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A i ji a fhe fi ttt Ae Ml tg Rice I ie ny Al A _ - ae ed eee et eo A el lls le, Mtl 2 A A Ae i Ni tee Meth yt An A it it Hn oe Ny ip en Oa Ae i, MMe gl ot am al gl Nl a Al ee gy te 10 en A ly “rane a - ee ~ ee et ee “ ee OL dam ty nthe crt eB th pats Ne te Ba My Aa aly ts oa all a tg Ry te A IY Aaa ttt cw a le tert ee os er ee aed a ee eer rere is atc ns aa eaten arta a yen eee ry Sr a Meal ee ee eee ep ea PN Pe BON OAT eS OE EOE FOO ee — en ee ie 2254 RE wy oe Tet, ttl arte allel ao “ > A A ng te thm a ee ee ee a -_ ~% a — Sa, el te — —. to Ae Ny ie tg My lly Mt ° - a oe tt “ +. ee ee ee ee Pe Wl, Dh a in ile en te = a a peter Ae i i te ‘ . a : 2? 26 2 eh ome 5 > Reiger gc A A lhl. Alt tg . te ak Remy Get Te ltl, ration a fa hmamey 7. ~— « ee ee 7 = ta we Mean oe hp tt” ‘ Phe nt lting, Aarti lle . a " are teers Atte atten AD pail renee Ne Rye il Roehm ee Re tte le te Re ih ttt ene tee OR Rm Siedinn - ee ee ee ee oe tae te ete a oe ey. Oe ae a “ eS ee ee ee Se ee a a ee ee ee te — ee Se ae a ‘ th ad Mig ng 7 Secethedticiale-aaiiadiiied a (ah 1 len cm Rap 2 tm ale Ay Ae ay Ay oe ee ee - ol ~ 2% mm © Pr . on ine a es. oe ln: Rallies ne ee a ty Day A in i . _antsta nge letccia ar pr en A ee —! Pe nhl thal Mtn lly Al ti i Mags Mapa te t le yil + eae ee : aie : ‘ % = » . ‘ i . « * = he a ee tag + Rn re Oh : : _ . » . tee ee Oe - + ode eer) a Sea ete 2 Set _—— » ‘ ‘ ee ‘ - " nt ee ‘ . i steely tte nell 7 esta lcitalie © alt tla leaitalaginty ee ee eee alg me te ect ato tae . : J : ‘ . ’ epi tindindieinlints +. 7 apelin tiated edna ith teenie a. Sage treet tnghl Gant ° “ . : ver - ~ - n + We ae a . pir tnt am > ate trhac m3 ; ~ ee - ; nr ee oo ee oT ee » . 7 2 7 ~ ~ i we hate = - . . . ores . eh ; Sew - - a aad = ~~ : a es dines . ee ee ews tee ee ee tae Sl a no ee ee en ee ee ee et lt RA, te : : : . - i Dt th epee ee A a “a P - - - . of ees . : nae he a ten th Sete nl ete i fe 7 ti tet OM ie 8, wt te at i Mim tn -" . den ’ - i eee - Pair tener - a oe ~~ ee, “ a -- i, tig ~ * Hee a oe ee MM lw Og, Mw SS ee Se EE na ees —— MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. THIRD SERIES. —a SECOND VOLUME. LONDON: H. BAILLIERE, 219 Recent STREET, AND 290 Broapway, New York. PARIS: J. BAILLIERE, Rus Havrerevitze. 1865. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. earer Inoi} Zo"\ 5 586 FEB AS | WV. | Bf ug CONTENTS. ARTICLE PAGE I.—Observations of Comet I. 1861. By Josern BaxenpE xt, Hsq., eee ceeriey | Meaty came mente ta EME Nc wah aieie sail § waste Getic Sed II.—On the Irregular Barometric Oscillations at Geneva and on the Great St. Bernard, and their relations to the Mean Tem- perature and the Fall of Rain. By G. V. Vernon, Esq., He Rao ee VE MSS ies. Sa. eee eacisste cays ceuh wyedenutiles fone vei IIJ.—Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of South Lanca- shire, By it; Ws Binney, Vib BRS. BGS: oe. 2.035. 38. TV.—On Putrefaction in Blood. By Dr. R. Aneus Suit, F.R.S., &e. V.—On certain Scales of some Diurnal Lepidoptera. By Joun NENTS Otte MUO see hua Sock ent iaieteee ec wwinelsids ciheasctyienalared eee VI.—On the Tongues of Mollusca. By Tuomas Aucocx, M.D. ...... VII.—On the Influence of the Seasons upon the Rate of Decrease of the Temperature of the Atmosphere with Increase of Height, in different Latitudes in Europe and Asia. By Josern dEY.O.GO)HIST A Fed O|510 sa One: iy: We Ose es ne VIII.—On the Direction of the Wind at Manchester, during the years 1849-1861, at 82 a.m. By G. V. Vernon, Esq., F.R.AS., NIG RIGS! eee hese. see sane ath catnee oe Liege Hs woot ere creer IX.—Note on a Differential Equation. By A. Cayury, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Honorary Member of the Society ..........00......65. X.—On some Amalgams. By J.P. Jounr, LL.D., F.RS., &e....... XI.—On the Convective Equilibrium of Temperature in the Atmo- sphere. By Prof. Wu. Tuomson, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., &c. XII.—On the Relations between the Decrement of Temperature on ascending in the Atmosphere, and other Meteorological Elements. By Josrpu Hol Esq., eR BAWS XIII.—Memoir of the late Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.1.A., Hon. Mem. R.1.B.A., Inst. C.E., Roy. Scot. Soc. Arts, and Soc. Civ. Eng. Paris, Prof. of the Mech. Princ. of Engineering, University College, London. By Rosrrt Rawson, Esq., Honorary Member of the Saciety. 252... 0.2 04 jo22 toot gseseseess 82 132 V1 CONTENTS. ARTICLE PAGE XIV.—On Non-modular Groups. By the Rev. Tuomas P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S., and Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Societies of Manchester and Liverpool......... XV.—Note on Differential Resolvents. By Wit11Am SpoTriswoope, M.A., F.R.S. Communicated by the Rev. Roprert Harrey, BRA BS oases aitis Sgt steele Ree eee ete eae one oe eee XVI.—On a certain Class of Linear Differential Equations. By the Rev. Rozert Haruey, F.R.A.8., Corresponding Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ...... .. XVITI.—On the Influence of the Earth’s Rotation on Winds. By Thomas Hopkins, Hsq., MOB.M.S. °G25.0..5...0.0ee see XVIII.—On the New Red Sandstone and Permian Formations, as Sources of Water-supply for Towns. By Epwarp Hutt, B.A., F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain...... XIX.—On Ocean Swell. By Tuomas Hernis, Hsq., F.R.AAS. ......... XX.—Notes on the Introduction of Steam Navigation. By J. C. Dyer, Hsqe seats eee Rea eee XXI.—On the Solution of the Differential Resolvent. By W. H. L. Russett, A.B. Communicated by the Rev. Ropert Har ey, RAGS ae ee Eis Fs Bok Coe eee XXII.—Note as to Two Events in the History of Steam Navigation. By W. J. Macquorn Ranxine, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. Mem. of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- Chester .f2 joi... cia adeemac tanae meen e cnet Cates lee can eh) a eae eetemenaee XXIII.—On the Planet Mars. By James Nasmytu, Esq., C.H., in a Letter to Josepy SIDEBOTHAM, Hsq. ............eeesceeceeeeceeaes XXIV.—On the Wave of High Water; with Hints towards a New Theory of the Tides. By Tuomas CARRICK ...............00000+ XXV.—On the Number of Days on which Rain falls snaiialtene in London, from observations made during the fifty-six years, 1807 to 1862. By G. V. Vernon, Esq., F.R.AS., MuBiMSs 22. u, Sfeas Soden deat eect co ombioson Gaeees none ee tee ena XXVI.—On the Rain-fall at Oldham during the years 1836 to 1862. By Joun Heap, Esq. ; with Remarks by G. V. VErnon, Hsq., RAIS: MEAS is oso ee nett eaten coe ah aan XXVII.—Further Observations on the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic Strata of Cumberland and Dumfries. By the Pre- 229 284 296 393 334 sident, EW. Binnny, F.RISi, BGES, Wik cdacsstensunwedeeraviae 343 XXVITI.—On an Apparatus for Measuring Tensile Strengths, especially of Fibres. By Cuarues O’Neruz, Hsq., F.C.S. ............068 389 XXIX.—Experiments and Observations upon Cotton. By Caries OPN Erb; Msgs EGS) oe ieee essere: Gotle see aes reese 394 CONTENTS. Vu ARTICLE PAGE XXX.—Inquiry into the question, Whether Excess or Deficiency of Temperature during part of the year is usually compen- sated during the remainder of the same year? By G. V. VAGRNONG, SUUEVCAL GIVE ES ECS Gis setae keane vagecwein rene nit XXXI.—Examination of the Truth of the Assertion, that ee No- vember has a Mean Temperature above the average, it is usually followed by excessive cold between December and March following. By G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. XXXITI.—On the Height and Order of Succession of Waves, as ob- served off the Cape of Good Hope. By Tuomas Heztis, 2 DIO Le URL IS ie GA A ado Rd Se Ae XXXIII.—Observations of the Zodiacal Light. By Tuomas Hus 1s, HB Spas rclEU Ate Serre eI ee Ship laeiacissg nalonlne vactlei velnalwe XXXIV.—Additional Observations on the Drift-deposits and more recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood of Manchester. By Epwarp Hutt, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Create ls titaiaiabes 4. cheesey Ack tne uncle astees fede od XXXV.—A few Remarks on Mr. Hull’s Additional Observations on the Drift Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Manchester. By the President, E. W. Brynezy, F.R.S., F.G.S..........00 427 430 437 449 462 to NOTE. The Authors of the several Papers contained in this Volume are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which they have offered. In these par- ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible. MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. I. Observations of Comet I. 1861. By JoserH BAxENDELL, Hsq., F.R.A.S. Read October 1st, 1861. AutHoucH this comet was not at any time a very con- spicuous object to the naked eye, yet some of the features which it presented when viewed with a good telescope at the time of its greatest brightness were sufficiently re- markable to render it an object of peculiar interest to the astronomer; and I have therefore thought that a brief account of the observations made with the excellent instru- ments of Mr. Worthington’s observatory might be accept- able to the members of this Society. My first observation was made on the night of May 3rd, 1861. The comet was then already visible to the naked eye as a dull, hazy-looking star of the 4; magnitude. At 104 17™ 485-7 G.M.T. a comparison with the star Argelander 178,8= 190,112 made with the equatorially-mounted achro- matic of 5 inches aperture, and a dark-field photographed micrometer constructed by Mr. Dancer, gave the comet’s apparent place R.A. rob 5™ 278°76, Dec.+48° 52! 7/7. SER. III. VOL. I. | B eet 2 MR. J. BAXENDELL’S OBSERVATIONS OF COMET I. 1861. Turning the 13-inch reflector upon the comet with powers of 81 and 196, it was found that the nebulosity was more than 20!’ in diameter, con- siderably condensed in the middle, but without any di- stinet planetary or stellar nucleus. There was a faint tapering elongation extend- ing about a quarter of a de- gree from the north follow- ing side; and stars of the 11th and 12th magnitnde were easily seen through the comet at the distance of half a radius from its centre. May 4th. Three com- parisons with Argelander 173,122 gave the place of the comet at 9% 26™ 198-3: G.M.T. R.A. 95 52™ 198'82, Dec. + 45° 18! 28"-1. With the 13-inch reflector the diameter of the nebu- losity constituting the head of the comet, carefully esti- mated by comparison with the known diameter of the field of view, was 22!. It was much condensed in the | middle, but there was cer- tainly no distinct stellar nu- | cleus. The centre of greatest - condensation was not in the Comer I. 1861, centre of the nebulosity, but As seen with Mr. Worthington’s 13-inch Reflector, May 4th. towards the north following MR. J. BAXENDELL’S OBSERVATIONS OF COMET I. 186]. 3 side. The tapering elongation of last might was now a narrow and slightly fan-shaped tail of 23 degrees in length, but apparently separated from the nebulosity of the head by a remarkable and comparatively dark interval, as shown in the sketch which accompanies this paper. The point of origin of this singular tail was estimated to be from 12 to I5 minutes distant from the centre of the head; and its breadth at this part was about 42 minutes, and at its ex- tremity about 15 minutes. Its axis was perfectly straight ; and its brightness was greatest at the narrow end, where it was equal to that of the nebulosity of the head at two- thirds of the radius from the centre. May 5th. At 10 16™ 598-7 G.M.T., six comparisons with Lalande’s 19,168 gave the comet’s apparent place R.A. 9® 39™ 37582, Dec. +41° 21! 34/5. The sky to-night was not very favourable for the obser- vation of faint objects; but the general features of the comet did not appear to have undergone any material change. Last night it occurred to me, after leaving the observatory, that the axis of the tail was not exactly in the direction of the comet’s radius vector, and to-night I found its angle of position at 135 35™ sidereal time to be 96°-7. At this time the position of the sun and comet were— The sun.... R.A. 42° 54!; N.P.D. 73° 33!. The comet. . R.A. 144° 50'; N.P.D. 48° 43’. From these data we find that the angle of position of a prolongation of the comet’s radius vector was 69°°9. The apparent deviation of the axis of the tail was therefore 26°-8 in the direction of the comet’s motion. May 7th. At 122 G.M.T. the comet appeared to the naked eye to be nearly equal to w Leonis, and equal to, if not brighter than, 38 Lyncis. May goth. Three comparisons with Lalande’s 17,987 B2 4. MR. J. BAXENDELL’S OBSERVATIONS OF COMET I. 186]. gave the comet’s apparent position at gt 57™ 308-5, R.A. 9 3™ 238-25, Dec. +26° 11! 26!1 At 13 15™ sid. time the angle of position of the axis of the tail was 103°2. At this time the angle of position of the comet’s radius vector was 74°°5; the deviation there- fore amounted to 28°°7. With the 5-inch achromatic the tail appeared to be half a degree in length; but with the 13-inch reflector it was fully one degree, though fainter than when last observed, and still much less in breadth than the diameter of the head. The average diameter of the head was about 20! ; but the nebulosity extended further on the south preceding side of the point of greatest condensation than on the . north preceding or north following sides. There was still an entire absence of any stellar nucleus. To the naked eye the comet appeared as a star about equal in brightness to Leonis. May 14th. Notwithstanding the moonlight, the comet was still visible to the naked eye, and in the 5-inch achro- matic with a power of 68 it was about ro! in diameter. The tail, however, could not now be seen. May 17th, 108 25™. The comet, though at a very 1 altitude and with strong moonlight, was still very easily seen with the 5-inch achromatic, and did not appear to have diminished since the 14th instant. This was the last opportunity I had of observing it. Lalande’s stars Nos. 19,168 and 17,987 occur in Bessel’s Zones Nos. 454 and 347, and Bessel’s places have been used in making the reductions. ON IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA. 5 II. On the Irregular Barometric Oscillations at Geneva and on the Great St. Bernard, and their relations to the Mean Temperature and the fall of Rain. By G. V. Vernon, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.MS. Read October 15th, 1861. THe present investigation has been undertaken in order to see exactly what effect great altitudes produce upon the irregular oscillations of the barometer. The whole of the observations used at the two stations were made under the direction of Prof. Plantamour of Geneva; and this is quite sufficient proof of their trustworthiness. The ob- servatory of Geneva is situated in latitude 46° 11! 59" N., and is 1335 feet above the sea. The Hospice of the Great St. Bernard, at which the observations were made, is situated in latitude 45° 15’ 16" N., and is 8173 feet above the sea. The distance between the two stations, measured upon a horizontal plane, is 58 miles approximately, and the difference of altitude 6838 feet. The data have been reduced and tabulated in the same manner as in my paper upon similar oscillations at Man- chester* ; so that it will not be necessary to describe the process. Table I. contains the amounts of oscillation and the number of oscillations for each station, arranged under the separate months. Table IJ. contains the mean monthly temperatures at Geneva, and their differences from the mean of 20 years. Table III. contains similar data for the Great St. Bernard. ah Table IV. contains the fall of rain and snow at Geneva for each month, and the differences from 33 years’ mean. * Vol. I. (Third Series) of the Society’s Memoirs. 6 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC Table V. contains similar data for the Great St. Bernard, and the differences from 20 years’ mean. Table VI. gives the relation between the mean tem-— perature and the amount of the oscillations at the two stations. Table VII. gives the relation between the number of the oscillations and the fall of rain at the two stations. Table VIII. gives the relation between the fall of rain and the amount of the oscillations at the two stations. The maximum amount of oscillation at Geneva occurs in January, and the minimum in August. The maximum amount at the Great St. Bernard occurs in December; and there appear to be two minima, one in June and the other in August. The two curves (Plate I.) approach one another very closely in July and August, as the followmg Table in- dicates :— Mean daily Mean monthly Number of oscillation. temperature. oscillations. Month. Gt. St. | Differ- | Gt. St. Geneva.|Rernard| ence. | Geneva. | Bernard in in. in = - S January ...| 0°138| o'107| 07031 || 31°5 | 14°4 | 17°1 || 14°77 | 12°9 February ...| 0°133 | o°106| 0°027 || 34°2 | 16°3 | 17°9 13°% fae Marchy jsic-2 0°123 | 0°103| 0°020 | 38°9 | 18°7 | 20°72 14°6 | 12°9 7.0 a o°118] o'090| 0°028 25°8 | 20°9 || 14°70 | 313°0 May 3 c.0: 0°092 | 0°075| 0°017 32°3 |..22°0 || Teictheaern GUE. osc cane 0°079 | 0°064| o°015 39-6) 72274 14°O.)) es: SULLY, ciricie voice 0°075} 0°068 | 07007 42°6 | 21°7 || 148oe eae August...... 0°071| 0°064]| 0007 42°r | 21°0 || 16:0 | zae2. September ..| 0085 | 0°068} o°017 37°4 | 19°6 | 13°9 | 13°7 30°7 |. 18°4. 1473 J) ge 22°O | 18°5 13° | 39 18°5 | 34°5-|| 4:6 0iaees November ..| 0°125 | o*091]| 0°034 December ..| 0°129| o*111| o°018 Upon comparing the amount of oscillation with the | mean temperature, it will be seen, generally, that the amount of oscillation diminishes as the mean temperature increases, and vice versd. With a difference of 32°°8 be- tween the warmest and coldest months at Geneva, we OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 7 have a difference in the amount of oscillation of 0-063 inch, whilst at the Great St. Bernard a difference of 28°2 gives 0°039 inch as the difference in the amount of oscil- lation. The period of minimum oscillation appears to occur somewhat later than the period of maximum temperature. As the stations become more elevated above the sea, the curve appears to become flattened, so that at some particular altitude, at present unknown, the curve would approach a straight line, and nearly all the disturbance would disappear, or, at least, owing to the greatly di- minished density of the air, become imperceptible. No law regulating the number of oscillations can be deduced from these observations. The maximum number of oscillations occurs at Geneva in August, and two mi- nima in February and November ; at the Great St. Bernard the maximum occurs in August, and a single minimum in November. The mean daily amount of oscillation for the year is, at Geneva, o:1069 inch, the total for the year being 39°0719 inches; at the Great St. Bernard the mean daily amount is 0°0865 inch, total for the year 31°5941 inches. The mean annual number of oscillations is, for Geneva, 171°3; and for the Great St. Bernard 157°2. Great St. Geneva. Bernard. Number of oscillations in the six winter months 84'4 76°2 Number of oscillations in the six summer months 869 Bae) There appears to be a greater relative increase in the summer months at the Great St. Bernard than at Geneva: Geneva gives an increase of 2°96 per cent., whilst the Great St. Bernard gives 6°30 per cent. | The following small Table gives the total amount of oscillation for each year, and the total number of oscil- lations :— 8 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC Great St. Bernard. Amount of | Number of |} Amount of | Number of oscillation. | oscillations.|| oscillation. | oscillations. ee inches. inches. 1848.| 44°079 168 Incom|plete. 1849.| 41°536 167 33°384 169 1850.| 39°434 169 32°070 168 1851.) 35°308 179 29°433 154 1852.| 39°834 161 31°961 149 1853.| 39°533 173 | Incomplete. 1854.| 367995 | 183 at56z" [area 1855.| 417026 | 169 31°407 | 152 1856.) 41°500 | 184 33°244 | 166 1857-| 31°103 135 26°413 | 124 The maximum amount of oscillation appears to have been in 1848, and the minimum in 1857. Separating the number of oscillations in each year, according as they are above or below the average, we find— Geneva. Oscillations compared Corresponding amount with the average. of oscillation. + 7°77 38°966 inches. — 10°65 49°198' " : showing that a number of oscillations above the average is accompanied by a less amount of oscillation than when the number of oscillations is below the average. Great St. Bernard. Oscillations compared Corresponding amount with the average. of oscillation. + 10°90 32°565 inches. — 10°85 29°804 _,, that is, a number of oscillations above the average is accompanied by a larger amount of oscillation than when the number is below the average. This is a curious fact, as it is the direct converse of what takes place at Geneva. Can there be a pomt between the two stations at which the amounts of oscillation are the same, whether the number is above or below the average ? OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 9 We now come to the effects of temperature above or below the average, as given in Table VI. In January, February, and December, a temperature above the average at Geneva is accompanied by a greater amount of oscillation than when the temperature is below the average: in the months of March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, and November, the opposite of the above holds good. On the mean of the year, a temperature below the average at Geneva gives a larger amount of oscillation than a temperature above the average. At the Great St. Bernard, temperatures above the average, in the months of August and September, give a larger amount of oscillation than temperatures below the average: the months of January, February, March, April, May, June, July, October, November, and December give the converse of the above. For the year, a temperature below the average at the Great St. Bernard gives a larger amount of oscillation than a temperature above the average. The months of December, January, and February, at Geneva, appear to correspond, in their relations to the amount of oscillation, -with the months of August and popeemier at the Great St. Bernard. A number of oscillations above the average at Geneva, in the months of January, March, June, July, August, and November, is accompanied by a larger rain-fall than when the number of oscillations is below the average. In the months of February, April, May, September, October, and December, the opposite of the above takes place. Upon the mean of the year, a number of oscillations above the average is accompanied by a larger amount of rain-fall than when the number of oscillations is below the average. At the Great St. Bernard, a number of oscillations 10 MR. G. Vv. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC above the average, in the months of January, February, March, April, May, August, September, and November, is accompanied by a larger amount of rain-fall than a number of oscillations below the average. In the months of June, July, October, and December, the converse of this holds good. On the mean of the year, a number of oscillations above the average at the Great St. Bernard is accompanied by a larger amount of rain-fall than when the number is below the average. : | We now come to the effect of the rain-fall. A rain-fall above the average at Geneva, in every month of the year, is accompanied by a larger amount of oscillation than a rain-fall below the average. At the Great St. Bernard, a fall of rain above the average, in the months of January, February, March, July, November, and December, is accompanied by a larger amount of oscillation than when the rain-fall is below the average. During the remaining months of the year the converse of this holds good. Upon the mean of the year, a rain-fall below the average 1s accompanied by a less amount of oscillation than when the rain-fall is above the average: this agrees with what has been deduced for Geneva; but still, during some of the months, it appears as if some disturbing cause existed at the higher elevation which did not exist at the lower. The mean readings of the barometer for each month, reduced to 32° F., during the period 1848-1858, were as follows :— aemege™ OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 11 Great St.| Differ- Geneva. Bernard. | ences. inches. | inches. | inches. SERDAR Yer 8 a0) ania a ce oie 28°607 | 22°057 | 6°550 MCWTMANY, o 256-02 cies seen «es 28°619 | 22°074 | 67545 TBO 8 oe orang een ao Dr aece 8 28°566 | 22°044 | 6°522 PAU oe te esos itera eae: 28°497 | 22°077 | 6°420 LE ee ee Ree ee ee 28°528 | 22°161 | 6°367 PL TEECE I ee eee SER One 28°623 | 22°338 | 6°285 0, eo A A ee a 28°638 | 22°377 | 6°261 PANTIE Sn Ss tas sie cia 28°642 | 22°381 | 6-261 BEDIGIADED 2.) cu eticsey hacen 26°652 1 22-33¢° | 6377 Ocioher qoutes onal: 28°593 | 22°268 | 6°325 PNOMEMADET 3 oe oie ene ee aden = 28°576 | 22°087 | 67489 Bpcamibpers 1205. 52505 4. ee 28°701 | 22°156 | 67545 Upon comparing these figures with the amounts of oscillation, we find that at Geneva the minimum pressure occurs in April, and the maximum in December, neither of which dates agrees exactly with that of maximum or minimum amount of oscillation. At the Great St. Bernard, the minimum pressure occurs in March, or a month earlier than at Geneva, whilst the maximum occurs in August. The maximum pressure at this station occurs at the period of minimum oscillation, whilst at Geneva the period of maximum pressure (De- cember) is a month earlier than the period of maximum oscillation. On comparing the differences between the mean pres- sures at the two stations, it will be observed that this difference is at a maximum in January, gradually diminishes to July and August, and then increases to the end of the year. From the same data we find that the differences in the amounts of atmospheric pressure diminish as the differences between the mean temperatures of the two stations increase. The fall of rain and snow at Geneva, on an average of 33 years, was 32°224 inches. Taking an average of II years, 126 days are rainy. At the Great St. Bernard, according to 20 years’ observations, the fall is 56°929 12 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC inches; and on an average of II years, 117°7 days are rainy. The fall at Geneva is greatest in summer and autumn, but at the Great St. Bernard it is greatest in autumn and winter. The greatest monthly fall occurs in October at Geneva, and in January upon the Great St. Bernard,—the former being two mouths after the period of minimum oscillation of the barometer, and the latter a month later than the maximum period of oscillation. The conclusions which may be drawn from this investi- gation are the following :—As we ascend in the atmo- sphere, the amplitude of the irregular diurnal oscillations of the barometer gradually diminishes, more especially in the winter months, the summer months having an amount of oscillation not differmg much from that of less elevated stations in nearly the same geographical position. Ex- cessive rain-fall at stations of moderate elevation appears to be accompanied by a larger amount of oscillation than when the rain-fall is below the average: this law appears to hold good in every month. , | At more elevated stations, the same law appears to exist for the entire year; but many of the months appear to be subjected to some disturbing cause, and do not con- form to this law. It remains to be seen whether a long series of years would eliminate this disturbance, or whether it may be owing to some other elements which, at the higher station, produce effects dissimilar to those produced at the lower station. Temperatures below the average of the season greatly crease the amount of disturbance. Kamtz, in his ‘ Handbook of Meteorology,’ gives the irregular oscillations for each month, and for various places; he, however, omits to state what particular years were used, and how many years he deduced each mean value from. The following small Table contains his values for Geneva and the Great St. Bernard :— . OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 13 Great St. ee Bernard. inch. inch. aR ae coho Salento sc odie te steno 0°166 Ori MV CITHAEY NS <5. 3 fits O Ama w nisin certains 0°153 OvIII LLCS FSSA s Sean ee meee were Bart atic o*°150 OES 2018 peReR Re SaBs RODE S ei ae pts a en 0° 108 0°094. LOG aes ea Fh Oe ae eee o°o0gI 0070 TLE pa ee a Be ae tt error enone ae 0°074 0°074 “LIA IRE Re ae PRO Cer eae ie ne ee 0°072 0°072 LUTOUES BR a ee See +e ane ee 0°074 0°065 RE QEMIDER ante oa os od adinoe Seon cney 0°092 0°083 ete ee ate cua Facaceusese eo atbe O° 109 0°092 LON SUL Oe ae Nene nn en O°I14 0°084 BECOME BET en hc. «oy sitiencanistao net oop 0°136 o*110 Meanttorithe year 2........<..+-.5=. bU PGlkt Ls 070901 | The figures for Geneva give a maximum in January, and a minimum in July, instead of August ; but it is pro- bable he has used very few years, as his maxima and minima appear to be greatly in excess of my determina- tions, especially the former. The Great-St.-Bernard values exhibit very great irre- gularities, giving a. maximum in March, and a minimum in August: the period from April to December is very irregular, and does not conform to any regular progres- sive increase or decrease in the amount of oscillation. There can be little doubt that these values have been determined from very few years’ observations. I have given these values, in order to show what has been done previously on this point. Note.—It may be as well to state that the means for the year, given in Tables VI., VII., and VIII., are not the means of the twelve monthly values immediately above, but have been determined by giving weight to each month according to the number of observations from which its values have been derived. 14. MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC TasLe I.—Barometric Oscillations, from observations JANUARY. Geneva. Great St. Bernard. Total Mean Total Mean Year. | amount of | daily |Number.|/ amount of | daily | Number. oscillation. | amount. oscillation. | amount. inches inch. inches. inch. 1848. 3°641 O°r17 10 Incom|plete. 1849. 3°941 0°127 16 3°153 O° 102 14 1850. 5°077 0°164. 15 4°I01 O°132 15 1851. 3°640 O°117 14, 2°729 0°088 3 1852. 4°224 0°136 12 3°454 O°rI4 12 1853. 4°452 O°144. 18 3°34.6 o°108 14, 1854. 4°035 0°130 18 3°216 O° 104 12 1855. 3°316 O*°107 14 3°138 o°101 12 1856. 5°349 O°172 16 3°291 0° 106 14 1857. 5°827 0°188 I 3°891 0° 12.6 12 1858. 2°961 0°096 13 2q70 0089 II Means 4°282 0°138 14°7 3°309 0°107 12°9 FEBRUARY. 1848. 5°725 0°197 12 4°286 O°147 13 1349. 2°947 O°105 13 2°560 o°ogI 16 1850. 3°934 O°142 12 3°758 0°134 14 1851. 3°152 O°112 16 2°389 0°08 5 13 1852. 4°471 O°154. 14 3°550 O°122 14, 1853. 4°727 0°168 Ke) 4°061 O°145 10 1854. 4°049 O°144 14. 3°463 0°123 12 1855. 4°595 o°164 13 3°073 o°110 11 1856. 3°336 O°117 15 2°318 0°079 13 1857. 1°519 0°054 12 1'280 0°045 9 1858. 2°94.5 O°105 13 2°501 0°089 II Means. 39773 0°133 13°1 3°022 o°106 1273 MARCH 1848. 4°760 O°154. 16 3°868 O°124. 15 1849. 57026 o°162 14 4°350 o°140 12 1850. 4°008 0°129 12 35437 O°107 12 1851. 3°744 O°I21 19 2°689 0°087 13 1852. 3°865 O°124 12 2°57 O°II§ 12 1853. 3°566 O'II5 14 3°022 0°097 13 1854. 2°218 o°071 17 1°845 0°059 57 1855. 4°799 O55 * 3°304 0° 106 13 1856. Z°O11 0°097 14 2°297 0°074. 14 1857. suaz oe Kop 13 2°388 0°093 7 1858. 4°003 0°130 17 3°877 O°125 14 Means. 3°830 0°123 14°6 3°186 O°103 12°9 made at 9 A.M. ~~ wae rs =_— OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 15 Year. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1354. 1355. 1856. 1357. 1858. Means. 1848. 1349. 1850, 1851. 1852. 1853. 1354. 1855. 1856. 1357. 1858. Means. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 18 53. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. | 1858. 2°656 2°513 2°323 2°O42 1754 2°498 2°892 3°233 2°358 2°276 1°285 ‘Means. 2°393 Tasxe I. (continued). 0°088 0°084. O°074 0°068 0°058 0°083 0°096 o°108 Cie95 0°076 0043 0°079 APRIL. Geneva. Total Mean amount of | daily | Number. oscillation. | amount. inches. inch. 3°904. 0°130 II 3°929 O°131 18 3°93% O°131 14 3°142 O°105 15 2°794 0°093 10 3°871 O°129 15 3°634 O°121 16 3°295 O'IIO 15 3°298 oO°110 13 4171 Cns9 13 2°837 0°096 13 3°533 | o°118 | 14°0 MAY. 2472 0°076 15 2°722 0°088 14 37108 0°100 14 2°587 0°083 17 22305 0°074. 14 3°298 0° 106 14 1°902 o°061 17 3°906 07126 13 3°296 o*106 16 2°341 0°075 13 3°515 O°113 18 2°83 51 0092 15°0 Great St. Bernard. Total amount of inches, 2°4.36 2°956 2°360 2°397 2°116 2°7 34 2°910 3°138 2°852 2°940 2°380 2°520 Mean daily | Number. oscillation. | amount: inch. o’o81 0°099 0°079 o°080 o°o71 o°0g1 0°097 O°I05 0°095 0°098 0096 o*090 13°0 16 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC TaBLeE I. (continued). JULY. . Geneva. Great St. Bernard. Total Mean Total Mean Year. | amount of | daily |Number.|| amount of | daily | Number. oscillation.|-amount. oscillation. | amount. inches. inch. inches. inch. 1848. 2°598 0°083 17 2°096 0°068 13 1849. 2461 0°079 14 2°77 0°070 12 1850. 1°789 0058 12 1°889 0061 17 1851. 3°066 0°099 II 2°900 0°093 13 1852. 2°181 0°070 II 1°850 0060 10 1853. 2°236 0°072 14 2°306 0°074 14 1854. 1°99! 0°064 14 1°916 0°062 12 1855. 2°171 0°'070 II 2°161 0°070 15 1856. 2°4.14 0'078 19 1°842 0°059 14 1857-| 1°549 or050 15 1°728 "056 13 1858. 3°104 o*100 16 2°438 0°079 18 Means.| 2°323 0°075 14°0 2°118 0°068 13°7 AUGUST. OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 17 TaBLeE I. (continued). OCTOBER. Geneva. Great St. Bernard. Total Mean Total Mean — | Year. | amount of | daily |Number./ amount of | daily | Number. oscillation. | amount. oscillation. | amount. inches. inch. inches. inch. 1848. 3°992 o°129 15 3°005 0°097 18 1849. 4°330 O'140% wr 3°612 o°r16 14 1350. 3°766 O'121 14 3°695 O'IIg 12 1851. 3°190 O°103 9 2°793 o"ego 7 1352. 3°625 O'117 14 Baa 0°O75 15 1853. 3°661 o'118 II 2°633 0°085 II 1854. 4°156 9°134 18 2°333 O09! 16 1855. 3°639 O'117 13 2°509 o'o81 10 1856. 1°981 0°064 OE 1715 07055 18 1857. 3°632 O°117 15 2867 0°093 13 1858. 3°223 o*°104 14 2°126 0°069 10 —_—_——-: Means.| 3°563 O15 14'I 2°738 0°088 Lier SER. IIIf. VOL. II. C 18 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC TasiE I].—Monthly Temperatures at Geneva. January. February. Difference Difference Year. |Temperature.| from average || Temperature. | from average of 20 years. of 20 years. ° ° fo) ° 1848. DANE ou —7°0 37°38 +3°6 1849. 35°3 +3°8 36°5 +2°3 1850. 27°5 —4"0 39°2 +5°0 1851. 33°3 +18 843 +01 1352. 36°1 +4°6 36°3 +2°1 1853. 37°7 +62 31°5 25 1854. 31°38 +0°3 30°! —4'I 1855. 29°2 —23 35°2 +1'o 1856. 36°3 TAS) | 37°8 +3°6 1857. Naa: +o'9 31°6 —2°6 1858. 2745 —4'0 33°0 —1'2 Mean of } . 20 years. Bee atl iit ie anh 34°2... eee March. | April. ° ° ° ° 2 1848. 39°9 +1°0 49°2 +2°5 1849. 37°38 Se 42°83 —3°9 1850. 36°3 —2°6 46°5 —o'2 1351. 33°7 —o'2 43°4. eg, 1352. 36°7 22 46°3 —0'4 1853. 32°8 —6'1 45‘2 —1°5 1854. 40°! +12 49°5 +2°8 1855. 40°3 a 46°2 =—O5 1856. 40°4. is © 49°8 aie 1857 39°4 TeO25.9 dl aa —14 1858. 33°83 —o'l 51°8 +571 Mean of : : 20 years. 38°9 cone 46°7 | nied June. ° 1848. —o's 1849. +2°6 1850. +0°3 1351. | +1°6 1852. | —2°2 1853. —1°8 18 54- —1'8 1855. —1°6 1856. +0°3 1857. —O"9 1858. | +4°5 Mean of | eetece 20 years. OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. TaBxe II. (continued). July. August. Difference Difference Year. | Temperature.| from average || Temperature.| from average of 20 years. of 20 years. Q. ° ° ° 1848. 64°38 +0°5 63°2 +o'r 1849. 65°5 +1°2 61°7 —1'4 1850. 63°9 —0'4 62°5 —o'6 1851. G27 > —2°2 63°1 o"0 1852. 664 +2°1 61°9 —1'2 1853. 65°1 +0°8 64°83 +1°7 1354. 64°5 +o'2 61°9 —1'2 1855. 63°9 —0'4. 66°3 +3°2 1856. 64°1 —o'2 67°9 +4'8 1857. 68°83 +4°5 64°8 +1'7 1858. 62°4 —1'9 60°9 —2°2 Mean of i ’ | 20 years. } 64 3 | moan G'S Mam Wee Maeeenee | September. October. | lo) e) ie) (2) | 1848. 56°5 —0°5 49°0 —O'! 1849. 58°3 +13 51'0 +r9 | 1850. 54°83 —2°2 45°5 —3°6 1851. aie —4°83 49°3 +o°2 1352. 569 —o'! 48°4. —0'7 1853. 56°6 oe 49°5 +04 1854. 58°7 17 50°5 +1°4 1855. 59°5 +2°5 52°3 +3°2 1856. 55°9 —I'I 50°0 +o0'9 1857. 60°8 +33 51°3 +2°2 | 1858. 60°8 +3°8 50°7 +16 | Mean of y an | = years, (sje) eee AGPES A CUT © ees | November. December. oO co) (eo) fo} | 1848. 36'9 aii 33°4 +04 1849. 36°38 —3°7 31°6 —1°4 1850. 42°7 +2°2 34°5 a § 1351. 32°5 —8°o 25°9 —7'I 1852. 45°3 +4°8 37°9 +4°9 1853. 41°7 +1°2 23°38 = 4'2 1854. 38°0 —2°5 36°6 +36 1355. 39°3 —1°2 27°O —6°0 1856. 36°0 as aa 7 +0°7 1357. 41°O . o's 33°70 fone) 1858. a73 SI oak ANS ae 2 | A Ro Mean of a | ee 20 years. AGS RUE Fen ca: |. cio Eales Basen 19 20 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC Tasie ITI.—Monthly Temperature at the Gt. St. Bernard. January. February. Difference Difference Year. |Temperature. | from average || Temperature. | from average of 20 years, of 20 years. ° ° ° ° 1848 8°4 — 6°0 19°4 +31 1849 17°8 +3°4 21°7 +5°4 1850 22 —2°2, 21"9 + 5°6 1851 18°I ae) 16°4 +o'l 1852 19°4 +5°0 14°8 —1°5 1853 17°8 +34 6°6 ae 1854 18°0 +3°6 10°8 —5°5 1855 13°I —1°3 17°9 +1°6 1856 18°3 +3°9 23°71 +63 1857 10°8 —3°6 16°5 +o°2 1858 12°0 —2°4 14°0 —2°3 Average of tas ee 20 years. ATAmE Wh iccnee 16°49). | 0) See ° 1848. 17°38 —o'9 28°9 +31 1849. 13°2 —0°5 20°8 —5°0 1850. 17°2 —I'5 | 25°3 —0'5 1851. 16°4. —2°3 | 26°9 +11 1852. 13°3 —0'4 24°9 —0o'”9 1853... 11°8 —6'9 PM sf —4'I 1854. 254 “h2h7, 27°5 AG7, 1855. 17°0 —1°7 24°7 —I'l 1856. ae, +3°5 26°7 +o0'9 1357. 21°0 +2°3 22°9 —2°9 1358. 18°1 —o'6 29°8 +4'0 Average of : 20 years. EOry i LS Peemeee 25°38. 10) Va | June. ° ° 1848. 40°6 +1'o rong: 43°3 neo! 1850. 40°6 +1'o 1851. 40°6 +1°0 1852. 36°9 —2°7 1853. 37°7 1g 1354. 37°2 —2°4 1355. 37°0 —2°6 1856. 39°6 o"o 1857. 47°50. —1°8 1858. 43°6 +4'0 Average of ME \ oo Wa (ie Aeneas 9070, et cee 20 years. OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 2] Tasxe III. (continued). July. August. Difference Difference Year. Temperature. | from average || Temperature. | from average of 20 years. of 20 years. ° 1e) ro) fo} 1848. 44°6 +2°0 44°2 +271 1849. 43°7 siees 41°4 So 7 1850. 41°7 =o9 410 = KE 1851. 40°3 —2°3 42°38 +°°7 1852. 44°1 EGG 40°6 ree 1853. 44°1 Sus 4571 +3°0 1854. 42°38 +o0°2 41°5 —o'6 1855" 41°9 Oy, 44°5 +2°4 1856: 413 a ie) 461 +40 1857" 45°3 $27] 42°7 +0°6 13858 39°1 m5 39°! —3°0 Average of d 5 z eee | ros Sia ae sero 7163 ei |e Meee September. October. °o oO Lo) co) 1848. 36°7 —0O'7 29°1 —1°6 1849. 36°9 Fors 33°3 +2°6 1850. BoE te" —49 25°3 Ae 1851. 32°8 —4°6 330 +2°3 1852. 35°6 —1°8 30°6 —o'l 1853. 37°4 oo 29°9 moe 1354. 40°8 . ES 312 +0°5 1855. 38°9 aes 33°3 +2°6 1356. 32°38 —4°6 33°6 +2°9 1857. 39°7 4-2°3 ack +08 1858. 40°3 +2°9 31°3 +0°6 Average of : I at eee lg el) asec 2. Oy jal a (le Wakes November. December. oO Oo 1o) °o 1848. 17°7 — 43 22°0 +3°5 1849. 21°9 — oO! 12°8 —5°7 1850. 25°2 + 32 21°2 +4+2°7 1851. 9°6 —12°4 19°6 +1°1 1852. 28°83 + 6°83 pals +6°8 1853. 239 + 1'°9 12°3 —=0-2 1854. 17°5 ASS 15"! —3°4 1855. 21°2 — o8 11°6 —6'9 1856. 170 — 5°0 17°2 —1°3 1357. 26'1 + 4'I 23°38 +5°3 1858. 19°4 ee El aria cae iia la ee Average of } POON Pet we Tad dit | BOsGwr ty im vedas | 20 years. 22 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC TABLE PVR Ban and Snow at Geneva. January. February. Vous Fall in Difference Fall in Difference inches. from mean. inches. from mean. 1848, 0°858 —T1'0I0 1°435 +o°115 1849. 3°303 +1°435 I°I20 —0*200 1850. 1°634 —0°234 0°925 —0°395 1851. 2°020 +o'152 1°031 —0°289 1852. 1°303 —0'065 0776 —0°544 1853. 2°354 +0°486 0°799 —0o'521 1854. 0°843 —TiO25 o°291 —1'029 1855. 1°354 —0°514 5°614 +4°294 1356. 4°968 +3°100 1'094 —0'226 1857. . 1236 —0°632 0°705 —o°615 1858. o'r81 —1°687 0°736 —0°584. Means. F°SO8 8 al ace ee 1°320 May. | June. 1848 O°772 —2°955 6°283 +3°112 1849 Sez. —0'550 5°937 +2°766 1850 4°445 +0'718 2°614 —0°557 1851 1°949 =e or124 — 3°047 1852. 2°248 —1°479 3°913 +0°742 1853. 5°953 +2°226 2°811 —0°360 1854 2°425 72 302 roe +1°758 1855 2°832 —0°845 2718 —0°458 1856 11°724 +7°997 2°890 —o'281 1857 2°157 —I1°570 ||| 2"000 —I171 1858 3°264 —0°463 0°665 —2°506 Means tay Pe Mie es ae cy ts KS age eS. OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 23 TaBLe IV. (continued). July. August. Y Fall in Difference Fall in Difference ear. : : | inches. from mean. | inches. from mean. 1848. 2°776 —O°II5 3°468 +0°282 1849. 1°898 —0'°993 0980 — 2°206 1850. O°142 —2°749 3°374. +0°188 1851. 57319 +2428 37780 +0°594 1852. 2°335 —0°556 8°437 +5°251 1853. 3°343 +0'452 2°516 —0°670 1854. 4°039 +1°148 2°823 —0°363 1855. 2'980 +0°089 . O28 —2°962 1856. 2°728 —0°163 2°362 —0°824 1857. 0°734 —2°157 3°543 +0°357 1858. 5°504 +2°613 3°539 +0°353 Means. DBO Ee) |e ih) (eres. CSI a September. October. 1848. 2°087 —1°396 3°398 —1°280 1849. 3°670 +0187 7°744 +3°066 1850. 3°075 —0°408 2°378 —2°300 1851. 3°382 —or'rol 4°122 —0°556 1852. Go +3°360 6°512 +1°834 1853. 4°571 +1°088 5181 - ++0°503 1854. 0°000 — 3°483 4°236 —O°442 1855. 4°346 +0°363 10°957 +6279 1356. 4°598 - -+PITII§ 0°823 —3°355 1857. 2°397 — 1°086 3°228 — FAO 1858. 2°843 —o°640 2°382 —1°796 Means. BAS gh Ne -cesacs AsO7S%) | + eebaes November. December. 1848. 1°657 —0°668 L272 +0'088 1849. 1°724. —o*6o1 0°909 —0°275 1850. 2°992 +0667 0°933 —0O'251 1851. 1°256 —1°069 0°197 —0'987 1852. 5°039 +2°714 1°539 +9355 1853. 1°405 —0°920 0°504. —o°680 1854. 3°098 +0'773 2°043 +0°859 1855. 2°453 +0°128 1°240 +0056 1856. 1°220 —I'105 || 2°463 +1°279 1857. 1°622 —0°703 0°738 —0'446 1358. 3°110 ORO Hot 1 weedes | Pempibar ss Means. 2A Ee” Oh eaaat | Hp) a i 24 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC. Taste V.—Rain and Snow at the Great St. Bernard. January. February. : 7 Fallin | Difference || Fallin | Difference ear 3 ; inches. from mean. inches. from mean. 1848. 3°398 —o°760 10°929 +7°266 1849. 8°622 +4°464 2°441 —1°222 1850. 5°733 “--PS75 5°189 +1°526 1851. 3°819 —0°339 3°350 07953 1852. 4°244 +0°086 4°961 - +1°298 1853. 6°283 +2°125 5795 | —-2°132 1854. 3°354 —0°304 0'961 —2°702 1855. 2°563 —1°595 3°53! —0°132 1856. 5°500 +1°342 1°701 —1'962 1857. 1°047 —3Z° 111 0*000 — 3°663 1858. ' 0°641 —3°517 1°44 —2°222 March. April. 1848 6°4.05 +3°373 11°008 +5°509 1849 4004 +0°972 8°591 +3°092 1850 1°516 —1°516 5°249 —0°250 1851 5°362 +2°830 8°756 + 3°257 1852. rSc4.0 7 —1'178 3°248 —2°251 1853. 6°760 +3°728 7°O24 + 17525 1854. 0°303 —2°729 I*992 37507 1855. 3°193 +o°161 3°390 —2°109 1856. 0°657 —2°375 5°421 —0°078 1857 0°886 —2°146 3°780 —I'719 1858. 1913 —I°119 2°039 — 3°460 Means. 3°032 | seiner 5499 «| |) eee May. June. | 1848 0'240 —4°749 8°358 +4°546 1849 6°827 + 1°838 7°303 +3°491 1850 4°890 —0°099 2°626 — 17686 1851 6°342 +1°353 o°921 —3°391 1852 4°406 —0°583 4°878 +0°566 1853 6°468 +1°479 3°268 — 1044 1854 5°374 +0°385 6°760 +2°448 1855 4°62 — 0°363 4°953 +0°641 1856 11°287 + 6°298 3°303 — 1009 1857 1913 — 3076 2°953 — 1°359 1858. 2°508 —2°481 I°IIO — 3°202 | Means. ASHSR Ps Ye Seeds 4°312 | ddeiee OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 25 TaBLE V. (continued). July. August. | ees mee Fall in Difference Fall in Difference | inches. from mean. inches. from mean. 1848. 3°638 +0502 1°953 —I'I4i 1849. 3°173 +0°037 1°650 —1°444 1850. 1°425 —I'711 4'°280 +1°186 1851. 8°484. +5°348 3°906 +o°812 | 1852. 2°169 —0°967 4°665 ee S71 1853. 1°331 —1°305 gc2g2 +0°138 1854. 5°189 +2°053 4°764 +1°670 1355 2°248 —-0°888 1°819 —1'275 1856 2°535 —o’6o1 2252 —0°842 1857 0°028 — 3°108 3°135 +o°og1 1858 3°772 +0°636 eRe —o'767 Means 976360. 1 \ * Baas 3°094 sistoieiels September. October. 1848. 2°728 +0°007 5614 +0°848 1849. 2°839 +0118 1°268 — 37498 1850. 1°382 tag) 4°272 —0°494 1851. 5°728 +3°007 59327 —1°439 1352. 4°350 - +1°629 5°50 +0°384 1853. 2°713 —0°008 6°783 +2°017 | 1354. 0°031 —2°690 4°161 —0'605 1855. 2°480 —O°241 12°524 +7°758 1856. 3555 | = +0°834 3°339 —1°427 1857. 2°398 —6°323 5°228 +0°462 1858. 1°728 —0°993 0'764 —4°002 Means. 2°721 nave 4°766 November. December. 1848. 4°031 +0°590 3°583 +0954 1849- 5°748 +2°307 4°555 +1°926 1850. 5°551 +2°110 1'925 —0°704 1851. 3°106 —0°335 o°106 —2°523 1852. 1°827 1614 6°007 +3°378 1853- 2°980 —o°461 2°504 —O'125 1854. 4°551 +IIIO 2°350 —0'279 1855. 3°437 — 07004 1°413 —1'216 1856. 0°996 —2°445 3°520 +0°891 1857. 1°165 —2°276 0°331 = 2'298 1358. 4°461 SAMO TH awe) Sc senpineses Means. Bae 1 los) sere ZOD ae | keeles 26 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE IRREGULAR BAROMETRIC Taste VI.—Temperature above or below the average compared with the corresponding amount of Oscilla- tion. Geneva. Temperature | Temperature Month. above the Amount of below the Amount of the average. oscillation. average, oscillation. A inches. 5 inches. January ......... +3°20 4°496 —3°43 3°749 February ~...... 2058 4°037 2°65 3°310 March)... 1°12 3°584. 2°05 4°035 Agora eee. 3°38 3°431 2°31 3°590 May Sito. veo ot 1'20 2°330 2°63 3°285 SLUG Pes aden 1°86 2°204. 1°51 2552 Sillyir ecesetced 1°55 2°169 1°02 2°509 August: ......... 2°30 2°148 2°233 September ...... 2°62 2°371 2°689 October <...s223: TAy 3°4.76 3°794 November ...... 2°18 3°469 a ses Wecemibery.-.--. 42°22 4°437 — 4°67 3°778 Year. +2°12 3°25 —2°42 3°380 Great St. Bernard. 5 inches. a inches. January ......... + 3°83 3°198 — 3°10 3°475 February ...... 3°26 2809 4°75 3°394 Wiarchist:: seca. 2°37 2°343 1°35 3°503 Aree eee. 2°16 2°695 2°42 2°707 1 Eh eR i 1°90 1°827 278 2°592 UM Oe ere he waz k 2°14 1°646 2°28 2°076 eiulliysieee set sc: 1°50 2°O12 1°74 2°246 Aout: Fh. 3c: 2008 2°048 1°38 1°914 September ...... 2°52 2°049 2°85 1°987 October™.:......: r77 2°636 1°98 2°916 November .....: 4°00 2°991 4°24. 3°020 December ...... + 3°88 2°809 —4°70 4°I12 Year. +2'°53 2°4.4.5 —2°73 2°335 OSCILLATIONS AT GENEVA AND GREAT ST. BERNARD. 27 TasLeE VII.—Number of Oscillations above or below the average, compared with the fall of Rain. Geneva. Oscillations | Correspond- | Oscillations | Correspond- Month. above the ing fall of | below the ing fall of average. rain. average. rain. inches. inches. January ......... +1°96 2°620 —2°37 1°241 February ...... 1°65 0°798 0°96 1°619 IMENT ie mater ames 2°65 1°857 1°46 1°059 PAPEL Ssh cc 2a cae ons 1°50 ET 1°67 3°202 LE ee eae ees 1°60 2°242 1°14 3°227 SUNG 8. sf. vaca = E257 3335 2°00 2°620 DULY (ee. secnck oes 1°57 3°003 1°57 2°865 — MATOUSe oe.< 22.0. 1°43 3°591 1°43 2°543 September ...... ey C07 3°310 2°56 3°976 October (2 ....: 3°15 2°914. 1°81 57682 November ...... 2°04 4°339 3°60 4°396 December’ ...... +2°70 0°971 —1°80 1°326 Year. +1°81 2°856 —1'75 2°721 Great St. Bernard. inches. inches. January ......... + 1°10 4°743 —I'IO 3°726 February ...... 1°53 4°753 1°70 2°34.6 Maire lt eee ise 0 1°24 3°585 PEL ts 2°065 Ae oectemeiee 2°40 5°359 1°86 57104 Waves th-8 otse.. 1°90 5°263 I°IO 4°334 BUS: te eee 2°03 4°441 3°05 57196 MURS 8 Aessncin oat 1°90 2°362 1°53 3°780 Aupuste 5.2.05... 1°63 3°124 2°00 3°058 September ...... 1°47 3°2.37, 1°90 TOI October :s...-544 3°10 3°906 2°60 5°483 November ...... 0°93 3°769 1°40 2°565 December ...... +1°90 2°561 —1'27 2°675 — Year. +1°56 3°911 —1'76 3°697 28 MR. G. V. VERNON ON BAROMETRIC OSCILLATIONS. Taste VIII.—Fall of Rain above or below the average, compared with the corresponding amount of Oscillation. - Geneva. . Correspond- . Correspond- Month. ~~ above ing amount of hee pao ing ama of © average. | oscillation. © average. | oscillation. inches. inches. inches. inches. January ......... +1°293 4°345 —0°738 4°154 February ...... 2°204. 5160 0°497 3°464 Manche koi 20:..ise 0°765 4°078 0°722 3°688 AYU Re ease tele 2°339 22711 0°377 3°4.65 DED cis ei amie 3°647 3°234. 1°367 2°707 OUNCE, Oeics 2°09 5 2454 1°197 2°359 lye. Aes sheet 1°346 2°514 1-122 2°165 AUSUBE Ss 2s ce: TTF 2°314 1°4.05 2°042 September ...... 1°423 2°963 1°186 2°196 October ......... 2°920 3°814 1°668 3°420 November ...... 1°04 3°601 0°844 3°856 December ...... +0°528 4°800 —0°528 3°213 Year. +1°585 3°4.64 —1'002 3°105 Great St. Bernard. inches. inches. inches. inches. January ......... +1°918 3°469 —1°754 3°149 February ..... 3°056 3°913 r7As 2 hag Marches oc cccsvee 2°213 3°447 1°844 2°969 21) 0) 050 ee ae ne 3°351 2°631 I°gIO 2°74.2 Maye gins... on.e: 2°271 2°292 1°892 2°333 iss) ey cee ae 2°398 1'920 2°338 1°940 Puli ei as 6 c5ste0s 1°715 2°309 1°429 1°962 AUIBUSbY ..0.0<625 O'gII 1°986 1°094 1°988 September ...... I'11g 2°026 0°932 2°854 October. Heat Goyt Hall. Section from Heaton Mersey to Goyt Hall. Distance about four miles. * Vols. xii. and xiv. (Second Series) of the Society’s Memoirs. t In this, and the following sections illustrating the present memoir, the references will be as follows :— 6. Upper new red sandstone (trias). Red marls, limestones, and conglomerate (permian). Lower new red sandstone (permian). Red clays. Upper coal-measures. Middle coal-measures. . Lower coal-measures. eh Me eet ~ 30 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE In my first paper, before alluded to, at p. 217 a short notice is given of a very interesting bormg made some years ago at the bleach-works of Mr. Tait at Heaton Mersey, which proved that the permian beds there were of great thickness. Since that time, the lower new red sandstone has been exposed by Mr. Howard near the rail- way station at Heaton Norris, for the purpose of being quarried for moulding sand, lke that at Collyhurst near Manchester; and the permian marls have been seen lying upon it, and succeeded in their turn by the beach beds of Mr. Hull, and then the pebble-beds of the trias up to Heaton Mersey Mill. In my former paper, there was given the section of the bore at the last-named place, which was as follows :— feet. Sand and gravel a few feet. PIAS SNE Rtas MER TREN EE no chee Pee Rk dy oedlaag see ee 45 Red and variegated beds of marl containing limestones ...... 129 Lower new red sandstone (Collyhurst), proved ...............+4. 402 576 This section is shown on the banks of the Mersey. Near the position of the bore marked A in the wood- cut, and for about 300 yards towards Stockport, the trias cannot be seen, owing to the covering of valley-gravel. When it makes its appearance, it is as a bright-red and fine-grained sandstone containing pebbles ; then come beds of red sandstone, which Mr. Hull considers to be like his pebble-beds. These are succeeded by some singular coarse beds containing angular pieces of quartz, which the same gentleman took to be old beach-beds. They dip to the S.W., at an angle of 12°. Next appear red and variegated marls, which are ex- posed in the vacant piece of ground behind Well Lane, opposite Orrell’s Mill. Twenty feet in thickness are seen ; and they dip to the 8.W., at an angle of 25°. Although examined with considerable care, no fossil shells were found PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 31 in them by me. These marls are succeeded by the lower new red sandstone, similar to that of Collyhurst, except that the conglomerate-bed was not exposed, and a small parting of marl occurred in the upper portion of the sand- stone. On following the rock towards the London and North-Western Railway at Heaton Norris, it is seen much dislocated, and then cut off by a fault*, running south-east and north-west, which brings in the trias beds that underlie the town of Stockport. The fault inclines at an angle of 45°, to the north-east ; and a thin bed of red clay appears to lie in it. The trias beds, apparently the pebble-beds, are seen in Hatton Street dipping to the W.N.W., at an angle of 12°, and may be traced through Portwood and Newbridge along the valley of the Goyt, to the place near where the Fog brook joms the Goyt. The lowest beds of trias are of a deep red colour, soft, and comparatively free from pebbles+. They dip at an angle of 1 5°, to the S.S.W.., and repose on beds of the lower part of the middle coal- field dippimg to the S.S.W. at an angle of 80°. The trias" beds, if they continue all this distance without any fault, from the Heaton Norris Railway Station to Goyt Hall, must be of great thickness; but most probably they may be repeated by one or more faults, although these are difficult to make out, The fault at Heaton Norris, when taken in connexion with the occurrence of coal-measures in Chorlton-on- Medlock, hereinafter described, is of considerable interest. In my former communication, it was stated that the dis- * This fault was first shown to me by Mr. H. Hull, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey. + Mr. Hull is inclined to consider this sandstone as the lower new red sandstone (Collyhurst), and not trias. It is no doubt, as here stated, free from pebbles, and much like the last-named rock in its characters ; but up to this time, to my knowledge, there is no other evidence to show that it isa permian, and not a trias rock. 32 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE covery of permian beds at Heaton Mersey was probably owing to the fault of Bradford and Clayton ; but on care- fully taking the direction of the fault at Heaton Norris, it appears to run more in a line through Chorlton-on- Medlock into the great Pendleton fault in the valley of the Irwell, than that of Bradford and Clayton. It is much to be desired that a bore should be put down in Mr. Howard’s sand-delf at Heaton Norris, to prove, first, the thickness of the permian beds there, and next the position of the coal-field lymg under them. This would not cost much, and it would prove whether or not an ex- tensive coal-field les under Heaton Norris and Stockport and extends all the way to Manchester. Manchester Section.—Medlock Vale. 3 m : SM 4 fe) W.S.W. S8 re) PENE ai = g = ® S 3 os 4 S A. B SS Se // 4 2 Section from All Saints to Waterhouses. Distance about five miles. Mr. John Wood, of Bank Bridge print-works, has done much towards proving the ground lying between his estate and Waterhouses. In my former papers it has been my duty to acknowledge his kindness in furnishing me with information ; and I have again the pleasure to acknowledge his assistance. In Mr. Wood’s first attempt to find coal under the trias and permian deposits at Medlock Vale, he did not succeed in perforating the latter strata; but in a late endeavour he has been more successful, and gone through the permian beds into the coal-measures. What coal-measures these are has not yet been ascertained, but a complete section of the permian strata of that locality has been obtained. PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 33 The bore was made at the place marked B in the section, and the following strata were met with :— Wels.) ft... in. SOU | once. Be eis Gee Se eh an hese ecw Me I ro) fo) SSUES ARCs Gian AAR aera era A Se I ° fo) | ; “STREAZELE ACRES URRY Je Iie eee 3 Tp On EI SURO LeU ates eer Re ss eaie Ny. a hiauie sasehs I I ° “EEDA ELL ere Oe 2 fe) 6 MeeMURAMG ALONE £2 545 $day saislowi' a vapvares ces ODO net ror te Arias BOARD AT rec teah cB Se sa As cong eldw a ds woivimsioait oie 2 2 6 | Grey band (like fullers’-earth) ............ cof Neti lfo seat 20 He BRERIR ees ache ke regs sceysae atienaiadaan cee 6 Hj. 1a CERORPADONE 0 G8 cs.ds bdeos Sse de scponeinis scion sp ° fo) 4 ied marl ..5..2. 43 Compact rock of red and white sandstone..................... 20 Red and purple marls, containing bands of limestone...... 126 58) The beds of limestone in the red marls afforded beau- tiful specimens of Schizodus obscurus and Bakevellia antigua, Pleurophorus costatus, Turbo, and Rissoa; and — the whole thickness of these permian marls was much greater than they had been previously met with near Manchester, except at Medlock Vale herembefore de- scribed,—their average having been generally about 130 instead of 220 feet, as in this section, and 245 feet at Med- lock Vale. The lower red sandstone, on the other hand, was much-thinner than when seen at Collyhurst cr at Medlock Vale, hereinbefore described ; and no pebble-beds containing fossil plants lke those at Astley were found. But the most mteresting features in the section are the red and purple marls, contaming bands of what were called ironstones when first brought to me. On examination of these specimens, which turned out to be limestones, my attention was arrested by the occurrence of Spirorbis (Mi- croconchus) carbonarius, and scales of a fish of the genus Paleoniscus, which, with their physical characters, clearly 38 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE proved them to be part of the upper or Manchester coal- field, in fact the Ardwick limestones—thus showing a band - of carboniferous strata containing coal running under the trias and permian beds to the south of Manchester. This is of great importance, and proves that coal-measures are met with at places under trias and permian deposits much nearer the surface than was previously expected, and where the upper rocks give no evidence of their proximity. From the banks ‘of the Medlock southward, the trias was proved to thicken, as shown at Messrs. Hoyle’s works, Mayfield, where it was 143 feet 4 inches thick ; and further south still, at the late Mr. Green’s dye-works in Garratt Road, it was penetrated 324 feet in thickness, without going through it. The position of this bore is about 500 | yards to the north of Messrs. Fryer and Co.’s. On taking the line of the great Irwell fault where last seen, in the workings of the Pendleton Colliery, and continuing it south- ward to the fault previously described in this paper at Heaton Norris, it would appear to run nearly through Messrs. Fryer and Co.’s works, and would account for the occurrence of the beds there met with; but the bore of Messrs. Worrall at Ordsal to the west, hereinafter alluded to, shows that the trias there is far thicker than we should expect would be the case, for it was penetrated 460 feet without its thickness being ascertained. In continuing the great fault of Newtown and Colly- hurst southward, and assuming that dislocation to have been made subsequent to the formation of the Pendleton fault, the permian and trias beds may have been thrown down, so as to account for a break in the great Irwell fault between Ordsal and Chester Street, and thus allow of the thickness of the trias at Ordsal. However it may have been brought about, there is no doubt that the Ard- wick coal-measures last seen in the bed of the Medlock near Schofield’s Chapel, and disappearmg under the per- PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 39 mian and trias beds to the south, are brought up again by a fault running somewhere between Mr. Green’s dye-works in Old Garratt and Messrs. Fryer’s works in Chester Street, Oxford Road. This is one of the most interesting facts connected with the geology of Manchester that has come under my notice, and shows the desirability of continuing all the great lines of fracture in the coal-measures over the trias, to indicate the most likely places where that and the underlying permian deposits can be perforated, and coal-measures met with under them. The remarkable features in this section are the great thicknesses of the red marls and limestones, and the con- glomerate-beds, the one reaching 220 feet, and the other 43 feet. At Collyhurst and Newtown, these beds, described in my former paper, would not reach more than 120 feet and I foot 6 inches respectively. On the other hand, the soft red sandstone, which at Collyhurst was 320 feet, if repre- sented at all in Chorlton-on-Medlock m the compact red and white sandstone, was only 20 feet in thickness. The lower permian beds of Astley, containing quartz, pebbles, — and coal-plants, were not met with. This was also the case in the Seedley section *, to which this section bears the greatest resemblance of any in the immediate vicinity of Manchester. Ordsal Section. In my two papers previously alluded to, namely, those printed in Vol. XII. of the Society’s Memoirs and in the first volume of the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, the various bores made in the trias around the city and the adjoming borough of Salford are, so far as they could be obtained, given. Amongst-these is the well of our worthy President, Dr. Joule, F.R.S., near Albert Bridge. He was so kind as to oblige me with the section of the strata there met with. They were as follows :— * Vol. xiv. (Second Series) of the Society’s Memoirs, p. 103. 40 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ft. PtAS AOU Ys ew sicpi Aho os a ton donaweetoseaen at iaeeced 470 Red clays, with limestones .........ssecscsseeees sesee 120 Red rock and clay, in alternate beds ............+8. 10 | Permian. Lower new red sandstone ..........c.ececscecsedeceeees 000 600 In Water Street a bore was some years since made near the stables of the Manchester and Liverpool Rail- way, and a rock was reached similar to that met with at Dr. Joule’s. This, from its description, appears to have been something hkethe conglomerate-bed seen at Cheetham Weir Hole, on the top of the lower sandstone. At Messrs. Rothwell and Co.’s, in Water Street, the trias was penetrated 492 feet without going through it. By the kindness of Messrs. Worrall of the Ordsal Dye Works, I am enabled to give the section of the trias beds which Messrs. Mather and Platt met with in their bore made at Ordsal some time since. It is as follows :— ft. in. Red Poeie: sist ..elchone hes amas ceee. eae ee Aer eee 92 5 Red rock, mixed with white and a little raddle...... 7 ° FRED. POCK as inns cueca ne seam ee terer seen ch sicieniate cali eee 9 ° Red ‘and white TOK s ssassc css cok as eee te ecw eoe ene naces 5 9 Red sand ‘and ‘white woek- 2.5522 ine eee 4 6 Red wock, very. grithy, | cece. oe tae ees a a 6 9 Red rock, NOG SO GTM c5 26 seinem nos acne eee coe sein 6 2 Red and grey sandstone G...cec<-.n-n.-seesecenes~ouker 9 7 Red ‘and white sandstone 27620 sessed Soa ci as soavescnne 8 I Red and white sandstone and raddle .................. 7 2 Red and white sandstone ..............scsseeeeececeeeeres a White sandstone 1.6. 4..0 coheteeare te ee seve wean 4 ° White sandstone; chiefly. cc. sesepcen<-sasee- ceed aetoeee 17 ° Grey sandstone, very hard +. ..sci.-ssancneneaseveancemies 3. §e ied and white oek 17.4. asn cle aes ea ee 8 6 Red and white rock, hard and gritty, fullof pebbles 6 8 Red and white rock, hard and gritty, very keen...... 5 8 Red and white rock, hard and gritty, more white... 6 8 Red and white rock, hard and gritty, more white... 12 2 Red and white rock, just through a raddle-bed a foe ANCNON BHICK 020.25 sides. snoesecede nen eee yA Carried forward. / nis. csseesgis ese. stewtnnee 237 8 PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 4] fei ie in. Brouglat Forward «joo. s.e isc cede ns nas bose 2237 8 FEC Ce hes loko sitio uitac aes Sis bats Sab PEN NS Aaa Calas Be S50 HecuerOeks Very. HATE.) Soa tseronaneadeaceoveseo< seene ses (ug ES. Darkened, very hard 5. coi. setae ie, totalegconsaah aes acs 14 fe) Banal POO as era sk sont cregsterse esl n cae Ne were 26 3 Raddle and red and white sandstone .................. 7 2 GREE WRC HOSLOUGE 5 oboe aecuist seas se nsnecc seas mane ii: 13 3 IRMA tis ee Sul teats aac ween dinnticte pose asa tide clases 5 3 Red sandstone and raddle ....................ccccese00e Fi 3 Red sandstone and raddle, and clay-band............ 8 6 Red sandstone and raddle, chiefly ..................... 6 fo) Red sandstone and raddle, just entering raddle ... 4 6 Soft raddle and red sandstone, hard .................. 14 6 Vervehiard, hardest founds =... :2efevc.taeec-s sec ens sea 18 9 eel SAMNG SEONG} ie: ch ahd hes ate ser siidelss (wei xGue oxcis sade II I Sione ang raddle MIXES oi. cage enue yoks nce. s-eceees get Fie t Redwand white sAnGstone, 5.5. nos one enek cee densese 9 9 Much like a gravel-bed, as full of pebbles as pos- — Ee oo fo) ived and Trey SANASUONE 7.0.00 5<2cc ti ceo se see svees ovdese II ICUNGATIGSLOME 62. bec: Sonate ccke vests evonsccscacsesceisess 29 orn 459 to The bore was made for the purpose of procuring a supply ~ of water for the works. Plenty of water was met with, but it was so salt that it could not be used for dyeing-pur- poses, and so the boring was discontinued. This is the only instance that has come to my knowledge of salt water having been found in the trias beds near Manchester. The result of the bormgs at Messrs. Joule, Rothwell, and Worrall’s is given to show that im the line from New Bailey Bridge to Ordsal there is no evidence of the great Pendleton fault, although on continuing it south it ought to pass within that distance. Since the date of my last paper, two new localities have been noticed where permian strata occur in West Lanca- shire. Mr. E. Hull, of the Geological Survey, first in- formed me of them. He has noticed them in the sheet which explains the geology of that district. My own ob- 42 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE servations were made before the publication of Mr. Hull’s ‘memoir. Skillaw Clough Section. (Distance about half a mile.) Mr. Eccles’s farm-house. This section is met with about a mile to the north of Newburgh Station, on the Wigan and Southport Railway. On entering the Clough from the upper part, we come to some flags and shales of a purple colour, which have a general dip of about 16° to the south-west. They contmue several hundred yards, and appear to belong to the lower coal-measures. Just before they disappear, these strata dip due west at an angle of 25°, and are traversed by thin veins of carbonate of lime; then drift-clay intervenes, so that the strata are not visible for 10 yards, most probably owing to the occurrence of a fault in the interval. When the beds are again seen, we find a permian rock m the form of a dark-red sandstone, fine-grained and canky, which dips due west at an angle of 25°. Over 10 yards this sandstone is seen gradually becoming coarser in grain, and dipping to the west at an angle of 30°. It contmues for 25 yards further, when its dip reaches 40° to the west, and no trace of a conglomerate-bed is observed. Then come 24 yards of red and variegated shaly clays, succeeded by a bed of yellow compact limestone 4 feet 6 inches in thickness. This is quite unlike any of the permian lime- stones of the south and west of Lancashire which have been previously seen by me; but it much resembles in chemical composition, colour, and structure the lmestone PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 43 of Stank, described at p. 254 of my first paper*. The stone contains hollows filled with crystals of carbonate of lime, apparently the casts of shells. Although’ a con- siderable time was spent in searching for fossils, only one doubtful cast of a small shell resembling a Schizodus was met with. The following is an analysis of the stone, for which I am indebted to the kindness of a friend :— “DICLETINS TCT) Wega Sa eda Cae =e ie an Ae ne 38°98 1 TED Bole Hise tijaarstiae tes Sg eee 4 ay ha a eer 30°24 J PET SST i OA nee UR a eeM ne seg a a er 11°22 SUG Rene ee Be eels cies nic ow Some ota tac Gacoas etein 00% 6°64. Tron, manganese, and traces of alumina .............00+0 8°31 MOAI E) capers dane tena sesececestves aivcceetoneanase+sedeceress I°Io Specific gravity, 2°75. The dip of the stone was to the west, at an angle of 24°. For 220 yards the strata are not well exposed; but they appear to consist of red shaly clays; and in Mr. Thomas Eccles’s orchard are seen some beds of red clays, contain- ing thin bands of gritstone of a red colour, and lying nearly level. The country is flat, and the strata are covered — up with drift-deposits ; so that the beds of the trias, which most probably are there on the dip, do not show themselves, as exhibited in the woodcut. * Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. xii. (Second Series), page 254. The following is a copy of the analysis, showing the composition of the Stank limestone :— WALDOUIG CIO 12). Ate sha c os udeaects oo 38°40 GO Sie fee ceca ine eer athe aa ee 29°80 IVE eSU et assis oss soe hae eladae ewan 8°95 SH TLC ee, cine Se Sete ye ap ei 11°65 Oxaler ol Tron Wty, ee ce celiet athe ae 3 9°45 WV SEOE tmenceeee orrs Meee Soe cesar y ores 1°75 4A. MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE Bentley Brook Section. (Distance about a mile.) Bridge over Bentley Brook. Harrock Hill. A little distance to the east of the last-named locality is another interesting permian section, not far from Bisp- ham School. The rough rock is seen capping Harrock Hill, and dipping south at an angle of 25°; and on the inferior part of it the Haslingden or lower flags are found ; but as we reach the flat ground below, for some distance east of the road over Bentley Brook, nothing but till is met with for about 500 yards. On the lower side of the bridge is seen a mass of dark-red shaly clays (permian), which, when they make their appearance lower down in the brook- course, dip to the W.N.W. at an angle of 45°. These strata, are about 20 yards in thickness. Then comes a bed of compact limestone, of a reddish-yellow colour, about 4 feet in thickness, exactly resembling that seen at Skil- law Clough, and lastly described. Next occur shaly marls of a red colour for about 40 yards, which gradually pass into a bed of red sandstone. These dip W.N.W. at an angle of 30°. Then a fault is seen running in a direction from N.N.W. to S.S.E. Near this fault the sandstone is hardened and discoloured ; but for 100 yards along the brook-course a soft red sandstone, having pebbles of brown quartz, and evidently trias,is met with. This dips W.S.W. at an angle of 20°. These two sections are of considerable interest, as they prove the existence of a magnesian limestone in the west of Lancashire where it had never been seen before. Most probably it is a continuation of the limestone seen at PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 45 Stank in Furness, as it resembles that deposit in all its characters, both physical and chemical. It differs much from the ribbon-beds of limestone found in the red marls of Newtown, Patricroft, Astley, Bedford, and Leigh, and bears more resemblance to the great central deposit of Yorkshire magnesian limestone. Now, can this bed lie above the former? It is possible that such may be the case, and it is desirable that every exertion should be used to ascertain the fact. The section at Stank, above alluded to, and the Rougham-Point section near Cartmel in Fur- ness, described in my first paper, are the places where the question, Does the Stank, Skillaw-Clough, and Bentley- Brook limestone occupy the same position as the ribbon- beds of limestone near Manchester and Leigh? or is it a bed occupying a higher or lower position in the permian group? is likely to be answered by experimental bores. Near Manchester, the permian beds occur in the follow- ing descending order :— ft. 1. Beds of red and variegated marls, containing thin beds of limestone and gypsum, affording Schizodus, Bake- vellia, Pleurophorus, Turbo, Rissoa, &e., about ............ 300 2. Conglomerate brown sandstone, about .................06.e0 es 50 3. Soft red and variegated sandstone (Collyhurst), about ... 500 4. Conglomerate sandstone (Astley), containing pebbles of white quartz and common coal-plants. ‘This, with beds of finer-grained sandstone, all called lower permian, is The permian strata of the north-west of England are not so clearly classified as they ought to be. Some of the sections near Manchester, especially that seen in the Valley of the Irk, im Cheetham and Newtown, would apparently show that the red marls containing limestones and fossils of the genera Bakevellia, Schizodus, &c., passed into the overlying trias. This passage no doubt is only apparent, and not real; and, notwithstanding that the trias is seen reposing on the marls, it is most probable that 46 ON THE PERMIAN BEDS OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. they are really unconformable to each other. The marls in the same locality appear to pass into the conglomerate, and the latter into the soft red sandstone of Collyhurst. These three divisions of the permian beds, although not always conformable to one another, are clear and distinct, and would hold good not only through Lancashire, but in Westmoreland and Cumberland. The marls are the only strata containing permian fossils, as the two latter strata up to this time have yielded none. Now, if the term permian were applied to these, no difficulty would arise; but when the coarse pebbly sandstones of Astley, lymg under the last-named strata, and containing common coal-plants of the genera Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Calamites, &c., beds very similar to thoseof the Ballast Quarry near Moirain the Ashby- de-la-Zouch coal-field, are included, we are obliged to di- stinguish them ; accordingly, in my second paper, prmted in the Society’s Memoirs, they have been called lower permian. They occur just under the red marls containing lime- stones and fossils of the genera Schizodus, Bakevellia, &c., and where the conglomerate and soft red sandstone ought to have been, if those strata had been conformable to the overlying red marls. The lower permian are not only unconformable to the overlying upper permian, but also to the underlying upper or Manchester coal-field. The chief circumstance which induced me to remove them from the carboniferous strata was the conglomerate cha- racter of some of the sandstones, which are as full of white-quartz pebbles as millstone grits are. Now, in the Lancashire coal-field a considerable part of the lower, and the whole of the middle and upper coal-fields, comprising strata to the extent of 5000 feet, have never in Lancashire, so far as my knowledge extends, afforded a quartz pebble of the size of a pea; so the change of physical characters caused me to class the Astley beds under lower permian, rather than upper coal-measures. They undoubtedly occupy ON PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 4.7 the position of the lower Rothliegendes of Dr. Geinitz and the German geologists. The Astley beds very much resemble similar pebbly grit- stones seen in the upper part of the Pottery coal-fields of North Staffordshire, and have some resemblance to the Hooton-Roberts and Went-Bridge rocks of Yorkshire, as well as to those at Moira near Ashby-de-la-Zouch, before alluded to. The Newtown and Bedford limestones to me appear, both by their physical and chemical characters, position, and organic remains, to resemble the thin-bedded limestones of Hooton Roberts, Hampole, Bolsover, and Kirkby Wood- house, more than any other permian beds which have come under my notice. This opinion is different from that of my friend Professor King, of Galway, and other geologists, who regard these Lancashire limestones as the representa- tives of the higher magnesian limestones of Nottingham- shire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Durham; but it is in accordance with the views of Mr. Kirkby, who has examined the organic remains of this part of the permian series with great care and ability. IV.—On Putrefaction in Blood. By Dr. R. Anevus Smirn, F.R.S., &c. &e. Parr I. Read October 29th, 1861. I wAveE for a long time endeavoured to obtain some sub- stantial results relating to the products of decomposition of substances in a putrid state. I have not, however, until lately proceeded in a direction such as to satisfy myself, and even now am only at the commencement of the sub- ject. 48 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON I have already published some of my ideas on that con- dition of the atmosphere which may be called diseased. I have not believed that carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen were capable of producing the results so fre- quently attributed to them, but agreed rather with the more ancient theory “of a conversive force in matter, to change the nature of things, by turning them into its own, when by immediate contact one body alters the properties, and changes the natural inward form and constitution and disposition of another, and works it to conformity to itself, draws it into its own likeness, impressing its own cha- racter upon it, and communicating to it its own form and nature 7’ *, In examining this subject, I passed air for several months through water, but did not obtain those decisive results which I sought. I then passed air through salts of lead, obtaining results which have been already published some years; in these, however, the organic matter was not estimated. When, however, the air was passed through a highly coloured and highly oxidized body, such as per- manganate of potash, the influence of the organic matter became evident, and the relative condition of certain atmo- spheres was estimated. By none of these methods, however, was the actual sub- stance which has been so often sought really obtaimed. Its indications were viewed telegraphically ; it was not handled or seen in a separate state. I therefore exposed blood to putrefaction, and caused air to bubble through it, obtain- ing in this way a more concentrated but a similar action. The air was then passed through a salt of lead as before. This time chloride of lead was used: it was desirable to use no organic acid, and no acid capable of oxidizing the organic substances. Carbonic acid came over in great abundance, and sulphuretted hydrogen. The sulphuretted * From ‘An Hypothetical Notion of the Plague,’ by Mr. Place, 1721. PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 49 hydrogen was very abundant generally at first, but after a time it did not appear so; on allowing the blood to stand for a while, and then drawing air through it, the lead became deeply coloured by the sulphuretted hy- drogen. There was, in fact, a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen formed in the blood; and as soon as the stream was allowed to pass through it, the sulphur compound was carried off. If, however, this were allowed to con- tinue long, there was an excess of air, the sulphide of lead became oxidized, and a white powder was formed, which was sulphate of lead. It was strange how rapidly this oxidation took place. I had occasion previously to observe this rapid oxidation of sulphide of lead, in at- tempting to retain a permanent coating of that substance on the surface of lead pipes used for water. When the coating was made, I found it converted into a white powder in a day or two. | The air was passed through the putrid blood for several months, coming in contact immediately on leaving the blood with the chloride of lead. The salt of lead when exa- mined was found to contain organic matter and ammonia; _ but it was not found to have lost all its putrid gases. It contamed a very minute quantity of phosphoric acid. Carbon and nitrogen were found in the lead salt : I°4 per cent. of carbon. 0°54 per cent. of nitrogen. These amounts are as 100 to 38°5, instead of, as in albumen, 100 to 289. We might at first infer from this that the ammonia is re- moved with greater rapidity than the carbon, and that there is not acid enough formed to retain it in the liquid ; but this is not really the state of the case. The portion of the vapour retained by the salt of lead does not contain all the carbon which passed into it, whilst it contains nearly all the nitrogen. It might also be argued that, as only a SER. III. VOL. Il. E 50 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON portion of the organic matter was retained, two separate substances of an organic kind existed in the vapour; but even this might not be fair, as water absorbs from the gas readily, and begins instantaneously to give out again. I draw, however, this conclusion, that there is a distinct amount of carbon other than that of the carbonic acid, and that a part of the bodies containing carbon is absorbed by acids, others by alkalies. Other experiments show that more is absorbed by alkalies. There was present, in fact, the substance of which I am im search, but of which I can give no account. I was inclined to believe that when such a large amount of air was passed through the salt, not only was the sul- phide of lead oxidized, as was plainly seen, but the organic matter was oxidized also, and perhaps a facility given to its oxidation by the presence of the salt. I believe this ex- plains also why such a small amount of organic matter is obtained when impure air is passed through water. In the atmosphere itself the organic matter begins to be oxidized as rapidly as it is freed, and so prevents accumulation ; and in passing air through water facilities for continued oxida- tion still exist undiminished, and perhaps increased. The method of freezing, so as to obtain the moisture and the dissolved matter at the same time, is very effectual, but it is a very troublesome operation, and, when it lasts long, it becomes expensive also.. Besides, the actual vapours of putrefaction are not in this way obtained, on account of the rapid oxidation which occurs when they are mixed with the atmosphere. | It was in order to avoid the imperfect results alluded to that I adopted the simple method of enclosing the blood in a vessel, and collecting the gas which escaped under pressure. It might be said that this really does not express the exact condition of substances putrefying in nature; and I was deterred from it at first. But on consideration and on experiment it was seen that the blood required the as- PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 51 sistance of the air in order to continue putrefaction ; and in nature it is generally found that putrefaction takes place in a very imperfect supply of air, in cases which in reality greatly resemble. a closed vessel: the surface is generally exposed, but all below receives a very imperfect supply of air. In a similar way, the vessel was occasionally allowed air, whilst generally it was closed—the constant very slow supply in nature being equal to the occasional replenish- ing here adopted. The amount of gas obtained by this method was not quite so large as I expected. It was needful to raise the temperature above that of the atmosphere during a large portion of the year. It seemed to me as if 54° Fahr. were a point to be marked especially. Below this there was little decomposition, above this a decidedly larger amount. However, the evolution of gas did not entirely cease when the temperature fell below 54°, neither did the increase arrive at its maximum on passing 54°. When the temperature rose towards 70°, the escape of gas was much more abundant; but this was rare, as the vessels were kept in an apartment not readily warmed, and they were too large to be moved frequently with safety. 55° Fahr. is generally marked temperate on our thermometers, and the characteristic of organic matter to be more active at this temperature is remarkable. The mere feeling of warmth and cold had long ago fixed on this point as marking the beginning of activity or activity in the materials of which we are composed. The feeling of cold arises no doubt from slowness in the decomposition of certain substances in the blood, and slowness of oxidation. The relative amount of gas given off at different tem- peratures seemed to me a mode of measuring the relation of climates as far as danger from putrid substances is con- cerned, possibly also the production of disease. I have not _ obtained the amount of gas given off below 54°-Fahr.; but EQ 52 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON at 57° Fahr., or 16° Cent., the amount from a certain quantity of the blood was— 210 cub. cent. 1st day. 57°, lowest tempe-} 100 ,, ,, 2nd day. WAUOND co hideanacy T7Ou os Jenn QTR Gay. TOO. 5, os.) uh day, 5th day and Rising up to 72° aie t 785, 0r 397 cub. cent. in a day. The temperature of 57° was not constant; there was occa- sional rising; but that of 72° was maintained artificially. As 57° was the lowest observed here, I shall take 100 cub. centims. to be the amount at that temperature, and 397 the amount at 72°: a rise of 15° Fahr., or 8° Cent., is sufficient to increase the products of putrefaction fourfold. When blood alone was used it became too thick, and the action of the atmosphere was impeded; it was a sealed bottle to itself; it was therefore mixed with about twice its volume of water and put into carboys so as nearly to fill them. The greatest care was taken to close the carboys, so as to allow none of the putrid gases to escape, as well on account of their unpleasantness and unwholesome- ness as for the accuracy of the experiments. Nevertheless there was a constant unpleasant atmosphere in the apart- ment, which was the kitchen of the house, which I use as a laboratory, and which could be shut off from the other apartments. When vapours of this kind come in contact with solid bodies, a certain portion is left behind. In other words, we are not dealing with pure gases, but with gases and vapours readily condensable at the ordinary tem- perature, and having condensation greatly assisted mechani- cally by contact with surfaces. Water retains them, but smooth solid substances do so also. Furniture, walls, &c., exposed to such vapours, and porous substances such as clothes, retain them, and the long-continued action of the air is needed to ensure purification. For this reason walls require cleaning, and furniture must be rubbed; and a PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 53 room must not merely be exposed to a rush of pure air, so as to fill it, but it must be exposed to it long, in order to ensure complete oxidation. This would certainly lead us to suppose that in the air there was only a small portion of the oxygen which performed effectual duty—a sufficiently curious point, especially in relation to Schonbein’s experi- ments. The first evolution of gas from the putrid blood is the most violent, as if the energy of life had scarcely left it; at least the force of that which held it together is diminished, and the change is more striking at the first moment of relaxing ; or perhaps some of the same influ- ences which held the particles of albumen together show their energy in breaking up the compound which a superior direction no longer compels them to retain unimpaired. The first portions of the gas were measured with per- manganate of potash only. The sulphuretted hydrogen destroys that salt with great readiness. The gas was col- lected over water, as the permanganate cannot be used with mercury. The water which was displaced from the tube into which the gas entered was treated also with per- manganate. In each experiment 100 cub. centims. of gas were passed into an inverted tube containing water. The water destroyed the colour of a certain amount of perman- ganate, and the gas partly washed destroyed a certain amount in addition. Liquid 14°5 cub. cent. EMprih EZ tek... ee nico 29°0 Aportl t,o... ae a 5 if ‘ } Secoinet enoeodagede ase 29°5 April a25525..5 ae bay i 4 } Geter cane rade ~ dite aa 29°5 VN oval US 0 neeeee a a : a ab Gece aes svete: 39°1 April 19 ...... cues Ae i beseech assests 40°6 April 26 ...... elie = its } cies 410 Ning 2% vias. «: ae Ais ‘ f I sPeieasiedeeM es testis 62°2 54: DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON About this time the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen in the gas was 6 per cent. The absorbed gases were— Per cent. Sulph. Hydr. Residue. Der S208 a ocdcides Papp (ula etas or 17°32 | Be OBIE. ale ai ciy vee eee 14°22 | Passed through 8. ERG a! Arche eee ee 10°28 > metallic salts, ASP QS14O) spe. S801) ME See 4°60 | SH removed. E.) 90:20) kee. eae lae ee eee 3°80 Gs) Q0107 tutes BGG). 2 rane tae 2°35 FuvQOqs ties a fantail 0°79 SE ee 196 /4 f--eiyes oe 231 O: {O7iO0 wesc: QQ ccectaeme 1°98 Note.—The figures obtained will be given at the end of the paper. Another series was obtained with the following result, using as absorbing agents metallic salts and alkalies :— Gases absorbed. Gases not absorbed. Ta Se Gaaantucsernniies GOS eeea brine 2°92 Dinu, artis meee OFZ ria eee 2°79 Chin dors aaa Sie C17 EET Varta eer Pay Art ee Se rere OF FEE CREO 2°29 The residue from 6 to g remains with little change. No.7 appears anomalous, the amount of vapour of water not bemg known, and no provision having been made for cal- culating the gases free from it. Taking the amount of car- bonic acid as 95 and that of sulphuretted hydrogen as 1°5, the amount of carbon will be 0°0513, and of sulphur 0'00218. The sulphur is to the carbon as 1 to 24°8, whiist in albumen it is as I to 33°4._ The sulphur escapes more readily than the carbon, in proportion to its amount. The cause may be made quite clear when the whole amount in solution is ascertained; but the supposition of a part of the carbon undergoing a lower oxidation than in carbonic acid, will explain why less than an equivalent should escape when albumen decomposes. It must be allowed that in all these there is a constant diminution of nitrogen, but no absolute proof of its elimina- yee al Oy te“ Gree ATEN Ry Sr? Nepali ~~ —" eS eo ee a - a OG « PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 55 tion. It seems difficult to lower it below this amount, the putrefaction generally stopping still. A point to de- termine is, whether nitrogen is obtained from the albu- minous compounds, or whether it be derived from the air needful for putrefaction. It will readily be seen that it is not by mere oxidation caused by the oxygen of the air that carbonic acid is formed; the oxygen of the air is absorbed, but what becomes of it will be better known on examining the liquids. Certain it is that the carbonic acid comes off in overwhelming quantities, and some of it must be formed by the carbon and oxygen of the organic substances them- selves coming forth and leaving the residue more carbon- aceous than before. It is a transfer of much of the most solid elements of the blood into the atmosphere. But some oxygen is absorbed, and this oxygen takes up a certain quantity of carbon, which together form some of the carbonic acid which escapes. We cannot distinguish one part of a gas from another of the same kind; but the escape of carbonic acid on the disruption of the compound after oxygen has been absorbed, leads us rather to suppose’ that the act of oxidation had tended to liberate the gas. As less oxygen is absorbed than the amount escaping in carbonic acid, the whole mass of the blood must be losing oxygen along with the hydrogen and its compounds, and approaching a simple and inorganic form. It was difficult to obtain sufficient for analysis of the unabsorbed residue, as there is only a small quantity, and that small quantity is chiefly nitrogen. When 21°3 millims. were obtained, it was found to consist of @arbonic OxINe <5... 20.05 250s cnetee 4 1'03 or 4°8 percent. Carburetted hydrogen...........2....2. Geer 25 -+?+;; Hydvorer (24 ...22522:..-B Se. .pcaees. i°3 er -672.---,, Witropen © 24. i sr2r2tss 0 REA gotascsss 18°43 or 86°5__,, 100°0 The amount of carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen 56 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON gases 1s extremely small. It may be interesting to inquire whether they are products of the decomposition of bodies existing only in very small quantities in the blood, or whether, during the stage of decomposition, a force is exerted sufficiently powerful to break down small portions of well-known organic products ito gases above, but insufficient for more. such as the Gases after passing through solutions of Metallic Salts. Pressure Vol. at 0° Vol. in mm. oan? (Gens) and 1coo bar. INO: 5 cus aacoee easen ee BRAG cine: GEO'F 1 Chowan 07°S ase 32°8 After absorption of aaeace a ‘ite \ (SL aoa AS2°O.. onsci. 177 Veer 5°65 INO, oie, pte eras TAS ee aii 5G210 Mereace by fo 36°17 After absorption of OW AGT. ccsies 172 eee 3°72 ces She AS AA INO.63° ccas maker eee TOG. scene BOT EOR cides U6 rae 53°92 aula ANSON oe BOB. bxe. ces GOGI SI Tastes «21 16:9) eee 54°44 eulee HIPSNSHLE Las 1629)” “Soees2 ASSH2) t.cene r6igeo sae 7°67 pisleelsea can eeeainene. Nora eee EST © spent G5r-S sss TS'O5, Monee I15‘OL Aft bsorption of OM bai Ree 8 TT" 6h cote GL ESCh A5on a 18°05 o> .-ee 5°33 INOMG Eee cos heen eeces 1347 ek TO i (umeenNes 76°09) seer. 76°51 sot) Pane A OB eismugst BOGE aeeaer 13°34 fiers 2ox Pl ais spins ite cein nets Gases from Blood. Vol. Pressure. Temp. VoL Bs ie and 1000 bar. INDs80: (aessmnntonanocsane TQGG7 | epee TOW 2. een 16"9.) suet 13274. After absorption f ls aaa ae IQ7G) saccar (JORMA covets E750 kao CO, removed ......... G4 rnanes 522104 .cbeae yf A 3°142 INOM7 #5... Te eatin: BLOW ads FOE RU took BS820)\ ieee 140°2 HS removed ......... BOG AGE cheek PGES te tesco a: TS 2Qucis. duane 136°3 COlvemoved -........ S77, accuse G2226) « cesse 1D"9 :| ut eee rx The Gas left in the tube. Vol. at 0° Vol. Pressure. Temp. adie ee Bae INO:aS), Ses os onc ukwareeap BONS ee) act: 732°C, Waccwt E83 aerate 147°84. HS removed ......... CK as F34E5Q. nance 17 Sumnewes 147°74 CO, removed ......... i ee 3. BASE ase BOG cincicas 3°43 NO igntreer es oer isk) nee O73555 0 es aus ec Rs 1is7 HS removed ......... WANa. Seis. 670°7 J. Fg") “fess 111°6 CO, removed ......... 1306 ties gy PURE Ee 128 Tie rz PUTREFACTION IN BLOOD. 57 Residual Gas after being deprived of CO,, HS, NHg, and any substance absorbed by Potash. After explosion CO, removed Past oeseseveosseosecs Serseertesseonesececs eeve eeecece wecevesensaatosesed eece Vol. at 0° Vol. Temp. and 1000 mm. OU pels ca talaiataloy TiS Sauer tats tesa 21°31 He WMO }ONe Dh Chae acAL Son Gare since ahs 33°96 ene TROCO! Wrcietieserets aise UCC on BORED abee 51°09 MET RGR binaseada canes TGS d aoseodee cela 29°33 SRN GORS hha sella stead |e bg A ee 27°76 SOM IAg Vaiocue eds? LEMS) AGoneaodne se 91°96 PAE OOAN Vecaceca seein EG Ona epacse sens 63°98 Parr II. Read April 15th, 1862. When I began to examine the products of the putrefac- tion of blood, it was with the object, first, of ascertain- ing the nature of the gases; and next, of ascertaining whether any matter in them exists in a so-called organic condition, and, if so, in what quantity. I have ascertained the nature of the added no new one; gases; so far as I see, however, I have but I believe that for the first time I have given the proportionate amount of each. After the decomposition had proceeded to such an extent that it was difficult to obtaim even a few bubbles more, the gases ex- isted in the following proportion :— Carbonic acid Mao ne cases sive sesearesanatoedascacsneee. 97°09 pulphuretiod NYGKOSEM .c.cecescrses stro dare egiinea.ses Mean annual rainfall, from four years’ observations, lig Wieyall Cote? A sae, ONO aE eRe Rae et eee a The ratio is therefore =0°31 inches. =45°64 SS = 84°72 = 56°04 = 84°72 =73°40 = 9°86 = 30°68 = 37°67 =o 95. ae eagle =49°48 93 | Grouping together the four highest and the three lowest 94 MR. J. BAXENDELL: INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS UPON stations in the Caucasian provinces, we have the following comparisons :— Four highest Stations. Mean annual Height. . rainfall. Await espe 2600 feet 6°07 inches Alexandropol ...... 4800 ,, Roop Goss AUG pt ie ne eee se 2060 ,, 37°67 © as GIST: saceeeee ee ek LiROO! 5 apes Ve. Mean ...... 2740 19°19 Three lowest Stations. ROUBIS ew soeea ts 4 470 feet 57°94 inches IBACOUN etic ie cise. —53 5 1p ile ge Lenkoran ..........+. —65 ,, 49°48 ,, Mean ...... 117 39°60 The ratio of the mean quantities =o'48. From the results thus given, it will be observed that, at all the stations lying outside the belt, the ratio is greater than unity, the fall of rain on the mountain exceeding that on the plain; while at stations within the belt the ratio is less than unity, the fall on the plain being greater than that on the mountain. We see therefore that, with reference to the rainfall, there is an inversion of phe- nomena in the belt, similar to that which takes place with regard to the changes of the decrement of temperature with increase of altitude,—and also that, on the average of the year, the rain-producing stratum of the air is relatively of less depth at stations within the belt than at other places—or, perhaps to speak more correctly, that moisture in a state fit for the immediate production of rain is re- latively less abundant in the higher strata of the atmo- sphere in the belt than in the corresponding strata on either side. If we compare the ratios of the winter half of the year with those for the summer half at the different stations, we find that a similar relation holds good. THE RATE OF DECREASE OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 95 1. Stations beyond the Belt. Winter ratio. Summer ratio. Allenheads and Bywell.................. 258 —1°78 2E38. —1°37 13°40 15°50 Great St. Bernard and Geneva......... Zea ERS gai025 1°21 12°207 19°406 Dodabetta and mean of Madras and \ 27°200 1.6 Sioa | S10) 001.02 tile Serhan adh ced ne GAS ee 48°497 At all these stations, therefore, the ratio is greater in the winter than in the summer half of the year. 2. Stations in the Belt. Winter ratio. Summer ratio. Madridtand: Thishon: i. .05..04-. 004-00 Sie le 433° _o-gsg 23°453 7°228 Alagir and Koutais..........0000.00000.:.-2 9 =0'278 28°45? _ 146 | 337426 24°518 Alexandropol and Lenkoran............-254 =o'190 9°84 5-546 31°196 18°285 We see, then, that at stations within the belt the ratio is greatest in the summer half of the year; and it would therefore appear that at these stations the quantity of rain- forming moisture in the higher strata of the air, as compared with that in the lower, is relatively greater in the summer than in the winter half of the year; while, on the con- trary, at stations beyond the belt it is greatest in the winter half. Before concluding this paper, I may take the opportunity of drawing attention to some results which appear to indicate a periodical change in the annual value of the rate of decrease of temperature for a given ascent in the atmosphere. In the following Table I have given the mean annual temperatures, and the differences, for the two stations Geneva and the Hospice on the Great St. Bernard, for the years 1848-1858 :— 96 MR. J. BAXENDELL: INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS UPON Geneva. Gt.St. Bernard. Mean temp. Mean temp. Diff. TEAS cctss 15, ee DaeSG sewers 18°90 TO40) gees ARCO levigaes 28°85 Uessae 19°23 TOGO Gates la 3 Coa Py feeb a 19°49 DOG Tecra = AGEN a anos 2 Bidens 18°96 TeG2 accuse ASI9G) o.2e-r 29°30" nore 19°69 PaS Genscan AZSo) pinatie QO 8e kas ser 20°55 DS GAN eee Pa EOE ig 0 ee 20°07 es arenors ATETO, wees 7 it ee 20°18 ESB OM ace GSi20) anon POSTAGE face a 19°81 LIS ce 56 BO 77, Unaesce ORIG PERE Hie 19°99 1OgS Ete. AF Obs) uses 7 che (en 19°49 From the numbers in the last column, we see that the difference was at a maximum in 1853, and at a minimum in 1848, and that, notwithstanding some slight irregu- larities, there was a tolerably regular increase from 1848 to 1853, and afterwards a tolerably regular decrease to 1858. As it is generally believed that the temperatures at low stations are. more liable to be affected by acci- dental irregularities than those of stations at a greater elevation, I have also compared Milan with the Great St. Bernard, and have obtained the following differences :-— FSAG chen. PAL 5 RNGY be MecHaae 26°84 REAO ee 26°68 Lie ie 26°39 TS 5Ov att. 25°85 ESG Owes: 25°71 TO5G et... 26°78 DRG) eseee 25°65 E12 3 nee 25°76 IS5S ctt.e 24°79 TO SO nererh 27°76 These differences also show a maximum in 1853, but the minimum is in 1858. A slight examination will, how- ever, show that the irregularities in the first series are to some extent compensated by the irregularities in the second ; and combining the two, we have— TOAD ge omisinis 22,12 HGRA soamsey 23°45 ESAQ asescn 22°95 DOGS 7 verse 23°28 PEGON: st. 22°67 ES5G" al IE55 22°76 BIOL «Beles: 22°84 oily fee ne 22°82 PSSA Boe 2272 LOGS) cures. 22°14 THE RATE OF DECREASE OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 97 If, now, in order to smooth down still further the irre- gularities arising from accidental causes at both the upper and the lower stations, we take the means of groups of three years, we have the following remarkable numbers :— Mean of 1848 s80 3) 58 33 1849-51 =22°80 » — 1850-52= 22°74 » —- 1851-53= 23°23 » - 1852-54= 23°44 »» -¥853-55= 23°62 “f 1854-56=23'16 » — 1855-57=22'95 - 1856-58 =22°57 In looking over these numbers, it seems impossible to resist the conclusion that some influence has been in operation by which the temperature of the higher station was gradually reduced, as compared with the lower stations, up to the beginning of the year 1854, and afterwards as gradually increased to the close of the series. In the next Table I have given the mean annual tem- peratures and the differences for the years 1856-1860 at the two stations in England, Bywell and Allenheads :— Bywell. Allenheads. Mean ann. temp. Mean ann. temp. Diff. WGK) cote es 46°92 42°78 4°14 PSG7. see 49°50 44°82 4°68 LOGO! cceese ss 48°47 43°57 4°90 EShQp coc 4S°Si 43°90 4°91 DSE6GR. 65252. 45°73 40°66 5°07 Here we have a remarkably gradual and regular in- erease of the difference from the commencement to the end of the series, which contrasts strongly with the irre- gularities in the changes of the actual temperatures of the two stations; and it will be noticed that this gradual in- crease took place in the years during which a decrease occurred in the difference between the Milan and Geneva and Great St. Bernard Stations. SER. III. VOL. II. H 98 MR. J. BAXENDELL ON TEMPERATURE, ETC. It is remarkable that the epoch of maximum indicated by the Geneva and Great St. Bernard observations cor- _ responds exactly with the epoch of minimum magnetic disturbance, as determined by General Sabine from the observations made at the Colonial observatories and at Pekin; and it is probable that there is also a close cor- respondence between the periods of the two phenomena. Mr. Vernon, in his paper “ On the Irregular Barometric Observations at Geneva and the Great St. Bernard,” has given the mean monthly temperatures at these two stations, derived from observations made during the twenty years 1836-1855; and Prof. Plantamour, in a paper in the 13th volume of the ‘ Memoirs of the Physical and Natural History Society of Geneva,’ has given the mean annual temperatures from observations durmg the ten years 1841-1850. From these data, and those given above, I find that— The average difference of temperature ° of the two stations for the five years ............ 1836-40=19°046 5 > seven years............ 1841-47=19°697 a 2 EMPCEMVEATS ee -meese- lo’ o) oO 1 ae mM cm ° a i} AOMnMANAONA MA | HH] A 77) + oO Eppes oe arta foal ise) . is] | | Mo HH AMm~ATOCO MMO O (e) No) iz Cal = \O + 2 - we ie —_ Sladek aAM+tMNS RO DOH "| ins} FPMMDMMWM MMMM WHO oO n o ® | 00 00 0 60 00 60 00 60 00 00 00 00 00 S| 3 el Se ee ee ee Se Se oe oe Oa 3 >) nile April. me & & too NO AWwOoOr CO ise) CN iz = Cl \o + s Onk OMMONHH MA tCMHOR cn wn = si Gakeip oe Fl noonwdaannunnd?y|] © | a P Re) a ee <> {| 2 a H | ONmMAO0OnH Mm OAR O alts 0) B ee ere is Ort TNCOO TA AOWO ~M @| « = aS Al mtnamo4nnmaanm| +] wm 7 = Loon | foe) oo 5 | eee a s Ln | a HAOndmtMo Noone : D rs Ft MMM] MDHMNWM HWM MMO w =| C5) ©0 00 00 60 60 CO 00 00 60 60 00 00 00 g 3S > ee ee 5 o n|e 106 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE DIRECTION Tas xe I. (continued). May. Year. N. N.E. E S.E 8 S.W. Ww N.W. 1349. 6 6 fo) 6 3 7 ) 3 1850. fo) I 4 2 6 7 5 6 1351. 2 2 3 I I 6 9 7 1852. 4 10 3 fo) I 8 I 4 1353. 2) 14 a 4 ° I I 8 1854. I 4 fo) 4 2 13 4 3 1855. fo) 12 2 K I 7 fe) 4 1856. I 14 2 2 I 9 I I 1357. fo) 8 9 3 I 4 5 I 1858. Z I 2) 2 4 10 2 | 1359. I 6 13 7 I ° I 2 1860. I X Sil Oe me II 4 4 3 1861. 5 4 I fo) I 5 9 6 Sums 52.) 23 | 33 48 38 23 81 42 55 Means...} 1°8 | 64 3-7 370 was 6°2 a2. 4°2 June Year. N. N.E. | E. | S.E. S S.W. w. N.W. 1849 2 3 fo) 3 3 16 fo) 3 1850 fe) 2 I fo) ike) 1 fe) 7 fo) 1851 ° fo) I 3 I 15 5 5 1852 fe) 6 2 3 fo) 12 fo) 7 1853 I 7 o ° o 9 4 9 1354 I 7 ° 2 I II 6 2 1855 fo) 2 fe) I 2 16 fo) 9 1356 ° I I I I 6 9 II 1857 I 6 4 2 5 4. 2 6 1858 fo) Oo fe) 4 3 II I II 1859 fo) 4 8 2 6 ° 2 8 1860 fo) 6 I I 5 II 4 2 1861 I I 6 4 3 2 2 II Sums...| 6 45 24. | 26 40 | 123 42 84 Means...! 0°5 ad | 1°8 | 2°0 a1 | 9°5 a2 6°5 Year. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1353. 1354. 1855. 1859. 1357. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1361. Sums .. Means... OF THE WIND AT MANCHESTER. TasxeE I. (continued). 107 July. N N.E E 8.E. 8 S.W | Ww N.W. 2 4 3 I 4 16 I fe) 3 I I 7 fo) 5 10 4 2 5 I I I 7 6 3 5 4 ° 4 fo) 9 I 3 I I fo) 3 fo) 14 3 9 fo) 4 2 I I 14 3 6 fo) I fo) 5 fo) 10 2 13 fo) fo) fe) fo) ) 10 6 15 fo) fo) Oo fo) 4 Fi 12 8 Zz, 2 fo) a 2 7. 2: 12 2 fo) 5 I 3 2 6 12 I I 6 4 5 g) 4 3 2 I fo) 5 10 3 4 I 20 24. 18 35 | 31 116 60 99 Gls 1°3 14. og | 2°4. 8°9 4°6 7°6 August. | N N.E E 8.E 8 S.W Ww NeW. | | ° 2 ° 3 I 17 2 6 aie iS 2 fo) I I 16 5 3 5 7 I fo) 2 8 6 I 4 I I 2 4 15 fo) 4 4 Zi oO 3 3 aS - 2 2 fo) fe) fo) 4 19 I 5 fe) I fo) I z 15 5 7 fo) 6 I 5 4 10 3 2 : at ij = ss 3 9 4 fe) 2 3 4 2 3 vi fe) I fo) 4 fo) 6 7 9 4 2 I I I 5 16 4 I fo) fo) fo) fe) 2 14 15 fo) 22 33 18 22 38 | 156 67 47 E77 275 | 14. 1°77 2°9 | 12°0 572 3°6 PS, ; om ont a RO le mat Ee MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE DIRECTION 108 TaBLeE I. (continued). September. El] AA nd non mOnaNA | C&O] WH Flee NhtOtTNOMOCONH!] OO] O Hi = ee A St % Eager +i im . Na +O MO O MBO 0000 DN} © (oe) . Mae tA Rr ON +t EMO +H + (on) iva) = ae er = 4 = in|: + > Baas fo TiS bO el EA co ict ASS Fl] to+nn0 mH pele ae 4 3 = = D ° rl ps 3 m \O mM o co as Attn OOnO0 Na +O DB Als wo ANMm~ONA MO MO ADO NA a oo ; | puree A MON HHA Ht HOO +MO = lon o & Sam one wee ene @ | Ww a = my || S a SP fp oe = | | fs) | =| moOoOndHtmoodorma we NO 4 + a] wonowtrooddo FOU DO rb. + + | conmnrcoNO OF AH +H O a fe) =| NA & MO FOO NH & O O + | © v4 Ww am = ow me = HHOOONROMO00NO] Al] NR ee ee m | 00 (e) Hagel Iso) HL ADH AMENS ROO ADH aa | EG ean |e 2 FS FTAMMMNNHMNHHMNHMM'9 0 n =| | ON Oa DEE nS 2) s| 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO 00 0 00 00 00 60 g oS © 00 CO 00 00 00 60 60 00 60 60 00 00 00 g 3S Pp fe iin ls Be oe | 3 © ea a 3 o 109 OF THE WIND AT MANCHESTER. TaBe I. (continued). oes nnn El AOOMHHMFH AHO! }] OO] A Stee ce eee om) : Cai) ny as ° PS} S ba zi | + : Mr~ORHNAONMA TNM] O fe) : OHmMA NM O+A HE MOOS gules ag +l iw = a a > Amora nowddo fOH DA] J Aber Danae sais 1 ° Ca) - co ay . ca) a cy t nn wa ~ Slee el eee = MOA FMA OKTAOS AMMA], LT] + wo OMOMO HO AO NMrA 4 ™ Saige 5S | a Bal aAmMtmmMaAmMMOn+ tO a] -] ae Hl nownnmoa tOaANHD| 4] a qj 5 wy + g a) LY ova ee a) ea B + a cS) [o) | o 4 | =) | | A OOF FR NOOO TOO OO O va (.} 5 tr HeHMMO OW OF NOM No} fove) ica] bol + a cl - Bs | 0 000\9 Mr00 Oo # MF OO CO (Se) DN = ma +t+OnontHOO NH + + A = “Se z mH So eee . OtmoododdwroH MOH & i> isa) . NenDONHROO OO MAA a ~ | me |S 2 Noles so | AOR AMEMO Roo HOH soa lie we | DORA MENS RO ADH D eS HFM WMMMMMNM MM MO 0 wD = 3 FD 1 WH) WH ND |] UN 10 a) a ®D | 00 0© 00 00 60 00 00 00 60 00 60 00 60 q 8 ® | 00 00 00 00 00 00 60 00 00 00 00 60 00 3S > Se SS eo Oo Oe Oe oe om | a On | o nie nls 110 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE DIRECTION OF THE WIND. TaBLe If. Total amounts of each Wind for the entire Year. Year. N. N.E. E. 8.E. 8. | sw. | Ww. N.W. 1349. 27) 44. ar | 52 36 | 127 | 13 40 1850. 21 24. 27 51 60 105 54 23 185i. | 27 | 45 22 37 45 8554 50 1352. 17 66 22 42 17 116 | 10 76 1353. 18 80 15 34. 15 94. | 26 83 1354. 12 44. 13 5 31 124 cay 87 1855. tay 7 33 13 93 | 15) amas 1856. 12 68 30 haf 42 72 \ "AO 65 1857. 8 44 | 49 | 45 44 83] 57 35 1858. 12 22 48 48 51 7600\) aa 64. 1859. | 13 19 58 36 | 48 81° 55 54 1360. 24. 36 48 31 66 62.378 28 1861. 17 29 34. 40 62 72. \* 67 35 Sums: Mane) "Gao, gon cos 5309 | 1190 | 547 leg Mieans...j%673. |'48"6 |30°3 | 38°7 | 4o0°7 g1°5 |42°0 5G Referred to Four Points only. Year. N. E. S. w. Mean direction for year. 1849. 69°0| 6g9'0}] 125°5|) r0I'5 1850. 44°5| 64°5| 138°0| 11870 1351. TAGs 6Z50)|/" Tob ON ar2a ss 1852. 88°0| 76°0| 9g6°0|} 106'0 1853. | 99°5| 72°0| 79:0) 114°5 1854+ | 77°5| 43°5| 1om'5| 142°5 1355: |) Loa"o-! 7gr0 |) 76"O)|" KeG6;0 1356. 78°5| 82°5| 96°5| 108°5 1857. ATi 5 I" “9925 LOsro)| 11 6:0 1858. REO) SsrO lM aaa tO E270 1359. 49°5| 85°5| 106°5| 122°5 1860. 56:01" 81°5) 112-5 | 1VG6r0 1861. 49°0| 68°5} 1180} 120°5 RARRDANNDANNN MN nn ba | e) Sums ...| 892°0] 961°5 |1376°5 |1504°5 Means...| 68°6| 74°0| 105°8| 11578 S45 We Crew ™ ies MR. A. CAYLEY ON A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. Wt TasBLE I11.—Days of each Direction of Wind in each Season. Point. | Winter Quarter. | Spring Quarter. | Summer Quarter. | Autumn Quarter. "| Dee. Jan., Feb. |March, April, May.|June, July, August.| Sept., Oct., Nov. NB .)aie 4°8 4°9 a7, 2°3 N.E 11g 17°5 7°83 II'5 ee 6°8 10°0 4°6 g'0 Bae ac 11'S 9°4 64 II°5 Se cree 12,0 727 3°4, TOG S.W.... 23°23 17°6 22h 21°0 ees 6°7 10°4 13°0 11°8 NEN ase. 12°5 14°5 17°7 1I‘4 Four Principal Directions only. N. E. S. Ww. Were ee ease 17°0 18°5 30°4, 24°6 PS) DU EIED LP a eee 20°9 elds ITS) 2.6°3 Sumber -225 555 5: 16°5 117 22°83 Piel PRUUMONIT Vos) Boa seks ce 20°O 164 2.0°5 2.8°0 IX.—WNote on a Differential Equation. By A. Cay ey, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S., Honorary Member of the Society. Read February 18th, 1862. Tue following investigation was suggested to me by Mr. Harley’s “ Remarks on the Theory of the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equations,’ communicated to the Society at the Meeting of the 4th of February. Mr. Harley’s equation y”—ny +(n—I1) 2=0, may be written or putting it becomes y=u-+ ay”, 112 MR. A. CAYLEY ON A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. which equation may be considered instead of the original equation; and it is to be shown that y, regarded as a_ function of uw, satisfies a certain linear differential equation of the order n—1. In fact, expanding y by Lagrange’s theorem, we have Vests a: (wen)! esate. (w3”)" + &e. Ue [22.8 3 x ane = ae 3n(3n — 1)u3"-2-+4 &e., the law whereof is obvious, and using the ordinary nota- tion of factorials, viz. [n]"=n (n—1)...(n—r+1), we may write 6—1 y= Sy - ae Gg? yar) o+1 where @ extends from 0 to co. It is now very easy to show that y satisfies the dif- ferential equation [ Oran say a| n ped Ola gee genie die! et y- In fact, using on the left-hand side the foregoing value of y, and on the right-hand side the followmg value of u"—"y, obtained from that of y by writing @—1 in the place of 0, viz. pois eee 8 Wee el Dees (n—1) 0-41 UA Y= 9p (6—1]* “a u : and observing that in general the symbol zw E as re- gards u”, is=m, the equation in question will be sa- tisfied, if only [n6]o-7 Nae “Te? [(n—1)0+1] O—) 6-2 n —Jyi"-! apa Lace { Se ele | nah eget OTM BITE Cy Oe ee gh MR. A. CAYLEY ON A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION, 113 where the right-hand side is nnd |e = C= ce [nO—1]”-!; and the equation may be written nO [nO — 1 |9-2 n [nO —n|?—* FO ay fe (in) 0+ tr a [nr that is, [m0 —1]°-# [(n—1) 0-4 4]! = [nd — 1] [n0—n] 4, which, since each side of the equation is=[n0—1]®+”-3, is obviously true. The foregoing differential equation is developable in the form + me apis a nu—1 Lae a, + Oy Fe =.) eee $a, 7 U Ga y =2(5)" ~ na\du Y3 but to find the coefficients a,,a,,...@n—1, 1 start from this form, and proceed. to substitute im the equation the value of y, which on the left-hand side I use in the original form, and on the right-hand side in the form obtained by writing @+1 in the place of 0, viz. 0 oe got I yor 1) O+7, The equation to be satisfied is [nO |9-* [@]° $4n-a[(0—1)0+ 1+) = or, what is the same thing, («. [nO ]9-* + o, [nO]?-+e, [nO]ett... 1 [n(@+1)|e+7-: qa s[n@]e+e—2) = = EET aoe i SER. III. VOL. II. I y=So (4.+as[(n—1) 0+ r]'+a,[(n—1)0+1]*.. 1 [n(@+1)]° m (O+rper Len etal, sas [¢]° 114 MR. A. CAYLEY ON A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. Or, observing that the right-hand side may be written i n(0-+1) [nO +as1te n (0+ 1) [0]? : the equation becomes a, [nO ]°-* +a, [nO]? +e, [nO]ot! .. . +a,_, [nO] 9+"? = [n0-+n—1]9t"-2, or, what is the same thing, a oto, [(n—1)O+1]'+a,[(n—1)O+1]*... + an_1[(n—1)O4+1]*-!= [nO+n—1]"-!; so that a,,a,,...n-, are the coefficients of the expan- sion of [n8+n—1]"—? (which is a rational and integral function of 0, of the degree »—1) im a factorial series, as — shown by the left-hand side of the equation. To determine the actual values, write (n —I ) 0 +1I= d, this gives nb +n —3n-+1 nO+n—-I= nm—I ? and we have therefore nh +n*—3n+ 17"? : i ; [eee eT =a,+a,[o]*+o,[p]*... : ton —1 |G)" 5 so that the general expression is LAN hes Cue aay { [s]é nm—I where A denotes the difference in regard to ¢ (AUg=Ug, ; —Us), and, after the operation A’ is performed, ¢ is to be put equal to zero. ied a Se - DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. 115 X.—On some Amalgams. By J. P. Journ, bi), F.R.S. &e- Read January 7th, 1862. THE experiments I am about to describe were made twelve years ago, but their publication was delayed to the present time in the hope of being able to extend them. Although I have not found an opportunity of doing so, I trust that these comparatively old observations will be deemed of sufficient interest to justify me in having submitted them to the Society. My attention was first directed to the subject through my wish to discover a ready means of procuring a per- fectly true and polished metallic surface. Since it was believed that mercury refused to enter into combination with iron, I thought that by depositing the latter on mercury, a plate of it would be formed possessing a smooth- ness equal to that of the fluid metal. However, on making the experiment, I found that the iron entered into com- bination with the mercury, forming an amalgam *. One element of a Daniell’s battery was amply sufficient for the purpose. Its zinc plate was connected by a wire with a globule of mercury covered by a solution of sul- phate of iron, whilst an iron wire attached to its copper plate, and dipping into the solution, completed the circuit. The iron wire gradually dissolved, whilst an equal portion was taken up by the mercury, which, in doing so, by de- * In consequence of iron possessing nearly the same affinity as hydrogen for oxygen, there is considerable difficulty in depositing it electroschemically on a metallic plate. I have only once or twice obtained a good electrotype deposit on a polished surface, to which the iron adhered so firmly that it could only be removed by abrasion. Even in the process of amalgamating iron, the constant evolution of hydrogen from the mercury shows that de- composition of water takes place simultaneously with that of the salt of “ qron. 12 116 DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. grees lost its fluidity, until at length a mass of crystals of amalgam was formed having a greyish-white colour of metallic brilliancy. The time required to complete the operation was generally about one day; but a longer or shorter period was occupied in some instances, in conse- quence of variations in the quantity of mercury employed, and in the efficiency of the voltaic arrangement. The fol- lowing Table contains the results of most of the experiments made on the amalgam of iron. The analysis of this and other amalgams was made by heating them in a glass tube through which a current of hydrogen was passed. Composition. INO.) ior sence weray: Remarks. Mercury.| Iron. I. 100 QUA acre cetera Perfectly fluid. 2. A Te OW se ete Fluid. ah, i CIN 37 Bea See a Semifluid. 4. 5 11°8 12°19 | Soft. ie D 1S; Bat lectin Solid: colour, greyish white. 6. Hi; ATER. eter ene Solid: good metallic lustre. rhe a 127°6 Io'11 | Solid: friable. 8. 53 TAAL SN aescceh The superfluous mercury pressed out from the semifluid amalgam by hand. 9. * VAS aR, acs sieesin Compressed rapidly, and with a force of fifty tons on the square inch. 10. ie DOQ*2 >) Wie eenc ae Ditto. No. 5 of the above Table was a solid amalgam of a greyish white, approaching the colour of iron. It could be easily broken into powder. When dried and left un- disturbed, it soon became covered with small globules of mercury, until ultimately it was entirely decomposed. To obtain No. 6, I used a solution of chloride of iron instead of the sulphate which was used in all the other experiments. No. 7 could be easily reduced to powder. It had a bluish colour, and was destitute of metallic lustre until it was rubbed. It remained some time under water with- out change, but when dried became speedily decomposed, - Se” a Cal _DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. 119 whether it was exposed to the action of air, or was placed under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump. The amalgam of iron, whether solid or fluid, is at- tracted by the magnet, and in the solid condition is capa- ble of receiving a slight dose of permanent magnetization.. In No. 1, the iron, though apparently completely dis- solved by the mercury, remained in the full possession of its magnetic virtue. A portion of No. 2, weighing 87°69 grains, placed in a piece of quill, was attracted by a magnet with a force equal to 0°36 gr. 3°058 grains of iron wire, cut mto small pieces and placed in the same quill, were attracted by a force of 094 gr. The quantity of iron contained by the amalgam was 1°2 grain. Hence it appeared that the iron had lost very little of its magnetic virtue by combination with the mercury. The following observations were made to discover the position of the amalgam of iron in the electro-chemical series. The galvanometer which was employed had a coil I foot in diameter, composed of 400 convolutions of wire 1-40th of an inch in diameter. Positive Metal. Negative Metal. Deflection. Amalgamated zinc. Zinc. TO" Zine. Iron. AD. Zine. Copper. age Amalgamated iron. Copper. i Tron. Amalgamatediron. 5° It appears, therefore, that the amalgamation of iron produces a contrary effect to the amalgamation of zinc. This is especially remarkable, as the amalgamated iron contained no carbon, which must. have existed to a certain extent in the plate of iron with which it was associated. When amalgam of iron is left under water for a few days, it becomes coated with rust. If shaken violently, it yw DR. J. Ps JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. becomes almost immediately decomposed, the iron as a black powder floating on the surface of the liberated mercury. When the amalgam is heated to the boiling-poimt of mercury, the liberated iron unites with the oxygen of the air, throwing off bright red sparks, and leaving a hard lump of oxide. The experiments seem to indicate that the solid amalgam of iron which contains the largest quantity of mercury is a binary combination of the two metals. The specimen marked No. 8 in the Table was procured by compressing by hand between folds of linen a quantity of amalgam in a soft state. There resulted a mass of white crystals of perfect metallic lustre. The mercury left was about two equivalents. It seemed probable that one of these was left uncombined among the pores of the amalgam. The specimens Nos. g and 10 were obtained by hy- draulic pressure acting on a piston of steel 3-8ths of an inch in diameter, working in a cylinder into which a silken bag filled with amalgam was placed. The resulting amal- gam was so hard, that it could only be broken by the smart blow of a hammer. Its black colour seemed to indicate nearly total decomposition. Amalgam of Copper.—To form this amalgam, a small quantity of mercury was poured into a dish contaming solution of sulphate of copper. A copper wire connected. the mercury with the zinc of a Daniell’s cell, whilst a coil of copper wire immersed in the cupreous solution com- pleted the circuit. A mass of crystals was gradually formed, branching out to the distance of half an inch or more. Ultimately pure copper was deposited on the ex- tremities of the crystals in a fringe of light red, the whole presenting the appearance of a beautiful flower. In the following Table I have collected the results of several such experiments :— DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS, 119 No. |Mercury.| Copper. | Sp. grav. Remarks. i 100 2215 13°32 | Arborescent crystals: no pink de- posit. 2 a 2473 13°260 Ditto ditto. 3 a5 25 137185 Ditto ditto. 4. a 27°76 13°17 Ditto — ditto. in 5 . APO caeeeee ae | Pink deposit on the extremities of the crystals. 6 € PU UA aN Siete eee Pink deposit over the greatest part. 7 ‘ 31°35 13°51 | The copper which was deposited on the outside of the crystals was constantly removed. The experi- ~ ment was stopped when the cen- tral button of amalgam became pink in one or two places. 8. $3 ZOO Stallion ae Ditto ditto. 9- 5 29°0 13°76 Ditto ditto. 10 . 34°19 13/01 From a hot solution of sulphate of copper. Hard and crystalline mass. ~ pile & 39°64. 12°99 | Formed slowly in eight days. Pink in several places. 12. é AEG Wl coded ake This amalgam was continually pounded whilst it was being pro- duced. Pink in several places. 13; oD 33°12 12°65 | Sulphate of copper, kept at 100° Fahr. In two days the amalgam was co- vered with arborescent crystals tipped with pink. On inspecting the above Table, it will appear that when- ever the quantity of copper approaches nearly to an equiva- lent, a deposit of unamalgamated copper begins to take place. This seems to demonstrate that the solid amalgam contain- ing the least quantity of mercury is a binary compound. The mean of the specific gravities of the specimens pos- sessing an equivalent (or a little less than an equivalent) of copper is 13°31. The specific gravity of the other amalgams, containing excess of copper, is 12°82. It follows that, if we admit that the specific gravity of copper is not altered when it enters into combination with mercury, the specific gravity of the latter, in the amalgam, is 15°415. In the following Table I give the analysis of amalgams after pressure of various degrees of force had been applied during various lengths of time :— 120 DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. Pressure per No. | square inch, Time. Mercury.| Copper. | Sp. grav. in tons. I a 12 hours 100 202 2) 2 2 12 hours 3 17°28 S I 36 hours (eo 20°5 4. 1i 17 hours “se 18°95 Bs 2 12 hours 9 18°4, gradually a 6 increased 33 months a 39°02 12°76 up to 1 ton 13 days, with intervals : is ne amounting to ‘g 38:43 120° 54 days 8. 9 a few minutes Top 25°84 12°92 9: 15. ” ” 28°57 10. 18 9 53 28°4. 1301 Il 20 ” ” 29°46 12. 72 oe , 30°95 13°06 D3. 72 4 ie (32°82 12°93. 14. 144. a + 35°13 12°96 15. 144. 3 ae 34°87 | 12°57 16. 144. ke in 35°63 12°62 Gh. 20 30 minutes a 33°04 18. 36 30 minutes : 30°25 12°83 19. 72 1 hour a 32°34. 20. 30 2 hours ee 40°18 21 30 7 hours 4 44°34. 12°38 On inspecting the above Table, it will appear that a moderate pressure continued for a short time leaves a binary compound of the metals along with the quantity of mercury which may be supposed to be entangled among the crystals. When the pressure was very great, or was continued for a long time, the resultmg amalgam inva- riably contained more than one equivalent of copper. IL believe that this arises from a decomposition of the binary. amalgam by the violent mechanical means adopted. On the supposition that the copper retains its own specific gravity, the density of the above amalgams ae for the mercury a specific gravity of 14°985. The Amalgam of Silver was generally produced by treat- ing mercury with nitrate of silver. The action goes on until a hard mass of shining crystals is formed, consisting of about an equivalent of silver to one of mercury. SO mnt ting ET ae tigre. Ee DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. 121 No. |Mercury.| Silver. |Sp. grav. Remarks. Ts 100 52°6 14°68 | From cold solution of nitrate of silver. 2 ss TOO) \|Pcensneee Ditto ditto. 3 ‘, Mra ad ees) Ditto ditto. 4 5 DE 5 62 19625 Ditto ditto. 5 + 155°8 12°34 | Boiled in solution of nitrate of silver. 6 “4 106°4 12°49 | From a hot concentrated solution of nitrate of silver. Ge i 2.93°3 12°54 | Button of amalgam formed by the electrolytic action of one cell of Daniell’s battery. 8. is 2614°0 11°42 | Crystals formed on the edges of the above button of amalgam. From the above Table, it appears that the amalgam most readily formed by the action of nitrate of silver on mercury is a binary compound, for the average result gives the proportion of 107°6 silver to 100 mercury. It will be noticed that the specific gravity of the specimens indicates, as in the case of the amalgam of copper, a very considerable contraction of volume, principally referable no doubt to the assumption of the solid state by the mer- cury, the specific gravity.of which comes out 16°5 from the above and succeeding experiments on the amalgam of silver. In the next Table I give the composition of amalgams of silver after compression. Before placing it in the press, each specimen was mixed up with excess of mercury so as to form a thick paste. I should mention here, that, on making the analysis, it was found necessary to employ a temperature nearly sufficient to fuse the silver in order to drive from it the last portions of mercury. No. Pressure. Mercury.| Silver. | Sp. grav. I 2% tons for 1 day 100 33°78 2 3 tons for 3 days A 37°76 3. | 72 tons for 1 hour 5 40°13 13°61 4. 72 tons for 13 hour a 40 13°78 5 72 tons for 14 hour Hs BES 5 13°44 6 72 tons for 20’ apes 43°15 122 DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. The mean composition of the amalgam, after being pressed with 72 tons on the inch, was therefore 43°71 silver to 100 mercury. Allowing for mercury remaining among the crystals in an uncombined state, we may conclude that the solid amalgam containing the largest quantity of mercury is composed of one equivalent of silver to two of mercury. Amalgam of Platinum.—To obtain this amalgam, pla- tinum was deposited on mercury by the electrolytic action of two or three voltaic cells on the bichloride. No. Merewry. Platinum. | Sp. gray. Remarks. I. 100 15°48 14'29 | Metallic lustre when rubbed. 2. As BEG UAL oc ketoee Solid. Dark grey colour. 2. 3 34°76 14°60 | Dark grey; no metallic lustre. An amalgam of 12 platinum to 100 mercury possesses a bright metallic lustre, and is soft and greasy to the touch. Pressed with a force of 72 tons to the square inch, a hard button of dark grey amalgam is left, consisting of 43°2 parts of platinum to 100 of mercury. I infer therefore that the solid amalgam of platinum, which contains the largest quantity of mercury, is composed of two equivalents of mercury to one of platinum ™*. The specific gravity of this amalgam appears to be nearly that which it would be on the supposition that no condensation of volume takes place on the union of the metals; but the specimens were too small to make very accurate determinations of specific gravity. Amalgam of Zinc was obtained electrolytically from sul- phate of zinc ; after some time the mercury lost its fluidity, and branching crystals began to be formed. * Amalgam of platinum in the form uf a thick paste may be obtained by exposing mercury to the action of bichloride of platinum for a sufficient length of time. DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. 123 No. Mereury, Zine. |Sp. grav. Remarks. iP 100 39°4 11°34. | White and crystalline. a 5 122°8 8°935 Ditto ditto. 30 ; 184°9 8°349 | Prepared from hot sulphate of zinc. The first of the above three specimens, consisting of an equivalent of each metal, appears to be the amalgam which, containing the largest quantity of mercury, is yet solid. The specific gravity mdicates a certain contraction of volume, but not nearly as much as that in the amalgams of silver and copper, but such as would place the specific gravity of the mercury at 14°1. Pressure seemed to have the effect of decomposing this amalgam, or at least of expelling mercury, until the amalgam consisted of about one equivalent of mercury to three of zinc. No. Pressure. Mercury.} Zinc. a 3 ton for 1day| 100 59°25 Zs 14 ton for 1 day A 69 3. | 50tons for 1 hour eo 76°7 4. ditto 2 79°6 5- ditto %9 75°9 Amalgam of Lead.—On making mercury negative in acetate of lead, a crystalline amalgam was gradually formed. The operation was stopped when the characteristic flat blue crystals of lead began to make their appearance. The amalgam was found to have a specific gravity of 12°64 (indicating 13°85 for its mercury), and to consist of 100 mercury to 69°83 lead, and, allowing for unavoidable ex- cess of mercury, may be considered as a binary compound. To ascertain the effect of pressure, a liquid amalgam was formed by heating the two metals together. It was then compressed with a force of three tons to the square inch fora day. A greater pressure than this would have caused the amalgam as well as the mercury to escape from the press. “The result was a mass of bright crystals, easily fractured, which had a specific gravity of 12°11, and was 124 DR. J. P. JOULE ON SOME AMALGAMS. composed of 100 mercury to 194 lead. I think there can be no doubt that the pressure had partly decomposed the binary compound. It appears that little or no con- traction of volume is occasioned by the combination of the: metals. Amalgam of Tin was obtained by making mercury ne- gative in a solution of chloride of tin. No. | Mercury.| ‘Tin. | Sp. grav. Remarks. i. 100 5t’or | 10°518 | Beautiful crystalline amalgam. ae i 44°12 10°94. Ditto ditto. a af Hover e See Some unamalgamated tin crystals at the extremities of the amalgam. The amalgam formed by the electrolytic process appears, therefore, to be a binary compound. Its specific gravity, along with that given in the next Table, shows a specific gravity of 14°1 for the mercury in combination. Pressure of the amalgam gave the following results :— No. Pressure. Mercury.| Tin. |Sp. gr. Remarks. I 1440 lbs. for 10’ 100 75°9 2. | 1440 lbs. for 2 days bs Asis 3- | 2724 lbs. for 2 days 5 392°4 4. | 5400 lbs. during 30 . 3841 | 8°154 | Pressure gradually days increased. 5. | 50 tons for 15’ i 402°3 6. | 2700 lbs. during 30 a AGS20 Ee caye Pressure of 50 tons days during 1 day did not afterwards drive out more mercury. The above results show most decisively that pressure is: able to decompose the amalgam of tin, the mercury left after long-continued high pressure having a volume little more than one-eighth of the entire mass. IT made an unsuccessful attempt to amalgamate hydro- gen, by developing it at a low temperature (4° Fahr.) on mercury. It did not appear that the smallest.quantity of hydrogen was taken up. This appears, however, to be an WM. THOMSON ON CONVECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM, ETC. 125 experiment worth repeating. I think it highly probable that, by using intense cold and very great pressure, an amalgam of hydrogen might be formed. As metals generally retain their specific gravities when they meet to form alloys, it may be inferred that the fore- going experiments indicate the specific gravity of mercury in the solid state. This value, from the average of the thirty-six determinations of specific gravity above given, is 15°19. XI.—On the Convective Equilibrium of Temperature in the Atmosphere. By Prof. Wm. Tuomson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. Read January 21st, 1862. THE particles composing any fluid mass are subject to various changing influences, in particular of pressure, whenever they are moved from one situation to another. In this way they experience changes of temperature altogether independent of the effects produced by the ra- diation or conduction of heat. When all the parts of a fluid are freely interchanged and not sensibly influenced by radiation and conduction, the temperature of the fluid is said to be ina state of convective equilibrium. The equations of convective equilibrium in the atmosphere are as follows, Il, T, and W denoting the pressure, temperature, and mass per cubic foot of the air at the earth’s surface, and p,t, and p the same qualities of the air at any height x :— Ce aaa, which is the known relation between temperature and pressure ; * For proof, see foot-note, p. 129, below. 126 WM. THOMSON ON THE CONVECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM = sy) i (f 4 tate ce) the deduced relation between pressure and density; and dp=—pdt,’, = jo) s\n the hydrostatic equation, the variation of gravity at different heights being neglected, and the weight of unit mass (1 lb.) being taken as unit of force. Hence by integration, ' Wea k—1 II po. Ip Ee Or if, for brevity, we denote by H, t eo k—t m— 1 ® eae 6 e 2 e . (4) From (4), (1), and (2), it appears that temperature, pres- sure, and density would all vanish at the very moderate height ee H, which is about goroo feet, or between 17 and 18 miles, if convective equilibrium existed and if the gaseous laws had application to so low temperatures and densities. It has always appeared to me to be most improbable that there is any limit to our atmosphere ; and no one can suppose that there is a limit at any height nearly so small as 17 or 18 miles. It is difficult to make even a plausible conjecture as to the effects of deviations from the gaseous laws in circumstances of which we know so little as those of air at. very low temperatures; but it seems certain that the other hypothesis involved im the preceding equations is violated by actions tending to heat the air in the higher regions. For at moderate elevations above the surface, where we have air following very strictly the gaseous laws, the rate of decrease of temperature “Aix oye per foot, that would, according to equation (4), be ° 1 is to say, 329 per foot, smce H=26224 x - or 1° Cent. / per 329 feet. Now, the actual decrease, according to Mr, SP Cre En EI oe aensemmennil = : > a OF TEMPERATURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 127 Welsh, is 1° Cent. in 530 feet, or not much more than half that according to convective equilibrium. It seems that radiation, instead of partially accounting for the greater warmth of the air below, as commonly supposed, may actually diminish the cooling effect, in going up, which convection produces. In fact, since direct con- duction is certainly insensible, we have only convection and radiation to deal with, except when condensations of moisture, &c., have to be taken into account. In fair and cloudless weather, then, the lower and lowest air being on the whole warmer (the lowest bemg of course at the same temperature as the earth’s surface), it is perfectly certain that the upper air must gain heat by radiation from the lower—and that the convective difference of temperature must be diminished by the mutual interradiation. There are difficulties connected with the radiation of air and earth out into space, and of heat from the sun to air and earth; but I think a full consideration of all the cir- cumstances must explain the smallness of the decrease of temperature which observation shows. Dr. Joule having suggested that condensation of vapour in upward currents of air might account, to a considerable extent if not perfectly, for the smallness of the lowering of temperature actually found in gomg up, I have added the following investigation, in which the effect of condensation is taken into account. If a quantity of air, dry or moist, is allowed to expand from bulk v to bulk v+ dv, it will do an amount of work equal to pdv on the surrounding matter. Now, by the principle established approximately by Dr. Joule, in his experiments on air in 1844 *, the change of temperature which the mass will experience will be almost exactly * “ On the Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air,” communicated to the Royal Society, June 20, 1844, and published in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ 1845, first half year. 128 WM. THOMSON ON THE CONVECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM equal to what would be produced by keeping it at constant volume, v+dv, and removing a quantity of heat equal to the thermal equivalent of pdv. This is expressed by ; pdv, if we adopt the usual notation, J, for the dynamical equi- valent of the thermal unit. Now, if ¢ and ¢+d¢ denote the primitive and the cooled temperatures, so that —dt expresses the cooling effect (which is positive, dt being negative), the bulk of the vapour, if at saturation in each eae if s denote the volume of a case, would tend to be v pound of vapour at saturation at any temperature 7, and s+ds its volume at temperature ¢+dt. Hence if, as it ds . will be seen is the case, wv is greater than dv, a portion equal in bulk to a —dv of the water primitively in vapour, must become condensed. Hence the abstraction I J of air at constant volume from temperature ¢ to tempera- ture ¢-+ dt, and it condenses a bulk of the heat = pdv produces two effects; it cools the mass pai Ss of vapour. Hence, if L denote the latent heat of a cubie foot of vapour of water at temperature ¢, and N the specific heat of one pound of air in constant volume, we have # ;pdv=N x (—dt) +1(v < de, ) if we suppose the mass of air considered to weigh 1 lb. * If L=o, this equation becomes zpdv=N x(—d?), OF TEMPERATURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 129 (with or without the vapour, which will make but little difference on the whole weight). Hence d logs di JIN+JLv =a ° a pete tae where, for brevity, d log s is written in place of = log s denoting the Napierian logarithm of s. oman ad ee , 1t 1s necessary to know the bulk of a pound of steam at different temperatures. Dr. Joule and I have demonstrated*, by experiments on air and by dynamical reasoning, that J dp 1) = t dt vy) where p denotes the pressure of vapour at saturation at the temperature ¢, and - denotes the ratio of the bulk of liquid to vapour. Since soar very small, we have ‘peu Y t dt approximately. It was shown also in the same Paper, that the density of saturated vapour was to be obtained more accurately from this equation, and Regnault’s experiments on the latent ine INS 22 5 or, since a perfect gas), rE 2 t V\k-1 whence, by integration, a7(,) : This expresses the elevation of temperature experienced by a perfect gas when compressed and not allowed to part with heat. * On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion, Part II., Theoretical De- ductions, Section II., Transactions of the Royal Society, June 1854. SER. III. VOL. II. K 1380 DR. WM. THOMSON ON THE CONVECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM heat of a stated weight of vapour, than from any direct experiments on the density of vapour made up to that time. This conclusion has been verified by the recent experiments of Messrs. Fairbairn and Tate. With the assistance of some excellent tables in Rankine’s “ Steam Engine and other Prime Movers,” calculated on these prin- ciples, I have obtained the following results :— Ha to Ho 9 Ss ~ ere | yet ey aera be. eb | S58 | 288 | B2e68 vee es | eae Boe | SAG Sete iss) OS Oem a, a, ee a eO HCO soa | {O82 Be S| eels icy tls Wie Sao ee S gen | oes | e288] ESSH8 | Hsea | Sa8e, a3 Se Bose BS 808 qos Sash oe ow w a ° ro) Sy i Es” | £25 | s23 | S825 | BRes | Says Ora a Bee fags | qe5° | Fags iS a Rs coms) as ere oF ‘ d logs dv dz t—273°7 v JL eT ai ae > | cubic ft.) ft. Ibs. cubie ft. feet. fo) 12°38 249 "0698 "1905 499 5 12°61 348 "0671 "2150 551 10 12°33 481 "0644 "2434 611 15 13°06 655 "0617 "2753 678 20 13°29 381 "0592 3096 751 25 13°52 | 171 "0569 *3455 827 30 13°74 15338 "0546 *3800 goo 35 737 1999 10524 "3950 93 The column of this Table headed is calculated from the preceding formula. It expresses the expansion on the bulk of a cubic foot required to produce a cooling effect —dt (along with an infinitesimal Jowering of pres- sure below the standard pressure of 2117 lbs. per square foot, denoted by p), when the mass is not allowed either to absorb or to emit heat. The last column (headed =) is calculated from the © column headed = by the following formula, dx=pdv + pv nae — OF TEMPERATURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 131 and shows the height, dz, that must be reached to get a lowering of temperature, —dt, when air saturated with moisture ascends. ‘The pressure, p, is taken as 2117 lbs. per square foot ; and the value of = which is the same for 12°38 274 The results, for temperatures from o° to 35° Cent., are exhibited in the last column of the Table. For the tem- peratures 0°, 5°, and 10°, they agree very well with the height in which Mr. Welsh found a lowermg of tempera- ture of 1° Cent.; and we may conclude that at the times and places of his observations the lowering of temperature upwards was nearly the same as that which air saturated the same pressure, whatever is the temperature, is with moisture would experience in ascending. It is to be remarked that, except when the air is satu- rated, and when, therefore, an ascending current will always keep forming cloud, the effect of vapour of water, however near saturation, will be scarcely sensible on the cooling effect of expansion. Hence the law of convective equilibrium of temperature in upward or downward cur- rents of cloudless air must agree very closely with that investigated above, and must give a variation of 1° Cent. in not much more or less than 330 feet. It appears, therefore, that the explanation suggested by Dr. Joule is correct ; and that the condensation of vapour in ascending air is the chief cause of the cooling effect being so much less than that which would be experienced by dry air. 2 To2 MR. J. BAXENDELL: RELATIONS BETWEEN XII.—On the Relations between the Decrement of Tempe- rature on ascending in the Atmosphere, and other Me- teorological Elements. By JosrrH BaxENDELL, Esq., F.R.A.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, February 27th, 1862. Accorpine to the theory which attributes the production of winds and storms to upward currents of air caused by the heat liberated during the condensation of aqueous va- pour into clouds and rain, the rate of decrease of tempe- rature on ascending in the atmosphere ought to be less in rainy than in fair weather; and the reasonings and calculations of Dr. Wm. Thomson, in his valuable paper “On the Convective Equilibrium of Temperature in the Atmosphere,” lately read to the Society, point to the same conclusion; but in a paper entitled “Remarks on the Theory of Rain,’’ read to this Section on the 29th of March, 1860, I gave some results derived from a discussion of the Greenwich and Oxford observations, which seemed to mi- litate against this theory; and reference was made to the fact, stated by Kaemtz and others, that the diminution of temperature on ascending in the atmosphere is more rapid in rainy than in fine weather. It appears, however, that this fact is not generally admitted by meteorologists, as the observations from which it is derived were mostly of a desultory nature, and continued for only short periods of time. I have therefore thought that a discussion of the monthly results of the observations made during the years . 1848-1858 at Geneva and on the Great St. Bernard, given by Mr. Vernon in his valuable paper “ On the irregular Baro- metric Oscillations” at those places, might throw some light on the subject, and, at the same time, serve to indicate the relations which exist between the decrement of tem- DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 133 perature and other meteorological elements—a branch of meteorology which has hitherto been almost entirely neg- lected, although it seems likely to yield results of consider- able importance to the future progress of the science. In the Tables which accompany this paper, the data for mean monthly temperature, rainfall, and amount of baro- metric oscillation are taken from Mr. Vernon’s paper ; but the corresponding mean monthly heights of the baro- meter are from the Milan observations, as I had not access to the barometric observations made at Geneva and the Great St. Bernard; this will, however, not affect the general conclusions, as the variations of the barometer at Milan are generally almost precisely similar to those at Geneva. Table I. contains the mean monthly and annual results of the comparisons of the rainfall at Geneva and the Great St. Bernard, with the differences of temperature of the two stations. Taking the mean values for the year, we find that an annual rainfall at Geneva of 19°581 in. gives a difference of temperature between the two stations of 19°47; whilst a rainfall of 52°972 in. gives a difference of 19°89, or 0°4 greater ; and that a rainfall of 26°745 in. on the Great St. Bernard gives a difference of 19°38, and a fall of 69°838 in. gives a difference of 20°09, or 0°71 more. It is evident, therefore, that an increase in the amount of rain, either at Geneva or on the Great St. Bernard, is, on the average of the year, accompanied by an increase of the difference of temperature between the two stations. Table II. contains all the monthly differences of tempe- rature which are below the mean value, and the correspond- ing falls of rain, mean temperatures, and amounts of baro- metric oscillation, at both stations, and the mean heights of the barometer at Milan. Table III. contains all the monthly differences of tem- 1 34 MR. J. BAXENDELL: RELATIONS BETWEEN perature which are above the mean value, and the corre- sponding data for the other elements. Tables IV. and V. contain the mean results of Tables II. and III. The final mean values for the year are as follows :— Difference . Mean Amount of Mean of tem- Rainfall. Temperature. Oscillation. height of perature Barometer | between Gt. St. Gt. St. Gt. St ab ee tue) Geneva. Bernata. Geneva. Bercatd! Geneva. Born Milan. 6 in. in. ‘ . in. in. in. 18°25 |31°836 | 43°862 | 47°98 | 29°72 ||36°214|29°701 | 297514 2°18 = /32°898 | 48°485 || 47°75 | 26°57 ||42°284 | 33°892 | 29°406 2°93 1'062| 4°623 ||—0'23:| —3°15 || 6°070] 4*191 | —o*108 It appears, therefore, that with a difference of tempera- ture of 18°25 between the lower and the higher stations the rainfall at Geneva is 31°836 in., and at the Great St. Bernard 43°362 in.; while with a difference of tempera- ture 2°93 greater, or 21°18, the rainfall at Geneva is 32°898 in., and on the Great St. Bernard 48°485 in.,—the difference at Geneva being +1'062 in., and on the Great St. Bernard + 4°623 in. The conclusion drawn from Table I. is therefore confirmed by these results,—a greater dif- ference of temperature between the two stations bemg accompanied by a greater fall of rain. With the lower difference of temperature, the mean temperature at Geneva is 47°°98, and on the Great St. Bernard 29°°72; and with the higher difference the cor- responding mean temperatures are 47°75 and 26°57, the difference at Geneva being —0°23, and on the Great St. . Bernard — 3°15. We are therefore led to the remark- able conclusion that an increased difference of temperature is due to a diminution of temperature at the higher station, and not to an increase of temperature at the lower station, —an effect precisely the opposite of that produced by DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 135 change of season, in which a greater difference of tem- perature is mainly due to an increase of temperature at the lower station. The amount of barometric oscillation at Geneva, with a difference of temperature of 18°25, is 36°214 in., and on the Great St. Bernard 29°701 in.; and with a differ- ence of 21°°18, the amounts are 42°'284 in. and 33892 in. respectively. The difference of the amounts at Geneva is 67070 in., and on the Great St. Bernard 4°191 in. These results are also very remarkable, as it would naturally be supposed that an increased disturbance of the atmosphere would tend to produce a more equable distribution of temperature; but the occurrence of a ba- rometrical pressure below the mean, with a difference of temperature and amount of oscillation both above the mean, the temperature of the lower station being also slightly lower, is still more remarkable, as it is apparently imconsistent with all the theories which have yet been advanced to account for the irregular oscillations of the _ barometer. The imcrease in the amount of barometric oscillation, with increase of difference of temperature between the two stations, appears to indicate that the disturbances of the atmosphere which produce disturbances of barometrical pressure take place chiefly in a horizontal, and not in a vertical direction. The diminution of mean temperature with increase of difference of temperature, and increased rainfall, points clearly to the operation of a cooling agency sufficiently powerful to neutralize completely the effects which, ac- cording to the theory above alluded to, ought to be produced by the latent heat of aqueous vapour when ren- dered sensible by the condensation of the vapour into clouds and rains. In my paper “On the Theory of Rain,” I was led to conclude “that the formation of rain might 136 MR. J. BAXENDELL: RELATIONS BETWEEN be regarded as a cooling process,” and I remarked “ that air nearly saturated with vapour had probably a greater power of radiating heat than dry air,” a view which has since been abundantly confirmed by the experiments of Prof. Tyndall ; but it may, nevertheless, be doubted whether radiation alone will account for the whole of the cooling effect indicated by the results of this inquiry ; and I may therefore remark that some results of previous investiga- tions of meteorological phenomena had led me to regard it as very probable that a portion of the heat taken up into the atmosphere by aqueous vapour is afterwards expended in the production of atmospherical electricity, and this probability seems to me to be considerably in- creased by the results now obtained from the Geneva and Great St. Bernard observations. From the relations established by this imvestigation, it may also be concluded that m a mass of air moving from a higher to a lower latitude and acquiring an in- crease of temperature, the change of temperature is more rapid in the lower than in the higher strata, while, on the contrary, in a mass moving from a low to a high lati- tude, and losing heat, the change is most rapid in the upper strata. It also seems probable that one of the essential conditions in the formation of a rotatory or cy- clonic storm is a greater difference of temperature than usual between the successive strata of the atmosphere at the point where the storm originates. DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 60,07 g£3.69 gt.61 SbL.gz 63.61 2L6.2$ Lv.61 1gS.61 £9.01 giv.v ol.£1 gtv.1 gv.Sr 11Z.1 ZQ.c1 959.0 Pee Oe Sy asc seer ees -at ss TOMUTaae Gl 00.81 893.0 O7.8I 1$7.z OI.gI gte.€ ZI.QI ogt.1 phesetescessetniereseieie eleigresslp tie Sales ete * TOQUIOAO NT @z.61 6S0,L TZ7.QI $S9.z £S.g1 g6S.2 9L.gt 600. eoece ee eereeoeesves Peg ee Caer res e 1840100 00.17% obg.f LZ.07Z ggl.I Z1.1Z 606.7 L1.02 L62.z accce eosecee oy tos cesesoveeaheset se. TOQUIOICEG 83.0% $00.7 $6.02 000.7% 00.17% 9S. 08.07 1QL.1 De ae ger aba aide ka ee) (od og gL.1z 183.0 of.22% gol. 96.12 LEz.¥0 €1.7@ g9Z.1 Bp ak ae ak ee ae ee Oe Na VI.ZZ 649.9 gS.zz £9£.z $g.1z $9z.$ 69.72% +L6.1 Seer oases res eee eH se rosebeeeoeseesenosen oun O8.1z 6Sz.2 62.22 L60.£ VZ.77 VLE.L 00.77% 6S£.2 PA ORR Te En 2 OIE a AEH Fa £Q.17 $43.8 +6.17z BBS. $$ .17% L99.¥ £0.z7% oL9.1 BOUIOICIC eecceve Ce eerveccrevecceceeceeces udy 99.1% bbz.$ 16.91 SQI.I LYv.17 919.2 v.61 3z9.0 eeoeenseeneesessoen Sa ee eee SUT INSTAL £5.02 61L.9 £3.91 gr6.1 Sg.Zr $zS.¢ L731 0£8.0 gh Gene ees eens Gniigsis sie.eistecte + Arenrge 7 gv.Lr $30.9 gt.or €SS.z Sg.L1 Ig1.€ bV.91 67z1.1 eee ee er ee e Avenue p (eo) "Ul te) "ul (e} “Ur fe} "UL . eile oi 64 | ee ee tg ee Soe ae Bos aS oe ae Soe ae) eve | BE geese ae | BR ed | be "UBOTT “UROL "UROT “TROT oy} eAoge [[epUTerT oy} MOTEq TTeyUTeYy oy} 9AOge [[eyUTeYy oy} MOTO [[BpUTeYy *dUVNUIG ‘LY LYHUDH "VAENGLD) ae ee ee Ne a ee ok ee "I T1avy, 1388 MR. J. BAXENDELL: RELATIONS BETWEEN TaBxe IT. JANUARY. ga GENEVA. Minay. || Great Sr. Bernarp. aoa Yuar.| 223 Bee iach ll CNS Ses ae )ess ae & | gh | ss Soe | pa alee eee eee 2 | ee) eee Aa Fa Se |/daqo]] as & | se | 92 Ps in. x in. in. in. 5 in 1848.| 16° | 0°858| 24°5 | 3°641/| 29°408 || 3°398] 874 1850.) 15°3 | 1°634| 27°5 | 5°077]| °469 |) 5°773| 12°2 | 4°r01 1851I.| 15°2 | 2°0201 3373 | 3°640 "614 || 3°81g| 18°r | 2°729 1852.| 16°7 | 17803] 361 | 4°224 657 || 4'244| 19°4 | 3°454 1854.| 13°8 | 0°843] 31°83 | 4°035 "520 || 3°354| 38°O | gtome 1855.| 16°% | 1°354/ 29°2 | 3°316 °535 || 2°563/ 13°r | 3°138 1858./ 15°5 | o7181| 27°5 | 2°961 °766 || o°641| 12°0 | 2°770 15°53) 1°242] 29°98] 3°842 || 29°567 || 3°470| 14°45] 3°234 FEBRUARY. 1849.| 14°8 | 1°120] 36°5 | 2°947 |} 29°727 |) 2°441| 21°7 | 2°560 1850.| 17°3 | 0°925} 39°2 | 3°984]| °603 5°189| 21°9 | 3°758 1851.| 17°99 | 1031] 34°3 | 3°152 "547 || 3°350| 164 | 2°389 1855-| 17°3 | 5°624] 35°2 | 4°595 "236 |) 3°531] 17°99 | 3°073 1856.| 14°7 | 17094] 37°8 | 3°336 "£93 || I°7VOR | 2Q°3h ieeaaes 1857.| 15°r | 0°705| 31°6 | 1°519 “7AI ‘|| O'000| 16°5 | F280 16°18 | 1°748| 35°76] 3°264|| 29°572 || 2°702| 19°58] 2°561 MARCH. 1849.| 19°6 088 37°38 | 5°026 |) 29°470 |} 4°004| 18:2 4°350 1850.] 19°r | 07185] 36°3 | 4°008 vise! 1516 17°72 igoaar 1852.| 18°4 | 0'299] 36°7 | 3°865 "526 || 1°854.| 18°39 1gsage 1854.| 18°7 | 07055] 4o°r | 2°218 "725 || 07303] 2174 | 1°845 1856.| 18°2 | 2°457] 40°4 | 3°011 *585 || 0°657| 22°2 | 2°297 1857.| 18°4 | 1°040| 39°4 | 3°132 °395 || 0°886] 2170 | 2°888 18°73 | 0°854} 38°45] 3°543 |] 29°542 || 1°536| 19°71] 3°048 APRIL. 1848. | 20°3 | 6°012] 49°2 | 3°904]] 29°394 |/11"008| 28°9 | 2°436 1850.] 21°2 | 57070] 46°5 | 3°931 "337 || 5'249] 25°3 | 2°360 1851.| 21°5 | 2°280/°48'4 | 37142 385 8°756| 26°9 | 2°397 1952. 20-4.) 0f378.| 46° 9} 2°794 "427 3°248 | 24°9 | 2°116 1855.| 21°5 | 0°815] 462 | 3°295 "379 || 3°39°] 24°7 | 37138 21°18 | 2°911| 47°32] 3°415 || 29°384 || 6°330] 26°14] 27489 —. DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. 139 Tas iE II. (continued). MAY. ae GENEVA. Minan. || Great Sr. Bernarp. ae 3 t oo 3 mys 3 YEAR. oa SB) Gate & Ds x id geo) x fe lete| 3 = £ | 23 ae ele mon | Se lo lel | aS e in. a in. in. in. bs in. 1848.| 19°38 | 0°772| 56°7 | 2°372 || 29°489 || 0°240] 36°9 | 1°713 EOAQ: | 20:7) | Brg 7 552 | 29722 "453 || 6827] 34°5 | 17668 1851.) 21°0 | 17949] 50°0 | 2°587 “428. || 6°342 | 29°0 | 2°57 Eo5g-) 2070 |. 5953 |) $255. | 37298 *366 || 6°468| 30°9 | 2°919 1857-| 219 | 2°157| 54°9 | 2°341 || 369 || 1°913| 33°0 | 1°987 21°0 | 2°801}| 53°86] 2°664]| 29°425 || 4°358| 32°86] 2°079 JUNE, 1848.| 20°5 | 6°283] 61°1 2°656| 29°457 8°858 | 40°6 | 1°987 1849.) 21°2 | 5°937| 64°5 | 2513], "455 |] 7°803] 43°3 | 1°938 2I°E | 4°944| 62°60] 2°497 | 29°466 || 6429] 41°5 | 1°791 JULY. 1848. | 20°2 | 2°776| 64°8 | 2°598 |] 29°502 || 3°638] 44°6 | 2°096 1849. | 21°8 | 1°898]| 65°5 | 2°461 ARON seksi) 4377 oa 77 FOSi. | 21°S | 57319) 62° | 37066 *390 || 8°484] 40°3 | 2°9c0 MogQ.1 Suro) | 37349) G5er | 27286 "502 1°831| 44°1 | 2°306 1854.| 21°7 | 4°039| 64°5 | I*'991 "440 5°189 | 42°8 | 17916 ES 55-4 2210 (827980 )| 6379, | 2073 "419 || 2°248] 419 | 2°161 21°41 | 3°392| 64°31] 27420]! 297454 |) 4°094] 42°90] 2°259 AUGUST. 1848.| 19° | 3°468] 63°2 | 2°704 1849.| 20°3 | o°980] 61°7 | 2°326 ES5H.|| 2003. | v9r78o| Gger- | ans ¥853.| ¥9°7 | 2°516) 64:8 | roxo | 1854.| 20°4 | 2°823] 61°9 | 1°765 29°492 “452 “477 "460 “S12 29°4.78 1°953 1°650 37906 3°232 4°764. 3°101 44°2 414 42°83 4504 415 43°0 2°109 1°834 2°312 1°849 1°407. 1'902 19°94.| 2°718| 62°94.) 2°178 | 140 MR. J. BAXENDELL : RELATIONS BETWEEN TasxeE II. (continued). SEPTEMBER. es GENEVA, Minan. || Great St. Berwarp. Ae 3 | | 62-8 g } #5 $ YEAR.| 988 B lwed oe a | we gfe) 3 S |eea il Ss s @ | os 22O Ss ® ao 8 al a) o a3 eae | ae | 65x aa a far | ees Se | og [Se eels 62° | a | eeeeiee Aa me sa | 586 ao ee se | SS es in. = in. in. in. 3 in. 1848.| 19°8 | 2°087| 56°5 | 2°733 1] 29°487 || 2°728| 36°7 | 17930 TOS.) Tomo) sago2 ge-2" | 270210 "542 || 5°728] 32°38 | I°981 1853.| 19°2 | 4°571| 56°6 | 2°821 "450! || 2°713) 37°Aeeeeee 1854.| 17°9 | 0°000} §8°7 | 2°006 "647 || 0'031| 4gor8 | 1°811 1855.| 20° | 4°346| 59°5 | 2°732]| °532 || 2-480] 38°9 | 2°584 1858.) 20°5 | 2°843| 60°38 | 2°006 "553 || 1°728 | 407s eae 19°56| 2°871| 57°38] 2°389 || 29°530 || 2°568] 37°81| 2°064 OCTOBER. 1849.| 17°7 | 7°744| 51°O | 4°330]/ 29°500 || 1'268| 33°3 | 3°612 1851. | 16°3 | 4°122] 49°3 | 3°190 “499. || 3°327 | 33°C | 27938 1852.| 17°8 | 6°512| 484 | 3°625 "475. || 5°1650)| (40:0 slau 1856.| 16°4 | 0°823] 50°0 | 1°981 "706 || °3°339)| 9356) lm ermG 17°05 | 4°800| 49°67| 3°281|| 297545 || 3°271| 32°62] 2°613 NOVEMBER. 1849./ 14°9 | 1°724| 36°38 | 4°059]/ 29°453 || 5°748| 21°9 | 3°909 1850. | 17°5. | 2°992| 42°97 | 3°728 "oI, || 5°551 | 2520 \naeee 1852.| 16°5 | 57039] 45°3 | 4°727|| “412 || 1827) 28°38 | 3°333 1853.| 17°8 | 1405] 41°7 | 2°915|| °557 || 2°980) 23°9 1855.| 18 | 2°453] 39°3 | 2°824 AS7 ||.3°437| 21:2 |\emeze 1857.| 14°9 | 1°622] 41°0 | 2°506 G12] 1°765 | 2672 \lengae 1858.| 17°99 | 3°110| 37°3 | 3°467 372 || 4°461| 19°'4 | 2-462 16°80] 2°620} 40°58] 3°461|| 29°482 || 3°595| 23°78] 2°852 DECEMBER. 1848.| 11°4 | 1°272| 33°4 | 3°554|] 29°754 || 3°583 Z2°0 | 2°810 18502| 13°3 | 0°933| 34°5°| 27972 618 1'925| 21°2 | 2°478 1851 673) | O'r97 | 25° | 2°337 -756 || orr06| 19°6 | 2°231 1852.| 12°6 | 1°539] 37°9 | 4°666 "613 || 6°007| 25°3 | 47776 1857.|| O12) | 40798 | 33° | 2°72 889 || 0°331| 23°8 | 2°351, 10°56 | 0°935]| 32°94) 3°260 29°726 2°390| 22°38] 2°809 i, ea.) a —— ps — = 2 - DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. Tas.e ITI. JANUARY. EF: GENEVA. Minay. || Great St. Bernarp. Aad : SE3 $9 H Year.| 933 2 lygs|| Be Bl ee B52 | 3 5 | gee] 28 | 2 e | 23 Sef| 2 | ge \|e8ai ge | & | ge | ss As | @ | Be |4aé|/ se | a | se | a6 . in. ‘ in. in. in. ‘ in. 1849.| 17°5 | 3°303] 35°3 | 3°941 29°580 $622) 17-8. | 37953 1853.| 19°9 | 2°354| 37°7 | 4°452'| “483 || 6283] 17°8 | 3°346 1856.| 1870 | 4°968| 36°3 | 5°349|| °356 || 5°500| 18°3 | 3°291 RO57:| 2010 | «12961. 4274.-| 5:82.7 "237 || 1°047| 10°38 | 3°891 19°25 | 2°965) 35°42| 4°892 | 29414 || 5°363) 1617) 37420 FEBRUARY. 1848.| 18°4 | 1°435| 37°8 | 5°725 || 29°433 ||10°929] 19°4 | 4°286 Ba G2 2a-5 | 0770 || 2653 1 Aaa 422 || 4°961} 14°8 | 3°550 1853-| 24°9 | 9°799| 31°5 | 4°727 046 || 5°795| 66 | 4:061 1854.| 19°3 | O'291] 30°1 | 4°049 "529 || o'961}| 10°8 | 3°463 1858.| 19°0 | 0°736] 33°0 | 2°945 (e7Q Aah LATO || accor 20°62 | 0°807/ 33°74 4°383 || 29°400 || 4°817|] 13°12] 3°572 MARCH. 1848. | 22°: | 3°465] 39°9 | 4°760/| 29°302 || 6°405| 17°38 | 3°868 MOGI. | 222% -arSgq | 38°: || 3°744: 395 || 5°862| 164 | 2°689 ES53.| aig | 01654 | 32°8.-| 3°566 "413 ||, 6°760 | ‘x1°8. | 3°022 1855.| 23°3 | 1°713| 40°3 | 4°799 HQT 1) (35293 | BAO | 37304 1858.| 20°7 | 1°079| 38°8 | 4°003 2525 |eieOis"| ESth.. | 39:87.7 21°88) 1°948| 38°10] 4°174|| 29°311 || 4°826)} 16°22] 3°352 APRIL. 1849. 1353. 1854. 1856. 1857. 1858. 22 2ADG 23°5 | 2°445 22°0 | 0°846 Seca Mis Tiss, 2274 | aaa. BLO 24.63 42°38 22°50 | 2°245 3°929 || 29°216 45°2 | 3°871 "349 49°5 | 3°634]/ °554 49°8 | 3°298]| °369 45°3 | 4°171|| °253 51°38 | 2°887 °387 3°631 |) 29°354 47°4 8°591| 20°8 | 2°956 77024) 21°7 | 2°734 1"992| 27°5 | 2°910 5°421| 26°7 | 2°852 3°780| 22°9 | 2°940 2°039| 29°8 | 2°880 4°808 | 24°90] 2°878 141 142 MR. J. BAXENDELL: RELATIONS BETWEEN Tasxe IIT. (continued). MAY. qt ®o ss GENEVA. Mian. || Great St. Bernarp. SS a =| = ea) 5) ~~ H 2 (o} 4 oD YEAR.| o 53 5B [wl g aoe 5 we CRaa ; 3 | See 3g A 3 S96 afw2 = a eos a SI a $3 VDo 3 o aqs = 3 5) eRe SHE; | a2 | 66m as a ge | 68 ae | aateliee e gas so = é § EE Ag es ae RO =a) ae i fo) in x in in in - in 22°95 | 4°498| 53°03} 3°007]| 29°371 || 5°515] 30°08] 2°509 JUNE. 1851.| 22°9 | 07124] 62°5 | 2°042 || 29°578 || O°921| 40°6 | 17664 1852.| 22°8 | 3°913| 59°7 | 1°754 458 || 4°878| 36°9 | 1°657 1853.| 224 | 2°8x1} 6e°1 | 27498 "354 || 3°268) 97°7. | 2ogem 1854.| 22°99 | 4°929| 60°1 | 2°892 423 || 6°760| 3772) } regee 1855.| 23°3 | 2°713| 60°3 | 3°233]| “452 || 4°950] 37°0 | 2°098 1556.) 2270 | 2-890) 62-2.) 27536 "487 ||-3°303| 39°76 || 2eae 1857. | 2372, || 2°000) 61-0 || 2276 "457. || 29534 37°38 ) 2°g60 1858.| 22°8 | 0°665] 664 | 1°285 468 || I°r10] 43°6 | I'194 22°86 | 27505] 61°66| 2°354 || 29°460 || 3°518| 38°38 | 1°983 JULY. 1850.| 22°2 | o°142| 63°9 | 1°789 || 29°444 1°425| 41°7 | 1°889 1352. 22°3) | 2390) 6Ga | 2.nem "458 || 2°169] 44° | 1°850 1856.| 22°8 | 2°728] 6471 | 2°414 "423° || 2°53'5 | 473° |) acme T357-| 23°5 | 0734.) 68'S | 17549 "485 || 07028] 45°3 | 1°728 1858. | 23°3 | 5°504| 62°4 | 3°104)) °347 || 3°772] 39° | 2°438 eS OS OO OOO 22°82 | 2°288| 65°12] 2°207 || 29°431 || 1°985]| 42°30] 1°949 AUGUST. 1850.| 21°5 | 3°374| 62°5 | 2°586]| 29°491 || 4°280] 4r°o | 2°041 1852.| 21°3 | 8°437| 61°9 | 2°316 439 || 4°665]| 40°6 | 2°200 1555-| 20°S. | 07224) 66°39 .| 1°727 486 || 1°819| 44°5 | 1°638 1856.) 21°8 | 2°362] 67°9 | 2°482 "308 || '2°252| 46:1 | 2°268 TO57- || 22°r- | 37543 | 64°3.-| 1-917 “476. || 32385 | fore. |) 2: 7re 1858.| 21°8 | 3°539] 60°9 | 2°173 °386 || 2°327]| 39°1 | 2°090 21°71 | 3°579] 64°05] 2°200]] 29°436 || 3°088| 42°33] 2°058 DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, ETC. Tas_e III. (continued). 143 SEPTEMBER. o es GENEVA. Mian. || Great St. Bernarp. Bo a YEAR SEs 5 os 23 5 ¢ eos = S's e0D = 6 Ax FS ae | =47521863, AF = 61428753, p3= 75618423, v3 = 73416852, £° = 26853417, 7 = 83574162, p? = 84762153, 0°, = 41856732, 7? = 68134257, v? = 28714563, ¢? = 78123465, xe= 53468 127; Y= 85413267, w? = 78536124, a? = 84156327, B3= 63724815, 0° = 81723546, e& = 75421386, = 45276183, 65 = 56718342, u = 31472865, k° = 54813726, P= 24837165, p> =47862315, v° = 48237516, &° = 71564283, m° = 68253741, p° = 65827431, o° = 28714563, T° = 36457182, v° =41263857, ¢° = 34568712, x°= 67231485, WP = 46532781, w° = 67483512, a = 37624581, B3= 74258136, 6” = 56284713, e’ = 67518234, ni =81634725, 07 =27186453, = 74683251, k’ =85736412, AT = 38751426, ul = 34281567, v’ =25684137, £7 = 33612754, a! =46128537, p’=23678514, o” = 37582146, 7! = 53782461, vu? = 86471523, p" =87214356, xo = 35874216 “= 58627143, wi = 36278451, a7 = 51487236, B7 = 28561347. 220 THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. 6? =68417325, n? = 76581432, F =47361582, A? = 43586217, vy? = 36821745, 72= 71832456, = 83621454, = 64182735, = 48726351, w? = 51824367, 0§ =47638152, = 58763214, i = 58216437, AS = 76213584, v8 = 54178263, m= 25467813, o® = 54267381, v8 = 35748162, x° = 84617532, w® =24631783, Substitutions of the Fourth Order. e2 = 81257463, 62 = 83425716, Kk? = 31658247, p?= 61537842, &? = 87426135, 6? =471 53286, 7? =41578326, ¢? = 56872134, = 37256814, a? = 68572413, B= 35486721, =23864751, 66 = 75234861, K® = 26174385, pS =28473156, & = 64738521, = 36514827, 7§ =68572413, g° = 65781243, Y= 73184526, a& = 75863142, B¢ = 87132564. Substitutions of th the Sixth Order bC and (8C)°, &c. 6C, 14372586, 15326847; aD, 25743681, 81542637; aG, 52476318, 72631548 ; aH, 43825176, 64215873; S53, 32765841, 82175436; eL, 31526478, 24163578; AM, 38425617, 74.13 5682; g9Q, 58142376, 35641872; yO, 62147583, 32846157; wT, 62584371, 826531743 yD, 26415738, 41735268 ; TF, 23481675, 51238674; eN, 87645213, 76845321; oT, 65341728, 57342168; @V, 42758613, 72814635; el, 13748256, 16247835; yT, 87351642, 58374621 ; FH, 14587623, 17823654; q¥F, 71348562, 28346715; gE, 12463785, 12538467; AH, 52317864, 42381756; tP, 52317864, 42381756; iF, 18275364, 13685742; IG, 18456273, 16834572; JD, 61385427, 273651843 gl, 76324158, 64357218 ; oJ, 86312475, 45368271; iJ, 43172658, 35217648. Substitutions of the Third Order (6C)*, (bC)+, Xe. bC, 17384265, 16358724; aD, 53847612, 78241653 ; aG, 62713458, 42567138; aH, 28635471, 81465372; F5, 72485163, 62835714; eL, 53614278, 46251378; AM, 47285631, 837156245 JQ, 26548173, 6 18432753 yC, 52648731, 82741365 ; wT, 32418576, 42136875; yP, 67125348, 34675128; rF, 34852671, 85124673; eN, 31245786, 23145867; oT, 71346258, 57342168; XV, 52183647, 32571684; el, 17546382, 18643527; yl, 24318657, 43327685; SH, 17546382, 1864352735 q¥, 67342851, $534.7126 ; gE, 12674853, 12857346; AH, 72356481, 82364517; tP, 72356481, 823645173 iF, 14865237, 16725483; IG, 13562874, 15283476; JD, 46375812, 78315246; gl, 51362748, 25371468; vJ, 54386172, 68321574; J, 73453628, 27534618... THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. 221 All M. Mathieu’s groups of (N;+ 1)Ni.(N‘—1), when N is any prime number, can be thus discussed and constructed without the aid of congruences. And the triplets of all the didymous factors are reducible to duads. This may perhaps ripen into a complete tactical theory of groups. In order that the construction of the group of 8.7.6 should evidently follow from the notation of the above muli- tiplets, it would be necessary (and it would not be difficult) to treat the matter from the beginning in a manner some- thing like the following mode of discussing two groups of considerable interest, of 7.6.4 and 11. 10.6. From the seven triads which exhaust the duads of seven elements, namely 157, 201, 372, 413, 524, 635, 746, we can form twenty-one triads thus, each contaming a capital and two small figures, 157, 571, 315, 2017012, 126, ie. We can collect the triplets of these triads which contain the same small figures thus, the order of the small figures being indifferent :— 157 157 517 517 571 571 eal 327 237 327 237 431 S41 431, &c 467 647 647 467 261 621 621 where every first vertical row is one of the fundamental triads. We can thus form twenty-eight triplets of triads, and exhaust 3.7.4 of the 21.10 couplets possible with the twenty-one triads 157, 571, &c. We can next form a quadruplet upon each of the twenty- one triads thus :— on (157) 517. —s on (524) 254 ~~— on (563) 653 - (A) 126 517 517 451. 452 365 134 563 524 In the first of these, 157, 126,.134 are three triads with 222 THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. the same capital, and 157, 571, 715 are three which have the same figures ; and so on with the rest. + The 21 quadruplets thus formed exhaust the 21.6 duads | not found in the 28 triplets, so that we have once and once only employed the duads possible with the 21 triads in these 21 quadruplets and 28 triplets. The whole of the triplets and quadruplets are thus written :— 157 157 327 237 467 647 715 372 425 452 635 162 423 423 653 563 413 143 517 327 647 372 612 542 674 254 134 5I7 557% 237 431 467 261 932 732 542 612 162 432 674 764 314 254 524 314 571 341 621 273 653 143 764. 314 254 75x 75x 175° 175 97355 431 341 365 635 365 621 261 425 245 245 273 | 563 > (A) 413 746 746 476 476 126 916 126 216 536 356 356 536) These triplets may be denoted thus: (134)., (126),, &e. (157) 517 126 75% 134 (126) 261 157 612 134 (723) 237 715 372 746 (327) 237 341 123 365 (134) 341 126 413 157 (746) 467 123 674 715 (467) (237) 674. 372 413 261 146 (723 425 254 (254) (341) 542 9413 237 327 425 134 261 356 (612) (653) 126 536 647. 612 961 365 653. 647 (647) 476 621 764. 635 (356) 563 327 635 341 (452) 524 413 245 476 (431) 314 467 143 452 (517) 175 524 751 536 (536) 365 524 653 BI (261) } 612 254 126 273 (715) 157 723s ee 571 746 (542) 425 536 254 517 J If we consider these 28 triplets and 24 quadruplets to be systems of didymous factors of as many substitutions of the third and fourth orders, a 63, &c., A, By, &c., we may de- THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. 223 fine (157), which determines the first quadruplet, as permu- table with each of its four substitutions; 7. e. (157)=A2, (327) = B?, &e. We have before us every duad of the 21 triads; we have next to give an account of all the triplets possible. The condition that a triplet RPQ of these triads should be reducible to a duad have been already given. Suppose P=157, Q=827, and that R.P.Q=R157.327=R. 327 .467=R467 .157 is irreducible. RP cannot have a common capital, nor RQ, otherwise they would be permutable; nor can R be any permutation of 157, 327, or 467, for the same reason. Then Bean only be a permutation of 261, or 635, or 524, which _ has not the capital 1,3, or 4. Whatever it may be, it cannot have a small figure in common with both 57 and 27; and RP, in one of the above forms, will be a consecutive pair in one of thequadruplets(B). Let thisbe RPST; then RP=TR, and RPQ=TRQ, where R has neither of the small figures of Q, so that RQ is a consecutive pair in some one of the quadruplets (B) ; and RQ is of the fourth order. We have thus proof that every irreducible triplet RPQ either has PQ of the fourth order, or can be written as TRQ where RQ is of the fourth order. We have then occasion only to con- sider the irreducible triplets of the form D.517.126. How many values can D have, so that this shall be irreducible? The capital of D must be one of 76482. {517.126t= (157) has 751 permutable with 723, therefore D is not 723: {746 .517}=(715) has 157 permutable with 126, therefore D is not 746; and D cannot be 715 permutable with 517. Therefore D has not the capital 7. But {635 .517}= (536) has no permutable of 126, nor has {517.126}= (157) a per- mutable of 635; nor has {§35 .126}=(612) a permutable of 126.517.126=%51. Therefore 635.517. 126 is irre- ducible. Next, (647.517}=(536), has no permutable of 224 THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. 126; nor has {517.126}=(157) a permutable of (647); neither has {647 .126}=(612) a permutable of 126.517. 126=751. Therefore 647 .517 .126 is irreducible. Precisely in the same way it is proved that all the eight following values of D, 635, 647, 425, 467, 372, 356, 273, 245, render D.517.126 irreducible. And there are no more values, because we cannot have D=612 permutable with 126, nor D=431 permutable with 134 in (157), nor D=314 for the same reason, nor D=216 permutable with 126. We can thus demonstrate, what is indeed sufficiently evident from symmetry, that there are eight irreducible triplets D. RQ, whatever substitution of the fourth order | RQ may be We cannot proceed further without a closer definition of our 21 triads. We define 157, 126, 134 as the mutually. permutables | | 1643527, 1243765, 1634725, all of the same form and of the second order. In like manner 517= 1462537, 524=7264351, 536=7432561, which mutually determine each other, 517 .126=1462537 . 1243765 = 1426735, of which the circular factors are 1, 75, 2463. None of the eight values has three figures of the circle 2463, and none has 1. Therefore each of them exchanges 1 for one of 2463, and either 7 or 5 for another of 2463; that is, each first makes the three circles of 1426735 into two circles of five and two, and then unites these two into one of seven. Hence it appears that the eight irreducible triplets are all substitutions of the seventh order. _ I know not whether the following theorem has ever been THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. 225 formally enunciated. It is of considerable importance in the theory of substitutions, and very easily established. Theorem. The transposition of two letters in any circular factor always fractures that circle into two: the transposition of two letters of two circular factors always unites those circles into one. We have forty-two different substitutions of the fourth order, each of which has four forms, ab = bc=cd= da, in terms of the didymous factors abed; and on each (PQ) of these four we form eight irreducible triplets D . PQ, giving in all 8.42.4 irreducible triplets. Let D. PQ and D’. PQ be two of the Age irreducibles made on PQ: we cannot have D’. PA=(D. PQ)*=DPQDPQ unless D’=DPQD=D. (PQ)D"™’, which is impossible, because D’ is of the second order, and DPQD is of the order of PQ, that is, of the fourth. Neither can we have D’PQ=(DPQD)?=DPQDPQDPQ unless D'=DPQDPQD, whence DD'D=PQDPQ, and i—(PQDPQ)}, =(DD'D)2?="; which is false, because PQ is not =(PQ)~', PQ betas of the fourth order. It is thus shown that no one of the eight irreducibles made on PQ can be a power of another of them. Hence there are not less than 87 substitutions of the seventh order, no one of which is a power of another; that is, there are 8 .6r different substitutions of the seventh order; and as each has four values PQ for the same D, the number 8.7.6.4 of triplets irreducible must be divisible by 8 . 6.47, whence r=I, or r=7. SER. III. VOL. Il. 4 996 THE REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON NON-MODULAR GROUPS. The entire non-modular group consists of 2 . 28 substitu- tions of the third order,.2.21 of the fourth, 21 of the ? second, and 8. 6r of the seventh, which gives 8r.6,+28.2,+21.2,+21.1,+1=7.6.448(r—1), which is no divisor of 7.6.5.4.3.2,ifr=7. Wherefore r=tiI. The 21 substitutions of the second order are 157= 1643527, 126= 1243765, 134= 1634725, 413=1534276, 425=3214576, 467=3514267, 261= 1275463, 237 = 6235417; 245= 6274513; 517= 1462537, 524=7264531, 563= 7432561, 372 = 4231657, 314= 1734652, 365=4731562, 612= 1257364, 635=2137564, 647=2154367, 715 = 1326547, 123 = 5236147, 746 = 5324167. Those of the seventh order are the powers of 4231657 . 1426735 =4125736, _ 6235417 . 1426735 = 6521734, 3214576 . 1426735 = 3427615, 6274513 - 1426735 = 6421375, 4731562 . 1426735=4176235, + 2137564 . 1426735=2716435, 3514267 . 1426735= 3456712, 2154367 . 1426735=2416753. The 28 triplets and the 21 quadruplets give those of the third and fourth orders. And thus the entire group of 7.6.4 is readily constructed. I have shown in the memoir above quoted, art. 93, that two groups of 7.6.4 can be constructed to contain the powers of 3456712 last but one above written. I have no doubt that the same thing is-proveable by beginning this investigation with the only other system of triads that can be made to exhaust the duads in 7. We ought to find that the powers of 3456712 are also part of the second group of 7.6.4 so constructed. This group is maximum, ?. e. it has no derived derange- ments, as may be proved by finding the number of its equi- — valents, which is 30. | As I have shown in the abstract of this paper printed in the ‘ Proceedings ’ of the Literary and Philosophical Society .of Manchester, April 29, 1862, that we can demonstrate ——--. a Le I I MR. W. SPOTTISWOODE ON DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENTS. 227 and construct the non-modular group of 11.10.6 which - has 120 substitutions of the eleventh order, 264 of the fifth, 110 of the sixth, and 55 of the second order, by a method similar to that above given for the group of 7.6.4, there is no necessity for here amplifying what I have there written, after what has been said on the group of 7.6.4. I hope to return before long to this subject. XV.—WNote on Differential Resolvents. By Wixi1am Srorriswoope, M.A., F.R.S. Communicated by the Rev. Roprrt Hartey, F.R.A.S. Read November 4, 1862. = Tue following seems the readiest method of finding the differential resolvent of a given algebraic equation, the co- efficients of which are functions of a single parameter. Although exemplified here only in the cases of quadratics and cubics, it is directly applicable to all degrees. Beginning with the quadratic (20 che, tyeo 9 PAP Gs and indicating differentiation with respect to the parameter by accents, we have 2(a, OY 2, 1)2'+(a', b,c ¥a,1)*=0, . . . (2) from which we may form the following system :— — (a, b¥ x, 1)(—22) +a'a* 420 e+ mel —(a, bX 2, 1)o +az* 4+2b% +c =0, (3) ~(a, bY, 1)1 . + arth =0, ; — (a, DY ax, 1)x +az* + br . =0, } ae 228 MR. W. SPOTTISWOODE ON DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENTS. whence |\—27 @ 26.¢ |=0, .. the differential resolvent required. The developed form is 2.a(ae— b*)a’ — { a'(2b*— ac) —20'ab+ ee . (s) —a'be+20'ca—cab=o0. Proceeding to the cubic (4, b,c, da, 1)'=0 and differentiating, we may form the system = — (a, b, cX a, 1)*(—32')+ . aa +430'x*+3ca+d'=0, | —(@, b, CX a, 1)*O + . az +3bu* +3cx +d =0, — (a, 6, c¥a, 1)*0 + aa* + 3623+ 3cxz* +dz . =0, (6) — (a, 6, c{e, sD ie + . ; ax” +2b4 +c =0, ( — (a, 6, cia, 1) +. ax+2b2" +cx . =0, — (4, b, CYL, 1)*x* +ax* + 2623+ cx” ; , = 0; whence —34 . ¢@ 30 3¢ d'\=0" eee a 3b 3c d @3b 3c a. Peyes Ona o ae: WD. +9 Titi Saat ae LI OO ge Writing this in the form Aa =Ee*4+FotG . .\. “eee MR. W. SPOTTISWOODE ON DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENTS. 229 and differentiating, we may form the system —Av"+2Ere!+(F—A)2’ + . 4H2? +hxe4+Gl=0, = Ara! — ; +E2?+ F2* +Ger . =0, (9) ; Av +. +Exv’? + Fr +G=0, axi+ 3bxu*+3cx+ d =0, or, as it may be more concisely written, a” LU x’ yn @ I = Oye tO} —A Dany, eke a A F! my G’ ee Ot EG —A : K F G Qi j2O Bees from which we may eliminate linearly any three of the quan- tities xv", xz’, x', x3, 2, 2,1. If we eliminate xz’, x3, x*, we have the differential resolvent, viz. : 2M. HH! — Ag! (FA )al + Fe + Gl |-s0;; : (11) —A E F ; Gz Bes 5 —Azv’ +Fv+G |} F a 36 3cx+ad the developed form of which is A*Eaz!! ) + A{a(A'E— AE!) —3aEF + 6587}! + {aA(BF—EF’)+2¢E(E*—EG)—6E*(0F —ck)2 + {aA(B'G—EG) +2cEFG —2E*(3bG—dE)} =0. J This agrees with a result communicated to me by Mr. Harley. . It seems possible to exhibit the resolvent as a single determinant ; but as this is of the 16th degree, and does not (at least so far as I have found) exhibit the discriminant as a factor, I have set it aside as too unwieldy for use. 12) 230 MR. W. SPOTTISWOODE ON DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENTS. The developed values of A, E, F, G are as follow :— os — 36*c* + 463d —6babcd + 4ac} +a’d’. 3H _ a'(45*d— 3bc? acd) a — 6b’a(bd— c’) — 3c’a(bc—ad) —2d'a(ac—0’). 3 _ a (7bcd—ad* —6c?) a 4. 30!(3bc*—26*d—acd) + 3c!(—36*c+2ac* + abd) + d'(—7abc + a’*d + 663). = = 2a'd (bd —c*) + 3b'd(be—ad) + 6c'd(ac— 0’) + d'(—4ac* + 3b*c+ abd). Now Mr. Harley has shown in a recent letter, that the coefficients of # and 1 in (12) are divisible by A (the dis- criminant of the original cubic) ; the result, after various reductions, is AB” + 4 A'E — AB! —3EF+ een \ a! - 5{9@'F-EF) — 2H [a’(—ad* —gc} + gbed) + 9b'*a(2bd — 3c’) —gca*c — d'*a3 + 3a'b'( —66*d + gbc* —acd) MR. W. SPOTTISWOODE ON DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENTS,. 231] + 3a'c' (6ac* —9b*c + abd) + 2a! d!(a*d+ 963 — gabe) —9b'cla(ad— 3c) + 60'd'a(2ac — 367) + 6c'd'a*b] a +5{9(HIG—EG) + 2H [a’*d(3c* — 26d) +96" acd + gc"a*d +a!*a*b + 3a! b'ad* + 6a'c'd(36* —2ac) + a'd'(6ac* —9b*c + abd) + 186'cabd + 30'd'a(—ad + 36c) —6e'd'a*c]}, or, as it may be more concisely written, AE 2! A ! ati A +32 oon ar) ba’ E FE etree Heb Meo Winn a) 3gbs gel udl=o. 10. BB! YH PIA Ca HEL i we GG! , Hakceeheas eid a 20 23¢ 4) ad Ie Wee QO C eek a wD: 6 As regards ulterior developments, I have at present only to add that it may be readily shown by the method of compound determinants that the part of | E £ a ea ae hes Gt: | 232 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS involving a, 36", 3c", d", is equal to Reda ‘all 26 < ge" (g" G20 Bee are: XVI.—On a Certain Class of Linear Differential Equations. By the Rev. Rosert Hartey, F.R.A.S., Corresponding Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. Read November 4, 1862. In the Philosophical Magazine for May of last year Mr. Cockle showed, in a paper entitled ‘“ On Transcendental and Algebraic Solution,” that from any algebraic equation of the degree », whereof the coefficients are functions of a variable, there may be derived a linear differential equa- tion of the order n—1, which will be satisfied by any one of the roots of the given algebraic equation. The connexion of this theorem with a certain general process for the solution of algebraic equations, led me to consider its application to the form y” —ny + (n—1)2#=0, ° . ° ° . . (I) to which it is known that any equation of the mth degree, when 7 is not greater than 5, can, by the aid of equations of inferior degrees, be reduced. In the course cf my investigations I was conducted to the conclusion that for all integral values of n between the limits oe N=2,N=5, OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. gan both inclusive, the linear differential equation, or, as it is proposed to call it, the “ differential resolvent,” is of the form d i N a( =) UF {a,ta0F + aye (4) S24 d 7] ey VE and I completely determined the constants a@,, @,,.. . Gn—1 for all the cases up to and including n=5. I found, moreover, that this result, in itself sufficiently remarkable, might be put under a still more simple and striking form by following a process of transformation _ proposed by Prof. Boole in his “Memoir on a General Method in Analysis,” which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1844, Part IT. é found in fact that, writing ¢? for v, and D for x _ or e the differential re- solvent of the trinomial Palate (I) may be made to take the form D(D—1)(D—2). .. (D—n+2)y tam Ps Meso) _« (D=2 2) py =o, ess the case n=2 being an exception. In this exceptional case the sum of the roots (2y) is not, as in the other cases, equal to zero, and the differential resolvent must therefore contain a term independent of y. This term written on the dexter =5¢, and the terms on the sinister follow the law above indicated. Using the ordinary factorial notation, that is to say, representing (u)(w—1)(w—2)... U—rt+t) 234 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS by [w]”, the form (A) may be written n—I d ace n—I n d Dats "er? 19) — 5 [-<| pn ee [eo 2" 'y=0... (B) Tn the ‘ Proceedings’ of this Society (vol. ii. pp. 181-184) for the 4th of February last, I gave, without the details of calculation, the several differential resolvents for the suc- cessive cases 2=2, 3,4,5,; and these results Mr. Rawson of Portsmouth has kindly verified. I gave also in the same paper, the Boolian (symbolical) form of the resolvent for the biquadratic; and this seems to have suggested to Mr. Cayley an investigation in which he showed, by the aid of Lagrange’s theorem, that the equation (B) holds for all values of n. I had the honour of communicating Mr. Cayley’s investigation to the Society on the ensuing 18th of February ; and an abstract of it appeared at p. 193, vol. i. of the ‘ Proceedings.’ The paper itself is printed in this volume of Memoirs, at p. 111. Before receiving Mr. Cayley’s remarkable analysis I had calculated, and I believe I had also communicated to Mr. Cockle, the Boolian forms of the resolvents for the cases n=2 to n=5, both inclusive; and these suggested to me the general form (A). (See ‘ Proceedings,’ vol. ii. pp. 199-201, and Pp. 237-241.) The singular simplicity of these results for the trinomial algebraic equation (I) had an effect in inducing me to con- sider the corresponding form y*—ny"'4+(n—1)t=0.. .. . (ID to which also any algebraic equation of the nth degree, n being not greater than 5, can, as Mr. J errard has shown, be reduced by means of equations of inferior degrees ; and by induction I was led to the following general expression for its resolvent, viz. w-[ (n—1)D]'—"'y— (n—1)(nD —n—1) [nD —2] 44" = a ere a). a ee OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 235 or, what is the same thing, m—| (x—1)ne |” y—(n—1) (noo —n—1) [ maf —2 | “zy=[n—r]*-10, Yee prema 1) The deduction of the most general results from the canonical resolyent is properly a subject for separate dis- cussion, and I hope to treat of it in a future memoir; but there is a particular case so marked in character, and lying so near at hand, that Iam induced to present it here. The differential resolvents for y?—nay+-(n—1)be#=0. . . . . . (ITT) and y"—nay"*+(n—1)bv=0. . . «. . (IV) where a and 0 are any constants, are | pS poem (n—1) a'n’—*[D] nly — Gr— 1(n— Ee — (20 A n—I Creo, he BRO DU tS NB). and | a"n™—*| (n—1)D }*—*y—b(nD—n—1) [nD —2]"-7e*y — i Bem ave eae te. | (FB) respectively, For by simply writing oe for # an=1 and 4s for y, Gn=1 | the equation (I) is transformed into the equation (III) ; and these substitutions being made in the differential re- solvent (A), the symbol D remaining for these substitu- 236 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS tions unchanged, we pass at once to the form (HE). In hke manner writing 2" and a” a for # and y respectively, the equation (II) takes the form (IV); and making these substitutions in (C), D remain- ing as before unchanged, we obtain the differential re- solvent of (IV), viz. (F). The particular cases on which the foregoing inductions were founded are as follows :— 1. I begin with the form (I), in which I assign to 7 the successive values 2, 3, 4, 5. There result the equations y —2y+ 2=0, y>—3y +24”=0, y*—4y + 37=0, y>—5y+4v=0, whose resolvents I now proceed to calculate. 2. In the case of the quadratic, a single differentiation gives yes Os Dace ee I | doe eye ae Ee or dy 2(1 2) y= r, ! the resolvent required. 3. In the case of the cubic we have, by successive differ- entiations and reductions, 2 d 2 3(l—w# n= —(y + vy —2), ‘a ; ; 3 (1-2)? a= — {3ay? + (1+ 20")y— 6a}. Combining these equations so as to eliminate y*, and sim- OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 237 plifying the result, we obtain 2 2 a” 2 d fae eh aol mo, the resolvent required. 4. In the case of the biquadratic, the same process gives the equations d = He + (1a) = —(y? Fry? + xy — 3), 2 2 avy 2 2 4°(1— #3)" 7a = — {oxy + (1+ 50)y + 3(1+23)vy— 1827}, (10?) Y = — {43 + 650°) ay? ane + (61+4723)x7y* +(10+ 7743 4212°)y — 3(43+652’)z}, which, combined so as to eliminate y? and y’, give dey d*y By sgh t+ atte 2 21 v) TA 24. 30a ~2. 430 2 + sy=o ee AOR eo = 3 the differential resolvent for the biquadratic. 5. For the quintic we have in like manner d. ba 5 (1a) B= — (yt ays + ary? + ay —4), 2. ayn @Y 35/4 a a 5*(1— a4)” = tion y* + (r+ 9a4)y? + (3 +744) ay" +23 +204)a*y—400°}, 5°(1—a4)} = — 115 (9+ 1124 )a°yt + 15(11+924)23y3 + 3(4 +6724 + 29@7*)y? +3(17+ 7144+ 122°) vy —60(9 + 1124)2"}, 238 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS d* s 5*(1—at)+# 8 = — {75 (17+ 134044 490°)0y4 +60(31+173a++ 462°) a7y3 + 30(121 4+ 32824 +4 512°) 23y” +3(77+2214a4+4+25412° + 1682™)y — 300(17 + 1342*+ 49x°)z}. And combining as before, so as to eliminate all powers of y higher than the first, we find d*y dty y 4A(y __ te, Sm3__4 sa 3 27d 5*(1 — 2+) Zee. Ee 3 «5+ 130) ae rt dy ‘a —3.5°- 17" 7 +3.7-1ly=0, the differential resolvent for the quintic. 6. If now we collect these several resolvents and apply to them Dr. Boole’s process for passing from the ordinary to the symbolical form of a differential equation, we find that For the quadratic, the resolvent is or, which is the same thing, 2 2) ‘ 3D—5 3 1: eee [D] y-() = ] ey =0. For the biquadratic, it is D(D—1)(D—2)y—(D-Z) (D—*) (D-3)%y=0, or, what is the same thing, n-() e]'9-0 OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 239 For thie quintic, it is DD—1)(D—2) (VD 3)y -(0-2)0-2Yp—o—F eo or, what is the same thing, ror'y—(3) [P=F} ey=05 whence the general form (A) or (B) assigned to the re- solvent of the algebraic equation (I). 7. We take now the form (II), and give to n the suc- cessive values 2,3,4,5. There result the equations y’ —2y + & =O, y’ —3y°+24=0, y*—4y) + 30=0, y°—5y*+4v=0. We have already (Art. 2) calculated the resolvent of the first of these equations; it only remains to eolenlate the resolvents of the last three. 8. For the cubic, we have di: 3@(2—#) = —y* + (3—a)y +2, 3°x*(2—2) 2a*y Z a= 31 —x)y —(3°—2. 58+ 20")y —(1—22)z ; whence the differential resolvent A d* d: 3a (2—a) 5431-2) et yar. g. For the biquadratic, we have 2 d 2 2 42(3 —2) = ty’ + (2°. 3—a)y +2, 240 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS 2,28 2 a” 2 2 | = 4'0*(3*—2)" 4 =2(3*—20)y + 2ay i —=(2>.. 3° 5 3130 4-309 z i 2 2 4a3(3*— a) 5 = — (24. 3°. 7-7 43043. 11a*)y? — (2°. 3*—5. 197— 5") y* + (27.37. 5—2.3.953v+6474* —3.729)y + (2. 3°. 29—139@+3.72")a ; whence the resolvent 2 2 d 2 2 ad” 222A —2) 5 + 247 (2* . 3*—72) J dy 5 — = +2(2 23a) 7 ty i: 10. For the quintic, we have d 50(4)— 2) = —y* +y' +2°y* + (24. 5—a)y +e, Pyar) ay 5 : 4 3 5°0* (45 wv)" = 5 (2? —a)y* + 2(24+ why Nee (ee — 1490+ 2") y—2(23 .3—a)a, 58a3(43—a) SU = — 3(2%, 107 2°. 3°. 310+ 170")y4 —27.3.5(2°. 3*—292)y3 +3 .5(2. 5—2*. 13@+727)y’ DB 57 2 25087 + 3-431 — 2.3? )y +2* .3(2°.67—3 . 530+ 32”)a, 4 oe iene 5 at(4? —a)* = 2 2127.5 508—- Oo ee +5.20012*—2.5.1345)y4 + (2.57. 59—2°. 5. 3232 +5.7.287a*—23. 523)y3 —(23.3.53—2°.5. 317 25355. 72°—5 . 3iz*)y" OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 241 as pte Sepak! 133 aco79 +23. 2829494"—2 .1178923 = Aaa yeas bred || —(2™ .1801—2° . 15072 + 71032" —27.3.7z3)z}; whence the resolvent DY high (o5 92 — a g\ OY ee a (23 — 72) ay 2 d* 2 2 2 d: Stale (2 5-2) FE 42.3.5 (5*—3 ee +2. 3y=2. 3. 11. Collecting results and passing, as before, from the ordinary to the Boolian or symbolical form, we find that For the quadratic, the resolvent is 2Dy—(2D—3)e*y=e?. For the cubic, it is 3°[2D]*y—2(3D—4)(3D —2) ey = [2 ]*e?. For the biquadratic, it is | 4°[3D]*'y—3(44D—5) [4D —2] “ey = [3] ?e?. For the quintic, it is 5*[4D]*y —4(5D—6) [sD —2]e'y = [4] *e". From these four cases the general form for the resolvent of the equation (II) is sufficiently obvious; but I have thought it well to test that form by the case n=6, or, what is the same thing, by the sextic equation y° —6y5 + 52 =O, for which the general form (C) gives 6°[5D]}°y—5(6D —7) [6D —2]*e*y = [5] ep. 12. Returning by the usual method from the symbolical SER. 111. VOL. II. R 242 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS to the ordinary form of a differential equation, we find as as 23. 3tart(s+—a)—¥ 427. 34(24. 54232) 8 2 eal 22 = 3e- 5312492) 54 d 2/6 3 ce) y + 37(2°.. 37 5+ — aa 1812) 7, 22. 35— 10510) 9! + 2y=2. The accuracy of this equation may be tested as follows :— From the trinomial sextic we deduce, by successive dif- ferentiations, dy 5 I dz 6" y¥(y—5) BS Seg tlaeeaaie de’ (Ot ag 5)" dy 54 r1y*—88y+180 da) Sy a Se diy + 5° 187y'S2244y “+91 40y — 12600 dat OF i eo NG EES dx’ «6 4301y*— 688 16y3 + 419240y” — 11 50200y + 1197000 yy Sye If now we assume y=1I, then we have x=1, and the above values give Oy Se ey rea ee Pog Wa | ae Gy .%5*. 102 0 Y 5 Ole io 273 987. dat i ao ee dy 5°. 16061 daS 273. 55 3 3 which, substituted in the foregoing resolvent, are found to satisfy it. OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 243 I have also verified this resolvent by means of other numerical values of y. These verifications seem to place the accuracy of the sextic resolvent beyond doubt, and to afford additional confirmation of the generality of the form (C) or (D). 13. There is probably some method of passing directly from the differential resolvent (A) to the resolvent (C). The algebraic equations (I) and (II), from which they are derived, are closely related, and may easily be deduced the one from the other. 1°, If in equation (I) we write eet 2 ai {(m—1) apa l (m—1)"-? y ? for x, y respectively, it becomes y”—ny eis a (n— 1)z =0, an equation which, the accents being suppressed, is iden- tical with (IT). In this transformation it is to be observed that d d oF Pi (n— I)aap or D= (n—1)D%. 2°. Or, if in equation (I) we write I I : (a ( I ne : 3 a” 3 na y 3 for n, x, y respectively, it becomes 2" +1 yn! —(n'+1)y +72’ =0, * More generally: If =z’, then we have Gis BAG os I d ee uc (where the accent denotes differentiation), t ~ whence, if eu or f=" and gu=wu’, then will R 2 244 THE REV. ROBERT HARLEY ON A CERTAIN CLASS which is of the same form as (II). In this case 2 --= —(n +1) va or D=—(n' +1)D’. But simple as these transformations are, they do not - enable us to pass, at least directly, from the form (A) to the form (C). The first (1°) leads to nT (n—1)D! + rt (01) [nD! —1] "=O, which is non-linear. And the second (2°) leads to (n’ + 1 eae [oe (n’ ae 1)D’ 4! ral —@'+ Dy —p/? [—(n'D’ + 1)]-@ + 'y’=0, which mvolves an anomaly. These results will, I think, be considered curious and interesting. At all events, I have thought it worth while to record them here, and I shall probably discuss them at some future time. 14. Every differential resolvent may be regarded under two distinct aspects. It may be considered either, first, as giving in its complete integration the solution of the algebraic equation from which it has been derived, or, secondly, as itself solvable by means of that equation. In fact the two equations, the algebraic and the differential, are coresolvents. In the first aspect I have considered the differential equation (A) in a paper entitled “ On the Theory of the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equa- tions,” just published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics,’ No. 20. I have shown in that paper that every differential resolvent is satisfied, not only by each of the roots, but also by each of the constituents of the roots of the algebraic equation to which it belongs ; and that these constituents are in fact the particular in- tegrals of the resolvent equation. In the second aspect, OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 245 every differential resolvent of an order higher than the second * gives us, at least when the dexter of its defining equation vanishes}, a new primary form, that is to say, a form not recognized as primary in Professor Boole’s theory. And in certain cases in which the dexter does not vanish, a comparatively easy transformation will rid the equation of the dexter term, and the resulting differential equation will be of a new primary form. The same transformation which deprives the algebraic equation of its second term will deprive the differential equation of its dexter term. Thus (ex. gr.) if we write z+1 in place of y, the equation (II) becomes — (2+1)*—n(z4+ 1)"-"4+ (n—1)v=0, and the resolvent (C) becomes n*—*| (n—1)D |"-*"(z+ 1) —(n—1) (nD —n—1) [nD —2|*-*e°(2 + 1) = [n—1]*-'"e%, which, since (n—1)(nD —n—1)[nD—2]|"-7e? = (n—1)(n—n—1)[n—2]"—7e? = —(n—1)[n—2]"-*e? = —[n—1]*-"e, may be written simply -n®—1{ (n—1)D |"-!z—(n—1) (nD —n—1) [nD —2]"-2e%z=0. * The resolvent of the trinomial cubic of the form (I) has long been Known as solvable. This resolvent is of course of the second order. + The qualification in the text is necessary, because, of the two equations o(D)y=X, o(D)y=o, the solution of the former does not in general enable us to obtain that of the latter, though from that of the latter it is well known that the solution of the former can be obtained. 246 MR. THOMAS HOPKINS ON THE INFLUENCE XVII.—On the Influence of the Earth’s Rotation on Winds. By Tuomas Horxtns, Esq., M.B.M.S. Read December 16th, 1862. Great importance has been given by many writers to the effects that are said to be produced by the unequal rota- tory velocities of different latitudes on the winds that pass over the surface of the globe. It has been confidently asserted that winds passing from the northern polar re- gions take with them only the slow rotatory movements of the latitudes from which they are passing, and are there- fore palpably left behind by the quicker rotating surfaces of more southern parts, converting a north into a north- east wind. A wind from the southern polar regions is said, in like manner, to be converted into a south-east wind. The great trade-winds of the tropics are stated to be, in this way, changed from north and south into north- east and south-east winds. That air, passing from polar to tropical regions, is affected, to some extent, in this way is admitted ; but the extent has been greatly exaggerated, apparently in order to support an imaginary theory of the tropical trade-winds. The atmosphere presses on the surface of the globe with a force equal to about 15 lbs. weight on every square inch, aud by that pressure it appears to be made to adhere so strongly to it as to enable the surface readily to take with it the air that is in the part at about its own velocity in every latitude. But if such an effect as that which has been alleged is produced by the cause named ¢o a palpable extent, we might reasonably expect to find it in operation over the whole globe when air is in motion upon it; we may therefore inquire whether that is or is not the case. OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION ON WINDS. - 247 _ I have shown, in ‘ Winds and Storms’*, that the trade- winds are produced by a different cause to that which was supposed to connect them with polar air passing over the surface towards the equator; those winds, however, pass over but a few degrees of latitude, where the rotatory velo- cities of adjoining parts do not alter so much propor- tionally within the same range of latitudes as they do nearer to the poles. It is therefore about the latter parts that we might, most confidently, expect to find the truth of the hypothesis of retardation tested. But near the polar regions few winds are found sufficiently continuous to en- able us to trace the effects of varying rotatory velocities of the surface upon their direction. Yet we are not with- out cases in such parts that are suitable to throw light on this subject. We are informed by navigators that from Victoria-land, in (say) 74° of south latitude, a wind is found blowing to- wards Tierra del Fuego, in 50° south. But Tierra del Fuego, in 50° of latitude, being 24° further from the south pole, has a more rapid rotation than Victoria-land in 74°; and if it were true that air passing from slower to quicker rotating surfaces was left palpably behind the surface of the part over which it was passing, air flowing from the south over the strip described should constitute an ap- parent easterly wind moving in a direction the opposite to that of Tierra del Fuego. But as it is asserted by navigators to be not a south-east, but a south-west wind, bearing ships towards Tierra del Fuego, it must move east- ward faster than the surface over which it is passing, although that surface is rotating with successively in- creasing degrees of velocity. ‘This case, then, affords rather strong evidence of the fallacy of the prevailing . theory, that wind passing over a meridian from polar: to tropical parts is left behind the rotating surface. * Published by Longman and Co., London. 248 MR. THOMAS HOPKINS ON THE INFLUENCE In the northern hemisphere, there is no palpable wind that blows southward from a latitude higher than 70°; but one can be traced in the Arctic region, from the mouth of the Mackenzie River, in longitude 134° west, that blows generally in the winter over the whole of the eastern side of North America to the southern pomt of Flo- rida, in latitude 27° and west longitude 80°. This wind is, in its general direction, north-west. Here, then, we have a case similar in character to that just named, of air passing from the slowly rotating latitude of 70° to the rapidly rotating parallel of 27°; but instead of the air beimg left behind by the more rapidly moving surface of the earth through the 43° of latitude that it traverses, and thus becoming an apparent easterly wind, it moves faster than the surface through the whole 43° of latitude. In the northern case the air had to pass over rough land, presenting a surface likely to take the air with it; but in the southern it had to pass over water only ; yet in neither case was the air left behind by the more rapidly rotating surfaces of the earth. Now these two cases seem to be sufficient to prove that air passing from slower to quicker rotating parts is not liable to be left behind in the way that has been so confidently assumed; and they warrant us in inferring that it may possibly be an assumption that . appeared to be found necessary to support a fallacious theory, which seemed to some persons to account for im- portant meteorological phenomena. It is, however, in accounting for the tropical trade-winds that writers have been the most explicit in explaining the retarding effect on winds of increasing rotatory velocity of the surface of the earth. Kamtz, after stating that air ascended in the tropics, and descended in the polar regions to return to the tropics on the surface, says :—‘ On this principle we ought to find a north wind in the northern hemisphere, and a south wind in the southern; but these OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION ON WINDS. 249 two directions combine with motion of the earth from west to east, and there results a north-east wind in one hemi- sphere and a south-east wind in the other. Indeed, as the diameter of the parallel circles continues diminishing in proportion as we recede from the equator, and as all the points situated in the same meridian turn round the axis of the earth in twenty-four hours, it follows that they move with a velocity much greater as they are nearer to the equinoctial line. But the masses of air which flow from the north towards the equator have an acquired ve- locity much less than that of the region towards which they are directed. They therefore move more slowly than do the points situated near the equator, and they oppose to the elevated parts of the surface of the globe a resist- ance analogous to that of a well-defined north-east wind. For the same reason the trade-wind of the southern hemi- sphere blows from the south-east.”” (See Kamtz’s ‘ Meteo- logy,’ p. 38.) | Sir J. Herschel, in his ‘ Meteorology,’ thus explains this point. After speaking of the return of air from the north towards the equator, he says, ‘ In this account of the production of wind, however, no account is taken of the earth’s rotation on its axis, which modifies all the phenomena, and gives their peculiar character to all the great aérial currents which prevail over the globe.” “To form a right estimate of its importance, it is only neces- sary to observe that, of all the winds which blow over the whole earth, one-half at least, more probably two-thirds, of the average momentum is nothing else than force given out by the globe in its rotation, in the trade-currents, and in the act of reabsorption or resumption by it from the anti- _ trades. Since the earth revolves on an axis passing through its poles from west to east, each poimt im its surface has a rotatory velocity eastward proportional to the radius of its circle of latitude, and any body of air relatively quiescent 250 MR. THOMAS HOPKINS ON THE INFLUENCE on that point will have the same. Conceive such a body to be urged by any impulse in the direction of a meridian towards the equator. Since such impulse communicates to it no increase of velocity, it will find itself, at each point of its progress, continually more and more deficient in this element of movement, and will lag behind the swifter surface below it, or drag upon it with a relative westerly tendency. In other words, it will no longer be a direct north or south wind, but, relatively to the surface over which it is moving, will assume continually more and more the character of a north-easterly or south-easterly one, according as it approaches the equator from the north or south” (p. 57). - In both of these extracts it will be perceived that the great departure of the tropical trade-winds from a meri- dianal line is attributed to unequal rotatory velocities of the surface converting the north and south winds of the Atlantic to north-east and south-east winds; and in the Pacific changing their direction, until over the greater por- tion of its surface these become east winds, though this surface is within the tropics, where comparative rotatory velocity does not greatly alter. Yet all western tendency of air in those parts is attributed to the air being left be- hind by the rotation of the surface that is encountered. Now, that air may be left behind by unequal rotating surfaces is admitted. From the nature and action of phy- sical force, it would seem that such must be the case. But is it so left to any definite or appreciable extent? The eminent writers quoted assert in general terms that the retardation does take place, without thinking it neces- sary to show in a scientific way what is its precise amount, or what will be the difference in the retardation in lati- tudes revolving at very different speeds. In short, it is as- sumed, in a general way, that retardation does take place, just as the ascent of air within the tropics was by Hadley, OF THE RARTH’S ROTATION ON WINDS. 251 in order to account for unexplained facts. But if no in- fluence of the kind can be traced in parts near to the polar circles, say from 74° of latitude, are we at liberty at once to assume, without any attempt at proof, that that in- fluence is great within the tropics? It appears an unwar- ranted assumption. Even within the tropics, however, there is strong evi- dence to show the fallacy of the assumption that is here combated. Over the eastern side of the Atlantic Ocean, from Sierra Leone, in west longitude 15°, a wind generally blows with considerable force towards the east, in the Gulf of Guinea, to beyond the meridian of Greenwich; and therefore the air constituting the wind moves eastward faster than the surface over which it is passing ; and there is good reason for presuming that it continues its eastern course far into the interior of the continent of Africa. The whole of this part is near to the equator, and the comparative increase of rotatory velocity is therefore not considerable ; but the positive rotation here is very rapid, say, In round numbers, 1000 miles an hour. And yet, so far from the air being left behind by the surface, it moves so much faster as to make it a wind of considerable strength. In like manner,-on the eastern side of the Tropical Pa- cific Ocean, winds blow from the west towards the east, and of course the air in them must move eastward faster than the surface of the globe on which it presses. One of them blows with considerable constaney, another is in- termitting in its action, but both are illustrative of the subject under consideration. | The former wind is generally found blowing from the west of California, in about latitude 30° north, to the equator in the Gulf of Panama; and therefore it passes eastward over about 40° of longitude faster than the sur- face of the earth does on which it presses. The other 252 MR. THOMAS HOPKINS ON THE INFLUENCE wind alluded to, sometimes called a Pacific monsoon, is found in the southern summer blowing from the So- ciety Islands to Guayaquil ; and this is through (say) 86° of longitude; and, in the whole of this course, the air moves eastward faster than the surface of the globe. It is only when the sun is in the southern hemisphere that. this latter Pacific wind is found blowing from the west; but it then constitutes a regular monsoon, some- times of considerable strength. At other times of the year, the ordinary eastern trade-wind prevails over the same range of the ocean. But if the east wind was caused by the rotation of the earth leaving the air behind it, what could cause the wind coming from the west to move to- wards the east faster than the surface? The rotatory velocity of the surface is the same at all seasons ; and cer- tainly it may be presumed that the cause, whatever it may be, which makes the air rotate more rapidly than the earth at one time, may be able to make it move either more or less rapidly at another time, and in a different di- rection. This, I have attempted to show, is the case im all winds,—the disturbing power which causes them being in action, in all cases, where the wind terminates. Another wind is said to be found blowing near to the equator, across the whole Pacific Ocean from the west, into the Gulf of Panama, and of course moving eastward faster than the surface; but enough has been said to show that on the eastern sides of both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans well-known facts are to be found, which are di- rectly opposed to the theory that the rotatory motion of the globe palpably disturbs the movements of the air on its surface. There are two assumptions generally made by meteoro- logists which it is here contended are the offspring of the imagination, and are in substance fallacious. One is, that winds are produced by the unequal heating of different OF THE EARTA’S ROTATION ON WINDS. 253 parts of the earth’s surface ; and the other, that the un- equal rotatory velocity of different latitudes palpably modify and disturb the course of the winds. The former of these causes has been erroneously said to produce the monsoons of the Indian Ocean. This I have elsewhere shown to be an error, more particularly as regards the south-west monsoon. But the second assumption, which we are more specially considering, deserves further examination in re- ference to this part of the world. The north-west or winter monsoon of the Indian Ocean is first found over the ocean near to Arabia and Africa, moving towards the equator, and according to the laws of retardation, as laid down by modern meteorologists, it ought to become a north-east trade-wind blowing to the heated surfaces of Africa. It does not, however, do so; but from the mouth of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, near the northern tropic, it goes southward and eastward, passing near Hindostan, to the island of Ceylon; then turning more decidedly eastward, it passes forward to the equator, and terminates at the islands of Sumatra and Java, where heavy rains are falling. So that this wind passes through 23° of latitude over a sea cool compared with burning Africa, and in a direction the opposite to that in which Africa is situated, and at the same time traverses 40° of longitude with greater rapidity than the surface of the globe that sustains it! Instead of being left behind by the ro- tating surface, it travels eastward faster than that surface, moving steadily forward with increasing velocity to cloud- covered islands which are cooled and drenched by heavy rains. | But this is not the only part of the Indian Ocean where wind travels faster than the surface of the globe. When _ the sun has fully heated the southern hemisphere, a wind, called the petty monsoon, is found blowing eastward from the neighbourhood of Madagascar across the Indian Ocean 254 MR. THOMAS HOPKINS ON THE INFLUENCE to the island of Java; and therefore, instead of being left behind by the globe, it, as in the cases of other winds, moves eastward at a quicker rate than the globe does. And here, as in the western monsoon of the Pacific Ocean, it is only at a certain season that this wind blows towards the east, although the surface of the globe- revolves with equal velocity at all times. Thus, in the eastern portion of the Indian Ocean, from about the northern tropic to the equator, one wind is found blowing to the east, while another is found on the other side of the equator blowing in the same direction. So much are facts in this part of the world at variance with the assumptions which have been made by ingenious inquirers to sustain an erroneous theory. There is another part which deserves notice, as bearing on the subject under consideration. The islands of the great Indian archipelago have the broad Pacific Ocean to the east on one side, and the open Indian Ocean on the other to the west; and near to and on each side of the equator, winds blow in opposite directions towards these islands. 'Thus, while winds from the east blow to them from the Pacific, other winds, as we have seen, blow from the west over the Indian Ocean. The winds change with the arrival and departure of the rainy season on the one or on the other side of the different parts of the great archi- pelago. And it is stated to be a well-known fact that wind blows through Torres Straits, within 10° of the equa- tor, during one half of the year from the east and during the other half from the west. As statements to this effect are to be found in many books, it is rather surprising that meteorologists should continue to repeat the hypotheses that are so much at variance with them. But it has been found in other departments of natural operation, as well as in this, that first appearances have given birth to erroneous views, which, in due time, have been worked into a fallacious hypothesis. This took place OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION ON WINDS. 255 in astronomy and also in chemistry ; and the old theories long kept possession of the minds of men who, in their earlier days, were trained to adopt them. Meteorology seems to be at present in a state of transition ; its defects, however, have recently been plainly and strongly cha- racterized by more than one eminent philosopher, it having been said that it was an unintelligible mass, which became less comprehensible the more it was explained ! And this may be truly said of the present popular theory to account for atmospheric disturbances. I have, however, attempted to show that the tropical ocean or dry sun-heated land does not cause air to ascend from heated tropical regions to flow over to the polar, and when cooled return to the tropics on the surface, and also that air so passing is not to any palpable extent affected by the unequal rotation of different latitudes. It has also been proved, by a large amount of reasonable evidence, that all the great atmospheric disturbances are caused by the liberated heat of condensing vapour warming and expand- ing the gases, which are then forced upwards by heavier air, producing ascending currents with horizontal winds to supply them. In this way it has been shown that the trade-winds and monsoons of the tropics and all the more violent winds and storms over certain parts of the ocean, as well as the winds of other parts, are produced. Eva- poration of the small particles of water, which constitute floating cloud, makes the air heavy where that evaporation takes place, when the local air sinks through a lghter part of the atmosphere to the surface, over which it spreads, creating moderate movements of the air, such as cool breezes. The former disturbances, constituting the great winds, are effects of limited portions of the atmosphere being heated, expanded, and rendered hght, when they are forced into the higher regions. The latter and smaller winds are results of portions of air being cooled and made 256 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., heavy by cloud-evaporation, when they sink to, and spread over, the surface. These two operations of local heating and cooling of the gases, it is contended, produce those movements which are called breezes, winds, and storms. And if we started from the process of evaporation of water from the ocean sending vapour into the atmosphere, and then traced its ascent and diffusion through the gases, and its condensation by their low temperature in the upper regions liberating the heat of the vapour, all the great disturbances that take place might be followed and ren- dered comprehensible and clear. And if, afterwards, the water which was produced by condensation of the vapour, but which did not fall as rain, were followed through its evaporation in the upper regions, cooling the local gases, and making them sink and spread out over the surface, all the disturbing processes might be exhibited in a natural and simple order, and meteorology, instead of being de- nounced as incomprehensible, might take its place with geology, zoology, and other sciences that are regularly taught in our schools. XVIII.—On the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- tions, as Sources of Water-supply for Towns. By Ep- warp Hutt, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. — Read December 30th, 1862. Ir was remarked by the late Dr. Buckland, that most of the large manufacturing towns of the central and northern counties are built upon the New Red Sandstone. This cir- cumstance, which to the casual observer might appear acci- dental, seems, on closer inspection, to be attributable to the natural advantages which such a situation affords. For a manufacturing town, coal is necessary; therefore these towns AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 257 lie as close as may be to the coal-fields without actually standing on them—an advantage only to be fully appreciated by those doomed to pass their lives between collieries on one side and factories on the other. Besides this advantage, there is that of dryness. The New Red Sandstone is ex- tremely porous ; rain rapidly sinks into it, leaving a dry soil. The formation also yields building-stone, suitable for all kinds of rough or ornamental work. The sandstones of the Bunter are largely employed for the former; those of the Keuper for the latter. Nearly all the best freestones used in ecclesiastical or secular structures—from the Anglo-Nor- man period downwards—in the central counties, have been hewn from quarries in the Lower Keuper Sandstone. The _ last advantage to which I shall allude is one which is often unwittingly enjoyed or neglected by many towns—that of water-supply. Under and around all the towns built on this formation (or on the Permian) there lie natural re- servoirs of pure water, which are often overlooked in the search for this most necessary element of manufacturing industry and ordinary existence. And thus most of the sites occupied by such towns as Manchester, Liverpool, Stockport, Macclesfield, Leek, Nottingham, Derby, Wolverhampton, Birmingham, and Kidderminster unite in themselves the advantages of easy access to coal, water, and building-stone. To those who are acquainted with the difficulties and expense to which many of these towns, and others simi- larly situated, have been put when in search of water, it may appear strange that they have often overlooked, or failed in taking full advantage of, the supply of pure water which Nature, that thrifty housewife, has pent up in the rocks. Such, however, is the case; and just as the ques- tion of the supply of coal below the New Red Sandstone is every day becoming more important, so is also the question of the supply of water within the same formation receiving increased attention. . SHE. FEE VOL; I; 8 258 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, E'C., The formations to which these observations refer are largely distributed over the Midland, Western, and North- Midland counties. In geological position they are in- cluded between the Coal formation below, and the Keuper, which forms the upper division of the New Red Sandstone, and which yields the brine-springs and rock-salt of Che- shire and Worcestershire. From this formation the brine at Rugby and Cheltenham has undoubtedly been derived, by ascent through the overlying Lias. Under these towns the true fresh-water-bearing strata are in all probability entirely absent, and will not be found south-east of a line drawn from the Bristol Channel to the mouth of the Humber. This is owing to the attenuation or thinning out of the Triassic formations towards the south-east of England—a most interesting fact in physical geology, and one to which I drew attention in a paper published by the Geological Society of London*. Its bearmg on the ques- tion of water-supply should never be lost sight of. These changes in the thickness and distribution of the Trias and Permian beds are represented in Fig. 1. It will be observed that, out of five subformations resting directly on each other, all except that marked 2 are water- bearmmg; and also how these strata attain their greatest vertical development in Lancashire and Cheshire, and thin away in the direction of the mouth of the Thames. The general succession of the series is as follows :— 5. Upper Mottled Sandstone.—Fine soft incoherent sandstone. New Red | 4. Pebbdle-beds.—Reddish-brown pebbly sandstone, used for Sandstone building, becoming a loose conglomerate in Staffordshire. 3. Lower Mottled Sandstone.—Fine soft incoherent sandstone. Permian ({ 2. Red Maris, with limestone (not water-bearing). Beds | 1. Lower Red Sandstone.—Soft fine red sandstone. The Lower Permian sandstone, a nearly homogeneous rock of extreme porosity, attains considerable thickness in * “On the South-easterly Attenuation of the Lower Secondary Rocks of England,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. 259 AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. ‘SUIIVOG-IOJVA O1B AA Poyreut suoTyeuraoy OU —"aZoar age “"* (dutavaq-19}eM soury ‘SSOUYOTY} JVOUT JO s[xeP puv souoyspueg pory “OUOS) STIBPY puw souoyspuvg) “" “H OGF 0} OG ‘ouoyspueg poy somory *] poy Aq pozuosordou ATquqorg *] “‘quesqy ee ie ee ey quosqy 1G ec a SOUOJSOULIT arc STAB TAL psy ie "0108q/V se eneeee Peco reer eee ennee oe "13 OOT 04 0 eee "oy 00G 0} 0 ‘ouoyspueg P20 JOMOT 'e “W OST 94 0 "FF OOE 94 OOT ‘oxetouTO[SUO_ | sserreseees “""" “IF OGL 04 00G ‘spoq-eTqqog ‘F WOOT 94 0 Sen 2 2) OO ONOG) Sarg; on Ges ‘ouojspurg pop}oyy todd gq -g { pay Te eset ee Ot EO a a ONIVVIUATLVM AVLITIVIINS INoTSOWWVS P|\STYVW O78 ee ae a a Fen 2 ii : : : a om % = ° Dae o a - ° - © : nae ee a ea rr to < Mgbmez 4 ‘T'S ‘OATYSYOIMIB AA PUB OATYTSA0SO010r] ‘OITYSpLOWVyG pu oarysXqaocy ‘oaTYSOYO pur orryseouery “MN ‘(sawmyy, ay) fo yynopy ayn pun hgbnaz fo worjIauIp ay, ur van wy? UDIULag puD sDLLT ay) fo spaq Burimag-sayom ayy youya ua souunu ay) buimoys) punjbus fo #SDO~YINOY OY) Spknno} Jsam-YRLONT ay? wouf Uoroag I nUMDLhDIg—' T. “BT Sd ‘spueg "YN “UelULog s2 260 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., the north of England and Lancashire, as shown by Messrs. Binney and Harkness. Wherever it occurs, it will pro- bably be found well charged with water. It also attains a development of 200 feet in Durham, as shown by Pro- fessor Sedgwick, forming the base of the escarpment which marks the boundary of the magnesian limestone; but in the central counties it disappears, and in its stead we find a thick series of red calcareous marls and sandstones, occupy- ing large tracts of Warwickshire, Staffordshire, and Wor- cestershire, resting on the Coal-measures, and overlain by the New Red Sandstone. The relative position of these beds and the Lower Permian sandstone cannot be satisfac- torily determined, as they nowhere occur in the same place; but it is probable that the latter is more recent than the former, though they are both of Permian age. As a group of water-bearing strata, however, the red marls and sandstones of the central counties must be considered as ill adapted for this purpose, as the frequent occurrence of thick beds of impervious marls and clays must prevent any large accumulation of water in the beds of sandstone ; and whatever the quantity of water, it is likely to be hard, owing to the large distribution of calcareous matter through- out the whole of the formation. It was into these beds that the well for the supply of Wolverhampton was.sunk, and which failed to obtain a sufficient supply (see fig. 2). The lower division of the Keuper, called Lower Keuper Sandstone, which lies at the base of the great series of red marls, I have omitted to include in the category of water-bearing strata, as they are only imperfectly so, and might often be found to yield salt water. This series of beds consist of white and brown sandstones, tolerably hard, interlaced with red shales and clays, the former being per- meable, the latter not so. On this account these strata frequently give rise to springs, and are in consequence called ‘ water-stones”’ in Cheshire and Lancashire. The Trras orn New Rep PERMIAN AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 261 frequent partings of shales and clays, taken in connexion with the comparatively small vertical development of these beds, must prevent them from occupying as high a posi- tion in the scale of water-bearing strata as the underlying Bunter Sandstone. Fig. 2.—Diagram to show the position of the Well at Wolverhampton which failed to afford a supply. 1. Red Marls and Sandstones of Permian age—only moderately water- bearing. 2. New Red Sandstone and conglomerate—highly water-bearing. A. Actual position of well which failed. B. Position where it ought to have been. If the well had been sunk at B, I have no doubt a large supply could have been obtained, which might then have been pumped up to the reservoir on the top of the hill at A. The following is the general succession of the Triassic: and Permian formations in the Midland and North-western counties to which reference is made in these pages, show- ing which are water-bearing, or the contrary. General Succession of the Triassic and Permian Beds. Lancashire Derbyshire, | Warwickshire and Staffordshire, and Remarks. Cheshire. and Notts. Leicestershire. f.¢ 5. Sed marl, 3000 ft....... GOOG. -octisasacen Acoplt. © near. Brine. o 5, } 4. Lower Keuper sand- a stone, or water- $200 ft. ............ UO Las Ae eel = stones, 450 ft. ... 8: 2 ane eae \ 50 to 200 ft....... Absent ......... Water-bearing. F 7S a eT 100 to 300 ft. ... o to 100 ft. ...Water-bearing. pn ner oto roa a ADSENE G.in50.2 4: Water-bearing. : stone, o to 200 ft. es { os — Sel Aten cee Absent. ........ No water. =) cee ree asees A : ( He ae ee eo Absenbil.2, sea2s4: Absent ......... Water-bearing. Red sandstones Moderately ° c | rapAbsenty ge: 4334 eo. | Ts5coit.. 3:4. { water-bearing. and marls, 500 ft. 262 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., It will be observed from the above that out of eight sub- formations four are water-bearing, two are moderately so, — and one produces brine, at least generally. The excellence of the Triassic and Permian beds above named, as regards their water-bearing powers, depends prin- cipally upon the three following qualities. 1. Porosity. 2. Homogeneity or uniformity of mineral composition. 3. Filtering-power ; to which may be added the occurrence in only very small proportions of lime or other soluble minerals. We shall now briefly discuss each of these qualities. 1. Porosity.—This is a quality inherent in all sandstones. In proportion to their greater or less solidity, they allow the passage of water throughout their mass with less or more freedom, and they absorb water with which they are brought in contact to the point of saturation. The sand- stones of the Trias are on the whole of an open and inco- herent character ; and in some districts, where the “ pebble- beds ” of the Bunter pass into an unconsolidated conglome- rate, as on Cannock Chase, all the rain that falls is imme- diately absorbed, except what is given back by evaporation. Thus the New Red Sandstone is ever receiving, and drink- ing in, supplies from the clouds, which percolate down- wards and accumulate in the lower strata till a water-level is formed, which oscillates according to the rainfall and the extent aud number of the springs, which are the natural sluices. When these porous strata rise to the surface, and then plunge beneath the impervious formation of the Red Marl, there can be no doubt they are saturated with water to considerable depths, and to great distances from their outcrop. In this position the water might be reached by artesian wells, were it not for the danger of tapping brine- springs in passing through the formation of the Red Marl. This capacity for forming large reservoirs of water within the mass of the formation is one of its most important AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 263 qualities, and depends also to a large extent on its homo- geneity, which we now proceed to consider. 2. Homogeneity.—The three members of the Bunter di- vision (see above) are very nearly similar in composition, though somewhat differing in solidity. The first and third members consist of soft incoherent sandstone, very porous, and readily absorbing whatever rain falls on its surface. The middle member is generally more compact, but in the central counties often passes into a loose conglomerate of quartz-pebbles, also of an ex- tremely porous nature. Therefore, for the purposes of water-supply, the whole formation, attaiming a vertical thickness of several hundred feet, may be considered as equally absorbent throughout, being in effect (with occa- sional exceptions) a natural reservoir, the water from which is capable of beimg utilized by mechanical skill. At the same time it must be recollected that judgment and know- ledge to determine the most effective mode of applying that skill are as necessary in this case as in laying out a colliery, or any similar undertaking. ) That this formation readily yields to the passage of water, both vertically and horizontally, is proved by general experience. The case of the well sunk at Green Lane, near Liverpool, and belonging to the Corporation, illus- trates this pomt. This well, by sinking and boring, reaches a depth of 385 feet ; and I am assured by Mr. Duncan, the engineer, that the pumping operations influence wells “ se- veral miles distant.” In fact, I believe it has laid dry all - the wells within a radiusofamile. Mr. J. Cunningham, of Liverpool, who has paid much attention to this subject, informs me that some wells in that town, sunk for a quarter to half a mile from the sea-side, have now become so salt as to be useless for household purposes, proving that the sea can make its way inland to this distance at least. Upon this point the evidence is perfectly conclusive ; for we find 264 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., that on both sides of the Mersey the water contained in the New Red Sandstone acts as a counterpoise to that of the — sea, so that when, by pumping, the water-level of the rock is lowered, and the pressure removed, the sea forces a passage for itself through the strata in order to restore the balance. But the most conclusive proof of the extreme porousness of the formation is derived from the large quantity of water which it is capable of yielding from a single well, and which therefore must be drawn from a considerable area. As instances we may mention the Windsor Well at Liver- pool, which yields 1,103,000 gallons per day; the Green Lane Well, which gives no less than 3,321,000 gallons ; and the Gorton Well, near Manchester, 864,000 gallons. It has also been found that the supply mcreases with the depth, of course in various proportions, as a larger area is thereby drained. This is a most valuable property of the formation. In other geological formations composed of constantly varying materials, the effect of increasing the depth might be to pass from a water-bearing stratum, such as sandstone or limestone, to one which contains no water at all, such as shale; but it is otherwise with the New Red Sandstone; and thus, when a small supply only is required for a small town or a factory, that supply may be increased by deepening the well when the increase of demand so requires. For the purposes here referred to, there are no forma- tions in England better adapted than the New Red Sand- stone ; for if we compare with it the Chalk and Lower Greensand, the great water-bearing strata of the South of England, it must be allowed to excel the former in the greater softness of the water, and the latter in having a tenfold greater horizontal and vertical develop- ment. The freedom with which water can percolate both late- AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 265 rally and vertically through this formation is due to uni- formity of composition. In some parts of Cheshire and Lancashire we may estimate the thickness of the Bunter sandstone at 2000 feet ; in the central counties, at 500 to 1000 feet; and throughout this mass of porous sandstone there seldom occurs a stratum which is impervious to water. We find, it is true, here and there, bands of shaly marl, but they are very thin, and never extend over a large tract of ground. Hence it is that wells, properly situated with respect to the dip of the beds and the area of rain- fall, can drain such large tracts, and when of sufficient depth are not likely to be affected by dry seasons. 3. Filtering power.—Pure sand and gravel are.the most general agents employed in filtering on a large scale; and by means of the New Red Sandstone and similar deposits, Nature accomplishes the important function of extracting from water, derived from various sources, all noxious 1m- purities, and returning it back again, through her springs and fountains, clear and fitted for our use. Such is the character of the water derived from this formation. It is generally very free from matter in mechanical suspension, nor is it often impregnated strongly with salts in solution. Carbonate of lime is often present, but in small quantities. Iron, which sometimes occurs in the water raised from wells, can readily be precipitated by allowing the water free access to the open air. Brine is frequently diffused through the Red Marl, which forms the upper division of the Trias; yet I have only known of one instance out of a large number of wells where it has been found in the Red Sandstone. The case referred to occurred at Ordsal, near Manchester, and is mentioned by Mr. Binney, F.R.S., in a paper recently read before this Society. The purity of the water, and its fitness for manufacturing as well as do- mestic purposes, is most satisfactorily shown, from the fact that it is used in bleaching, dyeing, and other works in 266 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., Manchester and Stockport, and for household use in Liver- pool, Birkenhead, Southport, St. Helens, Birmingham, and many other large towns, though not to the extent of which it is capable. I may also mention, on the authority of Mr. Ramsbottom, that one of the best sources of supply for locomotive engines on the London and North Western Railway is drawn from a well in this formation at War- rington Junction in Lancashire. Now, for engine boilers pure and soft water is absolutely necessary. I may also appeal to all persons who can enjoy a glass of cold water for their verdict, if there is not as much difference between a draught from a deep well and one from a moorland reservoir, as between a glass of Burton ale newly drawn and one which has stood till it has become “ flat, stale, and unprofitable ”’*. With all these advantages afforded by the New Red Sandstone as a source of water-supply, it is remarkable that many large towns, with these facilities at hand, have preferred going to long distances for water collected from surface-drainage, which must always be inferior in quality and variable in quantity, in comparison to that drawn from the internal reservoir of the rocks. ‘The cases of Liver- pool and Stockport may be particularly mentioned. One special advantage in reference to water drawn from wells over that derived from streams is, that it is less subject to variation in quantity, as it is less influenced by the * The opinions regarding the quality of the water derived from the Trias and Lower Permian sandstone vary much. In some cases the water has been found to be hard, though derived from a series of strata containing very small quantities of carbonate of lime. Dr. Angus Smith states, as the result of his examination of the waters from the Manchester wells, that they con- tain 14 grains of lime per gallon, namely, 8 grains of sulphate and 6 of carbonate. It is to be recollected, however, that most of these wells enter the New Red Sandstone, pass down through the Permian marls, which are highly calcareous, and draw their supply from the Lower Permian sandstone. A portion of the lime met with may therefore be derived from the a mazrls, which contain beds of limestone and gypsum. ——————————E —————EEe AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 267 vicissitudes of long droughts. When these occur of more than ordinary length, the brooks dry up and the water fails; but in the underground reservoirs of the strata, the circulation of the water is so slow throughout the mass that the supply is economized, and is capable of holding out for lengthened periods. Yet both the towns above- named have preferred placing reliance on these variable sources in preference to those of a more constant cha- racter. The advantages afforded by the New Red Sandstone have often been thrown away by an improper selection of positions in sinking wells. Through ignorance of the geo- logical structure of the district from which it is proposed to draw a supply, large sums of money have been uselessly expended. The case of Wolverhampton may be instanced. This town, naturally well placed for drawing a supply of water from the New Red Sandstone, has been obliged to have recourse to a river many miles off to minister to its necessities—a result due to the selection, in the first in- _ stance, of an improper. site for the well (see fig. 2). The case of Rugby was one of another kind. For here there was no New Red Sandstone from which to draw, and the discovery of salt water in the strata of the Red Marl might have been anticipated, as it is the same formation which produces the brine-springs of Cheshire and Wor- cestershire. (See diagram, fig. 1, p. 259). - How to find water in the natural reservoirs of the strata is every day becoming more and more a geological ques- tion. It cannot be too strongly urged that, in order to solve this problem, a knowledge of the composition, pro- perties, and structure of the rocks is indispensable—just as much so, in fact, asin the question of finding coal. The following suggestions may therefore be of service as rules of general application :— It may be almost always expected that the water will 268 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., tend to flow in the direction of the dip of the strata ; therefore it is necessary that the well should be placed as — far as possible from the outcrop or margin of the for- mation. The most favourable position for a well is in the centre of a basin or trough, for towards this point the water will tend to flow; and if the boundaries of the formation round the margin of the basin happen to be upon a higher level than the centre of the basin, the water will in all probabi- lity rise to the surface by its own pressure. Such was the result in an experiment made by Mr. Bateman during the formation of the new Wolverhampton Waterworks, near Tonge, and also in one which was made under the author’s direction at Whitmore Station, for the supply of the works of the London and North-Western Railway at Crewe (fig. 3). Fig. 8.—Section to show the position of the Well at Whitmore, Stafford. 1. New Red Sandstone. Water-level shown by the shaded part. The water rose four feet above the railway cutting. bh gir 9. Permian Marls, Red Marls,—impervious to water, and preventing it sinking downwards. I may here be allowed to give a brief account of this experiment, as it illustrates the point in question. It was the wish of the company to obtain water within the present bounds of their property, the present supply being insufficient, and the space occupied by the reservoir being required for other purposes. After a short survey, I fixed on a point 200 yards south of Whitmore Station as likely to yield as large a quantity of water as could possi- bly be required, both. for the works and the town. This AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 269 point is near the centre of a trough or half-basin of New Red Sandstone. The hills of this formation rise in a semi- circle around it, and towards this point the strata dip. The rock is generally very incoherent, and nearly all the rain which falls within a radius of a mile and upwards must, I concluded, flow in the direction of the point selected. These expectations were fully verified. A 4-inch bore having been sunk only 148 feet, a column of water ascended with force to a height of 4 feet. It was at first strongly impregnated with iron, but gradually became limpid and clear, and has flowed ever since. A well is now being sunk, and the water will be carried by gravitation to Crewe in pipes. Faults or dislocations in this formation do not act as barriers for preventing the underground flow of the water, as in the case of coal-mines. They simply retard its flow through the strata, or form ducts along which to guide it. For this reason the lines of dislocation offer favourable sites for wells. The New Red Sandstone is frequently underlain by im- pervious clays or marls belonging to the coal-measures or Permian beds. In such cases the water must accumulate towards the bottom of the sandstone, as its further descent is arrested. When this arrangement of the beds takes place, the prospect of a large supply may be considered favourable. ‘The supply will also be influenced by other causes, such as the continuous area of the formation, and the presence or absence of drift-deposits overlying the sand- stone. A thick coating of boulder-clay probably prevents the rain ever reaching the rock beneath it. In conclusion, I think we may assert with confidence that the value of the New Red Sandstone as a source of -water-supply is as yet imperfectly appreciated, and that many of the towns still suffermg from the want of that most necessary element, good water, would do well to 270 =MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSONE, ETC., have recourse to the supply which Nature has placed within their reach. I now proceed to give some special instances of wells in the Trias and Permian formations. Liverpool District. Well at Bootle.-—Surface 50 feet above sea. Four holes. Greatest depth of one of these reached, in 1844, 600 feet. Yielded at first a large volume of water; but the quantity was never accurately determined till January 1850, when the yield was 1,102,000 gallons per day. Now reduced to 700,000 gallons per day. Windsor Well.—Sunk about the year 1840. Surface 190 feet above sea. Depth of well 210 feet. Yield not ascertained till 1850, and was then found to be 700,000 gallons per day. Bored a hole 4 in. diameter, 189 feet from the bottom. Yield then increased to 958,000 gallons per day. In June 1853 the yield diminished to 814,000 gallons perday. ‘Then widened the 4-inch bore to 6 inches in diameter, and deepened to 210 feet. Yield increased to 1,110,000 gallons. In 1856 diminished to 972,000 gal- lons. Bored additional depth of 342 feet. The total depth is now 245 feet, and the yield about 1,103,000 gallons per day. , Green Lane Well.—Sunk 1845-6. Surface 144 feet above sea. Depth of well 185 feet. Yield at first 1,250,000 gal- lons per day. In April 1852, yield 1,203,000 gallons. Bored 6-inch hole, 60 feet from the bottom of well; yield increased to 2,317,000 gallons. June 1853, yield 2,303,000 gallons. Bored again 382 feet ; yield increased to 2,689,000 gallons. June 1856, widened hole, and deepened it to a depth from bottom of well of 200 feet. Yield increased to 3,321,000 gallons per day. Total depth from surface 358 feet. Messrs. Earl and Carter’s well, in Oil-street, above a AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 871 quarter of a mile from the river, became useless through the filtration of salt water. This has also occurred in several other cases here and at Birkenhead. Several successful wells and borings have been sunk under the direction of Mr. Bateman and Mr. Cunning- ham for the supply of Birkenhead and the neighbourhood. One of them, at Flaybrick, reaches a total depth of 360 feet, and yields upwards of 2,000,000 gallons per day. St. Helens is supplied from a well sunk on Eccleston Hill, 70 yards in depth mn New Red Sandstone, at a height of 260 feet above the sea. The towns of Southport and Ormskirk are also supplied from the same formation. At Preston Junction, on the London and North-Western Railway, an abundant supply of very pure water 1s obtained from a well about 40 feet in depth. The water answers well for engine boilers. Manchester District. Gorton Waterworks.—Two wells, at about 50 feet from each other, communicating by a tunnel. Depth of the pumping-well, 210 feet; 12 feet in diameter. From the bottoms of the wells tunnels are driven out, all in New Red Sandstone. Yield, 864,000 gallons per day. Not in con- stant use. : There are in Manchester and Salford from 60 to 70 deep wells driven through the New Red Sandstone and Per- mian formations, and yielding probably 6,000,000 gallons per day*. The water is employed in bleaching, dyeing- works, and breweries ; and though harder than that which is supplied from the Yorkshire moors, is well adapted for * The strata pierced by some of these wells and borings are described by Mr. E. W. Binney, F.R.S. See Trans. Geol. Soc. vol.i.; and the same au- thor, “On the Permian Beds of N.W. England,” Mem. Lit. & Phil. Soc. Manchester, vol. xii. 272 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., some of these purposes. It has often appeared to me ex- tremely difficult to account for so large a supply from an area not greater than seven square miles, and for the most — part debarred from access of ‘rain-water by buildings, and a thick coating of boulder-clay. I am disposed, however, to think that some of the water finds its way from the rivers Irk, Irwell, and Medlock, and in its passage through the sandstone is freed from the chemical and mechanical impurities which have changed those rivers into filthy sewers. The following are the cases in which I have been able to measure the supply, through the kindness of the proprietors. 1. Messrs. Worrall’s Dye-works, Old Garratt.—Depth, 10g yards in New Red Sandstone. Yields 384,480 gallons per day. 2. Messrs. Hoyle’s Works, Mayfield.—Passes through the following beds, as described by Mr. Binney :— ft... in. New Red Sandstone. . J...) 1a Permian marls, with bands of thiiceesies &e. 153 9 Lower Permian sandstone ©. . . . . 59 4 The yield is considerable ; but the pumps being out of use at the time of my visit, it could not be determined. 3. Mr. J. Clemson’s Dye-works, Horrocks.—New Red Sandstone, 10 yards; Permian marls, 80 yards. lower Red Sandstone, soft, with much water. Two 4-inch bore- holes, and chambers in the rock at 23 feet from surface. Yield, 262,080 gallons per day. 4. Mr. Boddington’s Brewery, Strangeways.— Yield, 55,940 gallons per day. 5. Mr. Charlton’s Works, Salford.—About 150 yards from last (No.4). Shaft 70 feet; at the bottom several large chambers and bore-holes. Yields 348,000 gallons, in 16 hours, per day. AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 7S 6. Mr. Smith’s (late Mr. Joule’s) Brewery, Salford. i yards. New Red Sandstone (about) . . . 156 marls with limestone . . 40 Permian} rock and clay alternating. 10 hard sandstone (with water) There are two pumps, which can be kept at work for 48 hours, yielding at the rate of 137,000 gallons per day. Only one, yielding half that quantity, is at work. Large chambers are excavated in the New Red Sandstone. The water-level is nearly that of the River Irwell. 7. Messrs. Bury’s Dye-works, Salford.—Depth of well and bore-hole about 100 yards. Two wells, only a few yards’ distance from each other. One yields 353,240 gal- lons per day, and the other 66,240 gallons. 8. Messrs. Mosely’s Dye-works, Salford.—A large en- gine, which pumps about 1,500,000 gallons per day. This well is only about a quarter of a mile from the last. The proprietor declined to allow the author to make the neces- sary admeasurements for an exact computation. | 9g. Messrs. Worrall’s Works, Ordsall.—This well and bore-hole, 460 feet deep, produced salt or brackish water at the bottom, and gave employment to four pumps. After an examination of the spot, I feel convinced that the cause of the saltness arose from the fact that this well is sunk further on the dip of the New Red Sandstone than any other in the neighbourhood. In consequence of this, the “dead” or stagnant water has remained pent up in the rock for ages, and has thus become impregnated with all the salts which the rock contains. There is every reason to believe that by a continuation of the pumping the salts would be gradually dissolved and carried away. The sec- tion was entirely in New Red Sandstone. The well was pumped for 12 months, yielding at the rate of 717,120 gallons per day. SER. IIl#VOL. II. 7 274 MR. E. HULL ON THE NEW RED SANDSTONE, ETC., 10. Broughton Road Paper-works.—This well has been recently sunk, and gives the following section :— feet. 1. Stiff, close, and hard stuff (probably Drift and New Red Sandstone) . ie 2. Red loam with mixtures of clay and_ shale (probably Permian:marls).. .. oso...) Ae 3. Soft Red Sandstone (Permian sandstone) . . 150 4. Hard bands (probably Coal-measures) . . . 120 720 This well yields about roo gallons per minute, the water rising to the surface *. 11. Collyhurst Sand Delf—Well m1 Lower Permian sandstone. Water hard, but transparent, exhausted after 12 hours’ pumping, and yields 260,064 gallons per day. 12. Artesian Boring.—A bore-hole at the works of Mr. John Wood, at Medlock Vale, passed through the following strata :-— ft:., ime Alluvial eravel si. 344.08) 9 Gree et ee New Red Sandstone 1.00 made in this town, as stated by Mr. E. W. Binney (Trans. Geol. Soc. Manchester, vol. 1.), to a depth of 100 yards, at which level the supply has been found abundant. The * For the particulars above stated I am indebted to Mr. John Knowles. AS SOURCES OF WATER-SUPPLY FOR TOWNS. 175 pebble-beds of the New Red Sandstone here rest imme- diately upon the Lower Permian sandstone, and the thick- ness of the water-bearing strata is therefore very great, probably not less than 1000 feet im many parts. Few towns seem better situated for drawing their water-supply from these rocks, which must be highly charged. A copious spring bursts forth in the bed of the Mersey, about a mile above the town, out of the Lower Permian sand- stone. The town of Cheadle in Staffordshire is supplied from a well sunk in an outlier of New Red conglomerate of about a square mile in extent, which rises to a height of about 150 feet at the back of the town. Doubts were ex- pressed at the commencement of the undertaking whether a sufficient supply could be obtained from an area of so small an extent, which is also partly drained by springs, bursting forth round the base of the hill, at the junction of the sandstone and coal-measures. The supply, how- ever, has proved sufficient. The last instance I shall adduce has reference to springs | in the neighbourhood of Leek. This town is built upon the north end of a long tongue of New Red Conglomerate, which lies in an old trough of Carboniferous Rocks. The town itself is supplied from surface-water collected on the moors to the north of the town, but to the south of the town a splendid spring bursts forth from a knoll of New Red Sandstone, from which all the pottery towns, except Longton, Fenton, and Stoke, are supplied. A descrip- tion of this spring is given by Mr. T. Wardle*, F.G.S. The water is pumped by engines from the valley up to Ladderedge Reservoir, a height of 287 feet, and is distri- buted by pipes to the various towns. The engines are capable of pumping 3,000,000 gallons into the reservoir daily; and Mr. Elliot, the engineer, considers that the * Geology of Leek, ‘p. 263. T 2 276 MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. springs are capable of yielding this amount. The supply is perennial, and the springs are probably fed by infiltra- tion from the Churnet. There are several other springs bursting forth from this small area of New Red Conglo- merate. XIX.—On Ocean Swell. By Tuomas Heetis, Esq., F.R.A.S. Read January 27th, 1363. Besiprs the undulatory movements which are impressed upon the surface of the ocean by the winds prevailing at the time and place of observation, which movements are known by the name of waves, there are other undulations met with at sea which merit particular attention and study, and which are distinguished by. the name of swell. These swells are either regular or confused, according to the causes from which they arise. Im some cases the same cause produces a confused and also a regular swell. The causes of swell are :— The direction impressed. upon the undulations of the water by winds blowing for a long time in the same di- rection. The existence of a current. This is almost always found to produce a sweli running towards a point of the com- pass opposite to that towards which the current is flowing. In log-books the current is always noted as flowing {o- wards a point, the swell as running from a point, so that current and swell appear to be of the same name. These two descriptions of swell are in their nature re- gular, but that arismg from current may be disturbed and become confused when it sets in a direction different from that of the winds prevailing at the time and place of ob- MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. 27h servation. In such a case there are, in fact, two swells— one arising from the wind, and one from the current. The remaining causes of swell are :— The undulations thrown off from a cyclone in its pro- gress. These occasion a very confused sea in the area oc- cupied by the cyclone itself, and a confused swell ata short distance beyond its limits ; but this description of swell has the peculiarity of becoming more regular as its distance from the cyclone which causes it is increased. The reason of this will be obvious from a consideration of the dia- grams given in Lieut.-Colonel Reid’s account of the Pro- gress of the Development of the Law of Storms and of the Variable Winds (Ed. 1849), pp. 36, 37. The swell thrown off by cyclones often travels to great distances. Several instances of this are given in Reid’s work, and can be supplied by the experience of every seaman who has had any experience of tropical navigation. The undulations impressed upon the waters of the ocean by an earthquake form the last class of swells whose causes are known to us. One of the most remarkable instances of undulations arising from this cause is afforded by the swell caused by the earthquake in Japan, which destroyed the Russian frigate ‘Diana.’ These undulations travelled across the whole breadth of the Pacific Ocean, and were detected by the tide-gauges of the United States Coast Survey at San Francisco. - All well-kept log-books of ships record the occurrence of swell, noting also its direction. In my own log I have generally added the observed height of it when considerable. A heavy swell in open water is much more impres- sive, and gives to the thoughtful observer a much greater idea of power than even the waves in a heavy gale of wind. Instead of the ridges being formed by detached summits with intervening depressions, as in the case of a wave-ridge, they extend in one unbroken wall of water as far as the eye can reach. 278 MR. T, HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. There are other swells noticed in different parts of the world, which, so far as our present knowledge extends, cannot be traced to any of the above causes. Such swells occur particularly in the Southern Atlantic, and form the rollers at Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan d’Acunha, and the Island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa. They roll heavily into the Bay of Jamestown at St. Helena, which is open to the westward, often doimg much damage to the shipping lying there. They are pretty regular in their occurrence, but are heavier on some occasions than others. The anchorage at Ascension, which is subject to them, is also open to the N.W. But little mention is made of them in Horsburgh. I have only heard of one instance in which these rollers have been met with at sea, and I am now unable to refer to it. The ship which encountered them on that occasion had her decks swept. Their cause is unknown; attempts have been made to explain them, by the supposition that they are caused by submarine earthquakes, which are known to be common a little to the south of the equator ; but their occurrence is too regu- lar to admit of such an explanation. The altitude of the successive undulations in the case of swell observed im open water is variable; the largest observed usually occur in pairs or triplets—every tenth or twelfth undulation, or thereabouts, being large, while the intermediate ones are smaller, with a tendency in the sixth or seventh to be above the average of the small ones in altitude. Some observations which I have made in light winds, give altitudes for the largest undulations of 14 feet measured from the troughs, with a width of trough of some 600 feet, and a speed of translation in one case of twenty-two miles per hour. An exact knowledge of the phenomena presented by swell (of which at present we know little or nothing) is a necessary foundation for any enlarged study of waves. The ocean from the Cape of Good Hope to 37° south, a MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. 279 district in which the L’Agulhas current and its branches flow against the prevailing winds, should present phe- nomena differing from those experienced south of that parallel, where the current and prevailing winds flow in the same direction ; and again, the phenomena. presented: in the district passed over in the inshore or homeward passage round Cape Horn would differ from those pre- sented further to the southward. The following observations have been made in ships on board of which I have made passages, and whose log-books I have had opportunities of consulting :— The observations made on board the ‘ Jason,’ ‘ Thunder,’ and ‘City of Pekin,’ were recorded by myself. I have -added in the column headed Remarks, the causes of the swell experienced in all cases in which such causes were ascertained at the ship. Nature and direction Rarteiine, Date. Ship’s position. . fora 1858. Onn Te ° 4 - April 8. |18 36 N. 26 3 W.|Heavy swell from North,|Current N. 28°, W. 14’. with strong ripplings on water. April 28.|26 47S. 25 33 W./Averyconfused swell from East. May 15. | 39 338. 32 45 E. |A heavy swell from S.W. |From 6 p.m. of roth May, gale and strong breeze from S.W. and W.S.W. May 20. | 38 368. 53 57 EH. |A heavy swell from 8.W. Fine 1. |26 188. 84 50H. |A very heavy swell from N.N.W. 1859. ; April is 26 278. 27 o W.jA heavy sea from south-/Wind all round the com-): ward. pass, but principally from S.E.; squally. Several previous days calm. April 16.| 33 18S. 23 18 W.|A heavy sea from §.S.E. |Fresh breezes from E., and rainy. Current 8S. by W. 10’. 280 MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. Screw Steamer ‘Jason.’ Nature and direction Remarks. Date. Ship’s position. of wall TOOL. | cee y ths Nov. 22. |40 12 N. 13 19 W.|Southerly swell ............ Wind during this and two previous days from . E.S.E. to N.E. » 23-138 34.N. 13 52 W.|Westerly swell ............ Wind from W. 5» 24s, 1 35 53 N. na 35 Wl Westerly swell? o2..2..00-4: Calm weather. » 25.133 48 N. 15 38 W./Westerly swell ............ Calm, and N.E. wind. Dec. 17. |26 58. 25 41 W.|Hasterly swell............... Wind easterly. » 23.134 418. 8 15 W.|/Heavy westerly swell....... Wind W.N.W. 28. |37 48. 10 47 E. |South-westerly swell....... Wind S.W. to N.W. Jan.2. /37 148. 31 18 E. |South-westerly swell....... Calm on two previous days, wind S.W. to W. » 9 |38 218. 60 45 HE. |Westerly swell ............ Thrown off by cyclone ex- perienced on 6th and 7th January. > 10.1397 6S. 62. ca 8. \Westerlyswelli:cn....-<- Do. do. ee ON | Fos ee ee eee SEATS South-easterly swell ....... Thrown off from ap- proaching cyclone. » 13.|35 498. 69 36 E. |North-westerly swell....... Thrown off from after part of cyclone. » 18. |24 548. 71 59 HE. \Swell from E.N.E.......... Wind N.N.E. and calm. » 20.{21 308. 74 20 E. Swell from E.N.E.......... Winds N.N.E. and N.E., with calms. » 21./19 108. 74 50 H. Swell from E.N.E.......... Calm, and wind E. 39 220 15 585-75. 25.0. |Basterly swell 22am -ee-n: Light winds E. to E.S.E. 99 23. | 22 93.8. 76. 3 dl. Masterly swell -..2:..2...-- S.E. wind and calm. » 24./10 358. 75 53 HE. |South-easterly swell ....... Wind E. to E.N.E. sp Bho 7 GS FO.4g SS coil ana enise a eae Light airs from N.E. and calm. » 26.} 6 68. 78 12 BH. |Heavy swell from 8.8.E. |Calm all day. 5 29. | 9 BSS 79 Pg neeio le come le eee ae tee eee Wind North-westerly and calm. » 28. | 1 358. 80 13 EH. |/Westerly swell, confused| Westerly swell, caused by with rollers from 8.S.W.} Jine westerly monsoon. » 29.| 1 21 N. 80 48 E. [Confused 8.W. swell. Screw Steamer ‘ Thunder.’ Mar. 31. | 11 33 N. 95 3 EH. |Long swell from N.N.W. |Apparently caused by cy- clone experienced at Sand-heads and head of Bay of Bengal on the 24th March. Ship ‘ City of Pekin,’ 1862. May 28. |14 25 N. 90 25 E. |S.S.-westerly swell.......... Caused by S.W. monsoon. June r. | 9 28 go 19 South-westerly swell ...... ‘Do. do. gabe 8 14 91 10 ~‘|South-westerly swell ...... Do. do. i as 7 12 89 56 South-westerly swell ...... Do do » 9 | 143 88 50 Southerly swell ............ Current N.E. by N. 49’. MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. 281 Ship ‘ City of Pekin’ (continued). Date. Ship’s position. 1862. ee} June 11. | o 51 N. 88 Soe. | O 23 87 46 frig: | 0: 25.8. 86 35 mera 27+ 85 45 mete .3 F7’ 82-35 » 17-| 444 80 52 » %I9- g iI 77 25 1» 20. | TI 40 74 35 9» 21. | 13 27 72 0 » 22. | 14 48 goms a 20.47 > 1.67 58 5 26./21 33 61 45 9 27-123 17 Oe dae » 28. |23 57 55 32 » 29.124 47 53 56 July 1. | 27 13 5° 23 ez 28.57 47 46 - » «3 29 7 44 70mm Boge aa OF 34 58 9 8. | 33 17 32 45 of Gee (SS. 23 31 28 » 10. | 33 43 28 48 es 4S 5 3 25 14 5. SETA fo O00 ee eke. | oo ST 23 32 as aa eS 1 eer Re » ‘I4. 34 53 21 56 Petia 6 19 10 » 23-124 § 5 20 »» 24. | 22 21 3 37, 5s 20 45 eee ifs we 26/193 50 ° Oo 9 27-|19 44 ° Wes 19: 17 © 40 3 29. | 18.0 2 37 30. | 16 37 4 56 » 31-|14 54 7 23 Nature and direction oRerall: Remarks. 29 E. S.S.W. swell. Swell from §8.E. and $.8.E.| Wind S. S.E., light and calm. Southerly swell, veering to Wind S.8.E., light and calm S.S.E. calm. Southerly swell ............ Light winds from 8. Southerly swell ............ S.E. Trade setting in. Southerly swell. Heavy and long southerly| Wind SE. by S. swell. Southerly swell ............ Wind §.8.E. Southerly swell ............ Wind §.8.E. and S.E. Southerly swell ............ Do. do. Southerly swell ............ Do. do. S.-westerly swell (18 feet). Wind 8.8. W., S., and S. by E. S.-westerly swell (20 feet). S.-westerly swell, decreas-/Wind E. to §.E., current ing. W. 60’. Southerly swell ............ Wind from E., round by S. to W. North-easterly swell ...... Wind N.E., round by N. to W.S.W. South-westerly swell ...... Wind from N.W. to S. by W. South-westerly swell ...... Wind southerly. Southerly swell (16 feet)../Wind from eastward. Swell from E.N.E ......... Light winds from E.N.E. and E., and calms. Low westerly swell......... Winds round the compass. South-westerly swell ...... Current 8. 71°, W. 48’. W.S.W. swell. Heavy swell from W. W.S.W. swell. Heavy westerly swell. S.-westerly swell (16 feet)./Wind variable, and N.W. by W. A Confused southerly swell..|Wine@ Southerly, S.S.H. Low southerly swell ...... Wind S.S.E. - -|Southerly swell (11 feet)../)Wind S.E. Southerly swell ............ Wind E.S.E. Low swell from E.S.E. .../Wind S8.E., light airs. 18 W.|Low cross. swell eee Calm eather! E.S.E. and S.S8.E. Long south-westerly swell,|Calm and light airs from at first low, but increas-| SW.-S.S.E. Se ee SWEIDE crersonwsses Moderate breeze at S.E. Southerly swell; confused|Wind E.S.E.(S.E. Trade). swell during afternoon, rolling up from S.8.E. South-easterly swell. 282 MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. Ship ‘ City of Pekin’ (continued). Date. Ship’s position. | Nature and direction Remarks. of swell. 1862. ab Uh ok Aug. 1. |13 148. 9 10 W.\Swell during day from S.E. and E.S.E. In the evening long and heavy from 8. ee 205% 19 20 + |Heavy swell, rolling up|Wind S.E. from 8. 9- OwS5 21 o |Swellfrom8.8.W.toS.S.E.|\Do. do. (10-12 feet). TOn | Bese, es hes Southerly swell (10 feet). Ba) 312) eas Southerly swell (16-18 ft.)|/Do. do. F2: |) A oR 25 45 Southerly swell (16 feet) |Light airs and calm. 13: (0 49 26>n7 Heavy swell from 8.8.E. 14.| 5 41 25.43 S.S.-easterly swell and |Calm and light airs from N.W ripples. . DSi OVO) oh tyaottare. Low swell from $.......... Calms. In the above Table will be found instances of swells arising from prevalent or straight-lined winds, as the mon- soons and trades, of those caused by currents, and of those thrown off by the passage of cyclones. The swell from the southward and S.S.E. experienced in the Indian*Ocean, in the region of the S.E. Trades, is at first sight rather puzzling. The true explanation of the causes of these seems to be, that in the region of the S.K. Trades in that ocean, although the great mass of water is carried by the action of the prevailing winds towards the N.W., yet there exist from time to time currents running to the southward. No such currents are laid down upon any of our current- maps, yet I am persuaded that they exist in nature. An instance of this is afforded by the log of the ship ‘ City of Pekin,’ on her outward passage to Calcutta, in the spring of the year 1862, from which the following notes are ex- tracted :— 12th March. 35 47 8. 79 10 E. Current.South 27’ L Gti ee, 28.22 81 13 » south 27! 16th ,, 26 42 81 45 ». south 237 17th | 3; 12a. 28 83 10 > | S50 quae MR. T. HEELIS ON OCEAN SWELL. 283 The S.E. Trade was fallen in with by this ship, on this passage, on the 15th March, in latitude 28° 22’S., longi- tude 81° 13’ E. The above are very remarkable observations. The ten- dency of the wind, and the ordinary drift of the surface- water, would conspire to place the ship ahead of her reckon- ing instead of astern of it; while the regularity in speed of the current observed is a strong argument in favour of their correctness. It should also be noticed that the swell caused by pre- vailing winds often rolls home on a coast to which such winds do not extend. The most familiar instance of this is afforded by the westerly swell which is prevalent upon the coast of Portugal, although the westerly winds which cause it are separated from the coast by a tract occupied by winds which blow parallel to the coast and are called by sailors the Portuguese Trades. This peculiarity is well worthy of the attention of the student of physical geo- graphy, as having an important bearing upon the con- sideration of the abrasion of coasts. | From what has been above stated, I hope that it will be seen that this subject, although not usually considered worthy of attention and study, is of interest and import- ance. To the scientific traveller it gives hints of agencies being at work which, without it, would have been un- suspected, and in districts little explored indicates either the direction of prevailing winds or the set of currents; while to the seaman the cyclone swell gives timely notice of impending danger, and of the position of his enemy. Each of the classes of swell here mentioned has its own peculiar character and appearance, not easily: explained in words, but from which an experienced eye can almost at once detect its cause. 284. MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. XX.—Notes on the Introduction of Steam Navigation. By J. C. Dyzr, Esq. Read February roth, 1863. ‘¢ Whatever saves labour, rewards labour.”,—Governor Morris. Tue application of steam power to propel boats and ships being a subject of great public interest, has from time to time been treated by many able writers advocating the claims of the different parties alleged to have been the first inventors of the means of using this power to super- sede that of the wind for propelling ships. Some of these writers have given a national importance to the questions of originality among the experimenters who claimed priority in the different parts of Europe and America, where trials had been made of their several schemes with various results. On these results, and their subsequent influence on steam navigation, many sharp controversies formerly appeared ; but of late years these seem to have subsided into the quiet assumption, on behalf of each nation, that its claimants were fairly entitled to the honour of having been the first discoverers of steam navigation. According with this impression, two letters have appeared in ‘The Times’ respecting the “ first imtroduction of steamers into the English waters ;” the first of which was copied from the ‘ Dumbarton Herald,’ and the second, in reply thereto, is signed “ Investigator,” whose statements of the facts of the case are given in ‘The Engineer’ of December 12th, 1862, thus :— Seeing that there has been a discussion, aud that there still remains an uncertainty as to who has the right to claim the honour of placing the first steam-ship in English waters, I beg to submit the following statement of authentic facts for settlmg the MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. 285 matters in dispute. The ‘ Margery’ was built at Dumbar- ton by the late Mr. William Denny, for Mr. W. Ander- son, merchant, Glasgow, and when launched was christ- ened the ‘ Margery,’ after his eldest daughter, who named her, who is still alive, and a resident in London. At the close of the year 1814, Captain Curtis was sent by a Lon- don Company to Glasgow to negotiate with Mr. Ander- son for the purchase of the ‘ Margery,’ which was effected, the only stipulation made by Mr. Anderson being that the name of the steamer should at no future period be changed ; this Captain Curtis- agreed to, and the promise was faithfully kept. Captain Curtis took the ‘ Margery’ through the Forth and Clyde Canal, and invited a large party of Mr. Anderson’s friends to accompany him while passing through the canal. There remain but two of this party now alive, viz. the lady after whom the steamer was named, and a clergyman a friend of Mr. Anderson’s. The writer of the article in the ‘Dumbarton Herald’ is quite correct in his statement of the fear and wonder which the appearance of the ‘Margery’ excited on the coast while on her passage to England, as well as among the English fleet ; m most cases she was supposed to be a vessel on fire. The ‘Margery’ was the first steam-ship that ever sailed in English waters, and made her first trip to Milton, below Gravesend, on the 23rd January 1815. She was ultimately taken to Paris, where not many years ago her timbers were still lying on the banks of the Seine. Mr. Anderson was therefore owner of the first steamer that was ever seen in London, and also the first in Paris. He also owned the first that ever crossed from Scotland to Ireland (namely the ‘ Greenock,’ built soon after the ‘ Margery’), which he took to Belfast.” Considering that fifty-five years have passed since the first successful application of steam power to navigation was clearly established, and witnessed by myriads of people 286 MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. at New York and on the Hudson River, we may reason- ably invoke a calm review of the steps taken by the author of that success, as well as of those who had been engaged in the pursuits of employing steamers in Europe and America. The first steam-boat established as a packet for pas- sengers between New York and Albany was the ‘ Clare- mont,’ built in 1806, and launched in the spring of 1807, and continued to run during the remainder of that year. As it was not until 1815 that the first steamer was seen in English waters, the successful application of steam to navigation was therefore eight years sooner in the American waters; and the honour of that success can hardly be denied to Robert Fulton, who achieved it, and whose pre- ceding labours had gradually led him to its accomplish- ment. I propose to notice a few of Mr. Fulton’s previous experiments and speculations upon the subject, without at all calling im question the merits of other Ingenious men engaged in the same inquiries, though none of them had succeeded in practical steam navigation, so that either by the turn of fortune, or by the exercise of superior judg- ment and skill, Robert Fulton is justly entitled to rank as the author of steam navigation; and when the above facts are fairly considered, I doubt not that the English people will willingly accord the meed of praise due to him for the genius that conceived, and the persevering labour that led to his triumphant command of the elements, that enable us now ‘‘to walk over the oceans in the midst of their stormy terrors.” In the year 1793 Mr. Fulton communicated his scheme for navigating by steam to Lord Stanhope, and received his lordship’s thanks for the same, in September of that year. In 1811 I communicated with his lordship on the subject of brmging into use in England Mr. Fulton’s in- ventions for steam navigation. Lord Stanhope then con- MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. 287 firmed to me the fact of his having received Mr. Fulton’s plans so early as 1793, and of his having conferred with him upon their practical application. In 1803 Mr. Fulton constructed a steam-boat on the Seine, which satisfied him of the correctness of the principle he had adopted; and in conjunction with the American Minister, Mr. Livingston, it was determined to transfer their joint exertions for establish- ing steam navigation to the American waters, for which pur- pose a steam-engime was ordered from Messrs. Boulton and Watt. From various causes of delay, Mr. Fulton did not arrive in New York until 1806. During that year he devoted his attention to superintend the building of the ‘Claremont’ in the shipyard of Mr. Charles Brown. This vessel was 133 feet long, 18 feet beam, and 160 tons bur- den, and was employed, as aforesaid, in the summer of 1807. I have sailed in this vessel in company with Mr. Fulton, and retain a vivid recollection of the general interest which this great enterprise excited, and of the admiration be- stowed upon its author, even by the many persons who had shortly before ridiculed his projects as chimerical. It is not my present purpose to join issue in any of the discussions concerning the original application of steam power to navigation, the subject having been exhausted by the respective advocates claiming it on behalf of England, France, Switzerland, and America. I content myself with stating the simple fact, that all of the experiments in each country, which preceded those of Mr. Fulton, had already proved, without any exception, utter failures, and no be- nefit whatever had arisen from the application of any one of the trials to navigate by steam prior to the complete success of the ‘Claremont’ packet in the summer of 1807, on the Hudson River. It is worthy of remark, that the sensations of astonish- meut and alarm, among the spectators on shore and the crews of the vessels, created by the ‘Claremont’ in 1807, 288 MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. were exactly the same as those created by the ‘ Margery’ among the vessels on the Thames in 1815, or eight years afterwards ; this will be seen by Mr. Colden’s description of the ‘ Claremont’s’ first voyage, and Mr. Anderson’s account of the first voyage of the ‘ Margery,’ as before given. Steam could not be successfully employed to give ro- tatory motion to machinery by any of “ the inventors of steam-engines,” before the great improvements brought into use by James Watt. Considering that steam power had not been made to supersede water-wheels and horses, for giving rotatory motion to fixed machines on land, it was certain to fail as applied to such motion for propel- ling ships. It is needless, then, to notice any of the several schemes that had been proposed, or tried, for steam navigation, except those based on the use of Watt’s steam- engine ; and all inquiry concerning these are of interest only as they unfold the approaches to success attained by the several claimants, before the actual success of Robert Fulton in 1807. It will suffice, then, shortly to mention the several methods employed by the persons claiming to have been the “inventors of steam navigation.” In France, the Marquis de Jouffroy claims to have constructed a steam-boat with paddle-wheels at Lyons in 1782, which, however, was not heard of until 1816 (thirty- four years afterwards), when the first boat on Fulton’s plan was started on the Seine; and then the Marquis com- plained loudly of Fulton’s boat as bemg a piracy of his invention. On this occasion, Monsieur Royou (in the ‘Journal des Débats,’ 16th March 1816), in reply to the Marquis, says, ‘‘ It is not concerning an invention, but the means of applying a power already known. Fulton never pretended to be an inventor, in regard to steam-boats, in any other sense. The application of steam to navigation had been thought of by all artists ; but the means of execut- ing it were wanting, and Fulton furnished them.” MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. 289 Dr, Franklin, in 1785, writes to Monsieur Alphonse Leroy thus :—“ Several projectors have at different times proposed to give motion to boats, and even to ships, by paddles placed on the circumference of wheels on each side of the vessel; but this method has been found so in- effectual, as to discourage a continuance of the practice”*. The plan proposed by Daniel Bernoulli, in 1783, was by driving a column of water out at the stern of the vessel ; which plan has been many times suggested, and several times tried by other Ingenious men, but without success. It seems strange that, to so eminent a mathematician as Bernoulli, the radical defects of this plan should not have occurred. As the water issues from the mouth of the - tube, it escapes in the radial lines of a semisphere. The resisting forces will be directly as the distance of each of the radii from the surface, and their propelling power will be equal to the force with which the water is driven from the orifice, only in the direct line of the tube’s centre, and it will diminish with the angular deviation of the radii from that line, until it becomes nil at right angles; wherefore this mode of pressing water against water (though simple and plausible at first sight) is the most wasteful expen- diture of propelling force of any that has been proposed. It appears that “endless-chain floats”’ have been many times proposed and patented; but this plan, too, is de- fective in principle, and has always failed in practice. The chain-floats are driven horizontally, and successively acting upon the same column of water, generate a current in the direction of their motion, and much of the pro- pelling power is lost by moving and agitating the water. In an experiment I witnessed in 1813 (in a boat on the Bridgewater Canal), the floats were placed about four feet apart, and when first started, the boat moved with con- siderable speed ; but as the speed of the floats increased, . * Life of Dr. Franklin, vol. iii. p. 528. London, 1818. SER. III. VOL. II. U 290 MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. that of the boat decreased. Then every other float was removed, and at a new start better speed was obtained, but could not be kept above three miles the hour. Then all the floats were removed, and the chain only dragged through the water ; this carried the boat a trifle faster than the floats had done. In 1795 Lord Stanhope made experiments with a steam- boat with the “duck’s-foot paddles,” which did not suc- ceed. The defects of this form of propelling arise from the loss of time in withdrawing the paddle between each propul- sion, and in the waste of power in this retrograde motion. In 1785, James Rumsay, of Virginia, constructed a steam-boat, which was tried on the Potomac in 1787, and which sailed by means of steam four miles an hour, as stated in Dr. Rush’s letter to Dr. Letsome ; but the boat was not continued on the Potomac, and Rumsay after- wards tried his plan in London without success. About the same time, Mr. Fitch of Philadelphia made experiments on the Delaware River for propelling boats by paddle- wheels ; but, owing to his miscalculation of the propelling- wheels, and of the steam-power as applied to the resist- ances to be overcome, his boats did not succeed, and were given up as failures, but were revived as his invention after the success of the ‘ Claremont.’ J.C. Stephens, of New York, in 1804 made experi- ments with a steam-boat 25 feet long and 5 feet wide; engine cylinder 47 inches diameter, with g-inch stroke. At first she broke her steam-pipe ; but after repairs she ran for a fortnight on the Hudson River, making two or three miles an hour, crossing from Hoboken to New York: therefore it is said by a distinguished writer, “ Mr. — Stephens has the merit of being the first person who took _ a steam-boat to sea.” (Qy. Did he take this boat to sea on board of another vessel ?) | In 1788 and 1789, William Symington, in conjunction MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. 291 with Patrick Miller and James Taylor, made several ex- periments on patents they had obtained relating to steam navigation, and in 1802 started a boat on the canal at Glasgow, which ran at the rate of three miles an hour, and it was concluded that his plan would supersede horses in canal navigation. The wheel was placed at the stern of the boat; but he states that the wheel, or wheels, may be at the sides if preferred. The boat, however, was dis- continued, and no more was heard of Symington’s boats until long after those of Fulton had become widely ex- tended on the American waters. The first ocean steamer was the ‘ Fulton,’ of 327 tons, built in 1813 by A. and N. Brown at New York. The first steamer constructed for harbour defence, under the per- sonal superintendence of Mr. Fulton, was built in 1814, of 2470 tons burden. This boat has been the type from which all the iron-clad batteries and rams have since been constructed, with various modifications, by later inventors. Thus it appears that the continuous rotative motion of the paddle-wheel and the screw propellers are the only means yet discovered for navigating by steam-power with safety and effect. In the specifications of Mr. Fulton’s inventions, he gives drawings and descriptions—(1) of the chain-float; (2) of the duck’s-foot paddle; (3) of the screw, fan, or smoke- jack propeller; and (4) of his paddle-wheels ; with which several plans he had made experiments in France, which led him to throw aside the three first, and to adopt the pad- dle-wheel as the best in practice according to the then powers of construction; for it is well known that it was many years after the first screw steamer was. constructed (the ‘ James Watt,’ running from London to Havre) before a safe screw propeller could be made, for large ships, equal to the paddle-wheels. Having witnessed the triumphant success of Fulton’s v2 292 MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. steam-boats on the Hudson River, and their rapid increase for navigating the other American rivers, I undertook, in 1811, the task of inducing some of the leading engineers and capitalists of London to engage in the introduction of steam-boats, on Fulton’s plan, to run on the Thames and other waters in this country. Believing that they must soon be adopted and become of great importance to Eng- land, as they were so rapidly becoming in the United States, I had obtaimed from Mr. Fulton (through a mutual friend) a full description and the drawings of his inven- tions and discoveries relating to steam navigation, with the result of his labours in America. But I found it impos- sible to convince any of them that steam-boats could be made to run with safety and profit in the English waters. The general reply was, “We don’t doubt the success of steam-boats in the large American rivers and inlets from the sea, but they will never answer in our (comparatively) small rivers and crowded harbours.” Many of my personal friends urged me strongly not to waste my time and money on so hopeless a task as that of introducing steam navigation into England. Even the great and scientific engineer, John Rennie (father of the present eminent Sir John Rennie), urged me, with pa~- rental kindness, to drop all thoughts of bringing these boats into use—and this after having Fulton’s plans before him, and fully admitting their success in America. Thus we see how difficult it is to make even great men move in any path before the destined time. Our late distinguished townsman, Peter Ewart, Vice-President of this Society, dissuaded me, as a personal friend, from trying to introduce steam-boats into England, saying that “he knew of the trials made here without success, as also of those in America which were successful ; but it did not appear likely that they could ever come into general use in the waters of Eng- land.” This opinion of Mr. Ewart was expressed in the MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. 293 spring of 1814, just a year before the ‘Margery’ was passed through the canal from the Clyde to the Forth, to make her first voyage in the English waters, as before stated. Mr. Ewart was fully informed of the nature and the results of the trials of the small boat constructed by John Bell, and run a short time, in the autumn of 1813 and the spring of 1814, on the Clyde and Forth before she was finally discontinued as a failure, which experiment had no tendency to convince him, any more than other English engineers, of the practical utility of steam navigation in English waters. In that year (1814) I lent Mr. Ewart Fulton’s specifications and drawings, which were sent by him to Boulton and Watt, and re- turned to me about six months after. I have reason to believe that that eminent house was led thereby to make further and more exact inquiries concerning the progress of steam navigation in America ; for they, as well as several other engineers, commenced building steam-boats in 1815 and 1816, since which time the progress of steam naviga- tion has been marvellous for the perfection and the exten- sion of British-built steamers both for inland navigation and, finally, for traversing alike the narrow seas and “ the broad oceans that belt the globe.” , The engineering talent, the mechanical skill, and the active enterprise that abounded in England had created a self-reliance which seemed to forbid the direction’ of either into other channels than those marked out at home. Her most gifted men were satisfied with the progress of knowledge within the realm. National intercourse was then both irregular and sluggish; so that peoples were to each other real strangers, and much given to mutual jea- lousies. These recollections serve to explain the fact -that eight years had passed away from the time when the waters of the Hudson were first agitated by the paddles of the ‘Claremont,’ and when over 5000 tons had been 294 ° MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION. launched upon her bosom, before those of the Thames welcomed those of the ‘Margery’ steamer. The desire for instruction ever lags far behind the means of imparting it ; hence the slow pace of nations in gaining knowledge through reports of its spread in other lands. This dislike to the “search for teachers” is alike found among men individually and in their national aggregates—all present- ing the type of “the whining schoolboy, with his satchel and shining morning face, creeping like snail unwillingly to school.” At length, however, successful teachers have raised the spirit of lofty enterprise ; and, by reason of extended and personal intercourse, relations of mutual benefit have been so widely extended that peoples of different nations begin to approach the condition of a vast cooperative society, giving to each member the utmost value of their joint labours. Towards this benign end, steam-power has been the most important and effective agent. To bring this power under control, and render it both safe and economical in practice, first, for driving “labour-saving machinery”’ in our work- shops and perfecting our manufactures, secondly for trans- porting goods and passengers over the rivers and oceans, and thirdly for the safe and rapid transit of them over land on iron rails, the names of Watt, Fulton, and Stephenson stand foremost as the great men whose genius and science made each of them a successful pioneer in the march of those grand objects. _ The theory and practice of mechanical science have ad- vanced with such rapid strides in our times as to form a leading feature in the progress of nations; and the records of these should rest on clearly ascertained facts, so that each leading contributor shall receive his due meed of fame, just as they claim to occupy a niche in her temple. This award will finally be made, apart from the question MR. J. C. DYER ON STEAM NAVIGATION, | 295 of their respective nationalities. I have therefore aimed to explain fairly, and in due order of time, the several attempts made to introduce steam navigation, which led to success in the hands of Fulton in 1807. In looking back to the many inventions of steam- engines that preceded the grand success of James Watt, it will be seen that the nature of his discoveries, as ap- plied to the steam-engine, was very analogous to that of Fulton’s as applied to steam navigation. The one was the first to render the steam-engine of great practical utility, the other was the first to render steam navigation practically safe and useful. These simple facts exhibit the puerile vanity of striving to erect national trophies upon the unaided labours of eminent men. Inventions and discoveries:are made by individuals, not by nations; let each inventor, then, have his name honoured in the proportion that his labours have proved beneficial among nations. Considering that inventions do not spring into existence in perfection from their birth, like Pallas from the brain of Jupiter, but come from the previous labours of many brains, he is the real inventor who first gives vitality to those labours. In this sense the “ invention of steam navigation” will for ever illustrate the mane of Robert Fulton. : ——— | BU 4 Fulton’s Steam-boat, the ‘Claremont,’ on the Hudson River. 296 MR. W. H. L. RUSSELL ON THE XXI.—On the Solution of the Differential Resolvent. By W.H. L. Russert, A.B. Communicated by the Rey. Rosert Harzey, F.R.A.S. Read March 11th, 1863. In the course of last year I was induced, at the request of — Mr. Harley, to consider the very interesting differential equation which he has denominated the “ Differential Resolvent.” I obtained the solution of the quartic re- solvent by series which I summed by means of a triple integral. But Professor Boole intimated that he had dis- covered a process of transformation by which the quartic could be solved by a single integral. This led me to examine my own series, and I found that the series repre- senting the solution of the quartic could be summed by means of a single integral. I have since discovered that the general resolvent can be solved by means of a single integral. To effect this is the object of the present paper. As the investigations are complicated, I shall first, to fix the ideas, give the solution of the quartic. The quartic resolvent is the \o-'3) 020-90-2),, D(D—1)(D—2) where «°=wz. I have already expressed the solution of this equation in series, which will be found in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Man- chester Society. One of these series is the following :— ISS. 7 = ae oo (ee 4 Ae Bes A7 Mae ee oe 6 . Se Cer EEC SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENT. 297 The general term of this is (es 25 2 met). es el ray : ee . Siete ers on -. 3m +1 Z 19 say g § peace sr a AG Dg Bata 3.6.9...3m The reader who will attentively examine this expression, will see that it can be transformed into fags ES TON IG 22) 25, 98, rom 1 ee ee A 4 ees es sia 2 ey. gen lO... 270—2) Gy fons} 3”-1. P(gm+ 3) 1(m “+ *) (where C is a certain irrelevant factor) 4 ry m+? : 3 I(3m-+ 2) r(m Ste *) Die me — (Oy ean Cc aun =—\dzr . #3mt1, 2 _, Ya \ 4a Now we know that i Gaee to a2A eG 0)0 re a T(a+6—1) w ; qat+b—2 Told Zz Hence we shall have Digimebabi igen 25" i T(gm+2)0(m+4) aw J 2 2 Ply +3)i6 a0 cos Oe whence we obtain as the sum of the series, cost | cos 5? —cos*é cos— - a cos*@ cos 20( =) 0 Ge 298 MR. W. H. L. RUSSELL ON THE I now proceed to the solution of the general equation, — y—$(D)e"%y =0, OO) PDS D(D—1) (D=2) .. + D—n £3) The solution of this equation may be expressed in series thus: y=C,{A,O + A, Oa? + A, Og2@—) + ya te \ +C,a2{A,© + A, Oat + A, Oa@-o +... 4 +C,27{A,@+ A, Mx"-14 A, @2?@-DO+4 ...} + &e. + C,2°{ A.M + A, Oar-24 22. A, @Oam@-D +. f, where A,” = | (+0 = ‘) (+200 saad no 4) ni (r+m(n— ue ) | (7+(n— )) (r+2(n—1)) apiece (r-+m(n— t)) (+0925 *) (r+20-9)-2"). (rma 7 (rte y= ’) (+200 1) — ’) ves (r+mn— = 7 . (r+(@=3)) (7H(n—3) + (n=)... (P+ (@—3)-Hm—1M—D) (+e ye = ‘V(rtan— =), ; (r-+mn— Sails (r+1)((7+1)+(2—1))....(7-+14+(m—1) (n—1)) where This term can be transformed by a method similar to that which we employed for the quartic resolvent, and we find this expression equivalent to (2) (0) tenn | : (r—1)n iB | nm + a | id I ae {r+m(n—x) +1} (n 7 ) (n—1)m nrm =C. SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENT. 299 Hence the general term may be written a — al S (door Te : ay m(n— I) = T {r+m(n— T et Now nfo Se) BP {r+m(u—1) \ r {m+r—} nm—I on _ Qim Sore { dé oe (m(@n—2)+r—= —)ia whence we find the sum of the series Coa i i. dé dour ae aed nmr—2r+I 2” (nm—1)"-! nmr—2r+iI cos ee rn cos" COs n— 2 — —_—_————_ Ox"-} 1 n” nm—I + Sa Wire 20 my __ 7 \2(n—1 ‘ po Ket) Cael si) me Cos?” O42" -2 cos" cos (n—2) Bart + oe ni By giving different values to (7), we obtain particular integrals of the equation in succession. It is evident from this investigation that the multiple integrals by which I had previously expressed the solution of the differential equation may be reduced to single integrals. In effecting this we must, of course, carefully restore the factors omitted in the transformations given in this paper. Note.—To make this communication more complete, I here insert the methods by which the series employed were derived from the equations, The following rule to obtain the series which express the solution of linear differential equations when in the symbolical form, is extracted from 300 ON THE SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL RESOLVENT. Professor Boole’s ‘Treatise on Differential Equations,’ page 427. “Tf a linear differential equation, whose second member is zero, be reduced to the symbolical form f.(D)ut+f,(D)butf, (Deut ... +f,(D)eMru=o, then a particular solution will be w= Xu,,e™, the value of the index (m) in the first term being any root of the equa- tion f,(m)=o, the corresponding value of u,, an arbitrary constant, and the law of the succeeding constants being expressed by the equation So(M)tm +f .(m)Un—1+f,(m)Um—. +... +fp(m)Un—n=0-” This rule is proved immediately by substituting the series as the value of (w) in the above differential equation. Let us apply this to the quartic resolvent Opies Sry ns DO=1) 0=2 derived from the algebraical equation y+—4y + 37=0. The equation in (m) given above becomes m(m— 1) (m2) —(m—2) (m ~) (m—*3)un 4=0, and the equation f,(m) =o becomes m(m— 1) (m—2) =o. | Taking the root m=2 as the initial value, we determine the coefficients of the series in succession by putting M5, Op PNW asx and we have 12. TO) 7 -4.3.4,>—.—. —4, Pith ae are 8. s budge Se ee eee edhe Pies wheter oe po el pies ec Stun Ab es ON TWO EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF STEAM NAVIGATION. 30] Hea a) Bh NoOinS oat! Geth: pei(O,3,3) and the series which results is as follows: : BS LO! ye. 25 3) (2 (2 7 Cx? ean af . ee Gera, which is the same as that we have employed above. The reader will now have no difficulty in deducing the series in the general case. ~XXII.—WNote as to two Events in the History of Steam Navigation. By W. J. Macaquorn Rankine, C.E., LL.D, F.R.S., Hon. Mem. of the Literary and Phi- ~ losophical Society of Manchester. Read April 7th, 1863. 1. An interesting paper was lately read to this Society by Mr. Dyer, containing a history of a series of important events in the progress of steam navigation. 2. It is to be regretted, however, that the author has noted either very slightly, or not at all, what appears to have been an event of paramount importance in the first adaptation of the double-acting cranked steam-engine to drive a paddle-wheel. Before that adaptation was made, the success of all attempts at steam navigation, such as those of Jouffroy, Rumsay, Fitch, Miller, Taylor, &c., had been only temporary, because of the rudeness of the machinery for communicating motion from the piston to the shaft. 3. That first adaptation was unquestionably accom- 302 ON TWO EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF STEAM NAVIGATION. plished by William Symington in 1801, as is proved by authentic documents, which have been published by Mr. Woodcroft in his ‘ Origin and Progress of Steam Naviga- tion.” Symington, instructed by the failure of the ratchet- work engine which he had made for Miller’s boat, fitted up the ‘ Charlotte Dundas,’ in 1801, with a double-acting hori- zontal cranked engine, and thus made her what Mr. Wood- croft has justly called “the first practical steam-boat.” Her speed, when running alone, and not towing other boats, was six miles an hour. 4. The use of this vessel was abandoned, not from any fault in her construction or working, but because the Di- rectors of the Forth and Clyde Canal feared that she would damage its banks. Yet the man in all Britain who possessed at that time the greatest practical experience of the working of canals (the Duke of Bridgewater), was not deterred by any such apprehension from ordering, in 1802, eight similar vessels from Symington to be used on his canal. 5. The ‘death of the Duke of Bridgewater early in the following year prevented the execution of that order. But Symington had evidently done all that lay im his power, and all that was necessary, to convert the steam- boat from an awkward piece of experimental apparatus to a practically useful machine ; and the honour paid to his memory ought not to be lessened because the career of his invention was cut short by a misfortune. 6. There is nothing in this to detract from the honour which is justly paid to Fulton as having been the first to practise steam navigation on a great scale as a com- mercially profitable art. 7. Another event, passed over in the paper to which I | have referred, is the first introduction of commercial steam navigation into Europe, which was effected on the River Clyde, in 1812, by Henry Bell, as is proved by documents cited in Mr. Woodcroft’s work already referred to. MR. J. NASMYTH ON THE PLANET MARS. 303 XXITI.—On the Planet Mars. By Jamus Nasmytu, Esq., C.E. In a Letter to Josrru Sipesoruam, Esq. Read March 24th, 1863. Durine the months of September and October last, when the planet Mars was favourably situated for observation, I had, on two or three occasions, the good fortune to obtain some fine views of him. | Under the impression that a few remarks on the aspect _ of the planet may interest you and some of the Members of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, I have sent you, along with this, a rough but faithful drawing (see Plate X.) of the aspect of the planet, as revealed to me by the aid of my 20-in. diameter reflecting telescope. One of the most striking and interesting features was the patch of snow (?) situated near the south pole of the planet. I use the term “ patch” as most expressive of its appearance. It was so distinct and definite as to appear like a white wafer laid on the pole of a globe; and what contributed much to this distinct and definite aspect was the remarkable contrast between its tint of pure white and a brown-grey tint in the parts immediately surrounding it. I have endeavoured, as carefully as I can, to represent this in the accompanying drawing. The “ patch’’-like aspect of this feature was enhanced by the impression of a cliff- like edge to it, which I have also endeavoured to convey in the drawing. The brilliant white of this south pole snow- patch, in contrast with the dull and ruddy tint of the rest of the planet contiguous to it, forcibly conveyed the im- pression that the patch in question was the snow of the south arctic pole, then in its summer position. 304: MR, J. NASMYTH ON THE PLANET MARS. The snow on the north pole was also visible ; but as the north arctic pole, then im its winter position, was turned away from our direct line of vision, it was not so well seen ; and the manner in which the white of the snow on the north pole was blended or softened off into the ruddy tint of the surface of the planet at this part removed the sharp and definite boundary which characterized that of the snow-patch on the south arctic pole. I use the expression south arctic pole in contradistinction to that of the “south pole” for this reason, that I find the south arctic pole does not coincide with the absolute south pole of the planet ; it is somewhat eccentric to it, and hence it is that in the rotation of the planet on its axis the snow-patch on the south pole went nearly out of sight when the planet turned half round. This observation is the more interesting as it tends to establish a similarity m that respect to the situa- tion of our arctic poles, which are, I believe, known to be somewhat on one side of, or excentric to, the absolute poles of the earth. What I term the arctic pole is the centre of minimum temperature, which is influenced by the relative situation and area of land and water on our globe near its poles. What next most attracted my attention was the remark- able and beautiful contrast between the ruddy portions of the surface of the planet and those which appeared of a pale blue-green tint, forcibly conveying the impression of the presence of land and sea. This was rendered the more striking by an isolated ruddy patch, as represented in the drawing, and which I could not resist the conclusion was an island | I shall never forget the impression which those remark- able and beautiful features, presented by the planet Mars on this occasion, made upon me. On comparing the aspect of the planet on the same oc- casion as revealed to me by the aid of my 20-in. diameter MR. J. NASMYTH ON THE PLANET MARS. 305 reflecting telescope, as contrasted with the view furnished by the aid of a very fine 8-in. aperture achromatic telescope by Cooke, of York, I was much impressed with the superior distinctness with which the ¢ints of the relative portions of the surface of the planet were brought out by the reflecting telescope as compared with the achromatic. Although the definition of the planet was as perfect as could be desired when seen by the latter instrument, the markings on the surface of the planet could only be distinguished by their variety (or difference) of relative shade or brightness, while in the view furnished by the reflector the actual tints or colours of the various features were rendered quite distinct. This was. most prominently the case in respect to the _ blue-green of the supposed sea(?) and the ruddy tint of the land (?) and island (?)._ As before said, the snow-patch on the south pole was rendered peculiarly distinct and de- finite by the presence of a remarkable dark local shade im- mediately surrounding it. In all these respects the draw- ing is as faithful a representation as such a means can enable me to accomplish. - In respect to the cause of the superior manner in which the various tints of the features of the planet were rendered by the reflecting as compared with the achromatic tele- scope, I am disposed to assign it to the fact that in the case of the employment of a reflecting telescope the light from the planet suffers no change or decomposition in its passage to the eye. Although some of the light is lost by reflec- tion, yet the integrity of its original composition is main- tained, and it reaches the eye of the observer in its original virgin state; whereas, in the case of the employment of an achromatic telescope, the light does, to a certain extent, suffer decomposition, and its recomposition is not altogether perfect. Certain it is, that the difference in the manner in which the tints of the features of the planet were brought out was most strikingly evident in the case of the view SER. III. VOL. Il. x 306 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE furnished by the reflector, as compared with that yielded by the achromatic, however perfectly the latter performed its duty in the important quality of fine definition. In conclusion, I could not but feel impressed, while be- holding this fine view of the planet Mars, that I was looking upon a world! presenting in its remarkable features many close analogies to that of our own, in which respect I am led to consider Mars to be a closer type of the earth, both in its aspect and conditions, than any of the other planets of the solar system. XXIV.—On the Wave of High Water ; with Hints towards a New Theory of the Tides. By Tuomas Carrick. — Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, April zoth, 1863. Proressor Airy, in his able treatise on tides and waves, after reviewing in detail the existing causal theories of the tides, passes judgment upon them substantially in the fol- lowing terms :— Of the equilibrium-theory of Newton, whilst admitting its great usefulness in some respects, he says that it is one of the most contemptible theories that was ever applied to explain a collection of important physical facts. It is entirely false in principle, and entirely inapplicable in its results. 7 Of Laplace’s theory he says that, although based upon sounder principles than that of Newton, it fails totally in ~ application, from the impossibility of mtroducing in it the ~ consideration of the boundaries of the sea, and it gives no assistance in explaining the peculiarities of river or channel tides. | And of the theory in which tidal waves are supposed to WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 307 run in the manner of ordinary waves in canals, he says that its great and important defect is, that the water is not distributed over the surface of the globe in canals of uniform breadth, or in any form very nearly resembling them. In this regard its fundamental suppositions are prohably as much, or nearly as much, in error as Laplace’s theory ; but it masters the peculiarities of river tides, which no other theory has touched upon. This ample confession of the imperfections of existing causal theories must plead our excuse for offering a few hints towards a new theory of the tides. These hints are, however, merely incidental to the subject of this paper, which is practically limited to the consideration of the law of direction of the progressive motion of the wave of high water. Our present knowledge of the progress of tidal waves is derived from observations of the time of high water on ocean coasts—the direction in which the hours increase along a given coast being held to indicate the direction of the progressive motion of the wave. The theories of Newton and Laplace would lead to the conclusion that tidal waves should tend to follow the direction of the moon’s motion from east te west ; but observation has shown that the real progression is nearly everywhere at right angles to that direction, the hours increasing from north to south, or south to north, indifferently, on the shores of the principal land-areas of the globe. This anomalous progression has, in fact, rendered those theories of little or no value when applied to the consideration of the probable direction of the progressive motion of tidal waves. In 1833 Dr. Whewell published his first map of co-tidal lines. His method of grouping the facts of tidal hours is based upon the supposition that the observed succession of those hours on ocean coasts was due to the progression of free waves of translation, whose origin was to be traced to x2 308 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE the action of the sun and moon on the principal ocean-areas of the globe. In 1848, however, he virtually abandoned this hypothesis; for, in his Bakerian Lecture on the tides of the Pacific, he not only expressed grave doubts whether such a supposi- tion rightly represents the mode in which ocean-surfaces obey the action of the sun and moon, but he even ventured upon a new hypothesis, in which the phenomena were at- tempted to be explained on the supposition of stationary undulations corresponding in period with the period of the moon’s apparent revolution. On this supposition an ocean would be divided into two equal portions, by a middle line running from north to south, forming an axis of no tide, the undulations giving simultaneous high water on the eastern shores and simul- taneous low water on the western shores at the same time —the northerly and southerly shores being occupied by re- volving waves, giving progressive hours along those coasts only. : | This method of viewing tidal phenomena was doubtless partly suggested by the consideration that, in direct opposi- tion to the requirements of existing theories, the height of tides at mid-ocean islands is everywhere found to be com- paratively small. An hypothesis not very dissimilar to Dr. When had previously been broached by Captain (now Admiral) Fitzroy, who referred the tides to oscillations or hbratory motions of the surface of the ocean from west to east and east to west. But, independently of the difficulty of tracing such motions to the action of the sun and moon, both these kindred hypotheses lack the needful support of facts; for whereas they imply the existence of simultaneous high or low water on the easterly and westerly shores of all con- tinents, the east coast of Africa and part of the westerly coast of the same continent alone show any decided approxi- WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 309 mation to this condition, whilst on all other open ocean coasts the observed facts are mostly the reverse of what the theories require to sustain them. It cannot, therefore, excite much surprise that neither of these hypotheses has obtained support, or even claimed much notice ; so that, in spite of great anomalies and im- perfections, the theory of free ocean waves of translation, as illustrated by maps of co-tidal lines, still holds its ground. But whilst little or no advance has been made towards a sound causal theory of the tides, immense progress has of recent years been made in formulating observations of the details of the varying phases of tidal motion. This progress, however, touches only the minor features of the phenomena. By no existing causal theory can the direction of the pro- gressive motion of the wave of high water along any given coast be predicted where unknown, or accounted for when known, although, when suitable observations have been made at any port, the march of the fluctuations of the wave, both in time and height, which in many parts of the globe obey definite laws depending upon the changing position of the sun and moon, can often be predicted with an approach to minute accuracy. | In all the theories to which reference ie just been hades it is to be observed that the disturbing action of the sun and moon is supposed to centre on ocean-areas, the land- areas of the globe only coming into question so far as the shores of these areas form the bounding lines of the water- surfaces: we, on the contrary, starting from a new hypo- thesis on the relations of terrestrial matter to cosmical force, have arrived at the conclusion that the tidal motions of ocean-surfaces are caused by a differential action of force centring on all land-areas, and reacting indirectly on the margins of all ocean-areas. Irrespective of ideas of cause, “e apparently arbitrary change of stand-point is found to lead to an empirical law 310 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE of the progression of the wave of high water, which compre- hends in harmonious relation a greater range of facts than any hypothesis hitherto propounded. It may therefore not be altogether out of place to illustrate this method of grouping the facts of tidal phenomena by some brief allu- sion to the cosmical speculations which have led to this mode of procedure; and although we decline to indorse the received “ nebular hypothesis” as a genetic theory, we shall nevertheless, for the moment, avail ourselves of the ideas and phraseology of that hypothesis, as offermg the simplest mode of setting forth with becoming brevity, in this incidental portion of the subject, the manner in which, im our view, terrestrial conditions of matter and force are related to space and to bodies m space. Assuming the existence of a diffused nebula composed of ultimate atoms of matter, each having a normal rotation on a fixed axis in a uniform direction, and with simple forces of attraction and repulsion, arising thereout in virtue of laws analogous to those by which the poles of magnets, under given conditions, alternately attract or repel each other, then any disturbance of the equilibrium of forces in this nebula might lead either to condensation on the one hand or to greater rarefaction on the other. Should condensation result, that condensation could hardly be supposed to take the form of a graduated state, passing by insensible degrees from the extreme of solid condensation at the centre, to the extreme of nebulous rarefaction in space. For, taking into account the assumed polarity of the ultimate atoms of matter (an assumption indispensable as a basis for differentiation in any nebu- lar theory from which all existing conditions, relations, and motions of terrestrial matter are to be derived), it is reasonable to assume that the nebulous matter in condens- ing upon a centre, from causes arising out of diverse mole- cular groupings of these atoms and their poles, would take WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 311 up three successive states, constituting the normal types of the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of terrestrial bodies, the solid matter forming a spherical nucleus everywhere covered with a concentric layer of fluid, and this overlaid with a gaseous envelope. A normal sphere, thus formed by the aggregation of rotating atoms in three distinct states, would acquire a motion of rotation of the mass on a determinate axis by virtue of the retardation of atomic rotation con- sequent upon molecular aggregation, and would also derive a progressive orbit-motion from conditions arising thereout, the direction of the rotation and orbit-motion of the sphere being determined by the original direction of atomic rota- tion in the diffused nebula. Our concern, however, at present is not with the rotation and orbit-motion of the mass, but with the local constitution of the condensed normal sphere so acquiring those motions. In virtue of the assumed laws of condensation, the three states of matter so aggregated and superimposed in one sphere would be in stable equilibrium at the respective surfaces of normal con- tact—the solid with the liquid, the liquid with the gaseous, and the gaseous with the uncondensed nebulous matter of space. The organic differences between the constitution of these successive layers would have intimate analogy with the like differences which now arise when heat, on passing into a solid body, converts it first into a liquid and then into a gas—the heat or force being mainly absorbed, or becoming latent, in effecting structural molecular changes. In hke fashion, but in the inverse direction, a portion of the repulsive force predominating in the primal nebula would pass into the latent state on the condensation of a portion of the nebulous matter into the gaseous form; a further portion would become latent in passing by another abrupt step from the gaseous to the fluid form, and yet another portion by a further change to the solid state. 312 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE These three states of matter, thus constituted, would necessarily be in stable equilibrium at the respective sur- faces of normal contact—the fluid matter having no pro- perties tending to disturb the equilibrium of the mole- cular structure of the solid matter, on the one hand, or of the gaseous matter on the other, and the gaseous matter bearing like inoffensive relation to the fluid matter, on the one hand, and to the surrounding nebulous matter of space on the other. | The force exerted upon such a sphere of condensed nebulous matter by another of like origin would, there- fore, in virtue of the laws of condensation, act, firstly, through and by the intermediation of the atoms of the diffused nebulous matter of space, thence through and by means of the molecules of gaseous matter, and thence through and by means of the molecules of fluid matter to the solid nucleus beneath—each of these varying states of matter thus forming an indispensable link im the un- broken chain by and through which one cosmical body is related to another and to space. It must needs be admitted that this mode of viewing the action of the force of gravitation differs widely from that indorsed by modern writers on physical astronomy, in whose works space is treated as a vacuum, so far as ponderable matter is concerned. Such was not the faith of the great founder of the laws of gravitation ; for, in his third letter to Bentley, Newton explicitly states that “the idea of one body acting upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed to one another, is to him so great an absurdity that he believes no man, who has in philosophical matters a com- petent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into.” In the laws of gravitation, the motions of the heavenly bodies are proposed as a mechanical problem; and it is WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 313 not essential to the solution of that problem that either the exact nature of the causal force, or the mode of its trans- mission, should be determined. In the science of me- chanics, a single force acting along a given line may be replaced by any two or more forces acting in different directions, whose resultant on that line is equivalent to the single force. The introduction of the idea of rota- tion into the constitution of the ultimate atoms of matter, and the consequent polar character of the action of ag- gregated rotating spheres upon each other, would there- fore merely result, so far as physical astronomy is con- cerned, in replacing an assumed simple force of attraction by combined repulsive and attractive forces, whose re- - sultant on the given line would be the exact equivalent of the more simple force. | But whilst the precise nature of the causal forces may be comparatively unimportant in problems of pure cos- mical motion, the hypothesis of a simple attractive force (an hypothesis which Newton declined to indorse, though adopting its phraseology in his writings) has long been an insuperable barrier in the way of correlating the force of gravitation with the other natural powers. In an age when the doctrine of correlation is making rapid advances in the estimation of philosophers, this anomaly cannot much longer be allowed to cast reproach on our fundamental ideas of force, and some such basis for differentiating cosmical and terrestrial conditions of matter and force as that which is offered by the hypothesis of the polarity of all matter is obviously one of the first and most important steps towards demonstrating the unity of the physical sciences. Recurring, therefore, to the mode of the transmission of cosmical force, there is nothing incon- sistent with the Newtonian theory of gravitation in the suggestion already made, that when, in condensing upon a centre, part of the diffused matter from which the solar 314 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE system is supposed by the “nebular theory” to have had its origin takes up the successive forms of solid, fluid, and gas, the relations of atomic attraction and repulsion which subsisted in the primal nebula before its condensation ought equally, under modified conditions, to subsist be- tween the solid nucleus and the remaining uncondensed nebulous matter of space,—the intervening layers of fiuid and gaseous matter forming essential links in the extended chain by and through which one centre of cosmical con- densation is related to another and to all space. This mode of viewing the transmission of the force of gravitation leads of necessity to the important conclusion, that, so soon as portions of the solid nucleus of such a con- densed sphere emerge above the surface of the fluid cover- ing into abnormal contact with the gaseous envelope, a differential action of enormous magnitude centering upon these upheaved land-areas would be at once originated, the first measure of which would be the cosmical value of the latent forces by which the fluid state of matter was first constituted an essential intermediate link between the solid and gaseous states; or, in other words, the dif- ferential force would be equivalent to the absolute value of the tension of the intervening fluid state of matter over the entire areas of upheaval. Upheaved land-areas would thus become centres of disturbed equilibrium of force. It has long been our belief that the three leading states of existing terrestrial matter have each a relative cosmical value, such as might have resulted from their thus ori- ginally forming successive differentiations of one uniform atomic constitution of all matter. In support whereof, it may briefly be urged that not only is this matter obviously distributed in the three ana- logous states of earth, water, and air, but each of the simpler forms of morganic matter can also, under given WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 315 conditions of heat, successively assume the solid, liquid, or gaseous state without undergoing chemical change. This universal threefold relation of terrestrial matter points strongly towards the simple and natural hypothesis that the causal laws which now regulate these interchanges of state are the reflex of fundamental laws underlying the entire constitution of matter in the solar system. Passing over the possible relation of the first land-up- heaval to the changes recorded in geology, through suc- cessive disintegrations and reintegrations of the three normal states of matter, and the consequent formation of heterogeneous solids, liquids, and gases, the differential force arising from that upheaval would be the initiating - cause in the phenomenon of the evaporation of fluid matter whereby water is lifted up from ocean-surfaces in a com- minuted state to infiltrate the lower regions of the atmo- sphere, thus forming an attenuated vapour-ocean by means of which land-areas are in some small degree compensated for the entire denudation of their normal water covering. This vapour-ocean constitutes an intermediate state of matter—a sort of compromise between the fluid and gaseous states determined by reactions arising out of abnormal contact. It therefore necessarily stands in relations of unstable equilibrium towards other states at all surfaces of contact. By interactions arising thereout, the simple static con- ditions of force existing prior to land-upheaval are now partly replaced by more complex phases of force; and thus light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, which are expres- sions of these complex phases, have their root in local reactions between unstable states of terrestrial matter at surfaces of abnormal contact, these reactions attaining their maximum value at the surface of the earth, where heterogeneous forms of matter in contact, but not m stable equilibrium, are together brought under the tension 316 MR, THOMAS CARRICK ON THE of cosmical force, and answer unequally and differently to the strain. The voltaic battery—in which, by surface-reactions of dissimilar solids and liquids in presence of atmospheric tension, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism are evoked —thus becomes a faithful type of the larger reactions of terrestrial matter when under the tension of cosmical force. The abnormal phases of force thus indirectly resulting from land-upheaval have become in turn the starting- point of fresh differentiations tending towards another covering of the denuded land, in which the pre-existing states of matter occur in complex combination. Under the moulding hand of the Great Architect of the Universe, this tendency has had its fruition in the in- finitely varied forms of vegetation which constitute the brilhant clothing of upheaved land-areas. In short, the ceaseless molecular changes and local motions of terrestrial matter would, on this hypothesis, be mainly referred to the differential force arising out of land-upheaval. Sufficient has now been said to indicate the general cha- racter of the cosmical speculations which have led to the grouping of tidal phenomena in relation to land-areas as causal centres. | If the upheaval of land above water originated a dif- ferential action of force in manner indicated, then it is obvious that no subsequent changes short of entire re- submersion could altogether neutralize the action of this force ; part of the present residual of this force would there- fore naturally give rise to a perturbative action centring on land-areas, and attainimg a maximum value on the shores of these areas. | For if the normal mode of transmission of cosmical force is through the medium of successive layers of solid WAVE OF HIGH WATER. ole liquid, gas, and the diffused matter of space, each layer when superimposed in the above order, and not otherwise, being in stable equilibrium at the surface of contact with that which bounds it on either side, then the upheaval of land-areas, and consequent denudation of the fluid cover- ing, would render the lines of force directed towards such land-areas less effective for gravitative action than those directed towards ocean-areas ; because, in the former, part of the force would be expended in producing molecular and other changes at the surfaces of abnormal contact, and also because the attachment, so to speak, of the lines of force at these surfaces of abnormal contact would con- stitute an imperfect grip or gravitative hold of one surface on the other, and any deficiency of whatever kind in the effective value of the lines of cosmical tension directed to land-areas would have to be compensated by an added strain in those directed to ocean-areas. In other words, a residual portion of the differential force would be expended in a direct pull or strain upon the waters nearest the shores of land-areas, tending to draw these waters upwards and towards the land as the centre of perturbative action, and would thus give rise to the wave of high water. By discussing from this point of view the hours of high water at full and change for the principal places of the globe, as given in the Admiralty Tide-Tables for 1863 (the data being first reduced to Greenwich mean time), we have arrived at the following law of the progression of the wave of high water. | In all land-areas in the northern hemisphere, the wave of high water tends to revolve round the coast in the di- rection of the hands of a watch, and in like areas in the southern hemisphere against the hands of a watch. Theoretically, this law should hold good in proportion as land-areas approximate to the circular form, with wide 318 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE uninterrupted ocean-spaces all round. In a perfectly cir- cular area of this kind, the differential action would have points of maximum and minimum effect on opposite shores at every instant; these together forming a nodal line, both ends of which would move simultaneously round the coast as the moon moved across the heavens, the wave of high water being everywhere the instantaneous expression of the differential force at its nodal point of maximum action. On the accompanying maps of the world and of the British Islands (see Plates Nos. XI. & XII.), the land- areas which approach nearest to the prescribed condition are enclosed within one or more circles intersecting the salient parts of the coast. Taking the northern hemisphere first, the circle round the North American continent necessarily excludes the southern part from Yucatan to the Isthmus of Panama, as well as the Russian territory in the north-west, and the promontory of Greenland on the north-east. | The hours of high water at places upon or adjacent to this circular line, proceeding round the coast in the di- rection of the motion of the hands of a watch, as required by the law of the northern hemisphere, are as under, the progressive increase of the hour being evidence of con- formity with the law. hi mm North end of Davis Straits . . . I0 2 Cape Race, Newfoundland . . . 10 36 Jedore, .Noval Scotian! sais). ts, belie lattle Kee Harbour. . .. = «ste eae Ocacroke Inlet joi, Stoo 43) -094y. ee st. Helena Sound........y. oi dose eee Doby Inlet... <5. syne ae Meee wee Se Siasimon’s Isle... \ <4 1-yadonery sey itiontall Memandina, Florida... 4. «p% ai/+ «{ | 9Siehe St. Anematine,. Plorida.) 4) :«:/ oto alee WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 319 Cape Florida ¥ Key West, Gulf of eee 37 Cape Catoche, Yucatan . 18 San Blas, Mexico. AI Mazatlan 46 San Diego Bay, Deora. Monterey 29 28 4.4. 20 34 Port Bodega, near San Francisco Port Orford : Oregon, or Columbia River Sitka, Russian America OO CNN DAWN F BPW NW AHF N NI The ice-bound northern frontier presents unconform- able results; the water-spaces, when not frozen, having much of the character of inland seas. The continent of Europe, grouped as it is with Asia and Africa, cannot be enclosed within a circular line; and in cases of this kind it is found that where any distinct traces of progression appear, the coast-line is usually divided into two or more segments, each having an independent wave. Starting from Cadiz, and proceeding to the North Cape, the hours are as under :— Cadiz . Belem, Lisbon ed = Oo MI h. z 3 Cape Finisterre . B37 Ushant gii52 Abervrach A232 Presnier 5 45 Alderney . : PROT Yep aibl 55 Cherboutie’. |. DEG waandisll leaning igs PEGE Ye ce a OD en YY 2g 91 DEBE ob tes hosed pale s..nita! 2 CA ie eae. aoe | ibe na) '4 2 Deed da MENTO, legh ios. ol 158 320 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE bh, Ostend . O 13 Flushing ry 6 Browershaven . 2) coll Brielle 2 43 Rotterdam . 3.27 Texel nih te 6 12 West Terschelling 8 19 Norderney . > the 10; @ The Elbe (entrance) . II 24 Tonning . 25 Husum . 2 00 Aggerminde é 2 sear Skagen, or the Skaw 5a Romsdal Isles, Norway. . . 10 20 - Lofoten Isles, Norway . . . II 4 Hammerfest, Norway . . . II 36 There is here a striking contrast between the velocity of the wave along coasts open to the Atlantic Ocean, as compared with the inner coast-lines flanked by the British Islands. Indeed it would not be madmissible to draw outside those islands a curve grouping all the open At- lantic shores, and then the hours willbe as under :— h. m. Cadiz; :Spaim! "<2 “27>. areeiehae Belem, Wishomiw 2) We... LOE Callao? Say" Corea |e). at ALO mye Quilea River 2°" 7." 8. ae Copiapa I aa Coquimbo Bay Tiga: Valparaiso . 2 he te ka eee Buenos Ayres, La Plata River 3 53 Part of this circle hes north of the equator, and here, as in most coast-lines, numerous unconformable hours are in- terspersed ; but it is not a little curious to note, that in this instance the unconformable hours, both on the eastern and western coasts, may be mainly resolved into counter waves, conforming to the law of the northern hemisphere. The narrow southern prolongation of this continent cannot be included in a circle following the coast-line in a satisfactory manner ; but succéssive tracts of the coast are traversed by conformable waves as under :— hh. ma. Valparaiso . 18 Maule River AQ Arauco Bay i 7 Valdivia 28 Huafo Island . Anna Pink Bay Cape Pillar . Cape Horn . oO DN FPWW DD DN? nn xe) ‘WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 329 Cape Virgin Port Gallegos . Santo Cruz River Port San Julian . Port Desire = CO COP W NHN HH & DS OO Ww Port Melo . 3 Port St. Elena 22 Nuevo Gulf 11 18 Port St. Joseph Se, Port San Antonio 2 59 Rio Negro . 2B) San Blas 616 Union Bay . Jie) Colorado River 8 8g Port’ Belerano -'7' 7 10'S Buenos Ayres, La Plata Riek 3 53 South Africa, in shape, approximates to an isosceles triangle, with jts base on equatorial Africa, and on that base is necessarily influenced by the superior mass of North Africa and of the adjacent continent of Asia. The re- sult is, that on the western coast the law of the northern hemisphere extends to somé distance south of the equator, whilst on the east coast the tidal hour is nearly simultane- ous. There is, nevertheless, a progression of hours on the south coast, as under :— h. m. St. Helena Bay I 18 Table Bay . 1:28 Cape Aguillas . 30 Mossel Bay 1 46 Algoa Bay . Oey 7] Port Natal . 220 Shefeen Isles, Delagoa By 2:20 330 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE In Australia, where any progression of the tidal wave can clearly be traced, the direction is in conformity with the law of the southern hemisphere. On the east coast — we have h. m. servis Bay 3. +) = -. Ye Shoal Bay 2 4.7) 2... « G) )ikormp Wade Bay 2.9 78) eh... toma Port’ Bowen.) 5s 4+, .uni) Brg Flinders Group: ; iz) =..." .. #iggg Gape sidimouth® 3) 20 f°0 3 ae Cape Work... $: ou. 2 =< aes The north coast of Australia appears to be largely affected by the adjacent archipelago ; and along the north, west, and south coasts, detached places have an almost simultaneous hour, overlaid with many irregular hours. On these coasts there is much reason to doubt the accuracy of the data of the Admiralty Tide-Tables, which are taken in great measure from observations of early Australian discoverers. On the west coast, where Engtish settlements exist, the observed tidal hours would interpolate well with those of the east coast, on the theory of a wave revolving round the continent in 12 hours The middle island of New Zealand, situate in open ocean, offers a favourable instance of conformity with the law; for we have h. m. Cape Farewell ~ <2 0°. = 4. > G45 Milford Sound. - %6U. ecylane ae Dusky Bays ss <. 1a a Ruapuke Isles, Foveaux cuties 1 48 Otago Harbour atath iaeeze Cape Campbell go sos gh pbn2e Queen Charlotte Sound Louie Cape Farewell 9 49 WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 30l In the northern island the progression is also in the re- quired direction, but is much overlaid with irregular hours, arising out of the reactions of the middle island. It thus appears that, whilst no land-area exists in which the conditions essential to a perfect revolving wave attain to more than avery moderate degree of fulfilment, and although every existing area is more or less subject to the perturbing effects of adjacent areas, yet nevertheless, when- ever any systematic progression of the hour of high water can be distinctly traced, the wave of high water in the northern hemisphere everywhere tends to revolve round the coasts of land-areas in the direction of the motion of the hands of a watch, and in the southern hemisphere against the direction of the motion of the hands of a watch. It may not be out of place to note some facts which strikingly confirm the method of reducing continents, &c., to circular areas of apparently arbitrary position and extent. The circle which encloses the North American continent emerges, on the coast of the Pacific, at the Mexican port of San Blas, and that which surrounds the main portion of South America emerges on the same ocean at Panama. Between these two points there is a slight progressive in- crease in the tidal hours, which range from 85 42™ at Panama to g5 46™ at Acapulco; and then there is the curious fact, that between the closely adjacent ports of Acapulco and San Blas there is an abrupt break of several hours in time, as under— i. 7m. Acapullcaters 9) Le 46 San blag cov ee Pa Ts although, as has already been shown, the progression northwards from San Blas along the west coast of North America is unusually regular, thus showing conclusively 332 MR. THOMAS CARRICK ON THE that the apparently arbitrary position assigned to the northern circle has nevertheless a definite relation to the facts which it professes to group. In like manner the circle which surrounds northern Scotland emerges on the west coast at Crinan at 55 11™; and here again, as in the case of the American continent, whilst the progression northwards along the west coast of Scotland is regular, there is an abrupt break of several hours to the south of Crinan, with a nearly simultaneous tide at’all the ports on the south-west and south of Scot- land, the average time being about 11 20™, Where the same circle emerges on the east coast of Scotland, there is no break in time, but a nearly simul- taneous hour southwards from the Frith of Forth to Holy Isle. This tendency to a simultaneous hour of high water on coasts affected by the close proximity of one or more land- areas is a marked feature in tidal phenomena, contrasting strongly with the orderly progression of the wave else- where. And it is also worthy of note, that whereas 12 hours suffice for the revolving wave round the coast of each of the American continents, an equal time is occupied by the wave of the middle island of New Zealand, and by the wave of the group of the Feroe Islands, thus indicating that large and small areas alike are independent centres of action, the velocity of the wave of each area being propor- tionate to the entire extent of coast to be traversed. It is well known by those who have handled the data of tidal hours, that, besides the facts which are selected to illustrate systematic progression, every coast 1s more or less overlaid with irregular tidal hours; and this feature has become more apparent in proportion as correct data have been accumulated. | To a large extent, the difficulty of accounting for these WAVE OF HIGH WATER. 333 irregular hours disappears when the facts are.treated in relation to land-areas ; for whereas no existing land-area is perfectly circular, or has everywhere wide and uninter- rupted ocean-boundaries, or is free from the disturbing action of other areas—conditions essential to uniform pro- gression of the wave,—it follows of necessity that anomalies such as these may reasonably be expected. The nodal points which revolve round irregular areas cannot be supposed to represent the entire differential action. Every point where a departure from the essential conditions exists will necessarily become the centre of a local residual action ; the nodal points will merely represent the leading features of each area, so far as that area tends to conform to the required conditions. Judging from frequent coincidences in time, these ir- regular tidal hours in many instances appear to be due to the direct local action of the moon when crossing the meri- dian of the place. In like manner interruptions in the continuity of the surrounding ocean-spaces will lead to variations in the velocity of the waves ; and this interruption, when extensive, should culminate in simultaneous high water. It is not consistent with the scope of this paper to enter upon other phases of tidal action; but it may be permitted briefly to allude to the circumstance that our mode of view- ing the phenomena of the tides would lead to the conclusion that mid-ocean tides should always be small, and that the wave of high water should everywhere roll in nearly parallel with the coast. Observation has proved that the facts are in intimate harmony with these conclusions, although these facts are directly at variance with the requirements of ex- isting theories. In short, when approached from our stand-point, every part of the phenomena of the tides will receive more or less of elucidation ; and where anomalous results appear, it will 334 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE NUMBER OF DAYS be found that, when rightly considered in relation to dis- turbing causes, even these will tend indirectly to confirm the method of grouping the data of tidal hours in relation to land-areas as causal centres. XXV.— On the Number of Days on which Rain falls annually at London, from observations made during the fifty-six years, 1807 to 1862. By G. V. Vurnon, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, April 30th, 1863. Brine frequently asked by medical men and others on what number of days rain usually falls during the year, I have compiled the Table accompanying this paper. The observations made at Somerset House by the Royal Society for the years 1797 to 1830 being in many months not trustworthy (see Howard’s ‘Climate of London,’ 2nd edition, vol. 1. p. 132), I have adopted Howard’s values for the years 1807 to 1831, given in his ‘ Climate of Lon- don,’ vol.i. These observations, although not made ab- solutely in London, may safely be used without any great error being introduced. From 1832 to 1840 I have adopted the values given for Somerset House, printed in the ‘ Philosophical Transactious.’? From 1841 to 1862 the values are those for Greenwich Observatory. Through- out the entire period of 56 years, there is not a single month in which no rain fell. The years in which rain fell upon the fewest days were 1832 and 1834, the numbers being 86 and 82 days respect- ively ; 1832 was the cholera year. ain fell upon the greatest number of days in 1848, the number being 223 days. The mean number of days upon which rain fell ON WHICH RAIN FALLS ANNUALLY AT LONDON. 300° annually during this long period is 1554 days ; the monthly means are as follows :— Days on which Rain fell. January Se Te naw Hebrunnye (Ss ccs 1 B2t4: Moreh 5 4. We a hig ORIN eRE ea) Ee Ear Nak Cle Femnente Payoh save Salyer! POF S BBO Murmurs 7 10/5 14) FIG September 2-79") 1277 October"! gee 14sa November** (.' 13-6 Decemiper’* YY "4.72096 Meats 2 or (ic 5 54 The maximum appears to occur in October, the wettest month, and the minimum in March. The quarterly values are, Days. Wiuter—Dec., Jan., and Feb.. . . 39°4 Spring—March, April, and May . . 37°3 Summer—June, July, and August . 37'9 Autumn—Sept., Oct., and Nov. . . 40°7 The maximum here occurs in autumn, and the minimum in spring. Finding the means for periods of 5 years, we have Days. Ist period 1807-1812 . ... 1681 and dogs 1813—1887, 0. j4..% , F918 gid wd Lobo -1o29) {Stet 17 3‘2 Atm woe’ 182¢-1527 | 5! 251. : 1682 Gil des 1e28-16e2 22 . 154°8 336 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE NUMBER OF DAYS Days. oth period 1838-18 27 - oe 2 oh te TA 7th MAE MO TSEB— 1849.) 5 lia woe TA sO Sth do: TOAg 1849 eo oo) soma oth’ do. . 1845-1852). wes lie Toth -do.,, 10525105 7i 6 sp nasi 1Ith. do... 3858-1862 ).. ho eee These figures seem to show that the number of days upon which rain falls undergoes some kind of periodicity. From the 2nd to the 8th period there is a continued falling- off in the number of days on which rain fell, with the ex- ception of the slight advance in the 7th period; there is a great rise at the gth period, followed by a considerable fall- ing-off in the roth period. From the advance in the 11th period, it would appear as if we were returning to the same conditions as those prevailing during the first five periods. Days on which Rain fell at London, 1807-1862. Y. % ea ; 2 géz ear.| 3 . 2 | cS ener aes ees e ieee s/Sials |e! sg i[p| 2) a) 8s) 5 | 8 ie Be Sia lSi4/375 15141810) aaa TSO7 I 7 Tae eg, G17 6 8 9 7a aon | ea 6 108 T1808. | Tee tr | 4 15 |yt2) Noe a5 5) eS 15 tor ae eee 1809.| 22 [ 22 | 9 | 24 | 13 | rr | 45 | 21‘) og | ar | xO |) one 810. | 16°|°23 | 215 | TOU) Fossa, | 204) 17°) 16) 1a eee TOUT.) 22 5 7 | 13 | 20) If (93°) 39 | 11 | 19 | 250 oeh eee 1912.) 13 |\ 22 | 2225) raed! Wo nee ve: eae 25.) (13°s) “36m wage Stage) 15 Ner5 9 1814./ 19 | 8 | 18 1815.1 32. | 14; | 20). 19 | 18] 13 |x20 | 23 | 11 |) a5 | 30 ea ee 16 15 TouGs |) VO) TA: 1817.| 21 | 19 T5185 2351 199) 25h VIO 2155) 29) Fo A e220 ae lay 9 | 180 1819.| 16 | 22 | 14 | 16 | 12 | 15 3} 4] 12 | 19 | 15 | eee rS20:| 18.) 23 ler | 1% | 17 | .26 | to | 12 | 14 | 167 17 eee 1821.| 13 G | 24.) 17 | 14) 11 | 42 | 13 | BO] 7) 22 eee 1322.) 98 Sala |e) eae 7 | Aaial) ofan ee 6 |) s7 1823./ 15 | 19 | 14 | 13 | 14 | IO | 21 | 23 $+] 73 S| 138 1976 y824.| 3 [erp a8 [o18 | 27 | 25 |om2 [oa7 | a8) a7 | 19" | oa i 1825.| 12%} TO} TO | TO} 10 | 12 | 3°) 35 | TO} 55 | Tg! Tee 1826.| 6 |Sx6m) 21 |, 10.) 12 4 to (ort) |) 16 4.54 | 468) aa ee 1827.| 20 |-41 | 20 | 17 | 14 | 15 9| 16/14 | 15 |] 14 | 21 | 186 ON WHICH RAIN FALLS ANNUALLY AT LONDON. 337 Days on which Rain fell at London (continued). BS Wiss Mies Y SI g = : cm) ee 2 S28 cars fe | Sf Bl) sep BD bce | as S iS sy Sle lsl(sieleieiaiaié|2 ara Hoes TO) Ign en) t4 | 25 | 1st 1g 9: 7 | rz | 167 FOZ i TENTS) |) 71-25 | 9. 1s | 22 | 2r | ro \ 1.) 12 | rx | 176 ES3o..{ 22.) 16 STA ESiTG. elZ [U7 Tj 27 8 | 14 | 13 | 180 Mesut 4 ES | TS} TO: |-rO) | 44 | FZ) | rH | ors ons: i ig | 18 | 165 1832.| 6 Tae One nae) amo gs. ik Tor SecA ea ie FO} |, $6 esas DS Olea a Ty TO tA be gol ex 8 | 18 | 124 Paw Tee sip ae aot fg | Ll Ort, Or A see te LIS eT en 2 BEM TA Teh, Ail Oot day) 35 |. aa 5 | 101 HogGnor) £O | To! BQ | 16 | -12 7 9 | 9.) 47 | 36 | 19 | 12 | 3157 1837.| 14 | I1 6] 7 OP Mon FO LATO) TL aL) KO h 123 TOg6- |) 1X |) ON GO |) eXEs| “GQ | 20"|* 28 rg) | r]8 | 8. | a7) x1°| 147 Meson aM Teh | TO) eign) Ia.) 12.) Oo. 27 4) 23\| 080, 13.) 254 MeAGn i EO) ss A Soi 2 | uy | iar | 12) to | 16 | 2: | 24 [S4i.| 10 }- 10 | 43 |-157| 12 | {10 | 18-|-95 1 r5.| 22.) 13 | 18 | 271 eazy oat | TQ i. <5) kal 6. 1°43 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 28 5 | 119 Peco TAN eA |. Or Tou 2 | Fay | TOU! 3.) FB) FAT 3. | 128 IAC Ore We or arta gon 7 hotge | EO Yee rs iors WG nro POC e Ie a Sel mane tn RA RO. Erb.) 8.1 Tgis|.MO,|, IZO PeA0e Tor) 7 | 14 | 1G} 8 | eyo & } re i 4 | or 9 | 8 | 128 MATa as ta leg) TP Crow A fi 7 |f12 to |e (8%| p10!) 102 S48.) 11g | 22) 2g ig | 22. | 18 | 29 | 14 | 26 | 19} 18 | 229 ESA9. 27.5) 19, | 31 1120 | 15 7 | 32 Serger) er lens. ra. 1850.| 10 | 13 GS rs. jot Sr 25 | 14 | FS 8 | 14 { 16] 155 MSGi Mee Sel Aare Tene ter re) |) 27 gy | tabi ta |. ron Gl 155 PG eLOn i eee celcO (TA. 2a) 7a) kk Obs: | 27 23) ro) 17 Togte 20 | Wan) EaaletA, |, 02 | 09) 26): 75) 12. | eq.) rm.) 8 | 162 ToGiet 1G} <9) Or 7 1 a7 | te as fF reo) far) rg” 16") 142 Ee See e2On DE MET he Ay TO 4) TOW. TOolpa Ble. hit 7 |) Esl TAA 1s56.| 1S | 10°! 6 |-13 | 18 7 \NekaniPLO ne L7ie bo | xO) | Ba | TAS AGT MEZOOe STO eto es eg | go hur WIs it so eS k 6) | 122 BGs Ne Ones | ma TP tens |Eez eS t ror ot Vy | rao) bre 1559.| 31 | 12 |. tO | 13 9 7 Teiese etpeiere Whe te al P45 PeGon| 22a rs | 1S | 19.) 14 | 23 | 10 | a5 |\i7 | ro | rE 1-37 | 192 TOGio On ert AN Oe Sines (ZOU AG lens 4 Oe WK i (ZOr| 146 Hsozn 27) Gl 22 )49 | 16 | 56 1 16 | 14 | 18) £7 Si 1G | £79 — |_| —_____ |__| ——_ | | | | FE 668 |716 |71t | 671/728 |724 |710 |805 |764 |762 |8704 £19 |12°7 |12°7 |12°0 |13°0 |12°9 |12°7 |14°4 |13°6 [13°6 | 155°4 Means /13°4 |12°4 SER. III. VOL. II. Z 338 MR. J. HEAP ON THE RAIN-FALL AT OLDHAM. XX VI.—On the Rain-fall at Oldham during the years 1836 to 1862. By Joun Huap, Esq.; with Remarks by G. V. Vernon, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, April 30th, 1863. THE observations given in this paper were made at Royton, near Oldham. During the period 1836 to 1852, a 12-inch circular gauge was used, with a float, and situated 24 feet above the ground. From 1853 to 1857, the height was only 11 feet above the ground. From 1858 to 1860, the gauge used was a 10-inch, with float, and 11 feet above the ground. In 1861 and 1862 the float was dispensed with, and the amount of rain fallen estimated by weight, the gauge remaining, as before, 11 feet above the ground. The mean fall for the first 17 years, 24 feet from the ground, was 32°468 inches. The mean fall for 1853-1857 was 30°802, 11 feet from the ground. The mean fall, 1858 to 1862, was 38°069 inches, also 11 feet from the ground. Combining these last two series, we have 34°432 inches for. the fall, 11 feet above the ground. The corresponding periods at Manchester give, 1836 to 1852, 36°85g inches; 1853 to 1857, 31°371 inches; 1858 to 1862, 33°757 inches ; and 1853 to 1862, 32°564 inches. During the first 17 years the fall at Oldham appears to be greatly below that at Manchester; but this is owing to the elevation of the gauge. The fall during 1858 to 1862 would seem to approach nearer the normal fall for Oldham, as compared with the average of the same period for Man- chester, since, the locality being considerably higher, much more rain might he expected to fall. If the ratio between the rain-falls at Oldham and Manchester during the period just alluded to held good for the entire period 1836 to 1862, MR. J. HEAP ON THE RAIN-FALL AT OLDHAM. 339 assuming the height of the gauge to be 11 feet above the ground, it would give 39°752 inches for the mean rain-fall at Oldham for 27 years. Although Oldham is fully 200 feet higher than Bolton, the rain-fall at Oldham 1s greatly below that at Bolton: for example, the rain-fall at these two sta- tions in 1860, 1861, and 1862 was as follows :— 1860. 1861. 1862. eee | os inches. | inches. | inches. Oldhame ee... 44°023 | 33°084 | 41°238 Bolton sat... 57°660 | 44°910 | 537430 Difference ...... EZ G37)\, 118260 | 12-192 or a mean difference of 12°551 inches. The data at Bolton are from Mr. H. H. Watson’s returns, 290 feet above the sea, and 37 feet above the ground. No doubt the greater fall at Bolton is owing to the vicinity of high lands, in- cluding the large mass of Rivington Pike. Part of these differences is caused by the gauge at Oldham being placed 72 feet above that at Bolton, referred to the surface of the earth as datum. The values for the mean rain-fall at Old- . ham for 27 years, given in Vol. III of the Proceedings of our Society, page 112, are too small, owing to the great height the gauge was placed above the ground during the first seventeen years. Mr. Heap informs me that, from the beginning of the present year, his gauge has been lowered to 4 feet above the ground. The Tables appended to this paper are, 1st, monthly fall for 27 years at Oldham; 2nd, comparative annual falls at Oldham and Manchester; 3rd, mean monthly rain-fall at Oldham during each period that the same gauge and system of measurement was adopted. | “2 340 MR. J. HEAP ON THE RAIN-FALL AT OLDHAM. TaBLE I.—Rain-fall at Royton, near Oldham, 500 feet | above the sea. 1836. | 1837.| 1838.| 1839.| 1840.| 1841.| 1842.| 1843. January ...... 2°109 | 2°347| 0°231] I'°9771| 2°501| 1°641]| 1°880}| 3°580| February ...| 2°502| 2°569) 1°159| 1°629| 1°432|] 1200] 1°961| o*521 | March .....: 2°739 | 2°053| 1°951| 1°252| 0°320| 0°258]| 3°160| o*890 APT (ocexe not 2°341| 0°987/ 2°862] 1°538| 0°578| 1°229| 0°978| 3°599 (UE) eae & 0°759| 2-181) 27938) 0°932 | 4°402| 39°641 | 2°3g0) 2-oEe GUNG sons naiter 4'262 | 2°058]| 4°291] I°991| 3°310| 4°028] 2°068]| 2°000 duly yee 4'271 | 1°700| 2°038| 1°702 | 6°389| 6°690| 3°664| 1052 August ...... 1419 | 3°039| 4°704| 3°233] 3°660! 3°470| 1°450]| 3°918 September 2°991 | 1°545|] O°710| 4°981} 5°318| 5°269] 1°929]| 07590 October ...... 3°500 | 3°890} 4°329| 2°572] 1°732| O°712] 2°140| 4°958 November ...| 5°959| 5°268| 0°682| 2°611] 1°310| 5°930| 3°489]| 5°670 December ...| 3°667}| 3°402| 1°550| 1°672| 1°559| 0°578]| 2°550| 17700 36°519 |31°043 |27°445 |25°484 |32°521 /34°646 |28°108 |31°130 Tas eE I. (continued). 1844. | 1845.| 1846.) 1847.| 1848.| 1849.| 1850.| 1851. Es |S | | — |S SF SH | mm. January ...... 1°341 | 1°970]| 4°000] 1°831] 3°010} 2°610]| 1°890/ 17642 February ...| 1'052| 1°241| 1°082| 1°450] 3°990| 3°252| 2°191| 3°964 March. 2c 2'220| 2°814] 1240] 3°418] 3°414| 1°621| 3°684| 2°630 April tek 1000 | 1°887] 4°931| 2°830| 3°138| 3°612| 2°120] 1°034 Mayne care 0°000} I°980} 1°380] 1'281] 3°250] 2°154| 3°842] 37144 NRO S 12... 1°632] 3000] 3°618 | 2°650] 3°749] 4°180| 3°166| 2°631 Miily czech. eee 0°852| 5°974| 6:491| 4°310| 3°003] 2°151] 4°250| 17180 August .....: 2°120| 57520] 2°780| 3°618] 4°860| 3°430] 3°990| 3°000 September ...} 3°012 | 3°881 | 1'070| 3°004| 3°141| 2°821| 3°822]| 2°132 October ...... 1°920|] 4°110} 5°238 |] 3260} 3°310] 3°191 | 4°164] 2°610 November ...| 2°994.| 2°772 | 2°562| 3°842| 3°010| 3°690| 3°140| 2°184 December ...} 0°510| 6°620} 1°860| 2°638| 2°134| 2°610| 2°634| 1860 ee ee ee ee ee 18°653 |4.1°669 |36°252 |34°132 |4.0°009 |135°622 |38°893 |28-o1r ¢ MR. J. HEAP. ON THE RAIN-FALL AT OLDHAM. 341 Taste [.—Rain-fall at Royton, near Oldham, 500 feet above the sea (continued). 1852.| 1853. 1854. 1855.| 1856.| 1857.| 1858. eS STR SS SESS Gee SAMUANY. 006. cinv eee 2770 Mebruary ...........: 1°886 UWI ly Oe cia slag Soscel 1°864 PEP WER Sos news 1°840 1 RS ae een Ae 2.°804 EITC BN cst cr lcic's ek 3°310 TILE lees cen ae ca 2864 JES yeti ie 5°170 September ............ 2°742 Weroier... 2.5.5 42.0050- 3°280 November 53.0.55..- my 2 O7t December ............ 2°180 opis 2442 2,°200 Pring 3-440 2°692 3°702 37462 3-194 2,°940 1°472 1°478 1°870 2°574- 3°620 0°370| 2°554 0°424| 3°236 1°850 | 0°033 07984 | 2°454 1°520| 3°154 1894 | 2°144 4250] 4°200 3°664| 4°708 1°904 1°608 1°990 1°674 1°542 2°590 1°608 3°196 2973 1°4.52 2°4.78 2°560 | 3°782 2 AAG aes | ee | ce | ee | ee | een § 337181 |34°606 3.5083 |23°950 Tasxez I. (continued). 1859. 1860.| 1860.| 1861. 32°583 |28°130 220 1861.| 1862. Days. Days. January ......... ee Riots) 4003 1) i238 T5220) | den | 25022 EDEGARY ii -:. «orda un ARSON TOUT 17 |) Sarah 6) 07736 March 222.2 ..sec3e- 23041 S754) 24, |) 5 72gA| 18) |) 37073 2501 RARER 50 7 coe 3°032| 1°682| 16 | 1°880 9 | 2°079 WEY ae ee a ae C250 41094) 24 | e724, 13 | 45636 LUIS pea ease mmm ZuBlA 7 COZ | azo. | 27500 18 | 3-342 * ull ae Soe es eee ere FS Ot ato 4)| toe 4rOO2 | Zo 147330 FAMIOMISG : seaee eves Tes Gaze} eace7olly gon he g4ol ian 4/7 5uir September .:.....5.5... 6°512| 3°400]. 22 | 4482] 20 | 4°064 Octobe 0.4. .ne-n 3°174| 5°362| 24 | 1°750| 16 | 6°360 Wovember 47.4092 236004250 |) 1S) \2°460|. 13 -|3°737 Deeember, .7....:2 2h; 3°5041) 27552) 19 | 27378) -.¥7-~| 51091 263 |33°084) 202 |41°238 37°318 |44°023 ; 34:2 MR. J. HEAP ON THE RAIN-FALL AT OLDHAM. TasLe I].—Comparative Rain-fall at Oldham and Manchester. Year. |Manchester. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1354. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. Means ... inches. 45°351 33°37 31°418 33°349 34-291 41°190 31°555 33°155 26°755 41415 33 S52 43355 45°230 36°070 57555 a1 932 ase) (heh 32°4.10 31°360 26°425 34220 SP oe o 29°434 34495 36°530 2a -a 38°598 35°268 inches. 36°619 31043 27°445 25°484 32°521 34°646 28°108 31°I30 18°655 41°669 36°252 34°132 40°009 35°622 38°393 28°O11 aa°184 34606 35°083 2Bi se 325383 23°130 ge 73 37°318 7Cz3 337084 41238 33°202 Oldham. | Difference. inches. — 8732 — 2°094 3°973 7°865 1°770 6°544 3°447 77025 8°100 0°2 54 2°902 9°223 5°221 0°448 4°443 3919 12°549 2°216 3°223 2°475 1637 3°810 3°279 2323 7493 Se + 2°640 — 2°066 ese th oh I poll Peale | [aalectetl ++4+ | | During this period the gauge at Oldham was 24 feet above the ground; float-gauge 12 inches di- ameter. Oldham : gauge 11 feet above the ground; float- guage 10 inches diameter. Oldham: gauge 11 feet above the ground; 10-inch gauge, but fall of rain determined by weight in 1861 and 1862. Tas Le III.—Mean Monthly Rain-fall at Oldham. 1836-18 52.| 1853-1857.| 1858—1862./18 53-1862. —_—————— | | ee _ Month. inches inches JAWUALY § 36-4 2enedpeesed 2°195 1°955 Re bruUary ac ac. s08-neseoe 1825 2°130 WEATOR: es. nspsuetvieweee 2,090 1°509 PAQITUL Soci wicsasaesanrnaene be 2.547 1'74.0 Dee Bpir aes sacs otedesed 2°328 2°305 SUE) Fe sainipan dnaeses sad 3°055 2°379 RUABY. Colteeiacoaceteatanowe’ 3°490 3°476 203: 2 ne ee 3°493 3°358 DEMPEMAVED oye. sccu sss 2°880 I'g12 (C7010) C2) set = '3°230 4°637 INOVenibeR tan. acece ss 3°399 2°075 Deceniber ieaiiee.cess sos - 2°336 3°326 SUNS 0c caiee apereen aes 32°468 30°802 Corresponding periods } 36°359 41°37! at Manchester eee inches. inches. 2°537 2°246 2°029 2°079 3°481 2°49 5 2°220 1°985 2°577 2°44. 3°898 3°138 3°567 3°5a1 3°471 3414 4°622 3°267 4°020 4°328 2°222 2°148 3°415 3°370 38069 34°432 33°757 32°564 STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 343 XXVII.—Further Observations on the Carboniferous, Per- mian, and Triassic Strata of Cumberland and Dumfries. By the President, E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. Read October 20th, 1863. Introductory Remarks. Wuen, in 1848, the Red Sandstones of the neighbourhood of Dumfries first came under my observation, in company with my friend Prof. Harkness, doubts arose in my mind as to the propriety of their bemg classed with the Trias, their character and organic remains clearly indicating more of a Permian age*. Accordingly, in my first paper published on this subject in the Society’s ‘ Memoirs’ + in 1855, allusion is made to these beds, and they are classed as Permian after tracking the Permian beds of Lan- cashire through the north-western counties of York, West- moreland, and Cumberland. My attention was chiefly | directed to the red marls, magnesian limestone, conglo- merate, and soft Red Sandstone strata, these being the common Lancashire types; and where the Red Sandstones of the neighbourhood of Carlisle and St. Bees were inci- dentally mentioned, they were treated as Upper New Red Sandstone or Trias, as Prof. Sedgwick had described them in his valuable memoirs; but in my 2nd memoir {, pub- lished in 1857, where the Howrigg, Shawk, and Westward sections are described, I came to this conclusion :— the * In the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ for 1851, p. 162, Sir R. I. Murchison doubted the sandstone of Dumfries being of Triassic age, and preferred to class it with the Permian. tT “On the Permian Beds of the North-west of England, ” vol. xii. p. 209, of the Society’s ‘ Memoirs.’ { “Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of: the North-west of England,” vol. xiv. p. ro1, of the Society’s ‘ Memoirs.’ SER. III. VOL. II. QA 344 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND brick-red sandstones of those places, with their under- lying red clays, as well as the breccia at Shawk, I have little doubt will be proved to be Permian. It is true that no fossil organic remains have yet been found in them, with the exception of the tract alluded to in this paper; but if mineralogical characters and geological su- - perposition are to be taken as evidence of their age, they are as good Permian beds as those of West House, Kirby Stephen, and Brough, in England, and Dumfries and other places in the south-west of Scotland, with the latter of which they are most probably connected.” In a paper published by Prof. Harkness, in 1862 *, that geologist adopts, in substance, this view, and agrees with my opinion of the Howrigg, Shawk, and Westward red clays and sandstones being of Permian age, and describes a very beautiful section at Hilton, in Westmoreland, which strongly confirms it. Of course, it was not intended to question the Triassic age of the soft red sandstones of Dalston and Holmhead, near Carlisle, which are covered bv waterstones, red marls, and lias, as stated in my paper on the latter deposit +. The Shawk sandstones are well seen at Westward Chapel, near Wigton; West Newton, near Aspatria; near Allonby, and to the north of Maryport ; and after the Maryport, Workington, and Whitehaven coal-field is passed, they appear again to the south of the coast in the magnificent promontory of St. Bees Head, and continue southward certainly to Netherton, Seascales, Gosforth, Drigg Cross, and probably, as Prof. Sedgwick suggests, into Furness f. * «Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ for August 1862, p.205. t Ibid. for May 1859, p. 549. { Professor Sedgwick ‘“‘On the New Red Sandstone Series in the Basin of the Eden,” vol. iv. new series of the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, p. 389. All geologists who have investigated the geological structure of the counties of Lancaster, Westmoreland, York, and Cumber- land must class the venerable Professor as the father of Permian geology in these counties. The more I investigate these districts, the more I find to TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 345 On the north of the Solway, the Permian strata on the opposite side of the Vale of Eden are well exposed in the Riddings Junction section, on the Waverley line of railway, about Carwinlay, Moat, and Canobie ; and the range of the Moat sandstone, the same age as that of Shawk, by Glenzier Quarry, Cove, near Kirkpatrick, Fleming, above Annan, on to Dumfries, is well marked. In addition to a description of several Permian sections, two sections will be given which show the occurrence of the upper coal-measures similar to those described by me, some years since, in the valley of the Ayr, near Catrine, thus rendering it extremely probable that such strata extend under the valleys of the Eden and the Esk, their southern outcrop beimg exposed in the Raw Beck, south of Dalston, and their northern outcrop at Canobie. These carboniferous strata may not be rich in coal; but they contain the limestone of Ardwick, Leebotwood, and Ballochmoyle Braes (formerly termed a freshwater one *), and show a great development of coal-measures, which are useful to be known, if it be only to show the depth that has to be sunk through before the middle and_profit- able coal-fields of Whitehaven and Canobie can be reached. This portion of the coal-measures, both in Scotland and the north-west of England, has generally been termed Permian, and summarily dismissed as unprofitable “red measures.” In my paper on the Ballochmoyle limestone +, it was admire in the vast amount of original information and truly philosophical deductions which characterize his invaluable memoirs. When I published my first and second papers, I had not carefully read those memoirs, or I should have referred to the learned Professor’s notice of the Carboniferous Limestone at Shawk as he saw and correctly described it nearly thirty years before me. * Tn this paper it is intended to use the term “ Spirorbis Limestone”’ for freshwater limestone. + “On some Upper Coal-measures containing a Bed of Limestone at Ca- trine, in Ayrshire,” ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ for No- vember 1862, p. 437. DB Kee 346 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND shown that a great thickness of unprofitable coal-measures had to be traversed before the profitable coal-field at Com- mon could be reached in that district, some 550 yards. The Canobie section exposes far more coal-measures above the Spirorbis limestone than the one at Balloch-_ moyle—at least 200 yards ; and it shows a passage of Car- boniferous into Permian beds, so far as the eye can de- tect, better than any that has hitherto come under my observation. The strata of these two formations in the bank of the river above the bridge at Canobie, from the lowest bed of breccia into the underlying clays and shales, are most difficult, if not impossible, to separate from the red shales and sandstones seen between that point and the bridge there. The district about Canobie, Penton, and Longtown has been described at length by Mr. Edmund Gibsone, in an elaborate and well-illustrated memoir, printed in the ‘Trans- actions of the North of England Institute of Mining En- gineers’**, In the Penton Linns section, the author de- scribes the mountain-limestone seams of coal; in the Penton. Railway section, the millstone-grit series ; and in the Can- obie coal-field, the middle series; and he shows a fault on the south of the latter coal-field, which throws the coal- measures down, and brings in the Permian strata, All the red measures south of this fault Mr. Gibsone appears to consider Permian, and the fault which brings them in he calls the Great Permian fault. After examining these red measures, I have come to the conclusion that, although a portion of them are Permian strata,as Mr. Gibsone describes them to be, a great part of them are unquestionably upper coal-measures. The profitable Canobie coal-field, like the Common coal-field in Ayrshire, belongs to the middle or * «A Geological Paper on the Border Districts of Dumfriesshire, Cum- berland, and part of Roxburghshire, including the Coal Formation of Can- obie, &c.,”” by Edmund: Gibsone, vol. xi. p. 65. TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 347 valuable coal-field; but there is also at Canobie a great thick- ness of upper coal-measures, containing a seam of limestone in all respects like the Ballochmoyle Braes, near Catrine, the Ardwick, and Leebotwood limestones. Consequently the Permian fault should be called by some other name ; say, the Great South fault. Practical mming engineers have frequently classed all the red and variegated beds which they find in the upper part of the coal-measures as “red mea- sures” or Permian strata. Now there is, no doubt, often sreat difficulty in drawing the line of demarcation between _ the upper coal-measures and the Permian strata; and it is possible that in some sections one may pass into the other, as appears to be the case in the river section above the bridge at Canobie previously alluded to; but in the north- west of England this transition is not generally to be seen. The further we investigate the organic remains of these two formations, probably more genera and species will be found to be common to both than is at present supposed ; but in all cases where the remains of Stigmaria and Spirorbis carbonarius (Microconchus) have been found in the strata, | I have termed them carboniferous. In the absence of organic remains, which is generally the rule, and not the exception, the Permian character of the strata has been decided by the mechanical character of the deposits and the order of superposition, the beds of breccia and the soft red sandstone generally affording pretty good evidence of the Permian age of the strata over a great extent of country, and varying with the character of the older rocks found in situ in the district. If the Permian beds are taken as the Moat sandstone, the red shales with gypsum and magnesian limestone and breccias lying in soft red sandstone at Can- obie, their identification is pretty easy ; but in continuing them downwards into the upper coal-measures, or in tracing their boundary upwards into the Trias, there is greater difficulty, as guod natural sections, showing the passage of 348 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND one into the other, are not often met with; but I consider the soft red sandstone of Longtown, West Linton, Rock- liffe, and Dalston to be of Triassic age, and covered by the ~ waterstones and red marls of Carlisle, and these, in their turn, to the west overlain by the lias of Quarry Gill and Oughterby. | In the valleys of the Esk and Liddel, and their tributary streams, are some very interesting sections. Raeburn, which falls into the River Lyne, contains in its upper part Permian beds in the form of some soft red sandstones ; but I could not find the breccia in situ, although large blocks of it occurred in the watercourse. The same remark applies to the Archer Beck Burn; but in the larger valleys of the Esk and the Liddel, as well as in the smaller one of Car- lingway Burn, I found beds of breccia im situ, and therefore my observations will be confined chiefly to those places. A short description of the upper red marls and water- stones found at Carlisle, with the underlying red sandstone, which are of Triassic age, will be given. The latter rock will be traced up the valley of the Caldew, by Holmhead and Dalston, to a place below Holm Hill, where a bedded and rippled sandstone makes its appearance. This sand- stone cannot be distinguished from that of Shawk, of which probably it is a continuation. Further up the valley, a — little above the junction of the Raw Beck with the Caldew, an upper coal-field is seen, with a Spirorbis limestone like that of Canobie, which is succeeded on its rise by soft red sandstones, probably of Permian age. | Prof. Sedgwick, many years since, described the White- haven sandstone as Lower New Red Sandstone ; and, after several visits to the district, I am inclined to endorse that opinion, as I cannot find any difference between this sand- stone, especially the lower part of it, and my Lower Per- mian of Astley, Bedford, and Moira, near Ashby-de-la- Zouch. TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 349 Moat and Canobie Section*. Distance 3% miles. In the valley of the Esk, at Longtown, a soft red sand- stone, which crumbles on being rubbed between the fingers, is found lying nearly level, with a dip, if any, slightly to the west. This rock underlies the greater part of the country by Netherby and Scotch Dyke, until you reach the dark red sandstone of Moat; but the passage of the former rock into the latter is not well seen. However, in the Moat sandstone there is a finely laminated and small-grained stone, suitable for building-purposes, with ripple-marks and a few desiccation-cracks on its surface. Its colour is generally of a dark red, but in its lower beds it is drab. On the whole, it is so like the sandstone of Shawk and St. Bees on the south, and Glenzier-and Cove on the north, that there can be no doubt as to its being, with them, of Permian age. The whole thickness of the stone exposed * Tn this and the following sections, illustrating the present memoir, the references will be the following :— 5 7. Upper Red Marls and waterstones. ane ' 6. Upper New Red Sandstone, Bunter. 5’. Shawk or St. Bees Sandstone. 5. Red marls, with gypsum and conglomerate or breccia. 4. Lower New Red Sandstone. At Canobie, Nos. 4 and 5 Permian ........ é both contain beds of breccia. 3. Red clays. 3’. Whitehaven sandstone and pebble-beds, Lower Per- \ mian. {2. Upper Coal-measures. ‘ 1. Middle Coal-measures. Carboniferous .. 1’. Lower Coal-measures. 1", Mountain Limestone series. 350 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND in the quarry is uot more than 30 feet, and it dips to the west at an angle of 8°. It passes downwards into a deposit of red shaly clays, containing thin veins of gypsum, and occasional bands of sandstone, of between 200 and 300 feet in thickness, which underlies the valley up to the turn of the River Esk in Canobie Holm, where a dislocation, in the shape of a small anticlinal axis is seen, near the Round and Long Pools. This axis shows a singular fine-grained stone of a greenish tint, beds of red sandstone containing hard bands, large nodules, and a breccia of 3 feet in thickness, composed of fragments of red sandstone and limestone in a red clay paste, dipping to the south-west at an angle of 34° on the one side, and on the other side beds of red clays and sand- stones, dipping to the north-west at first at a greater angle, but gradually lessening until a bed of breccia, composed of fragments of red sandstone and limestone in a red paste 6 feet in thickness, make their appearance. These are succeeded by a bed of dark red sandstone, mottled with marks of brown and drab colours, 25 yards in thickness, dipping to the north-west at an angle of 12°. For a short distance the strata are not visible; but in the bank of the river, below Canobie Kirk, they are again seen in the form of a soft sandstone of a bright red colour, containing a bed of breccia composed of small limestone- pebbles in a red paste of sandy clay of 8 inches in thickness. This is succeeded by bright red clays and red sandstones. The dip of the strata here is to the south, at an angle of 10°. Then comes a bed of thick red sandstone, followed by a light-coloured sandstone and red shales, containing some thin beds of magnesian limestone of about a yard in thickness altogether, which dip to the south at an angle of 15°. The following is an analysis of this limestone, for which I am indebted to Mr. M. Binney, of the Bathgate Chemical Works: viz., TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 351 Carhonater ol lime. h8552) das sesia Spiers bejedatnws saves 58°00 @Cachonale- Of MAGNERA. 2.6.0.0. --c.ceun> shen teccesecninas 32°46 LUROIT ep semaine eine spel ei Baa iy At Ai neat 1'0O rincerre er oa Ata anne Mea IS. en URE LG, A ae 4°38 Je CCCTEVN TP AR ane RE REECE ar Pi der ray. a 2°43 RV Ee Ys TOSS GUC ier Ma ages. Sinn cca talent Rablatinniien esas 1°23 Specific gravity, 2°73 100°00 From this limestone to the bridge the distance is occupied by a bed of soft red sandstone, with a few clay partings in it of about go yards in thickness, which terminates just above the bridge*, and is succeeded by about 2 yards of breccia, composed of carboniferous grit-stones and lime- stones. The thick sandstone has a dip from 15° at the southern commencement, increasing to 35° at its northern boundary, towards the south. The dip of the underlying breccia was not so well seen, but it appeared to be in the same direction as its overlying sandstone. Underneath this breccia was a bed of red shales, containing the rootlets of Stigmaria ficoides. I did not see these red shales ac- tually pass into the breccia, owing to a covering of about 5 yards of fallen bank ; but they appear to dip in the same direction, namely, slightly east of south, although at a somewhat less inclination. With these red shales I consider the coal-measures to commence, the Permian strata to terminate at the lowest bed of breccia. The Permian beds in this section I roughly estimate at the following thicknesses in the descending order :—namely, Yards. The Moat sandstone, as exposed in the anes) but doubtless THU HSEMICKETIOW, GNC) CUP a25 ne o,3eehnaade-Santasdend'ersseane 10 Red shaly clays, conemniete bands of gritstone and thin veins Delis Pay IBN ooh tea ee Me Efe hah anda dias cl Bawieinwsennn dee 75 Soft red sandstones, parted by red clays, and containing a bed of magnesian limestone, four different beds of breccia, one of which forms the base of the series .................. 200 * Prof. Sedgwick (‘‘ On the New Red Sandstone Basin of the Eden and the North-western coasts of Cumberland,” &c., ‘ Transactions of the Geological So- ciety of London,’ znd series, vol. iv. p. 385), in speaking of the north-eastern 352 MR. E.W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND No doubt the anticlinal axis previously noticed as seen near the Round and the Long Pools in the Esk, might have repeated some of the beds; but the four beds of breccia appear to me so different in characters, boundary-rocks, and thicknesses, that I came to the above conclusion. In this section the lower soft red sandstone, instead of being a compact mass, lying under the magnesian lime- stone and the breccia or conglomerate, as is generally the case in most of the sections lying to the south, is actually divided into several beds by a bed of magnesian limestone and four different beds of breccia. The red shales lying under the last bed of breccia, con- taining Stigmaria rootlets, are considered by me to be the highest coal-measures ever yet noticed in Great Britain. Probably the passage of the carboniferous into the over- lying Permian beds is more apparent than real, and the bed of breccia doubtless shows a period of disturb- ance; but in the whole course of my observations, extending over 30 years, I must say that I have never seen anything © before which to me appeared so nearly to prove the passage of the one into the other as this section does. On continuing the section from near the bridge up the river, red and purple shales, with thin beds of gritstone, are seen for 200 yards to a bed of red and purple- coloured sandstone exposed at Knotty Holm*, of about boundary of the New Red Sandstone, says, “It passes to the east of Brampton, after which it ranges in a sinuous line, very much covered by alluvial detritus, but on the whole nearly due north, till it crosses the Liddel and enters Scot- land ; then it is deflected nearly to the west, and crosses the Esk just above Canobie Bridge.” . * Prof. Harkness, in a paper published on the New Red Sandstone of the southern portion of the Valley of the Nith, in speaking of what he calls “the great Triassic formation,’ says, ‘ The eastern limit of the New Red Sandstone in Dumfriesshire is in the parish of Canobie, where it is seen in the bed of the River Esk, at Canobie Bridge. Its northern extremity in this parish is met with a little higher up the river, at a place called Knotty Holm, near to which the Canobie coal-field commences.” (Quarterly Journal of the Geo- logical Society for November 1850, vol. vi. p. 389.) TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 353 75 yards in thickness, which on the whole dips to the S.S.E. at an angle of 18°, although by a small fault seen on the east side of the river there is a steeper dip to the S.S.W. This sandstone, in its upper portion, presents no re- markable characters, and differs in nothing from an or- dinary carboniferous sandstone; but in its lowest part there is a mottled bed of 14 inches in thickness full of peroxide of iron and red clay, containing fossil wood and coal-plants. The species of the latter are not easy of recognition, with the exception of the Calamites approxi- matus, of which I obtained a good specimen and some fragments of Dadoxylon. The bed reminded me of a similar one at Penton, described in the next section, of which it is probably a continuation. In some of its cha- racters it resembled the Whitehaven sandstone. Con- siderable time was spent in searching for white-quartz pebbles m it; but none were found, with the exception ‘of a small one of the size of a bean, which was met with, not im, but only loose on the outside of the rock; so its. occurrence there was not of much value. Proceeding up the river, some red shales, containing Stigmaria ficoides and thin gritstones, reaching to about 30 yards in thickness, are seen. These are succeeded by about 20 yards of red and purple-coloured shales and clays, contaiming several bands of gritstone, two seams of calcareous ironstone, and a bed of limestone 6 inches in thickness. This latter stone has a porcelain-like fracture, and is of mottled, purple, and cream colours. It contains the Spirorbis carbonarius and a Cypris?, and cannot be distinguished from the Ballochmoyle limestone described by me in the upper coal-measures near Catrine in Ayrshire, and the Ardwick and other limestones found in the same position in England. From this limestone to the highest carboniferous strata, previously described above the bridge, 354 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND there must be a thickness of about 200 yards; so here we have to add that distance to the thickness of the upper coal-measures as seen in Ayrshire. After leaving — the Spirorbis limestone, and proceeding up the river, the strata are a good deal dislocated, some of the dips being to the N.W.; but beds of gritstone and purple shales, containing impure calcareous beds, are met with up to Mr. Gibsone’s Great Permian Fault (which it would be better to call the Great South Fault), that brimgs in the Canobie thick or middle coal-field at Byreburn Foot, which is generally considered to represent the middle or thick coal-measures of Whitehaven, and the same strata at Common in Ayrshire. After passing over this coal- field, the limestone series of coal-measures is seen above the Hollows Bridge. As to the value of the seams in the ‘last-named part of the coal-measures my observations did not allow me to form any opinion, except that they did not appear to be so rich in coal as the same strata are in Ayr- shire and the West of Scotland. Mr. Ralph Moore esti- mates the Ayrshire coal-measures as follows :— Fathoms. Upper, coal-measures 2 S9e PAs cee teteee ee 313 Tamestone series: <0. < sc. eee sternal ees ee see cee ae 52 Tower: Coal Series sc .s.i2202 saseee Roane oniccmn ss nes See een aeeee 200 * Now, in the Valley of the Ayr, near Catrine, there are from 250 to 300 fathoms to be added to the upper coal- measures, so as to connect the latter with the Balloch- moyle limestone; and.in the Canobie section it has been previously shown that there are 100 fathoms of upper coal-measures above a similar bed of limestone; so, in estimating the distance down to the profitable coal- field at Canobie Bridge, some 350 to 400 fathoms will most probably have to be sunk through before that is * «Papers on the Blackband Ironstone of the Edinburgh and East Lothian Coal-field,’ &c., by Ralph Moore, Mining Engineer, Glasgow, 1861, p. y. TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 355 reached, assuming this coal-field to resemble that in Ayr- shire, and that the upper and middle coal-measures in this district are conformable to each other. Mr. Gibsone has fully described the profitable part of the Canobie coal-field in the memoir previously quoted ; and, from his great practical knowledge of the subject, his opinion no doubt is of much value, and to be relied on. The point where I differ from him is the age of the red strata seen in the Esk, between Canobie Bridge and the Great Fault which brings in the profitable part of the Canobie coal-field near Byreburn Foot. He, like the mining engineers of the West of Scotland, classes these strata containing no beds of coal as Permian, whilst I term them upper coal-measures. My reasons for doing so are, that in their physical characters they are more like car- boniferous than Permian deposits, and that they contain the Spirorbis limestone, Stigmaria ficoides, and other coal- plants. In former times, these fossil organic remains alone would have decided the age of the deposits; but, in Ger- many, that eminent geologist and paleontologist Dr. - Geinitz, in his admirable work on the Permian beds, under the name of Dyas, does not hesitate to include beds containing the above-named fossil organic remains occur- ring in the Lower Rothliegende as belonging to the Dyas —his new term for Permian. When Permian and Triassic strata have been as much investigated as the coal-measures, we shall know more of their plants. To my surprise, Mr. Kirkham, a young geologist of Manchester, some time since showed me an undoubted Sternbergia, which he ob- tained from the Triassic Sandstone at Weston Point, near Runcorn ; and several Calamites have been met with in the water-stones of Lymm, near Warrington; so the Triassic Flora may prove to be more allied to those of the Permian and carboniferous than at present supposed. If we are to have a division between Permian and car- 356 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND boniferous strata (and, in the present state of our know- ledge, most British geologists will probably consider that such a line of demarcation is convenient), there is no better evidence than the Spirorbis carbonarius and the Stigmaria ficoides, in the form of organic remains, to identify car- boniferous strata by. When the latter fossil, with its rootlets, is found in shales, there can be no doubt that it grew on the spot where it is met with, and that it has not been drifted from a distance ; but this would not be the case with a fragment of a specimen found in a sandstone, which might have been brought by currents of water and left in the locality where it is now found. Moat and Penton Section. Distance 3% miles. fe : eZ Ze LLL - LZZZ4 : ‘se 5 Commencing with the Moat sandstone, as in the last-_ named section, and following the line of the North British Railway, a good view of the red clays, containing slight traces of veins of gypsum and thin bands of gritstone, is seen in the cutting the greater part of the way up to Rid- dings Junction Station. On the western bank of the River — Liddel, below the station, is seen a small anticlinal axis of not more than 20 yards in length, which shows a bed of breccia 4. feet in thickness, lying between two beds of red sandstone. The breccia was composed of coal-measure sandstones, with some few limestones, cemented together by a red paste. In the railway-cutting near the bridge over the Liddel, which carries the line to Canobie, the following section is seen on the line and in the cliff on the river-bank, in the descending order: namely, TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 357 ft. it. Redtshalesis 4:2... cea arene ete Miser actly. Ss ces 5 fe) Sate ned: sandstone \ccsdeec, cocseeew ecto le fondle ve 4 fe) ELEC CAM ee ook Nan) eas autre vanendadagaaasacasions: I 3 HUE pleTshales: sy. Jaa waeecetdlesiocceeabensnnn sees I 6 Green calemreons bandey.2 0 ees ve hdecs acon 2 6 Red and variegated soft sandstone ............... 4 fo) Red shales, containing bands of gritstone, about 40 ° At the junction of the two lines of railway another small anticlinal axis is seen, dipping to the N.W. and 8.E., and extending over 10 yards. Up to this pomt the strata appear to be Permian. Continuing the section along the line, a series of red and variegated shales, containing thin bands of gritstone, occur for a considerable distance, until we come to a brown sandstone marked with ripples, and having its lower portion mottled with red, similar to that at Knotty Holm, described in the last section. In the sand- stone no fossils were met with; but the shales afforded Stigmaria-rootlets at several points in the railway-cutting between the Tool-house and Canobie Junction. In the flat piece of land near Penton, below the railway, at a place called Crooked Holm, a bore was made by the late Sir James Graham, Bart., some years since. By the kindness of Mr. Gibsone, some specimens of the limestone found in the bore were forwarded to me. All its characters re- minded me of the Spirorbis limestone found at Canobie, and described in the last section ; but no fossil organic re- mains were found in the specimens submitted tome. The following is a section of the Inch Bore. fath. ft. im. SAG AWG Cravels -ocs.casecccuerce ecetws eben I 2 fo) Brown-red sandstone ............+2-cseseeees 2 2 5 Grey sandstone, in thin layers............... 6 huge BU Brel” se see tense cone hen sc ateaae meses +s I 2 Oo ATPL AEOING yer che Oe! Siri teea ait eers es 3 I 9 358 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND faths. ft. in. Brought forward ......... 15 fo) I ‘Brown clay-and shale \,....4..00sxsss0seseeres 2 4 6 “eRe Glnigsa see econ eat eared eee I “ 6 WADIA secs sind an tase avnawa vane eaenapeines Weak I 2 6 DAMUSEONE «.5:5.0.0se'stiverorsrewsereitwustnenat See ESE 2 I 9 RG CLAY ss sede rnsnesenscsadarceciseecinssacaetwecetsl 2 4 6 SandstOue Gas. a sieeewvean sheatenabenneseccses fe) 2 fe) Brown and red clays and sandy shales ... 13 2 oa Soft grey sandstone .................seceeceees vi 2 8 Réd sandstone 25.2..62-0-b-n0 se Romaectean eee a] ° 7 Red and brown clay and shales ............ II I 2 Red shale and gypsum ...........cecccerssoves Z 3 ° Blue and white clay 2. 155: jcccmesacenesssces ro) 3/ ap “ft in. | Red... 3 5% i Limestone ......... 2) White. ; 10 ch Le 3 (1c \ Ks | Clay.. ° | Red... ‘7 J Brown shales, spotted with green in places 5 2 Brown ‘SanGStoue:S, dc ccdeleccensccavewseronace fo) 4 Brown shale, spotted with green in places, and containing gypsum in red clay and linaestone-nodules| sc. ..0-csunescwessones on He 3 83 Soft brown sandstone, mixed with white... 2 ° 8 Brown clay and shale jac ...c<0.s Shale in thin layers, mixed with light blue MAG Boe os ee Sea Se hi Mev aaantemsdas 2 4 I White, red, and yellow coarse sandstone... 1 4 4z IB elviy Ple vel gar, S8ee eo acne oeacrgas ° 2 fo) BED WANCIAY: |). aoe gto scat in angered ae ° 2h Pox Variegated clays of white and brown colours o 4 3 SFrOwsl SANGShONE ‘12s: san seseccdadesiens sheets fe) 5 of Brown and peuce-coloured sandstone...... fo) 4 64 Brown and blue sandy shale and hard bro wil, Sandstone. iese 0b. iets odes oe I 4 8 iBrownelimy Sandstone jos... sage snd sacesine ° 2 2d SAME, CLAYS). / soot oot ns en ersenc dees towed ant fo) je) Fees Brown sandstone, clays, and thin ribs of dark blue stone, containing ironandlime o 5 3 Fathoms ........3 141 2 63* Mr. Matthias Dunn, Government Mine-Inspector, in a paper on the coal-fields of Cumberland, and on the proba- bility of coal being found under the New Red Sandstone which surrounds Carlisle, printed in vol. viii. of the ‘Trans- actions of the North of England Institute of Mining En- gineers’ (p. 141), says, “In the years 1857-58 a boring was made adjoining the River Liddel, in the lands of Sir James Graham, Bart., under the management of Mr. Gard, from Cornwall, by means of his patent instrument, worked by a steam-engine, the result of which was unsatisfactory in many respects, both as to the depth bored and the imperfect manner of accounting for the strata passed through. There is also reason to believe that he was in very troubled ground. A copy is hereto annexed of the boring, which was given up at the depth of 56 fathoms, the contractor | being quite dispirited. * Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, vol. xi. p. 79. SER. Ill. VOL. Il. 2B 360 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN, AND Sections of borings at the Inch, Netherby property, up to 6th September, 1858. faths. ft. in. OMe CrbhINI:. «. ..ceeenteaenery veeesseatecte otek 2 3 fo) Sandstone and clay ............ NahiS sdetaarer I 5 6 Hard shaly rock...... bissibiiSslduiseirortclaeipra de eotele fc) I 9 SANASbONE 2.00. asvasncuss snnwesachoaecthess se fe) fo) 6 CLAY. \iccciveabsesccettearmeueremeeeneusecate tse sss ss ) 6 Softstone © 20s. sce letaiaetstteetperatache ateabertee iol - fo) 2 fe) Hard clay and sandstone ...............5.000 I I fe) Chay ea. oS, ee rte clo clades I fo) fe) Layers of clay and sandstone .............4- 4 4° Xe Hard sandstomomasie.. ss. ssiiasaeeJdeus et coceey 2 3 8 Solt sandstomemwer. son. e.ser eee te ene 3 2 9 Sandstone - fe) White- 15. Red slate, striated with red freestone in thin haven LAW US tier nidta die edeniass onlatac Se te iebsnjc< > ¢-ceech coseesenreaee ° measures.|-|.9°7: Dank erey shale si: i222. iv00c0-deaececoosecereeee 15 38. CoAL, 4th, with a mixture of slate about one mich thicky ss). 2).s000- 225. boar Saeee 2 39. Grey freestone, mixed with ironstone ...... 8 40. Hard white freestone ....... etna cue ete seater 15 Ate Coats; GUN hecen sores: tomtaen erecta Eee I 42. Shale, mixed with freestone ................0. 8 43. Olive-coloured slate, adhering to black slate, superincumbent on coal ...............44. fa Coke, Oth ia) re eo ones. a ee | 45. Black shale, mixed with freestone............ 46. White freestone, mixed with slate............ COO Qw o0on0 O 47. Dark-blue slate, Gir ete ents feo acqc tates eae 2 AB. Co Min stile SAP eet sen cease eo tenes Cane Meus 49. Black shale, mixed with freestone............ 50. Strong white freestone 0.1.00... 2.01. -snsseute Sr. Brown aronstone tees re oa. sane re etcgse tee cease 52. -Dark-erey ‘slate «20 Guia, eutane arte 53. Dark-grey shale, with an intermixture of Coat, 8th, about 5 inches thick............ 5 54. Light-coloured slate, mixed with freestone| 5 55. Blue slate, striated with freestone............ 10 56. Strong white freestone, a little tinged with { ARON 1, sfoenanene mere eee np eee ae Batt hee 2 Gus sk iw, B 6 CoN COO AW O OHS oN cop) TRIASSIC STRATA OF CUMBERLAND AND DUMFRIES. 377 An Account of the Strata in Croft Pit (continued). Thickness DESCRIPTION OF STRATA. of each | Stratum. No. ft. Brought forward.....ccscs«ssesss AIT (n§7 Mery black shivery glatevient: ot seek acne 10 58. Strone Coat, of a good quality, 9th ...... ° KOe SOlb ereynslaten) 28 tte one tcbeee cde oale' 60. VERY BLACK CoAL, roth; burns well ...... 61. Hardiblacke shale: i seseeceee-ccovcroesnes Aoote . 62. Coat, mixed with pyrites, 11th... ......... 63. Argillaceous schistus, grey and brittle 64. Blue rough argillaceous schistus .........+0. Gig MIME DING SIBTEL Sac dzeische sussiewssveese ancaes 67. Black shiyery, Slates iisks savecasecsicess ses cones 68. Dark-blue slate, very fine........eseccsceceees 69. Dark-blue slate, very brittle..........00...00. ed) COM Modis. eo netassensaekak tee, vacnaecestaons 71. Soft grey argillaceous schistus............... 72. Argillaceous schistus, mixed with freestone 73. White freestone, with fine particles ...... 74. Blue slate, striated with white freestone... 75. Light-blue slate, very fime........0c0s..-..0 An Account of the Strata in Croft Pit (continued). Thickness DEscRIPTION OF STRATA. of each Stratum. No. ft.) i. Brought forward .........+6. 611 Oo 101,. Black slate’. iis. ctes..scen-s-te0nbs avashaeassousen oF ie 102. Freestone, striated with blue slate ......... 1 4g 103. Strong white freestone .........secccese-e tokel! EO mae 104. Freestone, mixed with blue state in thin VAIV CLS jecan Saves dewledces ceca: sheas sae ener 2 og 105. Strong white freestone ........... dieusaeeaeeen Oo Ve 106. Greyish slate, of a-shivery nature ......... 6 "2 107. Freestone, mixed with blue slate in thin Middle TSUVETS cooniclevateresies olen t -cclee celseeees aetelaemetee Fis | Coal- 108. Very strong white freestone .........+.+ee0.s. 5. eg measures | 4, 109. Fine blue slate ........ eh Pee iewclathtlcexeceeee 2 ee (con- 110. White freestone, striated with blue slate... o 7% tinued). | | 111. Fine blueslatentas noun conec ft. teen eenee elas 112. White freestone, striated with blue slate... 2h ee 113. Freestone, striated with blue slate in fine Particles. soiek sess tise set. odeew eho 26°... "30 Ata GO 17 eel 5O 5 xc 7740 18. Rae Siene 1.70 Py Mieco) fe) 22 0a> rg 13,7. Ee 29 so. 1°70 QA sic aS O 2 NS GPK) 16... Te Mean length = 1°501 inch. Longest fibre =0'449 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre =c*401 inch shorter than mean. This is the second cotton in mean length, and shows a considerable range between the longest and shortest hairs ; more than half the hairs are, however, of or above the mean length ; a few very short ones bring down the average. Length of 20 fibres of Queensland cotton. From a small sample supplied by W. H. Heys, Esq. Noy 7 im. No. in. Now. in: No." -? ame 2ONes BOO 130s. 1°60 Sue ALS Io. rao 19tps Es7O 1624) 11560 eR rece EUS A eantegs 15 i.» 1-05 Gy saet 150 2 ope 207.40) TT ;..0eeo g ... 1°60 Sac G50 14) nol AO 7 wee 125 1O 2); 12600" 17 ihe WL75O 18 ... 1°40 Ben ZO Mean length =1°475 inch. Longest fibre=0°325 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre=o'255 inch shorter than mean. This cotton, which can hardly be said to be in the market, yet approaches very nearly to Sea Island at 54d. ; it has fewer of the long hairs of 1°7 or 1°75, but is com- pensated by having none so low as 1°1, and only Io per cent. below 1'°3 inch. There is also considerably less range in the lengths. 3 OBSERVATIONS UPON COTTON. 401 Length of 33 fibres of Sea Island cotton. Sample from Cotton Supply Association. Price 16d. on December 13, 1860. * No. in. No: _. in: No. vies ae No: .. “in: 62. 2°05 1Oijssee F°55 26 500, 1°40 20) 5 1°36 IG su. 1°90 25 cose. ISS 22 jenes 1035 30.00: 1°30 Siva’ 1°70 7 cay Te BS RE case 135 PA. cas 1°25 2) recs 1270 IGghec 1°50 PPE Tae Me ccs 120 Ries 1-Or 28 Vevey I-50 A ese, £130 Az. a EG2O 7) ence Os 1Sp 50. £45 ies Pee egis TAS otk Wheres 3-05 fino E40 17 Gas 1-30 Rises! EKO 22 see TOG Giese Igo IQ 1S eos 1°35 D7 Ge 1 3C IP Sas ee) ZO 5.2. 0°95 Mean length = 1°22 inch. Longest fibre = 0°18 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre = 0°27 inch shorter than mean. Length of 20 hairs of ‘‘ Fair Egyptian” cotton. Sample supplied by G. Mosley, Esq., March 28, 1863. Price 22d. No. im. No. in. 1 ae No. in. een Sate) US ce. 2:30 py lucarrewt og fs Q w. 105 EViscs 140 16...) 5:26 TOW se. 1615 T9022) 5:05 P23 AO qs 21 120 Ti sao EXO FA. cs CO ZO... 1°40 Ai ass, 120 934) EO 5 0°95 Ee Xe) 17 aq 1°20 ES) ase) di kO Gi ies O78'5 Mean length = 1°185 inch. Longest fibre = 0°315 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre = 0°335 inch shorter than mean. Length of 20 hairs of Benguela (Portuguese African) cot- ton. Supplied by G. Mosley, Esq., March 31, 1863. No quotation. No. in. Nos, 4 in: No. in. No. in. Ove lS DAe eal 30 Tena, Tatig 16) sac £10 eee EA Bsa) X25 15. sos TEES ZOOM. LOS Shine 1735 EO Fase, 2i25 EQipe ce UokS II 0. O°95 te su, 1230 4 «es 1°20 6 waa keiC 17.22, ©:90 Lure ETS) Iz (2.4 020 ic eae tb (0) 1G 8 O95 Mean length = 1°177 inch. Longest fibre = 0°373 inch longer dee mean. Shortest fibre = 0°327 inch shorter than mean. 404 MR. C. O’NEILL’?S EXPERIMENTS AND Length of 20 of hairs Pernambuco cotton. Sample supplied by. G. Mosley, Esq., March 28, 1863. Price 23d. per lb. No. in. No... mr. No.) ..3; No. in. TOcas.¢ 1°50 T su 3C ES: ge-0°I5 12 «i Ts Og i AS 9 «.>8530 ZO sine EES 14 «4 URS TZ >sss¢ 1540 Y Pere: -(e) Gs.» 1°ToO 2 ee. 0°90 15 vase) FAO 10 sain Ie BY oan Wl OG RE» ..~ 0790 B sa 135 07% cco UTS A Ss TOS 5 ae CG Mean length = 1°1675 inch. Longest fibre = 0°3325 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre= 0°4125 inch shorter than mean. The samples of Benguela and Pernambuco are nearly equal in lengths and in differences, and approach very closely to the preceding samples of Egyptian and Maran- ham; but both show a wide range between the longest and shortest hairs. Length of 20 hairs of Maranham cotton. Sample furnished by the Cotton Supply Association, December 13, 1860. Price 82d. No. in. Wo. sShint No. in. No!) ant TO ipa0-1°35 9 0. a 25 20st... an De 3 nas OBS Ee Ge 2) 4. sso 120 7 sper ih LO 5 pst, OS T1i'.co.e3O TO 2. F220 E70.) 1°10 12 ce OOS 15h a5 1,30 6ovce aS 19 \...“1°1O 2 eee O90 T8 .:. 31°30 TA wos 1°55 Ug e.e0 X10 Ti 5st Ora§ Mean length = 1°127 inch. Longest fibre = 0°223 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre = .0'227 inch shorter than mean. This sample of Maranham is rather considerably different from the previous sample of the same name: it is nearly o'r shorter in the mean (which is owing to the absence of long hairs of 1°4), and a shorter staple throughout; it is not so even either, but there is not much difference in that respect. . The next four samples of cotton are from the Southern States of North America, and present very small differences. OBSERVATIONS UPON COTTON. 405 In the mean lengths Mobile is the longest, and one sample of “good middling” Orleans the shortest; but the difference is only 0'065. The longest and shortest hairs are found occurring in the sample of Orleans; but the greatest dif- ferences between the samples in this respect amount only to o:10 for the longest, and 0:15 for the shortest hairs. These four samples may be considered as forming a group by themselves, but not a very distinct group, since they merge as easily into East Indian cotton as into one another ; but still they are separate. Length of 20 hairs of Mobile cotton. Sample furnished by the Cotton Supply Association. Price, December 13th, 1860, 62d. No. in. No. in. No. in. No; in. ig EAPe a he) rice aeeaeainy ch ef Ge sien BOG 15) s0<= 1,00 Becwes ENS, “s Se sc EEO Gissa BC 4 ... 0°90 Q vo IIS 14 «. 1°10 7 se. TOO 2% vee O85 IZ eee WIS 20 «- ILO Ei...) 1:00 IO ... 0°85 I seo SEES Ete. TOG E673.) 1500 1§ se O75 Mean length = 1°035 inch. Longest fibre = 0°165 inch longer than mean. Shortest fibre = 0°285 inch shorter than mean. For the mean lengths, the difference of the longest and shortest hairs is considerable ; but not less than 75 per cent. are within o'1 of the mean, which shows great regularity. Length of 20 hairs of Orleans cotton. Sample furnished by the Cotton Supply Association, December 13th, 1860. ‘Price 72d. No. in. No. in, No. in. No. in. USE 2S Gece ket 5 18 ... 0°95 LZ =<. O90 ree ae ire, Oo hee LS IQ se 0°95 DP wedt O105 TZ vac 520 As os EZOS Or .2.) 0:90 9 +. O80 56° 00120 Ae elo 10)... 78°90 WA os 31057,5 20. sap WZ GME Sele) > <...) 32976 19 ... Igoe 230... 10079 B22 470 Oy esa 2Q00 5... Bae ZO. 10383 £71. $00 FA Mer A768 Mean breaking-weight = 104°5. The differences between the fibres are tolerably regular until the strongest hairs, which present considerable in- tervals. Breaking-weights of 22 hairs of Surat (fair Dhallerah) cotton. Price 177d. March 28, 1863. Distance between points of suspension o'r to 0°25 in. No. grs. No; Sets: No. ers. No. grs. . 28°8 Quien 7As8 Tiras LOLF IO. ... E52 BP orale Nak Bt rier] TO: aS75 5 i. TOgg 8 cen, 4520 12) 27 Oz De eis IZ 2c4 18... 39270 Gee S572 ers) D7 es. 1202 20... IQR PQs. <- GOs EQ-22 Oa LT Aes ESO 21%. izes Die. OLS 15 2%. O22 Mean breaking-weight = 105°8 grs. This is a very difficult cotton to get a reliable average from, on account of its sudden tapering off in both direc- tions from the strongest point: the shorter the distance between the points of suspension, the higher the results. a OBSERVATIONS UPON COTTON. ALT Breaking-weight of 19 hairs of Maranham cotton. December 1860. Price 82d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension, from 0°25 to 0°4 in. No. _ grs. Norgsy ters: No. rs. No. __ grs. DAN Es: t 369 LF Ae Face. Lips pO O meaty: Seats DAE L G 2s-L 54:2 TOR eae 7 On7, 15... 10874 aes: ES Te2 Emeka, @keWe) 2 ats oO Gk scan FIGS 13-45. 156%9 BOM ee 7 10 2° 3.. 91° I... 122°4 1% .:, 18772 BOL. FES Tye GQ Geo AS aig FAA: . Mean breaking-weight = 107°! grs. This sample of Maranham seems greatly inferior in strength to another sample recorded later on. Upon re- _ ferring to the note-book, I find these hairs were suspended with considerable intervals between the supports, while in the other sample the interval was kept as near as possible to o'I inch. ‘Breaking-weights of 21 hairs of “ fair Egyptian” cotton. March 28, 1863. Price 22d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension o'r inch. No. grs. No. ers. “ENo: ers. 6 20, 52° 2 se2 70° Fi a E20 AeED 255510 IZ, <5. 1060 16 2. 13270 TQ) ves, 55°60 Woe O75 TO) <.- 03573 PS cen GOA B5 << LOS;0 UZ Vase 4.6 9 «5 753 Zee TZO%: iS seem AAO Tp a--189376 2 noel (12356 8 ... 156°9 I]ones 0370 ZO I2ZQ | 4 we. 157°9 Mean breaking-weight = 108-0 grs. Although the maximum strength is low in this sample compared with some of the preceding samples, the general average is brought up by a good number of medium and strong hairs. 418 MR. C. O’NEILL’S EXPERIMENTS AND Breaking-weights of 22 hairs of Mobile cotton. December 1860. Price 62d. per Ib. Distance between points of suspension from 0°! to 0°25 inch. No. gyrs. 6 .«. 3376 Sicing ete) Td 30. 64°32 1S) 22. oo Bee. OT 2 16 ... 93°6 No. gers. 13... 9610 12 96°0 ‘Ig ... 105°6 14... 1104 5 ne Zu 15 fe i305 Mean bre No. Ecce ya lyfe Eig) - 144°0 Be yet ers. 134°4 aking-weight = 118°8 grs. No. prs. + 155°0 - 158°3 2 56g" . 165°% 1723 There is a tolerably regular gradation in the differ- ences here, but the range is very great. Breaking-weights of 14 hairs of Egyptian cotton. December 1860. Price 94d. to gid. per |b. Distance between points of suspension from 0°2 to 0°4 inch. No. grs. S300. Fgh LO Una Fag, 6 ... 81°6 Eins OFS No. ers. 9 ++ 988 Tse VAG A Den tLe TQ 13675 No. 2) osiere II ooo TAN ers. 136°3 147°8 154°0 Mean breaking-weight = 127°2 grs. No. ers. 3 ++. 169°4 AY abe 5... I9%o 185°2 Although the distances between the points of suspension in these experiments was at least twice as great as in the previous sample of Egyptian, the results come out higher in every way, proving at once a more regular and stronger fibre. Breaking-weights for 1g hairs of “ good middling Orleans” cotton, at 222d. per lb. March 28, 1863. One-tenth of an inch between points of suspension. No. grs. 11.2.) 605 13 c-. (6801 2 oe 734 3 <0 749 Gan 7459 No. Bis ct Fiased Aes eee 15 ass ers. 79°2 85°1 87°83 86°4 117°6 No. Sees 07, fies I eee TOO. A ee Mean breaking-weight = 139°7 grs. gers. 137°5 147°8 1531 179'0 185°3 No. TO Vee .. 248°6 . 2664 . 289°4 ers. 240°9 OBSERVATIONS UPON COTTON. 419 A very great range between the lowest and highest numbers, and very irregular intervals between succeeding fibres. The strongest hair yet tested is in this group. Breaking-weights of 24 hairs of Pernambuco cotton. March 28, 1863. Price 23d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension 0°3 to 0°7 inch. No. grs. No. grs. No. ers. No. ers. ZE see | 7250 IO ... 108°9 25 -- 138°2 9 .-. 158°3 Diese 72-0 Si san, T2204: Aen BAGi2 EQU eee L740 7 230 Se 37952 Gy A160 Te sa LASS 16 ... 193-4 TD soe (GOs. 5 seve P2972 22st TA4LO UG) ys, HITS 12,455 9O°O By ease Lgyie) 14 wee I4A-0 13... 243°0 Th ase, TO0T7 Atees 232-0 ES °..0 T4776 ZORN poe EL Mean breaking-weight = 140°2 grs. In this sample, which was one of the earliest I experi- mented upon in this series, the pomts of suspension were at considerable distances—in the four last numbers, re- spectively, 0°4, 0°4, 0°5, and 0°3 inch; notwithstanding, the mean results are high, and the differences pretty regular. | Breaking-weights of 17 hairs of Surat (Dhallerah) cotton. Price, December 1860, 53d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension o'r to 02 inch. No. grs. No. grs. No. grs. No. grs. EQee a: 4070 Dossy DG:5 Gerecvl3o-2 Tsay LOS O 15 « 74°4 IT ese 120°4 i] sav 104s Oiivce, 22577 1Gtos. Foro Sse) 12752 Pt aca W752 Aide (20'S Doe Ory GF ave G20 14... 180°9 12.0 236-0 EO a6 )88"5 Mean breaking-weight = 141°9 grs. This sample presents a considerable number of strong hairs; it stands considerably higher than the Surat of similar name ; the hairs have a bristly stiff character. 420 MR. .C. O’NEILL’S EXPERIMENTS AND Breaking-weights of 18 hairs of Maranham cotton. March 28, 1863. Price d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension o*r inch. No, ars. No. ers. No. ers. . No. grs. 2 en oa 8 15 .. —26-2 16 ...- 141°6 3 sc. D7 9 =. G0 sy IE 37/4 9) Bean LAS LO ‘ava, 17357 I ses 900 G .i2er2276 ToGo ES 7 Ae des, SEO 13 “ane TOE 7] se LA 3TA Fi eOs-O 12 20. Seem 4) 0 10252) 5 SIR IA Mean breaking-weight = 142'9 grs. The short distance between the points of suspension may perhaps explain why this sample stands higher than the other sample of Maranham; but it may be also an actual difference. Breaking-weights of 22 hairs of New Orleans cotton. December 1860. Price 7+d. per Ib. Distance between points of suspension from o'1 to 0°2 inch. No. grs. No. grs. No. ers. No. ers. S «20, Lo76 IQ <0.) 100-5 12 ~-- 1302 22. 64. BOR 20.3) 8OA. HOE oe 1G sh: 15976 Ase (2S 5) see OES 13) s259ht233 Fuses Lowa 9 <0 254°C RTs, O6'O FT weet le 1 225) 19270 2 so. 22258 6 :-. 9650 18 5. 912278 TAS eset Q a7, 17 <1 20450 EG vee LOR 2). he f3Gs8 Mean breaking-weight = 147°7 grs. This sample of Orleans does not differ greatly from the preceding sample either in mean or maximum results. Breaking- weights of 21 hairs of Queensland cotton. Distance between points of suspension from 0:2 to 0°4 inch. No. grs. No. ers. No. ers. No. ors. 1A. ce. 7250 11... iO 7 as LAOrS 2 «ae 107-9 16 ... 9O"2 17 ws. 1214 Zee 1704 18 «. 197°7 TO ... 9376 12 .. 132°4 i. 17s0 ZI ses 193°0 19 ... 96°0 X sve 12 Q0°8 Saree ROO 6 +. ZO 15 ..dug0:6 ZO eve 144°O 13° FOQ'6 ye. eee 9 «+. TO8‘o Mean breaking-weight = 147°6 grs. OBSERVATIONS UPON COTTON. 42] _ This cotton is an extraordinary instance of a long staple, and at the same time a very strong cotton: it stands out in strong contrast to the other long-staple cottons of simi- lar length of hair. Breaking-weights of 20 hairs “ middling Comptah” Surat cotton. March 28, 1863. Price 15d. per lb. Distance between points of suspension o'r to 0:2 inch. No. grs. No. gers. No. ers. No. ers. I nares Bins. b2gro 1Q)\s.. 1o2:4. 14. sae 19972 2 cha ha) Lae EAATO 15 --. 188°1 Q .. 202°0 G 72: 89°2 EQ lack 5Ox2 10/2... 1920 12 20285 Ay cont OS iT II ... 169°4 Doc. L920 JT... 250° Serena Se? Aner Bighesti 20 ... 192°0 IO ... 280°2 Mean breaking-weight = 163°7 grs. This cotton has a great number of short, stiff, strong hairs, which bring up the mean, and place it the highest in the list. Mean breaking-weight, and breaking-weight of strongest hair m samples. Mean. Maximum. ers ers Hdisto7Seaeisland 27. n orks eecstent ceaceet Sapo Feacces aloes Neawtsland! good) quality’? :2..texs...fs5:.e3+5:5 CROKE)! | Sauce 132°0 1 SOHGCTUYS] Wheat do Saag aCe oe eRe MESES: OEE tear eae BOOIO) eects 218°8 Dea lislamG, COLON sec. ves jeans caelade ss sacds ves FOZ OO P's. 203'°0 (ONENIG || LS Let aad ner ean Ansar RRS Sanne Re eM cma ee BORG UTS. 212 6 Sutateuc, tau Whalleraie es \. jcc. :.sidsesaseesedses LOS; Ou es sda: 2155 Ay epee earalanca rant gets. c ciaisers settia a ale tele isia alias aiincelfois day BOTT.) seaes 187°2 ISH EAM LAL Se coe ose cecictsvocarsess sosenee os TOsjOlre es cee 5 LSS) TLCS A BR a OS Oe Ree eS rere TES Ove eee 172°3 1 Ita, CUTE NG) aeRon eae eg aneee Senee Brea etpesalesinis asics gsi erie ve AGI anne Ig1‘0 Orleans 7° cood middling” sc. sosacs coos ace HUONG hibBonae 2894 PCEMAIDUCO sats te st. saeoetscenanentasctccaaetseceas TAO 2) shea 251°1 Sarates Dhallerala 25) went. deudssdscudaeudaaasans DADO J cases 236°6 Maranham, “ good middling” ..........6....+.. WAZ" Gace 242°4 (Cie ISLES eS Se aa a Ne et SR ee are 264°0 Mieews AMR AFA IGS. chu Acss sas ddnceee ws eak eke! HATH) sApse2 246°2 Surat, “middling Comptah’’...........:...0.066 Sieh cane 280'2 422 MR. G. V. VERNON ON XXX. Inquiry into the question, Whether Excess or De- ficiency of Temperature during part of the year is usually compensated during the remainder of the same year ? By G. V. Vernon, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, January 7th, 1864. A tHEoRY having recently been promulgated, that excess or deficiency of temperature during some of the months of any particular year is usually compensated by a corre- sponding deficiency or excess during the remainder of the same year, the subjoined investigation has been under- taken in order to see what are the facts during a long period of years. The observations of mean temperature made use of are those given by Mr. Glaisher for Greenwich Observatory from 1771 to 1849, published in the Philosophical Trans- actions for 1850; and, in addition, the values from 1850 to 1862 are those given in the Greenwich Observations. This series embraces in all 92 years, and is the only trust- worthy series for so long a period to be found in this country. The method of investigation has been as fol- lows :—The mean temperature of each month has been com- pared with its average for the entire period, and its differ- ence from the mean found; in this manner we obtain twelve values for each year, part positive and part negative. The positive values are added together, also the negative ones, and the two amounts thus obtained are given in columns 2 and 3 of Table I. appended to this paper. We thus get two amounts, which tolerably represent the re- lative proportions of the mean temperature above or below the average during each year. In columns 4 and 5 the excess or deficiency of the positive or negative values in columns 2 and 3 are given, the amount being placed in the EXCESS OR DEFICIENCY OF TEMPERATURE. 4.23 positive or negative column according as the positive or negative values are in excess for the year. If the theory alluded to were correct, the figures in these two columns ought to be zero. The 6th and 7th columns give the number of months above or below the average in each year respectively. During the 92 years there were 23 in which the excess or deficiency of temperature found by summing up the monthly differences amounted to over 20° for the year. There were 28 years in which this excess amounted to from 10° to 20°. There were 19 years in which it amounted to at least 5°, and 22 in which the amount was less than 5°. There are individual years in which the excess of tem- ' perature during one part of the year is nearly compensated by a corresponding deficiency during the remainder of the year; but these years are very few in number, there being only 5 in which the amount does not exceed 5°. Taking the entire period, the observations distinctly prove that, during a series of years, excess or deficiency of tem- perature is not generally compensated during the same year. Table II. shows the number of years which have a given number of months above or below the average. This Table is to be read as follows :—For example, taking 4 months, we have 4 years with 4 months out of the 12 above the average; 11 years with 4 months below the average, and I5 years with 4 months above or below the average, taken together. In order to show the variations better, I have traced the figures given in columns 4 and 5 of Table I., for each year, in the form of a curve (Plate XIII.), taking the years as abscissze, and the number of degrees excess or deficiency _ as ordinates. The central horizontal line in the diagram represents what the curve would become if the theory propounded SER. III. VOL. II. 2 F 4.24. MR. G. V. VERNON ON were really true, as then all the variations would vanish. The very irregular nature of these variations shows how little dependence can be placed upon results deduced from ~ the observations of a few years, and how useless it is to attempt making empirical laws in the present state of our knowledge. The period from 1781 to 1791 appears to have been that in which the variations below the average were at their maximum, every year but 1781 being below the average. From 1841 to 1851 there was only 1 year below the average, and from 1851 to 1861 only 2 years below the average. A careful examination of the entire period, as shown in the diagram, very clearly pomts out that these variations obey no law of periodicity. That the variations do not balance one another during the same year is very evident. TaBie I. | Number of | Number of Sum of | Sum of |Excess of Excess of| months months Year. | + dif- | — dif- | + read-| — read-| above the | below the ferences. |ferences.| ings. | ings. |average tem-javerage tem- | perature. perature. te} me) fo] ° UTX 4°5 2! OF Si traces chai 2 10 a7 en 6'2 20°8 Secises 14°6 4 8 Woe 1°6 OIA oa aa Stee 20°9 Z g* 1774. 1g.) T2799 | sereee oe 5 7 1775-|. 23°9 B38 20/0 Gl) Veneta 10 2 1776. 1238 125 edn sabelabe o"2 9 3 177 7- 10°7 TNT lil eaeecate I°o 5 7 77 ose 1217, 10°5 1p Og Abele oan B A q 5 1779-| 35°7 1°4 34°3 | ceeeee 9 2% 1780. 2307, 17°2 6°5 ee 7] 5 1781. 18°9 r5 Deak |e ewe: 10 2 1782. BZ BOT oo actos Bel I II 1783. 9°5 Jeger | mone teens 3°8 7 5 1734. 52 AATOI ue pes 38°8 2 10 1785. a7 AGH 21 Genes 22°4 5 7 1786. 1°8 Bot Ei ee 30°3; 2 10 1787. 5a Beet wy watkna 2°5 6 6 1788.| 10°3 5 Oe OV acs 5°5 5 7 1789. se BAS lian 19°2 3 9 1790. 8°6 BUCO yo ase: 370 5 6* LOT. 1H Oe a ae | 2°8 6 6 * One month exactly the average. w= «a de ae Oe Year. BAO? Te) ee ATES) 5e 1796. Bi Sites 1798. oe 1800. 1801. 1802. 1303. 1804. 1805. 1806. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1811. 1312. 1813. 1314. 1315. 1816. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1320. 1821. 1322. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1332. 1333. 1334. 1835. 1336. 1837. 1338. _EXCESS OR DEFICIENCY OF TEMPERATURE. Sum of | Sum of |Excess of + dif- ferences. TaBLeE I. (continued). == (sie ferences. + read- ings. eeecee Gece eseeee fences esaecee serene eeecce eoscoe esccee aesees @eossee eeeene eesese sector 425 Excess of — read- | ings. sete eeseee eecees eeseee erence @oseae eeeese Number of months above the average tem- perature. ta! = NN OO WM COm DW HI COL}O QW O COW CONIUMW DAN DP HNYNOM DOWNY HDODAHUINHPAUDU = bd Number of months | below the | average tem-! perature. Ld La] MPN DDW YUH DP AxeN O 00 0O~7 00) = (oye) ee. See POR W IYO —+ * ODDYK HARP HH HNO 4HNWW DO WN bo * One month exactly the average. + Two months exactly the average, 2F2 426 MR. G. V. VERNON ON COMPENSATION OF TEMPERATURE. Taste I. (continued). Number of | Number of Sum of | Sum of |Excess of |Excess of} months months Year. | + dif- | — dif- | + read-| — read-| above the | below the ferences. | ferences.| ings. ings. |average tem- average tem- perature. perature. co ° ° ° 1839. 62 2s teehee 7°O 5 af 1840. 10°4 FG6°Q) 7} exeane 6°5 6 | 6 1841.; 14°83 10°6 le EE aan AAR 6 ; 5 1842. 247, 3°3 TCA Vl sistas sox 3 4 1843. 18°9 6'0 OAM A SRR z, | 5 Tq) teas 11°6 BEG! Wiser acts 9 | 3 To45. | 1 s°r PS Nb wostaan 3°7 6 6 1846.| 41°3 5°9 BEAL epescais 11 I 1847. 21°F 5°38 AS AQ) GN oaeee ee e 7 4* 1848. 24°8 5°6 192 8 | 4 1849.| 21°9 2°6 TOES Wo vesinese 10 2 1850.| 17°0 6°9 TOR A Vecek es 73 5 1851.| 19°0 3°6 Ti Ae | ieee 8 | 4 KS 5201 9374 Sec iat 30°0 Steen 10 2 1853.| 3°5 BO! 7°5 3 | 9 1854. 16°1 570 pe “ander 9 | 3 1855. 4°9 20°F sus 15°38 5 6* 1856 1672 I1‘!I (ge (ph es ae 7 5 1857 32°8 foe) BQO ra: Voces II o* 1853. Ig‘I 7'Y EY? i sarees 3 4 1859. ama7 2°5 2052 1 enese Io | 2 1860. 54 DigoR A) Nuecerse 17°9 3 | 9 1861./ 19°2 5°9 233 asian 7 5 1862.| 22°6 3°5 PRE ll eatseiores 3 4 Tasxe IT. Years | Years | Years both pascal above | below | above and ce the the below the "| average. | average.| average. ) fo) I I I 2 4 6 2 9 3 17 g 7 7 14 4 4 “ 15 5 16 13 29 6 12 14 26 7 14 roe 26 3 10 4 7, 9 6 8 14 ro: 7 3 15 II 5 2 7 12 ) fe) O° * One month exactly the average. ON THE TEMPERATURE OF NOVEMBER. 427 XXXI. Examination of the Truth of the Assertion, that when November has a Mean Temperature above the average, it is usually followed by excessive Cold between December and March following. By G.V.VeRnon, F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, January 7th, 1864. - In the Tabie accompanying this paper I have tabulated all the Novembers from 1771 to 1861 which had a mean tempe- rature above the average, and in the columns adjoining have given the differences between the mean temperatures of the four following months of December, January, February, and March and their mean values. We find, by classifying the months above and below the average, the following figures :— | | Number of | Number of months months Bolles above the | below the average. | average. | December 325.5 <2sae8 25 15 : DANIEL Vices ciseciecrcer see 22 19 ebruary Loose. n.- 21 2.0 March Piganannnsccens 23 16 SUBD. 2. J0c0: gI 7O | or 91 months above the average against 70 months below the average, following a November with a mean tempera- ture above the average. Out of the entire series, there are 6 years in which a November above the average was succeeded by 4 consecu- tive months also above the average temperature, and only 2. years in which a warm November was followed by 4 con- secutive months below the average. In place of a warm November preceding excessive cold, we find that in most of the years in which severe frosts 428 MR. G. V. VERNON ON THE have occurred early in the year, the November previous has had a mean temperature below the average. November 1784 had a temperature 1°7 below the aver- age, succeeded by December 7°8 below, January 0° 4 above, February 7°-8 below, and March 7°0 below the average. The great frost, which set in fiercely upon the 6th January 1814, was likewise preceded by a November 2°2 below the average, December 2°:2 below the average% January was 8°°8 below, February 4°:2 below, and March 5°°8 below the average. The cold period in January and February 1838 was also preceded by a November 1°°3 below the average, and De- cember 2°°4 above the average; January 1838 was 6°°8 below, and February 5°°3 below the average temperature. Careful investigation of the mean monthly temperatures for the long period made use of shows that no safe con- clusions of any kind can be based upon the character of any particular month. In conclusion, I may state that cold winters succeeding a warm November were very few in number, and in most cases these winters were preceded by a November not much above the average temperature, as In 1783, 1794, and 1799, when the mean temperature of November was only 0°°5, 0°9, and 0°’5 respectively above the mean. November 1822 and 1846 were the only two Novembers much above the average which were followed by a cold period immediately afterwards. TEMPERATURE OF NOVEMBER. 429 Years in which November was above the average. November | December | J. anuary | February | March Excess. | following. | following. | following. | following. 17g 2 +1'0 +07 412 33 oo 1776. +03 Es ae —2°4 37 5777: +13 —3°0 —o'9 —2°6 Oy 1778. +23 +4°0 —o'9 +71 +6'1 17383. * +01 —3°8 —6°5 —63 —32 1792. +o°8 +12 —0'4 +1°5 +12 1793: +0'5 +2°2 —2°4 L015 +3°4 1794. -+-o'9 —2°0 —113 AI 253 1799. +0°5 — 6:0 +12 —4°I —3°4 1804. aa = 32 —1'2 +0'5 ao5e7 1806. +5°0 +3:0 +10 +1°8 “=—3°9 1808. +1°5 —2°5 —0%3 a= 5° tals 7 1810. +04 —o'2 —2°9 SHS) +2°5 1811. +2°8 —o'2 +02 +34 —2°5 1817. +4°5 —1°7 +3°6 —2'4 foe) 1818. +6°3 route) +4°4 +13 +31 1821. +52 tao +41 est +6°4 1822. +58 —24 —3°9 —o'l aed 1823. +0o°6 +171 +1°7 —2'0 —1'4 1824. +3°3 +3°0 +2°7 —oO'l —2°4 1828. +19 +5°7 — 4:0 +or2 —1'9 1830. +2'0 —39 —13 +3°0 +370 1831. +1'9 ies ee +1°6 13 Ore 1832. +1°3 + 3°6 —12 +4°2 —3°3 1833. +11 eid +38°7 +2°0 +31 1834. +1°7 292 203 +3°0 o'r 1835. +0°6 93.9 a5 —13 +2°8 1839. +2°3 +08 ae3es —o'! 183 1840. +10 —5°5 = 25 —2'9 at75.3 1841. +0°3 allie —2°3 +2°6 +40 1842. +074 +62 +4°2 —2'2 +2°0 1843. +14 sae +34 FS +06 1844. +1°6 —58 +2°6 —5°5 —57 1845. +3°4 +2°9 +8-0 +5°7 +274 1846. +3°6 —5°9 —o'6 —2°8 +o'1 1847. +4°5 +4'0 —I'l +5:2 +2°9 1848. +14 +5°2 +4°4 +5°0 +16 1849. | +17 | +03 | —20 | +65 | —ro 1850. +4°1 +18 +772 +1'9 +1°7 1352. +6°5 +8°'8 +6°7 —4'9 —2°4 1857. +374 +63 28 — 36 ++0°5 430 MR. T. HEELIS ON THE HEIGHT ETC. OF WAVES XXXII. On the Height and Order of Succession of Waves, as observed off the Cape of Good Hope. By Tuomas Hee is, Esq., F.R.A.S. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, April 2nd, 1863. Tue following observations, almost entirely of the height of waves, were made in the ship ‘ City of Pekin,’ in the year 1862, on a passage from Calcutta to London. The position of the ship is given for the noon of each day of observation. The estimations were made by noting the apparent altitude | of each wave above the trough when close to the ship, the eye being eighteen feet above the level of the water. All measurements or estimations of height are from the trough of the sea. The above height shows what.observations are most to be depended upon ; but I do not think that in any case the height is overstated. No broken wave-tops were estimated, except when it is expressly stated that such was the case; but the heights noted were those of the highest waves observed. It might be thought that a ship was the best place for this kmd of observation; but such, if the ship be on a wind, is far from bemg the case. Suppose a ship to be brought to the wind under small sail; when hove to, or what is technically called head-reaching, she will, if there be no swell running from a different direction to that from which the wind is blowing, cross the ridges of water at an angle ‘of about 75°, with a speed of two or three knots per hour. In this situation, if a gale be blowing hard, the complica- tions of the wave8 are so great that itis hopeless to attempt to observe anything beyond the 200 feet or so of the ship’s length. ‘This induces an error in the observations, arising from the fact that waves have an origin from which they gradually increase in size (longitudinally) to the crest, and OBSERVED OFF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. ~ 43) thence diminish until they are lost. Thus a wave, marked at the ship as small, may be seen at a distance from her to have a crest equal in height to one which would be marked at the ship as large; but if the eye be suffered to range away in quest of the crests of passing waves, the order of their size at the ship will be lost. Beginning with a wave larger than those ordinarily pass- ing the ship at the time, I have generally found that it is followed at a short distance by another equally large. Between these two often appears a smaller one, which, if it be watched over the bows or stern of the ship, will be seen to be the spur at the origin or end of a larger one, whose crest may be a mile off, the system bemg shown in the accompanying rough drawing, in which the thicker parts of the figures represent the greater height of the waves, it being understood that in the drawing the breadth (or height) of the wave is exaggerated in proportion to its length, the object being merely to show how an apparently small wave is situated between two larger ones, so that the line * * * is either a surface of little undulation, bounded by parts of four large waves, or will be crossed by the ship on the lower spur of a wave whose apex is beyond cr astern of her. , | Thus it appears that measurements of large waves from a ship do not measure so much larger undulations than usual of the whole surface of the water, as points and times at which the summits or crests of waves happen to coher Pang ——__ 432 MR. T. HEELIS ON THE HEIGHT ETC. OF WAVES coincide within the limits of the ship’s motion during their passage. This being premised, the following comparisons of wave- magnitudes, and estimations of their speeds, although few m number, may not be without interest. All the observations here mentioned were made during moderate or strong gales of wind. ; The comparisons are arranged in three columns or lines, one under the other, the uppermost one containing the highest waves observed, with their altitudes when recorded, the second those of medium height, and the third the small ones. ‘The numbers indicate the order of the waves in the series observed ; so that the whole will be in the nature of a rough curve. 13th July 1862. sty Seb: Latitude 35° 33 S.; longitude 22° o' E. Large... 1 (25 feet), 1, 12, 14, 15, bO: Medium 5, 6, Small... 2) st Ay GOs O5 10, 13, aud Set. Large... 1, OF Eee Medium 6, mae oe 2, 35 As, 3, 1O; tO, ard Set. Large... 1, roe Medium 5: Seer NUR EO ce 65:7, :85 9) LOn Was Ath Set. Large... 1, 2 (very large), 6, 7, 24, 25. Medium Tr eae Small .. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12~-23, 5th Set. Large... 1, 2, “17-20, Medium 6, 9; Small... et: pcre ie 00, TR az, 1S; es, 1, Mo, 21-24. OBSERVED OF? THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 433 The time occupied in the passage of this last set was measured and found to be four minutes. Assuming the distance from crest to crest to average 300 feet, this would give a speed of about 20 miles per hour. If the distance be assumed as 350 feet, the speed of the waves measured would be above 23 miles per hour. In order to check my estimations of the breadth of the troughs between the wave-crests, I took the opportunity, while the ship was being wore round, to estimate again the distance from crest to crest, and to ascertain as well as I could by the time occupied by a crest in passing from the stern to the bows, the speed of the ship at the time being taken into consideration, the velocity with which - the crests travel. I am preity sure that the distance between the crests lay between 300 and 350 feet. The speed of the ship being about 3 knots, I found that a wave took 8 seconds in passing from one end of the ship to the other, her length being 200 feet. This will give a speed of about 16 knots, or nearly 20 statute miles per hour, agreeing sufti-. ciently well (the difficulty of the observation being taken into account) with the speed computed on the estimation of the distance between the crests being 300 feet. In the above sets no waves were noted as large which were not estimated as having an altitude of 25 feet or up- wards. The small ones were about 16 and 18 feet, and the very large ones 30 to 34 feet of solid water, no broken crests being measured. The force of the wind at the time of observation was about 8 of the Beaufort scale. It had been blowing 10. A wave begins as a small one, gradually increases in height and bulk, and in its onward progress grows in mag- nitude until it attams an altitude at which the crest topples over in foam. From this point it decreases rapidly, and soon ceases to exist, its place being taken by the succeeding 434 MR. T. HEELIS ON THE HEIGHT ETC. OF WAVES wave which has not yet attained its maximum, or by a fresh one in course of formation. If in a gale of wind a large wave be observed approaching the ship and breaking, she will experience it (unless she be so near to the pomt at which it has broken as to be involved in the broken water) as a comparatively small one; and on looking to windward, it will be found that after the formation of its foaming crest a wave invariably ceases to dominate over its fellows. When the crest of a wave has toppled over, it always seems to sink much more rapidly than it rose; and I think (but without having been able to verify my conjecture by exact observation) that its altitudes follow the wave-line curve described by Mr. Scott Russell, and that, a lime being supposed to be drawn from the point of its formation to that of its extinction, it will be found that its greatest altitude is attamed at the pomt of maximum of sucha curve. It may also be stated with a considerable degree of con- fidence, although, as before, not yet determined by exact observation, that the length of any one wave forming part of a ridge measured along its base 1s proportional to the width of the trough; and from what I have observed I should add that its tendency is to be symmetrical on both sides of the point of maximum, although this is often in- terfered with by a variety of causes, such as the cross sea of a cyclone, which produces pyramidal waves. The length of a wave seems to depend upon, and bear a definite relation to, the width of the trough between any two successive waves. It is certain, at any rate, that when the waves are low, and the distances between the ndges short, the waves themselves, measured along the lines of their bases, are short also. On the 18th July 1862, the ship running fast, with the wind and sea right aft, the force of the wind being 7 of OBSERVED OFF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 435 the Beaufort scale, and many of the crests being above 20 feet in height, I availed myself, in latitude 33° 38’ S., lon- gitude 15° o' E., of the opportunities thus afforded of making some further observations on waves. When a ship is running before the wind, the order of succession of the waves cannot be so well observed as when she is hove to; no sets were therefore taken. On the other hand, the speed of the waves and the breadths of the troughs are better observed when running; and to these points I devoted myself. With waves of 16 feet in height, and breadth of trough 300 to 350 feet, the ship running 10 knots, I estimated the following times occupied by the waves in passing along the : ship’s length (200 feet) — 4", ny us of 6", 6!" 7 Vis and 8”. With troughs of 250 feet, the ship’s speed being 10 knots, I obtained for the times of passage 6", 8", and 8". These numbers will give the following speeds of the waves in nautical miles per hour :—37, 29, 29, 25, 25, 25, 22, 22, and 18, and 25, 18, and 18. The highest waves observed this morning were 18 feet; and their length, measured along their bases, varied from 400 to 500 feet. The wind shghtly mcreased during the morning. I ob- tained, when its force according to the Beaufort scale was marked 7-8, the times of passage 6” and 6", giving the speeds of the waves 25 nautical miles per hour. Their estimated lengths at this time were from 400 to 500 feet, the widths of the troughs varying from 200 to 350 feet, the ship’s speed remaining the same. In the afternoon (the force of the wind marked 7), the widths of the troughs being 250 to 300 feet, and certainly not exceeding the latter estimation, I obtained for times of passage 5” and 6”, giving speeds of 29 and 25 nautical miles per hour. Although some of the discrepancies exhibited by the foregoing estimations evidently arise from errors of estima- 436 ON THE HEIGHT AND ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF WAVES. tion, yet I am convinced that the speed of waves in mo- derate weather does vary. When a wave has overtaken that which precedes it, it will unite with it, and assist in ~ producing the difference of height so often observed. In some of the cases observed on the 18th July, the speed but slightly exceeds that of the waves measured on the 13th of the same month, although the force of the wind on the 13th was nearly double that of the wind on the 18th, the difference between the forces of the wind denoted by the successive numbers near the end of the Beaufort scale bemg much greater than those between the lower numbers. The question suggested by the Admiralty ‘Manual of Scientific Inquiry,’ whether the height and distance of the ridges vary with the velocity, can best be solved by com- parison of distinct series of observations, taken at different times, in or near the same locality, as it is hardly capable of distinct observation contemporaneously with other points of inquiry. The above remarks are imdependent of the question whether, in addition to the series of undulations measured, there be not (as circumstances seem to prove that there are) series of undulations which take a longer time than those measured, but which coincide with them at certain longer intervals. During a gale of wind, two or three very large waves will often come together at mtervals of en minutes or a quarter of an hour, or sometimes at even longer intervals, causing the ship to lurch fearfully; but no observations yet made have ever reduced these to any known system or series of undulations. My observations show that, beyond a certain point, the force of the wind has very little influence in increasing the speed of waves. I do not think that they often run much beyond 25 miles per hour. OBSERVATIONS OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 437 XXXII1.— Observations of the Zodiacal Light. By Tuomas Hesgtis, Esq., F.R.AS. Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, March 3rd, 1864. In the course of two or three voyages which, in the years 1861 and 1862, I was called upon to make, I had oppor- tunities of studying this remarkable phenomenon in lati- tudes in which it is seen to great advantage, and under circumstances which allowed of a continuous series of observations, such as is seldom, if ever, possible in Europe. i am well aware of the difficulty which such an object pre- -. gents, and of the different results which will be attained by any two observers in the study of it, and hence I feel considerable diffidence in bringing my observations before the Society ; but as I have im all cases taken care to note the lesser rather than the greater limit of the phenomenon, and have compared the observations with a map of the stars which have been used for determining the boundaries: of the ight, I am not without hopes that the errors of my eye in failing to detect the extreme boundaries may be constant and capable of elimination, and that the excellence of my opportunities will enable me in some small measure to add to what is already known on the subject. I originally left England in the month of August 1861, on a voyage to Constantinople and Smyrna, and reached England again at the end of September. ‘This voyage only yielded one observation of the ight, which was made in Smyrna Bay, and was communicated to the Society soon after my return. I subsequently left England for Calcutta in the middle of November in the same year, making the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. On this passage I obtained no observations of the hght; but afterwards, during a voyage from Calcutta to Hong Kong 438 MR. THOMAS HEELIS’S OBSERVATIONS and back, I obtained a fairly continuous series of observa- tions, to which, on my passage home, also round the Cape of Good Hope, I made various additions. During my voyage home, the late Captain Jacob was on his voyage out to Bombay, en route for Poonah ; and I have examined his observations, as communicated by Prof. C. P. Smyth to the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ in December 1861, and compared such as were made on the same days with my own. The followmg Table gives the observed positions of the apex of the light, and its length when one (or the imner) cone only was observed. I have added also to this Table the times and places of observation, and the observations of the inner cone of light in cases in which the envelope has been observed—of which phenomenon more hereafter. In all cases I have used the approximate mean time at ship, taking her position as that determined at the nearest noon. Thus, in cases in which observations were made in early morning and on the followimg evening, the place of the ship will appear to be the same in both cases; but as this seldom happened except when the weather was very settled, the preceding and subsequent places of the ship will allow of her exact position at the time of observation being esti- mated with considerable precision. Any attempt to give the places with more precision would have necessitated extracts from the ship’s log and the working of the dead reckoning, in every case, to the hour of observation ; but this labour seemed needless. OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 439 TaBLeE I. Position of apex. Date. | Time. |————-————|Teength. ed Place of observation. R. A. Decl. 1861. |h m h m Ey Ate anh Fxg Sept. 13.|4 A.M. yey 17 ON. 58 42 |—4 40)\Smyrna. 1862. Feb, 22. |8 P.M. ps (eee 12 30 72 1 |—4 0o|Kedgeree. 23. /8 2 12 16 0 61 19 |—2 30\Head of Bay of Bengal. 24. |8 2 52 Iz 30 WO Oni Ay OlL7 =e 5 2° Nw | (p00 eso! Fi. 25-1745 Page. 12 30 69 © |—4 O14 32 93 22 26.|7 30 2; 12 17 30 58 18 |+4 or 4 96 6 27.|7 30 2 52 12 30 68 o|/-—4 Oo] 7 37 98 12 Mar. 20. |7 30 3 36 21 0 56 38 |+1 4o\Off Hong Kong. 22. |8 4 26 232 0 670 & |r stAlrc> oat Ne 90° 9) Bi. 23. (8 A, 0 21 0 OQ) 20)(4-O 35150 43 I0og Oo 24.17 30 4 10 T5A10 615 09) |-26).8)..6, 25 106 53 25.8 4 10 TO 60 21 |—6 | 8).2. 53 104. 54 28.17 30 4 16 22.0 58 20 |+o0 42\Straits of Malacca, west 29. |7 30 4 1G) | 22 6 57 21 |+o 42/Off Penang. [end. | 30. |7 30 4 16 18 0 BO 2a) |= 3 101) 8-" o NZ Yo7? an’ EE. 31.|7 30 4 16 18 0 [Sek VGN ie 2) 95 153 April 1. |8 4 16 i650 |'s4 23° |—-3 18\15 = x 93° 8 May 23. |8 8 32 20 0 64. o |-+1 14|Diamond Harbour. 25. |8 8 32 20 0 Gz 4. l4-2 1420-197 N: 887 35° B. | June 16. |7 y 32: | 14 0 55 241-0 4134 174S)) +382 3% 17.17 932 | 15 O | 54 27 |+° 1914 44 80 52 18. |7 932 | 14 © | 53 39|—-9 4117 1 79 20 | 19. |7 9 32 i4 0 52 33 |-° 41/9 41 Th 125 Bs 20. {7 9 32 14 0 cro --Or40ltr 40 74. 35 22.17 944 |-11- 0° | 53/32 |—2 26114 48 FO as) 29.|7 10 9 52 13 0 48 61 |+0 13/24 47 5350 July 16.|6 40 Di Cis Oe aoa ano) 53 52 Ito 4135 4 20 30 20.|7 IO 52 7.0 46 13 |—o 11/28 48 9 54 21.|7 Ir iz 50 49 6 |+0 4\27 14 8 26 24.17 Ir 28 3 30 50) “Sii4-O) | 5\22. 2 anit, Ei: 26.|7 15 II 20 6,0 46 16 |+1 49|19 56 Oo) 6 27.17 P.M. II 20 4.0 45 8 |—o 11/19 44 o 18 W. 28. |4 A.M. 4°40 22)0 BA 35108 PLTOp U7 Oo 40 | 7 P.M. II 20 4 0 | 4421 |—o 11 F Aug. 2./445AM.] 4 52 2270 59 27 |—O Igl11 48 10 14 before 4-1) dawn. | [4 32 22 30 62 4 |+0 25/8 48 1 845 5.\440AM.]| 440 | 22 © 62 6 |—o-421] 7 17 14 48* Gian4owm | iAAe 22 oN: 163-4 |—o' ris (29S. *- 16 4 13.17 30 P.M. | 14 10 12, OS<17G 25 |—2A6| 6 9 N..: 26 .17F 15.17 30 13 24 it © 60 32 |+2 7/6 19 18.|7 30 1444) 12% 0 | 78 38 |—5 Oo 9° 32 26 55 19. |7 30 14 44 II oO 717429 |—5 O19 48 27 10 20.17 30 14 44 II oO 76 42 |—5 ol10 6 28) +15 ZEN AS 14 40 15. © 74.43 |—o 42/10 46 29 28 22-7) 30 14 48 17 °O 75 46 |—3 18/11 13 2Or AS 23.18 sie Tit 9 13) 40 79 50|—4 43/11 7 Z0;) Tor 24.730 P.M.| 14 44 13 O8.| 72 51 |—3 O11 30 ar "0 2.5/4. A.M. 4 52 22 ON.) 70 53 |—5 25|11 46 92,7 for; 27.1740 P.M.| 14 40 15 OS.| 68 56 |—o 42/14 43 33 20 815 1570 14.30 63 58 |—2 40 : 28.|8 15 P.M.| 15 24 14 0 Goes) 4 4igiay 47 a6) 50) W- * Off Ascension. t DIR: SBR. Ei. VOR, If. Pare 440 MR. THOMAS HEELIS’S OBSERVATIONS The variations in the latitude of the apex shown in the above Table are remarkable. Some are no doubt due to errors of observation, although every care was taken to guard against such. If we refer to the observations of Cassini, given by Mr. Jones at the end of those made by him during the United States Expedition to Japan, we shall find that, although the body of the light is seldom equally distributed on each side of the ecliptic, the apex has only on two occasions decided latitude, and that on those two occasions the latitudes are N. The observations are 21st April 1685, in which the apex has a latitude of 5° N., and the 15th October 1687, in which the latitude is about 4° N. These observations seem to have been made at Paris, and Cassini mentions that the apex had N. lati- tude towards the end of April 1683, and that that circum- stance had caused him to think that its plane nearly com- cided with the sun’s equator. Mr. Jones compares the first of these observations with a set made by him on the 21st April 1854 in lat. 34° 40’ N., long. 138° 59 E., from the chart of which it appears that at 75 52™ the apex was nearly in the position which it occupies in Cassini’s ob- servations, but that it had greater N. latitude (about 6°), and that by 9 p.m. this apex was visible some 15° further, but that its N. latitude had decreased so as to be little more than-2°._ He also compares Cassini’s observation of the 15th October 1687 with two of his own, made on the 16th and 20th October 1854; but on reference to the plates it will be found that Mr. Jones’s observation of the 16th is incomplete, the apex being merged in the Milky Way. Enough, however, is shown to assure us that the great mass of the light is on the south side of the ecliptic, whereas in the observation of Cassini it is on the north. The American observation was made in 33° 16’ N. long., 177°28’W. The American observation of the 20th October 1854 is also defective, on account of the apex being merged — ——————————[_ I OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 441 in the Milky Way. The mass of the light, however, appears to be to the north of the ecliptic. The observation was made in 28° 5’ N., 164° 24 W. Mr. Jones states, as part of his results, that when he was north of the ecliptic the main body of the light was on the north side of that line, and vice versé. Now, of eleven observations by Cas- sini, which he gives, all apparently made at Paris, seven show the main body of the light on the north side of the ecliptic and four do not; and there are many exceptions to the supposed rule in Mr. Jones’s own work. ‘Three of the observations by Cassini have already been compared with Mr. Jones’s results. The others show the following re- sults. The positions of Cassmi and Mr. Jones were, - during all the observations compared, north of the ecliptic. The signs + or — mean that the body of the light was observed to lie north or south of the ecliptic. Cassini. Jones. Cassini. Jones. February ......-..< = + November ......... + + VRC en - cvenc- -- + December's. 5.i0.5<. ~ + September ......... — — December Fe. cs.-0- - _ September ......... _ - March t.04 23.0 - = : November ......... + = Surely these results look more like a change of position depending on the time of year than on the place of ob- servation. My own observations, so far as the position of the axis implies the position of the main body of light, go to this view of the case, although not as distinctly as might be wished. The gradual diminution of the latitude until July is remarkable; but I am at present unable to account for the subsequent increase being of the same sign, espe- cially as the observations made in the Mediterranean in 1863, tabulated hereafter, have an opposite sign. Table I. contains the observed lengths and positions of the apex of what I shall hereafter call, for the sake of distinc- tion, the inner cone. On the 16thJune 1862 traces of a much fainter envelope surrounding the inner cone, and extending . 262 4.4.2 MR. THOMAS HEELIS’S OBSERVATIONS . at the apex much beyond it, were first observed. 1 find the observation recorded in my note-book in the following terms, written down at the time, and which may be taken — to be a fair description of the peculiarities noted:in the ~ observations of the faint envelope :—‘“‘ There seems a fainter kind of luminous envelope surrounding the true light, as if it were cigar-shaped, in layers. This outer envelope is less bright than the inner [cone], especially near the apex, and near the horizon it tones off into the other, thus accounting for the large breadth assigned to the light near the horizon. At the base the two envelopes are undistinguishably mixed. I have often noticed this before, but have not included the envelope in my measures in cases in which I could dis- tinguish it from the true light. The luminous envelope this evening was, at Preesepe, about two-thirds of the bright- ness of the true light.” The light of this envelope was by no means equable. It seldom appeared at all until long after the departure of the twilight permitted observations of the main body of the light, and it generally made its appearance as a faint streak, most frequently on the southern side of the light, and extending from the limb near the apex, apparently overlappmg the limb, and extending far beyond the apex. As the night wore on, and the. main body of the light sank. beneath the horizon, the other limb of the envelope appeared, completing the cone. The main body of the light was hardly ever, near the apex, shaded gradually into the envelope; but the space between the brightest part of the latter and the main body of light was comparatively dark, and gave me the impression of looking into space through avery thin crape veil. J was never able to separate the envelope distinctly from the main body of the light im the few observations which I made im the morning. The following are the observed lengths of the envelope. The Table is arranged in the same way as that in which OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 4A3 the observed lengths of the main body of the light have already been recorded, omitting the place of the ship, which has been already given :— Tas_e II. Date. | Time. R. A. Decl. | Length. | Lat. of apex. / i ° 4 June 18.) 7 | PiM.| 160), 0 17 oN. 65 5 +6 30 July 21.) 7 12 32 Fr ON.) \7o 38 +2 34 26.| 8 12) 32 3 30 65 51 +o 4 27-| 7 30 Te ON ps 5:0 72 47 +1 39 28.| 8 ra) 0 Gr fae TE. 5O +1 39 Aug. 13.| 8 1448 | 11 oO 84 26 +5 18 17) o Use|) 05 Loe 17 O'S; | 7S © +115 This small Table, as well as the preceding one, contains remarkable peculiarities besides those already noticed, for which I am unable to account, and which are also shown in the American observations. I allude to the change of latitude of the apex at different times on the same evening, and also to the fact that the axis of the envelope frequently seems not to be coincident with that of the main body of the light. This change of latitude is shown in the observa- tions of the evening of the 27th of August 1862 in the first Table, and the difference between the latitude of the apex of the envelope and that of the apex of the true light ; and that both do not lie in the same plane appears from ‘Table II. In the American observations, both these pecu- harities are common. Of the first class may be mentioned at hazard the observations represented in plates 3, 7, 62, 66, 67, 106, 110, 140, 141, 188, notably 201, and still more so 222, where the sign of the latitude is changed in the course of the observations; and of the second class, the observations in the plates numbered Io, 13, 15, 24, 27, 30, 39, and 40. The list of both could be swelled so as to include a large proportion of the plates in the book. This, and deviations of the light from a true figure, which are common, as well as the fact above noticed in the descrip- 444, MR. THOMAS HEELIS’S OBSERVATIONS tion of the envelope, that one limb of it generally appeared before the other, seem to militate strongly against the idea that the light is caused by a nebulous atmosphere sur- rounding the sun, but might be explained by the theory of the light being caused by a ring of asteroids. The light of Jupiter and Saturn, which during most of the observations were very near together, interfered at times considerably with the observations; and I was obliged to take precautions such as hiding the planets, especially Jupiter, behind some intervening object, or to avail myself of a passing cloud, in order to arrive at satis- factory results. On the 17th July especially my note- book records that ‘The southern limb of the envelope is brighter than the northern; but this is caused by the light of Jupiter ; and if the planet be concealed behind any object, the envelope becomes distinctly visible ; but it is so delicate an object, that I cannot compare the brightness with anything. As a coarse estimation, I should say that it was not more than one-third of the brightness of the true light. This envelope was visible after the setting of Jupiter, and at times I thought that it extended to the meridian of Spica Virginis.” And again, on the 24th July, I find an entry respecting the inner cone as follows :—‘‘ Apex apparently not symmetrical, no light appearing near Saturn, so that the top from and towards v Leonis appeared con- cave; but this may have been caused by the light of Jupiter, then near Saturn.” At times no trace of the envelope could be observed to extend beyond the apex of the cone; and its existence on such occasions was only manifested by very delicate shading along the limbs of the latter. At other times, as on the evening of the 27th July, this occurred and was noticed while I was observing the main body of the light, and the extension of the envelope beyond the apex manifested itself as the night wore on. OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 445 It seems to me that the phenomena observed are best explained by the hypothesis that the sun forms, with the zodiacal light, a system similar to that of Saturn and his rings. The main body of the hight would, according to this hypothesis, be analogous to the broadest of the bright rings of Saturn—the distance between the sun and the inner edge of the ring being so small that the inner edge of the ring sets before the darkness has become sufficiently great to allow of observation, and the main body of the hght, or main ring, bemg separated (as in the case of the rings of Saturn) from the outer envelope or exterior ring, thus accounting for the dark space seen beyond the apex of the main body of the light and between it and the lumi- - nous envelope. It may not be out of place here to say a few words on the distribution of the tracks of meteors in the tropics and southern heavens. It is not unusual to see them fall along the axis of the zodiacal light. I have seen this occur fre- quently. At Smyrna many small meteors were observed to cross the body of the light in various directions during the observation. On the 22nd March 1862, in latitude 15° 11’ N., long. 110° 9’ E., a meteor of the fourth magni- tude, and slightly reddish in colour, was observed to fall from y Tauri along the southern edge of the light. Again, on the 24th July in the same year, in lat. 22° 21’ S., 2° 17! E., I find in my note-book that a meteor of the third mag- nitude, white and tailless, passed just below Saturn, to- wards the horizon, along the axis of the light.- Others might be mentioned. All my observations go to show that the tracks of meteors tend to parallelism with, or to be at right angles to the Milky Way, or to be parallel to the ecliptic; but of course this refers only to meteors which have a cosmical origin, and not to those which are properly atmospheric; and as this topic is foreign to my present subject, I pass from it, 446 MR. THOMAS HEELIS’S OBSERVATIONS The nature of the light seems to be peculiar. I always noticed that when the eye had been affected by artificial light, as on coming first on deck from the cabin, the hight — of the Milky Way became clear to the eye long before that emitted by the zodiacal light; but after the eye had been for a short time in darkness, the volume of light frequently produced an effect which I find in my note-book described as half as bright again as the sword-handle of Perseus, as bright as the Milky Way in Argo, &c. I have seen it so bright as to cast quite a beam of light upon the water; and on the rst April 1862, im lat. 15° 1’ N., long. 93° E., I was able to observe it before the setting of the moon, then 2°2 days old at noon at Greenwich. In spite of all this, I never on any occasion failed to see Preesepe through any part of it at times when it overlaid that object, which was always, when available, used as a test of the intensity of the lght. . The following Table contains the results of a few obser- vations made in the Mediterranean in the year 1863. It should be observed that the division of the light into two distinct envelopes has never been observed by me there, and that the lengths and positions given are those of the whole of the hght visible. The Table is arranged as before, the position of the ship being given at the nearest or following noon. * Tasxe III. Date. | Time. | R. A. | ~ Decl. Length| Lat. | Place of Observation. DN OS OS eS | OEE SSS SSS) h r] ° / ° ‘ - A 7.435 25 oN.|63 of] 3 25*| Approaching Corfu. Sept. 20.] 3 30 Fe i222 20 Fo X17 10 6f | 41° 52’ N., 16> oo 4 8 24/21 o |54 5§]|1 43¢] Approaching Ancona. Oct, 17.| 4AM. |8 4/25 © |84.43]4 40 | Off Cape de Gatta. * Faint, and at apex ill abtied so that the position = to apex may be in error in declination. + Apex estimated as coincident with 6 Geminorum. t Light very faint and dull, definition bad. OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 44:7 The observations of Captain Jacob, as communicated to the Astronomical Society by Professor Smyth; and published in the ‘Monthly Notices’ for December 1862, only afford two instances of observation on the same days as mine, and therefore directly comparable. Of course the value of this comparison will consist more in the observations of the angle of the light with the ecliptic than in that of the length. TABLE TV. Tae aes Place of Date. | Time.| R. A.| Decl. Ape = Length| Lat. Observation. 1862. h m h m ON 7 fo) «| (0 1 Owe Pljl 0 / ay) a June 16.17 o | 10 5/1230NJ] 85 1164 4] 0 43/26 308.|34 0 W. ‘| June 16.) 7 o| 9 32/1314 0 $5 1/55 24/—0 41] 317 = |82 35 EH. July 16.) 6 40 | 12. 57| 5 34S.|113 37/8219] 0 43/29 52 |55 19 | duly 16.| 6 40 EO 42) “5 SO” 79, 97) 53 521) 02 4) 35.4 S. |20 30: H. Column 5 contains the longitude of the sun. The first and third lines contain the observations made by Captain Jacob, the second and fourth those made by myself. All the other observations communicated by Professor Smyth . fall within the period over which my observations extend ; but none are made on the same days, except those above cited. His lengths are much greater than mine; but neither of mine on the particular days included the outer envelope. It appears evident from all the observations, and also from those of Captain Jacob, that great changes occur in the length of light visible, whether these be due to obstruc- tions to vision offered by our own atmosphere or to actual differences. The same peculiarity is notable in the observa- tions made during the American Naval Expedition to Japan. The observer, the chaplain of the ship, often delineates on his charts lengths which I have never seen approached, such as observations of the morning light visible before midnight ; but others of his charts show lengths of 55° only. 448 MR. THOMAS HEELIS ON THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. The great difficulty in such cases as this is, that the ob- servations, even of the same man, at different epochs in a long series of observations are not comparable inter se, — especially if the observer have in the course of his observa- tions adopted a theory which insensibly biases him. I in- cline also to think that the light changes its form more than can always be fairly accounted for by differences in our atmosphere; but although I have devoted much time and thought to the subject, both in observing and con- sulting the observations of others, I am completely at a loss to account for the phenomena observed, upon any theory hitherto. broached ; nor do I believe that a sufficient number of reliable facts have been collected to allow of any one undertaking the task of forming a theory with any hope of success. The question has been mooted whether the variations observed have any connexion with the solar-spot period; but at present I do not think that this question can be solved, for want of observations. The daring way in which the American observations assign the boundaries of the light, even when it is involved in the Milky Way, and the evident bias which leads their author to observe phenomena which, if true, would bear out his peculiar view, but which have never been observed by any one else although carefully looked for, renders this mass of observations (for there are upwards of 350 charts) very doubtful. I am aware of the numerous chances of error incident to this class of observations, and that my own are by no means free from errors; but I can conscientiously say that they are free from bias. ON DRIFT DEPOSITS NEAR MANCHESTER. 449 XXXIV. Additional Observations on the Drift-deposits and more recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood of Man- chester. By Epwarp Hutt, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain. Read December 29th, 1863. Durine the past summer I have been occupied for the most part in an attempt to trace the subdivisions of the Post- pliocene or Drift deposits within the tract of country bounded by the Penine Hills on the east, and by the up- lands of Rochdale, Bury, and Bolton-le-Moors on the north, and extending into the Cheshire plain; and I proceed to lay a brief account of the results of this examination before this Society, while the more enlarged details are in course of publication in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey*. Geologists have for several years been familiar with the classification of these deposits, as laid down by our Pre- sident, Mr. E. W. Binney, F.R.S.+, and which may be succinctly stated in the order of superposition as follows :— Recent.........+0+ 1. Valley-gravel and river-terraces. (2 yo eee and gravel of Cheetham Hill, Kersal Moor, Postpliocene | 3. Till, or Boulder-clay. or Drift. 4. Sand or gravel, more inconstant, and of less im- portance than No. 2, and only known in sinkings of wells, &c. The author of the above classification expressly confined his observations to the neighbourhood of Manchester, to which they are strictly applicable; and in my Memoir * Geology of the Country around Oldham and the Suburbs of Man- chester. 1864. + “On the Drift-deposits of Manchester and its Neighbourhood,” Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. vol. vii. 2nd series. 450 MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS “On the Geology of the Country around Bolton-le-Moors ” I accepted without hesitation that classification. It was my intention, with the assent of the Local Di- rector of the Survey, Professor Ramsay, to ascertain whether these several subdivisions of the Drift and more recent gravels could be followed out over a large tract of country, or were only true as regards the district embraced by Mr. Binney’s paper; and I may state at the outset, that the regularity with which the various members of this formation have been found to spread over a tract which may be defined as the rain-basin of the Mersey has far exceeded my expectations, and that the classification of these members points to three different epochs of forma- tion. The district over which I have surveyed, and mapped each of the three members of the Drift here referred to, ex- tends from Bolton-le-Moors on the north, to Oldham on the east, and Alderley on the south. My colleague, Mr. Green, has continued and verified these divisions still fur- ther south, as far at least as Congleton. Thus it may be said that they have been proved to maintain their regularity and order over an area of 600 square miles. The result of our investigations has obliged us in some measure to modify the arrangement proposed by Mr. Binney. I had not Jong commenced to trace the upper and lower boundaries of the “ Forest Sand” (No. 2), before I dis- covered that it was overlain by a second formation of Tull, or Boulder-clay, quite as important, both in thickness and extent, as that which lies below it (No. 3 above). Now, over the greatest part of the hills of sand to the north of Manchester, this Upper Boulder-clay has been denuded away; butit sets in further to the north-east, in the direc- tion of Oldham, and to the north-west, in the diréction of Bolton. Mr. Bmney, although he has not included it in his tabular view of the Drift-deposits, was, I believe, aware AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 451 of its existence, and mentions it as occurring in the neigh- bourhood of Cheetham*. Another modification which we found it necessary to make, had reference to the lower sand (No. 4) underlying the Till in Mr. Binney’s classification. We have nowhere been able to discover such a bed im situ during our exami- nation; and it is remarkable that in the section of the Drift which was furnished to Mr. Binney as having been proved at St. George’s Colliery, Manchester, and where it is stated that this sand and gravel (No. 4) is 10 feet 6 inches in thickness, there is no appearance whatever of it in the neighbouring quarries of Collyhurst, where the Tull may be seen reposing directly on the Permian sandstone. -I do not, however, wish to deny that there are occasional patches of sand or gravel underlying the Lower Till, be- cause such bands occur in the Till itself. My only object is to remove this member from the dignity of a distinct subdivision of the Drift-series, at least until there is some better evidence of its existence than the reports of well- sinkers, the elasticity of whose system of nomenclature is, . unhappily, proverbial. -I therefore beg to submit the fol- lowing classification, which, except in the above-named points, does not differ from that laid down by Mr. Binney :— | Drift and Recent Deposit of the Basin of the Mersey and its Tributaries. Recent. 1. Valley-gravel and River-terraces. 2. Upper Boulder-clay, or Till. Bolton Moor, Halshaw Moor, Clifton Moss, Moston, Oldham, Newton Heath, Denton, Cheadle, Hulme, &c. 3. Middle Sand and Gravel. Bolton, Pendlebury, Prestwich, Kersal Moor, Heywood, Middleton, Blackley, Gorton, * I think the explanation of a section given by Mr. Binney, of the sand wedging apparently énzo the Till, will be found in supposing the Upper and Lower Till to meet each other, owing to the thinning away of the sand near the margin. 452 MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS Stockport, Poynton, Wilmslow, Prestbury, Macclesfield, Crewe, &e. 4. Lower Boulder-clay, or Till. Monton, Salford, Manchester, Heaton Norris, &e. It would be mere repetition were I to attempt to describe these subdivisions of the Drift; and I shall therefore not dwell at any length on the stratigraphical character of these beds, further than to make one or two observations. The Upper and Lower Boulder-clays are in all re- spects similar. Of the stones and boulders which they contain, at least two-thirds exhibit marks of glaciation ; and there can be no question that they are both subglacial deposits. Both subdivisions are also laminated or rudely stratified. On this point Professor Ramsay and myself became con- vinced after a careful examination of many sections, some near Manchester, others along the estuary of the Mersey. On the other hand, the Middle Sand and Gravel (No. 3) is altogether distinct in this latter respect from the Boulder- clays both above and below it. The pebbles it contains are always water-worn and rounded; and I am persuaded that during its deposition very different physical conditions must have pervaded this part of England from those which obtained the ascendancy during the periods of the Upper and Lower Till. I now pass on to notice certain facts regarding the arrangement of the several members in this district. Denudation of the Middle Sand.—In confirmation of the views just stated, I may here draw special attention to the evidence afforded of a very extensive denudation of the sand previously to the deposition of the Upper Boulder- clay. The thickness of the sand undergoes the most rapid changes. In some places, as at Kersal Moor for instance, it attains a thickness probably not under 200 feet; and within a distance of not more than 4 miles (that is, at Newton Heath and Openshaw) the thickness is just one- AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 453 tenth of this amount, or 20 feet. Indeed, within a less distance than this, the sand dwindles down almost to no- thing near St. Luke’s, Cheetham Hill. Similar phenomena are observable in many places over the tract we have ex- amined; and I have reason to doubt whether in some places, such as Atherton and Hindley, there is any sand separating the two Boulder-clays from each other. This may be due in some measure to irregularity in the original deposition of these beds; but there is reason to think that it is due in a still greater degree to a subse- quent denudation, or removal, of strata which were once deposited with more or less regularity. In confirmation of this view, several instances which came under my notice _ may be adduced, in which the Upper Till was observed to lie upon an eroded surface of the sand. Out of several I select two in the neighbourhood of Oldham; but similar examples were observed in a pit at Moston Hall, and in a new road-cutting at Whitefield. In some other places, Fig. 1. Section at Heyside near Oldham. Length of section, 45 yards. Ge oo E e = a B. Upper Boulder-clay, resting in a hollow denuded in the sand. S. The Middle Sand underlying the Till, but rising above it at the surface. Fig. 2. Section near Chadderton Workhouse. any LAT (li || aan TAT Ih fe re ae OG, a ) | | hi I | | “ All ih id B. Upper Boulder-clay, on an eroded surface of the sand S. The length of this section is about 50 yards, and the depth 6 yards. 454A MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS however, the superposition of the two formations takes place along a very level and clearly defined line, as may be observed in a large pit at Openshaw and Clayton Hall. The Lower Boulder-clay, or Till.—Over the district south of the Mersey, the Lower Boulder-clay rarely makes its ap- pearance, the country being overspread by the Upper Till, resting on the sand. The Lower Till, however, may often be traced at the bottom of some of the deeper valleys, such as those of the rivers Dean and Bollin and that of the Tame above Stockport. North of the Mersey, at Stock- port, it occupies the tract from Heaton Norris to the Irwell, west of Manchester ; and on the opposite side of the river, from Salford to Leigh. It also crops out at the base of the high banks of sand along the river Roch, from Rad- cliff Bridge upwards for several miles. In the hill-country it seldom or never makes its appearance, as all the Boulder- clay there to be found belongs probably to the upper member of the series. The Middle Sand.—This division occurs in great strength at Macclesfield, Prestwich, and Poynton. It forms the banks along the valleys of the Bollin and Dean and Bram- hall Brook. It has 2 thickness of 50 feet at Stockport and Heaton Mersey, and from the banks of the Tame all the way to Staleybridge. Traced from Heaton Norris, it forms a band of slightly rising ground by Reddish, Sandfold, Openshaw, Clayton Hall, and Harpurhey to Blackley and Crumpsall, where it swells out considerably. It covers the country for the most part around Middleton, Royton, Heywood, and Rochdale. It forms the high banks along the Irwell and its tributaries, from Pendleton to Bury, Bolton, and up into the hills beyond Sharples, where the gravel becomes of a very local character, the pebbles being principally formed of Millstone-grit; and it forms a bank of rising ground on its southern outcrop, extending from Swinton westward by Worsley towards Ince in Wigan. AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 4:55 It also forms outliers over the Cheshire plain, as at Bowdon and High Leigh. Near its margin it often appears to thin away rapidly, the Upper Till descending to meet the Lower, as in the case at Cheetham Hill, mentioned by Mr. Binney. Such accidents I am disposed to refer to the period of the last denudation of the country, when these post-pliocene deposits were very largely removed by the waters of the retreating sea. The sand being extremely soft and porous, the sea along the margin would penetrate inwards to some distance, and, forming a running sand, might wash it away much more rapidly than the Upper Boulder-clay, which, from its stiff and plastic nature, would to some extent with- stand the action of the waves. The Middle Sand is, unfortunately for its consistency of character, not always free from bands of loam or clay. One of these, which is largely used for brick-making near Prestwich, Heywood, and Rochdale, occurs about the centre of the mass, and divides the sand into two members, the upper of which frequently occurs in detached hillocks. This bed is, however, of very local occurrence, and thins. out southward. It is very probable, if not positively certain, that the Bisplam gravels, described by Mr. Binney (1861) as con- taining nineteen species of shells now living in the Irish Sea, belong to this division. Shells are also abundant in it at Macclesfield. The Upper Boulder-clay, or Till.—T his member caps the sand over the fiat ground extending from Stockport to Alderley. Amongst the hills of the Pennine Chain to the east, it frequently occupies the valleys, as at Broadbottom, New Mills, Chapel-en-le-Frith, and Saltersford. It occu- pies the districts of Haughton Green and Hyde, Denton, Newton, Fairfield, Failsworth, Hollinwood, Oldham, and the higher parts of Harpurhey and Blackley. It also forms a capping for the sand along the Irwell, from Pendlebury SER. III. VOL. II. 2H 456 MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS © /. House, by Clifton and Kearsley, to Bolton Moor ; and, im a similar position, it occurs at Little Lever, Bradshaw, Harwood, and Elton, near Bury. Its general tendency is — to form flat or gently rising surfaces, of a wet'or marshy character; while the Middle Sand forms undulating banks, hillocks, and knolls, such as that of Tandle Hill, which reaches an elevation of 725 feet. Outliers°of sand: and gravel are also to be met with amongst thexhills, as at Mossley, Lyme Park, and Bollington; and° these — probably be referred to the same formation. 02° 99.» The succession of these Drift-deposits now daeviieale bears a remarkable resemblance to that exposed to view along the cliffs north of Blackpool, described by Mr: Binney*. But, although I am disposed to think they are the exact equivalents, it would be rash to pronounce an opinion on this point until a survey of the intermediate oe has been completed. Bf The Position of the Drift-deposits with elena to the older Rocks now requires our attention ; and in tracing the boundaries of these different divisions we become sensible of a universally pervading feature in their arrangement, namely, that they rise in the direction of the hills, or con- versely slope from the hills towards the plains. This is true with regard to the high lands of millstone-grit which range from east to west, by Rochdale, Bury, and Bolton, as well as those which range from north to south, by Old- ham, Staleybridge, Marple, and Macclesfield. This rise of the beds of Drift, both towards the north and towards the east, is more rapid than the slope of the brooks, until they actually enter the uplands, when the descent of the streams becomes in turn more rapid than that of the drift ; and on this account the Lower Boulder-clay seldom ex- tends into the valleys of the Pennine Chain, as already stated. * Mem. Lit. & Phil. Society, vol. x. (new series). AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 457 As an illustration, let us take the lower boundary of the Upper Boulder-clay along the valley which runs up from Manchester, by Bolton, to beyond Sharples, and examine the levels as taken from the Ordnance 6-inch maps. At Pendlebury the base of the Upper Boulder-clay is 275 feet above the sea-level; at Clifton, 285; at Kearsley, 300; at Halshaw Moor it descends again to 285; opposite Burnden Bridge it again reaches 300; at centre of Bolton, 300; Little Bolton, 370; the banks of the Tonge and Bradshaw brooks, near Bradshaw Bridge, 380; Sweetlove’s Colliery, Sharples, 475; and still further north, at Holmes Farm, above Dunscar Bridge, 500 feet. Thus, ina distance of about nine miles along this valley, the base of the Upper Boulder-clay has ascended from 275 to 500 feet, that is, by an amount of 225 feet. The rise is therefore —*—, or 25 feet per mile. A similar rise is observable, if we take the section of country from Manchester to Oldham, or from Manchester to Dukinfield. Thus at Gorton the level of the base of the Upper Boulder-clay is 250 feet, and at Dukinfield (as may be determined at the sand-pit near St. John’s Church) | it is about 480 feet, being a rise of 230 feet in four miles. That there is a similar slope towards the valley of the Mersey from the Cheshire hills is proved by the position of the beds along the brook-courses, as already stated. The different members of the Drift series rest indis- criminately on the older rocks, which were worn into hills and valleys, or plains, before their deposition (see fig. 3). Thus in Manchester the Lower Boulder-clay rests on the Triassic and Permian beds; but at Heywood, Rochdale, and Dukinfield the older rocks are covered by the Middle Sand; and all along the rising ground of the lower Coal- measures, from Oldham by Staleybridge, Marple, and _Disley, the Upper Boulder-clay rests upon, or has been deposited against, the steeply sloping sides of the Carboni- ferous rocks. 2 2 458 MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS In order to account for the pheno- mena above stated, regarding the slope of the Drift-formation from the hills to- ward theplains, and which bears a strong resemblance to a true dip of the strata, I at first supposed that it was due to an upheaval of the country at the close of the Drift period along the old lines of elevation; but Professor Ramsay sug- gested to me that a more simple ex- planation might be found in the un- questionable fact that these various beds of clay and sand were deposited over a sloping sea-bottom, and consequently partake of its variations of level. The height to which erratics ascend on these hills is about 1800 feet, as stated long since by Sir H. Dela Beche; and from my own observation I can state that there is not a trace of a foreign rock on the tableland of the Peak, which is about 2000 feet: high. The followmg general section (fig. 3) will serve to explain the general pheno- mena connected with the relative position of the post-Plocene and older forma- tions in this district. Supposed Land-surface in the Drift.— A very interesting section has been — opened in certain beds which I am now about to describe, at the foot of the hill, west of Heaton Mersey. The hill itself is composed of the middle sand and gravel (No. 3); and along its base PUBS eIPPHT «¢ ‘Ow ‘SyOOY sno.soytuogaey ve) yy x VAAIN VIS r v = “Aepo-replog aamory ‘1 *kejo-azoptnog aeddq °f JOJSoyOUB IAL STI =‘AoTpeA [oma pues “ACTOR. (S ‘spsodap-jfiig ay) fo quawabun.ip josauay ayy moys 07 uowsag *€ “sty are large brick-yards excavated in the Lower Boulder-clay AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 459 (No. 4). At the upper edge of these brick-yards we find the following series, which, when I first visited it, I sup- posed to represent a land-surface in the Drift, forming the line of separation between the Lower Boulder-clay and the Middle Sand. The section is as follows :-— Fig. 4. Section at Heaton Mersey. —— te |T] 4 i a. Fine soft sand, 3 feet. b. Bed of peaty matter, and decaying stems and branches of birch, 4 inches. ce. Dark, stiff, laminated clay, 6 feet. 3. Middle Sand. 4. Lower Boulder-clay, with pebbles. The bed of vegetable matter (6) consists of branches of birch in a state of decomposition not much removed from that of ordinary bog-wood. It is about 4 inches in thick-. ness, is overlain by a bed of fine sand (a), which I supposed at first to be the base of the middle sand and gravel of which the hill is composed; and below are several feet of a fine, laminated, brownish mud (c), without pebbles, which I took to be the uppermost beds of the Lower Till. These beds, however, contain no stones or pebbles, as is usual with the Boulder Clay, and are more regularly lami- nated than is generally the case with that formation. At the same time, I had no reason to doubt that the whole series belonged to the post-Pliocene group, and that we had here a rare example of a true land-surface between two members thereof. A few weeks after, however, I again visited the section in company with Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., the Director of the Geological Survey, who, on seeing the beds, gave it 460 MR. E. HULL ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS as his opinion that these deposits were not post-Plocene beds, but “warp,” a river mud similar to that of the Humber, which he had recently visited. He also thought the stems of the birch too fresh-looking for so distant an age as the Drift, and that the deposit was an evidence of the former extension of the Mersey much beyond its present limits. We examined the bed for shells or any other objects calculated to throw light on the age of the beds, but without success; and, until further evidence of the ex- tension or absence of the peat beneath the gravel of the Heaton Mersey hill, the question of the age of these beds must be left in abeyance. The section is 50 feet above the present level of the Mersey. Gravel of the Valley of the Mersey.—The district of South Lancashire affords conclusive evidence of the former exten- sion of the rivers far beyond their present bounds. The river-terraces in the neighbourhood of Manchester have already been described by Mr. Binney * and myself+, and I shall not recur to them here. I wish, however, to draw attention to an old terrace of much wider extent and greater length than any of those in the Irwell valley above Man- chester{. So widely indeed is the country covered by these gravels, that it is not improbable they may have been formed in an estuary of the Dee, when the land was slowly rising from beneath the sea at the last elevation of the country; but on this pomt, which it would be of so much interest to determine, we are left in doubt by the absence of shells, which I have failed hitherto to detect. The gravel is generally of a very fine character, evenly bedded, seldom containing large stones, and often divided by layers of fine sand and silt. On the north side of the Mersey it extends as far up as Didsbury, occupying the flat * “On the Drift-deposits, &.,”’ Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. vol. viii. + Memoir on the Geology of Bolton-le-Moors. ¢ This terrace I have described at greater length in the forthcoming memoir, ‘ On the Geology of the Country around Oldham and Manchester.” AND RECENT GRAVELS NEAR MANCHESTER. 461 ground along the Manchester road to Fallowfield. From this it trends westward to Hulme, on the south side of Manchester, and is bounded by the valley of the Irwell. It occupies the whole of the flat country between the two rivers, Irwell and Mersey, from Trafford Park to Stretford. At Eccles and Fatricroft it may be found resting sometimes _on the New Red Sandstone, sometimes on the Lower Till, and it stretches westward by Barton Moss to Higher Irlam. | South of the Mersey it occupies the level plain, which is a constant subject of remark to all who travel by the rail- way to Altrincham; and the villages of Timperly, Sale, Ashton-on-Mersey, Carrington, and Warburton are all built on this old terrace. Beyond this I have not traced it westward. It probably disappears at Lymn, owing to the steepness of the banks along the south side of the river. On the north bank, however, it will probably be found between Hollinfare and Warrington. The thickness of this gravel is seldom more than from 6 to Io feet; and over the greater part of the district described it rests upon - the Lower Boulder-clay. The breadth of this terrace in some places is_ several miles. As it extends very nearly from Worsley in the north to Altrincham in the south, the breadth is here seven miles. Below this terrace the present river-valleys are hollowed to a depth of 50 or 60 feet; and I have no doubt the land was lower at least by that amount at the time of its formation. The most probable explanation of the origin of this gravel-bed is to suppose that the tides extended as far up as Manchester and Didsbury, and that the waters of the two rivers, having only a very slight fall, often during heavy floods covered the whole plain now formed of the gravel. 462 MR. W. BINNEY ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS XXXV, A few Remarks on Mr. Hull’s Additional Observa- tions on the Drift-deposits in the Neighbourhood of — Manchester. By the President, E. W. Binney, F.R.S., EGco: Read January 12th, 1864. Tue author said he wished to make a few remarks on the Lancashire and Cheshire Drift. In the year 1841 he first attempted to class the Drift-deposits found in the neighbour- hood of Manchester, in a small paper, with a map, which he prepared for the Statistical Society of Manchester. In that memoir he divided the foreign drift in the ascending order— (1.) Lower sand and gravel, (2.) Till, (3.) Upper sand and gravel ; and he described the more modern deposits found in valleys (No. 4) as valley-gravel. This order he adopted in a paper read before the Man- chester Geological Society on the 22nd December 1842, “Notes on the Lancashire and Cheshire Drift,” and printed by that Society in their Proceedings of 1843. In that paper, in treating of the upper beds of sand and gravel, he says, “ At Manchester it (the Higher Drift) is composed of lower gravel, till, and sand and gravel, while at Hey- wood and Poynton, near the base of the Pennine Chain, the beds of sand and gravel are parted by several beds of loam and clay.” Again, in speaking of No. 3 deposit, he says, “‘The gently rising lands of the two counties are generally com- posed of this deposit. It varies much, both im its composi- tion and thickness. Near the sea, at Ormskirk, the Till is sometimes found without it; but as you proceed to the east it makes its appearance, and gradually thickens until it attains its greatest thickness near the base of the Pennine IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MANCHESTER. 463 Chain. Not only does it increase in thickness, but it be- comes more complex, and contains beds of clay, marl, and loam of several yards in thickness. The country lying between Manchester, Bolton, Bury, Rochdale, Ashton, and Stockport, for the most part, is upon it, and forms one great sandbank, which continues south into Cheshire.” The same classification he adopted in two papers, one on the Drift of Manchester, and the other on the same deposits at Blackpool, printed in vols. vii. and x. of the Society’s Memoirs, as well as in a paper printed in the Manchester Geological Society’s ‘ Transactions’ for June 1862. Mr. Hull, in his communication read at the last Meet- ing of the Society, divided the higher Drift-deposits into (in descending order)— (1.) Upper Boulder-clay. (2.) Middle Sand and Gravel. (3.) Lower Boulder“clay. The Nos. 2 and 3 had been described by Mr. Binney, as also a lower bed of sand and gravel, of whose existence he (Mr. Hull) had considerable doubts, and considered it as merely accidental. Now in his (the author’s) paper on the Drift of Man-. chester, 11 sections of wells and bores are given, and in Io of these the lower sand and gravel had been met with, thus showing that it can scarcely be considered to be merely acci- dental as Mr. Hull states. Im many other’sections since examined in Lancashire this deposit has also been found under the Till. With regard to the upper bed of boulder- clay, Mr. Hull stated that he (the author) had alluded to it; but Mr. Hull considered it to be quite as important as the lower, both in thickness and area. The old term “ Till” is as good as that of Boulder- alae . and as it has been long used, there is not much use in chan- ging it. During the last twenty years he had collected many SER. III. VOL. II. 21 464. MR. BINNEY ON DRIFT-DEPOSITS NEAR MANCHESTER. facts, which he intended to publish when he had completed his collection ; but these did not show one bed of clay or marl which could be called Upper Boulder-clay, but several ; in fact, there were numerous intercalations of it in the sand and gravel, one of which he had seen occurring at Kersall Moor, entirely surrounded by sand. To show the com- plexity of these deposits, and the difficulty of reducing them to two beds of Till or Boulder-clay, he gave two sec- tions, one near Hyde and the other at Outwood*, where the following were met with :— Hype. Ovtwoop. feet in. feet in. Vay sigetseonsvcaac gh cmetccSics TE Oy i EROP. ia. cantik to tape een II o Quicksand... susstaos nase 26 | Quicksand. 2. 3c5.c2cee sane ee Sirowe nar! Geese. ses ee 22, *6 - ibnckleaf mark, .c. 7+ o eee a1 a2 Quicksand jcaccnacteen. cee 2 6 | Red sand and gravel, with Loam, with pebbles ......... 1216 a yard of clay in it ...... Th 10 Buckleaf marl ............++ 19 o | Toad-back marl ............ 329 Dry sand (oc. eee eo | OGTBVEl! \oconecccesencee sepeeeee 3.0 Quicksand and loam ...... "6 o | Coal-measures. Gravel ott 0 -onc teen EC) Ea ne 7uakcssesaweadosenter 7 6 Gravel and sand ............ 2: e Clay and loam .............+ 15 6 Gravel and soft marl, con- taining pebbles ............ 10 oO Coal-measures. 124. 0 145 8 From the position of the Outwood section, in a slight depression, and the higher grounds adjoiming being cappéd with a bed of clay cuntaining pebbles, 8 or 10 feet in thickness, another deposit of clay should be placed on the top. ‘Thus in one case there are 6 beds of Boulder-clay, and in the other only 3. These are two of the many in- stances which could be adduced, and suggest caution in attempting to classify these deposits without oT ae and consulting numerous sections. * For these the author was indebted to the kindness of Mr. Joseph Good- win, mining engineer, Hyde and Haughton Collieries. — THE COUNCIL OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. APRIL 19, 1864. — -PrestVent. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Imper. Roy. Grou. Inst. Vienna. Wice-PrestVents. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., F.RB.S., F.C.S., Hon. Mem. C.P.S., Inst. Ena. Scot., Putnos. Soc. Guascow, AnD Soc. Nar. Sc. BAsEt, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acap. Sc. Turi. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G:S. JOSEPH CHESBOROUGH DYER. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C:S. Secretaries. HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Pu.D., F.B.S., F.CS., PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, OwENSs COLLEGE. JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A:S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Puys.-Hcon. Soc. KoniasBere, AND AcAD. Sc. AnD Lit. PALERMO. Creasurerv, ROBERT WORTHINGTON, F.R.AS. Librarian. CHARLES FREDERICK EKMAN. Other fHembers of the Counctl. Rey. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A. FREDERICK CRACE CALVERT, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Acap. Sc. Turin, Acap. Sc. Roven, PHarm. Soc. Paris, AND InpustrR. Soc. MuLHovse. PETER SPENCE, F.C.S., F.S.A. GEORGE VENABLES VERNON, F.R.A.S., F. Anrur. Soc., Mem. Brit. Mer. Soc., Mzt. Soc. Scor., anp Mer. Soc. FRANCE. ROBERT BELLAMY CLIFTON, M.A., F.R.A.S., PRoressor oF NATURAL Purnosopuy, OwENs CoLuEGe. JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM. HONORARY MEMBERS. DATE OF ELECTION. 1847, Apr.20. Adams, John Couch, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Lowndsean Prof. of Astron. and Geom. in the Univ. of Cambridge, Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Se. Boston. The Observatory, Cambridge. 1843, Apr. 18. Agassiz, Louis, For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Imper. Instit. France, &c. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S. 18438, Apr. 18. Airy, George Biddell, M.A., D.C.L., F.R:S., Astro- -nomer Royal, V.P.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. R.S.E., R.LA., M.C.P.8S., Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,’ Corr. Mem. Nat. Inst. Wash- ington, U.S., Imper. Inst. France, Imper. Acad. Se. Petersburg and Roy. Acad. Sc. Berlin, Mem. Acad. Se. and Lit. Palermo, Roy. Acadd. Se. Stockholm and Munich, Roy. Soc. Se. Copenhagen, and Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. Boston. The Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E. 1849, Jan. 28. Bosworth, Rev. Joseph, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., — M.R.LA., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. Northern Antiq. Copenhagen, Mem. Roy. Soc. Sc. Drontheim and Soc. Se. Gothenburg, Prof. of Anglo-Saxon at the Univ. Oxford. Water Stratford, near Buckingham. 1843, Apr. 18. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,”’ For. Assoc. Imper. Instit. France and Roy. Soc. Se. Gottingen, Principal of the Univ. Edin. Umversity, Edinburgh. 1860, Apr.17. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Prof. of Chemistry at the Univ. of Heidelberg. Heidelberg. : 1859, Jan. 25. Cayley, Arthur, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 2 Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C. 1864, Feb. 23. Crum, Walter, F.R.S. Glasgow. 1859, Jan. 25. De Morgan, Augustus, F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Professor of Mathematics in Univ. Coll. London: 91 Ade- laide-road, London, N.W. 3 DATE OF ELECTION. 1844, Apr. 30. Dumas, Jean Baptiste, Gr. Off. Legion of oie For. Mem. R.S., Mem. Imper. Instit. France, &c. 42 Rue Grenelle, ‘St. German, Paris. 1843, Apr. 18. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Fullerian Prof. of Chemistry in the Roy. Instit. of Great Britain, Hon. Mem. R.S.E., C.P.8., and Med. Chir. Soc., F.G.S., Chey. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Meérite,’ Comm. Legion of Honour, For. Assoc. Imper. Instit. France, Imper. Acadd. Sc. Vienna and Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, Turin, Stockholm, Munich, Naples, Amsterdam, Brussels, Bologna and Modena, Roy. Soce. Sc. Gottingen, Copenhagen, Upsala and Haarlem, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. Boston, and Amer. Phil. Soc. Phila- delphia, Corr. Mem. Acad. Sc. and Liter. Palermo, Acad. Georg. Florence, Philom. Soc. Paris, Nat. Instit. Washington, U.S., and Imper. Acad. of Med. Paris, &c. 21 Albemarle-street, London, W. 1860, Jan. 24. Fries, Elias, A.M., Prof. Emer. at the Univ. of Upsala, Comm. of the Swedish Order of the Northern Star, Chev. of the Danish Order of “ Dannebrog,” Mem. Swed. Acad., Roy. Acad. Sc. Stockholm and Roy. Soc. Se. Upsala, &e. Upsala. 1843, Feb. 7. Frisiani, nobile Paolo, Prof., late Astron. at the Observ. - of Brera, Milan, Mem. Imper. Roy. Instit. of Lom- bardy, Milan, and Ital. Soc. Sc. Milan. 1861, Jan. 22. Haidinger, Wilhelm Karl, Ph.D., M.D., Aulic Coun- cillor, Director of the I. R: Geol. Inst. Vienna, Chev. of the Austrian Order “ Franz Joseph,” and several other Orders, For. Mem. R.SS. L. and E., Corr. Mem. Imp. Instit. France, Mem. Imp. Acad. Sc. Vienna, Hon. Mem. I. R. Soc. Phys. Vienna, Roy. Geogr. Soc. London, Imp. Geogr. Soc. St. Petersburg, Roy. Soc. Nat. Sc. and Geol. Soc. of Hungary, &c., Mem. Roy. Acadd. Sc. Stockholm, Munich and Brussels, Roy. Socc. Sc. Gottingen and Copenhagen, &c., Corr. Mem. Imper. Acad. Se. St. Petersburg, I. R. Inst. Sc. Venice, Roy. Acadd. Se. Berlin and Turin, Roy. Inst. of Lombardy, Milan, Roy. Caled. Hortic. Soc. Edinburgh, Imper. Soc. Nat. Se. Cherbourg, Soc. Sc. Batavia, Acad. Nat. Se. Philadelphia. 363 Landstrasse, Ungergasse, Vienna. 1843, Feb. 7. Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, Knt., LL.D., M.R.LA. 4 DATE OF ELECTION. 1843, Feb. 7. 1853, Apr. 19. 1843, Apr. 18. 1848, Jan. 25. 1853, Jan. 25. 1852, Oct. 19. 1848, Oct. 31. 1847, Apr. 20. 1843, Feb. 7. F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal, Ireland, Andrews Professor of Astronomy, Trinity College, Dublin. Observatory, Dunsink, Dublin. Harcourt, Rev. William Venables Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S8. Bolton Percy, Tad- caster. Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S. Observatory, Liverpool. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, Bart., K.H., D.C.L., M.A., F.R.SS. L. and E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., M.C.P.8S., Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,” Corr. Mem. Imper. Instit. France, Mem. Imper. Acad. Sc. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, Turin, Naples and Brussels, Roy. Soce. Sc. Gottingen, Copenhagen and Haarlem, Acad. dei ‘Nuovi Lincei Rome, Acadd. Padua, Bologna, Pa- lermo, Modena, Acad. Gioen. Catania, Imper. Acad. Sc. Dijon, Philom. Soe. Paris and Soc. Nat. Se. Swit- zerland, Collingwood, Hawkhurst, near Staplehurst, Kent. | Hind, John Russell, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of the Nautical Almanack. 22 Grove-road, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. Hopkins, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS. Fitzwilliam-street, Cambridge. Kirkman, Rev. Thomas Penynton, M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near Warrington. Lassell, William, F.R.S.,F.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. R.S.E., Hon. Mem. Philomath. Soc. Paris. Bradstones, Sandfield Park, near Liverpool. Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, For. Mem. R.S., Comm. Legion of Honour, Mem. Imper. Instit. France, &c. L’ Observatoire Impérial, Paris. Liebig, Justus Baron von, M.D., Ph.D., Prof. of Chem. Univ. Munich, Conservator of Chem. Labor. Munich, Chev. of the Bay. Order “ Pour le Meérite,”’ &c., For. Mem. R.SS. L. and E., Hon. M.R.I.A., For. Assoc. imper. Instit. France, Hon. Mem. Univ. Dorpat and Med. Phys. Facult. Univ. Prague, Hon. Mem. and For. Assoc. Imper. Acad. Sc. Vienna, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Stockholm, Brussels, Amsterdam, Turin, Acad. Se. Bologna, Roy. Soce. Sc. Gothenburg, Gottingen, Copenhagen, Liége, Imper. Roy. Instit. of Lombardy, Milan, Corr. Mem. oth amma: agg, DATE OF ELECTION. 5 Imper. Acad. Se. Petersburg, Roy. Acad. Se. Madrid, Mem. Roy. Med. Chir. Soce. London and Perth, Roy. Scot. Soc. Arts, Botan. Soce. Edinburgh and Re- gensburg, Soce. Nat. Sc. Berlin, Dresden, Halle, Moscow, Lille, Ph. Soc. Glasgow, Agric. Socc. Munich, Giessen, &c. Munich, 1849. Apr. 17. Mercer, John, F.R.S. Oakenshaw, Accrington. 1843, Feb. 7. Mitscherlich, Eilert, Professor, For. Mem. R.S., &c. Berlin. 1854, Jan. 24. Morin, Arthur, Gr. Off Legion of Honour, General of — 1848, Apr. 18. Brigade, Mem. Imper. Instit. France, formerly éléve Polytechn. School, Dir. Conserv. of Arts, Paris, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, Madrid and Turin, Acad. Georg. Florence, Imper. Acad. Metz, and Industr. Soc. Mulhouse. 38 Rue des Beaux- Arts, Paris. Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Imper. Instit. France. Olveston, near Bristol. 1821, Jan. 26. Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, 1844, Apr. 30. Burton-on-Trent. Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, G.C.St.S., D.C.L., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., &c., Director Gen. of the Geol. Survey, Pr. R.G.S., Hon. Mem. R.S.E. and R.I.A., Mem. C.P.S. and Imper. Acad. Se. Petersburg, Corr. Mem. Imper. Instit. France, Roy. Acadd. Se. Stockholm, Turin, Berlin and Brussels, Roy. Soc. Sc. Copenhagen, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. Boston, and Imper. Geogr. Soc. Peters- burg, Hon. Mem. Imper. Soc. of Naturalists Mos- ‘cow, &c. 16 Belgrave-square, London, S.W. 1844, Apr. 30. Owen, Richard, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.LS.,F.GS., V.P.Z.8., Director of the Nat. Hist. Department British Museum, Hon. F.R.C.S. Ireland, Hon. M.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Imper. Instit. France, Mem. Imper. Acadd. Se. Vienna and Petersburg, Imper. Soc. of Naturalists Moscow, Roy. Acadd. Se. Berlin, Turin, Madrid, Stockholm, Munich, Amsterdam, Naples, Brussels and Bologna, Roy. Soce. Se. Copen- hagen and Upsala, and Amer. Acad. Arts and Se. Boston, Corr. Mem. Philom. Soc. Paris, Mem. Acad. Georg. Florence, Soc. Sc. Haarlem and Utrecht, Soc. of Phys. and Nat. Hist. Geneva, Acad. dei Nuovi Lincei Rome, Roy. Acadd. Se. Padua, Palermo, Acad. Gioen. Catania, Phys. Soc. 6 DATE OF ELECTION. 1851, Apr. 29. 1856, Jan. 22. 1859, Apr. 19. 1849, Jan. 23. 1859, Apr. 19. 1844, Apr. 30. 1843, Feb. 7. 1851, Apr. 29. 1861, Jan. 22. 1854, Jan. 24. Berlin, Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,” For. Assoc. Instit. Wetter., Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Imper. Acad. Med. Paris, and Imper. and Roy. Med. Soc. Vienna. British Museum, London, W.C. Playfair, Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry Univ. Ed. Edinburgh. Poncelet, General Jean Victor, For. Mem. R.S., Gr. Off. Legion of Honour, Mem. Imper. Instit. France, &e. 58 Rue de Vaugirard, Paris. Rankine, William John Macquorn, LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Pres. Inst. Eng. Scot., Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics Univ. Glasgow. 59 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. Rawson, Robert. Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth. Reichenbach, Carl, Baron von. Gut Reissenberg, nichst Grinzing, Vienna. Sabine, Major-General Edward, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. and P.R.S., F.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. C.P.S., Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,” Mem. Imper. Acad. Se. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, Brussels, and Gottingen, Roy. Soc. Sc. Drontheim, Acad. Se. Philadelphia, Econ. Soc. Silesia, Nat. Hist. Soc. Lausanne, and Roy. Batavian Soc., Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin, Nat. Instit. Washing- ton, U.S.,Geogr. Soce. Paris, Berlin, and Petersburg. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster, London, 8.W. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., E.G.S., F.R.A.S., Woodwardian Lecturer Uniy. Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., Secr. R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathem. Univ. Cambridge, F.C.P.S., Mem. Batav. Soc. Rotterdam, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. Berlin. Pembroke College, Cam- bridge. , Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, London, 8.E. Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Principal of Man- chester New College. The Lymes, Rosslyn, Hamp- stead, London. 7 DATE OF ELECTION. 1851, Apr. 29. Thomson, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.SS. L., and E., Prof. of Nat. Philos. Univ. Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow. 1843, Feb. 7. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., FS.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Master of Trinity College Cambridge. The Lodge, Cambridge. 1850, Apr. 30. Woodcroft, Bennet, F.R.S., Professor, Superint. of Regist. of Patents. Southampton-buildings, Lon- don, W.C. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 1860, Apr. 17. 1861, Oct. 29. 1861, Jan. 22. 1824, Jan. 23. 1861, Apr. 2. 1849, Apr. 17. 1862, Jan. 7. 1812, Jan. 24. Ainsworth, Thomas. Cleator Mills, near Egremont, Whatehaven. Bache, Alexander Dallas, For. Mem. R.S., Superintend. of the U.S. Coast Survey. Washington, U.S. Buckland, George, Professor, University College, To- ronto. Toronto. Dockray, Benjamin. Lancaster. Durand-Fardel, Max, M.D., Chev. of the Legion of Honour, &c. 36 Rue de Lille, Paris. Girardin, J., Off. Legion of Honour, Corr. Mem. Im- per. Instit. France, &e. Lille. Gistel, Johannes Franz Xavier, Ph.D., late Prof. of Nat. Hist. and Geogr., Libr. Secr. and Conserv. at the Museum of Nat. Hist. Regensburg, Corr. Mem. Imper. Roy. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Acadd. and Soce. Se. Cherbourg, Caen, Dijon, Aix, Orleans, Angers, Brussels, Rheims, Nantes, Antwerp, Linnean -Soce. Caen, Angers, Marseilles, La Rochelle and Paris. 19 Steinweg, Regensburg, Bavaria. | Granville, Augustus Bozzi, M.D., F.R.S., V.P.0.S., M.R.C.P. Lond., M.R.C.S. Engl., Knt. of the Order of St. Michael of Bavaria, of the Crown of Wiir- temberg, of the Lion of Zuringen of Baden, and of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus of Sardinia, For. Mem. 8 DATE OF ELECTION. 1850, Apr. 30. 1861, Jan. 22. 1812, Jan. 24. 1816, Apr. 26. 1888, Apr. 17. 1862, Jan. 7. 1859, Jan, 25. 1857, Jan. 27. 1861, Oct. 29. 1864, Apr. 19. 1862, Jan. 7. Imper. Acad. Sc. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Se. Turin and Naples, Nat. Hist. Soc. Dresden, Philom. Soc., Soc. Méd. d’Emulat. and Cercle Méd. Paris, Soce. Georg. and Curéo, Florence, Med.-Chir. Soce. Peters- burg and Berlin, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Se. Brus- sels, &c. 5 Cornwall-terrace, Warwick-square, Lon- don, S. W. Harley, Rey. Robert, F.R.A.S. Castle Hill House, Brighouse, Yorkshire. Henry, Joseph, Professor, Secr. Smithsonian Institu- tion. Washington, U.S. Holland, Sir Henry, Bart., M.D.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F-.R.S., F.R.C.P. Lond., F.G.S., Physician in Ordinary to the Queen. 25 Brook-street, London, W. Kenrick, Rev. John, M.A. York. Koechlin-Schouch, Daniel. Madhouse. Lancia di Brolo, Federico, Inspector of Studies, &e. Palermo. Le Jolis, Auguste-Frangois, Ph.D., Archiviste per- pétuel and late President of the Imper. Soc. Nat. Se. Cherbourg, Mem. Imp. Leop.-Car. Acad. Nat. Sc., Imp. Soc. Naturalists Moscow, Acad. Nat. Se. Philadelphia, Roy. Botan. Soce. Regensburg, Leiden, Edinburgh, Botan. Soc. Canada, Linnean Soce. Lyon, Bordeaux, and Caen, Physiogr. Soc. Lund, Imp. Roy. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Imp. Roy. Zool. and Botan. Soc. Vienna, Roy. Acad. Se. Lucca and Prague, Imp. Acad. Sc. and Lit. Chambery, Tou- louse, Rouen, Caen, Lille, &c., Acad. Soce. Cher- bourg and Angers, Hortic. Soc. Cherbourg, Roy. Acad. Archeol. Brussels, Socc. Nat. Se. Catania, Athens, Boston, Dorpat, Riga, &e. Cherbourg. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem. Brit. Met. Soc., Hon. Mem. Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., Mem. Geol. Soc. Edinburgh, &e. Nottingham. Maury, Captain Mathew Fontaine, LL.D., &c. Mitchell, Captain John,/Superintendent of the Madras Museum. Madras. Nasmyth, James, C.E., F.R.A.S., &c. Penshurst, Tunbridge. —_--- + 9 DATE OF ELECTION. 1851, Apr. 29. Pincoffs, Peter, M.D., Knt. of the Turkish Order of 1808, Nov. 18. 1834, Jan. 1853, Apr. 1839, Apr. 30, 1861, Jan. 1861, Jan. 1837, Aug. 11. 1846, Jan. 1824, Jan. 1840, Jan. 1858, Jan. 1847, Jan. 1847, Jan. 1858, Jan. 1854, Jan. 1842, Jan. 1821, Jan. 1861, Jan. 24, 19. 22. 22. 27. 23. 7 26. 26. 26. 26. 24. 25. 26. 22. the “ Medjidié” 4th Cl., Mem. Coll. Phys. London, Brussels, and Dresden, Hon. and Corr. Mem. Med. and Phil. Socc. Antwerp, Athens, Brussels, Constan- tinople, Dresden, Rotterdam, Vienna, &c. Naples. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. Lond., E.G.S., F-R.A.S., V.P.8.A., Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Se. Turin. 18 Upper Bedford-place, London, W.C. Watson, Henry Hough. Bolton, Lancashire. Wilkinson, Thomas Turner, F.R.A.S. Burnley. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Ainsworth, Ralph Fawsett, M.D., F.R.C.P. Edin., M.R.C.S. Engl, F.R. Med. Chir. 8. Chiff Point, Lower Broughton, and Unon Club, Mosley-street. Aleock,, Thomas,. M.D., Mxtr.. L.R.C.P. Lond., M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S.A. 66 Upper Brook-street. Anson, Rey. George Henry Greville, M.A. Birch Rectory, Rusholme. Ashton, Thomas. 42 Portland-street. Atkinson, John, F.C.P., F.G.S. Zhelwall, near War- rington. Barbour, Robert. 18 Aytoun-street. Bateman, John Frederick, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, London, 8.W. Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Phys. Econ.Soc. Konigsberg, and Ac. Se. and Lit. Palermo. _ 108 Stocks-street. Bazley, Thomas, M.P. Eynsham Hall, Oxford. Bell, William. 51 King-street. Benson, Davis. 4 Chester-street. Beyer, Charles. 9 Hyde-road, Ardwick. Binney, Edward William, F.R.S., F.G.S. 40 Cross- street. Blackwall, John, F.L.S. Hendre, Llanrwst. Bottomley, James. 2 Nelson-street, Lower Broughton. DATE OF ELECTION. 1855, Jan. 23. 1839, Oct. 29. 1855, Apr. 17. 1861, Apr. 2. 1844, Jan. 25. 1860, Jan. 24. 1846, Jan. 27. 1861, Jan. 22. 1847, Jan. 26. 1859, Jan. 25. 1858, Jan. 26. 1852, Apr. 20. 1842, Jan. 25. 1857, Apr. 21. 1854, Apr. 18. 1862, Feb. 18. 1841, Apr. 20. 1861, Jan. 22. 1853, Jan. 25. 1859, Jan. 25. 1861, Noy. 12. 1851, Apr. 29. 1848, Jan. 25. 1861, Apr. 2. 1854, Feb. 7. 1842, Apr. 19. 1863, Feb. 10. 1853, Apr. 19. 10 Bowman, Eddowes, M.A. Upper Park-road, Victoria Park. Bowman, Henry. Upper Park-road, Victoria Park. Brockbank, William. 37 Princess-street. Brogden, Henry. Brooklands, near Sale. Brooks, William Cunliffe, M.A. Bank, 92 King- street. Brothers, Alfred. 14 St. Ann’s-square. Browne, Henry, M.D., M.A., M.R.C.S. Engl. Oxford-street. Buckley, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Balmoral-place, Old Trafford. 206 Calvert, Frederick Crace, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin, Acad. Sc. Rouen, Pharmac. Soc. Paris, and Industr. Soc. Mulhouse. Royal Institution, Bond-street. Carrick, Thomas. 37 Princess-street. Casartelli, Joseph. 43 Market-street. Chadwick, David, F.S.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. 75 King- street. Charlewood, Henry. 5 Clarence-street. Churchill, George Cheetham. 86 Cross-street. Christie, Richard Copley, M.A., Prof. Hist. Owens College. 7 St. James’s-square. Clarke, Thomas, M.D. Ladyfield, Wilmslow. Clay, Charles, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. Lond., L.R.C.S. Edin. 101 Piccadilly. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.A.S., Prof. Nat. Phil. Owens College. Owens College. Cottam, Samuel. 28 Brazenose-street. Coward, Edward. Heaton Mersey, near Manchester. Coward, Thomas. Bowdon. Crompton, Samuel, M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S.A., F.R. Med. Chir. Soc. 79 Princess-street. Crowther, Joseph Stretch. 22 Princess-street. Cunningham, William Alexander. Bank, 37 King- street. Dale, John, F.C.S. Cornbrook Chemical Works, Chester-road. Dancer, John Benjamin, F.R.A.S. 48 Cross-street. Darbishire, George Stanley. 32 Charlotte-street. Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.G.S. 21 Brown-street. bi DATE OF ELECTION. 1854, Jan. 24. 1842, Nov. 15. 1861, Dec. 10. 1855, Jan. 23, 1859, Jan. 25. 1864, Mar. 22. 1818, Apr. 24. 1859, Jan. 25. 1864, Apr. 5. 1856, Apr. 29. 1854, Jan. 24. 1824, Oct. 29. 1861, Jan. 22. 1856, Apr. 29. 1857, Apr. 21. 1860, Apr. 17. 1854, Jan. 24. 1840, Jan. 21. 1861, Apr. 30. 1817, Jan. 24, 1849, Oct. 30. 1863, Apr. 21. 1848, Jan, 25. 1844, Jan. 23. 1864, Feb. 9. 1858, Oct. 19. 1862, Nov. 4. 1839, Jan. 22. 1861, Apr. 2. 1859, Apr. 19. 1828, Oct. 31. 1861, Apr. 30. Davies, David Reynold. 38 Dickinson-street. Dean, James Joseph. 2 Grrove-street, Ardwick. Deane, William King. 25 George-street. Dickinson, William Leeson. 1 St. James’s-street. Dorrington, James. 33 Dickmson-street. Duval, C.A. Exchange-street. Dyer, Joseph Chesborough. Burnage. Eadson, Richard. 75 Dale-street. Eastham, John. St. Ann’s-square. Ekman, Charles Frederick. 41 George-street. Ellis, Charles. 21 Rook-street, York-street. Fairbairn, William, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Corr. Mem. Imp. Inst. France and Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin, Hon. Mem. Inst. Eng. Scot. and Yorksh. Phil. Soe. Polygon, Ardwick. | Fisher, William Henry. 16 7%b-dane. Forrest, Henry Robert. Portland-street. Foster, Thomas Barham. 23 John Dalton-street. Francis, John. Town Hall. Fryer, Alfred. 4 Chester-street. Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. 46 Plymouth-grove. Gladstone, Murray, F.R.A.S. 24 Cross-street. Greg, Robert Hyde, F.G.S. 2 Chancery-place, Booth- street. Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.8S. 2 Chancery-place, Booth- street. Grindon, Leopold Hartley. 85 Rumford-street. Grundy, John Clowes. 4 Exchange-street. Hampson, Richard. Wathington. Harris, George. Cornbrook Park. Harrison, William Philip, M.D. Ilkley Wells House, near Otley, Yorkshure. Hart, Peter. 45 Back George-street. Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. 33 Great George-street, Westminster, London, S.W. — Haywood, George Robert. 1 Newall’s Buildings, Market-street. Heelis, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 75 Princess-street. Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S. 11 East-street, Lower Mosley-street. Heys, William Henry. Hazel-grove, near Stockport. 12 DATE OF ELECTION. 1815, Jan. 27. 1883, Apr. 26. 1864, Mar. 22. 1851, Apr. 29. 1845, Apr. 29. 1848, Oct. 31. 1839, Jan. 22. 1861, Apr. 2. 1854, Jan. 24. 1855, Jan. 23. 1846, Jan. 27. 1823, Apr. 18. 1824, Jan. 23. 1863, Nov. 3. 1857, Jan. 27. 1859, Jan. 25. 1850, Apr. 30. 1821, Oct. 19. 1848, Apr. 18. 1842, Jan. 25. 1848, Jan. 24. 1852, Jan. 27. 1862, Apr. 29. 1830, Apr. 30. 1860, Jan. 24. 1863, Dec. 15. 1850, Apr. 30. 1860, Jan. 24. Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. Claremont, near Manchester. Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. sington Palace Gardens, London, W. Heywood, Oliver. Bank, St. Ann’s-street. Higgin, James. Hulme Hall Chemical Works, Chester- road. Higgins, James. Higson, Peter. 94 Cross-street. Hobson, John. Bakewell, Derbyshire. Hobson, John Thomas, Ph.D. -Alton-terrace, Gilda- brook. Holeroft, George. Holden, Isaac. Holden, James Platt. King-street. Hopkins, Thomas, M. Brit. Met. Soc. lane. Houldsworth, Henry. Newton-street Mills, 34 Little ieverkibeet, Hull, Edward, B.A., F.G.S8. 34 Windsor-place, Cheet- ham. Hunt, Edward, B.A., F.C.S. All Saints. Hurst, Henry Alexander. 26 Ken- — King-street, Salford. 5 Red Lnon-street, St. Ann’s-square. 64 Cross-street. St. James’s Chambers, 3 South 38 Broughton- 20 Devonshire-street, 61 George-street. Johnson, Richard, F.C.S. Oak Bank, Fallowfield. Jordan, Joseph, F.R.C.S. Engl. 70 Bridge-street. Joule, Benjamin St. John Baptist. Thorncliff, Old Trafford. Joule, James Prescot, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Hon. Mem. C.P.S., and Inst. Eng. seat Cons Mer Roy. Acad. Se. fen Thornchiff, Old Trafford. Kay, Samuel. 6 Fountain-street. Kennedy, John Lawson. 47 Mosley-street. Knowles, Andrew. High-bank, Pendlebury. Langton, William. Mosley-street. Latham, Arthur George. Leake, Robert. 100 Mosley-street. Leese, Joseph. Altrincham. Leigh, John, M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S. A, F.C.8. 26 Sé. John’ s-street. Manchester and Salford Bank, 24 Cross-street. 13 DATE OF ELECTION. 1839, Oct. 29. 1857, Jan. 27. 1854, Jan. 24. 1850, Apr. 30. 1855, Jan. 23. 1859, Jan. 25. 1855, Oct. 80. 1829, Oct. 30. 1838, Apr. 17. 1844, Apr. 30. 1823, Jan. 24. 1859, Jan. 25. 1849, Apr. 17. 1858, Apr. 20. 1842, Jan. 25. 1837, Jan. 27. 1864, Mar. 8. 1864, Mar. 22. 1861, Oct. 29. 1849, Jan. 23. 1864, Mar. 22. 1822, Apr. 26. 1852, Jan. 27. 1854, Feb. 7. 1860, Jan. 24. 1862, Dec. 30, 1861, Jan. 22. 1844, Apr. 30. 1861, Apr. 30. Lockett, Joseph. 100 Mosley-street. Longridge, Robert Bentink. 1 New Brown-street. Lowe, George Cliffe. 26 St. Ann’s-street. Lund, Edward, M.R.C.S. Engl.,L.S.A. 22 St. John’s- street. Lund, George Taylor. 5 Southgate, St. Mary’s. Lynde, James Gascoigne, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Town Hall. Mabley, William Tudor. 14 St. Ann’s-square. McConnel, James. Bent-hill, Prestwich. McConnel, William. 90 Henry-street, Oldham-road. ~ McDougall, Alexander. 11 Riga-street, Hanover- street. Macfarlane, John. Edge-hill House, Coney-hill, Bridge of Allan, Scotland. Maclure, John William, F.R.G.S. 2 Bond-street. Manchester, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Corr. Mem. Arch. Inst. Rome. Dhocesan Registry Office, 7 St. James’s- square. Mather, Colin. ron Works, Deal-street, Brown-street, Salford. Mellor, Thomas. 204 Oxford-street. Mellor, William. Lume Works, Ardwick. Micholls, Horatio. Micholas-street. Montefiore, Leslie J., 17 Cannon-street. Morgan, John Edward, M.B., M:A., M.R.C.P. Lond. : F.R.Med. and Chir.S. 33 King-street. Morris, David. 1 Market-place. Mudd, James. St. Ann’s-square. Neild, William. Mayfield Print Works, Buxton- street. Nelson, James Emanuel. 17 Bridgewater-place, High- street. Nevill, Thomas Henry. 19 George-street. Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Inttleborough. Ogden, Samuel. 10 Back Mosley-street. O’Neill, Charles, F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Industr. Soc. Mulhouse. 4 Bank-place, St. Phillip’s Church, Sal- ford. Ormerod, Henry Mere. 5 Clarence-street. Parlane, J ames. 10 Dickinson-street. 14 DATE OF ELECTION. 1861, Jan. 22. Parr, George, jun. 1833, Apr. 1861, Jan. 1861, Jan. 1857, Apr. 1854, Jan. 1860, Apr. 1861, Jan. 1861, Jan. 1854, Feb. 1859, Apr. 1859, Jan. 1860, Jan. 1822, Jan. 1864, Jan. 1858, Jan. 1851, Apr. 1842, Jan. 1863, Apr. 1858, Oct. 1855, Jan. 1835, Oct. 1852, Apr. 1859, Jan. 1838, Jan. 1845, Apr. 1859, Jan. 26. 22. 22. all. 24. If 22. 26. 25. Phenix Works, Chapel-street, Ancoats. Parry, John. 100 Mosley-street. Perring, John Shae, M.Inst.C.E. 104 ition Pineats Simon. 57 George-street. Platt, William Wilkinson. Jron Works, Deal-street, Brown-street, Salford. Pochin, Henry Davis. 42 Quay-street, Salford. Pocklington, Rev. Joseph Nelsey, B.A. 203 York- street, Hulme. Preston, Francis. lane, Ardwick. Ancoats Bridge Works, Limekiln- Radford, William. 41 John Dalton-street. Ramsbottom, John. Railway Station, Crewe. Ransome, Arthur, B.A., M.B. Cantab., M.R.C.S. 1 St. Peter’s-square. Rideout, William Jackson. 11 Church-street. Roberts, William, M.D., B.A., M.R.C.P. Lond. 10 Chatham-street, Piccadilly. Robinson, Samuel. Black Brook Cottage, Wilmslow. Rogerson, John. Gaythorn. é Roscoe, Henry Enfield, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Owens College. Owens College. Sandeman, Archibald, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Owens College. Owens College. Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal. Schwabe, Edmund Salis, B.A., F. Anthrop. Soe. George-street. Sever, Charles. Palatine-buildings. Sharp, Edmund Hamilton. Seymouwr-grove, Old Traf- ford. Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill. Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street. Slagg, John, jun. 12 Pall Mall. Smith, George Samuel Fereday, M.A., F.G.S, 2 Essea- street, King-street. Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Corr. Mem. I.R. Geol. Inst. Vienna. 20 Devonshire-street, All Saints, — Sowler, Thomas. 4] 4 St. Ann’s-square. 15 DATE OF ELECTION. 1851, Apr. 29. 1852, Jan. 27. 1847, Apr. 20. 1858, Jan. 26. 1863, Oct. 6. 1814, Jan, 21. 1859, Jan. 25. 1856, Jan. 22. 1860, Apr. 17. 1836, Apr. 29. 1821, Apr. 19. 1861, Apr. 30. 1857, Jan. 27. 1859, Jan. 25. 1857, Jan. 27. 1861, Oct. 15. 1858, Jan. 26. 1839, Jan. 22. 1859, Jan. 25. 1859, Apr. 19. 1853, Apr. 19. 1851, Apr. 29, 1864, Mar. 8, 1851, Jan. 21. Spence, Peter, F.C.S., M.S.A. Alum Works, Newton- heath. Standring, Thomas. 1 Piccadilly. Stephens, James, F.R.C.S., L.S.A. 68 Bridge-street. Stewart, Charles Patrick. Atlas Works, 88 Great Bridgewater-street, and Oaklands, Victoria-park. Stretton, Bartholomew. Bridgewater-place, High- street. Stuart, Robert. = a 4 © a ‘ ‘ 5 = lak f iy f ae tele i y i 4 7 ; is ” 2 oY ¥ | p ; f ; : « a ‘ 4 ; ; at + 7 arr ar mo ay ga Oe OY aa Wat?) sya al a it) HN oe ee SI ED Ep ads A A Lp ee OG SO eS EO ar OA 9 —— POST aahsoly mrorTi Sr ox ORNATE Re ES ER © SAGO 3 RAT A i asa a ia (Tre. Fa GZ. SS am eh ie ee mes Sl ere Rare prt eeEPY a ar VPEE- = = = att Men Lu. & Phil Soc Manchester, 37% Ser Voll PULV. W.West lith. T Alcock del. Menu Lit & Put. Soc: Manchester, 3" Sor Vol ll PuV he ) Va oe nn EWE AEH) yes a TM ; Ht * pink iy ox Heh a T. Alcock del. W.West lith. | } igs oe ‘q I “ a | | Mem, Tit. & Pha. Soc Man chester: 37% Sor VoL TEP Direction of Wind at Manchester at’ 8. 0am: Ree . | N.E Se ee . Sees SS ee W West LuhT ; a & } ‘ 4 r ey ) 3 ¥ et rep : 2 7 ao ' ‘ 3 ; ; . ‘ ~~ . 5 ¥, J ’ ‘Mom. 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Mean 10° 30° 18OL 40° Ill 1831 Men Tit& Phil. Sov. Manchester 3 “er Vol IL PLXIM 1g44 1851 1861 W West Lith CP yn od a Shaiyy oy Os end ee = — teehee en Ah rg wi | 3 9088 0130