ee 9) NW MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. PR E/AY VE Eee i 6 OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. Second Series. VOLUME VI. London: JOHN WEALE, ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN. PRINTED BY SIMPSON AND GILLETT, 2, BROWN STREET, MANCHESTER. 1842. CONTENTS. PAGE. I Observations on the effects of Severe Frost on the Blossoms of the Jargonelle Pear at different periods of their growth, and on the common methods of preserving Wall Trees from Frost. By Joun Moors, Esq., FLLAS. ......seeeerereeeenes II An Account of some Experiments to determine the quantity of Carbonic Acid in the Atmosphere. By Mr. WiILt1aM HADFIELD. ......s0eeeeeeeeeeeee IIL On the Sepulchral Monuments of Sardis and Mycene. By Wi111am RatHeone Gre, Esq. IV On the probable origin of Modern Corporations, Srom the Municipia of the Romans, and their subsequent internal changes. By the Rev. Joun KGNRICK, MICAS Coen c ccbce cect oe creet cathe eevee V Experiments and Observations on the Efflorescing properties of some salts of Soda. By HEnry 10 19 33 Hove WATSON, Esq: .........s0seeeee et SORTTEEE 78 VI A Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. val CONTENTS. PAGE. Henry. By Wit11aAmM Caries Henry, M.D. BRS g VAG lees swacetiabscencananecaodel ieskep VII Remarks on four extracts from the Commentaries of Cesar, relative to the use of Greek Letters, by the Gauls and Druids. By the Rey. Wi1tt1aAM VORING. \ csa- 0sn's +a se¥ettOincscccuvae sens shines scceveaabeae VIII An Account of some Experiments made to deter- mine the Specific Gravities ofthe Steamor Vapour from Water, Alcohol, Ether, Pyroxilic Spirit, and Nitric Acid. By Mr. Wiitt1am Haprtiep. IX An Experimental Inquiry into the strength and other properties of Cast Iron, from various parts of the United Kingdom. By Wrt.1am Fatr- mara, B5q4! COB 8s. eon. dG, ISU Bee nore X Remarks on Dr. Thomson’s Paper on the combina- tions of Sulphuric Acid and Water. By Henry HovuGw WaArmTson, Esq. ned /...i...seeeesveds Saeeees XI A Memoir of Mr. Edward Hobson, author of “ Musci Britannici,” §c. By Joun Moore, Esq jf Pdi.SA... ..enaamans Saueeenhethheepanpepdernes 36 XIL Cyclopian, Pelasgic, and Etruscan Remains, or Remarks on the Mural Architecture of remote Ages. By Wititam RatTupone GREG, Esq... XIII On the relutive attractions of Sulphuric Acid for 142 — 58 274 297 325 CONTENTS. Vil Pace. Water, under particular circumstances; with suggestion of means of improving the ordinary process of manufacturing Sulphuric Acid. By Henry Hover WATSON, Esq. .......sseeeeeneeeees XIV On the Rohan Potatoe. By Dominique ALBERT, LL.D. (Communicated by John Davies, Esq., MES WiSy 0085: 2 ho Laastpstlegsaeaddoct oramwe diese agase XV Process of Carbonizing Turf without close vessels, the peat furnishing its own Caloric, without producing Ashes. By Dominique ALBERT, LL.D. (Communicated by John Davies, Esq., MWS)! . eseconcins, nohdnns nb cusshnahdab s4ibs-¥obasobes XVI An Essay on the Roman Road, in the vicinity of Bury, Lancashire. By Mr. Joun Just.......... XVII RemarksontheCoal District of South Lancashire. By James Herwoop, Esq,., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. XVIII Observations on Sculpture. By Paut Moon SAME EU os agus scionienactaties Graaee snee oven aaies ehos ce XIX Remarks on the origin of the Babylonian, or Arvrow-headed character, and its relation to our modern Alphabet. By James Nasmytn, Esq. XX An experimental inquiry into the Strength and other properties of Anthracite Cast Iron. By WiLt1AM FArrBaren, Esq., C.E.,.....00000s000 394 399 409 426 464 485 524 — Vili CONTENTS. Pace. XXI Observations on the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain, at Manchester, from the year 1794 to 1840 inclusive. By Joun Datton, D.C.L., L.L.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Member of the Insti- tute’ of, France, 820. 805 .0ccetsceveescos'ss Midesuneets 561 XXII Ondetecting the presence of Arsenic, particularly in reference to the employment of “ Marsh’s Test.” By Henry Hovucs Warson, Esq,, .......00.e000. 590 XXIII Observations on the various accounts ofthe Lumi- nous Arch, or Meteor, accompanying the Aurora Borealis of November 3rd, 1834. By Joun Daxzrton, D.C.L.,.L.L.D.. F.R.SS., L. and E., Member of the Institute of France, &c. &c...... 617 ERRATA. Page 29 line 6, for ‘‘ Troy” read Sardis. Page 328 line 12, for “‘ Tyrins” read Tiryns, also, pp. 331, 335, 336, 337, 339, 348, &e. Page 571 line 12, for 52 read 25. Page 579 line 13, for “HENRY WOOD” read JOHN WOOD. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. PAGE ~Map of Mycene, to face page .. 19 ~Walls of Mycen : 23 _Entrance to the Treasury of ats Senne icles sosete sess 27 Tabular, General Summary of sonia of. Ba iio nate on Cast Iron Bars ... * aa Booey 0-7 Tiryns, first or Re a Style prance 1 mei ccs Argos, second or Polygonal Style - - - IL. “cette , sap Cortona, third or Etruscan Style - - - IIL. ......cccssceeeeeeseeee 329 Walls of Cossa...... east pra sesteneussuageecbsesav'ess .. 330 Eight Sketches, various - - - - - - - DVict ors comastiax . 333 Etruscan Arch, Volterra Roman Arch, Ferentino ‘ peste ee Polygonal Wall and opus incertum - - WES 3s cs Be cee eee Treasury of Atreus - - - - ---- ~ MITE cons see BBO Fragments of the Walls of Cora - - - IX. eee BOO Walls of Fiesole - ----------- xX. . 343 Masonry at Pompeii RRONOMUOM Get anes eas Sy a eee XL wee 344 Walls at Galaxidi.. Pavement of the Via Appia - --- XII. aseee Pavement in Florence - - - - - - ROGUE” Betacdkotocancccbce 5 an Mode of building the Pyramids - - - XIV. . . 348 » Sketch of the line of the Roman Road, in the vitinieg of Bink 419 ~ Geological Map of the South Lancashire Coal District ............ 426 Table of Rain at Manchester... .......scer see eee eos es ~ 575 MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 0 OF MANCHESTER. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE BLOSSOMS OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THEIR GROWTH, AND ON THE COMMON METHODS OF PRESERVING WALL TREES FROM FROST. By JOHN MOORE, Esg., F.L.S. (Read February 24th, 1832.) It appears to be the opinion of most gar- deners that a mild winter is an exception to the general character of winters in this country, and this impression, no doubt, prevents many of those who obtain a livelihood by raising early fruits and vegetables for market, from making experiments which they apprehend would often end in disappointment and loss. A fue a a ee ae 2 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE Fortunately however in the growth of the most useful of our fruits and vegetables the gardener has comparatively little to fear from the severi- ties of winter; it is when sharp frosts succeed mild and open weather in the spring, that he suffers most; and as these not unfrequently oc- cur in this part of England, it may be useful to record such observations as may instruct us to guard against them. A person residing in the country and fondly attached to the pursuits of rural life will, no doubt, be apt to overrate the value of his remarks, but if they appear to have the remotest tendency to advance the physiology of vegetation, and es- pecially of any of those more essential produc- tions of our orchards or gardens which add so much to our support and comfort, there is no danger of their being uncourteously received by this society. We are well aware how much the slow or rapid erowth of vegetables depends upon temperature, and a proper degree of moisture in the air and eround; but we know comparatively little of the manner in which they appropriate to themselves the different kinds of nourishment which they receive from the air and the earth, decreed to BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 3 produce so wonderful a variety of hardy and de- licate forms, of fragrant and splendid flowers, or of wholesome and delicious fruits. The important investigations of vegetable structure and reproduction which are in progress by eminent botanists in this country and abroad, must undergo much familiar illustration before they can be generally useful to gardeners. I be- lieve however it may be considered as clearly demonstrated that the access of a certain portion of common air is as necessary to the roots as to the leaves of plants, and therefore it is unreason- able to expect that trees will bear much fruit when they are surrounded by thickly matted grass or hard gravel walks. The advantages of transplanting are founded upon the same theory. Cabbages, celery, and many other useful vegetables if suffered to re- main in the seed beds, however much they may be thinned and separated from each other, sel- dom grow to a large size. By transplanting them we destroy the tendency of the roots down- wards, and increase the number of those fibres which have an horizontal direction, thus giving them a more free access to the air as well as to the water which falls in showers, and enabling A2 4 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE them, by obtaining a greater supply of food, to support a proportionately greater luxuriance of foliage. The two last weeks in April and the two first of May form a very interesting and anxious per- iod to the gardener, as the buds of most of our useful fruit trees then begin to swell out and unfold themselves; and a severe frosty night, after rain or snow, may very much diminish the hope of a crop. The following brief observations may perhaps assist us in determining the easiest and cheapest way to preserve some of our fruits and vege- tables on such occasions. The excellent markets which Manchester and the surrounding towns afford for choice vege- tables, and especially for early potatoes, has induced our gardeners to pay great attention to raising them, and in doing this their first object is to throw their ground into a succession of beds all sloping to the south. These are trenched two feet deep at the latter end of the year, and lie in ridges during the winter to get mellowed by the frost. About BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR 5 the middle of February the early seed potatoes are taken from the store heap, and, being selec- ted as nearly as possible of one size, are placed in single layers on the floor or shelves of some warm room, with a covering of damp saw dust about one inch in thickness. In a month or five weeks they will have put forth stiff sprouts of an inch or two in length with very delicate roots attached to them. A dry day is then se- lected to level the ground, and, small drills being made about six inches deep, they are filled to the extent of about one half their depth with rotten horse dung, the young roots of the pota- toes being placed with great care upon its sur- face, and lightly covered up with soil extending an inch or two above the tops of the sprouts. To protect the growth of these early potatoes it had always been the custom when frost was expected to cover them with mats or sheets spread closely upon the ground. On the 28th of April, 1829, we had a severe frosty night, and on the following day the gar- deners found that wherever the mats had been in contact with the soil the potatoe sprouts were frozen, and in many instances at nearly an inch below the surface. 6 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE One of my neighbours, being short of mats to cover the whole of his beds, laid old pea sticks upon them, scraping together any litter he could meet with to throw upon the pea sticks. On the disappearance of the frost he was sur- prised to find that the potatoes so covered were much less injured than those covered by the mats, and since that time it has become the practice to form the covering into frames which can be elevated a short distance from the ground, that there may be air between the covering and the soil. Some other observations which I made after this severe spring frost I cannot help thinking connect themselves physiologically with the safety which was afforded to the potatoes by their having an open space between the covering and the ground. I had a Jargonelle pear tree much advanced at the time, and in a few days after the frost had ceased it became one complete sheet of blos- som, affording to a cursory observer the pro- mise of an abundant crop. On a closer examination however most of the BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 7 buds which were open were found to be injured. After carefully watching the progress of many blossoms in the different stages of maturity I was led to the following conclusions, viz.: Ist. When a frost occurs in the spring after heavy dews or rain, the blossoms of pear trees which are fully opened, having their stamens and pistil both exposed, will, in almost ues instance be destroyed. 2nd. Blossoms which are nearly opening, hay- ing the summit of the pistil in contact with the under side of the canopy formed by the petals above it, will have the pistil destroyed, whilst such of the anthers as do not touch the petals will be ininjured, but no fruit will succeed. 3rd. Blossoms wanting two or three day’s growth to expand them, and neither the pistil nor the anthers touching the petals, but having an intervening space, will, if the succeeding weather prove favourable, almost invariably pro- duce fruit. The blossoms of pears are generally exposed to the air in an horizontal direction and are sel- dom pendulous like those of gooseberries and 8 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE currants; when however they point downwards I have sometimes known them to produce fruit after hard frosts, although fully opened at the time, plants like animals having in many cases a wonderful power of maintaining their proper temperature, when the temperature of the at- mosphere which surrounds them is unfriendly. Of apples, pears, and plums, the first blossoms which open, as they are almost invariably the lar- gest, are also those which, if uninjured, produce the finest fruit, and it is therefore unreason- able to expect that the later and immature blos- soms above referred to, although they may have escaped the spring frost, will yield very perfect fruit; hence it is that gardeners are the more interested in protecting wall trees in order to secure the first blossoms. If in the case of the potatoes which I have stated, the sprouts were saved by the straw not touching the ground, and the seed vessels of the immature blossoms of the Jargonelle pear were also protected by having a plate of air between them and the unopened petals, we may, I ap- prehend, conclude that any covering of fruit trees or vegetables, in immediate contact with them, must be of little use against frost. BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 9 I believe the cheapest and simplest plan is to have sheets of close pressed or glazed linen attached to rollers working on pivots, which may be placed horizontally or perpendieuny as the case may require. These may be easily rolled up in the morning and replaced in the evening, and being carefully preserved will last many years. (10) AN ACCOUNT OF SOME Bek
inches inches degrees grains
28.25 18.19 250 41.70 1.30
217.75 17.45 230 43.70 1.40
27.70 18.60 220 50.35 1.30
27.50 18.62 210 40.00 1.28
27.60 18.62 212 39.91 1.28
28.00 19.02 230 39.86 1.28
28.15 19.15 239 4.0.34 1.30
28.25 19.25 238 39.69 1.28
28.50 19.54 254 39.40 ti
28.75 19.79 266 40.96 1.32
28.37 19.43 254 40.12 1.29
27.70 18.70 215 40.00 1.30
18.82
When a deduction is made for expansion of
mercury and glass, 100 cubic inches will be
39.53, and the specific gravity of the vapour
will be 1.27, air being 1.
Vapour or Acetic ACID.
I was favoured by Dr. Henry with a portion of
the strongest and purest acid (crystallized at 54°
GRAVITY OF VAPOUR. 169
Fah.) he had in his possession. Its acidity was
such that 5 ounces apothecaries’ weight of lime
water required 7 water grain measures of it in
order to be made neutral. The same quantity
of that lime water required 264 grains, by mea-
sure of dilute sulphuric acid of 1.134 specific
gravity. The 42 inch tube was used.
Twelve Experiments.
Pressure.
Temperature
Wt. of LUO cub.
inches of 60°
temp. and 30 in.
inches. | degrees.
16.30 221
16 70 228
16.60 240
17.10 232
17.65 236
17.65 239
17.75 244
18.55 258
18.15 248
17.75 240
17.75 242
17.85 244
17.56 239.3
When the deduction is made for the expan-
sion of glass and mercury, 100 cubic inches
will weigh 74 grains, and the specific gravity
will be 2.37, atmospheric air being 1.
Oo
170 EXPERIMENTS ON VAPOUR.
It is satisfactory to me to find that my results
on steam from water, and on the vapour of al-
cohol and ether agree very nearly with those of
Gay Lussac, and this encourages the hope that
those which I have obtained from pyroxilic spi-
rit and acetic acid will be found to be near ap-
proximations to the truth. In many of the
combustible gases and vapours it would seem
the atomic volumes are much the same as those
of hydrogen. If this should be found true, it
may lead usin many cases, to learn the atomic
constitutions of compound elastic fluids from
knowing the specific gravities of such fluids.
(171)
AN
EXPERIMENTAL ENQUIRY
INTO THE STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES
OF CAST IRON
FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
By Mr. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN.
Read 7th of March, 1837.
Tue multifarious uses to which cast iron is
applied, and the facility with which it can be
moulded into almost every shape, render the in-
vestigation of its properties a subject of interest
in a national as well as an individual point of
view. Manyexperiments toascertain its strength,
elasticity, and other properties have therefore
been made by authors, not only of our own,
but other countries; as by Banks, Rondelet,
Muschet, Bramah, Dunlop, Brown, Rennie,
Tredgold, &c. besides the numerous experiments
made at my works by my friend Mr. Hodgkinson.
None of those writers, however, with the ex-
172 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
ception of Tredgold, have, so far as I know,
iiaade any inquiries into the fluidity of the dif-
ferent sorts of cast irons; nor has much atten-
tion been paid to their comparative powers of
application. .
The following pages contain—lIst., a laborious
enquiry into the transverse strength of cast irons
from various parts of the kingdom; and, 2ndly,
an extended investigation into the less cultiva-
ted field of their relative values, as regards their
adaptation to the arts.
In pursuing these experiments it was origin-
ally my intention to have investigated the ques-
tion of mixtures, or the proportions necessary
for the production of different sorts of castings.
This subject is, however, of such importance,
and requires so much time and labour, that I
am induced to forego its consideration for the
present, and confine myself exclusively to the
objects above stated. In adverting to this matter,
however, it may be proper to remark that the
same admixture or compound of pig iron is not
suited for every description of casting ; a water
wheel axle, or steam engine beam, for instance,
requires a different mixture to the finer and sof-
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 173
ter preparations for light machinery. Cylinders,
air pumps, and pistons of steam engines have also
(in practice) their peculiar compounds ; and it
is important in all these operations to have con-
firmed data (the results of actual experiment)
for directing the labours of the architect, engi-
neer, and mechanic.
Tredgold in his essay on the strength of cast
iron seems to have been aware of the deficiencies
under which the labours of the iron founder
have been conducted ; he describes the proper-
ties of the iron* but gives no proportions for the
mixtures ; nor have we at the present time any
guide beyond what is indicated by the appear-
ance of the fracture. The amalgamation of the
different metals, however important in practice,
is generally left to chance; or at best to the
* Soft iron yields easily to the file, when the external crust
is removed, and is slightly malleable in a cold state.
White cast iron is less subject to be destroyed by rusting
than the grey kind, and it is less soluble in acids ; therefore it
may be usefully employed when hardness is necessary, and when
its brittleness is not a detect ; but it should not be chosen for pur-
poses where strength is necessary.
White cast iron, in a recent fracture, has a white and ra-
diated appearance, indicating a crystalline structure ; it is very
brittle and hard. Gray cast iron has a granulated fracture of a
gray colour with some metallic lustre; it is much softer and
tougher than the white cast iron.—Tredgold’s Essay, p 7.
174. ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
imperfect knowledge of the person who attends
the furnace: on some future occasion I may,
however, make this a distinct subject of enquiry.
During the prosecution of the following expe-
riments, I have been favoured with the assist-
ance of Mr. Hodgkinson, to whom I am in-
debted for the calculations and many valuable
suggestions; also to one of my own pupils, Mr.
J. Patchett, who rendered valuable assistance.
Before exhibiting the experiments, I would
here observe that they were made on quadran-
gular bars, one inch, and one inch and a half,
square. These bars were loaded with weights
suspended from the middle, and supported, first,
on props 4 feet 6 in. asunder, and afterwards,
their fractured halves, on supports 2 feet 3 in.
asunder; the bars thus placed were loaded with
weights, commencing, in the first series (4 feet 6
in.) with 14 Ibs.; and generally increasing in the
ratio of that weight until the bar was broken.*
This method was adopted in all the experiments,
and conducted with such care as to ensure
correct results.
*In the 2ft. 3in. bars, 28lbs. was not considered too great an
increase.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 175
The deflection was ascertained every time the
weights were increased ; and, in order to discover
the defects of elasticity, the set was taken at
equal intervals between the weights during the
progress of the experiments. Considerable
attention was also paid to observed discrepancies
appertaining to the point at which the elasticity
became defective.
The following sketch of the apparatus shows
in what manner the experiments were con-
ducted :—
A B represents a straight edge or parallel
guage, having two dovetailed slides CC, to
regulate the height above the bar D D,
resting upon the supports E E, and F the
scale on which the weights were laid. The
176 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
method adopted in removing the weights,
for the purpose of ascertaining the defects of
elasticity, was by pressing down the end of a
wooden lever, G, applied to the bottom of the |
scale, and thus raising it to a height sufficient to
disengage the hook every time the set was taken ;
this was done by a slow steady motion, and
the weights were laid gently upon the scale to
prevent jerks or sudden derangement of theparts
under strain.
In 52 experiments on inch bars 4 ft. 6 in. be-
tween the supports, the deflections varied (with
equal weights of 350 lbs.) from .707 to 1.582,
which for the whole number gives a mean of
1.051 as follows :—
Table of deflections as exhibited with equal weights on bars
cast to be lin. square* and Aft. 6in. between the supports.
No. of Ex- Weightin| Detection
eriments. Names. lbs. iu inches. | Mean.
1 Apedale. 550 1.115 :
2 pt 350 | 1.098 rig tl gp
3 Varies. 350 E
4 ss 350 Z
5 Monkland. 350 a
6 ‘ 350 5
7 Carroll. 350 °
8 * 250 3
9 Windmill End. 350 EI
10 " 330 a
11 Low Moor. 850 2
12 ‘> 350 4
13 Butterley. 550 2
14 se 350 =
15 Beaufort. 350 g
16 e 350 &
17 Maestez. 350 I
18 Fs 550 e
19 Level. 350 e
20 “ 350 s
21 Old Park. 350 2
22 =F 350 I
23 Calder. 350 i
24 3 350 =
25 Clyde. 350 =
26 a 350 =
27 Eagle Foundry.| 350 =
28 2 350 8
29 Adelphi. 350 zg
30 - 350 se
31 Pontypool. 350 =
32 +} 350 z
33 Oldberry. 350 S
34 i 350 5
35 Pentwyn. 350 5
36 3 350 5
aye Gartsherrie. 350 PA
33 a 350 4
39 Dundayven. 350 z
40 e 350 a
4] Lays Works. 350 =
42 ey 350 i
43 Bute. 350 =
44 3 350 a
45 Brimbo. 350 re
46 ¥ 350 2
47 Ponkey. 350
48 * 350
49 Frool. 350
50 # 350
51 Lane End. 350
52
”
* The bars usually measured somewhat more than 1 inch square, as will be seen
from the experiments; the deflections therefore would have been a little greater
than those shown above, if the bars had been exactly one inch square.
P
178 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
It appears from authors, who have recently
written on the strength of materials, that all
crystalline or tenacious bodies, subjected to a
transverse strain, have one of their sides elon- _
gated, whilst the other is compressed; they are
also agreed as to a point, called the neutral
point, round which revolve the opposing forces of
tension and compression. In our experiments it
is evident, as the deflection increases, the atoms
or crystals on the lower side of the bar must be
separated, and those of the upper side brought
nearer together.* Mr. Hodgkinson in his paper
on the strength of iron beams, (Manchester
Memoirs, vol. 5, second series, page 409,) states
the following proposition—‘ Suppose a beam
horizontal, with one end firmly fixed in a wall,
and a weight hung at the other, it will bend ;
but it is evident that could not take place,
except by the lengthening of the top parts,
by the compression of the bottom, or by both.
Now both of these actually take place ; and
‘hence there is some intermediate point or line
between the top and bottom of the beam, where
the particles are neither extended or compres-
sed. This line may properly be called the
* This has only lately been admitted, bodies have hitherto
been considered incompressible.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 179
neutral line.” He then goes on to illustrate
the theory by a diagram to show that the sum
of the forces exerted by the extended fibres is
equal to the sum of the forces exerted by the
compressed ones, and thus concludes :—‘‘ Now
it is evident that the extensions or compres-
sions of any particles within these surfaces will
be as their distances from the line A B (mean-
ing the neutral line;) and the forces exerted
by those particles must be in the same propor-
tion, so long as the elasticity remains perfect ;
for then the forces are found to be as the ex-
tensions or compressions. Afterwards the forces
of the particles would be as some different fune-
tions of their distances from the neutral line.”
In further illustration of this subject, suppose
we place a bar of cast iron upon the supports
E E in the figure, and subject it to pressure,
by weights suspended from the middle; it is ob-
vious, in this case, that the resisting forces of
extension and compression immediately come
into operation ; the particles forming the con-
vex side of the bar, become more widely sepa-
rated, whilst those on the concave are more
closely condensed. It is evident, therefore,
that a change of position must take place in
180 BENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
the granulated state of the bar, in order to re-
sist the forces thus operating to produce rup-
ture, either by compression above, or forcible
extention below.
From this view of the case, a question arose
as to the actual state of the atoms under diffe-
rent degrees of pressure ; it appeared to me that
the tensible and compressed forces would at
every change produce a new adjustment of the
parts, and either afford evidence of their adap-
tation to the load, or demonstrate a progressive
yielding to a force sufficient ultimately to des-
troy the resistance.
On consulting the works of different authors,
I found them nearly agreed in supposing that
materials could be loaded to one-third or more
of the breaking weight, without injuring their
elasticity. In pursuing these experiments I was
however led to a different conclusion, by obser-
ved discrepancies in the bars, accompanied by
much earlier indications of impaired elasticity.
I mentioned this circumstance to Mr. Hodgkin-
son, and found similar results had been obtained
by him, in experiments made for the British
Association previous to those now in progress.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 18]
So striking a coincidence, induced a new and
extended series of experiments, to determine
whether the elasticity is not generally injured
with much less than one-third of the breaking
weight, and the annexed tables show this to be
the case: some slight injury with very small
weights is certainly produced; but it admits of
doubt whether or not it affects the ultimate
strength of the bar,—at first sight it appeared
that a weight sufficient to produce a permanent
set would, if continued, be sufficient to break
the bar, and that time alone was necessary to
effect the rupture.
Mr. Hodgkinson took a different view of the
case, and conceived that bodies by virtue of
their elasticity, combined with slight ductility,
might adjust themselves so as permanently to
bear a load, nearly sufficient to break them at
once. He had formed this view from having
found that in experiments on wrought iron
wires, torn asunder many times in succession,
they bore nearly as much the last time as the
first—See Manchester Memoirs, Vol. 5.
A phenomenon so curious and interesting led
to the enquiry. How much will cast iron per-
182 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
manently bear without endangering its security:
This was an exceedingly important question,
which in order to solve, we came to the conclu-
sion of putting to the test of experiment.
For this purpose ten bars were procured, each
cast to be one inch square, and having loaded
them with different weights,—some nearly ap-
proaching the breaking point,—and supported
theirends on props 4 ft. 6in. asunder,—they were
left in this position to determine how long they
would support the loads without breaking. Five
weeks have now-elapsed since they were charged,
and, from what we can at present observe, there
is every appearance of a long and tedious experi-~
ment.* I should here mention that the deflec-
tions are taken weekly, in order to determine
the alterations in the state of the bars.
* Since the above was written, one of the bars has given way
and broken near the centre, after having sustained a load of 448
Ibs. for 37 days. The deflection was observed to have increased
from 1.904 to 2.014 between the time of loading and that of
the last measurement, three days before the rupture took place.
It must be observed that this bar was thinner than any of the
others now tried, and had borne for this period a weight larger
than had broken bars of the same size in previous experiments
upon this iron, when the weights were laid on without loss of
time. All the other bars continue to sustain their loads, though
they have born them for many months; the deflections however
are slightly on the increase. The particulars of these will be
given in the Seventh Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 185
The following being a practical enquiry, it is
not necessary to step out of the way inzsearch
of general principles: the effort will therefore
be confined simply to investigating the peculiar
merits of the different irons of British manufac-
ture; exhibiting their most remarkable features,
and rendering their applicability matter of cer-
tainty as respects strength, fluidity, power of
being worked, &c. The enquiry will, therefore,
in a great measure be devoted to those objects ;
shewing the strength and deflection of each iron
under a transverse strain in the first instance,
and subsequently interspersed with observations
arising from microscopic examination, and the
turning and filing process to which they were
severally subjected.
In the annexed tables I have given an abridged
form of the experiments, and selected such
weights, deflections, and numbers, as will give
a succinct and clear illustration of the methods
adopted in the experiments.—To each class of
experiments, and to each iron, is attached a ta-
bular form of results, with the values reduced
to those of bars exactly one inch square; the
reductions being made by supposing, as is gene-
rally admitted, that the strength of rectangular
184. ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
beams is as the breadth multiplied by the square
of the depth; the length being given: and that
the ultimate deflection is inversely as the depth.
The power of resisting impact in each iron is
reckoned by the product of the breaking weight
multiplied by the ultimate deflection: depending
upon the supposition that the elasticity remains
unimpaired; and that the blow, in all cases,
where the results are to be compared together,
is given with the same striking body or hammer
upon beams all of which are equal in weight.
These suppositions, however, are not strictly
true, but as the beams are all very nearly of
equal weight, the product above mentioned will
give a comparative measure near enough for
practical purposes; as may be inferred from the
paper on impact upon beams—Fifth Report of
the British Association for the Advancement of
Science.—The modulus of elasticity is given in
pounds for a base of a square inch; this weight
may be taken as the measure of the stiffness of
the iron. It was usually calculated from the
deflection caused by 112lbs. on the 4ft. 6in.
bars.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 185
No. I.
ENGLISH IRONS.
Apedale, No. II, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Newcastle, Stafford-
shire.
EXPERIMENT 2nd.
oe NENT Ist. {Depth of Bar.. . 1.025 cereal 3rd.
Depth of Bar.. -1.010}Breadth do. ......... 1-002 {Depth of Bar.. ... .1.015)
Breadth do.. 1.015 Pistance between a Breadth do.. -1.015
Distance between por Soyes.s . Gin. jDistance hee sup-
supports. . .-4ft. 6in |W eight of Bar Sit. Ghee it. 3i
Slbs. doz.
Weight Deftection ee Weight!p oHection 23 Weight) Deflec ae
tbs. [Mm inches./ & = | yp, lim inches.) = F pa Vinee fet
as ag as
ee ae eae I Pees
G12| .275 |.008}112| .280 |.
182! .485 |.019]182] .490}.
238} .674|.040] 238} .672 |}.
294} .882 |.068] 294) .874).
350 | 1.115 |.110] 350} 1.098 |.
378] 1.242 |.138 | 406 | 1.340 |.
406 | 1.372 |.165 | 462 | 1.613 | .227] 784).
434 | broke 476 | 1.700 |brokel 896 |.370 | .040
952 |broke
This bar was unsound a
the bottom side, and brok
72 inches from the centre.
Broke one inch from
the centre.
. Broke at the centre.
Results reduced to those of Bars 1.00 inch square.
ae a ee SS
Product
Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimate |b x d or
Specific | elasticity in | Weight, |deflection,| power of
Gravity lbs. (J-) (d.) resisting
impact.
Exp. 2nd, bar 4ft. 6in.......... 7.017 14852000) 457| 1.730] 790.6
Exp. 3rd, bar 2ft. 3in... . | 910.4| .405}| 368.7
This Iron presents a clear and rather open fracture ; when viewed with
a magnifier, the crystals appear porous in the centre, but smaller and more
compact as they approach the outer edge.
Appearance light grey, slightly tinged with blue.—It is a free working
iron, rather stiff in its texture, but yields moderately to the chisel and file.
I should conceive it useful in combination with metals of greater fluidity.
Q
INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
186
No. Il.
ENGLISH IRON.
Adelphi, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast, Derbyshire.
“¥E0"
0} Qzo° wor AqIoNSe]2)
0 oajap fey LLe"
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Zer |ZS6 a01g|ZC6
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600 [9ST |SPP ||ITO |I9L’ |Str
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a9M4aq 2OUeISTC]|
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“+ *yeq JO thdeq! ogo Ll’ oes eg yO q}daq]
*qsy quaunsadagy
187
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.
Lvov
COW
S'OLL
PZB
Leek
“joudurt
SUTSIsad
jo somod
10 px q
jon pod
(‘p)
morooeyep
o7yeay{f)
sence nccrececcceceescceescsoscacorc cs -'UBOT
eee r cree see seseene: s}zoadns TeaM Jaq “TIE ‘yg req IG quaurtedx
eer ee se ener eeeeee syioddns T9aM4aq “ule "NZ req "WP quowtiedx xy
———_—_ -——_—_.
OOGSTSET 080°) jae on 0 00 5 tsees 0 56.08 ealemisis ce ce caiesiseisc” EON
ooozseet| oso, | +++ syroddns waamjoq *UIg “yp Ieq ‘pag guouiodx yy
OOOGFZFT| O8O'L Jose *-sjroddns uaemjoq “Ulg “Ifp Ieq “pug quowtiedx iy
wee eceee seer eese sci oddns wsaajaq UIQ “IP eq “ST quourttod xy
“Sq UL “Aytaeiy
Ayroyseya oytoadg
Jo sun poy
-gaenbs YOUL QO'T Sxeq JO asoyy OF paonped s}NsSeyY
ee eee
“PROT OY} 0} SaATosUTET]} Surysnfpe sopnsed ayy WOdy poyadxe uaaq aAvy qy stu uByy a1our you Ayquqoad
qnq ‘aovjd uaxey pry Ayroysepe Jo yoojep pue woxoayep jo asvasout Ue (paaowad SBM PLOT Ot} vaya) quottiadxe
ay} Jo sop oy} ye fsinoy omy-AjA0} 10J peor ety jo £ pouteysns ‘gaoqe pauoyuou sv ‘req ay) Up yuowtiedx y Uy
188
1,895.
497|broke |broke
. Ultimate deflection
Broke one inch from
the centre.
INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
No. III.
ENGLISH IRONS.
Butterley, —, Pig Iron,
vl ae mate deflection
Broke, : of an inch from
the centre. 434lbs. were
hung from the bar for 14
hours, when the deflee-
tion was found to be
1.630, and the defect of
elasticity .292.
“Broke 2 of
from the centre.
. Ultimate deflection
—.493.
, Derbyshire.
re ade Ist. ee ip E: eee 3rd. Vad oh ap Ath.
epth of Bar,..,... 1.000|/Depth of Bar.. .991||Depth of Bar.,...-1.015|/Depth of Bar..., 1.014
‘Breadth do... .989|| Breadth do.. .988||Breadth do......- .993||Breadth do.. 98
pire between. Distance betw een Distance betw: een Distance betw: een
2 pe alesse 4ft. 6in.|| Supports... ..4ft. Gin.|} | supports..... 2ft. din. supports ..., 2ft. 3in.
Weir: t of Bar 5ft. long,|] Weight of Bar 5ft. long,
14Ib. 1302. 1431bs
= | a (eeul 2 | ee (Eel 2 lee 2-2] 2 | es Be?
= | Ba (828) 5 | Se (8B5l] 2 | 88 (S25) £ ] 22 lees
@ | 38 [378] & | oe |g-8] @ | 8a [scl & | Bs lens
Biss. fs Br ie bl TL OS ie ON 2 ©
28] .067) .000]} 28] .070} .000]) 112} .033|——|] 112] .034,—
56} .130}] .002]} 56} .140} .002|} 224) .o70) + 224) .O73) +
126) .331] .015]| 126} .339] .016|| 336} 108] .003 | 336] .115} .00
+ + | + |] 182] .515} .037]|| 448} 151] .006 |] 448} 160} .007
182} .504) .040/| 238] .710} .063]| 560} .195|.009 |} 560} .210} .031
= ae || S5 +] + + || 672] .246|.015 || 672} .263} .018
238) .695) .065]} 294; .921] .099]) 784! .300].026 || 784) .320} .026
294) .903] .100]} 350/1.155! .147]|| 896] 362] .038 |} 896} 890} .043
350/1.130] .14:7|| 4.06}1.420) .203||1008] .442] .064 |/1008|broke|broke .
406]1.385} .203]) 434/1.580| .253]/1092|broke|broke
462}1.685] .295]| 4.62|broke |broke
4.90/1.855] .340
a ldngate deflection
an inch ake in the centre
189
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.
“4SRTq JOY ayy Woy
apeur “Z ‘ON st qt qoadsns AySt0.ys J nq “nost AapLoyng oy} Jo amMjouynueur oy Jo uoyduosep ou eavy oy
“LOOTA, MOTT OY} UT UeYY
qayvo13 sae st suoutpeds soy} ur yovdur Suystsea jo somod oy [—‘Suyseo jo uondriosep Araaa ysourye 10F
poyns T[aa st pue “py oy} sopun ATooay syt0a 41 {uo JOOP MOF] oY} 0} ULye Yonut st Aypmy siT ‘opepady
Jo dppy ayy soyste ur ueyy speysXio soppews yytm ‘Lord yaup v st amjovay oyy Jo oouvrvedde yesouaS ayy,
9°€0G | 88h" | TOS0T
Boman BE I OOO S200 AIT a
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Ores] OOS | s90T| vereeereeeeeesiroddns waamjoq ‘ule “yg req “pig quewtiedx
cess | Get | e69r be w tite tsccceresesecececerceesceceee ces epgTT
L928] 9EL'T | SOL |OOOLSEST| 8E0'L | 8° +t *sytoddns ueemyaq “ug “app req “pug yueumtIedx
296 | S68'T | $209 |000zLEST roreeeseceseessqioddns usamjaq ‘ulg “yp req “IST quautIedx
“youd uur
aed eee anes M | Ww teoherp ee
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yonposd
a a ae a SS ee ol eter ter dtiaae eins te ae ee at SS! SS
‘adenbs YUL QO" ] Sxeq Jo asoy} 0} poonpa. sy[nsoyy
reer
190 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
No. IV.
ENGLISH IRON.
Eagle Foundry, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire.
na t035||Depih AF Bar...--1024|[Depthet Bar. «1-015 |[Depih ot Bar... 1.041
Breadth do... -1,025]|Breadth do..... ..1.045||Breadth do....... 1,024 ||Breadth do.. 1.025
Distance between Distance between Distance between Distance between
CE ie nee 4ft, 6in.||_ Supports... ..4ft. 6in.|| supports..... 2ft. din. supports .... 2ft. 3in.
Weight of Bar 5ft. long,|| Weight of Bar aft. jong,
Ib. lloz. 16Ibs
a g a F] a g g s :
2 = r=] > a . g 2 2 A et s 2 ot aos
au 1.c iz! alo 3 Ces eve ss a Ppt tee
a | S8/Se8l a | 22 fee2 | & | 82 |Se2|] a | 82 les
3 3 108 a Be 1a8°S s $a oss 4 Sa iSc8g
ra o9 sag a og jaltg a os =| 4 og |E—“5
of eo: a = a Oo 8 = q.e oY om aa {s+ &
o o A F o o » o o bal a By 2
=) a
E A Ee | A Ee |A = |A
: 112) .030)} +
w
nw
a
oO
-~f
ow)
j=)
Sr
=
224) .063} .002
336] .113} .006]| 336] .097| .004
448) .155] .010]| 448} .135] .007
560} .201} .014|} 560) .174) .010
672] .249] .020}| 672] .216) ..013
784) 304] .030|| 784] .264) .020
896] 3869} .041.|| 896] 3817] .030
924|broke 1008} .379} .045
336/1.040] .115]| 280] .780] .079
392/1.268] .162]| 336} .972) 111
420]1.398 392/1.182) .156
44.8|broke 4.20]1.296
= broke
sp lemaats detiection .. Ultimate deflection
oscke s 3 of inch from ~ Broke one inch from
the centre. the centre.
, Ultimate deflection Broke 2 an inch from
“384. the centre when the
Broke 3 of an inch]iweight 1008 was re-
from the centre, laced.
191
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.
‘pouymiexe suoIt JowI0y oy} jo Aue ut uvy} se~Zet o1ow tvadde
greshio oy, ‘sSurjseo jo suondriosap teuy oy} 0} poydepe Jom 41 eATaou0 prnoys 7 “s}n9 4L YOY YIM sea
ayy Woy pue {yseTq yOFT “UOTeT-pa0g oy} 0} oouvavadde ur «eprons st y7—oyepedy ayy 10 Adpioyng em
JaYIa UY} anojoo onqq odeap ev YIM ‘omnjorsy snosod soyyeI pue wIOFLUN ue sey wory Arpunog apsery oy,
GC 6PES 26" L168 Sr eT atta ae ae OL Te aL SY fs
P'scs | Gee" | 9106 rerteseeseeeesuoddns waeaiaq Ulg “YZ req “Ip joutredxgy
rope | 68e' | 6'SL8 sceeeeeeeessesrioddns uoamjoq ule “yg req ‘pag yueutiedxg
6 L19 21G'L ©’ 80P OOOTLZFT 820°) CMM PPP TEE ToT Yada 1s Wat co ede KNOB PES I oy 21) AVE
1199 |L9F 1 19:00P loo0gseFT| ogo, [1°77 sHoddns waoayoq “arg “yp 1eq “pug quourtedx
T'9h9 |8So'T | 9TP l00069ET| L669 [tert t ett tte s}toddns udsmoq UIQ “YR Ieq GST JuourLIedx
“jouduut
sunsisea | (-p) (:9) ‘sqy Ur “Ayer
jo samod | uoNsapap | yysieM Ayroyseya oytoadg
10 p x g}ayeugtg | Suiyeorg | jo snjnpoyy
yonpoig
‘aaenbs Your OYO'T sxeq Jo ssoy} 0} poonpal s}[Nse yy
No. V.
ENGLISH IRONS.
INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
Level, No. 1, Pig Tron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire.
192
‘a1}U09 oI]} arenbs jg’ | Qeeq pel req
wos} your ue ¥ ayorg |jraxyues ayy ye ayorg |leqy Jr Iysiem Sutyvarq)| *91j}U9 EY ye eMOIG -aajyuao ayy ye OYOIg
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9014/01
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— |F90' [bez |] — |290° Pez HOTO" ozT |pZz |/600' 89% |ZTT HISTO |oLe" [ZIT
— |€0" |Z1t | — Jzeo: |2t1_|/$00" jogo: |ztt ||_+ [get jos | + jeer jos
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sgiae | P lagi a |e ag |S" i 2 | agi a” | =e | ae |.8-.| 2
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rug -ygrr** syoddns jj'urg "yz °°" syoddns ||-utg ‘yypr"*"* syzoddns = |/‘urg *9jp °*"* 5340 dns |/*u19 4j7 sjzoddns
meeMyoq aoueysig ua0M4eq 90ueysiq useMyeq eouejsiq weaMjyeq aouejzsiq, mae eet sic pai
rzo're'** °° Op wpeasg||ooo'r'"** "OP WPeAg|lOLP I" ***** “OP Wapearg||CTO'E *** *** Op UPC ||GOO"L"” **** “OP UIPVPAE
loro'L"*** req Jo wdeqliezort*** aed Jo wdeq}oos'r'*** *“2eq Jo uydaq]}|600'T *** * “eq Jo wdeqileto'r *"* “zea jo wydeq
“yg juauisadagy Yay quaursadasy “pig quaursada: “pug, juaunsaday, “ps, quaunsadxy
1935
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.
_T692 | Lee" | 6°908
L'96T | 8Le | 8 LOL
OTFE | LLE | 1906
6.0TS | LOST | & Eap
i — ———
1669 | 9IG TL | LL9P O0SeoPst
0°89 | LSP'T | 9'09P [0008LL91
SELL | HST | 919 |OOOLZTST
yorduit
daysisor| — ("p) 1(-9) “eq
joromod | *aoroaypop| “yudro Aq | Ut Agro1ySe[9
Oo p x q@| aru | Sarpeorg | josnjnpoyy
Iyonporg
Pe Cog i ee Or ho ey
sreeeereeeo esr toddns waamjoq ‘mle “yy eq “YG yuoutedx |
seeeeeeeer es esroddns uaamjoq ‘ule “ye req “Up yuowrtedxsy
seereeessseesiroddns uaaajeq ‘Ug “Wp eq “pag yuourtredx
080°) Fe ee eA Ty See SMS ees” iuiaep sano ued ALERT AL)
6GO'L [rrr ee tsqoddns usamyoq “urg “app eq “pug quounsedxg| ”
TOU) [ocr syoddns uaamjoq “urg “yp req “ys_ yuouttsodx
Ayer
oytoeds
‘arenbs TUL YY" T Sivg JO esoyy 0} paonpad sinseyy
INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
194
No. VI.
ENGLISH IRON.
Level, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire.
: 5 ‘soo ATOM Jy} Su YONUT se
aytab you Ft ‘Ajrvau o10q “raueUL ouILS oY} UL palyy pur y3dop syr Jo spatgy-0.j ySno.asyy yno seq ayy eq) puv ‘ysa1ay) UeY a10UN
a1og ‘aaoqe sv dn pat[y yo ay} puv “yydap sj jo JY Ysnoasyy yno req ayy yey) aes ypeys em ‘E pur g ‘y quouadxny ur yySuey
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“yeorq ayy Sutredutoo pure ‘japout oures ayy ulosy ysvo atom seq ayy [[@ sv yng ‘udyvI JOU a19M IUq 4SLT OU} JO suOIsUOWIP oT,
‘o.tojaq sv faaqs yim dn paypy aangsode ay} puv ‘spremumop doy oy} woay ySnoiyy sprig}
“OM O[PPNU OY} UL JNO sem Jeqat “IVIg JUaUNNJadX| JO Jayye] ayy UT *Jaaqs yyos YM dn pey[y yuo oy} pur ‘avs v yy doy 043
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OF CAST IRON. 195
OTHER PROPERTIES
TF OM dopa sayquinsto pue y10ys syno—suawtoads Aapuno qt
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196 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND
No. VII.
ENGLISH IRONS.
Low Moor, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast, Yorkshire.
axpertment 2nd. zperiment 3rd. saxperiment 4th.
ot 004||Depth of bar...... .995||/Depth of bar... ....1,004|/Depth of bar.... 1.009)
-1,004||Breadth do..,..,, 1.015}|Breadth do... . .1.004]/Breadth do., ....1.005
Distance between Distance between Distance between
in. pibporis .... 4ft. 6in,|| supports .....2ft. 3in.|/ supports... .2it. 3in,
Weight of bar ft. long,
14\bs. 1202.
?
inches.
Deflection,
Load removed.
Load removed,
Weight in lbs.
Deflection in
inches
Deflection,
> | Load removed.
Weight in Ibs.
Deflection in
Deflection
Load removed.
Weight in lbs.
Deflection in
Deflection,
56} .147). 112}.
112] .305) . AN. +. || 224.
182) .531) . . .005|| 336) .1:
238} .735] : .008]} 448) .
; 294) .955) . : .012]| 560} .220) .
350/1.180) . 350)1.210} . .265} .020]| 672) .278} .
4.06)1.461) . 4.06/1.500} . A) 327! .031}| 784) .
462)1.803) .335]| 448/1.764 .048]} 896) .412] .050
469\broke 4.62\broke 952 Broke 952] .4.57
1008! .506|brok
Ba deflection ||-*.Ultimate deflection ||‘. Ultimate deflection |} Broke with 1008Ibs.
=1.844. = 1.863. = 434. 2 an inch from the cen-
Broke 2 of an inch|} Broke g an inch from|}=Broke 3 of an inchi|tre.
from the centre, the centre. from the centre.
197
OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.
JsIy oy} Jo st Supyz0m jo wmopeoy syy—
‘s[RIOUL JOYYO ysour UeYy JHSUoy qonut AjTPIMY SP surejor puw “Yst1 oyITA sprnout socUTyy ayy
SUI UOIT SY T—