MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. VOLUME XXXII, PART 1. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Director. C. L. GRIESBACH, C.LE., F.G.S. Superintendents. R. D. OrpHaM, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.: Том D. La Touche, В.А, (Cantab) С. 5. MIDDLEMISS, B.A. (Cantab). Deputy Superintendents. P. N. Bose, B.Sc. (Landon), F.G.S. : T. H. HoLLAND, A,R.C.S., F.G.S.: P. N. DATTA, B.Sc. (London), F.G.S.: F. H. SMITA, A.R.C.S. Assistant Superintendents. H, H. HavpzN, B.A., B.E.: E. VREDENBURG, B.L., B.Sc. (Paris), A.R.C.S, T. L. WALKER, M.A. (Kingston), Ph.D. (Leipzig) : A. L. KRAFFT VON DELLMENSINGEN, Ph.D. (Vienna). Palæontologist. Fritz NOETLING, Ph.D. (Berlin), F.G.S. Specialist. С. A. Stonigr, A.R.S.M. Sub-Assistants. Hira Lar: KisHEN SINGH, F.G.S. Artist. Registrar. Н. B. W.GARRICK. A. E. МАСА. AUDSLEY. Assistant Curator. T. R. BLYTH. i [01 B Geological Museum, Library, and Office, Calcutta. \ Q G ASI Brice One Rupee, MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. Vor. VoL. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. VoL. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. 1. Royal 8vo, pp. 309, 1859 (out of print). Pt. 1, 1856 (price 1 Re): Preliminary notice on the Coal and Iron of Talchir.—On the geological structure and relations of the Talchir Coal-field.—Gold-yielding deposits of Upper Assam.— On specimens of gold and gold dust from Shué-gween. Pt. 2, 1858 (price 2 Rs): On the geological structure of a portion of the Khasi Hills.—On the geo- logical structure of the Nilghiri Hills (Madras). Pt. 3, 1859 (price 2 Rs.) : On the geological structure and physical features of the Districts of Bankura, Midnapore, and Orissa.—On the laterite of Orissa. On some fossil fish-teeth of the genus Ceratodus, from Maledi, south of Nagpur. If. Royal 8vo, pp. 341, 1859 (out of print). Pt. 1, 1860 (price 2 Rs.): On the Vindhyan Rocks, and their associates in Bundelkand. Pt. 2, 1860 (price 3 Rs.) On the geological structure of the central portion of the Nerbudda District.— On the tertiary and alluvial deposits of the central portion of the Nerbudda Valley.—On the geological relations and probable geological age of the several systems of rocks in Central India and Bengal. 111. Royal 8vo, pp. 438. Pt. т, 1863 (price 3 Rs.) (out of print). Onthe geological structure and relations of the Raniganj Coal-field.—Additional remarks on the geological relations and probable geological age of the several systems of rocks in Central India and Bengal.—Indian Mineral Statistics, I. Coal. Pt. 2, 1864 (price 2 Rs.): Onthe Sub-Himalayan Ranges between the Ganges and Ravi. IV. Royal 8vo, pp. 450. Pt. 1, 1863 (price 2 Rs.): Report on the Cretaceous Rocks of Trichinopoly District, Madras. Pt. 2, 1864 (price 2 Rs.) (out of print): On the structure of the Districts of Trichinopoly, Salem, &c. Pt. 3, 1865 (price 1 Re.): On the Coal of Assam, &c. V. Royal 8vo, pp. 354. Pt. 1, 1865 (price 3 Rs.) (out of print): Sections across N.-W Himalaya, from Sutlej to Indus.—On the Gypsum of Spiti. Pt. 2, 1866 (price 1 Re.): On the Geology of Bombay. Pt. 3, 1866 (price 1 Re.) (out of print): On the Jheria Coal-field.—Geological Observations on Western Tibet. VI. Royal 8vo, pp. 395. Pt. 1, 1867 (price 8 As.): Onthe Neighbourhood of Lynyan, &c. in Sind.— Geology of a Portion of Cutch. Pt. 2, 1867 (price 2 Rs.) (out of print): Bokáro Coal-field.—Rámgarh Coal-field.—Traps of Western and Central India. Pt. 3, 1869 (rice 2 Rs. 8 As): Tapti and Nerbudda Valleys.—Frog-beds in Bombay— Oxyglossus pusillus. VII. Royal буо, pp. 342. Pt. 1, 1869 (price 3 Rs.): Vindhyan Series.—Mineral Sta- tistics.—Coal.—Shillong Plateau. Pt. 2, 1870 (price 1 Re.): Karharbári Coal» field. —Deoghar Coal-field. Pt. 3, 1871 ($7ice1 Re.): Aden water-supply.— Käranpura Coal-fields. VIII. Royal 8vo, pp. 353. Pt. 1, 1872 (rice 4 Rs.): On the Kadapah and Karnul Formations in the Madras Presidency. Pt. 2, 1872 (price 1 Re.) : Itkhuri Coal- field.—Daltonganj Coal-field.—Chope Coal-field. IX. Royal 8vo, pp. iv, 358. Pt. 1, 1872 (price 4 Rs.): Geology of Kutch. Pt. 2, 1872 une 1 Re.): Geology of Nagpúr.—Geology of Sirban Hill.—-Carboniferous mmonites, pp. 05. X. Royal 8vo, pp. 359. Рі. 1 (price 3 Rs.): Geology of Madras.—Sátpura Coal- basin. Pt. 2, 1874 (price 2 Rs.): Geology of Pegu. XI. Royal 8vo, pp. 338. Pt. т, 1874 (price 2 Rs.): Geology of Dárjiling and Western Duars. Pt. 2, 1876 (price 3 Rs.): Salt-region of Kohat, Trans-Indus. XII. Royal 8vo, pp. 363. Pt. 1, 1877 (price 3 Rs.): South Mahrátta Country. Pt. 2, 1876 (price 2 Rs.): Coal-fields of the Naga Hills. XIII. Royal 8vo, pp. 248. Pt. 1, 1877 (price 2 Rs. 8 As.): Wardha Valley Coal-field. Pt. 2, 1877 (price a Rs. 8 As.): Geology of the Rájmahál Hills. XIV. Royal 8vo, pp. 313, 1878. Geology of the Salt-range in the Punjab. XV. Royal 8vo, pp. 192. Pt. т, 1878 (price 2 Rs. 8 As.): Geology of the Aurunga and Hutár Coal-fields (Palamow). Pt. 2, 1880 (¿rice 2 Rs. 8 As); Ramkola and Tatapani Coal-fields (Sirguja). Vor. VoL. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. VoL. Vor, Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor, Vor, XVI. Royal 8vo, pp. 264. Pt. 1, 1879 (price 1 Re. 8 As.): Geology. of Eastern Coast from Lat. 15° to Masulipatam. Pt. 2, 1880 (price 1 Re. 8 As): The Nellore Portion of the Carnatic. Pt. 3, 1880 (price 2 Rs.) : Coastal Region of the Godávari District. XVII. Royal 8vo, pp. '3os. Pt. 1, 1879 (rice 3 Rs.): Geology of Western Sind, Pt. 2, 1880 (price 2 Rs.): Trans-Indus extension of the Punjab Salt-range. XVIII, Royal 8vo, pp. 300. Pt. 1, 1881 (price 2 Rs.) : Southern Afghanistan. Pt. 2, 1881 (price т Re. 8 As.) (out of print) : Mánbhum and Singhbhum. Pt. 3, 1881 (price 2 Rs.): Pränhita-Godävari Valley. XIX, Royal 8vo, pp. 242. Pt. 1, 1882 (price 2 Rs.) : The Cachar Earthquake of 1869. Pt. 2, 1882 (price 1 Re.): Thermal Springs of India. Pt. 3, 1883 (Price 1 Re.): A catalogue of Indian Earthquakes. Pt. 4, 1883 (price 1 Re): Geology of parts of Manipur and the Näga Hills. XX. Royal 8vo, pp. 240. Pt. 1, 1883 (price 2 Rs. 8 As.) : Geology of Madura and Tinnevelly. Pt. 2, 1883 (price 2 Rs. 8 As.): Geological notes on the Hills in the neighbourhood ofthe Sind and Punjab Frontier between Quetta and Dera Ghazi Khan. > XXI. Royal 8vo, pp. 286 (out of print). Pt. 1, 1884 (price 2 Rs.) : Geology of the Lower Narbada Valley. Pt.*2, 1884 (price 1 Re.): Geology of Kathiawar. Pt. 3, 1885 (price 2 Rs.) : Coal-field of South Rewah. Pt. 4, 1885 (price 1 Re.): Barren Island. XXII. Royal 8vo, pp. 344, 1883. The Geology of Kashmir, Chamba, and Khagan. XXIII. Royal 8vo, pp. 232, 1891. Geology of the Central Himalayas. XXIV. Royal 8vo, Pt. 1, 1887 (price 1 Re. 8 As.): The Southern Coal-fields of the Sátpura Gondwána basin. Pt. 2,1890 (price 2 Rs. 4 As.): Physical Geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Garhwál and Kumaun. Pt. 3, 1890 (price 1 Re. 4 As.): Geology E South Malabar, between the Beypore and Ponnáni Rivers. XXV. Royal 8vo, 1896. Geology of the Bellary District, Madras Presidency. XXVI. Royal 8vo, 1896. Geology of Налага. XXVII. Royal 8vo, Pt.1,1895(?zice1 Re): Marine Fossils from the Miocene of Upper Burma. Pt. 2, 1897 (price 4 Rs.) : The occurrence of Petroleum in Burma and its technical exploitation. XXVIII, Royal 8vo, Pt. 1, 1898 (price 2 Rs.); Notes on the Geological Structure of the Chitichun region. A note on the Allah-bund in the north-west of the Rann of Kuchh. Geology of parts ofthe Myingyan, Magwe and Pakokku Districts, Burma, The Geology of the Mikir Hills in Assam. On the Geology of Tirah and the Bazár valley. Pt. 2, 1900 (price 3 Rs.): The Chamnokite Series, a group of Archæan Hypersthenic Rocks in Peninsular India. XXIX. Royal 8vo, 1900 (rice 5 Rs.): Report on the Great Earthquake of 12th June 1897. XXX, Royal8vo, Pt. 1,1900 (price 2 Rs.): Aftershocks of the Great Earth- quake of 12th June 1897. Pt. 2, 1900 ( price І Re.): Geology of the + . neighbourhood of Salem, Madras Presidency, with special reference to Leschenault de la Tour’s observations. Pt. 3, 1901, ‘price 1 Re). Siva- malai Series of Elæolite-Syenites, Pt.4, in the Press: Report of the Geo- logical Congress of Paris. XXXI, Royal 8vo, Pt. 1, 1901 (price 2 Rs): Geology of the Son Valley in the Rewah State and of parts of the Adjoining Districts of Jabalpur and Mirz- apur. Pt.2, 1901 (price 3 Rs.): A Geological Sketch of the Baluchistan Desert and part of Eastern Persia. Pt. 3, in the Press: Petrological notes on some Peridotites, Serpentines, etc., from Ladakh. XXXII, Royal 8vo, Pt.1, (price 1 Re): Recent Artesian Experiments in India. Pt, 2 in the Press: Report on the Rampur Coai-field, XXXII. Royal 8vo, Pt. 1, 1901 (price 8 Rs.): The Kolar Gold-field, being a de- scription of Quartz-Mining and Gold-Recovery as practised in India. Pt. 2, Art. 1, in the Press: The Gold-fields of Wainád. Art. 2. in the Press: Report on the Auriferous Quartzites of Parhadiab, Chota Nagpur. Art. 3, in the Press : Some auriferous localities in North Coimbatore. The price fixed for these publications is 5 Rs. (105.) each volume, PAL/EONTOLOGIA INDICA. (Ser. I, Ш, V, VI, VIIL)—CRETACEOUS FAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA, ûy А Е. STOLICZKA, except Vor. 1, Pt. 1, by Н. Е. BLANFORD. Vor. I. The Cephalopoda (1861-65), pp. 216, pls. 94 (6 double). VoL. II. The Gastropoda (1857-68), pp. xiii, 500, pls. 28. Vor. III. The Pelecypoda (1870-71), pp. xxii, 537, pls. 50. VoL. IV. The Brachiopoda, Ciliopoda, Echinodermata Corals, etc. (1872-73), PP. v; 202, pls, 29. (Ser. II, XI, XIL)—THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE GONDWANA SYSTEM, ¿y O. FEISTMANTEL, except Vor. I, Рт. 1, ёу T. OLDHAM and J. MORRIS. Vor. I . xviii, 233, pls. 72. 1863-79. Pt. 1; Rájmahál Group, Rájmahál Hills. Pt. 2; The PEE same (continued). Pt. 3; Plants from Golapilli. Pt. 4; Outliers on the Madras Coast. - Vor. Il, pp. xli, 115, pls. 26. 1876;78. Pt. І; Jurassic Flora of Kach. Pt. 2; Flora of the Jabalpur Group. ; E Vor. III, pp. xi, 64 + 149, pls. 80 (9 double) (I —XXXI +I A ¬ XLVII A). 1879-S1. Pt. 1; The Flora of the Talchir-Karharbari beds. Pt. 2; The Flora of the Damuda and Panchet Divisions. Pt.3; The same (concluded). Vor. IV, pp. xxvi, 25+66, pls. 35 (2 double) (I-XXV + I A—XIV A). Pt. 1 (1882); Fossil Flora of the South Rewah Gondwana basin. Pt. 2 (1886) ; Fossil Flora of some of the coal-fields in Western Bengal. (Ser. IX.) JURASSIC FAUNA OF KACH. Vor. I (1873-76). The Cephalopoda, by W. WAAGEN, pp. i, 247 pls. бо (6 double). Vor. II, pt. 1 (1803). The Echinoidea of Kach, by J. W. GREGORY, pp. 12, pls. 2. Vor. П, pt: 2 (1900). The Corals, by J. W. Gregory, pp. 195, i— ix, pls. 26. Vor. III, pt. 1 (1900). The Brachiopoda, by P. L, Kitchin, pp. 87, pls. 15. e (Ser. IV.)- INDIAN PRE-TERTIARY VERTEBRATA. Vor. 1, pp. vi 137, pls. 26. 1865-85. Pt. 1 (1865); The Vertebrate Fossils from the Panchet rocks, by Т. Н. Huxrey. Pt. 2 (1878); The Vertebrate Fossils of the Kota-Maleri Group, by SIR P. DE M. GREY EGERTON and L. C. Miarr. Pt. 3 (1879); Reptilia and Batrachia, by К. LvpEKKER. Pt. 4 (1885); The Laby- - rinthodont from the Bijori group, by К. LvpEKKER. Pt. 5 (1885); The Reptilia and Amphibia of the Maleri and Denwa groups, by R. LYDEKKER. (Ser. X.)—INDIAN TERTIARY AND POST-TERTIARY VERTEBRATA, by R. LYDEKKER, except VoL. I, Pr. 1, by R.B.FOOTE. * VoL. I, рр. ххх, 300, pls. 50. 1874-80. Pt. 1; Rhinoceros deccanensis. Pt, 2; Molar teeth and other remains of Mammalia. Рі. 3; Crania of Ruminants, Pt, 4; Supple- ment to Pt. 3. Pt. 5; Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. ‚Vor. Il, pp. xv, 363, pls. 45. 1881-84. Рё. І; Siwalik Rhinocerotidæ. Pt. 2; Supplement to Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. Pt.3; Siwalik and Narbada Equidz. Pt.4; Siwalik Camelopardalide. Pt. 5; Siwalik Selenodont Suina, etc, Pt.6; Siwalik and Narbada Carnivora. VoL, Ш, pp. xxiv, 264, pls. 38. 1884-86. Рё. т; Additional Siwalik Perissodactyla and Pro- boscidia. Pt. 2; Siwalik and Narbada Bunodont Suina. Pt. 3; Rodents and new Ruminants from the Siwaliks. Pt.4; Siwalik Birds. Pt. 5; Mastodon Teeth from Perim Island. Pt. 6; Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia, Pt. 7; Siwalik Crocodilia, Lacertilia and Ophidia. Pt, 8; Tertiary Fishes, "Vor, IV, pt. 1, 1886. Siwalik Mammalia (Supplement 1), рр. 18, pls. 6, s » n 2 1886. The Fauna of the Karnul caves: (and addendum to Pt. 1); pp. 40 (19— 58), pls. 5 (vii —xi). = » э» 3 1887. Eocene Chelonia from the Salt-range; pp. 7 (59-65), pls. 2 (xii=xlii). Ser. УП, XIV)—TERTIARY AND UPPER CRETACEOUS FAUNA OF WESTERN INDIA, фу P. MARTIN DUNCAN and W. PERCY SLADEN, except PT. 1, by F. STOLICZKA. Р Vor. I, pp 16 + 110 + 382 + 91 = 599, pls. 5 + 28 + 58 + 13 = 104, 1871—85. Pt. 1; Tertiary Crabs from Sind and Kach. Pt. І (new 2); Sind Fossil Corals and. Alcyonaria. Pt. 3. The Fossil Echinoidea of Sind: Fas. 1, The Cardita beaumonii beds; Fas. 2, The Ranikot Series in Western Sind; Fas. 3, The Khirthar Series; Fas. 4, The Nari (Oligocene) Series; Fas. 5, The Gaj (Miocene) Series; Fas. 6, The Makrán (Pliocene) Series. Pt. 4, The Fossil Echinoidea of Kach and Kattywar. (Ser. XIIL)—SALT-RANGE FOSSILS, ¿y WILLIAM WAAGEN, Ph.D. Productus-Limestone Group : Vol. I, pt. 1 (1870). Pisces, Cephalopoda, pp. 72, pls. б. ” » » » 2 (1880). Gastropoda and supplement to pt. 1, pp. 111 (73-183), pls. то (1 double), (vii-xvi). 3 (1881). Pelecypoda, pp. 144 (185-328), pls. 8 (xvii- xxiv). 5 gs » gy, 4 (1882-85). Brachiopoda, pp. 442 (320-770), pls. 62 (xxv-Ixxxvi). 3 5 (1885). Bryozoa—Annelide—Echinodermata, pp. 64 (771-834), pls. 10 (Ixxxvii-xcvi). 5 3 » رو‎ 6 (1886). ; Ccelenterata, pp. 90 (835-924), pls. 20 (xcvii- CXVI). » 7 (1887). Colenterata, Protozoa, pp. 74 (925-98), pls. . 12 (cxvii-cxxviii), Fossils from the Ceratite Formation: Vol. II, pt. 1 (1805). Pisces—Ammonoidea, pp. 324, ээ ” ” » ” » pls. 40. Geological Results: Vol. IV, pt. 1 (1889), pp. 1—88, pls. 4. n -3 n » 2 (1891), РР. 89—242, pls. 8. (Ser. XV.)—HIMALAYAN FOSSILS, Фу CARL DIENER, Ph.D, Anthracolithic Fossils of Kashmir and Spiti: Vol. I, pt. 2 (1899). pp. 96, pls. 8. The Permocarboniferous Fauna of Chitichun No. I: Vol. I, pt. 3 (1897), pp. 105, pls. 13. The Permian Fossils of the -Productus Shales of Kumaon and Garhwal: Vol. I, pt. 4 (1897), рр: 54, pis. 5. The Cephalopoda of the Lower Trias: Vol. II, pt. 1 (1897), pp. 182, pls. 23. . The Cephalopoda of the Muschelkalk: Vol. II, pt. 2 (1895), pp. 118, pls. 31. Upper Triassic Cephalopoda Faunæ of the Himalayas: Vol. III, pt. 1 (1899), pp. 158, pls. 22. Trias Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata: Vol. III, pt. 2 (1899), pp. 76, pls. 12 (1 double). o (SER. XVI) —BALUCHISTAN FOSSILS, ûy FRITZ NOETLING, Pu.D., F.G.S. The Fauna of the Kellaways of Mazár Drik : Vol. 1, pt. 1 (1895), pp. 22, pls. 13. The Fauna of the (Neocomian) Belemnite Beds: Vol. I, pt. 2 (1897), pp. 6, pls. 2. The Fauna of the Upper Cretaceous (Maéstrichtien) Beds of the Mari Hills: Vol. I, pt, 3 (1897), pp. 79, pls. 23. (NEW SERIES.) The Cambrian Fauna of the Eastern Salt-range: Vol. I, 1 (1899), pp. 14, pl. 1. Notes on the Morphology of the Pelecypoda: » 1,2 (1809), pp. 58, pls. 4. Fauna of the Miocene Beds of Burma ; ^» I, 3 (1901), pp. 378, pls. 25. ` The price fixed for these publications is 4 annas (6 pence) per single plate, RECORDS OF THE GEOLOGIGAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. I, 1868. : Part 1.—Annual report for 1867. The coal-seams of the Tawa valley. On the prospects of useful coal being found in the Garrow Hills. Copper in Bundelkund. Meteorites. Part 2.—On the coal-seams of the neighbourhood of Chanda. Coal near Nagpur. Geological notes on the Surat collectorate, The cephalopodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Lead in the district of Raepore. Coalin the Eastern Hemisphere. Meteorites. Part 3.—General results obtained from an examination of the gastropodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Notes on route from Poona to Nagpur vid Ahmednuggur, Jalna, Loonar, Yeotmahal, Mangali, and Hingunghat. On the agate-flake found by Mr. Wynne in the pliocene (?) deposits of the Upper Godavery. The boundary of the Vindhyan series in Rajputana. Meteorites. Vor. II, 1869. Part 1.—The valley of the Poorna river, West Berar. On the Kuddapah and Kurnool formae tions. Geological sketch of the Shillong plateau. On the occurrence of gold in the district of Singbhoom, &c. Memorandum on the wells now being sunk at the European Penitentiary, and at the site for the Central Jail, Hazareebagh. Meteorites. Ў Part 2.—Annual report for 1868. Note on Pangshura tecta and the other species of Chelonia from the newer tertiary deposits of the Nerbudda valley. Sketch of the metamorphic rocks of Bengal. ; Part 3.—Preliminary notes on the geology of Kutch, Western India, Contributions to the geology and physical geography of the Nicobar Islands. Part 4.—On the beds containing silicified wood in Eastern Prome, British Burma. Minerale ogical statistics of Kumaon division. The coal-field near Chanda. Lead in the Raipur district. Meteorites. Vor. III, 1870. Part 1.—Annual report for 1869. On the geology of the neighbourhood of Madras. On the alluvia! deposits of the Irrawadi, more particularly as contrasted with those of the Ganges. Part 2.—Geology of Gwalior and vicinity. Оп the slates at Chiteli, Kumaon. On the lead vein near Chicholi, Raipur district, The Wardha river coal-fields, Berar and Central Provinces, Report on the coal at Korba in the Bilaspur district, . Part 3.—The Mohpani coal-field. On the lead-ore at Slimanabad, Jabalpur district. On the occurrence of coal east of Chhatisgarh in the country between Bilaspur and Ranchi. On petroleum in Burma. On the petroleum locality of Sudkal, near Futtijung, west of Rawale pindi. On the occurrence of argentiferous galena and copper in the district of Manbhum S. W. Frontier of Bengal. Assays of iron ores. : Part 4.—On the geology of Mount Tilla, in the Punjab. The copper deposits of Dalbhum and Singbhum: 1.—The copper mines of Singbhum: 2.—On the copper of Dalbhum and Singbhum. Meteorites. Vor. IV, 1871. Part 1.—Annual report for 1870. Enquiry into an alleged discovery of coal near Gooty, and of the indications of coal in the Cuddapah district. Mineralstatistics of the Kumaon divi- sion. Part 2.—The axial group in Western Prome. Geological structure of the Southern Konkan. On the supposed occurrence of native antimony in the Straits Settlements, On the com- position of a deposit in the boilers of steam-engines at Raniganj. On the plant-bearing sandstones of the Godavari valley, on the southern extension of rocks belonging to the Kamthi group to the neighbourhood of Ellore and Rajamandri, and on the possible occur- тепсе of coal in the same direction. Part 3.—The progress and results of borings for coal in the Godavari valley near Dumagudem and Bhadrachalam. On the Narbada coal-basin. Sketch of the geology of the Central Provinces. Additional note on the plant-bearing sandstones of the Godavari valley. Part 4.—The ammonite fauna of Kutch. The Raigur and Hengir (Gangpur) Coal-field. Description of the sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on the Godavari, and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. : Vor. V, 1872. Part r.—Annual report for 1871. Rough section showing the relations of the rocks near Murree (Mari), Punjab. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoin- ing country. Description ofthe sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on the Godavari, and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. Part 2.—On the geological formations seen along the coasts of Beluchistan and Persia from Karachi to the head of the Persian Gulf, and on some of the Gulf Islands. On a traverse of parts of the Kummummet and Hanamconda districts in the Nizam’s Dominions. The geology of Orissa. Оп a new coal-field in the south-eastern part of the Hyderabad (Deccan) territory. : Part 3.—On Maskat and Massandim on the east coast of Arabia. An example of local joint- ing. On the axial group of Western Prome. On the geology of the Bombay Presidency. Part 4.—On exploration for coal in the northern region of the Satpura basin. On the value of the evidence afforded by raised oyster banks on the coasts of India, in estimating the amount of elevation indicated thereby. On a possible field of coal-measures in the Goda- vari district, Madras Presidency. On the lameta or infra-trappean formation of Central India, On some recently discovered petroleum localities in Pegu. Correction regarding the supposed eozoonal limestone of Yellam Bile. ` S : Vor. VI, 1873. Part 1.—Annual report for 1872. The geology of the North-West Provinces. Part 2.—The Bisrampur coal-field. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoining country. : Part 3.—Notes on а celt found by Mr. Hacket in the ossiferous deposits of Narbada valley (Pliocene of Falconer): on the age of the deposits, and on the associated shells. On the Barakars (coal-measures) in the Beddadanole field, Godavari district. On the geology ot parts of the Upper Punjab. Coalin India. The salt-springs of Pegu. Part 4.—On some of the iron deposits of Chanda (Central Provinces), Barren Islands and Narkondam. Stray notes on the metalliferous resources of British Burma. Vor. VII, 1874. Part 1.—Annual report for 1873. On the geological structure of the hill ranges between the Indus valley in Ladak and Shah-i-Dula on the frontier of Yarkand territory. On some of the iron ores of Kumaon, On the raw materials for iron-smelting in the Raniganj field. On the habitat in India of the elastic sandstone, or so-called Itacolumyte. Geolo- gical notes on part of Northern Hazaribagh. Part 2.—Geological notes on the route traversed by the Yarkand Embassy from Shah-i-Dula to Yarkhand and Kashgar. On the occurrence of jade in the Karakas valley, on the southern borders of Turkistan. Notes from the Eastern Himalaya, Petroleum in Assam, Coal in tne Garo hills; On the discovery of a new locality for copper in the Narbada valley. Potash-salt from East India, On the geology of the neighbourhood of Mari hill station'in the Punjab. Part 3.—Geological observations made on a visit to the Chaderkul, Thian Shan range. On the former extension of glaciers within the Kangra district. On the building and orna- mental stones of India. Second note on the materials for iron manufacture in the Rani- ganj coal-field. Manganese ore in the Wardha coal-field, Part 4.—The auriferous rocks ofthe Dhambal hills, Dharwar district. Remarks on certain considerations adduced by Falconer in support of the antiquity of the human race in India. Geological notes made on a visit to the coal recently discovered in the country of the . Luni Pathans, south-east corner of Afghanistan. Note on the progress of geological investigation in the Godayari district, Madras Presidency. Notes upon the subsidiary materials for artificial fuel, Vor. VIII, 1875. Part 1.—Annual report for 1874. The Altum-Artush considered from a geological point of view. On the evidences of ‘ground-ice’ in tropical India, during the Talchir period. Trials of Raniganj fire-bricks. Part 2 (out of print).—On the gold-fields of south-east Wynaad, Madras Presidency. Geolo- gical notes on the Khareean hills in the Upper Punjab. On water-bearing strata of the Surat district. Sketch of the geology of Scindia’s territories. Part 3.—The Shahpur coal-field, with notice of соаї explorations in the Narbada region. Note on coal recently found near Moflong, Khasia Hiils. s Part 4.—Note on the geology of Nepal. The Raigarh and Hingir coal-fields. Vor. IX, 1876. Part 1 (out of print).—Annual report for 1875. On the geology of Sind, Part 2.—The retirement of Dr. Oldham. On the age of some fossil floras in India. Descrip- tion of a cranium of Stegodon Ganesa, with notes on the sub-genus and allied forms. Note upon the Sub-Himalayan series in the Jamu (fummoo) Hills. Part 3.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the geological age of certain groups comprised in the Gondwana series of India, and on the evidence they afford of distinct zoological and botanical terrestrial regions in ancient epochs. On the relations of the fossiliferous strata at Maleri and Kota, near Sironcha, C. P. On the fossil mammalian fauna of India and Burma. Part 4.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the osteology of Merycopotamus dis- similis. Addenda and Corrigenda to paper on tertiary mammalia. Occurrence of Plesiosaurus in India. On the geology of the Pir Panjal and neighbouring districts. Vor. X, 1877. Part 1.-—Annual report for 1876. Geological notes on the Great Indian Desert between Sind and Rajputana. On the occurrence of the cretaceous genus Omphalia near Nameho lake, Tibet, about 75 miles north of Lhassa. On Estheria in the Gondwana formation. Notices of new and other vertebrata from Indian tertiary and secondary rocks. Description ofa new Emydine from the upper tertiaries of the Northern Punjab. Observations on under- ground temperature. Part 2.—On the rocks of the Lower Godavari. Оп the ‘Atgarh Sandstones’ near Cuttack. On fossil floras in India. Notices of new or rare mammals from the Siwaliks. On the Arvaliseriesin North-eastern Rajputana. Borings for coal in India. Or the geology of India. Part 3.— Оп the tertiary zone and underlying rocks in the North-west Punjab. On fossil floras in India. On the occurrence of erratics in the Potwar. On recent coal explorations in the Darjiling district. Limestones in the neighbourhood of Barakar. On some forms of blowing-machine used by the smiths of Upper Assam. Analyses of Raniganj coals. Part 4.—On the Geology of the Mahanadi basin and its vicinity. On the diamonds, gold, and lead ores of the Sambalpur district. Noteon 'Eryon Comp. Barrovensis,’ McCoy, from the Sripermatur group near Madras. On fossil floras in India. The Blaini group and the ‘Central Gneiss’ in the Simla Himalayas. Remarks on some statements in Mr. Wynne’s paper on the tertiaries of the North-west Punjab. Note on the genera Chœromeryx and Rhagatherium. Vor. XI, 1878. Part 1.—Annual report for 1877. On the geology of the Upper Godavari basin, between the river Wardha and the Godavari, near the civil station of Sironcha. On the geology of Kashmir, Kishtwar, and Pangi. Notices of Siwalik mammals. The paleontological relations of the Gondwana system. On ‘Remarks, &c., by Mr. Theobald upon erratics in the Punjab.’ Part 2.—On the Geology of Sind (second notice). On the origin of the Kumaun lakes. Ona trip over the Milam Pass, Kumaun. The mud volcanoes of Ramri and Cheduba. On the mineral resources of Ramri, Cheduba, and the adjacent islands. MEMOIRS OF ШЕЕ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP INDIA. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. XXXII, PART т. RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. By E, VREDENBURG, A.R.C,S., Officiating Deputy Superinten- dent, Geological Survey of India. Published by order of His Exeelleney the Governor General of India in Council. CALCUTTA: SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. LONDON: MESSRS. KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co. MDCCCCI CALCUTTA : GOVERNMENT OF INDIA CENTRAL PRINTING OFFICE, 8, HASTINGS STREET, CHAPTER 1.— General Consideration CONTENTS, CHaPTER IL.—DETAILED ACCOUNTS OF SOME EXPERIMENTS.— єз o ت ۾ دي & on Su‏ © . Baluchistan . The Gangetic alluvium . Other Alluvial areas Gujarati. Borings in other tertiary rocks . The Gondwanas . The Vindhyans . The Deccan Trap Other rocks » Conclusion о Я КЕСЕМТ Pace MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. By E. VREDENBURG, A.R.C.S., Officiating Deputy Super- intendent, Geological Survey of India. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATION, During the century which is now ending, the question of a water-supply from artesian sources has from time to time attracted the attention both of the Government and of the public in India. In the year 1881 Mr. Medlicott summed up all the information avail- able up to that date in a Memoir which was pubiished in the Records of the Government of [ndia,! and in those of the Geological Survey.? ) The principle of artesian wells is now so generally understood and has been so often described that there is Origin of water-supply. Ў N A A no need to enter into any detailed discussion 1 Reports on Artesian Borings in India. Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Home, Revenue and Agricultural Department. No. CLXXVIII, Calcutta, 1881. Artesian Borings in India, Rec. Geol, Surv. Ind., Vol, XIV, pp. 205-238. 8 2 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. ofthe conditions essential to their occurrence. Briefly considered they depend upon the following phenomena, The water that is poured over the land in the shape of rain is disposed of in three ways: part of it is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation ; part of it runs over the surface to form rivers flowing towards the sea or towards some inland drainage basin; while the remain- der sinks into the ground. It is from this subterranean source that artesian wells and also ordinary shallow wells derive their supply. That portion which soaks into the ground usually keeps the soil and rocks moist up to a certain distance from the surface, Beyond a certain depth, which varies locally according to the amount of rainfall and the nature of the rocks, this moisture gives place to complete saturation. The water thus occupying the interstices of the rocks forms an underground reservoir, the amount stored away depending on the porosity of the rock. When the interstices take up a considerable proportion of the volume occupied by the rock, the amount of water that can be stored is proportionately great. The rock is then said to be “ porous” or “ permeable,” while, if the opposite conditions prevail, the rock is more or less “ impermeable." The degree of coarseness of texture is also to be considered, for if the interstices are very small, the retarding effects of friction and capillarity come into greater play, and in this way certain fine- grained rocks, suchas clay, act as highly impermeable strata not- withstanding the fact that they can absorb a certain amount of water. On the other hand it may also happen that rocks of an impermeable texture may act as porous masses owing to their fissured or cavern- ous conditions. Sandstones and conglomerates constitute the most usual instances of porous formations. Some kinds of non-indurated calcareous rocks, such as chalk, are also fairly permeable. Clay is a well-known example of an impermeable medium, while the same is usually the case with crystalline sandstone or “ quartzite,” crys- talline limestone, and the generality of igneous and metamorphic la) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 3 rocks, which can only act as permeable masses when they are excep- tionally fissured. These underground reservoirs formed by the water contained in porous rocks may be of two sorts, The Ground-water, = upper surface of the underground reservoir may be in direct communication with the atmosphere through the pores of the superincumbent unsaturated rock. The reservoir is then said to consist of “ground-water” or “subsoil-water.” If a shaft be sunk so as to penetrate the soil deeper than the surface level of this underground reservoir, water will percolate and fill the cavity up to that level. These are ordinary percolation wells or surface wells. But the underground water is not always in direct communiea- - : i» tion with the atmosphere immediately above it. Artesian conditions. us We know that the composition of that part of the earth nearest the surface, the “earth’s crust," which is acces- sible to observation, is far from being homogeneous. The rock nearest the surface at one particular point may be ofa highly im- permeable nature, and it may extend to a depth far greater than: that of the normal level of permanent saturation. Supposing there be a porous layer beneath this impermeable one, it cannot, however highly porous, receive water from the surface directly above it, because of the intervening stratum opposing itself to percolation from above. Yet, if this porous layer extends laterally to a greater distance than the overlying impermeable one, it must come into communication with the surface at some other more or less remote point. In this way it can obtain a supply of water, and if, at the place where it receives the supply, the permanent leve! of satura- tion stands at a higher altitude than the bottom of the impermeable rock that overlies it elsewhere, the porous layer may be enclosed by impermeable rocks in such a way that the water, at the place first considered, not only exerts a pressure downwards but also presses upwards on the lower surface of the bed above it. Ifa shaft be sunk at that place, the water will rise to a point higher than (GE) 4 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. the one at which it was tapped, as soon as the impermeable layer is pierced; and if there be a sufficient difference in the altitudes of the surface at the well and at the source of supply, or fountain-head, the water may rise higher than the level of permanent saturation ofthe neighbourhood ofthe well, and may even overflow at the surface. Only to such flowing wells is the name “artesian” applied а intem by certain authors, while according to others, GERI: the name should be given to all wells in which water rises to a higher level than that at which it was tapped. It is this latter view which was eventually taken by Mr. Medlicott : * Partial artesian action is always possible when percolation along the planes of bedding is much more easy than across them, and this seems to be a general character of stratification independently of any visible impervious beds." The exclusion of all but flowing wells from the class of artesian wells is a somewhat artificial restric- tion. Two neighbouring wells may tap the same underground reservoir, and owing toa difference of a few feet in the altitude of the places at which they have been sunk, one of them may over- flow and not the other, although all the other conditions are just the same. Moreover, a non-flowing well may, by means of pumping, prove of just as much practical utility as a flowing one, if the supply is abundant. A flowing well on the other hand, may be of very little use if it gives a small delivery fora given diameter of the bore : the Lucknow boring struck ata depth of 1,189 feet a sheet of water under sufficient pressure to overflow at the surface ; but the delivery was insignificant. The conditions of artesian reservoirs are very completely dis- Perfect and imperfet _ CUSSed in a treatise by Prof. Chamberlin pub- reservoirs, lished by the Geological Survey ofthe United States.” Artesian reservoirs were divided by him into “perfect 1 Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XVI, p. 206, 2 “The requisite and qualifying conditions of Artesian Wells,” by T. C. Chamberlin, Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, pp. 125-173. коа GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 5 reservoirs " and “imperfect reservoirs.” In a“ perfect reservoir” the water has no outlet at a lower level than the artificial one pro- vided by the well. In an “imperfect reservoir" the water possesses anaturalescape ata lower altitude than the well. Yet there may still be a tendency to rise owing to the resistance opposed by fric- tion along the underground channel leading to the natural outlet, Such a condition is represented in Mr. Medlicott’s experiments illustrated in the Report already referred to. The following diagram which has been several times reproduced from Daniel's Text-book of the Principles of Physics in works dealing with the present sub- ject, gives a better idea of the facts than any description :— Some of the artesian reservoirs that have given the most brilliant results are of the nature of “imperfect reservoirs.” The Dakota sandstone, a cretaceous rock in North America, may be quoted as an example, In the report just referred to, Mr, Medlicott also pointed out that artesian conditions are generally very different from the ex= ceptionally favourable conditions that hold good in the typical (5529) 6 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS JN INDIA. examples of the London or Paris basins, which are termed “basins of disturbance" in contradistinction to “ basins Basins of disturbance 56 20 > and of original deposi- of original deposition," He brought to notice a the fact that the structure favourable to artesian action might be caused either by subsequent tilting of strata that were originally horizontal, or else that the same action might take place in undisturbed strata that have been deposited in an inclined position, as in the case of the strata occupying alluvial plains. Sedimentary rocks may be, for the purposes of the present case, divided into two principal sections: there are, first, those ancient rocks which form such a large proportion of the earth's crust, and which geologists usually classify as palæozoic, mesozoic (secondary) and tertiary. These consist of alternating strata of varying thick- ness, often remarkable for the small amount of variation which they exhibit over considerable areas, They have usually been deposited upon the floor of the sea at some distance from the coast, and their distribution by marine agency has resulted in their great constancy over wide areas. Owing to changes in the relative level of land and sea, or to a bending or corrugation of the originally flat surface, these strata have now come to constitute dry land and may even rise into high mountains, It is the inclined position thus assumed which often allows the formation of more or less water-tight reser- voirs. The other class of strata are those that have been called diluvial, quarternary, pleistocene, or post-tertiary, the two latter terms being more commonly in use. They are newer than the strata of the first category, and consequently they rest upon them when both exist together in the same region. They merge insen- sibly into the alluvial deposits whose formation continues over the land at the present day. Like these recent deposits, they are generally land formations instead of being of marine origin as in the case of the majority of the older strata grouped in the first category. They often occupy a considerable horizontal surface, but they never attain the enormous thickness frequently exhibited (62) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 7 by marine strata, and they further differ from them by having a well-marked original slope of deposition. "Their composition varies a great deal from place to place, and the irregularity thus produced may be favourable to the production of artesian conditions. Vol- canic formations accumulated on land are comparable to these alluvial formations in their consisting also of strata of varying per- meability deposited in an inclined position. As to the floor of igneous and metamorphic rocks which carries the strata of either Boys M ent fo category, itis practically impermeable. Occa- artesian conditions. sionally it has been known to yield a somewhat abundant supply of water through fissures, but such occurrences are so rare and so undependable that they cannot be taken into account in any practical scheme. In regions of great disturbance, sedimentary strata may be so much compressed that they become impermeable to the same extent as these igneous and metamorphic rocks. But apart from such cases, all the sediments whose relative age can be determined by means of fossils, from the oldest cambrian to the newest tertiary, have yielded artesian flows under favourable conditions, On account of the great regularity of the strata composing them, artesian reservoirs formed by thetilting of these ancient marine sediments, ‘basins of disturbance" in fact, lend themselves to systematic investigation in such a manner that in many cases it has been possible to foretell with a fair degree of certainty the prospects of a water-supply at any particular point. But with undisturbed alluvial ,deposits that are still in the same position in which they were originally laid down, we have no means of studying the con- cealed strata except by artificial excavations, and it is always difficult to give a decisive opinion. Wells sunk in such a formation are always more or less of an experimental nature. In strata belonging to this category, it is sometimes difficult to decide whether a wellis really or not of artesian nature. The re- striction of the name to flowing wells is not a satisfactory one since (7) 8 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. it has the disadvantage of leaving outside of any well-defined cate: gory all those non-flowing wells which nevertheless are not ordinary percolation wells, but which derive their supply from an under- ground reservoir of water under pressure. At the same time, adopting Mr. Medlicott's definition of artesian action as the tendency of water to percolate more easily along the planes of stratification than across them, the separation from an ordinary percolation well is, especially for practical purposes, not always very distinct. The «Spring-wells” of the - “spring wells" of the Gangetic alluvium, and Gangetic alluvium. some very similar ones in Gujárát, are in- stancesof this, The alluvium of these regions contains thick beds of impervious clay known as “mota” in the North-West Provinces. These beds may occur at a depth coinciding with the level of permanent saturation, or else ten, twenty feet or more beneath it. When such a clay-bed occurs at an accessible depth at some locality where a well is needed, the well is first sunk up to the surface of this clay-bed. A narrow shaft isthen excavated into the clay, and when the clay-bed is pierced, water charged with sand rushes up- wards with such violence that the workmen may have barely time toescape. Captain Clibborn has given a most interesting account of such wells in a treatise on well-irrigation in the Gangetic plain, in which their peculiar action is fully explained." Briefly stated, it is thus. The stratum of indurated clay that supports the well may not, and in most cases does not, extend laterally to any great dis- tance, As therefore the water below the clay-bed is in free com- munication round the edges of this impervious stratum wjth that above it, the pressure underneath the clay stratum depends merely en its depth below the level of saturation of the ground directly above it. When the well is sunk as far as the clay-bed, the water from the saturated permeable sands above the clay is prevented by the masonry from percolating into the shaft. What may have 1 Report on Well-irrigation in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, by Captain Clibborn, B.S.C. Roorkee, 1883. (EOM GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 9 collected is baled out in order that the work of sinking the smaller tube through the clay may be proceeded with, As soon as this reaches the base of the clay, the water which was under hydrostatic pressure proportional to its depth beneath the level of saturation, gushes into the well which it fills up to that level. At first the water which flows into the well is charged with sand, and thus a cavity is formed in the sandy stratum beneath the lower orifice of the pipe that traverses the clay-bed. This cavity gets enlarged until the area of its internal surface becomes sufficient to allow water to percolate at such a rate as will replenish the well while in use, without the rate of flow being sufficient to disturb the sand, as the percolation is distributed over a sufficiently large area. If the bed of indurated clay is sufficiently thick it will support the weight of the masonry above this cavity without yielding. This explanation, the credit of which is given by Captain Clibborn to Mr. J, S. Beresford, accounts fully for the facts observed, and Captain Clibborn denies that there is anything at all of the nature of artesian action. Yet, as pointed out by Mr. Medlicott in a review of Captain Clibborn's Memoir, the explanation, though fully satisfactory, is not incom- patible with artesian action, so long as this is described as that of water with a greater tendency to flow along the planes of bedding than in a direction at right angles, Yet, it must be admitted that they differ but very little from an ordinary percolation well, their typical feature consisting in the fact that advantage is taken of cer- tain natural conditions to obtain a well of moderate diameter in a permeable medium, of very loose material without endangering the stability of the masonry and without any risk of silting. As pointed out by Captain Clibborn, an ordinary percolation well may be sunk in any sand however coarse and unconsolidated, if only its diameter be made large enough. He has also shown that where the clay strata do not exist, they could, leaving aside the question of expen- diture, be replaced artificially by building the well upon a platform 1 Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XVI, pp. 205-209. i0 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, of concrete placed at some distance below the level of saturation of the ground. It is certain that these “spring wells" hardly answer to the popular idea of an artesian well, and naturally they would not be regarded as belonging to that category by those authors who restrict the use of the term to flowing wells. It may be suggested, that if the fact that a well is a flowing one be taken as essential to artesian conditions, a further restriction must be made so as to apply the name only to such flowing wells as are fed by a deep reservoir of water under considerable pressure. This restriction is necessary so as to exclude a certain class of wells which yield a copious flow, although not possessing any of the characters of an artesian well Such are certain percolation wells so situated with respect to the topography of their neighbourhood, that, by means of a shallow artificial channel, the water which they collect can be discharged by gravitation alone. As an instance may be quoted the wells which supply water to the town of Rawalpindi. They чулк ыру: ` derive their supply by percolation from some Rawalpindi, coarse alluvial gravels which occupy a longi- tudinal valley bordered by: rocky ridges. This valley is situated at the foot of the hills, but at a greater altitude than the town, to which the supply of the wells is carried by gravitation alone, The wells which supply the eity of Karachi, sunk in the gravels of a broad river-bed that never contains any water flowing at the surface, except in times of exceptional flood, are essentially of the same nature. Here, then, we have percolation with an abundant flow, while the “spring-wells” of the Gangetic alluvium might be taken as examples of artesian action without overflow. In fact, the difficulty which is often experienced as to whether a certain well should be classed as artesian or not, has led certain writers to discard the term entirely. This is perhaps a somewhat extreme view, for although the category cannot be defined within absolutely strict (2000) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 11 limits, yet the term is useful. It is an instance of the difficulties that are always experienced in making scientific classifications : they must always be more or less artificial, and however elaborate they can never be in complete harmony with the infinite variety of nature. From the foregoing remarks, it follows that the “spring wells” just described, differ from the typical examples in London and Paris with regard to the situation of the well, relatively to the intake area of its water-supply. Since the clay bands which form their charac- teristic feature are of very limited extent, it follows that the water which they contain is, properly speaking, only “ground-water,” derived from the same source as the water of ordinary percolation wells, that is, from purely local rainfall. These wells illustrate examples of local artesian action within a reservoir of water which can scarcely be called an artesian reservoir, But in the case of ‘artesian wells like those of Paris, the porous stratum forming the natural reservoir from which they derive their supply has no come munication with the surface except at its outcrop many miles away. A very important result of this structure is that the supply of the .. artesian well is independent of local rainfall. Special characteristics E i i of the supply fromdeep Owing to its greater altitude, the collecting Bere area is usually favoured with a more abundant rainfall than the locality at which the wells are situated. If it is sufficient to cause a constant overflow from the outcrop of the water- bearing stratum, the head of water will naturally be constant, as the artificial wells usually abstract but a small portion of the water furnished to the water-bearing stratum over the entire extent of its outcrop. Moreover, a fall of the water-level at the fountain head will not cause a corresponding loss of effective head in the well, for, owing to the retardation caused by friction, the rise of water in the well is but a fraction of what it would be otherwise. Any alteration in the level of the fountain head can only affect the outflow at the well in the same diminished proportion, (и) 12 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. These well-known features of artesian action are here alluded Special advantages of tO because it is important to keep sight of them deep artesian sources. in discussing the capabilities of artesian wells. As already pointed out, the fact of their flowing at the surface or not is notof much importance, their usefulness, from a practical point of view, depending on an abundant and constant delivery. When the water is needed to supply a town for drinking purposes, it has this further advantage that it is free from any germs of disease. It is not, however, its applicability to domestic purposes that usually attracts public attention to artesian resources, but people have generally been struck by the achievements obtained in some countries where they have supplied the needs of irrigation. In this respect, one is apt to form an exaggerated notion of their capabilities. The imagination is easily struck by such facts as the phenomenal outflow of some of the North American wells, or by the creation of artificial oases in the midst of the Sahara, But it is necessary to keep in mind how very local these effects must remain, even at their best, and the notion, sometimes entertained, that the sinking of artesian wells would in the slightest degree afford relief during Indian famines should at once be dispelled. It is principally in deserts that the use which itis possible to Efficiency of artesian derive from artesian water is seen to its best resources in deserts. advantage. In a desert, no cultivation can be undertaken that depends merely upon rainfall, because the annual precipitation is insignificant and precarious. Cultivation can only be practised when that scanty rainfall, concentrated and stored by natural or artificial means, is applied to irrigation. River systems may collect from a large area so much of the rainfall as escapes evaporation, and some of their stream-beds may thus carry a peren- nial stream. When this reaches the plains, the water may be diverted into artificial channels and devoted to irrigation. The area thus cultivated is very small compared to that over which the rain has fallen, but it is the application to a limited area of a large (BD) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 13 proportion of the available rainfall, which renders possible agricul- tural operations which would be out of the question if attempted over the entire surface of the collecting area. As already pointed out, the rain water that escapes evaporation, partly flows along the surface, and partly sinks into the ground. It is this latter portion which in some instances becomes available in the shape of artesian water. Some of the recent alluvial formations peculiar to desert areas are particularly suited to the production of artesian conditions. Of late years, complete success has been achieved in the case of artesian wells sunk through such formations at Quetta, but these same reservoirs have been drawn upon since time immemorial by means of the underground channels so well known as “karez’' in Baluchistan, and “ kanat” in Persia, a feature which is forcibly brought to the attention of any one travelling in those regions, which would be otherwise uninhabitable. The water which supplies the underground reservoirs represents but a fraction of the amount of water that percolates into the ground, this amount itself being but a fraction of an already scanty rainfall; but compared with the supply from rivers, it has the advantage of being much less subject to variations. Suchare then the capabilities and the limitations of artesian water in a desert: its yield may be locally abundant and constant enough to allow of successful irrigation, but this yield is derived from a source so scanty that under the most favourable circumstances, the area cultivated sinks into complete insignificance compared with. the immensity of the surrounding desert. One of the artesian districts that have most attracted the attention of the world is that of the Oued Voir and neighbouring oases in the Algerian Sahara. According to some statistics collected in a pub- lication issued in connection with the Paris exhibition of 1889,! the total yield of the wells was then 8,475 cubic feet, or 63,400 gallons per minute, The area under cultivation was not more than 4,000 acres, that is a few thousand acres amongst many thousand square miles Société Agricole et Industrielle de Batna et du Sud Algérien. С 137) 54 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. of desert. Viewed in this manner, the result must appear very small, yet it is here that the capabilties of artesian water are seen to their best advantage, since they render cultivation possible in a land which must remain otherwise absolutely unculturable. With all other conditions remaining the same, there is no doubt that as the rainfall increases the amount available from artesian sources might be increased in about the same proportion. But the same proposition would not hold good with respect to the amount of land cultivated : with an annual rainfall of about five inches, desertic conditions must prevail, and if there is no river, the country must remain without cultivation except perhaps for a few small areas under irrigation from natural underground reservoirs scattered at intervals, just as іп Baluchistan or in the Sahara. If we now turn Inefficiency of artesian Our attention to other countries where the ers A M genen mean annual rainfall is thirty inches instead of five, the amount of water stored in underground reservoirs will also increase in the same proportion so long as their capacity is such that they do not overflow. But it is not so with the area cultivated : instead of the few acres of cultivated land being increased in the proportion of five to thirty, we are now dealing with countries where one-half, three-quarters, or more perhaps of the land is under cultivation. For, with increased humidity, agriculture no longer depends on purely local and exceptional conditions of stor- age and distribution, but the rainfall over any part of the area is sufficient to supply the local needs, making irrigation superfluous. In places where the rainfall is so abundant as to be sufficient even in years of minimum rainfall, artesian wells cease to be of any value as a means of irrigation. But there are some regions where, although the rainfall is generally sufficient, yet its amount is just on tke limit of what is needed, and consequently, in years of mini- mum rainfall, the amount is below the requirements of the land. Hence, although irrigation is superfluous in ordinary seasons, some form of storage of water is necessary in order to save the country \ мд 7 GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 15 from ruin during the exceptionally dry years which must occur at intervals, —intervals which are irregular so far as has yet been ob- served, These conditions prevail over very large areas in India, and wherever sufficient provision has not been made to suit the requirements of the case, it is inevitable that ruination should visit them at intervals in the shape of the terrible calamities too well known in India during famine years. The situation of the regions thus precariously situated can be recognised by examining any map that indicates the distribution of the rainfall, such as the beautiful maps published in the Statistical Atlas of India. It is probably in those regions where the average amount of annual rainfall is between twenty and forty inches that the situation is most precarious. The regions most critically stuated are,—first, the countries nearest the Indian Desert, that is portions of the Punjab, of Rajputana, of the North-West Provinces, and, of Gujárát; secondly, large districts in Central India and in the Central Provinces together with part of the Deccan east of the Western Ghats, forming a considerable proportion of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, and of the States of Hyderabad and Mysore. It is only with respect to these critically placed districts that the question of a possible supply from artesian sources for irrigation purposes is ofany vital interest. As already pointed out, the desert areas are safe from severe famine, because the portion which is cultivated depends on perennial supplies of water independent of annual variations in local rainfall, —whether this supply be the mighty stream of some great river like that of the Indus, whicb spreads over Lower Sind the rain and melted snow of an immense catchment area in the Himaläyas, or whether it be the small but constant supply of a “karez.” The more humid tracts where the rainfall is more than sufficient are equally out of question in the present enquiry. But in those vast regions where the rain- fall is usually only just sufficient to supply the needs of agriculture, and where recourse must be had to some means of storage so as to 1 Statistical Atlas of India, Secord Edition. Calcutta, 1895. (ASS) 16 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. tide over years of deficient rainfall, the question has been asked whether the water needed is notalready stored in natural artesian reservoirs. It has already been pointed out how small is the area irrigable from artesian sources in the deserts of Algeria and Baluchis- tan, and it has been further argued that the water available from that source could only increase ata rate comparable with an in- crease of rainfall, and not comparable with the concomitant increase of culturable ground. Therefore if there occurs any failure of the rainfall in a country where rainfall is depended upon for cultivation, the portion where this deficiency could be remedied by means of artesian water would be insignificant. Another argument may yet present itself: where artesian water is regularly put to contribution for irrigation purposes, the amount which is used annually must be kept within the limits of the average annual supply to the artesian reservoir. If, on the other hand, the supply is to be drawn upon only at intervals of several years, it might be asked whether itis not possible that an artesian reservoir could exist whose structure is such that it holds in store the supply of a number of years. This might be drawn upon only in times of need, allowing the reservoir to be replenished during intervening years favoured with a better rainfall. In answer to this argument, it may first be pointed out that altbough such natural conditions for the reservoir are possible, and in fact do exist to a certain degree in some rare instances, they are not common, for they require the coincidence of quite a number of favourable circumstances, such as an unusually large intake area, a stratum unusually porous and unusually thick, and also an 1 Major Powell attributes partly to this cause the diminution of flow which has been ob- served in some of the American wells since the time when they were first sunk ; “...... it may happen that the stratum has capacity for the transmission of more water than is delivered to it. If the latter relations exist in the case of a perfect or nearly perfect reservoir, and that reservoir is tapped by numerous artesian wells, the initial discharge of water from the wells is greater than the permanent discharge. The wells in such a case draw upon a body of water which may have required years for its accumulation, and their conditions of permanent flow are not reached until this accumulation has been exhausted." Eleventh Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geological Survey, Part II, pe 262. ( 16 ) GENERAL CONSIDERATION, 17 unusually regular structure, so that the bed should be available at a reasonable depth over a large area of the country. Under the best conditions possible, the intake area must be limited to the outcrop of the permeable stratum, and this must always be very small com- pared with the surface of country underlaid by the artesian reservoir, so that even if exceptional conditions of storage allowed the supply of several years to be expended in one season, the amount thus made available would still remain very small compared with the needs of the large area where irrigation is required, Besides, although the amount of artesian water available in India has scarcely received a fair test, yet it may be confidently affirmed that nowhere do such ex- ceptional conditions occur as those outlined above. In the districts liable to famine in particular, there is not the slightest indication of anything ofthe sort. If we look to other countries for information, there is none perhaps from which such useful lessons can be derived as from the United States of North America. In no other region of the globe are artesian conditions developed in such a favourable manner, and nowhere perhaps have they been developed so system- atically. From the oldest cambrian up to those glacial deposits which, in a geological sense, were deposited only yesterday, every system of strata has yielded artesian water in abundance, The capabilities of these resources with respect to irrigation have been OS NET fully investigated, for, just like India, America, North America includes large portions in which the rainfall is insufficient or only just sufficient to provide for the needs of agriculturists, Major J. W. Powell, the late Director of the United States Geological Survey, in his ‘Statement before the Committee on Irrigation of the House of Representatives," in 1890 has fully examined all the aspects of the question. His report, the outcome of many years of studies specially devoted to these matters, deals with the question of irrigation considered from a ! [n this work 1 “The Arid Lands.” Eleventh Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geo- logical Survey. Part II, Irrigation, pp. 203-289. ( ) I7 theoretical, practical, and legislative point of view. 18 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Major Powell pronounces himself most unhesitatingly on the sub- ject of the limited capabilities of artesian supplies, even with respect to such exceptional artesian reservoirs as those underlying the Great Plains, particularly the “ Dakota sandstone," a rock of creta- ceous age, whose permeability, regularity of stratigraphical struc- ture, favourably situated outcrop, and immense extension make it probably difficult to match elsewhere. If such an exceptionally situated reservoir can only warrant very limited expectations, it would be unwise to build any hopes upon the Indian artesian reser- voirs which can only be comparatively unimportant, and whose very existence is in many cases a matter of serious doubt. Evidently it is not to them that we must look for the serious problem of making up for the deficiency of water in years of minimum rainfall in the regions at present considered. This problem is all the more important because, if the calamity which overtakes those regions in years of drought could be avoided or at least considerably mitigated, their fertility in ordinary years is so great that they would be amongst the richest, if not actually the richest, provinces in India. With adequate means of providing irrigation during unfavourable seasons, even if only just enough to save the farmers and their stock from actual disaster, these regions where the rainfall is only just sufficient would be amongst the best situated from an agricul- tural point of view. To quote Major Powell's words, in the work just referred to: “Whenever in any district of country, there is just sufficient rainfall and no more, that is the best condition for that agriculture which is dependent upon rainfall, Any increase above that is injurious,..... What then becomes necessary is to sup- ply additional water in seasons of drought, so there may not be a time when disaster comes to the farmer. To furnish the water necessary for these disastrous years, we have to furnish a smaller amount than in other [2.е., drier] regions of country. Scans Something can be obtained from artesian wells, but not a very great amount ..... . They have been bored at different places ( 18 ) GENERAL CONSIDERATION, 19 in the world and used for irrigation whenever they could be used, and it bears out the statement I make that the supply from artesian sources is always limited, is always very small, and that no great area can be irrigated thereby. If all the artesian wells in the world that are used for irrigation were assembled in one county of Dakota they would not irrigate that county?” Since, therefore, the supply from artesian reservoirs is at best local and inadequate, we must look to some different source to pro- vide a storage of water that will apply to the whole area concerned. This store generally exists without going to such inconveniently great depths as is often the case with artesian water: it is the DECOR UN reservoir formed by “ ground-water,” or “ sub- wells. soil-water " all over the surface of the land. All over India this resource is made available through innumerable shal- low wells. As pointed out in a previous paragraph, it is somewhat a matter of personal taste whether some of these wells should be called “artesian” or not, but they are to all practical purposes shal- low percolation wells, and the reservoir from which they draw their supply could not properly be called artesian, however much the name might be applicable to individual wells, According to experts there is not much room for improvement either in the mode of construction or in the economical working of shallow wells as prac- tised in India. But the system could be considerably developed, more perhaps by private enterprise than by the agency of Govern- ment, and it is, I believe, a well recognised principle that the farm- ers should be given every encouragement to construct new wells. Years of minimum rainfall ought to be particularly suited to this work, as it is easy to sink the wells to a good depth below the average level of saturation of the ground. A great deal was accom- plished in this line during the last abnormally dry season of 1°99- 1900: a great many new wells have been sunk, and many old ones deepened, 1 Loc, cits, pp. 259-2600 (2900) 20 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. There are many places topographically so situated that wells provide the only available means of irrigation. Irrigation from сапа, But wherever feasible, irrigation from artificial canals deriving their supply from the perennial flow of natural river channels, or from artificial reservoirs will enhance the value of the land considerably more than irrigation from wells can do. This method, however, does not come under the scope of private enterprise, but can only be accomplished as an outcome of well- matured schemes of such vast proportions as can only be dealt with by Government. In this line India has nothing to learn from other countries, and her canals and her “tanks” have long com- manded the admiration of the engineering world, ranking as models to be imitated wherever similar works are undertaken. It is, no doubt, to the extension of this system of irrigation from canals and to its thoroughly systematic application that we must look forward to the development of the agricultural possibilities of the country to their utmost degree of efficiency, and for the complete disappear- ance of those dire calamities which must keep recurring at fated intervals, so long as India is not adequately provided for against the difficulties caused by occasional periods of deficient rainfall. If artesian reservoirs were of any great utility in averting these dis- asters, it would seem strange indeed that their resources should have been neglected by a body of men of such ability as are found in the Irrigation branch of the Public Works Department. The expla- mation of that apparent neglect is, that such a resource does not really exist. Much has been done already in the way of reservoir and canal construction in districts liable to occasional drought. There remains certainly plenty to be done, for these works have not been developed to the same extent as in regions of permanently deficient rainfall where they are much more remunerative owing to their being constantly needed. The canals that are built in districts where the rainfall is amply sufficient in all but years of minimum rainfall do not seem at first sight to be remunerative, since they are (22053) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 21 = merely of the nature of protective works, and will probably often remain idle during periods of several years. Yet, the additional value which increased security against disaster confers upon the land must in the long run amply repay the capital expended on such undertakings. Of course, the work must eventually be carried out on a gigantic scale, and is one that even the wealthiest Government can- not perform in one day ; but since the ultimate source upon which all agriculture depends is the rainfall, the most economical distribution of that rainfall must eventually become the means of obtaining the most remunerative condition of agriculture. All that has been done so far in India, has been along those lines, and when the work is completed, India will find herself able to provide amply for a much more numerous population than she supports at present, without any risk of periodical starvation, and without having recourse to such desperate palliatives as emigration and other extreme measures which have to be resorted to as a remedy for the evil as it exists at present, As to artesian irrigation which is every now and then advocated as a remedy by well-meaning persons, I have endeavoured to show that by following the question to its ultimate conclu- sions, we find that they must have been deluded by the deceptive appearance of exceptional occurrences, and it is well to be guarded against such proposals, and not waste upon a matter, which is only of secondary importance, energies that can find better employment elsewhere. The foregoing remarks apply only to those areas where in all but exceptional years the rainfall is sufficient for agricultural pur- poses. In more arid regions, agriculture depending on local rainfall alone becomes so precarious that it is not attempted. Cultivation is only undertaken where rendered possible by irrigation, and such regions do not undergo the risk of severe famine. Artesian reservoirs are of course locally of the greatest utility wherever they can provide the necessary means of irrigation; but those regions do not present problems of such urgent character and vital importance ( 21 ) 22 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. as the provinces where occasional failure of rain can bring about appalling disasters. To a still greater extent is this the case with actual deserts, where it may happen, it is true, that the only existing cultivation is from artesian sources, but such countries can only support the lives of some hundreds of men, not of millions like those whose unfortunately precarious condition has just been dis- cussed. In those regions, on the other hand, where rainfall is always Artesian resources in abundant, artesian reservoirs lose all importance uli e ande a) BS irrigation, but may still be of great use in secondary though by no means unimportant questions, such as a supply for manufacturing or for drinking purposes. Thus confined within reasonable limits, the question of artesian supply is of the greatest interest, and is fully justified in attracting the attention of private enterprise or of public bodies such as municipalities. It cannot be said that very much has been done in this line in Presenbstate ofthe India, and it is doubtful how much can be done. Баенов, It may Бе safely asserted that throughout the length and breadth of India there is no artesian reservoir compar- able to the Dakota sandstone of North America, or the regularly disposed basins of London and Paris. This has been clearly recognised since the day when the main features of the geological map were delineated. But the Geological Survey with its small staff of Officers has not yet been equal to the task of carrying out a detailed examination of that immense area to such a degree of minuteness as would allow of a definite opinion on the possible re- sources cf underground reservoirs, whose performance might be small perhaps as compared with the examples just quoted from Europe and America, but which yet might prove very useful and welcome for local needs. Not only are there many portions of India proper which are “ terre incognitæ ” in a geological sense, but enormous areas have been thrown open to geological observation ( 22 ) GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 23 in Burma and in Baluchistan which still further increase the vast- ness of the task. Consequently, the parts of the map that have been submitted to detailed examination are very few, as the time necessary for work of that kind can seldom be spared except for some special object like the detailed survey of a small area occupied by a coal-field. Under the circumstances, the minute examination necessary to decide these questions is quite out of the question. The delineation on the map of the areas of metamorphic rocks at once excludes certain portions from the range of research since artesian water can scarcely be expected from them. But if a geolo- gical map of India be examined, it will be noticed that an enormous area of the Peninsula is occupied by a volcanic formation known as the “Deccan trap." Practically the whole of that area is un- surveyed: we know next to nothing of that immense formation, but the mere boundary of the tract which it occupies. As to its capacity as a water-bearing formation, little is known and great differences of opinion exist. The map also shows a large area occupied by the * Vindhyan" rocks. These have received more attention than the * Deccan trap," but still in a very general manner, and very little is known regarding their behaviour as water-bearing strata. Lastly, we have scarcely any information respecting the underground structure of that immense spread of recent deposits constituting the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain, whose strata are still in the posi- tion in which they were deposited, and no exact knowledge of which can be arrived at except from actual borings, In the opening paragraph of these notes, I mentioned that a review of the whole question as it then stood in India had been written by Mr. Medlicott in 1881. It cannot be said that the knowledge gained in the two decades that have since elapsed can allow much to be added to what he so ably discussed. Artesian problems are always so full of uncertainty that the resultsof actual experiment play an import- ant part in arriving at any definite conclusions respecting subsequent trials, The experiments carried out since the publication of (23085) 24 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Mr. Medlicott’s report have not been very numerous. Most of them have been described in the publications of the Geological Survey- A short account of the most important ones is given in the following chapter. CHAPTER П. DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. (7) Baluchistan. The most successful borings are those of Quetta. The struc- ture of the deposits underlying the plain of Quetta has been fully explained by Mr. Oldham in a paper published by the Govern- ment and reproduced in the Records of the Geological Survey. The town of Quetta is situated in the midst of a broad plain sur- Structure of recent de- rounded by high ranges of hills. Тһе streams posits of the Quetta plain. that issue from those hills carry, in times of flood, boulders and coarse detritus which they abandon owing to the diminished gradient when they enter the plain. Owing to the scantiness of the rainfall, the plainis not scoured by streams powerful enough to remove these materials, and thus shallow cones of talus material or “alluvial fans" are formed, constituting a very characteristic feature of desert regions. They all coalesce with one another and with the talus formed by the ordinary process of dis- integration, forming a broad incline, the so-called * daman " which fringes the mountain ranges in Baluchistan. At the apex of each of the shallow cones the river divides itself into a number of branches very much as it would do in a “delta.” These channels are usually 1 “On the mode of occurrence and probable distribution of artesian water in the valley plains of the Quetta and Pishin District,” reprinted in ©“ Sub-recent and Recent Deposits of the valley plains of Quetta, Pishin, and the Dasht-i-Bedaolat ; with appendices on the Chamans of Quetta, and the Artesian Water Supply of Quetta and Pishin.” Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind,, Voi. XXV, pp. 36-53. ( 24 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 25 - dry, and it is only when there has been a shower that they give passage to a stream of water which bears sand and boulders if the shower has been abundant enough. The more important chan- nels in the fan, those that are, for the time being, so situated as to collect a great amount of water, carry their burden farthest and send tongues of gravel reaching the plain. Like all rivers they are apt to shift their position, and the coarse gravels in the aban- doned channels become gradually buried under the deposits of fine silt known as “ loess,” which are derived from the disintegration of neighbouring rocks or consist of wind-borne dust floated from afar, and which gradually get spread over the land by the slow and gentle action of rain-wash. The same process is many times repeated till the plain is occupied by a succession of irregular tongues or patches of loose permeable gravel alternating with layers of silt which are highly impermeable owing to their fine texture and argillaceous composition. The tongues of gravel decrease in coarseness as they slope towards the plain; they are entirely en- closed by the impermeable clays except at the apex of the alluvial fan where, by increasingly coarse material they all come into com- munication with the chaotic accumulation of boulders at the de- bouchure of the river from the hills. Owing to the torrential nature of the rivers and the peculiar structure of the alluvial fans, the gradients are high, so that there is a considerable difference of level between the coarse gravels at the head of the fan, and the plain over which the deposits are distributed. Thus arises a condition which is eminently suited to artesian action, The coarse nature of the deposits at the head of the slope of the “daman” favour percolation; the water gradually finds its way into the buried tongues of gravel, and the impermeable clays which enclose these gravels prevent all natural escape, thus producing am artesian reservoir which is eminently of the “ perfect" type. Where these reservoirs can be tapped they are extremely useful, since by means of them it is possible to distribute to the arid soil of the plain the G 2507) 26 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. relatively abundant rain that falls on the hills where it would be of no use owing to the steepness of their bare slopes. So long as they are left to their own devices, it is not within the means of the inbabitants of these sparsely populated districts to obtain this water through artesian wells, as they do not possess: suitable appliances to reach the requisite depth. But with their simple methods they can obtain the same supply by the much more laborious task of driving a horizontal gallery through the inclined beds in the lower portion of the talus. These are the works known as “karez”? or “kanat”? which have already been mentioned in a previous paragraph. The water is not under great pressure where the stratum containing it is penetrated by works of this kind, but the great surface of percolation in the gallery allows the collection of an abundant supply. The first attempt to tap this supply by means of a boring was made at Quetta in 1889. The experiment was eminently successful and, since then, many other borings have succeeded, while experiments of a promising nature have also been attempted in the plain of Pishin. From the irregular conformation of these deposits, the prospects of success at any particular point within the area covered by them cannot be accurately predicted. The tongues of gravel must overlap one another in a very irregular manner, and there is no means of knowing their lateral extension. At one place, a water-bearing stratum may be struck at a much smaller depth than at another, while it may also happen that the gravel may be missed entirely, which explains why some borings have been unsuccessful, though surrounded by others that have met with water-bearing strata. In fact in all artesian reservoirs like this one, consisting of recent undisturbed deposits, the only indi- cation that can be given with any degree of accuracy is the main boundary of the area within which success is possible, but success at any particular point within that area must remain, to a great degree, a matter of chance. ( 26 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 27 The yield of a small artesian reservoir, like that of the Quetta basin, situated in a very dry region, is subject to a certain amount of variation according to differences in the amount of yearly rainfall. The flow from the karez galleries at Quetta is known to be affected to some extent by such variations, and some of them bave even been known to stop flowing entirely after prolonged periods of abnormal drought. The structure of the recent alluvial deposits in the valley-plain Other localities favour- Of Quetta is by no means special to that one ably situated, locality, but is common in a greater or less degree to all the talus deposits that fringe the high mountains of Baluchistan and Persia, of that arid table-land known as the plateau of Iran, At many glaces, the water which they contain is tapped by the karez and kanat galleries, and, no doubt, it would be available also by artesian wells. For instance, all along the mountain ranges which form the southern border of the great desert which stretches from Nushki up to the Persian Frontier, these talus deposits frequently assume enormous proportions. Ata few locali- ties far distant from one another, karez tunnels have been driven into them, and it would be worth while making an experimental boring at one of the most likely places. There is not much that calls for comment in the boring records Boring records of wells Of the wells in Quetta. The deposits are too ae cae irregular to allow the identification of strata encountered in different wells. In all the borings, the same varieties of sands and clays were met with in alternating layers. The follow- ing records were published by Mr. Oldham in the report already referred to :— SECTIONS OF BORE-HOLES AT QUETTA AND BOSTAN. 1, Well at Railway station— 120 feet loess, (2277) 28 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA: 20 feet gravel, underlaid by quicksand. Discharge 20,000 gallons per hour; hydrostatic head 50 feet. 2. Well in Political Agent’s compound. 115 feet loess. 83 feet shingle with a little artesian water. 2 feet loess. Gravel, an abundant discharge of water. 3. Well in Loco. Superintendent's compound— 923 feet loess. 33 feet gravel with artesian water. 4. Well in Executive Engineer's (Railway) compound— 90% feet loess. IO feet gravel, from which water just flowed at surface. то feet loess. 20 feet coarse sand and gravel, with an abundant discharge of water. 5. Well at Gymkhana— 77 feet loess, 10 feet “hard sandy stuff ". 8 feet “indurated sandy lumps ". 35 feet " clay with nodules”. 3 feet quicksand. 12 feet hard clay. Quicksand with water. 6 Artesian well at Bostan, as determined from specimens preser ved— 10—20 feet pale yellow unctuous clay containing fine grains of silica and effervescing freely with acids. Loess. 20—30 feet the same, but not so fine grained. 30—40 feet finer than 10—20 feet. 40— бо feet very like 20— 30 feet. 60—80 feet the same with some pieces of calcareous rock (kankar). 80— до feet same as 10— 60 feet. 100 feet irregular small pebbles of pale grey limestone. 180 feet still in gravel, discharge of water 2,500 gallons per hour. 230 feet or thereabouts, entered as Siwalik clays. (2) The Gangetic alluvium. Alternating strata of varying coarseness deposited ata gently sloping angle, and becoming generally finer- Structure of the strata, А A ST С grained as the distance from the hills increases, ( 28 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 29 are characters common to all alluvial deposits. But endless variation is introduced by differences in horizontal extent, vertical depth and gradient, Thus the conditions which cause artesian flow at Quetta exist to a certain degree in all alluvial plains. Nevertheless the capacity of the reservoirs thus formed must vary greatly according to local conditions. Itis natural that the immense extent of land occupied by the Indo-Gangetic alluvium should have attracted a great deal of attention from the point of view of artesian supply, but its capabilities have scarcely been tested: experiments have been so few and so incomplete that its structure is still to a great extenta matter of conjecture. Just as the upper part of the talus skirting the Baluchistan mountains consists of accumulations of boulders continu- ous with gradually finer gravels that dip under the fine clay deposits of the plains, so does the upper part of the alluvial talus all along the foot of the Himaláyas consist of coarse gravels forming the slope called “bhäbar,” the lower part of which dips under the soil of the "tarái? Mr. Medlicott argued that the gravel beds of varying degrees of coarseness that are interbedded at various depths with the clay deposits of the alluvium, must be in communication with the " bhábar" zone of gravel: here then, just as in the case of the Quetta plain deposits, leaving aside the difference in proportions, we have the requisite conditions for a very perfect artesian reservoir. Percolation acts freely in the coarse deposits ofthe gravel zone which absorb a considerable proportion of the rainfall, and the over- flow at the upper part of the underground reservoir makes itself evi- dent from the copious springs which issue in the zone along which the gravels dip under the clay deposits of the tarái. This line of springs indicates therefore the altitude of the fountain head of the artesian reservoir, and, by tapping that reservoir in the alluvial plain, at lower altitudes, water may be expected to overflow at the surface. In order to make the conditions of success as favourable as possible, the proposed wells should not be sunk too far south from the Himaláyas, because, with such a low gradient as that which prevails at a ( 29 ) 30 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. distance from the hills, the retarding influence of friction must come conspicuously into play. Along the southern edge of the plains the conditions cannot be regarded as favourable, for all along the low hills that limit the alluvium in that direction, there is no slope of gravel forming an intake area comparable to the “bhdbar’’ of the Himaláyan talus, and in the western portion of the district, in the neighbourhood of the Aravallis, the amount of rainfall is small. As to the underground reservoirs fed by the Himaláyan *' bhábar " it is not probable that they stretch right across to the southern boundary of the alluvium. All these probabilities were very distinctly formu- lated by Mr. Medlicott in discussing the possibilities of the Indo-Gan- getic alluvium. It is to the fact of their being situated too far in the midst of the alluvial formation or too near its southern limit, that he attributed the unsatisfactory results of the experiments undertaken in Calcutta in 1836 and at Bhiwani in 1877. One ofthe conse- quences of the Umballa boring carried out from 1869 to 1872 was to draw attention to the enormous thickness of the Gangetic alluvium. In order to account for the facts, it became necessary to admit that the floor upon which the Gangetic alluvium was laid down must have been subsiding simultaneously with the deposition of the strata. The depression was probably formed at the same time as the upheaval of the Himaláyas, both phenomena being the outcome of the same set of causes. It may be necessary, therefore, to bore through an enor- mous thickness of clay-beds similar to those met with in the Umballa boring before striking any permeable sands in communication with the coarse gravels of the “bhábar” zone. The Umballa boring was not continued beyond a depth of 701 feet, and, as an experiment therefore, it was not complete. The Lucknow boring performed in the years 1888 to 1890 has further confirmed the fact of the enormous thick. hs ieee ten ee ср thE alluvium, but it has also established the correctness of Mr. Medlicott's view as to the existence of deep- seated artesian water, for, between the depths of 1,189 and 1,202 feet, (20%) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 31 a sheet of excellent water was tapped under sufficient pressure to cause it to overflow at the surface. The flow was not abundant, but it is possible that sands bearing a more abundant supply exist lower down, Unfortunately the boring could not be carried deeper than 1,336 feet. It was executed by Mr. Trowbridge, an engineer highly experienced in these matters, who was specially selected for this work by Messrs. Pierce and Co. of. New York, one of the leading American firms that have made deep boring a speciality. It had not been anticipated that the boring would have had to be put down to sucha depth entirely through unconsolidated alluvial formations. The bore-hole had to be lined throughout its entire depth, and as each size of pipe can be sunk only through a limited depth, the lining had been reduced to 3 inches diameter when it reached a depth of 1,264 feet, the greatest depth to which it was found possible to sink the pipe, although the boring had been commenced with a 12-inch pipe. The following statement contains particulars relative to the lining :— Size of pipe. Length. Depth driven, Total depth. I. 12 inches. 408 feet. 498 feet. 408 feet, 2. 10 5 798 5, 390 » 798 ,, Gh. Ho pm 315 » 100 5, 898 ,, Liss Oe y 1100 202 ,, 1,1000, SAR 298 ., 80/25; 1,189 › E SH 246 „ 77 » 1,254 y Boring continued to 1,336 feet, The following information was given by Mr. Trowbridge in his report to the Municipal Board of Lucknow: “From the surface down to about 400 feet, the whole soil appeared to be saturated with water, its natural level being about the same as surface water. From 400 to about 750 feet there was no appearance of water, but at that point, a bed of water-bearing sand was struck, and the water raised to within 13 feet ofthe surface, which is about 32 feet higher than the Gumti river when at its lowest stage. From 750 feet to 1,220 feet, occasional beds of water-bearing sand were found, which in (32,2) 32 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. every instance developed a pressure sufficient to raise the water very nearly, or quite to surface, but evidently of not much volume." “The last bed of sand found, however, extended from about 1,160 to 1,220 feet, about 13 feet of which—from 1,189 to 1,202—was a live quicksand, and contained water of sufficient pressure and volume to produce a flow over the top of the pipe at 6 feet below the surface, 26 feet above the river, amounting to about 10 gallons a minute —14,400 a day— which proved on analysis to be perfectly pure water. The quantity was not sufficient to be of practical value, and the bor- ing was continued in search of a more abundant supply, and in order to sink the well deeper it was necessary to drive the pipe down, and that cut off and effectually stopped the flow already obtained.” The boring had been undertaken in view of providing a water- supply to the town of Lucknow. On account of the considerable interest arising from its partial success, it was intended to make an- other trial beginning with a much larger diameter (a 24-inch pipe) by means of which it was hoped that a depth of 2,000 feet would be reached. But it was calculated that even ifthe experiment were entirely successful, and a copious supply discovered, it would be necessary to borea number of such wells, perhaps as many as ten, so as to supply the town with sufficient water, and on account of the great expense incurred in boring to such considerable depths, the scheme would have been far more expensive than that of furnishing the town with water from the Gumti river, even with all the addi- tional expense of the plant required for raising the supply, filtering it, etc. Hence the experiment was abandoned. The record of the Lucknow boring has been published by Mr. Oldham in the publications of the Geological Survey,! and is appended below. 1 “The deep boring at Lucknow." Ree. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XXIII, pp. 261-266. (73277) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 33 Record of the Lucknow Artesian Well. DESCRIPTION OF SOIL. Colour. Bis С ЖО stratum, Made earth, Old Fort embankment А » | Brown : . 24 24 Sandy clay . О О о > э Yellowish brown . 17) 414 Kankar, mixed with clay m . . ‚ | Bluish grey . E 6i 48 Sand and clay, alternate thin layers ú e | Brown " à 2 50 Quicksand, micaceous . . . . Grey à o 14 64 Sandy clay . . . . . ° e | Brown o . 2 66 Clay, with a little fine sand . . a Yellow o 19 85 Sand, with very little clay . b . Grey . б o 5 90 Quicksand, fine . T . s 5 Yellow 14 104 Glay е c . . o 5 Whitish c : 5 109 Clay, with scattering kankar nodules . Bluish brown c 7 116 Kankar ó o . ó . . „| Bluish grey . ` 6} 116$ Sandy clay . o . d . . Yellow А : 13 118 Kankar and clay, mixed . . . + | Bluish grey . 1 119 Sandy clay . . 2 5 B о .| Yellowish . 2 121 Sand, clean T . ö E b e | Grey > d * 3 124 Sandy clay . 5 5 5 o o ‚| Brown 3 24 148 Quicksand . . c 2 2 o Grey + ` 4 152 Silt, fine g с è T К D Yellowish brown . 6 158 Quicksand, fine . o o water 61 ft. | Yellowish brown , 5 163 Sand, with a little clay . . | Yellow À 6 169 Clay and silt mixed . . . Yellow б б 9 178 Clay carrying abundance of nodules . ‚ | Yellowish (light) . 8 186 Sandy clay . . . 5 . c . | Yellow 4 190 Quicksand, very fine . . „water 42 ft. | Yellowish (light) . 6 196 33 ) 34 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA- Record of the Lucknow Artesian Well—contd. DESCRIPTION OF SOIL. Colour. ee о stratum. Spine Quicksand, coarse С e . . e| Grey . B . 13 209 Clay . Goo SONUS о ESSI - : 6 215 SHE GG Wa, Brown. 4 219 Sand clay, hard. 5 e - Я . | Brown . . 7 226 Clay and sand, mixed . . ° Я » | Yellow e ° 7 233 Sand, freeand hard a . . . .| Grey . E . 4 237 Sand, with a little clay, soft . < . « | Brown . т 1 238 Sand, free and hard . ò = E . | Grey . . . I 239 Sand, soft . 3 . б e ° + | Grey . A a 2 241 Sand, free and medium hard . . . + | Grey . E о 2 242 Sand, quite hard . . 6 o a e | Grey . ^ 5 2 244 Sand, coarse and nearly as hard as rock. + | Grey : . . 2 246 Sand, medium hard . . . . «| Grey + . . то 256 Sand, fine . с А > . . e | Brown . . 6 262 Sand, medium hard > : А . .| Grey > b c ` 5 267 Sand, soft . : А А . - . | Brown O " 4 271 Clay and silt, fine . . А . . « | Light yellow ^ 4 275 Sand, coarse and very hard , o ó D | Grey . A T 2 277 Sand, do. medium hard 5 - - | Grey , 5 с 2 279 Sand, соагѕе and hard . > . . «| Grey”. . : 2 281 Sand, coarse, alternate hard and soft layers + | Grey © . å 9 290 Sand, carrying abundance of nodules, hard . | Grey . . b 21 311 Sand and silt, fine 6 5 . : . | Light yellow 8 319 Sand, medium hard G A 4 E .| Grey + . 3 322 Sand, very hard, coarse : . < «| Grey . = o 9 331 ——————— (13473) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 35 Record of the Lucknow Artesian Well—contd. DESCRIPTION. OF SOIL. Colour. Da ay stratum. Clay and silt, fine А . Yellow 7 338 Sand, coarse о . c o . Grey . o 3 341 Sand, coarse & . D water 24 ft. | Yellow 5 17 358 Sand, hard . . . А . . e | Grey . А B 2 360 Sand with a little clay, fine . ‚| Yellow . . 5 365 Sand, hard . E . . . e Grey . 4 369 Silt, fine е . : > ‚ | Brown ‚ 4 873 Silt, fine, with occasional nodules . . Brown . . 6 379 Sand, fine and hard E . Grey . 2 381 Sand, fine and medium hard . e .| Grey . 2 383 Silt, fine © с о . e e| Grey . ô o 21 404 Silt with abundance of nodules E Grey . c 4 408 Sandy silt, fine . Й . B = *| Yellow 2 410 Clayey silt, fine . . E . > Reddish brown œ 20 430 Clayey silt, fine . E E E e | Yellow o 32 462 Sand, coarse and hard , оао . Grey 1 463 Sand, with a little clay, rather coarse . | Grey o 6 д 7 470 Sand, fine and very hard . Grey . » . 2 472 Sand, fine and medium hard . . с | Brown 5 8 480 Sand, coarse and medium hard . 2 Brown E . 9 489 Silt, fine 5 > . - c e ‚ | Brown c à 2 498 Sand, hard . » , e . е e | Grey 2 493 Sand, with a little clay : . . e | Grey « E 9 502 Sand, very hard (like rock) . ° »| Grey . А І 503 Sand, with occasional very hard thin layers Grey » . 7 510 (15352) 36 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Record of the Lucknow Artesian Well—contd. DESCRIPTION OF SOIL. Colour. Sand, free and medium hard . 5 Sand, fine and soft 6 > 5 Sand, medium hard, free А . Sandy silt, fine а A O S Sand, fine and hard, with a little clay Sand, fine and hard, free o a Sand, medium hard, free 5 - Clayey silt, very fine . > - Sand, medium hard, free . Silt, fine and soft . - : 5 Sand, fine and hard . à 5 Sand, very hard, like rock o Sand, hard and free о o k Sand, medium hard, free . г Sand, very hard, like rock . : Sand, medium hard, free о : Sand, micaceous, with kankar nodules + Sand, fine and medium hard, free . + Sand, coarse, with hard layers . . Sand, coarse and very hard, like rock . Sand, extremely hard and fine, like rock Sand, fine, with abundance of kankar C Sand, fine, with very many hard kankar nodules + 5 А . А . . . Sand, rather coarse, medium hard, with some kankar а c . : A . Grey . Grey . Grey . Yellow Grey . Grey + Yellow Light yellow Grey . Yellow Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Yellow Yellow Grey . Grey + Yellow Brown Brown Brown D Thick- ness of stratum. Io 10 25 Total depth. 516 519 522 536 548 584 593 605 609 622 624 626 640 644 645 663 671 675 683 685 690 700 710 DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 37 Record of the Lucknow Artesian Well—contd. DESCRIPTION OF SOIL. Sandy silt . . . E . : Sand, medium hard, free . water 13 ft. Kankar, hard а . 2 . > . Sand, with layers of kankar nodules 5 . Sandy silt, with abundance of mica . 3 Sand, with occasional kankar nodules water 9 ft. Quicksand, with abundance of mica Ё б Kankar, hard, withalittlesand — . * 0 Sand, softish and free . 5 o 5 Sand, with abundance of nodules . . Silt, very tenaceous . . s à Kankar, very hard o c " A Sand, softish, carrying some mica ‘ o Clayey silt, very tenaceous + . . o Kankar, hard, with thin streaks of sand à Sand, hard and free : D а А 3 Sand, medium hard . 2 : b . Kankar, hard, with a little sand , E . Sand, medium hard, with streaks of silt Kankar, hard, with a little sand . 5 o Sand, fine, medium hard, witha little silt and some nodules . 5 D o . Kankar, solid bed, hard as rock 4 ö Sandy silt, very fine . . o . Limestone, medium hard С Sand and limestone, alternate thin layers Thick- Total en Brown E 15 750 Yellow o 17 767 Bluish grey I 768 Yellow 5 10 778 Grey ; 5 5 783 Yellow . 9 792 Grey . 3 6 798 Light grey . 6 804 Grey 2 806 Brown А 8 814 Brown a 8 822 Bluish grey . 1 823 Yellow. 32 855 Yellow З 7 862 Bluish grey , 3 865 Yellow ‘ 5 870 Yellow, 7 877 Bluish grey . 3 880 Yellow . 14 894 Bluish grey 6 900 Yellow ° 27 927 Bluish grey . 2 929 Brown : 7 936 Grey . ‘ 5 941 Grey . 6 947 (23720 38 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, Record 0f the Lucknow Artesian Well --concld. DESCRIPTION OF SOIL. Sandy silt, very fine А . . . - Sand, coarse E . . water 2 ft. Sand, coarse, abundance of kankar, some mica. Quicksand, coarse . о water 5 ft. Sand, coarse, abundance of kankar nodules . Sand, coarse and free . . water 5 ft. Kankar, solid bed, very hard . . . Limestone, soft, commonly called rotten limestone . . = c . Rotten limestone, frequent hard streaks, some nodules . . . . Limey silt, 7.e., limey clay with a little fine sand . . . . . А . | Yellowish brown . Kankar, solid bed very hard . . . . | Bluish grey Limey siit, with occasional hard nodules . | Yellow Limestone, medium hard ^ А А „| Grey . . Limey silt, alternate hard and soft thin layers . | Yellow . Kankar, solid bed, very hard . Limey silt, hard and soft layers some nodules, | water 15 ft. : 5 . 5 Limey silt with occasional hard streaks , Quicksand, coarse, with abundance of mica Sand, coarse, medium hard, with nodules Quicksand, coarse, with abundance of mica— water flowed 10 gals. per minute at surface. Sand, coarse, in hard and soft layers Sand, fine, rather hard, with streaks of silt Clayey silt, very fine, compact and uniform Colour. Yellow . Grey . 0 Grey . . Grey . e Grey . . Grey Bluish grey | Grey + . Grey . : Bluish grey . Greyish brown Yellow . | Yellow . Grey + . | Grey . E | Grey . . Brown e | Greyish brown Thick- ness of stratum. 13 15 15 27 23 » 2 27 24 * Sic, in original, DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 30 The Agra boring performed during the years 1884 to 1886 TR Ue although it failed entirely to prove the existence of any artesian supply of drinkable water, is most interesting from a geological point of view, for it is the only one amongst the borings accomplished in the Indo-Gangetic alluvium that has been carried down to the underlying rock. After traversing 513 feet of alluvial strata, the boring penetrated 132 feet further into the Vindhyan formation, making the total depth 645 feet. Before the commencement of the work Mr. Medlicott was consulted as tothe chances of success. Не had already advocated Lucknow asa promising locality, but with respect to Agra, he was careful to state that although the existence of artesian water was possible, yet the proximity of the southern boundary of the alluvium ren- dered success very doubtful: the supply of water from the southern edge cannot be great, and the possible supply from the Himaláyan border cannot very well be relied upon on account of its great distance. Like the other borings through the Ganges alluvium, the Azra well illustrates the great thickness of that formation. The fact that the alluvial formation extends up to a depth of 513 feet so near to the southern border, shows how rapidly the floor of underlying rock must shelve beneath the accumulation of fluviatile deposits. The bottom of the alluvium at Agra is only 5 feet above sea-level. The boring was commenced on the sth of June 1884, and it struck the bottom of the alluvium in May 1885. There remained very little chance of finding a supply of water when once the floor of older rock had been struck, and on the 7th June 1885 the boring was discontinued, agreeably to Mr, Medlicott’s recommendation. It was subsequently decided by the Municipality, with the authori- zation of the Collector and Commissioner, to continue the experi- ment, and work was resumed on the 21st August of the same year, and the boring continued through rock up to the depth of 645/ 1” which was reached in July 1886. It was then considered useless to ( 39 ) 40 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS iN INDIA, continue the experiment and the work of withdrawing the pipes was commenced. Five different sizes of tubes were used as shown in the following statement :— Size of pipe. Length. Inches, Feet. 1. 9 30 2 7% 190 3. 64 367 4 51 470 5. 41 490 Unlined boring, 3" diameter. 'The upper end of the 41" pipe was 30 feet below ground level. As its length was 490 feet, it was sunk to a total depth of 520 feet and was lowered 7' 4" in the rocky strata, leaving an unlined boring of 125 feet. While the work of withdrawing the tubes was proceeding, it was noticed that water had risen in the artesian well up to within 36 feet of the mouth of the well, and stood some 12 feet higher than the level of the sub-soil water in the neighbouring wells, Unfor- tunately it was not observed at whattime this rise took place, whether it was when the pipes were withdrawn to the level of some of the sandy layers in the alluvium, or whether the water had been slowly percolating from the Vindhyans. In order to find out how much water was available, the tubes were again sunk at the cost of considerable difficulty, and the bore-hole cleared out, with the object of enabling pumping experiments to be carried out. The work of lowering the tubes was commenced on the rst of January 1887, and the bore was finally cleared out on the 16th March. Pumping was commenced on the 18th March, at which date “the water was 35 feet 10 inches below the top of the masonry steining. After four (some) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 4% hours’ continuous pumping it was 84 feet below the top of the well, which gives a fall of 49 feet, and within an hour it rose 51 feet 6 inches, actually 21 feet higher than it originally was when pumping was first started... Ihe fall after pumping after the first few days.........appears to have been much less. Pumping was discon- tinued on the 2nd April, and on the 6th May it was found that the water was 32 feet from the top of the steining, and 16% feet higher than the water in the well on the opposite side of the road." (Report of the Executive Engineer, dated 15th July 1887.) Atthe time of these experiments, the bottom of the 44” tube was inserted into the Vindhyan rock to a distance of about four feet. The circumstance ofthe rise of water was brought to the notice of Mr. Medlicott, who was of opinion, however, that the water did not proceed from the Vindhyans: he considered that the pipes were not water-tight, and that the water probably issued from some of the arenaceous strata inthe alluvium, perhaps one of those marked 3o or 32 in the list given below, The matter was also referred, at a subsequent date, to Mr. Foote, who concurred in Mr. Medlicott’s opinion, Yet, as matters then stood, it was not possible to obtain absolute certainty, which is unfortunate, because this is the only boring in India that has penetrated to any depth through the Vindhyans, and it would be very interesting to obtain some accurate information as to the water-bearing capacity of these rocks, whose stratigraphical structure is in many localities eminently suited to artesian conditions. The water was so highly charged with salts of magnesia that it was quite unfit for drinking purposes, that in the neighbouring wells being on the contrary quite sweet. Asit was found deficient both in quality and in quantity, the experiment was discontinued and the pipes were withdrawn. The following is the list of strata passed through in the Agra boring. 42 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Record of the Agra boring. Number | Thickness Depth of of below DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. stratum. | stratum. | ground-level. Ft. in. Et. in. 1 16 о 16 о | Loam. 2 Io O 26 0 |Loamy sand with small kankar. 3 10 O 36 о |Loamy sand. 4 8 o 44 O | Fine sand, 5 19 о 63 о | Loamy clay. 6 27 О 90 о | Loamy sand. 7 20 0 110 О | Kankar and sandy clay. 8 29 0 139 о | White sand and sandstone full of brackish water. 9 Eno) 144 O | Small white sandstone and kankar. 10 220 166 o | Loamy clay. 11 58 о 224 о |Clay. 12 56 о 280 о | Loamy clay. 13 14 O 294 0 | Kankar and clay. 14 2 6 296 6 | Kankar. 15 12:6 298 о | Loamy clay. 16 36 301 6 |Clay. 17 1110 302 6 |Kankar. 18 8 6 311 O | Clay. 19 I о 312 о | Kankar. 20 ney ا‎ 327 о | Clay. 21 II O 338 o | Loamy sand. 22 7230 345 0 | Red sand and kankar with a little water. | (42) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. Record of the Agra boring—contd. 43 Number | Thickness Depth below ground-level. of of stratum. | stratum. | Ft. in. 23 | SO 24 | 1 6 25 18 6 26 10 O 27 4 o 28 2 0 29 44 0 30 39 31 23250 32 AJO 33 10 6 34 оо 35 IO 36 120 37 I 38 INO 39 2 0 40 4 o 41 II O 42 6 o 43 7 6 Ft. 525 in. а о5о DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. Loam. Kankar. Kankar and clay. Loamy clay. Clay. Kankar. Clay. Fine sand full of water. Loamy clay. Fine sand full of water. Clay. Red sand with pebbles, dry. Pebbles and sand. Red sand and a little clay. Fine sand. Mixture of sand, clay and pebbles coloured, kankar and clay. Clay and kankar. Sand and clay. Red clay and sandstone, Sandstone. Clay and sandstone. ( 43 44 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA: Record of the Agra boring—concld. Number | Thickness Depth of of below DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. stratum. | stratum. | ground level. Ft. in. Ft. in. 44 26 9 551 9 | Sandstone. 45 DES 557 О | Sandstone, softer. 46 12 0 569 o | Red and white clay with red and white sand with thin layer of sandstone. 47 44 573 4 | Red and white clay with little sand. 48 SÉ 579 O |Sandstone. 49 4 о 583 о |Red clay and soft sandstone. 50 1590 598 9 | Sandstone. 51 2 2 600 11 | Red clay and soft sandstone. 52 44 2 645 1 | Sandstone with iron interspersed. The strata numbered 42 to 52 belong to the Vindhyan series. Another boring sunk in the Gangetic alluvium was the one undertaken in the year 1887 in that part of the delta known as the Book Сапа са Sunderbunds. The well was sunk in the hope the Sunderbunds. of getting a supply of fresh water for drinking purposes, as the water in the tidal creeks and rivers is almost all brackish. The site chosen was near the residence of the Agent of the Port Canning and Land Improvement Company, at Canning, about 200 yards from the Mutla river. The experiment is interest- ing as it shows the possibility of obtaining fresh water from the strata that underlie the brackish water-bearing soil at the surface: a supply of perfectly fresh water was struck at the depth of 173 feet (Кл) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 45 from the surface. The following list of strata is given in the “ Indian Engineering” of August 13th, 1887 :— Record of a boring at Canning in the Sunderbunds. Number | Thickness of of stratum, | stratum. Feet, 1 6 2 4 3 14 4 IO 5 21 6 71 4 8 5 9 3 IO 2 II 5 12 13 i4 10 I5 7 16 87 Depth below ground-level. Feet. 6 10 24 34 55 126 130 135 138 140 145 150 156 166 173 260 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. Black earth. Light grey clay. Dark grey clay. Light grey clay. Black clay, sandy. Grey sand full of salt water. (This is supposed to be the same stratum of sand found at Diamond Harbour under 28 feet when sinking a well in 1882 in connection with the proposed Docks.) Dark grey clay. Green clay with streaks of salt, Mottled clay, yellow and blue, mixed with broken shingle. Blue clay.! Yellow clay mixed with broken shingle. This clay is not salt. Yellow clay with bands of blue and ochre. Light grey clay, very stiff, mottled with yellow. Yellow clay, very loamy. Yellow earth. Yellow micaceous sand ; contains perfectly fresh water which rises to within 8 feet of the surface. 1 There is a slight discrepancy between the description given in the text of the “Indian Engineering ” and the indications of a section appended to it: the strata 10 and 12 are mutually transposed in the section, С 457) 46 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. An experimental boring has also been put down at Chander- кеси де ш nagore, The boring reached a depth of 242 feet without finding water. The results have been published by Mr. Oldham in the Records of the Geological Survey * and are reprinted below. On the subject of this section Mr. Oldham has written the following remarks :— “The section requires but little comment. The bed No. 13 is evidently the equivalent of the peat bed found near Calcutta at depths of from 30 to 35 feet; No. 32 is peculiar as containing numerous sub-angular fragments of felspar which must have been derived from some exposure of gneiss or granite in the neighbour- hood, which has since been covered up by alluvium owing to the subsidence which has taken place in the Gangetic delta; the speci- men also contains a fragment of bone, apparently of a turtle, con- verted into oxide of iron." Tableau indiquant le nombre et la nature des couches rencontrées pendant le forage du putts artesien de Chandernagor. Thickness| Depth. Thickness. Depth. Metres. Feet. No. 1. Terre végétale . А . 0'80 2:62 » 2. Sable fin micacé d'un blanc sale mélé de coquilles et de nodules calcaires . А А . 135 215 4°42 705 » 3. Sable fin micacé d'un blanc jau- nâtre mêlé légèrement de nodules calcaires . ° 0'45 2:60 1'47 8:52 » 4. Sable fin micacé d'un jaune rougeätre . А . . 0'25 2:85 '82 9°34 » 5. Sable fin micacé d'un blanc jaunátre Е 5 5 E 0'30 Cp ‘98 10'32 “On a deep Boring at Chandernagore”. Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XXVI, pp. 100-102, ( 46 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 47 Tableau indiquant le nombre et la nature des couches rencontrées pendant le forage du puits artesien de Chandernagor—contd. Thickness. Depth, | Thickness| Depth. Metres. Feet. No. 6. Sable fin micacé d'un gris cendré o'60 375 1'97 -12'29 » 7. Argile sableuse d'un gris foncé + 0'35 410 UIS 13°44 » 8, Argile grisätre mêlée de débris de coquilles et de nodules cal- caires . 6 z : : 0'65 475 2'14 15'58 » 9. Argile d'un noir grisâtre . o 2°50 725 &21 2379 » 10. Sable fin micacé grisátre + 1'40 8'65 4'59 28°38 » 11. Argile noire plastique mélée légérement de concretions ferru- gineuses б д > o 0'54 9'19 1'77 30°15 » 12. Argile noire stratifiée mêlée légérement de bois pourris . 0:65 9'84 2°13 32:28 » 13. Tourbe . > . . . 2:36 12:20 775 40:03 „ 14. Argile gris-noir mêlée de toutes petites concrétions ferrugi- neuses . o - . B 1:66 13°86 544 4547 » 15. Argile grise mélée de petites concrétions calcaires . . 100 14:86 3'28 4975 » 16. Argile colorée en jaune et noir E mélée de concrétions calcaires . 1'90 16:76 6:23 54:98 » 17. Argile micacée colorée légére- ment en jaune par du carbonate defer . » o . : 210 18:86 6°90 61:88 » 18. Argile d'un jaune pale mélée de nodules calcaires et souillée légérement de carbonate de fer . 2:29 2115 751 69:39 „ 19. Argile bleuätre tachée en jaune par du carbonate de fer . > 0'40 21'55 131 7070 „ 20. Argile jaunätre mêlée de concré- tions calcaires 2 o C 2:25 23:80 7:38 78:08 „ 21. Argile bleuátre colorée en rouge et en jaune par du péroxyde de fer et de carbonate de fer б 0'95 24'75 3:12 81:20 — (КОЛЛ) 48 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, Tableau indequant le nombre et la nature des couches rencontrées pendant le forage du puits artesien de Chandernagor—concld. Thickness.| Depth. | Thickness| Depth. Metres. Feet. No, 22, Argile colorée en jaune par du carbonate defer „ 5 . 8:38 33°13 27°50 108'70 „ 23. Argile sableuse mélée de graviers 0'55 33'68 1'80 11050 » 24. Argile d'un gris pale colorée en jaune par du carbonate de fer et mélée de nodules ferrugi- neuses . с . . . 4:60 38'28 15'10 125'60 „ 25. Argile d'un jaune sale micacée stratifiée colorée en jaune par А du carbonate de fer t б 1'15 39'43 377 12937 » 26. Argile d'un blanc sale micacée . I'55 40°98 5'09 13446 „ 27. Argile sableuse micacée souillée d'oxyde de fer с . . 0'55 41'53 1:80 13626 » 28. Argile colorée en jaune par du carbonate de fer . . . 1'03 42'56 3:37 139'63 „ 29. Ocre jaune e E & C 3'40 45:96 11'16 150'79 „ 30. Sable argileux micacé mêlé de nodules ferrugineuses . . 0'90 46:86 2°05 153 74 » 31. Sable argileux micacé souillé d'oxyde de fer e . . 1°35 4821 4°44 158'18 „ 32. Sable moyen et fin micacé mêlé de pétrification cailloux angu- leux nodules ferrugineuses . 24'30 72°51 7981 237'99 » 33. Sable fin micacé grisátre . . U46 | 7397 “79 242`78 „ 34. Sable moyen micacé d'un blanc grisátre . . . > . ? Thus it appears that none of the borings in the Indo-Gangetic allavium can be called exactly successful, but the experiments have Chances of success in the been so few and so incomplete that it would be кепеси. premature to predict that a similar fate must attend all future trials. So much can be made out, that the pros- (43$) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 49 pects appear very poor alongthe southern border of the basin. Nearer to the northern border the existence of artesian conditions has been definitely proved by the Lucknow boring, but the water- bearing strata lie probably everywhere at a considerable depth, and data are wanting to form any idea as to the flow that might be ex- pected. (3) Other alluvial areas. If, from the Indo-Gangetic alluvium, we pass to the smaller allu- vial plains in other parts of India, we find that there is very little to be recorded since Mr. Medlicott’s general review of the subject. The expectations raised by the success that attended the sinking of artesian wells at Pondicherry have not been fulfilled in the experi- ments tried in the other alluvial plains, apparently similarly situated along the east coast of the Peninsula. At Pondicherry itself, a great many wells have been sunk in addition to the four wells described in Mr. Medlicott’s Report, and some of these have been very success- ful, but at Cuddalore, in the southern continuation of the very same alluvial plain, the trial resulted in failure. A number of experiments have been conducted at Madras and in Boring experiments at the neighbourhood of that town, but without мазах much success, At Madras itself, the borings showed that the gneiss occurs at a much smaller depth than was expected, and all hopes of finding an artesian supply had to be abandoned. Already in the year 1832, a boring sunk at the old Custom House had struck the gneiss at the depth of 55 feet.! As it was not certain whether this might not have been only a stray boul- der, another boring was undertaken in 1885 in the People’s Park, but it struck the gneiss at almost exactly the same depth, 1 Journ. Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. VIII, p. 248. 2 A complete collection has not been made of the boring records in the Madras Presidency so as not to defer the publication of the present report, but a number of the more important experiments have been described from information available in the Geological Survey Office. ( 49) 50 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. The fgllowing extracts are from a report of the Public Works Department, dated 28th July 1885: “'......... Government accepted an offer from M. Cornet, a French Engineer, to make the experiment of sinking an artesian well at Madras. The maximum depth named for the experiment was 120 metres, or 393 feet; and it was expected that, if the result proved favourable, three months would suffice to complete the work. The approximate estimate of the cost of the well was put down at R15,475. “The People's Park having been suggested by Dr. King, of the Geological Survey of India, as a locality likely to prove favourable for such an experiment, a site was selected therein, and work was commenced on the 24th March 1885. For a depth of 58 feet the boring was through soil consisting of clay, marl, sand, еіс,, below which a granitic formation was met with, into which the boring proceeded slowly, the rock being of excessive hardness, “In order to ascertain whether the rock which had been encoun- tered was a detached boulder, or an extensive underlying bed, a trial boring of small diameter was made at a distance of some 50 yards south of the first site. In this second boring, granite of precisely similar character was reached at the same depth, a result which went to show that the bed was continuous. M. Cornet then pro- ceeded to examine three artesian borings which had been attempted in the vicinity of Madras by private enterprise. From samples of the strata through which these borings had passed, M. Cornet arrived at the conclusion that, from Fort St. George to a distance of six or seven miles north, and a mile or two inland, the underlying strata are everywhere identical and consequently unlikely to yield an artesian supply of water." The chances appear to be more promising in the alluvial plain Borings in the Kortalayar Of the Kortalayar river, situated further north, A The alluvium occupying this plain has been deposited partly by the Kortalayar ; but formerly a larger river also contributed to its formation, the Pálár, which now flows in a different so ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 51 direction. A boring was put down by private enterprise through these strata in the year 1883, near Ennur, A water-bearing stratum was struck at a depth of 65 metres (213 feet). There does not ap- pear to exist any detailed record of the boring: it reached a depth of 214 feet in September 1884, but by that time it had proceeded beyond the alluvium and had penetrated the underlying tertiary and jurassic beds, In June 1886, a boring was commenced at Government expense at Karani in the Kortalayar valley. The result E was disappointing as only two sheets of water were met with at depths of ten and forty feet, neither of which were very abundant. The boring was continued to a depth of 442 feet without striking any other supply. The list of strata encountered is given below. According to Mr. Foote it is doubtful whether all these strata belong to the recent alluvial deposits of the Kortalayar and Pälär. Just as in the experiment at Ennur, it is possible that the lower part of the boring has been sunk through rocks older than the alluvial, in the present case the “ Cuddalore sandstone ” of ter- tiary (or pleistocene) age, Section of the Karani boring. Number | Thickness Depth of of below DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, stratum. | stratum, /ground-level. Feet. Feet. 1 4 so 4'50 | Sandy vegetable mould, yellowish, then black clay with a small portion of sand. 2 2:50 700 | Fine yellowish sand with a few pieces of kankar. 3 4'00 ıroo | Greyish sand with a little clay and pieces of kankar. Water sheet at 10 feet. 4 2:00 13'00 | Fine yellowish sand with some kankar. LE (Sr 53 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Section of the Karani boring—contd. Number of stratum. 10 11 12 Thickness of stratum. Feet. 12°00 6:00 6°00 4'00 2:50 612 Depth below ground-level. Feet. 25°00 31:00 37°00 41'00 43 50 49°62 51°65 5340 58:65 7065 82:65 83°40 86°40 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. Sandy clay yellowish brown mixed with some blue clay nodules and pieces of kankar; clay passing to whitish yellow mixed with sand. Yellow and white clay with kankar in small quantity. Yellow-brown clay with more kankar, passing to conglomerate with patches of green and white clay, and fragments of laterite transported by water. Very hard yellow clay, whitish when dry; at 38 feet, pieces of white coral passing to reddish- brown, Yellowish coarse sand mixed with clay. Coarse river sand mixed with clay. The strata 9 and то contain water under pressure which rose to within 3° 3” of the ground-level in Nov- ember 1886, In March 1887, the surface of the water was 6’ 9” below ground-level. Fine sand mixed with yellow clay. White clay with portions of yellow clay like late- rite. Very hard sandy yellow clay with water-worn fragments of gneiss, Similar stratum containing fine sand mixed with clay, coarse river sand, and a few pebbles, Very stiff yellow clay mixed with red and grey clay in patches and layers, containing water- worn fragments of laterite. Becomes arena- ceous at 8o ft. Bed of limestone. Yellow clay mixed with some white clay and layers of grit. DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 53 Section of the Karani boring—contd, Number of stratum. 18 I9 20 2I 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 33 Thickness of stratum. Feet. 175 5°50 700 3°00 300 5:18 1'28 4577 2:30 18:92 10:86 1'00 904 6:00 1'00 2'50 Depth below ground-level. Feet. 8815 93°65 100'65 103'65 106:65 111°83 11311 158:88 16118 180110 190:96 191'96 201'00 207'00 208'00 210'50 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, Some yellow clay, mixed with red clay. Clay resembling laterite, containing pebbles and sand derived from the primary rocks, Hard yellow clay mixed with sand and fragments of gneiss; then hard greyish clay mixed with yellowish clay, At 99 feet, more grey clay passing to blue clay. Grey clay traversed by blue clay. Blue clay mixed with some yellow clay. Stiff yellow clay. Stiff yellow clay traversed by blue clay. Very hard indurated blue clay with a few layers of grit. Greyish limestone, the lower part of which is very hard. Blue clay and layers of grit. The lower part of the stratum contains iron-pyrites. Fine blackish grey sand with iron pyrites, mixed with very hard indurated blue clay, containing sometimes layers of grit and limestone. Very hard greyish limestone. Fine blackish grey sand with iron pyrites, mixed with very hard indurated blue clay, containing sometimes layers of grit and lime- stone, Fine blackish blue stiff clay; lower part grey- ish, Very hard grey limestone. Fine indurated greyish clay, with a little sand. (15553103) 54 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, Section of the Karani boring—contd. Depth below ground.level. DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. > Number | Thickness of of stratum. stratum. Feet, 34 6:00 35 625 36 7°00 37, 1300 38 700 39 4°00 40 4°00 41 5425 42 5'00 43 0'75 44 2'25 45 1'00 46 27'00 47 1'00 48 2'00 4 | 400 so | 1200 51 | 2:00 52 0'50 53 075 317 00 317775 420'00 321*00 34800 Very hard black clay; lower part containing layers of grit, Very hard grey limestone. Grey sand with indurated clay. Indurated grey sand mixed with clay, pieces of shell and decayed leaves, and nodules ‘of car- bonate of lime. Indurated grey sand containing clay and frag- ments of shells. Indurated grey sand mixed with clay. Indurated grey sandy clay passing into conglo- merate containing fragments of kankar, Coarse sand with greyish clay, Black clay. Grey limestone. Black clay. Grey limestone. Black clay. Grey limestone. Grey sand mixed with clay. Black clay. Hard grey clay. Grey limestone. Layers of grit. Grey sandy clay. DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 55 Section of the Karani boring—concld. Number Thickness Depth of of below DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, stratum. | stratum. | ground-level. Feet. Feet. 54 3775 40800 | Black clay; upper part contains fragments of decayed wood and broken shells. 55 4'00 412'00 |Grey sand mixed with clay. 56 4'00 41600 |Indurated black clay. 57 2'00 41800 | Grey sand mixed with a little clay. 58 | 1'00 419'00 |Indurated black clay. 50 | 1'00 | 42000 | Grey sand with clay. 60 21'00 | 441'00 | Grey clay with sand. 61 | 1'00 | 44200 | Limestone. The altitude of the ground at the mouth of the well is 71 feet above sea-level. A successful experiment has been made lately at Coconada, on the sea-coast in the northern part of the delta of the Godavári. But here, in all probability, the greatest part of the boring is not through alluvium, but through the “ Rajahmundry beds," a local facies of the Cuddalore sandstones. An abundant supply of water was struck at a depth of 295 feet, the water overflowing at a height of about one foot and a half above the surface of the ground. The “Rajahmundry beds ” consist of alternating layers of sandstone and clay. They outcrop over a considerable area to the north-west of Coconada, and as they dip under the alluvium at a low angle in a south-south-east direction towards the sea.coast, they ought to be very favourably situated with respect to artesian conditions. ( 55 ) Coconada boring. 36 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. The following list of the strata met with has been kindly comma- nicated by the Engineer-in-Chief of the East Coast Railway :— Section of Artesian Weil boring at Coconada Town. Number | Thickness | Total depth of of from top of stratum. | stratum. | spoil bank. Feet. In. | Feet. In. 1 10 0 I0 o 2 20 о зо o 3 80 o 110 O 4 зо о 140 0 5 10 0 150 О 6 70 о 220 0 10 O 230 о 8 48 o 275 о 9 INO 279 O 10 1 о 280 0 11 9 о 289 о 12 ХО 290 о 13 I 9 291 9 14 o 3 292 о 15 з о 295 о DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. Sand. Clay. Clay and a few pebbles, then clay and sand, Clay. Sand. Clay, then decomposed rock. Sand and soft sandstone. Clay. Decomposed rock and coarse sand. Disintegrated rock. Coarse sand. Sand conglomerate. Sand. Soft sandstone. Sand. = Tank spoil bank level about 3 feet above ground-level. Water level in pipe at a depth of 1^ €". Diameter of bore-hole, 8} in. Total depth of lining 290 feet. An experimental boring is being conducted at present in another part of the alluvial deposits of the Godävari at Ellore. But as it seems certain that it is at present in Gondwana rocks, it will be 15653 DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 57 mentioned again in connection with other experiments carried out in tocks of that class. A trial was also made in 1881-82 at Karikal, a town whose geographical and geological situation resembles that of Pondicherry. The undertaking did not meet with the same success as at Pondicherry although two artesian Karikal boring. sheets were struck, the first one at a depth of 346 feet, which rose to within 4 inches of the surface, and a second one at a depth of 347 feet, which overflowed. The hydrostatic head of the latter was 61 feet above the level of the ground, but its delivery was only 22 gallons a minute. A copy of the boring record communicated by the French Government Engineer is herewith appended. Like the Chandernagore boring record, it is printed in the original language with only the addition of the measurements in feet :— Coupe géologique du Puits Artesien de Karikel. Number Thickness | Depth from | Thickness | Depth from of of stratum | ground-level | of stratum | ground-level | DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, stratum.| in metres, | in metres. in feet. in feet, 1 2'00 2:00 6:56 65 Terrain naturel. Sable gris-noir terreux, 2 0°45 2°45 1'47 8'0 Sable gris-noir terreux avec mélange de sable | jaune-brun fin. 3 079 3'24 2°59 10°6 Sable gris-noir argileux. 4 104 4'28 3'41 140 Argile noire plastique avec oxyde de fer et mélée de sable blanc, gris et jaune- brun. 5 102 5°30 3°34 17:3 Argine jaune-brun mélée de sable. 6 1'40 6:70 4'59 21'9 Sable fin jaune-brun avec petits graviers, 7 0'75 745 2:46 244 Sable moyen jaunátre avec graviers et grés ferru- gineux. (1752/3) 58 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. Coupe géologique du Puits Artesien de Karikel—contd. Number| Thickness | Depth from | Thickness | Depth from of of stratum | ground-level| of stratum | ground level | DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. stratum.| in metres. | in metres. in feet. in feet. 8 105 8'50 344 278 Sable fin micacé jaune pale. 9 TIO 9'60 3:60 314 Argile grise avec mélange- de terre de soude, 10 315 12775 10°33 4r8 Argile brune mélée de | sable, її TIO 13'85 3°60 45'4 Argile sableuse rougeátre. 12 1'45 15°30 4°75 SO'I Sable argileux jaunätre avec grés ferrugineux. 13 0°36 15:66 118 51'3 Sable gros argileux jaune- | päle avec petits graviers. 14 0'30 15:96 0'98 52°3 Sable fin micacé fluide. 15 | 174 17:70 5'70 580 Argile brune sableuse. 16 315 20'85 10°33 68:4 | Sable jaune clair fin. 17 0'57 2142 1:87 70'2 Sable gros argileux gris- clair avec graviers et choukan. 18 0'53 21'095 173 72'0 Terre de sonde fluide. 19 0'85 22:80 78 747 Sable moyen gris avec terre de soude, mottes d'argile irisée et choukan. 20 2770 25'50 8:85 836 Argile brune sableuse irisée avec choukan. 21 4°45 29°95 14:60 98:2 Argile irisee mêlée de terre de soude. 22 0:30 30°75 2°62 100'8 Argile irisée mêlée de sable fin micacé, 23 o'65 | 31°40 213 103'0 Argile gris-noire avec agglomerats. 24 0'45 31`85 1°47 1044 Argile brune sableuse avec agglomérats. 25 o'3o | 32°15 0'98 105'4 Argile schisteuse irisée. DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 59 Coupe géologique du Puits Artésien de Karikel—contd, Number of stratum. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Thickness of stratum in feet. 2'25 1300 3'00 1'25 0:65 Depth from ground-level in metres. 3440 4740 49'60 50°40 52°50 53°30 56:45 56:68 5723 5758 59°25 “6225 63'350 Thickness of stratum in feet. 7:38 4265 721 2:62 6°88 2°62 10°33 0'75 1'80 114 547 984 410 2:12 Depth from ground-level in feet. 112°8 1555 162'7 1653 1722 1748 185'1 1859 1877 1888 1943 204'1 2083 210'4 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. Sable fin micacé jaune päle avec agglomérats. Sable fin jaune-brune avec grés ferrugineux, cailloux et graviers. Argile brune mélée de sable fin micacé, Sable moyen jaune päle avec petit graviers. Argile brune sableuse. Argile gris-noire marbrée avec agglomérats. Argile sableuse irisée avec agglomérats. Sable rougeätre argileux, avec cailloux, graviers, gres ferrugineux et débris de coquilles. Agglomération. Sable argileux jaune rou- geätre avec petits graviers et cailloux. Sable moyen sali d'argile jaunätre et mélé de petits graviers. Argile irisee compacte avec rognons d'agglo- mération. Argile irisée mélée de sable fin et avec agglo- mération. Argile compacte irisée avec rognons d’agglo- mérats. ———--+-—— (59) 60 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA Coupe géologique du Puits Artesien de Karikel—contd. Number | Thickness of stratum. 40 of stratum in metres. 0275 1:05 0°62 r35 Depth from | Thickness ground-level | of stratum in metres. in feet. 64:90 2°46 65°95 344 66°05 0'32 66'45 131 66°70 8:82 6720 1:64 67:75 1:80 68'15 1'31 69'20 3°44 69°30 0'32 70°00 2°29. 70°40 131 74:58 1371 75:20 2'03 7655 442 Depth from ground-level | DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. in feet. 212'9 Argile gris-cendrée irisée avec rognons d'agglo- mérats. 2163 Argile jaune-rougeätre irisée mêlée de sable et de graviers et souillée d'oxyde de fer. 2166 Agglomération. 2179 Sable fin jaune. påle avec graviers et débris de coquilles. 2188 Agglomération, 2204 Sable moyen rousseätre sali d'argile. 222'2 Argile sableuse irisfe avec graviers et agglomérats. 223'5 Argile sablonnense irisée. 227'0 Sable fin souillé d'ocre- jaune et mélé de débris de coquilles. 2273 Agglomération. 2296 Sable moyen jaunätre sali d’argile et mélé de gra- viers. 230'9 Agglomération, 2446 Sable moyen jaunätre souillé d'argile et mêlé de petits graviers, de débris de coquilles et de rog- nons d’agglomérats, 25r'I Sable fin jaunátre souillé d'argile. | 2767 Agglomération. | | DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 61 Coupe géologique du Puits Artesien de Karikel —concld. pu m QS E Number | Thickness of stratum. | 55 56 57 58 59 бо бї 62 63 | of stratum in feet. 115 675 | 0'80 0'45 367 0'20 0'63 150 Depth from ground-level in metres, 7770 8957 90'20 91°70 101'56 101:86 105'21 105'51 105'71 105'81 107'40 Thickness ‚of stratum in feet. 377 2:62 147 | 12'04 0'65 2'06 Depth from ground-level in feet. 2549 2770 279'6 2811 293°! 2938 295'9 300'8 3331 3341 345'2 3461 346'8 3471 352'3 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, Sable moyen jaunâtre argi- leux avec debris de coquilles et rognons d'agglomération. Argile noire plastique mêlée de coquilles et d'argile blanche. Sable argileux noirâtre avec petits graviers et cailloux et traces de coquilles. Agglomération pierreuse de couleur gris-Atre. Sable argileux moyen, de couleur gris-Atre avec melange de cailloux, de graviers et de coquilles. Agglomération. Argile gris-noire claire mêlée de graviers, cail- loux et débris de coquil- les. Argile gris-noire mêlée de sable fin, Argile grise mêlée de sable de graviers, cailloux, boispourris, et rognons d'agglomération, Agglomération. Sable gris-noir argileux avec cailloux, graviers et débris de coquilles, Agglomération, Sable gris fin pur. Agglomération. Sable gros gris pur avec graviers cailloux. ( 6: ) 62 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, A considerable portion of Burmah is occupied by alluvium, and a nn it is Bubble that there are places sese the conditions are favourable to artesian action, The * tube-wells " sunk in the alluvium of Rangoon appear to be partly artesian in their characters, although in none of them does the water overflow. They are situated close to the banks of the Rangoon river and the Poozoondoung creek, and as the water in the deep-seated water-bearing sands appears to flow very freely from the direction of the higher ground round the Shway Dagon pagoda hill towards the rivér banks, the pressure is not sufficient to cause any overflow in such a situation: the water does not rise to within less than 5 to 11 feet from the surface. Mr. Oldham, who has written an account! on the subject of these wells from which the present information is gathered, was of opinion that flowing wells might be obtained further inland, though the rise of the ground is so slight that no great increase of the pressure can be expected. As to any scheme of supplying the town with water from this source, Mr. Oldham pointed out that the yield of the wells is not very large (the wells then in existence gave amounts varying from 2,500 to 70,000 gallons a day), and that, owing to irregularities common in all alluvial formations, a certain number of the proposed wells are sure to be failures: hence *a large number of wells will therefore have to be sunk if the requisite supply of water is to be obtained, and it seems probable that, when the estimates are made out, it will be found that the cost will be nearly if not quite as great as for the construction of a storage reservoir, while the cost of maintenance and uncertainty of success will be much greater." Some of the wells go down to depths of as much as 320 feet. The strata encountered belonging to the “ newer alluvium " above, and the “ older alluvium ” below, as defined by Mr. Theobald in his survey of the geology of the district. The fact that below a 1 Note on the alluvial deposits and subterranean water-supply of Rangoom Rec. Geol- Surv. Ind., Vol. XXVI, pp. 64-70. ( 62 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 63 certain point on the banks of both the Rangoon river and the Poozoondoung creek, all the wells contain more or less brackish water shows that there is very free underground communication, and that “there is a continuous outflow from the outcrop of the gravels to the sea," the permeable sands not being perfectly en- closed by watertight strata. Mr. Oldham gives the following description ofthe method by which the wells were sunk :—'' they are cased with iron piping of from 25” to 4” internal diameter, which was sunk by the simple process ^" of forcing a stream of water down a smaller tube of from 1” to 2" bore, inserted in the centre of the outer casing. The stream of water ascending the annular space between the two tubes carried with it the material washed from the bottom of the bore, and so enabled the two tubes to be sunk simultaneously ; when the well was completed, the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump attached to the outer one, This process appears to be simple, inexpensive, expeditious, and effectual, though of course only applicable in soft and not too coarse grained deposits, but it has an effect on the stuff washed out that must beallowed for. The stream of water which is sufficient to wash away fine clays or sands, would be insufficient to bring up coarse grit and small pebblesto the surface. Consequently if pebbles are mixed with fine sand or clayey matter, the stream, which has sufficient power to bring the pebbles to the surface, will wash away ail the finer matter, and so what would seem to be a clean gravel, to judge from the washed material brought up, might really be a mixture of pebbles and clayey sand, of very little value as a source of water. ” With respect to the boring records appended below, Mr. Oldham makes the following remarks :— * Most of these sections have been preserved in glass fronted boxes, in which the different layers are arranged one above the other. In some cases this has been done to scale, and there was no difficulty in determining the depths and thicknesses, in others no fixed scale was followed, and the depths aze indicated by (216399) 64 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. paper slips affixed to the glass, a much inferior plan, for when, as has sometimes happened, any of these labels have peeled off, it is impossible to determine the true thickness of some of the layers. Where I have not seen the specimens, or none have been preserved, the section is given by repute. The term grit is used to indicate a texture intermediate between that of sand and of gravel, the limits of size of the individual grains may be taken as =; and $ inch. The horizontal line indicates the base of the newer alluvium." Detailed sections of borings. No. ı. Mohr Brothers. There are two wells, the section of the deepest is— 0— 109 ft. fine grey clayey silte 109—136 ,, fine grey sand. 136-180 ,, grey clayey silt. 180—190 ,, yellowish sand (silt of the newer alluvium mixed with sand grains of the older). —— 190—210 ft. sand. 210—220 ,, fine gravel rangingto 1* diameter. 223 —270 ,, coarser gravel, some pebbles as much as an inch in diameter, below 270 feet, yellow sand again. No. 2. Bulloch Brothers & Со, One well, section said to be— 0— go ft. clay. 90— 96 ,, sand. 96—220 ,, clay, 220—240 „ yellow sand and gravel. No. 4. Diekmann Barckhausen & Co, One well, 242 feet deep. No record. No. 4. Steel Brothers & Co. Upper mill. Two wells, 50 feetapart. There is a distinct difference in the water of thetwo. Опе contains a small propor- tion of oily matter, probably petroleum, which floats on the surface of the water. Section— o— 30 ft. fine brown silt. 30— 40 , dirty yellowish sand. ( 64 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 65 40— 60 ft, grey sandy silt. 60— 70 , fine sand. 70— 80 ,, yellowish sand, So— 85 ft. fine grey sand. 85—100 , brown earth. 100— » yellow sand. —175 „ coarse grit and sand, 175—190 „ coarse grit, 100—210 , fine gravel. 210—238 „ gravel ranging to à inch in diameter. No. 5. Steel Brothers & Co. Middle mill. Section == o— 85 ft. grey clayey silt. 85— 99 „ finesand. 99—100 , grey sandy silt. 100—118 , fine grey sand. 118—122 ,, grey sand with yellowish grains. 122—130 „ fine grey silt. 130—145 ft. clean sand, 345 -150 „ coarse grit with some fragments ranging to 4 inch in diameter, 150—155 5, grey silt. 155—160 „ coarsesand mixed with small ferruginous concretions 160—176 , fine clean sand, 176—180 , fine reddish sand. 180—190 ,, coarse sand. 190—195 , medium grained yellow sand. 195—198 ,, grit. 198—203 „ coarse grit with some larger fragments, 203—229 , gravel ranging to ¿ inch. No. 6. Kruger & Co. Section lost, At about 250 feet a large number of shells in a very good state of preservation and in some cases quite fresh looking were brought up. The forms are all marine littoral, comprising the genera Cardium, Arca, Venus, Solen, besides fragments of polyzoa., The species appear to be living ones, 66 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA No. 9. Zaretskey Book € Co. Section— o— 40 ft. grey silt. 30— 42 ,, fine brownish sand. 42— 55 „ small ferruginous concretions: 55—135 ,, grey clayey silt. ¥23—217 y grey sand. 217—220 ft. sub-angular gravel. 220—249 ,, fine pale buff sand. 249—254 ,, pale yellow sand. 254—257 ,, coarse grit and sand. 257—289 ,, pale yellow sand. 289— , coarse grit and sand. “ Through the courtesy of the proprietors this well was pumped for me with an open mouth. It was found that the well gave 1,200 gallons an hour with a lowering of the surface level to 8 feet. ” No. 7. Steel Brothers & Co. Lower mill. No record except that the water was brackish. No.8, Rowett & Co. Two wells were sunk, both were failures. No further record. No. то. Bulloch Brothers & Co. Section— o— 25 ft. fine clayey silt. 25— 52 „ fine sandy silt. 52— 70 , fine grey sand. 70—108 ,, silt. 108—118 ,, fine grey sand. 118—170 „ alterations of more or less sandy and clayey silt, 170-256 ,, grey sand of various shades. 256—265 „ grey sand with some yellow grains. 265 —275 ft. yellow sand. 275—282 ,, grit, 282—302 ,, sharp yellow sand. 302—320 „ gravel ranging to } inch, No. 11, Arracan Co, Two wells sunk to 240 and 245 feet; water bad, No further record, DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 67 No. 12. Arracan Co. One well of 140 feet. Water not good. No further record, No. 13. Victoria Oil works. Section— o— 20 ft. grey clayey silt, 20— 80 , fine grey sand, 80— roo ft, yellowish sand. 100 -120 ,, fine sub-angular gravel. 120—134 ,, pepper and salt grey sand. 134—155 ,, sand with small pebbles. 355- 160 ,, sand. 190—215 ,, small sub-angular gravel. 215—218 ,, sand. 218—230 ,, gravel mostly small, imperfectly rounded, with some fragments of 3 inch across. 230—256 ,, fine sand. 236—240 ,, gravel as before. 240—250 ,, fine grey sandy silt. 250—257 ,, Coarse grit. 257—265 ,, fine white sand. 265—273 ,, sand and grit, 273--276 ,, white sand, 276—279 ,, white grit. 279— » gravel, 4 to inch, No. 14. Irrawady Flotilla Co, One well of rgo feet, water brackish, No further records. No, 15. McGregor Brothers & Co. Section said to be— O— 50 ft. blue clay. 50— 62 ,, red clay. 62— 96 ,, sand. 96—224 ,, gravel, then sand and thin beds of white clay 224—228 ,, gravel. 3 No. 16. Foucar Brothers & Co. No record, (6) 68 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, No. 17. Bulloch Brothers & Co. Section — o— 30 ft. brownish silt. 30— 43 » grey silt. 43— 62 ft. brick redclayey matter (soft laterite?). 62— 68 ,, 68— 75 » 75—110 ,, 110—130 ,, 130-148 ,, 148—161 ,, 161—165 ,, 165—171 ,, 171—180 ,, 180—185 ,, fine buff sand. fine pale greyish sand. yellow sand. clean sharp sand, grit. yellowish sharp sand. fine brown sand. coarse sand. coarse sub-angular grit, gravel up toan inch in diameter. No. 18, Heatherington Gray € Co. One well of 250 ft. Water bad ; no record. No, 19. Mohr Brothers € Co. Section— o— ft —196 رو‎ 196— ft. '—210 „ 210—215 ,, 215— » — 224 ,, 224—230 ,, 230—242 ,, An experimental well w Boring at Akyab. fine grey silt. grey silt mixed with grains of reddish sand. grey sand with some small pebbles. clean yellow sand. coarse sand, small gravel. coarse grit. fine grit and coarse sand. sub-angular gravel ranging to 3 inch. as sunk at Akyab in 1889-1890. But it is difficult to make out how far the work proceeded through alluvium, or whether it en- tered the underlying tertiary rocks. The locality was visited in 1897 by the late Mr. Grimes, who wrote the following particulars on this subject : “In the years 1889-90, at the Arracan Company's Upper Mill, on the north side of the town of Akyab, a well was bored to a depth of 421 feet, for the purpose of obtaining water, but without ( 68 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 69 any success. The only record of this boring which I could obtain was in a letter from the Arracan Company to the Akyab Municipal Commissioners, in which they write that at 421 feet they reached a stiff clay and could make no further progress, and that long before they reached the clay they went through several layers of sand and gravel, but there was no sign of water anywhere. This is very in- definite as it does not show how much of this depth was bored in the alluvial beds or whether it was even entirely in the alluvium. . Wells sunk close to the ridge of rocks get down through the alluvium to the underlying rock ata very moderate depth, but there is evidence to show that the thickness of the recent deposits increases as one gets away from this ridge, and the increase is possibly very rapid. " (4) Gujárát. À large portion of Gujárát is covered with alluvium, but not to any depth comparable with that of the Indo-Gangetic plain. The subject of artesian wells has received a certain amount of attention in that province because irrigation is needed to supplement occasional deficiency of rainfall, and also on account of the fact that in many places the water of the wells is hard and brackish. Although the depth of the alluvium is inconsiderable, very little is known concerning the older rocks underlying it. So far as can be made out,the Gulf of Cambay seems to occupy a shallow basin of SUL QUUM disturbance ; the various strata, both to the east соро of the Gulf of and west, dipping at low angles under the alluvium, The structure therefore is favourable to the formation of an artesian reservoir, provided that some of the strata have a capacity for transmitting water. In all probability the rocks underlying the alluvium are basaltic strata of the “Deccan trap" overlaid by tertiary strata If, as is not improbable, the lowest strata of the tertiaries are coarse gravel beds resting upon the surface of the volcanic layers, thi circumstance combined with the ( 69 ) 70 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, abundance of overlying impermeable clays that form such a large proportion of the tertiaries, would give rise to conditions eminently suited to artesian action. So far, however, no borings have pene- ‘trated to such a depth. The boring sunk at Gogah by Lieutenant Fulljames in 1836-1839, to a depth of 354 feet ginches, mention of which is made in Mr. Medlicott’s Report, still remains the most important attempt, and it never reached the base of the tertiaries. Some of the tertiary strata contain strings and crystals of rock- See eer salt within their layers, and it seems to be owing to this circumstance that the wells in some parts of Gujärät contain brackish water. The behaviour of the wells varies according to the depth at which these salt-bearing strata lie below the surface. It may happen that the well, when first sunk, contains fresh water from surface layers unaffected by the brackish water lower down ; but if the demand upon the water- supply in the well increases beyond acertain extent, the brackish water may percolate from below. This is particularly liable to occur in seasons of exceptional dryness when tlhe general level of sub- soil water has been lowered, and the communication thus established with the deeper layers of contaminated water may cause the wells to become permanently deteriorated. In places thus situated, a supply of perfectly fresh water has sometimes been tapped by sinking a pipe from Fresh water-supply : д tapped by borings of the bottom of the well, until it penetrated moderate depth. through some layer of impermeable clay. Separated by this impermeable bed from the upper layer of saline water, the supply thus obtained is artesian in the strict sense of the term, although the water may not rise higher than the level of ordinary ground-water. Some very successful attempts of this class have been made by СОСКА: Mr. С. №. Tata at Naosari, an abundant Naosari, supply of fresh water being obtained at a depth of about 150 feet. (177975) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 71 Тһе country was visited by the Director of the Geological Report by Met Survey, Mr. Griesbach, at the commencement Su Bach of the year, and the following remarks are extracted from his notes. Notes on the chances of finding Artesian water in Gujarat. *(r) Gujärät with the adjoining districts, Cutch, Kathiawar, Mahi Kantha and the Panch Mahals may, for the purposes of the water inquiry, be roughly divided into three well-defined areas, which differ stucturally from one another. There are (7) the hilly tracts which include the Mahi Kantha and Panch Mahals ; (Ф) the Cutch and Kathiawar States, which fringe Gujárát along the south-west ; and (с) the flat country between the hill tracts which is formed by the drainage running into the Gulfs of Cutch and of Cambay. (2) The hilly tracts of the Mahi Kantha and Panch Mahals consist chiefly of older rocks, both schistose and crystalline, both much disturbed. Several of the valleys within this area are filled with recent deposits, but there is no evidence to show that a search for artesian water will meet with any success within these deposits. (3) The areas of Cutch and Kathiawar which form the south- western fringe of Gujárát are chiefly built up of younger sedimentary strata (both cretaceous and tertiary beds) which are associated with the so-called Deccan trap, and I think it is extremely unlikely that within this area artesian conditions will be met with, although even so much cannot be absolutely insisted upon, but the general geological structure is certainly not promising, and I would not advocate the outlay of money on a systematic search for such a water-supply, especially as water may in most instances be found within reasonable depths by digging ordinary wells. (4) It appears to me that the only part of the northern division of the Bombay Presidency, within which a search for artesian water \ (22:15) 73 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS iN INDIA, might be successful, is Gujärät proper, that is the flat country inclosed by the Mahi Kantha on one side and Kathiawar on the other. It appears to be entirely covered by widespread alluvial deposits, and very little is known of the underground geological conditions, but a few exposures in quarries and wells afford some information, which is sufficient to permit forming a favourable opinion on the chances of meeting with deep-seated supplies of water if borings were undertaken. The few exposures of underground structure which I have seen seem to indicate that the alluvial deposits cover up a series of beds of upper jurassic or cretaceousage, consisting chiefly of sandstones and shales, and overlaid by tertiary clays, shales and limestones, the whole of which sequence of beds rests upon the old palæozoie rocks of the so-called * Aravalli type.’ (5) The evidence in support of this supposition is somewhat . meagre; besides the geological surveys of Kathiawar and Baroda, we possess surveys ofthe alluvium of parts of the Ahmedabad district, whilst important evidence is afforded by quarries and newly-constructed wells near Wadhwan. (6) I have satisfed myself that we have at least two distinct water-levels within this area. The !ower one is found. wherever the cretaceous marls and impure limestones, which may be seen alongsthe boundary of Gujárát and Kathiawar, are pierced down to the underlying coarse brown sandstone of cretaceous or upper juras- sic age, This may be clearly observed in all the quarries near Wadhwan itself. The upper water-level is found in the tertiary (probable upper eocene) concretionary limestone which seems to overlie the creta- ceous deposits of Wadhwan unconformably (much of the so-called kankar beds appear to be the same concretionary limestone of the upper eocene which may easily be mistaken for the genuine kankar deposits of the alluvium). (72 =) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 73 If a bore-hole were sunk 7 or 8 miles north east of Wadhwan, for instance, it would probably encounter the following series of beds in succeeding order :— 1. Alluvium, probably 10 to 20 feet. 2. Tertiary limestones and marls,—some 4o to 60 feet. Upper Water-level. 3. Unknown strata, probably of tertiary age and of unknown thickness. . Upper cretaceous limestones and marls. EN 5. Brown sandstone, cretaceous or jurassic, Lower Water-level. 6. Unknown strata below. It will be seen therefore that water would certainly be obtained by boring, and it may be that by driving the boring down to the lower water-level indicated above, artesian conditions will be en- countered. The proposition appears to me hopeful, and I would suggest that such a bore-hole be constructed of at least 1,000 ft. depth in the neighbourhood, say, 7 miles north-east of Wadhwan. (8) Experiments made in former years, and the experience gained in well sinking, have proved that water may be obtained almost everywhere in Gujárát,—although in varying depths, It appears also, that much of the water-supply from wells is more or less brackish and becomes often unfitfor either drinking or irrigation 17329) 74 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTBSIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. purposes during abnormally dry seasons. I venture to suggest that this difficulty will only be met with in comparatively shallow wells, which are constructed in the tertiary (eocene) beds and which, as we know, contain a great deal of salt in the form of strings and pockets and even in well-defined layers. I believe that borings sunk to below the cretaceous marls will meet with sweet water in sufficient abundance to neutralize the presence of the more brackish springs near the surface. None of the older bore-holes have gone to any great depths, and I believe that the deepest bore-hole (near Broach) made by Lieut. Fulljames in 1836 to 1839 did not reach 400 ft., so that it would be premature to pronounce against the possibility of obtaining an artesian supply of sweet water within Gujárát proper." A very interesting occurrence is recorded in a report by Flowing pipe in the Mr. F. D. Campbell, Executive Engineer on bed of the Mali Rive Special Duty, dated oth February 1385. It is described as “that of the pipe now discharging in the bed of the Mahi river which was lately sunk at the time when some work connected with the foundation of the railway bridge piers was in progress, The end of that pipe entered at some deptha highly porous stratum, and the supply of water in it is so constant, that a jet or fountain, 6 feet high above the low water-level, is obtained, and, according to Mr. Crosthwaite’s report, this water will rise ina pipe to 15 feet above that level; but this would still be 9o feet below that of the surface of the country, and would probably correspond with that in the wells not far from the river banks." The action in this case is properly speaking artesian, although not regarded as such by Mr. Campbell. Whenever the surface of the landis deeply cut into by the channel of a river, the level of saturation of the ground sinks rapidly in the neighbourhood of the river banks on account of the flow of undergound water towards the channel. Owing to the ir- regular disposition of permeable and impermeable layers common to all alluvial formations, one of the water-bearing strata underneath (СОЗДЕ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 75 the river-bed might be enclosed by impervious strata in such a manner as to derive its supply from an area situated at no great distance from the river, but where the surface of the groundewater stands at a somewhat greater altitude than in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the river. It is probable that a similar phenomenon might take place in many river-beds; but in such a position the supply is usually not of much use, Ofa similar nature is the occur- rence mentioned by Mr. Medlicott as having taken place in the year 1884: “in sinking a well in the Ganges for one of the piers of the railway bridge at Benares, when the well was burst by a sudden influx of water from below a bed of clay rising to a greater height than the river water outside the well"! Y (5) Borings in other tertiary rocks. It is only in Gujärät that the tertiary rocks of India have been specially examined in search of water, but it may be mentioned bere that one of the deepest borings in this country was sunk in tertiary strata in search of oil at Boring for oil at Sukkur. Sukkur. Some of the most successful artesian wells in America, for instance those in Ohio, were originally experimental borings for oil. The Sukkur boring, however, yielded neither oil nor water (excepting a small flow ata depth of 863 feet), but it must be noticed that all the strata encountered were clays and compact limestones of a very impermeable nature. The boring reached a depth of 1,042'6. A complete record has been published by Mr. T. D. La Touche.? As already mentioned in the separate descriptions, it is possible that the Karani, Coconada and Akyab borings although commenced in the alluvium entered tertiary rocks at a certain depth from the surface, 1 “Further considerations upon Artesian sources in the plains of Upper India. Кес, Geol, Surv. Ind., Vol, XVIII, p. 118. ° * Report on the Experimental Boring for Petroleum at Sukkur, from October 1893 to March 1895." Rec. Geol. Surv, Ind., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 55-59. (175 76 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. (5) The Gondwanas. The Gondwana rocks, consisting as they do of alternating strata Structure and composi- Of sandstone and shale, appear well suited to the tion: formation of artesian reservoirs. The topogra- phy is not always sufficiently varied to allow the expectation of a sufficient head to cause an overflow, though this might occur in some of the hilly tracts occupied by the upper Gondwanas, for instance, the Satpura range, of which there exists a geological sec- tion published by Mr. Medlicott,’ showing great masses of various rocks dippingat low angles over large areas, the form of structure best suited for the collection of water in water-tight underground Espetrimenkelinithe reservoirs. Nevertheless, as mentioned by Satpura Coal-Basin. Mr, Medlicott in his Report on Artesian borings, no overflow has been observed from any of the deep experi- mental borings put down in the Satpura coal-field during coal explo- rations at some of the places where the conditions for artesian water appear most favourable, although water under pressure has issued in sufficient amount to necessitate piping down to a considerable depth. The fact that no great difficulties have been met with from the inrush of underground water during mining operations in the lower Gondwanas shows that the strata traversed do not yield water in abundance. It is true that none of these mines are very deep, and it is possible that at greater depths strata might occur forming reservoirs with a larger intake area and an abundant supply of water under pressure. A scheme was proposed in 1882 for supplying the town of Wateceupplylab Rant Raniganj with water from the coal measures. gan]. But the proposed well was not to have been artesian: water was to be collected from a permeable bed of inferior coal by means of galleries driven into it, giving a considerable per- colating area. 1 “ Notes on the Satpura Coal-Basin." Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. X, pp. 133-188. (570%) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 77 Mr. Reader, Mining Specialist of the Geological Survey of India, has brought tomy notice an occurrence that took place during some trial borings for coal in the Rampur coal-field in the Central Provin- Boring in the Rampur E A flow of water issued from one of these coal-field. situated near the Eeb river, forming a jet that rose above the surface. The occurrence was related to Mr. Reader by Messrs. Kilburn & Co., who put down the boring, but it had taken place previous to the detailed examination of the district, and the exact structure of the surrounding rocks has not yet been ascer- tained, The following information contained ina letter from Mr. C. Matthews, Engineer of the Diamond Drill Agency, Radhnagur, dated 17th August 1900, has been kindly communicated by Messrs, Kilburn & Co.: “ Water commenced flowing from bore-hole at Dhoramanda at about 80 feet from surface, and greatly increased at depth of 120 feet, after passing through coarse grey free sandstone, and the water kept flowing continuously at about 600 gallons per hour, or equal to a discharge of a 14” bore piping. In a trial to note to what height the water would rise above the bore-hole, two lengths of boring rods were connected to pulley head, and water rose full 20 feet height and kept overflowing. When the height was increased to 30 feet the water did not overflow. But this may be due to the water escaping below the casing tubes and working through the porous loose soil, and consequently the water could not accumulate as fast as it escaped through the soil, to gain sufficient head to overflow above 20 feet. “ The diameter of hole is about 4" to a depth of до feet, and from that depth to 830 feet itis 2" practically. The top of bore-hole was lined toa depth of 26 feet from surface, and below this depth the stratum was firm to withstand the sides from erosion or falling in. ‘ The position of bore-hole is in a valley between two ranges of hills, the height of the hills would not appear more than 80 to 130 feet above that of the bore-hole. CD 78 VREDENBURG ! RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIM«NTS IN INDA, “The bed of stream is about 20 feet below bore-hole surface, and is running about 200 feet from nearest point of bore, the width: would be about 30 to 40 feet in part. About 380 to 400 feet from surface, I noticed a greater volume of water running over the bore equal to nearly 2,000 gallons or thereabout, and I do not think that the flow of water got diminished. The lining tubes have been with- drawn from hole." The Records of the Geological Survey contain accounts ofa great many of these sets of trial borings for coal. In one case, in Experimental borings а description of an exploration in the Chhattis- M BAG GARE garh coal-fields, mention is made ofa boring where a sheet of water was struck at a depth of 14 feet, and gave a permanent flow atthe surface! Judging from the description, however, the site is in the low ground on the banks of a river, and as the water was tapped at such a small depth, it was no doubt in. close connection with the ground-water at no great distance, the case being analogous to that of the Mahi river in Gujárát, or of the Ganges bridge at Benares, Along the east coast ofthe Peninsula there are several areas of upper Gondwanas whose strata dip at low angles towards the sea-coast, and which appear therefore suited to the existence of artesian conditions. Several experiments have been made to test these localities, but with small success so far, Such is the boring Boring at Place’s at Place’s Garden, Kilacheri, in the Chingleput Garden, near Madras. district near Madras. The work was originally undertaken by the Reverend S. Dominic, Superior of the Monastery at Place’s Garden, and, on account of the great interest attached to the experiment, Government aid was granted on various occasions to enable the work to be pursued. On being consulted by the Government of Madras in 189r, when the boring was nearly 300 feet deep, Mr. Foote stated that he had reason to believe that a 1 “Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh Coal-fields,” by William King. Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XIX, р. 229. (78%) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 79 water-bearing stratum would be pierced near the base of the series where it rests on gneiss, The pressure might not be sufficient perhaps to cause a flow of water, but it would be within easy reach of pumps. Sections situated a few miles north and north-west of the artesian boring show that the basement beds of the Gondwanas consist of a considerable thickness of ‘permeable felspathic grit. The boring runs through a great thickness of black and dark grey carbonaceous clays which probably overlie that sandstone. The Gondwana rocks exposed to the eastward and northward have been described by Mr. Foote.! They belong to the upper Gondwana stage. The rocks exposed belong mainly to the upper part ofthe series and consist of light-coloured shales, clays and sandstones. But in the boring they are found to be underlaid by the above mentioned dark grey and black carbonaceous shales ; in fact, it was through the boring that the existence of these dark clays first came to be known. At the date of Mr. Foote’s visit the boring had been carried through a considerable thickness of these impervious clays. It had been stopped for want of funds, but Mr. Foote considered that the water-bearing stratum was not far off, and that the boring should be continued until water is struck, or until the underlying gneiss is reached. Moreover, Mr. Foote pointed out that some of the dark carbonaceous clays are bituminous, and that, even if the boring were unsuccessful from the point of view of water, yet it might reveal the existence of coal seams or of bituminous shales worth distilling, or of valuable fire-clay. It would be, besides, of great scientific interest, Since Mr. Foote’s visit the boring has been deepened over 100 feet: in October 1899 it had reached a depth of 430 feet. Yet, the felspathic grit has not been reached, although a small band of ! # On the Geology of parts of the Madras and North Arcot districts lying north of the Palar River." Mem. Geol, Surv. Ind,, Vol, X, Part I. (799) 80 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. sandstone four inches thick has been met with at a depth of 344 feet, and a second one 2 feet 2} inches thick, at a depth of 359 feet. In a letter dated 19th November 1892, addressed to the Government of Madras, Dr. King recommended that the boring be carried down to a depth of at least 450 feet. Rocks of upper Gondwana age are found also near the mouths of the Godavari, and they have yielded water at Ellore ina boring which is stillin progress atthe present time. The strata dip towards the sea-coast to the south-east, in which direction they sink beneath volcanic rocks, of the age of the “ Deccan Trap,” Rajahmundry beds of the age of the Cuddalore sandstones, and finally alluvium. The*upper Gond. Boring at Ellore. wanas here consist principally of sandstones, an upper series, the Tripety sandstones, and a lower one, the Golapilly beds. A series consisting principally of clays, the Kagavapuram shales, intervene between the two sandstone groups. It has no great thickness but from its impermeable nature it provides a confining stratum to the water contained in the Golapilly sandstone, the other requisites for artesian action being provided by the lie of the stratification.! It is difficult to decide, without having seen any specimens, how much of the alternating sands and clays met with up to a consider- able depth in the Ellore boring may belong to the alluvium, to the Rajahmundry beds or to the Tripety sandstones. Some specimens from a depth of 367 feet were forwarded to the Geological Survey. Office and examined by Mr. Holland who identified them as pro- bably belonging to the Ragavapuram shales. The circumstances therefore seemed favourable, on account of the probable proximity of the underlying Golapilly sands. In a letter, dated 13th June 1900, Mr. Holland had just expressed his opinion as to the advisability of continuing the boring, when a communication forwarded on the same 1 The geology of this country has been described by Dr. King in his paper on “the upper Gondwanas and other formations of the coastalregion of the Godavari district.” Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol, XVI, p. 195. ( 80 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, date by the Engineer-in-Chief of the East Coast Railway announced that the boring hadstruck sand at adepth of 390 feet, and that water had risen in the tube to within 16 feet of the ground-level. The same communication contains a section ofthe boring up to a depth of 384 feet, from which the following record is reproduced :— Section of Artesian -Well-boring at Ellore. Number | Thicknsss | of of stratum. | stratum. Feet. I Io | 2 10 | 3 10 | 4 20 3 10 6 10 | 7 10 | 8 10 9 40 10 20 II 10 12 10 13 10 14 10 15 Io 16 10 17 10 18 10 19 10 | Total depth from ground-level. Feet. 10 20 30 50 бо 70 80 90 130 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, Black cotton soil. Black clay hard and stiff. (Water level at 15 ft.) Red clay. Brown clay. Brown clay and sand. Nodular limestone and clay. Yellow clay. Brown clay interspersed with gravel. Grey ciay and lime nodules. Red and yellow clay. Grey and yellow clay. Grey clay. Yellow clay with kankar. Decomposed yellow sandstone and clay. Red and yellow clay. Brown and yellow clay with kankar, Yellow and grey clay with kankar. Yellow and red clay with kankar. Yellow and red clay and decomposed rock. ( 8r Р, 82 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, Section of Artesian Well-boring at Ellore—contd. Number | Thickness} Total depth of of stratum. stratum. Feet. 20 10 21 10 22 10 25 10 24 10 25 19 26 10 27 9 28 I 29 10 30 10 31 10 32 10 ax! 7 34 3 35 7 36 3 37 4 from ground-level. Feet. 250 260 270 280 290 DESCRIPTION OF STRATA, White and red clay with nodules of laterite. Yellow and grey hard stiff soil. White sandy clay interspersed with large shingles. White and brown clay interspersed with minute pebbles. Yellow clay. Light grey sandy clay. Yellow streaky clay. Yellow clay, light yellow sandy clay. More or less pure sand, large grained. Very hard stiff clay, yellow and white streaky clay. Decomposed rock and clay. Decomposed streaky sandstone clay. White clay streaked yellow, Yellow, white and red streaky clay. Yellow and white clay. Yellow and white chalky clay. White clay. Purple and brown clay. e Resembling Purple and yellow clay. Purple chalk. and white clay. Crimson clay (decomposed laterite) ; yellow and purple clay. Pink clay with some yellow anc white purple clay. Magenta and purple clay. Stiff + Resembling clay and purple clay. chalk. Yellow clay mixed with grey. Light pink clay mixed with sand. ( 82 ) (7) The Vindhyans. The Vindhyans, like the Gondwanas, consist largely of alternating layers of sandstone and shales, in addition to which, however, there DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 83 are great masses of limestone. The strata are older than those that make up the Gondwanas, and the sandstones are very much more indurated. This must affect their permeability to a considerable degree, but whether so much as to prevent any decided flow, has never been tested, If the diminution of porosity caused by the induration of the 1 Sally sandstone does not oppose too great an obstacie als to the flow of water, the structure isin many placss an ideal one for artesian conditions. For instance, the great spread of Vindhyans in Central India might be compared to a series of shallow saucers of varying composition and of gradually decreas- ing size placed one upon the other. Ifthe materials composing any of those layers are fairly permeable, there must be many places in the Saugor district, and in Rewah, Bhopal, Gwalior, and other States and Provinces of Central India where the sinking of artesian wells has every chance of success. One experiment made at a suitably chosen place might at once decide the question fora verylarge area. The testimony of the only boring that penetrated into this formation, the one at Agra, is inconclusive : whether the flow of mineral water that issued from the boring proceeded from the Vindhyans or not,the locality is at the edge of the formation, and the boring did not traverse any of those great alternations of shales and sandstones such as would be met with at suitable locali- ties, and which, by their differences in permeability, might be ex- pected to provide the water-tight layers necessary for confining an artesian reservoir. A basin of very similar strata occupies considerable portions of Chhattisgarh, No experiments have been attempted there, but Mr. Medlicott, without giving any very decisive opinion, thought that the circumstances were fairly favourable, The Kadapahs and Karnuls of the Deccan are not unlike the Vindhyans, but they are generally more disturbed, (29322) 84 VREDENBURG : RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. (8) Lhe Deccan Trap. A system of rocks whose capabilities as water-bearing strata call Need of more accurate fOr further research is the volcanic series known delest. as the * Deccan Trap.’ The immense area occupied by that formation has almost entirely escaped geological investigation, The series consists largely of basalt, a rock of highly impermeable texture, but it is not known to what extent the exist- ence of fissures and caverns may not affect its capacity in that respect, In some parts of the Bombay Presidency wells have been known to derive an abundant supply of water from fissures in the basalt. Moreover, the formation does not consist entirely of basalt: in E some parts the sheets of basaltic lava are in- Composition, terbedded with great masses of tuff of more orless opentexture, During intervals between the volcanic erup- tions fresh water lakes were formed, in which sediments, the so called “ intertrappeans," were deposited. Some of them are very compact limestones, but others are sands of loose texture, All these fragmentary rocks, tuffs, and intertrappeans might occur so placed as to form artesian reservoirs, But in our ignorance of the geological details of the formation, the existence of such reservoirs can only be indicated as a bare possibility without any reference to particular localities. In the western portion of their outcrop, near Bombay or in Gujärät and Kathiawar, these rocks have under- gone a certain amount of disturbance. Butin all other parts of the area occupied by the Deccan trap, the rocks are quite undisturbed and almost horizontal, Perfect horizontality of stratification would be incompatible with the existence of an Structure, artesian reservoir, unless accompanied (as it is sometimes) by irregularities of water-bearing capacity at various places. But it stands to reason that the horizontality of the strata that compose the ( 84 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT. OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS. 85 “ trap ” formation is only apparent. Basalt is not formed on the sea-floor by some mysterious process of crystallisation as was thought by the adepts of the school of the “Neptunists” during the early part of the century, but it issues in a semi-fluid condition out of volcanic vents, Lavas relatively poor in silica and rich in iron, “basic ” lavas in fact, like those that constitute such a large propor- tion of the Deccan trap formation, flow much more easily than do the more siliceous or “acid ” ones. Yet their flow is not comparable with that of water, and when they solidify they are still in an in- clined position, however slightly so. The huge area covered by the products ofthe eruptions whose accumulated masses probably rose into high mountains, has now been levelled to the shape of a plateau, and the low angles of dip of the overlapping sheets of lava get lost in the irregularities produced by denudation. The forma- tion is practically horizontal when considered as one mass, and has only been studied assuch. But there is no doubt that a more thorough examination will reveal great complexity of detail notwithstanding the uniformity of the general features, and it is by no means un- likely that it may bring to light the existence of artesian reservoirs of a very perfect character, if of limited extent. An experiment which seemed very promising was undertaken in 1884 at Mhow in Central India. In June 1884, a well was sunk at the engine shed of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway. The junction of the * moorrum," or decomposed basalt, and of the hard rock is 35 feet below the ground surface, “Moorrum” is the name given to a Experiment at Mhow in Central India. peculiar form of surface decomposition of the basalt : it is permeable, and from it the surface wells of a large portion cf the Deccan and of Malwa derive their supply. In the present instance, a certain amount of water issued at the junction of the “moorrum” with the underlying hard rock. The well was deepened to 90 feet below the surface of the ground without coming across any springs. A 2% inch bore was put down at the bottom up to 13 feet, which in. (852) 86 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, 95 hours filled the well up to 41 feet 6 inchesfrom the surface of the ground. The diameter of the well was 25 feet, and the spring had delivered 49,459 gallons. The locality does not seem to be in a very favourable situation, for it is only a short way north of the scarped face of the Vin- dhyan range." Thus the surface of the ground at the locality where the well was sunk is at a higher level than the neighbouring region at a short distance further south, and it could not be expected under such conditions that the well would overflow. The following views were expressed by Mr. Medlicott on the subject of this experi- ment: "It would seem impossible for a sufficient head of water to accumulate fora surface delivery at Mhow. On the other hand, trappean rocks are very retentive of water and thus favourable for constancy of supply. The streams in such a country carry water much later than in similar ground formed of other rocks. This con- sideration would be in favour of a supply by deep wells, of which the engine shed well gives a very promising example." It is to be regretted that this experiment has remained an isolated one so far as is known. Besides the possible existence of reservoirs formed by loose tex- tured tuffs and intertrappean sandstones, or by fissures and caverns in the basalt itself, it must be kept in mind that the products of the eruptions have overwhelmed a very irregular ancient land surface. ЕН оГ асот In many places the decomposed rock surfaces underlying the formation. Composing this old land area and the ancient soil must form a more or less porous layer at the base of the volcanic formation, and, if the shape of this underlying surface could be known, it would be possible to select some likely places for experi- mental borings, as the porouslayer might be locally disposed in such ! The name “ Vindhyan ” has been applied by the Geological Survey to a peculiar group of strata which have already been spoken of ; but in a geographical sense the name applies to the rectilinear scarp north of the valleys of the Nerbudda and Son, the eastern part of which consists of * Vindhyan sandstones,’ but which, further west, is composed only of volcanic rocks. ( 36 ) DETAILED ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS, 87 a manner as to form underground reservoirs. In the Deccan the thickness of accumulated lavas and tuffs is so great that the under- lying rocks are concealed over considerable areas, and no accurate knowledge of the underlying surface could be arrived at except by a large series of experimental borings involving an expenditure out of all proportion with any results that could be reasonably predicted. But in Central India, where the thickness is not so great, the under- lying rock shows itself in many places, and if these inliers of the older formations were mapped and their structure examined, it would be possible to arrive at a very fair idea of the shape of the sur- face upon which the strata of volcanic rocks are resting. I was able to ascertain this circumstance during a rapid inspection, which I made in 1898, of a part of Bhopal occupied by that formation: small mounds of Vindhyan sandstone stand out here and there above the almost level expanse of basalt. These are the tops of hill ranges buried beneath the solidifed flows of volcanic lava. Before the lavas were poured over them, the Vindhyans were acted upon by the agencies of denudation just in the same manner as at the present day, and the topographical features thus produced bear a very dis- tinct relation to their stratigraphy : once the lie of the different bands of strata composing them is revealed by the study of those inliers, it becomes easy to make out the shape of the surface with sufficient approximation, and thus decide on a choice of the places where water occurring at the junction of that old land surface and the overlying rock would be most likely to rise at or near the surface through a boring. (9) Other rocks. The alluvium, the tertiary, the Gondwanas, the Vindhyans and allied formations, and the Deccan trap are the principal formations within which there can be any likelihood of artesian water being found, although even in these rocks the chances are very uncertain, In addition to these formations, there are enormous areas occupied ( 87: ) 88 VREDENBURG: RECENT ARTESIAN EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA, by slates and metamorphic rocks, and by schists and gneisses, some of which have a more or less granitic tendency. Their highly erystalline and compact texture is incompatible with the existence ofany great store of water. The very rare casesin which a flow of water has been obtained from such rocks are due to exceptionally disposed fissures. Not only can the possibility of such an occurrence be only very rare, but such cases could never be predicted from observations made at the surface. All the areas occupied by these rocks should be left out of consideration in the problem of artesian : 19 water-supply. In 1884 а boring was sunk Boring at Vizianagram. К E e. in rocks of this class at Vizianagram, notwith- standing the adverse circumstances of the case, and after being carried to a depth of 350 feet, it failed to procure any supply of water.! (10) Conclusion. In conclusion, it may be stated that the possibilities of artesian supply in India are not fully understood and have been very imper- fectly tested. But even if they were much greater than outward appearances would lead us to infer, still it would be a great mistake to think that they could be of the slightest utility in any extensive scheme of irrigation, On the other hand, leaving out of question the problem of irrigation ona large scale, there are many minor uses to which artesian water can be put to with great advantage, and viewed in that light, the subject is certainly deserving of attention and probably capable of development. 1 This boring is mentioned in the “ Geological sketch of the Vizagapatam District, Madras,” by William King. Rec, Geol, Surv. Ind., Vol. ХІХ, р, 143. — co оо m Part 3.—Note on the progress of the gold industry in Wynaad, Nilgiri district. Notes on the representatives of the Upper Gondwana series in Trichinopoly and Nellore-Kistna districts. Senarmontite from Sarawak. Part 4.—On the geographical distribution of fossil organisms in India, Submerged forest on Bombay Island. : Vor. XII, 1879. Part 1.—Annual report for 1878. Geology of Kashmir (third notice). Further notices of Siwalik mammalia, Notes on some Siwalik birds. Notes of a tour through Hangrang and Spiti. On a recent mud eruption in Ramri Island (Arakan). On Braunite, with Rhodonite, from near Nagpur, Central Provinces. Palæontological notes from the Satpura coal-basin. Statistics of coal importations into India. Part 2.—On the Mohpani coal-field. On Pyrolusite with Psilomelane occurring at Gosalpur, Jabalpur district. A geological reconnaissance from the Indus at Kushalgarh to the Kurram at Thal on the Afghan frontier. Further notes on the geology of the Upper Punjab. Part 3.—On the geological features of the northern part of Madura district, the Pudukota State, and the southern parts of the Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts included within the limits of sheet 80 of the Indian Atlas. Rough notes on the crétaceous fossils from Trichino- poly district, collected in 1877-78. Notes on the genus Sphenophyllum and other Equise- taceæ, with reference to the Indian form Trizygia Speciosa, Royle (Sphenophyllum Trizy- gia, Ung.). On Mysorin and Atacamite from the Nellore district. On corundum from the Khasi Hills. On the Joga neighbourhood and old mines on the Nerbudda, Part 4.—On the ' Attock Slates’ and their probable geological position. On a marginal bone of an undescribed tortoise, from the Upper Siwaliks, near Nila, in the Potwar, Punjab. Sketch of the geology of North Arcot district, On the continuation of the road section from Murree то Abbottabad. 3 ; Vor. XIII, 1880. Part ı.— Annual report for 1879. Additional notes on the geology of the Upper Godavari basin in the neighbourhood of Sironcha. Geology of Ladak and neighbouring districts, being fourth notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories. Teeth of fossil fishes from Ramri island andthe Punjab. Note on the fossil genera Nöggerathia, Stbg., Nöggerathiop- sis, Fstm., and Rhiptozamites, Schmalh., in palæozoïc and secondary rocks of Europe, Asia, and Australia. Notes on fossil plants from Kattywar, Shekh Budin, and Sirgujah. On vol- canic foci of eruption in the Konkan. Part 2.—Geological notes. Palæontological notes on the lower trias of the Himalayas, On the artesian wells at Pondicherry, and the possibility of finding such sources of water-supply at Madras. Part 3.—The Kumaun lakes. On the discovery of a celt of palæolithic type in the Punjab. Palæ- ontological notes from the Karharbari and South Rewah coal-fields. Further notes on the correlation of the Gondwana flora with other floras. Additional note on the artesian wells at Pondicherry. Saltin Rajputana. Record of gas and mud eruptions on the Arakan coast on 12th March 1879 and in June 1845. Part 4.—On some pleistocene deposits of the Northern Punjab, and the evidence they afford of an extreme climate during a portion of that period. Useful minerals of the Arvaliregion. Further notes on the correlation of the Gondwana flora with that of the Australian coal- bearing system. Note on reh or alkali soils and saline well waters, The reh soils of Upper India. Note on the Naini Tal landslip, 18th September 1880. · Vor. XIV, 1881. Part 1.—Annual report for 1880. Geology of part of Dardistan, Baltistan, and neighbouring districts, being fifth notice of the geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories. Note on some Siwalik carnivora. The Siwalik group of the Sub-Himalayan region. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. On the ferruginous beds associated with the basaltic rocks of north-eastern Ulster, in relation to Indian laterite. On some Rajmahal plants. Travelled blocks of the Punjab. Appendix to ' Palæontological notes on the lower trias of the Hima- layas On some mammalian fossils from Perim Island, in the collection of the Bombay Branch ofthe Royal Asiatic Society. : Pari 2.—The Nahan-Siwalik unconformity in the North-western Himalaya. On some Gondwana ў vertebrates. On the ossiferous beds of Hundes in Tibet. Notes on mining records, and tbe mining record office of Great Britain; and the Coal and Metalliferous Mines Acts of 1872 (England). On cobaltite and danaite from the Khetri mines, Rajputana; with some remarks on Jaipurite (Syepoorite). On the occurrence of zinc ore (Smithsonite and Blende) with barytes, in the Karnul district, Madras. Notice of a mud eruption in the island of Cheduba. Part 3.—Artesian borings in India. On oligoclase granite at Wangtu on the Sutlej, North-west Himalayas. Ona fish-palate from the Siwaliks. Palæontological notes from the Hazaribagh and Lohardagga districts, Undescribed fossil carnivora from the Siwalik hills in the collec- tion of the British Museum. Part 4.—Remarks on the unification of geological nomenclature and cartography. On the geo- logy of the Arvali region, central and eastern. On a specimen oí native antimony ob- tained at Pulo Obin, near Singapore. On Turgite from the neighbourhood of Juggiapett, Kistnah district, and on zinc carbonate from Karnul, Madras. Note on the section from Dalhousie to Pangi siá the Sach Pass. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. Submerged forest on Bombay Island. : Vor. XV, 1882. Part r.— Annual report for 1881. Geology of North-west Kashmir and Khagan (being sixth notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories). On some Gondwana laby- rinthodonts. On some Siwalik and Jamna mammals, The geology of Dalhousie, Nortb- west Himalaya. On remains of palm leaves from the (tertiary) Murree and Kasauli beds in India. On Iridosmine from the Noa-Dibing river, Upper Assam, and on platinum from Chutia Nagpur. On (1) a copper mine lately opened near Yongri hill, in the Dar- jiling district; (2) arsenical pyrites in the same neighbourhood ; (3) kaolin at Darjiling (being 3rd appendix to a report on the geology and mineral resources of the Darjiling district and the Western Duars). Analyses of coal and fire-clay from the Makum coal- field, Upper Assam. Experiments on the coal of Pind Dadun Khan, Salt-range, with reference to the production of gas, made April 29th, 1881. Report on the proceedings and result of the International Geological Congress of Bologna. Part 2.—General sketch of the geology of the Travancore State. The Warkilli beds and reported associated deposits at Quilon, in Travancore. Note on some Siwalik and Narbada fossils. On the coal-bearing rocks of the valleys of the Upper Rer and the Mand rivers in Western Chutia Nagpur. On the Pench river coal-field in Chhindwara district, Central Provinces. On borings for coal at Engsein, British Burma. On sapphires recently discovered in the North-west Himalaya. Notice of a recent eruption from one of the mud volcanoes in Cheduba. Part 3.—Note on the coal of Mach (Much) in the Bolan Pass, and of Sharag or Sharigh on the Harnai route between Sibi and Quetta. New faces observed on crystals of stilbite from the Western Gháts, Bombay. On the traps of Darang and Mandi in the North-western Himalayas. Further note on the connexion between the Hazara and the Kashmir series. On the Umaria coal-field (South Rewah Gondwana basin). The Daranggiri coal-field, Garo Hills, Assam. On the outcrops of coal in the Myanoung division of the Henzada district. Part 4.— Оп a traverse across some gold-fields of Mysore. Record of borings for coal at Bed- dadanol, Godavari district, in 1874. Note on the supposed occurrence of coal on the Kistna. Vor. XVI, 1885. Pa:t 1.—Annual report for 1882. On the genus Richthofenia, Kays (Anomia Lawrenciana, Koninck). On the geology of South Travancore. On the geology of Chamba. On the basalts of Bombay. Part 2.—Synopsis of the fossil vertebrata of India. On the Bijori Labyrinthodont. On a skull of Hippotherium antilopinum. On the iron ores, and subsidiary materials for the manufacture of iron, in the north-eastern part of the Jabalpur district. On laterite and other mangan- ese ore occérring at Gosulpore, Jabalpur district. Further notes on the Umaria coal-field. Part 3.—On the microscopic structure of some Dalhousierocks. Onthelavasof Aden. Onthe probable occurrence of Siwalik strata in China and Japan. On the occurrence of Mastodon angustidens in India. On atraverse between Almora and Mussooree made in October 1882. On the cretaceous Coal-measures at Вогзога, in the Khasia Hills, near Laour, in Sylhet. Part 4.— Palæontological notes from the Daltonganj and Hutar eoal-fields in Chota Nagpur. On the altered basalts of the Dalhousie region in the North-western Himalayas. On the microscopic structure of some Sub-Himalayan rocks of tertiary age. On the geology of Jaunsar and the Lower Himalayas. On a traverse through the Eastern Khasia, Jaintia, and North Cachar Hills. On native lead from Maulmain and chromite from the Andaman Islands. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Notice,—Irrigation from wells in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Vor. XVII, 1884. Pari r.— Annual report for 1883. Considerations on the smooth-water anchorages or mud banks of Narrakal and Alleppy'onthe Travancore coast. Rough notes on Billa Surgam and other caves in the Kurnool district. On the geology of the Chuari and Sihunta parganas of Chamba. On the occurrence of the genus Lyttonia, Waagen, in the Kuling series. of Kashmir. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake of 31st December 1881. On the microscopic structure of some Himalayan granites and gneissose granites. Report on the Choi coalexploration. On the re-discovery of certain localities for fossils in the Siwalik beds. On some of the mineral resources of the Andaman Islands in the neighbourhood of Port Blair. The intertrappean beds in the Deccan and the Laramie group in western North America. Part 3.—On the microscopic structure of some Arvalirocks. Section along the Indus from the Peshawar Valley to the Salt-range. On the selection of sites for borings in the Raigarh- Hingir coal-field (first notice). Note on lignite near Raipore, Central Provinces. The Tur- quoise mines of Nishápür, Khorassan. Notice of a further fiery eruption from the Minbyin mud volcano of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Report on the Langrin coal-field, South-west Khasia Hills. Additional notes on the Umaria coal-field. Part 4.—On the Geology of part of the Gangasulan pargana of British Garhwal. On frag- ments of slates and schists imbedded in the gneissose granite and granite of the North- west Himalayas. On the geology of the Takht-i-Suleiman. On the smooth-water anchor- ages of the Travancore coast. On auriferous sands of the Subansiri river, Pondicherry lignite, and Phosphatic rocks at Musuri. Work at the Billa Surgam caves. Vor. XVIII, 1885. Part 1.—Annual report for 1884. On the country between the Singareni coal-field and the Kistna river. Geological sketch of the country between the Singareni coal-field and Hy» derabad. On coaland limestone in the Doigrung river, near Golaghat, Assam. Homo- taxis, as illustrated from Indian formations. Afghan field-notes. Part 2.—A fossiliferous series in the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal. On the probable age of the Mandhali series in the Lower Himalaya. On a second species of Siwalik camel (Camelus Antiquus, nobis ex Fale. and Саш. MS.). On the Geology of Chamba. On the probabi- lity of obtaining water by means of artesian wells in the plains of Upper India. Further considerations upon artesian sources in the plains of Upper India. On the geology of the Aka Hills. On the alleged tendency of the Arakan mud volcanoes to burst into eruption most frequently during the rains. Analyses of phosphatic nodules and rock from Mus». зоогее. : Part 3.—On the Geology of the Andaman Islands. On a third species of Merycopotamus. Some observations on percolation as affected by current. Notice of the Pirthalla and Chandpur meteorites, Report on the oil-wells and coal in the Thayetmyo district, British Burma. Оп some antimony deposits in the Maulmain district. On the Kashmir earth» . quake of goth May 1885. Оп the Bengal earthquake of 14th July 1885. Part 4.—Geological work in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. Оп the Bengal earthquake of July 14th, 1885. On the Kashmir earthquake of goth May 1885. On the results of Mr. H. B. Foote's further excavations in the Billa Surgam caves, On the mineral hitherto known as Nepaulite. Notice of the Sabetmahet meteorite. Vor. XIX, 1886. Part 1.—Annual report for 1885. On the International Geological Congress of Berlin. On some Palzozoic Fossils recently collected by Dr. Н. Warth, in the Olive group of the Salt. range, On the correlation of the Indian and Australian coal-bearing beds. Afghan and Persian Field notes. On the section from Simla to Wangtu, and on the petrological character of the Amphibolites and Quartz-Diorites of the Sutlej valley, Part 2.—On the Geology of parts of Bellary and Anantapur districts. Geology of the Upper Dehing basin inthe Singpho Hills. On the microscopic characters of some eruptive rocks from the Central Himalayas. Preliminary note onthe Mammalia of the Karnul Caves. Me- morandum on the prospects of finding coalin Western Rajputana. Note on the Olive Group of the Salt-range. On the discussion regarding the boulder-beds of the Salt-range. Onthe Gondwana Homotaxis. Part 3.— Geological sketch of the Vizagapatam district, Madras. Preliminary note on the geology of Northern Jesalmer. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Malani rocks of the Arvali region. On the Malanjkhandi copper-ore in the Balaghat dis. trict, C. P. : Part 4.—On the occurrence of petroleum in India. On the petroleum exploration at Khátan. Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. Field-notes from Afghanistan: No. 3, Turkistan. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Notice of the Nammianthal aerolite, Analysis of gold dust from the Meza vale ley, Upper Burma. x Vor. XX, 1887. Part 1.—Annual report for 1886. Field-notes from Afghanistan: No. 4, from Turkistan to India. Physical geology of West British Garhwal; with notes on a route traverse through Jaunsar-Bawar and Tiri-Garhwal. On the geology of the Garo Hills. On some Indian - image-stones. On soundings recently taken off Barren Island and Narcondam. On a character of the Talchir boulder-beds. Analysis of Phosphatic Nodules from the Salt- range, Punjab. 2 Part 2.— The fossil vertebrata of India. On the Echinoidea of the cretaceous series of the Lower Narbada Valley, with remarks upon their geological age. Field-notes: No. 5—to accompany a geological sketch map of Afghanistan and North-eastern Khorassan. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Rajmahal and Deccan traps. On the Dolerite of the Chor. On the identity of the Olive series in the east with the speckled sandstone in the west of the Salt-range in the Punjab. Part 3.— The retirement of Mr. Medlicott. Notice of J. B. Mushketoff's Geology of Russian Turkistan. Crystalline and metamorphicrocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section I. Preliminary sketch of the geology of Simla and Jutogh. Noteon the ‘Lalitpur’ meteorite. Part 4.—Note on some points in Himalayan geology. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section II. The iron industry of the western portion of the district of Raipur. Notes on Upper Burma. Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. (Second notice.) Some remarks on Pressure Metamorphism with reference to the foliation of the Himalayan Gneissose-Granite. A list and index: of papers on Himalayan Geology and Microscopic Petrology, published in the preceding volumes of the Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vor, XXI, 1888. Part 1.—Annual report for 1887. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section III. The Birds’-nest or Elephant Island, Mergui Archi- pelago. Memorandum on the results of an exploration of Jessalmer, with a view to the discovery of coal. A facetted pebble from the boulder bed ('speckled sandstone’) of Mount Chel in the Salt-range in the Punjab. Examination of nodular stones obtained by trawling off Colombo. Ў Part 2.— Award of the Wollaston Gold Medal, Geological Society of London, 1888. The Dhar- war System, the chief auriferous rock series in South India. On the Igneous rocks of the districts of Raipur and Balaghat, Central Provinces, On the Sangar Marg and Mehowgale coal-fields, Kashmir. Part 3.—The Manganese Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. ‘The Carboniferous Glacial Period. The sequence and correlation of the pre-tertiary sedimentary formations of the Simla region of the Lower Himalayas. y Part 4.—On Indian fossil vertebrates. On the geology of the North-west Himalayas. On plown-sand rock sculpture. Re-discovery of Nummulites in Zanskar, On some micas traps from Barakar and Raniganj. Voz, XXII, 1889. Part r.—Annualreport for 1888. The Dharwar System, the chief auriferous rock-series in South India. (Second notice.) On the Wajra Karur diamonds, and on M. Chaper's alleged discovery of diamonds in pegmatite near that place. On the generic position of the so-called Plesiosaurus Indicus. On flexible sandstone or Itacolumite, with special reference to its nature and mode of occurrence in India, and the cause of its flexibility. On Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia. Part 2.—Note on Indian Steatite. Distorted pebbles in the Siwalik conglomerate. ‘The Car. boniferous Glacial Period. Notes on Dr. W. Waagen's ‘Carboniferous Glacial Period.’ On the oil-fields of Twingoung and Beme, Burma. The gypsum of the Nehal Nadi, Kumaun. On some of the materials for pottery obtainable in the neighbourhood of Jabal- pur and of Umaria. к Part 3. —Abstract report on the coal outcrops in the Sharigh Valley, Baluchistan. On the discovery of Trilobites by Dr. H. Warth in the Neobolus beds of the Salt-range. Geolo- gical notes. On the Cherra Poonjee coal-field, in the Khasia Hills. On a Cobaltiferous Matt from Nepal. The President of the Geological Society of London on the Interna. tional Geological Congress of 1888. Tin-mining in Mergui district. : Part 4—On the land-tortoises of the Siwaliks. On the pelvis of a ruminant from the Siwaliks. Recent assays from the Sambhar Salt-Lake in Rajputana. The Manganiferous Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. On some Palagonite-bearing raps of the Rájmahál hills and Deccan. On tin-smelting in the Malay Peninsula. Provisional index of the local distribution of important minerals, miscellaneous minerals, gemstones, and quarry stones in the Indian Empire. Part ı. i 8 Vor. XXIII, 1890. Part 1.— Annual report for 1889. Cn the Lakadong coal-fields, Jaintia Hills. On the Pectos ral and pelvic girdles and skull of the Indian Dicynodonts. On certain vertebrate remains from the Nagpur district (with description of a fish-skull). Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalayas, Garhwál and Kumaun, Section IV. On the bivalves of the Olive-group, Salt-range. On the mud-banks of the Travancore coast. Part 2.—On the most favourable sites for Petroleum explorations in the Harnai district, Baluch- istan. The Sapphire Mines of Kashmir. The supposed Matrix of, the Diamond at Wajra Karur, Madras. The Sonapet Gold-field. Field Notes from the Shan Hills (Upper Burma). A description of some new species of Syringosphæridæ, with remarks upon their structures, &c. E Part 3.—On the Geology and Economic Resources of the Country adjoining the Sind-Pishin Railway between Sharigh and Spintangi, and of the country between it and Khattan (with a map). Report of a Journey through India in the winter of 1888-80, by Dr. Johannes Walther, translated from the German, by R. Bruce Foote. On the Coal-fields of Lairungao, Maosandram, and Mao-be-lar-kar, in the Khasi Hills (with 3 plans). Further Note on Indian Steatite. Provisional Index of the Local Distribution of Important Minerals, Miscellaneous Minerals, Gem Stones, and Quarry Stones in the Indian Empire (continued from p. 286, Vol. XXII). 5 Part 4.—Geological sketch of Naini Tal; with some remarks on the natural conditions govern- ing mountain slopes (with a map and plate). Notes on some Fossil Indian Bird Bones. The Darjiling Coal between the Lisu and the Ramthi rivers, explored during season 1890-01 (with a map). The Basic Eruptive Rocks of the Kadapah Area. The Deep Boring at Lucknow. Preliminary Note on the Coal Seam of the Dore Ravine, Hazara (with two plates). Vor. XXIV, 1891. Part 1.—Annúal report for 1890. On the Geology of the Salt-range of the Punjab, with a re-considered theory of the Origin and Age of the Salt Marl (with five plates). On Veins of Graphite in decomposed Gneiss (Laterite) in Ceylon. Extracts from the Journal of a trip to the Glaciers of the Kabru, Pandim, &c. The Salts of.the Sambhar Lake in Raj- putana, and of the Saline efflorescence called ‘Reh’ from Aligarh in the North-Western Provinces. Analysis of Dolomite from the Salt-range, Punjab. . Part 2.—Preliminary Report on the Oil locality near Moghal Kot, in the Sheráni country, - Suleiman Hills. On Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills, . Note on the Geology of the Lushai Hills. Report on the Coal-fields in the Northern Shan States. Note on the reported Namsèka Ruby-mine in the Mainglôn State. Note on the Tourmaline (Schorle) Mines in the Mainglón State. Note on a Salt-spring near Bawgyo, Thibaw State. Bart 3.— Boring Exploration ¿n the Daltongunj Coal-field, Palamow (with a map). Death of Dr. P. MARTIN Duncan. Contributions to the study of the Pyroxenic varieties of Gneiss and of the Scapolite-bearing Rocks. Part 4.—On a Collection of Mammalian Bones from Mongolia. Further note on the Darjiling Coal Exploration. Notes on the Geology and Mineral Resources of Sikkim (witha map). Chemical and Physical notes on Rocks from the Salt-range, Punjab (with two plates). Vor. XXV, 1892. Part 1.— Annual report for 1891. Report on the Geology of Thal Chotiäli and part of the Mari country (with a map and 5 plates). Petrological Notes on the Boulder-bed of the Salt-range, Punjäb, Subrecent and Recent Deposits of the valley plains of Quetta, Pishin and the Dasht-i-Bedaolat; with appendices on the C .amans of Quetta; and the Artesian water-supply of Quetta and Pishin (with one plate). Part 2.—Geology of the Saféd Kóh (with 2 plates of sections). Report on a Survey of the Jherria Coal field (with a map and 3 section plates) (oué of print.) Part 3.—Note on the Locality of Indian Tscheffkinite. Geological Sketch of ¿he country north of Bhamo. Preliminary Report on the economic resources of the Amber and Jade mines area in Upper Burma. Preliminary Report ом the Iron-Ores and Iron-Industries of the Salem District. Or the Occurrence of Riebeckitezz India. Coal oz the Great Tenasserim River, Mergui District, Lower Burma. Part 4.—Report on tke Oil Springs a? Moghal Kot in the Shirani Hills (with 2 plates). Second Note on Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills.” Os a New Fossil, Amber-like Resin occuzzing іп Burma. Preliminary notice on the Triassic Deposits of the Salt-range. Vor. XXVI, 1893. Part 1.--Annual report for 1802. Notes ом the Central Himalayas (with map and plate). Note on the occurrence of Jadeite in Upper Burma (with a map). On ¿he occurrence of Burmite, a new Fossil Resin from Upper Burma. Report oz the Prospecting Operations, Mergui District, 1891-92. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake in Baluchistan on the 20th December 1892 (with 2 plates). Further Note oz Burmite, a new amber-like fossil resin from Upper Burma. Note on the Alluvial deposits and Subterranean water-supply of Rangoon (with a map). Part 3.—On the Geology of the Sherani Hills (with maps and plates). On Carboniferous Fossils from Tenasserim (with 1 plate), On a deep Boring a£ Chandernagore. Note on Granite in the districts of Tavoy and Mergui (with a plate). Part 4.—On the Geology of the country between the Chappar Rift and Harnai ¿n Baluchistan (with map and 3 plates). Notes on the Geology of a part of the Tenasserim Valley with special reference to the Tendau-Kamapying Coal-field (with two maps). On a Magnetite from the Madras Presidency containing Manganese and Alumina. Or Hise lopite (Haughton) (with a plate). Vor. XXVII, 1894. Part 1.— Annual report for 1803. Report on the Bhaganwala Coal-field, Salt-range, Punjab (with map and 2 plates). Part 2.—Note on the Chemical qualities of petroleum from Burma. Note ox the Singareni Coal-field, Hyderabad (Deccan) (with map and 3 plates ofsections). Report on the Gohna Landslip, Garhwal (with 5 plates and 2 maps). Part 3.—On the Cambrian Formation of the Eastern Salt-range (with a plate). The Giridih (Karharbari) Coal-field, with notes on the labour and methods of working (with 2 maps and 8 plates of sections). On the Occurrence of Chipped (P) Flints i5 the Upper Miocene of Burma (with a plate). Note oz the Occurrence of Velates Schmideliana, Chemn., and куш grandis, Sow. s5., in the Tertiary Formation of India and Burma (with plates). Paré 4.—Note on the Geology of Wuntho in Upper Burma (with а map). Preliminary notice on the Echinoids from the Upper Cretaceous System of Baluchistan, Or Highly Phosphatic Mica-Peridotites intrusive in the Lower Gondwana Rocks of Bengal. On a Mica-Hypersthene- Hornblende-Peridotite in Bengal. Vor. XXVIII, 1895. Part 1.—Annual report for 1894. Cretaceous Formation of Pondicherry. Some early allu- sions £o Barren Island; witk а few remarks thereon. Bibliography of Barren Island and Narcondam, from 1884 to 1894; with some remarks, Part 2.—On the importance of Cretaceous Rocks of Southern India iz estimating the geo- graphical conditions during later cretaceous times. Report on the Experimental Boring for Petroleum at Sukkur, from October 1893 to March 1895. The development and Sub- division of the Tertiary system in Burma. Part 3—On the Jadeite and other rocks, from Tammaw in Upper Burma. On the Geology of the Tochi Valley. Oz the existence of Lower Gondwanas in Argentina. . Part 4.—On the Igneous Rézks of the Giridih (Kurhurbaree) Coal-field and their Contact Effects. On some outliers of ¿he Vindhyan system'south of the Sone and their relation to the so-called Lower Vindhyans, Notes ою a portion of the Lower Vindhyan area of the Sone Valley. Noteon Dr. Fritz NOETLING'S paper on the Tertiary system in Burma, in the Records of the Geological Survey of India for 1805, Part 2. | Vor. XXIX, 1896. Part 1.—Annual reportfor 1805. On the Acicular inclusions in Indian Garnets. On the _Origin and Growth of Garnets and of their Micropegmatitic intergrowths in Pyroxenic rocks (with 1 plate). Part 2.— Notes on the Ultra-basic rocks axd derived minerals of the Chalk (Magnesite) hills, and other localities near Salem, Madras (with 2—6 plates). Preliminary notes on some Corundum localities iz the Salem and Coimbatore districts, Madras (with 7—9 plates). On the occurrence of Corundum and Kyanite ir the Manbhum district, Bengal. Oz the papers by DR. Kossmat and Dr. KURTZ, and on the ancient Geography of “ Gondwana-land.” Note from the Geological Survey of India. / Part 3.— Оп some Igneous Rocks from the Tochi Valley. Notes from the Geological Survey of india. Part 4.—Report on the Steatite mines, Minbu District, Burma. Further notes or /he Lower Vindhyan (Sub-Kaimur) area of the Sone Valley, Rewah. Notes from the Geological Sur- vey of India, » VoL. XXX, 1897. Part 1.—Annual Report for 1896. On some Norite and associated Basic Dykes and Lava- flows in Southern India (with plates I to 11). The reference of the genus Vertebraria. On a Plant of Glossopteris with part of the rhisome attached, and on the structure of Vertebraria (with plates III to V). } | Part 2.—The Cretaceous Deposits of Pondicherri (with plates VI to X). Notes from the Geological Survey of India. : Part 3.—Note on Flow-structure in an Igneous dyke (with plate XI). Additional note on the Olivine-norite dykes at Coonoor (with plate XII). Reporton some trial excavations for corundum near Palakod, Salem District (with plate XIII). Report on the occurrence of coal at Palana village in Bikanir State (with plate XIV). An account of the geological specimens collected by the Afghan-Baluch Boundary Commission of 1806 (with plate XV). Note from the Geological Survey of India (with plates XVI and XVII). Part 4—On Nemalite from Afghanistan. On a quartz-barytes rock occurring in the Salem District, Madras Presidency (with plate XVIII). Note on a worn femur of Hippopo- tamus irravadicus, Caut. and Falc., from the Lower Pliocena of Burma (with plates XIX and XX). On the supposed coal at Jaintia, Ваха Duars. Percussion Figures on Micas. Notes from the Geological Survey of In dia. The price fized for these publications is 1 rupee (2s.) each part, or 2 rupees (4s.) each volume. Norz,—4 he Records ceased to be published from the ist January 1898. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. A Manual of the Geology of India. 4 Vols. With map. 1879-1887— Vol. 1. Peninsular Area. } Бу Н. В. Medlicott апа W. Т. Blanford Price 8 Vol. 2. Extra-Peninsular Area. rupees (ou£ of print). ў Vol. 3. Economic Geology. By У. Ball. Price 5 rupees (out of print). Vol. 4. Mineralogy. By F. R. Mallet. Price 2 rupees. A Manual of the Geology of India, 2nd edition. By R. D. Oldham. (1893.) Price 8 rupees. 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SMITH, A.R.C.S. Assistant Superintendents. H. H. HavpEN, В.А., B.E.: E. VREDENBURG, B.L., B.Sc. (Paris), A.R.C.S.: Т. L. WALKER, M.A. (Kingston), Ph.D. (Leipzig) : . Palgontologist. Fritz NoETLING, Ph.D. (Berlin), F.G.S. Specialist. С. A. STONIER, A.R.S.M. Sub-Assistants. HIRA LAL: KisHEN SINGH, F.G.S.° Artist. Registrar. Н. B. W. GARRICK. A. E. МАСА. AUDSLEY, Assistant Curator. Т. R. BLYTH. Geological Museum, Library, and Office, Calcutta, Irce Swo Rumpus, MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, — — Vor. I. Royal 8vo, pp. 309, 1859 (out of print). Pt. 1, 1856 (price 1 Re): Preliminary notice on the Coal and Iron of Talchir—On the geological structure and relations of the Talchir Coal-field.—Gold-yielding deposits of Upper Assam.— On specimens of gold and gold dust from Shué-gween, Pt. 2, 1858 (price 2 Rs): On the geological structure of a portion of the Khasi Hills.—On the geo- logical structure of the Nilghiri Hills (Madras). 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Pt. 3 in the Press) : Slate Quarrying in Kangra District, Punjab. XXXV. Royal 8vo, Pt. 1, 1901 (in the Press) : Geology of Western Rajputana. PALÆONTOLOGIA INDICA. (Ser. 1, Ш, V, VI, УШ.) - CRETACEOUS FAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA, by F. STOLICZKA, except Vor. 1,-Pt. 1, by Н. F. BLANFORD. Vor. I. The Cephalopoda (1861-65), pp. 216, pls. 94 (6 double). Vor. П. The Gastropoda (1867-68), pp. xiii, 500, pls. 28. — Vor. III. The Pelecypoda (1870-71), pp. xxii, 537, pls. 50.- Vor. IV. The Brachiopoda, Ciliopoda, Echinodermata Corals, etc. (1872-73), PP- v, 202, pls. 29. (Ser. II, XI, XIL)- THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE GONDWANA SYSTEM, 5y O. FEISTMANTEL, except VoL. I, Pr. 1, by T. OLDHAM and J. MORRIS. Vor. І, рр. xviii, 233, pls. 72. 1863-79. Pt. 1; Rájmah4l Group, Räjmahäl Hills. Pt. 2; The same (continued). Pt. 3; Plants from Golapilli. Pt. 4; Outliers on the Madras Coast. - : Vor. Il, pp. xli, 115, pls. 26. 1876-78. Pt.1,: Jurassic Flora of Kach. Рі. 2: Flora of the : Jabalpur Group. А Vor. ШІ, pp. xi, 64 + 149, pls. 80 (9 double) (I - XXXI +1 A—XLVII A). 1879-81. Pt. 1; The Flora of the Talchir-Karharbari beds. Pt.2; The Flora of the Damuda and Panchet Divisions. Pt. ; The same (concluded). : Vor. IV, pp. xxvi, 25+66, pls. 35 (2 double) (I—XXV +1 A—XIV A). Pt. 1 (1882); Fossil Flora of the South Rewah Gondwana basin. Pt. 2 (1986); Fossil Flora of some of the coal-fields in Western Bengal. (Ser. IX.) -JURASSIC FAUNA OF KACH. Vor. 1 (1873-76). The Cephalopoda, by W. WAAGEN, pp. i, 247, pls. бо (б double). Vor. Il, pt. 1 (1893). The Echinoidea of Kach, by J. W. GREGORY, pp. 12, pls. 2. Vor. П, pt. 2 (1900). The Corals, by J. W. Gregory, pp. 195, i—ix, pls. 26. Vor. III, pt. 1 (1900)). The Brachiopoda, by P. L. Kitchin, pp. 87, pls. 15. (Ser. IV.) -INDIAN PRE-TERTIARY VERTEBRATA. Vor. I, pp. vi, 137, pls. 26. 1865-85. Pt. 1 (1865); The Vertebrate Fossils from the Panchet rocks, by T. Н. HuxrEv. Pt. 2 (1878); The Vertebrate Fossils of the Kota-Maleri Group, by Sır P. DE M. Grey EGERTON and L. C. Miarr. Pt.3 (1879); Reptilia and Batrachia, by R. LvDEKKER. Pt. 4 (1885); The Laby- rinthodont from the Bijori group; by R. LYDEKKER. Pt. 5 (1885); The Reptilia and Amphibia of the Maleri and Denwa groups, by К. LYDEKKER. (Ser. X)—INDIAN TERTIARY AND POST-TERTIARY VERTEBRATA, by R. LYDEKKER, except VoL. I, Pt. 1, by R. B. FOOTE. Vor. I, pp. xxx, 300, pls. 50. 1874-80. Pt. 1; Rhinoceros deccanensis. Pt. 2; Molar teeth and other remains of Mammalia. Pt. 3; Crania of Ruminants. Pt,4; Supple- ment to Pt. 3. Pt. 5; Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. Vor. Il, pp. xv, 363, pls. 45. 1881-84. Pt.r; Siwalik Rhinocerotide. Pt. 2; Supplement to Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. Pt.3; Siwalik and Narbada Equidz. Pt.4; Siwalik Camelopardalide. Pt. 5; Siwalik Selenodont Suina, etc. Pt. 6; Siwalik and Narbada Carnivora. : Vor. III, pp. xxiv, 264, pls. 38, 1884-86. Pt.ı; Additional Siwalik Perissodactyla and Pro- boscidia. Pt. 2; Siwalik and Narbada Bunodont Suina. Pt. 3; Rodents and new Ruminants from the Siwaliks. Pt.4; Siwalik Birds. Pt.5; Mastodon Teeth from Perim Island. Pt.6; Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia, Pt. 7; Siwalik Crocodilia, Lasertilia and Ophidia. Pt. 8; Tertiary Fishes. Vot. IV, pt. 1, 1886. Siwalik Mammalia (Supplement 1), pp. 18, pls. б. » » » 2,1886. The Fauna of the Karnul caves: (and addendum to pt. 1); pp. 40 (1‹— 58), pls. 5 (vii—xi). : Ре » » 3,1887. Eocene Chelonia from the Salt-range; pp. 7 (59—65), pls. 2 (xii—xiii). (Ser. VII, XIV.)—TERTIARY AND UPPER CRETACEOUS FAUNA OF WESTERN INDIA, by P. MARTIN DUNCAN and W. PERCY SLADEN, except Pr. 1, by F. STOLICZKA. Vor. I, рр. 16 + 110 + 382 + 91 = 590, pls. 5 + 28 + 58 + 13 = 104. 1871—85. Рі. 1;- Tertiary Crabs from Sind and Kach. Pt. 1 (new 2); Sind Fossil Corals and Alcyonaria. Pt. 3. The Fossil Echinoidea of Sind: Fas. т, The Cardita beaumonti beds; Fas. 2. The Ranikot Series in Western Sind; Fas. 3, The Khirthar Series; Fas. 4, The Nari (Oligocene) Series; Fas. 5, The Gaj (Miocene) Series; Fas. 6, The Makrän (Pliocene) Series. Pt. 4, The Fossil Echinoidea of Kach and Kattywar. (Ser XIIL)—SALT-RANGE FOSSILS, ^y WILLIAM WAAGEN, Ph.D. Productus-Limestone Group: Vot. I, Pt. 1 (1879). Pisces, Cephalopoda, pp. 72, pls. 6. 5 E S „ 2 (1880). Gastropoda and supplement to pt. 1, pp. 111 (73-183), pls. 10 (1 double), (vii-xvi). n 5 P » 3 (1881). Pelecypoda, pp. 144 (185-328), pls. 8 (xvii- ў xxiv). 5 » n: » 4 (1882-85). Brachiopoda, pp. 442 (329-770), pls. 62 (xxv-Ixxxvi). 5 de 5 „ 5 (1885). Bryozoa—Annelide—Echinodermata, pp. 64 (771-834), pls. 10 (Ixxxvii-xcvi). € y X qd » 6 (1886). Cœlenterata, pp. 90 (835-924), pls. 20 (xcvii-exvi). Е » » n » 7 (1887). Ccelenterata, Protozoa, pp. 74 (925-98), pls. 12 (cxvii-cxxviii). Fossils from the Ceratite Formation: Vol. Il, pt. 1 (1895). Pisces—Ammonoidea, рр. 324, pls. 40. i Geological Results: Vol. IV, pt. 1 (1889), pp. 1—88, pls. 4. > А » » 2 (1891), pp. 89—242, pls. 8. (Ser. XV.)—HIMALAYAN FOSSILS, ¿y CARL DIENER, Ph.D. Anthracolithic Fossils of Kashmir and Spiti: Vol. I, Pt. 2 (1899), pp. 96, pls. 8. The Permocarboniferous Fauna of Chitichun No. I: Vol. I, pt. 3 (1897), pp. 105, pls. 13. The Белер Fossils of the Productus Shales of Kumaon and Garhwal: Vol. I, pt. 4 (1897), PP- 54, pls. 5. i The Cephalopoda of the Lower Trias: Vol. II, pt. 1 (1897), pp. 182, p!s. 23. The Cephalopoda of the Muschelkaik: Vol. II, pt. 2 (1895). pp. 118, pls. 37. Upper Triassic Cephalopoda Faunæ of the Himalayas: Vol. III, pt. 1 (1899), pp. 158, pls. 22. Trias Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata : Vol. 111, pt. 2 (1896), pp. 76, pls. 12 (1 double). (Ser. XVL)—BALUCHISTAN FOSSILS, ¿y FRITZ NOETLING, Ph.D., F.G.S. The Fauna of the Kellaways of Mazár Drik: Vol. I, pt. 1 (1895), pp. 22, pls. 13. The Fauna of the (Neocomian) Belemnite Reds: Vol. I, pt. 2. (1897), pp. 6, pls. 2. The Fauna о! the Upper Cretaceous (Maéstrichtien) Beds of the Mari Hills: Vol. I, pt. 3 (1897), РР. 79, pis. 23. (NEW SERIES.) The Cambrian Fauna of the Eastern Salt-range: Vol. I, pt. 1 (1899), pp. 14, pl. 3, Notes on the Morphology of the Pelecypoda : » » 2 (1899) рр. 53, pls. 4. Fauna of the Miocene Beds of Burma: D » 3 (1901), рр. 378, pls..25 The price fixed for these publications is 4 annas (6 pence) per single plate. RECORDS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. I, 1868. Part 1.—Annual report for 1867. The coal-seams of the Tawa valley. On the prospects of useful coal being found in the Garrow Hills. Copper in Bundelkund. Meteorites. Part 2.—On the coal-seams of the neighbourhood of Chanda. Coal near Nagpur. Geological notes on the Surat collectorate. The cephalopodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Lead in the district of Raepur. Coal in the Eastern Hemisphere. Meteorites. Part 3.—General results obtained from an examination of the gastropodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Notes on route from Poona to Nagpur vi4 Ahmednuggur, Jalna, Loonar, Yeotmahal, Mangali, and Hingunghat. On the agate-flake found by Mr. Wynne in the pliocene (?) deposits of the Upper Godavery. The Boundary of the Vindhyan series in Rajputana. Meteorites. Vor. 11, 1869. Part 1.—The valley of the Poorna river, West Berar. On the Kuddapah and Kurnool forma- tions. Geological sketch of the Shillong plateau. On the occurrence of gold in the district of Singbhoom, &c. Memorandum on the wells now being sunk at the European Penitentiary, and at the site for the Central Jail, Hazareebagh. Meteorites. : Pait 2.—Annual report for 1868. Note on Pangshura tecta and the other species of Chelonia from the newer tertiary deposits of the Nerbudda valley. Sketch of the metamorphic rocks of Bengal. à Part 3.—Preliminary notes on the geology of Kutch, Western India. Contributions to the geology and physical geography of the Nicobar Islands. Part 4.—On the beds containing silicified wood in Eastern Prome, British Burma. Mineral- ogical statistics of Kumaon division. The coal-field near Chanda. Lead in the Raipur district. Meteorites. : Vor. IIl, 1870. Part 1.—Annual report for 1869. On the geology of the neighbourhood of Madras. On the alluvial deposits of the Irrawadi, more particularly as contrasted with those of the Ganges. Pa:t 2.—Geology of Gwalior and vicinity. On the slates at Chiteli, Kumaon. On the lead vein near Chicholi, Raipur district. The Wardha river coal-fields, Berar and Central Provinces. Report on the coal at Korba in the Bilaspur district. Part 3.—The Mohpani coal-field. On the lead-ore at Slimanabad, Jabalpur district. On the Occurrence of coal east of Chhatisgarh in the country between Bilaspur :nd Ranchi. On petroleum in Burma. On the petroleum locality of Sudkal, near Futtijung, west of Rawal- pindi. On the occurrence of argentiferous galena and copper in the district of Manbhum, S. W. Frontier of Bengal. Assays of iron ores. Par? 4.—On the geology of Mount Tilla, in the Punjab. The copper deposits of Dalbhum and Singbhum: 1.—The copper mines of Singbhum : 2.—On the copper of Dalbhum and Singbhum. Meteorites. Vor. IV, 1871. Part 1.—Annual report for 1870. Enquiry into an alleged discovery of coal near Gooty, and of the indications of coal in the Cuddapah district. Mineral statistics of the Kumaon divi- sion. Part 2.—The axial group in Western Prome. Geological structure of the Southern Konkan. On the supposed occurrence of native antimony in the Straits Settlements. On the com- position of a deposit in the boilers of steam-engines at Raniganj. On the plant-bearing sandstones of the Godavari valley, on the southern extension of rocks belonging to the Kamthi group to the neighbourhood of Ellore and Rajamandri, and on the possible occur- renze of coal in the same direction. Part 3—The progress and results of borings for coal in the Godavari valley near Dumaguden and Bhadrachalam. On the Narbada coal-basin. Sketch of the geology of the Central Provinces. Additional note on the plant-bearing sandstones of the Godaveri valley. Part 4—The ammonite fauna of Kutch. The Raigur and Hengir (Gangpur) Coal-field. Description of the sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on the Godavari, and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. a Vor. V, 1872. Рат? 1.—Annual report for 1871. Rough section showing the relations of the rocks near Murree (Mari), Punjab. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoin- ing country. Description of the sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on . the Godavari, and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. Part 2.—On the geological formation seen along the coasts of Beluchistan.and Persia from Karachi to the head of the Persian Gulf, and on some of the Gulf Islands. On a traverse of parts of the Kummummet and Hanamconda districts in the Nizam's Dominions. The geology of Orissa. On a new coal-field in the south-eastern part of the Hyderabad (Deccan) territory. \ ; Part 3.—On Maskat and Massandim on the east coast of Arabia. Ап example of local joint- ing. On the axial group of Western Prome. On the geology of the Bombay Presidency. Part 4.—On exploration for coal in the northern region of the Satpura basin. On the value of the evidence afforded by raised oyster banks on the coasts of India, in estimating the amount of elevation indicated thereby. On a possible field of coal-measures in the Goda- vari district, Madras Presidency. On the lameta or infra-trappean formation of Central , India. On some recently discovered petroleum localities in Pegu. Correction regarding the supposed eozoonal limestone of Yellam Bile. Vor. VI, 1873. Part r.—Annual report for 1872. The geology of the North-West Provinces. Part 2.—The Bisrampur coal-field. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoining country. à Part 3.—Notes on a celt found by Mr. Hacket in the ossiferous deposits of Narbada valley (Pliocene of Fa!coner): om the age of the deposits, and on the associated shells. On the Barakars (coal-measures) in the Beddadanole field, Godavari district. On the geology of parts of the Upper Punjab. Coalin India. The salt-springs of Pegu. Part 4.—On some of the iron deposits of Chanda (Central Provinces), Barren Islands and. Narkondam. Stray notes on the metalliferous resources of British Burma. : Vor. VII, 1874. Par! r.— Annual report for 1873. On the geological structure of. the hill ranges between the Indus valley in Ladak and Shah-i-Dula on the frontier of Yarkand territory. On some of the iron ores of Kumaon. On the raw materials for iron-smelting in the Raniganj field. On the habitat in India of the elastic sandstone, or so-called Itacolumyte. Geolo- gical notes on part of Northern Hazaribagh. E Part 2.—Geological notes on the route traversed by the Yarkand Embassy from Shah-i-Dula to Yarkhand and Kashgar. On the occurrence of jade in the Karakas valley, on the southern borders of Turkistan. Notes from the Eastern Himalaya. Petroleum in Assam. Coal in the Garo Hills. On the discovery of a new locality for copper in the Narbada valley. Potash-salt from East India. On the Geology of the neighbourhood of Mari hill station in the Punjab. Part 3.— Geological observations made on a visit to the Chaderkul, Thian Shan range. On the former extension of glaciers within the Kangra district. On the building and orna- mental stones of India. Second note on the materials for iron manufacture in the Rani кап} coal-field. Manganese ore in the Wardha coal-field. : Part 4.—The auriferous rocks of the Dhambal hills, Dharwar district. Remarks on certain considerations adduced by Falconer in support of the antiquity of the human race in India, Geological notes made on a visit to the coal recently discovered in the country of the Luni Pathans, south-east corner of Afghanistan. Note on the progress of geclogical investigation in the Godavari district, Madras Presidency. Notes upon the subsidiary materials for artificial fuel. Vor. VIII, 1875.- Part 1.—Annual report for 1874. The Altum-Artush considered from a geological point of view. On the evidences of ‘ground-ice’ in tropical India, during the Talchir period. "Trials of Raniganj fire-bricks. Part 2 (out af print).—On the gold-fields of south-east Wynaad, Madras Presidency. Geolo- gical notes on the Khareean hills in the Upper Punjab. On water-bearing strata of the Surat district. Sketch of the geology of Scindia’s territories. Part 3.—The Shahpur coal-field, with notice of coal explorations in the Narbada region. Note on coal recently found near Moflong, Khasia Hills. Part 4.— Note on the geology of Nepal. The Raigarh and Hingir coal-fields. Vor. IX, 1876. Part 1 (out of print).— Annual report for 1875. On the geology of Sind. Part 2.—The retirement of Dr. Oldham. On the age of some fossil floras in India. Descrip- tion of a cranium of Stegodon Ganesa, with notes on the sub-genus and allied forms. Note upon the Sub-Himalayan series in the Jamu (Jummoo) Hills. Part 3.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the geological age of certain groups comprised in the Gondwana series of India, and on the evidence they afford of distinct zoological and botanical terrestrial regions in ancient epochs. On the relations of the fossiliferous strata at Maleri and Kota, near Sironcha, C. P. On the fossil mammalian faunz of India and Burma. Part 4.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the osteology of Merycopotamus dis- similis. Addenda and Corrigenda to paper on tertiary mammalia. Occurrence of Plesiosaurus in India. On the geology of the Pir Panjal and neighbouring districts. Vor. X, 1877. Part 1.—Annual report for 1876. Geological notes on the Great Indian Desert between Sind and Rajputana. On the occurrence of the cretaceous genus Omphalia near Nameho lake, Tibet, about 75 miles north of Lhassa. On Estheria in the Gondwana formation. Notices of new and other vertebrata from Indian tertiary and secondary rocks. Description of a new Emydine from the upper tertiaries of the Northern Punjab. Observations on under- ground temperature. Part 2.—On the rocks of the Lower Godavari. On the.‘ Atgarh Sandstones’ near Cuttack. On fossil floras in India. Notices of new or rare mammals from the Siwaliks. On the Arvali series in North-eastern Rajputana. Borings for coalin India. On the geology of India. Part 3.—On the tertiary zone and underlying rocks in the North-west Punjab. On fossil floras in India. On the occurrence of erratics in the Potwar. On recent ccal explorations in the Darjiling district. Limestones in the neighbourhood of Barakar. On some forms of blowing-machine used by the smiths of Upper Assam. Analyses of Raniganj coals. Part 4.- On the Geology of the Mahanadi basin and its vicinity. On the diamonds, gold, and lead ores of the Sambalpur district. Note on ' Eryon Comp. Barrovensis, McCoy, from the Sripermatur group near Madras. On fossil floras in India. The Blaini group and the 'Central Gneiss' in the Simla Himalayas. Remarks on some statements in Mr. Wynne's paper on the tertiaries of the North-west Punjab. Note on the genera Cheromeryx and Rhagatherium. Vor. XI, 1878. Part r.— Annual report for 1877. On the geology of the Upper Godavari basin, between the river Wardha and the Godavari, near the civil station of Sironcha. On the geology of Kashmir, Kishtwar, and Pangi. Notices of Siwalik mammals. The palzontological relations of the Gondwana system. On ‘Remarks, &c., by Mr. Theobald upon erratics in the Punjab.’ Part 2.— On the Geology of Sind (second notice). On the origin of the Kumaun lakes. On a trip over the Milam Pass, Kumaun. The mud volcanoes of Ramriand Cheduba, On the mineral resources of Ramri, Cheduba, and the adjacent islands. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. XXXII, PART 2. REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD, фу С. F. READER, Mining Specialist, Geological Survey of India. Published by order of His Excellency the Governor General of India in Council. CALCUTTA: SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. LONDON: MESSRS. KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co. MDCCCCI А - CALCUTTA : Bs l | . GOVERN.MENT- OF INDIA CENTRAL PRINTING oerte; 2 ТЕМЕ F ROSE 10/8 \HAsrınas экең. 1o у^ u ll MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD, фу С, F. READER, Mining Specialist, Geological Survey of India. (With Map and 3 plates.) CONTENTS. CHAPTER I—Introduction, CHAPTER IV.—Workable thicknesses of . гу II.— Geology. coal proved, » lll.— Coal Explorations. Appendix. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION, When drawing up the Progress Report in camp on this field, time did not permit of my discussing all the data known and I confined myself directly to the main object of this survey, namely, “Is there any likelihood of finding a workable coal-seam ?" Having now had a full opportunity of perusing all the papers relating to the various, apparently independent, explorations in this area, I am enabled to discuss in greater detail all the facts known which tend to answer that question, to show what still remains to be done and how in my opinion a conclusion can most speedily and effectively be arrived at. The part of the coal-field here described lies in the Central Prov- Prud. rene inces, about 22 miles N. N. W. of Sambalpur, Physical Features, in the bay formed by the junction of the Lillari nala with the Eeb river; its area is roughly 50 square miles. B ( 4152) 90 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. The general level of the area is about 750 feet above sea-level. Apart from the Bilpahari range of hills to the north which rise some 400 to 500 feet higher and form a boundary to the Barakar rocks, and the hill, called Barakar on sketch-plan, to the south of Kiraruma, which rises about 100 feet above this average level, and perhaps the Luchkura range and Jamwapali hill, there is no very great depar- ture from this level. Nevertheless the country is by no means of even gradient, for rugged little hills covered with laterite and thick jungle occur at every turn, and make the work of surface exploration a difficult one. The symmetry of the sketch-plan attached is remarkable. The Eeb river and Lillari nala form a semi-circular curve having a centre situated somewhere in the Bilpahari range from which their tributaries evenly distributed appear to radiate, The rugged little hills above-mentioned, which form the watersheds for these tribu- taries, also possess a somewhat palmate arrangement striking off from the Bilpahari hills and forming, as it were, the framework of the area. This symmetry is enhanced by the Bengal-Nagpur Railway line which formsa more or less inner concentric curve. The area has already been treated on by Dr. Ball, in the Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. viii, Part 4, Dr. King, in the Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vols. xvii-3, xvili-4, xix-4, and xx-4, and by Mr. F. H. Smith, Deputy Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India. The former discussed it from a stratigraphical standpoint Previous writers. simply; the latter with a view to discovering its resources as a workable coal area. Dr, King's coal explorations were, how- ever, very general—extending over the whole of the Chhattisgarh coal-fields, The present exploration is confined to a much smaller area and partakes more of the nature of a detailed Geological Survey. The proposed construction of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway line through this known Barakar area and the great Previous history. Е distance to the nearest coal supply, Warora = (2) INTRODUCTION. 91 the average lead from which source is 232 miles—brought the question of the coal resources of this field into prominence. One thick band of upwards of 40 feet of carbonaceous and grey shales associated with some thin layers of coal near Durlipali, and several thin coal-seams near Bonjari and Khaliabahal, had long been known to exist in the Lillari nala. Dr. King was deputed to ex- amine and report upon the prospects of this field as a staple source of coal supply. Under his directions ten boreholes and one shaft were put down which gave such poor results that no further action was taken in prospecting for coal until the discovery of a seam of coal under the site of the Eeb bridge (see Plan) on the Bengal-Nagpur Railway. On this discovery a grant was made by Government to the Bengal-Nagpur Railway Company to explore the coal area around Telanpali. In this exploration five boreholes and one shaft were put down, The general result was not encouraging, but on the report being submitted to Mr. Griesbach, Director of the Geological Survey of India, he, not being satisfied that the lower measures of Barakars which usually contain the best coal-seams had been sufficiently proved, advised the deepening of borehole No, 4 (near Kodopali ~ see Map) until the undoubted Talchir rocks were struck. In pursuance of this opinion Government sanctioned the work of carrying the boring to a depth of 600 feet. According to the boring record a seam of coal 7'9" thick, with a 6" band of stony shale in the middle, was struck ata depth of 347 feet, then for a hundred feet a remarkable succession of alternating bands of thin coal and shale were encountered, and the remaining 38 feet passed through fine sandstone, the hole being stopped at a depth of 485 feet in this stone before reaching the Talchirs. This boring result was deemed by Mr. Griesbach suffi- ciently encouraging to advise going on with the work for another roo feet or so until the undoubted Talchir rocks were struck, unless the crystalline rocks were struck at a lesser depth. The boring contractors, however, said that the cost of drilling to this depth would be very great and Mr. F. H. Smith of the Geological Survey of India was deputed to visit th cspot to ascertain whether it could be regarded 22 (E370 92 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. as reasonably certain that two borings to a depth of 500 feet would give the same information as one to a depth of 1,000 feet, and if strong evidence existed in favour of this conclusion, to mark the exact position at which the second borehole should be drilled with reference to the one under discussion. The examination did not answer this question and it was considered a better plan to select a site near Dhoramuda practically at the top of the Barakars and bore through the whole thick- ness of the Barakars on to the undoubted Talchirs or metamorphics, Dhoramuda borehole. as the case might be, it being then estimated that the total depth would probably be below 800 feet. A borehole was put down bere to a depth of 828 feet and passed through several shaly coal- seams finally stopping in the zone of Barakar rocks exposed, I think in the Lillari nala near Piplimal and several hundred feet above the top, geologically speaking, of the Kodopali (No, 4) borehole. It will therefore be seen that the lower measures of the Barakars have not been proved as was intended. Before setting out for this area I was supplied with the one inch | to а mile topographical map. It wasmy inten- Topographical Map. T х tion to put this тар on a larger scale to make a working plan. Fortunately time did not permit of my doing this in Calcutta, for in the course of preliminary work in the field I was forced to the conclusion that the map was absolutely unreliable and not sufficiently accurate for recording geological observations. The sketch-plan accompanying this report is one | made myself, It is the result of a loose needle survey made eher with a 24 inch prismatic compass held in the hand. The chaining was done by my chaprassis who had never seen a chain before; any inaccuracies it may be found to contain, and I am alive to some, will therefore be readily understood. 1 did not intend at first to resurvey the whole area, but only the most crucial portions of it and join these on to the Atlas sheet. But whenI found the latter so incorrect I was forced to complete the work for the purposes of this report. Only ten weeks were spent in this ( 24) GEOLOGY. 93 area, and before devoting myself to.the direct object of this survey I had to turn my attention to these necessary though unforeseen preliminaries, It will therefore be readily understood that my arrangements for accomplishing the intended object were impeded to avery great extent not more by loss of time than by fresh considerations intro- duced by the new map.! CHAPTER II. GEOLOGY. The distribution of the rock formations is shown on the sketch- plan. The crystalline rocks,—chiefly massive gneiss striking gener- ally west-north-west and east-south-east—are Cosetalling rocks: coloured pink on the plan and form the bottom of a geological basin upon the uneven surfaces of which the Talchir and over-lying rocks were deposited. The junction of the gneiss and Talchir rocks is plainly seen to the south-east of Kiraruma, where it is trace- Таи rocks. able for some little distance to the south, and also in the neighbourhood of Putrapali.2 The only other Talchir metamorphic boundary. observed is the one shown to the north of Malda in the Bonum nala. . But crystalline fragments are abun- dant to the west of Balput, and massive gneiss is exposed near the Lillari-Eeb confluence, therefore the boundary must be just north of these points. 1 As examples of the inaccuracy of the Topographical map I may mention— On Topographical sheet. Actual distance. From Durlipali to Lillari-Eeb junction, 6 miles œ . 37 miles, From Durlipali to Bonjari-Sumra Road, 2°] miles . - 36 miles, The Eeb river, south of Rampur (of the Map), is shown to be running due south, whereas it runs west-south-west for two miles. The Bonum nala is most incorrectly delineated. j ? This last place it was impossible to fix on the Topographical sheet, and as ıny own rough traverse does not include it, I cannot show its position, (9x) 94 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD, The Talchir-Barakar (Karharburi ?) boundary is fairly well- defined in the Lillari nala where the fine-grained greenish grey sandstones ofthe Talchirs are seen within a few yards of the coarse- grained Barakar sandstones. At this point the Talchirs are striking north-east and dipping 5° to the north-west as also are the overlying Barakars. The next well.defined junction going east is at the Rampur Ghat, on the left bank of the Eeb river, where the Talchir rocks are seen within a short distance of the Barakars. Again a quarter of a mile east of Rampur the Talchir sandstones are ob- served at no very great distance from the Barakars, East-south-east of the Rampur Ghat about ı4 miles Talchir shales can be seen dipping ina very irregular manner, the main trend of which is north. I saw no other decisive point to help in further defining this boundary to the south. On the west, although not actually seen, it is fairly certain that the boundary flanks the left bank of the Bonum nala from the north of Malda to + mile east of Khit where it crosses the nala, sweeps round to the east of Jamwapali hill, swinging round to the west again on the north side of the hill and apparently striking the left bank of the Eeb river just south of Jamwapali village. From this point the boundary would appear to run practically north, striking the right bank of the Eeb river about + mile north of the Gorgor confluence. There isa good exposure of Talchir sandstones on the left bank of the Eeb opposite Gondgura. Previously a straight boundary line from the east of Jamwapali hill up to this exposure and continued up to the exposure north of the Gorgor has been drawn, but a sus- picious looking ridge running along the curve I have defined, seems to lend itself to a more natural delimitation, It will be observed that Talchirs are also shown on the Plan faulted in to east of Gondgura. I shall treat on this exposure later in the paper. So far then it will be seen that the Talchir rocks line the crystal- line basin, and that in no instance do the Barakar rocks come in ( 6 ) GEOLOGY. 95 contact with the Metamorphics except perhaps to the west of Kiraruma where a peak of metamorphic rock is shown. The thickness of the Talchirs has been estimated at 200 feet; from the few exposures where accurate dips and width of outcrops can be taken it is difficult to arrive at an estimate, but 200 feet is, I think, far too small a figure. No actual contact of Talchirs and Barakars was seen, but in all RU MR the cases where Talchirs were exposed in the neighbourhood of Barakars, exposures of the latter where observed were always found to be dipping in the same direction and with practically the same amount of dip as the former. The Barakars of this area have hitherto been treated in a very general manner, so that a brief record of any well-defined divisions and their distribution will be of use for the purposes of this paper. Four well characterised divisions are noticeable. Beginning at the top these are :— 1? A series of brown-weathering flaggy ferruginous sand- stones probably upwards of 100 feet thick, which appear to form a transition series from Barakars to Kamthis. 2? A band of rather fine-grained sandstone of greyish color and about 40 feet thick. 3° The measures composing the greatest part of the thickness of the Barakars, consisting of thin and flaggy sand- stones finely laminated micaceous sandstone, carbona- ceous and micaceous sandstone, carbonaceous shales with thin coal bands interspersed and shaly coal-seams. In this division it is remarkable that the argillaceous, arenaceous and carbonaceous shales predominate in the highest part; that they are present in the same proportion as the sandstones in the middle part, and that the sandstones are largely predominant in the lowest part. This feature very soon strikes one on noting the sections exposed in the Lillari nala. The record of the borehole put down during 1899 near Dhoramuda shews the gradation very well, By dividing 70) 96 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. the borehole into three equal lengths, the following table shows the gradation :— Argillaceous, arenaceous shales . . c . © z ES Shal y sandstone . б 5 . О д . 40 © 5 Sandstone . . . . . ° > . o 46 73 DU Bc NES cues All the boreholes which have been put down to test this Field were started in this division of the Barakars, except perhaps Nos. r, 2a 3and 4 of Dr. King and No. 1 of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway Company. The bore- hole 8281 feet deep put down near Dhoramuda during 1809 was started near the top of this zone, and I think the one put down during 1896 and 1807 near Kodopali (485') proves practically the bottom part. To judge irom all the data at present to hand, this zone would appear to be about 1,600 to 1,700 feet thick ; it will be seen then that so far as these two boreholes (the Kodopali and Dhoramuda) are concerned there appears still to remain from 500 feet to 600 feet of this division to be proved. Horizontal section A will ex- plain this better. The sections of the two boreholes above referred to are appended and give in greater detail the succession of the rocks composing this division. The above division of Barakars includes in its lower part the seam of carbonaceous shale and coal exposed near Durlipali and also “the tesselated ironstone bed " of Dr. Ball exposed a little higher in the section. Where exposed and weathered this ironstone bed is at once recognised. Dr, Ball identified it at Chuakani, about five miles north-north-east of Durlipali. The GEOLOGY. : 97 Durlipali seam is about 500 feet from the bottom of this division. 4? In this, the lowest division of the Barakars, the gradation from shales to sandstones pointed out above appears to be completed; no arenaceous nor argillaceous shales were seen. At the top come conglomerates, resting unconformably on white sandstone—see section B— well exposed near the Eeb bridge both in the river-bed and also on the tops of the hills near Telanpali just north and south of the bridge. Below these come the typical coarse-grained Barakar sandstones towards the top of whicha distinct white band of sandstone, about 8 feet thick in places, occurs. These sandstones are тоо feet or more in thickness and form the conspicuous line of hills running from Telanpali on the right bank of the Eeb to Malda on the left bank of the Bonum, ranging from 50 to 100 feet or more in height. The actual sandstones abutting on the Talchirs were no- where seen but the lowest observed were coarse-grained though rather fine-bedded and micaceous. The boundaries of the areas of the various zones into which I have divided the Barakar rocks are by no means ,Uitibwion of the easy to define all over the Field, It is possible, кага, general con however, in some parts to establish approximate boundaries between these zones and by means of these considered in conjunction with data obtained from boreholes, to fix the relative horizons of the various seams proved and to arrive at a fair estimate of the thickness of the Barakars not proved by boreholes. Considering first the lowest or sandstone series and starting in the The sandstone conglo- Lillari on the west, no conglomerates are seen тегаты oe in the neighbourhood nor any of the massive coarse grits typical of this series. The hill between Kiraruma and Durlipali is of a type of sandstone (slightly massive) which can be referred to any of the series. Indeed, were it not that the rocks (Ко) 98 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. were conformably overlying the Talchirs, doubts would arise as to whether these rocks belong to the lowest zone. Here then it will be seen to be a difficult matterto fix the boundary between the lowest or sandstone conglomerate zone and the next above or sandstone shale zone. For the purposes of this report, however, the boundary may be assumed to cut the Lillari just north of the Barakar hill midway between Durlipali and Kiraruma. Going further to the east the next most suitable place for consideration of this boundary is between Kodopali and Bundia. Opinion here can be based upon the Kodopali boring on the oneside and the assumed presence of Talchirs near Bundia in the Eeb on the other. As regards the borehole, it appears to have been started at about the same horizon as a shale bed supposed to be identifi- able with the Durlipali seam. "The. borehole went down to 4854 feet and at 448 feet left the coal and shaly bed and entered into fine sandstone. This sandstone is probably the bed immediately overlying the conglomerates, and if such be the case marks the line of division between the two series. Allowing 120 feet as the thicke ness of the lowest series gives it a total of about 600 feet from the top of the borehole to the Talchirs. It is evident then that at about ¿th of the distance from the Talchirs near Bundia to Kodopali boring the line of division must occur. Following up the Eeb river from Rampur all the sections seen up to Gondgura belong without doubt to the lowest zone. Half a mile up the river from the Rampur Ghat, however, conglomerates are seen, so that, for our purposes, we may take the line as running just south of Telancachar. The next point where anything like certainty obtains is near the railway bridge over the Lumchibahal nala where conglomerates are again seen. At Chuakani, a little village 4 mile to the north of Begmar and $ west north-west of Job, the characteristic tesselated ironstone previously mentioned is seen. From this it follows that the boundary must run on the “crop " side (in this case eastward) of this exposure, the tesselated ironstone belonging to the zone above. ( 10 ) GEOLOGY. 09 Taking it through Job itself the boundary must run round to the east of the hills north of Chuakani and hence out of our area. On the plan accompanying this report I have washed the lowest zone dark neutral tint. It will at once be noticed that the width of the area shown as occupied by this zone to the east is much greater than that to the south and that such extra width is apparently due to a fault marked as down throwing to the east. The data deemed sufficient to warrant the assumption of a fault as delineated on the map are :— Evidence of Fault. (a) Shales taken to be Talchirs were seen in the Modlia nala dipping west-south-west 15? and apparently cut off from the main bed by an intervening band of Barakars. (2) The white sandstone band, in the lowest zone of Barakars, is seen occupying positions explainable by a fault. For instance, it is seen capping the Jamwapali hill dipping at an angle of 5? to the south-west; nearly a mile due south-west it is seen capping another hill and dipping in the same direction, and also at Telanpali where it has been quarried for bridge-build- ing purposes. (c) At the Eeb bridge a seam of coal has been found underly- ingaconglomerate band. Atthree other points marked К°, К°, R7, on the map, coal also underlying a conglo- merate bed is observed. It is presumed that these are four exposures of the same seam. Such being the case, it is evident that the outcrop is duplicated. (d) The borehole No. 1 of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway Com- pany's grant put down, under Dr, King's directions, about 150 yards south-south-west of the Eeb bridge, failed to strike coal at a depth of 170 ft., although had the rocks kept their regular dip the Eeb bridge seam should have been struck at a much less depth. It is upon the above evidence that I have felt myself justified in LR) 100 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD tracing the fault as shewn on the map, although in no instance is any actual break of rocks observable. About a mile north of Rampur on the left bank of the Eeb river the rocks are seen to be twisted about in a very strange manner, and again about one mile south-south-east of Rampur near a village called Tangadula, Talchir shales can be seen within a small area dipping in many directions and evidently indicating some disturbance. If the estimate I have given of the thickness of the lower Barakar series be more or less correct, then from the map it will be seen that a very fair idea as to the amount of throw of the fault can be arrived at. Nevertheless it must be remembered that such thicknesses are only estimated, and moreover that the broad band marked as belonging to the first series of Barakars on the west (or upthrow) side of the fault is so deficient in good sections that only little weight can be given to this as a factor in arriving at the displacement of the rocks. This zone, which comes next above the one just described, extends up the Lillari to Dhoramuda, from whence its boundary sweeps eastward not far to the north of Belpahar station. The hills north of Job belong to this division, since the tesselated sandstone known to occur in its lower half is observed near Job, dipping westward, and somewhere between these hills and the Bilpahari Sitaram hills the divisional line must occur, but the obscurity of physical relations renders further discrimination almost impossible. It may, however, be added that, owing to the high dip and rising ground in the direction of the dip, the width of the zone in the neighbourhood of Job is less than in Sandstone shale zone. the Lillari nala. The two upper zones being economically unimportant are not considered here. These rocks which overlie the Barakars consist at their base of brown weathering coarse-grained ferruginous Kamthis. o Й 2 sandstone, Since the conformity or otherwise of these beds with the Barakars is their only feature which is of use for the purposes of this report, their higher beds were not explored. (5 12.) COAL EXPLORATIONS. 101 The relation of the Kamthis to the Barakars has frequently been considered. Dr. Ball favours the idea of un- Conformity. : Ў conformity but states that no actual section exhibiting unconformable superposition can be adduced, Dr. King (Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XVIII; pt. 4, pp. 195 and 195) says in reference to this area : “I did not come across any section showing actual contact of the Kamthis on the Barakars, but there always appeared to be perfect conformity between the two." In Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind, Vol. XIX, p. 220, however, Dr. King concurs with Dr. Ball's view of unconformity. So far as the area here described is concerned, the whole facies of the occurrence of the one formation on the other gives one the idea of perfect conformity and for the purpose of this paper I shall con- sider the relation as such. CHAPTER III. COAL EXPLORATIONS. The boreholes put down during 1891 and 1892 by the Bengal- Nagpur Railway Company and all put down since are here considered. Boring explorations previous to tbat date have been treated on by Dr. King in the Rec. Geol. Surv, Ind. The sections of all the boreholes referred to will be found in the appendix. After the discovery of coal on the site of the Eeb bridge, six boreholes and two small shafts were put down. No. 1 Borehole was put down 230 yards south-west of the most westerly pier of the Eeb bridge. No. 2 Borehole and a small shaft near the village of Luchkura, No. 3 Borehole is described as situated 13 miles from the west bank of the Eeb river and 23 miles south of the railway. On reference to the map this will be seen to be incorrect. I am unable therefore to mark the site on the plan annexed.! No.4 Borehole and a small shaft are near Kodopali. ' The sketches to hand purporting to shew the sites of the boreholes are of very little use, being tracings (and sometimes very rough ones) of the topographi- cal map. ("413 2) 102 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. No. 5 Borehole near Job, north of the Railway. No. 6 Borehole near Dhoramuda. The coal, found at the Eeb bridge (hereinafter called the Eeb river seam) appears to occur only in the eastern half of the river- bed. Accurate levels were taken of the sandstone underlying the seam and indicated a dip of 14° approximately to tne east-north- east ; the surrounding rocks however gave a dip of 5? to the south- west, As before stated No, ı borehole was put down to the south- „NO; borehole and west of шз bridge fc prove the extension of the seam in that direction. It was expected that the Eeb river seam would be met with at a depth of go ft. at most, but although the borehole was carried to 170 feet, no trace of coal was found, In a report drawn up in 1892 on this exploration Mr. C. J. Dalby (Assistant Engineer of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway Company) has shewn in a very lucid section what appears to be the relation of the borehole to the Eeb river seam. I have reproduced this section— Horizontal Section B.—as it represents also my own idea on this point ; but I must add that I differ from Mr. Dalby on the question of the general correlation of the seams shewn with those in the neighbour- hood of Durlipali—there appears to have been a general consensus of opinion that the Eeb bridge seam was the same as the seam exposed, near Durlipali, in the Lillari, 6 miles west-south-west. The conglomerate shewn in the section is at the top of the lowest of the zones into which I have divided the Barakars. In my own exploration in this area I was successful in unearth- ing a coal-seam outcropping at two points on the left bank of the Eeb about 1$ and 3 miles down the river from the bridge, R” and К° on map. That the seam unearthed at the first point R" is the same as the Eeb river seam the associated strata would appear to place beyond oubt, the overlying conglomerates being well in evidence. As regards the more southern exposure R® (near Rampur) identification is notso easy. No rocks are visible for some little distance on either side, and such as are seen are pitching about at (214) COAL EXPLORATIONS. 103 high angles in all directions, Still a few conglomerates occur in the neighbourhood, and moreover the section of the seam, as deep as the pit sunk into it would be taken with the labour at hand, was to a favourable degree analogous with the more northern section, so that one is justified in assuming this to be also the Eeb bridge seam. Reverting to Mr. Dalby’s section— Ног. Section B=of the strata near the Eeb bridge, the coal-seam exposed at Lumchibahal bridge (R® on Map) is shown as analogous to the Eeb river seam. Now although before studying this section I had, judging from the asso- ciated rocks, arrived at the same opinion quite independently myself, it is perhaps only right to remark that the distance from the Eeb river seam to the Lumchibahal seam (R5) is 1$ miles and that good exposures are very few in number. It will be seen then that this correlation is open to doubt, but such unlooked for support is, I think, sufficient to allow of its being considered. as above stated. On such grounds then the Eeb river seam can be said to have been proved at four points. With the exception of the bridge itself, holes were put down this season at all of these points and the sections as deep as the pits could be carried with the labour at hand are :— R$mear |R7 South of | R? Lumchi- A Rampur. Bridge. bahal. Eeb Bridge. Conglomerate . . w Ax c Beyond the statement that 16 feet of workable coal Grey shale . C . Ve ere 7' o" was met with, of which 8 nts feet were of excellent Black earth . . . 4' o" 6' o" 5’ 6" quality, no detailed sec- tion is to hand. Coal . . . . 4! 9” 2.029 1:67 Bat » E . 8" 12:67 | Coal . . . 3537 3! 3" Bat . . C 5 12:07 Coal anticipated . 2 | | 104 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. When the first borehole failed to strike this Eeb river seam the idea of a fault downthrowing to the east appears to have been worked upon, and a borehole was started at Luchkura a little over 2 miles to the westward. Now the surrounding rocks are dipping at an average of r in 12 to westward, so that one would expect to find the out- cropping rocks at the Eeb bridge about 9oo feet deep at Luchkura, or assuming 900 feet of an upthrow to westward, surface rocks at the Eeb bridge to be at the surface at Luchkura. But although the idea of the throw of the fault is a very rough опе we know that it can be but very little above 200 feet, if that much, and therefore a seam on the surface at ће Eeb bridge should be expected to be about 700 feet deep at Luchkura, The borehole was 41 feet deep, and from the section it No: 2iborehble; will be seen that four feet of coal was struck at a Luchkura. depth of 29 feet and that afterwards eight feet of shale was passed through. Strange as it may appear this coal-seam was at once said to be the same as the Eeb river and Durlipali seams. The difference in thickness was accounted for on the supposition that the seam had not been struck at the top but somewhere in the middle. To further test the seam at this point a small shaft (53 feet deep) was put down a little to the west of the borehole and it was expected to have to go to a depth of at least 5o feet before touching the PIS seam. At 36 feet, however, coal was struck and a E 17 feet seam passed through, the shaft being stop- ped in sandstone. The Assistant Engineer (B -N.Ry.), who was in charge of the shaft at the time, gave it as his opinion that the seam bored through in the borehole had not been struck in the shaft. I do not know the distance of the borehole from the shaft, but it seems to me that since four feet of coal was anticipated at 50 feet deep and the shaft was passing through coal at that depth and left it at 53 feet, some reason should have been given for the opinion, One point, however, is certain, that if the seam in the borehole and shaft are not the same, the lower one, borehole seam, must be direectly below the upper one, since the bottom of the 17 feet seam is 3 feet lower than the level at which the top of the borehole seam was estimated to occur. I was fortunate enough to see some of this seam which had (ro) COAL EXPLORATIONS. 105 been extracted lying by the side of the shaft. The heap had certain- ly been weathering for eight or nine years, but nevertheless it bore so great a resemblance to the Durlipali shale bed that I have assumed it to be the same; no data at present known except perhaps the differ- ence of thicknesses of the seams—which, at such distant points as Durlipali and Luchkura, ought not to be allowed much weight— militate against this assumption, but opinions formed afterwards tended to confirm its correctness. Reverting again to horizontal section B of strata near the Eeb river, borehole No. 2 (Luchkura) is seen so placed as to show that the seam it struck was the same as that exposed near Lumchibahal bridge, which I have correlated with my Eeb river seam. Consider- ing now that the distance from Lumchibahal bridge to the shaft at Luchkura is a mile and a quarter and that the rocks exposed between these places are dipping at 5? to the westward, such correla- tion requires corroboration. Until such is forthcoming all that can safely be assumed must be based upon the dips of the rocks. Con- sidering such then we can only say that at the Luchkura shaft a seam of coal seventeen feet thick has been proved, and that, from the dip of the strata, this seam appears to be overlying the coaleseam exposed at Lumchibahal bridge, from which it is apparently sepa- rated by a thickness of from 400 to 500 feet of measures. If then the Lumchibahal bridge seam is, as I believe with Dr. King and Mr. Dalby, the same as the Eeb river seam and the Luchkura seam is identical with the Durlipali seam, it follows that the Eeb bridge seam appears to be some 400 to 500 feet or more below the Durlipali seam and this I am inclined to believe is the case, The next borehole, ¢.e., No. 3, which might have Borehole No. 3. Я À К 6 given some evidence confirming this, cannot, however, be considered, its exact position not being known, The Kodopali (No. 4) borehole does not afford any direct evidence Kodopali, on which correlation of seams can be made Nowa Boxetiole: At a depth of 15 feet a до feet seam of coal was struck. To prove this seam of coal on a larger scale c era) 106 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD, an experimental shaft was sunk on to it and several tons of coal extracted. 1 have not seen any report on the tests made with the coal extracted, but from the appearance of the coal stacked near the shaft, I would have judged the seam as worth- less: subsequent experiments confirmed this, Тһе original depth of the borehole was only 60 feet, it having been thought unlikely that there was more coal at a greater depth. As explained previously, Mr. Griesbach, Director of the Geological Survey, was not satisfied that there was no more coal at a greater depth, and Government acting on his advice sanctioned the deepening of the Kodopali borehole until the Talchir rocks were struck. This borehole was stopped at a depth of 485 feet, before reaching the Talchirs. The coal proved by the borehole, at a depth of 15 feet, and in the shaft, was described as evidently the same as the Durlipali and Eeb river seams. The Kodopali Diamond Drill boring appears to have been put down on this assumption and is therefore supposed to have proved nearly 500 feet of measures below the Durlipali seam. Now beyond a similarity in the appearance of the seams and a Kodopali Nosa Diamond | YEIN rough alignment of the Kodopali boring Drill boring. with the strike of the Durlipali seam, there are no grounds that I know of for correlating the Durlipali and Kodopali exposures, and when it is remembered that the distance from the Durlipali outcrop to the Kodopali boring is three miles, such an assumption can be, to say the least, only of little worth. There can be no doubt that the ground proved by the Diamond boring is near the base of what I have made my third zone, but at present there are no data sufficiently well substantiated to fix the exact horizon of the top of the hole. My own opinion is that it is some 200 feet or more above the top of the Durlipali seam. Be that as it may, the borehole verifies the Director's opinion that coal does exist below the seam proved in the shaft, and generally gives results sufficiently encouraging to justify further exploration of the lower Barakars. ( 18 ) COAL EXPLORATIONS. 107 EHI seama On reading the record of the Kodopali truck in th E . KASA Бош boring, I selected six bands of coal worthy of consideration, namely :— No. 1—at a depth of 42 feet and described in the boring record as—8 feet of shaly coal with 2 inch and 4 inch shale partings. No. 2—at a depth of 340 feet 6 inches and described in the record as composed of— Coal (shaly) . 100 Coal r б . . . . 2 о Carbonaceous shale . . . "ISO 6" of coal, and 1^ o" of Coal EN 5 о Д 1 E2 O 8 shale. E Coal o . 2 6 Coal (shaly) . . 1 о No. 3—at a depth of 352 feet 8 inches and composed of— Coal > : : С 2.0 Carbonaceous shale o o OG Shaly band . . . , . o 65g 7" of coal, 170” of shale Coal ^ o , 5 4 6б Coal (stony) . 5 o 5 + oF 6 Coal : : 207 No. 4—at a depth of 260i feet ài described in the record as composed of— in Strong coal ö 2 А . 5 3 Coal . 3 ; в ; 5 Ў 10 at: 4” of coal. No. 5—at a denen of 375 feet 9 inches and described as composed of— 1 „ Coal o > 5 - o E ó 2 6 Coal (stony) . o А o 5 6 Coal . > 6 o à c o ‚ 1 о Carbonaceous shale o 3 )9' 3” coal, 1' o" shale. Coal : 5 E Д 2\0 Carbonaceous shale . o 9 Coal 2 6 No. 6—at a depth of 388 ау 7 inches and described as composed of— ` „ Coal Coal (stony) . Coal Coal (stony) . Coal (fair 1 99 5 5 Coal c с А 8' 10” coal. „ооо NES м оо о о а С) N ~ = © — i 108 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. Had these sections been correct, each one of the above seams would have been thick enough to be worked at a profit supposing the coalto be of the average Indian quality. On comparing the record with the boring cores, however, I found that, with the excep- tion of No. 3, each one of these seams had been badly recorded; carbonaceous and even argillaceous shales had been raised to the dignity of coal to such an extent that the idea of working these seams (except No. 3) could not be entertained. The section of No. 3 would be more correct if stated :— ГД „ Carbonaceous shales. з 0 Coal > . 4 7 Stony shale o 517 1” of coal. Coal 5 c 2 0 Stony shale о 047) Coal B o 6 It has been remarked that the object of the Kodopali borehole Dhoramuda, No, 6 was to prove the lower Barakar measures. Borehole. At present as stated the lower Barakars have not been touched. It was evidently with this object still in view that the Director of the Geological Survey advised the deepening of the Kodopali borehole. Could this have been carried out at the time, a definite opinion as to the value of the field would in all probability by now have been arrived at. Unfortu- nately the boring contractors were not equipped with deep-boring tackle, and when later the work of proving the lower Barakars was undertaken, it was considered a better plan to bore through the whole thickness of the Barakar rocks. Owing undoubtedly in a very greát measure to the inaccurate topographical map the thickness of the Barakars appears to have been under-estimated andasa consequence the site of the borehole—Dhoramuda—was chosen, too high, geologically speaking, for the object of the bore- hole to be accomplished with the tackle at hand. It must not be understood, however, that this boring has served no useful purpose, for it certainly has proved that at this spot and consequently at all others on the same geological horizon, the depth at which good coal lies in the lower Barakar measures (supposing it ( 20 ) COAL EXPLORATIONS, 109 to exist there at all) is such as to render it unworkable in the present state of Indian mining. In a direct line from the Dhoramuda (No. 6) to the Kodopali (No. 4) borehole is a distance of fully six miles. The country is very jungly so that good surface exposures are practically absent. Under these conditions it is obvious that any figures intended, at present, to fix the relative horizons of the Kodopali and Dhoramuda borehole must be viewed with a very elastic mind. I have stated earlier in this paper that there appears to be still a thickness of some 500 to 600 feet of measures between the bottom of the Dhora- muda and the top of tke Kodopali boreholes, but for the reason given above this can be but a very rough approximation. Owing to their different geological horizons no correlation of seams in the (Dhoramuda) borehole can of course be established with those of the Kodopali borehole. Nos. s and 6 boreholes of Dr. King (Rec. Geol, Surv. Ind., Vol. XIX) appear to have passed through the same rocks as the Dhoramuda borehole. The seams met with at depths 184 feet and 62 feet in No. 6 bore- m EO ide hole (Dr. King) may be taken as the represent- Dhoramuda to those atives ofthe seams proved by the Dhoramuda бей per ERN borehole at depths of 772 feet and 685 feet 9 n inches ; and those at 203 feet, 114 feet, and 37 feet in Dr. King's No. 5 borehole as representatives of seams proved at Dhoramuda at 471 feet, 338 feet, and 309 feet. The data for such supposition are as follows :— Dr King's No. 5 borehole lies (as nearly as I can gather from the Cu Е уи Records) ¿ mile to the rise of the line of strike the Dhoramuda (1899) of the beds at the Dhoramuda borehole, The dip is not very constant over the intervening country, but 1 in 12 is perhaps a fair average. From this it can be found that a seam near the surface at the No. 5 borehole of Dr. King (near Khaliabahal) will be about 276 feet deep at Dhoramuda, This gives the correlation for Dr, King's No. 5 bore- hole, and since the main sandstone bands fall in more or less (21) 110 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. with this, little doubt can remain as to its probable correctness, Reasoning similarly with Dr. King'sNo. 6 borehole the carbon- iferous bands proved can be correlated as illustrated. This correla- . tion is of great use in indicating which of the seams proved by the Dhoramuda borehole are exposed in the Lillari nala, For instance, Dr. King (Rec, Geol. Surv. Ind, Vol. XIX page 212), shews that the first coal struck in his No. 5 borehole was the same as that exposed near Khaliabahal and the first in his No. 6 borehole that ex- posed near Bonjari. From the boring record of the Dhoramuda hole one is able to mark out eight seams of coal as appearing to be of workable thickness :— Ft. dee. 1? described as 24 ft. of carbonaceous shale and coal at . * 255 cap 29 D » 16 ft. of coal (shaly) at . А . D D 3092 وو‎ MED » 1o ft. of coal (shaly) at . . . . . 471 » 45.» o 4341t..6 ins. coal (shally): at - c . B BEN um Y ^, o5» I5ft. 6 ins. coal (shaly) at a Na eti Ж ms fon 6? $5 дў 9 ft. oins. coal (shaly) at З . > О 672 55 75 $5 q 5 ft. 9 ins. coal (shaly) at 5 o . A 6853 ,و‎ 89 УУ ss Ка .0:1ms.coal (shaly) at . 5 : oe е 8017 On looking at the boring core it can at once be seen that Nos. т, 3,4,5,6 and 7 can be dismissed from No. ı in Dhoramuda . . a borehole, the Khaliabahal further consideration as of no practical use exposure. ; A А whatever, being simply cases of bat, 7.e» bituminous shales—sometimes grit sandstones included, —raised to the dignity of coal. It is of interest to note, however, that No. 1 is indentical with the Khaliabahal exposure. Now during my work in the field this season I sank a little shaft in this exposure and satisfied myself that it did not contein coal of sufficient thickness or quality good enough to be workable. The section obtained was: — Ft. In. Top clay . . 5 . . . . . e „2 © Shale А 5 P . К à . . . 5 . о 4 Coal . ^ . 5 5 E e . 5 5 5 O4 Shale . è . . . А . . B . 5 04 Shale with coal pipes : . 4 . è - 5 „аша Shale . . ° . . . . . . . . ‚1 о Coal. Y с E > » 3 . 5 = З .06 Shale . > . - . с À . - è TOMS Coal . А E . . . . 5 . 6 . .o 2 Shale . о c o . . . . $ . 5 “о 2/5 Sandstone base ( 22 ) COAL EXPLORATIONS. There is as will be seen 1 foot of coal in the whole section. 111 To form an idea of the nature of such coals, 1 extracted some of this foot of coal and tested it getting upwards of 25 per cent. ofash. general analysis of the whole seam gave :— Moisture Volatile matter Fixed carbon . Ash Dr. King's Perhaps also it will be as well to record that the No. 7 seam is No. 7 in Dhoramuda a borehole, the Bonjari the same as Dr, King's 7 foot seam exposu.e. deep in his No. 6 borehole. Т also s the one exposed near Bonjari and therefore at 62 feet ank a small shaft into this exposure and obtained the following section :— Carbonaceous shale Ironstone Carbonaceous shale Coal Carbonaceous shale Coal Carbonaceous shale Coal Carbonaceous shale Coal Carbonaceous shale Sandstone base > Here again then is an insignificant thickness of coal. = Ft. In 2 © © m © © © OR о NX ND BR MONO À test on the coal alone gave upwards of 35 per cent. of ash, An average analysis throughout the seam is given by Dr. King :— % Moisture . A . 544 Volatile matter . 25'03 Fixed carbon 4 . E 9207.22 Ash 23 112 READER : REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. These two seams just discussed (Nos. т and 7) may be taken as typical of the other four (Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6), and all can therefore be dismissed from further consideration. This leaves us then with only two (Nos. 2 and 8) coal-seams of workable thickness in the Dhoramuda borehole. No. 2 described in the Record as 16 feet of shaly coal appears from the core to be— Ft. In. Coal . 3 7 Shaly band o 8 Goal £ тоо 7! 3%” coal, 1^ o3" shale. Shaly band o 4% Coal . I 9 No. 8 is as described 4 feet of coal. CHAPTER IV. WORKABLE THICKNESSES OF COAL PROVED. So far then only four seams of coal out of the many struck have upon examination proved to be of workable thickness. Beginning at the top and in descending order these are :— 1? The seam proved in the Dhoramuda borehole at a depth of 309% feet, the section of which is given just above and is shewn to be composed of 7 feet 3% inches coal with one foot of shale interbedded. 2? The seam proved in the Dhoramuda borehole at a depth of 768 feet, containing four feet of coal. 3° The seam proved in the Kodopali borehole at a depth of 3523 feet, composed of 7 feet 1 inch of coal with one foot of shale interbedded, 4? The Eeb bridge seam of which the best section obtained | shows 7 feet 10 inches of coal with 8 inches of bat (hard bituminous shale) interbedded, I have made careful analyses of these four Quality of the coal. B 4 : seams and tested their calorific powers. It must be remembered, however, that the samples of Nos. 1, 2; and 3 seams, of which the analyses were made, were taken from the cores of the diamond drill boreholes put down in February 1899 ( 24 ) COAL EXPLORATIONS. 113 (Dhoramuda) and 1896 (Kodopali. The cores had of course weathered, but I am inclined to think that the analysis may be taken as fairly representative of the seams, in the neighbourhood of the boreboles. The tests on the Eeb bridge seam were made on fresh general samples extracted by myself from little shafts put down this year near the outcrops. The following are the results of the analyses :— NO. 1.—DHORAMUDA AT A DEPTH OF 309% FEET. Top 3’ 7". Middle 1’ 114”. Bottom 1” 9”. % % % Moisture . o ó o 73 79 9'8 Volatile matter . - o 219 25'4 211 Ash (white) : o b 40°0 351 307 Fixed carbon : 9 30°8 316 "1 4 100'0 IoG'O 100'0 ee No. 2.— DHORAMUDA AT A DEPTH OF 768 FEET. Moisture o > c 5 a . с : 6'2 Volatile matter . - © . С . Я 19°0 Ash (yellowish white) . - 6 . o 5 31'4 Fixed carbon 5 C 5 ó Е o 6 43'4 100°0 No. 3.— KODOPALI AT A DEPTH OF 352% FEET, Top 4’ 2". Bottom 2’ 6", | % x Moisture 7 2 5 6 2 o 46 75 Volatile та ег А - . c - 1775 19'6 Ash (reddish) Д 5 5 5 5 35°3 344 Fixed carbon o 5 : 5 5 42'6 38'5 100'0 300'0 == (25) 114 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. No. 4.—THE EEB BRIDGE SEAM. R7 (south of RS (near Bridge). Rampur). % % Moisture A О $ 5 a : o S'o go Volatile matter . . : Б à б 20'9 24'3 Ash (buff) . o o 5 5 б o 18'9 11'8 Fixed carbon . о . 0 o a 522 5470 100'0 100'0 Considering the above results it will be seen that Nos. ı, 2, and 3 are not of good enough quality to be of themselves workable and it is a question whether No. ı can at present NE be profitably used for any purpose. As time goes оп, however, it is not unlikely that a seam even of this quality may be in demand, but for the present I do not think such a seam can be considered as a factor in the value of the field. No. 2 is a little better, but is a thinner seam. It is not, Rosier however, unlikely that in the near future this seam together with No. 3, which is of about the same quality, but a little better section, may be worked for local consumption, mills, etc. For high temperature, e.g., smelting, etc., the seam is of but small value. No. 4! is the seam “ par excellence?" of this coal-field. The coal is of good steam quality and is eminently suited for locomotives or stationary boilers. It is free burning, does not clinker and leaves a buff coloured ash. Its average calorific power is 12'7. It is non- caking and compares very favorably with Raniganj coals. The Eeb river seam then if it can be proved to cover sufficient PADS workable area and maintain section and qual- Practical considerations. ity similar to that proved at the two exposures, 1 The analyses of the samples from the two outcrops of this seam, t.e., К? and RS, will be seen to differ considerably in amount of ash. In the earlier part of this paper I have reasoned that these outcrops are outcrops ОЁ the same seam. The possibility of their being two seams must not, however, be overlooked; in fact the difference in percentage of ash is an argument in favour of this, but perhaps not a very strong one, since the two exposures are a mile and a quarter apart. (26) COAL EXPLORATIONS. . EI 115 К? and К°, can be considered, per se, profitably workable. There is every reason to suppose that the seam extends over the greater por- tion of the Barakar area being low down in the Barakar horizon. On the sketch-plan I have marked what from present geological data would appear to be the outcrop of this seam, but as has been previously remarked, data are very few and surface evidence wanting» so that the mapping of the outcrop can only be looked on as an approximation. The question arises as to how to prove the extension and capabil- ities of this seam, The best way, of course, is to prove the outcrop of the seam for some distance. Starting say from R® exposure near Rampur a series of hand boreholes might be put down along a line going westward towards Durlipali. Such boreholes, however, must be put down in a systematic manner and the exact relation- ship of the section of any one to that of the previous one and the Eeb river seam be ascertained before another borehole is put down further to the west. The same method might also be applied along the line of the outcrop marked as running northwards from Rampur, but sufficient ground would, in all probability, be proved in the first case to warrant mining operations and plant. As far as the outcrop on the right bank of the Eeb river is concerned, it should not be lost sight of even if, as supposed is the case, it represent a patch cut off by a fault from the main area, There is ample room fora small plan ; it is not unlikely, however, that water will be a trouble. I have stated previously that the bottom of the Dhoramuda borehole appears to be from 500 to 600 feet above the top of the Kodopali borehole and that the bottom of the Kodopali borehole has not struck the Talchirs. Sketch section A illustrates what I think is approximately the General consideration. relation of these boreholes to one another. I have scored in red the lengths unproved by the Dhoramuda and Kodopali boreholes which may amount to from 600 to 8oo feet or more. The thickness of measures above the Kodopali borehole—refer- ence B in Horizontal Section A.—appears to have been proved by Dr, King (Vol. XX, Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., boreholes Nos. 7 and 8), but СИ) 116 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD, since no record is kept of the exact positions of the boreholes put down in this exploration and no relationship definitely established between them, it is not possible to draw up a complete vertical section nor even to be certain that the ground is thoroughly proved. However by surface observations I satisfied myself that no workable coal- seams were present in this zone, and I am therefore able to dismiss it from further consideration. As regards the lower unproved length—reference D, Section A— it is in this zone that the Eeb river seam occurs, I gave special attention to the area occupied by the rocks of this length, but was unable to get data from which to compile a complete section. In my preliminary report on this area I advised that a borehole should be put down to prove this lengthor he Kodopali borehole com- pleted to the Talchir Rocks. A good place for such a borehole would be ¿ mile east-south-east of Kodopali. A borehole so placed should pass through the Eeb seam and be of great help in fixing its exact horizon and facilitating the determination of its outcrop. From a commercial point of view then I would advise further enterprise, a good seam ofsteam coaland also two seams of coal of rather inferior quality, but of workable section (which might be used for mills and local con- sumption; having been proved to exist within easy reach of the railway. It is necessary, however, before putting down plant to work the main seam, to prove its extension. It has been recom- mended that, while this work is being undertaken, the lowest 200 feet of the Barakar measure should be proved by a Diamond boring put down on to the Talchirs about ¿ mile east-south-east of Kodo- pali. It is not possible to state with any idea of certainty what the actual depth of such a borehole will be, but I do not think it will exceed 600 feet—it will probably be much less. Conclusion. ( 28 ) APPENDIX. Appendix. BORING RECORDS, RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. The Dhoramuda Borehole, Lillari Valley. Strata passed through. Alluvial clay (sandy) д . . 5 Soft loose brown grey sandstone (coarse) . Brown and white sandstone . О а Carbonaceous shale . . . . . Sandstone C . А B ° E Grey sandy shale . © . . . Dark shale о e D o . . Grey sandy shale . . . . . Dark slaty shale 6 o D б . Grey sandy shale . 2 : . . Coal : ` © o . Shale (ауу: 5 A . O Sandstone . . о D . 6 Coal © o o . . . . Shale, grey . . . . . Coal c о o о Sandstone 6 © o а D Sandy shale . 6 o : О Carbonaceous shale . ò o o . Sandy shale c Shale clay С D . Sandy shale Grey sandstone с с > Grey shale . 6 o E Grey sandy shale . o 5 . Shaly sandstone c Coal(shaly) . с O 2 Shaly sandstone and grey shale! Coal (shaly) : : Grey sandstone Coal (shaly) Grey sandstone shales ders Coal (shaly) . 5 e 5 о © Fossiliferous shales . Carbonaceous shales carrying tbi hands of shaly coal Sandy blue shale . ; 5 c Shale carrying coal . Grey shaly sandstone E . Carbonaceous shale and coal (Ghaly)) D Blue and grey sandstone (shaly) > Coal (shaly) Argillaceous shales . B 117 Thickness in feet. Carbonaceous shales with 3" £o в” КОЛ of coal asd 07 22) Grey sandstone д Grey and blue shaly shales . e 14 . Сыл . о © ده‎ Nm a = Nm ә оз N N A an N N a arn e л 6°5 24 (1) 29 ) 118 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. Thickness in feet. Black trap and carbonaceous shale . o a o б o . 625 Coal (shaly) . Ü д о n о à c o А . 10 (3) Grey and blue shales б . . 5 д o о o » 23 Coal (shaly) . , ә Q d 5 с o С y + 35 (4) Blue and grey sandy shales . . E o o . . eee 18:5 Coal (shaly) . . - - > o o о n a à Blue and grey sandy EI . 6 . А о B А o 24 Coal (shaly) . 6 . . © 5 : M а Grey sandstone carrying КОО: of Coal с o ö . с “28 Coal (shaly) . с o c . о - o о o IES Grey sandstone : : . . . . . . б . 125 Coal (good) . o ó . а 5 & : o 51225 Grey and blue shale and cubo А . o . à А . 58°75 Coal (shaly) . ü . o : . + 155 (5) Sandy grey shales with 3" Seams is of ОЙ o ^ 2 Е . 85 Coal (shaly) . ó ; А : А z " a Carbonaceous shales with coal. o А А 1 } E De o Coal (shaly) . 5 д A С к А 5 А A 0.6) (6) Grey shaly sandstone E 6 o о à 5 D о +> 475 ОВА SGB CG оо @ 6 ME) Shale and sandstone b д ; a > А д 4 ENSIS Coal (shaly) . е A р A A И К à : 5 Dark blue shale and grey sandstone o o С ; о o 57055, Coal (shaly) in parts fair . o о o o o ` o A! (8) Carbonaceous shales and coal shales. d 8 6 à o 15 Grey and brown sandslone a : А : А 5 5 „82145 Dark blue carbonaceous shales . : У a 5 a о 7 Dark grey shale A 5 Ё 8 Carbonaceous shale with coal . : c à e 6 К 2 Blue shale o O E . О . 2 ToTAL . 8284 feet, THE KODOPALI BOREHOLE, Alluvial soil . , a Å 5 г е ; : 5 o Laterite . с & Ironstone band - - . . . - - o б a 4 Chalk . c > 6 3 ns Fe E . A o o (5 Bituminous shales . . : o 5 О a - 18:5 Shaly coal with 2" and 4' shale nee E б ò ‘ 5 e 3 (1) Shale ^ z с 5 - o o - : 6 ci o. A Argillaceous shale . : 5 : . 2 : c . Io Fine dark grey shaly ea 4 . c o 5 . IS: Argillaceous shale . c . : с 5 . Gc di Fine dark grey shaly O. 2 : . . . А ALO Blue argillaceous shale 7 Coarse grey sandstone with CEN iun usta 22 Slaty shale . а д : : - > 5 с n 5 Coal (shaly) . А T 6 a 6 B AZ ( 30 ) Thickness in feet. APPENDIX. Argillaceous shales . О O c . . . . б Fine bluish grey shaly sandstone 5 : o 6 С А © Hard grey sandstone o О с 5 О o . ó 6 Coal (shaly) . А Ё 2 2 О B o Argillaceous shales, light Sud ЫК . . . . D . . Fine grey and blue sandstone . . e . E ° B ° Shale 6 Grey «оп (shaly) Argillaceous blue shales . : Shaly coal о S ö A ә o 5 c . Hard brown clay o ; o Shales 5 . Grey sandstone, micaceous Ad e A ton рап a : : Н Grey sandstone, соагѕе and fine with shale partings . Grey shaly micaceous fine blue sandstone . Coarse grey sandstone with shale partings (Conglomerate: Grey shale 3 5 a о : А с . . c О Соа1 о 5 6 o o 3 c Grey shaly blue O Blue shale o Grey shaly BO Slaty dark shales o Argillaceous shaly sandstone Blue shales, argillaceous Grey sandstone shaly and micaceous . o . o s D à Conglomerate . С o 6 6 o o D i © 6 Shale with pyrites . 0900 o o с o А . Shale 0 - o o 5 б 5 : o . Grey sandstone (coats) . c o С : Shale Very coarse grey Er one with Dies Shale Clay shale with cto a Carbonaceous shale . . o 5 ó Shale (coaly) . 2 E ü 5 D D Carboniferous shale . А C o 6 А o О Do. (coaly) o ö б . Carboniferous shale Do. (coaly) 5 5 ө : 3 o > 1 Carboniferous shale . o o . o 5 6 o ó o Do. (coaly) Carboniferous shale . р . Do. with light shale ne Coal(shaly) . o Shale > Coal g Shale, light and it ous . 5 o o - . . Coal à : o 6 d я А 5 А c È Carbonaceons shale . ; ; : К 5 о g B О 6 14°75 1°25 2°5 195 119 120 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. Coal, shaly i d Coal D C Carbonaceous shale Coal, shaly Coal 5 o o о 5 Coal, shaly . 5 Carbonaceous shale . i б Coal : а б meee Shaly band 0 6 ò Carbonaceous shale . Coal Seam ord Stony coal Coal 3 à Shale d ` о Coal o 5 : Carbonaceous shale . Coal E C 5 Carbonaceous shale ог strong coal Coal о о Shale о SÉ б 5 Stony coa: or carbonaceous shale Coal д o a . o Stony coal or carbonaceous shale Coal G o o o . Carbonaceous shale . 5 Coal . o Carb :naceous shale Coal 5 o D Carbonaceous shale . Coal : E Carboaaceous shale . . : Coal o . c - 3 Stony coal or carbonaceous shale Coal o Ston y coal А Coal 5 i : o = Stony coal . . . . Coal (fair 1 foot) » . . Coal . . . . = Stony ceal or carbonace us shale Coal : с é Stony coal or carbonaceous shale Coal 5 Carbonaceous shale . . Coal . . . О . Carbonaceous shale Coal > : Carbonaceous shale . Coal Carbonaceous shale (205219) Thickness in feet. (2) (5) (6) APPENDIX. I21 Thickness in feet. Coal o 5 D С © 5 б 3 ID SA Carbonaceous date. 5 n . 5 5 > o > o RE Coal o o o 5 ò S 5 y 5 + O'50 Carbonaceous db О : o о о . d 5 SR ALSO Coal > 5 O o o o o T Р + 050 Carbonaceous вате o 3 ә SIR: à T 4 . ЧО!25 Coal o 5 o o > о E . E o 1-110725 Carbonaceous Shale 5 5 - a . o 5 : . 0°66 Coal 5 25 5 > o b + 5 o е 1 O50 Carbonaceous shale > 5 - o > 2 5 : 0:83 Coal с > о . . . 5 E : і . 2'50 Carbonaceous ШЕЙ > 5 . б 5 o б E = «11033 Coal 6 о о - 5 2 5 5 E - . . o'66 Carbonaceous ар o o o . о b 5 . 066 Coal б o o > © ó : 5 5 2 2 25910120 Carbonaceous shale o : b c : с o 3 Anz Coal ó 5 ò 5 o с С © , ; о . 050 Carbonaceous shale. c 5 3 à a о › à ST Coal © o o o : o o ` 5 b D s 40/20 Carbonaceous shale. a o 5 i T > 01:20 Coal and shaly beds Continue for 37 ft. : B à ; i 62 Ry Fine sandstone о 5 o 5 ; o 3 : b o TOTAL . 4855 feet. No. 5 BOREHOLE, Surface soil , Я . 6 Я . 5 o 6 6 4 Various clays . o . 10 Dark brown shaly RNE ang clay 1 Carbonaceous shale 6 Fine grey shaly sandstone a 9 c . o а 5 SENT Carbonaceous shale С 1 e j С 212 Slight :arbonaceous fine Sra PISO 4 Grey shaly sandstone. . . . . А . 1 Carbonaceous shaly sandstone 5 ó > o о Е « iM Grey and carbonaceous shaly sandstone . E : ; 3 6 Coal o о о 5 о o a 5 E E 9 Carbonaceous : hale’ 5 : с : o о o 5 PS: 77 shaly sandstone Дд o 2 5 I 57 shale с D : 1 P shaly sandstone . E 7 y 2 1 27 shale . c è б р 4 2 r 57 and grey chaly denne 5 . б 5 ‘ 4 Whiteshaly sandstone . o 5 . o с с . 6 Carbcnaceous shaly sandstone . 5 А > 5 . SHIT 5 shale and grey shaly addons o ن‎ ó 2 © Grey shaly sandstone б g o а 5 c o 2 лч Carbonaceous shale 2 d p А D D A 4 5 . 5 Coal . MEI, . ONE C : GOES EE sc етв — [09] сә w 122 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. Thickness in feet. Carbonaceous shale 6 О : ó А o 6 C o 0 Coal с à О © ; А 2 E 5 c А SA Carbonaceous shale : - С 5 e : 5 IZ Coal and shaly sandstone o : o 5 О i : e U Carbonaceous shale 8 o o a о 5 5 6 en Hard grey shaly sandstone c é à o . : © al Coal o д d A ° 5 ó 5 o 2 o 5. 2G Grey shaly sandstone a o с 5 о T : atl Carbonaceous fine shaly tere 5 c B à 5 A TIMEAS eb shale . t 5 z à Б 6 5 . IO Grey shaly sandstone 5 o 5 5 5 5 $ . 20 Yellow and mottled clays . c c : - A 2 3 Carbonaceous shaly sandstone 5 o о o - 5 4 White shaly sandstone . o : е 6 b 5 5 a 8) Grey shaly sandstone o : - 2 White sandstone 5 д О E 5 5 ` . 15 Carbonaceous shaly Sandstone 1 РА shale and coal > : © o A . Жз Coal o о 6 o 5 а o à 5 EUIS Carbonaceous shale Sud сс a . 5 . 1 Grey shaly sandstone - . > - . . - . Soo TOTAL . 221 feet. Water tapped at 14 ft. which flowed over surface to the end. No. 6 BOREHOLE. Surface soil . : ö c > : " E 9 Soft brown sandstone E 3 Soft yellow sandstone 3: Soft brown sandstone with dA 3 Brownsandyclay . 6 А š : 2 . E Sog) Grey shaly sandstone . 5 > . < 5 . . 2036 Brown ,, tn . : 0 c . . . . "T Carbonaceous shaly sandstone . ` . . . . + 4 Grey shaly sandstone . . а . . . . . 6 Carbonaceous shale А . . : 9 » and coal . 2 6 A . 9 Coal > à 5 o à E 2 17. Carbonaceous grey iens sandstones and coal. . - 5 5 p- H Grey and carbonaceous shaly sandstone 4 Carbonaceous shaly sandstone г З - à . 3 Coal and carbonaceous shale . - . . о б А 6 Carbonaceous fine shaly sandstone . с о а А 5 Grey shaly sandstone : * > 5 = » + . I Grey and yellow sandstone . 5 : . : 1 Grey shaly sandstone and coal . . 5 > o E 2 Grey shaly sandstone : . . . . Š . 2 3220) APPENDIX, 123 Thickness in feet. Yellow shaly sandstone % . . c А E B > с Carbonaceousshale . : C 6 : : - о о b 6 р » and grey shaly sandstone 5 о c » 5 3 ss shaly sandstone 5 5 С A b © å П Grey shaly sandstone б 5 Ó B . . . D . 50 Coal E B D J : . б . o ë . . i Carbonaceous shale . с o О о . О ö o . 4 Coal . B o . 6 б . . . o А . 4 Carbonaceous shale and coal 5 < 5 б à 5 о 6 6 Coal о E 5 D B B С . 5 e B 5 1 Carbonaceous shale and coal b о А a 8 o . д 4 Coal а c О o o . o . © 2 © © б Carbonaceous shale and coo o b a a 5 . б з 2 Coal . © - o O К о = o 5 E 5 © 9 Carbonaceous shaly sandstone . © 5 o o s a 102 cp shale . o 5 . а о . T a 1 33 shaly sandstone . o O . z o 6 Cr) shale . E 5 = . 5 О е о . 2 cb shaly sandstone . T С о 6 б D o 4 D shale . Е . c 5 à » Ó б 4 m shaly sandstone . 5 . . 6 б © б 1 $5 shale о D 5 о Ó . D b © 1 ээ shaly sandstone . . . o . o E О 2 Yellow sandstone . . . o о . б Ü . b 8 White sandstone . о . . o 5 ° o . 12 Carbonaceous shaly sandstone œ. o D © 5 . . HUE 3? shale . ° б о ° . 0 ° о STO) TOTAL . 258 feet, Water tapped at 26 ft. No. 7 BOREHOLE, Surface soil and variegated clays о О . . o о a 0G Vari-coloured shaly sandstone . . G . . ° . IO Carbonaceous shale . ° о . . . D 5 5 1 Coal and carbonaceous shale o o . . . О 5 E 1 Carbonacaous shale . О 5 o = 5 5 o o ° 1 Coal . C а о e © o 6 о о . б o 3 Carbonaceous shale . o o o . . . D o 5. 2b Grey shaly sandstone . . . Ó . . . . ti . 5 Carbonaceous shale . . б o © . o . 5 . 4 Grey shaly sandstone , c . . А us . > . 1 Carbonaceous shale . . © А . e . b . 3 8 » shaly sandstone . . E . ° ° А . 8 7; and grey sandstone o . . б . ° ОЛО 2р shaly sandstone . . . о . б . . 2 7; shale . o б © ° б б , А a 1 oF shaly sandstone . © . D . . . . 4 E and grey shaly sandstone . . . . . . 15 124 READER: REPORT ON THE RAMPUR COAL-FIELD. Thickness in feel. Carbonaceous shale . 5 o а D > . б . . 4 ср fine shaly sandstone . . . © . . а 1 D shale . . o 5 © © o E E E 3 OD » and coal ` . o T О . . . 4 Coal Й ° . . ° . ° ° ° ° . е 4 Carbonaceous shale . > 5 5 - o o . . e 9 TOTAL . 141 feet, Water tapped at 15 ft. No. 8 BOREHOLE, Surface soil and clay . 5 . о о ò . o o . 6 Vari-coloured sandstones and clays . o 5 б о E . I9 Slightly carbonaceous brown shaly sandstone 6 . . . . 2 Carbonaceous shale . с . З . . : о . D! ns » With а little coal . o > . e . . 1 $5 shale - 5 6 6 z - о > . 8 » grey shaly sandstone . о . A g 6 ° 5 р shale ; b е d ° . ° ° E 3 m fine shaly sandstone . . . De Se c + 10 ср shale . o . . ° . . E ° . 3 р >» and coal о o 3 . . . ^ . 9 eh » and shaly sandstone 5 . . . * . 28 ib „ and coal . D . О D E . 3 D ns . 5 . . А о > a to Coal and carbonaceous shale . . . . . . . . 3 Carbonaceous shale . . . . . . . . . ۰ 18 Coal . ° J . . . o e . . " . . 4 TOTAL . 141 feet. Water tapped at Zo tt. ( 36 ) Memoirs, Vol XXXII, Pl. Heb River Average Surface Level 650 f$ above Sea Level BAR REFERENCE. Series proved by Dhoramuda Borehole. Series proved by previous boreholes & present survey. Series proved by Kodopali Borehole. Series not yet satisfactorily proved. Scale: about 4 inches to 1 mile Hor, & Vert. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA G. Е. Reader, Memoirs, Vol XXXII, Pli. 3 d is I $ HE $3 P SM nes ar 2 Se x = Average Surface Level камтн р == 650 ft abore Sea Level REFERENCE. Art ШЙ ПАТ ae | N ; SEELEN B Series proved by previous boreholes & Present survey. SEIN SENS C Series proved by Kodopali Borehole. TAL! D Series not yet satisfactorily proved. Scale: about у inches to т mile Hor. & Vert. HORIZONTAL SKETCH—SECTION A FROM NEIGHBOURHOOD OF RAMPUR ON THE Ees River THROUGH KopopaLt & DHORAMUDA. showing the Barakar Measures proved & unproved by the Kodopali & Dhoramuda boreholes. G. F. Reader. Memoirs, Vol. XXXII, Pl. 2. REFERENCE. A Eeb River Seam. B Supposed ditto. C Durlipali Seam.? G. F. Reader. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA Memoirs, Vol. XXXII, PI. 2. $ ` Conglomerate REFERENCE. A Eeb River Seam. B Supposed ditto. C Durlipali Seam.? White Sandatene Conglomerate HORIZONTAL SKETCH—SECTION B SHOWING SECTION OF STRATA NEAR THE Eer RIVER. Note: Conglomerate lies unconformably upon the white sandstone. С. F. Reader. Memoirs, Vol XXXII, Pl. 4. 1899 Dhoramuda SHOWING SILWAY COMPANY. | 255 FT No. 4 near Kodopali Barth Black Shale ebbles Coal nch Coaly Shale No. 5 near Job While sandstone urface soil | parse yellow andstone 72 "Yhite- moorum, White sandstone weh thin seams of coat = d white andstone sai Е ' " D С. F. Reader. SHOWING SUPPOSED CORKELATION OF DHORAMUDA & DR. KINGS Nos. 5 & 6 BOREHOLES. 1899 Dhoramuda = GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 1886 D" King No.7 1897 Kodopali Scale 100 Feet—l Inch 1886 DF King 1886 D" King в МОТЕ: 1886 DF Куму No. 6 Dhoramuda borchole proves the Upper-Barakars Kodopali borehole proves the Lower Barakars. No 7 & No 8 boreholes prove the middle Barakars. The Ground below kodopali borehole remains to be proved. Memoirs, Vol. XXXII, Pl. 3. BOREHOLES PUT DOWN BY THE BENGAL NAGPUR RAILWAY COMPANY Na 1 near Eeb Bridge ES Whata 150-0 Sandstone 20-0 No 2 Luchkura 2 0 Black shale Coaly shale = 9 5 Coaly Shale Scale 20 Feet=1 Inch Luchkure Shaft re 8 > ==] Surface soil Garne yellow Sandalone | While- meorum Hard. white sandstone : ere BORING SECTIONS RAMPUR COAL - FIELD, CENTRAL PROVINCES. 60-0 Na 4 near Kodopali Barth Black. Shale 10 Coal Coaly Shale No $ near Job E White. sandstone White sandstone ШҮ ЕЕЕ with. thin sems of coal y T GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA G. F. Reader. _ Sitaram & Bilpaharı a 2 Ü SS \ Hills 1833 x ‚Norte: Two miles north of this confluence Viz:- Modlia Nala and Eeb River or 1/4 mile north of the Gorgor-Eeb confluence, Massive Talchir Sandstones are exposed on the right bank of the Eeb dipping South East by South y tesselated Sandstone BN Ry. Валла" Ed © [= os 'erruginous Rocks ОУ Mag: Mer: 1899. {р ali Y Durli Sketch-Plan Of part of the Rampur Coalfield Shewing "A © /] Son EIN BSR STE Borehole 1438 No.4 „7 Supposed fault (downthrow to the East near Eeb Bridge.) SS * Баета Assumed outcrops of the Eeb River Coal Seam & Durlipali Shales à N , М А г | Position of ‘1899! Dhoramuda Diamond Drill borehole. d am L D / 7 K Do. do ‘896! Kodopali do do | А Do. do Sundry boreholes put down previously. ‚ Do. little trial pits put down this field Season. Lines of Sections accompanying Report. Scale g inches to 1 mile. | REFERENCES EN CICR Assumed Outcrops. SS FRE ead 608 "Force NY Q Kiraruma pay a Kiraruma Ф Bo poti ЕЙ sunk this season... ,A — 77 o > me n is down previously... » " E A un ate heights above Sea Level shown thus: а р $ — Ki Part 3.—Note on the progress of the gold industry in Wynaad, Nilgiri district. Notes on the representatives of the Upper Gondwana series in Trichinopoly and Nellore-Kistna districts. Senarmontite from Sarawak. Part 4—On the geographical distribution of fossil organisms in India. Submerged forest on Bombay Island. 1 Vor. XII, 1879. Part ı.— Annual report for 1878. Geology of Kashmir (third notice). Further notices of Siwalik mammalia. Notes on some Siwalik birds. Notes of a tour through Hangrang and Spiti On a recent mud eruption in Ramri Island (Arakan). On Braunite, with Rhodonite from near Nagpur, Central Provinces. Palæontological notes from the Satpura coal-basin. Statistics of coal importations into India. Part 2.—On the Mohpani coal-field. On Pyrolusite with Psilomelane occurring at Gosalpur, Jabalpur district. A geological reconnaissance from the Indus at Kushalgarh to the Kurram at Thal on the Afghan frontier. Further notes on the geology of the Upper Punjab. Part 3.—On the geological features of the northern part of Madura district, the Pudukota State, and the southern parts of the Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts included within the limits of sheet 80 of the Indian Atlas. Rough notes on the cretaceous fossils from Trichino- poly district, collected in 1877-78. Notes on the genus Sphenophyllum and other Equise- taceze, with reference to the Indian form Trizygia Speciosa, Royle (Sphenophyllum Trizy- gia, Ung.). On Mysorin and Atacamite from the Nellore district. On corundum from the Khasi Hills. On the Joga neighbourhood and old mines on the Nerbudda. Part 4.—On the ‘Attock Slates’ and their probable geological position. Оп a marginal bone of an undescribed tortoise, from the Upper Siwaliks, near Nila, in the Potwar, Punjab. Sketch of the geology of North Arcot district. On the continuation of the road section from Murree to Abbottabad. Vor. XIII, 1880. Part 1,—Annual report for 1879. Additional notes on the geology of the Upper Godavari basin in the neighbourhood of Sironcha. Geology of Ladak and neighbouring districts, being fourth notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouringterritories. Teeth of fossil fishesfrom Ramri Island and the Punjab. Note on the fossil genera Nöggerathia, Stbg., Nöggerathiop- sis, Fstm., and Rhiptozamites, Schmalh., in palæozoic and secondary rocks of Europe, Asia, and Australia. Notes on fossil plants from Kattywar, Shekh Budin, and Sirgujah. On vol- canic foci of eruption in the Konkan. Part 2.—Geological notes. Palæontological notes on the lower trias of the Himalayas. On the artesian wells at Pondicherry, and the possibility of finding such sources of water-supply at Madras, - Part 3.—The Kumaun lakes. On the discovery of a celt of palæolithic type in the Punjab. Palæ- ontological notesfrom the Karharbari and South Rewah coal-fields. Further notes on the correlation of the Gondwana flora with other floras. Additional note on theartesian wells at Pondicherry. Saltin Rajputana. Record of gas and mud eruptions on the Arakan coast on 12th March 1879 and in June 1843. Part 4.—On some pleistocene deposits of the Northern Punjab, and the evidence they afford of an extreme climate during a portion of that period. Useful minerals of the Arvali region. Further notes on tne correlation of the Gondwana flora with that of the Australian coal- bearing system. Note on reh or alkali soils and saline well waters. The reh soils of Upper India Note on the Naini Taldandslip, 18th September 1880. Vor. XIV, 1881. Part ı— Annual report for 1880. Geology of part of Dardistan, Baltistan, and neighbouring districts, being fifth notice of the geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories. Note on some Siwalik carnivora. The Siwalik group of the Sub-Himalayan region. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. On the ferruginous beds associated with the basaltic rocks of north-eastern Ulster, in relation to Indian laterite. On some Rajmahal plants. Travelled blocks of the Punjab. Appendix to ' Palæontological notes on the lower trias of the Hima- layas On some mammalian fossils from Perim Island, in the collection of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Part 2.—The Nahan-Siwalik unconformity in the North-western Himalaya. On some Gondwana vertebrates. On the ossiferous beds of Hundes in Tibet. Notes on mining records, and the mining reccrd office of Great Britain; and the Coal and Metalliferous Mines Acts of 1872 (England). On cobaltite and danaite from the Khetri mines, Rajputana ; with some remarks on Jaipurite (Syepoorite). On the occurrence of zinc ore (Smithsonite and Blende) with barytes, in the Karnul district, Madras. Notice of a mud eruption in the island of Cheduba. Part 3.—Artesian borings in India. On oligoclase granite at Wangtu on the Sutlej, North-west Himalayas. On a fish-palate from the Siwaliks. Palæontological notes from the Hazaribagh and Lohardagga districts. Undescribed fossil carnivora from the Siwalik hills in the collec- tion of the British Museum. Part 4.—Remarks on the unification of geological nomenclature and cartography. Оп the geo- logy ofthe Arvali region, central and eastern. On a specimen of native antimony ob- tained at Pulo Obin, near Singapore. On Turgite from the neighbourhood of Juggiapett, Kistnah district, and on zinc carbonate from Karnul, Madras. Note on the section from Dalhousie to Pangi, vid the Sach Pass. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. Submerged forest on Bombay Island. { Vor. ХУ, 1882. Part ı.— Annual report for 1881. Geology of North-west Kashmir and Khagan (being sixth notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories. On some Gondwana laby- rinthodonts. On some Siwalik and Jamna mammals. The geology of Dalhousie, North- west Himalaya. On remains of palm leaves from the (tertiary Murree and Kasauli beds in India. On Iridosmine from the Noa-Dibing river, Upper Assam, and on Platinum from Chutia Nagpur. On (1) a copper mine lately opened near Yongri hill, in the Dar- jiling district; (2) arsenical pyrites in the same neighbourhood; (3) kaolin at Darjiling (being 3rd appendix to a report on the geology and mineral resources of the Darjiling district and the Western Duars). Analyses of coaland fire-clay from the Makum coal- field, Upper Assam. Experiments on the coal of Pind Dadun Khan, Salt-range, with reference to the production of gas, made April 29th, 1881. Report on the proceedings and result of the International Geological Congress of Bologna. Part 2.—General sketch of the geology of the Travancore State. The Warkilli beds and reported associated deposits at Quilon, in Travancore. Note on some Siwalik and Narbada fossils. On the Coal-bearing rocks of the valleys of the Upper Rer and the Mand rivers in Western Chutia Nagpur. On the Pench river coal-field in Chhindwara district, Central Provinces. On borings for coal at Engsein, British Burma. On sapphires recently discovered in the Nortu-west Himalaya. Notice of a recent eruption from one of the mud volcanoes in Cheduba. Part 3.—Note on the coalof Mach (Much) in the Bolan Pass, and of Sharag or Sharigh on the Harnai route between Sibi and Quetta. New faces observed on crystals of stilbite from the Western Gháts, Bombay. On the traps of Darang and Mandi in the North-western Himalayas. Further note on the connexion between the Hazara and the Kashmir series. On the Umaria coal-field (South Rewah Gondwana basin). The Daranggiri coal-field, Garo Hills, Assam. On the outcrops of coal in the Myanoung division of the Henzada district. Pari 4.—On a traverse across some gold-fields of Mysore. Record of borings for coal at Bed- dadanol, Godavari district, in 1874. Note on the supposed occurrence of coal on the Kistna. Vor. XVI, 1883. Part 1.—Annual report for 1882. Onthe genus Richthofénia, Kays (Anomia Lawrenciana, Koninck) On the geology of South Travancore. On the geology of Chamba. On the basalts of Bombay. Part 2.—Synopsis of the fossil vertebrata of India. On the Bijori Labyrinthodont. On a skull of Hippotherium antilopinum. On the iron ores, and subsidiary materials for the manufacture of iron, in the north-eastern part of the Jabalpur district. On laterite and other mangan- ese ore occurring at Gosulpore, Jabalpur district. Further notes on the Umaria coal-field. Part 3.—On the microscopic structure of some Dalhousierocks. On the lavas of Aden. On the probable oceurrence of Siwalik strata in China and Japan. On the occurrence of Mastodon angustidens in India. On a traverse between Almora and Mussooree made in October 1882. On the cretaceous coal-measures at Borsora, in the Khasia Hills, near Laour, in Sylhet. Part 4.— Paleontological notes from the Daltonganj and Hutar coal-fields in Chota Nagpur. On the altered basalts of the Dalhousie region in the North-western Himalayas. On the microscopic structure of some Sub-Himalayan rocks of tertiary age. On the geology of Jaunsar and the Lower Himalayas. On a traverse through the Eastern Khasia, Jaintia, and North Cachar Hills. On native lead from Maulmain and chromite from the Andaman Islands. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Notice.— Irrigation from wells in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Vor. XVII, 1884. Part 1.—Annual report for 1883. Considerations on the smooth-water anchorages or mud banks of Narrakal and Alleppy onthe Travancore coast. Rough notes on Billa Surgam and other caves in the Kurnool district. On the geology of the Chuari and Sihunta parganas of Chamba. On the occurrence of the genus Lyttonia, Waagen, in the Kuling series of Kashmir. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake of 31st December 1881. On the microscopic structure of some Himalayan granites and gneissose granites. Report on the Choi coalexploration. On the re-discovery of certain localities for fossils in the Siwalik beds. On some of the mineral resources of the Andaman Islands in the neighbourhood of Port Blair. The intertrappean beds in the Deccan and the Laramie group in western North America. Paré g.— On the microscopic structure of some Arvali rocks. Section along the Indus from the Peshawar Valley to the Salt-range. On the selection of sites for borings in the Raigarh- Hingir coal-field (first notice). Note on lignite near Raipore, Central Provinces. The Tur- quoise mines of Nishápür, Khorassan. Notice of a further fiery eruption from the Minbyin mud volcano of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Report on the Langrin coal-field, South-west Khasia Hills. Additional notes on the Umaria coal-field. Part 4—On the Geology of part of the Gangasulan pargana of British Garhwal. On frag- ments of slates and schists imbedded in the gneissose granite and granite of the North. west Himalayas. On the geology of the Takht-i-Suleiman. On the smooth-water anchor- ages of the Travancore coast. On auriferous sands of the Subansiri river, Pondicherry lignite, and Phosphatic rocks at Musuri. Work at the Billa Surgam caves. Vor. XVIII, 1883, Part 1.—Annual report for 1884. On the country between the Singareni coal-field and the Kistna river. Geological sketch of the country between the Singareni coal-field and Hy- derabad. On coal and limestone in the Doigrung river, near Golaghat, Assam. Homo- taxis, as illustrated from Indian formations. Afghan field-notes. Part 2.—A fossiliferous series in the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal. Onthe probable age of the Mandhali series in the Lower Himalaya. On a second species of Siwalik camel (Camelus Antiquus, nobis ex Fale. and Саш. MS.. On the Geology of Chamba. On the proba. bility of obtaining water by means of artesian wells in the plains of Upper India. Further Considerations upon artesian sources in the plains of Upper India. On the geology of the Aka Hills. On the alleged tendency of the Arakan mud volcanoes to burst into eruption most frequently during the rains. Analyses of phosphatic nodules and rock from Mus- sooree, Part 3.—On the Geology of the Andaman Islands. On a third species of Merycopotamus. Some observations on percolation as affected by current. Notice of the Pirthalla and Chandpur meteorites. Report on the oil-wells and coal in the Thayetmyo district, British Burma. Оп some antimony deposits in the Maulmain district. On the Kashmir earth- quake of goth May 1885. On the Bengal earthquake of 14th July 1885. Part 4.—Geological work in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. On the Bengal earthquake of July 14th, 1885. On the Kashmir earthquake of 30th May 1885. On the results of Mr. H. B. Foote's further excavations in the Billa Surgam caves, On the mineral hitherto known as Nepaulite. Notice of the Sabetmahet meteorite, Vor. XIX, 1886. Part 1.—Annual report for 1885. On the International Geological Congress of Berlin. On some Palzozoic Fossils recently collected by Dr. H. Warth, in the Olive group of the Salt- range. On the correlation of the Indian and Australian coal-bearing beds. Afghan and Persian Field notes. On the section from Simla to Wangtu, and on the petrological character of the Amphibolites and Quartz-Diorites of the Sutlej valley. : Part 2.—On the Geology of parts of Beliary and Anantapur districts. Geology of the Upper Dehing basin inthe Singpho Hills. On the microscopic characters of some eruptive rocks from the Central Himalayas. Preliminary note on the Mammalia of the Karnul Caves. Me- morandum on the prospects of finding coalin Western Rajputana. Note on the Olive. Group of the Salt-range. On the discussion regarding the boulder-beds of the Salt-range. - Onthe Gondwana Homotaxis. ‘Part 3.—Geological sketch of the Vizagapatam district, Madras. Preliminary note on the geology of Northern Jesalmer. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Malani rocks of the Arvali region. On the Malanjkhandi copper-ore in the Balaghat dise trict, С. Р. Part 4—On the occurrence of petroleum in India. Оп the petroleum exploration at Khátan. Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. Field-notes from Afghanistan: No. 3, Turkistan. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Island, | Arakan. Notice of the Nammianthalaerolite. Analysis of gold dust from the Meza val- ley, Upper Burma. Vor. XX, 1887. Part r.—Annual report for 1886. Field-notes from Afghanistan: No. 4, from Turkistan to India. Physical geology of West British Garhwal; with notes on a route traverse through Jaunsar-Bawar and Tiri-Garhwal. Onthe geology of the Garo Hills. On some Indian image-stones. On soundings recently taken off Barren Island and Narcondam. On a character of the Talchir boulder-beds. Analysis of Phosphatic Nodules from the Salt- range, Punjab. : Part 2.—The fossil vertebrata of India. On the Echinoidea of the cretaceous series of the Lower Narbada Valley, with remarks upon their geological age. Field-notes: No. 5—to accompany a geological sketch map of Afghanistan and North-eastern Khorassan. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Rajmahal and Deccantraps. On the Dolerite of the Chor. On the identity of the Olive series in the east with the speckled sandstone in the west of the Salt-range in the Punjab. Part 3.— The retirement of Mr. Medlicott. Notice of J. B. Mushketoff’s Geology of Russian Turkistan. Crystaline and metamorphicrocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section I. Preliminary sketch of the geology of Simla and Jutogh. Noteon the ‘ Lalitpur* meteorite. Part 4.—Note on some points in Himalayan geology. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section II. The iron industry of the western portion of the district of Raipur. Notes on Upper Burma, Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. (Second notice.) Some remarks on Pressure Metamorphism with reference to the foliation of the Himalayan Gneissose-Granite. A list and an of paperson Himalayan Geology and Microscopic Petrology, published in the preceding volumes of the Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vor. XXI, 1888. Part 1. — Annual report for 1887. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section III. The Birds’-nest or Elephant Island, Mergui Archi- pelago. Memorandum on the results of an exploration of Jessalmer, with a view to the discovery of coal. A facetted pebble from the boulder bed ('speckled sandstone!) of Mount Chel in the Salt-range in the Punjab. Examination of nodular stones obtained by trawling off Colombo. Part 2.—Award of the Wollaston Gold Medal, Geological Society of London, 1888. The-Dhar- war System, the chief auriferous rock series in South India, On the Igneous rocks of the districts of Raipur and Balaghat, Central Provinces, On the Sangar Marg and Mehowgale coal-fields, Kashmir. Part 3.— Тһе Manganese Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. ‘The Carboniferous Glacial Period. The sequence and correlation of the pre-tertiary sedimentary formations of the Simla region of the Lower Himalayas. Part 4.—On Indian fossil vertebrates. On the geology of the North-west Himalayas. On blown-sand rock sculpture. Re-discovery of Nummulites in Zanskar. On some mica- traps from Barakar and Raniganj. x Vor, XXII, 1889. _ Part 1.—Annual report for 1888. The Dharwar System, the chief auriferous rock-series in South India. (Second notice. On the Wajra Karur diamonds, and on M. Chaper’s alleged discovery of diamonds in pegmatite near that place. On the generic position of the so-called Plesiosaurus Indicus. On flexible sandstone or Itacolumite, with special -reference to its nature and mode of occurrence in India, and the cause of its flexibility. On Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia. Part 2.—Note on Indian Steatite. Distorted pebbles in the Siwalik conglomerate. ‘The Car. boniferous Glacial Period. Notes on Dr. W. Waagen's 'Carboniferous Glacial Period.’ On the oil-fields of Twingoung and Beme, Burma. The gypsum of the Nehal Nadi, Kumaun. On some of the materials for pottery obtainable in the neighbourhood of Jabal- pur and of Umaria. Pari 3. —Abstract report on the coal outcrops in the Sharigh Valley, Baluchistan. On the discovery of Trilobites by Dr. H. Warth in the Neobolus beds of the Salt-range. Geolo- gical notes. On the Cherra Poonjee coal-field, in the Khasia Hills. Оп a Cobaltiferous Matt from Nepál. The President of the Geological Society of London on the Interna- tional Geological Congress of 1888. Tin-mining in Mergui district. Рат? 4.—On the land-tortoises of the Siwaliks. On the pelvis of a ruminant from the Siwaliks. Recent assays from the Sambhar Salt-Lake in Rajputana. The Manganiferous Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. On some Palagonite-bearing raps of the Rájmahál hills and Deccan. On tin-smelting in the Malay Penirsula. Provisional index of the local distribution of important minerals, miscellaneous minerals, gemstones, and quarry stones in the Indian Empire. Part ı. Vor. XXIII, 1800. Part 1.—Annual report for 1889. On the Lakadong coal-fields, Jaintia Hills. On the Pecto- ral and pelvic girdles and skull of the Indian Dicynodonts. On certain vertebrate remains from the Nagpur district (with description of a fish-skull). .Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalayas, Garhwál and Kumaun, Section IV. On the bivalves of the Olive-group, Salt-range. On the mud-banks of the Travancore coast. Part а.— Оп the most favourable sites for Petroleum explorations in the Harnai district, Baluch- istan. The Sapphire Mines of Kashmir. The supposed Matrix of the Diamond at Wajra Karur, Madras. The Sonapet Gold-field. Field Notes from the Shan Hills (Upper Burma). A description of some new species of Syringosphæridæ, with remarks upon ° their structures, &c. : Part 3.—On the Geology and Economic Resources of the Country adjoining the Sind-Pishin Railway between Sharigh and Spintangi, and of the country between it and Khattan (with a map). Report of a Journey through India in the winter of 1888-89, by Dr. Johannes Walther, translated from the German, by R. Bruce Foote. Onthe Coal-fields of Lairungao, Maosandram, and Mao-be-lar-kar, in the Khasi Hills (with 3 plans). Further Note on Indian Steatite. Provisional Index of the Local Distribution of Im portant Minerals, Miscellaneous Minerals, Gem Stones, and Quarry Stones in the Indian Empire ` (continued from p. 286, Vol. XXII). Part 4.—Geological sketch of Naini Tal; with some remarks on the natural conditions govern- ing mountain slopes (with a map and plate). Notes on some Fossil Indian Bird Bones. The Darjiling Coal between the Lisu and the Ramthi rivers, explored during season 1890-91 (with a map). The Basic Eruptive Rocks of the Kadapah Area. The Deep - Boring at Lucknow. Preliminary Note on the Coal Seam of the Dore Ravine, Hazara (with two plates). Vor. XXIV, 1891. Part 1.—Annual report for 1890. On the Geology of the Salt-range of the Punjab, with a re-considered theory of the Origin and Age of the Salt Marl (with five plates). On Veins of Graphite in decompösed Gneiss (Laterite) in Ceylon. Extracts from the Journal of a trip to the Glaciers ofthe Kabru, Pandim, &c. The Salts of the Sambhar Lake in Raj- putana, and of the Saline efflorescence called ‘Reh’ from Aligarh in the North-Western Provinces. Analysis of Dolomite from the Salt-range, Punjab. Pari 2.—Preliminary Report on the Oil locality near Moghal Kot, in the Sheráni country, Suleiman Hills. On Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills. Note on the Geology of the Lushai Hills. Report on the Coal-fields in the Northern Shan States. Note on the reported Namséka Ruby-mine in the Mainglön State. Note on the Tourmaline (Schorle) Mines in the Mainglön State. Note on a Salt-spring near Bawgyo, Thibaw State. Part 3.— Boring Exploration 27 the Daltongunj Coal-field, Palamow (with a map). Death of Dr. P. MARTIN Duncan. Contributions to the study of the Pyroxenic varieties of Gneiss and of the Scapolite-bearing Rocks. i Part 4.—On a Collection of Mammalian Bones from Mongolia. Further note on the Darjiling Coal Exploration. Notes on the Geology and Mineral Resources of Sikkim (witha map). Chemical and Physical notes on Rocks from the Salt-range, Punjab (with two plates). . Vor. XXV, 1892. Part т.— Annual report for 1801. Report on the Geology of Thal Chotiäli and part of the Mari country (with a map and 5 plates). Petrological Notes or Zhe Boulder-bed of the Salt-range, Punjáb, Subrecent and Recent Deposits of the valley $lains of Quetta, Pishin and the Dasht-i-Bedaolat; with appendices on the Chamans of Quetta; and the Artesian water-supp!y of Quetta and Pishin (with one plate). Part 2.— Geology of the Saféd Kóh (with 2 plates of sections). Report oz a Survey of tie Jherria Coal field (with a map and 3 section plates) (out of print.) Part 3.—Note on the Locality of Indian Tscheffkinite. Geological Sketch of the country north of Bhamo. Preliminary Report on the economic resources of the Amber and Jade mines area in Upper Burma. Preliminary Report or the Iron-Ores and Iron-Industries of the Salem District. On the Occurrence of Riebeckitezz India. Coal oz the Great Tenasserim River, Mergui District, Lower Burma. Part 4.—Report on tke Cil Springs at Moghal Kot in the Shirani Hills (with 2 plates). Second Note oz Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills. Or a New Fossil, Amber-like Resin occurring in Burma. Preliminary notice on the Triassic Deposits of the Salt-range. Vor. XXVI, 1895. Part 1.--Annual report for 1802. Notes oz Zhe Central Himalayas (with map and plate). Note on the occurrence of Jadeite in Upper Burma (with а map). On the occurrence of Burmite, a new Fossil Resin from Upper Burma. Report on the Prospecting Operations, Mergui District, 1891-92. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake in Baluchistan on the 20th December 1892 (with 2 plates). Further Note oz Burmite, a new amber-like fossil resin from Upper Burma. Note on the Alluvial deposits and Subterranean water-supply of Rangoon (with a map). Part 3.—On the Geology of the Sherani Hills (with maps and plates). On Carboniferous Fossils from Tenasserim (with 1 plate). On a deep Boring at Chandernagore. Note on Granite in the districts of Tavoy and Mergui (with a plate). Part 4.—On the Geology of the country between the Chappar Rift and Harnai in Baluchistan (with map and 3 plates). Notes on the Geology ofa part of the Tenasserim Valley with special reference to the Tendau-Kamapying Coal-field (with two maps). On a Magnetite from the Madras Presidency containing Manganese and Alumina. On His- lopite (Haughton) (with a plate). Vor. XXVII, 1894. Part 1,— Annual report for 1893. Report on the Bhaganwala Coal-field, Salt-range, Punjab (with map and 2 plates). Part 2.—Note on the Chemical qualities of petroleum from Burma, Note or the Singareni Coal-field, Hyderabad (Deccan) (with map and 3 plates of sections). Report om the Gohna Landslip, Garhwal (with 5 plates and 2 maps). Part 3.—On the Cambrian Formation of the Eastern Salt-range (with a plate). The Giridih (Karharbari) Coal-field, with notes on the labour and methods of working (with 2 maps and 8 plates of sections). On the Occurrence of Chipped (P) Flints in the Upper Miocene of Burma (with a. plate). Note on the Occurrence of Velates Schmideliana, Chemn, pae Provelates grandis, Sow. sp., in the Tertiary Formation of India and Burma (with 2 plates). Part 4.—Note on the Geology of Wuntho iz Upper Burma (with a map). Preliminary notice oz the Echinoids from the Upper Cretaceous System of Baluchistán. On Highly Phosphatic Mica-Peridotites intrusive iz the Lower Gondwana Rocks of Bengal. On a Mica-Hypersthene-Hornblende-Peridotite in Bengal. . Vor. XXVIII, 1805. Part 1.— Annual report for 1894. Cretaceous Formation of Pondicherry. Some early allu- sions £o Barren Island; with a fem remarks thereon. Bibliography of barren Island and . Narcondam, from 1884 to 1894; with some remarks. Part 2.— Оп the importance of Cretaceous Rocks of Southern India in estimating the geo- graphical conditions during later cretaceous times. Report on the Experimental Boring for Petroleum at Sukkur from October 1803 to March 1895. The development and Sub- division of the Tertiary system in Burma. Part 3.—On the Jadeite and other rocks, from Tammaw in Upper Burma. On the Geology of the Tochi Valley. On the existence of Lower Gondwanas in Argentina. Part 4—On the Igneous Rocks of the Giridih (Kurhurbaree) Coal-field and their Contact Effects. Or some outliers of the Vindhyan system south of the Sone and their relation ѓо the so-called Lower Vindhyans. Notes on a portion of the Lower Vindhyan area of the Sone Valley. Note on Dr. Fritz NoETLING'S paper on the Tertiary system in Burma, in the Records of the Geological Survey of India for 1895, Part 2. Vor. XXIX, 1806. Part 1.— Annual report for 1895. On the Acicular inclusions in Indian Garnets. On the Origin and Growth of Garnets and of their Micropegmatitic intergrowths in Pyroxenic rocks (with 1 plate). Nive Fart 2.—Notes on the Ultra-basic rocks and derived minerals of the Chalk (Magnesite) hills, and other localities near Salem, Madras (with 2—6 plates). Preliminary notes on some Corundum localities tz the Salem and Coimbatore districts, Madras (with 7—9 plates). On the occurrence of Corundum and Kyanite in the Manbhum district, Bengal. On the papers by DR. KossMAT and Dr. Kurtz, and on the ancient Geography of “Gondwana-land.” Note from the Geological Survey of India. Part 3.— Оп some Igneous Rocks from the Tochi Valley. Notes from the Geological Survey of India. ] Part 4— Report on the Steatite mines, Minbu District, Burma. Further notes on the Lower Vindhyan (Sub-Kaimur) area of the Sone Valley, Rewah. Notes from the Geological Survey of India. Vor. XXX, 1897. Part 1.—Annual report for 1806, On some Norite and associated Basic Dykes and Lava- flows, iz Southern India (with plates I to II). The reference of the genus Vertebraria. On a Plant of Glossopteris with part of the rhisome attached, and on the structure : of Vertebraria (with plates HI to V). Part 2.—The Cretaceous Deposits of Pondicherri (with plates VI to X). Notes from the. Geological Survey of India. Part 3.— Note on Flow-structure in an Igneous dyke (with plate XI) Additional note on the Olivine-norite dykes at Coonoor (with plate XII), Report on some trial excavations for corundum near Palakod, Salem District (with plate XIII). Report on the occurrence of coalat Palana village in Bikanir State (with plate XIV). An account of the geological specimens collected by the Afghan-Baluch Boundary Commission of 1806 (with plate XV). Note from the Geological Survey of India (with plates XVI and XVII). ` Fart 4—On Nemalite from Afghanistan. ‘On a quartz-barytes rock occurring in the Salem District, Madras Presidency (with plate XVIII) Note ona worn femur of Hippopo- tamus irravadicus, Caut. and Falc., from the Lower Pliocena of Burma (with plates XIX and XX). On the supposed coalat Jaintia, Baxa Duars. Percussion Figures on micas, Notes from the Geological Survey of India. The price fixed for these publications is 1 rupee (25.) each part, or 2 rupees 4s) each Volume. 1 ) Note,—The Records cease to be published from the rst January 1898, MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. A Manual of the Geology of India. 4 Vols. With map. 1879-1887 — Vol. ı. Peninsular Area А Ву Н. В. Medlicott and W. Т. Blandford. Price 8 Vol. 2. Extra-Peninsular Area. rupees (out of print). Vol. 3. Economic Geology. By V. Ball, Price 5 rupees (out of print). Vol. 4. Mineralogy. By F. R. Mallet. Price 2 rupees. 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L. GRIESBACH, C:l.E., F.G.S. Superintendents. R. D. ОрнАм, A.R.S.M, F.G.S.: Tom D. La Touche, В.А. (Cantab), F.G.S.: C. S. Mipptemiss, В.А. (Cantab). 1 Deputy Superintendents: P. N. Bose, B.Sc. (London), F.G.S.: T. H. HOLLAND, A.R.C.S., F.G.S.: P. N. DATTA, B.Sc. (London), F.G.S.: F. Н. SMITH, A.R.C.S. Assistant Superintendents. Н, Н. HAYDEN, B,A., B.E.: E. VREDENBURG, B.L., B.Sc. (Paris), A.R.C.S. Paleontologist. Fritz NoeTLING, Ph.D. (Berlin), F.G.S. Specialist. R. К. Simpson, B.Sc. (Dunelm). . Sub-Assistants. Hira Lat: KISHEN SINGH, F.G.S. Artist. Assistant Curator, Н. B. W. GARRICK. T. R. BLYTH. Registrar. A. E. MacA. AUDSLEY. Goological Museum, Library, and Office, Calcutta, Brice Three Rupe, 1902. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. Vor. VoL. VoL. Уор. VoL. Vor. VoL. Vor, I. Royal 8vo, pp. 309, 1859 (out of print). 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The Cephalopoda (1861-65), pp. 216, pls. 94 (6 double). V.—Vor. II. The Gastropoda (1867-68), pp. xiii, 500, pls. 28. V1.— Vor. III. The Pelecypoda (1870-71), pp: xxii, 537, pls. 50. VIII, = Vor. IV. The Brachiopoda, Ciliopoda, Echinodermata, Corals, etc. (187273) РР. v, 202, pls. 29. (Ser. II, XI, XIL)—THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE GONDWANA SYSTEM, by О. FEISIMANTEL, except Vor. I, Pr. 1, by T. OLDHAM and]. MORRIS. Vor. I, pp. xviii, 233, pls. 72. 1863-79. Pt. 1; Rájmahál Group, Räjmahäl Hills. Pt. 2; The same (continued). Pt. 3; Plants from Golapilli. Pt. 4; Outliers on. the Madras Coast. Vor. II, рр. zli, 115, pls. 26. 1876-78. Pt. 1,; Jurassic Flora of Kach. Pt. 2; Flora of the Jabalpur Group. ; Vor. III, pp. xi, 64 + 149, pls. Зо (9 double) (I —X XXI + IA—XLVIIA). aspe -81. Pt.1; The Flora of the Talchir-Karharbari beds. Pt. 2; The Flora of the Damuda and Panchet Divisions. Pt.3; The same (concluded). Vor. IV, pp. xxvi, 25+ 66, pls. 35 (2 double) (I—XXV + IA—XIVA). 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Pt. 5 (1885); The Reptilia and Amphibia of the Maleri and Denwa groups, by К. LYDEKKER. (SER. X.)J—INDIAN TERTIARY AND POST-TERTIARY VERTEBRATA, ¿y R. LYDEKKER, except VoL. I, Pr. ı, by R. B. FOOTE. Vor. I, pp. xxx, 300, pls. 50. 1874-80. Pt.1; Rhinoceros deccanensis. Pt.2; Molar teeth and other remains of Mammalia. Pt.5; Crania of Ruminants. Pt, 4; Sup- plement to Pt. 3. Pt.5; Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. VoL. П, pp. xv, 363, pls. 45. 1881-84. Pt. ı ; Siwalik Rhinocerotide; Pt. 2; Supplement to Siwalik and Narbada Proboscidia. . Pt. 3; Siwalik and Narbada Equide. Pt. 4; Siwalik Camelopardalide. Pt. 5 ; Siwalik Selenodont Suina, etc. Pt. 6; Siwalik and Narbada Carnivora. Vor. III, pp. xxiv, 264, pls. 38. 1884-86. Pt.r; Additional Siwalik Perissodactyla and Pro- boscidia. Pt.2; Siwalik and Narbada Bunodont Suina. Pt. 3; Rodents and new Ruminants from the Siwaliks. Pt.4; Siwalik Birds. Pt. 5; Mas- todon Teeth from Perim Island. Pt.6; Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia, Pt. 7; Siwalik Crocodilia, Lacertilia and Ophidia, Pt. 8; Tertiary Fishes. Ver. IV, pt. 1, 1886. Siwalik Mammalia (Supplement 1), pp. 18, pls. б. » » » 2,1886. The Fauna of the Karnul caves: (and addendum to pt, 1); pp. 40 (19 : <- 58), pls. 5(vii—xi). $ » nn» 3 1887. Eocene Chelonia from the Salt-range; pp. 7 (59—65), pls.:2 (xii—xiii); (Ser. ҮП, XIV)—TERTIARY AND UPPER CRETACEOUS FAUNA OF WESTERN. INDIA, iy P. MARTIN DUNCAN and W. PERCY SLADEN, except Pt. т, by F. STOLICZKA. КОЕ; i Ver. I, pp: 16 + 110 + 382 + 91= 599, pls. 5 + 28. + 58 + 13=104. 1871—85. Pti; Tertiary Crabs from Sind and Kach. Pt. ı (new 2); Sind Fossil Corals and Alcyonaria, by P. Martin Duncan. Pt. 3. The Fossil Echinoidea of Sind: Fas. I, The Cardita beaumonti beds; Fas. 2, The Ranikot Series in Western Sind; Fas. 3, The Khirthar Series; Fas. 4, The Nari (Oligocene) Series; Fas. 5, The Gaj (Miocene) Series; Fas. 6, The Makrán (Pliocene) Series. . Blanford. Pt. 4 The Fossil Echinoidea of Kach and Kattywar, by Duncan, Sladen and Blanford. : (Ser. XIIL)J—SALT-RANGE FOSSILS, £y WILLIAM WAAGEN, PH.D. Productus-Limestone Group: VoL. I, Pt.1 (1879) Pisces,.Cephalopoda, pp. 72, pls. 6. 2 (1880), Gastropoda and supplement to pt. 1, pp. 114 : (73-183), pls. 10 (1 double), (vii-xvi). 3 (1881). D PP: 144 (185-328), pls. 8 (xvii-. XXIV). 2 4(1882-85). Brachiopoda, pp. 442 (329-770), pls. 62 (xxv-Ixxxvi). : 5 (1885). Bryozoa—Annelidæ—Echinodermata, pp. 64 (771-834), pls. 10 (Ixxxvii-xcvi). ў » 6 (1886). Coelenterata, pp. 90 (835-924), pls. зо = (xcvii-cxvi). : { x 5 = » 7 (1887). Ccelenterata, Protozoa, pp. 74 (925-98), - ‚pls. 12 (cxvii-cxxviii). . Fossils from the Ceratite Formation: Vol. II, pt. 1 (1895). Pisces—Ammonoidea, pp. 324, » » n » D xps y n n В) ” » » » „ „ » pls. 40. Geological Results: Vol. IV, pt. 1 (1880), pp. 1—88, pls. 4. À n’ n » » 2 (1891), PP- 89—242, pls. 8. j (Ser. XV.)—HIMALAYAN FOSSILS. Anthracolithic Fossils of Kashmirand Spiti : Vol. I, Pt. 2 (1899), by Dr. C. Diener, pp. 96, pls. 8.. The Permocarboniferoús Fauna of Chitichun No. I: Vol. I, pt. 3 (1897), by Dr. C. Diener, рр. 105, pls. 13. : E The Permian Fossils of the Productus Shales of Kumaon and Garhwal; Vol. I, pt. 4 (1807), by Dr. С. Diener, pp. 54, pls. 5. The Cephalopoda of the Lower Trias: Vol. II, pt. 1 (1897), by Dr. C. Diener, pp. 182, pls. 23. The Cephalopoda of the Muschelkaik: Vol. II, pt, 2 (1895),by. Dr. C. Diener, pp. 118, pls. 31. Upper Triassic Cephalopoda Fauna of the Himalayas: Vol. III, pt. 1 (1899), pp. by Dr. Von Mojsisovics, 158, pls. 22. Trias Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata: Vol. III, pt. 2 (1900), pp. 76, pls. 12 (including 2 double), by Alexander Bittner. - S Jurassic Fauna : Vol. IV, pt. 1 (in the Press), by Professor Dr. V. Uhlig. (Ser. XVL)—BALUCHISTAN FOSSILS, ûy FRITZ NOETLING, Pn.D., F.G.S. The Fauna of the Kellaways of Mazár Drik: Vol. I, pt. т (1895), pp. 22, pls. 13. The Fauna of the (Neocomian) Belemnite Beds: Vol. I, pt. 2 (1897), pp. 6, pis. EL i The Fauna of the upper cretaceous (Maéstrichtien) Beds of the Mari Hills: Vol. J, pt, 3 (1897), . 79, pls. 23. BE TES : (NEW SERIES) The Cambrian Fauna of the Eastern Salt-range : Vol. I, pt. т (1890), К. Redlich, pp. 14, pl. т, Notes on the Morphology of the Pelecypoda : Vol. 1, pt. 2 (1809), Fritz Noetling, pp. 58, pls. 4. Fauna of the Miocene Beds of Burma: Vol. I, pt, 3 (1001), Fritz Noetling, pp. 378, pls. 25. Observations sur quelques Plantes Fossiles des Lower Gondwanas: Vol. ЇЇ, pt. I (1902). R. Zeiller, pp. 39, pls. 7. À The price fixed for these publications is 4 annas (6 pence).per single plate, RECORDS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Vor. I, 1868. Part 1.—Annual report for 1867. The coal-seams of the Tawa valley. On the prospects of useful coal being found in the Garrow Hills. Copper in Bundelkund. Meteorites. Part 2.—On the coal-seams of the neighbourhood of Chanda. Coal near Nagpur. Geological notes on the Surat collectorate. The cephalopodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Lead in the district of Raepur. Coal in the Eastern Hemisphere. Meteorites. Part 3.—General results obtained from an examination of the gastropodous fauna of the South Indian cretaceous deposits. Notes on route from Poona to Nagpur vid Ahmednuggur, Talna, Loonar, Yeotmahal, Mangali, and Hingunghat. On the agate-flake found by Mr. Wynne in the pliocene (?) deposits of the Upper Godavery. The Boundary of the Vindh- yan series in Rajputana. Meteorites. Vor. II, 1869. Part r.—The valley of the Poorna river, West Berar. On the Kuddapah and Kurnool formations. Geological sketch of the Shillong plateau. On the occurrence of gold im the district of Singbhoom, &c. Memorandum on the wells now being sunk at the European Penitentiary, and at the site for the Central Jail, Hazareebagh. Meteorites. Part 2.—Annual report for 1868. Note on Pangshura tecta and the other species of Chelonia from the newer tertiary deposits of the Nerbudda valley. Sketch of the metamorphic rocks of Bengal. Part 3.—Preliminary noteson the geology of Kutch, Western India. Contributions to the geology and physical geography of the Nicobar Islands. $ : Part 4.—On the beds containing silicified wood in Eastern Prome, British Burma. Mineralo- gical statistics of Kumaon division. The coal-field near Chanda. Lead in the Raipur dis- trict. Meteorites. Vor. III, 1870. Part 1.—Annual report for 1869. On the geology of the neighbourhood of Madras. On the alluvial deposits of the Irrawadi, more particularly as contrasted with those of the Ganges. Part 2.—Geology of Gwalior and vicinity. On the slates at Chiteli, Kumaon. On the lead vein near Chicholi, Raipur district. The Wardha river coal-fields, Berar and Central Pro- vinces. Report on the coal at Korba in the Bilaspur district. Part 3.—The Mohpani coal-field. On the lead-ore at Slimanabad, Jabalpur district. On the Occurrence of coal east of Chhatisgarh in the country between Bilaspur and Ranchi. On petroleum in Burma. On the petroleum locality of Sudkal, near Futtijung, west of Rawalpindi. On the occurrence of argentiferous galena and copper in the district of Manbhum, S. W. Frontier of Bengal. Assays of iron ores. Part 4.—On the geology of Mount Tilla, in the Punjab. The copper depesits of Dalbhum and Singbhum: 1.—The copper mines of Singbhum: 2.—On the copper of Dalbhum and Singbhum. Meteorites. Vor. IV, 1871. Part 1.—Annual report for 1870. Enquiry into an alleged discovery of coal near Gooty, and of the indications of coal in the Cuddapah district. Mineral statistics of the Kumaon division. Part 2.—The axial group in Western Prome. Geological structure of the Southern Konkan. On the supposed occurrence of native antimony in the Straits Setttlements. On the composition of a deposit in the boilers of steam-engines at Raniganj. On the plant- bearing sandstones of the Godavari valley, on the southern extension of rocks belonging to the Kamthi group to the neighbourhood of Ellore and Rajamandri, and on the possible occurrence of coal in the same direction. Part 3.—The progress and'results of borings for coal in the Godavari valley near Dumaguden and Bhadrachalam. On the Narbada coal-basin. Sketch of the geology of the Central Provinces. Additional note on the plant-bearing sandstones of the Godavari valley. Part 4—The ammonite fauna of Kutch. The {Raigur and Hengir (Gangpur) Coal-field, Description of the sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on the Godavari; and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. Vor. V, 1872. Part 1.—Annual report for 1871. Rough section showing the relations of the rocks near Murree (Mari), Punjab. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoin- ing country.- Description of the sandstones in the neighbourhood of the first barrier on the. Godavari, and in the country between the Godavari and Ellore. Part 2—On the geological formation seen along the coasts of Beluchistan and Persia from Karachi to the head of the Persian Gulf, and on some of the Gulf Islands. Ona tra- verse of parts of the Kummummet and Hanamconda districts in the Nizam’s Dominions. The geology of Orissa. Оп а new coal-field in the south-eastern part of the Hyderabad (Deccan) territory. 1 Part 3.—On Maskat and Massandim on the east coast of Arabia. An example of local joint- ing. On the axial group of Western Prome. On the geology of the Bombay Presidency. Part 4.—On exploration for coal in the northern region of the Satpura basin. On the value of the evidence afforded by raised oyster banks on the coasts of India, in estimating the amount of elevation indicated thereby. On a possible field of coal-measures in the Godavari district, Madras Presidency. On the lameta or infra-trappean formation of Central India. On some recently discovered petroleum localities in Pegu. Correction regarding the sup- posed eozoonal limestone of Yellam Bile. > Vor. VI, 1873. Part ı.— Annual report for 1872. The geology of the North-West Provinces. Part 2.—The Bisrampur coal-field. Mineralogical notes on the gneiss of South Mirzapur and adjoining country. Part 3—Notes on a celt found by Mr. Hacket in the ossiferous deposits of Narbada valley (Pliocene of Falconer): on the age of the deposits, and on the associated shells. On the Barakars (coal-measures) in the Beddadanole field, Godavari district. On thegeology of parts of the Upper Punjab. Coal in India. The salt-springs of Pegu. Part 4.— Оп some of the iron deposits of Chanda (Central Provinces), Barren Islands and Narkondam. Stray notes on the metalliferous resources of British Burma. Vor. VII, 1874. Part r.— Annual report for 1873. On the geological structure of the hill ranges between the Indus valley in Ladak and Shah-i-Dula on the frontier of Yarkand territory. On some of the iron ores of Kumaon. On the raw materials for iron-smelting in the Raniganj field. On the habitat in India of the elastic sandstone, or so-called Itacolumyte. Geolo- gical notes on part of Northern Hazaribagh. Part 2—Geological notes on the route traversed by the Yarkand Embassy from Shah-i- Dula to Yarkhand and Kashgar. On the occurrence of jade in the Karakas valley, on the southern borders of Turkistan. Notes from the Eastern Himalaya. Petroleum in Assam. Coal in the Garo Hills. On the discovery of a new locality for copper in the Narbada valley. Potash-salt from East India. On the Geology of the neighbourhood of Mari hill station in the Punjab. Part 3.— Geological observations made on a visit to the Chaderkul, Thian Shan range. On the former extension of glaciers within the Kangra district. On the building and ornamental stones of India. Second note on the materials for iron manufacture in the Raniganj coal-field. Manganese ore in the Wardha coal-field. Part 4.—The auriferous rocks of the Dhambal hills, Dharwar district. Remarks on certain considerations adduced by Falconer in support of the antiquity of the human race in India. Geological notes made on a visit to the coal recently discovered in the country of the Luni Pathans, south-east corner of Afghanistan. Note on the progress of geological investi- gation in the Godavari district, Madras Presidency. Notes upon the subsidiary materials for artificial fuel, VoL. VIII, 1875. р ER Part t.—Anaual report for 1874. The Altum-Artush considered from a geological point of view. On the evidences of 'ground-ice' in tropical India, during the Talchir period. Trials of Raniganj fire-bricks. : Part з (out of print).—On_ the gold-fields of south-east Wynaad, Madras Presidency. Geo- logical notes on the Khareean hills in the Upper Punjab. On water-bearing strata of the Surat district. Sketch of the geology of Scindia's territories. sE Part 3.—The Shahpur coal-field, with notice of coal explorations in the Narbada region. Note on coal recently found near Moflong, Khasia Hills. : Part 4.—Note on the geology of Nepal. The, Raigarh and Hingir coal-fields, Vor. IX, 1876. Part 1 (out of print).— Annual report for 1875. Оп the geology of Sind. Part 2.—The retirement of Dr. Oldham. On the age of some fossil floras in India. Descrip- tion of a cranium of Stegodon Ganesa, with notes on the sub-genus and allied forms. Note upon the Sub-Himalayan series in the Jamu (Jummoo) Hills. : АШОК Part 3.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the geological age of certain groups comprised in the Gondwana series of India, and on the evidence they afford of distinct zoological and botanical terrestrial regions in ancient epochs. On the relations of the fossiliferous strata at Maleri and Kota, near Sironcha, C. P. On the fossil mammalian faunz of India and Burma. 1 Part 4.—On the age of some fossil floras in India. On the osteology of Merycopotamus dis- similis. Addenda and Corrigenda to paper on tertiary mammalia. Occurrence of Ples- iosaurus in India. On the geology of the Pir Panjal and neighbouring districts. Vor. X, 1877. Part 1.—Annual report for 1876. Geological notes on the Great Indian Desert between Sind and Rajputana. On the occurrence of the cretaceous genus Omphalia near Nameho lake, Tibet, about 75 miles north of Lhassa. On Estheria in the Gondwana formation. Notices of new and other vertebrata from Indian tertiary and secondary rocks. Description of a new: Emydine from the upper tertiaries of the Northern Punjab. Observations on under-ground temperature. Part 2.—On the rocks of the Lower Godavari. On the ‘Atgarh Sandstones’ near Cuttack, On fossil floras in India. Notices of new or rare mammals from the Siwaliks. On the Arvali series in North-eastern Rajputana. Borings for coal in India. On the geology of India. Part 3.—On the tertiary zone and underlying rocks in the North-west Punjab. On fossil floras in India. On the occurrence of erratics in the Potwar. On recent coal explorations in the Darjiling district. ^ Limestones' in the neighbourhood of Barakar. On some forms of blowing-machine used by the smiths of Upper Assam. Analyses of Raniganj coals. Part 4.—On the Geology of the Mahanadi basin and its vicinity. On. the diamonds, gold, and lead ores of the Sambalpur district. Note on ‘Eryon Comp. Barrovensis,’ McCoy, from the Sripermatur group near Madras. On fossil floras in India. The Blaini group and the ‘Central Gneiss’ in the Simla Himalayas. Remarks on some statements in Mr. Wynne's paper on the tertiaries of the North-west Punjab. Note on the genera Chceromeryx and Rhagatherium. Vor. XI, 1878. Part 1.—Annual report for 1877. On the geology of the Upper Godavari basin, between the river Wardha and the Godavari, near the civil station of Sironcha. On the geology of Kashmir, Kishtwar, and Pangi. Notices of Siwalik mammals. The paleontological relations.of the Gondwana system. On ‘Remarks, &c., by Mr. Theobald upon erratics in the Punjab.’ Part 2.— Опт the Geology of Sind (second notice). On the origin of thé Kumaun lakes. On a trip over the Milam Pass, Kumaun. The mud volcanoes of Ramri and Cheduba. On the mineral resources of Ramri, Cheduba, and the adjacent islands, MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vor. XXXII, PART 5. NOTES ON THE “Exotic BLOCKS” OF MALLA JOHAR IN THE BHOT MAHALS OF KUMAON, by A. VON KRAFFT, PH.D., Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. Published by order of the Government of India. CALCUTTA: SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. LONDON: MESSRS, KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co. MCMII : | "D CALCUTTA: = GOVERNMENT OF INDIA CENTRAL PRINTING О 8, HASTINGS STREET, CONTENTS. —— I. INTRODUCTION. 11. STRATIGRAPHICAL FEATURES. Ill. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS AND EXOTIC BLOCKS IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA— (a) The neighbourhood of the Balchdhura Pass. (2) The Kiogarh High Plateau. 1. The Flysch. 2. The volcanics and exotic blocks. (c) The area south of the Kiogarh Plateau. I. Structural features. 2. The exotic blocks. V. RESULTS. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, NOTES ON THE “ExoTIC BLOCKS” OF MALLA JOHAR IN THE BHOT MAHALS OF KUMAON, by A. VON KRAFFT, PH.D.’ Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. L.- INTRODUCTION. In 1892 Messrs. Griesbach, Diener and Middlemiss discovered near Chirchun? in Hundés and in the upper Kiogarh valley (Malla Johar) isolated limestone blocks with permo-carboniferous and triassic fossils. These blocks which are situated within a synclinal belt of Spiti shales and flysch and are connected with igneous rocks, were compared to the “ Klippen ” of Europe. Griesbach 3 and Diener * have given accounts of their observations with geological maps. The latter author left the “ Klippen” at first unexplained, while Mr. Griesbach believed them to be due to faulting, accompanied by intrusions of igneous rocks. Later on the permo- carboniferous and muschelkalk fossils collected were described by 1 Died at Calcutta on the 22nd September Igor. 2 | prefer this spelling to that of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey map (“ Chitichun ") seeing that the name is pronounced “Chirchun " by the natives of Milam, Strachey in his geological map of Kumaon, Garhwal, and the adjoining parts of Hundes also spells the locality “ Chirchun." Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., VIL, 1851, pl. XVI. = 3 “Votes on the Central Himalayas.” Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XXVI, pt. I, 1893, pp. 19 to 25. ^ “Ergebnisse einer geologischen Expedition in den Centralen Himalaya.” Denkschritten d. k, Akad, d. Wissensch. Wien 1895, pp. 588 to 607. (a1 828 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. Diener. In a more recent paper Diener? elaborately discussed the relation of the Himalayan * Klippen" to those of Europe. He comes to the conclusion that the former differ from all European occurrences by some remarkable features, the most pronounced being their connection with igneous rocks. Nor can, in his opinion, any of the theories advanced with respect to the European.“ Klippen" be applied to them. Diener inclines to the belief that the most plausible explanation is that given by Griesbach in the paper quoted. In spite of the undoubted interest of these occurrences, seven years elapsed ere another geologist entered the Chirchun area. My colleague Dr. Walker was sent therein 1899. Unfortunately ill-health forced him to return in a very short time, but not before he had obtained a very good collection of permo-carboniferous fossils from the Peak Chirchun No. 1. These are now being examined by Professor Diener. In 1900 I was ordered to Chirchun, but an unexpected obstacle intervened. My plan of crossing by the Langpaia Lek into Hundes was frustrated by orders from the Local Government, strictly pro- hibiting me from entering Tibet. Acting on instructions from head- quarters then received, I proceeded to Laptal in Malla Johar, which is British territory. This area had been visited years ago by Mr. Griesbach (see pp. 80, 81, 149, and 15s in Mem. XXIII). He noticed the presence of “basaltic traps, associated with serpentinous masses" which he considered to be intruded into the cretaceous series flysch), remark- ing that some of the traps might be contemporaneous. He believes the igneous rocks “form part of the younger eruptive rocks which are 1 The Permo-carboniferous fauna of Chitichun, No. 1.” Pal. Ind., Ser. XV, Vol. I, pt. 3. “The Cephalopoda of the Triassic limestone crags of Chitichun.” Pal. Ind., Ser. XV, Vol. II, pt. 3. See also Fovites, nov. f. ind. ex aff. F, bosnensis in E. v. Mojsisovics. “Upper Triassic Cephalopoda faune of the Himalaya.” Pal. Ind., Ser. XV, Vol. 111» pt. I, p. 18, plate IX, figs. 4, 5. 2 « Notes on the Geological Structure of the Chitichun region." Mem Geal. Surv. Ind., Vol. XXVIII, pt. 1, pp. I to 27. (2% INTRODUCTION. 129 largely represented in eastern Hundes, and to which probably a middie tertiary age must be assigned." Mr. Griesbach considered the light grey and white lime- stones eccurring near the Balchdhura pass to be a higher division of the cretaceous series, equivalent to Stoliczka’s Chikkim limestone. The ground was again visited by the expedition of 1892. On their way to Chirchun, the three geologists passed through the Kio- arh valley, but being still unaware of the complicated structure of the neighbouring Chirchun area, they shared the view originally ex- pressed by Griesbach with respect to the light grey limestones of the Kiogarh peaks. Subsequently, suspecting that these limestones might possibly represent exotic blocks they revisited Malla Johar. Their doubts were justified, for Mr. Griesbach discovered near Talla Sangcha E.G.!a loose block of a red and white limestone with Fovztes n. f. ex af. $. bosnensis, E. v. Mojs., which, according to Mojsisovics; proves the block to belong to the carnic stage of the upper trias. Diener gave a short description of the neighbourhood of Malla Sangcha, which is in extract as follows:— The base of the most western limestone peak is made up of Gieumal sandstones which show a very complicated dip and are pene- trated by numerous veins of intrusive rocks. In the upper portion of the mountain these igneous rocks and the “tufa” associated with them predominate. The limestone mass itself rests entirely on beds of a clearly igneous character, without coming into contact with the sandstone formation. The highest “crag” forms a steep scarp and is likewise traversed by veins of a diabase porphyrite. The limestone is of a white and reddish white colour without any distinct stratification, semicrystalline and partially altered, especially so where surrounded by intrusions of igneous rocks. No fossils were found zz situ in the limestone. The block with Fovites found by Mr. Griesbach is a red marble, apparently detached from the main mass of the limestone peak and exactly similar 1 E, G. throughout this paper stands for “ encamping ground.” (СОЗО) 130 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. to some of the famousred Hallstatt marbles from the Salzkammergut in upper Austria and Styria. This facies differs widely from that of the carnic beds in the main region of the triassic belt of the Central Hima- layas. From the presence of the genus S'ovites in the limestone block found to the east of Talla Sangcha it results that the huge masses of limestone between the Balchdhura and Kiogarh-Chaldu passes cannot rest in a normal position on the flysch. Considering the great thickness of the limestone cap, Diener is inclined to suppose that the peak is composed of sediments belonging to very different geological periods, as is the case in the range of Chirchun No. 1, the carnic stage forming only part of the limestones. These stand in a similar struc- tural relation to the flysch forming their base, as the limestones of the Chirchun area do to the Spiti shales. During the months of July and August 1900 I spent six weeks in this frontier district and found it to abound with exotic blocks, and in a few of these I discovered numerous fossils, chiefly ammonites. I have also obtained geological observations important enough to allow of an attempt to explain the origin of the blocks being made. The conclusion at which I arrived, isthat the exotic blocks were brought up to the surface by violent volcanic outbursts, later disturbances having thrust the whole into confusion. At the same time, however, it became evident that nothing but a detailed examination of the whole block-bearing area would lead to definite results. 'The area worked! out is situated at the head Area examined. ee of the Kiogarh river, a tributary of the Girthi river, which runs from east-south-east into the Dhauli river, near Malari. To the north, east and south-east the area is bordered by a high range, which forms two half circles, connected by the Kiogarh high plateau. The range represents part of the great watershed between the tributaries of the Sutlej and the Ganges, and at the same time forms the boundary between British territory and Hundes. ' The northern semicircle opens towards the west near Talla 1 See Geological Map, pl. 14. (4) INTRODUCTION. 131 Sangcha on to rolling plateaus, covered with Spiti shales, which extend far to the west and north-west. The southern half circle is shut off to the west by an anticline of triasso-jurassic limestones with a north to south strike. Both half circles are drained by branches of the Kiogarh river, meeting in a ravine that traverses the northern termination of the anticline just mentiond halfway between Talla Sangcba and Laptal E. Gs. From the northern half circle the Balch- dhura Pass, 17,590”, leads into Hundes (road to Chilumkurkur) and the southern one is connected with that country by three practic- able passes, víz., a nameless pass between Kiogarh No. 3 and No. 4 approximately 18,000’, the Kiogarh.Chaldu pass, 17,440’, and the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass, 17,960' (road to Chirchun E. G.). The average height of the district is very considerable, the lowest point (near junction between the two main branches of the Kiogarh river) being approximately 13,000', the greatest vertical elevations rising up to more than 19,000. At no point is the boundary range as low as 17,000'. The striking contrast in the configuration of the landscape seen : everywhere along the great Himalayan watershed is of course con- spicuous in this area. To the north, speaking generally, the country descends slowly to an undulating high plateau, while the land south of the watershed is deeply eroded into steep bold cliffs and narrow gorges. My work lay on this side of the watershed where there are much better sections than in the Chirchun area, which forms part of the Tibetan high plateau. The extent of the whole block-bearing area Probable extent of КЕКЕ УЛ УГЛЫ ПЕ cannot be deliminated in detail We know from the researches of the expedition of 1892 that it reaches south as far as Kungribingri, 19,170’, and east beyond the Chaldu river. But how far it extends to the north can so far only be guessed at. At any rate it includes the Peaks Ghátámémin, 18,700’, and Sami, 17,920’, of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey map. From the frontier I could see that exotic blocks occur several miles to the north of Balchdhura No. 2. Exoticblocks may also occur to the 6D 132 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. north of the Niti pass,’ and it is not impossible that they are con- nected by intermediate occurrences with those of Johar and Chirchun. IL—STRATIGRAPHICAL FEATURES. Within the area represented on the geological map attached to this paper, the following stratigraphical divisions occur, which are in des- cending order :— 4. Shales, sandstones, etc., upper flysch, 800 to 1,oco feet. 3. Greenish grey sandstone, “Gjeumal. sandstone,” Stol., онна lower flysch . - А . « доо to боо feet. 2. Spiti shales. Upper jurassic to lowest cretaceous. 1. Grey limestones, ranging from upper trias (dachsteinkalk) into the middle jurassic. Triasso-jurassic limestone series.—The lowest division is chiefly composed of bedded limestones with some massive layers. The lime- stones being throughout poor in fossils, no subdivision is possible. From their lower portion Megalodon and other upper triassic fossils are recorded, while the topmost 300 to 400 feet are proved by fossil contents to be of middle jurassic age, but no reliable palæontological evidence is available pointing to either lias or rhætic, although the perfect con- formity prevailing leaves no doubt that sedimentation has continued without interruption from upper triassic until middle jurassic times. The evidence regarding the middle jurassic portion of this lime- stone mass is twofold. Professor Diener ? collected at two localities (Shalshal cliff in Painkhanda and Chanambaniali peaks in Hundes) from the topmost layer, which is made up of red iron pisolites,? a number of fossils, which were examined by Dr. F. Suess. The fauna consists of a few cephalopoda, brachiopoda and numerous Belem- nites (B. sulcacutus, F. Suess) and is according to F. Suess of middle jurassic age, probably Kelloway. I myself discovered in Spiti in a section near Gieumal, 350 to 400 feet below the Spiti shales, a well-preserved ammonite, which is very 1 Mr. Griesbach (Mem. XXIII, p. 83) noticed there grey limestones, which he correlated with the Chikkim limestone. As the latter is not developed in Johar, it appears possible that the limestones of the Niti pass represent exotic blocks, alt the more so as igneous rocks are reported from the same area. ? Ergebnisse, l. c., pp. 584 to 586. * This bed was described by Griesbach (Mem. XXIII) as lias. (67 STRATIGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 133 closely allied to, if not identical with, Stephanocerus coronatum, Brug., a species also characteristic of the Kelloway. We may therefore con- clude that at the very least 400 feet of the limestone mass in question, but probably a still greater thickness, belongs to the middle jurassic. Spitz shales.—The Spiti shales have been subdivided by Mr. Gries- bach! into three divisions, which have also been adopted by Dr. Diener. As to the fauna no details are yet available as the description of the fossils, which has been entrusted to Prot. Uhlig, is not yet concluded. The main results are however contained in some preliminary remarks published by Diener ? and are as follows :— (3) Upper Spiti shales, * Lochambel beds," Diener, most proba- bly representing Berriasian, but possibly with affinities to Tithonian and Valanginian, (2) Middle Spiti shales, “ Chidamu beds,” Diener, full of concre- tions containing ammonites. Upper jurassic, probably Kimmeridge. (1) Lower Spiti shales, full of Belemnites gerardi, upper jurassic. Gieumal sandstone.— The Spiti shales pass gradually into the overlying Gieumal sandstone, which therefore is proved to be of creta- ceous age, in spite of the want of characteristic fossils. Before describing the cretaceous series in detail it will be well to point out that there is a considerable lithological difference between the cretaceous of Spiti and that ot Johar. In Spiti calcareous bands with fossils are met with in the Gieumal sandstone, which is overlaid by a white limestone (“Chikkim limestone,” Stol.) and calcareous shales (* Chikkim shales," Stol., whereas the cretaceous of Johar contains but an inconsiderable admixture of calcareous deposits. It is almost solely composed of sandstones and shales and bears a marked similar- ity to the European flysch. Upper Flysch—In the upper flysch the following lithological divisions ? can be distinguished (in descending order) :— b Red tuffs : 50! af. a Green tuffs } thin bedded x P n Q { 150! 1 Memoirs XXIII. OCA CILE * Compare plates 1 and 4, 134 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. 4e. Greenish and grey sandstones, alternating with shales. Pass through green tuffaceous none upwards into 4f 6 a ° 300! 4d. Hard, black, its shales, Pasing through comb: ling shales into 4e 5 C а 30! to 40’ 4c. Brown weathering sandstones, Mercure with eiks 10' 4b. Black, crumbling shales o o . 200! to 300! 4a. Red and greenish shales and red shaly RIE . app. roo' 3. Gieumal sandstones : E ` о . . 400! to 500! The Gieumal sandstone becomes shaly in its uppermost layers, weathering into long, pencil-shaped fragments. Above this follows — 44. Near the base siliceous red shales of an intense terracotta colour intercalated with a few bands of red hornstone and splintery greenish shales. Higher up the shales become calcareous and earthy, and thin bands of dense, somewhat siliceous, greenish grey limestones appear. This series is very conspicuous from a distance, especially so. on the hills to the north of Talla Sangcha E. G. No doubt it corresponds to the “ dense red earthy beds" mentioned by Griesbach! from the flysch of the Chirchun area. 45. consists of black, crumbling alum shales, very similar to the Spiti shales, but with some peculiar cbaracteristics, such as the occurrence of flaggy, brown weathering limestones with many calespar veins and of large, ferruginous concretions. А negative feature consists in the entire absence :of fossils beyond plant remains frequently found in the flaggy lime- stones. This division was also recognized by Mr. Griesbach in the Chirchun area ! and its resemblance to the Spiti shales was pointed out, a few traces of delemnites being mentioned. Its thickness cannot be accurately determined owing to the disturbances it has undergone. ` 4с. is a grey, reddish brown weathering, micaceous, somewhat gritty sandstone in a few thick layers with shaly partings. 4d. Hard black, siliceous shales, weathering rusty brown, traversed by cleavage planes which produce cubical fragments. These 1 Records, L. с., p. 21. co ب‎ STRATIGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 135 shales are best seen on the southern slope of the Balchdhura heights, and in an overfold to the south of Kiogarh Chirchun Е. С. (plates ı and 4). This group passes through a small thickness of black, crumbling shales into— 4e. consisting of grey and greenish sandstone with very thin, mostly brown shaly layers. A few calcareous bands are intercalated near the base. This series is very similar to the Gieumal sandstones but can be distinguished from them by its abundance of fucoids and indistinct plant remains. The sand- stones gradually become tuffaceous higher up and pass into Af. a series of very thin-bedded green tuffs (150^) overlaid by a small thickness of red tuffs. The former may be identical with “a hard rock, generally bluish green in colour, which probably has been formed to a large extent of trappean material," which was observed by Mr. Griesbach in the Chirchun area. Age of upper Flysch.—The upper flysch is throughout devoid of fossils that might afford any clue as to the age of the various divisions, and although there can be no doubt that most of them are cretaceous, the question arises, whether the topmost beds do not extend into the nummulitics or not. It will be more convenient to deal with this question after having described the area in full, and it may suffice to remark here that most probably the nummulitics are not included in the upper flysch.! As to the arguments which lead to this conclusion, I may refer the reader to the last chapter of this Memoir. III—GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS AND EXOTIC BLOCKS. Along the boundary range from Balchdhura No. 2 to the Kiogarh- Chaldu pass and in the vicinity of the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass the ' The view here adopted differs from that expressed in General Report, 1900-or, which was published before the present Memoir had been concluded. 9 ) 136 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. flysch is overlaid by great masses of basic igneous rocks, which include a large number of “ exotic blocks”, consisting chiefly of limestones, the whole resembling in appearance an extraordinarily coarse breccia with- out any trace of stratification. In describing these masses it will be convenient to deal first with the igneous rocks and subsequently with the exotic blocks, imbedded in the former. (a) The igneous rocks. Rocks of igneous origin occur, as mentioned above, in the flysch, the youngest division consisting of subaqueous red and green tuffs. These have, however, nothing to do with the subaerial basic igneous rocks we have to consider at present. A number of rock specimens brought back were kindly determined by Mr. T. H. Holland, who provided me with the following short notes :— Petrological evidence.— Most of the rocks present the characters of lava flows, generally basic in composition, but too much altered for precise determination, and many of these can be referred to as andesites. They have generally a pilotaxitic structure, but their ferromagnesian silicates having been altered beyond recognition, they may as often be related to the diabases as to the andesites: the distinction is not important. Many are distinctly amygdaloidal, but in some the cavities now filled in with calcite may have been the result of secondary altera- tions." Other specimens are spherulitic pitchstones which fall into line with the amygdaloidal and other structures which indicate a vol- canic (surface) origin for most of therocks. Опе rock is a serpentine, which has resulted from the alteration of a peridotite. Aspect in the field—In Johar one generally meets with loose débris, consisting of large and small blocks of green and red andesite and finer volcanic material, mixed with a multitude of pieces of sedimen- 1 A rock specimen collected by Diener near Talla Sangcha was examined by C.V. John, and his notes are communciated in Diener, “ Ergebnisse," p.599. V. John described this rock as an amygdaloidal diabase. It appears to represent a type of near affinity to those of my own collection which Mr. Holland deter. mined as amygdaloidal andesites (see above). (HORS) GENERAL CHARACTERS. 137 tary rocks. I was for some time in doubt as to whether this does not represent a volcanic agglomerate. Especially the southern slope of the Balchdhura heights where no outcrop of solid rock is seen such an explanation might appear correct, and I met with occurrences remind- ing me of volcanic bombs. Round balls of amygdaloidal andesite, ap- proximately 2 feet in diameter, on being broken up, were found to con- tain calcite kernels, large in the centre, and decreasing in size towards the periphery. А+ the same locality I observed blocks of coarse breccias composed of green andesite and red limestone. pieces. I do not, however, now believe that true agglomerates are anywhere existent in Johar. The same loose débris, such as is met with at the Balchdhura heights, is also found in many other places, where it is obviously produced by the weathering of lavas in which a large number of foreign fragments are involved. These curious lavas are, for instance, 20 situ round the base of the Kiogarh plateau. It thus appears certain that the loose masses alluded to represent débris from lavas, not volcanic agglomerates. The round balls of andesite des- cribed above can well be brought into accord with this explanation. In two places I observed a spheroidal or sack-like structure in solid lavas, no doubt the result of weathering. To this spheroidal weathering we may attribute the bomb-like balls. This is the better justified by the solid crust generally seen in true volcanic bombs, being wanting. Finally, as regards the breccias composed of andesite and red limestone, found at the Balchdhura heights, they also accompany the lavas, and are in situ. North of the Kiogarh-Chaldu pass and to the south-east of Kiogarh-Chirchun pass breccias were met with in close connec- tion with the spheroidal lavas just mentioned. Fragmental rocks.—A few remarks as to the fragmental rocks occurring occasionally among the lavas may be added. The breccia found north of the Kiogarh-Chaldu pass is of a peculiar character. The fragments according to Mr. Holland are chiefly altered pitchstone, probably andesitic in composition, others are serpentine. The narrow interstices between the fragments are filled up by densely red limestone of a laminated structure, the laminae being parallel to the surfaces of (и) 138, KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR, the pitchstone fragments. lt appears that in the original limestone, fragments were crushed together with the harder volcanic rocks, with the result that the limestone now apparently forms the cement of the breccia. Volcanic tuffs are often met with but never in a fresh condition. A specimen of tuff was found by Mr. Holland to contain fragments of various derivation, including quartzites and volcanic rocks. Age of volcanics.— The volcanic rocks of Johar are younger than the flysch. This follows first from their overlying the latter and secondly from the fact that blocks, derived from various divisions of - the flysch series, even the tuffs (2f) are met with among the volcanics. The latter must be considered equivalent in age to the volcanics of the Indus valley, viz., lower tertiary. Origin.—As to their mode of origin they are clearly subærial. This must be concluded from their petrological and geological features, and from the absence of all proof of a subaqueous origin. The volcanics show no trace of bedding, the fragmental constituents are angular, never rolled, and no sedimentary deposits are connected with them. As stated in the introduction, these rocks were previously con- sidered intrusive rocks, a theory which can no longer be maintained. Distribution and petrological habitus clearly indicate their surface origin, and this is further corroborated by their being folded together with the flysch under conditions which exactly recall sedimentary beds. There must of course bevolcanic vents and dykes, through which the igneousrocks have reached the surface, but the sources of discharge no doubt lie outside Johar, v2z., to the north or north-east of it within Hundés, as nowhere in the area examined have intrusive dykes been discovered. It is true that in places volcanics are mixed up with the flysch, but this can in almost every instance be proved to be the result of later disturbances. *T have twice followed the route along which Diener ascended from Talla Sangcha towards Kiogarh No. 1, but completely failed to discover the “numerous veins of intrusive rocks ’’ which Diener reported. Nor have I observed intrusions anywhere else in the flysch of Johar, although I examined this district much more closely than any previous observer, ( 12 ) GENERAL CHARACTERS. 139 There is, however, another. subordinate mode of occurrence of igneous rocks to be considered. In many of the limestone blocks thin igneous veins, traversing the blocks from end to end, are to be seen. These are instances of true intrusions. Wherever these veins are present the limestones are much altered and marmorised. As a rule ten or more veins are seen running parallel to each other at regular intervals, a feature which is probably due to their following bedding planes. Twice I met blocks with intrusions, which evidently have been plicated, for they described narrow angles. The igneous rocks thus intruded resemble in macroscopic appear- ance those surrounding the blocks. The explanation of these intrusive veins affords no difficulty. They must have been formed while the limestones were still zz situ, although they had then already been acted upon by the igneous rocks. Most likely therefore these limestones are derived from volcanic necks and thus resemble in origin the volcanic blocks mentioned above. (4) The exotic blocks. Exotic blocks abound to such an extent that the number of those exceeding 10 feet in diameter alone must be calculated to be many hundreds while the smaller blocks are quite innumerable. The volcanics of the Kiogarh high plateau especially are extremely rich in exotic blocks. It would therefore be impossible to mark on the map even the larger blocks separately. The course I followed was to indicate those only which were found in any way remarkable, either by their fossil contents, conspicuous forms, isolated position, etc. Accumulations of large blocks, which contain little volcanic material — such as occur in the Kiogarh heights (for instance Kiogarh No. 3) — were marked as singlelimestone masses. The rest were left unmapped. The exotic blocks are of various lithological descriptions. Most of them are grey or red limestones, but in places sandstone blocks are common. Rarer types are blocks consisting of tuffs and shales, But these blocks being of sedimentary origin, lithological characters (Оз) 140 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. areof small importance compared with the question as to which stratigraphical horizon they represent. This could of course only be satisfactorily ascertained were fossils from; many of them available. I need hardly say that this is not so; indeed by far the greater part is entirely unfossiliferous, and this cannot be wondered at, seeing that they are imbedded in igneous rocks and have in ninety-nine cases out ofa hundred been highly altered. It was only by examining many hundreds of blocks that I was able to obtain fossils here and there. Weeks of unsuccessful search were thus now and then only inter- rupted by a fortunate find. But in most cases, when once discovered, the fossils were to be had in large numbers. Other blocks. could be determined with more or less certainty by their lithological characters, and thus I obtained evidence of the representation of several horizons, one being palaozoic, the others mesozoic. Some of these horizons are identical with those found in the exotic blocks of the Chirchun area, but most of them are new. They are: 1. Permo-carboniferous (E. Blocks 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19 (?) on map). Blocks of this age were chiefly traced in the hills to the north- west and west of the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass. A loose block containing fossils of that age was observed in the neighbourhood of Malla Sangcha E. G. and had no doubt rolled down from the higher slopes of Kiogarh No. 1. Lithologically the permo-carboniferous limestone may be described asa massive, light grey and red, marble-like crinoid-limestone with many cleavage planes. Large sections of crinoid stems (app. 4 inch in diameter) form a most characteristic feature. Blocks of this age rarely exceed 30’ to 50” in diameter, E. B. 9 alone being of larger dimensions ! (at least 300 cubic feet). Whereas on Peak Chirchun No. r, which is composed of limestone of this age, fossils abound, the permo-carboniferous blocks found in Johar are very poor in fossils. The only locality which yielded a larger number of specimens is E. B. 9, but here also several days’ search was required to obtain 1 See PI. 4. (140) GENERAL CHARACTERS. 141 satisfactory collections. The fauna is identical with that described by Diener from Peak Chirchun No. т, as is proved by the following list of fossils, kindly communicated by Prof. Diener ‘== Productus abichi, Waag. Ў) gratiosus y; » chitichunensis, Dien, Marginifera typica, Waag. Enteletes, sp. ind. Uncinulus timorensis, Beyr. Hemiptychina himalayensis, Dien. Camorophoria purdoni, Dien. Spirifer wynnet, Waag. m tibetanus, Dien. Martinia, dis. sp. Lyttonia sp. ind. Spirigera royssit, Lev. 2. Lower trias (E. B. 20 on map). One large block was dis- covered with numerous cevhalopoda of lower triassic age, situated about 13 miles to the north of Kungribingri No. 2 at the right angle formed wherethe boundary range turns from a south to north direc- tion to the east. The rockis of a dark red, earthy limestone, thin bedded, with a few grey layers. The cephalopodaare mostly of indifferent preserva- tion being filled by calcite. Most of the fauna collected belong to the genera Flemingites and Danubites, two very characteristic genera of the Himalayan lower trias (horizon of Fleming ites rohzlla). A coms mon species is Danubites nivalis, Dien. Other genera represented are Meekoceras, Hedenstroemia, Prosphingites and a genussimilar to Pseudosageceras, Dien. This fauna awaits further examination.! Lower.triassic blocks are not recorded from the Chirchun area. 1 The Meekocerata were recognised to contain species unknown from the horizon of Flemingites vohilla of the Himalayan series, while the species common tothe latter are wanting in E. B. 20. This points to faunistical peculiarities being present, yet I have little doubt that they are of small importance. (158) 242 KRAFFT : EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. 3. Lower Muschelkalk (2). On the southern slope of the Balch- dhura heights I found a loose block with a few fragmentary and badly preserved ammonites. One of these shows ceratitic sutures, another is in transverse section and sculpture similar to Procladiscites jasont, Dien, 'This block may be of lower muschelkalk age and equivalent to the lower muschelkalk horizon discovered by Middlemiss in the Chirchun area.! The state of preservation of the fossils excludes any definite statement. 4. Ladinic or Lower Carnic stage (E. B. 1 on map, pl. 1, and section 1 on pl :2). Somewhat below E. B. I foundseveral loose specimens of dark red, very ferruginous limestone with Daonella indica, Bitt. As these fragments are lithologically identical pum E. B. 1, the fossils must have come from it. The specimens are of large size, like fig. 11 on pl. vii in Bittner's Memoir on the Brachiopoda and Bivalves of the Himalayan Trias.? E. B. 1 consists of thin-bedded limestones, alternating with very thin bands of dark red shales and differs from any other I met with. Dao- nella indica was previously assigned exclusively to the lower carnic stage (“ Traumatocrinus limestone" of the Shalshal cliff section with Foannites cymbiformis) but has been found subsequently in Spiti and in Painkhanda in the ladinic stage of the muschelkalk too. E. B. 1 may therefore represent either of these horizons. Blocks with Daonella indica are not recorded from the Chirchun area. 5. Upper Carnic stage (E. B. 2 on map, section 1 on pl. 12 and pl.3). About one mile to the north-west of the Dalchdhura pass at approximately 18,000 ft. a block was discovered, the richest in fossils and at the same time the least influenced by igneous rocks of any I observed. It is a marble like that of the famous Hallstatt beds of the eastern Alps, bright red, massive, and not in the least earthy. A very large and well preserved collection of ammonites with a few bivalves and brachiopoda was obtained from this block. I have so * Pal. Ind., Ser. XV, vol II, pt. з. 3 Pal. Ind., Ser. XV, vol. 111, pt. 2. GENERAL CHARACTERS. 143 far identified the following three species with forms described from the Himalayan “ Daonella beds” :— Cladiscites subaratus, v. Mojs. Phylloceras ebneri 9p. gg Fuvavites (griesbachites) medleyanusA The commonest genus of the fauna is Cladiscites, a species belong- ing to the group of Cladiscites tornatus being the leading fossil, Other genera are: Tropıtes, Arcestes, Placites, Fovites, Nautilus, etc. Of the rare Tropttes, species resembling 7. suóóullatus, T. acutangulus, T. barthi, and T. spinosus, v. Mojs., occur. This fauna also awaits detailed examination. There can be no doubt that it represents the Tropites horizon of the carnic stage, being equivalent to the “Subbullatus beds” of the Alps and the Tropites limestone of Spiti and Byans. The loose block with Fovztes n. f. ind. ex. aff. 7. boszensıs found by Mr. Griesbach near Talla Sangcha E. G., belongs to this horizon, this species being also present in my collections from E. B. 2. Carnic blocks are not recorded from the Chirchun area. 6. Dachsteinkalk (?) Exotic block 8 (pl. 7) and Kiogarh high pla- teau (plates 2 and 3). The predominant rock of the exotic masses is a light grey, dolomitic massive limestone. Its main distribution is in the mountains between the Balchdhura and Kiogarh-Chaldu passes (Kiogarh high plateau), but blocks of light grey, dolomitic limestone were also found elsewhere. Unfortunately not even a trace of a fossil was observed, but it is probable that the limestones represent chiefly the Dachsteinkalk. Grey limestone blocks are also recorded from the Chirchun area, Griesbach and Diener likewise consider them Dachsteinkalk. 7. Lower Lias (E. Bs. 4, 6, 7, 16, 17 on map, plates 3 and 8). No 1 This species of hitherto doubtful geological position I found recently in the topmost “ Daonella beds ” of the Bambanag cliff, immediately below the “ Hauer ites beds," Diener. (7) 144 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. doubt the most interesting of all the blocks are those of lower liassic age. Five belonging to this horizon were observed, of which two (16 and 17) have yielded a considerable number of lower liassic ammo- nites. These are situated about 1} mile west-north-west of the Kiogarh- Chirchun pass and the other three, poorer in fossils, 4, 6, 7, lie near Malla Kiogarh E.G. The rock is a very earthy, brick red, rather thin-bedded, nodular limestone, with a few thick grey layers. This type of block is the most characteristic of all, and when once closely observed can be recognized from afar by its characteristic tint. The fauna, containing as it does several species of Arzetites, is of an unmistakable lower liassic type. The commonest genus of the fauna is Phylloceras. | This is the first record of lias fossils being found in India. It is of particular interest that the facies is the Alpine one. My specimens are in preservation identical with the lias of Adneth near Salzburg (Austria). 8. Spiti shales (?) Balchdhura heights.! 9. Gieumal sandstone (?) The Balchdhura heights are made up of masses of unfossiliferous shales and sandstones. The sandstones are lithologically indistinguish- able from the Gieumal sandstone, and the shales associated with them are black alum shales. I believe that these masses represent Gieumal sandstone and Spiti shales; as fucoids are wanting in the sandstones, we have no reason to correlate them with the upper flysch sandstones (ae). There only remains the Gieumal sandstone with which to com- pare them. Accordingly we may consider the shales to be Spiti shales, viz., the uppermost division, which in the normal sections alternates with the Gieumal sandstone. Sandstone blocks, all apparently Gieumal sandstone, are common throughout the exotic masses, but nowhere do they dominate so much as in the Balchdhura heights * Pl. 1 and section 1 on pl. 12. GENERAL CHARACTERS. 145 10 Upper Flysch Sub-Division 4b. (E. Bs. 3, 14 on map). Within the igneous rocks south of the Balchdhura pass, I observed a block consisting of thin-bedded brown limestones, with shaly partings which could at once be recognized as belonging to sub-division 45 of the upper flysch. On the heights south of the Kiogarh plateau, between E. Bs. 15 and r5, black shales of the same sub-division, with ferruginous concre- tions and brown weathering flaggy limestones occur. 11. Upper Flysch Sub-Division (4f). Green tuffs, representing sub-division 4/, were observed in the igneous rocks of the Balchdhura heights close to E. B. 1. This occurrence had to be left out on the map. The last mentioned four horizons are not recorded from the Chir- chun area. In conclusion I must remark that among the very numerous unfossiliferous limestones there are many of a red colour, resembling the Tropites limestone. Most of the blocks offer no clue whatever to their age. Origin of red and grey limestone blocks.—Leaving the four young- est horizons (Spiti shales and flysch) out of consideration, we will now deal in some detail with the older horizons up to the lias. We must of course presuppose that the blocks, found within the volcanics of Johar, originally formed part of one and the same series at some dis- tance from their present place of occurrence. This theoretical series we : 5 may call the “ Tibetan Series!" as it must needs “€ Tibetan Series.” 9 E T be n situ somewhere in Tibet, and we may com- pare it first with the corresponding beds observed in the normal sec- tions of the Himalayas. Comparison with “ Himalayan Series."—The comparison leads to the conclusion that each single sub-division of the Tibetan series known so far, from the permo-carboniferous up to the lias, differs from the corresponding Himalayan division. ! [ mean to restrict this term to the sequence from the permo-carboniferous up to the lias, which differs in facies from what is seen in the Central Himalayas. ( a9 ) 146 f KRAFFT : EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. Permo-carboniferous.—As "regards this system, there is no sequence of beds known in the Himalayas which could be compared either palæontologically or lithologically with the red and white limestones of the exotic blocks. In most of the sections of the younger palæozoics of the Himalayas there is a marked unconformity at the base of the Permian Productus shales,! and this would lead to the conclusion that the. permo-carboniferous is wanting. There is only one section known in which the gap appears to the filled up (Lio in Spiti), but this section has not yet been worked out in full detail. But even supposing faunistical equivalents to the permo-carboniferous should be discovered there, their lithological equivalents are undoubt- edly absent as the series in question consists of conglomerates, sand- stones, shales and grey limestones.? Lower Trias.—' The lower trias of the Tibetan series appears to be the exact equivalent to the “ horizon of Flemingites rohilla” 3 of the Himalayan series. There appear to be certain faunistical pecu- liarities, but as far as І can judge they are of no great importance. Lithologically, however, there is a very marked difference, the horizon being in the Himalayan series represented by grey or black limestones with intercalated bands of black shales. Lower Muschelkalk.— As regards the lower muschelkalk, the case is much the same as with the lower trias. The fauna, which was described by Diener from red limestone blocks near Peak Chirchun No. 1 (Middlemiss crag) occurs in the Central Himalayas in grey lime- stones with Spirzferina stracheyi below the horizon of Ceratites thuillieri.* Ladinic or lower Carnic stage.—Beds with Daonella iudica occur in the Himalayan series in the ladinic stage as well as in the lower ! See Griesbach, Mem XXIII, p. 65 ; Hayden, General Report, 1899-1900, p.187. In Spiti the unconformity occurs at the base of a calcareous sandstone, underlying the Productus shales. ? Hayden, General Report, 1899-1900, p. 188. 3 This new term I introduced to replace the term “ Subrobustus beds,” Diener, Ceratites subrobustus having been proved to belong to the lower muschelkalk. * General Report, 1899-1900, p. 205, and 1900-1901, p. 26. ( 20 ) GENERAL CHARACTERS. 147 carnic stage, but their facies is of a dark, mostly black and shaly limestone and therefore differs widely from that of the equivalent divi- sion of the Tibetan series. Upper Carnic stage—The Tropites horizon of the Himalayan series is developed in Spiti as a grey, brown weathering, somewhat shaly, nodular limestone with few, badly preserved ammonites! At the Bambanag cliff, where this horizon has only recently been discovered by myself? it is a grey, shaly limestone alternating with grey shales, which belong to the topmost “ Daonella beds." These limestones of the Bambanag cliff also differ faunistically from the Himalayan and Tibetan Tropites horizon by the apparent absence of the genus Z'ropztes and the general paucity of cephalopoda. In Byans, the Tropites horizon is represented by grey limestones including a rich and well preserved fauna of cephalopoda, among which Zropites is found. The fauna appears to be very much richer than that of Exotic Block 2 and to differ moreover by the absence of the genus ClJadiscites, which is se abundant in the Tibetan facies. “ Dachsteinkalk” (?)— Great masses of unfossiliferous, grey, dole- mitic limestones, occurring among the exotic blocks, were correlated with the dachsteinkalk of the Himalayan series. It is necessary te state that there is no complete lithological identity between the two, the Tibetan grey limestones being massive throughout, while the Himalayan dachsteinkalk is well bedded. Lias.—It has been shown above, that the lias must be looked for in the Central Himalayas in a series of conformable, grey limestones, ranging from upper triassic into middle jurassic. It is possible that limestones, including a species resembling Spiriferina obtusa, Oppel., which I found in Spiti in a section near Gieumal, represent the lias, but so far no unmistakable liassic fossils have been recorded. The red cephalopod limestones traced in Johar thus differ widely from the equivalent Himalayan beds, both in facies and by the fauna they include. 1 General Report, 1899-1900, p. 218. = وو‎ » 1900-1901, p. 28. 148 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. We therefore learn from this comparison of the Tibetan with the Himaiayan series that, though in two cases (lower trias and lower muschelkalk) a striking faunistical similarity exists, the two series differ entirely in lithological description, three of the horizons (permo- carboniferous (7), Tropites limestone and lias) being distinguished faunistically as well. The only horizon which affords! points of simi- larity is the dachsteinkalk. Comparison with European Alps.—To compare the Tibetan series with occurrences of similar lithological features outside Tibet, we must turn to the European Alps, where we find rocks of striking re- semblance in the “Hallstatt limestones” and the red liassic limestones. The lithological resemblance is indeed so great that we are justified in supposing that the same physical conditions prevailed in the two areas. These conditions set in in Tibet at an earlier date (permo- carboniferous) than in the Alps (upper muschelkalk). They coincided in both areas during upper carnic and lower liassic times, but it appears that during noric times red limestones were deposited in the Alps but not in Tibet. “Hallstatt” facies.—' The Alpine Hallstatt facies is confined to more or less limited areas, being chiefly met with near Hallstatt, Hallein and Berchtesgaden in the Austrian and Bavarian Alps. According to Schlosser! it includes all the triassic beds ‘from the “Werfen shales” (lower trias) upwards. The lowest division, the “ Haselgebirge " (uppermost lower trias and lower muschelkalk), which is characterised by the occurrence of salt, has apparently no lithological equivalent in the Tibetan series and is therefore of no interest here. All the rest of the Hallstatt facies, however, with its three. main divisions: (1) “ Schreyeralm” or “ Lärcheck” limestone and (upper 1 Dr. Max. Schlosser, * Das Triasgebiet von Hallein” Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch, Vol. L, part 2, 1898. It is sufficient for the present purpose to consider the Alpine occurrences alone. - Those of Bosnia and Dalmatia can be left out of consideration. ( 22 ) GENERAL CHARACTERS. 149 muschelkalk, horizon of Ceratites trinodosus), (2) carnic and (3) noric Hallstatt beds, contain red fossiliferous limestones. Whitish and grey limestones occur along with the red, and the red noric Hallstatt limestones pass in places into the dachsteinkalk. While the red yield great numbers of fossils, chiefly cephalopoda, the grey limestones are poor in organic remains. There also occur breccias, made up of red, earthy and grey lime- stones. All the lithological varieties of the facies pass rapidly into each other, even within one and the same layer. Red Alpine Lias—The red liassic limestones of the Alps resemble in many ways those of the Hallstatt trias with which they are also closely connected geographically. Changes of facies are common although on the whole red limestones prevail. In the Hagengebirge, south of Salzburg in Austria, I myself ! observed coarse breccias which answer in description those recorded from the Hallstatt beds. Red Alpine limestones, no deep sea deposits.—The red Alpine limestones have been looked upon by some authors as deep sea deposits, a theory which owing to its bearing on the origin of the Tibetan series will have to be shortly discussed here. As to the Hallstatt limestones, an observation, made by Prof. Koken, who described their Gastropod fauna,? is of great importance. Koken noticed that large specimens and species almost invariably show traces of old fractures, which had healed during the lifetime of the animals and which had locally interrupted the sculpture, without in any way hindering the normal growth. From this Koken concludes that the animals lived in comparatively shallow, very rough water, perhaps in the vicinity of cliffs, which were washed by a strong surf. “ Any deep sea character is hereby excluded.” This conclusion is in accord- ance with the occurrence of breccias as recorded by Schlosser. I arrived at similar conclusions with respect to the red liassic lime- ` stones of the Hagengebirge. ? Jahrbach Geol. Reichsanstalt Vienna, Vol, 47, part 2, 1897. ? Abhandlungen Geol. Reichsanstalt Vienna, Vol. XVII, part 4, 1897, p: 3: (239) 150 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. A careful examination convinced me that these were laid down on the slopes of large reefs of dachsteinkalk, which they eventually overlapped, owing to a rise in the coast line. This, in connection with the occurrence of breccias, proves them to have been formed in comparatively shallow water. We therefore come tothe conclusion that the red Alpine limestones are not deposits of a deep sea, but of comparatively shallow water in the vicinity of grey limestone reefs, and we may conclude that the origin of the red Tibetan limestönes was a.similar one. On the other hand stress must be laid on the absence of sandy and shaly materials, which clearly points to an open sea, and this is no doubt, as Mr. Griesbach suggests,! owing to the Tibetan rocks having been deposited at a greater distance from the old Indian continent, than the Himalayan series. From the above it appears improbable that red limestones should be of wide and equal distribution within the Tibetan series. More likely they represent local formations, while grey limestones form the predomi- nant rock, and we may suppose that they pass into the latter in the same way that the noric Hallstatt limestones pass into dachsteinkalk. This conclusion would be well in accordance with the observation, that within the volcanics of Johar grey limestones, mainly in huge masses, form the most prominent foreign element, whereas the red blocks—at least as far as size is concerned— play a comparatively unimportant róle. If the above be correct, it would of course follow that the grey dolomitic limestones represent not only dachsteinkalk but have à considerably wider range. The term “ dachsteinkalk ” applied to them must accordingly be understood to be of a provisional character. In the foregoing remarks the exotic blocks, representing Spiti shales, Gieumal sandstone and upper flysch were left out of con- sideration. There is no reason why we should not assume them to have come from the same regions as the limestone blocks and we may conclude that the jurassic and cretaceous divisions following above the Tibetan series are of a character lithologically identical to those seen along the Indo-Tibetan frontier. 1 Loc. cit., р. 25. ( 24 ) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. 151 IV.-DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. (а) The neighbourhood of the Balchdhura Pass. The boundary range rises up north of the Balchdhura pass to an in- significant peak, Ralchdhura, 18,110,’ whence it runs north-west to a second point marked on the Trigonometrical Survey map, Balchdhura No. 2, 18,500”. Between these two points the range describes a curve ? with its convex side towards Hundés. Within this are two high peaks, the Balchdhura heights, as I call them; the eastern measuring 18,900' the western slightly less. Structure of Flysch.—To the west of Balchdhura No. 2 the bound- ary range is composed of Gieumal sandstone with remains of the upper flysch series, vis, the red shales and limestones (44) which alone are preserved, About half a mile west of Balchdhura No 2, the upper flysch is faulted against the Gieumal sandstone. On the slopes to the south and south-east of the Balchdhura heights a magnificent flysch section, the best I have seen, is exposed. The beds have a constant dip of 10 to 15° to the north-east. Ascending this section we meet with a certain amount of folding in the black shales (42), but higher up it is almost undisturbed as far as the topmost flysch beds, where there is a very striking feature. Tuffs, almost horizontal, first green, then red, end in a sort of narrow ledge, to which a débris slope descends from a small thickness of red, folded tuffs. This upper, folded tuff band yielding easier to weather- ing than the slightly inclined tuffs below, the formation of a ledge and a débris slope is easily understood, but the question, how the sudden change from unfolded to folded beds can have been brought about, is more difficult to answer. It must of course be due to faulting, but the latter is of an unusual and remarkable character. The ledge, with its accompanying features, can be seen following the curve of the boundary range, for at least 2 miles, from Balchdhura ! Pls. 1 and 3; section 1 on pl. 12. ? Not marked on the map. 152 KRAFFT: EXOTIC. BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. No. 2 to the northern scarp of Kiogarh No. r. Near the latter it is particularly well pronounced (see woodcut below). Balchdhura Heights eae / Fig. 1. Folded and undisturbed tuffs (4f ) in boundary range, S. E. Balchdhura pass. For the whole of this distance the fault follows the strike of the beds exactly. This peculiar fault can only be properly understood when compared with more complicated disturbances, seen in the upper flysch round the base of the Kiogarh high plateau. As the comparatively soft flysch deposits are overlaid by rigid masses, which must have been. originally of a considerably greater thickness than is now observed, it is conceivable that, when the country was subject to lateral pressure, it was principally the flysch that yielded, and it also appears natural that the disturbances thus effected should be most pronounced in the neighbourhood of the boundary towards the overlying masses. The latter appear to have evaded the pressure by being pushed to some extent over the flysch. We will see below that the country south of the Kiogarh plateau is more intensely disturbed than the districts alluded to above, with the result that there the volcanics are folded together with the flysch. ( 26 ) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA, 153 Volcanics.—As soon as we have passed the folded tuff we come on the southern slope of the Balchdhura heights upon loose débris, chiefly composed of amygdaloidal andesite and red limestones. No outcrop of igneous rocks Zz situ was here observed. Involved in the débris we find large exotic blocks of various description. Exotic blocks.— Of these I have first to mention one of green and red tuffs (4 7), found due south below the western summit of the Balch- dhura heights. It is greatly contorted and crushed but has a general steep dip towards north-east (70° to 80°). The pressure it has sustained is also indicated by almost every single bedding plane being slickensided. Red limestone blocks, mostly small in size, are also seen. Two of the largest of these have yielded fossils, vzz., E. B. 1 Daonella indica, E. B. 2 ammonites of upper carnic stage. Exotic block 1.—Block 1 is of a longish form, divided up into several more or less disconnected parts by débris of green andesite. On the whole it can be said to dip towards north-east and strike about north-west to south-east, but neither dip nor strike are constant throughout its entire length. Faults abound and strong crushing is noticeable, the andesite being even folded into the red limestone locally. Exotic block 2.—Block 2 with its upper carnic cephalopod fauna crops out from a débris slope to the south-south-east of the eastern summit. No bedding can be seen. The limestone is in part altered and only after some search did I find fossils in it. Near it is another rather large limestone block of pinnacle shape, made up of vertical beds, but this did not yield any fossils. As regards the Balchdhura heights proper, they are of a peculiar description, being composed chiefly of greenish sandstones and shales, with a few isolated, densely red limestone blocks. Gieumal sandstone blocks.—Besides these foreign elements, of which the two first I believe represent Gieumal sandstone and Spiti shales, igneous rocks play an unimportant part. We shall see later on that in the Kiogarh plateau also foreign elements predominate in places to such an extent as to exclude almost entirely the igneous rocks. 270) 154 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. Seen from afar the Gieumal sandstones look as if they were bedded, and this no doubt was the case originally. But on closer examination this bedding is no longer recognized. The apparent layers of sand- stone are found to be split up by innumerable small faults into angular fragments. Often the shaly matter has been the lubricant by means of which one block was pushed over another. The interstices between the blocks are as a rule filled out by breccia-like matter of shale with small pieces of sandstone. Large sandstone blocks make up the actual heights. The western summit is formed by a huge block with particularly bold outlines. Balchdhura Pass.—Descending from the Balchdhura heights towards the pass we soon come upon lavas partly altered into serpentine. Thus a flat, conical elevation on the ridge near E. B. 2 is composed of that rock. A specimen of serpentine from the - frontier range south-east of the Balchdhura pass was found by Mr. Holland to be an altered peridotite with chromite. The top of the range is thinly studded over with limestone and sandstone blocks, the latter being here again occasionally of large size (see woodcut below). Fig. 2. Blocks of Gieumal sandstones in basic igneous rocks near Peak Balchdhura, 18,110! ( 28 ) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. 155 (4) The Kiogarh High Plateau." About one mile south-east of the Balchdhura pass there rises an extended mountain mass with a number of peaks, ranging from 18,000’ to somewhat above 19,000'.? High Plateau.—The whole is a wide high plateau, intersected by two rivers (Sami and Ghátámémin rivers) and by four passes, leading from these rivers and their branches into Johar. The plateau character is most pronounced to the west of the Sami river (Kiogarh No. r, No. 2 and No. 3). The country between the Sami and Ghátámémin valleys is modelled out into a broad ridge and a similar ridge borders the Ghátámemin valley to the east. Towards Johar the plateau ends pre- cipitately in high, steep cliffs. There is therefore between the Balch- dhura and Kiogarh-Chaldu passes no real dividing range with equally steep declivities on either side. The boundary coincides, it is true, with the watershed, but this is formed by the edge of a plateau. The Kiogarh peaks were in 1892 recognized to be exotic masses (see introduction). Messrs. Griesbach, Diener and Middlemiss could not however attempt anything beyond a superficial examination of the area. In the following I propose to describe first the flysch base and afterwards the masses that make up the Kiogarh plateau proper. 1.—The Flysch. Gieumal sandstone.— The Gieumal sandstone encircles the Kiogarh plateau, without touching it, to the west, extending to the east nearly as far as Malla Kiogarh E. G. 1 Plates 2 and 3. Section 2 оп pl. 12. ? Asthe Trigonometrical survey map contains only a few names of localities which are insufficient for the purpose of a detailed description of the area, I have introduced the following new names : Kiogarh No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4 and No 6 (the latter peak is called * Kiogarh” only on the Trigonometrical Survey map), “Sami Valley” (see pl. 2), “Sami Pass,” “Ghâtémémin Pass,” * Ghátámémin Valley,” “Sami Е. G.” * Balchdhura E. G.," * Kiogarh Chirchun E. G” Talla Kiogarh E. G. I and 11,” “Malla Kiogarh E. G. I and II.” (1929/59) 156 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. On the whole the beds dip towards the high plateau but are in many places folded and faulted. A beautiful reversed fault is exposed in the deep ravine of the Kiogarh river, near Talla Kiogarh I. E. G., being marked by a strip of red shales (4 a), hemmed in between two masses of Gieumal sandstone. A very complicated structure sets in east of Talla Kiogarh E. G. At the latter locality the sandstone disappears in a steep, almost vertical flexure with a north to south strike. Further east it again comes to the surface, greatly folded, and reaches for some distance up the various branches of the Kiogarh river. On this base of Gieumal sandstone rests the upper flysch. Upper Flysch.—We have seen in the preceding chapter that the sequence is but little disturbed in the neighbourhood of the Balchdhura pass. The sketch on Pl. 13 shows that in ridges J, Папа Ш no dis- turbances are present beyond the folding of the tuffs (sub-div. 4 /) and a general incline of the beds towards east and north-east, In ridges IV and V folding sets in in the sandstone (4 e), but the series is com- plete both here and in ridge VI. Ridge VII is a disturbed, incomplete flysch section, On the shales (4 4) the igneous rocks follow imme- diately. The higher flysch beds are wanting. Passing to the south- west side of the Kiogarh plateau we find much the same feature as on ridge VII. Nowhere is the upper flysch series complete. As a rule the youngest sub-division visible is formed by the shales and flaggy limestones (4 4), but occasionally the brown sandstones (4 с) are met with. Small outcrops of the tuffs (4 /) occur in some places but never ina normal position. Asarule they project from the black shales (4 4). No traces of the hard shales (4 4) nor of the sandstones with fucoids (4 e) are seen. The latter reappear however in great force on the Kiogarh-Chaldu pass. Black shales form the chief component of the ridges descending from the Kiogarh plateau towards south-west. For this reason the structure is difficult and often impossible to unravel. Unfortunately the brown limestones intercalated with them seldom afford any help in this respect, as instead of forming clear outcrops, they weather into débris, producing light brown patches on the black shale ground. (23023) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. 157 I must therefore confine myself to mentioning a few discon- nected observations that testify to the fact of intense disturbances having taken place. From the passes between Kiogarh No. ı and No. 2 and Kiogarh No. 2 and No. 3 branches of a small river run down towards south-west to a valley bounded on the north-west and south-east by ridges. The ridge north-west of this valley is composed, as far as the upper flysch is concerned, entirely of the red shales (44) and the black shales (45), the latter rich in ferruginous concretions. On these shales follow immediately the igneous rocks, the rest of the upper flysch series being entirely absent. On the ridge south-east of the same valley the Gieumal sandstone is overlaid by the red and green shales (44) and the black shales (42). Light brown patches, produced by the weathering of the flaggy limestones, appear in several places and seem to indicate that the shales are folded. Higher up the tuffs (4f) appear. These are over- laid by black shales (44) and these again by tuffs. The latter eventually disappear beneath igneous rocks. Between these two ridges, at the base of Kiogarh No. 2, one exposure is as follows : flaggy limestones and shales (45) are laid into narrow zigzag folds. Above this follows an outcrop of tuffs (4 f) covered higher up by débris from Kiogarh No. 2. The upper part of the flysch ridge ascending to Kiogarh No, 3 from Malla Kiogarh I. E. G. is very similar to the foregoing. It is composed almost entirely of the black shales (42), but here remains of the sandstones (4c) crop out from among the shales. The latter reach up to the débris that surrounds the base of the peak. In the nullah ascending to the Sami pass black shales with brown flaggy limestones (45) and tuffs (47 ) are seen folded into each other. The brown sandstones (4c) occur here too, but there is no trace of the sandstones (4e). Outcrops of tuffs are again met with higher up on either side of the nullah about half a mile south of the pass. The beds are horizontal and are covered below Sami E. G. by volcanics with completely altered limestone blocks. Further south-east towards the Kiogarh-Chaldu pass the same 3E ) 158 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. features prevail as in the above described ridges. But near the pass the sandstones with fucoids (47) come in and form the ridge over which the pass leads into Hundes. 2.— The volcanics and exotic blocks. Volcanics —In the Kiogarh high plateau the volcanics attain their highest deveiopment. The thickness of these rocks is more con- siderable than either north or south of the high plateau and the number. and rise of the exotic blocks exceeds anything seen elsewhere. On the whole we can distinguish a lower and an upper division. The lower one is composed of lavas, including small and large limestone and sandstone blocks, while the upper division represents a gigantic accumulation of igneous and non-igneous rocks in which grey limestones prevail, mixed with dark lavas and smaller blocks of red limestone, Two divisions. These two divisions are well seen in the south-west scarp of the Kiogarh high plateau, whereas in the north-west and north-east slope of Kiogarh No. 1 they are but indistinctly marked. At the south-west slope of Kiogarh No. r and to the north of the Kiogarh-Chaldu pass outcrops of solid igneous rocks are seen which are practically free from foreign elements. Everywhere else exotic blocks abound, being of all possible sizes and various descriptions. Exotic Blocks. —Red and grey limestones are most common. They are greatly altered, traversed by intrusive veins and often per- fectly saturated with igneous matter, which has entered all the minor fissures. In addition to this they have undergone great crushing. This not only appears from the abundance of faults, but also from the folded intrusive veins. Red and grey limestones are completely mixed up with each other. In the ridge ascending from south-west towards Kiogarh No. 1, I met with a block of thin-bedded, red lime- stone, shut in between two large masses of grey limestone. Scarcity of fossils.—The limestones are mostly devoid of any AAN fossil remains and I have only been able to trace one fossiliferous horizon. A loose block found near Malla Sangcha E. G., yielded a number of brachiopoda identical ( 32 ) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA, 159 with types described from the peak Chirchun No. 1. Inspite of many days’ search all over the Johar side of the Kiogarh plateau, I did not find a single fossiliferous block 77 situ. Greenish grey sandstone blocks are also often seen, but nowhere do they alone compose large tracts, as in the Balchdhura heights, А rare type of block is represented by thin-bedded, brown limestones (45) of the upper flysch. These crop out from volcanic débris at the foot of the northern scarp of Kiogarh No.1. The limestones are greatly contorted but show a general dip towards east (E. B. 3 on map, section 3 on pl. r2). In describing the actual high plateau we may start from Kiogarh- No. 5 and thence proceed towards the north-west. I must remark that, as the watershed forms the boundary of Hundés, which country I was not allowed to enter, my description must of necessity be incomplete. Kiogarh No. 5.—Approaching Kiogarh No. 5 from the Kiogarh- Chaldu pass we soon leave the sandstones with fucoids (де) for the basic igneous rocks, «composing the boundary range up to the base of Kiogarh No. 5. They are for the greater part weathered into débris, but in one locality, on the western slope of the boundary range, not far from E. B. 8, an outcrop of lavas with spheroidal structure is seen. With them is associated the pitchstone breccia described above. Exotic blocks are seen in many places. The largest (E. B. 8) is represented in the photograph on, pl. 7, which distinctly shows the striking contrast between the dark, basic, igneous rocks and the light grey limestones. E Reaching the base of the actual summit of Kiogarh No. 5 we arrive at a larger dolomitic limestone mass rising in steep cliffs to a height of approximately 200 feet. It seems as if it were one huge block, but very likely this is not the case, as igneous rocks crop out in places ofthe limestone (see drawing pl. 10). I have little doubt that peak Kiogarh No. 5 is like Kiogarh No. 3 (see next page) actually made up of an accumulation of huge limestone blocks mixed with some igneous material, but to ascertain this, the Tibetan side of the mountain should also be examined. — WwW сә — #60 KRAFFI: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. Ghätämemin Pass.—To the north-west Kiogarh No. 5 descends to the Ghátámémin pass, which is within the volcanics. From this pass the narrow Ghátámémin valley descends (N 20’E) into Hundes. This valley would probably afford a very good section through the masses composing Kiogarh No. 4 and No. 6. I could see from the pass that in the steep eastern scarp of these peaks igneous rocks are exposed, which include huge grey limestone blocks. Kiogarh No. 4.—Kiogarh No. 4 is on its western and southern slopes almost completely covered over with débris, in which limestones predominate. Patches of dark igneous rocks cccur within thelime- stone debris, as for instance on the ridge descending towards Sami pass. | Kiogarh No. 5.—Kiogarh No. 3 is steeply inclined towards south west, but on the other side gradually descends into the Sami valley. In the woodcut below it may be seen that the peak is not a single block, but consists of several huge blocks, piled upon each other, with volcanics between. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. 161 A longish patch of igneous rocks (diabase according to Mr. Holland's determination of a hand specimen) is seen near the top of Kiogarh No. 3 on pl. 3. Kiogarh No. 2.—Kiogarh No. 2, the lowest of the Kiogarh peaks, is in outline similar to Kiogarh No. 3. This again is more likely an accumulation of limestone blocks than a single block, although I am bound to say that I have not noticed any volcanic material within the limestones. Kiogarh No. 1.—A view from the pass between Kiogarh No. 1 and No. 2 towards the interior of the high plateau is seen on pl. €. The limestones have all been marked in the photograph as dachstein- kalk although subordinate red limestones are also seen. The plateau is made up of igneous rocks and limestones, which apparently com- Pose the distant peak Ghátámémin, seen to the right on the photograph. I noticed thereabouts large masses of densely red limestones, which in tint recall the liassic blocks. The igneous rocks with the limestones included reach towards the west almost up to the summit of Kiogarh No. 1 and there cover a number of huge, grey limestone blocks which on the south-west, north and north-west scarps of Kiogarh No. r are exposed in perpendicular walls.! In the north-west slope of Kiogarh No. 1 one meets with large blocks everywhere, becoming more and more considerable in size towards the top of the peak.? The photograph on pl. 5 taken from a high ridge in the north-east scarp of Kiogarh No. 1 may serve to give an idea of the coarse, tumul- tuous accumulation of rocks composing this peak. Exotic block in Flysch.—Before leaving the Kiogarh peaks, mention must be made of a few exotic blocks that occur within the upper flysch near Malla Kiogarh I. E.G. (E. Bs. 4, 5, 6, 7). Blocks 4, 6, 7 are of liassic, block 5 probably of triassic age. All these occu: = rences are associated with igneous rocks and surrounded by the black 1 The outlines of these blocks had to be considerably simplified on the map. _ ? Limestones and igneous rocks have been distinguished in the drawing on pl. 2 as far as possible by lettering. But it would be impossible to show the confu sion prevailing more than approximately. The limestones, though not exclusively grey, have all been marked as dachsteinkalk. 162 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR, shales (45). Block 4 is made up of almost horizontal strata of concre- tionary limestones, the lower beds being grey, the upper red. I found no fossils in these, but the lithological character of the rock makes its liassic age pretty certain. Block 5 is а massive, much altered, red limestone, very poor in fossils. It has yielded one ammonite strongly resembling Sageceras and appears thus to be of middle or upper triassic age. Block 6 yielded some specimens of Arietites. Belemnites and ill- preserved bivalves are common in certain earthy layers. The beds have а low dip towards north. I united this block on the map with a small outcrop of presumably liassic limestone to the south-west of it, which is completely unfossiliferous and shows vertical beds. Block 7 yielded an ill-preserved specimen of PAylloceras. Seeing that the dip is the same as in the neighbouring block 6, the two may be connected subterraneously. It is clear that the occurrence of these igneous rocks and exotic block in the midst of the upper flysch must be due to¿disturbances. Similar instances will be described below from the area south of the Kiogarh plateau (see also “ Results "). (с) The area south of the Kiogarh Plateau (Plates 4, 8, 9, and sections 3 and 4 on plate 13). 1.— Structural features. South of the Kiogarh plateau the structure assumes a more com- plicated character. Triasso-jurassic anticline.— T here is to the west the triasso- jurassic anticline, which, appearing underneath the Spiti shales in the ravine of the Kiogarh river somewhat below Talla Kiogarh I. E.G., gradually ascends towards the high peak Lahur (app. 18,000 feet). (30) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. 163 East of the anticline a thrust-fault is seen, and what lies east of the latter consists of flysch and the eocene igneous rocks, no older beds than Gieumal sandstone being exposed. The fault appears to have been originally anarrow syncline which was subsequently con- verted into a thrust-fault with the result that parts of the lower limb of the original syncline were cut out. The anticline is of a dome shaped character. At the base it is denuded down to the middle jurassic limestones, Spiti shales being preserved in one small patch only. The eastern limb, however, includes Spiti shales, Gieumal sandstone and part of the upper flysch. This limb is generally of a simple structure, the dip being low, but in the neighbourhood of the fault, the structure becomes complicated. I have already described the flexure which suddenly sets in at Talla Kiogarh II, E.G., and further east the beds, chiefly Gieumal sandstones with remains of upper flysch, are laid into narrow zigzag folds until the fault is reached. We have now to consider the structure of the area to the east of the fault. Near Kiogarh Chirchun E.G. a magnificent section is exposed, plainly showing an overfold made up of Gieumal sandstone, upper flysch and the eocene volcanics (see pl. 4). Over-fold in Flysch.—The longer limb of the overfold is little dis- turbed and represents from the Gieumal sandstone up to the sandstones (46), a normal sequence of beds. Above the last mentioned sandstones the tuffs (49) should be found, but they must be wanting as they were nowhere observed, a fact which, as will be shown below, must be ex- plained by denudation having preceded the volcanic eruptions. In the case of the overfold a small reversed fault is seen which traverses the brown sandstones (4c), and the hard shales (44). In the lower limb, which is partly encumbered by débris, the only flysch divisions visible are the red shales (42) and the sandstones (де). This overfold borders to the west on-the great thrust-fault. Here (6323) 164 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR, an anticline of Gieumal sandstone is seen, which is covered by remains of the red shales (42). Between this and the sandstones (4e) the basic igneous rocks have been squeezed out and reduced to a lens-shaped complex, connected with a block of completely altered limestone (E. B. то), and further north-east in the strike of the fault-plane, there is another very large limestone block of permo-carboniferous age (E. B. 9), which also originally belonged to the lower limb of the overfold, but has been isolated by denudation. The fault-plane also cuts through the lower part of a ridge situated between two branches of the Kiogarh river (ridge II in section 3, pl. 12). The features are much the same as further south, but there are no igneous rocks seen along the fault. The black shales (42), here partly preserved, are followed immediately by the sandstones (4c). Further north the fault could not be traced, but the exotic blocks seen near Malla Kiogarh I. E.G., may be supposed to lie in the strike of the thrust-plane, which may account for the abnormal position of these blocks also. ; Towards the south the fault crosses the range and then runs along the western foot ofthe ridge which bears E.B. 20. The greater part of the flysch is here cut out, but owing to the inaccessibility ! of this area, the structure could not be cleared up satisfactorily. Sections through ridges near Kiogarh Chirchun E.G.—To the east of the overfold we come upon another complicated section. The beds descend in a low dip to the east and cross the path leading to the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass. At this place one of the branches of the Kiogarh river cuts a ravine through them, thus affording a very good exposure. (See ridge I in section 3 and sec- tion 4, pl. 12). At the base of the ridge there are the sandstones (4e) and faulted on top of them a small thickness of shales and sand- stones representing part of another mass of division 4e. The beds therefore are doubled owing to a reversed fault (a—a), which is very 1 To work out this corner I had to camp at 18,000 ft. Unfortunately I was driven down by heavy snow after a short stay. (338) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA, 165 sharply marked, as the upper sandstone beds can be seen to be cut off abruptly by the fault, Above the upper sandstone remains of igneous rocks are seen, but the tuffs (4/) are not present here either. The volcanic: are overlaid by black shales with thin-bedded brown limestones (42), the result of a second reversed fault (j—42). Recurring patches of débris from the brown weathering limestones suggest great complications in the struc- ture of sub-division 44, which have been indicated on the section by a number of diagrammatic folds. The two faults are also seen in ridge П to the north of Kiogarh Chirchun E.G.! We have seen above that in this ridge the sandstones (де) follow above the great thrust-fault, which traverses the lower part ofit. At first these sandstones lie almost flat, but rather more than half way up an eastern dip sets in abruptly, the result of fault a—a. In this ridge the shales, which are noticed in ridge I, are completely cut out. Above the sandstone remains of igneous rocks are found here too, but they disappear at the ridge and are cut out further north. The igneous rocks are here as in ridge I overlaid by black shales (fault ¿—b). Further north the sandstones (4e) reach as far as Malla Kiogarh I, where they disappear under the shales 43 (pl. 3). South of ridge I, the structure isless clear, but it can be seen that the volcanics swell out considerably in this direction. Here again compact lavas are seen which show the same spheroidal structure as those near Kiogarh- Chaldu pass. They contain small blocks of a densely red limestone and are associated with breccias made up of andesite and red lime- stone. These igneous rocks are connected with those which further west cover the root of the overfold, and this indicates that the sandstones overlying fault a—a in ridge I represent a wedge that thins out towards west. East and south of these igneous rocks shales (45) are met with, which are no doubt faulted against them (fault 2—2 in ridge I). ! See also view on pl. 3 to the right. (39) 166 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. 2.—The Exotic blocks. South of the Kiogarh high plateau igneous rocks occur in three patches. The largest of these is very complicated in outline, owing to the disturbances it has undergone. It is remarkable for its very interesting blocks. Of these E Bs. 9, 13, 15 to 18 and 20 yielded fossils, pointing to permo-carboniferous (9, 13, 15, 18), lower liassic (16,17) and lower triassic age (20). Other horizons represented are: Gieumal sandstone, dachsteinkalk and upper flysch, sub-division 45 (14 on map). We will first consider the— Permo-carboniferous blocks.—E. B. 9 is the largest of that age found in Malla Johar. It is comparatively little altered, no doubt in consequence of its size. As recorded above, rare permo-carboniferous brachiopoda are found in it. A few fossils of this age were also found in blocks 13, 15 and 18. A permo-carboniferous age can safely be inferred with respect to blocks 11 and 12, as large crinoid stems abound in them. Block ro and several others (left out on map) are of doubtful age. What has been mapped as E. B. 18, is a large number of blocks of red and white limestones (pl. 9). They yielded a few permo-carboniferous species. Lower Liassic blocks.—In the vicinity of E. B. 18 intensely red, conspicuous patches of débris are seen. In these ammonites of lower liassic age were found. In one place the limestone is zz situ (partly to be seen on pl. 9). There it is noticed that the rock is bedded, concretionary, chiefly of red colour but with a few grey layers, thicker than the red beds. It is impossible to say how many liassic blocks were originally present, as they have all been more or less decomposed into large patches of débris. We can distinguish two main occurrences, one (E. B. 17) situated near E. B. 18 and the other, E. B. 16 some- what higher up near the crest of a ridge running from south to north. Lower triassic blocks (Fig 4 below).—On the frontier ridge south of the liassic crags an occurrence of red limestones with ammonites ( 40 ) DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA, 167 of lower triassic age was discovered. This again is not a single block but an accumulation of large sized blocks. ee A XENA N Fig. 4. Exotic block 20 from North. The collections referred to were made from the small peak seen to the left on the above woodcut. This small peak consists of rather thin beds, dipping approximately 80? south-east and striking south-west to north-east. The limestone is chiefly red with subordinate grey layers. It rests on green andesites and volcanic breccias. To the east the block borders on the black shales (45) which compose the boundary range to a short distance beyond the Kiogarh- Chirchun pass. Thin-bedded distorted brown” limestones of the upper flysch (42) crop out from the débris slope south of the E. B.; but I could not determine whether these represent another block or not. Débris of red limestone connects the small block I have just described with similar limestones capping the boundary range further west, which are also underlaid by igneous rocks. This latter (АУ) 168 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. part of E. B. 20 also extends for some distance south, where the boundary range turns round towards peak Kungribingri No. 2. The rock is extremely altered and calcspar veins abound in it, but there is an approximately horizontal bedding seen in places. "Traces of ammo- nites, resembling Danubites and Flemingites are not uncommon, in spite of the altered state of the rock. From the highest point of block 20 (app. 18,500') it may be seen that igneous rocks reach down towards south-east into a valley running in the direction of Chirchun E. G. In this valley exotic blocks also occur.! Unfossiliferous blocks. —We now proceed to consider the un- fossiliferous blocks. Sandstone blocks, apparently representing Gieumal sandstone, may be seen almost everywhere, especially near the liassic block No. 16, where they are perfectly denuded out of the igneous rocks and near E. B. 12 (see. pl. 4 and map). Grey limestones (dachsteinkalk) occur in one or two places in the vicinity of the liassic blocks. The limestone is decomposed into small débris heaps. i E. B. 14 is an occurrence of black shales extremely crushed and weathering rusty brown, which looks exactly like certain palæozoic shales. Ferruginous concretions being common and brown weathering flaggy limestones with plant remains interbedded, there can be no doubt that the occurrence represents sub-division 44 of the upper flysch. Two small patches of igneous rocks are seen at a short distance to the north and north-east of the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass. The larger of these includes an accumulation of large blocks, mapped.as exotic block 19 (pl. 8). This is one of the most conspicuous blocks of the area, but unfortunately is devoid even of traces of fossils. The limestone is much altered, massive, of a red and white streaky colour; 1 One of these exotic blocks is represented on both Mr. Griesbach's and Dr. Diener’s maps. In addition to these I have marked two others which I noticed from a distance. (2429) RESULTS. 169 and in my opinion is of the permo«carboniferous block type. On one side it is bordered by black shales (44), on the other side by igneous rocks (5). V.—RESULTS. In the preceding chapters all but occasional references to the question of the origin of the exotic blocks has been purposely omitted. The subject is one whose complexity deserves a special treatment, which could not be undertaken before the area had been fully described. Before proceeding to express my own view, 1 must deal with the theories applied to the European “Klippen” which are discussed by Diener in connection with the exotic blocks of Tibet and Johar. As, however, none of these holds good in the present case, I do not propose to enter at any length into this subject, and I may be allowed to refer the reader for more detailed information on these theories to Prof. Diener’s paper. Exotic blocks not due to structural causes.—It will be found that, with the exception of one, all the theories in question, as well as that advanced by Mr. Griesbach, consider the “ Klippen ” to be the result of one or the other form of structural causes, be it faulting (Griesbach), crushing of anticlines (Neumayer and Studer-Moesch), or overthrusts (recumbent folds) (Bertrand and others). One theory (Stache-Uhlig-Renevier) applied to Carpathian and Swiss occurrences, explains the “ Klippen ” as outcrops of an older series, unconformably overlaid by younger deposits. 1 need hardly say that in no respect can the latter theory be seriously discussed in connection with the Johar and Chirchun blocks. Those which assume structural causes would imply that the exotic blocks were brought into existence by the disturbances which lead to the upheaval of the Himalayas. This, however, is not the case. We have seen that the volcanics, which include the blocks, were folded together with the flysch. From this we can only conclude that the volcanics and consequently also the exotic blocks were pre-existent to ( 43) 170 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. those disturbances, and any causal connection between the latter and the blocks is therefore impossible. Nor is it at all conceivable that folding or faulting should have brought about those features, which were described in the above chapters. None of the theories alluded to would explain the presence of the volcanics and their intimate connection with the exotic blocks. A simple and as I believe satisfactory solution of the problem is, however, obtained if we attribute the exotic blocks to volcanic out- bursts. We have seen above that the exotic blocks are involved in volcanic rocks and it cannot for a moment be doubtful that both the volcanic and non-volcanic rocks came into existence simultaneously. No more likely conclusion can therefore be drawn, than that the exotic blocks are caused by volcanic eruptions. They must be derived from rocks which were shattered into pieces by steam blasts and hurled up and ejected or floated upwards by erupting lavas through volcanic vents. The exotic blocks thus must be understood to be fragments, torn from rocks 27 situ, through which the eruptive forces opened their way. In many cases the limestones had been intruded by igneous rocks, previous to their being torn off and ejected, and some of them underwent great pressure subsequently with the result that the veins were plicated. Let us for a moment put aside those huge masses of grey lime- stone and Gieumal sandstone, found within the Kiogarh high plateau and the Balchdhura heights respectively and only consider the accu- mulation of lavas and smaller non-volcanic blocks, which is general in Johar. Numerous instances of similar occurrences from other parts of the world can be quoted, which are universally explained by volcanic outbursts. The fragments of slate, which largely make up the volcanic cones of the Eifel, the fragments of cretaceous limestones found on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, the abundant non-volcanic materials imbedded in the carboniferous volcanic rocks of the Firth of Forth, sandstones with rhaetic fossils, limestones with liassic fossils 1 Geikie, Transactions Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. XXIX, 1880. (AN RESULTS. 171 and fragments of cretaceous (?) chert, recently discovered in the vent of a tertiary volcano on the Isle of Arran;!limestones with fossils included in tuffs of the volcano of Santorin;? crag-shaped, marmorized limestones and alabaster found in the crater of the volcano Palandokan in Armenia ;? further, pieces of older rocks, “crowded with crinoids occurring in the eocene traps of the Indus Valley,* all these occur- rences fall more or less into line with the exotic blocks of Johar and Tibet. These instances could be greatly augmented, but those mentioned will suffice. Counter arguments.—The theory here advanced was shortly dis- cussed and rejected by Diener in his * Ergebnisse," p. 606. According to him it would be wrong to imagine that the exotic blocks had been torn off from the depth and brought up by igneous rocks, like the ejec- ted fragments of cretaceous limestone in the lavas of Mount Vesuvius. His arguments are that the unaltered state of the limestones of Peak Chirchun No. 1 and the good preservation of the fossils even on the contact with the igneous rocks as well as the absence of contact minerals exclude this theory. These arguments might, however, be met by counter arguments. First of all we know now that fossiliferous blocks are greatly in the minority the bulk being entirely altered. Diener himself noticed this near Talla Sangcha (l. c. p. 600), remarking that the limestones are “for the greater part crystalline, marmorized and highly altered in the contact." On the other hand the little altered state of and the occurrence of well preserved fossils in a few of these innumerable blocks does not tell as much against my theory as Diener was inclined to believe. The limestones ejected by Mount Vesuvius have yielded several hundred species of shells, which cannot have been of very bad preser- vation, since they were specifically determinable.® 1 Summary of progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom for 1899, p- 133- ? Fritsch Zeitsch. d. Deutsch Geol. Gesellsch, XXIII, 1871, p. 208. з Abich, Geologie des Armenischen Hochlandes, Western half, 1882, p. 76. ^ Lydekker. Mem. XXII, p. 113. 5 Judd, Volcanoes, p. 45. (124519) 172 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. In his description of the carboniferous volcanic rocks of the Firth of Forth basin Sir A. Geikie! remarks : “Ina great many cases the fragments of shale, sandstone and other sedimentary strata imbedded in the ejected débris are so unchanged that they cannot on a fresh fracture be distinguished from the parent beds at a short distance from the vent. The Spirifers, Lingulae, Crinoids, C yprid-cases, Ganoid scales and other fossils are often as fresh and perfect in the fragments of rock imbedded in tuff as they are in the rock zz situ.” Indeed in most of the occurrences compared above with the volcanics of Johar, determinable fossils have been found. The absence of contact minerals is a. still less conclusive objection. Diener himself describes Peak Chirchun No. t as being traversed by a dyke and yet no contact minerals were found. Nor have I discovered any near the intrusive veins so often met with in exotic limestone blocks. If then they were not produced by these intrusions, there is no necessity why they should be present at all. But there is another more powerful objection that might be raised to the theory advanced above. We have so far not taken into account those huge, grey limestone masses, found within the Kiogarh high plateau and the large masses of Gieumal sandstone occurring in the Balchdhura heights. The size of these blocks is so stupendous, that the impossibility of their being ejected through volcanic vents might be urged. I am unfortunately not in possession of exact data as to the volume of the largest blocks, yetthere can be little doubt that some of them are many thousand cubic yards in bulk. To bring up such enormous masses, eruptive forces are required infinitely more violent than those to which the non-volcanic fragmental materials of Mount Vesuvius or the Eifel are due, and yet this is, in my opinion, the only possible explanation. We 1 Transactions Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. X XIX, 1880, p. 459. ? There can be no questicn of the large blocks being in origin essentially different from the smaller ones. The limestone fragments met with are of all sizes from small pieces up to huge blocks, the two extremes being linked by every possible intermediate size. On the whole, the higher we ascend in the volcanics, the larger the blocks, but also the largest ones are surrounded and partly covered by igneous rocks, in which small sized limestone fragments occur. ( 4$ ) RESULTS. 173 must indeed assume that the geological phenomenon is the same in Johar and Tibet as in the instances quoted, but that the scale on which it worked was a very much larger one. This latter assumption is fully justified by the fact that the volume of the fragmental materials as a whole and the size of many of the detached blocks exceeds anything known from the instances alluded to above. Lam not aware of any occurrence in other parts of the globe which could be directly compared to the one here in question, but the extreme violence sometimes displayed during volcanic outbursts may be illustrated by a few instances. As to recent volcanoes the outbursts of G. Pepandajan in Java in 1772 may be quoted. According to J. Junghuhn! an area of more than 20 square miles was covered to an average thickness of 50 feet by lava blocks and finer detritus, erupted during a single outburst. Measured from the middle of the crater to the most distant boundaries of the ejected material, this area had a length of more than eight miles. The volume of the erupted masses is said to have been 29,343 million cubic feet. : The volcano of Cotopaxi has been known to throw out, to the dis- tance of eight or nine miles, a mass of rock about one hundred cubic yards in volume.’ Attention may further be drawn to a remarkable occurrence in the tertiary basalts of the Isle of Mull, described by Sir Archibald Geikie.? Near the summit of Sgurr Dearg, bedded basalts enclose “a lenticular band of exceedingly coarse breccia, consisting mainly of angular pieces of quartzite with fragments of amygdaloidal basalt. In the midst of the breccia lies a huge mass or cake of erupted mica schist, at least 100 yards long by 30 yards wide, as measured across the strike up the slope of the hill....... A little higher up, other smaller, but still large blocks of similar schist are involved in the basalt. As the huge cake of mica 1 “Java,” 1854, p. 103: 2 Lyell, Principles of Geol., Ed. то, vol. II, 1863, p. 223. p a 3 «On the history of volcanic action during the tertiary period in the British Isles.” Transactions Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, vol. ХХУ, 1890, p. a 47 ) 174 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. schist plunges into the hill, its whole dimensions cannot be seen, but ` there are visible at least 15,000 cubic yards, and which must weigh more than 30,000 tons." Sir Archibald Geikie thinks there can be no doubt that these enormous fragments were torn off from the underlying crystalline schists and were floated upwards in an ascending flow of molten basalt. Site of volcanoes uncertain.—But now the question arises: Where are these volcanoes situated? As they were in action during eocene times we cannot of course expect to find well preserved cones any- where, but remnants of these must be present, and it should be possible at least approximately to fix the site of these old volcanoes. At present, however, no direct attempt can be made in. this direction, as our knowledge of the structure of the Tibetan districts to the north, north-east and east of Johar is extremely limited. We know from Strachey's researches that great masses of “ greenstone” are found in Hundes, v/z., to the west of the Manassarawar lake and to the east of. Kiunglung on the Sutlej. These rocks are according to Strachey older than the subrecent deposits of Hundés ! and no doubt contemporaneous with the Indus valley volcanoes and with those of Johar and the Chirchun area. It appears that they represent lava flows, but no details are known. On the other hand I could see from the boundary range that the Johar volcanics extend several miles to the north, north-east and east into Hundés, especialy in the Kiogarh high plateau, the eastern limits of which are yet unknown. The country intervening is, according to Strachey, covered with mesozolc and subrecent deposits. In view of the huge size of some of the blocks ejected, the position of the Kiogarh high plateau in the centre of the Johar volcan- ics and the great thickness of the latter, it might be supposed that the sources of discharge lie within this plateau. Butthere are other considerations to be borne in mind. The absence of dykes in the flysch in Johar points to the volcanic vents being at a greater distance, * Loc. cit., p. 310. ( 48 ) RESULTS. 175 and the same must be concluded from the unusual facies of the lime- stone blocks ejected. From all we know, we cannot but infer that the Himalayan, and not the Tibetan series, is ¿2 situ below the Kiogarh high plateau. Messrs. Griesbach and Diener were of different opinion, but at that time the Tibetan lias was not yet known. Dachsteinkalk and younger beds were found to be close to the Spiti shales—flysch belt of the same description as elsewhere.! There was therefore no question of a change of facies in these beds, and as regards the peculiar charac- ters of the permo-carboniferous, lower muschelkalk and upper carnic - horizons of the Tibetan series, even then observed, they were explained by the assumption of a change of facies taking place towards the north.? By the discovery of the Tibetan lias, the aspect of the question has been considerably altered. The occurrence of the Himalayan triasso-jurassic, grey limestone series, close to the belt of sedimentary rocks, appears now in a perfectly different light. Far from being natural, as it had seemed to be, it is a most striking feature and difficult to explain. Instead of changing their facies, we now know that at least the younger beds remain unchanged up to the margin of the belt, and this being so, it is probable that the older horizons behave in the same way. Consequently we are not justified in assuming that the Tibetan facies should be 27 situ below the Kiogarh high plateau. Conflicting evidence.—The evidence is therefore decidedly conflict- ing. On the one hand the existence of vast masses of detached blocks points to the vents occurring within or close to the Kiogarh high plateau, while on the other hand the facies of the ejected blocks almost 1 Viz. in the anticline to the south-west of the Kiogarh plateau and in the Chanambaniali peaks to the east of Chirchun E. G. The expedition of 1892 ascertained that in these peaks a regular series from the Spiti shales down to the dachsteinkalk is exposed, which differs in no way from what is seen in the Himalayan series (Diener, “Ergebnisse, ” p. 585). ? [n a syncline at the head of the Dhauli river (Mem. XXIII, p. 171, fig. 23) the series from the carboniferous quartzite up to the Spiti shales is of the Hima- layan facies. This locality is not more than 7 or 8 miles distant from Peak Chirchun No. 1. HO) 176 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR., forces us to suspect the sources of dischargeto lie much farther to the north. It would appear either that the facies changes very rapidly or that the erupted masses are spread over an enormous area. As both these eventualities seem equally improbable, we find ourselves face to face with an obstacle, at present unsurmountable. Events before and after the volcanic eruptions.—Having in the foregoing discussed the volcanic outbursts, which gave rise to the exotic blocks, we must now consider the events that happened before and after the eruptions. : In the first place the age of the uppermost flysch beds will have to be discussed, a question which has so far scarcely been touched upon. To arrive at a conclusion we must start from the Indus valley tertia- ries. The nummulitic beds of this area are limestones, shales, sand- stones and conglomerates, with which the volcanic traps are in the main contemporaneous.! The nummulitics appear to extend eastwards as far as the area north of the Niti pass; for Mr. Griesbach mentions contorted nummulites from a series of altered beds, which also. is connected with igneous rocks.? Flysch in its entirety of cretaceous age.— The features observed in Johar are however entirely different. We have seen that subaqueous tuffs appear in the topmost flysch series, but these are of small thick- ness and cannot be compared with the contemporaneous traps as re- corded from the Indus valley. Limestones with Vummulttes were nowhere found. On the other hand we meet with subaerial volcanics which overlie the tuffs and are decidedly younger, including asthey do fragments of the latter. At the same time these volcanics are free from any contemporaneous sedimentary beds. Now we cannot but assume that the lavas of Johar have been erupted during the same period as the traps of the Indus valley, viz., that they are of eocene age. The most likely conclusion therefore is that the flysch does not reach into the lower tertiaries, but is in its entirety of cretaceous age. ! Lydekker. Memoirs, XXII, p. тїт. ? Memoirs, XXIII, p. 83. RESULTS. : 177 Elevation of sea floor. —As the subaqueous tuffs are abruptly overlaid by clearly subaerial volcanics, we must infer that, at least locally, an elevation of the sea floor has taken place, and this would point to the sedimentary beds having for some time been subject to subaerial denudation. Subaerial denudation, previous to volcanic outbursts. —As regards the latter, І must confess that no conclusive evidence is available, but the absence of the tuffs (4/) in the sections south of the Kiogarh high plateau is no doubt an argument of some weight. Mr. Griesbach’s map of the Chirchun area further shows in two places igneous rocks overlapping the flysch and the Spiti shales, a feature which would be perfectly congruous with denudation, preceding the outburst of the valcanoes. Later disturbances —As stated above the volcanic outbursts were followed by disturbances. These are the more intense the farther south-east we go, and this fact can be accounted for by a change in the strike.! To the north-west of Laptal, there is a broad, slightly disturbed belt of Spiti shales and flysch striking north-west to south-east. This belt becomes gradually much narrower and more complicated further south-east, the strike changing to north-south, and it ends within the corner described by the boundaries of Dharma, Johar and Hundés.? Thus the Spiti shales dwindle down to narrow strips and the triasso- jurassic anticline appears, while the structure of the flysch gets gradually complicated. At the same time there appears in Hundes the anticline of the Chanambaniali peaks, as a counterpart of the anticline of the Lahur. Effect on volcanics.—' These disturbances have affected the volcanics too, but only in the south-east corner of the belt. In the neighbour- hood of the Balchdhura heights they were of too small an intensity to have any perceptible effect on the volcanics, while the thick and rigid masses of the Kiogarh high plateau appear to have resisted a pressure that caused.great complications in its more easily yielding flysch base. ' See also Griesbach, Memoirs, XXIII, and Diener, Ergebnisse, p. 604. ? See geological map in Griesbach, Memoirs, X XIII. (бг J) 178 KRAFFT: EXOTiC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. To the south of the Kiogarh plateau, however, where the igneous rocks may originally have been less in force, they participate in the folds and faults like the sedimentary components of the country. This is why we find exotic blocks within the flysch, those either isolated from the igneous rocks like E. B. 9, or connected with remnants of them like E. B. 19. This must be borne well in mind, if we want to understand the Chirchun area, which is also situated within the narrow, compli- cated southern termination of the Spiti shales— flysch belt.? Comparison of Chirchun area with Fohar.—This area will now have to be compared with that of Tohar, in order to ascertain whether the explanation given for the origin of the exotic masses is in accord- ance with what is recorded from the Chirchun area. The description given by Diener is in extract as follows *:— The limestone blocks of the Chirchun area are of much smaller size than those of Malla Johar. They exhibit in their strike an almost semi-circular arrangement, forming at the same time three distinct rows or zones. 1. The most northern of these rows has been but superficially reconnoitred by Mr. Middlemiss. It is made up of three blocks,* vzz., Chaldu No. 1 and two lower cliffs lying on the eastern scarp of that peak. The latter is an isolated mass of a white, semi-crystalline lime- stone with a north-east strike. Lithologically it is exactly similar to the permo-carboniferous limestone of Peak Chirchun No. ı. Apparently it rests on Gieumal sandstone and on the igneous rocks, associated with ! Also E. Bs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 might here be mentioned. They have no doubt been involved in the fiysch by similar disturbances as block 9. i 2 Griesbach, Records 1. c., mentions “numerous tight folds and narrow anticlinals," the dip “changing constantly and rapidly." 3 Memoirs, XXVIII, Part 1, pp. 6 to 12. The geological mapping of the Chirchun aree was compiled. from Diener's and Griesbach’s maps. The whole of theflysch is marked with light green, the colour which in Johar repre- sents upper flysch only. А compilation from both maps was unavoidable. Mr. Griesbach's map has the great advantage of showing the igneous rocks, which were left out entirely by Prof. Diener. On the other hand Diener mapped certain blocks which were not indicated by Griesbach. * Mr. Griesbach's map shows one block only. 5 Not shown on map. (52 RESULTS. 179 the latter. The occurrence is marked on Diener’s and Griesbach’s maps as permo-carboniferous.! 2. A central row of much greater extent and containing by far the largest number of isolated blocks, stretching from Peak Kungri- bingri, 19,170’, towards the watershed of the Chaldu and Chirchun rivers. This row is formed by :— (a) A block south of the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass. It was not examined in detail, but appeared to consist of a bright coloured limestone.? (4) Top of Kungribingri, 19,170’, a small block of white limestone resting on greenish Gieumal sandstone, with. out fossils.? : (c) A block in the immediate vicinity of Chirchun E. G., in the ravine descending from the Kiogarh-Chirchun pass towards the Chirchun river. This block is almost entirely imbedded. in Spiti shales.* (4) A block near the low pass west of Peak Chirchun No. т. It yielded a few sections of Bryozoa and corals. (e) At the same locality also a few blocks with Monophyllites and Xenaspis (?) (lower muschelkalk) were observed." Blocks (4 and e) rest on Spiti shales. 1 Fossils being wanting, the age of these limestone: is uncertain. 1 conse- quently marked them as blocks of uncertain age, and the same course was followed in most of the Chirchun blocks, whose age is not established. 2 According to Diener it is entirely imbedded in Spiti shales, while Mr. Griesbach shows “rhztic” (middle jurassic) (?) limestones bordering on it. Griesbach, І. c, р: 22, remarks there are several blocks in the ravine west of Chirchun E. G. І alsc noticed them from E. В. 20 (see map). 3 Copied from Diener, who ascended the Peak. ^ According to Griesbach's map rhztic middle jurassic (?) limestones border on it from south-east. Diener marks another small block near block (c) which does not appear on Griesbach’s map. The latter shows instead a patch of igneous rocks overlapping the Spiti shales and fl sch. Copied from Mr. Griesbach's map. $ Copied from Diener. Griesbach’s map shows this block further south- west than Diener's. 5 Copied from Diener, not marked by Griesbach. 153) 180 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. (/) Block composing Peak Chirchun No. 11 rich in permo- carboniferous fossils. According to Diener it is difficult to say whether the block actually comes into contact with the Spiti shales or with *the intrusive rocks and their tufa" only, the two being mixed up together. The in- trusive. character of the igneous rocks is said to be proved by the existence of a vein, running up the side of the block. The crown of the latter is composed of igneous rocks. The latter * penetrate in succession the Spiti shales and the block in question.’ According to Diener, no distinct stratification is seen, whereas Griesbach recognised (Records 1. c., р. 23) an almost horizontal stratification. (g) A block immediately to the east of Chirchun No. 1, about 130 feet high, of conical shape, resembling lithologically the dachsteinkalk.2 This block is surrounded to the north-west and south by “ intrusive rocks”. The eastern slope was not visited. (4) A long ridge,’ forming a continuation of Chirchun No. 1, towards north-east and north,is capped by masses of limestone similar in appearance to the block of Chirchun No. 1. The strike gradually passes from north-east to north. These limestone masses, mapped by Diener as one lenticular block (permo-carboniferous), were not examined in detail. This central row describes a flat semicircle with its convexity towards south-east. 3. The southern row, considerably shorter than the central one, is made up of three small blocks to the west and north of Lochambel-ki- ! Copied from Mr. Griesbach’s map. * Copied from Prof. Diener, Griesbach shows this block one mile north-north- eastof Chirchun No.1. This block anda block two miles north of Lochambel-ki- chak E. G., also dachsteinkalk were coloured with the same tint as the grey dolomitic limestone blocks of Johar. Whether the rock is the same or not I am of course unable to decide. 3 Copied from Griesbach. ( 54 ) RESULTS. 181 chak E. G. and by an outcrop of dachsteinkalk in the Spiti shales two miles north of this E.G. The latter outcrop may be an inlier of the upper triassic limestone of Peak Chaldu No. 2. One of the three small blocks is of permo-carboniferous age (not mapped) the other two! are lower muschelkalk with Monophyllites, Xenaspis, etc., developed in a Hallstatt facies. Diener's description no doubt disagrees in most important respects with the theory I have advanced above. He speaks here again of in- trusive rocks and recognises a semi-circular arrangement of the exotic blocks, to which he attributes great structural importance. Great weight is attached both by Mr. Griesbach and Dr. Diener to a dyke seen in the block that makes up Chirchun No. 1, and this is taken as a proof of the intrusive character of the igneous rocks, which are asserted to traverse in succession both the Spiti shales and the block. I have no doubt this dyke answers to the veins so often seen in the exotic blocks of Johar, and altogether the feature appears to be exactly the same as elsewhere, a limestone block with intrusive veins resting on volcanics by which its top is also covered. That the igneous rocks should pierce through the Spiti shales is not compatible with the results of my own observations, all accounts pointing to the conclusion that the sources of discharge of these rocks lie elsewhere. If there were a dyke in the Spiti shales, one should expect it to be very clearly seen as the igneous rocks are harder than the shales. Nothing of the sort has been recorded. Diener deems the semi-circular arrangement of the exotic blocks to be of vital importance, on the grounds that the rows run diagonally to the direction of the Himalayan folds outside the Chirchun area. The northern and southern rows are too indistinct to deserve much attention, but the “central row” can to a certain extent be recog- nised in Diener's and Griesbach's maps, although the two maps differ in detail. It is оп these maps pretty well pronounced from Chirchun No. 1 north and north-eastwards, but to the south-west of that peak it ı Copied from Diener, not shown by Griesbach, (55 >) 182 KRAFFT: EXOTIC BLOCKS OF MALLA JOHAR. is no longer clearly seen. Indeed it appears somewhat far fetched to say that the few scattered blocks to the south-west of Chirchun No. 1 form a continuation of the latter. 3 The northern continuation of the ridge to which Chirchun No. ı belongs was admittedly seen from a distance only. І also saw it from afar (pl. 11); my impression of the structure of this range differs how- ever widely from that of Diener. At any rate it is not made up of a single, lenticular limestone mass, but represents a hilly country, which from its predominantly dark colour appears to be chiefly igneous. This is studded over, not only on the top of the range but also on its slopes with numerous light coloured limestone blocks! That this range has, as a whole, a slightly semi-circular bend is in my opinion the consequence of erosion, as the same curve is followed by the Chalda . river that washes its western slope. In view of the foregoing the arrangement of the blocks in rows can hardly be said to be an established fact. The only district where such rows might be suspected from the maps in hand has never even been visited by a geologist, much less closely examined, and what can be seen from a distance tells, in my opinion, more against than in favour of the theory. There still remain a few points which I should like to shortly discuss in connection with Diener's description. Of the exotic blocks observed by the expedition of 1892 some rest on Gieumal sandstone, others on Spiti shales and are either connected with igneous rocks or perfectly free from. them. I may be allowed to point out how these features might have been brought about. In cases where igneous rocks are preserved, we are not absolutely obliged to think of disturbances. Denudation of the country, previous to the terrestrial eruptions, might account for these instances. Such an explanation might, for example, be correct in the case of Peak Chirchun No. ı, which then would represent a patch of lava with a large exotic block involved in it, the whole resting on Spiti shales. The fact that these are much crushed and contorted below the peak 1 Indicated on pl. 11 by small crosses. ( 56 ) RESULTS. 183 (Griesbach, 1. c., p. 23) offers no objection to this hypothesis, as it may well have been brought about subsequently. In cases where no lavas are recorded, they must either have been decomposed beyond recognition, the origin of the blocks being then possibly as pointed out above, or else such blocks have been isolated completely from the igneous rocks by disturbances, in a similar way as the large block No. 9 near Kiogarh Chirchun E. G. Thus I do not think that any of the facts recorded from the Chirchun area can be said to be in discord with the explanation I have given for the origin of the exotic blocks. I therefore come to the conclusion that the exotic blocks of Johar and Chirchun have nothing whatever to do with the “ Klippen” of Europe. Beyond a certain similarity in appearance no affinity can be discovered between them. While none of the European occur- rences is connected with igneous rocks, their origin being according to all accounts due to structural causes, the exotic blocks of Tibet and the adjoining frontier districts are intimately connected with volcanics and owe their existence to volcanic action. I am however well aware that no completely satisfactory solution of this problem has yet been obtained. Not only are the sources of discharge of the volcanics unknown, but also the facies of the exotic limestone blocks is still a mystery, which is far from being satis- factorily cleared up, and there are several other questions of no small importance which require further research in the field. It is earnestly to be hoped that it will some time be possible to survey in detail those uninhabited districts, which lie beyond the Indian frontier, for then only can we expect to completely unravel a problem, which is no doubt among the most attractive in Indian Geology. (2057) INDEX TO PLATES, ا Basic igneous rocks, chiefly andesite.‏ .5 4/. Green and red tuffs. 4e. Greenish sandstones. 4. Upper flysch. | 44. Black, siliceous shales. ? Upper creta- 4с. Brown sandstones. ceous. 46. Black, crumbling shales. 44. Red and greenish shales and red earthy limestones. 3. Lower fiysch (“ Gieumal sandstone," Stol.) ? Lower creta- ceous. 2. Spiti shales (upper jurassic). . Grey limestone mass, ranging from upper trias (dachstein- kalk) into middle jurassic. L. Red lower liassic limestones (pl. 9). D. Grey dolomitic limestones, probably chiefly dachsteinkalk. P, Red and white permo-carboniferous limestones. ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. . Balchdhura heights from south. . Kiogarh high plateau from Peak Balchdhura, 18, 1 to’. D » 5 » range south of Talla Kiogarh . С. . Overfold south of Kiogarh Chirchun E. G. . Northern scarp of Kiogarh No. т. . Eastern slope of Kiogarh No. 1. . Exotic block 8 and Kiogarh No. 5 from from Photo- south-west. graphs. . Exotic block 19 from north-east. . Exotic blocks 17 and 18 from south-east. . Kiogarh No. 5 from Ghátámémin pass. . View from Kiogarh-Chaldu pass towards Hundés. . Section r, through boundary range north of Kiogarh river. » . 2, through Kiogarh No. 1. 3, through ridges east and north of Kiogarh Chir- chun E. G. » 4, through country south of Kiogarh river. „ ‚ Geological map of Malla Johar and adjoining parts of Hundes. WOODCUTS. . Folded and undisturbed tuffs (4/) in boundary range south of Balchdhura pass, p. 152. . Blocks of Gieumal sandstone in basic igneous rocks near Peak Balchdhura, 18,110’, p. 154. . Kiogarh No. 3 from south-east, p. 160. . Exotic block 20 (lower trias) from north, p. 167. “HLNOS MOYA] SLHYIIH VYNHGHOIVE 22) a M, yA, VAN PA AI а Ne ee LE зуң wa nupuoreg " "d '"IXXX ‘OA ‘SHOWN “JUNE чол CV "YION| dO AaäAuNns AMON DOMO ID 5 - Vol. XXXII, Pl. Memoirs, 170,00 17 n&ur Pass Kia Lahur ү AN |. UM YN AM NA E ZEN П GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF Memoirs, VoL XXXII, Pl. 2 Point of view of pl. V Кораћ No. app. 19,000 KIOGARH HIGH PLATEAU FROM PEAK BALCHDHURA h ST N In view of pl. VIT E. В со Point of IL E. G. і Malla Kiogarh INDIA. 3 Vol. XXXII, PL CEOLOGICAL SURVEY ОЕ 5 Memoirs, A. von Krafft. Point of view of Xioarh ILE. G Malla Kiogerh 1 E Kiogarh No.5 emin Pass. Кіофат Na. 4 Ghatamı TE E 5 Wm. 3 $ 8 À 3 xj odis) 3 à HE LES m М = = 3 "iz БЕШ | EN 17590 (b SS | aye: i \ \ SAS NG SN S NN 6 ur \ NS pr IN AU ES 777 zu Day ЛШ Simi Valley NES X Songcha Malla HIN ) » WC, A sch Talla || Ж A Kiogarh No. 6. Ж d f i XI i | Kio farh No. 1 JJ = S M | П \ 7 / (m ‘Kiogarh (Chaldu) pass ^ X i N | NL ; y Y | | \ FAR | P “il aii ) Hi Ni: И) CR | ZG Е ) YAY D GEOLOGICAL MAP f p^ \ ОЕ ! MALLA JOHAR & ADJOINING PARTS OF HUNDES. y УА 4 : $ | үү AA > Жой ) y : GY fern No N J INDEX ТИЙ DIT SI AD 17740 ө, [Basic igneous rocks Lochambelki chak En. Grd 2 о Flysch іл Johar (the whole of the Flysch in Chirchun area) B Loser Fiysch in Johar Е ]spiti Shales (Upper Jurassic) [E Dachstein Kalk to Middle Jurassic EXOTIC BLOCKS ВШ Upper Flysch E. B. 3 & 14 ШШШ Lower Flysch Balchdhura Heights E. B. 12 ШИШЕ Lower Lias (red limestone) E. B. 4, 6, 7, 16 & 17 IE Gray dolomitic limestone, chiefly Dachstein Kalk. E. B. 8 (Kiogarh Peaks etc.) (UD Middle & Upper Trias (red limestone) E, B. 1, 1a, 1b, 1с, 2 & 5 in Chirchun area. EEE Lower Trias (red limestone) E. B. 20 IE Permocarboniferous (red & white limestone) E.B 9, ga, 9b, gc, 11, 13, 15, 18 & 19. Chirchun No, 1. 17749) Y ( 7740) 3 [/ | ИШЕ Blocks of Uncertain age E. B. 1o Part 3.—Note on the progress of the gold industry in Wynaad, Nilgiri district. Notes on the representatives of the Upper Gondwana series in Trichinopoly and Nellore-Kistna districts. Senarmontite from Sarawak. Part 4 —On the geographical distribution of fossil organisms in, India. Submerged forest on Bombay Island. , Vor. XII, 1879. Рат? 1.—Annual report for 1878. Geology of Kashmir (third notice). Further notices of Siwalik mammalia. Notes on some Siwalik birds. Notes of a tour through Hangrang and Spiti. Ona recent mud eruption in Ramri Island (Arakan). On Braunite, with Rhodonite, from near Nagpur, Central Provinces. Palæontological notes from the Satpura coal-basin. Statistics of coal importations into India. Paré 2.—On the Mohpani coal-field. On Pyrolusite with Psilomelane occurring at Gosalpur, Jabalpur district. A geological reconnaissance from the.Indus at Kushalgarh to the irm at Thalon the Afghan frontier. Further notes on the geology of the Upper unjab. Part 3—On the geological features of the northern part of Madura district, the Pudukota State, and the southern parts of the Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts included within the limits of sheet 80 of the Indian Atlas. Rough notes on the cretaceous fossils from Trichinopoly district, collected in 1877-78. Notes on the genus Sphenophylum and other Equisetacez, with reference to the Indian form Trizygia Speciosa, Royle (Sphe- nophylum Trizygia, Ung.). On Mysorin and Atacamite from the Nellore district. On an from the Khasi Hills. On the Joga neighbourhood and old mines on the Ner- udda. : Part 4—On the 'Attock Slates’ and their probable geological position. On a marginal bone of an undescribed tortoise, from the Upper Siwaliks, near Nila, in the Potwar, Pun- jab. Sketch of the geology of North Arcot district. On the continuation of the road section from Murree to Abbottabad. Vor. XIII, 1880. Part 1—Annual report for 1879. Additional notes on the geology of the Upper Godavari basin in the neighbourhood of Sironcha.. Geology of Ladak and neighbouring districts, being fourth notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories. Teeth of fossil fishes from Ramri Island and the Punjab. Note on the fossil genera Nöggerathia, Stbg., Nöggerathiopsis, Fstm., and Rhiptozamites, Schmalh., in paleozoic and secondary rocks of Europe, Asia, and Australia. Notes on fossil plants from Kattywar, Shekh Budin, and Sirgujah. On volcanic foci of eruption in the Konkan. Part 2.—Geological notes. Palæontological notes on the lower trias of the Himalayas. On the artesian wells at Pondicherry, and the possibility of finding such sources of water- supply at Madras. Part 3.—The Kumaun lakes. On the discovery of а celt of palæolithic type in the Punjab. Palzontological notes from the Karharbari and South Rewah coal-fields. Further notes on the correlation of the Gondwana flora with other floras. Additional note on the artesian wells at Pondicherry. Salt in Rajputana. Record of gas and mud eruptions on the Arakan coast on 12th March 1879 and in June 1843. Part 4.—On some pleistocene deposits of the Northern Punjab, and the evidence they afford of an extreme climate during a portion of that period. Useful minerals of the Arvali region. Further notes on the correlation of the Gondwana flora with that of the Aus- tralian coal-bearing system. Note on reh or alkali soils and saline well waters. The reh soils of Upper India. Note on the Naini Tal landslip, 18th September 1880. r Vor. XIV, 1881. Part 1.—Annual report for 1880. Geology of part of Dardistan, Baltistan, and neighbouring districts, being fifth notice of the geology of Kashmir and'neighbouring territories. Note on some Siwalik carnivora. The Siwalik group of the Sub-Himalayan region. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. On theferruginous beds associated with the basaltic rocks of north-eastern Ulster, in relation to Indian laterite. On some Rajmahal plants. Travelled blocks of the Punjab. Appendix to 'Palzontological notes on the lower trias of the Himalayas.’ On some mammalian fossils from Perim Island, in the collection of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. à Part 2.—The Nahan-Siwallk unconformity in the North-western Himalaya. On some Gond- wana vertebrates. On the ossiferous beds of Hundes in Tibet. Notes on mining records, and the mining record office of Great Britain ; and the Coal and Metalliferous Mines- Acts of 1872 (England). On cobaltite and danaite from the Khetri mines, Rajputana ; with some remarks on Jaipuïite (Syepoorite). On the occurrence of zinc оге (Smithsonite and Blende) with barytes, in the Karnul district, Madras. Notice of a mud eruption in the island of Cheduba. { : А Part 3.—Artesian borings in India. On oligoclase granite at Wangtu on the Sutlej, North- west Himalayas. On a fish-palate from the Siwaliks. Palæontological notes from the Hazaribagh and Lohardagga districts. Undescribed fossil carnivora from the Siwalik hills in the collection of the British Museum. E Part 4—Remarks on the unification of geological nomenclature and cartography. On the geology of the Arvali region, central and eastern. On a specimen of native antimony obtained at Pulo Obin, near Singapore. On Turgite from the neighbourhood of Juggia- pett, Kistnah district, and on zinc carbonate from- Karnul, Madras... Note on the section from Dalhousie to Pangi, тїй the Sach Pass. On the South Rewah Gondwana basin. Submerged forest on Bombay Island, : ; Vor. XV, 1882. Part 1.—Annual report for 1881. Geology of North-west Kashmir and Khagan (being sixth ` notice of geology of Kashmir and neighbouring territories). On some Gondwana laby- rinthodonts. On some Siwalik and Jamna mammals. The geology of Dalhousie, North-west Himalaya. On remains of. palm leaves from the (tertiary) Murree and Kasauli beds in India. On Iridosmine from the Noa-Dibing river, Upper Assam, and on Platinum from Chutia Nagpur. On (1) a copper mine lately opened near Yongri hill, in the-Darjiling district; (2) arsenical pyrites in the same neighbourhood; (3) kaolin at Darjiling (being 3rd appendix to a report on the geology and mineral resources of the Darjiling district and the Western Duars). Analyses of coal and fire-clay from the Makum coal-field, Upper Assam. Experiments on the coal of Pind Dadun Khan, Salt-range, with reference to the production of gas, made April 20th, 1881. Report on the proceedings and result of the International Geological Congress of Bologna. Ў Part 2.—General sketch of the geology of the Travancore State. .The Warkilli beds and reported associated deposits at Quilon, in Travancore. Note on some Siwalik' and Nar- bada fossils; On the Coal-bearing rocks of the valleys of the Upper Rer and the Mand rivers in Western Chutia Nagpur. On the Pench river coal-field in Chhindwara district, Central Provinces. On borings for coal at Engsein, British Burma. On sapphires re- cently discovered in the North-west Himalaya. Notice of a recent eruption from orie of the mud volcanoes in Cheduba. 0 Part 3.—Note оп the coal of Mach (Much) in the Bolan Pass, and of Sharag ог Sharigh on the Harnai route between Sibi and Quetta. New faces observed on crystals of stilbite from the Western Ghäts, Bombay. On the traps of Darang and Mandi in the North- western Himalayas. Further note on the connexion between the Hazara and the Kashmir series. On the Umaria coal-field (South Rewah Gondwana basin). The Daranggiri coals , field, Garo Hills, Assam. On the outcrops of coal in the .Myanoung division of the Henzada district. i Part 4—Ona traverse across some gold-fields of Mysore. Record of borings for coal at Beddadanol, Godavari district, in 1874. Note on the supposed occurrence of coal -on the Kistna. Vor. XVI, 1883. Part 1.—Annual report for 1882. On the genus Richthofenia, Kays (Anomia Lawrenciana, Koninck). On the geology of South Travancore. On the geology of Chamba. On the basalts of Bombay. Part 2.—Synopsis of the fossil vertebrata of India. On the Bijori Labyrinthodont. On a skull of Hippotherium antilopinum. On the iron ores, and subsidiary materials for the manufacture of iron, in the north-eastern part of the Jabalpur district. On laterite and other manganese ore occurring at Gosulpore, Jabalpur district. Further notes on the Umaria coal-field. à Part 3—Onthe microscopic structure of some Dalhousie rocks. On the lavas of Aden. On the probable occurrence of Siwalik strata in China and Japan. On the occurrence of Mastodon angustidens in India. On a traverse between Almora and Mussooree made in October 1882. On the cretaceous coal-measures at Borsora, in the Khasia Hills, near Laour, in Sylhet. | Par? 4—Palæontological notes from the Daltonganj and Hutar coal-fields in Chota Nagpur. On the altered basalts of the Dalhousie region in the North-western Himalayas. On the microscopic structure of some Sub-Himalayan rocks of tertiary age. On the geology of Jaunsar and the Lower Himalayas. On a traverse through.the Eastern Khasia, Jaintia, and North Cachar Hills. On native lead from Maulmain and chromite from the Andaman Islands. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Send, Arakan. Notice. —Irrigation from wells in the North-Western Provinces and : Oudh. j : У Vor. XVII, 1884. Part г. — Annual report for 1883. Considerations on the smooth-water anchorages or mud banks of Narrakal and Alleppy on the Travancore coast. Rough notes on Billa Surgam and other caves in the Kurnool district. On the geology. of the Chuari and Sihunta parganas of Chamba. On the occurrence of the genus Lyttonia, Waagen, in the Kuling series of Kashmir. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake of 31st December 1881. On the microscopic structure of some Himalayan granites and gneissose granites. Report on the Choi coal exploration. Onthere-discovery of certain localities for fossils in the Siwalik beds. On some of the mineral resources of the Andaman Islands in the neighbourhood of Port Blair. The intertrappean beds in the Deccan and the Laramie group in western North America. Part 3.—On the miscroscopic structure of some Arvali rocks. Section along the Indus from the Peshawar Valley to the Salt-range. On the selection of sites for borings in the Raigarh-Hingir coal-field (first notice). Note on lignite near Raipore, Central Provinces. The Turquoise mines of Nishápür, Khorassan. Notice of a further fiery eruption from the Minbyin mud volcano of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Report on the Langrin coal-field, south-west Khasia Hills. Additional notes on the Umaria coal-field. Part 4.—On the Geology of part of the Gangasulan pargana of British Garhwal. On fragments of slates and schists imbedded in the gneissose granite and granite of the North-west Himalayas. On the geology of the Takht-i-Suleiman. On the smooth-water anchorages of the Travancore coast. On auriferous sands of the Subansiri river, Pon- dicherry lignite, and phosphatic rocks at Musuri. Work at the Billa Surgam caves. Vor. XVIII, 1885. Part ı.— Annual report for 1884. On the country between the Singareni coal-field and the Kistna river. Geological sketch of the country between the Singareni coal-field and Hyderabad. On coal and limestone in the Doigrung river, near Golaghat, Assam. Homotaxis, as illustrated from Indian formations. · Afghan field notes. Part 2.—A fossiliferous series in the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal. On the probable age of the Mandhali series in the Lower Himalaya. On a second species of Siwalik camel (Camelus Antiquus, nobis ex Fale. and Caut. MS.). On the Geology of Chamba. On the pro- bability of obtaining water by means of artesian wells in the plains of Upper India. Further considerations upon artesian sources in the plains of Upper India. On the geology of the Aka Hills; Onthe alleged tendency of the Arakan mud volcanoes to burst into eruption most frequently during the rains. Analyses of phosphatic nodules and rock from Mussooree. Part 3—On the Geology of the Andaman Islands. On a third species of Merycopotamus. Some observations on percolation as affected by current. Notice of the Pirthalla and the Chandpur meteorites, Report on the oil-wells and coal in the Thayetmyo district, British Burma. On some antimony deposits in the Maulmain district. On the Kashmir earthquake of 30th May 1885. On the Bengal earthquake of 14th July 1885. . Part 4.—Geological work in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. On the Bengal earthquake of July 14th, 1885. On the Kashmir earthquake of goth May 1885. On the results of Mr. Н. B. Foote's further excavations in the Billa Surgam caves. On the mineral hitherto known as Nepaulite. Notice of the Sabetmahet meteorite. Vor. XIX, 1886. Part 1.— Annual report for 1885. On the International Geological Congress of Berlin. On some Palzozoic Fossils recently collected by Dr. Н. Warth, in the Olive group of the Salt-range. Оп the correlation of the Indian and Australian coal-bearing beds. Afghan and Persian Field notes. On the section from Simla to Wangtu, and on the petrologi- cal character of the Amphibolites and Quartz Diorites of the Sutlej valley. Part 2.—On the Geology of parts of Bellaryand Anantapur districts. Geology of the Upper Dehing basin in the Singpho Hills. On the microscopic characters of some eruptive rocks from the Central Himalayas. Preliminary note on the Mammalia of the Karnul Caves. Memorandum on the prospects of finding coal in Western Rajputana. Note on the Olive Group of the Salt-range. On the discussion regarding the boulder-beds of the Salt-range. On the Gondwana Homotaxis. E Part 3.—Geological sketch of the Vizagapatam district, Madras. Preliminary note on the geology of Northern Jesalmer. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Malani rocks of the Arvali region. On the Malanjkhandi copper-ore in the Balaghat district, C. P. à Part 4.—On the occurrence of petroleum in India. ‘On the petroleum exploration at Khátan, Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. Field-notes from Afghanishtan: No. 3, Turkistan. Notice of a fiery eruption from one of the mud volcanoes of Cheduba Island, Arakan. Notice of the Nammianthal aerolite. Analysis of gold dust from the Meza valley, Upper Burma. $ VoL. XX, 1887. Part 1.—Annual report for 1886. Field-notes from Afghanistan: No. 4, from Turkistan to ` | India. Physical geology of West British Garhwal; with notes on a route. traverse through Jaunsar-Bawar and Tiri-Garhwal. On the geology of the Garo Hills. On some Indian image-stones. On soundings recently taken off Barren Island and Narcondam. On a character of the Talchir boulder-beds. Analysis of Phosphatic Nodules from the Salt-range, Punjab. : Part 2.—The fossil vertebrata of India. Оп the Echinoidea of the cretaceous series of the Lower Narbada Valley, with remarks upon their geological age. Field-notes: No. 5—to accompany a geological sketch map of Afghanistan and North-eastern Khorassan. On the microscopic structure of some specimens of the Rajmahal and Deccan traps. On the Dolerite of the Chor. On the identity of the Olive series in the east with the speckled sandstone in the west of the Salt-range in the Punjab. : Part 3.—The retirement of Mr. Medlicott. Notice of J. B Mushketofi's Geology of Russian Turkistan. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section I. Preliminary sketch of the geology of Simla and Jutogh. Note on the * Lalitpur’? meteorite. Part 4.—Note on some points in Himalayan geology. Crystalline and metamorphie rocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal and Kumaun, Section II. The iron industry of the western portion of the District of Raipur. Notes on Upper Burma. Boring exploration in the Chhattisgarh coal-fields. (Second notice) Some remarks on Pressure , Meta- morphism, with reference to the foliation of the Himalayan Gneissose-Granite. A list and index of papers on Himalayan Geology and Microscopic Petrology, published in the. preceding volumes of the records of the Geological Survey of India. Vor. XXI, 1888. Part r.—Annual report for 1887. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalaya, Garhwal, and Kumaun, Section III. The Birds'-nest or Elephant Island, Mergui Archi- pelago. Memorandum on the results of an exploration of Jessalmer, with a view to-the ' discovery of coal. A facetted pebble from the boulder bed ('speckled sandstone") of Mount Chel in the Salt-range in the Punjab. Examination of nodular stones obtained by trawling off Colombo. ; Part 2—Award of the Wollaston Gold Medal, Geological Society of London, 1888. The Dharwar System, the chief auriferous rock series in South India. On the Igneous rocks of the districts of Raipur and Balaghat, Central Provinces. On the Sangar Marg and Mehowgale coal-fields, Kashmir. К Part 3.—The Manganese Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. ‘The Carboniferous Glacial Period.’ The sequence and correlation of the pre-tertiary sedimentary forma- tions of the Simla region of the Lower Himalayas. “ Part 4.—On Indian fossil vertebrates. On the geology ofthe North-west Himalayas. Оп blown-sand rock sculpture. Re-discovery of Nummulites in Zanskar. On some mica traps from Barakar and Raniganj. s . Es Vor. XXII, 1889. Paré 1.—Annual report for 1888. The Dharwar System, the chief auriferous rock-series in South India. (Second notice) On the Wajra Karur diamonds, and on M. Chaper's - alleged discovery of diamonds in pegmatite near that place. On the generic position of the so-called Plesiosaurus Indicus. On flexible sandstone or Itacolumite, with special reference to its nature and mode of occurrence in India, and the cause of its flexibility On Siwalik and Narbada Chelonia. Part 2—Note on Indian Steatite. Distorted pebbles in the Siwalik conglomerate. ‘The Carboniferous Glacial Period? Notes on Dr. W. Waagen’s ‘Carboniferous Glacial Period.’ On the oil-fields of Twingoung and Beme, Burma. The gypsum of the Nehal Nadi, Kumaun. On some of the materials for pottery obtainable in the neighbourhood of Jabalpur and of Umaria. E Part 3.—Abstract report on the coal outcrops in the Sharigh Valley, Baluchistan. On the discovery of Trilobites by Dr. H. Warth in the Neobolus beds of the Salt-range. Geolo- gical notes. On the Cherra Poonjee coal-field, in the Khasia Hills. On a Cobaltiferous Matt from Nepäl. The President of the Geological Society of London on the Interna- tional Geological Congress of 1888. Tin-mining in Mergui district. Part 4—On the land-tortoises of the Siwaliks. On the pelvis of a ruminant from the Siwaliks. Recent assays from the Sambhar Salt-Lake in Rajputana. The Manganiferous Iron and Manganese Ores of Jabalpur. On some Palagonite-bearing raps of the Räj- mahál hills and Deccan. On tin-smelting in the Malay Peninsula. Provisional index of the local distribution of important minerals, miscellaneous minerals, gemstones, and quarry stones in the Indian Empire. Part 1. Sami Vor. XXIII, 1890. - Part 1.—Annual report for 1889. On the Lakadong coal-fields, Jaintia Hills. On the Pectoraland pelvic girdles and skull of the Indian Dicynodonts. On certain vertebrate remains from the Nagpur district (with description of a fish-skull). Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Lower Himalayas, Garhwál and Kumaun, Section IV. On the bivalves of the Olive-group, Salt-range. On the mud-banks of the Travancore coast. Part 2.—On the most favourable sites for Petroleum explorations in the Harnai district, Balu- chistan. The Sapphire Mines of Kashmir. The supposed Matrix of the Diamond at Wajra Karur, Madras. The Sonapet Gold-field. Field Notes from the Shan Hills, (Upper Burma). A description of some new species of Syringosphæridæ, with remarks upon their structures, &c. Part 3.—On the Geology and Economic Resources of the Country adjoining the Sind-Pishin Railway between Sharigh and Spintangi, and of the country between it and Khattan | (with a map). Report of a Journey through India in the winter of 1888-89, by Dr. Johannes Walther, translated from the German, by R. Bruce Foote. ,On the Coal-fields of Lairungao, Maosandram, and Mao-be-lar-kar, in the Khasi Hills (with 3 plans). Further Note on Indian Steatite. -Provisional Index of the Local Distribution of Important Minerals, Miscellaneous Minerals, Gem Stones, and Quarry Stones in the Indian Empire (continued from p. 286, Vol. XXII). А vs Part 4— Geological sketch of Naini Tal; with some remarks on the natural conditions governing mountain slopes (with a map and. plate). Notes on some Fossil Indian Bird Bones. The Darjiling Coal between the Lisu, and the Ramthi rivers, explored during season 1890-91 (with a map). The Basic Eruptive Rocks of the Kadapah Area. The Deep Boring at Lucknow. Preliminary Note on the Coal Seam of the Dore Ravine, -Hazara (with two plates). 3 Vor. XXIV, 1891. — al report for 1800. On the Geology of the Salt-range of the Punjab, with a он es of the Origin and Age of the Salt-Marl (with five plates). On veins of Graphite in decomposed Gneiss (Laterite) in Ceylon. Extracts from the Journal of a trip to the Glaciers of the Kabru, Pandim, &c. The Salts of the Sambhar Lake in Rajpu- tana, and of the Saline efflorescence called ‘Reh’ from Aligarh in the North-Western Provinces. Analysis of Dolomite from the Salt-range, Punjab. . A Part 2—Preliminary Report on the Oil locality near Moghal Kot, in the Sheräni country, Suleiman Hills. On Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hilis. Note on the Geology of the Lushai Hills. Report on the Coal-fields in the Northern Shan States. Note on the reported Namsèka Ruby-mine in the Mainglón State. Note on the Tourmaline (Schorle) Mines in the Mainglón State. Note on a Salt-spring near Bawgyo, Thibaw State. 5 : Part 3.—Boring Exploration iz the Daltongunj Coal-field, Palamow (with а map). Death of Dr. P. Martin DUNCAN. Contributions ѓо the study of the Pyroxenic varieties of Gneiss and of the Scapolite-bearing Rocks. = 1 Part 4.—On a Collection of Mammalian Bones from Mongolia. Further note on the Darjiling Coal Exploration. Notes on the Geology and Mineral Resources of Sikkim (with a map). Chemicaland Physical notes on rocks from the Salt-range, Punjab (with two plates). ы Vor. XXV, 1892. : Part 1.—Annual report for 1891. Report on the Geology of Thal Chotiáli and part of the Mari country (with a map and 5 plates). Petrological Notes om ¿he Boulder-bed of the Salt-range, Punjéb, Sub-recent and Recent Deposits of the valley plains of Quetta, Pishin and the .Dasht-i-Bedaolat; with appendices om the Chamans of Quetta; and the Artesian water-supply of Quetta and Pishin (with one plate). Part 2.—Geology of the Saféd Kóh (with 2 plates of sections). Report on a Survey of the Jherria Coal-field (with a map and section plates) (out of print). Part 3.—Note on the Locality of Indian Tscheffkinite. Geological Sketch of the country north of Bhamo. Preliminary Report or the economic resources of the Amber and Jade mines area iz Upper Burma. Preliminary Report on the lron-Ores and Iron-Industries of the Salem District. On the Occurrence of Riebeckite iz India. Coal on the Great Tenasserim River, Mergui District, Lower Burma. Part 4.—Report on the Oil Springs a? Moghal Kot iz the Shirani Hills (with 2 plates), Second Note on Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills. Oz a New Fossil, Amber-like. Resin occurring in Burma. Preliminary notice om the Triassic Deposits of the Salt-range. Vor. XXVI, 1893. Part 1.—Annual report for 1892. Notes on the Central Himalayas (with map and plate), Note on the occurrence of Jadeite in Upper Burma (with a map). On the occurrence of Burmite, a new Fossil Resin from Upper Burma. Report oz the Prospecting Opera- tions, Mergui District, 1891-92. Part 2.—Notes on the earthquake in Baluchistán on the 20th December 1892 (with 2 plates) Further Note oz Burmite, a new amber-like fossil resin from Upper Burma. Note on the Alluvial deposits and Subterranean water-supply of Rangoon (with a map), Part 3.—On the Geology of the Sherani Hills (with maps and plates). On Carboniferous Fossils from Tenasserim (with 1 plate). On a deep Boring a? Chandernagore, Note oz Granite in the districts of Tavoy and Mergui (with a plate). Part 4.— Оп the Geology of the country between the Chappar Rift and Harnai in Baluchistán (with map and g plates). Notes on the Geology of a part of the Tenasserim Valley with special reference to the Tendau-Kamapying Coal-field (with two maps). On a Magnetite from the Madras Presidency containing Manganese and Alumina. Ox Hislopite (Haugh- ton) (with a plate). Vor. XXVII, 1894. Part 1.—Annual report for 1893. Report om the Bhaganwala Coal-field, Salt-range, Punjab (with map and 2 plates). Part 2.—Note on the Chemical qualities of pertroleum from Burma. Note on the Singareni Coal-field, Hyderabad (Deccan) (with map and 3 plates of sections). Report or the Gohna Landslip, Garhwal (with 5 plates and 2 maps). Part 3.— Оп the Cambrian Formation of the Eastern Salt-range (with a plate). The Giridih (Karharbari) Coal-field, with notes on the labour and methods of working (with 2 maps and 8 plates of sections). On the Occurrence of Chipped (?) Flints ¿n the Upper Miocene of Burma (with a plate). Note om the Occurrence of Velates Schmideliana, Chemn., аай as grandis, Sow. Sp., in the Tertiary Formation of India and Burma (with 2 plates). Part 4.—Note on the Geology of Wuntho iz Upper Burma (with a map). Preliminary notice on the Echinoids from the Upper Cretaceous System of Baluchistan. On Highly Phos- phatic Mica-Peridotites intrusive in the Lower Gondwana Rocks of Bengal. On a Mica-Hypersthene-Hornblende-Peridotite in Bengal. Vor. XXVIII, 1895. Part 1.—Annual report for 1894. Cretaceous Formation of Pondicherry, Some early allusions to Barren Island;.with a few remarks thereon. Bibliography of barren Island and Nar- condam, from 1884 to 1894; with some remarks. - Part 2.— Оп the importance of Cretaceous Rocks of Southern India in estimating the geogra- phical conditions during later cretaceous times. Report on the Experimental Boring for Petroleum at Sukkur from October 1893 to March 1895. The development and Sub- division of.the Tertiary system in Burma. | Rae Part 3.—On the Jadeite and.other rocks, from Tammaw ir Upper Burma. On the Geology of the Tochi Valley. On the existence of Lower Gondwanas zz Argentina. Part 4.— Оп the Igneous Rocks of the Giridih (Kurhurbaree) Coal-field and their Contact Effects. On some outliers of the Vindhyan system south of the Sone and their relation to the so-called Lower Vindhyans. Notes on a portion of the Lower Vindhyan area of the Sone Valley. Note on DR. Fritz NoETLINGS paper on the Tertiary system in Burma, in the Records of the Geological Survey of India for 1895,.Part 2. : Vor. XXIX, 1896. Part 1.—Annual report for 1895. On the Acicular inclusions in Indian Garnets. On the Origin and Growth of Garnets and of their Micropegmatitic intergrowths in Pyroxenic rocks (with 1.plate). mA А ) Ё Part 2.—Notes on the Ultra-basic rocks and derived minerals of the Chalk (Magnesite) hills, and other localities near Salem, Madras (with 2—6 plates). Preliminary notes on some Corundum localities ¿1 ¿he Salem and Coimbatore districts, Madras (with 7—9 plates). On the occurrence of Corundum and Kyanite in the Manbhum district, Bengal. On the papers by DR. Kossmat and Dr. KURTZ, and on the ancient Geography of “ Gondwana- land. Note from the Geological Survey of India. Part 3.—On some Igneous Rocks from the Tochi Valley. Notes from the Geological Survey of India. 5 Part 4.— Report on the Steatite mines, Minbu District, Burma. Further notes oz the Lower Vindhyan (Sub-Kaimur) area of the Sone Valley, Rewah. Notes from the Geological Survey of India. К Уог. ХХХ, 1897. Part 1.—Annual report for 1806. On some Norite and associated Basic Dykes and Lava flows i» Southern India (with plates! to II). The reference of the genus Vertebraria. Ол a Plant of Glossopteris with part of the rhisome attached, and on the structure of Vertebraria (with plates III to V). Part 2.—' The Cretaceous Deposits of Pondicherri (with plates VI to X). Notes from the Geological Survey of India. Part 3.— Note on Flow-structure in an Igneous dyke (with plate XI). Additional note on the Olivine-norite dykes at Coonoor (with plate XII). Report on some trial excavations for corundum near Palakod, Salem District (with plate XIII). Report on the occurrence of coalat Palana village in Bikanir State (with plate XIV). An account of the geolo- gical specimens collected by the Afghan-Baluch Boundary Commission of 1896 (with plate XV). Note from the Geological Survey of India (with plates XVI and XVII). Fart 4.—On Nemalite from Afghanistan. On a quartz-barytes rock occurring in the Salem District, Madras Presidency (with plate XVIII). Note on a worn femur of Hippopotamus irravadicus, Саш. and Falc., from the Lower Pliocena of Burma (with plates XIX and XX). On the supposed coal at Jaintia, Baxa Duars. Percussion Figures on micas. Notes from the Geological Survey. of. India. Є price fixed for these publications is 1 rupee (2s.) each part, ог 2 rupees 145») each olume. ; Notz.—The Records ceased to be published from the rst January 1898. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS, À Manual of the Geology of India. 4 Vols. With map. 1879-1887— Vol. 1. Peninsular Area By H. B. Medlicott and W. T. Blanford. Price 8 Vol. 2. Extra-Peninsular Area. } rupees (out of print). Vol. 3. Economic Geology. By V. Ball. Price 5 rupees (out of print). Vol. 4. Mineralogy. Ву Е. R. Mallet. - Price 2 rupees. 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