
80207
80396
80586
30776)
80967
81158)
81350
31542
81735
81928
82121
82315
32509
82704
82899
83095
83291
33488
83686
33884
84082
84281
84480;
84680
84880
85081
85282
85484
85686
85889
86092
86295
86499
86703
86908
37114

87320

Dif. \sin.?g| log. G.
0.00
8.815/87320
177 || .816)87527
17 81787734
178 || .818/87942)
178 || .819/88150
178 || .820/88359
179 || .82]/88568
179 || .822)88777
180 || .823/88987
180 || .824)89198
180 || .825/89409
181 || .826)89621
181 || .827/89833
182 || .828/90046
182 || .829/90260
183 || .830/90474
183 || .831/90689
184 || .832|90904
184 || .833/91120)
184 || .834/91336
185 || .835)91552
185 || .836)91769
186 || .837|91986
186 || .838/92204
187 || .839/92422
187 || .840/92641
188 || .841/92360
188 || .842/93080
189 || .843)93300
189 |} .844/93521
189 || .845)93743
190 || .846)93965
190 || .847)94188
191 || .848)/94412
191 || .849)94636
192 |) .850/94361
192 || .851|95086
193 || .852)95312
193 || .853/95538
193 || .854/95765
194 || .855/95992
194 || .856|96220
195 || .857/96448
195 || .858/96677
196 || .859)96906
196 || .860/97136
197 || .861)97366
198 || .862/97597
198 || .863)97728
198 || .864/97960
199 || .865/98193
199 || .866/98527
200 || .867/98761
200 || .868/98996
201 |] .869|99231
201 || .870)/99467)
202 || .871/99703
202 || .872/99940
203, 0.01
203 | .873)00177
203 | .874)00415
204 | .875,00654
204 || .876/00893
205 || .877|01133
206 || .878,01373
206 ||8.879|01614

Dif. ||sin.?g
8.879
207 || .880
207 || .881
208 || .882
208 |} .883
209 || .884
209 || .885
209 || .886
210 || .887
211 || .688
211
212 || .890
212 || .891
213 || 892
214 || .893
214 || .694
215 || .895
215 || .896
216 || .897
216
216
217
217
218
218
219
219 || .905
220 || .906
220 || .907
221 || .908
222 || .909
222 || .910
223 || .911
224 || .912
224 || .913
225 || .914
225 || .915
226 || .916
226 || .917
227 || .918
227 || .919
228 || .920
228 || .921
229 || .922
229 |) .923)
230 || .924
230 || .925)
231 || .926
231 || .927
232 || .928
233 || .929
234 || .930
234 || .93)
235 |) .932
235 || .933
236 || .934
236 || .935
237 || .936
937
237 || .938
238 || .939
239 || .940
239 || .941
240 || .942
240 || .943
241 | 8.944

‘889 104055) 247

898 06305) 252
£899 06558) 253
.900|06812) 254
-901/07066) 254
"902 07321) 255
(903 07577| 256
(904 07833| 256

log. G.| Dif.

0.01
01614
(01855) 241
(02097) 24
/02339) 24
|02582) 243
24
24

102826)
03070
(03315) 245
03561) 246
03808) 247

04303) 248
04551) 248
04800) 249
05049) 249
05299) 250
05550) 251
05801) 251
06053) 252

08090) 257
08347) 257
08605) 258
08864) 259
09123) 259
09383) 260
09643) 260
09904) 261
10166, 262
10428) 262
10691, 263
10955) 264
11220] 265
11485) 265
11751 266
12018) 267
12985) 267
12553) 268
12521 268
13090) 269
13360) 270
13630, 270
13901) 271
14173| 272
14446 273
14719 273
14993, 274
15267, 274
15542 275
15818 276
16095, 277
16372) 277
16650 278
16928) 278
17207 279
17487 280
17767, 280
18048 281
18330 282

18613) 283

sin.?g|

8.944
945
946
947

948)19751
-949}20037
-950}20324
.Y51/20612
-952}20900
.953/21189
-954|21479
.955/21769
95622060
-957|22352
-958)22645
.959)22938
.960/23232
-961)/23527
.962)23823
.963)24119
.964/24416
.965|247 14
.966|25012

967

.968)25611

.969
.970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
.978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
.987
988
.989
£990
991
+992)
993)
«994
995
-996
997
.998
8.999
9.000
001
002
008
004
005
006
007
008

log. G.

0.01

18613
18896
19180
19465

25311

25912
26213
26515
26818
127122
27426
27731
28037
28344
28652)
28960
29269
29579
29889
30200
30512
30825
31139
31454
31770
32086
32403
32721
33040
33359

34000

34644
34967
35291
35616
35942
36269
36596
36924
37253
37583
37914
38245
38577

9.009

33679) ¢
34322) ¢

Dif.

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH.

rtED,
sin.” g

9.009)
-010
O11
.012)
013)
014
O15
016)
017
.018
O19)
-020
021

.024
025
026
027
-028
.029
030
031
032
033)
.034
035
036
-037
-038
.039
-040
41
042
043
.044
045
046
047
.048
049
050
051
052
053
.054
055
.056
057
.058
.059)
.060
061
-062)
063
.064

.065
.066
.067
068
069
070
071
072
073

.022/42703
.023)/43047

TABLE I.—(Continvep.)

119

log. G.

0.01

38577
38910
39244
39579
39915
40252
40589
40927
41266
41606
41947
42288
42630

43662
44008
44355
44702
45050
45399
45749
46100
46453
46806
47160
47515
47870
48226
48583
43941
49301
49661
50022
50384
50747
51111
51476
51841
52207
52574
52942
53311
53682
54053
54425
54798
55172
59547
55923:
56300
56677
57056
57436
57817
58198
58581
58965
59349
59734
60121
60509
60897
61286
61676

9.074

62067

sin.’ ¢

9.074
075
076
.077
078
.079
.080
081
.082
.083
084
.085
086
087
.088
.089
.090
091
092
093
094
.095
.096
097
098
099
100
101
-102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
All
-112
118
114
115
116
117
118
AUK,
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
Slee
128
129
130
131
.132
133
134
135
136
137
138

9.139

log. G.

0.01
62067
62460
62854
63248
63643)
64039
64437
64836
65236
65636
66037
66439
66842
67247
67653
68060
68468
68877
69286
69697
70109
70522
70936
71351
71767

72184
72602
73021
73441
73863
74286
74709
75134
75560
75987
76415
76844
77274
77705
78137
78570
79005
79442
79878
80316
80755
81195
81636
82078
82522
82967
83413
83860
84308
84757
85207
35659
86114
36566
87021
87477
87935
88394
88854
89315
89777

Dif. |/sin.2 gz
9.139
393 || .140
394 || .14]
394 || .142
395 || .143
396 || .144
398 || -145
399 || .146
400 || .147
409 || .148
4()1 || .149
402 || .150
403 || .151
405 || .152
406 || .153
407 || .154
408 || .155
409 || .156
409 || .157
411 || .158
412 || .159
413 || .160
414
415 || .161
416 || .162
417 || .163
418 || .164
419 || .165
420 || .166
422 || .167
423 || .168
423 || .169
425 || .170
426 || 171
427 || 172
428 || .173
429 || .174
430 || .175
431 || .176
432 || .177
433 || .178
435 || .179
436 || .180
436 || .181
438 || .182
439 || .183
440 || .184
441 || .185
442 || .186
444 || .187
445 || .188
446 || .189
447 || .190
448 || .191
449.|| 192
450 || .193
452 || .194
453 || .195
454 || .196
455 || .197
456 || .198
458 || .199
459 || .200
460 || .20]
461 || .202
462 |!9 203

log. G.

0.01
89777
90241
90706
91172
91639
92107
92576
93047
93519
93992
94466)
94942
95419
95897
96376
96856
97338
97821
98305
98791
99278
99766

0.02
00256
00746
01238
01731
02226
02722
03219
03717
04217
04718
05220
05724
06229
06735
07242

07751) é

08261
08773
09286
09800
10316
10833
11351
11871
12392
12914
13438
13963
14490)
15018
15547
16077
16609
17142
17677
18214
18752
19291
19831
20373
20916
21460

22006

488

490
490

493

537
538
539
540)

546

sing

9.203
204
205
.206
207
-208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219

26357579

log. G.

0.02
22006
22554
23103
23653
24205
24758
25313
25869)
26427
26987
27548
28110
28674)
29239
29806
30374
30944
31516
32089
32663
33239
33816
34395
34975
35557
36141
36726
37313
37901
38491)
39082
39675
40270
40866
41464
42063
42664)
43266
43870
44476
45083
45692
46303
46915
47529
48145)
48762
49381
50002
50624
51248
51874
52501
53130
53760
54392
55026
55662
56299
56938

|
|
|
|

58221
58865
59511

60159

60809

548
549
550
552
553
555
556
558
560
561
562
564
565
567
568
570
572
573
574
576
577
579
580
582
584
585
587
588
590
591
593
595
596
598
599
601
602
604
606
607
609
611
612
614
616
617
619
621

622
624

626
627
629
630
632
634

636

637

639

641

642
644

646

648
650

|
6 \sin.? 2 log. G.
|
|
|

0.02
9.268) 60809
.269|61460
.270|62113
.271/62768
.272'63425
.273/64083
27464743

.276 66069

27867402
27968071
280 68742

282/70090
283 70766
284 71444
285/72124

28773490
28874176
28974864
290 75554
291 76245
29276938
29377633
294 78330
295 79029
.296 79730
297 80433
29881138
299181844
-300|82552
.301|83262
.302/83974
303|84688
.304|85405
.305|86123
.306)86843
307|87565
.308/88290
-309|89016
.310|89744
.311|90474
312191207
313/91941
:314|92677
315]93415
.316)94156
317|94898
313]95643
.319|96390

.321/97890
.322/98643
.323/99398
0.03

-324/00154
-325/00913
.326|01674
.327|02437
-328/03203
.3829)03970
-330|04739
33105511

.275|65405) 6
.277| 66735] 6

.281/69415) 6

.286)72806) 6

.320}97139} 7

9 332'06285,

120 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

TABLE I.—(Continvep.)

sin.*g| log. G.| Dif. sin.?g| log. G.| Dif. Iin.2g log. G.| Dif. |/sin.*g} log. G.| Dif. sin.” g}log. G.| Dif. lein.2e log. G.| Dif.

0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 | 0.06
9.332|06285 9.394|58768 ||9.455) 20394 9.517, 95704 19.573) 85625 '9.639/95923)
.333|07061| 776 || .395/59693) 925') .456)21499)1105 -018,97041)1337 | .579/87254) 1629) .640/97936 2013
.334|07839) 778 || .396/60620) 927)| .457/22607)1108 519) 98382)1341)|| .580/88888) 1634)! .641/99956 2020)
.335/08619) 780 |) .397/61550 930) .458}23719/1112)| 620 99727|1345|| .581/90527| 1639 0.07
.336)09402) 733 || .398/62483) 933)| .459)24835) 1116 0.05 -582)92172)1645)) .642/01983 2027
337) L0187| 785 || .899/63418 O35, .460)25954)1119)) .5621.01077/1350)| .583/93823)1651)| .643/04017 2034
.338)10974| 737 || .400/64356 938) .461}27076)1122)| .52202431]1354)) .584/95480|1657) .644|06059 2042
-339) 11763) 789 || .401)65297) 941)) .462)/28201)1125)) .523,03789)1358) .585/97142) 1662) .645)08108 2049
.340) 12554] 791 || .402/66240) 943'| .463)/29330}1129|) .524/05151)1362)| .58698809|1667)| .646|10164 2056
.341/13347) 793 |] .403/67186] 946|) .464)30463/1133 525 06517) 1366 0.06 | -647)12228 2064
342) 14143) 796 || .404)68135) 949) .465)31599)1136)) .626 07888)1371)) 58700482) 1673) .648)14300, \2072
343) 14941) 798 || .405|69087 952 .466|32738|1139|) .527/09263]1375|| .588)02161|1679)| .649 16379) 2079
344|15741| 800 || .406/70041) 954) .467/33881)1143)) .628 10643)1380)| .589)03845)1684)) .650)18466) 2087
+345) 16543) 802 |} .407|70993 957 -468)35027)1146)) .5629 12027)1384') .590\05535) 1690)! .651/20560)/ 2094)
.346/17348) 805 || .408/71958) 960!) .469/36177/1150)) .530)13415)1388)) .691/07231|1696), .652/22662 2102
.847|18155| 807 || .409/72921| 963) .470)37330)1153)) .531)14808)1393)| .592/08932)1701)) .653/24772 2110
-348)18964) 809 || .410)73887| 966) .471)38487|1157)| .532/16206|1398)) .593)10639|1707)) .654/26890 2118
.411|74855) 968} .472)39647|1160 53317608 1402)| .594)12352)1713)) .655/29015 2125
'412)75826| 971|) .473/40811|1164)) .53419014|1406) 595|14071|1719)| .656/31148 2133
.413)76800} 974) .474)41978/1167)| 535 20425)1411)) .596)15796|1725) .657/33289 2141
AL4 77777 977|| .475/43148)1170]| .536 21841/1416) .597)17527\1731)) .658)35438 2149
.415|78757| 980)) .476/44322)1174)| .537)23261|1420)| .598)19264)1737)| .659/37595 2157
.416)79739) 982)| .477/45500/1178 .538/24689 1424) .599/21007|1743) .660/39761 2166
. .417|80724| 985)| .478)46681)1181 539/261 14|1429)) .600/22755/1748)) .661|41935 2174
.356/25520) 827 || .418/81712) 988)) .479)47866/1185)| .540/27545)1434)) .601)24509|1754)| .662/44117 2182
.357|26350) 830 || .419)32703) 991) .480/49055/1189)| .541/28986/1438)) .602)26270)1761)) .663)46306, 2189
.358) 27182) 832 || .420/33697) 994)| .481)50248)1193' ‘542, 30429]1443) .603/28037/1767| .664/48504 2198
°359/23017) 835 || .421184694] 997} .482/51444|1196) .543/31876|1447]) .604/298101773]| .665 50710 2206
.360}28854) 837 |} .422)85694)1000)| .483/52643/1199)) .544)33328/1452) .605|31589|1779)| .666 52924 2214
.361}29693] 839 || .423/86697)1003)| .484/53846)1203)) .545/34785|1457)| .606)33374|1785]) .667/55147 2223
°362|30535| 842 |] .424/87702) 1005|! .485/55053!1207)) 54636247 1462} .607/35165)1791)| .668)/57378 2231
.363/31379] 844 || .425/88710/1008)] .486)56263/1210)| .547/37713|1466| .608/36963)1798 | .669|59617 2239
.364/32225) 846 || .426/89722/1012)) .487/57477/ 1214) .648/39184/1471'| .609/38767}1804) .670/61865, 4
.365)33074| 849 || .427/90737)1015)) .488)8699)1218)) .549/40660)1476| .610 40577 1810), .671 4121 228
{366)33926) 852 |] .428,91754/1017|| .439|59917/ 1222 .550/42140/1480)) .611/42393 1816) 672 66386 2265
-367|/34779) 853 || 429 92774) 1020|| .490/61142 1225)) .5651/43625)1485|) .612)44215 1822), .673)6
.3868)35635) 856 || .430/95797)1023)) .491)62371)/1229) .552/45116)1491)| 613)46044, 1829 | | .674,70941 2282
-369/36494) 859 431/94824/1027)| .492/63604) 1233) 553/46611|1495|| .614 47879. 1835 || .675|73232 2291
-370)37359) 861 || .482/95854/1030)) .493/64841/1237) .554/48111 1500) 615 49720, 1541) .676|75532 2300
.371/38218| 863 |) 433 96886/1032)| .494/66082) 1241 | .555/49616]1505)| .616)51568 1848 | .677|77840 2308
.372/39084) 866 || .434/97922)1036]| .495,67327/1245)| .556/51125|1509|| .617/53423) 1855) -678)80157 2317
.3873/39953) 869 || .435/98961/1039)) .496)68575 1248) .997|52639/1514)| .618)55284 1861)| .679)32483 2326
.374/40824) 871 0.04 497 69827, 1252 558/54158)1519)) .619 59025 1S? -680)84818 2335

.375/41697| 873 || .436 00003) 1042)) .493'71083)1256 | .559)55683)1525)| .620/59025 1874) .681/87162 2344
.876/42572) 875 || .437/01048 1045)) .499|/72343/1260)) .560/57213/1530)) .621/60906 1881)| 682 89515 2353
.3877/43450) 878 || .438 020961048) .500)73607)1264)| .5661/58747)1534)| .622 62793 1887)) .683/91877, 2362
-378/44331) 881 439, 03147 1051|| .501|74875|1268)) .562|60286 1539'| .623/64687/1894), .684 94249 2372,
.379/45214| 883 |) .440/04201|1054)) .502)76147|1272)| .563)61831|1545 624|66588 1901) | -685/96630 2381
-380/46099) 885 || 44105258 1057|| .503/77423/1276 | .564)63381/1550)) 625 68496 1908), .686)99020 2390
.881|46987] 888 || .442'06318}1060|| .504|78702) 1279] .565/64936|1555)| .626/70410. 1914, 0.08 |
.382)47877) 890 || .443 07382 1064|) .505)79985 1233, 566 66496/1560)) .627/72331 1921, | -687/01419 2399
.383]48770) 893 || 444 08449/1067|| .506)81272| 1237!) .567/68061/1565)| .628/74258 1927] .688}03827 2408
+384/49666) 896 || .445 09519 1070) .507/82564 1292), .568,69632)1571)| .629\76192 1934) 68906245 2418)
-383/50564| 893 446, 10592 173|] .508/83860)1296)| .569|71208)1576| .630,78133 1941) .690|08672 2427
-386|51465) 901 447) 11668] 1076] .509/85160) 1300) .570|72789|1581)| .631/80082 1949|) .691/11108 2436)
.387|52369| 904 || .448) 12747|1079|] .510|86464)1304)) .571/74375)1586| .632 (82038 1956 | .692)13554 2446
.388)53275) 906 449 13829 1082}| .511/87771/1307 572 75966 1591) .633,84001 1963)| .693|16009 2455
.389|54184) 909 || .450/14915/1086]| .512/89082)1311|) .573,77562|1596)| .634)85970 1969) .694|18475 2466
.390|55096) 912 || .451/16004 1089|| .513/90397)1315 -574,79164|1602, .635 87946, 1976 -693/20951 2476,
.391/56010) 914 || .452/17097/L093||_.514/91717|1320|| .575|80771/1607)| .636,89930. 1984 .696)/23436 2485)
+392/56927| 917 453) 18193) 1096]) .515)93042|1325)) .576/82384)1613| .63791920 1990, || .697/25930 2494)
.393)57846) 919 || .454 19292) 1099)| .516)/94371/1329)) .577/840021618) .638/93918 1998) .698)28435 2505)
9.394|58768) 922 |'9.455 20394) 1102!'9.517/95704 11333) /9.578 85625'1623 9.639) 95923 2005 |9.699|30951 2516

_

| pit. ||

THE DISTANCES

OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH.

121

AASB ee E a elgie

if. tan.?// eee Dif. |!tan.7h eS Dif, ||tan.2A Zo a Dif. |/tan.2h) an Dif. ||tan.~h ue Dif.

0000 0000 .0000 000 -000

8.09} 152 8.27) 349 8.45} 799 || 8.63 | 1829 8.81 | 4195
10; 159 | 7 28) 365 | 16 46] 837] 38 || .64/1915| 86/|| .82|4394/ 199
LL L6754.8 29 | 382 | 17 47| 876] 39 || .65| 2006) 91|| .83] 4603 | 209
12) 176 | 9 30| 400 | 18 48) 917) 41 || .66/ 2101} 951] .84| 4820 | 217
13] 185 | 9 31] 419 | 19 49) 960) 43 .67 | 2200} 99 || .85|5047 | 227
14} 193] 8 32 | 439 | 20 -50| 1006 | 46 -68 | 2304 | 104 || .86 | 5285 | 238
15| 202 | 9 33 | 460 | 21 51) 1053] 47 || .69 | 2413|109)|| .87| 5535 | 250
16) 210] 8 34 | 482 | 22 52| 1103] 50 -70 | 2528/ 115 || .88| 5795 | 260
+17} 220 | 10 35 | 504 | 22 53| 1156) 53 || -71 | 2648 | 120 |) .89| 6069 | 274
18} 230 |10 36 | 527 | 23 54}1210} 54 || .72 | 2772) 124)|| .90| 6356 | 287
19} 241 |1L 37 | 552 | 25 55 | 1266 | 56 -73 | 2901 | 129 || .91 | 6657 | 301
£20} 253 | 12 38 | 578 | 26 56 | 1325 | 59 -74 | 3038 | 187 || .92 | 6972 | 315
.21 | 265 | 12 39 | 605 | 27 57 | 1387] 62 || .75 | 3182|144]) .93| 7301 | 329
£22 | 277 | 12 40} 634 | 29 58 | 1453) 66 -76 | 3333 | 151 || .94 | 7647 | 346
.23 | 290 | 13 41} 664 | 30 59 | 1522] 69 -77 | 3490 | 157 || .95 | 8008 | 361
.24| 304 | 14 42} 695 | 31 60 | 1593} 71 -78 | 3655 | 165 || .96 | 8386 | 378
.25| 319 | 15 43) 728 | 33 61] 1668) 75 79 | 3827 |172)|| .97 | 8781 | 395
-26 | 334 | 15 .44| 762 | 34 .62| 1747 | 79 80 | 4007 | 180|| .98| 9196 | 415
8.27 | 349 | 15 |) 8.45] 799 | 37 || 8.63] 1829] 82 || 8.81 | 4195 | 188 || 8.99 | 9633 | 437

PAB LB Itt:

tog: a.ltog.—=| Dif | toes @. hoa. | Dit. |hog. ailiow®| Dit. |lhog-a-loe 2-| Dit. Ihow: alias, 2! Dis
g. a. log. Dee ig. eee le a. Scala + @- 108. ii + 08. a. SST | ser

\9.999 9.999 9.999 9.999 9.999

8.33 | 9669 8.660) 8487 8.774| 7441 8.807) 7019 8.840) 6529
.34 | 9653 | 16 || .670| 8416 | 71 || .775|)'7429| 12 803) 7006 | 13 |) .841) 6513} 16
.80 | 9637 | 16 || .680|8341 | 75 || .776)'7417| 12 || .809| 6992} 14 || .842] 6497] 16
36 | 9620 | 17 || 690) 8263 | 78 || .777|7405| 12 || .810' 6978) 14 || .843) 6481] 16
.37 | 9602 | 18 || .700| 8181 | 82 || .773) 7393) 12 || .811 6964} 14 || .844| 6465) 16
.38 | 9583 | 19 || .710) 8096} 85 |) .779| 7381 | 12 || .812' 6950 | 14 || .845| 6449| 16
.39 | 9563 | 20 720) 8006 | 90 || .780) 7369} 12 || .813) 6936 | 14 || .846| 6432] 17
40 | 9542 | 21 730) 7912 | 94 || .781|7357| 12 || 814) 6922) 14 || .847/ 6416] 16
.41 | 9520 | 22 740| 7813 | 99 || .782) 7345} 12 || 815 6908 | 14 | .848) 6399} 17
42 | 9497 | 23 750) 7709 |104 || .783| 7333} 12 || .816| 6893 | 15 || 849) 6883} 17
43 | 9474 | 23 751| 7699 | 10 || .784) 7321 | 12 .817| 6879 | 14 || .850] 6366} 17
44 | 9450 | 24 752) 7689 | 10 || .785| 7308) 13 || .818 6864 | 15 | .851| 6349] 17
45 | 9425 | 25 753) 7678 | 11 || .786) 7296) 12 || .819 6850 | 14 | .859) 6332) 17
46 | 9398 | 27 754)| 7667 | 11 || .787/ 7283} 13 |) .820/ 6835] 15 || .853/ 6315 | 17
47 | 9369 | 29 755) 7656 | 11 || .788| 7271 | 12 || .821) 6821 | 14 || .854| 6298] 17
48 | 9339 | 30 756) 7645 | 11 || .789) 7258) 13 || .622 6806] 15 || .855) 6281 | 17
49 | 9308} 31 757| 7634 | 11 || .790| 7245; 13 823, 6791 | 15 || .856) 6264 | 17
-50 | 9276 | 32 758} 7623} 11 |, .791| 7232] 13 || .824| 6776] 15 || .857| 6247] 17
51 | 9242) 34 759) 7612! 11 || .792| 7219} 13 || .825) 6761 | 15 || .858] 6230| 17
52 | 9206 | 36 760| 7601 | 11 || .793| 7206} 13 826) 6746 | 15 || .859) 6212] 18
53 | 9169 | 37 761| 7590 | 11 || .794) 7193) 13 827|"6731 | 15 || .860) 6195! 17
54 | 9130) 39 762) 7579 | 11 || .795) 7180| 13 828) 6716 | 15 || .861) 6177; 18
.55 | 9089 | 41 763) 7567 | 12 || .796| 7167) 13 829) 6701 | 15 || .862/ 6159} 18
.56 | 9046 | 43 764! 7556 | 11 || .797/'7154| 13 830| 6686 | 15 || .863| 6141} 18
.57 | 9001 | 45 765| 7545 | 11 || .798) 7141) 13 831) 6671 | 15 |} .864] 6123; 18
.58 | 8954 | 47 766] 7533 | 12 || .799) 7128) 13 832 6656 | 15 || .865) 6105) 18
.59 | 8905} 49 767| 7522 | 11 || .800|7114| 14 833 6640 | 16 || 866) 6087) 18
60 | 8853) 52 || .76+/ 7510) 12 || .801) 7100} 14 834 6625 | 15 || .867) 6069) 18
.61 | 8799 | 54 || .769| 7499} 11 | 802) 7087| 13 || .835 6609} 16 || .868)6051| 18
.62 | 8742 | 57 || .770| 7487 | 12 || .803) 7073} 14 || .836) 6595 | 16 || .869 6033) 18
.63 | 8682 | 60 || .771|7476| 11 804) 7060 | 13 || .887 6577| 16 || .870|/ 6015 18
64 | 8620 | 62 || .772/ 7464 | 12 || .805| 7046| 14 || .838) 6561) 16 || .871| 5996 | 19
65 | 8555 | 65 || .773) 7453 | 11 || .806) 7033/ 13 || .839 6545) 16 || .872)5978 | 18
8.66 | 8487 | 68 | 8.774| 7441 | 12 |/8.807) 7019| 14 |'8 840 6529) 16 |8.873/5959| 19

122

SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

TABLE III.—(Continvep.)

994) 2936
995) 2903
996 2370
-997| 2837
998) 2804
8.999) 2770
9.000) 2737
001) 2703
-002) 2670

9.003) 2636

9.999
9.003) 2636
004) 2602
005, 2568
-006) 2533
-007| 2499
008) 2464
-009) 2429
-010) 2394
011) 2359

012) 2323
013} 2288
014) 2252
015) 2216
-016) 2180
017) 2144
018) 2107
019) 2071
-020| 2034
021) 1997
.022) 1960
023) 1923
-024) 1885
025) 1848
.026| 1810
.027| 1772
028) 1734
029) 1696
-030| 1658
031) 1619
.032) 1580
033) 1541
034) 1501

035, 1462
036) 1422
.037) 1383
038) 1343
-039) 1303
.040} 1263
041) 1222
.042) 1182
043) 1142
044) 1101
.045| L061
046) 1019
.047) 0978
048) 0936
.049) 0894
-050) 0850
.051) 0807
052) 0765
053) 0722
054 0679
.055) 0636
-056) 0592
057) 0549
058) 0505
-059) 0461
-060) 0416
-061) 0372
.062} 0327
.063) 0282
.064| 0237
065) 0192
066) 0146
-067| 0101
9.068) 0055

log. a. log. i Dif.

!

ee
a

ies)
lor)

log. @.\log. =,

|9.132 6625

Dif.

log. a.

9.132) 6

133) 656°

-134) 6
135) 6

136

137) 6
138} 6
139) 6

-140
141
142
143
144
145
146

147) §

-148
149
-150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
-166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176

177) ¢

178
179
.180
181

.182)

183)
184
185
186
187
.188
189
190
<19E
192
193)
194
195;

-196) 2

9.197)

| 4558

| 4342

log. a

9.197
198
-199
200
201
202
203)
204
.205
-206
207
.208
.209
210
211
212
213)
214
215
216
217
218

219
220)
221
222
223
224
225)
226
227
228)
229
.230
231
.232
233)
234
235
236

9.998
1919
1835
1750
1665
1580
1494
1408
1321
1234
1147
1059
0971
0862
0793
0703
0613
0523,
0432
0341
0249
0157
0065

9.997
9972
9879
9785
9691
9596
9501
9405
9309
9213
9116
9019
8921
8823
8724
8625
8525
8425
8324

TE
log. i) Dif.

| 85
| 85

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH.

TABLE III.—(Conrinvep.)

123

135

136

138

140
141

143
143
144
145
145
146
147
147

372) §

9.373

157

158
159
160
161

165
166

169
170

178
179
180
181
181
182
183
184
185
186
187

188
190
190
191
192
192

log. a,

9.373
374
375
376
377
378

379)

380
381
.382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
+399
400
401
A02
403
404
A05
406
A07
408
409
410
All
412
AIS
414
415
A416
AIT
A18
AL9
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
9.430

57530)
57330
57129
56928
56725
56521
56316
56110
55904
55696
55487
55277
55066
54855
54642
54428
54213
53998
53781
53563
53344
53124
52903
52681
52458
52234
52009
51783
51555
51326
51096
50865
50633
50400
50166
49931
49695
49457
49218
48978
48737
48495
48252
48007
47761
47514
47266
47016
46765
46513

46260

log. a.|log —

9.430 46260
431/46006
432|45751
433/45494
434|45236
435|44977
436)44716
437|44454
438 44191
.439|-43926
440/43660
441|43398
442/43125
443)42856
444 42585
.445|42313
446 42040
447|41765
.448)41489
449|41211
450|40932
451|40652
45240370
453 /40087
454/39803
.455|39517
.456|39230
457 38941
458/38651
459 38360
460/38067
461|37773
‘462/37477
463 37180
‘464 36881
‘465 36581
466 36280
467 35977
468 35673
469|35367
'470/35060
471|34751
A72|34441
473|34129
‘474 33816
475 33501
‘A76 33185
477|32867
(478)32547
79 32226
480 31903
A81/31579
48231253
483/30925
'484/30596
485|30265
486 29933

9.487 29599

Dif.

301
303
304
306
307
309
310
312
313
315
316
318
320
321
323
324
326
328
329
331
332
334

log. a./log. yi

9.99

9.487 29599
.488/29263)
48928926
490 28587
.491/28246
.492/27904
-493/27560
.494/27214
.495 26867
496 26518
497 26167
.498)25814
.499/25459
.500 25103
501 24745
502 24385
50324024
504 23661
50523296
.506|22929
50722560
.508}22190
50921818
510)21444
.511/21068
512/20690
.513|20310
.514/19928
515 19545
516)19160
51718773
.518/ 18384
519)17993
520 17600
521/17205
.522/16808
.523|16409)
524 16008
525 15605
.526 15200
52714793
528 14384
.529 13973
.530/13559
.531/13144
532 12727
533, 12308
53411887
535/11463
.536 11037
537 10609
.538 10179
53909747
540 09312)
54108875
542 08436
54307995

9.544'07552

log. a

9.544
545

-546}06659

47
048

-549}05303

550
5d1
502
553
554
555

596|02059

O57

-558/01111
-559/00633
.560/00153

561
562
563
564
+565
566
-567
-568
569

570/95216

571

-572|94198

573
O74
O75
576
577
578
579
580
581

582
583
584
585
586
587
-5BE
089
590
591
592
093
094
595
596
O97
598
599
9.600

01586

9.98

99671
99186
98699
98209
97717
97222
96724
96224
95721

94708

93685
93170
92652)
9213]
91608
91082
90553
90022
89488
88951
88411
87869
87324
86776
86225
85671
85115
84556
83993
83428
82860)
82289
81716
81139
80560
79978
79393;
78805

1

TABLE IV.

4
zh 3— qi 7]
oe prHe 8 Ba | DE Hos. G+ we
9.849 9.849
7.00 4847 8.530 1520
-10 4845 2 540 1362
20 4842 3 -550 1197
30 4838 A 560 1025
40 4831 7 570 0844
50 4820 | 11 580 0655
-60 4803 | 17 590 0457
70 4776 | 27 -600 0249
80 4735 | 41 GOL 0228
7-90 4667 | 68 -602 0206
8.00 4560 | 107 603 0185
-OL 4547 | 13 -604 0163
02 4533 14 +605 0141
-03 4518 | 15 -606 0119
04 4502 16 607 0098
05 4435 17 -608 0076
-06 4468 | 17 -609 0054
07 4450 18 -610 0032
.08 4432 | 18 611 0009
09 4412 | 20 9.848
10 439L | 21 612 9987
ll 4369 | 22 613 9964
12 4347 | 22 614 9941
13 4323 | 24 615 9919
14 4298 | 25 616 9896
15 4272 | 26 617 9873
16 4245 | 27 618 9850
17 4216 | 29 619 9827
18 4186 | 30 -620 9804
19 4155 | 31 |! 621 9780
20 4123 | 32] .622 | 9757
21 4089 | 34 623 9733
22 4053 | 36 624 9709
23 4015 | 38 |) .625 9686
+24 3975 | 40 626 9662
25 3934 41 627 9638
+26 3891 43 -628 9614
27 3846 | 45 629 9590
28 3799 | 47 630 9566
29 3749 | 50 631 9541
-30 3697 | 52 632 9517
31 3642 | 55 633 9492
32 3585 | 57 634 9467
33 3525 | 60 635 9442
34 3463 | 62) 636 9417
38d 3398 | 65 637 9392
-36 3329 | 69 -638 9367
37 3257 | 72 639 9341
38 3182 | 75 640 9316
39 3103 | 79 641 9290
40 3021 82 642 9265
Al 2935 | 86 643 9239
42 2844 91 644 9213
43 2749 | 95 645 9187
44 2651 | 98 646 9161
45 2548 | 103 647 9134
46 2439 | 109 648 9108
AT 2325 |114 || .649 9081
48 2205 |120 || .650 9054
49 2080 |125 | .651 9027
50 1949 {131 || .652 9000
5 1813 |136 | = .653 8973
52 1670 |143 | 654 8946
853 1520 | 150 || 8.655 8918

Sle
log: By Dif. Hog. Gp ahe

7H

—— 2

3— qr
bee yr

9.848
8918
9891
9863
9836
9808
8780
8752
8723

Dif.

BSSRPERSRSERENEN

SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

am im
108 fr?

8.718
719

| a gf’
les a

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 125

TABLE IV.—(Continvep.)

= call 5 3— gl ; = 3— ql 5 a 7] 3 — gil .
Dit. log. ram log. <= Fe | Dit. log. PO; re log. 5 Tz | Dif. log. Ga 7? log. Soe | Dit.
9 848 9.848 9.847 9.84
8.781 4224 8.846 0486 8.910 5507 8.975 68655

782 4174 | 50 847 0419 | 67 O11 5417 | 90 976 68532 | 123
783 4125 | 49 -848 0351 | 68 912 5326 | 91 977 68408 | 124
.784 4075 | 50 849 0234 | 67 913 5235 | 91 978 66234 | 124
785 4025 | 50 .850 0216 | 68 914 5143 | 92 979 68159 | 125
786 3975 | 50 851 0148 | 68 915 5051 | 92 980 68034 | 125
787 3924 | 51 852 0079 | 69 916 4958 | 93 981 67908 | 126
.788 3874 | 50 +853 0011 | 68 I17 4066 | 92 982 67781 | 127
.789 3023 | 51 9 847 918 4773 | 93 983 67654 | 127
790 3772 =| 51 +854 9942 | 69 919 4679 | 94 984 67527 | 127
791 3720 | 52 855 9873 | 69 920 4585 | 94 985 67399 | 128
192 3664 | 5] -856 9803 | 70 921 4491 | 94 -986 67270 | 129
793 3617 | 52 857 9733 | 70 922 4396 | 95 -987 67141 | 129
794 3565 | 52 858 9662 | 71 923 4301 | 95 988 67011 | 130
795 3513 | 52 859 959L | 71 924 4205 | 96 989 66836 | 131
796 3460 | 53 -860 9520 | 71 925 4108 | 97 990 66749 | 131
797 3407 | 53 861 9449 | 71 926 4011 | 97 991 66617 | 132
793 3304 | 53 862 9377 | 72 927 3914 | 97 992 66485 | 132
.799 3300 | 54 863 9305 | 72 928 3816 | 98 993 66352 | 133
800 3247 | 53 864 9233 | 72 929 3717 | 99 994 66218 | 134
801 3193 | 54 -865 9160 | 73 930 3618 | 99 995 66084 | 134
802 3139 | 54 -866 9087 | 73 931 3018 | 100 996 65949 | 135
803 3084 | 55 867 9013 | 74 .932 3418 | 100 -997 65813 | 136
B04 3030 | 54 -868 8940 | 73 933 3317 | 101 998 65677 | 136
805 2975 | 55 869) 8866 | 74 934 3217 |100|) 8.999 65540 | 137
806 2920 | 55 870 8792 | 74 935 3116 | 101 |} 9.000 65402 | 138
B07 2864 | 56 871 8717 | 75 936 3014 | 102 .001 65263 | 139
808 2808 | 56 872 8642 | 75 937 2912 | 102 -002 65124 | 139
809 2752 | 56 873 8566 | 76 .938 2810 | 102 -003 64984 | 140
.810 2696 | 56 874 8491 | 75 939 2707 | 103 -004 64844 | 140
Bil 2639 | 57 875 8415 | 76 940 2604 | 103 005 64703 | 141
812 2582 | 57 876 8338 | 77 941 2500 | 104 006 64561 | 142
813 2525 «| 57 877 8261 | 77 942 2395 | 105 007 64419 | 142
814 2468 | 57 878 8183 | 78 943 2290 | 105 008° | 64276 | 143
815 2410 | 58 -879 8106 | 77 944 2185 | 105 009 64133 | 143
816 2352 | 58 880 8028 | 78 945 2079 | 106 -010 63989 | 144
B17 2204 | 58 881 7949 | 79 946 1973 | 106 O11 63844 | 145
818 235 =| 59 882 7371 | 78 947 1866 | 107 012 63698 | 146
819 2177 | 58 883 7792 | 79 948 1758 | 108 013 63552 | 146
820 2118 | 59 B84 7713 =| 79 949 1650 | 108 014 63405 | 147
821 2059 | 59 885 7633 | 80 950 1541 | 109 015 63257 | 148
.822 1999 | 60 -886 7953 | 80 951 1432 | 109 -016 63108 | 149
823 1940 | 59 -887 7472 «| 81 952 1322 | 110 017 62959 | 149
824 1880 | 60 -888 7391 =| 81 953 1212 | 110 018 62809 | 150
825 1820 | 60 889 7309 | 82 954 1101 | 111 -019 62658 | 151
826 1759 | 61 890 7226 | 83 955 0991 | 110 -020 62507 | 151
827 1698 | 61 891 7144 | 82 956 0879 | 112 021 62355 | 152
823 1636 | 62 892 7061 | 83 957 0767 | 112 022 62202 | 153
829 1575 | 61 893 6978 | 83 958 0654 | 113 023 62048 | 154
830 1513 | 62 894 6895 | 83 959 0541 | 113 024 61894 | 154
B31 1451 | 62 «895 6811 | 84 960 0427 | 114 -025 61739 | 155
832 1388 | 63 896 6727 | 84 -961 0313 | 114 026 61583 | 156
833 1326 | 62 .897 6643 | 84 .962 0198 | 115 027 61426 | 157
B34 1263 | 63 898 6558 | 85 963 0083 | 115 028 61269 | 157
835 1200 | 63 899 6472 | 86 964 69967 | 116 029 61111 | 158
.836 1137 | 63 -900 6387 | 85 965 69850 | 117 030 60953 | 158
837 1073 | 64 901 6301 | 86 966 69733 | 117 031 60794 | 159
838 1009 | 64 902 6215 | 86 967 69615 | 118 032 60634 | 160
839 0944 | 65 -903 6127 | 88 .968 69497 | 118 033 60473 | 161
840 0880 | 64 -904 6040 | 87 969 69378 | 119 034 60311 | 162
841 0815 | 65 905 5952 | 88 970 69259 | 119 035 60148 | 163
.842 0749 | 66 -906 5863 | 89 971 69139 | 120 036 59984 | 164
843 0684 | 65 907 5775 | 88 972 69019 | 120 037 59820 | 164
644 0618 | 66 -908 5686 | 89 973 68898 | 121 -038 59655 | 165
845 0552 | 66 909 5597 | 89 974 68777 | 121 039 59489 | 166

8.846 j 8.910 5507 | 90 8.975 68655 | 122 |} 9.040 59322

17

126 SOME METHODS OF COMPUTING THE RATIO OF

TABLE IV.—(Continvep.)

7]

ah 3—q : fae alt aly, 3—¢q Z j oll aly 3—q'! , ie alt ata

798) oF Sa | DHE 108 ere) OF By ax | DIE WF Gp rye] OF By aT | DIE NS ern?) Bvaz |. Dit
9.84 9.84 9.84 9.84
59322 9.080 | 51954 9.120 | 43013 9.160 | 32135

59154 | 168 081 51751 | 203 121 42766 | 247 161 31835 | 300
58986 | 168 032 51547 | 204 122 42518 | 248 -162 31534 | 301
58817 | 169 -083 51342 | 205 123 42269 | 249 163 31231 | 303
58647 | 170 084 51136 | 2U6 -124 42019 | 250 164 30927 | 304
58476 | 171 085 50929 | 207 125 41768 | 251 165 30621 | 306
58305 |171 086 50721 | 208 126 41515 | 253 166 30313 | 308
58133 | 172 087 50512 | 209 127 41261 | 254 167 30003 | 310
57960 | 173 .088 50302 | 210 -128 41006 | 255 168 29692 | 311
57786 | 174 089 50091 | 211 129 40749 | 257 169 29379 | 313
57611 | 175 090 49879 | 212 -130 40491 | 258 170 29064 | 315
57436 | 175 091 49666 | 213 131 40231 | 260 A7L 28748 | 316
57260 | 176 -092 49452 | 214 132 39970 | 261 172 28431 | 317
57083 | 177 093 49237 | 215 133 39708 | 262 173 28112 | 319
56905 | 178 094 49020 | 217 134 39445 | 263 174 27791 | 321
56726 | 179 095 48803 | 217 135 39131 | 264 175 27469 | 322
56946 | 180 096 48584 | 219 136 38916 | 265 176 27146 | 323
56365 | 181 097 48365 | 219 137 38649 | 267 177 26821 | 325
56183 | 182 .098 48144 | 221 -138 38381 | 268 178 26494 | 327
56000 | 183 099 47923 | 221 139 38112 | 269 179 26166 | 328
55816 | 184 -100 47700 | 223 140 37842 | 270 -180 25836 | 330
55631 | 185 101 47476 | 224 141 37570 | 272 181 25504 | 332
65445 | 186 -102 47251 | 225 142 37297 | 273 182 25170 | 334
59258 | 187 103 47025 | 226 143 37023 | 274 183 24835 | 335
55071 | 187 104 46798 | 227 144 36747 | 276 134 24498 | 337
54883 | 188 103 46570 | 228 145 36469 | 278 -185 24160 | 338
54694 | 139 -106 46341 | 229 -146 36190 | 279 -186 23820 | 340
54505 | 189 -107 46110 | 231 147 35910 | 230 187 23478 | 342
54315 | 190 -108 45879 | 231 148 30628 | 282 -188 23134 | 344
54124 | 191 109 45646 | 233 149 35344 | 284 189 22789 | 345
53932 | 192 110 45413 | 233 -150 35059 | 285 -190 22442 | 347
53739 | 193 lll 45179 | 234 151 34773 | 286 -191 22093 | 349
53545 | 194 112 44944 | 235 152 34485 | 288 -192 21743 | 350

53349 | 196 13 44707 | 237 153 34196 | 289 193 91391 302
53152 | 197 114 44469 | 238 154 33906 | 290 194 21037 | 354
52955 | 197 115 44230 | 239 155 33614 | 292 .195 20681 | 356
§2757 | 198 AIG 43990 | 240 156 33321 | 293) .196 20323 358
52558 | 199 117 43748 | 242 -157 33027 | 294 197 19963 | 360
52358 | 200 118 43504 | 244 .158 32731 | 296) 198 19602 | 361
52157 | 201 119 43259 | 245 159 32434 | 297 -199 19239 | 363
43013 | 246 9 160 32135 | 299 9.200 18874 | 365
TABLE V.
asi log. y"!'| Dif. ceil) tog. y"'| Dit. |, Sin log. y" | Dif. || ass log. y"'| Dif. Ree log. y" | Dif.
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.000 | 000000 9.986 | 093832 9.972 | 188658 9,958 | 284464 9.944 | 381238

9.999 | 006669 | 6669 || .985 | 100573] 6741 || .971 | 195469 | 6811 || .957 | 291345 | 6881 || .943 | 388187 | 6949
.998 | 013343 | 6674 |) .984 | 107318) 6745 || .970 | 202285 | 6816 |} .956 | 298230 | 6885 || .942 | 395141 | 6954
-997 | 020023 | 6680 || .983 | 114069} 6751)| .969 | 209106 | 6821 |) .955 | 305120 | 6890 || .941 | 412100 | 6959
.996 | 026708 | 6685 || .982 | 120824|6755 || .968 | 215932 | 6826 || .954 | 312015 | 6895 || .940 | 409065 | 6965
.995 | 033398 | 6690 || 981 | 127585) 6761 || .967 | 222763 | 6831 || .953 | 318915 | 6900 || .939 | 416034 | 6969
.994 | 040093 | 6695 || .980 | 134351 | 6766 || .966 | 229599 | 6836 || .952 | 325220 | 6905 || .938 | 423008 | 6974
.993 | 046793 | 6700 || .979 | 141122|6771 || .965 | 236439 | 6840 || .951 | 332730 | 6910 || .937 | 429986 | 6978
992 | 053498 | 6705 || .975 | 147898 |6776)| .964 | 243284 | 6845 || .950 | 339646 | 6916 || .936 | 436969 | 6983
MIL | 060208 | 6710 || .977 154679] 6781)|| .963 | 250134 | 6850 || .949 | 346566 | 6920 || .935 | 443956 | 6987
-990 | 066922 | 6714 || .976 | 161465 |6786)) .962 | 256990 | 6856 || .948 | 353491 | 6925 || .934 | 450949 | 6993
989 | 073642 | 6720 || .975 | 168255 |6790)| .961 | 263851 | 6861 || .947 | 360421 | 6930 || .933 | 457947 | 6998
-988 | 080367 | 6725 ||. .974 | 175051 |6796|| .960 | 270717 | 6866 |) .946 | 367355 | 6934 || .932 | 464950 | 7003
-987 | 087097 | 6730 || .973 | 181852 )6801)| .959 | 277588 | 6871 || 945 | 374294 | 6939 || .931 | 471957 | 7007
9.986 | 093832 | 6735 |/9.972 | 188658 | 6806 ||9.958 | 234464 | 6876 |/9.944 | 381238 | 6944 |/9.930 | 478969 | 7012

THE DISTANCES OF A COMET FROM THE EARTH. 127

TABLE V.—(Continvep.)

log. y" | Dif. log. y" log. y"| Dif. |) deo log. y" | Dif. deal) log y" | Dif.
0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2
9.930 | 488969 9.865 944905 422326 9.736 | 924817 9.672 | 435572

.929 | 485986 | 7017 || .864 952226 | 7321
923 | 493008 | 7022 || .863 959551 | 7325
.927 | 580035 | 7027 || .862 | 966381 | 7330
.926 | 507067 | 7032 || .861 | 974215 | 7334
925 514104 | 7037 || .860 | 981554 | 7339
924 | 521145] 7041 || .859 | 988897 | 7343
923 | 528191 | 7046 || .858 | 906244 | 7347
.922 | 535242 | 7051 01
.921 | 542298 | 7056 || .857 | 003596 | 7352
.920 | 549358 | 7060 || .856 | 010953 | 7357
.919 | 556423 | 7065 || .855 | 018315 | 7362
.918 | 563493 | 7070 || .854 | 025681 | 7366
917 |570568 | 7075 || .853 | 033051 | 7370
.916 | 577647 | 7079 || .852 | 040425 | 7374
915 | 534731 | 7084 || .851 | 047804 | 7379
.914 | 591820 | 7089 || .850 | 055187 | 7383
-913 | 598914 | 7094 || 849 | 062575 | 73838
912 | 606012 | 7098 || .843 | 069967 | 7392
911) 613115] 7103 || .847 | 077364 | 7397
910 | 620223 | 7108 || .846 | 084765 | 7401
909 | 6273236 | 7113 || .845 | 092171 | 7406
908 | 634454 | 7118 || .844 | 099581 | 7410
.907 | 641576 | 7122 || .843 | 106995 | 7414
-906 | 648703 | 7127 || 842) 114414 | 7419
.905 | 655834 | 7134 || 841 | 121837 | 7423
.904 | 662970 | 7136 || .B40 | 129265 | 7428
903) 670111) 7141 |} 839] 136697 | 7432
902 | 677257 | 7146 || .338 | 144133 | 7436
901 | 634407 | 7150 |} 837 | 151574 | 7441
.900 | 691562} 7155 || .836| 159019 | 7445
.899 | 698722 | 7160 || .835 | 166469 | 7450
.898 | 705836 | 7164 || .834 | 173923 | 7454
.897 | 713055 | 7169 |} .83.4| 181382] 7459
.896 | 720229 | 7174 || 832] 188845 | 7463
895 | 727407 | 7178 || .831 | 196312] 7467
.894 | 734590 | 7183 || .830 | 203783 | 7471
2893 | 741778 | 7188 || .829 | 211259 | 7476
.892 | 748970 | 7192 || .825 | 218739 | 7480
891 | 756167 | 7197 || .827 | 226223 | 7484
890 | 763369 | 7202 || .826 | 233712 | 7489
889 | 770575 | 7206 || .825 | 241205 | 7493
888 | 777786 | 7211 || .824 | 248702 | 7497
.887 | 785002 | 7216 || .823 | 256204 |7502
886 | 792222 | 7220 |} .822 | 263710 |7506
885 | 799447 | 7225 || .821 | 271220 |7510
.884 | 806676 | 7229 || .820 | 278735 | 7515 |
.8833 | 813910 | 7234 || .819 | 286254 | 7519
882 | 821149 | 7239 || .818 | 293777 | 7523
-851 | 828392 | 7243 || .817 | 301305 | 7528
.880 | 835640 | 7248 | .816 | 308837 | 7532
879 | 842892 | 7252 || .815 | 316373 | 7536
878 | 850149 | 7257 || .814 | 323913 | 7540
877 | 857411 | 7262 || .813| 331458 | 7545
.876 | 864677 | 7266 || .812)| 339007 | 7549
.875 | 871948 | 7271 | .811 | 346561 | 7554 |
.874 | 879223 | 7275 || .810| 354419 | 7558
.873 | 386503 | 7280 || .809 | 361681 | 7562 |
.872 | 893787 | 7284 || .808 | 369247 | 7566 |
871 | 901076 | 7289 || .807 | 376817 | 7570
.870 | 908370 | 7294 || .806 | 38439147574
.869 | 915668 | 7298 || .805 | 391970 | 7579 |
868 | 922971 | 7303 || .804 | 399553 | 7583 |
-867 | 930278 | 7307 || .803 | 407140 | 7587
.866 | 937589 | 7311 || .802| 414731 | 7591
9.865 | 944905 | 7316 |} 9.801 | 422326 | 7595

429996 | 7600 |, .735 | 932679 | 7862 || .671 | 443671 | 8099
437530 | 7604 || .734| 940545 | 7866 || .670 | 451774 | 8103
445138| 7608 || .733 | 948415 | 7870 |} .669 | 459880 | 8106
452750 | 7612 || .732| 956289 | 7874 || .668 | 467990 8110
460366 | 7616 || .731| 964166 | 7877 || .667 | 476103 | 8113
467987 | 7621 | .730 | 972047 | 7881 || .666 | 484220 | 8117
475612 | 7625 || 729 | 979932 | 7885 || .665 | 492340 | 8120
483241 | 7629 || .728 | 987821 | 7889 || .664 | 500463 8123
490874 | 7633 || .727 | 995714 | 7893 || .663 | 508590 | 8127
498511 | 7637 0.2 (662 | 516721 | 8131
506153 | 7642 || .726 | 003610 | 7896 || .G61 | 524856 8135
513799 | 7646 |) .725/011510| 7900 || .660) 532994 8138
521449 | 7650 || .724 | 019414 | 7904 || .659| 541136 8142
529103 | 7654 || .723 | 027322| 7908 || 658} 549281 8145
5| 536761 | 7658 || .722 | 035234 | 7912 || .657 | 557429 | 8148
544422| 7661 || .721 | 043150) 7916 || .656 | 565581 | 8152
552088 | 7666 || .720 | 051070 | 7920 || .655 | 573736 8155
559758 | 7670 || .719 | 158993 | 7923 || .654 | 581895 |8159
567432] 7674 || .718 | 066920 | 7927 || .653 | 590057 |8162
575111 | 7679 || .717 | 074851 | 7931 || .652| 598223 | 8166
582794 | 7633 |) .716 | 082786) 7935 || .651 | 606392 | 8169
590481 | 7687 || .715 | 090725 | 7939 || .650| 614565 | 8173
598172| 7691 |) .714 | 098667 | 7942 || .649 | 622741 8176
605867 | 7695 || .713 | 106613 | 7946 || .648 | 630921 | 8180
613566 | 7699 || .712| 114563 | 7950 || .647 | 639104 | 8183
621269 | 7703 || .711.| 122516 | 7953 || .646 | 647220 8186
628976 | 7707 || .710| 130473 | 7957 || .645 | 655480 8190
636687 |7711 || .709| 138434 | 7961 || .644| 663673 8193
644402 |7715 || .708| 146399 | 7965 || .643 | 671869 8196
652122 | 7720 || .707 | 154367) 7968 || .642| 680069 8200
659846 | 7724 || .706 | 162339 | 7972 || .641 | 688272 8203
667574 | 7728 || .705| 170315 | 7976 || .640| 696479 8207
675306 | 7732 || .704 | 178295 | 7980 || .639| 704689 8210
683041 | 7735 || .703 | 186278 | 7983 || .638 | 712903 8214
3! 690780 |7739 || .702| 194265 | 7987 || .637| 721120 8217
698523 |7743 || .701 | 202256 | 7991 || .686| 729340) 8220
706270 | 7747 || .700) 210250 | 7994 || .635 | 737564 | 8224
714022 |7752 || .699 | 218248 | 7998 || .634 | 745791 | 8227
721778 | 7756 || .698 | 226250 | 8002 || .633 | 754022 | 8231
729538 | 7760 || .697 | 234255 | 8005 |) .632 | 762256 | 8234
737302 | 7764 || .696 | 242264 | 8009 || .631 | 770493 | 8237
745070 | 7768 || .695 | 250277 | 8013 || .630 | 778733 | 8240
752342 | 7772 || .694 | 258294 | 8017 || .629 | 786977 | 8244
760618 |7776 || .693 |266314 | 8020 || .628 | 795224 | 8247
3 | 768397 | 7779 || .692 | 274338 | 8024 || .627 | 803474 | 8250
776180 | 7783 |] .691 | 282365 | 8027 || .626 | 811728 | e254
783967 | 7787 || .690 |290395 | 8030 || .625 | 819985 | 8257
791758] 7791 || .689 | 298429 | 8034 || .624 | 82#245 | 8260
799554 | 7746 || .688 1306467 | 8038 623 | 836509 | 8264
807354 | 7800 || .687|314509| 8042 || .G22| 844776 | 8267
815158] 7804 || .686 | 322555 | 8046 |) 621 | 853046) 8270
822966 | 7808 || .685 | 330604 | 8049 || .620 | 861319 | 8273
830778) 7812 || .684 | 338657 | 8053 || .619| 869596 | 8277
838593 /7315 || .683 |346714 | 8057 || .618 | 877876 | 8280
846412) 7819 || .682/354774| 8060 || .617] 886159 | 82x3
854234 | 7822 || .681 | 362837 | 8063 || .616] 894446 | 8287
862061 | 7827 || .680 | 370904 | 8067 || .615 | 902736 | 8290
869292 | 7831 || .679 | 378975 | 8071 .614 | 911029 | 8293
877727 | 7835 || .678 | 387049 | 8074 || .613} 919325 | 8296
885565 | 7838 || .677 | 395127 | 8078 |} .612| 927625 | 8300
893407|7842 || .676 | 403209 | 8082 || .611 | 935928 | 8803
901254 | 7847 || .675 | 411295! 8086 || .610| 944234 | 8306
909104 | 7850 .674 | 419384 | 8089 |} 609} 952543 | 8309
37 | 916959] 7855 || .673 | 427476} 8092 || .608] 960856 | 8313

}| 924817 | 7858 |9.672| 435572! 8096 ||9.607' 969172] 8316

128 METHODS OF COMPUTING THE DISTANCES OF A COMET.

TABLE V.—(Continvep.)

02 03 | 0.3 0.3 0.3
9.607 | 969172 9.586 | 144542 9.564 | 329739 9.542 | 516393 9.521 | 695m96
-606 | 977491 | 8319 || 585 | 152928 | 8386 || 563 338192 /8453|| .541/524911|8518|) .520| 704454 | 8578
-605 | 985813 | 8322 || 634 | 161317 | 8389 || .5662 346648 | 8456) .540| 533431 | 8520 |) .519| 713034 | 3580
604 | 994138 | 8325 || .583 | 169709 | 8392 || .56L | 355107 | 8459 || .539|541955/ 8524 || .518| 721618 | 8584
03 -582 | 178104 | 8395 || .560 | 363568 | 8461 || 538 | 550481 | 8526 || 517 | 730204 | 8586
-603 | 002467 | 8329 || .581 | 136502] 8398 || .559 372033 | 8465 |) .537| 559011 | 8530|| 516 | 738794 | 8590
.602 | 010799 | 8332 || .580 | 194903 | 8401 || .558 380501 | 8468 || 536 | 567544 | 8533) .515| 747386 | 4592
601 | 019134 | 8335 || .579 | 203307 | 8404 || .557 388972 8471 || .535|576080 | 8536 || .514 | 755901 | 3595
-600 | 027473 | 8339 || 578 211714] 8407 || .556 397446 | 8474 |) .534|584619) 8539|| 513 | 764579 | 3598
.599 | 035814 | 8341 || .577 | 220124 | 8410 || .555 | 405923 | 8477 || .533|593161 | 8542|| .512) 773180 | 3601
-998 | 044158) 8344 |) 576 223533 / 8414 || 554 414403 8480) .532|601705 8544 || 511 | 781783 | 4603
.597 | 052506 | 8348 || .575 | 236955 | 8417 || .553 422886 | 8483 |} .531 | 610252) 8547)! .510| 790389 | 8606
.596 | 060857 | 8351 || .574 | 245375 | 8420 || .552 431372) 8486 || .530 | 618801 | 8549) .509| 798998 | 5609
.595 | 069212 | 8355 || .573 | 253798 | 8423 || .551 | 439861 | 8489 || .529 627353 | Bd52 508 | 807610 | 5612
-594 | 077570 | 8358 || .572 | 262224 | 8426 || .550 | 448352 8491 || .528| 635908 8555 || .507| 816224 | 8614
-593 | 085931 | 8361 |) .571 | 270652 | 8428 || .549 | 456846 | 8494 || 527 | 644466) 8558 || .506| 824841 | 5617
-592 | 094295 | 8364 || .570 | 279084 | 8432 || .548 465343 | 8497 || 526 653027 | 8561 .5U5 | 833460 | 8619
591 | 1021162 | 8367 |) .569 287519 | 8435 || .547 473844 | 8501 || 525) 661592 8565)) .504 | 842082 | 8622
.590 | 111031 | 8369 |] .568 | 295957 | 3438 || .546/ 489348! 8504 || .524 | 670159 8567 || .503|850707 | 8625
589 | 119404 | 8373 || .567 | 304398 | 8441 || .545) 490855 | 8507 || .523 | 678729 | 8570 || .502/ 859335 | 8628
.588 | 127780 | 8376 || .566 | 312342 | 8444 || 544 499365 8510 || .522) 687301 | 8572|| 501 | 867966 | 3631
.587 | 136159 | 8379 || .565 | 321289 | 8447 -543 | 507878 | 8513 || 9.521 ld heal 9.500 | 876600 | 8634
9.586 | 144542 | 8383 |/9.564 | 329739 | 8450 |/9.542 516393 | 8515

age) log. y" | Dif. asin log. y""| Dif. ain) log. y" | Dit. || ((2%i| tog. x" | Dit (ey log. y" | Dif.

ASB Ta av Te
Correction of the Sun’s Apparent Longitude to reduce it to the Mean Equinox for the Beginning of the Year.

sin.1!

B. B. B.
1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852, | 1853. | 1854. } 1855. | 1856. | 1857. | 1858. | 1859, |log. 7 — FR?
i" “ W i" “u
Jan. 4,|415.8|424.6|4-95.9|4-34 1/4.96.8| 4.37.6|-+36.4|435.4|409.0|425.5417.7|4132] 6.435
1f,| 17.2] 23.0} 283) 325) 35.1] 358) 34.6] 31.6] 27.1) 21.6) 158) 103} .435
21,] 157] 21.5) 26.8) 30.9] 33.5) 34.2) 32.9] 29.8) 25.3] 198! 14.0) 8 436
3k,| 143} 20.1] 253] 29.5) 320] 32.6] 31.3) 282) 236) 18.1] 12.3) 68} .437
Feb: 10.| 13.1] 189) 24.1) 282) 30.6) 31.2) 29.8} 26.7; 22% 166) 10.8) 5.3} .438
20,/ 12.0] 17.8] 23:0) 27.0) 29.4) 30.0/ 285] 253) 20.7) 15.1] 9.3] 39) .440
March2,| 11.1] 16.9] 22.0] 26.0] 28.4) 288) 27.3) 241] 19.4) 13.9] 81| 2% .443
12,! 10.2} 16.0] 21.) 25.1) 27.4] 278] 26.3] 230) 183; 127] 69] 1.5) .445
22,) 9.4] 15.1) 20.3) 24.2) 26.4) 26.8] 25.2) 21.9) 173) 116 58-404) 448
April 1,/ 8.5) 14.3] 193) 23.2) 25.4) 257] 24.1] 20.7] 15.9) 10.3) 45\— 0.8] 450
11,) 7.6) 13.3] 184] 22.2] 244|/ 246] 23.0) 195) 1471 9.3) 3.3! 20) 452
21,) 66] 123] 17.4] 21.1] 232] 23.4] 21.7) 182) 134] 7.8) 20! 3.3) .455
May 1,/ 54! 11.1) 162) 19.9] 22.0) 22.1) 20.3! 16.8) 120} 63/4+ 05! 48] .457
11,) 4.2/ 9.9] 14.9) 18.6} 20.6] 20.7| 189) 15.3) 10.4 48/— 1.0] 6.3] 459
21,) 2.8) 8.5! 13.4] 17.1] 19.0} 19.1] 17.2] 13.6) 87] 30) 28] 8.0) .460
31,|+ 1.2] 69} 11.8} 155] 17.4) 17.4] 154] 118] 68/412) 46] 9.8] 462
June 10,,— 0.4) 5.3) 102) 138] 156) 15.6] 13.6) 9.9) 4.9/—0.7/ 65) 11.7) — .463
20, 20) 36) 85) 12.0} 13.8] 13.7] 11.7; 80} 3.0) 2.7) 85) 13.7] 464
30,] 3.6; 20) 69} 10.4) 121) 120) 99) 61/4.1.1) 4.6) 104) 155] .464
July 10,) 52/405) 5.3) 87) 104) 10.2} 81) 42) 0.8) 6.5) 12.3) 174] _.464
20,| 67/— 1.1) 3.7) 72} 88} 85) 63) 25) 26) 83) 14.1] 192) 463
30,) 81) 25) 23) 56) 72) 69} 4.7/4+0.8) 43) 10.0) 158] 20.8) 463
Aug. 9,| 9.3) 3.7/4 10) 4.3; 5.9) 55] 3.2) 0.7} 5.8) 11.5) 17.3] 223) .462
19,; 10.3) 48/—0.1] 32) 47] 42) 19] 241/ 7.2) 13.0) 18.7} 23.7) 460
29,; 113) 5.7) 11) 21) 3.6! 33/407; 3.3] 8&5) 14.2 19.9) 249] 458
Sept. 8,/ 121! 66; 20/ 1.2} 26] 21/—04) 4.4) 96] 154) 20] 260) .456
18, 129) 7.3) 28/4 0.4 1.7] 11} 1.4] 5.5! 10.7] 16.5] 22.1| 27.0) 454
28,/ 13.6; 81] 36'\— 0.4/4 08/4 02} 24] 6.5) 11.7] 17.5] 23.2) 281] 451
Oct. 8, 144) 89} 44|/ 13/— 01/— 0.8] 34] 7.5) 128] 18.6) 24.2) 29.1 449
18,, 15.2] 97) 53) 23) E1l #8! 45) 8.7! 13.9] 19.8) 95.4) 302 446
28,| 16.2) 10.7) 6.3) 3.3} 22! 30) 5.7/ 99 15.2} 21.0] 26.7] 315} 444
Nov. 7,/ 17.3; 11.8} 7.4) 45! 3.4] 43] 7.0] 11.3) 16.6) 224] 98.0 328] 442
17,| 18.5} 13.1] 87] 59] 4.8] 5.7] 85] 128, 189! 24.0| 996] 343] .440
27,| 19.9} 14.5) 10.2) 7.4/ 64) 7.4! 10.2) 14.5, 19.9) 25.6 31.3) 36.0 438
Dec. 7,/ 21.5} 16.1] 11.8) 90] 8.1] 9.1] 120] 16.3) 21.7] 27.6) 33.1] 378 437
17,) 23.1} 17.7) 135} 107] 9.9} 11.0] 13.9] 18.3) 23.7] 29.5] 35.0] 39.7 436
27,|—24.7/—19.4|—15.2|—12.5!—11.7/—12.8]—15.7'—20.2 —25.6]—31.5|—37.0|—41.6! 6.435

The last column contains the logarithms of the decimal of a day required by the Sun to describe one second in longitude.

VIE

An Attempt to discriminate and describe the Animals that made. the
Fossil Footmarks of the United States, and especially of New
England.

By EDWARD HITCHCOCK, D. D., LL. D.,

PRESIDENT OF AMHERST COLLEGE, AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL THEOLOGY AND GEOLOGY.

(Communicated to the Academy, April 29th, 1848.)

Ir is now about thirteen years since my attention was called to
the fossil footmarks of New England; and every successive year
has brought out some new developments of this curious subject.
At first, even by most scientific men, it was regarded with ex-
treme skepticism, and by others with ridicule. But facts, regis-
tered imperishably on tables of stone, have now, for the most part,
given convcition to men of real science, and turned into admira-
tion the scoffs of the superficial. It is now generally admitted,
that the opening of these stony leaves of the earth’s volume, with
their deeply impressed hieroglyphics, has revealed a new chapter
of preadamic history, which all are anxious to peruse. Fully to
decipher it is no easy, although a fascinating, task. Thirteen
years, however, have witnessed some progress in the work; and
my object at this time is to present the most mature results that
have been reached.

I have already, in other places, given such details respecting

18

130 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

the earliest discovery of fossil footmarks, that I shall omit them
here; especially as my object is to give my latest, rather than
my early, views of the subject. I shall, therefore, only mention
the successive developments which my views have undergone.

The footmarks hitherto discovered in the United States out of
New England amount to two or three species only ; and although
I shall describe these in the present paper, yet all the important
characters on which I found my results are derived from those of
the valley of Connecticut River.

The first account ever published of these footmarks was given in
the American Journal of Science for 1836, where I figured and
described seven species; that is, I supposed that these tracks were
made by seven different species of animals. And since I had no
evidence that all of them were not bipeds, and positive evidence
that most of them were, I named the tracks Ornithichnites; but
left the animals themselves unnamed. Five years of further ex-
amination enabled me to swell this list to twenty-seven species ;
of which I gave a description, with drawings of the natural size, in
1841, in my Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts. Up
to that time, however, I had no sure evidence that any of them
were made by quadrupeds. Yet a large proportion of them bore
such a strong resemblance to the tracks of saurian reptiles, that |
denominated them Sauroidichnites; intending, however, by the
term, merely to convey an intimation that they might prove to be
reptilian. To the other tracks I applied the name of Ornithoidich-
nites. In 1841, when, in the Transactions of the Association
of American Geologists, I gave an account of five more species
of tracks, I first ventured to describe one species as of decidedly
quadrupedal origin, namely, the Sauroidichnites Deweyi. In my

Report on Ichnolithology, made to the Association of American

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 131

Geologists and Naturalists at Washington, in 1844, and published
in the forty-seventh volume of the American Journal of Science, I
described four other species of tracks; and in the same work for
July, 1847, Vol. 1V., New Series, I added two additional species.
Several other new species have remained in my possession unde-
scribed, from the pressure of more important duties. My present
memoir will embrace forty-nine species, not simply of footmarks,
but of the animals that made them, so far as their characters can
be ascertained. Of these, twelve were certainly quadrupeds, four
of them probably lizards, two chelonians, and six batrachians ;
two were annelids, or molluscs; three are of doubtful character ;
and the remaining thirty-two species were bipeds, so far as our
present information extends. Eight of them seem to have been
thick-toed tridactylous birds; fourteen others were probably nar-
row-toed tridactylous or tetradactylous birds; two were perhaps
bipedal batrachians; and the remaining eight may have been
birds, but will more probably turn out to have been either lizards
or batrachians. Of these forty-nine species, forty-seven occur in
the valley of Connecticut River, in Massachusetts and Connecticut.

I have little doubt that many will at once pronounce it impossible
that the tracks of so large a number of animals should be distin-
guished in a few quarries in that valley. I shall shortly present the
characteristics of each particular track, from which the comparative
anatomist and zodlogist can judge whether I have multiplied the
species too much. But there are a few general considerations,
which may take away all antecedent improbability as to the ex-
istence and discovery of so large a number.

And, first, we have now found these tracks in at least twenty-
one places, scattered through an extent of nearly eighty miles; that
is, from the Horse Race, three miles above Turner’s Falls in Gill,

132 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

to Middletown in Connecticut. These localities occur at the Horse
Race in Gill; near the ferry at Turner’s Falls, on the Gill shore ;
below the falls, on the same shore; at the dam on the Montague
shore, at the same falls; a mile and a half south of this spot,
in Montague, on the road from Greenfield to Athol, on the east
side of the canal; between the bridges over Connecticut and
Deerfield rivers; at a quarry in the southeast part of Montague;
near Pliny Moody’s house in thé north part of South Hadley; a
mile west from this spot; on the west face of Mount Holyoke,
beneath the trap, at Titan’s Piazza; on the west bank of Connecti-
cut river, at the east foot of Mount Tom, in Northampton ; at South
Hadley canal; at Cabotville ; one mile south of Cabotville, on the
road to Springfield ; at Chicopee Falls ; at a quarry on the west bank
of Connecticut river, in Suffield, near the Enfield bridge ; at Rocky
Hill in Hartford ; at the cove in Wethersfield ; and at a spot one or
two miles further south; at the Chatham quarries ; and two or three
miles west of Middletown. At so many localities, so widely scat-
tered through the valley, we might expect to find the tracks of all
the important species of animals that frequent the shores of an
estuary.

This will be still more obvious, secondly, when we consider
the position of the rocks at many of these localities. Ridges of
trap-rock run nearly north and south through the whole extent of
the sandstone, and by their protrusion they have lifted up the
strata on the east side, while they overlie the sandstone on the
west side. Now, in every instance but one, it is on the east or
upper side of the trap that the tracks occur; and since the sand-
stone strata there are often tilted up from 20° to 50°, we have an
opportunity of examining the edges of successive deposits made

during a great length of time. Often the successive layers lie

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 133

open several rods in thickness, and sometimes, as at Turner’s Falls,
more than a quarter of a mile; and thus we can easily learn what
animals trod upon the deposits through a series of thousands of
years: for we can hardly suppose, that, in such fine sediment as
that which composes these rocks, the accumulations could have
been more than an inch or two each year.

Consider, thirdly, that we usuclly find the tracks limited to a
belt of rock only a few feet wide, which formed the shore of the
ancient estuary. Along this pathway, we should naturally expect
to find the tracks of all the animals that trod those ancient shores.

Suppose, now, that only as many animals of this kind formerly
lived in this valley as now do,—and since the climate was then
tropical, and that was the period when the batrachian, lacertilian,
and chelonian races were greatly developed (to say nothing of
Struthionide), this cannot be regarded as an extravagant supposi-
tion, — might we not expect to find, at so many localities, and on
so many hundred successive layers of rock, as many as forty-seven
species of animals capable of being distinguished by their tracks ?
for we do not suppose that all species can be thus distinguished.
However, it would be strange if I should not have sometimes been
mistaken as to species, where they must be described only from
their tracks, and, in consequence of imperfect specimens, have
made two species out of one. After I have described the whole,
naturalists can better judge on this point ; and my only wish is to
have all species dropped that have not good distinctive characters.
The species which I regard as the most uncertain are the Bron-
tozoum expansum, Steropezoum elegantius, Argozoum Redfieldi-
anum and mininum, Platypterna Deaniana, Ornithopus Adamso-
nus, Plectropus minitans, Trienopus Emmonsianus, Anisopus gra-
cilis, and the three species of Harpagopus. If all these should turn

134 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

out to be varieties of other species, it would reduce the number
to thirty-eight species; thirty-six of which are found in New
England.

Hitherto I have spoken of names given to the tracks. But two
or three years ago, my friend, James D. Dana, Esq., suggested
the desirableness of applying names to the animals that made
the tracks. Accordingly, at the meeting of the Association of
American Geologists and Naturalists in New Haven, in 1845, I pre-
sented a catalogue of all the animals then known through their
tracks, which was printed in the abstract of the proceedings of that
meeting. But as the names were not accompanied by drawings
or descriptions, they would not be allowed as authoritative by the
rules adopted among naturalists; and therefore, in this paper, I
have made several alterations, as well as additions, and have given
full descriptions, as well as outline sketches. And in regard to
the latter | would add, that, for the discrimination of species, they
are better than full-shaded drawings of individual specimens, be-
cause they present more distinctly the essential characters. My
outline drawings, moreover, it should be remarked, are not al-
ways derived from a single specimen. For when a_ particular
part on one specimen was defective, I have copied that part from
other specimens which exhibited it more fully. So that, in fact,
the outline tracks which accompany this paper are, in most cases,
restored tracks; and yet, in general, they are copied from single,
very perfect specimens. In no case is any part supplied by imag-
ination; and hence, in a few instances, I have been obliged to
omit some parts of the track.

My mode of obtaining these outlines, almost without exception,
has been, first to trace them exactly upon plates of mica, laid over

the tracks, several pieces when necessary being fastened togeth-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 135

er, and afterwards to copy them on thin paper placed over the
mica. When reduced subsequently, the proportions were accu-
rately preserved.

I ought here, however, to consider an opinion, which I have
met occasionally, and which goes against the whole system of giv-
ing scientific names to fossil tracks, or to the animals that made
them. It is considered a useless show of learning, because it
is supposed that the data afforded by tracks alone are not definite
and full enough to discriminate species, which can be done only by
the discovery of their skeletons.

I take a different view of this subject, and maintain, that, by
the principles of fossil zodlogy, we are fully justified in classifying
and naming animals from the evidence of their tracks alone ; and in
support of this opinion, I offer the following reasons.

In the first place, no naturalist who has seen a good suite of these
fossil footmarks will doubt that they prove the existence of certain
animals during the deposition of the new red sandstone of the
Connecticut valley. Many are skeptical on the subject till they
have actually seen good specimens ; but a glance of the eye usually
carries the conviction to the mind, that the tracks were made by
animals, almost as certainly as if their skeletons were standing
before the observer.

In the second place, these extinct animals have never been
described. Very few vertebral animals have been found in the
new red sandstone of any country, and none in that rock in our
country, save fishes. Those which have left only their tracks, there-
fore, deserve names as much as any other animals, living or fossil, if
we can find out what are their characters.

In the third place, every one who examines these tracks admits
at once that they were made by several distinct species of animals.

136 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

He sees that some of them were impressed by bipeds, others by
quadrupeds; some by thick-toed animals, and others by narrow-
toed ; some by three-toed, others by four-toed, and others by five-
toed animals; some by long and narrow heeled, others by short
and broad heeled, and others by heelless animals. Nor can he, by
any effort of the imagination, conceive how they all were made by
a single animal. I never knew a man who attempted to do this.
Let any one examine the outline drawings accompanying this paper,
and he will be satisfied on this point. Now there must be some
very decided characters in these tracks, that produce this conviction
of differences in the animals that made them. And why may not
these peculiarities be expressed on paper, and thus in fact become
the basis of generic and specific characters? ‘True, they are im-
perfect; but so are the characters of a large part of the genera
and species of fossil animals and plants.

In the fourth place, the feet of animals furnish excellent charac-
ters for distinguishing classes, orders, genera, and species. ‘To be
satisfied of this point, let any one compare the feet of mammiferous
animals with those of reptiles; or the latter with those of birds ; or
among the Mammalia, the feet of the Ruminantia with those of
the Carnivora, or Marsupialia; or, among birds, the feet of the
Gralle with those of the Passeres, or Palmipedes ; or the feet of
the kangaroo, or Platypus, with those of the tiger or hog; or those
of the Struthio Rhea with those of the eagle, or albatross, or
jacana. Indeed, the characters of several of the orders of birds are
drawn from their feet. Many other animals could, to a considera-
ble extent, be classified on the same basis. When we attempt in
the same way to distinguish genera and species, we are met by too
many exceptions to make such characters an easy and safe guide.

But in the absence of better distinctions, they might be used with

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. iy7/

tolerable success ; so true is the correlation between different parts
of animals. Hitherto, as I shall endeavour to show in this paper,
only a small part of the characters that have a permanent value in
distinguishing the feet have been pointed out, merely because they
are not needed for living animals. Nevertheless, where only a
mould or cast of the foot remains, they may be of great service.

I might add, in this connection, that the classes of animals which
seem to have made the fossil footmarks are of all others most
easily distinguished by their feet; I mean reptiles and_ birds.
The chief difficulty in the case lies in the fact, that, in the red-sand-
stone period, some of these animals seem to have differed not a
little in their structure from the tribes now living. The sure
laws of comparative anatomy, however, are not violated.

In the fifth place, many fossil animals have been described from
characters no more numerous, or definite, than those derived from
their feet alone. A single bone or the fragment of a bone is,
indeed, sometimes alone sufficient to enable the comparative anato-
mist to construct the whole animal. But it is not every bone that
will do this ; and as to plants, it is still more difficult to make out
their true place in the botanical scale from single parts. And we
know that, in many instances, animals have been named and de-
scribed which were subsequently found to have been referred even
to the wrong class; as, for example, the Pterodactyle and Zeuglo-
don. Indeed, the possession of an entire skeleton is not always
sufficient to distinguish the species, nor even the genus (Ossemens
Fossiles, Vom. Ill. p. 524, 3d ed.). Fossilization usually obscures
the characters of organic beings ; and every possible degree of un-
certainty may be found in the catalogues of fossil animals. Yet in
all cases, except the one under consideration, the principle seems to
have been acted on, to give a name to an unknown animal, exhum-

19

138 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

ed from the rocks, according to all the light that can be obtained.
If the zodlogist can only be satisfied that the animal once existed,
and has not already been described, he feels justified in fixing upon
it a name, which shall serve, at least, till a better one can be
obtained. Why, then, should not the same principles guide us in
respect to the beings that produced the fossil footmarks? Even
if we admit that there is more uncertainty in our conclusions
than in any case where a portion of the animal is preserved,
(which, I fancy, no one who studies ichnolithology will maintain,)
I do not see that the principle by which names are given is
different.

Baron Cuvier has finely described the definiteness and certainty
with which we can infer the character of an animal from its track,
although when he wrote fossil footmarks were unknown. ‘“ Any
one,” says he, “who observes merely the print of a cloven hoof,
may conclude that it has been left by a ruminant animal, and
regard the conclusion as equally certain with any other in physics
or morals. Consequently, this single footmark clearly indicates to
the observer the forms of the teeth, of all the leg-bones, thighs,
shoulders, and of the trunk of the body of the animal which left
the mark. It is much surer than all the marks of Zadig.”

In the sixth place, we have the highest authority for applying
names to animals whose tracks are the only evidence of their ex-
istence.

This was done by Professor Kaup in the case of the Chirothe-
rium. True, Professor Owen has subsequently given the name of
Labyrinthidon to a batrachian whose bones he has examined, and
which he conjectures to have been identical with the Chirotherium.
But if I understand the rules of priority in regard to names adopt-

ed by naturalists, if no doubt exists as to the identity of the

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 139

Chirotherium and Labyrinthidon, the former name must be
retained, and the latter dropped, and Professor Owen’s right to
apply another name depends solely on the doubt of their identity.
And should that identity be hereafter made out, I do not see why
his name ought not to be superseded by that of Professor Kaup.
At any rate, I have never seen any intimation from the naturalists
of Europe, that the latter had not good grounds for giving a name to
a track-discovered animal.

A second example may be derived from Professor Owen. In
his Report on British Reptiles, he gives the name Testudo Dun-
cant to the animal that made the tracks on the new red sandstone
of Scotland, which were described by Dr. Duncan in 1828. And
in doing this, who can show,—who in Europe has attempted to
show, — that Mr. Owen has not strictly conformed to the rules of
zoological nomenclature ?

Finally, convenience in description imperiously demands the ap-
plication of names to these vanished animals of a former world,
who have left only their footmarks behind. ‘The naturalist cannot
intelligibly describe the different sorts of these tracks, without giv-
ing to them distinctive characters; and unless he regards them all
as varieties of one species, — which no scientific man will do, —
how can he speak of them without the most inconvenient circum-
locution, if he affixes no names either to the tracks or to the ani-
mals? Until he do this, he will find himself in inextricable em-
barrassment.

Upon the whole, I am led to the conclusion, that, in attempting
to devise and affix names to the animals that made our fossil foot-
marks, if not to the tracks themselves, I am conforming to the
strictest scientific principles. I may fail in drawing out their dis-

tinctive characters correctly; I may mistake varieties for species,

140 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

or confound different species together. But to such mistakes he
who describes living, or other fossil animals, is always liable ; and it
cannot be an unpardonable offence, where the difficulty of correct
discrimination is so much greater. I desire to have my names and
distinctive characters judged of by the strictest rules of zodlogy and
comparative anatomy ; and if I am not right, let others make me so.

I beg leave to state here, however, that I do not base the names
which I propose upon a supposed knowledge of the true place of
the animals in the zodlogical scale ; but rather upon some peculiar-
ity of the feet, or supposed resemblance to known objects. So
that should the animals be shown by subsequent discoveries to be
very different from what I suppose them, still their generic and
specific names will be equally unobjectionable.

The way is now prepared for enumerating and describing those
characters, derived almost wholly from their footmarks, by which I
propose to discriminate the lost animals that once trod the shores
of this country, and particularly of that ancient estuary which ex-
tended from Long Island Sound across Connecticut and Massa-
chusetts.

1. Distinction between the thick-toed, or pachydactylous, and the
narrow-toed, or leptodactylous, tracks. —'This distinction is very
striking. ‘The former show moulds or casts of toes, of great
width, with distinct claws and protuberances, corresponding, prob-
ably, to the phalanges. ‘The latter class, with a few exceptions
belonging to intermediate species, probably, show very narrow
toes, in which neither claws nor phalangeal protuberances can
be distinguished. Sometimes the toes are very narrow, appear-
ing almost as if the mud had been impressed by the blade of a
knife ; certainly by a toe not thicker than those of some delicate

species of lizards.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 141

It has been thought by some, that the difference between these
two sorts of tracks was the result, not of a difference in the feet of
the animals, but of the state of the mud impressed by them ; that
is, in the case of the narrow-toed tracks, the mud is supposed to
have slid back so as to narrow the impression. That the mud
did thus more or less collapse, in some cases, is evident. But
it will not, in my opinion, explain the broad difference between
these two sorts of tracks; and for the following reasons.

This supposition regards all the tracks as made by thick-toed
animals. If so, only the mud near the surface would slide back
and bring the margins of the impressions near together; and
where that impression extends some inches in depth, as it does
sometimes, the inferior layers of the narrow-toed tracks ought to
be broader; but this is never the case to any great extent. As
the track is at the surface (in respect to the width of the toes), so
it is on all the layers. Secondly, no sliding back of the mud,
after a thick-toed animal trod upon it, would obliterate the distinct
phalangeal protuberances, without distorting the track in other re-
spects. Thirdly, both sorts of tracks are not unfrequently found
upon the same layer of rock, as at Wethersfield, Northampton, and
Gill; and each exhibits its peculiar characteristics. Fourthly, the
feet of living animals exhibit similar differences. Compare, for
instance, the feet of the Struthionide with those of the Ardea,
or Charadrius; or those of the thick-toed frogs with those of the
Iguana, &c. Why, then, should we not look for diversities equally
great among the fossil animals ?

This character is a very important one in the classification of
these animals. The group which I have denominated Struthi-
onide is beautifully distinguished from all others in this way ;
they being all pachydactylous. For a long time I had supposed

142 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

that no others were so; but some of the quadrupeds, it appears, are
almost equally entitled to this name, and the recently discovered
Otozoum is eminently pachydactylous, although probably a batra-
chian.

2. Winged feet.— Two species of the pachydactylous animals
appear to me to have been wing-footed, like the American coot
and the grebe ; for the membrane seems to have extended to the
tip of the claw, as in the grebe. Their tracks are quite shallow,
and the toes of great width, as distinctly lobate as those of the
coot. The margin of the track appears as if a membrane had
made a slight impression ; but the whole depression has not that
rounded form which is exhibited in the other pachydactylous tracks.
Hence I have separated two species into a distinct genus on this
ground. And yet it is possible to conceive such to have been
the semifluid state of the mud when the track was made that
the bottom of the depression beneath the animal’s foot filled up
in part, and the margin also partially slid inwards. Yet in such
case the claw, it seems to me, would be scarcely affected at all;
whereas, in fact, the peculiarity above described is most striking in
that part of the track; and at present | incline to the opinion, that
this character is to be relied upon for a generic distinction.

3. Number of toes. — This would seem at first view to be one of
the best of characters ; since in living animals the number of toes
is rather constant in different classes of animals. But it requires
a good deal of care not to be deceived in respect to the actual num-
ber of toes in the fossil footmarks. In living animals, especially
birds, the hind toe is usually articulated to the tarso-metatarsus
above its extremity, so that it often does not reach the ground, or
only its extremity does so. And in the fossil footmarks we some-

times find that only the extreme point made an impression; and

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 143

that, too, only upon the uppermost layer. While the other toes
seem to have depressed the layers of mud an inch or two, or more,
in depth, this one reaches only a slight distance downward.
Hence we often obtain specimens, apparently very perfect, in
which the hind toe is wanting, when in fact it was present on a
higher layer. The same liability to deception occurs in some cases
when a short toe was attached to some part of a long heel, as it is
in some reptiles. It might be only very rarely that it made an im-
pression, save perhaps upon the highest layer.

The changes that take place in tracks in a vertical direction, that
is, on successive layers of rock, is one of the most fruitful sources
of error as to their true character and the number of toes. I have
specimens which show the same track, or parts of it, to the depth
of four or five inches; and if such a rock be split in different places,
it will often show considerable diversity of forms, and yet it may
be that all of them shall be quite distinct ; so that, if we have only
one layer, it is very difficult often to determine whether it was the
identical layer on which the animal trod, or one above or below it.
In following a track downward, the hind toe, if it had one, usually
first disappears; next the heel, then the lateral toes, while the cen-
tral one sinks the deepest.

In the plates annexed, I have given several examples of the
changes that occur in tracks in a vertical direction, as they are
shown upon successive layers of the rock. These, however, I ought
to remark, are rather extreme cases. Plate 15, figs. 10-13, exhibits
a track of T'rienopus Baileyanus on four successive layers, the whole
about two inches in thickness, fig. 10 being the uppermost layer.
The dotted lines around the heel will be described in a subsequent
part of this paper. Figs. 14-16 of the same plate show the
Trienopus Emmonsianus on successive layers, but little more than

144, AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

an inch in thickness. In this case, the three toes, near their roots,
produce the appearance of a heel on the inferior layers; probably
because, being so near together, all the mud between them was de-
pressed together. Figs. 17-19 of the same plate exhibit a track
of the hind and fore foot of Plectropus longipes, so united as to
seem to be only one track. Nor is there any evidence, from this
specimen, of two tracks having been made almost in the same spot.
But the specimen of the same species, very analogous to this,
shown on Plate 10, figs. 1-3, as seen on different layers, makes it
almost certain that they are tracks of the hind and fore foot in
both instances. The more detailed account of these specimens
will be reserved until I come to describe the Plectropus longipes.
The above statements show us the great difficulty, in some cases,
of ascertaining the precise layer of rock on which the animal
walked. Where the surface was considerably firm, and quite differ-
ent materials were drifted in afterwards, this question is not diffi-
cult to decide ; for then the impression extends very little distance
up or down, and is quite imperfect, save on one layer, which of
course will be regarded as the one originally trodden upon. And for-
tunately such is the case with the larger proportion of tracks. But
where the materials were very soft, it would seem as if the toes
sank considerably into the mud, and were withdrawn without much
disturbance ; though afterwards the edges of the impression thus
made approached each other. In no other way can we explain the
extreme narrowness of some of the tracks found on the fine red shale,
of Wethersfield especially. There, as already remarked, the impres-
sions sometimes extend through from one to four inches, and the lay-
ers are bent down so as to be almost perpendicular to the surface.
Some have thought that in this case we could determine how far
the animal sank, by finding where the depressed Jaminz of rock

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 145

cease to be fractured, and come out in regular curves, when they
are split asunder. As far, indeed, as the foot did sink, we should
not expect the rock would cleave in curved layers. But may not
the narrow toes have bent down the layers so much, beneath where
they reached, that they (i. e. the layers) would meet in an angle
at the bottom so acute, that, when the rock was split open, they
would break across rather than cleave asunder? In such a case,
we should infer by this rule that the animal sank deeper than was
the fact. And, indeed, I have sometimes found the print of a lateral
toe, for instance, showing a perfectly continuous lamination across its
depression, while that of the middle toe, nearly an inch deeper, was
fractured. Although, therefore, this principle does help us somewhat
in determining the layer on which the animal trod, it cannot be
implicitly followed. If possible, we should obtain dissections of the
track from top to bottom; and by combining the impressions on
the successive layers, we shall probably get an accurate view of the
entire foot. On one layer we may find a mere digitigrade, and ‘on
another or higher layer a plantigrade, impression; on one a heel,
or a fourth toe, and on another neither. I think it true in general,
however, that the layer on which the animal trod was usually
nearer the bottom of the impressions than the top.

Those who have seen the manner in which successive layers of
copper, deposited in the process of electro-metallurgy, retain the
slightest markings upon the surface, will readily conceive ‘that fine
mud would do the same; less perfectly, indeed, but still so as
to preserve the form of a track through many successive layers.
On this ground, they will not be surprised that several layers often
present the track with so nearly equal distinctness, that the one
originally impressed can no more be distinguished, than the film

20

146 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

of copper that was first deposited can be from those superimposed
afterwards.

The oblique direction in which the impressions often pass
through successive layers, while their distinctness is not impaired,
is a matter of surprise, and not so easily explained. Sometimes
the track seems to advance, and sometimes to recede, and some-
times to move laterally on the successive layers, taking the lowest
one as the fixed basis. ‘This might proceed in part from the ob-
lique direction in which the foot of the animal was exerted; as
when running, for instance, the impression would be made so as
to reach the successive layers farther and farther backward, be-
cause the legs incline forward; or suppose the surface to be in-
clined, and the animal going directly or obliquely up or down upon
it. It is clear that the impression, in such case, would be com-
municated to the successive layers obliquely to the surface, so as
to produce the phenomena which we actually observe. Again, if
the tracks be made beneath the water, on light, loamy mud, it is
easy to see that waves or currents might produce slight movements
in the successive deposits, without destroying the impressions. Or
if the surface were slightly inclined, gravity would produce the
same effect on such mobile materials.

In general, we find but little difference in the size of the tracks
on successive layers ; yet, upon the whole, the tendency is rather
to enlarge downwards. Decidedly the most striking example of
this which I have noticed is represented in Plate 17, figs. 3 and
4, which are one half the natural size. Fig. 3 shows a track of
Ornithopus gallinaceus, or of Trienopus Emmonsianus, | am not
certain which, on an upper surface ; fig. 4 shows the same, as it
appears in relief, only one inch lower. ‘The latter is the most dis-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 147

tinct ; and hence I doubt not that the upper track is smaller chiefly
from the filling in of materials upon the original impression.

These examples, to which I might add more, show how careful
we ought to be not to confound the impressions of the same track
on different layers with different species. Nothing but long expe-
rience in ichnolithological researches will prevent such mistakes.

The number of toes (to return to the character which we were
considering) varies from three to five; though, if the sketches on
Plate 18 are the tracks of animals, we might call them didactylous.
But they are so anomalous that I leave them out of the account,
especially as they may belong to invertebrate tribes, if they are
indeed real tracks.

From the details that have been given, we see that this char-
acter (the number of toes), although important, is in some cases
of difficult determination.

4, Absolute and relative length of the toes. —In these characters
there is a good deal of constancy; and hence they afford good
grounds for specific and even generic distinctions. There are, how-
ever, some difficulties in the determination of these points. One is,
the uncertainty that often exists, whether the track before us exhib-
its the very surface on which the animal trod. If it be above or
below that plane, the toes will always be too short, although their
relative length (the most important character) may not be essential-
ly altered. But the greatest difficulty lies in determining how far
backward the toes extend; that is, where the toes end and the
heel begins. In the thick-toed tracks, this point can generally be
decided with accuracy ; though it hardly can be in the case of the
anomalous Otozoum. But in the narrow-toed tracks, especially if
they are digitigrade, and if their divarication is small, we can get

only an approximate measurement of the length of the toes. The

148 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

rule which I have usually followed, where it could be adopted, has
been, to measure the lengths of the toes of the leptodactylous
tracks, from the point where the lateral front toes prolonged back-
ward cross each other. ‘This at least does well for the relative, if
not for the absolute, length of the toes.

These characters are more important and more easily ascertained
in those tracks which have only three toes directed forwards,
and these nearly straight, than in those with a greater number di-
rected forward, or which are much curved. In the first-named
tracks, I find the fourth or hind toe always the shortest ; the inner
toe, of the three directed forward, the next longest ; the outer one,
still longer ; and the middle one, the longest of all. ‘This, I believe,
agrees with the relative length of the toes of birds. Where four
toes are directed forward, as Plate 15, figs. 6-9, Plate 16, figs. 4-6,
and also Plate 11, figs. 1 and 2, the same order is observed. It is
generally the same in the five-toed species, as Plate 13, fig. 2,
and Plate 14, fig. 1. But sometimes, as in Plate 16, fig. 2, the out-
er toe but one is longest, and the outer one much the shortest, as in
many of the living Ranide.

5. Divarication of the lateral toes.— In many living species, as,
for example, the Palmipedes among birds, this is a very constant
and reliable characteristic. Nor is this constancy confined to the
web-footed animals. Where the toes are free, they diverge at a
pretty constant angle ; and so it seems to be with the fossil foot-
marks. I speak now of those where three toes are directed for-
ward ; for the chief application and use of this character are con-
fined to these. They do, indeed, diverge a few degrees more or
less in different specimens; but the variation is so limited, that a
practised eye often recognizes a species by this mark. The an-
gle is measured by lines drawn from the tips of the lateral toes to

the middle of their posterior extremity.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 149

6. Angle made by the inner and middle toe, and the outer and
middle toe. — These angles are perhaps not quite as constant as that
between the lateral toes; for in treading upon the mud, the strain
upon the foot seems sometimes to have varied a little the position
of the middle toe. Still, this character ought not to be neglected.
In some instances, the curvature of the toes is so great, that it is
difficult to measure the angles described under this and the preced-
ing heads. But I have made it a rule to draw the lines forming
the angles, from the middle of the toes, at their origin, to their tips.

7. Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral ones. — This is
not exactly equivalent to the difference in length between the mid-
dle and lateral toes, because the middle toe generally does not
reach backward so far as the others. It is an important and con-
stant character, and serves to distinguish several species; as the
Argozoum dispari-digitatum from the A. pari-digitatum.

8. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes. — This is deter-
mined by the angle of divarication and the length of the lateral
toes ; but as it would need the solution of a case in trigonometry,
it is easier to measure the distance ; for it is useful in comparing one
track with another.

9. Distance between the tips of the middle and the inner and
outer toes. —'These elements are also determined by the previous
ones ; but it is more convenient to measure than to calculate them.
It is obvious that they are among the permanent characters, and
therefore useful for settling the genus and species.

10. Position and direction of the hind toe. — This character ap-
plies only to those tracks that have three toes directed forward, and
a single one behind. And it is obvious that the latter may have
a great variety of positions and directions, and furnish, therefore,
(since these characters are constant in the same species,) good

150 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

indices of different species. In many species of birds, the hind toe
is simply the outer toe prolonged backwards, bringing the fourth
toe (pouce of the French) always on the inside of the foot. And
this is its situation in the fossil tracks ; as in the Ornithopus Adam-
sonus, gallinaceus, gracilior, and loripes, Plate 8, figs. 1-4. In
the Plectropus minitans and longipes it is short, and proceeds from
a long heel, a little behind the origin of the toes, at right angles
nearly to the heel, like the spur of the domestic cock. Plate 8,
fig. 4, and Plate 9, fig. 3. In the Trienopus Baileyanus (Plate
10, fig. 4), it is very slender, proceeding from about the same place
on a long heel, but directed forwards, so as to make quite an
acute angle with the heel. In the Trienopus Emmonsianus (Plate
10, fig. 5), it proceeds from the end of the heel, and is directed
somewhat backwards, so as to form with the heel on the anterior
side an obtuse angle. In the Polemarchus gigas (Plate 9, fig. 1),
this toe, which is quite stout, proceeds laterally from a very thick,
rounded heel, at right angles to the axis of the foot. When this
toe runs directly backward, it is difficult to distinguish it from a
narrow heel; as in the Macropterna rhynchosauroidea, Plate 15,
fiz. 9. In this case I have indeed considered this projection as a
heel, as the generic name implies. But the track of the snow-
bird (Fringilla Hudsonia) is almost exactly like fig. 9, except the
short outer toe; and it is a hind toe that makes the posterior im-
pression. (See Transactions of the Association of American Geol-
ogists and Naturalists, Plate 11, fig. 8.)

In dissecting some specimens of Plectropus, 1 have been struck
with another fact. On the highest layer the fourth toe appears to
project at right angles with the heel, and some distance back from
the roots of the other toes. But a little farther down we find its

extremity turned backward, and its other end forward, until at

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 151

length it lies nearly on a line of the outer toe backward, which is
a characteristic of another genus, the Ornithopus ; and as the heel
frequently disappears, the track is likely to be confounded with the
Ornithopus gallinaceus (Plate 8, fig. 1), although generally they
appear very much unlike. This singular change of position in the
hind toe I find it very difficult to explain by any of the hypotheses
which I have suggested above, in describing the fourth character.

11. Character of the claw.— This embraces its length and
width ; yet, with one exception, the length only is noticed. In the
genus Athyopus, the width of the claw indicates, if I mistake not,
that it was winged. It is only in the pachydactylous tracks that
the length of the claw, if it existed, can be ascertained, except
in the Argozoum Redfieldianum, where a single specimen reveals
it; and I doubt not it exists in all the leptodactylous feet, whose
extremities are always acuminated.

The ratio between the length of the claw and that of the foot,
in all the species where claws have been measured, is as follows: —

Brontozoum giganteum_. . ; : . 9.9

“ Sillimanium , . 6.75

fe expansum sy , : : é 5.9

ee gracillimum t : : 5 peor,

§ parallelum . ; : : 5 so
fEthyopus Lyellianus : : . : eG

i minor ; C ; : . 5.7
Argozoum Redfieldianum . . : ae Oe

These numbers do not differ from one another more, perhaps, than
can be explained by uncertainties of measurement, which in the
case of the claw must be considerable. Hence we may conclude
that the length of the claw varies in the same proportion as that

of the foot; at least, as nearly so as in living animals.

152 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

12. Width of the toes. —1 have attempted to apply this charac-
ter only to the pachydactylous tracks, as the others are so nearly
alike, and so narrow, that no importance would attach to the meas-
urements. The numbers given in the description of the several
species of thick-toed animals are obtained from the same speci-
men, and merely indicate the greatest and least breadth of the
phalangeal protuberances. Usually these measurements can be
made with a good degree of accuracy, and therefore this character
is one of considerable importance.

The following numbers express the ratio between the average
width of the toes in these several tracks, and the length of the
foot : —

Brontozoum giganteum_ . 5 ; ; : 8.2
se Sillimanium : : : : EF LOG
gc expansum. : : : - 5.8
ce gracillimum c : ; ; 7 TG:2
a parallelum. S A ; : 7.5
/Ethyopus Lyellianus , : ; : A bre:
ce minor . 5 ; : : é 5.3

It is clear that the great differences in these ratios cannot be
explained by inaccuracies of measurement; and hence the thick-
ness or breadth of the toes is a good character by which to dis-
tinguish species ; as, indeed, an inspection of the outlines of the
pachydactylous tracks on Plates 1, 2, and 3, will evince.

13. Number and length of the phalangeal expansions. — These
points can of course be determined only in the thick-toed spe-
cies ; but then they are of great importance, especially the number
of expansions on different toes; for in living animals it is well
known that this character determines sometimes the class to which

an individual belongs, and in the fossil footmarks this is the main

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 153

argument that leads to the conclusion that some of them were
made by birds.

In estimating the number of phalanges from the tubercular ex-
pansions in the footmarks, I have supposed that the ungual and
penultimate phalanges would make but one impression; and in
general this conclusion is borne out by an examination of the feet
of living animals.

It is also sometimes difficult to distinguish between impressions
made by the phalanges, and those of the metacarpal or metatarsal
bones. ‘The tracks of the anomalous Otozoum Moodii exhibit this
difficulty more distinctly than any other, as the detailed description
of that species will show. Plate 12.

The number of phalangeal impressions on the tracks is greafést
in the outer toe in all cases yet met with; and hence they are
usually less distinct there, — so indistinct often that their measure-
ment is difficult; and, indeed, the mere length of these impres-
sions has not as yet been applied as a generic or specific dis-
tinction.

14. Character of the heel. — The fossil footmarks show much
variety in this part, and being a constant part, it is of much
value in determining the nature of the animal. In very many
cases, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones seem to have been placed
in so oblique a position, that neither they, nor the integuments be-
neath them, reached the ground; and we have accordingly only the
imprint of the toes, as in Platypterna tenuis (Plate 7, fig. 2) and
Argozoum minimum (Plate 6, fig. 5) ; that is, the feet were digiti-
grade. Indeed, in some cases the middle toe seems to have been
articulated so high to the metatarsus or metacarpus, that it reached
the ground only a good deal in advance, a striking example of
which is shown in the T'ypopus abnormis (Plate 10, fig. 6).

21

154 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

A more common case is where the cushion beneath the meta-
carpal or metatarsal bones made an impression, but the bones
themselves left no distinct imprint. This was usually the case
with the pachydactylous tracks. But in two species at least, viz.
the Brontozoum Sillimanium and B. parallelum, a distinct impression
remains of the double-headed extremity of what was probably a
tarso-metatarsal bone (Plate 3, figs. 2 and 4); for, besides these two
rounded impressions, we have the four others in the outer toe
which all the other tracks exhibit. Many of the leptodactylous
tracks exhibit an impression of the cushion beneath the bones that
lie behind the toes, forming a heel which slopes upward and back-
ward so gradually, that it is impossible to say exactly where it
terminates. For the mud yielded a little beyond the margin of
the track, and this fact, in many instances, is a great hindrance to
finding out the exact size and shape of the foot, and moreover
is the grand difficulty of giving a satisfactory representation of
these tracks. For this reason, I have in many instances, in
the accompanying sketches, left the posterior part of the heel
without an outline; as in Platypterna tenuis, Ornithopus Adam-
sanus, and some others.

In other cases, the posterior margin of a rounded heel is strongly
marked, not, as we might at first suppose, because the animal sunk
deeper on account of the peculiar state of the mud, but because it
was a heavier animal, and one that trod more upon his heel; for
we find the same deep impression wherever it trod. Examples of
this sort are Polemarchus gigas, Palamopus Dananus, and some-
times T'rienopus Emmonsianus, Plates 9, 10, and 11.

A few species present us with a heel of a very peculiar character,
of whose exact nature I am yet in doubt. Just behind the point

where the toes originate, the surface in the track rises above the

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 155

general level of the stone, while behind this ridge is a depression, in
the bottom of which are minute ridges, radiating backward a consid-
erable distance, which I have represented on Plate 5 by lines, the
whole heel having the appearance of a brush. I formerly suggest-
ed, that this might have been produced by coarse hairs upon the
animal’s heel ; but I now give up that idea, and imagine it to have
been produced by radiating rugosities on the heel, or by the partial
adhesion of the mud to the heel, as the animal raised its foot, con-
joined with the subsequent action of the water ; and I have some-
times thought it possible that the whole might be merely slight rip-
ple-marks. But whatever may have been the origin of these marks,
we may be sure that a large and rather remarkable heel belonged
to the animal.

The long and narrow heel is a common one in these footmarks.
In many instances, it seems to have been made by a long metatarsal
or metacarpal bone, which did not lie horizontally upon the ground,
but was inclined at various angles, according to the manner in
which the animal pressed upon it, and moved forward. Hence the
imprint would vary in different specimens, and its posterior termi-
nation be difficult to fix exactly. ‘This character is shown on figs.
2 and 3, Plate 9, of Plectropus minitans, where it is obvious that
the heel lay in a sloping position. In the Anomapus scambus the
whole of the tarsal or carpal joint is sometimes exhibited, and a part
of the fore leg, as in Plate 13, fig. 4. At other times we see a
graceful swelling out of the heel a little in advance of the tarsal or
carpal joint, as in figs. 3 and 1 of Anomepus scambus. The same
is sometimes seen on Plectropus minitans, Plate 10, fig. 1.

The long heel of the hind foot of Macropterna, as already ob-
served, may have been a toe; indeed, it bears a strong resem-
blance to the posterior toe on the hind foot of the Phyllurus Milu

156 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

and Cuvieri (Dictionnaire Classique d’ Histoire Naturelle, Plate 120),
which are lizards.

In some of the quadrupeds, the heel differs in the hind and fore
feet ; as, for example, the Macropterna recta and divaricans (Plate
15, figs. 6 and 7); the one being long, and the other rounded.
The heel of the T'ypopus abnormis appears to come under the long
variety ; but it is very anomalous (Plate 10, fig. 6); as also is that
of the unnamed track on Plate 15, fig. 2.

The difference between the heel of the fore and hind foot is like-
wise well exhibited in the Anomapus scambus, and Ancyropus
heteroclitus, Plate 13, figs. 1-6, and Plate 15, figs. 3 and 4. This
character alone would form a good one for generic, as well as spe-
cific distinctions.

15. Irregularities of the under side of the foot. —'The depth of
the impression in the rock, made by the different parts of the foot,
show which of them projected farthest downward. In this way
we ascertain that usually the middle toe was rather the most prom-
inent on the bottom of the foot; at least, most of the weight of
the animal pressed upon it; for we find, as already stated, that as
we cleave off successive layers of the rock, the middle toe remains
longer than the others. And of the middle toe, its central parts
make the deepest impression ; showing that that part bent down-
wards most. Of the toes, the fourth, or hind one (where three are
directed forward), disappears first; showing that its articulation
was higher up than the others. The heel vanishes next ; proving
that it was placed on a higher level than the body of the foot.

One cannot inspect a series of specimens of footmarks without
seeing at once that a part of the animals that impressed them
were plantigrade and a part digitigrade. Of the former, all the
pachydactylous tracks (Brontozoum and Otozoum) are examples ;

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 157

of the latter, the genera Argozoum and Platypterna, on Plates 6
and 7, furnish examples.

But there is an intermediate and remarkable variety, in which
the heel and toes made a deep impression, but a space between
them is left unimpressed, and not unfrequently rising above the
original surface, either in a curve or a ridge. We have examples
of this in Steropezoum ingens and elegans (Plate 5), in Harpedac-
tylus concameratus (Plate 14, fig. 3), and in Trienopus Baileyanus
and Emmonsianus (Plate 10, figs. 4 and 5). In such cases it can-
not be doubted that the long os calcis, or sometimes perhaps the
carpal or tarsal bone, which formed the heel, was so articulated to
the other bones of the foot as to constitute an arch, or even to
form an angle, considerably acute, as in some quadrupeds ; so that
when the mud was impressed by the heel and the toes, it would
be crowded upwards between them. This would exactly explain
the appearance of some of the tracks above referred to; and it
gives us an accurate view of the character of the bottom of the
foot, and to some extent of its osseous structure. Sometimes the
elevation of the rock, behind the toes, is irregular; indicating a
corresponding irregularity on the bottom of the foot, as in Sterope-
zoum elegans, Plate 5, fig. 2.

16. Versed sine of the curvature of the toes.— Some species of
the footmarks are remarkable for the curvature of the toes. In the
tracks with three toes directed forward, the middle toe always
curves towards the line of direction on which the animal was ad-
vancing, and the lateral toes usually curve outwards near their
tips. (See the figures of Steropezoum ingens and elegans, Argozoum
Redfeldianum, the species of Platypterna, and especially of Orni-
thopus loripes, Plate 5, figs. 1 and 2, Plate 6, fig. 1, Plate 7,
figs. 1-4, and Plate 8, fig. 3.)

158 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

In Polemarchus gigas, the outer toe curves slightly inwards like
the others (Plate 9, fig. 1). In most of the four and five-toed
tracks, the curvature is all one way, so as to make the curves of
the several toes somewhat concentric ; sometimes towards the line
of direction, as in the species of Harpedactylus (Plate 14, figs.
2 and 3); at other times it is away from the line of direction, as
in Anomepus Barrattii (Plate 14, fig. 1) and Ancyropus heterocli-
tus (Plate 15, fig. 3). The curvature of the hind toe is usually so
small, that I have not attempted to measure it.

If a straight line be drawn from the root to the tip of the toe, and
another perpendicular to it where the curve is most distant, the
length of this last line, measured from the centre of the toe, I call
the versed sine.

I have sometimes suspected that this curvature resulted from
the position of the animal’s feet in relation to the line of direction ;
so that when it made a muscular effort to urge forwards the body,
it would throw the toes into a curved position. But upon re-
flection, such a movement, it seems to me, would cause the toes
to slide so much, that some vestige of the movement would remain,
which I have never seen. I rather incline to the opinion, there-
fore, that this curvature is the natural state of the foot, and such as
we see in many reptiles.

17. Angle made by the axis of the foot with the line of direc-
tion. — By the line of direction, I mean the course taken by the
animal as it walked along the surface. To determine this accu-
rately, we must have at least three tracks, and if possible four.
The axis of the foot is a line drawn from the middle of the heel
to the tip of the longest toe. Now in some species of animals, as
they walk, these two lines nearly or quite coincide; as in the

Gralle among birds. But in other animals, with short legs, or

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 159

those whose feet diverge from the axis of the body, the divarication
between these lines may be quite large. Nay, in some reptiles
(ex gr. Algyra barbarica, Griffith’s Cuvier, Vol. IX., p. 212, rep-
resented on Plate 23, fig. 6, of this paper), the hind foot
is so situated, that it makes a very obtuse angle with the line
of direction ; and, in fact, the hind and fore feet point in nearly
opposite directions ; so that from the tracks alone one cannot de-
termine in which direction the animal moved. It is obvious, then,
that this is an important character, sufficient to distinguish species,
and even genera.

18. Distance of the middle of the heel, or posterior part of the
foot, from the line of direction. —I might have selected the tip of
the longest toe as the point from which to measure, instead of the
middle of the heel. But whichever extremity of the foot is used,
the position of the other end is fixed, if we know the divarication
between the axis of the foot and line of direction. And it is ob-
vious that the distance to the right and left of the line of direction,
at which we find the tracks, will depend partly and mainly upon
the distance between the points of insertion of the legs upon the
animal’s body, and partly upon their length. Hence it must be a
constant character, and cannot vary much in the same animal, ex-
cept, perhaps, in some of the sprawling quadrupeds. I have never
depended upon it alone to distinguish species ; but I think it might
be safely done, when the character is well marked.

19. Length of the step. — By running the eye over the column
which shows the ratio between the length of the foot and the step,
in the table of the characters of species, annexed to this paper,
it will be seen that there is a general correspondence between the
length of the foot and of the step. Yet the differences in the

ratios make it equally obvious, that some of the animals were short-

160 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

legeed, and some long-legged. Some may suppose that these dif-
ferences only show that the animals moved with different rapidity
at different times. ‘There is, indeed, a considerable diversity in the
length of the step of the same species on different specimens ; but
such cases as the Brontozoum parallelum, Typopus abnormis, Ani-
sopus Deweyanus, and gracilis, at one extreme, and Otozowm
Moodwi at the other, make it evident that each animal had its pecu-
liar type of progress and of stride. Yet there is so much difference
in that stride, at different times, that I have not depended on that
character alone to establish a species.

In giving the length of the step in the quadrupedal tracks, I have
measured from track to track of the same foot.

20. Size of the foot. In a few instances the species of foot-
marks scarcely differ except in size ; the best example of which is
in the genus Steropezoum, whose three species (Plate 5, figs. 1-3)
resemble one another in form, although I have seldom seen the pe-
culiar heel of the ingens and elegans upon the elegantius, and the
first two differ considerably in the ratio between the length of the
middle toe and its extension beyond the two others. ‘The question
arises, whether the smaller species should not be considered as the
young of the other. This is possible. But then we ought to find
specimens of every intermediate size, which has not yet been done.
And besides, is it probable that very young animals would often fre-
quent such thoroughfares as the localities of footmarks seem to
have been, where so many sorts of animals resorted, and where,
in the dearth of food that must sometimes have existed, the young
ones must often have been devoured if present? Are living ani-
mals wont to bring their offspring into such places, till they have

attained considerable size ?
Considerations like these have led me to the conclusion, that

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 161

probably, when tracks of the same form differ a good deal in size,
they are made by different species, perhaps of the same genus.
Yet in view of the difficulty of proving this, I have avoided de-
pending upon this character alone, except, perhaps, in the single
case of the Steropezoum elegantius ; and as to this species I feel
no great confidence. Nevertheless, the tracks of many species,
and even genera, of living animals differ less than the S. elegans
and elegantius.

21. Character of the integuments of the foot. — In a few instan-
ces, the ridges, furrows, pits, and anfractuosities of the animal’s
feet are exhibited upon its tracks. As yet, however, I have not
been able to employ this character as a distinctive mark of
the nature of the animal, ‘partly, perhaps, because I have not
had opportunity to make extensive comparisons with the feet of
living animals on this point.

22. Coprolites. — A few coprolites have been discovered of one
species of these animals, the Argozoum Redfieldianum; and Dr.
Dana has deduced from their analysis a beautiful argument to show
the nature of the animal that produced them. But its elucidation
has" been presented fully in the American Journal of Science,
Vol. XLVIII. p. 46.

23. Means of distinguishing between the tracks of bipeds and
quadrupeds. — Persons who have never turned their attention to
this subject will probably suppose that this is a very easy matter.
But they would think otherwise should they attempt to make the
distinction ; especially in many cases of fossil footmarks, where
imperfect specimens are often all that can be obtained. And
even in studying the tracks of living animals, we shall sometimes
be liable to confound those of bipeds and quadrupeds. Thus the
dog, for instance, sometimes moves along without bringing all his

22

162 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

feet to the ground, and by a sort of double hop, which produces a
series of tracks of a very dubious character.

The regular alternation of the right and left foot, on each side
of the line of direction, is a most decisive indication of the biped
origin of a row of tracks. And usually the right and left foot can
be readily distinguished. In the pachydactylous tracks, the two
protuberances of the inner toe, while the outer one has four, settle
this point. When a fourth toe points backward, we know which
foot made the impression, because that toe is always on the inside.
So it is where it proceeds from a long heel. If the toes are curved,
the curvature of the middle toe is generally inward in bipeds ; that
is, When the toes curve to the left, it is the right foot, and vice
versa; and, finally, a less certain mark to guide us is the relative
length of the toes, since the inner toe is almost always shortest.
This is less certain only because we cannot always determine which
toe is the shortest.

The regular movement of a quadruped in walking or running,
not leaping, produces two nearly parallel rows of tracks, of the
character represented on Plate 19, fig. 1. Here, as the fore
foot is lifted up to advance, the hind foot is brought up nearly
to the same place; and hence it is, that we have put unequal
intervals between the tracks. But some animals —the cat, for
instance — are frequently in the habit of bringing the hind foot
so exactly into the place just vacated by the fore one, that it
is only by careful examination, upon a long row of tracks, that
the double impression can be recognized; and moreover, some
animals of this sort bring their tracks so nearly into a single line,
that a biped origin is readily ascribed to them. ‘The sketch on
Plate 19, fig. 2, is not an exaggeration of some cases of this sort,
which have fallen under my notice. Here it is only the fifth im-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 163

pression that gives any evidence of quadrupedal origin, save in the
number of the toes; which, indeed, in living animals, is a good
criterion for the most part. But we shall see in the sequel that
some quadrupeds have lived with only three toes (at least on the
fore feet) directed forward, and some bipeds with at least four
toes directed forward (e. g. the Macropterna and Otozoum); so
that the number of toes is a somewhat equivocal character.

There are some quadrupedal animals, whose tracks would be
arranged in two rows; not, as first described, with two approximate
tracks succeeded by a wide interval, but probably, for the most
part, equidistant. The extreme tracks on Plate 19, fig. 3 (that is,
those at the ends of the rows), were copied from the feet of the
banded Proteus (Menobranchus lateralis), sent to me alive, in April,
1848, by Rev. J. W. Ray, from Oswego, N. Y., where it was caught
in the autumn of 1847. The sketches were obtained by placing the
animal, soon after death, in a natural position, such as I had often
seen it assume when alive. ‘They are shown on the plate of the
natural size. Now as this animal’s legs are not more than an inch
or two long, it is clear that in walking he could not bring up the
hind foot half way to the fore one, but might be expected to leave
its tracks somewhat as represented by the dotted impressions on the
plate, though probably they would not be as nearly equidistant as
the sketches are. It is plain, however, that such an animal would
leave two rows of tracks, not alternating, nor arranged as in fig. 1
of the same plate. Among the fossil footmarks, we have an anal-
ogous case in the tracks of Macropterna divaricans (leaving out the
fore feet), as is shown on Plate 19, fig. 5; and also, more exactly,
in Ancyropus heteroclitus, shown on Plate 19, fig. 4.

The angle made by the line of direction and the axis of the
feet, as well as the distance of the feet laterally from that line, are

164 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

other means of distinguishing bipedal from quadrupedal tracks.
For in the latter the axis of the feet usually lies more oblique to
the line of direction, and they are more distant from it, than in the
former. In some of the tortoise tribe, for instance, the feet point
almost at right angles to the line of direction, and are very wide
apart. In this case, however, we have double rows of tracks, which
at once remove all doubt.

Conclusion. — Such are the characters on which I rely to
discriminate and describe the animals that made the fossil foot-
marks. They depend for their value upon the principles of com-
parative anatomy and zodlogy. ‘They assume that such relations
exist between the feet and general structure of animals, that, know-
ing the one, we can usually determine the other. I acknowledge
these relations to be sometimes too obscure to conduct us to an
infallible result. But the same is true in respect to most of the
parts of animals from which the comparative anatomist draws his
conclusions. We cannot, indeed, depend upon any one of the
characters derived from the feet to conduct us to certain results.
But when several conspire to the same end, we feel stronger con-
fidence in the conclusion. If applied to living animals, it seems to
me they would enable us to decide with a good degree of confi-
dence upon the following points : —

1. Whether the animal is a biped or a quadruped.

2. Whether vertebral or invertebral.

3. To what class it belongs.

4. To what order or family. Here, however, I think we
should often fail.

5. To what genus. Here, also, I think we should not unfre-
quently confound different genera; for the feet of many genera

are too nearly alike to be distinguished by their tracks. As ap-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 165

plied to fossil footmarks, however, the only result of the mistake
would be to lead us to describe too few genera; that is, to confound
more than one genus under one name, —an error far more venial
in natural history than its opposite.

6. To what species. And since a specific description embraces
the whole animal, — or, in the present instance, its whole track, —
I think we can be more sure of being led right by these characters
as to species, than as to genera.

Adopting these principles as my guide, I have arranged the fos-
sil footmarks of the United States, mainly of New England, ac-
cording to the following synopsis. I have no great confidence in
the arrangement into groups, except in a few instances ; and only
in a few cases have I ventured to attach names to the groups. In

the genera and species I have more confidence.

Grove I. (STRUTHIONID ?)

Genus 1. BRONTOZOUM (Bpevrns and ¢éov).

. B. giganteum.

. B. Sillimanium.

. B. loxonyx (Aogds, oblique, and bvvé, a claw).
B. expansum.

. B. gracillimum.

. B. parallelum.

Genus 2. ASTHIOPUS (aiéua, fulica, and zoids).
1. A. Lyellianus.
2. AE. minor.

Grovp II.

Genus 83. STEROPEZOUM (Srepéms and gor),

1. S. ingens.
2. 8. elegans.
3. S. elegantius.

166 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Genus 4. ARGOZOUM ("Apyys and gor).

1. A. Redfieldianum.
2. A. dispari-digitatum.
3. A. pari-digitatum.
4. A. minimum.

Genus 5. PLATYPTERNA (mdaris and wrépya).

1. P. Deaniana.
2. P. tenuis.
3. P. delicatula.

Grovr III.

Genus 6. ORNITHOPUS (épus and srovs).

1. O. Adamsanus.
2. O. gallinaceus.
3. O. gracilior.
4. O. loripes.

5. O. rectus.*

Group IV.
Genus 7. POLEMARCHUS (rodéuapxos).

1. P. gigas.

Genus 8. PLECTROPUS (mjjerpov and zois).
1. P. minitans.
2. P. longipes.
Genus 9. TRIASNOPUS (rpiawa and zois).
1. T. Baileyanus.

2. T. Emmonsianus.

* Discovered (as also Harpedactylus rectus, p. 167) while this paper was pass-
ing through the press. Hence the number of species in this synopsis (fifty-one).

exceeds by two the number stated at the beginning of this memoir.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Genus 10, HARPEDACTYLUS (dpm and ddkrudos).

1. H. gracilis.
2. H. concameratus.
3. H. rectus.*

Appendix to this Group.
Genus 11. TYPOPUS (riémos and mois).

1. T. abnormis.

Grovr V. (BIPEDAL BATRACHIANS ?)

Genus 12. OTOZOUM (ros and (Gov).

1. O. Moodii.

Genus 13. PALAMOPUS (maddpy and mois).

1. P. Dananus.

Grour VI. (QUADRUPEDAL BATRACHIANS.)

Genus 14. THENAROPUS, King (6évap and mois).

1. T. heterodactylus.

Genus 15. ANOMEPUS (dvépois and mois).

1. A. scambus.
2. A. Barrattii.

Genus 16. ANISOPUS (duoos and mois).

1. A. Deweyanus.
2. A. gracilis.

Genus 17. HOPLICHNUS (ém\y and txwos).

1. H. quadrupedans.

167

168 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Group VII. (LACERTILIANS ?)

Genus 18. MACROPTERNA (jakpés and zrepva).

1. M. rhynchosauroidea.
2. M. recta.
3. M. divaricans.

Genus 19. XIPHOPEZA (éidos and 7é(a).
1. X. triplex.

Group VIII. (CHELONIANS.)

Genus 20. ANCYROPUS (éykvpa and zois).

1. A. heteroclitus.

Genus 21. HELCURA (Ako and oipd).

1. H. littoralis.

Grour IX. (ANNELIDS or MOLLUSCS.)

Genus 22. HERPYSTEZOUM (éprvoris and {aor).

1. H. Marshii.
2. H. minutum.

Grovur X.

Genus 28. HARPAGOPUS (dpzayn and zois).

1. H. giganteus.
2. H. Hudsonius.
3. H. dubius.

I now proceed to describe in a systematic manner the above
groups, genera, and species. Their affinities to existing animals

will be pointed out, so far as they can be ascertained.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 169

Grove I. STRUTHIONIDZ.

Animal vertebrated, bipedal, tridactylous, pachydactylous.

Genus I. BRONTOZOUM.

Foot tridactylous, pachydactylous, tubercular-clawed ; inner toe
shortest ; all of them directed forward. Phalangeal expansions on
the inner toe, two; on the middle toe, three; on the outer toe, four;
corresponding to the number of phalanges, except the distal ex-
pansion, which was probably made by the two extreme phalanges.
Lower extremity of the tarso-metatarsal bone double-headed ;
rarely making a distinct impression through the cushion beneath.
Cushion sloping upwards posteriorly. Claws on the lateral toes
a little outside of their axes; on the middle toe, a little towards

its inner side.
Species I. Bronrozoum cicanteum. (PI. I. Fig. tS)

Ornithichnites giganteus, Am. Journal of Science, Vol. XXIX.,
Plate 1; and Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, Plate 26’.

Ornithoidichnites giganteus, Final Report on the Geology of
Massachusetts, Plate 36, fig. 18.

Nos. 38 — 43, 128, 149, 150, 151, of specimens in the Cabinet
of Amherst College.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 40°; of the inner and mid-
dle toes, 20° to 25°; of the outer and middle toes, 15°. Length
of the middle toe, 12.5 inches; of the inner toe, 10 inches;
of the outer toe, 12.5 inches; of the foot, 14 to 18 inches;
of the step, 3 to 6 feet. Width of the toes, 2 to 3 inches;
of the posterior part of the foot, 6.5 inches. Length of the claw,
1.75 inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 12

QS

170 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

inches ; between the tips of the outer and middle toes, 7 to
8 inches; between the inner and middle toes, 7.45 inches.
Length of the middle toe beyond the lateral toes, 5.5 inches.
Length of the proximal phalanx of the inner toe, 3.7 to 3.8 inches;
of the penultimate and ultimate phalanges united, 3.7 to 4.7 inch-
es; of the proximal phalanx of the middle toe, 2.8 to 4 inches;
of the second phalanx, 3 to 3.1 inches; of the penultimate and
ultimate phalanges united, 2.3 to 2.9 inches; of the proximal pha-
lanx of the outer toe, 3.1 to 3.5 inches; of the second, 2.8 to 3.2
inches ; of the third, 2 to 2.1 inches; of the penultimate and ulti-
mate phalanges united, 2.3 to 2.5 inches. Angle between the line
of direction and the axis of the foot, as the animal walked, 5° to 10°.
Distance of the centre of the heel from the line of direction, 2 to
3 inches. Toes nearly straight; middle one slightly curved in-
wards. Claws nearly straight, and only slightly deflexed. Integu-
ments of the under side of the foot papillose and striated. An-
imals gregarious. Track shown of the maximum size, with some
of the strie and papille, on Plate 1, fig. 1.

Remarks. — This enormous animal, whose feet were four or five
times larger than those of the ostrich, seems to have been the most
common of those whose tracks have been impressed upon the sand-
stone of the Connecticut valley ; for its tracks are more abundant
than those of almost any other species. ‘They must have been the
giant rulers of that valley. Their gregarious character appears
from the fact, that, at some localities (Northampton, &c.), we find
parallel rows of tracks a few feet distant from one another, and
that, too, oblique somewhat to the line of coast at the time.

Localities. — Between the bridges over Connecticut and Deer-
field Rivers, in the northeast part of Deerfield ; at the Horse Race,
in Gill; at Northampton, Chicopee Falls, Enfield Falls, and Weth-
ersfield.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 171

Species 2. Bronrozoum Siruimanium. (PI. ILI. Fig. 2.)

Ornithoidichnites tuberosus in part, and O. cuneatus, of Mass.
Geol. Report, Plate 37, fig. 21, and Plate 38, fig. 22.

Ornithoidichnites Sillimani, Transactions of Association of Amer.
Geol., p. 256.

Nos. 44, 47-52, 55, 56, 90, 126, 138, 144, 149, 173, 185, 186,
206, 209, 234, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 30° to 40°; of the inner and
middle toes, 20° to 30°; of the outer and middle toes, 10° to 20°.
Length of the middle toe, 6 inches; of the inner toe, 4.4 inches ;
of the outer toe, 5.5 inches ; of the foot, 8 inches; of the step,
18 to 20 inches; of the claw, 1 inch. Distance between the
tips of the lateral toes, 5 inches; between the tips of the inner
and middle toes, 4 inches ; between the tips of the outer and middle
toes, 3.5 inches. Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral
ones, 3 inches. Width of the toes, 1 to 1.9 inch. Length of the
proximal phalanx of the inner toe, 0.9 to 1.6 inch; of the penulti-
mate and ultimate phalanges united, 0.8 to 1.3 inch; of the prox-
imal phalanx of the middle toe, 0.9 to 1.5 inch; of the second, 1 to
1.6 inch; of the penultimate and ultimate phalanges united, 0.8 to
1.7 inch ; of the proximal phalanx of the outer toe, 0.7 to 0.9 inch ;
of the second phalanx, 0.7 to 0.8 inch; of the third, 0.6 to 1 inch;
of the penultimate and ultimate phalanges united, 0.8 to 1.5 inch.
Extremity of the tarso-metatarsal bone with two condyles for artic-
ulation with the toes. Axis of the foot nearly coincident with the
line of direction. Claws nearly straight, and only slightly deflexed
from the axis of the toes. Tracks shown, of the natural size, on
Plate 3, fig. 2, which exhibits also an impression of the double-
headed extremity of the tarso-metatarsal bone ; copied from a speci-
men from South Hadley.

172 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Remarks. — This species varies considerably in size, and _ its
tracks are quite abundant at ‘Turner’s Falls and Northampton, and
are found also at Wethersfield, Portland, and Middletown. It has
also been found at Pompton, in New Jersey, by W. C. Redfield,
Esq. (Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLIV. p. 134, and XLV. p. 315), and
is the only species of this genus found out of the valley of Con-
necticut River. It is respectfully dedicated to Dr. Benjamin Silli-
man, of New Haven.

On Plate 24, fig. 5, is an outline of an interesting slab, less
than two feet in diameter, discovered by Mr. Plinius Moody, in the
north part of South Hadley, and deposited by him in Amherst Col-
lege. It contains 20 tracks of this species on that small surface,
in relief, many of them very distinct, brought to light by the action .
of water ; the track being so much concreted as not to be washed

away nor disintegrated. The tracks are not all on one layer.

Species 3. Bronrozoum toxonyx. (PI. II. Fig. 1, 2.)

Ormithichnites tuberosus in part, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIX.
p- 318.

Ornithoidichnites tuberosus in part, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate
37, fig. 20.

Nos. 44-46, 53, 54, 187 — 190, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 25° to 30°; of the inner and
middle toes, 15° to 20°; of the middle and outer toes, 10°.
Length of the middle toe, 6 inches; of the inner toe, 4.4 inches ;
of the outer toe, 5.5 inches; of the foot, 8 inches; of the claw,
1 inch; of the step, 30 inches. Distance between the tips of
the lateral toes, 5.75 inches; between the tips of the inner and
middle toes, 4 inches; between the tips of the middle and outer
toes, 4 inches. Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. Lid

ones, 3 inches. Width of the ‘toes, 1 to 1.9 inch. Length of the
proximal phalanx of the inner toe, 1.6 inch; of the second and
third phalanges, 1.6 inch; of the first of the middle toe, 1.6 inch;
of the second, 1.7 inch; of the last two, 1.4 inch; of the first of
the outer toe, 1 inch; of the second, 1.3 inch; of the third,
1.2 inch ; of the last two, 1.5 inch. Toes straight ; claws abnor-
mal (bent), making an anvle with the axis of the toes of from 30°
to 40°. Axis of the foot and line of direction nearly coincident.
Tracks shown, of the natural size, on Plate 2, fig. 1, from Mount
Holyoke ; and fig. 2, from Turner’s Falls, which specimen was
destitute of claws and less divaricate than fig. 1, but shows the
phalangeal impressions very distinctly.

Localities. — Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Wethersfield, Tur-
ner’s Falls, Horse Race, and South Hadley.

Remarks. —1 have found more difficulty in fixing upon the dis-
tinctive characters of this and the species which precedes and fol-
lows it, than in respect to almost any other species founded on foot-
marks, because they seem to pass more or less into one another.
Yet one sees that the footmarks could not have been made by
the same species at different ages of growth. The present spe-
cies is distinguished from the preceding by its larger size, the
more massive character of the foot, and by an unusually oblique
direction to the claws. It is also rather less divaricate. The ob-
lique direction of the claws (from which the specific name is de-
rived) may not be constant. It is quite obvious in the specimen
from which Plate 2, fig. 1, was taken, as well as in all the speci-
mens from the same locality, although these are few. That lo-
cality is a remarkable one, namely, the west precipitous side of
Mount Holyoke, twenty rods north of Titan’s Piazza, where the

gray micaceous slate crops out below the trap, and only a few feet

174 ‘AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

below the latter occur the tracks.- This is the only spot where
footmarks are found in this valley beneath the trap; and it proba-
bly, though not necessarily, indicates an earlier existence of the an-

imals than in those cases where the tracks lie above the trap.

Species 4. Bronrozoum expansum. (PI. III. Fig. 1.)

Ornithoidichnites expansus, Mass. Geol: Rep., Plate 38, fig. 23.

Nos. 44, 59, 207, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 50° to 70°; of the inner and
middle toes, 25°; of the middle and outer toes, 30°. Length of the
middle toe, 4.6 inches ; of the inner toe, 3.2 inches; of the outer
toe, 4.9 inches ; of the claw, 1.1 inch; of the foot, 6 to 7 inches ;
of the step, 25 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral
toes, 6 inches ; between the tips of the inner and middle toes, 4.2
inches ; between the middle and outer toes, 3.4 inches. Projection
of the middle toe beyond the lateral ones, 2.4 inches. Width of
the toes, one inch to one and a half. Length of the proximal pha-
lanx of the inner toe, 1.3 inch; of the last two, 1.2 inch; of the
first on the middle toe, 1.4 inch; gf the second, 1.3 inch; of the
last two, 1.3 inch; of the first on the outer toe, 1.6 inch; of the
second, 1.2 inch; of the third, 0.9 inch; of the last two, 1.3 inch.
Toes straight ; claws normal; that is, only slightly deflexed from
the axis of the toes. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate
3, fig. 1.

Remarks. — This species has a more massive foot than the B.
Sillimanium ; its divarication is greater, and its middle toe short-
er. Yet it is not always easy to distinguish the two species.
They occur at the same localities, but the former is much the more

common.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 175

Species 5. Brontrozoum GRACILLIMUM. (PI. I. Fig. 3.)

Ornithoidichnites gracillimus, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLVII., Plate
3, fig. 4.

Nos. 89, 129, 130, 134, 135, 158, 167, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 50°; of the inner and middle
toes, 25° ; of the middle and outer toes, 25°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 2.2 inches; of the inner toe, 1.7 inch; of the outer toe,
2 inches ; of the claw, 0.4 inch; of the foot, 2.5 inches; of the
step, 7 to 8 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes,
1.9 inch; between the tips of the inner and middle toes, 1.2
inch ; between the tips of the outer and middle toes, 1.35 inch.
Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral ones, 0.9 inch.
Width of the toes, 0.3 to 0.5 inch. Length of the proximal pha-
lanx of the inner toe, 0.5 to 0.6 inch; of the last two, 0.4 to 0.5
inch; of the first on the middle toe, 0.5 to 0.6 inch ; of the sec-
ond, 0.4 to 0.5 inch; of the last two, 0.3 to 0.4 inch ; of the first
on the outer toe, 0.45 inch ; of the second, 0.4 inch ; of the third,
0.45 inch ; of the last two, 0.6 inch. Toes straight ; claws slight-
ly abnormal. Angle between the line of direction and the axis of
the foot, 0° to 10°. Distance of the heel from the line of direc-
tion, 0.8 inch. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 2,
fig. 3.

Localities. — Turner’s Falls, Chicopee Falls, Wethersfield.

Species 6. Bronrozoum parantetum. (Pl. II. Figs. 3, 4.)

Figured and described in Am. Journal of Science, Vol. IV., New
Series, p. 50.

Nos. 137, 234, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 15° to 20°; of the inner and
middle toes, 5° to 6°; of the outer and middle toes, 8° to 15°.

176 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Length of the middle toe, 2 to 3 inches; of the inner toe, 1.5
to 2 inches; of the outer toe, 1.8 to 2.3 inches; of the claw,
0.4 inch ; of the foot, 3 to 3.5 inches ; of the step, 13 to 24 inch-
es. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 1.5 to 1.6 inch ;
between the inner and middle toes, 1.7 inch; between the outer
and middle toes, 1.6 inch. Projection of the middle toe beyond the
lateral ones, 1.4 inch. Width of the toes, 0.4 to 0.6 inch. Length
of the proximal phalanx of the inner toe, 0.8 inch ; of the last
two, 0.9 inch; of the first on the middle toe, 0.8 inch; of the sec-
ond, 0.8 inch; of the last two, 0.8 inch; of the first on the outer
toe, 0.55 inch; of the second, 0.4 inch; of the third, 0.4 inch; of
the last two, 0.55 inch. ‘Toes straight ; claws somewhat abnormal.
Axis of the foot and line of direction entirely coincident. ‘Track
shown, of the natural size, on Plate 3, figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 4 was
copied from a specimen from South Hadley, and shows the impres-
sion of the double-headed extremity of the tarso-metatarsal bone,
behind the phalangeal impressions.

Localities. — 'Turner’s Falls, South Hadley.

Remarks. — Distinguished from all other species by the less di-
varication of the outer toes, and the great length of the step. I
have reason to suppose that its most usual step was almost two
feet. This would make its leg nearly four feet long; which is
greater than that of the red flamingo.

Affinities of the Group. — The alternation of right and left feet
proves the animals to have been bipeds. ‘The number and position
of the toes, but more eminently the number of phalanges in the
several toes, ally the animals strongly to birds. The want of a
hind toe, and the great length of most of the steps, ally them to
Gralle. The great thickness of the toes, and the great size of
the feet, in some instances, taken in connection with the fact, that

~

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 17

the Struthionidz have that low organization which might have en-
abled them to live almost as early as reptiles, renders it not improb-
able that these birds belonged to that family.

Though several facts as above stated afford a presumption that
these animals were birds, yet the new developments that have come
to my knowledge on this subject have left that opinion to rest
mainly on one argument, namely, the number of phalanges in the
toes ; which, if we admit two phalanges to have made but one tu-
bercular impression at the extremities of the toes, correspond to
the feet of birds, and to those of no other animals. I should once
have relied much on the mere fact that these animals were bipeds,
to prove their ornithic type, taking existing animals as the basis of
judgment. But, as I shall show farther on, we now know that
some of these biped animals were probably batrachians, — cer-
tainly not birds. The trifid character of the toes in front is an-
other character which in existing animals is confined to birds, with
two or three unimportant exceptions. But, in one of the species
to be described in this paper, we have a distinct tridactyle charac-
ter to the fore foot, and yet we can prove beyond all question that
it belonged to a quadruped. Upon the whole, though the evidence
of the ornithic character of this group is narrowed down, it is still

firm and substantial.

Sus-Grovp.

Characters. — Toes and claws winged. Other characters the
same as the general group.
Genus Il. AXUTHYOPUS.

Foot tridactylous, expanded, winged: phalangeal impressions in
24,

178 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

the track shallow. (Other characters the same as those of the
Brontozoum, except in respect to the extremity of the tarso-meta-

tarsal bone, whose character_in this genus has not been observed.)

Species I]. AirHyvorus Lyexuianus. (PI. IV. Fig. 1.)

Ornithoidichnites Lyellii, Transactions of Assoc. Amer. Geolo-
gists, Plate 11, fig. 1.

Nos. 57, 58, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 35°; of the inner and middle
toes, 15°; of the middle and outer toes, 20°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 6.4 inches ; of the inner toe, 4.2 inches ; of the outer toe,
5.2 inches; of the claw, 1 inch; of the foot, 7 to9 inches. Dis-
tance between the tips of the lateral toes, 4.8 inches; between the
inner and middle toes, 4.1 inches ; between the outer and middle
toes, 3.9 inches. Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral
ones, 3.3 inches. Width of the toes, 1.1 to 1.8 inch. Length of
the proximal phalanx of the inner toe, 1.6 inch; of the last two
phalanges, 1.8 inch; of the first on the middle toe, 1.8 inch; of
the second, 1.8 inch ; of the last two, 1.7 inch; of the first on the
outer toe, 1.2 inch; of the second, 1.2 inch; of the third, 1 inch;
of the last two, 1.5 inch. ‘Toes straight; flat beneath, winged.
Claws winged, broad, unusually lateral in their origin. Track
shown, of the natural size, on Plate 4, fig. 1.

This species is dedicated to Charles Lyell, Esq., of London,
whose researches in respect to fossil footmarks have been very im-
portant.

Remarks. — This remarkably distinct species has been found only
at Turner’s Falls, and in single detached specimens ; so that the
length of the step has not been ascertained. As to the possibility
of its being the Brontozoum loxonyx, see my remarks following the
next species.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 179

Species 2. AXtHyvorus minor. (PI. IV. Fig. 2; 3.)

Ornithoidichnites fulicoides, Trans. Assoc. Amer. Geol., Plate
11, fig. 4.

Nos. 60 — 62, 130, 136, 137, 159, 209, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 50° to 70°; of the inner and
middle toes, 20° to 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 30° to 40°.
Length of the middle toe, 3.2 inches; of the inner toe, 2.5 inches ;
of the outer toe, 2.9 inches; of the foot, 3.5 to 4 inches ; of the
step, 8 to 10 inches; of the claw, 0.7 inch. Distance between
the tips of the lateral toes, 3.3 inches; between the inner and
middle toes, 1.9 to 2 inches; between the middle and outer toes,
2.5 inches. Projection of the middle toe beyond the lateral ones,
1.5 inch. Width of the toes, 0.65 to 0.87 inch. Length of the
first phalanx on the inner toe, 1.2 inch; of the last two, 0.5 inch ;
of the first on the middle toe, 1 inch; of the second, 0.5 inch ; of
the last two, 0.7 inch; of the first on the outer toe, 0.8 inch; of
the second, 0.7 inch; of the third, 0.6 inch; of the last two, 0.5
inch. Toes straight, winged: claws normal, winged. Angle of
the axis of the foot from the line of direction, from 5° to 10°;
sometimes outward, and sometimes inward. Distance between the
heel and the line of direction, 1.25 inch. ‘Track shown, of the
natural size, on Plate 4, figs. 2 and 3, which differ chiefly in size.

Localities. — Turner’s Falls and South Hadley.

Remarks. —'There is one supposition which would make the
distinction between Brontozoum and AXthyopus an accidental cir-
cumstance. Mud, when trodden upon, may be in so plastic a state,
that deep impressions made upon it would be partially filled by the
gravity of the surrounding particles. Yet a superficial impression
might remain, say of the foot of an animal, and this, becoming

hardened, might present the appearance of winged toes. Of the

180 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

first species I have only a few specimens ; yet they do not appear
as if thus altered from a track of the Brontozowm loxonyx, which
most resembles this in shape. ‘The phalangeal impressions are dis-
tinct, and the mud must have been a fine, tenacious red clay, such
as has left us in other species the most perfect tracks; even in
some instances, the papille and strive of the skin. The thyopus
minor is a common track, though impressions of its claws are not
often well exhibited. Yet when they are shown, they seem to have
been produced by a marginal wing. The evidence of a wing along
the toes is less obvious in this species. But, upon the whole, I
have only slight doubts that the feet of these animals (birds) were
winged.

Numerous rows of the tracks of this species are represented on
Plate 20, fig. 10, and Plate 23, fig. 3, which give the outlines of
slabs (the first in my collection, and the other in that of Mr. Marsh), »
containing tracks of other species of animals ; two quadrupeds at
least, the Anisopus and Helcura. Plate 24, fig. 3, is the outline
of a small slab in Mr. Marsh’s collection, remarkable for the great
distance of the right and left tracks from the line of direction.
Yet that they were made by right and left feet is evident from the
number of phalangeal impressions on the toes. It seems difficult
to suppose that it is not a distinct species from the A. minor ;
although that species commonly walked with feet wide apart.

Affinities of the Sub-Group. — The resemblance between the
tracks of these animals and the feet of the Fulica Americana, or
Coot, and of the Grebe or Dob Chick, Podiceps Carolinensis, is
striking ; and since other considerations (especially the number of
phalanges) ally them to birds, it seems reasonable to conclude that
the animals which made these tracks were closely allied to the Po-
dicepidee.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 181

Table of the Ratio of the several Characters in the Species of this
Group. — It will afford the zodlogist and comparative anatomist a
better means of judging of the grounds on which the foregoing spe-
cies have been proposed, to present at a glance, so far as it can be
done in figures, the relations between the several characters in differ-
ent species. I hope in this way to satisfy naturalists, that such dif-
ferences in the tracks could not have belonged to mere varieties as
to age or mode of progression, nor have resulted from the character of
the mud, but must have required different species of animals to pro-
duce them. In other words, I hope to show that these differences
are quite as great as they are between the tracks of different living
species. In constructing the table, I have taken 100 as the highest
number in the preceding details of the characters, and calculated
the proportion which the same character in the other species bears
to this maximum. It may happen, as in the second column, that a

character is at a maximum in several species.

Pivarice. Length of | Distance Length of the phalanges of
os
= | oO
3 =|5 Sis)
2} |=|6 Me
£13 5 jc os
oO] e2ic|/t|§ ae
3/3 wey) [a PDI 25
2S) |) soleil S/=EIa Rr ss
a Sial eel F ==
S\cl=els | SIB/S/EyS] 8 g 38
S])s)cq- Sloloa|ofe 3 S Ea)
a\Sl2tslel. JolslSlsfqs] = 2 = ge
elSIStslelslelelelefeleleisl 2 3 g 2
S/S(8p2/2lejeie/o/3]3/3\ sis] s g 3 s3
elelgl2|2/gi2l2|2i2lslsiele| 2 | 2 Cems
SIGE Fe |e le (B/S |e Sia io leisy & & a
B. giganteum 50| 60) 43 L00)100 100} 100/100) 100) LO0}L00} 100) LO0}LO0} 100) 100} 100 100) 100) LOO. 100) 100) 100} 3.4
B. Sillimanium 44)100| 439 48) 44) 44) 50) 33) 57) 55] 42) 54) 47) 56] 46) 36] 35) 43) 46] 24) 23) 40) 46F 2.4
B. loxonyx 34| 80) 299 48) 44) 44) 50) 56) 57) 55] 48) 54) 53% 56} 43) 38 a7 56} 53 30) 43] 60) 62) 3.7
B. expansum 75|L00| S69 37| 32) 40) 40) 46] 63) 44] 50) 57) 459 50] 35) 29) 41) 43! 50) 48) 40] 45) 547 38
B, gracillimum 75|100| 718 18| 17] 16) 16) 14) 23} 16] 16] 16) 18} 16} 11) 12} 14) 13) 15] 14| 13] 29) 251 3.0
B. parallelum 22) 22) 359 20) 18} 16) 20) 34) 23) 26] 12) 23) 219 20] 21) 21) 24] 26) 32) 17] 13} 20) 23) 5.8
Eth. Lyellianus 50) 60) 579 51) 42) 42) 50; 57| 60} 40) 55) 52% 56] 43) 43) 53) 60) 65) 37) 40) 50) 62
2th. minor 1001100] 1008 25| 25} 23! 24| 17} 40] 231 23] 27] 33f 2st 33] 12] 27| 26] 27) 24) 23) 30| a1} 24

182 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Grovr II.

Characters. — Tridactylous, leptodactylous, bipedal, vertebrated.

Genus 1. STEROPEZOUM.

Toes somewhat keel-shaped ; the middle and inner ones curved
towards the line of direction ; the outer one slightly bent from that
line. Heel distinct and large ; leaving an impression on mud of
radiating ridges and furrows, sloping upwards very gradually be-
hind, more abruptly before, leaving a ridge on the track, at least
as high as the general surface, between the heel and the toes, which
also slope upwards posteriorly. This ridge, however, has usually
a depression in it, connecting the heel and the outer toe. But,
upon the whole, we infer that the foot arches upwards between the
toes and the heel, leaving, however, a slight ridge along its outer
part. Bottom of the heel a little elevated above that of the toes.

Remark. — Of the nature of that structure of the heel, which
produces on the track radiating ridges, somewhat resembling fine
ripple-marks, I feel in doubt, yet am inclined to believe them the

result of rugosities, or striz and ridges on the heel.

Species 1. Sreropezoum 1Ncens. (PI. V. Fig. 1.)

Ornithichnites ingens, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XXIX. p. 319.
Ornithoidichnites ingens, Mass. Geol. Rep., Plate 40, fig. 27.
Nos. 63 — 66 in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 60°; of the inner and middle
toes, 35°; of the middle and outer toes, 25°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 13 inches ; of the inner toe, 9.75 inches ; of the outer toe,
10.25 inches; of the heel, 10 inches; of the foot, 23 to 25 inches ;

of the step, 40 to 72 inches ; of the middle toe beyond the lateral

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 183

ones, 4.5 inches. Width of the foot where the toes are articulated
to the heel, 1.5 inch; of the heel in its widest part, 8 inches. Dis-
tance between the tips of the lateral toes, 9.5 inches; between the
inner and middle toes, 6.7 inches; between the tips of the middle
and outer toes, 6.3 inches. Versed sine of inward curvature in the
middle toe, 0.7 inch ; in the inner toe, 0.5 inch. Track shown, of
the natural size, on Plate 5, fig. 1.

Remarks. — The only locality with which I am acquainted, of
the tracks of this remarkable species, is at the Horse Race in Gill,
whence I have obtainéd only one well-characterized specimen.
But I measured its dimensions from several specimens in the rock
there, so as to feel confident that I have not overrated them; and
yet they are of a very extraordinary character. The animal, how-
ever, could not have been as large as the Brontozowm giganteum,
already described, or the Otozoum Moodii, yet to be described.

Species 2. Sreropezoum Execans. (Pl. V. Fig. 2.)

Ormithichnites diversus, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XXIX. fi 22
Ornithoidichnites elegans, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 41, fig. 28.
Nos. 67, 68, 70 — 72, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 60° to 65°; of the inner and
middle toes, 35°; of the middle and outer toes, 30°. Length of
the middle toe, 4.4 inches; of the inner toe, 2.3 inches ; of the
outer toe, 2.8 inches; of the heel, 2.2 inches; of the foot, 6 to 7
inches ; of the step, 12 to 21 inches; of the middle toe beyond the
lateral ones, 2.4 inches. Width of the foot at the roots of the toes,
1 inch ; of the heel, 2 inches. Distance between the tips of the
lateral toes, 3 inches; between the inner and middle toes, 2.8 to
3.1 inches ; between the middle and outer toe, 2.4 to 2.8 inches.

Versed sine of inward curvature in the inner toe, 0.15 inch ; of the

184 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

middle toe, 0.35 inch; of the outer toe, outward, 0.2 inch. ‘Track
shown, of the natural size, on Plate 5, fig. 2.
Localities. —Marsh’s Quarry, Montague; north part of Montague ;

two miles south of Turner’s Falls ; and Horse Race, Gill.

Species 3. Srerorezoum evecantius. (PI. V. Fig. 3.)

Ornithoidichnites elegantior, Mass. Geol. Rep., Plate 42, fig. 30.

Ornithichnites diversus, 8. platydactylus, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol.
XXIX. p. 319.

Nos. 74-76, 79, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 70°; of the inner and middle
toes, 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 40°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 2 inches; of the inner toe, 1.1 inch; of the outer toe, 1.3
inch ; of the heel, 1 inch; of the foot, 7 inches; of the step, 5.5
inches to 9 inches ; of the middle toe beyond the others, 1.2 inch.
Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 1.5 inch; between
the outer and middle toes, 1.4 inch; between the inner and mid-
dle toes, 1.4 inch. Width of the foot at the roots of the toes, 0.4
inch. ‘Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 5, fig. 3.

Localities. — Montague, Marsh’s Quarry; Horse Race, Gill; and
South Hadley.

Remarks. — I acknowledge it to be quite possible that the tracks
of this species may have been made by the young of S. elegans.
Yet the table of ratios annexed to this group will show quite a dif-

ference, in some respects, between them, besides their size.

Genus II. ARGOZOUM.

Digitigrade, sometimes nearly plantigrade, tridigitate. Toes
curved ; the lateral ones mostly outwards, somewhat keel-shaped ;

leptodactylous ; vertebrated.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 185

Remarks. — I acknowledge it to be possible that a distinct heel
may belong to this genus, although my specimens do not show it.
In that case, the first species, A. Redfieldianum, would not dif-
fer enough from the Steropezoum ingens to be separated from it,
although some of its characters do not well agree with that species.
But as I have seen quite a number of specimens of the tracks of
most of the species of this genus, and no very distinct heel is vis-
ible, although some of the impressions are quite deep, I group them
under a distinct genus; and if that should fail, yet all the species
will maintain their ground as distinct species of Steropezoum, ex-
cept the first.

Species 1. Arcozoum Repriepianum. (PI. VI. Fig. 1.)

Ornithoidichnites Redfieldiit, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLVII.,
Plate 3, fig. 1.

Nos. 145, 146, 149, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 75°; of the inner and middle
toes, 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 45°. Length of the middle
toe, 12 inches ; of the inner toe, 8 inches; of the outer toe, 9.5
inches ; of the claw, 2 inches; of the foot, 12.5 inches; of the
step, 30 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 12
inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 7.8 inches; between
the middle and outer toes, 9 inches. Length of the middle toe be-
yond the others, 6 inches. Versed sine of the inward curvature
of the middle toe, 0.7 inch. Track shown, of the natural size, on
Plate 6, fig. 1.

Locality. — Chicopee Falls, on hard, quartzose, and sometimes
calcareous, gray sandstone.

Dedicated to my friend, William C. Redfield, Esq., of New

25

186 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

York, whose labors in geology, as well as in meteorology, have in-
spired the highest respect.

Remarks. — This is the only leptodactylous species on whose
tracks I have been able to discover a claw, though I cannot
doubt its existence on them all; but it did not make an impres-
sion on the mud distinct from the toe. In the present species it is
only the claw, and not the phalangeal impressions, that are ex-
hibited, although these also were probably made, but were too
slight to be retained.

This, also, is the only species with whose tracks I have discovered
coprolites. At Chicopee Falls, where alone this species has been
found, I have obtained several specimens of these bodies. These
have been analyzed by Dr. 8S. L. Dana, as already stated ; and
the results afford one of the most curious examples of the applica-

tion of chemistry to geology which the records of those sciences
contain.

Species 2. ArGozoum pispari-pieiratum. (Pl. VI. Fig. 3.)

Ormthoidichnites macrodactylus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 43,
fig. 35.

Nos. 69, 73, 91 — 94, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 40° to 55°; of the inner and
middle toes, 18° to 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 20° to 25°.
Length of the middle toe, 5.3 inches; of the inner toe, 2.8 inches;
of the outer toe, 3.2 inches; of the foot, 5 to 6 inches; of the
step, 15 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 2.2
to 3 inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 2.1 to 2.8 inches ;
between the outer and middle toes, 2 to 3.4 inches. Projection of
the middle toe beyond the others, 1.3 to 2.4 inches. Angle be-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 187

tween the axis of the foot and the line of direction, 0°. Distance
of the heel from do., 0.5 inch. Track shown, of the natural size,
on Plate 6, fig. 3.

Localities. — Wethersfield and Chicopee Falls.

Species 3. ARGozoum PaRi-Diciratum. (PI. VI. Fig. 4, 5.)

Ornithichnites minimus, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XXIX.

Ornithoidichnites isodactylus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 45, figs.
38,39:

Nos. 98 — 100, 229, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 80° to 90°; of the inner and
middle toes, 40°; of the middle and outer toes, 40° to 50°. Length
of the middle toe, 1.5 to 1.8 inch; of the inner toe, 1.1 to 1.3
inch ; of the outer toe, 1.1 to 1.3 inch. Length of the foot, 1.5
to 2 inches; of the step, 10 to 12 inches (?); of the middle toe
beyond the others, 0.7 to 0.9 inch. Distance between the tips of
the lateral toes, 1.8 inch ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.1
inch ; between the outer and middle toes, 1.4 inch. ‘Toes nearly
straight. Angle between the axis of the foot and the line of direc-
tion, 20°. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 6, figs. 4
and 5; the latter, perhaps, a little distorted.

Localities. — Horse Race and Turner’s Falls in Gill, and Weth-
ersfield.

Species 4. Arcozoum minimum. (PI. VI. Fig. 6.)

Ornithordichnites minimus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 15, fig. 41.

Nos. 85 and 106, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 90°; of the inner and middle
toes, 50°; of the outer and middle toes, 40°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 0.85 inch; of the inner toe, 0.6 inch; of the outer toe,

188 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

0.7 inch. Length of the foot, 0.9 inch; of the step, 3.2 inches ;
of the middle toe beyond the others, 0.35 inch. Distance between
the tips of the lateral toes, 1 to 1.2 inch; between the inner and
middle toes, 0.6 to 0.7 inch; between the outer and middle toes,
0.6 to 0.7 inch. Angle between the axis of the foot and the line
of direction, 10°. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 6,
fig. 6.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove ; on red shale.

Remarks. — Since the discovery of the Macropterna rhyncho-
sauroidea, | have been in considerable doubt whether the above
species should not be referred to it. Certainly the two have been
confounded. But I have a few specimens of the Argozowm mini-
mum quite distinct, which, as yet, I cannot regard as a Macropter-

na, and therefore shall let this species remain for the present.

Genus V. PLATYPTERNA.

Heel very broad, as well as the foot at the roots of the toes.
Toes slender ; for the most part curved. Feet plantigrade.

Remarks. — This elegant genus is distinguished by the unusual
breadth of the posterior part of the foot, including the heel; and
yet, on many specimens of its tracks, there is no appearance of a
heel. It is wanting, also, in the curved or angular space between
the toes and the heel which belongs to the genus Steropezoum.
In most of the specimens, the impression of the heel is rounded
posteriorly ; but in the P. tenuis the heel disappears so gradually,
by an upward slope of the foot, that its exact termination on the
stone is marked with difficulty. The first species may be only the
Ornithopus gallinaceus, wanting in the hind toe, and were not
some of my specimens of O. gallinaceus deeply impressed upon the
stone, I should be led to conclude them identical.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 189

Species 1. Pxatyprenna Deanrana. (PI. VIL. Fig. 1.)

Ornithoidichnites Deanii, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 42, figs. 51,
32, and Plate 44, fig. 37.

Nos. 78 — 83, 96, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 70°; of the inner and middle
toes, 45°; of the middle and outer toes, 25°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 3 inches; of the inner toe, 1.5 inch; of the outer toe, 1.8
inch; of the heel, 1.1 to 1.2 inch; of the foot, 4 to 4.5 inches ;
of the step, 9 to 12 inches; of the middle toe beyond the rest, 1.8
inch. Width of the heel, 0.9 to 1.2 inch; at the place of inser-
tion of the toes, 1 inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral
toes, 2 to 2.5 inches; between the inner and middle toes, 2.1 to
2.15 inches ; between the outer and middle toes, 2 to 2.35 inches.
Versed sine of the curvature of the inner toe, inwards, 0.17 inch ;
of the middle toe, inwards, 0.12 inch; of the outer toe, outwards,
0.22 inch. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 7, fig. 1.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove ; on red shale.

This species is dedicated to Dr. James Deane, of Greenfield,
who first called my attention to the subject of footmarks, and who

subsequently investigated it with much success.

Species 2. Praryprerna tenuis. (PI. VII. Fig. 2, 3.)

Ornithoidichnites tenuis, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 43, figs.

Nos. 84-87, 208, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 45° to 60°; of the inner and
middle toes, 20° to 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 25° to 50°.
Length of the middle toe, 2 inches; of the inner toe, 1 inch; of
the outer toe, 1.3 inch; of the heel, 0.6 inch; of the foot, 2.1 to
2.7 inches; of the step, 7(?) inches. Width of the heel, 0.6 inch.

190 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 1.1 to 1.7 inch; be-
tween the inner and middle toes, 1.1 to 1.4 inch; between the
outer and middle toes, 1 to 1.4 inch. Length of the middle toe be-
yond the others, 0.9 to 1.1 inch. ‘Track shown, of the natural
size, on Plate 7, figs. 2 and 3; there being a slight difference be-
tween them.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove ; on red shale.

Species 3. Puatyprerna peticatua. (Pl. VII. Fig. 4.)

Ormithoidichnites delicatulus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 45,
fig. 40.

Nos. 103, 104, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 40° ; of the inner and middle
toes, 22°; of the middle and outer toes, 18°. Length of the mid-
dle toe, 1.1 inch; of the inner toe, 0.65 inch; of the outer toe,
0.75 inch; of the heel, 0.4 inch; of the foot, 1.5 inch; of the
step, 3 inches; of the middle toe beyond the rest, 0.5 inch. Width
of the heel, 0.35 inch; of the foot at the roots of the toes, 0.25
inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 0.6 inch ; be-
tween the inner and middle toes, 0.6 inch ; between the outer and
middle toes, 0.55 inch. ‘Toes slightly curved. ‘Track shown, of
the natural size, on Plate 7, fig. 4.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove ; on red shale.

Affinities of the Group. — The biped character of the animals
and their tridactyle feet would seem, were we to judge by living
animals, to ally them to birds ; while the deficiency of the hind toe
would lead us to regard most of them as Grallatores. The infer-
ence of Dr. Dana, also, from the coprolites of one species, is that
they were dropped by such omnivorous birds as those which pro-
duce the guano. I shall show in this paper, however, that biped

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 191

batrachians once lived, as well as tridactyle quadrupeds, — tridac-
tyle at least on the fore foot.

Table of the Ratio between the several Characters of Group Il., on a
Scale of 100.

Divarica- Distance Versed Width | =

tion of Length of between sine of of bo

S|s 2) f= (sis Z| 32

Sz 3 g |Z\|2 3 | 22

Bes ; | ie WEE sili 22) —s

S/elSis|Els 3a| EslZlels|=]s] |=2] 33
alSiSpelaicl .| Jes] fest ledelslsl .je2) 23

CISESlal/S|sl] ale da 21Syo]s| Sigler] se
SE ES eee ee ee ees

S\S(BPS (es /sielaig jais |£)/ 578) 8| eo fezlec} os

2) D/O ©) Oo] o}] 2/92 \s oho |o|]/2®fo0]o|lolalo oe,

e= ool ales |o ks = a Ss

| Blelelelelelalae jae jéleleléléjéia | ss
|Steropezoum ingens 67| 70) 569100) 100)100)100)100) 75)100f 80 | 81) 704100)100 100) 100} 2.3
td elegans 70| 70} 67§ 24) 34) 27) 27| 21) 40) 22 25 | 36} 29% 30) 50] 50) 25) 67} 2.5

ue elegantius 78| 60} 909 11) 15) 13) 10) 11) 20 12 | 18} 1 27] 2.2
Argozoum Redfieldianum 84) 60)100§ 82) 92) 93) 52) 54) 100 100 {106} 100) 100 2.4
x dispari-digitatum 53] 48] 49§ 29) 41] 31) 23) 27/ 30) 22 8} 30} 2.5

# pari-digitatum 94) 80/1009 12) 13) 12} 7) 20) 192 15 | 14) 15) 5.5(?)

oe minimum 100}100) 90 6) 9} 6] 4] 6) 6 9] 8 8 3.5
Platypterna Deaniana 78} 90) 569 15) 23) 17) 19) 19) 30) 12§ 18 | 27) 24% 34) 10] 557 11) 67] 25
ch tenuis 59) 50} 60§ 10) 15) 13) 10) 12) 16) 6% 12 | 17) 13) 8! 40] 2.9

| We delicatula 44| 45] 40 7] 8] 71 6] 5| 8 4§ 5] 8] 6 4| 17} 2.0

Grovp III.

Toes four ; three pointing forward; the hind toe lying on the
inside of the foot and on a prolongation backward of the outer toe.

Genus VI. ORNITHOPUS.

Characters the same as for the Group.

Species 1. Ornirnopus Apamsanus. (PI. VII. Fig. 5.)

Ornithoidichnites Dane, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLVII., Plate
4, fig. 5.

No. 125 in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 100°; of the inner and middle
toes, 40°; of the middle and outer toes, 60°; of the middle and
hind toes, 140°. Length of the middle toe, 6.5 inches; of the

192 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

inner toe, 4.2 inches; of the outer toe, 5.2 inches; of the hind toe,
3 inches. Length of the heel, 6 inches (?). Width of the heel,
3.5 inches; of the foot at the roots of the toes, 2.2 inches. Length
of the middle toe beyond the others, 4.3 inches. Distance between
the tips of the lateral toes, 7 inches; between the inner and middle
toes, 4.5 inches ; between the outer and middle toes, 6.5 inches ;
between the middle and hind toes, 11 inches. Track shown, of
the natural size, on Plate 7, fig. 5.

Locality. — Montague City, a few rods east of the canal, on the
road to Boston.

Remark. — This is a somewhat doubtful species. ‘The single
specimen obtained I could not refer to any known species, and
therefore have dedicated it to Professor C. B. Adams, of Amherst
College. The hind toe is not very distinct. ‘The heel, or rather

the tarsal bone, seems to have sloped upwards at a small angle.

Species 2. Ornirnopus catuinaceus. (PI. VIII. Fig. 1.)

Ornithoidichnites tetradactylus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 46,
fig. 42.

Nos. 112 —117, 172, 174, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 60° to 80°; of the inner and
middle toes, 35°; of the middle and outer toes, 45°; of the middle
and hind toes, 140°. Length of the middle toe, 2.75 inches ; of
the inner toe, 1.5 inch; of the outer toe, 1.8 inch; of the hind
toe, 1.3 inch; of the foot, exclusive of the hind toe, 2.5 to 3 inches;
of the step, 7 inches; of the middle toe beyond the others, 1.5
inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 2.37 inches ;
between the inner and middle toes, 1.9 inch; between the outer
and middle toes, 1.8 inch; between the middle and hind toes,
4.2 inches. Foot plantigrade. ‘Toes nearly straight. ‘Track shown,

of the natural size, on Plate 8, fig. 1.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 193

Localities. — Horse Race, Gill; Chicopee Falls; and Wethers-
field, at the Cove.

Remarks. — By comparing Plate 7, fig. 1, with Plate 17, fig. 4,
leaving out the hind toe of the latter, the force of the remark
already made, that the Platypterna Deaniana may be only the
Ornithopus gallinaceus divested of the hind toe, will be appreci-
ated. And we know that the hind toe frequently disappears.

Species 3. OrnitHopus cracitior. (Pl. VIII. Fig. 2.)

Ornithoidichnites gracilior, Mass. Geol. Rep., Plate 46, fig. 43.

Nos. 118, 119, 208, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 75° to 90°; of the inner and mid-
dle toes, 40°; of the outer and middle toes, 35° to 50°; of the
middle and hind toes, 110° to 130°. Length of the middle toe,
1.5 inch; of the inner toe, 1.1 inch; of the outer toe, 1.1 inch.
Hind toe digitigrade, articulated high upon the tarsus; length of
the same from the roots of the toes, 0.8 inch; of the part that
impresses the ground in walking, 0.3 to 0.5 inch. Middle toe
rather keel-shaped. Toes nearly straight. Length of the foot,
excluding the hind toe, 1.4 to 1.7 inch; of the middle toe beyond
the rest, 0.7 inch, Distance between the tips of the lateral toes,
1.7 inch ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.05 inch; between
the middle and outer toes, 1.3 inch; between the middle and hind
toes, 2 inches. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 8,
fig. 2.

Locality. — Wethersfield.

Species 4, OrnirnHopus Loripes. (Pl. VIII. Fig. 3.)

Ornithoidichnites divaricatus, Mass. Geol. Rep., Plate 44, fig, 36.
Nos. 95, 97, 101, 102, 121, 143, in Cabinet.
26

194 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Divarication of the lateral toes, 100°; of the inner and middle
toes, 50°; of the middle and outer toes, 50°; of the middle
and hind toe, 120°. Length of the middle toe, 5 inches; of the
imner toe, 3.75 inches; of the outer toe, 4 inches; of the foot,
6.5 to 7 inches ; of the heel, 2 inches; of the hind toe, 2.75 inch-
es; of the step, 16 to 23 inches; of the middle toe beyond the
rest, 2.5 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 5.7
inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 3.9 inches; between
the middle and outer toes, 3.9 inches; between the middle and
hind toes, 6.8 inches. Versed sine of the backward curvature of
the hind toe, 0.2 inch; of the inward curvature of the inner toe,
0.4 inch ; of the same in the middle toe, 0.6 inch ; of the same in
the outer toe, 0.2 inch. Angle between the axis of the foot and
the line of direction, 10° inwards. Distance of the middle of the
heel from the line of direction, 3 inches. Track shown, of the nat-
ural size, on Plate 8, fig. 3.

Localities. —Horse Race, southwest part of Montague ; Chico-
pee Falls ; Cabotville ; Northampton ; Wethersfield.

Remarks. —1 am so well satisfied that the track which I de-
scribed in the Massachusetts Geological Report as the Ornithoidich-
nites divaricatus, having only three toes, is the same as that made
by the Ornithopus loripes, that I have united them. For when the
fourth toe is left out of the account, they do not seem distinct ; and
that toe, so frequently wanting, I do not regard as sufficient to char-
acterize a species.

Plate 24, fig. 4, is copied and reduced from a specimen in my
cabinet obtained at Marsh’s Quarry in Montague. It will give a
good idea of the relative situation of the feet when the animal
walked.

de)
ox

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 1

Species 5. Ornitrnopus rectus. (PI. V. Fig. 4.)

Nos, 244, 245, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the front lateral toes, 75° to 80°; of the inner and
middle toes, 40° ; of the middle and outer toes, 40°; of the inner
and hind toes, 40° to 60°. Length of the hind toe, 1.8 inch; of
the inner front toe, 2.7 inches; of the middle front toe, 3.5 inches ;
of the outer toe, 2.9 inches; of the middle toe beyond the rest,
1.4 inch; of the foot, 4.5 inches; of the step, 18 inches. Heel
rather broad, and extending back farther than the hind toe. Dis-
tance between the tips of the hind toe and the middle front toe, 4
inches ; between the second and middle toes, 2.2 inches ; between
the middle and outer toes, 2.4 inches; between the second and
outer toes, 3.6 inches ; between the rows of tracks, 7 inches. Axis
of the foot nearly coincident with the line of direction. Track
shown, of the natural size, on Plate 5, fig, 4.

Locality. — Horse Race, Gill; at the quarry, three miles above
Turner’s Falls ; on gray micaceous sandstone.

Remarks. —'This species was discovered while this paper was
passing through the press. ‘The quite distinct specimens on which
it is founded were presented to me by Mr. Ptolemy P. Severance,
who has charge of the quarries and public works at Turner’s Falls.
I was in doubt whether to refer this species to Ornithopus or Plec-
tropus ; but the shortness of the heel and the nearness of the roots
of the hind toe to the roots of the others have led me to place it
as a fifth species of the former. In the great distance between the
tracks of the right and left foot, it differs from all other species ex-
cept the Harpedactylus concameratus ; and one cannot but inquire
whether possibly the animal was not a quadruped, moving forward
like the Proteus, as described in another part of this paper. At

present, however, the evidence is very slight of a quadrupedal char-

196 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

acter in this animal. The hind toe, it will be seen, stands at near-
ly right angles to the axis of the foot ; not on a posterior prolonga-
tion of the outer front toe, as is usual in four-toed living birds, and
in most species of Ornithopus.

Affinities of the Group. —'The same characters which ally the
last group to birds exist in this also. We have, in addition, a hind
toe, situated as in many of the four-toed birds ; so that its impres-
sion on mud lies on a posterior prolongation of the outer toe.
Furthermore, in one species at least (the O. gracilior), we have
proof that the hind toe was articulated high upon the tarsus, so
that only its extremity reached the ground, as is the fact with many
birds. So that, in the present group, the relations to birds are
stronger than in any of the other leptodactylous species. We have
proof that some fossil animals, with tridactylous feet, were quad-
rupeds, and probably some bipeds were batrachians; but I know
of no example in living or fossil nature in which a biped with four
toes, situated as in this group, was any thing else than a bird.

Table of the Ratio between the several Characters of this Group, on
a Scale of 100.

Divarica-
tion of

FS Distance Versed sine] Width
Length of ofthecurve] of

o
a
=
=
o
o
i]

S(sis 2 EB lslis\z Snpoe

3/3 |2 m.| fe-|Zl2 l=] ./ 8 2 22

;|e/8 . =| = BI/Elsolo}/Sia ous ct

lelelelsl2lals Bol felglelzlclslt |Fstss

s\2|/#lelel2}=/s 3) slelelslsizl sl jezles

say |e. || ed be > a! , S| na | & = . 3s

S/S1S1S/2/5(8/E/s] e's lela |2/S/S]2! =] 2] slsces

S\SlS)S]S/e)eleiesi/a 2 j2is |£)/e] 2] 2] se] s\sefes

elei/ejefs|i/2zieilsiziz2zs |jsiz ej2ieleliflicizi2 iss

S\S\SleJS S| |e (S/e & lel lela /e/S|5|/S/ee FS

Ornithopus Adamsanus {100 80/100} 100}100}100)100)100) |__| 100/10Cf 100)100)100/L00} 0} 0) Of100) 1

if gallinaceus 76| 70) 75)1 36) 42) 35) 43] 41) 36) 33 34} 42) 28) 33] 0) O| O 2.
ll gracilior 82) 80] 71] 86] 26) 23] 21) 27) 24 } 15 24] 23) 20) 18} 0} 0} O

ss loripes 100|100| 82} 86] 89} 77} 77} 92|100100 56) 33§ 81) 87) 60) 62}100) 100/100) 43 2.9

WY rectus 77| 57| 83 64] 54! 56) 60} 82) 90; 42) 50] 55) 42 4.0

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 197

Grovur IV.

Feet tetradactylous, plantigrade ; three of the toes directed for-
ward, and the fourth situated far back on the heel, making various
angles with the axis of the foot. Heel large or long, consisting

sometimes of the whole tarsus.

Genus VII. POLEMARCHUS.

Heel very large and rounded, making an impression as deep as
the toes. Three slender toes directed forward; the hind toe sit-
uated far back on the heel, and at right angles to the axis of the

foot.

Species 1. Poremarcuus aicas. (PI. IX. Fig. 1.)

Sauroidichnites polemarchius, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 35,
fig. 17.

Nos. 34 — 36, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 45°; of the inner and middle
toes, 20°; of the middle and outer toes, 25°; of the middle and
fourth toes, 80°. Length of the middle toe, 11.2 inches; of the
inner toe, 8.5 inches; of the outer toe, 8.3 inches; of the hind
toe, 2.5 inches ; of the heel, 3.8 inches; of the middle toe beyond
the rest, 3.2 inches; of the foot, 15 inches; of the step, 48 inches.
Width of the heel, 3.9 inches; of the foot at the roots of the toes,
2.5 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 6.6
to 8.7 inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 4 to 4.6 inches ;
between the middle and outer toes, 5.5 to 7.5 inches; between
the middle and hind toe, 13 inches. Fourth toe straight. Versed
sine of the inward curvature of the inner toe, 0.45 inch; of the in-
ward curvature of the middle toe, 0.9 inch; of the inward curva-

198 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

ture of the outer toe, 0.3 inch. Foot plantigrade. Toes very slen-
der. ‘Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 9, fig. 1.
Localities. — Chicopee Falls, in the bed of the river; and at a
quarry one mile south of Cabotville.
Remark. —I1 have not met with a sufficient number of these
tracks in place to be sure that they were not made by a quadruped.

Genus VIII]. PLECTROPUS.

Heel elongated, apparently extending to the tarsal joint, quite
narrow, making an impression as deep as the toes with its anterior
part. Fourth toe proceeding at right angles from the heel behind
the roots of the toes, resembling the spur on some of the galli-
naceous birds.

Species 1. Pxecrropus minirans. (PI. IX. Figs. 2, 3.)

Sauroidichnites minitans, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 33, fig. 11.

Nos. 17 — 23, 153, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 87° to 95°; of the inner and
middle toes, 37° to 42°; of the middle and outer toes, 45° to 60° ;
of the middle and hind toes, 90° to 110°. Length of the middle
toe, 2.5 to 3.8 inches ; of the inner toe, 1.7 to 2.6 inches; of the
outer toe, 1.8 to 2.5 inches; of the hind toe, 0.9 inch ; of the heel,
1 to 2 inches; of the foot, 3.5 to 6 inches; of the step, 15 to 17
inches. Width of the heel, 0.4 to 0.5 inch; of the foot at the roots
of the front toes, 0.4 inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral
toes, 2.7 to 3.7 inches; between the inner and middle toes, 1.6 to
2.6 inches ; between the outer and middle toes, 2.4 to 2.9 inches ;
between the middle and hind toes, 3.3 to 4.8 inches. Length of the
middle toe beyond the rest, 1.5 to 2 inches. Versed sine of the in-
ward curvature of the middle toe, 0.15 inch; of the outward curva-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 199

ture of the outer toe, 0.1 inch. Heel sloping upwards posteriorly,
in a gradual manner, so as to leave an impression on the mud a great-
er or less distance. Feet for the most part plantigrade. Distance be-
tween the roots of the three forward toes and the hind toe, 0.7 to
0.9 inch. Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 9, figs. 2, 3.

Localities. — Chicopee Falls, one mile south of Cabotville ; and
at Wethersfield.

Remarks. —'The singular manner in which the hind toe on the
track of this and the following species, from being on the upper
layer at right angles with the heel, changes in passing downwards,
so as to correspond almost with that of Ornithopus gallinaceus, has
been already noticed in describing the tenth general character.
This fact shows us that little dependence can be placed upon this
character ; and it approximates two species of tracks, which, at
first view, seem very much unlike, namely, Ornithopus gallinaceus
and Plectropus minitans.

Species 2. Puecrropus tonerrss, (PI. VIII. Fig.4; Pl. X. Fig. 1-3.)

Saurordichnites minitans, Mass. Geol. Rep., Plate 33, fig. 12.

Nos. 24-26, 154, 155, 163, 164, 171, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 70° to 75°; of the inner and
middle toes, 30° to 37°; of the middle and outer toes, 40° to A5° ;
of the middle and hind toes, 90° to 100°. Length of the middle
toe, 2.1 to 3.5 inches ; of the inner toe, 1.4 to 2 inches; of the
outer toe, 1.7 to 2.5 inches ; of the hind toe, 0.6 to 1 inch; of the
heel, 2.6 to 5.7 inches ; of the foot, 6 to 9 inches; of the step, 14
to 17 inches. Width of the heel, 0.3 inch; of the foot at the
roots of the front toes, 0.4 inch. Distance between the tips of
the lateral toes, 2.2 to 2.6 inches; between the inner and middle
toes, 1.4 to 1.9 inch; between the outer and middle toes, 1.6 to

200 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

2.3 inches ; between the middle and hind toes, 3.3 to 4.7 inches.
Distance between the roots of the front toes and the root of the
hind toe, 0.8 to 1.3 inch. Length of the middle toe beyond the
rest, 1 to 1.6 inch. ‘Toes slightly curved; the two front inner ones
inward, and the outer one outward. Axis of the foot correspond-
ing nearly with the line of direction. The whole length of the
tarsal bone reaches the ground usually in walking. Track shown,
of the natural size, on Plate 8, fig. 4, and Plate 10, figs. 1, 2, 3.

Localities. — Wethersfield, at the Cove, on gray shale, or mi-
caceous sandstone, at Turner’s Falls, and Cabotville.

Remarks. — Nearly all the facts within my reach would indicate
that this animal was a biped. Yet the long heel and side toe, so
like a lacertilian, have long led me to suspect it might be a quadru-
ped. I have sometimes found two tracks almost in the same spot,
as is common with quadrupeds. But still the most instructive case
of this kind, already referred to under the third general character,
does not confirm this supposition. By a careful dissection of No.
171 in my cabinet, I found, on three successive layers of the rock,
three impressions so unlike as to perplex the most practised eye ;
but I think I now understand them. The uppermost layer presents
a track as exhibited on Plate 10, fig. 1, having five toes in front and
one articulated to the tarsus, or tarso-metatarsus. The lowest
layer, represented on Plate 10, fig. 3, shows five toes most sym-
metrically arranged, and scarcely exciting a suspicion that there
could be two tracks. But I felt quite confident that existing an-
imals would not allow us to give six toes to the foot of any biped
or quadruped ; and therefore I ventured, at the risk of spoiling
the specimen, to cleave it asunder once more ; when I was pre-
sented with the outline shown on Plate 10, fig. 2, which seems to

me to solve the enigma to a considerable extent. It shows, in my

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 201

opinion, the impression of two feet nearly in the same spot ; one of
them a right foot, and the other a left. If they were those of a
quadruped, however, they ought to be both right or both left. I
regard the toes a, 6, c, as belonging to the fore foot, and d as its
fourth or lateral toe ; while e, f, g, are the three front toes of the
hind foot, and h is its hind toe, which, on this layer, is much more
oblique to the heel than on the upper layer, Plate 10, fig. 1, as I
have observed to be the case in other instances, and which I im-
pute to a slight onward movement in the mud, as the track was
filled up. I at first regarded this specimen as a distinct species
from the P. longipes. But the resemblance is too close between
them to allow of a separation. ‘The dimensions of the two tracks
on Plate 10, fig. 2, are, however, considerably different, as the fol-
lowing statement of their dimensions will show : —

Fore foot. — Divarication of the lateral toes, 75°; of the inner
and middle toes, 35°; of the outer and middle toes, 40°; of the
middle and hind toes, 70°. Length of the middle toe, 2.8 inches ;
of the inner toe, 1.6 inch; of the outer toe, 1.8 inch; of the hind
toe, 1 inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 2.4
inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.8 inch; between the
outer and middle toes, 2.1 inches; between the middle and hind
toes, 3.5 inches. Length of the middle toe beyond the rest, 1.6
inch. ‘Toes somewhat bent.

Hind foot. — Divarication of the lateral toes, 80°; of the inner
and middle toes, 40°; of the outer and middle toes, 40°; of the
middle and hind toes, 115°. Length of the middle toe, 2.2 inches ;
of the inner toe, 1.5 inch ; of the outer toe, 1.7 inch; of the hind
toe, 0.7 inch. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 2.2
inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.4 inch ; between the

27

202 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

outer and middle toes, 1.6 inch; between the middle and hind toes,
3.3 inches. ‘Toes slightly curved.

It is clear, I think, from the angles of divarication of the for-
ward toes, as well as from the length of the toes and the posi-
tion of the lateral or hind toes, that the front track of this
specimen must have been made by a left foot, and the other by a
right foot ; although I feel a little doubt whether the toe d is the
hind toe of the fore foot, as it only shows its extremity. The hind
foot, as appears from the above measurements, is smaller than the
fore foot ; which is not usual in batrachians or lacertilians. Upon
the whole, I cannot make out this track to be of quadrupedal origin,
and yet its general character is such as to leave me still in doubt
whether the animal was not a quadruped.

One other specimen of the tracks of this species (No. 163 of
Cabinet), split twice asunder, shows the forms delineated on Plate
15, figs. 17-19. Here it is not obvious that two tracks are united.
Indeed, had not the case above given furnished the clew, we should
not suspect from this specimen that more than one track existed.
The occurrence of two specimens of these double tracks strength-
ens the suspicion, that the animal that made them (Plectropus lon-
gipes) was a quadruped.

Genus IX. TRIAANOPUS.

Feet tridactyle in front, plantigrade ; divarication small: toes
very slender ; hind toe proceeding from the extremity, or near the
extremity, of the heel. Heel very slender. Gregarious.

Remark. — The distinction between this and the preceding ge-
nus is not striking, and perhaps not permanent. It consists in the
much more slender and delicate character of the whole foot, and in

the position of the fourth toe. But I have some reason to suspect

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 203

that the species of T'rienopus may be quadrupeds, or rather that
there is but one species of this genus, and that a quadruped, with
feet quite unlike. For, in several cases, I find two tracks occupying
almost exactly the same place, and pointing in the same direction, as
has been shown in the case of Plectropus longipes. But the tracks
of Trienopus are extremely crowded together; and although more
perfect than any others I have ever found, yet I have not been able
to trace out consecutive tracks. So brittle is the beautiful red shale
on which they are imprinted, that it is rare to be able to obtain
specimens more than a foot square.

Species 1. Trimnorus Barteyanus. (Pl. X. Fig. 4.)

Sauroidichnites Baileyi, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 32, figs. 8, 9.

Nos. 13-16, 161, 162, 165, 166, 168, 169, 175, 178, 179, 212,
in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 35° to 40°; of the inner and
middle toes, 15° to 20°; of the middle and outer toes, 15° to 20° ;
of the middle and hind toe, 30° to 40°. Length of the middle toe,
2.5 to 3.3 inches; of the inner toe, 1.6 to 2.2 inches ; of the outer
toe, 2 to 2.5 inches ; of the hind toe, 0.7 to 0.9 inch ; of the heel,
1.4 to 2 inches ; of the foot, 4 to 4.9 inches; of the step, 7 inch-
es (?); of the middle toe beyond the rest, 1.5 inch. Distance be-
tween the roots of the forward toes and that of the hind toe, about
1 inch; between the tips of the lateral toes, 1 to 1.8 inch; between
the inner and middle toes, 1.1 to 1.6 inch; between the outer and
middle toes, 1.3 to 1.7 inch; between the middle and hind toe, 3.2
to 3.7 inches. Extremity of the heel adhering to the mud, so that
when the former was lifted up, the latter followed, forming a ridge.
Behind this ridge we sometimes find what seems a continuation of

the heel backward; or, more probably, a hind toe, sometimes more

204. AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

than an inch long, shown by dotted lines on Plate 15, figs. 10
and 11. Toes and heel nearly straight and very narrow. Width
of the foot at the roots of the toes, 0.3 inch; of the heel, 0.2 inch.
Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 10, fig. 4.

Remarks. — The changes of form in the track of this species on
successive layers of rock are instructive, and have already been in
part described under the third general character. Plate 15, fig. 10,
shows the track on the highest layer of No. 175 (Cabinet) ; fig.
11 shows the second track, half an inch lower; fig. 12, the third
track, one quarter of an inch lower; and fig. 13, the fourth impres-
sion, one third of an inch lower. On the upper layers the rock is
broken off, so as not to show the extremities of all the toes; but
lower down they are all exhibited, both from their becoming shorter,
and from the manner in which the mud was silted into the impres-
sion, so as not to fill perpendicularly, but obliquely.

The species is dedicated to Professor J. W. Bailey, of West
Point, the eminent microscopist.

Plate 19, fig. 6, shows the tracks, on a specimen from Wethers-
field (No. 169, Cabinet), of this and the following species, reduced
three times from the natural size. They are in relief; and on the
other side of the specimen (which is an inch and a half thick),
they are much more numerous, so numerous, indeed, that individual
tracks can scarcely be traced out. Yet in all these cases, the tracks
point nearly in the same direction; as is the case with almost all
the specimens from that remarkable locality, which leads to the in-
ference that the animals were gregarious.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove ; on beautiful red shale.

Species 2. Triznopus Emmonsianus. (PI. X. Fig. 5.)

Sauroidichnites Emmonsii, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 31, figs.
5=7.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 205

Nos. 7 - 12, 157, 160, 162, 165, 169, 177, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 50°; of the inner and middle
toes, 25° ; of the middle and outer toes, 25°; of the middle and
hind toes, 115°. Hind toe proceeding from the extremity of the
heel. Length of the middle toe, 2.3 to 3 inches; of the inner
toe, 1.5 to 2 inches; of the outer toe, 1.5 to 2.2 inches; of the
hind toe, 0.7 to 1 inch; of the heel, 0.3 to 0.5 inch; of the middle
toe beyond the rest, 1.1 inch; of the foot, 2.8 to 3.6 inches. Dis-
tance between the tips of the lateral toes, 1.5 to 2 inches; be-
tween the inner and middle toes, 1.1 to 1.5 inch; between the
middle and outer toes, 1.3 to 2 inches; between the middle and
hind toes, 2.9 to 3.9 inches. Heel 0.2 inch wide ; at the roots of
the front toes, 0.4 inch. Versed sine of the inward curvature of
the inner toe, 0.15 inch; of the same in middle toe, 0.1 to 0.15
inch ; of outer toe, outwards, 0.05 inch. Track shown, of the nat-
ural size, on Plate 10, fig. 5.

Locality. — Wethersfield, at the Cove; on red shale, intermingled
with the last species.

This species is dedicated to Professor Ebenezer Emmons, of
Albany.

No. 7 (Cabinet) furnishes us with an instructive example of a
change of form in the track of this species, as it appears on succes-
sive layers of little more than an inch in thickness. Plate 15,
fig. 14, shows the track on the uppermost layer; fig. 15, on the
second; and fig. 16, on the lowest.

Remarks. — Although my specimens of the tracks of this and
the preceding species are more numerous than of any other, and
most of them as perfect impressions as can be made on a plastic
material, | have not been able to ascertain the length of the step,
nor, in fact, to satisfy myself whether the animal was a biped or a

206 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

quadruped. The shale on which they occur is so brittle that it
is difficult to obtain a slab more than a foot long, and then the
tracks are so numerous that their interference obscures the charac-
ters. When I first opened the rocks at this spot, ten years ago,
these points probably might easily have been settled; but I was
not then aware of their importance. I strongly suspect that the
tracks of the two species of Tri@nopus may be only those of
the hind and fore feet of a lizard. I have several specimens, in
which two tracks occur almost in the same place, as already fully
described.

Genus X. HARPEDACTYLUS.

Leptodactylous ; three to four-toed. Toes all curved inward,
like sickles. ;

Species 1. Harpepactyius ecracizis. (Pl. XIV. Fig. 2.)

Sauroidichnites tenuissimus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 34, fig. 13.

Nos. 27 — 30, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the outer of the three front toes, 70°; of the
inner and middle toes, 33°; of the middle and outer toes, 35° ;
of the fourth or hind toe and the outer front toe, 55°. Length of
the inner front toe, 1.9 inch; of the middle toe, 2.2 inches ; of the
outer toe, 1.8 inch; of the fourth or hind toe, 0.9 inch; of the
heel, 1.6 inch; of the foot, 3.7 inches; of the step, 8 inches;
of the middle front toe beyond the rest, 0.8 inch. Distance
between the tips of the lateral front toes, 2.2 inches; of the
inner and middle toes, 1.25 inch; of the outer and middle
toes, 1.5 inch; of the hind and middle toes, 2 inches; between
the roots of the front toes and the origin of the fourth toe,
0.7 inch. Width of the heel, 0.2 inch. ‘Tarsal joint lifting up

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 207

the mud as the animal walked. Toes all curved inward. Versed
sine of the hind toe, 0.12 inch; of the inner front toe, 0.17 inch ;
of the middle toe, 0.13 inch; of the outer toe, 0.2 inch. Angle
between the axis of the foot and the line of direction very large.
Axis of the heel prolonged strikes the tip of the outer toe. Middle
front toe making an angle with that axis of 40°. Inner toe making
a similar angle equal to 70°. Fourth toe making an angle equal to
60°. Toes, particularly the posterior, extremely narrow. Track
shown, of the natural size, on Plate 14, fig. 2, copied from a quite
perfect specimen in Mr. D. Marsh’s cabinet, lately found by him
at Turner’s Falls. Plate 20, fig. 1, shows two tracks, in their nor-
mal position, from the same locality, reduced from their natural
size three times.

Localities. —Turner’s Falls, Horse Race, and Wethersfield.

Remarks. — Although I described this species in my Report on
the Geology of Massachusetts, yet so defective were my specimens,
that I despaired of giving it a place in this paper, until the discovery
of the specimens from which the preceding figures were drawn.
One cannot look at these, without feeling a strong impression that
the animal will prove to be a quadruped ; and facts which I have
yet to mention, as to the small fore feet of some animals having
often made only a slight impression on mud, lead to the suspicion
that such may be discovered in connection with these. If, indeed,
Plate 14, figs. 4 and 5, sketched from a specimen presented to me
by Dr. Deane, and found at Turner’s Falls, belongs to this species,

as I rather presume it may, it shows us the hind and fore feet.

Species 2. HarpepactyLus concameratus. (Pl. XIV. Fig. 3.)

No. 180 in Cabinet.
Tridigitate. Divarication of the lateral toes, 60° ; of the inner

208 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

and middle toes, 25°; of the outer and middle toes, 35°. Length
of the middle toe (measured on the chord), 3.2 inches ; of the inner
toe, 2 inches; of the outer toe, 1.6 inch; of the middle toe beyond
the rest, 2.2 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes,
3.5 inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.7 inch; between
the middle and outer toes, 3.4 inches. Versed sine of the inward
curvature of the inner toe, 0.3 inch; of the middle toe, 0.6 inch.
Outer toe straight. Width of the curved ridge between the toes
and heel (the space between the dotted line and the heel, in Plate
14, fig. 3,), 0.3 to 0.6 inch: the length of the same (which is the
width of the foot at the roots of the toes), 2.2 inches. Length
of the heel (breadth literally), 1.2 inch. Breadth of do., 2 inches.
Length of the foot, 4.7 inches; of the step, 8 to 12 inches, if con-
sidered a biped. Foot vaulted, so as to leave a ridge between the
toes and the heel, and hence the specific name. Axis of the foot
very much turned inward towards the line of direction. Distance
from that line, 5 inches. ‘Track shown, of the natural size, on
Plate 14, fig. 3.

Remarks. — The specimen, Plate 14, fig. 5, from which most
of the above description was taken, is a very perfect one, from
Turner’s Falls, presented to me by Mr. Ptolemy P. Severance.
But just as I was sending this paper to the press (April 27th), my
attention was called to a slab of ten tracks in a row, or rather two
rows, lying in the sidewalk in Greenfield Street, in front of the
residence of Franklin Ripley, Esq. It was from the Horse Race,
and is a gray micaceous sandstone. I at once recognized these
tracks as essentially corresponding with those of the H. concamera-
tus. They are distinguished from all others by the axis of the foot
turning so much inward toward the line of direction, by the great
distance of the middle of the heel from that line (5 inches), and by

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 209

the sickle shape of the inner toes especially. One can hardly
doubt, on inspecting the specimen sketched on Plate 24, fig. 6, re-
duced 12 diameters, that the animal was a biped; yet the inquiry
arises, Whether it may not have been a quadruped with feet placed
like those of the Proteus, exhibited on Plate 19, fig. 3. This is
possible ; but the very nearly exact alternation of the tracks in the
two rows seems hardly consistent with such a supposition. If we
could discover a small fore-foot with each large one, such an alter-
nation would be natural; but no trace of such tracks can be seen.
And, upon the whole, my present conviction is, that we must regard
the animal as a biped, with short legs and a wide body, walking
much like the common goose. Had I discovered this slab earlier,
I should probably have separated this species from Harpedacty-
lus ; but as the thing now stands, such a change is difficult, and
perhaps it is not important. I am glad to be able to give a sketch
of the slab in this paper, although the individual tracks are not

laid down with quite so much accuracy as I could have wished.

Species 3. Harrepactytus rectus. (Pl. V. Fig. 5.)

Divarication of the lateral toes, 32° to 38°; of the inner and
middle toes, 10° to 15°; of the middle and outer toes, 25° to 30°.
Length of the inner toe, 2.5 inches; of the middle toe, 3.75 inches;
of the outer toe, 2.5 inches; of the middle toe beyond the rest,
1.5 inch; of the foot, 4 inches at least; of the step, 5.5 inches.
Heel nearly 2 inches broad ; length not determined. Distance be-
tween the tips of the inner and middle toes, 1.5 to 2 inches ; be-
tween the middle and outer toes, 2 to 2.5 inches; between the
lateral toes, 2.25 to 3 inches; between the rows of tracks made
by the right and left foot, 3.5 inches. Axis of the foot turned in-
ward a few degrees towards the line of direction. Track shown,

28

210 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

of the natural size, on Plate 5, fig. 5; and a row of the tracks, re-
duced to one sixth the natural size, is shown on Plate 24, fig. 7.

Locality. —'Turner’s Falls, Gill, at the quarry, eighty rods above
the cataract.

Remarks. — The specimen from which this species has been de-
scribed was in the possession of Mr. Ptolemy P. Severance, but
what is to be its ultimate destination is not yet known. A sketch
of it, accurately reduced, is given on Plate 24, fig. 7. The spe-
cies is distinguished from all others by the long and delicate toes,
in connection with an elliptical heel, whose posterior part is not
well marked, but which appears to me to approach nearly to that
of Harpedactylus concameratus ; and therefore I have placed this
species under that genus, though the specific name rectus, as
applied to the toes, seems almost to contradict the generic name.
It differs from other species, also, by the toes pointing so much
inward towards the line of direction, and also in the shortness
of the step compared with the length of the foot, which is more
remarkable than in any species hitherto discovered, the ratio
between them being only 1.37. Yet the nine steps shown on
Plate 24, fig. 7, although somewhat broken, prove conclusively
what is the length both of the foot and the step. I have a
suspicion that it was a web-footed animal, but no positive ev-
idence. ‘This species was discovered while this paper was pass-
ing through the press.

Affinities of the Group. — The probable biped character of most
of the species, and the trifid character of the front part of the foot,
are presumptions in favor of their being birds. On the other hand,
the curved and slender character of most of the toes, the large or
long tarsus, forming the heel, and the articulation of the hind toe,

when present, so far back upon the tarsus, assimilate them to

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 211

lizards ; whose feet certainly have a general resemblance to the
tracks of these animals. On the other hand, the resemblance
between the front part of the foot of the genus Trie@nopus and
that of certain birds is very striking, as the sketches on Plate
20, copied from Gray’s Genera of Birds, subfamily Columbine,
will show. Fig. 2 represents the foot of the Lopholaimus an-
tarcticus ; figs. 3 and 4, the feet of Cathartes fetens ; and fig. 5,
the foot of a species of Gryphus. But the fact is, these are birds
which for the most part never walk upon the ground, and cer-
tainly never upon a muddy shore ; so that we may be sure that
this accidental resemblance does not indicate any real affinity.
Upon the whole, I am more inclined to refer this group to the
lacertilian tribe than to birds, although the evidence does not

seem very decided.

Table of the Ratio between the several Characters of this Group, on
a Scale of 100.

Divarica- Distance Versedsinef Width pc ~
tion of Length of between _fofthecurvel of fm&
= 7 = : cw
SEs \s Seon ale 2 [22]
3 3 2 Irs 2 3 3 = 3 2 28 |
-igigs : ie ie BlElco]s]/S]/a ols
Ss i a Ba fen) 4 |o 2 S io} efcs
E/zlzls1slelsis bel [SalElElelelSiat jess
SSS] Sees 8) (sslelel2{si2lisl jszs
S/S/SiS(EIS(SlEle|oi2 lela | 2/E/S14/ 4 | 2] glscees
BlElS/BPSlelslseieies j2is |£)e)el2ls\e/ sissies
2} o}/o}/ofojolo|(eo/2)on afte o/2jofe|j-|e] oj2 fates
z= | siSicois |ais = 2/5
S\BlS\Rle\s|elelelee jeje |RjejelS|S|Seie -°
Polemarchus gigas 49) 51) 48} 70}100/100}100/100) 20100, 100) 9UF 100) 100/100) 100/100) 100/100; 100) 100f 3.2
Plectropus minitans 100) 100}100] 87} 31) 27] 25) 36) 62 33) 56} 36) 42} 49) 40) 30) 17) 33] 12) 16)3.4
ae longipes 74) 37] 81] 83} 20} 25) 25) 32)/100) 31) 41)100§ 32 87) 29} 30) 8} 16) 2.1
Trienopus Baileyanus 40} 20) 33) 31} 22) 2€ 26) 32] 13142) 47) 40] 18] 32) 23) 26 4, 12
“ Emmonsianus | 55; 27| 48)10 | 21| 241 22 36] 43! | 34] 10§ 24] 30) 26| 264 33] 13] 16) 5] 16

Note. — The three species of Harpedactylus are omitted in the above table, be-
cause they are so obviously unlike the other species that minute comparisons seem

unnecessary.

212 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

AprENDIXx To Group IV.

Remarks. — Some general resemblances between the foot of the
following genus and those of the preceding genera of this group
have led me to place it in an appendix, though very probably it

may prove to have very different affinities.

Genus XI. TYPOPUS.

Foot plantigrade, except the middle toe, which is strikingly digi-
tigrade ; trifid; toes leptodactylous. Heel a prolongation back-
ward of the outer toe; yet, from the anterior extremity of this, a
ridge extends nearly at right angles, which appears to form a basis
for the insertion of the other toes.

Remarks. — If I had not very distinct tracks of this species,
I should not attempt to describe it, it is so anomalous and unlike
existing nature. ‘The lateral character of the heel is one peculiar-
ity. But the ridge on the foot, running obliquely from this to the
roots of the imner toe, is more peculiar ; seeming, in fact, to be
only a curved continuation backward of that toe. I have been,
indeed, in doubt whether to consider it as a heel, or that and the
toe as one crooked toe. But the middle toe seems to have been
articulated to this ridge, though high up, leaving a cavity between.
Hence I have, upon the whole, regarded this ridge as a part of the
heel. That part of the heel which is a continuation backward
of the outer toe might be considered a hind toe, were not its

width and bluntness, as seen on the tracks, more characteristic of

a heel.

Species 1. Typopus apnormis. (PI. X. Fig. 6.)

Sauroidichnites abnormis, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLVII., Plate
3, figs. 6, 7, 8.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. PAIS!

Nos. 131 — 133, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the lateral toes, 35°; of the inner and middle
toes, 20°; of the middle and outer toes, 15°. Length of the middle
toe, so far as it usually impresses the ground in walking, 1.9 inch ;
whole length of do., 2.8 inches ; of the inner toe, 1.3 inch; of the
outer toe, 1.8 inch; of the part of the heel running directly back-
ward, 0.7 inch; of the lateral part, 2 inches; of the foot, 4 inches;
of the step, 18 inches; of the middle toe beyond the rest, 1.4 inch.
Width of the heel, 0.2 to 0.3 inch; of the foot at the roots of the
toes, 2.2 inches. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes, 2.8
inches ; between the inner and middle toes, 1.8 inch ; between the
middle and outer toes, 2 inches. Axis of the left foot turned in-
ward from the line of direction, 15°; of the right foot, 30°. Dis-
tance of the axis of the foot from the line of direction, 2.5 inches.
Right foot shown, of the natural size, on Plate 10, fig. 6. Plate
19, fig. 7, shows three tracks in their normal position, one sixth of
the natural size (linear measure), sketched from a slab in the cab-
inet of Mr. Dexter Marsh.

Locality. — 'Turner’s Falls.

Plate 15, fig. 2, is copied from a very distinct specimen of foot-
marks from Wethersfield, and seems to approach the T'ypopus in
form, though a distinct species. But I hesitate to describe it as
such, because, being near another track, its form may have been
altered, and I have only one specimen.

Remarks. — All the specimens yet found show the extraordi-
nary fact, that the right foot has a divergence of 15° more than
the other from the line of direction ; and especially the specimen
in Mr. Marsh’s collection, from which Plate 19, fig. 7, was copied.
This surely cannot be natural, if the animal was a biped ; for na-

ture, with few exceptions, constructs pairs of organs alike. What

214 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

improbability is there in the supposition, that the animal which
made the tracks at the locality (Turner’s Falls) had one of its
legs (the right) broken, and that it subsequently united in a
wrong position ?

Affinities of the Genus. — The biped character of the animal
and its trifid toes afford a presumption that it was a bird; yet the
ereat peculiarity of its feet would rather lead us to suspect that it

might have been a saurian or batrachian.

Group V. BIPEDAL BATRACHIANS?

Toes four, directed forward, or obliquely forward. Bipedal.

Genus XI]. OTOZOUM.
Tetradactylous; pachydactylous; lobopedate; plantigrade. ‘Toes

all directed forward ; the inner one shortest ; the second next long-
er; the third longest of all; the fourth but little shorter ; all mak-
ing distinct phalangeal impressions on mud, the inner toe most
distinctly ; three are made by the inner toe, four by the second,
and three by the two outer toes. Two bones of the metacarpus (),
articulated to the phalanges of the two outer toes, make a distinct
impression. Cushion beneath the carpus rounded beneath, and

sloping upward posteriorly.

Species 1. Orozoum Moopu. (Pl. XII. Fig. 1.)

American Journal of Science, Vol. 1V., New Series, p. 55.

No. 234, in Cabinet.

Divarication of the outer toes, 35°; of the inner and second
toes, 15°; of the outer and third toes, 12°; of the two middle

toes, 5°. Length of the inner toe, 8.5 inches ; of the second toe,

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. PANS)

10.25 inches ; of the third toe, 8 inches; of the outer toe, 8.5
inches; of the foot, 20 inches; of the step, about 3 feet. Dis-
tance between the extremities of the outer toes, 1.3 inch; of the
inner and second toes, 6.5 inches; of the second and third, 3.4
inches ; of the third and fourth, 2.7 inches. Width of the toes,
2 to 3.3 inches. Length of the phalanges of the inner toe, —
proximal phalanx, 3 inches; the second, 2 inches; the third, 3.4
inches (?): of the second toe,— the proximal, 2.4 inches; the
second, 2.5 inches; the third, 2.9 inches; the fourth, 2.6 (?)
inches: of the proximal metacarpal bone of the third and fourth
toes, 3.5 inches ; of the second do., 4 inches: of the first phalanx
of the third toe, 2 inches; of the second, 2 inches; of the dis-
tal, 3.8 (?) inches: of the outer toe, — the proximal, 1.6 inch ; the
second, 1.6 inch; the distal, 5.4 inches (?). Divarication of the
axes of the feet and the line of direction, 15°. Distance of the
middle of the heel from the line of direction, 2.5 inches. Integ-
uments of the bottom of the feet rugose and irregularly papillose.
Track shown, of the natural size, with the papillose impressions, on
Plate 12, fig. 1.

Locality. — South Hadley, near the house of Pliny Moody, Esq.,
by whom it was discovered and preserved, and the specimen, the
only one known, deposited in the cabinet of Amherst College,
where it is numbered 234. Mr. Moody was the first person in
the Connecticut valley who recognized the fossil footmarks found
there as those of birds; having spoken, more than forty years
since, of those on No. 61 of my cabinet as made by “ poultry,”
or by ‘Noah’s raven.” Hence it has seemed to me but jus-
tice that his name should be attached to this most remarkable
species.

Affinities of the Genus. — Its biped character is evident from

916 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

the sketch (Plate 12, Fig. 2), which is copied from the only slab
yet found with the tracks of this animal. ‘The number of toes
directed forward, and especially the number of phalangeal impres-
sions, forbid us to class it among birds. ‘There is, however, some
resemblance between its foot and that of a frog in an embryotic
state ; and such analogies are important, because the adult devel-
opments of the early geological periods correspond best to the
embryo structure of living animals. Hence there is at least a
probability, that this animal was a biped batrachian; and what
a monster, with feet 20 inches long and 12 wide! No such biped
batrachians, indeed, now live ; but some exist with only two feet.
For an animal so large, its tracks are more nearly in a right line
than we should expect, and its steps shorter ; an indication of short
legs.

In the American Journal of Science, Vol. IV. of the New Se-
ries, I have given full details respecting this track and its affin-
ities. But I do not judge it expedient to repeat them all here.
And yet so remarkable an animal — the most extraordinary of all
those discovered by their tracks — could not properly be passed in
silence in an attempt to give a monograph of this subject. Al-
though a sketch of the slab containing the tracks of this species
is given in that work, yet I have thought its exhibition here would
be appropriate ; and it is accordingly given on Plate 12, fig. 2, re-
duced eighteen diameters. It contains four tracks of the Otozoum,
of which A is the most perfect. The two rows of tracks, a, a, &c.,
b, b, &c., belong to the Brontozowm parallelum ; besides which a
large part of the surface is covered with rain-drops in relief, as are
all the tracks.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 217

Genus XIII. PALAMOPUS.

Bipedal ; tetradactylous ; toes all directed forward, spreading
moderately ; leptodactylous ; essentially plantigrade.

Species 1. Paramopus Dananus. (PL XI. Figs, .1, 2.)
No. 149 in Cabinet.

Angle between the inner and second toes, 25° ; between the sec-
ond and third, 30°; between the third and fourth, 15°; between
the inner and outer, 67°. Length of the inner toe, 2 inches; of
the second, 2.5 inches ; of the third, 4.7 inches; of the outer, 2.3
inches ; of the third or longest toe beyond the others, 2.7 inches.
Distance between the tips of the first and second toes, 2.4 inches ;
between the second and third, 3.4 inches; between the third and
fourth, 3 inches ; between the outer ones, 4.7 inches. Length of
the heel, 3.7 inches; breadth behind, 2 inches; wider before.
Probably web-footed. Length of the foot, 8.5 inches; of the step,
21 inches. Axis of the foot and line of direction coincident.

Remarks.— The above dimensions were measured from Plate 1'T;
fig. 1. Fig. 2, which is the next track on the only slab of this spe-
cies yet discovered, appears to have been somewhat distorted by a
subsequent track of Brontozoum giganteum on the same stone.
It is possible, however, that this was not the cause of the differ-
ence between them.

This track was discovered by Mr. William S. Clarke, of the
Senior Class in Amherst College, on the railroad, in the south-
east part of Northampton. It is dedicated to S. L. Dana, M. D.,
LL. D., of Lowell.

Affinities of the Genus. —'The resemblance between the tracks
of this genus and the feet of some living batrachians is rather

29

218 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

striking. Some of the Ranid have only four toes on their fore
feet. Now, as we have evidence of the probable existence, during
the triassic period, of the biped batrachian Otozoum, we may, with
no little probability, refer the Palamopus to the same tribe, until
proof shall be obtained of its quadrupedal character. The P.
Dananus is the only fossil animal in New England whose tracks
decidedly indicate webbed feet.

Grove VI. QUADRUPEDAL BATRACHIANS.

Quadrupeds, with 4 to 5 blunt pachydactylous toes, and webbed
feet, especially the fore feet. Heels broad and irregular. Impres-
sion of the toes on the mud uniform through their entire length
(i. e. not showing phalangeal enlargements). Rudiment of a sixth
toe on the hind foot, and of a fifth toe on the fore feet (?).

Genus XIV. THENAROPUS, King.

Figured and described by Dr. King, in American Journal of Sci-
ence, Vol. XLVIII. p. 348.
Description the same as that of the Group.

Species 1. THrnaropus HETERODACTYLUS, King.

(PI. XVI. Figs. 1, 2.

No. 191 in Cabinet.

Fore foot. — Toes four, with the rudiment of a fifth (7) on the
inside, shown on the track by a protuberance. Divarication of
the lateral toes, 90°; of the inner and second toes, 20°; of the
second and third, 30°; of the third and fourth, 40°. Length of
the inner toe beyond the web, 1.2 inch; of the second toe, 1.4
inch ; of the third, 1.5 inch; of the fourth, 1.1 inch; of the foot,

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 219

4.2 inches. Rudiment(?) of the fifth toe shown by a protuber-
ance on the inside of the heel. Breadth of the heel, or hind part,
2.7 inches; of the toes, from 0.6 to 0.9 inch. Distance from tip to
tip of the lateral toes, 4.5 inches; of the first and second, 1.5 inch ;
of the second and third, 1.8 inch; of the third and fourth, 2 inches.
Toes blunt. Angle between the axis of the foot (a line drawn
from the extremity of the heel to the middle point between the
second and third toes) and the line of direction, 35°.

Hind foot. — Five toes, with the rudiment of a sixth(?) on the
inside. Divarication of the outer toes, 75°; of the inner and
second, 15°; of the second and third, 20°; of the third and fourth,
10°; of the fourth and fifth, 28°. Length of the inner toe beyond
the web, 1.6 inch; of the second, 1.8 inch; of the third, 2.4
inches; of the fourth, 3.1 inches; of the fifth, 0.9 inch; of the
foot, 5.5 inches ; of the step, 9 to 16 inches. Distance between
the hind and fore feet on the same side, 0 to 1 inch. Angle of the
axis of the hind foot with the line of direction, 0° to 30°; usually
coincident. Distance between the two rows of tracks, 6 to 8
inches ; between the tips of the lateral toes, 4 inches ; between
the first and second, 1.2 inch; between the second and third, 1.5
inch; between the third and fourth, 1.2 inch; between the fourth
and fifth, 3.2 inches. Width of the heel, about 2.2 inches.
Tracks of the fore and hind foot shown, of the natural size, in
a normal position, on Plate 16, figs. 1, 2.

Remarks. — The tracks of this animal were first described by
Dr. Alfred T. King, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia, for November and December, 1844, and in
the American Journal of Science, Vol. XLVIII., p. 348. They oc-
cur in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, in the rocks of the coal
formation, about 800 feet below its top. ‘The sketch, Plate 16,

220 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

figs. 1, 2, of the natural size, representing a hind and fore foot, is
copied from a very distinct specimen, sent me by Dr. King. The
above description has been derived chiefly from the same slab, No.
191 of my Cabinet. On that slab are several mud veins, some of
which proceed directly from the tips of the toes. This is, in fact,
just what we might expect from the desiccation of the mud ;
though, to an unpractised eye, it might throw doubt over the whole
subject.

Affinities of the Genus. —'The anatomist cannot examine the
tracks of this animal, or the sketches which I have given, without
at once perceiving their resemblance to those of some living batra-
chians. Their semi-palmate character, the number and bluntness
of the toes, and deficiency of claws, the want of phalangeal im-
pressions, the relative length of the toes, the supposed rudi-
ments of an additional toe, bear a striking analogy to the feet of
the Hyla Seurti and H. Gaimardi, for instance, figured in the Dict.
Class. d?Hist. Nat., Plate 125. Even the relative length of the
toes is the same, the outer toe but one being the longest. The
Thenaropus, however, did not move by leaps; but as a tortoise ;
and it is possible that it might have been a chelonian. More prob-
ably, however, it was a batrachian ; and being, with the exception
of an unknown reptile discovered in the carboniferous rocks of
Nova Scotia by Mr. Logan, the only example of vertebral animals

so low in the series of rocks, it possesses a peculiar interest.

Genus XV. ANOMCPUS.

Hind feet plantigrade, three-toed (four-toed ?); all the toes point-
ing forward. Heel long, extending to the tarsal joint. Fore foot
quinquefid, digitigrade. All the toes pachydactylous, and making
phalangeal impressions.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 221

Remarks. — The second species of this genus was described by
me in 1840, in my Massachusetts Report, with figures, (Plate
48, figs. 44, 45,) under the name of Sauroidichnites Barrattii.
The evidence then discovered did not prove it to be a quadruped,
although I strongly suspected this must be the case. The other spe-
cies, the A. scambus, was first described by Dr. Deane, as a quad-
ruped, in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XLIX. p. 80, and
re-described in the same work, New Series, Vol. III. De io. irs
Deane, however, has represented the hind leg as wanting altogether
in a foot, and the lower leg as doubled down upon the long tarsus,
or heel ; and he supposes that from the animal’s « peculiar organ-
ization, one set of feet did not touch the earth ” (American Jour-
nal of Science, Vol. XLIX. p. 80). Having carefully examined
the original specimen from which his drawings and description were
taken, belonging to T. Leonard, Esq., of Greenfield, as well as
others in Mr. Marsh’s cabinet and in my own, I cannot doubt that
the hind foot is most distinctly represented in nearly every case,
as I have shown it on Plate 13, figs. 1 and 3, and on Plate 21,
fig. 1, and on Plate 21, fig. 3, though as to the fourth toe I am
not certain ; and the heel of the hind foot has sometimes a pecu-
liarity of structure, which might readily suggest the idea of the
lower leg folded upon the tarsus; but I am not prepared thus to
explain the slight longitudinal ridges we sometimes find upon it.
But, however that may be, I cannot doubt that the hind foot had
three stout, very distinct toes, very much resembling some of the
tridactyle feet already described ; for I find them on nearly every
specimen I have seen; and although we might say of one instance,
that the heel happened to come in contact with a track of Bronto-
zoum directly before it, we cannot thus explain the numerous cases
exhibited upon the plates above referred to; the originals of which

222 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

may be seen in the possession of Mr. Leonard, Mr. Marsh, or my-
self, by naturalists who would make sure of the correctness of my
delineations. I will add, however, that the examination of the char-
acters of this genus has cost me more labor and perplexity than that
of any other described in this paper; and it would not be strange,
if different observers should not entirely agree as to some of the
features of its tracks.

Species 1. Anom@pus scampus. (PI. XIII. Figs. 1-6.)
Am. Jour. of Science, Vol. XLIX. p. 80, and Vol. III. p. 78,

New Series.

Hind foot.—Pachydactylous; three-toed (four-toed ?). Divari-
cation of the lateral toes, 45° to 50°; of the inner and middle toes,
20° to 25°; of the middle and outer toes, 20°. ‘Toes usually
nearly straight, but sometimes curved. Heel 4.2 inches long, ex-
panding towards the posterior part. Lower leg above the tarsal
joint sometimes making an impression on mud (see Pl. 13, fig. 4).
Phalangeal impressions on mud three (?) by the inner toe, 0.7, 0.7,
0.8 inch, respectively ; three by the middle toe, 1.1, 1, 0.7 inch;
and five by the outer toe, 0.8, 0.8, 0.6, 0.6, 0.6 inch. Lateral dis-
tance between the extremity of the heels in the two tracks, 4 to
5.8 inches. Angle between the axis of the foot and the line of
direction, 0° to 20°. Distance between the tips of the lateral toes,
2.7 inches; between the inner and second toes, 1.9 inch ; between
the second and third, 1.8 inch. Projection of the middle toe be-
yond the rest, 1.2 inch. Length of the middle toe, 3.2 inches ; of
the inner toe, 2.4 inches; of the outer toe, 3.3 inches; of the foot,
6 to 8 inches ; of the step, usually about 9 inches.

Fore feet. — Quinquefid, pachydactylous ; digitigrade. Divari-
cation of the outer toes, excluding the hind toe, 75° to 90°; of

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 223

the inner and second toes, 20° to 35°; of the second and third,
10° to 25° ; of the third and fourth, 30° to 45°; of the middle and
hind toes, 90° to 100°. Length of the inner toe, 1 inch; of the
second, 1.3 inch; of the third, 1.5 inch; of the fourth, 1.2 inch; of
the hind toe, 1 inch. Number of phalangeal impressions made by the
inner toe, two, 0.4, 0.3 inch, respectively ; by the second, three (?),
0.3, 0.3, 0.3 inch; by the third, four, 0.4, 0.3, 0.3, 0.3 inch ; by
the fourth, three, 0.4, 0.4, 0.3 inch; by the hind toe, two, 0.4, 0.4
inch. Angle between the axis of the foot and the line of direction,
25° to 50°. Distance of the middle of the heel from the line of di-
rection, 2 inches. Track of the hind foot, of natural size, shown on
Plate 13, fig. 1; of the fore foot, on fig. 2. The hind foot, also, is
shown on fig. 3, with perhaps a fourth toe. Figs. 4, 5, and 6 are also
tracks of this or an allied species ; the toes on the hind foot being
more or less indistinct, and the leg above the tarsal joint making
an impression on fig. 4.

Locality. —'Turner’s Falls, Gill.

Remarks. —'The great difficulty of ascertaining the characters
of this species, and the paucity of specimens, have made it neces-
sary to give numerous sketches, some of which have been already
referred to. Plate 21, fig. 1, is a true copy, reduced to one sixth
of the natural size, of a slab four feet by two, belonging to T.
Leonard, Esq., which that gentleman has very liberally allowed me
to study and to copy. Upon it may be seen one row of seven or
eight tracks of a Brontozoum, probably B. gracillimum; two parallel
trails of a tortoise, the Helcura littoralis, to be described on a sub-
sequent page; several insulated tracks, perhaps of Brontozoum, and
also of the present species of Anomepus, both hind and fore feet.
The impressions a and 6, of hind feet, and c and d, of fore feet,

are the most interesting, because they appear to have been made

224, AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

by the animal when at rest upon all its feet, and certainly look
like the imprints of a frog, scarcely less than a foot in diameter ;
or, possibly, a tortoise.

In order to show how great changes of tracks frequently occur
on layers of rock only an inch apart, I have given, on Plate 21,
fig. 2, the under side of the above slab, belonging to Mr. Leonard.
Scarcely one of these tracks corresponds to those upon the upper
side of the slab. Only one example of a track of Anomepus oc-
curs, though some of the other trifid feet may be the toes of the
hind foot of that animal. We see, also, three tracks of what is
probably the Ornithopus gallinaceus.

Plate 20, fig. 3, is copied from a slab in Mr. Marsh’s collection,
reduced to one third of its natural size. It seems to show a suc-
cession of the tracks of Anomewpus scambus, the last four very
similar to those upon Plate 21, fig. 1; that is, they seem to have
been made by the animal when sitting upon its haunches. Yet
the left-hand hind track is greatly injured by another track of an
animal moving in an opposite direction; and the three fragments
of toes near it look like the fore feet of the Anomepus. If so, the
heel of the hind feet did not reach the surface.

Plate 20, fig. 9, is a sketch, reduced three times, from a small
slab presented me by Dr. Deane. It exhibits several tracks, more
or less perfect, very similar to those of the slabs above described.
In two cases, at least, on this slab, we seem to have little else but
the impression of the heel, with a part of the lower leg (a and 6).
Yet a little in advance of a, we have impressions (c), indistinct |
admit, of a sort that reminded me of the feet of certain batrachi-
ans ; for example, the Anolis Edwardsii, of whose feet I have
given a sketch on Plate 20, fig. 7, copied from Griffith’s Cuvier,
Vol. IX. p. 228. Yet I am by no means confident that I rightly

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 225

understand this case. But the statement may lead others, who
have better opportunity, to reach the truth. The imprints of the
fore feet on this slab, Plate 20, fig. 9, do not well correspond
with those of the Anomepus scambus, as given on the other draw-
ings ; and I am not without suspicion that it shows us tracks, not
only specifically, but even generically, different from the Anome-
pus scambus. I might add, that the term scambus (crooked leg)
was derived from this slab, and may prove inappropriate to the
species.

Plate 13, fig. 3, is copied from No. 170 of my cabinet. I can-
not resist the impression that it has a fourth toe, as represent-
ed, though the specimen is not one of the most distinct. It shows,
also, a rather remarkable ridge, common in this species, represented
by a dotted line; the specimen appearing somewhat as if two heels
lay side by side. I am not prepared to explain it; nor can I
admit that it results from an impression of the leg above the tarsal

joint.

Species 2. Anoma@pus Barrattu. (Pl. XIV. Fig. 1.)

Sauroidichnites Barrattu, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 30, fig. 1.

Nos. 1, 139, in Cabinet.

Hind foot. — Five-toed; plantigrade: toes pachydactylous,
clawed, curved. Heel long. Divarication of the outer toes, 95°
to 130°; of the inner and second, 20° to 45°; of the second and
third, 40° to 50°; of the third and fourth, 30° to 40°; of the
fourth and fifth, 10° to 20°. Length of the inner toe, 1.2 to 1.8
inch; of the second, 1.5 to 2 inches; of the third, 2 to 2.4 inches ;
of the fourth, 2 to 2.1 inches ; of the fifth, 1.4 to 1.7 inch; of the
heel to the tarsal joint, 4.5(?) inches; of the foot, 7.5 inches.
Versed sine of curvature in the middle toe, 0.4 inch ; in the fourth,

30

226 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

0.15 inch. Length of the step, 11 to 14 inches. Leg above the
tarsal joint often making an impression in walking, several inches
in length, which forms an angle with that of the long tarsus, of
about 35°, indicating a sprawling mode of progression, as is shown
on Plate 14, fig. 1.

Fore feet. — Very similar to those of the first species; but my
specimens of these are too imperfect for description.

Localities. — Plate 20, fig. 6, was taken from a specimen pre-
sented me by Dr. Barratt, of Middletown, to whom the species is
dedicated, because discovered by him. (See Mass. Geol. Re-
port, Vol. II. p. 477.) The specimen from which the sketch,
Plate 14, fig. 1, is taken, was found at Marsh’s Quarry, in Mon-
tague, but was much injured before I found it. I feel confident,
however, that the dotted lines represent it as it was originally,
although that part of the specimen is wanting. The five toes on
the hind foot of this species clearly distinguish it from the Anome-
pus scambus. When I described the tracks of this species in the
Massachusetts Geological Report, I had no certain evidence of its
quadrupedal character, though strongly suspecting it to have been
made by a quadruped.

Genus XVI. ANISOPUS.

Quadrupedal ; hind feet nearly twice as long as the fore ones,
and considerably wider. Both hind and fore feet four-toed. In
walking, the hind foot was brought up nearly into the place of the
fore one. Tracks but a little to the right and left of the line of
direction. Foot pachydactylous.

Species 1. Anisopus Deweyanus. (Pl. XVI. Figs. 5, 6.)

Sauroidichnites Deweyi, Trans. Assoc. Amer. Geologists, Plate
1B ie irae

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 2254

Nos. 1, 37, 136, in Cabinet.

Hind foot. — Pachydactylous. Divarication of the lateral toes,
45°; of the inner and second, 20° ; of the second and third, 10° ;
of the third and fourth, 10°. Length of the inner toe, 0.5 inch ;
of the second, 0.7 inch; of the third, 0.8 inch; of the fourth, 0.5
inch. Breadth of the foot from tip to tip of the outer toes, 1.4
inch ; from first to second, 0.6 inch; from second to third, 0.45
inch ; from third to fourth, 0.4 inch; at the roots of the toes, 1.2
inch. Length of the heel, 0.9 inch; of the foot, 1.7 inch; of the
step, 7 to 7.5 inches; the same for the fore feet. Track of the
fore foot usually a little inside of the hind one. Angle between
the axis of the foot and the line of direction, to the right and left,
15° to 40°. Distance of the middle of the heel from the line of
direction, 0 to 1.5 inch. Width of the toes, 0.2 to 0.3 inch.

Fore foot. — Divarication of the toes the same as in the hind
foot. Length of the inner toe, 0.2 inch; of the second, 0.5 inch ;
of the third, 0.6 inch; of the fourth, 0.35 inch. Breadth from tip
to tip of the lateral toes, 0.7 inch; from the first to the second,
0.25 inch; from the second to the third, 0.25 inch ; from the third
to the fourth, 0.3 inch. Length of the foot, 0.6 inch. Position of
the foot, in regard to the line of direction, the same as the hind
feet. Width of the toes, 0.1 to 0.2 inch. ‘Track shown, of the
natural size, fore and hind feet, on Plate 16, figs. 5, 6, from differ-
ent specimens.

This species is dedicated to my early friend, Rev. Chester Dew-
ey, LL. D., of Rochester.

Remarks. — This was the first animal whose tracks were recog-
nized as those of a quadruped, in the valley of Connecticut River.
I first described them in my Report on the Geology of Massachu-

setts, from a specimen from Middletown, on which the inner toe

228 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

had been worn off, and I then supposed that a three-toed animal
must be a biped. I suggested, however, their resemblance in other
respects to those of a marsupial quadruped, but left the case unex-
plained. ‘This was in 1840. At the meeting of the Geological
Association in Boston, in 1842, I] described the same track, from a
specimen discovered by Dr. Deane, and presented to me, under the
name of Sauroidichnites Deweyi. ‘This description, with a draw-
ing, was published in the Transactions of the Association, and |
there stated that “this is the first example in which any of the
numerous tracks upon the sandstone of the Connecticut valley
were made by a quadruped.” Dr. Deane, in 1845, published a
drawing and description of the same specimen, as containing the
tracks of a quadruped. But the discovery of still better specimens,
from one of which (No. 136 of my cabinet) Plate 22, fig. 1, was
copied exactly, gives us a clearer insight into the character of the
animal, especially as to its mode of progression. We can see on
that drawing, that the feet on the right side of the animal uni-
formly pointed a little to the right, and those on the left to the left ;
and that it must have advanced by regular steps, like a common
mammiferous quadruped. The slab on which this row of tracks
occurs is represented on Plate 20, fig. 10. On it are four rows
of Althyopus minor, and two tracks of Heleura littoralis. Plate
23, fig. 3, shows another slab in Mr. Marsh’s cabinet, with tracks

of Anisopus.

Species 2. Anisopus craciuis. (PI. XVI. Figs. 3, 4.)

Nos. 141, 158, in Cabinet. Numerous specimens in Mr.
Marsh’s cabinet.

Hind foot. — Divarication of the lateral toes, 40°; of the inner
and second, 15°; of the second and third, 10°; of the third and

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 299

fourth, 15°. Length of the inner toe, 0.4 inch; of the second,
0.6 inch; of the third, 0.9 inch; of the fourth, 0.7 inch. Distance
from tip to tip of the outer toes, 0.75 inch; of the inner and sec-
ond, 0.3 inch; of the second and third, 0.3 inch; of the third and
fourth, 0.25 inch. Breadth of the posterior part, 0.5 inch ; of the
toes, about 0.1 inch. Length of the foot, 0.9 inch; of the step,
5.7 inches. Angle between the line of direction and the axis of
the foot, 20°. Feet on the right side of the animal diverging to
the right ; those on the left side to the left.

Fore foot. — Divarication of the toes the same as in the hind
feet. Axis of the fore foot essentially parallel to that of the hind
foot. Track of the fore foot a little nearer to the line of direction
than that of the hind foot, and just in advance of the latter.
Length of the inner toe, 0.2(?) inch; of the second, 0.4 inch ;
of the third, 0.55 inch; of the fourth, 0.4 inch. Distance from tip
to tip of the outer toes, 0.4 inch; of the inner and second, 0.2
inch ; of the second and third, 0.15 inch; of the third and fourth,
0.25 inch. Width of the toes (average), 0.08 inch. Length of
the foot, 0.55. Track shown, of the natural size, both hind and
fore feet, and in a normal position with respect to each other, on
Plate 16, figs. 3, 4.

Remarks. — One of the most distinct of my specimens indicates
a very short fifth toe on the outside of the foot, as is shown on
Plate 16, fig. 4. But I am not confident whether such is the case,
and therefore omit it in the description. ‘This species is distin-
guished from the previous one, by being more slender and deli-
cate in all its parts. It occurs at Turner’s Falls.

Plate 22, fig. 2, is a sketch of two tracks of the hind and fore
feet, copied from No. 158 of the Cabinet, and reduced to one
third of its natural size. For so small an animal, the length of

the step is very great.

230 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Genus XVII. HOPLICHNUS.

Feet hoof-shaped ; producing a track like a horseshoe. Quad-

rupedal ; hind and fore feet of nearly equal size.

Species 1. Hoprricunus quaprurepans. (Pl. XVI. Figs. 7, 8.)

Nos. 18] — 183, in Cabinet.

Anterior part of the foot semicircular, or forming a portion of a
circle. Impression very much resembling a horseshoe. Diameter,
1.5 to 2.2 inches. Middle of the foot extending, when the animal
was walking, from one to five inches to the right and left of the
line of direction. ‘Track shown, of the natural size, on Plate 16,
figs. 7, 8.

Locality. —Turner’s Falls, at the Ferry, on the Gill side of the
river ; On coarse micaceous sandstone.

Remarks. — The sketches on Plate 16, figs. 7 and 8, give the
shape of the depression in this track ; but no toes are visible. It is
possible that the surface on which they occur was a little below
where the animal trod, and that the layer of rock above would have
shown the toes. It is possible, also, that a slight movement of the
sand, after the imprint was made, might have obliterated the toes ;
yet no reason can be given why in that case the impression should
have been left so uniformly of a circular form. ‘The specimens,
however, do show a slight ridge in some cases, extending backward
from the track, as if a gentle current had slightly moved the sand.
But there can be no doubt that this animal is generically different
from any other described in this paper ; for the fore and hind feet
are nearly of equal size, and more nearly circular than any other
species. The sketch, on Plate 22, fig. 3, taken from No. 181 of

my cabinet, will satisfy any one acquainted with ichnology, that

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 231

these tracks were made by a quadruped ; because we find two
tracks near each other, succeeded by a long interval, and these in
two rows. ‘The sketch is reduced four times, but is an exact copy
of the original. Those acquainted with the history of fossil foot-
marks will recognize the tracks of this species as identical with
those described by Dr. Cotta, in 1839, in Saxony; sketches of
which are given in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XX XVIII.
p- 255. The only difference is, that ours are more perfectly round-
ed. Dr. Cotta regards the extremity of the arch as the ends of
two toes, making the animal bidigitate. But our specimens make
it more probable that those extremities were the posterior part of
the foot, and that the toes were in front, and very short. He like-
wise could not find any succession of tracks ; but our specimens,
although not showing all we could wish, make it extremely prob-
able that the tracks had a quadrupedal origin; and hence the spe-
cific name.

Affinities of the Group. —1 have already said enough, I trust, as
to the relations of the first genus (Thenaropus) to batrachians, and
even to the Ranide. The relations of the second genus (Anome-
pus) may be a little more doubtful. ‘The sprawling character of
its hind feet, so as to bring even the lower leg upon the ground,
corresponds better to some chelonians than to batrachians. Yet
the position of the feet, as shown on Plate 21, figs. 1 and 3, when
the animal was at rest, corresponds so nearly to that of the Ranide,
that I think we may safely refer it to that tribe. Such a position
of the animal looks as if it moved by leaps, like the common frog.
But it is a large animal to advance in this manner ; I mean, large
among batrachians; nor do the drawings, Plate 20, fig. 9, and
Plate 21, fig. 3, confirm this impression. If so large an animal

had advanced by leaps, is it possible that we should not meet with

232, AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

some cases in which the foot slid forward as it came to the ground,
with such a vis a tergo as its weight would give? Yet the im-
pressions of its feet are as distinct and undisturbed, as if they
had been each one put down with the nicest care. I hesitate,
therefore, to assert that leaping was the animal’s mode of pro-
gression.

The form of the feet, and the number and position of the toes,
as well as the broad posterior part of the foot, seem to ally the
genus Anisopus to batrachians. But what living batrachian places
its feet in walking as did these fossil species? It is, indeed, quite
remarkable. Although the feet were of very unequal size, yet it
would seem from Plate 22, fig. 1, that it walked very much like
such quadrupeds as the cat, the dog, and the fox; that is, the
tracks vary but little from a right line ; nor is the axis of the foot
turned much aside from the line of direction. Indeed, its mode of
walking was much more like that of a mammiferous quadruped, with
long, perpendicular legs, than like that of sprawling reptiles. |
have almost persuaded myself that these animals are marsupial
quadrupeds. For we know that this tribe did exist in the oolitic
period, and would it be strange, if they should be shown to have
appeared one geological period earlier, that is, in the triassic pe-
riod? The presumption, however, from the general analogies of
fossil nature is, that they were batrachians; but if they were so,
their structure must have been quite peculiar. For the present,
however, I leave them among the batrachians. By comparing their
tracks with those of the Proteus, given on Plate 19, fig. 3, the
form of the toes will be seen to be quite similar ; but how different
the mode of progression !

As to the Hoplichnus, its mode of walking must have been
similar to that of quadrupeds ; but since we know as yet so little

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 233

of its characters, I leave it with the batrachian tribe, on the ground

of general analogies only.

Groupe VII. LACERTILIANS?

Quadrupedal ; fore feet much the smaller. ‘Toes varying from
three to five. Heel very long.

Genus XVII. MACROPTERNA.

Hind feet four-toed ; fore feet three to four-toed. Heel long,
especially upon the hind feet. Fore feet usually digitigrade, and
much smaller than the hind ones. Hind feet usually plantigrade.

Species 1. Macroprerna RHyNcHOSAUROIDEA. (PI. XV. Fig. 9.)

Ornithoidichnites Rogersi, Trans. Am. Geol. Assoc., Plate 11,
fig. 7.

Ornithoidichnites minimus, in part, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 45,
fig. 41, and Plate 42, fig. 30.

Nos. 77, 105, 107 — 110, 120, 148, 184, 233, in Cabinet.

Hind feet. — 'Vetradactylous, leptodactylous. Divarication of
the toes, excluding the short one behind, 80°; of the inner and
middle toes, 30°; of the middle and outer toes, 50°. Length of
the middle toe, 0.7 inch; of the inner toe, 0.45 inch ; of the outer
toe, 0.5 inch; of the fourth or hind toe, 0.25 (?) inch ; of the foot,
1.8 inch; of the step, 3.8 to 5.5 inches; of the heel, 1.2 inch.
Width of do., which is uniform throughout, 0.15 imch. Angle
made by the axis of the foot with the line of direction, 10° to 50°.
Distance of the end of the heel from that line, 0 to 1 inch. Po-
sition of the axis of the foot in successive steps, nearly parallel.
Distance from tip to tip of the lateral front toes, 0.75 inch; from

31

934 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

the inner to the second toe, 0.5 inch; from the second to the
third, 0.55 inch ; from the third to the fourth, 0.4 inch (?).

Fore feet. — Tridactylous. Divarication of the toes essentially
as in the hind feet. Length of the middle toe, 0.4 inch; of the
inner toe, 0.3 inch; of the outer toe, 0.25 inch; of the heel, 0.25
inch; of the foot, 0.6 inch. Position of the axis of the foot and
distance from the line of direction, same as in the hind feet. Dis-
tance from tip to tip of the lateral toes, 0.5 inch ; of the inner and
middle toes, 0.3 inch; of the middle and outer toes, 0.3 inch. A
track of the hind foot is always preceded by one of the fore foot,
distant usually a little more than an inch. A track of a hind and
a fore foot, in their normal position, is shown on Plate 15, fig. 9.

Remarks. — The track of this remarkable animal was long mis-
taken by me for that of Argozoum minimum, and was supposed to
be that of a biped, probably a bird. But the discovery of the long
heel, and the almost constant occurrence of a large and small track
together, showed that it was of quadrupedal origin. It is _pos-
sible, indeed, that what I call a heel may be a hind toe running
directly backwards, as is seen in some birds, and as the track of
such lizards as the Phyllurus Cuviert and Milt would exhibit.
(See Dictionnaire Classique d’Histoire Nat., Plate 120.) But its
great length on the hind feet makes it more probably, in these
tracks, an imprint of the tarsal bone. ‘The specimens from which
Plate 22, figs. 4, 5, were sketched were obtained from Wethers-
field. That from which fig. 6 was taken was from the north part
of South Hadley; and is given in my Geological Report on Mas-
sachusetts, Plate 42, fig. 30, as a track of Argozoum minimum.
Since on this specimen no marks of the heel are visible, the resem-
blance of the tracks to those of that biped is very striking; and has
led me into some doubt whether the Argozoum minimum be not

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 235

in fact a digitigrade impression of the Macropterna. But since the
toes of the former are much more divaricate and curved than those
of the latter, I do not give in to this opinion, and have retained the
former as a species. The specific name of the Macropterna is
founded upon the fact that the rhynchosaurus, according to Mr.
Ward, had but three toes in front, although a saurian lizard.
Although the fore foot frequently shows a heel, I have found one
on the hind foot in only two instances. Yet they are very distinct
examples ; though I cannot understand why it should not be shown
in other cases, where the foot made as deep an impression. But |
have seen too many similar omissions in other tracks, whose char-
acters are well known, to be surprised at it.

The fourth toe on the hind foot I have found in only one in-
stance ; and in that case only the extremity of the toe reached the
ground; this may explain why it left an impression so seldom.
The specimen is so distinct, that I can hardly doubt the existence
of such a toe on the animal.

The figures of this species, on Plate 22, are all copied from speci-
mens, and are reduced to one third of the natural size.

Locality. — Wethersfield, on red shale ; also at the Horse Race,
in Gill, on fine gray micaceous sandstone ; and at South Hadley,

on gray micaceous sandstone.

Species 2. Macroprerna recta. (Pl. XV. Fig. 6.)

Sauroidichnites palmatus, Mass. Geol. Report, Plate 34, fig. 15.

Nos. 31 — 33, in Cabinet.

Hind foot.—Tetradactylous, leptodactylous, plantigrade. Di-
varication of the outer toes, 75° to 80°; of the inner and second,
10° ; of the second and third, 30° to 35°; of the third and fourth,
35°. Length of the inner toe, 0.9 inch; of the second, 1.25 inch;

236 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

of the third, 1.6 inch; of the outer, 1.1 inch; of the heel, 1.4
inch. Width of the heel, 0.3 to 0.5 inch. Length of the foot,
3 inches ; of the step, 7.7 inches. Distance between the tips of
the lateral toes, 1.6 to 1.8 inch; between the inner and second,
0.7 inch; between the second and third, 0.9 inch; between the
third and fourth, 1.2 inch. Axis of the foot nearly coincident
with the line of direction. ‘Toes nearly straight.

Fore foot. — 'Tetradactylous, leptodactylous, imperfectly planti-
grade. Divarication of the lateral toes, 100°; of the inner and
second, 30°; of the second and third, 35°; of the third and fourth,
35°. Length of the inner toe, 0.25 inch; of the second, 0.4 inch ;
of the third, 0.9 inch; of the fourth, 0.7 inch; of the heel, 0.5
inch. Width of the heel, 0.8 inch (length, literally). Distance
between the tips of the lateral toes, 1.2 inch; between the first and
second, 0.3 inch; between the second and third, 0.7 inch; between
the third and fourth, 0.6 inch. Axis of the foot nearly coincident
with the line of direction. Toes somewhat curved inward. Dis-
tance between the tracks (that is, between the tip of the middle
toe behind and the heel of the fore foot), 0 to 1 inch.

Locality. — Horse Race, Gill ; on gray micaceous sandstone.

Remarks. —'The specimen from which the above description
was taken is the same as that from which I drew up my description
of the Sauroidichnites palmatus of the Massachusetts Geological
Report. I then regarded the animal as a biped, though suspecting
it might turn out to be a quadruped. That conjecture has been
verified in a rather singular manner. Very recently, as the speci-
men would not split well, I attempted to grind down its upper sur-
face upon a grindstone. ‘This brought to light a part of two small-
er and similar tracks, a little in advance of the larger ones ; which

I conceive to settle the question as to their quadrupedal origin. It

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 2am

also brought to view a long heel on the hind foot. Of the fore
foot I had insulated and perfect specimens, from which the sketch,
Plate 15, fig. 6, was taken. Plate 22, fig. 6, shows the position
and character of all the tracks on the slab, the front ones being
now in a great measure ground away. ‘This discovery renders
it necessary to remove this species from the genus Palamopus,
which is supposed to be composed of bipeds. It approaches
so near the Macropterna in its general character, that I place it
there provisionally. Yet both feet have four toes; but it would
not be strange if the other species of this genus should be found
to have a short toe on the fore feet; so that I do not think this
fact a sufficient reason for referring the M. recta to another ge-
nus. ‘There is somewhat the appearance of a toe running obliquely
backwards from the end of the heel of the hind foot, where are
placed dotted lines on Plate 15, fig. 6. But I am not sure of it,
and, besides, it seems to be on the outside of the heel, which is a
presumption against its being a toe; as the hind toe usually pro-

ceeds from the inside of the heel.

Species 3. Macroprerna pivaricans. (Pl. XV. Fig. 7.)

Fine specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Dexter Marsh in Green-
field, and in that of Professor Shepard in Amherst College.

Hind feet. — 'Tetradactylous. Divarication of the outer toes,
90° to 100°; of the inner and second, 25°; of the second and
third, 35°; of the third and fourth, 32°. Length of the inner toe,
0.45 inch ; of the second, 0.6 inch; of the third, 0.7 inch; of the
fourth, 0.6 inch; of the heel, 1.2 inch; of the foot, 1.9 inch; of
the step, 3.3 inches. Heel somewhat wedge-shaped, varying in
width from 0.2 to 0.6 inch. Distance from tip to tip of the
lateral toes, 1.3 inch; from the inner to the second toe, 0.55 inch;

238 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

from the second to the third, 0.6 inch; from the third to the fourth,
0.5 inch. Angle between the axis of the foot and the line of di-
rection, 0° to 80°. ‘Toes all turned outward; much spreading. Feet
turned outward. Distance of the heel from the line of direction,
0 to 1.1 inch.

Fore feet. — Pentedactylous. Divarication of the outermost of
the four front toes, 125°; of the inner and second, 50°; of the
second and third, 50°; of the third and fourth, 25°. Length of
the inner toe, 0.25 inch; of the second, 0.45 inch; of the third,
0.4 inch; of the fourth, 0.3 inch; of the fifth, 0.1 inch; of the
foot, 0.6 inch. Foot digitigrade. More distant from the line of
direction in walking than the hind toe, but less divaricate. Track
from O to half an inch in advance of the hind foot. Tracks of both
feet, of the natural size, and in normal position, shown on Plate
15, fig. 7.

Locality. —'Turner’s Falls ; below the Falls, on the Gill side.

Remarks. —'The first specimen of this species, discovered by
Mr. Marsh and now in his cabinet, exhibits only the hind toes.
As soon as I saw it, I recognized it as nearly related to the Sauroi-
dichnites palmatus of my Massachusetts Report, and probably iden-
tical with it; although I had then no certain evidence that any
of them were quadrupeds, as we had then on the specimen only
an alternation of the right and left hind foot, as shown on Plate
19, fig. 5, which is a copy of the slab above referred to in Mr.
Marsh’s cabinet, reduced to one third of its natural size. When,
however, I discovered the small tracks connected with the large ones
of Macropterna recta (S. palmatus), I hastened to Greenfield to re-
examine Mr. Marsh’s specimen, in the hope of finding there also
the fore foot. To my surprise and gratification, I found that he

had obtained from a new locality, below Turner’s Falls, most beau-

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 239

tiful specimens of this species, with the small fore foot as distinct
as the hind one. One of these specimens is sketched on Plate 22,
fig. 8, reduced three times. It was, however, only on a fine speci-
men in Professor Shepard’s cabinet that I have discovered a fifth
toe on the fore foot, too distinct to be doubted. I am still
somewhat suspicious that this and the preceding species (M. recta)
may turn out to be the same; although the latter is a good deal
larger, the toes much straighter (hence the specific name), and, if
I have not mistaken the character of the fore foot, this also differs
a good deal, having a large heel. Both these species differ from
the M. rhynchosauroidea, by having a quite different heel, and four
or five toes, instead of three, on the fore foot.

Plate 22, fig. 10, is a sketch, of the natural size, of two rows
of tracks on a slab in Mr. Marsh’s collection. The fore tracks
are much better developed than the hind ones. They appear to
be the smallest of all tracks yet discovered. If they are the M.
divaricans, they must have been made by the young of that species.

Genus XIX. XIPHOPEZA.

Tetradactylous : three toes directed forward ; the fourth being a
prolongation backward of the outer toe. Heel stout, expanding
posteriorly. Hind and fore feet unequal, resembling three swords,
or daggers, in a complex sheath.

Species 1. XipHopeza TRIPLEX. (PI. XV. Fig. 8.)

Specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Dexter Marsh.

Hind feet.— Three toes directed forward. Divarication of the
outer toes, 80° to 90°; of the inner and middle, 40°; of the mid-
dle and outer, 50°; of the middle and hind, 130°; of the hind
and outer, 180°. Length of the inner forward toe, 0.8 inch; of

240 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

the middle, 1.5 inch; of the outer, 1.1 inch; of the hind, 0.5 inch;
of the heel, 1.2 inch; of the foot, 2.6 inches; of the step, 2.5 to
3.5 inches; of the middle front toe beyond the rest, 0.6 inch.
Greatest width of the heel, near its posterior part, 0.45 inch ; near
the roots of the toes, 0.2 inch; between the tips of the lateral
forward toes, 1.5 inch; between the inner and middle, 1 inch;
between the middle and outer, 1.1 inch. Axis of the foot nearly
parallel to the line of direction. Distance of the axis of the foot
from that line, 1.4 inch.

Fore feet. — Much smaller than the hind feet; but only a few
of the toes can be seen upon the specimens yet found of the tracks,
—certainly not more than three. Enough, however, is seen to show
the quadrupedal character of the animal. On Plate 22, fig. 9, cop-
ied from a slab in Mr. Marsh’s cabinet, and reduced three times,
we see the hind feet arranged in two nearly parallel rows, with
traces of a few of the fore feet in such a position as we should ex-
pect in the tracks of a quadruped. ‘The hind foot, of the natural
size, with a part of the fore foot, is shown on Plate 15, fig. 8.

Locality. —'Turner’s Falls, on the Gill shore, below the Falls ;
on very soft gray micaceous sandstone.

Remarks. — Excluding the heel,.the hind foot of this animal cor-
responds almost exactly to the Ornithopus gallinaceus, though
smaller. But the heel and its quadrupedal character make it very
distinct. Yet if the Ornithopus Adamsanus shall be found to be a
quadruped, it will form a gigantic species of this genus ; and _per-
haps it ought to be placed here now, since we have no evidence
that it is not a quadruped, and its large heel certainly makes it
probable that it iss The tracks of this species, and also those of
the Macropterna divaricans and Harpedactylus gracilis, were very
recently discovered by Mr. D. Marsh, a little below Turner’s Falls,

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. QA]

in Gill, where the highly inclined shales are laid bare. Mr. Marsh
has generously allowed me to take sketches from his specimens,
and to give the species scientific names; although he expects to
give a popular description of them, in the American Journal of Sci-
ence, before the publication of this paper.

Among Mr. Marsh’s specimens, found at the above-named local-
ity, is one of which a sketch of two rows of tracks, reduced three
times, is given on Plate 23, figs. 1 and 2. I cannot satisfactorily
refer this track to any known species, though perhaps it may be-
long to the one last described; that is, an impression considerably
below the layer on which the animal trod. It is chiefly remarkable
for the axis of the foot being turned so much inward, towards the
line of direction, and for the wire-like fineness of the extremities
of the toes. But the different tracks are so unlike and so imper-
fect, that I conclude they are a good deal altered from the original,
and prefer not to describe them as a new species.

Affinities of the Group. — One cannot look at the succession of
tracks and the form of the feet in this group, as exhibited upon
the accompanying drawings, and much less upon the originals,
without being struck with their resemblance to the feet and the
tracks of small Lacertilia. The number of toes, indeed, corresponds
perhaps more nearly to certain batrachians, say the Salaman-
dride and Sirenide, which very commonly have only four toes, at
least on the fore feet. But the long heel corresponds better to the
lizards ; and, upon the whole, I incline to consider them as such.
And yet it is extremely difficult to decide between these two
classes. There is one fact, especially, in respect to the first two
species of Macropterna, that does not well correspond to either
tribe. I mean the small deviation of the animal’s feet to the right
and the left of the line of direction. What living Lacertilia or

32

242, AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Batrachia would walk so nearly in a right line? Yet the tracks of
Xiphopeza and the Macropterna divaricans show sprawling legs,
like existing lizards. Most of the fossil animals, also, brought up
the hind foot in walking more nearly into the place vacated by the
fore foot than existing lizards or batrachians do. It would seem
as if these animals must have had longer and more upright legs
than any of these tribes now alive. This is, however, less the
case in the present group than in some of Group VI. I ought
to add, that there is one living species of salamander, and per-
haps more, with feet exceedingly like those of the Macropterna
rhynchosauroidea ; namely, with four toes on the hind feet, and
three on the fore feet. This is the Salamandre de Trois Doigts
of Sonnini and Latreille, from whose work on reptiles the outline
of this animal, given on Plate 20, fig. 8, was copied. Yet how
much more sprawling and divaricate must be the tracks of this an-

imal than those of the Macropterna !

Grove VIII. CHELONIANS.

Quadrupedal ; fore feet less than the hind ones. Animal with
sprawling or trailing legs.

Genus XX. ANCYROPUS.

Hind feet the larger; three leptodactylous toes in front, and
one proceeding from the posterior part of the heel. ‘Toes on the
fore foot, three in front; perhaps one behind. Heels before and
behind, long and crooked. ‘Toes of both feet much curved out-
ward. Tracks in two parallel rows. Feet slightly resembling an
anchor, and hence the name.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 24.3

Species 1. Ancyropus neTerociitus. (PI. XV. Figs. 3-5.)

Sauroidichnites heteroclitus and Jacksoni, Mass. Geol. Report,
Plate 30, figs. 2 and 3.

Nos. 2-6, 130, 156, in Cabinet.

Hind foot. — Heel 1.5 inch long, 0.7 inch wide. Length of the
inner toe, 0.4 inch; of the second, 0.6 inch; of the third, 0.5
inch ; of the hind toe, 0.5 inch; of the foot, 3 inches; of the step,
from 4.5 to 5.5 inches. Versed sine of the outward curvature of
the toes, from 0.4 to 0.7 inch, making them very crooked. Dis-
tance from tip to tip of the lateral toes, 0.9 inch ; of the inner and
second, 0.45 inch; of the second and third, 0.45 inch; of the
middle front and the hind toes, 1.8 inch. Heel at its posterior ex-
tremity adhering to the mud so as to raise a singular conical emi-
nence (shown in the drawings), as it was lifted up. Tracks in
two rows, from 6 to 7 inches apart; the toes turned outward, and
the axis of the foot parallel to the line of direction.

Fore foot. — Heel 1.8 inch long, and 0.3 inch broad ; crooked ;
the hind part turned towards the line of direction, opposite to that
of the toes. Length of the inner toe, 0.3 inch; of the middle,
0.4 inch; of the outer, 0.35 inch. Perhaps a fourth toe on the
inner side of the heel. Distance from tip to tip of the lateral toes,
0.5 inch; of the inner and second, 0.3 inch; of the second and
third, 0.25 inch. Curvature of the toes the same as on the hind
foot. ‘Tracks of both the hind and fore feet shown, of the natural
size, on Plate 15, figs. 3-5; the last two being of the hind foot.

Remarks. — Until recently I had found only insulated tracks of
this genus, and I described the hind and fore feet as distinct species
(Geological Report, p. 478, Plate 30, figs. 2 and 3). The discov-
ery of the specimen of tracks from which Plate 19, fig. 4, was

sketched, however, although quite imperfect, reveals the true char-

244 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

acter of the animal, and also the reason why some of the tracks
were much narrower than others, namely, that one is the fore foot
and the other the hind foot. It is quite possible, I think, that there
may be four toes in front, certainly on the hind foot, which I take
to be the largest, according to a general rule. Plate 15, fig. 5, cop-
ied from a track found at Wethersfield, so much resembles the oth-
ers, that I do not separate them, although the former shows four
distinct toes in front.

On Plate 19, fig. 4, one of the tracks seems to have a fourth toe
proceeding from the outside of the heel. This is not quite certain,
though I have endeavoured to copy the specimen. The inner hind
toe, also, is wanting on that specimen. But it is not perfect
enough to found any important conclusions upon it, save that it

shows the manner in which the animal walked.

Genus XXI. HELCURA.

Quadrupedal ; tail and feet trailing upon the ground.

Species 1. Hexcura tirroratis. (Pl. XV. Fig. 1.)

No. 136 in Cabinet. Specimens also in Mr. Marsh’s cabinet.

Feet from 1.5 to 2.5 inches long, and from half an inch to an inch
wide ; tracks somewhat acuminate, as if the foot trailed on lifting it
up, and the trail continuing often interruptedly to the next track.
A similar trail, also, seems to have been made by the tail. Tracks
somewhat in two rows; two tracks being usually near each other,
and then a wider interval. Plate 15, fig. 1, is copied from No.
136, and represents a portion of the trail and tracks of this animal,
of the natural size.

Remarks. — One cannot look upon the specimen (No. 136 of my

cabinet) from which Plate 15, fig. 1, was copied, without being

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 245

struck with the resemblance to the trail of a tortoise upon mud.
Yet after the animal passed, a thin layer of mud was deposited,
after which other animals walked over it and a shower of rain fell
upon it, so that the tracks of the Helcura are indistinct. The toes
cannot be distinguished ; nor can the successive tracks of the same
foot be seen very certainly. 1 cannot, however, doubt that these
trails were made by a chelonian, and by a different species from
any other whose tracks I have met upon this sandstone. They
have been found only at ‘Turner’s Falls. A second fine example
may be seen in Mr. Marsh’s collection, a sketch of which is
given on Plate 23, fig. 3. Plate 21, fig. 1, shows also the trail of
Helcura.

Affinities of the Group. — It seems unnecessary to add much to
the preceding descriptions, to make it probable that the genera An-
cyropus and Helcura were chelonians. No other animals that I
know of would leave such footmarks and trails. ‘The approxima-
tion of the tracks, as shown on Plate 19, fig. 4, shows that the
Ancyropians moved forward very slowly, just as tortoises now do.
Their tail and feet, also, were frequently trailed over the mud, as
was done by the Helcurans. And if I have not mistaken the
characters of these genera, the conclusion seems forced upon us

that they were chelonians.

Grove IX. ANNELIDS or MOLLUSCS.

Track a curved or looped furrow, of various sizes.

Genus XXII]. HERPYSTEZOUM.

Characters the same as those of the group.

246 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Species 1. Herrystezoum Marsnu. (Pl. XVII. Fig. 1.)

Groove made by the progression of the animal, 0.2 inch wide.
Shown, of the natural size, on Plate 17, fig. 1. Plate 23, fig.
4, shows another specimen, from Mr. Marsh’s collection, greatly
reduced.

Remarks. — This species was discovered at Turner’s Falls, by
Mr. Dexter Marsh, who, by indefatigable industry and tact, has
obtained a very rich and valuable collection of the footmarks and
other fossils of the Connecticut valley. Hence I have attached his
name to this animal. This paper will testify, also, that he has dis-

covered several other species described in it.

Species 2. HerpysTEzZOUM MINUTUM. (Pl. XVII. Fig. 2,)

Width of the groove made by the progression of the animal,
0.05 inch. Shown, of the natural size, on Plate 17, fig. 2.

Remarks. — 'The only difference between the two species of this
genus consists in size, — that is, so far as we can judge from their
track-way. Yet this difference is so great, that they must have
been produced by different species. Both of them occur at Tur-
ner’s Falls, on reddish shale.

Affinities of the Group. — The resemblance between the track-
ways of these animals and those of certain annelids, especially the
common earthworm, upon mud, is very striking. That such was
the origin of the figure 1, Pl. 17, I have little doubt. Fig. 2 is
rather larger than the earthworm produces, and it might have been
made by a small mollusc. I more incline, however, to refer it to

the Annelata.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 247

Group X.

Feet didactylous ; toes unequal, in shape somewhat like the
drag used in tilling land.

Genus XXIII. HARPAGOPUS.

Characters the same as those of the group.

Remarks. —1 have hesitated long before referring the marks
described under this group to the tracks of animals, because they
differ so much from the feet of any animals with which I am ac-
quainted. But there is so much uniformity among these impres-
sions, that we must refer them to some common cause; some cause,
too, that made an impression on the surface of mud, rather than to
a body interposed between layers of mud; and I know of no agen-
cy, but the feet of animals, that could have made such impressions.
Moreover, we do know of some living animals (as the crustaceans),
that have didactylous feet. Heteroclitic, then, as these mark-
ings are, I must refer them to the tracks of animals, till proved to

be something else.

Species 1. Harpacopus aicanreus. (PI. XVIII. Fig. 1.)
Nos. 137, 152, in Cabinet.

Divarication of one pair of toes, 15°; of the other, 25°. Length
of the longest toe in one pair, 10.5 inches ; of the shortest do., 7
inches ; of the longest in the other pair, 1.3 inches; of the short-
est do., 5 inches (as far as it reached the ground). Thickness of
the toes, 1.4 to 1.7 inch. Feet pointing in nearly opposite direc-
tions. One foot shown, of the natural size, on Plate 18, fig. 1.
On Plate 23, fig. 5, is a reduced copy of the slab, showing both
feet, and also a row of the tracks of Brontozoum parallelum and
AE thyopus minor.

248 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Remarks. — It may seem an insuperable objection to considering
the sketches of Pl. 23, fig. 5, as the feet of the same animal,
that they point in opposite directions. But a reference to the
feet of some reptiles will show that such would be the tracks
which they would make. Plate 23, fig. 6, is an outline of the
Algyra barbarica, copied from Griffith’s Cuvier, Vol. IX. p. 212.
Of a similar character is the outline on Plate 23, fig. 7, of the
Salamandra Beecheyi, copied from the Zodlogy of Beechey’s Voyage,
Plate 31, fig. 3.

I would not intimate that the Harpagopus giganteus was a batra-
chian or lacertilian ; for I have no evidence of another set of tracks
corresponding to those sketched on Plate 23, fig. 4. Indeed, I
know of no living animal whose feet correspond to these impres-
sions. Yet some crustaceans have bifurcated extremities ; as was
the case with some encrinites. Then one cannot but think, in this
connection, of the ichthyopodulites of Dr. Buckland, or petrified
track-ways of certain ambulatory fishes, whose fins struck the muddy
bottom.

Locality. —'Turner’s Falls, where it was obtained by Mr. Marsh;

and he has specimens in his cabinet.

Species 2. Harpacorus Hupsoniws. (Pl. XVIII. Fig. 2.)

No. 127 in Cabinet.

Rows of tracks two, parallel, about a foot apart; feet didacty-
lous ; toes diverging about 40°; unequal in length; blunt; length
from 2 to 3.5 inches; the axis of the foot lying nearly at right
angles to the direction in which the animal moved. One foot of
two toes shown, of the natural size, on Plate 18, fig. 2. Plate 24,
fig. 1, shows a greatly reduced outline of a slab in my cabinet,

taken from a sidewalk in New York.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 2QA9

Remarks. — These tracks occur in the Hamilton group of the
Erie division of the New York system of rocks; and have been
particularly described by me in Vol. XLVII. of the American
Journal of Science, p. 314. I introduce this species here, because
the tracks resemble in form the first species of this genus, although,
if the animals that made them were similar, they must have been
widely separated in age. I am unable to trace out any satisfactory
affinities between the present species and any existing animals,
although some crustaceans have extremities with a bifurcation sim-
ilar to these tracks. On Plate 24, fig. 1, it will be seen that the
tracks, or pairs of toes, are arranged somewhat in parallel lines.

Species 3. Harpacorus pusius. (PI. XVIII. Fig. 3.)

Toes from one and a quarter to two and a quarter inches long,
and half an inch wide, with rounded extremities ; arranged some-
what on a line, across which the axis of the toes lies at an angle of
about 50°. Impressions made by the toes shallow, yet distinct.
Three impressions shown, of the natural size, on Plate 18, fig. 3.

Remarks. — The tracks of this species have less evidence of
being those of an animal than the last, from the silurian rocks of
New York. Still there is enough of general resemblance to the
H. Hudsonius, especially in the form of the impressions and their
arrangement along a line, to make it probable that both had a simi-
lar origin. This specimen was found by Dr. Deane, at Turner’s
Falls, and presented to me. I hope that time will throw more
light upon it, as well as upon the other species of the genus. It
has seemed to me that they exhibit too many evidences of organic

origin to be passed in silence.

33

250 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Conclusion. —I have thus presented the results of more than
thirteen years’ examination of an obscure and difficult branch of
paleontology. In endeavouring to give definiteness and system to
its materials, by an application of the laws of zodlozy and com-
parative anatomy, I know that I have undertaken a difficult task.
It is no easy matter to restore animals from mere fragments of their
skeletons ; yet to recall them into existence from the evidence of
their tracks must be still more perplexing. Hence I hope I may
claim much indulgence from naturalists, in what they may regard
as a bold attempt. Whether they admit my conclusions or not,
I trust that they will see that this curious subject is making rapid
progress. I had thought, long ago, that I had got nearly to the end
of the chapter upon it, so far as the Connecticut valley is con-
cerned. But within a year or two, and with comparatively feeble
efforts, some of the most interesting and important of all the facts
relating to footmarks have come to light, modifying considerably
our previous conclusions, and giving us new and more remarkable
insight into the former zodlogical condition of New England. It
is no idle boast to say, that I have devoted much time, and labor,
and thought, to these mementos of the races that, in the dawn of
animal existence in the Connecticut valley, tenanted the shores of
its rivers and estuaries. Whatever doubts we may entertain as to
the exact place on the zodlogical scale which these animals occu-
pied, one feels sure that many of them were peculiar and gigantic ;
and I have experienced all the excitement of romance, as I have
gone back into those immensely remote ages, and watched those
shores along which these enormous and heteroclitic beings walked.
Now I have seen, in scientific vision, an apterous bird, some twelve
or fifteen feet high, — nay, large flocks of them, — walking over

the muddy surface, followed by many others of analogous character,

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 251

but of smaller size. Next comes a biped animal, a bird, perhaps,
with a foot and heel nearly two feet long. ‘Then a host of lesser
bipeds, formed on the same general type ; and among them several
quadrupeds with disproportioned feet, yet many of them stilted
high, while others are crawling along the surface, with sprawling
limbs. Next succeeds the huge Polemarch, leading along a tribe
of lesser followers, with heels of great length, and armed with
spurs. But the greatest wonder comes in the shape of a biped
batrachian, with feet 20 inches long. We have heard of the Laby-
rinthidon of Europe, —a frog as large as an ox; but his feet were
only 6 or 8 inches long, —a mere pygmy compared with the Ofo-
zoum of New England. Behind him there trips along, on unequal
feet, a group of small lizards and Salamandride, with trifid or quad-
rifid feet. Beyond, half seen amid the darkness, there move along
animals so strange that they can hardly be brought within the
types of existing organization. Strange, indeed, is this menagerie
of remote sandstone days; and the privilege of gazing upon it,
and of bringing into view one lost form after another, has been an
ample recompense for my efforts, though they should be rewarded
by no other fruit. But I will indulge the hope, that naturalists
will not refuse them a name and a place on the register of pre-

adamic existence.

*.* In order to bring the most important of these characters
under the eye at a glance, I have collected them in the appended
table. ‘The numbers are the mean of those given in the detailed
descriptions, where there is any variation in the characters. For
an easy comparison of species, this table will be convenient. But

as it will explain itself, further description is unnecessary.

252 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

N. B.— The tracks only of the species enumerated are represented.

Plate I. Fig.
IL.

Ill.

Wi

VII.

VI.

ii
1,
3.
a
2.
3,
iE
2,
iE
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3,
5.
ie
2,
A.
5.
de
2.
3.
A.

2.

4

3

A,

3

Brontozoum giganteum.
B. loxonyx.

B. gracillimum.

B. expansum.

B. Sillimanium.

B. parallelum.
AMthyopus Lyellianus.
JX. minor.
Steropezoum ingens.
S. elegans.

S. elegantius.
Ornithopus rectus.
Harpedactylus rectus.
Argozoum Redfieldianum.
A. dispari-digitatum.
A. pari-digitatum.

A. minimum.
Platypterna Deaniana.
P. tenuis.

P. delicatula.
Ornithopus Adamsanus.
O. gallinaceus.

O. gracilior.

O. loripes. :
Plectropus longipes.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 253
Plate IX. Fig.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

6é

is

S ) =

SS & & be &

ory

Se ae SS ee ee tS

~

ro. =. os

.

I
co 99

gs

S

Polemarchus gigas.

Plectropus ininitans.

P. longipes, on different layers.

Trienopus Baileyanus.

T. Emmonsianus.

Typopus abnormis.

Palamopus Dananus; left foot.

P. Dananus ; right foot.

Otozoum Moodii.

Slab, with four tracks of O. Moodii, several
of Brontozoum, and rain-drops.

Anomeepus scambus ; hind foot.

A. scambus; fore foot.

A. scambus; hind foot, with perhaps four toes.

A. scambus ? hind foot.

A. scambus ? fore feet.

A. Barrattii ;_ left hind-foot.

Harpedactylus gracilis.

H. concameratus.

H. concameratus ? hind foot ?

H. concameratus ? fore foot ?

Helcura littoralis.

Typopus

Ancyropus heteroclitus ; fore foot.

A. heteroclitus ; hind foot.

Macropterna recta ; hind and fore foot.

M. divaricans ; hind and fore foot.

Xiphopeza triplex ; hind and fore foot.

Macropterna rhynchosauroidea ; hind and fore
foot.

254 AN ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE ANIMALS THAT MADE

Plate XV. Fig. 10-13. Triznopus Baileyanus, on successive layers

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

of rock.

14-16. T. Emmonsianus, on successive layers.

17-19. Plectropus longipes, on successive layers.

Fore foot of Thenaropus heterodactylus.
Hind foot of the same.

Hind and fore feet of Anisopus gracilis.

. Hind and fore feet of A. Deweyanus.

Hoplichnus quadrupedans.
Herpystezoum Marshii.
H. minutum.

. Tracks of Platypterna Deaniana, on suc-

cessive layers; fig. 3 being the highest.
Harpagopus giganteus.
H. Hudsonius.
H. dubius.
Ideal tracks of a quadruped.
Tracks of the Banded Proteus.
Reduced sketch of tracks of Ancyropus he-
teroclitus.
Do. of Macropterna divaricans.
« 'Trizenopus Baileyanus and Emmonsi-
anus.
‘¢ 'Typopus abnormis.
Tracks reduced of Harpedactylus gracilis.
Foot of Lopholaimus antarcticus.

. Foot of Cathartes foetens.

Foot of a Gryphus.
Track reduced of Anomcepus Barrattii.
Feet of Anolis Edwardsii.

THE FOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED STATES. 255

Plate XX. Fig. 8.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

CON ee taic>

Sketch of a Salamander, with three toes in
front.
Slab reduced of Anomeepus scambus.
fe *« several species of animals.
es ‘* tracks of Anomoepus scam-
bus, &c., the upper side.
The under side of the same.
Slab of same species, the upper side.
Reduced slab of the tracks of Anisopus Dew-
eyanus, upper side.
Do. of Anisopus gracilis, under side.
‘¢ Hoplichnus quadrupedans.
“« Macropterna rhynchosauroidea.
‘¢ M. recta.
¢ M. divaricans.
“¢ — Xiphopeza triplex.
Slab, natural size, of Macropterna divaricans ¢
Slabs of an unknown species, reduced.
Reduced slab, showing various species from
Mr. Marsh’s cabinet (AEthyopus, Anisopus,
and Helcura).
Herpystezoum Marshii, reduced.
Slab reduced of Harpagopus giganteus,
Brontozoum parallelum, and Atthyopus

minor.
Sketch of Algyra barbarica.
“ Salamandra Beecheyi.

Reduced slab of Harpagopus Hudsonius.
a «© H. dubius.
es «¢ Aithyopus minor.

256 —=sFOSSIL FOOTMARKS OF THE UNITED

Plate XXIV. Fig. 4. Reduced slab of Ornithopus loripes. ret
5, —Brontozoum Sillimanium.
6. “ —- Harpedactylus concameratus.
te [atid H. rectus.

A TABULAR VIEW

OF THE CHARACTERS OF THE TRACK-DISCOVERED ANIMALS OF TIE UNITED STATES.

1, Redfieldianum,

Diradaon Tank Diaaoe Verl Sine Wists
f\E (Elz (3 E F] jt Pi ii joe
z «2 it 3 'zai= s
WEEE le i Prac i (3 (24i2 lel 3
ils lela lala lelils SHIH jE le |eelec sled lp2el y | H
sli le lz (é leylglalez Fe eel el2 90) 38/53 |s2 laa (se eug| | 3 ri
SETTLE a ay T le 2 fe sa ]2/ a) a] e| a festeesetiea 22eapad i] 2 HE
q| 4 |28)20)28/20)25) 2 | 2) 5 3: 2y)/4)2/4/4/4) 2/2 Fa/s/3e (bs a|a 3\si
2/5 |5|5-|57|5|5|5 | 5/5 = B51 5/5) 5 (5) 5 [se ls la le ld bs | 5 5|5
(Grootoroun i
1. giganteum, 3 | 407) o8-44 34-3-26 | 33-35-21-24 [1.75 165
2. Sillimaniom, 3 |a 14-11 | 12-13-12 | 05-07-09-11 [1 | Eee
3. loxonyx, 3 | 2 16-16 | 16-17-14 1-19-19-15 |1 3. | a0]
4, expansum, [3 | 19-12 | 14-13-13, |46-19-05-15 [1a] || [65 |e
. gracillimum, 3 | 50 05-04 05-04-04 045-04-045-06| 04 | )25|75
6, parallelum, 3 |17 | os | 12 18/25/2 | 08-09 08-08-08 [055-04-04-055/ 04 ] |s2]38.
Laetbyopus. z | ]
1 Lyelfians, _| 3] 35 | 25 | 20 | | |4g}e4]s2] 16-18 | 1e-15-17 | 19-12-1-15 |1. |
‘2 minor, a {o)sis) | 25|32|29) 19-08 1-08-07 | 08-07-06-05 oz] | a8) 9.
hnorepaasan = |
1, togens, 3 | 60 | 35 | 20 9.75) 13, |1024 24. | 66. | 10.
2 olegans, 3 | @| a | 90 2a) 44/28 i 65) 16
4, elegantius, 3
Argozoum.

2 dinparicdigitatum,

% parcdigiatum,

4, minimom,

Platypterna.
1, Deaniana,

@ tenuia,

0 delicatals,

Drnithoy

(Marpedactylus

1, Adamsanos, 4 |100 | 40 | 6 140 |42|65|52 3
gallionceus 4
gras a |B) ao) as 9 fan) 15) 1a
4 Toripes, 4 {100 | co | 50] 120 B75] 5. [ia ]
(Polemarebua | ]
1 gigas, 4 #0 |85 /2) a9 } |
(Plectropos
1 miinitans, 4 | 90 | 40 | 50} fto0 [22/31] 20 09} 47) 16
2. longipes, 4 | 72) 32) 40) % |17|28| 21 | 08] 75 | 16.
opus | |
1. Daleyanus, 4 |o7|as}a8 % 08/45 7.0) |
res 7) oo) as | a ne oa ]a3]_[oa| [2/2327 a0] joasjoaajoas| | j

Tarts, a | 70] 33] 35 | 66 19/22) 18 o9/a7| 8 |16|08|22 hazioxa|o2 os] |oa|
2 copeameraay, 7 | |= | 3] = [92 | 16] | | i EO josjos|_| f
T | T
Hy papas: i} | felt ]
PiSormls, 4 6 13/28/18 “| 2] | | | |
Orono: Second ie, ay I 5 all 2 Ife [ieee
3-2-14() 24-25-29 140M eo 85 an, | a. 13.}65]a4]a7| |25 2 Id-3-3

[Thraaropue
Verdc (Hind a,| 6 |75|15|a0}10/ 93! | 16/18/24 Pa
Tylus, {Pore fh | 4 | O0 | 20 | 20 | 40 12) 14| 15 jaa}
Anompus. ind A) 4) 47 | 851] 20 94| 92/94 07-07-03) 11-1-07 05-06-06-06 ]
T wambus, @Fore M,) 5-| 8727/17/40] | oo], |1a}15| o4-03 | 02-05-03 |04-04-03-03 | | 12/12) 1
Hind A) 8 ia) 30|45/a5 jas) |an|ar jaa 2/16
2. Daratti, | Pore tL 5 |
Anisopus | lea 1
1. Deweyo- {Hind ft.) 4 | 45 | 20 | 10 | 10 05) 07/08 025) 12/9
aug Kore 4 | 45 | 9 | 20 | 10 02/05) 06 ‘os| 2
A Hind A,|4 | a0) a5] 10 | 15 04/06 | 09 im jos |
emily, ore Ny 50) 40/15 | 10 | 16 0.2)| 04 0.55 »
itoptiehinon
1 quatropedans, 19
Macrop
T'ehyneho- {Mind | 4 | 20 | 20 | so (04s| 07 |05, 1s) |»
sauirvides, | Fore 2) 3 | 80 | 30 | 50 03/04 0.25) | pas] |»
ae « [77 [10/2 | a ogi) 16 4
vee a5 | 35 iD 0: 04
4 ji | 9 | | eh —
jiind | 4 | 05 | os | as | a2 04s) 0.6 07 fou} [a
A. divaricany {yore ft,) 6 {195 | 59 | 60 | & 9.25045) 04 |
Xiphopren. Hind’ M4 | 00 | 40)| 50 Yao) 08) 45) 10 Gatos
PRptcs, {tor 4] 40)
tt! —
[Anesropie Hind A) 4 04/06/05
1. beterectitun } Fore £12) 40) 031] 04 0.95
Tarpapopon isa) || Bia \t000)
ae att mas
2 Moibonive, 2 | | 2 [as 3
Bi dabion, I ina et !
| . ‘The angular measures in the above table are given in degrees; the linear measures, in English inches and decimals of the same.

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VII.

On Platygonus Compressus: a new Fossil Pachyderm.

By JOHN L. LE CONTE, M. D.

(Communicated to the Academy, May 29th, 1848.)

In the short notice of new fossil Mammalia, published in Svlli-
man’s Journal for January, 1848, I have given an account of the
circumstances under which these bones were found, which are
briefly these.

At a few miles distance from Galena, in Illinois, while sinking a
shaft for the purpose of obtaining lead ore, a fissure was discovered
fifty feet below the surface ; this fissure was filled with an earthy
deposit, containmg much iron and lime, and imbedded in it were
found many fragments of bone. A portion of these were preserved
by the miners, and by good fortune found their way to the collec-
tion of Mr. Snyder, a merchant residing in Galena, and well known
for his appreciation of natural science. By him some teeth were
presented to me a few years ago, in order to determine the species
of animals to which the bones belonged. On examination, these
teeth were found very different from any heretofore observed, and
it was at once evident that they appertained to one or more new
genera. Notice of this fact was sent to Mr. Snyder, and permis-
sion was asked to examine the other mammalian fossils of his cab-

34

258 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS:

inet. Not only was the request granted, but, with the generosity
of a scientific spirit, the entire collection was placed at my dispo-
sal, that it might be rendered more accessible to our comparative
anatomists. Mr. Snyder has also promised to procure such other
specimens as may be found in his vicinity. It is also hoped that
in a short time casts of the bones already obtained will be ready
for distribution to the learned societies of our country.

Among the specimens now in my possession were detected re-
mains of the following animals: — Platygonus compressus (the sub-
ject of the present memoir), Hyops depressifrons (a new animal
allied to Dicotyles), and a new species of Procyon. From another
fissure were obtained teeth, indicating two other new genera, which
are referred to in the notice quoted above.

We now proceed to the description of the separate bones of the

first-named animal, commencing with the teeth.

Dentition.

By carefully picking away the cement which envelops the ante-
rior part of the fragment (figs. 1, 2), a small external incisor was
discovered : the distance of this tooth from the superior canine is
given in the table of measurements at the end of the descriptive
part of this memoir. The bone is so much mutilated, that it is
impossible to determine whether there were two or three superior
incisors on each side; although, from the affinities of the animal,
there were doubtless three. In the form of the tooth there is noth-
ing peculiar; it has a rounded mammillary crown, scarcely acute
at the summit.

The superior canine (figs. 9-11) is very much compressed,
pointed, and curved ; the anterior edge almost sharp ; the posterior

acute and trenchant; the external face (fig. 9) slightly more con-

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 259

vex than the internal, and marked near the base of the enamelled
portion with an acute, elevated line, which runs obliquely to the
anterior edge, where it is met by a similar less elevated line belong-
ing to the internal face (fig. 10); this latter line is acutely angu-
lated at the base, and joins another elevated line which arises near
the angle in the line defining the enamelled surface, and continues
parallel to the anterior margin about half-way to the extremity,
where it gradually vanishes. The anterior margin is worn into a
very narrow surface, extending from a to the extremity, 6 (fig. 9).
The inserted portion of the tooth is slightly sinuous on the anterior
margin, and is marked with two very feeble grooves on the external
surface ; the space between these grooves is rather more convex
than the adjoining parts. At c (fig. 9), the fang is slightly con-
tracted.

The only teeth I have seen figured, which can be compared
with the present specimen, are the canines of the genus Machai-
rodus, which are, however, distinguished by the curiously serrate
edges, and the absence of the oblique basal lines so characteristic
of Platygonus.

The superior premolars are shown in figs. 12 and 13 (p. 3, p. 4).
That p. 4 (fig. 13) must be considered a premolar is evident from
an inspection of fig. 2, in which are seen three premolars in place,
while the socket of the fourth is quite distinct. In my notice of
this genus in Silliman’s Journal (loc. cit. p. 103), it is stated that
there are but three premolars; I had not then cleaned away the
cement in which the socket (p. 4, fig. 2) was concealed ; I also
considered m. 1 (fig. 13) as the penultimate molar, but on compar-
ing it with the tooth anterior to fig. 13’, it shows minute differences,
which will be detailed below.

The first premolar, right side, p. 1 (fig. 12), is triangular, with

260 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS :

rounded angles ; the crown rises externally into a subquadrangular
tubercle, which is impressed anteriorly and posteriorly; the external
surface of this elevation is continuous with the margin of the tooth,
while on the other sides it is surrounded by a broad cingulum, which
is wider posteriorly. In the younger individual (fig. 2), this cingu-
lum rises into an acute ridge, which is foveate on the anterior and
interior portions.

The second premolar, p. 2 (figs. 2 and 12), is subtriangular, slightly
transverse, with a large transverse elevation, and an anterior and
posterior basal margin, which nearly unite on the external face in
the younger specimen. The transverse elevation is divided into two
cusps, by a deep antero-posterior incision, and the posterior basal
margin, at the external angle, rises into a small tubercle.

The third premolar, left side, p. 3 (figs 2 and 13), is subquadrate,
transverse, and a little narrowed internally ; it is furnished with
transverse elevation and basal margins, as in the preceding, but they
are more strongly marked: the external pyramid is slightly pro-
duced anteriorly, and descends almost to the margin of the tooth.

The fourth premolar, left side, p. 4: (fig. 13), is similar to the molar
next described in all its sculpture, but is smaller, and the shape
slightly different; the internal margin is scarcely emarginate, and
the anterior margin is not oblique, but very slightly sinuous, for the
curve of the 3d premolar.

The first molar, m. 1 (fig. 13), is quadrate, with two large trans-
verse elevations, each of which is divided into two pyramids, or
cusps, the external being smaller; the internal posterior pyramid is
produced obliquely outwards to the posterior margin ; the internal
anterior pyramid sends a similar but smaller prolongation to the
anterior margin. The basal cingulum is well developed on the

anterior, external, and posterior margins, except where it is sub-

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM, 261

interrupted by the prolongation of the posterior internal pyramid.
There is no internal basal margin, except at the expansion of the
valley between the ridges. This valley is deeper at the extrem-
ities than in the middle, where it is penetrated by an anterior pro-
longation of the posterior internal pyramid. The anterior margin
of this tooth is oblique, the external angle being prominent, and
more rounded than the internal. This proves the existence of a
slight angle at the junction of the molar with the premolar series,
to accommodate the position of the teeth to the compressed form of
the head anterior to the molars. The line of insertion of the in-
ferior molars follows the same course, and will be found hereafter
to strengthen this deduction.

The second molar is quite similar to the first, but is regularly
quadrate, the anterior margin not being oblique ; the figure and de-
scription already given will serve to identify it perfectly. It may
be stated that this tooth was found in juxtaposition with the third
molar ; the whole series of that side were imbedded in a thin mass
of very hard cement, but the roots having entirely decayed, the
specimens were so fragile, that, in endeavouring to expose the
crowns, the first molar was entirely destroyed ; for this reason, the
third and fourth premolars, and first molar, are figured from an older
and slightly larger specimen than the one which furnished the third
molar.

The third molar, m. 3 (fig. 13’), also of the left side, is longer than
wide, slightly narrowed behind, emarginate on the sides, with the an-
terior external angle a little prominent, and more suddenly rounded ;
the sculpture is similar to that of the first and second molars, but
in addition, the posterior basal cingulum rises into a small uneven
cusp, connected with the internal pyramid of the posterior em-
inence: on the externo-posterior face of this pyramid a trapezoidal

plane is developed by wearing, extending to the basal cusp.

262, ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS :

All these teeth, by wearing, lose the separation between the
cusps of the transverse elevations, which thus become broad and
straight ridges, having the extremities a little more elevated than
the middle.

In the fragment of the lower maxilla, only the second and third
molars are preserved. There are remains of the first molar and the
posterior premolar, but not sufficient for description.

The second molar, m. 2 (fig. 7), is quadrangular, with rounded
extremities and somewhat emarginate sides ; it presents two large
transverse ridges separated by a deep valley; there is a very slight
anterior and posterior basal margin, more elevated in the middle; the
valley has a very indistinct margin externally, and at that place the
anterior lobe rises suddenly, so as to form a very well defined right
angle with the margin; there is another angle, but less sharply
defined, between the same margin and the posterior lobe.

The third molar, m. 3 (fig. 7), is elongated, narrowed and round-
ed posteriorly, scarcely emarginate on the sides; it has two large
transverse lobes, as in the preceding, a very obsolete anterior basal
margin, and a large posterior undivided lobe, acute at the top, and
almost as much elevated as the two principal lobes. ‘This lobe is
separated from the second lobe by a valley, acute at the bottom,
and a little deeper internally than externally ; into which fits the
small posterior cusp of the third superior molar. The valley sep-
arating the second from the first lobe is wide, and deeper inter-
nally. At the outer part it has a small horizontal triangular face (a);
and the external margin of this face forms with the anterior lobe
a very distinct obtuse angle: with the second lobe it forms a less
distinct right angle. It is to be observed that the internal extrem-
ities of the transverse lobes of these lower molars are more elevated

than the external parts.

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 263

These two molars are inserted in a line slightly oblique outwards
with reference to the long axis of the bone ; the first molar contin-
ues this line, but the roots of the premolar, as well as a slight flex-
ure in the bone, indicate that the line of insertion there changes
its direction by bending inwards, to a degree which would probably
make it parallel with the line of the opposite side. This agrees
with the inference from the form of the first superior molar, and also
with the shape of the cranium hereafter described. The dentition
as far as determined is, —
sit; can. i=; prem. 4—*; mol. 2-3;
which agrees with the general formula for the Tapiroidea; to which
group of Pachyderms the teeth, from their separate characters,
would most naturally be referred.

The measurements of the teeth described, in English inches, are
as follows : —

inc.

Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth.
Ist superior premolar, 35 32 Ist inferior molar, 46 ?
2d Ho sf 41 47 2d et se .60 47
3d se i 43 50 3d as ss -78 45
4th id. (from larger spec.), .50 .46 Dimensions of superior canine.
1st molar (larger spec.), 65 °55 Length of exserted part, 1.59
2d molar, 61 .55 Breadth of lateral surfaces at base
3d molar, ait! of exserted portion, .50
(Breadth anteriorly, 62; post., .56.) Thickness of tooth, .30

Bones of the Head.

The portions of the skull obtained are, — the anterior part of the
upper jaw; the posterior part of the os frontis; part of one os mala-
rum, with the os lachrymale ; portions of the palatal plate of su-
perior maxilla; and the posterior part of the inferior maxilla.

The first-mentioned fragment is represented, fig. 1, side view ;

264 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS:

fig. 2, base view ; fig. 5, A, top view. From it we learn that the
head was very narrow, and compressed on the sides; the canines
were concealed by the lips, and projected forwards downwards, and
a little outwards. The malar plate of the superior maxilla is ex-
panded very obliquely outwards, and above it is a wide but shallow
groove (4, 4, fig. 1), which is parallel with the superior suture, and
vanishes opposite the first premolar.

Above the superior canine, the bone swells out into a somewhat
acute prominence, from which a concavity (f, A, fig. 5), expand-
ing as it advances, looking outwards and a little forwards, runs
towards the incisor. ‘The suture of the intermaxillary bone passes
upwards and backwards very close to the canine, and almost in
contact with the anterior wall of its socket.

The ossa nasi are very convex from side to side, forming a semi-
circular arch ; they are also very slightly arched antero-posteriorly.
About the region of the canines, the skull expands a little, the lat-
eral surfaces being there flattened and oblique. From a small frag-
ment (fig. 3), containing the root of the first premolar, it will be
seen that an elevated line originates opposite that tooth, and is lost
before reaching the canine ; this line is parallel to the alveolar mar-
gin; immediately above it, and a little anterior to the first premolar,
is a small foramen (a, fig. 3). Below the elevated line is a deep
longitudinal concavity, oblique downwards, separated from the pala-
tal plate by a second elevated line. ‘The palatal plate is seen in
fig. 2; it is concave transversely, with flattened sides; by pick-
ing away the cement at the anterior part of the fragment, it ap-
peared that this concavity becomes more narrow anteriorly, at the
same time increasing in depth, until it assumes the form of a medial
groove. On each side are the remains of a deep groove (a, 4a,
fig. 2) ; and by reference to the palatal part of the small fragment

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 265

just mentioned, this groove is seen to be double, the external groove
being in contact with the alveolar margin; the interior of these
grooves is deeper, and perforates the plate immediately opposite the
first premolar. Another fragment containing molars shows a flat-
tened surface, rough with longitudinal grooves and _ elevations
towards the side, as if worm-eaten.

The os frontis is seen in fig. 4. ‘The ‘posterior contour is round-
ed almost in the are of a circle ; the posterior edge is bevelled off
very obliquely, and striate for the adaptation of the ossa parietalia,
which have not been obtained. ‘The approximation of the post-
orbital processes is remarkable; they project laterally, having
scarcely any tendency downwards; the superior surface of the
bone is much flattened, being scarcely more elevated in the middle
than at the sides.

Fig. 5 represents the parts already described, in their relative
position, with the addition of (B) the malar bone and part of the
lachrymal. ‘The external surface of these bones is flat, and looks
forwards and outwards, but not at all upwards ; the posterior orbi-
tal process (@) is very long, acute, and bent inwards at the point ;
at d is an indication of a wide, shallow groove ; 6 is the lachry-
mal tubercle, more elevated than in Dicotyles, and placed on the
margin of the orbit ; anterior to this the surface looks directly up-
wards ; at the base of the lachrymal tubercle is (c) a groove, in
which are placed the lachrymal ; anterior to this is (e) a slight con-
cavity. In the position of the groove and foramina with reference
to the tubercle, a striking difference will be observed between this
animal and its allies; the orbital plate is behind the tubercle, and
looks inwards and backwards, the groove and foramina being alto-
gether external. In Dicotyles, the orbital plate looks directly back-
wards, and the foramina are situated internally. In Tapirus (ac-

35

266 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS :

cording to Cuvier), the same foramina are on the edge of the orbit.
The fragment of malar and lachrymal bones is represented in a
side view (fig. 6), to show the flatness of the external surface, and
also a small foramen ; the other parts are lettered as above.

Fig. 7 is the lower jaw. It is very deep; the articular surface
is placed obliquely, and formed as in Sus and Dicotyles; but the
anterior margin is less prominent from the neck of the condyle at
its external part; there is also a small external fossa (a, fig. 7),
which does not appear in the animals just mentioned. The line
from the condyle to the posterior molar is three fourths of an inch
longer than in Dicotyles torquatus, and passes more obliquely in-
wards ; which corresponds with the great posterior expansion men-
tioned in describing the cranium, Below the molars the bone swells
out slightly, but not so much as in Dicotyles ; the inferior margin is
rounded, and but little attenuated: it is deeply concave in a longi-
tudinal direction ; this form is caused by the expansion of the angle
of the jaw. The expansion commences at a point immediately
below the anterior lobe of the posterior molar; it does not extend
backwards to form a process or hook, as in Carnivora and Roden-
tia; nor does it interrupt the slight but regular concavity of: the
posterior margin, which is thin, and destitute of any prominent
lines. The expanded part is very concave on the outer surface ;
the inferior margin is rounded, as in the figure, and projects far
outwards, especially anteriorly.* Towards the fractured end the
bone is expanded, and has a large cavity for the reception of a ca-
nine (fig. 8) ; but as this cavity is filled with the same hard cement

which envelops many of the specimens, it is impossible to judge of

* The perspective of this part of the figure is not good; the anterior part of the

expansion (towards the dotted line) should be in higher relief.

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 267

the form of the root of the canine. The internal surface of the

bone is also concealed by cement.

Bones of the Trunk.

A dorsal vertebra is represented in figs. 14-16. The body is
very much compressed inferiorly, with a sharp prominent middle
ridge ; the anterior surface is concave, the posterior convex; the
peculiarities of the bone are better expressed in the figure than
they can be by any description.

A lumbar vertebra (figs. 17, 18) has the body still more concave
on the sides, and still more compressed inferiorly, the elevated line
rising quite suddenly, and being very prominent (p), the posterior
face is concave, and looks a little upwards; on the side of the
body, at the posterior part, is (@) an obtusely elevated line, running
obliquely upwards ; anterior to this is a small tubercle (b) ; about
the middle, and at the base of the medial ridge, is (c) a small fora-
men; and a small but deep fossa (d) is found close to the base of
the transverse process.

Os innominatum has the ilium inferiorly narrow and compressed ;
above the acetabulum, but near its margin, are two fosse, which
extend upwards and shortly vanish ; the posterior of these is nar-
rowed about its middle by an elevation proceeding from its posterior
lip. The external surface of the ischium below the acetabulum
is free from elevations, and seems to be scarcely concave ; the pos-
terior edge is thin and compressed. ‘The bone is so imperfect, that

a figute would be of little value.

Bones of the Extremities.

The humerus (figs. 19, 20, bone of the right side), of which the

lower part is preserved, is pierced by a large foramen. The lower

268 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS :

head is oblique inwards ; the articular surface is regularly concave
behind ; anteriorly it has two pulley-shaped grooves, the interior
being broader, but not shallower, than the exterior ; the interven-
ing ridge is obtusely rounded, broad, and as much elevated as the
sides ; a transverse depression separates the articular surface from
the edge of the foramen; the internal condyle is fractured, the ex-
ternal is flatly truncate anteriorly, with a groove continuous with
the transverse depression just mentioned ; this groove runs down-
wards, and vanishes towards the lower edge of the condyle. Pos-
teriorly, as shown by another much mutilated specimen, this condyle
is marked with two small grooves, which run in the direction of the
interior or narrow pulley-shaped surface; but this part being covered
by cement, I know not whether they meet the articular surface.
Other peculiarities will be better seen in the figure than expressed
in description. Immediately above the groove, on the outer truncate
surface of the condyle, the bone is dilated, and then regularly con-
tracted to the shaft. The cavity for the olecranon is very deep. -
The bone of the cubitus (fig. 21, left side) is comparatively thick,
and much bent, the concavity of the curve looking backwards.
The radius and ulna are so fused together as to be scarcely distin-
cuishable. The shaft is subtriangular, the external edge being
acute and much compressed ; the anterior and internal edges are
indistinct. The anterior face is broadly concave, adjacent to the
compressed edge. ‘The superior head of the bone is furnished with
articular surfaces corresponding to those of the humerus ; they are
separated by two elevations extending from before backwards.
The internal surface looks inwards and upwards, and is equal to
the middle one ; the external surface looks outwards and upwards ;
behind the middle surface, at the base of the olecranon, is a deep

concavity, separated at the bottom into three unequal parts: dividing

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM, 269

the internal concave surface, at the base of the olecranon, is a nar-
row groove, with a depression behind the interior ridge. ‘The low-
er extremity is dilated, so that the internal edge of the shaft is
rendered concave ; anteriorly this extremity is convex, posteriorly
flat ; the styloid process (a) is short, and immediately above it is a
slight concavity. The lower articular surfaces are shown in fig.
22, a being the styloid process. ‘The other faces for the scaphoid,
semilunar and cuneiform, are so well defined as scarcely to need
description ; and the more so, because, from the meagreness of our
museums, I have not been able to make comparison with the cor-
responding parts of other Ungulata. There is very little resem-
blance between the present specimen and the antebrachium of a
hog; the resemblance to a horse is much more decided, but the
lower articular surfaces are quite different in form.

Os calcis. — The bone of the left side was found with both ex-
tremities fractured ; the shaft flattened, with rounded edges: the
inferior margin (concave in Sus) is perfectly straight ; the superior
is scarcely concave ; the large process for articulation, with the
astragalus, is much thickened inferiorly, and marked with a slight
eroove. ‘The articular surface is scarcely longer than wide, slightly
concave ; superiorly it is scarcely prominent beyond the margin of
the shaft: the hollow below this process is regularly narrowed, but
there is no fossa superiorly between the articular face and the an-
terior part of the bone. In the common hog there is a very distinct
fossa.

Os cuboides. — The bone of the left side is shown in fig. 25, ex-
ternal view; and fig. 26, internal view. ‘The surface for the calca-
neum is long and sinuous, as in Sus, but the depression (@) is much
deeper; between this surface and that for the astragalus is (6)
a deep groove, rounded at the extremity, extending almost to the

concavity (a). The astragalian surface is deeply concave, and

270 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS:

looks backwards, but not at all inwards; its length is five times
greater than its breadth. Anteriorly the groove (c) is very deep ;
the face for the metatarsal (d) is subtriangular, with rounded an-
gles, the internal angle being more produced; the inner side of
this articular face is slightly emarginate, but there is no fovea under
the emargination, as in Sus: the prominence (h) is furnished with
a narrow, oblique, articular face, for a rudimentary external meta-
tarsal. Internally is (e) an oblong tubercle, with an acute edge ;
the posterior face of this tubercle is articular for the scaphoides ;
at the inferior part of this surface is (f) a long irregular articular
surface, also for the scaphoides ; it is emarginate superiorly, with a
depression at g. The superior surface of the bone, owing to the
extension of the calcaneal face in an anterior direction, is shaped
somewhat like the small Greek z, and has an elevated line parallel
to the anterior margin.

The medial metatarsal of the right side (figs. 23, 24) has a tri-
angular shaft, the external and posterior faces flattened, and meet-
ing almost perpendicularly, the other face being rounded almost in
a quadrant ; the line between the posterior and internal or curved
face is strongly marked above, but fades out at g (fig. 23); the
line between the posterior and internal (a, a) is more strong below,
but becomes obsolete above, where it tends towards the anterior
process (e, e) ; the anterior edge (f) is well marked for the whole
length of the bone. ‘The upper extremity is articular for the large
cuneiform, with a small surface at the internal angle for the second
cuneiform ; the line in which these unite is very indistinct, and
commences at the cusp (d). ‘The large articular face is concave
towards the antero-internal part, and there extends much lower on
the bone (vid. fig. 24). The anterior angle of the upper extremity
of the bone is produced into a curved truncate process, furnished

with two articular facets (e, e’). The posterior internal angle is

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 271

also furnished with a small lateral articular face (6). On the pos-
terior face of the bone, near the extremity, are two deep fosse
(¢, ¢, fig. 23), provided with articular facets for the internal meta-
tarsal, which is thus shown to have been posterior, but by no
means rudimentary. The lower apophysis is unfortunately want-
ing; but what remains is much longer and more slender than
the corresponding part of Sus Scrofa, and shows plainly that the
comparatively slender form of the head and humerus was continued

even to the feet.

Measurements of the Fragments.

Cranium. INFERIOR MAXILLA.
Incisor to centre of canine (figs. 1 a Exterior margin of condyle to pos- i
and 2), : , : ¥ 1.20 terior angle of 3d molar, .. 2.80
Incisor to anterior edge of Ist pre- Do. to anterior edge of 2d molar, 4.00
molar, ; : : i 3.43 Depth of jaw at posterior lobe of
Incisor to posterior edge of 3d pre- Ist molar, ; 5 : 2.20
molar, : : 5 , 4.40 Do. at anterior lobe of 8d molar, 3.00
Centre of canine to anterior edge Depth of curve of inferior margin
of Ist premolar, ; : 2.10 (measured from a_ horizontal
Distance between broken extrem- line), A : 5 5 1.385
ities of canines, : : 2.05 Depth of concavity of external sur-
Height from palatal plate, opposite face, : . : ‘ 30
Ist premolar, to top of nasal
arch, . : : 3 ‘ 2.43 EXTREMITIES.
Transverse diameter at same point, 1.35 All the figures are made of the natural
Transverse distance between inter- size, so that only the following measure-
nal margins of 2d premolar (cal- ments are necessary : —
culated), . ’ ; : 1.00 Length of metatarsal (fig. 23), 2.40
Transverse distance between post- Breadth of surface (a, f) superi-
orbital processes of os frontis, 3.20 orly, . 5 - ‘ : 30
From last line to middle of poste- Do. inferiorly, : : 2 .60
rior curve of external surface Anterior edge of e to posterior
(being the versed sine of the Oily oc : é c 3 3)

curve), . : : , -97 Point of process (e,e’) to cusp (d), .60

272 ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS:

Conclusions.

From the foregoing account, it will be seen that our animal pre-
sents an assemblage of characters not found in any other genus,
fossil or recent. From the form of the teeth, and the concealment
of the canines, it evidently tends towards the Tapiroids, and more
especially towards Sophiodon, and it should be numbered among
the aberrant forms of that group; nevertheless, it differs from both
Tapirus and Sophiodon, in the very compressed and trenchant form
of the canines. The extreme narrowness of the worn face of the
superior canine, together with the oblique position of the tooth,
indicates a decussation with another narrow and pointed tooth of
the inferior maxilla. ‘This structure is well adapted for piercing
and cutting soft substances, and manifests a strongly carnivorous
habit. ‘This inference is not borne out by the form of the pre-
molars, but it must be remembered that the cutting form of those
teeth is always more developed in the lower jaw ; the structure of
the upper premolars in Dicotyles is very similar to that existing in
the present genus. ‘The absence, however, of accessary tubercles
in the molars shows the suiline affinities indicated by some other
bones to have been quite feeble.

The fragments of the cranium lead us to infer that that portion
was very much compressed laterally, with an anterior and_ posterior
expansion, the latter being much greater. The arch of the nasal
bones being complete, and extending far forwards, it is obvious that
the movable snout (if any) was extremely short. The malar bones
descended almost perpendicularly, looking forwards and outwards,
while the remains of the orbit of the eye show that organ to have
directed outwards and a little upwards. The flatness of the os
frontis and the approximation of the eyes continue to the upper

A NEW FOSSIL PACHYDERM. 273

and posterior parts of the cranium the peculiar narrowness which
gives to the anterior portion such an extraordinary appearance.
The singular position ‘of the lachrymal foramina, external to the
orbit, and anterior to the lachrymal tubercle, as well as the upward
aspect of that part of the bone (almost perpendicular to the exter-
nal face), will also be found worthy of remark.

In the lower jaw we observe farther evidence of this great com-
pression, while the inferior expansion of the bone around the angle
is observed only in the hippopotamus among existing pachyder-
mata, and in that genus‘on a much less extensive scale. As the
posterior margin of the maxilla is somewhat concave, this expan-
sion must be considered as a much modified development of the
ferine type, in which the expansion is continued directly back-
wards.

‘From an attentive study of the os cuboides and metatarsal, it
will be seen that Platygonus combines the characters of the Iso-
dactyle with those of the Anisodactyle Ungulata, retaining at the
same time the essential characters of the latter. It appears to have
had three well-developed toes, with a rudimentary external toe ;
the relation existing between the astragalian and calcaneal faces
of the cuboides is different from any that I can find described.
But being obliged to deduce these analogies from drawings and
descriptions, without reference to specimens, the observations must
necessarily be imperfect, and I am therefore unable to draw the
snferences which would become obvious to a student having access
to the great museums of Europe.

The study of the bone of the antebrachtum is more satisfactory :
the radius and ulna are firmly anchylosed throughout their whole
length, and the inferior surfaces resemble closely those of rumi-

nants, without being identical; the two elevated lines separating
36

DTA, ON PLATYGONUS COMPRESSUS.

the articular faces for the scaphoides, semilunare, and cuneiforme
are very oblique, as in the group just mentioned. The double
groove of the lower articular surface of the humerus also shows an
approach towards the ruminant and suiline tribes, while the large
foramen of the coronoid cavity is a character found in but few spe-
cies, and, with the very oblique external contour, serves very well
to distinguish the bone of the present genus, when the articular
part is destroyed. The obliquity of the inferior head, with refer-
ence to the long axis of the bone, is much greater than in Sus ; and
the external pulley very much deeper than in Sus or any ruminant.

In a future memoir, on the Hyops depressifrons, a suiline animal,
the remains of which were found in the same locality, will be de-
tailed my reasons for referring to the genus with trenchant canines
the fragment of calcaneum and metatarsal bones described in the

preceding pages.

PLATE 1.
ae a aT |

Lith. of G. & W Enalicott New York

PLATE 2.

New York.

:
8
"

of 6. é

Leth.

Fig. 9

PLATE §.

_
Lith.of G.

8 WW Enazcott New York

PLATE 4,
ii * form |

Lith. of 6. & W Enalicott New York.

AP PILN.DIT xX

Report on the Discovery and Name of an Eighth Satellite of Saturn.

(Read November 8, 1848. )

Tue Committee to whom was referred the subject of the name
proper to be given to the eighth satellite of Saturn, recently
discovered at the Observatory in Cambridge, have attended to
that duty, and beg leave to submit the following report : —

This important discovery, which was made by the Messrs. Bond,
at the Observatory in Cambridge, on the 16th of September, was
first announced to the public in a letter of the 25th instant,
addressed to the President of the University, which was published
on the 27th instant in the Boston Daily Advertiser. Copies of
this letter were transmitted to London, Altona, and. Paris, by the
steamer of the 27th October.

The great interest attaching to this discovery has induced the
committee to submit to the Academy, as a part of their report, the
following detailed account, with which they have been kindly
furnished by Mr. Bond.

On the evening of the 15th September, in observing Saturn
and his satellites, an object was noticed by Mr. G. P. Bond, which

37

276 REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

was recorded as a satellite or star. ‘The following diagram shows
its position at the time : —

Sept. 15th, P. M., Tit Ose ®) : . Bad seeing.
Gara:

x is the object referred to.

On the 16th of September the new satellite was distinctly
seen. It was noticed by Mr. George P. Bond as a point of light
resembling a star of the seventeenth magnitude, in the plane of
Saturn’s ring, between Iapetus and Titan.’ It was entered by him
in his diagram of the satellites as follows : —

I 3
Sept. 16th. a (Ol opto” Camo . Order of brightness.
Bad seeing. G. P. B.

6 is the new satellite.

On the 18th it was again seen, similarly situated, and was re-
corded by both the Messrs. Bond, with a doubt expressed of its
character.

q
Sept. 18th, 9h. 20m.,P.M.. «©. © - + « « ~ Order of brightness.
Wi iC. B:

3 2h ol ia: |

zx is the new satellite.

6 2 Boer u
| Sept 18th, 11h., P. M. F, SORE Oe : ~ GPG: |

7 is the new satellite.

~
rs

The further account of the discovery is given in the words of
Mr. Bond, as contained in a letter of the 17th October to Mr.
J. R. Hind, Foreign Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society.

“The recurrence of nearly the same appearance on the 19th
induced us to apply the micrometer, with which we obtained the

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. he

following measures from the object in question, which, for con-
venience, we shall designate by a.

1848.
“Sept. 19th, at 9h. 40m. x precedes Iapetus 137” |
Iapetus precedes star eae | Measured in
“* 12h. Om. x precedes Japetus 141” + the direction of
Iapetus precedes same star 366” the plane of the
‘“ 13h. 15m. x precedes lapetus ra ring.
Iapetus precedes same star 375”

“These measures indicated that the suspected body partook
of the retrograde motion of Saturn.
«Sept. 19th, at 13h. 30m. « follows Saturn’s centre 256”, in the direction of the
plane of the ring.’
‘‘A map of the stars in the path of Saturn for the two fol-
lowing nights was made, as a security against mistakes.
“The evening of the 20th proved cloudy.
“On the 21st the new satellite was compared with a star
following it near the plane of the ring: —
Sept. 21st, 11h. 34m., Distance of x from the star, 276”.
12h. 11m., oe ce ss 284”.
12h. 57m., ce ae se 293”.
And the distance of xz from the centre of Saturn was found to be,
Sept. 21st, at 12h. 30m., a following Saturn 220” 1 measure.
« 92d, at 10h. 30m., «“ «4927 5
“© 623d, at 9h. 5m., ve Ase 0 <
“ 28th,at Qh. Om., « preceding Saturn 156” 5 =
“On each of these nights, with the exception of the 22d, the
observations were continued long enough to identify the satellite
by its motion.
*‘The presence of the moon prevented our obtaining further .
observations of the new satellite till the 13th of October, al-
though we lost much time in observing accidental stars, which

278 REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

could only be distinguished from the satellite by their not partaking
of the motion of Saturn.
Oct. 13th, '7h. 40m., x follows Saturn’s centre 202”.
“ 14th, 7h. Om., ef “ 152".
“The motion of z among the stars was sensible in three hours.
Oct. 15th, 9h. 35m, x follows Saturn’s centre 92.4”.
“The foregoing positions are approximately satisfied by a pe-
riodic time of twenty-one days.
“‘ The orbit is nearly coincident with the plane of the ring.”

In the letter of Mr. Bond addressed to Mr. Everett, above re-
ferred to, it is stated, that the light of the newly discovered
satellite is fainter than that of the two interior satellites discovered
by Sir William Herschel in 1789, which have ever been spoken
of by observers as objects beyond the reach of any but the most
powerful instruments. ‘The discovery of the Messrs. Bond is,
therefore, peculiarly satisfactory, as a test of the capacity of the
new telescope at Cambridge, toward the purchase of which the
Academy has contributed.

While this addition to the planetary system is justly to be re-
garded in itself as an event of high interest in astronomical
science, it is rendered peculiarly so by the fact, that the same
discovery was made almost at the same time by Mr. Lassell, at
Starfield, near Liverpool. The committee have been permitted
to incorporate in their report the following copy of a letter from
this distinguished observer to Mr. Bond.

“ Starfield, Liverpool, 30th September, 1848.
«Dear Srr,—I have the pleasure to inform you, that I have
discovered an eighth satellite of the planet Saturn.
“In relating to you the mode of its discovery, I shall, in speak-

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 279

ing of Saturn’s satellites, employ the proper names given to them
by Sir John Herschel in his Cape Observations, namely, Mimas,
Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Japetus, beginning
with the closest, and proceeding in order of distance from their
primary.

‘On the 18th instant, while surveying the planet and looking
for Iapetus, I observed two stars near the situation where I ex-
pected him to be. Not being certain which of these was he, I
made a careful drawing of their situation with respect to some
neighbouring fixed stars, of which the following is a copy.

Titan. x ¢ *a

er t® Joa) e . e

*
*

“On the 19th instant, 1 was surprised to find that both stars
had moved away from the fixed star a, as shown in the following
diagram, x still remaining in the line of the satellites interior to

Titan. zx *a
; oigene : : é

*
*

itself, while ¢ had gone northward. A consideration of this ap-
pearance suggested the conviction that « must be a new satellite,
c being thus proved to be Iapetus. I therefore immediately pro-
ceeded to take differences of A. R. between x and a and between
c and a, with a view to verify the conjecture, and found that in
2.6 hours 2 had moved westward 2%.46, and that in 1.4 hours
c had also moved westward 1°.27, establishing the fact that
both stars were in motion. It is true that these differences do
not correspond precisely with the orbital motion of Saturn, but
I think they are not greater than can be well accounted for by

280 REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

reasonable errors of observation during so short a period. More-
over, the point a being precisely in the line of the interior sat-
ellites, I took micrometrical measurements of his position with
respect to the others at two epochs, differing four hours, and
was perfectly satisfied that, during that interval, no perceptible
change whatever in his position took place. As the motion of
Saturn southwards during this interval would amount to 18’, it
must have left the point x obviously behind, if it had been a fixed
star. I could not then escape the conclusion that z is a new
satellite of the planet.

“The 21st and 22d have been the only evenings since the
19th on which any observation could be got; it was then ap-
proaching Saturn. A season of cloudy weather has now set in,
which is very unfortunate, as another clear night would have
enabled me to ascertain something respecting the satellite’s pe-
riod. In conformity with Sir J. Herschel’s nomenclature of the

older satellites, I have proposed to call this Hyperion.”

It will appear from the comparison of dates in the preceding
accounts of the observations of Mr. Lassell and the Messrs.
Bond, that the discovery of the new satellite by these eminent
observers was nearly simultaneous. It was first noticed by the
Messrs. Bond on the 16th, and by Mr. Lassell on the 18th of
September, and the discoveries had been publicly announced in
each country before the accounts from the other had been received.
This circumstance leaves to each astronomer the credit of an
original discovery. It is unnecessary to state that nothing but
an instrumental power of the highest order, applied with con-
summate skill, would have sufficed for its achievement.

The first discovery of a satellite of Saturn was made by Chris-

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 281

tian Huyghens, in Holland, who is also entitled to the credit
of first ascertaining the true nature of Saturn’s ring.* On the
25th of March, 1655, while observing the ring of Saturn with a
twelve-foot telescope, Huyghens’s attention was attracted to the
appearance of a star, which, carefully observed at the time and
on the following evening, was evidently found to have changed
its absolute place in the heavens, and to have shared the retro-
grade motion of the planet. These observations were continued
every night, and on the 3d of April the new star was found on
the other side of the planet.

The uncertainty, which still hung over many of what are now
the most familiar facts in the solar system, led the astrono-
‘mers of this period, instead of hastening with the utmost prompt-
ness to give their discoveries to the world, either wholly to sup-
press them, for a considerable time, or to communicate the dis-
covery to some friend, wrapped up in the form of an anagram.
Having repaired to Paris shortly after the discovery of a satel-
lite of Saturn, and having there communicated it to his scientific
friends, they advised him to make it public, which he did on
the 5th of March, 1656, with an hypothesis explaining the other
phenomena of Saturn, the latter, however, *confuso elementorum
quibus scribebatur ordine.” In 1659 he thought the time had
come for an ampler treatise on the subject, and accordingly pre-
pared his Systema Saturnium,t where the gradual steps of his dis-
covery and his entire system of Saturn are set forth. This inter-

esting tract is dedicated to Prince Leopold of Tuscany, and in

* On the history of the discovery of Saturn’s satellites, see Astronomie par La-
lande, III. p. 202, and Smyth’s Celestial Cycle, I. p. 197.
+ Christiani Hugenii Systema Saturnium, sive de causis mirandorum Saturni

Phenomenén et comite ejus Planeta novo. Hagee-Comitis, 1659,

282. REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

the dedication, the confident opinion is expressed by Huyghens,
that this satellite, being the twelfth planetary body in the solar
system, fills up the number of bodies belonging to it, “quo majo-
rem post hac repertum non wi, prope est ut confirmare audeam.”
Such was the bold prediction adventured by Huyghens, on the
ground of the supposed admirable qualities of the number twelve.
In less than two centuries which have since elapsed, the number
of planetary bodies (if we allow two satellites to Neptune) has
been increased to thirty-eight, with a prospect of a future indefi-
nite multiplication, bounded only by the improvements which may
hereafter be made in the telescope.

Huyghens’s satellite is by far the brightest of the Saturnian
group, and the sixth in order from the primary. Its period is about
fifteen days twenty-two hours, and in the nomenclature adopted by
Sir John Herschel, the convenience of which has been so signally
shown on occasion of the present discovery, it has received the
name of Titan.

Toward the end of October, 1671, Dominique Cassini discov-
ered the exterior satellite of the whole group, usually called the
fifth in number, but now ascertained to be the eighth in order
from the primary.* This discovery was made at Paris with a
telescope of seventeen feet. It has a period of above seventy-nine
days, and is called by Sir John Herschel Japetus. On the 23d of
December of the following year (1672), Cassini, making use of
telescopes of thirty-five and seventy feet in length, discovered what
used to be called the third satellite of Saturn; being the fifth from
the primary. Its period is of four and a half days, and it is
called Rhea by Sir John Herschel.t In 1684, Cassini discovered
the fourth and fifth of the old enumeration, the third and fourth

* Journal des Savans de l’ An 1677, p. 88. + Ditto de ?An 1686, p. 139.

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 283

in order from the primary. The first of these was computed by
Cassini to have a period of one day and twenty-one hours, and
the second of two days and seventeen hours. They are the
Tethys and Dione of Sir John Herschel. Cassini employed for
their discovery lenses arranged without tubes at enormous focal
distances, not less than 155 and 220 Parisian feet. In his me-
moir in the Journal des Savans for 1686, he says, — “ Il nous
a été facile de voir par ces différents sortes de verres ces deux
satellites, aprés avoir trouvé les régles de leur mouvement, qui
nous ont fait regarder avec une attention plus particuliére aux
lieux ot ils doivent étre.”

These large object-glasses were placed, says Cassini, some-
times on the top of the observatory, sometimes on a large pole,
and sometimes on a wooden tower transported by order of the
king, for this purpose, from Marly to the terrace of the observa-
tory. ‘They were afterwards inclosed in tubes.

The progress of astronomical observation, from this clumsy and
helpless machinery to the parallactic movement of Fraunhofer,
represents, by a very distinct scale of improvement, the advance-
ment of modern science. Although Huyghens had at first been
led to adventure the prediction, that his satellite completed the
Saturnian group, he lived to see it increased by the four discov-
ered by Cassini. In the second book of his KOYMO@ENPOS,
addressed to his brother, having alluded to the four satellites
discovered by Cassini, he says, —‘* Imo preter harum numerum
alias quoque vel unam vel plures latere suspicari licet, nec deest
ratio. Cum enim inter extremas duas, spatium amplius pateat
quam pro distantiis ceeterarum, posset hoc insidere sextus satelles,

38

284, REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

vel etiam ultra quintum alii circumvagari, qui propter obscuritatem
nondum sint visi.” *

As Galileo had given the names of the “‘ Medicean stars” to the
satellites of Jupiter, in honor of the liberal prince and family reign-
ing at Florence, Cassini proposed to call the satellites of Saturn
*¢ Astra Lodoicea,” in honor of Louis XIV., under whose reign and
patronage they were discovered. But posterity has rejected these
and all other attempts to affix contemporary names to the newly
discovered planetary bodies.

The existence of Cassini’s four satellites of Saturn was almost
doubted in England, till the Astronomer Pound set up at Wansted a
telescope of 123 feet focal distance, presented by Huyghens to the
Royal Society and still in their possession. ‘This took place in
1718.t The improvements soon made by Bradley in the con-
struction of the telescope brought these satellites within the range
of observation by instruments of reasonable dimensions. Captain
Smyth quotes a remark from an astronomical work of Mr. J.
Harris, F. R. S. in 1729, to this effect, that it is ‘highly probable
that there may be more satellites than the five moving round this
remote planet: but their distance is so great, and their light may be
so obscure, as that they have hitherto escaped our eyes and perhaps
may continue to do so for ever; for I don’t think that our telescopes
will be much further improved ” ! }

In 1789 Sir William Herschel completed his forty-foot reflector.
He had suspected the existence of a sixth satellite as early as the

* Christiant Hugenti Cosmotheoros, sive de Terris celestibus earumque ornatu
conjecture ad Constantinum Hugenium fratrem, Gulielmo III. Magne Britannia
Regi a secretis, Lib. II. Oper. I. p. 698.

+ Abridgment of the Transactions of the Royal Society, IV. p. 322.

¢ Celestial Cycle, I. p. 198.

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 285

19th of August, 1787, but was prevented by other researches from
verifying his observation. The final discovery may be stated in his
own words : — “Tn hopes of great success with my forty-feet spec-
ulum, I deferred the attack upon Saturn till that should be finished :
and having taken an early opportunity of directing it to Saturn, the
very first moment I saw the planet, which was the 28th of last Au-
gust (1789), I was presented with a view of six of its satellites, in
such a situation, and so bright, as rendered it impossible to mistake
them or not to see them. The retrograde motion of Saturn amounted
to nearly 4; minutes per day, which made it very easy to ascertain
whether the stars I took to be satellites really were so; and in about
two hours and a half, I had the pleasure of finding that the planet
had visibly carried them all away from their places. I continued my
observations constantly, whenever the weather would permit, and
the great light of the forty-feet speculum was now of so much use,
that I also, on the 17th of September, detected the seventh satellite
when it was at its greatest preceding elongation.” *

Of the two satellites discovered by his father, Sir John Herschel
thus expresses himself : —‘ The two interior satellites, which just
skirt the edge of the ring and move exactly in its plane, have never
been discerned but with the most powerful telescopes which hu-
man art has yet constructed, and then under peculiar circumstances.
At the time of the disappearance of the ring (to ordinary tele-
scopes), they have been seent threading like beads the almost in-
finitely thin fibre of light to which it is then reduced, and for a short
time advancing off it, at either end, speedily to return, and hasten-
ing to their habitual concealment.” {

* Transactions of the Royal Society, 1790, p. 10.

+ “By my father, in 1789, with a reflecting telescope of four feet aperture.”
t Sir John Herschel’s Treatise on Astronomy, § 468.

286 REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

The periodical time of the innermost of Sir W. Herschel’s
satellites is but twenty-two hours, and of his second satellite one
day and eight hours. Sir John Herschel proposes to call the for-
mer Mimas and the latter Enceladus.

It will be recollected that the periodical time of the new satellite
is approximately estimated by Mr. Bond at twenty-one days. As
the period of Titan is fifteen days and twenty-two hours, and that
of Iapetus seventy-nine days, it may be reasonably conjectured
that one, perhaps more than one, satellite remains yet undiscovered,
to fill up the disproportioned space.

Such was the Saturnian system, as far as the satellites are con-
cerned, till the recent discovery. Some confusion existed in their
designation. They have hitherto been designated numerically,
nearly, but not quite, in the order of discovery; that is to say, the
third from the primary has been called number one, and so on to
the exterior satellite, which has been called number five. ‘The sec-
ond from the primary (being Sir William Herschel’s first discovery)
has been called number six, and the interior satellite number seven.
In this nomenclature Huyghens’s satellite, the largest and first
discovered, is numbered fourth, which represents neither the order
of discovery nor of place in relation to the primary.

To avoid the confusion of this system, it had latterly been usual
to designate the group numerically, calling the interior satellite
number one, and so on regularly through the seven; but this im-
proved nomenclature was not yet universally adopted.

In order to provide an effectual remedy for the uncertainty of the
former modes of designation, Sir John Herschel, in his recent

great work on the Cape Observations,* has made the happy rec-

* Results of Astronomical Observations made during the Years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8,
at the Cape of Good Hope, &c., by Sir John F. W. Herschel. 4to. 1847.

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 287

ommendation of a separate name for each satellite. ‘The names
proposed by him are drawn from the mythological family of Saturn.*
After enumerating them he adds:—‘ Should an eighth satellite
exist, the confusion of the old nomenclature will become quite
intolerable.”

The names selected by Sir John Herschel are the following : —

“The exterior satellite, discovered by Cassini, Tapetus.
The bright satellite, discovered by Huyghens, Titan.
The exterior of the three satellites discovered by Cassini, Rhea.
The intermediate of these three, Dione.
The interior of them, Tethys.
The exterior of the two discovered by Sir W. Herschel, Enceladus.
The interior and smallest of all, Mimas.”

The discovery of an eighth satellite, alluded to by Sir John
Herschel as possible, having now been effected by the admirable
instruments and not less admirable skill of the Messrs. Bond and
Mr. Lassell, it becomes absolutely necessary to adopt some con-
venient system of names for the separate members of this large
planetary family. ‘The names proposed by Sir John Herschel were
spontaneously adopted by the Messrs. Bond and Mr. Lassell ; and
it now only remains to appropriate a name to the satellite discoy-
ered by themselves.

* Sir John Herschel thus states the considerations which governed his selection
of names:—‘ As Saturn devoured his children, his family could not be assem-
bled around him, so that the choice lay among his brothers and sisters, the Titans
and Titanesses. (Vide Lempriere.) The name of Japetus seemed indicated by
the obscurity and remoteness of the exterior satellite, Titan by the superior size of
the Huyghenian, while the three female appellations class together the three inter-
mediate Cassinian satellites. ‘The minute interior ones seemed appropriately char-
acterized by a return to male appellations, chosen from a younger and inferior

(though still superhuman) brood.” — p. 415.

288 REPORT ON THE DISCOVERY AND NAME

This subject was brought to the consideration of the Academy, in
a short paper read at the last informal meeting by the chairman of
the present committee. On this occasion he expressed himself as
follows : — ‘Established usage in reference to the designation of
the heavenly bodies and the symmetry of Sir John Herschel’s no-
inenclature of the satellites of Saturn require the adoption of some
name drawn from heathen mythology. Sir John Herschel has
confined himself to the family of Saturn, and among the yet un-
appropriated names in this family are Prometheus, Hyperion, and
Hesperus. As the new satellite stands next to lapetus, Prometheus,
the son of Iapetus, (‘ Audax Japeti genus,’) might seem an appro-
priate name. If it were deemed more consonant to uniformity to
place another brother of Saturn between Iapetus and Titan, Hy-
perion answers that condition, and is in other respects a well-
sounding name. I should incline to prefer Hesperus, another son of
Iapetus, as shorter and as having some appropriateness to a satellite
discovered on the Western Continent, were it not that Hesper is
employed by the poets for another purpose.”

This subject having, after some conversation, at the last meeting
of the Academy, been referred to the present committee, an early
opportunity was taken of consulting Mr. Bond as to the choice of a
name for the new satellite, he being considered by the committee
as the individual best entitled to decide the matter. He preferred,
with characteristic modesty, to withhold the expression of any wish
on that point, till it should be ascertained from Europe whether
he was the first discoverer of the satellite. The next steamer
brought the intelligence of Mr. Lassell’s discovery, with a priority of
two days on the part of the Messrs. Bond. It also appeared that
Mr. Lassell had proposed to call the new satellite ‘“ Hyperion.”
As this name is recommended by the consideration above adverted

OF AN EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN. 289

to, and Mr. Bond has expressed a decided preference for it, your
committee strongly recommend it as the name of the new satellite.

The committee are happy to have it in their power to state to
the Academy, that Mr. Bond is preparing a memoir, to be submitted
to the Academy at a future day, containing in full the result of the
observations of Saturn, his rings, and satellites, made at the Ob-
servatory in Cambridge during the past year.

Your committee were further instructed to inquire into the prac-
ticability of adopting an appropriate and convenient notation for
the satellites of Saturn ; the want of which is sensibly felt in all
discussions of the theory of the Saturnian system. The commit-
tee have given some consideration to this subject, but are not pre-
pared to submit any report upon it to the Academy. It is the
intention of one of the members of the committee, (Professor
Peirce,) to engage ina full investigation of the satellites of Saturn,
in connection with which this point will receive due consideration.

All which is respectfully submitted.

For the Committee,
EDWARD EVERETT, Chairman.

Cambridge, 8th November, 1848.

Nore. — The following is the letter of Mr. Bond, referred to on
page 275.
‘* Observatory, Cambridge, September 25th, 1848.

“ Dear Sir, —On the evening of the 16th of this month, a
small star was noticed, situated nearly in the plane of Saturn’s ring,
and between the satellites Titan and Iapetus. It was regarded at
the time as accidental. It was, however, recorded, with an esti-

mated position in regard to Saturn.

290 REPORT ON THE EIGHTH SATELLITE OF SATURN.

“The next night favorable for observation was the 18th, and
while comparing the relative brightness of the satellites, the same
object, similarly situated in regard to the planet, was again noticed,
and its position more carefully laid down. But still, at the time,
we scarcely suspected its real nature.

“From accurate measurement on the evening of the 19th, the
star being found to partake of the retrograde motion of Saturn,
that portion of the heavens towards which the planet was approach-
ing was carefully examined, and every star near its path for the two
following nights laid down on a diagram, and micrometric measures
of position and distance with objects in the neighbourhood were
taken.

«The evening of the 20th was cloudy. On the 21st, the new
satellite was found to have approached the primary, and it moved
sensibly among the stars while under observation. Similar observa-
tions were repeated on the nights of the 22d and 23d. Its orbit is
exterior to that of Titan. It is less bright than either of the two
inner satellites discovered by Sir William Herschel.

“ Respectfully,
[Signed, ] «W. C. BOND.

‘¢ PRESIDENT EVERETT.”

Tue foregoing report was read at the Quarterly Meeting of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, held this day in Boston,
and ordered to be printed as an Appendix to the forthcoming vol-

ume of the Memoirs.

A. A. GOULD, Recording Secretary.
Boston, 8th November, 1848.

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