¢ ¢ Ss A a d f $
gram of the | SYVSLE
> DOr nehing SVS c c
) ST] mina | t yf a «
a ({f oO € I S
' g ne il li
. ti)
vc. A. BARBER 43
will throw some light on the stage of development of each group from its
supposed wild ancestor.
The differences in form and size between the branches of different orders
in the same plant have been carefully studied. Each cane has been measured
as to the length of the basal, branching portion before it has assumed its full
thickness, the thickness at two feet from the base, the average length of the
joints in these two feet, the presence of curvature and runners, and so on.
In all of these characters we find, as might have been expected, that there is a
tardier development in the first shoot, and that this development increases in
rapidity as the branches of the higher orders are reached. The general trend
is for the branches of higher orders to be thicker, to have longer joints, and to
show greater curvature. The main shoot has a longer basal, preparatory
portion than its branches, but, when we pass to the other orders, the presence of
basal curvatures, needed to place them in a position for upright growth, again
increases the region of short joints at the base, for it is the general rule that a
branch does not assume its full form until it is in a position to grow onward
unimpeded. These details are all arranged in tabular form for the variety or
group in the body of the Memoir (ef. Part III, Sections 4-6). In Memoir III,
an example was given showing some of these characters, which was illustra-
ted by plates. Here I add a more striking instance, namely, that of an ordinary
plant of Saccharum arundinaceum (Pls. I and II), a species -marked by its
upright habit and symmetrical development, just as Saccharum spontaneum
is by its intricate spreading growth. The diagram and detailed table of
measurements are added, to give some idea of the character of the work done
in each dissection undertaken. For further results, the reader is referred to
the body of the work, as it is impossible adequately to summarize them
without undue repetition.
The characters of the branches of different orders are seen to be so definite
that, when a field is cut, we can without difficulty separate the canes at the
mill into early and late. There is a good deal of similarity sometimes between
the as and bs, especially when the latter become facultative as, but the change
from bs to cs and ds is sufficiently striking to render their distinction generally
very easy. This opens up a new line of work, in that it becomes possible
to analyse these branches separately and to settle the question of their relative
richness of juice and other qualities at the mill. Most of the work has, it is
true, been conducted with Indian canes, and in one particular locality, but it
seems unlikely that the thick canes will not fall into line, considering the general
similarity of their branching system to that of Indian ones.
44 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
In the laborious work of dissection I desire to acknowledge my indebted
ness to various members of my staff. At first all the dissections were done by
myself, but I soon found that L was unable to cope with it, and interested
my Assistant, M. R. Ry. T. 8. Venkataraman, in the work and, later on, my
second Botanical Assistant, M. R. Ry. U. Vittal Rao. With their help, I
then trained two fieldmen, and the great mass of the later dissections were
done by the latter under my personal supervision. In the first year, Fieldman
G. V. James and, in the second, K. Rangaswami Pillai were engaged for months
in the work, and I am greatly indebted to these officers for their care and
intelligence. The selection in the field was entrusted to Fieldman R. Thomas,
who had charge of rough cleaning and sending to the laboratory. The prepara-
tion of diagrams was mostly done by myself but, towards the end, here also I
was able to leave it to Rangaswami Pillai. Several months were devoted
to the work each year and, in 1917-18, it was found necessary to place three
workers under the latter officer, who developed extraordinary neatness in his
preparations. He was in entire charge of the work done on Red Mauritius
canes at Nellikuppam. The shoot counting was under the direction of M. R.
Ry. Venkataraman and chiefly done by R. Thomas and Plant Collector Abdul
Sathar.
Measurements of Saccharum arundinaceum IL 2, 1917-18.
(Extracted from the office files.)
Nore. The development is fair, but not so mathematically arranged
asin I 1.
Buds long, flat, hairy, scale like and not like the shooting buds of other
varieties.
Formula. Canes at harvest : a + 6b + llc +6d + 4e.
Length of joints in the first 2' and thickness at 2' from the base. The first
figure before the + is the length of the basal, preparatory portion of the cane,
and consists of many short joints. (c, meaning curve, is inserted after the
curve has finished.)
Av. length Av. thickness
of joint in mm.
a o#, 1,44 + 14, 12, 14, 2, 2, 24, 24, 23, 3 a 2:0” 154
bt 2-+ Ih, 24, 24, 34, 32, 3%, 37, 32... “a ple 174
b? O44 14, 23, 3, 34, 33, 4, 4 i 3:1’ ee
b® 2h + 13, 23,73, 3}, 33, 3h, 3h 44 2 3-0” 181
pe 1s 1, 24,28, 2, Sh, 8,38, bby 8 z 2-9” 174
b> 3h + 1%, 2, 24, 2h, 3, 37, 3, 3 Bye of 2:67 179
C. A. BARBER 45
Av. length Av. thickness
of joint in mm,
b& 2h -+ 2k, 3, 34, 33, 3h, 3, 34 oes oe tle 196
c+ 4+ 2 (curving round under b'), 64,7,74 ... 5°8” 24?
c* 12 + 43 (straight from upper side of b'), 6, 7, 84 6°35" 192
c® 2h + 34, 44, 64, 54 aa nue ee 4:9” 208
ct 24 + 21, sl. c 53, 54, 64, 63 ox on 54” 226
ce 2-+ 14, sl. c 6}, 5%, 64, 52 Ses ae (ey? 222
c® 3-+ 58, 8, 8t under ES es fs feo" (207)
c’ 34 curve + 3, 4, 54, 64, 64 ee ae 5:0’ 180
eS 2sl. c+ 2, 5, 54,42 .... 5) ae 5°)” 206
c? 24s]. c+ 33, 4, 44, 44, 42 a “A 47 196
c19 23 + 1h, Ys, 23, sl. c 3}, 5, 44, 5% ... ois 36 202
c11 3 + 43, 6, 53, 54 3 sof Ane apey 221
di 3}v.sl.c +3, 7, 8h, 8} ce she 6'8” 232
d? 23+ 44,7, 84,8 xe oe - 6:9” 247
a 21 -+ 3h, 5, 6}, 62 ee oA ae Bese 255
d+ 2-+ 24, sl. c 33, 4, 59, 6} x ee 44’ 235
a> 2e Bl. 5/6; 6; 74 ¥ i a 6Orl’ 221
a& 3-+ 44, 68, 64, 72 os & 6°3” 249
e' 43 (curving under ec”) + 33, 6}, 8, St a 675” 223
e? 3isl.c + 5}, 7}, 7,72 ... a te, 6:7” 232
e® 3} curve + 5}, 73, 7, 64 sas tes 6:5” 246
e* 2-+ 14, curve 53, 7, 74 ... ah 506 ioe 232
Summary of measurements of Saccharum arundinaceum IL 2.
Formula of canes at harvest, a + 6b+ llc + 6d + 4e.
Shoots, 2c + de + 3f. Burst buds, lc + 3d + 2e + 9f. Deaths, le+ le.
Average length of basal part, a* 3:7", b 2-4", ¢ 2-7", d 2:7", 6 3-2”.
Average length of joints in first 2’, a 2:0”, b 3:0", c 5:3”, d 6-0”, e 6-2”.
Average thickness at 2’ (mm.), a 154, 6 179, c¢ 209, d 240, e 233.
Curving is absent in a@ and 5, slight in ¢ and d, moderately pronounced in
e. There are no runners or injuries.
* The short-jointed, basal part is unusually long in a@ and consists of two sections,
3i” + 43” long, separated by one 1” joint. The former figure only is taken here.
PART I. MORPHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
(1) EARLY STAGES Of SEEDLINGS AND SPROUTED CUTTINGS.
Before proceeding to the description of branching in the sugarcane, it
will be advisable to get some idea as to the various stages by which the plant,
as we see it, is built up. For this purpose, I have put together observations
and drawings, which have been made at different times during the past five
years, on the germination of the cane seed and the sprouting of the sets, as
these will form a useful basis for our study.
The seed of the sugarcane is extremely minute, the average length being
1:5 mm. and its breadth one-third of that amount. Strictly speaking, it is not
merely a seed, but a fruit or caryopsis, for, as in all grasses, there is only one
seed in the ovary, and its walls are fused with those of the fruit to an indistin-
cuishable mass. The embryonic plant lies obliquely across one end of the seed,
the rest being taken up by a mass of starch-bearing cells, the endosperm, a
reserve of food for the early stages of growth. On comparing the relative
sizes of germ and endosperm, the sugarcane appears to be poorly equipped
with the latter, as, before the young plant protrudes from the seed-coats, it
occupies in the vertical section nearly half of the space available. Considering
the small size of the seed itself, there is thus very little food laid by for the
initial stages of growth before it becomes independent ; the cane seedling is
excessively small and its growth is not nearly so rapid as the cultivated grains
and, indeed, as the grass weeds which infest the seedling pans. The sugarcane
in fact reminds us of the proverbial “ mustard seed”’ in the smallness ot its
seed and the comparatively enormous size of the full grown plant. As a
natural result of this, the seed of the sugarcane cannot be kept for long, although
our series of observations, carried on for some years, show that its vitality is
ereater than previously supposed, and is not the same in all varieties (Mem.
II, p. 127).
The general course of development may be gathered from the accompany-
ing figures, firstly, of microtome sections through resting and germinating seeds
(Pl. IT1), and, secondly, of drawings made from outside (Pls. IV, V and VI).
PLATE Ill.
Madras Seedling No. 6.
Microtome sections through resting and germinating seeds of sugarcane.
aeearae
vs A ae ee
7 Oy |
Han cos
Note
PLATE IV.
7)
a3
Germinating seedlings of Kassoer, figs. 1-7, four days old; figs. 8-13, eight
days old: Louisiana Purple, fig. 14, six days old: Madras
Seedling No. 2, figs. 15 and 16, thirteen days old.
PLATE, V:
Young cane seedlings. Figs. 1-4, Karun, from one inch to one foot in heigt.
ig. 5, germinating grass seedling. Fig. 6, young barley plant
(copied from Percival’s Agricultural Botany ).
C. A. BARBER AT
There is little in these Plates which calls for special attention, as the general
course agrees with that in grasses and has been sufficiently described in text
books. Inthe cases of Karun seedlings which have been examined (PI. V.), there
is an elongation of the plumule axis below the first leaf, similar to that in the
wheat, presumably designed to place the young plant clear of its seed-coats and
near to the surface of the ground for the purpose of tillering, and I have repro-
duced a drawing from Percival’s Agricultural Botany to make this clearer.
But, in the Karun seedlings, a thickish root is given off from this elongated part
of the stem, which I have not seen figured elsewhere. The purpose of this early
root formation appears to be obvious enough, namely, to reinforce at the earliest
possible moment the small amount of available stored material at the disposal
of the young plant. The radicle with its first root has, as usual, a merely
temporary existence, or lingers for some time as a minute fibre which can have
little effect in aiding the plant in its growth. After this preliminary arrange-
ment of the parts of the seedling has been concluded, the plumule develops
its leaves in rapid succession and, near their bases, a series of thick adventitious
roots are soon produced ; but the seed-coats, with the plug-like sucker, the
elongated plumule axis and its first adventitious root, remain attached to the
plant for a considerable time, as they have been detected in a Karun seedling
already five inches above ground. Different stagesin this development are
given on Plates IV, V and VI.
The leaves are formed in one plane, alternately on either side of the stem,
and the whole young plant may thus be pressed flat with all its parts spread
out. Ata very early stage of development, a bud is formed in the axil of each
leaf, so that the branches, as well as the leaves, all arise in the same plane.
The formation of successive leaves, one at a time, has the effect of dividing
the stem into a series of segments, each provided with one leaf and one bud.
These segments are usually termed joints, and it is the practice to regard the
joint as bearing its leaf and bud at its lower end, being thus terminated above
and, below by a leaf, and, when this has withered and fallen, by the sharp ridge
or leaf scar which completely surrounds the stem. The region where the
joints are separated is termed the node or knot, as it is usually more or less
swollen, and the joint as defined above thus becomes the internode. An
appropriate arrangement of the fibrovascular bundles within the stem has
meantime taken place, and this can be very well seen in longitudinal sections ;
namely, while the bundles run parallel with the length of the stem in the
internode, they form an intricate, wefted mass at the node, and branches are
given off to the leaves and roots at this point. This arrangement of the bundles
takes place very early in the development, and it is thus easier to demonstrate
48 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
the limits of the first formed joints by viewing them in a longitudinal
section than from the outside (PI. VIII, fig. 1c). The region of root formation
is at the base of each joint, above the origin of the leaf, and consists of a narrow
ring of the surface where the nascent roots may be seen as two or three rows of
dots ; this is termed the root zone. In parts of the stem beneath, the level
of the ground these root primordia quickly grow out and, perferating the leaf
bases, form a mass of roots which, with their branchings and root hairs, leave
no particle of soil untapped. ‘The first formed jomts are extremely short,
being in the form of narrow superposed, discs, and the leaves borne by them are
therefore very close together. The joints are, moreover, extremely thin at
first, but increase in thickness upwards, the successive leaves and roots
providing material for their expansion, so that, as in many Moncleotyedons, a
longitudinal section of the stem at the base shows its form to be that of an
inverted cone (PI. VI, fig. 1d). The leaves, growing much more rapidly than
the stem, increase in width at the base and encircle a larger portion of the
circumference of the stem until their edges overlap. The further development
of the plant proceeds on strictly similar lines. The main points to be held in
view are the upward increase in thickness of the stem, the protrusion of the
buds from the leaf axils, the increasing number and thickness of the roots
developed on successive joints, the continual lengthening and widening of
the leaves, so as not only to completely encircle the stem, but also to enclose
the younger parts in a set of enveloping sheaths, and, later on, the gradual
lengthening of successive joints, so that the growing point is raised above the
surface of the ground. Immediately this occurs, the stimulus of moisture and
darkness being removed, the formation of roots falls into abeyance, but the
root eyes can be detected in the root zone from the outside throughout the length
of the plant. The leaf, at first purely protective and consisting of leaf base or
leaf sheath, on emerging to the heht, soon develops a small green tip, the lea!
blade or lamina, and this part rapidly increases in relative size until it forms
the bulk of the leaf. But this leaf development is much more rapid than that
of the stem, so that, when the growing point of the stem at length reaches
the surface, the leaves have already reached a very respectable size (PI. V).
The largest seedling (fig. 4) has a leaf already a foot in length, whereas
the stem is as yet only one-third of an inch long.
The cane seedling four or five months old, viewed from above ground,
usually shows a tall central shoot surrounded. at its base by a number of smaller
shoots emerging from the soil near it. These are the developed buds of the
lower leaf axils. As the first joints of the stem are very close together, and
each has its lateral branch, these shoots, being pushed out of their original plane
hd Date
Cc. A. BARBER 49
from lack of room, appear all together as an irregular circle round the main
shoot, but careful dissection shows that they all arise from different axils on
alternate sides of the plant (Pl. VI). The growth of successive buds, how-
ever, varies a good deal, and their size at this stage bears no sort of relation
to the time at which they were formed at the apex of the stem. Some buds
remain quite small during the life of the plant, whereas others grow so rapidly
that they soon overtake or even exceed the main shoot in length.
The branches pass through exactly the same stages as the parent stem,
only differing from it in that they have a better start and take less time to
develop into leafy shoots. They are thin at the place of origin, bear closely
packed leaves on the short congested joints, have a bud in the axil of each leaf,
and, as the leaves increase in length and expand their blades, the stems increase
in thickness, the successive joints become longer and the shoots as a whole
emerge from the ground. As in the main shoot, the leaves at first grow much
faster than the stem and, for a long time, the actual growing points of the stems
remain below the ground, the height of the plant being judged by the length
of the expanded leaves. This is readily explained by the fact that the growth
of each shoot is largely dependent on the feeding power of its own leaves and,
until these are fairly large, no real progress can be made, hence their early
protrusion and proportionately rapid early growth. The relative size of the
main shoot and its branches, and the number of the latter vary much in the
same batch of seedlings, all stages being observable between one strong cane,
with or without a few small shoots at its base, and a bunch of shoots resembling
a tuft of grass, in which it is difficult to distinguish between the main stem
and its branches (cf. Pls. XVI and XXIV of Memoir II, for illustrations
of this). The reason for this is not clear, for seedlings thus differing in their
early stages are often not distinguishable in their degree of branching later on.
At a somewhat later stage, the lateral shoots, each as fully provided with
buds as the parent stem, may also branch, giving rise to branches of the second
degree, and this process may continue to several further degrees, this depending
to a large extent on the parentage of the seedlings. Such shooting of the
buds on lateral branches is not, however, usual until the plant has reached a
further stage of development, unless, indeed, one of the branches receives
an accidental injury low down, when its place is often taken by one of its
uppermost buds. The chief points to bear in mind, concerning the branching
of cane seedlings, are that every joint has its leaf and, protected by it, a bud,
that both joint and bud have the power of forming independent roots if the
necessity should arise, and that any of these buds may remain quiescent or
50 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
dormant throughout its life, or may shoot out at once or at a later stage in the
erowth of the plant as a whole. There is thus ample provision at hand for all
the needs of the plant, whatever circumstances may arise. However severe
the treatment above ground, there is a reserve of branches ready to be develop-
ed below, and, if one of the branches is either accidentally or purposely cut
off, its place is taken by the emergence of one of its buds ; and, if such a cut
branch is placed in the ground, it is capable of sending out its roots under the
stimulus of moisture and darkness, protruding its buds and developing into
an independent plant.
Advantage has been taken of these facts in the planting of the sugarcane
in the field. Cultivated sugarcane is propagated from cut pieces of the stem
and is always likely to be. Seedlings, although undoubtedly a much cheaper
form of reproduction, do not inherit the good qualities of their parents uniform-
ly, and many of them, even of the best parentage, are quite worthless from the
sugar producing point of view. Although extremely easily reared in many
cases, they require more individual attention than is justified under crop
conditions, and they take longer to mature. While in South India, canes
grown from cuttings take, on the average, twelve months to mature, seedlings
only become full grown when they are about eighteen months old. Besides
this, there are many good kinds which do not produce seed at all, either because
of infertility or the total absence of flowering. In vegetative reproduction
the good qualities of the variety are rigidly handed down from generation to
generation, although there appears to be a gradual diminution in vigour as
the years pass.
The vegetative method of reproduction is rendered easy, as explained
above, in that each joint is furnished with its bud and a number of root primor-
dia, and both of these require little stimulus to grow out. The condition of
the bud may be compared with that of the germ in the seed, in that it is placed
in immediate connection with a mass of readily assimilable nutriment in the
joint to which it belongs. It is, however, much more fully developed than the
germ, and it takes little time, under suitable conditions of moisture and
warmth, for it to produce a mass of roots and leaves. The development of
this bud need not detain us here. It is practically identical with that of the
shoots described above, being merely a branch of the plant of a higher order.
A series of stages are shown in Plates VII and VIII.
In planting, the whole cane is sometimes laid in a furrow, lightly covered
with earth and watered ; in many places, only the upper, immature parts
of the cane are used and these, called “ tops,” are placed slanting in the ground ;
PLATE VI.
Cane seedlings about four months old. Fig. 1, Poovan seedling dissected (113 days old).
Fig. 2, Seedling of Saccharum spontaneum (133 days old ).
sentacns
Sie
oe ors
AOX a
er
PLATE VII.
EPS SEG ee OO wen able SOMp ig” ale]
‘G pue F SSIf “plo Shep JO ‘snnlunvjAy pay ‘C “s1y ‘plo sep G7 ‘UbWI]IN *¢ “DI.
‘yooys Ay}eay Pe BUIUIO] pue sp4semdn SUIAIND jas a4} yyBousq pnqdsurmous ‘WNIIDUIPUMD WNITYIIEG ‘T° | ‘syueld jos Buljnosde
|
|
iy a \} |
gg wo ///
r
}
PLATE Vill.
|
‘Mies iY
yi ao
all NN uf — ee wis f ihe =
Quai pet ol, MU Se
LT eM oon Tee A i fe en
\\ ) She =a eee AN TT at = 3
st or I a i a
SS a eS ==
a itr / ~=
Dissections of sprouting set plants. Fig. 1, Gillman, one month old.
Fig. 2, Red Mauritius, two months old.
c. A. BARBER 51
but in India, as a rule, the whole cane is cut up into pieces called “ sets,” each
of which has a definite number of joints with healthy living buds. Almost
all canes germinate readily from sets, and, in India, they seem to produce
healthier and stronger plants than the tops; but cases have been met with,
as in Seema of the Godavari District, where sets are generally infertile and
tops have to be used.!_ The sets in South India usually contain three joints ;
germination takes place more rapidly than in North India, and, if the field has
not sprouted within a week or ten days, it is customary to plant again. In
North India the climate at the time of planting is very cold and, not infrequent-
ly, a month elapses before the shoots appear above ground.
When, ina warm climate, the sets are placed horizontally in shallow trenches
and watered, they at once send forth roots and the buds burst. Although,
possibly, in ideal planting, it would be best to place the sets so that the bud
plane lies parallel with the surface, this is not generally attended to nor essen-
tial, for the shoots are negatively geotropic and quickly find their way round
the set to the surface of the ground.2 The root eyes protrude and form a
circlet of fibres round the set, those beneath growing much more strongly
than those facing upwards, and these roots supply the stream of water which
washes the nutriment stored in the joint to the developing bud. But very
soon the lower joints of the new shoot form their own roots—thicker, whiter,
and longer. When this occurs the shoot forms a new, independent plant,
and the decayed joint from which it has arisen is left behind much as the cast
off seed-coats in a germinated seedling. Connection with the plants developed
from the other buds in the same set is thus entirely severed. Lateral branching
takes place very early in the young plant, and these branches also produce
their own roots, and, in a couple of months, the set plant has attained to the
size and form of the six months seedling, and is growing much more rapidly.
The canes of different ages in the same clump are sometimes very different.
This has been already noted in the remarks on early and late canes. But
this difference is much greater in seedlings than in canes grown from cuttings.
1 Barber, C. A. Scientific Report of the Samalkota Agricultural Station for the year
ending 3lst March, 1906. Bulletin of Madras Agricultural Department, 1907, p. 24.
2 Since writing the above our attention has been drawn to the following. Kulkarni, in
Dharwar, has made a series of experiments in planting sets, each with one bud only, and the
set placed so that this bud is upward. He only allowed the mother shoot. to grow and its
branches were carefully removed. He claims that, by this means, sprouting takes place one
week earlier, all the canes ripen together and a larger number are obtained per acre.
(Kulkarni, M. L. Experiments in planting sugarcane sets with single eye-buds, ete. Agr. Jnl.,
Ind., Special Science Congress Number, 1918.)
See also p. 102 and Plate VII, fig. 1 of this Memoir,
59 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
It is true that allthe canes seem to be similar in some cases, but in others it
is not unusual to note thin, vellow, sprawling canes developed first, these
succeeded by reddish tinged slanting canes, while the latest formed are thick
and dark purple ; and all sorts of such colour variations may be detected,
as well as variations in thickness and erectness. We do not as yet know
whether this variability is handed on to the next generation, when the
seedling is grown vegetatively, or whether only one of the forms of cane noted
is characteristic of the future crop cane, but experiments are being conducted
to determine this point, which is of considerab'e moment for the proper
selection of seedlings.
(2) PERIODS OF GROWTH.
The great bulk of the Order Graminee consists of grasses, and it will be
of interest briefly to consider their mode of branching, in order to see in what
respects the sugarcane resemb‘es them—for the sugarcane has often been
described as a gigantic grass. There are two well marked phases of develop-
ment in grasses, the first, in which the plant remains low and adds shoot to
shoot until a dense bush is formed, in which the shoots are often inextricably
intertwined and point in all directions; and, the second, in which the ends ot
certain of these branches become erect, rapidly increase in length and proceed
to form the spikes of flowers and ears of grain. In the first stage the energy
of the plant is devoted to multiplying its number of shoots, chiefly by the
branching of the underground portion; in the second, branching ceases
and the energy is diverted to pushing the branches high into the air and the
formation of flowers where they can be readily fertilized, and seed where it
can be scattered abroad.
In the sugarcane this division into periods of growth is to a certain extent
hidden, in that, both in seedlings and set plants, each shoot, as soon as it is
formed, pushes into the air and grows steadily upwards to form the aerial stem
or cane. Flowering is a matter of secondary importance, and has largely
fallen into desuetude from long propagation by the vegetative method. This
is especially so in North India, where flowering is rare, but, in the Peninsula,
as in most tropical countries, flowering takes place regularly towards the close
of the growing season, and the fie'ds then present a mass of feathery plumes
over the whole area (cf. Pl. V, Memoir IT). It may be noted, in passing, that
the time of flowering does not coinc:de with that of reaping the crop, as these
two periods are induced by very different climatic conditions. Flowering
occurs at Coimbatore during the period of greatest rainfall in October and
Cc. A. BARBER 53
November, and indeed seems to be greatly influenced in its profusion by the
amount of rain falling during the year, while the cane is harvested when the
juice is richest, and this occurs in February and March, after the cold season,
when the air becomes hot and dry.
The formation of new shoots at the base of the cane plant proceeds during
the whole of the growing period, but there is no doubt that it is much more
active at the commencement of growth, for the rapid formation of canes is not
really taken up until the plant is six or seven months o!d (cf p. 108). And this
separation of the branching and lengthening periods of the plant isin certain
cases emphasized by local conditions of growth. In South India the sets are
planted at the commencement of the hot, dry weather, when the harvest is
reaped, sugarcane being everywhere anirrigated crop. In the Godavari Dis-
trict, the young plants, after growing for a few months, receive a severe check,
in that the irrigation channels are closed every year in May for cleaning, and,
for some six weeks, irrigation is in abeyance, and the plants depend on such
scanty showers as fall at this time. During this period, the branching of the
underground parts goes on steadily, although little is added to the height of
the plants. In fact the plants often appear to grow shorter, in that they are
attacked by shoot-borer and many of the shoots are destroyed. But the ryot
views the matter with equanimity, because he knows that this pest merely
causes the lateral branches to be developed in larger numbers, and he asserts
that he gets a better stand of canes when there is an attack of moth borer.
It is probably of no great disadvantage for the shoots to be checked when there
is no water to continue their growth ; but cases are also met with where whole
fields are destroyed by the pest, or ugly gaps are seen in the plantations. The
branching period is lengthened and made more pronounced in this case which,
in some respects, is analogous to winter-sown wheat in Europe.
A similar lengthening of the branching period is to be noted as the result
of certain diseases of the cane. In the neighbourhood of Coimbatore, where
many of the wells contain brackish water, sometimes the plants, especially
‘ratoons, never reach the cane-forming period, but continue throughout the
season to develop new shoots with narrow leaves, which do not grow in length
but branch again, until, at crop time, nothing is seen but a number of low,
dense, grassy bushes. A case was met with by the author on new, rough
land, near the emergence of the Amravati river from the hills, where, in a
couple of acres fourteen months old, only a few canes were observable, and the
field closely resembled one of Guinea grass. It is needless to point out the
similarity of this growth to that induced by sereh in Java and certain diseased
54 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
clumps observed years ago in Barbados, where all the buds and roots of the
short canes shoot out, till a dense mass of grassy leaves is produced in place
of a few tall healthy canes. (For an example of this kind of growth, see
PLS aes 1.)
Another feature in the branching of grasses may be noted here. It is
usual to divide them, according to their mode of growth, into tufted grasses and
sod-formers. In the latter, underground branching assumes an intense form,
each bud piercing the base of its enveloping leaf sheath, and again branching
itself, until, with the masses of roots formed at the bases of the joints, the soil
is permeated so thoroughly that it can be cut into coherent slabs, as in lawns
and permanent pastures. The individual plants are closely interlocked and it
becomes very difficult to dissect them out without injury. The main feature
in these grasses is the great development of underground runners or stolons,
the ends of which emerge and bear tufts of leaves for the purpose of nutrition,
while their place is taken by buds near the upward bend, and the underground
part is thus formed of a mass of sympodia. Flowering takes place at a certain
season, but this does not interfere with the underground branching. In the
tufted grasses, on the other hand, after a limited period of underground
branching, a number of erect shoots are formed which in due course proceed to
the formation of flowers and grain. The buds in this case do not pierce the
bases of the enclosing leaf sheaths, but grow up inside them, emerging where
the sheath joins the lamina, only splitting the leaf sheath by their increase in
thickness. The individual plants are easily separable, do not interlock, and
each forms a more or less distinct tuft (cf. Percival, Agricultural Botany).
It is at once obvious that the sugarcane belongs to the latter class, as
do the usual cultivated cereals. This also applies to the wild Saccharums,
Munja, Narenga, arundinaceum and spontaneum, grown on the Cane-breeding
Station. The two former are typical tufted grasses, no cane is formed and the
flowering shoots are ephemeral structures, drying up after the seed is ripened.
In Saccharum arundinaceum and Saccharum spontaneum, solid canes are formed.
Saccharum spontaneum, although undoubtedly a tufted form, produces long
underground shoots which emerge at intervals and thus spread the plant over a
considerable area. It is difficult in growing this species, either from seed or
from sets, to confine it to its bed, and the neighbouring paths are soon invaded.
We may thus imagine an approach to the sod-former here. The nearest
approach to sod-formation in Saccharum spontaneum which we have observed
is on the banks of the Irrawaddy, where sandbanks are protected from being
washed away by an interlacing mass of roots and runners, which forms a
Cc. A. BARBER 55
solid cap a foot in thickness. The formation of underground runners is
occasionally met with in cultivated canes. It is commonest in the Saretha
group, the most primitive class of indigenous Indian canes, and, apparently,
the nearest in descent to the wild Saccharum spontaneum. In other classes,
runners are usually only formed where space is needed for the free development
of a large number of cane stems. Thus we meet with them most frequently
in the Mungo and Pansahi groups which are characterized by much branching.
In these cases long, thin joints are intercalated between the normal short
thick ones of commencing shoots, and in the dissections these are always
noted (cf. also pp. 104 and 112).
(3) THE BRANCHING OF THE CANE ABOVE GROUND AND ABNORMAL
BUD FORMATION.
Branching of the cane plant below ground is a well marked feature in all
varieties. Above ground, in the light and in the absence of the stimulus of
moisture, the buds usually remain inactive during the period of maximum
growth. But the shooting of aerial buds is by no means uncommon, and is of
some disadvantage from the crop point of view. It has been noted that some
varieties, such, for instance, as B. 208, shoot more readily than others ; but
there are a number of circumstances which render all canes more or less liable
to this defect. Any injury to a growing cane will tend to cause the buds below
the injured place to shoot out because of the damming up of the current of
water and nutrition. This is often seen where stem borer is at work. The
joints immediately above the attack are shorter and thinner than the average,
and large shoots are often observed coming from the nodes below the borer
hole. Canes which have lodged or fallen will frequently develop a mass of
shoots all along the prostrate part ; over-ripe canes and such as have flowered
usually form a mass of shoots in the upper part if allowed to continue growing ;
lastly, the local climate has a very distinct influence in the matter. Thus,
when the same canes are grown at Pusa and at Coimbatore, they behave very
differently as regards shooting. At Coimbatore, which is in a semi-arid region,
shooting of the canes is very rare ; while at Pusa, with its abundant supply of
subsoil water, approaching the surface in the rains, a great mass of green is
sometimes seen all the way up the stem, even in erect canes, long before the
reaping season. This shooting of the buds is generally correlated with a
more or less active protrusion of the root eyes. In places where there is a
marked difference in the humidity and temperature at different periods of
the cane’s growth, this difference is often permanently marked on the different
joints of the cane stem. Thus, at Rajshahi in North Bengal, it is easy at
)
56 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
crop time, to determine what joints had been formed during the hot, dry
summer months, and at what stages the rains attained their maximum and
ceased to flood the ground. The rooting and shooting of the canes in damp
climates is often avoided by trashing, or pulling off the adherent but dying
leaves, and it would be worth while considering the desirability of trashing
canes in North India during the rains, in places where these defects are most
marked.
Besides the normal branching of the cane, due to the protrusion of the
ordinary buds on the joints, cases of abnormality are not infrequently met
w.th, caused by irregularity in the bud development. Here and there canes
have been met with where the joints have been altogether devoid of buds,
and Kaghze has been marked in the Coimbatore collection as especially liable
to this deformity. Here obviously no branching can take place. In others,
double or triple buds have been met with in place of the single bud, and in the
usual position. Where double buds occur, they are not infrequently the
prelude to a dichotomous splitting of the cane into two equal halves, each
then proceeding to grow normally. On passing down the stem, such double
buds are seen to be preceded by buds of abnormal width, accompanied by a
flattening of the stem (Pl. [X). Such cases have been very clearly described
by Jeswiet,! and need not be further dealt with here. Among the cases of
triple buds, one was noted as being extremely regular in its development,
and it. was preserved because of its interesting nature. After four years of
reproduction the same abnormality can be seen, showing that it is a heredit-
able character of the seedling when propagated by cuttings.
But the most striking and frequent case of abnormal bud formation is
when they are irregularly produced in different parts of the stem without any
regard to the usual position. They are often met with in the root zone, for
here there is, more or less permanently, meristematic tissue, but they may
also appear at almost any part of the joint. They may arise direct from the
outer layers of the stem, but more usually they are preceded by the formation
of an irregular mass of callus, over which the buds are distributed unevenly,
varying from mere pin points of tissue to fully formed buds with scaly leaves.
Curious monstrous forms are thus produced, some of which have been selected
for illustration on Plates X and XI. They would appear to be commoner
on seedlings of certain parentage, although they have been found sporadically
1 Jeswiet, J. Beschrijving der soorten van het suikerriet. Erste bijlage, Morphologie
van het suikerriet, Archief v. d. Suikerind. in Ned. Ind., Maart, 1916,
ay
SS
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ITAVAITXA
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2009 alt Yo pinvtdoward awe albus © goldivoG
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PUATE IX
56 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
erop time, to determine what joints had been formed during the hot, dry
summer months, and at what stages the rains attained their maximum and
ceased to flood the ground. The rooting and shooting of the canes in damp
climates is often avoided by trashing, or pulling off the adherent but dying
leaves, and it would be worth while considering the desirability of trashing
canes in North India during the rains, in places Ge these defects are most
marked. VN 7
Besides the normal branching of the cane, due to the protrusion of the
ordinary buds on the joints. ’cases of abnormality are not infrequently met
with, caused by irregularity in the bud development. Here and there canes
have been met with where the joints have been altogether devoid of buds,
and Kaghze has bee nBarbralsarion 69 PilameiXcollection as especially liable
to this deformity. Here obviously no branching can take place. In others,
double or triple Doubling wan and bingo MHiFsincle bud, and in the
rig! Doubt he 1 Bs b case there OUCRE, | hey are. are, not, infrgquently the
the “cane into t¥0 Fy uaiatie each
Egpuc to of ling, x pin LEN of
2 2 “ine dy us Op age the SNe ing, sho ae “broadenin AS of the. buds, Svem, duplicat AM bie
buds are iy ~ be preceded by buds of abnormal width, accompanied by a
aftonth St & mis dicho PPPOE RRNR A. drawing bas been made of, each)...
by Jeawi won ot ar Ease nO ser Shut PH oaths Pda, of. the _ imeabesnaet aah of
triple peas GRE Was w, by a br as Meme: Showing inci ly re lent dou in ing. dev elopment,
and Vb. was preserve 3d because of its interesting nature. After four years of
reproduction the same abnormality can be seen, showing that it is a heredit-
able character of the BO when propagated by cuttings.
But the most striking and frequent case of abnormal bud formation is
when they are irregularly produced in different parts of the stem without any
regard to the usual position. They are often met with in the root zone, for
here there is, more or less permanently, meristematic tissue, but they may
also appear at almost any part of the joint. They may arise direct from the
outer layers of the stem, but more usually they are preceded by the formation
of an irregular mass of callus, over which the buds are distributed unevenly,
varving from mere pin points of tissue to fully formed buds with scaly leaves,
Curious monstrous forms are thus produced, some of which have been selected
for iustration on Plates X and XI. They would appear to be commoner
on seedings of certain parentage, although they have been found sporadically
* Jeswiet, J. Beschrijving der soorten van het suikerriet. Erste bijlage, Morphologie
van het suikerriet. Arehtef v. d. Suikerind. in Ned. Ind. Maart, 1916,
PLATE IX
PLATE X.
*s[BAJo}UI JB Spnq Buldojaasp SI pue ‘uolsgo. sty}
woud] spsemMuMop Suipesids SI SSBUI SN]]BO B ‘asBo Quo Ul ‘ynq ‘QU0Z }O01
‘s}ooys puke spng palJoj-sni[e>)
94} 0} psuljyuoo Ayyensn SI spnq jo uonPoldyynu ey,
Jn
nN li
age
y=
PLATE XI.
‘sjooys pue
spnq
powso}
snj[eo jo sydessojoy 4
PLATE Xil.
*, Synd |, Wo1y Sulsojjns souer) ‘7 ‘BI
‘Yosag Sulpnyjout ‘SOSBOSIP SNOLeA Aq peyorye sjue}d 0} WO} Ul
Aq poesneo ‘yuejd 9UBD D¥I[-SSBIO)
ea
. oe ;
Pe Oe We).
pari itsnioe B als
bodies s & spd .ooitearsot anilss “tin
i zs
ai bas tuo oid ods 0 bas I agi ai VX; Baxi
dtrw bud evoititaevbs as sen s9tt6l odd al .olod to10d & evode & bas ¢ agit
-guiqoloveb ai atoos
to mote od? go coro! slqaie & ai etuo to 9 _SoffeTts1990 odd ewod
ExpLaNaTion or Pirate XII.
“Cuts” and holes sometimes with callus formation. There is a marked
tendency for the cuts to be formed in the groove above the bud. In many
cases there is an upward continuation of the bud, above the cut, and this
continuation is closely adpressed to the groove and fused to it for some distance
(cf. figs. 2, 7 and 8). Callus is being formed in figs. 1 and 6 above the cut, and, in
figs. 2 and 5, above a borer hole. In the latter case, an adventitious bud with
roots is developing.
Fig. 9 shows the occurrence of cuts, in a simple form, on the stem of
Saccharum spontaneum. ;
Figs. 10-15 exhibit the tendency for holes to be formed im the growth ring,
and fig. 15 shows that this is specially common on the outer sides of curved
Canes.
ee Se ee
PLATE Xiil.
i ul ae
elie
oe.
aly
C. A. BARBER aif
in almost all the plots, thus conveying the suggestion that the formation of
cane plants from seed is no longer governed by the strict rules applicable to
seed-bearing plants. In 1917-18 the Khelia plot of seed'ings was thus marked
out as containing numerous examples of this deformity. The cases thus far
mentioned do not seem to have their origin in any injury to the cane tissues,
but, in other cases, the callus results from the hole of a stem borer, the
breaking of a cane, or the curious “cuts” above the bud in the groove, to
which attention was drawn in the Journal of Heredity of February 1916. These
cuts have been found in many of our seedlings and cane varieties on the farm,
and appear not to be the result of any insect or other attack, but on differences
in tension of the superficial layers of the stem. They have been found also
in seedlings of Saccharum spontaneum in some quantity, and various cases have
been drawn at intervals during the past five years. Some of these may be seen
on Plates XII and XIII. A large number of other abnormalities have been
noted in the seedlings and varieties grown on the station, and the study of
these would undoubtedly prove of interest from the morphological point of
view.
PART II. TILLERING.
(1) IN SEEDLINGS.
The tillering or branching of the cane differs considerably according to
the variety, and, as the ultimate crop of canes produced is obviously influenced
by this character, it is of some importance. Scattered through the literature
of the sugarcane, there are to be found many countings of shoots at various
stages of growth, as well as the numbers of canes reaped at harvest, and among
the records on estates a far greater number probably exist. From these obser-
vations the tillering powers of the various canes under cultivation in different
circumstances have been fairly accurately determined. But, when we attempt
to draw conclusions from this material, we see that the subject has rarely been
treated from a scientific point of view, and in almost every case there is an
absence of the careful consideration of external factors which might be expected
to have influence. We still wait for an exhaustive treatment of the subject
with scientific safeguards. The present paper may be regarded as, in some
sort, preparatory to such work being undertaken.
It will be well, in the first place, to consider exactly what the term implies.
Tiller is an old English word allied to the telgor of the Anglo-Saxon, meaning
a plant or shoot, and akin to the Dutch telen, to breed. At present it is,
properly speaking, confined to the mode of branching characteristic of grasses.
This consists in the multiplication of shoots, in the young plants, from the
lower, short jointed portion of the stem, immediately below the surface of
the ground. As we have noted elsewhere, this branching is the main work
of the plant during its earlier period of growth. If the seed is sown too deep,
one or more elongated internodes bring it to the surface, and then the joints
become short and congested and branching commences (Pl. V, fig. 6).
Shoots are not only given off by the main stem, but its branches may in their
turn give off shoots, until a large number are produced. Branching in the
upper, aerial part of the plant is less developed, occurs at a later period of
growth and has nothing to do with tillering (cf. Percival, Agricultural Botany,
where the matter is somewhat fully dealt with).
The factors influencing the amount of tillering in any plant are both
inherent and external. Different species and varieties, as well as the seedlings
raised in batches from the same parents, differ enormously in this character ;
C. A. BARBER 59
but this difference is often cloaked by a number of surrounding circumstances,
all of which seem to be translatable into the amount of food available, and of
these, space, light, water, soil, and manure appear to be the most important.
We have followed the early stages of the sugarcane seedling somewhat
carefully in a previous section, and it is at once evident that this mode of
branching is present in it, and, therefore, that true tillering occurs in the
sugarcane. We usually judge of the vigour of the cane seedlings grown at the
Cane-breeding Station, by counting the numbers of canes and shoots at harvest
time, and we thus have a certain amount of information as to the tillering
capacity of the progeny of different parents, and the accompanying table
gives a summary of these details. While examining the figures in this table,
it will be well to note the spacing and rainfall for each year:
1911-13. Botanic Garden: plants 6’ apart, in pits measuring 3’ each way,
filled with soil and manure : 1,200 per acre : rainfall 31-23.”
1912-14. Cane-breeding Station : fields 7, 8 and 9, sandy loam, but insuffi-
ciently prepared : 6’ apart, in pits measuring 2’ each way : 1,200
per acre : rainfall 21:08". In this and the following cases the pits
or trenches filled with prepared soil.
1913-15. Fields 10 and 11, clayey loam : 5’ apart, in pits measuring 2’ each
way : 1,740 per acre : rainfall 36°49” : canes counted at 14 months.
1914-16. Fields 15 and 16 and parts of 12 and 13, clayey loam : 43’ x52’ apart,
in pits measuring 13’ each way: 1,740 per acre : rainfall 23-03”,
1915-17. Fields 17-20, clayey loam : planted in trenches 1’X1}’, the plants
4’X5’ apart : 1,921 per acre: rainfall 24:97”.
1916-18. Fields 10 and 11, clayey loam: trenches 1’ x 14’, the plants
4’ x 22’ apart: 3,760 per acre: rainfall 19°31”.
The 1911-13 plants were treated exceptionally well in their large pits
of prepared earth, and the rainfall was good: the pits were smaller for the
1912-14 seedlings and the rainfall was meagre : the 1913-15 plants had the
benefit of heavy, well distributed rain, but the rainfall for the 1914-16 plants
was again meagre : in 1915-17 there was fair rain and the plants were 1,921
to the acre; but in 1916-18 a marked drought occurred and the plants were
nearly twice as close together. Taking the size of the pits or trenches filled
with prepared earth together with the spacing, we see a continual narrowing
of the limits of good soil in successive years. The rainfall was excessive in
1911-13 and 1913-15, extremely meagre in 1912-14 and 1916-18. In 1913-15
the cane counting was done later than usual.
60
TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
Tillering of seedlings in successive years in the Cane-breeding Station.
seed-
Variations in
averages of
different lots
5
2 g2
2) | 88
Parentage Seedling | 3 | ° E
year sar llWwet oo
| ere Wane
gs | e2| 3522
Ss o-= ayaa
Aes
Thick canes 1912-14 4| 862} 145
1913-15 | 10| s46| 152
| 1914-16 4} 963| 146
| 1915-17 | 9| S521) 135
1916-18 1 50; 10:0
Rogues among 1911-13 | 3) 11) 692
thick cane seed- |
lings | :
1912-14 2 2 97:5
1913-15 | 2| 3]| 883
| 1914-16 2 17 | 50'1
|195-17 | 6] | 466
1916-18 | 7| 8| 300
Indigenous eanes.,, | 1911-13 Ll) 9s S350
1912-14 3 145 | 42°8
1914-16 3 | 108 366
1915-17 | 1| 100} 21-0
1916-18 4| 304) 185
Crosses, thick canes | 1913-15 3] 158 146
by thick
1916-18 1 132 70
Crosses, thick canes | 1913-15 3| 54] 22:0
by thin
1915-17 2 127 | 20-4
1916-18 | 9| 956] 12:8
Crosses, thick x | 1916-18 3| 441| 179
thin (J. 213), by
thin |
Crosses, thick by | 1913-15 | 1| 91] 290
Saccharum Na | |
“renga
Crosses, thin by} 1912-14 | 1 62 |} 80
Saccharum spon
taneum |
One (13 plants) 11,
the rest 13-15
One (47) 26, the
rest 13-16
One (241) 12, the
rest 15-16
One (72) 9, the rest
12-17
55-140
45-110
56-60
18-85
D444
41-44
34-40
10-15
17-19
REMARKS
‘The Karun lot (47
| plants) showed un-
usual tillering and no
explanation is record-
ed
Mauritius 55 seedlings
(72) averaged 9 canes,
Naga B (54) averaged
17
J. 247, a good tillering
variety
Poovan, Namam, Kalu-
dai Boothan
Karun 55, B. 208 140
| Karun 110, B. 208 45
| Ashy and Striped
Mauritius
Cheni alone 48
Cheni 44, suretha (with
shoots 52) 45
Cheni 35, Saretha 40,
Pansahi 34
Khelia alone 21
Pansahi |\8, Khelia 21
Vellai x J. 247, a good
tillering variety
These are general collec-
tions from Kaludai
Boothan and Chittan.
The’ register says
“probably crosses
with Naanal _ seed-
lings,” hence probably
a mixture of crosses
and selfs
J. 213 selfed and un-
bagged crosses with
thin canes: probably
a mixture of selfed
seedlings and crosses
Vellai x Saccharum
Narenga, a not very
bushy form
Saretha x Saccharum
spontaneum, both
parents very bushy
Cc. A. BARBER 61
Where comparisons are obtainable, the rainfall of 1913-15 appears to have
made itself felt, and possibly the high rate of tillering of the Karun seedlings
may have been partly influenced by it. The converse may be the case in
1916-18, a year of badly distributed and meagre rainfall. But the crop is
plentifully irrigated and the influence of rainfall on the tillering is perhaps
more apparent than real. The quantity of prepared earth and the spacing
are much more likely to affect the tillering of the canes. This is quite obvious
in the jumps from 1915-17 to 1916-18, but less so before that time. In the
thick cane seedlings, indeed, there is little difference (15-13), but, where thin
canes enter as parents, in part or whole, the decline in tillering is more marked,
as it is also in the very aberrant rogues, formed among the thick cane seedlings.
Rogues, 69, 97, 88, 56, 47, 30 : thin canes, 48, 43, 37, 21, 18: Cheni 1911-13 (48),
1912-14 (44), 1914-16 (35), and soon. Weare justified in concluding that the
thick canes have been little inconvenienced by the narrowing of their limits
in the field, owing possibly to the sparse nature of their branching; the thin
canes, however, with their greater tillering power, have become considerably
hampered in their development in the successive restrictions, in spite of the
general improvement of the land since the farm was opened.
We can also see from the table that a study of the numbers of canes
produced at crop time places in our hands a useful means of detecting whether
an attempted cross between a thick and thin cane has succeeded, and we have
become accustomed to use this character whenever in doubt on the subject
(cf. Remarks on thick and thin canes in 1915-17 in the tab'e). There is,
generally, a constant increase in the numbers of canes as we proceed from
pure blooded thick canes, through crosses between thick and thin, to such as
have more thin than thick parentage and, finally, to such as have Saccharum
spontaneum added.
(2) IN CULTIVATED CANES.
With regard to the ordinary cane varieties planted from sets, it is well
known that they differ a good deal in their amount of tillering. Thus the
indigenous Indian canes tiller much more freely than the thicker canes of the
tropics. This is the common experience of the Cane-breeding Station and,
what is more, the descendants of these two classes of cane varieties inherit
their parents’ characters in this respect. Details regarding the Indian canes
are few and far between. Practically the only comparative statement we
have come across is one regarding canes grown at Sabour in Bihar.! In
1 Wocdhouse, Basu and Taylor. The distinguishing characters of sugarcanes cultivated
at Sabour. Mem. Dep. Agri., Ind., Bot. Ser., Vol. VII, No. 2, April, 1915.
62 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
this”statement it is seen that the average number of canes per clump, in the
thin Indian varieties grown there, is 8-16, in the half-thick forms (Khelia,
Striped Bansa, Puri and Sukli) 7-8 (Dahlsunder 5:5), and in the thick, imported
varieties, 4-6. It is not possible to deduce accurate acreage numbers from the
table, because the details are not given of the space occupied by the clumps
investigated. But the plants were put in at about 6,000 to the acre, and, assum-
ing that the countings would not be taken where clumps had failed, as this would
vitiate the results because of different spacing, we get, for the thin canes,
48,000-96,000 canes per acre, for the half-thick, 42,000-48,000, and, for the
thick, 24,000—36,000. The latter figure tallies fairly well with those obtained
for the cane varieties grown in the tropics. Numerous data can be obtained
for these, and I have selected a few at haphazard from various sources.
Louisiana : Purple cane, 35,000.
Java: Cheribon, 20,000; J. 247, 31,500; J. 356, 32,000; J. 100,28,600.
Madras (Godavari delta): Namalu, 25,000; Mogali, 20,000; Kelz,
31,000; Seema, 22,000; Yerra, 37,500, ete.
In almost all of these cases we note that, the thicker the cane, the fewer
there are to the acre, and the general observation of this fact has led various
writers to suggest that, given similar conditions of soil, chmate and treatment,
practically the same weight of cane may be reaped per acre whatever the
variety may be. This principle appears to be fairly well established, provided
that the cane varieties compared belong to the same natural class. A rather
striking confirmation of this principle, that thickness and canes per acre are
negatively correlated, may be seen in the following table, the details of which
have been extracted from Memoir III, where the Saretha and Sunnabile groups
of canes are contrasted (cf. pp. 166-167 and 169). These canes were all
erown on adjacent plots under the same conditions.
el
SARETHA GROUP SUNNABILE GROUP
- , Canes per | Thickness “ Canes per | Thickness
Variety | clump | incm. Maney clump in cm.
Chin re ze 29 Kaghze ... 5 20 1°6
Saretha (green) aor 28 Bansa_... - 18 18
Khari... vat 24 Sannabile es 17 1°9
Hullu Kabbu mC 22 Naanal ... Bs 15 | 22)
Ganda Cheni (poor)... | 16 Dhor (poorly grown) 12 292
Average se 24 Average 2, 16 19
In this table the varieties of each group (all that were measured) are
arranged in order of tillering power and, in the second column, where the
63a
Tillering of Indian canes in different localities and under different treatment, 1917-18 crop.
Name of Station
Aligarh
Shahjahanpur
Partabgarh
Benares ve
Pusa
Sabour
Sindewahi
Samalkota
Cane-breeding Station at
Coimbatore
3S FA
Z a a
s o 2 8
| i
of .
Treatment Soil s ie Spacing Variety Group = : 42 REMARKS
Ee 3 | oe | #8
2 S 35 o5
O38
a | 2 ie Ia et
|
Janted in alternate Deep alluvium,| 25”| 15 | Rows 1’ apart; | Saretha Saretha 500 49,0'0 | Saretha badly smutted.
STS ploughings and 500) poe and ae oe 6’ in row. chan abe at Rear & ees
ure ery under er acre avi 0. é k anes lodged and stools
maunds of farmyard man galnantiog 90,1100-30,000 | Sunnabile |Sunnabile | 500 50,000) not distinguishable.
| Yuba Pansahi 500 51,500} Numbers therefore cal-
Mungo Mungo 500 | 100,000 a from planting
| record,
lanted oncein3 years: As the last, but) 65”| 1 | Rows 24’ apart; | Saretha Saretha 100 | = 7°50 | 112,500
Se etuapuitse and 15 EG of| finer sets 4-6" in row. | Chin— do. 10 9:00 | 135,000
castor cake | Per acre Khari _ do. 100 5°85 | 87,750
| 15,000 Maneria | Pansahi 100 5°83 | 87,450
Manga Nargori 100 5°88 | 88,200
Mungo Mungo 100 | 9°97 | 149,550
Ss sane planted once in 3 years : Deep loam, coar-| 46” 5 | Rows 1° apart;| Saretha Saretha 100 | 5:95 | 95,200) (1) had lighter soil than
DInUREIUKE and 300 Sanaa of) ser than the sets about 1’ in} Chin do. 100 8°88 | 142,080} (2); had 500 maunds of
cattle manure with 50 maunds of | last row. Pansahi(1) Pansahi 100) 711 | 113,760) cattle manure against
| castor cake Per acre do. (2) do. 100 | 544 | $7,040) 300 and fewer irriga-
| 16,000 Nargori Nargori 100 | 7:33 | 117,280) tions..
| Rheora Mungo 100-677 | 108,320
Sugarcane planted oncein 3 years: Shallow reddish | 54” 8 | Rows 1)’ apart; | Saretha Saretha 100 7-65 | 137,700
8 ploughings and 200-309 maunds| loam | sets about 8” in |
| of cattle manure | row. |
| Per acre |
15,000
Sugarcane planted once in 3years: Deep alluvium, | 43” 0 | Rows 24° apart ;| Saretha Saretha 100) = 8:13 | 180,080
6 ploughings and 6 tons of farm fine and pow- 1-2” between sets. | Naanal Sunnabile 100) 7-44 | 119,040
yard manure and 6 maunds| dery uw nder. Per acre Chynia Pansahi 100 | 622} 99,520
mustard cake | cultivation 16,000 Maneria do. 100-966 | 154,560
Yuba do 10) 9-48 | 151,680
| Mungo Mungo 100 § 22 | 131,520
Sugarcane planted once in 3-4| Shallow clayey 410” 10 | Alternate rows 2’ | Saretha Saretha 60 10:00 | 80,000
years: trenched 6” deep: 200) loam tol5 | wand 4° apart; | Khari do. 50} 925 | 74,016
maunds of cattle manure and 10 sets 2-3’ in row. Pansahi Pansahi 30 9-80 | 78,400
maunds of rape-seed cake Per acre Chyniat do. 50 9°35 | 74,800
| 8,000 Nargori Nargori 40 975 | 78,000
Baroukha oO. 50-900 | 72,000
| Mungot Mungo 50 11-28 | 89,840
| Rheora do. 60 | 12-90 | 103,200
|
No regular rotation: 6 ploughings Shallow sandy 30” | 30 | Rows 2-24’ apart; | Saretha Saretha 100 9.00 | 126,000
and 5,000-7,000 sheep folded, with loam | sets 1-1} apart, | Chin do. 100 10-21 | 142.440
30 maunds of castor cake across the rows. | Kbari do. 50 8°67 | 121,380
| Per acre Sunnabile |Sunnabile | 100 8:72 | 122,080
12,000-16,000 |
- |
Sugarveane planted once in 4 Heavy black | 48” 8 | Rows 2h’ apart;| Saretha Saretha 36 ©6640 | 86,400
years: crowbarred after paddy: alluvial clay to10) sets 3-6"in row. | Chin do. 4 8:00 | 108,000
1,640 Ib. of castor cake Per acre Khari do. 39 5°30 | 71,550
12,000-15,000 Pansahi Pansabi 41 5:50 | 74,250
Chynia do. 3h 5°70 | 76,950
Baroukha | Nargori 31 6°70 | 90,450
Mungo Mungo 40) 766 | 103,410
Canes planted once in 3 years: Light bntslight | 22” 40| Rows 3° apart;| Saretha Saretha 7 13:00 | 93,600| These numbers are ex:
8 ploughings: trenches dug 1’ ly saltish sandy to 50| sets 2° apart, | Chin do. 14 1270] 91,440] tracted from the
deep and 1’ broad: green-manur- loam across the rows. | Khari do. 7 1100) 79,200) succeeding list for the
ing, contents of weed pits and | Per acre Snnnabile | Sunnabile | 14 | 1255 | 90,360 | purpose of comparison.
1,000 1b. of ground-nut cake and | ; Naanal do. 7 970 | 69,840
about 10 tons of cattle manure | Pansahi | Pansahi 14 12°30 | 88,560
Maneria do. M4 120 | 73,440
Yuba do. 7 12:10 | 87,120
Chynia do. 7, 800) 57,600
Nargori Nargori 16 16:00 | 115,200
Baroukha 0. 4 15-67 | 112,824
Manga do, 8 18°80 | 135,260
Mungo Mungo 14 16:00 | 115,200
Rheora 7 = 15°40 | 110,850
_.” These figures of canes per acre are purely theoretical,
uniform. They are thus only of use for general comparison.
being obtained from the spacing and tillering figures, o
+ These countings were taken from the farm area where the treatment was practically the same as in the varietal plots.
n the assumption that every set sprouted and that the whole field was
Cc. A. BARBER 63
relative thickness of the canes is given, the order is seen to be exactly reversed.
Too much weight must not of course be attached to this interesting result, for
the relative differences are by no means proportional, and a comparison of
the averages of the two groups is instructive as showing that the class
of cane has influence; but a similar result, with many exceptions,
is to be found in the longer tables appended, of thickness and tillering
power of the varieties of the different groups in the 1917-18 crop on
the Cane-breeding Station. Tillering and thickness of cane are inherent
characters in each variety and group, but we must limit their correlation to
the members of the same group. Thus, the Mungo class are among the thickest
of the indigenous canes, being short and bush-like, and their tillering power
is very great ; on the other hand, the Nargori group contain, on the average, the
thinnest Indian canes, and their tillering power is practically the same in
the table as that inthe Mungo class. Mere thickness cannot therefore be taken
as a character from which tillering power can be deduced, but the group
character must also be taken into account. In these and other comparisons.
the thick canes, tropical, are generally taken as one class, because there is at
present no classification prepared for them, as for the Indian canes. It is cer-
tain that great differences exist, which shou!d be worked out in order to introduce
a proper classification in them also. (See, however, Jeswiet’s recent papers
on this subject, where a series of descriptions of thick canes has been
commenced. The inaugural paper has been referred to on page 56 above.)
Two tables are appended containing observations on the tillering of different
Indian cane varieties during the 1917-18 crop season. The first of these
contains observations and measurements made at my request by Mr. T. 8.
Venkataraman, during a tour in December and January last, when he visited a
number of North Indian agricultural stations, where certain varieties were
being grown, of which a series of measurements were desired for another piece
of work. The chance of obtaining some idea of their tillering capacity was
too good to be lost, but the observations were confined to the varieties being
studied. These varieties were those also being grown on the Taliparamba
and Samalkota farms in Madras, namely Saretha, Chin and Khari of the Saretha,
Pansahi and Chynia of the Pansahi, Baraukha of the Nargori groups, and
Mungo as representative of its own group. To these were added, where
possible, one of the Sunnabile group, and, on account of the great similarity
among themselves of the members of the Pansahi and Nargori groups, a certain
amount of substitution was allowed in them where necessary. The observations
were thus limited to certain varieties representing the different groups of
indigenous canes, and are chiefly interesting as showing how greatly the same
64 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
canes vary in tillering capacity in different localities and under different condi-
tions. First in importance of these conditions is the rate of sets planted per
acre, but the general treatment, kind of soil, rainfall and irrigation also have
influence, and notes on these are appended in the table. Making every allow-
ance for these differing circumstances, we still see that the same cane differs
much in its tillering power in different parts of the country, and, to make this
more evident, a column has been inserted giving the numbers of canes per acre,
in each case calculated from the number of sets sown per acre, and the average
number of canes per clump. The figures in this column are not to be taken as
an accurate estimate of canes per acre, in that they assume that every set
grew into a plant, and that the part of the plot where the canes were counted
was Characteristic of the whole. The figures are of more use in comparing
the re'ative branching of the canes in the different farms, than of the crops
obtained. Taking this character of tillering as inherent in the variety, this
variation is not surprising, for we have found similar differences to occur in
almost every other character of the cane. The comparison of such other
characters has been prosecuted for several years, and it is hoped will form the
subject of another Memoir shortly. The length and thickness of the cane,
the number of joints, the relative length of cane and shoot, the width and length
of the leaf, the rate of maturing cf the cane and the number of dead leaves
adhering to the stem at different periods of growth, all of these characters
have been found to vary profoundly, in the same cane, in different localities in
India, and we have noted that the locality impresses itse’f on the plant produced
to such an extent, that a survey of the series of measurements will generally
enable us to determine in what part of the country the cane has been grown.
A large number of deductions could be drawn from this table of tillering, but
it is felt that these are foreign to our present purpose and, also, that the figures,
having been obtained for one year only, require confirmation and extension,
and. it is hoped that this will be done by those in charge of the various farms.
It may be noted in passing, however, that one of the most interesting results
obtained is the way in which certain varieties seem to be adapted to certain
localities, an aspect of the question which will be dealt with in the Memoir
proposed.
The second table contains observations, also made at my request by Mr.
T. S. Venkataraman, at crop time on the Cane-breeding Station, in April 1918.
The cane plots on the farm are small, each consisting of one variety in three
rows about 20 feet long. A space separates each plot from the rest in the form
of a dropped row. For the tillering figures one row was selected in each plot,
where possible the central one, but, where this had been used for other purposes,
Cc. A. BARBER 65
an end row was taken and this is noted in the table. It was presumed that,
because of greater space, there might be more canes in an end than in the
central row, but this does not seem to be so to any great extent, and the position
of the row may accordingly be neglected, as of little influence on the general
results.
The number of clumps examined in these observations is therefore
extremely limited, especially as the end clumps of each row, that is, those next
to the irrigation channel and the drain at the other end, were excluded. The
table is less to be relied on than the preceding one, but the general results agree
well enough with those obtained on the farm in other years. The average thick-
ness of the canes in the plot has been added, and this was computed from the
average of 100 canes in each case. In this table, the varieties in each group are
arranged in the order of greatest tillering. Comparing the average rates of
tillering, we see that Mungo and Nargori groups head the list with 15:1 canes per
clump ; these are closely followed by the brown section of Saretha, then, in
succession, the series of unclassed canes, Sunnabile group, Pansahi group and,
last of all, the green section of the Saretha group, with 9°5 canes per clump.
As regards thickness, Mungo heads the list and Nargori shows the thinnest
canes. But both of these have the greatest tillermg power, a fact that has
already been commented on. The following summary table shows that, with
the exception of Mungo and the green section of Saretha, the average thickness
of the canes in a group varies more or less inversely with the rate of tillering.
Name of group No. of slicks ape ae
(MEMES in cm. per clump
Mungo si ee aa lO) Ole
—_
Cc. A. BARBER 1 bre
absent in adjoining canes, but present in canes slightly removed from one
another, as in Nos. 8-10 and 8-11, the connecting lines are broken ones.
Lastly, a dotted line is introduced towards the right of the diagram, which
gives a general curve of the length of the twenty canes, as judged by the
number of joints in each.
Now, it is interesting to note that the lines connecting related maxima
in two adjoining canes are often more or less parallel, with one another and
with the dotted line on the right. Parallelism can be traced, for instance, in
the connecting lines between Canes 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, 7 and 8, 8 and 9,
12 and 13, and few adjoining canes are without traces of them. By somewhat
arbitrarily joining up all the connecting lines throughout the series, we get a
set of maxima curves for the whole twenty canes. In composing them, atten-
tion is paid to the undoubted tendency of the connecting lines to run paralle!
to the dotted line on the right. Although showing numerous irregularities,
the general curves of maxima thus obtained are readily seen to be more or
less parallel in their course with the curve indicating the length of the canes.
If the periodic stimuli indicated by these curves synchronize, it is natural
to suggest their origin in some external cause, acting on all the canes together.
If, on the other hand, they do not occur at the same time, we are thrown
back on a natural periodicity of growth in the plant, which, in this case, tends
to form longer joints once in every five or six. But we have some knowledge
of the relative time of origin of these twenty canes. We have learnt elsewhere
that the canes of a clump are often easily distinguishable into two classes,
early and late in origin, and this shows itself especially clearly in the Pansahi
eroup of canes. Among a number of distinguishing characters, the first
formed canes have a considerably larger number of joints than those
emerging later from the ground. We are justified in assuming from this
that the upper canes in the diagram, having the greater number of joints,
are early canes, and those towards the bottom of the diagram are late.
Arguing from these premises, we may suggest that the first four canes, being
the earliest formed, have a very early maximum in length of joint. The next
eight, arising somewhat later, have a slightly later first maximum. It is
possible that the first maximum in these eight may synchronize with the
second maximum of the first four, and this is independently suggested by the
maxima curves. Similarly, the next four canes have a still later first maximum,
and the connecting lines suggest that these synchronize with the second
maxima of the second eight and the third of the first four. Lastly, the last
1 Barber, C. A. Studies in Indian Sugarcanes, No.2. Sugarcane seedlings, including some
correlations between morphological characters and sucrose in the juice, Mem. Dep, Agric. »
Ind., Bot. Ser., Vol. VIII, No. 3, July, 1916, p. 159
178 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
four, very late canes, have few maxima, and their dotted line suggests that
these synchronize with the later maxima of the preceding canes. H this
reasoning has any foundation, we have a distinct support to the argument
that the general curves of maxima in the twenty canes represent a succession
of synchronous growth stimuli, which affect all the canes growing at the time,
in other words, that the cause of the stimulus is external. We have been
accustomed to look to the Pansahi group of canes for clearing up our ideas on
many of the processes of growth in the sugarcane plant! and this would
account for their showing this periodicity in growth better than in the other
varieties examined. We have, in the above reasoning, merely attempted to
show a possible explanation of the peculiarities in the position of the
maxima of joint length. For any certainty to be attained as to the cause
of this periodicity, whether external or inherent, the present observational
method does not vield sufficient data. A simple series of experiments
should be capable of determining the point at issue.
Of the dozen or so examples worked out, three others are added, in which
. the periodicity in the length of the joints of the cane is observable (Plates VII
and VIII). Two of these are from Pansahi plots in the wet lands on Coimba-
tore Farm. In these, the numbers of joints are few and there are also few
maxima. The periodicity, as explained above, is however distinctly visible,
especially in the case in Plate VII. The variation in the number of joints in the
twenty canes is small, and the end dotted line is accordingly more vertical
than in the former case, and this uprightness of the curve is reflected in the
general maxima curves of each series.
The last example is of Baroukha canes grown at the Cane-breeding Station
in 1915-16 (Plate VIII, fig. 2). There are a large number of joints, and great
variations occur in the twenty canes in this respect. There are also many
maxima noticeable in individual canes. Although these are by no means so
regularly placed as in the Pansahi canes, there is a distinct suggestion of
periodicity in many cases. This is fairly obvious in the first eight canes and
in the last six, but there are few maxima in the intervening six, and it is not
possible to introduce connecting lines in them. There is, moreover, a lack of
parallelism, in the diagram, between the connecting lines and the end dotted
line. For instance, in Canes Nos. 1-3, with the same number of joints although
the connecting lines are more or less parallel, they trend strongly to the left
instead of being vertical. In Canes Nos. 3-5, an opposite direction is assumed,
the end lines’ passing down to the left while the connecting lines pass to the
* Barber, C. A. Studies in Indian Sugarcanes, No. 4. Tillering of Underground Branch-
ing. Mem, Dep, Agric., Ind., Bot, Ser., Vol. X, No, 2. es
Cc. A. BARBER 179
right. We may perhaps obtain some light on these anomalies by referring
to Memoir No. 2, page 162, where it is shown that it is not possible to separate
the canes in Barowkha into early and late, by the counting of the number of
joints formed, as it is in Pansahi. It is therefore probable that the arrange-
ment in the table is not that in order of emergence from the ground. Attention
is, however, drawn to the broken lines inserted, as in Nos. 4-6, which are not
infrequently parallel with one another and with the end dotted line. It is
obvious that, if Canes Nos. 4 and 6 had been placed next to one another, the
periodicity in the two canes would have been uniform. The same applies to
15 and 17 and to 18 and 20 and, in a slightly less degree, to 1 and 4, the con-
necting lines in each being approximately parallel with the dotted line. And
it is possible that, if we had some reliable method of determining the order
in which thes» canes emerged from the ground, we should be able to compose
a diagram showing the periodicity more clearly.
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INDIGO PUBLICATIONS.
No. 1. A Study of the Indigo Soils of Bihar. The Urgent Necessity for Immediate Phos-
phate Manuring if Crops are to be Maintained, by W. A. DAVIs, B-mestings-en plantverband-proeven op de 8S. F. Kanigoro, oogst 1908-9,
Archief v. d. Suikerind. in Ned. Ind., Vol. XVIII, p. 566, 1910.
C. A. BARBER ys
the soil are lacking. Kilian’s results on the numbers of canes are summarized
in the following table :—
Numbers of canes per bouw (1? acres) with different manures.
| EXPERIMENTS WITH S
: / : ) ’ SULPHATE OF
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUPER AND CATTLE MANURE: | Pitiohek ANG GMs aioe
Black Cheribon ON DRY LOAM
Thin
Manure ay tat be Be Manure J. 247 ~=| Cheribon
oam
4 pik. sulph. am. ... |) 33,011 28,772 3 pik. sulph. am.
{ait 38,261
do. +1 pik. super.|) fall* i 4 do. 57,135 | 34,559
34,367 { 39,204 irre- irre-
do. +2 do. 36,015 slight irre- 5 do. gular | gular
; rigé rise gular
do. +3 do. | 6 do. |
bans6y
do. + cattle 37,698 | 26,642 42,865 |4 do. + cattle 60,934 35,177
manure | manure
* The words ‘‘slight fall,” ‘‘rise,” etc., below an average figure, indicate any changes
within the bracketed treatments.
Kobus! in an earlier paper (1905) describes the results of his experiments
on growing cane uninterruptedly on the same land for a succession of years,
with a various assortment of manures designed to take the place of rotation
and fallowing. In this series were N, N and P, N and K, N, K and P, and
all these with or without the previous addition of Ca. The series is a very
full one, as it deals with three different varieties of cane, J. 247, J. 33aand J. 36.
He states that the plots were much affected by the weather, there being a
severe drought in the earlier part of the season, but that they recovered much
better than he had expected. There were, however, many failures in germina-
tion, varying from 64 per cent. to 12°4 per cent. in the different varieties. Rats
invaded the plots and created great havoc, to an extent in some cases of 40
per cent. Lastly, J. 56 suffered from red rot, as this variety is more liable to
the disease than the others. Among other data, he obtained the number of
canes in each plot, and his general conclusions were that tillering is com-
paratively unaffected by manuring. By this we presume that he means rather
that the kind of artificial manure applied, whether nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorus or calcium in their various combinations, has little effect on the
number of canes produced per acre. This does not seem to be quite the same
1 Kobus, J. D. Cultuur van suikerriet zonder tusschen-gewassen. Archief v. d. Java,
Sutkerind,, Vol. XIII, 1905, p. 485, 5
76 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
position as that taken up by Kilian and, for the present, his more special work
seems to be more to the point, as it deals rather with the quantity of suitable
manure than the kind of manure applied.
Striiben,! in 1911, asserts that there appear to be no definite experiments
on the effect of manuring on tillering. This seems rather strange, in view
of his later quoting from both Kobus and Kilian. He states that he has
often noted that very heavy manuring does not usually increase the number
of canes. His general conclusion is that manuring does not affect tillering,
although he does not himself experiment in the matter. As we have pointed
out above, Striiben assumes the attitude that no appreciable alteration is
made in tillering by various changes in cultivation, whether spacing, earthing
up or manuring, and for this dictum he seems to depend on a generalization of
Kobus, made in his 1905 paper, referred to above, that “ with a difference of
even 10 per cent. in the numbers of canes in a plot, there may be a similar out-
turn of sugar at crop time.’ This perhaps will throw light on Striiben’s attitude
and, when he asserts that the number of canes is not influenced by manuring,
he may mean that, as far as total sugar obtained is concerned, such, differences
as are noticeable are of little consequence. With this aspect we are at present
not concerned, and have little hesitation in concluding that manuring has
an influence on tillering, as well as any other means by which the healthiness
and vigour of the plant is enhanced.
(6) LirgRATURE CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF SPACING ON TILLERING
AND ON OTHER CROP CHARACTERS.
The most obvious way of regulating the number of canes produced at
harvest time is by varying the number of sets planted per acre. Spacing
experiments have been conducted wherever the sugarcane has been cultivated,
for the seed material, in many cases obtained by cutting up canes perfectly
fitted for passing through the mill, costs a good deal and figures largely in the
balance sheet. In some countries only tops are planted, namely, the upper,
immature parts of the plant where there is no sugar, and the canes harvested
produce these in sufficient numbers to plant up the new fields; but, in other
places, tops are not available, as they form a valuable cattle food and, in
India, for instance, are often the perquisite of the men from whom the cattle
are hired for crushing the canes. We have already referred to the curious
fact that, even in India, there are varieties which cannot be successfully
1 Striiben, W. Uitstoeling. Arehief vy. d. Suikerind. in Ned. Ind., Vol. XIX, Part 1, 1911,
p. 487.
Cc. A. BARBER 1
reproduced from the matured cane sets, but such exceptions are comparatively
rare. When the Samalkota farm was started in the Godavari District, it was
the local practice to plant 25,000 to 30,000 sets per acre, and the cultivators
were quite content to put aside Rs. 30 to Rs. 40 for the purchase of seed per
acre. A series of experiments was therefore initiated with the number of sets
planted, varying from 4,000 to 30,000 per acre. The numbers of canes produced
at harvest were counted and the amount of jaggery produced was estimated.
These figures are now unfortunately lost, but the general conclusion arrived
at was that, with proper treatment, each piece of land would produce the same
weight of canes within comparatively wide limits, but that, when thick canes
were sown at the rate of 12,000 sets to the acre, the maximum yield might be
counted on, and that closer planting merely led to unnecessary expense in the
purchase of sets. A similar series of experiments was made with Reora of
Benares in Partabgarh in North India,! varying numbers of sets being
planted per acre and the resulting yield of gur compared. Here, too, 12,000
sets per acre were found to produce the most satisfactory results, and the
larger number vf sets usually planted by the ryots did not give any increased
yield. At first it strikes one as rather curious that thick and thin varieties,
with their greatly differing tillering power, would require the same amount of
space for their best development. But it must be remembered that the number
of buds per set was considerably greater in Reora because of its short-jointed
character. The number of sets planted per acre on different farms in North
India appears, however, to differ very considerably (cf. Table on p. 63a), and
it is not known whether these numbers are the result of series of spacing
experiments, such as those made at Samalkota and Partabgarh, or are merely
an adoption of the local ryots’ practice until such experiments can be
conducted.
Stubbs? quotes a certain Mr. Skeete, who speaks of sets planted six
feet apart, with the result that often 50-100 canes were reaped from one hole.
We have been unable to verify this reference or to discover what country is
spoken of, but it appears to be not at all unlikely, for Prinsen Geerligs? states,
of San Domingo, in the West Indies, that the canes are occasionally planted
nine feet, apart each way, which would mean only 538 sets to the acre, and
presumably the tillering in such cases would be great enough to make up the
requisite number of canes at harvest time. It is the custom at the
1 Clarke, Annett and Hussain, ete. Experiments on the cultivation of sugarcane at the
Partabgarh Experimental Station, 1910-11. Bulletin No. 27, Agr. Res. Inst., Pusa, 1911.
2 Ibid, p. 95.
3 Geerligs, H. C. Prinsen. The World’s Cane Sugar Industry, Past and Pres., p. 193, 1912,
78 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
Cane-breeding Station to give the thick canes more room than the thin, in spite
of their smaller tillering power, and this appears to be the general rule in India
where these two types of canes are planted on the same farm. There is, how-
ever, a much more liberal application of manure in the former case, for the thin
canes are found to be unable to assimilate such heavy dressings and, at the
same time, to mature properly at harvest time. The object aimed at in each
case is to obtain a full stand, with as great a weight of canes as possible,
without unnecessary expenditure in costly seed material. The development
of the cane clump is influenced by warmth, moisture, soil, and no strict rule
can be laid down as to the most suitable spacing, and hence the importance
of the very numerous experiments which have been made.
Several workers have dealt fairly fully with the relation between spacing
and the number of canes reaped, and it will be necessary to consider their papers
somewhat in detail. As other matters, besides the influence on tillering, are
also included in them, it will be convenient to treat these papers as a whole,
and append a summary of conclusions at the end under the several headings.
Stubbs, in 1892-93, conducted experiments with the local Louisiana canes
by planting the sets at distances of 6”, 12” and 18” in rows five feet apart. The
plants were first reared in a nursery and, as each was planted in its plot, care
was taken that it was the result of the growth of only one bud. His results
are given in the following table :—
SSS SSS SSS
Number Shoots i Shoots in Average
Spacing planted in In an October weight of Tonnage
March une (harvest) each cane
6” 17.600 Ue BPs) 39,050 Zlalib: 42:55
12% 8.800 51,188 32,964 2°49 Ib. 41°60
18” 5,860 37,230 29,070 2°60 Ib. 37°24
These figures show a greater number of shoots arising in the more closely
planted rows, but a gradual diminution of the differences in these numbers as
growth proceeded. Inversely, there was an increasing weight of individual
canes with greater spacing, but the tonnage was greater in the closely planted
plots. Stubbs concluded that tillering depends on room available, and that
there is practically no limit to it, provided the space given is sufficiently ample.
In 1894-95 he carried out the same experiment with much greater care, studying
each plant throughout its growth. Five plants of each of the two varieties,
the Striped and the Purple, were used in each experiment, so that, altogether,
there were thirty plants. A book was kept of births and deaths by the chemist
in charge, who also labelled each shoot as it appeared. At harvest each clump
CG. A. BARBER 79
was dug up and the labels examined, the parent stalks were marked and their
relation to their branches ; each cane was separately weighed and analysed.
It is impossible to conceive of a more strictly scientific method, and the results
are well worth study, especially as the conclusions arrived at are at variance
in some respects with those of others to be referred to below. More shoots
started with the wider spacing, but the ultimate number at harvest was practi-
cally the same. In the chemical analysis of the canes, the main stem had the
richer juice and the author claims a gradual decrease in weight and sucrose
in successively developed branches. He admits, however, that three canes
behaved in a contrary manner, and we shall refer to these below. It is especially
with regard to the decreasing richness of juice that other workers disagree with
Stubbs and, from the following considerations, it seems to us that the author
was scarcely justified in drawing the conclusions that he did. We have not
been able to study his original paper, but there are sufficient details given in
his book on the sugarcane for our purpose. At the same time attention may
be drawn to the extraordinary inaccuracies in the general averages of all the
canes, especially in the first table on page 132. There were 139 canes instead
of 132 as quoted, and the general averages of Brix and sucrose are obviously
wrong, suggesting a whole series of printer’s errors more than anything else.
From a careful analysis of the tables, we gather that the crops grown in
the two years differed widely. In 1894, 20 parent plants produced 139 canes
at harvest, whereas, in 1895, there were only 131 from 29 plants. The sucrose
was higher in 1894, and the glucose was much lower. From this it appears
that the twenty 1894 plants had more space for development and that they
were better matured than the 29 in 1895. A reference to the temperature and
rainfall during these two years, fortunately given in chapter V of the book,
indicates that this difference was due to the character of the growing seasons.
That of 1894 was favourable to the production of good, well matured crops,
while that of 1895 was altogether unfavourable, especially because of the
excessive rains of May 22-24, when over six inches fell, which checked
growth and rendered the important late cultivation of the ground
impossible, this being followed by a drought which was equally disastrous.
In 1894, with the better growing weather, only one cane was reaped which
commenced its growth after July 2 ; in the 1895 crop 7 out of the 11 classes of
canes commenced their growth after July 6, and some arose as late as Septem-
ber. When we remember the author’s dictum that “in normal weather, only
shoots developed up to July may produce a good stand,” we can without
difficulty conclude that the 1895 crop, being immature, was not a suitable one
on which to found generalizations regarding the relative sucrose contents
80 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
of the canes of different ages. The sucrose does, it is true, show a regular
decline in the later formed shoots, but this is exactly what would be expected
from their increasing immaturity. When, on the other hand, we analyse the
figures given for the healthy, well matured 1894 crop, it is not easy to follow the
author’s conclusions. The average weight of the twenty parents was 2-01 |b.
while that of the 119. branches was 2°03 lb. Among the latter, 89 shoots,
developed during May and June, weighed on the average 1:97 lb., while the
thirty later ones, developed in June and July, averaged 2°22 lb. These figures,
indeed, rather point to an increase in weight in the later formed canes. As
to sucrose, the 20 parents averaged 13°42 per cent., the 89 of May and June
12-27 per cent., and the 30 of June and July 12°47 per cent. Here there is a
marked difference between parent and branches, but no fall in the sugar
content of the branches during the season, as claimed by the author. There
are two canes, however, at the end of the series, which stand out as heavy,
and three with high sucrose content; Stubbs draws attention to these, as
exceptions, without being able to explain their meaning. It is possible, with
our experience in stool dissections, to throw some light, at any rate, on the
two heavy ones.
From the details given by the author on the branching of one plant, we
can, without difficulty, reconstruct the scheme of its branching. There were
five mature canes and 12 shoots of 5-6 feet in length, whose distribution is
given in detail, and the reconstruction is given in Figure 1. This distribution
is in general agreement with what we should expect in the branching of a
thick cane in the time. Starting with this as a basis, we are also able to build
up average schemes for the matured canes of the 1894 and 1895 crops, since
the relative numbers of parents and branches are given in the tables. These
are given in Figures 2 and 3 for 1894 and in Figures 4 and 5 for 1895.
c: bt b3 bs a b4 bt
i, 1895 \)
3 fig-4 fig. 5
The two exceptional canes in 1894 crop were produced at the end of the
branching season (June-July) and were considerably heavier than those
CG. A. BARBER 8
immediately preceding them. The change is rather a sudden one. We shall
see, in our dissections, that, in any system of branching, while the as or main
shoots do not differ very greatly from the bs or branches of the first order,
there is usually a more marked difference between these two and the es, the
latter being generally considerably thicker. It appears to us that, with the
favourable season of 1894, it is probable that in some of the 20 plants a branch
of the second order may have matured ; while it is highly improbable that any
of the 1895 shoots of the same order would be sufficiently advanced to be cut
as canes at crop time. In this case we should have, among the 1894 plants,
at least two which had a c branch matured, as is suggested in Fig. 3 of the
diagram, and this would explain the presence of these abnormally heavy canes
at the end of the season (cf. Pl. XXXII, where diagrams of thick cane branch-
ing are shown, and Table on p. 147, where the formule of Lowisiana Striped
and Louisiana Purple, grown in the Cane-breeding Station, are given).
We think that Stubbs is justified, from his figures, in assuming that, in the
Louisiana climate, the motber shoots are at harvest richer than the branches,
but we do not think that his facts are sufficiently convincing to assume
the regular decrease in sucrose among the younger shoots, excepting where they
are also increasingly immature, asin the 1895 crop. We also do not agree with
him in his contention that his figures give ground for the assumption that there
is a gradual decrease in the weight of branches in the order of development,
as 1t runs counter to all our experience in the dissections which we have carried
out, and is not borne out by the figures in his tables. Stubbs’s paper is of
special interest to us, in that it is the only one we have met with in which any
care has been taken to separate the branches of different orders.
The next pieces of work on the effect of spacing on the number of canes
_ produced are in 1910, when independent experiments were conducted by
Kilian and Muller von Czernicki in Java. Kilian’s experiments! were made,
with J. 247, a late but good tillering variety, on dry loam, “ strugge? ” loam
and heavy black clay. It is unfortunate that the control plot of the latter
was destroyed by fire ; this class of soil, namely heavy clay, is apparently less
suited to J. 247, and the results recorded of the single experiment show that
some unmentioned factor has intervened. This plot we have accordingly
left out in the discussion, and confined our attention to the four others, on loam
of varying fertility. Kilian planted bis sets in rows 33’, 4’ and 5’ apart, anda
summary of his results is given in the appended table, averaging the duplicate
plots.
1 Geerligs, H. C. Prinsen. The World’s Cane Sugar Industry, Past and Pres., p. 193, 1912.
2 We have been unable to translate this word, but imagine that this loam is less fertile.
82 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
: Weight of
Number of Weight of eee Sucrose per
Spacing of rows canes reaped canes per bouw gcd ee cent. in oe
per bouw in pikuls pikuls juice
3} 65,089 2,070 197 13°76
Dry loam peed 62,771 2,056 201 14-06
5’ 49,163 1,978 199 14°33
34 55,135 2,092 210 14°40
‘*Strugge ” loam Soi ek 54,175 | 2,023 206 14:58
5 50,388 1,946 201 14°81
Heavy black clay (no J 3 an | i ae 1433
control) \ 5’ 40,0388 | 1,536 158 4-75
From this table it is seen that the number of canes harvested decreases
regularly with the increased, width of the rows ; the total weight of cane varies
in the same sense within narrower limits, suggesting that, with wider spacing,
the canes are on the average heavier. The quantity of sugar obtained varies
irregularly, the advantage in one case being on the side of closer planting ;
the sucrose in the juice, however, is interesting, in that there is a uniform rise
as the rows are wider apart, and in this respect the aberrant third experiment
falls into line, suggesting again that the thicker canes have richer juice. No
reference seems to be made by Kilian to this rise in sucrose with wider spacing,
but it agrees with the generalization of Kobus and van der Stok that, in the
same plot, the thicker canes have richer juice.’ Kilian is perfectly justified
in drawing the conclusion that the results do not point to any advantage in
altering the four-foot rows which appear to be most usual in Java,
Muller von Czernicki’s? experiments were on a much larger scale, and
extended over several years. His work is the most important contribution
which we have met with on the effect of spacing on tillering, and the number of
canes reaped, and deserves careful study. He had noted great variation in the
spacing on different estates, without being able to find any reasoned justifica-
tion for the local practices. For himself, on his Poerwodadi estates, it was a
matter of considerable importance how many sets were used per acre, as much
of the seed had to be imported and was expensive. He accordingly laid down
a series of experiments to determine if equally good results could be obtained
with a sparser sowing. He also wished to determine the relative tillering
power of the different varieties and the time at which the maximum number of
1J. E. van der Stok, in Friiwirth’s Die Ziichtung der Landwirth-schaftlichen Kultur-
flanzen, Zuckerrohr.
2 Muller von Qzernicki, C. F. Proefnemingen omtrent Plantwijdte. Archief v. d. Suikerind.
in Ned. Ind., Vol. XVIII, 1910, p. 314.
C. A. BARBER 83
shoots was reached. At first he dealt with very large areas, planting them
with rows 4 and 5 feet apart. There appeared to be no increase in the number
of canes with the wider spacing, rather the reverse, and he decided to concen-
trate on varying the distance of the plants in the rows. But, in this case also,
the results were inconclusive, and this he put down to the varying soil condi-
tions and the impossibility of planting control plots in such large experiments.
He therefore instituted a number of experiments on plots one-tenth of a bouw
in area (practically 17 tenths of an acre or, as it is termed in Madras, 17 cents).
The rows were, as usual, 4 feet apart and about 30 feet long. In these he
planted Black Cheribon, J. 247 and J. 100, varieties which were of importance
inhisarea. The sets were planted 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 to the row. Count-
ings were made of the shoots above ground at 60, 90, 120 and 150 days from
sowing, which, presumably, roughly coincided with the different earthings up ;
and, 14 days after the last counting of shoots, he counted the canes formed, with
a convention which seems to hold in Java of taking two or even three thin canes
as the equivalent of one thick one. Muller von Czernicki complains repeatedly
of the depredations of thieves and other injuries in his small plots ; the presence
of sereh is also commented on in the plots planted with locally raised seed,
but these injuries are of less moment in the early countings, in which we are
most interested here, than in the final crop. Numerous tables and graphs
illustrate his paper and of these one table and two graphs are reproduced, as
the paper is in Dutch and not easily available. In the table one notes with
surprise the very early general development of branches from the sets, a
steady decline usually following, after the first couple of months. Muller von
Czernicki concludes as follows with regard to the three varieties tested :—
The number of shoots counted at different periods, with sets planted at
different distances apart—Muller von Czernicki.
1908 crop.
) UOA JOT[NIA] ody paidoos ‘a/qe} 5uljunos-jooyg
BUIUNOD jo poliag
WHT 4945 a+ pa € “pute Ts | dn Purujae y
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ee S016 | a
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ee 0 bese CL
re sf : ws
PLATE XV.
‘IYOIUdaZ) UOA J9][NIA] wot] peidos “O}qey Bulunod-jooyg
: bre sere Sed
eae “o\ O11
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ae al O81 |
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Buijunod jO Ppolied
m7 4043 a7 pat puc is | dn Buiyjaeg
os |
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Ne + | 31-4
— SO ed
| ee 2
ete eS ; TAR che Pele
} ~ mney tts Zena ae { ve i oeien o
ne t, iz -
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C. A. BARBEK SD)
An inspection of the table and graphs will convince the reader of the
sreater tillering power of the widely spaced plants, where of course there were
considerably fewer plants to the row, and the subsequent great mortality of
shoots which soon reduced the numbers, till they were more or less uniform
in all the rows—all the available light being used up.
The author draws the following conclusions regarding the possibility of
reducing the number of sets planted per acre. This is of special importance with
the costly imported material, and he points out that, with Cheribon and J. 100,
it can be substantially diminished with safety. This also applied more or less
to locally grown seed, but the danger of sereh is greater and the cost of the
seed is much less, so that no change is suggested.
The experiments were repeated in 1909, with 8-20 sets per row, as it seemed
to Muller von Czernicki that the lower limits of sowing had not been reached.
The results confirmed those of the previous year. In J. 100, owing to a mistake,
there was only one plot, but in the row with 8 sets a full stand was easily
reached.
Muller von Czernicki makes certain observations as to the sucrose content
of the mother cane and its branches. He states that some people seem to
believe that the mother canes are richer than those developed later, but he
cannot find any grounds for this belief. ‘‘ After many years of observation,”
he has come to the conclusion that, provided that canes are ripe, there is little
or no difference in this respect. He points out that the definition of mother
shoot is a very loose one, and quotes Hovenkamp as saying that ‘‘ mother
canes need not be primary stems, but are the thicker and richer canes.”” We
see elsewhere that the assumption is unwarranted, in that the canes of the third
order of branching are almost always thicker than the mother canes. And we
fail to see in what respect Muller von Czernicki’s own deductions are more
accurate, in that there are no references to stool dissections, and, without
these, it is practically impossible to decide which the mother canes are. He,
however, approaches the matter from another point of view. With closely
planted sets, there will, he argues, naturally be more mother canes than in
widely spaced rows, and this must. make its influence felt, if there is mcher
juice in them, than in the branches ; but he has not been able to detect any such
difference. Muller von Czernicki’s deduction would appear at first sight to
be perfectly sound, but he does not go far enough. There will certainly be
fewer as in wider pacing, but we do not know whether the relative increase
in the numbers of branches of the lower orders is in the bs, es, or possibly ds.
Again, in closer planting, there will be a greater proportion of as in the canes
86 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
reaped, but here also we are in the dark as to whether this is accompanied by
a diminution of the relative numbers of cs and ds, which might give the bs a
predominance over them. This side of the question is of some importance,
for we shall see later that, while the as and bs are often very similar, the cs and
ds differ radically from them, and the question is thus not only influenced by
the relative number of as in the plots, but also whether the as and bs on the
one hand or the cs and ds on the other are in relative excess. Until we have
more definite information on these points, we should prefer to rely on the actual
analyses of early and late canes as given by Stubbs and carried out for some
years on the Cane-breeding Station at Coimbatore; but these latter will be
referred to later.
Muller von Czernicki states that he has often noted the differences in
thickness of canes sparsely and closely planted, especially in the 1909 experi-
ments, and he decided to test this more carefully. He therefore measured 50
canes from each plot in the following manner, making altogether 1,000 measure-
ments. He used a pair of calipers which he moved round the stem until it
encountered the greatest resistance, and took the measurements at about
one metre from the ground at the middle of an internode. His results are
given in a series of tables, in which the canes are arranged according to their
thickness in each plot, with differences in millimetres. From these measure-
ments in thickness he deduced the weight of the canes. By using a formula he
calculated the difference in average weight of canes in the rows with 8 and 18
sets, the extremes of the series. This difference varied from 10°5 per cent. in
imported Cheribon sets, to 17°6 per cent. in local J. 247. The average of
these differences in the four kinds of seed used was 14 per cent., which
means that 86 canes in the thinly sown rows would equal in weight 100 in the
closer planted rows. In these deductions he assumes that the plants in the
different rows were of equal height, but he himself observes that this was by
no means the case ; he therefore concludes that for accurate determinations
of the weights of individual canes direct weighings will alone suffice.
Striiben, in his paper on Tillering (1911), already mentioned, collates
numerous countings of canes made by different workers, under the most varying
conditions of climate, soil and treatment, and concludes that, within narrow
limits, each variety shows the same cane-producing capacity, limits narrow
enough not to be of appreciable influence from the crop point of view. He
‘further gives the results of a series of experiments conducted by himself on the
lines laid down by Muller von Czernicki. He experimented with J. 247 and
placed 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 and 20 sets in separate rows of the same length,
c. A. BARBER 87
counting the canes at harvest in each case. The following table summarizes
his results :—
Canes reaped at harvest.
Sets per row J. 100; heavy clay § Cheribon: fertile land | Cheribon: infertile land
|
6 74 85 63 68 65 70,
8 76 89 69 70 75 80
10 82 89 70 72 82 84
12 85 92 | 69 76 85 86
14 91 86 72 76 86 85
16 95 86 71 { 76 86 84
2 ot 12 74
Looking at the figures as a whole, there is a general rise in the number
of canes, at first rapid and then slow, as the number of sets per row increases ;
but this rise appears to receive a check when 12-14 sets per row are reached,
and after this there is usually equality or even a slight decline. In only two
cases of the six is there anything like a general rise throughout. But the
counting of fully formed canes is not a true measure of tillering power, and
Striiben’s figures do not help us in this respect to the same extent as do those
of Muller von Czernicki.
The question of tillering power of the canes in the field, and the effect of
this upon the harvest, is thus seen to be somewhat complicated. The number of
canes reaped at harvest is connected with the tillering power, but this connection
is obscured by the great mortality of shoots during the growth of the plants
and is therefore less close than might be expected. Similarly with the weight
of canes at harvest; the weight of individual canes in the clump probably
varies according to the date of appearance, and the average weight of canes
varies with the closeness of planting and the corresponding number of total
canes produced. The total yield of sugar depends upon the weight of the
individual canes, their number and the richness of the juice. There is some
evidence that the amount of sugar in the juice differs in branches of different
orders. Spacing the planting material has its influence on all these factors,
and it may be useful to summarize the views of the different writers already
quoted, and to add such observations on the subject as have been accumulated
from time to time on the Cane-breeding Station. The subject will be treated
in the following order :—The effect of spacing on the tillering power, as judged
by the number of shoots produced per clump, and by the number of canes
produced per clump at harvest : on the thickness and weight of the individual
canes and the total weight of canes reaped: on the total yield of sugar in the
4
88 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
crop. A note will then be added on the richness of the juice in branches of
different orders in the clump.
(a) Effect of spacing on tillering as judged by the number of shoots pro-
duced per clump. Stubbs, in 1892-93, showed that, by planting the sets at 6",
12” and 18” apart, the number of shoots produced differed a good deal. At
three months after planting the 6” plants had, on the average, 4-1 shoots each,
those at 12” had 5:8 shoots, while those at 18” had 6:4 shoots per plant. Observa-
tions have not as yet been made on this point at the Cane-breeding Station.
The following figures have been deduced from those published by Muller von
Czernicki and referred to above. We have obtained them by dividing the
maximum number of shoots in his countings by the number of sets in the row.
The cages selected are the extremes and an intermediate one, namely, where
sets were planted 10, 14 and 20 in the row. The following are the maximum
numbers of shoots for these spacings : Cheribon (tops), 12°4, 11-1 and 9:0 ; J. 100
(tops), 12°5, 10°6, 84; J. 247 (tops), 16°8, 14-5 and 12-0; J. 247 (sets), 15°9, 12°5,
and 10°6. The extreme differences in these spacings are roughly as 3 to 2
shoots per plant for the wider plantings.
(b) Effect of spacing on the total number of canes per clump at harvest.
We are able to get more cases in which this has been observed, in that countings
of canes at harvest appear to have been made regularly for many years in Java.
Stubbs gives the figures for the canes at crop time (seven months from planting),
in Louisiana, and from these we find that the number of canes per clump
at 6” is 2-2, at 12”, 3:7 and at 18", 4°9. Comparing these figures with those in
section (a) we see that, although a number of shoots had died, the ultimate
differences had increased.
Kilian gives the number of canes at harvest per bouw (1°'75 acres) when
the rows were 32’, 4’ and 5’ apart, and we can obtain proportional figures for
the number of canes per clump by multiplying these two sets of figures together.
It is to be noted that the differences in spacing were not nearly so great as in
Stubbs’ experiments, but the results are still very definite. Taking the table
given on p. 82, we get the proportional numbers as 4-6, 5°0 and 59 canes per
clump in the richer land and 3°9, 4:3 and 5:0 in the poorer.
Muller von Czernicki does not give the numbers of canes at harvest, but
counts them at 5-6 months, using the Java convention of taking two or three
thin canes to one thick. Selecting the rows as before with 10, 14 and 20 sets,
we get the following figures :—
Cheribon (tops), 6°1, 4°7 and 3°6; J. 100 (tops), 82, 5°9 and 4:3; J. 247
0.
(tops), 101, 6:8 and 4°8; J. 247 (sets), 9°5, 66 and 5 Here again there is an
C. A. BARBER 89
increase in the differences in the numbers of shoots produced per plant
as the period of harvest approaches, which is not to be wondered at, as
the effect of the spacing should be cumulative throughout the growth of
the plant.
The same author conducted spacing experiments on a very large scale,
the plots extending over 100 bouws (175 acres) with sets planted roughly
as 2 to 3 for the same space. This again is a smaller difference in space allowance
than Stubbs’s, but the results are obvious enough. The numbers of canes per
bouw are practically equal, showing that the effect of the spacing was that
each clump, on the average, produced half as many canes again in the wider
planting.
Wider spacing thus has a marked influence on the maximum number
of shoots developed per plant ; this effect is cumulative, during the period
of growth, and is therefore intensified at the time of harvest.
(c) Effect of spacing on the thickness or weight of the individual cane.
Stubbs gives the average weight of cane when the sets were planted 18”, 12°
and 6” apart, in Ib. as 2°60, 2°49 and 2:17. Kilian’s results are less conclusive,
but the distances apart in the 32’, 4’ and 5’ rows were very much less.
The relative weights in the two tables were as 3:2 to 3°3 to 3°35 and
3°8 to 3°75 to 3°85. There is thus practically no difference in the weights
of the canes. Muller von Czernicki dealt rather carefully with the thickness
of the cane, and he deduced the weights on the assumption that the canes
were of equal height (which he states from observation is not perfectly
correct). He measured the canes at 5-6 months with calipers, in the rows
with 8 and 18 sets in them. The result that he obtained from a large
number of plots was that the canes in the 8 sets plots were 14 per cent.
heavier than those of the 18 sets plots. Other observers, notably Kobus
and Van der Stok, emphasize the fact that wider spacing increases the
thickness of the individual canes, and it may be considered therefore as
incontestible.
(d) Effect of spacing on total weight of canes at harvest. A wider spacing
therefore produces more canes per plant, and these are thicker and heavier.
But there are fewer of these plants to the acre. Stubbs gives figures for the
total weight of canes reaped, with his spacing of 18”, 12” and 6” in the row,
as 37°24, 41°6 and 42°55 tons per acre, a distinct though small advantage for
the closer planting. Kailian’s figures agree, taking the smaller differences into
account in his spacing experiments. The total weights of canes in the 33’, 4’
and 5’ rows were, in pikuls per bouw, 2070, 2056 and 1978 respectively.
90 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
Muller von Czernicki in his larger plots of 3-5 acres obtained “no advantage
in yield by planting widely (5’ instead of the usual 4’), rather the reverse,’
but the experiments he considered unsatisfactory because of variations in soil
and the impossibility of having any controls. In his carefully controlled
smaller, plots, again selecting the rows with 10, 14 and 20 sets in them, he gives
the following weights of canes reaped in pikuls per bouw, Cheribon (tops),
1398, 1416, 1518; J. 100 (tops), 1140, 1220 and 1320; J. 247 (tops), 1536, 1446
and 1410; J. 247 (sets), 1728, 1452 and 1536, respectively. These figures aze
in favour of closer planting in the Cheribon and J. 100 plots but in the J. 247
they are inconclusive, and in fact have higher yields in both cases with the
wider planting (Has this anything to do with the known greater tillering
power of this variety 2).
On the whole, there seems to be a general concensus of opinion that wide
planting reduces the yield in canes at harvest and the best distance apart
will have to be decided for each variety, climate and soil as the result of
experiments on the spot. With the generally higher yields of closer planting, it
becomes a matter for the balance-sheet, especially where the sets are costly,
for the price of the latter may then easily exceed the advantage gained by
planting more sets to the acre, as was the case in the Samalkota tract referred
to above.
(ec) The influence of spacing on total yield of sugar. The factors of
moment in the yield of sugar per acre are very numerous. The variety
grown, the climate and soil, the character of cultivation, the efficiency of
the manufacturing side, the number of canes per acre and their thickness, and
the richness and quantity of juice, are all concerned. It is difficult to
quote experiments where the effect of all these factors have been considered,
but the various workers have given their opinions and these may be summa-
rized, in that they are in general agreement. Within fairly wide limits, close
planting appears to give a greater yield, but this is chiefly where the general
level of cultivation is low. The local rate of planting is, in India, frequently
excessive. This was clearly shown at Samalkota where the same yield in
jaggery was uniformly obtained with thick canes by planting half the sets
generally used. Similar results were obtained as to the maximum yield of
gur in the experiments at Partabgarh, where, however, only one local cane was
experimented with and that of course was a thin indigenous one. A somewhat
similar result appears to have been obtained by Stubbs in Louisiana, for he
recommends for the maximum crop the planting of the sets 6” apart in 5’ to 6’
rows.
Cc. A. BARBER 91
As to Java, Kobus lays it down as the result of his observations and experi-
ments that even a difference of 10 per cent. in the number of canes per acre may
very well go with the same yield of sugar. From this, we gather that the number
of canes, which we have seen to be influenced, by spacing, is not too closely con-
nected with the yield of sugar, and therefore that the effect of spacing is of
little import within moderate limits. This statement of Kobus is taken up by
Striiben, who argues in its favour and states that the Editor of the Archief,
the principal organ of the Java industry, has long held the same view.
Kilian’s experiment of planting canes in rows, 33,’ 4’ and 5’ apart, gave results
trom which he gathers that, in J. 247, the current distance of 4’ cannot be
altered with advantage. In the two controlled experiments on dry loam,
the vields of sugar in pikuls per bouw for these spacings were respectively
197, 201, 199 and 210, 206 and 201 ; while another uncontrolled experiment
on heavy black clay gave 162, 181, 158. Muller von Czernicki found, in crop
experiments of 3 to 4 acres each over 175 acres, that a spacing varying as 2: 3
made practically no difference as to yield of sugar. We may therefore con-
clude, that, with good cultivation, the yield of sugar, influenced as it is by so
many factors, has no intimate relation to the spacing of the plants, and that
this may accordingly vary within moderately wide limits without disadvantage.
These limits have to be determined in each place and with each variety
separately.
(7) Nore ON THE RELATIVE RICHNESS OF THE JUICE IN BRANCHES OF
DIFFERENT ORDERS.
Kobus has made an oft-repeated generalization, after years of experiment,
that, in a cane field, “thicker clumps have heavier canes and richer juice.”
Van der Stok also asserts that, in a general crop, the thick canes have more
sugar in their juice.1 Stubbs showed that, in the Louisiana crops, the mother
canes had, richer juice than the branches from it, but he failed to convince us
that the earlier branches also had better juice than the later. In Java, writers
generally take exception to this imputed. superiority of the mother canes, and
Muller von Czernicki asserts his conviction that, provided the crop ripens,
as it generally does there, there is no difference in the juice of the different
orders of branching. This rather discounts the Louisiana results, for a crop
reaped at seven months from planting can hardly be considered by cane growers
in the tropics as properly matured. But, on the other hand, we have failed to
1 J. E. Vander Stok, in Friiwirth’s Die ziichtwng der Landwirth-schafllichen Kultur-flanzen
Zuckerrohr
92 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
discover any indication that the true character of the branches has been deter-
mined in Java. After a good many dissections, we conclude that it would
be a very difficult thing, without experience thus gained, to detect which are
the mother canes of the crop. There seems, in general, to be a tendency to
assume that these are thicker than the rest, but our results are exactly the
opposite, as will be seen in the sequel (Part IH, section 6). We cannot there-
fore think that the opinions on this point either in Louisiana or in Java are
altogether trustworthy.
A certain amount of work has been done at various times in the Laboratory
of the Cane-breeding Station, on the richness of the juice in the different
canes in the clump during growth and, at crop time. In our study of early
and late canes, we made use of the members of the Pansahi group, because,
before we had made our dissections, it was easy to distinguish between the
early and late canes. Some of the results of this study have been given in
Memoir II (p. 159), where it is shown that, in several varieties (Maneria, Kahu,
Yuba and Pansahi), it was easy to separate the different classes of branches
at crop time, and, that, in their analysis, the earlier formed canes were invari-
ably richer in their juice than the later. At the close of the 1917-18 crop, an
attempt was made to divide the cut canes into classes, by observing the charac-
ters by which the branches of different orders could be separated, starting with
thickness of cane and, where necessary, introducing length of basal part,
average length of lower joints, curvature, etc. This separation was, as usual,
found. to be specially easy in the members of the Pansahi group. One hundred
canes were thus dealt with in each of the varieties dissected and these were
divided, into their appropriate classes and separately analysed. The results
obtained, in the members of the Pansahi group are given in the table, and we
see that they agree quite well with those given in the previous Memoir. In
Maneria, the percentage of sucrose in the different classes from earliest to
latest was 14:25, 13°74, 13°63, 13°57, 9°80, and in Yuba 15:17, 14°86, 13°14,
12°53 and 12°40.
C. A. BARBER 93
Relative richness of juice at harvest in different classes of canes
in the Pansahi group.
2 |
i=} = |
Maricty and 8 Gr | Average | | |
number o oH aD aracter 7 : ra)
plot on the S & 3 So oes ness of Brix | 2 REMARKS
farm a E 3 cane | %
= in cm. 5
Ose eee |
| | | |
Maneria 2716 1 10 | veryearly | 1:60 16°90 14:25 |The tops were not
2 LOy |, eatly ) 8160 1640 | 13:74 | withered. There
3 19 $5 | 1:95 16°40 13°63 was a continued re-
4 23 | 33 2-15 16°48 1357 | duction in sucrose
5 16 |late(rather; 2:25 13-99 9:80 | content as we passed
| immature) | from early to late
6 17 immature not) analysed | canes.
Yuba 2710 1 6 | very early 1:55 17°81 15:17 | The tops were slight-
z 25 early 1:60 17°77 1486 ly drying up, but
3 24 ive 1:75 PPT 13°14 in spite of this the
4 20° | late [P Tca5 1613 | 12753 analyses show the
5) 12 later 2°30 16°13 12°40 same course as in
6 13. | immature | not| analyse d Maneria.
Chynia 2711 1 7 | very early | 1:70 15°30 1207 |Tops dried. This
2 22 early | 1:70 1711 14:34 appears to have
3 36) | 3 1-90) 16°94 | 13°75 affected the rich-
4 14 | Iaterthan3, ~~ 1:80 15°43 12:00 | ness of juice detri-
i) 15 | distinctly | 2-20 15°50 11-71 | mentally in the very
late | early canes. The
6 6 | immature | not| analyse|d remaining analyses
are as in Maneria
aud Yuba.
Kahu 2713 1 26 | veryearly 1:60 15:02 12:08 | Tops dried. Ana-
2 53 early 1:70 16°12 13°10 iyses as in Chynia.
3 28 56 1:85 ye 1) RAIS)
4 BS ate 335° | 15:88 | 11:93
5 5 | immature © not| analysed
| |
Pansahi 2718 1 10 | veryearly | 1:45 13°56 | 10°76 |Tops dried. Ana-
| 2 26 early | 1°65 15°88 13-12 lyses as in the last.
Ns 30 00 | 2:00 16°28 13°23
4 PAD) late |} 2°50 13°06 9°13
5 14. | immature | not! analyse|d
Sada Khajee 2719... 1 9 | veryearly 1:70 15°82 | 12:88 |Tops dried. Ana:
2 25 early | 1-80 17°84 15:09 lyses asin the last,
3 44 y 1:95 17-44 14:49 excepting that the
1 9 5 1:45 16°58 13°83 fourth class are a
5) 13 immature good deal the thin-
| nest— possibly late
poorly developed
| shoots.
|
In the remaining members of the group the first formed canes had less
sucrose than those immediately following, but this result is not surprising,
in that in these varieties the first formed canes are marked as “dried up.”
We have, from the first, been accustomed to choose the Pansahi class for demon-
stration of any character which it was desired to emphasize, as there is some-
thing peculiarly regular in the growth of these canes, whether in the symmetry
of the branching, the regularity with which the characters of the branches of
94 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
different orders are displayed or the variation in the sucrose from early to late
formed canes; and we have recently discovered that a study of the joint
curves of the Pansahi varieties shows that there is a well marked periodicity
inthe growth during the season.! But it is a question whether this almost
mathematical regularity in growth is shared by other classes of indigenous
canes or is merely a character of this strongly marked group. And the answer
to this question is at present by no means easy to give.
A reference to Memoir II (p. 159) will show that, while 1t was easy to
separate the Pansahi canes into classes, this was found to be next to impossible
in the other varieties examined at the same time, Ekar, Baroukha and. Kaghze ;
also that, when the attempt had been made, there was no trace of the regular
decrease in sucrose in the branches of succeeding orders. Assuming that it
would be much easier, with our increased knowledge of the characters, to
separate the as, bs, cs, ds, ete., of each clump, all the other varieties which had
been dissected were treated in the 1917-18 crop as were those of the Pansahi
group. Unfortunately, in my absence, and through a misunderstanding,
the work was not done until May, when most of the canes, at any rate the
earlier ones, were overripe or withered. The members of the Pansahi class
seem to have been little affected by this, but it may be the cause for the other
varieties failing to show any regularity in the richness of the canes of different
orders of branching. On a study of the results of analysis, the figures are so
uregular that no object would be attained by their reproduction here, and
they are merely recorded in the office files for future reference. There is no
trace of the regular decrease in sucrose content from the early to the late canes
in these tables, and the mattcr must be left undecided, until a more satisfactory
series of experiments can be conducted. But, on considermg the matter
carefully, 1b occurs to us that it will be a matter of some difficulty to conduct
such a series of experiments. As each clump approaches maturity, the average
richness of its canes increases. This also occurs in each of its individual canes,
but they do not run parallel in their improvement, in that the earlier ones
will be ripe betore the later ones. It appears, from a great number of analyses
which we have made at various times, that, while the plants are young, there
is 1 great difference in the richness of the juice in the canes of different orders
of branching, but that this difference gradually diminishes as the usual harvest-
ing time approaches ; and, when it has passed, that the juice of the earlier
formed canes commences to deteriorate until it is distinctly poorer than that
1 A paper was presented at the Lahore Science Congress, Jan. 1918, in which this
periodicity was dealt with. (The subject is further dealt with in a Memoir now in the press ;
February 1919.)
Cc. A. BARBER 95
of later formed branches, which in their turn approach their optimum. This
being the case, there will be a point of time in the life of each clump when the
juice in the early and late canes tends to be of about the same richness, a period
of equilibrium which may be regarded as the optimum of richness in the juice
of the whole clump. It is probable that this point of time will vary in each
clump of the same variety, even under the same conditions ; it is likely that it
will vary more in different varieties of the same group, and still more in the
different groups. Besides this, the maximum richness of the juice in the clumps
in any variety will naturally depend upon whether it is an early or late maturing
kind. Mungo and, Sunnabile varieties are later in maturing than Nargori
and, Saretha, and this opens up the question as to when the optimum as regards
sucrose in the juice occurs, as it will of necessity be different in different varie-
ties. Reaping all the canes at one time will therefore not be likely to give the
desired information, for, while in some the as are the richest, in others these
will be overripe and the bs or cs will have taken their place. In the Pansahi
group of canes there is evidence that, generally, the as are richer than the bs,
and so on throughout the series of canes ina clump, but we have not at present
been able to adduce satisfactory evidence that this is the case at crop time
in the other varieties dissected. We may therefore, for the present, regard
the matter as left for further observation and experiment, and our increased
knowledge of the characters by which early and late canes can be detected. in a
clump should assist in the carrying out of this study.
PART III. DISSECTION OF STOOLS.
(1) SCOPE OF THE WORK.
The number of cane plants dissected for the purpose of this paper is very
large, as can be seen from the annexed table (pp. 99-100). It has been attempt-
ed to make them as representative as possible of the varieties collected on the
Coimbatore farm. The growth of the indigenous canes there is, in general,
fairly good, although some have shown themselves to be much more at home
than others in the farm conditions, but the thick canes are often not well grown,
and comparatively few of these were therefore chosen for dissection, and these
rather for distinguishing them from the Indian canes than for comparison
among themselves. As the canes of this class were thriving much better on
the garden and wet Jands of the Nellikuppam plantations in South Arcot,
permission was obtained to send a man there for the completion of the series.
I am much indebted to Mr. Neilson for bis kind assistance in this matter, and
the work seems to have been carefully done by Fieldman Rangaswami Pillai,
who was in charge of it. We can thus add, to the series, the dissection of 24
clumps of well grown Red Mauritius canes, six each in wet and dry land, and
a like number of ratooned clumps. All of the other dissected plants were grown
on the Cane-breeding Station.
In ranging over so wide a field of study, as indicated by the list referred
to and, so to speak, breaking new ground all the time, it was inevitable that
many side issues should present themselves, of sufficient interest for further
study. There were few mornings, devoted solidly to dissection, which passed
without leaving on the mind some new idea as to the direction of the work.
Most of these side issues have been prosecuted, for a longer or shorter period,
to give place in their turn to others, which obtruded themselves by the occur-
rence of starthng examples of what had been casually noted before. The
danger of this varying aspect of the work is obvious, both from the point of
view of dissipation of energy and of obtaining a connected account, but the
observations have, without doubt, afforded an insight into the growth of the
cane which could not have been obtained otherwise.
Cc. A. BARBER 97
As instances of these side issues, some of which were early incorporated
in the work, while others were abandoned after a shorter or longer period of
observation, may be mentioned the following. In nota few cases, hints were
obtained as to subdivisions and cleavages in the groups of canes, by transitional
forms, and these will be referred to later. In the young plants, the relative
rates of cane formation in different varieties and groups, the varying length
of the tillering period, the relative abundance of the buds of different orders,
the large proportion of great white “clawed” buds in certain varieties
which suggested a series of broods or flushes of branches, the relative
rapidity of development of the main shoots compared, with the side branches,
and the form assumed by the young branches, often seen in the form of a fan
at first, and quickly rearranging themselves to an orderly bunch.
In the older plants, the frequency of a symmetrical arrangement, in
eround plan, of the branches when viewed from below, the arrangement
and the orientation of the buds on successive branches, the suppression
of buds on the inner side of the branches or where congestion occurred ;
the differing basal curvature of branches of different orders, the squeezing
out of branches once formed, the way in which in some groups the
branches rapidly became parallel while in others they curved outwards
symmetrically or developed into an irregular mass, the manner in which
the bud below a set curved upwards, and so on; the relative develop-
ment of the middle and end buds of a set and the relative value of the
position of a bud, whether underneath the set, at the side or on the top; the
varying length of the basal, short-jointed portion of the cane in branches of
different orders, the effect on this of curvature, with the general result that the
mature form of the cane was not assumed until the curved portion was passed,
the varying length of the joints in the first two feet ; the different periods
at which the final cane crop could be safely forecasted by the presence or absence
of great shoots on the plant, the application of this to the order of dissection
of the varieties ; the changes in thickness and shape of the cane, the occasional
presence of transverse or median flattening and the relative tereteness of the
branches at two feet from the base in different varieties, the narrowing or
thickening upwards after the average thickness had been attained, this varying
both in different varieties and in the branches of different orders, the thickness
and woodiness of the branches at their origin and the consequent firmness of
attachment ; the difficulties experienced in dissection and in the formation
of diagrams and formule, due to the breaking off of branches, the intricacy
of their development, the squeezing out of shoots, the numerous deaths, the
occasional presence of facultative branches, where a branch of a higher order
98 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
assumed the characters of one of a lower order which had died, and particu-
larly the difficulty of obtaining representative clumps and plants in certain
varieties ; the relative incidence of different diseases, such as mealy bug in the
young shoots, the deformations caused by moth-borer and white-ants and the
extraordinary manner in which some varieties appeared to be immune to any
infection of red rot ; the effect of all these factors on the varietal characters,
and, the frequent geographical grouping of subdivisions brought out by them.
It is thus not surprising that, during the course of the work, the general
scope of the observations has from time to time undergone some modification,
and it was not until the second year that a full scheme was developed for the
study of each stool dissected. In some of the tables of measurements, only
the dissections during 1917-18 are therefore considered. It was obvious that
it was necessary to drop most of the side issues, after recording a note, aS soon
as a decision had been arrived at, and the following were the main lines followed
in the second year, in which by far the larger number of dissections were made:—
the evolution of a scheme of branching for each plant, variety or group and the
discovery of a suitable formula and set of conventions for expressing this ; the
relative thickness of each cane at two feet from its base, the length of the basal
thickening, short-jointed portion, and the number and length of the joints
in the first two feet after this basal portion had been passed ; the rate of matur-
ing of the young plant as regards cane-formation ; the presence of curva-
tures at the base, runners, deaths, injuries and abnormalities of all kinds, etc.
Details on these points are recorded in every dissection, and the various sum-
maries and conclusions contained in this part of the Memoir have been derived
from them.
C.
A. BARBER
99
List of clumps and plants dissected.
Group
Saretha
Totals
Nargori
Totals
Sunnabile
|
Totals
Mungo
Totals
Pansahi
Totals
Unclassi-
fied
Indigen-
ous
Totals
YOUNG OLD
(USUALLY (USUALLY
Variety |e 3-4 MONTHS) | 8 MONTHS)
2
=) Clumps; Plants Clumps Plants |
Ganda|-| 1 2 2 4
Cheni
Chin 1 3 1
Huh lw |-- 1 2 1 2
Kabbu |
Katha 1 3 1 3
Khari 1 3 1 3
Saretha 1 3 1 2
for group i 6 16 7 17
Baroukha |-- so ae ae
| Katai = a Bo
Kewali 1 Tes 1 1
Nargori a nos 1 3
Newra . = Sale Aller bf
Sararoo | 1 3 | 1 3
for group 2 5 3 i as
Bansa “ 1 2 1 1
| Bansi . 1 Vint 1 3
Dhaulu eel Bhs 2 ¥
Dhor . 1 3 1 4
Kaghze . 1 3 1 3
Mojorah |---| ... | she Ee
Naanal . 1 3 1 3
Sunnabile 1 3 1 a
for group s- OP ipentG 6 16 |
Hemja ul aoe 1 4 |
Katara | weak elie eee EP -
Kharwi + : | hee bad =
Kuswar |. ety 3 1 3
Mungo ies a 1 3
Rheora | ne
for group 2: | 8 3 10
Chynia 2 32 % si
ahu i = = as:
Maneria Be 1 3 1 1
Pansahi ye 1 or | 1 3
Stave anes ine au | ci ene ms
Khajee
uba te,
for group 2 6 2 4
Dhaulu of ... B
Phillaur
Ikri cy
Kassoer
(Java)
Khagri Aa oe
Khelia | 1 3 ] 2
Teboe fess “a tae
Monjet
per set 1 5 a 1 Z
}
YOUNG | OLD
(USUALLY | (USUALLY
3-5 MONTHS) | 8-9 MONTHS)
S |
a Clumps Plants Clumps Plants
2 ae > 5
Ae a ee 5
Is 2 Gr || 7a 6
2 4 2 6
4 13 PN I
2 7 ce ae ike!
aaa 39 Ci ieee ae
. 2 5 2 4
2h | 6 2 5
24 | 5 2 5
2 | 2 4
| 2 Gime | ee 5
|. 2 eee 3
|| 2 29 | aw | 96
2 | 6 2 5
oe ik BD 2 10
6 13 Zar 4
2 2 2 6
OT Ae 2 5
. 2 6 2 6
16-1 36, b steel Maga
She. ¢ ny bose 2 11
2 3 4 12
2 aa 4
2 6 2 7
2 7 Z 8
. 2 11 2 13
| _—— —— | |
12 49 14 55
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oe 2 3 2 6
sa( eae 4 2 3
|
| 2 5 2 4
| 12 2 | 2 | 96
2 5 2 9
cay 2 6 2 4
5 |
2 5 2 | es
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TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
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C. A. BARBER 101
(2) THE GENERAL COURSE OF BRANCHING.
The sprouting of the buds of the set and their rapid transformation into
cane shoots has been described in Part I of this paper (cf. pp. 46-50 and Plates
IV-VIII). The bush resulting from the planting of a set is termed a clump-
As there are several buds in each set (usually three in India), and each may
give rise to an entirely independent set of stems, leaves and rocts, we shall
find it convenient to reserve the term plant for all that rises from the growth
cfa single bud. Similarly, we use the term shoot for any single axis which deve-
lops successive leaves at its apex and, in course of time, forms a cane. This
distinction between clump and plant has been introduced in the preceding list
of dissections, for it is obvious that the development of each plant will depend
on the amount of space available, and this will be found expressed in the for-
mula and diagram of its branching system, later on. Theoretically, with
sufficient time and space, the development in any cane plant is practically
unlimited, but we find, in practice, that there are certain limits in each variety
beyond which the branching rarely goes, and that there are considerable differ-
ences in groups and varieties in this respect. The joints in the Mungo group are
very short, and, in cutting tha sets for planting, no care is taken to cut them so
that they have only three buds, but a portion of the plant is cut off about the
usual length. In our dissections in this group we have accordingly frequently
met with a large number of plants in the clump. On Plate XVI the dissection
diagrams of two young Hemja clumps are shown, with six and eleven plants
respectively. Compare with these diagrams those on Plate XXX, in which an
older clump of Hemja with four plants, and one of AKuswar with only one plant
are shown. The numbers of living shoots in these clumps are as follows -—
Hemja four plants 33, six plants 31, eleven plants 31, Kuswar one plant 24.
The formule for such plants cannot reasonably be compared with those of
other varieties where only three buds normally occur. It thus becomes a
question whether, in preparing our diagrams and formule, the plant or clump
should be considered the unit. There are, in every form, weak plants in which
only a few canes are developed, and, taking a strongly branching form such as
Yuba, we have the following formule for the four plants dissected : la+3b+ le
and la+7b+16¢+ 8d + le from one clump, and la+3b+5¢e+2d and la+5b+
5e+1d from the other (Pl. XXIII). Here we see a considerable difference
between the development of the plants in the first clump, and there are far
greater differences in other cases, where some of the plants consist of only one or
two canes. On further considering the great number of individual plants in the
clump in the varieties of the Mungo group, it thus becomes doubtful whether
102 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
the formule obtained for separate plants will be of any morphological value.
Undoubtedly, if we planted a series of single budded sets, we should expect
better data as to the tillering power of different varieties, but this would greatly
limit the field of observation. We have, however, instituted such an experiment
during the present season, with the added factor that each plant is allowed
as much room as it is likely to be able to occupy. Meantime, it has been found
that, with the large number of dissections made, the average formule obtained
for different varieties are of service, and that the varieties examined differ
sufficiently for their mode of branching to be added to the already numerous
classification characters which we have observed in our study of indigenous
Indian cane varieties. We have, indeed, an additional advantage in this
variation in development of the individual plants, namely, that im each case
we have a series of plants of different sizes, and are thus in a better position to
judge of the ultimate possible development in each case. But, even if the
limiting of our formule te the plant proved unsatisfactory, we could always
at once deduce those for clumps by adding the respective plant formule toge-
ther, whereas we could not make the converse adjustment. And, lastly, it is
difficult to see how the diagram could be prepared with more than one original
main shoot.
At the commencement of our work, it occurred to us that the position
of the buds on the set might possibly have an influence on their growth. Thus
the end buds of the set might, because of more room, develop into stronger
plants, just as they do at the ends of the rows. But, as the result of many
observations, we have not been able to trace any difference to this cause, as
sometimes the middle bud was the largest and sometimes the end bud. The
plants are apparently too close together for this factor to have any influence.
Similarly, the relative positions of buds above or below the set had apparently
no influence on the ultimate development of the plant, the arrangements where-
by the shoots can alter their position being so perfect that they soon were
able to place themselves in an equally favourable position (cf. Pl. VII, fig. 1,
and also Note on p. 51).
We have seen that the bud ona set, on sprouting, develops more or less
rapidly into a shoot consisting of joints, leaves, buds and roots. At an early
stage of growth, the buds, especially the lower ones, push their way through
the enveloping leaf sheaths and also form similar shoots. We indicate the
main shoot by the letter a, and use bs for its branches, or those of the first
order ; the bs in turn give rise to es or branches of the second order, and further
branching proceeds on simila1 lines to the ds, es, fs, etc., according to the variety
PLATE XVI.
Hema I9IT (4 months old)
One clump with eleven plants
ae
Hema 1917 (4 months old)
One clump: with six plants
———— SK
_—_—.
| 2 a 4 5 6
Diagrams of branching system in the plants of two Hemja clumps. These figures show
what a number of small plants are sometimes found in each clump—which
interferes with the comparative plant formula in the Mungo group.
Moe ie Cees CSU ke eRe ee 8 tn ee ee
be - 7 . re 7 = < : aire 37
aya i ce / hag en re Ges
; —— : :
‘ ae ’ fe ‘ a
mF lak 2 ta lve py, Sete teh SA
Betray par Akt. Adiioib APIGR rene te ae
eels bares Ae aren ret t ae f se phat] ee. ok ;
‘ . _ bibs pal ie aise eeu vals Hie 1 PEARS Cok) Bhs Lee 1 eee Linn ie
an te OF Meta heifer? «eae dary oly aR EO tag. de es tint ae
w 7 é - \ , a. , :
1) ne 8 Lhe o A te obit. 4 ;
7 y ; y >i
1 aes At, ital ode Laer ere hey
s t ¥ Pet)
yet dwt rm i fi ; ; r
¥ iat ' - , J T ’
~- ; i... Y
; ahi ae are 4 vi ‘7 ay a 7 »'s : el a
+ l {
a R ‘ . fy
j ba che ae 4 ' it hi lr Ht x]
o Va ' 1 ~ ee ; ' \ "es | i
i RR Se oc al 0 tel de ee a
p j : :
1 ( 4 a Lee | al :
a, } ty L Od ‘ Vi | : # ' j ea Gel oe ’ t 15 |
oe baa a ey ia iT 1 ‘ ’ 4 Oe \ i
iT" * s 1% * Ae |e ¥ ¢ ’ \ a) a. Pee :
a : & , b+ +h ; t : ; ;
. ; » ae ; f aa, Te ee
te 4 f 7 Oi] ‘s 4 f j } iy
” ‘ bs P ie
we Te, Cie oe ae j '
—" i 4 ; s
7 : y 4 ee Ti f .
ay Sea es »
ios J =e" Pe ; “ y
pi’ a7 > Fs \ f
oe ‘ “te a
2a ;
a a oy -
' Lit N. {
> , A ‘© mn i ti ” : cr TL. is tie y
‘fs ! " é are m4 PrdcaiNe ay Baen of Nis le
4 q * 2 ;
ALT EVE TPES ‘Re i
Sie bocce ~ eit jae ice ia we oe ;
tk ee a " oy 7 ee “— e. osc 5
™ ee ash or
Cc. A. BARBER 103
or species and the amount of energy which each individual plant possesses.
The bs develop more quickly than the as, the cs more quickly than the bs and
so on, until towards the end of the season when the energy available has been
largely used up. This increasing rapidity in development is not to be wondered
at, when we consider the larger mass of leaves and roots and the greater thick-
ness of stems with their store of nutriment, as time passes and the plant becomes
larger. This difference in the rate of growth in branches of successive orders
leaves its impress on the final form assumed by the individual joints, especially
the lower ones, and this makes it easy to deduce the previous rate of develop-
ment from an examination of the dissections. At the point of origin, each
shoot is extremely thin, and its first effort is to increase its thickness, until that
appropriate to the variety has been reached. We have, empirically, but as
the result of many observations, assumed that, until the joints reach about
one inch in length, the shoot is still in this preparatory thickening stage, and
also engaged in the proce’s of branching, for most of the branches are found in
this basal, short-jointed portion. And we thus obtain a useful indication of
the rate of development of any shoot, by measuring the length of the portion
before joints one inch long are reached. The as or main shoots are all distin-
euished by a long basal portion. But we soon meet with another factor, which
influences the length of this part of the stem. This is, that the later formed
shoots have to place themselves between or outside the earlier ones before
they can start growing freely, and they accordingly take a longer time in passing
through their preparatory stage, the basal portion gradually becoming longer
again in branches of higher orders.
In considering the way in which later shoots avoid congestion with the
earlier ones, we have to study the whole question of the orientation of the
buds on successive shoots, and the way in which the latter place themselves
in a favourable position for free growth. The main shoot of the sugarcane
plant, with its two rows of alternate leaves on opposite sides of the stem,
assumes the form of a fan, as is seen in Pl. XVII, fig. 1. Each of these leaves
bears a bud in its axil, and the branches, if developed strictly, should all
be formed in the same plane. Each of these branches has a series of leaves,
of which the first or lowest bud scale hes in the same plane, and, there-
fore, unless some disturbing influence supervenes the whole plant with all
its complex of branches and leaves, if laid out on a table, would be flattened
out in one plane. But this strictness of arrangement is usually avoided
in nature, for the branches would interfere with one another and the
distribution of light would be uneven. Thus, in Pandanus, where the
leaves are arranged in a series of rows, there is an obvious but gradual torsion
3)
104 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
of the stem, so that the vertical ranks of the leaves come to lie in all directions
and they do not thus interfere with one another’s light and air. There
world appear to be a similar torsion, though not always very obvious,
which finds expression in the varying orientation of the buds in the successive
branches of the cane plant (Pl. XVII, figs. 2-5, see also the dissections on
Pl. VI). This is specially seen where, as is often the case, the branching is
congested low down, all the branches arising from a practically common
centre. In other cases it can be noted that the lines of leaves at the base
are not strictly opposed, but both tend to approximate to one or other side
of the stem, usually the outer side. This dorsi-ventrality of the shoot is
especially well seen in Saccharum arundinaceum, where the two rows of buds
are both on the outer, curving side of the later branches, the inner side
being altogether devoid of buds (cf. Pl. I, fig. 2 in the left-hand cane and
fig. 5 of Pl. XVII). But yet another method is adopted by the plant, in that
while the as, and often the bs, are straight to the base, the later formed shoots
are seen to curve in various directions, until a position is reached from which
upward growth may proceed, unimpeded by the branches already formed
(Pl. XVII, figs. 2-5). The character of this curvature varies a good deal in
different varieties, and may attain considerable dimensions, and thus be
regarded as a varietal character of some impcrtance. Consider, for instance,
the way in which the ultimate aim of the plant, to give all its shoots free access
to light and air, is accomplished in the different groups. In the Saretha series
the clump consists of straight or zigzag branches, sprawling in all directions
and often almost lying down ; in Nargori, the canes assume a vertical position
at the earliest possible moment and the curves at the base are comparatively
short and sharp. In Pansahi, while the central shoots are erect, those outside
curve very broadly and regularly, and the clump becomes cup-like in form,
and so on (see Plates illustrating the groups at the end of this Part). And
these various modes of growth, all leave their mark on the basal parts of the
canes composing the clump. But this curvature is further assisted by the
formation of runners which, again, are met with much more frequently in some
varieties than in others. The term needs some explanation. We have applied
it to those cases where, before the earlier thickening stage of the shoot is com-
pleted, one or more long thin joints are intercalated. between the first short ones
and the later ones, and the thickening process commences a second time.
This gives the impression that the shoot, having started its growth along normal
lines, finds itself cramped, but has still the power of changing its position,
and does so by the formation of a runner. The plasticity of the fully formed
branch is not sufficient for this to take place, and therefore runners are usually
to iy igual Za oe taslq evieY gavoy to toode nisl
one m0 9i/ ebud odd doikw si jd, jnorsttib edt gaiwode, oy
&d odd ts
Bak 3 to ‘tee ret4r0 ad
0
+ awoult p18 abud $6 ot
) ms
i shoaseo al rie
b da foiztot Ine mAb doperd Totus neat A inaxd ey
is asr-ierob
Paap fa [sik
p aront yy y by isk
}
PLATE XVIL.
J pill
104 | TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
- of the stem, so that the vertical ranks of the Jeaves come to lie in all directions é
and they do not thus interfere with one another's light and air. There
would appear to be a sunilar torsion, though not always very obvious,
which finds expression in the varying orientation of the buds in the successive
brauches of the cane plant (PI. XVII, figs. 2-5, see also the dissections on
Pl. ¥1). This is specially seen w here, as is often the case, the branching is
congested, low down, all the branches arising from a practically common
centre. In other cases it can be noted that the lines of leaves at the base 4
are not strictly opposed, but both tend to approximate to one or other side
of tha stem, usuiily the outer side, This dorsi-ventrality of the shoot is
especially weil seen in Saccharum arundinaccum, where the two rows of buds
are both on the Eypaanatuonner PdateiXWH. later branches, the inner side
being altogether devoid of buds (ef. Pl. J, fig. 2 in the left-hand cane and
Figsli cI PQ \7/8. \Arkangerhent aridosynmeteyohbranebingpted by the plant, in that
Figs" hgle, —_— Hig htbinig Nek ot ABC Neen: later formed shoots 3
Fig: 1 OMain’ SHOOE ‘OF Young Pera pide.” Wigs, WB! aisdécted Bienbwey of
“UPTO Widen tlt piel olla BAREIS oft SGBdobaiy™A
(2). Ay\ebtohts Phe outer: bandh Ot fig! 3 Shows torsion 6F the? stem! dle! in
Co Nerave Sater Branch of Ag. Bis orsisventral at the have pin. thay! bobws be
POAT he ysiét Suds we throwwtebnelsidene Doycrianee, Consider, for instance,
Fig! “6.” Synlimddhical' dintingdtdhe’ JP Bedhehed Gi al Pani plant, SF mbnitRe oS
to light and air, is accomplished in the different groups. In the Saretha series
ie Se san consists Guagah, 7 eae eras branches, sprawling in all directions
often a most Lying oa in Nargan, the fous Saat Ae na PoE. postion
;
‘Sat “i Foren: ea tienen Ags LSS at the base are comparatively
short nc ind pla of NSS while the centre] shoots are erect, those outside
curve very broadly and regularly, and the clamp becomes cup-like in form,
and so on (see Plates illustrating the groups at the end of this Part), And
these various modes of growth, all leave their mark on the basal parts of the
canes composing the clump, But this curvature is further assisted by the
formation of ruxners which, again, are met with much more frequently in some —
varieties than in others. The term needs some explanation. We have applied
it to those cases where, before the earlier thickening stage of the shoct is com-
pleted, one or more long thin joints are intercalated between the first short ones
and the later ones, and the thickening process commences a second time,
This gives the impression that the shoot, having started its growth along normal a
‘lines, finds itself cramped, but has still the power of changing its position, :
and does so by the formation of a runner. The plasticity of the fully formed
branch is not suficient for this to take place, and therefore runners are usually
4 f
ae
PLATE XVII.
c. A. BARBER 105
confined to the basal, thickening portion of the shoot. It is not by any means
necessary that runners should be formed only in a horizontal direction ; they
may trend downwards or upwards and, indeed, are not infrequently found
in a vertical direction (cf. Pl. XXVIII). And in this case they remind one
of the long preliminary joint formed in a seedling when it is too deeply planted
and is not in a position to tiller freely. It is interesting to note that runners do
not usually give rise to branches, and that, in the curved, portions, it is usual
for only the buds on the outer sides to form shoots, those on the inner sides
remaining small or dying early.
The curvatures occurring at the base of the shoot are usually symmetrical
through a number of joints, and both the nodes and internodes take part in it.
In fully formed canes this is not possible in the internode because of the hardness
of the rind, but at the node there remains throughout the life of the plant
a meristematic zone which makes a bend possible. We thus come across
bends in the canes long after the curving portion is passed, whereby a shoot is
able to assume the erect position and regain it if accidentally thrown down,
exactly as in grasses laid by a storm. This bending takes place chiefly in the
“ orowth ring”? which is usually greatly increased in width on the underside of
the bend. In some varieties this nodal bending is characteristic of all the cane
joints, whether it is necessary to alter the position of the cane or not and we
accordingly get a zigzag cane with bendings in alternate directions. Zigzag
joints usually occur in canes with long joints, and hence they are met with
in the Saretha and Pansahi groups, but are absent in the short-iointed Sunnabile
and Mungo varieties.
This arrangement of the branches of the cane is of great importance for
its healthy development. Where the branches are too congested, the buds
are suppressed and killed along the contact surfaces or, if they survive, they
give rise to small, feeble, whiplike branches which are only very rarely able to
force their way upwards and form canes. For the demonstration of this phase
of the plant’s activity, it is advisable to form a grownd plan of the shoots, and
this is sometimes very instructive. It is frequently possible to separate great
sectors of the branching system by merely cutting through successive bs at
their bases. Such separated portions often assume the form of a crescent and
can be easily fitted into the other sectors, and an example of this is given in
Plate XVII, fig. 8. Some of the schemes thus produced are highly symme-
trical in vertical section (figs. 6 and 7), and show that the arrangement of the
branches of the cane, with reference to the light available, is on a par with the
fitting in of the leaves of a plant or the tops of the trees in the great primeval
106 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
forest. In the latter case, we have frequently been able to detect, on looking
upwards, a hexagonal outline for the whole leafy top of an individual tree,
We can now return to the consideration of the way in which the rate and
manner of development of the shoots, of different orders of branching, is
impressed permanently on the morphological character of the mature canes.
We have measured the basal, short-jointed portion in each cane of each
dissection, and find it longer, with a greater number of closely packed. joints
‘in the as than in the bs and cs. In the later formed canes, however, we find
the matter complicated by the incidence of curvature, and the length of this
basal portion again tends to increase in the branches of higher orders, often
indeed ultimately exceeding that in the main shoot. But there is no danger
of confusing the different classes of branches on this account. Besides the
actual curvature itself, which is absent in the as, there is usually a great thicken-
ing in the curved portion in late branches, followed by a rapid thinning when
the curved portion has passed ; then the change in length is sudden, and quite
long joints are immediately reached, as contrasted with the extremely leisurely
increase in length in the earlier ones.
In measuring the length and thickness of branches of different orders
we have confined our attention to the first two feet cf cane. There are several
reasons for this. In the first place the dissections would have been practically
impossible, if a great mass of leafy canes was attached to the base during its
manipulation, so it has been the custom, in the older canes, to cut the clump
at three to four feet from the ground before bringing it to the laboratory.
Then again, we have learnt, from our series of measurements of the length of
joints, that, in the plotted curves, the joints reach their maximum very soon
after the cane has emerged from the ground (cf. Chart HU, p. 175, Mem. III).
The longest jomts are almost always met with in the first two or three feet,
and afterwards there is a regular decrease until the end of the cane. Lastly,
we have come to the conclusion that, at two feet from the ground, the thickness
of the cane has reached a very fair average, although it is sometimes compli-
cated by a varietal thickening or narrowing after this region has been passed.
In measuring the length of joints in the first two feet, we have omitted the
unformed, basal portion, and only started measuring when the first inch-long
joint has been encountered. This has also meant the omission of runners and,
usually, the curved portion in later formed shoots. In other words, we have
~ taken these measurements only in the fully formed cane. The results have shown
a very marked increase in length of joint in the successive branchings, the
joints in b being longer than those in a, and in ¢ longer than 6, and so forth.
Cc. A. BARBER 107
In our former studies! we used this character to distinguish early and late
canes, in that the early canes had short basal joints, while the later ones had
longer ones, and we see that this method of distinguishing them was amply
justified.
Besides the difference in length, there is also one in the thickness of the
branches of different orders. The bs are usually thicker than the as, and the
es than the ds, and so on throughout the series, until the amount of energy
at the plant’s disposal is exhausted. It may be postulated generally that this
increase in length and thickness of joint is, in the main, connected with more
rapid and energetic growth, and is the resultant of the action of the mass of
roots and leaves present and available for the common use of the plant. Just
as the leaves become successively broader and. longer in the young plant, so do
the stems increase in size. But when we apply this strictly to the successive
orders of branches, we meet with another complication. A moment’s thought
will show that the bs in a plant are ina somewhat different position from the
cs and ds. All the bs are borne on one shoot, the solitary a, but this is not the
case in the cs and ds, which may be borne on any of several branches. We
number the bs in their order of appearance on the stem, which roughly coin-
cides with the time of their shooting. But in the cs we first number those
on 61, then those on 62, and so on (cf. Pl. IL). While then 61, 62, 63 are in
more or less strict order of development, there is no means of telling the order
in cl, c2, 03, etc., for it would be quite possible for the first ¢ on 62 to arise
before the second on bl. And this difference in the numbering of the 6s and
es places the former in a better position for making observations on any incre-
ments in size according to the date of their origin during the plant’s growth.
For instance, by observing the measurements of successive bs, we learn that
there is a tendency for an initial increase in size over the as, soon reaching a
maximum, and, followed by a decline, when the amount of energy in the indivi-
dual shoot is beginning to wane. There is in fact a general tendency for the
bs to become thinner as we pass up a. A couple of examples, typical of a very
large number of plants dissected, may suffice. In M.5300, lly of the list,
the thickness of the four bs are, in mm., 170, 200, 165, 156; in Kassoer III
the figures for the six bs are 274, 165, 167, 140, 121, respectively. This tailing
off of the late bs accounts to a certain extent for the fact which will be noted
later, that, in the general summation of the thickness of the branches of different
orders, there is less difference between the averages in as and bs than between
those in the bs and cs. There are often thin bs at the end of the series, whereas
1 Mem. III, p. 162, &c.
108 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
there are fewer cs on any one branch, and there is therefore less evidence of
this tailing off. The as, if formed at all into strong shoots, are generally well
grown, but of only moderate thickness,
The elementary facts here detailed, regarding the general course of growth
of the cane plant, may with convenience be studied by a glance at the figures
on Plate IL of Memoir No. HI, of a Pansahi plant, and the description of this
Plate in the text. A more striking example is given in a couple of photographs
of Saccharum arundinaceum on Plate Iof the present Memoir, in which the
variations in length and thickness of joints are very clearly shown. We may
be excused for pointing out, in passing, a curious resemblance between the
Pansahi canes and those of this wild Saccharum. Just as the irregularity
and disorder of Saccharum spontaneum is seen in the general dissections of
the Saretha group, the almost mathematical exactitude of Saccharum arundi-
naceum is reproduced in members of the Pansahi group, which, for a moment,
suggests the possibility of genetic connection between the latter pair, as well
as that now believed to exist between the two former ; but this connection is not
confirmed by a general study of the other characters which we have examined.
We have referred above to the early branching period of the growth of
the cane plant, and we may now enquire if there is any indication of the same
division into the two periods—tillering and elongating—which is seen in grasses
(cf. pp. 52-55). The matter is complicated by the fact that there is not neces-
sarily a flowering period in the sugarcane, when all the shoots are thrust simul-
taneously upwards, although the canes cannot attain their proper dimensions
without being pushed up into the light and air. Furthermore, as soon as
a cane shoot has attained its full thickness, it starts growing onwards in the
upright direction exactly like a palm tree, and there is no halt in this upward
growth until the inevitable slowing down towards harvest time. Thus, while
one shoot is engaged in attaining its full thickness and giving off what branches
are likely to have a chance of development, beneath the surface, another is
already well formed, well above the ground and rapidly forming solid cane.
We cannot therefore easily separate the growth of the plant, as a whole, into a
tillering and elongation period, as in grasses. But this is less difficult where some
external factor acts as a restrainer on the early growth of the plant. Such, as
already noted, are the dry spell in the north of India during the early months of
the year after planting, which tends to prolong the tillering period, and the drought
in the Godavari District, caused by the annual cleaning out of the canals, often,
as already mentioned, accompanied, by a determined attack of shoot borer, which
kills each shoot as soon as it emerges above ground. But, when we consider
Cc. A. BARBER 109
each shoot separately, we see that there are two very distinct periods of
growth in it, the first answering closely to the tillering period, when it is increas-
ing in thickness and length of joint and is busy in forming its branches, and
the second, when, after attaining its full thickness, it commences to form joints
of appreciable length, and rapidly shoots into the air, a stage comparable
with the elongating pericd in grasses. Thus the periods which characterize
the shoots of the grass plant at one and the same time are present in the cane
plant also, but in each shoot independently of the others. In spite of this
fundamental difference, it is possible to separate cane varieties as to their
general periods of growth. The term “cane formation” is well known in
the fields, and is used to indicate the first appearance of solid canes between
the bases of sheathing leaves just above the ground, and this cane formation
differs a good deal in different varieties. It is, for instance, much more rapid
in the Saretha than in the Sunnabile group (see Mem. III, p. 159 and Pl. IV),
and still more so than in the later Mungo group. The length of the tillering
period thus finds its expression in the rate of maturing ofthe canes in any
clump, and this has been carefully studied in all the varieties ; and a special
series of dissections has been made for the purpose, at three to four months
after planting.
(3) DIAGRAMS AND FORMUL& OF THE BRANCHING SYSTEM.
In a previous paper a few pages were devoted to the branching system of
the Saretha and Sunnabile groups of canes, and to these were added a diagram
of the branching of a Pansahi plant with several photographs of dissected
plants, showing the differences in length and thickness of joints in branches
of successive orders (Mem. III, pp. 156-160). The conclusions arrived
at were stated to be preliminary, as a much larger series cf dissections was
projected during the approaching season; but, from the work already done,
it was suggested that, by studying the branching typical of any group of cane
varieties, some idea might be obtained as to its relations with the more primi-
tive forms on the one hand and the tropical canes on the other, and its place
in the ascending series of evolution approximately gauged. Tentative formule
were suggested to express the general course of branching in particular cases.
This work has now considerably progressed, and the larger series of dissections
has been completed, presenting us with a mass of interesting material for
study.
The grouping of the cane varieties is that adopted in a short paper in the
Agricultural Journal of India (Vol. XI, Part IV, Oct., 1916). Six varieties
of each of the main groups, Saretha, Sunnabile, Pansahi, Nargori and Mungo,
110 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
were selected. To these were added six unclassified varieties of indigenous
canes, including two recent importations from Java, four of the ‘‘ Rogues ” found
in thick cane seedling plots, four wild Saccharum species growing in India,
six thick cane varieties and a couple of crosses between these and Saccharum
spontaneum. In each variety at least four clumps were dissected, two at 3-4
months from planting, in order to study early stages and to determine the rate
of maturing, and two 7-10 months old, when the plants were more or less full
grown, to obtain general formule of the canes and shoots at crop time. These
varieties were grown in a special plot, in rows three feet apart and at distances
of two feet in the row. The treatment was good and the soil fair. Most of
the plants developed well, but in certain cases it was found difficult to obtain
good representative specimens, and insuch cases recourse was had to the
ordinary variety plots, where there was a larger number of plants to choose
from. The general aim was to secure moderately well grown plants, and all
meagre, stunted clumps were rejected as unlikely to be of comparative value.
There was, curiously, special difficulty in obtaining good specimens of both
Saccharum spontaneum and thick tropical canes. Better specimens of the
former were secured from the seedling plots, where Saccharum spontaneum
was grown as a parent, and of the latter, as already stated, by sending a man
down to Nellikuppam in the South Arcot District, where Red Mauritius was
known to be growing luxuriantly under crop conditions. A certain number
of ratoons were included among the thick canes, and, as in these cases the
original piece of cane, planted two years before, was still attached, the results
have proved of exceptional interest.
On a review of the formule obtained, and the general course of branching
in the varieties and groups mentioned above, certain doubts have at times
crept in as to the correctness of the classification adopted in the Agricultural
Journal paper. In selecting the varieties for each group, it was attempted
to obtain a general representative series, including specimens of all observed
deviations from the typical varieties. Certain forms have shown themselves
to be aberrant in their branching, and in other cases a series of transitions
has been observed between the different types. Thus, in the Mungo group,
Kharwi, a primitive form, differsa good deal from the rest, especially in the
rate of maturing, and appears to approach Dhaulu in the Sunnabile group.
The inclusion of this cane in the Mungo group will have to be reconsidered,
especially as it was placed there as the result of only a cursory examination,
owing to its recent arrival on the farm. Katara, also only tentatively placed
in the Mungo group, and obviously somewhat deviating from the type, has
shown in its dissections that it is transitional between Kharwi and the others.
Cc. A. BARBER lll
The rest are in fairly close agreement with one another. It is interesting to
note that, in the Saretha group, the division into the Katha and Mesangan
sections receives support, in that Katha, Saretha and Chin develop much
earlier than Ganda Cheni, Khari, and Hullu Kabbu. A similar cleavage now
shows itself in the Sunnabile group, although this was only suspected when the
varieties were examined in Memoir HL. Dhaulu, Bansa, and Mojorah
develop earlier and branch more copiously than Dhor, Naanal and Sunnabile.
The position ct Mojorah, the thickest in the group and nearest in several
respects to thick canes, was unexpected, but it is worth while noting that,
both in the Saretha and Sunnabile subdivisions, the cleavage indicated, by the
dissections is according to geographical regions, the earlier maturing, more
richly branching forms being clustered along the Himalayas, while the tardier
varieties are found in the Peninsula. In the Nargori group, which is generally
marked by the homogeneity of its members, Kewali and Ketari differ some-
what from the rest. But in spite of these irregularities, the general result
of the dissecting work has been abundantly to justify the general lines of
classification adopted, and, as shown in the study of the Saretha and Sunnabile
groups in Memoir III, the branching system yields a character of systematic
value. It must be remembered that only a few varieties in each group have
been studied, and these remarks on classification must therefore be regarded
as suggestive rather than otherwise ; but it is worth recording that subdivisions,
such as are obvious in the Naretha group, may also be expected to occur in the
other main classes, and. it is hoped that the apparent uniformity of the various
groups may break down on further study, for this is to be expected in any
natural system of classification.
The form of the diagram, recording the dissections of plants in full grown
clumps, is similar to that given forthe Pansahi plant figured in Memoir II
(p. 157), and the character of the lines used, for the branches of different orders
is the same as in that figure. Certain conventions have been introduced,
which may be summarized as follows :—
(1) Sleeping buds are altogether omitted as having nothing to do with
active branching. Only those much swollen or bursting have been included
and their relative size is indicated. Large, white, clawed buds are, it is pre-
sumed, still under ground, and the dividing character between them and the
small shoots is the presence or absence of any green at the tips.
(2) Dead buds are indicated by a short line with a cross line at the end.
The same cross line shows dead shoots or canes. Most of the diagrams have no
distinction between resting and burst buds, which have died.
112 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
99
(3) The term “ shoots” is reserved for such as have green leaves, and these
vary from tiny ones just emerged above the ground to those already forming
immature canes. They do not reach the top of the diagram, this position
being reserved, for what are considered fully grown canes; the length of the
shoots is indicated by a set of empirical figures, 1’, 2’, 3, etc., which roughly
indicate the relative stage of development without accurate measurements
having been taken. When shoots are large and have formed canes below,
which, it is assumed, would be sufficiently matured to reap as canes at harvest,
they are distinguished by the letters cf, 7.e., cane-forming, at their ends, and
such shoots are included in the formula of canes at harvest.
(4) The term ‘‘runners” is used in rather a wide sense, as described on
page 104. When the initial thickening stage at the base of the young shoot
is interrupted, and a few thin, long joints are intercalated, after which the
thickening is resumed, this intercalated portion is called a runner. They
are specially found in late formed canes, where the space available is not
sufficient for free growth ; but it is to be noted that they occur more frequently
in some varieties and groups than in others. They are marked in the diagram
by an added fine parallel line along the part where they occur. Hxamples
may be seen in Plates XVIII and XXX
(5) Attacks of white-ants and moth-borer, and other injuries, are indicated
by an asterisk with descriptive letters added. Shoots thus attacked are usually
rejected, in forming averages, because of the disturbances induced in the
length and thickness of the joints following the injury.
A couple of diagrams are appended in which these conventions are used.
We have selected Katha 13 and Sunnabile 13 of the list, as showing most of
them clearly (Plate XVIII).
The formule of these are as follows :—
Katha 13. Canes, a+4b+4c+5d; shoots, 3¢+2d; buds, 3¢+5d ;
Dead, 1b+7c+4d; Runner, 1d.
Sunnabile 13. Canes, a+25b4+6c+d; shoots, le+3d; buds, 7e+
14d+3e; Dead, 4b+5c+2d; Runner, le.
A word, is here necessaryas to the time at which the dissections were
made. It was unfortunately impossible to dissect the different varieties at
the same time. It is rather a tedious process, and the number done was very
large. In the 3-4 months’ dissections, the time occupied was about six weeks,
and it was arranged to do the early maturing kinds first, and leave such late
sroups as the Mungo until the end. This was found to give satisfaction,
although of course the observed differences in the rate of maturing were thus
PLATE XVIII.
Sumnnabile 1 3
ia)
»
fa)
ow
1 bo3
’
1
‘
4
‘
‘
{
\
‘
‘
‘
‘
\
ai \
é\cf 1
Le \
‘ \ '
. \ \
\ \ \
\ x \ bi
Y
\ \ N
\ ‘
\ \
. ‘\
\ \
< :
‘ \ é
XN mee nie ae
eX me eN DB
0 SANE 4a)
. eS
Suet 2 :
Sy a BO,
Two diagrams of the branching in dissected plants, to illustrate
the conventions used.
* i f ic:
' ars, MAP a
Te fares SR ete Cea
’ ! . "® 7 rt hy
oo 4
mal rid y
CG. A. BARBER 115
made less than the reality (cf. p. 127). The 8-10 months’ clumps took at least
three months to dissect, but the same method was adopted, and it was found
that it was perfectly possible, at this stage, to decide what canes would
be matured at harvest time. This, however, applied only to the cultivated
canes. The wild Saccharums do nct exhibit any special ripening, as for a
crop time, and the dissections made from six to nine months show great
individual variations in the rate of cane-formation. There was, in these forms
generally, an absence of large shoots which were not cane-forming at the
base, at whatever time the dissection took place, and in this respect they
were at variance with the rest. This fact shows that, in the cultivated canes,
the general plan of cane-formation for the season is laid down months before
the harvest, and the differences in the periods at which the dissections were
made were of little importance with regard to the end in view, which was to
obtain a scheme for each plant of the number and character of the canes formed,
with a general view of the shoots and buds and deaths occurring. The thick
canes were dissected late, on the assumption that cane-formation was very
tardy ; but this has not turned out to be altogether the case, as will be seen
later. The matter is, however, of less importance, in that most of the thick
canes were dissected at crop time, and thus all immature canes were at once
rejected as not fit for cutting at harvest.
The work was not without its special difficulties. The absence of well
grown representative specimens in some varieties in the dissection plots has
already been referred to. It is probable that, in these forms, not usually
growing well at the Cane-breeding Station, a more elaborate form of branching
may be more characteristic, as, for instance, in members of the Katha section
of the Saretha group, but this irregularity in the development of varieties
would probably occur at any one place where all the forms were being grown
together ; and in the present case it was merely considered sufficient to note
in the record that such and such variety was poorly grown. In some cases
the branches were formed very near the base of the stem, and so intricate a
mass was revealed that it was almost impossible to get a connected picture
of the branching system. This was, for instance, the case with Kaghze, which,
however, for other reasons, was rejected in the later dissections. In yet other
cases, the attachment of the canes at their base, whether to the original set
or to the later stems, was extremely thin and brittle. Such were bodily removed,
their places of insertion being marked by a series of duplicated pins with
numbers attached, and the general plant was then reconstructed after all the
sectors had been independently dissected. But a study of this firmness of
attachment showed at once that it varied greatly in the different groups,
114 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
the Chin allies being very lightly fixed together, while in the Pansahi group
there were thick, broad attachments which gave the impression of growth
in thickness for some time after their formation. While then, it was very
difficult to do the Saretha dissections, it was always easy to lay out great sectors
of the Pansahi clumps with all the branches attached. The firmness of the
attachment is of some importance as a group character and notes have been
recorded. on it.
Another more puzzling factor was the frequent deaths of both young
and old branches. There seemed to be some ground, for assuming that, when a
stem died, its place would be taken by one of its branches, which would take
on its characters in whole or in part and thus beccme a facultative branch of a
lower order. In other words, when an a died, its place might be taken by
one or more bs, which would, assume a characters. This would, of course, interfere
fundamentally with the typical diagram, as well as the distinction of the
classes a and b in that plant. We have seen that there are a number of charac-
ters by which we can distinguish between the branches of successive orders:
and we have always kept an eye open for the presence of facultative branches.
And there have been, undoubtedly, a number of cases where these occurred. ;
but in the great majority of the specimens examined, the death of an a did.
not seem to have a very great influence on the measurements of bs and subse-
quent branches formed. There were, however, all stages between a very
slight or doubtful influence and an obvious facultative b, so that, wherever
possible, plants with sound as were used for dissection. Some varieties appear
to be much more liable to lose their as than others; for instance, m Saretha,
it was found impossible to do without a considerable number of missing as
in spite of a large number of clumps dissected. It is probable that the time at
which death occurs has a considerable influence in the matter. If it occurred
when the successors had already formed their basal joints, its influence
would be small, as our observations have been confined, to the lower parts of
the cane. If, on the other hand, the death of a shoot occurred very early, it would
be quite possible for a facultative branch to take its place for the purpose of
producing the necessary number of shoots in the plant. Although the forma-
tion of such a facultative branch is by no means a necessary sequel to the early
death of a shoot, it somewhat seriously interferes with the regularity of the
diagram. For instance, if ac dies after its basal portion is formed, it gives
rise to one or more ds, and. thus lengthens the formula. A case of this can be
seen in the diagrams illustrating the branching of Thick canes (Pl. XXXII,
lower figure). There are two plants in the clump and their formule are,
for the smaller plant, a+4b+1c+2d+e, and, for the larger, a+4b+6c+d.
Cc. A. BARBER 115
An examination of the figures shows that ac hasdied early in the smaller
plant and that from its stump 2ds and le arise. If this death had not occurred,
the formula would have been a+4b+2c or perhaps a+4b+2c+d, and the
unusual e would certainly not have been developed. And many similar
examples could be given, where the death of an a, b or c, causes an abnormal
lengthening of formula. .
Lastly, the congestion at the base in such forms as Chin and Kaghze
introduces numerous irregularities which interfere with the formule and the
measurements taken, it apparently being the merest chance whether suppression
occurs or meagre shoots survive for a time, or a cane forces its way through
and ultimately matures, often showig marks of its struggle for existence.
All of these and other factors have their influence on the regularity and
symmetry of the branching system, and have made the preparation of charac-
teristic formule more difficult.
Appended is a summary list of the formule of canes at crop time for each
group of varieties dissected. In this list, fractions are treated in the usual
way, in that halves and fractions below a half are ignored, while fractions over
one-half are counted as equal to one. In some cases there is only one variety
in the formula, as in Saccharum arundinaceum and the Red Mauritius cane,
dissected at Nellikuppam. The six unclassified indigenous Indian varieties
do not of course form a group, but have been taken together in this list. In
Saccharum spontaneum there are three varieties, which differ among them-
selves even more than the ordinary varieties of a group, but they have been
taken together for convenience. There are six varieties each in the Saretha,
Pansahi, Nargori, Mungo, Sunnabile and Thick cane groups. To these are
added four Rogues from thick cane plots and two Crosses between a thick
cane and Saccharum spontaneum. The group formule are prepared in two
different ways. At first the formula was obtained for each variety, and these
formule were averaged for the group to which they belonged. But it was
thought possible that a better average would be obtained if all the plants:
in each group were added together and averaged, and this was accordingly done
The two sets of figures are distinguished by the words “ varieties ” and “‘plants”’
in column No. 2. Besides these formule of canes at crop time, a summary
has been made of all the stems and branches, with their shoots and buds
whether living or dead. These will, it is thought, give a general idea of the
branching capacity of the whole plant, but these combined formule are less
symmetrical and instructive than those of canes at crop time. The latter may
be regarded, in some sort, as the total output of the plant, analogous to the
116 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
ear heads of a cereal, for the cane plant has long been cultivated for the
special development of as many matured canes as possible.
Average plant formule of the groups dissected.
LL
Averages
of plants
or
varieties
Group
Saccharum are ane
undinaceum ants
Saccharum spon- Plants
taneum Se een
\ ; Plants
Pansahi ev.
Varieties ...
, Plants
Mungo a
Varieties ...
b J Plants
Saretha =
( Varieties ...
{ Plants
Nargori 3]
Varieties ...
Plants
Sunnabile ar igs
arieties
i Cane- Plants
Thick {02 ing
canes | Station Varieties ...
Red ( Nelli
Mauri. ; ee Plants
tius | kuppam J
Unclassified indi-} Varieties
genous varieties (6
Rogues in thick} Varieties
(4
cane plots
Crosses, Thick] Varieties
canes by wild (2)
Saccharums
Oo
29
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CANES AT CROP
CANES, SHOOTS, BUDS
AND DEATHS
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With regard to these two methods of obtaining the formule, it may be
noted that, for canes formed at harvest, the two methods show little difference
in the result. The greatest difference is seen in the Mungo group, where the
summation of the 59 separate plants gives a formule of la+2b+2c+1d,
whereas that taken by averaging the six varietal formula is la+3b+3c+ 2d.
Cc. A. BARBER thy Wg
The two formul for Saretha, Nargori, Sunnabile and the Thick cane group
are identical, and in the rest only differ in one figure. In the table the groups
have been arranged according to the length of the formule. The wild
Saccharums and the Thick canes are, as might be expected, at the ends of the
series, and the indigenous Indian groups occupy an intermediate position.
The Red Mauritius canes grown at Nellikuppam show an extension of the
formula over that of the six varieties grown at the Cane-breeding Station.
One idea in having these canes dissected was to see how far the formula of a
thick cane might be extended under favourable conditions. Only good clumps
were dissected, the distance between the rows was four to five feet in place of
three feet at Coimbatore, and there could not well have been greater difference
in the character of the soil. That at Nellikuppam is a free sandy loam not un-
like the soils met with in the Gangetic alluvium, in place of the rather heavy,
shghtly saltish land at Coimbatore. Besides this, the Red Mauritius variety
is noted as a rather free tillering kind. We have accordingly kept this series
separate, for, if comparisons are to be instituted between them and the
Indian canes, these too should be grown in the places best suited to them.
There were many plants in the clumps of most of the varieties dissected which
were poorly grown, often only consisting of one or two canes, and there
were also, occasionally, abnormally large single plants. By the employment
of a sufficiently large number of individual dissections, both of these extremes
have been ruled out, and it is assumed that a fair average has been obtained
for each variety and group.
The wild Saccharums head the list in the extension of their formule,
and the large number of es in Saccharum arundinaceum suggest that a single
f might with propriety be added to complete the series, which would then be
1:4:6:6:5: 1. The average figures have accordingly been examined
to see what decimals were present at the end of each formula. Where such a
decimal exceeds one-quarter, it has been inserted, and it is seen that this only
occurs in the wild Saccharums and the Rogues from the thick cane plots.
We should expect that the full form of the Pansahi formula would be 1: 3: 4:
3:1, Nargori 1: 3: 3: 1, and perhaps Sunnabile 1: 3: 2: 1, but the deci-
mals which could be added are insignificant. We may therefore suggest
that well grown specimens, or those under suitable conditions of growth, are
likely to have such an extension of the formula, as there is a marked tendency
in all the formule for a fairly symmetrical series of figures.
As regards the acclimatization of the different kinds, Saccharum arundi-
naceum appears to be either very hardy or perfectly at home. The latter is
118 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
most probable, as this plant has been grown for many generations in the south
of India, and indeed in the immediate neighbourhood of the farm, on richly
cultivated land as a fence round betel (Piper Betle) gardens. The Pansahi
group seems to be also very hardy and little incommoded by the occasional
saltness of the land on the farm. Saretha varieties of the Katha section do
not grow well on the farm, and Saccharum spontaneum is not, at first, at home
in the cultivated land. The Mungo series is obviously at a disadvantage
because of the comparatively large number of plants per clump. The result
given in the table must therefore be taken as for one place only, with its many
peculiarities, in many cases not the best suited for free growth of the variety.
But it is improbable that any one place could be found where all the varieties
grown would be equally at home. With this word of warning, we can proceed
to analyse the averages in the table. The Thick canes, in the character of their
branching, show themselves furthest removed from the wild Saccharums.
Then come in order the Sunnabile and Nargori groups which approach the
Thick canes, then Saretha, Mungo and Pansahi, which are nearer to the wild
kinds. There is no reason to assume, only from the formule above given,
that Saretha is nearest to Saccharum spontaneum, although we have noted
many other similarities in Memoir III. The suggestion rather obtrudes itself
afresh that the Mungo and Pansahi groups of canes may have arisen indepen-
dently from some wild parent, and this agrees with the strongly marked charac-
ters of these types. The details in each group find no place here, and would
fill up a large number of pages. A few notes on them are added at the end
of the Memoir.
The above remarks refer to the formule obtained from averaging the
canes formed at crop time. Shoots and burst buds and dead branches also
have their significance in the branching system, and we have included these
in a second series of columns. We may now turn to them to see if they show
anything of interest. It must be acknowledged, however, that the deaths have
not been very wisely marked down in the dissections. For them to be strictly
included in the branching system, only dead buds which had already burst
should have been counted. But while this was done at first, towards the end
of the work all dead buds were counted, on the assumption that they died in the
effort of growing out, which was probably often not the case. On considering
the enlarged formule, we find that the general tendency is the same as that
in the canes at crop time. The Sunnabile and Nargori groups are now indis-
tinguishable from the Thick canes, the greater shooting in the latter being
possibly due to their encouragement in the process of ratooning or growing
for a second year from the same root stock. Some note may be taken of the
Cc. A: BARBER 119
different degrees of development of certain classes of buds and shoots in the
different classes. In Saccharum spontaneum and the Rogues from the thick
cane plots, it is the ds which form the bulk, these groups being closely followed
in this by the luxuriantly growing members of the Pansahi group. But
in the latter, the cs are nearly as well developed, and this order of shoots is
dominant in the other groups, especially in the Nargori and Sunnabile forms.
This dominance of certain orders of branches is probably connected with the
formule already discussed above, the tendency being in each case for the full
series of branches not to be symmetrical, but for the maximum to be thrown
forward, so that the higher members come beyond the middle of the series.
Turning to the formule in the odd lots, the six unclassified indigenous
canes, the Rogues and the Crosses between a thick cane and Saccharum sponta-
neum show certain peculiarities. The cane formula for the six unclassified
indigenous varieties is very short. This-can be easily accounted for by an
examination of the varieties selected. They were not intended to be represent-
ative in any way, but were such as for one reason or another were interesting.
Thus the three Khelia, Khagri and Ikri, apparently closely related to one
another, showed a considerable likeness to the Thick canes, and Teboe Monjet
has a similar formula. Dhaulu of Phillaur approaches Sunnabile in its formula.
This was rather unexpected, as this form is considered, from other characters,
to be near the Mungo group, but its formula suggests the idea that it may be
a connecting link between the Mungo and Sunnabile groups. Kassver, a
strong-growing Java form, has the only extended formula, and resembles
Saretha in this. The average of the six cannot therefore be taken as represent -
ative of indigenous Indian canes generally, and they were not intended to be so.
The Rogues show a very long formula and produce an immense number
of shoots of all kinds. This is in accordance with their great vigour and marked
primitive characters. The crosses of Vellai by Saccharum spontaneum, on the other
hand, show surprisingly little influence of the male parent in their branching,
The formula is extremely short, practically that of Nargori and Sunnabile,
which groups are near to the Thick canes. This nearness to the Thick canes
is also shown in the richness of the juice in these two seedlings, which is not
in any way intermediate between the wild Saccharums and Vellai.
(4) AVERAGE LENGTH OF THE BASAL, THICKENING PORTION OF THE
CANE, IN BRANCHES OF DIFFERENT ORDERS,
It was noted above that, in judging the average length of the joints
in the lowest two feet of cane, the narrow basal region, where the
fi
120 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
joints had not as yet reached one inch in length and were still in the process of
thickening, was excluded. The selection of this one inch length is purely
empirical, but it answers the purpose well enough. The joints in this region
are very numerous and, towards the base, present the appearance of a series of
superposed discs, with difficulty separated from one another. We may
consider this portion of the cane as that engaged in attaining its full thickness
and in giving off branches, as contrasted with the following elongating portion,
and it presents certain characters which may be now briefly considered. As
it is the formative region, in which the whole system of branches must arise,
it is not surprising that it is longer in the main stem than in its branches. It
has been measured. in all the canes in each plant examined, and the table shows
the general averages of each group. We see there, that, while in the as of
all the groups its average length is 3-7”, it is 2°6” in the bs. We should expect a
similar difference between the bs and the cs and so on, but this is not the case.
In fact, in most groups, there is a distinct increase in the leneth of the basal
part in succeeding branches after the bs are passed. This fact has been already
explained by the presence in these later branches of curvatures, whereby they
may be placed in a better position for developing freely. And it has been
noted that, where there is such a curve, the joints remain short until the cane
has straightened out and is in a position to grow upwards in a vertical line.
In the Thick canes, in the Mungo group and in Saccharum spontaneum, there
is a continuous reduction in the length of the basal part throughout the series
of branches. This is readily explained in the first and last cases, in that curva-
ture is generally less evident in them, in the Thick canes because of their
comparative fewness, and in the wild Saccharum because of the thinness of
its branches, their general irregularity and the constant presence of runners.
In Saccharum spontaneum the shoots are placed in a position for free develop-
ment rather by runners than by curves, and the result is that the whole complex
of branches in the clump is loosely knit together instead of bemg-elosely compacted
as in the cultivated canes. In Mungo the case is different. There area
great nuniber of canes in the clump, but these arise from a large number of
separate buds, as many as 11 having been noted in one case. It is possible
that this even distribution of the individual plants along the length of the
set may serve the purpose of placing them, and thus do away with the necessity
of much curving. But curving is present, as also are runners, and the regular
decrease in the lengths of the basal portions of branches of successive orders
comes somewhat as a surprise. We have to wait until the ds, before we get
the expected increase in length. With these two tendencies in opposite direc-
tions, we get, in the averages of all the groups, a uniformity in the lengths in
Cc. A. BARBER 12]
bs, cs, and ds, which is rarely met with in the individual plants. As in other
cases, we have to turn to Saccharum arundinaceum for the complete regularity
of the series. Here the lengths in a average 2°9”, and there is a sharp drop to
the bs with 2°71”, followed by increases to 274”, 2:9", 3:2”, in the succeeding
branches of higher orders. A glance at the uprooted clump in this species
will show the increasing curvature which is a dominant factor in this character
(ef. Pl.. I).
Average length of basal part, with joints under 1” in length, in inches.
Group a Noe a b po Gi e if Remarks
Saretha a3 ses Gh haere) SOs 2e0 wipe 2:5);| eto | aC: “ The _ figures
Sunnabile oS : 6 DW PPS SPA I OF see : in brackets
Pansahi 6 SR alge a OH) 2:45) 5'(2:0) yl eee are such as
Nargori 6 GH || M2 Pes Me (PUN e- a occur only
Mungo 6 V5456) 4} 3:6: | 2:7 Oil) ig (2s3) wie ees in one case
Various indigenous 6 5:0) | sis) | ol 34 and may be
Rogues , ae 4 3:0) (2:65 2:9 25 | (2:1) (1°5)| disregarded
Crosses me eee 2 2:8 2-4 2:8 | (38) ug a as not re-
Thick canes | 6 | 43 arti SFOs el (OA etek alll. Reo presen ting
Red Mauritius at Nellikuppam 1 | sd) | 2:8 | 2:5 id cOE NT ces an average
Saccharum spontaneum é 3 26 | 20 | 16 16 | 19 | (06)| for the
Saccharum arundinaceum 1 2:9 21 24 Deere La group.
Average of all the groups oH 2:6) 26 27 | 2:4
| |
(5) AVERAGE LENGTH OF JOINTS IN BRANCHES OF DIFFERENT ORDERS.
The main shoot arising from a bud on a set is different from its
branches in several respects. It has been shown that it takes longer to
develop, in that the plant is small and weak at first; it has a longer basal,
branching portion; it is also markedly shorter jointed than its successors.
This will be seen from the Table, where the lengths of joints in the as,
bs, cs and branches of higher orders have been averaged for the different
eroups. It may be noted that the numbers of branches dealt with are not
the same as in the formule of matured canes, for even immature canes have
been included, if it was possible to measure the lengths of the joints in the
first 20”. lt is well known that the lengthening of these joints, once they
are formed, is extremely small and may be neglected.*
The averages have been obtained in three ways, the as, bs, etc., of each
plant have been averaged separately, the averages for the varieties have been
obtained from these, and these latter have been again averaged for the groups
1 Kuijper, J. De groei van bladschijf, bladscheede on stengel van het suikerriet., Ved.
Java Suikerind., V., 8, 1918.
123 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
(column 1). Secondly, all the as, bs, etc., of each variety have been averaged,
and these variety averages have given those of the group (column 2).. Thirdly,
all the. as, bs, etc., of each group have been taken together (column 3). It is
remarkable how little difference there is in the three resulting sets of figures.
There is a steady rise in the average length of joints in every single group,
and sometimes a sudden increase between the bs and cs. The reason for the
selection of the two lowest feet of the cane for these measurements has been
already given in detail (p. 106).
In the Table, where there are less than four measurements of a branch
of one order in a group, the resulting average is placed in brackets, as insuffi-
ciently reliable for the group average. Such figures are however included in
the total summation at the foot of the-Table. If less than 20” can be measured,
the cane is rejected as immature. The joints of runners are omitted and the
lengths of joints are not measured until the short-jomted portion following
the runner is passed. If moth-borer or other injury is noted as reducing the
length of the joints above it, the cane is rejected ; this is judged by comparison
with other branches of the same order in the same plant.
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124 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
(6) AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BRANCHES OF DIFFERENT ORDERS.
As we pass from the main shoots to branches of higher orders, we note,
in the dissections, a steady increase in the thickness of the canes. This is
not to be wondered at, if we regard each shoot as being furnished with a certain
amount of energy of growth. Much of this energy is used up in the main
shoot in its change from the infinitesimal stem of the young seedling to a cane
of definite thickness. The branches, on the other hand, not only are thicker
at the start, but pass through their forming process much more rapidly, and
it is to be expected that, before their energy wanes, stronger, thicker canes will
be produced.
To compare the thickness of the canes, all have been measured in each
plant at about 2’ from the base, where it is reasonable to suppose that the
cane has completed its growth in thickness. The measurements were made by
calipers in the lateral plane, thus ruling out the ovalness of some varieties,
the longer diameter usually occurring in the median plane or that in which
the buds lie. The markings on the calipers are in mm., and the results are
accordingly given in the metric system. The following are the average thick-
nesses, in mm., of the main stem and its branches of different degree, in all the
groups dissected, a 177, b 187, c 207, d 228, e 219, f 88. The last two figures
are not true averages, f only occurring in the thinnest form, namely, Saccharum
spontaneum, and e being absent in the Thick canes, Sunnabile, Nargori,
Unclassified indigenous and Crosses, in all of which groups the branches which are
present show markedly rapid increases. As in the case of the average length
of joints, there is a distinct advance from a to 6b, but there is a much greater
one from b to ¢. In the main groups of indigenous Indian canes, there is less
difference between the as and bs. This, as has been noted elsewhere, may be
put down to several causes. In the first place, both are formed at a very
early stage of the plant’s growth—before the general elongating stage has been
reached—the plant is small and thin and has comparatively few roots and
leaves. In the second place, cases are not infrequently met with in which, as
having died, one or more of the bs become facultative as, and the energies of
these are devoted rather to branching than to increase in thickness. Thirdly,
there are more bs on an a than cs on a 6, and, as we have seen, this leads to a
tailing off of the later-formed bs, when the energy of the main shoot is waning
(cf. p. 107). Lastly, other irregularities occur owing to the deaths of as and
the consequent relative numbers of as and bs in a plant. Thus, in Kharwi,
the thinnest of the Mungo group, 3 as and 19 bs were measured, whereas in
Hemja, the thickest cane in the group, there are 15 as and 27 bs. In taking
C. A. BARBER 125
all the as and all the bs of the group, we thus find that the latter are penalized
as to average thickness. But the fact remains, whatever its cause may be,
that there is often little difference between the thickness of the main shoot
and its immediate branches. And, in dividing up the canes in a clump, both
must be classed as early in their general character. The cs and ds are sharply
separated off from the as and bs as thick, late canes, and can be readily
picked out at harvest by this and other characters.
In the Thick cane group there is a curious exception. While the six varie-
ties examined at Coimbatore and the dry land canes at Nellikuppam show a
considerable increase in thickness of the bs over the as, this is not the case in the
wet land plants at the latter place. In these the as are the thickest and there
is a general decrease in thickness as we pass to the higher branchings. The
Red Mauritius at the Cane-breeding Station (and indeed at Nellikuppam on
the dry land) are more or less in line with the other varieties. The figures for
Red Mauritius on the farm, for instance, are a 270, b 312, ¢ 347. We may,
in the absence of any further light on the case, merely record the fact here and
regard it as an exception which may indicate some peculiarity in wet land
conditions.
Average thickness of cane at 2' from the base, im mm.
ALL THE BRANCHES OF THE SAME ORDER
TAKEN TOGETHER
Groups
f |
In each plant In each variety | In each group
ie
a a a oe a
|
Saretha 305 vig .». [159 166}178 9204 tea 159164 174} 194/204 160) 166) 175)188)/204
Pansahi xe aoe ... |L66 166/189/223)284 166 165] 185}224/284) 1 66/165) 185)/224/2¢4
Mungo aC re ... {187/190/210}204/224 ... 187/191]209/207]224|196] 193/204 204/224
Sunnabile = ane wee {L89)192)/209]262) ... | ... ~ 189/190 208/262) ... |186}188/220/262! ...
Nargori ne oh ve. {151/156)175/213) 2... ... |152)156}171/211) ... |150/154) 167 a eos
Thick canes Z2Es232|298|3451 cece) ete |i ieeel| eee | mana toeel lice: ik
Red Mauritius, Nellikuppam Dry land [294 304/3U5}299 314 Bs | horn seed fea bend bce
Wet land |290/274/261/270/268 ... | = [pas =| |ronll fhe eae leced | ace
Unclassified indigenous cor 164)173}208/251) ...) 2.0] . |... Sesh cto Kee bossd iaead ee
Rogue |t70 196/211/210)215. ... | fe) een ey Se May onal ae
Cresson: Vellai Saccharum spontaneum 158 177/231 hes ay eet seal senate ce tter te
Saccharum spontaneum ae ve | 73| 77] $3) 88| 79188] . | ...|.. |: =| Poa een |e ae A
Saccharum arundinaceum ..,. per [Los|Lae|209ZaT courses [oss | ceetl cocalictellicce Bo) ag obo Bey ee
Average of all the groups ... we» (L77/187/207/228/219) 88] ...) ..] 2.0)... ... [hoes
The work of measuring the thickness of the cane branches of different
orders has not always been altogether simple, and has given rise to a series of
126 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
“ side-issues.” Such are, the not infrequent thickening upwards of the early
canes and narrowing upwards of late ones ; the sometimes enormous thickness
at the base of late canes, especially within the region of curvature ; the ovalness
of some canes and the tereteness of others, and, lastly, the curious case in a few
varieties where this ovalness is very pronounced, but in the lateral instead of
the median plane, a general flattening of the stem at the base soon to give way
to normal tereteness. But these deviations have little or no effect on the
general increase in thickness as we proceed to branches of higher order.
Summarizing the results recorded in the last few pages, we see that there
is a marked difference between the early and late formed stems in the sugar-
cane plant. The main shoot has a longer basal portion than its branches,
but, owing chiefly to curvature, this portion becomes longer again in the
branches of the second and third orders. The average length of joints in the
lower part of the cane is less in the main shoot than its branches, and in these
again than in the branches of higher orders. With few exceptions the same
holds good of the thickness of the cane. For the separation of the canes in a
clump, we thus have a series of characters whereby we can distinguish the early
and late canes, without the necessity of the tedious process of dissection, there
being a marked contrast between the as and bs, on the one hand, and the cs
and ds on the other, differences which are so striking that we can with compara-
tive certainty apply the test to the general mass of canes belonging to one
variety in the mill yard, and by this means are in a position to make further
studies on the milling properties and sugar content of the branches of different
order.
(7) RATE OF MATURING IN DIFFERENT VARIETIES AND GROUPS.
In passing through the various plots of cane varieties growing on the farm,
it is at once obvious that, inthe early stages, there isa great difference in the
rate of cane formation. While some, like Saretha, show cane formation very
early, others, like Dhor, grow very slowly at first, and do not show any canes
for months afterwards. This difference is largely cloaked in North Indian
canes by the persistence of the leaf sheaths, but the swelling canes often split
these at the base while still attached, and it is quite easy to strip off one or two
where this is not the case. But it is difficult to place this difference before
the reader, and various attempts have been made, as will be seen below, to
make it clearer. There were comparatively few dissections among young
canes in the 1916-17 crop, but the results were sufficiently distinctive to make
it desirable to extend the series to all the indigenous classes. Two clumps
G. A. BARBER 127
were accordingly taken for each of the varieties in the dissection plot and these
were examined at 3-5 months from planting. The more rapidly maturing
groups were taken first, as explained on p. 112. Thus, the Saretha group was
examined 106-112 days after planting, Pansahi 113-120, Nargori 120-126,
Mungo 126-132, Sunnabile 133-143, and Thick canes 149-152. These were
the main groups it was desired to compare. The wild Saccharums, of which
one species showed poor accommodation to the cultivated land, were examined
at 120-156 days, while the Unclassified indigenous canes, the Crosses and
Rogues, being less important, were taken at the end of the series. It transpired
that the arrangement was not ideal; the last named varieties should have
been dissected earlier, and certain other alterations would have been desirable.
This varying age of the plants dissected has introduced complications and must
be held in view in the comparisons. In two cases, the early development was
so poor that additional clumps were dissected at the end of the period, and a
study of the results obtained will give some idea as to the rapidity of change
at this stage of growth. Dhor was dissected at 142 and 156 and Khari at 110
and 156 days, namely, the beginning and the end of the work. The following
table gives the canes and shoots formed per clump in these two varieties at the
dates given :—
Dhor .. 2 clumps with 4 plants 142 days old 3:0 canes 2°0 shoots
2 ” ” L ” 156 reo D3 99 2°5 +
Khart .. 2 clumps with 6 plants 110 days old 3°5 canes 21 shoots
2 >? 2) 7 2? 156 29 33 140 39 7 3:
3?
The word “canes ” in the lst indicates cane-forming shoots, and this
is judged by the presence of hardened rind in one or more of the basal joints.
In the diagrams prepared from the dissections, such cane-forming shoots are
indicated by the bases being in ink, the rest of the diagrams being in pencil.
Green shoots, not cane-forming, are simply classed as shoots and burst buds and
deaths are added as usual. A further distinction is introduced in all the shoots,
whether cane-forming or not, in that they are separated into two classes, accord-
ing as they were over or under 3’ in length, and this is indicated in the diagrams
by the signs>and<, as well as the general length of the line for the branch.
All the branches are separated, as usual, into as, bs, cs, etc. It is obvious that,
from a consideration of such a diagram and the formula describing it,a very
fair idea can be obtained as to the stage of development of any plant or clump.
An example for each group is given in the figures on Plate XIX, where, however,
the pencil marks are omitted, full grown shoots are marked ¢, and half grown,
128 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
cane-forming shoots cf. The other conventions are those adopted in the
diagrams of full grown plants.
Some 275 plants were dissected in 1917-18, and diagrams recorded of
their branching systems. These have been averaged according to variety
and group, but the results, although generally illuminating, show certain incon-
gruities, obviously requiring explanation. Thus, Dhaulu, Naanal and Mojorah
showed enormous and rapid development, which would hardly be expected
in the Sunnabile group. It was observed that each of the six clumps dissected
in these varieties consisted of a single plant, the two other buds of the set not
having germinated, and it is obviously unsafe to compare such single plants with
those formed two or three together. On the other band, in the Mungo group:
owing to the closeness of the joints, as many as 7 or, in one case, 11 plants arose
from one set, and these naturally showed, on the average, very few branches
(Pl. XVI). The whole series was therefore again averaged, this time as to the
numbers of canes, shoots, etc., per clump or “hole,” and this gave much more
satisfactory results.
It was soon observed that there were great variations in the development
of the members of certain groups and it becomes doubtful if the six varieties
selected suitably represent them. Owing to its rapid growth, the first series
dissected was the Saretha group, and it was obvious that Ahari, Ganda Chena
and Hullu Kabbu were much behind the rest, although it was known that
Chin and Saretha did not grow wellon the farm, while Cheni and Hullu were
quite at home. This emphasizes the subdivision made in this group in Memoir
III, into the Brown or Katha and the Green or Mesangan sections, as the
same subdivision is seen in the rate of maturing. Less equal subdivisions
show themselves in the Sunnabile group where Dhor and Sunnabile were much
behind the rest, in the Mungo group where Kharwi shows as great a difference
in the opposite direction from its companions, and in the Thick canes where
the possibly indigenous Magh and Vendamukhi are considerably bebind Java,
Yerra and Red Mauritius. The groups in the table are arranged in the order
of dissection.
PLATE XIX.
Sel?) Sate
C=
2
Saretha (112 days old ) Dhor (156 days old)
Pansahi (13 days old )
Stet
Sa I
*¥wWaA
Nargori (126 days old)
Kuswar (124 days old )
Diagrams of branching in plants 3-4 months old, in the five groups of indigenous Indian canes
These give a general idea of the conventions used in the 275 diagrams prepared and also
give some idea of the relative rate of cane formation in the different groups.
.
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182 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
From a study of this table we get the following order of development as
judged by the various comparisons in the columns 1-5. Sunnabile (Dhaulu),
Saretha (Brown), Nargori, Unclassified indigenous, Sunnabile, Mungo (Kharwi),
Pansahi, Saretha, Thick canes, Saccharum spontaneum, Mungo, Saretha (Green),
Sunnabile (Dhor), Mungo (rest). But we have, in addition, to consider the
ages of the plants dissected. It is thus seen that the position of Sunnabile
(Dhaulu) at the head of the table must be qualified, firstly, by the fact that
in these members of the section, only a single plant developed in each clump,
presumably assisting in rapid maturing, and, secondly, that the dissections
were made late (4 weeks after the Brown section of Saretha), because of the
slow development of Dhor and Sunnabile. Saretha (Brown) is obviously the
quickest of all in maturing. Similarly, the juxtaposition of the Saretha and
Thick cane groups, examined at 109 and 150 days respectively, indicates
that the latter are much later in development than the former. So the Mungo
group, excepting Kharwi, are very late indeed, being near the bottom of the
list, although dissected moderately late (129 days). But the method is interest-
ing, although unsatisfactory for generalizations.
The only way in which these various defects can be avoided is to take the
groups and sections separately and compare them with the rest in the following
manner. Saretha (Brown) is ahead of Pansahi, although examined a week
earlier. There are more canes formed, and, in these, there is a slightly larger
proportion of canes over than under 3’ in length; there are practically the
same number of immature shoots, but in these too there is a slight excess of the
shoots over 3’ long in Saretha; there are only half the number of buds and
there are slightly more deaths. If the tillering power of the two groups is
considered, there is a larger proportion of canes formed in Saretha in 110
days than in Pansahi in 116. It may therefore be safely concluded that the
Brown section of the Saretha group is earlier in its development on the farm
than the Pansahi group. The same method may be applied all through and,
as a result, we can place the groups roughly in the following order :—
Early maturing, Saretha (Brown), Nargori, Pansahi, Saretha, Sunnabile
(Dhaulu), Mungo (Kharwi) ;
Moderately early maturing, Various indigenous, Saretha (Green),
Saccharum spontaneum, Thick canes ;
Late maturing, Sunnabile, Mungo, Mungo (rest) and Sunnabile (Dhor).
The full table of analyses of the different varieties is annexed, the figures
in each group being the averages obtained for each clump.
FN a
rN
Aone
ry
AS NS
Anat
7 A LIN A
1 Hole, R.S.. On some Indian Ferest Grasses and their Oecology. Ind. For. Mem.,
For. Bot. Ser., Vol. I, Part 1, 1911.
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Cc. A. BARBER 133
(8) GENERAL NOTES ON THE CHARACTERS OF THE GROUPS AND THEIR
MODE OF BRANCHING.
It will be impossible within reasonable limits to discuss the many interesting
facts observed in the dissections of the cane clumps of the different varieties
in each group. The diagrams and measurements of the individual plants are
added to the already large mass of notes on the morphology of canes collected
in the office files. A few general notes are here given on the characters of
branching in each group and a selection has been made of a few more or less
typical diagrams and photographs to illustrate its general character. For
photographs, we have had to rely entirely on 1916-17 dissections, because,
from pressure of work and the high price of materials, we were unable to photo-
graph the dissected plants in the second year. The main shoot a can be
distinguished in these photographs by a white paper band fastened round it.
As the full scheme of diagrams was not developed until 1917-18, it has not
always been easy to give the full diagrams of the particular plants photo-
graphed, although this has been done where possible. As an instance of the
method, Plates XXVIII-XXX may be referred to. In Plate XXVIII, a clump
of the dwarf canes of Hemja, in the Mungo group, has been photographed as it
reached the laboratory ; Plate XXIX gives photographs of the four dissected
plants in this clump, and in the lower half of Plate XXX the diagrams of the
four plants are reproduced. There are few photographs available of the
Thick canes, as less attention was paid to this class in the first year, but, besides
a dissection of Java, a picture is reproduced of a ratooned Red Mauritius cane,
and its diagram is appended. In the wild Saccharums, photographs are given
of S. Munja, S. arundinaceum, and the two chief varieties of S. spontaneum
(Pl. XXXIV); further pictures may be found in Plate IT of Memoir IIT and
Plate XXI of Memoir IL. Saccharum Narenga is illustrated on Plates IX
and X of Memoir II and needs no repetition. For fuller illustrations of these
wild Saccharums, reference may be made to the excellent monograph by Hole in
the Indian Forest Memoirs.! The diagrams of Saccharum Munja and Saccharum
Narenga are less instructive, in that these species do not form canes in the strict
sense, but their grass-like habit may be inferred from the diagrams given on Plate
XXXVII, where the “ canes” refer to shoots forming solid canes at their bases.
Saretha Group.
The Saretha group is somewhat difficult to describe without going into
great detail, as it consists of two well-marked sections, the main characters
1 Hole, R.S.. On some Indian Ferest Grasses and their Oecology. Ind. For. Mem.,
For. Bot. Ser., Vol. I, Part 1, 1911.
134 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
of which have been discussed in Memoir III. These sections are separated,
in the first place, by having red-brown and green stems at maturity. Of the
members dealt with in this paper, Katha in the Punjab, and Chin and Saretha
in the western United Provinces belong to the first section: the second section
includes Khari! in Bengal, Hullu Kabbu on the western coast of the Penin-
sula and Ganda Cheni in Mysore ; the distribution of the two sections is thus
seen to be geographical, the northern members being thinner and more primi-
tive. The Green section of the Saretha group appears to approach the Sun-
nabile group in many particulars. As might be expected, the forms indigenous
to the Peninsula are much more at home on the Cane-breeding Station, and
this renders the comparison of the two sections, as regards formule, difficult.
It is probable that the branching of the Red-brown section is more complicated
than that in the Green section, but this does not show up very clearly for the
reasons given. The rate of cane formation is very much more rapid in the
Red-brown section.
The arrangement of the canes in the clump is characterized by irregularity,
canes being produced at all angles, with the outer ones often spreading widely
or even prostrate. An intricate mass is thus formed, and, as the attachments
are very thin and brittle, dissection, especially in the Red-brown section,
is very difficult. There are, in most of the varieties, a large number of runners
andthe spacing of the canes in the clump is due rather to their irregular
arrangement and the presence of these runners than to orderly curving of
the outer branches, in this character resembling Saccharum spontaneum.
The canes are long-jointed, knotted and zigzag, and vary little in thickness
in different parts of their length, and there is less ovalness than in most. other
oroups? (Pls. XX and XX1).
The appended tables give the varietal formule, and the average length
of basal parts, length of joints in the lower two feet and thickness at two feet
from the base. There is, generally, a marked difference between the branches
of different orders. Owing to the comparative absence of curvature in the
younger branches, the leneth of the basal part of the cane does not increase
rapidly from 6 onwards.
1 There appear to be several cane varieties included under this name, as in Baraukha.
Ketari, Chynia, etc. One Khari in our collection is fairly obviously a Pansahi cane.
2 For fuller descriptions of some varieties in this group, see Mem. I, where the primitive
Punjab forms are described, and Mem. IIT, where the general characters of the group and its
seCtions are given in some detail,
PLATE XxX.
SARETHA GROUP.
Hullu Kahhu 1916 (83 months old). One clump with two plants.
Katha 1916 (83 months old ). One of three plants in one clump.
ny 43°
as: meas?
a
mae ne
Ya ae
PLATE XXI.
Hullu Kabbu 1916 (8: months old)
One clump with Two plants
lon c2 c3
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1 !
1 !
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Katha 1916 (8: months old)
One plant oul of Three in a clump
ro
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ci
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/
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Diagrams of the branching in the three plants photographed in the previous plate.
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136 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
Pansahi: Group.
The Pansahi group is very homogeneous, and no subdivisions have as
yet been observed in it. The geographical range is fairly wide, but only
in an east and west direction. No examples have as yet been received from
the Peninsula area, although members of the group have been met with in
every province from the Punjab to Burma. The greatest development of
the group is perhaps in Bihar, but Kahwis found in the Punjab and Thin
Moulmein in Burma. The group is of especial interest in that it contains
ganna canes, that is, those intermediate between the thin, hardy uwkh canes
and the paunda or thick chewing class ; also that it includes the Yuba, which
is the chief variety grown in Natal. This cane is of special interest in that it
appears to have reached Natal from Brazil where it is regarded as a“ country ”
cane.! It is quite conceivable therefore that it is the cane taken from the
Punjab by Alexander the Great in 326 B. C2
Cane formation takes place early, and the varieties all grow well at Coim-
batore; they are very free growing and appear to be little inconvenienced
by the rather tenacious, saltish land. In habit, they are regularly cup-shaped,
and the leaves fall in a wide curve all round the centre. In branching, they
are often very symmetrical (cf. fig. 1, p. 157, Mem. ITI), the inner canes being
straight, and the succeeding ones more or less curved according to their distance
from the centre ; strong curves are found in the later canes, and runners are
not uncommon. The attachments are very firm and thick, making it possible
to dissect great portions at a time without separating the branches. In many
respects the branching system strikingly reminds one of that of Saccharum
arundinaceum, although there is no trace of connection with that wild form in
the other morphological characters. The canes are fairly ‘straight but the
joints, especially in the later canes, are long and markedly zigzag, and the nodes
are prominent.? The Plate following illustrates the general form in Maneria
and Pansahi, but the diagrams of these are not ‘given, as that in Memoir II,
referred to. above,. will suffice. On the other hand, diagrams are given of
Yuba, and a remarkably well grown plant of this variety is included. (Pls.
XXIT and XXIII.)
The length of joint shows great reeularity in its increase in the branches of
successive orders, and the length of the basal part bears evidence of the strong
curvature in the later branches. In thickness, the as and the bs are practically
equal and differ widely from the cs and ds, thus dividing the canes of the
clump into early and late formed canes, which separation is very characteristic
of the group. These points are well brought out in the appended table.
1 Deeir, Noel. The Origin of the Uba Cane. International Sugar Journal, April, 1918, p. 164.
2 ©. A. Barber. The Origin of the Uba Cane. International Sugar Journal, September,
1918, p. 706.
° For fuller description cf a cane of this group, seé Mem. I, pp. 95-103 and Plates
XV, XVI and. XIX,
PLATE XXil.
PANSAHI=GROUP.
gee
at
oe y)
A clump with only one plant.
Maneria 1916 (9 months old).
Pansahi 1916 (9 months old ).
Two of three plants in one clump: the remaining plant is shown on
Plate Il]. Memoir No. Ill.
ne
of
ao
=
‘as '
As . 2
ae ae
Ae
Vag
Yuba 1916
One clump with fwo
as dzdsyce G3, ez et diciciodt cide cizsbecisciz b6 CIS a
i} ‘ \ \ \ \ ‘ \ A \ i] ' ! if ! ! ‘ ,
‘ : \ Ca Onna \ \ . ont leer \ jaa !
' ; 1 ee io \ 1 1 ‘ 1 i 1 1 u !
\ 1 \ . \ ’ \ . \ : 1 1 1 I 1
\ 1 \ eae ok \ \ \ ‘ Wet : ; 'e16
\ ae ee \ \ \ s \ ’ ’
: ‘ x Wee 3 \ \ \ \ a \ jp OLCEs | ote
i} ag \ \ . ‘ _ 1 !
\ \ ; i kee \ \ ' \ vet , oe mT
t i { . \ \ \ . - 4 tes I ; pace 1 ;
’ ‘ \ We Ary \ Wes \ 7 ' ' fhm 1
Uy \ , 5 \ \ \ : 1 \ re. TR a rial E
' \ VEN oe ee | \ \ ‘i ' a tea fe ral !
7 . 1 2 Nae Foner \ : van: ’ easily food !
\ \ ‘ \ \ ' ! 1 ! /
‘ \ \ \ Sey \ \ 1 : = ni ;
d2, 1 \ 5 \ aa 1 rs, Fey ak L ren rd F
oo \ een Ve s hes ‘a \ we (eet b ih Arca Way fehl ,
nal \ be 2 Fy ed ye \ Ty 7 as |
o>
Po 8 Oe
oo a
7 = - % “ay
6 =,
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Ze a 8” »<
Re =~,
me “ T-_ * a 8
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7 -
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i
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= > ~~ x
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tie —a ae n 7 : ? ;
a é a yo
a : hore
ee ae = .
a ;
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> é =~ 7 = a-
: E ' é .
babel bel = : i 4 Fi = S
we - < bs = . Ae é
Rika pea = $ : ——. -
a 7 ae 5 + | 3 ; re —_
° = ‘ 4
cr. » . ‘= 7
On ahs - ; ae : | a eae
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~ . +3 . i
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2 ,
’
res
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5.
nd 7
ke oe
=. Ys 4
o j ‘ A
if ‘ ie tte
« UJ
’ » <<. E! a
ue F —
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a se
ah
if “7 ot ;
ae 7 we. ° e~
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4 A —_ 7 y=! s
. ~
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ttn 7 , a : “ t gs
a
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9 - ;
i 7 »
2 : A
=J 2% - res
» © _ - . 4 Z
- i:
Sararoo
One clump
b3 bi b2
c3b2 c4 b4bs a
1916
with fhree plants
bs eveom (ake lin
(9 months old)
atsb+ 4c¢+30 A+ 5b +2
Kewali 1916 (gmonths old)
One clump with only one plant
b2 ch bs én 8) OS ame oes
i] ' ! !
1 ' ' 1
1 1 ' !
ft ! ' '
' cé 1 i jl
' | Biel: | 1 1
! '
: Sve | } ! J
¥ !
' 5,c \ ' ; !
' ) 1 !
t 1
\ !
' . ; ; '
' ' 1 !
; ' ! ! ! !
' 1 ! 1 i) |
' \ ' t ! !
\ ! ! i]
\ \ 1 ! F Fi
‘ i) 1 ! /
\ 1 \ ! ! I
\ 1 I ! 1 r
\ 1 ! / 1
\ 1 ! / / 1
. 1 ee ! 1
‘ \ \ / 1 1
\ / /
\ , 1
. \ f / / /
‘ \ / / / /
x \ / / / 1
‘ > 7 / / /
\ ) Seen
Clump with only one plant
Kuswar 1916 (9 months old).
(cf. upper diagram on Plate XXX).
PLATE XXIXx,
MUNGO GROUP.
AGC ra i —. fp
, wl
tug
estas
WIR BO
‘ie Awe
tee
-
>
tees
abe HESS Se”
Clump on Plate XXVIII dissected (four plants).
Hemja 1916 (9 months old).
——. fe Bea |
> yee Se hal.
Py
dé»
¢
PLATE XXx.
Auswar 1916 (9months old)
One clump wilh only one plant
ds dé c3 A2 ds
' ' ' 1 !
5 1 =
\ \ ' 1 1
. ‘\ 9 .
h aM t s'icf
\ \ " E
\ \ \ ay
. ‘
\
\ \ \ 3
cl i}
\ cigs’ dx \
My \ \ aicf 3'\cf \
\ \ \ \ \
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\ \ \ \ \
‘ ° ; \
\ \ Nees Of Se
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\ c D \
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\ Saf by i]
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; sete XV: ’ ; 1 i ri
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NGS Nn Ga ay Cues lie er Neti br a b2c28
7 thea (ileal ta q{ J t 7 Tew
N 1 Lica NOE u
\ : miata oe we
' Ad rt
We ! | Mix , /
\ ul lorg:
‘ / a
\ \ ro \ f-
\ - ‘
= \
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(897 -8 C+d+2e42F 1897-8 2ac+hsad 1gs7-8 ad+2e
Diagrams of the branching of Red Mauritius ratooned plants at
Coimbatore and Nellikuppam.
*
> 6? 5
re es « et
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sate Sel
es
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147
BARBER
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IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
TILLERING
148
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__
‘pywo0o9—dNOUD ANVO MOIWT, SHL NI SINGNGYASVEN GNV WTOWAO WF
Cc. A. BARBER 149
Wild Saccharums.
The wild Saccharums, grown on the Cane-breeding Station for several
years, consist of various types of Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum arundi-
naceum and Saccharum Munja, and a single form of Saccharum Narenga.
(Pl. XXXIV.) The two latter have at various times been more or less carefully.
studied and dissections made of their underground parts, but, as they do not
form canes in the ordinary sense, we have been content, in the present Memoir,
with reproducing the diagrams of a couple of clumps, from which their bushy,
orass-like habit may be inferred. (Pl. XXXVII.) Some idea of their under-
eround parts may be obtained from a study of the Plates in Hole’s Memoir
referred to above. An interesting series of crosses have been raised between
the local thick Vellai cane and Saccharum Narenga, which will doubtless well
repay a detailed study (cf. Mem. No. II, Plates [Xa to XI).
(1) Saccharum arundinaceum, Retz., is a very distinct form. It is typically
at home in the moister, eastern portions of the north of India and in parts
of Burma, where it occurs wild and flowers freely. Elsewhere, although often
planted and then growing well, it rarely flowers. In South India it is constantly
planted around the gardens of betel pepper, and shows itself well adapted to
heavy, water-logged soil. In spite of a diligent search during several years,
only isolated cases have been met with where it was in flower, and here the
inflorescence was invariably diseased. It has not therefore been possible to
obtain crosses with cultivated canes on the farm.
The species is at once recognizable by its mass of tall, thick, cane-like stems,
largely covered by the dead leat sheaths, its broad curving leaves and the large,
dense plumes of white or brownish flowers. The canes have fairly long joints
and are distinctly noded. These are peculiar in having only one row of root
eyes. The leaves are also distinguished by a mass of long brown hairs extending
up the base of the lamina on either side of the mid-rib. But these hairs vary
in different parts of the plant, and ultimately disappear in the upper leaves,
which more resemble those of cultivated canes. These characters of leaf and
joint have not been observed in any forms of Saccharum officinarum, which
closely resembles Saccharwm spontaneum in these and other respects. There
is, of course, also the difference in the hairy vestiture of the flowers, which
separates Saccharum arundinaceum, and puts Saccharum spontaneum and the
cultivated canes into the same botanical section.
The branching of Saccharum arundinaceum is characterized all through
by its symmetrical development. The canes are erect and parallel, often
150 TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
however, bending outwards from the weight of their leafy tufts. There is com-
paratively little curvature, but the later shoots show this at their very base.
The basal curved portion of later formed branches is characterized by its
immense thickness, and by being covered by a shaggy coat made up of leaf
bases, flat, scale-like buds and dense masses of brown silky hairs. This
thickened part of the cane is distinctively dorsi-ventral, and the two rows
of buds are thrown on to the outer portion of the curve. There are no runners.
The average length of the basal part in the five plants dissected is 2°9" in a,
3-1" in b and 2°4”, 29”, 3°2”, in c, d, e, respectively, the small basal curvature
thus having its full effect. The average length of the joint in the lowest two
feet, and the thickness at two feet from the base, show continuous increases
from a to the branches of higher orders (cf. Pl. I and Table appended).
(2) Saccharum spontaneum. Three forms of this species, among those grown
at the Cane-breeding Station, have been selected for dissection, namely, the
ordinary thin, grass-like form found in waste places in all parts of India, the
Dacca pond form, and the Javanese variety called Glagah. The latter appears
to be more or less intermediate between the two others, and it may be surmised
therefrom that the general climate in Java is moister than that of India. There
were great variations in the growth of these forms in the dissection plots, but
they were all three disappointing, especially at first. This may be caused by
a slow early development of the species, but is more likely due to their being
unaccustomed to being grown from sets. They are capable, later on, of taking
good hold of the cultivated ground, and the Dacca spontaneum plants, being
very poor at first, formed dense masses of stalks at nine months, when grown
from sets, as parents in the seedling plots. This can be readily imagined
after an inspection of the diagrams on Plate XXXVI.
In habit, Saccharum spontaneum plants grown from seed vary a great
deal (see Plate XXI, Mem. II), the young seedlings sometimes lying flat on
the ground, and at others growing erect and branching sparsely. The general
differences in appearance of the Indian varieties here discussed can be seen
from an examination of Plates I and II of Mem. III. Differences in thickness
are seen to be marked in these Plates. Runners are present in all the forms,
those in the Dacca variety extending long distances in the mud, and, in
the ordinary land form, appearing above ground at intervals somewhat
widely separately from the parent stock. In the plots of seedlings raised from
the different forms during the past year on the farm, there were great varia-
tions in the width of the leaves, and an analysis showed an equal difference
in the sucrose content of the juice. Selections have been made in both these
PLATE XXXIV.
‘and|jeay ye WnaaDUIpUunAD wnsDyII0¢ ‘p ‘BL “and [Bary je volun winsDYIIDE ‘¢ ‘BY "BOORC] 18 puod eB ul “WWdO} JIJVM
‘poyeo]-peoigq ‘unaupjuods uiniDYIIDE WA By ‘ad0yeGWUIOD) Je WO} UBIPUy UOUTWOD ‘uinaupjuods WNLDYIIDE *T ‘BLY ‘SUUMABYIIeS PIAA
a - ; Si be ry =
x,
a) a
”
\
Neth
hak
PLATE XXXV.
Saccharum sponlaneum I91'T (tz months old}
Local Coimbatore
One clump wilh Three plants
e3 Cc5déd7 cn bi dec. de: cs
Z ' y : i
i i i
! i !
‘4 " HN
/ , f
het ;
Liane Sy, e2
ie, : / Br
ees ; or
at+3b+70+9d +4e4+2F
ib +3¢+2Ad+I1e
Runners
es a tee .
Fre
oe GF
d2 da3 d4c3 bic4c2 ct ds ei dé b3 c8 a cé6 b2 ds
' \ :
1
\
‘
\
\
ay
Gil
at tb + 3¢ .+ tel
grown from a set.
a+3b6b + 8c + BA+e
2¢ +10
Runners
Diagrams of branching of Saccharum spontaneum, common Indian form,
PLATE XXXVI.
Saccharum sponlaneum 1917 (10 months old)
Dacca variely
One clump wilh two plants
a+Bb+23C + 31d + 3e
Runners 2o+4e+5d+e
a4. 600° flsmGe ls [8 a tere
Runners to+ac +3a
/
Diagrams of branching of Saccharum spontaneum, Dacca pond form. A well grown
clump grown, from a set, as parent in the seedling plots at Coimbatore.
fl ia a
OE ed Mp a ,
: @ ime”
Ad Tor uy ‘¥
ie | 9 Plo A
Rey ate vu ylay aie
Ste iesvi aah pont atid
ae x 7 id oh RL AAW Rd
PLATE XXXVHI.
Saccharum Munya 1917 (smonths old)
One clump with three plants
ba o1 babsa bs lbo2 cé c+ d3
biaicry bs br abs by
a+bete
Saccharum Narenga 1917 (5 months old)
One clump with fhree planls
a+ 4b+9c +3d nb +10c +s5d+e atréeb+3c +20
Diagrams of Saccharum Munja and S. Narenga grown from sets at Coimbatore. The branches
with letters affixed had a small piece of hard cane at the base of each.
The upper parts of the branches do not form cane.
——"
ra ee oy
ey te
‘a , ay
Nin se Me
‘ f
=
&
ve
Pe
“a?
M
Sa
“<
oO. A. BARBER 151
directions for some years, in order to provide better material for crossing with
thick canes. Already two such crosses have been distributed for trial on
provincial farms. The cane formule obtained by dissecting plants from
six to nine months agree fairly well in the three forms, being very extended.
The Dacca plant, at first very backward, became extremely luxuriant at nine
months and had many more branches than the others, as can be seen from the
figures in the Table. In appearance, these Dacca plants are much more like
cultivated canes than the other two varieties. The average length of the
basal portions, the average length of joint for the first two feet, and the thickness
at two feet from the base, show the regular variations met with in the cultivated
canes ; but, individually, the plants were often irregular in these characters.
There is, in Saccharum spontaneum, nothing like the orderly development
of the branches which characterizes Saccharum arundinacewn.
TILLERING IN INDIAN SUGARCANES
FoRMULZ AND MEASUREMENTS IN
Formule of canes, shoots,
NUMBER si
| REET CANES AT HARVEST GREEN SHOOTS
Variety aa | ‘
= | 2 —
Selec Qn 6. \\e 1a CF Nees Ga Ser a ole et | yaaa
as S |
oO | a a
Coimbatore 3 8) 02:7) 5:5 4 OAS Tb O22 Oi Tb [Wea ao
Saccha-
rum !Glagah, 2 4 |1:0) 3:2) 3:2) 2-7 | 1:2 | 05 |12°0 0-7
sponta- Java ;
neum |
(Dacca form 4 9 | 1:0] 5:8 |10°8] 7-8 | 2°3 | 0:4 [28-1 PR ie
Average of varieties | 1-0 | 3:9 | 65 | 4-9 | 1-6 | 0-4 [18:3] 0-1 | 02 | 0-7 | 05 | 0-3
Saccharum arundina- 2 5 | 1:0] 4:0] 6-4 | 5-4 | 4:8 | 0:4 |22°0 08 | 0°6 | 1°4| 1-8 | 0-2
ceum
Species formule, Sacch. spontaneum, Matured canes 1:4:6:5:2:0°4
Sacch. arundinaceum, do. Lv 16 31 a1 034
2. Length of basal part, and length and thick-
| AVERAGE LENGTH OF JOINTS
Average length of basal part, feed me ¥
; in inches
Variety Number of canes measured
| é HEY,
a | b c d | 6 1 |) Gia c d CF
|
Coimbatore 12052075 6 | 06 06) 6 16 S31) 21 Shel
Saccharum |
sponta-~Glagah, Java | 1:3 | 08 | 06 | 08 | 11 |0-7 | 4 | 13 13 9 eal
neum |
Dacca form..., 1:8 | 16 | U7 | 20 | 2-7 |.41|57| 100] 66 | 13]...
Average va] 1o | 09 | 11 | 141061 1. |e OO
Saccharum arundinaceum | 2-9 22) | 24 2:9 32 3 | 16 OGH 221s
C. A. BARBER [53
THE WILD SACCHARUM GROUP.
buds, deaths and runners.
{
BURSTING BUDS DEATHS
Grand je
Bee
b Cc ad é fi q a b Cc Uae ff g A
_
=)
05 | US | 16] 15 | 05 | £9 | 27 | Sn.) 21 | o9 34-4 |50
20 | 40 | 32 | 07 | 15 15 | 37 | 27 | 10 | 02 | 15 | 347 |16
01 $9 1320 | 158 31 0:3 06 54 | 12°8 2°9 1:0 03 | 1113 6-0
0:2 | 3x3} |) Pa 68 1-4 0-6 is 3:9 6:2 2:0 05 06 60:1 aes.
o4 | 20 | 23 | 28 | 48 | 20 06 |-06 | 04 | o-4 436 | 0
| | |
The whole branching system 1:5:15:24:11:3:1 Runners 4
do. 24310. 92 G27 22 do. 0
ness of joints, in branches of different orders.
IN THE FIRST TWO FEET
Average length, in inches
Number of canes measured
nde! b ara ee e | Sila b | c id eb hi ahs c
| } !
32| 35/381 40!/38l51| s{ a | 35 || 6! 1| 68
24/37] 43 ou 51/45) 4] 12 | 13°| 7/| 2] 1| 62] 69] #4
26|34| 36) 35| 37]... || 57 | 89 | 57/13]... | 97
97/35] 30|42/42/e0|..| |. |] ~|~| v6] oo) a7
21) 33/52/58] 65| ..| 5| 20 | at | 26 | 23 | a
i ntnnieeneeiinteeetemeenenememmeenael
AVERAGE THICKNESS OF CANES AT TWO FEET FROM BASE
Average thickness, in mm.
99 | 105 | 108 | 122
93 |
153 | 172 | 209 | 237 237 |
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an
FOREWORD.
THE creat advances made in agricultural science during recent years, by
the application of well-arranged series of experimental plots, has thrown some-
what into the background the importance of careful observations on the
ordinary crops grown, and the lessons which can be drawn from their varia-
tions. The laying down of a series of experimental plots and tabulating their
results at crop time is a comparatively simple matter, and the equally important
regular observation of the plots at intervals is more laborious and is not always
attended to. A well-known experimentalist has, indeed, asserted to the writer,
that such observations are altogether ultra vires, and that the plots should be
only visited when sowing is taking place and the reaping done. While some-
thing may be said for this point of view in permanent plots, when the results
are recorded over a long series of years, we cannot regard it as justified for
general work on our Agricultural Stations, when it 1s desirable to obtain
definite results within as short a time as possible. It has been found that
the periodic notes taken of experimental plots during growth, as was regularly
done at the Samalkota Sugarcane Station by the author, were often quite
sufficient to explain apparent anomalies in the results, thus saving years of
repetition, and it was usually found that these results could be forecasted
with tolerable accuracy some months before harvest. The present paper,
prepared in 1917 for the Lahore meeting of the Indian Science Congress, empha-
sizes this side of agricultural research. As will be seen in the context, it is not
intended in any way to discount the value of the experimental method, but
to explain the fact that there are cases when it is inapplicable and that, in
such cases, series of careful observations, although more difficult and laborious,
may be attended with useful results. To quote a remark in Nature
(p. 203, May 16th, 1918), “Dr. Balls’ comments on the short article on
‘ Cotton-growing Statistics’ in the issue of this journal cf April 11th, opens
up a wide and interesting feature in scientific research, namely, the value of
observed data and their interpretation.” Owing to the lack of space, and the
general character of the work on the Cane-breeding Station at Coimbatore,
we have not been able to introduce much experimental work in the plots.
Observations have, however, been regularly carried out for the past six
years, and several Memoirs have already been issued, giving some of the
interpreted results of such observations. The present paper gives yet another
instance of such work, and it has been decided to publish it practically as
it stands, although obviously incomplete in some respects, in that there seems
to be little prospect of the longer Memoir projected being completed. It is
considered that the details given sufficiently demonstrate the method
proposed.
CoIMBATORE,
October, 1918.
STUDIES IN INDIAN SUGARCANES, No. 5.
ON TESTING THE SUITABILITY OF SUGARCANE VARIETIES
FOR DIFFERENT LOCALITIES, BY A SYSTEM OF
MEASUREMENTS. PERIODICITY IN THE
GROWTH OF THE SUGARCANE.
BY
CO. A. BARBER, C.1.B., Sc.D. (Cantab.), F.LS.,
Government Sugarcane Expert, Madras. fe
[Received for publication on 9th December, 1918. ]
I. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE ON GROWTH IN LENGTH OF THE SUGARCANE.
A WRITER in the Louisiana Planter of September, 1916, has drawn attention
to the great growth in length of the sugarcane in the Southern States during
the moist, forcing heat of July and August. He claims that, not infrequently,
two to three joints are added per week and that these are well formed and from
four to six inches in length, “and are apparently much finer canes than are
generally grown in the tropics.” A further statement in the November number of
the same journal gives the data on which these figures are based and, incidentally,
throws light on the vegetative period in this tract. Careful measurements
made by a planting correspondent, extending over four years, show that the
cane is about a foot long at the beginning of July, increases by 30 inches both
in July and in August, 18 in September, 12 in October, and then practically
ceases to grow. The author draws attention to the economic importance of
this class of work, especially with regard to the decision as to which canes
are best suited to different tracts of country. He emphasizes the absence cf
exact data and suggests that such work should be taken up by the experi-
mental stations. The method employed by the planter was very simple, in
that stakes were driven into the ground and the canes laid along these at
successive periods and measured.
Studies in the growth in length of the different parts of the cane plant
have occupied workers in Java at intervals for many years, although the
(155) ]
156 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
importance of the subject from the factory point of view has barely been
realized. Kobus! (1887-1893) made a study of the growth in length cf the
lamina, and gave details as to the extent to which the inner structure was
completed in leaves of different length. He pointed out that the lamina
attained its full growth far sooner than the sheath. We have not had the
opportunity of seeing Kobus’s papers, and quote this from that of Kuijper
mentioned below. Kamerling? issued an important paper in 1904, and quite
recently Kuijper? has returned to the subject in 1915, and these papers deserve
careful reading.
One of the greatest difficulties in measuring growing canes is due to the
fact that the portion in actual elongation is permanently enswathed in a mass
of leaves which cannot be removed without disturbing the growth. Observa-
tion of the ends of these leaves cannot be used in measurement because of the
constant variation in length of successive leaves during the growing period.
It becomes necessary to find some definite external point on the shoot which
bears a constant relation to the growing point of the stem within. Kamerling
set himself to find such a point. His object was to study the rate of growth
in different fields and varieties, and to replace the general terms in use, such
moderately slow,’ and so on, by exact measurements,
29 66
as “rapid,” “slow,
at the same time pointing out the importance of such work for the factory.
By determining the rate of growth under certain well-defined conditions, he
claimed that we should be in a position not only to decide the fitness of a
variety for its locality but also to fix on general measures whereby unsatis-
factory growth might be remedied. He first of all found that there is a
sequence of growth in length in the lamina, leaf sheath and stem of a very
definite character. The lamina first grows in length, rapidly unfolds itself
and ceases from any further increase ; as soon as this is completed, the energy
of growth is transferred tothe sheath. It quickly elongates and pushes the
lamina into the air and light and, in its turn, ceases from further growth in
length. Lastly, when the leaf sheath has finished growing, the stem inter-
nodes, hitherto merely a series of flat, superposed discs, suddenly elongate by
the expansion of their cells and cease to grow in length after a very short
time. The sheaths thus complete their growth in length before the internodes
commence to elongate, and their further apparent growth is due to the increase
1 Kobus, J. D. Bijdrage tot de kennis van den bouw en de ontwikkeling van het suikerriet,
Land II, Nos. 19 and 30 of the Mededeelingen van het Proefstation Oost-Java, 1887-1893.
2 Kamerling, Z. Delengtegroei van het riet, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie, deel
XII, 1904, page 997.
8 Kuijper, J. De groei van bladschijf, bladscheede en stengel van het suikerriet, Mededee-
lingen van het Proefstation voor de Java-Suikerindustrie, V, 8, 1915.
C. A. BARBER 157
in length of the internodes to which they are attached. In the young shoot
each leaf sheath is entirely covered by the one outside it, while it is yet un-
develop2d, but the moment when it emerges from this protection Kamerling
shows to coincide with its cessation of growth. The tops of two successive
sheaths are now close together, and any further separation is due to extension
of the stem which at this period commences to elongate. The top of
the leaf sheath is the place where it joins the lamina, and Kamerling selected
this point which Ife calls the “ blad-gewricht ’’ (leaf joint), as the one by the
observation of which he could indirectly observe the growth in length of
Highest
Traneverse Mark
Transverse Mark
Ligular
(Leat Joint * Gewrichr’)
Frocess
iH)!
|
|
Hi
|
yea
i
s! IN}
|
|
| Lesi Shealh
I
|
young joints of the stem apex (see Fig. above). This demonstration of
Kamerling’s has been found to be justified, on the assumption that all of the
mature leaf sheaths are of equal length. He measured a series of leaf sheaths in
different canes and soon found that, while the differences in their length in fully
grown parts of the cane plant were very small, both at the beginning and end of
the vegetative season the leaf sheaths were of different sizes. The first sheaths
are very small, these successively increase in length until they reach a fairly
158 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
uniform maximum, and this is maintained during active growth. Towards
the end of the season, however, the sheaths again diminish in length. He
made a distinction between the actual growth of the young internodes, and
their “apparent ”’ growth as judged by the observation of the leaf joint, and
showed that, while the difference between the actual and apparent growth is
small during the period of full growth of the cane plant, it is large at the
beginning and the end of the season. Kamerling then tried a method of
measuring the growth of the stem directly, by removing the leafy mass
around the actively elongating portion, marking it and covering it with tin
foil, and measuring it again after 24 hours. The results agreed with those
already obtained, showed that the region of elongation was confined to few
joints, and that, in these, the top of each joint ceased growing first and the
lower part continued elongating after the upper had ceased to alter, that is,
that the region of most active growth in length in each joint was basi-petal.
But such harsh treatment of the young growing parts soon introduced
irregularities in development, and Kamerling’s main results depended on
the indirect method mentioned above.
To Kuijper belongs the credit of overcoming once and for all these diffi-
culties. After tryig various methods, he hit upon the ingenious plan of
piercing the whole growing shoot with a darning needle (finer instruments
encountered too much resistance), starting with a full-grown leaf sheath on
the outside, which showed no further movement, and working upwards.
A series of holes were thus made through the whole mass of growing
parts, and, as growth took place, these holes were pushed up in various degrees
in the different organs inside. After a period of six days the relative position
of the holes was studied, and their change in position gave an accurate measure
of the growth which had taken place in each organ. By a multiplication of
the initial holes at distances of about one centimetre up the outer leaf sheath,
he was able to state definitely in what part of each organ growth was most
rapid, as all that remained to be done was to dissect out the mass after a
stated interval, lay out the parts, and measure the vertical distances between
the holes. While this method was found to disturb the growth in very young
parts, 1t fully justified its use, and the general results obtained by Kamerling
were substantiated, but, by a series of actual, in place of inferred, measure-
ments. The basi-petal tendency of the zone of most active growth in each
internode was confirmed, and it was found that the leaf sheath and lamina
behaved in a similar manner. Kuijper’s work was, in the main, instituted
tor a study of certain diseases of the shoot, which appeared to depend on the
relative growth of the young parts, and the previous work of Kamerling
o
=
4
\
i
'
|
j
ed
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We
PLATE I.
sjulor JO asquinn
)
hf St O€ St ek 4 S| Ol S (0) ca
JESUS asNehe esha 4 lke sae SReeeeaUhees)
a oe oa a tp a A ih i
Ha ea a a Fe i a
TAS ESOC san Ss) SOV e eee esas wesw
SETA AA o
Jase es Banas He SHAH EE
Sea Eso ass Wee ese eee eee Be),
PEt VA re we eit tt} @ S¥Eo IseIeus
BEES GEVe Saab hEs a a se a Le
CURE Teese ae Seba ee eases Sty tS =
4 WEEMS
see Ba es
Ge eee eee eRe cae
PEE ge? sen
|_-
EEE CEE a
SERS ise
a
GSHiaeaes
HAH
Bea”.
Ei PUES |e
7 SAAS
eee “moan
jsinelr cone
ese Ween Sees
ems atea: J fy
MEESERS ia ie
JAE RE SSa Rees Ev ESSER eae
See Seee J] JANA SSeS
ee ea a ae ES NEES aS
Ci: SaaS eases seen eee See)
i i se a ee a aL
JJ 916| “reges 14eyy Ul seAdny Yjeays-jeay] jo yjGueq
c. A. BARBER 159
did not give the accurate figures required for this. He fully endorsed the
selection of the uppermost visible leaf joint for measurement in stem growth,
safeguarding it, as was done by Kamerling, at the beginning and end of the
season. We are indebted to him for the first clear demonstration of what
goes on inside the growing portion of the cane shoot.
An interesting piece of work on the growth of the cane was done by
Taluqdar at Sabour Government Farm in 1914.! Here iron stakes were driven
into the ground to a great depth, at the commencement of the season, and
marks made to indicate the original ground-level. Measurements were taken
from this point to the leaf joint, at intervals of a fortnight, in a series of cane
bushes belonging to three different varieties, Khari, Shakarchynia, and
Buxaria. Taluqdar followed the Java practice in selecting the leaf joint, but
used a coloured mark which occurs across the base of the lamina at this point.
This he calls the “ ligular band,” and in previous Memoirs we have termed it
the “ transverse mark ”’ on the leaf sheath ; it is usually quite easy to see and is
often brightly coloured, forming one of the most striking features in the
srowing shoot (Fig. on p. 157). There appear to us to be two points in which
the accuracy of Taluqdar’s measurements may be criticized. In the first place
his observations commence very early in the life of the plant and continue
to the end of the growing period, and he does not appear to have noted that
the lengths of the leaf sheaths diminish at these periods. He assumes a
steady uniformity in length of leaf sheath throughout the growing period.
Secondly, the work of the Java men was done on thick tropical canes, such as
Cheribon, Lethers, P. O. J. 100, and these differ a good deal in many respects
from the indigenous Indian canes used by Taluqdar. It is by no means certain
that the ends of the leaf sheaths are a safe point on which to base the measure-
ments of stem growth in Indian canes. In fact, the leaf sheaths appear to differ
in length very much more in the latter class of canes. Some measurements,
made by the author, of successive leaf sheaths in Khari growing at Sabour,
are appended. Theaverage curve of the length of leaf sheath in the whole twenty
canes measured has been plotted out and the curves of the longest and shortest
canes have been added, #.¢., those with the greatest and smallest number of
joints (Plate I). It will be seen that the leaf sheaths vary very greatly in the
general curve during the course of growth, whereas, in the individuals, there
are often differences in successive joints of over an inch. An analysis of these
curves may make our meaning clearer. Leaving out the first five, until the
leaf sheath has attained to its full length, and the last eight, when the leaf
1 Taluqdar, J. M. Notes on the growth of Sugarcane. Bihar and Orissa Agricultural
Journal, Vol. III, No. 1, April, 1915.
160 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
sheaths rapidly diminish in length owing to the immaturity of the joints, we
have the following differences in the length of leaf sheaths. The average
difference in length of adjoining leaf sheaths, in the shortest cane, is 0°44”, and
the five greatest differences are 14”, 0:7”, 0:7", 0°7”, and 0°6”. In the longest
cane, the average difference is 0°59”, and the five greatest are 1:8”, 1:4”, 1:3”,
1:3”, and 1:1”. Compare with these figures those obtained from the three
examples, given by Kamerling, of thick canes grown in‘Java :—
(1) Average difference 0°11”, the five greatest being 0°3 , 0-2”, 0:2”, 0:1", 0-1".
(2) 3 0:23”, 0:6”, 0:4”, 0:4", 04", 0-2”.
(3) * 0:02”, 3 O15 0:070:0" 20:0 Oe
It appears from this that it might be well for Kuijper’s work to be done
again in a series of indigenous Indian canes, and, until this is done, it is unsafe
to use the Java method for the accurate measurement of growth in length of
young internodes by merely observing the distances of successive transverse
marks.
Taluqdar’s measurements extended from May to early November, but
as the period of tillering was not completed until the beginning of June, the
earlier measurements only refer to a small number of shoots, while at the
end of the season very many had been destroyed by moth-borers. Five or
six months may be taken as the period of active growth, and this received
an enormous impetus in July when the rains set in, thus presenting great
similarity with the course of events already referred to in Louisiana. An
attempt is made to determine the influence of temperature and moisture on
growth, and the general conclusion arrived at is that these two factors act
in common and that, as soon as one of them declines, the effect of the other
is neutralized. In the tables it is seen that the period of growth is limited
at both ends by declining warmth and moisture. Growth in the tropics is
very different from that in Louisiana and North India, in that the temperature
there never sinks so low as to be ineflective and, when moisture fails, irrigation
is resorted to. The usual period of growth is twelve months and, consequently,
larger crops are obtained,
II. ‘THE METHOD OF CANE MEASUREMENTS ADOPTED AND THE MATERIAL USED,
The method adopted in this paper is altogether different from those
referred to above. It is, namely, to take the cane at crop time and measure
the parts, and from these measurements to try and infer the general growth
conditions at the place where the crop was grown. The length and thickness
of the different organs vary much in different places, and, from their study,
it is attempted to form an opinion as to the relative suitability of such places
PLATE Il.
of a nial
4
,
pos
c. A. BARBER 16
to the varieties grown. This method was not adopted because there was any
special fault to be found with those described above, but simply because it
was the only possible one in the circumstances and for the purpose in view.
In place of periodic observations made on a few selected plants during their
growth at one place, a large series of plants grown at widely different stations
are compared. Barly in the life of the Cane-breeding Station it was noted
that, as one passed from the frost-visited region of the Phnjab, in a south-
easterly direction along the Himalayas and in a southerly direction down the
Peninsula, one constantly met with larger varieties of canes, even when these
belonged to the“same natural groups. [t was easy to suggest that this was,
in the main, due to the foreing effect of the warmer, moister climate. And
seven North Indian canes of those collected at Coimbatore were distributed
to Taliparamba, on the Malabar coast, and Samalkota on the Coromandel,
in order to note the effect on these varieties of the soiland climate. A scheme
of accurate moastireneyss BRAN MHON OP PERE. time, and these scon
showed that there were marked differences in the growth of the plants in
these two loPhetegeaphs, of, palmyra tapes un the Madea ain Presidents surements
whe upper pictiite shows-normad; thinjured igre whhd i /Phis plaatation' isabout half
inclu@nmie:drom ther Ganerbreeding Station rat )Coimbatores|itlts 18 called) the
we heVIbomas?) tope afters Collestor, of Coimbatbre, \miuchigivemto-tree-planting,
availaud, wasplanted,in bis ime.) Phe period of hig collectorate | was between
by wvMareh 1848, qnd, May, 1862, and the tope, is thexefore 60, 00,70 years ldrid be
eu shows the effect of a great storm ‘of wind in a palmyra tope in
NG igs District. The storm occurred some 28 years before the
no was S nay %, ong ArIQUS pPtbi) Oe Sych aed UER Leth paw.
— a snLSAS Bong UP thao FenSiQiondP Sul MIRREN, 15 not alto-
gether i Any one accustomed to the study of growth rings in
dicotyledons is aware that they differ according to variatiohs in the year’s
season and those of successive years. At certain places in the Madras Presi-
dency, all the palmyra palms may be seen suddenly to narrow at about the
same distance from the ground, or to show a marked bend in the same direc-
tion, indicating surely that, at that period of growth, the young plantation
encountered some storm or period of stress! (Plate 11). In the cane itself it has
1 Since writing the aboye, Mr. W. McRae, the Madras Government Mycologist, has
very kindly placed at my disposal a photograph taken by him of a palmyra tope, showing
the effect of a storm; and he has given me the following note concerning it: “ The
photogrepk of the palmyra palms with bent trunks was taken in October 1911 in the
village of Mallayaram, in Cocanada taluk of the Godavari District. The tope was situated
near the sca-shore. The palms were said by the village Munsiff to have been bent over in a
storm that occurred 28 years ago, and he was able to fix the date because it happened in tix
sume year as an important domestic occurrence.”
e's 2aW ‘Mesotiolicts debian | '
-blo a1s9y OY ot 00 s10tereds at sqot odt bas Sd8l ysM bus 8h8I int
ai sqos styalsq 6 ai baiw to criote teo1g 8 to tosfte odt ewode o1toig towol oT
oft stoted aissy 88 «mor boriwo00 ortote olT .toiteid isvsbow odt
odd oi m9ee ei tosits ati bas {df .q ao 9t0K 992) aodst asw dq
toitootih sa0 ai 2arote odt to verso to gaibaed 2
re
* :
ANS RONG et.
- ”
.
t
é
c. A. BARBER 161
to the varieties grown. This method was not adopted because there was any
special fault to be found with those described above, but simply because it
was the only possible one in the circumstances and for the purpose in view.
In place of periodic observations made on a few selected plants during their
srowth at one place, a large series of plants grown at widely different stations
are compared. Early in the life of the Cane-breeding Station it was noted
that, as one passed from the frost-visited region of the Punjab, in a south-
easterly direction along the Himalayas and in a southerly direction down the
Peninsula, one constantly met with larger varieties of canes, even when these
belonged to the same natural groups. It was easy to suggest that this was,
in the main, due to the forcing effect of the warmer, moister climate. And
seven North Indian canes of those collected at Coimbatore were distributed
to Taliparamba, on the Malabar coast, and Samalkota on the Coromandel,
in order to note the effect on these varieties of the soil and climate. A scheme
of accurate measurements was instituted towards crop time, and these soon
showed that there were marked differences in the growth of the plants in
these two localities and at Coimbatore itself. Later on, these measurements
were introduced for the study of the varieties in different parts of the country,
including placesin North India, and there are now ten localities from which
we have a series of such measurements recorded. With this mass of materiat
available, it was thought worth while to see if some expression could be evolved
by which the influence of each locality on the growth of the cane could be
distinguished.
That, from the study of the various parts of such a completed plant,
some insight may be obtained into its vicissitudes during growth, is not alto-
gether unreasonable. Any one accustomed to the study of growth rings in
dicotyledons is aware that they differ according to variations in the year’s
season and those of successive years. At certain places in the Madras Presi-
dency, all the palmyra palms may be seen suddenly to narrow at about the
same distance from the ground, or to show a marked bend in the same direc-
tion, indicating surely that, at that period of growth, the young plantation
encountered some storm or period of stress! (Plate II). In the cane itself it has
1 Since writing the above, Mr. W. McRae, the Madras Government Mycologist, has
very kindly placed at my disposal a photograph taken by him of a palmyra tope, showing
the effect of a storm; and he has given me the following note concerning it: ‘ The
photograph of the palmyra palms with bent trunks was taken in October 1911 in the
village of Mallavaram, in Cocanada taluk of the Godavari District. The tope was situated
near the sea-shore. The palms were said by the village Munsiff to have been bent over in a
storm that occurred 28 years ago, and he was able to fix the date because it happened in the
same year as an important domestic occurrence.”
162 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
been noted, in"parts of Bengal, that it is easy to put one’s finger on the part of
the stem where the growing cane experienced the onset of the monsoon rains,
whetber because of differences of thickness and length of joints or the occur-
rence of abundant aerial roots. So too, the attack of a single moth-borer
leaves its mark in a sudden diminution in thickness and length of the joints,
shose succeeding gradually recovering their normal size. The leaf scars of
many dicotyledons engrave the history of the year’s growth on the stem
whether it be the slow growth of spring, when the scale leaves gradually
change into foliage leaves, the putting forth of the branches, the rapid growth
in the summer or the slowing down in autumn. So too, although less evident,
there will be marks left in the joints of monocotyledons. My Assistant,
Mr. T. 8. Venkataraman, has shown that, in some coconuts growing on the
Cane-breeding Station, there is periodicity in the vertical width of the bases
of successive leaves, possibly connected with the seasons of the year, a fact
which receives additional interest from the periodicity recorded below in the
sugarcane itself. The mere study of the length of successive joints in a cane
may therefore sometimes be of use in indicating differing growth conditions
and some striking instances of this will be mentioned during the course of the
paper. But many other measurements have been made as well, from which
similar deductions could be made.
The system of measurements employed is fully described, and numerous
examples are pointed, in Memoir No. 3,1 but a summary is here given
for the sake of clearness. As is natural, the chief importance is attached to
the growth in length of parts. Twenty canes are chosen to represent any plot,
safeguards being introduced to insure that they are average healthy ones at
a distance from one another. These are first measured joint by joint as to
length of lamina, leaf sheath and joint, and the results are so arranged that
it is easy at any time to pick out the successive organs belonging to any one
cane of the twenty. By a system of averaging (the difficulties of which need
not detain us here), an ideal cane is built up for these twenty, and this is taken
to represent the particular variety grown at that time and place. The measure-
ments thus obtained are plotted out on squared paper and placed on record,
as the appropriate curves of length of successive joints, leaf sheaths and laminas.
Reference may be made to the curves already shown of Khari leaf sheaths
1 Barber, C. A. Studies in Indian Sugarcanes, No. 3. The classification of Indian canes
with special reference to the Saretha and Sunnabile groups. Mem. Dep. Agric., Ind., Bot. Ser.,
Vol. IX, No. 4, May, 1918.
@. A. BARBER 163
grown at Sabour in 1917 (Plate I). Besides these measurements in length of
organs, the numbers of joints are counted and the total length of formed
cane is measured, and from these two figures is obtained the rate of cane
formation per mensem while in the ground. The numbers of dead leaves are
counted and the length of the cane covered by these (these two figures being
taken as indicating the rate of ripening of the cane), the length of the shoot
(unripened part of the plant) is recorded and the total length of the whole
plant when laid out on the ground, the maximum width of the leaf and the
average thickness of the stem. The latter measurement deserves special
mention, in that canes vary in thickness in different parts and are generally oval
in section. Each cane, when stripped, is measured at the middle, at the base,
and at the highest matured joint. And these measurements have to be done
in two planes, at right angles to one another, because of the ovalness of the
cane, one being made in the plane of leaf attachment and one at right angles
to it. The latter is almost invariably narrower than the former. These six
measurements are averaged for each of the twenty canes, and the resultant
of these is taken as the average thickness cf the canes in the plot. Incidentally,
ovalness of the cane is recorded, as the cane varieties differ in this respect,
as well as the tendency to thicken upwards or downwards which characterizes
different kinds of canes. All of these measurements are made on the same
twenty canes, and the latter are so arranged in tables that all the measurements
of each individual cane and joint may at once be seen, and any future work
on correlation between the variations in size in different organs may be
studied.
This material forms the basis of our work, and a comparison of these
measurements determines the general lines on which our conclusions are
framed. It becomes possible to compare the growth of the same cane in
different places, the development of individual cane characters in different
surroundings, and the manner in which different sets of conditions impress
themselves on cane growth in general
whether favourably or the
reverse.
The series of measurements obtained for each set of twenty canes, taken
at one time and place, form together a “unit ” observation. There are now
some hundreds of these units collected, and many of them were utilized in
the Memoir referred to above, for the purpose of distinguishing the growth
characters of the Saretha and Sunnabile groups. But, in the present paper,
only those dealing with the seven cane varieties distributed to Taliparamba
164 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
and Samalkota have been included. Eighty-nine unit observations on these
varieties form the basis of the present paper.
The varieties dealt with are the following :—Saretha, Chin, Khari, Chynia,
Pansahi, Baroukha (of Sabour and not of the United Provinces, a member of
the Nargori group of canes), and Mungo. All of these have been examined
at the Cane-breeding Station, at Taliparamba and Samalkota, and such of
them as were found growing at the Coimbatore Central Farm, Nagpur, Sabour,
Pusa, Partabgarh, Shahjahanpur, and Aligarh. The observations at the latter
place are less complete, in that only six canes were measured and these at an
early stage of growth, but they are included because they indicate certain
well-marked characters which have still to be checked. A study of the agri-
cultural conditions and the curves of growths obtained have led us to divide
these places into three regions: (1) The Coimbatore Central Farm, Talipar-
amba, Samalkota and Nagpur represent wet land, continuously irrigated from
tanks ; (2) The Cane-breeding Station, consisting of shghtly saline garden land,
dry land irrigated from wells; (3) Gangetic alluvium. The latter region has
of necessity been less fully studied than the rest, and in many cases the record
is very incomplete. There are great variations in the curves obtained from
these northern places, but it has not been found possible, with the data avail-
able, to subdivide the tract. Suffice it to say that there appear to be as great
differences in growth in North India as in South India, and that the rate of
erowth appears to be greater in Aligarh, Shahjahanpur, and perhaps Sabour,
than at Pusa and Partabgarh. The last named gives, in almost all cases, a
less vigorous growth than in any other place of those observed. The Cane-
breeding Station, with its handicap of well-irrigation and intractable soil
with slight salinity, shows curves much more similar to those obtained in
North India than any of the wet land places, thus justifying its selection for
the work of raising seedlings for North India. It has been already stated
that our record is to a certain extent incomplete. This was of necessity the
case, in that the work of accurate measurements has gradually extended, and
the object of the present paper was not at first held in view. But it is held
that this will not invalidate the method, which can be much more easily
employed when the opportunity occurs of putting down the same varieties
in each place. This incompleteness has, in the present mstance, entailed a
great deal of labour, in that there are a number of points which need safe-
guarding, lest conclusions are arrived at on insufficient data. A statement
is appended of the observations on which this paper is based, showing the
‘number of units obtained for each variety at each place, and some of the
pitfalls are detailed below with the means adopted of avoiding them.
o. A. BARBER 165
TABLE I.
Unit observations of varieties and places.
er —————EE————e
voces Wet land Gangetic alluvium
: oS Total
C.B.8. | C.F. | Sam. | Tal. | Nag. | Sab. Pusa | Part. | Shah. | Alig.
7 as, | | - a a 7 al
Months in ll tT sal 8k} 113 5.) TNS 9 6
ground
Saretha 5 4 2 2 3 1 He Y) 1 1 16
Chin : 23 Oe ty ae 3 1 Ne Lee aed 3 1 16
Khari *,| 2 1 sally Seer? 3 1 2 | 1 1 1 14
Pansahi.. 1 2 2 3 . 2 Ah '+ gon | 11
Chynia . 1 1 2 3 . 2 Zhe Ty sees 11
Baroukha . 2 1 2 3 yD relia 2 a oe 10
Mungo . . 2 Erase 2 2 eal 2 we ! 1 ies 1
Total . 15 Orig) 620 3 9 Char x 5 4 | 89
Garden land 15 Wet land 46 Gangetic alluvium 28 89
In comparing the general growth of the cane plant in different places, it
is, in the first place, necessary to consider the varieties observed there. Saretha
and Baroukha, for instance, are characterized by comparatively enormous
length of stems, while Mungo is a dwarf variety with very short joints and
canes. As the latter cane is present in some places and not in others, we
cannot obtain reliable figures of general cane growth for any one place by
averaging the observations irrespective of whether Mungo is present or not.
It would, again, be difficult to compare the cane growth as indicated by the
units observed at Nagpur and Sabour, for there is only one of our seven canes
erown in common at these two places. The followmg method has been
adopted to overcome this difficulty. Stations are only compared by averaging
the same canes grown on them. The Cane-breeding Station, Taliparamba,
and Samalkota were first compared, as all of them had the whole series growing.
Then the Coimbatore Central Farm was compared with these three, omitting
Mungo altogether, which was absent on it. Nagpur was compared with these
four, as well as with Partabgarh and Aligarh, only in respect to the measure-
ments of Saretha, Chin, and Khari. Sabour was compared with the three
localities which had its ‘five canes, Pusa with the same three, Partabgarh with
the first four, Shahjahanpur with four, and Aligarh with three. This method
of course greatly increased the work, but it was considered the only safe way
in which to compare the general growth of canes in different places.
Another factor here obtruded itself. In comparing Pusa with the three
places in South India which had the same varieties growing, it was noted that
Mungo does rather well in some respects at Pusa, while it does very badly
166 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
in South India. As it is probable that most of the cane varieties now under
consideration would do worse in Pusa than in South India, its comparatively
good Mungo gives it a more favourable position than it deserves. And, in
the general summation, such cases have to be considered.
Again, in comparing the growth of different varieties, we have to consider
the general character of growth at the place where they are observed. Certain
varieties are better suited to certain places, and it is part of the object of this
study to determine what kinds grow best in each locality. Taliparamba, for
instance, is characterized by the formation of many, longish joints, and long
canes of moderate thickness; Nagpur has few joints of great Icngth, but
these are thin and the leaves are narrow ; Partabgarh develops all parts poorly,
excepting the thickness of the stem and width of leaf, and so on. It thus
becomes important to take into consideration the range of places from which
unit observations have been taken, in comparing the relative growth of the
organs of different varieties.
Due allowance must be made for the character of the season and the
piece of land used during any year. This is not usually possible or necessary,
but some extreme cases have occurred, showing that the influence of these
factors cannot always be neglected. The most striking instance of this is in
the two sets of observations made at Samalkota in successive years. The
curves of length of joints in these two vears differ so much that they might
well have been obtained from two different places, and they bear the impress
of the season during which they grow so strongly that a separate section is
devoted, later on, to their study. The difference in the plots of land in two
years at the Cane-breeding Station is also clearly reflectedin the series of
measurements obtained, as has been fully detailed in the Memoir mentioned
above. These differences in successive years make it all the more necessary
that the observations should be extended over several years at each place.
It will be seen, from a reference to the table of observation units, that there
are a number of cases where only one observation has been made, and in such
cases the results should be regarded as more or less tentative and to require
checking by further observations.
The time during which the observed crop has been in the ground has,
naturally, a very considerable influence on the relative growth which takes
place, and this is emphasized by the fact that early growth is more energetic
than that taking place later on. The period of growth has been carefully
allowed for, in that various measurements in length have been divided by the
number of months which have elapsed between the dates of planting and
examination. Generally speaking, the plots have been examined earlier in
Cc. A. BARBER 167
North India than in South, but the habit of trashing the cane at Taliparamba
has made it necessary to make the observations earlier there too. Now a
study of the relative length of joints at different periods of growth shows
that, within a short time of the commencement of joint formation, these
become very long, soon reaching a maximum, after which they gradually
diminish till near harvest time. The joints in the earlier portion of the year
are therefore longer than in the later, and the values in the tables for North
India and Taliparamba occupy a more favourable place than they should do,
when compared with other localities. This is especially the case with Aligarh
where only six canes were measured, only six months old. The apparently
high position of Aligarh is thus somewhat discounted, and similar allowance
must be made in certain other cases. But, on the whole, when it is possible
to check it by comparing canes growing during equal periods, it has been
found that there is less discrepancy caused by this factor than would be
expected.
It is a different matter when we consider the average length of season
in different parts of the country. As is well known, the period of cane forma-
tion in North India is very much less than it is in the warmer, tropical parts.
Whereas the season of active growth is very short in North India, often hardly
reaching six months, it usually extends to nearly twelve in the South. The
figures representing growth per mensem give a great advantage to North Indian
stations, and this must be held in view when comparing them with the wet
land localities and, especially, when considering the low place occupied by the
Cane-breeding Station. After all, the total length of cane is the chief item
to be taken into account, and not the enormous rapidity of growth taking
place in North India during the months of heavy rainfall and great heat.
But, from the crop point of view, the amount of tillering must also be
considered. It is probable that this is greater in the free, light soils of the
Gangetic alluvium than in the heavy clays of the Peninsula.!_ But, although it
is highly desirable for accurate figures to be obtained on tillering, it has not
been possible to include this character in the general measurements taken.
And a similar remark may be made as to the relative richness of the juice in
different places.
The time at which the sets are sown is of some importance, as little actual
growth takes place in North India until the rains come, excepting where there
is abundant irrigation. The planting times vary, in our observations, from
1 Some preliminary figures have since become available on this subject and are included
in Memoir No. 4. Mem. Dep. Agric., Ind., Bot. Ser., Vol. X, No. 2,
168 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
January in Nagpur to April at the Coimbatore Central Farm. In South India
the sets germinate within a week or ten days from planting and, if they do
not appear then, it is often the custom to replant the field, but in North India
one must sometimes wait for several weeks before there are any signs of the
young shoots. To calculate the rate of growth, one should perhaps take the
date at which the young shoots appear, because the protrusion of the leafy
shoot is the first act of the germinating set, but we have at present no means
of determining this date. To obtain a full picture of the relative growth in
North India and the tropics, further observations will be necessary, and it
may be well to divide it into definite periods as follows :—(1) Period of branch-
ing, during which the plant remains low and devotes itself to the business of
tillering. This is probably a good deal longer in North India, where the thin
canes have far more branches than the thicker South Indian varieties.
(2) Period of active elongation of the stem, or cane formation. This is a goed
deal shorter in North India and probably cane formation is more rapid.
(3) Period of ripening. This is better defined in North India, and is with
difficulty separated from the growth in length in the South. The careful
comparison of these periods in the North and South of India is a piece of
work which is well worth doing.
It is, further, to be noted that, in this paper, only indigenous Indian
canes are considered, and only a few of these, not perhaps very well adapted
for the purpose, as they were the only ones readily available for comparison.
There is little doubt that, if the series had been extended and, especially,
if thick canes had been included, the differences between the two great regions
would have been emphasized. As it was, many of the indigenous canes grown
in South India were obviously handicapped by being in uncongenial surround-
ings, and this is ascribed chiefly to the heavy and impermeable nature of the
soil, and the consequent difficulty experienced by the plants in obtaining
moisture.
Lastly, the observations were confined to canes growing in Government
farms. The conditions on these vary a good deal, much greater care being
expended on the plots in some places than in others. It may usually be
assumed that the cane growth is better on the farm than in the surrounding
cultivators’ fields, but this is not always the case. For instance, the wet
land in the Coimbatore Farm, although good for paddy, 1s not specially suited
to cane growing. It would not be selected by cultivators for that purpose.
Similarly, the land in the Cane-breeding Station, which is eminently suited
for compelling the canes to arrow, is not, as yet, sugarcane land. It is probable
Cc. A. BARBER 169
that, in these two cases, the growth is inferior to that in the ryots’ fields, and
there may be other cases where a similar state of affairs exists.
Having due regard to these various pitfalls, it appears from our study
that, first in importance, as influencing growth, is the local effect of the place,
so much so that, within reasonable limits, it is often possible to form an idea
as to what kind of canes and leaves are to be expected from growing any cane
variety there. The annual variations in the season and treatment occupy a
secondary place, but are sometimes very marked in their effect. Lastly, the
variety grown sometimes dominates and, in some farms, the individuality of
the variety counterbalances the effect of place and climate, as in the strongly
growing Saretha, the dwarf Mungo, and, to a less extent, Baroukha and Chynia.
III. CHARACTERS OF CANE GROWTH IN DIFFERENT PLACES.
From a study of the seven varieties, we have formed the conclusion that
any of them at Taliparamba tends to have a large number of long joints ;
the length of cane formed per mensem is great and the growing season is long ;
but the canes are of only moderate thickness. The cane ripens quickly. The
length of the shoot is great and the width of the leaf is considerable. The
curve of joint length commences high, soon reaches its maximum, and that
maximum is high. The general growth at Taliparamba is accordingly con-
sidered to be satisfactory, the only exception being that the canes are not
very thick, and possibly tillering is defective. Taliparamba occupies the first
place, in general vigour of growth, of all those at which measurements have
been taken with these varieties.
We should naturally regard Samalkota, in the well-known sugarcane
tract of the Godavari delta, as equalling Taliparamba in these respects. But,
apparently, it is less suited for the growth, at any rate, of North Indian canes.
There are only a moderate number of joints formed per mensem and these
are of moderate length ; the length of cane formed per mensem is thus only
moderate and the canes are very thin, but the growing season is long. Ripen-
ing takes place quickly. The shoot is of moderate length but the leaf is
distinctly narrow. The joint curve starts at a moderate height but is some-
times late in reaching its maximum and that maximum is only moderate.
Nagpur has very long joints, but very few of these are formed per mensem,
and they are very thin ; the season is long. Ripening is only moderately quick.
The shoot is short but the leaf is broad, and so on.
Contrast with these the results obtained at Partabgarh. There are a
moderate number of joints formed per mensem, but these are very short, and
170 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
the length of cane formed per mensem is small, while the thickness of the cane
is not great. The season is short. Ripening proceeds very slowly. The
shoot is very short, but the leaves are moderately broad. The joint curve
commences low, does not reach its maximum very quickly and that maximum
is low. Partabgarh, when compared with the other places noted, shows very
poor cane growth. Its suitability for growing these varieties may be doubted,
and may have something to do with the predominance of dwarf cane varieties
of the Mungo type in its neighbourhood.
But, to give the full details of these characters in the various places will
take too long, and a table is appended from which similar statements may be
prepared for the other localities. The places are classified according to the
development of each separate character, and are numbered in class order,
the lower number generally indicating better growth, such as greater length
or thickness, earlier ripening, and so forth. By averaging the development
of all the growth characters in each place, we may, finally, obtain some idea
as to general vigour of cane growth in each place.
TaBie II.
Growth characters in different places.
The ten places are marked 1-10 according to extent of growth.
IC.B.S. | C. F. | Sam. | Tal. | Nag. | ‘Sab. | Pusa | Part. shen Alig.
Cane formed per men-| 10 Ol & 1 7 3 9 8 3 1
sem |
Number of joints per 9 8 6 1 10 3 5 8 4 2
mensem
Average lengthof joint) 8 5 u 1 1 5 9 i0 4 1
Average thickness oi 5 3 9 6 8 2 1 7 3 (6)
cane
Number ofdead leaves} 5 8 4 1 10 3 9 7 6 2
per mensem
Length of cane bearing 8 7 3 1 6 3 10 9 5 2
dead leaves
Length of shoot 9 3 5 1 8 6 2 10 ul 4
Maximum width ofleaf} 4 4 6 1 2 4 3 3 4 3
Joint curve
Height of curve at 8 5 4 1 2 6 10 9 7 3
start
Distance of maximum 4. 4 10 1 2 3 6 7 9 8
from start
Height of maximum 9 1 6 1 1 7 g |t0 5 | 4
Average 79) 54 | 65 | 16| 57 | 45 | 72] 89 | 57 | 3-6
Cc. A. BARBER 171
IV. THE EFFECT OF LOCALITY ON THE GROWTH OF THE
DIFFERENT VARIETIES.
A similar table has been prepared to indicate the comparative vigour of
growth of each variety in each locality, from which an idea may be obtained
as to the relative advantage of growing it there. This takes no account of
the class of canes usually grown, nor of the character of the juice or gur
produced, both of which will be of considerable importance in a_ final
decision.
TapLE III.
Classification of vigour of growth in each variety im each locality.
|
GsBES: | C. F. | Sam. | Tal. | Nag. | Sab. | Pusa | Part. Shah. | Alig.
pees |
Saretha 4 53 6 1 3 ih | ‘a ue 2
Chin 6 4 7 il 5 et Far) eae 3 2
Khari 9 4 2 1 5 5 Bees MNS. zu 3
Pansahi le races 3 4 1 2 oe 5 as =
Chynia : eras. 1 4 3 2 5 | A Ss se
Baroukha : ee | eg 2 4, 1 oF 3 sic SH. lec 3%
Mungo Re See eG lei Wietast lig s Aelia es 4 | i 1 2
|
In studying this table, the previous one must be held in view, namely;
that showing the general vigour of growth of all the varieties tested. A
variety comparatively well grown among the local canes of a place, may
otherwise appear low down in the list, owing to the poor growth of canes in
general in it. The method should afford a ready and accurate means of testing
the advantage of introducing a new kind. According to the table :-—
Saretha grows well at Taliparamba, Aligarh and Nagpur; moderately
well at the Cane-breeding Station and on the Coimbatore
Central Farm; poorly at Samalkota; and badly at Pusa and
Partabgarh.
Chin grows well at Taliparamba, Aligarh and Shahjahanpur ; moderately
at Nagpur and the Coimbatore Central Farm; poorly at the
Cane-breeding Station ; and badly at Samalkota and Partabgarh.
Khari grows well at Taliparamba, Samalkota and Aligarh ; moderately
at the Coimbatore Central Farm, Nagpur and Sabour ; poorly
at Shahjahanpur ; and badly at Partabgarh and the Cane-breed-
ing Station.
Pansahi grows well at Taliparamba and Sabour; moderately at the
Coimbatore Central Farm and Samalkota ; poorly at Partabgarh
and the Cane-breeding Station.
bh
ily) PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
Chynia grows well at the Coimbatore Central Farm and Sabour;
moderately at Taliparamba and Samalkota; and poorly at Pusa
and the Cane-breeding Station.
Baroukha grows well at Taliparamba and the Coimbatore Central Farm ;
moderately at Sabour; and poorly at Samalkota and the Cane-
breeding Station.
Mungo grows well at Shahjahanpur and Aligarh ; moderately at Talipa-
ramba, Sabour and Pusa; and poorly at the Cane-breeding
Station and Coimbatore Central Farm.
From the above summary we see that the individuality of the cane makes
its mark throughout the series and, generally, there seems to be a tendency
for the growth of varieties to be better near the native habitat of the cane,
a result not without its significance.
Similar tables might be prepared, comparing the growth of these varieties
and the development of their individual characters in the three regions, garden
land, wet land and Gangetic alluwium, and so on; but it is considered that the
three tables given will sufficiently demonstrate the method.
V. THE EFFECT OF THE SEASON ON THE LENGTH OF THE JOINTS.
Two sets of unit observations have been made at Samalkota in the Goda-
vari District of the Madras Presidency, one during 1915-16, on canes ten
months old, and the other during 1916-17, on canes 11 months old. On
examining the joint curves of Saretha obtained in these two years, it is seen
that they could not well be more different (Plate III). This fact caused a
good deal of trouble, as it appeared generally to discredit the method adopted
in this paper. In 1915-16 the first joints were short, they showed an irregular
series of maxima and did not attain their greatest length until the 21st from
the base, and this maximum was not great; but there were a large number
of joints, so that the cane was long. In 1916-17 the first joints were long
and quickly attained their maximum (at the 4th joint), this maximum was
high, but the number of joints was small, so that, in spite of their length, the
whole cane formed was rather short, although the plants had been longer in
the ground than in the previous year. This 1916-17 curve was, however,
similar to those obtained at other places. The curve of 1915-16 was altogether
unique, and unlike that obtained at any other place. The general average
joint curve, of all the 89 unit observations, has been added in the Plate for
comparison,
PLATE Ill.
a .
a
D
30
Curve, of the
Whole 89 Observation Units
e I~? [|
Ms)
“
EaekeAe hy
20
General
ie Meillsi oll Yeates
|
cee Sea e Ae oo)
PaaS Meese pie ee eae
Papers | le be EE fe
” “ - °o
SOuUdUI UI SyuIOF 4O ywieuay
Number of Joints
Joint Length Curves, Saretha, Samalkota, in 1915-16
Saretha
1916-17
General
Saretha
1915-+16
,
4
ae
a
3
.
z
>
~Y-.
ut
in:
a
yin i)
Joint Length Chimes Samalnole Jo lo
PLATE IV.
Run
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40
35.
15
iad
ie
ea
Number of Joints
Joint Length Curves. Samalkola I916s17
PLATE V.
a - °
Saydul ul SyuIor jo yjaueq
Saretha
Pansahi
Chin
Number of Joints
C. A. BARBER 173
Now, this difference was so striking that a full study was made of all the
other North Indian varieties grown at the same time at Samalkota. It was
seen that four of them shared the abnormal joint length curve with Saretha
(Plate IV). The joint curves of Saretha, Chin, Khari and Pansahi were,
together, quite unusual in 1915-16, but perfectly normal in 1916-17 (Plate V).
A further examination was made of all the other measurements taken in the
unit observations, and other differences were noted in these two seasons in
various leaf and stem measurements. To clear up the difficulty, a reference
was made to the published rainfall and irrigation reports of these two years
at the Samalkota Farm.
The conditions in the Godavari delta are peculiar. The water-supply
of the delta crops has two different sources : (1) The canals from the Godavari
river, depending on rain in Hyderabad and Bombay ; and (2) local rainfall,
consisting of thunder showers in May and September, and the two monsoons,
south-west from June to August and north-east from October to November.
In the absence of details for Samalkota, the following analysis of rainfall at
Cocanada and Ramachandrapuram, slightly nearer to the coast, may be
taken to represent the delta conditions. The figures are for the 45 years
before 1914.
TABLE [V.
Rainfall in the Godavari delta. Averages for 45 years.
LNs es wes eel
| |
Dec. | Jan. | Feb. |Mch. | Apl. | May |June | July ee Sep. | Oct. | Nov.
| | | |
1:82” |4:34” | 6:00”| 5-48”| 6-10”| 8-75”| 4:17”
5:01” | 6:54”| 6:36] 7 7 3
*
Cocanada - 0°95" 0: 18” \0-35” |0-42”
Ramachandrapuram Ms 76” |\0-07” |0:237 |0-407 |
0°52” |
0-62”
The average monthly rainfall may be extracted from the above table,
for the periods mentioned above. The dry months, December to April, cold
at first but gradually increasing in heat after February, 0°45"; May showers,
1:85” ; south-west monsoon, June to August, 5°62”; September thunderstorms,
6-70”; north-east monsoon, October and November, 6°14".
The canes are planted early in the year, during the middle of the dry, hot
weather, and are irrigated by the Godavari canals. But the latter are closed,
every year, for cleaning out the silt, for six weeks during May and the first
half of June, in preparation for the flood water caused by the south-west
monsoon in the area drained by the river. During this stoppage of the canal
water, unless there are local showers in the delta (many miles from the collecting
area of the river), the canes suffer a set-back, and many of them die. If the
174. PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
monsoon is later or insufficient, the canals are opened late, and various expedi-
ents are resorted to, to keep the canes alive. When the canals are opened, there
is abundant water for the rest of the growing period, the only danger being
that of water-logging, because of too much rain in September to November.
The printed summaries of the weather during the two seasons are quoted
from the Samalkota Farm reports.
1915-16: “* The rainfall recorded for the year was well above the average.
The south-west monsoon was late in breaking, the first really heavy shower
was not received till the 22nd June and the canals were late in filling........
The season throughout the south-west monsoon was characterized by short
spells of rainy weather, followed by considerably longer spells (sometimes of
more than a fortnight) of dry weather. The north-east monsoon rains were
2?
good and during the whole of November were fairly steady........
1916-17: “The rainfall recorded during the year was well above the
average. The south-west monsoon was very early in breaking, the month
of June opened with very heavy showers, and the canals were full unexpec-
tedlyearly. 24-5. The season throughout the monsoon period was charac-
terized by regular and evenly distributed showers and want of rain was never
felt. The heavy north-east monsoon rains in October, amounting to 11 inches,
seriously interfered with the harvesting of paddy........ The harvest of the
longer varieties was also caught in the heavy fall in the latter part of Ncevember.”
Here we see that although im each year the rainfall was “ well above the
average, its distribution was very different in the two seasons. The first
year was distinctly bad in its first half and good in its second, while the reverse
was the case in the second, with its floods towards the end of the year. And
these differences in the seasons are permanently engraved on the joint curves
obtained. The character of the season was of such a nature that it obliterated
the usual characteristic growth of the locality as well as any individual differ-
ences In these four canes themselves.
But, while this is so clearly shown in the four cane varieties mentioned
above, there is little trace of it in the other two, namely Baroukha and Chynia.
These canes appear to have been little affected by the early drought of 1915-16
and, indeed, their curves are characterized by excessive growth in the early
part of the year, as if they were accustomed, or at any rate indifferent, to
drought conditions in their early stages. The curves of all six varieties were
in Close agreement in 1916-17. We have thus a case in which the character
of the individual may override that of the season,
PLATE VI.
SSBuUACTsI>D JO BHES BY) AOS 4,% PBA~AMO] SI BAuUND aseaaae aul
SJUIOF JO AaQUINN
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Suey
SOYUDUI UI SIUIOF Jo YI
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71 ON
91°ON
Cc. A. BARBER 175
VI. PERIODICITY IN THE LENGTH OF THE JOINTS.
An inspection of the general curve of length of joints given above (Plate III),
shows that it is fairly uniform in its course. There are few ups and downs.
After a comparatively high start it rapidly ascends to a maximum, it then
descends gradually for some distance, while, in the last eight joints, the descent
is rapid. As a matter of fact, the curve commences at 3°6”, which is the
average length of the first joint above ground ; the succeeding joints are longer
and longer until they reach 4:5” at the fifth joint; then the joints gradually
decrease in length until, at the fifteenth, they are only 2°6” long ; the descent
in the last eight is quick until the ultimate joint measured is 01” long. These
last eight are more or less immature joints at the top, for all canes are measured
from ground-level to that joint at the growing tip which first falls to merely
one-tenth of an inch in length; further measurements are not well possible
in the field, and the foot-rule used is one divided into tenths of an inch. The
curve is smooth throughout its length and there are few irregularities. It is
made up of 89 unit observations of 20 canes each and is thus the resultant of
over 50,000 separate measurements. It is different with the unit curves, some
of which have been reproduced in the diagrams (Plates IV and V), these being
the averages of only 20 canes growing at one time and place. The inequalities
are greatly increased, and there are a series of ups and downs throughout the
length of the curves. But, when we turn to the curves prepared for individuals
of these 20 canes, these differences assume larger proportions, and it is not
unusual for two consecutive joints to differ by as much as two or three inches
in length (Plate VI). The greater the number of canes used in making up a
curve, the more uniform is the curve obtained. The general summation curve
js In this respect unlike any curve of the whole series, and neither it nor the
ordinary varietal curves are to be regarded as average joint curves in the usual
sense. They are representations of the usual course of events rather than a
picture of the average cane of the plot. Such curves have been called else-
where “ideal,” as contrasted with average ones.
There are great difficulties in obtaining such a curve. One of these will
readily occur, when it is remembered that the canes of any clump vary greatly
in the number of joints, and it is therefore impossible to take an average of
them in succession. Again, each cane varies a good deal in the length of its
successive joints ; some are long and some are short, and in averaging these it
will often happen that the long joint in one cane will fall opposite to the short
in the next. Any system of averaging will therefore have the tendency to
smooth out the differences in different parts, and, the greater the number of
canes dealt with, the smoother the resulting curve will be, as is seen- in the
176 PERIODICITY IN THE GROWTH OF SUGARCANE
cases quoted above. But it is also obvious, if there is anything like periodicity
in growth, a rotation of zones of longish and shortish joints following one
another, that this periodicity, in any averaging, will also tend to be ruled out
and leave little trace behind. We must therefore in this study hark back
to the individual curves of separate canes. And, in noting the oscillations in
length in successive joints, we must see that the canes compared have as
nearly as possible the same number of joints. Three canes of Pansahi, grown
at Samalkota in 1916, with the same number of joints, have been selected
and their joint length curves plotted out on squared paper (Plate VI). The
oscillations in these curves, as was to be expected, are very great, but we see
at once that there is a regularity in these ups and downs in the three curves,
so that we may easily pick out the successive maxima. There being an equal
number of jomts in the three canes, we can without difficulty average them,
and we see that, at fairly regular intervals, there is a zone of increased growth
in length, the maxima occurring at the 3rd, 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th and 28th
joints. The 28th jcint is in the region of those which have not yet completed
their growth, while the 3rd is at the base of the plant where disturbances may
well occur owing to earthing up and the omission of the joints below the
surface. In the middle of the cane there is a regular periodicity in the growth
in length of jomts. Our example has, frankly, been chosen where this periodi-
city is rather clearly shown, but it will be seen directly that it is no isolated
stance. A method has been devised, by which each set of twenty canes
may be judged, as to any periodicity in the length of joints in the individual
canes and in the whole series taken together (Plates VII and VIII). The twenty
canes are arranged across the page and the number of joints in each cane is
indicated by a row of equal squares, the cane with the greatest number of
joints being placed at the top, and the others in succession below it, until the
cane with the smallest number of joints is reached at the bottom. By this
arrangement, any set of canes of equal length are placed together. The first
diagram (Plate VII, fig. 1) represents twenty Pansahi canes grown at Samal-
kota in 1915-16, and, in this diagram, the canes numbered 14, 15 and 16 are
the ones whose curves are given in Plate VI. The maxima in the length of
joints, indicated in the diagram by circles, occur with a certain amount of
regularity, the increment being most frequently at every fifth or sixth joint.
Thus, in Cane No. 5, they occur at joints 2, 7, 13-14, 19 and 25; in No. 6, at
joints 2-3, 8-9, 14-15, 20-21, 26 and 30; in No. 7, at joints 2, 5, 10, 15, 20.
32-33 and so on. Connecting lines have been drawn between the apparently
related maxima in adjoining canes, namely, such canes as have the same or
neatly the same numbers of joints; and, where such related maxima are
PLATE VII.
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