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MEMOIRS

LieTERARY.

». PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

MANCHESTER;

BYAS RE Be

» MANCHESTER,

PRINTED BY Cs. WHEELER, FOR T, CADELL;~™

IN THE STRAND) LONDON,

MDCCXCIII.

na ©
4 i. oem
VED

ADVERTISEMENT.

T HE appearance of the prefent half volume,
demands an explanation from the Soctety.—A defire to
fulfil its engagement with the public as far as cir-
cumflances would permit—and alfo to comply with an
exprefs law of great importance to tts tnterefts, have
induced the Society to offer the prefent publication as
the firfi part of a volume, which was promifed
to be brought forward every two years.—It is the
intention of the Society to publifh a fecond. part early
in the year 1794.—Unavotdable delays, occafioned by
the pre-occupation of the prefs, and the dilatorinefs of
engravers, have protracted this firft part of the fourth
volume feyond the limited term.—The Society muft again
repeat, as a general declaration, that re{ponfitility for the
truth of facls, or juftnefs of opinions, to be found in this
or any future volume, refis with their, refpeclive authors.
The favourable reception by the public of the former
volumes of thefe Memcirs, at the fume time that it
demands the warmeft acknowledgments of the Society, witi

Serve powerfully to excite its future exertions.

A2

Ee

a

Lpuar the Ordinary Members only fhall be in-

vetted with the privilege of voting and eleing
Members, and that the whole pcre of the Society fhall
devolve upon them.

II. That Gentlemen refiding at a diftance from Manchef-
ter, fhall be eligible into this Society, under the title of
Honorary Members, provided no one be recommended who
has not diftinguifhed himfelf by his literary or philofophi-
cal publications,

III. That Gentlemen at a diftance, who have favoured
the Society with important communications, or from whom
{uch contributions may be expeéted, fhall be eligible,
under the title of Correfponding Members.

IV, That every Candidate for admiffion into the Society,
whether as an Ordinary, Honorary or Correfponding
Member, fhall be propofed by at leaft three Ordinary Mem-
bers, who fhall fign a certificate of his being, from their
knowledge of him, of his charafter, or his writings, a
fit perfon to be admitted into it; which certificate fhall
be read at not lefs than two fucceflive meetings of the
Society, previous to the eleétion.

V. That no ele&ion fhall be made, either of Ordinary,
Honorary or Correfponding Members, except at the Quar-
terly

vi Ty An WE S)

terly Meetings; and that notice fhall be given to each
Member, whenever a Candidate is nominated.

VI. That every ele&ion fhall be conduéted by. ballot,
and that the-majority of votes fhall decide; and that
the prefident fhall have the determining voice, if the num-
ber of votes be equal.

VII. That when an Ordinary Member removes to a
greater diftance than twenty miles from Manchefter, he
may be entitled to the continuance of the privileges of the
Society, by paying five guineas to the treafurer, in lieu of
his annual fubfcription,

VIII. That a Prefident, four Vice-Prefidents, two Se-
cretaries, a Treafurer and a Librarian, be eleéted annually
by the majority of Members prefent, on the laft Friday
in the month of April, ‘The election to be determined by
ballot.

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together with fix other Members of the Society ; and that
this Committee fhall decide by ballot concerning the publi-
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Society ; and fhall fele&t, with the confent of the au-
thor, detached parts of any Paper, the whole of which
may not be deemed proper for publication ; but that the
prefence of feven Members of the Committee hall be_
neceflary for fuch difcuffion or decifion. kel

X. That Vifitors may be introduced by any Member to
the meetings of the Society, with the permiffion of the
Chairman, ;

.
7

XI. That every Member who fhall. favour the Society
with communications, fhall fend them to one of the Secreta-~
ries, the Monday before the meeting of the Society.

XII, That

L A W 53 vii

XII. That the Secretary to whom the Paper fhall be
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or two Vice Prefidents, have the power of fufpending the
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one of the Secretaries, or by the author, in their order,

XIV. That no more than half an hour fhall be allowed
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by ballot, if required.

XV. That every Ordinary Member who produces a
Paper, fhall therewith deliver a fummary of its leading
contents, which fhall be read, paragraph by paragraph,
after the Paper, to regulate its difcuffion, - .

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fervations they may make; and, if it be difficult to command
immediate attention, it is defirable that they fhould ftand
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XVII. That authors be requefted to furnifh the Society
with an epitome of their Papers, which may be read at the

meeting fucceeding the reading of each Paper, and the
difcuffion renewed,

XVIII. That each Ordinary Member fhall pay one guinea
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tablifh a fund for the benefit of the Society, Each Member
on his ele€ion to pay his Subfcription for the current half
year, together with one guinea admiffion fee,

XIX. That

Vill L AW S.

XIX. That each of the Vice Prefidents, in rotation,
undertake his office, for one month; during which
term he fhall take the chair, in the abfence of the
Prefident, at feven o’clock precifely: It is hoped that
he will furnifh articles of intelligence; and when no pa-
per is before the Society, it is expefted that he provide a
fubje& for difcuffion,

XX. That no Laws fhall be enafted, refcinded or altered,
but at the quarterly meetings, on the laft Fridays in the
months of January, April, and O&ober; and that notice
fhall be given, at leaft fourteen days previous to thofe
meetings.

XXI. That the Society fhall publifh a volume of mifcel-
Janeous papers, at leaft every two years. And that at
ftated times, the Committee fhall fele& from the papers
which have been read to the Society, fuch as fhall ap-
pear to be moft worthy of publication, but that no paper
fhall be publifhed without the confent of the author. That
every paper, voted for publication by the Committee of ~
Papers, fhall be fent to the prefs without delay; that notice
of the printing fhall be given to the author, and that he be
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XXII. That a Library be formed for the ufe of the
Members of this Society, and that the Librarian be autho-
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taken out of the Library, without leave of the Librarian,
limiting the time of keeping it to feven days,

XXIII. That the Refolution to eftablifh a Library be an-
nounced to the Honorary and Correfponding Members of
the Society ; and that it be intimated to them by the Secre-
taries, that donations of their paft ang future publications
will be highly acceptable,

XXIV. That

1 LA AWS. 1x

XXIV, That a cotp mrpat fhall be given to the au-
thor of the moft valuable experimental paper, containing
fome important difcovery relative to the arts and manufac-
tures of Manchefter, which fhall have been delivered to
the Secretaries, and read at the ordinary meeting of the
Society, before the laft Friday in March 1794.

XXV. That the adjudication of this premium be referred
to the Committee of Papers; that their decifion fhall be
made by ballot, and that the medal fhall be delivered by
the Prefident to the perfon to whom it fhall have been ad-
judged, or to his reprefentative, at the firft meeting of the
Society in O&ober 1794.

XXVI. That two sirver MEDALS fhall be given annually,
one to the author of the -beft Effay on a Literary, and ano-
ther to the beft on a Philofophical Subjeé&, which fhall have
been read at the Society during the courfe of the feafon; to
be-determined by the Committee of Papers,

B -AELIST

SSOQQQ@q@{[Teeeooeeeeee
4a
LIST OF THE MEMBERS,

* Thomas Percival, M.D. F.R.S. & S.A.
Member of the Royal Societies of
Edinb. Paris, and Lyons; of the Acad. }Prefident,
of Arts and Sciences; and of the
Philof. Soc. in America; &c.

* Charles White, Efq. F. R. S. Honorary}

Member R. M. S. & Corref. Mem,
R, S. A. in Scotland, &c. &c,

*Mr, Thomas Henry, F. R. S. of the
Royal Phyfical Society of Edinb. and
of the American Philofoph. Society at et
Philadelphia.

* John Ferriar, M. D.

* Rev. John Radcliffe, A. M. ' Fellow
of Braz. Nofe Coll. Oxford, and
Keeper of the Cheetham Library at |
Manchefter.

* Mr. Samuel Harvey.

* Samuel Argent Bardfley, M. D.

* Mr, William Simmons, Librarian,

* Benjamin Arthur Heywood, Efq. Treafurer,

Mr. John Atkinfon,

Mr. Jofeph Baker,

i Guncctdane

Rev. Thomas

S SNS

( xi )
Rev. Thomas Barnes, D. D. Member of the American Philofoph,
Soc. at Philadelphia,
Mr. Thomas Barrit,
Mr, John Barrow.
Thomas Butterworth Bayley, Efq. F. R. S.°
Michael Bentley, Efq.
George Bew, M. D.
Mr, John Bill,
Mr, John Birch.
Mr. Charles Frederic Brandt,
Mr. Peter Campbell,
Mtr. Edward Chefshyre,
Mr. Afhworth Clegg.
Mr. Jofeph Collier.
Robert Darbey, M. D.
Mr. Robert Delap.
Mr. James Dinwiddie.
John Drinkwater, M. D.
Peter Drinkwater, Efq.
Mr, George Duckworth,
Mr, Samuel Greg.
Mr, Gavin Hamilton,
Mr. Thomas Hatfield.
Rev. Wilham Hawkes.
* William Hay, Efgq. Barrifter,
Mr. Charles Hay.
Mr. James Holt.
Mr. Thomas Hoyle.
* Robert James, Efq. Barrifter,
Mr. Thomas Kerfhaw.
Mr. William Lamb.
Mr. John Lawrence,
* Mr. George Lee,
* George Lloyd, Efq. Barrifter,
* Mr. Charles Macnivan,
Mr. S. Marfland.
James Maffey, Efq.
Mr, John Mather.
John Mitchel, M, D,
Mr, John Nabh,
: fs Be Mr,

(sh j
Mr. Thomas Nicholfon.
Mr. John Orme,
Mr. John Owen.
* Mr. George Philips.
Mr. John Philips.
Mr. Robert Philips.
Mr. Thomas Philips.
Mr. James Potter.
‘Mr. Thomas Richardfon.
Mr. Thomas Robinfon,
Mr. William Robinfon.
Mr. George Rupp.
Mr. George Wakefield.
Mr. Michael Ward.
Mr. James Watkins.
Mr. John Bradfhaw White. .

Thofe marked thus * are of the Committee of Papers,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

William Alexander, M. D. Halifax.

Dr. Aftbury, Newcaftle-under-Line.

Dr. Campbell, Lancatfter.

Mr. Thomas Dawfon, Sedbergh.

Thomas Garnett, M. D, Harrogate.

Dr. Gibelin, of Aix.

Mr. J. Gough, Kendal.

Mr. Thos. Henry, junr. Amlwch, Anglefey.
Mr. Frederic Hoffman, Berlin.

John Lyon, M. D. Liverpool.

Mr. Francis Nichols,

Dr. Peadlé, of Aix.

Robert Riddell, of Glenriddell, Efg. F. A. S. &e.
Dr. Waterhoufe, of Cambridge, New-England.
Mr. Thomas Willis, London,
‘HONORARY

(| xii)

HONORARY MEMBERS,

John Aikin, M.D.

James Anderfon, L. L. D. &c.

Felix Vicq. d’Azyr, R.S. Med. Par. San R.S. Se. Soc. &e,

Sir George Baker, Bart. F. R. S. Medic, Reg.

Sir Jofeph Banks, P. R. S. &c. &c,

James Beattie, L. L. D.

Monfieur Berthollet, Reg. Ac. Scient. P. Soc. &c.

Patrick Brydone, Efq. F. R.S.

Mr. John Buchanan.

Edwood Chorley, M. D.

James Currie, M. D.

Erafmus Darwin, M.D. F. R. S.

Edward Hufley Delaval, Efq. F. R. S. Reg. S.S. Ropitiog!
and Upfal and Inftit. Bologn, Soc.

The Hon. Sir John Talbot Dillon, Knight, and Baron of the
Holy Roman Empire.

Captain John Drinkwater.

Rev. William Enfield, L.-L. D.

William Falconer, M.D. F. R. S.

Anthony’Fothergill, M.D. F. R. S.

Rev. M. Froffard, D. D. Sec. Reg. S. Agric. Lyons,

Girtanner, M.D. F.R.S. Edinb. &c.

Rev. George Gregory, D. D. Prebendary of Chifwick, in
the Cathedral of St. Paul, and Domeftic Chaplain to the
Lord Bifhop of Landaff.

William Hawes, M., D.

John Haygarth, M. B. F.R.S. Lond. and Edinb, &c.

Mr. William Hey, F. R. S.

Mr, George Hibbert,

Alexander Hunter, M.D. F. R.S.

James Johniftone, M. D.

Richard Kirwan, Efq. F.R.S. &c.

Right Rev. Richard Watfon, Lord Bifhop of Landaff,

BP Res, dee, ’

Right Rev. Beilby, Lord Bifhop of London.

Monfieur Lavoifier, Reg, Ac, Scient, Par. Soc.

John Coakley Letfom, M. D, F,R, S, and S, A,

Mr, Patrick Mac Morland, Henry

{ ia” 9

Henry Moyes, M. D.

Rev. John Pope,

Monfieur Poitevin.

Monfieur Roland Platiere,

Rev, Jofeph Prieftly, L. L, D. F. R. S.

Mr. William Rathbone,

Mr. William Rofcoe,

Benjamin Rufh, M. D. Prof. of the Theory and Pragtice of
Medicine at Philadelphia, &c.

Samuel Foart Simmons, M.D. F. R. S. and R. S. M. P.

Rev. George Travis, A. M. Archdeacon of Chefter,

Sig. Alexander Volta, Profeflor of Experimental Philofophy
at Como; &c,

Rev. Gilbert Wakefield, B. D.

Jofiah Wedgwood, Efq. F. R. S. &c. &e,

Rev. John Whittaker, B. D. F- S- A.

Arthur Young, Efq. F. R. S.

’

CONTENTS,

—— '

CoRRIGENDUM.

Dag. 133, for Horres r. Forres.

CONTENTS.

Reasons for fuppofing that Laxes have been more
numerous than they are at prefent ; with an Attempt
to affign the Caufes whereby they have been defaced.
By J. Goucu, of Kennar.—Communicated by
Dr. Percivat. - mv re GN Adg

An Arcument againft the Doctrine of Mate-
RIALISM, addreffed to Tuomas Cooper, E/q.
—By Joun Ferrtar, M. D. - Pp. 20.

Comments on Sterne. By Joun Ferrzar,
M. D. - - - P- 45-

An Account of, and Obfervations on different Brue
Coxours, produced form the mother Water of -
Soda Phofporata, &c. By Mr. Tuomas Wits,
of Lonpon.—Communicated by Mr. ‘THomas

Henry, F.R.S. &e. - - p- 87.

On the Impreffion of Reality attending Dramatic Re-
prefentations, by J. Arx1tn, M. D.—Communicated
by Dr. Pexcrvat. - . p- 96.

On the Uses of Crassicat Learnine, by the Rev.
Grorce Grecory, D. D. Prebendary of Curs-
wick, and Domeftic Chaplain to the Lord Bithop
of Lanparr. Addreffid to Dr. Percivat, p. 109.

A Di-

xvi. CONTENTS:

A Differtation upon the Ancient Carvep Srone
Monuments, in ScoTtanp, with a@ particular
Account of one in Dumfriesfhire. By Roserr
Rippett, of Glenriddell, Efq. Captain of an

_ Independent Company of Foot, F. A. S. and
Correfponding Member of the Literary and Pli-

— Lofophical Society of Manchefler,- — - p- 13%.

-Osservations on ArpuasericaL CHARACTERS 5
and particularly on the Encuisn Axpuaser : with
an Attempt to fhew its Infufficiency to exprefs, with
due precifion, the Variety of Sounds, which enrich
the Language.—By Mr. Samutt Harvey. p. 135.

On the Action of Metarurc Oxypes and Eartus
upon O1xs, in low Degrees of Heat. By Mr.
Perer Henry.—Communicated by Mr. ‘Tuomas
Henry, F.R.S. &e. - - Pp 209.

An Account of an ancient Mode of Sepulture in
Scottanp. By Mr. Arexanper Copranp.—
Communicated by Dr. Percivat. - p. 217.

Meteorotocicat Osservations made on dif-
ferent Parts of the Wzstern Coast of Great
Britain: arranged by 'T. Garnett, M. D.
Phyfician at Harrogate. - - p> 234.

MEMOIRS

LITERARY ann PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

Reasons for fuppofing that Laxzs have been more
numerous than they are at prefent; with an Attempt
to affign the Caufes whereby they have been defaced.
By J. Goucu, of Kenpar. — Communicated by
Dr. Percivat.

W HEN we confider what numbers of fubmarine
» productions are found in the bowels of
the earth, we are in a manner compelled to
conclude, that the prefent inhabitable parts of our
globe have, at fome unknown period, emerged
from the bofom of the ocean; and, if we attend
to the diforderly difpofition of the ftrata, with
‘other marks of violence which are every where
to be met with, it is no lefs confpicuous, that
a this

2 Reafons for fuppofing that

this grand revolution has been produced by fubter-
raneous convulfions. Why, then, are Lakes fo
few in number?—is a queftion which, at the firft
view, prefents itfelf to the mind. Lakes are either
depreffions or chafms in the ground, where the
waters of the neighbouring country are collected.
And, if whole continents have been torn up,
and have had their continuity every where broken,
why are not cavities proper for forming fuch
refervoirs more frequent ?

This view of the fubje& certainly offers a formi-
dable objection to the received theory of the
formation of land, which ought to be attended to.
I will therefore make it the bufinefs of the prefent
eflay to enquire, whether it can be fairly obviated
by an attention to the refources of Nature, and to
that gradual progrefs from a rude to a more perfect
{tate, which the obferves in all her works.

We know that the face of the earth is not now
what it was formerly. Mountains, whofe acclivities
are at prefent eafy and gentle, were once inaccef-
fible through rocks and precipices. Large diftricts
of land, which, at one period of time, wete
obftructed with fragments of ftones, and buried in
athes, -have been gradually fertilized by the remains
of decayed vegetables, and the decompofition of
volcanic fubftances. Some rivers have deferted their
ancient channels, whilft others have been entirely
loft. All thefe great changes have been effected
without violence, by the action of flight but

inceffant

Lakes have been more numerous, &c. 3

snceflant caufes: And why may not lakes have
fuffered injuries fimilar to thofe to which the
other great works of creation are fubject; and have
been demolifhed or totally deftroyed, like rivers,
rocks, or volcanos? —that analogy of conduct and
defign, which pervades the whole vifible fyftem of
things, at leaft authorizes the fuppofition.

_ We will therefore, jfirft, enquire what means are
in the poffeffion of Nature for producing fuch a
revolution; and, then, endeavour to difcover,
whether any proofs of fuch alterations having taken
place are ftill extant. —This method of proceeding
feems beft calculated, either, to remove the objec-
tion, or to eftablifh it.

Vegetation is a favorite procefs with nature: for
fhe has not only cloathed the plains’ and eminen-
‘ces with herbs and trees, but has alfo appropriated
feveral fpecies, and fome whole genera to the water,
for which element they are evidently intended by
the fingularity of their ftruéture. Every part of
a lake abounds with vegetables, where its depth will
“permit them to grow, and this circumftance is, for
the moft part, regulated by the variety of plants
produced in it, and the climate where it is fituated.
—The fterility of deep waters depends on the fol-
lowing caufes: Every plant muft be placed in
‘a fituation where the temperance of the furrounding
water never defcends below a point fixed by the
‘conftitution of the plant; otherwife, lofes its
"vegetative powers. Succeffive and increafing degrees
ios B2 of

4 Reafons for fuppofing that

of heat are, alfo, requifite for its growth and flow-
ering. Add to this, that the temperature of the
bottom of a lake is very different in different parts;
becaufe, as the depth of the water increafes, its heat
becomes lefs variable, being always nearly equal to
the annual mean of the country: but the tempera-
ture of parts where the depth is inconfiderable is
nearly as inconftant as that of the air. Such plants,
therefore, as demand a degree of warmth nearly
equal to that of the Atmofphere in fummer, are
_ always found in fhallow places; fuch as are of a colder
conftitution fix their abode in deeper regions; but
if any part of a lake be colder than the conftitution
of the coldeft plant produced in it will bear, that
part is neceffarily barren.—Aquatic vegetables, at
certain periods, lofe their vegetative powers, in com-
mon with thofe that grow on land: But, while the
latter are converted to earth, and afford additional
fertility to the foil that raifed them; the former
preferve their figure, and, in part, retain their
texture for ages; for water poffeffes an antifeptic
virtue, that prevents the decompofition of vegetable
fubftances immerfed in it. When Julius Cefar
invaded Britain, the natives fortified a ford in the
Thames, by driving pointed ftakes into the bed of
the river, with a view of retarding the progrefs of
the Roman Army. A number of thefe ftakes were
pteferved undecayed, undoubtedly by their fituation,
in the time of Rapin the hiftorian, who wrote
about the beginning of this century, To account for

this

Lakes have been more numerous, €&'c. 5

this antifeptic virtue, nothing more is neceffary than
to recollect, that water protects all bodies, covered
by it from the injuries of the air. Ifa vegetable be
thrown into this fluid, all its mucilage and gum will
be foon extracted ; but the refin, the woody fibre,
and the cellular fubftance of the pith are not foluble
in this element. Their decompofition, therefore,
muft entirely depend on fermentation, a procefs
which cannot take place without a free expofure to
the atmofphere, which communication is, in this
cafe, precluded by the interpofition of fo unfa-
vorable a medium. Few water plants acquire the
properties of wood, unlefs the cany appearance of
fome gtaffes deferves the appellation; but they in
general contain lefs mucilage, and more pith than
others, confequently, their texture is lefs fufceptible
of injury from maceration. After having properly
confidered the foregoing obfervations, fhould any
one furvey a pond well ftored with aquatic herbage,
the following remarks can fcarcely fail of receiving
his approbation.

The cavity which is, at prefent, the receptacle
of a pool, will, in procefs of time, be occupied
by a ftratum of folid matter, which will confift
of the remains of ‘its own produce gradually
accumulated and preferved by the water which
is intimately mixed with them, and which pro-
tedis them from decay. ‘The fubftance with
which it is conftantly filling will acquire a com-
pacinefs nearly uniform in eyery part, by the plants

of

6 ~ Reafons for fuppofing that

of each generation interweaving their: fibres with
the remains of their predeceffors; and by the
depofitions of the water, which, falling to the
bottom, will be lodged in its interftices. All
foreign bodies, brought hither by accident, will in
time be buried in the increafing foil, where they
will remain for ages, without undergoing any

changes, befides thofe, which are produced by,

the folvent power of water on particular fub-
ftances. Should the water be moft fhallow at the
fides, and increafe in depth as you advance to the
middle, which is generally the cafe, the margin
of the pond will be progreffively advanced, and its
furface contra&ed in proportion, If any part of it
be too cold to favor vegetation, that part will. ftill
- remain a pool furrounded with a flat, fedgy border.
If it be fupplied and emptied by two rivulets, the
intermediate current will. preferve itfelf a. channel
through the growing land, Laftly, the folid plain,
‘thus produced, will, in time, be covered with a
bed of vegetable earth, whofe thicknefs will deter-
mine the difference of high and low water-mark;
for the matter tetween thofe two limits, being
alternately wet and dry, will, at particular periods,
-be expofed to the action of the air, and will, con-
fequently, be decompofed, and changed into
mold,

This method of converting a pond into land
‘evidently points out a procefs that would diminifh
the inequalities of a difordered continent: And, if

we

Ee Pe ee IS

Lakes have been more numerous, -&c. 7

we leave fpeculation to compare the theory with what
has paffed in the world, we fhall find every reafon
to believe, that the plan fuggefted by reflexion has
been employed by nature in performing the oufinefs
in queftion: For, it is upon this Principle alone,
that we can account for the produétion of thofe flat
marfhes that fupply many countries in the north of
Europe with fuel. Several circumftances concur
to demonftrate, that thefe fwamps are indebted for

their prefent appearance to the procefs defcribed

above; and perhaps it will not be improper to
mention a number of faéts in this place, that feem
well calculated to eftablifh the opinion. Could we
remove from one of them all the peculiar foil
whereby it is diftinguifhed from the furrounding
Jand, the cavity left after the operation would foon
be converted into a lake; for in every bog there is
a quantity of water always ready to occupy any
depreffion that will anfwer the puipofe of a refer-
voir. And, in fact, humidity is fo neceffary to the
prefervation of this kind of earth, that when it is
expofed to the air it lofes its diftinguilhing properties,
and is changed into mold. Theve is another cir-
cumfiance in which the woiks of Nature correfpond
accurately with the theory ; for, in feveral marthes,
very deep ponds are fill to be met with. In fome
places they are open, and prefent themfelves to
the fight; but in others, they are dangerous pits,
which are more or lefs concealed by a thin cruft
formed by aquatic plants, that float on the furface

) of

$ Reafons for Juppofing that

of the water without vache their roots to the
bottom.

The matter of Peat- is silat of vegetable
Origiit, as well as the treacherous covering men-
tioned above. ‘The ufe to which it is commonly
applied, fhews that it is fit for combuftion ; and its
afhes contain a quantity of fixed Alkali; which is
rarely, however, pure, or free from mineral falts.
If we examine its ftructure, it will be difcovered to
confift principally of flexible, branched fibres, va-
rioufly interwoven, and twifted together. Their
arrangement proves, that they grew where they
are lodged; and that they were not brought into
their prefent fituation by any extraordinary agent,
fuch as an inundation; for, had this been the cafe,
inftead of a compact fubftance, we fhould have
found an incoherent mafs of heterogeneous things,
thrown loofely together without texture or connection.
The lighteft and moft porous parts, being firft fa-
turated with humidity, would have defcended to the
bottom; whilftthe more compact fubftances, being
leaft capable of receiving an addition to their weight
by imbibing water, would have remained in the
higheft place. ‘Thus we fhould have found the
materials of a f{wamp difpofed in /ftrata according to
their texture and fpecific gravity, provided they had
all been depofited at the fame time in their prefent
fituation; which fuppofition cannot be true, becaufe
it is contradictory to Fact. The light, friable earth
‘intermixed with thefe fibres has originated from the

decompofition

Lakes have been'more numerous, &c. %

decompofition of fuch leaves as commonly float on
the furface of every pool, and aré expofed to the
air. Their remains, being precipitated along with
other accidental impurities, have fubfided in form.
of mud, which has afterwards been covered with
the vegetation of fucceeding years: Such is the
internal Rructure of marfhes, where the produce
of the original lake has alone been employed in
their compofition.

But fince it is known, that they contain bodies,
which are not natives of the water, foreign agents
have certainly contributed to their formation: for,
in digging for peat, feveral kinds of trees are difco-
vered, lying horizontally, at different diftances
below the furface. They are commonly furrounded
with the natural foil of the bog, and are rarely
feen in conta& with its bottom. From this circum-
ftance it is evident, that the inferior part of the
fibrous matter was formed before they camé into
the fituation in which they are found. It fre-
quently happens that they all lie nearly in one
direction, and are confined to a particular part of
the marfh. Some are found; others more or lefs
decayed. Some are mutilated and broken; others,
nearly entire. In fine, the entraneous matter of
afwamp perfectly refembles the refufe of a river |
flowing through a woody country. In the north
of England, it confifts principally of oak, ath, fir,
feveral fpecies of willow, birch, and alder. Befides
thefe, a great variety of leave# are dug tip, with

B hazel

10 Reafons for fuppofing that

hazel nuts, the cones of birch and alder, a number
of moffes, and.fome ferns. I think we may fafely:

conclude, that thefe fubftances have been brought:

by rivers, after heavy rains, into the primitive
lakes; or, that they have been blown, from off
their branches where they grew, into the water;
that the trees have then been driven by the wind,
which, in fheltered places, can only blow in certain,
directions, into parts obftructed by weeds, and;

have there been entangled and prevented from —

moving till, their weight growing fpecifically greater
than that of the fluid whereby they were fupported,.
they have funk in fuch a pofition, that the direc-

tion of the. prevailing wind is commonly pointed.

out by the direction of their branches. ‘The fore-
going. fads feem futficient to fhew how well the.
theory is fupported by the evidence of nature.
I will, therefore quit this part of the enquiry;
but, before the fubje& is difmiffed, will take the
liberty of fubjoining the following obfervations,,

which may perhaps be acceptable to the naturalift.
Firt: I have been informed by perfons well
acquainted with our marfhes, that the yew makes.
a part of the foffil wood of the North of England;
but it isfo rarely found, that I have not hitherto
been able to procure a fpecimen of it, though.
confiderable endeavours have been made to obtain,
one, as fuch an acquifition would incontrovertibly,
prove the tree to be a native of this Ifland, a cir-
cumftance | which has been. difputed of late, But
_ fince

Lakes have been more numerous, €&'c. 1t

fince thofe from whom my information was received
had no intereft in propagating a falfehood, their
teftimony may be relied on; and the yew will be
found to have a very good claim to be accounted
ind genous, becaufe the abundance of foffil vege-
tables concealed in our marfhes proves that they
were formed when the land was over-run with
wood. Britain, therefore, numbered the yew
amongft her productions, before agriculture and
the art of planting were known to her inhabit-
ants.

Secondly: It is highly probable, that an
obferving perfon might eafily determine to what
height the hills of this ifland have been anciently
covered with wood: for fwamps are frequent on
the fides of mountains, forming horizontal planes
that interrupt their declivities. In fome of thefe,
which are much elevated, no trees are found ;
but I know a fmall -one between two and three
hundred yards above the level of the furrounding
country, which abounds in Birch, and have been
informed of another, where Fir is plentiful.

Thirdly: A thin bed of peat often covers the
floping fides of hills, where the ground is full of
fprings, but it differs in texture from the foil of
Slat bogs, as appears from the different methods
obferved in digging them: for the country people
cut the latter horizontally; but, in working the
former, they firike their fpades perpendicularly
down; otherwife the parts detached by this ope-

Bia ration

12 Reafons for Sutoafine that

ration would crumble to pieces; for the ffratum
confifts of the roots of the Juncus campeftris, heath,
and other alpine plants connected ina very loofe
manner,

To return to the fubject of the effay, it may be
fafely taken for granted, that the marfhes of every
country are fimilar to thofe of the north of England,
Hence it follows that Lakes have once exifted in
every part of our Globe; and that they have been
defaced by the fame caufes which have produced
like effects in this part of the world. But nature
is not confined to the procefs defcribed above,
She has other refources, which make a part of this
inquiry, and ftill remain to be attended to,—In
order to proceed with fome degree of perfpicuity,
it will be neceflary to premife the following cir-
cumftances, which muft have attracted the notice
of every one who has dedicated any part of his
time to the examination of the phenomena obfer-
vable in mountainous regions.

The compacteft' firata of the earth, when expofed
to the atmofphere, are broken into pieces, as is
evident from the immenfe heaps of {tones which
are found lying at the foot of every precipice,
confifting of fragments that are continually detached
from it by the injuries of the air, and have been
accumulating for ages.

The truth of this propofition will be further con-
firmed by infpeCting the fide of a hill after the foil is
taken away; for it appears to bemade up of maffes of

ftone

Lakes have been more numerous, &'c. 13

ftone of no determined fize or figure; and the want
of coherency is apt to give the obferver an idea, that
the whole eminence is conftruéted in the fame loofe ~
manner. But, if the fuperficial rubbifh be re-
amoved, the appearance of a folid rock will over-
turn the hafty conclufion. No kind of matter enters
in any confiderable proportion, into the firata of
the north of England, that is proof to the injuries
of the atmofphere. ‘The argillaceous faxa are moft
fufceptible of its influence; and even the lofty
ridges of limeftone, that are found in various parts
of this county, are, in fome places, fo far demo-
lifhed by the hand of time, as tobe nearly buried
in their ownruins. ‘The knowledge of this method
of decompofing the hardetft fannie: in the world,
enables us to explain in a very eafy manner the
formation of the deep channels, along which the
rivulets of a mountain are conwéyed from its
_fummit to the neighbouring vallies. For thefe rills,
which in dry weather are fo infignificant as to glide
unfeen among the afperities of the hollows where
they run, are liable to be converted by heavy rains
into furious torrents that carry all before them.
It is on thefe occafions, that the loofe fragments of
their Rony bottoms are. fwept away, and driven to
the lower ground, leaving a new furface of the
rock expofed to the atmofphere, which in time is
broken up by its action, and afterwards removed
by the impetuofity of fucceeding floods. The
frequent repetition of thefe deftructive operations

’ has,

ae Reafons for fuppofing that

has, in fome places, demolifhed the hardeft ftrata
to a depth fcarcely to be credited. Now it is
evident, that, where the fame caufes have been
applied to the bank of a lake, they could ‘not fail
of producing the like effects as when exerted on
the fide of a hill. It may, therefore, be taken for
granted, that the outlet of every lake has been
more or le’s injured in the manner defcribed above. '
This conclufion. being admitted, the following
confequences muft immediately be affented to;
becaufe they depend on the fimpleft laws of rice
ftatics. ©

Firft: Wherever this procefs has taken place,
the dimenfions of the water contained in the refer-
voir always diminifhed as the depth of the channel
increafed through which the fuperfluous part was
difcharged. .

Secondly: Its banks were gradually enlarged;
and the inequalities of the bafon began to rife
above the furface, and affumed the appearance of
iflands.

- Laftly: Wherever the fituation of the difcharg-
ing river would permit its bed to be worn to the
level of the loweft part of the refervoir, the Lake
has difappeared; and we find, at prefent, a valley
in its room, containing very ftrong proofs of its
own formation in the ffratum of fand and pebbles
with which its fides are covered. The particular
fituation of the outlet here alluded to depends on
the figure of the bank where it is placed, which

muft

Lakes have been more numerous, €'c. ts

muft not only be fteep, but its defcent muft alfo be
continued. low@r than the bafon, otherwife the lake
cannot be totally defaced. For when a ftream
' takes up. a number of heavy bodies, it depofits them
again as. foon as its velocity begins to diminifh; the
largeft firft, and the-lefs in fucceffion, according to.
their bulks and comparative weights. Hence it
appears, that the lower parts of the channel are
continually rifing from the acceffion of frefh mate-
rials; and the upper end is gradually depreffed by
the removal of the fame, till the whole becomes a
gentle declivity, down which the current will glide,
no longer capable of difturbing the impediments
lying in its way: confequently, the form and
dimenfions of its bed will become permanent.
Now, if the lower mouth of a lake arrive at this
fiate before it is fufficiently worn away, a part of
its refervoir will for ever remain undrained, unlefs
it happen to be deranged by violent caufes; or to
be filled up with fand and pebbles brought from the
adjacent country, by the rivers which flow into it.
After thefe deftructive operations have ceafed of
themfelves, there is reafon to apprehend, from what
has been difcovered by Philofophers, that the fame
procefs would be continued with equal certainty,
though not with equal effect, for the conftituent
particles of water are fufficiently hard to abrade
the furfaces of very compact bodies; it having been
proved by experiment, that the cohefion of glafs
_ itfelf is not firong enough to refift their action.
| The

76 ‘ Reafons for fuppofing that

The confideration of this fact would induce one to
imagine, that the bed of a river undergoes infen-
fible changes from the friction of its own ftream,
after it ceafes to be expofed to the more manifeft
ravages of a torrent. Buta little attention to the
ceconomy of nature will remove the fufpicion, by
pointing out a fimple preventive, which fhe ufes to
obviate the inconveniency. For when a pebble
‘has been a while depofited in water, it is covered
with feveral of the imperfec? plants, moft commonly
with the conferva rivularis, and different fpecies of
tremella. ‘Thefe fingular productions of the vege-
table kingdom are enabled by fome peculiarities of
their conftitution to bear the friction of a ftream
without receiving the leaft injury: And, to what-
ever circumftance this property is owing, it is plain
that the fubftances in queftion, while they provide
for their own fecurity, muft enfure the protection
of whatever they envelop. By fpreading over
every part in contact with the water, they preferve
one continued furface, and prefent themfelves entire
‘and uninterrupted to the aétion of the current ;
and by occupying the crevices arifing from the
inequalities of contiguous ftones, they forma kind
of cement, in which the lighter fragments being
entangled, are prevented from being moved by
every trivial force. ‘Thus is permanence given to
the courfe of every river by this fimple provifion of
nature; and bounds are fet to a procefs, which
without it muft have been unlimited.

I have

Lakes have been more numerous, &c. 17

Ihave now enumerated the various caufes that
contribute to the transformation of Lakes, by the
gradual enlargement of their outlets, and have
pointed out thofe circumftances, which in procefs
of time unavoidably hinder future alterations of
the kind. It will therefore be proper, in confor-
mity to the plan of the effay, to confirm the truth
of the theory by the following remarks, which I
truft will not be found contradictory to the expe-
rience of any one, who has had an opportunity to
make fimilar obfervations.

_ There are many vallies in the north of England,
which, if we may judge from their appearance,
have formerly been filled with water. ‘The coves
which feem fcooped out of the fides of feveral hills
are perhaps the moft fingular objects of the kind.
The entrance into one of thefe places always lies
through a narrow pafs, between two fteep banks.
A rivulet moft commonly flows through this open-

' ing, which, in fome cafes, conveys away the

fuperfluous water of a bafon lying in the centre
of the natural amphitheatre. If the courfe of this
ftream be traced to fome part where its declivity
is interrupted by a plane, the obferver may have
an opportunity of difcovering what has once been
iis employment. For he will frequently find it
flowing along a channel confiderably elevated by a

_ broad bed of pebbles. ‘The fragments conftituting
this ridge are in all probability the remains of.a

C rock,

i8 Reafons for fuppofing that

rock, that formerly occup'’ed the opening which
is now the entrance to the cove.

Befides thefe, there are other vallies of greater
extent, and more diftant from the fummits of the
hills, which appear to be the worn-out refervoirs of
ancient lakes. For, in them, the natural trate
of the country are buried under deep beds of fand
and pebbles. Their fides are frequently diverfified
with little eminences, which, in figure and ftruc-
ture, very much refemble the banks that are thrown
up by currents: But their elevation above the
neighbouring rivers forbids us to imagine that they
were formed by them, as it is not uncommon to
meet with fmall hills of the kind many yards abeve
the limits of the greateft floods, but at the fame
time, it is evident that they have been raifed by
ftreams of confiderable force, as they confift wholly
of rolled ftones, arranged in ftrata with beds of fand
hetween them. ‘The fineft fand is found in the
loweft and moft fequeftered places of thefe hoilows,
in fuch fituations as theory afligns to it on the
fuppofition that the bottom of a lake is the leaft
agitated by ftorms, where the water is deepeft.

In many places it is as fmall as that thrown up
by the fea; but it differs in this refpect — fea-fand
is more ‘or lefs mixed with fhells, but this contains
none, though the lime-ftone that is often found in
the neighbourhood abounds with them. From this
fa& it may be very properly inferred, that the
matter in queftion is of a more recent date, than

the’

Lakes have been more numerous, @&c. 19

the primitive ftrata of the furrounding country;
and that the tides of the ocean were not concerned
in lodging it where we now find it. For though
it would be folly to feek for fhells in the heaps of
pebbles defcribed above, becaufe they would be
unavoidably crufhed to pieces, during the formation
of thefe eminences, by the fragments of which
they confift being thrown forcibly together by the
currents; yet, it is equally evident, that the gentler
undulations of the water would tranfport fuch light
fubftances along with the fineft particles of ftone
into the calmeft parts of the refervoir, and there
leave them to fubfide together. On this account
it is highly reafonable to fuppofe, that the beds of
fand here alluded to are not productions of the fea;
but that they have been depofited by rivers, which,
after running over ftrata ina ftate of decompofition,
difcharged all the impurities collected in their
refpective courfes into vallies full of water at the
time; and that the rubbifh, which now covers their
fides, confifts of thefe impurities, difpofed in their
prefent order and arrangement, by the currents-of
the primitive lakes.

ot
Kendal, Fune 16, 1790.

20 An Argument againft

An Arcument againft the Doctrine of Materratsm,.
addrefjed to ‘(Tuomas Cooper, Efg. — By Joun
Ferriar, M.D.

READ NOVEMBER 12, 1790,

AN TOTI MORIMUR ? NULLAQUE PARS MANET
Nosrri?

Senec. Troad. Aé, 2.

.

HEN you were employed, fome time ago,
my good friend, in fubjecting the Doctrines
of the Immaterialifts to the terrible Ordeal of your
Logic, you may remember, that in one of our
converfations, I objected to the Material hypothefis
thofe fads collected by Dr. Haller, which prove
that great and extenfive injuries have been many
times fuftained by the Brain, without detriment
to the thinking faculty. You thought-the objec-
tion inconclufive, and noticed it as fi * though
not then aware of its full force, I was pleafed to
fee it introduced by you; thofe important Cafes
(noticed by Dr. Haller for other purpofes} being
totally neglected, as far as I have obferved, by
every Writer on this queftion, but yourfelf.
It

* Tra&ts, vol, 1, p. 181, Note,

Oe, ee

the Doétrine of Materialifin. of

It is natural to expect, that proofs which convince:
“ourfelves fhould alfo convince others ; yet, though:
I confider the medical facts as almoft demonftrating
that the Brain is the Inftrument only, not the
Caufe of the reafoning Power, I entertain no hope
of their converting one thorough Materialift.
Hypothefis is a Miftrefs not eafily abandoned, and
equally courted by Philofophers of both fides.

Tt is faid of Democritus, that perceiving his
figs to relifh of honey, one day, he made a problem
of the incident, and was proceedivg to folve it,
when his Attendant confeffed that- fhe had kept the-
figs in a pot which had formerly contained honey.
The Philofopher was enraged, and complained
that by this familiar explanation, he was deprived
of a more important Caufe of his own invention.
Many writers feem to have inherited the fpirit
of the old Grecian, in the prefent Conteft.. ‘They
have run their Metaphyfical career without ftopping.
to enqu re for facts, and there has been great fport,
in the erection and demolition of the fanciful
_ Opinious which each party has brought into play ;

or Xr

2%, Ore Tig Vadwabov wdis ayy Seddooys,
7 24 a Ey s >fA./ é

O¢ t Exel gy Tomo abupuera vyméeyor,

a is >
Awl duris Cuvéyeve wooly ual yepalv, &bvowv.*

~ Your Philofophy is of mature age, and defies
the application; but too many of the Materialifts
have reckoned their doctrine eftablifhed, becaufe

fome

* Homer, Iliad. xv.

22 An Argument againit

fome abfurd theories of their Adverfaries were over-
thrown; they have accumulated their ftrength
againft defencelefs points; and have thought it a
complete victory, to triumph, like Caligula, over
tubbifh and fand. .

Great danger atiends every ftep beyond direé
inference, in reafoning concerning the facts of
Neurology. Many of them tend to perplex, and
many feem to contradict each other. But on the
prefent queftion, though the facls are uncommon,
they are complete; they cannot, therefore, be
reckoned anomalous. And their authenticity would,
not be queftioned even by a general reader, ac-
guainted with the great names only of modern
Philofophy, though they had remained unnoticed
by Morcaenr and Hatrer.*

The Materialifts deny the neceffity of any thing
more than the vifible ftru@ture of the brain, to
produce the act of thinking, in confequence of
perception; but the contrary feems to be probable
from thefe facts, which fhew that, at different
times, every part of that ftructure has been deeply
injured, or totally deftroyed, without impeding or
changing any part of the procefs of thought. It
js otherwife in the organs of Senfe. When the parts
of the Brain which, in common language, give
origin to the Nerves eulevelyins thofe organs, are

injured,

* | have omitted a great number of fatts, ftrongly in my
favour, becaufe the Authorities were not perfettly unex-
ceptionable,

1 &#e,"?

the Doétrine of Materialifin. 23

injured, the Senfes are, in general, proportionably
affeted. This feems to point out a difference in
the Caufes of Thought and Senfation.*

Cafes in which confiderable parts of the fubftance
of the brain have been loft, either by immediate
injuries, or by fuppuration following wounds and
fra@tures of the Skull, are more numerous, than
conclufive.f Neither will you make much account
of them, as they chiefly relate to the hemifpheres,
and you feem{ to make the bafis of the brain the
moft effential part to perception, confequently,
according to your fcheme, to the procefs of think-
jug. Of this I am very glad, for a reafon which
fhall be given afterwards.

The

_ * Do not call this aflertion extravagant, till you read the
following Story, quoted by Weprer.

“‘ Mirabilis eft capitis vulneratio, quam recenfet Valle-
* riola Obf, Med. 1. 4. obf. 10, de milite quodam, qui xnei
* tormenti globulum excepit in tempore finiltro, eo paulo
*altius egrediente ex oppofito latere, diftraéto et dilace-
*‘ rato utrinque Cranio; qui citra apoplettica fymptomata,
‘‘ miraculo integre curatus fuit, nifi quod /furdafter et
* cacus manferit, De loc, affe&. in Apopl. p. 205.

I dare not tranfcribe the flory of the Polifh Nobleman
which follows; (p. 206, 207)—the ridiculum acri may
coalefce, but the ridiculum vero is a hazardous con-
junétion.

+ V. Haller. Phyfiolog, T. 4. p. 316 et feq. and refpeéting
the Cerebellum, Morgagni, Epift. lii, §27. Haller T, 4.
P- 350 ct feq.—Diemerbroeck Anatom, p. 582. Weovfer
Hift, Apopleéticor, (Ed. 1727) p. 208, 209.

¢ Traéts, vol. 1. p, 181, Note-

24 An Argument againft

The late. Dr. Huntzr was in poffeffion of 2
fkull, in which the bones of the Cranium, on the
right fide, were every where corroded. He had
opened: the head foon after the deceafe of the
Patient, and found the whole of the right hemif-
phere deftroyed by fuppuration, Yet the man
retained his facuities perfectiy till the inftant of his
death, which was fudden.

Dr. Haier mentions a cafe, in which half a
pound of Pus was found in the ventricles of the
brain, yet the faculties had been unimpaired till
death.

Sir Joun Princrz found an Abfcefs in the right
hemifphere of the brain, as large as an egg, in a
patient ‘‘ who had never been delirious, nor alto-
gether infenfible ;* and in another, who ‘ had
‘© never’ been’ fo infenfib!e, as not to anfwer rea-
“© fonably when fpoke to,” he difcovered an ab-
{cefs of the Cerebellum, as large as a fmall pigeon’s
egg-t

La. Pevronie: found pus lodged between the-
hemifpheres, and comprefling the Corpus Callo-
fum: when the matter was evacuated, the patient
recovered, without detriment to his faculties.+

VESALIUS

* Difeafes of the Army, p. 259-
+ For a fimilar cafe, fee Wepfer. Hift. Apople&. p.
363.
+ Memoir de l’Academ, de Chirurg, An, 1703.

the Doétrine of Materialifm. 2%

Vesatius found almoft nine pints of water, in
the brain of a girl only two years old. She had
retained her fenfes perfectly till death.*

DizmEreROECK, among other obfervations of the
little effe& produced on the mind, by wounds of
the brain, mentions one which came under his own
notice. A young Man received a thruft with a
fword, in the inner Canthus of the eye, which
paffed through the right lateral ventricle, and flant-
ing upwards, almoft paffed through the fkull, at
the upper angle of the Lambdoidal Suture: yet
the Patient remained in his ufual ftate of mind,
“cum fociis convenienter et bono cum judicio
“ quacunque de re differens,” till the tenth day,
when he was carried off by a fever.

- The fame Author quotes a cafe from Linpanus,
of a patient, who, after receiving a wound in one
D of

* Morgag. de Cauf. & Sed. Morb. p. 37, § 2. Wepfer. 56.

In one cafe mentioned by Morgagni, where the patient
died, a month after falling on the head, and where the
faculties were retained to the laft, there was a curious
affection of the brain: ‘* Vix Dura deteéta fuerat, cum
“ animadverfum eft, in Cerebri hemifphzrio finiftro
** tertiam anteriorem partem multo humiliorem effe fua
“* compari, multoque molliorem, neque in fummo tantum,
* fed ubique penitus ne bafi quidem excepta. Scilicet
* ob eam Mollitiem ita-fubfederat: que Mbollities cum
** in corticali fubftantia erat, tum multo majus in medul-
Jari, Hee enim in quandam velut gelatiznam magna
* ex parte mutata erat.”

+ Anatom. Lib. 3. p. 637.

26 _ An Argument againft

of the lateral ventricles went about as ufual, for a
fortnight. He then died. It feems that his
Surgeon thruft a probe into the ventricle daily,
without exciting any fenfation.*

A woman, under Diemerbroeck’s . immediate
> infpection, whofe fkull was fractured by the fall of
a large ftone, loft a quantity of brain equal in fize
to a man’s fift, yet fhe lived thirty-fix days after
the accident, without alienation of mind, though
‘paralytic on the fide oppofite to the fracture. On
diffetion, a confiderable vacuity, appeared on the
right fide (from which the portions of brain
had been difcharged) accompanied with fuppura-
tion, and extending through the lateral to the
third ventricle, and to the Os fphenoides.

The moft remarkable cafe of this kind is quoted
by La Peyronie: A child, fix years old, received
a piftol-fhot in the head; a fuppuration followed,
during which he loft a great quantity of the brain
at every dreffing. At the end of eighteen days he
died, having retained his faculties to the lalt.
When the head was opened, the portion of Brain
remaining in the fkull did not exceed the fize of

a {mall egg.f
Left

*In Dr, Haller’s experiments on living Animals, the
bafis of the brain appeared to be the feat of Senfibility.

Phyfiolog, T. 4. p. 315.
+ Anatom. p.-580, 1.

+ Mem, de l’Academ, Ann, £741.

the Doftrine of Materialifn. 27

Left this narration fhould ftartle you, as La
Peyronie, in the éffay referred to, had a favourite
fpot which he withed to render the feat of the
Soul, namely, the Corpus Callofum, fuffer me to
guard it by a fimilar quotation from the cautious
Morcacni: “ et fi parietum lateralium ventricu-
“ Jorum craffitudo vi aque fuerat in quinquenni
“ illo Tulpii, non modo in trienni Hildani, aut '
‘ bienni Vefalii, fuperné, & ad latera ufque
adeo extenuata, ut prima infpectione nulla effe
videretur, cum inftar alicujus craffioris membrane
adherefccret undique arcuate diffolutorum offium cir-
cumferentie ; nihil dubii eft quin, &c.*

After reading thefe. hiftories,. you would be
greatly furprized to find, in Mr. Pott’s treatife on
Injuries of the Head, that death has fo often fol-
lowed flight effufions and extravafations under the
dura mater, preceded by comatofe fymptoms, and
frequently by total infenfibility. The contraft
has often aftonifhed me, but does not alter
the nature of the facts; and only ferves to
fhew the danger of analogical reafoning in Neuro-
logy, or perhaps, as a French wit has exprefled

ca

ce

e

‘

ee

-

‘

De it,

* Epift, Med, Anat, XII. Art. 8.—Confult fome pre-
ceding paflages, where he afcribes the apparent defe& of
brain in fome foetufes to a wafting caufed by the continued
prefflure of effufed water,

28 An Argument againft

it, that Truth and Probability are not always of
a fide. *

On the faith of my Authors, then, I fhall fup-
pofe it proved, that the thinking faculties have
fubfifted after the deftruction of any fuperior or
lateral part of the brain, and we will now con-
fider, if you pleafe, how far they have furvived
the depravation of the Cerebellum. To this pur-
pofe fome examples are given by Morgagnif, but
with fuch a truly Italian prolixity, that I am
content to wave them, and to mention fome that
may be brought within the bounds of ordinary
attention. >

Hater fays, ‘non infrequentia ulcera Cerebelli
‘~funt, etiam cum integritate mentis, morfque
“‘ inde lenta, duodecimo die, aut multo ferior,
‘* fucceffit.” ~ And he mentions feveral inftances
of Scirrhus affecting the Cerebellum, and producing
death, without previoufly injuring the faculties, One
cafe fell under his own infpection. ||

In Morgagni’s fixty-fecond epiftle, art. 15, a par-
ticular account is given of a fatal Scirrhus of the
Cerebellum, flow in its progrefs, not affecting the
patient’s fenfes till the laft, and then only by in-

tervals,

* This thought, by the way, is attributed to St. Jerome,
(See Gent. Mag. Dec. 1786)— Multa incredibilia reperies,
et nom, ucrifemila, quae nihilominus tamen vera funt,

+ Epift. Anat. med. LII, Art. 26, 276

t Element. Phyfiolog. p. 350,
| Id. Ib.

the Do€trine of Materialifin. 29

tervals. The whole Cerebellum was found difeafed, .
though not equally.

The difference between the affection of the ex-
ternal and internal fenfes in the following cafe,
where the preffure muft have acted at leaft equally
upon the Cerebellum as on the Cerebrum, is worth
remarking.*

“* Vidit Clarifs. Dom. Drelincurtius tumorem
‘* fteatomatis confiftentia, pugnique magnitudine,
‘* cerebrum et cerebellum inter, ed precifé loci
‘* ubi conarium utrique fubfternitur choroidis plexus
‘« alz, fpatio femeftri a fenfibili lefione,. czcitatem
** primo, furditatem fubinde, omnium denique
** fenfuum et functionum animalium abolitionem,
“« & necem ipfam intuliffe.”>

_Mr. Petit fpeaks of a foldier, who received a
mufquet fhot in the head; the ball paffed through
the left fide of the Cerebellum, and penetrated
into the left lobe of the left hemifphere of the
brain. He furvived the accident forty-three hours,
and his faculties were perfect to the laft,—Mem.
de ’Academ. 1748. |

We will now pafs to the Basts or Taz Bratn,
the inmoft feat of reafon, according to general

Opinion,

* Dr, Tyfon mentions a cafe, in which the left he-
mifphere was found fphacelated, and the teftis of that
fide greatly enlarged.and ftony. The patient had been
ill for two months, and for the moft part rational, (Phil.
Tranfa&. No. 228.)

+ Addend, ad Wepfer. Hit. Apople&, Obf, 83.

30 ~ An Argument againft

opinion, and certainly, as far as we may conclude
from Dr. Haller’s experiments, poffeffing a nicer
degree of fenfibility than the upper and lateral
parts of the Mafs: diftinguifhed too, as whimfically
in its different regions, by Anatomifts, as the
celeftial Globe is divided by Aftronomers. ;

* Morcacni relates the cafe of a Man, who died
on the fourteenth day of a paralytic affection,
having retained his fenfes during the greateft part
of the time. On opening the head, and taking
out the brain, a fmall quantity of purulent matter
was obferved in the bafis of the fkull; ‘* qua
** abfterfa, dum cerebrum tractatur, ibidem nova
confpicitur. Nimirum per Infundibulum e
** ventriculis prodibat. Nam eadem finifter,
** dexterque prefertim redundabat. Quippe in
‘“ hujus firiato Corpore foramen erat, quocum
* ulcus finuofum communicabat, tertiam partem
“* occupans fubftantiz, que a dextris bafim cerebri
“© faciebat.”-¢

The following ftory, from Tutrius,t deferves
to be inferted entire. ‘‘ Septuagenarius ebrius,
ss delapfus ex altiori loco, contraxit in Calvaria

¢

ec

“tain

* I may refer you to Dr, Haller’s Phyfiology for a
colle&tion of proofs (againft La Peyronie) that difeafes of
the Corpus Callofum and Fornix do not affeét the faculties,
Tom. 4. P. 342.

+Epift. Anat—Medic. v." Art. 2.

+ Obferv. lib. 1. Cap. 13.—Vide Addend, ad Wepfer, |

Hift. Apople&, p. 583.

*
o

_* “
c e

*
c

Lal
ce

_ the Doétrine of Materialifm. 31

tam amplum vulnus, ut commodé per ejus
-hiatum educeretur quicquid inhereret extime

cerebri membrane. Invadentibus ipfum_ nihil-
ominus illic vertigine, vomitu ac ftupore, five
a refidua crapula, five a concuffo cerebro, fed
poftridie rediit ad fe, expers febris et immunis omnium
aliorum fymptomatum. Verum die quarto, excreatis
prius fputis purulentis, periit preter omnem
fpem, ab inopinata apoplexia.

“+ Cujus ergo interiora capitis penitus perfcru-
tantibus, obtulit fe primum frequens humor
replens ventriculos cerebri: Sed mox longiflima
rima excurrens continuata ferie, per frontem
oculique foramen wfgue ad fellam equinam,*
prope offis cuneiforimis medium: quo loco ani-
madvertimus (quod jure in omnium oculis
fuit rariffimum) ingens offis Cuneiformis fragmen-
tum, ita fejugatum a reliquo offe, ut manifefté
elevaretur fupra quafcunque partes circumpofitas.
Sed morbus attonitus, qui ipfum occidit, traxit
originem partim ex obftructis proceflibus fpinalis
medullz (qui funt verum Nervorum principium)
partim vero ex Angultia retis mirabilis. Quibus
nobliffimis partibus impeditis privatur homo, non
modo fenfu ac motu, fed ipfa vita.” This is

a tolerable ftroke at the rational organization of the

bafis,
* The Pons Varolii refts againft the middle of the

pofterior clinoid procefles which form one fide of the
Sella Equina, and the cuneiform procefs of the Os

Sphenoidis,

oy Sphenoidis {cil,

32 An Argument againft

bafis, fince the fracture of the Sphenoid bone, in
that place, muft have immediately given a great
fhock to the Pests Varolii, and the medulla oblon-
gata; but I muft befpeak your patience for the
next quotation, which is at leaft as important. It
is a Cafe of Dr. Brunner’s in the Appenpix to
Werrer. ‘Trutu diftils flowly through Teutonic
Latin. .

A Blackfmith, 64 years of age, a potent drinker,
and induftrious workman, (as Dr. Brunner tells
us, in an eloquent periphrafis,) was ftruck down in
a fit of Apoplexy on the 7th. of Odober, 1687,
and expired immediately, though he had paffed
the morning in apparent good health. His facul-
ties had never been impaired. ‘The diffection
you fhall read in the Doors own words:
‘* Serra fatis cauté incifo cranio f{calproque effracto,
** dura mater circa frontem lacerata fuit leviter:
** revulfurus ollam, fatis firmiter finui longitudinali
‘‘ adherentem, obfervavi piam matrem aqua
‘* limpida turgidiffimam, infiar hydatidis proruere,
** & vix cavi, quin dum auferebam cranium, fubinde
** effluxerit aqua. Incifa dura matre nihil feri inter
*“hanc & piam matrem inveni, quippe jam
*« effluxerat. Sinus longitudinalis amplus, nihil
‘** humoris aut Sanguinis continuit, fed omnis
** refluxit verfus finus laterales fluidus. Ablata
** dura matre ferum perpetim exfudavit et effluxit
** limpidum ---- uterque autem ventriculus aqua
‘* fceatebat turbida, quin omnes receffus et cerebri

* cavitates

. the Do€trine of Materialifm. 33

--cavitates hac inundate et replete fuerunt.
‘¢ Plexus choroidei fubmerfi albicabant, qui alias
“« rutilare confpiciuntur: hydatides aliquot in his
““ numeravi; ---------- Infundibulum aqua
* plenum, & reliquz -cerebri cavitates aquarum
“ qlluvie inundate fuerunt, prefertim quartus ver
“ triculus, ut immiffus ftylus ad fpinam dorfi ufque
‘* dilaberetur. --------- Carotides aquis merfz
“¢ albicabant: Cerebellum minime flaccidum, fed
“ ficut relique cerebri partes firmum apparuit.
“« Tota bafis cerebri & ipfa fpinalis medulla aquarum
illuvie inundata fuit: ftylus huic commiffus ibat
in profundum per fpinam dorfi. ----- certum
** eft omnes cerebri receflus & cavitates fuiffe
repletas & diftentas aqua; ipfam quoque fpina-
“Jem medullam in fuo involucro hac penitus
** fubmerfam obfervavimus,*

Dr. Brunner adds, in the Scholium, that the
man had been remarkably acute in his judg
ment. I obferve that fome facts of this kind had
made an impreffion on Weprer himfelf; for in his
Exercitation de loco affeéto in Apoplexia, he takes fome
pains to fhew, againft Riolan, that the faculties
are not always injured by confiderable collections
ef water in the Ventricles of the Brain.f Indeed,

E in

* Wepfer, Hift. Apop*e&. p. 427.

See a hiftory equally ftriking in the Addenda to Wepfer,
p- 607.
+ P. 54 (Edit. 1724) and feq.

34 An Argument againft

in hydrocephalous cafes, and in fuppuration of
the Brain, I have obferved with aftonifhment,
that the faculties were Spe sutpions th as the fatal
difeafe proceeded..

In the following cafe, related by Du Verney,
though the condition of the bafis of the brain is not
clearly defcribed, yet a confiderable injury muft
have been done to it, by the fracture of the Os
Sphenoides in the direction fpecified.

A Gentleman had: his left eye crufhed to pieces
by a blow from a ftone, and the orbit beaten in
upon the brain. After the firft fhock, his faculties
were entirely unimpaired, till his death, which hap-
pened on the feventh day; infomuch that fome of
his medical attendants pronounced it impoffible
that the brain fhould be injured; the appearances
on diffection were thefe ‘* Le crane levé et le
‘* cerveau ouvert, nous le trouvimes rempli d'une
efpece de bouillie qui n’etoit autre chofe qu'une
‘** fonte d’une partie de la fubftance du cerveau
avec quantité de petites efquilles qui avoient eté

ou par la fuppuration. ‘Toute la fubftance du
Cerveau etoit egalement contufe et alterée jufqu’au
*« cervelet; leurs Anfractuofites fe trouvant fe-
parces les unes des autres par la diffolution et le
relachement de la pie-mere. Enfin le cerveau
etant oté, nous reconnumes que la partie Ante-
** rieure de la key de Tos Sphenoide etoit toute
“ eerafée.”

pouffees jufques la, ou par la violence de coup, |

the Doétrine of Materialifn. 35°

™ ecrafée.”"* © But whatever you fay think of
this ftory, you will find the next, from La Peyronir,
fufficiently particular.

Aman, thirty vears of age, who had been
troubled with hypochondriacal fymptoms for ten
years, complained at times, during the laft three
months of his life, of heavinefs and pain in his head,
efpecially towards the occiput. Two days before
his death, he was convulfed; but recovering, felt
himfelf eafier than he had been for a long time;
the convulfion returned, and killed him ina quarter
of an hour. His faculties were never affeted. On
diffection, the Ventricles were found dilated with
water; ‘‘ le plexus choroide du quatrieme ventricule
‘‘ n’etoit qu'un amas de glandes fort gonfleds et
** dures; il y en avoit quelques unes au _ milieu
“* defquelles on trouvoit un petit noyau de fup-
puration; elles etoient colleés enfemble per leurs
vaiffeaux & par leurs Membranes; la reunion de
ces glandes formoit une tumeur dure environ de la
** groffeur dun euf de poule, qui occupoit Ia place du
“‘ cervelet, lequel m’etoit plus qu'une Membrane
glaireufe de lepaiffeur d'une ligne, et qui enve-
** loppoit la tumeur; les peduncules etoient
‘ extremement applatis, et n’avoient prefque point
** de confiftance.

“Le corps etranger, foit par fa figure, foit par
fa fituation, avoit preflé, et beaucoup diminué
E 2 Ja

ee

te

ee

a6

o

* Memoir, del’ Academ, Roy. I’an 1703

36 An Argument againft

‘* Ja volume des teftes, celui des cordons qui vont
“* des teftes au Cervelet, et les cordons qui vont
“* du Cervelet ala Moélle de l'epine, pour former
‘la plume a ecrire, enfin toute la portion de la
‘* Moélle allongée, qui f'etend depuis l’ane et la
‘“* Vulve jufqu’ a la Moélle de lepine, etoit fort .
| ** applatie’—

Look at the perpendicular fection of the Brain,
engraved in Dr, Monro’s treatife on the Nervous
Syftem, and you will perceive, that preffure in
this dire&tion muft have produced a violent effect,
on thofe parts which you feem inclined to reckon
the moft important, at the bafis of the brain.

As to the Pineal Gland, it has fo ofien been found
f{uppurated,* or petrified,f or full of fabulous par-
ticles, without any previous affection of the facul-
ties, that it feems to be given up as unneceffary to
thinking, by general confent; and as Mr. SHanpy
himfelf abandoned it,f Ithink it may pafs for an
untenable poft.

Flatter quotes a cafe from Dr. Riprey, which
I have not been able to verify by confulting the
original, and as you well know the danger of
giving implicit faith to quoted quotations, you will
expect to fee Haller’s own words: ‘t Ulcus Cerebri
‘‘ piam membranam et corticem ad medullam

*« globofam

* Mem. de l’Acad. Royal. l’an. 1703.
+ Manget. Theatr. Anatom. L. 4. C. 2.
¢ See Triftram Shandy, vol. II.

the Doétrine of Materialifm. 37

“ globofam ufque erofit, abfque dolore aut fenfuum
Jeefione.”*

Morcacni mentions an apoplectic patient, who
died on the ninth day from the attack of the difeafe ;
who was for the moft part fenfible; and who could
defcribe, towards the laft, the feat of his pain, in
the hind-head, and along the fpine. On opening
the head, much water was found in the ventricles ;
grumous blood collected, where the medulla fpinalis
leaves the head, and many watery veficles on the
crura of the medulla oblongata. +

I fhould have placed little dependance on the
collections of Scuenxrus, ¢ as moft of his authorities
are become very obfcure, if they had not found credit
in Bonnet’s Anatomia Praética. Sheltered by fuch a
name, I fhall venture to extra one or two of
them.

Massa fpeaks of a Venetian Nobleman, who,
though wounded in the back part of the head to
the depth of three inches, preferved his faculties,
and recovered completely.

j Another

* Haller. Phyfiolog. T. 4. 938. Ridleii obferv. Anatom.
p- 212, By the Medulla globofa, I prefume, we mutt
underftand the Medulla oblongata,

+ Morgag. de Cauf. et Sedib. Morb. p. 14. § 20.

+ Obfervat, de Cerebro,

38 - An Argument againft

Another of his patients received a wound from
a halbert, which pierced to the Os Bafilare:* he
retained his faculties, but became epileptic, in
-confequence of a collection of pus being formed on
the bone.

The wound of the Duke of Guife, mentioned by
Ambrofe Pare, is {till more extraordinary ; yet
Pare’s authority is very great. The Duke, fays he,
was wounded in the head by the thruft of a lance
which entered under the right eye, near the nofe,
and came out at the neck, between the ear and the
vertebra. The fteel of the lance remained in the
brain, and was extracted with great difficulty.
The patient recovered completely. Paré, I think,
fpeaks of this cafe from his own knowledge.

But, to come ftill clofer to the point, Bonner
himfelf faw the ftructure of the bafis wholly deftroyed,
in a patient who died after an illnefs of eleven days ;
who fuffered no alienation of his faculties till within
a very {hort period before his death, and was then
only delirious at times, and perfectly fenfible during
the intervals. The appearances were ftriking.
“« Tota fere bafis cerebri,” fays Bonnet, ‘‘ imprimis
“‘ cerebellum, et ea pars Spinalis medulle que

‘* primis

* There is an ambiguity in this word, as both the Os
Occipitis and Os Sphenoidis have had this name applied to
them, but from the expreffion, and the intimation of internal
fuppuration, I conceive the latter to have been meant,

t+ Chirurg. Lib, 10,

the Doétrine of Materialifm. 39

*: primis vertebris excipitur - -- - SPHACELO* in-
* vente funt correpte.” f

The fpinal marrow, where it leaves the head,
has been feen greatly injured, in other cafes, where
no change in the thinking powers had been obferved.t
It anfwers my purpofe to remark, that in thefe
different partial injuries, which we have followed
round the brain, Reafon has not been affected fooner
than Life, but objections lie againft the conclufion
which I wifh to draw from the facts.

The principal objection that occurs to me, is that
the medullary fibres of the brain decuffate and
intermix with each other, on the Pons Varolii, and
at the beginning of the medulla oblongata. || In
confequence of this connection, it is eafy to explain
feveral phenomena in difeafes, efpecially in palfies,
which otherwife appear difficult; and in this way,
it may be faid, when one part of the brain is deeply
injured, or deftroyed, the lofs of its activity is
unfelt, becaufe, in a healthy ftate, the oppofite parts
have formed a habit of interchanging impreffions
with each other. A fimple encreafe of activity,

therefore,

* That Sphacelus may take place in the brain, ig
allowed by Morgagni. De Caus, et fed. Morb. p. 50.

+ Bonnet, Anatom. Praétic, p. 42.

+ Bonnet. Id. p. 352. Ephem. Nat. Curios, T, 6.
Obf. 1723. Wepfer. Hift. Apopleé. p. 379.

| See Winflow’s Anat. fud titulo,

4o An Argument again

therefore, in the found parts, may be fuppofed
fufficient for continuing the mental functions. But
_ this objection is, in the firft place, inconelufive and
hypothetical, for morbid affe@ions may be trans-
ferred, as well as healthy ones; and this adually
takes place, in thofe paralytic cafes where the refo-
lution of the nerves is perceived, in the fide oppofite
to that on which the brain is injured. And. the
objection cannot be offered, againft conclufions drawn
from the hiftories of injury done to the bafis of the
Brain, where both fides of the Medullary fubftance,
together with their connecting fibres, have been
deftroyed, without injury to the mind. It was on
this account that I profeffed myfelf glad of your
affixing fuch importance to the bafis.*

Another objection, which I have heard ftarted in —
converfation, is that a ftate of difeafe, in many
of the Glands, is compatible, to a certain degree,
with the exercife of their natural fun@ions. To
this I would anfwer, that I apprehend fuch an
~ objection to be quite inadmiffible, becaufe it is an

oppofition of analogy to abfolute fa&s: And of
“analogy very unfafe, for the brain is not known to
be agland. Even if the analogy and the objection
were admitted, I do not know where any facts can be
learned, that fhall bring the affertion to an equality,
with the degree of organic lzfion compatible with
the exercife of intellect. Chronic inflammation of

the

IP. 5e

the Doctrine of Materialifm. 4t

the Liver, which is attended with few and trifling
fymptoms, (though a fatal difeafe) is the only
confiderable inftance that I recollect; This only
proves, in conjunction with many other facts, the
little fenfibility of the liver, and confequently can
be parallelled by no analogy with difeafes of the bafis
of the brain.

Though many of the hiftories already noticed,
afford examples of very extenfive difeafes in the
head, yet the argument would prefs more ftrongly.
again{ft Materialifm, if it could be fhewed, that Men
can think, with little, if any portion of the Brain-
in a found ftate, The following cafes come nearer
to this point than any | have heard of. In the
diffection of a perfon who died apoplectic, and who.
had been dull and heavy before his death, Tulpius
found the brain flaccid, and the membranes covered
with a fluid, which it was neceffary to take up with
a fponge, ‘The ventricles of the brain contained a
great deal of water, and the fpinal marrow was fo
drenched, that the operator was obliged to {ponge
it before he could examine into its condition.*/¢)

F What

* Addend. ad. Wepfer, de Apoplex. p. 600.

(a) For the following very ftriking hiftory, I am indebted
to the kind communication of Dr. Percival. “ was
** born with a very large head; but feemed well in health,
*‘increafed in ftrength, and grew fat. The head foon
** became fo unnaturally large, and the features were fo
** much altered,.as to leave no Soubt concerning the nature

of

42 ~~ An Argument againft

What Prartervs faw, fhall be told by himfelf:
“* Tpfam adeo cerebri fubfantiam in Anu quadam
“* defluxiffle obfervavimus Monfpeffuli, quz _fubité
** apoplexia tacta expiravit : ‘hujus calvariam cum
‘* aperimus, cerebrum illius in Meninvge crafla hinc
** inde flutuare deprehendimus. Quod et diffecta
** apertaque dura .difta Matre, liquoris alicujus
“ fpiffioris et albi pultem referentis per faciem
** univerfam defluebat, et hinc inde in pannos
‘ difpergebatur.*

Of all the learned in us, whom I have quoted,
I believe you have the greateft refpect for Bonnetus;
and it happens very luckily that the ftrongeft fact.
to my purpofe depends on his own obfervation. In
a patient who died after an illnefs of twelve years,

e

without having any alienation of mind, Bonnet
found the whole fubfance of the brain watery, and
fo foft that it would hardly bear the knife. ‘The

{pinal

« of the difeafe. The child however increafed in fize, grew
** ftrong in his limbs, and took food, He could both hear
*- and fee well, and fo continued until he was eighteen
«« months old. He then died fuddenly, without any con-
f vulfive attack, On opening the Cranium, more than
«* five quarts of very limpid water were found within it ;
«+ there was not the fmalleft trace of membrane or brain, except
© oppofite the orbits and meatus auditorius, where fome-
6° thing like medulla {till remained.” Dr, Quin en Dropfy
of the Brain, Append. p, 105. grase

* Addend. ad Wepf. p. 615.

the Doétrine of Materialifm. 43

fpinal marrow was equally tender, and fhrunk to
half its natural fize. *

An obfervation of the fame kind came under
my own notice very lately. A_ girl died in the
fourth month of an Arthritic complaint, with
evident fymp'oms of an oppreffed brain, but in
perfect poffeffion of her intellectual powers. When
the upper part of the fkull was removed, before
opening the Dura Mater, I was furprized at the
flaccid appearance of the Brain; it did not feem
to fill its Membranes, and it moved under the
fingers with a very trifling refiftance, fo as to feel
almoft like a poultice. We found the Ventricles
quite full of water, and an effufion of blood upon
the Tentorium, on the right fide. But the prin-
cipal difeafe feemed to. be a total change in the
confiftence and colour of the Brain, throughout. It
would fearcely bear either handling or cutting, and
the parts were uncommonly indifting.

On reviewing the whole of this evidence, Iam
difpofed to conclude, that as no part of the Brain
appears effentially neceffary to the exiftence of the
intellectual faculties, and as the whole of its vifible
ftru@ure has been materially changed, without
affecting the exercife of thofe faculties, fomething

Fe more

* Bonnet, Anatom, Praét. Tom. 1. p. 246.

., t The Patient had not been dead more than twenty-four
hours,

44 An Argument againh, &c.

more than the difcernible organization muft be
requifite to produce the phenomena of thinking.*
Thus, my dear friend, have I played off my
fmall ftock of quctations, againft one point of your
excellent ‘Tracts; as Diogenes rolled about his tub,
that he might not appear to be the only idle man
in the City. I know that you will not mifinterpret
this attempt to furnifh information, which medical
writers only can fupply, concerning a queftion
which you have treated with fo much clearnefs and
precifion. However we may have differed in opi-
nion, concerning this, and other fubjects of impor-
tance, we have always agreed in preferving good
humour. And in fueha conteft, it will be honour
enough for me to fay with Lucran,f (but without
intending a pun) xexvassen ¢ 7ib@e ev Kpavio,

.

* Tu femper fulges, divine particula aurz ;
Igneus ille tuus vigor et ceeleftis origo
Deformem Leti faciem, tenebrafque filentcs:
Ridet, et eterne fpondet tibi fecula vite.

Jortin. Lus. Poct.

+ Lucian: wag désv isogiay cuyypaQesw.

ComMeENTS

eg OO ee

Comments on Sterne. 45

Comments on Sterne. By. Joun Ferriar, M. D.
2 Read, ‘Fanuary 21, 1791.

/

=

VOS ADESTE
Risus, BLANDITIA, PROCACITATES,
Lusus, NEQUITIA, FACETIZQUE,
Joci, DELICIZQUE ET ILLECEBRE,
Buchanan,

Sapo is almoft the only fatirical and ethical writer

of note, who wants a commentator. The
works of Rabelais, Butler, Pope, Swift, and many
others, are over-loaded with explanations, while
Sterne remains, in many places, unintelligible to the
greater number of his readers. I would gladly
difcharge this debt of gratitude, to an Author who
has afforded me much delight ; but my leifure hours
can but produce fome general traces, or occafional
hints, that amount only to an amufing relaxation.
Some perfon whofe zeal is greater, and his literary
repofe complete, may work the mine I have opened,
with profit and {plendor.

Indeed, there is fome danger in attempting to
detect the fources, from which Sterne drew his’rich
fingularities. It has been fafhionable of late, to
decry the analyfis of objects of admiration, and
thofe who wifh to trace the myfteries of wit and

literary

46 Gomments on Sterne.

literary pleafure, are held to be profane diffectors,
who mangle the carcafe of learning, out of fpleen
and idle curiofity.* Befides, the originality of
Sterne has fcarcely Leen made a problem; on the
contrary, he is confidered as the inventor of a new
ftyle in our language. I cannot help thinking,
however, with honeft Mungo in the farce, that it
imports us little to hear what we do not underftand 5
and though far beneath the dignity of Horace or
Pope,f who profefled to admire nothing, I think
it very unphilofophical, to let wonder conquer
reafon, efpecially in the clofet.

To be too curious in the furvey of beautiful per-
formances, is to invite difguft. ‘The coloffal ftatues
of Phidias, though polifhed to perfection without;
bore a rude appearance to thofe who examined them

* It has been faid, that a learned Gentleman intends to
re-publifh Joe Miller’s Jefts, with illuftrations from the
Greek writers. I expeét impatiently the reftoration of
feveral of his Ivifh ftortes to Hierecles the Philofopher,
from whofe Aceiz thofe ridiculous blunders have wandered
abroad, and having loft their original country, are moft
unfairly quartered upon Ireland,

+ Niladmirari prope res eft una, Numici,
Solaque, quz poflit facere et fervare beatum.

Hor, Ep, Lib. 1, Ep, vi.

For fools admire, but men of fenfe approve,
Pope,

Comments on Sterne. 47

\

within: * but if a limb, or a feature of a work,
fhould appear to be purloined from the labours of a
former artift, it would be right to look for his
mark.

In tracing fome of Sterne’s ideas to other writers,
I do not mean to treat’ him as a Plagiarift; I with
to illuftrate, not to degrade him. If fome inftances
of copying be proved againft him, they will detrad
nothing from his genius, and will only leffen that
impofing appearance he fometimes affumed, of
erudition which he really wanted.

It is obvious to every one, whoconfiders Triftram
Shandy as a general Satire, levelled chiefly againft
the abufe of fpeculative opinions, that Rabelais
furnifhed Sterne with the general character, and
even many particular ideas, of his work. From
that copious fountain of learning, wit and whim,
our author drew deeply. ' Rabelais, ftored with
erudition, poured lavifhly out, what Sterne
directed and expanded with care, to enrich his

pages.

* Znetwy yap ExacGe ra éur@v, 6 wy Mocedoy, "y Zevs
ou rdyuur@e, ypuce ual exeOavtG@s EvvapyacpevG., ***
FHKE yy Dé tmourLac iys ra Evdobev, Ober poxdre's tives,

N s ¥ \ , \ ,
ual youOss, uel nase dipmrak wemcqwvyevec, val vopds
\ ~ : \ + eupy \ , \ 4
nul cDyvac, ver TiTlavy UTOmYAOY, wal TOMUTYY TiIVa TOAAYY

&nopQiav umoms paca.
. a
Lucian, Oveip: « AdAsxTe:

~

48 Comments on Sterne.

pages*. And to this appropriation, we owe many
of his moft pleafing fallies. For being bounded in
his literary acquirements, his imagination had freer
play, and more natural graces. He feized the.
grotefque objects of obfolete erudition, prefented
by his original, with a vigour untamed by previous
labour, and an ardour unabated by familiarity with
literary folly. The curious Chapters on Nofes +
afford the ftrongeft proof of this remark. About the

time

% , 2 ~ : 4 > s t~
nobdreg En TOAMAGY VapeTaY Ef TIS MOMiTuS REVILe TI,
elo Tyv Wugyy peroyetevcet,

Dionys. Halicarn, Apy: Kar:

+ Sterne would have made much of a paflage in
the Memoirs of La Porte: it refpeéts the views of
Mademoifelle to a marriage with Louis i4th.—“ Je dis
* tout cela a la Reine, qui fe mocqua de moi, me difant;
“ ce n’eft pour fon nez, quoiqu’il foit bien grand,’”—

Mem. de la Porte, p. 275,

The following precious anecdote on this fubje&, occurs
in the curious Mifcellany publifhed under the affumed
name of Vigneul Marville: ‘“* Les nés camus deplaifent, et
«¢ font de mauvaife augure. Le Connetable Anne de
«* Montmorency étoit camus; et on l’appelloit a la Cour,
«le Camus de Montmorency. Le Duc de Guife, fils
_ & de celui qui fut tué a Blois, étoit auffi camus; et j’ai
¢* connu un Gentilhomme qui ayant une vénération fin-
« guliére pour ces deux Maifons de Guife et de Mont-
** morency, ne fe pouvoit confoler de ce qu'il s’y ¢toit
«“ trouvé deux camus, comme fi ce defaut en diminuoit le
“ luftre.” Tom. 1. p, 140,

« He* ;

Gomments on Sterne. 49

time when Sterne wrote, it was not forgotten in-
deed, that the phyfiognomy of the Nofe had been
a kind of fathionable fubjec& among Philofephers ;
but little was written, and little remains on the con-
troverfy, and what Sterne gives us, is founded on
the following paflage of Rabelais: « Pourquoy,
“dit Gargantua, eft ce que frere Jean a fi beau
“nez? Par ce (repondit. Grangoufier) gu'ainfi
** Dieu T’a voulu, lequel nous fait en telle forme,
& telle fin, felon fon divin arbitre, que fait ‘un
** potier fes vaiffeaux. Par ce (dit Ponocrates)
** qwil fut des premiers ala foire des nez. Tl
print de plus beaux & des plus grands, = ‘Trut
avant (dit le moine) felon la vraye Philofophie
** Monaftique, ceft, par ce que ma Nourrice avoit
“les tetins molets, en Yallai@ant, mon nez y
enfondroit comme en beurre, et la seflevoit et
croiffoit: comme la pafte dedans la mets. Les
durs tetins des Nourrices font les enfans camus:

Mais gay, gay, ad formam nafi cognofcitur ad
** te levavi.”*

ce6

ee

“ec

ac
te
oe

a

G — & Now

* He” (Mr. Shandy) «* would often declare, in {peak-
ing his thoughts upon the fubjeé, that he did not con-
ceive how the greateft family in England could fland
it out againft an uninterrupted fucceflion of fix or
* feven fhort nofes.”—Trif, Shandy, vol. 3. chap. 93.
This is a curious coincidence; I pretend to call it no
more.—But it muft be added, that Marville’s Mifcellanies

appear to have been much read, about the time when
Sterne wrote,

* Liv. 1, Chap, xli,

50 Comments. on Sterne.

_“ Now Ambrofe Pareus convinced my Father
‘“‘ that the true and efficient caufe of what had
‘“‘ engaged fo much the attention of the world,
** and upon which Prignitz and Scroderus had wafted
_* fo much learning and fine parts —was neither this
‘“ nor that—but that the length and goodnefs of the
** nofe, was owing fimply to the foftnefs ‘and flac-
‘“* cidity of the nurfe’s breaft—as the flatnefs and
*« fhortnefs of puifne nofes was, to the firmnefs and
** elaftic repulfion of the fame organ of nutrition
** in the heal and lively—which, though happy
‘** for the woman, was the undoing of the child,
** inafmuch as his nofe was fo fnubbed, fo rebuffed,
** fo rebated, and fo refrigerated thereby, as never
“« to arrive ad menfuram fuam legitimam;—but that
in cafe of the flaccidity and foftnefs of the nurfe
*‘ or mother’s breaft—by finking into it, quoth
‘¢ Pareus, as into fo much butter, the nofe was
‘© comforted, nourifhed, &c.”* ‘
‘«« ___ the caufes of fhort and long nofes, There
“‘ isno caufe but one, replied my uncle Toby,—
“« why one man’s nofe is longer than another's, but
*« becaufe that God pleafes to have it fo. That is
*« Grangoufier’s folution, faid my Father.—’Tis
‘he, continued my Uncle Toby, looking © up,
** and not regarding, my father’s interruption, who
makes us all, and frames and puts us together, in

** fuch

°
ce

ro
ec

* Triftram Shandy, vol, iii, chap. 3%

, ~ Commenis on Sterne. 61

“ fuch forms and proportions, and for fuch ends,

asis agreeable to his infinite wifdom.”*

I with Sterne had known enough of Taliacotius
to have done him juftice, on the fubject of nofes.
The practice of that extraordinary man, wivch has
been obfcured by mifplaced raillery, and the im-
putation of follies entirely foreign to his method,
deferves to be better known. It was both rational
and fuccefsful; and it is a confiderable addition to
his fame, that he anticipated later Phyfiologifts in
fome furprizing and important facts refpecting the
re-union of living parts.—Sterne has played unac-
countably with the public curiofity, on the fubject
of a very filly book, which he attempts to pafs off
as curious, merely becaufe it is obfcure. This is
the more furprizing, becaufe his fiction of Slaw-
kenbergius is admirable. Mr. Shandy has the good
fortune, we are told, to get Brufcambille’s Prologue on
Nofes almoft for nothing—that is, for three half
crowns.‘* There are not three Brufcambiiles in Chrift-
** endom-—daid the ftall-man, except what are
“« chained up in the libraries of the curious.”—
This is well calculated to excite the appetites of
epicures in literature, which perhaps was all the
Author intended; and which is ill fupported by the

work . in queftion, ‘That no future Collector

. G 2 may
* Id. Chap. 41.
+ See his Book, De Curtorum Chirurgia,

52 Comments on Sterne.

may figh for Brufeambille, I will give as much of
his Prologue on Nofes as deferves the patience of
a Reader. I fhall only premife, that the book
confifts of a fet of profe difcourfes, printed at
Cologne, in-1741, which feem to have ufhered in
‘comedy,* farce, or puppet-fhow, according to the
exigencies of the night: they refemble the Prologues
of Terence, only in the freedom with which Monf.
Brufcambille treats his aud:ence.
‘‘ Je n’eftreprend point de faire ici une ample
*« defcription des differens nez, avec les proprietez
*¢ fingulieres qui leur font annexées; j'en dirois
** peut etre trop des grands nez au prejudice des
** nez mediocres, des petits nez, des nez cornus,
‘* des nez plats, & autres de toute forte d’efpece;
** je me contente de dire que les grands nez ont
‘ beaucoup d'avantage fur les petits pour les odeurs
‘ dont ils font lorgane naturel, d’autant que par
‘ leur capacité plus etendue ils peuvent regevoir
‘ plus de vapeurs odoriférentes & que celles qui
‘ montent de bas en haut leur peuvent moins
‘ echapper qu’aux petits nez: en un mot, Meffieurs,
‘ fi c'eft quelque chofe de beau, de bon, de Iéuable,
‘ davantageux en tout genre d'avoir du nez, il le
** doit

e

o

er

_

ce

a

e

>

* The firft is entitled, Premier Prelude, en forme de
Galimatias, pour Vouverture du Theatre. Several others are
faid to be en forme de Galimatias, but the fpecification was
needlefs,

Se ae ee

Comments on Sterne. 53

«doit étre encore plus davoir du grand nez,” k&e.
Jam fatis.*

The mock quotations, explanatory of the Promon-
tory of Nofes, in Slawkenbergius's tale, are merely
defigned to cover the ufe made of Rabelais’s proverb ;
*¢ il fut a la foire des nez.” Sterne has diverted
himfelf fometimes with references to fome parts of
this author, that appear znigmatical enough. For
inflance; ‘+ Who was ‘Tickletoby’s Mare?” I
believe many of Rabelais’s readers would be puzzled
to anfwer. Sterne alludes to the ftory of poor
‘Tappecoue,{ who fell a facrifice to the refentment
of the devils of Poictiers.

At other times, Sterne indulges in all the Gali-
matias of the old Frenchman, -——‘‘ Bon jour!
** good morrow!—fo you have got your cloak on
** betimes! but ’tis a cold morning, and you judge
** the matter rightly—'tis better to be well mounted
** than go o' foot—and obftructions in the glands
** are dangerous—And how goes it with thy Con-
** cubine—thy wife—and thy little ones o’ both fides?
** and when did you hear from the old gentleman

* and lady,” &c.||
I believe

* Penfees Facetieufes de Brufcambille, P. 48.
+ Chap. 36. vol. ii. Tr. Shandy,

} Rabelais, Liv. IV, Chap, XIII. That ftrange fellow,
Sir Thomas Urquhart, the Romancer of Crichton, tran.
flates this word, Tickletoby,

| Vol, viii, Chap. 3,

54 Comments on Sterne:

I believe this brilliant paffage is founded on the |
Prologue to Rabelais’s fourth Book. Some of
Sterne’s other imitations do him more credit; but
in the eighth volume of Triftram he was not very
Nice in taking affiftance. ‘‘ Gens de Bien, fays
** Rabelais, ‘‘ Dieu vous ‘auve et gard. Ou eftes
** vous? je ne peux vous voir. Attendez que je
** chauffe mes lunettes. Ha, ha, bien & beau f’én
*““ va Quarefme, je vous voy. Et doncques?
Vous avez eu bonne vinee, a ce que l'on m’a dit.
---- Vous, vos femmes, enfans, parens et familles
“ eftes en fanté defiree. Cela va bien, cela eft bon,
“+ cela me plaift—”&c. Certainly this trafh muft
be one of thofe paffages, efcaped, as Rabelais declares
that he wrote ‘en mangeant et buvant,’ after he
had taken a cup too much.

Perhaps it would do violence to the analogy, to
fay that the exquifite dialogues, fcattered through
Trifttam Shandy, took any colour from thofe
delivered by Rabelais.—At leaft, it would appear to
be refining too far. Yet the contraft and contention
of characters and profeflions fo ftriking in both
romances; the ftrong ridicule thrown, upon the
love of hypothefis; and the art with which abfur-
dities in every walk of fcience are expofed, have
always impreffed me with a general idea of refem-
blance; and have recalled Pantagruel, Panurge and
Epiftemon, in many of the Shandean converfations.
If there be any degree of imitation in this refpect, it
is greatly to Sterne’s honour. A higher polifh was

never

et

es

Comments on Sterne. i

never given to rugged materials. But there can be
no doubt refpecting Sterne’s obligations to another
Author, once the favourite of the learned and witty,
though now unaccountably neglected. I have often
wondered at the pains beftowed by Sterne, in °
ridiculing opinions not fafhionable in his day, and
have thought it fingular, that he fhould produce
the portrait of his Sophift, Mr. Shandy, with all
the ftains and mouldinefs of the laft century about
him. For the love of fcarce and whimfical books,
was no vice of the time when Triftram Shandy
appeared. But I am now, convinced, that all the
fingularities of that character were drawn from the
perufal of Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy ; not without
reference,* however, to the peculiarities of Burton's
life, who is alledged to have fallen a victim to his
aftrological ftudies. We are told, accordingly, that
Mr. Shandy had faith in aftrology.

The Anatomy of Melancholy, though written on a
regular plan, is fo crouded with quotations, that the
reader is apt to miftake it for a book of common-
places. ‘The opinions of a multitude of Authors are
collected, under every divifion, without arrange-
ment, and without much nicety of felection, to
undergo a general fentence; for the bulk of the
; materials

* Even the name of Democritus junior, affe@ted by
Burton, may have led to Sterne’s affumption of the title of
Yerick, Burton too was a Clergyman,

+ Vol, iii, Chap, 23, Vol, v, Chap, 28,

56 Comments on Sterne.

materials enforces brevity on the writer. In the
courfe of a moderate folio, Burton has contrived to
treat a great variety of topics, that feem very loofely
connected with his fubjeét; and, like Bayle, when
he ftarts a train of quotations, he does not feruple
to let the digreffion outrun the principal queftion.
Thus, from the Doctrines of Religion, to Military
Difcipline; from inland Navigation, to the Morality .
ef Dancing Schools, every thing is difcuffed and
determined. ‘The quaintnefs of many of his divi-
fions feems to have given Sterne the hint of his
ludicrous titles to feveral Chapters ;* and the rifible
effect refulting from Burton’s grave endeavours, to
prove indifputable facts by weighty quotations,
he has happily caught, and fometimes well bur-
Tefqued. ‘This was the confequence of an opinion,
prevalent in the laft age, which a late writer has
attempted to re-eftablifh refpecting Hiftory; that
authorities are facts.

But where the force of the fubject opens Burton's
own vein of Profe, we difcover valuable fenfe and
brilliant expreffion. The proof of this will appear
in thofe paffages, which Sterne has borrowed from
him without variation. Burton was likewife a Poet;
a copy of verfes in Latin, and another in Englifh,
prefixed to his book, afford no mean proofs of

his

* The Tale of a Tub, and the Memoirs of Scriblerus,
muit come in for a fhare of this influence,

Comments on Sterite. 57

genius.* The Anatomy of Melancholy has
always been a fource of furreptitious learning ;
Anthony a-Wood fpeaks of it, asa compilation highly
ufeful to Gentlemen who were negligent at College ;
and Archbifhop Herring alledged that the wits
who flourifhed under Queen Anne and George
the Firft, were under great obligations to it.f In

literature,

* The late Mr. Warton, in his edition of Milton’s
Smaller Poems, ~has noticed the analogy between thele
Englifh verfes, and the Allegro & Penferofo, Burton
alternates them, thus:

When I go mufing all alone,

Thinking of divers things fore-known,
When I build Caftles in the air,

Void of Sorrow, void of Fear,

Pleafing myfelf with phantoms fweet,
Methinks the time runs very fleet.
_ All my joys to this are folly,
Nought fo {weet as melancholy,

‘When I go walking all alone,
Recounting what I have ill done,
My thoughts on me then tyrannize,
Fear and forrow me furprize ;
Whether I tarry ftill or go
Methinks the time moves very flow.
All my griefs to this are jolly,
Nought fo fad as melancholy, &c.

There is a dire&t imitation of thefe verfesin V
‘ Jean qui pleure, et Jean qui rit.’

oltaire’s

+ Biograph. Di&. Art. Burton (Rob.)
The ftory of Dr, Parnell’s beautiful allegory on Man, is

zaken from Burton, p. 64,

58 Comments on Sterne.

literature, the fprings are commonly more copious
than their derived {treams, and are therefore more
highly honoured. But though this applies to
Burton, and moft of his imitators, it fails in refpect
of ‘Triftram Shandy, where, though much is directly
drawn from our Author, there are many delightful
windings, widely diftant from his influence. I
would therefore beware of imitating the rafhnefs of
a Traveller, who fhould fancy he had difcovered
the fecret head of a mighty river, while, deceived
by imperfect intelligence, he had only explored the
fource of an auxiliary ftream.

» The firft four chapters of Triftram Shandy, are
founded on fome paffages in Burton, which I fhall
tranfcribe. Sterne’s improvements I {hall leave to
your recollection.

‘ Filii ex fenibus nati raro funt firmi tempera-

‘“ menti, &c. Nam fpiritus cerebri fi tum malé
‘* afficiantur, tales procreant, & quales fuerint
‘* affectus, tales filiorum, ex triftibus triftes, ex
‘* jucundis jucundi nafcuntur [Cardan.] ‘ If fhe”
(the mother) ‘ be over-dull, heavy, angry, peevith,
‘* difcontented and melancholy, not only at the —
‘** time of conception, but even all the while fhe.
‘* carries the child in her womb (faith Fernelius)
‘ her fon will be fo likewife, and worfe, as Lem-
“ nius adds, &c. ----- So many ways are we
‘** plagued and punifhed for our fathers defaults;*
** infomuch,

oe

* This idea runs through Triftram Shandy.

Comments on Sterne. 59

*¢ infomuch that as Fernelius truly faith, it is the
*¢ ereateft part of our felicity to be well-born, and
- * it were happy for human kind,* if only .fuch
** parents as are found of body and mind, fhould be
“ fuffered to marry. Quanto id diligentius in
‘* procreandis liberis obfervandum.”f 1 cannot help
thinking, that the firft chapter or two of the
Memoirs of Scriblerus whetted Sterne’s invention,
in this, as well as in other inftances of Mr. Shandy’s
peculiarities.

The forced introdu@tion of the fneer at the term
non-naturals,f ufed in medicine, leads us back to
Burton, who has infifted largely and repeatediy,
on the abufe of th functions fo denominated.

It is very fingular, that in the introduction to
the Fragment on Whifkers, which. contains an evi-
dent Copy, Sterne fhould take occafion to abufe
Plagiarifts. ‘‘ Shall we for ever make new books,
‘‘ as Apothecaries make new mixtures, by pouring
** only out of one veffel into another?” Ex ore

H 2 tuo

* See Triftram Shandy, Vol. viii. Chap. 33.
+ Anat. of Melanch, p. 37. Edit. 1676.

Quanto id diligentius in liberis procreandis cavendum,

fayeth Cardan. Trif. Shandy, Vol. vi.wCh. 39.

¢ Tr. Sh. Vol. i. Chap. 23.— Why the moft natural
ations of a Man’s Jife fhould be called his non-naturals, is
another queftion.”—See Burton, p. 39. The {olution might
be cafily given, if it were worth repeating.

60 Comments on Sterne:

tuo— Shall we be deftined to the days of eternity,
‘** on holidays, ds well as working-days, to be
‘* fhewing the relics of learning, as monks do the

* relics of the r faints—without working one—one .

** fingle miracle with them ?”’—Here we muft acquit
Sterne: he has certainly’done wonders, wherever
he has imitated or borrowed. — ;

‘““ Qne denier, cried the order of mercy—one

“ fingle denier, in behalf of a thoufand patient

«

se

‘* you for their redemption.

** __._ The Lady Bauffiere rode on,

‘“‘ Pity the unhappy, faid a devout, venerable,
hoary-headed man, meekly holding up a box,

“ begirt with iron, in his witherd hands—I beg |

‘“* for the unfortunate—good, my lady, ’tis for a
** prifon—for an hofpital—’tis for an old man—a
‘“‘ poor man undone Ly fhipwreck, by furetythip,
** by fire—I cail God and all his angels to witnefs—
‘* tis to clothe the naked—to feed the hungry—
ee tay to comfort the fick and the broken-hearted.
The Lady Baufliere rode on.
“A decayed kinfman bowed himfelf to the
ore
—— The Lady Bauffiere rode on.
ran begging bare-headed on one fide of her
tt oF conjuring her by the former bonds of
“ friendthip, alliance; confanguinity, &c.—coufin,
““ aunt, fifter, mother—for vittue’s fake, for your
{ & own,

captives, whofe eyes look towards heaven and

]

Comments on Sterne. ie

‘¢ own, for mine, for Chrift’s fake, remember me—
_ pity me.

« ___ The Lady Bauffiere rode on.”*

The citation of the original paffage from Burton
will confirm all I have faid of his ftile.

‘© A poor decay'd kinfman of his fets upon him by the
‘© way in all his jollity, and runs begging bare-headed by
“ him, conjuring him by thofe former bonds of friend/hip,
‘¢ alliance, confanguinity, ©©c. uncle, coufin, brother,
“t father, - -~- fhew fome pity for Chrift’s fake» pity a
“fick man, an old man, &c. he cares not, ride on:
“* pretend ficknefs, inevitable lofs of limbs, plead firretyfhip,
* or fhipwreck, fires, common calamities, fhew thy wants
*« and imperfections, - --- fwear, proteft, take God and
* all his angels to witnefs, quere peregrinum, thou art a
“* counterfeit crank, a cheater, he is not touched with it,
‘* pauper ubique jacet, ride on, he takes no notice of it.
** Put up a fupplication to him in the name of a thoufand
** orphans, an hofpital, a fpittle, a prifon ashe goes by,
** they cry out to him for’ aid: ride on = -- - - Shew
© hima decay'd haven, a bridge, a fchool, a fortification,
© &c. or fome public work; ride on. Good your wor fhip,
** your honour, for God's fake, your Country's ‘ew
‘ride on.”

This curious Copy is followed up, in Triftram
Shandy, by a Chapter, ‘and that a long one, written

‘almoft

* Triftram Shandy, Vol. v. Chap. 1,

+ Anat, of Melanch. p, 269,

6a Comments on Sterne.

almoft entirely from Burton. It is the Confolation
of Mr. Shandy, on the death of Brother Bobby.

‘** When Agrippina was told of her fon’s death,
“« Tacitus informs us, that, not being able to mode-
“« rate the violence of her paffions, fhe abruptly
«¢ broke off her work.” ‘This quotation did not
come to Sterne from Tacitus. ‘' Mezentius would not
live after his fon ---- And Pompey's wife cry’d out
at'the news of her hufband’s death, Turpe mori poft te,
&c.—as Tacitus of Agrippina, not able to moderate her
paffions: _ So when fhe heard her Son was flain, fhe
abruptly broke off her work, changed countenance and colour,
tore her hair, and fell a roaring downright.”*

“Tis either Plato,” fays Sterne,” or Plutarch,
'*t or Seneca, or Xenophon, or Epictetus, or ‘Theo-
‘« phraftus, or Lucian—or fome one, perhaps of
‘ later date—either Cardan, or Budzus, or Petrarch,
‘ or Stella—or poffibly it may be fome divine
‘ or father of the Church, St. Auftin, or St.
‘¢ Cyprian, or Bernard, who affirms, that it is an
‘* irrefiftible and natural paffion, to weep for the
** lofs of our friends or children—and Seneca,
“* (I’m pofitive) tells us fomewhere, that fuch griefs
** evacuate themfelves beft by that particular chan-
““ nel. And accordingly, we find that David wept
“ for his fon Abfalom—Adrian for his Antinous}+—

‘« Niobe

Lad

lod

°

* Anat. of Melanch. p. 213.

+ The time has been, when this conjunfion with the
King of Ifrael would have {melt a little of the faggot,

Comments on Sterne. 63

** Niobe for her children—and that Apollodorus
** and Crito both fhed tears for Socrates before his
** death.” — This is well rallied, as the following
pafflage will evince; but Sterne fhould have con-
fidered. how much he owed to poor old Burton.
** Death and departure of friends are things generally grie-
** vous; Omnium que in vita humana contingunt, luctus
** atgue mors funt acerbiffima, [Cardan. de Confol.
** lib. 2.] the moft auftere and bitter accidents that can
** happen to aman in this life, in eternum valedicere, to
“* part for ever, to forfake the world and all our friends,
‘* °tis ultimum terribilium, the laft and the greateft terrour,
** moft irkfome and troublefome unto us, ©&c.—Nay many
‘© generous {pirits, and grave flaid men otherwife, are fo
** tender in this, that at the lofs of a dear friend they will
“cry out, roar, and tear their hair, lamenting fome
‘* months after, howling O hone, as thofe Irifh women,
** and Greeks at their Graves, commit many indecent
** aétions,” &c.* All this is corroborated by quo-
tations from Ortelius, Catullus, Virgil, Lucan and
Tacitus. I take them in the order affigned them
by Burton. For he fays with great probability of
himfelf, that he commonly wrote as faft as poffible,
and poured out his quotations juft as they happened
to occur to his memory. But to proceed with Mr,
Shandy’s Confolation.
ate 22)

* Anat, of Melanch, p. 219.

64 Comments on Sierne,

* Tis an inevitable chance—the firft fiatute in ,

« Magna Charta—it is an everlafting act of Par-
+ liament, my dear brother—all muft die.”’*

«ec

£6

at

+ ’Tis an inevitable chance, the firlt Ratute in Magna
Charta, an _ everlafling ad of Parhkament, all muft
the.t

** When Tully was bereft of his dear daughter
Tullia, at firft he laid it to his heart—he liftened
to the voice of Nature, and modulated his own
unto it, &c.—-But as foon as he began to look
into the ftores of Philofophy, and confider how |
many excellent things might be faid upon the
occafion—nobody upon earth can conceive, fays
the great oratory how joyful, how happy it made
me.”|]

‘ Till was much grieved for his daughter Tulliola’s
death at firft, until fuch time that he had confirmed his
mind with fome philofophical precepts, then he began to
triumph over fortune and grief, and for her reception into
heaven to be much more joyed than before he was troubled

for her lofs.”$

Sterne is uncharitable here to poor Cicero.—

** Kingdoms and provinces, and towns and cities,

“have they not their periods?” Where is Troy,

>

and

* Triftram Shandy, Vol sth. Chap. 9.
+ Anat, of Melancholy, p. 215.
|| Sterne.

{ Burton,

Comments on Sterne. 65

** and Mycene, and Thebes, and Delos, and Perfe-
** polis, and Agrigentum. ---- What is become,
“* brother Toby, of Nineveh, and Babylon, of
** Cyzicum and Mytilene; the faireft towns that
** ever the fun rofe upon, are now no more.”* —

‘* Kingdoms, Provinces, Towns and Cities,” fays
Burton, ‘‘have their periods, and are confumed. In
thofe flourifhing times of Troy, Mycene was the faireft
city in Greece, - -~- but it, alas, and that Affyrian Ninive
are quite overthrown. The like fate hath that Egyptian
and Beotian Thebes, Delos, the common Council-houfe af
Greece, and Babylon, the greateft City that ever the Sun
Shone on, hath now nothing but walls and rubbifk left.”
---- And where is Troy, itfelf now, Perfepolis, Car-
thage, Cizicum, Sparta, Argos, and all thofe Grecian Cities ?

Syracufe and Agrigentum, the fatreft towns in Sicily,
which had fometimes feven hundred thoufand inhabitants,
are now decayed. Let us follow Sterne again. ‘ Re-
** turning out of Afia, when I failed from Agina
towards Megara, I began to view the Country
round about. gina was behind me, Megara
** was before, Pyreus on the right hand, Corinth
on the left. What flourifhing towns now proftrate
“on the earth! Alas! alas! faid I to my‘elf,
“ that a man fhould difturb his foul for the lofs of
** a Child, when fo much as this lies awfully buried
in his prefence. Remember, faid I to myfelf
again—remember that thou art a Man,”

I This

* Sterne,

66 Comments on Sternes

This is, with fome flight variations, Burton's
tranflation of Servius’s letter. Sterne alters juft
enough, to fhew that he had not attended to the
original. Burton’s verfion follows.

** Returning out of Afia, when I failed from ABgina
toward Megara, I began to view the Country round about.
fEgina was behind me, Megara before, Pyreus on the
right hand, Corinth on the left; what flourifhing toums
heretofore, now profirate and overwhelmed before mine eyes?
Alas, why are we men fo much difquieted with the departure
of a friend, whofe life is much fhorter? When fo many
goodly Cities lie burted before us. Remember, O. Servius,
thou arta Man; and with that I was much confirm’d, and.
corrected myfelf.”

‘* My Son is dead,” fays Mr, Shandy, ‘‘ fo much
“‘ the better,* *tis a fhame, in fuch a tempeft, to
‘* have but one Anchor?”

I—tut he was moft dear and loving friend, quoth
Burton, my fole friend—Thou maift be afhamed, I fay .
with Seneca, to confefs it, n fuch a tempeft as this, to
have but one anchor. °

‘* But,” continues Mr. Shandy, “ he is gone for
‘* ever from us! be it fo. He is got from under
‘* the hands of his barber before he was bald. He
‘* is but rifen from a feaft before he was furfeited—
‘* from a banquet before he had got drunken. The
** ‘Thracians wept when a child was born, and
“* feafted and made merry when a man went

** out

* This is an aukward member of the fentence,

Comments on Sterne. 67

*- out of the world, and with reafon. Is it not
*« better not to hunger at all, than to eat? not to
* thirft, than to take phyfic to cure it? Is it not
** better to be freed from cares and agues, love and
; melancholy, and the other hot and cold fits of
‘* life,f than, like a galled traveller, who comes
‘“ weary to his inn, to be bound to begin his journey
** afrefh?”

I fhall follow Burton’s collections as they ftand
in his own order.f ‘+ Thou doft him great injury to
defire his longer life. Wilt thou have him crazed and
fickly full, like a tired traveller that comes weary to his
Inn, begin his journey afrefh? --- he is now gone to
eternity - - --- as if he had rifen, faith Plutarch, from
the midft of a feaft, before he was drunk --- Is it not
much better not to hunger at all, than to eat: not to thirft,
than to-drink to fatisfy thirft; not to be cold, than to put on
clothes to drive away cold? You had more need rejoice that
I am freed from difeafes, agues, Gc. The Thracians wept
Still when a child was born, feafted and made mirth when any
man was buried: and fo fhould we rather be glad for fuch as

die well, that they are fo happily freed from the m aes of
- this life.||

a

Is Beaes

+ This approaches to one of Shakefpeare’s ‘apy eX-
preflions:
. Duncan is in his grave:
After Life’s fitful fever he fleeps well.
t Sterne has commonly reverfed the arrangement, which
produces a ftrong effe&t inthe comparifon,
| Anat, of Mel, p. 216,

68: _ Caniments on Sterne.

Again—“ Confider, brother Toby,—when we
are, death is not, and when death is, we are
not”—So Burton tranflates a paffage’ in Seneca:
When we are, death is not; but when death is, then we
are not.* ‘The original words are, quum nos fumus,
mors non adefi ; cum vero mors adeft, tum nos non fumus.

** For this reafon, continued my father, ’tis
‘“* worthy to recollect, how little alteration in great
“* men the approaches of death have made. Vef--
“« pafran died in a jeft -------- Galba with a
“ fentence—Septimius Severus in a difpateh ; ‘Tibe-
‘ rius in diffimulation, and Cefar Auguftus in a
“ compliment.” ‘This conelufion of fo remarkable
a Chapter is copied, omitting fome quotations,
almoft verbatim, from Lord Verulam’s Effay on
Death. .

We muft have recourfe to Burton again, for part
of the Triftra-Pedia. ‘*O bleffed health! cried
*« my father, making an exclamation, as he turned
~ * over the leaves to the next Chapter,—thou art
“« above all gold and treafure; ‘tis thou who en-
Jargeft the foul,—and openeft all its powers to
‘“« receive inftruction, and to relifh virtue. —He
“¢ that has thee, has little more to wifh for ;—and
* he that is fo wretched as to want thee,—wants
“ every thing with thee.

O bleffed health! fays Burton, thou art above all gold

and

*rPsete.
+ Chap. 33, vol. 5.

Comments on Sterne. 69

and treafure; [Ecclefiaft.] the poor man’s riches, the
rich man’s blifs, without thee there can be no happinefs.*

O beata fanitas, te prefente, amenum
Ver floret gratis, abfque te nemo deatus,

But I fhould, in order, have noticed firft an
exclamation at the end of Chapter ix. in the
“Spirit of which no body could expect Sterne to be
original. ‘* Now I love you for this—and ’tis this
“* delicious mixture within you, which makes you
«* dear Creatures what you are—and he who hates
“ you for it—all I can fay of the matter is, ‘That
*« he has a pumpkin for his head, or a pippin for
«* his heart,—and whenever he is diffec&ted ’twill be
_ found fo.’—Burton’s Quotation is: Qui vim non
fenfit amoris, aut lapis eft, aut bellua: which’ he tran-
flates thus: He is not a man, a block, a very ftone, aut
Numen, aut Nebuchadnezzar, he hath a gourd for his head,
a pippin for his heart, that hath not felt the power of it.

In Chap 36, vol. vi. Sterne has picked out a few
quotations from Burton's Effay on Love-Melancholy,
which afford nothing very remarkable’ except Sterne’s
boldnefs in quoting quotations.

By help of another extra&tt from Burton, Sterne
makes a great figure asa curious Reader: ‘‘ I hate
“to make myfteries of nothing;—’tis the cold

** cautioufnefs

* Page 104. ibid. Page 276,
+ See Burton, page g10, & feq.
t Trift, Shandy, vol, vii. c, 13,

70 Comments on Sterne.

“ cautioufnefs of one ‘of -thofe little fouls from
“« which Leffius (lib. 13. de moribus divinis, ch-
*« 94.) has made his eftimate, wherein he fetteth
* forth, That one Dutch mile, cubically multi-
“ plied, will allow room enough, and to fpare,
** for eight hundred thoufand millions, whieh he
** fuppofes to be as great 4 number of. fouls (count-
‘“* ing from the fall of Adam) as can poffibly be
** damn’d to the end-of the world. ---- I am
* much more at a lofs to know what could be
** in Francifcus Ribera’s head, who pretends that
“no lefs a fpace than one of two hundred
** Italian miles, multiplied into itfelf, will be fufh-
** cent to hold the like number—he certainly muft
‘** have gone upon fome of the old Roman fouls,”
&e. 4 .

The fucceeding raillery is very well, but unfair
with refpect to the mathematical Theologift, as the
original paffage will prove. ‘‘ Francifcus Ribera, in
cap. 14. Apocalypf. will have Hell a material and local
Jire in the centre of the earth, 200 Italian miles in diameter,
as he defines it out of . thofe words, Exivit fanguis de
terra—per Stadia mille fexcenta, Gc. But Leffius, lib.
13. de moribus divinis, cap. 24. will have this local hell
far lefs, one Dutch mile-in diameter, all filled with fire and
brimftone ; becaufe, as he there demonftrates, that fpace
cubically multiplied will make a {phere able to hold eight hundred
thoufand millions of damned bodies, (allowing each body fix
foot fquare) whick will abundantly fuffice.” [1 believe
the damn‘d, on Leffius's {cheme, would be lefs

crouded

Comments. on Sterne. 71

crouded, than the vidiims of the African Slave-trade
have often been, on the middle paffage.] ‘+ Cum
certum fit, inquit, fatta fubduétione, non futuros centies
mille milliones damnandorum.*

Again, at the end of the fame Chapter in Trif-

tram Shandy; “ but where am I? and into what a
‘* delicious riot of thingsam I rufhing? I—I who
* muft be cut fhort in the midft of my days,” &c.
Burton concludes his Chapter ‘‘on Maids’, Nunns’,
‘*« and Widows Melancholy,” in the fame manner.
** But where am I? into what fubjedt have I rufhed?
What have Ito do?’*— &c. .
_ I thall juft obferve by the way, that a pretty
paffage in the Story of the King of .Bohemia and his
even. cafiles; — ‘* Movesty {carce touches with a
“* finger what Liseratity offers her with both hands
** open”—alludes to a picture of Guido's, the defgn
of which it defcribes tolerably well.

Retournons a nos moutons, as Rabelais would fay;
in matters of painting, it is dangerous for a man to
truft his own eyes, till he has taken his degree of
Connoiffeur. aN

It confirms me ftrongly in the belief that the
character of Mr. Shandy is a perfonification of the
authorfhip of Burton, when I find fuch a paffage as
the following in Sterne. ‘‘ There is a Philippic in
** verfe on fomebody’s eye or other, that for two

ac or

* Anat, of Melanch, p. 156.
+ Page 124.

72 Comments on Sterne.

« or three nights together had put him by his reft:
*¢ which, in his firft tranfport of —— againft
‘ it, he begins thus:

« A Devil ’tis—and mifchief fuch doth work,
“¢ As never yet did Pagan, Jew, or Turk.”

This choice couplet is quoted by Burton* from

fome bad Poet, now unknown, of whofe name he
only gives the initials.
_ Hilarion the hermit, in fpeaking of his abfti-
“ nence, his watchings, flagellations, and other
«« inftrumental parts of his religion,—would fay—
* tho’ with more facetioufnefs than became an
«« hermit—That they were the mearis he ufed, to
make his afs (meaning his body) leave off kick-
Witte!

“« By this means Hilarion made his Afs, as he calld
his own body, leave kicking (fo Hierome relates of him
in his life) when the Devil tempted him to any foul
offence.” t

‘© T wifh, Yorick, faid my father, you had read
“« Plato; for there you would have learnt that there
* are two Loves— -+- of thefe Loves, according
“ to Ficinus’s comment upon Velafius, the one is
“« yational—the other is natural—the firft ancient—

“ without

-

c

e

* Page 331.
+ Tr. Shandy, vol. viii. chap. 31.
{ Burton, p. 333-

Comments on Sterne. 73

.** without mother—where Venus has nothing to
** do: the fecond, begotten of Jupiter and
** Dione—’*

$ One Venus is ancient, without a Mother, and defcended
from Heaven, whom we call caleftial. The younger
begotten of Fupiter and Dione, whom commonly we call
Venus. Frcinus, in his comment upon this place, cap. 8.
following Plato, called thefe two loves, two Devils, or
good and bad Angels according to us, which are fiill ho-
wering about our fouls £

That part of the letter to Uncle: Toby, which
confifts of obfolete medical practices, is taken from
one of the Chapters on the Cure of Love-Melan-
choly.|| Many curious quotations might be added
to what Sterne knew, out of Dr. Ferrand’s Erdto-
mania; but this Effay is already long enough.

There is another writer, whofe p»thetic manner
Sterne feems to have caught; it is Marivaux,—the
father of the feutimental ftyle. A careful perufal :
of his writings, and of thofe of the younger
Crebillon, might perhaps elucidate the ferious parts
of ‘Triftram Shandy, and the Sentiment:] Journey.
But I muft leave this undertaking to thofe who have
fufficient time to facrifice to the tafk. From thefe

K - Authors,

* Tr. Shandy, vol. viii. chap. 99.

t+ Velafius is quoted thro’ all the preceding paflages in
» Burton,
+ P. 260.

Il P. 333 to 335.

74 Comments on Sterne.

Authors, I think; Sterne learnt to practice what
Quintilian had made a precept: Minus eft rorum
dicere quam omnia. With genius enough for the
attempt, one has frequently failed in producing
pleafure by the length of his digreffions, and the
other by affecting an exeeffive refinement and am-
biguity in his language. Les bons écrivains du fitcle de
Louis XIV. fays Voltaire, ont eu de la force, aujour-
d'hui on cherche de Contorfions. Our own writers are
not free from this error; and it would not be
unworthy their confideration, that a fentence, which
is fo much refined as to admit of feveral different
fenfes, may perhaps have no direct claim to any
fenfe.* Sterne has feldom indulged thefe lapfes,
for which he was probably indebted to the buoyant

force of Burton’s firm Old-Englifh finews.
Whoever will take the trouble of comparing
Sterne’s Dialogue with his own feelings, in the
Sentimental

* Maynard puts this very well:

Mon ami, chaffe bien loin
Cette noire Rhetorique,

Tes ouvrages ont befoin
D’un devin qui les explique,
Si ton efprit veut cacher

Les belles chofes qu’il penfe,
Di-moi, qui peut t’empécher
De te fervir du filence?

Comments on Sterne. 75

Sentimental Journey, to that of Jacob with his
Avarice and his Honour, in the -firft part of the
Payfan Parvenu, will perceive a near refemblance.
It would be cruel to infert the French declama'‘ion.
A fhorter paffage from the fame work will thew that
the Shandean manner is very fimilar to that of
Marivaux.

Le Directeur avoit laiffé parler I’aineé fans l’inter-
rompre, & fembloit meme un peu pique de, l’obfti-
nation de l'autre.

Prenant pourtant un air tranquille et benin: ma
chere Demoifelle, ecoutez moi, dit il a _ cette
cadette; vous favez avec quelle affection particuliere
je vous donne mes confeils a toutes deux.

_ Ces derniers paroles, a toutes deux, furent par-
tagées, de facon que la Cadette en avoit pour le
moins les trois quarts & demi pour elle, et ce ne fut
meme que reflexion fubite, qu'il .en donna le
refte a l’aineé.f

The curious hypothefis refpecting- Chriftian names,
contains a jutt fatire on what was once a popular
fuperftition, and even cherifhed by the learned.

Ka Pafquier,

+ Compare alfo the firft Converfation with Me. Freval,
in the Payfan Parvenu, with a fcene in the Sentimental
Journey. Wherever Sterne picked up his Fragment, as
he calls it, in the Sentimental Journey, on the power of
Love, it is evidently ill-copied from the exordium of
Lucian’s admirable eflay on the method of writing Hif-
tory.

+ Payfan Parvenu, Partie, 2me.

76 Comments on Sterne.

Pafquier, in his Recherches, hasa Chapter om the
fortune of fome Chriftian Names. In the prefent
fiate of know edge, it would be unpardonable to
omit a remark, with which an author like Sterne
would make himfelf very merry. It relates to the
paffage, in which Mr. Shandy treats the nameé of
Tristram with fuch indignity, and demands of
his fuppofed Adverfary, ‘‘ Whether he had ever
** remembered; — whether he had ever réad,—or
whether he had ever heard tell of a man, cali’d
Triftram, performing any thing great or worth
recording !—-No, —he would fay,—T RimsTRam!=
‘The thing is impoffible!’ A Student of the
fafhionable black-letter erudition would have tri-
umphed in prociaiming the redoubted Sir Triftram,
Knight of the Round-table, and one of the moft
famous knights-errant upon record, Sterne might
have replied :

c

¢

e

¢

.

6

rc

Non fcribit, cujus Carmina nemo legit ;*

and indeed his pleafant hero has no refemblatice to
_ the preux Chevalier.

I am forry to deprive Sterne of the following
pretty figure, but juftice muft be done to every
one.

‘“‘ In fhort, my father - - ---- advanced fo very
“ flowly with his work, and I began to live and
« get forward at fych a rate, that if an event had

** not

»

* Martial, Lib, 2%

Comments on Sterne. 37

e

© not’ happened -- &e. I verily bélievé I had
‘ put by my father, and left hing drawing a fun- :
«« dial, for no better purpofe than to be buried
* under ground.”*

Donne concludes his poem entitled The Will,
with this very thought :

o

al

And all your Graces no more ufe fhall have
Than a Sun-dial in a Grave.

There is a ftrange coincidence between Sterne
ahd a myftie writer, in the infertion of a black page.
in each of their works. I cannot confider it as an
imitation, for it muft appear by this time, that
Sterne poffeffed no great ftore of curious reading.

‘Every one knows the black pages in Triftram:
Shandy; that of prior date is to be found in Dr.
Fludd’s Urriufque cofmi Hiftoria,~ and is emblematic
of the Chaos. Fludd was a man of éxtenfive eru-
dit.on, and confiderable obfervdtion, but his fancy,
naturally vigorous, was fermented and depraved,
by aftrological and Cabbaliftic refearches. It will
afford a proof of his ftrange fancies, and at the fame
' time do away all fufpicion of Sterne in this inftance,
to quote the ludicrous coincidence mentioned by
Morhoff, between himfelf and this Author. ‘* Co-
gitandi modum in nobis et fpeculationes illas
rationum, mirificé quodam in loco, videlicet in

libro
* Tr, Shandy, vol v. chap. 16,
+ Page 26, |

78 Comments on Sterne.

libro’ de myftica cerebri anatome [Fluddius] ob oculos
ponit. - Solent ab anatomicis illic delineari genitalia
membra, utriufque fexus, quod proceffus quidam
et finus, eum in modum figurati funt. Hic Flud-
dius invenit, non quod pueri in faba, illic dicit
generari c gitatione ; quod mihi mirum vifum eft,
cum ego iliqua do joculare carmen de Ente rationis
{criberem, et, ferente ita genio carminis, joci gratia
finxiffem, illic geoerari Entia rationis, poftea cum
incidi in iftud Fluddii, quod ne fomniando quidem
cogita'eram, invenille me, ferio hac afferi a
Fluddio.”*

I em not acquainted with the foundation of the
curious paffages re{pecting the poffibiity of bap-
tizing infants in utero, but I find that Mauriceau
adverts to the circumftance, in his atiack on the
Cefarian operation: ‘il n’ya pas d’occafions ou
** on ne puiffe bien donner le Baptéme a |’enfant,
durant qu'il eft encore au ventre de la mere,
eftant facile de porter de l'eau nette par le moyen
du Canon dune feringue jufques fur quelque
‘* partie de fon Corps’—He then obviates a difficulty
unthought of by Sterne’s Doctors; which perfuades
me that this paflage of Mauriceau had not occurred
to himn—‘‘ et il feroit inutile dalleguer que l'eau
“* n'y peut pas etre conduite, a caufe que l'enfant
** eft envelopé de fes membranes, qui en empéchent ;

car

°

‘

°

4

ee

* Morhoff. Polyhift. Philof. lib. ii. p. 1. cap. 15.

+ Triftram Shandy, vol. i, chap. xx.

Comments on Sterne. 79

car ne fcait-onpas qu’on les peut rompre tres
« aifément, en cas qu’elles ne Je fuffent pas, apres
** quo on peut toucher effectivement fon Corps.’*

This writer has alfo mentionéd the mifchievous
effect of {trong preffure applied to t!e heads of very
young Children; which is connected with another
theory that Sterne has diverted himfelf with. I
have not met with the original of it in my reading,
but will give a paflage from Bulwer’s Anthropo-
metamorphofis, analogous to Mauriceau’s.

The North-weft paflage to Learning, obfcurely
mentioned in the Triftra-~Pedia, is defcribed by Dr.
Warton, in his excellent obfervations on the Genius
and Writings of Pope, and was well burlefqued
by Swift, in the Voyage to Laputa.?

The

*Mauric, Maladies des Femmes Groffes, p. 347 (edit. gme.
4to. 1681.)

+ I knewa Gentleman who had divers fons, and the Mid-
wives and Nurfes had with headbands and ftrokings fo alter’d
the natural mould oftheir heads, that they proved children ofa
very weak underftanding. Hislaft fon only, upon advice given
him, had no reftraint impofed upon the natural growth of his
head, but was left free from the coercive power of head-
bands and other artificial violence, whofe head, although
it were bigger, yet he had more wit and uuderftanding
than them all. :

Artificial Changeling, p. 42.

$ See the Defcription and Print of the literary turning
Machine, .

So Comments on Sterne.

The beft Commentary on Chap. 5, vol. 8th. is
Montagne’s eflay on the fubject.

There is one paffage in the 7th. volume, hight

the circumftances of Sterne’s death render pathetic.
A believer in the doctrine of Pre-fentiment would
fhink it a prop to his theory. Its as ftriking as
Swift’s Digreflion on Madnefs, in the Tale of a
‘Tub.
_ * Was I ina condition to ftipulate with Death
«© -_--] fhould certainly declare agaiv{t fubmitting
“to it before my friends; and therefore I never
** ferioufly think upon the mode and manner of
‘« this great cataftrophe, which generally takes up
** and torments my thoughts as much as the cataf-
** trophe itfelf, but I conftantly draw the curtain
**acrofs it with this wifh, that the Difpofer of all
“things may fo order it, that it happen not to
** me in my own houfe—but rather in fome decent
*< inn—---- in an inn, the few coid offices I
*¢ wanted, would be purchafed with a few guineas,
** and paid me with an undifturbed but punctual
*¢ attention.” It is known that Sterne died in
hired lodgings, and I have been told, that his
attendants robbed him even of his gold fleeve-buttons,
while he was expiring.

I have feen, not very long ago, a charge of pla-
giarifm brought -againft Sterne, refpecting his
Sermons.

From what Author the paffages were faid to be
borrowed, I do not remember ; but it has long been

aay’

°
r

Comments on Sterne, SB

my opinion, that the manner, the ftyle, and the
felection of fubjects for thofe Sermons, were derived
from the excellent Contemplations of Bifhop Hall.
There isa delicacy of thought, and tendernefs of
expreffion in the good Bifhop’s compofitions, from
the transfufion ef which Sterne looked for immor-
tality.

Let us compare that f ngular Sermon, entitled
Tre Leyme ano nis Concuzine, with part of the
Bifhop’s Contemplation of the Leyite’s Concustne,
I bis follow Sterne’s order.

— Then fhame and grief go with her, and
‘« wherever fhe feeks a fhelter, may the hand of
** juitice {hut the door againft her.”*

What hufoand would not have Jfaid—She is gone, let
Shame and grizf go with her; I fhall find one no lefs pleaf-
Jing, and more faithful.+ .

** Our annotators tell us, that in Jewifh econo~
** ‘micks, thefe (concubines) differed little from
** the wife, except in fome outward ceremonies and
* ftipulations, but agreed with her in all the true
** effences of marriage.”

The Law of God, fays the Bifhop, allowed the
Levite a wife; human cénnivance a concubine; neither did
the Fewifh concubine differ from a wife, but in Jome out-
ward compliments; both might challenge all the true effence
of marriage. '

of marriag i 2
* Sterne, Sermon xviii.
+ Bp. Hall’s Works, p. 1017.
$ Sterne loc, citat,

82 Comments on Sterne.

I fhall omit the greater part of the Levite’s
foliloquy, in Sterne, and only take the laft fen-
tences.

** Mercy well becomes the heart of all thy
** creatures, but moft of thy fervant, a I evite,
‘** who offers up fo many daily facrifices to Fie
** for the tranfgreffions of thy people.”

— ‘ But to little purpofe,” he would add, atin
** I ferved at thy altar, where my bufinefs was to
** fue for mercy, had [ not learn’d to practife it.

Mercy, favs Bp. Hall, becomes well the heart of any
man, but moft of a Levite. He that had helped to offer fo
‘many facrifices to God for the multitude of every Ifractite's
fins, faw how proportionable it was, that man fhould not
hold one fin unpardcnable. He had ferved at the atar to
no purpofe, if he (whofe trade was to fue for mercy) had
not at all learned to pra€tife it.

It were needlefs to purfue the para'lel.

Sterne’s twelfth Serm.n, on the Forgivenefs of
Injuries, is merely a dilated Commentary on the
beautiful conelufion of t!:e Contemplation * of Jofeph.’

‘The fixteenth Sermon contains a more ftriking imi-
tation. ‘ There is no fmall degree of malicious
“ craft in fixing upon a Seafon to give a mark of
enmity and ill-will;—a word, a look, which,
** at one time, would make no impreffion, —at
“‘ another time, wounds the heart; and, like a
fhaft flying with the wind, pierces deep, which,
with itsown natural force, would fcarce have reached
the object aimed at.”

«

c

pas

6

ec

o

o

This

Comments on- Sterne. 83

This is little varied from the original: There is
no fmall cruelty in the picking out of a time for mifchief;
that word would fearce gall at one feafon, which at another
killeth. The fame fhaft flying with the wind pierces deep, which
againft it, can hurdly find ftrength tu flick upright.*

In Ste ne’s fifth Se:mon, the Contemplation of
Elijah with the Sareptan,’ is clufey followed,
Witnefs this paffage out of others: ** The Prophet
*¢ follows the call of his God:—the fame hand
** wh ch brought him to the gate of the city, had
** led alfo the poor widow out of her doors, op-
** preffed with forrow.’"f

The Prophet follows the call of kis God; the fame
hand that brouzht him to the gate of Sarepta, led alfo this’
poor widow out of her doors.§

The fucceeding paffages which correfpond are
too 1 ng for infertior.

Sterne has acknowledged his acquaintance with
this book, by the difingenuity of two ludicrous quo-
tations in Triftram Shandy. ||

What affiftance the writings of Voltaire and
Rouffeau afforded Sterne, I omit to enquire. ‘The
former was the firft author of this age, who intro-
duced the terms and operations of the modern
art of war nto works of entertainment; but
Sterne’s military ardour feems to have been infpired
by the prolix details of honeft Tindal. Voltaire
himfelf reviewed the firft volumes of Triftram

| OF) Shandy,
* Hall’s Shimei Curfing. + Sterne.
tBp. Hall, P. 1323. | Vol.1. Chap. 22. and Vol. 7. Chap. 13

84 Comments on Sterne.

Shandy, in one of the foreign Journals, and did
not charge their author with the imitation of any
perfons but Rabelais and Swift. He was probably
not very jealous of the reputation of a modern
Englifh writer.

Such are the cafual notes, with the colladiten of
which I have fometimes diverted a vacant half-hour.
They leave Sterne in poffeffion of every praife
but that of curious erudition, to which he had no
great pretence, and of unparellelled originality,
which ignorance only can afcrite to any polifhed
writer. It would be enjoining an impoflible tafk,
‘to exact much knowledge on fubjects frequently
treated, and yet to prohibit the ufe of thoughts and
expreffions rendered fam liar by ftudy, merely
becaufe they had been occupied by former Authors.
There is a kind of imitation which the Ancients
encouraged ,and which even our GothicCriticifm ad-
mits, when acknowledged. But juftice cannot permit _
the Polygraphic Copy to becelebrated at the expence
of the Original.

Voltaire has compared the merits of Rabelais
and Sterne, as Satirifts of the Abufe of Learning,
and, I think, has done neither of them juftice.
This great diftinétion is obvious; that Rabelais
derided abfurdities then exifting in full force, and
intermingled much fterling fenfe with the groffeft
parts of his book; Sterne, on the contrary, laughs
at many exploded opinions, and abandoned fool~
eries, and contrives to degrade fome of his moft

folemn

Comments on Sterne. g 5

folemn paffages by a vicious levity. Rabelais flew
a higher pitch, too, than Sterne. Great part of
the voyage to the Pays de Lanternois,* which fo
feverely fRtigmatizes the vices of the Romifh Clergy
of that age, was performed in more hazard of fire
than water.

The follies of the beennied may as is jultly is
corrected, as the vices of Hypocrites; but for the
. former Ridicule is a fufficient punifhment. Ridi-
dicule is even more effectual to this purpofe, as well
as more agreeable than feurrility, which is gene-
rally preferred, notwithftanding, by the learned
themfelves in their contefts, becaufe Anger feizes
the readieft weapons;

Jamque faces et faxa volant; furor arma miniftrat:

' And where a little “extraordinary Power has
accidentally been lodged in the hands of difputants,
they have not ferupled to employ the moft cogent
methods of convincing their adverfaries. Dionyfius
the Younger fent thofe Critics who difliked his
verfes, to work in the Quarries; and there was a
pleafant Tyrant, mentioned by Horace, who obliged
his deficient debtors to hear him read his own
Compofitions, amaras hiftorias, by way of commu-
tation. I fay nothing of the ‘ holy faith of pike

and

* I do not reeolleé& to have feen it obferved by Rabelais’s
Commentators, that this name, as well as the plan of the
Satire, is imitated from Lucian’s True Hiftory, Lucian’s
town is called Lychnopolis,

+ ,Plutarch,

86 Comments on Sterne.

and gun,” nor of the ftrong cudvel with which
Luther terminate1 a theological difpu'e, as I defire
to avoid Religious Controverfy. But it is impof-
fib e, on this fubje&, to forget the on e-celebrated
Dempfter, the laft of the formidable fec& of Hop-
Tomachi s, who fought every day, at his Sehool
in Paris, either with fword or fift, in defence of
his doctrines in omni feibili.f The imprifonment
of Galileo, and the example of Jordano Bruno,
burnt alive for afferting the Piural.ty of Worlds, |}
among other difgraceful inftances, fhew that Laugh-
ter is the beft crifis of an ardent difputation.

The -talents for fo delicate an othce as that of
a literary Cenfor, are too great and numerous to
be often affembled in one peifon. Rabelais wanted
decency, Sterne learning, and Voltaire fidelity.
Lucian alone fupported the charaéler properly, in
thofe pieces which appear to be jultly afcribed to
him. As the narrownefs of Paty yet infefts Phi-
lof>phy, a writer with his qualifications would ftill
do good fervice in. the Caufe of Truth. For wit
and good fenfe united, as in him they eminently
were, can attack noth ng fuccefsfully which ought
not to be demoliihed.

An

¢ Jan. Nic. Erythre. Pinacothie:
|| - Brucker, Hift. Critic. Philofoph. Tom. v. P. 28, 29.

The famous Scioppius publifhed a fhocking letter of exuk
tation on this execution.

An Account of, ec. oe]

An Account of, and Obfervations on, d'fferent Buut
Coxours, produced from the Mother Water of S.da
Phofphorata, ©c. by Mr. Tuomas Wits, of
Lonvon. — Cemmunicated by ‘Tuomas Henry,

F. R. S. &e.

ET

To Mr. THOMAS HENRY.

Sir,

I requeft the favour of you, to lay
before the Society the inclofed Paper (contain-
ing an Account of, and Obfervations on different
blue Colours, produced from the Mother-waters
of Soda Phofphorata) for their infpection, and
fhall be much honoured if it fhould merit their
approbation.

The colour No. 1, feems to be a fort of Pruffian
blue, but is much clofer in its texture, and on
breaking it, appears fomewhat gloffy.

As three of thefe colours are in the hands of
different Painters, fhould they prove ufeful, I
fhall take the earlieft opportunity of communicating

the intelligence to the Society.
Iam, Sir,

Your moft obliged and obedt. fervant,
April 12, 1791. THOs, WILLIS.

88. An Account of; and

An ACCOUNT, &.

pelea led to the difcovery of thefe

Colouts, which it is to be hoped will be
found ufeful in the art of painting. ‘Two of them
have fomething of the appearance of Pruffian blue,
but from the following inveftigations there feems
to be fome other principle befides Phlogifticated
Alcali for their bafis; which I muft confefs I am
not able to account for, but leave it to the judgment
of Gentlemen of greater abilities than I can pretend
to. :

After I had extracted all the Chryftals of Soda.
Phofphorata from a combination of the Phofphoric »
Acid with pure mineral Alcali, or with the bef
Spanifh Barilla freed from as much common falt as
poffible, I generally threw away the Mother-waier
as ufelefs, which being poured through an iron
grating, fome of it was feattered about, and ap-
peared of a blueifh colour on the contiguous ftoness
upon which appearance, imagining it to proceed
from a Phlogifticated Alkali, I diffolved four ounces
of common alum and one ounce of martia! vitriol
- in two quarts of wter, by boiling them togethers
On fome of the Mother-water of Soda Phofphorata
was poured a little of the alum nous and martial
folution: at firft a greyifh coagulum only was

formed ;

Obfervations on Blue Colours. 89

formed; but upon adding more of the folution, a
fine blue colour was produced which readily preci-
pitated. This being wathed frequently with water
till the fupernatant liquor was_quite tafielefs, was
then dried, and produced the colour No. 1.

As I was defirous of feeing whether Roch Alum
would have any different effect, four ounces of Roch
Alum and one ounce of Martial Vitriol were diffolved
in two quarts of water, by boiling them together,
and with fome of this folution a precipitate from the
Mother-water of Soda Phofphorata was produced,
which, after it was well wafhed, yielded the blue
Colour No. 2, which is ofa very pale hue.

A fmall quantity of thefe powders was given to a
perfon that paints in water colours, who on trying
sthem faid they were too fpongy for that purpofe.

As there was a very copious, light precipitate pro-
duced in the above two experiments, andthe colouring
matter, when dried, but fmallin quantity ; ] evaporated
the Mother-water of Soda Phofphorata to a thick pelli-
cle, and a deliquefcent falt was produced: ithe remain-
ing liquor was precipitated with a folution of common
Alum and Martial Vitriol, made with the propor-
tions above-mentioned. A precipitate, not fo light
as the two others, and in appearance lefs in quantity,
was produced, but which, when wafhed and dried,
yielded about the fame weight as the others. It was
of a paler blue than the firft production, but of a
bright colour; fome of which is contained in the
paper marked No. 1, witha +.

M This

90 An Account of, and

This has not yet been tried as a water colour, ‘nor
have I received any account of their being ufeful
oil-colours, although .I have given fome of each of
them to different Painters, as alfo a portion of fome
_ of the next preparation.

Thinking that the Aluminous Earth was the reafon
of the fponginefs of the colours, when ufed as water
colours, I thought, by precipitating the Mother-water
of Soda, Phofphorata with a martial folution alone,
it might produce a colour free fram that fponginefs
complained of; therefore I added to the Mother-
water above-mentioned, a faturated folution of
Martial Vitriol, and a very copious precipitate was
formed, but of a lefs beautiful colour than either the
firft or third. The precipitate was very light, and
required fome length of time to fettle: it was
wafhed till perfectly taftelefs, and although it
occupied much fpace, being fo very expanfive, it
yielded a lefs proportion of dry colour than either of
the former proceffes, and was not fo deep a blue as
To. 1,

As this laft colour, when dried, had a little brown-
if tinge on its furface, I concluded it proceeded
from its having fome ochry matter mixed with it;
to free it from which, I added a little Oil of Vitriol
to a fmall portion of it, and the whole became of
a dirty green, which, on being poured into water,
turned of a deep blue. This was well wafhed to free
it from all acidity ; but Pr colour did not appear to

be improved.
In

Obfervations on Blue Colours. gt

In order to examine whence this colouring matter
proceeded, the following experiments were made :

ift. Some pure Soda Phofphorata was diffolved,
to which was added a portion of the aluminous and
martial folution. A dirty white coagulum was
formed, which, by adding more of the precipitating
_ liquor, was rediffolved entirely,

2d. ‘To fome of the fame folution of Soda Phof-
phorata was added a folution of Martial Vitriol: a
fimilar coloured coagulum appeared, of which, upon
furcharging it with the latter folution, the greateft
part was rediffolved, and the remainder continued
unchanged in colour.

gd. With Sal Soda diffolved in water, the alumi-
nous and martial folution precipitated a dirty white
colour, which being overcharged with the precipita-
ting liquor, part was rediffolved; but what remained
was not altered in colour. |

4th. Some of the fame folution of Sal Soda was
precipitated with a folution of vitriolated iron: a very
large quantity of brown precipitate was produced,
which being overcharged with the folution of iron,
effervefced much, and the precipitate was rediffolved.

_ This experiment was fome time afterwards made

with another folution of Sal Soda, and the folution
of vitriolated iron: when a fimilar coloured preci-
pitate was produced, but being overcharged with the
latter, only part of the precipitate was rediffolved,
but there was no alteration of colour. |

M 2 5th. The

g2 "An Account of, and
Ben. The Mother-water of Sal Soda, precipitated

with the aluminous and martial folution, gave at firft
a dirty brown colour, which did not diffolve, but
upon fuperfaturation was changed to a pale blue
» colour: but this was only from one parcel of the
Mother-water of Sal Soda ; for on trying various other
Mother-waters of Sal Soda, very different productions
were obtained. From fome a dirty brown, from
others a dirty white, from others a grey. The beft
colour that was produced is the fmall quantity fent,
marked No. 3. As the Barilla that is brought from
Spain is very unequal in its ftrength and quantity,
the difference of the precipitates is not much to be
wondered at.

6th. With the fame Mother-water as mentioned
in the 5th. experiment, and a folution of martial
vitriol, much the fame effect was produced, only
a lefs copious precipitate, and of a paler colour,
but, in feveral other trials, on various other Mother-
watérs of Sal Soda, generally a brown coloured
precipitate was produced.

_ 7th. The pure Mineral Alkali from the Eaft-
Indies, diffolved in water, and precipitated with the
Aluminous and Martial Solution, formed a dirty
white precipitate, which being overcharged with the
precipitating liquor, effervefced very much. Part of
the precipitate was re-diffolved, and the remainder
rétained its colour.

8th. To the fame Solution of Mineral Alcali men-
tioned in the 7th. Experiment, was added a Solution
of

Obfervations on Blue Colours. 93

of Vitriolated Iron. A large quantity of olive-green
coagulum appeared. Upon fuperfaturating it, a
great effervefcence was excited and the whole of
the coagulum was re-diffolved, yielding a brownifh
green, diaphanous liquor, but upon ftanding all
night in the glafs veffel, a brownifh-green precipitate
fell down. .

gth. The Acid of Phofphorus was added to the
Aluminous and Martial Solution, and it gave a pale
white precipitate.

1oth. The Acid of Phofphorus being added to the
Solution of Vitriol of Iron, no decompofition took
place. .

It appears that from the Mother-water produced
from the combination of the Phofphoric Acid and
Mineral Alkali, a blue colour is always obtained by
means of a martial Solution; and that from the
Mother-water of Sal Soda it is uncertain, and
what is produced is of a pale colour; and that this
fac might be more fatisfactorily afceriained, the —
Mother-waters of Sal Soda, that were ufed,
were thofe from which the Salt had been extracted
to make the Soda Phofphorata, whofe Mother-
waters were tried in thefe experiments.

It is true alfo that the Mother-water of tartarized
Natron will fometimes yield a Pruifian blue, but
not always, and whenever it does, it is generally
pale-coloured; but in all the experiments made
with the Phofphorated Alkaline Mother-waters above
related, a deep blue colour has been produced,

except

94 _. An Account of, and

except in-the fingle one made with Rock Allum; for
the other operations have been repeated, and the
refults have been uniform.

The Acid of Phofphorus has been tried with the
two precipitating liquors, and no blue colour was
produced. It therefore remains to account, how
this blue colour fhould be continually produced by
the combination above-mentioned, efpecially as the
phofphoric Acid was obtained from bones burned.
to a perfect whitenefs, which might be expected to
deftroy the tinging principle. |

Some of the beft Pruffian blue that could be
purchafed, was added to the ftrong Vitriolic Acid.
It was changed to a green colour, but much paler
than that produced from the colour precipitated by
the Martial Solution, as above related, by adding the
Acid of Vitriol to it; but on diluting the Pruffian
blue, digefted in the Vitriolic Acid, with water, a
large quantity of white powder was perceived, which
evidently muft be the Earth of Alum. Upon
further diluting and ftirring the mixture, it readily
mixed with the tinging matter, and appeared uni-
formly blended therewith.

A portion of the blue colour, No. 1. was like-
wife digefted with ftrong Vitriolic Acid. It was
changed toa darker green colour than in the laft
mentioned procefs, but on diluting it with water,
it changed uniformly to blue: but on digefting
fome of No. 2 with the Vitriolic Acid, there was
a feparation when the mixture was diluted with

water ;

Obfervation hr Blue Colours. 95

water; at firft the mixture was of a deeper green
than that with the Pruffian blue digefted in Vitriolic
Acid; and upon diluting it, at firft the liquor altered
but little; yet, in the {pace of half a minute it be-
came of a deeper blue than the original, but a large
quantity of a dirty white coloured matter was
feparated.

It alfo appears, that there is very little difference
between the pure mineral Alkali brought from the
Eaft-Indies, and the beft Spanifh Barilla, when it is
freed as much as poffible from common Salt.

From the deep colouring matter feparating on the
dilution of Pruffian blue, digefted with Vitriolic
Acid, by adding water to it, Quere, Whether a
much finer blue might not be produced by pour-
ing off that blue liquor from the white powder,
and edulcorating it 2

96 On Dramatic Reprefeniations,

On the Impreffion of Reality attending Dramatic
Reprefentations, by J. Amin, M. D.i—

Communicated by Dr. Prrcivat.

Read Oéfober 7.

R. Johnfon, in his Preface to Shakefpear,
excufes that great poet's violation of the
Dramatic Unities, and argues againft the law by
which they have been enjoined, upon this princi-
ple—That as, in fact, we are never fo deceived by
a dramatic reprefentation, as to believe it real,
there is no danger of injuring its effect by any thing
which may tend to deftroy fuch a belief. And he
feems to triumph not a little, in expofing the ab-
furdity of an imagined conviction, that a fcene
paffing before our eyes is real, when we are all the
time confcious that it began in fiction.

But it appears to me, that in this inftance (as
perhaps in many others) the critic has taken a
very narrow furvey of the human mind, and has
only fkimmed the furface for that truth which lay
‘fomewhat deeper. The queftion refpecting the
nature of that feeling which a {cene of fiction excites
in us, muft be determined bya reference to the ge-
neral mode in which the mind receives impref-
fions. Now, I fhall attempt to fhew, that although

the

On Dramatic Reprefentations. 97

the means by which emotions are raifed are very
various, yet that, when raifed, they are all precifely
the fame in their nature, and only differ in degree
of intenfity: This, I think, wiil manifeftly appear,
if, in the firft place, the fame principle which is
neceffary to account for the effect of one of thefe
means, will equally account for all; and, in the
fecond place, if the evident and external expreflions
of our emotions are fimilar in every cafe.

Why is it that the view of a real {cene of diftrefs,
in which we are not perfonally concerned, operates
upon our feelings, but in confequence.of that general
principle of our nature, whereby the image of
human paflions in another, excites correfponding
emotions in ourfelves? Reality itfelf cannot operate
upon us without a medium; and in what refpedct does
the action produced by the dire& medium of the
fenfes, differ from that produced by the remoter
mediums of recollection,’ narration, or any mode
of fictitious reprefentation? I behold a perfor
fuffering under the extremity of torture, and find
myfelf highly affected at the fpectacle. I make his
feelings in fome refpect my own ;—my flefh creeps
upon my bones, and the pain of fympathy rifes to
fuch a degree as to become intoleiable. It is now
ever, and that portion of human mifery has no
Jonger an exiftence. Still the fcene recyrs to my
mind, and whenever it intrudes, all my pain is
Zenewed, though with lefs intenfity; and this con-
tinues to be the cafe till the ideas fade away. The

N identity

98 On Dramatic Reprefentations.

identity of the fenfation is proved by the famenefs
of the corporeal effects, If I fhuddered and turned
pale at the real fpectacle, I do the fame at the firft ©
recollections: if I ran with horror from the former,
I plunge into company or bufinefs to deliver me
from the latter. Now, if it be allowed, that my
own mind, acting upon itfelf, without the aid of
external objects, be capable of creating an imaginary
fcene indiftinguifhable in its effects from a real one,
why fhould not equal power be granted to thofe
artificial methods, in which refembling, fenfible
objects are called in to affift the’ operations of the
fancy ? ;
But, it may be faid, no one denies as a matter of
fact, the power of recollection and fictitious repre-
fentation to move the paffions, and the queftion is
only, what is neceffary to the production of this
effe&? Now, fince in the cafe of a recollected fcene,
it cannot be a belief of reality, (for no man_ believes
that the event on which he reflects is acted over
again) why fhould fuch belief have any thing more
to do with the efficacy of fition? And this reafon-
ing (on which Dr. Johnfon diffufely dwells) is juft,
as far as it goes; but his error confifts in confounding
with proper belief, that impreffion of reality, or temporary
‘illufion, which I conceive abfolutely effential to
‘account for the undoubted effects produced by all
the various imitations of aétion. . Belief is the con-
fequence ofa reflex operation of the mind, by which
we are convinced of a truth after examination or
enquiry.

On Dramatic Reprefentattons. 99.

enquiry. It is- therefore incompatible with the
impreffions of illufion; for, as foon as they are
examined, they are at an end. We cannot afk
ourfelyes whether they are true, without difcovering
them to be falfe. But it is certain we are often fo
impreffed with a notion, as to entertain no prefent
doubts about it, though it is no object of our belief,
but, on the contrary, has repeatedly been detected
by us as a falfehood.

Dr. Johnfon himfelf, fpeaking of what he terms
the extrufion of Glofter’s eyes in Lear, fays, that it,
** feems an act too horrid to be endured in dramatic
** exhibition, and fuch as muft always compel the
‘* mind to relieve its diftrefs by incredulity.” Does
not this exprefsly imply, that a lefs horrid and
unnatural action would pafs on the ftage for real;
and that the ufual affection of the mind in dramatic
exhibitions is an impreflion of reality? Hiftorical
incredulity cannot be here meant; for how are we
fure that the flory was not true? befides, we read
with tolerable tranquillity of facts ft:ll more fhocking.
It muft then be the ‘‘ incredulus odi” of Horace,—
a refolution to difcard and reject what fo much
pains us. Horace did not difbelieve that Medea
had murdered her children; but when the fact was
reprefented to him in a vifible difplay, the horror
he felt made him refufe to admit it as a true fcene.

Further to elucidate this idea of the imprejfion of
reality as diftinct from belief, let us trace the progrefs
of the imagination from the inftances in which it is

leaft

106 On Dramatic Reprefentations,

leaft affifted by external objedts, to thofe in which it
is moftfo. And, not to dwell upon the conviction
of reality attending dreams, delirium, and infanity,
where there is probably a phyfical caufe operating
on the brain, I fhall firft confidet the cafe of a
reverie, or day-dream.

Sitting alone in my ftudy, I fhut my book, lean
back in my chair, and following, either involuntarily
or with defign, a particular train of ideas, foon
become infenfible to all the objeéts around me, and
with the mind’s eye behold a courfe of action with
its correfpondent fcenery, in which I appear engaged
either as a fpectator or an actor. The confciouf-
nefs of my real condition is for a time fufpended ;
and I feel pleafure or pain, approbation or difguft,
according to the nature of the fancied fcene. Nor
are aflions indicatory of what paffes within, entirely
wanting ; and though I may not, with the violencé
of Alanafcar kicking the bafket, fpurn the table
from me, yet I fmile, frown, move my lips, and
affume imperfect geftures and attitudes, in correfpon-
dence with my internal emotions. Here, then, is a
perfect illufion effected by the mental faculties alone ;
commencing with complete confcioufnefs of my
real fituation, and proceeding to as complete a forget+
fulnefs of it, A petfon enters the room—and the
pageant vanifhes.

Again—I fit in the fame place, and take up
Sterne’s ftory of Le Fevre. Iam perfectly apprized,
not only that Le Fevre is not in my room, but
) that

On Dramatic Reprefentations. 1Ot

that no fuch perfon ever exifted. But as I tread, _
I fuffer the writer to lead me into the fame kind
of reverie which I had in the former inftance
created for myfelf; and I follow him with the
greater eafe, as my mind is not encumbered with
the labour of invention, but paffively admits thofe
reprefentations of action and difcourfe, which he
has wrought into fuch an admirable refemblance of
nature. I foon become fo rivetted to the book, that
external objects are obliterated tome. I pity, glow,
admire; my eyes are fuffufed; I fob; Iam even
audible in my expreffions of fympathy; till a meffage
breaks the charm, and fummons me away, full of
fhame at the real tokens remaining of emotions
founded on fiction. Now will any one, fairly con-
fulting his feelings, affert that in fuch a cafe he
weeps merely from the reflexion on poffible human
calamities; and that Le Fevre is not for the time
a real perfon in his imagination?

Once more—I read in Tacitus the highly-wrought
defcription given by that hiftorian of the return of
Agrippina to Italy, after the death of Germanicus.
I feel myfelf much interefted; but from the rapi-
dity of the narration, the want of thofe minute
ftrokes which are neceffary to fill up the picture of
teal life, and the intermixture of the author's re-
flexions, the whole is rather addreffed to the intelle&
than to the imagination; and I rather cry, ‘* How
admirably this is defcribed!” than view a diftinct
fpectacle pafling before my fight: But in the midft

of °

102 ‘On Dramatic Reprefentations.

of my reading, I chance to caft. my eyes upon
Weft’s picture of Agrippina landing at Brundu-
fium: I fee her, with downcaft eyes, pale and
extenuated, embracing the funeral urn—her little
children hanging at her garment;—I fee the awe-
ftruck crowd, the mourning lidtors, and the hardy
veterans burfting into tears. Now, indeed, the
illufion is complete. I think no longer of Tacitus
or Weft—my heart and my eyes obey without
refiftance every call to fympathize with the widowed
Agrippina. Here, thea, an external object, addreffed
to one of the fenfes, is called in to aid the creative
power of the imagination.

Attend me next to the theatre. I go, it is acknow-
ledged, with the ful conviction that the place is
Drury-lane, and that the actors are merely players,
reprefenting a fiction for their own emolument.
Nay, I go with the avowed purpofe of feeing a
favourite actrefs in a particular character. ‘The
curtain draws up, and after fome preparation, enters
Mrs. Siddons in Belvidera. ‘The firft employment
of my mind is to criticize her performance, and
I admire the juftnefs of her action, and the un-
equalled expreflivenefs of her tonesand looks. ‘The
play proceed:, and Iam made privy to a_ horrid
plot. With this, domeftic diftreffes are mingled,
involving the two moft interefting characters in the
piece. By degrees, I lofe fight of Mrs. Siddons
in her proper perfon, and only view her in the
affumed fhape of Belvidera. I ceafe to criticize

her,

On Dramatic Reprefentations. 103

her, but give way with full foul to all the fenti-
ments of love, tendernefs, and anxiety which fhe
utters. As the cataftrophe advances, the accumu-
lated diftrefs and anguifh lay faft hold on my
heart’: I fob, weep, am almoft choaked with the
mixed emotions of pity, terror, and apprehenfion,
and totally forget the theatre, the ators, and
the ‘audience, © till, perhaps, my attention to
prefent objects is recalled by the fcreams or
fwooning of a neighbour ftill more affected
than myfelf. Shall the cold critic now tell
me, I am fure you do not believe Mrs. Siddons to
be Belvidera, and therefore you can only be
affected in confequence of “ the reflexion that the
* evils before you are evils to which yourfelf
“may be expofed—you rather lament the pof-
** fibility, than fuppofe the prefence, of mifery.”
The identity of Belvidera is out of the queftion ;
for who was Belvidera? and certainly my own
liability to evils, fome of them impoffible to hap-
pen to me, and others highly improbable, is the
fartheft thing from my thoughts; befides, were the
effect of a fpediacle of diftrefs dependant on this
principle, it would be equally requifite in the real,
as in the fictitious fcene. What I feel, is genuine
Sympathy, fuch as by a law of my nature ever re-
fults from the image of a fuffering fellow-creature,
by whatfoever means fuch an image is excited. The
more powerfully it is impreffed on my imagination,
and the more completely it banifhes all other ideas

' Ne either

tog. On Dramatic Reprefentations.

either of fenfe or reflexion, the more perfec is its
effect; and reality has no advantage in this refpect
over fiction, as long as the temporary illufion pro-
duced by the latter continues. ‘That fuch an dllufion
fhould take place at the theatre, where every circum-
ftance art can invent has been employed to favour
it, cannot be thought extraordinary, after it has
been fhewn, that a fcene of the mind’s own crea-
tion can effect it.

And for what end, but that of deeeption, are
fuch pains taken in adjufting the fcenery, dreffes,
decorations, &c. to as near a refemblance as poffible
of reality ?— why might not the piece be as well
read in the clofet as reprefented on the flage, if
all its effect depended on the pleafing modulation of
language; prompting juft reflections on life and
manners? Some effect, doubtlefs, is produced by
a tragedy read; but this is exactly in proportion te
the dramatic powers of the reader, and the ftrength
of imagination in the hearer; and always falls much
fhort of that of a perfec reprefentation on the
flage. :

But, fays the critic, “the delight of tragedy
“« proceeds from a confcioufnefs of fiction; if we
“ thought murders and treafons real, they would
*t pleafe no more.” Delight is not the word by
which I would chufe to denote thofe fenfations in
the deeper fcenes of tragedy, which often arife to
fach a pitch of intenfity, as to be really and exqui-
fitely painful. I do not here mean to enter into

an

On Dramatic Reprefentations. 105

an énquiry concerning the fource of the intereft we
take in fpedtacles of terror and diftrefs. It is fufficient
to obferve, that juft the fame difficulty here occurs
in reality, as in fiction. Every awful and terrific
{cene, from an eruption of Etna, or an attack on
Gibraltar, to a ftreet-fire or a boxing-match, is
gazed at by affembled multitudes. In hiftories, is
it not the page of battles, ‘* treafons and murders,”
on which we dwell with moft avidity? I do not
hefitate to affert, that we never behold with pleafure
in fiitious reprefentation, what we fhould not have
viewed with a fimilar fenfation in real action. ‘The
truth is, that many of the tragic diftreffes are fo
blended with lofty and heroic fentiments, that the
impreffion of forrow for the fufferer is loft in applaufe
and admiration.

When Cato groans, who does not wifh to bleed?
And when this is not the cafe, but pure mifery is
painted without the alleviations of glory and con-
{cious virtue, the effects on the beholder are
invariably pain and difguft. We are, indeed, by
the ftrong impulfe of curiofity, led to fuch repre-
fentations, as the crowd are to fights and executions ;
but what man of nice feelings would go a fecond
time to fee Fatal Curiofity, or the butchery of a
Damien?

With refpect to the principle which renders a
degree of dramatic unity neceflary, it feems not
difficult to be afcertained. Congruity is alike effential
in real and in fictitious {cenes to preferve a continuity

O of

106 On Dramatic Reprefentation.

of emotion. ‘After a pathetic fpeech in a play, if
the aor immediately turns his eyes on the audience,
or bows to the boxes, we feel the effect to be
{poiled; why? becaufe it is plain he is not the man
he before appeared to be; for it is impoffible that
poignant forrow fhould be immediately fucceeded
by indifference. ‘Thus if a perfon were to afk our
charity with a lamentable tale of woe, and fuitable
expreffion of countenance, -and we fhould imme-
diately afterwards detect him fmiling or nodding toa
companion, the firft impreffion of pity would be loft in.
a conviction of fraud. A ludicrous incident on the
ftage interrupts the flow of tears in the deepeft
tragedy, and fills the houfe with general laughter.
It’ is juft the fame in real life. At the funeral of
a dear friend, at the death ofa martyr, circumftances
may occur, which not only divert the attention,
but even provoke a fmile. But fuch diftractions in
_ the real fcene are fhort, and the true ftate of things
ynfhes again on the mind. In imitative reprefen-
tations, on the contrary, they may be fo forcible
and frequent, as entirely to deftroy the effet
intended to be produced.

Incongtuities in dramatic fpectacles may be of
various kinds. They may arife from the characters,
the diction, or the fable. ‘Thofe which proceed
from the violation of what are termed the unities of
time and place are, perhaps, the leaft injurious of
any; for we find by experience, that the mind
~ poffeffes the faculty of accommodating itfelf, with
the

On Dramatic Reprefentations, 107

the greateft facility to fudden changes in thefe par-
ticulars. Indeed, where the fable will admit it,
the intervention of aéfs renders the change of time
and place no incongruity at all. For the drama is
then a hiftory, of which certain parts are exhibited
in dialogue, and the reft in narration. Now, it is
impoffible to give a reafon, why the mind, which
can accompany with its emotions a feries of entire
narration, fhould refufe to follow a ftory of which |
the moft ftriking parts are exhibited in a manner
more peculiarly impreffive. During the continuance,
indeed, of the dramatic action, every thing fhould
be as much as poffible in unifon; for as the ftage
is the moft exa& imitation of real life that art can
invent, and in fome refpects even perfeé, an
inconfiftency in one point is rendered more obvi-
ous by comparifon with the reft. Thus, with
regard to time; as the converfation on the ftage employs
the very fame fpace of time as it ‘would in a real
fcene, it feems requifite, that the accompanying
aétion fhould not exceed thofe limits. If, while
the ftage has been occupied by the fame performers,
or an uninterrupted fucceflion of new ones, the
ftory fhould require the tranfactions of half a day
to run parallel with the difcourfe of half an hour,
. we could fcarcely fail to be fenfible of an incongruity,
and cry to ourfelves, ‘ this is impoffible!” Such
a circumftance would give a rude fhock to the
train of our ideas, and awaken us out of that dream
of the fancy, in'which it is the great purpofe of

Q 2 dramatic

108 ——— On Dramatic Reprefentations.

dramatic reprefentations to engage us. For notwith-
ftanding a critic of Dr. Johnfon’s name (whofe heat
and imagination, however, appear from numerous
inftances to have been very intractable to the efforts
of fiction) has thought fit to treat the fuppofed
jllufion of the theatre with ridicule, I eannot but
be convinced of the exiftence of what I have fo
often myfelf felt, and feen the effects of in others;
and if the point were to be decided by authority,
I might confidently repofe on that of the judicious
Horace, who charaéterifes his mafter of the drama,
as one,

qui pegtus inaniter angit,

Irritat, mulcet, falfis terroribus implet

Ut magus; & modo me Thebis, medo ponit Athenis
Bus; 2 P ‘

—_o

The notion of atemporary delufion produced by the
imitative arts, and particularly by the drama, is, I obferve,
Supported by Dr. Darwin, in the ingenious profe Interludes
of his Loves of the Plants; and by arguments fo fimilar to
thofe here made ufe of, that it will be proper for me to fay,
that this fhort Effay was written fome years before the
appearance of that beautiful poem, The writer whom Dr,
Darwin combats on this occafion, is Sir Jofhua Rey-
nolds, who feems implicitly to have adopted the opinion
of his friend Dr, Johnfon,

J. AIKIN,

On

On the Upes of Claffical Learning, 109

On the Uses of Crassicat Learnine, by G, Grecory,
D. D. Domeftic Chaplain to the Lord Bifhop of
Landaff. Addreffed to Dr. Percivat,

Read Nov. 4.

Dear Sir,

y* all human purfuits, if we would form a juft
eftimate of their value, a clofe. and methodical —
examination of their ufes and advantages is abfolutely
neceflary. A man may read and write whole
volumes of declamation, and yet not underftand
the fubje&, which has apparently occupied his
thoughts. . Without complimenting indeed unreafon-
ably the age in which we live, (for in fome inftances
it appears to have been extravagantly complimented) —
this, I apprehend, may at leaft be advanced with
truth and modefty: that a more logical and lefs con-
fufed method of inveftigating truth, has been
adopted of late years; fenfelefs definitions, at firft
introduced by the fchool of Ariftotle, are generally
~ Jaid afide, and faéts are appealed to with confidence,
as the only bafis of folid argument.

There are no fubjects more univerfally interefting
tomankind, than thofe which are connected with the
education of youth; and) I fhould humbly conceive
that which I have chofen for the prefent Effay, not
entirely unworthy the attention of your moft refpec-
table and eminently ufeful Society,

. Without

110 On the Ufes of Cloffical Learning.

Without withing to difparage the purfuits of others;
without prefuming even to fmile at the minute
philofopher, whofe life is confumed in contemplating
and exploring the varied plumage of the butterfly,
or who felicitates himfelf as the firft of citizens, for
having added a non-defcript to the unbounded
catalogue of mopes; without weighing the impor-
tant confequences which are to refult to the nation,
from the fortunate difcovery of a curious grave-ftone,
without promifing our admiration to the voluminous
difquifitions, with which certain laborious authors
may chufe to entertain the public, on the taftelefs
variety of a teffellated pavement, or the fhapelefs
fragment of fome homely utenfil; let it be our prefent
bufiriefs to explore the tracts of mind, to meafure
and calculate the value and utility of the nobleft
productions of human genius, and to view the
growth and extenfion of reafon and truth,

The ftudy of ancient languages, the Greek and
Latin at leaft, and of what are ufually termed the
claffical authors in thofe languages, has, for fome
centuries, conftituted a branch of liberal education,
in every refined nation in this quarter of the globe.
It appears, indeed, no more than a juft tribute to
the labours of antiquity, that pofterity fhould not
ungratefully confign them to unmerited oblivion;
nor even content itfelf with contemplating that
imperfect copy of their features, which a tranflation
exhibits. It is a curiofity natural to the human
mind, a becoming pride, to wifh as intimate an

acquaintance¢

On the Ufes of Claffical Learning. es

acquaintance as poffible with the illuftrious dead ;
to hold, as it were, a friendly converfation with
them, in their own language, and in their own
peculiar ftyle.

If thefe, however, were the only reafons for the
cultivation of Claffical Literature, though they might
intereft the philofopher, and the man of tafte, ftill
we could not in juftice allow them that univerfal
cogency, which is neceffary to fanction a general
Practice. ‘There muft be other motives to warrant
the hardfhip, which is impofed on almoft every
well-born youth, of confuming in fevere ftudy,
feveral of the moft gay and delightful years of
life, and of encountering hardfhips, which nothing
but an object of fome importance can juftify. |

Without wifhing to appear a lover of paradox,
permit me, dear Sir, to ftate that I do not in my
own mind allow much force to the maxim which
infifts on the abfolute neceffity of claffical learning
in what are called the Profeffions: I confefs, I
think it a moft pernicious pedantry which would
involve in any kind of myftery, thofe fciences which
are moft effential to human happinefs. ‘The Chrif-
tian world has been no. gainer either as to piety or
motals by ipeculative divinity; all that is neceflary
to mankind in theology ought to be, and I doubt
not is, plain and, eafy to be comprehended by every
capacity. —What! fhall none but Greek and Latin
{cholars be permitted to make ufe of their reafon on
the moft neceffary topics? Admitting that there

ought

112 On the Ufes of Claffical Learning:

ought to be men in the chriftian church who fhould
be able to read the holy fcriptures in their original
languages, to correct miftranflations, to compare and
collate manufcripts, and to detec& errors of every
kind; muft every plain country clergyman be an
adept in languages, which cannot afford him the leaft
affiftance in inftruéting and informing the poor
and illiterate flock, which is committed to his care ?
——He cannot preach in Latin; the plaineft and leaft
pedantic ftile is that which will be moft beneficial to
his hearers; nay the ruft of college manners,’ or the
unyielding fpizit of literary arrogance, are per-
. haps qualities, more directly than others, calculated
to ob{truct or to fruftrate his pious labours.

In medicine, you, Sir, are I am fure too liberal
not to fee that the ufe of a dead language lias cer-
tainly impeded, rather than advanced fcience. Who
will pretend to alledge that the modern practitioner
is obliged to have recourfe to the ancients for the
principles of his art? ‘The Englifh language, if we
include the tranflations from foreign authors, con-
tains a body of medicine, ample and voluminous
enough to engage the attention of moft practitioners,
and to furnifh them with every practical kind of
information. Would it not really be better for man-
kind, would it not prevent the moft fatal miftakes,
if prefcriptions were written in our own language,
inftead of thofe uncouth characters, which frequently
appear like hieroglyphics, and are too often abfolutely
fo to thofe who are to prepare the medicine? In

fhort

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 113

fhort, ought not a fcience which concerns the firft of
temporal poffeffions, to be laid as open as poffible to
the reafon of mankind ?—Ought it not to be induf-
trioufly weeded of all technical jargon?—Ought not
every thinking perfon to be invited, 2s it were, to
pay fome attention to the progrefs of thofe difeafes,
which he may have an opportunity of obferving, and
to bring in with confidence, be they right or wrong,

his quota of difcoveries to the common ftock? Ido
" not believe fuch a circumftance would be injurious to
_ the health of the community, or difcouraging to the
regular practitioner.—It is only by knowing a little
of the outlines of medicine, that any perfon can- ;
eftimate truly the value of a phyfician, or fee the
neceffity of long inftruétion and much practice, to
accomplifh a man in this important art. Is it not
the ignorance of the public on thefe points, that gives
countenance to quackery, and is it not, becaufe
the fcience is treated as a kind of myftery, that every
antiquated female is poffeffed of fome infallible
nofirum? In other arts or profeffions, the know-
ledge of Latin is not infifted on as a neceflary
qualification, and yet no perfon, not regularly
brought up to them, prefumes to intrude himfelf
into thefe profeflions. In a word, let’ no man
practice phyfic, who fhall not be regularly educated or
inftructed in it ; but in the name of reafon, what has
the writing or fpeaking of Latin to do with the cure
of difeafes?

2 I grant

rig On ihe Ujes of Claffical Education.

I grant that fome ufeful treatifes in medicine arg
occafionally publifhed in Latin, but thefe are few,
and the argument will equally apply to the neceffity
of accomplifhing the young phyfician, in all the
European languages. In a word, let it be remem-
bered, that I am not pleading againft the utility of
the dead languages, but in favour of their general
utility, againft the vulgar notion that they are only
neceffary to certain profeffions.

_ Of all branches of knowledge, the Law ought to
be the plaineft, and moft eafily underftood. | Praying
in an unknown tongue is not half fo great a folecifm,
as the involving in myftery and obfcurity thofe rules,
which are to govern the conduct of every individual
citizen. How can I be expected to conform to laws,

with which I am to be unacquainted, or which I

cannot underftand?—What indeed are the evils to
which the inhabitants of this country are not expofed,
-on account of the complex and intricate nature of our
laws? I muft obferve (and I do it with no inten-
tional difrefpe& to the honourable and upright part
of the profeffion) that all who are unfortunate
enough to hold their property by any difputable
title, or who have rafhly expofed themfelves in any
_ way to the mifchiefs of legal chicanery, are made
the prey of one clafs of citizens; and it is almoft
proverbial, that of all Englifh commodities, Juftice
is by far the moft expenfive. If any part of what
I have urged on this topic, be confiftent with fact,
ought: a slitfien\ education to be confidered as a neceffary

qualification

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 11s

gualification for underftanding what all ought to
underftand?—No, Sir, the ufes of claffical learning
are not partial but general, and not confined to a
particular profeffion,

It muft be confeffed, that with refpect to the cu'ti-
vation of the dead languages, fociety is at prefent in
a very different ftate from what it was at the revival
of Letters. At that period, all the fcience, all the
hiftory, all the tafte which exifted, were locked up
in the volumes of the Ancients; there was no‘accefs
to any branch of knowledge but by this path; it
was neceffary to be introduced to this enlightened
{chool, -or to remain in barbarifm and ignorance.

Inthe prefent ftate of literature it would bé difin-
genuous to deny, that it is poffible for a perfon, not
claffically educated, to make a proficiency in almoft
any department of fcience or literature,

In medicine and philofophy fome perfons might
be named, of no inconfiderable eminence, with but
a very flender portion of Greek or Latin.. In law
and politics alfo fome inftances might be adduced,
were nota falfe pride unfortunately predominant,
which might conftrue mto an affront, what is really
a compliment. ‘The ladies may be cited with lefs
geremony on this occafion. In hiftory and philofo-
phy we have a Macaulay ; in poetry a Seward and a
Williams ; in morals a Burney ; in dramatic writing
a Cowley and an Inchbald, all unacquainted with the
languages and compofitions of the ancients. . It does
not, however, follow, from thefe fplendid examples,

2 that

116 On the Ufes of Claffical Education.

that the fhorteft and eafieft way to knowledge and
excellence, is through the medium of our mother
tongue, and that a claffical education is of no utility
whatever. One leffon indeed we may deduce from
what has been advanced on this topic, and that is,
to look with a lefs faftidious eye upon thofe, who
without thefe advantages (for advantages they cer-
tainly are) have made good their progrefs to emin-
ence and fame. ;

In eftimating the ufes of a claffical education, it
is neceflary to confine our views entirely to the prefent
. flate of literature, for indubitably a few centuries ago
its advantages were infinitely greater, it was indeed
not ornamental, but effentialte fcience. Difcarding,
therefore, as much as poffible, every prejudice of
every kind, the real ufes of a claffical education
appear to be nearly as follow.

I. In the firft place, grammar, and perhaps
orthography, are aflifted, by an early acquaintance
with the dead languages. I would not be underftood
to affert, that a perfon may not be practically verfed
in both thefe branches, without any fuch affiftance,
but it isa queftion, whether almoft an equal portion
of time is not confumed in the attainment of them,
through the ordinary medium of Englifh grammars,
&c. Befides this, Iam apprehenfive that a complete,
an enlarged, a fcientific acquaintance with the prin-
ciples of grammar, is hardly to be obtained, without
the knowledge of fome other language than our
own. ‘The grammar of the Latin language is more

regular

Sen ae

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 117

regular than that of any other, and it is therefore
admirably calculated to initiate young perfons in that
neceffary fcience. |

If. A fimilar advantage, which flows from a
claffical education, is a general knowledge of the
ftructure of language. ‘The Greek, fo copious, fo
curioufly compounded, fo admirably adapted to
fupply every want of the mind with refpect to expref-
fion, affords the happieft inftance of art and human
invention in the conftruion of language; it is im-
poffiole to fludy it without perceiving our ideas
enlarged and improved on this curious fubject. Such
an acquaintance with the ancient forms of language,
enables us to improve our own, to extend and
diverfify our modes of expreffion, to add new and
proper words, if neceflary; and gives us confidence
in occafionally introducing new expreffions, and devia-
ting from the common and colloquial forms,

III, A third ufe, which is not lefs obvious, refults
from an accurate acquaintance with the etymology
of words. ‘To the phrafes of common life, cuftom
has fufficiently familiarized us, and thefe indeed
are moft of them derived from our northern anceftors.
But the language of fcience, the language of books
indeed, in general, is of claffical origin; and it is
impoffible to know the full force, the correct
application of words, without, in fome degree, being
acquainted with their fource, :

Every man who has compofed for the public, muft
be fenfible of this obfervation ; and allowing every

thing

¢16 On the Ufes of Claffical Education,

thing to genius and induftry, ftill it cannot be denied
that accuracy in writing, at leaft, is almoft exclu-
fively the characteriftic of thofe, who can boaft fome
acquaintance with the languages of antiquity.

IV. It is fome commendation of almoft any
purfuit, to fay, that it affords us an elegant and an
innocent amufement. ‘That it engages occafionally
the mind, which, perhaps, would otherwife be the
prey of fpleen; that it fills up agreeably thofe hours,
which, if left vacant, might perhaps be contaminated
_ with vice; )

8c une eg Aa: tine

Pofces anté diem librum cum Jumine; fi non
Intendes animum ftudiis & Rebus honetftis,
Invidia vel amore vigil torquebere,

It is true there are a number of excellent authors
in our own language, but ftill the perufal of the.
claffics, in their original drefs, varies and extends
this fpecies of entertainment.

V. It is pleafant to obferve the manner of an
original author, and inftructive to remark the peculiar
ftyle, in which men of exalted genius have, at fuch
diftant periods, expreffed themfelves.

VI. Have you ever remarked, Sir, that from the
pernfal of an -original author, one feems to form a
more perfect piture of the manners and characters
of the age.which he defcribes, than can be acquired
by a tranflation? J think Homer is a ftriking
illuftration of this faét; indeed, one of the great
ufes of the Iliad, has always appeared to me, to be

the

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 11g

the light which it refledts on ‘the hiftory of mankind,
in the early periods of fociety.

VII. Whoever expects to find in the ancients the
perfection of fcience, will be difappointed ; but this
will not warrant us in a total rejection of all the
affiftance which may be derived from this fource.
Of natural knowledge, in particular, there is cer-
tainly but little to be collected from their writings.
Ariftotle, in his hiftory of animals, is a laborious
and tolerably correct reporter of faéts—but how {mall
a branch of natural fcience is this, and how much
better detailed by modern writers? Pliny, except
where he has copied Ariftotle, isa wretched fabulift,
and no reafoner at all.

The metaphyfics of Plato are fubtil, vifionary, and
ufelefs; thofe of Ariftotle are mere {cholaftic defini-
tions. In the republic of the latter, as well as in
fome of the writings of Xenophon and Cicero, are
fome good political obfervations; but the experience
of the moderns, has enabled them greatly to improve
this important {cience.

But if the ancients were deficient in thefe topics,
they were not fo in what may be confidered as the
bafis of ufeful knowledge, in morals, and an exten-
five acquaintance with the human heart. ‘Though I
confefs I do net find much of ethical fcience in
‘Plato, which is deferving- of attention; yet in the
Amoaawyia of Socrates, and fome other of the dialo-
gues, there occur fome beautiful reflections. “The
morals of Ariftotle are a dry common place book,

chiefly

£20 On the Ufes of Claffical Education.

chiefly confifting, like the reft of his philofophy, in
definitions. In the writings of the ftoics, however,
fome admirable precepts are to be found—indeed we
may go further; we may venture to fay, there is
fomething of principle in the doétrines of thefe phi-
lofophers; they mould ethics into a kind of fcience,
and diftinguifh with accuracy the different ftages of
human perfection.

Aradevla egyov, TO whadoic evucdeiv, ED big
eviQ» meaccer Kenws, yoymeve mesdeverdces,
To éavly. §=memudeupmevs, TO LNT BAAY,
py avila.
Epié, Enchirid. c, 10

[diwle cucis uae ym@nuiye edercle e& éuvle moosdougv -
aQeraay 4 Srubyv, “AN aro Twv e&w. DidocoDe cusis nas
Kuouniye® wucev wDercicey nou Crabyy, e& éavie roocdonavs

Ph. -c. gre

Without the rage for definition fo. obvious in
Ariftotle, their diftintions were happier, moré
accurate, and more agreeable to nature.

Ourtos de 6s Aovor acuvaxilo. eva ce TABoIWlEgoS Ell, EVO
T2 Mom KUTT. EY G8 OYIWTELIG, EYW TB HCH UoATTWW.
Exavor OE PeAAOV cUVaXlo Eyu ce TABTWTEQOG Elf, Y ELY
eee vlyois TYS cys KoaToV. EYW hoyiwTeP@r, 4 ELY a4
Aekig Tus oS uocrowy. gu dE Ye BTE “IyoIS EF, Ble Aebic.

Epiét, Enchir, c. 66.
Thefe

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 121

Pee ideas: axa differently, and perhaps, ftill
more fublimely expreffed by Antoninus.

Sevel@s de ye uer Cay, Soke noe addotia, roves nus
yoovy, rAeI@s uae reve, Tavle émioys oupbaiy dvbowruy
* > 3 3
TOS le ayaSorg nee TOG HeKOIS, STE “ade dvla, gle aioxer.

Anton, Lib. II. c. 11.

Te avoowrive Bie 6 wev ypovGs, crypy 4 de sore,
pesca’ 4de dicSyoic, dwudpe. %0e OAg Ts cwl@e cuyxercic,
éusymlos” 4 de Lugy foubos* 4 de Tuxy, Ougenjeglov’ 4 dE
Oupy axellov, Cuvedovis de érmew, weve Ie wey Te copai@y,
TolaGe* ra de Tyg Luyys, Gvepos xuett TuQoc. 6 de Bros,
morAEwGSr yee Leva émioypia® y UsEpoQyuie de, Avy. Tr ev
To megumeuLos Suvemevoy; év vou provov, DsdocoQie. Ie-
To de, ev Ta Tyee Tov évdov Oauove avuboicov, na dows,
yOovwy xeL Tovey ugaTaovd, puyoev uy Torevle, pryde
dieeuspevas nee well Uroxgicews, dvevdey 1a aAdov Toned -
Th, YY Toys.

Ib. L. ii. c. 17.

edeue yao gle touxuulegov, gle amouypovesepov avbowros
avanwger, 4 ec Iyy éavis Luxus pariod dois emer évdov
Towle, &1¢ & eyuulus ev macy Eupegere éevbus yiveles.

Ib. L, iv. c. 3.

Nor is there wanting a higher philofophy for a
bafis to thefe reflexions : fpeaking of death :

To de & dvbowrwy omeNbev, és mev Seor ecw, sdey
Deon" nano yoo ce wn dv mec Cadoiev* 4 deo: Tr ex élgt,
Q 4 8 weds

\

122 On the Ufes of Claffical Education.

. > > 3 >
y 8 pwede avlois Twy avOoumesmy, Ti for Cyv Ev noo neve
Sewv, 4 Teovorms ueva; aAAe vos esr, nor perder avilosg

Toy avbowremy.
Anton, Lib. ii. c, 11.

Ta lav Sew moovoims reSe.Ta THs TUNNS ex aver DucEN,
4 CuyHAwoews, HeL éemimAouys Twy TQOvOlm O1OLKELEVOV.

Tb, cud

It muft, however, be confeffed of the Stoic
morality, that much of it is extravagant, and fome
of it trifling; that it is built upon too few principles,
abounds with repetition, and, perhaps, juftly incurs
the cenfure of (I think) Lactantius; that it was
calculated for actors on a theatre, and not for men
jn the world.

The moft regular and methodical tradt upon ethics,
which is contained in the whole fcope of claffical
literature, is the offices of Tully; this valuable frag-
ment contains much excellent reafoning, and much
found obfervation—but, fill it appears to me but
a fragment. Whether the lively and defultory
genius of Cicero, revolled againft the toil of a
laboured, methodical, fcientific production, or
whether he was interrupted in the progrefs of his
tafk, the work is certainly imperfect; there are
feveral ufeful topics entirely omitted, and even the
fyftem itfelf is left in an unfinifhed ftate.

In the other beautiful rhapfodies of Tully, in
vain fhall we look for any thing like fyftem or

method.

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 123

method. No man, however, can read his Cato
Major, his De Amicitia, his ‘Tufculan Difputations,
without moral improvement; his letters, and all
his writings, abound in animating and interefting
reflexions, in excellent maxims. There is a point,
a force, a climax too in his obfervations, which
cannot be too greatly admired, and carries. the
mind along with it, and which gives a novelty even
to what is common place in itfelf:

‘* Et nomen pacis dulce eft, & ipfa res falutaris ;
fed inter pacem & fervitutem plurimum intereft:
Pax eft tranquilla libertas, fervitus poftremum malo-
rum omnium, non modo bello, fed morte etiam
repellendum,”

, Cic. in M. Ant,

“ Sin aliquando neceffitas nos ad ea detruferit,
que noftri ingenii non erunt: omnis adhibenda
erit cura, meditatio, diligentia, ut ea fi non decoré
at quam minimum indecoré facere poffimus,”

Cic. de Off,

In the writings of the Poets, the moft ufeful and
beautiful reflexions are expreffed with a fimplicity
which delights, or a force which penetrates the
heart; the former is chiefly the characteriftic of the.
Greek, the latter of the Roman Mufe:

EQ’ ‘y cv pays Keavo uaAMcov, ‘Tenvov,
Jociyle tTimev, 4 Direc da Didors,
Q2 ; Tloders

124 On the Ufes of Claffical Education.

Tlodere Te modes, uppescous re Evuppercors
Luvwe:. To vue icov, Youloy avOeumors EQu.
To taco d dia Torewioy uabicedlus
“Teraccov, enbous 3 ypegees nedcorelar.
Ker yao jretp cvOowroicr ver peoy Gaduwy,
Ioolys lake, ux giOuov diwerce,

Nuwlos 7 aQeyyves SAEDeegov, yris TE Dus,
Trou Sadi2er Tov evieeuciov uuxdrov?

Kedelegov avlow Dbovov eye vinwpevov.
EWS’ gasos wev, vk te Ssdeves Socios.

Euriff. Pheeniff, 548.

Ovowe yao, eoyov 0 ax exsow of Dida,
. Of py ‘mt Tasos cupQogees dvleg Qidras.

Id. Oreft. 455.

The animated and rational morality of Horace,
cannot be too clofely ftudied—What a fund of fine
obfervation, and judicious admonition, is contained
in his fatires?——With what grace and vivacity does
he recommend the practice of virtue, and the cul-
tivation of knowledge, in his elegant epiftles? The
fatires of Juvenal and Perfius, not only prefent us
with excellent pictures of local manners, but with
much general and ufeful inftruction—But I feel, that
what would be information to the unlearned, is trite
and common-place to the learned fociety, which,
through your medium, I am addreffing—I therefore
ftop my pen, admonifhed, alfo, by the ordinary
limits of a literary memoir.

If

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 195

If uistory be claffed among the fciences, in this
the ancients cannot be too warmly commended. To
their admirable writings we are indebted, not only
for the moft important faéts in the hiftory of man-
kind, but for the moft perfect models in that fpecies
of compofition. I think, Sir, the ancients have not
been equalled in this line, and I think I can venture
to fay, that I have not feen the {weet fimplicity of
Herodotus—the dignity of Thucydides, the har-
mony and elegance of Salluft, or the pointed and
forcible expreffion of Tacitus, transferred into any
modern language, by their moft learned tranflators,

VUE. But whatever was wanting to the ancients,
in fcience, is amply compenfated in tafte. Homer
and Virgil are, I think, ftill unrivalled, and the
latter Of them is certainly ftill untranflated.—The
paftorals of Theocritus, and perhaps the odes of
Pindar, are without parallels in modern languages—
The fatires of Horace and Juvenal have only been
imitated.—In every department of profe compofition
alfo, we find among the ancients the moft perfec
models. The clear and energetic reafoning of
Demofthenes, the full, harmonious, and ornamental
periods of Cicero, and the fententious neatnefs of
Salluft, have never been excelled. To form, there-
fore, a correct tafte, the eafieft and mof effedual
mode, is certainly by a well directed ftudy of thefe
ineftimable compofitions, and by occafionally com-
paring- them with the excellencies and defects -of
modern productions,

If

226 On the Ufes of Glaffical Education.

If in any department of polite literature, whicl
they have cultivated, the ancients have failed, it is
in the drama; whether owing to the defects of their
theatres, which admitted no change of fcene, or
whether we are to confider the drama, as one of the
moft improveable branches of literature, and as then
being only in its infancy, I muft confefs to you, my
dear Sir, that there are fcarcely any productions,
which I find fo uninterefting, as the Greek tragedies.
The uniformity, the nothingnefs of their plots, their
tedious declamations, and their fnip-fnap dialogue,
are poorly compenfated for, by a few elegant odes,
and. a few beautiful or firiking fentiments. If one
play of Terence (the Andria) only had been left to
pofterity, he would rank among the firft of
dramatic writers, but after reading this, who can
admire any other of his productions? Ariftophanes
and Plautus are as much beneath our common farce
writers, as the beft of the ancient dramatifts are
inferior in excellence to Shakefpear and Moliere.

There are fome other branches of literature, in
which I think the’moderns have excelled, and fome
which have not at all been cultivated by the ancients ;
but this does not, in any view, militate againft the
utility of claffical literature, as an accomplifhed per-
fon ought to be acquainted with the moft perfect
productions, \ both of ancient and modern times.

From a fair confideration of the real ufes of claffical
Hterature, fome practical conclufions. refult, which

appear

On the Ufes of Claffical Education. 127

appear of no inconfiderable importance in the educa-
tion of youth. .

Impreffed as Iam, witha full fenfe of the advan-
tages refulting from a claflical education, I cannot
help thinking, that an unreafonable and enthufiaftic
regard has fometimes been paid to the writings of the
ancients. Inftead of confidering them as ufeful
affiftants, as guides to knowledge, they have been
extolled, as containing within themfelves, all that js
worthy of being known, and men have miftaken the
rudiments of fcience, forfcience itfelf. How many
have devoted their lives to the ftudy of the claffics,
as if there were no other duties to be performed, no
other advantages to be obtained, no other laurels to
be reaped? How many have continued, during their
exiftence, in the elements of {cience, without ex-
tending their views to any thing beyond them,
without indeed making ufe of their own underftand-
ing.

I thould with to fee the ancients ftudied for their
matter, as well as for their language—But the in-
formation which they convey, is too commonly made
a fecondary confideration. The attention of youth
is directed to the elegant latinity of Czfar and of
Horace, not to the facts, obfervations, or precepts,
which are contained in thefe valuable authors. If
the tutors of our youth, condefcend to remark even
upon the beauties of the claffics, it is not on the
beauty of fentiment, it is not on the beauty or
vigour of imagination, it is not on the poetical

ornaments,

128 On the Ufes of Claffical Education.

ornaments.—Their attention. is at the utmoft extend-
ed toa choice of words, to a curious grammatical con-
nexion, or to the nice intricacies of idiomatical
phrafeology.

At the revival of letters a race of commentators
were ufeful, if not neceffary ; they were the pioneers
of literature, who cleared the way for more refpecta-
ble adventurers. But in the prefent ftate of liter-
‘ature, can we behold without regret a man of genius
dedicating a life to a few barren and fruitlefs verbal
Criticifms, to the regulating of a few phrafes, or cor-
recting in a few inftances the quantity and metre of
an obfcure Author; when, had he applied his
talents as they ought to have been applied, he,
perhaps, would have produced an original compofi-
tion, more valuable than the production on which
he has fo unworthily beftowed his labour ?

To write Latin decently and intelligibly, may
occafionally prove a convenience to a literary man ;_~
chiefly in facilitating his commerce with foreign
literati; but furely the attempt (for it is but an
attempt) to compofe poetical productions in Greek
and Latin, is, at beft, only a fpecies of elegant
trifling. If life be fhort, and fcience of unbounded
extent; if our duties be many, and but few our
opportunities of qualifying for them, and performing
them as we ought, are we juftified in neglecting
folid and ufeful branches of knowledge; are we to
purfue ftraws, and leaves, and Goffimer, while we

leave

On the Ufes of Claffical Learning. 129

eave the grain and fruits, which fhould be the
fupport of life, to perifh and to rot ?

The example of fome of our enlightened neigh-
bours on the continent, may, perhaps, be worthy
our imitation. They ftudy the ancients, but they
ftudy them to read and imitate them. They are
not devoted to this ftudy alone ; they make them-
felves mafters not only of the ancient, but of the
modern languages ; they can converfe with the well
informed of other nations, and they can read their
works. Thus an infinite extent of knowledge is
opened to their view; and they are lefs likely to be
the flaves of prejudice than the cloiftered pedant,
who expects to find the whole of knowledge in the
blind reveries of ancient fcholiafts—whofe philo-
fophy is locked up in Plato, whofe morals and
politics are only derived fiom Ariftotle, and who
regard the tales of Pliny, as the perfection of natural
fcience,

It is by eftimating truly the advantages of claffical
learning, and not by over-rating its importance,
that we can give it relpect, or promote its cultiva-
tion,

I think an acquaintance with the ancient Jan-
guages, effential to the formation of an accomplifhed
character; but if a man would be accomplifhed he
muft not ftop there—he muft not expect to find in
the ancients what they do not contain; or ‘fee in
Homer, more than Homer knew,” !

R Were

130 On. the Ufes of Claffical Learning.

Were I to chufe a preceptor for my own children,
I fhould certainly prefer a man of general knowledge.
A man who was converfant with modern literature
and modern fcience, as well as with the ancient
writers, would certainly improve the tafte, would
certainly enlarge the underftanding of young perfons,
more than the mere Claffic, even though the latter
fhould make Latin verfes with greater facility.

In a word, without neglecting the ancients, we
may derive much wifdom, much tafte, and much
pleafure from the productions of modern writers ; the
ftudy of both is compatible, if we ftudy both as we
ought.

I owe many apologies, Sir, to your refpectable
Society, for the unfinifhed and imperfect ftate in
which this Effay is prefented. You were pleafed
to call upon me for fome contribution to your
valuable fund of literary and philofophical infor-
mation, and I was unwilling to raife your expectations
by delay. Inthe midft of a laborious life, and a
feries of interruptions, I have fnatched a few moments
to arrange my ideas on a fubject, which I fhould
with to fee taken up by fome abler hand, but which
appeared of too much importance to be utterly
neglected.

I am, dear Sir,
With much refpedt,
. | Your moft faithful fervant,
Winkworth Buildings, G. GREGORY.
April gth, 1791.

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Mr. Riddell’s Differtation, &e. 138

A Differtation upon the Ancrenr Carvepn Stone
Monuments in Scortann, with a particular
siccount of one in Dumfries/hire, by Roserr
Rippew, of Glenriddell, Efg.. Captain of an
Independent Company of Foot, F. A. S. and
Member of the Literary and Philofophical Society
of Manchefter. Read Dec. 2, 1791.

ia is not perhapsa more univerfal feature
in the hiftory of man, from the moft early
dawn of hiftorical information to the prefent ad-
_ vanced: period, than that every nation before the
introduction of letters, made ufe of Hieroglyphicak
fymbols to communicate to their pofterity their
difcoveries in the arts and feiences, the fundamental
principles of their religion and laws, and the moft
celebrated exploits of their princes and heroes.

In Egypt we find many monuments remaining
covered with hieroglyphic fymbols, the art of
deciphering whieh was entirely loft in the time
of Herodotus, the hiftorian; and when Hernando.
Cortes conquered Mexico, the moft civilized of any
American nation, we find they then tranfmitted
their annals to. pofterity by hieroglyphieal and
fymbolical paintings,

In Scotland, particularly along the Eaft, many
hieroglyphic Monuments are ftill to be met with.

R 2 Mr.

132 Mr. Riddells Differtation upon

Mr. Gordon, in his Itinerarium Septentrionale—
Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Scotland, and the
Rev. Mr. Cordiner, have given to the world
prints, accompanied with deferiptions of many of thefe
monuments, in their refpective elegant and ufeful
publications. Captain Grofe and Mr. de Cardonnel

have it in their power to add confiderably to
thefe monuments already publifhed.

They appear to have been the work of the
Scotch Norwegians. and Danes, perhaps from the
ninth and tenth centuries to the time of David Ift.
when the general ufe of letters over all Scotland;
rendered laboured fculptures of this kind unnecef-
fary. Several of them bear undoubted marks of
their being erected by Chriftians—others I believe
to have been the work of Pagans,

In Dumfries-thire are the remains of fome
of thefe very ancient Monuments. ‘The one in
Ruthwell church-yard has been publifhed by the
Antiquarian Society of London, with very great.
accuracy and elegance, from a drawing of Adam
de Cardonnel, Efq. and the one I mean to de-
fcribe has been delineated with the utmoft fidelity
by the accurate pencil of my learned friend Francis
Grofe, Efg. F.A.S.

This very ancient obelifk ftands upon the banks
of the river Nith, near the village of Thornhill,
in Nithfdale, a diftri@ of the fhire of Dumfries—
Mr, Maitland is the only Scottifh hiftorian I can

: at

ancient carved Stone Monuments 133

at prefent recollect, who has taken notice of it,
and he does it very flightly.

All tradition refpecting it is loft; fo that the
date of its antiquity can be conjectured only by
comparing it with thofe publifhed in the before-
mentioned works. It is a ftone about fourteen

feet in height, with a pedeftal, or focket, into

which it is funk, rudely hewn into two fteps.
At the bottom where it rifes from the pedeftal,
it is two feet in breadth, tapering at the top to
twelve inches. ‘The fides or edges at the bottom
are about fix inches, tapering at the top to four.
The one fide has five diftin® co-partments, befides
a {pace at the top, wholiy defaced. ‘The oppofite

fide appears to confift of two co-partments, and

is much more defaced than the other. The fides
or edges are carved in an elegant kind of chain
pattern. Upon the two fides are figures of animals,
the bodies of which are formed into unnatural and
grotefque fhapes, but the annexed drawing will
convey a better idea of this Monument than it is
poffible to defcribe in words.

A gentleman from Rofs-fhire informed me, that in
the ifland of Lewis, there ftill ftands a very entire
and highly ornamented Stone pillar, not much in-
ferior to the one near Horres, either in point of
fize or carving. The remarkable circumftance.
attending this Obelifk is, that it ftands on a {mall
hill in the midft of an almoft inacceffible bog,
fome miles from the fea. It is the general opi-

nion.

134 Mr. Riddell’s Differtation, &'c.

nion that it muft have been brought to the ifland,
as there is no ftone to be feen in Lewis of the
fame kind as this Obelifk. I have made applica-
tions to different gentlemen in the neighbourhood
to procure a drawing of this ftone pillar, but have
not as yet been able to procure one.

I have often thought that were drawings of all
thofe carved Monuments in Great Britain and I1e-
land collected into one work, they might then be
claffed by an Antiquary, well verfed in the Runic,
Celtic; and ancient Irifh characters; and then per-.
haps, it might with certainty be determined whe-
ther they were intended to mark the fepulchres of
heroes—the fields of battles—or to record hiftorical
events, or religious ceremonies.

OsxseRrvATIONS

Mr. Harvey's Obfervations, &c. 735

Osservations on AtpHaseTicAL CHARACTERS; and
particularly on the Encuisx ALPHABET: with an
Attempt to fhew its Infufficiency to exprefs, with due
Precifion, the Variety of Sounds, which enrich the
Language. — By Mr. Samusr Harvey.

( Read by the Author March 23, 1792.)

eee

AWN CUJUSLIBET AURIS EST EXIGERE LITERARUM sonus? Nony

HERCULE, MAGIS QUAM NERVORUM. sic
Quianctill, Inflit.

ner PA Oa

SECTION I.

O much has been already written, in commen-
dation of the Englifh Language, that it would

be fuperfluous in this place to add any thing to
the eulogies which have been, from time to time,
beftowed thereon: and indeed fo numerous are the
fources, whence, as from various treafuries, it has
derived its riches; and fo many and excellent thofe
authors, who, for more than a century paft, have, by
their writings, been fuperadding dignity and reputa-
tion thereto, that its fuperiority, above many lan-
guages which might affert a much higher antiquity,
has been for fome time acknowledged, by thofe
whom we ought not to fuppofe actuated by par-
tiality 5

136 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

tiality; by Foreigners of diftinguifhed abilities, well
verfed in the works of eminent Englifh authors,
and who themfelves were fuch miafters of the Jan-
guage, as to write it with elegance and eafe; and
poffefling, withal, fuch an acquaintance with other
languages as enabled them, by comparifon, to
become the moft accurate arbiters of the worth of
each. A very flattering character of our language
_ is given by Mr. Barrerti,* in the preface to the
fecond

* It can hardly be neceffary to remark what is fo well
known —that this ingenious writer was formerly Secretary,
for foreign corref{pondence, to the Royal SoS and
one of the intimate friends of Dr. Jounson, &c, And he
frankly obferves that (before he was acquainted with
England) conceiving, that after a knowledge of Greek
and Latin, nothing further but French could be neceflary to
form the ne plus ultra of every well-bred gentleman, he
applied himfelf to acquire it; and having read the works
ef Montagne, Pafcale, Malbranche, Corneille, Moliere, la
Fontaine, &c, imagined that there was not any thing which
could poilibly come in competition therewith: * ma molto
piacevolmente,” fays he, “m’aveddi eflermi ingannato a
partito allora che mi trovai mediocremente maeftro del
Britannico parlare. Oh quante belic.e grandi cofe Paefani
mici, ho lette in quefti libriche non fi leggono in quelli d’altre
genti! Pafferd in filenzio un Hooker, uno Scot, un
Clarke, un Bentley, uno Stillingfleet, un Tillotion, e
centinaja d’altri loro teologi e facri oratori che valero-
famente battagliando contra i numerofi {credenti del loro
e d’altri paefi, hanno in mille modi ¢ poco meno che con
geometrica evidenza provata la verita della religione rive~
lata, cosi che hanno coftretti gli Ateifti e i Deifti a rifug-
girfi negli fterili deferti dell’ ignoranza, o a nafconderfi

nelle

on. the Englifh Alphabet. 137

fecond volume of his Italian Dictionary; and, with
fuch a character, it is a pity that it fhould have any
faults; yet fome it has, and will probably long retain, as
excrefcencies too nearly attached and too long growing
with it to admit of being removed, without fome
difficulty. Here I more particularly allude to its

Ss | Alphabet,

caliginofe cave. della mentecattagine. Non dird verbo de’
loro ,filofofi ¢ cercatori diligentiflimi della natura, come a
dire un Bacono, un Boyle, un Newton, e¢ tant’ altri
{crutinatori dell? uomo e¢ dell’ altr’ opere della mano
onnipotentt, Lafcerd indietro i loro tanti moralifti, i loro
politici, gl’ iftorici e cronologifti loro, i meccanici nume-
roliflimi, e faro folamente alcune poche parole de’ loro poeti,
perche quefto e ’umore dove 10 pecco, per fervirmi d’un modo
di dire del noftro Berni. Quanto carta perd non mi
converrebbe fcarabocchiare per darvi folo una malabbozzata
idea d’uno Shakefpeare, d’uno Spencer, d’un Milton, d’un
Dryden, e di molt’ altri divini fpiriti, che accozando chi
pit chi meno alla fchiettezza della poefia Greca, la venufta
de’ Latini, la vaghezza degl’ Italiani, e la nitidezza de’
Francefi con la robuftezza e fantafticagine della Saffoniae
delle Gaule hanno prodotta una maniera di penfar poetico,
‘della quale noi fucceffori del Lazio e imitatori di quegli
antichi dell’ Acaja non ci curiamo ancora quanto dovremmo
fare, contentandoci troppo manfuetamente che i noftri Poeti
abbiano con ifcrupolofa induftria modellati i penfieri loro e
il loro modo di poetare fugli efemplari Grecie a Latini,*

_™ After what better models could they have formed their
thoughts? The advice of Horace ought certainly to have
fome weight ;
“Vos exemplaria Graca
Noéturna.verfate manu, verfate diurn4,

138 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

Alphabet, in refpeét to marking that variety of
founds, in which it is certainly richer, as I fhall by
and by attempt to prove, than many of the modern
languages; though as to characters for exprefling
thofe founds with due exactnefs, there are un-
doubtedly few languages fo deficient.

‘It is not my intention, however, ‘to write an
effay upon the general conftruction of the language ;
neither fhall I here endeavour to recapitulate all
the various conjectures, which have been written,
relative to the invention of alphabetical characters ;
nor fhall I dwell upon the hiftory of their improve-
‘ment, progrefs, and diverfity ; as thefe are circum-
flances, wherewith almoft every one is well acquaint-
ed: But I fhail confine this paper chiefly to fome |
obfervations, on the variety of founds in the Englifh
language, and the impoffibility of a diftinét and
sational notation thereof by our prefent alphabet,
perverted as it too often is; with fuch reference to,
the Alphabets of other languages, as may ferve to
elucidate and explain the fubjecét; and with fuch
authorities, as may teftify its importance, And
though, perhaps, it would require a long feries of
years to improve our Alphabet, by repairing its
defe&s, and pruning away its redundancies, yet
certainly the enquiry fhould not be deemed con-
temptible ; fince, as a learned and ingenious Member
of this Society* well obferves: “ Of all humar

-* See Effays Hiftorical and Moral, by the Rev. G.
Gregory, D, D.
arts,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 139.

arts, the moft curious, and apparently the moft
difficult of invention, is AtpHaseticaL WritTine.”

Now a variety of Alphabetical Sounds, and a
copioufnefs of apt words for the greateft number of
ideas, may juftly entitle a language to the epithet,
rich; but in order that it fhould be ftill more nearly
allied to perfection, it ought not only to poffefs words
and founds, but alfo an’ orthography ; neverthelefs,
if the French language be excepted, I know of none
which has lefs of orthography, than the Englith ;
though it be as nervous and as abundantly fupplied
with words of all kinds, as any of the modern
languages,

Every one knows, that orthography does not
merely fignify fpelling, or putting letters and
fyllables together, but the doing fo correctly; and
howfoever capricioufly, or defectively a language
may be ufed, as to its orthography, or the juft
combination of its elementary characters, yet there
can only be one uniform law to regulate it in this
refpect : ‘* et potius ab incorrupto principio, ab natura
** rerum, quam ab libidine hominum.”*

In the Englifh language there is a ftrange confufion
of vowels and confonants heaped together ; in many
places redundantly : Diphthongs are not infrequently
ufed for vowels; and both are fometimes compelled
to ferve as confonants, or rather to rank amongft
them by name, though indeed they are not in a

Se lefs

Ter, Varr, de Ling. Lat, lib, ix,

‘140, Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

lefs degree vowels or diphthongs, from being termed
confonants. Now to miftake thefe and ufe them
indifcriminately and unnaturally, though the words,
wherein they are fo ufed, may, like fome hiero-
glyphics, be from habit, well underftood; yet it
mutt affuredly be acknowledged as a blemifh to the
appearance, and fome little impediment to the arts
of writing and printing, to employ a fuperfluity of
letters where fewer would fuffice, if due deference
were paid to the fimplicity of nature, and the
analogy of reafon. For, in order to produce har-
mony from the combination of principles, whether
it fhould be in painting, mufic, or language; or in
fhort, in any fubject improveable by art, analogy
and proportion fhould be carefully regarded. ‘* Que
® enim eft pars mundi que non innumerabiles habeat analo-
“© gias? Calum an mare, an terra, an atr, et cetera
“© que funt in hes?” *
Should any one, therefore, wifh to excel in the
practice of painting, or of mufic, he ought without
doubt, to be well acquainted with the nature and
variety of colours, ere he fhould attempt to mix and
_ fpread them on his canvas; or with the proportionate
and moft minute divifions of found, fuitable to com-
pofition, before he fhould attempt to write a Solo or
Concerto. So in painting words to the eye, it
feems in the firft place neceffary to underftand the
elements, of which, according to their various inflec-
tions,

* Ter, Varronis De Ling, Lat, lib, viii.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 141

tions, they ought to be compofed, in order to
eftablifh that unity and precifion, which fhould
characterize every work of art: Hence fach an
attention to elements would render language cogni-
zable, as well by the fight as by the organs of hearing,
and prevent the errors of one fenfe, which fo often
arife (efpecially when foreigners are acquiring our
language) from the miftakes of the other.

“It is true, indeed, it may be urgéd, that our
Alphabet, in its prefent ftate, has, for at leaft twa
centuries, very well anfwered all the purpofes of
writers of every defcription. So, there is reafon to
fuppofe, did the Cadmean letters ferve three thoufand
years ago, for the writers of that age, till Palamedes
found out that three or four letters more would do ©
better; and perhaps thefe feemed enough, till
Simonides added as many cthers as Palamedes had
done before.*

Habitual error may fometimes be mixed with
reafon, and miftaken for one perfect whole; but as
truth and falfehood can never be {o altered as to
incorporate together, to analyze appearances, and to
feparate truth from its femblance, is the certain
means of approaching nearer to perfection.

» Te

* Quippe fama eft, Cadmum, claffe Phaenicum veitum,
Pudibus adhuc Grecorum populis artis ejus auélorem fuiffe
Quidem Cecropem Athenienfem, vel Linum Thebanum, et tem-
poribus Trojanis Palamedem Argivum memorant, fexdecim
hiterarum formas ; mox alios, ac pracipuum SMionistenn: cateras
neperiffe, Lallemand’s Tacitus, vol. ii. page 13.

142, Mr. Haruey's Obfervations

If any one, neverthelefs, fhould chance to be fo
completely fatisfied with our mode of forming words,
as to think that there is not any room for its improve-
ment, he muft indeed be a very fuperficial, or a
very precipitate obferver; fince nothing can be
advanced in defence of defects which an eafy invefti-
gation would enable him to condemn, but, that
neceffity alone has fo long retained them. For,
indeed, however they may be examined, it is to be
feared that the faults of our Alphabet are too invete-
rate to allow of being, in any fhort time, effectually
repaired, unlefs (which would be vain to expect)
all the literature of the Englifh language, worth
preferving, fhould be reprinted. ‘This much, how-
ever, may be derived from the examination, that it
may poffibly excite fome further curiofity and
enquiry concerning a fubject, which, without
queftion, is not too far beneath the pride of man,
or the ftubbornnefs of opinion to inveftigate: ‘* Ne
* quis (igitur) tanquam parve faftideat Grammatices
elementa: non quia magne fit opere confonantes.
4 vocalibus difcernere, ipfafque eas in femivocalium
numerum, mutarumque partiri; fed quia interiora
“‘ velut facri hujus adeuntibus, apparebit. multa
rerum, fubtilitas, qua non modo acuere ingenia
puerilia, fed exercere altiffimam quoque erudi-
** tionem ae fcientiam poffit.”*

ec

The

* Quindill. Inftitut. Lib, ii,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 143

The Hebrews go ftill further in fupport of the
dignity of letters, as may be feen at the beginning
of the younger Buxtorf’s Chaldaic Lexicon, when
‘they fay ‘‘that there is not a fingle letter in the
law, whereon the fate of vaft mountains may not
be fufpended.”

If we confider the facility wherewith, Wis means
of a few letters, the communication of all human
ideas is’ effected, and the moft important employments
of life promoted, all other modes of tranfmitting
intelligence’ and’ recording the hiftory and fcience
of the world muft hold a very inferior place in
the comparifon. And yet there are people, whofe
numerous productions are indubitable proofs of their
ingenuity and induftry, who are, notwithftanding,
fuch enthufiaftic worfhippers of cuftom, that, though
they might acquire a readier and movie rational
method of imbibing and communicating knowledge ;
prefer, however, in defiance of all its difficulties,
their own moft numerous, complicate, and almoft
unattainable fcheme of arbitrary characters.

More tardy and difficult, however, than this
fcheme of Chinefe writing (though in reprefenting
vifible things more precife) muft that of the Mexi-
-cans have been, whereby they recorded*all their
events; and were enabled to report to Motezuma
all that they had obferved amongft the Spaniards <
“« Era efta fu modo de efcribir, porque no alcanzaron —
** el ufo de las letras, ni fupieron fingir aquellas
_ fenales, o elementos, que inventaron otras naciones
‘* para

144 * Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

‘* para/retratar las fylabas, y hacer vifibles las pala-
*« bras; pero fe daban 4 entender con pinceles,
‘* fignificando las cofas materiales con fus. proprias
** imagines, y lo demas con numeros, y fenales
‘ fignificativas: en tal difpoficion, que el numero,
‘ la letra, y la figura formaban compete y daban
‘* entera la razon.” *

How tedious and imperfect ‘saul this pradtice be
found if it ihould be put in competition with the
moft complex alphabetical writing! Though | it
would ‘be much eafier to invent a multitude of
arbitrary characters than retain the remembrance
hereof; yet human invention would be exhaufted
in this cafe, ere half the changes of any common
alphabet fhould be completed. Perhaps this may
be amply evinced by the following curious theorem,
which Mr. Harris has inferted in his Hermes, a
work too well known, to ftand in need of any
additional praife: ‘‘ Mille milliones fcriptorum mille
‘ annorum millionibus non feribent omnes 24 lite-
‘ rarum alphabeti permutationes licet finguli quotidic
‘ abfolverent 40 paginas, quarum unaquzque con-
“‘ tineret diverfas ordines literarum 24." An
inconceivable number ; being twenty three places of
| e figures,

*

-

ra

o

al

* Anton, de Solis Hift. de la Conquifta de Mexico,
page 71.

+ Quoted by Mr, Harris from Tacquet’s Arithmetic,
See Hermes alfo upon the yay or matter of Language, * from
page 316 to page 327,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 145.

figures, or upwards of 1480 TRILLIONS of pages;
without attempting to calculate the great variety of
changes upon each! Hence, from a few cha-
racters, words might be formed greatly furpaffing the
utmoft expanfion of human ideas.

Since, then, thefe few elements of words may,
from time to time, involve new fubjects of importance,
as long as this world fhall exift, fhould it not form
a part of the bufinefs of all who can, however.
flenderly, aflift therein, fo to promote their im-
provement and regularity, that they might become
in this, as they nearly are in fome other countries,
ofa definite import? ‘This would give to language
that fymetry and ftability by which it would be
rendered intelligible, not only at one particular
period, but alfo eafy of accefs to after ages.

Yet if there be any who imagine that a thorough,
philofophical knowledge of language may be obtained:
without an acquaintance with its elements, they
might juft as well attempt to defcant upon colours
without ever haying had a perception of light.

Lord Monboddo, whofe writings will afford plea-
fure and improvement to all who perufe them, fays,
with fome point, though with that liberality which
fhould ever accompany fcience, and which will
always contribute no lefs towards cherifhing its
growth, than an indulgent criticifm will towards the
correction of thofe errors to which all men are more
or lefs liable: ‘* Though I myfelf think nothing
“ trifling that belongs to fo noble an art, (Lan-

¥ ** (guage

146 Mr. Harvey’s Obfervations

*

‘

guage) yet I well know that I do not live in fuch
** an age as that of Auguftus Cefar, when Meffala,*
‘** a noble Roman, and the firft orator of his time,
wrote a book upon each letter of the alphabet,
and Julius Czfar, as it is well known, employed
himfelf in writing upon another part of Gram-
‘t mar,f when he had upon his hands the moft
** dangerous war in which he was ever engaged.”
But * the learned of this age,” his Lordfhip remarks
with fome poignant ridicule, ‘though they be
*“‘ fo much occupied with facts of natural hiftory,
** minerals, plants, flies, and reptiles, that they
** have no time to apply to the hiftory and philo-
** fophy of their own fpecies ; yet I fhould think
** that

66
6

os

* The Hiltory of the Origin and Progrefs of Language,
vol. ii, page 239. Concerning Meflala, vide Ciceron. de
Claris Oratoribus, fub finem. Horace and Tibullus make
honorable mention of the fame great orator, to whom the
Ciris of Virgil is infcribed. s

See alfo Suetonius in his Life of Claudius Cefar, of
whom he fays: Novas etiam commentus eft litteras tres, ac
numero veterum quali maxime neceflarias addidit. De
quarum ratione, cum privatus adhuc, volumen edidiffet.
Lib, v.cap. 41. And Tacitus takes notice of the fame, in
Annalium libri xi. capitibus 1g and 14, See likewife Juftus
Lipfius upon this fubjeét, -

+ De analogia libros duos,—In tranfitu Alpium, as
Suetonius relates. For they were his two books againft
Cato, which he wrote about the time of his battle at Munda,
fo unfortunate for the interefts of Pompey.

on the Englifh Alphabet. ° 147

-
~

that they would have fome curiofity about an
*‘ art fo exceedingly ufeful, by which the bufi-
‘““'nefs of human life is carried on; by which
“arts and fciences have been conveyed from man
“** to man, and from nation to nation, and from
** the earlieft to the lateft ages; and-without which
‘* they could not have been inftrudted in the know-
‘* ledge they value fo much: for ~how elfe could
‘“* they profit by the moft accurate account of
** infects, which Reaumur has given in fix volumes
‘* in quarto, containing the hiftory of flies with two
‘* wings, and flies with four wings, with a fupple-
‘* ment to the hiftory of flies with two wings; but-
‘‘ which he very modeftly intitles not.a_hiftory,
‘* but only Memoires pour fervir a ['Hiftoire des infeétes.*”
In

_* Advertifement prefixed to the third volume of the
Hiftory of the Origin and progrefs of Language, ‘a
a Friend, who was prefent at the reading this paper, has
fince obliged me with the following tranfcript, as ftrongly
pointing againft thofe who are too confident in their
inftin@ive knowledge and perfeétion, to imagine, that dif-
quifitions upon fuch diminutive parts of Grammar can be
of any importance :
‘I remember to have met with a paflage in a certain
* Writer, which is not at all favourable to the Grammarians ;
Ewot mpog DiroadQes ggi Didar xpoc pev Tos coisas 4
Yoapmpelicuc ¥ rose yévos Elepoy dvOpdrwy nano eI OvaY,
gle yov égt Didia, pyle Ucepdy mole yévolio.
“* My friendfhip I beftow upon philofophers: As to
‘* Sophifts, little grammarians, and fuch fort of fcoundrels,
te and

148 Mr, Harvey's Obfervations

In another place, the fame learned author obferves =

* That all the works both of nature and of art are’
** compounds, which the fenfe prefents to the mind :
“'thefe it is. the bufinefs of fcience to analyze
“and refolve into their firft principles, or con-
* ftituent parts. The analyfis of Language into its
“ elemental founds was no doubt a work, and.
«© a work of great art; and after that’ it was an
“ ingenious thought to think of noting thofe ele-
mental founds by vifible marks, and of {peaking
“ in that way to the eyes. Language is fo commonly
“-ufed, and of fuch facility in practice, that men
“‘ who have’ not ftudied the art are apt to think
‘¢ that there is no art in it: on the other hand, men
‘* of curiofity, who are not fatisfied with the pradtice,
‘t but want to know the reafon of things, find great
«« difficulty in explaining the nature of language,
“ and giving a tational account even of the common
« parts of fpeech and of their various ufes. But
‘¢ there is one fatisfaction from the ftudy of the
** works of art, and which to the lover of know-.
* ledge

e

“

_

“ and cacodemons, I neither have, nor ever will
“ have any regard for them.”

¢ The man abhors grammarians ; and grammars, I fuppofe.
¢ But who is the author of this bit of Greek? An extra-
‘ ordinary perfon, I afflure you ; a projector, a vifionnaice, a
‘ linguift by infpiration, a crack, a conjurer—in_ fhort
‘ Apollonius Tyanenfis. He is the man; and the gram-
‘ marians account it no difgrace to be vilified by a mounte—
* bank.’ Jortin’s Life of Erafmus, Note, page 604.
‘ Vid, Apollon, Epift, prim, p, 385. Philoftrat, Edit. Olear,’

“on the Englifh Alphabet. 149

th ledge is an abundant recompenfe for the labour
*« it cofts him, that we can get. to the bottom in
« fuch ftudy, and difcover the fir& principles of
‘¢ the art; whereas in the works of Gop and nature,
* there is a wifdom and contrivance ‘of which we
** cannot fee the end; and, therefore, I doubt
** whether in fuch matters, the human faculties can
** ever attain to perfect {cience."*

Indeed, the ultimate or fmalleft conftituent par-
ticles of matter are fo envelopped and hidden from
human ‘comprehenfion,; that I know of nothing
better whereby to exprefs my ideas thereof than by
believing it poffible, that the Great Inrettrcence
- who formed this world as it is, could alfo form its
likenefs in miniature, and all’ that it contains of
every kind whatever, within a fpace which might
be filled by a particle fo minute, that it fhould elude
the fineft fearch of microfcopic enquiry wherewith,
according to our prefent ftate, we are acquainted!
not to believe this, would amount to an affertion,
that matter could be annihilated merely by divi-
fion—which would be an abfurdity to fuppofe.

But, leaving reflections, fo far abftracted from
our prefent fubject, the enquiries are, whether or
not the Englifh Alphabet be defective? And, if
it be fo, whether, as being the bafis of the language,
it would be either practicable, or defirable to regulate

it

* Hiftory of the Origin and Progrefs of Language,
vol, ii, page 18 and 206.

150 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

it by that accurate and invariable method, which
can be acquired only by a due attention to the
analyfis and fynthefis of founds? For this attention
would perhaps be.the root of greater improvement ;
inafmuch as found and language fhould be the infe-
parable index of the fenfe; becaufe, without accuracy
therein, a juft. difcrimination of ideas could not
always take place ; and certainly, as reafon can beft.
operate when the fenfes are all in unifon, con-
trarieties fhould not be joined, where an individual
truth is propofed.. Words fhould therefore be analo-
gous in principles, both as to found and to,appear-
ance.* But, though I may fay with Mr. Locke,*f ** that
** Tam not vain enough to think that any one can
* pretend to attempt the perfect reforming the
** languages of the world, no not fo much as of his
‘* own country, without rendering himfelf. ridicu-
** Jous,” yet fomething may be done at every oppor-
tunity to favour progreffive improvement, rather

than the corruption of language.
Iam well aware that little offers in this matter to
flatter our hopes with any early probability of
amending

* «The Greeks had, in the whole ftru€ture of their
. language, a proper regard to the ear, as well as to the
““ underftanding; and employed the whole power of ele-
« mental founds to make their language both foft and
* manly in the pronunciation,”

Origin and Progrefs of Language.

+ Onthe Human Underftanding. Book iii, Chap. 11.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 158

amending the alphabetical characters of our country ;
fince prejudice and habit long connected, are
fometimes inflexible opponents to the arguments of
reafon and utility. - And, indeed, though the defects
of our Alphabet fhould be univerfally acknowledged,
yet its improvement, for reafons before mentioned,
is fcarcely to be expected in a period of many
years. Neverthelefs, why fhould any one of rational
curiofity fhrink wholly back and renounce the fub-
jet, as a matter either too perfect and too far
privileged, or too mean and forlorn to challenge
criticifm or correction? It would confume fome
time to enumerate all, who at the prefent are
_ known to have written upon this part of Grammar;
therefore paffing over the names of Varro,* Lucian,¢
&c. we may take a furvey nearer to our own time,
and adduce fome names of authority fufficient to
vindicate the utility of the enquiry, as connedted
with every branch of learning. Such are Erafmus, ||

‘Theodore

\

* Of Terentius Varro enough is extant to caufe regret
that no more of his works have efcaped the ravages of
Time and the viciflitudes of Fortune.

+ Vide Avuyy Duvyévrav, or Liype verfus Tad. And
alfo Jortin’s Life of Erafmus, vol. iis page 141.

|| The Dialogue by Erafmus is well worthy of perufal :
Dr, Jortin, ‘in the fecond volume of his Life of Erafmus,

page 96, particularly notices it; faying, ‘* that thefe three
“© works

152% Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

‘Theodore Beza, Ceratinus, Mekerchus, Lipfius,*
&e.- The following lines, which Mekerchus writes
in his commentary concerning the ancient and true
pronunciation of the Greek, are applicable to every
language, and by defining what every language
ought to poffefs, fhew us how far ours is deficient :
** Porro cuilibet Linguz, ut facilé, ftatim, et rece
** intelligatur, opus effe diftinéta, certd, et inconfufa
‘** fingularum litterarum pronunciatione, ipfa ratio
** indicat, et clarius eft quam ut probari debeat.
‘** Quandoquidem extra controverfiam eft, fingulas
‘* litteras et diphthongos inter fe plané diverfas effe,
** et, ut Fabius docet, proprium ac peculiarem
““ habere fonum. Fruftra enim diftincte effent

** littere,

* works (including his Colloquies and his Ciceronianus )
“¢ will laft for ever, and be for ever perufed with pleafure
“ by the moft fkilful and learned; as long as any portion
“of literature and of good fenfe fhall remain in the
“* world,’’

* Lipfius wrote his Dialogue ‘“* De Re&a Pronunciatione
“ Latine Lingux,” at the requeft of the illuftrious Sir
Philip Sydney, to whom it is dedicated, as to one, obferves
Lipfius, who might fay of himfelf with more propriety
than Archilochus did;

"Expl 3 éya Begdmuv prev evvadioro avexioc,
Kal pecéwy egarov dapov émicdpevoc,”
Thus imitated :

Though I War’s Monarch dutiful attend,
Not Jefs am I each Mufe’s grateful friend,

on the Englifk Alphabet. 353

“* litteree, fi fono nihil differrent. Alioqui propter
** fonorum confufionem et fimilitudinem lingua
“* feateret amphibologiis: nec poffet commodé legi
“‘ vel intelligi; ac loquenti fimul et audienti nau-
** feam pareret.”
. Thofe, however, who have not very affiduoufly
examined the nature and formation of thofe fimple
founds, of which words are conftruéted, would do
well to pay fome attention-to a fubject, which is
as intimately connected with every thing elegant and
liberal, as are the concealed foundations with the
fuperfiructure of the moft beautiful piece of architec-
ture. Now as the elemental founds form the foun-
dation, and in fhort the whole effence of language,
perhaps nothing would contribute more to {pread
and perpetuate it, than a certain and diftinct
notation of its elements, or fuch marks, infcribed or
fuperfcribed, as fhould indicate the anomalies, to
which fome poor, folitary letters are, in our Jan-
guage, fubjected.

Without doubt the exiftence of the Greek lan-
guage for upwards of five and twenty centuries,
without any great alteration, may be attributed, in
part, to its precife orthography, as well as to the
excellent genius of thofe writers, who made ufe of it.*

U “Though

* The variety of their diale&s makes nothing againft the
regularity of their general pronunciation; for it feems
certain, that they were all well acquainted with the exa&
powers of each letter; and, that they added, exchanged,

or

154 Mr. Harvey's Objervations

Though, after all, itis to be confeffed that the beft
languages have changed ; fome after having continued
for many ages; others in periods comparatively
fhort. And fuch, from a variety of unforefeen
caufes, will be the fate of all languages; being, like
rivers, in motion; and, like thefe alfo, liable to
the corruption and decay of their fources.*

So far being premifed,.and fuch competent autho-
rities being brought in view to countenance the
attempt, the remaining Section fhall be allotted to
the particular examination of the Englifh Alphabet,
and of the founds it ought to reprefent; with a view
to prove where it is mifufed, and to fhew where it
might

or expunged, according to the cuftom of their dialeéts, but
it is not to be fuppofed that fuch accurate people gave,
as we do, a number of founds to any individual letter ; in
this refpeét, the greateft liberty they feem to have taken
was that of occafionally pronouncing a fhort vowel asa
long one, or the contrary (as inftanced by Martial, lib, 9.
epig. xi, Edit. Scriverij,) through a licence affumed by their
poets,
Et quos ages ages decet fonare ;
alluding to that verfe, which occurs twice in the Iliad:
"Ages, “Ages, Coorornyé, pieOive, Taxecrtryre. ”

Where, however, the difference of thé accent, placed over the
firft word, feems a ftrong fupport of Dr, Clarke’s opinion,
that there is a crafis of @ in the firft fyllable, for a “Ages.

* « Confuetudo loquendi eft in motu ; itaque folet fieri
“ex meliore deterior, &c.”” Ter, Varr. De Ling. Lat,
Lib, viii.

5 on the Englifh Alphabet. 155

might be amended; yet without prefuming to offer
any thing of my own, as a perfect model for imita-
tation; but only as hints, which others may improve
upon.

SECTION I.

A SIMPLE letter, or element, is thus concifely
diftinguifhed, in the following words from Dioge-
nes Laertius: reid dé Aéyelar td Yyedpuer 6 Te
Kapanlye, TO comyaov, ual Td dvoue, dciov at: © This

includes

+ In Zenonem. Lib. vil. page 47t. Edit. Hen. Steph. I
have here ventured to alter this paflage, which, in the above
édition, is printed, 0, Te segeulye re corméiov ual Td
Gvope. where 0 yupunlyg Ts Corxése, thes joined, fignifics
only one ,thing, that is, the form of the letter; Td dvowsz
another, which is the technical name of the letter. There-
fore it feems an error to fay Temas dé Aéyelai, when it
appears only dimAy AéyeoSai, The error might have
eafily originated with fome tranfcriber, who having
miftaken the ¥ for an U, might have changed the accent
and omitted the comma after LAPLKT NO»

Iam aware that this may be proceeding too far; never-
thelefs it is-true, what an eminent writer afferts, that

U 2 nothing,

156 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

includes three accidents in every letter; namely
its written form, whereby it is recognifed by the
fight; its elemental or fimple found, by which it
reaches the mind, by means of the hearing; and its
technical or memorial name, which fhould not,
. however, exceed the length of one fyllable ; faying
father fimply, ¢. than ade; in order to avoid the
commixture of heterogeneous founds with the fimple,
elementary parts of words, which, in fome languages,
are fo often heavily and unnaturally incumbered.
For what affinity have the intermediate letters of
dAQe with the word, dewowxdc, unlefs, as it appears,
it was fo named to diftinguifh the vowel in its double
capacity of being long and broad, by its firft, and
fhort and more flender, by its latter pofition? In
naming the letters, as, a; be; ce; &c. the modern
languages feem to have the fuperiority.* While

the.

“‘ nothing hath more contributed to bring literature into,
** contempt, than.the cuftom, which the Wits and the
«* fine Geniufes, real or pretended, have taken up to con-
«* demn as fchool-learning and pedantry, citations from
«* Greek and Latin authors, and philological remarks,”

* Mr. Sheridan, in his very excellent Rhetorical Gram-
mar, has judicioufly prefixed the vowel to all the letters,
by which method of pronunciation they can beft coalefce
with their adjoining letters. Indeed, his Grammar abounds
with fuch a copious explanation of the principles of the
Englifh Language, that having confulted it only fince the
commencement of this Effay, I have much contraéted my
original plan,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 157

the Ancients have Aleph, Beth, Gimel, &c. Alpha,
Beta, Gamma, &c. and of three fyllables, as lwre.
and there are letters, at this time in ufe, named
with three fyllables. |

The charaétets which are, at prefent, made ufe of,
to exprefs every found in the Englifh language,
are in number twenty fix. ‘Thefe are well known;
arid, 28 the vowels are held to be the firft of all
human founds, and confequently the moft fimple;
it feems fit that they fhould be confidered before the
confonants, or fecondary letters.

Archelaus, the mafter of Socrates, was, we are
informed, the firft who taught that the origin of
the voice was a percuffion of the air.* And it is

the

* Moar @s 32 Eire Quis yéveow Ty Ta déoog TAEW.
Diog. Laert, Lib, ii. an Archelaum,

And Ariftotle, moreover, where he writes TEgi Qavys
Tay féwv, makes thefe diftin@ions: Qwvy dé, ual LéQos
Eregdv eos’ ual teltov TovTwv didderioc. Quvd wev ovy
Gudevl TAY aAAwy pogiay dudev, wAyY TA Ddovyli. did
Gow wy exer mvevova dvdev OSéyleras. Ardaexi@e 92,
% THS Duvys Ecol TH yAdTin didgSewois, TH pev ovy
Dovyjevra, 4 Quvy ual 6 rAdeuyk a@ivaw' cou 0¢ dQave
yrarla nai yedy é& cv % ducaexids eon.

Ariftot. de Hift. Animal. L. iv. cap. 9.

Ariftotle herein agrees, in moft refpeéts, with his predeceffor,
Hippocrates, the whole of whofe theory of the voice was too
long

158 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

the moft fimple and equal percuffion, during par-
ticular dilations and contractions of the cavities of
the mouth, regulated by the tongue, (but the lips
by no means coming in clofe contact, as they muft
in forming many confonants) which conftitutes the
vowels. From this, the following axioms may be»

deduced : ; .
Firft; that found, propelled during any one,
uniform pofition of the organs\of fpeech, muft
uniformly be of the fame fpecies: thus, in pro-
nouncing A, which, founded as in .war, is the
deepeft and moft open vowel we have, the element
is the fame, whether it be founded by a whifper,
or by the loudeft voice. It is, therefore, this one,
fimple

long to be tranfcribed as a note, and perhaps it would not be
equally interefting to every one to read; but the follow-
ing fhort relation will fhew how attentive thofe ancients
were to trace effefts to their caufes (even fometimes by
means of the very accidents, interrupting their regular
economy) and thus to enlarge the hiftory of human nature:

Eidoy O& yoy ol oDdzavres EwiTes, awérawov Tov Od-
euyle mavrdmesw. sTor Coot pev, Dbeylovra de wdev,
é: py rig cunadby Tov Dieuyla’ gro dé Obéylovrat.
dZAov dE uel T8To, Ori TO TvEvMA & SUvaTa O1e TET-
pypeve Te Adouylog Educ ecw & TH Kotha, MAAD
vere TO Siererpypévov exmvée ovTws exer mee
Qavrs Tras uel dia Agzews.

Hippoc. weg? ovgudy Edit. Foéfij,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 159

fimple found, from a mere opening of the mouth,
which creates a vowel.

Secondly; fhould any one draw a right-line
through a given fpace, and inftantaneoufly glance
off, and continue the line in another direétion, it
would no longer be a fimple right-line ; it would be
be two contiguous right-lines; and the refult would
be fome fort of angle.

And, thus, if any other pofition fhould. follow,
with whatever velocity, and during the inftant of
pronouncing any certain vowel, give thereto a
different tendence or infleétion, the found produced
would not be a fimple found; therefore, not a
mete vowel; it would be a compound of two
vowels; and therefore a diphthong.*

Such is our letter I, as pronounced in clime, time,
&c> for it is a compound of two vowels; the firft of
which cannot be exactly expreffed, but by the
fhort found of the open A, or of the O in Joy—the
fecond has the true found of the continental I, or

Englifh

*« Diphthongus ita folet difiniri 4 Grammaticis, ut fit
** fyllaba ex duabus vocalibus conflata: fonum retinentibus,
** Ego vero malim dicere, In unam mixtam vocem coeun-
* tibus (nam alioquin quando diftin&te funt vocalium
~ voces, du fyllabae nafcantur neceffe eft) aut hoc certé
* addiderim definitioni, Qu« raptim et uno {piritu pro-
“ ferri poffunt.”

Beza De Veteri et Germ, Pron. Grexc, Ling,

160 Mr. Harvey’s Obfervations
Englifh EE. thus: OI. blended into oi of

ai.*

The following words are nearly pronounced with
the above, I: Quoif, Quoin, Quoit. I am the
more particular upon this character, becaufe, though
it is, by fome, juftly confidered as a diphthong in
fuch words as twine, combine; and as a vowel in fuch
as win, thin, &c. yet there are many who will con-
tend, that it is in all cafes a vowel—becaufe it fo
appears in writing.f But let any one pronounce
this letter, flowly, and he will foon perceive the
difference, between the firft and latter part of it;

he

* Ar (Gracorum) non dubium eft quin Latinorum ai ref-
pondeat, raptim fcilicet & uno fpiritu pronunciato, ut poft
@ non refpires, ne duz fyllabe pro una audiantur,

Beza de Veter. et Germ. Pron, Grec, Lings

+ It appears, from Grammars publifhed abroad for teach
ing the Englifh language, that Foreigners have, in a great
degree, better analyfed our alphabetical founds than in
general we ourfelves have, whofe peculiar bufinefs it
ought to be to do fo. And, thus, M. De Lolme anti-
cipated the account of the Britifh Conftitution= “ of that
happy land,” as he fays, “ where Liserry had, at lait;
been able to ere& herfelf a Temple.” A Temple, which
none could defile without a tear—for its rites are the
di&tates of Benevolence, and its trueft Guardians are Peace
and Concord, who will never fhut its gates againft the
meritorious and unafluming votaries, the fraternal com-

petitors of Freedom and Happinefs,
« The

on the Englifh Alphabet. 161

he will, moreover, be fenfible of the varied pofition
of the tongue, during the latter part of the found;
but if his ear will not fuffer him to make this
diftinction, let him prefs upon the tongue with the
whole length of a finger, and, at the fame inftant, let
him attempt to found the long I, as it is fometimes
called. One half of this found he will pronounce
very readily ; and it will be as, or nearly as, a {hort
open A orO. The latter moiety of the found will
be asthe I in field: And he will be convinced, in com-
pleting the found, that though the firft part
thereof can be formed without interruption from
the finger, yet the tongue will ftrongly refift and
raife the finger towards the palate, in forming the
remaining portion of the diphthong.
Dr. Johnfon fays of I, ‘ that it has a long found
‘* as in fine; and a fhort one, as in fin; and that
“* it is eminently obfervable in i, which may be
“ obferved in other letters, that the fhort foun
X is

The Englifh,” obferves one of the Grammarians al—
luded to, “have fix vowels, which have a twofold pro-
nunciation, that is isto fay, long and fhort, as;

when it is fhort, like

a when long, is like ah
e - - 2h
i - “ ; te
° < ce oh

é ; é

y

fometimes like 7,

$
Zur] “19H 943 uy
2A 8.0
~Zury ‘195 943 uy

J
fometimes like - ey

162 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

“« is not the long found contraéted, but a found
is wholly different.”*

This is certainly true in part: why therefore fe
only one character for two founds, wholly different?
If Dr. Johnfon had refolved the found into its
principles, he would have been enabled to give a
much more precife and fatisfactory account of this
-Jetter. But indeed, this excellent and ingenious _
Author had been fo much accuftomed to the more
delightful parts of Grammar—to the compofition
of works, which will bear the teft of ages; that
he feemed to forget that the language of fcience,
and the moft beautiful leffons of morality cannot
be tranfmitted to pofterity, without the aid of
letters, included in words; and, therefore, he has
treated of this part of Grammar too faftidioufly,
and confequently, in fome refpedts, erroneoufly.
He has done much towards eftablifhing a ftandard
of words, for fuch as know how to ufe them;
without doing enough for the true diftinétion of
fyllables, by which the language would be acquired
by children in half the ufual time, and be of
eafy accefs to foreigners defirous of learning it,
from whom it is, generally, long withheld by nu-
merous impediments. And moreover, he is rather

too

* Dr. Jortin, fpeaking of the modern Greek pronun-
ciation, in his Life of Erafmus, vol. ii. page 140, fays
fomething like this: that “they pronounce the , not
“© broad, as we Englifh do in templi; but fofter, as we de
© in templis.”

on the Englifh Alphabet. 162

too fevere upon all, who would attempt the com-
plete examination of what he, neverthelefs,
confeffes to have taken ‘‘ from other Gramma-
‘* rians, perhaps with more reverence than
** judgment.”

It is but fair, inthis place, to ftate Dr. Johnfon’s
words, which, however, do not argue againft an
inveftigation of this fubject; for the long eftablifh-
ment of perverfe habits in forming words, prove
nothing againft the preexiftence of an immutable
effence, in refpect to their elements:

‘** ‘There have been many fchemes offered for the
emendation and fettlement of our orthography,
which, like that of other nations, being formed
‘* by chance, or according to the fancy* of the
earlieft writers in rude ages, was at firft very
various and uncertain, and is yet futhciently
“« irregular. Of thefe reformers fome have endea-
‘* voured to accommodate orthography better to
** the pronunciation, without confidering that this
‘** is to meafure by a fhadow, to take that for a
“ model or ftandard which is changing while they

X 2 Ss apply

* Chance and Fancy may very properly form fymbols
of founds at any period of the world; but it is moft
certain, that neither Chance nor Fancy ought to be con-
cerned in their application and ufes, which fhould be
fixed by Reafon, and, when fo fixed, fhould be permanent,
The form of alphabetical charaéters is of the leat import-
ance, though the varieties and neatnefs in this refpec _
contribute to our pleafures: the form of a letter is not
its eflence, any more than bedy is fpirit,

164 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

“‘ apply it.* Others, lefs' abfurdly indeed, but
‘* with equal unlikelihood of fuccefs, have endea-
“« youred: to proportion the number of letters to
‘t that of founds, that every found may have its
“© own character, and every character a fingle
“¢ found. Such would be the orthography of a
‘* new language, to be formed by a fynod of gram-
“‘ marians upon principles of fcience. But who
“« can hope to prevail on nations to change their
‘* practice, and make all their old books ufelefs ?
or what advantage would a new orthography
‘* procure equivalent to the confufion and perplex-
‘* ity of fuch an alteration ?
“ Some of thefe fchemes I fhall however exhibit,
*« which may be ufed according to the diverfities
‘*‘ of genius, as a guide to reformers, or terrour
‘* to innovators. *f
Can any thing be more inconfiftent, than when
he lays it down that, ‘* for pronunciation the beft
** general rule is, to confider thofe as the moft
*t elegant fpeakers who deviate leaft from the
** written words’? How will any perfon, not
acquainted with the language, be able to pro-
nounce, for example, the words condgn, fubtle,
any

o

* « But fuppofing a language to have acquired its utmoft
“ perfeétion, I fee nothing that fhould necefiarily occafion
«« any change.” Sketches of the Hift. of Man, vol. i. p. 162.

+ Dr. Johnfon then gives fpecimens of orthography,
recommended feverally by Sir Thomas Smith; Dr. Gill;
Charles Butler; and Bifhop Wilfon; which are all fuffi-
ciently fanciful, and wanting in that fimplicity and accu-
racy, which every alphabet ought to poffefs.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 165

and others of the fame kind? The knowledge of
any learned language will be no affiftance in this
refpect; for in the Latin, the words are) condignus,
Jubtilis, &e. Italian, or French would bring him
fomething nearer: but to arrive at the knowledge
of the vernacular pronunciation, he muft be initi-
ated into the myfteries: of the language; and then
he will find that the G and B are in no degree
founded. The words jail and jailer. are as often
written gaol and gaoler. Shall they, therefore, be
pronounced ga-ol and ga-oler?~ To affert, that
the pronunciation is moft elegant, which deviates
leaft from the written words, would be to fuppofe, that
our alphabet is, like the alphabets of the Greek,
Latin, Italian, and fome other languages, of an
uniform pronunciation. But fo far, on the contrary,
is the capricioufoefs of our language, that Mr.
Sheridan reckons upwards of feventy different ways,
which conflantly occur, for characterizing only nine
of our vowel founds!* Moreover, for exprefiing about
thirteen,

* They who could wifh to be well acquainted with the
analy fis of the Englifh Language, and the great varicty of
modes of exprefling even the fimple founds, would find
ample information in an attentive perufal of the Rheto-
ae Grammar, before mentioned.

+ In Bell's Edition of that beautiful piece of Philofophy,
Pope’s “ Effay on Man,” Epift. ii. v. 237, the word goal,
by no uncommon miftake, is printed thus:

** Each individual feeks a fev’ral gaol;
** But Heav’n’s great vicw is one, and that the whole.”

Here

166 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

thirteen, different, fimple vowel-founds, there are no.
more than feven characters; which are applied in:
all cafes, without any kind of point for diftinction.:
Whilft the Germans, without incumbering their
words with many ufelefs letters, have, by fmall
marks, nicely diftinguifhed all the varieties of vowels
ufed in their language. So that whoever fhall have:
been once taught the genuine found of their letters,
will find no infuperable difficulty in reading their
language.t And certainly particular marks, for
the

_ Here the found of one ending depends not upon its
own intrinfic form, as it ought to do, but upon the rhyme
of the next line. Now if any perfon of a future age
were to read the above paflage, and be obftinate in pro-
nouncing the firft ending —jaz/, he, on his part, might fay,
perhaps, that the word, which fhould chime thereto, was
wrong; and, that it ought to be whale: however, without
fuch - correétion, it would be as fine nonfenfe, in blank
verfe ; for it could not be fuppofed that each individual
merits imprifonment: and the vifitation of prifons is too
rare a virtue for all men to put in praé¢tice, however in-
clined they might be to imitate the examples of a Howard.

t The author of an excellent little “ Efflay on Punc-
tuation,”* appears no friend to fuch a method of defining
the found.of words; but cenfures the French language,
and not altogether without caufe, on account of the
multitude of its accents; adding, “ that our language hasi
«“ happily efcaped this horrid incumbrance, and preferved
‘a beautiful fimplicity.” It may be worthy of, notice, °
that law manufcripts are feldom encumbered by what this |
gentleman has fo fuccefsfully written upon, Punétuation ;

here,
* Printed for J. Walter, Charing Crofs, 1786.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 167

the different modifications of language, are as ne-
ceflary as for directing the various modulations of
mufical

here, therefore, in fome views, the language may be thought
more beautifully fimplified, and more nearly refembling
modes of the firft antiquity; though it can hardly be
doubted, but it muft, in fome inftances, barter perf{picuity
for fuch fimplicity.

It is certain, that the French are obliged to ufe a great
concourfe of accentual marks; having only fix charaéters
to exprefs all their varieties of vowel founds, Perhaps,
thefe deficiences, among other motives, might have induced
Erafmus to call it, “ Lingua barbara et abnormis, que aliud
JSeribit quam fonat, queque fuos habet ftridores et voces, vix
humanas.”

It would be better, however, to abate a little of the
feverity, on the one fide, and a little of the too warm
encomium on the ‘other; and then it will be allowed,
that the ufe of our alphabet, though not as abfurd as that
of the French language, is, neverthelefs, defettive in many
inftances. Though there may be many, who, at frft fight,
will not allow that it is fo. For, under the various ftates
of this fhort life, which, in fo many ways modify the
human heart; difference of opinion, whether concerning |
things temporal or fpiritual ; things beneath human notice,
or fuperior to its higheft wifdom, will ever be as much
man’s leading charatteriftic, as difference of feature and
complexion: he, therefore, who, upon all occafions, can

1ew the greateft candour, towards the inofenfve bias of
man, and the venial errors of opinion, will afford a com-
parative indication of his progrefs in the knowledge of the
mind : mutual conceffions are neceflary to mutual improve-
ment ; this truth may be proved by experience, and all
men, by turns, may ftand in need of, and enjoy its advan-
tages,

168 Mr. Harvey’s Obfervations

mufical founds: <A, flat, differs from A, natural,
and is, therefore, properly diftinguifhed by a
‘certain mark, b. but, were fuch note in the key,
and no mark added, he muft poffefs a mufician’s
fkill and quickuefs of mufical apprehenfion, who,
in playing fuch apparent note, would not, at firft,
miftake the key, and produce a diffonance. A
well practifed mufician might alfo, it is true, in

a

certain degree, fo accommodate an ill tuned

violin, that by his fkill he fhould produce fome
melody therefrom; though it is certain, that he
could much better, and more agreeably, manage an
infttument, whofe tones were well adjufted: for
example, intending to produce the tone, B, he
might {hift his finger to that part of the ftring,
which, if it were in tune, might poffibly appear
a note or two above or below that pofition; fo, not
having a well marked alphabet, we occafionally

A

turn a into ’a or e; e into ie; I into OI or AI;
O into A; and U into the diphthong IU or Ruffian
FO, and alfo into the Hebrew kibbuts.

Concerning the vowel, Y, Dr. Johnfon, in two

places of his grammar, gives the two following, con-
tradictory accounts, only one of which can be true:

°
ce

oe
ce

o
ce

ca
ce

ft. ** Y, is a vowel, which, as Quintilian ob-
ferves of one of the Roman letters, we mighty.
want without inconvenience, but that we have it.
Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly
ufed where 7 is now put, occurs very frequently

**-in all old books.”

edly. “ Y,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 169

_ edly. “ Y, when it follows a confonant, is a
*« vowel; when it precedes either vowel or diph-
* thong, isa confonant, as ye, young. It is thought
** by fome to be in all cafes a vowel. But it may
* be obferved of y as of w,* that it follows a vowel
*¢ without any hiatus, as rofy ‘youth.”

Perhaps he did not confider that, like colours and
mufical ‘notes, the founds of language may break
¥ off

Lal

* A fimilar difcordant account of Wis alfo given by
_ the fame author: “for w,” he fays, ‘we often write w
“ after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as view, &c.” But
how make a diphthong from a vowel and a confonant,
which in another part of his Grammar he feems to think
that wis? As: “ of w, which in diphthongs is often an
** undoubted vowel, fome Grammarians have doubted
** whether it ever be aconfonant ; and rather as it is called a
* double wor ou, as water may be refolved into owater ;—
* but letters of the fame sounp are always reckoned confo-
** nants in other Alphabets: and it may be obferved, that
** w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of
“ utterance, as frofty Winter.’? It follows, therefore, that
U in the Latin, Spanifh, and Italian; and ow the French
adverb, have hitherto been mif-named; being all of nearly
the fame found—and therefore Confonants! In the
German Alphabet, indeed, the w is called veigh, and
founds fometimes like a weak Englifh v; but moftly as
“ w. The two vowels of the word root, and of feveral
other words with the fame vowels, have the found of the
true and fimple U or W; but if any one fhould pronounce
the words dlood and flood in this manner, a diale& of fuch
ruflicity would provoke the mirth of an auditory; fo far
does cuftom, in fome cafes, pervert the more general
analogy of vocal fymbols. |

170 _ Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

abruptly; may be in contact as it were; or may
fo coalefce together that each of thefe predicaments
fhall poffefs-a fenfible difference. A red and a blue
colour, for inftance, may-be placed fo near to each
other as to appear in contact, without really being
fo; two mufical notes may be played or fung in that
diftin® manner, which the Italians term fpiccato or
fpezzato; or two vowels may be pronounced with a
comma between them, and each of thefe modifi-
cations may be confidered as a hiatus. ‘T'wo colours,
alfo, as well as two mufical notes, or two vowels,
may fo clofely approach, as to leave no interval of
fpace or time between each other, and yet may be
perfectly defined; but fhould the union be fo
intimate, that commixture fhould take place, a
purple would be the refult of thofe two colours.
And as in mufic, when that, which is called a note
de Gotit, or grace, is foftened, as it were, without
the fmalleft interval,. into the principal note (which
it either precedes or follows) in fuch a manner, that

the

* ¢ Nonnulli efi€tum fuiffe volunt charafterem Y,

® vero # ad bafin litera v vocalis adjefo.”
Beza de Germ. Pron, Grec, Ling.

But how then could it be efteemed as a fimple vowel,
when compofed of two vowels? It is as reafonable to
fuppofe that the modern found of the Englifh y was
taken from the Greek diphthong Y which is exaétly of
the fame found as the French affirmative out, and many
other of their words, ending in. ui, whether a confonant
‘follow or not, But according to the Englifh technical
name, it is a triphthong, ouwai or uat,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 17%

the union of the two can fcarcely be diftinguifhed,
fo exactly parallel is the union of two vowels: and
I is like the note de gotit to the O, in medallion
and words of fimilar termination: as it is alfo,
audibly, though not vifibly, to U, when founded as
in mute. In the Ruffian Alphabet, the found is well
exprefled by one type EO. Many other examples
of diphthongs might here be noticed; but, as they
are all refolvable by the fame criteria,* it may be
proper to pafs on to the fimple vowels, the number
of which appears to be naturally feven; for fo
many principal variations may be formed, befide
their diminutions, without bringing the lips into
clofe contact with each other: and this number
perhaps almoft all human beings are~ capable of
forming.f And, however novel it may feem, I
am led to believe that the vowel founds have nearly
the fame analogy to the primitive notes of Mufic,
as thefe have to the primary colours ; and the other
varieties of the vowel founds can only be efteemed,

Ye as.

* On the contrary a vowel, or any fimple letter,
admits of no further analyfis, but is, as Ariftotle || afferts,

Quy adiaigeros,
> \ 3 > ~
f Ol avBgwror Quvyy pev ryv duriy dPidior diahex-
Tov O¢ ov THY auTHy.
Ariftot. de Hift. Animalium, L. iv. c. 9.

| See Winftanley’s Edition of Ariftotle’s Poetics, page 64.

172 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

as in the fame order as the chromaticks of Mufic
and Painting:

“« for Nature opens
‘¢. Proportions mufical in all her parts.’’*

‘‘ The proportional breadth of the primary or
“* prifmatick colours, in the order as they are feen
* in the rainbow, is as follows: and anfwers to the
‘* mufical notes oppofed to each colour.

Réd 450. f Ut ( & E as in Fate.
Orange 27 Si s&s U — in fhut.
Yellow 48 La ,» U—in Ruby.
Green 60 \_¥ Sol $=< 1, O—in Mote.
Blue 60] | Fa 8 A — in Father.
Indigo 4o- Mi | . ”. I —in Shield.
Violet 80} Re.” 8 A-—in Wall.

I thought that this parallel. could not be better
exemplified than by the Hebrew fyftem of vowels,
which in fome refpects is certainly fuperior to any
other in ufe; not even excepting that of the
_ German vowels, which is very difcriminate. - For

in the pointed Hebrew there is always a certain
quantity in the fyllabies; and whoever underftands
the points can make few or no mifiakes in the
reading,

* Sce Euposra,,a Poem on the Univerfe, Book V.
v. 480. by Capel Lofft, Efq.—fee alfo the note upon the
fame verfe; which comprehends the comparifon of colours
with the notes of Mufic. And with thefe I have endea-
voured to parallel the primary vowels,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 173

reading, as far as is at prefent known of a language
no longer fpoken. And even where the Hebrew
does change its vowels, accordingly as the inflection
and regimen of words may require, there are efta-
blifhed rules, whereby to prcceed. And thofe,
who will not allow the vowel points to have been
a part of the language before the Chriftian zra,
will at leaft confefs, that they were, whatever was
the time of their invention, an effort of great
genius and nice diftinction ;* fince, in this fyftem,
there are ail the moft ufeful varieties’ of vowel
founds ; and, in point of proportion, as it were, a
diatonic and chromatic fcale: For the primitive
vowels are feven, and the fimple variations are
exactly five, befide the fheva quiefcent, which is as
our E mute: and this agrees nearly with the nature
of mufical notes.f Thus

* Beza fays: “ Pun&a vocalia ab Hebrxis Grammaticis,
“* diviniflimo certé invento excogitata.’’ Indeed what is
there to contradiét the opinion, that the whole Alphabet
might have been of divine origin? Was it not as eafly
for the Atmicuty to give Moses an Alphabet, as to

- give him the Decalogue ?
TheRev.Gilbert Wakefield obferves, “ that all the fagacity
“ and experience of fucceeding generations, illuftrated as
“they have been by a vaft influx of additional know-
“ ledge, beyond the moft accomplifhed of their predecef-
“ fors, have been unable to fuperinduce any real improve-
“ment upon the Hebrew alphabet.” On the Origin of
Alphabetical Charaéters, See 2d. vol. of thefe Memoirs,p, 296.
+ ® Le Genre diatonique eft celui de trois qui procéde
“* par tons et femi-tons majeurs, felon la divifion naturelle
* dela Gamme,” Diftionnaire de Mufique pay M, Rouffeau,
Again;

+

174 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

Thus the following feven feem to be the primary
or fulleft vowels :

2. 1.

q- 5- 3-
Boma v3: eet Ge We Sea

and the variations are thefe five very fhort vowels,
which

Again: “Le Genre chromatique de Mufique eft celui qui
«¢ procéde par plufieurs femi-tons confecutifs. Ce mot viens
« du Grec KG |utt, qui fignifie couleur, foit parceque les
‘“* Grecs marquoient ce genre par des caractéres rouges, ou
“ diverfement colorés; foit, difent les Auteurs, parceque
“le genre chromatique eft moyen entre les deux autres,
“‘ comme la couleur eft moyenne entre le blanc et le noir;
“ou, felon d’ autres, parce que ce genre varie et embellit
“‘ le Diatonique par fes demi-tons, qui font, dans la mufique
« le méme effet que la variété des couleurs fait dans la
‘“ peinture.” Ibid,

There are very few, I am perfuaded, who will mifun-
derftand this theory as a fuppofition, that the vowels, in
common {peech, are mufical notes, any more than the

primitive colours are fuch: fince mufical notes depend

upon the more extenfive powers of the larynx and ep-
glottis, this ferving to the former as the fingers do in
performing onthe flute, to vary its aperture, and thence
confequently to increafe or diminifh the moment of any
one given quantity of air propelled through {uch varied
aperture, and thus producing intonation.§ But the vowels

have

§ Hippocrates, in his firft book megh diairys, fays that
the tongue imitates mufic (yAdeou paomyy. wipéereu)
whereas the tongue does not feem neceflary to forming
tones. One of its principal ufes is the articulation of
fpeech.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 175

which cannot be accurately pronounced unlefs
they be joined with their confonants :

‘

dhs sete, AO, 13.

9 8.
S$ S 8S 8 S&S — Befides the fheva, 8

All which founds are contained in the following
words, under correfponding numbers: .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 8
War, car, tete, field, vote, rule, nut, allot,
11 10 12 13
effect, written.

Befide thefe fimple vowels, the Hebrew has alfo
diphthongs, as well as other languages: fuch as
“iON. the future of “28, he fpoke, and many
others.
~ So much for the Vowels; which, with their
varieties, are thus fhortly proved to be in their
moft fimple ftate, Twetve or TurrTren—all
of which are conftantly ufed in the Englifh lan-
guage; and yet we have only feven characters,
without any diftinétive marks, occafionally added,
to reprefent them in writing; and even two of

| the

have that breadth or denfity of found, which may be
exemplified on any monochord, or on the frets of a
Guitar, by a view of the proportionate diftances and
places of the notes confidered abftra&tedly from found, as
is the correfponding breadth of the prifmatic colours.

176 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

the feven, I, and Y, are equivalent; the former
whereof, and likewife U, are made to ferve as often
for diphthongs as for vowels.*

Now, as to the confonants, I fhall be as concife
as the fubject will permit; not dwelling unnecef-
farily upon fuch as always preferve their genuine
and individual properties; but making upon each
fuch few remarks, as appear to have efcaped the
attention of others.

A Scuzme of the Englifh Alphabet is hereto
fubjoined, wherein all the fimple founds are enu-
merated, and collated with thofe of the learned
and fome of the principal modern languages; that
is, however, as far only as is at prefent known of
the pronunciation of languages, no longer fpoken

by

* So indefinite is the knowledge, which children generally
acquire, concerning the ufes and exceptions of the Englifh
Alphabet, that it cannot be reafonably expetted, that they
fhould be able of themfelves to read every common word,
with fufficient exaétnefs, although they might have been
inftruéted for fome months. On the contrary, in frequent
inftances, they require the conftant collateral aid of tra-
dition, as if their bufinefs were to be initiated into the
myfteries of fo many hieroglyphics, which had no afhinity
to the alphabet they had been taught. Now as children
may be fuppofed in veneral to poilefs a fimilar capacity,
in moft places, it would be a fubjeét of curiofity to inquire
in what countries, at what ages, and under whatever
other comparative circumftances the greateft number of
children acquire the beft and fpeedieft knowledge of
reading and writing their native language,

es ie

Hamer

ear <.

+

np
Ae ad

=~ iA

SCHEME OF ALPHABETS,

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE VARIETY OF SIMPLE CONSONANTS IN EACH.
ARRANGED ¢ }

ENGI HK GERMAN, ITALIAN. GREEK, LATIN. FRENCH,
i Fie ky il ns Son Pe Sound. | Form, Sound, Form, Sound, Form. Sound,| Form. Sound.
A s | a |A A A
B An =! | 1B eb |B eb| B eb| B eb/B eb
(6 ec\) eg|C ec|C ec] G { ec | eg|C ec|C Oe
D ed] 7 ed|D ed|D ed | etch | A ed|D ed|D cil
E Naf \E |k ID ed|E E E
F ef|) eviE ef | ef|E Z ez|F ef|F af
4 2 iT ez 1 a |e a »|F ef|H G eg|G
G eg, egx"| M* |G eg, egu™|G eg, €&% |G eg|O eth|H 3 H =
gh ee) et H |H H I I I
“ etcl ae ; le etch | I I K air j
1 B Z| aah Ak L el] A el|L el|K
J ‘edge! 9 aalll ellL all ¥ em 3 em|M em|L em
K Salle en| LL M em re) bal fe enyiN en|M em.
E el] D es| M em|N en|p x O N en
I rh | + ep|O P ep]}O
M em| pt IN en yng Q I 0 P|
N en] >) ep|N O : Sieg We ep
tral art R er|P er|/R er Q
ing) 5 § eph|O P ep|c 3 =
O ¥ 1Q Q : Leth |T ale es|R er
P ep| P ek'R er R er Be eeu aaa ee 5 : <
Q “ ers es|S an et) th eth|ch efh
R er efh| "7 caer J eth V ev |® eph| V evtuls et
oe U x* ex|U Vv
5 { es} ry eth U T et ei ee £v
tsh § elh ly call Pas Z ez| 2 X U
If et X# U Q Y; x
+th eth Y WwW Z ez|Y
4th § Ledth VA eth |X Z ez
V os Y
U z,
W ez
X
ng
Zz ez
Simpl = = — bets
Gane bei ty) 17 17 16 15 15 15
Vowels 13
34

on the Englifh Alphabet. 177

by a whole nation. For at this time, in different
countries, there is a great diverfity of opinions,
refpecting their pronunciation ; people, in each
place, adapting their own domeftic accents to Lan-
guages, Originating many centuries back, and at.
the diftance of many hundred miles.
Z ‘Now
SEE

References to the oppofite Table.

* All the Characters which are marked with
an afterifk, have, in found, fome analogy to
each other; therefore, whoever is acquainted with
one or two of them, will not be very far off the
found of the others; but the yx, which is added to
the Spanifh and German G, does not futhtiently
exprefs the true found, which ought to be heard,
previous to imitation: indeed all explanation of
alphabetical founds depends upon a continual chain
of references from language to language, and from
one analogy to another.

¢ Th, gh, ch, sh, th, are all improperly and
unneceflarily: ufed as fymbols of fimple founds.

~ The termination. nc, (which may follow any
vowel, as ang, eng, ing, ong, ung, and yng) being
neither a complete n nor a complete g, but a kind
of nafal found between the two, it may therefore
be added; and the fimple confonants will then be
twenty-one. For more particulars concerning this
character, fee the latter note upon G.; and alfo
Mr. Sheridan’s Rhetorical Grammar.—The found
of Y is not well known, and therefore omitted.

158 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

Now fuppofing, that all the thirteen vowels and
variations were ufed in each of the above alpha-
bets, yet {till the Englifh would preferve the balance
of variety. And from thofe fimple founds are
formed all the double founding confonants of the
languages enumerated; fingle characters having
been ufed by way of abbreviating compound founds.*
** Quum enim invente fint litere fimplicibus fonis
‘* fignificandis, neceffe eft profecto in omni lingua,
** ut quidem commode feribi poflit, totidem omnino
“* Iiteras extare, quot funt eus font fimplices. Alio-
oa quin five plures five pauciores fuerint, et fcrip-
** tioni et pronunciationi magnas tenebras offundi neceffe
** fuerit. Idque folicite Grecos obfervaffe, vel hoc
** unum fatis oftendit. quod inter Elenchos Aris-
** toteles nullam ex literis fallacem conclufionem
numerat: quum nihil poffit frequentius occur-
rere, fiuni litere dupiicem fonum, vel contra uni fono
duas literas tribueris,

‘* Simplices igitur Grace linguz fonos fexdecim,
totidémque neceffarias literas effe, ex eo apparet,
quod ex reliquis octo qui totidem literis feri-

** buntur,

-

6

* Perhaps there are more fimple founds attributed
above to the Greek than really belong to it: for the Z
was formed, it is believed, of ps, and is rather to be
compared to the Hebrew ¥ or German rz, than to the
-}, which, in the Englifh, and when fingle, in other
modern languages, is certainly a fimple found, differing
from s. The fimple founds of the Greek were anciently
accounted only fixteen, including five vowels.

Ee

on the Englifh Alphabet. 179

‘“‘ buntur, alii fint compofiti, alii fuapte natura
** jidem cum compofitis.
“« Sexdecim igitur antique Cadmi litere ex
‘‘ Pheenicia in Greciam illate, et totidem fonis
‘* fimplicibus exprimendis reperte, funt he, «, €,
$F 4, Oy Ey. ty My Ay Py Vy 0, Ty Q, 0,7, 0. Nam aliz
‘* preterea octo illis addite funt partim a Palamede,
** partim a Simonide, videcilet y, w, ¢, , 4, 3;
** , x3; quod nulla quidem neceffitate factum eft,
** fed maximo tamen cum fructu, ut fcriptio minus
** effet laboriofa, magisque compendiofa.’* may
Now the confonants in the preceding number of
Cadmean letters are only eleven; but as %, 3, o,
% though afpirated, are not double, according to
the prefent pronunciation, each being eafily found-
ed, during one particular conformation of the
organs of fpeech, by one fimple contemporary
energy of the breath; hence it is evident that the
fimple founds may be reafonably accounted rirTEEN.
In the German Language there are upwards of
two hundred words beginning with pf, which
character is truly of two letters; the found of each
being diftin&ly heard, as: Pferd, pflicht, @c.—
This, however, even fhould it really be the genu-
ine found of @, does in no wife leffen the number
of fimple founds in the Greek: for allowing that
west ay - one

* Adolph. Mekerch, Commentar. de Veteri et Reéta
Pronunciatione Grece Lingue, page 50. copied from
Beza de Germana Pronunciatione Grece Lingua, page g
& 4.

180 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

one half of it, that isto fay f, be a fimple found,
this the has, as well as all the languages enume-
rated. 3

How far the Englifh outnumbers thofe languages
in variety of fimple founds, I have already endea-
voured to fhew: it remains next, however, to enter
into a more particular enquiry concerning each,
and this fhall be done in the order of the foregoing
fynoptical table of confonants, and firft of the
letter B.*

B.

There is little difficulty refpe&ing the pronun-
ciation and ufe of this letter, the Englifh “and
moft other Nations giving it the proper found.
In the Spanifh, indeed, it is frequently ufed inftead
of V, to which the Royal Academy of Madrid

gives

_ * Mr, Sheridan, after having enumerated, in a long lift,
the great irregularities of the vowels, obferves that, ‘“« we
*¢ fhall not find the ftate of our confonants much better.”

- © B is often mute, as in—debt, tomb. C has three founds,
“ask, 5, fh, in care, ceafe, focial, F has its found marked by
“ two different combinations of letters, ph in Philip, gh in
“laugh, G hastwo founds, as gold, gentle. J has the fame
“* found as that of the ed. G. joy. S has four founds, s, z,
“¢ th, zh; in yes, rofe, pafion, osier, T has alfo four founds,
* t, 5, fh, ch, in tell, fatiety, nation, queftion, X has three
“ founds, gz, ks, =; in example, vex, Xerxes, Th has twa
** faunds, then, and thin, Ch has three founds, , fh, chs
“ chorus, chaife, chair. Gh has two founds, g, ghoft; f,
“ laugh; and is often mute, as in daughter.”

*

on the Englifh Alphabet. 181

gives nearly the fame found, only fofter.* In
fome of our words the found of the 4 is no longer
ufed, though the letter be written; as in dumb,
crumb, and many others:

C,

C—To this one letter two different founds are
given, contrary to all juft rule.f And it ferves
alfo in the compofition of what are erroneoufly
confidered as double letters; namely CH, as in
cheer (from the Italian cera)¥ and CH, in chafm;
where, however, it only obtains the found of K,
as in Italian words, the afpiration being almoft
wholly laid afide.

. That

* Of the letter V they fay: ‘Su pronunciacion es cafi
como la de la 6; aunque mas blanda, para diftinguirla
de ella, y folo tiene ufo en aquellas voces que traen fu
etimologia de las palabras latinas, u otro idioma en que
fe efcriben con v, u otra letra que fe convierta en ella,
para no desfigurarlas de fu origen.”

Mr. Harris, in his “ Philological Enquiries,” gives a
{pecimen from the Formularies of the Greek Court drawn
up by Conftantinus Porphyrogenitus, who reigned in the
beginning of the eleventh century, according to Dionyfius _
Pecavius about the beginning of the tenth) wherein the
Greeks at that time ufed, in their Helleniftic Latin, the
B for V, as KavoégRer Ades yumégep Becgep, &e. for
Confervet Deus Imperium vefirum, &c.

+ See Beza or Mekerchus as laft quoted.

{ This charaéter and found of CH feems to have been
taken from the Spanifh, wherein it is exaétly the fame; as
in mucho, much, But Sancho we convert into Sangko.

182 == Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

That this letter c was of a hard found in the.

Latin, appears, from many inftances, beyoud a
doubt. ‘The Roman title, which we, as well as

fome others, have melted into the foft found,.

Cesar, as Dr. Johnfon would have it. fpelt, has
in the German language preferved the true founds
of the confonants and diphthong, as Key/er. It has
often been a fubject of difpute among the learned,
whether the letter C fhould be founded like K or
like S; to this Mr, Pope alludes in the Dunciad:

x

’T is true on words is ftill our whole debate,
Difpute of me or te, of aut or at ;

To found or fink in cano O or A,

Or give up Cicero to C or K.

"But it is furprizing that there fhould be two
opinions refpecting it; for the generally juft ana-
logy between nouns and their oblique cafes, and
between certain tenfes of verbs, is proof fuffici-
ently evident, that the ufual modern method of
founding the C, before fome vowels, is erroneous.
Whenever Cis ufedasan§, it ought certainly to have
fuch a mark annexed, as might diftinguith it from
the hard and genuine found. Thus, if.we muft
write C/i-CIAS and pronounce SE-SIAS, there
fhould be a cedilla, or fome fuch mark below the
¢, as im Spanifh and French: or, for the foft

found,

———_ oc —

on the Englifh Alphabet. 183

found, it might remain as at prefent;* and, for
the hard found, a point might be inferted within
the ©, asin fome Hebrew letters. No -difficulty
can arife from K and Q, though one of them is a
redundant letter; becaufe, when they are founded,
the found is always uniform. K before N at the
beginning of words is not now pronounced. But
in fuch German words the found of the & fill
continues; as das knie, the knee.

D.

D— This letter is of an uniform found in the
Englifh, but is confounded with the T’ by the Ger-
mans, who fay indifferently, either Deutfch or
Teutfch; hence, from taube, comes the word dove,
and from thaler, dollar, &c.

F.

F, ‘* Has always its own found,” as Mr. Sheridan
obferves, ‘‘ except in the particle of, where it has
‘“‘ the power of a v, and is founded ov, to diftin-

guifh

' * In the Ruffian Alphabet, K and C are diftin®; the
former having the fame found as we give to it, and the
latter that of S,

It appears, from Roman names written in Greek
letters, that the C, though not fo prepofteroufly ufed, as
to ftand for S, had however two founds, but both ana-
logous; that of K, and that of T. As Appian, for
Caius Cefar, writes Pai@o Kaicug,

184 Mr. Harvey’s Obfervatrons

* ouifh it from the word off in found as well as in
“. felling. Though it is conftant to its found
‘*« when fingle, yet it is frequently marked by two
“« F's, as in chaff, fcoff; fometimes by ph, both in
“« the beginning and ending of words, as in philo-
‘* Jofophy, epitaph; and fometimes by gh, as in
** Jaugh, cough.”

G:

G, Like its neighbour and frequent affociate, H,

is a letter of apparently great bufinefs in the Englifh
alphabet ; but often in fact, is now only a kind of
finecure retainer, fuperannuated, as it were, and
fufpended, by modern cuftom, from much of its
ancient ufage in the language.
’ It has its genuine, hard found in garland; it is
converted into the Englifh J, as in gaol, gem, &c.3
in gnat, gnaw, oglio, &c. it is filent: before Heat
becomes hard (like the Italian) as ghaflly, gherkin, ghefs.
The fame conjunction, gh, at the end of words,
is frequently founded like F, as tough. It is filent
in dough, except in fome northern pronunciation.

The saME Gu, in one or two inftances, fill
retains its GENUINE, ANCIENT souND, which, being
uncompounded, I have added to the numver of
fimple founds in our language; marking it, as
fome of the other afpirates alfo, with the Greek
yz. Such is its found in the word Lercu, the
name of a neighbouring town in this County, and

alfo

on the Englifh Alphabet. 18 5

in Kercutey, a town in Yorkfhire.* And this
pronunciation is nearly if not exactly that of the
Hebrew 7 or the Greek, Ruffian, or Spanifh X.
The latter language has alfo two other characters of
nearly the fame kind; as G before an E or IJ, and
J before any of the vowels. The G in the German
Janguage has alfo a fimilar, if not congenial found,
though with greater latitude; not always depending
upon two particular vowels; as gegen, genug.
CH in this language is alfo of a found equivalent to
the gh in Leigh ; as licht, recht, wicht, &c. from the
fame roots from which we derive the words light,
right, wight, &c.f

Aa In

* « The word Lough, for a lake,’? Mr. Sheridan notices,
“has a peculiar guttural found in the Irifh pronunciation
«not fuited to Englifh organs, by whom it is gencrally
** pronounced lok,”

+ The Englifh alfo, as noticed above, can with great
facility pronounce the fame found, when, perhaps, fo little
con{cious of doing it, that they would find a difficulty in
forming the like termination to other words, befide thofe
they have béen accuftomed to write and pronounce in that
manner: thus few Englifh could afpirate CH according to
‘tthe Greek and German mode; but to gh they readily give
that found. To moft words derived from the Greek, and
beginning with ch, we give the found of K. but the initials
in the word charity, which we derive through a medium of
pronunciation very different from the Greek, have a found
Sill more remote from the origin than the found of the letter

EK

186 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

In fuch words as fong, throng ; and the termina-
tions of participles in ing ; the ng, as before noticed,
has a half fuppreffed or nafal found ; as in the words
arigering, angling ; wherein the found of the firft and
fecond fyllables are fenfibly different.*

| H,

Hi Is another hackney (of our Alphabet efpecially)
being applied, like the G, to many jarring offices :
But in no one inftance is any of the four following
geminations of letters neceffary, though conftantly
ufed in a multitude of words. All the founds which
are characterized by ch; th, asin than; gh; sh; and
th, as in thane, being really five fimply and indivi-
dually; as every one may eafily be convinced of, by
flowly founding each; when the fame pofition of the
organs of language will be fenfible, both at the begin-

ning

K. The French found of CH is alfo retained in feveral
words; as chagrin, champignon, &c. Dr. Johnfon fays,
** It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronun-
ciation gh had the force of a confonant, deeply guttural,
which is {till continued in fome parts of Scotland.”

* The ending of fome German fyllables is precifely the
fame; “as in thefe words: jungling, hoffnung, &c, It is
plain, therefore, that Mr, Sheridan did not advert to this
circumftance, when he was induced to fay: that “ per-
‘“* haps this found is peculiar to the Englith language.

+ Whatever ® was formerly, Ph only retains, at this
time, the mere found of F, and no ambiguity attends the
prefent ufe of it,

on the Englifh Alphabets 187

ning and completion of the found. Moreover, each
of thefe founds might be continued during the longeft
interval of refpiration, and being then inftantly
joined with any ufually fucceeding letter, the latter
part of any of thofe founds would be as rationally
confiftent with fuch fucceeding letter, as would any
of the parts which preceded; thus, for example,
the word fhine, the continuous found of jk being
reprefented by a continuous line :

fh

J thine,

Now thefe pofitions would not be true, if thofe
double characters confifted of double founds; a fin-
gle letter is, therefore, amply fufficient for a fingle
found. And it is well known, that the Italians do
' not require a double letter to reprefent the found
of the Spanifh and Englifh CH ; for after the powers
of their letter C, in its different ftates, have been
once known, there are no further exceptions and
itregularities, ferving to embarrafs a learner. And
hence, one individual found is fufficiently defined
by the fimple C ; as in the firft fyllable of cervello,
and the fecond of uccello; which laft, as the term for
bird, is highly expreffive of the chirp of one. And,
indeed, man feems, by that fuperior, imitative
power, wherewith the Divine Being has qualified
him, to have added greatly to his primitive ftock of
language ; as well as to many of the arts, whofe

Aa 2 growth

188 Mr. Harvey’s Obfervations

growth has more than half concealed their humble,
intermediate origins.* The folitary web, fpread
from leaf to leaf, might firft have furnifhed hints
for the ingenious and ufeful arts of clothing mankind;
the Bee and the Beaver may have afforded inftrac-
tions for forming our habitations; and navigation
mav have gained its early improvements from that
obfervation of the feathered tribe, to which fuper-
{tition incited many of the ancient inhabitants of the
world.
‘The Azmicuty has, indeed, only endowed with
a certain, limitted knowledge thofe creatures, which
he has fubjected to man; but on man himfelf Hg
has bountifully beftowed an innate curiofity and
progreffive capacity, for inquiry and fcience. This
curiofity and this capacity meed, however, the
guidance of Reafon, left fhort lived man fhould
find himfelf too long bewildered in the labyrinths
of illufory and fruitlefs objects of purfuit. °
But to pafs on to the fubjecét. We not only find
that the above five fimple founds are characterized by
double letters, but, alfo, that CH is fometimes ufed
for

* Erafmus in his Dialogue, upon the pronunciation of
Greek and Latin, has humouroufly made a Bear and a Lion
the {peakers ; and the lion gives a pretty long enumeration
of founds, imitated by the human vojce. See Erafmi Op,

‘vol. i. page 915. le Clerc’s Edit. Hippocrates fays, that
a rational jife is a life of imitation. diate avbowrivyy
pyacer ete

Theo? dieitys. lib, 2,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 189
for the Englifh SH.* which, in fome Alphabets,

is marked by one independent charadéter; as yj, in
the Hebrew, and in the Ruffian, by ILI, a letter
_ fomething confimilar.f Thus, in like manner,

every
* See the note upon the latter G,

“ + Beza fays “that % altogether anfwers to the gf
*¢ with a dexter point, and the French CH (or Englith
‘‘ SH) tothat with a finifter point jsp, and it is his opinion
** that the former was improperly called jhin, and that the
* latter is falfely confounded with p. For to the Ephrai-
“ mites, he obferves, (as related in the twelfth chapter
“ of the book of Judges) it happened, unfortunately,
‘ that they knew neither of the founds of chin (i. e. as he
« thinks, x) but, toa man, pronounced it as D.”” Where-
as, by a true pronunciation, they might have paffed unfuf-
pected of being enemies,

Now by the way, the paflage, to which he alludes, is
not altogether fo clearly expreiled in the Septuagint tranf-
lation, as it admits of being. For the very word fhould
be inferted, (with an explanation 2 ) which was propofed
to the Ephrathites, as a teft, whereby they might be
diftinguifhed from the Gileadites, but, as they are not
fo inferted, it is a proof, among many others, that the
Greeks had no letter of the found of yy, and were, there-
fore, ob!“jed to leave the fenfe a little obfcured. The
words are briefly compared as follows: And the Gileadites
took the paffages of Jordan before the Ephrathites: and it
was fo, that when the Ephrathites which were efcaped, faid, each,

Let me go over, 7 WS SYQONI WII WIS 9 DN}
Pbap agin nbay sips boy: NO oon

12 WT? Pr NI
The

n

.

g. AS in Matt. chap.*i»23. and elfewhere,

190 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

every fimple found fhould have its own inalienable
note of diftinétion. ‘The fofter th Mr. Sheridan has
marked by a line acrofs the h; as th which in the
Caftillian has the fingle charaéer z. but, if th muft
remain, would it not be better to conjoin them fo
as to appear as they ought, one type, with one
properly expreflive name as the or eth; and fo like-

wife eg or ges efh or fhe, each with fome fmall mark
for diftinguifhing the anomalies : thus, not to render
books unintelligible to pofterity by expunging any
thing, all the old conftructions of the alphabet might

be reverently preferved both by pen and prefs. *
Now in regard to the found of ch; as in chill, it
does not appear to me that any one has noticed that
we have a fimple alphabetical character expreflive of
this

The words in the Greek, which ought, at leaft, to be
parallel to the above original, are: ual dimay dvTOIS avbgec
Taruded, My "EQgadirys 3 ual errev dv. Kal Grav
auto, atov dy STAXTE. ual dv uerevSwve TE AwAou
BTW,

This is the fame as if it were tranflated:—An ‘the men
of Gilead faid to them (individually ) art thou an Ephra-
thite? And he faid, No: And they faid to him pronounce
then EAR OF coRrN: and he could not contrive to pro-
niounce fo.—Now, would not our Englifh tranflation alfo
be better thus: and the men of Gilead faid unto each art
thou an Ephrathite? If he faid, nay: Then faid they
unto him, fay now fhibboleth (which fgnifieth an ear of corn)
and he faid fibboleth: for he could not frame to pronounce
it exaétly (b) right. 4

b. Exaétly, or fome fuch adverb, the verb being in pihel.

ro

on the Englifh Alphabet. 19k

this found: yet true it is that fuch letter is H,

whereto we give the name of aitch,* and this really
comprehending the found which is continually pre-

ceded by an ufelefs affociate. This fimple character
is called etch in the Synopfis.

But to confider H in its ufually fimple, uncon-
nected form, as to other confonants, we are taught
that it was originally ufed as a mark of afpiration by
the Greeks, and continued as fuch with the Romans
as long as their language.

In

* In the Ruffian language this found is judicioufly
marked by one letter, and that exatly like our fmall h
inverted thus y.

+ For éxdlov, they wrote Hexdlov; &c. but afterwards
dividing the letter, thus, H, the firft moiety was ufed for
the afpirate; and the latter was unneceflarily placed to
fhew that the vowel was not aipirated.

It feems fafhionable, in much modern printing, to lay
afide both thefe marks, ‘as well as the accents, altogether :
whereas one of them and the accents are frequently of
great ufe, in difcerning words of fimilar letters, but dif-
ferent meaning: although it appears true, as many have
afferted, that there is no analogy between the prefent and
the ancient rules of accent, which laft never offended
againft the rules of quantity. Concerning accents, Arif-
totle fays: megh dv uaS’ Exacov év Toit wergindic moocd-
xe bewedy.* From the prefent ufe of the accents, how-
ever, the ear will derive but {mall affiftance or fatisfa&tion:
‘it is the eye which muft make the diftin&tion between

words,

* See Winftanley’s Edition of Ariftotle’s Poetics, page 64.

192 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

In the Englifh, too, it generally ferves as a weak
afpirate at the beginning of words, but even in this
cafe, the article an is almoft as often prefixed as if
the h were filent ; which deftroys in a great meafure
the force of the afpirate, and fometimes to a hearer
gives confequently an equivocal found.* ‘This often
occurs, not only in the hurry of converfation, but
alfo in the more deliberate acts of writing and
printing.

An owl, and an ox, are not oftener written and
printed perhaps of late, than an houfe, an horfe, an
hiftory, and fuch like words. But this ufe of the
article is very unlike its application in the words
which the poet gives to King Richard, as noticed
by Dr. Johnfon:

Ahorfe! ahorfe! my kingdom for a horfe !

Where

words, whofe form and quantity are the fame; and with-
out the accents, or fome fubftitutes for them, what dif-
ference is there between fuch words as eey%¢, albus, and
wey NS, ferpens ; aox06, urfus, and Apuoc, auxilium $
€ioc, vita, and i0¢, arcus; bed, dea, and béa,: fpelta-
culum ; Lugy, papilio, and Lux, anima; and a great
number befide? The context, it is true, might often lead
to the fenfe, and might as often leave it involved in
‘ambiguity ; sto Loot fignifies, thefe men live; ero: Cace
means quite the reverfe,

\ d ; + We

* Before words, wherein cuftom has only retained h -
for appearance of etymology, without giving it any found,
the cafe is very different ; as, an honourable houfe, &c.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 193

Where the very hiatus, which ought to be made in
pronouncing ths line, fpeaks the ftr>ng emotion of
a perfon, half breathlefs, through defpair and fatigue,
and yet {till anxious to win the glory of a momentous
day.

_ Some modern caprice would perhaps write,
An horfe! an horfe! my kingdom for an horfe!* _

In which cafe it would be no unpardonable miftake,
fhould fome part of an audience imagine, that
the poor gentleman was calling out for—

A nurfe! A nurfe!

H is ufed alfo after R in fome words from the
Greek ; as Rhetorick, Riythm, &c. but without any
found. And after the vowel W in Englifh words
it is very common; and. is in fuch cafe frequently
founded: moreover it-is obfervable, as Dr. Johnfon
remarks, that though the afpirate follows the w in
appearance, yet in pronunciation it has precedence,
and ought, therefore, to be fo written.f For

Bb fuch

-* Such article may and ought to be prefixed, inftaad of a,
to all words beginning with the filent h; as an herbal,
&e,

+ And it would be equally intelligible, with a better
analogy, as:
“© Hwo finds not Providence all good and wife,
‘“& Alike in Awat it gives and hwat denies?”
This, at firft fight, appears uncouth; and the eye mutt
continue to be gratified at the expenfe of propriety,

194 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

fuch afpirate, the femicircular Greek note would
be as convenient as the H. * © Such novelties,
however, notwithftanding they might help to rectify
fome words, and to obviate the neceffity of retain-
ing their ufelefs incumbrances, would, perhaps,
gain few advocates among the number of fuch
opinionifts as fancy, becaufe they will not exa-
mine, that the common exuberances, or rather the
intrufion of fome letters, and the improper com-
mutation of others, are no blemifhes: though
truly, as in cafes before alluded to, they impede
pronunciation, and might fometimes throw a fhade
upon the fenfe.

f.

J is acharadter which in Englifh is always uni-
formly the fame, whatever vowel it precedes; its
found is diftin&, and formed independently of
other fimple founds; as is alfo the foft G, which
ought, reafonably, to have fome minute fymbol
of diftin&tion ; a fcore of which might be defcribed,
any one whereof might ferve to note the variation
of found, without incumbring the letter, or mif-
leading thofe already acquainted with its various

applications.

* The words bw, tev, tye, are equivalent to who,
when, and where, The whiftling wind and “ whirring
pheafant” may be well written (for example) be Wichwy

wivd ; wippivy pheafant. Then why not. have ufed our
¢wn letters in a manner as little complex?

*

on the. Englifh Alphabet. 195

applications. Both G and J might be called ge
or ja; for the foft found: and, for the hard found,
G might be called eg or ghe. A point, within, might
diftinguifh G as it does €.

The. found of the French J is exactly that of
Z-ya, quickly pronounced as one fhort f, lable:
and this compound found is audible in many
Englifh words, where Z precedes a diphthong, of
whic the firft vowel is I (or Y) as in azure,
equivalent to aziwre, for the uw in this word is a
diphthong, and might be conveniently character-

ized by a point over the u in this manner u.
Leifure upon the fame principle, by the different
pronunciation of the S, comprizes alfo the fame
found, Jeiz-your.

On the contrary, there is no found of Z in the
formation of the foft Englifh G or J, which are
pronounced like G in the Italian adverb, Gia.
They are indeed mere unifons, as is each of the follow-
ing founds, eth, efh, gh, fh, and eh, or etch, which iscol-
laterally relative to G; and though the letter d may
be fuppofed nearly related to J and G, as forming
a part of the found, becaufe we write, edge, judge,
wedge, &c. yet the reverfe is moft probable; for it
may be obferved that the d in thofe words cannot
be completely founded without dividing the word
into two fyllables, jud-ge, making a great hiatus in
the pronunciation; which would not be the cafe
if it were congenial with any part of the found
of G, It follows, therefore, that no true affimila-

Bh 2 tion

196 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

tion takes place, between the d and g, in pronounc-
ing the word judge. And, indeed, if the d were
omitted, it would in no degree, affe& the found
of the g: it would be the preceding vowel, 4,
which would be alt:red—from its fhort, clofe
found, to that of the longer u, as in ruby.

K.

-K may here be paffed over; as it was noticed
under the letter C, which is its frequent fubftitute,
and, when fo, ought like other ambiguous letters
to have a mark of diftinétion. See page 183.

Le

«: L has always one uniform found, and is never
“ filent but when followed by an m in the fame
“* fyllable, as balm, pfalm. In ove word only it is
«¢ founded as 'r, colonel—pronounced curnel.”

By retaining the / in fuch words as balm, &c. it
feems in part that we lave followed the original,
m the fpelling, aid the French anaiogy in the pro-
nunciation. Indeed the French formerly wrote
baulme, pfeaulme, &c. with J. But in reference to
the word colonel, the found of r is in no refpect heard,
unlefs in conformity to an etymology differing from
the French, from which we have taken the word:

on

‘* Rhetorical Grammar, page 17.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 197

on the contrary, it is, as Dr. Johnfon obferves,
*« generally founded col'nd’’ by the mere elifion of
‘ano. And, without the elifion, the / has its
proper found in the following lines, by Dean
Swift :*

No fubjeé& fit to try your wit

When you went colonelling,

- Butler alfo, in the firft Canto of his Hudibras,
fays,

Then did Sir Knight abandon dwelling,
And out he rode a colonelling.

Where, the metre requiring the pronunciation
of all the fyllables, the latter word of each couplet
~ eannot be curnelling. It is true that in Spanifh this
office is written, and therefore properly pronounced
Coronel; but who wiil fay that this argues a fingle
point in proof that L ought to be pronounced as
an Ww?

L unites into an agreeable, liquid found before
the conjoined diphthongs IE, EU and U, when
this is equivalent to IU, as it is in a multitude of
fyllables; and alfo before zw, which has the
fame found; as, likewife, rev in the Englifh pro-
nunciation of lieu. Such liquid found is in the

words,

* In his anfwer to Ballyfpellin, written by Dr. She-
ridan,

198 - Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

words, lute, lubricity, alien; modillon, pavilion,
quintillion, and many other. But in words be-
ginning with lo; as lion and its derivatives, the
firft letter after the t is the diphthong ai, or oi,
wherewith the t does not blend into the above
liquid founds, becaufe the fimple or y is intercepted
by a vowel of grester denfity; a dierefis, therefore,
though not expreffed, is to be underftood (as in

many

+ The LL of Spanifh words (which feems to be con-
verted fometimes from the Cl, and, at other times, from
the Plof their Latin roots) is applied to exa€tly the fame
found as that of our moft liquid L, but with a greater
latitude ; for it precedes all the vowels, except 7 and y.
And the reafon why it glides into the liquid found before
a, o, and u, is, becaufe the pronunciation W is every
where followed by the audible, although invifible power
of an z or (which is of the fame found) y rapidly
abforbed, as it were, by its confecutive vowel. Such is
the nature of Jamar, Ileno, lover, and Uuvia.. And juft
the fame is the Italian gli, as in fogho, figha, oglio, where-
of the endings are like thofe of folio, battalia, olio. Mr.
Baretti miftakes, therefore, when he fuppoles that we
have neither this found nor that of gn, in dagnare, mig-
none; for, as well as the liquid l already exemplified,
inftances fhall be adduced, under the letter N, to fhew that
we alfo have this liquid found, afcribed to 7, which depends
entirely upon a ftate of the vowels, correfpondent to thofe
which give the liquid found to /, And this foft union of
the vowels is fimilar to the fynzrefis ufed in Greek poetry,
where in the Ionic diale&t the € is rapidly blended with
the following vowel, fo as to form only one fyllable, as, ,

Miviv dade, Oecd, TMyaryiddes “Aysaros.

on the Englifh Alphabet. 99

many fimilar cafes) as belonging to the o in thofe
words, as lion, making two fyllables of i-o: but for
the liquid found the i and o blend into one fyl-
lable yo. All fimple vowels follow their general
analogy and irregularity, without influencing the
L which they happen to fucceed; as linen, lot,
lote, luftre, lynx. It is an error, therefore, to
think that L, or LL, has any independent, liquid
found more than that in Jute: for the common appear-
ance of words proves nothing; it is the ear waich
muft analyfe founds, whilft the eye fhould direé the
beft means of preferying their diftingions.

M.

M is always an unifon, and not different from
the fame named letter of other languages; except
that in French words it is fometimes turned into a
found nearly like our ng; as, temps,

N.

N has very few exceptions to its regularity. The
chief is its being in fome inftances filent after m.

It is often affociated with the before mentioned
diphthongs, ie, io, &c. and forms the foft found,
which, in Italian, is characterifed by gn, and in

Spanifh by 2, which is an abbreviation of uniform
. found ;.

200 Mr. Harvey's Objfervations

found ;* fuch as ata, caiero, and many others.
Thefe founds we have; as champignon, dominion,
onion, poniard, pinion, fpaniel, trunnion, and others.

PL

P is as regular and conftant to its found as the
foregoing confonant. In Dr. Johnfon’s words, * it
** has always the fame found, which the Welfh
“¢ and Germans confound with B. It is fometimes
‘** mute as in pfalm, and between m and #, as exempt.
‘“« PH is is ufed for f (at this time) in words derived
‘t from the Greek, as Philofopher, Philanthropy, Phi-
Seuleps"

Q.

Q hasbeen noticed before, under C. Its found.
is almoft every where uniform in Engiifh words:
but in a few, derived from the French, the vowel
wis not pronounced ; as in cafque, mafquerade, and
feveral other words.

: R

*N is achara&er which, before a, 0, and u, has the

power of ni or ny; for the word ana is refolvable into an-ya.
The Gw (in dagnare) may alfo be readily npeiee in
Englifh letters, thus, ban-ya-re, ;
“+ The letter U, when -pronounced, after Q, always rev
tains. jts genuine vowel found: thus we do not fay
clogew-ent, but eloquent; mot eqew-ator, but eqwator,
which is the fame as equator, On the contrary, the word
MULE

on the Englifh Alphabet. 201
Rue

R is in the Englifh always nearly the fame; and
but feldom fo ftrongly vibrated as in fome French
words, fuch as Roi.

S.

S is both in found and form a ferpentine letter,
for it ‘‘ has a hiffing found, in (/fidilation, fifter. S$
** fingle, at the end of words, has a groffer found,
“ like that of z, as trees, eyes, except this, thus, us,
“* rebus, furplus,” and fome others.

*« It founds like z before ton, if a vowel goes
*t before, as intrufion; and like s, if it follows a
** confonant, as converfion.

“ Tt founds like z before e mute, as refufe, and
** before y final, as rofy,’* and feveral others which
may be feen by referring to the Grammars of Dr.
Johnfon and Mr. Sheridan.

As to the character zh, which this Gentleman
applies to denote the found of thes in ozier, and
words of fimilar ending ; it feems, indeed, analogous
to the character /h; but as this double letter, as
before obferved, is, through want of a fimple cha-
racter, ufed as the fymbol of an independent found,
though it is demontftrable, by analyfis, to be no further
expreflive of fuch found than as far as neceflity
and cuftom have united incongruities; fo muft

Cc 7 the

Dr. Johnfon’s Englifh Grammar,

202 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

the character zh be equally inapplicable to the
found of the French ;.

The miftake feems to have arifen from having
given powers to the confonant which really depend
upon the vowels which immediately fucceed it :
and a fimple vowel, as already noticed, has no in-
fluence; it muft be a diphthong, of which the
firft part is one of the very flender vowels, ¢ or y;
(founding as ce in tree) thus in the words, azure,
ofier, a diphthong follows both the s and the z;
and let the found of z be given as ufual to the s in
ofier, and the analyfis will be thus: ozyer. Y is
ufed here, rather than i, becaufe the flender found
is oftener given to it than to the latter, and it
therefore better anfwers the purpofe of explanation.
Azure admits of a fimilar analyfis; the diphthong u,
founded you, follows the z—it might therefore be
expreffed thus : az-your.

Perhaps alfo the found of —fion, at the end of
words, depends rather upon a like analogy of the
diphthong, fo* or yo, than upon the full found of
jh; as the word fufton may be thus defcribed:
fuze-yon or fewz-yon. |

The termination, —tion may be tried by the
fame rule: thus, if the t be perverted to the found
of s, it might be nearly expreffed as follows; acs-yon,
from aétion.

So

* See page 171, where this charatter is united, and has
the found of you or ya,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 203

So likewife martial, partial; confcience, patience ;
and words of fuch termination, might be refolved
into mars-yal, pars-yal; cons-yence, pace-yence; in all
which examples the rapid concurrence of the two
laft fyllables, i-al and i-ence, is indifpenfibly necel-
fary for giving the required found.

The word queftion, without perverting the ¢,
may be analyzed queft-yon.

From this examination it appears, that the full
found of fh is not congenial, nor indeed ufed in
the above words; but is rather to be confidered as
one of the depravities ef ptonunciation, which
time or caprice may now and then have infinuated
into the language.

a

T has always its genuine found; as in tablet,
except in the above and fimilar terminations, and
in the word fatiety, pronounced Jfafee-ye-ty.

i

V.

V is every where in the Englifh of one equal
found, ‘“* of near affinity with f. From f in the
** Iflandick alphabet, v is only diftinguifhed by a
** diacritical point.”* Indeed fuch points would
give every requifite precifion to an alphabet, and

correct the incoherent affemblage of characters.
Cece X is

* Dr, Johnfon’s Grammar.

404 ' Mr. Harvey’s Objervations

X.

X is an unneceffary fymbol of two pair of corn-.
fonants, fs and gz. Few miftakes, however, arife
from the ufe of it.

Z.

Z, though noticed before, under the letter S,
requires thus much further to be faid concerning it,
that, if it precede a fingle vowel or any diphthong,
beginning with i; as ia, ie, io, u, it always pre-
ferves its foft found; and it is fome fuch diphthong
(but in no refpect a confonant) which unites therewith
to form the found of the French J, which is merely
a convenient and unperverted abbreviation in that
language for the letters z-ya,* as it is called in
repeating the alphabet ; as jardin is refolvable into
z-yar,din; joindre, into z-ywoin,dre; juflice, into
z-yous,tecce; making only two fyllables of each word,
as divided by the comma. Whereas the letters zh
cannot be refolved in any fuch founds; for 4 can
only ftand for the afpirate, ha, or, if it will be
allowed, for the found of etch. Hence, if z fhould be
combined with one of thefe founds, what other
found would be the refult than z-ha or z-tch?. Tech
being here founded as at the end of the word thatch,
which might be explained alfo by fimilar founds,

though

* In reality it is only z-y, which, according to the vowel
which may happen to follow, is-one or other of the fol-
lowing founds: z-ya, z-ye, z-yee, 2-70, ZOU.

on the English Alphabet. 205

though differently written, in other languages. For
indeed no one language can fufficiently explain
its own founds unlefs viva voce; therefore, in order
to give any explanation upon paper, continual
reference muft be had to analogous founds in
fome other language; for as the adamant mutt
be applied to illuftrate every gem of the fame .
kind, fo, to explain one language, affiftance is to
be fought for in others, as has been done in
the courfe of this Paper: and if the arrange-
ment of the Alphabets (oppofite page 177*) be
correct, or nearly fo, then may the Englifh be
allowed to poffefs, in that table, the greateft number

of

* Having frequently thought, that machinery might be
conftru&ted, by an ingenious artift, for imitating the founds
of the human voice, as well as organs have been formed
for the imitation of the tone and powers of various mufi-
cal inftruments, I was not greatly furprized at finding, by
a paragraph in the General Evening Poft of May 91, and
by an account in the Analytical Review for the laft month
(June) that a M. Von Kempelen, of Vienna, has lately
invented fuch a machine, and publifhed a defcription of
it, with plates, Experiments therewith would incontro-
vertibly decide upon the nature and comparative powers
of each language it may be brought to imitate. At prefent
‘it is faid to give correétly the found of all the vowels
« and all the confonants; but the latter are combined
“and exprefied with fome difficulty. Of confequence
‘¢ the ingenious inventor has, found it better fuited to
Italian, French, and Latin, than to his native language.
** But he has hopes of introducing confiderable improve-
* ments, and arranging it in fuch a manner, that it may
be played upon with keys, in the manner of an Organ,
‘© and with equal facility.”

206 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

of elemental founds. But founds alone, without
a fkilful mixture, and apt difpofal into words, are
not enough to give fuperiority to a language in
any greater degree than merely asa greater variety
of colours would excel a judicious defign in chiar=
ofcuro,* or as the wild concurrence of many mulfical
tones would furpafs the fcientific touches of a few
well tuned notes. ‘The harmony of colouring is
perhaps a thing not. yet completely underftood :
painting by the eye alone, may be like playing
upon an inftrument only by the ear; when neither
all eyes nor all ears can be equally correct.
If fuch things be fo difficult, how much more
fo muft be a knowledge of the complete harmony
of the far more numerous elements of language,
taking confonants and vowels together. Such a
knowledge may, poffibly, be referved for man,
as one part of his expectations in the fpheres of

future happinefs.
As the fallen leaves and fcions of the foreft are,
at one time fcattered abroad, and again driven to-
gether

* This is only to be underftood as far as it relates to the
ear; for it is fufficiently evident, that ideas may be con-
veyed to the mind by the moft unpolifhed languages ;
neverthelefs it is always moft agreeable when founds feem
to harmonize with ideas. Mild and gentle thoughts
fhould not be uttered with tones of afperity; nor fhould
foft words be ufed for expreffing the boiftcrous paffions.

+ See the relative harmony of mufical notes, colours,
and vawels, page 172,

on the Englifh Alphabet. 207

gether by alternate gufts of wind, fo have emigra-
tions and fhipwrecks, and the ftorms of invafions
and conquefts, fcattered over the globe an aftonifhing
multitude of the half mutilated germs of language ;
which, taking new root, have continually favoured
the fortuitous change and affemblage of words,
thereby defying all conjecture, as to what the
precife form of language was, before the confufion
at Babel: nothing occurs, however, to prohibit the
admiffion of an hvpothefis, that it was, at firft,
as He who gave it is, perrecrt.

And, indeed, the Holy Scripture fo far informs
us, that, previous to the change at Babel, “ the
whole earth was of one language and of one fpecch.” *
How, then, is to be reconciled with this account,
fome paffages of the preceding chapter? As at
verfe 3rft. f ‘* Thefe are the fons of Shem, after
their families, after their tongues, in their lands,
after their nations.” Why after their tongues, when
it is related, that there was at that time (and the
whole fucceeding context fupports this paflage)
only one language over all the earth? Novice as I
am in the original language of the Sacred Writings,
I fearcely dare to hazard any opinion upon thefe
feemingly contrary readings, without very great
difidence. I appeal, however, to the learned in
the language, whether tranfcribers might not have
miftaken, even the three times, one of the fol-

lowing

* Gen, xi, v.41, + Andalfo aty, 5. and v, 20,

208 Mr. Harvey's Obfervations

lowing words for the other: that is to fay
moni) for conv the former word fignifying,
according to their tongues; but the latter word,
according to their nAmEs.*

It may be oppofed to this, however, in order
not to admit rafhly any ill founded or premature
opinion,’ that the paffage, as it is, notwithftanding
its apparent priority, through fo many ages and
tranflations, ought, perhaps, to be received rather
as an anticipated regifter of perforis and events im-
mediately fucceeding the general confufion of
fpeech, than as relating to time antecedent.

So

* I cannot help expreffing, in this place, an earneft
wifh, that it may become as fafhionable, with all profeffors
of the benign principles of Chriftianity, to read the ancient
volume of Sacred Hiftory in the original words, as it is
to read, in their refpettive languages, the genealogies of
Hefiod, or the philofophy of Lucretius. And it would
certainly be much lefs difficult to do fo,

Numerous are the guides thereto, printed in Latin,
And, with the laudable view of more generally promoting
fuch knowledge, a few learned men have at different times
deferved the thanks of their country, for publifhing alfo
eafy dire&tions for the attainment of the Hebrew, without
any previous knowledge of the Greek or Latin. See
ample and convincing reafons for giving a fmall portion
of time to fuch ftudy, in the prefaces to Robertfon’s
«¢ Gate, or Door to the Holy Tongue,” firft printed 1653;
and Dr. Bayley’s ** Entrance to the Sacred Language,’* |
printed 1782,

Mr. P. Henry on the A@ion of, &'c. 209

‘So far upon the fubjec&t of the comparative va-
rieties and abufes of our Alphabetic Characters ;
but, fo far, within a much more contracted com=
pafs than the extent and importance of. inquiry
{till allows: yet as an attention to this Society urged
the contribution of fome paper to the common
ftock, fo now feveral confiderations exact the con-
clufion of this Fragment.

On the Action of Meratiic Oxyprs and Eartus
upon Orts, in low Degrees of Heat. By Mr.
Prerer Henry. Communicated by Mr. ‘Tuomas
Henry, F. R. S. &c.

[ReaD nov. 16, 1792.]-

pH high degree of colour, poffeffed by many
of the expe and fatty Oils, rendering
them unfit for feveral ufes in the Arts; it appeared
to be a defirable object to difcover a mode of de-
priving them of their colouring particles.

For this purpofe the following Experiments were
inftituted.

Dd 1. Two

210. Mr. P. Henry on the Aétion of

1.. Two ounces of Sperma Ceti Oil were di-
gelted, with one drachm of white arfenic, in a heat
of 180° of Farenheit, during fix hours; and left
to fiand till morning. » The oil was then perfectly
clear, and colourlefs, and much heavier than it was
previoufly to the experiment. A great part of the
arfenic, however, remained undiffolved, at “the
bottom of the digefting veffel.

2. ‘Two ounces of Linfeed Oil were digefted
with one’drachm of white arfenic, under the fame
circumftances with the former. In the morning
very little-alteration being perceived in the mixture,
it was expofed to a fomewhat greater heat. In two
hours the oil appeared brighter, and clearer,
much of the arfenic being diffolved; but it yet
retained a great part of its original colour. ‘There
was a confiderable depofition of mucilage; the
arfenic, which remained undiffolved, being tinged
of a light yellow colour.

3. Green olive oil was treated in a fimilar man-
ner with the Sperma Ceti oil, and attended with the
fame refult.

4. Thick train oil was digefted with a drachm and
half of white arfenic. No great alteration was
obferved in the colour of the oil, though it was
evidently, rendered clearer and more limpid.

When the oils were at the greateft heat, a brik
effervefcence took place in all of them, upon fhaking
up the bottles, but immediately difcontinued on ©
the arfenic being fuffered to fubfide. When poured

on

~

Metallic Oxydes and Earths. 211

on the hands, they inftantly fhrivelled the fkin,
and were either abforbed, or foon dried up. Two
phials of Nos. 1 and 2 being left expofed to the
action of air and light, for fome months, were not
in the leaft changed.

As’ it was evident, that a confiderable portion of
arfenic was diffolved in all the foregoing experi-
ments, I wifhed to fee, if it could be precipitated ; and
-at the fame time the oils be left pure, and deprived
of colour; though with no great hopes of fuccefs,
from the known property of the mineral acids to
render oils thick and difcoloured.

5- Part of No. 1 being poured into a phial,
three or four drops of ftrong vitriolic acid were
added. ‘The arfenic immediately precipitated,
leaving the oil as pure and colourlefs as before.

6. The fame quantity of vitriolic acid being
added to Nos. 2, 3, and 4, the arfenic was in like
manner precipitated. No. 2 feemed even clearer
than before the addition of acid.

7. Nitrous acid being added, in the fame pro-
_ portion with the vitriolic, the colour of all the oils
was inftantly changed toa dark brown, except the
Sperma Ceti oil, which was not much affected ; the
train and lin-feed oils fuffering the greateft change.
In all of them a flight effervefcence took place.

8. Marine acid occafioned a precipitation, which
foon rediffolved, in all of them.

g- Both the fixed alcalies iminediately coagulated
the oils, the water, in which the folution of alcali

Dde was

212 Mr. P. Henry on the Aétion of

was made, fubfiding to the bottom of the veffel,
along with the arfenic,

1o. ‘Three ounces of Sperma Ceti oil were di-

gefted with one drachm of litharge, during fix hours,
in about 200° of Farenheit. ‘The oil became much
clearer than before the experiment, but not near
fo colourlefs,.as when treated with arfenic. The
litharge was changed to a white colour. Part of the
oil being poured off, and the heat afterwards in-
creafed, it foon became thick and high coloured,

11, Lin-feed oil expofed to the fame degrees. of
heat, under fimilar circumftances, underwent the
fame changes.

12. ‘Train oil was little siege; in low degrees
of heat, but in higher degrees, became difcoloured.

13. A few drops of vitriolic acid being added
toa portion of No. 10, before the heat had been
encreafed, the litharge was precipitated, and the
oil left pure and clear, though not quite colour-
lefs.

14. Vitriolic acid being added to the lin-feed
and train oils, No. 11, and 12, a very fmall preci-
pitation of the litharge took place, probably owing
to the heat not having been fufficiently great to
diffolve it in large quantities, which had been found
to be the cafe with the fame oils, when digefted
with arfenic,

15. Nitrous acid, whén added, inftantly chang-
ed the colour of all three toa dark brown; the oils
No, 11 and 12 became thick and glutinous. ig

. 16. Marine

Metallic Oxydes and. Earths. (219

vo

16, Marine’ acid precipitated the litharge.
‘Upon being left to ftand, the lin-feed and train oils
_affumed a much darker hue, than they had) previ-

ous to the addition of the acid.

17. © Alcalies coagulated the oils, as in the former
“experiments with them. ‘

18... 'Two ounces of. Sperma Ceti cil and half
a drachm of red lead were digefted during eight
hours. ‘The oil feemed not in the leaft changed ;
“but a fmall quantity of the lead remained fufpend-
-ed; and gave it a flight pink caft. The heat, the
“nextday, was gradually increafed with as little fuc-
-cefs, till the oil being brought to nearly a boiling
heat, it became dark and difcoloured.

1g. Lin-feed oil was tried in the fame proportions,
-with the like refult.

20. ‘Train oil was treated, in the fame mode
-as the others, with one drachm of red Jead. On in-

creafing the heat, it formed a very thick, dark
coloured mafs.

21. White lead, and the oxyde of copper, which
is formed upon the diftillation of acetated copper,
had-tne fame effe& with the red lead. But lefs of
the oxyde of copper appeared to be diffolved, than ©
of thofe of lead.

Not meeting with the fuccefs, from the digeftion
of the oils with the metallic oxydes, which I was at
firtt led to expect, I fubmitted them to the action
of different pure aérated earths under the fame
degrees of heat. ‘

| 22. ‘Two

214 Mr. P. Henry on the Adlion of

22. Two ounces of Sperma Ceti oil, and one
drachm of the earth of Alum, precipitated from ‘a
folution of Alum, by the vegetable fixed alcali,
were placed in a fand heat from 180° to 1g0°
of Farenheit, and fuffered to remain there during
three hours. ‘The oil became clear and colourlefs,
the gluten having precipitated with the earth to the
bottom of the veffel.

23. Two ounces of linfeed oil and one Jedd
and a half of pure clay were fubjected to the fame
degree of heat as the Sperma Ceti oil. This oil
likewile, became very clear, and much lefs coloured.
A confiderable depofition of mucilage was obferved
upon the furface of the clay. The combination of
the mucilage with the linfeed oil appeared to be
much ftronger, than that of the Sperma Ceti oil
with its gluten.

24. ‘Train oil was likewife rendeved much purer
by .digeftion with the fame earth, but was in no
degree equal either to the Sperma Ceti, or linfeed oils.
_ 25. Both aérated and pure Magnefia piecipitated
the mucilage, whilft the oils continued warm; but
as they cooled, the mucilage and magnefia rofe and
mixed again with the oils.

26. ‘Ten grains of pure calcareous si being
added to one ounce of each of the oils, in the
cold, turned them thick, and dark coloured.

27. Aérated calcareous earth had little effe& upon
the oils, either heated or cold.

In

Metallic Oxydes and Earths. "gag

-Inall thefe experiments with the earths, not the
{malleft particle feemed diffolved, as on the addition
of any of the acids, they inftantly changed to a
very dark colour. ‘Thofe oils to which the nitrous
acid was added, became much darker than thofe in.
which the metallic oxydes had been digefted, and to
which the fame addition had been made.

It is well known, that oils obtain the property of
drying more quickly by being boiled, either alone
or in conjunction with metallic oxydes, and argil-
laceous earths, Oil, according to M. Lavoifier,
confifts of Hydrogene, or the bafis of Inflammable
Gas, and Carbone, the bafis of Carbonic Acid, or
fixed Air. ‘The metallic Calces confift of the Metal
united to Oxygene, or the bafis of pure air. Accord-
ing to this fyftem of Chemiftry, the Metal when
boiled in oil gives up Oxygene to it, while the
Mucilage-of the Oil unites to the Metal. It feems
therefore propable, that in high coloured Oils, the
Carbone is fuperabundant, and that by digefting the
calces of Metals, in a lower degree of heat, a part of
the oxygene of the calx may combine with the fuper-
fluous Carbone, and, forming Carbonic Acid, tend to
diveft the oil of its colour, while the oxyde, attracting
the mucilage, may contribute to the fame end.

How far this theory may apply to the explanation
of the foregoing experiments, I do not pretend to
determine. It is remarkable however, that one of
the earthy fubftances, viz. the alumine, which is
not known to contain either oxygenous or carbonic

gas,

216° Mr. P. Henry on the Action ‘of, &c,

gas, de-coloured the oils more powerfully than moft
of the metallic oxydes, and equally with any of
them. This earth has a ftrong attraction for colour-
ing matter, and on this property depends its ufe in
dying.

“But on the fuppofition that the above theory is
juft, it may be expected not only that the oil may be
deprived of colour, but that rancid oils may be re-
Rtored to {weetnefs by the metallic oxydes.. My
Father formerly found,* that rancid oil, expofed to
ftreams of carbonic gas, was fweetened. The fame
effe&t may be produced by the fame gas formed in
the procefs; and indeed, though I was not particu-
larly attentive to this circumftance, I thought the
train oi! was diminifhed in rancidity ; and the Sper-
ma Ceti oil, which was kept for feveral months, after
expofure to heat, continued {weet.

Another circumftance, worthy of remark, is,
that though concentrated vitriolic acid, on addition to
oils, blackens them, and gives out a fulphureous
{mell; yet when dropped into oils, in which the
metallic calces have been digefted, it combines with
the calces, and precipitates them, without either
difcolouring the oils, or changing their odour.

* Henry’s Experiments and Obfervations, page 129;

Mr. Copland’s Account of, ©'c. 219

. ADDRESSED TO DR. PERCIVAL.

Oélober 30th. 1792.
SIR,
I have tranfmitted to you the
following account of an ancient Mode of Sepul-
ture, that has taken place at one particulat period
in this country. Your communicating it to the
Members of the Literary and Philofophical Society
of Manchefler, will much oblige,
. Sir,
Your moft obedient Servant,

ALEX. COPLAND.
King’s Grange, in parifh of Urr, }
Stewartry of Kircudbright,

[READ NOV. 30, 1792.]

peak tumuli or heaps of ftones thrown promif-
cuoufly together, called by the people of this
country Cairns, being more frequent in this diftrié
than in any other part of Great Britain, there have
been frequent opportunities of late years to examine
their contents, from the Proprietors carrying away
the ftones, in order to conftruct dry ftone fences,
Ee and

218 _ Mr. Copland’s Account of

and other buildings neceffary for the improvement
of their lands. About the middle of the Cairn,
and on a level with, or a little elevated above, the
earth’s furface, there are always feveral thin flat ftones
laid horizontally in a circular form, with their edges
clofe applied together, without any cement, upon
which are generally found entire bones, their frag-
ments, or reddifh coloured earth, like afhes, and
fometimes entire urns, patere, or clay veffels,
flightly burnt, turned with their mouths down, over °
afhes or fragments of bones, that appear to have _
been fubjected to the action of fire. The heads of
fpears and arrows, both of brafs and iron, with
large rings* of thefe metals, have, at times, been
met with. ‘Thefe urns or patere are feldom quite
entire ; they, and the afhes or fragments of bones,
are ‘generally furrounded by flat ftones, fo laid,
without any cement, as to form niches about one
foot and a half long, by ten or twelve inches broad,
and from twelve to fourteen inches deep. ~ But
the fize of thefe divifions varies greatly. In fome
inftances, they are more than three feet long by
two broad, in which the bones are always found
‘more entire; but in others they are very fmall,
when they are found to contain no fragments of
bones, but only a little red coloured earth, like
afhes ;

_ .™ Thefe rings were of a fize that would have fuited the
ends of their {pears. ;

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &c, 219

aihes; and, in-a few cafes, thefe divifions have
been obferved to be conftruéted in a‘circular form,
The number of thefe niches varies, from two to
twenty, or more, under one Cairn. No regularity
appears in the laying of the ftones, except that the
bafe is always filled up by large, round ftones, laid
in concentric circles round the above-mentioned
pavement of flat ftones; all the remainder of the
Tumulus being conftruded of globular ftones thrown
together, from the fize of (ora little larger than) a
man’s head to that of his fift, and without any flat
ftones at top; but the Cairns generally futon the
appearance of perfect cones, ending mofily in one
large round ftone at the apex. In many of them
{mall fragments of bones are found equally difperfed
through every part, which, with their frequency in
this corner, there being about a hundred of them in
the neighbouring parifh of Crofmichael, and one or
two at leaft in each farm through the greateft part
of this parifh of Urr, tends to fhew that thefe
Cairns have been the common Cemeteries, or places
for depofiting the bones of the dead belonging to
the whole neighbourhood. They are always fituated
on ground a little elevated above that which fur-
rounds them. There is reafon to conclude, that
wherever the remains of any Chief of a Diftrict,
or Founder of a Clan, came to be depofited, not
only the reft of his Family, but alfo his whole

. BRe2 Dependents

220 Mr. Copland’s Account of

Dependents or Clan would wifh to have their bones
depofited in the fame fpot. *

From the people in this country having for a
long time very little intercourfe with their neigh-
bours, as Galloway ‘continued feveral hundred years
an independent Sovereignty from the reft of Scot-
land,* being one half furrounded by the Sea, and
the remainder by ranges of very high Mountains,
it is probable that they continued the practice of
burning their dead, longer than in other parts of
the Ifland, and, in all probability, for fome time
after their converfion to Chriftianity. From the
following defcription of a Cemetery, that feems to
paitake of a mixed nature, viz. both of burning
and inhuming, and from the inftrument of iron
being found almoft perfect, and very little hurt by
ruft, whch appeared to have been ufed for con-
fuming the corpfe, with a fmall quantity of fuel,
it is prébable that the burning of dead bodies has
not been in difufe fo many hundred years as is
generally imagined.

Having occafion to build a dry ftone fence on my
ground, the workmen, in order to get ftones, eafily
went for that purpofe to what had the appearance of
an old inclofure. It was fi tuated ona piece of

ground

ii* See. ia Differtation on the Kingdom of Galloway in
Archzologia, vol, gth. of ‘the Antiquarian Society, by
Robert Riddell, Efq. of Glenriddell,

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &c. 228

ground nearly level, but fhelving a little to the
South-weft, about a quarter of a mile Eaft of the
little river of Urr, and nearly furrounded with
eminences, or higher parts of the ground; in that
refpect was different from Cairns, two of which
were fituated on high tops, at only about three
hundred yards diftance, one on the North Weft, and
the other direct Eaft; but it rather partook of the fite
of the later burying-grounds, in being more fequef-
tered and reclufe. Ft was of the form of an oblong
fquare or parallelogram, rounded at the corners,
each of which lay to one of the cardinal points.
The fence appeared to have been complete all
round, except in the midft of- the South-Eaft fide,
where there was a breach of about five or fix feet, that
appeared to have been the entrance or door, There
was no appearance of any other building of any
kind, asthe fence was the fame throughout, and no
fragments of mortar or other cement were to be
feen.

It was conftruéted in the following manner:
There were three rows of large ftones fo placed all
round, that their centres were exactly three feet and
a half diftant from each other; the interftices were
entirely filled up by fmaller tones, of fuch a fize,
as a man could eafily lift and throw to fome diftance
with one hand. Thefe fmall rounded ftones were
continued both on the infide and and on the outfide

of the large ones for nearly three feet anda half,
fo

222 Mr. Copland’s Account of

fo that the fence would have been pretty exattly
fifteen feet broad all round. It appeared higheft
nearly above the moft external circle of large ftones,
and gradually diminifhed in height as it approached
the centre; at firft it feemed doubtful whether the
fmall ftones were fo fituated from their having, fallen
down from a higher pofition ; but there was reafon to
think they had been originally fo, from their exact
fimilarity in every part of the fence. Amongft the
greateft part of the internal edge of the fence, there
was a confiderable quantity of fat earth, that run
in below the {mall ftones very near four feet, fo as
to approach the large ftones, forming the innermoft
circle ; it was divided into {paces of two or three feet
wide, and nearly fix feet long, by means of thin
flat ftones placed perpendicularly in the earth, and
a pavement of the fame ftones was moftly found at
the depth of from one foot and a half to two feet
and a half from the furface. In the mould, fmall

pieces of bones and of charred wood were at times
met with; and in one place the fragments of a
patera or urn were to be feen. Upon removing
the ftones near to where the entrance had been,
three long pieces of iron were difcovered, lying clofe
together about the bottom of the fence, which,
although the perfon who found them did not take
notice of any particular inclofure conftructed for
containing them, muft have been depofited i in fuch
a proper fpace, as they were of a great length,
and

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &'c. 223

and all in the fame direction with the middle line
ofthe fence. They were in fo entire a ftate, that
the country people took them to a Smith, and got
them hammered into inftruments for country pur-
pofes, at the time that the Farmer who had found
them was delirious from a febrile attack of which
he died, and to whom I had given ftric&t charges to
preferve them in the moft careful manner. In
order to affift in defcribing the Cemetery and this
Inftrument, I made a rough fketch of the firft on
the fpot, and the laft I have figured from the re-
collection of myfelf and others, who had examined
them. | .

Fig. 1ft. reprefents a perpendicular fection of
the fence, being at a medium about three feet high
- above the ground, to fhew the manner in which the
large and {mall ftones were depofited, and the earth
divided by flat ftones on the infide, together with
the ditch, at prefent filled up with earth, but which
is diftinétly to be traced all round, nearly at an
equal diftance from the fence. A, B, C, the three
rows of large ftones exactly the fame all round. E,
the niche or fpace for fepulture. D, the portion of
original till at the end of it, that muft have pre-
vented the afhes and bones, when mixed and
covered with fome earth, from falling into the ditch
G; and F a fection of the furface of the triangular

hearth, as it appears near the South-weft corner.
Fig.

224 Mr. Coplands Account of

* Fig. od. reprefents one of the branches of
what may be called a Comburator;* three sof
them were found near the entrance, at the place
marked A in the ground plan, Fig. 4th. ‘They
were in every refpect alike, being rather more
than feven feet long, of a ftraight ftalk or pole,
with an obtufe bend near their upper end, where
they became broad and palmated to the full ex-
tent of three inches near the extremity, being
concave ina fmall degree on the under fide, and :
equally convex on the external or upper fide, and
where broadeft, they were perforated fo exactly
with a perpendicular hole, that when applied toge-
ther in atriangle, they could be retained firm im
that pofture by an iron pin, foas to put on the
appearance of a truncated cone full feven feet high
from the ground; fee Fig. 3. When thus erected,
their under ends ftood at the angles of an equi-
lateral triangle, about feven feet diftant from each
other, and when ufed, their upper ends, we muft
fuppofe, were fecured by an iron pin, which was
turned up below like a hook, as reprefented at A,
and their under ends, from terminating in a point ’
or pike, »were ftuck and fecured in the hard till or
triangular

* N.B. The Fig. is rather too broad along the pole
for its length.

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, ©'c. 225

triangular pavement.* Their general thicknefs was
about an inch deep by half an inch broad, being
deepeft from the external to the inner fide, fo as to
refift preffure beft when made in that direction.

Fig. 4th, reprefents the general ground plan of
the cemetery, being an hundred and eight feet wide
over the fence, by an hundred and forty-eight
long. A, the entiance at the fouth-eaft fide. B
B BB, the fence. CCC, &c. the divifions
marked out by the thin flat ftones fet upon edge
along the fides, but none at the internal ends of
the divifions. ‘Thefe divifions, including the earth,
were coveied near two thirds of their length with ~
the fmall round ftones of the fence, and were not
continued ail round, but were deficient along the
fouth-eaft fide, and a little at the fouth corner.
Upon digging up the furface in the middle, which
was done at my defire, a triangular pavement of
flat ftones fet upon edge, was difcovered, about
eight inches below the prefent furface, and neareft
the fouth-weft corner, as reprefented at E in the
ground plan. Small pieces of charred wood, and
fome earth around the fides, of a fatter nature than
ufual, were got, ‘that in part helped to fill up the
ditch that went round the whole infide of the

ey fence,

* The ends of the comburator, as reprefented in Fig,
3, are rather too much extended towards the pavement,
and which is therefore of lefs extent than it ought to have
been,

226 Mr. Copland’s Account of

_ fence, and wnich mutt have been intended to pre-
ferve the fepulture from being affected with moifture.
_ It may not bei improper to remark, that the earth
feemed to have retained its original height from
the eaft fide of the triangle to near the eaft corner,
where there appeared fomething like the remains
of a hearth, in a circular form, but which could
not be with certainty afcertained; as many of the
ftenes had been carried away at. a former period
from that part. See F on the ground plan.

Since my refolution to publifh an account of the
above, I have been informed of feveral inclofures
in this country of a fimilar nature, particularly one
about four miles fouth-eaft of Dumfries, in the
parifh of Caerlaverock, and two more between Drum-
Jenerig and Sanquhar, at no great diftance from
the river Nith. The firft ] examined lately. It
is fituated in the midft of a piece of ground of the
fame height for a mile all round, except on the
north-eaft fide, where there isa declivity down to
Locher Mofs. It is a fence of the fame nature and
breadth with that above defcribed, only a little
more of earth mixed through the round ftones: it
encompaffes a portion of ground that is at prefent
ploughed up, of an exact elliptical figure, the largeft
diameter being an hundred and fifty-fix feet by an
hundred and twenty-fix broad, with two branches
in the enclofure, one on the north-eaft, which
feems to have been the chief entrance, and another
fmaller on the fouth- eaft end. There is a continued

_ equal

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &'c. 227 |

equal depreffion of the ground towards the centre all
round, fo that it is hollowed like the palm of the hand:
exactly in the middle there is a channelly piece of
ground, where the cornand grafsfeem to fail, and
which in all probabiliry was the hearth; fo that in moft
refpects it is very fimilar to that firft defcribed, only
is a more perfedt ellipfe, is a little larger, and its
largeft diameter ftands in exactly the oppofite direc-
tion to the firft. '
Anumber of iron chains, hoops, &e. were difcovered

on ploughing the field on the north-eaft, where |

the declivity is continued down from the cemetery
to the mofs, and at no great diftance from what
appears to have been the principal entrance; they
were concealed in a niche furrounded by flat ftones,
and covered over with them at the top; it was about
thiee feet {quare, and no great depth below the
furface. Thefe iron inftruments were difcovered
about four or five years ago, and were all depofited
with Mr. Riddell, of Glenriddell, except a quantity
of the links of the chains, that feemed totally de-
ftroyed by ruft, and part of the hoops; thefe were
not at all like what are intended to furround cafks,
but their greateft bieadth being from the inner to
the exteinal fide, appeared evidently intended to
fupport a great weight; or rather being in that way
capable to withftand more completely the a@ion of
fire. Three complete ones, with the fragments of
two or three more, are ftill in Mr. Riddell’s poffet-
fion, together with the greateft pait of the chains

F f 2 and

228 Mr. Copland’s Account of

aud fupports. He fortunately got a drawing made
of them by the late Mr. Grofe, foon after they.
came into his poffeffion; now they are moftly
mouldered away from expofure to the air, owing to
their having been very much corroded by ruft.
With his perm/ffion I have got an exact copy taken
from his, which is herewith fent; fee the Figs. from
5th. to 15th. inclufive; they are of the fame colour
with what the chains, &c. were, when firft difco-
vered. ‘They are of exactly the fame fize with Mr.
Riddell’s drawings, and are therefore on too large a
fcale in proportion to the others. ‘The original
large pillared fupport is about two feet long; each
link of the chains extends about three inches and
a half, and the otiers are in the proportion to thefe
as reprefented. Befides thefe articles, the fork,
and.the hoops, there were three or four fpades or
fhove's, of that kind formerly ufed in this country,
having their edges only fhoed with iron; the whole
of their wood was mofily decayed. The ufe of
thefe articles feemed to elude the ingenuity of every
perfon that faw them, for feveral years, till the
difcovery lately of the triangle, hearth, cemetery,
&c. makes every thing plain, fo that now the com-
plete apparatus feems to have been difcovered for
the purpofe of confuming the dead by fire, and of
depofiting their bones and afhes thereafter. And
what makes it fill more remarkable is, the great
diftance of time that they have been preferved

undeftroyed,

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &'c. 229

undeftroyed, amounting perhaps to feven or eight
hundred years.

The triangular fpace E, Fig 4th. appears to have
been the hearth upon which the dead of the neigh-
bourbood had been at one period burnt, by the fuel
being built or heaped around the comburator and
corpfe in a triangular form, which it appears they
had been very anxious to afcertain exadly, by
having a {pace confiderably larger than the combu-
rator ftood upon, marked out by the ftone pave-
ment,* fo as to anfwer as a proper direction during
that part of the ceremony. ‘The corpfe muft either
have been fufpended by the head and fhoulders,
by means of the hoops and chains, fo as to be in
an erect pofture, or muft have been in the horizon-
tal pofture, as reprefented at Fig. 3d. The chains
were moft ingenioufly contrived fo as to allow of
complete flexure in every direction, and to be fhort-
ened and lengthened at pleafure; fee the Figs. of
a link in different directions; Fig. 7th. Fig. 8th.
and Fig. gth. One of them could be with perfect
eafe added to or fubtracted from the uppermoft end,
and ftill the laft anfwered asa perfect hook or ring ta
hang the reft of the chain and the corpfe by, which
could be done, even at the time of the combutftion,

by

* N.B. The ground plan, hearth, &¢. having nat been
Jaid down geometrically, but only by the eye, fo as to con,
vey only an idea of the real fituation of the different
‘parts, the exa& proportion is by no means preferved in
the drawings,

230..- Mr. Copland’s Account of

by meansiof the iron fork, Fig. sth. hooking and
unhooking them. ‘This fork might alfo have been:
ufed to throw any of the fuel, or any part of the

body that might not be properly expofed to the
action of the fire, into it again; and after any -

fuch parts had feparated from the trunk, they might
have been by that means laid hold of, and being
fecured by the chains or bent pieces of iron, repre-
fented at the bottom of Figs. 1oth. and irth. or
ftuck upon the points of the double hook, Fig.
1oth. and then fufpended by the ring, at its top,
upon one of the large hooks at the bottom or top
of the large fupport, Fig. 14th. foas to be com-
pletely confumed; and laftly, the fork might have
been ufed for turning the whole corpfe round, by
making it revolve upon the pin at the bottom of
the ring. See D, Fig. 14th. In the fame manner
we may fuppofe, when the head dropped off, which’
it would almoft always do before it was completely
confumed, it might have been {fupported in the
iron ring, Fig. 15th. which feems to have had
‘another fupport, oppofite t6 the one by which it is
at prefent fufpended, and which in all probability
was either hooked on at A, or at B, and which, by
means of the two upper hooks C, and D, could be’
hung upon one or two of the hooks at the bottom
or top of the fupport, Fig. 14th.

Figs. 6th. and 19th. feem part of one and the
fame inftrument, for confuming the bodies of chil-
dren, or thofe who were. not heavy, by the three.

hooks

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &'c. 231

hooks belonging to the tliree different branches,
being introduced into three or more iron hoops that
might have been put round the neck of the corpfe ;
the middle of the body, and the middle of the
thighs.* The fhovels, that were found, may have
been ufed for depofiting the bones and afhes inter-
mixed with earth, along the infide of the fence
belonging to the cemetery, as already explained.
It may alfo with probability be fuppofed, that
according as the bones were more or lefs confumed,
the niche in which they were. depofited would be
made larger or lefs, fo as to contain them pretty
accurately, which will account for their variety of
fize and fhape, both in the cairns and cemeteries.

There is reafon to believe, that wood only would
be uied for confuming the dead, and wherever any
diftri& became well inhabited, the wood would foon
become fcarce, from its ufe for that and other pur-
pofes; and therefore it would become neceffary to
fall on fuch means as above defcribed, to prevent
the neceflity of fo great a confumption of it as
would otherwife take place.

_ The Diftrié in which the firft defcribed Cemetery
is fi tuated, was then probably well inhabited, for it

is at no great diftance from Knaer Caftle, that is
faid

* N. B. Of the three hoops that. continue perfe& in
their circumference, one is fixteen inches diameter, ‘one
eighteen, and one twenty, There are alfo the remains of
ene or two ftill larger,

\

en0 Mr. Copland’s Account of

faid to have been the feat of the independent Sove-
reigns of Galloway, which afterwards fell into: the
poffeffion of the Baliols, Cummings, Douglaffes,
&c. It is upon the weftern banks of the Urr,
about three miles fouth-eaft, and at half that dif-
tance between, is fituated a very fine moat, perhaps
the moft perfect and largeft in this part of the
kingdom, from whence juftice had been difpenfed
(fub fole) by the Reguli or their Deputies: it iis
called Moat of Urr.

The dependents and people would endeavour to
be as near to their Chief’s refidence as _poffible,
efpecially where the foil might be eafily cultivated,
as this Diftric&t has always been.

We have certainly much reafon to admire the
ingenuity of our predeceffors, in making ufe of
a very fimple machine (viz. the iron triangle)
that would moft effectually fupport their deceafed ~
friend, either in an erect pofture, when flung by
the head and fhoulders, as if he had been ftanding
as ufual on the ground, and afford an opportunity
to all his acquaintances of feeing him in the moft
proper pofture for taking an interefting farewell.
Or the corpfe might be fufpended in an horizontal
pofture, by means of the hoops, and thofe very
ingenious chains and fupports, in order to its being
moft completely expofed to the action of the fire
where ftrongeit, viz. from two to three feet from
the ground ; fee Fig. 3d. fo as the fire could ac

with.

an ancient Mode of Sepulture, &e. 233

with fufficient force to confume it, with as little
expence of fuel as poflible.

Perhaps the triangular inftrument, confifting of
three equal parts, every way alike, and which could
form only one complete fupport when joined,
might have a reference to the doctrine of the
Trinity, and thereby teftify the deceafed’s firm
belief of that point, and his hopes of falvation
through that fource.*

I think there can be but little doubt, but that
the divifions en the infide of the fence, marked
out by the lines. C CC, &c. were diftin& fepul-
tures of the bones, afhes, and remains of different
people in the earth, inftead of depofiting them
entirely amongft ftones elevated above its furface,
as in cairns; and if each divifion was appropriated
_ to a fingle family, then this muft have been the
common cemetery of a confiderable extent of
country around.

This mode of fepulture can be beft accounted
fer, from the inhabitants, after converfion, laying
afide the oftentatious manner of burying their dead,
on the higheft and moft confpicuous places, and

Gg , from

* That the do&rine of the Trinity was foon canvaffed in
this ccuntry, is rendered probable from a tradition, that
when St. Patrick wifhed to give the then uncultivated
people of Ireland, and this country, an idea of it, he
prefented them with what grew every where under his fect,
viz. a leaf of trefoil, or clover,

234 _ Dr. Garnett’s Arrangement

from an imitation of their neighbours, in commit-
ting the laft remains of their friends to the earth, a
little only under the furface; whilft they never-
thelefs retained, what wasa favourite cuftom perhaps,
that of caufing the more corruptible parts to be dif-
perfed in the air, and afcend towards heaven, by
means of fire. And in the fame manner they
retained their mode of forming niches, or divi-
fions, between the remains of different bodies, and
of difpofing of the ftones nearly as they had been
accuftomed to do, in forming the tumuli, or cairns.

Merzororocican Observations made on different
Parts of the Western Coast of Great Brirain:
arranged by ‘T. Garnett, M. D. Phyfician at
Harrogate.

[READ MARCH, 8, 1793.]

AS greateft part of the materials of which
this memoir is compofed, was put into my
hands by my refpected friend Dr. Percival: they
had been communicated to him by feveral of his
coirefpondents, but bad health, and a multiplicity

reat | ae

of Meteorological Obfervations. 235

of engagements, rendered it impoffible for him to
pay that .attention to them, which he conceived
they deferved: he therefore requefted that I would
arrange them, fo as to form a Memoir for the
Literary and Philofophical Society. This I have
attempted to do, but muft lament with the Society,
that they want the ufeful obfervations and remarks,
‘which they would have received from our worthy
Prefident. But though this is to be regretted, I
truft that the facts will be deemed important, and
that feveral ufeful dedu&tions may be drawn from
them. ‘They belong principally to a part of the
weftern coaft of this ifland, fituated between
‘Dumfries and Lancafter; this part of the natural
hiftory of which, has hitherto been but little
known. It is much to be wifhed, that the pecu-
harities of the climate in various parts of this
ifland, were afcertained by fimilar obfervations,
which would be an addition to its natural-hiftory,
not merely gratifying to curiofity, but’ applicable
to the moft ufeful purpofes.

The remarks of Mr. Copland, of Dumfries,
are very valuable; they are the refult of attentive
obfervation, affifted by a truly philofophi¢ mind;
and though fome of the theories are perhaps not
perfectly fatisfa@tory, yet moft of them are highly
probable, and many perfectly new; upon the
whole, his remarks contain the beft and moft
rational rules for judging of the weather, that we
poffefs. Whether or frot they are all applicable to
“ é Gge every

236 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement |

every part of this ifland, fimilar obfervations made
in different parts can only determine.

From the following obfervations it will be evi-
dent, that the quantities of rain are very different
in different places; and though in the fouthern |
parts of the kingdom, much lefs rain falls than in
the northern, yet it appears that this is not in
proportion to the latitude of the place, but depends
moft probably on local circumftances. ‘The annual
mean, or average height of the rain which falls
at Dumfries, deduced from the obfervations of
feven years, is 34,658; the quantity which falls.
at Lancafter, calculated from obfervations made in
the fame years, is 40,3; while the average
quantity which falls at Kendall, fituated between
thefe two places, deduced from the obfervations of
five years, is no lefs than 61,2235.—This differ-
ence may probably be owing, at leaft in a great
degree, to the high hills with which Kendal is
furrounded, which form part of that ridge, not
improperly called the Englifh Apennine, which
rifes inthe north part of Derbyfhire, and running
obliquely, nearly through the middle of the ifland,
terminates in the Cheviot hills in Scotland. Thefe
hills being in the region of the clouds, folicit them
effectually to depofit their moifture.

Were we poffeffed of the mean heights of the
barometer in feveral parts of this ifland, both on
the coafts and the inland parts, deduced from
accurate obfervations, made for a confiderable

number

of Meteorological Obfervations. 239

numbet of years, we could, with _ tolerable
accuracy, determine the comparative elevation of
thofe different places above the level of the fea;
fome of which, from their gradual rifing, are very
difficult to afcertain, but which it would not only

be curious, but highly interefting, to know.
In the 59th. vol. of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, fome experiments are related, by which it
appears, that more rain is collected by a gage placed
on the futface of the earth, than by another fimilar
gage placed confiderably higher. Mr. Gough's
ebfervations confirm this fact, fince the quantity of
rain collected by the gage at Kendal, is confiderably
greater than the quantity which fell upon Benfon-
Knott, fituated 320 yards above the level of the
town. This fact has engaged the attention of
different philofophers, who have endeavoured to
account for it, though in a manner not perfe&ly
fatisfactory. Dr. Percival’s theory * is very
ingenious, and undoubtedly the circumftances
mentioned by him have their fhare in the produc-
tion of this phenomenon, but Mr. Gough’s account
appears by much the moft philofophical and fatis-
factory. It appears likewife from his obfervations, -
that this difference is lefs in fummer than in winter,

which he accounts for in a very. ingenious manner.
I am now endeavouring to collect fimilar obfer-
vations made on the eaftern coaft, and fhould I be
fuccefsful,

* See Effays, Medical and Experimental, vol. II. p. 85,

238

Dr. Garnet's Arrangement

fuecefsful, I fhall. prefent them to the Society,

«
’

f their next volume

ion o

t

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to the publ
the mean time, I fhall be glad to rece

previous

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in

who ‘may

have been in the habit of making fuch obferva-

communications from any gentleman,
tions, or keeping journals of the weather.

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commencing with 1777, is 37,590 inches.

The

239

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240 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

Total depths in correfponding months of the
fame years.*

Jan. Feb. March April May June
Inches J
22,493 | 17,455 13,630 10,082 | 15,052 | 23,412

‘July Auguft Sept. O&. Nov. Dec.

| 23,668

20,735 | 30.844 | 22,042 | 20,097 | 23,099

The annual medium of falls, for the fame feven
years, is 34,658, and for the fourteen years, com-
mencing with 1777, 36,127 inches. :

ene

os

Upon an average of the laft feven years, the
winds have blown in the following directions at
Dumfries.

| North | N.E. | Eaft | S.E. | South | S.W. | Weft | N.W.
Days |_36 | +6 | 66 | 21 | 73 | 52 | 77 | 24 J.

Taking the North and Eaft winds in oppofition to

the South and Weft, they will ftand as follows —

Days. ’ Days.
North - - 36 || South - - 73
N, BE. i: +. 16 Sif Ww, a. = 52
Faft - - 66 Welt © = 77
S. E. - - 21 N. W. - - 24
Total of the North ) Total of the South 6

eafterly winds. § 139 wefterly winds, -
BAROMETER.

* Mr, Copland had given the quantity of rain during
thefe {even years, in each month, which fell in a fquare
foot,

of Meteorological Operations. 241

. BAROMETER.

THE Barometer was the higheft on the fifth
day of January, 1789, being on that day 30, g
inches, and on the 18th. of the fame month it fell
to 28,05 inches, whica was the loweft height dur-
ing the preceding fourteen years.

The mean height of the Barometer, when placed
about fifty feet above high-water mark, may be
flated at 29, 85 during the fummer half year, and
from the beginning of September to the end of
February, at 29, 75 inches.

THERMOMETER. ©

THE Thermometer was higheft in the month
of June, 1785, when it ftood for four days run-
ning, about three o'clock in the afternoon, at 84°.
and on the 26th. about the fame hour, it was
at 86°.—It was found to be loweft in January,
1784, when it ftood for four following days at
11°. 12°. 14°. 14°. before fun-rife, and on the
25th. it fell fo low as 8°. early in the morning.

A ih 1 Average

_ foot, in pound, ounce, and drachm meafures; but it was
not thought neceffary to reduce them to heights in inches,
as the comparifon may be eafily carried on from the total
depths in correfponding months,

Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

242

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Meteorological

of Meteorological Obfervations. 243

Meteorological Obfervations and Remarks on the Weather
at Dumfries. *

THERE is reafon to conclude,
rt. That the time when dry or wet weather
thay be expected tliroughout the year, is very un-
certain in this country.

2d. ‘That when the weather gets into a fixed
ftate, or into particular fets of being either wet or
dry, it does not appear to be difpofed to change
to the contrary on a fudden, but takes always fome
time, after the figns of fair weather or rainy have

Ocairted, before it totally alters its difpofition.
gd. That broken weather generally ends with
very confiderable falls in the internal and higher
parts of the country, as the weather moflly fettles

immediately after a flood in the river Nith.
4th. That the heavieft rains, when of long
apunemiag generally begin with the wind plowing
H hi etait eafterly,

'* Thefe remarks were firft publifhed by Mr, Copland
in the Dumfries weekly Journal.

+ The fources and great body of the Nith come from
a great diftance, viz. from Ayrfhire and its confines,
There is often a great fall of rain at Dumfries, without
the Nith being in any, or but a {mall degree affefied by
* them,

244 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

eafterly, when it gradually veers round to the
fouth; and that the rain does not then begin to
ceafe till the wind has got to the weft, or rather a
little to the northward of it.

sth. ‘That it appears neceffary for the cold which
the atmofphere has acquired during the winter
months of a fevere feafon, to be thrown off, either
by precipitations of hail or fnaw, or by its exertions
upon the furface of the earth during the fpring
manths, before it can take on a proper heat for
{pring or fummer; hence proceed our backward
fprings; or if they are early, they are generally
rendered abortive by fome fevere hlaft or ftorm
about the end of the {pring months; and therefore

6th. ‘That fpring and fummer often commence
at nearly one and the fame time.

jth. That the coldeft weather generally occurs
when the wind is to the weltward of the north,
and not to the eaftward of it, as has commonly
been imagined,

8ih, ‘That however hot the external air may
be in the day time, yet it is always temperate
enough at night, having never been obferved to
elevate the Thermometer higher in this country at
midnight than 66°. and feldom even fo high
ab, 6a.

gth. That the eclipfes of the fun and moon
generally occur in the mid{t of good weather.

1oth. ‘That great falls and ftormy weather are
more apt to take place on the third or fecond days

; before,

of Meteorological Operations. 245

before, or the third, fourth or fifth days after the
change and full of the moon, than at the precife
time of thefe..

11th. That the difappearing or thorough folu-
tion of clouds in the night time, and particularly
in winter, is always accompanied with an immediate
increafe of cold.

12th. ‘That the formation of clouds or feparation
of watery vapour from the air, and the con-
fequent falls of rain, fnow, and hail, abftra& the
cold from the atmofphere, and precipitate it to
the furface of the earth,* which caufes the air to
become warmer in the time of, and immediately
after -falls, than it was before; but when thefe
are accompanied with lightning and other pheno-
mena by which the inherent or latent heat is dif-
chaiged from the atmofphere, the whole is rendered
colder than at firft.

13th. ‘That when the wind blows over a fpace
of country drenched with water or covered . with
f{now; from the great evaporation thereby occafioned,
a much greater degree of cold is foon produced :
and when it continues to blow in fuch circum-'

ftances

* Mr. Copland feems here to {peak of cold as a pofitive
quality, but it accords better with our prefent ideas, to
fay, that on the vapours being condenfed into clouds, rain,
and fnow, the heat which was chemically combined with
them in a latent ftate, and preferved them in their vaporous
form, is fet at liberty, and thus caufes an increafe of warmth
in the atmofphere.

246 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

ftances for any length of time, though ever fe~
moderately or flowly, the fame effect follows; which
is the chief reafon why the air does not always
become warmer after precipitations from it.
. rath. That the barometer being lower, and
continuing fo longer than what can be accoutited
for by immediate falls, or ftormv weather, indicates
the approach of very cold weather for the feafon :
and alfo, cold weather, though dry, is always accom-
panied by a low elise till néar its termi-
‘nation.

r5th. That warm weather is always preceded
and moftly accompanied by a high barometer; and
the rifing of the barometer in the time of broken
or cold weather, is a fign of the approach of warmer
weather: and alfo if the wind is in any of the cold
points, a fudden rife of the barometer indicates
the approach of a foutherly wind; which in thé
winter generally brings rain with it.
_ 16. That ftreamers (aurora borealis) occurring
for any length of time, or when very bright, are
a fign that the atmofphere is undergoing a con-
fiderable change ; and that either the vapours whiclt
floated in the fuperior regions can be no longer
fufpended by the electrical ether which adheres to
them, and are therefore on their defcent, which
caufes the aurora to be driven upwards to the ftill finer
and higher regions, from the repulfion of the more firm
and denfe mediums below; or it is a real decom--
pofition of the conftituent parts of the atmofphere
in

of M dteor ological Obfervations. 247

in the fuperior regions, by which means its electri-
city is feparated from the other parts, and by the
ftronger repulfion of the inferior and more ¢on-
denfed medium, is forced up in that waving lam-
bent appearance we often fee it.

17th. ‘That foon after ftreamers have been con-
fiderable, either bodies of clouds are formed, ot
elfe a greater degree of cold is immediately pro-
duced.

18th. ‘That the quicker ftreamers are in their
motion, and the more they appear to be fouthward
of the zenith, the fooner will a heavy body of
clouds be formed, and in all probability a fall of
Tain, &c. enfue-—When they have been in that way
confiderable, as to extent and duration, the clouds
begin to form with a precipitating appearance, gene-
rally in twenty-four hours after, and the fall takes
place moftly before the end of thirty-fix hours. :

rgth. ‘That when they are of a deep orange or
red colour, fteady in their appearance, and con=
fined to the north or eafterly parts of the horizon,
there is reafon to expect a wind from the north
or eafterly points, and one or two days of dry
weather, though cold for the feafon, before yr fall
takes place.

goth. That light or pale ftreamers are a pidbtile
fign of a fouth or wefterly wind with a quick forma-
tion: of clouds, &c. and when they appear, or
flalh and quickly difappear, in all the parts of the
hemifphere, waving quickly with vivid colours, it

is

248 Dr. Garneti’s Arrangement

is a fign of ftrong winds, or of fhowers accompanied
with gufts of wind.

arft. That the longer a fall has been indicated
by f{treamers and a low barometer, not accompanied
or followed by cold, without its taking place, the
heavier and more continued it will be when it once
commences.

ged. That thunder is the confequence of a
very fudden and thorough change or decompofition
taking place in the lower regions of the atmofphere,
and confequently, that an immediate precipitation
or fall will enfue, if the thunder is near, or a
fudden change of the temperature of ts air. to
cold.

23d. That the falling of the barometer may
proceed from a decompofition of the atmofphere
occurring around or near that part of the globe ©
where we are placed, which will occafion the elec-
tricity of the atmofphere to be repelled upwards in
fine lambent portions; or driven downwards or up-
wards in more compacted balls of fire; or laftly, to
be carried along with the rain, &c. in an impercep-
tible manner to the furface of the earth: the pre-
cipitation of the watery parts generally very foon
takes place, which diminifhes the real gravity of
the atmofphere, and alfo by the decompofition of
fome of the more aétive parts, the air, lofes part
of that elaftic and repulfive power which it fo
eminently poffefled, and will therefore prefs with

lefs

of Meteorological Obfervations. 249

lefs force on the mercury of the barometer than
before, by which means a fall enfues.
24th. ‘That the caufe of the currents of air, or
winds, may alfo be this way accounted for: and jn
very fevere ftorms, where great decompofitions of
the atmofphere take place, this is particularly evi-
dent, fuch as occur generally in one or more of the
Weft India Iflands at one time, a great lofs of
real gravity, together with a confiderable diminution
of the {pring of the air immediately: enfues, hence
a current commences, firft in that direction whence
the air has moft gravity, or is: moft difpofed. to
undergo fuch a change; but it being foon relieved
of its fuperior weight or {pring on that fide, by the
decompofition going on as faft as the-wind arrives on
the ifland, it immediately veers to another point, °
which then rufhes in moftly with an increafe of
force; thus it goes on till it has blown more than
half way round the points of the compas during ©
the continuation of the hurricane. For in this
manner thefe Weft India phenomena, as well as
the alteration of the wind during heavy rains in this
country (fee remark No. 4) can only be properly
accounted for.
25th. That the rifing of the barometer may be
accounted for by the watery vapour and other con-
ftituent parts of the atmofphere being thoroughly
concentrated or combined together in the forin of a
real mixt, by means of the phlogifton, latent heat,
or electricity communicated by the fun, fire on the
T7 furface

250 Dr. Garneti’s Arrangement

furface of the earth, &c. which act here, as on other
occafions, like a bond of union among the other
diffimilar parts, fo that the air becomes not only
more homogeneous, concentrated and heavier, but

alfo may be fuppofed more elaftic and repellent,

and therefore will communicate a much greater
preffure to the barometer.

26th. ‘That when there is not a fufficient quan-
tity of the principle of beat in the air, to form the
vapour, &c. into a real mixt (which. is chiefly the
cafe in winter) the watery vapour enters in a ftate
of folution into the air, if it continues fufpended,
and by diffolving in it, a greater cold is always
produced, (See Remark 11th.)

27th. ‘That. when the watery vapour that has
been in folution, feparates itfelf from the air again,
and floats about in the form of clouds, then the
heat that was neceffarily taken up in the folution
of the vapour is fet free, and gives a change of
fome more warmth to the temperature of the air.,
(See Remark 12th.)

o8th, That a high barometer may in like

manner be faid to indicate heat, and a low one

cold, from the prefence or want of a certain por-
tion of heat or electrical fire in the air, which
when in a large proportion muft increafe the warmth,
folidity, and {pring of the air, efpecially when by
its prefence a real mixture takes place. But when
there is a deficiency of the principle of heat in the '
atmofphere, the watery vapour cannot be thoroughly

combined,

of Meteorological Objervations. 251

<

combined, but only remains in a fate of folution
. in the air, and confequently a greater degree of
cold and diminution of the volume, and preffure or
elafticity of the air, takes place. *

Dumrrizs, May 1f. 1791.

I SHALL now obferve in addition to what
is above ftated, that after ten years farther expe-
rience, and comparing thefe obfervations with the
natural occurrences of the weather, I have always
found them fufficiently applicable, fo far as general
tules ought to be taken and admitted, on fo uncer-
tain a fubjecd as the meteorological changes that are
conftantly going on in an ifland like ours: for
when a patch of earth is fituated like it in the midft
of a great expanfe of furrounding fluid, whofe heat
is nearly 45°. and at no time above three or four
degrees higher or lower than that medium, whenever
the atmofphere on that fpot requires a heat cons
fiderably above that ftandard, it muit foon be re-
duced to nearly the fame temparature, by the action
of the furface of the furrounding fluid on the in-

lig ferior

s The preceding remarks were inferted in the Dum-
fries Weekly Journal, publifhed Sept, 25th, 1781,

52 Dr. Garnett’'s Arrangement

ferior portion and furface of the air that is carried
to the ifland by every wind.—For the fame reafons
the atmofphere comes to be loaded with the ‘exha-
ations and vapour ‘of ‘this fluid or fea, which
arriving with every wind on our ifland, eafily ac-
counts for the uncertainty of our weather and
winds, and the frequency of falls.

In explanation of the 7th. and 8th. remarks it
may not be improper to obferve, that when the
wind blows North by Weft, it muft be loaded
with the cold of the neareft ‘frozen continent, viz.
Weft Greenland, and at the fame time takes the
{weep of another bleak and almoft ‘uninhabited
iffand, ‘viz. Iceland, and will therefore bring along
with it a greater quantity of frigorific particles than
can’be abftracted from it in pafling over the inter-
vening fea, and will approach the coafts of Scot-
Jand «and North of England in a moft bleak and
cold temperature. In order ‘to elucidate the gth.
and oth. remarks, I fhall obferve, that when the
Sun and Moon are:either exerting their fpheres of
attraction in nearly'the fame line, or in a diredtly
oppofite fituation, they :muft exert their influence
in/fo uniform a manner upon our atmofphere and
other fluids on the furface of this globe, as to
keep up a more equal’ballance, and give a greater
degree of fteadinefs to the atmofphere, and prevent
changes from ‘taking place that otherwife muft have
occurred. But when the Moon has altered her
pofition fo far with refpect to the Sun, that their

attractions

of ‘Meteorological ‘Obfervations. 253

attractions are exetted in oblique directions, the
counterpoife is then entirély loft, fo ithat changes
and confequent ‘precipitations will ‘readily foon
follow.—It may not be improper ‘to obferve, in
addition to the preceding remark, that if a fall con-
tinues ‘during an eclipfe, .or at the ‘time of ‘the
change.and full of the moon, itdhows ‘fuch-a great
difpofition in the atmofphere ‘to precipitation, as
to overcome: the fteadying ‘influence of ‘the ‘Sun and

- Moon; and therefore a great deal. of rain and broken

weather inay be expected, as I'have often hitherto
experienced. But in general, even when the
weather is difpofed to precipitations, it fettles for
twelve hours -before, and twenty-four ‘hours after

the change and full of the moon.
It:may, :perhaps,:be proper to make the following
addition to the-firft part of the 15th. remark, viz,
ahigh barometer is:always accompanied by moderate
weather as to wind, and is followed in'the firt place
by warmer weather than what-is the medium of the
feafon ; -2dly. by fair weather without precipitations;
3dly.:by calm or -moderate weather as to wind. ‘It
is alfo worth remarking, that a ifteady and ‘firong .
wind blowing fix hours or more ‘from the foutherly
points, always drops the barometer, but from the
northerly, always raifes it. |
That a real decompofition, or‘lofs of fubftance ‘in
the air, occurs in the time of great falls, appears
highly probable, when in addition :to the pheno-
mena narrated in remarks 23d.-and oath. ‘it -is
obferved,

254 Dr. Garnett’s Arrangement

obferved, that the monfoons on the coafts of Africa
and India, appear to be occafioned by the conftant
decompofitions, or falls, continuing for feveral
months together in the inland and mountainous
parts of thefe continents; the air rufhes in currents
in all directions to the precipitating fpot, in order
to fupply the lofs of the volume, or real quantity of
the air, from the decompofition conftantly going on.
It may indeed be faid, that the air, by lofing the
vapour, lofes only part of its weight, but none of its
volume, and, by becoming more light and elaftic,
it mounts up to the fuperior regions, and runs
‘pack, in a contrary current, to fill up’the deficien-
cies from whence the underloaded portions of the
atmofphere came.

In the firft place, this can never be demonftrated,
and Qdly. probability is rather again{t it; for, in
this country, the upper ftrata of clouds feldom go in
a contrary direction to the wind below, but only
for a few hours, till the inferior portion comes, by
the friction and preffure of what is above it, to
partake of this new impetus; difcontinuing the
direction in which the whole formerly proceeded,
it foons follows the fuperior ftrata which always lead
theway. Thirdly, in all great precipitations, it uni-
formly appears, that the current or impetus of the
air is conftantly accompanying the fall of the drops
to the furf.ce of the earth, and not upwards; fo that
a change of its pofition at the time it parts with its
watery vapour, fo as to become fuperior, and prefs

upon

of Meteorological Obfervations. 2eR

upon the other parts which are difpofed to undergo
that change, feems on that account nearly impof-
fible.

It may not be improper to obferve, with regard
to ftreamers, that their central point, to which they
always tend, is not directly in our zenith, but about
ten degrees to the fouthward of it; and that it is
probable this deviation of the midft of the crown of
the Aurora Borealis, may gradually diminifh and
difappear as we approach the equator, but will
probably increafe the nearer we are to the poles;
and, alfo, that every different place may have its
own Aurora Borealis, fimilar, though in moft ref-
pects different from that of every other; in the
fame manner, that every place from whence the
enlightened fide of a precipitating cloud can be
_ properly feen, has its own diftinct rainbow at one
and the fame inftant: and, therefore, that there is
no occafion for {treamers to be at fuch a prodigious
height in the atmofphere, in order to be feen at
once over a whole continent. For if the atmofphere
is in exactly the fame ftate of decompofition over
all that extent, it will give the fame appearance to
obfervers at feveral thoufand miles diftance, at one
and the fame time. ‘That ftreamers are often at no
great height in the atmofphere, may be concluded
from their appearing at times to the obferver, to
be between his eye and the tops of very high
mountains, as I have more than once noted; and
from their being frequently heard to make a hiffing,

or

256 Dr. Garnet's Arrangement

or jerking noife, which followed fo quickly after the
corrufcations, that it. was impoflible they could
have been elevated above two miles in height, and
feemed to correfpond with their being only about one mile ;
a remarkable inftance of whicly occurred om the
evening of the 6th. of January laft, when they
_ were audibly heard by many people, as well
as myfelf, at the: fame inftant, im and near this
place.

Meteorological Remarks-in Weftmoreland, by Mr.
F. Gough, of Kendal.* |

we3rnr nee

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE.

THE firft column contains the year and month,
the fecond the mean of the Barometer at Kendal,
the third and fourth the mean of the Thermometer,
and height of the rain at the fame place: the fifto
_the rain at Waith-Sutton, the fixth that on Benfon-
Knot. ‘The feventh expreffeth the ratio of the rain

on

* Communicated by Mr, Gough in a letter to Dr,
Garnett.

a a Se os, ae
OF. Herrwrelipt ois

* Soares t a ed Fae I ~ ant titer y
Tow. it ict Pent ai oF i”, Mi. dor « An See

oa! Ne ete ee te

rll ony fe mae | es ae

i S ries IB,

i
es
ib?

aban 4 riiao it

">

ok a a
* Me eRe tte 7 ah Neat: Site ra ms

‘ei

. oy f we PASS ee en ; Hs
ct ‘vigromtoal Dixy aed ee "
$ * ip a AO eek
A ee prey arigilt : ee
Ri ih os 3 Shed alia} Prt sy
sae a a ee oak : phe RP HF
PDE aren, uae de Wale ML 3 at ¥ ty 4
a 20k as aurelecya ‘r z <jiodaasall My, ae
De ad aor inal nye x t

as, batW . raring tee cS

liom c Ubsen 8 ibe vs hs . (Weiens
Siti a dh ‘Bul ot G2) Sage breBh ah att
; d y pi ae ah , «
ay te! rt ete tA ane
fp) pate bt Oe xa : I hl hy
x) * 3 | aK »
1 é ri
‘ fo Jt US
i. te gtries eo 4 oe
r fd oy ,
tent J : '
‘ *% Bib 4 a [i
e4 : 4 ‘

; i i he fame
Teteorological Obfervations at Lancafter, with Remarks on t ’
ae By Dr. Campbell, of Lancafter*.

endicular Height of the Rain that ha

s fallen at LancasTeR, during the laft

Ao sas Years, in Inchesind Lines; diftinguifhing each Month and Year.
5 6y 178 88 Total in the fame
pee es 35 Be bal a 1789 eee) months of the
InLi 1} L |} WL LiI i foregoing years.
|||} —!—| a eS —$————_
2\82|| 26 || 2/6 4\5 lta 22 53
2lgzi| oj6$ | 3/2 | 5 glia |] 1]25 a7 |) 4p
2)741) of oj11}| 8 oj8t 8 10 4g
gio |} 1/8 o/43}| 2 432 |) 213% 14 6%
glo || 116 ff 3/8 | 2 4jiz |} 2h 14 9%
sjok |] 1/10] 8 lot 4lo 23 13
a 2 ib 2}93]| 7 5 7b 7\6 34 Se
§jo |/#014 |] 5° opt || aot |] 33 | &
al7 |] 59 ff 7)24 432 |) 515 Bes
of8 {1 519 I] 2/6 616 2\9 29 oF
glo || 4/6 |} 3/0 gl: |) 405 2 4h
116 a} 3/8 6/6 714 2 5s
ri Bléiesa Averages | 6 4 4-19
141/36/85 ale 5t/o1-r2]] 29/4 5-22)/51/01-12))46)61-22)) eary 40.3.

During a Thunder Storm in Aug. 1785, there fell at Lancafter near fix Inches
perpendicular of Rain one Afternoon,

Upon an average of feven Years the Winds have blown in the following
Direétions: ;

N. W,

| IN. E.
i Dayol
| go

67

26

N. W.

Ss.

5 35

S. E,

g2

Ss. W,

Ww.

47.

} sea Year,

Taking the North and Eaft Winds, in Oppofition to the South and Weft, they
ftand as follows:

North
N.E,
S2E,
Lait

Days 149 |

—_ 51
= 92
_ 26
= 47

Days 216

(THESE TABLES ak TO FACE page 265)

Mean Heat at LANCASTER, fturing the following Years,

1785
2 P.M.}10 P.M.|2 P. M-

gle

43-7

andNight,

82
18

Mean Heat of feven Years, Noon 48.7
Higheft Degree -
Loweft - -

Dretu of Rain fallen in Sarrorp, during the Year 1792,*

Inches. Rain or Snow. Inches. Rain or Sow,
January 2 19 Days July 3:75 24 Days Barometer,
February 2 16 Auguft 6,25 18 Higheft Feb, 17, g0,25
March 2.75 24 September 9 26 Loweft Sept. 21, 28, 8
April 255 16 O€tober 4 17 ; p
May 3 26 November 2 12
June 3:5 24 December 9,5 26
—— F; Pe
pate Re ee eeabee s Thermometer, No Alpet,
SS 20,75 125 January 19—8m.—19°, Wind N. E,
_—— r April 13 4a.—68, — £
Inches §5, 3 248 Days Rain April 10 In fun fhine 104°, .

* Communicated by George Walker, Efq. to Dy, Percival.

of Meteorological Obfervations, 2597

onthe Benfon-knott to that at Kendal, the latter
being denoted by unity. This column is added
becaufe it was not always convenient to examine the |
upper gage on the laft day of the month,

Mean of | Mean of| Rain at Rain at) Rain at
Month, | Barome-} Thermo-| Kendal: | W. Sut- Benfon-| Ratio,
ter, meter, ton, knott,
1787. :
June 26,87.) 3,6422

July | 29,78 | 59. 00) 5.5549
Auguit | 29.94 | 58.70 5,4598
Sept. 29,94 5st 20, 2,2260
O&. | 29,63] 45,60. 8.8750
Nov. | 29.75 | 37,30 4.5314
Dec. 29.64 | 96,20 4, 8973

Jan. | 29,96} 37,10 5.8230
Feb. 29,48 | 36,70] 3.0115
March | 29,58 36,10] 3,1640
April | 29,94.| 45,74] 4,1676
May 29,98 | 52,30] 1,2919
June 29,93 | 56.78 255497
29,81 | 56,50] 7.7361
29,838) 55,90} 3.2919
29,745) §2,78) 5,697
89,078) 44,60] 2.3479
29:977| 40,40
29,927! 30.00

29,581! 32,90! 6,9096
29,498 36,93] 9,2058
29,684) 33,90] 31,1532] 0,53}
29:640) 42,74! 4,5294] 3,42
293789, 52,99 5,5618 3,84
29,768 56,30] 4,2358] 3,86
29,750| 58, 70} 5,2164 6.71
29,996) 60.90) 1,4856} 1,92
29:757| 52,70) 58674) 4,64
29579 45,80] 6,4230} 6,90
29,610 38,60 6,2496 5:49
29.63 41,50113,9380

Kk

258

Mean of} Mean of | Rain at
Month, | Barome-| Thermo-} Kendal.
ter. meter.

1790.

Jan. | 29,915] 37,90] 6,8424 4,99) —
Feb. — | 30,074} 41,69] 3.6744] —_2,04'1,32933
March | 30.187] 40,44} 1,5240| 1,05] 8843
April | 29,864] 41,30] 2,2320} 1.42] 3,9192
May 29,87 | 52,50) 2,4612 1,92| 253173
June 29,91 | 56,70 3,978 6,10
July | 29,73 | 55-95} 76848) 7.41
Augult} 29,82 | 56,50] 6.3450] 5,69

Sept. | 29,89 | 50,70] 6.7055] 7.50

O€&. 29,81 47-49] 4,8636) 4.30

Nov. 29,75 | 38.90] 5,0142] 4575

Dec. 29.72 | 35.80] 9.8154] 7,101 1,9264
oF —~ SE -
Jan. 29,325| 37:90 80316] 6,85) 1.4871
Feb. 29,820, 37,1¢| 6,2118| 4,34] 1,8098
March | 30,059) 41,05] 3.4140] 2,88) 9428
April | 29,700, 46 20} 4,5852| 4,67} 2.6520
May | 29.936] 49,57] 4.2006] 4,06] 1,5282
une 29,899) 55-70] 3,2562 1,62] 1,4668
July 29,740, 58,101 6,1944] 5,43] 3,8664
Augutt | 29,960) 57.50) 4,8342] 4,98

Sept, | 30.040) 53.80] 3,0420) 2,27

OO. 29,600| 45,80 591720 4519

Nov. | 29,55 40,80] 65822] 4,40

Dec. | 29,49 | 31,56 7.83721 4.48

1792. 4 “ti

Jan. | 29,59 33,80) 3.7614, 3,13

Feb, | 29,84 38,95] 5:3622) 3,97
March | 29,60 49,00} 6,4854) 4:37

April | 29,789 46,88}10,0295) 7.44

May | 29,865 49,59] 63036, 5577

June | 29,855 55-00] 3.6486, 2,32

July 719

29,792, 58,86] 5,7102

Rain at
Wett

|

Dr. Garneti's Arrangement

Rain at
Benfon-

Sutton | knott.

Ratio. |

eee

5196

9213
2247
2276
2545
2363
2440
3616

jouy
srg

=pi

*podoly
-uoyusg uo 9

*poAosyap
obey

REMARKS,

of Meteorological Objervations. 259

REMARKS.

This is a correé table ‘of the abftraé of my obfer-
vations, on the meteorology of Weftmoriand. The
mean height of the Barometer at Kendal, colle@ted
from the obfervations of five years, beginning July
1787, is 29,7845. The mean of the thermometer,
at the fame place, for five years, beginning July,
1787, is 46,08. The annual mean height of the
rain, for an equal period, is 61,2235. It will be
neceflary after what has been ftated above, to fay
fomething relative to the fituation of the town.

It is placed on the weft fide of a long valley open-
ing tothe S. W. Benfon-Knott, on which a rain
gage has occafionally been placed, ftands about two
miles N. E. of the town, and is the higheft ground
in the neighbourhood; its elevation above the

Tiver appears io be nearly 320 yards, by barometrical
’ meafurement, The height of the town, above the
ocean, is 66 yatds, cal.ulated from the fame prin-
ciples, that is, from the fame barometrical mean
{pecified above; but, in all probability, does not
exceed 4o yards; confequently Benfon-Knott, on
the latter fuppofition, rifes 360 yards above the
fame level. The diftance of the neareft fea does
not exceed 30 miles, from which an eftuary called
Kent-fands, advances to within five miles of Kendal.
At is manifeft from the laft column in the table,
that the:comparative quantity of rain on the hill, is

| Kke lefs

260 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

lefs in winter than in fummer. The fact is fupported
by the experiments of two fucceffive years, both of
which Were favourable to the ifiquiry, becaufe little
{row fell in either feafon ; but though it would be
tafhine’s to maintain that the law is fairly eftablifhed,
yét the following cireumiftances argue ftrongly for the
ituth of it. ‘Thé mean height of the thermometer
in wet weather; in winter, is nearly 46°. that is 89.
above the freezing point: Now if we allow that
the temperature diminithes half a degree with every
200 feet of elevation, with Mr; Kirwan; the mean
height of the point of congelation will be 1066
yards, from which if we fubtract 320, the height of
the hill, there remains 746 for the length of the
column of air, that affords the rain collected by the
upper gage in winter. On the other hand, the
mean height of the thermometer in wet weather, in
fummer, is about 54°. confequently, the length of
the column that fupplies rain to the upper gage in
the warmer part of the year, is 2613 yards, and the
mean height of the point of congelation is 2933: but
the ratio of 1066 to 746, is greater than that of
2933 to 2613; and as no rain can be formed above
the point of congelation, it follows from induction,
that when the ratio of the columns that fupply the
upper and lower gages is leaft; the quantities colle&ed
by them will approach the neareft to equality, and
the contrary.

~ This inclination agrees well enough with the
remarks in the rable: when a proper allowance is

; made

of Meteorological Obfervations. 261

made for fhowers which fall very partially in moun-
tainous countries. In April, 179, a heavy fhower
fell on the upper gage, while the water received by
that in the town was very trifling. ‘Lhis accounts
for the ftrange deviation from the general rule obfer-
vable in the notes for that month.

The annual mean height of the rain at Waith-
Sutton, for three years, beginning January 178g, is
545133 the ratio of which is to that of Kendal, for
the fame time, as 0,82 to 1. If the ratios of
the three winter months, December, January, and
February, and of the three fummer months, June,
July, and Auguft be taken, the former will be as
0,71 to 1; and the latter as r,oor to 1, a pheno-
menon that cannot be explained clearly from any
thing we know at prefent, yet the fact is certain,
becaufe the ratios are determined from long periods.
Is it that the air is more powerfully folicited in winter
to depofit its water, bv approaching the hills, than it
is in fammer? The idea is a mere conjecture,
but the comparative fituations of the two places does
not afford a better. Waith-Sutton lies about feven
miles S. W. of Kendal, and about three miles from
the eftuary before mentioned; its height above the
high-water mark of the tide, does not exceed five or
fix yards: the country about it being flatter and
more open, tnan it is a few miles farther north.

Tarlton-Knot, about a mile and a half fiuuth eaft
of it, is the only hill of note in the neighbourhood ;
it isa high, barren rock of lime-ftone.

The

262 ~ Dr. Garnet's Arrangement

The general conclufions contained in thefe ré-
marks, are eftablifhed on the means of the different
obfervations, which is the true way of reafoning
on the fubjea. |

FELLFOOT RAIN GAGE. *

1788. 1789-
In. Pts. In. Pts.
January 5,80 - 57!
February 4,06 + 8,59
March 4,34 ~ 3,38
April 3,95 - 4,11
May 1,25 - 6,25
June 2,96 / - 4,93
July 6,77 i 5392
Auguft 3,24 - 1,38
September 4,44 + 4518 |
Oétober 2,61 - WIT
November 2,15 - 5,18
December 0,49 - g,12
Total 42,06 Total 66,52
1790.

* Communicated to Dr, Percival by Lord George
Cavendifh,

of Meteorglogical Qbfervations. 263.

> 179Q0. 1791,
he In. Pts. a In. Pts,
January 5,61 - 6,83
February 2,56 - 5313,
March 1,38 - PS te
April 0,93 - 4,76
May 3,78 ° 373
June 4150 2 1,29
July 5975
Auguft 743
September 6,82
Oober rey)
November 5,76
Pecember 8,59
Total 58,48 Total :

Depth of Rain which fell at Salford, communicated
by Mr, Geo. Walker.

1790. 1790.

In. Lines, In. Lines,
January 2 3 July 5 9
February 1 3 Augut 4 6
Mirch 1 oO September 3 g
April - 2 3 October 2 g
May 4 is November 3 3
June 5 6 December 7 3
15 6 27 3

a5 <9

42 2 Inches,

264 Dr. Garnett's Arrangement

I have’ not received the account for 1791.

J..G.
1792.” Inches. Rain or Snow.
January 2 ‘rg Days,
February 2 16
March 2,95 24
April - Be gas 16
May 8 26
June 3 %
20,25 125
1792. Inches. Rain or Snow.
8 aaa arg 5p Baie 24 Days.
Auguft 6,25 18
September 9 26
O&tober 4 17
November 2 12
December 955 26
: 3455 123
20,25 125
Inches 54 3 248 Days,
Barometer.

Higheft Feb, 17th. 30,25
Loweft Sep, 21ft. 28,8

Farenheit’s Thermometer, North Afpect.
Jan. 19, 8 morning, 19°. wind N. E.
April 13,0 4% PoBiancb8 Fatt.

April roth. in the Sunfhine 104°.

Meteorological

of Meteorological Obfervations. ‘265

REMARKS,

From the foregoing tables it appears; that the fam-
mer months aré not only much» hotter about Lont
don than at Lancafter; but that the {pring is confi- .
derably -earlier: the mean heat of the month of
March at 2 o’clock in the afternoon in Pall Mall, be-
ing, from the obfervations of Dr. Heberden, 50",
whilft with us, the méan heat of thé fame month, at
the fame hour, is only 414. :

The excefs of heat about London in the fummer
months, proceeds a3 much from having lefs rain, as
from a more verticle fur; and accounts for the ri pen-
ing of fruit fooner there; and in greater perfection
than with us. Were our atmofphere lefs loaded with
moifture, the heat at Lancafter would be amply fufhi-
cient for the purpofe; as the thermometer placed in
the fhade with a northern afpect, frequently ftands in
fine fummer days, at from’ 70 to 80°. But the great
quantity of rain which generally falls during the
months of July, Augutt, and September, chills the
air, and occafions our ffuit (efpecially peaches

Lik -, and

* Fell-Foot (mentioned in the preceding pagé) lies at
the fouth end of Winandermere, where the lake contraéts
into a river; the acclivities of the’ inclofing hills are
teep, but more fo on the eaft fide,

266 Dr. Garnet's Arrangement i
and neélarines) to ripen late, and with little flavour.
So that our climate ftill preferves the character givers
it by Tacitus, in his life of Agricola: Calum crebris
imbribus ac nebulis foedum.

The fame circumftances operate to the difadvan-
tage both of our hay and corn harvefts ; whith laft
frequently receives effential damage before it ean be
houfed. It has been an old obfervation in this coyn-
trv, that thofe who get their hay early, generally get
it well ; and we fee a very good reafon, becaufe upon
an average, nearly one third more rain falls in July
tha in June: ‘This feems to fhew that an attention
to the cultivation of the early graffes, might be pro-
ductive of confiderable advantages, not only by en-
furing a larger crop of after grafs, but by having a
greater ehance of fine weather for getting in the prin-
cipal crop of hay. Mr. Curtis, in his obfervations on
Britifh graffes; enumerates and recommends fix kinds
of early graffes. ‘The firft four of them feem beft
fuited to our purpofe, viz. the Anthoxzanthum odoratum,
Alopecurus Pratenfis, Poa Pratenfis, and Poa Trivialis.
His fifth grafs, the Feftuea Pratenfis, is the principal
grafs in our beft mowing grounds ; this he puts down
as producing its flowering {tems near London about the
middle of June, but it is feldom in that ftate here be-
fore the firft week in July, whilft the others are ripe
a fortnight or three weeks fooner.

This excefs of rain, however, which operates to the
difadvantage of the ripening of corn and fruit, occa-
fions a more cunftant verdure.in our pafture fields; in

the

~

of Meteorological Objervations. 267

the fummer, as well as a more copious crop of after-
grafs than they have in the fouthern parts of this
ifland; and points out the fuperior excellence of this
' country forthe purpofe of grazing. The natural ad-
vantages which it poffeffes in this refpect, have per-
haps given rife to that fine breed of horned cattle, for
which Lancafhire has always been famed.

The relative wetnefs and drynefs of the different
months, appears to be in proportion to the amount of
the rain that has fallen in the fame months of the
feveral years. Iam, however, inclined to think, ~
that upon a longer obfervation the month of Auguft
will not average fg much rain; as it now ftands fo
high, owing to a thunder fhower in the year 1785,
when near fix inches perpendicular fell in the courfe
of a few hours. It was by far the heavieft rain I have
feen, and its influence was not extended many miles
_ fouth of the town.

Among the papers which I received from Dr. Per-
cival, isa regifter of the wet and fair days for 18
years, beginning with 1769; by Mr. John Poole, of
Rhodes, five miles north-eaftward of Manchefter, on
the Rochdale road. In this regifter is put down the
number of-wet and fair days in each month during

. Lia the

268 Dr. Garnet's Arrangement

the 18 years ina asec ; but I think it will be
fufficient to infert the refult of each year i—

Year, —— Days Rain, Days Fair,

1769 229 136
1770 246 119
1771 205 169
» 1772 903. » 68a:
1773 182 183
#774 19% 173
1775, 211 154
1776 192, 174
ALAA 203 162
1778 215 159
1779 184 38r
1780 173 392
18x 193 174
1782 239 26
1783 182 183
1784 154 212
1785 i) em 184
1786 198 167

It is evident from this table, that the average for 18
— is 106 3 days fair, and 1 985 days rain,

After the preceding effay was finifhed, I received
the following letter from Mr. Copland, which as ‘it
. contains

of M etcorological Obfervations. 269

contains feveral ufeful and interefting remarks, I
fhall take the liberty of inferting here. .

Dumfries, Fan. 15, 1793.
SIR,

I was informed by a letter from Dr. Pers
cival about fix weeks ago, that my meteorological
ftates and remarks, with thofe of feveral others, had
been tranfmitted to you for your perufal and arrange-
ment. I have now had near two, years longer time
to reflect on them, and have not as yet feen reafon to
alter any one of them entirely. No doubt fome of
them may be judged unneceflary ; andthe arrange-
ment and drefs they appear in may be reckoned im-
proper; but it fhould be remembered that they were
originally intended for a newfpaper, and were in no
refpect altered from that order, which I now regret.

There is one, viz. that the barometer is a moft cer-
tain indication of heat and cold, however imperfe&

it may be with refpect to wet or dry weather, which
I believe is my own,

Through the whole of the winter preceding the
prefent, I was attentive to the changes and alterations
of the weather, and found that not one from cold to
moderate weather, and vice verfa took place without
its being fufficiently pre-indicated by a confpicuous
rife or fall of the barometer; and I believe no winter
was more completely varied either in temperature or
falls. There was an inftance of a free thaw with a
northerly

270 Dr. Garnett’s Arrangement

nottherly wind, and a hard froft with a fouth-welt
one, for near twenty-four hours each, which could
only be accounted for from the firft being preceded by
a high barometer, and the latter by a low one.
~ Tam now convinced that the altitude of the bar-
mometer, as it recedes from the medium of the
month, muft be followed by certain confequences,
which can be reduced to a matter of calculation, and
depended on perhaps with more than moral certainty.
Every remarkable elevation of the barometer,
where it is of any duration, is followed by very warm
or by dry weather, and moderate as to wind, or by
all of them; but heat feems to have moftinfluence and
connection ; and when it is deficient, the continuance
of the other two will be the longer and more remark-
able; therefore the calculation muft be in a com-
pound ratio of the excefs and deficiency of the heat,
and of the drynefs of the weather in comparifon of
the medium of the feafon; and with regard to the
want of ftrong wind, it appears to be intimately con-
nected with the laft, as they fhew that no precipitation
is going on in any of the neighbouring regions: per-
haps a reafon for this will appear on confulting my
former remarks, No. 24th.—You will therefore find
every remarkable fituation of the barometer which is
calculated in the inclofed ftates, for each month, an-
jwered by a correfponding abberation from the me-
dium as to temperature, taken together with the
greater or lefs quantity of falls; and if it is not fully:

anfwered

of Meteorological Obfervations, ~ ou

ainfwered in the fame month, it is always fufficiently
attoned for in the one that follows; two inftances of
which may be feen in January and February, 1791
and in Apriland May, 1792.

Some farther extenfions of thefe mediums might be
made out in the ftates, particularly with regard to the
thermometer, but my time would fearcely permit me
to coinplete the one for the year 1792 in the form you
fee it. I thought it unneceffary to tranfmit the one
for the year 1791 till I could fend you both, as the
year was fo near a clofe; you have therefore both
inclofed. r

I alfo think another remark may be added to thofe
formerly fent, viz. that where two water-gages are
kept, the one higher than the other, where the quan-
tity in the loweft very much exceeds that of the high
one, it isa fign that the fall will be of fome continu-
ance, but where the quantity in the higheft is equal
to, or even exceeds, in a fall degree, the lower one,
which is fometimes the cafe, it is a fign that the bad
weather is over, or nearly fo, and dry weather for a
few days may be expected *.—There is a difference

of

* This fa& obferved by Mr, Copland, may be eafily ac-
counted for, becaufe when the quantity in the lower gage
very much exceeds that in the higher one, it ihews a ftrong
difpofition in the whole atmofphere to depofit its moifture,
and confequently bad weather may be expeéted; but when
the quantity in the higher is nearly equal to, or exceeds that
in the lower gage, it fhews the atmofphere to have been in

a ftate

a7 = DDrs’ Garnet's: Arrangement &e.
Of fix feet in the altitude of my gages, and'they are 19
feet diftant from each other.

I fhall be glad to hear from you when convenient,
and am, "
Pei Sir,
Your moft obedient and humble Servant, —
ALEX. COPLAND.
To Dr. Garnett,
Harrogate.

a ftate of momentary decompofition at a confiderable height

above the gages, and not difpofedto a precipitation near the
furface of the éarth,

Fir,

Fir. The quantity and. correfj i } i 7
| y anc refponding perpendicular height of rain, &c. fallen at Damfries during {|
ing the year 1792, as meafured. dail
’ y at

The medium height of the Barometer taken at tl
aft. fourteen Yeats.—Thirdly,
1792, taken and compared in the fame manner,

ten o'Clock by lb, oz. and drachm meafures.—Secondly

the medium of each month during the ve fame time, compared with

ra
The i i
he ‘medium height -of the \Dhermometer~ in each’ month of

Fallsin a Water Gage of one Foot Square, yl
——— ) || Barometer, Farenheit s Scale Lhermometer.
[Medium f ie char
Niedium for 57
1792 |Quantity of|Correfpond] Above the| Below the vara | Medium in | Me
x Quai : Mea £ f | Medium in
Rain, | ing height | Medium. | Medium. for. 15 pred imercd Above the Below the {each Month] Medium in} Above tire| Belowiithe ech Mont
eee, treet im. | Medium, |. for five’ leach Month] Medium, | Medium. | for five
| — 1 oe | years, |) Im-1792, | | years.
Months lb. ozs, drs.| Inches, | Inches. Inches, Inchesell| aoTe Fete } :
| 1B Sate I Inches, | Inches; Inches. | Inches, || |Degrees.. + Degrees. Degrees. -| Degrees.
January | 13)13\6 | 3.1801 0909 | | Re rae | =
ve oy 9 3: +0909 | 3.0892 |\29.508 E | e = |
February | 14] 11 | 2.8914 -0172 | 2.8386 Ra ae 35-950 “137, | 35-819
March 21) 1/34] 4.2942. | 2.1973. | 2 0269 llog 475 “153 Gr.090 1.3206 | 40.5754
| { 73: °| 2.0269 |\29.47: 44.2. hay 35
April 20|1 4/63 4.196°- | 2.3243 1.8717 129.739 548 aa ize Hs? pees
: be, | S oY . . 9 ¢
May 22| 0/3.\| 4.494 2.0543. | 2.4397 ||29.7869.| oon. | 26 Gan 3-094 wee Hao sci
June 13| olo | 2.6068 | .3918 | 2.9986 |!29.702 +B. ol aoa “a "a pape
July 22) 2/4 | 4.4429 | 1.2660 3.1769. |l29.702 | \ aes ae lan eoea
Augaft | 20] gl | 4.1320 | .9956 3-1370 ||29.797 \aGaipge\teemtnell cicnea\@s obs
September, 26|rol2 | 5.342 1.0583 4.2837 |l29.562 6. 9 2 4 05-2929
Oétober | 23| 3|0 | 4.659 “55 | | 4.1090. ||29.702 +0244 iho-003 srehad Vo. 78a
Nov | GI62! 2.6 07. |!20.8: higeas Fite a fae:
eee 13 oe 2.637 . +5937. | 3-2107 \29-82 2377 146.70 5-8084 \40.8910
ecember) 23/140 | 4.797 1.7652 3.0318 \|29-579 .027 39.613 2.020 137593
Total | | | | | |
throughout! , _ Selb = | > a al
the Year, {2341 9122/47-5130 |11.2992 | 36.2138 eg6r.| 51-3364 50.7960
| |
a
Amount of the Falls in each Seafon throughout the Year 1792; Number of Days the Wind has blown from the different principal points
compared with the Medium for the preceding fifteen Years throughout the Year 1792.

during the fame Seafons,

North | North | Eaft. | South | South | South | Weit. | North
= STE 8 ian } sera ae peed | Eaft. | Eaft. | Wet. | Weft.
Me ’ um, 5 rS. oe fe =.
Py agar Days. | Days | Days | Days | Days | Days | Days | Days
reer s SST OES wT wee T(E PRI a5¢ 1 19 | att |23—}—g5 far 48 27
In Spring the
depth of falls Taking the North and Eafterly Winds in Oppolition to the South and Welfterly in this Year, 1792, compared
was 11,241 6 4.4808 6.7608 with the Medium of the eight preceding Years, they willftand as follows :—
In Summer 11.5437 | 3-0037 8.5400 Saas Bae a ara Ce
In Harve 14.1336 2.5395 11.5941 Abatcilne Below she Megane Above Below Medium,
In the 3 win- whe ee coe ghar ee oe
ter months |10.5941 | 1.2752 318 North +75 | 30.25 out 95 21.25 73°75
—— na cece Met a ‘ie North Eaft 3.94 15.06 |} South Weft 47 5e12—\ 52.12
Throughout Eaft 544 66.06 || Weft 48 29.69 | 77-69
the year. Lentdlie 11.2992 | 36.2138 ‘South Eaft 3-79 19-81 |} North Weft 27 2.75 24.25
peel A al NE EE Pe Ed |e ree a eh an) Sala es Se |e Aree a Ln prorat) Ste
Barometer higheft Anno 1792, April goth. it ftood go.55.andlow- —_ | Fatal 12.42 137.18. |/Total of S. W-

eft January 15th. it was 28.7-—Thermometer higheft Augult the Winds

aft, 79°,—Lowelt January 13th. before fun-rife, 26 Bienen

‘ : meafured daily at
Firft. The quantity and correfponding perpendicular height of rain, kc. fallen at Dumfries during the year 1791, as y

ten o'Clock by Ib, oz. and drachm meafures.—Secondly. The medium height of the Barometer taken at the fame as nin
‘ 1 i nm each m Y
the medium of each month during the laft fourteen Years,—Thirdly. The medium height of the Thermometer 1

me, compared with

1791, taken and compared in the fame manner.

[ To face Page 272. ]

Farenheit's Scale Thermometer.

Talis in a Water Gage of one Foot Square. BESTA ey A
_ | ~51|) ese |i cee Med f | Medium of
secenliony Mir cued ove the | Below the| the four
7 ‘ y of|Correfpond| Above low the leach Month|| Medium off Above the | Below the| the four ||Medium in| Above Lewis af
aa aie ud Ree ne ie aed ‘Meum, eed re. each Month Mediums Medium, |} preceding |jcach Month] Medium, | Medium eerie
eal irortalls! cedingyears|| in 1791. years, || in 1791.
ea | a] eT pane rees. Degrees.
Months |lb. ozs.drs| Inches, | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. |] Inches, | Inches, | Inches, | Inches. |} Degrees. Degrees. | Deg rewtoeoere
. eae | ae ere 750
January 17] 74 | 3.5028 «4400 3.0628 ||29.2082 3-388 |29.547 40.098 5-348 Pee
February | 15] 46 | 3.0673 +245 2.8223 |/29.7922 +1922 29.600 |/41.0772 0272 aecas
March 9| 83 | 1.9096 2621 | 2.1717 ||29.9712 +3412 29.630 |/45.702 2.702 aged
April 15| 4\t | 3-0602 | 1.2734 __ | 1.7868 ||29.6613 0287 |29.690 149-530 +530 a os
May 9| 46 | 1.8642 -6166 | 2.4808 |/29.8203 +0353 29.785 [50-726 1.774 ; ‘5 x
June 8) 617 | 1.6903 1.3225 | 3.0128 29-8747 0437 29.831 64.364 1,214 a pee
July 26} alo 5.2386 | 2.2092 3.0296 |\29.6570 .2140 |29.8710 |/64.2991 2.0509 kee pe
Auguft | 17\1115 | 3.5545 | -4474 3.1071 |29.8851 | .301 29-8550 ]64.4043 pSe EE its | eS
September, 7| 80 | 1.5039 2.9784 | 4.4823 |{30-0120 +235 29-777 ‘||61.022 3-272 = \57-75
Ogtober 28} 90 5-6285 | 1.5559 4.0726 ||29.568 +137 129-705 48.917 1.5003 |50-500
November) 24| 04 | 4.8185 | 1.7226 3.0959 ||29-4915 .1035 |29-605 142.4582 1.9582 aesee
December} 17} 216 | 3-4433 3731 3.0024 ||29.414 +173 [29-587 {132-900 5-784 |38.75°
Total
throwghout! + 96| 06 |39-2817 | 3.1546 36.1271

Amount of the Falls in each Seafon throughout the Year 1791; Number of Days the Wind has blown from the different principal points
compared with the Medium for the preceding fourteen Years throughout the Year 1791.
du ring the fame Seafons,

[North | North | Eaft. Welt. | North

Above the ) Below the |Medium fo:

South | South | South

£ y | Eaft. | Eatt. Welt. Welt.
Medi . | Medi > "
yeh fh eaige hae Days. | Days | Days | Days| Days | Days | Days | Days
38 | 8 66: | 114 79 | 53 Bot | 26

In Spring the
depth of falls

was 8.0371
In Summer | 8.7931
In Harveft {10.6869

In the 3 win-

Taking the North and Eafterly Winds in Oppofition to the South and Welterly in this Year, 1791, and compared
with the Medium of the {even preceding Years, they will ftand as follows:—

6.780
8.522

+9731 \11.6600

bove the| Below the |Medium for,

f r Above Below
Medium | Medium | 7 years.

Medium.

ter mouths |11.7646 9.1631 North 36 South 79 6
73
—- poet North Eaft 74 16 South Weft 53 r 52
Throughout 66 Welt Bot 5 77
theiyear. _[39:2817 ot | 21 || NorthWeft | 26 2 a
B ter higheft A: ; March 8th, it ftood go.6. and low- 1 ances || anne
Ibo fechary ath, at wat, 26-45-—Thermometer bigvel June the t4 | 139 [Total of S. W. 14h 226

6th, 80°,—Lowelt December sith, at ten at Night, 12°. Winds

A Piece of the O

* MEMOIRS

™ age

: in

LITERARY

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

§ ae
‘ &.: MANCHESTER.

y

%,

MANCHESTER,
PRINTED FOR CADELL JUN. AND DAVIES, IN
THE STRAND, LONDON, i
anes

MDCCXCVI,

AOL ALS Pee i!

’

4 “si Vrerh fey

oe ae | tA ct Py ws,
: efi a Seem

= y;

teen

rm

,

‘

‘eet Baenwnieet eet Ts

Aiectat Gnietmede OB

we a sul K

MEMBERS
ADMITTED SINCE THE LAST PUBLICATION.

SS

Mr. Barker.

*Rev: Jofhua Brooks, A. M,
*Mr, John Dalton,

Mr. John Charlton Dawfon,
Mr. Fofbrooke,

Mr. Edward Green,

Mr. Jofeph Hanfon.

Mr. Thomas Hoghton,
*Edward Holme, M. D.

Mr. John Jackfon,

Mr. William Mitchell.

Mr. Thomas Mort.

Mr. Richard Moulfon,

Mr. J. Moxon,

Mr. Thomas Ollier.

Mr. Robert Owen.

Mr. Richard Rufhforth,
Rev. John Vaufe, A. B.

Thofe marked thus * are of the Committee of Papers,
_—_—S aa

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

George Bew, M. D. Kendal.
Mr. Samuel Buxton, Buxton,
Alexander

(ea75,)
Alexander Copland, Efq. Dumfries.
George Smith Gibbes, Efq. A. B. Fellow of Magd.
Coll. Oxford.
Matthew Guthrie, M. D. F.R.S. &c. &c. St. Petersburgh.
Mr. John Holt, Liverpool.
Mr. Robert Uvedale, A. B. Trin. Coll. Cambridge.
Major Wemys.
Mr. James Williamfon, Liverpool.

ee

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Sir Richard Clayton, Bart.

J. R. Deiman, M. D. Amflerdam,
Francis Maferes, Efq. F.R. S.
James Maffey, Efq.

————

—— ee

CONTENTS.

The Laws of Morton of a Cyirnver, compelled by
the repeated Strokes of a FALLING Buocx fo penetrate
an Osstacce, the Refiftance of which is an invari-
able Force. By Mr. Joun Goucu.—Com-
municated by Dr. Home. - ps; 292.

Sketcu of the History of Sucar, im the early
Times and through the middle Ages. By Witt1am
Fartconer, M. D. F. R. S.: &e. &e.—Com-
municated by Dr. Percivat. Read March 12,

i7g0.) - ~ p- 2g.
Copy of a Letter from "Tuomas Beppors, M. D.

Phyfician at Briftol Hot Wells, to Mr. 'THomas
Henry, F. R. S. &e. - p- 302.

Some Oxservations on the Fiints of Cuarx-Beps,
in aLetter from Tuomas Bepvors, M. D. Phy-
fician at Briftol Hot Wells, to Mr. Tuomas
Henry, F.R. S. &e. - =: Po 3am

EXPERIMENTS

vi CONTENTS.

Experiments and OsservaTions on the VEGETA

TION of Seeps. . By Mr. Joun Goucu.—
Communicated by Dr. Hote. - p- 31o.

On Prtca Potontca. By Mr. Freperic Horr-
MaN, Surgeon to the Prufian Army.—Communicated
by Dr. Ferrrar. - - p- 324-

On the Comsustion of Deapv Bopres, as formerly
practifed in Scotland. By AvexanpeR CopLanp,
Efq- - z SMe

OzservaTions on fhe ApVANTAGES of BLANTING
Waste Lanos. By ‘Tuomas Kicwarpson,
Efg. . ; p. 345:

The Inverse Metuop of Crentrat Forces. —
Communicated by Dr. Hoime. - p: 369.

Conjectures on the Use of the anctunt TERRASSED
“Works, im the North of England. By Joun
Fernrar, M.D. Read December 12,1792. p. 422.

Miscertangous OsservaTions on Canine and
Spontaneous Hypropuosra : fo which is prefixed,
the History of a Case of Hypropuosia, occur-
ring twelve Years after the Bre of a fuppofed Man
Doc. By Samuet Arcent Barpstey, M. D.

M. R.M..S. Edin. and C. M.S. Lond. p. 431.

Farther Experiments and Opsservations on the
VEGETATION of Szrrps. By Mr. Joun Goucu.
—- Communicated by Dr. Horme. p-. 488.

An

CONTENTS, Vii
An Attempt to explain the Nature and Orie of
the ancient Carvep Pixrars and Osetisxs,
now extant im Great Britain. By Mr. Tuomas

Barrir. - - p- 506.

METEOROLOGICAL OssERVATions, colleEled and
arranged by Tuomas Garnett, M. D. €3c. Sc,
— Communicated by Dr. Percivat. p- 517.

“eras pana ey “WIKIA a0 r
BIS ve Kray,’ Aah % gouae cadet

He OR, Te geal:

‘ +e ane a
a A ee ae eee
fon 5 "
diving BAL yg

er Bee % Way dat jhork
pial Syiaant +¥ hye Visas
"so aaah Wh FO? teense ;

as 3 ee eae By

sit heats ek aaen naa! CLP aie

nee abe oper, Pe age Decjenilien a

Me chen te fad golh acm, boost NARA

: Inara itt Hew dh not ef Tis sity Me . 9 eee

| " phakial gh sca setol nephron vit: ges ean No ee aa

‘seofedibeier bes tia, alta ak eiakciatenl. ni bss

Dae Ni tandedel pea veep Ldboreg, Set ak 1s

, peitiar, “Pie aperiachasersiw’ at Ree Des... 0
REL AN 2 hari Merle) a |

aaa a ake aye side Gap

e aaa re: Ek Yi, tT! ae

Map bash “Webia8 et Ry teachin i ty ie

ch Aero a TS, ‘aah age pau i ts AY: Sibu yh k

Bee es spe AS essegemt At ber 43
a et ae "ey duchy” Meyers fe ee

MEMOIRS

OF THE ;

LITERARY ann PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Eee

The Laws of Morton of @ Cyuiwoer, compelled by
the repeated Strokes of a Fattinc Brock to penetrate
an OpsTacte, the Refiftonce of which is an invariable
Force. By Mr. Joun Goucu. — Communicated b
Dr. Home.

N°? practical benefit is to be expe&ed from the

following Effay; for, though the idea is
evidently borrowed from the Pile-engine, yet the
operations of this Machine are fo much embarraffed |
by friction and other irregular forces, that it would
-be abfurd to compare its effects with the conclufions
contained in the prefent Paper : the Piece is purely
fpeculative, and exhibits a few mathematical truths,
which perhaps may afford fome amufement to thofe,
who are partial to fuch inquiries.

Prostem I. If a Cylinder of ‘hard matter ref
with one of its ends upon the horizontal furface of
an obflacle, whofe refiftance is a conftant force, it is
required to determine by means of the following

M ma Data,

274. The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &es

Data, from what point above the top of the pillat
a falling Body fhall repeatedly defcend, fo as to be
juft able to drive it intirely into the obftacle by a
given number of ftrokes. Dara. Weight of the
block — a, height of the Cylinder = ¢, its fpecific
gravity ==, area of its bafe e; laftly, let it be
known from. experiment, that if a column of the
fame matter, whofe height is f, and bafe g, be
projected againft the fame obftacle, with the velocity
n per fecond, it will penetrate it to a depth r.
_ So.ution. Let q = the weight of a cubic foot
of water, s== 1635 fect; y==the given number
of ftrokés; and r—=the required diftance; then
the weights of the two Cylinders are = dqce and
dqfg. Now, if a body in motion be refifted by a
conftant force, the fpace defcribed by it, till its
motion is deftroyed, is .as its quantity of matter
and the fqiare of its initial velocity direftly, and
as the refifting force inverfely; therefore, when the
quantity of matter and velocity are given, the force
is asthe fpace defcribed inverfely ; hence the retard-
ing force, which acts on the Cylinder mentioned in
the data, is éafily compared with gravity, fuppofing
the refiftance of the obftacle to be exerted folely on
the impinging furface of this folid; which fuppo-
fition is evidently true, when the effects of fridtion
and of the condenfation of the materials in the
obftacle are’ taken equal nothing, which affumption
is demanded by the conditions of the Problem, for
without it the retarding fort cannot’ be uniform.
In

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c. 276

In order to compare this force with gravity, it muft
be remembered, that if a body begin to, afcend
with an “aed velocity = 2, it will move through

a {pace — —; therefore, if the force of gravity be
=:

denote: by the weight of the Cylinder, we have

as p a ::dqfg: wien £98" — the refiftance oppofed

to the motion of the waa Pee in the data,
which retarding force is = the refiftance of the
obftacle exerted on the furface g— the weight of
the folid, and therefore the whole refiftance ==
a fan +dqfg. But if equal forces act on dif-
rs
ferent furfaces, being uniformly applied to every
point of each, the effects produced will be as the
furfaces, confequently, as g:e :: dafen” ef
4rs .
dqfg: UE + dqfe = the refiftance given
a ge

by ‘the Obftacte to the Cylinder of the Problem.
But the difference of this refiflance, and the force
arifing from the fum of the weights of the Block
and Cylinder, expreffes the retarding force which
conftantly acts on the fyftem that penetrates the

Obftacle, and is = Soy dqgfe—dqec—a,

which quantity may be called h, ‘and it may be
here remarked that f is always affirmative, becaufe
M m 2 a negative

276 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c.

a negative retarding force, is an accelerating force:
acting in a contrary direction. Now the velo-
city of the Block before the inftant of impact =

Y4sx, when x == the diftance defcended,
through by the Block in free fpace, and the velo-
ow Tie

city of the fyftem after impact == widens ;

2s be the initial velocity, and gravity the retarding

force, s will be the fpace defcribed: from this and

what has been faid above this proportion will be
a 45x?

4
eafily underftood, afqdec' hx qcanene REL

a+qdceX ax a°x Cite

A Xatqdce ~ hxatqdce me
penetrated by the fyftem after the firft ftroke, which
is therefore as x, that is, as the height defcended by

the block, and may be put ==tx by writing ¢ for

Sate Se See” tlie height defcended by
hxa+qdce
the block before the fecond ftroke == xx 1+t,
Now in this procefs of penetrating the obftacle by
repeated ftrokes, the quantity of matter, and the
retarding force are given, confequently the fpaces
penetrated, will be as the fquares of the initial
velocities, that is, as the heights decended through
by the block in free fpace ; therefore, asx:tx;:
xXi-tt:txx<1+t = the fpace penetrated
after

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e. 277

after the fecond ftroke. And this quantity being
added to x x 1-++# gives x x 1 +t, for the dif-
tance of the required point from the top of the
pillar after the fecond ftroke. By proceeding in this
manner we find the fucceffive values of the heights
defcended through yf the block before each fucceed-

me. ftroke’ to: ube = «7, zat zx Ith.
xxI nr x continued to x x 1 ree the and thofe of
the {paces penetrated by each ftroke ih fucceffion,
Ba De Se Ox KT, FO STE Mt yy POE te Cee.
continued to txy 1 +t? ". Now it is evident that
each rank of quantities exhibited above, conftitutes

a geometrical progreffion, but the fum of the latter,
which is the fum of the fpaces penetrated by all

y y
rn G acai es ey ene Pig cased a
the flrokes erecia anh eae +t—x—c

c

> ited 0 ap Fe

per queftion, and x ==

1+t—r1
c
% Cc
Coroxrary I. When y==1,x==1+t—1 oat Nh
q* b OT ee ee
Cor. II, Since x = y rt+27 =

I + pl qT,
+x | ;

a, hence it appears that x cannot be affumed
at pleafure, but muft be, according to the con-
ditions

278 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c,

ditions of the Problem, a quantity which will make

the expreffion : oo fome power of 1+ 4%, whofe
index is y, a pofitive integer. .

Prostem If. All things being fuppofed the fame
as in the laft, it is required to determine the time
neceffary for compleating the whole operation, on
the fuppofition that the block rifes from the top of
the column before the firft firoke, and that the
velocity with which it afcends both then and after-
‘wards is uniform, and equal to a given quantity
b per fecond.

So.ution. ‘The fum of the fpaces defcribed by

the block in afcending = x UL Le ret +2zx,

—_—_—_—)—I1

eri xxi! == yx 1-fi— 1; but

== "by Pros. I, therefore the fum — Ry
t

rte
Now as all thefe fpaces are defcribed by the afcend-
ing block with an uniform motion, we have as b:1

Cc c E : 5 °
fecond :: T= the time fpent in performing

this part of the, bufinefs, which does not vary with
y or x, but is made up wholly of conftant quan-
tities. From the laws of gravity we get the. fol-
lowing expreffion for the time that paffes while the
block defcends in free fpace, which is alfo a geo-

metrical]

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c. 279

Sdthitalipropreltin’ pf) Xivr + vite +
WP eb kes ier Lae gery oe

y

fiber When equal quantities of matter in
Vii-piate
motion, are retarded by conftant but unequal Forces,
the times required to reduce them to a ftate of reft
are as their initial velocities directly, and as their
retarding forces inverfely. Now in the prefent
cafe we have the force of gravity = the weight
of the fyftem = a-+dqce, and the velocity de-
firoyed thereby in 1 fecond 25; on the other
hand, the refiftance oppofed by the obftacle to the
given column, has been found = 4, and the initial

velocity of the fyftem after impact —= = = drawn

into the fquare roots of the fpaces deferibed by the
block in its unimpeded defcent; which fpaces are

fuccellively =x 1, xX 1-+¢4,4%X%1 Ae con-

BaF GT SH 255,

a-+qdce od
a
wae Soe rid Veda. the time fpent

hxatqdce 4ys

in penetrating the Obftacle after the firft ftroke: in
the fame manner it will be found, that the time re-
guired for the fame purpofe after each fucceeding
{troke

tinued tox x r+ét . Hence as

fecond ::

280 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &é,

firoke — —“— drawn into the fquare root of that

is
term of the progreffion laft mentioned, which corre-
{ponds to the ftroke, and the fum of thefe quan-

afx
tities h Ae spittin ies == the whole time fpent
Vitt—t1

in penetrating the Obftacle. Now the fum of the
three parts of time found above = the whole time

° : : ¢
required for performing the operation = ae sts

SAREE By 18 Fay Vl ahrae
Ys Vitt-1 Avs Vit+t-1
c ath oh be Pw .
4 or xX Vv «x Pret ah% Lise 2 Buk,
Vs eR
Cor. I. Now, in this est for the whole

: ‘ai +h
time, the quantities ——— = and Yizi—1,

c
bear. iva
are conftant, and have nothing to do with the va-
riation of the time, the maximum and minimum
of which depend on the variable part Yx %
c

Wie? but x» = eae therefore by fqua-~

2

y
ring, we have * X vi +t-1— M—

cx Viper = Viskaesd xe

; pit Now, fince
Mi as ee Vitis

the

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e. obs

the ratio Nae Fe , and Vite , conftantly di-
minifhes as y increafes, it is plain the quotient of
the former divided by the latter, or the laft expref-
fion, is a minimum when y is fuch, that is when
y = 1; on the contrary, the faid expreffion will be a
maximum when y is fuch, that is, when it is infi-

h
nite. But the time in general is = 7 a ne
Xx 7x MAG Ae but when y 1, 2 ee

Vx +t—r1
os Pros. I. Cor. I. therefore the minimum of time —
re ee i re In order to find the time a

“aectks
maximum, we have 1 -+t—= Pros. I. Cor.

II. and Vite— Ve+x Sgt ag ala : Mgrs
' x”

pete Vaxiit Fad pak Yetx— Vax.

Now fuppofe x infinitely little and y infinitely great,
and we have f¢-= sy X Vo, re ya. 1, Which, be-
ing fubftituted for it in the general equation, gives

the maximum of time — = —+o= As Be as nD
tye Vii aaa
which is therefore finite as well as the minimum.
Cor. II. The Block has hitherto been fup-
poled to rife, between every ftroke, to that

Na point,

282 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e.

point, to which it afcended before the firft: But if,
inftead of this fuppofition, we now imagine it to rife
after each ftroke to the fame height above the
column, to which it afcended before, the following -
is the true method of calculating the time, wherein
the Block will drive the whole column into the Ob-
ftacle, putting x == the length of its afcent and
x

6

defcent in free fpace ; time of afcent — ——; time of

—

defcent in free fpace = ve; time fpent in pene-

trating the Obftacle after the firft ftroke == ei
s
‘yx Now the fum of thefe three quantities ==
= + eg x «== the time fpent in making
one ftroke; but, as the time is the fame after every
ftroke, putting y for the number of ftrokes, we have
tiyle: Argh “atts Py cr
; +a+4x iis the whole time; Again,
the depth penetrated by each ftroke == ¢ x, by what
has been found above ; andt x y=c, per queft, Hence

x

fu c 5
sary ge Oe are writing thefe values

x all pee x
in the expreffion aa tathx oe we have
c a+

yee |
rar eke ive x ; for the whole time.

0V_

From

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e. 983

From this it is evident, without further confidera-
tion, that when y is a minimum, that is, when y=1,

the whole time of performing the procefs — ms +.

ath Vo

which is the fame with the expref-

fion for the minimum found in the preceding Corol-
lary, and the value of x i in both cafes. But

if x is fuppofed infinitely little, y will be infinitely
great, and the time will be infinite alfo; it cannot,
therefore, be compared with the minimum as in the
former cafe,
Scuottum. Though x may be taken infinitely
little both in this and the preceding Cox. with the
firideit propriety, yet it cannot be fuppofed to be
abfolutely equal nothing, without committing an
error in mechanics. Becaufe, while the Block de-
fcends through the leaft fpace imaginable, fome
motion will be generated, which will produce a
proportionate impreffion on the Obftacle; but, if it
actually reft on the top of the column, the fyftem
will only act on the plane that fupports it by fimple
preflure; and, if its weight be lefs than the force
required to overcome the cohefion of the particles .
which are to be removed, no change will take place.
For want of attending to this circumftance, fome
who have attempted to folve the Problem contain-
ed in the laft Corollary, find x —= nothing, when
the time is a minimum. The foregoing conclu-
Nne fions

284 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e.

fions are true, when all the retarding forces are neg-
lected in the calculation, excepting the refiflance that
is given by the Obftacle to the impinging furface,
that is, to that end of the Cylinder which is per-
pendicular to the line in which the folid moves, and
lies contiguous to the refifting matter. If the experi-
meut were carefully made on an Obftacle confifting
of homogeneous, yielding matter, the refults of the
calculation would perhaps be found to coincide
pretty nearly with, the refults of the mechanical pro-
cefs; but if earth, fand, or other grofs materials
are to be penetrated, no fuch coincidence can take
place. :

In order to form a theory more confiftent with
matter of fact, it has been taken for granted, that
the column is impeded in its defcent after the ftroke
by a variable force, which increafes in the dire .
ratio of the depth penetrated: But the conclufions
that have been drawn from this hypothefis, are not
mathematically true, becaufe the calculation from
which they are derived, is improperly conducted ;
for which reafon, the following method is here
fubjoined, wherein mechanical principles are more
ftridtly attended to.

Prostem lll. If a Block whofe weight = 0, fall
from a height — a, ona Cylinder whefe we'ght — m,
and which has already penetrated the Obftacle to a
depth — p, it is required to determine the fpace pene-
trated by this ftroke,

SOLUTION,

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c. 285

© Sorution. Put 's= 16 +2 feet; f — the variable
refiftance at the depth p; g— the conftant refiftance
acting on the furface, perpendicular to the line in
which the column moves; x = the variable fpace
penetrated: then the weight of the fyftem —o--_

Share 3! oVa4zas.
m= 6, its initial velocity = —— = c¢, then

the retarding force at the depth p=g+f—b—=h:
and, by the hypothefis, asp: f:: p4x:f+ & =
the variable refiftance at the depth p +x, to which
adding g — 6, we have h+ fo == the retarding.

force at the fame point. Put c—v== the velocity
of the fyftem, when p+ x = the depth penetrated ;

then the fluxion of time —= , and as 1 fecond :
c—v

ae 2 Sie

= velocity deftroyed by gravity

tay ee g

“2 a5%

in the time :
c—o°

m2, ;thereforeas 6:4 +

age

v3 hence c—v x = x ieee

by taking the fluent c—v Sot x ghx +,

But when c—v ==c", x= nothing, and the fluent

aaa 25 lft
corrected is c—vu = cz oa K2hxet _ ; there-

286 The Laws of Motion of Y Cylinder, &c.

fore when c—v = nothing, the fyflem is reduced to

2

5 fx?
b re

a ftate of reff, &/-
}

which gives x — are: cso ea Q;
ET.

Cor. I. If x and g be determined by experi-
ment, f may be found ; for by fubftituting, for 4 in the
fx’ bc? 2a0°

equation, P sehr aa a we get
f= pooh ; and, by two expe-

riments, g may be determined; for let A, P,
X and F exprefs the fame quantities in the latter
as a, p, xand f do in the former cafe: then F =
2PAo*? 2bPgX +2b° PX
is we) 3 but, by hypothefis, as

a o- 2b ee 4 20°27 *"*

prPropaF; therefores-———

b22 + 20 p x
2AozobgX+ 2b X eh Ping X+2PxXx4 2p
bXy2bPX © * 2xxt2p—X+P

2 Aor 2b? X 2a04,2b«
X GX, 2bPX bxt2bpx
Cor. II. Hence the truth of the hypothefis, af-

fumed in this Problem, may be eftablifhed o1 re-

futed : for, if three experiments be made, two values

of g may be determined from them; and, as g is”
fuppofed to be a conflant quantity, thefe values will
be

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &'c. 287

be equal between themfelves, provided the effects
of the friction of the column, and the furrounding
matter increafe directly as the fpace penetrated: On
the other hand, if the values of g thus found be
unequal, it is evident, that the retarding force, occa-
fioned by the caufe laft mentioned, varies in a ratio
different from that affumed in the hypothefis.
Should any one think of trying this experiment, in
order to throw fome light on the nature of the re-
tarding force arifing from this kind of impact, it will
be proper to ufe a cylinder or right-angled paralle-
lopiped, confifting of a hard polifhed fubfance, and
containing fome kind of heavy matter, fuch as lead,
in order to fix the center of gravity of the whole,
neareft the furface on which the impact is intended
tobe made. ‘The inftrument being thus prepared,
fhould be dropt from different heights on a bed of ©
fand, which has been previgufly moiftened, to give it
tenacity, and comprefled by a force fo applied as to
make its denfity uniform, or nearly fo. ‘This man-
ner of managing the experiment, not only fimpli-
fies the operation, but renders the expreffion for g
lefs complex; for, fince the weight of the falling
block is the fame with that of the fyftem, o and 6
are equal; and as the impact is firft made on the fur-
face of the Obftacle, p and P vanifh out of the equa-
+ 4bx ab X
Pee ew
ter all it is highly probable, that the variable part of,
tne retarding force obferves a ratio which is com-
pounded

; b
tion: confequently g =

288 = The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &e.

pounded of the ratios of the depths penetrated, and
of the fquare of the variable velocity; for, when
one body flides along andther, the friction whjch
continually retards its progrefs, arifes from the colli-
fion of the fmall, but unavoidable, protuberances of
the two touching furfaces. Now it is evident from
the Laws of Motion, that the retarding force occa-
fioned by the concuffion of two fuch protuberances,
is directly as the velocity ; the number of fuch con-
cuffions in a given time is in the fame ratio; and
the number of protuberances acting together is pro-
portional to the touching furface of the fliding body :
Confequently the effect of friction is in a ratio com-
pounded of the touching furface and the fquare of
the velocity; that is, in the prefent cafe, as the depth
penetrated drawn into the faid {quare.—From thefe
confiderations it is obvious, that the following Quef-
tion muft be refolved before a ‘Theory can be ob-
tained from calculation, which will bear any analogy
to the refult of experiment,

Prostem IV. Every thing remaining as in the
laft, excepting the variable part of the retarding
force, which is now fuppofed to be as the depth
penetrated drawn into the fquare of the velocity, it
is required to determine the value of +, when

‘o—v vanithes.

Sotution. Let p, s, g, 0, mand x reprefent the
fame quantities as in the laft Prog. alfo put f=
the refiftance arifing from friction at the depth p,
with the initial velocity ¢; then, fince the friction

is

‘The Laws of Mation of a Cylinder, &ce. ~ 285

is'as the fquare ‘of the ‘velocity and furface con-
jointly, we —have, as per: frsprexK cul:

a = the variable part of the
c

-retarding force; and the whole tetarding force —

13 . 2She +

—

; Eee C= 4 &
sheet an: 4 ith its hone rapen sac rpares

2 sp fx + 2 fF EXT putting h =e—b,
25h CT ind ca }
Let =r, re t, and by reduction we have
rititz x pte Xo! Hop ea ae
Now becaufe x and v begin together, put x —
Av +Bv? 4 Dvi+Ept + Kv® + &e. where
the figns and values of A, B, D, E, K, &c. will be
determined by the refolution of a fubfequent equa-
tion, thn: = vxX%:A+2Bv+ 3Dwv+4Ev3
+ 5Kvu* + &c. and fubftituting -for the values
of x and + in the Equation ry #442 x p4x

he D lee CU, uv, we get rAd titpic.. Ape
—OscABt atph tid x vticr RE GIpe
—4tcB43tpD+3tAB Xx vic —v. From

this expreffion, the values of the co-efficients A, B,
Oo D; ES k,

290 The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, &c.

D, E, K, may be found by the common rule: for

"Seite oe ae a: ere ae.”
ftp ct x Asc; andA=s ee 7 and

2mB+tc? A? — 2 tpcA =—1, or omB=—
atped—-tct A’ 1, and Bax 2¢PCAte AP

2m
21pmc? —tc* —m’

fee a ees AIG SM ge ee ee

2m?

—4tpcB—e2tA’?+tpA =o, and D=
8 0? p? me?—rot? pc®’—4t pm c+ 7tmc® + 38? c*

6 m*
—2tm’c. Inthe fame manner may the values of

6 m’*
E, K, &c. be found; therefore, putting v =e, x ==
act B?tDe + Ect + Kei + ke.

Scuotrum. The difficulty of deriving any prac-
tical benefit in the prefent cafe from calculation,
will appear from what has been done in the laft
Problem; for, after different values of x have been —
determined by experiment, and as many laborious
calculations of the co-efficients of the fucceffive
powers of v in the Algebraic expreffion for the
fame quantity have been made, the values of f
and g {till remain to be afcertained by reverfing the

fame feries and others arifing from it.

Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar. 291

Sxetcu of the History of Sucar, in the early Times,
and through the Middle Ages. By W. Fatconzr,
M.D. F.R.S. &c. &c. Communitated by Dr.

Percivat.

READ

a ufe of Sugar is probably of high, though
not remote antiquity, as no mention of it
is made, as far as I can find, in the facred Writings
of the old Teftament.* The Conquefts of Alex-
ander feem to have opened the difcovery of it to

the weftern parts of the world.
Nearchus,* his admiral, found the Sugar Cane
in the Eaft Indies, as appears from his account of
Ooe2 it,

* Since writing the above, I have obferved that the
{weet Cane is mentioned in two places of Scripture, and in
both as an article of merchandize, It does not feem to have
been the produce of Judea, as it is fpoken of as coming
from afar country. Jfaiah, chap. xliii. v.24. Feremiah,
chap. vi. v. 20.—-It is worthy of remark, that the word
Sacuar fignifies, in the Hebrew language, inebriation,
which makes it probable, that the juice of the cane had
been ear ly ufed for making fome fermented liquor.

* Ante Chrift, Ann, 325, -

299 Sketch. of the Hiftory of Sueais

it, quoted by Strabo.f It is not; however, clear,
from what he fays, that any art was ufed in bring-
ing the juice of the cane to the confiftence of
fugar.

— heophraftus,* who lived not long after, feéms
to have had fome;knowledge of fugar, at leaft. of
the cane from which it is prepared. In enume-
rating the different kinds of honey, he mentions
one that is found in reeds, { which muft have
been meant of fome of thofe kinds which produce
fugar.

Eittofthenies.* oe is quoted by Strabo, * as
{peaking of the roots of large reéds found in
India, which were fweet to the tafte both when
raw and when boiled.

‘The next author, in point of time, that makes
mention of fugar, is: Varto,? who, in a fragment

quoted

- Eveyze Se megt Twv tehapwd OTL TOISct pehi, pehic-
Gav wy sowv. ~Strabonj .L, xv. :

t AAAy dE év TOIS KaAapoIG. Fragment of Theophraf-
a preferved in Photius, See p. 864. Edit. Augfburg,
i6ot.

* Kat rag giles Trav DuTwvy vor werige Tay pweye-

Awy nadejewy, yhunets nor Quoa ues ebyce. Strabon:
L, xv. 7 | Ciney wre

* A.C, 303. 2 A, C223. 3 A.C, 68,

Sketch. of the Hiftory of Sugar. 203

quoted by Ifidorus, + evidently alludes to this fub-
ftance. He defcribes it as a fluid, prefled out from
reeds of a large fize,; which was {weeter than honey. ~
Diofcorides,t * fpeaking of the different kinds of
honey, fays, that ‘there is a kind of it, in a
** concrete ftate,- called Saccharon, which is found
*s in reeds in India. and Arabia Felix. -This, he
** adds, has the appearance of falt; and, like that,
** is brittle when chewed. It is beneficial to the
** bowels and flomach, if taken diffolved in water ;
“and is alfo ufeful in difeafes of the bladder and
*‘ kidneys. Being fprinkled on the eye, it removes
*+ thofe fubftances that obfcure the fight.” ‘The
above is the firft account I have feen of the nedi-
cinal virtues of fugar.
Galen* appears to have been well acquainted
with fugar, which he defcribes, nearly as Diofco-
tides,
+ Indica nam magna nimis arbore crefcit harundo;
Illius e lentis premitur radicibus humor, .
Dulcia cui nequeant fucco contendere mella,
Istpor, lib, xvii. cap. 7,
' $ Eft et aliud concreti mellis genus, quod Saccharon
nmominatur, In India vero et felici Arabia, in harun-~
dinibus invenitur. Salis modo coattum eft; dentibus, ut
fal, fragile; alvo idoneum et ftomacho utile, fi aqua
dilutum bibatur; vexate veficz, renibusque auxiliatur.
Illitum ea difcutit, qu tencbras oculorum pupillis offun-
dunt. Maithioli Diofc. Cap. lxxv,

‘ #°ALYC, 95, 2 Anno, Pott, Chrift, nat, 143,

204 Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar.

rides had done, as a kind of honey, called Sacchar,
that came from India and Arabia Felix, and con-
creted in reeds. He defcribes it as lefs {weet than
honey, but of fimilar qualities, as detergent,
deficcative, and digerent. He remarks a difference,
however, in that fugar is not like honey injurious
to the ftomach, or productive of thirft.*

If the-third' book uf Galen, ‘* Upon Medicines that
‘may be eafily procured,” be genuine, we have reafon
to think fugar could not be a fearce article, as it is
there repeatedly prefcribed.

- Lucan? alludes to fugar, in his third book, where
he-fpeaks.of the fweet juices expreffed from reeds,
which were drank by the people of India.+

Seneca,” the philofopher, likewife fpeaks of an
oily fweet juice in réeds, which probably was
fugar. f

Pliny* was better acquainted with this fubftance,
which he calls by the name of Saccaron; and fays,

that

* De fimplic. Medicamentis, Lib. vik

+ Quique bibunt tenera dulces. ab arundine fuccos,
Lucani Prarsauis. Lib. iti, lin, 237.

¥ Aiunt inveniri apud Indos sat! in Arundinum foliis,
quod aut ros illius coli aut ipfius arundinis humor dulcis

et inguior gisnat.
7 Senxc. Epifol. L. 1, Epijft. \xxxivs

1 Lucani mors. A.D. 65. 2 Seneca mors, A, D. 65,
3 Phnit mors, A. D, 77

Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar. 295

that it was brought from Arabia and India, but the
beft from the latter country. He defcribes it as a
kind of honey, obtained from reeds, of a white
colour, refembling gum, and brittle when preffed
by the teeth, and found in pieces of the fize of a
hazel nut. It was ufed in medicine only.+}
Salmafius, in his Pliniane Exercitationes, fays,
that Pliny relates, upon the authority.of Juba the
hiftorian, that fome reeds grew in the fortunate
Tflands which increafed to the fize of trees, and
yielded a liquor that was fweet and agreeable to the
palate. This plant he concludes to be the fugar
cane; but I think the paflage in Pliny } fcarcely
implies fo much. — Hitherto we have had no
account of any artificial preparation of fugar, by
boiling or otherwife ; but there is a paffage in Sta-
tius', that feems, if the reading be genuine, to allude
to the boiling of fugar, and is thought to refer im-
mediately thereto by Stephens in his Thefaurus.*
Arrian,

+ Saccaron Arabia fert, fed laudatius India. Ett autem
mel in arundinibus colleétum, gummium modo candidum,
dentibus fragile, amplifimum nucis avellanz m2gnitudine,
ad medicine tantum ufum,

Piin. Hiftor, Natural. (. xii, Cap. Vili

$s Poin. Hift. Nat. lib. VI, Cap, xxxii,

* Et quas precoquit Ebofita cannas
Largis gratuitum cadit rapinis,
. Star. Sylv. I. vi. 1g,
Haud dubic {inquit Stephanus) cannas intelligit ex

quibus
4 A, D, circ, 80,

296 Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar.

Arrian,* in his Periplus * of the Red Sea, {peaks
of the honey from reeds, called Sacchar (Zeug) as
one of the articles of trade between Ariace and
Barygaza, two places of the’ hither India, and cae /
of the ports:‘on' the Red Sea.

Aelian,” in his natural Hiftory, fpeaks of a sis
of honey, which was preffed from reeds, that grew
among the’ Prafii, a people \that lived near ‘the
Ganges. By

Tertullian ’® alfo fpeaks of fugar,-in his book De
Iudicio Dei, as a kind of honey procured from
canes.f ~

Alexander Aphrodifeeus {* appears to have. been
acquainted with fugar, which was, in his time,
regarded as an Indian production. He fays, ‘+ that
$+ what the Indians called fugar, was a concretion

{$ of

quibus Saccharum exprimitur vel coquitur. Et fortafle
Cannas pro Saccharo ipfo pofuit. Sed qui Ebofite illi,
haétenus apud neminem invenimus, Populi fortafle funt,
Indiz, ubi facchayum potiflimum nafcitur, Stern. Thef.
‘Vox Canna. Leétio’ autem dubia eft, Vide Not,
“Marxranpi tn hunc locum.

* Meh: ro naropuvoy To Acyopevoy Laxwer, Page 150,
Ed, Amftelod, 1683, 8vo.

+ Mella viridanti confragrant pinguia canna, TERTUL-
Lian. de Fudicio Dew.

t+ Arex. ApPRopisat, Lib. II. Probl. 79.

9 A.D.145- 2 A.D. circ, 145. 3 A.D. 195¢
4 A.D. 212,

Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar. 297

‘s ofhoney, in reeds, refembling grains of falt, of a
** white colour, and brittle, and poffeffing a detergent
**.and purgative power like to honey; and which
** being boiled, in the fame manner as honey, is
*« rendered lefs purgative, without impairing its nu-
** tritive quality.”

Paulus Aigineta** fpeaks of fugar, as growing, in
his time, in Europe, and alfo as brought from
Arabia Felix; the latter of which he feems to think
lefs {weet than the fugar produced in Europe, and
neither injurious to the ftomach nor caufing thirft,
as the European fugar was apt to do. .

Achmet, ¢? a writer, who, according to fome,
lived about the year 830, {peaks familiarly of fugar
as common in his time. Weds:

Avicenna,} * the Arab phyfician, {peaks of fugar
as being a produce of reeds ; but it appears he meant
the fugar called ‘Tabaxir or Tabbarzet, as he calls it
by that name.

Pp Ig.

* Paul. Aginete Vox Mel. Meas. P. 632. Medic. Art.
princ, Ed. Henrici Stephani, 1567.

+ Vide Meurfii Glofs, Grxc. Barb, & Du Cange Glofs;
ad Script med. & inf. Grecitatis.

¢ De Zuccaro. Lib. II. Tra& II.
De Melle. Lib. I]. Tra& I1.

* A.D. circ. goo. vel fecundum Friend multo pofterior.
Hift. Medic.
2 A. D, 830. 3 A. D, 980. natus.

298 Sketch of the Hiflory of Sugar.

It does not appear, that any of the above men-
tioned writers knew of the method of preparing
fugar, by boiling down the juice of the reeds to a
confiftence. It is alfo thought, the fugar they had
was not procured from the fugar cane in -ufe at
prefent, but from another of a larger fize, called
_ Tabarzet* by Avicenna, which is the Arundo Arbor
of Cafpar Bauhin, the Saccar Mambu of later
writers, and the Arundo Bambos of Linneus. This
yields a fweet milky juice, and oftentimes a hard
cryftallized matter, exactly vefembling fugar, both
in tafte and appearance.

_ The hiftorians of the Crufades make the next
mention of fugar of any that have fallen under
my obfervation.

The author of the Hiftoria * Hierofolymitana
fays, that the Crufaders found in. Syria certain reeds
called Cannameles, of which it was reported a kind
of wild honey was made; but does not fay that he.

faw any fo manufactured.
Albertus

’ * Some of the Writers fay, that it was fo called from
the name of a place, Laxag Tafaglsc, Toros elu nads-
peeves ag Lugizv. Conflantinus a Secretis, MS. quoted
from Du Cange Glofs, Grec. The word Tabarzet fignifies
white, and is tranflated, by Du Cange, Saccar Album,
Herbclot fays, that the Perfians called by that name the
hardeft and moft refined fugar. Bibliothéque Oricntale,
p: 810, 7
% + Pars fecunda, p. 595.
1 1100,

Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar. 209

’ Albertus Agnenfis * * relates, that about the fame
period, “* the Crufaders found fweet honeyed reeds,
** in great quantity, in the meadows about ‘Tripoli,
** in Syria, which reeds were called Zucra. ‘Thefe
** the people (the Crufaders army) fucked, and
‘© were much pleafed with the {weet tafte of them,
** with which they could fearcely be fatisfied. ‘This
‘* plant (the author tells us) is cultivated with great
*« Jabour of the hufbandmen every year. At the
** time of harvelt, they bruife it when ripe in
“* mortars; and fet by the ftrained juice in veffels,”
« till it is concreted in form of fnow, or of white falt.
‘© This, when fcraped, they mix with bread, or rub
** it with water, and take it as pottage ; and it isto
** them more wholefome and pleafing than the honey
of bees. The people who were engaged in the

. Ppa fieges

-
-

* Calamellos ibidem mellitos, per camporum planicjem
abundanter repertos, quos vocant Zucra, fuxit populus
illorum falubri fucco latatus; et vix ad faturitatem pre
dulcedine explere hog guftato valebant. Hoc enim genus
herbe, fummo Jabore agricolarum, per fingulos excolitur
annos, Deinde, tempore meffis, maturum mortariolis indi-
genx contundunt, fuccum colatum in vafis fuis reponentes,
quoufque coagulatus indurefcat, fub fpecie nivis vel falis
albi. Quem rafum cum pane mifzentes, aut cum aqua
terentes, pro pulmento fumunt; et fupra favum mellis
guftantibus dulce ac falubre effe videtur. His ergo cala-
mellis melliti faporis, populus ia obfidione Aibarie Marra
et Archas multum horrenda fame vexatus, eft refocillatus,

Geft. Dei per Francos, p. 270.

3108.

300 ~ Sketch of the Hiftory of Sugar.

** fieges of Albaria Marra and Archas, and fuffered
‘* dreadful hunger, were much refrefhed hereby.”

The fame author,‘ in the account of the reign

of Baldwin, mentions eleven camels, laden with
fugar, being taken by the Crufaders, * fo that it
mu{t have been made in confiderable quantity.
‘ Jacobus de Vitriaco mentions, 7? that ‘ in
‘* Syria reeds grow that are full of honey, by which
‘ he underftands a {weet juice, which by the prel-
‘“‘ {ure of a fcrew engine, and concreted by fire,
‘* becomes fugar.” ‘[his is the firft account I have
met with of the employment of heat or fie in the
making of fugar. .

About the fame period, £* Willermus Tyrenfis
fpeaks of fugar as made in the neighbourhood of
‘Tyre, and fent from thence to the fartheft parts of
the world.

Marinus Sanutus mentions, §* that in the coun-
tries fubject to the Sultan, fugar was produced in
large quantity, and that it Jikewife was made in

C yprus,

* Gefta Dei, p. 353.

+ Sunt autem calamelli, calami pleni melle fucco dul-
ciffimo, ex quo quafi in torculari compreffo, et ad ignem
condenfato, prius quafi mel pofthec quafi Zuccara efficitur,

Geft. Dei, p. 1075.

t Per inftitores ad ultimas orbis partes deportatur.

Gelt. Dei, p. 835,

§ Marin, Sanut. L. I. Part, I. Cap, 2. —in parte fecun-
da Geft. Dei.

A TAL, 2 1124, 31124, 44906,

Sketch -of the Hiftory of Sugar. 30%

Cyprus, Rhodes, Amorea, Marta, Sicily, and other
places belonging to the Chriftians.

Hugo Faleandus, ** an author who wrote about
the time of the Emperor Frederic Barbaroffa, fpeaks
of fugar being in his time produced in great quan-
tity in Sicily. Jt appears to have been ufed iz two
ftates; one wherein the juice was boiled down to
the confiftence of honey, and another where it ‘was
boiled farther, fo as to form a folid body of fugar.

The foregoing are all the paffages that have oc-
curred to my reading on this fubjectt. ‘They are
but few and inconfiderable, but may fave trouble
to others, who are willing to make a deeper enquiry
into the hiftory of this fubftance,

Fan. 24, 1790, |

* Jn prxfatione ad Libr, de Calamitatibus Sicilix.
#1170.

<a

The following Paflage taken from the Viridarium Fran.
cifei Mendoze, Sacra & Profane Eruditionis. Colonize
Agrippinz, 1633, feems to point out, though rather ob-
{curely, the conftruction and principles of Balloons,

“ Vas xreum, plenum aere, aliter demergendum, in
fumma aqua fuftentatur, cum ea fit naturaliter multo gra-
vius ; ergo navis lignea, aut cujuscunque alterius materie in
furma aeris fuperficie conftituta, et elementari igne repleta,
fupra aerem fuftinebitur, nec prius in ipfo aere fubmergetur,
quam navigii gravitas fuperet levitatem ignis, quo plenum
eft.”

Problema XLVII, Utrum aer parte aliqud fit navigadilis,

W. F.

\

goz Copy of a Letter, Sc.

Copy of a Letigr from ‘Tuomas Bepvogs, M.D. Phy-
fician, at Briftol Hot Wells, to Mr. Tuomas Henry,
FLR.S. &c.

READ, NOVEMBER 29, 1793-
- ae

Briftol Hot Wells, O&, 17th. 1792,
DEAR SIR, i ; ‘ be

if BEG you to communicate, to the Gentlemen of

your Society, a fact fimilar to thofe related by
Mr. Willis.* At the bottom of one of Mr. Rey-
nolds’s {melting furnaces, at Ketley, there was found
a green, glafly mafs, which, after fome expofure to
the air, partly deliquefced; and, after a fomewhat
longer expofure, exhibited white efHorefcences over
its furface. Thefe efflorefcences I found to confift
of carbonate of foda. Upon adding diftilled water
to fome of the recent mafs, and filtering it after-
wards, I obtained a limpid folution, which, on the
addition of vitriolic acid, yielded a blue precipitate,
exactly, as far as L can judge from the defcription,
of the fame nature, at leaft of the fame appearance,
as fome of Mr. Willis’s precipitates. The filtered
folution, probably, contained a triple falt, confilting
of foda (mineral alkali) iron, and fome third

material. When the vitriolic acid detached the
alkali,

-

* Manchefter Memoirs, vol, 4th, part 1ft, page 87, &e.

ee ieee

Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds. 3.03

alkali, the two other ingredients fubfided on account
of their infolubility. What this third material
might be, I never inveltigated.

I am, dear Sir,
Your’s with great regard,

THOMAS BEDDOES.

Some Ozservations on the Furnts of Cxax-zeps,
in a Letter from Tuomas Beppors, M. D. Phy-
fician, at Briftol Hot Weils, to Mr. Tuomas
Henry, F.R. S, &c.

READ, NOVEMBER 29. 1793,

DEAR SIR,

PNG my refidence at Oxford, I examined
with great attention fome chalk quarries, or

pits, in that part of England, efpecially near Henley
upon Thames. I hoped, or rather I withed to
meet with appearances, indicating the manner in
which the flints thefe beds contain have been formed
and diftributed. But I was totally unable to frame
any hypothefis, fuch as would comprehend all the
phenomena,

304 Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds.

phenomena; nor could I acquiefce in any of the
various explanations which - mineralogical writers
have offered. I inclofe the few obfervations I made
upon thefe curious bodies, and requeft that you
will lay them before your Society.

I. It is well known that flints occur, for the
moft part, ftratified. They feldom touch one another
in the bed, but lie infulated, like the fpecimens in
the drawer of acabinet. In almoft every ftratum,
I believe, nodules alternate with tables, or flat
maffes, varying in thicknefs and extent. I did,
however, obferve flints irregularly difperfed among
the chalk. Suppofe the floor of a room to bea
flinty flratum, and the cieling a fieve, through
which chalk is falling; fuppofe, at the fame time,
that a by-ftander toffes pebbles occafionally among
the defcending fand, and you will have an idea of
the manner, in which thefe folitary maffes are dif-
perfed through the chalk.

II. The rough white cruft, which furrounds each
flint, and is at firft fight fo naturally miftaken for
adhering chalk, is formed in confequence of the
decay of the external coat of the flint itfelf. It
perhaps is the immediate effect of the decompolition
of the water that foaks through beds. ‘That it is
owing tothe decay of the flint , evidently appears
from the change that takes place on the frefh face of
fragments, broken for the repair of the roads.
Thefe fragments, after a fhort expofure to the wea-
ther, become tarnifhed; by degrees they turn

milky

Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds. 305

milky or opalefcent, then white, opake and rough
fuperficially. We often find, that the furface of
fmooth bodies grows rough, when it is under-
going any chemical change, as in the familiar
inftance of polifhed iron rufting. ‘The acquifition,

_ or the lofs of fome conftituent principle, produces a

difarrangement of the fuperficial particles. By
filling a phial with fragments of flint and water; and
then inverting it in water, the caufe of the change
which the furface undergoes might be afcertained :
Tis progrefs at leaft would, in all probability, be
obferved.

Ili. Many nodules are hollow. ‘Thefe contain
either a white powder, or a cellular fpungy fub-
ftance, which latter is more ufually the cafe. A
few are fpherica, or nearly fo; moft are of an
irregular roundifh or flatted fhape, with proceffes
perforated by a hole, within which the contained
porous matter appears, pointing outwards, and
generally protruding as far as the orifice. A fpeci-
men in my poffeffion might be thus exactly imitated.
Take one of thofe oval phials, into which bent
tubes are commonly inferted, for the purpofe of
obtaining elaftic fluids by folution. Into this
phial, put juft acid and chalk enough to raife a
foam that fhall fill it; then conceive the foam to
become concrete. In fome fpecimens, I have obferved
the fpungy mafs to protrude beyond the orifice.
And it feems to me obvious, from infpection, that
the rarefied cellular fubftance, the powder, the

Qq . perforated

306 Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds,

perforated proceffes, or mamille, and the holes
throagh them, muft have been really produced by
the extrication of fome elaftic fluid. The few
imperforated hollow nodules I have feen, are much
more nearly globular than the others. In thefe,.
what is now the compact femi-tranfparent coat, muft
have yielded fo much during the effervefcence, as
‘to afford {pace enough for the whole of the extricated
elaftic fluid. When the effervefcence was rapid, or
when the air was produced in large quantity, it
burft its way out, producing an elongated mamillary
procefs; and carrying along with it the effervefcing
fubftance within, as far as the orifice or beyond it.
In the fpecimens containing powder, the effervefcing
matter muft have become concrete, while its parts
were difunited by the iffuing air. Something of the
fame kind frequently happens to bars of caft iron,
ufed as a grate for reverberatory furnaces. I have
feveral times feen fuch bars, after having lain for
weeks or months in the furnace, converted fuperfici-
ally into malleable iron, and within containing a grey
powder. In two papers, printed in the Philofophical |
Tranfactions, I have fhewn, that air is extricated
during the converfion of caft into malleable iron,
Now, in the bars which are found to contain pow-
der, the application of heat occafions throughout
the whole fubftance of the bar, an effort towards the
extrication of air. But from fome curious circum-
fiances, defcribed at length in the latter of the two
papers above-mentioned, it appears, that the air

iffues

Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds. 307

iffues from the iron with very little force, even
when the heat is confiderable. Hence it is extri-
cated from the furface only of the bar; and this
alone is converted into malleable iron. During this
converfion, the furface is heaved and feparated from
the internal parts; and fome fpace within is afforded
for the extrication of air: And if the bar fhould be
cooled while the particles are difunited, in con-
fequence of this extrication, it will be foynd to
contain a powder.

The duft and afhes, ejected in fuch abundance by
volcanoes, muft be produced by very nearly the
fame mechanifm. Let us fuppofe a fubftance in
fufion, from which, or from below which, air or
fteam is rapidly and copioufly evolved—a very
common occurrence at the time of an eruption,
Thefe elaftic fluids iffue with fuch prodigious vio-
lence as to diffipate the matter in fufion, and bear
it forward, as duft is elevated by a ftrong wind,
On its arrival in the atmofphere, or before, it is
cooled, becomes concrete, and defcends like fnow
upon the ground.

IV. The glaffy texture and fracture of flints, in
the firft place, leads me to believe that they have
been fufed. I have fometimes, within the hollow
fpecimens, feen filaments paffing acrofs from fide to
fide —another analogy, as I apprehend the fact, with
glafs ; thefe filaments having been drawn out in the
manner of fpun gla{s, as the flint bubble was blown
.up by elaftic fluids formed within, Jn the fame

light

308 Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds.

light I confider the white opake fpots, fo commonly
appearing in the fubftance of flints.

Mr. Dolomieu ( Fournal de Phyfique, 1792) has
related, experiments, from which he concludes, that
filiceous matter in.a ftrong heat yields hydrogene
air. His experiments are not indeed perfectly deci-.
five; becaufe the air might have come from the:
alkali, with which he fufed his filiceous earth.
Should it however come from the flint, the fa&
would furnifh an explanation of the appearances I
have defcribed. ; Streaks or weals may fometimes be
obferved upon. the internal furface of hollow flints.
I have feen thefe flreaks round, and dilated at their
termination. ‘They muft, I imagine, have been
formed by vifcid matter running upon the infide of
the nodule, Exactly the fame appearance might be
produced, by letting flow down the infide of a tea-
cup a liquid, too tenacious to run off the fide
entirely, but thin enough to reach the bottom, and
form a fmall button there. If we could fuppofe,
with Dr, Hutton, that flints were fpouted into the
body of the chalk from fubterraneous fires, we
might imagine the furface of each clot to have been
cooled by coming into contact with the chalk, or
during its paflage, while the internal parts continued
to boil and bubble, and work themfelves into foam
or powder. I cannot however conceive, how the
nodules and tables could have been arranged, in the
manner they are, by injection.

V. Balls

Obfervations on the Flints of Chalk-beds. 309

V... Balls of ochre are fometimes found in chalk-
pits. Thefe balls, on examination, clearly appear
to have exifted in fome other ftate fince their depo-
fition in the chalk-beds. ‘They contain lumps of
matter, much refembling ferrugineous vitrifications:
whence I conjecture, that the whole ball was once in
the fame ftate. :

Long fince this conjecture was formed, I obferved
in the quarries about Clifton, appearances which
ftrongly confirm it. I have before me brecciated

* ferrugineous maffes, and. mafles of friable ochre,

each having precifely the fame ftructure. I have
even a feries of fpecimens, from the hardeft, reddifh,
brown ferrugineous breccia, to the moft friable ochre,
in which the angular fragments are feen perfeély; and,
what feems to remove all doubt, you can perceive
fpecks of ochre, beginning to form here and there
in the hardeft of thefe maffes.—All the compact
ferrugineous maffes, which I have feen about Clif-
ton, are varieties of hematites. J add, as.a circum-
ftace which feems to point out the origin of thefe
maffes, that a Gentleman one day laft {ummer picked
up in my prefence, in a quarry between Gloucefter
Row and the Mall, a fpecimen of hematites, which
has exadtly the fhape of a drop, falling from one
contiguous furface to another. To that, which may
be fuppofed the upper furface, it is attached by a
harrow neck; while the body, a little flattened by

reafon

310 Experiments and Obfervations

reafon of its fize and fpecific gravity, refts upon the
lower furface, )

I am, dear Sir,
With great regard, your's,
THOMAS BEDDOES,

BRISTOL HOT WELLS,
NOV. 1» 1793,

Experiments and Osservations on the VEGETATION
of Szzps. By Mr. Joun Goucu.—Communicated

by Dr. Home.
READ, FEBRUARY 21, 1794.

VERY one, at all acquainted with natural
hiftory, knows that the feeds of many plants
will, after lying in the ground for many years in
a ftate of perfect inactivity, fpring up, when the foil
is broken, in full vigour, and with a profufion, that
fhews the earth to have contained them in great
numbers. Reflecting on this curious phenomenon
in July 1787, I made the following experiment,
with a view to difcover, what are the contingent
circumftances, that give life and energy to the vege-
tative principle in the embryos of plants.
Experiment

on the Vegetation of Seeds: 311

Exerriment I. Having nearly filled two phials
with barley, that had been fteeped in water for
forty-eight hours; I corked one of them fecurely,
and placed it in the dark. The other was buried at
the fame time ina box of light dry mould, its mouth
being previoufly covered with a piece of thin cloth,
to prevent fand and other impurities from falling
into it. The contents of the latter bottle were found,
at the end of three days, in a ftate of vigorous vege-
tation; every grain having one fprout, or more, of
a confiderable length. ‘The grain in the phial which .
was corked retained its former appearance ; but had
contracted a fell that was difagreeable, and very
different from that which it had when newly taken
out of the water.

The only juft conclufion from the preceding ex-
periment, is, that a given quantity of foaked grain,
either requires a given quantity Of air to make it
vegetate, or a free communication with the atmof-
phere at large. ‘The philofophers of the laft century
knew, that the prefence of air is neceflary to the
vegetation of feeds, becaufe they remain unani-
mated in vacuo ; but, if my memory do not deceive
me, they were ignorant of the fact juft now ftated.
I have, therefore, given it a place in this effay,
partly becaufe it appeared to be new; and partly
becaufe it occafioned the fucceeding experiments,
which are of a more/decifive nature. But, before
Tenter on the detail, it may not be improper to

fay

312 Experiments and Obfervations

fay fomething on the ftructure, and the conftituent
principles of vegetables.

A plant isan organized body, confifting of Gures,
velféls, and different organs, intended to produce
different fecretions by their fpecific modes of action :
fuch are the gummy matter of the Stigmata, the
Pollen of the Antherae, the honey of the Neéarium,
and the different vegetable acids commonly con-
tained in the Pericarpium.

The fubftances enumerated above, though very
diffimilar in their fenfible qualities, are made up of
but a few primary elements, that are combined in
various proportions in the refpective compounds.

Thefe are I. Oxycene, or the bafis of refpirable
gas. II. Hyproceng, or the bafis of inflammable
gas. III. Carsone, which when feparated from the
other two forms charcoai. “Water, which is itfelf a
compound, enters the abforbing veffels of all vege-
tables; where it ferves as a vehicle for the unaffimi-

lated particles, and afterwards efcapes by perfpiration,

either wholly, or in part.

The foregoing matters are found in the compo-
fition of all vegetables; and Azore, or the bafis of
mephitic gas, alfo, contributes to the materials dif-
covered in the plants of the clafs TrTrapynamra.
This fubfRance unites, during putrefaction, with

Hydrogene, and compofes volatile Alkali: a property ~

which is peculiar to the genera of the clafs in quef-
tion. The parts of a feed are, the Germ, and the

feed

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 313

lobes. The former is a fmall bud, that appears to
be the receptacle of the vegetative principle, where it
lies torpid, till its activity is excited by foreign
caufes. The feed lobes are two foft bodies, which,
cohering clofely, leave a notch between them for
the reception of the Germ. They confift of a
vegetable oxyd, or of a bafis compounded of Car-
bone and Hydrogene, and impregnated with Oxygene:
a quantity of oil, or of the -bafis not oxydated, is
diffufed through their fubftance. When feeds are
covered with water, or buried i wet earth, they
imbibe a portion of humidity ; in confequence of
which, the vegetative principle begins to exert itfelf,
if not prevented by a want of a proper degree of
warmth, or by other caufes. It is highly probable,
that no two kinds of feeds abforb equal quantities
of water: For, I have found, that barley takes up
only one-third of its weigut of this fluid in forty-
eight hours; but that peas charge themfelves with
three-quarters of their weight in the fame time.
Having ftated the foregoing facts, which the nature
of this effay feemed to demand, I thall proceed 1 in
the detail of my experiments.

Experiment II. One ounce of fteeped barley
being put into a bottle which would hold one ounce
three drams of rain water; and alfo three drams of

«the fame grain, prepared in the fame manner, into
a fecond bottle capable of containing four ounces of
water; they were both clofely corked, and placed

Rr in

314 Experiments and Obfervations

-in a dark room, where the mean height of the ther-
mometer was fifty-eight degrees during the experi-
ment. At the end of four days, the three drams
of barley, in the large bottle, had vegetated much ;
but the greater quantity, in the lefs bottle, had not
produced one fprout. The fame change in fmell
‘was however obferved, which I have noted in the
former cafes. Hence it is evident, that a free com-
munication with the atmofphere is not abfolutely
required, to bring the vegetative principle of feeds
into action. On the other hand, it is equally
manifeft, both from this and the preceding experi-
ment, that a given quantity of grain muft be
placed ina given quantity of air to make it vege-
tate.*

Exrrrmment III. Since permanently elaftic fluids
efcape very copioufly from vegetables, fubjected to
the vinous and putrefactive fermentations, it might
be fuppofed, that the fame thing happens with feeds
in the act of vegetating; and that this difcharge
being fuppreffed, for want of room, in the {mall bottle
fed in the laft experiment, the expanfion of the
Germs was thereby prevented. In order to examine
this matier with fome care, I began with putting

feveral

* The fecond and fucceeding experiments were repeated?
in the Autumn of this year (1793); when the prefent con-

clufions, founded on the new theory of chemiftry, were alfo
added,

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 315

feveral parcels of peas and barley, previoufly fteeped,
into {mall jars, and then covering them to different
depths with water, both clean and foul. The feeds,
thus treated, fhéwed no figns of vegetation, after
fpecimens of the fame kind, ftanding near them, in
open bottles, had made a confiderable progrefs. At
the time, I attributed this inability to vegetate, to
the air being excluded by the incumbent fluids;
which fuppofition appeared more reafonable than
the contrary opinion, namely, that fome elaftic
matter was prevented from quitting the feeds, by
columns of water not exceeding one inch in length,
which can only prefs with a very flight force.*
Experiment IV, [I put three drams of dry peas
into a bell-glafs filled with water; and inverted it in
a {mall veffel of the fame fluid. At the end of
forty-eight hours the jar remained full, but a quan-
tity of water, taken from the bafon in which it
ftood, rendered lime water turbid ; a proof that it
contained Carbonic Acid. ‘The fame experiment
was repeated with four drams of barley, and the
refult was nearly the fame; only the prefence of
the Carbonic Acid was not fo ftrongly indicated by
the teft of lime water,
_ Experiment V. ‘Two ounces of water, in which
Raley had been foaked forty-eight hours, were put
Rra into

* Since this experiment was made, I find it not to be
mew. Malpighi did the fame thing with the fame refult,
Vide Opera ejus, Tom, I, p. 108,

>

316 ‘Experiments and Obfervations

into a pint bottle; an ounce-phial half filled with
lime water, was fufpended by a thread in the veffel,
fo as not to touch the liquor; the bottle was then
clofely {topped with a clean cork, ‘The lime was
precipitated from the water in the phial at the end of °
forty-eight hours. Hence we are authorized to in-
fer, that Carbonic Acid Gas had been generated in

the bottle during the courfe of the experiment.
Experiment VI. Being by this time convinced,
that Carbonic Acid is produced by the vegetation
of feeds; and believing with Mr. Lavoisier, that
the acid in queftion confifts of Carbone united to
Oxgyene, I endeavoured, in the next place, to dif-
‘cover whether the atmofphere or the vegetable oxyds
of the materials ufed in my experiment, fupplied the
acidifying principle. For this purpofe I placed fe-
vendrams twenty-three grains of fteeped peasina new
phial, the mouth of which I covered with a piece
of clean window glafs, which was intended to con-
denfe the vapour, fhould any afcend into the neck.
The bottle, thus prepared, was fcreened from the
action of the light, fo as not to prevent the free
accefs of the air to its contents. At the end of one
hundred and twenty hours, the peas were found to
be vegetating freely, many of them having fprouts
two inches long. The neck of the phial, and the
glafs that covered it, were free from moifture. The
whole was then carefully weighed; and, the neceffary
deductions being made for the bottle and glafs, the
peas were neither more nor lefs than feven drams
twenty-

on the Vegetation of Seeds. ° 317

‘twenty-three grains, their original weight. - The

mean height of the thermometer, during the courfe
of the experiment, was 59, 5°. I made the fame
trial, at another time, with a bottle containing one
ounce three drams of fteeped barley, and 6, 16

-eubic inches of air. Befides ufing the fame pre-

cautions obferved in the laft cafe, I frequently
changed the air of the phial, by fucking it out
through a flender glafs fyphon.. At the end of
ninety-fix hours, the weight was decreafed edrs. 5 ers,
The lofs of this fmall quantity was probably occa °
fioned by water efcaping through the fyphon, in
combination with the Carbonic Acid Gas, and other

‘permanently elaftic fluids. Thus it appears, that the .

vegetation of feeds caufes very little diminution of
their weight, if any at all. On the contrary, the
vinous fermentation of vegetable fubftances, is at-
tended with a very fenfible lofs in this re[pect.
Neverthelefs the Carbonic Acid Gas is generated in
both proceffes, and often fo plentifully in the latter,
as to burft the veffels containing the fermenting
materials, provided a free egrefs be denied it; but
no fuch force is obfervable in the former cafe. I
therefote found it neceffary to follow a different
method, in order to difcover the origin of this
gas, during the firft ftage of vegetation.
Experiment VII. Six drams of fleeped barley

were put into a bell-glafs, in the upper part of
which it was fecured by a muflin ftrainer ftretched

on a hoop of whalebone, tightly fitted co the in-
fide

318 “Experiments and Obfervations ©

fide of the bell. Seven ‘ounce meafures of atmos
fpheric air were then introduced into the jar through
_ the water in which it was inverted, care being taken
that the height of the water within the glafs fhould
be on a level with that in the bafon; which point :
was exactly marked on the outfide. The barometer
at the fame time ftood at 30, 25 inches; the ther-
mometer at 54, 5°. In the {pace of eighteen hours
’ the barometer had rifen to 30, 31 inches, the ther-

= Mmometer being at bs, 5°; and the water inclofing

“\° the air appeared above the mark. . Upon fhaking

‘the jar, the air contracted, which could only be oc-
cafioned by the abforption of Carbonic Acid Gas
. uniting with the agitated water: At the end of fixty-
fix hours, the grain had fprouted as much as could
be ‘expected in the time. It was judged neceffary
to put an end to the experiment, becaufe .the baro-
meter and thermometer ftood exadtly at 30,25
inches, and 54,5°. ‘The height of the water in the
jar was carefully marked in the next place, and the
contents of that part of the veffel, lying between
this point and that fixed on at firft, being accu-
rately afcertained, it aoe that the air, in con-
ta& with the barley, had loft zo of its original balk.
The diminution would undoubtedly have been
made ftill greater, by expofing it to lime water, but
I did not purfue the fubje& any farther at that
time, being contented for the prefent with deter-
mining the vegetative procefs to differ effentially
from the vinous fermentation; for the Carbonic

Acid

on the Vegetation of Seeds, 319 °

_ Acid Gas that efcapes from fermenting fub{tances,

during the converfion of {ugar into alcohol, is gene-

rated by thofe fubftances themfelves. On the con-

trary, a part of the furrounding air is’ either ab-
forbed by feedsin the act of vegetation, or a por-
tion of its Oxygene is charged with Carbone derived
from them. But this will be placed in a clearer
light by the next experiment.

_ Exreriment VIII. I put feveral parcels of fteeped

peas and barley, at different times, into phials, os

which were left to ftand, for three or four minutes, * :
in {pring water, of the heat of 46, 5°, to reduce them .
to a known temperature. ‘They were then fecurely
corked, and removed into a room, the temperature
of which was never lefs than 53°. After remain-
ing from four to fix days in this fituation, they
were again placed in the fame fpring water, and
opened in an inverted pofition, care being taken that -
the barometer ftood at the time nearly where it
did at firft. When a cork was thus drawn, a
quantity of water rufhed in immediately, more than
was fufficient to fill the neck. The air being paffed
through lime water, contracted very fenfibly, and
precipitated the lime. ‘The refiduum, freed in this
manner from Carbonic Acid, extinguifhed a lighted
taper like water; and this it did repeatedly. I
made one of thefe experiments with more atten-
tion than the reft, from which it appeared, that four |
_ Ounces one dram forty grains, by meafure, of at-
tnofpheric air, loft one-fixth of its original bulk, by
being

.' 320 Experiments and Obfervations

being confined five days, with one ounce of fteeped
barley. Now if the imperfections of my apparatus
. do not lead meinto error, it is plain that feeds, in
the a&t of vegetation, take Oxygene from the at-
mofphere, part of which they retain, and reject the “
reft charged with Carbone. The fubftances of the
feed-lobes is hereby changed, an additional quan-
tity of Oxygene being introduced into their compo-
' fition; and a part of their Carbone loft.” This

. ., change, in the proportion of their elementary princi-

: ples, generates fugar, as is evident from the procefs
‘of malting. But Sugar and Carbonic Acid are more
foluble in water, than the farinaceous Oxyd. They

_ therefore combine with the humidity in the capilla-
ry tubes of the feed, and find a ready paffage to
the Germ, the vegetative principle of which they
call into a&tion by a flimulus fuited to its nature. A
nutritious liquor being thus prepared, by the de-
compofition of the feed-lobes, and diftributed through
the infant plant, its organs-begin to exert their fpe-
cific actions, by decompounding the. nourifhment
conveyed to them, and forming new Oxyds from
the elementary principles of it, for the increafe of
the veffels and fibres; and in this manner the firft
ftage of vegetation commences. One principal ufe
of the feed lobes being afcertained, we are enabled
to underftand fome experiments. made by Malpig-
hi. This indufirions philofopher ftripped the
germs of a great number of beans, and a variety
of other feeds, of their external ‘coverings, and

placed

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 321

placed them naked in the ground. Of all that he
treated in this manner, only three beans vegetated,
not in the ufual way, but very imperfectly: vide
Malpighit opera Tom. I. p. 109. It is evident
then from the experiment of the Italian philofopher,
that the juices of the earth, though fit for the nu-
trition of maturer plants, are infufficient to awake
the latent energy of their Germs. But if the
feeds be planted in the earth unmutilated, thefe
juices are imbibed by their feed lobes, and there
receive the impregnation which is neceffary for the
‘vegetative procefs; the atmofpheric air, that con-
tributes fo much to the change in their compofition,
having free accefs to the feeds through the pores of
the foil, as may be fafely inferred from the firft
experiment. It is highly probable, that the Germs
of the beans which attempted to vegetate, were not
perfectly freed from the farinaceous matter; they
therefore fprouted, but withered foon after for want
of proper nourifhment.

Experiment IX, Having now difcovered the
ufe of Oxygene to plants, in the firft ftages of their
growth; I inquired, in the next place, what would
be the confequence of inclofing feeds in azote, after
faturating them with water. For this purpofe, I put

two equal quantities of fteeped barley, viz. one
ounce, one dram, thirty grains, into feparate bell-
glaffes, where they were fupported by ftrainers, as
as in the feventh experiment. One bell was then
fet, with its mouth downwards, ona table, a {mall
Sf bottle

322 Experiments and Obfervations

bottle of lime-water being placed under it. After
filling the other with raif-water, and inverting it in
a veffel of the fame, I introduced into it feven
and one-fourth ounce-meafures of air, that had been
confined more than a week with putrid flefh, in a
veffel ftanding in water. ‘Fhe Barometer was at the
time at 29,81 inches; a Thermometer, placed befide
the jars, ftood at 56°. The lime-water, in the bottle
under the firft glafs, became turbid in the fpace of
twenty-four hours. At the end of three days, the
barley it contained had fpronted confiderably, while
the parcel in the other jar remained unaltered; nor
was the bulk of the Azote confined with it inereafed
or diminifhed perceptibly: ‘Fhe Barometer and
Thermometer flanding very nearly at the points
{pecified above, when the bell glafs was agitated in
water, the inclofed air did not contraét in the leaft :
a proof that no carbonie acid gas was mixed with
it. ‘The jar being taken out of the water, and
cleared of the gas, was placed on the table, with.a
bottle half-full of lime water under it. In fourteen
hours, part of the lime-water was precipitated ; and,
in feventy-two hours, the grain had fprouted, fof
as if it had never been expofed to any thing but
atmofpheric air. I repeated this experiment, at
another time, with four drams of fteeped barley,
and two and a, half ounce-meafures of air, being
part of the refidaum of a quantity of common air
tuat had been in conta& with a folution of liver of
fulphur for eight days. ‘The experiment was con-
tinued |

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 323

tinued fix days without fhewing the leaft fign of
vegetation; but, on admitting common air into the
glafs, its contents fprouted freely. This experiment
proves decifively, that feeds faturated with moifture
have no affinity to Azotic Gas. It alfo appears,
that the firft ftage of vegetation is analogous to com-
buftion and refpiration, all the three proceffes
depending on oxydation by the atmofphere. _ I thall
elofe this fubject with the following remarks :

I. The only inference in this paper which feems
to me doubtful, is, that feeds impregnated with
water retain a part of the oxygene they abforb, To
determine the matter with more certainty than I
have done, the fixth experiment fhould be repeated
over mercury. :

II, It is probable, that fome Hydrogene efcapes
from vegetating feeds, combined with’ Carbone ;
becaufe the vefféls ufed in the foregoing experiments
retained a peculiar fmell, even afier being wafhed
in clean water, but the action of the air deftroyed
it in afew hours, _ :

HII. I have found, that fteeped grain confined,
for four or five days, in fmall quantities of common
air, will fometimes vegetate, and not in other
cafes. This, perhaps, is owing to variations in
_ the general temperature; for when the Ther-
mometer ftands higher than 56°, it is probable,
that the putrefactive fermentation commences fooner
than when it is below that point. Laftly, the ufe,
and even the neceffity of having the foil very well

Sf pulverized,

324 On Plica Polonica.

pulverized, for the reception of a crop of grain or
pulfe, is explained by the preceding facts and
obfervations: For when the turf of a field is
reduced to a fine powder, the air finds free accefs
to every part of it; and the feeds it contains, being
placed in a temperature that is nearly uniform, and
fupplied with a neceffary portion of humidity from
the moift ground, are expofed in the moft favourable
manner, to the united effects of thofe caufes, which
are intended by nature to promote the growth and
profperity of the infant plant.

On Prica Potonrca. By Mr. Freperte Horrman,
Surgeon to the Pruffian Army. Pree his ‘i Dr.

FERRIAR.
READ, MARCH 22, 1793.

Sywonyms. Lues Pocufienfis: * Trice : Trichoma, Pou,
Koldun or Gozdz, German, Fuden- z0pff ¢ wichte sears
wixel-zorff: weichel-zorff.

ISEASES, the tendency of which is fatal, and

the occurrence frequent, peculiarly claim the
attention of the practical phyfician; while morbid affec-
tions which appear more rarely, and prefent unufual
phenomena, more efpecially attract the enquiries ‘a
thofe

* Pokufiais a territory of Polayd,

On Plica Polonica. 325

thofe whofe object is the extenfion of general fcience.
The difeafe termed Plica Polonica is of the latter
clafs. It is endemic in Poland; and feldom, if
ever, obferved in any other part of Europe. During
a long ftay at Breflau in Silefia, I had frequent
opportunities of obferving this difeafe: and, as it is
at prefent little known in Britain, I truft a brief
narration of the principal circumftances connected
with it will not prove uninterefling.

Both fexes are equally liable to the attacks of
Plica. It ufually appears during infancy; and but
feldom after the age of twenty. When once pro-
duced, it continues during the remainder of life.
The acceffion of the complaint is in. general pre-
ceded by irregular fpafmodic affections, pains in
different parts of the body, a flow fever, and various
difeafes of the eyes; all which ceafe immediately
on the appearance of the Plica.

The diforder confifts in a preternaturally rapid
growth of the hair, with a copious fecretion of a
vifcid matter from its bulbs. For the moft part,
the hairs of the head are alone affected ;- and that-
only in peculiar parts. In thefe, the hairs grow
confiderably longer than in the reft; and are knot-
ted and entangled with each other; being alfo covered
with the vifcid matter which iffues from their roots,
and which affifts in gluing them together.

In proportion as the quantity of this gluten,
and the implication of the hair increafes, it is ftill
more and more difficult to clean and comb it; hence

a degree

326 On Plica Polonica.

a degree of Phthiriafis is produced, and the head
contracts an extremely foetid fmell, to which how-
ever the Polifh Peafante are fo much accuftomed that
they endure it without complaint, or any manifeft
inconvenience,

It is alfo an opinion univerfally prevalent with
them, that the difeafe is a falutary effort of nature
to expel a morbid matter from the body; and that
to interrupt the courfe of it would be productive of
imininent danger; hence ‘they make no attempt to
cure, or even palliate the complaint, And if we
may repofe confidence in Authors of eftablifhed
reputation, morbid affections of a fimilar nature to
thofe which precede its occurrence, paralyfis, and
even death itfelf, have fucceeded imprudent attempts
to check the progrefs of the difeafe. In this refpect,
Plica bears fome analogy to the exanthemata, and
various chronic cutaneous eruptions.

{ am as yet unable to decide whether this com-
plaint is hereditary or not. From fome obfervations
indeed it appears, that a predifpofition to it may be
_tranfmitted from parents to their offspring; but
my information on this head is too limited to
afcertain the point, In one cafe which fell under
my own obfervation, two brothers had Plica, both
on the left fide of the head, and in about one third
of their hairs: I learned from them, that their
father and grandfather had alfo been affected with
the difeafe in a form exactly fimilar.

. Befides

On Plica Polonica. 327

Befides the human fpecies, other animals are fub-
jet to this complaints It appears in fome of the
fineft horfes in Poiand. In them it is fituated in
the mane, and fometimes in the long hairs around
‘the hoof and fetlock joint. It attacks alfo the dif-
ferent fpecies of the canine genus; dogs, wolves,
and foxes. Previous to its occurrence in the firft,
the fymptoms of rabies ufually appear: the tail
is dropped between the hind legs, there is a flow of
frothy faliva from the mouth, the fight and appetite
are impaired, or entirely loft; they are fnappifh,
and difpofed to bite, but their bite does not produce
hydrophobia. The wolf is affeted in the fame
manner; he leaves. his. wonted concealments in the
woods, and rtins wildly among the flocks, biting,
and deftroying them, but without producing bydro-
phobia.

The impoffibility of afcertaining the true caufes
of this fingular difeafe, has given rife to feveral
vague conjectures on the fubject; as that of Le
Fontaine, who attributes it to a corruption of the
fat. ne

It is fomewhat remarkable, that Plica takes place
only among the, lower clafs of people; whence fome
have conceived, that it is to be confidered merely
asa confequence of uncleanlinefs.

But, in objection to this opinion, it may be
tirged, that it is unknown in the adjoining coun-
tries fubject to the Pruffian Government, where
the peafants are habituated to the fame cuftoms and

mode

328 On Plica Polonica.

mode of life, or nearly the fame as in Poland—
that its appearance affords evident relief to the
fyftem, and its retroceffion is productive of dati-
gerous confequences. ‘The idea that it is a real
-and idiophatic difeafe, is confirmed alfo by its oc-
currence in a variety of animals, and by the cir-
cumftance of its being confined to particular parts
of the head; for which no reafon can be affigned
on the former fuppofition.

A peculiarity of climate cannot be adduced as
caufe of this difeafe. Poland differs little in this
refpect from the adjoining countries. ‘The fummer
heat is confiderable, the thermometer rifing fre-
quently to 98°. 100°. 104°. and the cold in
winter fo great, that it falls fometimes 10, 15
degrees below 0, But though the changes in the
atmofphere are fo remarkable, at different periods of
the year, they take place with the utmoft regularity,
the temperature paffing, by infenfible degrees, from
one extreme to the other.

The Poles themfelves are a vigorous, hardy race ;
inured from infancy to labour, and to expofure to
the viciffitudes of the atmofphere ; almoft regardlefs

of cold, they frequently fleep in the open air.
Their diet confifts chiefly of animal food, and they

are much addiéted to the ufe of fpirits. They have

an equal fondnefs for other ftrong ftimula-

ting liquids. I have feen them drink, with the

greateft pleafure, the falt brine in which herrings

have

On Plica Potonica, 329

have been preferved, and even nitrous acid diluted
with water.

Since no other caufe can be affigned for this difeafe,
it is probable, that it arifes, according to the general
Opinion, from contagion; a contagion which, like
that of Pfora, can be communicated by contact only:
but this I have not been able to afcertain by any
obfervations of myown, __

It is faid, however, by authors of reputation, that
Plica is frequent in Tartary ; and that it was brought
into Poland in the thirteenth century by the Tar-
tars, who at that period made frequent irruptions
into the eaftern parts of Europe.

A perfec confidence in the liberality and candour —
of a Society, the exertions of which have added
confiderably to the treafures of fcience, encourages
me to fubmit to it thefe few crude and curfory re-
marks ; trufting that the moft trivial contribution to
the general ftock, will not be deemed unworthy its
attention. At fome future period I hope to have
opportunity and leifure to renew my obfervations
upon the fubject; and I fhall endeavour to fupply '
the deficiences of the prefent Sketch, by tranfmitting
to. the Society the refult of my future remarks.

339 ‘On the Combuflion of dead Bodies

On the Comsustion of Dzap Boprks, as formerly prac
tifed in Scotland. By Mr. ALEXANDER CopLAND.

READ, OCTOBER ATH. 1793° '

a

ae To Mr. HARVEY,
- Secretary to the Manchefter Literary and Philofophical Societys

SIR, ,

BEING informed. that fome Antiquarian
Members of your Society were not altogether fatis-
fied with the explanation given of the ufe of the
Tron Inflruments, defcribed in the laft half-volume
of the Memoirs of the Literary, and Philofophical
Society of Manchefter; 1 have ftated fome addi-
tional fads, and farther remarks on the fubject,
which I requeft you will prefent to the Society +

and which I hope will be accepted of as a Sequel

or Appendix to my former Paper.

| I have the honour to be,
Your moft obedient and obliged fervant,
ALEX®: COPLAND.

Dumfries, Sept. 30, 1793+

TRE

formerly pratifed in Scotland, 331

se aes following appear to be the principal argu-

‘ments advanced in oppofition. to my opinions,
concerning the ufe of the Inftruments defcribed
and delineated in the tat half-volume of otis
Society’s Memoirs.

I, That the fubject was of fo very uncommon
a nature, as hitherto to have efcaped notice.
~ II. That the Inftruments defcribed might have
been applied to other purpofes, as hufbandry,
ert or torture.

‘IMI, That there appeared no neceffity for the
ufe of an iron apparatus in the procefs of. eeslloan ey
dead bodies,

“IV. That the fufpending of bodies for the
purpofe of combuftion was indecent; and likely to
caft fotne reproach on the memory of thofe, whofe
éorpfes had been thus treated.

‘ In anfwer to the firft objection I with it to be
obferved, that although this fubjeét has beeti much
neglected hitherto by antiquarians,* yet the fre-
std of the objects in this country, and the

‘Fte numerous

ie Mf. Pennant, in the firft volume of his Tour through
Scotland, is perhaps the firft who defcribes Cairns as
Sepulchres, for the Afhes of thofe, whofe corpfes had been
gonfumed by fire,

232 On the Combuftien of dead Bodies

numerous opportunities that have lately occurred
to examine the contents of Cairns and other
ancient Coemeteries, have at laft brought it into
votice. In a ftatiftical Account of the parifhes of
Rutherglen and Killbride, recently publifhed at
Glafgow, the author, Mr. David Ure, has confirmed
every thing I have advanced refpecting Cairns being
rue fepulchres; and added feveral interefting par=
ticulars of a fimilar nature,

He alfo (page 223) takes notice of a large Sepuly
chre, containing a number of urns, and a quantity
of fragments of bones, fituated in a place bearing
a fimilar name to that where the inftruments
were found ; and which appears to agree, in feve~
ral refpects, with the inclofure firft defcribed by
me. It is called Strath-Blane: Strath means a
portion of low and level ground, generally divided
by a river;* and Blane feems to be the appel-
lative or diftinguifhing name of this, from other
Straths, being in all probability a Saxon word, (as
none of the Highlanders I have fpoken to feem to
know its meaning) importing a place of fepulture.
The farm at Caerlaverock, in which the coeme.
tery is RDA is called Kell-blane: Kell (i. €.

Cell)

* Thus, in Scotland, we have Strath-More, Strath-
Spey, Strath-Erne, Strath-Avon, &c, being long and level
vales, with rivers of the names of More, Spey, Erne, &c»
running through the midft of them,

formerly praétifed in Scotland. 833

Cell) intimating fome place refpected from pious or
fuperftitious motives; or, as it may with feeming
propriety be tranflated, the holy burying place, or
Cemetery: For, in this country, the refidences of
holy perfons or faints were called Kells or Cells,
upon moft of which churches are now built, and
they are therefore at prefent generally called Kirks ;
and hence fome proper names, which in former times
began with Kell, are now changed to Kirk.* In
confequence of the appellative Blane being joined in
both inftances to two fubftantives, that are generally
conjoined with fuch diftinguifhing marks; and as
there are Coemeteries in both places, we are led to
conclude, that the name in both has originated
from this fole fource.

Mr. Ure farther narrates, that a fpade, refem-
bling thofe found with the iron apparatus, was
difcovered lying with fragments of bones and urns
under another Cairn.

We may certainly, therefore, be allowed to con-
¢lude from this fimilarity of names, and pofition of

inftruments,

* Thus we have in this country Kirkcudbright, olim
Kell-Cuthbert, Kirkmichael, o/im Kell-Michael, &c. with —
at leaft four parifh churches of the name of Kirkpatrick,
which were the cells or places where St. Patrick refided
whilft on his Miffion of Converfion, before he went to
Ireland; and alfo the name of a family, now called Kirk-
patrick, but which, in all old authors, is fpelled Kell.
patrick,

334 On the Combuftion of dead Bodies

inftruments, that. they were ufed for the exprefé
purpofe I have ftated, and appertained to res
pofitories. of the dead. But what feems to confirm
this pofition almoft beyond,a doubt, is the particular
fituation in which the iron inftruments at Kell-Blane
were difcovered, being. all included in one oblong
niche, covered with common mould o1 earth... They
confifted of a number of very. ftrong and moft curious
chains; a pillared fupporter; rings and blunt hooks
highly ornamented; hoops of a different conftrudtion
from thofe now in ufe; a pitchfork having its prongs
{quared, and therefore unft for being ufed in huf-
bandry, and alfo too large for culinary purpofes;
and a pair of large tongs.* Thefe inftruments,,
all of iron, with two {pades or fhovels, were depos
fited together in fuch a manner as plainly fhewed,

that they were intended to be ufed in concert,
and only on very particular occafions. It was
evident, that great care had been taken to conceal
them, as will more iy appear fram the Br ecnis

flatement.

‘ I was
_ * A pair of large tongs were alfo found along with the
other in{ftruments, but in fo confumed a ftate, that they,
prefently fell to pieces, and therefore could not be included
in the number of thofe articles put into Mr, Riddel’s pof-
{effion. ‘They were of the kind ftill in ufe amongft the
common people here, having blades or fides above three
feet long. Mr. Wilkins, the farmer of the ground, who
was prefent when they were difcovered, informed A, C. of
this circumftance, foon after he had tranfmitted his paper
on this ancient Mode of Sepulture, to Dr, Percival,

formerly praétifed in Scotland, ~ 335

' I was lately informed by the farmer of Kell-Blane,
or Kirkblane. as it is more commonly though im-
properly called, that be had made fome farther
difcoveries at the place where the-articles of iron had
been found, in confequence of my requeft, that he
would be particularly attentive seins, cultivating
that fpot.

I went with him, tay Se by. two ‘of his
fervants, to a fpot elevated about: four: feet above
the ‘ground around it,’ which, except in’ this
part, flopes gradually to Locker Mofs; and at the
fummit of this rifing ground, I found’a hearth,
upon which wood had been burned at a diftant
period, there being a quantity of it charred lying
on the furface of the till and ftone pavement ;* the
grain of the wood was perfectly diftin@, but the
afhes, if fuch they could be called, though nearly
of the ufual colour, were changed to an earthy
mould, much mixed with fand; this laft was only
found in the middle, and moftly in the interftices
of the ftones, as alfo below one or two of them.

‘The hearth appeared, on thorough examination, to
be of an elliptical form, “like a boat, the mouth
of a fpoon, or fection of an egg-fhell: ‘being
deepeft in the middle, and covered over with good
earth about two feet deep; becoming gradually fhallow-
er towards the edges, where it was one foot below the
furface. Its dimenfions were ten feet long by fix broad
‘ over

* The incorruptibility of charred wood is well known,

336 On the Cotmbuftion of dead Bodies

over the centre. It was paved with flat ftones, that
bore evident marks of fcorching from fire, in the
midft, and on the North-Eaft and broadeft end,
where probably the head of the corpfe had been
fufpended ; but the other end was excavated out of
the hard till, with a ftratum of two or three inches of
charcoal fpread over it. ‘Ihe eminence was fituated
about fifty paces North-Eaft of the middle of the large
coemetery defcribed in my paper; and about twenty-
five paces South-Eaft of the hearth was placed the
niche, which contained the iron chains, &c.
This laft was cut out of the hard till, on the fide —
of the rifing ground, where no water could lie;
and was covered with a rich mould. At the diftance
of fifty paces farther, on a low part of the ground,
in the fame direction, a rounded ftone was obferved,
of a larger fize than any in the neighbourhood,
requiring the exertions of three men to turn it
over. It was placed on a pavement of common
round ftones, to prevent its finking.

This was evidently a land-mark, by which the
niche, containing the iron apparatus, could always
be difcovered ; though a circumftance by no means
capable of attracting the notice of any, except thofe
who came with the exprefs purpofe of finding
it.

I would therefore afk any unprejudiced perfon,
how he can poffibly. fuppofe, that this land-
mark; the niche inclofing the extraordinary affem-~

blage

formerly prakiifed in Scotland. 337

blage of Inftruments; and the elliptical Hearth,
bearing evident marks of confiderable ufage; fhould
be all fo particularly fituated in the fame ftraight line,
in the immediate vicinity of a large coemetery,
and at the diftance of two hundred and fifty yards
only from a large cairn, (out of which the farm
houfes upon the ground have been built) except for
the exprefs paapbte I have affigned to them, viz.
for confuming the bodies of the dead, with as
little expence of fuel as poffible.

And’ furely nothing could accomplifh this pur-
pofe fo effectually as the concave form of the
hearth. For this, when the comburator and other
apparatus were ufed, by concentrating the heat around
the body, would produce a much more complete com-
buftion with lefs expence of fuel, than. if the
hearth had been upon a level.

From the fituation alfo of this hearth, which is
confiderably under the height of that which ap-
pears to have been in the midft of the cemetery,
it could not be feen, when ufed, from any part of
the furrounding country, except from the other
fide of the mofs, which is there three miles broad,
and totally impaffable.

All thefe circumftances feem fully to evince a
firong defire of concealment, both during the
ceremony and afterwards, arifing probably from
a favourite practice being partially continued, after it
had fallen into general difufe; and perhaps after it

Uu had

338 On the Combuption of dead Bodies

had been prohibited by law, and reprobated by thé

teft of the country.
II. With regard to the fecond objection, it is pro-
per to ftate, that, from the remarkable aptitude
which the various articles of the apparatus poffefs,
for the different parts of the procefs of combuftion,
we are induced; or, in a manner, conftrained to
draw a fimilar conclufioh. And indeed, ona tho-
rough confideration, it will appear evident, that
the experience of ages muft have been neceflary
to produce all the different articles of the ap-
paratus, in futh perfection, and fo particularly
adapted to fufpend every part and fiagment of
the body, till confumed, and teduced almoft entirely
to afhes; for no inftance can be pointed out as
fuperfluous, except the appearance of ornament on
feveral of them may be fo efteemed. It has beén
intimated that oftentation was here needlefs ; but
furely it was not more fo in thofe fuperftitious times,
at this awful and frequent ceremony, than the
fhew generally exhibited in the prefent age upon
coffins, at funerals, and on monuments. How-
ever excufable oftentation may be in fuch circum-
flances, it is furely highly improper, as well as
unneceflary, in every article of hufbandry; and
if fuch fcrolls were to be added to the chains
and hooks of carts, ploughs, &c. as were found
on thofe connected with the reft of the apparatus,
they .

formerly prattifed in Scotland. 339

they would be rendered totally unfit for fuch
purpofes. '

And, in like manner, the attempt to ornament
inftruments of torture or punifhment, would
have been equally improper, if not highly ridi-
culous. ‘The iron hooks, alfo, that in fuch circum-
cumftances, without doubt, muft have been ftruck
into the flelh, for fupporting the miferable vidim,
(as is ftill done in Ruffia) would have been
fharpened; but thefe are broad at the points,
and end in large knobs, fo as to fit them only
for fupporting and retaining the hoops, &c. over
a fire. And the number of hoops, of various
fizes, and of fuch particular conftruétion, along
with the tongs, &c. clearly indicate their be-
Ing intended for fome procefs, where a heavy
body was to be fnfpended over a ftrong fire. It
may not be improper to remark, that the moft
ufeful watch-chain that has been invented, is of
the fame conftruction with thofe of the combu-
rator; and J know.of no other chain made in
that manner,

III, With regard to the propriety and neceffity
ef ufing an iron apparatus, permit me to obferve,
that notwithftanding all the a¢counts tranfmitted tq
us by the ancients, of confuming the dead by fire,
defcribe the corpfe as being laid on a high and
extenfive rogus, or pile; yet all thefe were honours
paid to great men, for whom perhaps a whole
gountry might be {tripped of its wood,

Uue But

340 On the Combuftion of Dead Bodies

But, -with refpect to the lower clafs in a populoug
nation, fuch a procedure would appear to be at
leaft impracticable; and at this period, it is
evident, that there is not fo much wood growing,
exclufive of gentlemen’s plantations, as would.
conftruct rogi for the inhabitants who at pres
fent live in the country; fo that there would
be no wood left for hufbandry, houfe-building,
manufactures, &c. » That this country was they
very populous, and perhaps more fo than at pre
fent, appears from the great number of thefe
cairns in every part of it; feveral of which
feem to have anfwered the purpofe of large
burying grounds, particularly one I faw, whilft
difmantling, in which fragments of bones
were equally difperfed through every different
part—It was at leaft fixty feet in diameter,
and the putrefaction was ftill going on fo freely
in it, in confequence of the internal parts being
expofed to the air, that the workmen who
came to it on a foggy morning, were fo power-
fully affected by the fmell, as to become fick at
ftomach: it is fituated within three hundred yards
of the coemetery in which the iron triangle was
found. !

But farther, if ever wood became fcarce, in a
country where combuftion of the dead was con-
ftantly practifed, from being deftroyed by war,
accident, &c. the ‘dead bodies muft of necef-

fity be confumed with coppice wood, {mall
branches

formerly prattifed in Scotland, 342

branches of trees, or fhrubs of various kinds; the
trunks of trees, if any exifted, being retained for
more urgent occafions: ‘The body muft have
been laid on a pile of brufh-wood; and, when-
ever the fire began to confume, it would, from
the weight and moifture it contained, and for want
~ of fupport for a fufficient length of time, fall to the |
bottom; and notwithftanding all the {mall wood that
could be heaped on above it, would by no means be
properly confumed, but only broiled. They mult
then have found the neceflity of giving the body
fuch fupport as was fufficient to keep it for a confi-
derable length of time in the focus, or point of
ftrongeft action of the fire and flame. When they
endeavoured to effe& this by means of beams of
wood, placed horizontally or perpendicularly, thefe
would be fpeedily fo far confumed as to permit the
body in like manner to fall down, and be too low
for the complete action of the fire; they muit, there-
fore, at length have been reduced to the abfolute
neceflity of having recourfe to inftruments of iron,
or fone other metal. q

And, with refpe& to the opinion, that either
peats, turf, or pit-coal, were ever ufed in. this
ceremony, [think we have fufficient reafon to reject
it; for all accounts of burning the dead, that are
tranfmitted to us, agree in this, that nothing
but wood was ufed on the occafion; and

being at firft folely appropriated to that. purpofe,
no

342 On the Combuftion of Dead Bodies

no other fuel would probably be ever though
ef. But at any rate it may be conjectured, that
they would never ufe, for that purpofe, fuel
fituated below the general level of the ground,
whilft another could be procured, which, in
its natural ftate, was confiderably above its furs
face, and always endeavouring to afcend and ap-
proach nearer to the fuperior or heavenly regions;
being in that refpect typical of the expected afcent
of the deceafed, as a reward for his trials and
fufferings in this life ; whereas the ufe of the former
would appear, to a fuperftitious people, ominous
and adverfe to the fond expectations of his friends.
- Befides, I believe there are no records of either peats
or turf having been much, if at all, ufed by the
Romans; and we are certain, that pit-coal did not
come into ufe as fuel, till long after the period now
treated of.

Thus after a full inveftigation of the fubject, I
think there is reafon to be decidedly of opinion,
that the ancients muft generally (i. e. in cafes of
Plebeians) have had recourfe to fome fuch apparatus
as is here alluded to, of iron, or other metal, for
confuming the dead, notwithftanding all remem-
brance of it may have been loft, as well as of other
matters of infinitely more importance to mankind.

Laftly: When we confider, that a number of
brafs and filver rings, and brafs points of arrows and
fpears, evidently made by, or copied from the

, Romans,

forinerly pragtifed in Scotland. 343

Romans; and that fome Saxon coins have been alfo
found in many of thefe Cairns ;* and likewife, that
the inftruments of iron were in a _ ftate of
high prefervation, it would appear very improbable
they could have been ufed above eight or nine
hundred years ago; a period at which the Saxons
governed in this country, who might have
borrowed the cuftom of burning the dead from
the Romans.f¢ If thefe had been inftruments of

torture

* Several of thefe different articles were found in
Cairns, in the parifh of Croffmichael, and a f{pecimen of
eath were prefented fome years ago, by William Copland,
Efq. of Collieftone, my brother, to the Antiquarian So-
ciety of Edinburgh, with a view to their prefervation, Re-
peated inftances occur in Sir John Sinclair’s Statiftical
_Account, under the head of Antiquities, of circumftances
corroborative of my opinions, particularly in the account
of the parifh of Leflie, volume VI. page 52. A Hearth,
exaétly fuch as that firft defcribed by me, was difcovered
in the the bottom of a Cairn, with a quantity of burnt
bones, rings, and points of {pears lying upon it.

+ This agrees entirely with what we find in the Poems of
Offian, The graves of his heroes were known by a
few large ftones fet upright, and no notice is taken of
the Funeral Pile, or of the Tumulus or Cairn, which muft
have been introduced pofterior to the period in which thefe
Poems were compofed. Some fuch ftones are ftill known to
remain. A defcription of the Sepulchre of King Galdus,
or Galgacus, was {ent by Robert Riddel, Efq. of
Glenriddel, to. the Antiquarian Society of biiaiies and
will piubably foon be publifhed, It is entirely of this kind;

for he lived at the commencement of this period,

344 On the Combuftion of Dead Bodies

torture, the punifhments muft have been very
_eruel in thofe days; but we have always underflood
that our anceftors, the Saxons, were very lenient in
their punifhment of criminals; death feldom being
awarded, and indeed moft criminals getting off with
fines of greater orlefs extent. Moreover, from thefe
inftruments being found in two parts of this
country, at only fourteen miles diftance, it would
indicate, that enormous crimes, and their equally
dreadful punifhments, had been infinitely more
frequent than at prefent, or than ever was heard
of in any other country.

And alfo from fpades having been found along
with the iron apparatus, it is clearly indicated, that
whatever had been fubjeéted to the ufe of thefe
inftruments was intended to be inhumed; which
certainly would never have been practifed with crimi-
nals, or prifoners of war, whofe corpfes were gene-
rally left to glut the fowls of heaven, and beafts of
prey. |

I think at any rate it will be granted, that in
confequence of the fearcity of wood, as already
explained, numbers of the common people mutt
of neceffity have been expofed on fuch fmall and
low Rogi, as would place the corpfes oppofite to,
or under the eye of theattendants; and confequently
in a more indecent pofture, than when fufpended
in an iron triangle with the brufh-wood placed under,
over, and every way around them; and it may

be

formerly praftifed in Scotland. 345

be proper to remark, that in this manner and
pofition alone could the corpfe be conveniently
and completely confumed.

_ The cuftom of hanging criminals in chains in
Terrorem, is, I believe, a modern invention ;
and, therefore, the idea of the ufe of thefe in-
ftruments being conne&ed with difgrace and
punifhment could, at fo remote a period, have
no place.

oe
OxszERvaTIONS on the ADVANTAGES Of PLANTING
Waste Lanos. By Tuomas Ricnarpson,

E/q.
/4 READ, FEB. 77, 17946

[T has frequently been matter of concern to
me, in travelling through different parts of

the kingdom, to obferve the decreafe of Timber
Trees in almoft every county, whilft many large
traéts of land; very fuitable to the growth of
wood, remain ina wild uncultivated ftate, of no
ufe to their owners, and indeed unfit for any
other purpofe than that of planting. Of this .
kind may be fairly eftimated one eighth part of
the kingdom. Why thefe lands fhould remain in
Tit this

346 Odjervations on the Advantages

this unprofitable, comfortlefs; and difgraceful
ftate to the owners, when they might be fo éafily
converted into fcenes of pi€turefque beauty, and
yield fo much benefit to the proprietors, is a
circumftance I have frequently been ata lofs to
account for. ‘To the enquiries I have made on
this fubje&, the moft general anfwet has been,
‘‘ that wood would not grow on fuch land.”
But, I am led to conjecture the true caufe to be,
that the expence is zmmediate, and the profit at a
diftance. _'This doubtlefs has appeared, at the
firft view, to many a fufficient bar to improve-
ments of this kind, yet I truft a fair and candid
enquiry into faéts, with the obfervations I fhall
adduce, on different plantations within my own
knowledge, will fufficiently demonftrate, that a
man may, within the compafs of his own life,
(if he begin to plant early) reap the reward of
his labour, and alfo enjoy the pleafing refleGion
of the advantages he is preparing for his children
by this rational and amufing employment, as
well as the benefit and agreeable fcénery the
country will receive from fo laudable an under-
» taking.

There are three kinds of land generally deemed
unfavorable for the purpofes of cultivation; and
experience has proved, in moft inftances, that
although more pains, labour, and expence have
been beftowed in sa ela to cultivate and

improve

of planting Wajte Lands. 349

improve fuch lands, than they could poffibly
have repaid if the attempt had been fuccefs-
ful, the attempt was fruitlefs, and the money
thrown away ; whilft, with a fourth part of the
expence in planting, the advantages would have
been certain, and the profits have taken place at
an earlier period, and jn a much greater degree
than could have been hoped for by any method
of cultivation.

Thefe three kinds of land are nae under
the following heads :

I. Bosccy Wert 1 ainda! which, sie their
fituation and nature, cannot be drained without
an expence far beyond any probable advantages
to be derived from their cultivation,

If. Srerire Huncry Lanps.

IiI. Barren Rocky Hrtts.

' Any perfon who has attentively viewed this
country muft have perceived, that lands of this
defcription form fully as great a portion of the
whole land of the kingdom as I have eftimated.
To this may be added, that there are few eftates
where there are not feveral parts, either from
fituation or afpeét, of fmall value for grazing,
or the plough; which, by planting, might be
turned to much advantage by affording warmth
and fhelter to the cattle; keeping the bleak winds ©
from the land; and fupplying the farms with
Bore of wood for fuel, fencing, and all the

Tt2 varjous

348 Obfervations on the Advantages

various ufes for which it is perpetually demand=
ed: And the eventual profit would be certain,
from the growth of excellent timber trees, felec-
.ted from the choiceft and moft valuable part of
the plantation,

I fhall confine myfelf, in the obfervations I
have to offer, to the three kinds of land fpecified,
which, being generally deemed barren, are not
of the annual value of fixpence an acre to the
Owners; and endeavour to prove the utility of
applying fuch, lands to the purpofes I ftiall after-
wards mention.

And, firft, of the Wer Lanps, and the trees
beft adapted for fuch places.
_ I fhall begin with the Atper, which thrives
wonderfully in fwampy ground; and there
are few trees of greater general utility: But
it is more particularly valuable in this neigh-
bourhood ( Manchefter) where its ufes are fo
various as to adapt it to an almoft endlefs variety
of purpofes, The wood of this tree is in great
efteem and demand for machinery; the cogs for
mill wheels formed of it being proved, by ex-
perience, to be fuperior to any other. It is
commonly ufed for bobbins; and the country
people wear fhoes, or, as they are ufually termed,
clogs made of it. Its excellent quality of refift-
ing injury from water is univerfally acknow-
ledged; hence its great value for pump trees,

pipes,

of planting Wafte Lands. - 349

pipes, drains, conduits to refervoirs, piles under
water, and all kinds of wood-work which is
kept conftantly wet. The pipes which are laid
under the ftreets of moft large towns, to convey
the water, are generally of Alder; and indeed
in all works of the fame nature, where it can
be procured in fufficient quantity, it is pre-
ferred toevery other wood. But it is much to
be lamented, that the valuable properties of its
bark fhould be fe little known, that in moft
mnftances it is buried with the tree. The black
dyers of cotton ftuffs know its value, and make
much ufe of it; they purchafe it at the rate of
feven to eight-pence the ftone, laid down at
their dye-houfes. It is not chopped, but fold
as it is ftripped from the tree, after it has become
moderately dry; fo that there is no expence in
chopping and cleaning it, as is the cafe with
oak bark. It might be ufed to great advantage
as an excellent fubftitute for many Woods ufed
jin dying, which we have from abroad, and
on which we expend confiderable fums.*

A friend

* «¢ The Koreki, a favage nation inhabiting the borders
* of Ruffia, ufe deer-fkins and dog-fkins for their cloath-
*‘ ing, which they dye with alder bark reduced to a fine
s* powder, But their feal-fkins, on which they fet a
s¢ higher value, they dye in a nicer manner.

ue eo firft clean off the = which they do very

* dextroufly

350 Obfervations on the Advantages

A friend of mine had a {mall piece of marfhy
ground, the produce of which never made him
a fhilling for many years. He had fome thoughts
of draining, and endeavouring to improve it for
meadow land (the fituation being favorable); but
on my recommendation he planted it with Alder
The extent of it was fomething lefs than an acre,
and the whole expence of planting coft him no
more than twenty fhillings. The plants did not
coft any thing. He had fomedand over-run with
young feedlings ; two men were employed, who
drew them and planted the whole in one week.
In five years he cut them over, taking down

every third or fourth plant, and thinning
them judicioufly, to afford room for the moft
thriving trees to expand in. ‘Thefe poles pro-
duced

« dextroufly by means of fharp ftones. They then few up
“ the fkin into the form of a bag, turning the hairy fide
“ outward; in this bag they pour a ftrong decoétion of
‘¢ alder-bark, leaving it in this fituation for fome days, after
© which they hang it upon a tree, and beat it with iticks,
* until the colour has penetrated quite through the fkin,
« fo as to tinge it equallythroughout, They then rip open
« the bag; and, ftretching out the fkin, leave it in the air
«until it is quite dry, after which they rub it with their
« hands till it becomes foft, and fit for ufe. They alfo dye
« the hair of their feal-fkins a fine bright red colour, with
“a decoftion of red wortle berries, alder-bark, alum, and
&¢ Jac lung.”

Museum Ruflicum,
A

of planting Wofte Lands. 354

duced him fifty fhillings, and the loppings for
fuel more than repaid the expence of cutting
down. In fix years more, they were grown fo
ftrong and large, that he was under the néceffity
of taking down half of the remainder: Thefe
were of courfe the weakeft trees: They pro-
duced in bark and wood, 8l. 14s. The cord-
wood became now fo confiderable as to be worth
infinitely more than the expence of falling and
peeling, as many of the branches were fit for
{takes for fencing, and other purpofes. It is three
years fince the laft falling; and the reft ona
moderate calculation, lately made, have been
eftimated at 13]. exclufive of the young poles or
fhoots. Thus, in fourteen years from the plant-
ing a piece of {wamp, rather lefs than an acre,
which had never before been produétive to the
owner, there have been already received eleven |
pounds four fhillings; and timber is now ftand-
ing to the eftimate of thirteen pounds more: in
all 241. 4s. or il. 14s. 7d. yearly. But thefe are
not all the advantages refulting from this planta-
tion; for the leaves fall in fuch abundance each
year, that they have added a tolerable foil pro-
ductive of a coarfe grafs; which, being cut
with the fickle in fummer, is ufed as fodder for
the young cattle within the houfe, during the
heat of the day. I ought to obferve, that, in
this eftimate, no account is taken of the expence

of

352 Objervations on the Advantages

of that very neceffary article to all plantations,
Fencing, the ground having been already enclo-
fed. But, on the other hand, it muft be
remarked, that I have ftated the profits of the
plantation to its extent of fourteen years only ;
that, from the progrefflive ftate of its improve-
ment, and the increafed value which growing
wood annually acquires after a certain age, it
cannot be doubted but, in the next feven years,
it will equal at leaft the value of the preceding
fourteen years; particularly when it is confidered,
that the fhoots, from the former cuttings nine
_ years ago, are now fprung up into poles
which are very numerous; and much larger than
the parent plants were when cut down: the
fecond cuttings are alfo in a proportionate ftate
of increafe. Mite B
The Wittow will alfo grow luxuriantly in

marfhy ground; and produce great and lafting
profit. teh
There are many fpecies of this genus, all
admirably adapted to various purpofes ; but, on
the whole, I would recommend to the planter
the three following as entitled toa preference.

The Wartre Witiow (Salix alba)

The Sattow (Salix caprea)

And the Ozrrr (Salix viminalis).

Thefe three are in the greateft efteem; and

applicable to every ufe for which trees of this
genus are commonly employed.

Of

of planting Wafte Lands. 353

- Of the Wurtz Wittow I recolle& a fmall
plantation being made on a fwampy picce of
ground, in the year 1761, which grew fo admi-
rably, that the faireft and beft trees were cut
down in 1786. One of thefe which I meafured
was, at five feet from the ground, fix feet
five inches; and, at the length of thirty-two
feet, four feet feven inches in circumference.
There remained ftanding about ninety of the
fmalleft trees, which were then thought unfit
for cutting, having been robbed of their growth
by the fhade of the others: I meafured the beft
of thefe trees at the time the others were cut
down, viz. in 1786; it was only three feet
ten inches in circumference, at fix feet from
the ground. I again meafured this tree in
1793, at the fame height ; and it was'no more
than four feet four inches.

I mention this circumftance, to fhew the flow
progrefs made by this tree in the laft feven years,
compared with its growth in the former twenty-
five years, under the difadvantage of being
choaked and crouded by its more luxuriant and
lofty neighbours: a fa affording full proof of
the quick attainment of thefe trees to perfection.

The wood, from its peculiar whitenefs, is
in high eftimation; and bears a good price
for butter-firkins, milk-pails, cafks for li-
guors, boards for flooring, chefts, boxes, and
various kinds of hufbandry.—It is alfo excel-

Uu lent

354 Obfervations on the Advantages

Jent for the tilts and fides of waggons, being
very light, and yet exceedingly tough and
pliable.

The Sattow isa very quick growing pete
and extremely ufeful where new inclofures are to
be made, either for the improvement of land or
raifing plantations, as it makes good ftakes for
hurdles. fait

-I cut down one of thefe trees * in the winter,
five years ago, from the ftool of which, in
the following autumn, a numerous offspring
had arifen, fome of which had fhot out to the
amazing height of ten feet. In the {pring of
the prefent year, (1793) having occafion for.
fome hurdles to protect a young hedge of haw-
thorn juft planted, I cut down thefe fhoots for
ftakes. They were fomething too flender, but
anfwered the purpofe tolerably well. No
wood burns clearer, with a brighter flame, or for

a, greater

* From the bark of: this plant in its green ftate, in the

ear 1788, were made, at Mill-Bank, near Warrington,
fifteen reams of ftrong paper, It appears from the tefti-
mony of Mr. Greaves, the maker, that the paper made
ftom ropes is fold at eight fhillings and fi ixpence the ream ;
but. that paper made from the bark of the Withen may be
fold, with equal profit, at five fhillings and eightpence the
ream: And that pafteboard for book-backs, made from
ropes, is fold at twenty-five pounds per ton, long weight
of one hundred and twenty pounds to the hundred ; ‘but
pafteboard of the fame thicknefs, made from withen-bark,
tay be fold at feventeen pounds’ per ton,

of planting Wajte Lands. 355

a) greater length of time, than the Sallow. It
is even preferable, in this refpeé. to the Beech,
It emits little fmoke, and is neem {weet and
wholefome.
_ It is almoft unneceffary to fc of the value
of the Ozer; for whoever contemplates the con-
fumption of this eftimable twig, in the im-
menfity of wicker and bafket-work which is
ufed, muft be convinced of the importance of
its cultivation. The ingenious Dr. Hunter fays,
- that a plantation of Oziers will produce from
five to fix pounds the acre annually, provided
fuch plantations be in the. neighbourhood of
the hafket-maker, or by the fide of fome river,
which may enable him to fend his wares by wa-
ter, at{mall expence, to a proper market. Yet
furely, at thefe prices, there are not many
places in the kingdom fuch as have been defcrib-
ed, which may not be fuccefsfully cultivated, and
yield a very handfome profit, exclufive of the ex-
pence of carriage, efpecially fince the great ex-.
tenfion of our canal navigation.

The Porrar, being termed by many writers
an aquatic, has been _ frequently planted
in an improper fituation. In lands conftantly
wet, it may live fora few years, but it never
arrives to any perfection in them; for where its
roots are perpetually wet and cold, early fymp-
toms of decay foon appear. With the exception

Une ihe alte of

356 Obfervations on the Advantages

of thofe now mentioned, this tree adapts itfelf
to moft fituations. It will thrive moft luxu-
yiantly on boggy moor-land, after it has been
drained, of which I have a ftriking proof —I
“had fome land of this defcription, fo wet, as to
be totally impaffable by man or beaft—After it
had been well drained in the winter of 1790, it
was planted in the enfuing {pring with i
of the following kinds :

The White Poplar (Populus alba)—The Black
Poplar (Populus nigra)—And the Afpen (Populus
tremula) and a few of the Carolina or Balfam
Poplar.—Thefe trees, when planted, were gene-
rally from two feet to two feet three inclres in
height ; and an inch and a half in circumference
at the thickeft part. I meafured feveral of them
in July, 1793, and they were, on the average,
feventeen feet and a half in height ; ; in girth, at
the ground, twelve inches and one-third ; ; and at
a foot from the ground, ten inches and one-
fourth. I have heard of more extraordinary fhoots
in trees of the fame kind; but I never faw any
the growth of which on the whole equalled thefe.
I planted feveral thoufands of them in dif-
ferent foils, afpedis, and fituations, but none
have yet come near to thofe planted in this
drained morafs.—Thofe on the edges of the
brooks, in good foil, have fucceeded next to
thele ; then thofe on fandy foil, and dry heath

lands ;

:

of planting Wafte Lands. ~ 357

lands; and laftly, thofe on the ftif clay lands. |
which, ‘although they have made pretty good
progrefs, are yet the worft of all. Having a few
plants left after the drained part was planted,
and having heard it frequently afferted, as well
as feen it fupported by many authors, that they
would fucceed in the wetteft places, I put them
into the adjacent ground, which had not been
drained, for the purpofe of experiment—They
feemed to ftrike tolerably well in the firft year;
but in the fummer of the next, they grew fickly
and turned yellow—I ordered a drain to be cut
around them in the winter of that year—This
had the defired effect, for the following {pring
they regained their former healthy hue, but
the leaves were confiderably fmaller than in the
others, and the plants much lefs, both in height
and thicknefs; a fure proof that they will not
thrive, or indeed live long, where the fituation
is too wet. Of the kinds thus planted, in the
fame fituations, the white and black popiar grew
the beft; and on every account I prefer them,
particularly the former.—It is fcarcely poffible
to enumerate the many excellencies of this tree.
To its valuable quality of adapting itfelf to fo
many different foils and fituations, may be added
the eafe with which it is propagated. If the
fide-fhoots be taken from the parent tree, planted
jn the ground, and defended from the bite of
cattle,

358 Obfervations on the Advantages

cattle; they will need no farther attention. I
put a number of cuttings, about a foot in length,
into fome ground well trenched, in the fpring ;
and, in the autumn of the fame year, they. were
grown to the height of upwards of four feet,
were well rooted, and remarkably fine plants.
They are of fuch rapid growth, that I faw.a fall
of this timber, which grew ina hedge-row, and
average, at twenty-one fhillings each tree ; and I
was afterwards informed that this price was much
beneath their real value. ‘I planted fome Pop-
lars (what we term Lombardy Poplars),
about twelve years ago, which are now ‘three
feet two inches in circumference at the thickeft
part, and upwards of forty feet high. This is
a pleafant looking tree, and does well enough in
an ornamental plantation; but the wood is of
little or no value. Another confiderable. advan-
tage in the white or black Poplar, is that a greater
number of them will grow on the fame fpace of
land, than of any other tree: For it is requifite,
that all the fide branches be dreffed off, every
two or three years, nearly to the top of the tree.
This gives fo much freedom to the circulation
of the air, and admits the fun fo freely among
them, that, on the fame fpace of land, may be
brought to perfection, a number double to that
of any other tree—For this reafon we fee them

fo

. of planting Wafte Lands, 359

fo frequently planted in hedge-rows, by the
fides of meadows and corn fields, in Lan-
cafhire and Chefhire, the farmers holding an
opinion, that from the loftinefs of the trees, and
from their being kept lopped as I have defcribed,
they do no damage by their fhade to the herbage
or grain beneath them. It muft be admitted,
that they will do lefs injury than trees whofe
numerous branches and thick foliage are im-
pervious to the fun and air; but I cannot
agree that they do none at all: And, not-.
withftanding the beautiful appearance which
trees planted in this manner give to the
face of a country, I muft condemn the mea-
fure of planting timber trees of any kind in
hedge-rows, as being highly injurious to the
fences beneath their branches, and the lana
within their fhade.

. The wood of this tree is applied to many
purpofes: It makes excellent boxes and packing-
chefts, in which the manufactures of this town
are conveyed abroad. Indeed there are few
ufes to which it is not applicable. With
many people it is in high repute for flooring-
boards, on account of its quality of refifting
fire; for it burns with difficulty, and feldom
burfts into a flame: on this account it is cer-
tainly very valuable in buildings. I am of
opinion that no wood can be better adapted for
-falfe keels, or planking the infide of thips than
this :

360 Obfervations on the Advantages

this; and, in the fcarcity of oak timber, every
thing which can be found as a fubftitute, or
may tend to leffen its confumption, muft be con-
fidered of importance to the country.

The loppings and underwood afford. estoallast
pofts, rails, hurdles, and fencing.

Young cattle delight to feed on the leaves.and

frefh fhoots of this tree more than any other; and
where there are large plantatiofis of it, in dry
fcorching fummers, when the paftures afford
little grafs, the leaves will be found an excellent
relief to farmers who have large ftock of young
beafts. If gathered in fummer and cured like
hay, they fupply a valuable fubftitute for that
article in feafons of feverity.
- The leaves fall in autumn in great abundance,
and when left on the ground, improve it fo
much, as to render barren moor land fertile
in a few years; and to thofe who live at a-
diftance from great towns, and find a diffi-
culty in procuring manure, I know few things
of equal value in the improvement of all foils,
but efpecially the light, thin, poor ones—Mixed
with earth, they form a ufeful compoft, and
with the addition of a little kelp and lime, a
cheap and excellent manure, as I can affert with
confidence derived from experience.

The Brrcu is alfo a tree which will’ grow

well in the fituation I have been defcribing ; ; but,
as

of planting Wafte Lands. 361

as this tree alfo delights in a light fandy foil,
and as we need not its additional evidence to
prove the advantages of planting barren watfte
lands, while we have many fuperior to it in
value and in beauty, I fhall pafs over it, and
proceed to land of an oppofite 'defcription to
what has been now confidered.

II. Several parts of this kingdom: abound. in
dry burning fands, in barren heaths, and moors
unfavourable to every purpofe of cultivation.
The advantages which may refult from planting
fuch lands, may, in fome degree, be appretiated
by the recital of a few circumftances which have
fallen within my knowledge ;

I fhall begin with a {mall plantation of
Scotch Firs (Pinus fylveftris), growing on
a moor in the North Riding of Yorkthire.
This plantation is on a high mound of grey
fand, in extent not, more than three-fourths of a.
ftatute acre, which was laid down for this purpofe
thirty ‘years ago. Its utmoft value could not
be eftimated at two fhillings and fixpence an acre
annually. But that the fubject I treat of, and
its advantages may not be over-rated; and that
no one may be led into error, I will allow '
at the rate of five fhillings an acre, and calculate
the benefits arifing from it; ftating the expences
of planting and fencing agreeably to what I
have paid myfelf for the fame kind of la-
bour; and efiimating the timber, according
to the valuation of an experienced perfon,

Yy who -

362 Objérvations on the ‘Advantages

who examined it carefully, and offered the
prices he ftated, for the trees as they ftood.

The whole fence was thirty-four rods in ex-
tent, of feven yards to the rod.

so d.
Cafting the bank perrod = 1 0
Quicks coft - - ° 3
Potts and rails, - - 1 3 Sie Se ibe
34 rods, at - Fatal Seog a: 5°
Mg coft per 100 raifing is. 0 12 8
sipar Anke ; making holes and planting 1s. 0 12 0 a oe

°
Thirty years rent of: three-fourths of an acre, at 3s.gd. perannum 5 12 6
Incidental expences (fuch as cleaning the plantation the firft

four years; keeping up the fence; and putting in trees 6 0

_ where any failed) I eftimate at - -

47.4, 2 bb

There were ftanding 980 large trees, which at a low valua-

tion of as. 6d. ‘each, is - =

Neat profit in thirty years 105 8 6

Ries i090 0

_ Therefore, after eftimating the land much
beyond its value, and making a full allowance
for the ceft and expences, it appears, this {mall
plot of ground produced 31. 10s. annually.
Here is another proof then of the great benefit
refulting from planting fuch grounds: I have
taken the eftimate of the quantity of trees firft
planted at 1200, to allow for fome failing; but
I have made no account whatever of the trees
which were taken out as they grew up, to give
room for the increafe of others, which’.would
doubtlefs have more than repaid the labour of
weeding and cleanfing the plantation for the firft
four years; and alfo abundantly fupplied the
fences, if any were broken down, before the
quicks grew up fufficiently.
As

of planting Wafte Lands. 363

As I have ftated my concern at the general
decreafe of timber trees in the kingdom, and
the. extent of land fo admirably adapted for
the purpofes of planting now lying wafte, it is
but juftice to mention, that there are fpi-
rited individuals, both.in England and Scot-
land, who have raifed noble plantations of trees,
ina ftate of annual improvement, on land which
before produced little or nothing, being of fo
poor a quality that an acre of it would fcarcely
afford maintenance to a fingle fheep: on fuch
are now growing thoufands of valuable trees,
rapidly advancing to profitable timber.— Among
the foremoft of thefe, may be ranked the plan~
tations of the Earl of Fife, ‘in the counties ‘of
Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray in North Britain.
This nobleman, in the fpace of thirty years,
has planted feven thoufand acres of bleak inhof-
pitable moors, and covered with beautiful forefts
a large extent of country’on which a fingle
tree never grew before; and where it was a2
general opinion, that trees could not thrive
“from the poornefs of the land, and its vici-
nity to the fea coaft. Another fpirited under-
taking of the fame kind in the North of Eng-
land, at Butsfield on Lanchefter Moor, in the
Abeihity of Durham, has been executed by Mr:
White of Retford, in Nottinghamfhire. —
Accounts of both thefe plantations, and their
increafe, are detailed in a letter from the owners,
: addrefled

364 Obfervations on the Advantages

addreffed to the Society in London, for the
encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Com-
merce, and inferted in Vols. V. and VI. of
that Society’s Tranfactions.

_ An acquaintance of mine who formerly re-
fided near Butsfield, before Mr. White began
his plantation, told me, that no land ever ex-
hibited a more forbidding appearance, and that
it was a prevailing notion in the country
that the fum expended for its improvement
would be thrown away: an opinion, to which,
at the time, he was much inclined to accede. On
his return, however, after an abfence of a few
years, with equal pleafure and furprize, he be-
held the fpot which he had left a barren wafte;
covered with goodly trees, at once an honour
and benefit to the fpirited undertaker, and an
ornament to the country.

Thofe who forbear to plant their heath or
moor-lands, from a fuppofition that they are
incapable of rearing trees, may take an ex-
ample of the fallacy of that idea, from the
thriving ftate of the plantation which the
Duke of Bedford has raifed on Woburn -
fands.— A few years ago, the ground was
a barren wafte of hungry, fterile, devour-
ing fand, which fearcely yielded fuftenance to
a blade of grafs—the laft time I paffed the place
it was changed into a wood of healthy thriving
firs. I mention this young and {mall plantation, _

becaule

of planting Wafte Lands. 365

becaufe every one who has paffed that road muft
be convinced, that.no Jand could have a more
unpromifing appearance for the growth of wood
than this had.

I truft ic has been proved by the foregoing
faéts, that two of the moft unpromifing kinds of
land, in which this kingdom abounds, and
which have hitherto been deemed barren, may,
by attention, be brought to be equally; if not
more profitable, than lands of the beft quality in
the ufual courfe of hufbandry.

Among the obfervations made, I have only
pointed out fuch trees as feem beft adapted to
each fituation; but I with it not to be inferred
trom this, that others of our beit and moft valua-
ble timbers will not alfo grow on the fame fitua-
tions— The contrary is the fact. And it is
neceflary that a judicious mixture of oak, ath,
elm, and many other woods fhould be made in
forming a plantation. The kinds I have de-
{cribed as moft defiring thefe fituations, and being
of quick growth, will become excellent nurfes to
others ; and, as they attain maturity, or grow
too thick, may be removed .to make room
for the reft, and thus furnith % conftant’ fuc-
ceffion of profits from the firft planting. [|
cannot here refrain from {peaking greatly in
favour of the Larch Fir, (Pinus Larix) both as
a tree of great beauty, which will make pro.
_ digious advances in fuch land as I have laft
defcribed,

366 Obfervations on the Advantages

defcribed, and alfo as a wood of great value,
and an excellent defence for other trees, forming
in a fhort time a comfortable fcreen around thofe
that are lefs hardy. Ihave planted large num-
bers of them round fome pianesciind I have
made; and nothing can exceed the beautiful -
appearance thefe lively fkirts of ten Cala

early in the fpring. ws
Ill. ‘Fhe laft kind of land I fhall notice in
thefe obfervations, are thofe mountainous tracts
of barren rocky hills, which are met with in
many parts of the country ; and which at prefent
are nearly ufelefs. It is unneceflary to enlarge
much upon this fubject, where the faéts lie fo
much within the range of common obfervation.
View the large chain of hills, or rather rocks,
which feparate the vale of Cleveland from the
moors in the North Riding of Yorkthire! Thefe
hills are clad with oaks from the foot to: the
fummit. Between Thirfk and _ Stokefley,
woods of this defcription afford a moft charm-
ing and delightful appearance for miles to-
gether: where the land in general, a flinty
rock floping to the north, is incapable of
cultivation, haying little or no foil, except
the feanty portion which the rains have wafhed
into fiffures and crevices. In thefe oaks have
fixed their roots, and made fuch growth, that,
on one 9 the hills, a furvey of the timber
made

of planting Wafte Lands. 367

made about two years ago, as I am informed,
eftimated its value at thirty thoufand pounds.
What a noble fortune to the younger branches

of the family to whom this wood was left!
Evelyn tells us, in his Sy/va, of an Italian
Nobleman, who, after his Lady was brought to
bed of a daughter (confidering that wood and
timber were a revenue coming in whilft the
owners were afleep) ordered his lands to be
planted ‘with 100,000 trees, calculating that
each tree might be worth twenty-pence by the
time his daughter became marriageable, which
would amount to near 10,000l. which he in-
tended to be her portion.
This practice I am told is not uncommon in
Holland, where they plant the Asere for the
purpofe of portioning out the younger branches
of families; and this fyftem muft have our
warmeit approbation, if we confider the certain
advantages refulting from it, and the benefit
derived to a country from keeping up a fuccef-
fion of timber. Boucher reports, that he fold
elms, of his own raifing, at twenty-four years —
growth, for one guinea each, and. thefe not
feleGed, but a whole line of them together,
confifting of above fixty in number: And he
farther informs us, that he planted the eighth
part of an acre of fterile red clay-land with afh
trees,, the product of which, in twenty-three
years, ‘was after the rate of £115:10:0. an acre,
or

368 Obfervations on the Advantages

or £5 per acre annually. But to detail proofs
of advantages of this kind, eftablifhed on un-
exceptionable authority, would require a vo-
lume. One circumftance, however, I cannot
avoid mentioning. It is on the authority of
Evelyn. He fays, ‘‘ It is fuppofed there may
** be twenty-fix millions of fquare acres in
** the kingdom (exclufive of fens, highways,
‘* rivers, Q&c. &c. not eftimated). Now,
** value but the annual growth of timber at
** four-pence each acre; and it will amount to
‘ nearly half a million fterling, exclufive of
** the maft and loppings.” But if I eftimate
right, that, out of thefe twenty-fix millions of
acres, one eighth part is deftitute of any profits
whatever, and yet capable of being improved
(as I truft has been fhewn): allowing the annual
growth of each acre to be no more than ten
fhillings on the average, the benefit to the
country is upwards of one million five hundred
thoufand pounds each year, exclufive of the
timber growing on the remaining twenty-three
millions of acres. And, when we confider the
large fums paid to foreign countries for timber,
and its increafing fcarcity in this, it will furely
be worth the confideration of every true friend
to his country, and every benevolent and patrio-
tic mind, to refle€t but a moment on the eftimate
thus moderately calculated. Let him then draw
; the

The Inverfe Method of Central Forces, 36g

the conclufién in his own mind, what pro-
fits will accrue to every judicious planter of
timber, and what advantages our pofterity
and our country “ere! reap from fuch exer-
tions.

The Inverse Metuop of CentrRar
Forces.

Communicated by Enwarv Hoimz, M.D,

THE following Tract being upon
a fubje&t of confiderable difficulty, the writer
of it (whofe name we are not permitted to
mention) hopes it will be examined with due
candour and lenity.
He is aware, that if it contain any thing new,
- it is in the third propofition. But, as it could
not be eafily detached from what precedes, this
circumftance will he trufts be an apology far
troubling the reader with the whole of what he >
has here done.
Z 2 If

370. The Tnwerfe. Method

_ If proper ‘data could have-been procured, an
_attempt to calculate the motion of the Moon’s
-Opfides would have been made. ' But finding: that
a very {mall variation in the requifites already
known affects the conclufions confiderably, it
was thought beft to proceed no farther at prefent
in fo very complicated an enquiry.

ee
\
THE INVERSE METHOD OF CENTRAL
FORCES.

PROPOSITION I.

HE centripetal force being inverfely as the
nth. power of the diftance from the
centre, and the direction and velocity of a body
at ‘any point v being-given ; to determine the
‘orbit, &c.— ;
_ Fig. I. Let C be the centre of force, V the
point from which the body is proje@ed, V n WV
the trajeCtory. in which it moves, and V Z
a circle defcribed from the centre C at the dif-
tance CV: tothe points V, », of the orbit draw
the tangents V P, » p; and from the centre of
‘force C let fall the perpendiculars C P, C p upon
the tangents; join C,, and produce Cz to Y,
and draw Cr X indefinitely near to Cy; laftly,
draw tv perpendicular to Cm. - Put CV==r,
Cis

—.>

. of Central Forces. ° 371
CP=P, Cn==y, Cp=p, the velocity at V==v,
the velocity at »==v, the velocities being mea-
fured by the {paces defcribed in the time (1).
If O be the centre of curvature of the trajec-
tory at the point #, then it is well known that

On= Ha Draw, OR perperidicular to Cz; the
triangles Cpn, OR» are fimilar, therefore’ Cu
() Cp (e) 2: On (2): Rae Yay chord of

curvature’ pafling through the centre of force.
But the centripetal force, .eftimated by the velo-
city generated in the time @), is = the ‘fquare
of ne velocity divided by 4 the chord. of cur-

yo Stee uv \
vature =v? farsi L_VEb 1 and p*: Pe: U3 U3
Se Es )
: . ' : P? yp?
therefore the centripetal force = < - oS eet

Y bora }
this expreffion be put = ——., 4 being a con-

. Pp es ons
ftant quantity ; wherefore wt om Gry:

P 9 i
Multiply both fides of the equation by 5, and
P?y* ~ Artn
take the fluents, then £2 = ORES Mt DSSS
2p m—1l xX y m—1
P?y?

But at V this equation becomes
Att}
n—1 + r™
P?y? v" at ns and yn—1 _yn—t

F ¢ — = TR OR Sy
2 p* 2 oat asi eee yr b

Q" Pay

, therefore the correct fluent. gives

372 | The Inverfe Method
If a body defcend directly towards the centre

1
by an accelerating force = - », ah ea the

velocity it has acquired when at the diftance y
from that centre, then it is well known that
Att

“% —j=uu. Take the fluents; then

«a4
; 2 in
a—1 xX jy" 2 ae x or “

requires no correction if the body defcend from
an infinite height; for in that cafe both fides
of the equation vanifh at the fame time. At
the point V, therefore, or at the diftance r from
the centre, the {quare of the velocity acquired

by defcending from an infinite height =

n--3 n-f-s
2 & . Let therefore in general am Ane
m——i K r?—* n—~1 Xr"!

= v?, where m may be either greater, equal to,
or lefs than unity. Hence by fubftitution and
reduction, we have

V aaxPy es =

ie bi aha ye * ™m {* 1
i Seaegees
n—t1 x 1
= fi Serie
2. p= 2 hea) a3
gg oe
ms 1—m x Psy . -
3 P= : m 2A
ct tle
— yo There-

of Central Forces. 373

Therefore it is evident, that if a body be
aéed upon by a fingle force which tends to
a fixed point, the law of that force being
given, the equation of the curve it defcribes
has been determined: except in that particular
cafe where == 1, or the force is inverfely as
the diftance of the body from the centre; for
then the above equations fail.

Take s:1:: velocity in the cutve at V (v):

velocity in a circle at the fame diftance =,
; J

2 ) + n+4
then 2+ r= Se) force: attr y sy
xr r
2
Art om Ant
whence v? == = elie) therefore

Pah gba Xe
2m n—l a
sro repre and w= sox pasa which value of
m may be fubftituted for it in any of the three
equations found above.

P? 2S 26
When. m==1, we have 3 cmt At ; hence,
o

b ; P’v’ : 1
y taking the fluents, oat ae ty WOE, rh but

° . P V Vv
at V, this equation becomes eo > A’ XK

jog. +; therefore the fluent corre@ed gives
r

P* vy?

2 p*

2 .
aa 7 = A’ x lg. cn But we have juft
found

374 The Inverfe Method

Ant 2
found that = OM jae (+ =) * upon the pre-
2
fent fuppofition ; therefore A? = = fubftitute

2

and reduce, then p* = a Ow? sees

1 IY, log. sf
a J
Re a ane 5 Pad
, the equation of the curve.

Vine i +75 z X bog. —

Next, to find hae angle defcribed, or r the Nat
of the line joining the centre of force and the
body in refpect of the line CV for any given
value of it. By fimilar triangles we. have
y? : p? ::tn® :¢v?, and by divifion,

y>_p® +p? s:'un®: iv?
aii vast sene TO oan
exe. ep? ye tir? pe tsun® 2X2 i22 9% 282 (eben.
ing fuppofed = XY) ; confequently
é beets whatever be the
Vy — pi
value of n. Subftitute therefore, in this. equa-
tion, the feveral values of p found above, and
there will arife the following equations:

Pay cae —— x Py)

%

Tas a i
Dee n— m 2 al—2 m1
m—1
. rP = 3 ry
2 Nae 7 Ss z tat
n—1 —__. Pp ayn— —
eee oi ys oa aes

of Central Forces. 375
rv

ag 4/7 ad Saray ere
i. —_—y

1—™m

core tl

If 2 == 1, then by gee in the fame
equation, the value of p found above, we have
Sp oe Fanless ae as
IVT 42x lg. rx y—P

> s*
all the curves may be conftructed.
~~ Tt muft be obferved, that the pofitive or nega-
tive: fign takes place, according as the body
afcends from, or ay ig towards the centre.

x T? W9 ma—1
in general, and

z= 4 Hence

mecale.p* == a

yt + psi
at an apfe it is nT that py; hence, in that
cafe, there arifes by reduction, the following
equation ;_ viz. Pr? eee Sy yes da 95
from whence, and the proper equation for 2,
the number and pofition of the apfides may be
determined. *

It may be obferved that the quantity under
the radical in the value of * being put = a,
gives the equation for determining the apfides-

If m be fuppofed greater than unity, and y
infinite, then will p == Y/_«~ x P==a perpen-
dicular upon the afymptote to the curve. de-

{cribed

* See the note placed at the end of this Tract.

-

NTE oe WE Inve ‘Mittod

feribed by the Bbaiy, or its diftance from. mc
centre of force.. This. expreflion, it may ‘be
obferved, is not affected by the value of x. Hence .
if the value of z be determined upon the above
fuppofition, the afymptotes to the _ trajectory
may eafily be drawn.

' If m_be lefs than unity, andy infinite, then

1 Aten x P

p ae gsr opt therefore the curve has not
an afymptote. Laftly, if m= 1, the perpen-
dicular upon the afymptote will be infinite.
~ In all thefe cafes the body may defcend to the
centre, if x be greater than. unity; becaufe in
that cafe, when y=o0, p=o. But if x be lefs
than unity, the body can only arrive at the
centre in a ftraight line. For the equation

Vie pt
See Fe
= A ss a Ae , becomes p =
yo + m—1
i—7
m Pr . . °
lms 195 ; in which cafe, when y= 0,

“ V 7X Satay 8
the value of p is pofitive, infinite, or impof-
fible, unlefs P at the fame time be equal to
nothing. But it is evident that p can never be

greater than y. 3
It will likewife ‘eafily appear, that when —
“naa, the body may defcend to the centre;
. > <f08

Pe quantity when : <a = 0.

+ of Central Forces. . 377
sci e = =P? prcelsy an infinite
eet, th Xe > stele te
’ &

r ‘P?

But if the body begin to afcend, ‘the ereateft
height atewhich it can arrive may r be found,
by making p=y;. at which time | it comes to,
an apfe. :

Cor. 1. If n==o, or the facto be ee" oe '
at all diftances from the centre, then p=,

Nek = 1 Ke ste

‘but g=s* XS
2
Vr oy ag
° " sP r? °
ft i fi So =

erefore, by fubftitution, p: ne acaeaey
the equation of the curve defcribed » by the

body. %
- Likewife, ‘it ‘will eafily appear, that a ea

>

sPr? I

The ese
yt
for Rade teat the oe will be found'to > bd
Past ot xry ray Pp This equa- |

xt: Py

tion 3 three real roots, as is evident from
the latter part of the note in the propofition: two

- of them are pofitive and one ‘negative; for they

Jaft term of the equation is politive. The nega- .

: ee ea 8 SE.

ae “. ‘
° ~ , p ;
‘ @ ,. ‘*
sare ‘ £ ‘ “e * wr
7a re Pa) : es **
.

“a 378." Taha The Inverfe Mato % Bue me

“¢<

s “tive ‘root belongs to a part of a pag Ss”
aA ‘curve “wliofe, muncavity is turned “yay the.¢ centre
of force...” pox “ge:
Se |, GOR. Qe If »n==2, or’ the Force be © a
‘cally. as the fquare of eit a the value of |
?, will bécome nw hte.

a? £ ;
wri? et 4 ¢

¥

” . ® ° a)

» oe e.g fim . : ory 8
| .* : PY eon ae Ds Py : . «

a?
‘. : grin “ a ;
* 1 poy ; 7 a ne met sie
; 5 ° Sf x2 ; ah ‘
Pg . . J ot m1 : * ik x
_ ’ «2 ° s .
ty aE °

.

Pe Se ibaa 3 4 , “Finck She ; m<dt

go” Nae eae thosealponite ‘values of ¥ will be

a ie ‘ nee t Moor x by | ote

fon CO sr esneonncr me a
MB hy 4% jel gael presacgsl ie pase
any fe | | je 7.
IVry— P? cP ;

| ; 4 . ge 2 gaa 1—m X Py es ' 7

it : a eT o,f
L “REY ae ar lr a :" c .
» . i: *. ' In. é |
7 . i ~ , ° ®- *
a. a ° es . a
‘ — a . :-

. yi geth ee, ae . o. .

.
* s.

Vets e wy * of Cintrad eee, "a ‘a4 379°.

sto 4 "Seale fedion if A Roe B ba the Naiatroute: 4 :

and-conjugate axes, L the Jaths retlunis. y the.

diftance’ of any, ‘point in the feétion: 1, from the

“focus, and pa perpendicular from thence upon

a 5 aetcRt to that point ; then. per ‘conics ‘p=
LBy. ne

———

VA Le ee

place according. 4s the curve* eee AP ako :

or ellipfe; but in the parabola, “ being"infinite;

the ers or noes, ‘fign aking,

y will vanifh. ‘Hence, becaufe® in. this, ait ”

m= ——— Xs" =f", it is evident that ba firte

equation ae to’ an, hyperbola, — A being =,
ae Baa as aaa

a

m—1 > 152 —_—2 rh vs? ie % ° r t ~

o “Eiki. 4

: B? Sn P* ae P
and L= i= ——

r

the perpendicular upon the afymptote= aif es faa

- >

ae ~ ad’ : *

“x Pags= “ A

” The fecénd is, an equation of the parabola

7" » 4B

=a

from whenct it will appear that —,— : 7 alee x iv Ee

a th P PP .
or a —— te
» 2 v8 Y

“The third equation belongs to .an llipleg *

= epg 5 oe (Se
5 adie

*.
y

“as P ay

380 | The Inverfe Method ee! a
a oF *? ** 1 ie
bi i , and Jatus reetuad pe saa
v g—s r

7 om

- From what has been oBferved"s above it wills ‘

evidently follow, that, if the centripetal force
~ CC [vary as] the, iquare of the diftance from
the centre reciprocally, ‘the curve defcribed ay
the body will be a conic fection,’ or circles.

“All the common properties of bodies moving
in conic feétions may eafily be deduced from
the above. equations; but that is not the inten-
| tion of this: Propofition.

: Can. gi.” [fF in==3,5 tbe values of p found in
he Prop. will become. *

1. = m—t1 x Py - :
A 72? a ‘me 1
y, = + m—tL ; 4
2 pHs xX Ms Belo Doth og? aaa
ay: at x Py
3 £, 2 ; > i <I.
e oy x

“*

. y= mP* =x. P?

2 ¢ m -y 3
by a/) + n—1 ° ny _ aria
me 1 . ; MPs

° 2. 2S

: vs Pr ‘ y ae
: a 4S r z ‘iio ” m=l1.
m1 9 ——_. Vr? P® y “an sv,
+ + *#. a" >
: 5 ia de’ ole hd ae
out 1m GH Py
3 —— *
ba i Te / aan aah eS Ra NTS
; mi Te,
— . 1—7 v

The firft value of 3, in which m is greater
- than unity, may be {ubdivided into three others,
: a sania asm P® is greater, equal to, or lefs

than r* ‘ .
1. ids P* be greater than +”, the ccludiii

P?

_for determining the apfides becomes y?—

. 7 7 . _ * } Bilin

RP ¥ Mit {Jar h

Peg! ible wherefore y= pone ne

‘J ‘curve therefore has an apfe and twas ee ae
Bis legs.

ww ‘By taking the correé& fluent it wilh’ aie

iM TY ee eee

s. mP* —yr*

that yee: x the Giocence of

> 2 My,
; Vina an at xX the difference of
its. * : m—1 Ym P2—?
‘two arcs whofe fecants are 1% Vm—1X7y

= _ and
& “ee Vm P?—r* .
Yn— x +°. and radius =r; hence the tra-
Vv ™ t a oe rs : ’

Be rae . _ jectory,

‘two arcs whofe pene are y and r, and radius

~

- s . ‘ J . -
oy yore -® achhid . o> ¢ «+
a ¢ 4 F al it, ri .

; g » 382) 1 Th Inthe Mota

’ ‘, a whe ?
eae ; je@ork is. tel *eGnftruded, fc ning any
ol -nutnber of. BY its at pleafure. i:

‘Tf P= hy ‘orthe body be’ ‘projected - at fight

Mic ails tO a: linedrawn, from the centre of “Torce,’

fu. te _

; then oh ea oe are whofe. fecant ~, and. i;
Pons tad. = fi*s To coniftrita the orbit upon this fup-
’ *-pofition; from the’ centre. C,,at the diftance.
CV=r, (Fig. 2. ) deferibe _ the, circle VQS;
take any arc VR, and draw ‘the tangent’ RT;

eo one VR fer S13: Wm yr
ae m—1 *

Percale zs 3 bY sed Ns ear eee CG. 2 which —
produce. to n: making Ca=. ie Se then 2 will :
' be a point in the curve. If V.QS be taken to
a.quadrant in. the above proportion, and, nG.5. >
be produced indefinitely, it will be parallel to"
an afymptote to the curve. This is too evident
* to require any particular proof. From _ the
centre Cdraw CP perpendicular. to Cee and

ae anis mn or rea, a.
take i= Bi A F aa Vita,” _ and.

. through the point P draw PL parallelto CL,
and-it will be an afymptote to pte curve or
trajectory.

The number of revolutions which the body “
will make, . while going. from an apfe to an
infinite diftance, ‘will evigends be equal 10

. : *

mir

*

a Nes its * wy Spee

2 spain nat, > iad 2

e ae Dos SH re : eae

“es ae . b ite \ ie °

bie a x. quadrant ee magne

7 O > op gga ae : ae a ror
aor pbb sc nchaion ut ee x » dir
2. ae Pot then p=" ay 45. PST
° : < , + Te -m—1 :
the og he of the hijperbalic fpiral ;. the body »
will therefore revolve in ‘this curve, and will
come to an apfe at ‘ane centre. + For at at that‘timne -

We — 7"

y= =V —- ey: “Its will likewife appear °

gw aE

thats = <rP x “Ak the correct
$

fluent therefore sis m= ee £Y

NOre == —. Pare F, whenthe body

se and z=

m—t1 ie
defcends. If the body be infinitely diftant fom
the centre, then.z = Bek a Re Hence ifs

Conca. ey. the number of revolutions which
the body will defcribe in ie as to an infinite

«f 4. x Sena Be gh

a":

aves BX patie.

4 :
:

* height from the diftance v=
e ; m—j1 Xx. ey =
Qcr= es P. ab 2
; Ag ntl si On Sas 2 a eS.

saa for V* x Peer. In defeend-
2CY s?@—} ing

4. SOs The: ane Hetkd
ing to the . centre, its 3s ’ evident, that the
number: of * “revolutions will be infinite ; for

wr"s when ty Be. Ms xe Fart re ‘is infinite. .. The’.
Ny y 0
*; Valieee” of pe afymptote. from the — =
. - a ~ etn ‘ : +
we S X Pe Fe = i”
Pe v * ‘* ’ . vo “ee V 5? —~is . ,

3, If m: iP be lefs than r*, then the value _
of y, when the body arrives at an apfe, _—_— ae

Wf ice ail “becomes impofbible 5 : there
mi
upon this futipolition the fei can never come
me “a to an apfe. But it may either defcend to the
“© centre, or: 20, off to an infinite diftance, as is
: sige” from the equation to the curve.

>
*”’

Seca z= ier = antabins [rr Pye by taking
; r? —m P” ‘
., : hy Jy Stee 1— +

=i)
.

| the fluent z= ey aes acca xX le.

and corrected z == + r P ———— « log.
Vm. Vin. PP P+ Vr? —mP
Pei +r’ —mP* + V7 — miP*

of gen Forces. il 366

It y be infinite, thane en P ear
ae ee “a “|

, Pp? = “m P® —.” . n

a Vem P + VF ‘The body will

oF Vim
- therefore go off to an infinite diftance in
a finite number of revolutions.

But if y==o, the value of the ‘fenttians

Vin P —PXV re mP oe

Vin—1 y° ab 7? P? ob M gee Te)
nothing, wherefore .the body will make an
infinite number of revolutions in defcending to
the centre. From the above equations the

trajectory may be conftructed.
Next, if m==1, the equation of the trajectory

being pale xy, the curve in io ig the body

P.
moves is the log. fpiral. But 2=+ ys ;
x xa, therefore z= ts x log. when

y a Pe rT
the sehen afcends, and z= <A oan x lope? =
é ge ew a een

1 it defcends; wherefore, = body can
neither defcend to the centre, nor go off to an
infinite diftance in a finite number of revolu-
tions. If P=r, or the body be projected at
right angles to the line drawn from the centre,
it is evident that it will defcribe a circle.

Bbb ’ In

386 The Inverfe Method

In the laft cafe, when m is lefs than
unity, the equation of the trajectory is p=

bf PY

» anda sh ;

rT f

1—m y
ah ey os |
—~——_—_____———_——.._ It is evident that when
4 r?>—mP*
Be Gs as oi are

1—m

y=, eo the body may therefore defcend. to

xP

the centre; but if y be infinite, v= ube

—1
therefore the body cannot afcend to an infinite
height. It is likewife evident from the above
equation, that when y increafes, p increafes ;
but p can never exceed y, therefore when they
are equal, that is, at an apfe, y will be the
greateft poffible ; but then y== dfs ca at ask

anes, CN
Wherefore, after the body has paffed an apfe, it
will defcend to the centre.

Beeaufe Se epre ke “Ae

rey telcgroe Se ae ay

rect fluent being taken, os a equation re-
duced

, the cor-

of Central Forces. 38 7

duced’ we have z = r P. ar og
r” —m P?
JE: — m P* GS sige 5% eam
1 1—-n 1—m
fe) ==
t+log. ; 7
fae FP’ fie m P* ‘
log. fae - Berg a)

If P=r, or the body be proje€ted from an
apfe, thenz—=r — x log.
A i 6 Ve —y’

and when y==o, the value of the fra@ion

>?

OY is infinite, as may be found either
by taking the fluxions of the numerator and
denominator, or by expanding 3+ —— ys ang
dividing y by the denominator; hence the body
will make an infinite number of revolutions
before it arrives at the centre. .

The orbit may be conftructed in the following
manner. Let the rectangular hyperbole V 4
(Fig. 3.) be defcribed, whofe centre is C and
vertex V; join C A, and draw the the tangent
AT tothe point 4, and A B perpendicular to
the axis VB. Let CV=r, CB=x, and CT ==y.
It is well known that the fluxion of the feétor

Bbb2 CV A

388. The Inverfe Method

t:r:y, there-

2 ata but x:7

beets r ; ry
fore x= ri and « ==— —— , confequently |

y
a x r ry
a * Va oe ee ee
Infrommnct
v4 ¥
J == fluxion of the fector CV A.

29V 7? — y?

But in this cafe ¢ ——

5 ie:

Sse 1—m x r* y
VV er? a y?
fore the Aluxion of thecircular fettor CVY =

ph es OE
— Take )/SPE 1s: hy-
AY V7? ays pap
perbolic fector: circular fector VCY, and make
Coors then is pa point in the traje@ory.

From this conftru@tion it will eafily appear,
that the number of revolutions which the body
muft make before it arrives at the centre will
be infinite, becaufe the area CV A increafes
without limit.

Or the trajectory may be conftruéted in the
following manner, Defcribe the femicircle
SVD (Fig. 4).) with the radius Ch =r;
draw AB perpendicular to G D, and fuppofe
it equal to > and take the arc V R= the difference

of

‘of Central Forces. 389

of the hyperbolic logarithms of AB and BD mul+
tiplied into pyf 2 Peand, tke Cp = 25s

then is p a point in the trajectory, as will be

i ae = 23 ™
evident from the equation zr ,/ a

Tog. tee
P— Yr? — yf"

Becaufe the ratio of 4B to BD is - infinitely
great when AD is evanefcent, the number of
“revolutions before the body arrives at tthe centre,
amuft be infinite.

acate
Cor.'4: ‘If'n==4,.then, p=

Bp aloud xrP yy
iach and ¥?

game

— is the equation for

determining the apfides; where m may be greater
than, equal to, or lefs than unity. The ratios
of m to unity, and of Ptor being given, it
will be eafy to determine when all the roots
of this laft equation are real, and when two
of them are impoffible. If the body be pro-
jefed from an apfe, or P==7+, then all the

the

390 The Inverfe Method

the roots are real, two being pofitive and one
negative, which belongs to a part of the curve
having its coneavity turned from the centre of

force.
eek ae
if goers) ther pis —
ee r
# m—t1
Sb is ee gf eat rPyy
Loy yes ey see Eee eee
oY ™m—t1 yar m r?
IV » ——P’y* +
vi eerees m—1
and y* — 4 Pas <== 0, is the equa-

tion for Betining che poe here, like-
wife, mmay be greater than, equal to, or lefs
than unity. The feveral parts of this curve
might eafily be traced out when m is greater
or lefs than unity, but notice will only be taken
of that cafe in which m==1, or the body is
projected with the fame velocity as it would
acquire by falling from an infinite height. In

this cafe p=

the centre of force being in the circumference,
32

* 7 3
and the diameter = > For, let C in the

circumference of the circle AVC, be the centre
of force, C.A the diameter (Fig, 5.) V the point
from

of Central Forces. 391

from which the body is projected, 2 any other
place in the circle; draw the tangents V P, up,
and the perpendicular CP, Cp, and join V, 4,
and », A. Then by fimilar triangles CP: CV

::CV:CA, thatis,; P:r::7r:CA= _ and

x2

Cp: Cuz: Cn: CA; that is, p:y is y: Pp , there-

fore, p= 6

It will eafily appear, that upon this fuppe-
fition, the periodic times in different circles
would be as the cubes of their diameters diretly ;
taking it for granted that a revolution were
peffible.

Cor. 5. If 2==1, or the force be diredtly

, pn
as the diftance, then, wm = 2 xs? = —s°;

>

/ = x Py

yin

OR «Brey
therefore by fubftitution and reduction p =
sPr

Po SF y ae

hence becaufe in general, p=

and 20s

s Pr 4
J (mnie) fea rey? —— 5? P? x?
above is an equation to .an ellipfe, the centre

of

392 The Inverfe Method’

of force being in its centre. For, if 2 R= the
tranfverfe, and 2 C = the conjugate axis, y =the
diftance from the centre, and p= the perpendicu~

lar upon the tangent, then 2= —===——=>=>—= *
ir UpO § P VERE Tey

_ Compare this with the above equation, and it
willeafily appear, that2 R= Vepy rp esPr
+ Vary .F — 2% Pr, ang }2 C=
PLS Toe. ser V st yr —asPr.
The fame conclufion may likewife be deduced
from the equation for determining the apfides,
which has two roots pofitive, and two equal
to them and negative.

Cor, 6. Ifm==1,thens? — ; which,
if a be greater than 3, is lefs than unity,
and the body in this cafe muft fall to the
centre; and the number of revolutions it will
make before it arrives there, may be determined
in the following manner. In this cafe p =

i—1

na—t1
n—1 —_—

Pith. Tas 2 Wien ry On eee
n—1 r*3
“o* 2

body moves from an apfe; therefore p:y::
yer ‘=. But when y and pare evanefcent,
r= is infinitely greater than p, and confe-
quently at that time the angle x Cp (Fig. 2.)

will be a right angle. From the equation of
the

of Central Forces. 393

the curve it will cafily appear that = — x

. Let A, anda reprefent the. angles defcrib-

ed by Cp, and Cx, refpectively fince the body
tae ae
Basie |

BE. is A ia x a, and A= ms thse |

left an apfe; then, becaufe A:a::

ae

for A and a begin ayes But d= Q9+a
when y= o, or the body arrives at the centre;
Cec hence

* If a body revolve in a curve of any kind round a
centre of force; to compare the’ angular velocity of the
perpendicular upon the tangent with that of the diftance
from the centre, or radius veétor.

Let P QW (Fig. 6.) be the curve in which the body
moves, S the centre of force, and C the centre of cur-
vature. Let P, Q be two points in the curve inde-
finitely near to each other, to which the tangents P Y,
Qy are drawn; let fall the perpendiculars SY, Sy, and
QT, which laft may be taken for the arch of a circle
defcribed from the center S. It is evident that the angles

YS Oe OP ie

PSQ, P-GQ are to each other as See

: P Pp y
> Gp (by fimilar triangles) ime: cp: But CP=
: , and the angle PCQ = YS), therefore the angle.
PSQ sie 352s a BaP

394 The Inverfe Method

2
hence we have a= ——~ x Qa

2X n—3 hie
ee Q being a Re and C = the circum-
ference of a circle whofe radius =r. ‘The num-

! ’ i
ber of revolutions therefore =

2X 1—3

If x be lefs than 3, s muft be greater than
unity; therefore the body projected at right
angles to a line drawn from the centre of force,
and with a greater velocity than would make it
defcribe a circle, it muft begin to afcend; and
it muft ever continue rifing, as its velocity is
equal to that acquired by ain from an infinite

height. Becaufe p:y: :y°>, therefore
when y is infinite, p is alte and hence
the angle pC Pr a at ine time is a right angle.

As above, A= by a, anda= 9-4, there-

2 1

fore a= x Q=—==— x C._ Hence

oes 2.3-—2

the number of revolutions the body defcribes

in afcending to an infinite height = $5402:
2X 37%

SCHOLIUM.

{ Vv . - e .
Becaufe hoe velocity in a circle at the dif-

tance r from the centre, and if the force OC
i

of Central Forces. 395

1 ~- ale ° . a ]
- the velocities in circles will © ——=
. 2

(Princip. Prop. 4-) confequently — x=
ye

= velocity ina circle at the diftance y from the
Pv

centre. But = velocity in the trajectory

at the diftance y; if, therefore, we make

Bae aoe Eee aes al” ae” thease
P ‘ y a—1 Ay

time the body be fappofed to arrive at an
apfe, in which cafe p? =y*? =

x P? 1 ad
Ag = , it would continue to move
yo Es ae i
m—1

for ever in this circle. But coming to an apfe,
it muft afcend or defcend in a fimilar and
equal curve, hence it never can arrive at the
diftance y from the centre, determined from the
above equations, in any finite number of revo-

: b Pv
lutions. Making, therefore, as above r =
™—1 .
LA 2 UV 2 2 2 y os
so & —, we have p> = P? 3? X - =
Athy = i

n—1
« tora

Cee? Mm

396 Lhe Inverfe Method

m m
—— X Py a De brs eee
ea , henee; >
Y m—t1 pe rr
ate ‘ a
y ae maa bio
: ie x P? yin?
PYG RY SP (Soa! (
But becaufe p* = y* =
yf : ° K u—121
aoa
m—1)
7 r—1 " .

b rice + Benes tl Sas Cy x P bape gs? P?
: m—l | m—1 e
idl Ad ° -

4 i But the equation for determining

m a vet
the apfides is y*-t — ———— P’ y*-3+ =9,
. m—1 m--1
u—1

Or Tyr

eR Re tlhe RET
m—1. S° —

Nt oda ; cee
=o; whence by fubftitution-we

I—l. $S —2

m—1. r*—1 Panis

+

have you — —————
nat mu—1l.s° — 2 m—1. $7 — 9

n—
== 0, Or yes a= 3

a Bt es or x r-?, there-
n—1. 3° ——.2 :

Lu 1

3\n
sain le ANS Ih
(A ae MRS

ee

2 — n—1 n—
fore y ete a

u—l1. Se saad 9

bie =

of Central Forces. 397

2m , ‘
xX r, becaufe = s*. It is evident from
f} n— { j

-infpection, that ~ muft be greater than 3 and m
greater than unity; the force therefore muft
vary in an higher proportion than the cube of
the diftance inverfely. . If the body defcend ©
pris mutt be
‘greater than unity. If it afcend, then 1—3

from the point v, then s* =

muft be greater than x—1 s* —®, and there-
fore s*, and confequently s, lefs than unity.
From the above equations and _ obfervations,
we have the following conftruction. (Fig. 7.)
-Let C be the centre of force, V the point from
which the body is projected in the dire@tion V P,
which makes an acute angle with CV, and
with a velocity greater than would make it
move in the circle vzu if projected at right
angles. With the centre C and radius Ca =
i

n—1 hese |

xr defcribe the circle add,

N—1, 5° —9
and from C upon V P let fall the perpendicular

au—1

CP, making it equal to

from what has been determined in this Scholium,
it will be evident, that the body will move in
the

39% The Inverfe Method

the curve V W,.to which V P is a tangent,
continually defcending towards the circle ahd,
but will never arrive at it in any finite number
of revolutions. This circle is therefore an
afymptote to the trajectory.

In the fame manner, if s be lefs than unity,
or the velocity-with which the body is projected
in a line V J, which makes an acute angle
with V A, be lefs than the velocity of a body
in the circle VUZ; then with the centre C

1

oe

n—3 |n—l

and radius C4=

x r de-

u—1 . 5° —2
fcribe the circle 4B D, and from C upon TV
produced let fall the perpendicular CP, which

n—1

make equal to =o then the body,

sx CA =
will continually afcend from the centre, but
will never arrive at the circle 4BD. This
circle, therefore, is likewife an afymptote to the
curve in which the body moves,

Hence, if a body be projected from any
point, and: defcend towards the centre, the ve-
locity with which it is projeéted muft be greater
than either that which it would acquire in
falling from an infinite height to that point,
or than that of a body defcribing the circle at

the

of Central Forces. 399

the diftance of that place from the centre of
force. if it afcend, the velocity muft be greater
than that acquired by defcending from an in-
finite height, but lefs than that of a body in
a circle at that diftance. Within thefe limits
the conftruction is general.

PROPOSITION If,

THE fame things being given as in the
laft propofition; to determine the velocity and
time correfponding to any given diftance of
the body from the centre of force.

_ Let the velocities of bodies in a circle at
the diftance r in the curve, at V and n, be =
V,v and v refpectively (Fig. 1.); then § =
te If therefore the feveral values of p, de-
pending upon the different values af m, be
fubftituted, we fhall have

po
Vv n—1.
ea" Wigs av ey (nk em xy 4 rt ie yh—t
—————— eee 2
i, yr m >.< yr -t

ome ees

N—1 2
m being greater than 1.

its

400° The Inverfe Method

VU af A pant oprs peer Sa AS
is VA r™—1_— 1—m, y—*

0 ——— =v
m Gog My
Whe itt
m being lefs than 1.
V Y N—2Z ___ ay—I
‘i a , m == 0, therefore

if goes t, then CS +53 x. lg. mat

| n—1
In the 4th value of ¥, m=o= s* X——>

. m
v:V::5:1; therefores7 =v; hence :

s* x n—-1 v V

Wena ore! oY and + So

Q—s* X 1—1 VA Res cian
1—m oe

s being = 0, therefore the 4th. form is evident

a

from the 3d. Becaufe m= 5° X = and
yy" 4) n—1 4

S= pe therefore m= FEISS '; which

2

value of m being fubftituted for it in ‘the firft
equation gives, when reduced

,
| i)

of Central Forcess 401

ave we qe eee oe.

n—1 x 1 ie
Vo Pr wi et alee a Let # = force
u—l1 XK y"—*

of gravity; and fuppofe the force at V, or at
the diftance r from the centre of force: force
of gravity (g) ::7:1,; then 7g == force at V,
meafured by the velocity in the time (1) ;

2

hence; 2 = ey or V* ==/7gr, therefore by fub-

* ys Jes rong
flitution Y= ,/ v? —2 psi a cr
7—1 x See

whe +a2lgr aS Zed When Hat, if
Sk. K gre

the above value of s? be fubftituted we have

Vv =)" + 2 ler x tg mano age x hg.
es

Becaufe P does not enter into the values of
U, it is evident that the velocity of the body
will be the fame, whether it move in a curve
line, or dire€tly to or from the centre; the dif-
tance of y being the fame in both cafes.

By the help of the 4th. theorem, it will be
eafy to determine how far a body muft fall
towards the centre, to acquire the velocity it
has in the curve. For the value of ¥ there

Ddd given

402 The Inverfe Method

given being put ==v==sV, we fhall have by
1

; 2 n—t1
reduction y= r X ———————_ and the

s* x n—1 +2
{pace defcended r —y = 7 X

1

en = eee go na—t1 ae

sxe nl + | — 2 n1
aE ee via 7
pepe se | ee

If nx==2, thenr—yo x r, which

rary

is general for all the conic fections. In the

hyberbola, the tranfverfe axis = ae =, fup-

pofe, to A (fee Cor. 2. Prop. 1.), therefore

a dea a hence by fubftitution r — y =

A

At+r
2A-+r mE

In the parabol “

—y= 4.

n the parabola, r ache orermiaat o, oP

being inthis cafe = 2,
5 r
In the ellipfis, r — y = ay ae x #, the
2 f 2%

tranfverfe axis being Sle A.

If

of Central Forces. 403

It the body be fuppofed to move in a circle,
and therefore s==1, then r—y = -

orc

= 2
meal sie. ver falo=
oie
n-+-1| 71 at

If n==2, then r—y= $r.

If it be required to find how high a body
will afcend, if projected upwards with the ve-
locity it has in the curve; or how far it mutt
fall externally, to acquire that velocity, pyt the
value of v, in the third theorem, = 0, then y*—

yn Q yi ;

= ————, and y= r X
1—m pea Ie I aie 2

1
eS RE ee

2 nu—1

9— 5? .n—I1
6 |
If. a= 2, :then:y = ;77(X Sl lara the great-
er axis of the ellipfe.
g
If s==1, theny=r7r X jy 27
—»

Laftly, when m is greater than unity, it may
be determined by the firft theorem, what pro-
' portion the velocity in the curve bears to
that velocity, towards which it continually
_ approaches as the body recedes indefinitely from
the centre. For, if y be fuppofed infinite,

Ddd2 then

404 The Invetfe Methed

a 1 cas Vv oe
then v will become === e

i a * so. n—1

n—1 F .
S°.N—1-2

Hence the velocity in the curve : velocity at an

Vv

of so oinm—l
C 2 2

5". 4—1 —2

infinite diftance ;: 0: -

has :1. In the hyperbola,

eo meee’
that is, when n= 2, the proportion will be
fo ae Sarna
ae “pain tk er eit VY 7 3 A being
Ss —_—
equal the tranfverfe axis.
Let 1 == time of moving from / to 2, x=
curve line Vn (Fig. 1,); then /y*—p*:y:3

ouahan yy Wo oe
yras - Buty sei: ritoy
| Vy itis p 0]
x : Py OBA
= » becaufe J == —;3 therefore ¢ =
. Pp .

nt 2 in which expreflion, if thic
P y vy —p

feveral values of p be fubftituted, we fhall
have

ee yo py + ia

am being greater thea Ae. | 2.

Mee

of Central Forces. 405

= rs : m==1.

VU Y | P aN—3

pes nt

rare sth Say) ere
im

=== +. ——_—
pret mai 7,
v/ 7 pay a oe y-3 eal yo

1--m “l—m

# being lefs than 1.

n—1 Saal; '
Apel xs x ye

_—~ =<

ig errs ies i ‘2
r — yr

= 0 and m— 0.

The 4th. theorem is found by making the

fame fubftitution as before.

Cor. 1. If 22, the feveral values of 7 will

* become

ie

™ oe

m—1
m being greater Bat 1. i
yy

a —— - Gis ae Ee

VY ry—P
w= x yy |

= :
. 2 oy 2
‘i 8 rr ae PX —)-7

1—m 1—#

in being lefs than 1. 4,

406. The Inverfe Method

pee oF EM 9 ee
V¥ ry—y VierXVry—y
P= os, m=,
The fluents in all thefe cafes may be found
by circular arcs and logarithms.
The correct ae being taken for the 4th.

<= X (SR re ) |

whofe verfed fine == r—y and rad. = $r=—

*~ (va=y are) verled fine

3

form, givest = 74

Valgr gr

=r—y and rad. == 47; and when the body

is fallen to the centre, then f= - ; x hi
2lgr 2

; p- being == 3° 141592.
Cor. 2. If mn = 3, the values of ¢ will

become,
al ee x XII.
t. pH Ht
eae ers pail ee
eae
ae ge OGY aR ctl me os
Vv V r?— Pp?
zi, ava Snake
OE aT fe a a” i aD
Vy 5 y
1—m

of Central Forces. 407

gee yy es yy
ON

Vi fog age Vier XV? —¥

P= 0, Mi =e.

Hence by taking ns correct fluents there will
arife

1—i

1 hae ied io a
NE Ea 1—m

3 é on as Vr —y eee Z =
: V V lgr
rr
, when y= 0, m= 0.
V dg

Confequently at the end of any giveh time,
the place of the body may be found. For, from
the equations given above, the value of y may
be found if ¢ be known, and y being known,

z, or the arc VY will be given.
» If the time of moving over any given fpace

in a right line dire@ly from, or tewards the
centre

408 The Inverfe Method,

centre be required, it will immediately be
found by making P=o in the three firft of
‘he above theerems.

PROPOSITION Itt.

it a body be acted upon by two forces tending
to the fame centre, which vary as the nth.
and the gth. powers of the diftance reciprocally ;
it is required to determine the equation of the
orbit it will defcribe, &c.

Suppofe the whole force acting upon the
body, at the diftance y from the centre, to be

Ants Bar

———
——

; hence, by proceeding as in

bi o
: P*v v
the firft Propofition, we fhall have ee
Are ytd yt Bre
—— OO ——
g—1 Kr * h aah g—i . rt
qt yf om Bot salt
Co Bea (“Let = vy", then
EEN qa) . rt
¢ a xt yt
there arifes —-— 1 = ——_—=—- +
P ih ae
a ae reshape
Hence by reduction it will ap-

1m
‘ pear

of Central Forces. 409

pear that !
mm P? rt oi
Pp oo ; =
mm—m—m X ye mrt—y"—-9- mr
mm P* yI—*
fies — ii ee > i + mri yi + mrt
+1 n-}1 9 Att
Suppofe ta ae then fince ——
i 41—1 Xr *
2m B+ m Arr
= (v? = ) is =
q—1 Xr 1
& Eeimead bee » OF, = — 3 hence
q—1 xX ri- eth ¢-—1
‘ g—1!i % ™m : ?
m= 7 ‘If therefore this value of
x n—l

m, be fubftituted in the above value of 9’,
there will arife for the general equation of the
curve . ;
: m Py jGize
Pp 22 ee eas eae ———————————_—
n— n—1
lida haa 11y"—1.4 m—1—cX Be

If p be ee =y, then the equation for

"determining the diftance of the apfides from the
centre of force will become y*—* +

eX n—1 11

St gd em td

Eee —m

yr 1

oem

410 The Inverfe Method

mX q—1X P?

m—i X g—l— eX MA

tg
g—1 «Pt?
M1 RK Slt xX a1
- The value of -z-will be ‘found. of an -eafy farb-
ftitution.

After the fame manner: the equation of the
curve, &c. &c. may be found, if three or more
forces aét upon a body towards the fame centre.

—— 0.

Cor. If a==2, gon—I], £==P, and the

|), BE

force » be fuppofed to ac& from the
WG J NIOCR ET at
centre, or, which is the fame thing, —c be
put for +c; then the equation for determining
the diftance of the. apfides fromthe centre
2+c—2m, , a
MELT Ca

will become y* —
2m r* . 3 é hide
=o. It is evident that one of the

act
values of y will be == r, andthe equation
given above being divided by y—r, the quo-
tient will be 9? rhe dice Se xr y +
2m 3
c

diftance of the other apfe from the centre may
be determined.

r= 0; by folving which equation, the

If

\ of Central Forces. 4it

Tf it “be required’ to exterminate m, we have

y? 1? ov aa

- xX— = —+— (Propofition I.) or
5 r

pin aaa se 2m At
v* = 5? 1X (Fe =) = SST

r oa ial hah m—1 Xr
‘ cAtt
and, by this Propofition, B?7++ == meer there-
—— 2m
fore s* & 1-¢ = » 01m =
as Gorhie :
sox nm—1 X 1+cec_ Ss? K 1c

2 pa e

wherefore, by fubftituting this value in the above

equation, we have y* +-r pod ae Mining r? y

¢

2 eee nD fae

S 1—c Q rpy
oped LEX pte 9, yg othe Ti

c or ee Y Vy? —p’?
MRM KT I eiok Lahybi
y Vey —2e—om XP bar y—oMr
SYi—ex ry

IV cy 2s? K Ie XY her ys K-94;

if the fluent therefore be taken, when y = the
diftance of the other apfe from the centre, the
arc defcribed in pafling from one apfe to ano-

Beez ther,

412 The Inverfe Method

~ ther, and confequently the motion of the apfides
will be found, whatever be the form of the
orbit. Henee it is evident, that if s and c be
given, the eccentricity of the orbit and the
motion of the apfides may be calculated.

PROPOSITION Iv.

ie centripetal force being reciprocally as
the nth. power of the diftance from a
plane parallel to the horizon, and the direétion
and velocity of a body at any point being given;
it is required to determine the nature of the
curve it will defcribe.

_ Let a= diftance of the point at which the .
body is projected from the horizontal plane,
6 = velocity parallel to, and c= velocity per-
pendicular to the plane, x == any abfciffa, y=
the correfponding ordinate, and 2 the curve

defcribed; then X:2::46: zm == velocity of

the body inthe curve. The force indirection of
the ordinate 1s = the fquare of the velocity divided
by 4 chord of curvature perpendicular to the hori-
zon, or pafling through the centre of force, But 4
chord of curvature when x is conftant, which is the

cafe

of Central Forces. 413

aa 7 .
cafe at prefent, == — —; therefore the centri-
- y -
i } =? 3? Fs
petal force = —- F — = —
a J

n-}-s

fuppofe, to 4

en

Multiply both fides of the

equation by y, and take the fluents, then + x

*2 Arr 2
ON i meg te But xiy:: bse, Of as
oe mu—l1 x b i tacs x

2 c ;
= when y==r, therefore the fluents cor- |

2 5? a n—f-1
rected become “ —— x E he

x

nu—lI
bao sy rn?

, ae eras
™—1

b V n—1 x r—. — ¥

; which gives

= ——_—_—_—————————
Pa 17 —2 Art kaa -+ 2 At pr
But in Prop. I. it was found, that if a body
defcended from an infinite height, and was

nts r
acted upon by a force = a, the fquare of

the velocity acquired at the diftance r was =
Q Arts 2m Ant

: ; let therefore ——

n—1 XK pet! n—1>*K pr!

—~—.€y

——
—_—_—--

414 The Inverfe. Method

eat ot. aE EY a7
and then 4*+* = ut - Hence, by

+ ° | o ) U
fubftitution and reduction, * =— x
fe Cc

fo Mm x rh. a “da .

y= De RSE grt
from whence the relation of x and 7 may be
determined.

' Let V= velocity of a body ina Bieta at ‘ie
diftance r from the centre of force, and -which
is acted upon by the fame force as that which
tends towards the plane at the fame diftance

V. > Arts nosed taatie
from it; then =a or “t= py \

yt; from whence, and the equation above,

m—1 KX c? ¢"—1

y it will IL eafily appear

viz. Att =
I a mseP
that ¢c = vies ; therefore = the aon equa-
b Vn—y1 7
VXV2 x

1 x pa ah | aie
~ Cor. 1. If c, and confequently =o, or,
which is the fame thing, if the body be pro-
jected parallel to the horizon, then & =

n—1

tion becomes x ==

b

of Central Forces. 41s

bn cat ila

Vx V2 Vr yo
© Cor. 2. If2=-3,then the laft equation in the

; ik yy

propofition becomesx=— es
ni | 0h m—1 XY + r**
The fluent therefore being taken and correéted,
by fuppofing x and y to begin together, we

b ee 2 2] Hix
have x == — x #—1 x7 + 7'ld 3 there-
: om «+ Vv. r' ~ | sk «=~ on * +. :

m1
: won epee ee eg
fore, by reduction, y* == m—1: yx. 7 x? ot >re

Para) ¢ a

=F rx —im x roa “an equation to a co=

nic fection ; which will bean hyperbola, parabola
to ellipfis, according as m is greater, equal to, ar
lefs than~ unity;- that is, according as the
velocity with which the body is projected in a
direction perpendicular to the horizon, is greater; -
equal to, or lefs than that acquired. by falling
from an infinite height. |
2 - noanty
, If in x os = 1, Of Im Xs pet

2r

then the equation becomes |

1—71
x——x*; therefore the curve is a circle, whofe ra-
i - - ,
But V? #1 — ee Kaa ake
l—m 2m

dius =

therefore

416 The Inverfe Method

is]

ee ee c? Cc
therefore m= a a =p when = 3$
: F rV
hence the radius of the circle== >In
VV? —c

the fame manner it will appear, that the femi>
‘tranfverfe and conjugate axes of the hyperbola will

and of
_ fp?

V
>; andr X ; and
Aap ih pact VV*7—c*

if the hyperbola be rectangular, its femi-_

the ellipfis, r *

axes == 7 X is aa Za
Cte
Cor. 3. If n= 2, the equation becomes
b =
zi Foleo eee es
VV 2 Vr—1—m xy
a
: y
V¥ = x s Se
l1—m x 2 r -—y
1—m
But x= Vy ———— js the equation of
1—m a

a cycloid, the diameter of whofe generating

circle == =r wal m being
— eee OL —— CF j
—m %oye—c”

—
—

ee: ied

of Central Forces. 417

2
= — If therefore 22> = 2V?yx 1—m =
2V* —c’, the ‘curve will be a cycloid. Or if
the value of x, in this cycloid, be taken to the
correfponding value of x in the curve defcribed,

ae.°7) v 2x 1—m to 4, the curve may be
eafily conftructed.

Cor. 4. It was found above that = ye ae

Att

———
—_

M1 XK"

, and at the vertex of the curve A em

3? 2
o, therefore the correct fluent becomes — ha: J 32>

gt! nda 3 ytd

n—1 di y—

Atti x

, @ being the value of y

x ; tig : 2
when y =o. If therefore n= 0, then eee: 5

drt aT b
; by reduction x —= ———=
eK Vad

tL
2

=——; hence x = ——— x d—}|
Vv d—y V¥2A 4

b
ViA

x

x eae , Making x om By when y=d.

~The curve therefore is a parabola, whofe axis
is perpendicular to the plane, latus retum =

2

7a and force = A, meafured by the velocity
2

generated in the time (1).
Eff NOTE.

418 The Inverfe Method

NOTE,

(Referred to in page 375)

Let VA BD (Fig. 8.) be a traje€tory defcribed by a
body round a centre of force C, Y an apfe, and A the next
following one; V being at a greater diftance from the
centrethan 4. It is evident, that if the body were pro-
je&ted from A, at right angles to C A, and with the
fame velocity it had when it arrived there, it would
accurately defcribe the arch 4V, and have the fame velo-
city at V that it firft begun with, For during the time of
moving over any particle of the curve, the force a&ing
upon the body, and the dire€lion of the force are the {ame
in both cafes; hence the conclufion is clear, But if the
body, inftead of moving towards V, be projeé&ed in a
contrary dire&ion, at right angles to AC, and with the
fame velocity, an arch A B, equal and fimilar to AV, will
be defcribed; B being an apfe, and CB=CV, Hence in
the above equation y can have but two different values ;
but as thefe may lie in oppofite direétions, two may be
pofitive, and two equal tothem and negative, The other
roots, if any, muft either be impoffible, or relate to fuch
parts of the algebraical curve as have their concavity
turned from the centre of force, or fuch parts as are
feparated from that part in which the body moves; that
is, it cannot be a curve of continued curvature, as that
mujt be in which the body moves.

The fame conclufion may be deduced immediately from
the nature of the equation found above for determining

the

Of Central Forces. 419

the apfides, For making the equation of limits =o, we

have be al P x if ?—3_ , Whence it is evi-

M—t1 u—t1

dent, that there can be no more than four roots, two
pofitive and two negative. But to difcover in every cafe
the number of poffible roots is a problem of confiderable
difficulty, Dr. Waring has pointed out the method of
doing this (Meditationes Algebraica Prob, 14,); but as his
manner of writing is in general very concife, an eafy
inveftigation of the feveral conclufions there deduced may
not be improper in this place,

_ It is well known, that if by varying the coefficients of
an equation two roots become equal, the next inftant they
will be impoffible, and immediately before becoming Sauk}
they will be real and unequal.

This being granted, let it be Breer to find the number
of poffible roots in the equation x” — Ax™ — B=», which
isan-equation of the fame kind with that for determining
the apfides, Firft, find the equation of limits, and make ig

1

a m | 2—-m
= 0, viz, nx”? — m Ax" = 0, then x = —
n

A —., hence x has two values, if 2 and m be both even
numbers, and — A a negative number; wherefore the
number of real roots in the given equation cannot exceed
four,

Multiply the firft equation by w, and ihe fecond by x,
and take the difference of the produéts, then m—n x Axm
1
ou Me:
aa heey y which
will give two other limits, if — B be pofitive, and the
reft as above,

If the given equation have two equal roots, they will
€oincide both with the firft and fecond values of « jut

Fifa found

nN
—nB=o0; from whence x —

420 The InverJe Method

found; therefore thefe values muft be equal to each other;
and converfely, if thefe values be equal, the given equa-
tion mult have two equal roots; and if the conditions
above mentioned take place, viz. that’ , and m, be both
even numbers, —- A negative, and — 8 pofitive, then
there will be two pairs of equal roots, Make them equal
to each other, then by reduétion it will eafily appear

u—m
m
that m—n | A” Ky n—m
eet ns, sath Dg TE = 0; hence,
nN i)

by making this expreffion pofitive, or negative, according to
circumftances, the number of poffible roots may be obtained.

1, If be an even number, and — B negative, it is
evident that the equation has two real roots, If ” be

even, and m odd, and —B affirmative, and at the fame
n—m ‘

m—n | a”

time Ba. ed

> Brn be negative,
n—Im mit Z

n
then there will be two pofitive roots; otherwife uone.
For the firft part of the above expreffion is in this cafe
negative, and the other part pofitive; but the firft part
muft be greater than the fecond, if the roots be real;
becaufe if A vanifh, all the roots are impoffible; hence
the conclufion is clear,

Let n, and m, be even numbers, and — 4, and —B,
pofitive quantities; it is evident that the equation can
have no real roots; for in this cafe no quantity fubftituted
for x can make the refult = 0. But if — B be affirmative,

u—™M

t : m—n
and — A negative, and at the fame time

——— x B"~” be affirmative, then there will be four
™m

real roots, otherwife none, For, from what has been faid
above, there will be two pairs of equal roots when the
above

of Central Forces. | 422

above expreffion —o0, wherefore by making it affirmative
there will be four real roots; That the firft part of the ex-
preffion muft be greater than the fecond will be evident
from obferving, that if A= 0, then all the roots will be
impoffible, —

. MALS % 2—m

2. If both 2 and m be odd numbers, ‘and

n”
An —— x 3B" affirmative, then there will be three
m ; r

poflible roots; otherwife only one. Becaufe n is an odd
number there muft be one real root: and if the above
expreflion = 0, there will be other two roots equal, But
if A.and B be taken fuch as to make it affirmative, there
will be other two real roots. For nm is an even number,
therefore the firft part of the expreflion is pofitive; and
if A =o, there will be only one real root, and the above
expreffion would in that cafe be negative. Therefore, &c,
If 2 be odd, and.m even, and A, and B, have the fame
fign, then the equation will have only one real root; this
requires no proof, But if they have different figns, and at
n—m

n—n n

es IN
the fame time —— —- x Ar—
ne

x B"-” have

a contrary fign to B, then the equation will have three
real roots; otherwife but one.—If the equation have this

ui—m
form, viz. x” + 4«%” — B= o, then ssa ae
? : i ee nim
“
will be pofitive, and it muft be greater than ——— x B"—",

for reafons given above; therefore the whole is pofitive,
But if it be of this form, viz. x” — Ax” 4 B—o, ‘then
the firlt part of the general te) is Biaeitire and the
fecond part pofitive, wherefore the refult muft be negative,

422 Conjectures on the Ufe of

Conjectures on the Use of the ancient TERRASSED
Works, in the Nortu of Enctanp. By Joun
Ferrrar, M. D.

N the northern counties of this kingdom, the
fides of hills are in many places divided

by regular terraces, evidently artificial. Such
works are firft obfervable in Weftmoreland and
Cumberland; in Northumberland they are very
numerous. It is uncertain whether they exift
in Scotland, for the filence of Antiquarians,
who are generally bad judges of earthen works,
affords no proof to the contrary. Probably,
the famous parallel roads of Glenco, defcribed
in the Appendix to Mr. Pennant’s Tour, are
terraces of this kind, as they abound in the
avenues of hilly and difficult countries. The
extent of thefe works is very different; in fome
places, there are not more than three or four
rows of terraces, capable altogether of contain-
ing an hundred men; but in others, the terraces
mount almoft to the fummits of lofty ‘hills,
and would lodge a confiderable body of troops.
At the battle of Humbledon, the Scottifh army .
is faid to have been pofted on one of thefe
works,

ancient Terraffed Works. 423

works, which is the moft extenfive I remember
to have obferved.

That fuch terraces were intended for mili-
tary purpofes, can hardly be doubted ; but in
what age, or with what particular view they
were formed, has never yet been determined.

Mr. Wallis, in his Antiquities of Northum-
berland, fuppofes them to have been ftations
for parading the militia; but it is improbable,
that in rude times, fo much exertion fhould
have been employed, in places not eafily acces=
‘fible, for a purpofe, to which a level furface was
much better adapted. On the contrary, their
pofition, on commanding fituations, fecured by
precipices, or difficult eminences on both flanks,
or covered by advanced works of the fame kind,
but of fmaller fize, points them out as lines of
defence. I believe they are chiefly to be traced
on the moft acceffible parts of a high country,
or rifing from the brink of a river, to defend
the paflage. By what people they were raifed,
it is very difficult to conjefture. They differ in
every particular from the Britifh works, defcribed
_ by Cefar, and are probably of more recent date,
for they indicate the accefs of the invaders to
the interior, and ftronger part of the country.
And no traces of the Britifh dry walls appear
in them, although ftone is plentiful on the very
ground where they are formed. They refem-

ble,

“424 Conjettures on the Uje of

ble, in fome places, the Danith field-works, but
their great extent, and pofition with refpe& to
the fea and low country, for they chiefly point
to the Eaft and South, render it improbable
that they are of Danifh origin. I was once
inclined to think, that they were conftructed to
oppofe the progrefs of that people, becaufe con-
fiderable terraces are vifible, on the floping emi-
nences of fome fields, near Bambrough Caftle,
in Northumberland, which, among a great
variety of entrenchments, contain forme beauti-
ful femi-circular Redoubts, with triple ram-
parts.* But in a fhort ramble to the Lakes, i

Spring, 1791, the view of Orton Scarr, my
tween Kenpat and Appresy, and of the neigh-
‘pouring country, induced me to believe, that if
this kind of defence were employed againft the
Danes, it had been, however, of earlier origin.

Orton

' * Thefe fields deferve particular inveftigation. They
are fituated near the village of North Charleton, but dis-
tinguifhed neither by hiftory nor tradition, They contain
works of very different magnitude and conftruétion, which
in the whole, appear to be capable of lodging 42,000
men. In conjunétion with a feries of pofts on the neigh-
bouring eminences, they indicate a powerful invafion, and
perhaps a fucceffion of engagements in the plain, Who-
‘ever would examine them, (and they would amply repay
attention) fhould begin with the circular Camp on the
perpendicular rock of Spindlefton, behind which the inva-
ders feem to have landed, and proceed — the chain
of rifing grounds to the fields,

ancient Perraffed Works, 45
Orton Scarr, (or Rock) of which I have

given a very imperfeét fketch from memory,
lies on the north-eaft, dire&ly oppofite the
lower opening of the pafS Of BrepExpair, at
the extremity of a narrow valley, watered by a
{mall river. The front of the precipice is
occupied by three rows of terraces, refembling
two round baftions, conneéted by a curtin.
On the more level part of the hill, under the
beacon, fome lines appear to have been drawn,
but I had not leifure to trace them. Near the
road, fomewhat in the rear of the terraces,
two {mall cairns are vifible. The pafs of
BreDERDALe, which the traveler defcends, in
going northwards, is a fteep and winding - de-
file, commanded by precipitous hills. Where
it begins to fpread out towards the valley, we
meet with a confiderable Roman ftation, occu-
pying nearly the whole breadth of the pafs,
from the fteep bank of the rivulet, to the foot
of the declivity. It appears to have been forti-
fied with care, for it is furrounded by a lofty
double rampart, and two ditches. In the bot-
tom, where the banks of the rivulet are level,
appear the traces of Castze How, which I
fufpe&t to be founded on the fite of a Roman
caftellum, defigned to protect the watering par-
ties. It is in full view of the ftation. Thus
we are prefented with the appearance of two

Gee hoftile

426 Conjeftures on the Uje of

hoftile garrifons, evidently invading 4nd in-
vaded. Atprefent, all is folitarinefs and filence:

Stat circum alta quies, curvoque innixus aratro
Defertas foffas, et caftra minantia caftris
Rufticus invertit, tacita formidine luftrans
Horrorémque loci, et funeftos ftragibus agros,

Addifon. Pax Gulielm;

On the oppofite bank of the rivulet, lower
than Castte How, appears to have been another
Caftellum. At the entrance of the defile, from
the fouth, a few flight traces of terraces are
feen, and the remains of a fquare entrench-
ment, with a fhallow ditch, are difcovered,
adjoining, in the flat country. In temporary
encampments, the Romans commonly ufed a
ditch, from three, to five feet deep. Thefe filent
monuments imprefs a connected ftory, on the
mind of the Obferver, and perhaps afford fome
materials, for recovering a loft Chapter in His-
tory. Happily, the antiquarian vifion I am
about to recite, obliges us to erafe nothing
already recorded.

It feems, from the imperfect account of
Tacitus, that Agricola was the firft Roman
Commander, who penetrated into that part of the
country, in which thefe Antiquities are fituated.
Cerealis had reduced the Brigantes of Yorkfhire,
but the inhabitants of Chefhire, and Lancafhire

were

ancient Terraffed Works. 427

were unfubdued, and the people of Weftmore-
land had probably fecured themfelves, in their
rocks and defiles. The incidents of Agricola’s
firft campaign are only hinted at by Tacitus,
and moft of our, Antiquarians haye contented
themfelves withfuppofing, that he entered York-
fhire by the way of Isurium, or ALpsorouGH.
But the firft operation of that General was ta.
recover the Ifle of Mona, or Ancirszy, imme-
diately before his troops went into winter
quarters, and it is probable from the expreffions
of Tacitus, that in the following {pring he
proceeded northwards, along the coafts of Che-
fhire and Lancafhire : ‘‘ loca caftris ipfe capere,
** eftuaria ac fylvas ipfe pretentare ---- nulla
‘* ante Britannie nova pars illaceffita tranfierit.”
The word Afstuaria, can only refer to the
inlets of the Weftern coaft: the eftuaries of the
Mersey and Rissce, and the Bay of Morgcame,
the Moricambe YEfuarium of the Romans. Mr.
Whitaker, in his learned hiftory of Manchefter,
has therefore conjectured, with great probability,
that in 79, after overcoming the Cornavii,
Agricola invaded Lancafhire. ‘The appearances
I have defcribed, induce me to add to his conjec-
ture, that the campaign was probably clofed by an
invafion of Weftmoreland and Cumberland, and
that in its courfe, Orton Scarr was attacked and
taken. The ftrong country, with which the
Ggg2 pals

428 Conjettures on the Ufe of

pafs of Brederdale communicates, might hit
been the refuge of part of the Brigantes, who
had efcaped from the attack made by Cerealis
on the low country. From the number of
Britifh and Roman remains in this neighbour-
hood, it plainly appears that the hilly country
was formerly well peopled, and confidered as
an important diftri€. No part of it was neg-
leGted. Even the dreary pafs of Borrodale re- ~
ceived a Roman garrifon. And while the re-
ligious horror of the adjoining mountains,
favoured the myfterious impoftures of the
Druids, the beauty and convenience, of the
vales and lakes, muft have carly attracted nu-

See

of any ‘Northern part of the punto in former
times, we may almoft venture to reverfe its
prefent condition. ‘To this retreat, fome of the
Britons might bring an imperfe@ knowledge
of the Roman art of war, and the invention
of terraffed ramparts might then be fub-
ftituted for the walls of loofe ftones, which the
firft defenders of this country oppofed to the
efforts of the legions. Whether Agricola, after
fubduing the Siftuntii of Lancafhire, failed up
the Bay of Morecamb, or whether he proceeded
along the coaft, fixing a ftation at Lancafter, I

fhall

ancient Terraffed Works. 429,

fhall not undertake to enquire. It is certain,
that in the route from the Bay of Morecamb
to Kendal, various traces of ancient entrench-
ments are vifible; but Dr. Stukely, by a ftroke
of his lively pen, has turned thofe fcarce
difcernible mounds into fplendid cities. A-
part from this fancy of multiplying Palmyras
in the defart, Dr. Stukeley was a moft acdute
antiquarian, and an excellent judge of field-
works in particular. It is therefore dangerous
to queftion his authority, on this point.
Suppofing, then, Agricola to have advanced,
in his firft campaign, by the pafs of Brederdale,
let us try how far the feries of field-works
defcribed, will affift us in recovering a fragment
of his hiftery. The flight terrace-work, at the
entrance of the defile from Kendal, fhews that
fome attempt was made to refift the invading
army there. The Romans had therefore. en-
camped, as the fquare entrenchment indicates,
hard by the pafs, till the enemy retreated, or
was diflodged. When the invaders reached the
bottom of the defile, their camp would probably
be ftrongly entrenched, as the poft of Orton
Scarr, commanding all the interjacent country,
would then appear very formidable. Whether
the Caftella were then thrown up, to protect
the watering and reconnoitring parties, or whe-
ther thefe were fubfequent works, for the fecu-
rity of the ftation, it is impoffible to determine.

The

Be ConjeEtures on the Ufe of

The former conje@ure is not imy probable. To -
pafs the valley, then perhaps haaee or covered —
with thickets, under the eye of a vigilant nt enemy,
expecting an attack, was an ‘opera on hat r
require a delay of fome days, and ifter all, it~
was impoflible to attack the poft in
_ Tines. therefore muft have been ir
acceffible part of the hill, near th :
the prefent high road, and perhaps |
point out the very place of the aff
fuccefs of this aGion, would open t :
Carlifle, and to the fea. | Other terta y
on a riff ing pround 7 near Penrith, faci

4% OT H#@)

derable eee ratied work is very” aifting
But no probable conjecture can be form
fpeCting the other incidents of this oP
Perhaps I have ventured fuffciently far ali
No: remains of parapets are feen 0 on any
thefe works, which have come under m
vation, although the ramparts feem 1
their original height, If parapets w
added to them, they would be liable
decay, by the action of winds and rain
fituations fo greatly expofed. At Orton § Carte .
from the breadth of the platform of each mamas
part, it might be fuppofed that room ‘was given.
for

7

4

« SES.

PLV.

Mifcellaneous Obfervations, £3c. 432

for tents, or huts. But at Humbledon, and in
other places, the breadth is only fufficient for a
fingle file of foldiers. If this conftru@ion was
an attempt to imitate the Roman method of
fortification, the ramparts might, like thofe of
the Romans, have been defended by projecting
wooden towers, or paliffades. _

Miscettanzous Osservations on Canine and
Spontanzous Hypropnostia:: to which is prefixed,
the History of a Case of Hypropuosta, occurring
twelve Years after the Bite of a Juppofed Map
Doc. By Samurer ArceEnt Barpstey, M. D.
M.R.M.S. Epin. and C.M.-S. Lonp.

READ, OCTOBER 15, 1794.

? ie add another inftance of the want of
.™ fuccefs in the treatment of Hydrophobia,
to the melancholy hiftories already publithed,
may appear fuperfluous and uninftructive. Yet,
when we confider the peculiar fatality of this
- difeafe—the obfcurity of its proximate, and,
even, fometimes of its occafional caufe—and,
how few opportunities are afforded of minutely
attending to its preceding and attendant pheno-

. mena,

432 © Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

mena, there may be fome reafon to imagine, that
every faithful defcription of facts will be pro-
du@ive of advantage; and may probably at
length lead to the eftablifhment of a juft theory,
and a fuccefsful mode of cure. The following
cafe has a peculiar claim to attention, on
account of the great diftance of time, from the
bite of a fuppofed rabid animal, to the appear-
ance of the difeafe. It is, indeed, a difficult
tafk, to afcertain a fact of this nature; and
efpecially, when enquiries are to be made from
ignorant and prejudiced perfons. As it is,
however, a matter of the utmoft importance to
be eftablifhed, no pains have been fpared, to
gain every intelligence, which the Patient and
his friends were capable of communicating.
The refult of the enquiry is in favour of the
Patient’s repeated affertion: ‘‘ That he had
‘** never fuffered the leaft injury, from any ani-
‘* mal; except the bite, inflifted twelve years
“« fince, by an apparent mad-dog.”* :
‘Fobn

* The Patient had lived at the village of Afhworth,
near Bury, from the period of the bite, till within two
months of his death, whem he removed to Fearn Gore, in
the fame neighbourhood, An enquiry was made in every
family, at both places, relative to there having been any
mad animal in their neighbourhood, during Lindfay’s
refidence among them; andy if fo, whether they had ever

heard,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 433

‘jolm Lindfay, weaver at Fearn Gore near
Bury, in the county of Lancafter, aged thirty-
fix, of middling ftature, and fpare habit of
body, and of a temperament inclined to the
melancholic, was brought into the Manchefter
Lunatic Hofpital,on Friday May the fixteenth,
1794, about three o’clock in the afternoon. He
was immediately vifited by Dr, Le Saffier, who
obligingly communicated to me the following
particulars. The Patient expreffed feelingly his
fenfe of danger, from the perfuafion that his
diforder proceeded from the bite of a mad dog.
He was defired to drink a little cold water,
which on being prefented to him he rejected,
with every appearance of difguft and horror.
Being again ftrongly urged to drink, he made
the attempt, and with great exertion got down
a {mall quantity of the liquid. He was perfectly
rational, but appeared apprehenfive of danger
from the leaft noife, or approach of any perfon
towards him. He expreffed a defire to make

Hhh | water,

heard, or fufpe&ted, that he had been bitten, or otherwife
expofed to the danger of infe&tion, They all agreed in
returning a negative anfwer to both thefe queftions. I
ought further to obferve, that as both thefe villages contain
few families, and thefe, without one exception, having
dwelt in the fame place, from the time of the Patient’s
coming among them, to the attack of his complaint, their
evidence in fupport of the Patient’s declaration, is com-
plete and fatisfattory,

434 ‘Majcellaneous Obfervations on

water, and was quitting the room for that pur-
pofe ; but no fooner had he approached the door
than he fuddenly retreated, complaining of an
unpleafant fenfation he felt from the cold air,
and particularly that it produced a convulfive
_ twitching, about his throat. To {fcreen him
from the effects of the air, when conveyed from
the examining room into the Hofpital, an um-
brella was held over his head, and his body
clofely muffled up in a wrapping cloak. As
foon as he had got into his apartment, he ate
fome bread and cheefe, but with difficulty; and
requefted to be allowed to drink fome butter-
milk. He attempted to {wallow this liquid,
and in part fucceeded ; but not without the moft
violent ftruggling efforts, attended with diftor-
tions of ‘his countenance; which remained
ftightly convulfed for fome time afterwards.
- A-confultation of the Phyficians of the Hos-
pital being called by Dr. Le Saffier, and
the affiftance of Dr. Percival, Phyfician extra-
ordinary to the charity, requefted; the latter
Gentleman, in concurrence with Dr. Le Saffier,
(the reft of the Faculty being out of the way)
entertained not the leaft doubt of this Patient
being afflicted with genuine Hydrophobia. As
the diforder was far advanced, and might, in-
deed, be confidered as nearly terminating, being
the third day from the appearance of the fymp-
tom

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 435,

tom of Hydrophobia, little or no advantage.
could. be expected from medicine. He was
ordered, however, about four o’clock the fame
afternoon, to take a bolus compofed of twelve
grains of mufk, two grains of opium, and fix
grains of camphor. ‘Two drachms of ftrong
mercurial ointment were alfo directed to be
rubbed in upon the throat and breaft. I faw
the Patient, in company with the other Phyfi-
cians, about fix o’clock the fame evening ; and.
we found him very willing, and {ufficiently
compofed, to give a diftinct account of the cir-
cumftances preceding the difeafe, and to defcribe
his fufferings fince its attack. The following
particulars were collected. ne has been indus-
trious, fober, and regular in his mode of living;
Gut fubje& to low fpirits from the difficulty he
found, at times, of maintaining a wife and fix
young children. His exertions, however, were
in general proportionate to his difficulties. But
of late, from the depreciation of labour, he
found, that the moft rigid ceconomy and inde-
fatigable induftry were not fufficient to ward
off, from himfelf and family, the calamities of
hunger, debt, and the moft abject poverty. The
anxiety of his mind now became almoft infup-
portable. As the laft refuge for his diftrefs, he
applied, a few days previous to the attack of
his complaint, to the Overfeers of his Parith for
their affiftance to pay his rent, and thereby pre-

Hhhe vent

436 => Mifcellancous Obfervations on

vent the feizure of his goods; but obtained no
relief. Overwhelmed with grief and difappoint-
ment, he yielded to defpair, ‘refigning himfelf
and family to their wretched fate. He was
foon roufed from this ftate of fancied apathy,
. by the piercing cries of his children demand-
ing bread. In a paroxyfm of rage and ten-
dernefs, he fat down to his loom on the Monday
morning, and worked ‘night and day, feldom
quitting his feat, till early on the enfuing Wed-
nefday morning. During this period of bodily
fatigue and mental anxiety, he was entirely
fupported by hafty draughts of cold butter-
milk, fparingly taken. Nor did he quit the
loom, until his ftrength was completely ex-
hanfted. He then threw himfelf upon his’ bed,
and flept a few hours. On waking, he com=
plained of giddinefs and confufion in his head,
and a general fenfe of wearinefs over his body.
_ He walked five miles that morning, in order to
receive his wages, for the completion of his
work; and, on his return, felt much fatigued,
and troubled with a pain in his head. During
the night, his fleep was interrupted by involun-
tary and deep fighs— flight twitchings in the
arms—and a fenfe of weight and conftriction
at the breaft. He complained of much’ uneafi-
nefs at the light. of a candle, that was burning
in the room. On evacuating his urine, he was

obliged

-

Canine &8 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 437)

obliged to turn afide his head from the veffel,
as he could not bear the fight of the fluid with-
out great uneafinefs. Being rather thirfty, he
wifhed for balm tea to drink; but was unable
to fwallow it from a fenfe of pain and tight-
nefs, which he experienced about the throat,
when the liquid was prefented to him. He
fuddenly exclaimed, on perceiving this laft
fymptom, ‘*‘ Good God! It is all over with
me!” and immediately recalled to his Wife's
recollection, the circumftance of his having
been bitten,* twelve years ago, by a large dog
apparently mad; which was flying from the
purfuit of a number of people, on the high

road between Warrington and Manchefter.
During the whole of Thurfday, his abhorrence
of fluids increafed ; and he now began to feel
an uneafy fenfation on being expofed to the air.
The flight twitchings of his arms were alfo
increafed to fudden ftartings; attended with a
violent agitation of his whole body. He had
fuffered

“® Soon after this accident, he applied to a Surgeon at
Afhton in this neighbourhood, who drefled the wound for
‘a fhort time, and ordered the Ormékirk medicine to be
taken, The wound was fpeedily healed; and the Patient
had never diftrufted his being cured, till the moment he
was unable to fwallow liquids. I wrote to the Surgeon,
With a view of obtaining particular information relative
to the ftate of the wound, &c.; but, the circumflance had
altogether efcaped his memory.

438 | Mifcellancous Obfervations om

fuffered much from his journey, being brought.
eight miles in an open cart. I perceived at this
time (half paft fix, Friday. evening) that his
countenance expreffed the utmoft anxiety; his
breathing was laborious and interrupted; and
he complained of a dull pain, fhooting from
the arms towards the precordia and region of
the ftomach. A livid palenefs overfpread his
face ; the features were much contracted ; and
the temples moiftened with a clammy f{weat.
He fuffered greatly from exceflive thirft, and
drynefs of the mouth and fauces.*

An unufual flow of vifcid faliva occafioned —
him to fpit out frequently. He complained of
a remarkably fetid tafte in his mouth, and a
loathfome fmell in: his noftrils’ He ate fome
bread and butter, at his own requeft, but with
great difficulty, as he was obliged to throw his
head backward, in order to favour the defcent
ot the morfel down the gullet. He was re-
quefted to wafh down this folid food, with fome
liquid; and he expreffed a readinefs to make
the trial. On receiving a bafon of buttermilk,

| he

* We now examined the part that had been bitten, and
difcovered a flight cicatrix, almoft obliterated, upon the
origin of the Tendo Achillis of the left leg. He had never
fuffered any pain, nor complained of the flighteft uneafi-
nefs, in that or the neighbouring parts, fince the wound
healed, No alteration in the colour of the fkin was.
perceptible,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 439

he haftily applied it, with a determined coun-
tenance, to his lips; when he was inftantly
feized with fo fevere a fpafm and rigidity of
the mufcles of the neck, that he was compelled,
in an agony, to defift from drinking. Shortly
after, he raifed himfelf upon his knees in bed,
took the bowl again-into his hands, and by
forcibly ftretching his neck forward, at the
moment he received the liquid into his mouth,
and then violently throwing his head backwards,
he fucceeded in fwallowing a fmall portion.
He appeared highly gratified with the fuccefs
-of this effort, and the fortitude he had exhi-
bited ; and exultingly demanded another
draught of the butter-milk, as he now thought
he could conquer the difficulty he had hitherto
experienced. But a violent return of the fpafms
in the throat and neck-checked this attempt.
Thefe convulfions were terminated by the fto-
mach difcharging the liquid previoufly fwal-
lowed, highly tinged with bile. I perceived
that he had conveyed a piece of orange, under
the bed cloaths, which at intervals he applied
to his mouth by ftealth, and as it were unper
ceived by himfelf; for he conftantly hurried it
to his lips, when his attention appeared to be
engaged on other objects. This ftratagem did
not fucceed. No fooner had the morfel touched
his mouth, than he was feized with convulfions
about

440 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

about the throat, and a ftriCture at the breaft.
I faw him again, in confultation, at eight
o’clock this evening. He had taken two dofes
of the bolus; and the ointment had been
carefully rubbed in. He appeared rather more
compofed, but expreffed great anxiety at the
idea of being left alone. He courted eagerly
the converfation of thofe around him; appa-
rently from the motive of withdrawing his mind
from the contemplation of his miferable ftate.
The repugnance he felt at {wallowing liquids,
and the uneafinefs occafioned by the attempt,
he now confidered as his chief complaints ;
and was determined to conquer the firft by per-
feverance, and an undaunted refolution. His
fpafms feemed to be fomewhat mitigated, as he
got down a little milk-porridge with lefs diff-
culty-+than ufual. A repetition of his medicines
every three hours, was ordered during the night. .
At nine o'clock the next morning (Saturday) ~
he was vifited again; and we learned that he
had paffed the night without a moment's reft,
frequently fhouting out with looks of horror,
and fometimes wailing in broken and confufed
murmurs ;. but, on being fpoken to, he always .-
returned rational anfwers. He was now alarm-
ed to a degree of diftraction, at being left alone.
He examined every object with a timid and
tnipicions eye; and, upon the leaft noife of a

footftep

Canine £8 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 441

footftep in the gallery, he begged, in the moft
Piteous accents, to be protected from harm.
He had never offered the leaft violence to any
one, fince the commencement of the difeafe ;
and, even now, when the encreafed fecretion
of faliva occafioned him to fpit out very fre-
quently, he apologized to the by-ftanders, and
always defired them to move out of the way. I
obferved, he frequently fixed his eyes, with
horror and affright, on fome ideal object ; and
then, witha fudden and violent motion, buried
his head underneath the bed-cloaths. The laft
time I faw him repeat this aétion, I was induced
to enquire into the caufe of his terror.—He
eagerly afked, if I had not heard howlings
and fcratchings? On being anfwered in’ the
negative, he fuddenly threw himfelf upon his
knees, extending his arms in a defenfive pofture,
and forcibly throwing back his head and body.
The mufcles of the face were agitated by various
fpafmodie contortions; —his eye balls glared, and
feemed ready to ftart from their fockets ;—-and
at that moment, when crying out in an agoni-
zing tone : — ‘* Do you not fee that black dog?”

“ his countenance and attitude exhibited the.

moft dreadful picture of complicated horror,
diftrefs and rage, that words can defcribe, or
imagination paint!—The irritability of the
whole fyftem was now become exceffive. He

Tii _ difcovered

442 ‘ Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

difcovered ‘the higheft degree of impatience or
the leaft motion of the air. Every action was
accompanied with that hurry and inquietude,
which marks an apprehenfion of danger from
furrounding objects. The. oppreffion of the
precordia was evidently encreafed; and, when
he gafped for breath, the whole body was writhed
with convulfions. His fpeech was interrupted
by convulfive fobs. The pulfe was tremulous
and. intermitting; and, at fome times, fo
hurried as not to be counted. He had frequent
retchings, and brought up occafionally {mall
quantities of a yellow liquid. Solids were now
fwallowed with exceffive difficulty; and. the
attempt always produced ftrong fpafms about
the neck and breaft. At ten o'clock (the fame
morning) we met in confultation; when the
medicines were ordered to be repeated every
two hours, with an increafe of the dofe of
opium, from two to three grains. Half an
ounce of ftrong mercurial ointment was ordered
to be rubbed in, over the furface of the. body,
and a fponge dipped in vinegar to be con-
ftantly held to the mouth and noftrils. At four
o'clock the fame. day, the confultation was re-
newed. We found the patient had been able to
{wallow his bolufes without much difficulty, and
had drank feveral times with infinitely more
eafe than ufual ; but, the fluid had been imme-
diately rejefted by the ftomach, and had come

up,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 443

up, deeply tinged with yellow. . His counte-
nance exhibited a cadaverous afpect.. His voice
was hoarfe, indiftina, and faltering. He
complained of a fixed pain at the region of
the ftomach; which he had felt, more or lefs,
during the difeafe. The pulfe was feeble, and
{carcely perceptible. He fwallowed fome: tea
with lefs difficulty, than had been obferved
fince his entrance into the hofpital. His dif-
folution was apparently drawing near: yet, it
was deemed advifable to order his body to be
rubbed with warm oil; and one ounce of that
fluid to be taken every half hour, or as often
as the ftomach would bear it. Hismental facul-
ties at this period fuffered very little derange-
ment; for although, when not attending to
external objects, he would utter fome -inco-
herent fentences; yet, the moment he was
fpoken to, he was perfectly collecied, and
returned rational anfwers. At half paft four
o'clock, he fubmitted willingly to have his
body rubbed with the oil, and for that purpofe
fat down upon the fide of the bed; whew he
was feized with an inftantaneous convulfion,
threw himfelf backward—and expired without
a groan! An immediate infpection of the body
would have’ been a defirable circumftance: but,
we were obliged, (however reluctantly) from
unavoidable impediments, to defer the diffection

Tii2 till

444 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

till the following morning. Accordingly, on
Sunday morning, about ten o'clock, the body
Was opened in the prefence of one of the phy-
ficians, myfelf, and two of the Surgeons be-
longing to the charity. I have to regret that
the examination did not extend to the brain;
and indeed, that a more minute inveftigation
of the morbid appearances, accompanying this
fatal malady, did not take place. But, fuch
was the peculiar horror infpired by a view of
the progrefs and cataftrophe of the difeafe, that
the accuftomary dread of danger arifing from
any examination of an hydrophobic fubjed,
was increafed in this inftance, to a_ tenfold
degree. Befides, the well known prejudices
entertained by the country people, againft the
opening of dead bodies, rendered us anxious to
finifh the infpeCtion before the arrival of the
patient’s friends, who were hourly expected. In
the cavity of the thorax no unufual appearances
were difcovered ; except, that the furface of the
lungs appeared of a darker hue, and more dif-
tenfled with blood than ufual. No inflam-
mation appeared on an infpection of the fauces ;
nor were the mufcles of the Larynx or Pharynx
in the leaft difcoloured. The ftomach and
C£fophagus were removed from the body, and
fubjected to particular infpe@ion. A longitu-
dinal incifion was made through the whole

, cavity

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 445

¢avity of the Céfophagus, but not the leaft
marks of difeafe were difcovered. Upon open-
ing the ftomach, evident traces of inflammation
were obferved. It commenced at the fuperior
orifice, and was there confined to {mall and
irregular fpots of a dark red colour; and
might alfo be traced in a linear form, and of
a brighter red, along the curvature of the ftomach,
terminating at the pylorus in large and irregular
fpots of a gangrenous appearance. The contents
ofthe ftomach did not exceed three ounces;
and confifted, chiefly, of the medicines that had
been {wallowed, mixed with a dark coloured
fluid, All the other vifcera of the abdomen
exhibited no marks of difeafe.

The novelty and importance of the cafe above
related, will, I truft, fufficiently apologize for
the following enquiry. That it exhibits the
genuine fymptoms of Rasizs Canina, will not
be doubted by thofe, who have had opportu-
nities of feeing the malady, or have confulted
the beft authorities on the fubject. The dread
of liquids; the peculiar and diftrefling anxiety
about the precordia; and the morbid irritability
of the nervous fyftem, which were all expe-
rienced by this patient, leave no room for doubt
concerning the refemblance of the difeafe to
that which is the offspring of the canine poifon.
When we refleét on the length of the interval,

| * from.

446 ‘Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

from the infliction of the bite of ‘a fuppofed
rabid animal to the appearance of this’ difeafe,
an important queftion naturally arifes:—Are
we to confider this cafe as arifing from the
influence of the canine poifon; or as an inftance
of what authors have termed {pontaneous Hydro-
phobia? A variety of cafes, related by different
writers, feem to prove the exiftence of Hy-
drophobia, unconneéted with the bite, or
agency of the poifon, of any rabid animal.
The generality of fyftematic authors mention
the occurrence of canine madnefs at the dif-
tance of many years from the application of
the poifon of a diftempered animal. It has,
alfo, been afferted, that the contaét of the faliva
of a mad animal with the body is capable of
producing Hydrophobia. Indeed, fome authors
have gone fo far as to maintain, that the volatile
parts of the faliva, being carried off with the
breath of a rabid animal, have been capable
of producing the difeafe, when received intg
the ftomach or lungs of any perfon.

TI am fully fenfible of the caution to be ob-
ferved, in drawing pofitive inferences from the
generality of medical hiftories on this fubjec : —
For an attachment to the marvellous; a blind
obedience to authority; and arage for hypothefis
feem to have poffeffed the ancient fyftematic
writers, who have treated on this malady. In

order,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophotia. 447

order, therefore, to appretiate the credit due
to thefe various hiftories, and to the opinions
derived from them, I fhall only cite the moft
re{pectable authorities; and, indeed, chiefly
confine my attention to thofe cafes, which have
been fubjected to the infpection of their re-
{peftive relaters. I proceed, therefore, to con-
fider, firft, the hiftories and faéts that have
been adduced in favour of the opinion, that
the canine poifon haslain dormant for a great
length of time, and afterwards. been excited
into a@tion: Secondly, thofe cafes, which
have been attributed to the contact of the
faliva of a rabid animal with the furface of
the fkin; or to its application, internally as
well as externally, by any other..mode than
the intervention. of a bite: Thirdly, fuch
inftances of the difeafe, as have been faid to
have arifen spOntaDeRAy, * or, at leaft, whofe

| origin

* J have adopted the term ‘Spontaneous Hydrophobia,”
in conformity with the ufage of the generality of medical
writers. But I wifh it to be underftood in a fenfe dif-
ferent from that, in which it is commonly ufed. « For,
notwithftanding all the ufual fymptoms of canine madnefs
have arifen in many cafes, without the intervention of
the poifon of a rabid animal, I do not conceive, in fuch
inftances, any fpecific poifon to have been generated in
the habit — The canine virus operates, not only as a ftimu-

lus on the nerves, but alfo appears to produce a {pecific
attion

448 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

origin could not be traced to a bite, or any
other mode of infection, from a rabid animal.
I. It

ation in the falivary glands, and thereby effets a change
in their fecretions; at leaft, this change takes place in the
canine race.—But, there is no proof of fuch an affimila-
tion of the faliva occurring in any inftance of hydropho-
bia, arifing fpontancoufly, or excited by any other caufe
than that of the poifon of a mad animal, Therefore, as
we know that a variety of ftimulant powers are capable
of producing effe&ts analogous to thofe excited by the canine
virus, it is more confiftent with the rules of juft indu€tion,
to attribute the fymptoms of fpontaneous hydrophobia to
the operation of thefe powers, than to have recourfe to
the vague conjectural idea of their being produced by a
{pecific poifon, generated in the body. Nofologifts have
confidered fpontaneous hydrophobia, as a /pecies of the
Genus Hypropuosta; but their definitions are inaccurate—
It is the Hy pRoruosta fimplex of Dr. Cullen, andis defined:

Hy propuosia (jimplex ) fine rabie vel mordendi cupiditate,"’
in contradiftin@ion to the firft fpecies, which he defcribes
to be: “ Hy prorxosia (rabiofa) cum mordendi cupiditate,
ex morfu animalis rabidi.” The fecond {pecies of Cullen
correfponds with the Hypropnosia /pontanea of Sau-
vages, as his firft agrees with the Hyprornosia vulgaris
of the fame author, Thefe definitions do not reft upon
fa&ts. For, fo far is the “cupiditas mordendi” from be-
ing an effential fymptom in the Hyproruosia rabiofa,
that it very rarely occurs in that difeafe—On the con-
trary, this fymptom has taken place in feveral cafes of
the Hyproenosia fimplex or {fpontaneous Hydrophobia,
related in the courfe of this enquiry; but, it by no means
feems to be an effential fymptom of the difeafe, in cither
{pecies,

Canine és Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 49

I. It is difficult to afcertain any precife period
for the appearance of this difeafe, after the
communication ‘of the poifon. From forty days
to three months, may, perhaps, be confidered,
taking modern writers for our guides, as the ave=
rage diftance of time——But the interval of the
appearance of the difeafe from its fuppofed
caufe, according to fome writers, is fo indeter-
minate, as to include a period of time, from
one day, *to forty years. There are, how-
ever, feveral well authenticated cafes, in which
the difeafe occurred at the diftance of fix
months, one year, and even a’ longer period,
from the communication of the virus. In the
Akt. Norimberg.t a well marked cafe of canine
madnefs is defcribed of a gardener, who was
bitten September the 25th. 1720, and died,
hydrophobic, on the 8th. of May, 1721.—
Another indifputable cafe is recorded, in the
fame work, of a patient who fell a victim to
the malady nearly a year from the date of the
infection. Inthe Ephemerides N. C.§ the hiftory
of a young woman, bitten by a rabid animal,
is detailed ; in which it appears, that the poifon

K kk lurked

* Medical Comment. vol. V. p. 304.

+ Morgagni, de Cauffis et Sed, Morbor, al vii, art 21,
}{ Obferv, 7. vol. i.

§ Ann, 7mo, obs. 148.

450 - Mifcellancous Obfervations on

lurked dormant ‘for the {pace of one year, and
then proved fatal.

Galen * afferts from his own knowledge, that
the difeafe in one inftance did not appear till
after the {pace of a year, from the communica-
tion of the poifon. Actuarius f affords a fimilar
proof of the difeafe occuring fix months, and,
even, one year, from the date of the bite.
Diofcorides £ has obferved, that although the
difeafe, for the moft part, difcovers itfelf in
forty days after the infection; yet, in fome
inftances, fix months and even a year have
intervened. Though we may be fully war-
ranted to conclude, from the teftimony of the
above authorities, to which many later examples
might have been added, that the fymptoms of
canine madnefs have not been manifefted till fo
long a period as twelve months after the inflic-
tion of the bite; yet we can place little depend-
ance on the teftimony of many authors, who

. . have

* & Novi fane & quendam, qui, exaéto anno, in cum

‘¢ incurfit affe@um, quem Hydrophobiam vocant.”
Ga.en, lib, Prorrhet. fe& 2. com. 17,

+ © Attamen poft fex menfes, & anno elapfo, invadere

& contigit, ut nos ex experientid comperimus,” —
Actuar. Method, Medendi. Lib, viii.

¢ * Cum enim ut plurimum ad quadragefimum usque
& diem differri confueverit ; negleftis tamen quibusdam,
& poft femeftre, imo etiam poft annum, fuperveniffe obfer-
s vabimus.” Droscoxrip, Lib, vi. Cap. 3.

Canine &8 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 451

have endeavoured to prove the occurrence of
this difeafe, at the diftance of five, feven, and,
even twelve years, from the communication of
the poifon. Salius,* who ranfacked all the
writers of antiquity on this fubjeé&t, has brought
forward a variety of inftances to prove the ex-
iftence of thefe facts. But we fhall find, that
Salius has been contented to rely on very flender
evidence, for the proof of his affertions. For.
inftance : he quotes the authority of Diofcorides
as certifying the appearance of canine madnefs,
after an interval of feven years from the infec-
tion: yet, what does this teftimony off Diofco-
rides amount to? ‘To nothing decifive: for,
it goes no farther than to obferve, that fome
writers have related feven years to have elapfed
from the communication of the poifon to the
appearance of the difeafe. Schenkius, Zacutus,
Guinerius, Platerus, &c. and, almoft all the
fyftematic writers of the 16th. and 17th. cen-
turies have imitated the conduét of Salius. The
Arabians furnifhed them with fome authorities,

Kkke which

* « Hine aliqui ad dies plures, alii ad menfes, aliqui
“ anno exatto, rabie corripiuntur ; in nonnullisque pros
« ditum memoriz ab antiquis habemus—-hunc morbum
“« ad quintum, feptimum, & duodecimum annum, dilatum
® fuifle,” Sarvs de affect. partic. p. 360.

+ “ Sunt, qui narrent, nonnullos poft feptennium, ¢®
“ affeftu, correptos fuiffe,”’. Lib, vi, Cap, 8,

452 — Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

which may generally be traced to the Grecian
writers ; and thefe, for the moft part, relied on
hear-fay teftimony, or, the inaccurate hiftories
of fuppofed cafes of Rabies Canina. Albertus.
Magnus* fpeaks pofitively, indeed, of a cafe,,
that fell under his own obfervation, in which
the difeafe appeared after an interval of feven:
years from the bite of a rabid dog. Guine-.
rius ft has, likewife, pledged the authority .of a
friend; whom he efteemed worthy of credit,
for the occurrence of rabies canina, eighteen
years after the patient had been bitten by a. mad
dog. The difeafe proved fatal on the third day,
Salmuth, { after quoting from various writers
feveral inftances of Hydrophobia taking place
at the period of eighteen or nineteen years af-
ter the bite, relates one cafe, from his own au-
thority, in which the fymptoms occurred fevera] -
years after the patient had been bitters by her huf-,
band, who died of Hydrophobia. —Among later
writers on this fubject, the fame habit of in-
difcriminate quotation and. eafy credulity may

be

* ¢¢ Vidi hominem morfum a cane rabido in brachio, &
s¢ anno feptimo poft incepit inflari locus cicatricis, &
&* mortuus eft infra duos dies,” .

Ausrrt. Mac. de Hiftor, animal, Lib. xvii,

+ Quod cuidam, poft decimum oftavum annum @
s¢ cane rabido morfo, metus aquz accefferit.”

Traé, de Venenis,
t Saumutu, Cent, 1, 0b/. 065

Canine &8 Spontantous Hydrophobia. 453

be obferved. Even the accurate Morgagni, *
when treating on this fubject, does not forny
an exception to the charge. He has quoted
an authority from the German Ephemerides, +
to fupport his affertion, that the canine ‘poifon
has lain dormant for twenty years, and then
proved fatal. On confulting the original it
appears, that Morgagni either never read the
cafe, but took it upon loofe authority; or has
drawn falfe conclufions from a ftatement of the
facts. For the writer of this cafe relates, that
his patient had been feveral days afflicted with
a malignant fever; and alfo complained of a
pain in the fauces, which were infpected by
a furgeon, and found inflamed.$ Surely this laft
fymptom, added to the great debility the patient
Jaboured under, fuafficiently accounts for the
averfion to {wallow liquids, and the confequent
difguft experienced at the bare mention of
them; without recurring (with the Phyfician)
to the idle ftory of the patient being bitten
twenty years ago, by a dog fuppofed to be mad.
In the other inftance, of § forty years intervening

between.

* Epift, Anatom. viii. Art. 21,

+ Ephem, N.C, Ann. 9 & 10. obf. 49.

$ “ Fauces erant ficciflima, & tandem ob defeétum
* humidi inflammadbantur ; malignitas indies crefcebat ;
deliria accedebant, & oftavo morbi die animam eMlavit.”

. Loc. prom, cit.
id

454 . Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

between the bite and the difeafe, the authority
which Morgagni has borrowed is extremely
fufpicious and unfatisfa&tory. Gafpar a Reies, *
to whom he has referred, after collecting at
random a number of marvellous cafes from
different authors, clofes the lift with acafe on the
authority of Alzaharavius, in which the interval
of forty years took place from the date of the
infeGtion to the appearance of the diforder. It
would, therefore, appear from this enquiry
into the facts brought in fupport of the inaéti-
vity of the canine virus for fo long a period, that
thefe writers have either been miftaken in re-
ferring the origin of the difeafe to a fuppofed
far diftant caufe, when the actual one had
efcaped obfervation, or that they erred from
too readily adopting vague and hearfay tef-
timony.
II. With refpecét to the influence of the
canine virus in producing hydrpphobia, : when
applied merely to the furface of the body,.}
apprehend we muft receive the various autho
rities, in favour of the fact, with fome degree of
caution. That the difeafe has occurred from
the contact of the faliva ef a rabid animal with
the

* «Quod magis eft, Alzaharavius, propria experientia,
“ teftatur, venenum per quadraginta annos in corpore
* delituiffe,?

Elyfium Fucundar, Queftion. Q, 61. Nite

Canine &% Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 455

the fkin, independently of any bite, or the in-
fli€ion of an apparent injury, I would not
venture to deny: but that no imperceptible
rafure of the fkin by the teeth of the animal,
or expofure of the true fkin from a previous
{cratch—deftru€tion of a pimple—or any acci-
dental injury had not taken place, in moft of
thefe cafes, I am rather inclined to doubt. In
the German Ephemerides,* an inftance is re-
lated of Hydrophobia occuring from the mere
contact of the faliva of a mad animal, without
the infliction of a bite.f Johan. Matheus de
Gradibus has furnifhed us with an inftance of
this difeafe, arifing from a perfon applying his
hand to the mouth of a mad dog. In this
cafe,t though no bite was inflited, yet the
difeafe manifefted itfelf at fome diftance after-
wards. Matthiolus advifes us not to treat with
neglect the inftances that have been adduced
by various authors, of the production of Rabies
Canina, by the mere contact of the faliva with

the

* Ann. 7. Ob. 121.
+ Non quidem commorfa, fed tantum faliva ex ore
** fpumante hinc inde in corpore commaculata effet ;
** oftavo die, vehementi rabie correpta eft, & tertia die
placidé obiit.” a
£ Johan. Coqueranus infefus fuit rabie poft muitos
“dies, ex fola impofitione mands in os canis rabidi; eth
“ gum Canis non momorderit.’’
Jou, Maruort Conful, No, 82,

456 » Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

the naked body. » He ftrengthens this cautionary
advice, by bringing forward his own * autho-
rity to prove the occurrence of the difeafe, from
the mere afperfion of the faliva on the bodies
of two of his patients. Fab. Hildanus, in a
letter to his friend Do@or Abel Rofcius of Lau-
fanne, laments the incredulity of many perfons,
who had treated as fabulous the account he had
given of a remarkable cafe of Hydrophobia,
arifing folely from a woman having applied
her lips and tongue to that part of a gar-
ment which had been torn’ by a mad ani-
mal. In order, therefore, to banifh the feru-
ples of the moft fceptical, he fubjoins a+ hiftory
of the cafe, and pledges his veracity for the
truth of the relation. ‘To render this narration
the more probable, he adds two cafes which
fell under his infpeétion, the year following the

above

* < Quippe quod duos ego Viderim, qui /pumd tan-
& tum, nullo quidem ex morfu accepto vulnere, rabiem
&¢ contraxerunt,” Martruior. Comment, lib. 6.

+ * Matrone cuidam in via obviam canis rabiofus,
** qui veftem ejus dentibus arripiens, huc et illuc trahebat ;
« donec tandem, vefte lacerata, cute tamen mulitris” illeefa
¢ et intada, canis aufugit: illa, vero, nefcia canem Fabi-
* ofum fuiffe laceratam veftem, ‘lo dentibus abfciffo, refar-
“ cire ccepit,—Tribus menfibus poft, vifionibus hortibilibus
“et pavoribus agitari ceepit, et aquam et vinum. odiffe,
‘et, quod pejus eft inftar canis latrare, dentibus domes-
ticos arripere, Sc,’

Fas, Hitpan, cent 1, Ob/., 86.

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 457

above: mentioned event.’ The firft is particularly
deferving of attention, as it affords certain proof
of the danger to. be apprehended, if the flighteft
rafure of the {kin be! expofed/to the action of
the canine virus.’ It is the:cafe of a young
man, who received a fcratch from a rabid cat,
and that of ‘fo flight:a kind as fcarcely to rafe
the Epidermis. * . This:accident happened the
fummer preceding that»in which the difeafe
occurred.—He died on the third day of the at-
tack, under all the genuine fymptoms of hydro-
phobia. Itis probable in the prefent inftance,
that the claw of the animal was the medium
by which the faliva was communicated to the
injured cuticle. If this were the fact, how in- °
conceivably virulent muft be the action of this
poifon, when fo fmall a portion as could be
conveyed by fuch an inftrument as the claw of
a cat, was capable of producing the malady!—
- ‘The fecond cafe referred to by Hildanus, arofe
from the flighteft bite imaginable of a rabid
animal. ‘This accident proved fatal to the fuf-
ferer. ‘The well-known hiftory which -Czlius
‘Aurelianus relates (founded on report only) of
a woman fuffering the baneful effects of the
canine poifon, from merely applying her tongue
and lips to the infected threads of a garment,

Lee Lil which

9 Obf. 86,
t De mord, acut, lib, 3. cap. 9.

458 Mifcellaneous Objervations on

which had been torn by a mad dog, might
juftly have been confidered unworthy of credit,
had not the cafe of Hildanus, and a fimilar
one mentioned by Doctor Hamilton,* ferved to
corroborate the teftimony of this author. Car-
dan has alfo recorded the circumftance of his
being called in to affift at a confultation, in a
cafe of Hydrophobia; and, on an enquiry
being made’into the caufe of the malady, the.
by-ftanders confeffed, that the patient had kiffed
a rabid dog, previous to its being hanged.¢ The
patient died the following day, according to the
prognoftic of his Phyficians. Thefe inftances
are corroborated by the following cafe. It was
communicated to me by Dr. Percival, and is
fupported by his own refpectable authority. A
man refiding at Worral in Chefhire, during
his being afleep and lying on the ground,
was licked about the mouth by an infected dog ;
but fuffered no dite, nor the flighte/t apparent injury
of the fkin. He was, however, feized about
the ufual period with fymptoms of Hydrophobia ;
and died of the difeafe, notwithftanding the
ufual preventive means had been adopted pre-

vious

*Hamitton On Hydrophobia,” p. 226

"+ Adftantes confeffi ofculaffe rabidum canem antequam
‘* emitteret fuffocandum:—Mortuus autem eft fequente dic,
* ut nos pradixeramus,”

Cannan, Contradi&. 9, Trad. 5, lib, 2

Canine & Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 459

vious to its attack. Aretzus* affirms, that the
breath of a mad animal being taken into the
lungs of any perfon by infpiration, will produce
. the difeafe. This may be confidered, however,
as a bare affertion, unfupported by any demon-
ftration. Palmeriusf has related the hiftory of
a whole family, who were infected from kiffing
their father, in compliance with his requeft,
when juft expiring of canine madnefs. §

| Hf.

* © Quinetiam et a rabido cane, qui in faciem dum
“ fpiritus adducitur tantummodo infpiraverit, et nullo
“ _patto momorderit, in rabiem homo agitur,”
De caufis et fignis Morbor, Lib, i.
+ De Morbis contagiofis. p. 266.

§ I conceive this extraordinary hiftory (and one related
by Salmuth) deferving of little credit, Palmerius and.
Salmuth are the only writers (that.I am acquainted with),
who have ftated, from their own knowledge, that a bite from
any perfon afflicted with canine madnefs, has been capable
of communicating that difeafe to any of the human {fpe-
cies :— An abundance of negative faéts might be brought to
contradi& this ftatement. But, as no abfolute conclufion
can be derived from them, | would fuggeft the following
reafons for rejeting the teftimony of the above-mentioned
writers, Firft—If the faliva of an infe€ted human-being
were capable of producing canine madnefs in another of the
fame fpecies, furely many inftances of this kind mutt
have occurred to the numerous writers on this fubje&;
efpecially, when the chance of perfons being expofed to
the danger of fuch an accident is fo great, that, from twe
cafes only, which I have feen, four people were fubjefted

Lile te

460 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

III. I come.now to the confideration of the
inftances of fpontaneous Hydrophobia. ., Its
occafional caufes are various ;, fright—fudden
and. violent affections of the mind—wounds
received from enraged animals—the drinking
of cold water,) when the body. has been. pre-
vioufly heated—exceflive fatigue in hot weather.
—have all been affigned by, different writers,
as the occafional caufes of this complaint. . In-
deed, in fome inftances, it has been difficult, if
not impofible, to trace its origin to any occafional
caufe. The following cafes, ‘carefully’ fele&éd
from_a variety of more equivocal authority, will
prove the efficiency of the above mentioned.
occafional caufes in producing this difeafe; and
alfo demonftrate, that it has fometimes occurred
where no occafional caufe has apparently. pre-'
ceded. The five ‘cafes recorded’ by Marcellus:
Donatus, and confidered, by Morgagni,* as’

: | affording,
to the danger of receiving the infe&tion: two of’ them, by*
kiffing the patient, and the reft, by having had the falivaim
contact with frefh wounds in their hands, Yet they alb
efcaped without ufing any preventive means, Secondly;
Dr. Vaughan has failed in his experiment of returning”
the difeafe from the human fpecies to the dog. He inocu-’
lated that animal with the faliva of a rabid perfon, “but
without producing ‘any effeét. “Thirdly, Salmuth and Pal-
merius are both fond of ‘the marvellous; and their writ-
ings feem better calculated to excite furprize, than to con-
vey information.

» * Epiftol, Anatom, 8, art. 31, 32.

Canine 3 Spontaneous Hydropholia. 461.

affording certain proof of the exiftence of fpon-
taneous Hydrophobia,. are particularly intitled
to attention.. Unqueftionably, _Morgagni was
little {crupulous in mifleading his readers, when
he brought forward a// thefe -cafes, as equally
demonitrative of the exiftence of this malady.
If he had examined: them with:his ufual accu-
racy, he would have: found-no room to cenfure
the fcepticifm of thofe, who differed with him
in confidering them all as. undoubted. inftances
of Spontaneous Hydrophobia. |» For, notwith=
ftanding we might give credit tothe relation of
Donatus, fo far as refpects the abfolute free~
dom from fufpicion, in all thefe~cafes, ;of any
infection having’ been;communicated by a rabid
animal; yet it doesnot follow that they ought
to be confidered as cafes of Hydrophobia, -unlefs
their fymptoms warrant fuch an inference. In
the firft cafe, * the’ complaint appears to have
arifen either from a laceration, or fpafm of the
CLfophagus; ora Paralyfis of the mufcles of the
Pharynx. The patient was feized fuddenly at
dinner, with a violent painvand conftriction in
and about the threat, which he attempted to
remove by drinking fome liquor, but found
himfelf unable to {wallow it. He remained
incapable either of eating or drinking till the
next day, when he fwallowed fome grapes, but

would

*Marce ct, Donagr, ib, 6. p. gb et 294.

462 ~ Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

would not be perfuaded to attempt to get down’
any liquid. He died the fame evening.
2d. A woman was feized with a pain in her
arm, attended with a violent tremor of the
whole body. On the third day the pain ceafed,
but the trembling continued. She experienced a
fenfe of fuffocation about the breaft. If wine,
water, or broth were prefented to her, fhe fell
into convulfions, and even faintings. She was
able to fwallow folids with perfe& eafe. The
faculties of fenfe. and reafon remained unim-:
paired.* Her difpofition was mild, and her
converfation tranquil. She ere on the —
day of the difeafe. |
gd. A young woman was alarmed at feeing
a combat with fwords: fhe had all the violent
fymptoms of Hyfteria, with the dread of liquids’
fuperadded. Indeed, the fhock appears to have:
been fo violent, as greatly to injure the fenfo~
rium; for fhe was highly delirious, intra¢table,:
and feverifh. She died on the fifth day of the’
difeafe. . A
4th. A hufbandman, 27 years of age, after
his ufual labour of the day, complained of a.
pain in his arm. On the eighth day of this
complaint,

* « Si vinum, aqua aut jufculum propinetur, convellitur
“ et deficit: ova ac panem probe fumat: facultates prin-
cipes ac fentientes valde conftant,”, &c,

Marcer, Donat, &é, v2,

Canine &F Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 463

complaint, he was feized with flight fhiverings.
He retired to reft on that evening, without hav-
ing any inclination to eat. The family were
alarmed in the night by his frequently uttering
loud fhouts, and at times requefting he might
be reftrained from injuring any one. His refpi-
ration was laborious and interrupted. Donatus
being called in to his affiftance, privately prog-
nogfticated, that the patient would refufe to
drink; and if he attempted it, would not fuc-
ceed ; and alfo that his death was approaching.
Thefe events fucceeded each other according
to the predidtion of the Phyfician; and the

patient died in the {pace of four hours.
5th. A healthy and robu& countryman, was
attacked fuddenly with {weatings and a con-
ftrition, attended with anxiety about the pre-
cordia.* The inftant Marcellus Donatus. faw
the patient, he predi@ed, that he would neither
{wallow liquids, nor live many hours. The
prognoftic was fpeedily. verified: for, when
cold water was offered to the patient, he was
feized with a fudden horror and fainting.
The water being removed he prefently reco-
vered.f He would by no means fuffer any one
to

_ * © Cum anguftia cordis et agonia.”

+ “ Namque zxgrotanti oblatam frigidam aquam, ipfe
“ repenté horrefcit, ¢t linquitur animo; c& redyéta, adtue
tum revivilcit,’

464 a Mijcellaneous Obfervations on

to approach him ; nor could he bear, without
great emotion, the fweat to be rubbed from
his face. If by accident the napkin fell upon
his face, or preffed lightly upon it, he feemed
extremely afflicted and irritated. He expired in
a few hours. Marcellus Donatus afirms, that in
all thefe cafes the ftricteft enquiry was made,
both from the fufferers and their friends, relative
to the patients having ever been expofed to the in-
fluence of the canine peifon; and that they affured
him there was not the flighteft fufpicion of a cir~
cumftance of that kind ever having happened to
any of them. Morgagni * cites the authority of
Kochlerus for two cafes of Hydrophobia, in
which the difeafe arofe from the patients drink-
ing cold water when violently heated. In the
Journal de Medecine,f there are two inftances
recorded of Hydrophobia arifing from exceffive
fatigue, by a long march in hot weather. Gui.
Patint has alfo noticed the occurrence of this
difeafe from fimilar caufes. The German
Ephemerides § contain a fingular cafe of Hydro-
phobia from the bite of an enraged dog. The.
cafe is related by the phyfician who. attended
the patient. Jacob Otten, having chaftifed a

| dog.

* Epift. prius cit. Art. 31+

_ + Tom, 7. Juillet. An. 1757+ P- 3 & fuiv,. Tom. §
Abut. p. 81, p. 1757+

t Tom, 1. p. 275+ Tom. 3, 169.
§ Ephem, N.C. An, 6. 06, 9. p. 187.

RS SS eS

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 46%

dog which had devoured a favourite hen, was bitten
by the animal in the wrift. He was vifited by
his phyfician on the following morning. The
patient complained of great ftricture and anxiety
about the breaft; his countenance appeared ftern
and diftrefled ; the tongue and throat were dry
and parched, but not the flighteft inflammation
was vifible in thofe parts. Although at firft he
was able to bear the fight of liquids, he now
fhuddered at them with extreme averfion. He
declared fome time after when preffed to drink,
that he was not able, without feeling the moft
excruciating torments, to look upon, much lefs
to {wallow liquids. The wound had healed
during the time he fuffered thefe complaints.
He died about the fixth day of the difeafe. The
dog was not mad, as he was alive and well long
after the patient died. Another cafe defcribed
in the fame work,* by Door J. B. Scarra-
muchi, claims a particular attention, on account
of the fymptoms being fo ftrongly marked. A
young man, in a paroxyfm of rage from fome
domeftic troubles, bit the index finger of his
left hand, at about eight o'clock in the evening.
On the next day at four o’clock, P. M. he was
feized with flight thiverings, accompanied with
a vomiting of bile. At this period he expe-

Mmm rienced

# An, 9. in Append, p, 249,

466 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

rienced a dread of water,* and every other
‘kind of liquid—nor was he able to bear the
fight of polifhed and ftrongly illuminated objects.
To fuch a degree was the abhorrence of water
felt, as to occafion a fenfe of fuffocation at the
‘ bare mention of it. He afterwards became
delirious, {pitted upon the by-ftanders, and
was with difficulty reftrained by violent coercion
from injuring them. He vomited large quan-
titis of bile, and a dark coloured fluid. His
ftrength funk gradually, and he expired in the
{pace of a few hours.f Johan. Hen. Brechfeld
has related the cafe of a gentleman, who was
feized with hydrophobia in fo violent a degree,
as not to be able to {wallow the {malleft portion
of any liquid. He had no difficulty in fwallow-
ing folids. On the third day of the difeafe he
{pitted at the by-ftanders; and fuddenly expired in
his chair on the next day, after an attack of one
or two general convufions. Upon a ftrié
enquiry being made into the caufe of his com-
plaint, and particularly with refpeét to his
having been at any time expofed to infection

from

* « Verfus horam 16 aquam, omnemque alium liquorem,
*¢ necnon corpora lucida et candida abhorrefcere incepit,
s* ita ut etiam ad aqux mentionem ftrangulari videretur,”’

+ A€t, Hafniens, An, 1682,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 467

from a mad animal; he declared, when
perfectly rational, that he could not recolle&
fuch an event to have happened ;* nor was he
able to afign any caufe for the origin of his
diforder. I confider the following cafe related
by Dr. M. Lifter,f as deferving particular
notice. If it be not confidered an inftance of
Hydrophobia, occurring without the agency of
the canine poifon, we muft be compelled to
grant, that the bite of a dog proved infectious
when no fymptoms of difeafe had appeared in
the animal at the time the wound was inflic-
ted, nor for fix weeks afterwards. The writer
of the cafe has not made us acquainted with
the fate of his animal at any fubfequent period.
Now that a rabid dog fhould be capable of
communicating the infe@ion, previous to any
fymptom of the difeafe having difcovered itfelf,
is in direct oppofition to general opinion. It
is likewife equally repugnant to particular ex-
perience,t and to the analogy to be obferved:

Mmm a2 in

*« An a cane rabido demorfus unquam fuerit? A me
** interrogatus (cum mente adhuc conftanti) fe id non
** meminifle aicbat.”

+ Tra&. de morbis quibufdam chronicis. Hiftor. I.

+ In order to obtain fatisfa&tory information on this point,
1 wrote to Hugo Meynell, Efq. whofe knowledge on the
fubje€t of the difeafes of dogs muft be fuperior to moft

’ others,

468 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

in the operation of moft other infectious dif-
eafes. Befides, the length of time (above fix
weeks) from the bite to the death of the patient,
exceeds the general period affigned for the fatal
termination of madnefs in dogs. Dod¢tor Hun-
ter,* in his ingenious paper on this fubject,
obferves, that the difeafe generally proves fatal
to dogs in three weeks. Is it not then a little |
extraordinary, that Doctor M. Lifter fhould
have expreffed no doubts, relative to the power
this dog had of communicating the infection,
when he confeffes the animal appeared free
from any fymptom of madnefs, at the time the
| patient

others, from his long experience and attention to what-
foever regards their health and fafety. He obligingly
returned the following anfwers, to fome queries I had
propofed. -1ft. « Madnefs generally appears between a
« month ard fix weeks after the bite; about a fortnight is
*‘ the fhorteft, and eight months the longeft period I have
“known it to appear in after the bite.” od, “I know no
“* inftance of a dog apparently in good health having com-
«‘ municated the difeafe; but I have known the difeafe to
«‘ have been communicated by a dog that, to one who was
“not a nice obferver, or was not well acquainted from
“- experience with the fymptoms of canine madnefs, might
“have appeared in perfeét health.” gd. “ I am not
“© acquainted with any inftance of a dog having apparently
“recovered, and then relapfed, after the fymptoms of
*¢ the difeafe had once appeared.”

* See Tranfaftions of a Society for the improvement of
medical knowledge, vol, i. py295«

Canine 3 Spontaatzous Hydrophobia. 469

patient died?* TI fhall quote fuch paffages,
from the hiftory of this cafe, as will certify,
beyond difpute, the identity of the fymptoms
with thofe ufually exhibited in canine mad-
nefs. A young man was flightly bitten in the
arm’ by his own dog. The animal returned
quietly home with him on the fame evening.
The wound was fuffered to heal fpontaneoufly.
About forty days after the accident happened,
the patient was feized with flying pains over
his whole body; but efpecially about the region
of the precordia. On the day following he
was troubled with a conftant inclination te
vomit, attended with violent twitchings at the
ftomach.. With great difficulty he was.able to
{wallow his faliva. He refufed to drink fome
water which Dodtor Lifter prefented to him.
His countenance now exhibited great diftrefs.
He was able to fwallow folid food when pre-
fented in a fpoon. On the: fourth day thefe
fymptoms had increafed to the higheft degree:
To fwallow his fpittle now became fo dreadfully
dificult, as to threaten inftant fuffocation.
The fight of water was terrible. Every obje@
infpired him with dread. His mind was, |
however,

* & Neque illud filentio pretereundum eft, ipfum canema
_ #6 quo morfus eft, hominem e4 noéte fecutum efle; ime

«: ipfe canis vivus et fanus effe videbatur, quo tempore home
* mortuus eft,” °

470 Mijcellancous Obfervations on

however, fufficiently compofed to frame his
will ; and he infpected his book of ac-
counts. He had no fufpicion of the ‘nature
of his complaint until Doétor Lifter made
fome enquiries. On the fame evening he ex-
pired ftrongly convulfed, immediately after
making an effort to {wallow fome beer.

The frequent occurrence of an _ aver-
fion to fluids, and of great difficulty in fwal-
lowing them in women affected with Hyf-
eria, has been noticed by many writers. *
Some of thefe faéts demonftrate, that all the
fymptoms of canine madnefs have been brought
on by violent affections of the mind, in irritable
and delicate habits. The fatal termination of
fome of thefe inftances, tends further to con-
firm the ftrictnefs of the analogy between canine
madnefs and hyfteria. Platerus + takes notice of
a fingular inftance of hydrophobia in confe-
quence of terror. A woman, of an irritable
ftate of nerves, was much alarmed at being left
alone by her companions on the banks of a
river, where fhe had been employed in wafhing
linen. As the evening approached, her fears
increafed. After returning home fhe was feized
with a violent fobbing, and was:almoft in dan-
ger of fuffocation. Thefe fymptoms increafed

. daily ;

* Morcacni, Mean, Scuenxivs, Pratervs, &c, |
+ Obferu, Med, Prater, Lid, 1,

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. “471

daily; and an utter averfion to fluids fuper-
vened. The motion of the air, and the ap-

pearance of luminous objects, were equally

offenfive. She expired under the preffure of

thefe fymptoms on the eighth day of the difeafe.

Sauvages * has recorded a fatal example of

hydrophobia in a young woman, in confequence

‘of the mind being violently agitated, during a
morbid and irritable ftate of the body. In this

patient, the fight of any kind of fluid produced

dreadful convulfions, and it was not poffible to

prevail upon her to {wallow any medicine.

‘The patient died three days after the accident.
A variety of cafes might be cited, in proof of
the ftri& fimilarity between the fymptoms of
‘Hyfteria and Rabies Canina from the Ephemeri-
des N.C. I fhall content myfelf, however, with
having

* “Une fervante ayant été vivement preffée par un ~

«¢ jeune homme dans le temps de fes régles, cette evacua-

** tion s’arréta, et quelques heures aprés, le jeune homme

“ayant renouvellé fes tentatives, la fille entra dans une

*efpéce de fureur, Dés ce moment elle fe plaignit de

* douleurs vagues par tout le corps, et ces douleurs furent

“ fuivies d’une fiévre ardente, et d’un delire fi violent,

“qu'il fallut lier la malade. Ces accidens furent fuivis

“ de U’hydrophobie la plus decidée, Ala vue de toute efpéce

“de liquide, la malade tomboit dans des convullions

* affreufes ; elle rejetoit jufqu’ aux alimens folides, et il

“ ne fut pas poffible de lui faire aucun remede. Kile mourut
** trois jours aprés fon accident,”

Savvac, No/ol,

472 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

having ftated the above; and proceed to draw
fome inferences from the general recital of
preceding facts.

I. That the poifon of.a rabid animal ©
may lay dormant in fome inftances for the
period of twelve, and even twenty months:
yet that the cafes related by various authors,
where canine madnefs is faid to have occurred
at the diftance of feven, twenty, and forty
years, from the communication of the poifon,
may be juftly confidered as either inftances of
fpontaneous hydrophobia, or of fuch difeafes as
occafionally exhibit the anomalous fymptoms—
of an inability to fwallow fluids, and an ayer-
fion at the fight of them:—The poifon of a mad
animal has had no fhare in their production.
II. That the mere application of the faliva
of a rabid animal to the fkin, efpecially to thofe
parts where its ftru@ture is of a thin and delicate
texture ; fuch asthe lips, tongue, &c. has pro-
duced the difeafe of canine madnefs ; but that
the infpiration of the breath of a mad animal
by any perfon, has ever produced this com-
plaint appears highly improbable, and is not
fupported by pofitive fads. III. That local
irritation from wounds in irritable habits, efpe-
cially when conjoined with a perturbed ftate of
the paffions; and, alfo violent. affections of the
mind, independently of corporeal. injury, ,in
hyfterical and hypochondriacal conftitutions,

have

,

oe

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophotia. 473

have produced all the pathognomonic fymptoms
of canine madnefs; and finally, that violent
alternations of heat and cold, and all other
caufes, which induce great debility, and at the
fame time increafe the irritability ot the fyftem,
have at times proved adequate to the produc-
tion of fymptoms, exactly correfponding with
thofe of Rabies Canina. Perhaps the following
obfervations may tend to elucidate, more fully,
the propriety of adopting the above inferences.

I. I conjecture that thofe writers who no-
ticed the occurrence of canine madnefs at the
diftance of feven, twenty, and even forty years,
from the fuppofed communication of the virus,
have either been miftaken, in confidering the
anomalous fymptom of an inability to {wallow
fluids, which is fometimes met with in fever,
hyfteria, and other difeafes, as an effect of the
animal poifon; or have been ignorant that
Hydrophobia has occurred in particular habits,
without the poffibility of aflgning any fpecific
caufe for its production. Moreover, it is a fact
founded on the obfervation of a confiderable
number of cafes, that upon the average, not

‘more than one* perfon, out of twenty-five who

Nnon : have

* Sce Hamitton’s Treatile on NHydrophobia; Dr,
Vaucuan’s “ Two Cafes of Canine Madnefs;” and Dr.
Huwrter’s Paper on this fubjeft in the Tranfattions already
quoted,

474 - Mifcellaneous Observations on

have been certainly expofed to the bite of a mad
dog, has become infected with the difeafe.
Therefore, when fymptoms of Hydrophobia
have appeared at the diftance of many years
from! the bite of an animal really infeed, no
pofitive conclufion can be drawn from this ‘cir
cumftance; as the difeafe is by no means a
certain confequence of the bite. II. Notwith-
ftanding the hoft of negative facts which may
be brought to difprove the occurrence of infec~
tion from mere conta& of the faliva with
the fkin, yet the pofitive fads already quoted
from good authorities are of fuch force, as to
ftamp convi@ion on the mind, of the poffible,
though rare occurrence of canine madnefs from
this caufe. If this conclufion be juft, may we not
imagine in fome cafes, where the poifon is faid
to have manifefted itfelf after a very long inter-
val from the bite of a rabid animal; and, indeed
alfo in fome of thofe cafes which have been con-
fidered altogether as fpontaneous, that the poifon-
ed faliva may have been. recently communicated,
either indire@ly, through the unfufpected me-
dium of the cloaths, or directly, by fondling*
. or

* It is not poffible to ufe too ftri& precaution in avoid-
ing a familiarity with ftrange dogs. Dr. Hunrer, in the
work before alluded to, has remarked, that almoft all the

accidents related to the fociety arofe from taking notice of
Strange dogs, ;

Canine &2 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 475

or playing’ with an animal, not known to havé
been rabid? That fuch accidents very rarely
o¢cur, will be réadily granted; yet, as they feem to
be within the limits of probability, an important
léffon is held forth to medical practitioners, not
to negle& thofe cafes where the faliva has béén
eommunicated merely to’ the fkin, without any
vifible injury being fuftained. Tif. The hif-
tories of Hydrophobia, related: by different
Authors, as arifing from local. irritation’ of
wounds, or from violent affections of the mind, -
operating: fuddenly and powerfully on the ner-
vous’ fyftem, merit a due confideration. The
credibility of thefe hiftories' feems’ not only to
be confirmed, but alfothe ftri@ analogy between
their fymptoms and thofe of canine madnefs: to
be farther illuftrated, by: the occurrence! of Hy-
drophobia in fome cafes of Tetanus. Facts of
this kind! have been obferved, and commented
upon, by two celebrated Phyficians.* Dodttor
Ruth has remarked the joint fimilarity of fomeé
fpecies of Tetanus, with Hydrophobia. Having
particularly noticed the fymptoms of irritability
and debility —and the fenfe of ftrangulation felt
on {wallowing liquids—as occurring in both'ma-
ladies, he juftly inferred, that thefe difeafes were
nearly related in their proximate’ caufe of ner-

Nnn2 vous

* Dr. Percivar and Dr. Rusu
+ Effay on Tetanus— Medical Inquiries, v. 1,

476 — Micellaneous Obfervations on

vous irritation, and therefore required the fame
mode of cure. With equal fagacity, and by a
ftriking coincidence frequently to be met with
among men of talents and obfervation, Dodétor
Percival* had pointed out the fame refemblance
‘between thefe difeafes, and had alfo fuggefted
a fimilar mode of cure, previous to the publi-
cation of Dr. Ruth on this fubject. Both thefe
Authors have produced feveral cafes to confirm
their opinions. The following ftriking inftance
of fimilitude between Tetanus and Hydrophobia
was communicated to me by Dr. Percival. ‘The
cafe occurred fince the publication of his valu-
able obfervations on canine madnefs, and was
fent to him through the medium of Doétor
Haygarth. Mr. Wilmer of Coventry, well
known by his many ingenious works, attended
the patient, and furnifhed the defcription of the
cafe. —‘t A young gentleman, pupil to a Sur-
** geon of this town, had the middle finger
** flightly wounded by a {plinter of wood, on
¢* its internal edge, and juit over the part where
** a nerve accompanies the artery to the end of
** the finger. In about a week the little wound
*t healed.. A day or two after, he complained
S¢ of a fliffnefs in his throat and neck. ‘This he
*+ attributed to his having taken cold. ‘The

** complaint

* Effays Med. and Experim. vol, II,

iT
66
6¢
co

es

se

rt]

Lad

Ge
ee

ao

“se

Canine £8 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 497

complaint increafed, and extended to the
mufcles of the face and jaw. The mutcles
which move the lips were affected with {pafms.
A pain was felt about the {crobiculus cordis.
In three days the lower jaw was locked. The
convulfive motions of the mufcles of the face
recurred only at intervals. He had taken, dur-
ing the three firft days, Tincture of Opium
with Camphor Julep, in large quantities. On
the third day his lower jaw was lefs fixed, but
he could take no more of his fluid medicine ;

and all watery. drinks he found impoffible

to fwallow.. Whenever they approached his

mouth, the convulfive fpafms of the face re-

turned, and his head was: forcibly drawn
backwards. He was now ordered opium in
a folid form, which was perfevered in with-
out effect. Clyfters of afafetida, opium, &c.
were repeatedly given. The nerve leading to

‘the part affected was divided tranfverfely with
the knife. On the fifth day he!appeared fome-

what better, when we were haftily called to
him, as he was fuppofed to be dying. Uni-
verfal convulfions, (during which the mucus

was plentifully collected in the corners of his

mouth) feized him. Inthe fpace of twenty
minutes the fpafms ceafed. Electricity was
propofed, and tried. After he had received

‘a few fhocks, the convulfions returned, and

mgs 6

476 - Mifcellancons Objervations ov

** in lefs than ten minutes he died. Door
** Simfon, Mr. Cole, and) Mr. Whitwelf, as
* well as myfelf, attended him’; and we! were
*¢ all of opinion, that if the fymptoms FP have
** defcribed had’ followed the ‘bite of an’ ani-
** mal, inftead of the injury done to his finger
** by a fplinter of wood, we fhould have’ had
** fome difficulty in. determining’ whether the
** difeafé was Tetanus or Hydrophobia. ' A-
** bout ten years fince I attended a patient, whofe
fymptoms were nearly fimilar to thofe above
** related, and which were the confequence of a
** bite from a horfe. After opium, and other
** antifpafmodics, were ineffectually tried, ve
** recovered by the ufe of electricity.”

If there were any neceflity for additional
proofs of the occurrence of Hydroyhobic fymp-
toms, in cafes of local injury, a variety of in-
ftances might be brought forward, from Hilda-
nus, Ceelius Aurelianus, Schenkius, and other
writers. But the fact feems to’ be fufficiently
eftablifhed. It appears then, that the occafional
caufes productive of {pontaneous Hydrophobia,
_ operate either locally or generally upon the net-
vous fyftem, by increafing its irritability, andat'the-
fame time inducing debility. It is alfo fufficiently
evident, that the a¢tion of the canine poifon pro-
duces fimilar effects. But itsfuperior mifchievous
activity, in comparifon with any other occafional

caule,

e

r

°

Canine &? Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 479

caufe, cannot be denied. Yet I apprehend
we ought to attribute the more fatal virulence of
the canine poifon, rather to the difference in
degree, than in the nature of the caufe. For
undoubtedly, the identity ef effect warrants the
conclufion of an identity of the caufe. Happy
would it be for .the patient, as well as grateful
to the practitioner, if farther praétical expe-
rience inthe mode of cure, fhould confirm the
truth of the above inference!

In the AG. Norimberg. Tom. Il. there is
a cafe of Hydrophobia related, in which all
the fymptoms of canine madnefs were com-
bined with Hyfteria. A cure was effected by
the exhibition of tonic and antifpafmodic medi-
cines. Doétor Nugent's extraordinary cafe of
Hydrophobia affords a fimilar proof of the effi-
cacy of thefe remedies.

In both thefe inftances, the fymptoms ap-
peared altogether in as violent a degree as in any
cafe of canine madnefs. We may then ra-
tionally expect, that application and perfever-
ance will at length difcover a remedy fufti-
ciently powerful to counteract the virulent effects
of the canine poifon.

From a review of the whole of the preceding
facts and obfervations, are we to confider the
unhappy cafe prefixed to this enquiry, as arifing
from the bite of a rabid animal, inflicted twelve

years

480 . Mifcellaneous Obfervations on

years fince; or may we, with more probability,
attribute the diforder to fome unobferved or
forgotten communication of the canine poifon
with the fkin; or, finally, muft we not be
compelled to view this cafe as a genuine inftance
of {pontaneous Hydrophobia ? It is with diffidence
that I incline to the laft opinion. But when I re- -
fle& that we have no authentic teftimony of the
canine poifon lying dormant more than twenty
months at fartheft; that Hydrophobia, with alk
the pathognomonic fymptoms of Rabies Canina,
has been produced by other occafional caufes
than the infection of a rabid animal; and alfo
that notwithftanding a perfon fhould have been
realiy expofed to the canine poifon, the chances
are greatly in favour of his not being infeed
—I am compelled to conclude, that this patient
fell a viétim to other caufes, than the poifon of
any rabid animal. Nor doI conceive that the
effects detailed in this cafe are difproportionate
to the power of the fuppofed caufes. We
ought to confider the melancholic temperament
of this patient, fo much predifpofed to mental
and corporeal irritation—the weight of his af-
flidion at the heart-rending profpect of his
family’s diftrefs—his unremitted, but ineffec-
tual efforts to remove thefe calamities—and the
{canty portion of fuftenance he allotted to him-
flr, during this almoft unexampled ftruggle of

ftrenuous

Canine &$.Spontaneous Hydrophobic. 481

firenuous’ exertion, ‘againft famine, debt, .and
defpair! Add, to thefe circumftances, the effects
of imagination in aggravating the violence of
the.difeafe. For, although the patient’s dread
of liquids did not arife from this caufe, as he
felt a difficulty in {wallowing them: previous to
being imprefled with a remembrance of his
having been bitten by a fuppofed mad dog, yet
the moment this idea took poffeffion of his mind,
he confidered his recovery as hopelefs. - The
image of the dog haunted his imagination with
perpetual terrors; and the expectation of a vio-
Jent death, by being fmothered, (a vulgar and
unjutt perfuafion too, often entertained) would
not a little tend to increafe the nervous irritation
already excited. I have before mentioned, that
this cafe, from the difeafe being in a very
advanced ftage, was confidered as irremediable.
Neverthelefs, fuch remedies were adminifiered
as are ufually recommended in the cure of this
complaint. Among thefe the external and inter-
nal ufe of oil were tried; but indeed, at fo late
a period, as not to afford any great expectation
of relief being obtained. It may not be im-
proper to mention here an idea that occurred
to'me on reading the two cafes related by Doctor
Shadwell,* in which he trufted folely to the
exhibition of this remedy. In one inftance it

Ooo proved

_ * Memoirs of the London Medical Society —Jaft vol.

“482. Mifcellancous Obfervations on

proved fuccefsful, but failed in the other. Dr
Shadwell attributes its failure in the cafe of the
the boy, to the difficulty he experienced in fwal-
lowing it, joined to an extreme repugnance to
make the attempt; fo that only a very ‘fmall
portion (in comparifon with what the man took)
could be forced down. As this difficulty of
{wallowing fluids, and confequent averfion ‘to
them, arifes from the morbid irritability of thé
fauces, and mufcles fubfervient to deglutition,
I conceive, that the impediment to the ufe of
oil, (as wellas other fluids,) might be overcome,
by adopting the fame mode of adminiftering it,
as was practifed by the late Mr. John Hunter,*
to convey food into the ftomach of a patient,
who

#¢¢ The inftrument made ufe of was a freth eel fkin of
¢ rather a fmall fize, drawn over a probang, and tied up at
&¢ the end where it covered the {ponge, and tied again clofe
*‘ to the fponge where it is faftened to the whale bone,
¢ and a {mall longitudinal flit was made into it juft above
*¢this upper ligature. To the other end of the eel fkin
* was fixed a bladder and weoden pipe, fimilar to what is
‘* ufed in giving a glyfter, only the pipe large enough to
& let the end of the probang pafs into the bladder without
% filling up the paflage. The probang thus covered was
* introduced into the ftomach, and the food and medicines
6¢ were put into the bladder, and fqueezed down through
&the eel {kin But as cafes of the kind may occur
*‘ where eels cannot be procured, a portion ot the gut of
“any fmall animal, asa cat or a lamb, will make a very
“ good {ubftitute.” Hiftory of a cafe of Paralyfis, &c, im
«he Tranfactions already quoted,

a ee

Te he ee Sere

Canine 3. Spontaneous Hydrophobia: 483

who was afflicted witha Paralyfis of the Oifo-
phagus, and confequently was unable to fwal-
low any nutriment. By this mode the oil could
not come in contaé& with the irritable parts of
the gullet, but would immediately enter into.
the ftomach, and thereby afford to the patient
that chance of relief which the remedy has been
faid to have effected, at leaft in one inftance.
It is well known that the Antients relied greatly
upon the ufe of this remedy. Ccelius Aureli-
anus,* among other antient writers, recommends
its ufe; but was aware that in moft cafes it could
not be {wallowed, and therefore orders its exhi-.
bition by another mode.

Since I entered on the difcuffion of this part
of my fubje@, I have read with great fatisface
tion an account,f by J. Williams, Efq. of the
furprifing efficacy of a remedy againft the dele-
terious effects of the bite of feveral fnakes; and
efpecially of the Cobra de Capello. Thefe fa&s
are not only interefting, as pointing out a cer-
tain and fimple mode of refcuing thofe expofed |
to the bite of thefe venomous reptiles, from
elmoft inevitable death, but alfo highly deferv-

| Ooo2 ing

* “Quod ita facere poterimus, fi calidam atque oleum
clyftere per podicem injiciamus; et fi fieri poterit, diure .
** mis diebus, parvum quidem tunc enim poterit contineri.”?
Car, Avren, hd. 3, 231, de mord, acut,
t AGatick Refearches, vol, IL. p. 29.

“a

404° © Micellaneous Obfervations on

ing attention, as they demonftrate an analogy
between the fymptoms arifing from the poifon
of fome {nakes, and thofe produced by the bite
of arabid dog. And furely, in the treatment
of fo fatal a difeafe as canine madnefs, it is
proper to adopt any method of cure founded
upon rational principles. Analogy, under thefe
circumftances, feems to be our fureft guide.
The author of this difcovery has detailed
feveral cafes, feleted from a variety of others,
which terminated with equal fuccefs. His me-
thod of cure entirely confifts in the external
application to the bitten part, and internal exhi-
bition, of the fpirit of the cauftic volatile alkali.*
Eau de Luce (which is generally at hand)
anfwers as well; but he, with reafon, prefers
the pure cauftic Alkali, when it can be readily
met with. This remedy has uniformly put a
fudden ftop to the baneful effects of the poifon
of the Cobra de Capello. ©
The action of this poifon feems to be chiefly
confined to the nervous fyftem, and refembles
that of the canine virus, in exciting convulfive
fpafms about the throat and fauces,f difficulty’
in

* The “ Agua ammonia pure’ of the Coltege Difpen-
fatory.

+ Cafe od. p. 325.

“In July 1782, a2 woman of the Brahmen caft, who
Mliv in my neighbourhood at Chumar, was bitten by a

Canine &3 Spontaneous Hydrophobia. 485

fm fwallowing, and a flow of faliva from the
mouth. Whether the remedy acts fpecifically,
by deftroying the quality of the poifon, or ge-
nerally, by ftimulating the nervous fyftem, can-
not with certainty be determined. But I am
inclined to adopt the latter opinion. At all
events it is abundantly proved, that the effects
6f a moft deadly poifon (which aés violently
on the nerves) have been counteracted by the
operation of a certain medicine. ‘There is,
therefore, fufficient reafon to hope, that its
exhibition in canine madnefs may be attended
with falutary effects. For, if two diftin@ kinds
of poifon, generated by different creatures,
produce fimilar phenomena in the human con-
ftitution, we may fairly conclude that thefe
effects originate from the fame proximate caufe.
There will certainly be great, if not infuper-
. able

* Cobra de Capello, between the thumb and fore-finger of
“her right hand: prayers and fuperftitious incantations
t were prattifed by the Brahmens about her till fhe became
‘*fpeechlefs and convulfed, with locked jaws, and a pro-
sfufe difcharge of faliva running from her month. On
“being informed of the accident, I immediately fent a
& fervant with a bottle of volatile cauftic alkali {pirit, of
4 which he poured about a teafpoonful, mixed with water,
**down her throat, and applied fome of it to the part
“bitten, The dofe was repeated a few minutes after, when
“ fhe was evidently better, and in about half an hour was
“i perfeitly recovered.”

486. Mifcellancous Obfervations on

able difficulty, in adminiftering cauftic volatile
Alkali Spirit (neceflarily diluted with a portion
of fome mild and infipid liquor) in Hydrophobic
cafes, where the increafed fenfibility of the
fauces to irritation, and the dread of liquids,
are fo ftrongly felt. Perhaps it would be’ ad-
_ vifable, in fuch cafes, to mix the volatile alkali
with crumbs of bread, and form the mafs into
boluffes; or rather, to exhibit the cauftic volatile
falt enveloped in wafer paper. By this latter
method the pungency of the medicine would be
concealed, and its form might enable the
Patient to fwallow it with greater facility.

- Before I conclude this fubject, I cannot avoid
hinting at the neceflity of adopting fome gene-
ral plan, for preventing the communication of
the canine virus by infected dogs, to animals of
the fame fpecies. The great increafe* of mad
dogs, and the confequent ravages of canine
madnefs among the human fpecies, during the
courfe of the prefent year, (1794) demand the
ferious and fpeedy attention of the Legiflature.
For I conceive Government alone to be capable
of eftablifhing a plan of prevention on fo ex-
tended a fcale, as may afford a rational profpect
of totally eradicating this dreadful malady. Nor

is

* No lefs than forty perfons applied to the Infirmary at’
Manchefter, in the courfe of a fortnight, whe had .beem
bitten by dogs undoubtedly mad, :

a ee es eee

Canine €3° Spontaneous Hydropbobia. 487

is the projet fo hopelefs as:might, ona flight
confideration, be imagined. If the fad be
fufficiently eftablifhed, which Mr. Meynell: has
afferted from experience— That he preferved his
Kennel from canine madnefs for a feries of
years, by making every new hound perform
quarantine for a certain time, previous to his
admiffion among the pack,* it forms a ftrong
prefumption that the difeafe is aways produced
by an actual communication of the poifon of .
an infected animal. ‘This conclufion is farther
ftrengthened by the well-attefted fat, mentioned
by Dr. Hunter, and other writers,f of canine
madnefs not having been known to exift in the
Ifland of Jamaica, for the fpace of forty years.
The diftance of this ifland from the Continent is
the probable caufe of its freedom from the com-
plaint. For, if the canine poifon difcovers
itfelf in dogs within three weeks or a month, its
importation into the ifland would be prevented
by the death of the infeed animal during the
voyage. As it appears then highly probable, that
canine madnefs can only be produced by an
atual communication of the poifon of an in~
feéted animal, would not an Ad of the Legifla-
ture, ordering all dogs to be carefully confined
for a certain time (fix weeks would probably be

fufficient)

-* See Dr, Hunter’s paper in the “ Tranfaétions,” &c,

+ Confult Dr. Mofely’s Treatife on the difeafea of trae
fica) Climates, &c,

488 Experiments §2 Obfervations

fufficient) prove adequate to the prevention of
the difeafe, without having recourfe to the fo
frequently fuggefted, but. certainly cruel and
nugatory method, of deftroying, (or rather. of
taxing fo as to caufe to be deftroyed) the majo-
rity of dogs in the kingdom?

Farther EkeGh rickiers and OssERVATIONS on the
VEGETATION of SEEDS. Bi Mr. _Joun Goucn.

Communicated by Dr. Ho LME.

READ, DECEMBER 13, 1794.

[ was remarked, in the concluding paragraph
of my former paper on this fubjedt, that
feeds, foaked in water and confined in {mall
quantities of air, do not always lofe the faculty
of vegetating. Atthe fame time it was hinted,
that this difference arifes from the changes,

which are conftantly taking place in the tem-
perature

~~ ae

SS a

a
oe

v.

of ogee oe

SES eee

eu)

eS

on the Vegetation of Seeds: 489

‘perature of the atmofphere, and confequently
‘iniall bodies furrounded by it. I fhall now en-

deavour to prove experimentally the truth of

what I formerly advanced as a probable conjec-
ture, by fhewing that the vegetative principle
in feeds is deftroyed by the putrefactive fermen-
tation ; and. that. the. commencement of. this
procefs depends on,the changes in queftion being
accelerated or retarded, as the temperature in-
creafes or diminifhes.

Experiment, X.- Jan. gift. 1794.— Three
ounces of .dry, peas;were- put.to foak in rain

water: February 2d. four drams ‘of the peas,
which had now: been fteeped: forty-eight hours,

were removed into a phial, which, was then filled
with water, and inverted in an.earthen jar of
the fame: that part of the bottle which was out
of the veffel being fcreened fromthe light by a

_cafe of brown paper. It was then placed, ina
window looking to the North, (where a thermo-

meter was hanging) clofe ‘to the. veffel con-
taining the water, in which the remaining part
of. the three ounces was immerfed.

At the fame time, I placed two drams of the
peas, thus foaked, in a phial; and removed
them to a much warmer room, where they foon
vegetated. The fame was repeated, with equal
fuccefs, at the end of every forty- eight, hours,
to the eighth.

. In the mean time the thermometer was be-

Ppp tween

4go Experiments &3 Obfervations

tween 38° and 48°, being commonly at 43°.
The bottle remained full of water to the fixth ;
-but the weather then became warmer (the ther-
mometer ftanding at 46° or 48°), and two large
‘bubbles of air were feen in the upper part of the
glafs on the eighth. Thefe bubbles were fome-
what larger on the tenth; and nearly two dram-
meafures of air occupied the higher part of the
inverted phial on the twelfth.

The ufual quantity of peas, viz. two ce set
placed in a dry bottle, on the evening of the
tenth, fhewed hardly any figns of vegetation on
the 13th. (thermometer from 46° to 48°) : but,
on the 15th. fix, out of feventeen, had produced
fprouts. An equal quantity of the peas which
were yet lying in the water, was treated in the
fame manner on the 12th; but they fhewed no
figns of vegetating on the 17th. This is a proof
that the peas yet in water had been {poiled by pu-
trefaction ; the commencement of which was
certainly indicated by the air extricated from
thofe in the inverted bottle. The gas that was
collected by the bottle, in the courfe of the
experiment, confifted principally of carbonated
bydrogene mixed with nearly one quarter of its
bulk of carbonic acid gas.

One circumftance feems worthy of notice,
though not ftrictly applicable to the fubject of
the prefent enquiry. The peas appeared to be

faturated

onthe Vegetation of Seeds 491

faturated with water at the end of two days;
at leaft I judged it to be the cafe from the
following circumftances: feventeen of them
weighed two drams on the fecond of February ;
and the fame number came within a very few
grains of the fame weight, over. or under, to
the end of the experiment. Thus it féems clear,
that it isa matter of indifference, whether foaked
feeds be feparated from the air, by the interpo-
fition of water or azote; becaufe it is almoft cer-
tain, from the preceding remark, that the for-
mer fluid has no power to change the nature
of them, after they are fully charged with it.
It is evident from this experiment, that the
putrefactive fermentation, or an emiffion of gas.
from their fubftance, deftroys the vegetative fa-
culty of peas; from which we may venture to
conclude, that it has, fooner or later, the fame
effet on all other feeds expofed to its in-
fluence.

This experiment being made in cold wea-
ther, the deftructive procefs proceeded but flowly,
and the peas ufed were long in lofing the power
of producing. In order therefore to determine
how far an increafe of temperature would acce-
lerate the commencement of putrefaction, I
repeated it twice during the warmer months of
fummer, in a reom where the thermometer va-
ried from 60°. to 66°. In the former of thefe

Ppp2 trials,

492 Experiments €8 Obfervations

trials, avery ftrong fermentation took place
before forty-eight hours were expired; and when
a part of the peas thus treated was expofed to
the air, at the end of two days, none of
them fprouted.—In the fecond, they were
not. fo foon injured; for a few of thofe which
were tried on the third day vegetated. ‘Thus
it appears, that'an increafe of temperature proves
injurious to feeds fecluded from the air, by
promoting putrefadion in them, and pb
deftroying their vegetative power.

Experiment XI. Seeds properly moiftened
emit carbonated hydrogene mixed with carbonic acid,
when furrrounded with azote, as freely as others
of the fame kind do when immerfed in water ;
for if wet peas or barley be confined in’ a
known quantity of azote, as in Experrment IX.
the volume of gas will remain the fame for a
few days, but will begin to increafe more or
lefs rapidly at the end of an indeterminate
time ; which is longer when the temperature
is lower, and the contrary, Hence it is evi-
dent, that a portion of frefh gas is afforded by
the materials inclofed with that contained in
the jar; and thus is the bulk of the given quan-
tity enlarged. Moreover, if a bottle charged
as in Experiment VIII. be left clofely ftopped,
for twelve or fourteen days, in a moderate
temperature, the common air contained in it

; will
5

on the Wegetation of Seeds. ° 493

willbe firft rarefied, as we have proved before ;
but ‘its denfity will in a fhort time begin to in-
creafe again from the gas emitted by the wet
grain, as will appear if the inverted bottle be
opened under water: for, upon removing the

ftopper, a quantity of elaftic inflammable fluid

will rufh -from the neck immediately, which
will be fucceeded by a difcharge of bubbles
of the fame kind. Hence it appears, that the
putrefactive fermentation deftroys the vegetative
power of feeds furrounded by azote or covered
by water: confequently the prefence of oxygene is
neceflary for preventing this deftructive precefs;
which it does by producing another, that may:
be called the vegetative fermentation.

The reafon why one of the two kinds of fer-
mentation in queftion always takes place, in
feeds prepared by foaking, feems to be this:
the water, thus introduced into their compofi-
tion, changes that proportion of their compo-
nent.parts, which is required to preferve them
in a found ftate. If they be then expofed to
the atmofphere, the action of its oxygene awakes
the faculty of vegetation in them. On the con-
trary, when they are furrounded by azote or
water, which do not appear to aét on them, the
component particles in their texture are left to
form new combinations among themfelves, and
are partly converted into gas; the appearance of
which indicates the commencement of that ftage

of

494 Experiments &3 Obfervations

of putrefaction, by which the faculty of vege-
tating in the atmofphere is deftroyed. We may
now venture to explain, on rational grounds,
a curious circumftance alluded to in my former
Paper, (page 310): I mean a property, which
the feeds of particular plants poffefs, of .conti-
nuing found and uninjured in the ground for
many years, provided it remains fallow; but
which vegetate vigoroufly as foon as the foil is
pulverized by the plough. For it has been
fhewn, that an increafe of heat accelerates the
putrefaction of seeds charged with water and
deprived of air; from which it may be fafely
inferred, that the prefervation of thefe bodies
may be infinitely prolonged, by fecluding them
from the atmofphere, ina fituation where the
temperature never exceeds a certain degree,
which is not the fame for all feeds, but depends
on their refpective properties. Thus, for ex-
ample, though peas immerfed in water lofe
the faculty of producing in ten or twelve days,
when the thermometer is between 40° and 50°,
and much fooner in warmer weather, we are
not to conclude that all other feeds are as quickly
rendered ufelefs in fimilar circumftances. For [
repeated the tenth experiment in July, with feve-
ral kinds, ina room where the thermometer was
commonly higher than 62°; when it appeared
that Barley began to putrify on the fourth day ;

Wheat

2 ae to eet

on ihe Vegetation of Seeds 495

Wheat on the fixth; white Muftard-feed on
the eleventh; but Beans, treated in the fame
manner, continued found and vegetated at the
end of three weeks. Hence no one has a right
to affirm, without actually making the experi-
ment, that the feeds of Broom, Cockle, and
many more plants that might be enumerated,
would be foon deprived of the vegetative. prin-
ciple. On the contrary, we may venture to
affert, that, if fuch feeds will not putrify with
the fummer temperature of the ground, at the
depth of five or fix inches, when placed out of
the reach of the air, they will immediately ve-
getate upon being again expofed to its influence.
This is at leaft a plaufible explanation of the
phenomenon ‘in queftion. But in order to put
it to the teft of experiment, I took fome feeds
of Broom, which had been foaked for three
days in water, on the fifteenth of Auguft ; and,
after mixing them with moift fand, filled a
{mall phial with the mixture. The phial, being
well corked and wrapped in paper, was kept to
the thirteenth of September, in a room’ where
the thermometer was commonly at 65° and
fometimes rofe to 70°. Thefe feeds, being
planted afterwards in a pot filled with cakes
vegetated.
Experiment XII. On the inhenaadl of
january, I put a quantity of Onions, weighing
a four

496 Experiments &9 Obfervations

four ounces Troy, into a quart bottle contain-
ing common air; and introduced; at the fame
time, two {mall bulbs of the fame kind: into
another bottle of equal capacity. The veflels
were then fecurely ftopped, the corks. being
covered with wax and pieces of wet bladder.
The two bulbs, that were inclofed apart, began to
vegetate before the end of March; and had
fprouts nearly three incheslong, before the middle
of April: No figns of vegetation ever appeared in
the larger parcel. The two bottles were opened
on the twenty-fecond of May, being firft in-
verted in water, when a quantity of gas, con-
taining a confiderable: portion of carbonic.\acid,
iffued from both of them; particularly from that
where the onions weighing four ounces were
lodged, which continued to difcharge numerous
bubbles of a fcetid elaftic fluid through the
water, for more than a quarter of an hour,
which wasas long as I attended to the fubject.
The fprouts of the two bulbs were flaccid, and
evidently, ina ftate of decay: their vegetation
undoubtedly ceafed when the oxygene in the bottle
was confumed; upon which ‘the putrefadtive
fermentation commenced, and deftroyed_ their
texture. The Onions of the other parcel did
not vegetate when expofed to the atmofphere,
but became foft and rotted. The great dif-
charge of gas, which took place when the bottle

was

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 497

was firft opened, proves that they were predif-
pofed, to putrify, the elaftic matter’ being com-
preffed in their pores folely for want of room to
expand in; and the fubfequent part of! the expe-
riment fhews, that they: were too much’ injured
to be reclaimed by the action of the airs

» Exeerrment XIII.) Aboutithe middle of
February I placed two {mall onioris;*on a mus-
lino ftrainer, in’ a glafs jar which’ contained
azote and ftood in water.) They remained in
this fituation nearly’ fix weeks without'altering
the leaft in:appearance, ‘though fome’ bulbs’ of
the fame kind, ftanding’in an open ’elafs on'the
fame fhelf, vegetated vigoroufly before the ‘con-
clufion of the experiment. | We'may ‘venture to
infer from the two laft experiments, that what
has ‘been hitherto”proved, refpeCing’ the! vege~
tation of feeds, is alfo applicable? to vthat ‘of »
bulbs; with this difference: ‘that the former’
muft be prepared to make them fprout; by re-:
ceiving an acceffion of humidity from .an’exter-
nal fource, which the latter donot require ;)
becaufe they naturally contain within themfelves:
a portion of water) fufficient for the purpofe.,
Hence it happens that feeds, particularly fuch as
are natives of temperate climates,)mdy be con-|
veyed to a great diftance merely by,,guarding
them’ from. humidity, which. cannot be done,
with bulbs; for they foon vegetate, in‘ai proper
. Qqq temperature,

498 =—- Experiments &3 Obfervations

temperature, if not deprived of oxygene, without
which they begin to’putrify ina fhort time.

.. The preceding experiments relate almoft en-
tirely to the ‘firft period of vegetation, during
which the rudiment of the future root comes into
view from between the feed-lobes ; and, as this is
the commencement of the procefs, it does not
appear improbable that the extraordinary /timu-
jus, which | is' required to excite the latent
energy of the germ, ceafes to be of ufe as foon
as the effect is accomplifhed. For a number of
experiments, made by that induftrious Philofo-
pher Dr. Prieftley, prove that plants are capable
of living and growing in azote. From whence
it would appear, that a change takes place in
their nature, at a period fubfequent to the com-
mencement of vegetation; which fuppofition
can only reconcile what has been delivered, in
this and my former paper on the fame fubjed,
to the doétrine that has been very powerfully
fupported, by the labors and authority of a: man
of the higheft reputation in’ the philofophical
world. The following. article will however
‘prove, that the infant plant does not undergo
the alteration laft pointed out, while the —

lobes fupply it with nutriment.. :
Exerrtment XIV. On the eighth of Aptil, I
put twelve peas into azore, confined i in a glafs jar
inverted in. water. They had’ been previoufly
permitted

ESS

‘Sie

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 499

permitted to fprout in wet fand, contained in
another pot covered witha lid to exclude the
light; and the rudiments of their roots, which
appear firft, were at that time from one inch to
one inch and a half long, being undivided and of
a conical figure. In this fituation they remain-
ed till the fourteenth, in a window looking to the
the Eaft, without making a vifible progrefs in
growth: they were therefore taken out of the
jar, and the longeft fprout, being compared with
a meafure to which it exactly correfponded on
the eighth, was found not to have altered in the
leaft. An equal number of peas, in the fame
ftate, were placed under a jar containing com-
mon air, ftanding in the fame window at the
beginning of the Experiment. In thefe, vege-
tation made a vifible progrefs; for the upper
extremity of the f{prout appeared in moft of
them on the twelfth, which foon affumed a
green colour, from the aétion of light: But
though the experiment was prolonged to the
twenty-fecond, in which time the roots attained
the length of four inches at leaft and became
branched, they ftill preferved their primitive
whitenefs. The fame experiment was repeated
between the twenty-fecond and twenty-eighth
of the fame month, with two parcels of fprout-
ed’ beans; and the refult correfponded exactly
to the facts that have now been ftated.

Qqq2 Experi-

500 Experiments &3 Odfervations

Experiment XV. Six feeds of white muftard
(Sinapis alba) were planted, about the middle
of March, in aglafs bottle; the bottom of which
was covered with moift earth, the upper part
being occupied with common air. The mouth
was then well corked, and fecured with cement.
The young plants pufhed their tips into view
in the courfe of a few days, and appeared in a
thriving condition; but began to droop before
the end of the week, and died in a fhort time
after. The air was found to be unfit for com-
buftion. Probably the wet mould confined in
it contributed not a little towards depriving it of
its oxygene; for the mud of rivers and ponds has
been difcovered to poffefs this property i in a
high degree..

The fads related in the two laft satjéhes
prove, ina clear manner, that feeds which have
been permitted to grow for a time in the at-
mofphere, ceafe to do fo when they are fur-
rounded with azote: whence it may be fafely
inferred, that a germ in the act of vegetation
requires to be continually excited by the ftimulus
of oxygene. But as foon as the feed lobes are
exhaufted, the young plant is in a ftate to de-
rive its nutrition from the ground; and then
(and nottill then) it finds itfelf in afituation capa-
ble of making future advances; unaflifted "y the
ftimulus of refpirable air,

The

SRS SSeS

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 501

The infant fprout at firft fuffers only a fuf-
penfion of its energy from the abfence of pure
air; but if this neceflary fupport be withheld
too long, it perifhes by the putrefactive fermen-
tation: For if feeds treated as in Experiment
XIV. be taken out of the azgofe in which they
are confined, at the end of two or three days,
‘they begin to vegetate afrefh with unimpaired
vigour; but if their ftay in the gas be protracted

_ three or four days longer, when the weather is

moderately warm, they lofe their natural color,
and putrify.

Experiment XVI. The lively green, which
the ftems and leaves of plants receive from the
action of light, cannot be imparted to them,
provided the energy of the vegetative principle
in them be fufpended: for after permitting a

‘number of peas to produce both extremities of

their fprouts in wet fand covered from the light
by an earthen pot, 1 placed five of them, on
the twenty-ninth of April, in an inverted glafs
jar, containing azote confined by water; and
three in another jar, in which a portion of
common air was alfo inclofed by the fame means.

‘On the thirtieth, the upper extremities of the

{prouts of the parcel laft mentioned were green ;
but, though the Experiment was prolonged to
the fecond of May, thofe in the other glafs did
pot exhibit any perceptible alteration in fize or

color.

502 | Experiments {8 Obfervations

color. Two of them were now placed in a
_ giafs filled with atmofpheric air, where they
were. left unobferved to the fifth, at the
end of which time the germs had vegetated
confiderably ; the lower parts of them ftill re-
mained white; but their oppofite extremities
had changed to their proper green. It may here
be remarked, though the obfervation has but
little conneétion with our prefent enquiry, that
the circumftance of the inferior part of the_
germ in Peas and Beans conftantly preferving
its primitive whitenefs, may be confidered as a
proof of the roots of Annuals being different in
their internal ftructure to Perennials, Shrubs,
and Trees; for many inftances have been noted
by naturalifts, fome of which are recorded in
the fecond volume of Lowthorp’s Abridgement
of the Philofophical Tranfations, (Page 673)
of the branches of woody vegetables taking root
when planted in an inverted pofition, and pro-
ducing perfe& plants in this unnatural pofture :
which fhews that the rudiments of all the dif-
ferent fibres appertaining to a complete vegetable
are comprifed in a particular part of it, when
this is the cafe. But the circumftance juft now
mentioned, is a ftrong evidence of a contrary
nature in annuals: for, fince the rudiment of
the root isnot fufceptible of a green color, it
is plain that the part in queftion is deftitute of

fomething

on the Vegetation of Seeds.” 503

fomething which is natural to the ftem, and
its appendages. Hence we perceive, that though
a perennial may by accident become an annual,
the contrary cannot poflibly take place. In the
courfe of May I repeated the laft experiment
with Beans; and the event of this trial corre-
fponded exacily to what has been already faid
on the fubje&. Hence it may be fafely in-
ferred, that greenne/s cannot be imparted to the

Aprouts of feeds without the joint action of Light

and oxygene; in which they are very different
from the fhoots that frequently proceed from
maturer plants, when fecluded from the atmo-
fphere: for, as thefe grow freely in clofe glafs
veffels, placed in a window, and containing
water and azote, the parts which are recently
produced continue to vegetate, in confequence
of their connection with the parent ftock, and
acquire the color in’ queftion without’the amit
ance of ref{pirable air, as is evident from the
following article:
_Experrment XVII. On the fecond of July,
I introduced a flip of Spear-mint into a fix-
ounce-phial, in fuch a dire€tion that the end
of its ftalk remained in the neck. '’'The bottle
was then filled with river water ; and, being in-
verted in a veffel of the fame, about four ounces
of the water were difplaced by azote: after
which the.mouth was ftopped with a cork in
the

504. — ~ Experiments <9 Obfervations

the veffel, and a thick covering of cement was
applied after the glafs had been made dry with
a cloth. Thefe precautions were ufed with a view
to intercept all communication with the exter-
nal air. The bottle was then expofed to the light
in an inverted pofition, fo that the extremity of
the flip was in the water, and its top remained
in the inclofed gas. The leaves began to wither
in a few days, and a number of frefh fhoots
appeared in their places, both under the water
and above its furface, before the tenth, which
were green and clothed with leaves. . This
experiment appears to prove clearly that parts,
which are in a condition to grow. without the
help of refpirable air, can give a green color
to fuch frefh fprouts as they may chance. to
produce when feparated from the atmofphere,
provided the Jight thine on them. . We valfo
know that the functions of vegetables are. but
imperfectly performed during the fun’s ab-
fence. They perfpire, upon an average, ten
times more in twelve hours of day, than in.an
equal fpace of night. When expofed to a,mo-
derate light, they difcharge oxygene freely ; this
procefs ceafes as foon as they are removed into
the dark. Many herbs fold up their leaves at
fun-fet, clofe their bloffoms, and experience a
kind of torpor analogous to the fleep of animals,
during which their internal ceconomy is. fuf-
pended.

on the Vegetation of Seeds. 505

pended. Lrcur is therefore the chief exciting
power, in adult vegetables, which gives activity
to their different organs; and hence greennefs,
which indicates a plant to be in a healthy ftate,
arifes from its juices being properly affimilated ;
to which the influence of the folar rays contri-
butes, by giving its veffels their neceffary tone.
Thus the different fecretions required in its
ceconomy are elaborated ; its fibres receive their
juft texture; and-the hue, which Nature has
diffufed fo univerfally over this part of creation,
befpeaks its vigor and profperity. But oxygene
difcharges that function in feeds, which /ight
difcharges in maturer vegetables; and this tem-
porary difference, in the nature of the fame
organized body, isa wife precaution: for, fince
the germ is intended to expand itfelf in the
ground, the author of the univerfe has endued
it with properties fufceptible of neceffary im-.
preffions, from a caufe that has free accefs to its
dark retreat.
With the affiftance of this agent, it performs
a kind of imperfe& vegetation; which continues
till the rudiment of the ftem breaks the foil

_ and comes into day, where it immediately ex-

periences the influence of the light; which, by
producing a change in its colour, gives it the
appearance of a plant.

Rrr All

506 Experiments &9 Obfervations, &c.

¢

All the preceding conclufions apply folely to
plants: growing on dry land: for it is evident,
from | a ‘fight confideration of the fubjeét, that
the economy ‘of aquatic vegetables confifts of a
clafs of habits of a very. different nature 5. which
cannot be rightly , underftood, ‘until they ‘be
inveftigated by 2 a courfe of experiments. |

ag
tN

An Aten to “explain the’ Nature and: Orrark

of the, Avctent CaRVED ‘Prtiars and Osetisxs,
now ati in Great Britain. i By Mr, Thomas

o) BarRit. ) : . og 343
) huey READ DECEMBER 45 iemane

- NTIQUARIANS are deal accufed of a
fuperftitious devotion to the objeéts of

their refearch. ‘The prefent eflay will, at leaft,
be freed from this imputation; for I intend to
fhew, that, many ., ftone monuments in this coun;
try, have been referred to a. period too remote,
by thofe who have hitherto examined them. en
Some rude maffes of ftone are, indeed, to be
feen, particularly on the coafts of Scotland,
which were probably erected immediately oher
battles

‘On Stone Croffes. Mi 507

battles with the Danés and Norwégiahs ; but I
am inclined to believe that all the figured pillars
and obelifks, which have been fuppofed monu-
ments of fimilar events, were croffes, either
erected on confpicuous places to excite devotion,
or raifed over the burying places of noble fa-
milies, or defigned to commemorate military
tranfactions, of a much later period.

The crufades, and the fcience of heraldry,
gave birth to multitudes in unnumbered forms,
which no one but a ftudent in arms can poffibly
have a knowledge of. Indeed an acquaintance
with heraldry is, if of no other ufe in thefe
days, abfolutely neceflary as an auxiliary to the
ftudy of Britifh antiquities; and without it an
enquirer is liable to unavoidable difficulties, if
not to very great miftakes, fo clofe a conneétion
fubfifts between many parts of heraldry and
antiquity. After the barrow and the tumulus of
the Pagans, ftone croffes were introduced by the

_Chriftians. Many of them are at this day ina

ftate of great decay, and others entirely gone,
their exiftence being only afcertained by the

name of the {pot on which they once ftood.

Befides the injury which their ornaments and
imagery have undergone from the mouldering

hand of time, and wanton ignorance, they have

fuffered much from the blind zeal of reformers;
who having no tafte themfelves, and being re-
, Rorrie2 gardlefs

508 Mr. Barrit's Remarks

gardlefs of art, under a pretended thew of
piety and of eradicating fuperftition, have
totally deftroyed fome, and fo defaced and
mutilated others, by breaking off their orna-
mental and flowered crofs-tops, as to give them
the appearance of nothing more than obelifks,
or rude pillars. Thus under their prefent form,
fome have imagined, that feveral croffes in Bri-
tain are the work of northern Pagans, and fup-
pofed them Runic antiquities of this ifland.

It muft be admitted that fome ancient obelifks
may have been confecrated, by the addition of
croffes, or other emblems of Chriftianity. To-
land, in his hiftory of the Druids, P. 84, fays,
** We read of many fuch obelifks thus fanéi-
** fied, as they fpeak, in Wales and Scotland.
** And in our Irifh hiftories, we find the practice
** as early as Patric himfelf ; who, having built
** the church of Donart-Patric, on'the brink of
** Lock-Hacket, in the county of Clare, did
** there on three coloffes, erected in the times
‘** of Paganifm, infcribe the proper name of
** Chrift in three languages: namely, Jefus in
** Hebrew on the firft, Soter in Greek on the
** fecond, and Salvator in Latin on the third.”

A little caution ought to be obferved, in de-
cyphering their ornaments, or explaining them
to be hieroglyphical;* although abundance of
imagery, curious grotefque figures, and tracery

yet

on Stone Croffes. 509.

yet exifts upon fome in Scotland; and one at
Bew-Caftle, in Cumberland, had upon it, if it has
not now, a verfe, in chara@ters faid to be Runic,
in good prefervation: But this obelifk, like
feveral others, has had its top broken off, and
leaves a fufpicion behind of its having been
Once a crofs.

Few perfons at prefent will allow the gro-
tefque and whimfical figures in and on the out-
fide of our old churches, and upon the margins
of our old illumined miffals, to have any refer-
ence to particular perfons or accidents in general,
but think them merely the whim of the
workman; who, I fuppofe, was left to his
own choice: for I can fcarcely perfuade myfelf
the clergy of that period would have permitted
fuch exhibitions upon oak, as are fometimes
to be met with under the feats of ftalls, in our
cathedral and collegiate churches, had they fu-
perintended fuch works themfelves.

The obelifks in ‘* Cordiner’s Views of
Scotland,” and that in Nithsdale, defcribed by
Capt. Riddell, one of our Jate worthy members,
and engraved jn the memoirs of this Society, *
and feveral others defcribed and engraved in
Pennant’s Tour in Scotland, at Aberlemno,
Meigle, and Forres, are all {culptured with gro-
tefque figures, chain-work, love knots, and
ramifying tracery; and where the delineation

of ’
* Sco Vol, IV. Part I. p. 131,

Blo. Mr. ‘Barrit’s Remarks

of a crofs does not fhew itfelf upon any of their
fides, the probability of the fummit having
once been crucial, does not feem to have occur-
red to antiquaries.

It is probable that the reformation was the
great period of deftruction for the crofs- -tops ;
what was then left ftanding was “demolifhed
during the civil war.

The three ftone-pillars in the church- yard at
Penrith, in Cumberland, a drawing of which I
made in the year 1791, and have here given,
together with one, reprefenting what I fuppofe
might have been their original ftate, have been
examined by many; but all have miftaken their
original deftination. One fays, he faw nothing
in them but ‘* pillars rude from the chifel.”

— Stukeley, in his Iter Boreale, page 46, fays,
‘* in the church-yard of Penrith is a monu-
ment of a giant, Sir Owen Cefarius, a knight
I fuppofe of their king Arthur; two pyramidal
ftones, with rude carvings and letters on them,
feemingly Runic” — He takes no notice of the
four intervening ftones.
Mr. Pennant, inhis tour1769, gives two engra-
vings of thefe pillars: one in their prefent ftate,
and the other before the mutilation took place.
The piilars in his views are fquare, and figures of
boars are carved upon the fide ftones; the draw-
ings of both were fent him by two obliging
friends ;

on Stone Croffes. §il

friends; but the flighteft obferver can. hardly
fuppofe, that what is reprefented in the one ever
exifted in the other. Mr. Pennant fays, ‘‘ How
this great variation in the drawings of the fame
columns happens, is not eafy to fay ; for it does
not appear that there ever were any other in the
place. Time has obliterated the figures of the
animals; but whether any workman has chifel-
ed the whole fhafts of the pillars to their prefent
form, is, I think, fcarcely to be conje@ured
they bear all the appearance of antiquity.” He
faysagain, he has his ‘‘ doubts about the entire
fidelity of the old drawing, which was done
about the year 1690.” I tie there is little
doubt of its being a forgery,. when compared
with the monument.

Another writer reprefents thefe pillars under
the character of Boar-{pears, {uppofing they
ftood for the memorial of fome ‘ancient Nim-
rod, famous i in the chace; and the four flat-fide
ftones, remaining upon their edges, betwixt
them, to be the worn-out fhapes of boars, or
bears, before the Chriftian era. The fat feems

to me to be this; that it isthe decayed tomb
of fome now forgotten Cumberland or Weft-

morland Nobleman, with a crofs at the head,
and another at the feet, the fhafts of which
only are remaining; and that the four ftones
betwixt them are the remains of the tomb.

The

512 Mr. Barrit's Remarks

‘The pillars are about eleven feet high, “aad
about fifteen feet afunder; the lower parts. are
round, without ornaments, the upper P
the fhaft terminating pyramidally, and
with a fret-work, curioufly interlaced th on
rows of annulets or rings, Upon one. of the

tops, on the outfide, are ‘ftill apparent tora nh
obferver, the faint remains of a crucifix :
a fimple crofs alone, as given in t.
tioned tour) which prove it to Le
T was pleafed in this difcove as that goc &
judge in thefe matters, Dr. Ferriar
me. Upon one of the fide fi
ments, which are the only tra
that any one can imagine to be ru
but when clofely examined, th 3
knot- work, or an imitation of f ru

like the ramifying tendrilat
the letters — denominated rv
twifted or ‘incurvated appea
figure as a boar could e

mounting the tops of the pill: :
the Nithsdale crofs, and that at ‘Bew-

| J >
} ‘ia
ee

ik ae : MMorland foulp-
MONUMENT inPRNRITH cHURGn YARD?” sick

eee oe

ui _ 7248 2 ee ae

™

‘LEee

(% ee
Lnapslige WAIL.

Nithsdale Pillar.

T Barritt de.

Giants Thunb.

PMMorland sculp .

- =e 2 tras ™
4F giniey eh

eet hae

+. tet
ao

——

T Barriit del, : orient S
Monument in Penrith C ‘urch Yara supposed. in its oviginal st state . nie

e ee ee .

on Stone Croffes. 513

has now loft its flowers, or branches. I make
ufe of thefe terms, as implying a remarkable
diftinttion from the common fimple Greek or
Latin crofs, which is only compofed of two
crofs beams ; the latter with a long fhaft or pil-
lar, the former with the pillar and arms al-
ways of equal length.

In this circumftance, I muft now call in the
affiftance of heraldry. Having, fome little time
before I faw the Penrith pillars, been at Carlifle,
and examined the ftru@ure of the cathedral, I
could not help remarking, that one part of the
: 4 was crowned in a long range, with
what is called in heraldry the Crofs Patonce. The
{weeps or flowerings uniting their extremities
with each other, formed a rich embattlement
to that ancient ftruéture: this I conjecture to be
the part faid to be renewed in the time of King
Edward the Third; thefe croffes having their
flowerings much curved like thofe reprefented in
the plate, which exhibits to the eye, in each
crofs, four piercings: fimilar portions I found
yet remaining upon the pillars at Penrith; and
that which ftands by itfelf, in the fame church
yard, called the Giants Thumb, has ftill the
two lower holes in it, which do not appear
in any other crofs in arms. An artift, with
the affiftance of his pencil, may very eafily con-
vince any one, how and where fuch appropriate
parts are wanting, as the fegments of thefe

Sss piercings.

514 Mr. Barrit’s Remarks

piercings or circles are plainly , vifible, not only
upon the pillars at Penrith,, but upon -that:at
Nithsdale, mentioned by Captain Riddell. Thefe
concurring circumftances incline, me to believe,
that the Penrith pillars with that at Nithsdale,
are about the date of the fourteenth century; and,
from fimilarity in the ftyle. of execution, there
is great probability of their having been exe-
cuted by the fame hand, and perhaps very near
the fame time with the repairing of. Carlifle
Cathedral. |

The Nithsdale pillar I have here given in
black, and the parts which I judge are wanting,
in fhade, that an opinion may be formed of the’
propriety of the above conjecture.

The Scotch pillars are defcribed and engraved
in Pennant’s Tour; the author of which fup-
pofes them to have been Chriftian, from the
crofles, though of varied forms, being carved
upon them on one fide, with many fanciful figures
on the other. That at Forres is fuppofed to be
in memory of the final retreat of the Danes;
another in memory of the victory of Lon-
carthy, where the peafant Hay and his two Sons —
put a ftop to the panic of the Scottifh army,
and animated his countrymen to. renew the
fight.

Although the above are decorated, befides the
crofs, with men, horfes, dogs, and grotefque ani-

mals,

on Stone Croffes. 7 515

mals, which are fuppofed to allude to the above,
or to fome other material circumftance relative to»
Scottifh’ hiftory, I cannot at prefent be brought to
believe any of them to have been erected at the
time when any Norwegian, Danifh, or Iceland-
ifh invafion took place in Scotland: the work-
manfhip befpeaks the execution of a later
period. The knots, foliage, and grotefque
imagery, in a great degree, correfpond with the
embellifhments of the Penrith and Nithsdale
pillars; and I judge them to be nearly of the
fame date, of the fourteenth century. When
this ftyle was firft introduced, I cannot fay with
certainty ; but I have frequently feen it exhibited
in old houfes, the fcreens of burying chapels in
churches, and ornaments in books of fo low a
date as the fixteenth century.
_ There is a crofs remaining on the fpot where
the battle of Hedgley Moor, in Northumberland,
was fought, in the reign of King Henry the
Sixth. "The fhaft is entire, and is filled with
the bearings of the Percy family, and their
alliances ; the capital at prefent. has the form of
a fleur de lis, having perhaps been, broken, like
the croffes at Penrith. This proves, that croffles
were fometimes erected as military monuments.
The broken capital of another crofs, with fome
remains of fculpture, lies alfo in the Park op-
pofite to Alnwick Caftle, on the fpot where
Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland, is faid
to

516 Mr. Barrit’s Remarks, 3c.

to have been flain while he was befieging that
fortrefs. This capital at prefent has the form of
a fleur de lis; but as the moft ornamented crof-
fes, whether devotional, or family monuments,
which remain perfe& in the Weftern Ifles of
Scotland, have the crofs inclofed in a quatrefoil,*
it is eafy to conceive how this figure might be
produced, by breaking the top and outer limbs
of the circles.

Meteor ological

* See Pennant’s Voyage to the Weftern Ifles:

+ A crofs formerly ftood near Wigan, to which the
following ftory relates, Mabel (daughter and co-heir of
Hugh Norris, Lord of Sutton, Raynhill, Whifton, Haigh,
Blackrod and Leigh, and wife to Sir William Bradfhaw,
of Haigh, in the neighbourhood of Wigan) during the
ten years abfence of her hufband, who was reported to be
flain in the Holy War, married Sir Ofmund Neville, a
Welfh Knight. Sir William returned, and afked alms at
Leigh, in the habit of a Palmer. Mabel, ftruck with this
refemblance of her former hufband, fell a weeping, for
which fhe was feverely reproved by Sir Ofmund, Sir
William then made himfelf known to his tenants; and Sir
Ofmund, on receiving the intelligence, fled towards Wales;
but, near to Newton Park, in Lancafhire, Sir William
overtook, and flew him. Mabel was enjoined by her
confeffor to do pennance whilft fhe lived, by going once
every week barefoot and barelegged from Haigh to the
above mentioned crofs near Wigan, which was. called
Mab’s Crofs from the above occafion.

The far-worn effigies of Sir William and Lady Mabel
now remain in the chancel of Wigan church.” He with
his hand upon his fword, and a fhield charged with two
bends upon his left arm; fhe is in a long robe, and veiled,
with her hands elevated, as at prayer,

er Sok ee.

Tn ile lll

c*

aM

’ Meteorological Obfervations. 5a

Mereorotocicat Observations, collected and
arranged by Tuomas Garnett, M. D. Phyfician
at Harrogate: Member of the Royal Medical, Royal
Phyfical, and Natural Hiftory, Societies of Edin-
burgh; of the Literary and Philofophical Society of
Manchefter; of the Medical Society of London; of
the Royal Irifh Academy, Sc. Communicated by
Dr. Percivat.

READ, MARCH 27, 1795.

T is properly obferved by a late writer, that
there is fcarce any fubje&t in which mankind
feel themfelves more interefted, than in the
ftate of the weather; that is, in the tempera-
ture of the air, the influences of wind, rain,
&c.* It forms a principal topic of converfa-
tion. By the weather the traveller endeavours
to regulate his journies, and the farmer his
operations ; by it plenty and famine are dif-
penfed, and millions are furnifhed with the
neceflaries of life. It is intimately connected
with the health of the human body, with every
part of natural hiftegy, and particularly with
agriculture. On accdant of the extenfive na-
ture of the fubje&t, meteorology has long
engaged the attention of philofophers; and
many ingenious and plaufible conjeftures on
the

* Adams’s Leftures on natural philofophy, vol, 4.

518 Meteorological Obfervations.

the nature of rain, and other meteors, have
been given to the public; but the facts of
which we are at prefent poffeffed, are too few
in number, and have been made at places too
‘remote from each other, either to refute or
confirm the theories in queftion. 4
In the firft part of this volume ‘is given an
account of a number of meteorological obfer-
vations made on the weftern coaft of this ifland.
Since the. publication of that memoir, I have
received journals from different parts of the
kingdom, and have prevailed on feveral philo?
fophical friends, in various counties, to keep
regifters of the barometer, thermometer, ’rain,
wind, &c. By thefe means I hope we fhall;
in time, fupply the deficiency of obfervation}
and enable the philofopher to correét his theory
by facts.—It is in the power of the Society
greatly to promote this undertaking; and ‘it
would contribute greatly to the attainment ‘of
the obje@, if they would furnifh intelligent
perfons in different parts with proper inftrut
ments, on condition of their tranfmitting’ ari
nually an account of their. obfervations : and*it
might perhaps be right’ to ftimulate to “ftich
exertions, by conferring an honorary premium
on thofe who have made accurate obfervations
for a certain number of years.:
A publication has lately appeared called sae
Meteorologift’s Affiftant in keeping a-diary of
the

di det i el le

Meteorological Objervations. 519

the weather, which will be of great ufe to thofe
-who have not been accuftomed to make fuch
obfervations, and will fave much labour to thofe
who have. It contains ruled columns for a
regifter of the barometer, thermometer, hygro-
_Mmeter, and wind, at three periods in every day,
and the quantity of rain falling each day, with ~

_ columns for particular and general obfervations.

Perhaps one ftill more convenient might be
drawn up, and printed at the expence of the
fociety.

_ The fubje& of Meteorology is treated in a
very philofophical and fatisfactory manner by
Dr. Darwin, in the firft volume of his Botanic
Garden. ‘The theory of the winds there given,
bids fair to explain moft of the meteorological
phenomena.—And, I am of opinion, that if
regifters could be kept fo as to determine, at
what hour the winds began to change in many
parts of the world, fomething concerning the
weather might be learnt: for, (as Dr. Darwin
obferves, in a letter which I lately received
from him) the variation of the courfe of the

_ wind feems to be the caufe of, or key to, the

other phenomena of froft or rain; and this,
which is the principal circumftance in atmof-

pheric theory, is moft deficient in experiments.
For the convenience of comparing the diffe-
rent parts of the following obfervations, I have
divided |

520 Meteorological Obfervations.

divided the memoir into different feftions. The
firft contains the different obfervations which
have been made on the Barometer. The fecond
contains obfervations and remarks on the Ther-
mometer. In the third is an account of the
quantity of rain which has fallen in different
parts of the kingdom, with fome remarks on the
imperfections of rain gages, and the methods
of remedying them. ‘The fourth feétion con-
tains an account of the different obfervations
made on the winds. To thefe I have added,
by way of Appendix, the remarks of feveral
correfpondents, which could not properly be
referred to any of the preceding divitions.

4t.

Meteorological Obfervations. 522

§ 1.
OBSERVATIONS on the BAROMETER.

— .

Osszrvations on the Barometer at Liverpool
for twenty-five Years, abftracted from a
at Journal kept by Mr. HUPCHINAR late
Dock- Matter of that place.

1768. .

a
ot | Mean Height. | _Highelt. Lowett.
January 29.37 “4 29, 8 28, 9
February 29,16 30, 0 28, 6
March 29,76 30, 1 20, 3
April 29,46 30, 0 29, 2
May 29,34 29, 4 29, 3
June 29,50 | 30,5 | 20:35
July 30,26 |} 30,33 29,20
Auguft 29,86 30,15 29135
September 29375 30,17 28,87
Oétober 29,77 30,23 29,20

November 29,61 30,23 28,35
December 29,72 39,33 28,95

T 3% 1769.

522 Meteorological Obfervations.

1769.

Mean. Higheft. Loweft.
January | 30,18 30,30 29335
‘February 29,638 30,20 29,25
March 30,03 30,48 29,10
April 29,92- 30,35 29,04
May 29,36 | 30.54 | 29,15
June 29,95 }.°3922 | 29:55
July 29:74 | 30.33 | 29,65
Auguft 29,83 30,15 29,62
September 29,85 30,18 28s. 5 .
October 30,16 30,52 29,30

November 29,88 . |» 30,55 29,25
December 29,97 30,56 28,55

1770-

| Mean. Highett. Loweft, —
January 30,44 30,70 29,40
February 29:31 att 30057 28,75
March 30,19 30,20 29,40
April 29,83 30,60 29,20
May 29,86 30,30 29,25
June. . 29,84 30,18 29,58
July J 30,02 | 30,33. } 29555
Auguit; *.{ “30/12 7" 30135 29,90.
September 29548 |r B6.28 29,43
October 29,76 30,40. 29,08
November 29,34 30,15 28,85
December 29,45 | 30,20 29,10

E771:

Meteorological Obfervations. 523

a

| Mean. Higheft. Loweft.
January 29,81 30,20 29,10
February 30,02 30,50 29535
March 29395 30,40 29,35
April 30,09 | 30,45 | 29,73
May 29,61 30,23 29,40
June 30,06 30,33 29,48
July 29,86 | 30,15 | 29,45
Auguft 29,72 29397 29,40
September | 29,85 30,30 29,55
October 29,65 30,35 29,20

November 29,99 30,50 29,25
December 29,40 30,25 28,65

ae

January 29,57 30,25 28,75
February 29,40 29,85 28,92
March 29,17 29,92 28,85
April 29,76 30,15 29,20
May 29,47 | 30,32 29,40
June 29,86 30,20 29,45
July 29,85 30,25 29,20
Augutt 29575 30,12 29;20
September 29,67 30,10 29,10
Odtober 29,73 30,15 29,10

November 29,49 30,25 28,60
December 29,33 30,33 29,20

1773>-

524 Meteorological Obfervations.

1713s
| Mean. Highetft. Loweft.
January 29,66
February 29,38
March 30,04
April 29,78
May 29471
June 29,81
July 29,91
Auguft 29,59
September 29,61
October 29,66

November 29,53
December 29,64

1774-

Mean, | Highett. Loweft.
January 29,50 | 30,20 28,72
February 29,64 30,42 28,90
March 29,77 30,28 29,05
April 29,70 30,25 29,20
May 29,97 | 30,12 | 29,25
June 29,77 | 3017 | 29,45
July 29,84 | 30,17 | 29,48
Augutt 29,81 30,22 29535
September 29,36 30,22 28,95
Odober 30,01 30,43 29,32

November 39,82 30,28 | 29515
December 30,01 30,67 29,05

1775-

Meteorological Obfervations. 525

a775-

Mean. Higheft. | Lowe.
January 29,69 30,12 29,05
February 29,60 30,32 28,65
March 29,40 30,50 29,00
April 30,00 30,40 29,50
May 30,03 30,20 29,30
June 29,86 30,20 29,60
July 29,56 30,10 29,52
Augutt 29,73 30,00 29,30
September 29,72 30,00 29135
October 29,76 30,23 28,65

November 29377 30,33 28,87
December 20,95 30,45 28,57

aaa

1776.

| Mean. Higheft. Lowelt,
January | 29,73 30,20 29,25
February 29535 29395 28,67
March 29,84 30,32 28,87
April 30,15 30,42 29,70
May 30,00 39,43 | 29,10
June 29,80 | 30,32 | 29,50
July 29,79 | 30,28 | 29,15
Auguft 29575 30,20 | 29,35
September 29,80 30,40 29,12
Odtober 30,30 30,32 29,40

November 29,81 30,25 28,98
December 29,88 30,37 | 29,20

177}

Loweft.

29,23
29515
28,92
29,15
29,17
29,63
29,23
29,50
29,60
28,30
28,97
28,93

526 Meteorological Obfervations.
LRT

Mean. Highetft.
January 29,80 30,35
February 29,68 30,12
March 29:74 | 30,25
April 29:97 | 30.42
May 29,66 30,07
June 29,85 30,35
July 29,82 30,38
Augutt 29,93 | 30,40
September 30,04 30,30
October 29,73 30,25
November 29,92 30,43
December 29,87 30,23

Se ee
1778.

Mean. Highett.
January 29,07 30,42
February 29,81 30,35
March 29,78 30,45
April 29579 30,25
May 30,14 30,25
June 29,99 30,27
July 29,89 | 30,27
Auguft 30,41 30,45
September 29,97 30,40
October 29,65 30,08
November 29,63 30,12
December « |, 29,78 30,73

Meteorological Obfervations.

January
February
March
April

May

June
July.
Auguft
September
Odtober
November
December

_

1779-
| Mean Higheft. |
30,27 30,05 ~
30,17 30,42
30,16 30,60
29,89 30,53
29,91 30,28
29:95 30,25
29,86 30,35
30,02 30,32
29,83 30,10
29,83 30,30
29,94 B21385 4 94
29,64 30,33. J

1780.
| Mean. Higheft. | Loweft.

January 29,87. | 30,40
February 29,105. | 30455
March 29,02 30,35
April 29,66 ROR:
May 29,86 30,22
June 29,94 9159
July 30,03 30,30
Auguft 30,12 30,22
September 29,83 30413.
October 29375 30,35
November | 29,86 30,48
December 30,30 30,55

528 Meteorological Obfervations.

1781.
Se

| Mean. ~ Higheft. | Loweft.

January 29,09 | 30,68 29,13
February 29,39 30,30 28,80
March 30,19 30,45 29,97
April 29,41 30,22 29,27
May 29,96 | 30,37 | 29,65
June 29:74 | 30.23 | 29,50
July “} 29,89 | 30,32 | 29,50
Auguft 29,73 30,23 29,23
September’ { 29,78 30,22 29,33
October 30,03 30,33 29,30

November 29,56 30,10 28,85

December 29,39 30,00 29,15
ee emmmmammmmnd
1782.

| Mean. | Highett, “ Loweft,
January 29,65 30,33 28,87
February 29,81 30,33 28,90
March 29,61 30,25 28,90
Apri } 29,56 30,32 28,40
May 29,59 | 30.23 28,95
June 29,93 30442 29535
July 29,83 30,20 29,65
Auguft 29,52 | 29,97 | 28,95
September 29,81 30,23 29,13
Oober 29,74 30,18 29,12

November 29,83 30,43 29,19
December } 29,94 30,37 29,35

1783

Meteorological Obfervations. 529

1783.

Mean, Higheft. Loweft.
January 29,37 30,28 28,80
February 29359 30,55 28,30
March 29,66 30,40 28,35
April 30,06 30,47 29,45
May 29,86 30,22 29,55
June “29,79 30,20 29,10
July 29,85 30125 29,38
Augutt | 29,81 30,138 29,48
September 29,66 | 30,25 28,98
October 29,78 30,23 |'°'29,30

November 29,80 30,32 29,17
December 29,84 30532 + "|! 88595

_——o

1784.

Mean. - Higheft. Lowett,
January 29,72 30,40 29,30
February 29,64 30,40 | | 28,98
March 29,58 30,00 28,93
April 29,64 30,15 28,85
May 29595 30532 20523
June 29575 30,30 29,30
July 29,83 30,15 29,23
Augutt 29,90 |- 30,30 29,40
September 29,53 30,23 29,35
O€tober 30,01 30,25 29,45
November 29,72 30,25 29,25

December 29,64 30,13 28,52
Uun 1769.

ae Meteorological Obfervations.

1785.

| Mean. Higheft. | Loweft.

January 29,64 30,13 29,03
February 29,30 30,63 28,73
March 30,27 30,35 | 29,60
April 30,02 30,35 29,30
May 29,81 4 30,37 29.33
June 30,01 30,30 29,63
July 29,72 30,36 29,23
Augutt 29,65 30,01 29,20
September 29,20 30,18 | 96.92
October 29,42 30,33 29,28
November 29,26 30,35 | 28,58
December 29,63 30,20 29,05

1786.

| Mean. | Highett. Loweft.

January 29,46 {| 30,15 28,55
February | 29,67 | 30,25 29,02
* March 29,61 30,17 29,14
’ April | 29,80 30,35 29,38
May 30,39 30,25 29,20
June 29,81 30,22 29,62
July 29,87 30,27 29,20
Auguft {| 29,68 30,15 29,12
September 29,28 30,23 | 28,55
Oétober 20.55 a4 89083 28,45

November 29,68 30,18 | 28,90
December 29,73 30,33 28,60

1787.

Meteorological Obfervations. ~ 534
1787.

Mean. Higheft. Lowett.

January 30,01 30,47. |. 29,40
February 29,31 30,23 | 28,35
March 29,58 30,33 | / 28,85
April 29,86 30433 29,05
May 20575, 30,22 28,82
June 29,73 30,02 29,35
July 29,66 | 30,25 29,32
Auguft 29,50 29,97 28,92
September 29555 30,05 28,55
October 29,24 29,70 28,72
November 29,33 | 29,93. | 28,70
December 29,82 29,95 28,50

1788.

| Mean. Higheft. Loweft.

January 20,55 30,20 28,30
February 29,18 29,83 28,30
March 29,57 29,70 28,93
April 29,01 30,03 28,85
May 29,61 29.95 29,22
June 29,56 | 29,87 29,13
July 29,47. | 29,80 29,18
Augutt 29,48 30,03 28,90
September 29,40 29,75 29,00
Oober 29,73. |. 30:25 29,25
November 29,65 29,95, 29,20
December 29,57 29,35 29,25

Uur?2 1789.

532 Meteorological Obfervations.

1789.

Higheft,
January 30,33
February 29578 |
March 29,95
April 29387
May | 29595
June }- 29395
July 29,78
Augutt 30,05
September 30,03,
Oober 30,00
November 30,12
December 30,25

aD?

1790.
| Mean, Highett. Loweft,

January 29,76 30,20 28,95
February 29,31 30,30 | 29;30
» March 30,01 30,45 29355
April 29:74 | 30,15 29335
May 29,89 30,30 29,30
June 29:79 | 30,55 29,40
July 29,81 30,20 29,45
Auguft 29,90 30,15 29,60
September 29,98 30,50 29,40
Oétober 29,87 30,40 29,50 ©

November 20177 30,35 29,10
December 29,78 | 30,35 | 28,95

Meteorological Obfervations. 533
1791.
"

’” Mean. Higheft. Lowelt,

January 29,39 | 30,30 28,35
February — 29396 30,50 29,h0
March 30,16 30,65 28,90
April 1 29,75 30,10 29,10
May 30,00 | 30,40 -|- 29,50
June 29,95 30,30 29,68
July 29:79 | 30525 29435
~ Auguft 29,99 | 30555 29,08
‘September | 30,09 30,35 29,45
Oétober 29,61 30,50 23,70
November } 29,68 30,95 23,85
December | 29,58 30,20 29,05

1792:

a a a eee ee ee
| Mean, Higheft. Lowelt,

January 29,63 30,35 28,95
February 29,96 30,50 29,55
March 29,69 | 30.45 | 29,05,
April 29357 30,30 29,30
May 29,90 | 30,35 29,10
June 29,91 30,40 29,30
July 29,83 | 30,10 | 29,55
Auguft 29,90 30,30 29,20
September 29,71 30,25 29,10
October 29575 | 30.45 | 29,15
November 29,95 30,35 29,15
December 29,83 30,25 29,10

Mean

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Meteorological Obfervations. 535

Mean height of the Barometer at Liverpool
in each month, deduced from an average of
twenty-five years. ‘

January |29,71|May 1|29,80|September| 29,69
February|29,58|June |29,82/October | 29,71
March }29,80}jJuly }29,82| November} 29,64
| April 29,73 | Auguft | 29,81 | December | 29,64

It is evident from this ftatement, that the
mean height of the barometer is greater during
the months of May, June, July, and Auguft, than
in any other four months. And this does not
depend upon the expanfion of the mercury by
heat, independent of its weight : for the difference
in the expanfion of the mercury from this caufe,
‘between the greateft cold of winter and heat of
fummer, never exceeds ,03 of an inch.

Obfervations on the Barometer at Dover, extrafted
from a ‘fournal kept by Mr. T. Mawnrett,
Surgeon at Dover.

The obfervations commence in Oétober 1 789.

17 89 c Mean. Higheft. Loweft.
‘October | 29,61 30,21 28,74
November 29,64 30,42 28,60
December 29,81 30,48 29,10 |

1790.

536 ‘Meteorological Obfervations.

1790.
| Mean. Higheft. Loweft.
January 30,02 | 30,31 29,12
February 30,21 30,49 29,07
March 30,12 30,48 29,20
April 29,63 30,16 29,16
May 29,76 30,10 29,30
June | 29,93 30,22 29,29
July 29,98 | 30,21 29,41
Augutft | 30,16 30,20 29,71
September } 30,09 | - 30,42 29,48
October 30,00 30,40 29,60

November 29,87
‘December 29,97

30,32 29,11
30,38 29,10

1791-
Mean, | Highett. Lowett.

January 29,98 | 30,42 28,48 ©
February 30,00 30,42 | 29,15
March 30,05 30,95 28,97
April 29,87 30,12 29,11
May 30,12 30,39 29,68
June 30,02 30,32 29,41
July 30,05 30,29 29,50
Augutft 30,20 30,58 29.71
September 30,21 30,39 29,50
October 29,82 30,46 | 29,00

November 30,00 30,38 | 28,64
December 29,60 30,43 | 28,99

1792.

Meteorological | Ot/fervations, 537>

1792,

Mean, | Hizgheft. Loweft.
January 29,65 30,46 29,10
February 30,00 30,42 29,42
March 29,80 30,38 29,10
April 30,03 30,40 29,11
May 30,08 30,36 29,39
June 29,97 | 30,33 | 29,36
July 29,90 | 30,24 | 29,51
Auguft 30,01 30,16 29,30
September 29,76 30,41 29,60
October 29:77 30,27 29,21
November 29,91 |) 30,41 29,38
December 29,10 | 30,25 29,60

1793-

Mean, Higheft. | Lowel
January 29,92 30,45 29,10
February 29,70 30,17 29,18
March 29,82 30,11 29,29
April 29,90 30,30 29,28
May 30,08 30,30 29,35
June 30,138 30,24 29,72
July 30,18 30,40 | 29,73
Auguft 30,44 | 30,90 | 29,40
September* | 30,29 30,46 29,50

XXX Mean

* The obfervations to the end of the year are not
come to hand,

538%

Meteorological’ Obfervations.

Mean annual height and range of the Barometer in each

1789
1790
1791
1792
1793

| Annual mean.

29,97
29,99
29,83

29,68

| of the preceding years.
Higheft, Loweft. | Range.
30,48 | 28,60 | 1,88
3949 29,10 1,49
30,95 _ 23,48 2,47
30,46 | 29,10 1,30.
30,90 29,10 | 1,80

39,05

Hence the mean height of the Barometer
at Dover, on an average of five years, is
29,90 inches: the greateft height during
that period 30,95; the leaft 23,48: the
greateft range 2,47; and the mean annual
range 1,80.

Ob/ervations

39

§

vations.

Meteorological Obfer

+ +

Odfervations on the Barometer at Mipprewren, 7 Chefbire s+ froma Fournal kept by S. Vernon, Esq.
at the #equeft of the late Dr. Forurrciz.: communicated to Dr. Percivar. In this Journal,
‘Mr. Vernor-has only~given the greateft and leaft heights of the Barometer in each Month
with the range,. there is no way therefore of deducing: the monthly mean.

s

High | Loweft. | Range. Higheft. | Loweft. }-Range. | Higheft.. Loweft | Range. | Higheft. | Loweft. | Range. |.Highclt. Loweft. | Range.

Jan. | 30,15 | 29.39 | 0,85 | 30,10 | 29,30 | - 0,80 | 30,60 | 29,24 | 1,36 | 30,12 | 29,05 | 1,07 | 30,36 29.36 | 1,00
Feb; | 30,30 | 28,90 | “1,40 | 30,11'] 29,10 | 1,01 | 30,44 | 28,71 | 1,73] 30,35 | 29,24 | O11 | 29,89°| 28.93 | 0,96
Mar. | 30,45-| 29,65 | 0,80 | 30,42 | 28,98 | 1,44 | 29,98 | 29,14 | 0,84] 30,18 | 29,24 | 0:94 | 30,007 28.89 | 4,11
Apr. | 30,31 | 29.49 | 0,82 | 30,24 | 28,92 | 1,32 | 30,35 | 29,05 | 1:39] 3229 | 29,50} 0:79 | 30:10 | 29:53 | 9:57
May | 30,23 | 29,20 | 1,03 | 30,50 | 29,30 | 1,20 | 30,16 | 29,21 | 9,95 30,16 | 29,33 0,83 | 30:30 | 29,40 | 0,90
Jun. | 30,14 | 29,26 | 0,88.) 30,17 | 29.45 | 0:72 | 30,04 | 29,45 | 59] 30:30 | 29:30 | 0,94 | 30:33 | 295° | 083
Jul. | 29597 | 29,25 | 0,72 | 30,26 | 29,64 | 0,62 | 30,25 | 29,60 | 9,65] 30,19 | 29,45 | 0:84 | 39,39 | 29:59 | 0,80
Aug. | 30,09 | 29,30 | 0,79 } 30,10 | 29,52 |} 0,58.) Not obferved 0,10| 29,48 | 6,62 | 30,27 | 29,27 | 1,00
Sep. | 31,00 | 28,79 | 2,21 | 30,35 | 29,70 | 0;65'| 30,20 | 29,44 |. p13 29,04 | 0,69 | 30,19 | 29,16 | 1,03
O&. | 30,14 | 39,t4| 1,00 130,45 | 39,44 | 1,01 | 40,35 | 29,0 4,35" 30:50 29,30} 1,20-| 30,2 29,16 | 1,11
Nov, | 30,20 | 28,00 29,43 |. 0,89 | 30,09 4,17 | 30,62} 28.86 | 31,76 | 30.35 | 29,99 | 1.36
Dec, | 30,32 | 28,92 28,41 | 1,95 | 30,06 28,88 | 1,48 | 30,40 | 29,28 J 1,12

640 Meteorological Obfervations.

Mean of the extremes, or mean ranges in
each of the preceding years.

Higheft. Loweft. | Range.
28,00 3,00 —
28,92 1,58

28,71 1,89
28,86 1,76
28,89 1,51

The greateft height of the Barometer, dir
ing the preceding years at Middlewich, was
31,00; the leaft 28,00; the greateft range 3,00;
and the mean annual range 1,94.

The latitude of Middlewich is 53°. 12

Obfervations on the Barometer at Kendal, by Mr.
J. Gouven. Continued from p. 258.

Mean monthly heights of the Barometer.

| 1792 1793 1794
January 29,902 | 29,871
February 29,585 29,621
March 29,756 29,800
April 29,852 | 29,772
May 29,014 29,901
June) 29,844 | 29,995
July 29,934 | 293917
Auguft 29,875) 29.795 | 29,833
September 29,644 | 29,895 29,805
October 29,709 29,807 29,667

November 29,876 | 29,727 | 29,505
December 29,682 | 29,615 29,329
Mean

Meteorological Obfervations. BAL

Mean annual height of the Barometer for the
preceding years. '

1792 | 1793

295759 29,810

Obfervations on the Barometer at Dumfries, by Mr.
Arex. Coptanp. Continued from p. 272.

Monthly Mean ran eRe Epes e

wos. fare abet Mango ea
January {29,8062 | 0,3189 29,4873
February |29,4992 0,1648 | 29,6640
March 29,7079 | 0,0303 ; 29,6776
April 29,8232 | 0,1299 29,6933
May 29,8989 | 0,1077 29,7912
June 29,7885 0,0281 | 29,8166-
July 29,8429 | 0,0358 29,8071
Auguft 29,7311 0,1192 | 29,8503
September! 22,8922 | 0,1119 29,7803
Oétober [29,7445 | 0,0629 29,6816
November} 29,7175 | 0,0956 29,6219
December }29,5713 | 0,0148 29,5505

The annual mean for the fix preceding years
is 29,7019. The annual mean for 1793, is
29,7518, which is 0,0499 above the medium.

Mean

542, Meteorological Obfervations.

Mean height of the Barometer at Dumfries.
in each feafon of the year 1793, compared

with the mean of the fame feafons for the laft

fix years.

; Medium Above
. in the
1793. ‘1793. | Medium.
Spring 29,6768
Summer 29,8434 |0,0385
Autumn 29,7893 |0,0186
The three

winter. ! 29,6983 }o,1431

months

Below
the

Medium,

Medium for
fix preceding

years.

0,0015/29,6783

29,8049
297797

Barometer higheft 30,45 ; loweft 28,57 ;

range 1,96,

29,5552 °

Obfervations on the Barometer at Kefwick, for 1793,
by Mr. Perer Crosruowalte.

vations and Effays, page 15.

Continued
from Mr. Datton’s Meteorological Obfer-

-
-
:

°1793- | Mean. Higheft. Loweht. Range,
January 29,66' | 30,28 | 28,59 1,76
February | 29,31 | 29,77 | 28,64 Lt Ge?
March 29,48 | 30,03 | 28,82 ie
April 29,60 | 30,10 | 28,97 1,13
May 29;76' | 30,08 | | 28,68 1j4a@ <
June 29,60 | 29,98 | 29537 | 0,61
July 29,68 | 29,93 | 20,14 0,79
Augutt 29,54. 1, 29,05) Je20,13 0,72
September} 29,65 | 30,08 | 29,12 0,95
October | 29,56 30,14 | 28,82 1,32
November; 29,48 | 30,17 | 28,65 1,52
December! 29,34 | 30,15 ‘| 28,33 1,62

543

Meteorological Obfervations.

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544 Meteorological Obfervations.

The reafon why the greateft and leaft heights
are only given in the year 1774, is becaufe
I received only an abftract of Dr. White’s —
Journal for the preceding years containing
the mean heights, but the complete Journal
for the year 1774. .

Mean height of the Barometer in each of the
preceding years, with the annual Range in

177%

Yh SS

1774 | 20573 } 39.45 | 28,60 | 2,15
It appears from hence, that the mean an-
nual height of the Barometer at York, on an
average of four years, is 29,70. The greateft
height during the year 1774, was 30,75; the
leaft 28,60: the greateft range 2,15 ; and the
mean range 1,21.

Obfervations on the Barometer at Harrogate. |

1794 Greateft height. | Leaft height. Mean.
June 29,80 29,21 29,38
July 29,85 28,90 29,25
Auguft 29,72 28,35 29,01 |
September 29575 28,60 29,32
October 29,81 28,45 29,01“

November 29,65 28,60 29,15
December 29,35 28,95 29,24
Mean

945 |

Meteorological Obfervations.

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403 . . WwW) . bait su:

ee "$189 Med "s1e9X pa "s1e9 pl ‘S129 X moh “$189 K aie "S129
"yO X | -iornsoy ‘sorajuing| ‘jepuay | “s9a0q = |*joodssary

-paonpap StM, ULI 9Y} YITYM JOJ sivof Jo 10q
-wnu ay} YM ‘soduid quasayIp ye AdJaWIOIeg 943 Jo IYSIoy Uvoyy

ons on the Baro-

°
+
i

I fhall conclude thefe obfervat
meter, with a table of the {pace moved through

by the mercury inthe barometer at Kendal, for

fix years, which was communicated to me by

Mr. Gough. He obferves that,

‘** the barometer

#6) Rigg

y

Yy

546 Meteorological Obfervations. °

tb

has been long. valued for indicating the
changes of the weather; and philofophers
have not (as far as he knows) made any
ufe of it, befides remarking the mean and
extreme heights of the mercury; circum-
ftances which are much influenced ‘by local
elevation: but tables exprefling the {paces
moved through by this fluid in the tube,
for the feveral months of a feries of years,
promife to be of more fervice to fcience.
For, by comparing part of that which follows,
with one made from the obfervations of the
Royal Society, I find (fays he) that the
motion in queftion, as well as the rain, is
much lefs at London than at Kendal. I do
not pretend to account for this curious cir-
cumftance.. Meteorology is too near a ftate
of infancy to admit of complete explanations.
Fads not theories are what we want; and if
they be ever obtained, the joint labours of many
obfervers muft fupply them. The tables here
recommended are liable to fome imperfec-
tions, which need not be pointed out to thofe
who underftand the ftructure of the inftru-
ment. The inaccuracies are confiderably
diminifhed in mine, by the bafon and’ tube
of the barometer being wide; and by taking
the obfervations three times a day, which is
alfo done with the thermometer.”

Space

-
<

Meteorological Observation

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“soptnoreg, op Uy BIN, oy} Aq ysnosy, peaoys one

a
ow 4 Ss cw «<j 4 9

€:

the

he

index of the barometer, which may be of ufe

h

-fcrew,
in an inc

vb ae i

iS a micrometer

hich he had made

Burton, of Ripon, lately fhewed me
hundred threads
Yyy2

rma. 1. joo

IX

f heights by means of that inftrument.

ining two

Captain
an improvement w
(PL.

to obfervers, and particularly in the menfura-
conta

.

tion o

548 Meteorological Obfervations.

the bottom of it is faftened to the index C,
which it moves up and down the st, part of
an inch at every revolution. Behind B is a
wheel, containing two hundred teeth, which
are moved by the threads of the {crew. This
wheel carries the index B, which moves round
the graduated circle divided into two hundred
parts, while the fcrew moves one inch.—The
fcrew A is moved by the hand, till the index
C be exactly on a level with the furface of the
mercury; and the index B fhews the height of
the fluid.

a
§ Il.
OBSERVATIONS on txt THERMOMETER.

een Se

Obfervations on the Thermometer at Liverpool, extratted
from Mr. Hutcuinson's Fournal.

Thefe obfervations on the Thermometer were
made at twelve o'clock at noon. The Ther-
mometer was raifed about forty feet above high-
water-mark. It was placed undera table (to
prevent the-rain having any effect upon it)
facing the North, in an open obfervatory at
the top of houfe. The houfe was confiderably
elevated above the adjoining ones; and the ob-
fervatory was as much expofed to the open air

as poflible.
1763,

549

Meteorological Obfervations.

Mean, ight Lowen M, | H. i L M H. i L Mi} 1G. M. H. | i
January 4o | 52 | 29 [48/53/42 | 46/57137]42]56/ 41/44/52] 40
February 50 | 58-| 43 | 48] 53144 | 49157 [42 | 48] 56 (401441 53] 38
March 51 | 56 | 47 152157145 | 40/53 142148156 143 | 49/55) 41
April 56 | 59 | 51 155164147 | 51157 148153159 147154159] 48
May 61 | 68 | 50 | 59|66)54 ier 61167 154}55 | 63] 50
June 64 | 71 | 55 | 61| 62|60 64174157 |66| 72155
July 66 | 70 63 | 68] 78 |60 65173 |60 (67175164
Auguft 65 | 70 | 61 | 64] 70 61 63 |69 | 60/66} 71} 62
September Go | 65 | 58 | 62| 69 |56 61 |67 |58 162167) 57
October 58 | 63 | 55 150 62 |50 58164154 |63/65)56
November | 51 | 55 | 47 |55|57(|44 52/58 148 152/57] 48
December | 46 | 57 | 40 | 48155 |44 51155'47149155!40

* Obfervations on the Thermometer only for the firft fix days of this month,

$ No more obfervations on the thermometer this year.

ONS »

i

Obfervat

cal

Meteorologi

55°

en EE CE AS AEE EE TR NR TE TCR RE AAA A

| 1773. | 1774: | 1775: | 1776. | 1777+

|»

January 50| 57|46| 44/49] 40 [50157144 |42 (52) 34| 42) 55

LM. Po. § Lg MT Bt, H.

February | 44| 56] 42| 48) 54] 43 [53] 58 | 50/48) 52) 34) 39) 53
March 53| 61| 48| 53| 601 48] 53157147 |53| 02] 48) 50/68
April 55 | 62150] 56) 64) 52] 60] 71154] 58192] 54) 51 | 60
May 57| 671501 59| 66) 52] 61167 | 54159167) 52 57) 4
June 63|70|59| 63] 66] 5g] 69] 76 | 62 |61 | 69/59) 61} 70
July 65|73|60| 64| 68} 61] 67| 72|62|66}70|64| 64] 78
Auguft 69| 76 |62| 67| 72| 64] 66] 71 |63 | 64) 73) 61 | 06) 79

September |69]68]56} 62| 68] 59] 64| 72 |60|63}70| 60) 64) 77
October 58|64155| 61167154] 58197) 50] 59/55 | 56] 55 | 06
November [511581 45|52|63144| 51157 |46| 53 |62| 43] 48) 58
December 1501551461 49155139 1521021451 51)601 441 39 | 53

553

| 1778. | 1779. | 1780. 1781.

FS

3 january 39

z February {41 | 50 134/53 | 66] 44| 39] 5°] 32] 45 | 5° | 40] 39 [52 | 32
> March 451561361 54| 66 | 44] 50/59] 44] 54) 0 | 40] 42/50 | 34
~ | April 52174 ]41|50| 70 | 50| 47] 58) 44] 59) 68 | 48) 43) 54 | 34
8 May 61} 72 |52| 61 | 78 | 48] 59] 80} 50| 60/84] 50] 50] 64 | 44
Bo June 66] 77152) 66| 76 | 58} 61) 84] 55} 66) 82) 54) 61) 78 | 44
= July 66| 78 |58| 73 | 88 | 64| 68] 78] 58] 69/83 | 56) 63] 78 | 54
Ss Auguft 6g | 81 |60| 73] 84 | 64] 75 | 82] 06 | 69 | 80 | 62] 59} 66 | 50
Ss September [60/74 149/63] 74157|67}78 Go| 62}76}54} 00] 72 | 48

Odtober | 52 63 | 40] 50 | 64] 50] 53} 62] 44] 57 | 94 | 441 48 | 54 | 40
November [47
December

Meteorological Obfervations.

09?

January
February
March
April

May
June

July
Auguft

September

October
November
December

10NS. 553

Meteorological Obfervat

December

| 1788. | 1789. | 1790. 17Q1. | 1792.

M1. | L me fm iM. {He OL. | Mi bea | oo.
January [42/50] 36/38 154/22] 42| 52135 142] 5330] 30]50| 28
February = + }41| 48/31] 44 | 52139] 48154) 40144) 54/36) 44] 54] 33
March 41} 59} 3°|42 | 47|33| 49157141 149/58) 39) 47] 55137
April 521701 44] 50 | 58).43 | 43155 | 42 153| 7/43] 54) 68] 43
_ May (165 | 81) 43] 58 | 68}.45 154/66) 46 |56| 76! 43] 55] 61| 47
, June 466 | 85159159 | 79152|62) 75.150 |64| 86) 54] 60] 71153
July 64171) 57193 | 73}53|62!70)53 |61| 77/54) 63] 701 57
Auguft, | 65) 74] 59 | 67'| 78] 61 163 | 72| 53 | 63] 73] 47] 64] 78] so
September | |61|71 48 | 60 | 68}52155 | 95 | 49 | 61} 78/ 46] 57] 68) 51
October 153. | 61) 45 1501571 41152 | 65 | 45 152] 05 | 47) 52| 641 43
November [45157133144 45154133 54} 42| 49159] 40

Z2z

Meteorological Obfervations.

aon

Mean annual height and range of the Thermometer in each of the
preceding years.

a a ee

Mean. Loweft. Mean, } Higheft.

Years. Higheft, Range. Loweft.

Years. Range. Highett. | Loweft:

Range.

Years, | Mean.

17681 55 | 71 | 29 | 42 1776) 56 | 73.) .34 | 39 117851 49
11769} 56 | 78 | 42 | 36 11777) 53 |.79 |.31. | 48 |1786] 49
(1770) 48 | 57 | 37 | 20 1778] 53 | 80 | 31. } 49 |1787} 49.
1771) 55 | 74 | 40 | 34 11779] 57 | 88 | 26 | 62 |1788}. 52
1772) 55 | 75 | 38 |} 37 |1780) 52 | 84 | 24 | Go }1789] 51
1773} 57 | 76 | 42 | 34 |1781] 55 | 84 | 24 | Go |1790] 51
1774| 50 | 72 | 40 | 32 |1782) 49 1.78 | 30 | 48 |1791| 52
1775} 58.| 76 44 | 32 |1783} 51 |:80 24 60 |1792| 51

7 . 17841 47 3,76. | 26) 1 50

Hence it appears, that the mean heat at Liverpool at twelve o'clock, deduced
from an-average of twenty-five years, is 53° of Fahrenheit’s Thermometer : the
greateft degree of heat during that period 86 ; the leaft 22°: the greateft
range 64°; and the mean annual! range 46°.

549

Meteorological Obfervations.

|
;

oe nnn nnn ee Eee
65

;
:

Mean height of the Thermometer at Liverpool in each month on

an average of twenty-five years.

February | 44 May 58 | Augutt November | 47
March | 47 June 63 | September | 61 | December | 43
April 52 July 65 | October 54) January 41-
Mean heat Mean heat Mean heat Mean heat
ofthe | 48] . of 62 | of 60 of 44
Summer Autumn - Winter.

Spring

Meteorological Obfervations.

556

Obfervations on the.Thermometer at Dover, abftratted from Mr. Mantes

September

Odober 45 | 57 33
November | 37 | 47 | 27
December 39 |} 46 | 28

fournal.

Meteorological Obfervations. 557

Mean annual height and range of the Ther-
mometer at Dover for the preceding years.

“Years. | Mean. | Higheft. | Loweft. | Range.

1789 40 57 27 30
1790 45 86 26 60
1791 44- 23) 26 50.
1792 44 78 16 62
31793 46 | 77 25 52

_ From this it would appear, that the mean
heat at Dover is 53°: the greateft degree of
heat noticed in the abistvations for the pre-
ceding rect 86°; the leaft 16: the greateft
range 70°; and the mean annual range st
nearly.

The mean here is however lower than an
truth, owing to the -obfervations of the firft
and laft years not ‘being complete.

If we take the three complete years, viz.
1790, 1791, and 1792, the means will ftand
thus.

Annual mean 44°.
Annual range 57.

I cannot, however, but fufpe@ that the mean
annual heat at Dover, will be found greater
than it is given by calculation from thefe ob-
fervations.

The obfervations were taken three times
a day, at eight o’clock A. M. at four and ten

P.M.

Meteorological Obfervations.
In all probability, if the middle ob-

fervation had been taken at two o'clock P. M.
the mean degree of heat would have been about

P. M.

558

JOWUT A ay JautuNg
jo z$ |;eummniny | z4 jo 9f
jay urs] | ues, | | feayueoy] —eay UeoyAy
$e | Aienuef | 9b | saqoyo | LS Atnf | 1+ judy
St 1§ |-quiaidag | 25 sunf | LE yoiryAl
ynsny | 9v Avy | g€ | Azensqa

*12A0Q
Ww ‘YyIUOJL YORI UT JoJaWOMUIEYT, ay) Jo wyBray ULvdIyy

or, acccording to Mr. Kirwan’s

o

e

48°. or 49°.
Theorem, 50

Mean

Meteorological Obfervations.

Obfervations on the Thermometer at Middlewich. From Mr. Vernon's Journal.

The Thermometer was placed in a room facing the North Eaft, where no fires were.
kept; and the remarks were made about ten o’clock in the morning.

| =F 08.

oz
Sl eenananneeamement

Mean | Highelt] Loweft} Range Bi

January ~| 35 | 46 | 23 | 23 |36]45| 32/13 42) 48] 30/18 | 37] 50/28} 22] 35 40131 9
February | 44 | 52 | 35 | 17 |40]47|38! 9/43/50] 34/16/39] 50| 28/22] 37) 46) 21) 25
March- | 45 | 50 | 38 | 12 | 47] 50/43] 7] 41/49/36 /13 | 40] 49 | 34) 15] 44) 50] 34) 10

April 53.| 58 | 48 | 10 | 53) 66 |45] 21) 48\55)43 (12 |47} 52) 39) 13] 5055/41/14
May 66 | 74 | 49 | 25 | 60] 67 |51) 16 | 58/66 | 44 | 22 |61 | 67) 48) 19] 56/62) 49113
June 66 | 74 | 56 | 17 |63/67]58] 9/62/65) 56) 9165} 76) 56| 20 | 68} 76) 54/22
July 68 | 74 | 65 |} 9g | 70| 78164114 /65/ 74157117 [66] 75 | 62] 13 | 69} 76] 66) 10

Auguft 67 | 73 | 62 | 11 | 65/70]61| g|Not obferved |64 | 69/58} 11 66}+70)63) 7
September] 58 | 65 | 53 | 12 |60/64/55} 9/6570] 59|11159/64| 54| 10] 60/66] 52) 14
Ogtober | 53 | 60 | 47 | 13. ]51|56]48| 81/51 60] 40|20] 51] 60) 44} 16 sores 48 {13
November) 45 | 49 | 38 | 11 [45)47/36|11| 44/50] 34 [16/45] 52) 37}15]47 54) 38/10
December| 42 | 48 42 | 50. 16 | 40 [46] 31/15 5Ol:

; a2 eu

560 Meteorological Obfervations.

Mean annual heat, and range of, the Thermo-

meter in each of the preceding years. -

‘Loweft

Mean }Highelft Range

53
1769 | 53 | 78 | 32 | 46
1770 | 51 | 74 | 30 | 44
1771 | §1 76 28 | 48
1772 | 52 4 76 | 21 | 55

The mean heat at Middlewich appears from —
hence, to be 52°. from an average of five years.
The greateft heat during that period was 78°.
The leaft 21: The greateft range 57; and the
mean annual range 49.—It muft be remem-
bered, however, that the Thermometer was not
expofed to the open air, but kept in a room
facing the North Eaft, in which there was
no fire.

Mean height of the Thermometer at Middle-
wich, in each month, on an average of five
years.

February | 40 | May 60
March 43 | June 65
April 50} July
Mean heat Mean heat

of the 44 of

Spring. Summer.

Auguft

Meteorological Obfervations. 562

Augutt 6 5 | November " 5
| September] 60 | December] 42
October | 52] January | 37

Mean heat|’ | Mean heat
of 60 of 41
| Autumn. Winter.

Obfervations on the Thermometer i Kendal, by Mr.
J. Goucn. Continued from p..258.

1792. 1793:

1794-
[Mean height
ie I héat. {Mean heat.
ter.

January 35,03 | 35,204
February 38,41 | 42,809
March | 37:43 | 42,540
April 42,31 | 473055
May 52,69 | 51,392
June 55.91 | 61,511
july 62,43 | 63,903
Auguft 60,59 | 57:81 | 575215

September {50,57 | 51,88 | 52,g00
October 46,30 | 51,34 | 47,263
November | 43,49 | 41,59 | 41,020
December [38,35 1 40,00 | 38,204

Aaaa Mr.

562 Meteorological Objervations.

»
—_

ry
o

-
-

°
°

A ad
a

o
.

oe
ad

e
Cal

e
.

e
c

eo
-

e
e-

Mr. Gough fays, that ‘‘ the obfervations
from which thefe means are deduced, were
taken three times a day. The annual mean
temperature, found in this manner, agrees
very well with the temperature of our beft
{fprings, which is nearly invariable. Now,
according to Kirwan’s eftimate, the mean
heat of the ocean in latitude 54°, 5° is
nearly 48,8 of Fahrenheit’s fcale; and fup-
pofing, what is near the truth, the eleva-
tion of the town and its diftance from the
ocean to be fixty yards and twenty-five
miles refpectively, the greateft correction we
are authorized to make, by the rules laid
down in the fifth Chapter of Mr. Kirwan’s
work, reduces it to 48,20. which exceeds
the mean drawn from actual obfervation by
one degree at leaft: a difference that can
only be attributed to the influence of the
extenfive chain of hills which incumbers this
part of England; and which has, un-
doubtedly, a very fenfible effect on the tem-
perature, as well as the other properties of
the weather.”

Obfervations

‘Meteorological Obfervations. 563

Odfervations on the Thermometer. at Dumfries, by
Mr. Arex. Copranp, continued fromp. 272.

1793:
| Medium ~ Above | Below iss of each
for the the month for fix
each month, | medium, | medium. years.
January 38,0622 [2,2204 95,8418
February [43,4687 |2,6732 40,7955
March 41,9241 1,7409 |43,6650
April- 48,8540] 58677 |49,7217
May 5733750 15064 57,8814
June ° 60,5000 2,4007 |62,9007
July 68,9820 | 2,628 + °166,3540
Auguft 63,5072 1,9900 }65,4972
September |56,9220 1,1030 | 58,0250
Otober 5510312] 4,8946 50,1306
November | 43,0240] 1,1644 41,8596
December | 42, 35271 4.4231 137,9296

Medium REE in each Seafon.

’ yes ii ] Above “Relow | Medinm for

Medium ;
1 7, the the fix precedin
: 793 3793- medium, medium. ite :

Spring | 44,7489 | ,0215 4457274
Summer | 62,2857 0926 | 62,3783
Autumn | 58,4868] ,6005 57,0863
Winter | 41,1463 | 2,6027 — -138,5436

Aaaa2 Obfervations

564 Meteorological Obfervations.

Objfervations on the Thermometer at Kefwick, in 1793,
by Mr. Peter Crostuwarte. Continued from
p. 28. of Mr. Dalian’s Observations.

1793 | Mean.~ } Higheft. | Loweft | Range.
january =| 37 | 48.| 23 | 25
February 41 50} 30 | 20
March 42,.cf spdaleg2 | -ahuns
April 42.5 SH 26 | vagre
May 50 | 645}'36 | 2Go1k
June 54 | 63.| 46 | 177
July 63 | 84be51 | 33:
Augutt 57 | Ope 2 1.17 on
September | 51 43 0(6492 "| 21
October 51 59.1°33 | 26

November 41 56 | 27 -| 29
December 40 | 50 | 29 | 21

Obfervations on the Thermometer at York, from. De.
Wuite’s ‘Fournal.

: Liyzahzoatq7al_ 4774

Mean | | | Mean. in Lowett,

January
February
March
April
May

June

July
Auguft
September
October
November
December

Obfervations

Meteorological Obfervations. 565
Obfervations on the Thermometer at York, in the year
1794, by the Rev. Mr. WeELt3BE.

The obfervations. were made at eight o’clock
‘Al My/and P.M.

1793 | Mean. | Higheft. | Loweft.
ot 4 , - ee ,
January © 34 1 37-4 21
February 44. 1° $4 | 37)
March | 43: «| 54 | 33
_ April 49 | 63°} 39
_ May yf 12 GHPl. gai
wt June ss 1 OGM aa
July 60 | 67 | 53*
Auguft 58. | 67 |. 50
September | 53 | 63 |.43
October 47 | 59 |.37—

November | 42 | 53 | 33
December 38 ge) 29

It would appear, from Dr. White’s and Mr.
’ Wellbe’s obfervations, that the mean annual
heat at York is 49°.

* During the months June and July, owing to Mr.
W’s abfence, the diary was interrupted.

{ The

566 Meteorological Obfervations.

The medium heat of each feafon, deduced from
the fame obfervations, is as follows.

February | 35 | May 59
March 43 | June 63
April 50 | July 684°

Mean heat Mean heat
of 425 of 635
Spring Summer
Auguft | 65} Nov. | 40
Septemb.] 56} Dec. | 3
October | 48 | January | 33
Mean heat Mean heat
of 565 of .| 36
Autumn Winter :

Some Obfervations on the Thermometer at Manchefter,
by Mr. GeEorGE WALKER.

March goth. 1786, at 8 A. M. the Thermometer

was at. - - 16°.
Jan. 28th. 1787, 8A.M. - = = 380.
Aug. 7th.——, noon - - - = JA
March 8th. 1788, 8 A.M. hae os to
May 25th. a Mek pee - - - 784.
Sept. aith, 1791, 2 P. M. - - = 74.

In the funfhine 130°. The
inftrument, in this inftance, was placed perpen-
dicularly

Meteorological Obfervations. 567

\ diculatly to the folar rays, and had a metal-

_~

‘lic fcale.

Jan. 12th. 1792, at 8 A. M. - - - 19.
Aug. 8th. ce ars UL - - - 74.
1793. Lowett - - - - 28.

Higheft - ? - - 78.

As the preceding obfervations were made,
I believe, with common mercurial thermo-

meters, the mean annual heat of each place

cannot be determined accurately from them.

As the greateft degree of cold within the twenty-
four hours, which occurs about half an hour
before fun-rife, has feldom been obferved,
the mean heat deduced from thefe obferva-
tions, will be fome degrees higher than
the true mean.— The beft thermometers for

obfervations of this nature, are thofe invented

by Mr. Six, which point out the greateft and
leaft degrees of heat in the obferver’s abfence.

The following account of very great degrees
of cold, which were obferved at Chatham in
January 1776, with the height of the baro-
meter and direction of the winds at that time,
with fome other ,obfervations, was communi-
cated to me by Dr. Percival.

Height

Height of the Thermometer.—Fahrenheit’s Scale.

oge/ os
Ante Meridiem. {| Poft Meridiem. sacl eB
- ro d
: ws roe
EZo| & 5
of

29,72 ' | NNW.

uel} saYSIy Jou jgIWOULIIY L,

Meteorological ‘Obfervations, 569

Qn! January.13; 24; 154 there fell fo much
fnow; that’ the. great. turnpike, road , between
_ London and Dover, .was utterly, impaflable even
for: horfemeny, for! feveral;days,.;Qn jthe 28th.
the river Medway (the water of which is falt)
was frozen over, ftom-Rochefter bridge to Gil-
lingham. » Many» hundreds of’ perfons' walked
from ‘one fhore to the other zi ;and, butts of
water were rolled over the ice from the King’s
dock yard, to the men of war in the harbour.
The breath of many; ;was condenfed and fro-
zen to the fheets near their mouths in bed,
in chambers, which at every other time would
be called warm rooms.-—January 29, 30, 31,
were clear days, not one cloud was feen. A
Thermometer was ‘conftantly “expofed: to’ the
fun, which at no ‘time was ablé to taife ‘the
mercury higher than’ one~ degree above the
freezing point; but the greateft = of the day
not fo high by many divifions.::°Two .Ther-
mometers (made by Nairne) were ufed i in the
above. obfervations, They are, very g good’ ones,
being graduated according» to the bores of the
tubes: they not only correfpond with each other,
but, alfo with others of the belt fort. Thefe
obfervations were made in a ; sarden, near the
market- place, by Mr. Simmons, fyrgeons, who,
when the thermometer had fallen to ‘four, which
was the greateft degree of natur al cold he re-
Bhoboin as. membered

570 Meteorological Obfcrvations.

membered to have obferved in England, hardly
crediting ‘the evidence of his eyes, immediately
procured the concurrent teftimony of two cu-
tious and intelligent friends, who were. alfo
eye witnefles to the ftill more aftonifhing de-
grees which fucceeded.— Where there are blank
{paces in the table, no obfervations were made.
Below nought is fignified by an o over the figures.

+ eI RR

§ Il.
OF RAIN.

ee ee

Obfervations on the quantity of Rain which fell at
Liverpool, with the number of wet and variable
days in each month, for a period of eighteen years,
beginning with the year 1775. <Abjftratied from
Mr. Hurcuinson’s ‘Fournal.

When rain is mentioned both in the morning
and evening obfervations of Mr. Hutchinfon’s
Journal, unlefs it is obferved to be but little,
I have called the day wet; and where rain
occurs in the morning, or evening obfervation
only, unlefs it is obferved to be heavy, I have
called the day variable.—The height of the
rain was given in inches and eighths, and
fractions of eights, which, for the convenience
of comparifon, I have reduced to decimals,

1773

Meteorological Obfervations.

§71

1775: | 1776.

pr ae RS Rd, a

net E vie) net | Hg si
January 1,1296; 6 | 13 [1,5624| 9-1 9
February |2,6250| 5 | 14 |4,2500] 11 | 11
March 1,5351| 6 | 10 11,8750] § 113
April 0,5632| 2 g |1,0624] 5 | 8
May 0,6891| 1 Q }1,1874] 4 | 15
June 2,2812) 3 | 11 |3,0000] 7 }|13
July 4,9648| 9 | 14 |3,8124] 7 | 15
Auguft 323437| 9 | 12 |3,5624] 11 | 16
September |3,0000] 4 | 12 |5,2186} g [1G
Odtober 4,3750| 10 | 15 |2,2186} 4 | 9g
November /|2,8437| 9 6 | 32,9062] 9 | 7
Wecembér:, | 2.3981) 5.1 44. $95563124 6. 113

1777+ * 1778.

Rain. | ws Variable.}| Rain, | we Variable.
January 1,8750] 2 | 12 {2,0312| 8 | le
February g.2r60) 8 | 10.) 40024) 14 To
‘March R,I250]' 7 8 11,8436] 8 | 11
April 1,9062| 6 8 |1,7186| 8 } 12
May 2.8194). Gt 03 194686 |. gg 517
June 2,2%00) (O.) Via Pani 2sol Pl ors
July 24374] 6 | 9g |5,5000} 7 | 13
Auguft 3,2186} g | 11 {0,7186| 1 &
September |2,2186] 5 g |2,0936} 2 | 18
October 4,1250| g | 10 |5,2500] 9g 8
November | 3,3436] 9 | 12 |4,8436; 12 | 11
December '1,6250! 5 g )3,9686] 12 8

572 Meteorological Objervations.

Rete meremnemnee — ~ so _ eee

Benes 1779: | algoo..

Rain. | Wet. | Variable. Rain. | Wet. | Variable.

January

'[0,1874] 0 4 11,1250 dl
February {0,4374] 1 || 7 [3.0936 | 13
March —_||o,s000| 1 16
April | 1,1874| 7 14
May 2,3124| ..7 15
June '|2,2500] 4 ae
July, | |4,0936) 5 2
Auguft | 0,7812} 1 eat
September |3,4374| 8 14
Odober | |2,5936] 10 14
November | |3,0936| 8 M4
December ‘ |5,6562| 11 6

| "14781. | BY kites eh 4

Rain. | Wet. |Variable.| Rain. | Wet. | Variable.
January 2,0000] 7 € 2.57501 on ste :
February ,|35375°} 9 9 19,7500] 4 | la
March }0,4686 Oo 7. 41,8124 | OTs
April 2.4062) 3 |, 10° 1456312] 11 13
May O9812t 8h. Bte.gou2 fo Ihr
June 4,0936| 8 7 19,2106) 3.4 99
July . 1,5936] 2] 8 11,9686} 3 | 16
Augutt 4,4686| 10 9g {6,5624| 8 | 15
September {2,7500] 6] 11 13,1250] 4 | 13
October 1,0000{ 1} 16 /2,81247 9 9
November |4,7812| 11 8 |2,40621 6 9
December |1,96860} 5 } 1o 41,9374) 3} 10

Meteorological ‘Obfervations. | 573

| 1783. | 1784.

Rain. | ws Variable.

Rain. | Wet. Variable.

January 4,1874

g | 12 ]2,8436|}.4] 11
February 2,9062] 10 | 10.]1,1250| 5 | 10
March 42,3436) 5 8 11,5624] 3] 14
April 10,5000} o 713.3424] 8 |.15
May _ 13,2500] 3 | 12 41,6874; 2] 8
June 3.3436] 5 | 7:14,2812! 8]|.10
July 13.1874] 5 | 91/2,8436| 4] 8
Auguft 6,0936] 8-| 13 13,6874} 5 | 11
September |4,7812] 9 | 9 |1,8436] 2] 6
October 3,0312| 6] 10 ]0,7500} 1 38
November }3,5312| 6] 8 |3,3124] go | g
December §{1,4062) '2 1 11°[3,0312| 44 11
1785. | 1786.
Rain Wet. jt Rain, | Wet. jt
January 2,2500| 6 8 12,4686| 6] 14
February 1,0624| 3] 12,.,0,8750| 4 9
March 0,8124| 2] 11 {0,8750] 5 | 49
April 0,6562| 41 3 10,7186; 2 9
May 1,0936| 2 g |3,0624|) 2] 14
June 1,3430| 1 6 12,1250] 5 Q
July 1,6874| 3] 11 11,6874/ 6] g
Auguft 4,5936| 6] 15 13,1874] 8 | 16
September |3,2812] 5] 17 | 4,5624} 13 8
October 3,4062| 1lo 9 ]1,5624] 3] 12
November |3,3759] 9] 412.1874; 5] 9
December. !2,0624} 5 | 14 13,0312] 5] 12
1787

574

Meteorological Obfervations.

| 1787 | 1788

Rain. | Wet,

Vari-
able.

January 0,8750 4 6{1,8812] 2] 12
February 1,8436; 6 |. 15 |2,4686) 7 9
March 2,2186| 8 8 | 2,2812| 6 6
April fyogg0] 4°) TE SIa4) pie og
May gots 1 ton 6a50| 3) eS
June 2,4062} 5 | 11 11,4374] 1 9
July BhO24) Ov 124 21BG| . 7 0m
Augutt S.ge02) 21. 13°%,0930)| a iie
September |1,6250} 2 g |2,6874] 6] 44
October 9.1562] 12} 12'|2,3124;° 67-8
November 1|3,8436] 8 | 10 ]1,3436| 2 5
December |4,7500}| 8! 13 10,43741 4] 7
| 1789 1790
Rain, | Wet. | YS | Rain, | wet, | Vath
January rea7pey i a {23 P5,9002). | 5 ae
February 1,5000| 5 | 11 ]1,0000/] 1 3
March 66562], 4 | 28 12,2186); pares ®
April 2,0312| 3 | 14 |1,9686} 2] 10
May 4,5000| 4] 14 |4,6562| 4] 16
June 70562] 9 | 13 |3,0936) 7 | 10
July 6.5000] 8} 18 |5,4686) 5 | 15
Augutt is7leo| |O f \Guemagle|, 2. heaat
September |5,8124] 7 | 15 |3,2500| 5 | 12
October 7,:7500| Q | 10 12,5312] 3 8
November [4,1874} 5 | 11 |4,7812| 7 8
December |5,0000| 5 | 15 17,1562] 8 | 112
171

* March 1790, there were fix days on which no obfervation was taken.
+ Noobfervation was taken for the fame gumber of days in Augult 1799.

'

I a TR a a

January
February
March
April
May
June

July
Augutft
September
October
November
December

Meteorological Obfervations.

1791 1792
Rain. | Wet. |Variable. Rain. | Wet. | Variable,
4.3124; 4] 14 [2,7500/ 4} 11
2.3750} §'| 12 |2,2500/ 4} 11
1,4374| 24 6 1|2,5312) 4] 17
4,5624| 6] 14 |6,5312 J 7
1,5000} 2] 1o |6,3124/ 12) 8
1,8750| 3 | 12.]2,56241 7] g
14,7812 6} 12 13,7819 5 | 12
4,1250} 6] 10 |6,1874| 7] 10
394374} 2 7 |8,0000] 14] 12.
5:8436| 11} 6 |4,4062) 7 | 14
5.4062) 7 | 15 12,2186] 5] 4
5.7500) 10 } 10 |6,7186) 8 | 15

575

Mean quantity of rain in each of the preceding
years at Liverpool.

1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780

29,6785
33,1866
30,1768
353 6238
26,5302
24,8426

1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786

31,1866
32,9054 |
38,5616
30,2802!
25,0240
26,3428

1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792

38,0016
2555903
48,0870
42,5016
4514056
54,2492

Hence it appears, that the mean annual
quantity of rain which falls at Liverpool, de-
duced from an average of 18 years, is 34,4168

inches.

Mr.

576 - Meteorological’ ObJervations.

Mr. Hutchinfon’s rain gage was placed at the
top of his houfe, 41 feet above the higheft
water-mark.

Mean falls of rain at Liverpool in each month,
and each feafon of the year—from an average
of eighteen years. | |

February | 1,8471 | May

March 1,5227 | June 2,8159
April 2,1041 | July © | 3,6628
Mean falls ‘| Mean .
inthe | 5,4739 | fallsin | 9,0516
Spring. Summer.

_—

Auguft 3,3106 | November] 3,4408

September} 3,6544 December] 3,2876
October 3,7239 | January | 2,1741

Mean falls Mean falls
in 10,6889 in 8,9025
Winter

Autumn

Mr. Hutchinfon did not begin his obferva-

tions on the quantity of rain till the year 1775,
—J fhall therefore infert the number of wet
and variable days, extracted from his journal

previous to that period.

: 1768.

. Meteorological Obfervations.

OZOY RSIS sae
Q < Spe Pas S
oo 80g oS, eee
353e3> D2 5
Sis F o- ee
oO © oO “<
> a -

OV «. ;
on HONDO DOW! !O

— _ )
I O0OOW MOOW OF oO &—™

577

CT

Odfervations on the quantity of Rain at Dover, with the number of days on which
there was rain or fuow. From Mr. Manrtetr’s Fournal.

As Mr. Mantell has only marked the days ‘‘ rain” or ‘* fair,” the days
on which there was rain could not be divided into wet and variable.

| 1789

Rainy | Rain,
days.

Rain.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

Auguft

September
OGober 7531
November | 5,19
December 13,80

Meteorological Objervations.

i 0.6)
I
&n

i

Meteorological Obfervations,

579

Mean quantity of rain at Dover, in each of the

preceding years.

1789 16,30
1790 43,30
1791 44,88
1792 | 51,40 4
1793 poh? |

Mean annual falls 37,52 ‘hiaah,

Odfervations on the Falls of Rain at Kendal and Waith-
Sutton, by Mr. Goucu. Continued from p. 258.

Waith-Sutton,

Kendal.

ee ab Se as pa Oe et eee

pike 2} 1792 1792 | 1793 | EA! IED. a | +792 [279 1793
January 6,3690| 7,2934 354?
February 8,0916| 13,4724 5329
March 4,5696| 4,5304 3,26
April 1,5642} 4,1808 1,39
May 1,8798| 1,9998 r,é81
June 393498]. 1.4574 2,95
July 315898} 4,1604 3975
Auguft 7,2120|6,6798}, 5.3400} 6,41 16,48
September |10,8348)| 2,4006]' 7,6746| 9,00|2,54
Oober 557708 |. 543526} 743296) 5,10 15.35
November |. 5,7414| 3,6102| 6,0114] 4,24 |3,84
December | 12,688} 7,2396| 6,2040!/ 10,15 |4,87

Cec:c4 |

Rain

580 - Meteorological Obfervations.

Rain at Dumfries, in the year 1793, by Mr. ALEX.
Copranp. Continued Lad f 272,

Rain Gage one ésot fquare.
1793-

uantity * |Correfpond- Medium of
° ing — the the each month
| falls. depth. | medium. | medium. |for16 years ~
| ib. oz. dr, | Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
Jane: [41,3009 12,2104 »8838 | 3,0949
Feb. |29, 2,4 |5,8395 | 3,002 2,8375
Mar. }20,15,6 |4,2078|2,0436 2,1642
Apr. | 4, 756 | ,g686] © }.1,0483/2,010g °
May |10,10,4) |2,1363] . 143231256084
June |13,15,6 |2,8041 5170 |2,9741
July | 6,12,3 /1,3582]. 1,8978| 3,2569
Aug. |20, 5,34|4,0060| ,8668 3,1992
Sep. | 7: 4.45]1,4608 2,5890 | 4,3498
O&. |12, 7,5 |2,5018 1,6416| 4,1434
Nov. [12,15,1$] 2.5906 15579] 351736
Dec. |19, 6,7 |3,8883] ,7468 1351415
Total | 170,153 34,0396] | 2.8996 |36,9392

Medium of the falls at Dumfries, in ida feabon
of the year 1793.

Mean in Above” Below Mcdium for
each the the the 16 pre-

feafon, medium, medium. ceeding years,
ee e , Ceee
Spring 11,0159 | 3,9973 7,0186
Summer] 6,2991 2,4991 8,7982_.
Autumn | 8,0286 | 3,6638 | 11,6924
Winter 8,6960 1714 9.4100

Falls

)

Meteorological Obfervations. 531

Falls of Rain at Kirkmichael, about eight miles North
by Eajft of Dumfries, near the bottom of high
mountains, from the year 1773 to 1776 sclujive,
by the Rev. Dr, Burcerss. Communicated by
Mr. Copranp, .

Mr. Copland remarks, that ‘‘ the following
obfervations (being for a period of near twenty
years diftant from his, and being made by one,
whofe accuracy and abilities for fuch an under-
taking are incontrovertible) are well calculated
to anfwer the purpofe for which thefe ftatements
are defigned,”

Mean depth of falls in each month of 1773,
1774, 1775, and 1776.

March

January

February April IMay June
Bi¥ss°1 4,012 Ee 3301 :902)2,698
ful" Auguft Sept. [0a ioe! Hew
4,800 | 3,917 | 5,348 |4,725/3,572 2,706

Annual mean 40,780 inches.

Falls

582 Meteorological Obfervations..

Falls of Rain at Kefwick, by Mr. CrosTHWAITE,
Continued from p, 38 of Mr. Datron’s Effays.

| 1793 jeer kei aml lie 1794 |

January 55 January 45,7131). 5,709) 557092 |
February 9,6491} 11,1686

March 513214] 6,4370 |
April 1.7976] 5.3991 |

May 1,8430[' 3,262.5 | eas
June ‘| 430404] 1,6340 } ‘
July 2,6400| 2,5674

Auguft 8,8483] 3,1317
September 2,6825| 8,1209
| OStober 6,2219| 9,4431
November k 40g0| 6,8913

December December _ 17,3448} 98,0030 3448] 38,0030

Rain at Garsdale, by Mr, Tuomas Brapes.

Garfdale lies N. E. of Kendal, at the aeace
ef about thirteen miles. It is a narrow valley,
-fome miles long, with very high hills on each
fide. ;

1777-

Meteorological Obfervationss 583

——— eee

| 1777 | 1778 | 1779

Rain, ae Rain. | Days | Rain. ea
January 2,2671) 15 |4,2380 | 21 |1,5036) 14
February . |3,7507| 16 |1,9533 | 16 |2,3802] 14
March | 3,9694| 21 15,1516 | 24] 11,4514] 11
April 3,9848| 13 |2,6647 | 21 | 3,8320] 20
May 2,2962) 17 17,3690 | 23 | 4,7945| 22
June. 523209] 19 |3,3222 | 19 | 2,048 9
July 353704] 17 |7,6976 | 21 |5,0178| 17
Augutt 5,6079| 21 |5,1213 | 15 | 1,0931] 12

September |2,2937| 16 |4,1859] 19 | 7,5633] 27
Odober 6,9006| 23 |4,8353 | 20 |8,7239| 17
November |9,6546| 25 15.7772 | 22 |4,3384| 17
December 13,1127] 19 19,0499 | 28 |3,2220] 17

149,5290|222|61,3660|249|45,9991|197

Account

——

| 1787 1788
6 Depth [Rain or| Depth {Rain or] Depth
x Snow Snow | of Rain, | Suow | of Rain | Snow | of Rain
= days. . days. | Inches L. | days. f, jb. days. T.7Li
= ; ! APES See eee? Priepne, oe
= January: | 24 R401. 2.05 (H5- | 1.0. | 16/7 1.9
= February 26 15} 1,6 18 | 3,6 19 | 1,8
co) March goes ie E953 oa. F390, A aa 2,0
8 April 5 A} 51d cto.) 1,90 | 17 t,o
“Bo May 8 21 | 3,6 lo | 2,9 g | 1,10
‘S$ June 15 12 | 4,0 13 | 2,6 rae ae PL)
Ss July 14 90°1.2,8° 1-26 | 7,8 | 30 | 4,10
Ss Augutt 20 95| 6,6 | 20 | 3,8 | 20 | 3,9
September 12 25°\-7;10 | -ag | 2.2 21 | 2,0
October we 13-}2,9-|-21 | 9,0 G41 2410
November Ae 1Z-)4,5 14 | 5,8 8 | 2,4
December 21-}| 13 o4rraO<| 25") 4,107} 9 £450

* Account of the Rain at Manchefter,’ ty Mr. Georce Wacker.
~ Communicated by Dr. Percivat.

|

584

1183 {188| 193 |207| 40,5 |200| 47.4 | 17

1789.

585

Meteorological Obfervations.

1789 1790 | Nght | 1792 | 1793
Rain or{ Depth of {Rain or]Depth of}Rain or| Depth ot |Rain or|Depth of|Rain or] Depth of
{now Rain, | {now | Rain. | fnow Rain. | fnow | Rain. | fnow | Rain,
days. a os days. | I.L, | days. I.L. | days. | IL. | days. | I. L.
LLL LLL
January 21 [2,0 | 21 7°2,3 | 291 5,6. | 19 | 2,0 | 221 2,75

February 241 5.4 b1' f-1,3; 1:23. 423.0 16 | 2,0 | 26} 3,75

March 2371 1,6 6 f bs0 P.A@ got, Oe }-24:}. 219+ 25N 2.05
April Qt} 2,8 | 11 4 2,3 | 224 4,9. | 16] 2,6 |} 14] 1,75
May 20 4. 4,6: 1:24 7 353 $49 1:2,9-] 26:5, 8,0 / o4 1,2
June 22 4 6,6} 19.) 5,6: |-.@-)00,9°1} 24 | 3,6 |. 201 2,65
July 31] 753 | 23 | 5.9 | 22] 3,6 | 24) 3,9 | 11] 1,25
Auguft LI }-0,1043°94' 4-4, | 19 476,0°-/.18. |. 639 °|-20 | 6, i6
September 20 | 4,3 Lol #29592 $.2B 51,5 0) 26 26.g.0.583 1 3.53
October O31 5,9 TAIT es 2a a0 17 ae Tat fas 5
November 227g. 9 pe ES gad) 25-PbsOe 112. 19ST aBal Qacg
December 25°} 550] 23 19,31 20-53 10-20-98 5-94 49,55

\263 | 52 [210 | 422 233 | 44 [248 [55+ [233 | 364

The town of Manchefter is fituated about forty miles eaft of the
fea. The furface of the river Irwell is about fixty-three feet above
low water mark at Liverpool.

State

Dddd

Meteorological Objervations.

586

State of the falls of Rain, €8c. at Chatfworth, in Derbyfrire. Communicated to Dr.

Percrvat éy Lorp Grorce Cavenpisu.

State of the perpendicular height of the Falls of Rain, &c. during the feven
years preceding 1784.

; Total in the
| 1777 | 1778 | 1779 Sypoee ot 47e? | #783 cote ae

January 03834 | 2,704 }0,693 } 1,270 |1,439 | 3,017 3,017 | 12,974
February =‘ {1,739 | 1,252 |0,241 | 1,213 | 3,459 | 1,037 2.4et ft 12,704

March | {1,701 | 1,122 |0,480 | 1,216 | 0,117 1,987 |2,263 | 18,886
April - 2,304 | 1,326 |2,162 | 3,888 | 1,901 | 6,960 }0,539 | 19,080
May 1,544 | 2,218 | 1,485 | 1,531 115575 | 4,659 |2,988 | 16,000
June 1,774 | 0,586 | 2,045 | 1,088 | 2,083 | 2,815 13,221 13,612
July 13,189 |3,552 14,810 | 1,010 | 1,410 | 3,640 | 1,527 |:19,138
Auguft 12,292 | 0,809 | 0,652 | 0,335 | 2,578 | 4,813 | 2,757 14,236

September [1,223 | 1,817 | 3,030 | 3,276 | 2,597 |4:451 |5.816 | 22,210
October 5,019 | 6,377 | 3,298 | 4,093 | 0,109 | 2,287 |1,832 | 23,015
November [1,741 | 2,991 | 1,689 | 1,281 | 3,614 | 1,557 |2,412 15,285
December {1,434 | 5,141 13,977 10.240 | 2,172 1,893 |0,372 ' 15,229

Total in each 24.794|29,895 [24,562

yeat 20,441 [23,045 39,116 29,526|191.379

SN SSS IS a a a rane a at ae REE

Meteorological Obfervations. 587

The average of the annual falls, for the feven
years commencing with 1777, is 27,339 inches.

The average falls in each month, during feven
years commencing with 1777, clafled accord-
ing to the feafons.

SPRING. SUMMER.
February 1,673 | May 2,285
March 1,269 | June 1,944
April PM Whe July 2.734
Mean falls Mean falls

in 5,667 | in 6,963

Spring. Summer.

AUTUMN. WINTER.
Augutft 2,033 | November | 2,183
September 3,173 | December 2,175
October 3,288 | January 1,853
Mean falls Mean falls
in 8,494 in 6,211
Autumn. Winter.

State

State of the perpendicular height of the falls of rain, &c. at Chatfworth,
during the feven years preceding 1791.

1784 | 1785 | 1786 | 1787 | 1788 | 1789 | 1790 meh of
- January 2,439 | 1,436 | 3,607 ) 0,652 | 1,723 | 2,118 50 15135.925
& February 1,410 | 0,374 | ¥,104 | 2,130 | 2,532 | 3,616 | 0,461 11,627
S| March 1,206 | 0,786 | 1,164 | 3,556] 1,438] 1,120 | 0,513 | 9.783
e April ~ 2,388 | 0,122 | 0,883 | 1,174 | 1,078 | 2,206 | 0,512 | 8,363
Ss May 1,882 | 0,863 | 2,804 | 1,569 | 1,725 | 2,379 | 2,778 | 14,000
. June 4,020 | 1,121 | 1,910 | 1,375 | 2,756 | 4,851 | 2,963 | 18,996
= July 31552 | 2,438 | 1,211 | 6,166 | 2,332] 5,617 | 2,620 | 23,936
_® Augutt 1,938 | 4,022 | 3,927) 2,547 | 2,145 | 1,201 2,468 18,248
= September | 1,047 | 2,767 | 3,910 | 1,823 | 1,724 | 3,582 | 2,556 | 17,409
S | Odober | 0,455 | 3,710 | 3,067 | 4,290 | 1 693 | 4,483 | 1,732 | 19,430
a November | 2,257 | 2,718 | 3,877 | 3,279 | 0,597 | 2,443 3,748] 18,919

Decembey_ | 0,382 | 3,105 | 3,212} 3,507 | 0,113 | 2,693 | 4,201 | 17,303

Total in each
ae 22,976)23,163 30,076 |32,068 19,856|36,309 26,892 |1€1,939
OT IE bie iin is LE eet LESS 2a Eee 2 ny 2 eile an

& The average of the annual falls, for the feven years commencing with 1774,
= is 27,419 inches,

Meteoralogical Obfervations, 589 |

The average falls in each month, during the
feven years commencing with 1784, clafled
according to the feafons,

«
SPRING. SUMMER.
February 1,661 May 2,000
March 1,397 | June 2i703
April 1,194 | July 3,419

Bod

Mean falls Mean falls

in 4,252 in 8,132

Spring Summer.

AUTUMN. ~ WINTER.
Augutt 2,606 | November | 2,702
September 2,487 December 2,471
October 2,775 January | 1,989
Mean falls Mean falls

in 7,868 in 7,162

|} Autumn Winter

The average of falls in each feafon, for four-
teen years preceding 1791, is as under :

Spring - 4,959
Summer - 75547
Autumn ~ 8,181
Winter ~ 6,686,

State

598

Meteorological Obfervations.

-State of the perpendicular height of the falls
of rain at Chatfworth, in the years 1791,
1792, and to the month of Auguft, 1793.

January
February
March
April
May

June

July
Auguft
September
October
November
December

To) Metals
ie pe 34,698 | 34,740 |

1791 | 1792
6,373 1,870
2,061 1,042
0,707 | 1,783
2,515 3,309
0,779 3,121
1,023 2,961
2,508 2,525
3,665 2,822
2,506 4,508
31333 3.487
5995! 2,003
3,281 51309

1793.

ry

1,926
1,616
2,306
2,536
0,749
0,773
0,657

Amount of the falls in each feafon throughout
the year 1791, compared with the medium
during the preceding fourteen years, during
the fame feafons.

Depth of falls.
Spring 53279
Summer | 4,310
Autumn {| 9,504
Winter | 15,605
Throughout
the year. | 34, 698

Above
the
medium.

1320

1,323
6,919

Below
the
medium.

32237

| 10,562 | 3,299

Medium for
14 years.
4,959
72547
8,131
6,686

275373

Amount

;
|
’
;
'
,

Meteorological Obfervations. 593

Amount of the falls in each feafon throughout
the year 1792, compared with the medium for

the preceding fifteen years during’ the fame
- feafons.

Above Below
Depth of ai the the | Medium for
; | medium. medium. | 15 years.
Spring 6,134 1,153 4,981
Summer 8,607 1,276 7,331
Autumn | 10,817 2,547 8,270
Winter 9,182 1,899 7,283

Throughout

the year, 34,740 | 6,875 | | 27,805

Account of the perpendicular height of the Rain that
has fallen at Lancafter, by DR. Campsett. Con-
tinued from p. 365.

| 1794 | 17.92 |1793
| In, | Lines }{ In. }] 1. In. } L.
January FE Deeg ne MRSS B7 6
- February 3 1) to oO! oe
March 2 ails} gol2] ¢
April 4) 315/93 fry at
May :: + /15|.0 fo}. lo
June o| tof |} 3} 10 3] 5-
July 3 6 || 5 |.14. | 2} 10
Auguft 6 20-8. 6 1's biG
September I tiigoi 4131 4
October By Mery Ne ane Oe
November | 6 6\|/4| o | 3] 9%
December 5} 7218 Vial 3B
Total [46] of |65| 10 | 43] 0

594 Meteorological Obfervations,

State of the falls of Rain at Youngfbury near
Ware, in Hertfordfhire, twenty miles from .
London. This ftate was communicated to me
by Mr. Goucn, of Kendal, who fays he is
indebted for it to Mr. Samuet Lioyp of Bir- -
mingham, to whom it was tranfmitted by a
Lady, who had-paid particular attention to the
fubject.

1787 | 1788} 1789 |} 1790 | 1791
January [ 1,300 |1,440. 1,440[ 25,471| 2,050 | 3,360
February 2,210 |2,0g0 0,280 | 1,910
March 2,163]1,130 4 894| 0,200 | 0,980
April 1,630].0,297 1,660 |1,950
May 0,930}0,41o0 1,730| 3,210 |0,880
June 0,810| 2,042 3,910| 0,810 | 0,800
July 3,617}1,313] 3,601| 3,510 |2,960
Auguft 1,580/3,310} 1,310] 1,960 {1,740
September | 0,89013,780| 2,754| 0,770 |0,800
October 3,962]0,140] 4,265] 1,110 |2,420

November | 1,542]0,930| 2,830] 3,690 13,630
December 3»03010,7941 157301 3,720 12,779

“oat fs. “oat fs. 17,676

29,493 122,970 {24,200

ok Sem

able of the Falls of Rain at different Places in the {a

Years.| Liverpool. |Manchefter.{ Dumfries. Kendal, Kefwick. [ Lancafter. [Chatfworth,, Dover. |Youngfburyf Garfdale. { Waith-Sutton, | Fellfoot.
1775| 29,6785 Bet

1777| 30,1768
1778) 35,6238
1779| 26,5302

345749
42,354
41,135]!

$$$ $$$

EEE
|
——

ee

1780] 24,8426 40,033}

1781| 31,1866 29,988| +f

1782) 32,9054 40,918

1783] 38,5616 331994 ee at

1784) 30,2802 27,401

1785] 25,6240 30,673

1786 26,3428 32,008] - 32,30 | 30,676

1787] 38,0616
1788 25,5938

38,657 — .. | 51,01 | 32,068
26,423] 39,2575 | 34,3057 |. 29.45 | 19.856
1789 48,6870 51 48,093 69,835 -| 72,2449 | 51,01 36,309
179} 42,5616 | 42,4 | 39,354] 66,263 | 64,7439 |.46,61 |
1791] 45,4056 | 44 39,281] 62,200

|1792| 54,2492 | 550% | 47,513| 84,884 | 84.6051
11793 36,4 | 34,039| 45,580 | 49,7510] 41,00 37537
1794 | 58,048 | 59,8050

e| 594 | cole Meteorological Obfervations.

_A raw OBSERVATIONS ox
|_| RAIN GAGES.

———

wehnn Chicks: it muft be shtewwels hae

imperfect inftruments, and that on two accounts :
____Firft, from the evaporation which very commonly

takes place on the interior furface of the funnel .

during | wet weather in fummer; for the air is,
for the moft part, in a condition to abforb more
water than it contains, though (as Mr. Gough

obferves in aletter which I received from him)

_ our humid atmofphere is fometimes fo 'per-
-fedtly faturated, as to depofit a part of its vapour
‘on furniture within doors, even during the

| — “months of July and Auguft, provided the wea-

“ther: be very wet; but water will frequently
evaporate from the furfaces of many bodies,
~ Particularly metallic fubftances, while rain is
falling i in fummer, or dew is forming in an
.. evening: for if a veffel of tinned iron:be rubbed

_ with a wet fponge, and then fufpended with its
_- mouth downwards, its inner furface will foon
| become dry, though rain be falling, or dew

forming at the time.
Itiis certainly neceffary to bfcbithidi if pof-
fible, the quantity of water loft by evaporation ;
for

Meteorological Obfervations.. 5O5e

for according to an ingenious Italian philjofos
pher, nearly double as much water evaporates
from an open veffel, as: falls into. it in the form
of rain.* Now, though an evaporation gage may:
afcertain the quantity of water which evaporates
from an open veflel of a given aperture, yet it
will by no mean afcertain the ratio between | the
quantity evaporated from the internal furface
ef the funnel, and the whole quantity received
by the gage. Mr. Gough propofes an ingenious
method of determining this point by means ‘of
_ two contiguous gages. For, let 4 and a =the
areas of the apertures of the two gages, B and 4 ==
the curve furfaces of their funnels, S and s==the
quantities of water collected by them in a given
time in grains, X and x = the quantities loft
by evaporation. Then S 4+ X and s +x being
the quantities received by the gages, we have
Aza: S4+Xis4+x, andx= sets iriey,
but fince the quantities evaporated in the fame
time are as thofe furfaces, B:4:: X: x, and x
== aes = ioe + e% hence X =
) © c,0.6)@) iu Pract

* Vide Opere del Padre Cisvaak! Baptifta da St. Mar.
tino, Vol, I, Art, 4.

595° Meteor clogical Obfervations.

BorGury Bods é but the funnels of the two
“Ab—Ba

gages muft not be fimilar, for, in that wit the
numerator and denominator would be = 9,
and confequently nothing could be determined.
The fecond imperfeCtion to which rain gages
are liable, arifes from the lofs of water occafioned
by the drops of rain burfting, when they are
driven obliquely by a breeze, and ftrike the
fides of the gage: in fuch cases, they difperfe
into a number of minute drops, many of which
never defcend into the receiver, but efcape over
the margin of the funnel. This depends on
principles too fimple to require any experimental
proof. It is difficult, if not impoffible, to pre-
vent entirely the wafte of rain. by difperfion ;
all that we can do is to diminifh. it as much as
poffible. Mr. Gough, in the fame letter, pro-
pofes the following method of remedying this
imperfection. A linen ftrainer, he fays, of a
conical fizure, fhould be exactly fitted to the
mouth of the gage; this flexible funnel fhould
be ftretched by a weight or ftring faftened to its
apex within the veffel; the drops, ftriking on
this yielding fubftance, would receive a mode-
rate concuffion, and the particles of water would
be entangled in the threads of the cloth. It.is
fufficiently evident, that this contrivance would
greatly prevent the lofs occafioned by difper~
fion,

Metcorological Obfervations. 597

fion; but would, at the-fame tim@ much increafe
the evaporation, by detaining a quantity of water
inthe funnel, and’expofinga much greater furface
tothe air. A better way of corre@ting this error, is,
I think, to have'a perpendicular rim an/inch or
two high, fixed to the rim of the funnel. The
form of the gages which I have had’ conftru@ted
for my own ufe, and that of my ftiends, is
reprefented in the annexed Plate. (IX. fig. 2.)
In gages of this form, efpecially when made

fufficiently large, Mr. Copland, of Dumfries, in-
forms me, that he found the lofs from difper-
fion nearly, if not entirely, correéted. The area
of one of his funnels contains 144 fquare
inches, and the other 288. He has com-
pared thefe with one of an area of fixteen
inches, and always found a fmaller than pro-
portional refult ftom this laft in windy weather.
He fays, he has obferved his large fquare gages
in ftormy falls, and could obferve nothing
driven over after having ftruck the infide, and’
was furprized to fee fo little loft even during a hail
fhower. He recommends gages with fquare aper-
tures, in preference tothofeof acylindrical orconi-
cal form ; for ‘* from the rotatory motion which
the air always takes when forced over the end of a
tranfverfely truncated cylinder, and which
emits a whiftling noife, the rain will be carried
aver the edge of the cylinder, and be almoft
: entirely

598 Meteorological Obfervatious.

entirely prevented from falling into the gage.”
He foon found, he fays, after ufing fquare
gages, that the refults from them were much
more ample than from fome others that were
kept in the neighbearhegd, which were of a
cylindrical form.

A little cup, with its mouth Meret is
fitted to the neck of the funnel as at 4, which
will go over the mouth of the bottle; becaufe
it is evident, that when rain is driven againft
the outfide of the funnel, or in confequence of
the condenfation of dew upon the outer or under
fide of it, more water would be collected by
the receiver than falls within the area of the
funnel, if it was not prevented by a contrivance
of this kind. :

In order to determine the perpendicular
height of water which falls upon the ground
by means of a rain gage :—If we know the weight
of water caught in the bottle, the area of the
aperture of the funnel, and the weight of the
cubic foot of water, we can eafily calculate the
perpendicular height. Mr. Dalton, in his
Meteorological Effays, (page 34) has given a
theorem for this purpofe: but upon comparing
tables which I had conftru@ed for my own ufe
by this theorem, with fome which were fent me
by Mr. Kirwan, I found that the height given
in mine much exceeded that in the tables of this

laft

Meteorological Obfervations. 599

‘aft-mentioned gentleman. I therefore fet about
the inveftigation of Mr. Dalton’s theorem, and
from: the fame principles obtained an expreffion
which was only zz of his. But diftrufting my
own inveftigation,- when contrafted -with: the
‘known abilities of Mr. Dalton. as a mathe-
-matieian, I wrote to my friend Mr. Dawfon,
of Sedbergh, defiring his opinion on the fub-
jed, and his anfwer is as follows —*‘ There is
eertainly a miftake in Mr. Dalton’s. theorem
“for determining the height of water fallen upon
ta:given horizontal plane, as you will eafily fee
from what follows.

‘* Befides the fymbols he makes ufe of (viz.
a= the area of the. {perture of the, fynnel, W
the weight of i cubic foot of water, and w the
weight of the mye canal in pounds), put
x ==the depth of the water fallen in inches,
then ax= the’ number of folid inches in the
gage, and bet aufe the weight varies as the
number of folid inches, ... W:w:: 1728: ax,
1728 w
OH aba
depth. required. —Mr. Dalton’s expreffion is juft
twelve times the above. You will eafily ob-
ferve that the 1728 is the number of cubic
inches in a folid foot, of which /” == the
weight in avoirdupoife pounds,”

The eafieft way of finding the perpendicular
height of water fallen, is to meafure the water

caught

and an X W = 1728 Xv, orx=

(600 Meteorological Observations.

‘caught ‘in’a’ phial graduated fovas to exprefs the
weight of the water in’ ounces and quartets,
‘and. to compare this with a table conftructed
for the purpofe.—As many - people may. with
‘to kéep’a rain gage, whovare unacquainted with
-the method of ¢onftruting:thefe tables, “I fhall
give oné! which I formed for my own ‘ufe.
—It will likéwife fave trouble to thofe who can
conftruét them themfelves.—It is calculated for
a gage whofe aperture is'a fquare foot. °The
heights. correfponding to. different weights
TE #9) of water, are donee in inches and
decimal parts.

Correfponding —
heights,

Weight.

Correfponding i
heights. wc

t ‘ a siiukn
tb. oz. | Inches. Inches,

0. + {.0,00328 1 [ 0,15763
o + | 0,00656 2 1°0,31527...
0 Y f6,01313 | 3 | 0,47291'
Oo 2} 0,02626 4 | 0,63054

© 3 | 0.03940 | § | 0.78817

@ 4 | 0,05250 |} 6 | 0,94582° ~
Oo § } 4,06560 7 |. 1,10345

0° 6} 0,07881 & | 1,26018

O 7 }| 0,09194 || 9g 1,48171

o & | 0,10507 10° | 1,57634 >"
© g |f.0,11822 } i1 373397

O to «|. 0,13135 jf 12 | 1,89160
oll

0,14448
Suppofe

Meteorological Obfervations. + 601

Suppofe the water found in the gage upon
examination to weigh 2lb. 8i0z. Then we have
by the table ae

ailb. - 0,31527
80z. - 0,10507
40z. - 0,00328

Perpendicular height 0,42362

_ I have been thus particular, becaufe many
perfons unacquainted with fcience, may be in-
duced to keep rain gages, when the method of
doing it is made eafy—and thus will our
general ftock of obfervations be increafed.

§ IV.

OF THE WINDS.

Obfervations on the Winds at Liverpool, abjtratted
from Mr. Hurtcutnson’s Fournal.

Concerning the method which Mr. Hutchin-
fon took to eftimate the velocity of the winds,
F fff I fhall

Sat Meteorological Obfervations.

I fhall infert an extract of .a letter which I
received from -Dr. Renwick, ‘who, at my re-
queft, had the goodnefs to make inquiries of
Mr. Hutchinfon.

** Concerning the velocity’ ae the winds, Mr.
H. couid not fay he was very exact during two
or three of the firft years of the Journal, as
he noted it down from his own judgement;
he afterwards~tried it bythe method of find-
ing the fhip’s velocity by heaving the log. He
faftened a fhip’ s log-line about his waift, while
fome perfor who underftood the nature of it,
attended to the log glafs, and line. He made
ufe of a common walking-ftick, to the end of
which he affixed a crofs ftick (fimilar to the
yard of a fhip,) and to the end of the crofs
ftick he affixed a filk handkerchief. As he
ran, the handkerchief was carried forwards by
the wind, and when the handkerchief fell flat
upon the ftick, he judged that he had run as
faft as the greateft velocity of the wind. He
alfo tried a fimilar experiment with a boat,
which had two fails before the wind in fmooth
water, in fuch as a ftiff-failing fhip might carry
her top-gallant fails.”

In

Moteorological Obfervations.- 603

“In the following table, D fignifies the number *
of days which the wind has blown from that —
‘point during the year; G the greateft velocity. .
of the wind; L the leaft velocity ; and M the

mean velocity.

North

604 Meteorological Observations.

North | N.E. | Eat oe ee S. E.
ae L.|M.| D.|G.] L. G.| L.JM)] D. |G.) LM.
a rsraeaasa 3 52 1/36135\15|25| 86|4o|10[29
1769]10/30/20 22/2 5|40]10/20/15|40/10|23| 8g|45|10/29
1770127|30] 5)15|29/45] 5/17/1314) 5/13] O9|35| 5)11
1771]21130| 3] 7/26/40] 3) 6)18)30) 3i10) 84/35! 2\to
1772|12|10] 3 7|24/20} 3) 7|13/25) 3] 8]/137/30
1773}13|10| 3) 7|14/20] 5] 8/10/25] 2| 6/136\40) 2
1774|19|20} 4] 7/29}40] 3) 8/22/25) 3) 7\135)40] 2
1775{13} 8] 3) 5{13/10] 3) 5|11\25) 5] 8124/30] 2
1776} 912] 3) 5119130] 3] 7\ZQ\3Z0] 3] 6126/20) 2
1777|16}10) 3) 5/37\15| 3) 6)F2\25) 3) 7\115)25) 2
1778]13|20] 3} 6}30}/20| 2} 6} 8)15) 3) 8137/25) 2
177Q\1o}1o| 3) G}21jto0l 3) s]13\r0} 5] 7/1.43)/20] 2
1780|15]20} 3) 7}30/20] 3] O}14iro} 5] 7/113/20] 3
1781] 5!15| 5} gl2oj15) 5] 7|x6j\r0| 3| 6141/30) 3
1732/20/20] 3:10/40]15| 3) 7|18|30) 3 Abe 2
1783|13)15| 3| 8|34|20| 3) 6|20|r5} 3) 9\x40)25| 3
1784\20|15| 3| 7/37/20] 3} 8/26/15] 3| 8| gsi20| 2
1785|10| 8] 3) 6)28)15) 3) 7\r9|r5] 5] git32/30] 2
1736} 4! 8) 3) 5/46/20) 3) 8)28)20} sirrjros/20) 3
1787|13.20] 3/ 7|34|20| 3) 8|15]35| 5/rx]124]35| 2
17881 4!20 3) 7150120] 3] 8|23/20) 5} gir12\20] 3
1789|13)10} 3) 5}28)15| 3] 7|18\40} 3/ gl121}20) 3
17g90| 8} 8} 5} 6132/30} 3) 7/23/20] 3] 8i102\10} 3
1791)11/10) 5} 7134/20] 3) 6/25) 8) 5) 7] 97/20) 3
1792)1 5/201 3] 7\28j10] 3 Glagirol 5] Sirra4l2o} 3

South

Years, | D.} G.

1763) 26/30 1021140140|15|24!4 0/4 §|10]27133140| 10/23
salicltalOrigalzol4elgalactiolaalealgalaalas

1769.19)

L.

a

3
2
5
3
3
2
2,
3
3
3
3
7
5
3
3
2
3
3
3}1
5
3
5

Meteorological Obfervations.

South

M.

6)5
7/42\40

cai mi
515°
4147

D.

Ss. W. | Wert. | N.w.

0145

45
20

G.

L.| M.} D.| G.

5}19,64|50

3]13159145

3) 10/45/39
3| 8/45/30
3} 9154/39
3) £215 3/39
2 Q\5 2|40
3}11)5 4130
2}11/39|30
3}10)40)/30
3/10|46/3 5
2\10 47|30
3|13/66)3 5
5}12139130
3|10)53 30
3111158135) 3
3|12}50|40
3)14)47/30
3)12/58 30
3)11139'30
3]11}56 30
3/1155 40

| 51.9145'40

1
|| ane

311 6}56}5,0
3116|67|40
3|11}46|40
3]11155)25
3112}51}30
3112|63/25
2)1116.4/30
3]11151\20
2\1215 4|20
3111/62/30
3|12/63\25
3'11]71|30
3/13148)30
3}12157|20
SET 5515

5172125
2|13)57)30
3)t 11 56145
3} 9/53)4°
3}11|42)25
3/11|55|20
3\11|5 1140
51 947125

605

L.

M.

606 Meteorological Obfervations..

The annual mean deduced from this table is as
follows ;°

1 North. |! Ni | Eat. |S. =.

rare Mean ae Mean FS . ;
days. velocity days. velocity days days, velocity}
i ‘

tele fle [sf bls

South. | s.W. | Weft. | N.w.

Mean N Mean

velocity

Mean p2. Mean he. Mean | Mean
velocity days velocity] 4 ays. velocity dite velocity

of
days.

fz [oa] [oo] 29 [oe

lo

Taking the North and Eaft winds in oot
to the South and Welt, they will ftand as follows.

Days. M. V.
North ~ ~ 13 ~ - 8
N. E. - - 29 - = a
Eatft - 18 - - 9
S. E: - - 115 - - 8

Total of the North } ; Mean Velocity \ OL

Eafterly winds. 5 of N. E. winds. § “+

Days. A Sm
South - - 9 - - 7
So W. - - 54 - - 12
Weft - - 49 - - 13
N.W. - - 58 - . 10

Total of the South Mean Velocity
Wefterly winds. } 17° of S. W winds. ; Lop
State

ZOnS»

°

al Obfervat

Meteorologic

State of the direction and mean velocity of the winds in each month, deduced
from an average of twenty-five years,

Months. South. s. W. | Wett. IN. W.

North: |. E | Eaft. | S.E.

M.V,| Dy nv D. |M.v.| D. |M.v. D. |MvV. >. |
3 9/21 |13(758 18 10,5 { 7/3,4/13]3,9 [13]5, [12
2 To} 1,16/11|8,3 | 9 |0,8 10] 5,5/ 14] 4,16]15]2,5]10
3 Io}1,9 |1119,4 19 |0,6] 9] 4,8/1214 1313 |9
9/3; 9}2,r |13/7.8 | 8 10,5] 7) 3:4)13139 J13]5 112
8) 3 10) 1,8; |2016,7 .| 7. 11 7| 3,61 1313 12/7 19.
9/2 71153 | 817.8 17 0,8] 713,7}14]4,7 | 10]6,8/8
VAL 7/9.4 |.817,5 | 7 | 71 4,7) 1116 9/8 {8
810,57 TE Qt iLOr G 710,9| 8|4 |10]5,6 4121/6 |8
711,6 | 7/1 1,4.] 9 {12 8 }0,5| 7/5 1101354 J12]4 |g
72531) Z| 22) je Qitt 8 |1 815 | 211/13 1212,7)8
913 8 gjt0 19 |.7} 813,91 4213.5 $15] 33} 14
7|2 7 8}10,518 lo,8{ 6)4 113)4 164 2,6)12

Obfervations on the Winds at Dover, abftra&ted from Mr. ManrTett’s gp ourieh

ort oP (RAST A:

N, ve] | | E {se} Ss |sw| w |nwil wine NW
January 1 Ob-0 | Op 2 foata lv sira(etod ay 2 20) 8175 |14)0/ 613415] 1) 4
February | 0 | 2} 0] 1] 0 [23] 3] 61 7 TOUT 2b ET 114457712 lt0ol1)} 4) 1 trto lr
March 2122/4] 6) 0 }1o} 0} 51 5 | 9} o} 1] 0 fig] 1 I5}O} 5)OF 1} 1125; 0] 5
April 2/16/71] 6].2] 8/1] 3 3 112) 6} 210 fr7] 2] 3]fol13/o0]1] 0 I4] 0 ]11
May 4114/2] 5)0)}16) 0 |,1] 2 [a5] 0} of t [16] 5 | 8 3 /12/o}1}1]12]5 | g
June 0 }12).0} 1] 1} 4g] 3 |-7 4 [16] 1] Qfo art a 72) 8lr}1atofist 5] 8
July 2] 3/0] of o f26] 0} 6] 3 3) 3.) °F ° 122121714) 6/0) 3]4 }igh 4} 7
Auguft 4) 3/9] 3/9 )25)5).8]1 3] 9] 0] of oligo) 5} afi |18/]e 5 |.04 6].1-1 g
September} 2 | g| 1} 6] 0 |18| 3 |-8]}-3 PE a7 OO) A Teh 2 ee bo tan 7416
October 3/14) 4 }41) 0115/2) 51] 3 |o9] t }10o} 2 |14}.6] Bio lay 51 442]13]4 |-6
November} 1/12} 4} 9] 2 413] 1 2'}.2 | 540.) 7} .0 [17] 5/3 | 4 : 2131/01/15} 41 6
December] 5 | 6! 1 | 2! 4 |23! @ Jao} 34 8{ 1) 542 414) 4! 9] 3 2)ifo} 8) 7 {22
es ‘a7 129 6 go [112 r7{37| 8 |201 i odedius ah s/o | 167 167/33 [115

Se ete ene

Meteorological Objervations. 609

Upon an average of three years, the winds
have blown as follows.

North| N. E. } Eaft. |S. E.

27 118 18 37

_—_——
South. | S. W. | Weft. |N. W.

8 195 | 35 g}

Taking the North and Eaft winds in oppo-
fition to the South and Weilt, they will ftand
as follows.

Days, Days.
North - 27 South = - 8
NeE. cei be 82 Wo eo bigs
git. = 18 Weft aes
Sh OS ie N, Wa.) 436 °)'%93

200 329

State of the Winds in each Month, on an
average of three Years.

| N.|N.E.] E. |S.E] S. |S-W.]W.IN.W.

January {2,7/ 7.3/0 |4,3/2,3)22 4 533

February |3 7>31917}1531057/17 12,7] 8,3

March 2,7/12 11,3/2,7]0,3]}18 0,3] 8,3 °
April 157}1357}453]3 1057/13 |1 | 547
May 3 [1357}0.7/2 0,7114,7]3,3] 6
June 2 112 10,711,3/0,31/15 13 7.3
July 3; | -4...)1.. 12 4a (22.8 te 6,7
Auguft |2,7/10 |0,7|/2,7|0 |16,7\0,3 6,3
September) 2,7} 8,3)2 |4,7/0 |12,7/4,7] 0,3
October /2 {11,313,3/8,311,3114 13 6,3
November|1,3] 8 |2 |6,3]0,7]15 |3,3 ant
December! 3,7} 7 43 )257!2 315 13,711347

610, Meteorological Objery ations.

Obfervations on the Winds at Dumfries, by Mr,
Coptanp, continued from p. ar.

In 1793 the | No. of |Above the] Below the} ee
wind was_| days. |Medium. Medium. |for 9 Yrs,

North Noth [32 32 pe telah | 4,17 7 | 3607 36,17

| 26 & 1,45 A aaa 24,55
Eaft = 77 10,33 = ane 66,67

1535
Totalofthe| |

142,89
winds.

In 1793 the | No. of [Above the|Below the] Medium}
wind was | days. |Medium.|Medium. |for 9 Yrs.
South | 75 | | 4 amt 76,11
ee ais | | 2 20,16
Welt | 614 i 12,79 ae 74,29
S. W. | |

ee - —

terly winds.

Prevalence of the South Wefterly Winds 65 Days.
| Before

Meteorological Obfervations. 611

Before the publication of the Boranrc Garpen,
the world was not in poffeffion of any rational
theory of the winds; that of .Dr. Halley,
and others which have fucteeded it, not be-
ing fufficient to explain a variety of .pheno-
mena, and being evidently contradifted by
fome. Since Dr., Darwin’s theory appeared,
Mr. Dalton has publifhed one’ on. fimilar
principles, which (as I believe he was totally
unacquainted with Dr. Darwin’s at the time
he wrote) is a circumftance certainly not un-
favourable to the theory. As many of the
phenomena of meteorology admit of .an’.eafy
and fatisfactory explanation by Dr. Darwin's
theory, and as fome ;circumftances relative to
the winds at Liverpool, cannot be well under-
ftood without it, I ,fhall tranfcribe a fhort out-
line of it, which, the ingenious author give:
by way of recapitulation.

‘* Norta - East Winp’ confifts of air pein
ing from the North, where it feems to be
-occafionally produced; has an apparent direc-
tion from the Eaft, owing to its not ‘having
acquired, in its journey, the increafing velocity
of the earth’s furface. .Thefe winds are analo-
gous to the trade winds between the. tropics,
.and frequently continue in the. vernal months
for four and fix weeks together, with a high
barometer, and fair or frofty weather. 2, They

Gggg2 fome-

612 Meteorological Obfervations.

fometimes confift of South-weft air which had
pafled- by us or over us, driven back by a new
accumulation of air in the North. Thefe laft
continue but a eh or two, and are attended
with rain.

Sourn-West Wino confifts of air flowing
from the South, ahd feems occafionally abforbed
-at its arrival to the northern latitudes. It has a
real direction from the weft, owing to its not
having loft in its journey the greater velocity
it had acquired from the earth’s furface from
whence it came. Thefe winds are analogous
to the monfoons between the tropics, and fre-
quently continue from four to fix weeks toge-
ther, with a low barometer, and rainy weather.
2. They fonretimes confift of north-eaft air,
which had paffed by us of over us, which
becomes retrograde by a commencing deficiency
of air in the north. Thefe winds continue but
a day or two, attended with fevere froft with
‘a finking barometer ; their cold being increafed
by their expanfion as se return into an in-
cipient vacancy.

Norta West Wrnps contift firft, of South-
weft winds, which have paffed over us, bent
down and driven back towards the fouth, by
the newly generated northern air. ‘They con-
tinue but a day or two, and are attended with
tain or clouds. 2. They confift of north-eaft

winds,

Meteorological Obfervations. 613

winds, bent down from the higher parts of the
atmofphere ; and, having there acquired a greater
velocity than the earth’s furface, are frofty
and fair. 3. They confift of north-eaft winds,
formed into a vertical fpiral eddy, as on the
. eaftern coafts of North America, and bring
fevere froft.

Souru-East Wiunps confift, firft, of North-
Eaft winds become retrograde; continue for a
day or two: frofty or fair, finking barometer.
.2. They confift of North-Eaft winds formed
into a vertical eddy, not a fpiral one; froft
er fair.

Norta Winps confift, firft, of air flowing
flowly from the North, fo that they acquire
the velocity of the earth’s furface as they ap-
proach; are fair or frofty; feldom occur. 2.
They confift of retrograde fouth winds; thefe
continue but a day or two; are preceded by
fouth-weft wind; and are generally fucceeded
by north-eaft winds, cloudy or rainy, barometer
rifing. ©

Sournh Winps confift, firft, of air flowing
flowly from the fouth, lofing their previous
weftern velocity by the friction of the earth’s
furface as they approach; moift, feldom occur.
2. They confift of retrograde north winds ; thefe
continue but a day or two; are preceded by

north-eaf,

614 Meteorological Obfervations:

north-eaft, winds; and. generally. fucceéded.. by
fouth-weft.winds, colder, barometer rifing.

East Winos confift of air .brought- haftily
from the north, and not impelled farther fouth-
ward, owing toa fudden beginning abforption
of air in the northern regions ; very cold;
barometer high ; generally fucceeded by fouth=
welt winds. «—

West-W1nps. confit of air uasnabe haftily
from the fouth, and checked from. proceeding
further to the north by a beginning produ@tion
_ of air in the northern regions, warm and moift,
generally fucceeded by north-eaft wind. 2.
They confift of air bent down from the higher
regions of the atmofphere; if this air be from
the fouth, and brought haftily, it becomes a
wind of very great velocity, moving perhaps
fixty miles.an hour, is warm and rainy; if. it
confift‘of northern air bent down, is is of lels
velocity, and colder.”

, From, this’ theory we may conchide, that: all
our winds in this country which blow from. the
north or eaft, or any point between them, con-
ift of regions of air brought from, the north
and that all our winds blowing from the fouth
or weft, or from any point between them, are
regions of; air from the fouth; and that, in
places where there are no local circumftances
which. divert the winds from the courfe they

would

Meteorological Obfervatious: 615)

would naturally take, the north-eaft. and’ fouth-,
weft winds will be moft frequent; as is the
cafe at Dover, Lancafter, Kendal, &c. At
Liverpool, however, a remarkable deviation
takes place. From the tables here given it ap-
pears, that the wind blows much more fre-:
quently from the fouth-eaft than from any other
point ; and on comparing it with the winds at
Dover, in the table here given, with the winds
at Lancafter, p. 265 of this volume, and thofe
of Kendal in Mr. Dalton’s Effays, it appears,
that both the fouth-weft and the north-eaft
winds at Liverpool are deficient. As this takes
place conftantly every year, it can only be
accounted for on the fuppofition of fome per-
manent local caufe. It probably depends upon
an atmofpheric eddy, produced by the fouth-
weft winds ftriking obliquely againft the Englith
appenine, and being hence converted into
fouth-eaft winds. The fame will happen, in
fome degree, to the north-eaft winds. This
eddy is probably fimilar to that, which caufes
the frequent north-weft winds on the eaftern
coaft of North America. Thefe are the freezing
winds, asappears from a variety of teftimonies,
and are evidently produced by an atmofpheric
eddy : for when a fheet of air is flowing from the .
north-eaft, and rifing from the fhore in a
ftraight line to the fummit of the Apalachian
mountains,

616 Meteorological Obfervations.

mountains, a part of the ftream of north-eaft
air will flow over the mountains, another part
will revert and circulate fpirally between the
fummit of the country and the eaftern fhore,
continuing to move towards the fouth; and
_ thus be changed from a north-eaft to a north-—
weft wind. (See Botanic Garden, part 1ft).

In a letter which I lately received from Dr.*
Darwin, he coincides with me in opinion, that
‘*the prevalence of the fouth-eaft winds at
Liverpool, depends upon fome atmofpheric
eddy produced by the fituation of the place.”
In the fame letter this ingenious philofopher
obferves, ‘* that the knowledge of the winds,
their origin or caufe, is the principal fource (I
mean the caufe) not the confequence of all the
other atmofpheric phenomena in my opinion.
All the winds of the N. E. come directly from
{nowy countries ; and as the {now is evaporated
by them, great cold is produced: firft by the
thawing of the fnow into water, and then by
evaporating the water, which I fuppofe to be
done at one procefs by the air. Then the fouth-
eaft winds, when they bring froft, are fuperior
currents of north-eaft winds driven back. Thefe
I efteem to be the fources of froft in this country.
And how thefe winds are produced or generated
for fix weeks together, feems to me to be the
greateft defideratum, as I have endeavoured to
thow in a note in the Botanic Garden.

‘* Experiments

Meteorological Obfervations. 617

Experiments om freezing and thawing ina per-
fe&. vacuum might: give light to»this fubje& :
as I) fufpect, from the great expanfion of ice,
that air muft be-generated in the aét of freezing,
and given out in ithawing. A bit of. ice might
eafily be diffolved in:the Toricellian vacuum, | to
afcertain whether it parted with air in thawing.”

Soon after I received this letter, I-endeavour-
ed. tor fubject this opinion to, an enaetlnaate
proof, in the following manner ;

As much water was put. into the upper end of
a wide barometer tube, as filled, it to two inches:
it was ‘then’ frozen in a freezing mixture, the
tube |was filled with mercury, and.inverted into
a. veffel, of the, fame.—The mercury’ did not
remain fufpended. fo -high as, the. ice, but
there: was. a vacuum, of about a, quarter of: an
inch between,them.. The place: where. the
mercury ftood was accurately..marked, and
the ice was fuffered to thaw, which in about
half an hour was completely done. The water
was fupported upon the mercury to the height
of about. two inches, and the mercury was
found depreffed very nearly 4 of,an inch, which
was undoubtedly owing to the preffure of the
two inches of water. When the tube was
inclined, the water and mercury entirely
filled it; a proof that no air had been extri-
cated during the thawing of the ice. :

Hhhh I next

618 Meteorological Obfervations.

I next made the experiment. on a large
fcale, in the following’ manner;—a tall glafs
jar which held near half a gallon, was filled
with broken pieces of ice, water was
poured into it ‘to .expell the air from the
interftices, the jar was then carefully inverted
in a veffel of water, and the ice: fuffered
to thaw, but.no air was extricated excepting
a fmall bubble not the fize of a pea, which
was probably confined between the particles
of the ice, ‘as’ we generally fee it. As the
ice melted, I introduced more in pieces, by
juft raifing up the edge of the jar, but not
above the water. The pieces of ice being
fpecifically' lighter than the water, arofe to
the upper part of the jar. In this manner
I introduced on the whole ‘not ‘lefs than iten
pent of ice, yet no air was extricated.

‘From the refult of thefe ebeteilen tania “may
we ‘not conclude, that we are yet ignorant
of the ‘nature’ of the ‘* Great Bear or Dragon’
of the north, ‘which at times fuddenly drinks
up, and as fuddenly -at other times vomits
out one feet part of the ee

APPENDIX. ~

Meteorological Obfervations. 619,

APPENDIX.
(a.)

COPY OF A LETTER FROM Maz, COPLAND, OF
DUMFRIES.

, Drar Sx Re

I MOST readily feize this opportunity
to correct the laft obfervations in my letter of
January 15th. 1793, (fee page 271). The
ftate of the phenomena appears from farther
experience to be different from what is there
expreffed.

When two rain-gages are kept at different al-
titudes, and at no great diftance from each other,
the quantities of water collected by them are
found alternately to exceed each other on a variety
of occafions. The loweft of my gages ftands only
two feet above the ground; the fuperior feven
feet. In all heavy rains, or when the falls are af
any duration, the former exceeds the latter at a
medium of about a twenty-fifth part pf the
whole quantity in the gage; and in fummer
this excefs appears to be greater than in winter.
‘So great an increafe of precipitation in a dif-
ference of only five feet of altitude in the atmof-
phere, is a proof that the ftratum or portion
of air, which is in a precipitating {tate, is
probably of no great depth: For when allow-
Hhhhe ance

620 Meteorological Oblervations.

ance is made for the greater rarity above, it
fhould not, on thefe occafions, extend beyond
two hundred feet from the furface. But fre-
quently in the fineft weather, when the pre-
cipitation feemed to. be confined near the
furface, as in the time of fogs and heavy
dews, the inferior exceeded the fuperior gage
one half, and on fome. occafions, received the
whole of the quantity. precipitated. In like
manner, at the beginning of moft falls, the
precipitation feems to be moft copious near the
furface, and gradually to afcend, or proceed
from a more elevated portion of the atmofphere ;
till at laft, when the fall is nearly over, the
ftratum next the furface, is not only ot ina
precipitating ftate, but then beginning to re-
abforb moifture, and to be difpofed to combine
with it again. In fuch cafes the inferior gage

becomes minus, and when fo, is no doubt a
fign that the rain is nearly over. Yet from

this circumftance no conclufion can be drawn,
how long it may continue fair; as in fome
cafes the precipitation has been obferved to
commence in a few hours, and run on again
as before. On very few occafions did the pre-
cipitations appear to have proceeded at the
beginning from an elevated portion of the
atmofphere, as the inferior gage was minus ;
and, at the end of thefe falls, it was as cer-
tainly obferved to be plus. There is therefore

reafon

Meteorological Obfervations. 62h

reafon to conclude, that when the precipitation
begins from an elevated portion of the atmof-
phere, it ends near the furface, and vice verfa.

It appears to me, that the only indications
refpecting the weather which can be taken from
two gages placed as above, fhould be exprefied
as follows; viz. That when the excefs in the
under gage continues to be abfent a twenty-
fifth part, or fomething lefs, of the whole
quantity, the fall will not be foon over, as the
precipitation is going on pretty generally, or
through a large portion of the atmofphere ; but
when the quantities in the gage are equal, or
the inferior one cither remarkably plus or minus,
after having been for fome time plus, the fall
will probably foon be over ; becaufe there is
then reafon to conclude, that the precipitation
is confined to a thin ftratum of the atmofphere.
Some inftances of this nature having occurred
after I began to keep my gages fituated as above
defcribed, I was induced to infer that to be
a general rule, which is juft only in particular
fituations.

With regard to another obfervation, ftated
in that letter, refpefting the barometer, I
think many phenomena of the weather, ob-
ferved fince that time, have confirmed it. But
I fhall only notice what happened laft winter,
when the application of fuch rules fhould be

moft

622 Meteorological Obfervations.

moft confpicuous, from the temporary influence
of the fun having lefs effet in varying the

natural phenomena. —
Tt is not eafy in any other way, to account
for the want of fevere cold, and’ almoft of
froft alfo, till long after the year was finifhed,
when the weather was dry, except from its
being accompanied with the higheft barometer,
and that for the longeft period of time per-
haps ever remembered at the feafon; and it
is very remarkable we had here more than three
weeks, near the middle of winter, of perfectly
dry weather without any froft, except two morn-
ings, when it was fo flight as to difappear en-
tirely by mid-day, owing to the influence of
the fun; all which time the wind blew from
the North and Eafterly points, which very
feldom occurs at that time without hard froft.
During that period, the mean of the barometer, |
from, the 15th. of November, to the 8th. of
December, was full thirty inches, being more
than 4% tenths above the medium of the feafon.
The mean heat was 44,52 degrees, being -five
above the medium; and the falls were about
one-third of what ufually takes place at that
time: but thefe being not altogether the com-
plete or adequate confequences of fuch an aber-
ration of the barometer, heat or dry weather
was ftill to be expected. Accordingly a moft
remarkable

Meteorological Objervations. 623

remarkable warmth took place, in the midf of
great falls of rain, for about three weeks after.

I with to obferve farther, that on infpecting
the ftate of the barometer, thermometer, and
falls, during the year 1793 (which has been
made out as accurately as my time and leifure
would permit) it) will appear that’ every aber-
ration of the barometer has been, accompanied
or followed by:an evident deviation of tem-
perature above er, below the medium of the
feafon, taken together with a greater or leffer
extent of falls; and is, if, not completely anfwered
during the month, or in the commencement of
the next, always, fufficiently compenfated for
at fome diftance. It alfo appears that this rule
may be depended on, viz. that when a change
of weather, either to good or bad, has been
indicated by undoubted figns, and is impend-
ing; the longer it is delayed, the more com-
plete it will be whenever it commences. ‘Thus
we find the height of the barometer in Ja-
nuary not being completely anfwered in that
month, that in. February the heat that was
owing enfued, notwithftanding the lownefs of
the barometer; which again feems to haye
been fully anfwered by the extent of falls. ..In
March, the cold and falls being more than
proportionate to the ftate of the barometer,
warm or fair weather was therefore due. This

however

624 Meteorological. Obfervations.

however was not duly paid in April, May, or

June; but the account was at laft completely
balanced in July.. The remaining months will
be found to proceed in a fimilar manner.

But, left my former explanation of thefe
phenomena fhould' be lefs complete or diftiné
than could be wifhed, I fhall endeavour to
exprefs’ my meaning in other words, and with
as much precifion as poflible. Every aber-
ration, then, of the barometer above or below
the medium’ of the feafon, when not’ com-
pletely balanced by an equal deviation in the
oppofite direétion, is either accompanied, or
(what is moft frequently the cafe) is followed
by one of the three following confequences :
Every tenth of an inch of rife or fall in the
barometer is anfwered, in the firft place, by
nearly two degrees of heat being added to, or
fubtracted from, the mean heat of the time.
od. It is anfwered by nearly one half lefs, or
one half more of falls, than what is the ufual
quantity which is precipitated’ in that feafon.
And ad. It is anfwered by: both thefe confe-
quences together. This is what moft frequently
occurs; but the proportions pige® as here ftated
are always taken in the account.:

I by no’means pretend to fay, that thefe
confequences ‘are abfolutely to be expected;
‘pecaufe feveral circumftances. often feem to
| occur

Meteorological Obfervatious. 624

Occur which prevent them from being imme-
diate or complete ; fuch as, firft, the uncertainty
whether thefe alterations of the barometer are
accompanied, are to be foon followed, or are
only at a confiderable diftance of time to be
anfwered by thefe phenomena. 2d. When
the temperament or difpofition of the feafon has
a tendency to be dry or wet, the weather will
refift feveral opportunities or indications of
change,* before it will alter its prefent ftate.
And 3d. aconfiderable fall, or a great degree of
heat or cold coming on fuddenly, will com-
pletely anfwer. a greater aberration of the
barometer, and for a-longer time than what
would otherwife have been the cafe. The
greater falls in the beginning of laft year, and
the leffer towards the end of it than what were
indicated by the barometer, may be fufficiently
accounted for from the fecond of thefe pofitions.
It was fuggefted to me by fome intelligent
perfons, that.a Calendar of Flora, properly
conducted, might be of ufe to afcertain in
what parts of the Ifland the feafons are more
or lefs early or late; and whether a tendency
to degenerate and grow colder can be obferved
in the climate of this country: a fuppofed
confequence of what has been by fome perfons
Tiii - alledged

* See page 242,

626 uci enaiae Obfervations

alledged « of: an Pere of ice to the soa %
I have ‘therefore endeavoured to collate - one
which was only begun in May laft, with one
kept by the Rev. Dr. Burgefs, of Kirkmichael,
about eight miles north-eaft of this town, from
the year 1773 to 1776. I have confined my-
felf to thofe fubje&s that are generally to be
met with in every part of the kingdom. From
my carrying on bufinefs in a town, my oppor-
tunities for fuch an “undertaking are not fo
complete as could be wifhed, but in ea :
hope to be affifted by others, who may be,

every refpect, better fituated for fuch otel

vations.
A Calendar

* This point has been much difputed. M. De Luc
fupports the idea here mentioned. He exprefles himfelf
as follows, One cannot doubt concerning the increafe
of all the Glaciers of the Alps; their very exiflence is a
proof, that in preceding ages, the quantity of {now which
has fallen during the winter, has exceeded the quantity
melted during the fummer. Now, not only the fame caufe
ftill fubfifts, but the cold occafioned by the mafs of ice
already formed, ought to augment it ftill farther, and thence
more {now ought to fall, and a lefs quantity of it muft
be melted.” Though this fa& be admitted, it is contended
by a learned ‘member of this Society, that it by no means
follows that theré is an annually increafing quantity ; for be-
fides the heat of the air in fummer, there is another caufe
which tends to prevent any indefinite augmentation of con-

gealed

Meteorological Obfervations.. 627.

CALENDAR of FLORA, for M.DCC-:XCIII.
kept at Dumfries. lob

a

May 3d. and for the three following days,
the common Swallow (Hirundo ruftica) came.
— 8th. The large Martin or Swift (Hirundo
Apus) came, and the fame day the Cuckoo,
( Cuculus canorus) was firft heard. UAW
rita oo June

gealed water: the internal heat of the earth.t The general
heat of the fprings of water fituated deep in the bowels of
the earth, is about forty-eight degrees. In mountainous coun-
tries it may be fomewhat lefs, but fufficient notwithftanding
for the purpofe here mentioned. When the fnow incumbent

on any {pot of ground, is but thin, it may fo far cool the

earth, that the internal heat may not be able to diffolve it ;

but when the bed is thick enough to proteét the earth from

the influence of the atmofpherical cold, that furface of the

earth may, even in the coldeft winters, receive more heat

from the earth than cold from the atmofphere, and be

therefore diffolved at all feafons of the year, .

‘Now we know that faéts are in favour of this reafoning 5
for ftreams of water, and even rivers iflue from the bottom
of the Glaciers in the Alps, in the greateft feverity of
winter; fo that whether this be allowed to depend upon
the internal heat of the earth or not, a conftant thaw of the
ice or {now which is contiguous to the furface of the earth,
cannot be denied; and this added to other caufes, may
render it probable that the quantity of congealed water has
its limit even in the coldeft country.

+ Watfon’s Chemiftry, vol, IIL. p, 184

628 Meteorological Obfervations.

June 25th. A few of the early ftrawberries
and cherries on the walls ripe; and, in favourable
fituations, the loweft flowers of the Fox Glove
(Digitalis purpurea) in full blow.
27th. The fown grafs begun to be cut
for hay.
goth, Wheat beginning to fhoot.

July oth. Some flowers of the Elder (Sam-
éucus Eéulus) in full blow, and moft near open-
ing.—A few of the middle flowers of the
Mugwort (Artemifia vulgaris), and alfo fome on
the Horfe Thiftle beginning to open.

——iz2th. Common Thiftle ditto. — The
oats and barley fhooting faft, and the cutting
of hay in the midft, which was on the whole
a thin crop.
2oth, The fmall fea Trout (a feds
of falmon) called here the Hirling, beginning
to run hard in the river.

Auguft 1ft. The wheat and barley beginning
to alter in colour in a few places.
4th. The Swift (Hirundo Apus) gone,
and oats beginning to colour.
12th. One field of barley and another
of oats, cut near the town. .
28th. Harveft became gencral in the
vale of Nithsdale.

Sept. 14th. ‘The Bramble Berry / Rubus fru-
ticofus) beginning to be ripe.

—— 21.

Meteorological Obfervations. 629

—— 21. Some of the berries'on the Elder
(Sambucus Ebulus) beginning to colour. The
crops all cut down except late fields and patches.
The Houfe Swallow (Hirundo ruftica) beginning
to depart.
23d. The fwallows gone.
goth. The crops all got in except late
fields, &c. :

O&, 1, The leaves beginning to fall from
fome of the afh-trees and limes. The berries
the elder and bramble in the midft of ripening,
but have little flavour. Some grain on a very
late foil only cutting, at five miles diftance
from this place.

Nov. 1ft. That late crop now got in, and.
thus concluding one of the fineft harvefts ever
known in this country, the late grain being
equally well ripened and got into the barns
with the moft early, and over the whole coun-
try a heavy crop.—The firft fnow’ was vifi-
ble on the tops of the mountains yefterday ;
and the firft froft, of any confequence, was
noticed this morning.

t

1oth. Moft of the potatoe ground now
fown with wheat, there being little more wheat
except on fields where potatoes were growing
fown in the country. — Many wild geefe (Anas
Anfer ), field-fares (Turdus pilaris ), wood-
cocks

630 Meteorological Obfervations.

cocks (Scolopax ruficola) and other northern birds
came about this time.

Dec. 8th. Moft of the wheat {o far {prung
as to be out of the power of the froft to hurt it. ..
goth. The grafs on good paftures look- |
ing very green in confequence of the mild

weather, and many of the furze bufhes (Ulex
europeus) beginning to bloffom. é
a5th. Some {mall furze bufhes covered
with bloffoms, and the wall-flowers ( Cheiranthus
Cheiri), blowing freely.

a oe

Calendar of Flora, by the Rev. Dr. Buresss,
of Kirkmichael.

Feb. 8,1776. The Sky Lark (Alauda arvenfis)
began to fing.
roth. The Lapwing (Tringa Vanellus)
appeared.
March rsth. Oats begin to be fown on good
foils.

17th. The Curlew (Scolopax Arquata)
appeared.
31ft. The Sand Martin (Hirundo ripa-
ria) came.

April 24th. The Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)
fung, which it was obferved to do for the firft
time on the 27th, of the fame month, 1775.

Feb.

Meteorological Obfervations. 631

Feb. 27th. Barley fown.—It was begun to
be fown on the fame day 1774.
The Houfe Swallow ( Hirundo ruftica)

appeared.
agth. 1775. The little black Martin
( Hirundo urbica) came.

May 2d.1775. ‘The Houfe Swallow appeared.
8th. 1774 and 1776 the fame, and the
little Martin alfo appeared. —On.the 4th. 1773,
the tops of the hills were covered with fnow,
and during the firft fortnight of the month there
was generally a froft in the morning, which did
much damage to the fruit, potatoes, &c.—On
the 15th. 1776, the little Martin appeared. —
17th. 1775, the great. black Martin (Hirundo
Apus) appeared.—2oth. 1775, the Goat-fucker
(Caprimulgus europeus) appeared.—~+27th. 1776,
the large Martin or Swift came.—July 2ad.
1774, the grain not fully fhot.—egth. 1776,
barley cut that had been fown April 27th.—
gift. 1775, barley, cut in an early part of the
country.—Auguit 6th. 1775, oats colouring
faft, and on the 17th. wheat cut.—1oth.
ditto the Goat-fucker difappeared.—14th. of
ame year, the great Martin or Swift dif-
appeared.—22d. 1775, harvett became general.
—18th, of ditto, oats cut, which were fown
March r4th. interval one hundred and fifty-feven
days. Mt Cara Bik 1778, wheat cut, which

was

632 Meteorological Obfervations.

was fown March 27th. interval one hundred and
fixty-two days.—6th. 1773, oats cut.—7th.
1774, oats cut down the 15th. of March, being
the hundred and feventy-fixth day from the time
of fowing, which gives a medium for the com-
mencement of cutting oats in this country to be
about the 31ft. of Auguft, or the ift. of Sept. and
for the time of oats being in the ground, before
it ist fit) for reaping, one hundred and fixty-
five days.—-Auguft 30th. 1776, barley cut that
was fown April 27th.—September ift. 1774,
barley cut that was fown May 1ft. which gives
a medium for the commencement of the cutting
-of barley to be in this country about the 22d.
‘of Auguft, and for the time of its being in
the ground -before it is fit for reaping, one
hundred and thirteen days.

September 5th. 1774. A fharp froft which
hurt the late grains, and damaged the potatoes.
‘18th. of ditto, the houfe fwallow departed.
—25th. the little martin difappeared. — 6th.
1775, houfe fwallows gone.—23d. fome of
the little martins gone.—g3oth. 1775, harveft
moftly finifhed, but in 1773 and 1774, harveft
not nearly concluded before the end of Odober.
He ftates, that the harveft 1772 was particularly
wet; the falls in the three laft months of that
year being 21,3 inches in depth, and that the
grain was fo lodged, grown, and rotted, that

a great.

Meteorological Obfervations. 633

a great part of it was loft; and that fome
farmers of a dilatory difpofition had not got in
all their grain on the 23d. of December. He
alfo obferves, that the martins and houfe fwal-
lows appear about ten days fooner on the coaft
of Solway Firth, and about Dumfries, than
where he refides.

On the 29th. of December 1775, he takes -
notice of an earthquake being felt upon his fite,
through all Annandale and Crawford Moor,
which continued about fifteen feconds.

I have the honour to be, dear Sir,
Your moft obedient, &c.

ALEX. COPLAND.

Dumfries,
Feb, 2d. 1794.
/ ee
(8. )
Meteorological Obfervations, by Dr. Campsety, of
Lancafier.

I. When the wind is in the S. W. quarter
in the fummer and autumnal feafons, and the
temperature of the air is unufually cold for the
feafon of the year, both to the feeling and the
thermometer, with a low barometer, itis a fign
that much rain may be expected. Thefe ap-
pearances are accounted for by the author of
the Botanic Garden with his ufual ingenuity,
upon the principle of the fudden expanfion of
the air coming from the fouth, occafioning
cold, anda precipitation of its moifture.

Kkkk II. All

634 Meteorological Oblervations.

II. All heavy rains, viz. fuch as fwell the
rivers confiderably fo as to occafion floods,
come on with the wind at S. and from that to
the S. W.; and moftly terminate with the wind
increafing in force, and veering round to the
weft. Whenthe wind is in the other points,
the weather is generally dry, or if it rains,
the rain is neither heavy nor lafting.

An additional reafon why thefe winds are fo
productive of rain, in this fituation, feems to
be, that when they bring the clouds loaded with
moifture from the fouth and fouth-weft quarters,
thefe are driven with violence againft, or
forcibly attraéted by the high range of hills,
which divide Yorkfhire from Weftmorland and
Lancafhire. In confequence of this their
contents are more completely depofited on this
fide of thefe mountains, than would have been
the cafe had the country been more level. [I
have been informed, that the depofition is fre-
quently fo complete on the weftern fide of thefe
hills, that whilft we are deluged with rain, the
clouds which pafs over to the Yorkfhire fide
appear fleecy and light, and that the weather is

dry. Acafe which I believe is not uncommon,
where a high ridge of hills runs through a

country.* This

* Dr. Campbell’s obfervation is very juft. The fummer
of 1792 was remarkably dry in Yorkfhire, and all the
eaftern fide of the Englifh Appenine, was burnt. up for
want of rain; while on the weftern-fide they had plenty
of rain, and moft abundant crops of grafs, T. the

Meteorological Obfervations. 635

This influence of the hills in attracting the
clouds, and occafioning a fuperabundance of
tain, is no where more confpicuous than at
Kendal, where (though only twenty-one miles
diftant) the quantity that falls is one-third more
than at Lancafter; and it is by no means un-
ufual to fee, from the church-yard at Lancafter,
the hills about Kendal involved in thick clouds,
whilft the fky on this fide Farlton-Knott (a
high rock about two miles north of Burton)
appears perfectly clear.

A very ftrong inftance of this influence came
under my obfervation a few years ago. I was
at Peel Cajile, which is fituated on an Ifland at
the wefternmoft point of that low tract of coun-
try, which ftretches about ten miles from the
foot of the Lancafhire mountains, near Ulver-
ftone, to the weftward, where it meets the fea.
The wind was ftrong from the S. W. the day
cloudy, with fun-fhine at intervals; but not a
drop of rain. On going the next day to Ulver-
ftone, we found the roads perfectly dry till we
came within three or four miles of the town,
when we faw marks of heavy rain, and found
upon inquiry, that it had rained there the whole
afternoon. Here the clouds which paffed rea-
dily over the low tra& of country, on approach-
ing the high hills, were attracted by them,
producing an additional quantity of rain in their
vicinity.

Kkke2 Ill. Taking

636 Meteorological Obfervations.

Remarks on the Barometer. .

III. Taking the generally adopted ideas to be
juft, viz. that when the quickfilver is high (or
towards thirty inches) with the wind to the
north of the weft and. S. E. points, it is an
indication of fair weather (provided it has not
rifen too fuddenly) ; and that when the quick-
filver is low (or towards twenty - eight
inches,) with the wind in the S. or’S. W.
points, it is an indication of rain; my expec-
tations of the more immediate future fiate of the
weather, in any fituation of the quickfilver, are
taken from the appearance which the furface
of the quickfilver in the tube exhibits. If this
be convex (i. e. with a roundifh, fomewhat
globular appearance) it is a certain indication
that the quickfilver is either rifing, or that. it
keeps a propenfity to be ftationary, in oppofition
toa falling flate. On the contrary, when the
furface of the quickfilver exhibits a concave,
ragged, or flat appearance, it fhows that it is
dropping, or that it has no tendency to rife.
The reafon of thefe appearances feems to be,
that when the quickfilver is rifing in the tube,
the particles neareft the fides are attracted by
the glafs, and retarded in their progrefs upwards,
whilft that part of the quickfilver which is
towards the center of the tube, being out of
the influence of this attraction, rifes with more
freedom,

Meteorological, Obfervations. 637

freedom, and confequently higher, and thus
gives the bulbous or convex appearance. On
the contrary, when the quickfilver is falling,
the fame attraction fubfifling betwixt the par-
ticles of quickfilver in approximation to the fides
of the tube and the glafs, thefe will be retarded
in their defcent; whilft the quickfilver towards
the center will fink more freely, and the concave,
irregular, or flat appearance will obtain as the
tendency to fink is more or lefs prevalent ; for
the more it is difpofed to fall, the more concave
will the furface be. But to make this appear-
ance of the quickfilver propeyiy confpicuous,
the tube of the barometer fhoulu tz of a certain
fize, e.g. about half an inch in diameter: be-
caufe when the diameter of the tube is very
{mall, the quantity of the quickfilver that will
be attracted by the fides of the tube, will bear
fo large a proportion to the whole, as always
to exhibit a convex appearance ; whilft if the
tube be very large, the proportion of the quick-
filver that will be within the attraGion of the
fides of the tube, will be fo fmall, that the con-
vexity will be fcarcely difcernible, and it will
always exhibit a flat or concave furface, as I
have feen to be the cafe with a barometer of
nearly an inch diameter.

j (c)

638 Meteorological Obfervations.
(c)

Obferuations: on the Temperature of the Sea at
Liverpool, by the late MatTHew Dosson, M. “i
Communicated by Dr. Percivat.

The ingenious Count Marfigli in his
philofophical Effay towards a hiftory of the
fea, from which the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris have made a number of extra@s, ob-
ferved, that the heat of the fea at’ different
depths, provided the depths be very confider-
able, is nearly equable; that the degree of heat
is about temperate, or fifty-one degrees of
Fahrenheit’s Thermometer; and that the varia-
tions which \%ré difcovered towards the furface,
are either the effects of climate, or arife from
the particular circumftances of expofure on or
ferent coafts.

It may be of ufe therefore to afcertain the
different temperatures of the fea at different
feafons, and on different fhores; that phyficians
may with certainty direct their patients to fuch
places; and at fuch feafons as are beft adapted
to their refpective conftitutions and complaints.

The variations in the temperature of the fea
at Liverpool, are confiderably greater than on
any other coaft, and arife from very obvious
caufes. The fea, before it enters the river
Merfey, is diffufed over a wide extent of flats
and fand-banks, which are in many parts left
dry, during certain times. of the tide. The

heat

Meteorological Obfervations. 639

heat of the fummer, therefore, and the cold
of the winter have a very powerful effe& to
alter the natural temperature of the fea.

To afcertain thefe variations an experiment
was made, about the middle of each month,
at high water, and during the time of fpring
tides. ‘The experiment was made with Fahren-
heit’s Thermometer, and where the river enters
the new dry dock.

The firft column of the following table con-
tains the temperature of the fea; the fecond the
temperature of the open air in the fhade at
eight o'clock in the morning of the fame day
during the year 1772; and the third column
the temperature of the external air. at two in
the afternoon.

Temperature] Air at Air at
7 72 of the fea. | 8 A.M. 2P.M.

January 36

February 36

March > Bo 38 43
April 47 48 | 49
May 55 53 | 58
June 64 62 65
July 68 65 69
Augutft 65 63 67
September 60 57 61
October 55 re 58
November

December

From

640 Meteorological Obfervations.

From this table it appears; that the tempe-
rature of the fea at Lich varies during
the courfe of the year 32°. viz. from 36 to 68,
or from 15 degrees below to ne degrees above

temperate. bess See

It appears. likewife, at the fea when

armett is 14 degrees colder than Buxton
* and Ay 90 degrees below the heat of joe

Soe

aed

i . ai Matlock Battie and in «ae Se
Bponehs becomes ftill colder, fo at laft to

above “the freezing point.» "The fabnd latitude
in the temperature of the fea will, not occur i in
other coats, where the fhore is cold
oe and Ser eee not zccxppled) i

bf
: ue)
ara Peele if
* The heat of Buxton Bath is 82°. that of Matlock 8,
mi
j
;

according to Dr, Percival’s experiments, |
k
h
b

al
Rew

iN)

iP AEN

EN CONTE

fo)
1)

US REAGAN Me Me UMN eA EU eR

oe: |

y
Se. ih OPK S
4e ah gah R

AME .
CY: a Wiese tees:
Die Ne gei's

2s cart 3)
Ke ay sha a sop ea
oh i e bates atti vet ee 8

o ; ey 4 ARG Me

; rik ee € ‘ ’ ie
Saari a : Yi ANF ” Lies a
vee 3 ’ * " Cie bie os L,
oe tee
En 48

LIST OF BOOKS

PRESENTED TO

‘FHE* SOCIETY,

American Academy of Arts and. Memoirs of the American
Sciences, Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences. Vol.I, Bofton: 1785,
4°.
fames Anderfon, L.L.D, Mifcellaneous Obfervati-

F. R, and A, SS, Edin, ons on planting and training
timber trees, Edinburgh:
1797. 8",

Effays relating to Agricul-
ture and Rural affairs. Third
edition. 2 vols, Edinburgh ;
1784. 8°,

Account of the prefent
ftate of the Hebrides and
Weltern coafts of Scotland,
Edinburgh: 1785. 8°.
Society of Antiquaries of Lon- Archxologia, Vol. XI,

don, ~ Lond. 1794. 4°. ,
Sir George Baker, Bart, F,R.S, Medical Tranfa&tions, pub-
are - lifhed by the College of Phy-
ficians in London, 3 Vols,
Lond, 1768, 8°,
Lili

642 Lift of Books, &e:

Sir Richard Clayton, Bart.

Mr. Fohn Dalton,

Edward Huffy Delaval, Efq.
FF RLS,

John Talbot Dillon, Knt.
B. H.R. E.

fe ee

Rev, James Douglas, F, A, S,

Connubia Florum. Auftore
D. de la Croix: Notas &
obfervationes adjecit R. Clay-
ton. Bathoniz: 1791. 8°.

A Critical Inquiry into the
Life of Alexander the Great
by the ancient Hiftorians:
from the French of the Ba
ron de Saint Croix, Lond.
1793. 4°.

Meteorological Obferva-
tions and Effays. London:
1793. 8°.

An experimental Enquiry
into the caufe of the changes
of colours in opake and
coloured bodies. London:
1787. 4°.

Ricerche {perimentali fulle
cagioni del cangiamento di
colore ne’ corpi opachi e co-
lorati traf{portate in Italiano
da Gio. Francefco Fromond,
Milano: 1779. 8°.

Travels through Spain,
London: 1782. 4°.

Hiftory of Peter the Cruel,
2 vols, Lond. 1788. 8°.

Hiftorical and critical Me-
moirs of the General Revo-
lution in France, in the year
1789. London: 1790. 4°.

A differtation on the Ans
tiquity of the Earth, Lond,
3785+ 4%

Capt.

Lift of Books, &c.

Capt. Fohn Drinkwater,
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

A, Fothergill, M.D. FiR.S,
Thomas Fowler, M. D,

M. B.S, Froffard. -
Thomas Garnett, M.D,

William Hawes, M, D,

Fohn Haygarth, M, B. F.R.S,

a a EE

Mr, Thomas Henry, F. R.S.

Ae

643

Hiftory of the late fiege of
Gibraltare. 1,:&: 1 Edit,
Lond. 1786. 4°.

Tranfactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Vol:
II. Edin..1790. 4°.

A new experimental inquiry
inte the nature and qualities
of the Cheltenham Water.
Bath. 1785. 8°.

Medical Reports on the
effe&is of Arfenic in the cure
of Agues, Remitting Fevers
and periodic Head-achs, Lon-
don: 1786, 8°.

Sermons de M. Hugh Blair,
traduits de I Anglois, il
Tom. Lyon: 1784. 8°.

Experiments and Obferva-
tions on the Horley-Green
Spaw, near Halifax, Brad-
ford: 1790. 8°.

TranfaGtions of the Royal
Humane Society. Vol. I,
Lond. 1790. 8°.

An Enquiry how to pre-
vent the Small-pox. Chef-
ter: 1784. 9°,

A Sketch of a Plan to ex-
terminate the cafual Small-
pox from Great Britain, 2
Vols. Lond. 1793. 8°.

An account of a method of
preferving water at fea from
putrefaétion,
1781, 8°,

Warrington ;

MR

(

644 Lift of Books, ec.

Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

Edward Holme, M. D.

Effays on the effeéts pros
duced by various proceffes
on atmofpheric air, From
the French of M. Lavoifier,
Warrington: 1783. 8°.

Differtatio medica inaugu-

. ralis de Catarrho. Auétore

eee

Mr. Fohn Holt.

a ee

Thomas Houlflon, M, D.

S. A. Deiman,
1793. 4°.

Differtatio phyfiologica in-
auguralis de ftruétura et
ufu Vaforum Abforbentium.
Auéore Edv. Holme, Lugd.
Bat. 1793. 4°.

Neue Chemifche Nomen-
clatur fir die deutfche
{prache von Chriftoph Gir-
tanner, Berlin: 1791. 8°.

Chara&ers of the Kings of
England. Lond. 1794. 12°.

General View of the Agri-
culture of the County of
Lancafter, Lond. 1794. 4°.
_ Anew Method of curing
the Small-pox, with a fpeci-
men of mifcellaneous obfer-
vations on medical fubje&s:
tranflated from the Latin of
Jokn Frederic Clofs, A. M?
Phil. & Med, Dot, Lond,
1774. 8°.

Efflay on the Liverpool
Spaw-water, Liverpool :

3773. 8°,

Lugd, Bat:

Thomas

—

.
ee

Lift of Books, &c,

Thomas Houlfon, M. D,

A Hunter, M.D. F.R.S,

Royal Irifh Academy.

“ames Fohnftone, M.D.

Fohn Coakley Lettfom, M. D.
F. R. and A, SS,

‘John Hyacinth de Magelldn,
Ejq. FL R.S.

645

Obfervations on Poifons ;
and on the ufe of Mercury
in the cure of obftinate Dy-
fenteries. Lond, 1784. 8°.

S1iva: or a Ditcourfe of
Foreft Trees, &c. by John
Evelyn, Efg. to which is
added Terra, a philofophi-
cal Difcourfe of Earth.
Vols. York: 1784. 4°.

Tranfa&tions of the Royal
Irifh Academy, 1788, Dub-
jar he

Tentamen medigum inaugu-
rale, de aéris fa€titii imperio
in primis’ corporis humani
viis. Autore Jac, John-
ftone, Edinburgi: 1750, 8°.

An Effay on the ufe of the
Ganglions of the

2

Nerves.
Shrewifbury: 1771. 8°.

A Treatife on the Malignant
Angina.
SF,

Hiftory of the Origin of
Medicine. Lond. 1779. 4°.

The works of John Fother-

gill, M.D. Lond. 1784. 4°..
Defcription de quelques

W orcefter: 1779,

machines & remedes qu’ on
pourroit eflayer pour détruire
a peu de frais les fourmis nui-
fibles de la Martinique en
Amerique, ainfi que d’autres
infe&tes, par M. le Baron de
Hupfch, Cologne: 1780,12°,

John

646

John Hyacinth de Magellan,
Ejfq. F. RS.

—— Tannen

Francis Maferes, Efg. F. R.S.

”
E, Peart, M.D.

VO

—_——

Mr. F. Penrofe.

Mr. Thomas Pote.

EL. Di

FJofeph Prieftley,
FF, Ry 8.4696
Rev. Fohn Radcliffe, A. M.

Samuel Foart Simmons, M, D:

F. R, S.

Lift of Books, &c.

Dei fenomeni che il
fangue ed i vafi fanguigni
prefentano nel vuoto pneu-
matico. Milano: 1783. 8°,

Defcription of a Glafs Ap-
paratus for making mineral
waters, &c, Lond. 1783. 8°.

An Effay. towards a Syftem
of Mineralogy, by Axel Fre-

deric Cronftedt, Second
edition. 2 Vols. Lond,
1768. 8°,

Scriptores Logarithmici,
2 Vols. Lond, 1791. 4°.

The generation of Animal
Heat inveftigated. Gainf-
borough: 1788. 8°.

On the Elementary Princi-
ples of Nature. 1789. 8°.

On Eleétric Atmofpheres.
1793. 8°.

Letters Philofophical and
Aftronomical, Plymouth :
1789. 8°.

The Anatomical Inftruétor,
Lend, 1790. 8°.

Experiments and Obferva-
tions on different kinds of
Air, and other branches of
Natural Philofophy. 3 Vols,
Birmingham: 1790, 8°.

Bibliotheca Chethamenfis,
Il1Tom, Mancunii: 1791.8°.

An Account of the Life
and Writings of the late
Wm. Hunter, M.D. F.R.S.
and S.A, Lond, 1783. 8°.

Foueph

Lift of Books, &c.

Fofeph C. Walker, Efqy. M. R.
L

Martin Wall, M. D.

Charles White, Efg: F. R.S.

Thomas White, M. D.

Mr. W. Wilfon.

TYeph Wimpey, Efg:

TT ee), ee pe SE

647

Hiftorical Memoirs of the
Irifh Bards, Dublin; 1786,

2

‘ Medical Tra&s by the late
John Wall, M. D. of Wor-
cefter. Oxford: 1780, 8°.

Differtations on fele& fub-
jets in Chemiftry and Me-
dicine. Oxford: 1783. 8°. |

Differtations, Letsers, &c,
Oxford: 1786. 8°.

Obfervations on Gangrenes
and Mortifications. War-
rington: 1790. 8°,

Differtatio medica inaugu-
ralis de Cynanche Tracheali,
Auttore T. White. 1786. 8°.

The Poft-Chaife’ Compa-
nion: or Traveller’s Direc-
tory through Ireland, Dub-
1786, 8°.

Rural Improvements: or
eflays on the moft rational
methods of improving eftates ;
accommodated to the foil,

lin:

climate, and circumftances of
England: Lond. 1775. 8°.

A Treatife concerning the
principles of Human Know-
ledge; by Bp. Berkley, with
remarks on each fection, &c,
Lond. 1776. 8°.

Letters occafioned by three
dialogues concerning Liberty,

Lond, 1777, 8°,

ods to ronment te maps: Alike lS oe lk MD.

ae \

‘ | Parrott @ i Preset rs: “at ‘ or oe iis 7 t
suemticy) Gk Ri RRR re ot nih sean

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es sf Saipal ‘a gue vig by isaeigl en cmeeaes ¥
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wa yt! ways. dees a oh be Habra gy

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. Ls
are wh a gaat pate pie yevleety oc iidas «SP
ef i! x ty oF YI lars bencxcerte 724
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or Tope a cia pish tite ,o ai 13% : ‘ he ll
aaNet Gh baad fae: aditayt ies ie ir ae
stil oe ch ae O2 ott haa 3 A somayincioae “secrecy Tees att. us a
oR’ rt ait) a ay 0 SOREN eh im | Reeee ys
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' te thes ta) “ + baht ude: vary in tS pa (te i poh 2 2 aha, y

biti: a5! ott a yyy arenge hale ae $e eee | a :
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A; ,
PAGE.

AcEICoA, military operations of, in Great
Britain, - = 427

Arkin, Dr. on the impreffion of ssikiey attending
dtamatic reprefentations, - . 96
Air, not genetated in the a& of freezing, - 618

Alder, qualities of, 348; ufed in dying 349; experi-
ment on planting, < « 350
Alphabetical Charaéters, obfervations on, . 195

Alumine, poffefled of a ftrong attraétion for colouring

matter, - Ss 216

Azote, a conftituent principle of fome vegetables, 912°

B.
Balloons, conftru&tion and principles of, pointed
out in the laff century, “ 4 gor

Barps ey, Dr. on Hydrophobia, - 434
Barometer, obfervations of the, at Dumfries, 241,

(table) 272, 541—Kendal, 257, 258, 540, 547—

Liverpool, 521—535—Dover, 535, 538— Middle-

wich, 559 — Kefwick, 542 — Yor, 543 — Harrogate,

544— Remarks on, 546, 636—~Improved conftruction

of, - - 547
Barait, Mr, on ftone croffes, - 506-

: Mmmm Brenpoes,

650 tS Dees

PAGE,
Bippors, Dr. on a blue preci palate B02 fle —
the flints of chalk-beds, 303
Blue colours, obtained from the: sponte kee of
phofphorated foda, 87; from a fapiney found in
{melting-furnaces, - - 302
Brain, vifible organization of injured without
impeding thought, - 24 feq.
_ Burron’s Anatomy of Maas : : charaéter of, 56 /eq.

Cc,
Cairns, defcription of, 218; of lower date than
the time of Offian, . ‘ 343
Calendar of Flora, - - 6
Camese.t, Dr. Pa iNet obfervations by, P isk

265, 267, 633

Central Forces, Seal pow OF y ain - 369,
Cerebellum injured without affecting the mental “i
faculties, sal ~ “ 28 feq.
Claffical Learning, ufes of, - Sister ao OO
Cold remarkable, obferved at Chatham, - 567
Conferva rivularis: peculiarity in its conftitution, 16

-CorLanp, Mr: on an ancient mode of fepulture,
217, 330; meteorological obfervations by, 243, 256, 269, 618
Coves in the north of England: struéture of, ee

eee
Darwin’s, Dr, theory of winds, - 611
Dead bodies, formerly burnt in Scotland, 220, 390
Dosson, Dr. on the temperature of the fea, 638
Dramatic illufion, 96; unities, - 105
F, a4
Farconer, Dr. on the hiftory of Sugar, - >) 298

Fexriar’s, Dr, Argument againft Materialifimy
20—Comments on Sterne, 45— Account of an-

cient terrafled works, = > . 422
Flints

IuN DE oX.4 652

: PAGE,
_Flints of chalk-beds, obfervations on, 303; found
in ftrata 304; white cruft, formed by the decompofi-
tion of their furface, 2d; firuéture of, 305—pro-
duced by fufion? . we 397.
R G.
Ganaelels s, Drs meteorological obfervations, | 234, 517
~Govcn, Mr. on the decreafe of lakes, p) 1, -me--
teorological obfervations by, 256, 262, 546, 562, on the
laws of motion of a cylinder, &c. 273; on the ve- _
getation of feeds 310, 4803 on the rain- “Gage, Jf "595

\Grecory, Dr. on clafical learning, « ‘= “i 10g
' ; Hi.
Hatt, Bp. copied by Sterne, . - 80 seg: ~
Harvey, Mr. on alphabetical charaéters, - 435
Henry’s, Mr. P. experiments on oils, - 209,
Horrman, Mr, on Pica Polonica, - - 324

Hutcuinsodn’s, Mr. meteorological obfervations, 601
Hydrophobia, canine arid {pontaneous, obfervations on, 491

in 4

i
Jouxson’ s, Dr. theory of dramatic reprefent-
ation, combated, - - - - 96 seq.
L.
Lakes, reafons for their decreafe, - -
Marivaux, father of the fentimental ftyle, - 733
M;

, Monuments (of carved flone) differtation on, 131;
defeription of one in Nithsdale, 199; attempt to
aflign their origin and nature, 506; probably ftone
croffes in a ftate of mutilation; id, (Acathen) confe-

crated after the introduftion of chriftianity, - 508
) O.

_ Ochre, balls of, found in chalk-beds, - - 309

Oils, experiments on the colouring matter of, 299

Paper

652 LON 9D SE XX,-

P, ‘
? PACE,
Paper made from fallow-bark, - r 854
Peat, ftru€&ture and formation of,. - - 8
Penrith-monuments defcribed and illuftrated, 510
Phica Polonica, eflay on, .° - - - 324

Poplar, proper foil for, pointed out, 355; cultiva-:. ©
tion of recommended, 3563 /eg. aecanomical ufes of, 359
; inoinetoves
RABELAIS fupplied the general Sheet a Cv, Fosse
Triftram Shandy, - : - chovelas
Rain: quantity of, determined more re local cir-
cumiftances than latitude, 236—obfervations on
the falls of, at Dumfries, 238, (table) 272, 580-4 ata
Kendal, 257, 579—Waith-Sutton, id. i6.Benfon- |‘!
knot, 258—Fell-foot, 262—Salford, 263 (table)
265 =~ Lancafter, vid. tadle at 265, 591— Liverpool,
570— Kirkmichael, 581 —Kefwick, 582 —Garfdale,
1, — Manchetter, 584—Chat{worth, 586-— Youngs-)

bury, 2 : i . - 2 594
Rain-gages, remarks on - ia ~ 694
Reality, impreffion of, attending dramatic repre. _

fentation, 96, feq. diftiné& from belief, - - 93
Ricuarpson, Mr. on planting timber, - 345
Rippevt’s, Mr. account of an ancient monument |

in Scotland, - 2 °° . - 132

S.
Sand (viver') in what refpetts different from fea-fand, 1%
Sea: obfervations on its sp! sigh - 638

Seeds vide Vegetation,
Seed-lobes ftru€ture and analyfis of, 313 ; their ufe in ©
the vegetable economy.

STERNE, comments on, - is 45
Strath, meaning of, explained, - 332

» Sugar, tketch of the hiftory of, - 291

JTacLiacorrus,

INDE xX: 653

T.
: PACE,
Tacriacotivus, unjuftly ridiculed, - 5h
Terraffed works: conjeétures on, - 422

‘Thermometrical obfervations made at Dumfries, 241,
242, (table) 272, 553-—Kendal, 257, 258, 561—
Lancafter (table) 265— Liverpool, 548, 555— Dover,
5§56— Middlewich, 5§59—Kefwick, 564— York 7,

565-—Manchelter, 566—Chatham, - 568
~ Thought and Senfation, probably diftin® in their
caufes, - - 23
_ Trees, found in marfhes, ~ f 9
Tremella, fingular conftitution of, - 16
Vv.

Vegetables, ftruf&ture and analyfis of, 312; (aquatic)
peculiarities in their ftru€ture and economy, 3, 506;

erenntal convertible into annuals, - 503
~ Vegetation of feeds, experiments and obfervations
on, r 7 310, 480
. -\y owe
Wafte lands, propofal for planting, - 345
~Wixt1s’s, Mr, account of different blue colours, 87
* Willow, cultivation of, recommended, = 352 fe4<

Winds obfervations on, made at Liverpool, 601;
ymethod of afcertaining their velocity, 602; theory of, 618

- 1 &
Yew, indigenous in Great-Britain, o a4

ERRATA,

Page 3, line 26, for “ temperance” read “ tempe-
rature. ” p. gor, |. 25, for ‘ materie” read ‘ materiei,”
p- 331, 1. 7, for “ ashitherto to” read “as to render it very

- improbable, that it fhould hitherto.” p, 371, two laft. lines,

nw n 1
for Li read tlh tna Ps 374, 1. 2, from
Id fae en Ee ee TM sl.
3 m ” aia oe aa
the bottom, for ———~ eS gee 3 "Fea aio,

Pet iby Pe 975-1. f- for >-V «aa eae a

m—t 1M 6
5? 472 age ViFtax Tr.
p: 381, 1. g, from the bottom, for Vin Pa? ——" snead

P. 377, line 10, for

= read: =

Y mP2—r? , p- 383) le 7) for db

2 and 1, 8, for x=, r. z=. P. 384, 1. 3, from bot-*

+ g/: m
wr, m—
‘
2 — m? dee 7 —mP®
tom, for Jf Pee + read Sr r
—1 Remon eT:

385," . 6, for ee Pp? xX ‘Yr —mp read
i = + Vr —m P?, P. 391, 1.13, for n==1, phi

nu—'

a
is nefits?

=

#==—1. P. 392,1. 3, from the bottom, for +
. @4¥

ly greater than f, read ” ft LY infimitely greater than

CS)

AER

J “4 3therefore y is infinitely greater than ~: P. 393,

1. 4,:for 2.» read 2. P. 394, 1. 14, for pC p, read
J Pp

bg 30) ee yn
2.C pi) By 996," 1, 2, ghar get 3 Yead

yn—.

yet Bae

m—t1

m x P2 yn—t
ne s P. 397, 13 16, for v z 2, read

yn—1

yim

m—t1
V ZU. P. 401, 1. 19, from the bottom, for, v=, read
>=. P. 402, 1. 2, from the bottom, for 4 r, read
A—r. P. 404, 1, 8, for 1 = time; read ¢ = time,

oo

pn T —f- ™ Kit
P. 405, 1. 10, for + m—tL

oem app lecies ist ania al
: Vad x ay * pe
. v M—tL1 m—1' }?
e ie ty 9
read + rt .
{ aa a
¥ 9S Hitgerests: of — pomll*
4 - ae m BS
ee
the bottom, for + m—1

o * in - 2 /- m P2 x : Tr yay

™ *
Sea II
read + i Py

wl ™m s yy x

1—m P iam TD

P, 408, 1. 4, from bottom, for Gy, . 71, read y+ ry—33
BIt Ath Bit c Ants

P. 409. 1. 4, for 4 = om read a ot he

7 if

, and 2 1, from

P. 410, 1.\4 from the bottom, for r y, readry?. P. 412,
l, 11, from bottom, for n=, read r =. P. 45,1. 11,

for “to” read “or.” P. 416, 1, 6, for r X Gos

bV
read r Xx as P. 418, 1. 6 from the bottom, for “ the
centre of force, or fuch parts ;” read, “ the centre of force,
being defcribed by a centrifugal force, or fuch parts.” P,

419, 1. 12, from bottom, for — m Ax" *s read —

mAx™—*, P. 420, 1. 3, from bottom, for m”, read m™-
P. 420, l. 15, for ‘* pofitive,” read poffible.” P. 429, 1. 9.
for “ acdute,” read * acute,” P. 499, 1. 2, for “ another,”
read “an earthen,” P- 640, 1.14, for “ fo at,” read * fo
as at,”?

LIST of PLATES,

1. Nithsdale Obelifk. = Page 491
Inftruments ufed in the combuition of Dead
a4 ie Bodies. , tye - 21 \h
— IV. Diagrams, iluftrative of the eons of Cen- ;
tral Forces. ~ - - : 369
{V. Orton Scar. - - ~ 4. -4ge
VI. Monument in the Church-yard at Penrith. 518
VII. Carlifle Parapet, -Nithsdale Crofs,. and
Giant’s Thumb, - “ ibe
VIII, Monument at Penrith, probably in its —
original ftate. - « ihe

5X, imprered Barometer and Rain Gage. ~ 640

~
#

Se arcane Se

&

eee

SS
ee