ee 9) NW MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. PR E/AY VE Eee i 6 OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. Second Series. VOLUME VI. London: JOHN WEALE, ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN. PRINTED BY SIMPSON AND GILLETT, 2, BROWN STREET, MANCHESTER. 1842. CONTENTS. PAGE. I Observations on the effects of Severe Frost on the Blossoms of the Jargonelle Pear at different periods of their growth, and on the common methods of preserving Wall Trees from Frost. By Joun Moors, Esq., FLLAS. ......seeeerereeeenes II An Account of some Experiments to determine the quantity of Carbonic Acid in the Atmosphere. By Mr. WiILt1aM HADFIELD. ......s0eeeeeeeeeeeee IIL On the Sepulchral Monuments of Sardis and Mycene. By Wi111am RatHeone Gre, Esq. IV On the probable origin of Modern Corporations, Srom the Municipia of the Romans, and their subsequent internal changes. By the Rev. Joun KGNRICK, MICAS Coen c ccbce cect oe creet cathe eevee V Experiments and Observations on the Efflorescing properties of some salts of Soda. By HEnry 10 19 33 Hove WATSON, Esq: .........s0seeeee et SORTTEEE 78 VI A Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. val CONTENTS. PAGE. Henry. By Wit11aAmM Caries Henry, M.D. BRS g VAG lees swacetiabscencananecaodel ieskep VII Remarks on four extracts from the Commentaries of Cesar, relative to the use of Greek Letters, by the Gauls and Druids. By the Rey. Wi1tt1aAM VORING. \ csa- 0sn's +a se¥ettOincscccuvae sens shines scceveaabeae VIII An Account of some Experiments made to deter- mine the Specific Gravities ofthe Steamor Vapour from Water, Alcohol, Ether, Pyroxilic Spirit, and Nitric Acid. By Mr. Wiitt1am Haprtiep. IX An Experimental Inquiry into the strength and other properties of Cast Iron, from various parts of the United Kingdom. By Wrt.1am Fatr- mara, B5q4! COB 8s. eon. dG, ISU Bee nore X Remarks on Dr. Thomson’s Paper on the combina- tions of Sulphuric Acid and Water. By Henry HovuGw WaArmTson, Esq. ned /...i...seeeesveds Saeeees XI A Memoir of Mr. Edward Hobson, author of “ Musci Britannici,” §c. By Joun Moore, Esq jf Pdi.SA... ..enaamans Saueeenhethheepanpepdernes 36 XIL Cyclopian, Pelasgic, and Etruscan Remains, or Remarks on the Mural Architecture of remote Ages. By Wititam RatTupone GREG, Esq... XIII On the relutive attractions of Sulphuric Acid for 142 — 58 274 297 325 CONTENTS. Vil Pace. Water, under particular circumstances; with suggestion of means of improving the ordinary process of manufacturing Sulphuric Acid. By Henry Hover WATSON, Esq. .......sseeeeeneeeees XIV On the Rohan Potatoe. By Dominique ALBERT, LL.D. (Communicated by John Davies, Esq., MES WiSy 0085: 2 ho Laastpstlegsaeaddoct oramwe diese agase XV Process of Carbonizing Turf without close vessels, the peat furnishing its own Caloric, without producing Ashes. By Dominique ALBERT, LL.D. (Communicated by John Davies, Esq., MWS)! . eseconcins, nohdnns nb cusshnahdab s4ibs-¥obasobes XVI An Essay on the Roman Road, in the vicinity of Bury, Lancashire. By Mr. Joun Just.......... XVII RemarksontheCoal District of South Lancashire. By James Herwoop, Esq,., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. XVIII Observations on Sculpture. By Paut Moon SAME EU os agus scionienactaties Graaee snee oven aaies ehos ce XIX Remarks on the origin of the Babylonian, or Arvrow-headed character, and its relation to our modern Alphabet. By James Nasmytn, Esq. XX An experimental inquiry into the Strength and other properties of Anthracite Cast Iron. By WiLt1AM FArrBaren, Esq., C.E.,.....00000s000 394 399 409 426 464 485 524 — Vili CONTENTS. Pace. XXI Observations on the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain, at Manchester, from the year 1794 to 1840 inclusive. By Joun Datton, D.C.L., L.L.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Member of the Insti- tute’ of, France, 820. 805 .0ccetsceveescos'ss Midesuneets 561 XXII Ondetecting the presence of Arsenic, particularly in reference to the employment of “ Marsh’s Test.” By Henry Hovucs Warson, Esq,, .......00.e000. 590 XXIII Observations on the various accounts ofthe Lumi- nous Arch, or Meteor, accompanying the Aurora Borealis of November 3rd, 1834. By Joun Daxzrton, D.C.L.,.L.L.D.. F.R.SS., L. and E., Member of the Institute of France, &c. &c...... 617 ERRATA. Page 29 line 6, for ‘‘ Troy” read Sardis. Page 328 line 12, for “‘ Tyrins” read Tiryns, also, pp. 331, 335, 336, 337, 339, 348, &e. Page 571 line 12, for 52 read 25. Page 579 line 13, for “HENRY WOOD” read JOHN WOOD. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. PAGE ~Map of Mycene, to face page .. 19 ~Walls of Mycen : 23 _Entrance to the Treasury of ats Senne icles sosete sess 27 Tabular, General Summary of sonia of. Ba iio nate on Cast Iron Bars ... * aa Booey 0-7 Tiryns, first or Re a Style prance 1 mei ccs Argos, second or Polygonal Style - - - IL. “cette , sap Cortona, third or Etruscan Style - - - IIL. ......cccssceeeeeeseeee 329 Walls of Cossa...... east pra sesteneussuageecbsesav'ess .. 330 Eight Sketches, various - - - - - - - DVict ors comastiax . 333 Etruscan Arch, Volterra Roman Arch, Ferentino ‘ peste ee Polygonal Wall and opus incertum - - WES 3s cs Be cee eee Treasury of Atreus - - - - ---- ~ MITE cons see BBO Fragments of the Walls of Cora - - - IX. eee BOO Walls of Fiesole - ----------- xX. . 343 Masonry at Pompeii RRONOMUOM Get anes eas Sy a eee XL wee 344 Walls at Galaxidi.. Pavement of the Via Appia - --- XII. aseee Pavement in Florence - - - - - - ROGUE” Betacdkotocancccbce 5 an Mode of building the Pyramids - - - XIV. . . 348 » Sketch of the line of the Roman Road, in the vitinieg of Bink 419 ~ Geological Map of the South Lancashire Coal District ............ 426 Table of Rain at Manchester... .......scer see eee eos es ~ 575 MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 0 OF MANCHESTER. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE BLOSSOMS OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THEIR GROWTH, AND ON THE COMMON METHODS OF PRESERVING WALL TREES FROM FROST. By JOHN MOORE, Esg., F.L.S. (Read February 24th, 1832.) It appears to be the opinion of most gar- deners that a mild winter is an exception to the general character of winters in this country, and this impression, no doubt, prevents many of those who obtain a livelihood by raising early fruits and vegetables for market, from making experiments which they apprehend would often end in disappointment and loss. A fue a a ee ae 2 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE Fortunately however in the growth of the most useful of our fruits and vegetables the gardener has comparatively little to fear from the severi- ties of winter; it is when sharp frosts succeed mild and open weather in the spring, that he suffers most; and as these not unfrequently oc- cur in this part of England, it may be useful to record such observations as may instruct us to guard against them. A person residing in the country and fondly attached to the pursuits of rural life will, no doubt, be apt to overrate the value of his remarks, but if they appear to have the remotest tendency to advance the physiology of vegetation, and es- pecially of any of those more essential produc- tions of our orchards or gardens which add so much to our support and comfort, there is no danger of their being uncourteously received by this society. We are well aware how much the slow or rapid erowth of vegetables depends upon temperature, and a proper degree of moisture in the air and eround; but we know comparatively little of the manner in which they appropriate to themselves the different kinds of nourishment which they receive from the air and the earth, decreed to BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 3 produce so wonderful a variety of hardy and de- licate forms, of fragrant and splendid flowers, or of wholesome and delicious fruits. The important investigations of vegetable structure and reproduction which are in progress by eminent botanists in this country and abroad, must undergo much familiar illustration before they can be generally useful to gardeners. I be- lieve however it may be considered as clearly demonstrated that the access of a certain portion of common air is as necessary to the roots as to the leaves of plants, and therefore it is unreason- able to expect that trees will bear much fruit when they are surrounded by thickly matted grass or hard gravel walks. The advantages of transplanting are founded upon the same theory. Cabbages, celery, and many other useful vegetables if suffered to re- main in the seed beds, however much they may be thinned and separated from each other, sel- dom grow to a large size. By transplanting them we destroy the tendency of the roots down- wards, and increase the number of those fibres which have an horizontal direction, thus giving them a more free access to the air as well as to the water which falls in showers, and enabling A2 4 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE them, by obtaining a greater supply of food, to support a proportionately greater luxuriance of foliage. The two last weeks in April and the two first of May form a very interesting and anxious per- iod to the gardener, as the buds of most of our useful fruit trees then begin to swell out and unfold themselves; and a severe frosty night, after rain or snow, may very much diminish the hope of a crop. The following brief observations may perhaps assist us in determining the easiest and cheapest way to preserve some of our fruits and vege- tables on such occasions. The excellent markets which Manchester and the surrounding towns afford for choice vege- tables, and especially for early potatoes, has induced our gardeners to pay great attention to raising them, and in doing this their first object is to throw their ground into a succession of beds all sloping to the south. These are trenched two feet deep at the latter end of the year, and lie in ridges during the winter to get mellowed by the frost. About BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR 5 the middle of February the early seed potatoes are taken from the store heap, and, being selec- ted as nearly as possible of one size, are placed in single layers on the floor or shelves of some warm room, with a covering of damp saw dust about one inch in thickness. In a month or five weeks they will have put forth stiff sprouts of an inch or two in length with very delicate roots attached to them. A dry day is then se- lected to level the ground, and, small drills being made about six inches deep, they are filled to the extent of about one half their depth with rotten horse dung, the young roots of the pota- toes being placed with great care upon its sur- face, and lightly covered up with soil extending an inch or two above the tops of the sprouts. To protect the growth of these early potatoes it had always been the custom when frost was expected to cover them with mats or sheets spread closely upon the ground. On the 28th of April, 1829, we had a severe frosty night, and on the following day the gar- deners found that wherever the mats had been in contact with the soil the potatoe sprouts were frozen, and in many instances at nearly an inch below the surface. 6 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE One of my neighbours, being short of mats to cover the whole of his beds, laid old pea sticks upon them, scraping together any litter he could meet with to throw upon the pea sticks. On the disappearance of the frost he was sur- prised to find that the potatoes so covered were much less injured than those covered by the mats, and since that time it has become the practice to form the covering into frames which can be elevated a short distance from the ground, that there may be air between the covering and the soil. Some other observations which I made after this severe spring frost I cannot help thinking connect themselves physiologically with the safety which was afforded to the potatoes by their having an open space between the covering and the ground. I had a Jargonelle pear tree much advanced at the time, and in a few days after the frost had ceased it became one complete sheet of blos- som, affording to a cursory observer the pro- mise of an abundant crop. On a closer examination however most of the BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 7 buds which were open were found to be injured. After carefully watching the progress of many blossoms in the different stages of maturity I was led to the following conclusions, viz.: Ist. When a frost occurs in the spring after heavy dews or rain, the blossoms of pear trees which are fully opened, having their stamens and pistil both exposed, will, in almost ues instance be destroyed. 2nd. Blossoms which are nearly opening, hay- ing the summit of the pistil in contact with the under side of the canopy formed by the petals above it, will have the pistil destroyed, whilst such of the anthers as do not touch the petals will be ininjured, but no fruit will succeed. 3rd. Blossoms wanting two or three day’s growth to expand them, and neither the pistil nor the anthers touching the petals, but having an intervening space, will, if the succeeding weather prove favourable, almost invariably pro- duce fruit. The blossoms of pears are generally exposed to the air in an horizontal direction and are sel- dom pendulous like those of gooseberries and 8 EFFECT OF SEVERE FROST ON THE currants; when however they point downwards I have sometimes known them to produce fruit after hard frosts, although fully opened at the time, plants like animals having in many cases a wonderful power of maintaining their proper temperature, when the temperature of the at- mosphere which surrounds them is unfriendly. Of apples, pears, and plums, the first blossoms which open, as they are almost invariably the lar- gest, are also those which, if uninjured, produce the finest fruit, and it is therefore unreason- able to expect that the later and immature blos- soms above referred to, although they may have escaped the spring frost, will yield very perfect fruit; hence it is that gardeners are the more interested in protecting wall trees in order to secure the first blossoms. If in the case of the potatoes which I have stated, the sprouts were saved by the straw not touching the ground, and the seed vessels of the immature blossoms of the Jargonelle pear were also protected by having a plate of air between them and the unopened petals, we may, I ap- prehend, conclude that any covering of fruit trees or vegetables, in immediate contact with them, must be of little use against frost. BLOSSOM OF THE JARGONELLE PEAR. 9 I believe the cheapest and simplest plan is to have sheets of close pressed or glazed linen attached to rollers working on pivots, which may be placed horizontally or perpendieuny as the case may require. These may be easily rolled up in the morning and replaced in the evening, and being carefully preserved will last many years. (10) AN ACCOUNT OF SOME Bek

inches inches degrees grains 28.25 18.19 250 41.70 1.30 217.75 17.45 230 43.70 1.40 27.70 18.60 220 50.35 1.30 27.50 18.62 210 40.00 1.28 27.60 18.62 212 39.91 1.28 28.00 19.02 230 39.86 1.28 28.15 19.15 239 4.0.34 1.30 28.25 19.25 238 39.69 1.28 28.50 19.54 254 39.40 ti 28.75 19.79 266 40.96 1.32 28.37 19.43 254 40.12 1.29 27.70 18.70 215 40.00 1.30 18.82 When a deduction is made for expansion of mercury and glass, 100 cubic inches will be 39.53, and the specific gravity of the vapour will be 1.27, air being 1. Vapour or Acetic ACID. I was favoured by Dr. Henry with a portion of the strongest and purest acid (crystallized at 54° GRAVITY OF VAPOUR. 169 Fah.) he had in his possession. Its acidity was such that 5 ounces apothecaries’ weight of lime water required 7 water grain measures of it in order to be made neutral. The same quantity of that lime water required 264 grains, by mea- sure of dilute sulphuric acid of 1.134 specific gravity. The 42 inch tube was used. Twelve Experiments. Pressure. Temperature Wt. of LUO cub. inches of 60° temp. and 30 in. inches. | degrees. 16.30 221 16 70 228 16.60 240 17.10 232 17.65 236 17.65 239 17.75 244 18.55 258 18.15 248 17.75 240 17.75 242 17.85 244 17.56 239.3 When the deduction is made for the expan- sion of glass and mercury, 100 cubic inches will weigh 74 grains, and the specific gravity will be 2.37, atmospheric air being 1. Oo 170 EXPERIMENTS ON VAPOUR. It is satisfactory to me to find that my results on steam from water, and on the vapour of al- cohol and ether agree very nearly with those of Gay Lussac, and this encourages the hope that those which I have obtained from pyroxilic spi- rit and acetic acid will be found to be near ap- proximations to the truth. In many of the combustible gases and vapours it would seem the atomic volumes are much the same as those of hydrogen. If this should be found true, it may lead usin many cases, to learn the atomic constitutions of compound elastic fluids from knowing the specific gravities of such fluids. (171) AN EXPERIMENTAL ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. By Mr. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN. Read 7th of March, 1837. Tue multifarious uses to which cast iron is applied, and the facility with which it can be moulded into almost every shape, render the in- vestigation of its properties a subject of interest in a national as well as an individual point of view. Manyexperiments toascertain its strength, elasticity, and other properties have therefore been made by authors, not only of our own, but other countries; as by Banks, Rondelet, Muschet, Bramah, Dunlop, Brown, Rennie, Tredgold, &c. besides the numerous experiments made at my works by my friend Mr. Hodgkinson. None of those writers, however, with the ex- 172 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND ception of Tredgold, have, so far as I know, iiaade any inquiries into the fluidity of the dif- ferent sorts of cast irons; nor has much atten- tion been paid to their comparative powers of application. . The following pages contain—lIst., a laborious enquiry into the transverse strength of cast irons from various parts of the kingdom; and, 2ndly, an extended investigation into the less cultiva- ted field of their relative values, as regards their adaptation to the arts. In pursuing these experiments it was origin- ally my intention to have investigated the ques- tion of mixtures, or the proportions necessary for the production of different sorts of castings. This subject is, however, of such importance, and requires so much time and labour, that I am induced to forego its consideration for the present, and confine myself exclusively to the objects above stated. In adverting to this matter, however, it may be proper to remark that the same admixture or compound of pig iron is not suited for every description of casting ; a water wheel axle, or steam engine beam, for instance, requires a different mixture to the finer and sof- OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 173 ter preparations for light machinery. Cylinders, air pumps, and pistons of steam engines have also (in practice) their peculiar compounds ; and it is important in all these operations to have con- firmed data (the results of actual experiment) for directing the labours of the architect, engi- neer, and mechanic. Tredgold in his essay on the strength of cast iron seems to have been aware of the deficiencies under which the labours of the iron founder have been conducted ; he describes the proper- ties of the iron* but gives no proportions for the mixtures ; nor have we at the present time any guide beyond what is indicated by the appear- ance of the fracture. The amalgamation of the different metals, however important in practice, is generally left to chance; or at best to the * Soft iron yields easily to the file, when the external crust is removed, and is slightly malleable in a cold state. White cast iron is less subject to be destroyed by rusting than the grey kind, and it is less soluble in acids ; therefore it may be usefully employed when hardness is necessary, and when its brittleness is not a detect ; but it should not be chosen for pur- poses where strength is necessary. White cast iron, in a recent fracture, has a white and ra- diated appearance, indicating a crystalline structure ; it is very brittle and hard. Gray cast iron has a granulated fracture of a gray colour with some metallic lustre; it is much softer and tougher than the white cast iron.—Tredgold’s Essay, p 7. 174. ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND imperfect knowledge of the person who attends the furnace: on some future occasion I may, however, make this a distinct subject of enquiry. During the prosecution of the following expe- riments, I have been favoured with the assist- ance of Mr. Hodgkinson, to whom I am in- debted for the calculations and many valuable suggestions; also to one of my own pupils, Mr. J. Patchett, who rendered valuable assistance. Before exhibiting the experiments, I would here observe that they were made on quadran- gular bars, one inch, and one inch and a half, square. These bars were loaded with weights suspended from the middle, and supported, first, on props 4 feet 6 in. asunder, and afterwards, their fractured halves, on supports 2 feet 3 in. asunder; the bars thus placed were loaded with weights, commencing, in the first series (4 feet 6 in.) with 14 Ibs.; and generally increasing in the ratio of that weight until the bar was broken.* This method was adopted in all the experiments, and conducted with such care as to ensure correct results. *In the 2ft. 3in. bars, 28lbs. was not considered too great an increase. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 175 The deflection was ascertained every time the weights were increased ; and, in order to discover the defects of elasticity, the set was taken at equal intervals between the weights during the progress of the experiments. Considerable attention was also paid to observed discrepancies appertaining to the point at which the elasticity became defective. The following sketch of the apparatus shows in what manner the experiments were con- ducted :— A B represents a straight edge or parallel guage, having two dovetailed slides CC, to regulate the height above the bar D D, resting upon the supports E E, and F the scale on which the weights were laid. The 176 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND method adopted in removing the weights, for the purpose of ascertaining the defects of elasticity, was by pressing down the end of a wooden lever, G, applied to the bottom of the | scale, and thus raising it to a height sufficient to disengage the hook every time the set was taken ; this was done by a slow steady motion, and the weights were laid gently upon the scale to prevent jerks or sudden derangement of theparts under strain. In 52 experiments on inch bars 4 ft. 6 in. be- tween the supports, the deflections varied (with equal weights of 350 lbs.) from .707 to 1.582, which for the whole number gives a mean of 1.051 as follows :— Table of deflections as exhibited with equal weights on bars cast to be lin. square* and Aft. 6in. between the supports. No. of Ex- Weightin| Detection eriments. Names. lbs. iu inches. | Mean. 1 Apedale. 550 1.115 : 2 pt 350 | 1.098 rig tl gp 3 Varies. 350 E 4 ss 350 Z 5 Monkland. 350 a 6 ‘ 350 5 7 Carroll. 350 ° 8 * 250 3 9 Windmill End. 350 EI 10 " 330 a 11 Low Moor. 850 2 12 ‘> 350 4 13 Butterley. 550 2 14 se 350 = 15 Beaufort. 350 g 16 e 350 & 17 Maestez. 350 I 18 Fs 550 e 19 Level. 350 e 20 “ 350 s 21 Old Park. 350 2 22 =F 350 I 23 Calder. 350 i 24 3 350 = 25 Clyde. 350 = 26 a 350 = 27 Eagle Foundry.| 350 = 28 2 350 8 29 Adelphi. 350 zg 30 - 350 se 31 Pontypool. 350 = 32 +} 350 z 33 Oldberry. 350 S 34 i 350 5 35 Pentwyn. 350 5 36 3 350 5 aye Gartsherrie. 350 PA 33 a 350 4 39 Dundayven. 350 z 40 e 350 a 4] Lays Works. 350 = 42 ey 350 i 43 Bute. 350 = 44 3 350 a 45 Brimbo. 350 re 46 ¥ 350 2 47 Ponkey. 350 48 * 350 49 Frool. 350 50 # 350 51 Lane End. 350 52 ” * The bars usually measured somewhat more than 1 inch square, as will be seen from the experiments; the deflections therefore would have been a little greater than those shown above, if the bars had been exactly one inch square. P 178 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND It appears from authors, who have recently written on the strength of materials, that all crystalline or tenacious bodies, subjected to a transverse strain, have one of their sides elon- _ gated, whilst the other is compressed; they are also agreed as to a point, called the neutral point, round which revolve the opposing forces of tension and compression. In our experiments it is evident, as the deflection increases, the atoms or crystals on the lower side of the bar must be separated, and those of the upper side brought nearer together.* Mr. Hodgkinson in his paper on the strength of iron beams, (Manchester Memoirs, vol. 5, second series, page 409,) states the following proposition—‘ Suppose a beam horizontal, with one end firmly fixed in a wall, and a weight hung at the other, it will bend ; but it is evident that could not take place, except by the lengthening of the top parts, by the compression of the bottom, or by both. Now both of these actually take place ; and ‘hence there is some intermediate point or line between the top and bottom of the beam, where the particles are neither extended or compres- sed. This line may properly be called the * This has only lately been admitted, bodies have hitherto been considered incompressible. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 179 neutral line.” He then goes on to illustrate the theory by a diagram to show that the sum of the forces exerted by the extended fibres is equal to the sum of the forces exerted by the compressed ones, and thus concludes :—‘‘ Now it is evident that the extensions or compres- sions of any particles within these surfaces will be as their distances from the line A B (mean- ing the neutral line;) and the forces exerted by those particles must be in the same propor- tion, so long as the elasticity remains perfect ; for then the forces are found to be as the ex- tensions or compressions. Afterwards the forces of the particles would be as some different fune- tions of their distances from the neutral line.” In further illustration of this subject, suppose we place a bar of cast iron upon the supports E E in the figure, and subject it to pressure, by weights suspended from the middle; it is ob- vious, in this case, that the resisting forces of extension and compression immediately come into operation ; the particles forming the con- vex side of the bar, become more widely sepa- rated, whilst those on the concave are more closely condensed. It is evident, therefore, that a change of position must take place in 180 BENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND the granulated state of the bar, in order to re- sist the forces thus operating to produce rup- ture, either by compression above, or forcible extention below. From this view of the case, a question arose as to the actual state of the atoms under diffe- rent degrees of pressure ; it appeared to me that the tensible and compressed forces would at every change produce a new adjustment of the parts, and either afford evidence of their adap- tation to the load, or demonstrate a progressive yielding to a force sufficient ultimately to des- troy the resistance. On consulting the works of different authors, I found them nearly agreed in supposing that materials could be loaded to one-third or more of the breaking weight, without injuring their elasticity. In pursuing these experiments I was however led to a different conclusion, by obser- ved discrepancies in the bars, accompanied by much earlier indications of impaired elasticity. I mentioned this circumstance to Mr. Hodgkin- son, and found similar results had been obtained by him, in experiments made for the British Association previous to those now in progress. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 18] So striking a coincidence, induced a new and extended series of experiments, to determine whether the elasticity is not generally injured with much less than one-third of the breaking weight, and the annexed tables show this to be the case: some slight injury with very small weights is certainly produced; but it admits of doubt whether or not it affects the ultimate strength of the bar,—at first sight it appeared that a weight sufficient to produce a permanent set would, if continued, be sufficient to break the bar, and that time alone was necessary to effect the rupture. Mr. Hodgkinson took a different view of the case, and conceived that bodies by virtue of their elasticity, combined with slight ductility, might adjust themselves so as permanently to bear a load, nearly sufficient to break them at once. He had formed this view from having found that in experiments on wrought iron wires, torn asunder many times in succession, they bore nearly as much the last time as the first—See Manchester Memoirs, Vol. 5. A phenomenon so curious and interesting led to the enquiry. How much will cast iron per- 182 ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND manently bear without endangering its security: This was an exceedingly important question, which in order to solve, we came to the conclu- sion of putting to the test of experiment. For this purpose ten bars were procured, each cast to be one inch square, and having loaded them with different weights,—some nearly ap- proaching the breaking point,—and supported theirends on props 4 ft. 6in. asunder,—they were left in this position to determine how long they would support the loads without breaking. Five weeks have now-elapsed since they were charged, and, from what we can at present observe, there is every appearance of a long and tedious experi-~ ment.* I should here mention that the deflec- tions are taken weekly, in order to determine the alterations in the state of the bars. * Since the above was written, one of the bars has given way and broken near the centre, after having sustained a load of 448 Ibs. for 37 days. The deflection was observed to have increased from 1.904 to 2.014 between the time of loading and that of the last measurement, three days before the rupture took place. It must be observed that this bar was thinner than any of the others now tried, and had borne for this period a weight larger than had broken bars of the same size in previous experiments upon this iron, when the weights were laid on without loss of time. All the other bars continue to sustain their loads, though they have born them for many months; the deflections however are slightly on the increase. The particulars of these will be given in the Seventh Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 185 The following being a practical enquiry, it is not necessary to step out of the way inzsearch of general principles: the effort will therefore be confined simply to investigating the peculiar merits of the different irons of British manufac- ture; exhibiting their most remarkable features, and rendering their applicability matter of cer- tainty as respects strength, fluidity, power of being worked, &c. The enquiry will, therefore, in a great measure be devoted to those objects ; shewing the strength and deflection of each iron under a transverse strain in the first instance, and subsequently interspersed with observations arising from microscopic examination, and the turning and filing process to which they were severally subjected. In the annexed tables I have given an abridged form of the experiments, and selected such weights, deflections, and numbers, as will give a succinct and clear illustration of the methods adopted in the experiments.—To each class of experiments, and to each iron, is attached a ta- bular form of results, with the values reduced to those of bars exactly one inch square; the reductions being made by supposing, as is gene- rally admitted, that the strength of rectangular 184. ENQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND beams is as the breadth multiplied by the square of the depth; the length being given: and that the ultimate deflection is inversely as the depth. The power of resisting impact in each iron is reckoned by the product of the breaking weight multiplied by the ultimate deflection: depending upon the supposition that the elasticity remains unimpaired; and that the blow, in all cases, where the results are to be compared together, is given with the same striking body or hammer upon beams all of which are equal in weight. These suppositions, however, are not strictly true, but as the beams are all very nearly of equal weight, the product above mentioned will give a comparative measure near enough for practical purposes; as may be inferred from the paper on impact upon beams—Fifth Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.—The modulus of elasticity is given in pounds for a base of a square inch; this weight may be taken as the measure of the stiffness of the iron. It was usually calculated from the deflection caused by 112lbs. on the 4ft. 6in. bars. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 185 No. I. ENGLISH IRONS. Apedale, No. II, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Newcastle, Stafford- shire. EXPERIMENT 2nd. oe NENT Ist. {Depth of Bar.. . 1.025 cereal 3rd. Depth of Bar.. -1.010}Breadth do. ......... 1-002 {Depth of Bar.. ... .1.015) Breadth do.. 1.015 Pistance between a Breadth do.. -1.015 Distance between por Soyes.s . Gin. jDistance hee sup- supports. . .-4ft. 6in |W eight of Bar Sit. Ghee it. 3i Slbs. doz. Weight Deftection ee Weight!p oHection 23 Weight) Deflec ae tbs. [Mm inches./ & = | yp, lim inches.) = F pa Vinee fet as ag as ee ae eae I Pees G12| .275 |.008}112| .280 |. 182! .485 |.019]182] .490}. 238} .674|.040] 238} .672 |}. 294} .882 |.068] 294) .874). 350 | 1.115 |.110] 350} 1.098 |. 378] 1.242 |.138 | 406 | 1.340 |. 406 | 1.372 |.165 | 462 | 1.613 | .227] 784). 434 | broke 476 | 1.700 |brokel 896 |.370 | .040 952 |broke This bar was unsound a the bottom side, and brok 72 inches from the centre. Broke one inch from the centre. . Broke at the centre. Results reduced to those of Bars 1.00 inch square. ae a ee SS Product Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimate |b x d or Specific | elasticity in | Weight, |deflection,| power of Gravity lbs. (J-) (d.) resisting impact. Exp. 2nd, bar 4ft. 6in.......... 7.017 14852000) 457| 1.730] 790.6 Exp. 3rd, bar 2ft. 3in... . | 910.4| .405}| 368.7 This Iron presents a clear and rather open fracture ; when viewed with a magnifier, the crystals appear porous in the centre, but smaller and more compact as they approach the outer edge. Appearance light grey, slightly tinged with blue.—It is a free working iron, rather stiff in its texture, but yields moderately to the chisel and file. I should conceive it useful in combination with metals of greater fluidity. Q INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 186 No. Il. ENGLISH IRON. Adelphi, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast, Derbyshire. “¥E0" 0} Qzo° wor AqIoNSe]2) 0 oajap fey LLe" O12 Ulosy pasvatout UOly -DaYep ay} Wey ‘srn0y Gp UO peureutad sq|Gl9 ‘Qajulad ayy 4e@ eyOIg "Tgp =||ue jo $ eyo1g—ger = MOTIAYap ACMI *--|/MOUHep — 97eUITyT /) a4014/086 Zer |ZS6 a01g|ZC6 Fco' |z6e" [968 ||090' |GOF )968 Geo’ loze’ |FSL ||TRO' lees” |P8L ez0' 109% IZL9 ||8Z0' JOLe |z19 FLO 190% |09¢ ||610' |zTz |o9g 600 [9ST |SPP ||ITO |I9L’ |Str GOO |TTT |9¢e 100° |STT |9ge 00° |ZL0° |Fzze |I700' |E€LO" |Pzz + |reo" [ett |_+ |PEeo" ett ge; o,|2 | ge ldel = ezla |e 214 |e harg -3yz**** syroddns TaeMyjaq aUeSICT G00 T**** ** Op Uypeesg eO'L*** req jo wydaq “y7G quaunsadusy | “mg ‘47z°'** syaoddns Wa0Mjaq BdUe}SIq “yp quauladay +91] 080 oY} THO ‘aryuad ayy WO] YOUll|jyour ue jo F eyorg ‘ELL = uOoTayep eeu]. ay01q| 6% OL9'TIOLP 29% |ozo' 1/9 gst |coz'tle6e sz logo’ tlgee 180° |gzg° losz 8G0" |Lz9° bPaz ego’ ocr’ |S9T 910° |2sze" |ZIT €00' jogt’ |9¢ + |e90° log 23 Eg |e Pela le “206 “GIST ae “mg ‘yp **** sjzoddns WaaMjaq aoueysICy FOOT "*** "Op Tapeaig||egg: ****** “op ypearg SLO'L****2eq Jo tpdaq||cco'r'****"aeq youydaq "pig quaurteday “ag “WP +" sq0 dus WaaMjaq doe 3sIqy 066" « aor quaunedpaa, mo sqiog WITH pamfat aq 0} pauraas AzoyseTa ay L—esyue. 93 wo. qour ue jo 2 exoig “669 T= MONaTep H3euUyj{ *-"|} ‘arjuaa oy} ye ayorg ay01q!] OT T/OOPL 92% [O80 TPVEl LLY |TS6° jeeal OFT OES’ |OZTT OTT |6TL° |800T 9OLGIFEV 780° |OT9 |968 09S T0ZP ||L90° |9zG° |FSL STS SOP TE6E LPO |LOP |eL9 6PT OST 19EE SEO |PrE’ [09S 00T |906° |08@ |/€c0' |S9a° JEFF é90° |069° |P2%Z FLO [88° |9E8 €€0' |06P' |89T ||900° |OZT hae ZO |L0€" |ZET 00° |8SO° {ZIT + |0FT 19g + _|8z0" 19S P 4 3 rio (0-8 3 Gol ai | 2 | s,| a8 | & PS LSS Se eal Ss “201, *SQ\ST “20 SQIFE “Buoy “aye eq JO aya M ea 08 aeq ra ap nN a9M4aq 2OUeISTC]| +**+op mpeaig||OLF'T' "77 “op uIpearg| “+ *yeq JO thdeq! ogo Ll’ oes eg yO q}daq] *qsy quaunsadagy 187 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. Lvov COW S'OLL PZB Leek “joudurt SUTSIsad jo somod 10 px q jon pod (‘p) morooeyep o7yeay{f) sence nccrececcceceescceescsoscacorc cs -'UBOT eee r cree see seseene: s}zoadns TeaM Jaq “TIE ‘yg req IG quaurtedx eer ee se ener eeeeee syioddns T9aM4aq “ule "NZ req "WP quowtiedx xy ———_—_ -——_—_. OOGSTSET 080°) jae on 0 00 5 tsees 0 56.08 ealemisis ce ce caiesiseisc” EON ooozseet| oso, | +++ syroddns waamjoq *UIg “yp Ieq ‘pag guouiodx yy OOOGFZFT| O8O'L Jose *-sjroddns uaemjoq “Ulg “Ifp Ieq “pug quowtiedx iy wee eceee seer eese sci oddns wsaajaq UIQ “IP eq “ST quourttod xy “Sq UL “Aytaeiy Ayroyseya oytoadg Jo sun poy -gaenbs YOUL QO'T Sxeq JO asoyy OF paonped s}NsSeyY ee eee “PROT OY} 0} SaATosUTET]} Surysnfpe sopnsed ayy WOdy poyadxe uaaq aAvy qy stu uByy a1our you Ayquqoad qnq ‘aovjd uaxey pry Ayroysepe Jo yoojep pue woxoayep jo asvasout Ue (paaowad SBM PLOT Ot} vaya) quottiadxe ay} Jo sop oy} ye fsinoy omy-AjA0} 10J peor ety jo £ pouteysns ‘gaoqe pauoyuou sv ‘req ay) Up yuowtiedx y Uy 188 1,895. 497|broke |broke . Ultimate deflection Broke one inch from the centre. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. III. ENGLISH IRONS. Butterley, —, Pig Iron, vl ae mate deflection Broke, : of an inch from the centre. 434lbs. were hung from the bar for 14 hours, when the deflee- tion was found to be 1.630, and the defect of elasticity .292. “Broke 2 of from the centre. . Ultimate deflection —.493. , Derbyshire. re ade Ist. ee ip E: eee 3rd. Vad oh ap Ath. epth of Bar,..,... 1.000|/Depth of Bar.. .991||Depth of Bar.,...-1.015|/Depth of Bar..., 1.014 ‘Breadth do... .989|| Breadth do.. .988||Breadth do......- .993||Breadth do.. 98 pire between. Distance betw een Distance betw: een Distance betw: een 2 pe alesse 4ft. 6in.|| Supports... ..4ft. Gin.|} | supports..... 2ft. din. supports ..., 2ft. 3in. Weir: t of Bar 5ft. long,|] Weight of Bar 5ft. long, 14Ib. 1302. 1431bs = | a (eeul 2 | ee (Eel 2 lee 2-2] 2 | es Be? = | Ba (828) 5 | Se (8B5l] 2 | 88 (S25) £ ] 22 lees @ | 38 [378] & | oe |g-8] @ | 8a [scl & | Bs lens Biss. fs Br ie bl TL OS ie ON 2 © 28] .067) .000]} 28] .070} .000]) 112} .033|——|] 112] .034,— 56} .130}] .002]} 56} .140} .002|} 224) .o70) + 224) .O73) + 126) .331] .015]| 126} .339] .016|| 336} 108] .003 | 336] .115} .00 + + | + |] 182] .515} .037]|| 448} 151] .006 |] 448} 160} .007 182} .504) .040/| 238] .710} .063]| 560} .195|.009 |} 560} .210} .031 = ae || S5 +] + + || 672] .246|.015 || 672} .263} .018 238) .695) .065]} 294; .921] .099]) 784! .300].026 || 784) .320} .026 294) .903] .100]} 350/1.155! .147]|| 896] 362] .038 |} 896} 890} .043 350/1.130] .14:7|| 4.06}1.420) .203||1008] .442] .064 |/1008|broke|broke . 406]1.385} .203]) 434/1.580| .253]/1092|broke|broke 462}1.685] .295]| 4.62|broke |broke 4.90/1.855] .340 a ldngate deflection an inch ake in the centre 189 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. “4SRTq JOY ayy Woy apeur “Z ‘ON st qt qoadsns AySt0.ys J nq “nost AapLoyng oy} Jo amMjouynueur oy Jo uoyduosep ou eavy oy “LOOTA, MOTT OY} UT UeYY qayvo13 sae st suoutpeds soy} ur yovdur Suystsea jo somod oy [—‘Suyseo jo uondriosep Araaa ysourye 10F poyns T[aa st pue “py oy} sopun ATooay syt0a 41 {uo JOOP MOF] oY} 0} ULye Yonut st Aypmy siT ‘opepady Jo dppy ayy soyste ur ueyy speysXio soppews yytm ‘Lord yaup v st amjovay oyy Jo oouvrvedde yesouaS ayy, 9°€0G | 88h" | TOS0T Boman BE I OOO S200 AIT a eelpl Lue | ezee sreerereseesssitoddns woamyjaq “wg “yg Ieq “yVp quourtiedx Ores] OOS | s90T| vereeereeeeeesiroddns waamjoq ‘ule “yg req “pig quewtiedx cess | Get | e69r be w tite tsccceresesecececerceesceceee ces epgTT L928] 9EL'T | SOL |OOOLSEST| 8E0'L | 8° +t *sytoddns ueemyaq “ug “app req “pug yueumtIedx 296 | S68'T | $209 |000zLEST roreeeseceseessqioddns usamjaq ‘ulg “yp req “IST quautIedx “youd uur aed eee anes M | Ww teoherp ee 10 p ¥ Q} ayeunyT{Q | Suryearg | jo snjnpo; yonposd a a ae a SS ee ol eter ter dtiaae eins te ae ee at SS! SS ‘adenbs YUL QO" ] Sxeq Jo asoy} 0} poonpa. sy[nsoyy reer 190 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. IV. ENGLISH IRON. Eagle Foundry, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire. na t035||Depih AF Bar...--1024|[Depthet Bar. «1-015 |[Depih ot Bar... 1.041 Breadth do... -1,025]|Breadth do..... ..1.045||Breadth do....... 1,024 ||Breadth do.. 1.025 Distance between Distance between Distance between Distance between CE ie nee 4ft, 6in.||_ Supports... ..4ft. 6in.|| supports..... 2ft. din. supports .... 2ft. 3in. Weight of Bar 5ft. long,|| Weight of Bar aft. jong, Ib. lloz. 16Ibs a g a F] a g g s : 2 = r=] > a . g 2 2 A et s 2 ot aos au 1.c iz! alo 3 Ces eve ss a Ppt tee a | S8/Se8l a | 22 fee2 | & | 82 |Se2|] a | 82 les 3 3 108 a Be 1a8°S s $a oss 4 Sa iSc8g ra o9 sag a og jaltg a os =| 4 og |E—“5 of eo: a = a Oo 8 = q.e oY om aa {s+ & o o A F o o » o o bal a By 2 =) a E A Ee | A Ee |A = |A : 112) .030)} + w nw a oO -~f ow) j=) Sr = 224) .063} .002 336] .113} .006]| 336] .097| .004 448) .155] .010]| 448} .135] .007 560} .201} .014|} 560) .174) .010 672] .249] .020}| 672] .216) ..013 784) 304] .030|| 784] .264) .020 896] 3869} .041.|| 896] 3817] .030 924|broke 1008} .379} .045 336/1.040] .115]| 280] .780] .079 392/1.268] .162]| 336} .972) 111 420]1.398 392/1.182) .156 44.8|broke 4.20]1.296 = broke sp lemaats detiection .. Ultimate deflection oscke s 3 of inch from ~ Broke one inch from the centre. the centre. , Ultimate deflection Broke 2 an inch from “384. the centre when the Broke 3 of an inch]iweight 1008 was re- from the centre, laced. 191 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘pouymiexe suoIt JowI0y oy} jo Aue ut uvy} se~Zet o1ow tvadde greshio oy, ‘sSurjseo jo suondriosap teuy oy} 0} poydepe Jom 41 eATaou0 prnoys 7 “s}n9 4L YOY YIM sea ayy Woy pue {yseTq yOFT “UOTeT-pa0g oy} 0} oouvavadde ur «eprons st y7—oyepedy ayy 10 Adpioyng em JaYIa UY} anojoo onqq odeap ev YIM ‘omnjorsy snosod soyyeI pue wIOFLUN ue sey wory Arpunog apsery oy, GC 6PES 26" L168 Sr eT atta ae ae OL Te aL SY fs P'scs | Gee" | 9106 rerteseeseeeesuoddns waeaiaq Ulg “YZ req “Ip joutredxgy rope | 68e' | 6'SL8 sceeeeeeeessesrioddns uoamjoq ule “yg req ‘pag yueutiedxg 6 L19 21G'L ©’ 80P OOOTLZFT 820°) CMM PPP TEE ToT Yada 1s Wat co ede KNOB PES I oy 21) AVE 1199 |L9F 1 19:00P loo0gseFT| ogo, [1°77 sHoddns waoayoq “arg “yp 1eq “pug quourtedx T'9h9 |8So'T | 9TP l00069ET| L669 [tert t ett tte s}toddns udsmoq UIQ “YR Ieq GST JuourLIedx “jouduut sunsisea | (-p) (:9) ‘sqy Ur “Ayer jo samod | uoNsapap | yysieM Ayroyseya oytoadg 10 p x g}ayeugtg | Suiyeorg | jo snjnpoyy yonpoig ‘aaenbs Your OYO'T sxeq Jo ssoy} 0} poonpal s}[Nse yy No. V. ENGLISH IRONS. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND Level, No. 1, Pig Tron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire. 192 ‘a1}U09 oI]} arenbs jg’ | Qeeq pel req wos} your ue ¥ ayorg |jraxyues ayy ye ayorg |leqy Jr Iysiem Sutyvarq)| *91j}U9 EY ye eMOIG -aajyuao ayy ye OYOIg "19S = "g9¢' =|] Sal6zrT pure “0G6== ‘PLY IT “ceo I uoKayep eyeunygi[y’--|/uoyseyep ayeuny]Q *."|| UoMveyep eyean[*-|] UoRIepep eyvanyTN *-"|] uooayop eyemTD *-" 9014/01 6ST |LE6" |PPET LET OFS" [ZEST < |GEL° |OGTT ax01q\ZG6 980° |LP9° |800T SRO L SHOlG OLD FE0' | Tre" [968 |ITLO' legs" [968 ||SAT OLE TISPP |E6T |STHT|SbP A448), |]0Z0' |ggz’ |PSL |LG0" [SL [PSL [PST [TST T26e err’ j26T 1268 PLO’ |Z2%' [ZL9 HELO" |gez’ |zL9 6PO" |L6e" |ZL9 |]060" |Sh6 j9EE GOT j2g6" j9eE TO’ |LLE' 09G OTO' Jest 09g 1]980" |2ze" |09G 1%90" |Z9L" JO8% [840° |O6L° j08z L00°|LET |8hP ].00° PET’ |gPr 1920" |oSz |SPP ||6E0" 98S" |FZ% ]OG0' JOT" [Fee + joor j9ee || + |pot: loge |[LT0" lest |9ge |]0Z0' [STP [891 |I[€0" jorr |89T — |F90' [bez |] — |290° Pez HOTO" ozT |pZz |/600' 89% |ZTT HISTO |oLe" [ZIT — |€0" |Z1t | — Jzeo: |2t1_|/$00" jogo: |ztt ||_+ [get jos | + jeer jos Bia |S [cele jal gels (a gels |4 ee) oe a ea ee g*| ge] 4 eos oe |g a 28 "eh qh 23 sgiae | P lagi a |e ag |S" i 2 | agi a” | =e | ae |.8-.| 2 Aabar lope S| ene oe ec ee aot a SN | rues "200 “QUE “Zozt *S41¢T "207 8ST ‘Buoy “Ye eq Jo WYS10 AA }]*SU0f “4Y¢ eq JO ye Buoy “4g 18q Jo FON rug -ygrr** syoddns jj'urg "yz °°" syoddns ||-utg ‘yypr"*"* syzoddns = |/‘urg *9jp °*"* 5340 dns |/*u19 4j7 sjzoddns meeMyoq aoueysig ua0M4eq 90ueysiq useMyeq eouejsiq weaMjyeq aouejzsiq, mae eet sic pai rzo're'** °° Op wpeasg||ooo'r'"** "OP WPeAg|lOLP I" ***** “OP Wapearg||CTO'E *** *** Op UPC ||GOO"L"” **** “OP UIPVPAE loro'L"*** req Jo wdeqliezort*** aed Jo wdeq}oos'r'*** *“2eq Jo uydaq]}|600'T *** * “eq Jo wdeqileto'r *"* “zea jo wydeq “yg juauisadagy Yay quaursadasy “pig quaursada: “pug, juaunsaday, “ps, quaunsadxy 1935 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. _T692 | Lee" | 6°908 L'96T | 8Le | 8 LOL OTFE | LLE | 1906 6.0TS | LOST | & Eap i — ——— 1669 | 9IG TL | LL9P O0SeoPst 0°89 | LSP'T | 9'09P [0008LL91 SELL | HST | 919 |OOOLZTST yorduit daysisor| — ("p) 1(-9) “eq joromod | *aoroaypop| “yudro Aq | Ut Agro1ySe[9 Oo p x q@| aru | Sarpeorg | josnjnpoyy Iyonporg Pe Cog i ee Or ho ey sreeeereeeo esr toddns waamjoq ‘mle “yy eq “YG yuoutedx | seeeeeeeer es esroddns uaamjoq ‘ule “ye req “Up yuowrtedxsy seereeessseesiroddns uaaajeq ‘Ug “Wp eq “pag yuourtredx 080°) Fe ee eA Ty See SMS ees” iuiaep sano ued ALERT AL) 6GO'L [rrr ee tsqoddns usamyoq “urg “app eq “pug quounsedxg| ” TOU) [ocr syoddns uaamjoq “urg “yp req “ys_ yuouttsodx Ayer oytoeds ‘arenbs TUL YY" T Sivg JO esoyy 0} paonpad sinseyy INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 194 No. VI. ENGLISH IRON. Level, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Staffordshire. : 5 ‘soo ATOM Jy} Su YONUT se aytab you Ft ‘Ajrvau o10q “raueUL ouILS oY} UL palyy pur y3dop syr Jo spatgy-0.j ySno.asyy yno seq ayy eq) puv ‘ysa1ay) UeY a10UN a1og ‘aaoqe sv dn pat[y yo ay} puv “yydap sj jo JY Ysnoasyy yno req ayy yey) aes ypeys em ‘E pur g ‘y quouadxny ur yySuey aTqhop Jo sivq oy JO SYSIom Suryeosq ay} 991M} YIM JO “VF JuoUAdxT| UL IeYy YIM YO pue Vg JUoUTIJedx ay UI WYSIOM Sut “yeorq ayy Sutredutoo pure ‘japout oures ayy ulosy ysvo atom seq ayy [[@ sv yng ‘udyvI JOU a19M IUq 4SLT OU} JO suOIsUOWIP oT, ‘o.tojaq sv faaqs yim dn paypy aangsode ay} puv ‘spremumop doy oy} woay ySnoiyy sprig} “OM O[PPNU OY} UL JNO sem Jeqat “IVIg JUaUNNJadX| JO Jayye] ayy UT *Jaaqs yyos YM dn pey[y yuo oy} pur ‘avs v yy doy 043 toay Ujdap syr Jey 07 aypprux oyy UL no sem seq oYD JOULLOJ 94} UT *uosuLySpoFy “py Aq opvur atom yg pue WE yUoWIOdx | SE SS TE ER ET EO *auynied oy} WO. *aLJU9d 911} UOT} “qysiam snryeoiq *ax}U99 vy} WOT You] ‘aajuaa ayy ye ayorq ||your ue jo ayoig, ||your ue jo F ayo1g Puy JO “sqige Urq ue jo 3 ‘urede uo prey “B66 1— “Leet cde eles ato pry 1eq sip, SOOT eu) yt ayorg LONIeTop Rwy *-"|} DOHdapep aeuy{— *-*}} WoONoaTep ayeuraTy *.* erg OEOT BOL O6T SHOLTUSGE T6E° |800T||6Z0" ISTE |SOOT 84010 SPV GEE TOLD Toe 1968 GEE’ 1968 |]0Z0" |TLZ |968 9OIGOS GES TOP [60 OES LSP PLO |P8L LL@ |P8L PLO |O€S |PSL [LET [PST L26E |6ZL |SztTe6E ||\90T’ |GEO'1lz6E Te |2L9 GES |ZL9 |OLO |O6T |2L9 |E60" |LZ6" |9EE [1060 |0E6" [9EE |l080' |SGs8" j9EE L8T |09¢ G8T |09¢ ||800' |PST j09G |990" |G)" 08% G90 |ePL |08% |lzgo |ss9° jose PPT SPP EPL |8Ph S00 I6TT Shh |EPO' |SLG° [F2z TPO |ELG |PZ% ITSO |LES [Pez TOL 9&e GOL |9€E || + 980° |98E |LZO' |LTH |S9T ||1ZO' |2TF |S9T |/6TO" jege’ |S9T 890° |Pé2e 990° |P%z || + [GG0° jPZz ISTO JoLe |ZEL Holo |9zz |e1t ||600° \zre [ZT ZEO" [ZIT 0&0" |Z1T_||_— |920" ZEt |€00' lost |9¢__|zoo' jget_|9g__|izo0' jozt_ jog _ ae | 8 i ag | 4 Zi] cbt -|42 [et | 4. 1-2 | os] 4 [4 lle | 2 3. | 23 s [22] & gel 2s|o |S" | 88) & ee] 86] & | e* | ee | o Pils Peja: ieee el 2) |e | alee ce eel Be “200 “SQIST “2001 “41ST “WV “EQI9T ‘Buoy 4G seg Jo yYSIa AA ||‘Suoy “34g Veg Jo Fe MA||*Bu0] “aJ¢ Weg JO IUTIA MA s*** syzoddnus |/-ure yyz**+* syaoddns = j|"Wle ‘qygs*t* syzoddns |-mg “ayp** *“sy40ddng = |]"urg “gp "**** syz0ddns |}-u19 “4yp°* *** *sy40ddns udaMjaq eouRysIq|] ~—" uaaAnga| aoe ISIC] WaaMjJaq GdUTISICT uaa Mjaq BUSI, UsaMjoq BdULSIC, TaIaMjaq VIUeSIG] 620'T°*** ** Op Ypearg||PZO'T**~*"* op Typeesg|ooo' T** ***** Op WPeerg|OLO'T” *** © Op UIPeATE||FZO'L” “*** “Op ae 220'T **Aeg, Jo. yydeq||S0°L"*** "reg Jo usdaq|ogo'1* *** “eg JO Uadeq}logo'L **** *“zveLJo Madeq|loro'L* “*"* “Ae Jo widog yg uamLledxy “yTp quauntadag “pig quaursadasy “pug jueuradagy "ST uautrwadasy OF CAST IRON. 195 OTHER PROPERTIES TF OM dopa sayquinsto pue y10ys syno—suawtoads Aapuno qt apse pue Asptoyng ay} 04 dortayun ApuIe}.109 st 4 I—ydpppy 40 opepady om Joyjiie wey) couervodde ur opnonp SsoT ING “poyepnuLAs ATasopo ‘amojoo AorF Tp & sywasord ornjor.y oy ZL ‘suouneds 4104s oy) uo syuowttadxe oy} UL UMoYs se “YY Sues syt UL aepFaaat st pue joudum Suystsat yo samod syr UL SSAUYwaA SoyBorpUr ynq “poy Aavay v Aqowuay aqeaopisuoo YyTA sureysns i ‘payedronue ysay ye sem ueyp synsoa 109}9q OARS [aaa] oy, ‘WOT STG} 0} terfnoad sonaadoad Joyo pur aSeyurays oy} SuyeFysoaaut yo osodind ayy toy Atjedtourrd ouop sem sty ‘popueazyur ysay ye UeYy} YSU] 1o}va13 vo} Woy) puayxa o7 poonpursea 7 ‘syueutedxe osoyi ur payeorpur SOMVNGaLIT WoL ‘Surjooo jo ssaooad oy} Sutzap SpleMUL paotoy Uaeq pet speysAso oy) Jr se ‘suoneyuepur deap yyem sopts qe uo pasdejjoo weadde sSuyseo oy “spfhow ur 4seo way nq ‘s1ay}0 SOU UL ey} Joyver8 ATUO ou st UOYDeAQHOD ay} “o]qeyteulad ome st WO! SI Jo SuryuLys 10 Sayooo oy J—paonpa. Yon oq 0} «vodde you saop yjSuanys ey} ‘stayyjo WIN syuauu ~uedxo osoy) Jo synsaa ayy Sutreduos Inq + topuro Jo ainixiwupe uv ureyu0s 0} pasoddns useq ATpetaues sey 41 ‘ornjorynueur oy} syoodsar sv Aprepnonjased asour jet} pu “uory [adory ay) ur snopemour Surpjowos st az0y uF F866 | 96" F6LE "syioddns usamjoq “are “yz 1eq “(ip quowtsodx 5 SOLG | SGe'T | ETP lOOOTPZET| Teo, |r ee Pea a ees V'S6P | 6S2'T | 6'S6E |O0OFFEFT Se0'y, UROL "Svoddns waemjoq Ug “YP teq “pag quowtiedxy S'GLG | LLE'T | TST [000Z96FT| BGO", |" ” _(sHoddns waoayoq “mg “yp 1eq “pug yuoutiodxsy 9989 | GENT | HSH OOOLISSI] Legg [°° °° °° + syzoddns Woaajog “ULg “IF eq “ysp quowtsodx gy goed ur susiser | (“p) (‘9) “2qI Jo 1omod | noyaagap | “4 y510 44 ur Aytoyseya 10 P & Q) HeunT) | duppeorg | jo snjnpoy qonpo.rg et ats Sea eee cee ee Ee ee ‘orenbs yout OO'L SIG jo osoyy 0} peonpet S}[NSoYy a a er cd DEEL i: “AATID oyroadg 196 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. VII. ENGLISH IRONS. Low Moor, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast, Yorkshire. axpertment 2nd. zperiment 3rd. saxperiment 4th. ot 004||Depth of bar...... .995||/Depth of bar... ....1,004|/Depth of bar.... 1.009) -1,004||Breadth do..,..,, 1.015}|Breadth do... . .1.004]/Breadth do., ....1.005 Distance between Distance between Distance between in. pibporis .... 4ft. 6in,|| supports .....2ft. 3in.|/ supports... .2it. 3in, Weight of bar ft. long, 14\bs. 1202. ? inches. Deflection, Load removed. Load removed, Weight in lbs. Deflection in inches Deflection, > | Load removed. Weight in Ibs. Deflection in Deflection Load removed. Weight in lbs. Deflection in Deflection, 56} .147). 112}. 112] .305) . AN. +. || 224. 182) .531) . . .005|| 336) .1: 238} .735] : .008]} 448) . ; 294) .955) . : .012]| 560} .220) . 350/1.180) . 350)1.210} . .265} .020]| 672) .278} . 4.06)1.461) . 4.06/1.500} . A) 327! .031}| 784) . 462)1.803) .335]| 448/1.764 .048]} 896) .412] .050 469\broke 4.62\broke 952 Broke 952] .4.57 1008! .506|brok Ba deflection ||-*.Ultimate deflection ||‘. Ultimate deflection |} Broke with 1008Ibs. =1.844. = 1.863. = 434. 2 an inch from the cen- Broke 2 of an inch|} Broke g an inch from|}=Broke 3 of an inchi|tre. from the centre, the centre. from the centre. 197 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. JsIy oy} Jo st Supyz0m jo wmopeoy syy— ‘s[RIOUL JOYYO ysour UeYy JHSUoy qonut AjTPIMY SP surejor puw “Yst1 oyITA sprnout socUTyy ayy SUI UOIT SY T— | 2s/aei@ | 2s ias i 2 |22\e5q = | és les o [cy As oa 2 as o 2 As Q as ue ae <9) | ae ee Sunes ie fe eit | 5 S 42) 1.03) + 42) .103] + 112} .294]| .010}} 112] .298] .006 182} .499} .038] 182] .518} .033 238] .685} .065]| 238] .710] .056 294) .892) .094i| 294) .922] .090 350/1.126] .189}| 350)1.160] .135 406|1.382/broke|] 406]/1.430] .209 420|broke 896| .350|!.038]] 896| 372] .044 952|broke 924\broke *.Ultimate deflection||.-. Ultimate deflection = .379. 388 Broke 3 of an inchj|-*.Ultimate deflection from the centre* = 1.492. Broke 1} inch from the centre. Broke at the centre, Broke 3 inch from the centre. 199 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. sliRs€ie) oo )e o Ss) Uie 0 oe eee eye ties eb TA seereeeeeee siroddns waamjaq ‘ule "YZ teq “Up quoutiedx sreeeeeeeee soroddns waamjog ‘ure “YZ teq “pag quewriedx Goo T Gg 2cge OOSPLETTI9OLE'9 MreTere rere ps tere rere eutohr ice meeie alee Nemes oi Sa kel) 6LGT | 6'L9e looogPeztigee'9 [ott c tt te tsyzoddns waamyoq -urg “yp req “pug jueurtiedx TLOL | LEE |OOOLOLTT L169? rrrreeeeeees siioddns usaajeq ‘UIg “yp Ieq “ys] ueumredx 910°) “goed cur < (-0) ae Sil suyjsisor | (“p “9 “Sq “if josamod | uonoapap | Gystea, | ur Aqronseya : Tose 10 p X Q | ayeurny,p | Suryeoig | jo snjnpoyy ‘ jonpordg ‘aaenbs Your QQ’ ] S1eq JO asoy) 0) peonpe. s}[nsayy 200 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. IX. ENGLISH IRON. Milton, No. 3, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, Yorkshire. ee eae Ist. aperiment 2nd. Depth of Bar...,.-1.010||Depth of Bar.. Breadth do.....,.1.014]|Breadth do... Pst e between. c Grewia between a ee supports ,.... 4ft. 6in. Weis! tof Bar sit ee! Weight of Bar ft. ‘ong 15§1 Laperiment 3rd. Experiment Ath. . 1.036 Depth of Bar...... 1.037||Depth of Bar..... 1.05 -1,005]|Breadth do...,. «-1.018}/Breadth do...... 1.015 Distance betw een Distance between Supports... ..2ft. 3in supports ..,. 2ft, 3in. bs. ‘|| ‘ 2°14 |e a a meee eal 2 ies 3 gol eae Wi goe) ee See toga BS Me ig lca 3 | 22188] 3 | Se} 28 S| Bo /82 | s | Ba] Bs @ | feia | @ | 2a; a=] & | S85 /3* | & | 88] ae 21S esiie |S Lagi £ fe (ante |e4iea ie) BS Se ge Oe eee ae ee ae ioe = 42) .093 42) .092| + || 112] .028)/— |I 112) .027 56] 126) + 56| 128] + || 224) .060] — |] 224) .057 126} .300) .008]| 126} .288) .014 182] .453) .027|| 182) .431) .029 238] .61'7| .04.5]| 238] .582) .045 294) .796! .O70|| 294) .749) .066 350} .983] .100}| 350} .927) .095 4.06|1.193)] .143}} 406]1.120} .131 4341 .304) 1741) 448]1.285 448) broke 4.55) broke >, Ultimate deflection — ~. Ultimate deflection ||. 1.358. set Broke 4 of an inch Broke 1} inch from from the centre. the centre. 336] .093) + || 336) .090) + 448) .129| + |) 448] 125) + 560) .165) .004|| 560} .160} .005 672) .209| .007]| 672] .200| .007 784| .252| .013]} 784) .240] .013 896] .300] .020| 896] .285] .021 952) .326 952] .310 1008}broke et broke ———— es une defiection _ Ultimate deftlectio — .522 ~ Broke § of an inch “Broke 4 of an inch) from the centre. from the centre. 201 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘joedunr Sanstses jo saMod pue ainxey $1 UL osfe pue ‘Jarory oy) 0} yySua.s ur aorayu LOYIVA star “s.req ‘UIQ “Ip Oy} UT—‘mofoo AoIS [Up v Jo onjovsy v squasaad pue ‘Ay~noygrp yim sory pue syno 4J—'saynuess Joyyews jo auresy yorduios v Aq papunosms ‘erjue0 ay} ut speyshso uodo Io gpito ev sXeydstp ‘e -o N ‘worry ecole | ice | 286s aah CC EIR. Srey Bee | A SL8 sreceees syroddns usamjoq “ule “Vz seq “YN quoutttedx PIS | 8'0Z6 srrreeeesqioddps usemyjaq “ule “yz 1eq ‘pag quautiedx a9e'L | PLep looeeesetitco'L set eeeceesececcsseccecees coo nuan eget | 8 T2h \OO0GLLSTIOR0'L sreeesees sqioddns uaaajoq “U1g “Ip 1eq ‘pug yuautedx ZLe't | Leer l000986ST ae seeeeesse-syroddns uaamjaq “Ug “yp Iuq ys] quounsedx 8c0') Sunsisat” | (p) 9) ‘eq Ur “AYIA jo1samod | uoyosapep | yYd1I0M Ayonseya ogtoedg IOP XQ | aeunjyg | Surjeeag | jo snjnpoyy jgonpoiga +E Rennpeeeeeneeemeneeeereeeee -aaenbs oul OO'T sreq JO 9SOq} OF peonpoel s}[nseyY 202 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. X. ENGLISH IRONS. Elsicar, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. Distance between Distance between peiewae ft.6in.||_ supports ....4ft.6in,|} supports.....2ft. 3in.|/ supports....2ft. 3in. - long Weizht of bar 5ft. long, 15lbs. 802. 1521bs. 2 a4 Su oF aa Su 2 et Br 2 aa 23 = A Ae S a == = a ee = A ib. 56| .151| 008] 56] .153} .007|| 112}-.030) — P — 126] .865] .025]} 126) .375} .027|| 224) .073}) + + 182) .577} .058)| 182} .563) .062|| 336} .115] .005 238] .81 | .094)| 238) .784| .090}} 448] .165] .009 294!1.054) .153]| 560] .222) .014 350/1.338] .21 || 672} .290) .025 4.06|1.68 | .31 784) 351! .036 4.62|2.09 | .44 || 896] 4341 .065 4.76\broke 924\broke mo So ti deflection Tg gee deflection 19. = 294/1.075] .149 350)1.387] .224 406/1.74 | .327 43411.94 | .395 469 lbroke -.Ultimate deflection == 2.147. Broke one inch from the centre. 812|broke .. Ultimate deflection Broke }of an inch ~ Broke 4an inch from ~ Broke at’ the centre from the centre* ‘the centre. 203 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. *QOUBIOG JO JUSUIBOUBAPY Ol} Joy UOVIOORSY YSHIG oY} JO suONORSUeLY, OI} Jo oUNJOA IBY 9N3 UL UAaAIS se yAodayy Aut UL puNo; oq [[LM ‘UOIT ysvTE OFT VOIP] oN} pure ye[_ P[oD AeoIs[y ayy Jo sonpea oaneredutoo ony, , y’punos eatsaype yos e Aq parueduosoe Sutaq Surpy yo uorjoe ay) ‘1apio say ay} jo ore serjsedord Suryiom s}~ ‘anyq YI poxtunteyur ‘mopoo AeiS v sey yy “req oy jO WIYS J9]NO ay) 4xeu esoy} se a.yued ayy UT owes oY) ATAwoU BuTeq ‘speysXso oy} Jo oz1s oyY UL AyroNIOFTUN yeas st atayy farnjoesy ay) JO WoNoas oATJUe oy} 10AO ooULAvadde snouT{S puv payLIyLA & sey WOIT SIT, €'8Lé | €9P_ | 6918 €&'ecée | 09h =| S892 TSOP | 990 | 1998 L166 | P2z% | O'9PP lOOS9EGeTISz6'9 cence ae etn fear een sage orate erie aie eh aeee OOM AT stresses sqioddns waaajoq ‘ule “yg Ieq “UDP yuoutedx sereeeeeeees sqioddns maamjoq ‘me “Yg req “pag quowtedx nisio els 2/2 WP Sip-S% (Pi Pm RG Sb ie oe ne nae TTT 2 900T| 692% | Sep l000ZSEZTI9T6'9 sere ee ee eee eco toddns UdaAMJoq “UIQ “IP Ieq “pug quourttedx rereeeeeeoes syioddns uaaajaq ‘UIQ “Ip eq “4ST yuouttredx -goeduut Suysiset | (“p) (-9) “eq] : joiomod | nonoagap | Gysteqq | ut Ayorseya ‘A109 0 px Q| avun[Q | suryeoig | jo sujnpoyy yiooees qouporg ‘aaenbs yout OT sreq jo 8SOY} 0} poonpod S}[NSa yy 204 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. XI. ENGLISH IRON. Oldberry, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. xperiment 2nd Depth of bar....1.038]/Depth of Bar.. .. Breadth do.. ....1.009}/Breadth do....... 1-027]|Beadth do,....... 1.017 Leperiment Ist. oo». 1.063 periment 4th, aperiment 3r of Bar,...1:049 d. 1.071||Depth Distance between Distance between Distance between supports .... 4/t. 6in ||supports..-.... 2ft.3in.|| supports ....2ft. 3in. Weight of bar Sft. lon,g 5 1531bs 2138 32 | 4 ei 2/4 eae 3 a | selaei a | 32/2 2 | ge |22 le |g | 38 a |. $2 jee S| ea Se | 2 es | 22 | 2 [ee ee 2 aA | & spe Ba | 2.5 | a | oS iP > |e tae Bp) a [SR e |* |F2y 2 ia [Pe ie js | 72 30} .063) + 30} .065} — || 112] .029) — || 112) .029) — 56] .125} .005]} 56} .124) + || 224) 057) — |} 224) .060} + 257] 014. 336| .090| + |} 336.095] + 032 448} 123) .005|} 448) 133} .005 055 560] .161| .007|) 560} .174) .009 : 083 : 672] .205| .014| 672] .219} .014 336] .934) .119]} 336/1.002] .125]| 784) .250) .020]| 784) .267| .022 392|1.140) .167]| 392]1.230) .184]| 896) .300} :032/| 896] 326; .036 448)}1.373} 240] 448)1. 1495} .267//1008) .864) .050|) 008} 395) .056 344 504)1.661) . 4:76)1.644 1064) .400 504\broke 1092\broke Broke } of an inch|| Ultimate deflection |},-. Ultimate deflection The weight (1008 from the centre, when||:--1,788. —.416. when replaced brok the same weight was|| Broke 1% iuch from|| Broke Z of an inchllit § of an inch from the placed on again, after||the centre. from the centre, centre, the deflection and elas- ticity had been taken. 205 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘ery ayy Aq paonpar Apisea st pue “asm oy) TIA Apoary smo 4y—"uoIy YSTP AA TMOG ‘BaysepY oT} 0} poytoa Sutaq jo Joaod s}t UT IepMIs st 4F—"yoaq1od puv punos syoodsar LaI}O Ur ynq ‘a4jAad YY ut snosod sayyea ‘ fo18 yiep eB imojoo uy ‘spujsX10 youduioo yews jo pucg v yA oAMOVI OY} JO O[pprat oy} spunoums ‘% ‘oxy ‘Assaqpy SS a eos aeer Ese O08 SET6_ ere ate ee eee ke nahn th en eS nee at ROA gale PUP’ ‘0 6 Cee eect eeree *sj10ddns vaamjaq “me “WZ req ‘TP quawiLiodx rey . ceeees Voly | OPV 6 vores esqioddns uaaayaq “me “437 eq ‘pig yuautsedx 7 ‘L128 | 11st | cest loocroerileco'y syrie'sic eg wie\aia. din since ie Cs see bes erp | F098 | 968'L | 9'E9F |OOOLTFFTIOS0'L OSS) | 99L'T | VEPP |OOOSETFT 6s0'n sist ores LE0') 9°00 v| OPT | OLE G . . . . . . reese ssytoddns maaaiyjaq “ug ‘Ipp teq ‘pug quocriedx7y eoeecee sjioddns UsaMjaq UIQ “}P Teq 98] quautiodx5y “jouduat Suystsaa | (“p) (:9) ‘sqj ut “Ayrvn ry jotemod | worapap} yydiow Ayonseya vimoodg 10 p X Q| ayeumy[Q | Suryeorg | yo snjnpoyy yonporg ‘orenbs Gout (Q"T S1eq Jo asoyy 0} paonpas synsayy INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 206 No. XII. ENGLISH IRONS. e1jU99 84} WOIy fale TOTPIETAP SPRY] *-* 4 3 aa Lam) = © foso E |E0" 4 1920 2 1270 * 1600 S 1900 os] + & t alee Loe - oC ao] Ay] Se ae cmH Os : AYOIQOSLL OST |P90L “1OLP |SOOT PPS’ 1968 “|T8a° |P82 “108 |2L9 “I88T j099 “I9PL’ |SPP GOL’ |9€€ 690° 1Poz% 6&0" I2LT # Z §g|4 aa] A 5 heya" ‘sjaoddng 099MjOq BOURISTG coo" L** **** Op yypeerg||000'T** ++reg Jo wydaq||ezo't:****zeq Jo uideqiiggo'T **"* "zea Jo Wadeq)|gco'T oor" “Yi qUsturtaa -aaj7198 949 qour ue yo — axyorg |/wosy you! ue $ exorg id ee ‘uoT}IaYap 9yeu] (*- 94014 FOOT [GZ | LOF |SO0T CEO’ |STE’ 1968 CZ0' |98a' I78L 610° | Sa |eL9 O10’ |S8T |09G LOO’ |SPl IStP G00 |S0T' |9EE — |990' |Fae — |280' |eT Sale Sie “alg “4)z °*** syzoddns maaM4aq eUeEzSIC] “YIP JUIULLLIG + ** op WPVasg||Z10°T" “ulese Uo Jup uzeq pey (FOC) WWSTOA at} 192 erjMad ay} MOY your we Jo $y axoiq C66 |OOL' TIPO SIG (SP TSPP CCT |est 1Z6e TILT |916° |9€E 080° |8L4° |08¢ GSO" 1009" |Faz NEO |Lab |S9T 61 |9LS [ZT iaean| een Oe, = |s90"_|s2__ ce |#, | 2 ae | sa | iy eee SqTc91 “Bu0| “JE Teq JO JUSTIA AA mg "yp*7*** ‘syoddns maeMjeq BoUeISTC °° *op ypeelg ‘pig quauradry *94}0199 O17} WON ‘arqnaa ayy 48 eXOIg |/your ae jo § oxHoIg Toysepap aHeuIyTD *.* “cert 84014 / SPP 0ZE T0zZP E91 |S0a T\c6E 61L |P86° |9EE 080° |28L° |08% OGO' |S6S° |Pre 820° |Leb |89T 110" |$9@° [etl = Sele ie — |990" |82 arya | 3 ge jaa | & a's a = “ZOOT “EQIST ‘Sn0] “YG req jo pe te A “mg “fp ¢°7* 8)40 uvaMjeq e00e4sIq “op yypealg||Ly'T * £001" “e +e" yeg jo qidag ST’ . dns “pug jUIuLrLsag * 160° 1== TONIATep e}eUltjzI{H *.” OHOLGGOPL 8E0 TO0FT LOY |SL6° |PPET TET j098" |ZeaT GOL |SPL° \Octt T80° jS¢9° |S00T 890° |69S° |968 Z2G0' |ShLv IP8h 860 |66E" |ZL9 620 1c" |09G 610° 167% ISP ITO’ |6LE0 |9E¢ COO JEL” |Pe% + |$SO° |21T — !160° |9G B= P1088 $2) 82) 4 ak os 4 asia" | # ela E "EqEPES ‘Bno] “ye Leg JOU SII MA wig “3yp"**** *sjzoddns maaMjog aust ++++* 0p Wypealg "++ aug jo wideq “p8] quamieda’ 207 S OF CAST IRON. = D7 ERTII OTHER PROP "S[BOU 48OIJO8 Ino JO ottOS TTA posseyo oq Agu pure ‘asva yeaid yA SaTY OsTe FL £100} oY} TILA JNO UayA ssauIjos jo seudep oqeyseuer ve yyIMm ‘anojoo AaIS eB ‘sonstiojoeseyD —axjsny e1ow yt poeluedmoooe “pauresZ-1asojo sivedde gr ‘Surpooaid oy) yim wory sty) Suuedwog 89'T0¢ CLT O'8gOL iad en ae ee atten ae ne ae OCT] LE OFC] OG |O'SOTT treeeeccessesiioddns waamjeq ‘ure “ye aeq “IG yuousedx O6°Z9F LO |O'eTOL sreseeeesee ssqroddns uaamieg “mle “YZ req “yp yuouIedxy _@etL TZ9'T 6: OFP_|OOOLO9FTGHO"L Cee eee eee ee Me ndahe nites este on 2 ale STR TAT LTS] I9L'T [OF [OOO9EEFTIEGO'L [°° * 77°77" * *Soddns waaayoq -m1g “yp req “prg juoutredx yg 2619] Z8P'T |S LTP |VOO8TOST ee tee eeeeee ee asiroddns waamjog “arg “pp aeq “pug quomtedxg wt etc ee tee e ee eencceeeecesceeeees pany —_——— | ———_—- _ | ——_— —_—___ —— y COL 689 LLP sreeceeeeres syroddns uaemjoq “UIQ “4p eq “ysT JuouTedxy Saysisax (‘p) (9) eq] Ayre jo aamod | ‘noyoopop] “Gusioa, | ut 4y101yseTa oywoadg 10P XQ} ayeunyy | Suryveaig | josnmpoyy pupolg ‘arenbs Wout OO" T Steg Jo esoyy 0} paonpad sinsey RR ON TS LT LL LL 208 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND . No. XIII. ENGLISH IRON. Horace St. Pauls, Windmill End,No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast, Staffordshire. L. ee ceils lst fee eal 2nd ie net ord. Experiment Ath. Depth of Bar....1.043)}Depth oi bar.... 1.035) Depth of Bar.. ..1.05¢]|/Depth of bar.... 1.045 Breadth do......1.024||Breadth do...... 1.010]|Breadth do....... 1.021||Breadth do., ... «1.020 Distance between || Distance between Distance between Distance between supports ....4ft. 6in.|] supports .... 4't. Gin ||supports..-.... 2it. 3in.|| supports... .2ft. din. Weight of bar att. long, Wergnt ot bar dit. lon.g Eats Zhaatbe. 157th a g 3 D so n iz} 3 oi 3 ap. jee (ta Vee tes joe 2 | S18 eee SP See eee es | & eae" | & | ee fae 6 {Silay |] 3 | S8 lag] s | 3" Ss] 3 |e? }ag e 1A Sol pe jae He | rent ei sie la S 56} .110) — 66) .115) + |} 112) .025) — }} 112) 028) — 112} .227); + || 112| .240) .009)) 224) .060) — || 224) .060) + 168) .352) .013]| 126} .274 O11} 336] .090) + || 336] .094) + 224) .490 eg 182) .412).025}, 448] 125] 005] 448) 130] .005 280} .630) .04 5| 238| .560) .042]] 560) .160 007} 560) .167| .008 336] .788) .066)| 294) .719] .064]| 672] 196] 010), 672) .206) .011 392] .955| 094!) 350} .107| .091]| 784) .240 o1i| 784) .255] .020 448]1.140} .125)) 406)1.279] .123)) 896) .285] .024), 896} .295) .027 504/1.350] .187!| 462!1.89 | .170]/1008! 3836) 0361008) .852) .042 .398| .059/|1036)\broke 490|broke} .204))i120 A451 560]1.589} .260|| 504 11176 ata broke Broke at the centre. Ultimate detlection . Ultimate deflection ||.+. Ultimate deflection 2145 Py —.364 “Broke 3 of an inch from the centre. Broke § of an wa Broke 3 of an inch from the centre. from the centre, 202 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘SUOIT LOOT, MO'T Jo ALT PIO OF} Joya Wey poy10Ai aq 0} y[noupTp oro ynq ‘wo Suoys v ATpapwep st pug [rupury,—ayy ony 0} Ajaoay axour sport yng ‘Aqroeu9} yum Sumyno sysisaq ‘AouS yrep ve mojog—urys prey v YIM papunogms pue “req oy} Jo sespa oy) ye aynutm Aros woreziyyeyshig—-sourseadde yoeduoo WI & sey oMoRIy oY], _LGer | 92h | o'166 VEE | O8& | TOS O'867 | ELF | ESOT /0'S9L| 18¢°t | 6:2eF loo006F9T|LLO'L GLO'L 1°69 | GOST | Z'e9F joooggz9T|6¢0"L 0°68 | LG9'T | LOS ]000LTL 97/080", “yoedunr So ee Saysisor | (-p) (:9) sq] ( Joramod | uonoagap | Gyste 4, | ur 4qronseIa “ATA 10 PX q) ayeunnyy | suryeaig | jo snynpoyy yroeds JoDpOrd SSS eee 8 se ‘aaenbs Your QQ] Sxeq Jo asoy) 0} poeonpet s}[nse yy -- es eanssnsssuessssnssnsnsspesessssneeeees CT Oe fe Lie ak ee ee Ee eS seereresees syioddns waaayaq ‘ure ‘YZ ieq “YIP yuourtsadx sre eeeereees soioddns woamjoq “Ug “YZ eq “pag yuautiedx nt. n 9 EGA ASO aa RA ele ee Nate ate ag Ty ere ee es ese eon oddns WdaMjaq “UIQ “Ip req “pug quountiedx iy sireseesees suioddns uaaayaq ‘arg ‘Wp req “4s] quounsedx e 210. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. XIV. ENGLISH IRONS. Ley’s Works, No. 1, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. a Bs 2nd. ropa y ar Depth of of] Ter. .. 998 Depth of bar... ... 1.009]|Depth of bar . Breadth do.......+ 1.006||Breadth do. . 1.025||Breadth do. . D perce bearer Distance between supports ....4ft. 6in, | Weight of bar att. Jong. is. 602. Weight in Ibs. Deflection, Load removed. Deflection in Deflection, Load removed. Deflection, Load removed. 2 Eg .084 Aude 063} . 588] . F 820] . : 280/1.187) . 280/1.098]} . 280|1.1241 . 336|1.519} . 336|1.408} .7 336|1.415} . 364/1.710 392/1.760] . 392/1.780) .: 392 \broke 4.06\broke 413|broke =, Ultimate deflection — = Ultimate “deflection p Ciltimnts desler) 1.882. =1. Broke2 an inch from Broke 2an inch from|| Broke 3 of an inch the centre. the centre. from the centre. 211 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘pormba.s jou st yj)3uans a1oyM Y1OM 4yST] 10} poydepe pure . ‘suoir Joprey oyy Suronpas soy pejour a[qenyea & iy) Japrsuoo pmnoys T “aTY ayy 0} Apaary spjatd pure ‘wopacdy yjta syno ‘omnjovsy umsoztun snosod w syiquyxe 41 “ouduT Jo 9d10J OY} 0} dOURYSISed Jo tamod S}I UL [Jam spueis AYUaptae yng ‘syysIeM Suryeosq st syoadsea sv WOAL Yea B SI YSeTq OFT ‘sy10 Aq SAorT S'erhL | O68'T | 6 26E |CEECESTTILG6'9 POLL | SEG T | G86E OOOTEDTT9E6'9 ESL | 6S8'T | L68E |OOOGESTTI9IT6'9 LPEh | SL8'T | @16E |OOOSSPIT|L66" freee ereee ese auoddns UaaAJaq “UIQ “IfH Ieq ‘pac quowtiedx teeeeeereee: sqioddns woamjoq “Ug “YP tq ‘pug yuommodxg seereeeeesee sytoddns usamjoq “wg “yp Ieq Ys] quoutedxg jonduir Suysisar | (‘p) (:) sq] ut “AVA josamod | uoyoagap| yydiem Ayonseya ayroadg IOP XQ | syeung[y | Suryeorg | jo sntn pow qonporgy SS ee SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSFFSSssFeeses -aaenbs yout OO'T siBq JO aso} 07 pronpat S}[Ds0y 212 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. XV. ENGLISH IRON. Lane End, No. 2, Pig Iron. Depth of bar. 995 Depth a Bar 1016 7 ||Breadth do.. ....1.020/|Breadth do....... 1-02! cron between Distance between t im lI weight ofbar aft, ions Weleht of baz tion, Weig t of bar at. Tong, Weig tofbar 5 5 ] ong g a ne a? Es aI ae Es a E my: — 28} .070 28) .070; — — 56} .142) — 56} .137) — 011}} 112} .289) .012}) 112) .243) .007 168) .458] .027|| 168} .430) .021 043] 224) .628) .040)) 224) .592) .038 061)} 280} .800) .060)| 280} .760) .051 336} .998) .082|) 336] .945} .075 392/1.160] .110| 392/1.198] 110] 39211.138| 100 448]1.370] .143]| 4201.308 448|1.340] :13] 4:16|broke 448|broke bone deflection |j,°. ee deflection Broke at the centre. —1,4 eo Broke at the centre. Broke 2 an inch from the centre. -_ — j=) b, OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘gorda Suysisas jo zamod Sit UL Loltayar yng ‘sdary ayy 0} TUS st 41 syoadsea Aueut uy ‘a1y ayy Aq poonpas ATisva! pue peuresrs uedo ‘aouereadde autpeysAao auy & sjuasaad 47 “‘Sujooo uaym Aqpidea syulys pue Sasdeyjoo 41 sassvut eSavy ur seo OTM ‘ping Aqenba pue ‘sAory uy} uoat saSuods v SI‘ “ON ‘puy ouery L'6c9 | PTET | SPP |999L82¢TI820°) FES OIG ee Gan, ATTLG | 198 | PZeh OO06ZS9T\OS0', |" 1" 1°17" +t “sHoddns usosjeg “ump “yp seq ‘pag quourtiodx B'GG9 | TOP'T | 9'PP [OOOPSTSTILIO"L, [°° 7° 1* + 7+ -sy40ddns uoamyaq WO “Wp teq “pug yuounsadx L169 | SLEL | 0'89F loo00GesTt pe ***** sqroddns WoeAM}oq UIQ “WR req “ST yuoursadx Se D007 : “youd aur Suystsar (‘p) (9) *Sq] ur “AYLAwID Jo tomod | uoyaagap | yysiom Ayronsele oytwadg JOP X 7 | ayeunjty | Suryearg | jo snynpoyy 4 jonpoL a Be ee ‘oxenbs your QQ] “tuq JO 980y} 0} paonpas synsay 214 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND Nios OVE ENGLISH IRONS. Carroll, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. Experiment Ath. azperiment Ist. perv nd. Lapertment3rd Depth “of Bar cores 1.050 pepo aes . 1.025]|Depth of Bar... _ -1.069]|De pth of Bar.....1.030 Breadth do....... 1,010}|Breadth do. . . 1,015}| Breadth do.. .-1.020}|Breadth do...... i 044 gees between Distance betw een Distance between supports......4ft. 6in.|} supports,.... , 6in.|| supports.....2ft.3in.|| supports .... 2ft. 3in. Weig tof Bar Sit. long,|| Weight of Bar 5ft. long, bs. 100z. 16lbs. Foose 2F Pel oe per Fe | PE el 112} .225) .008 112) + O26 5 ike! N28 = 126] .256] .010 .233} .008 .054 224) .060 182} .384! .019 .264 .010 .083 336] .090 238] .518)] .035 O98} . 112 448} 124) . 294) .659) .052 534) . 149) . 560} .159] . 350} .810] .073 683) . 183} .007|] 672) .196} . 406} .870] .099 B40) . 224) . 784) .234) . 462/1.144) .133}]| 406]1.008) . 262). 896] .278) .02 476|broke 434]1.097] . 2| 284. 952|broke 4.48]1.144, 1009}broke 462|broke -. Ultimate deflection ||\-. Ultimate deflection ||... Ultimate deflection ||.-.Ultimate deflection. =1.183. pa: 191. 305. —,299. ~ Broke % of an inch||} Broke 3 of an inch Broke % of an inch Broke at thecentre. from the centre. from the centre. from the centre. 215 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘WOAT Jey) Wey} asee a10ur YIM SOT Joremoy yf ‘[00} Sara1ny so fastyo ayy Aq uodn pajoe Way ssoupaey JO soinjeay squesead pue ‘arsny SSaT SPY AT “OAnjon.ys eurpeysAso pue Aysuap syt ut nom (qs[9 A) 80148 oy} 0} snoSopene st pjoue5 aL ene | Le | e118 L'’9%| 808 | 9'6¢8 6182 | 9ZE"_| 898 Fee a ia Seen Mak, SES BEES RTE seeeees s-sitoddns usaaieq “mre “4% seq “yyp quowniedx cresess esqioddns uaaajeq “are 44% ieq “pag yueurtiedx o'0gs | 1821 SOF [OO09GOLT GOOD [TTT ttt ttt ttt tte eee eee ee pan 0'62¢ L221 2 E&P 0002 [et 6S0°) po Rebate oe **s)10ddns TeaMJoq “ULg “UP req ‘pug quowted xq oO’ tes¢ LEST GC L2P 00009L91 080°) Tibi FSP SN) sjtoddns TA9M49q ‘ULQ “YP 1eq “487 quewniedx ‘yordunr a oer suysisaa (‘p) (9) "Sq Aye Joramod | ‘aonsapqap| Gysie, | ut Ayroyseya | ogredg 10 PX Q| HeuNyTy | Suryeorg | josnmpoyy qonpotg ‘arenbs your O0O'T Se jo 9S0G} OF peonpeat S[NSOY | No. XVII. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND ENGLISH IRONS. 216 See SETS ratyuad ayy *eaquad oyy ULOAy *o1jued ayy *917U9) IU} mod) MO. yout ue F ayo |jyou we jo £ eyorg |/uloay yout auo ayorg your we jo By ayorg — . “LEST — ‘OFS’ == ay (4 fe “ad}090 OY} UO} Lot a2 uoTaTyep ayeuUny[y * woKQoayep eyeuy[Q*--|| UoYIapep ayeuny{y ."-|jyour we jo = sxo1g uONIyep eeU41) “a SOLD QPL aL SPT ar 9OLN/ EGG SOT TOSP | ox1g 2S LOer LET TOV m PLG/968 19E0O' |€ZE" 968 LTT [SLO UZ6E ||LZT |6FO TMZ6E lZct |OGO'T26e <> j0OZO' |9G2 |P82 ||/1Z0° [S92 |PSL ||T80' |PES’ |9SE 680° |Z98" |9EE 880° |Z98" |9EE & |€1TO |ETS [219 |PTO' |6L% |ZL9 ||8S0' |089° [O8z |/T90' |00L° |08@ ||190° |L69° 082 3 800° |ELT J09S {800° |LLE |09 ||L80° |0ZS" |PZz 00" [OPS |F2S |16E0" |8EG° |Pee ec |200' |ZET [SPP 900° |LET [SPP ||6L0' |9LE" |S9T |/EZO' |68E" |89T 120" |L8E" |S9T a | + |$60° |9€€ 400° [860° |9EE ||600" [OFS |ZIT ||Z10' [6h jZTT ||Zt0' |P8e |oLt = + |190° |PZz || + [P90 |PZz || — \6TT log + |GZT° 19S + |92T° |9S wo | + logo" lett || + leo lett 090° |gz 190° [82 190° |8z a] seje | 42 oe) e | 2.8) 4 |2 |etla: }-2£] lai 4 of] es|a 5 66 gy g o6 aa 28 g 2°o Ba | opel se |e | ge] 22) s ige| £218 | gales | = ee) 28 | 2 6] /82 | @ | eo) 28) Sal] 28) a | Se) Se | So | ge] sa | & 5 Farg ygsc'* syoddns |/-ingyjzv* **syaoddns — ||furg app °° 7° sysoddns||-urg “yyp**** syaoddns || -atg “yp “+> syzoddus faa) waaMyaq aoue;SICT WaaM}0q dULSICT uaaMjaq aoueystq uaaMjaq adUezsSI laa Mjaq 99UeISIC SOME econ Op Tipe |icgo'r"* °° =" Op Wpeer||/1E0-T***** Op WpPeerq||PEo'l "°° ** op Wpeatq|/ PHOT" **" "OP TpBoTg! lezo'L *** eq Jo tMdaq||/qo°E "* **aeg yo wdeq||tzo'L ** ** req Jo wideq||reo'L ****aeq Jo wdaq]| gTo'L *** 4g JO wideq “YIg -qipea ieee “YP ir, “ple Pere *PUz, eacsenien *j8[ quauradey OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. lesz ‘paytoar Suto jo somod syt ur pur oouvavedde ur avy # } at 2 ‘ = Q > ; es We wuts Luo syoadsos aoyjo Ut mq “LOOPY Aor] ory UHYY pouyess sesopo royyeA st ‘amrysyso X ‘Zon ‘AoptoIg 6926" 6998 oo are ee ca i i 2 eae 2 ne eee reoe | Sz Tresesesess ssyroddns uaaajoq mg yz Inq “yg quotedxs PSbe"_| 0°06 srreescsees sqroddns useajaq “ug -3yz 1eq “yyp JuourLedx @ OGG O'91E ener | zee1 | TOF leeTgstoT ste receeeseseseceseeesetererecoe mugT T'80E | 612'E | 891% |OOFTPLOT ssresceess syoddns wsaajeq “u1g “yp meq “pag quomtiedx sy] > CzCh | EET | 6'6LE [O000GFST) GeTy |Q °°” * *SModdns wooayoq “urg “ap seq “pug quouredx Ty c2z¢| Leet | perp loooLrezor reeeeeeees siioddns usajoq “U1g ‘Wp ieq “sp quoutsedx yy “goed unt COB ati Suysiset | (“p) (:0) “qI yan oaamod | uooapep | “ySte ur Ajtonseya eee) Bo | st | Sioa | BARE | Ses a a a a a A Ee Oa ee ee ‘aaenbs Your QQ] Sxeq Jo esoy} 0} paonpa. sinseyy I LT TIE A TE TS STRENGTH AND INQUIRY INTO THE 218 No. XVIII. ENGLISH IRONS. Staffordshire. W.S.S., No. 2, Pig Iron. eh i LN Oi)U99 VY WOOL) YUL eo oxO.Ag ROG tare UOTPIATFOP 9IVUIII|- *-" 820° 0&0" GLO OTO 910.14 'FE6 BE" 1968 68° |P82 96S |oL9 a6L |09S 100° OST |SPP GOO |90T’ J9EE + |OLO’ |P3e geo" |Zrt_ + = ” By eae sl se Be| sg | 4 39 | od rs a ov r= aa oo ae | Ba |e-3 2 S I A Ss are Jz °°" syroddns WaaMjoq eULISIC, 2a0°L*** *** Op Tprorg LLL eq Jo yydaq “We ja *@1}U9D IYY mos your $] vor ‘cle — uonaapep aeUNg{y) *-* 9010196 OS |968 G6% |P8L [Fe |éL9 gé0" GZ0" GTO" O10 |F6t 900° |67L + 190T + {190° + {880° |ZTI Deflection, Load removed. Deflection in inches Weight in lbs. *aa} 199 aT]} TOA your ue jo # eyo1g aijued oY} UO, yout ue jo k axorg “9ce 1 noYoaTep aewiy{y *- ayorq/ POS LG6E PST VP9E SPO LIES 668" |08Z TVD" |Pas “|99V° |89T L6q° |aIT 2d Raab éL0° 8 inches, Deflection load _Temoved. Weight in Ibs.{ Deflection in “ule "yg" *syzoddns WaaMjaq BUPISICT egortss*** + op uIpeaig||c66- LLO'L * * reg Jo yideq|/cTo'L ** “ne ann tadagy Sung "yp ttt sjuoddns uaaMjaq aaUueysICT canes “op Ypres iveg jo yydeq Taay “PAG JUA eOaq/ TEV 182° L0eP 6LET66E OL6" |9GE 6LL° |082 9PO' |L09° [Pee 820 |OFP |89T ZLO |GLG° |GET + ISél |9¢ 890° |8z% a 060° 790° Deflection load removed. Deflection in inches. Weight in lb urg "3iF °*** Sqtoddns Ud0MJaq AIULIST 210° T "*** °° Op WIptesg 1600 [~~ "48q 30 tideq | pug waunsadasy *aaquad ay} Je eOIg Lrg I= UOTPOPap eA 930.1q|Qpp — [80a T0eP 80T |6ET Te6e SLO’ |eV6" \9ee 6S0' |PSL° j08e ZEO' ELS" Fam 020° |6ePh' |89T OTO' JOL] |@Lt + (pel 9g 190° |82 2 Se leg aS = 89 En | Se} 22 es oe] og a a os 6L ag| 3" | 3 = S eae = ‘arg ‘yr’ *?* sytoddns uaaMjod ar0eysIQ] STO. == “SOP ap eee Izo'L "774k JO Wdag IST MaULLIad as, 219 OTHER PROPERTIES .OF CAST IRON. ‘AvaR yy Bq MopoH—oey otf Topun foo} Ayyud pue pavy & seq yng “WOpIa.l] qvaas yim sdryo 47 ‘ojepody oy} sv owes oy AT[eOT|MOpL oanjoway s}t UL sourtvoddy we sey WOAL SIT, PLZE £998" 0O'€68 ajepete sai :5y0.8 spore © st erajeie) one el oinio eS )e aes oy o'ete | gece’ | S'F88 wee eeereee ee ssi toddns usaajoq “ure "YZ Ivq “WG quowod xy a'TFe | Tene’ | 9106 sense eee ee esqioddns waamjaq “Ue “YZ eq “YP younsdxy CESS 6 EET Oe TP eCeecGgrl sib ielle(sisxe) se eis) < sayspevelenee. eiaisie ss OP Rese seq JO yideq STO'L ** 9LO'L “yig quaursaday *@1gUod OY} ULOdY your ux yo F vxorgy Sar uOT}IATEp AyVUIAT[) *" 93[0.19)8001 G66" |2S6 9¢0° |e9e" |968 Gz0° |00€ |F8L LIO’ [872 GLO |LOG 600° |9ST Goo jOLT + |0L0° 6&0" ———_-~ | ——. + Deflection, oad removed. Deflection in inches. Weight in lbs. L “ute "yyz""** *syzoddns uaaMjoq aUezSICT cools" -op WIpeaig ss yee Jo yydeq||¢ 9€0°L” yp quaULada’ “atQaed VY} wor yout we F eyo1g ‘oIL I= toldapep aewMy{) ** 9014067 LSO TOL 9G TSPP GSS Tb GEO TI9EE 828" |08% 1v9" |Pes 6€0' |O9P" |s9T 610 |L82° |eIT + |séT’ |9¢ 690" _|8 — TS 89 orca L6" 790° Deflection oad removed. Deflection in inches, Weight in lbs 1 Sag “4yp tt sysoddns ueaMyaq aoueysICT -aAjUad oY} WO your ue jo § oyorg "HLG'T== uoQaeyep ae,” *paoe|! od uaaq pry (spp) Ist ogy 4eyjye aaju9d = OY} WO] YUL suo ayorg 901g SCV “PES LSP "1G82 TIZ6E ‘|8P0'T96E 1868" a eo 6ST" "1986" 66 OLO" 09% |LE9' T|SPP LET [QFE 1/26 TET |O60' T/9EE 60° |898" 890° |FL9° 680" |SLP PLO |T62° + (|68T 690" Deflection oad removed Deflection in inches: Weight in lbs) Deflection load removed. Deflection in Weight in Ibs. 1 ‘ug ‘yyp** syzoddus |] ‘arg 4jp “*** syzoddns WaOMyaq AWezSI ATORD 2s OR. NPB ese, gzo'L****3eq Jo ude “pug quaur.ade: 223 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘apy oyp pur fost op xopan ssomyos pue Ayprny Samiqutos “Tost uado oayy w st 4J—ez1s enbo jo Ayxvou Surtaq sapryaed oyg ye ‘Aquepndox sir toy opquyxeulor st WOME Sty} JO oANjOwIy OUT cote ee se cesses ocscnssosocccsce -TBOTA T1986 {LST |_0°606 Bee SS oe a =s eeeeeereseee* guioddns maamjoq ‘ule “yz 1eq “YIG quouttedx oe aa Bik seeeeeeeeee egy roddus waaMyoq “ULE “YZ tvq “yy yuoutedx Set | ea) Ea Sierele 0.0 ce eelscia s\ejais 6\¢ os s\eusieree eleiel= oS EON PLZL| 1L99°t| Loeb |99SoPser CARA one A ae. z ees | ee ee eeeserresee eG “UL bd I EBL) SSICT) ERP DORORERE| 1. ler pase vay aul saat i ap 2 Ne a 9199} G6s'T| OOF loog0rerT| Loon | --syoddns waamjoq “Ulg “yp teq "87 yuoumttodx semanas (p) ‘q) deiibe gad sq] *Ayraeay jo demod | uoyoapep | FYystem | Ur Ayoyseya | oyroadg 10p Xq | oyeung[g | Suryvoag | Jo Sn[NpOW qoupor ‘aaenbs Your YO T Sxeq JO Bsoy} 0} paonpat s}[NSey No. XXI. ENGLISH IRONS. -Brook, No. 3, Pig Iron, Dudley Worcestershire. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 224 i H aajued at} Wor “@A}99 THOS) *a.1QUad aT} *aayuaa ayy your ue jo § ayoug qour ue jo § eyorg {|woy yout ue Foyorq ||mouy your FL exo1g ‘Ors = “ar}U9d BY} WO.) KT 2 oo “868° T= €62° I= TONaHEp aeUIyTA*."|/yonr ue} jo F exorq || UONoapep ayeuNyTD *."|| VONdeBap ayeuNg{p *-" | —" 941044). GY 99€ S001] — ely voLp oxOrdO LP etek | 9401q/ BGG LES |2G6 ||28T [OOS TSPH |06T |OOE TSzF || — |S6T TIShP PEO [LTS 1968 |/0E0' 60" [968 ||/PET |Z8O' T26E |THE O60 TZ6E |6ET |Z60 TZ6E FO’ |PIS |P8L ||0ZO' |6Gz' |F8L ||S60' |P68' |9EE |IPOT |Z06 j9EE ||OLT JOLG \9EE GLO |8lS |ZL9 FLO |PTS JZL9 |/690° |STL° [08% ZL0° |TZL° [08% |ELO' |ZeL° [08% OTO' |9LTE JO9S 600 |ELT jO9G LPO ESS |Pez 6PO' ISSG |P2z |/0GO' j6SG° \Pez LOO" |LET SPP 900° PET |SPh EZ |L6E" |S9T 620° [OOF [S9T | TE0' |LOV |89T 900° |660° |9EE |G00' |S60' [9EE |]OTO' |ShZ [ZT HZTO' ]eSe |ZTL {LTO |9Ge jerl + |%90' |h22 || + |P90' [pez || + leer" j9g + |L2T [9G 11900 |L2T [9S _+ jogo jert_]|_+ Jogo: [ett }|__|r90"jsz_|__[o90" jsz_||_fr-90"_|ez 2 or 2 ae A 2 se = 2 ae we 2 ae Bo . S{|A Le S18 LE S18 E sJA Bieta tes hue ‘yyge*** syoddns j/'uig *gjz**** sjgoddns = j|-urg “qj. ** ** syioddus j{'urg ‘yyp°***'sqzoddus {/*m1g “3yp"* *** *Syzoddns “ Weedjaq auesTq uaaMjaq aoue si] ma9A\jaq aoWeyST] useMjeq aouWe4sIC, waeM4yaq 9oUe}STC| Zto'1"**** * Op wypeetq || PZO'T™***** op Wpeerg]|6z0'L" **** “OP WPCA) PFO'L ***** sop yypeasg|i9zo'L “*"" "OP ped 0°"? avg Jo ude] |Teo'L**** xg Jo wdeq] |ggo'T *"** "Tea Jo yydeq)||Tlo't ** ‘avg yo wydaq}|ego't" **** 2ed Jo Ted ‘yg quaunriedag “‘ynp quaurwadx “pig quauriada: “pug juaurvaday “481 quaunsadxs Wall a 22 OF CAST IRON. OTHER PROPERTIES ‘anyg WEA pextunezur Avis 4ySI] INoj[o—'ssoupavy Jo Surpaoy & YA sym yaq éganyxay spt ut uurojtun Aqjosd st 41 ‘que oy 0} gouvsvodde ur avpruts Ara st painjoely UsyM WOIT Sty, Sleje ele \e\sie se) ejelnin Sie, ere felelelepelayers) “leiaieiel°/ SFU TAT Leze | 1g9e° | 9°668 T80e | 6zge° | TELS Pere | CLLs" | 1926 929 | SPT veesecseceeeesqtoddns usamjoq “ule “yz req “WIG uouedxy eee reer ccse *+sjzoddns waAMjeq “UIE ‘We eq “Cp quowtiedx'y Sale sia ele ol vit ele isialeiemisieieje ss) s/e\sl¢ elemento TAT 99LPGEST 9FS'T | S'SPP |OOESPPST 6ST | 6 Teh [OOPSPIST ceeeeeeereee-siioddns usamyoq ‘UL ‘Ip req ‘pug yueutredx | eeeeeseees eee sitoddns usaMjoq UIQ “yp eq 4s], ywourtredx | 6169 *Aylariy aytoadg *‘yorduar Sansisex | ("p) (:9) “sq] Ur jo zamod | uonoayep qysiom Ajronsel? iop X q | eeu sulyearg | JO snjnpoy, ponpord -gienbs YUL QO'T Sxeq JO asoy} 0} poonped s}[Nsey ce ec SITE Thad) 1 eee ecere sore es *sjaoddns wa9M\}aq, “ug ‘WP req ‘pig quawtedxy a STRENGTH AND No. XXII. ENGLISH IRONS. Oldberry, No. 3, Pig Iron, Hot Blast, (Patent Iron,) Shropshire. INQUIRY INTO THE 226 ‘ “9130900 9 THO, *o1}U "Alp Ua a wol your es. : See your aaa ovoid = WOT YUL ue ; Peat yont ue tak omoHe arya? 7@ a nea wOT}DaTA (3) ee uonoapap ayeunny| = Torepap ayeury{) *-"))_WOroeTeP ayeunyn’ | worpopep eyeunyy) *- nHoayep eeu noayep yeu + me EE aon ayorq |QTS ayoaq(ceg ||ES0" |8S0'T ie ITT6: IEG" 0 |se6 }rOs ax0.14] 9801 ZpO' |LT6: [FOS ||9E0' FOG" [POS |0FO' |Sco- ¢00' |0zz" {S001 ayo1q|g001| ze0" [008 [SPF ||6z0" joey: [SPP |2E0"|Tes" [STP coo ret: (968 {900° |stz" |968 |] 6z0" [869° |Z6E ||1Z0" 069" Ja6e L&0"|9TL" [26€ + lgort: \Fan |l¢o0" |L8t° |FSL | 0z0" 06S" j9e }}9TO" jase" j9&E 0z0' O19" j9ee + lepr lzzg || + [est [249 |] 910" [88% [08z |j@10" LSP" 08% PLO" |LOg" [08% + lrir lo9g || + [ter jogs |}OT0" fF8e" |Fzz |0L0' rss" free ot 66" [Fee 160° |sPP || + loot |sPr || 800" [88% |S9T 800° [Tse |S9T 63° |89T goo loce || + Igzor lose |} + Jer art || + jest jett 861" |21T epo [rez || + lego" [Pee || + [660° [9g 160° |9¢ GOT" j9¢ 20" 127 9z0" ZT ogo’ |sz_||__|ovo" 82 990 82 le [4 atl 4, 4 etla. 14 iste, | a ael eels Se) a2) 4 42) 28] 332/22) 12,182 | See} s* | 2 agla |e jes, 4 1 | Cala |e jgie Le} gie sntigtaeia's bon ere aeaik ddns ay ose. sme ayes esyaoddns = ||*utg “ap """** ++ sysoddns}| urg "I)F syioddns UIQ “HP $10 a Me eieeta i SE a Hor 5 naaMyjaq aueIsl(T uaamjaq aoue}sl(] “3 Lire sigue egg? tt Op qppeaig||tee" 7°* 77 *7OP HEYA 900-1" "7 "OP wmpeasd 966° *** +7 ob HUES 000" a reg aoe - #8 eee . eno 3H 0 * i ] EU RR FN a eg so mided ie SoG a 5s lias Ls quaursada@ +ysy quaurladxs “yny uauriadxs “yie quaursaday 227 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘paxiom Sutoq woy} poyardad speqysXzo yo pueq arya oy} ‘saydures aaoqge ay} Ul “aInjoRly aYY JO advJ ay} UO 4sor oy} UY} JUouTWOId e1oM SuNoolosd ‘AvId ystnyq @ Loyjo oy) pue ‘aqiya and Suraq uoysodoad s0ye013 oy) ‘uornezqeshio Jo sassav0id jouysIp om) amjov.y owes ay} Ur syuasaid pue ‘paxru Aqjenbaun yejau e aq 0} suiaas yt adoososoL v YI pourexe voy AA “aouesvedde ayy peppads e pojuasoid ofa poxyeu ay} YILA paaota uoyAi 4 Jo suonsod pue “paureyqo svar uory stq} jo ajdures ouo AjuG were lorez’ | seor pone asa'> Ae eke inka © tage sia eae 6'GEz |6LZ2" | GeOT tereeeceereeesqtoddns uaamjaq “ule “yg req “Ie wouttedx G'OGSe |PIP] |_9EOT veesceecess s-syioddns waaanaq “mg “YZ eq “YP quouredxs — | — ———_s [ — | [| Z 6S |¢c00'r| cers loopeezez| _ a tet e cece cece cece ceescncseees ce oo tuaT LOS |9et6° | 8806 loosggozz teeeceeeeese-sytoddns uaaajoq “Ug “Wp req “pag yuouttiedx 0-90¢ | 996° | 9ezg lonDeELzz trereeecerssesqtoddns waaajaq “UIQ “IPP req “pug yuoutsedx G'199 | LOTT] oL6¢ looLoTezz] ooeL °°" °° °° 77 7 sModdns waeayoq arg “4p aeq “ysT ueunedxs youdumt Sunjsisar | (p) (9) “sqy Ayan jo samod | noyoayap| ysio,y | ur Ajoysepa | oytoadg top X Q{ ayer | surnjeaig | josnpoy yonporg ‘arenbs YUL QQ'T Sieg Jo aso) 0} paonpa.s sinsaxy 228 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND The results obtained from the preceeding ex- periments on the English irons, seem to furnish the best evidence that can be procured on the strength andother qualities investigated in this enquiry. On examination it will be found that conside- rable differences exist between one iron and another, but not more than the nature of the ores and their products wouldindicate. During the smelting process, the same qualities of iron are not always produced, as the Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and sometimes No. 4, are obtained from the same ores. M. Dufrenoy in his report to the Directors General of the mines of France, on the use of hot air in the Iron works of this country, states, “ that the iron obtained from a furnace is generally a mixture of No. 1 and No. 2; that which first issues from the hearthis No.1. The two sorts of pigs are known by the manner in which they flow, and above all by the disposi- tion of the streaks which mark the surface of the metal as it cools.” In addition to No. 1 and No. 2 mentioned by M. Dufrenoy, No. 3 is frequently produced ; it generally contains less carbon than No. 1 or OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON 229 No. 2, and presents greater rigidiy than either of the former qualities —From the circumstan- ces thus stated, it will be noticed that, in com- paring two irons together, it will be necessary to observe the quality, and as often as possible to compare the No. 1 of one iron with No. | of ano- ther iron; and in order to ensure the correct value or point of difference, this method should also be adopted in the Nos. 2 and Nos. 3. In pursuance of these views I have endeavour- ed to procure the irons as much alike as possible, and to render the comparison still more perfect, I have selected the medium, or No. 2 quality, as the most suitable for the purpose. In every instance, the No. 2 iron could not be obtained, but in most cases I have kept as close to it as circumstances would admit. We may therefore, safely compare similar qualities and numbers together, either in reference to their trans- verse strength, or power to resist impact. The following short summary of results may be useful in exhibiting the relative values of the No. 2, English Irons, in reference to their powers of resisting a transverse strain: their powers to resist impact and other properties 230 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND will be reserved until the close of the experi- ments; when an exposition of the whole will take place,*and such deductions be made, as may appear indicative of the observations and trials to which they were severally subjected. ABSTRACT OF RESULTS FROM THE No. 2 ENGLISH IRONS. Breaking Weight. PUTRI, ot clas ina, sta voy NIC aka tics eign xt Setters 489.3 Rigtane i, baie. NG. ts Sars atte tee 481.9 Dre GOT rare: ere os INO2felescletsiatel sis so 461.6 BA TIOUUICs, w0°9c_3'p eo ate IND! cate ia's alc'e'minle ie 457.0 MONGWEETY score es o's Tare IN Osman etotelete eieiec stare 453.5 BUSCOREP Mis sc Se NGS ines te eee 446.0 Bonet knd sigs ts .€ Itoh ty Ses ses Some 444.5 MA GANA ca al 0 stu xr ofa ici tp IN. eacttcs pie oe Sida) 6 441.0 OUACP arin. = sqapciasieetelet ING Se a et eRe se 440.7 Corbyn’s Hall,........ NOE 25 SSS ee 430.7 CHrrOlowmiots eeherctn one cists INO See, cere cle wtet siete © 430.3 evele.vS ater sie ase rere INnsgo Meteor istmarstete 3 418.8 We S247» fi. WE INGOs Oy oto toei ane eee 413.0 Eagle Foundry,....... Nos Riess Sess 408.3 TDECUN Ys mteve ole fa: alba) ois Nos o jute: sce a mbatiauat 404.1 In the above, the breaking weights are taken from the bars, in each case reduced to exact- ly 1 inch square. 231 CAS@® IRON. OTHER PROPERTIES OF ae | N WELSH IRON al vO. ire. Tron, Cold Blast, Monmouthsh (oy to) i No. 3, P Blania, SS ST *ad}Uod oY} WO *aajU99 84) WO qout ue jo § ayorg ||/qour ue! jo ¥ oyorg ‘Shr = ‘eh = CRSA D Soa IA 's'}| BONDE ARPA SOLA LL +: ayorq)800T ayorqiSOOT — 9TP 1696 PSE" |296 €90° |6LE" 1968 ||8PO° |6FE" |968 PEO" [SOS |P8L | LEO |F8s" |P8L OBO" [LPS |ZL9 ||0Z0' [646° [219 GLO |L6E 09S ETO’ |P8T |09G 800° |[ST |8PP ||800' |PEL [SPP 900° {LOT |9€€ |}900° JOTI See €00° |890° |F2z || + P90" |hez —_|PEO" |Z || — |e&0" |eTT Her (Cee Bee a |e se] 8¢| 8 || 83| 82 | 3 eRe eee ae) ag|=s | 2 | agi” | = oe a ales e ‘me qygrrt syoddas jj uyg "ye" "** syroddns uaamjaq eueysIq] waaM4oq eUL)SIC] lozo’re*** Op WIpearTg||6T0'T****** OP WHpeerg] P10" [st req Jo tpdaq||ugo'T* ** "tea Jo yideq ‘yig quauised ec’ “YTy AULA Ls a} 009 THO) your we jo 0 ae _tonoanep eyeungA * SHOUDL P62" [60S LiSPp G0@ [096 Ta6e 6Pl |Oz0' T9EE 160° |L08" [082 090° OLD’ [Paz L1€0' |88V" |89T 9T0' |TLS™ |2TI 900° |9ET |9G — |690" Jsz__ ge.| 2 lad ee |ee | 3 ge 132 | & a3 13 3 gla E surg ‘ype ** ** syzoddns TaAMJOq BURST, ogorts ot op TpLaig 6go'L reg Jo tadeq “pig quausade *otjueo at]) MOI YUL we ¥ eYOIg WET UOoOFop ayeuny[y *-* 930.149 1p E08" |6SS' SPP OLE T26E G60 LI9IEE 80° LPL 160° |608" [082 690" |6L9" |P2z ZE0' |ZPr" [91 SLO {822° [atl 100° |SET° jog — |020' [82% eB oliteud fe gale | s ci et SS IM (a= o ‘o £.).6 = ‘ag ‘ret syaoddns UaEMjaq EOWEISIC] ‘aajuad ayy 4 ayorg, “$691 uoOKeyep aywurg{y *" 9014/9 LF GOO }IEL 9g = Jou0 |8a~, as | 5. Z oo heater vba pe = al eS an 25 P=) ag | 3 i 8 iA E ‘ug “prt tt sqaoddns taaMqaq aoURyst(] AIOE 1 “op WapLelg|||QTO'T **7*** OP WIPLAT 1e0°T * avg Jo ydod] Zrorr’ **** Lee JO wrdeq “pug juauriedasy | psy quaunsadays STRENGTH AND INQUIRY INTO THE a 2 23 2) ‘O[¥ OY} Jopun ssougys aiout soyeorpur pus ‘ojepady oy} wey} Wopaddy sso] YIM SyLOA WOIT SLY T, ‘anyq Jo oanyxtupe a[qesepisuoo v yy Avis yqStaq e anojog =‘aouvsvadde woyum ApSutpeaoxe uv syuasaid ‘e “ony “eruelg er nN A Ee ET NY ES REE SE cE I CR RN NN NN TE STAT QSZ2ly | 68PF Liege tie Coal to tebe Rae Se del St ak Ce 7 9°9eh | bor | L196 seceeeeeees sesiioddns usamjaq “ule “yg Ieq “WIG queued x 5] 0'6R8e | 928% | 2168 reeereeeeess sqioddns waamyaq ‘ule ‘yz req “Ip quoutiadx Q2h'T |66:2EP 99PLSZPT) GSTL weet e eee e settee ete e cess sooo ees UUOTT one Tl 08F OOPIGTFT to eeeerees oioddns Uaesjaq “UIQ ‘IP Ieq “page quowLied xy LLL'T lee Leb loooegorT] 6gty [777777 * 'sHoddns waaaneq “wig “app req “pug wourtiodxy| 099'T | G Leh (0000F9FT frreesseees syroddns uaaayoq “UIg “yp Ieq “ysT juowLtedx7] (‘p) (*9) ‘sqi . Josamad | aoyoagep | “asia ay | ur AyoNseIa fester 10 p x g| eyewny | Suryeasg | jo snjapopy | OY 2OS qonporg ‘azenbs YUL (Q'] Sivq Jo asoyy 0} paonpa. siNseyy OREN LS RT A LAE STS AMEN SAE MN eS eS ET TS S OF CAST IRON No. II. WELSH IRONS. ER PROPERTIE OTH “OAPUOD OT} UOT "adZW9d HOI} your uv jo $ axyorg *91} U9) OIL} UO. , qour ue jo § oyorg your we jo $ ayouq a7) ‘882° La “ox}U90 at} “06 T= S |_wonoarap aeunyty. woTazap ayeury{y *.*|/uroxy your ue % ayorge TONPayep ayy ( ** FQ 83014190 SC GLE'TZ6E |89T' |6ee' 1e6e e014 FOE 2 ayorqi8Sh PSL" SSE TIES LSE GOT T9E ||LET |OST Tose 5 ay1qieL9 | TE |Pes’ |2L9 ||060° |L06° |08% |Z60' |688" |O8z 1€60° OSs" josz m SLO |8Ea' |09¢ 690° |00L" |P2% |1690' 069° |PZz% ||190' |SzL’ [Paz £P 1010’ |PST SPP 660° |FOS' |89T ||eFO' 00S |89T |/680' |6Zg° |soT is! LOO’ |TET |9EE |OLO' [SFI |9EE ||6TO |LTE” |ZEL llezo }FTe’ |ZtL 0Zo' jose’ lz11 ® {600° |T80° |PZZ || G00 |680' [Pez 1900 |TST 19S |lg00° OST’ |9g_ |/L00' |09T |9¢ ww |_+_j0v0' |21l_||_+ [ero jetr | __js20" |sa__ LLO" |8% 080" |S _ ‘| 4 an Z| cs eagle |a2leazle | 4 Slee l cel a ge ioe a les ar a ge Bay }ceieeen cee ee a |3e|d4¢\= | S8\24/= (2s \23 |e |e )e2 | 2 8 | ee] s Bley|e°} 2 | fie] 2 fae |e" |e Tae |e" | F ilas | 24 | = AU) ie a Sa = tae a §|a E gia ei 2148 = & fume yess syoddns [Puig gigs" syoddas |[-urg ape" *syoddns |/aig -7,p "+ *sjaoddns |) wig -y)p** *** “syaoddus =e! WaaMjaq eUe}SI WaaMjoq aUESIC Waa.Myoq aouyystgy UWoaMyeq oouT}SI Waaaijaq aouTystc] Ay Peo'1e 77+ op tapeadsl||oog'T****** op Wpeadg||zrorT "*** “op yypeaig|{er0'L ***** “op UapLatg| loge: **°*** “op Yypeaig leggy ** aeq jo udeq ++ sang jo mdeq|| Trot *"* ave jo wpdeqlletort ** "eq Jo wdoq||oo0'L* **** avg Jo wndeq “yn quately auniadary “pag quaursadasy “pug uMauUradrsy “pS Quaurwadasy 2B ND INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH A 234 ‘aTy at} JO Woo ay} Aepun uonesuas Asoddys ve soonporl ay “3YST yueTpq ve Sayyue ‘aanjor.y snosod avapo ve suvaut yryar 627/824 paleo Ayjeorayoay souvieedde ue sjuasaid pue ‘aor yeam eB Jayyer st ‘Zz “ON “ISBT JOP] uojsvudyse[ S'81z |ozze’ |R°L9 vtec eee e tree re rere es seers eres TBO O'Zz8T | PEgz | 8°8z9 sees cre ee ee scoroddns udaaijaq “ULE “YZ Ieq “IG quawtadx Loge | Loe | Q'0%L soserecee ce cen roddns uaamjeq “Ue “YZ 1eq ‘WE quewiiadx 5] PLIS |99e |esre leegtreel Dip ae kis tay ee ee ee ae se loogezzel| 9t69|Q --sjaoddns waaajaq “ug “Ip 1eq pug jueurtiedxg roe O0ScereT seceeeeeee es gyroddns usaajoq UIQ "Ifp Ieq “4ST quourtsed x5 out saystsaz | (“p) (:9) axenbs 10d “AqtAeiy jo samod | uorsapap | Isa “Sq UT arproadg 10p XQ | ayeunjyQ | Suryvergq | AjtoTseya pnpoig jo snynpoyy pee edd hk UT E/E oon" dn eee ae ee eS ee ‘arenbs yout O0'T Seq JO asoy} 0} paonpa. sijnsayy re czee lo0s66zet § sreeeree ee esyroddns maamjaq “UIg “YP eq ‘pig quauitied xy OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON No. III. WELSH IRONS. Pant, No. 2, Pig Iron. aap Uad OYY WAY “gj M90 BY} WO} your we jo — axorgq |/your ue jo & ayoig Cs woKDATOp ayewNyT] *-7 675° — worMATyap yeUrTyT() *-” A014 P66 OZe |oS6 TZ0' 96% |968 G10 |bSe |P8h ITO’ |ZT% |oL9 800° |PLT |09¢ 900° FET |8PP G00' 960° |9Ee + |190° |P2e + loo: Jett 314 2 £s| 8¢| 2 s3 a ‘oO oe Aaa uig 4Iz °°" Sy4oddus uaaMyaq aUeSICT cZo't ****° Op Tpeer BROT “eq Jo Tact “ye quaunsaday §3[014|086 8EE" |296 P20 IETS” |968 910° |S9%° |P8L ETO’ |E2a" |GL9 800° |T8T 09g 90" |OPT |8PP GOO’ |OOT |9€E + 1G90° [P2z 080" [STL ae & Z g_| 28] & Pe eels | | surg 'yg** **sjcoddns WAAMJaq AUTISI(T azote op Tapas 0Z0°L wee seg jo wydaq "yrp quauradx sad} a9 ety *paoe[dar ueaq Woy your ue Feyogr |ipeq gpp sypsiem et} *G6CZ'1—||xoye ‘aayues ey} utOy toNoazap emg *.*|\qout ue jo E exyorgq 9014/9 LIV 6TT [PLE TSP G60° |200'1/26e *91]U89 BY} UOI! your ue yo f eyorg “LEVIS = COND a HERE a GTZ 18PP VEO TZ6E Lev 860° PLOLUOSP 901 |PLO'TZ6E €10' |6z8" j9ee |leL0' |gs" |9ee |!Z80" 968" j9eE 80° |8L9° |08z |lLG0' |¢69° |o8z 1290" |6z2° lose 6&0" |62S° |FZz lego" OFS" |PZz% ISO" |L99° fraz 2z0' |zee" |S9T || 20° 06s" |S9T 00" |STF |s9T [10° |ZF2 |ZIT eto" |ogz’ |@tt |SlO \99z |21T + |Stt |9¢ i900 pat |9S ||L00° |P2T° joc 290° |8%__ 290" [82 990° |9z a oe S ce 3. = 2 as ; ay re 3 ay 34 3 ay = 2 uaaMjaq aoUeIST(T 8Z0°T"* "°° ° “op Tpeaig yro'l*’* ** aeq jo yydagq “ple raman.adasy WadMJaq IDULISTC| 9Z0'T **** °° Op Wprarg 920 T****3aNq Jo tTdaq “pug quaurwades WaaM4aq aURST 8Z0'T"°** °° op Wpeerg ogo'T "sae Jo tdeq *psT quamrLiadrs STRENGTH AND INQUIRY INTO THE 236 : ‘Oly ay) 09 Wopealy ayvaI5 YIM sppotk yng ‘AytovTa, yy Suiddryo sysisoa yy — “WoAT yyy pTLA pegyuept Ajasojo st sjoadsaa Joyjo ur yng ‘saspa oy} punor souravadde seynp v syed siuasaid 41 edodso.uoTut OY) YJLAK paAoLA UaYAL STR} -sXao st Jo ssoujovduoo pue Aouvypiaq oy} ut yjoq ‘apepedy oq} 0} aoue.wodde ur avpuuts Aroa st woul queg eae | G2ce | 0016 Dore t eres ee eee teen ener eee eee + TBO 9'ele | Tere’ | 868 seceeeeeeessesyioddns uaaajaq “ule “yg aeq ‘YG uoUTIedx reze} 9ge | L1Z6 seempeeeee es syioddns uaamjaq “ule ‘yg Ieq “YP Wuouttedx OTIS SST L'LOP 006O8zgT aan rte t eee eect eres eeeeceeesece ree quaTT waco | bret | step looocngst] | 9°77 SModdns waomeq “ug “yp seq “pag juouttedx o:91g | Bre T | veTP loozztsstl gxg¢y |g *sq1oddus weeajoq “UIQ “4p Ieq “pug yuoeutsedx o'6ch | Z6UT | Vege looses. rt] - A€crrrcree+ + syoddns usaayeg ‘utg “yp req “4ST queurtstedx “goed wit ( y ry SULySISAL "p) (9) *SqL tad 64 yodomod | uoyoayep | Gyste A, |, ur Aq10y)se]0 Asi 10 p x Q| eyeong|Q | Sunyeorg | jo snpnpoyy oypoeds qonpor ‘arenbs qout QOL Steq JO osoyy 0} poonpot Synsey nr I NT PE I I TS NE 237 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. No. IV. WELSH IRONS. Beaufort, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. *oajyueo m1015 your we jo § oxoIg “Tse Worapep oyeUAI() *.* 9H014/ 8) 0T GO’ |StbS’ |P90T GPO I6TS" |800T 60° |eLz 1968 620° |G@2 IPS), 920° {102 1219 G0’ 199T |09G 120 JTS |SPPr SLO jOOT 19eE OO’ 090° IFZz 900° |€80° |2T ae | s. 2 oe Sas “ule "yg °*** sjaoddus Ta9Mjaq adULySICT 020 T°***** Op Hpearg u90'T*** *-aRg Jo yydaq "YIP Juatariada’ ‘aay -ua9 ay} WHOA oUt ae zs ¥ 94OIq 41 ‘pooeydar sea FOS IWWFIeM ay} Woy AA TN F6T Ih6E' 1/FOS inches. Deflection in Weight iv lbs. *Z0G] *SQIGE"***** uo] i y99y ¢ Ak Jo 7yd1I0 AK “ug “WP. eee sy dus W9eMjeq BoUeISIC] 820°" **** “op yypeasg LEO" **** "reg jo yydaq “pag quauriaday, *a2}U99 AY] mor You we F ayoug OT woraHep 9yG.nTIT/) *.* AOL] QSG O0G2 |SLTV 109g SLT JOFT TIPO Ol [OST TIStp OOT’ |OF6" 1268 ~LO' }O8L° j9g¢ 0GO' 1629" |08z 260° [PSP [Pas 020° |9GE" |S9T OTO' |O€S [zt PIT |9G¢ 990° |8a_ a eee: ge les | § Pele ie “20g Ssqigtt* *** “Buoy jeay ¢ ieg jo ayaa M “UIQ “Hp oe *s}10 UdaMyeq aouEysIC] 980'T "°°" Oop yypeaig 6R0'T ** ** Ng jo yydoq * pug juauriaday TLO' /F6L' 1\9ee l9b0' |0F9" logz 620 |Z6r lez 910' |pSe" |g9T 100° |lcez j2tr 9LT |9G eo ee Sa ee 2, | ea] % ae E's 2 *9a)U@9 BT] WO. Your uw jo tT xorg ‘TSE T= uoneyep ayemuyiy “+ 8YO1G FOG OPS TOLD 620 [OFT LiStP OOT 096° |Z6E “ZO “Sq{GT** *** * Buoy | | Ug “Yprr*** *sqaoddns W8aMjJaq BOUR}SI(] 980'T ****** op IWprag tEO'1'** aug jo wideq' IST JudUwadxy, 2c INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 238 6'6FE | 2Le" ORG teere cece ee esuioddns UaaMjaq “ULE “YgZ iBq “Upp JWoULAXy, een | cto | eeke totoese poe iat ep teeta hema ~6c9 | 9FFT | 6 SGP l000SZ09T| ZZ), De eeees esqroddns uaaajaq “UIg “Ip req “pag quownedx | 106 | Stet | L°¢z¢ loooLer9T! 080'2 +++ ssqroddns ueaajoq ‘Ulg “yp Ieq “pug yuouttedx7y : ” : > Sith Ie es eres roddns mad q ‘uIg ‘yp aeq 4s uewtwedx 0929 | 9Le°T | O'ggF jooOTSegT) Zar" syoddns waeanaq “UI9 “yp 1Uq “IST IueuEde A youdur “your sunsisor | (‘p) (9) arenbs aad | Aytaern jo samod | noyoayap|] ‘F109 Ay “sq aywoadg Op YX Q} ayeurytg | sarees | ut 4oyseya upol jo snyuporay P23) CAF AS VN SU cL!’ Ln NS ‘arenbs Wout QO'T Steg JO asor} 0} paonpas S1[NsayY : ‘ 239 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON No. V. WELSH IRONS. Beaufort, No. 3, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. a a A RE Fi paoe| dat “arya BYy WO CM ZZ YSM ay|your ue jo k oyorg aye ‘aijued ay} UwUOoIy yout we yo § axyorgy GGT 968 Sh aL9 09G SPV 986 Tas Deflection, Load removed. Deflection in inches, Weight in lbs. urge 434°" syzoddus TAAM Jaq BURISICT Ogo'T "top taprosg L90°L *** * anq Jo indoq, mre quamnJedrsy OZEL6E0° SOOT a20" ey eal wOToaTyap ayeunyyy) *=* 301419), LT [Se |OZIT G62 |S00T Tgz’ |968 VIZ (PSL LL l@L9 err OIL’ 080" 1¢0° G20" 610" O10’ 900° a + I . so | 8 3 o6 a = eet os | oF 55 25 a 2 mae ag a a3 aA A ¢ oe ° fala 5 | ug "yz" * **sqzoddns HOAM Jaq HOUT POOL ** "Op UapRaIg| (ego: T'*** ** op WpReag SrorL see Jo widoq||zgorr ** ** tegq_ Jo yydaq mre muameadyr *ad}Uad OY} WHOIy your ue jo $ vyorq | OSB uotoapep ayRuUnyy/) *-" eee ots 6ST T1209 OSE TPL TILT USTs 900° 129P €S8" |90P LOL jose a8G" |P6% Sov 18é% OVE" |Z8T 86" 192T 1OT |9g CO" 18% 0 Ra 3 | 8 Tx i) as | a. ge| ais 30 bot | ey a 2° r= o o.8 pe Brg D2 foe 5 A te 2 ee “Of ‘BQTQT***** * BUCT qoay @ EET JO WYO AA “nTg Hp ttt tt syoddns TaAMyaq aNULISICT ne nranisadasy ayaa ay} WO (pur ue jo $7 eNoIg ‘scr 1— GoNdaHep ayeulyy Lp) °° 94 O1q/ 18S 602 Zen TPs OST 622 T/8TS ILL |2¢0' T1c9P &80' |Z68" |907 090° |SPL" TPO" 1209" LGO' |9L¥ PLO ace L00° |SEa + 180° ZG0" 186 3s 6 a awe net =) Ho § q So) se | os ee} ee | 2 D4 C= "op Aa’S a ‘o a S 20%, *BUIC 1 se eee Su I way ¢ JO qa AA ulg "yp °°"? sytoddns WAO.M Jaq, AOS 00° **** ** Op [preg OLO'E "ARQ JO tdaq puz, maunriaday ‘o1zU99 OY} Je ayoIg | “666° = woNaayap ayveqns4:. " PPPET PS9" |zea1 O@IT uf = a2 & B os an = Sg e3 | 30 55 = ae Ee | i Dog 3:8 "op Qo o e ar) pothole Bqtieg tee eee *““DUo] way eg IMT Jo INS1 NA mig “4yP **** sytoddns uaaAjaq aouvqst(y OGF'T**** "Op Wpraig Oge'T "ang jo wdog “ST quamuadry INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 240 ‘@[J ay 09 Appury osour spyert ynq ‘[00} am} 04 ayeinpqo “uot Fury10M Ys v st WJ—' Aaqzayng ay3 0} mye Youur st 31 oouvsvadde ur ‘apepady oy) wey} JeT[Np JaxieSoy7e pue Suyyseds S89] SI INO]Od oy |, “aqjuad oY} Woy apaded Ady sv s[eysk4o oy) jo WONULWIp B WOT aay do13ap autos ut pue ‘ainyxoq Jo Ayrorzojrun you yo uosy poureid auy asop v st ‘e ‘on “1ojnveg - CSIP) 062 O'6SOT mE RGAE 7" O° Sic * RAR eyelet A Siepete* area L'90% | L8& | O'LSOT srereeeceesesyroddns uaaayaq ‘ule “147 qeq ‘tg yuewtiedx 7] POZE) PEE | OL9NT sreereceress stioddns uvaayaq “ure “437 Iq “"rp Juautiedx 9°28 | 66S'T | O-¢0¢ looozngaT| 6902 Ramey hel kolalsis od somata be ees aay 0928 6e9'L 0°F0S loooesegtl seon | sjioddns uaaajaq Ug “WF vq “pig quewtiedx 7, €'°682 | 095'T | 0'90¢ loootsext| zor, |" °°" * *SHoddns uaaayeq “wig -4yp seq “pug quoutiedx"y] CFIL CRG eT9p.| steeeeeeess sytoddns uaamjaq ‘1g “yp ieq “ys] queutiedx ‘goedunt “agEt sunqsisas (‘p) (9) arenbs sad “Kyra Jodamod | uonaagap | ‘YS! AA *SqT Avi) 10 P & | eyeuny|D | Suryeasg | ur Aq1oNseIa oyroeds gonposg jo snjnpow ‘arenbs your QO"] sieq Jo asoy} 0} peonpas s}nsay OSs 24] No. VI. WELSH IRONS. Maesteg, No. , Pig Iron, (Marked White,) Glamorganshire, OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON *aajued 3} WO *91}U92 ayy qour we jo f axorg flarosy your § oyoig a) “Sey — ToWoaHep eyeunyTy’."|| uoyoapep ayeung]y *.* “poaey * pase] *alqUaD oT} sor SEM FOS FYslou||-ar ses Fog sYsTeA\|lWON yout F1 axorg o4} Joye etjued ay} Jay} aaye aujued oy} “103° T== wo your # exo1q —juoay yout & axoagr uoTeRep aye y*. SSS | SBP SCOT: PAOUGISOOT 9AO1G/O8G GeV’ |ZG6 PIV |o96 PSO" |S88" 1968 {160 |PLE 1968 PSL |TEO' FOE |F82 GLI ||0Z0' |9FZ |2L9 T88'TIFOG y GLZ |OPS USED PLZ 0S TISbP G61" 99S 1/76E ||06T |6Se'1/Z68 OST’ [620 Ti9¢e |iTeT , T60° |TTS” [082 : 090° |6T9° |Pze GO |SEP" |89T PIO PLS ZiT +. I€81" log a oe) ras) =) R a lego" 620" bbe eas +S bal I~ a eee S| PoE |GhL |. 080 JaLL.. 90" |8% s/o B ro s Bb = a b rd PA 3 q 5 o| - cm) : 2 4 d a BE ae | = gee See] = | 8 | eB | 8 = pe ha ie eg ‘3° Bw q eS a 22'S 2 a ia 8a | o° aa aiealiesaes = Sg 22 A= | og 62 & Ba] o2 A Bq 66 a oo SD | So o. 2 oo 6a + 23 $c » oo $a S Bg/e"| 2 | eal $2] Sg. | 2216 |S!) 23 | 2 e2| g2| 2 oo) a ou 4 a o i a o =| * D < op Aas ® ag As 2 3 As Bi o evaniecee & A® =) ‘o vis = es | a ee ae a gs/A je RES RS =! = a er ee ee en ae “Sq19T Oe twee *Bu0| j99} ¢ Jeg jo 4YsI ‘19 “aypccesee *squod ns WaAMjaq aDULzSICT *"sqjot**** CRE 40) yay € IMT Jo WySIO MA “UIQ "HF **** Syroddns UWadMjZaq BOUISTC, 060°T **** ** Op Wprasg, LOT ****arq Jo wdag “pug juaursads Rqlfeg rns **SUOT “ung yg" *** syzoddns |}-utg+4yz*"+ > + “sqa0ddne a9aMjaq aoULzSICT ueeMyaq aouRsICT B10 17**** **op yspveag| /zo't*+ +++ -op yapeaig 60.T* =" aeq 30 wadaq|/ogo'T *** ang Jo Tydoq “WIC WAM dey “UIP Jumuadrg 2D INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH ANB 242 Ne rainie viele )s @) Sleesepeieterm,s.eis ae ec see: BOTN | Seer | 6116 Pop | esr | T'Ve6 Z 007 | Shr |_$'668 port T'988 | LG6'T | L’eeP 00G6S6ET) 8E0"L 1698 | LPG T | 9PST 000ZZOPT| 8E0'L Z188 | 896'T | SOSP OOOLG8ET| 8E0'L T29L | G28 t| OLIV ceeeeereeeeessqioddns uaaajaq “ule “YZ req “TG yuaumad x] eceeeceese sessoddns waamzeq ‘ule “YZ req “Wh quowt1ad xy Be bor eerie see a sie Fh rae TOMO eer | TOF | eee ee eevee ee egitoddns waaMyjaq "UIQ “Yip 1Bq ‘pig quautied x5] weeceeeees ee sqi0ddns waaajoq “UIQ “YP 1eq “pug quawedx weeceeeecesessyioddns uaaayaq Ug “yp eq “IST quawtied xy] ‘oud uit ma Suansisot Cp) (9) exenbsied =} *AytAavry yo samod | wonoayep qa sien “sql ut oytoads wopxq| aun Surjearg | Aqonsel? yonpolg jo snynpojAl t qT sie jo asoqy 0} poonpel s}nseyY -gaenbs yout 0) q *elj dad at} 243 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. No. VII. WELSH IRONS. , Pig Iron, (Marked Red) Glamorganshire. Maesteg, No. *21}U980 8Y} *e1)090 043 “aguas oy} ye exorT |l-axjMe oy ye oxorgq |iwosy your $ vyoug — |lwox yom Fr ayorg moy your ¥ exyomg cha “6oh — ‘63 T= ‘$82 T= “Geo I mot eTep oyeurngy 3 1) woTATep e7yeUNTI]/) i th wordayep ayeninyy bi he WOoTJOa Hep O}VVUITIT (-) ‘+ Wornoeyep eyemg, ot] SPOIL SLET OI€ |/O6T LPPEI 6&6 JOGO TZeat 69T |068° |OZTT SHUGOLP |S2t |F9L" ISOOT AYOLG O86 PAUGUCIV HOLE’ |ZOL'WZ9F [960° |LF9° 1968 GSP 1296 eO1g/ G6 |106E" (OLS TSF cre |cge tloor O10 |9ES° |F8L 990° |VOR' |968 |\890' |Tev’ 1968 109% |6crIlz6e K69T ISLET OSE ||0SO' OFF 1219 PPO’ [OEE |P8L |OPO' |OFE |F8L GOT ISet'Tioee |lztt |T8s° P62 |€EO' j2ge" jo9G GZO' |19G° |OL9 G20" |ZL2 |2L9 HOTT |¢06° losz loL0" 1GL9° SES 120° |L9S |Sbr VLO' JOS jO9G |9TO' |€T@ [09S ||0L0° j089° |FzzZ ITTO' LSE c8T i210 |O6T j9ge OLO' |O9T [Shh |TLO' |P9T [Sth 0FO' lost’ |S9t Neto’ l6Te’ 92T 1/900’ JOST’ |P2z GOO |ETE |9EE 800° |LIT |98E FIO le62° lett + |6L2° |2IL + |090° |@II + |2L0° |PZ% G00 |GL0° |Pzz LPl’ \9G + |68E |9¢ + 620° [9g Peo" _|Ztt_|_+ lego |ett || _|tz0" lez_||__loxo- lez sa) so) 8 123) $2) 4 (33) 82) 8 188) 88 | gs |3s | ge |’ P22} 32 | 3 | 88/3214 128) 32 | 3 ae] ee | 2 22 | g3 | 2 Pas/ 3°) 3 | ag) 2°] 2 fag |e" | F legis" | FBS | e2] & &| a = §| 28 ile 6 sleet = ieee = =e slg = | SN Icip ages syioddns |] ‘ure “4z°*** syzoddns ime ee th Someta “arg Gane eth fe ae rae fos waaMjoq aouezsI(] deasjaq aouuzsIq] W99.M4Oq aoUyST(T uaeMjeq aUL,SIC] TaaMjeq aoULySTYT BO9Z0'T “**Op Wipteid!| PIO'I"***** OP TpBarg | PLOT’ *°** “Op ypBamg || TIO'T *** Op TIpRalg OLE TL ****** op qprarg, g NEO'T *** ***raq jo yidaq|| szo't'***" rng jo yideq}!goo'l **** "reg yo qqydaq GFOL *** Rg yo yydeq||ooe'T**"** jug jo tydeq “yg JuMursodrsy “yay muaunrsadey “pag quandary “pug waurada, “Sy queuriad: INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 244 “HI@ji9°nn SI peel ploo 10 }0Y jo aie Kay} Joyjoym 7nq % “ON pat ayy pue G ‘ON al Oy TY AM peyseuw OIL ou Aytqeqoad yh uy e ‘Hoynveg E “ON OY} 0} AepLUNIS sayy pue “tydjepy ey) ueY) Jayos JayyeA SIT “Wom yey ueY} a1njoBsy oy) Ut souvivedde snouruny ato ev yytm Aord daap & 0} sayovordde amojoo ay} ‘syeqsAxo ]peurs jo otuv.y x Aq paseoua pue ‘axjuao ay} ut snosod ‘souvavedde payepnuvsd syt ut rydjepy amp 0} ILLUS ST (7/9 anya) Basar TH ‘LOOT, MOTT OY se soyiodoid oatsoype owes aqy Aq poysvw st 4 Suyy ur ‘erepedy ay} uvyy Jeyos syiom pue snosod esou SEIT ‘Woynvog ey} Wey} UOT JayorL B 1oY}0507[e swaas pue ‘eSury onjq yrep & YIM perueduosse ‘uedo erom Ajqesapisuoo st eax} ay} ‘Surpasoad oy} Jo assosor oyy Ayivou are uo. sty Jo sansedoad OATILIAL OY, SS te Jlep, ISP) T688 a Wier ee eeee see teeneereee eens ees GBOTA oer | o6F «| 6688 tereeeeeeeeeesyroddns uaamjaq ‘ule “Iz eq “WIG quoWTIedx eer | zu | $eRge verereeeress soioddns mwamjaq ‘ule “yg eq “yp Juoutsedx Z0e8 | LSet | 86eh longtLear|aeon [Teeter ee eee moyy TGSR | LOGT | P8PP |O009FZFT| LTO" ¥FG08 | 898'T| ZTEP |O00L69ET] 6G0'L OZ9L | LEST | SPIT serseeeerees sqroddns uaamiaq ‘Ulg “yp req “pag yuautedxTy vorsereeses esiroddns uaeajeq “WIg “Wp eq “pug yueutsedxn secececcooes sioddns UAaMjeq ‘UIQ “Ip req “4ST quouttredx ry, F Raaalea “your UIqSIsot (‘p) (9) azenbs sod : joiamoad | aonoapap | “an St0 A, "Sq Anaein 10 px gg} ayemy]y | suryearg | ur Ajonseya roses yonpos gy jo snjnpoyy a a a Ee ‘aaenbs your QO'] sieq jo asom 0} peonpel s}[nsery ee renee 245 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, No. VIII. WELSH TRO S. + 1 *aajuad ayy your £ ayoig “G6e— uOTayap aewny{—)*.* Wolf G20" |69@ |GL9 G10°.|402° |09¢ OLO' 6S" Str 900° |LIT j9ee + |ELO' |P2e + |Peo' ler Beak gga gs | ee] = Roel ea hing “4yg"*** syaoddns * WeaMjZoq vouRISICT CZ0'L°*"** "op YypRarg CBO T*** ** req yo tydeq "YG ueuLtod rg -aajuad ayy your — oyoig 4 ‘SE: = wOTapep yeu} *.* mmo.y o014) 67 A010) P9OT POL VOLPE ¢90' |LTP |SOOTIOO€ IFES TIStP OFO' |96E 1968 90S lsog' Tizés Ga0' |9L@ |P8L |GET lo90'Tloge 9TO° |SZa° {229 |]00T lose’ losz 600° |9LT° }O9G 1190 |zeo° Ipaz C00’ |GET |8PP |0FO' Icor |soT + (960° |9€8 |Tz0° 962° lzTT 290° PGS 1G00' leet log O&O" Jet 790" |8e _ 8 gs A $e 23 i ga| s2| Se" | 23 | 2 el Sea eos east =? Sao] “ung qgrr* *syaoddns WoaMjaq BOUe,SI(]) 820° ** top Uyprasg, BeO'L ** ** seg Jo yydeq “Ury uauntadxgy | “91399 euy wooly your F, ayoig ol ae wOKaTep ayeung{y*." joa} ¢ Teg so yYsIe “Mg “yp tte ts = Suoddns uaaMjaq auRysIcy TOT" **** Op iprorg LPO" angy yo yydaq ‘pag maursaday yoo} ¢ UIQ “App °7** SAO *aryuan ey9 yeayorg Leq'oyy ‘egeT 07 6r¢'[ WO paseertout pey uoroayep aq} ‘urese uo peoe|d uaaq pey (sqigpr) WYsIEM oY}? pue uexL} uvaq pry jas oy} oxy “689° [== uooayep eye, Q*-* SHOUOLV 6G [691 [SPP 60% OLe 1/z68 6ET |0G0' [96s \S60° 928° |08% 690° |Leo" [Faz 9€0' |OSh |S9T 610" |98%° JZIT G00’ |TeT |9¢ 290° |8z cela | 2 sa/f¢ | 8 *-op mpealg “To ttang jo qideq jets pS] quawad. *adjU9d ay} WO your euo ‘uayorq punoy E INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 246 ‘O]Y SY) 0} VOIsoype atues ayy YA patwedwoose ‘seysedotd Suvzpto0 sy ut [ejou YYI soyqusat yonut {ror 4r ‘Saysavypy oy) wey) syred aUTTTeISALO SqL UL adJsN] SseyT syiquyxe pue ‘Aoi# (LM poXTULLe}UT oSuy enzq |[Rp v sywasaad yt : wos stu, ur ArmuMsosTUN pue ssouaso]o o][qR.LepIsuoD st e104, SS O98 cer 9°E8s en Mee LO AE SP ee a ty eo PSS | COV 0'2E8 teeeeeeress eesiioddns uaaajaq ‘ule “yz 1eq “yIg yuouIedxTy, _UVLEP | 890_|_@SE6 sescresesess sqioddns usamjaq ‘ale “YZ 1eq “YP Jueutsadx SOTS | Le, CGEr ORR TET OBO Iba a e288 SUR 8 ess aaa aoe eRe POLS | Z96'L| L'9FF lOOO9SLZTI OgO'L | sjioddns usamjaq “ulg “IP Ieq “pag yuowtedx O'DGH 29:1 | GTEr OOOLSPAT| Og0L | AM eadas meashon "aig “ay, seq) “ping quoumarls 8'169 | ZSL'T | 868 ssrseseseees siroddns usaayoq ‘ug “yy req “4sT yuouttredx -yord ur ( “yout Sunsiser *P) Q) arenbsiad | . yoiamod | uorjazap Gusta AA eq] saa 2 10 px qQ|oyemn[Q Suryeaig ut Ayoyseya oyToeds eu y jo snjnpoyy LS SS DSL. 2a Gai Ge ee Se ‘aaenbs yout Q('] Sxeq Jo esoyy 0} poonpas si[nsey rn 982IEE 247 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. WELSH IRONS. Me Hill, South Wales, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. *a1} 099 ay} mroay your ~ exomg “198° = wOTIAHIp eyVUIy]— *-* 800° |€ST |SPr + [601 j9E¢ 890° |Pae 660° |6LL az | a_| 2 26 | a2 | 4 a) & sa » a8 loge Og |] oe 2 Been | “alg “yz °°" * sqz0ddns Uaaajaq aouKysIC S60'T" “op Wy paige 620°L*** *aegy Jo yydeq “ye jueUusad xn *aTjU90 oY} 78 OxOIT ‘6s uoNoegap yew]. *- ‘er Ua0 ayy WO your ue jo § ayoig 1 to uoTIaHeP 9eUNyT LE) *. *91}099 OT} 4e eyoIg er BYOLGIZEE OST [O9T TI8LE GIT jOPO'T/OSE eel 10G0' Tage 94141086 cog" |2g6 0S0' |6ee" 1968 €20' |EL2° IFS PLO’ |Gzz" |219 600° |G8T° |o9g 900° |\PFT |SPP + {POT l9ge 190° |P2z 1&0" Jett at orice a, {as | & “ure “qWYg- 08" sqzoddns peal eomeystq Igo" “Op Ty pear, 620°T **** “req jo yy dog “Plc jusmeies [80° |SE8" 1h6z PSO" |SP9" |8ez 6LP 060° |9FS" [rez 190° |299° |gez S€0° |osr l2st ‘lele” oat ep ]-2 | 2 tas | & Z 3o | 82 5 29 gg q salto] s iss | wae | 2 gk | 8.8 re |e | oe | a ag |e 2 lag | 3 za ria Seale ie = “2OPT “8qTeL** +" Su0y "sqTeerpes tte ee eee qoay ¢ Teg Jo 4YsIa MA "nI9 “3Ip°""*" syoddns UsaMIeq BOTeISI(T ug ype “8170 ie AND INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH 248 ‘aopypns paystfod ev Surpy jt se yay ov sdys [eaorsvo0 pur “oanqent Buyquinsd puw Ysdet] & Jy JOYJVA ST WOAT STI JO Saty.10A ay.L— erepady pue 1ydjapy ey} UT esoyy se padoyaaap Ajivapp os you ynq ‘asoyo avodde speysh1o ay} aangowdy at} SULMATA uQ—"jorduit ysisa.t 04 aemod pue yySuasjs ur 7} 0. LOLLejut yng ‘{eJow Puy TU PULM et oO} snoSoyeue st Wt fapepady oy} ueyy UoOIL esuep puL ezZANpqo e1ouT ¥ SL [TFL Soqte A Tonocsceecceasscoceseseesesee® TBO ; ; nae wee eeeeree es esiioddns uaamjaq UIE “YZ Ieq “YIP quawtiadx yy bone | oe an wee eeeeee ee ersqroddns uaamjeq “Ue "YZ req ‘pag quowtiadx Fy ——— | ————— | _ lowe erenece alsiiai'e atejehe.c}s}eiah¢ (ep 2) ° Peep UsatA! 6029 | OSF'T | 9 LZh |O0OZTOST| 400° @ see | Z6e"_| 9198 9L9F| 9G2'T | &'ZLE |OOOSS8FT) L10'L EPLL | PHIL | OTLP [00099TST)_166'9 -oeduit spr Sunsisar | (“p) (@)) arenbs10ed eee ecee eee essiioddns uaamjaq “Ug “Ip Ieq “pug quoutredx eee ceeeeee ees gqioddns uaamsjaq UIQ “YR Ieq “4ST quourtsed xq “AyAaviy jo raMod | worjoagap | IAs18M “sq] Ur oytoadg top ¥q |ayeun[y | surjeerg | Ayronsele qonpord jo snjnpow ‘grenbs your 0O'T Si¥q JO asoy} 0} poonped siTNSEY 249 GCTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. No. X. WELSH IRONS. Pentwyn, No. 2, Pig Iron. ‘e1juad ayy “aja “ax U9) OT[} WO oy your F eyorg flay; woy g aor yur ue jo ky ayog i Ad eae “ce I RonoeHep oeUHTA*."|| Tordapep ayeuyiy "|| uomsaqep ayeumya *. SHO1q/ 06 9014/8 20T OTE TOLD OGO' |T8E" |SO0T PATFUORE ||9ET [LOS TSP S60" |@2E" |968 |/$Z0' |s0€e" 1968 |izot’ ITLo‘Tiz6e 20° |OLZ" |P8L |ISTO' [09% |F8L |l9L0' |ee8° loge LUO" [2S |2L9 ||TTO' |€T% [219 |er0-|699° jez 600° |O8L° j09S 800° |LAT J09¢ |logo' lots: tree £00 jOPT’ |Str | + |Get |StP |loto lere Iso + |90T |98€ || + |860° |9ee |laoo lgez lzrT + 1690° lP2z || + lo90° lpez || + OTT 19g TE0" |20 860" |2TL_ 9CO" 18% ef/e./2 [etl2,|2 lazla.| 424i Z o6 ; 28 a Ss F Ss = Beal ve Be ond t| Bil Ge || eB oliee Bo) Be & i ee A oo pees) 3 a) 5 8 = oo oS = Do » ae | 8 bp salle! oF Se Gr 2 5 4 mle: a ag|= |¢ |oe/e | 2 agi se” | eH as 2 ela Ee Zin i= 3ilA E pee e Berecee US ean Some alg “yz °*** syaoddns — ||-utge +957." ** +» syz0ddns arg ‘yp ****'syaoddns uaaMjaq aoULASICT taa.njoq aourzstT WeeMjoq aULySIC] O20 Lea op Tppeag OTO NTE seen ‘op Ippeerg 8Z20°T A OTN op Qj peoig: osot* ng Jo Wydeq]|opo'l' **** *aeg yo yydaq G9OL ** **** weg jo yydaq “Yip Juauriwoadra ‘pig uaurwadry “paz juaurseda INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 250 “sPeJOUL 1ayfos oY} 04 Aoyye we se pasn Ayayes aq qy Sit IL SaINYXTU UT “9TY oY} YWwoulopun ssouprey spqeroptsuoo YIM papueye st pur ‘asuny anqq Aais ¥ ‘g7epad y oy} Wey} e1njXel Jasopo w sv 4] “Pett etoar YoryAL SUOIL YS]P AA AY} JO JSaxwaar ot} JO auo aq 0} sjuettiedxe Woy sivadde pue ‘y1Sua.}s jo a[eos ay} Ul MOT Jey}e1 spueys ‘8 ‘ON “UOT uAmjuo q ele | coe | 9906) _ (pies mocosseeerecseceeeroorerseres oe TESTA PGZh| Ler | 2966 eee eeeeeees esi roddus maaayaq “UIE “YZ Ieq “Wp queued xy Z12e | 8se"_ | EL68 weeeeereeeee sqioddns uaamjaq ‘ule "yz 1eq ‘pag jueutredx yy occ w cece cree eee ereeceroseserr se” “BOTA Z0G9 | PEVT| 9 LEP OOOEETST see eeeoeee es syioddns waamjaq “Ug “YP Ieq “pug quouLiad xi] 0'809 | LET | 20h |O0O8TEFT) SE0'L ; dx G'%69 Z2zG'L | OSG |OO089FST yt) hak] 2 he dee Oh sjzoddns useMjoq “Ug ‘yp eq “4sT JUSUILLOAX “yoeduat “yout Suystsar | (‘p) (9) javenbs sod ‘sqy] *AqrAe19 yosemod | uoyoagep | aysiem | ut Ajonseya | oyioads Jop XQ jaean{A | Supjyearg | Jo snjapoyy youpoig ‘arenbs yout QOL sreq jo asoyy 0} psonpel s}[nsey eee 251 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. cI. WELSH IRONS. Bute, No. 1, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. No. *9a}UAD OY caosy pour $ oor "Bar — woLaTap Ae ‘+ 94014/766 SPO |OOV’ |2S6 80" |E9E" |968 GZ0° je0e" |P8h OZO° |ZG%° |oL9 TLO’ |G0@ |09G 100° |T9T° |SPP +-qhTT) 196E + IGLO’ PGs + seo" er eo fae 3 Bs as q a6| 4| 3 Ae E “ute yyz''** *“sjzoddns u9aMyaq aUe}SIC] Zor" ***** op Upwear DOL tt weg Jo tydoq “Yip uaunodargy tax} Uad a1]} Woy YOU T syHoIg “669 T= OIA Fep ayeuny[) *-” 87171 ZES PIS |LEO TIPOS O6T O88 TSP LET |6PT 1/Z6E GOT |LV6" |96E TLO' 1094" j08% GTO |E8o° |Pae G20 |92' |89T OO |89%° |ZTT + lost 9g G90" _|82 Deflection oad removed. Deflection in inches. Weight in lbs. it "2001 ‘Sq{@L’*** SU0T aay ¢ dug jo WUBIN Tus sag “yprseer ss syuod uwaaMyaq aDmeIST(T Nite ee op Wiper” t= aO1q|GSG G9% |3E9' 1/P0G 681 |ELE TSPP GET \EvT Tc6e 960° |OF6" |98E 690° |T9L° |08% TPO |L89° |Pas 120° |61h |89T 600° |}F9% |eLT + |8Z2T° |9¢ 290" [2 Deflection load removed. Deflection in inches, “913099 at)! wos; satu Z eHoIg “OLLI woyoarep ayeuyyy) *+" a014/ OFS OTL Tees PPS OLS TIVO 9LT [STE TSP 92T JOOT He6e @60' |S06° |98E 190° |€eh" |08@ OFO' |V9S |P2z 020° {POV |S9T OTO' |SSe° |oTt Deflection, Load removed. Deflection in inches. ZOPT “SqicL"*** *SU0] yay _¢ AUG Jo WYS19 MA ‘ag 'qyP°** syzoddns TaaMjaq GOULIST(]; INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 252 SI It payiom Suraq SH Ser |oooegtet| 990, ISG ADA 0902 "pine dite ith Blevaee saepe +804 [000PLEST) O80"! °°" ** 1777+ t-suoddns wsmyaq “wig “app 104 “pag quounsedxsy 6 SSP /000FEZET) G0", |" "7" Tt 777+ t*suoddus usomyoq -urg “app, seq “pug quownsodxy z CEG |OOOTSGHT| 6G0'2 | ******** "++ syzoddns waamyaq -urg “yy, qeq “9ST quountedx | —_ “gordunt our suysiser] ( p) (9) paaebe ted | Aytavny Joxemod | nonoayap | 4xH10 M Sq] oyroadg TOP XQ | oyeumpy | Saryeoag | ur Ayoyseya yonporg jo sujupoy ‘arenbs your 00'T SB jo 9SOU4 037 peenpez S}[nsexy 253 No. XII. WELSH IRONS. Brimbo, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. “nese! “919099 91} “an ua2, uo prey udaq pey Wystem|| —-axyuad oy yw oxoage ||MO your § eyoag | jay) woyy your # eyorg oy 4107/9 a1) Ue0 ay} WOT) 00LT— ‘sor T= “Teo 1— saaquoo ayz qe ayosgy = ||your ue jo # axorg uoroagap eyeuIy] A *-"|} WoHrenep aeury{y"."|) WoRHoapep eyeuyTy *-" a1019|06 a019/F06 240.19] .6% OTe |P90T LEO TIL 099 TOLD TOS TIOLP GhS ETS TSPP |\S2e |Lep T8hh GLU |8b2 126 ||GOT |L6T 1a6e IBV |ECO'T9IEE ||0ZT |9L6° j9EE 060° |P2Z8" [08% ||P80° |6L0° [08% 190° |0€9° |PZS ||GGO" |S6G" |P2e PEO |LPP |S9T 080° [ech |89T PLO [LL] (SIL PTO’ |S9a° |att GE0' 88% |8001}]6G0' |SOP [SOOT 1P2' |O6h T/8hP e20: |ebZ 1968 |\SE0' [OPE |968 |GLT Ths 126e 910° |G0% |P8L |/Gz0' |F8s |P8L |\9zT |STO Toe ITO’ [691° [ZL9 |LT0' [€Es |%@L9 680° |TT8” [082 100° |8ET |09G |TTO' |88l° |O9S ||6G0° |0Zd" hee + |S0T IShP |L00' |9PE |SPP |\PEO' |OPP' |S9T + |gL1o° j9ge || + {POT |9EE |/PTO' [PL] [2TI + |opo: lez || + (890° [F2% |i¢00° |9eT jog + |Get |9¢ + logt j9¢ eZ0° IZTT sie PASO Kal! 990° |8%__ ¢90° |8@ €90° |8z@ J gq ‘8 os] oa B 3 a a S| a Z 3 | 8 z ao -— 2 ae a Co = ise sc eb . _ = ap z ol ge] si | a 8] se) 4 ge] 82] 8 | a| £2) 2 | ee) 28 | 3 ae] $e eH EG eee is ae | 38 | 4 a | 2a 1 2 ae| ge | 4 Bo /e" | Fi asler |e agile |e agi es" | 2 | ézla-e 2\4 Brice b. mabelam See Saka ese ole pga oea ee: OIL SqeE* Buoy ||*zog “sqIgT *** ** BuO] qooy ¢ vq Jo WSOA||aq ¢ ae Jo WPA nig digs tsyoddns [fur gg ett swoddns |frurg yyy" **syzoddns |} swig -qypr*** syzoddns | }urg “4p °"** syzoddus WoaeMyog auTysI(] WaaM4Aq BUUzSIC WVaMjoq awe SIC] naaAMjaq aoweISIC] aaj aq eoUe SIG (Widahyt's See ae Op Uppeaty is LOT" *** op (ppearg|/0Z0'L* **** “op yypeargy|| ESOL" **** * “OP UIPBArE || CTO'L"*** “op peg OEOT ** **** AVE IO widoq)|Feo i" ***" xeg jo yndoq|/ogo'l *"** req yo yadoq}} 210°1*** eq 30 yideg ||¢zo'r *** “aver 30 whdeq “ye quamr.adesy yb HamLiedxrsy "DIC quaurwada “pur jude drs °98 quawiledx eR NE OED A TE INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 254 “Aqpmp tajvaad jo syeyeut jo eanyxTurpe qu drys e Aq paonpad ways Ayavjnonsed arom yey} par ‘sosodand etoued soy Ayoyes YIM posh eq Avut voit si, f, ‘Qanyoupnueul rydjapy pue Soysavyy ayy oxy] youu Asa st Yt payxsiom Sutoq Uy ‘soeduit Suystsed Jo gamod sit Ul SSuULMoT[oy qxou ‘Layuog ay} 0} A[uo so1ayur st pue ‘quads Jo o[vos ayy ut “Z “ON “oynvag 0} 3x0u syuRl yt :84n}x9) JO INO]OO UT advaJeyTp e[qisues ow savodde e1eyy ‘uauttoeds gjepody oy} YytAA Wort sity Surreduioo uC, —— Se EE rece | or | L'Zss ‘yz Wo. pooped ‘s;10ddns waamjoq “ure “I4¥Z, eq “WIG queued x 0062 | eT | L086 vecereeeeees suioddns waaayjoq “UIE “YZ Ieq “Wp queued x" GC1g | SbLT| F997 |999TIGFT rye Cenc hie pate orem 9°008 | FalT | L19¥ [00099RFT| L66'9 ||... syuoddns uaoajoq “utg “Ip eq “pag juouttedx yy eereeeee es + esa oddns UsaMyeq ‘UIQ “Ifp eq “pug quountsad x57 G'L¢8 | STS'T| LTLP \OOOSF9FT LIOL |... ss... god a9 3 I 3 G89), %69'T 099% OOOTZzST 820"), $}.10' dns 90 M49q ulg Yip req 4s} ques x eelel ltr | 1906 Ie TRIS PL a ee Toi, gat “yout 2 UIysIser (*p) (-9) arenbs 1a ! joramod | woryoapep | 44319 AA “Sq . aes 7 xo p x q| ayemnyQ | Suiyvorg | Ut Aqroyseya wees poupolg jo snjnpow -gaenbs yout QO'T Sivq Jo asoy} 0} poonpad S}]NS9eY ie) 2 “OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. o. XIII. WELSH IRONS. Ponkey, No. 3 Iron, Cold Blast. N *pooejder, Woaq PLY OGL IWYsIom aq} Joye aijyued ay} aor yout & ayord 6FO' |OLe’ [89S GO’ |ZLZ° |9SFT G20 |Lb% |PPET 610 |9TS |Z62t LO IT6L |OZTT OLO' |S9T" 800° |Sh1° 1968 900° |Fel’ IPL GOO’ |GOT’ j2L9 + |880° |09¢ + |0L0° |SPP + jogo joge 080° G10" atl -o I a -Ps = r= ae 2 oe 3g | So + ~ as Ee | = og ov C= =| a) 1S 2 a ec 2 | e UIOL YT’ *‘sqzoddns loaMjoq OURS CZ0'T" °° ** “op Wpeag 820°T “YIP juauawedry SOOT TEL 6h SPP ai} U99 at} wor qour Fg oyoug 208 T= TONIaHep eyeunyyy-" *aaytlad OY moa sayout Ey oyouge “0L9'T== Tonoayap ayeuy[y*” eHouqiOlg 069'T/88¢ 9HOIGITSS 92a" [G99 T/09G ||8Es° [06S T}09S BOT [2bE POS FLL 196 TIP0S O€T |LOT T SPP 060° |OL6 |Z26€ ||860° |286" |Z6E G90" 608" |9EE |1690' |2L8° j9EE PPO’ |8G9° jO8%’ |0G0" |Z99° 08% TEO' |LTS [bZe ||TEO' |SLS" |ree 0Z0' |LLE" |89T 020° |FLE |89T 600° OFS |ZEL 600° OFS JIT + |6TT |9gG + |12t |9¢ 960" [82 9go"_|82 5 2] ; ; = aei@ |2 .2|a | A 29 a og t 8/323 AI Bai 23 B= | 3 sts 3 2 re| 2 ox ies) =| oo 5 ot =| 3 < ge} 33 = =| eA 2 s a5 BF AS 2 o an Cy 3 Bole ie g|aA = ‘sqikeres ots suoy (|z0g Sqg 1" *** * suo] UH AA surg yyp ott? tt sycoddus]|-uig ‘qjp**** sycoddus HoaMjaq aoUezSICT uaeMyaq 2UNeFSIC] 020°" "Op INpersg||FZ20'T “Op Tpeeig “pig mauiiadrsy “pug quaursadxs CES" ELt Lev €60' [695° 690° |L08" 6rO' Ho 260° |60s 020" |a9e" 110" ere + ett 960" Be | =2 5 i=) Zou “943089 ay) wmory soyout $ exo1g “t99° T= WOTPIaTJop ovewaT} |) *-" aYOlglagg 099° T}09E THE T/POS CPL LSP "oz “EQI9T** °** SOT qoay ¢ Ae JO WS Ay Sarg 'qpe'* sqroddns uaaMjaq aoue}sT(] ****op W}preig + +reg jo ydeq|| ooo L'* ** ater Jo ydaq||pzo'r***4aeq Jo wdeq||y{orL + *zeq Jo yydoq “ysy juamuadry 268 9ge 08% ined 891 ram 9g gz Weight in lbs ND INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH A 256 ‘S[BJOUL IapUs} a1out 9Y} JO atlos YL UOTEUIG ~WOd UT HON Sux pood v st yt fayy pue yastyo oy} 0} wWopaady oayeavduoo yA spark ynq ‘4ajovseYo ayes Dpqo pavy Bjo 4OU st yt “[eyeu siyy jo Aylowus} oy} SurpurysyAyoNT ‘parnjowsy uayM oouvrvadde syx yo Ayrur ~LOFTUN VSUap OY} LOF o[quxVUar pue “AjLavss oytoeds ySry Jo ‘pouress asopo A[Surpaaoxe ‘amojoo Aes3 oytyM v jo stqt :yoedmr Suysisat jo tomod ay} pue 4yStem Suvyeosq oy} spreSos se [ ‘oN spurys “eg ‘ony ‘Aayuog ‘LOL fF] Wouy paonpats}ioddns usaajaq te Fz Leq ‘yp yuautedx eye sues Ewha: isis d Alsi mai eiane (esas less icra $99¢ | OSr |o'OSTE 6266 | LeLT | 6°99¢ |000TTZLT O'OTTT| Ses'L | 6:09 /OOOTTOST| Zar'L e¢z6 | OFL'T | UTES [00080191 080°. |S TPG | VE9'T | LOSS |DOOPTGIT! TIT BEET | sreeeeeee ss eesqioddns uaamiaq “Ulg “yp vq ‘pig quewtiadx sy see eeceeeee esr 0ddns WaeMjaq “UlQ “Ip req ‘pug yuounsedxy teereceeeeesssqioddns uaamjaq UIQ ‘yp 1eq “ST queued x5 “goedurt out Surjsisol (‘p) (9) arenbs ied *AYARIN jo tamod | coysepep | yqaiom *sqy Ul aytoadg 10p XQ | aewyyy | surjesrg | Aj1oyse]? qonpos,] JO snjnpoyy -arenbs your OO LT Siteq fo aso} oF peonpe. s}ynsa 257 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND No. XIV. WELSH IRONS. Frood, No. 2, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. re EO “9}U99 BYY ayorgy OTK == uO IATOp aeunyyy *- *arjued oY} tory yur # eyoag ‘oly — WOTPTEp ayeurnyj{ *.° wor your | a01q|898 AYO1G ZG6 690° |00F |OFS ||9F0' |T8e" |968 cco |SSe" |F8L |]0S0' |STe” |FS8L 80" 1262" 1ZL9 ||6L0' (09% |ZL9 Gz0' |T&z |09G \|ST0' |s0z \09¢g PLO ISLE [Shh 600° ov |SP 100° |92T° j9ge G00 |9TT |9ee + |T80° lp2z || + |¢GLO’ |P2e + {980° |2tT || + 1880" |2T ae | 2. P=) ae A Fs flo A go Sepa te esha fs are ‘qig* te 'sywoddns = |]ute -4yz°*** sqaoddns UdaMyaq aoNeySIC. waaMyaq aourzsic ozo't'***** op yypeaig|logo't****** op typraig LOE **** avg yo wydaq}|coo'L* *** "reg Jo ideq “yie quatrwadasy “YUP quaunrwadxy “9100 OY} wos your — eyorg “Soh T— woroayep ayeunyy(¢ *." SHOT GOK 682° OSI T8PP OG |OSE LZ6E PPT \660' T9Ee 860° |098" |08% P90 |L99° \Pae 660° |OLP |S9T 610° |S6a° |2Tl + |TFT |9¢ ____{020" gz ge | ges | nd, [oP nelge “709 “SqIGT" ae Buoy joa} ¢ TET JO WYSE AA “ug “yp. °* ** syzoddns taa.njaq aoweyst(] 0GO'T" **** “Op yypeerg 0Z0'L *tsaeg jo yydaq ‘pag quaursadany *94}U92 Ol} your } eyoag “BL: 1T— WoONoayop oyeuryy{ y+ uo ox 014/29 08z' |60L' TIStP EST’ [06E'T1Z6E [ZL [OLE T9ee 610° |188" |08z 960° |0L9° Pee 20° |LSP |S9T E10 |60g° IZ1T + ligt j9¢ 810° |8z eel 2, | 4 os ni, oy Be crake "209 “8q{GL**** BUOT yaay @ req JO FYSIOA\ “ulg “yyp* ++ syroddns uaaMyaq soUezSICT ZloL t+ op wpearg 000°T*** "req Jo wadagq ‘pug juounrsedesy “arjued at} WIOsy your F ayorg “189° 1 UdTPIAHep AeUlyT Ly) *-" 83014) FOG STL VOLE OGS [8S LISPP SLT |28e TIZ6E 821 |6PO' T9EE 680° 668" |082 8G0' 689° |hee Z60' |6SP |S9T CTO |68a° |2Lt + |TPT 19S OLO" |8@ 2| si | 3 e2| 22 | 3 Ag| Ss 2 gia 5 “ZOE *BQICT **** ** SUOT qoop © ieg jo ys AA “alg “yp **** Syjzoddns TaaA\qoq AOURISIC] FOL "op tprarg PLOT ***arg jo tdeq *]8| quamradag OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 258 *[eyoul yey} se awes oy} yon aie sarjsodoid Surysom sy pur “loop MOTT oy) Jo yey) OF 4xoU st youdu Suystsos jo samod syt Suoryout Aroyerqia 0} pasodxe s8u1jsvo ut uodn popuadap eq aystur pure ‘nom uedo soyjer pue daay v St faTepady oy) ueqy ‘Aqtsoztun atow yng ‘Aowery[taq ssez syuaseid “Zon “WseTg POD “poor T'E9E 99921 LPI] O0O00LO8ET OOO00TFT OOOTSFFT| 080"). | qonpolg *AVIAR IN) ayioadg wen ee ne ee eee eeeceesweres cree e783 TA reeeee+siioddns usamjaq “Me “Yg 1eq “yg yuauIedxTy creer ersyroddus uaamjoq “Ue “YZ eq “yp JuouTIedx 7, wee tie te ee eee e ee ne ee eree ee eTBaTAT see eeee-siroddns usamjaq ‘Ug “spp Ieq ‘pag quewiedx7] e+e siioddns weaayeq “Ug “yp teq ‘pug queutiedxq sores es srroddns waamyaq ‘ULg “YP eq “4st Juourttedxry ‘aaenbs yout QQ T Seq JO aso} 0} paonpar s}[nseyy INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND 259 Pursuing the same method with the Welsh as already adopted with the English Irons, we have their comparative valucs in the No. 2 qualities: as under :— ABSTRACT OF RESULTS FROM THE No. 2 WELSH IRONS. Beansantrertes Nese ’s ve oN Osi ois a ote oiets oreo chelels 478.8 IBTIM DO's sreye ieee seek INGOs Sates occleroteratsta's 466.4 BroOd bs ctesteta sea s.e SINE 2 va ate a feiada vale erste 460.6 Maester* a 0 Sen. c. NGeeetaiele ci slauleiettle 6 452.7 Ponty BOON. 5. 2s 3a 3 Mos Berervecte ers oe 439.3 PPONUWYD «oe ows o> wie TAGS nics wiscaies Satins 437.6 Wiartem v)./gerere| sel o-< oie None acre Mina ois cater 421.6 antayeteictetsla cates. oe» Woo 2.27% 407.7 Plaskynaston........ NOM Aiaperate vet's picie, sie 28 378.3 The breaking weights are taken, in this and every other instance, on the bars reduced by calculation to one inch square. * “Maesteg White Mark,” is supposed to be No, 2 Iron. OF CAST IRON. OTHER PROPERTIES 260 No. I. SCOTCH IRONS. Gartsherrie, Hot Blast, No. 3, Pig Iron. *a1JU99 9} moy your # oyorg “OF WORIHep oe) *-” “011190 Of} wooly your FL eyorg “066° — uOoafep ayeuny{ ayorg OSr gos" POS” 0Ga 00a 9st ctl &L0° Gé0" inches. 9601 8001 968 78h ahd 09¢ STV 9€E Pe rag Deflection load removed. Deflection in "UIE "3S" Weight in lbs. +++*ssyroddns nepased) a0UU4Siq eoO'r***** “op Tpeerg ayoiqlecg T9E" 1968 60€" |F8L OG2Z |eL9 TLO’ |00@° L00° |9ST" + PIT TS 1@h0" 960° 680° 820" 810° Deflection, Load removed, Deflection in inches. Weight in lbs. “ule "317°* **syzoddus PS ee CIO'I" **** zeq jo tydeq) 0Z0°T * “ye juauLLAad x “Up babel Ueamyaq aoueysIT ‘aqjUaa at} ye eyoug 91a Lov HUE 180° 8¢0° ES T/StP 8L6 126E TSO'T/9E€ 668" 0s9 Defiection ; load removed. Deflection in !| Weight in lbs. “201, “SQ\CT SUOy qoay ¢ Ieg jo yq5Ie . syjsod wo2 sagaq aoureystT *ai}ta0 ey) ¢ gag "669 [== moi your ToNVPep aeuyy*-* sola OTS TSPP 896 1/Z6E Ile 6ST “|OPO T/96E "1068" \082 Deflection - {load removed. Deflection in ‘20g “SUICT qaay c ieg jo ya, MA “ulg 347 °°** syzoddns uaeMqaq aaUe}ST(] ‘arquad ayy moOy your $ axorcp 102° |OST TSPP OST OTS T\26E 601 |000'1)9EE LLO’ |86L° Deflection, + |Load removed. Deflection in 2001 (sale **** 300] yee] ¢ weg jo qYysSIe A ulg ‘3Jp °° * sqzoddns waamjeq eourysiq 261 STRENGTH AND E INQUIRY INTO TH “Ysa AA Suogys jo oanyxtwupe uv ya paaosdurt vaya [eJou [Hyasn & oq 0} SITY) AoprsuoD plnoys J ‘OTF PUL Jasty 94} 0} paytuuqns ueyM ‘ssouyos Jo caAdep oyesopour v YIM porueduoooe ‘AyIpmy ore SOHSMOVILY S}T —“SUOLT YO}OOG oY} Jo ysout oy] ‘omyxo} poyefnuesS syr ur Ayrumsostun yeas sey yt fen “sn] e1oml Jeyyet YIM ‘aepedy oy} 0} avptuns eouvsvadde ue syuasead “sepq y0T7 “eg ‘oN, “oLtsoysyre4) % OOP “Pr 686 see cute bn Oh oe imagine, Ae penis aa gierome aM ON AT 98FP | 9CF | BERG sreecerceesese ssiroddns uaamMjaq ‘UIE ‘yg 1eq “YIG JuouTIedx s'1ce | s6e"_| o'FR8 __[irrtettsssessitoddns usamjoq ‘ure "yg req “upp juoutedx P'R6G NGGT 992% O00FERET LIO'L bance earn ea OA Nah, Ot Ob ie OR TET Fy 9'°999 | 9SS'T | Peep lo00PERET seceeseressrioddns uaaaijeq ‘UIQ “yp Ieq “pag quouttiedx ost | Te9'T | gop loootg9et| LIOR IQ *sytoddns usoayjoq ‘U1g “yp eq “pug qwoutedxg| Z 219 | 98P'T | oz TF lODOLZTRT sreeeeeees-sytoddns uaeajaq ‘ULQ “3jp Ieq “ys]T queuttedx “gorda yout Suysisar| ( p) (9) arenbsaed | Aytaeiy jozomod | noyoapop | ‘31.510 AA sq] ayioadg 1Op XQ | ayewmnyg | suryeosg | ur 4royseTo qonporg josnmpoyy ‘auenbs POUL QO] Sieg JO esoy) 0} paonpas sinsay eS ST SOM OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. No. II. SCOTCH IRONS. Duudaven, No. 3, Pig Iron, Cold Blast. *aqjuea ayy *a1jmad ayy wo your ¥ ayo |juogy your F e[01g Bisio= Leh T= VOIP ayVuUry{H *."|| WoHseHep eyeUIyT |) *-” 939141690 A014/968 ||S8T |LLE' LSPPr PZ0' |682' |OPS8 0Z0' |S9%° |PSL STO’ (TzZs" |2L9 800° |O8T j09¢ G00 |ZrT [8h €00'|SOT [966 + OLO° |P2e TEO" |2tL 2B A= Z 2] 8 3B 2e|2¢| 2 |'32| 22 | 2 2232/3 [22 | 22 | 2 Pera ls [214 Ie “OTL “SqIGT***** SUOT qoay ¢ Ie JO WBIO MW “ure yg" "tt sysoddns ||*a1g “yp ** syzoddns *a4}Uad 8t} woy your & eyo “ozs I= Tondayep ayeuly[)*.” cb vet z60° 190° 6€0° 020° 010" Deflection Load removed ayorqiOLY 80F T|SPP 266 966 “og “SaIeT °° * SAO] yoay g req jo 3412 AA "ug “"3yp"* ** SHO dns *amUad eT) WO SOYIUT E OYOAgT “068° T= noe yap 9yeUUyT *-* 93101419 LB Z91' [062 T/Sbb ITT |6L0'1/26e 080’ |688" |9ee Tg0' [eT2" Teo" oss" 810° |00F" 900° |262" 821° 90" Deflection load removed Deflection in inches. Weight in lbs. 1, Zogq “BqICT “*** ** BUOT yaa G AL] Jo IYDIOAA ‘arg “yyy '** syzoddns 262 u9aMjeq BUSI 19939 BOUeSICT GaaMjaq sue ysiq Usa jaq 9OUGzSIG, OLO'I"***** Op ppearg|igzo't’’ **** *‘Op wpe] S001" *"** “op qypeeig Sto" *** meer: bra CIO'T’ *** "reg Jo tpdaq||ozo'l’ **"* “Teg JO yadaq}) 000°r*** +“ req jo deq| OTOL *** "eq Jo eed "PAS TUPULALA “pug jusU "78ST quail! INTO THE STRENGTH AND 263 INQUIRY ‘youdurt ystso1 0} somod pre yySuexy3 ut topedns pue ‘pmy Aypenba Suteq sopiseq ‘peyiom Buteq Jo teaiod oures ox} sassassod JeAOMOY JL { OLLIOYS}1ex) OY} ULY) eAMJoRIZ JOT[NP B SITQIYXe “E ‘ON “GSUIG P[OD ‘Uoarpnnag S'eLs | Sts’ _| F198 serreseeeeoee csrioddns uaamjaq UIE YZ 1w2q ‘YIP WuUaUITIedxX . . '00) PSO] 6SO'L src eeecee ser eeSHIOGANS UWIAMISY “ULQ ‘Ypp leq ple PUOWMILIAX 4] Liz | Oat | eur [aoors0gT] OE! [77277777777 séoddns wounog usp "yp 40g ‘pug momuodsg 0-269 | con't | e'sar [00078991] ToTL | "°° °* "7" ** *SHoddns wsomaq mig “yp eq “sy quompadx yy “youdumt yout Suysisor | (‘p) 9) avenbsied =| *Aytaer9 Jo damod | uorjoopep } qysiom *sqy Ut orptoadg 10p Xq | ayeungTgQ | suryearg J Ayrorjsele youpord ig) il a OR Sat Ae a ee ees «SS Te ee Se ‘arenbs You QT steq JO asoy} 0} poonper s}jnso 264 OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. No. III. SCOTCH IRONS. Monkland, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. chee ges rd. eriment Ist. z gigas nd. Depth of bar.,,... 1.020 ||Depth of bar....1 “009 Depth of Bar .. .. 1.023 Breadth do..,.... .994 ||Breadth do.. .... 1.003]|Breadth do....... 1-007 Distance between Distance between Tavence'l between supports ..,.4ft,6in. || supports ....4ft 6in.|/supports.. . 2ft. din, Wee t = Bar 5 feet || Weight of Bar 5 feet long...... 15lbs.4oz. || long.. «lilbs. 40z. a = = =o Lie r a) as) eo ba | ee a =a & dQ: = © a BS = o> o,8 ne ima 2 m Ee > a2 a sg (ot AF Wo | Bs | £3 S|, cea) eee 5 a g s 5 5 “Zo é = 5 8 g e Ee = B & & = B a i=] g = S 5 112) .345) .025|| 112} 845] .020}} 112) .039 182} .598] .053|| 182} .599) .050)| 336] .127) .005 238) .824! .086|| 238} .831} .080|| 448} .176) .007 294)1.070} .122|| 294|1.080) .115]) 560} .230) .011 350|1.352} .179|| 350/1.365} .170|| 672] .290] .020 406/1.676] .2'73|| 406|1.710} .274)| 784) .357| .031 420\broke 840|broke Broke 1 inch from ||.-. Pa deflection ||.*. Ultimate deflection e centre, ==1,800. 9 —.389. Broké. 2 inch from || Broke $ inch from the centre. the centre. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 265 ‘spejou Aj10y3ng pur TOOT, MO'T 9y} ur afqeasasqo asoy} 0) syoadsox Aueur UF deprams aie sansedoid syr : paysom Suteq jo asta pue Aqpmy s0y oyqeysewes St pue[yuoW, ay 7, ‘Aoueyiaq oyqesoptsuoo A pepusye ‘ornjoeay ayy ur snosod st 1 ‘1ydjepy 40 aepedy 9Y} JayqyIe UkY} SSeUOIE JO veidop s9j}v013 v syuesaad i “Uory puepyuopy oy) jo Toneziyyeyskio ay} Suraturexe uO G'0cE |] LEE" | & 108 = Teese seesss sqaoddns waamjaq We "YZ eq “pig quautuedx = 0601 29LT| 8 TOP o0geszetl 9169 SR a a ni wa eo ira a OLFL| 91ST | eLTE OO0FOFZI NINE OCF ri cael iat) Taam joq “UIQ “IH req “pug quouLiedx OTL | BOLT |_9°%6E |O00TIZT] 916°9 |" "77 +t +++ szoddns woamyaq «wg “YP eq “sy quoutsedx7y “joeduur “your Favicon Rae eg De owe ‘Asin 70 PX Q) oem | Suryearg ur Aj1oseya pouporg jo snjnpopy ‘arenbs qour 00'T seq jo 9S04} 0} peonper s7[nsey 266 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND Before entering on the comparative estimates of the irons of British manufacture, I would offer a few remarks on the subject gene- rally, as also on those points which refer to the strength and other properties of the irons ex- perimented upon. In order to ascertain their values, we must have some measure of compari- son as respects their strength, fluidity, flexure, &c. Ihave already stated that we may safely compare one iron with another, and that com- parison will hald good when made between those of the same number and quality. We must, however, be careful in contrasting the No. 1, or first description of one iron, with the No. 3 of another. As regards strength the No. 1 almost invariably exhibits greater weakness, accom- panied with a greater degree of flexure than the No. 2 or No. 3. For example, the No. 1 Milton, gives 352.5 for the breaking weight, and 1.525 for flexure ; whereas the No. 3 exhi- bits 427.4 for the breaking weight, and 1.368 for flexure. Again,the Beaufort Nos.2and 3 present nearly the same difference, being in the ratio of 478.8 to 505.0 as regards strength, and as 1.512 to 1.599 in the measure of ultimate de- flection. On the whole, therefore, it will be found that the richer and more valuable des- OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 267 criptions ofiron are, generally speaking, weaker, yet more ductile when exposed to heavy strains. They are also better adapted to those objects where the finer outlines and free working pro- perties of the metals are required. In forming a judgment of the quality of a par- ticular iron, there cannot, however, be any great risk, as we have only to look into the following table of collected results, and there will be found thestrengthas wellastheother properties of each. If, for instance, a strong compact iron was want- ed, we have then to look for the number at the head of the list, and from 1 downwards to 15 will be found to partake of that character.— Again, suppose a moderately strong yet fluid iron was required, the numbers 16 down to 26 or 28, will more or less correspond with those qualifications. The same may be said of the lower numbers, all of which are a fluid and easy working class: they are admirably adapted for the finer descriptions of castings, when strength is not reqnired, and must ever be in demand where that object is not considered of impor- tance. In all these cases, it must however be admitted, that, much depends upon using an appropriate mixture, and by judicious combina- 268 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND tion to ensure the full value, and other proper- ties necessary to be obtained in the art of casting. With these observations a general summary of results, as obtained from the whole of the irons experimented upon, will now be exhibited. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 269 From the above table or compendium, it appears that we have 581lbs. for the greatest strength, as obtained from the Ponkey iron; and 357|bs. for the weakest, as in the Plaskynaston: equal to 469 asa mean of the twoextremes. Or, taking a general mean of the whole irons experimented upon, we have 445.6 as the ave- rage value of strength. This number is pro- bably the nearest approach to the transverse strength of cast iron yet given to the public; it is deduced from experiments on nearly the whole of the British irons, and must, from the variety, accuracy, and number of experiments given in the preceding pages, be considered as a fair average value. Taking it therefore as the representative of the transverse strength of a rectangular bar of cast iron, 1 inch square, 4ft. 6in. between supports; and comparing it with the experiments of previous writers on the same subject, we have, instead of approximate results, considerable differences and anomalous contra- dictions to contend with. These differences are not exclusively applicable to the experi- ments now under consideration, but variable as respects the conclusions of the experimentors themselves. 270 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND Banks in his treatise “On the Power of - Machines,” made some few experiments on bars one inch square, but as they appear never to have been reduced to thatstandard, either by cal- culation or otherwise, we may reasonably infer, from the increase which takes place in casting from models, that they would be rather larger in size than intended,and consequently, give greater results. This seems to be the case in almost every instance where the necessary precautions are not observed, and the bars uniformly reduced to the dimensions indicated in the experiments. Tredgold in his Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron, gives the experiments of Banks, Rondelet, Ebbels, Reynolds, &c. To these he adds some of hisown; but they are not applicable for com- parison with ours, as the writer had different objects in view, and never broke the bars. Those of Banks, Rondelet, Reynolds, and some well conducted experiments by Mr. Rennie, recorded by Frofessor Barlow, are however en- titled to consideration. Banks in four successive experiments on 1 inch square bars, 3 feet between the supports, and the weights suspended from the middle, OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 27] gives the mean breaking weight at 971.6lbs. Rondelet, according to Tredgold, presents the most anomalous results. In two experiments on bars 1.066 inches square, and 3.83 between the supports, the breaking weight is given at 482lbs. And, in four other experiments (on bars the same size and the same distance be- tween the supports) the results are 700, 1140, 375, and 605, giving 705lbs. as the mean of the breaking weights. Again, on four other experi- ments, on the fractured parts of the same bars, at half the distance, or 1.915 feet between the supports, the differences are still greater, being 580, 1063, 1770 and 1360, mean 1193: or, 596.5lbs. as the breaking weight, when the bars are reduced to 3.83 feet between the supports. The great discrepancies which thus exist in Rondelet’s experiments, render them unfit for the purpose of comparison with our results. The other experiments referred to were made on bars 1 inch square, broke on supports 3 feet asunder. ‘Their results are as follows: Banks from 3 experiments...........-+ 971.0lbs. Reynolds “ 2 CRAM eet teae r= oe ¢ 755.5]bs. Rennie “ 2 ie OP ee, ates wa 869.0]bs. 272 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH AND Now if we reduce the distance, 3 feet between the supports, to 4 feet 6 inches, we shall then have— BAGS. one! csiss clit 1 Reynolds...... 503.7 fa as the breaking weight. ~ EVO s = esate ote 579.3 These experiments indicate a greater degree of strength than we have been able to obtain ; our strongest iron is considerably weaker than those experimented upon by Banks, and some- what stronger than the results of Rennie indi- cate. Reynolds’s iron approaches nearest to the mean—though it is somewhat in excess—it is rather stronger than the lower numbers, and may be considered equal to our Butterley speci- mens. Under all the circumstances, the diffe - rences are not great, if we except the variable results obtained by Rondelet from experiments upon the French irons. It may be presumed, too, that authors, when intending to make ex- periments upon a single iron, would generally choose a strong one. In closing this research, to which I have devoted much time and attention, it is not my intention to offer any observations tending to GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULT! << GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS OBTAINED PROM THE PRECEDING EXPERIMEN RECTANGULAR BARS OF CAST IRON: Each bar being reduced uotl 5 ON y one inch sq Tn the following abstract, ( which may be taken as a criterion of the value of en elween th PE All the other y h iron, is obtained from the mean of the expe e und next, on those of half the length, or 2 eenIRROER ene iced from the 4ft, Gin. bars {t. 3in. between supports Whitish gray ( 15 ) 7 INStieeiieiedelste = 15168000 8 id Mill End 2, Cold Blas 16490000 9 | Old Par 14607000 Beaut 16301000 5 | 14509500 Rather § Hard T Soft Fluid )4.000 2666 | Frood, No. Lane End, 16966 . it Sul ather soft, 71500 Flaid | Soft. =<} ather soft. Dull Lig] ). 3, Hot Blact ery, No. 1, Hot Bl | Level, No. 1, Hot Blast.. | . | Pant, No. 2 | 30900 | Le N 11000 W 9 ; oundry, } Hot B 211000 2, Cold Blast . «Hard ather Soft. .+--Hard Gray. . Whitish G Gray... 41 | Carroll, No. 2, C ‘last. . 42 | Moirkirk, No. 1, Hor Blast 47 | Ley’s Wo No. 1, Hot B 48 | Milton, No. 1, Hot Blast 57 | Rather Soft. eee een ne EE | | | 46 | I nd, No. 2, Hot Blast...... 49 | Pla ynaston, No, 2, H ‘The irons with asterisks are taken from the Experiments on Hot and Cold Blast Iron, made by Mr. Hodgkinson and myself for the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, ‘ee Seventh Report, Volume VI. + The modulus of elasticity was usually taken from the deflection caused by 112lbs. on the ‘ft, 6in. bars RULE. To find from the above table the breuking weight in rectangular bars, generally, calling & and d the breadth and depth in inches, and / the distance betweon 45x bd the supports in feet, and putting 4.5 for 4ft. 6in., we have. ; veaking weight in lbs.—The value of § being taken from the table above. For example; What weight would be necessary to break a bar of Low Moor Iron, 2 inches broad, 3 inches deep/and 6 feet between the supports? Accord- ing to the rule given above, we have =2 inches, d=3 inches, /=6 fect, S=472 from the table. Then #2%® US ie GEV, the breaking weight. OTHER PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 273 affect the commerce of one iron more than another. The object I had in view was entirely different: it was of a scientific nature, unac- companied with any other consideration than that of giving, by direct experiment, a correct epitome of the chief properties of each iron, in order to determine its relative value in reference to enlarged and useful application. This has been done to the best of my ability, and, I trust, the classification thus attempted, will fully demonstrate the strength and other properties of this invaluable material. I entertain hopes that what has already been done will stimulate others to further and more successful efforts. There yet remains a wide field for experimental enquiry, and whoever enters upon it with an ar- dent mind and a strong desire for truth, with a determination to be at the necessary expence and trouble, having first made himself well acquainted with what has been done by others, will reap a rich and abundant harvest. (274) REMARKS ON DB. -THOMSON'’S FAPER ON THE COMBINATIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER, BY HENRY HOUGH WATSON, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY. Read 8th of January, 1839. At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Bristol, in the year 1836, Dr. Thomson read a Paper entitled “ Experiments on the Combinations of Sulphuric Acid and Water.’ An abstract of the paper is published in the Report of that meet- ing.* * Since I wrote this paper, I have learned that Dr. Thom- son’s paper is published at full length in the Fourth Volume of the ‘Records of General Science.” SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 275 The Doctor, after telling us that the acid he made use of was pure, except that it contained saszth part of its weight of sulphate of lime, that it was a compound of one atom acid 5 one atom water 1.125 its atomic weight being 6.125 and that its specific gravity was 1.8422, commences relating his experiments; and first alludes to the specific gravities of different atomic compounds of sulphuric acid and water, ob- tained by mixing determinate weights of the acid and water, and compares their results with the results which he obtained by calculating what the specific gravities ought to be supposing the bulk of the compound to be exactly the same as the sum of the volumes of the acid and water of which it was formed, or supposing neither condensation nor expansion to be consequent upon the combination. He observes that the conclusion to be arrived at from this comparison of his calculation results with his experimental results, is, that the com- 276 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF pounds of one atom oil of vitriol* with one, two, and three atoms of water, have specific gravities above the mean, while the compounds of one atom of oil of vitriol with four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine atoms of water, have specific gravities below the mean. In the first case, there being a condensation, but in the second an expansion, and this expansion increasing with the quantity of water. I will here give a copy of his table, from which the results mentioned are to be observed. Next Water, [Specific Gravity]Specitic Gravity by Experiment.Jby Calculation. saat eek owt 1 atom +1 atom | 1.8422 “« Gioia 1.7837 | 1.7114 |+0.0723 or zz ? « 43 « | 41,6588 | 1.6158 |+0.0430 or a's.5 Ae yt Ape 1.5593 | 1.5429 |+0.0164 or z's ea pe 1.4737 | 1.4854. |—0.0117 or 757 ae 1.4170 | 1.4889 |—0.0219 or ¢'5.7 ae oy al 1.3730 | 1.4006 |—0.0276 or s's-7 MG ct 1.3417 | 1.3684 |—0.0267 or s'i.3 “« 49 « 1.3105 | 1.3410 |—0.0805 or a5.5 Cae he 1.2845 | 1.3174 |—0.0329 or a's * This term—oil of vitriol—is used as representing the com- pound of one atom anhydrous acid+ one atom water. SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 277 At the time he read his paper, he distributed among the persons present, printed copies of this and the other tables in his paper. In a few days after the paper was read, Dr. Dalton (having been, as wellas others who heard the paper read, surprised at the announcement of results conveying notions so very opposite to those generally entertained,) told me that on carefully looking over Dr. Thomson’s printed table of specific gravities, he perceived that the author had been working according to an incor- rect theorem in forming his calculation column: and such is evidently the fact. The correct rule whereby to find the mean of two specific gravities, is to divide the sum of the weights by the sum of the volumes; but this is not what Dr. Thomson has adopted :—his calculation re- sults have been obtained by multiplying the weights severally by their specific gravities, ad- ding the products together, and dividing the sum of those products by the sum of the weights ; the quotient in which case he gives as the mean specific gravity; thus, for example, in the case of one atom acid+two atoms water, 278 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF 6.125 x. 1.8422 1125 x 1.0000 11.2834750 1.125 II 7-250 12.4084750 12.4084750+7.25=1.7115 mean specific gra- vity as given in the table. In the same case, the example according to the correct rule is thus, 6.125 + 1.8422 = 3.3248 1.125. + 1.0000 = | 1.125 7.250 4.4498 7.25+4.4498=1.6292 the true mean specific gravity. By the calculation column being corrected, the table would stand thus, Sp. Gravity by|Specitic Gravity Dr.Thomson’s} by correct Difference. Experiment. | Calculation. 1.8422 1.7837 1.6292 + 0.1545 1.6588 1.5022 + 0.1566 1.5593 1.4179 + 0.1414 1.4737 1.3578 + 0.1159 1.4170 1.3128 + 0.1042 1.3730 1.2779 +0.0951 1.3417 1.2500 +0.0917 1.3105 1.2272 + 0.0833 1.2845 1.2082 + 0.0763 SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 279 By comparing together the two specific gra- vity columns, in this corrected table, we perceive that condensation is the consequence of dilution throughout the whole range, and that expansion is in no instance apparent. The old and gene- rally received notion, consequently, being correct. Having finished his remarks respecting spe- cific gravities, he next proceeds to show the quantity of heat evolved when an atom of oil of vitriol is mixed with from one to nine atoms of water; which he determined by pouring 1000 grains of oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1.8422, upon the requisite quantity of water, in a glass cylinder containing the water, and stirring the mixture with a thermometer. The thermometer rose with very great rapidity, and began almost im- mediately to descend, so that it was difficult to notice the highest point to which it rose. He gives the following table as showing the results of his experiments : 280 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF Oil of Weight of Thermometer { Heat Vitriol. Water. | Acid. Water. rose from Evolved. Grains.| Grains. 1 atom +1 atom/1000] 183.6/60° to 245°) 185% Sete Ee LOO mad Oiled |Olee LONeob.,|. ale “« 43 “ 41000} 550.9/60 to 268 | 208 “td 6 611000} 734.6160 to 263 | 203 «45 (1000) 918.3/60. to. 238 | 178 « +6 © {1000/1102 {59 to 222 | 163 “« +7 © 11000/1285.7/59 to 207 | 148 “« 48 © |1000/1469.3/59 to 198 | 139 « 649 * {1000/1653 [59 to 188 | 129 He says that when oil of vitriol previously mixed with water in atomic proportions is mixed with an atom of water, the heat evolved is much less ; as appears from his following table: ST ee Thermometer THeat Acid. Water. Water. rose from Evolved. Latom. +). 1 atom | + i] atom |60° to 245°] 185° Pegs Hy Sane oe Seapine Litem cysyreg rays Wo: 70 116 iy le STS LO gE + Loeor64 te 110 46 1G + 4 « ee eS 160. toy 9D ab hey = ein 5 yan je bt lGes: ton co 13 hy SMG) ic ic Tete mIGSi itor: 722 9 ty «6 + T « eR) eee Sapa aimee (8) a i hah + 8 « cee a Gt tooo 6 L pret +. 9 « ae tlie “oes 163M tor 6a 4 He then goes on to show the specific heats of various atomic compounds of sulphuric acid and water; which he determined by putting 24 cubic inches of the acids to be tried into a flask, heating them 80° above the air of the room, and SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 281 noting the number of seconds which each took to cool 40°. The following table shows the re- sults of his experiments. Time of > ite} lon) Stir . . . - ort CO to +t +b = By subtracting the 215.5 seconds (the time the empty flask took to cool) from the numbers in the preceding table, he obtained the ratios of the specific heats of equal volumes of the mix- tures. And, by dividing these numbers by the specific gravities of the various liquids, as given in the first table, he obtained the specific heats of equal weights of each. His following table shows these specific heats of equal weights, that of water being unity. QN 282 ON THR COMBINATIONS OF He says that “to know how far these num- bers accord with the theory of Dr. Irvine, at present universally admitted, viz. that the heat evolved when oil of vitriol and water are mixed is owing to the diminution of the specific heat, we must make a comparison of the specific heats above found with the specific heat of the mixture, supposing it a mean of the specific heats of the acid and water without any change;” Water 2.0 2% ecitic eats. .|1.0000 1 eo 1 Wester 0.3593 +2 © {0.4707 +3 << |0.4786 A Ariel DLL +5 © {0.5690 +6 “© 10.6091 +7 “© 10.6429 +8 *€ 10.6699 +9 << 10.7003 +O (\O:7201 which he does in the following table. ce Wiettetois ion 51 ote, Acid. Water. 1 atom +1 atom ce +2 “ee +3 “44 «45 « +46 «47 « 48 “ +9 “« +410 1.0000 0.3593 0.4707 0.4786 0.5228 0.5690 0.6091 0.6428 0.6699 0.7003 0.7201 Specitic Heat by Experiment] Specific Heat. | Differences Mean 0.4587 0.5326* 0.5869 0.6306 0.6660 0.6952 0.7197 0.7405 0.7585 +0.0120 — 0.0540 — 0.0641 — 0.0616 — 0.0569 — 0.0524 — 0.0498 — 0.0402 —0.0584 * This is not exactly correct, it ought to be 0.5314. SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 283 He remarks that “the slightest comparison of the second and third columns of the table is sufficient to show that the theory of Dr. Ir- vine cannot be accurate. ‘The specific heat of a compound of one atom oil of vitriol and one atom water is greater than the mean by about gisth. Hence it is impossible that the heat evolved can be a consequence of a diminution, when no such diminution exists. In all the other compounds there is a diminution of the specific heat, but it does not correspond with the heat evolved. The greatest takes place when one atom of oil of vitriol is mixed with three atoms of water. It amounts in that case to about 5th, and the heat evolved is 208°. But when one atom of oil of vitriol is mixed with two atoms of water, the heat evolved is 219°; yet the diminution of specific heat is only about z'sth, and consequently less than when the heat evolved is only 208°. The same want of coin- cidence exists in every part of the table— Hence it follows, that when oil of vitriol and water are mixed, the heat evolved is not the consequence of a diminution of the specific heat.” To satisfy myself respecting the accuracy of 284 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF this conclusion arrived at by Dr. Thomson, I commenced a repetition of his experiments. Having carefully prepared the different strengths of acid required, as far as that sp. gr. 1.4737=1 atom acid to 5 water; by diluting oil of vitriol sp. gr. 1.8436, (specially prepared for me by a friend, and the impurity of which I found to amount only to about the ;5th of one per cent.) with the requisite quantities of water, I found their specificheats by puttingthem into a glass bulb,* capable of holding about 2400 grains of water of the temperature of 60°, sus- pended in the centre of a room, and noting the times required for cooling from 130° to 100°, the temperature of the ambient air being ex- actly 56°:—the temperature of the liquid in the bulb was indicated by a thermometer, passed through the cork in the neck of the bulb, the stem of which had been marked by a file where the mercury rose to at 100° and 130°. I found the bulb when filled with water, to require 2500 seconds for cooling ; and when empty 179 seconds. *In every case, the bulb had as much of the liquid put into it as reached up to a mark at the bottom of the neck, when the temperature of the liquid was 130°. SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 285 The following table shows the several times required for its cooling when filled with diluted acid of the different strengths. Anhydrous Specitic |Vime required for cooling from 130° Acid. Water. Gravities. to 100°. 1 atom + 2 atoms| 1.7837 2040 seconds. i Mois io 1.6588 2040 = 5 +4 “ 1.5593 2055 — Hb paat’ Sth ho 1.4737 2115 _ By deducting 179, the number of seconds required for the cooling of the empty bulb, from the several times required for its cooling when filled with the liquids, we get the ratios of the specific heats of equal volumes of the several liquids, thus: Water’ se sc ee ee oe ee ees D00 1 ho —oed l atom acid + 2 atoms water 2040 — i179 = 1861 ] “ + 3 < ZU =o) = ead ih 6 + 4 “é 2055—e— 01 (98 —=s18R6 1 “ + 5 ee 2115°— 179 =. 1936 And, dividing these numbers by the specific gravities, we get the ratios of the specific heats of equal weights, thus: WEE ss ce Sense ce ns edet "1.0000 warl l atom acid + 2 atoms water 1861 ~ 1.7837 = 1043.3 1 & 4+. 3 ‘6 1861 ~ 1.6588 = 1121.9 z “ + 4 “ 1876 ~— 1.5593 = 1203.1 1 “ as) 7! 1936 + 1.4737 = 1313.7 236 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF Th en, Or aie wee 2321 : 1043.3 : 1: 0.4495 1 atom acid+2 atoms water Zoek satel. Ls O48S4 1 ee +3 s PeBYlonrae MAU Fadl Wt oped tends (OES ok! Nena L ie +4 “¢ Book datos 1 OD660) =a i +5 “ In consequence of the weather becoming much colder after I had ascertained the rela- tive times of cooling of the articles enumerated, I was unable to make experiments upon the remaining strengths of acid which Dr. Thomson experimented upon; my desire being to make all my cooling experiments at the same atmos- pheric temperature. The experiments which I have been enabled to make will, however, I expect, be sufficient for the purpose for which I commenced them. I have not myself experimentally determined the specific heat of oil of vitriol, or the liquid constituted of one atom anhydrous sulphuric acid and one water; but, assuming that the number given by Dr. Thomson is correct, the mean specific heats of the strengths of acid I have experimented upon, that is, the specific heats which they ought to have, as arrived at by calculation, if no diminution took place in SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 287 consequence of the dilution of oil of vitriol with water, will be the same as given by him. And, deducting my experimental specific heats froin those calculated mean specific heats, we find the diminutions of specific heat resulting from the mixtures of vil of vitriol and water, thus, Mean Sp. heats Diminutions Sp. heats. by Expt. of Sp. heat. l atom oil of vitriol +1 water, or ¢ 0.4587 —0.4495=0.0092 1 atom anhydrousacid+2 water. latom oil of vitriol +2 water, or 94) ve 1 atom anhydrous acid +3 water. 0.5312—0.4834— 0.0480 1 atom oil of vitriol +3 water,or “ re 1 atom anhydrous acid + 4 water. 0.8969 — 05 164—0.0885 Latom oil of vitriol +4 water, or f 0.6306 —0.5660=0.0646 1 atom anhydrous acid + 5 water. Dr. Thomson, as before observed, by com- paring his experimental specific heats with the mean specific heats, finds in the case of 1 atom oil of vitriol+1 water an increase instead of a diminution of specific heat, and remarks upon the impossibility of the heat evolved being a consequence of a diminution when no diminu- tion takes place; my experiments, on the con- trary, however, show, as above, that in the same instance there is a diminution, and that it amounts to nearly ;;th; in each of the other instances they also show a diminution, the greatest being in the instance of 1 atom oil of 288 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF vitriol; 3 atoms water, in this respect corrobor- ating the result obtained by the Doctor. I now proceeded to investigate the heat disen- gaged when oil of vitriol is mixed with water in the proportions required for forming the com- pounds whose specific heats I had determined. Though it was indispensably requisite, in these experiments, to use the same relative propor- tions which Dr. Thomson used, I conceived that there must be an objection against using the same guantity of oil of vitriol in every ex- periment;—for, when 1000 grains by weight of oil of vitriol are mixed with 183.6 grains of water (1 atom oil of vitriol to 1 water), the re- sulting compound weighs 1183.6 grains, and, its specific gravity being 1.7837, its bulk, at the temperature of 60°, must be equal to 663.6 grains of water; and when 1000 grains of oil of vitriol are mixed with 734.6 grains of water (1 atom oil of vitriol to 4 water), the compound weighs 1734.6 grains, and, its specific gravity being 1.4737, its bulk, at the temperature of 60°, must be equal to 1177 grains of water; consequently, the bulk of the resulting mix- ture of 1 atom oil of vitriol with 4 water is nearly twice as great as that of 1 atom oil of SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 289 vitriol with 1 water; and the two intermediate mixtures will each have a bulk greater than the first-formed compound proportionate to the quan- tity of water which one contains more than the other,—the compound formed from 1 atom oil of vitriol and 2 water, will have the bulk of 824.3 grains of water, and that of 1 atom oil of vitriol and 3 water, will have the bulk of 994.6 grains of water. Though the heat given out by making the mixtures must, in every instance, be the same, when the same relative proportions of acid and water are used ; yet, the indications of the ther- mometer immersed in the mixture must, I appre- hend, be liable to some modification as the bulk of the mixture happens to be greater or less; the high temperature excited being more per- manent as the bulk is greater, owing to the then less influence of the cooling agency of the sur- rounding atmosphere, &c. In all my experiments on the subject, I have used such proportions of acid and water as that the resulting compounds would, at the tempera- ture of 60°, be each of the same bulk, viz., equal to 500 grains of water. 20 290 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF EXPERIMENT I. 7534 grains by weight of oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1.8436, were suddenly poured to 138.3 grains by weight of water (= 1 atom oil of vitriol + 1 water, ) and well mixed with a thermometer, in a glass cup. The mercury in the thermometer rose from 50° to 234°, = an increase of 184° of temperature. The experiment was then reversed, by pouring the water to the acid, instead of the acid to the water, in which case the mercury rose from 50° to 229°, = an increase of 179° of temperature. EXPERIMENT II. 606.6 grains of the concentrated vitriol were poured to 222.8 grains of water (= 1 atom oil of vitriol + 2 water.) The mercury rose from 51° to 261°, = an increase of 210° of temperature. The experiment being reversed, the mer- cury rose from 51° to 262°, = an increase of 211° of temperature. EXPERIMENT III. 502.7 grains of the concentrated vitriol were poured to 276.9 grains of water(= 1 atom oil of SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 291 vitriol + 3 water.) The mercury rose from 51° to 256°, = an increase of 205° of temperature. The experiment being reversed, the mercury. rose from 51° to 258°, = an increase of 207° of temperature. EXPERIMENT IV. 424.8 grains of the concentrated vitriol were poured to 312 grains of water (= 1 atom oil of vitriol + 4 water.) The mercury rose from 45° to 234°, = an increase of 189° of temperature. The experiment being reversed, the mercury again rose from 45° to 234°, = an increase of 189° of temperature. In making these experiments, care was taken that the vitriol and the water were of the same temperature as the glass in which they were to be mixed and the thermometer, all having been allowed to stand in the same situation for a con- siderable time. The liquid which had to be poured to the other, was poured from a bottle having a wide neck, in which it was weighed pre- viously : that which was to have the other poured to it, was weighed in the cup in which the mix- ture was to be effected. The same vessels and 292 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF thermometer were used in every experiment. As it was impossible to pour the whole of either liquid out of the bottle, preparatory trials were, in every instance, made, previously to making the experiments, as to how much of the liquids adhered to the bottle after pouring, and as much as was thereby found to adhere, was used in ad- dition to the quantities stated in the experiments, as a compensation. It will be observed that in the first experiment the temperature resulting from making the mix- ture, was greater when the vitriol was added to the water than when the water was added to the vitriol, and that in the second and third the reverse was the case; while in the fourth there was no apparent difference. ‘These facts must be owing to there being a greater facility of sud- denly effecting the mixture in one case than another, by pouring the vitriol into the water (and then stirring,) or vice versd. The results of the experiments show that the highest temperature is produced in the same instance which Dr. Thomson found it to be pro- duced in, viz., when one atom of oil of vitriol and two atoms of water are mixed: but, it will not be right, without further inquiry, therefrom SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 293 to adopt his conclusion. He appears, unfortu- nately, to have fallen into an error, in looking upon the rzse of temperature produced as indi- cating the comparative number of degrees of heat evolved, which would only in reality have been the case if all the resulting mixtures had had one and the same specific heat: since each different mixture has a different specific heat, the requisite calculations must be made. ‘The ques- tions requiring to be answered are, How much heat will a compound formed of 1 atom oil of vitriol and 1 atom water, absorb in having its temperature raised 184°? How much will one © formed of 1 atom oil of vitriol and 2 water, absorb in having its temperature raised 211°? How much will one formed of 1 atom oil of vitriol and 3 water, absorb in having its tem- perature raised 207°? And how much will one formed of 1 atom oil of vitriol and 4 water, absorb in having its temperature raised 189° ? We cannot do better in answering these ques- tions than use water as a standard, and determine how many degrees water would have its tem- perature raised by having as much heat imparted to it as would be required to raise the tempera- tures of the four compounds in question the number of degrees assigned to each: and, as the rise of temperature produced upon a body, by 2904 ON THE COMBINATIONS OF having imparted to it a given quantity of heat, is in the inverse ratio of its specific heat, the cal- culations stand thus :— One atom Oil of Vitriol and one atom Water. Sp. Heat. Temp. produced. 0.4495 x 184° — 82.7. And 82.7 ~ 1 the specific heat of water = 82°.7 the temperature which an equal weight of water would be raised by the heat required to raise the compound 184°. One atom Oil of Vitriol and two atoms Water. Sp. Heat. Temp. produced. 0.4834 x 211°= 102. And 102 ~ 1 the spe- cific heat of water = 102° the temperature which an equal weight of water would be raised by the heat required to raise the compound 211°. One atom Oil of Vitriol and three atoms Water. Sp. Heat. Temp. produced. 0.5184 x 207° = 107.3. And 107.3 ~+ 1 the specific heat of water = 107°.3 the temperature which an equal weight of water would be raised by the heat required to raise the compound 207°. One atom Oil of Vitriol and four atoms Water. Sp. Heat. Temp. produced. 0.5660 x 189°= 106.9. And 106.9 +1 the specific heat of water = 106°.9 the temperature SULPHURIC ACID AND WATER. 295 which an equal weight of water would be raised by the heat required to raise the compound 189°. These due calculations being made, it is evident that the greatest quantity of heat 7s evolved in the instance when the greatest diminution of specific heat takes place; but, the amounts of diminution do not bear a direct ratio upon the quantities of heat evolved: yet, I think, it cannot but be con- cluded that the heat evolved and the rise of temperature produced, when oil of vitriol and water are mixed, are consequences of diminution of specific heat. The circumstance of the quantities of heat evolved not being in direct proportion to the diminutions of specific heat, is opposed to the notion that the specific heats of bodies express the ratios of the total quantities of heat which bodies contain. From the evidence furnished by my few expe- riments, it appears that the differences between the quantities of heat evolved, in the several instances, have a nearly geometrical ratio upon each other, speaking relatively to the differences between the diminutions of specific heat in the 296 ON THE COMBINATIONS, &c. corresponding instances ;—for example, the diffe- rence between the diminution in the case of 1 atom oil of vitriol + 1 water and that in the case of 1 atom oil of vitriol + 2 water amounts to 0°.0388 ; and, the difference between the diminu- tion in the case of 1 atom oil of vitriol + 2 water and that in the case of 1 atom + 3 water amounts to 0°.0205: the difference between the heat evolved when 1 atom oil of vitriol is mixed with 1 water and that evolved when 1 is mixed with 2 water amounts to as much as would raise the temperature of water 19°.3:—if the differences between the diminutions of specific heat and the differences between the quantities of heat evolved bore a direct ratio to each other, that between the heat evolved when 1 atom oil of vitriol is mixed with 2 water and when 1 is mixed with 3 water should amount to as much as would raise the temperature of water 10°.2; whereas, it only amounts to as much as would raise it 5°.3. But, to determine how far this observation may be generally applicable, a more extended series of experiments will be required; and, which, if lei- sure permit, I may, on some future occasion, be induced to prosecute. Bolton-le-Moors, Dee. 24th, 1838. A MEMOIR OF MR. EDWARD HOBSON, AUTHOR OF MUSCI BRITANNICI, &c. By JOHN MOORE, Esa., F. L. S. Read February 19th, 1839. An authentic history of men in humble life, resident in Manchester and the neighbourhood, who have, within the last thirty years, distin- guished themselves by extraordinary acquire- ments in different branches of Natural History, and particularly in Botany, would be very interesting, and especially if undertaken during the life-time of some of their intelligent associates, as it would furnish many gratifying proofs of the astonishing industry and perseverance by which a fondness for science often overcomes the most disheartening difficulties. 2P 298 MEMOIR OF It would also be a very valuable document, inasmuch as it would shew that many of these persons have not been more remarkable for the extent and accuracy of their knowledge, than for their quiet and inoffensive lives, and for a strict attention to those domestic duties upon which the comfort and happiness of all classes of society so much depend. I believe it was the intention of Mr. Edwin Serjeant, had his life been spared, to have fur- nished the public with the most interesting parti- culars of Hobson’s life, and, from their long intimacy, it is to be regretted that he was not able to accomplish it. The papers and letters which he had collected for this purpose having been placed in my hands, I have been induced, as a tribute of respect to both these amiable friends, to lay before the society the following brief memoir of one of the most ardent admirers of Natural History, and accurate investigators of difficult Botany, which this country has produced. Edward Hobson, the author of Musci Britan- nici, &c., was born in Ancoats Lane, Manchester, MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 299 in the year 1782, and lost his father when he was only three years old. His mother, soon after this melancholy event, having contracted habits of intemperance, he was placed by his grand- father, under the care of his uncle, William Hobson, who resided at Ashton-under-Lyne. Here he was sent to a day school, kept by Mr. Wrigley. It is uncertain how long he remained with his uncle, but, having changed places with a younger brother, he returned to his grandfather, and was sent to school in Manchester, till he was about ten or eleven years old. In the opinion of Mr. Serjeant this was the extent of his educa- tion. It would be interesting to know what induced his first attachment to Botany. His friend John Horsefield, of Whitefield, near Bury, one of the most intelligent of Hobson’s companions, in a letter to the late John Hamp- son, of this town, also a very highly esteemed associate of Hobson, in answer to some inquiries on this subject, states, that “it was at the meet- ings of the Society of Botanists that Hobson received his earliest instruction in the science.” Horsefield also informs us that ‘he first met 300 MEMOIR OF with him at their meetings about the year 1809, and that he soon after became one of their most esteemed and useful members.” John Bentley of Staley Bridge, who published an account of new plants which he had found in the uncultivated parts of North America, was at this time one of their members. At the same period also, George Cayley, afterwards well known as one of our most enter- prising and intelligent naturalists, was an active member of the Manchester Society of Botanists, and on his return from his expedition to New South Wales in 1811, became so much attached to Hobson, that the president, John Dewhurst, complained of these friends having little time to spare for conversation with any body else. During Cayley’s appointment to superintend the Government Botanical establishment at St. Vincent’s, he was a regular correspondent of Hobson, and furnished him with many rare spe- cimens of tropical plants, and especially of ferns. John Mellor, of Royton, and Samuel Ogden, of Middleton, appear also to have been distin- MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 301 guished members of the same society, but, in the opinion of Horsefield, ‘‘ Hobson attached the highest value to the acquirements of John Dew- hurst, of Manchester, who, for more than five- and-twenty years, presided over their meetings.” Being far advanced in life, Dewhurst at length resigned his situation in favour of Hobson, whose more active habits better enabled him to keep pace with the advancing knowledge of the. time. By his uncommon perseverance and acuteness, Hobson was particularly fitted for the study of cryptogamic botany, and he appears to have de- voted himself very early to this difficult part of | the science. Horsefield relates many instances of his daring exertions in climbing trees and rocks in pursuit of rare mosses and lichens, and describes some laughable disasters which occurred to him in his endeavours to detach curious specimens from their resting places. His favourite resorts were Cottrel clough, and Baguley moor near Altrin- cham, and Ashworth wood near Rochdale, whose rocks and secluded dells, Horsefield remarks, “afforded many beautiful and rare plants.” But he varied his excursions in almost every direction round Manchester, and Horsefield had no doubt 302 MEMOIR OF “they have taken more than two hundred of these walks together, sometimes extending them to ten, twelve, and even twenty miles, but always with a determination to return home the same evening.” An amusing instance of Hobson’s perseverance in procuring scarce specimens is related in con- nexion with his old companion Crowther. The latter having declared that he had seen an aquatic plant, which Hobson much wanted, grow- ing in Tatton mere, near Knutsford, it was agreed that they should take the first opportunity to go there and procure it. Hobson had great doubts as to their meeting with it, and when they came in sight of the lake, poor Crowther, whose accuracy was in question, had the mortification to find it so swollen with recent rains, that the plant was at least three feet under water. Hobson felt for Crowther’s disappointment, and set about botanizing in the adjoining fields, rather than complain of a fruitless journey. Whilst so engaged, he heard a plunge in the water, and, looking round, Crowther had disap- peared. In the greatest alarm, Hobson rushed MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 303 back, and had the satisfaction to see the old man just emerging from the water with the precious specimen in his grasp. To a person fond of Natural History, and residing in the country, Hobson’s society was invaluable. He appeared at all times quite as much gratified in communicating as in acquiring knowledge, and, from his uncommon quickness and accuracy, every walk in a garden, every field, every lane, every brook or pond afforded him opportunities of pointing out new or unobserved sources of gratification. When taking his favourite walks, the moment he found himself clear of the smoke of Manches- ter his eye was upon the alert in every direction, and his countenance, at all times pleasing, assumed peculiar animation whilst he was breathing the pure air of the country. Not many years before his death he was so kind as to accompany me on an angling excursion to Bakewell, in Derbyshire, with the view also of obtaining something like an outline of the natural history of the river Wye. He was astonished and delighted with the endless variety of water- bred flies we met with, and especially by the many 304 MEMOIR OF delicate specimens of the two great families Ephemeride and Phryganide, which appeared to have escaped the attention of our most careful entomologists. A better satisfied or more bustling trio has seldom been seen on the banks of that beautiful river than myself, battlmg with a large and vigorous trout, an active little boy with my pannier on his back, twisting and turning his landing net in every direction to get the fish into it, and Hobson at the time in full speed after some new-born ephemera to which he was giving chase across the meadows. During this visit we were quite satisfied that a great proportion of our Ephemeride and Phry- ganide are seldom seen except by anglers; and, had Hobson’s life been spared, the acknowledged accuracy which he had applied so successfully to the diminutive beauties of the vegetable kingdom, would have been most willingly devoted to the splendid little insects, which, in their short lived existence, occasion to the disciples of Isaac Walton, as well as to the entomologist, an ever varying interest in the matchless scenery of the Derbyshire rivers. MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 305 The Rutland arms, at Bakewell, has long been celebrated for the excellent and liberal accommo- dations it has afforded to anglers, and many per- sons from different parts of England, when they meet together in pursuit of the delightful recrea- tion, avail themselves of the opportunities which that county, more perhaps than any other in England, affords for the study of several branches of natural history, and especially geology and botany. I had the pleasure of introducing Hobson to some very intelligent friends there assembled, who were, as might be expected, much pleased with his conversation and manners. It has often been remarked that the lovers of Natural History live their pleasanter days many times over. It might be truly so said of Hobson, for I believe a happier man is seldom seen than he was when engaged in arranging the insects or stretching out the mosses he had collected during his more successful rambles. With his imper- fect instruction in ancient as well as modern languages, it is difficult to account for his being so well able to keep up with the new arrange- ments which were continually taking place in the different branches of Natural History to which he was attached, and especially with the endless 29 306 MEMOIR OF changes which occurred in descriptions of very abstruse derivation. Whenever he was so fortunate as to find in the works of foreign authors an engraving of any insect or plant he was studying, he had a sure resource in the friendship of the very learned President of our Natural History Society, who most willingly translated the description for him, but I am not aware of any other aid which he could reckon upon. It is gratifying to learn that amongst the com- panions of Hobson yet surviving, there is but one feeling as to the superiority and extent of his knowledge, and the perfect honesty and simplicity of his character. Shaw, of Bollington, thus writes of him in September, 1830,— “Hobson intro- duced himself to me about sixteen or eighteen years ago, by a visit to my little botanic garden, as a collector of specimens, and, from his first interview, our communications were made with that frank and open generosity which was so conspicuous in his character.” Horsefield, of Whitefield, in a long and valuable communi- cation to John Hampson, says, ‘Hobson was a profound practical Muscologist, and never could MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 307 have collected materials for his work had he not possessed the greatest patience and perseverance in his laborious investigations.” Horsefield informs us that “ he could also number drawing amongst his various acquire- ments, and that he had a little book of Hobson’s in his possession, containing nearly two hundred coloured drawings, exhibiting the generic and specific character of mosses, on a magnified scale, copied from a work in the College Library, which place he frequently visited during his dinner hours.” Hobson endeared himself to his associates by his frankness and generosity, and all his friends agree that he was a most affectionate husband and father, and never suffered his fondness for science to interfere with the duty of providing for the daily wants of his large family. I have great pleasure in submitting similar and more lasting testimonials to his extraordinary acquirements, in the proofs Iam enabled to fur- nish of the estimation in which he was held by the most celebrated botanists of his day, and especially by the distinguished authors of the 308 MEMOIR OF Muscologia Britannica, who have so often named him as one of their safest authorities in the more difficult articles of their celebrated work. It does not appear that Hobson himself received much assistance from books, in the publication of his Musci Britannici, but he derived important aid from eminent botanists, who furnished him with specimens, which he could not procure in his own neighbourhood. That he was equally liberal to others engaged in similar pursuits, will be seen by the following letter to him from Dr. Taylor, dated the 10th of Sept., 1815, in which the Doctor acknowledges the receipt of some rare and valuable plants, in the following terms :—‘‘You will be surprised, my dear sir, at my desiring to have so many spe- cimens of those things which you find in your neighbourhood, and which appear to me rare, but the fact is, that only thus can the science of botany be rapidly progressive, more certainly being to be learned from specimens than from the very best plates with the very best descriptions. The winter and early spring are approaching, the season for mosses, when I trust you will favour me with some specimens.” MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 309 In a letter dated the 24th of March, 1816, Mr. (now Sir William) Hooker, also acknowledges the receipt of some scarce mosses from Hobson, and informs him that “‘he is engaged in publishing a continuation of the Flora Londinensis, with fine figures of every known species, and will be glad to receive specimens and any information respect- ing them which Hobson can give him.” A letter from Dr. Taylor, dated the 11th of April, 1816, is highly encouraging to Hobson, “T was much pleased” the Doctor says ‘with the mosses you were kind enough to send me, and if you will let me have another list of your wants, I will endeavour to supply it.” On the 3rd of February 1818, Mr. Lyell thus commences a letter to Hobson, “Dear Sir, our kind friend Mr. Hooker, has begged that I will be the channel of conveying to you his admira- tion of your enthusiasm and acuteness in the study of the British Mosses, and his obligations to you for your remarks, and every service in your power, by presenting you with his copy of the Muscologia, (which happened to be in my hands.) I forward it to you with great pleasure, and have endeavoured to render the present more accept- 310 MEMOIR OF able by the accompaniment of some Jungermanniz and other cryptogame of the new Forest.” On the 8th of May, 1818, Hobson received from Dr. Hooker a letter acknowledging the receipt of the first volume of his Mosses, in the following satisfactory terms:—“My dear sir, your packet J received yesterday, and am very much obliged to you for the copy of your mosses. They are very correctly named, and got up fuse as I could wish them.” As this volume was illustrated with dried spe- cimens of Mosses and Hepatice, instead of engrav- ings, a few copies only could be furnished, and Hobson wrote to Mr. Scott, of Edinburgh, June 13th, 1818, to inform him that ‘he had received his kind order for the first volume of Mosses and Hepatic, with the £1. note inclosed, and that the other volume would be published as soon as sufficient materials could be collected.” Mr. Greville, the distinguished author of the Flora Edinensis, in a letter dated Wyastone, near Ashbourne, the 9th of August, 1819, thus addresses Hobson, ‘“ Dear Sir, since I had the pleasure of seeing you, I think I have been fortu- MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 311 nate enough to discover a new species of Gym- nostomum. I send you the only specimen I can spare. I shall be impatient till I hear from you.” On the 7th of February, 1821, Mr. Greville “‘requests Hobson’s assistance in procuring spe- cimens of mosses,” a list of which he sends him, and expresses himself sorry that “he cannot in return send Hobson all the specimens he wants for his second volume.” In September, 1821, Hobson complained to Dr. Hooker that he had been so confined by his business that he had not had much leisure to devote to his favourite study, yet, what time he had to spare he employed in laying down speci- mens for his second volume, but was certain he could not complete it without adding some of the Lichens, unless something could be done to get him the rarer species he wanted” and in the same letter he informs the Doctor that ‘the bearer of it, Mr. Eveleigh, of Manchester, (in whose employ Hobson then was) had a good col- lection of specimens of minerals as well as plants, and would convey any duplicates of rare mosses or Jungermannie, which the Doctor or his friends could furnish for his second volume, which he was anxious to complete as early as possible.’ 312 MEMOIR OF Hobson remained with Mr. Eveleigh from this period to the time of his death, and availed him- self of the connection to acquire very consider- able knowledge of mineralogy. Those who knew Hobson will be able to_ estimate his feelings on the receipt of the fol- lowing letter from Mr. Greville, dated the 8th of May, 1822, “My dear sir, I beg to return you my best thanks for your second volume of mosses in which I do not see any thing that requires alteration, nor will Dr. Hooker I think. “IT suppose you mean to proceed to a third volume, after you have made up your copies for the second. If you were to take in the Fungi and the Lichens you might go on for a good while, they also take much less trouble in preparing. “ Hooker thinks about a new edition of his Mus. Brit. I am working very hard at my Flora Edinensis. Yours very truly, R. GREVILLE.” These testimonies establish the high value of the Musci Britannici, to those who are so fortu- MR. EDWARD HOBSON. . 313 nate as to possess copies of the work, and make us the more regret that Hobson had not leisure to complete the third volume here alluded to— we find him however a few years afterwards very busily engaged in the pursuit of Entomology, and Dr. Hooker, after observing he had long been in “his debt, informs Hobson on the 1st of February, 1825, that having given up Entomology for ten years, he regrets he is unable to render him any assistance in that pursuit. Jethro Tinker, a correspondent of Hobson’s, residing at Staley Bridge, in the preceding year had furnished him with the names of the insects found in that neighbourhood, and requests he will pay particular attention ‘to the circumstance of the very few butterflies which are there to be met with.” From Hobson’s correspondence with Mr. Robertson of Newcastle, Cayley, and others, it is quite clear that his attachment to botany had not been impaired by these additional pursuits. In a very long and most interesting letter from Cay- ley, dated Bayswater, 5th of February, 1826, he asks Hobson “if he had ever made a list of the plants growing in the neighbourhood of Manches- 2R 314 MEMOIR OF ter,” and tells him that “he, Cafley, had done so in 1798.” From the celebrity which Cayley acquired one cannot help wishing that this list could be found. He informs Hobson that “it was not as copious in phenogamous plants as, from the general appearance of the country and the diver- sity of the soil, he should have expected, and that some of the most common plants in the kingdom may be reckoned amongst the scarcest near Manchester.” He also observes that “ many plants have be- come naturalized about Manchester, which were not met with formerly, and others again have become extinct,” and tells Hobson that “J. Dewhurst could give the best account on this subject, and it would be well to note down what he says upon it.” In a letter to Mr. Henry Baines, of York, dated November 6, 1827, Hobson informs him that ‘he had only been a short time engaged in Entomology, and could not boast much of his collection of insects.—Botany had been his favo- rite pursuit, at his leisure times, but that he then wished to combine them both, as it was no great additional burden to carry, and he hoped by a little diligence to do something in it.” MR. EDWARD HOBSON. S15 He also mentions having sent Mr. Baines an “Entomological Nomenclature, which he had got a friend to print for him, taken from Samouelle’s compendium, with a few additions, which may be useful to him for cutting up to put to his collec- tion, or may answer as a memorandum book to know what he had got.” On the 27th of November, of the same year, Hobson writes to Cayley, to inform him that “in consequence of the extension of buildings round Manchester, many of their favorite resorts were so altered as scarcely to be known, and that he had not been able to find a single specimen of a plant which Cayley wished him to send from Scarweal Clough, seven or eight houses having been built upon the top of the bank, and the clough cut up into gardens.” On the 12th May, 1828, Hobson received an invitation to preside at the annual dinner of the Bury Botanical Society. In a letter from Cayley, of the 26th Decem- ber, 1828, he asks Hobson “if he had ever attended to the varieties of the blackberry, and mentions Baguley moor, Sale moor, Ashton moss, 316 MEMOIR OF and Sinderland moss, as places where two very distinct species may be found, differing both in the form of the flowers and the colour and shape of the fruit.” On the establishment of the Banksian Society in Manchester, Hobson was elected its President, which situation he held to the time of his death. In the year 1829, having greatly distinguished himself in assisting to arrange the museum of the Manchester Society for the promotion of Natural History, it was unanimously resolved to offer him a permanent engagement in that institution, and Mr. Blackwall and myself were deputed by the Society to wait upon him for that purpose. Knowing his fondness for such pursuits, we had no doubt that the situation, with a salary of £100. per annum, would be exactly what he would desire. His reply to the offer I must en- deavour to give in his own words. Having re- covered himself a little from feelings which evi- dently overpowered him, he said,—‘‘ Gentlemen, I am deeply sensible of the great compliment and the kind attention paid to me by the offer you have made. ‘The situation, and the salary pro- posed, would have been every thing I could have MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 317 wished for, but my present employer was very kind to me in his prosperity, and in his altered circumstances, as I have reason to believe my services are of more importance to him, I cannot think of leaving him.” In the spring of 1830, a bad cough, with other unfavourable symptoms, led Hobson’s acquain- tance to fear that his life was in great danger, and, under the direction of his kind friends Dr. Holme, Mr. Ainsworth, and others, he was in- duced to retire to Bowden, where comfortable lodgings had been provided for him. It was only necessary to make known to the respectable families in that neighbourhood that this amiable and interesting individual was sojourning near them in search of health, to secure for him every comfort which they had it in their power to furnish. The last interview which the writer of this very imperfect memoir had with him, can never be forgotten. His appearance indicated the near approach of death; and his countenance, always bespeaking benevolence to others, became ex- pressive of the deepest gratitude, whilst he pointed out the rare fruits and delicacies which had been 318 MEMOIR OF sent to him by persons unknown. His perfect simplicity made him quite unable to account for such seasonable attention to a stranger. I pro- mised that I would seek out his benefactors and thank them for him. Hobson died at Bowden on the 7th September, 1830, and was buried at St. George’s Church, Hulme, where a mural tablet has been placed to his memory by his friends, with the following inscription, written by Edwin Serjeant, Esq. | “SACRED TO THE MEMORY Edward Pobson, oF MANCHESTER. Obiit 7th September, 1830. tat 48. “Humble parentage had afforded him only a scanty educa- tion—the necessary support of a numerous family demanded his daily labour. “‘ Yet amidst privations and difficulties, he had, by assiduity and zeal, rendered himself a most skilful Naturalist, as his scientific works and ample collections lastingly testify. “Entomology, Botany, and Mineralogy were his favourite studies: in these many celebrated men, publicly in their writings and privately in correspondence with him, have acknowledged his great attainments. “Such distinctions did not affect his Natural simplicity of manners ; His character was wholly amiable.” MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 319 The following letter from Sir William Hooker to Hampson, written very soon after Hobson’s death, so exactly accords with the feelings of those of his friends who were best able to es- timate his character and acquirements, that I am sure I shall be excused for giving it at length. “ Glasgow, Oct. 2nd, 1830. “‘ Sir,—I was much concerned and surprised to learn by your letter of the 11th of last month, and by the copy of the Manchester Guardian which you had the goodness to send to me, that your friend and my valued correspondent, Mr. Hobson, had died. I was not even aware that he had been in an indifferent state. His loss will be severely felt by the lovers of British Botany generally, for I hope that had he lived it was his intention to have continued his Musci Britannici, or rather to have extended the plan so as to have included the whole of the British Cryptogame. “‘T should be happy were it in my power to have furnished you with particulars relative to his general botanical knowledge and acquirements, but unfortunately nearly all I do know of him is 320 MEMOIR OF by correspondence and his modesty was such that he seemed to shun making anything like a display of his abilities, and of the extent of his acquirements, and it was only incidentally that I discovered that he paid any attention to phno- gamous plants. Such was his acuteness however, and so completely had he mastered all the diffi- culties that attend the study of Cryptogamic plants, that it was easy to perceive the phenoga- mous tribes would have been comprehended by him with great facility. “Tt is however as a Muscologist that Mr. Hobson’s name will rank in the annals of Botany. I do not know any naturalist who searched for mosses more successfully than he has done, in their native stations ; nor one who discriminated them more accurately. “His publication of ‘ Specimens of British Mosses and Hepatice’ will be a lasting testi- mony to his correctness and deep research into their beautiful families; and in this country he has been the first to set the example of giving to the world volumes which are devoted to the illustration of entire genera of cryptogamic plants, by beautifully preserved specimens them- MR. EDWARD HOBSON. 321 selves. This method has been pursued by Mr. Drummond in his ‘ Mosses of Scotland,’ and in his inestimable work of the ‘ American Mosses.’ “‘ Once, and only once, I had the pleasure of a personal interview with Mr. Hobson. It is six- teen years ago. He came to me at the Inn, in Manchester, bringing with him many of his new discoveries, and I scarcely knew which most to admire in him, his accurate knowledge of every plant he had investigated, or the extreme diffi- dence and modesty he displayed in communi- cating that knowledge. He had then in the examination of mosses only a common pocket lens to make use of ; and I had the satisfaction of giv- ing him my Ellis’ aquatic microscope by Jones, which had been my companion for many years, and which was the very last I ever employed. “IT have every reason to believe that this instrument opened to him new wonders in the vegetable creation, and contributed not a little to his very accurate knowledge of the minute cryp- togamic vegetables. ‘If you propose raising a subscription in the Botanical and Horticultural Society of Manches- 2s 322 MEMOIR OF ter, with the view of purchasing Mr. Hobson’s collection of plants, for the use of that society, I shall be happy if you will set my name down for £5. and if you will let me know when the purchase is made, I will immediately remit the money. I am, sir, your obedient servant, W. J. Hooker.” “Mr. John Hampson, Manchester.” The Herbarium of Hobson is secured to the gardens of the Manchester Botanical and Horti- cultural Society. The manuscript of his ‘‘ Musci Britannici” is a precious deposit in the library, and his Insects form a part of the valuable mu- seum of the Manchester Mechanics’ Institution, in the welfare of both which societies he felt a very warm interest, and the usefulness and importance of which, his own privations enabled him properly to estimate. I have reason to believe that the highest wages Hobson ever received, were not more than forty shillings per week; and, that for many years they did not reach half that sum, yet he always kept himself out of debt ; and, by the innocence of his habits and pursuits, secured to himself a portion of real happiness, which is not often exceeded. MR. EDWARD HOBSON 323 In his anxious exertions to support his large family, he afforded a most valuable example of integrity, punctuality, and diligence in the service of his employers, and made himself many friends. He had very early in life satisfied himself, that in no way could he so agreeably or so safely re- cruit himself after labour, as in the quiet study of Natural History; and this impression, added to his fondness for the science, occasioned a degree of perseverance which has seldom been equalled: The intricate and delicate investigations he was constantly carrying on, afforded him most delight- ful proofs of the perfect benevolence, as well as wisdom of the Deity, and, no doubt, contributed very much to that placid benignity of character which so eminently distinguished this amiable man. By his surviving friends Hobson’s memory is warmly cherished, and they have additional satis- faction in the assura ce that it is embalmed for future times, not only in his own beautiful work, but in the writings of some of the most distin- guished Botanists which this country has produced. With an enlightened community, such as that by which we are surrounded, it was impossible that 324 MEMOIR OF MR. EDWARD HOBSON. Hobson’s example should be lost; and many proofs might be furnished of the excellent effect it has already had in leading others, similiarly circum- stanced, to seek for relaxation and enjoyment in the same inexhaustible resources. We may, there- fore, fairly hope, that the day is not far distant, when this great Metropolis of Commerce will not be more distinguished for the opportunities it holds out, to all classes, for advancement in know- ledge and virtue, than for the number of its in- habitants, that, availing themselves of these ines- timable privileges, afford to the world, in the superiority of their characters and acquirements, the most encouraging proofs of the value of these institutions to the comfort and happiness of society. CYCLOPIAN, PELASGIC, AND ETRUSCAN REMAINS, OR REMARKS ON THE MURAL ARCHITECTURE OF REMOTE AGES. By WILLIAM RATHBONE GREG, Esg. (Read February 20, 1838.) “ There is given Unto the things of earth, which time hath bent, A spirit’s feeling ;—and where he hath leant His hand, but broke his scythe, there is a power And magic in the ruined battlement, For which the palace of the present hour Must yield its pomp, and wait till ages are its dower.” Childe Harold IV. There are two kinds of topics for research ;— that which, though it has the past for its subject, has the future for its object and its end; and that which relates to so remote and dim a portion of the past, that it cannot, by any possibility, be 326 MURAL ARCHITECTURE brought to bear upon the interests of the present hour. Investigations of the first class are prac- tical and useful ;—those of the second are purely speculative, and are interesting only from the halo which antiquity throws over them, and the associations with which poetry invests them. The former are perhaps more generally and justly the favourites in this hall; but surely the latter ought not to be too peremptorily excluded; nor ought their votaries to acquiesce in such exclusion. In asking your attention to a few condensed remarks on the most ancient ruins which exist in Europe, it must not be supposed that I am pre- sumptuous enough to hope that I can throw much new light upon a subject which almost every successive inquirer has rendered darker than be- fore ;—a misfortune which is common to many archeological investigations, where each additi- onal scrap of information which is raked up from the archives of antiquity overthrows an old theory, without sufficing to establish a new one on its ruins. But, as I found that many of these writers had never seen a Pelasgic fortress, and took their information on the faith of others, and, that most of the travellers who described them had seen those of Greece, or those of Italy, exclusively, OF REMOTE AGES. 327 and, often fell into the strangest errors regarding those which they had not seen; and as I had visited many of every description, and in both countries, I thought I might be able to point out some considerations which have escaped previous observers, and to put in a succinct form the sum of our knowledge, or rather of our ignorance, regarding these extraordinary structures. But even if I can impart no great novelty of information or of conjecture, yet the subject can not fail to afford, to myself at least, much plea- sure. For these strange and picturesque fortifi- cations have always been objects of the deepest interest and curiosity. Their enormous massive- ness—the wild and remote situations in which they generally stand—the dim and misty antiquity of their aspect—the impenetrable obscurity which veils their history—and the conviction, that they were erected by the remote forefathers of a race whom we are accustomed to call, par excellence, the ancients, have all combined to give a beauty to their grandeur, a brightness to their desolation, and an interest to the least tidings respecting them, which the later and lovelier structures of Greece and Rome could never command. 328 MURAL ARCHITECTURE The traveller in Greece and Italy, especially if he deviates from the regular high-road of tour- ists, constantly meets with fragments of massive walls, bearing upon them marks of very high anti- . quity, and distinguished from all other specimens of architecture, by the immense size of their ma- terials, the peculiarity of their construction, and the entire absence of cement. On. closer examination, and more careful com- parison, these ancient ruins may be generally distinguished as belonging to three distinct styles. I.—The first, (of which Lycosura, Tyrins, and part of Mycene, in the Morea, afford the only examples extant,) is that in which the walls are composed of immense amorphous blocks of unhewn stone, laid one upon another, and having the inter- stices filled up with stones of a smaller size.— This is generally termed the Cyclopian style.* II.—The second style, which is much more elaborate, more peculiar, and more widely spread, comprises those walls which are formed of huge polygonal stones, or rather pieces of rock, (gene- * See Drawing I. A \ as ij Fe + mre are 1 et een ee ee ae Second or Pool ly le. PYUGL UBIENLIT L0 psy], VU0pLaD 32g To OF REMOTE AGES. 329 rally pentagons or hexagons more or less regular) so carefully hewn and fitted to each other, as to form, externally, a perfectly smooth surface.— These are now commonly called Pelasgic, and may be seen in their greatest perfection, in par- ticular portions of the walls at Gortys and Mycene, in Greece; and at Norba, Segm, Cora, Alatri, and various other aneient situations in Italy. III. The third style is distinguished by the blocks of which it is composed being mostly paral- lelopipeds, or regular cubes, and being arranged in horizontal courses, which is rarely the case either in the amorphous or the polygonal construc- tions. This style is termed Héruscan, and is chiefly to be met with in the ancient Htruria, viz. at Volterra, Fiesole, Cortona, and many other places between the Arno and the T%ber. Two questions now arise : I. Are these styles really so separate and dis- tinct that we must attribute them to different nations, or different ages ? If. To whom are they to be attributed, and why have they received their present names ? 2T 330 MURAL ARCHITECTURE Both questions are difficult and perhaps impos- sible to decide. I. The principle of the three styles seems to me essentially distinct, and is, I think, generally allowed to be so; but some writers conceive at least two of them, and perhaps all three, to be simply different methods, employed by the same people, or the same age, for particular purposes, or according to the dictates of caprice, or the skill of the individual architect. ‘For,’ they argue “the walls of Mycene afford specimens of all the three styles, though undoubtedly the polygonal predominates.* At Cossa, on the Adriatic, the lower part of the walls is polygonal, while the upper is arranged in horizontal courses ;f and the Treasury of Atreus, at Mycene, exhibits a far more perfect specimen of parallel courses of hewn stone, than any of the Hirwscan cities can furnish.}” * Dodwell’s Cyclopian Remains. Folio, p. 5, 6. Plate V. VI. VIL. Entertaining Knowledge. Pompeii. I. p. 58. + Micali. Italia avanti il dominio dei Romani. Atlas. p. 6, Plate X. t Colonel Leake’s Travels in the Morea. II. 373. Pausanias Corinthiaca. II. c. 16. Dodwell’s Cyclop. Rem. Fol. p.7, pl. X. Walls of Coss. OF REMOTE AGES. 331 To this I reply, that I am disposed to believe the walls of Mycene to have been the work of different periods, as we know to have been the ease at Cossa;* and Dodwell and Leake, the most accurate of travellers, confirm this opinion. It is also very possible that by some accident the polygonal style had, in one or two parts, merged in the horizontal, from the circumstance of the builders having had a number of rectangular blocks at hand, or because they wished the main entrance to be more regularly finished than other portions, since it is chiefly near the Gate of Lions that the horizontal style is observable. The perfectly regular architecture of the T’rea- sury of Atreus, remarkable as it undoubtedly is, is wholly irrelevant to the matter, as we have no grounds whatever for believing that it was coeval with the city walls; for Strabof{ tells us that Tyrins was founded by Pretus, whose reign Blair places about 1380 B.C.; and Pausanias§ tells us that tradition unanimously assigned the * Ent. Know. I. 64. ¢ Dodwell. Fol. p. 6. Leake, II. 368. t Book viii. p. 540. Fol. ed: Clarendon Press, 1787. § Pausanias, Book ii. c. 15. Strabo, viii. p. 547. aon MURAL ARCHITECTURE foundation of Mycene to Perseus, whom some call the brother, and others the nephew, of Preetus, in which cases its origin may be referred to nearly the same date*. Now we have no ground what- ever for believing that the subterranean building, called by some the Treasury of Atreus, and by others the Z’omb of Agamemnon, was erected till the War of Troy, when that prince reigned over the city—an event which is generally placed about B. C.900.¢ Thus it would appear that the Trea- sury was not built till nearly five centuries after the foundation of the walls, and it may, therefore, be considered rather as Hellenic than as Cyclopian. The difference between the first and second styles is sufficiently marked by the one consisting of unhewn and amorphous masses ; and the other of hewn and well compacted polygons; and that both these are referable to an age anterior to that which produced the third or horizontal style, may I think, be proved by another train of reasoning. In connexion with the two former styles, we find many approaches to the form, but none to the principle, of the arch ;{ whereas a perfect and well * Colonel Leake says a generation later; ii. 355. { Encycl. Britan. Articles, Homer and Troy. t See Drawing IV. Hughes’ Travels in Greece, i. 223. Note. eat ie Maia. POL pourbyoadn hoapunowms Yip umupy Mg gebiae ae wer tat Sey — ait eae | b 2 _ CANDLIFU snd) ey) KUDOS We ropabas My D Aennums cunuaiy ‘yoy QOuUoG ay _ =z, ; y ee % a ) ) / - t - ¢ , | s i A a x ’ L ae H \ 5 { Nt =", a i i : “ ‘ x : th ee (ae oe: a Clee: ) forts 4 4 ey, ta oe vw “yrsit “ea OW + OT ORE CE ES? CPt Pvl 1V ~< my ff PO 2 = j } ~ \ iq ‘i i ‘ oa >- ao 4 ? ‘ boone + pee! \ a i - eZ ZB é YY); Yds ye “US hipy ; Yj yyy Wi htyLh yy OF REMOTE AGES. 343 Etruria and Magna Grecia. If, therefore, the Polygonal style is to be attributed to them, how is it that we find it in Latium alone? This, how- ever, is a subject on which it is far easier to over- throw hypotheses, than to construct them; and I have no conjecture to substitute for the one which I am indisposed to admit. Il1.—The third style of ancient Mural Archi- tecture, which is distinguished by the vast unce- mented masses of which it is composed, being arranged in horizontal courses, there is no reason to doubt, was the work of the Etruscans, whose name it bears ;* a people who come almost within the range of history, and of whose early profici- ency, both in the useful and the fine arts, we have ample proof in the remains which have come down to us. ‘The best, and, I believe, the only specimens of this order now extant, are to be found within the limits of Etruria, and may be examined to advantage at Volterra, Fiesole, Cor- tona, Populonia and Roselle.; There is another style, which is often called Htruscan, but which is evidently of more modern date, and is distin- guished from the zsodomon, or regular masonry * Micali, I. c.10. II. ec. 25. + Drawing X. 344 MURAL ARCHITECTURE of the Greeks, only by the joints being sloping, instead of vertical, as may be seen in Drawing XI.* Some specimens of this are certainly found in Htruria, and also at Pompeii, but abound . still more in the ruins of ancient Greek walls, as at Messalogion, Galaxidi, Delphi, Platea, and Pharsalia.+ In the examination of these stupendous for- tresses, especially those of the Amorphous and Polygonal orders, two questions force themselves upon our minds :— I.— What could have been the inducement of the architects to adopt the Polygonal style, which would seem to require more skill and labour than the regular cubes which the Htruscans employed, and which have since been universal ? II.—What means could they have possessed, in so rude and remote an age, for cutting, raising, and transporting such enormous blocks as these, which composed their walls ? * Drawing XI. + Dodwell, fol. Mie otao Tsodomow, d Pee ys oy : els yy Shingo wiles? df y; se pte ALLE aa {pee PLU ude = Walls at Galaxtde. JIL be OF REMOTE AGES. 345 1. Their object in choosing so peculiar a style as the Polygonal, and fitting their blocks together with such minute accuracy, must either have been economy of labour, economy of material, or in- crease of strength and stability. The first of these could scarcely have been their aim, since the well-fitted Polygons must certainly demand greater care and toil than the regular masonry of the Greeks. It is difficult to see why they should have been anxious to economise materials, when their quarries were,-in almost every instance, close at hand. I am, therefore, disposed to think that they were guided to this peculiarity of con- struction, by an opinion of its superior capability of resisting earthquakes, and other violence, in which idea they have certainly not been disap- pointed ; for though these walls are chiefly found in a country which has been frequently the scene of subterranean convulsions, yet I could not dis- cover a single instance in which they appear to have suffered from such agency.” This view of the subject is confirmed, by finding that precisely the same principle, (the employment of large Polygonal masses,) was adopted by the Romans * Middleton, fol. p. 7. 2x 346 MURAL ARCHITECTURE in the construction of their roads, as we see in the via Appia, and the streets of Pompeu.* The same system is now in use throughout the chief cities of Tuscany,f and pavements so constructed - are found to outlast any others, and to be much less frequently displaced by the heayy loads which pass over them. It is worthy of admiration, that the most ancient structures should thus be the most durable also. Many of these walls are as perfect now as they were 2000 years ago, and may rival the Pyramids in their boast of an earthly eternity. 2. Such powerful instruments—such combined exertion—such command over the mechanical powers as are indicated by the ancient fortifications we are considering, may well astonish us in a people, who lived long before the age when authentic history commences, and in times which we are accustomed to consider barbarous, and who have left no record of their existence, except in those stupendous structures, which were regarded by subsequent generations as surpassing human power. With regard to the means which these * Drawing xii. + Drawing xiii. ~ a“ a Favement of the Via A Jen. Paverrent in Florence. OF REMOTE AGES. 347 architects employed, we are left wholly to conjec- ture. That their fortifications were the result of the combined labour of multitudes, there can be little doubt. Miebuhr* conceives them to have been executed by an enslaved people, acting under the direction of a severe and scientific priesthood. Herodotus} expressly states that this was the case with regard to the Pyramids, in which he is con- firmed by Goguet,{ Voltaire, and Larcher § There is, I believe, only one passage in any ancient author, which pretends to throw any light upon the instruments employed in the construc- tion of the early fortresses. Huripides|| tells us that the walls of Mycene were “built with Phe- nician rules, and stone-cutters’ chisels.” Of the employment of such instruments there is little doubt; but they are not sufficient for the effect produced, as will be obvious when we consider the weight of many of the stones, which enter into * Hist. of Rome.i. p. 87 and 119. First (English.) + B. ii. 124. ¢ Origine des Lois, &c. iii. p. 57. § Note to Herod, as above. || Hercules Furens. 946. Doivsxs RAVOVE Kb TUXKOLS> See also Miiller—Archeologie der Kunst, p. 28. 348 MURAL ARCHITECTURE the construction of these walls and the height to which they were raised*. Goguet, in his account of the state of the arts among the Egyptians, conceives the stones of the - Pyramids, (which he dated B. C. 900,) to have been raised by the use of Jevers alone ;} and he gives a drawing of the manner in which he con- siders it to have been executed{. His views, are, however, liable to two objections. Herodotus§ expressly states the instruments employed to have been composed of ‘‘short pieces of wood,” whereas the levers represented by Gogwet are at least 50 feet long, and must have been so, in order to gain a sufficient purchase. Further, it is difficult to conceive how any wooden levers could have been of sufficient strength to raise stones of such a weight, (27 tons), without being so enormous and un- wieldy as to surpass the skill of any number of men to manage them; and if they were of iron, ft. ft. * ° * Thus we find stones at Tyrins... 103 x H x 3 = 10 Mycene.15 x4 x 63 = 27 Alatri ... 12 x 5 x 64 = Norba... 10 x 44x%3 = 9 Pyramia. 30 x 4 x3 = 25 N.B.—The Architrave of the Propyleum at Athens is 22 feet long. fii. p. 58. t Drawing xiv. § ii. 125. genhon uoLy SOINVYAd JHLONIGIING 40 JQOW coe en meee = = Cad 7 i =< — SS a ve | naa an ay i Mie i rol ry a on Ay on | 17 A va cl ™M Sa Wy AY i iM 1 | ih rm um ie io CAC mn mT ATTEN eel | hon gi Hn IAA CC Ee See ae ae = OF REMOTE AGES. 349 (which Herodotus says they were not,) it may well be doubted whether they could be made of adequate strength, without being nearly as heavy as the block they had to lift. Diodorus* speaks of the inclined plane having been used in their construction, and one commentator conceives the machines mentioned by Herodotus to have been pulleys. The mass of combined labour which a system of slavery places at the command of the master, with two such powers as the pulley and the inclined plane, would certainly be equal to the construction of all the buildings in question, and I conceive scarcely any other means would; and if these powers were known and used in so remote an age, what an impression does this give us of the advanced civilization of a people who had invented and employed them a thousand years before our era! On the whole then, the conclusions we may draw, respecting the stupendous fortifications we have been considering, are reduced to this limited amount : That they all took their origin before the birth of authentic history, and that some of them have * B. iv. p. 73. 350 MURAL ARCHITECTURE already defied the hand of time for upwards of thirty centuries. That they were the productions of different - times, if not of different people. That they were erected by a people possessed of a high degree of mechanical skill, and consi- derable command of machinery, and sufficiently civilized to build for succeeding generations, who existed at a period when we are accustomed to consider the whole of Europe as plunged in the darkest barbarism. APPENDIX. Description of the Palace of the Incas, at Lata- cunga, in the Province of Quito. From the Travels of Don Antonio de Ulloa. Madrid, 1748. ‘¢ The materials of this building are stone, as hard as flint, and of a black colour. The separate stones are go well worked and fitted together, that it is not possible to introduce between them the OF REMOTE AGES. 35k edge of a knife, the joints being finer than the thinnest paper, just sufficient to make the observer aware that the entire wall is not composed of one single stone. ‘¢ No cement has been made use of, and on the outside all the stones have been worked to a convex surface. What renders this work more extraordinary, is, that a large and imperfectly squared stone succeeds to a small one, and the one above them accommodates itself to the inequalities of both, no less than to the convexities and irre- gularities of the surfaces of each, and all this with such perfection, that, on whatsoever side it is examined, the same exactness may be observed. ‘‘ The walls are about 24 toises (15 to 16 feet) high, and from three to four feet thick.” — Ulloa, book vi. chap 11. The round tower of Kilmacdaugh, in Ireland, built probably about the 9th century, 110 feet high, is built of stones of all sizes, some extremely large, fitted together precisely like those of the Cyclopian fortresses of Greece. ON THE RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER, Cinder particular civewmstances : WITH SUGGESTION OF MEANS OF IMPROVING THE ORDINARY PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING SULPHURIC ACID. BY HENRY HOUGH WATSON, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY. (Read 16th of April, 1839.) Tuoven it has been long known that concen- trated sulphuric acid, in consequence of its great attraction for water, robs the ‘atmosphere of its vapour, and becomes thereby itself diluted; and though its drying agency is frequently adverted to in our laboratories in cases of research, where drying by the application of heat would be objec- tionable ; I do not know that any person has hitherto attempted to trace out by experiment the limits within which the acid in question is a drier of the atmosphere. Works on chemistry RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS, ETC. 353 give us no information on the subject ; but, from some of them, we learn that experiments have been made on the extent to which the acid becomes diluted by exposure to the atmosphere ; these experiments, however, being so limited in their nature as to fall far short of eliciting that information which it has seemed to me desirable for us to possess. In Dr. Ure’s Dictionary we are told that, if suffered to remain in an open vessel, it imbibes one-third of its weight in 24 hours, and more than six times its weight in a twelve month. And in Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry we are told that Newman found, that, when exposed to the atmosphere, it attracted 6.25 times its own weight; and that Mr. Gould found that 180 grains of it, when exposed to the atmosphere, attracted 68 grains of water the first day, 58 the second, 39 the third, 23 the fourth, 18 the fifth, and at last only 5, 4, 3, &c.; the 28th day the augmentation was only half a grain. We are not informed in what state of dryness the atmosphere was during these exposures, nor have we anything beyond evidence that sulphuric acid has a strong attraction for water. In the course of some experiments which I was some time ago conducting to ascertain the re 354 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF per centages of water in the crystals of some soda salts, by submitting them to the drying agency of a vacuum accompanied by a vessel of sulphuric acid, the results of which were communicated to - this Society, I frequently felt at a loss to know whether the acid I had under the receiver was sufficiently strong to render the space perfectly anhydrous ;_ or, indeed, to render it sufficiently dry to deprive the salts under operation of as much water as anhydrous space could do; and, consequently, I much more frequently renewed the acid than was really requisite. The annoy- ance of doubt, thus frequently felt in impairing that spirit of confidence which always ought to accompany philosophical investigation, proved itself a stimulus to subsequent experimental in- quiry, the result whereof furnishes us with facts on which we may, I hope, rely in after research; and adds, though little, in assisting to fill up the vast hiatus remaining to be filled up before our knowledge of Nature’s laws can be said to be complete. The object of my inquiry was, to determine at what degree of concentration the affinity of sul- phuric acid for aqueous vapour is equal to that of anhydrous space for the same vapour at particu- SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. a ar temperatures. To effect this object, the experiments which I now commence relating were undertaken. EXPERIMENT I. I put into a glass evaporating dish of known weight 200 grains of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. about 1.8428 ; and then intimately mixed therewith a little water, by which considerable heat was pro- duced.* After the dish and contents had been cooled by immersion for a short time in cold water, it was found, by weighing, that the quan- tity of water which I had added was 15 grains. Into another similar dish I put 200 grains of the acid, but did not add thereto any water. Both dishes were then immediately placed under an exhausted air-pump receiver. On the follow- ing day I re-weighed them, and found that the one into which the 15 grains of water had been put had gained 0.6 of a grain, and the other 1.2 * It may be proper to observe, that the acid I used throughout my experiments was some which a friend of mine, Mr. H. Blair, an extensive manufacturer of the article, prepared for me with more than ordinary care, I found, by evaporation, that its total impurity amounted only to the 1-20th of one per cent. And 100 grains gave with nitrate of barytes 233 grains of sulphate, = 79 real, or anhydrous sulphuric acid. 356 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF grain. This additional water must have been acquired from the atmosphere while the dishes were in being transferred to and from the re- ceiver. It being evident that the undiluted acid had not taken from the diluted acid any of its water, I now added to the diluted acid 9.3 grains more water ; and, with the same precautions as to cooling as before, placed both dishes again under the exhausted receiver. In a few days they were re-weighed, when the diluted acid was found to have lost 1.1 grain, and the undiluted to have gained it. Both were again put under the receiver, and by several times weighing and re- placing them there, the diluted acid was found to lose weight, until the total loss was 1.9 grain. Had the experiment been continued, a little fur- ther loss would have been sustained; but being able to guess, as I imagined, from what had already taken place, to about the extent to which concentrated acid would bear diluting, without having its affinity for water so much diminished as to be compelled to yield to the attractive agency of anhydrous space, I resolved upon re- commencing the experiment; and, consequently, on the 22d September, 1837, I put into one dish SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 357 200 grains of the acid, sp. gr. 1.8428, diluted in the manner described before, with 23.3 grains of water (23 grains being the quantity with which the 200 grains of acid were in a state of dilution at the conclusion of the experiment in the other instance, ) and into another dish 200 grains of the acid without being diluted. Both dishes were kept under the exhausted receiver as before. On the 29th September the diluted acid was found to have lost 1.3 grain; on the 6th October, 1.7 grain ; and on the 13th, 2.4 grains: on the 20th and 27th, the weight was exactly the same as on the 13th ; the concentration being evidently car- ried to as high a degree as the evaporating agency of anhydrous space, under the circumstances of the case, would admit of. Now, by deducting 2.4 from 23.3, we find that the quantity of water which the 200 grains of concentrated acid retained is 20.9 grains, or that 100 grains of the acid retained 10.45 grains of the water added. Admitting that the concen- trated acid contained 79 per cent. real, it must also have contained 21 per cent. of water :—we then have 21+10.45=31.45 the total quantity of water diluting 79 real acid at the conclusion of the experiment; and 79 + 31.45 = 110.45 the 358 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF total quantity of diluted acid remaining in the dish ; the per centage of real acid in which being 71.53 nearly ; acid of this strength is of about the sp. gr. 1.814. The temperature of that particular part of the room in which this air pump experiment was made, was regularly registered three times a day, whereby it was perceived that from the 22nd Sep- tember to the 6th October, the temperature never ran higher than 65°, and from the 6th October to the 13th, not higher than 57°; from the 13th to the 27th, it was also frequently as high as 57° ; hence it follows, that an evaporating force of 0.61 of an inch of mercury, has, in the instance of this experiment, been sufficient to concentrate the acid down to the sp. gr. 1.8145; and, conse- quently, that acid-of such strength is capable of drying a vacuum when the temperature does not exceed 57°. EXPERIMENT II. On the morning of the 3rd October, 1837, I put into two light evaporating dishes, of 24 inches in diameter, 10 grains by weight of diluted sul- phurie acid, sp. gr. 1.135; and the dishes, after being moved about until the acid had spread itself SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 359 over the whole surface of the bottoms, were left exposed to the atmosphere in a room without fire. They were re-weighed every morning during the continuance of the experiment, and several times moved about every day to agitate the contents. The temperature and vapour point of the room were accurately ascertained, and registered three times a day.* On the 4th October, each dish was found to have lost 3.2 grains, and on the 5th 4.3 grains; on the 6th each was found to have regained 0.2 of a grain, and on the 7th their weights were exactly the same as on the 6th. In each case, therefore, the weight of the diluted acid on the 6th and 7th, was 4.1 grains less than when put into the dish. The loss of water was 41 per cent; the liquid remaining in each dish being 5.9 grains. If we suppose 100 grains of the diluted acid to have been used in this experi- ment instead of 10, they would have been reduced to 59 grains, those 59 grains containing all the anhydrous sulphuric acid which was in the 100 grains of the diluted acid experimented upon, viz. 15.8 grains ;f the per centage, therefore, of * The vapour point was ascertained by Dr. Dalton’s method. t By treating 100 grains of this diluted acid with nitrate of barytes, I obtained 46.7 grains of sulphate, = 15.8 anhy- drous sulphuric acid. 360 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF anhydrous acid in the 59 grains remaining in the dish, being nearly 26.78. In order to understand the state of the atmos- . phere during the experiment, it is necessary to appeal to the register of the temperature, and vapour point, of which the following is a copy. 1837.| TEMPERATURE. VAPOUR POINT. Morn. ) Noon. | Night. | Morn. . | Night. The annexed table shows the evaporating force of the atmosphere, or the affinity of space for vapour, as ascertained by deducting the force of vapour at the temperature of the vapour point from its force at the temperature of the atmos- phere; the forces of vapour at the respective temperatures being taken from the table in the second volume of Dr. Dalton’s New System of Chemistry ; and which, as I have frequently to refer to it, I have copied into a subsequent part of this paper. SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 361 EVAPORATING FORCE. ~ Morn. Noon. Night. Inch of Mer, | Inch of Mer.| Inch of Mer. § 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.13 0.15 On comparing the results of the several weigh- ings with this register of evaporating force, we observe that weight was found to be lost till and on the morning of the 5th, and that from the commencement of the experiment to that time the evaporating force had ranged from 0.13 of an inch of mercury to 0.17 of an inch. We also observe that on the morning of the 6th a slight regain of weight was found; and that from the morning of the 5th to that of the 6th the evapor- ating force had all the time been stationary at 0.15 of an inch of mercury. Up to the night of the 4th the acid had become concentrated to such a degree as that it was capable of resisting an evaporating force of 0.16 or 0.17 of an inch of mercury ; and when the evaporating force hap- pened to be reduced on the 5th to 0.15 of an inch, the acid was so far capable of overcoming that force as to regain 0.2 of a grain, and to retain that on the 6th, and as long as the evapor- ating force remained as then. 22 362 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF I have stated, that on the 6th and 7th the con- centration of the acid had extended so far as to cause the per centage of real, or anhydrous, acid in the residue in the dish to be about 26.78 ; acid . of such strength is of about the sp. gr. 1.249. Hence, it follows that when the affinity of space for vapour, or the evaporating force, is equal to 0.15 of an inch of mercury, it is just able to balance the affinity of sulphuric acid sp. gr. 1.249 (or such at least as contains 26.78 per cent. of real) for water. It is well known that ordinary evaporation from water goes on at a greater rate in vacuo than in air under atmospheric pressure ; and it might obviously be expected that the rate at which water would evaporate from diluted sul- phuric acid would be greater in vacuo than in air; but, at the conclusion of the experiments I have related, it seemed to be matter worth investiga- tion to ascertain whether the evaporation of water from diluted sulphuric acid was capable of being carried on to the same extent in air as in vacuo; or, in other words, whether the same strength of acid was required to render air at its usual pres- SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 363 sure anhydrous, as was required to render a vacuum of the same temperature anhydrous. And, accordingly, on the 1st of November, 1837, I commenced two comparative experiments, with the view of acquiring this desirable information. EXPERIMENTS IIl. AND IV. Into one light evaporating dish of 2% inches in diameter I put 200 grains of the sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.8428, and diluted it with 24 grains of water, (attending to the precautions mentioned in the instances of the former experiments). The dish, with its contents, was then placed upon an air-pump plate, along with another glass vessel of an equal diameter, containing several hundred grains of the concentrated acid, and covered with a receiver, which was immediately exhausted as much as the capability of the pump would allow. Into another light dish of the same diameter I also put 200 grains of the acid, sp. gr. 1.8428, which I diluted with 24.2 grains of water. This dish, with its contents, was placed upon a ground brass plate, similar to that of the air-pump, along with another glass vessel of an equal diameter, containing several hundred grains of the concen- trated acid, and covered with an air-pump receiver, 364 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF tallowed to prevent the passage of air, but not exhausted. ‘This brass plate supporting the un- exhausted receiver, was placed in the immediate neighbourhood of the air pump, so as to ensure . the exposure of the two experiments to the very same temperatures. In these states, the dishes, the objects of expe- riment, were kept till the 8th November, when that under the exhausted receiver, was found, by weighing, neither to have gained nor lost the slightest weight ; but that under the unexhausted receiver, was found to be 0.7 grain heavier than at the commencement of the experiment. It being evident that the acid, in neither case, was suffi- ciently diluted to allow either a vacuum or dry air to rob it of any water at the temperatures it _ had been subjected to, the dilution was carried further. The acid in the dish under the ex- hausted receiver, had water added to it until the total quantity of water diluting the 200 grains of concentrated acid was 76.1 grains ; and that in the dish under the unexhausted receiver, had water added till the total quantity diluting the 200 grains of concentrated acid was 75.5 grains : both dishes being placed under their respective re- ceivers, were kept there, as before, till the 15th SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. November, when the one under the exhausted receiver was found to have lost 30.6 grains, while that under the unexhausted receiver had only lost 4 grains. Both experiments were continued, and the losses of weight afterwards found to be as follows :— As I could not, on the 30th March, detect any loss of weight to have taken place in either ex- periment, between then and the 23d, and as the receiver. re ey Grains. Nov. 22 37.9 « 99 42.4 Dec. 6 44.9 “« 13 46.0 “« 20 46.9 HOT 48.1 1838. Jan. 3 49.2 « 10 50.0 «® 17 50.2 424 50.2 “« 31 50.5 Feb. 7 50.6 “ 414 50.8 “ 23 51.5 March 2) 51.6 6. 9 51.9 “« 16 §2.3 52.6 52.6 ed receiver. Grains. > 6.9 weighing. SE eature tol Range of temperature t Total loss from|Total loss from| which the dishes, the ob- 1837 the dish under| the dish under} jects of experiment, wer ‘ the exhausted| theunexhaust-| exposed between the pre- sent and next previou From 44° to 45 43 43 44 49 49 39 34 34 42 42 42 40 42 46 48 46 to 48° 53 48 45 53 54 53 49 39 39 366 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF temperature had during the greater part of that interval been 48° (the maximum temperature of the previous week’s interval, ) I conclude that the acid the subject of each experiment, had become . concentrated to as high a degree as it was capable of being, under the circumstances, and by no higher a temperature than 48°. Then, 76.1—52.6=23.5 grains of water di- luting the 200 grains of concentrated acid (sp. gr. 1.8428,) at the conclusion of the experiment under the exhausted receiver. And, 75.5—23.8 =51.7 grains of water diluting the 200 grains of concentrated acid, at the conclusion of the experi- ment under the unexhausted receiver.—The acid in the dish under the exhausted receiver, was, therefore, so far concentrated as to contain 70.69 anhydrous acid per cent.; and that in the dish under the unexhausted receiver, 62.77 per cent. It appears, from the results of these experi- ments, that weaker acid is required to render atmospheric air, at its usual pressure, anhy- drous, than what is required to render a vacuum, of the same temperature, anhydrous ; or, that the evaporating force of air, exerted upon diluted sulphuric acid, is less than that of a vacuum SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 367 of the same temperature. In opposition how- ever, to this conclusion may perhaps be urged the apparent probability that the air was never, during the whole course of the experiment, ren- dered really anhydrous ; that the concentrated acid might be incapable of depriving it of all its water, though it might be able to take some from it, and thereby give it a drying power great enough to cause it slowly to take water from the diluted acid, until the latter had acquired that degree of concentration which it was found to be of at the end of the experiment: but, bearing in mind that the maximum temperature to which the experiment was exposed, from the 23d to the 30th March, was such as would have been expected to give the space, if anhydrous, occupied by the air, a drying power equal to 0.46 of an inch of mer- cury, the experiments which I shall now mention will, I think, sufficiently show, that the concen- trated acid was capable of depriving the air, or the space it occupied, of all its water, and of giving it the extreme evaporating force its tem- perature would admit of. EXPERIMENT V. I diluted 100 grains of the concentrated acid, sp. gr. 1.8428, in a dish of 2} inches in diameter, 368 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF with 15.2 grains of water, and left it, along with undiluted acid in another dish, under an unex- hausted receiver (no larger than just requisite to cover the two dishes) standing in a plate of . oil, from the 12th February, 1838, to the 22nd March, exposed to a temperature ranging each day as high as 65°, sometithes as high as 77°, and never lower than 50°; during this time, the di- luted acid lost no weight. Now, the maximum evaporating force of the temperature to which the acid in this experiment was subjected, was equal to 1.06 inch of mercury ; and yet the acid lost by its action no water, though in a more dilute state than acid concentrated to the utmost under an exhausted receiver at the temperature of 48°, or with an evaporating force of only 0.46 of an inch of mercury. EXPERIMENT VI. I also diluted 100 grains of the concentrated acid, ina dish of the same size, with 14 grains of . water, and left it, with concentrated acid, under a similar unexhausted receiver standing in mer- cury, for a period of 23 days, in a stove, the tem- perature of which (as found by observations made three times a day) ranged from 76° to 96°, but chiefly between 85° and 91°; and though, as SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 369 the maximum and minimum temperatures indicate, the evaporating force ranged from 1.03 to nearly 1.9 inch of mercury, the acid allowed to evapo- rate none of the 14 grains of water with which I had diluted it. The experiments I have now related, offer con- clusive evidence, to those to whom such has hitherto appeared to be wanting, that vapour exists in air as a fluid swi generis ; or, that the evaporation of water is not owing to the exist- ence of a chemical affinity between the vapour of that liquid and atmospheric air. By those convinced that evaporation is not the consequence of a chemical affinity being exerted between vapour and air, two distinct notions have, in the case of evaporation from pure water, been entertained on the reason why evaporation does not goon so rapidly in air as in vacuo: one, that the retardation is owing to the weight of the atmosphere ; and the other, that it is owing to the vis inerti@ of the particles ef air; that vapour in ascending from the surface of water into the atmosphere, has to perform a circuitous route, similar to that which water has to take in descend- ing through pebbles; this reason being consi- 3A 370 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF dered to be supported by the circumstance of a vacuum, to which water is exposed, becoming in- stantaneously saturated with vapour, whilst dry air, on being exposed to water, is a comparatively long time over becoming saturated ; together with the supposed fact, that space, whether full or void of air, is capable of retaining the same quantity of vapour, while the temperature remains the same. However tenable this reason may be as regards evaporation from water, something further seems to claim our adoption in regard to the eva- poration of water from diluted sulphuric acid ; for, if the vis inerive of the particles of air be the sole cause of the retardation, evaporation, though more slow in air than in vacuo, should go on until as much water has left the acid as would leave it in vacuo of the same dryness and at the same temperature,—which does not accord with expe- riment. From the results of my experiments, it appears to me unavoidable that we should adopt the no- tion that the weight of the atmosphere is the true cause of the retardation :—it has, however, been asserted, that if the weight was the cause, it would effectually prevent any vapour from arising from water below the temperature of 212°; but, SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 371 as it is admitted, in support of the argument of the retardation being owing to the wis inertie of the particles of air, that the obstruction exerted by the atmosphere to vapour escaping from the surface of water is overcome in proportion to the force of the vapour, and as the force of vapour is increased by an increase of temperature, I see no reason why vapour should not arise from water under atmospheric pressure, at /ow temperatures, and in a degree proportionate to the force of va- pour at those temperatures. I am not aware that other incontrovertible facts have been adduced in support of the notion, that the weight of the atmosphere is the cause of eva- poration going on more tardily in air than in vacuo. The fact of water and other liquids boiling, under diminished pressure, at temperatures very low in comparison with the temperatures at which they boil under the usual atmospheric pressure, may, by some, be considered sufficient foundation, whereon to ground such opinion; but, this alone is not indubitable evidence ; indeed, it equally supports the opposite notion ; for, the character- istic appearance of ebullition being only owing to bubbles of vapour, formed at the bottom of the containing vessel, rushing through the liquid 872 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF and bursting forth at its surface,—an effect caused by an equilibrium of force being established in such instance between the tendency of the liquid to assume the elastic state, and the tendency of - the atmosphere to resist that change, it certainly would be equally plausible to assert, that this equilibrium takes place at a low temperature, in a vessel exhausted of air, in consequence of the removal of innumerable small particles through which those of vapour must otherwise have filter- ed, and in order to facilitate this escape past such immovables at the ordinary pressure, the repul- sive force of additional heat is indispensable ; as it would be to assert, that ebullition takes place, in a vessel exhausted of air, with so little assistance from the repulsive agency of heat, in consequence of the removal of a weight which, in ordinary instances, presses upon the surface of the liquid whose tendency in a free state is to become aeriform. I cannot but concur in the view held by- Dr. Faraday, (Phil. Trans. 1826) that a limit exists to the production of vapour from bodies ; nor does it appear needful to assign to any other agency than the attraction of cohesion the cause of such limit. And, so far as the experiments SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 373 under consideration are concerned, it seems that the weight of the atmosphere, by the slight com- pression which it exerts, gives some additional cohesion to the particles of liquid; or increases the affinity existing between the acid and the water with which it is diluted, to counterbalance which more of the repulsive agency of heat is required. Having demonstrated that the evaporation of water from sulphuric acid is capable of being car- ried further in space void of air, than in space. under ordinary atmospheric pressure, it becomes my duty to state the degree of rarefaction of the receivers I have spoken of as exhausted or re- garded as vacua, and also to state under what degree of pressure the experiments were con- ducted, which I have described as conducted un- der unexhausted receivers. As I have for some years regularly registered the indications of the barometer, I am fortunately enabled to furnish with tolerable precision both these requisites. In every instance of an experiment under rarefied air, the exhaustion was such as that the mercury gauge indicated a pressure of only 0.9 of an inch; this being the utmost degree of rarefaction which the state of my pump, during the conducting of 374 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF the experiments, would admit of. I will, how- ever, proceed to give the results of the remainder of my experiments, and defer the comparison of pressures to a subsequent part of the paper. The foregoing experiments were conducted generally at temperatures considerably above the freezing point of water; but, the frost, at the be- ginning of the year 1838, gave me an opportunity of experimenting at temperatures ranging about that point. EXPERIMENTS VII. AND VIII. On the 16th January, 1838, 100 grains of sul- phurie acid, sp. gr. 1.135, containing 15.8 grains of anhydrous acid, were put into a light evapo- rating dish of 2% inches in diameter. The dish was gently heated upon a sand bath until 663 grains of water were expelled; the quantity of acid and water remaining in the dish being only 334 grains. The dish with its contents was then placed, along with a vessel containing concentra- ted acid, under an unexhausted receiver standing in a plate of oil, and left in a place of low tem- perature. Into another evaporating dish of the same size, SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 375 was also put 100 grains of the acid, sp. gr. 1.135; this was gently heated upon a sand bath, until the 100 grains were reduced to 31.9 grains, by the evaporation of 68.1 grains of water. It was then placed, along with a vessel of concentrated acid, under an exhausted receiver, upon a brass trans- fer plate, and left in the immediate neighbour- hood of the other dish. The losses of weight from the two dishes were found to be as follows :— Range of Temperature to which the objects of experi- ment were exposed between the present and next previous Total loss from | Total loss from the dish under] the dish under the unexhaust-| the exhausted ed receiver. receiver. 1838. weighing. Grains. Grains. January 19 0.8 A From 28° to 32° 3 20 0.9 7.0 a IQTtora “A 21 1.0 pe ice ees tO 124, “A 22 1.4 8.0 » 43 to 44 9 23 1.7 8.1 AP Saute) on ss 28 2.6 8.6 sat a0 to, de “ 31 3.1 8.6 5» o2 to 34 February 3 3.5 8.6 SUR SontOuot e 7 4.0 Ss poe ttOwSe: As 10 8.6 3. 32 tor3s On the 28th January, the acid under the ex- hausted receiver was in a perfectly crystallized state : after weighing, a little warmth was applied to the dish, by which the acid immediately be- came fluid, without undergoing any appreciable 376 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF change of weight: in this fluid state, it was again left as usual in the place of low temperature, and in a few hours it again became entirely crystal- lized. In this crystallized state it remained, when _ the experiment was discontinued, on the 10th of February. It, therefore, appears, that a temper- ature, ranging from 30° to 32°, or an evaporating force of from 0.24 to 0.26 of an inch of mercury, was sufficient to concentrate the acid so far as to give it a per centage of 67.8 real or anhydrous acid, and a sp. gr. about 1.7762; and that, while crystallized, it had no apparent further concen- tration given it by an evaporating force extending even to 0.32 of an inch of mercury. The acid under the unexhausted receiver con- tinued to lose weight till the 2nd of March; at which time the loss was found to be 6.3 grains: the residue in the dish contained 58.1 per cent. of anhydrous acid, and would have a sp. gr. about 1.6405. The temperature just capable of effect- ing this degree of concentration was about 36°, equal an evaporating force of 0.30 inch of mer- cury. The atmospheric pressure under which the final concentration was effected, was from 28.34 to 28.97 inches of mercury, as I find on reference to my general register. SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 377 I have one other experiment; but, as it was conducted in a manner similar to the preceding, it may be unnecessary to enter into detail re- specting it: it will, perhaps, be enough, if I give its result in the following table, together with the results of those which I have more fully en- larged upon. Temperature at Evaporating Degree of concentration effected- xperi-| which the con- fave by which | Pressure under which mat naw | Rogtagche | "eae" | nyo | ea Oe Inch of Sark’ an Mercury. Inches of Mercury. * Ist 57° 0.61 0.90 71.53 1.814 3rd 48 0.46 0.90 70.69 1.8075 8th 32 0.26 0.90 67.80 1.7762 2nd 17 0.15 29.81 26.78 1.249 4th 48 0.46 29.30 62.77 1.7071 7th 36 0.30 28.34 to 28.97 58.10 1.6405 9th 55 0.58 29.57 66.40 1.7600 From Professor Graham’s statements in his * The specific gravities here given are from the results of experiments of my own, carefully conducted upon the acid whose degree of purity I have described in a note, page 355, in this paper. And, except in the instance of sp. gr. 1.249, a very remarkable coincidence may be observed to exist, between them and the per centages of anhydrous acid, with those given by Dr. Dalton (New System of Chemical Philo- sophy, vol. 1, part 2, page 404). The per centages given by Dr. Ure in his table (Chemical Dictionary) in the same in- stances appear to be between 2 and 3 too high. The per centage given by Dr. Dalton, in the instance of sp. gr. 1.249, appears to be about 1.8 too low; and that by Dr. Ure, nearly 1 too high. ' 3B 378 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF paper on “‘ water as a constituent of salts,” pub- lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiii, part 1, and in the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, for May, 1835, it would be inferred that a low temperature would not be capable of concentrating sulphuric acid to any considerable strength ; for, he therein alludes to having observed a close approximation to the sp. gr. 1.78, in concentrating a dilute acid at a temperature not exceeding 300°; and he states that in one experiment, a small quantity of dilute acid was found to concentrate down to three atoms of water to one anhydrous acid ( =sp. gr. about 1.66,) at a temperature not exceeding 212°. My experiments prove that so low a tem- perature as 48°, and exposure to anhydrous air, are enough to concentrate the acid to the sp. gr. 1.7071, if sufficient time be allowed; and a tem- perature of 55°, to the sp. gr. 1.76. The results arranged in the table, will, I believe, be found, at least, near approximations to the truth : and, while they point out to us, in seven individual cases, the particular strengths of acid whose attractions for water counterbalance the evaporating force of anhydrous space, under the several circumstances ; they also enable us to form SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 379 more correct ideas than we could have done with- out them, of the strengths of acid required to balance the evaporating force of space under other not widely different atmospheric temperatures and pressures, and afford us some information on the extent to which sulphuric acid is a drier of the atmosphere. Was this the whole amount of the information furnished by them, it would not, I trust, be considered too trifling to support me in the propriety of submitting them to the notice of men of science*: but, 1 feel that they more ex- tensively support me, when I find that reflection upon them enables me to furnish information whereby improvement in the more economically conducting the manufacture of sulphuric acid may hereafter most probably be made. * Dr. Faraday has remarked (Phil. Magazine, for October, 1833,) that many facts present themselves to observant men, which, though seen by them to be curious, interesting, and new to the world, are not considered worthy of distinct pub- lication : that he has often felt this conclusion to be objection- able ; and is convinced that it is better to publish such facts, and even known facts under new forms, provided it be done briefly, clearly, and with no more pretension than the phceno- mena fairly deserve. 380 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF DR. DALTON’S TABLE, SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF AIR, AND THE ELASTIC FORCE OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR, AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES, Utmost | Weight of Utmost | Weight of Volume | force of |100 cubicin. Volume | force of |100cubic in. Temp.| ofair. | aqueous | of aqueous |/Temp.| ofair. | aqueous | of aqueous vapour. | vapour. vapour. | vapour. in, of Mer| grain. in. of Mer] grain. 28°| 420 53°| 501 4 354 20 428 54 502 56 366 10 438 55 503 08 378 0 448 | .08 56 504 09 384 10 458 | .12 57 505 61 396 20 468 | .17 58 506 62 402 30 478 | .24 59 507 64 414 — -— — 60 508 : 420 32 480 | .26 178 61 509 d 432 33 481 | .27 184 62 510 F 444 34 482 | .28 191 63 511 . 456 35 483 | .29 197 64 512 : A68 36 484 | .30 -203 65 513 A 480 37 485 | 31 -209 66 514 ° A492 38 486 | .32 216 67 515 : 009 39 487 | .33 222 68 516 : 021 40 488 | .34 229 69 517 : 039 41 489 | 35 235 70 518 051 42 490 | .37 245 71 519 ; 569 43 491 | .38 255 72 520 : 580 pa: 492 | .40 .267 rhe 521 - 598 45,| 493 |, .41 | 2/0 | (4). 5224 | 610 46 494 | 43 284 75 523 5 627 47 495 | .44 293 76 524 : 645 48 496 | .46 303 an 525 : 662 49 497 | 47 313 78 526 : 680 50 498 | 49 323 79 527 . -700 51 499 | .50 329 80 | 528 | l. 721 SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 381 I will now advert to the manufacture of sul- phuric acid, and make such reviews of the che- mical actions which take place in it, as are required to enable me to show in what respect the improve- ment I have alluded to is to be made. It is, I think, universally admitted, that dry nitrous acid gas has not the property of changing dry sulphurous acid gas into sulphuric acid; and that it only has that property when water inter- venes. The theory of the production of sul- phuric acid being, that nitrous acid gas, sul- phurous acid gas, and a little water or aqueous vapour meeting together, a mutual action takes place between the three bodies, and a crystalline substance is formed: this crystalline substance is permanent until brought into contact with more water, either in the liquid or vaporous state : when it has had an opportunity of acquiring suf- ficient water, it is resolved into sulphuric acid and nitrous gas: the latter, immediately taking to itself more oxygen from the atmospheric air in the interior of the chambers, is reconverted into nitrous acid gas; and this, mingling itself with sulphurous acid gas and water, causes a repetition of the operation just mentioned. In this contin- uous manner the ordinary process of the manu- facture of sulphuric acid is conducted. 382 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF Now, the only state of the water with which the greater bulk of the mixed gases in the cham- bers has the opportunity of coming quickly into contact, is the vaporous state; and when it is considered how little the weight of aqueous va- pour is which is capable of existing in a given space, at ordinary atmospheric temperatures, we need not be surprised at the slowness of the pro- cess of the manufacture of the acid in question. At the commencement of the manufacture of the acid, the floors of the chambers are covered either with water or dilute acid; and therefrom arises, into the aerial space, aqueous vapour, as in other ordinary instances of spontaneous evapo- ration. Supposing the large quantity of mixed sulphurous and nitrous acid gases to seize with avidity upon the whole of the vapour, and make the aerial space anhydrous; this anhydrous space would acquire more vapour from the liquid on the floors, and thereby be the means of transferring more water to the newly formed compound, which must be slowly descending, like a fog, towards the liquid on the floors. It is obvious that the greater the amount of vapour existing in the chambers previously to the commencement of the process, and the more quickly the space can be replenished with vapour as the action of the gases SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 383 abstracts it, the more quickly must the newly formed compound be enabled to deposit itself in the liquid on the floors; for, if the compound when newly formed had only a minimum of water, it would be a diffused crystalline body, appear- ing like a fog; but if it had an opportunity of speedily acquiring more water, it (the fog-like body) would collect into small drops, and descend, like small rain, with greater speed. And, it is re- quisite that this compound should get deposited as quickly as possible into the liquid on the floors ; because it is not till it has become thereby diluted, that it emits its supply of nitrous gas for the con- tinuance of the process. Some manufacturers of sulphuric acid state that they are able to make more acid from a given weight of sulphur, in a given time, in summer than in winter ; but they are not able satisfactorily to account for the difference. I have had the means of fully satisfying myself that such is really the fact; nor is it, indeed, any other than what strict attention to theory would lead us to antici- pate. Let us only consider, that in winter the temperature of the external atmosphere, to which the chambers are exposed, is frequently at 32°, and not seldom below that, and that in summer it 384 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF often exceeds 80°; and we find that the aerial space of the chambers is capable of receiving from the liquid on the floors four or five times a greater weight of aqueous vapour in summer than in winter, and of transferring it, in a proportionately accelerated rate, to the newly formed combination of gases voracious to receive it. Then, since an abundant supply of aqueous vapour is indispen- sable to the speedy conversion of sulphurous acid, by nitrous acid, into sulphuric acid, and since the capacity of space for vapour not only increases with an increase of temperature, but even in- creases in an increasing ratio as the temperature rises, how can it be otherwise than extremely evi- dent that as much sulphur cannot be converted into sulphuric acid, in the same chamber room, and in a given time, in winter as in summer? When the attempt to effect such an object is made, the consequence is, that large portions of the gases pass through the whole range of chambers, and at length escape by the outlet into the exter- nal atmosphere, without being condensed; and, indeed, as sulphuric acid chambers are usually managed, a great amount of the gases must in winter be lost in this manner; for, when the tem- perature of the atmosphere is low, the operator finds a difficulty in keeping the temperature of SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 385 the furnace in which the sulphur is burnt, suffi- ciently high to keep up the combustion, when he attempts to burn only a minimum of sulphur ; and, not having (in many instances) other means of preserving the requisite temperature, he is reluc- tantly urged to burn more sulphur than circum- stances render him capable of converting into, and collecting in the state of, sulphuric acid. So far, then, I have shown that when the floors of the chambers are covered only with water, or dilute acid, there is substantial reason why less sulphuric acid should be collected from a given quantity of sulphur in cold weather than in warm: and, when we take into consideration that the acid on the floors of the chambers is seldom very dilute ; but that it is frequently allowed to be of such strength as to have the sp. gr. 1.45 or 1.50, we find that there is additional reason why cold weather should be objectionable. On reference to the table of the results of my experiments, we see that at the temperature of 36°, and at the pressure there stated, the acid was only capable of being concentrated till its per centage was 58.1, =sp. gr. 1.6405, and we may conceive that if the evaporating force of space at the temperature of 36°, was just balanced by the attraction of acid 3.C 386 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF sp. gr. 1.6405, the rate of evaporation from acid sp. gr. 1.45 or 1.50 at the same temperature, must be but very slow, and more especially so at tem- peratures below 36°. Sometimes in severe winter weather the temperature of the chambers is pro- bably as low as 17°; and my experiments show that when the temperature is only 17°, and the pressure about 29.8 inches of mercury, the acid can only be concentrated so far as to have the per centage 26.78, =sp. gr. about 1.249 ; the fact, therefore, is, that in a case of so low a tempera- ture as 17°, no evaporation whatever could take place from the acid, if its sp. gr. was greater than 1.249; and, consequently, in such a case, the process of the manufacture of sulphuric acid must be entirely stopped, was it not that aqueous vapour was supplied from some other source. Indeed, some vapour always is supplied otherwise than from the acid on the floors: some enters the chambers with the air by which the combustion is supported; but, when the temperature of that air is so low as 17°, or 20°, or 30°, the weight of the vapour admitted along with it is too trifling to be of much avail in an instance of so great a demand. It has for some time been a practice among some manufacturers of the acid, to turn steam, issuing from a pipe connected with a vessel of boiling SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 387 water, into the chambers*: this must have a particularly beneficial effect, when the tempera- ture of the chambers would otherwise have been as low as I have just alluded to, but it has also disadvantages: its beneficial effect cannot last much longer than during the time the steam is allowed to enter the chambers ; and it is impru- dent to allow it to do so long, because the great cooling power of the chambers causes the steam to condense nearly as quickly as it enters ; and by continuing to admit it, the acid on the floors would soon become much diluted; the consequence of which would be, that the manufacturer would have * Though steam is sometimes thus used, it is not because those who use it have a correct knowledge of the great im- portance of the continual generation and existence of steam (in the scientific acceptation of the term, invisible vapour) in the chambers. They use it, from the understanding that it— steam of 212°, or thereabout—must necessarily be condensed on entering the cold chambers; and in the resulting water falling as rain or fog, the gases readily meet with the water dispersed for their action—the condensed steam, therefore, carrying the sulphuric acid down along with it ;—nor do they seem to be aware of the fact, that if the temperature of the interior of the chambers was so high as to hold (supposing the absence of acid and the gases) in an uncondensed and invisible state the steam admitted, that even then the gases would, if admitted, supply themselves from that steam with the requisite water, and that strong liquid acid would fall, though the temperature might be great enough to retain pure water in the state of invisible steam. 388 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF to be at much additional expense in concentrating it when removed fom the chambers. Having explained my views to a friend, he, during the last winter, and when his chambers were not working well in consequence of the severe cold, had a vessel of water so placed in the furnace as that the hot gases were enabled to convey along with them into the chambers a com- paratively large quantity of vapour: and this plan cannot but have been attended with some benefit ; yet, the benefit must have been highly inadequate, because, as in the case of steam turned in from a pipe, the vapour thus admitted would be speedily condensed by the cold chambers. It is quite evident that the great desideratum is to be enabled to give the whole interior of the chambers, at all times, a temperature not less than that of summer; nor do I think that a doubt can reasonably be entertained that a temperature considerably higher than the maximum tempera- ture of summer would be attended with a cor- responding beneficial effect. Consequently, what I suggest as an improvement in the working of sul- phuric acid chambers, is that leaden pipes should be caused so to pass through the interior of the chambers as that when the steam of boiling water SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 389 is allowed to pass through them they will commu- nicate warmth, or even hotness (if the same should upon trial be found to give additional benefit), to the whole internal aerial space of the chambers: and, it does not seem to be of much consequence whether the pipes be laid through the acid on the floors, or only through the space immediately above that liquid ;* for, in either case, the aerial space would become heated. Such a contrivance would be of benefit in two ways ;—it would heat and supply the aerial space with vapour, and would, inevitably, at the same time, be considerably con- centrating, instead of diluting, the liquid acid on the floors. It may be said, that in the foregoing remarks I have not taken into consideration that the heat, conveyed into the chambers from the furnace * Perhaps the greatest advantage would be obtained if the pipes were laid both through the liquid and through the space above the liquid. 7 It is advisable, that in erecting chambers attention should be given to their form: those having the least cooling surface, in relation to their internal capacity, being the most prefer- able. If the form of a cube be departed from, it should be in the depth: indeed, from what I have said (page 383) re- garding the necessity of the quickly depositing of the crys- talline substance, it may be inferred that there is chemical reason why they should be less deep than cubical, indepen- dently of the fact that in such case they will more firmly support themselves. 390 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF where the sulphur is burning, must prevent the interior of the chambers from ever having so low a temperature as the external atmosphere in winter: to which I must reply, that towards the extremity of a range of several chambers there will not, I think, be found much difference be- tween the internal and the external temperature : but, even admitting that a considerable difference exists between the internal and the external tem- perature throughout the whole range, let the ar- gument be extended to summer temperature as well as to winter, and the result will give greater support to my views; for, then, for the same reason, it must be allowed that the internal tem- perature must be much higher than the external temperature, in the shade, (80° for instance, as before mentioned) ; and to this I may add that as the chambers are generally exposed to the direct heating influence of the solar rays, the internal temperature must, from that direct action of solar heat alone, be very much higher than the tempera- ture in the shade without. And, as the capacity of space for vapour increases in an increasing ratio as the temperature rises, the very much greater speed with which the aerial space is sup- plied with vapour in summer than in winter is undeniable. Bolton-le-Moors, May 28th, 1838. SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 391 APPENDIX TO THE FOREGOING PAPER. I perceive, under the head Sulphuric Acid, in the last of the monthly parts of Dr. Ure’s “ Dic- tionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,” which is just turned out from the press, that an experiment has been made by M. Clement- Desormes, expressly to ascertain the effect of an elevated temperature in causing the process of the formation of sulphuric acid to go on freely ; the result of which showed the beneficial applica- tion of the temperature of 100°, in promoting the active agency of the aqueous vapour upon the gases. It is highly gratifying to find that my anticipations, arrived at from theoretical reason- ing, are in such a satisfactory manner corrobo- rated by direct experiment. From the conclusion of this experiment of M. Clement-Desormes, Dr. Ure seems to recommend maintaining the temperature of sulphuric acid chambers at 100° :—this he would do by the ad- mission of a jet of steam; it being discharged 392 RELATIVE ATTRACTIONS OF from a high pressure boiler loaded with forty pounds upon the square inch. He says that it serves, by powerful agitation, not only to mix the different gaseous molecules intimately together, but to impel them against each other, and thus bring them within the sphere of their mutual chemical attraction. The mechanical commotion which must be produced, by the sudden freedom from confinement of a body having the elastic force of steam under a pressure of forty pounds upon the square inch, would, I admit, be advan- tageous if sufficient agitation of the gaseous molecules was not derivable from another source: but, when we consider the comparatively enor- mous bulk of the aeriform bodies which has to be condensed into one cubic inch in the formation of a cubic inch of sulphuric acid, or of the crystalline compound produced from sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, and a minimum of water, surely our imagin- ation will not allow us to suppose that the agita- tion which takes place, in tending to restore the equilibrium disturbed by such condensation, is not sufficient to intermix and diffuse amongst each other the several kinds of gaseous molecules, leaving out of consideration the general law of the diffusion of aeriform bodies experimentally illus- trated by Dr. Dalton, in the Manchester Memoirs, SULPHURIC ACID FOR WATER. 393 Vol. 1, second series: and, from the very active manner in which combination of the gases is known to take place when plenty of aqueous vapour is present, I cannot conceive that any additional impulse is required. Dr. Ure admits that the chemical agency of steam is more im- portant than its mechanical agency ; and, in this I fully agree with him: but, of course, for the reason given in my foregoing paper, I do not concur with him in thinking it advisable that the steam should be furnished by a jet from a boiler, but that it is preferable for it to be derived from the liquid on the floors of the chambers. Not admitting the necessity of its mechanical agency, high pressure steam is essentially no more bene- ficial than low pressure steam ; because, from the conversion of it to the liquid state, it is not capa- ble of communicating to the interior of the cham- bers any higher a temperature than low pressure steam, since the same weight of steam, whether under high or low pressure, contains exactly the same quantity of caloric. H. H. WATSON. Bolton, April Ist, 1839. ON THE 2 J a gy i it Us gt as By DOMINIQUE ALBERT, LL.D. Communicated by Mr. Joun Davies, M.W.S. (Read March 5th, 1839.) The Prince de Rohan, a relative of the Royal Family of France, having retired from the court since the accession of his kinsman, Louis Philippe, turned his attention to the improvement of agri- cultural industry on his estate, situated in the Jura, on the limits of France and Switzerland : there the Prince produced for the first time, in 1831, apotatoe extraordinary as to size and weight. By what means or process this monstrous tuber- cula made its appearance, remains yet a secret beyond the gardens of the Prince ; however, the author of this interesting natural production, has given some of its seed to several of his friends, with the following particulars :— THE ROHAN POTATOE. 395 Light soil, first opened to the depth of about one foot and a-half, is well manured ; the animal black, or the animalized black, seems to answer its purpose the best. Each tubercula is cut into as many sets as it represents sound eyes; the sets placed at thirty inches one from another, are planted in March, and taken out at the end of No- vember, if prudence does not require it sooner. In France the plant appears at the beginning of May; and for nearly a month the soil must be heaped round it, to strengthen the stalk, which attains the height of seven, and often eight feet. To get its fruits of the largest size possible, it is recommended to prop the stalks with sticks of six or seven feet in length, and to fix horizontal sticks so as to enframe the stalks of it, at the height of about three feet and six feet. The largest tuber- cula of this species produced in France, weighed 15fbs. 2o0zs.; and the greatest produce from one set was 27ibs. The small ones, and those of a middle size, are generally round. ‘Those above 2ibs.are a sort of ludi nature. The largest arelong shaped ; their external appearance is rough, and the eyes lie deep in, witha purple tinge. Thinking that the cultivation of this peculiar kind of vege- table might benefit this country, I succeeded in importing about a dozen of good-sized tuberculas, 396 THE ROHAN POTATOE. by the kindness of one of the Prince’s friends ; for this seed has not yet been sold in France. I received them in November, 1836; divided them amongst my agricultural friends at Cadishead, and the environs, with a copy of the method for their culture, and reserved one for my own experi- ments. It weighed about 2ibs.; gave seventeen sets, and produced 185fbs ; affording an average of 11 ibs. per set. My heaviest was of 33fbs. The manure I made use of, was of an animal nature, being re- fuse from my manufactory of prussiate of potash; I used also the propping sticks. Each stalk had many buds, but, with little exception the buds fell off before opening ; I observed, however, a few very small white flowers, which were closed about half an hour after sunset. Nothing like a fruit was ever produced from them. The potatoes, when dug out, were heaped in a close perpendicular pillar round the stalk, and the top ones were so near the surface of the soil, that many were half uncovered. The horizontal roots, which extend from 25 to 30 inches, are of the thickness of a good quill, but bear no fruit. In 1838 I made my second experiment ; but the THE ROHAN POTATOE. 397 animal manure having been for more than a year exposed in the open air, I thought to revive its qualities by sprinkling it with a solution of nitre. The season, unfavourable in general, limited my crop to 8sibs. per set; but I got larger tuber- culas than in the preceding year, and my finest weighed 5ibs. 100zs. They are generally hea- vier than their volume seems to show ; and, from an experiment I made upon one potatoe, they lose one-ninth in weight for a month after they have left the ground. The same tried upon a good pink-eye potatoe did not give me more than a diminution of one-twelfth. I must mention, that, considering the recom- mendation of using sticks might prevent this tu- bercula being cultivated upon a large scale, I dis- pensed with the use of this article, for my last year’s crop, and left the plant to take its natural direction. The result showed that I had not left out the sine gua non. When boiled, this potatoe is rather yellow than white ; not so mealy as other good species, but more tasteful. I should recommend to slice the larger ones, when employed for the table. In France, where the culinary art seldom allows 398 THE ROHAN POTATOE. a potatoe to appear in its natural nudity, the Rohan potatoe, on account of its taste, may have more admirers than in England; but, considered only as a most prolific cattle food, it certainly deserves the attention of British agriculturists. I ascertained, by scraping and washing out the feualo, that the Rohan contained one-tenth more farina than the Radical, which I consider one of the best sorts. | PROCESS OF CARBONIZING TURF WITHOUT CLOSE VESSELS, THE PEAT FURNISHING ITS OWN CALORIC, WITHOUT PRODUCING ASHES. By DOMINIQUE ALBERT, LL.D. Communicated by Mr. Jonn Davies, M.W.S. (Read March 5th, 1839.) When, in 1835, I built my present works at Cadishead, I was chiefly induced to choose the place on account of the proximity of both turba- ries, Chat Moss and Barton Moss, having previ- ously ascertained that I could make with turf as good charcoal as with wood. As the charcoal I wanted was for some chemi- cal purpose other than to be used as fuel, the first condition of the carbonization was, that it should produce a vegetable black, free from the mineral substance mixed with it, as is always 400 CARBONIZING TURF the case when turf is carbonized in Ireland, to supply the hearths of some country smithies. I began, then, by submitting the turf to a dry dis- tillation in iron retorts, five feet deep to four feet diameter, covered with strong sheet iron caps, to which I adapted cast iron pipes. I soon found, however, that the quantity of auxiliary mineral fuel required to burn the turf, owing to the distance of seven miles from the nearest pits, rendered this method too expensive to be con- tinued. I expected that the acid would compensate for the price of the coal, but I could never get it above two or three degrees; besides, the pyrolignous alcohol diluted in the acid existed in a very small proportion. The tar, which was comparatively abundant, contained the greater part of the spirit, but the low price of tars in general offered me no encouragement to proceed. I knew, by the discoveries made by my coun- tryman, Mr. Merle, in 1834 and 1835, that cer- tain species of turfs gave a richer and superior gas than either coals or oils, and I convinced myself that the peats in my neighbourhood were of an excellent quality for such a purpose, but I WITHOUT CLOSE VESSELS. 401 did not feel inclined to set up any apparatuses to save that produce, so I turned all my attention to find a cheaper mode of producing pure charcoal. I had latterly observed the Irish in their pro- cess, which consists of setting fire to a few turf cakes placed on the ground, so as to let the air play between. As soon as these cakes are burn- ing, they heap round and above other cakes, which very soon ignite also. They continue to feed thus this heap of fire, till it reaches about five feet in height, and six or seven at its base. They let it burn until the whole appears in a complete glow, when they cover it with large wet sods, either of soil and grass or heath sods, from the surface of moss land. This careless, but cheap and easy manner, causes the charcoal to be mixed with a quantity of uncarbonized vegetable, marl, sand, stones, and a notable proportion of ashes, all matters which do not affect the iron jobs with which they come in contact. The Dutch I saw many years ago, carbonizing peat for domestic purposes, in small conical fur- naces, as common with them in the country places as the bread ovensare here. They light the turf from below; and, when the combustion is nearly 3E 402 CARBONIZING TURF completed, they close the top and bottom. Their method, though superior to the Irish, and well adapted to their object, is neither as complete, nor does it give so pure an article as I wished ; be- sides, I found its application almost impossible on a large scale. Amongst the different plans and instructions I consulted to assist my experiments, I gave the preference to a large round perpendicular fur- nace, in which, according to Dumas, (Chemistry applied to the Arts) Mr. La Chabeaussiere distils wood. After having studied what modifications were necessary to render Mr. La Chabeaussiere’s fur- nace useful for peat’s carbonization, without saving either gas or liquids, I constructed the following kiln :—On a solid soil, I made an excavation from ten to twelve feet wide at the top, nine feet deep, and nine in diameter at the bottom, which I covered with a dry brick floor, that had a con- vexity of six inches. I lined this hole round with a dry brick wall, in the way of a common pump pit. Atfour equal distances at the bottom of the round wall, I opened an air hole of about four inches square, and continued it in the form of a WITHOUT CLOSE VESSELS. 403 narrow chimney outside the wall, te the height of about six feet, when I prolonged it about six feet more, but in an horizontal direction. For the top of this kiln I had a sheet iron cover made, a few inches wider than the diameter of the brick work, of a convexity of two feet, with a round hole or chimney in the centre, one foot high, and nine inches diameter, provided with a cover and handle similar to that of a canister, and at a foot from the extremity of the large cover, are cut out four auxiliary chimneys, at equal distances one from the other, with a four inch diameter. Four strong iron rings are fixed to the cover to receive the hooks of a chain, which, by means of a double purchase, raises or lowers the cover. When this furnace, says Dumas, is filled with wood, the cover is lowered down, and some fire- brands are precipitated through the central chim- ney to the bottom of the kiln; the wood being placed so as to leave a sort of funnel open. By means of the four blowing air-holes the fire is very soon spread in all directions, and its progress is to be regulated by shutting or opening the smoke and airholes, according to the direction of the wind. These rules, which no doubt did answer when 404 CARBONIZING TURF wood was to be distilled, were inefficient when applied to the carbonization of peat; but by dint of trials and patience, I succeeded beyond my utmost expectations, upon the following plan : I make two tunnels of inch board, nine feet high and eight inches square, with some hand- holes from distance to distance. These tunnels I place in the kiln along the side, in order that the bottom end may correspond with one of the four air-holes; one of my workmen descends then to the floor of the furnace, and forms an erated bed with peat, by setting the cakes upright, with their tops inclined one towards another, so as to create a good draft, which must, as much as pos- sible, run in the direction of both air holes where the tunnels are standing. It is necessary for this operation that the cakes be entire and dry, as pieces would intercept the air, anda wet cake would paralyse the action of the fire. After the setting of this bed, the peat is thrown down upon it, and left in the natural confusion of its fall, only it is required that a man places round the tunnels the turf cakes in regular order, to build like a chimney round these moveable tubes. When the kiln is filled and heaped up about three feet above the level of the hole, the tunnels are WITHOUT CLOSE VESSELS. 405 drawn out by means of their hand-holes, and leave two square passages from top to bottom. In these temporary chimneys, a few incandescent peat cakes are thrown, and on these some broken pieces of turf, till the passages are filled ; but as the air plays more freely through these former chimneys, some barrowfulls of peat crumbs will shut the too wide pores, which places are easily seen by the greater volume of smoke escaping from them. The kiln left open to facilitate a more general conflagration, is not covered before the heap of turf cakes has sunk to the level of the brick work. In this state, the cover is let down, and some soil is brought round its border to intercept the escape of smoke. In this stage of carbonization, all the air-holes with the large and small chimneys are open. As soon as the fire is perceived through either of the small chimneys corresponding with the passages where the fire has been lighted, the hori- zontal mouth of the same air hole is to be shut with a piece of brick and some marl, and the others are to be successively stopped in the same way, the moment the redness of the fire can be distinguished. If there remains any doubt of the perfection of the operation, a pole about fourteen 406 CARBONIZING TURF feet long should be thrust through the hole where the carbonization appears incomplete, and by thus gauging to the bottom of the furnace, you will immediately be aware of the state of the char- coal, which you can’remedy instantly, by open- ing the air hole opposite the place examined. When the smoke begins to abate, you place the cover on the central chimney, but so as to shut only the half of the aperture, taking care at the same time to direct the open part of the cover towards that part of the kiln, which you might consider not so perfect as the remainder. At last, when the eruption of smoke has ceased, you shut all chimneys immediately, and the ope- ration is atanend. It requires generally twenty- four hours to complete the carbonization of one furnace, and sixty hours, for carbonization and cooling of the charcoal. A kiln of these dimen- sions can receive between three and four one- horse-loads of peat, of about fourteen hundred weight. There are three kinds of peat. ‘The white, or top of the moss land, is the lightest, and conse- quently the worst; it is sold from four to five shillings the load. The brown, which comes WITHOUT CLOSE VESSELS. 407 from the second stratum, is much better, being more compact, and sells at five shillings and six- pence per load.. The black, or best quality, some- times called iron turf, is very hard and heavy : it gives an intense and sharp heat ; produces a thick black smoke, with strong and unpleasant smell ; it burns slowly, and is bought at six shillings. The incineration of the black turf leaves heavy reddish ashes, whilst those of white turf are of a sulphur yellow, and those of the brown have often a sort of orange tinge. The peat ashes which owe their alkaline qua- lity chiefly to the presence of lime, are considered a good manure for grass and clover, and used as such in the north of France and in Belgium. Marchand April are the best months to use them. They are generally sown during damp weather, and will have a good effect used with any plant, at its first appearance above ground. I tried them last year with pease and other vegetables, and perceived in one instance, that the use of them cleared the cabbage plants of the insects that were devouring them. In order to get the kiln to act more regularly, it is well to carbonize each sort of peat separately. 408 CARBONIZING TURF. [have at present, four furnaces or kilns, at work ; they are constructed between two rails, on which I have built a moveable frame, with a roof covered with a tarpauling. This skeleton of a house answers two purposes, namely, it enables the men to fill and empty the kilns in all kinds of weather, and affords to the whole line the use of the double purchase to wind up the heavy iron covers. The white turf gives a fourth of its weight of charcoal, the brown a third, and the black one- half. The nature of charcoal from peat, is a great deal less pyrophoric than that of wood charcoal ; and during the four years that I have had always large quantities in the interior of my works, I have not had a single instance of a spontaneous ignition, whilst I had two accidents of this nature, with wood charcoal, in the short space of six weeks. AN ESSAY THE ROMAN ROAD IN THE VICINITY OF BURY, LANCASHIRE. By. Mr. JOHN JUST, Corresponding Member of the Society. Read April 2d, 1839. What we see, and hear, and read, and expe- rience, constitutes the sum total of our know- ledge. Things which have been, and now are, we can compare; and the results of such com- parisons we can store up as treasures for the mind, out of which our memories can draw whatever currency our intercourse with society demands, either for our own credit, or for the benefit and assistance of others. Of the long past, however, it is very little that we can know: the line which connects it with the present, becomes fainter and fainter as it recedes, until it 3F 410 ROMAN ROAD IN THE loses itself in the far distant horizon behind us. In the physical world things only before us we can see ; in the intellectual we note chiefly what is behind us; the one is all prospective, the other retrospective. But retrospective impressions are weak in proportion to the remoteness of time, in- asmuch as commonly every additional impression which the ever striking present presents us, tends to obliterate what has preceded, until numbers of impressions are defaced, and others so faint that it is difficult to trace the outline, and recollect what they once were. Time tries all things. It levels mountains as it rolls over the globe; it crumbles pyramids as it wipes off the dust from their surface, every year that its wings sweep over them. Neither works of nature nor of art escape it. They become at length defunct; and while it entombs their remains it spares not their histo- ries, but either leaves their memories unsculp- tured, or fritters away the ciphers o’er their graves, till they become illegible and perish. “ Sic transit gloria mundi.” It is said that there is no rule without an ex- ception, and that exception proves the rule. If, then, the saying be true, and what has just been read be the general rule, there will be an excep- VICINITY OF BURY. 411 tion. All will not be obliterated. Fragments of antiquity will remain with fragments of their his- tories, to show what has been, and to tell their uses and purposes. Where arts and civilization have existed, a few scattered and imperfect spe- cimens will be found to amuse and edify remote posterity, a tincture will diffuse itself to amelio- rate the character of a long series of ages and generations still to be born. But this is not the only way in which a civi- lized people confers benefits upon mankind ; they leave us correct histories of their own internal affairs, and they mingle with them all external ones which arise out of their foreign policy as regards other nations less civilized than them- selves. To Greece we owe all we know of the ancient histories of the semi-barbarous East ; and in the pages of imperial Rome we read most of what we know of ancient Gaul, Kelt, or Kyme- rian. It is hence chiefly, in connexion with what remains of art, that we derive the materials for constructing the scanty fabric of the ancient history of our own country, now so superior in every respect to the haughty pretensions of the dictators and conquerors of the best part of the world then known. 412 : ROMAN ROAD IN THE We all know very well how the eagle of that empire, perching upon the palaces and temples of the eternal city, spread out its wings over Europe into Asia, from the western shores of our own Britain even to the Indus and central Asia ; and that for four hundred years its emblem on the banners of its legions was borne victo- rious from east to west, from south to north, over the major part of this island; and we likewise know, wherever Romans trod they left not their footsteps in the perishable sand, but in their march, reared up monuments of labour almost as imperishable as their glory ; and though the great- ness of Roman power has vanished, like all former greatness, yet its evident remains are still scat- tered over the lands which formerly beheld it, and added to its triumphs. And as the language of these masters of mankind—with which they dic- tated to the nations as to their slaves, and which far as possible, and almost beyond what is pro- bable, they imposed everywhere—is that lan- guage which either formed the foundation or the corner stone of all our education in youth, and forms also the basis of many a language which we may have added as accomplishments since, as well as constitutes no inconsiderable portion of the polished and flexible part of our own, we cannot VICINITY OF BURY. 413 well overlook any traces of a people who have thus become so interesting and useful to us, which may have survived the physical and artificial changes of fourteen centuries, and still be linger- ing in our very neighbourhood ; and over which we may be, and undoubtedly have been, many times, led, either by the avocations of business, or the promptings of pleasure. The Romans first entered that part of Britain which now comprises the county of Lancaster, about the year 79. During the preceding sum- mer Agricola, their general, had reduced the Ordovices, or the inhabitants on the Dee, in Cheshire and North Wales; and in the summer of the year just mentioned, proceeded with his conquests northward to the Sistuntii, who inha- bited Lancashire and the southern portion of Westmorland. As one object of this celebrated commander was to secure to the empire the coun- tries which he subdued, his successes were fol- lowed up by the erection of such works as experi- ence had shown to be capable of keeping the in- habitants under complete subjection. Tacitus informs us that Agricola built forts and placed garrisons within them throughout this district, which then was woody. The discipline of the 414 ROMAN ROAD IN THE Roman legions was kept up by constant labour ; and as there needed communications between the several forts and garrisons which he erected and stationed, he, according to the Roman custom, then commenced the military ways which connect them. The British towns within the Sistuntian territory had, doubtlessly, their roads between them; but such were not direct enough, nor suited from their kind and uses, for the purposes of warfare. The ways, therefore, which had been brought up to Deva or Chester, the preceding year, were extended, the woods cut through, and the principal forts erected within them, thus con- nected with those to the southward as well as one with another; and these military ways served at once for the conveyance of baggage and military stores, and for ramparts, to protect the soldiers during their marches. The ways averaged seven yards in width, from one to one and a-half yard in elevation. Where the ground was lowest, the agger was generally elevated the highest; and where the the ground was highest, the agger was lowest, being more calculated for giving the sol- diery an advantage in case of attack during their marches, than merely for dryness and durability, as the historian of Manchester supposes. Their direction was in a straight line, laid out with the VICINITY OF BURY. 415 nicest discrimination and knowledge of the coun- try, upon the highest ground, and their surfaces were paved with large stones, to give firmness to the footing of the cavalry and beasts of burden as they passed, and to resist as little as possible the motion of the wheels of their waggons and vehicles, in which they transported from place to place their baggage. It is owing to this peculi- arity of construction, that these mountainous roads may still be seen, as ridges intersecting parts of the country, or their remains traced out in eleva- tions which they have left until the present day. If Tacitus’ account of Agricola’s conquests in Britain, leads us to infer that Agricola con- structed a military road throughout Lancashire, from the south of it to the north, a later account of the stations in Lancashire, either established by him or by his successors, is given us by ano- ther Roman, Antoninus, in his Itinerary of the kingdom. His Tenth Iter is considered to have been southward, from the county of Cumberland, through a part of Westmorland, and thence, through Lancashire, to this place, Manchester. His statement, according to the copies which have reached us, stands thus : From Alione to Galacum, 19 miles; to Bremetonace, 416 ROMAN ROAD IN THE 27 miles; to Coccium 20 miles; to Mancunium, 17 miles; beginning at Brougham castle, accord- ing to some antiquaries, or at Whitley castle, ac- cording to Camden, and ending here. The dis- tance, as given above, is 83 miles, and making the necessary allowance between the.straight line of the Romans and the winding one of the present road from Penrith to Manchester, seems to be tolerably correct. The intermediate distances, however, are, if the intermediate stations be the same as Antonine visited, obviously incorrect. Supposing with Dr. Whitaker, Galacum to be the station at Boroughbridge, and Overborough, as is nowgenerally agreed upon, to be Bremetonace, the distance between the two, as given by Anto- nine, and as they are separated at present, far from corresponds. Again, the distance between Breme- tonace Overborough, and Coccium or Rib- chester, as far exceeds what Antonine gives as the other exceeds the real distance. Much more is his statement inaccurate if Coccium be near Blackrode, where the Manchester historian would fix it. Besides, from Ribchester to Manchester is much beyond 17 Roman miles ; and if we ob- viate this error by stationing Coccium at Black- rode, we are no nearer, because we only increase the error elsewhere. There hence appears to be VICINITY OF BURY. 417 an error in some of the particular distances, as given by Antonine, though the general distance may be nearly, if not altogether, correct. Now, not knowing the exact distances between Broug- ham or Whitley castles and Boroughbridge, nor being acquainted with any remains between them, I cannot say whether the error may have commenced there; but having inspected the re- mains at Boroughbridge, and ‘knowing the dis- tance thence to Overborough, I can take upon me to state, that the 19 miles written between Alione and Galacum to be about the exact dis- tance, in Roman miles, between Boroughbridge and Overborough. Besides, as far as I can judge from a survey of the Roman road in the neigh- bourhood of Overborough towards Ribchester, and likewise from what I have seen of its remains in the neighbourhood of Ribchester, as well as by admeasurement on good maps, by transferring the 27 miles between Galacum and Bremetonacee to the distance between Bremetonacee and Coc- cium, we shall not fall far short of the real dis- tance. But whether, by transferring 20 miles as the distance between Coccium and Mancunium, we should at all approximate to the real distance between Ribchester and Manchester, persons who are better acquainted with the localities of 3G 418 ROMAN ROAD IN THE the neighbourhood than myself can best judge, though, on the maps, it appears to be about the third of a degree. Besides the Itinerary of Antonine, there is another account of the Roman stations and roads in Britain, compiled by Richard of Cirencester ; whether there have been authentic documents for the compilation or not, it is not at present our object to inquire. However, it may not be amiss to quote the parallel account which he gives in his 10th Iter the latter part of which stands thus—‘ From Lugaballa to Brocavonacis 22 miles,—from Brocavonacis to Alauna—from Alauna to Coccium—from Coccium to Mancu- nium 18 miles.” Dr. Stukely refers Brocavona- cis to Brougham, and the Manchester historian brings the road of Richard along the present line from Penrith to Lancaster, which he asserts to be the just mentioned Alauna. ‘Thence he follows the present road through Preston, Chorley, &c., until he comes to about 18 Roman miles from Manchester, to Blackrode, which is his Coccium. Now there is some singularity in Richards’s 10th Iter being defective in distances just where the parallel in Antonine’s is erroneous, not to mention Mr. Whitaker and himself both over- = OR Perteine Breny Bac » Ny | ¢ 20 | LoweriSnen Moer $ j Agger: T ages Q BF peter Bucy Row Bolton Bury Road ; Bins { wih : i Nini RS { S} 1)8 39 N &| ip = S| .|8 SLIIS N Ras Perma najiek > t Ave on 7 wy Delienk Bry Garcat- HileySteme Dotter tery Cenal 6 at ’ i ONRE DRG OK Koad aT Hemasnas of difje Tower N vi 1s | Watling Heyes Barn Marlee fp x (4age- xi SECT pay occupation Road Lowey oft 29 vol Sterling VICINITY OF BURY. 419 looking and omitting a station Concanguim through which the Iter would pass had it been in that direction—or had not the Iter of Richard itself been suspicious in that part of it. Having so far opened up the subject, we will now proceed to an account of the remains of the Roman road in the neighbourhood of Bury. From almost constant occupation of time, I have not yet had any opportunity of searching for re- mains between Manchester and the river Irwell in Radcliffe. At Radcliffe then we will com- mence. A little below the junction of the Roach and the Irwell, near the print works laid out on the sketch, the Roman road crossed the river ; it then passed across the holm grounds belonging to Radcliffe Tower, which is about 150 yards to the right, passed through the print works now occupied by Mr. James Hutchinson and Sons, to the Bolton and Bury canal, the 10% mile stone on the bank of which stands on the very line. On the grounds so far, not tue slightest trace is to be seen, but as the ground henceforward rises, a slight elevation is discernible, with a mixture of gravel in the ploughed grounds, until the line crosses Caw Brook; there a few yards of the agger remain of considerable height, showing 420 ROMAN ROAD IN THE distinctly the width and form of the road. Slight elevations and slight admixtures of gravel with the soil mark the line thence until we arrive at Spen Moor; there the remains are very evi- dent ; and im the field next to the Bolton and Bury New Road, the agger runs boldly across, having suffered little from cultivation except the removal of the stratum of stones. Continuing the same straight line northward, past Joseph-street, we discern near the fences, close to Starling, traces of the agger. The road then falls in with the Lower Croft-road, remains of which may be seen on the Cockey Moor side, and passes through a garden and under a cottage at the angle of the present road, along the meadow beyond, where the line keeps a considerable elevation to the brook and lodge of the Lower Croft print works. In the corner of the field beyond, may be seen considerable remains, as well as near the fence on the opposite side. Again, in the same straight line in the fold of Meadow Croft, remains are visi- ble, as likewise in the corner of the ground of the second field beyond thefarm and premises; thence along till we climb the high ground to Heyts Barn, about 40 yards east of which a long agger points out the direction, and following the line as in the accompanying sketch, remains may be traced, till VICINITY OF BURY. 421 the road falls in with that which passes through Offyside, and which retains the name of Watling- street until this day. Watling-street, or Raikes as it was also called, keeps an almost undeviating straight line for about a mile, until it reaches the Bull’s Head Inn, towards Edgworth. So far extends the sketch of the line and re- mains of the Roman road which accompany this paper, and which is intended to illustrate the preceding account, as well as to be a guide for any future investigator. Mere verbal accounts are of little use as directions, as I have found; besides there are oftentimes discrepancies which are apt to perplex and mislead. I now will give what corroborating testimony I have been able to pick up by inquiries, during my researches. They are traditionary in some instances, and therefore not wholly correct, for tradition, though originally truth, blends error, and exaggerations, and extra- neous facts with it. First, then, when enquiring if any account of the line of the road had been preserved in Radcliffe, I was answered there was one in the plan of the print works occupied by Mr. James Hutchinson and Sons. I applied to one of the young gentlemen engaged in the works, and was very politely allowed to examine the plan. 422 ROMAN ROAD IN THE A dotted line, with ‘‘Roman Road” written beside it, ran across the plan exactly through the lodges and under the building, as I had traced the line, and as it is laid down in the sketch. When the Bolton and Bury New road was being made, Mr. John Hall, a gentleman curious in collecting specimens of minerals, and investigat- ing the nature and order of the strata in the coal districts around, observing large stones and much gravel removed from that portion where it crosses the Roman line, was informed that such were the remains of the Roman road, which ran along there. Next is Joseph Street, the name of a Farm through which the line runs. But whether the name “ Street” has been given to the farm from the occupiers, or the occupiers have taken their name from the farm, is quite uncertain, as, when I asked for the name of the place, I was answered Joseph Street; and when I asked for the name of the family, I was answered Joseph Street; and when I asked whether such was the name of both, Iwas answered ‘‘yah.” The first time I traced out the remains of the Roman road near Meadow Croft, a young man, seeing me witha book in my hand, into which I inserted remarks with a pencil as I went along, followed me and the gentleman who accompanied me, and after ascertaining that we VICINITY OF BURY. 423 were neither surveying for a rail-road line, nor for levying any rate, but merely for a road that had been, he told us ‘Then owd felly ’s reet, for he used to sey ot Pack Horses com throo’t fowt formerly.” And who is the old man? we in- quired. ‘Whoy he’s me feyther, an’ it wur his feyther, that’s my gronfeyther, ot towd him hor- ses com atween Blackburn and Manchester.” And during the last fortnight I was informed by an old man at Meadow Croft, that in the time of his father, many portions of the agger of the Roman road were carted away; the stones for draining the meadow below, near the brook; and the gravel to the road which passes the premises. Likewise he said that he had been told, that that road was the oldest one in the country; that it eame along by the Heyts in Offyside, went through Starling and crossed the ford of the Irwell, a little below the meeting of the waters of the Roach. To repeated questions what was the name of the road through Offyside, I was answered ‘‘Wadling Street, it’s coen Street, fur it wur paved formerly.” Such are the scanty materials of the information which I have to lay before you at present, little, indeed, in comparison of what remains to be 494 ROMAN ROAD IN THE gathered from this Iter, but which probably I may resume when leisure may permit. The confusion of the intermediate distances between the stations upon it, occasioned most likely by an error of some transcriber, has rendered the de- termination of the localities one of great difficulty. Whether the error now alluded to be confined solely to distances, or also to the names of the stations themselves, it may perhaps be presump- tuous to hazard an opinion. Only it was a rule with the great Camden to seek for some similarity in sound in the modern names of places, or of the rivers on which they stood, with the sound of the Roman names, which he considered strong cir- cumstantial evidence. And the authority of the father of Roman antiquities is not altogether to be despised, though he may have been laughed at for seeking the remains of Coccium upon Cockey Moor. Supposing then there be an error of the transcriber in names as well as the distances of Antonine’s 10th Iter, may not the Station at Boroughbridge be the Alione of the text, for it is situated on the Lune, formerly written Lon. Overborough would thus become the site of Galacum, and it too is situated on the Leck-brook, formerly written Lac. Bremetonace would hence have to be removed to its belong- VICINITY OF BURY. 425 ance elsewhere, and might be fixed at Brougham castle, and it would thus correspond with the Brocavonacis of Richard, which he may have so written from some other copy, or from mistake. This is but conjecture, and would require more extensive acquaintance with the line of the Roman road and the intermediate distances than I yet possess, to merit any consideration of importance. To whatever further extent I may carry sketches and researches, if they merit any notice from this Society they will be at its service whenever called for. Rutland Arms, Bakewell, April 2nd, 1839. REMARKS ON THE COA EDI SVRTC? SOUTH LANCASHIRE. By JAMES HEYWOOD, F.RS., F.G.S. (Read December 29th, 1837.) Carponirerous rocks have long formed an ° interesting subject of mining investigation in the — county of Lancaster, and facts relating to the Geology of this district are continually disco- vered, by the researches of mining mdustry, and by the observations of local inquirers. Gritstone hills compose the Eastern boundary of the Lancashire coal district, separating the coal fields of Yorkshire and Lancashire from each other.* Gritstone strata also form the Northern boundary of the district, and on the North-East of Blackburn, in North Lancashire, steeply inclined beds of coal, termed “ rearing mines,” are found, * See the accompanying Map of the Coal District of South Lancashire. Trawden ae ee vA Boulsworth Hill U 7 s “For¥est E ot | Rosendale H 1 rc i s +/Todmorden COA yk, Dis Treen c r OF . SOUTH LANCA SHIRE Wustrated by AHESHI ; James Hevwood EG.S. 1838. st | acarna ea b Blackpool 4 Vlewieke A y Leyla mn | ¢ » Srala's | i* : i gah 4 NC i} > v — | 1 | ss g Ay RK tenes 4 Garston Prince | . / of X fare iF > aL AcKn KN v ¢ wag Ny a NS “oon S\ H \D_ Resi {iawn feat Wile toon Cuonaer ty 5 For WARRING TN, eres of Goal = Fudts or Displmements Yiuvle of Mites Risley Moves a st CATH pre ? tL Trawiten <—— 5 ) x IY Lostreerch 5 wa Roxdndale Mp TARN pone 3 Bacup awe, LASS GlOVASE, IDES Cena Com OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE Ilustrated by James Hevwood EGS. 1838. REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT, ETC. 427 overlying the gritstone rocks of the Northern boundary. Red sandstone strata occur three miles to the South-West of Blackburn, at Feniscowles-bridge ; and the red sandstone formation may be subse- quently traced, with its associated rocks, on the Western and Southern limits of the Lancashire coal district. A remarkable circumstance occasionally attends the junction of the red sandstone formation with the coal measures of South Lancashire. Long promontories of red sandstene are there found to divide, to a considerable depth, the strata of the coal measures ; they sometimes narrow gradually towards a point, nearly in an acute angle, within the coal formation, and then spread out, in the opposite direction, beyond the limits of the carbo- niferous rocks. Several of these promontories of red sandstone have been observed on the Southern boundary of the Lancashire coal district, in the neigh- -bourhood of Eccleston, and Worsley, in South Lancashire, but the principal promontory of red sandstone which has yet been discovered, 428 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT stretches out, in a South-Easterly direction, along the valley of the river Irwell, for about seven miles, from Ringley to Manchester. The Western side of this red sandstone promon- tory of the valley of the Irwell, is bounded by the rocks of the coal formation, which are sup- posed to be thrown down, below the red sand- stone, by a fault of 1000 yards of downcast to the North-East: but the Eastern side of the pro- montory is little known, being generally concealed by the sand and gravel beds, which frequently overlie the sandstone rocks, on both sides of the valley of the Irwell. Between Ringley and Clifton, the fault, on the Western side of the red rock promontory, is visible, as it crosses the bed of the river Irwell, and its direction is North-West by West in that locality. South of Clifton, red sandstone may be traced on the bed of the river Irwell, near Kersal Moor, Castle Irwell, and under the bridges between Manchester and Salford. On the Eastern side of Manchester, coal is found at Bradford, and the red sandstone rock occurs again to the East of OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 429 the Bradford collieries: coal is afterwards found above Bank-bridge, on the river Medlock, in the same vicinity; and the carboniferous rocks are then continued without interruption, to the gritstone hills on the Eastern boundary of the district, beyond Ashton and Oldham. At Ardwick, on the Eastern side of Man- chester, and very near to the town, several beds of limestone are found,* interstratified with beds of carboniferous shale: the inclination of the Ard- wick limestone is conformable to that of the carboniferous strata, and tends towards the South West. Nine miles to the West of Manchester, at Bedford, near Leigh, strata of Magnesian lime- stone occur, which are not conformable to the carboniferous strata in that neighbourhood. From observations madeat Bedford, near Leigh, by the late Dr. Phillips, of Manchester, and commu- nicated by that able inquirer to the author of this paper, it appears, that the strata of the Magnesian limestone at Bedford tend to the South-East, and * All beds of limestone are coloured blue, inthe accom- panying Map of the Coal District. 430 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT that the red sandstone rocks of the same locality dip to the East, with a slight inclination towards the South, while the carboniferous gritstone, against which the Magnesian limestone there rests, dips rapidly to the South-West; hence the carboni- ferous grit rocks of Bedford are manifestly uncon- formable, both to the red sandstone, and to the Magnesian limestone of that portion of the South Lancashire coal district. Several parallel faults occur in the coal dis- trict, on the Northern and North-Western side of Manchester, which have a North- Westerly direction, parallel to the great red rock fault of the valley of the Irwell, and which give an appearance of great regularity to the divisions of this portion of the coal district. Two of these parallel faults were noticed by a scientific agent, surveying for the author, on the banks of the river Irwell, at Brandlesholme, North of Bury, in South Lancashire. The first of the two faults was observed to separate the strata of the dark ferruginous shale of that - neighbourhood, from the carboniferous sandstone, and to change the inclination of the strata adjacent to it on both sides. Above the fault, the inclina- OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 431 tion of the dark ferruginous shale was 14° or 15° N.E. by E., and below the fault the in- clination of the carboniferous sandstone was 5° South. Sandstone strata succeeded to the dark ferruginous shales, above the fault, with a similar inclination of 15° to 20° N.E. by E., and in these sandstones, the second fault occurred, in which the strata of sandstone were projected vertically upwards, and were accompanied by ferruginous septaria. In the line of the fault, ferruginous clay was found, filling up an interval of six feet in width, occasioned by the fault. The dip of the carboniferous sandstone strata above the second fault, was from 5° to 10° East. On the opposite side of the river, the effects of the same faults were visible, from the vertical position of the sandstone strata, in the lines of the faults, contrasting with the uniformly gentle inclination of the carboniferous sandstones in that vicinity. Similar phenomena accompanied the appearance of the same parallel faults on the river Roch, between Bury and Heywood. The general incli- nation of the carboniferous strata, on each side of the faults, was there very gentle, and did not exceed 10° to the South-East, while in the lines 432 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT of the faults, the beds of sandstone and the strata of black shale were forced vertically upwards. Such an abrupt and singular change of the position of the strata probably occurred at a very remote period of time, when the beds were still soft and flexible, and when the strata might have been forced into a vertical position in the lines of the faults, without materially affecting the inclination of the adjacent portions of the coal formation. Numerous alterations in the position of the beds of coal, have been, in ancient times, pro- duced by the occurrence of faults; thus, in the higher rocks of the carboniferous series, between Worsley and the river Irwell, near Manchester, the level of the four feet coal mine has been repeatedly changed. At Roe Green, near Wors- ley, this mine has been removed towards the North, by a fault of 400 yards. Between Roe Green and Clifton, the direction of the level of the mine has been altered, by a fault of 600 yards, to a South-Easterly direction, tending towards the great red rock fault of the valley of the Irwell; and on the Eastern side of the great Irwell fault, the level of the four feet mine has been again removed, so that it is found to be OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 433 parallel to the direction of the fault, near Ringley. In addition to the changes of position of the carbeniferous rocks, in consequence of faults, the thickness and the structure of the various strata are liable to constant modifications, in different localities, in South Lancashire. Some of the beds occasionally thin out, ot they increase in thickness; others vary in their mineral structure, and are only identified with each other, by the strata which are associated with them. Specimens of the mineral structure of the South Lancashire coal district, are presented in the following sections, which have been col- lected in different parts of the coal field, by various individuals, who have contributed them in a most friendly manner, while they have at the same time materially assisted the author of this paper in the illustration of those portions of the district with which they were, from local experience, intimately acquainted. Nearly all the towns of South Lancashire are indebted for a large amount of their manufac- 31 434 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT turing power, to the economical supply of fossil fuel from neighbouring coal mines; and the carboniferous series of this district contains many other strata, in addition to the beds of coal, which -are of considerable interest to the geologist. VERTICAL SECTION OF STRATA, IN THE LOWER PART OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SERIES, AT THE LOWER CARR PIT, NEAR WIGAN, FROM MR. ALEXANDER HALIBURTON. Yds. Ft. In. Soil aridemarl ey}. Weebhesessseaewesp os ctpoweass Eieee sce 0 Black bass ...cccccosecee Beier sccinasincce dnon jy otecson= Wihite woCkaurdsepevscespeincescsmccseescss ets SSooosaceo + White earth ........00. Rea cacetstochosnsesencrarechige RVINILCTCULEIN svercsccarenecseracssiecsesscsiscscences ses Soft blue stone (termed lin and wool) ........... RWihhitie Canblieece costae envecmesecns csdecstseccsceneclsee Soft blue st@ne devassceessressopsso's can eeane BIG MING seccecasecccss cUsaarseesbescscccscsiee eickees IBIACKIDASS ceceeccaegecepescacaiccsesscarss Wetascaocees Vaid COGl Mie s...cccccaccscccevcccccss SARE ACIOS Warren, or black shaly earth ..... ene gedsesteoste Soft blue stone ......... isereaie POT es ‘ White rock ....... savateeescebbhs selsWenberoescadus sive White earth s......sccecscnccssesdoevecceccccsecetvece Sotijolue stone scscactacessereseosscascepasceescaanc: MWVINTEGICATLIL "acccesccueccccowte re” coterseeseeeccsccsces FPA TOGKieo oc eeeee eecatescceetbscdcatevecastece oae WHEE Te antic. crceccctecceseceee sueteenenee cpeenstirake pep ooovdonrwwrerorococcor DCO CO F KN SCNeYE NYPYNONRKR KY NOK KR KF ONY KF KO MANODTDTADCDCON DOK WWwWOoOanh DDO SO OS WW hiite earthy ec. watences accheteeccseseae Set catia ies ioe) — — — o Carried forward OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 435 S F NON RDOWM HY CH NOOCOARAANRONWHKHWKEK WHO DK DAHAW SO Brought forward ....scsecccseeeeees seccsescccsesinnn BD Bock) igss.sc0%s Se -Oferheeansone eth nes anaes ated ve WOME SLONG es cnsctbusccasccccuccdasseccrces aeadeas aren Op Ks ose ccnn os dace snesaseacccccccssss renee ences Soft blue stone and ironstone .....sceccceeessevess WV NGC (CATE ci cccsccsscsecccensccces eecnsver aeeeeenoes Pete TES ovezeres cccics wapccccse ses seckedsoteccerteas — ROCKS wens sicsecn cucccccesedascesesecoses aanenwacaneseee 1 EUR” AER SEE RE ga aa EG tae a inns cp cad mare tes oedaees I a a os Se tae tet nanan apie y a Dark soft blue stone..... a Sania cdasene ces Saas oe eae ee caseeepasepeeels aeasensadnue =e Bone coal ......... cncdsuedatenua sass econeactnesncraee Both blue Stone escnscacnediadaansan Coreen senile - TR Eee PRE PP ee AID ae eee Oe BPEL ISN SEONG ic acca udhiwnaaanenglomarath cokes oe Tronstone .......000. SA ; Pia lap iam tiie asus’ cxvcedaawevciesikkece basen Siromg, white earth .sccaccsssacssseccecesacs anendteeoni BOE AE ODG, pieciscnniadaxayanassacacesntdatendedem a iienaneniidina dence: sausagaiedaantatacsaes Wiihe erthics, Jsaiaie, wakes vartesierdde vtaendia 0iesck UI Msg, evaudatataecacedulscacsacadiacuiocanicsseahs White earth with ironstone ..........ese0 A ere BAGBY ante nad-laceains BPE OC OCTOCCOCR CCE OA OEE OOCD i MS sk, caalewiacaneanats A Oi! Rar ee ao acc su ss © See eeeeetesseee cocoonwododcoorr tO oococorr CO OR OWWNW WwW Ae Be Carried forward 89 0 1 436 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT Yds. Ft. In. (o2) Oo Brought forward ..........0608 saecevents Sedeiartede White earth and ironstone ....ccccccecccccedsecces WVILENCALTID aster sccccrscucceccdecsdesccecencunssendee Baremblue stoneccc eee ae scccledcdge cccucoaacccadae Wihiterearth csssecssdsnecacerssnaseseetsancuscssertes Soft blue stone ....csssceceeeseees LOPE TE elt Wihitercarthmvdsccsedcsacssep seteacssedess sree Eee: 1 Se Bose eee FORO CE NSE SESE AEE DO GON SoOERnOMHOUntEG Nnonmnonwnvonwd = — i) Soft blue stone ...... POO ER ROOD ECAC DAC RCOO EAE White earth ‘ivecdesteddesscdddcdceddedddedccddeed toc oul and bass ssiscesdee lees eoedeadedddecsstee seca. Wihite Garth sercstossucecccedcte cu ctslsetecd celsteescvst ‘sls aid Dark soft blue stone....ccccssccccccccccssceeseceses Warren, or black shaly earth ....csccceceeeseesees Soft blue stome ..cceccccssescsces coves soveceeses ove Hard grit ..cscscssssseveees bs desesescesed easssscedecs GSP DlUS- StOMesecesddtaveceseviececasecasdeacdasncst tee White earth and bands......sscsccccccccccccceeevere 1 BRASS) ve cehewdle sc statciedidee'scetateele siete’ atetereftulh eistsaeterainteivet esata White earth scccccccccccccscccsscccececs deddseceeteaes Blacks bass ssssecssccsences iduacccuscesseasccngeteeazes OG aE . BeccSace Sea dae acc asatee case esta cate eee es eessssteee White earth ......scccccceeees guddedtostiattocesseemeee White rock sc.ccccveccececcssccccceess seccccsesscees 5 Soft blue stone ....cscceeeee Madseedeereareredendeees White earth csiccccddecccccsccasscccdcccsscctacs avai 2 — Come NK NPN OFr KH NK OK COKF NK Ke eK KH DNONNGDO ownNnrnwooenrnswrtr—noPRwOowwoan sz Nowe NX ORK WONWONWORK COOK KF KH DO Op two oo & oo Carried forward 160 2 6 OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. Yds Brought forward ........ sinslsisbs satel eiaissisb'sistb nn ts 160 CORE. Bical. osetialeweaee aid eweaecdelea' er etesdiald deed 0 Warren, or black eas Carthy se. ascsek eee atsecens White rock... siiscicsisciscdescscassccagessdacerscevess 1 Soft blue stone, or lin and Wool ........secssereee 2 Depth of Section.........cccccocersesccererses Yards 164 Ft. In. 2 6 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 3 VERTICAL SECTION OF BEDS OF COAL, AT HAIGH, NEAR WIGAN, FROM MR. ALEXANDER HALIBURTON. Yds. Depth from surface ........cscrcccvcsvessevecseceece 10 Coal, which burns to a white ash..........eeeeeee 1 Enterv all ticicics « actetactarastels/viereivetsleiontsostebivenceeishbsiltee'es 8 Confluent coal, of good quality ........66. seeve 0 Mntervalbsctvedersatersterndacees PS REY be oe 16 Coal, of sulphureous and shaly nature.........+ 0 Interval ........ 5 sige dasnee seeneeesy as wane case eis te 24 Good coal, but not confluent ......cecsevesecesees 1 EGET Al les Saran cients tae aovcivaislas go's ooh oid weisenie ~ _ mown © FAN wo: n ro TWH OoOWNT SO 442 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT Yds. Brought forward......secccsssseee seantewee Fesenee dea 260 BBOWH DUT | La cbevuccbeeveevectsissrsercecrecs coe sakes 0 LOgey nidtal scsiesseccscvsveseene cvnvensosseeenaces 11 [Biche bass adic cccccsssecccecensecddeanaeicesane 0 WCET CENELM) csscwacecaansacscsacemnsssnunasesacicdees ] Lin and wool .......... Besa hecscuseewecasaaasenade 2, MONE NO. COD! accnanscccacncdacenandenacannes tase 0 Weirton) Carthy cacsancacnaccanceatagearwanne reccddsnecs 0 Dhara ctal “ccnesnadacdaseevavdsstesdccssacaveamedacva. 4 Whee rrdascekctacnedncescccosesndaweanaccacencssosceas 1 NETO HCV OGL tevecaceveess taccendcaddcssascnnsncases 0 INVITE TO GIG: cis sentcietstenerel dchechoacictatunoticie laueisrerare aeons 10 Gray metal ....cccccccorererecccerecerecerrsvsosceses 2 GCONNEL Re, . -covonmccasersenszeaceses eesweseuess snavenze 0 Blacktimetal 3: .ccccavewvesswsesddedasaees SqUNnneE Ere 2 SHO NON, et ih ose ccadecatendadnats satancuetsadandnadetutve 0 FEMA AWOOI cape seneniiincuinenislemanomichanenmoerrene 1 Gray metal .....ceccccccceececereerceveceere angenaaee 9 IE er bie: side oss scp tnesebeeieeerhoe crewnucebaneapisenes 1 INIBEANE ache cece saccesmcacinassivsismanenadiincane'deinaae sem 2 1B cle 35a8. ) Soenoce cnCaCcrOLe AP ABP ARE RE AGAROSE ECONEE 0 Vistaliersctessdecacearcnrsedc str ccascherasiiecpemecocnes 3 OG acca ossceecceeneecesceiensies Memeo oaeeeteennate 0 ATED, o0deacce suse ceseseeesteccss mate acepeiccmseakesce 1 SEBMCD oclbaccccccsmpcssesiags Resets cismenestcvaemmesion 5 2 Strong lin and Wool........sseseeee SRAtnp sen esicninke 3 Stone ..... eadecase cassuswecsecnssmencsecscsaneeees. 25 Bass (shale) ......sesssseeee deonsssscncases svessenedas 1 Warren earth ....00 coccsecceees Rceeeeactrenteed “ae 1 Carried forward 350 _ _ oO OorooorocoonoocorcorF NOK KK OR NNT ONOKH OW Seooooo oF CTO SC ONMN OR NANA OYE DANO S 2 4% OF SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 443 Brought forward ....... Sinem Jccrccoarcecmnseeneyt 350 2 44 Lin and wool (Stone) s..+2+seeseseseeseeens cannon ann 2 2 0 TDstG Ghee oe oes caepekneserevere Boe asta conc Nee neden 3 0 0 Metal .cic.ccccnensnenee ss ntemecn ppaesmecernecaner con SoOind Bass ....0. betios speaeneee Seebesehb > kebsh sPeaerhraaesrce 10 0 Bone coal...... Sccsipbestese Jcpwbebepacresupee sears Eee 0 2 4 Warren ......s2000 seebbeepeoer aeensees Fine semen 01 0 SRO Ci. soos ceboeseprosere papnEKeena be ce ollie 1. Brbd Lin and wool ....ereereeres AGRA peaaeaieneen anes 1 0 0 Mptal ih. cccsscenoonens sitascbinlaleeees Sn cnisaibsialsieais 3 0 0 Opales eHescccs sebubepenves By Oy siapeucbiebeee BAe 00 4 WAITED © ..cccccctsorcrcccrnnconscenscccsncoase Anan F 1. ai IED CRG. theese «senpmsrpespancee eae SAR AACA 1, Ono Min aN asVOO), ap apeaseeceemaneeeasencranacensenacane Ls AO Hard brown StOM€ .ororesssscaserccscerserensnes oe 1... Ord Strong lin and Wo0l]......sessesserseenseaeeeneseenes 20:8 Bur (galliard) ...sessresessseeesersensereaneenenanans | ee ee Strong lin and WOOlL,....++++s02++ sorerronene baveeee 3.00 Metal ......... seeeerogap sets A eslenaabine seecneneanciae (ane) Bond Ac csccceesecenaeeve anipesaseuen caidewaaveee was 01 0 Warren. cresc.-sseacr- PPP OT spppeieeverscpesscetoat Oodle CODA Ee repens ectccveeses esadeopveneovneeters iM Ov a2 WATTON IG, ones caseeseeers sebeeascesesecre ees -raabasear : Oni ahs Smith Coal ...sss00000+ dies copeseoprensonervuewes is One whe DA TREN sto e so. scsebewevaseersree Siedsacaeeseeseonaepe 1. 0% 00 Re CKS. cdi ss sno sovsevowessrevessctapnertsenscessseisans 3.01080 Lin and RY Ooliseurcresseresonesberserperecerrrseniee 621 Od WIT GIBS Meso cnccccevevecdcesoeere eee pabens epésebe 6 0 0 BRAG Biss erlertiesecpivesnsensase i cbeutbiph bpeedaewe mine 1 Or 0 Carried forward 400 1 104 444 REMARKS ON THE COAL DISTRICT Brought forward ......ceccecssssscesesseesveveecess 400 Gackle' shell! bedi ariicecccescnviveesewenncnted egeres a CIE. SRR. « cbeman wun temuviecsratececaneaewencones 6 IMIR CATS 5 Sos ie « sererererotesienielinen sunmdccumiindoeeenewewerees BUS ZIT MACOGL nowanninhwansenneaihnuniteeunodteeees WU ah COUR s. connevsaniviwev inmates snnonenioevedtiess Grey Melal ...scsessssevesseveseswvesevesvueswveeevee Phin and: Wool, «cc aceresvovasvnsassueweterbtepecsee CGalAnGdass: ince sdecsecsvrdaresaves Paecewevevesaee Dark grey stone. ....rsesavecesvorveseeevsesesveeses Grit, white Stone). cseesierarcdweenvosveneebouve seth live ama , \:is.ssiswcmvektuwanmuneccew seus sehurereesee Grit Awhike .StONC is sawieiew'a skinass cle celuwwevevisevewseutle DDS Ksne tal. js;sues ewww sehenasueacnense 0 Ol White rock ........ akekeekans Ku bWRW Ranma eeeneubeeue S72 ig Black stone ...... betes suaetinisniieeqen tedestmpbcceees LhiiOinwl BIRGER DASS :i\ dng sss: ieee coe en onprnas te nane senna saris eae nates PROBE PTMEG FOC hcg aesinga ; } z =k = SSS5 —— It will be seen here that the inclined position of the style, with regard to the surface of the clay, is not only absolutely essential to the production of the arrow-headed character, but is also, as before said, most convenient and natural, at the same time, the length or shortness of the cha- racters were determined and varied at pleasure, simply by inclining the style more or less with respect to the surface of the clay; a slight in- clination producing a long character, as at E, (Fig. 9), or short, as at F ; such varieties being required in the production of the various letters, or as in case of punctuation or other conventional signs. 502 = REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN FIG. 9. PINS bf ff f J 4 bh AE 5 Ere I conclude this part of my subject I may as well say a few words on the mode in which the style has been used, in order to produce the varie- ties given in Fig. 4, at No. 2, 3. With respect to the manner of producing the variety given at No. 2, when the sides of the character are curved slightly, as will be seen on inspecting the figure alluded to, this was simply the result of the style being slightly turned over to the right and left side before being lifted or raised from the surface of the clay, while, at the same time, the style was inclined rather more than what had been requisite to the production of the simple straight-sided character, No. 1: by this most simple action this beautiful variety is pro- duced, the very mode just described being such as OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 503 would naturally assist in facilitating the removal of the style from the surface of the clay. | With regard to the variety, No. 3, it was simply produced by trailing or drawing the point of the style towards the inscriber or brickmaker, which simple action would instantly produce the tail which distinguishes it from the others. Having thus alluded to the manner in which the Babylonians produced the arrow-head charac- ters on their bricks and pottery, I shall, ere I pass on to the concluding part of my subject, make men- tion of the mode by which they impressed the sides of some of their bricks with certain tablets of characters, which doubtless was a system in- troduced after the invention of “the style pro- duced” character; namely, that which we have been hitherto describing, where each individual elementary or single arrow-head is the result of a separate and distinct impression of the style of which I need only refer my readers to Fig. 6, which I consider as of the highest value in sup- port of the truth of my discovery ; namely, as to the mode originally employed in the production of these singular characters. 504 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN FIG. 10. aS AP OP RAR Sa); wii nt PAN Ae rif TINEA N ee Avi bite Oi pA WA ny. Wave an AN NY i ain ee The annexed Fig. 10 represents one of those bricks, on the side of which a tablet of arrow-head characters is impressed; that such tablets have been the result of the impression of an engraved block or die there can be no doubt, from the fact that the tablet or border around them is depressed belowthe surface of the brick, that being the natural result of an impression produced from an engraved block or stamp, in which the characters had been carved in the natural manner. Could there be any doubt on this subject, the absolute identity of such tablets on several bricks would, I imagine, clear it away. The depressed frame or border to the tablet is the result of the force with which the stamp was caused to act upon the surface of the clay. I have never found any of those impressed tablets on any other part than the sede of the OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 505 brick. On most of such we find the style charac- ters on the edge, as seen above ; that situation being best adapted to enable the inscription being seen when the brick was placed in the wall—that on the side being hid, as a matter of course, and only existing as a record to be brought to light on the destruction of the building. It may not be out of place to remark here how very near the Babylonians came in contact with the art of printing, in their stamping a page of inscriptions at once, and in the manner of stereotype! also. The next stage in the history of this remarkable alphabetic character, is that in which we find it occurring on other substances than that which we may so properly consider as its native one, namely, clay. In many Babylonian and Assyrian remains we find that this singular character occurs in conjunction with sculptures in marble and other stones, on all of which, however, it preserves with singular faithfulness all the characteristic features which are inherent and natural to it in the case of clay, namely, the triangular form, and above all, the depressed angle. See Fig 4, No. 2, or Fig 4, No. 1, ato. The only slight variety is that of the curved side, which we have explained might have been introduced as an embellishment, 38 506 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN and might have been derived from the clay character, in which the style had been rolled slightly from side to side ere it was lifted from the clay. Several slabs or tablets of marble, and other stoney material, exist in the British Museum, which are covered with inscriptions in these beautiful and striking characters, all of which are the result of the chisel. Here then we have an illustration of that important principle in the philosophy of architecture, namely the ten- dency which mankind have ever displayed to cling to certain forms, which however natural and due to the materials, the employment of which led to their adoption, have (yet in the case of marble or stone) no natural reference to the form in question. The arrow-head is essentially a clay character, and its transference to stone is the course due to its adoption as the conventional or alphabetic character of the people who employed it, and who would be the more induced to adopt it as their alphabet, inasmuch as it was possessed in so very remarkable a degree of all the great and important requisites, namely, its capability of infinite combination, together with its great faci- lity of production, whether by the style in clay or wax, or by the chisel in marble or stone, and even in precious stones and others, such as cor- OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 507 nelian, agate, and other similar materials, as we find in the case of those singularly beautiful Baby- lonian cylinders, by the rolling of whose engraved surfaces over clay or wax, impressions such as used on seals, were produced, in a most perfect manner, as indicated in Fig. 11. BABYLONIAN CYLINDRICAL SEAL ROLLER. FIG. ll. wa ERAT EAE SS LT ee SS SSS@0.05 SEES — <=. Sh 0 a Ne The mechanical principles inherent in this beautifully simple form of seal roller, indicate a very high order of ingenuity, well worthy of the originators of the arrow-head, inasmuch as by engraving the inscription or device on the surface of a cylinder, they were enabled in a very small compass to include a very considerable surface of seal; and, above all, as such a cylinder would, in being rolled over the surface of the clay or wax, 508 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN . come in contact with it as it were line by line, a very slight pressure would in this way produce an effect in the way of impression, which in the ~ case of a seal, whose flat surface was equivalent to that of the cylinder, would require a very con- siderable force to produce the same effect. This simple principle practised upwards of 4000 years ago, includes the entire theory of the action of rollers, as employed in pressing or extending materials. Ere I leave this part of my subject, namely, the modes by which the arrow-head characters were produced originally in clay, by the style, and subsequently in stone and marble by the chisel, 1 shall now offer a few remarks by way of conjecture as to the manner in which the first idea of this truly beautiful and remarkable character suggested itself to the primitive brick-making Babylonians. What I have to offer on this sub- ject I am perfectly willing to admit, is open to attack, as being over fanciful and highly specula- tive. Be that as it may, my readers shall have my ideas on the subject, and they may receive or reject them as best pleases their own fancy ; for as I am in possession of no absolute fact whereon to found my views in regard to ¢his part of my subject, 1 must fall back upon probabilities ; and OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 509 truly glad shall I be to abandon what I am about to state, whenever I find any theory which has a better foundation than that of conjecture, but until then it is better to have some ideas on the subject before our minds than none at all. FIG. 12. NPT i ah Ne i tin iV"! | ‘1 Wn The above figure will perhaps serve to explain my ideas as to the probable origin of the Baby- 510 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN lonian arrow-headed character. That it is inti- mately connected with bricks I trust what I have endeavoured to set forth in former pages, will in some degree substantiate: it is simply by follow- ing out the ideas in connexion with bricks and moist clay, that I am induced to submit to the attention of my readers the above figure, illus- trating the probable origin of this remarkable character. Let us only for a moment suppose that a hardened or dry brick falling on some one of its angles, either intentionally or by accident, impressed or indented its corner into the side of a soft or undried brick, as represented above, what would occur? and what would be the form and appearance of the mark so produced in the side of the soft brick by the angle of the hard one? Nothing more or less than a most perfect arrow- head! having all and every characteristic of those actually found on the bricks of Babylon, the size and proportions depending of course upon the force and inclination of the falling brick, as it came in contact with the other. That such an action of the corner of a hard brick on the sur- face of a soft one, DoES produce an arrow-headed character, with all its striking and remarkable characteristic features, there is no room for doubt, as I have put it to the test of experiment; and OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 511 more nice and faithful characters could not be produced by a veritable Babylonian style than that which results from this truly simple and pri- mitive mode, which although originating by acci- dent, might afterwards have been intentionally employed in marking (as is the practice to this day) certain lots of new made, and consequently, moist bricks; the practice in our own time being the insertion of a chip of wood, or small stone, into the side of the soft brick, which marks a certain lot, whereas on the banks of the Euphrates, in the remote days of the primitive Babylonians, the more simple mode of marking might have been such as seen in Fig. 12, namely, by indenting the side of the soft brick with the corner of a hard one, the result being, as before stated, a most perfect arrow-headed character— in this way the arrow-head might have existed, and been employed simply as a conventional sign or mark as to number, and afterwards, on being seen by some fertile mind, its admirable qualities might have been appreciated, and its wonderful capabilities of combination thenceforth applied, so as to become, as it certainly did, the fundamental or elementary character of the entire Babylonian alphabet, and—as I hope to prove to my readers likewise—the basis of the Greek, Roman, and 512 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN modern capital alphabet, whose descent from this truly venerable character I trust I shall be able to prove in so clear a manner as to confer the highest degree of interest on the foregoing investi- gation, which in that view of the subject cannot otherwise than reflect back the deepest interest on the origin and nature of a character, which is not only the most ancient we are acquainted with, but also as being connected with the most remark- able eras in the history of mankind and the pro- egress of civilization. With respect to the preceding remarks, as to how it is possible the accidental indentation of the angle of a hard brick into the side of a soft one, might have given the first idea as to the employment of the remarkable character so pro- duced, to become the elementary or fundamental form whereby to originate so wonderful an alpha- bet, my ideas on this part of my subject, I must confess, admit of the charge of speculativeness, inasmuch as I have no other basis whereon to form my remarks than probability or conjecture. Ido not desire to build any theory on this part of the subject, the more so, as in all other respects I trust what I have brought forward, and have yet to advance, is based on such incontrovertible OF THE ARRUW-HEADED CHARACTER. 513 facts, admitting of ocular and tangible demonstra- tion, that I am the more anxious that a line should be drawn by my readers between what is merely a conjecture founded on probability, and that which is derived from undoubted historical facts, and capable of proof, by reference to the aetual bricks themselves, in which the mark of the style is as distinct as if it had been the production of a few weeks since, in place of upwards of 4000 years! for proof of which refer to Fig. 6. Il now come to what appears to me to be the most truly interesting portion of my paper, namely, the proving that the Babylonian arrow- head character is the prototype or original form from which the Greek alphabet is derived; and hence, as a matter of historical sequence, that also of the Roman and British capital alphabet, in the form of whose letters I expect to show my readers that there still exists the evident remains of its Babylonian origin ! It was while engaged in the rapid investigation of the manner in which the arrow-headed character had been produced, and its general nature and capabilities, that the idea occurred to me that I might have some light thrown upon the historical 3.7 514 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN tradition as to Cadmus having brought over from Tyre, and subsequently taught the primitive Greeks their alphabet, which at that early period consisted of sixteen capital letters, to my inmex- pressible delight I found, on reference to some of the most ancient Greek inscriptions in the British Museum, that most of the capital letters were composed of absolute elementary arrow- heads! The source from whence the primitive Greek alphabet was derived, at once substantiated historically the conjecture Ihad formed. Cadmus was from Tyre, being a Pheenician, and skilled in the learning of the Chaldeans, who were the most enlightened and learned of the Babylonians; hence it is, that historically speaking, we ought to find an arrow-headed or Babylonian feature in the characters which he gave to the primitive Greeks as their alphabet. That this is the case, we have only to refer to any ancient Greek inscription, which we shall find to abound with ocular demonstration of the most substantial de- scription, as may be seen on reference to the figure annexed, which is a most careful and rigidly faithful representation of some of the letters comprising a most ancient Greek inscription now in the British Museum, among which there exists numberless examples, all of which bear out in OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 9515 the most clear manner the theory which I have advanced, and of the truth of which I am about to submit ocular proof. FIG. 13. ay BS) ARN 9 > \ ‘ ae = : wr Y I e : es as a A is VI 1,'J) aah Ye My /, Cop PTW The above, Figure 13, is a faithful representa- tion of three capital primitive Greek alphabetic characters, in the formation of whose details the elementary arrow-head is most marked and strikingly evident, any one of them being capable of resolution into its primitive element, namely, the single arrow-head, which, I trust, is so evident as to require but little proof otherwise than that of ocular demonstration. I shall beg to draw attention to what appears to me to be the most clear and important evidence in respect to the relationship existing between these Greek letters and their Babylonian prototypes. What I allude 516 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN to here is the non-parallelism of the bottom stroke of the character A with the line of the inscription, or as seen in Y, the top strokes of whose upper parts are seen to incline very considerably out of . line with the inscription. I would request most particular attention to be paid to this fact, as it carries with it the most simple, clear, and striking evidence of the Babylonian, or arrow-headed origin of these characters, each of which may be resolved into its elements, and these elements being a simple arrow-head. So faithful, indeed, is the arrow-headed character kept up in those Greek capital letters, and indeed in almost all others, of whatever size, that we find the depressed angle before alluded to in Fig. 4, No. 1, most carefully given; and in every case this is at- tended to with the most scrupulous accuracy— a circumstance the more remarkable, considering the vast length of time which elapsed between the period when the arrow-head character was first employed by the Babylonians, and that of the arrival of Cadmus in Greece, a period not less than 1800 years, thus tending to illustrate in a striking manner what was alluded to in a former part of this paper, namely, the tendency which mankind has ever had to cling to forms, which, however due to the nature of the material, to the OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 517 use of which they owed their origin, yet had no natural reference to the materials tn conjunction with which we now find them; for here in the characters seen in Fig. 13, we have the triangular form of the style produced arrow-head, together with the depressed angle, which is a feature due to and inherent in the Babylonian arrow-head, as being the result of the impression of the angle of the style in the soft clay. See Figs. 6,7, 8. I could crowd my. paper with further examples derived from ancient Greek inscriptions, all of which would, in the most perfect manner, sub- stantiate what I have set forth in Fig. 13, and the remarks thereon. I trust, however, that the examples brought forward will be sufficient to make good my alleged discovery of the existence of ocular proof of the Babylonian origin of the form of the Greek capital letters. I lay a stress on the word capital in order to draw a line of dis- tinction between them and the smaller characters, which being the result of the use of a pointed style on wax, or a pen with ink, bears, on the exact same principle as that of the arrow-head, a form which is due to and directly referable to the instrument or means employed for their produc- tion. I would beg this to be carefully kept in mind, as when so considered the forms of such small 518 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN non-capital letters tend rather to illustrate one of my important positions rather than controvert them, the capital letters having reference to the use of the style in clay, while the others have reference to the pen and ink. Once having established a connexion between the forms of the Greek capital inseriptional characters and those of the Babylonian or arrow- head, it follows as a matter of course, by direct sequence, that the Roman alphabetic characters owe their primitive origin to the brickmakers of Babylon ; for what is true of the Greek is, as a mere matter of consequence, true also in regard to the Roman, in every one of whose inscriptional characters the arrow-headed origin is traceable, and most clearly evident, the only observable difference being a gradual although slight devia- tion from the non-parallelum of the bottom stroke of the letters, which become, very nearly, and in most cases, quite in line with that of the inscrip- tion, of which it is not requisite to furnish any figure, as that of No. 13 will convey what I allude to as to the existence of the non-parallelum in the case of the Aand Y. Reference to any of our modern capital letters, will substantiate what I have endeavoured to set forth and prove, namely, OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 519 the existence of ocular demonstration as to the Babylonian origin of the Greek, Roman, and, consequently, modern capital alphabet, to which, of course, I may add such nations of Europe as employ classic characters. It is truly singular and highly interesting to observe the gradual depar- ture from the original Babylonian character in the letter T, the transition or modification in whose form is comprised within the last 350 years, in which time, if we take an example from any old book at any of the intermediate periods, we shall find the gradual departure from the primitive form, which we endeavour to represent below. FIG, 14. 300 B.C. A.D. 1500 to 1630. A.D. 1630 to 1770. A.D. 1770 to 1840. to A.D.1500. The above may serve to exhibit the gradual passing away of the arrow-head features, as evinced in the form of the letter T, with which more liberties have been taken than any other letter, all of which, however, retain the arrow- headed characters, more or less faithfully. 520 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN Thus have we a most striking example of the interest which beams forth from objects of the most familiar kind, when viewed in their proper light as regards their etymology of form. FIG. 15. SENOS OTS &T EF The above rude letters are selected from an ancient Greek inscription, in which the arrow- heads are very distinct, the depressed angle in all being cut with great care, and in that respect most distinctly indicating the arrow-headed origin. In respect to those letters in which we find the circle employed either wholly or in part, we can in all such cases trace the arrow-head, such for instance as seen in the case of the Omega above, it being compounded of a portion of a circle with two very distinct arrow-heads at each side; in short, so absolutely is this discovery as to the Babylonish origin of the form of the Greek, Roman, and modern classic alphabet, borne out by fact, that we have but to look at any of our OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 521 modern alphabetic capital letters, to find the most distinct ocular demonstration of the truth of what I have brought to light. Thus have I endeavoured to lay before my readers the progress of an investigation which has afforded me very high gratification; and I trust I have made myself sufficiently understood as to enable any one who may take a similar interest in such subjects to refer to the objects to which I have alluded, namely, the Babylonian, Greek and Roman antiquities in the British Museum, or in any other similar institution in which such inte- resting objects exist. Having given the key to their form as to the Babylonian or arrow-head origin, it becomes at once evident, and any ancient or even modern inscription, will supply the most satisfactory and substantial evidence. I have never in any of my investigations in the etymology of forms, found an instance which so perfectly embodies the principles of such interesting researches. ‘To be thus able to trace through upwards of 4000 successive years the origin, rise, and progress of the form of such mighty yet beautifully simple agents of civilization as that of our alphabetic characters, commencing 3.U 522 REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN from the first impression in clay, with the corner of a stick, either by intention or through accident, and to trace their progress from year to year, from age to age, and from nation to nation, and yet to find the primitive form shining forth, and carrying the mind back to the banks of the Euphrates, where civilization had just begun to dawn on the Eastern world, and to find that such a simple origin had kept the integrity of its character through so vast a span of ages, cannot but suggest to the mind a series of reflections teeming with interest of the most striking and peculiar nature, inasmuch as we may thus retrace the progress of our alphabet from our own times backwards step by step, until we reach a period in the history of man so near to that of his own origin, that we all but arrive at the very zero of research. T shall not fatigue the attention of my readers with any further remarks, trusting the rest to their own reflection, which will doubtless be of a grati- fying and interesting nature, provided that they are satisfied with the correctness of what I have advanced ; and as I have stepped from fact to fact, and have begged them to refer to the sources and objects which have supplied me with the data OF THE ARROW-HEADED CHARACTER. 523 of my discovery, I now beg to leave the matter in the hands of those who will take the trouble to test its correctness, by all and every means in their power, and to let the discovery stand or fall as they think proper. I now bid farewell to my subject in this form, with the hope that I have not fruitlessly spent my own or their time. AN EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY INTO THE Strength and other properties Or ANTHRACITE CAST IRON, BEING A CONTINUATION OF A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS ON BRITISH IRONS, EROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN. Read 17th November, 1840. In March, 1837, I laid before the Society a detailed series of experiments on the strength and other properties of cast iron, collected from the different works in Great Britain. Since that time a description of iron, entitled anthracite, has been introduced into the market. The name anthracite was first applied to carboniferous for- mations by the French; it is derived from the Greek word anthrax, coal. The iron is made either wholly or in part from anthracite fuel, and in most cases the best qualities are obtained from the raw coal alone, excited by the hot blast. STRENGTH OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. 525 At some of the Welsh iron works, coke and anthracite coal in certain proportions have been tried, and at others a mixture of bituminous and anthracite coal; but in almost every instance, I ‘believe, the products have been of an inferior quality, and it is only since the introduction of the hot blast that anthracite coal alone has been rendered available in the reduction of the ores. ~ It is now, however, generally adopted in the anthracite districts, and several works have re- cently been erected for the manufacture of iron by this new process. Before entering upon the examination of the specimens experimented upon, I would first pre- mise a few observations on the nature and proper- ties of the fuel from which they were produced. Mr. W. R. Johnson, Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, of Pennsylvania College, Philadelphia, has paid great attention to this subject, and by a careful analysis of the American coal, has given the products of the anthracite formation, as found in Luzerne county, Pennsyl- vania. The American anthracites so nearly re- semble those of our own country, both as re- gards their properties and appearance, that I shall, before concluding this part of the subject, make a 526 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH few extracts from Professor Johnson’s inquiries, in order to compare them with similar carbo- naceous deposits found in the Swansea basin, and other parts of South Wales. In the latter dis- - tricts, as at Aberavon, Hirwin, &c., the beds of anthracite alternate with the bituminous forma- tions, sometimes composing the uppermost strata, but in most cases underlaying the bituminous coal. In some positions they pass into very thin lamine, and in others, the layers are so intermixed as to form the coal en masse. They, however, vary in quality, according to the district where they are found. The lower veins of the Bute col- liery, at the Hirwin and Plymouth iron works, according to Mr. Mushet, are partly anthraciteous, containing a greater or lesser degree of anthra- cite matter, accompanied with certain proportions of bitumen or carburetted hydrogen. The coal at the Yniscedwyn and Ystalyfera -works, in the Swansea valley, is entirely anthracite, containing nearly the same proportions of carbon as are exhibited in Professor Johnson’s experi- ments on the American specimens. The purest Welsh anthracite coal, such as the Yniscedwyn, Ystalyfera, and the lower stratum of Neath Abbey, contains about 90 per cent of OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. 527 carbon, and the remaining ten parts are composed of carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and some earthy matter. Out of two specimens sent me from the Ystalyfera works, the following results were obtained— Loss at a red heat, yielding a little carburetted hydrogen ......+++.+- 5.4 Ashes, greyish white .......s+se+0+ 4.6 CasbON cicncy-scnrasnyaenasagan sane seach 90.0 100.0 From this description of fuel, we derive the best qualities of anthracite iron. At the iron works of Vezille, in the canton of Launure, near Grenoble, large sums of money (500,000 francs) were expended in the construc- tion of works, and in making experiments for the fusion of the earthy carbonate of iron, by the anthracite of Launure. These works were in progress from 1824 to 1828, when they were abandoned, the proprietors being no longer able to contend against obstacles which seemed insur- mountable. Many interesting results were never- theless obtained from the experiments made at the time. The ashes of this anthracite gave the following 528 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH . constituents, the analysis being a mean of experi- ments on a large quantity : Silextesrescoctet sited tearcaseoreoncetes 58.4 FA Vimmmnma eee. ee Bon ce nnse tees cst 40.0 Gime bets Assesses wel sete ek 1.6 100.0 M. Robin gives the depth of the beds as varying from five to twenty-one yards: the coal isa perfect black, has a slight metallic lustre, and its fracture is conchoidal, when made in the mass.— Its density is very great, and by reason of its great compactness, it kindles with difficulty, and consumes slowly. The same properties are observable in the analysis of the Welsh, and also of the American anthracites, all of which exhibit peculiar features, as to their density, and their resistance to com- bustion. These coals will pass through a smelting fur- nace, exposed to intense heat, for a period of 48 hours, with no other apparent change than their surfaces being slightly calcined. When these specimens are broken, the interior fractures exhibit the same black lustre as is observable in the raw material. OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. 529 Out of three specimens of American anthracite coal, analyzed by Professor Johnson, the following products were obtained— «Specimen No. 1, when heated to a temperature suf- ficient {o expel the water which it contains, without decomposition, lost per CeNt........ssseeeeeseeeeeeeeees 1.915 When the dried coal is ignited to redness for some time in a close vessel, it yields carbonic oxide, and carburetted hydrogen with a small portion of sul- PIMITI Eee nah aivaenacseenatavuwceocdseeters Sencetetee code 5.068 The remaining fixed carbon is .......s.esseeceeeeseeeeees 88.187 SAILGa famssnens esos «rack nenpescr sm 2.589 AUN Sone ates scawanasoospesnen 1.772 Earthy matter 4.83 } Peroxide of iron ...........+++ 270 per cent., viz., Wiiersceweresanseecdce tres veces as 138 | Magnesia .......essee seescessess 052 L Protoxide of Manganese...... 009 100.000 From the latter numbers it will be perceived, that of the fixed ingredients or ashes of this coal, 100 parts will be composed— GES Mica Peel ae eine. case 53.604 e @Aluminays) fscesoeees 05.0 36.687 » Peroxide of iron............ 5.590 Be LGINIES eondenseacenoéon sun boca. 2.857 bo) MIASNGEDasgescveccccnaysesans 1.076 », Protoxide of Manganese... 186 100.000 The ashes of this coal are of a yellowish white, or very light buff colour, and very bulky.” 3X 530 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH In speaking of No. 1, specimen, Mr. Johnson describes it as a compact structure, giving conchoidal fractures in all directions, apparently indifferent to the surface of deposition, which are . manifested only by alternating lines or seams of bluish black, and jet black, which mark the suc- cessive layers. He states the appearance to give the idea, that the surfaces have been in a great measure obliterated, while the whole mass was, from some cause, in a semi-fluid state. The specific gravity is stated at 1.591 or 99% lbs. to the cubic foot. No. 2, specimen, experimented upon by Pro- fessor Johnson, gave a specific gravity of 1.574, or 983 lbs. to the cubic foot, and yielded 85.909 per cent. of carbon. No. 3, specimen, was found to have a specific gravity of 1.55 or 963% lbs to the cubic foot ; and carbon, not volatile at a white heat, equal to 90.705 per cent. The above analysis not only shows the compo- sition of this description of fuel, but exhibits the density and compactness of its structure. It also affords evidence of its fitness for the smelting OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. jak furnace, and its adaptation to purposes where a great heating power is required. This description of coal, although well known for many years to the miners and iron manufacturers of South Wales, has, nevertheless, been much neglected, and its valuable, as well as economical properties almost entirely overlooked by them, from the circumstance of their inability to burn it. Mr. Martin, in 1804, made the first attempt to use anthracite for the fusion of iron ore, but with- out any satisfactory results; twenty years after- wards, other trials were made to form a conglo- merate coke, composed of anthracite and bitumi- nous coal, but these, like the former, were unsuc- cessful. Mr. Crane, of the Yniscedwyn iron works, was the first to introduce, exclusively, anthracite for the purpose of smelting; first by its introduction to the cupola, and subsequently to the smelting furnace, by the use of the hot blast. Mr. Price of Neath Abbey, also made several experiments on this mineral, and found that about 8 ewt. of bituminous coal, coked in ovens, mixed with 25 ewt. of anthracite, gave one ton of iron; effecting a saving greater than any- thing yet accomplished by the hot blast, and the common coal. 532 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH The Ystalyfera ores are reduced in the same manner as those at Yniscedwyn, chiefly or entirely by anthracite coal in the raw state. The process is as nearly as possible, the same as that used at - coke furnaces, the charge being, coal, 5 cwt., and mine (according to the working of the furnace, and the quality of iron to be produced), from 6 to 8 cwt—the average proportion of limestone as flux—being nearly one-third of the quantity of mine used. Mr. Thomas Bevan, of the Ystalyfera works, in handing me specimens of the iron ore, stated that he attaches no importance to the specific gravity of the minerals. Some of the ores have, however, been analyzed, three of which are as follows— No. 1, Specific Gravity, 3.358, yielding iron 28.70 per cent. 2, : * 3.417, §) » 20.35 9 3, 95 5 3.521, a3 9 38.5055; From the above it will be seen that although the specific gravity of all the specimens is nearly alike, yet the degree of richness varies consider- ably; No. 3 specimen yielding nearly double the quantity of iron to No. 2. The analysis of the specimens sent by Mr. Bevan, is as annexed. OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. 533 No. 1. No. 2. Rhonson. Pin Melin. Silicate of alumina : 20.60 Alumina 10 Magnesia ; 25 Tron : 34.95 Manganese - 80 Sulphur : Carbonic acid and water 4 32.65 Oxygen with iron : 9.95 Ditto witl manganese . 46 Total found : 99.76 24 100.00 Having ascertained the constituents of the anthracite formations, and their fitness for the smelting furnace, it now becomes necessary to direct attention to the properties of the iron made from this fuel. On a former occasion forty-nine different sorts of the British irons were experi- mented upon; they were carefully tested, and the results (accompanied with considerable detail) have since been printed in the society’s Memoirs. The anthracite irons have undergone a similar treatment; and the experiments having been conducted under the immediate superintendence of my friend, Mr. Hodgkinson, I have no hesita- tion in vouching for the accuracy with which they were made. 534 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH The bars having been cast as before, 1 inch square, were placed on supports 4 feet 6 inches asunder ; and by the usual method of suspending weights from the middle, the strengths, deflec- tions, elasticities, &c. were obtained, as follows— No. 1. WELSH IRONS. Yniscedwyn Anthracite, No. 1, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment \st. Experiment pe Experiment we fe DAT bi oe stu 1.017||Depth of bar .... .026||Depth of bar ...... 1.0 Breadth of do. ..... 1. Breadth of do. peas between Distance between — 4ft.6in.|| supports ...... i Fl si Weight of bar 5 feet long,|/ Weight of bar 5 feet long 5lbs. 6402. l5lbs. 100z. Deflection in Deflection load removed. |* | Weight in lbs. Deflection load removed. Weight in lbs. Deflection in a 2 = a 4 ey a 2 > iw) @ - nr lore 2) : 015 i Ip be? Fa 4 5 021 224| 656 | | 649 | .066 || 336 1. 5 : 3 130 392 | 1. . 250 448 459 | broke .*. Ultimate deflection, .*. Ultimate deflection, .’. Ultimate deflection, =1.616. 1.664. 800. or or) —s = op wo 53 OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. “UTLI]S PSIDASUVI} B 4SISOL 0} sIOMOd 2] qesopisuod sossassod pur ‘Ayaa.y sy1OA 41 Sv “MOAT [OFOsn & SITY} Jap{suoo pynoys | ‘syuetZedxa oy} Wosy Suispne -mmojoo anyq ystfei3 v yytM poSury AyYySys pur ‘oajuoo ayy ur snosod ‘uoly ‘[ ‘ON @ LOZ poureas ~Oug LoyyeI si IJ “syuomptedxa somaoy Aut Fo o[qey, ‘TX ‘ON ur ‘uaummeds ong oy} sv oanyorsy ayy Ut souvsvedde owes ay} Ayivou syiqryxe ‘odoosoaorm 04} Aq poutwuexa UoyM “UOI] [ ‘ON oPORIQUY oyy eseh | ogz't | svesr | _ 810k FI98 | LFST | 68'L9F | 009'EZO'FI | 6Z0'L SoLL | LONI | Gator | OOSESFEL | SIT'L U6IL | eto | 99°LEF _980°2, reteseeessenesessessseeseseneeereees BOTA, "eessqroddns uoaMjoq ‘UIQ “IP eq ‘pag yuouTIEdx| *eeesqroddns uoemjoq “u1g “YF eq ‘pug yuowlsedxq “ssesqroddns waeayoq ‘Ug ‘yp eq YS] JuoMIIedxTy Se SUTYSISOL ("p) (9) *qoutoarnbs aod | , JO taMod | uonoagop qysIem ‘sql ut SpoNsEya AYABID oytoodg 0p kg | aeUNTQ Suppeorg JO snjnpoyw ‘yonporg ‘aaenbs your (0 *[ Steg JO vsoy} 04 peonpad s}nsoyy NN SSS... 536 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH No. II. WELSH IRONS. Yniscedwyn Anthracite, No. 1, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment \st. Experiment 2nd. Experiment 3rd. Depth of bar ....... 1.027|Depth of bar ...... 1.017|/Depth of bar ...... 1.02: Breadth of do....... 1.006 |Breadth of do....... 1.009]|Breadth of do. ...... 1.011] Distance between Distance between Distance between supports . 3in.| supports........ 2ft. 3in.|| supports........ ed 5 Weight in Ibs. Deflection in Deflection load removed. Weight in lbs Defiection in inches. Deflection load removed. Weight inlbs Deflection in Deflection load removed. | & 112 | .040 224 |.081 336 |.125 448 | .167 560 | .205 672 | .250 784 |.300 896 | .375 952 | .410 980 | .440 1008 | 455 1036 |broke Broke with laying the]| .-. Ultimate deflection, .'. Ultimate deflection, eight, 896lbs., on again. =.470. =.393. 537 OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. OFF’ €°1Z6 ees a hiker-p eh ee C6SE EOF 'Z68 seeegqroddns uaaajoq ‘Ulg “YZ Ieq ‘pag yuowtedx | OPLP SLY 1266 +++sazoddns uaaMjoq “ULE "Ys eq ‘puz Juoutsodxy S'E6E OFT’ z 168 ++ srroddns uaaajoq ‘UIE "YZ eq 4s] Juouttodxy *qouduir Aged ates UN mania rotate “Ayer } to ‘pK qQ eeu Supyeorg, jo snjupoww Bloods onpot DeAOnpOtd | Pee eee ee eS ee ‘auenbs YOU QO'T SIvg JO asoy} 0} poonpad sj}[NsoyYy ~ ip) No. III. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH WELSH IRONS. 538 *pasn SBM oreo 4v0I3} 3 ‘968° = ‘tH = *e69°T= “PSF I= Suyese uo ‘sqiroe “ay sIom 3 UOTPOHep o}BUITIT *-* UOTPDAHIp I}JVUITITH *.* UOTIOAIHOp 9eUITITH *.* UOTPOPep 9JBUITIT *." ayy Burkey ya ‘oyorgy FQ 940O1q) O8IT 6 OFF | OLIT = eyorq) 9OLT OF | OBIT e ccs’ | 8001 rss’ | F9OT aYOIq! GB pis 80€" | 968 Cre’ | SOOT} 88T° | S8F'l| Foe C8l" | SIFT] FOS 5 80 COG | t8L 80° | 968 SOFT) OLF OLE'1}] OLF Ay bGG’ | GLO 09% | F8L || SFT | LST] StF OFT’ | OGGI| SPP ot 061° | 09¢ OI | ZZ9 || $10" | 006" | 9EE bL0° | 298" | 9EE 3 Ivl’ | 8hF COT’ | 09¢ || €FO° | CLS | FES OFO | OFS" | FES 4 OIT | 9€€ OfT | SbF | STO" | TL4%°.| S11 L10° | #Sa° | SIT 910° | $2 ‘| 060" | 9¢€ | + | PET | 9G =e a i GGL ee ‘8 seo" | GIl C90" | FGG 990° | 86 ¢90" | 8% ae o 4 S e) = S =) a S ) Z S ) 4 ar eg © iy oO ® = ed rol Py oO © ° ob o Be | BS = Ba | gS = Bs | go = Bs. S = BS | Fe = Pee eet ea ee tee tt eee ae ell ge a] cee Ten meee b>] Ss 5 z ge S z 2° 5 A Z: 5 a BF 5 = = ZO0T SqIGT ZOG1 SAIC ZOET SqIGI © ‘SUOT Jooy G Teq JO ISI AA || ‘Suoy Joos G avq Jo IYTIEA\|| ‘Buoy yoos ¢ aeq Jo WYSIOAA ro) Nore "agg" "sso sja0ddns raya hr AOC . sjaoddns uIg ptt sjaoddns 1943p °° ee sjaoddns WI9 Ip ers = sjaoddns Dn uddAJoq soULISIC us9Mjeq VUBISTG uedA\jeq 9OUISIC] u99M4eq VUTISIC udeM4eq BdUBIST( iete NSCOR es Op JO yIpvadg ||yTO"L ***"** Op JO qypverg|/Ez0"l ****** op JO YIpBartg]||9z0'T ****** OP JO WIpwatg||PIO'L “*** op Jo uypRarg me GZ0°T eee eee req jo yydeq 120° ween ween req oO yydeq SlO'l eee weee 1eq jo yydoq “]T #0808 req jo yydod 1g0°! eee wee *aeq 0) yideqd ‘YING quaunsadeT ‘Ye QuaULLad IT “plg quaunsodugy ‘pug quaursadu ny “98 quaunsoday 539 OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRO ‘sy}Suad}s JO o[VOS OY} UI [JOM syuvd pue ‘uody SuryIOA-doay v SI xT ‘oINjOVAT OY} JO saSpa oy} punos syeysAu0 youduroo Jo oouvavadde yensn oy} YA porurdurosor pur ‘poures3-1aso[o ynq ‘uoIy ‘[ “ON OF ANOTOO UT AE[IUMIS st ‘JZ “ON | SO CBP | OSPF O'P9OT Mh pea ee edie ae ae Samia ade cane OU) A 96'9IF | 90F O'LZOL “+ szioddns uaamjaq “urge Fz Ieq “Yo yuourTIEdx| cesrs | 86h | ULOTT “+ syroddns uaamjoq “arg “47% deq “yy JuouOdxTy PS'80L 6z3'I FRE GOO PEEL ROBO Dna tees tS Eee a Bees os meee gay 1g118 | LI9L | BOS |Oss‘soz‘st| 6LOLZ |'** Swoddns ussmyoq ‘urg “yYF avq ‘pag yuoutT1edxy 99969 | 12ST lobsr | OSL'SLI‘Sl| SIL [°° sModdns uaemyoq -urg yyp req ‘pug quounredxy os'229 | 6b TL | 9:29r | oor OZg'ST| sg0') |" SHoddns usemjoq “uIg “YF 1eq 4s { yuouTedxey eee UL}STSAL (p) (9) your orenbs sad jouomod | uoloayep qysiom Sql Ut AZLOLGSRIa ED io'‘p 4 q | ounTQ | Suppeorg jo snjupoyy oploods qonporg ‘aaenbs YOU OO Seg FO assoy} 0} poonpoal 8}[NSo9yT GTH No. IV. WELSH IRONS. ‘oe = TOTJOAHOP SIU *.* "TLE = uoT}OaBep oyVUNTIT *." Teor I= uoHoapep eyeUITITA *.* ayouq 09s" tre ES" Ile CES ‘UorpOpeqd ayourq £9¢° OFS" 6G" Osc éLl qoaped 8LOr F901 800T 968 r8L 6L9 09¢ Shr 9EE GG ‘aorjoopeqd “LES [= uoMoepep eyez *." PAOUIAL PLO] ‘uoloapod i=] oo BeC SQ Ur FYSIO MA ur uorL + es) Wo) o Paeaoular poy *L09° 1= woKoapap eVUNIyTA *-” AN oO oD) SO aN soqour ur uoMoep0q woTpONpeq (oa) Sq] UT IqsIO.M| NN peaaouled peo miCeti}tCles Sq[ Ur FY SIEM PeAoUlat PRO] ul UOr SQ] UT F310 MA PeAoulad PvO] ul uoljeHeq SI UI IYSIO MA INQUIRY INTO THE STREN "ule ‘ay%"6*''***sqaoddns uaaIAJoq IoULISTC, “ulg Link (yo weer *sqzoddns *ZOTT “SQ{ST ‘Buoy yooj G vq JO BYSIO MW me0M4aq V0UeySIG ‘UIQ “Iyp °°" ****syroddns uaaMjoq VdURISIG *Z06 “SQIST ‘Zuoy Joos ¢ vq JO WSIOM “a1g "Ur" ewer *sjaoddns uaeM}Oq JOULISIC op Jo uIpraig ‘ZOL *SQIST ‘Suo[ Joey G aVq JO WSIOA, “ulg “YP* ween *sjaoddns “op Jo Wypvetg) OTOL ** 810°L SIO'E **°°*" Op Jo Ipwatg||ztorT *7°"* +5" "Op Jo [pwasg Z10°1 “req JO yjdaq||Fe0"T ********aBq Jo ydaq "LT othe aeq Jo yydeq seereessaaq Jo yydo(] “98 quauasadag 540 Yniscedwyn Anthracite, No, 3, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. "Y1G JuaunsadryT ‘yy quaunsadugy “pig quaunsadeg “pug quaunsadug 541 OF ANTHRACITE CAST 1RO Ajavpnorjaed you ynq “O[Y PUL [ASTID oY} 0} asve BATQeIedUIOD YITA Spyard 31 SB ‘pavy ‘Apavis oytoods ySty jo ‘asuap A[surpaooxa st yy *AvlS YSIBIGA B ANOTOD ‘aanjoRAT ayy ut Apruts0F1uN yvoas Jo souvavedde ue syuosoad pue ‘payefnuess Ajouy ‘uot, Suoa}s pisir & st SIT, G'G6E 9'S6E _6'88E e'o8L “ee GLE ee C6C'T Gch) 8°98 Véss *qouduut Surysisaa jo samod to ‘p Hq jonpoig 88Pr'T oS T GGL (p) wor}oaHap O7BUNT}[/) £090 S690 _ 1280 Lig &10g¢ £86 OPIS (9) FIOM I I I OOL‘8E TOL 0€9'F9G‘9L your orenbs zed sq ur AjroL4seTo Suryeorg: JO sninpoyw os96LU9T P8t'L PIT) 906°) AYARLD ogioadg Riegihe sig age NV Nene easier gs er ee HEAT ‘e+ sqroddns uaaayjoq "mig “yz req ‘YyI¢ JuoMIEdx | “e+ syroddns usaajaq ‘ug "YZ aeq ‘yy p JuoTATIOdxT LZEF6L9I gor seeeeeeeeeaeceeeenseaeensaeceeeeesone espa ++ syioddns usaajoq ‘ulg “yp IVq ‘pag yuomedxy ‘++ siroddns usaayoq “ug “WYP req ‘pug Juouodxy] *eessqtoddns usaayoq *Ulg ‘yp aeq 4sT quotedxy ‘aenbs Your QO'T Sieg JO asoy} 0} poonpa. s}[nsayy 542 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH No. V. WELSH IRONS. Ystalyfera Anthracite, No. 1, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment 1st. race eles tn Experiment 3rd. Depth of bar........ 1.035]|Depth of bar.. .035| Depth of bar ...... 1.027 Breadth of do ...... 1.050}|Breadth ofdo ...... 1.053] Breadth of do ...... 1.048 Distance between Distance between supports 4ft 6in|| sup Rports eevee re 4ft 6in POLES Joe cana las 4ft 6) Weight of bar 5 feet long,|| Weight of bar 5 feet long, i 15lbs 140z 15lbs 150z' bs Bo Se Beira fesse ey Se lege a 83 | 82 A 68 | 32 A | 88] 22 P=] 65 go = Ss O63 = oa oF rs $8 ae io $8 eH Sb Ss | a D a" a3 Oo qe Aas D gc s3 a te Re ae 3 e | Ag Pat: Se ee ae Siete 28 | .075 28 | 073 | + 28 | 075} + 56 | .155 | .012 112 | .338 | .032 224 | .760 | .095 336 {1.285 | .216 392 |1.610 448 |2.000 | .480 473 56 | 152") =f 56 | .152 | .012 112 | .320] .024 || 112 | .333 | .040 224 | .728] .090 |} 224 | .730 | .113 336 11.240 | .205 392 11.550 | .300 448 |1.910| .442 476 |2.105 501 |broke .". Ultimate deflection, 279. .’. Ultimate deflection, .’. Ultimate deflection, 2.090. =2.174. 943 OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. “AAS YSIN]G VANoPOY ‘syvorq 41 a10Jaq aoeds a8avy v ySno.1yy spusq pur ‘aeMod onseja a[qeiopisuoo sey Y= = ‘syuautodxe som0y Aut ut pepsoder Joyjo Aue Jo yey} ULY} 1oyvoAS st UOJ, SIy Jo NOLOOPEp oY], ‘SSS'S Suioq syuoursodxe vai) Wosy UONEHep oyvuNY[N uvout oy} ‘uodn pojuounsedxe yok oavy T UOJ] 789q AY} St yt yoodsaa sty} UE *youdutt Sunsisar Jo sam0d yeoad sossossod pur ‘apyonp Aso9A “AoAamMoy ‘st 71 £ ssv[o oues oy} Jo UAMpsosIUA oY} ULY} LOYVOM saYIeA st (aPdures ysay) UOAT [ ‘ON VAOFATLISA ON, BSes_| Leer | Seg‘eso'tt soc6 | gev% | 6Lzr | 008‘06F TT gz16 | €9r% | Bsr | 9080FETT Losot | 6s¢%_|_rerr_| oos‘sEs‘It qgovdult ct vsesenvevevesersueeerenseeneeeeees BOTA ++ sq0ddns usaajoq ‘U1g “IyF req “pag yuouTTIedx7y *** sjzoddns uaaajoq *u1g “yp req ‘pug yuowtiedxy “+ syroddns asaajzoq ‘UIQ “YP eq YS] yuoMMIOdxy Surysisor (p) (9) your arenbs 10d Rs jo damod | uomoapgep qysIom sql ur AjOTseIO plies 10 ‘pK qQ | oyeWyID Suryeorg gO snjnpoy grees gonporg ‘aaenbs your OO" Savg Jo dsoyy 0} poonpod s}[NsoyY 544 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH No. VI. WELSH IRONS. Ystalyfera Anthracite, No. 1, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment 1st. Experiment 2nd. | Experiment 3rd. Depth of bar........ 1.025] Depth of bar........ 1.016)|Depth of bar........ 1.030, Breadth of do ...... 1.038|Breadth of do ...... 1.037||Breadth of do ...... 1.03) Distance between supports Deflection, load removed Deflection, load remoy: ¢ Deflection in Deflection, load removed _ | —| Weight in Ibs bo (Sv) (Sv) jor) “ID oar He bo .*. Ultimate deflection, .*. Ultimate deflection, 05. =.486. =.6 545 THRACITE CAST IRON. OF AN saetencseecesaccoessccosarsseseseseees BOTs 6°68 ++ sjaoddns useMyaq ‘urg “FZ eq ‘pag yuoUTJodxy O'2E8 +++ sqzoddns uaaajoq ‘uIg "YZ 1eq ‘pug yuowsedxy 1'098 ++++esqzoddns uaeayjoq “UIE "IZ eq 4S] JuoWEdxY | . Surysiser (p) (q) yout orenbs sad jo aomod uwooapep qq sem sq] ut A}OTISBIO 10 ‘p w Q oyeUUt}[ Suryeorg jo snmpoyy yonporg AVARID ogioadg _sONpOt de) ee ee ‘auenbs yout QOL seg JO asoy} 0} psonpad sqNsoy 546 No. VII. WELSH IRONS. INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH Ystalyfera Anthracite, No. 2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment \st. 1.04 61 P ,|| Weight of bar 5 feet long, 15lbs 1202 Experiment 2nd. Depth of bar ...... 1.022 Breadth of do. ..... 1.046 Distance betw een. supports........ 4ft6 in 15lbs 100z Deflection load removed. .’. Ultimate deflection, =1.742. Weight in lbs. Deflection in inches. Deflection ad removed. Experiment 3rd. Depth of bar ...... 1.018 Breadth of do. - 1.041 gee between orts 4ft Weight of bar 5 feet es 15lbs 902) Deflection in Deflection load removyed.| «5 ES 065 135 .294 632 1.039 1.540 broke operas — aE; o be Weight inIbs. brH+oos lore ) ee =) — BOD Or .*. Ultimate deflection, 79. .". Ultimate deflection, =1.804. 547 CITE CAST IRO OF ANTHRA -Kyowua} oyvorS fo suoIy YA Surxror Joy poydepe Tpoas st pur ‘oy IO Jesiyo ayy YI yno Apisve ‘UOIT YOS B Joyyed St I] ‘uoutoads | ‘ON UT ULY} J0RzUOD JosOpO UT puv “oyNUTUT a10TT sjeqshuo oy} YA ‘Avis yawp wv ‘aanzordz oy} JO sourivoddy—(‘ojduies ysay) uory Z “ON walozATeys qovduat Surjsisot jo zomod 10 ‘p #% qQ Sonpora We eg oe ee i OSSP | OLZ‘ELE‘ST (p) moToeHep ayeUUTH{ (9) QU SIOM Zuryworg 906° LEEFI 00Z‘°GEF'EL COL‘6FLFI yout oxenbs aod sq] ur A}OTWsSVIA | jo sn[npoyw, ESOL €60°) Z0'L €PO'L Aqaea3 oyiwedg sper res petrerrreeeerererresscecerreeeey ty (\ “+ sjroddns useajoq ‘u1g “YP avq ‘pag yuowedxy +++ sjaoddns uaaayoq “Ug “yp iq ‘puz yuouttiedxy segrioddns uaaayoq ‘01g "Fp dq 4s] Juouttiedxy ‘arenbs yout QO'T Sivgq JO osOy} 0} poonpad s}[NseYy 548 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH No. VIII. WELSH IRONS. Ystalyfera Anthracite, No.2, Pig Iron, Hot Blast. Experiment lst. Experiment 2nd. Experiment 3rd. Depth of bar ....... 1.018|Depth of bar ...... 1.022||Depth of bar ...... 1.008: Breadth of do....... 1.031)|Breadth of do....... 1.020||Breadth of do. ...... Distance between || Distance between Distance between 2ft 3in| supports 2ft 3i supports n ~ —} to OSZ‘9Z8‘LI 99a SOS oC Oooo nnn nn niin pug ““ | 7} | v999 | PEt | G10 SEP9 | LEST | F96F GOE9 | SLUT | &'P6P eorl | 12rl | oses @Ub9 | POS | Li6r seh | Soot | Lost Svth | SOS | FOL fL99 | E8Sl | PPE “8e) | cool | L6r _GE06 | EEL | Zee | 008‘e96‘sI L39¢ SPF EGHE | OE PEO FI ! — | __ ———qWX~ 9619 | FI9'T LIGb | OS6°9FS'ET 96h | O€€'l FOLE | O8'L10FI1 LBLS | SFT S'86E | OL6°9ES‘ FI G'ESS | _ S8ET | E82 | 009‘9L0‘FI -—— 00081881. 26a) A ee eae Sh 4ST quomutadx Ogh-989°SL. OOFGLI‘ST OOL‘ORL ST OOL‘8Z6‘ST Roc), POP e Tew eee Reem eras Hee eeeeeeeeeeeunes uvoy 6S0'2 Pee e eee mere ee ener eee renseeessens WP “ 8aEL FHP eer eee wee ee seers eeeeeeteese pag “ec > Lre'h Pee eee ee weer eee eee eestetesesesees puz “c 00g) eee eee eee ee ee ee IST queued xy BGO) [erertrseersreesreseerrss UnOTA | J t@ CLO'L Perce ce rerereceeeeneees Ceseseses WF “<é | ss SIL Cee ececerccceeceeeecccctnecceeces pag “ [3 3 = 88aL COP e eee weer see eeeeeeeeeeeseereee puz “cc L169 POPP e eee meee tere rere eesceeereee ST quowod xy qgoedur | Suysisoa | (p) @) sqrut Ajyroyseya | Ayana jo aamod | uoyoagep SION ALCL AMO SBl yAuES jio‘p 4 q | oysung | Suppoag 0 sn[npoW optoeds qoupotg nen SS SS SSS ssl SS S| “{Jouxe ouenbs yout auo pur ‘sj1oddns oy} uaaayaq “UIQ "YP Savq Woy oe SIPNSaI VT, “IV00 GLIOVUHINVY HLIM TAVW ‘NOUL LSVO VUTAATVISA JO ATANVS GNOOGS AHL NOaa SLNGAWIYAdXa AO SLTINSAU ‘TX “ON 556 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH At the conclusion of my former paper in this volume, I gave a general summary of results comprising the strength and other properties of - forty-nine sorts of British irons. They were ranked according to their relative strengths, taken from the mean breaking weights of bars one inch square, placed upon supports 4ft. 6in. asunder. The strongest being marked No. 1, and the others according to their respective ranks in the scale.* On this occasion it will be necessary to follow the same rule as that formerly used, and to collect the results from the experiments on the anthracite iron, into a similar form. I have found these summaries of considerable value in judging of the different kinds of iron ; and if they were generally used, and taken as a guide by the architect and engineer, I have every reason to hope that improper mixtures, as well as the use of improper material in castings, would be pre- vented. * The irons experimented upon were mostly obtained from the makers or their agents; and if any iron should be misre- presented, or not have had full justice done to it, it will afford me great pleasure to rectify the defect or omission. OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. ILL § 699] SPRT | OF Se |Z6E OZEFFOFI| 860°'2| F| Op pug ‘T a 16 uvout | €16| ZSz'z | uvom | 6Zr| Eth |SEF eEeg‘ess'TT| Z66'9 | 9 jojdures ysq ‘7 “= eaagdAyeysX| g C81! O€2'T 8Sh| FOF |ESF\OOFIFL'ST| SLOL/ Qf tT | uAMpaosiu x} 691 § O18] S8z'l | SOF S SP] FSF lESPOLe‘ez6‘el] E90, |9}-op ast se “ ¢ 9 uvout | 8Z1} COg'T | ueew | 18F 18h OSL‘9sgo'el| seal] F{| op pug‘s “ f | ¢ 1g J 28] seet| aZr Sipe] oct |Zorlgos‘9Er‘sl| Ger'L/9} Op 3st ‘Ee “ i f uvamt | ¢99| PzErT | uvom | ZOE ZOS|SzF16E'81| oeL|F| Op pug‘g “ waazdyeysx| ¢ 602) 669°1 80G] ZES |SsPFlOOO'FEE'ST| S60 Z|) Gyre oe rd G8L| GZS'l OG] _SBS_|SIG|LeE FELT] BOL |S Pos “ON SaAMpoosiu x) ESS sa7e eee g lez eS Bre | Gs B IES *s1Bq “UIQ “Ip OY} WOIZ poonpap adv Sonja 194}0 OT} [[V ‘sy1oddns uaaayjaq ‘ug “YZ 10 “yySua] ay} JfeyY JO esoy} uo 4xou pur ‘sjz0ddns udaAMJoq “UG “YH ‘sivq Suo] uo say £ syuouttedxa ayy Jo UIU oY} WOA, pouTe}goO SI “UOAT YOR JO anja ay} JO UOLLazIO Joryo oy} sv uaye} aq LeU YOIyA “YISuans osdaasuLI, OY} “ORA}SQe SuLMoTOF oy} UT ‘dUVNSS HONI ANO ATLOVXA OL GdOAGaU ONIAG UVA HOVA ‘NOUI ISVO GLIOVUHLNY 40 SUVA AVTIOONVLOTA NO SLNAWINTIXA ONIGHOAUd AHL WOU CANIVLAO SLTNSHAY AO AUVAWNOS 558 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH In estimating the value of any particular iron, it must be remembered, that its resistance, or rigidity under strain, is exclusively the criterion of its strength, but not the measure of its utility. Some irons of the very first quality exhibit weak- ness under strain, but possess, at the same time, great richness and fluidity, accompanied with elastic powers of no ordinary description. For example, the Ystalyfera No. 1, first sample, is an iron of this character, and although inferior to other irons, as respects strength, it has, neverthe- less, great flexure, the ultimate deflection being 2.252, which is greater than that of any other iron I have yet experimented upon. In its powers to resist impact, it approaches nearly to the Gart- sherrie, Ponkey, and Elsicar irons, the numbers being— Garigherrie-ccrcccdtesecedavevers No. 3=998 Ponkey clan eGiticion eitiajeie eles wislu(s'eie No. 3=992 Powers to resist BISiGAY seeecriaate ss cc Peakedeneeees No. 2—992 impact. Votalyfera wcicccactassvescesess No. 1=973 No. 1 of the Ystalyfera second sample, is inferior, both as regards strength, and its powers of resisting impact. On comparing the results in the last table with those in the List of the General Summary, OF ANTHRACITE CAST IRON. D9D9 at the conclusion of my former paper, we find that the iron from the Yniscedwyn works has considerable strength. No. 1 stands as No. 14 in the general summary, and has only two irons -of the same number before it. No. 2 stands No. 6 in the list, and is stronger than any other iron of the same number. No. 3 stands No. 5 in the list, having only four others in advance of it. On the whole, the Ystalyfera iron has less strength than the Yniscedwyn, but the first sample of it possessed toughness in a high degree; it was very flexible, and resisted impact with great tenacity. The second sample was stronger than the first, but offered less resistance to a blow. The mean results from the first and second samples of this iron, give 410, 468, and 472, for the strengths of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 respectively, the first of these standing as No. 45, the second as No. 12, and the third as No. 11, in the General Summary. It may not be improper to mention, that the parties connected with the Ystalyfera iron works, have had other experiments made upon their own account; the strengths, as given by these 560 INQUIRY INTO THE STRENGTH, ETC. experiments, are greater than those obtained from either of the samples which I have received. I am unable to assign the cause of the difference which exists, and can only observe, that the preceding experiments were conducted with the greatest care, and the utmost attention was paid to every circumstance, however minute, in order to obtain correct results. In conclusion, I would observe, that—judging from the experiments—I consider the use of anthracite coal rather favourable than otherwise to the manufacture of iron; and provided some well conducted experiments were made to ascer- tain the requisite proportions of flux and ore to this description of coal, much might be done to improve the quality of the iron, and to bring into useful operation a valuable and important mineral production. OBSERVATIONS BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, & RAIN At PAanchester, FROM THE YEAR 1794 TO 1840 INCLUSIVE, BEING A SUMMARY OF ESSAYS ON METEOROLOGY. By JOHN DALTON, D.C.L., F.R.SS.L.&E., MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, &c., &e. (Read at various times, from the year 1830 to 1840.) At the close of the year 1818, I read an epitome of my meteorological observations for the preceding twenty-five years: these were after- wards printed in the third volume (new series) of the Society’s Memoirs.* Such a lengthened series of observations could not fail to suggest inferences of a theoretical nature ; some of these * In the essay above alluded to, I had occasion to refer to the transactions of the Royal Society of London for a series of observations of the like nature ; and, upon a comparison of those with my own, I found reason to believe that the Royal Society’s observations and calculations from them, exhibited marks of carelessness which rendered them by no means trustworthy. I intimated the same in a note (see page 490 of the above-mentioned volume.) Some time after this, 4B 562 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, were advanced and corroborated by the results of other Meteorologists. Since that time the period has been extended by the addition of twenty-two years more ; and it is proposed in this communi- cation to give a summary of the observations made in the last-mentioned period, and then to incor- porate the results with those of the former period, so as to obtain averages for the entire of both periods. If there is any natural tendency in the state of the atmosphere to produce rain (or any other phenomenon) more at one time of the year than another, it will be shewn by the observations of a few years. Ten or twelve successive years are almost certain to produce a good outline of the characteristic features of the year; but it may require half a century or more to obtain an exact delineation of them, and such as would render future observations of little or no avail in pro- ducing any sensible alteration. This observation is applicable to the fluctuations of the atmosphere the Royal Society revised their Meteorological establishment, and placed it upon a most respectable footing, since which, I believe, they may vie with any public body, or private individual, in the regularity and accuracy of their observa- tions and tabular results; and, I may add, that I have consulted them with pleasure and advantage since on several occasions. THERMOMETER AND RAIN. 563 in weight, as shewn by the Barometer, and to the temperature of the atmosphere, as well as the quantity of rain, and to the other meteoric phe- nomena. 1. Or tHE BAROMETER. Experience proves that the weight or pressure of the atmosphere on the earth’s surface is con- tinually varying from winds and other causes; and there is reason to believe that changes of weather are in some way connected with these fluctuations in the weight of the atmosphere, and hence the utility of Barometrical Observations. In the Torrid Zone the variation is little ; in the Temperate Zone the variation is much greater ; it increases with the latitude, and is about double in winter to what it is in summer, and it is pro- bably still greater in the Frigid Zones. Many people imagine that the variations are local—that the Barometers may rise in one town, and fall in another neighbouring town at the same time. This is not the case; the variations take place in London, Penzance, Dublin and Edin- burgh, at the same time, and to the same amount nearly. the obser- h day, namely, The the morning at eight o’clock, about one in the afternoon, and eleven in the evening. mes eac d in the following table OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, aine The results of my Barometrical observations vations were made three t 564 are cont in G8'6C\6S'6|9F 6G| LE6S|[F'6G | “24.077 FO 0 |€6°6Z|Z6'6S!L6 6G 10°0E}000E/S0 OE|FE OE 61 0E|80'0E|66°6Z|/E6'6Z|OL'0E| Y9ZSL 60 0& F9'6G)91' 66,60 0E 86'62|Z0 OE) FL ‘0€/80 0E|86'6E)F0 OE|FL'OS|6L'0E/9Z OE] Gest [6°66 |€8°6Z|99' 6G! FL 6% 00°0€/90°0E| 01 0€/€0'0E IT 08/86 '6Z|E6 6Z/6'6ZIOT-OE| FEST 06°66 016/61 OE €8'6% LO'0E'96 6206 '6Z|E0'0E|66 62/E6 '6Z|68 6E|GS'6Z/E8'6G| ETB ZOOE |ETOSIEL 6a FL 6z 0 eae 06°6Z|0G'0E|EL 0€)/F0'0E)S0'0E|L0'0E|0G'0E| cesT F66S% |6F'6Z|ES'6E/86'6S €6'°6Z|90'0E)| 60 OE] [G'0E|66' 6G/9L'6Z/0L 6Z\EE0E|66'6Z| IZ8T 86°66 |S0'0€/96°6G01'6z 60°06 L6°6z 80°0€|L0°0€/88°6G|FU'0E/00 0E/90'0E|96°6G| OZS8T _ 866% _ [61 6Z/E8'6S'E6'6z% GONE S10€| OL 0€/86'6G|G0 0E/06'6Z/00 08/02 6ZI8L°6G|__ 6181 “Uy ‘uy | “Ur | Op Sas ure sum cot | Sare| Supe | usta |) op ‘supy “UW] "99g |*A0N| "990 “3dag|Sny | ‘A[ng) aune|Aepy | dy] -aepy| “qaq |*Auep| ‘sava x a Re a ce a “AAISOTONI (PR[ OL GLQT WOUd *ZIA ‘SUVAK OML ALNAML YOd AALANOUVE THL JO SLHDIGH TVANNV GNV SLHDIZH ATHLNOW NVAW AJHL 40 ATAVL Z| i 08°66 _|6F' 6219 62|0L'6G G96) LE 66 9162/8162 = FO'OE [GG OE/6T'OE|LUOE LL OS/S1 08 9E OF|FE OES 0E19% OE|ZF'0E) EE ‘OE!9T 0g | “389qS1H a = _66'6G_|L8'6G/LL'6E|26 67 £66796 6G 66°6E|00 08/00 0896 °62/E6'67|68'6Z|F8'6%| “SULA n 16°63 [ZL 0E|E9'6Z/86'6Z 96'6Z|Z6'6S E8"67Z|FG6'0Z|06 “6ZST OE|SF OE|GL'6Z\IF'6%|_ OFST = 2) G8'6G |99°6G/L9°6%/GO'0E G9’ 6Z|L6'6SZ G8'6G|08'6E|66'°6Z|90'0E|Z8'6Z/06'6Z|F8'6Z| 6EST a= ore 08°66 |86°6Z|L¢ 62Z|Z6'6Z 06'62Z|L8'°6G) 91 6Z|L8 '67|Z6'6G|08'6Z|6L' 6ZISF'6Z|\08'6Z| SET oS 86°66 |68°6G/FL' 6G|L6'6Z Z8'62!L6 69S ‘0E|00' 0/96 6Z/9ST ‘OEIF6 6Z|FO OE|F8'6G|} LEST oo ep F866 1616699 6C\6L 6Z 68'6E|E0 0) 166/06 6E|FG 0E|18'6Z|9F 6G/08'6ZE8'6G| YEST Do 666 \ZI'0E|06°6G\L1'6% OL 62/86 6260 0E|80 0E/88°6G| 1 L'0E|68'6Z169'6ZIGO'OE| FEST a it I0'0€ |ZZ'0E/Z6'6G|10'0E LO°VE|16'6G|00'0E|L6°6Z/E0 OE|9T OE|FI'0E|L0°0E|99' 6G} FEST oO ae, G86 |€9°6Z|98'6S|18'6S Z6'6Z/LE 6S) EO OE|SL6C|I10E)L1 6316 6S/LE6Z|LTOE| ERT S 6°66 |€6'6Z|E8' 6S L0'0E L1°0|68'6Z| L0'0E|68 '6Z|L6 62 Z0 0g) L8'6Z|F0'0E|E6'6G] ZEST =) 18°66 |€L°6Z|ZS'6C|6L 6G Z6'6Z|86 6296 62/96 6/16 6C|9L'6ZE8'6Z|18'6Z|L8'6C| TEST & 18°66 |£9°6Z/LL'6C/LT 0 FL'6Z|68'6G| 18 6Z|F8'6E|88'6C|FL 6zZO"OE|F8"6S|ZO OF] OST © 06°66 |[1'0€|00'0&|66 6Z LL'6Z|18'62|8L'6Z|00 0E|90 0E|GE'GZIS8'6Z|FO'OE|G8'6G| 6Z81 o F666 |88'6Z|98'6G|F0 0E 10'0E|L6'6Z|F8'6Z/OI ‘0/866 E8°G6E166'6S/L8'°6Z|86'6G| SZBT Bd 16'6G |08°6G|L0'08)\S8' 6 L0'0€|60'0E|Z I 0E|66°6Z|E8'6Z/C0 OEI1L°6ZIFL'OS|16'6%| LEST ie) ov SN 3 i o io os) =P | ~ S fo) =| observations together, and d the number of observations. THERMOMETER, AND RAIN. 565 The same Barometer has been used during the last twenty-two years as was in use the fifteen preceding years. It stands nearly 1-10th of an inch higher than other good Barometers do in the same situation, probably from some difference in the mercury. I find the allowance I have made in the scale for the rise and fall of the mercury in the reservoir is rather too small; consequently, the extreme elevations and depressions are not quite so great as they ought to be, but the influ- ence of this circumstance upon the-averages is scarcely worth notice. Now, if we incorporate the means of the Baro- meter for twenty-two years, as above stated, with those of the former period of twenty-five years previously published, (see Vol. III. page 487,) so as to obtain general averages or means for both periods, amounting to forty-seven years, we shall obtain the following means for the different months, and the mean annual height of the Baro- meter for the whole period. 566 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, TABLE OF THE MONTHLY MEAN HEIGHT OF THE BAROMETER FOR FORTY-SEVEN YEARS, FROM 1794 To 1840 INCLUSIVE. Inches. JONUATY 7. ieetees ee 29.80 Ins. February.........00. 29.85 + 29.846. below the general mean. Marcel serescsevcenses 29.89 Apart sot bhiusbiens.. 29.90 Mary. acces sesivepnsaws 29.94 \ 29.943. above the general mean. JUDE - ceccvnccccerers 29.99 DID Gce na consenrnsne ede 29.94 AUgust ..rsesceeees 29.99 & 29.953. above the general mean. September ......+++ 29.93 October .......0.0s. 29.85 November .......+. 29.76 \ 29.806. below the general mean. December ......... 29.81 Annual mean PP a9. 29.88 47 years ...... In my former essay (see Manchester Memoirs, Vol. III. page 488, new series), I mentioned a remarkable fact deduced from the then observa- tions of the Barometer, namely, that the altitude of the mercury was greater than the mean during the spring and summer months, and less than the mean during the autumnal and winter months, allowance being made for the effects of temperature. From the above table, the fact is THERMOMETER, AND RAIN. 567 corroborated, although the annual mean, and also the mean of each month, except November, are higher than in the table, page 487 of the volume before mentioned. The mean annual height of the Barometer for a series of years, does not differ much from the mean for any particular year. On looking over the annual means for the last forty-seven years, I find the lowest to have been in 1799 and 1800, both of which were 29.61 inches. These two years will long be remembered as the most unfavourable seasons for the produce of the earth that have occurred for half a century at least. The former of these was the coldest for the series of forty- seven years; and eighteen inches of rain fell in the three most important months of the year, viz. July, August, and September. The highest annual mean was in 1826, viz., 30.04 inches. This was one of three or four of the warmest in the above period of years. The greatest difference, therefore, between one year and another, appears to be .47 parts of an inch in this part of the earth, or parallel of latitude. There does not appear, however, to be a marked connexion between the annual pressure and temperature of the atmosphere, nor yet with the amount of rain. 568 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, It appears from the tables for the last forty- seven years, that the highest monthly mean height of the Barometer for a year, may occur in any one of the twelve months, but not indifferently. Thus I found the highest mean to occur six times ; in January, three times in February, five times in March, three times in April, three in May, four in June, five in July, seven in August, four in September, one in October, two in November, and four in December. The above observation does not apply to the lowest monthly mean for any year :—for I found nine in January, six in February, five in March, three in April, one in June, one in September, six in October, ten in November, and six in December ; none were found in May, July, or August—so that from March to October the lowest mean has occurred only five times, whilst from September to April it has occurred forty-two times in forty-seven years. In this period of forty-seven years’ observations the fact of greater variation of the Barometer in winter than in summer, may be supposed to have been sufficiently substantiated. On inspecting each year of the Journal, and marking those THERMOMETER AND RAIN. 569 months in which the Aighest rise of the mercury took place, and the Jowest fall in the whole year, I find the number of such observations that have taken place in the respective months of the year as under. There have 18 of the highest and lowest extremes occurred Uy asididaansuadl «swwmncde sa auadesis treaphJemnpaandre.3\ 10) 9,9 4.55 ; 5.22 September........ 2.99 ? 3.71 OCtONED cies cc.cies <0 1.80 : 2.18 November ........ 3.29 : 4.87 December ........ 0.42 fs 0.35 LATE ae 26.08 33.38 584 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, Mr. Henry Hough Watson of Bolton-le-Moors has forwarded to me the particulars of his obser- vations on the Barometer and Thermometer, and also the quantity of rain, &c., for 10 years, which - are arranged in the following tables. The town of Bolton is about 320 feet above the sea, and situated 11 miles north-west of Manches- ter, below a range of hills commencing about south-east, and passing to a little west of north ; the summits of these hills are from 3 to 6 miles from the town, and rise to an elevation of from 400 to 1000 feet above it. The country towards the south and west is very flat to the distance of 30 or 40 miles, and therefore the immediate neighbourhood of the town is exposed to the cur- rents of air from that direction. THERMOMETER, AND RAIN. D585 MR. HENRY HOUGH WATSON’S ACCOUNT OF THE MEAN HEIGHT OF THE BAROMETER AT BOLTON, DURING TEN YEARS. Yrs, | Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April] May.|June.| July.| Aug. |Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |Mean 1831 |29.59/29.33/29.39)/29.39)/29.42)29.18/29.30)29.34/29.20/29.26|29.44/29.20/29.34 1832 |29.38/29.35 29.30/29.55/29.40)29.50|29.60)29.35/29.69|/29.40/29.53/29.31|29,45 1833 |29.85 29.10)29.55 29.40)29.74)29.43|29.68/29.62)29.57|/29.46/29.51/29.27|29.51 29.84/29.86/29.72|29.64/29.66/29.57/29.76|29.71129.63/29.97|29.70 1835 |29.74|29.43/29.63|/29.84/29.57|29.78 29.74,29.71 29.38/29.46/29.60)29.87|29.65 1836 |29.55|29.52|29.16/29.56|29.98 29.58)/29.65'29.75|29.57/29.49|29.27|29.50/29.55 1837 |29.64)29.58/29.70/29.52/29.68/29.73/29.68!29.72/29.61|29.77|29.50/29.63|29.65 1838 |29.63/29.33/29.51/29.51 29.65)29.58)29.68/29.58/29.71/29.66)29.24|29.74)29.57 1839 |29.56/29.63|29.52/29.82)29.74)29.64/29.57/29.70/29.31|29.75|29.40\29,38)29.59 1840 |29.40)29.62)/30.02/29.81|29.62)29.65/29.56 29.65)2 Mn, |29.56|29.46|29.56)29.63|29.65,29.57/29.61)29.60|29.53|29.57|29.44|29.57|29.56 ax.|29.85/29.75/30.02/29.86|/29.98,29.78)29.74'29.75|29.76|29.77|29.63|29.97 in. |29.30|29.10|29.16|29.39|29.40|29.18|2 MR. HENRY HOUGH WATSON’S ACCOUNT OF THE MEAN HEIGHT OF THE THERMOMETER, AT BOLTON, DURING TEN YEARS. Years.| Jan.| Feb.|Mar.|Apr.| May JunelJuly./Aug. Sep. Oct.|Nov,] Dec. 1831 | 34°] 42°) 57°} 54°! 58°) 61°] 67°] 65°! 57°| 54°] 39%] 40° 1832 | 38 | 40 | 46 | 52 | 55 | 62 | 64 | 63 | 62 | 54 | 42 | 40 1833 | 35 | 42 | 40 | 47 | 59 | 58 | 62 | 57 | 54 | 50 | 44 | 43 1834 | 44 | 42 | 45 | 46 | 57 | 59 | 64] 61] 58] 51 | 45 | 44 1835 | 36 | 42 | 43 | 47 | 51 | 60 | 62 | 63 | 56 | 47 | 44 | 38 1836 | 39 | 39 | 41 | 45 | 54 | 59 | 59 | 59 | 53 | 48 | 41 | 39 1837 | 37 | 41 | 37 | 41 | 49 | 63 | 62 | 60 | 56 | 50 | 42 | 42 1838 | 30 | 32 | 40 | 43 | 52 | 57 | 60 | 59 | 56 | 49 | 40 | 39 1639 4 : : — | — | —<—<— | ———.- | | ——— | ——_ | ——— | EE Minim! 30 | 32) 37 |} 41 | 49) 57) 57! 57) 51! 47139 | 36 586 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, MR. HENRY HOUGH WATSON’S ACCOUNT OF THE FALL OF RAIN AT BOLTON, DURING TEN YEARS. 1831.}1832.|1833.)1834.|1835 |1836-/1837./1838.|1839 |1840. I F : 5 e In. In. ere In. aun anuary....| 1. 5 : 5 .10) 5.05} 3.54 | 0 3.36| 4.40\f 29 727/19 10 5.31| 1.41] 3.04] 5.01] 0.73 4.37] 2.02| 3.94] 1.03] 1.36 0.18) 1.57] 3,89} 0.53) 4.50 2.61) 6.64) 3.14) 4.35 5.76| 3.12] 4.43) 6.59] 6.65 i é 3 ; 2.82] 2.86] 6.94] 3.55] 5.37 September. .| 5. : : : 43] 4.30] 3.52] 1.80] 6.95) 4.72 October.... . % 5 4 5 4.21] 5.98] 7.83] 2.78] 3.22 November..| 9. 6.50) 3. ‘ 6.10] 2.90} 5.22) 5.57 December ..} 4. 6.58|10.47| 1.5 5.12] 2.64) 3.19) 0.42 Total .. |62.30)53.77|51.70/43.98/46.44|53.78|42.25]47.85/45.26/45.03/49.20 MR. HENRY HOUGH WATSON’S ACCOUNT OF THE MEAN VAPOUR POINT AT BOLTON, DEDUCED FROM OBSERVATIONS MADE DAILY AT NOON, DURING NINE YEARS.* Years. |Jan. | Feb./Mar. Apr. |May.|June July |Aug.|Sept} Oct./Nov.|Dec.| Mn. 1831 Css i ia fa ea 52 * He determines the vapour point by the means recommended by me, Man. Memoirs, vol. 5, Old Series, page 582. THERMOMETER, AND RAIN. 587 MR. HENRY HOUGH WATSON’S ACCOUNT OF THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM A CYLINDRICAL VESSEL OF TEN INCHES DIAMETER, KEPT NEARLY FULL, AT BOLTON. January February, March.... April ... May.... June... July:.. 33 August... Septem. October. Novem.. Decem.. 183111832. '1833.]1834.11835.]1836.|1837.|1838.]1839.|1840.|Mean — | —qj|_]q—|— | qj] q—_— ) —_ \c_- —_— COrr Ww Www ashe atin | | mon S10 to pies) VSS | ea i Sh ee | iets ee |e ee oA. 23|24.18|23.78|24.36|17.12|20.16 * The gauge in the winter season sometimes got damaged by the frost ; and, in con- sequence, the amount of evaporation could not be determined. 588 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BAROMETER, I have received from Thomas Ashton Esq. of Hyde, the following account of the quantity of rain which has fallen near his residence. The township of Hyde, in Cheshire, is about eight miles east of Manchester, and the line of the Peak Forest Canal passes through it a short distance from Mr. Ashton’s house, at an elevation of 320 feet above the sea. Hyde is situated on the west side, and towards the bottom of the range of hills which occupy the north east part of Cheshire, and west of Derbyshire, and in the latter county rise to the height of 2000 feet above the sea. The country to the west is a flat plane, extending to the sea, at the distance of upwards of forty miles. OF HYDE, IN CHESHIRE, FOR TEN YEARS. Jan. | Feb.| Mar.) April] May./June.| July.) Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. In. In Tne jh. |) In. |) Ine |) dns Le el In. | In. | In. 1831 | 0.4 | 2.3 | 3.3 | 0.9 | 1.8 | 2.7 | 4.5 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 4.4 | 5.7 | 2.1 1832 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 5.2 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 3.0 |°2.5 | 3.6 | 5.7 1833 |°0.5 | 3.2 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 7:1 | 2.9 | 4.8 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 4.5 | 6.3 TSSA Paes SAE PSL. Ga OL8) | 2.7] Gale eS aks | 2c0i 7a eo) 1835 | 4.0 | 2.9 | 3.0 | 1.6 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 3.2 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 3.1 | 1.6 1836 | 2.9 | 3.6 | 44]28]| 0.2 | 4.0 | 3.4 | 2.2 | 4.9 | 2.7 | 7.3) 4.1 1837 | 3.2 | 2.8 | 1.3] 1.8] 1.4] 1.9 | 3.4 | 2.8 | 2.6 | 5.0 | 4.8 | 3.9 1888 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 3.8] 4.6 | 3.8 | 5.8] 1.4] 4.4 | 2.6) 0.9 1839 | 2.8 | 2.0 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 4.5 | 5.2 | 2.9 | 3.8 | 2.2 1840 | 4.0 | 1.5 | — | 0.6 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 6.4 | 5.0 | 3.9 | 2.1 | 4.9 | 0.3 Means| 2.4 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 4.2 | 2.8 [35.3 TABLE OF THE FALL OF RAIN, TAKEN IN THE GARDEN OF THOMAS ASHTON, ESQ. 389 THERMOMETER, AND RAIN. 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Me ef [|edit BT YP Rol! 7 ie = “ & c > sm) 4 : iy 2 Fa ale ok g8o| $e eS | 2 = g. Se) 3 % Be | ss = a Bl Ss ees : Br <2) cae aq 4 ee “)DUDD SALT YDA, ad Ff Oe lal Ml belo *]0UDD, ayopyaoyy ay? Lvau Lo auy ay2 UC pup uozysp ay) fo auy ay? uC : “IVNVO LS€aYOA MVAd AHL AO ANIT THL NO FSOHLLdiOXa ‘SUVAA ANVIA UOT SHDVUAAV AHL ONIAM : NOGNOT NI OSTV GNV {UaLSAHONVW 40 GoOoHNNOS -HOIAN AHL NI SXOVTd SQOLUVA LV ‘NIVU JO SAILILNVAD TVANNY GNV ATHLNOW NVIW AHL JO JIAVL FALLVUVAWOD ON DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF BW 5 Athen Sem [ihe PARTICULARLY IN REFERENCE TO THE EMPLOYMENT OF “MARSH’S TEST.” BY HENRY HOUGH WATSON, (CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY.) (Received February 2nd—Read February 9th, 1841.) In cases of poisoning by arsenic, it frequently happens that, after death, adhering to the stomach, or interspersed in the contents of the stomach, are to be found portions of a heavy white powder, in quantity so great that it can be collected and submitted to the process of reduction by carbo- naceous matter, as well as part of it exposed to the action of those other chemical operations usually resorted to on such occasions :—in these instances, there is no difficulty in arriving at a positive conclusion, that the white powder ope- rated upon is oxide of arsenic. It is not always, DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 591 however, that so much of the powder can be col- lected separately from the rest of the contents of the stomach as is required for its reduction by — carbonaceous matter to the metallic state, or for the distinct exhibition by that agent of the charac- teristic alliaceous smell of the heated metal ; owing to the oxide having been administered in the state of solution, or, if administered in powder, to its having become dissolved by the liquid con- tained in the stomach, or to its having got inti- mately diffused and mixed among the other undis- solved matter in the stomach. In such instances, without applying a mode of testing published in the year 1836, we cannot so readily conclude as to its presence ; but then have to operate upon a fluid by the application of certain tests capable of effecting known chemical changes with arse- nious acid, by the power which they possess of acting upon it when in solution. Some of these tests are incapable of giving satisfactory results when the solution of arsenious acid is accompanied by one or more of many ingredients which often form a part of the contents of the stomach ; and however strong our suspicions may be, it is not safe to conclude decidedly that arsenic is present when only one of the tests alluded to produces that apparent action which it ought to produce 592 ON DETECTING THE with a solution of arsenic; the least that is re- quired is, that several of the tests should in the results of their action corroborate each other in the most full and satisfactory manner, unless by _ the action of one of them alone a precipitate is obtained which can be collected, and which is so free from the objectionable part of the matter from which it has been caused to deposit, that it can be decomposed, and the arsenic contained in it be reduced to, and exhibited in, the metallic state ; or, its quantity being sufficient, it be capable of being caused to undergo those changes, whereby such a solution may be formed from it as will completely give all the appearances which are expected from a pure solution of arsenious acid, by the application of those tests which gave unsatisfactory results when applied directly to the fluid contents of the stomach: and it is far from being extravagant to suppose that in cases of poisoning by arsenic it may happen, or that it not seldom does happen, that the alimentary canal of the individual to whom the arsenic was adminis- tered, has become evacuated to such a degree before the occurrence of death, that, on post mortem examination, the quantity of matter found whereupon to operate, is at most not greater than to allow of the exhibition, to the most skilful PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 593 analyst, of a mere trace of the poison sought for. From these remarks it will be in some degree apparent how much before the year 1836 we were wanting, in regard to our known means of testing for arsenic, a method by which we could not fail in detecting and exhibiting it, when present in very minute quantity, in such complex organic materials as we might have to make the subject of investi- gation. In the year mentioned, Mr. James Marsh, of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, published a mode of operating which appeared in a great degree to supply what was wanting: and, in viewing his discovery, whether we look upon the principle upon which it is based, or upon the apparatus which he used in carrying it into effect, we cannot but admire its beauty; both the principle and the apparatus being such as for simplicity will not readily be superseded, and the principle one which forbids its actions to be frustrated by the impediments offered by organic substances.* * The large gold medal of the Society of Arts of London was awarded to Mr. Marsh, for his discovery. His communi- cation is printed in the 51st volume of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, and in the 21st volume of Jameson’s Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. 4F 594 ON DETECTING THE If diluted sulphuric acid or hydro-chloric acid be allowed to act upon zinc combined with arsenic, or upon zinc in contact with a solution of arsenious acid, or other compound of arsenic, the gas gene- . rated is arsenuretted hydrogen—hydrogen hold- ing arsenic in combination. When, therefore, Mr. Marsh has a liquor for examination which is sus- pected to contain arsenic, and which could not easily be made sufficiently clear, and free from objectionable matter, to admit of being tested by the other usual means, or when he has solid mat- ter, such as pastry, pudding, or the like, which, on being treated with water, gives such a liquor, he mixes the liquor with diluted sulphuric acid, and allows the mixture to act upon pure zinc, whereby hydrogen gas is produced, to which the arsenic is transferred, if any was present in the matter the subject of examination. The gas col- lected he causes to burn from a jet; and in con- tact with the flame holds a piece of cold window glass, or the like, on the surface of which a thin film of metallic arsenic immediately deposits when that metal was present in the matter suspected to contain it; or, having set fire to the gas as it issues from the jet, he receives the flame within a glass tube open at the ends, which becomes dimmed by a white powder, if arsenic be present. * PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 595 With one drop of Fowler’s solution of arsenic, which only contains about the one 120th part ofa grain, he is able to obtain distinct metallic films. When arsenic is present in large quantity in the matter suspected to contain it, he can separate sufficient in the form of arsenious acid to enable him to form a pure solution from it, the identity of which he can then verify by the several tests usually employed, and which I have before alluded to: but, though his plan of operating is generally applicable, yet it is only indispensable to adopt it, when the poison is present in very minute quantity. Great as is the value at which we are compelled to estimate it in reference to its application where the quantity of poison present is but minute, and entangled with organic matter, there is still reason why it may have been consi- dered incomplete, and viewed as dangerous to have been resorted to by the inexperienced operator, or even by one accustomed to general chemical practice but hasty in arriving at conclu- sions from mere superficial resemblances. Had it been the fact that arsenic is the only metal which enters into combination with hydro- gen, and which is capable of being deposited upon cold surfaces, when the gas is allowed to undergo 596 ON DETECTING THE combustion, we might with propriety have con- . cluded that when, on adopting Mr. Marsh’s plan, we happened to get a metallic deposit or crust, arsenic was present in the matter under examina- tion ; but in the number for May, 1837, of the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Maga- zine, and Journal of Science, Mr. Lewis Thomp- son directs our attention to a combination of anti- mony with hydrogen, which he calls antimonu- retted hydrogen, and points out the near resem- blance which it bears to arsenuretted hydrogen. This combination is procured under circumstances similar to those under which arsenuretted hydro- gen is formed; antimony, of course, being sub- stituted for arsenic. The smell of antimonuretted hydrogen in a great degree resembles that of arsenuretted hydrogen; and the two gases are much like each other in their general properties, as I find in corroboration of Mr. Thompson, who says, that when a piece of cold window glass is held in the flame of antimonuretted hydrogen, a metallic crust is deposited, and when a glass tube is used, the metallic film is formed on that part of the tube nearest the flame, and the white oxide around and above it, which appearances coincide im a very remarkable manner with those produced by arsenuretted hydrogen under similar circum- PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 597 stances; and although a practised eye may discern some difference between the crusts, that from antimony being more silvery and metallic; yet the line of demarcation is not easily drawn ; for a thin film of antimony looks like arsenic, and a thick crust of arsenic has the metallic appearance of antimony: and, after showing the similarity of appearances produced by sulphuretted hydrogen upon the oxides of the two metals, and the falla- cious results likely to be arrived at in endea- vouring to determine which of the two is present by the ammoniacal sulphate of copper, he states that they may be distinguished by adding a drop of nitric acid to the crusts, which will dissolve them, and on evaporation to dryness a white powder be left in each instance : a little of a dilute solution of nitrate of silver being added, and the whole then exposed to the fumes arising from a stopper moistened with ammonia, the antimonial solution will deposit a dense white precipitate, whereas that from arsenic will give the well known canary yellow flocculi: he prefers this mode of using silver to the ammoniacal nitrate of that metal, because the slightest excess of ammonia destroys the colour, but by watching the effect of the vapour, the exact quantity requisite is easily 598 ON DETECTING THE obtained. This plan, which Mr. Thompson suggests of determining of which of the two metals a crust consists, is ingenious, and should be adopted in all suitable instances ; but from experi- ments which I have made, I am forced to conclude that it does not always prove satisfactory—that byit indubitable results can only be obtained when the crust is very thick, or when its surface is ex- tensive, or, in other words, when the quantity of metal deposited is considerable. When the crust operated upon is arsenic, and only a thin one, or sparing in quantity, the colour of the flocculent precipitate cannot so distinctly be perceived to be yellow as to warrant us in coming to that deci- sion, neither can its flocculent appearance be dis- tinctly perceived, and we cannot certify that the metal in question is not antimony; the plan, therefore, is in a great measure liable to the same kind of objections which are to be urged against the sulphuretted hydrogen, and the sulphate of - copper tests ; and I may add, that in this alleged instance of only a slight crust, there seems reason to doubt whether the result of the silver test alone applied as described should be allowed more for- cibly to govern our decision, than the distinction to be perceived between the appearances of the PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 599 erusts of the two metals under some circumstan- ces, and particularly when they are examined by a practised eye. Indeed, Mr. Thompson con- cludes his communication by stating, that he fears we can only regard Mr. Marsh’s very ingenious test as furnishing good collateral evidence, capa- ble, in scientific hands, of giving very correct indications, but wholly unfit to be entrusted to those unaccustomed to careful chemical manipula- tion: he says this with a thorough conviction of the great utility of the test, and is only sorry that its evidence is not unequivocal. _ This announcement of Mr. Thompson was the cause of a subsequent paper by Mr. Marsh, ap- pearing in the Phil. Magazine for Oct., 1839, in which he said he was happy in being able to lay before the readers of that journal, a very simple distinguishing test for arsenic and antimony ; and stated it to be as follows : After the common arrangements have been made for testing for the metals in question, the piece of glass or porcelain, on which the metallic crusts are generally received, is to have a drop of distilled water placed on it; it is then to be inverted, so that the drop of water is suspended 600 ON DETECTING THE undermost. The gas as it issues from the jet is to be inflamed in the usual manner, but the piece of glass with its drop of water is to be held about an inch above the jet, or just above the apex of . the cone of flame: the arsenic by this arrange- ment is oxidised at the same time that hydrogen is undergoing combustion, and coming in contact with the drop of water held above, forms a solu- tion of arsenious acid, should arsenic have been in the mixture submitted to examination: a minute drop of ammoniacal nitrate of silver being dropped on the solution so obtained, if arsenic be present, the well known characteristic lemon yellow colour produced by this test, when used for testing for that substance, is immediately pro- duced, viz., the insoluble arsenite of silver ; anti- mony under the same circumstances produces no change. He hopes that the process will be found to possess all the delicacy and precision necessary for distinguishing the two metals from each other, and that it will be the means of removing every doubt from the minds of experimentalists in fu- ture. I should have been glad to have been able to say Mr. Marsh’s hopes are realized ; it happens on the contrary, however, that I must give my decided opinion, that the results obtained by his mode of testing ought not to be considered PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 601 indubitable, since it is a well known fact that phosphoric acid gives with ammoniacal nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate not easily distinguish- able when in small quantity from that produced by arsenious acid; and, I find that by putting into Mr. Marsh’s apparatus a little of a solution of antimony, and a little phosphuret of lime (or other substance capable of yielding phosphuretted hydrogen) along with the usual pure sulphuric acid and pure zinc, and without arsenic in any form, gas is produced, from the flame of which a metallic film, or crust, may be obtained; and which gas, by being allowed to burn under a drop of water, as recommended by Mr. Marsh, gives the water the property of depositing a yellow precipitate when the ammoniacal nitrate of silver is added; and, in addition to this, the gas possesses a smell resembling, in a high degree, that of arse- nuretted hydrogen. Reflecting upon the characteristic distinctions which exist between arsenic and antimony, and participating in the anxiety to remove any embar- rassments prevailing against the perfection of a method of operating which presents such con- veniences as Mr, Marsh’s original discovery does, I have been induced to conceive that the effect 4G 602 ON DETECTING THE of the application of heat might with success be had recourse to in enabling us more positively to conclude of which of the two metals any crust or deposit we may have obtained is formed: and during the months of November and December last, I made repeated experiments, which, I think, proved the accuracy of the notion I enter- tained. Considering the readiness with which metallic arsenic volatilizes, and that it is said to be fusible at or below 400° of Fahr., while anti- mony requires about 800° for fusion, I thought it probable that there might be a wide thermometric range between the points at which the two metals were volatile or evaporable, and I commenced experimenting as follows. Having procured a number of slips of window glass, each about the 1-10th or the 1-8th of an inch wide, and several inches long, I, by the aid of Marsh’s apparatus, caused metallic films, or crusts, of arsenic, to be deposited upon some of them, and of antimony upon others. I then provided a number of thin glass tubes, sealed at one end, and only about wide enough to admit the slips of window glass into them. Into one tube I put a slip of the window glass, coated thickly with arsenic, and into another a slip coated very thinly with antimony— in each case the slip being shorter than the tube, PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 603 and then hermetically sealed, with a blow-pipe flame, the orifice of the tubes. Thus arranged, the tubes enclosing the slips were immersed to a little more than the depth of the coated part of the slips, (25 inches, the length of the tubes being about five inches,) in a bulb containing rape oil in a state of ebullition. In one minute the arsenic had entirely disappeared from that part of the slip surrounded by the hot oil; but the antimony did not entirely disappear before the expiration of seven minutes. Other subsequent experiments of the same kind, corroborated the conclusion arrived at in this instance, that a very thin film of antimony was very much longer in evaporating away, by the heat given by boiling oil than a very thick crust of arsenic. The next object was to endeavour to find a temperature lower than that of boiling oil, at which arsenic would entirely volatilize, and antimony remain permanently fixed; and about the beginning of November I made numerous experiments, similar to the above, but taking care that the oil from which the heat was communicated was kept at a temperature ranging from 490° to 500°, a ther- mometer being all the time kept immersed in it. In some instances thick crusts of arsenic were entirely volatilized in about fourteen minutes, 604 ON DETECTING THE and, in other instances, crusts less thick disap- peared in about eight minutes ; the length of time required for the entire volatilization depending upon the thickness of the crust; but very thin films of antimony stood the temperature for an hour, without volatilization taking place in any perceptible degree. I next conducted similar experiments at a temperature ranging only from 355° to 365°, and found very thick crusts of arse- nic to be volatilized in three or four hours, thin ones disappearing in half an hour or less; those formed from gas produced by acting upon zine with 400 gr. mea. of diluted sulphuric acid, (one volume concentrated acid to seven water) con- taining one drop of a solution of arsenious acid, sp. gr. 1.026, disappeared in half an hour, while those of antimony, apparently of the same den- sity, did not diminish in the slightest perceptible degree in twenty hours; and it did not seem probable that they would have diminished, how- ever long they had been submitted to the same temperature, that bemg lower than the point at which antimony begins to volatilize.* * From the eleventh edition of Dr. Henry’s Elements of Chemistry, Vol. II, page 81, it is to be found that Thenard asserts that antimony is not volatile, when exposed to heat in closed vessels, if atmospheric air be carefully excluded, and no PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 605 About the time I was making these experi- ments, I communicated my ideas to my friend, Dr. Haworth, of this town (Bolton); and, in several weeks afterwards, he informed me that a number of the Lancet, just published, stated that M. Orfila had been describing in France different processes whichmight be adopted in distinguishing of which of the two metals a crust consisted, and amongst them he mentioned the application of heat ; I, however, did not get to see the Lancet, nor did I learn the particulars of what was said regarding the application of heat, but about the beginning of this month my friend kindly put into my hands the British and Foreign Medical gaseous matter be generated during the process. This, if true, would have been exceedingly favourable to my mode of dis- tinguishing between arsenic and antimony ; but the assertion is not to be relied upon. I took a narrow tube, sealed at one end, nearly filled it with cold silex in very fine powder, which had only a few minutes before been exposed to a red heat, and then pushed into it, through the powder, a slip of glass, having crusts of antimony upon it. By this manage- ment the metal was secluded from air of every kind, and confined in a medium for which it possessed no chemical affinity. Thus prepared, the tube was immersed to about half its depth in boiling oil, and the antimony volatilized, and left that part of the slip surrounded by the hot oil in as short a time as if atmospheric air had been present. I submitted a slip having arsenic upon it, to a similar experiment, and obtained a corresponding result. 606 ON DETECTING THE Review, for Jan., 1841, which contains a review of M. Orfila’s Memoirs on Poisoning, printed in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Medicine, Vol. VIIL, Paris, 1840; by this I find that the agency of heat spoken of by Orfila, is through the direct application of flame to the metal under examination. He says, that an arsenical stain, of whatever thickness, is entirely volatilized in from half a minute to a minute, when exposed to the flame of hydrogen gas, as in the common phi- losophical lamp ; the antimonial stain, on the con- trary, even when thin, is not volatilized until after the lapse of five or six minutes. This application of heat by flame is so indefinite in degree, and so wanting of that precision without which we great- ly risk the danger of deciding erroneously, that I hesitate not at announcing my mode of apply- ing heat, as one in which we may with more safety confide. It will be observed, that I enclose and herme- tically confine the metallic crusts in a tube, so that no portion can escape, although a volatile tendency be given them by the heat, which is an advantage not possessed when flame is directly applied to them unconfined, the metal then being dissipated and lost. When the temperature has PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 607 caused the crust, if of. arsenic, to be volatilized from that part of the slip of glass on which it was deposited, small crystals are to be observed ad- hering to that part of the slip and of the interior of the tube, which was not immersed in the hot oil, chiefly to that part which was from } to $ an inch above the surface of the oil. It will be per- ceived, too, that I do not lose the chance of try- ing the action of the other usual tests, but that I have an opportunity of testing in a two-fold man- ner the character of any crust in question: having cut off with a file one end of the tube, the metal or its oxide can be operated upon with nitric acid and the ammoniacal nitrate of silver, or with such other tests as we may choose to apply. The greatest objection against my mode of operating is the tediousness attending the having to wait so long for the conclusion of an experi- ment, and the great care required in watching the range of the thermometer ; but, I hope, this may be alleviated by substituting for oil as the heating medium, some other liquid whose boiling point is stable within the range of the temperature re- quired: probably a satwrated solution of some salt may answer, but, at present, I am not aware of any that will. 608 ON DETECTING THE Mr. Marsh’s original. discovery, per se, is in- valuable in enabling us with ease and certainty to bring out from among organic materials arsenic, when present in very minute quantity, and in - giving us the power of submitting it to ocular demonstration ; but it is wanting in the capability of convincing us that what we separate, from sus- pected matter, having the superficial appearance of arsenic, is most decidedly in every instance that metal; it leaves us to find out by other means whether the metallic looking substance is arsenic, or antimony, or something else. Though there may be other substances besides arsenic and antimony capable of combining with hydrogen, and of giving the flame of that gas the property of depositing upon cold surfaces dark coloured films or crusts having more or less of a metallic lustre, yet, I think it is not probable that any substance besides antimony will cause a film or crust, so nearly resembling one of arsenic in ap- pearance and chemical properties, as to settle strong doubt upon the mind of an experimentalist accustomed to investigations, such as the one under consideration. Orfila states, that he has observed stains to result even from organic mat- ter only ; but these differed from arsenic in being less volatile, and in having none of the chemical PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 609 less volatile, and in having none of the chemical characters of that metal. Then, since the ques- tion is only likely to be whether or not a given metallic deposit is arsenic or antimony, I trust that my mode of applying heat, particularly in addition to the method of testing recommended by Mr. Thompson, will tend to make Mr. Marsh’s discovery as perfect as it probably ever will be; and, Idoubt not, that ‘“Marsh’s test”’ will continue to be regarded as a valuable assistant in a che- mical laboratory. I have myself often applied it successfully in determining the presence of arsenic, in small quantity, in minerals I have had under examination ; in such instances, I venture to suppose no one will dispute its utility ; but, in cases of poisoning, unless a large quantity of the suspected arsenical ingredient can, by direct means, be produced, it ought not to be regarded in a stronger light than capable of furnishing good collateral evidence ; it must, indeed, be lament- able to consider that so much confidence should be placed upon appearances produced by its ope- ration, as to cause a positive conclusion to be arrived at that death was caused by arsenic, when it had been needful to resort to intricate manipu- lation in order todetect therequisite characteristics, and when, at length, only a slight crust or film could be obtained. In cases of poisoning, no man, 4u 610 ON DETECTING THE however high his reputation as a chemical analyst, or as a toxicologist, has a right to be satisfied that any metallic looking substance is arsenic, which, by the apparatus in question, he may have sepa- rated from matter suspected to contain it, unless the quantity is so great that he can verify his suspicions, not only by ascertaining the tempera- ture at which it is volatile, but by the application of other indubitable tests. Before concluding, I must not neglect to men- tion the great necessity which exists, in the appli- eation of ‘‘Marsh’s Test,” previously to examine with the utmost care the purity of the articles to be used. Itis requisite to see that the apparatus is en- tirely free from arsenic; and that not only the zinc is pure, but particularly the sulphuric acid ; for, at present, the sulphuric acid of commerce, as ordinarily produced from pyrites, is strongly im- pregnated with arsenious acid.* And from facts which have come under my observation, I may add that hydro-chloric acid (muriatic acid) pro- duced through the agency of such sulphuric acid is also impregnated with arsenic. I have not yet * Since this paper was read, I have found 1000 grains, by weight, of a commercial sample of concentrated sulphuric acid, to contain 54 grains of arsenious acid. PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 611 seen any nitric acid produced through the agency of the impure sulphuric; but, probably, in such, arsenic would likewise be found. Before using any one of the three acids, we cannot be too careful in minutely examining its purity. In Mr. Marsh’s communication to the Society of Arts, he suggests determining the purity of the zinc by putting a bit of it into the apparatus, with some diluted sulphuric acid only; and if the gas obtained on being set fire to, as it issues from the jet, will deposit no metallic film on a bit of flat glass submitted to the flame, and yield no white sublimate within an open tube; the zinc may be regarded as in a fit state for use. The purity of the zinc being known, the like process might, of course, be resorted to in determining the fitness of the sulphuric acid for use ; but, I will remark as a caution, that in determining the freedom of either the zine, or the acid, or the ap- paratus from arsenic, it is much preferable to hold a cold substance of large bulk to the flame, froma small jet, instead of a bit of glass, for I have found that when the gas contains only an exceedingly mi- nute quantity of arsenic, a distinct metallic deposit 612 ON DETECTING THE cannot be obtained upon a small bit, or thin piece, of glass, and the result of the experiment is such as would lead one to suppose that the materials are fit to be used in an investigation of poisoning ; but when a coid solid substance of the bulk of several cubic inches, as, for instance, the thick end of a Wedewood’s ware pestle, is held to the flame, a dense metallic crust may be obtained: the rea- son of this is easily explained,—the heat com- municated to a small bit, or thin piece, of glass, by the combustion of the hydrogen, soon becomes so great as to keep the arsenic in a volatile state; but a large solid substance is a long time in be- coming hot, and, consequently, upon it the metal continuously, though slowly, and by little and little, deposits, until ultimately a very distinct and even dense crust is obtained. It is obvious, that if this precaution of holding a large cold substance to the flame be not attended to in testing the purity of the materials, and if then, by the application of such large substance to the flame of gas produced after the introduction, into the apparatus, of any matter suspected to contain arsenic, a deposit of that metal be obtained, a very great risk is run of forming an erroneous and dangerous decision. In consequence of the sulphuric acid of com- e PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 613 merce containing arsenic, it cannot but be expect- ed that many of the ingredients or compounds into which that acid enters as a constituent, as well as some of those of which it is not a consti- tuent, but in the formation of which it has been employed as an agent, will be liable to be more or less contaminated with arsenic. I have detected arsenic in the sulphate of potash (commonly known in chemical manufactories under the name -of “sal enixum’’), though in the formation of this salt a considerably high temperature had been employed, which many persons probably might suppose would have had the effect of expelling all the arsenic. ‘There is reason to expect its pre- sence in alum, not only since such sulphate of potash as I have mentioned is used in alum making, but also as sulphuric acid is directly applied in the formation of the sulphate of alumina used.* And, the probability arises, that food may in some instances be contaminated with it; alum being an article which bakers often use in admix- ture with the other usual constituents in the mak- * Since writing the above, I have obtained a commercial sample of alum, which had been produced by the aid of pyrites sulphuric acid, and found it to be accompanied by a trace of arsenic. 614 ON DETECTING THE ing of bread.* Hence, in investigating whether or not, in any instance, poison has been inten- tionally and maliciously administered ; it is indis- pensable, when, on testing, we certainly detect the presence of arsenic, to ascertain completely that what we detect has not had its introduction from some accidental source ; no less is it the duty of a court of judicature to receive with the most scrutinous examination all evidence tendered on the subject, particularly when the quantity of arsenic detected is but small; and, from the facts and probabilities to be gathered from what I have adduced in this paper, together with the circum- stance of the great lack of chemical science among the generality of the members of the bar, I feel that I may, without hesitation, express my strong belief, that a person standing accused of having wilfully caused the death of another by poison, is far from being sure to have that fair treatment which he has a right to expect from a court whose only object is to deal out impartial justice, * It is very likely, that vinegar may hereafter (when pyrites acid has got into more general use than at present) be found to contain arsenic; the manufacturers of vinegar being in the habit of adulterating it with sulphuric acid, which the law allows them to do to a limited extent. PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. 615 if the counsel employed for his defence be not assisted by the evidence, or instruction, of some one skilled in the principles and practice of che- mistry. BottTon-LE-Moors, Jan. 25th, 1841. APPENDIX TO THE FOREGOING PAPER. In the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, published yesterday, I find a com- munication from Mr. Marsh, “ On testing for Arsenic and Antimony, by Hume's Process,” in which he sabmits to the readers of that journal, a modification of the mode of applying Hume’s test (the ammoniacal nitrate of silver) which he described in the said journal, published October, 1839. Instead of the drop of water, suspended to the inverted glass, being held over the flame of gas, and the ammoniacal nitrate of silver being afterwards applied, he, at once, having moistened one side of a piece of glass with the test solution, holds it, with the moistened side downwards, over the flame, when, if arsenic be present, the charac- teristic yellow precipitate is produced, and, if 616 DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF ARSENIC. antimony be present, a white precipitate is ob- tained, while, if neither arsenic nor antimony be present, the silver of the test liquor is reduced to the metallic state. In this modification of the application of Hume’s test, there is nothing whereby any of the doubt can be removed, as to whether a yellow precipi- tate produced is the consequence of the action of arsenious acid, or of phosphoric acid upon the test. See pages 600 and 601, of this volume. H. H. WATSON. June 2nd, 1841. OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS ACCOUNTS LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS OF NOVEMBER 3rd, 1834. BY JOHN DALTON, ‘D.C.L, F.R.S.S. L. & E. MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, &c., &c. (Read 26th December, 1834.) On the 3rd of November, 1834, in the evening, I observed a horizontal light very conspicuous in the magnetic north; but could not distinguish Streamers, it continued without much change for two or three hours. It was afterwards stated to me that Streamers had been seen in the early part of the evening. 'A little before eight o’clock (true mean time) I was informed by two of my pupils that a fine Al 618 ON THE LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, arch to the south was observable; on looking I beheld a beautiful and brilliant well defined arch crossing the magnetic meridian at right angles;. its summit was 10°+ to the south of the zenith, about 4 or 5 degrees broad, and extending from about 20 degrees altitude east to 20 degrees west. It continued, without any sensible varia- tion in position, for about one quarter of an hour after I saw it, and it had been seen for a con- siderable time before eight. The star Almach (foot of Andromeda) was near the magnetic meridian, and the arch was as far above it as the breadth of the arch by estimation. The arch soon advanced to the south about 20 degrees and became fainter, but continued visible till half or three quarters past eight o’clock, when it entirely vanished. About half-past eight a bright falling star shot from the south-east along the line of the arch from east towards the west about 30 degrees of altitude—its course was from 5 to 10 degrees in extent. The Aurora in the north continued long after. The appearance of an auroral arch, such as was presented on the evening of the 3rd of November last, isa rare phenomenon. I do not remember to have seen more than one before, ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS. 619 and that was nearly forty-two years since ; it is described at length in my Meteorological Obser- vations, published soon afterwards. ‘There was another very fine Aurora seen in 1826, of which I wrote an account published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society the same year. This was extensively seen, and variously described by observers, from Edinburgh to Warrington. It ought to have been seen at Manchester, but probably the cloudy atmosphere prevented ; some streamers however were seen here about the time when the arch disappeared at other places. I believe no modern meteorologist has ex- pressed a doubt that this arch-like appearance in the sky is only a modification of the more common appearance of the Aurora Borealis. In fact, the common streamers generally, if not always, ac- company the arch, but mostly at a great distance from it in the heavens, and as if the accompani- ment was accidental. Every one who will take the trouble of strip- ping the auroral phenomena of their optical illu- sions, must be aware that the common streamers are beams of light almost vertical, or perpendicu- 620 oN THE LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, lar to the horizon; but in reality inclining to the south in their ascent, from 10 to 20 degrees ; those in the magnetic north (from the optical de- ception) appear absolutely perpendicular to the horizon, but those near the east and west of the magnetic meridian show their true position, namely that of the dipping needle. The east and west arches, on the other hand, (such as the one on the 3rd ult.) are beams of light stretching over the earth horizontally from east to west, every-where of the same height above the earth’s surface whatever that height may be. I have for the last forty years considered both arches and beams to be constituted of magnetic matter, and in ordinary circumstances invisible ; but when a disturbance of the electric fluid takes place in the upper regions, these beams, &c. serve to convey the electric fluid from one place to another to restore the equilibrium, which occa- sions the luminous appearances. The following accounts of this arch as noticed by different observers have been sent to me. «“ Mr. Paul Moon James, of Birmingham, favoured me with an account of this Aurora as seen at Moseley, near that town. Its appearance as described by him was very similar ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS. 621 to its appearance in Manchester—so much so, that the ac- count in one place would do for the other. A beautiful luminous arch of red and white light stretched across the sky from nearly east to nearly west—its highest point a few degrees south of the zenith. It varied occasionally in colour and intensity and faded away gradually, lasting from about a quarter before to nearly half after eight.” Mr. William Hadfield’s account of the Aurora Borealis, as seen by him on the 3rd. of Novem- ber, 1834, at Cornbrook, near Manchester, Latitude, 53° 28’ 4" North. Longitude, 2° 14’ O” West. “ At 7h. 45m. P.M., a luminous arch was visible nearly at right angles with the north pole. The eastern end appeared to rest on Jupiter, which was then about 21 degrees above the horizon, the sky being cloudy below ; but the arch was visible through small openings between the clouds. The eastern end of the arch appeared to terminate in the horizon, about 8 degrees north of east; from Jupiter upwards, it passed about 4 degrees north of the Pleiades, about 2 degrees south of Algol, in Caput Medusz, about 4 degrees north of Almach, in Andromeda, and about 4 degrees south of Shedir, in Cassiopeia; its greatest altitude being about 2 degrees south of the zenith, passing over Aided, in Cygnus, and Gamma, in Lyra, proceeding to the western horizon, about 44 degrees south of Ras Alhagus, in Serpentarius, and terminating about 10 degrees south of west. From 7h. 45m. to 8h. 15m. P.M., the arch was gradually moving to the south. At the latter time it began to be stationary, more 622 ON THE LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, diffuse and fainter than at first. The eastern end of the arch passing about 2 degrees south of Aldebaran, terminating at the horizon, about 10 degrees north of east. From Aldeba- ran upwards, it passed about 7 degrees south of the Pleiades, over Beta, in Aries, about 5 degrees north of Algenib, in - Pegasus. The highest point, or middle of the arch, was about 31 degrees south of the zenith, and passing to the west, about 3 degrees north of Epsilon, in Pegasus’s mouth, and about 4 degrees south of Altair, in Aquila, resting in the western horizon, about 14 degrees south of west. The arch at half past eight o’clock, became very faint and very diffuse, —at nine o’clock, the sky was covered with clouds, which prevented further observation.” An account of the Aurora Borealis, observed by Peter Clare, the 3rd of November, 1834, at Oulton Park, in Cheshire, the seat of Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Latitude, 53° 12’ North. Longitude, 2° 30’ West. “The clouds which had caused the evening to be very dark, began to disperse about seven o’clock P. M., and at twenty-five minutes after seven, a light was observed prevail- ing over the northern part of the hemisphere, being most luminous at two places about 15° above the horizon, one a little to the east of north, and the other nearly west: imme- diately afterwards, many bright streamers darted upwards from the northern horizon, whilst others still brighter, com- menced in the light portion of sky at various heights up to 40°, all pointing towards the magnetic zenith ; a great portion ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS. 623 of them extending to the milky way, and some even beyond it: there were also several broad flashes of light, which rose rapidly from the north towards the zenith. These appear- ances continued about five minutes, during which time the light was so brilliant that the time by a watch could easily be distinguished. At half-past seven the streamers disappeared, the light began to wane, and.gradually diminished until nine o’clock, when it was scarcely visible. « At ten minutes after eight o’clock, the same evening, the sky having become quite clear a bright zone of light was observed from east to west, the upper edge being sixty de- grees above the horizon at the highest part, and the lower edge fifty-two degrees, and consequently was eight degrees broad; but towards the east and west horizon its breadth was from six to seven degrees; it appeared more brilliant in the west than in the east, particularly near the constellations Delphinus and Aquila, where it was the brightest. The zone or arch proceeded from a little to the north of east, in the upper part of the constellation Orion, and passed through Taurus, Aries, the upper Fish, Pegasus, Equuleus, lower part of Delphinus, head of Aquila, upper part of An- tinous, and terminated to the south of west in Sobieski’s shield. In five minutes afterwards the upper part of the arch had descended about two degrees, and the east end became less brilliant and in ten minutes more, both ends, viz. below the Pleiades in the east, and head of Aquila in the west ap- peared to be bent upwards. In a short time the light began to wane rapidly, and at thirty-five minutes after eight the arch had disappeared.” Aurora Borealis observed at Bolton-le-Moors, by Mr. H. H. Watson. 624 ON THE LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, ‘At twenty minutes past seven on the night of the third of November, 1834, I observed at Bolton-le-Moors a little light in the north, which rapidly grew larger: at twenty-five minutes past seven, two arches appeared in it, and also a few streamers, some of which were very bright. This light- in the north soon grew duller, but extended more to the east. At eight minutes before eight; a very bright well defined arch, apparently about twice the breadth of an ordinary rainbow, and a little south of the zenith, instantly shot from west to east, and remained till half-past eight: about ten to fifteen minutes past eight, it increased to double its original width, but at the same time began gradually to de- cline in brilliancy, and continued to do so till it quite disap- peared at half-past-eight : one end of it reached a little more towards the eastern horizon than Sirius ; at first it was rather more north than Pleiades, but at last rather more south : what stars its apex approached I do not know, neither do I know what stars its western end approached ; I think, how- ever, that it extended as near due west as possible. “By half-past eight the Aurora had extended into the west, but was throughout very much obscured by clouds. At a quarter-past nine, clouds had so spread themselves, west and east, that no light was to be seen, except a little in the north. At ten the light was entirely gone.” From the Literary Gazette, November 15th, 1834. (See page 769.) “ On Monday and Tuesday (3rd and 4th instant) the sky presented a most beautiful appearance, the corruscations of the aurora were so brilliant as to afford a very sensible light. The heavens, on the first evening between eight and nine ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS. 625 o’clock, were covered (more especially northward) with fleecy clouds, shining with a mild lustre; from the westward, and reaching to the zenith, was a broad stream of light in con- stant motion. A white bow, the most beautiful I ever beheld, nearly the breadth of the moon, tapering at the eastern ex- tremity, and in appearance like the galaxy, reached quite across the heavens from east to west through the zenith, evidently crossing the magnetic meridian, the stars which shone through it were surrounded with a halo. I could com- pare it only to an immense white rainbow.” “ Wells, Norfolk.” In the 36th, 41st, 46th, 71st, 80th, and other volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, are recorded observations and accounts of auroral arches which had been seen at dif- ferent places and at various times, both in this country and on the continent. In the 80th volume there is an account by Mr. Hey of Leeds, of several luminous arches which he observed :—one he saw at Buxton in March 1774, about 8 o’clock p. m.; its appearance and position were very similar to that seen the 3rd of November 1834. In October 1775 he saw a similar arch at Leeds, but it disappeared in five or six minutes after he first noticed it. Between eight and nine o’clock p.m., March 21, 1783, he observed a luminous arch, which was visible for ten or twelve minutes; and after it disappeared, another arch, more beautiful, made its appearance and continued visible for half an hour. 4k 626 ON THE LUMINOUS ARCH, OR METEOR, On the 26th of the same month, he saw another luminous arch, which remained visible about half an hour. On the 12th of April, between nine and ten o’clock p. m. there appeared the grandest specimen of this phenomenon- which he had witnessed ; and on the 26th of the same month he observed three luminous arches. After comparing his observations with each other, and with those made in London by Mr. Cavallo; at Oxford, by Mr. Swinton; Plymouth, by Dr. Huxham; and Wells in Norfolk, by Mr. Sparshal, Mr. Hey was of opinion that these arches were of the same nature as the aurora borealis. In the same volume of the Philosophical Transactions there are accounts by the Rev. F. J. H. Wollaston, of Cam- bridge; the Rev. B. Hutchinson, of Kimbolton; J. Frank- lin, Esq., of Blockley; and Edward Pigott, Esq., of Ken- sington ; of a luminous arch observed by them on the 23rd of February, 1784, about nine o’clock p. m.; and also some remarks written by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, on the height of this arch, which he calculated from the appearances at Cambridge and Kimbolton; the latter being about seven geographical miles north of the former place. He concludes that the arch could hardly be less than fifty-two miles, and not likely. to have exceeded seventy-one miles from the earth, The distance of Moseley, near Birmingham, being about sixty miles south of Manchester and nearly in the direction of the magnetic meridian, ACCOMPANYING THE AURORA BOREALIS. 627 affords more ample scope for a base line than the distance between Cambridge and Kimbolton, and therefore I think the luminous arch of November 3rd, 1834, was probably six hundred or eight hundred miles from the earth; being far beyond the height as calculated by Mr. Cavendish, of that which was seen at Cambridge, Kimbolton, &e. . gS age arpacdonnis hey shy Reeni-Rod Se Melibalaia 3 PiniedBe.& thse, Bea B. Hahebiasod, of: Kirklin; Skee a Beg RG Bence! Bothy: jak Kitwand Pig, Jeet ile iA e ashen ig have escent vreotyon os Sete ; ie i: RS Ne eo rete eR 9, ¢ : i: Baca a nbcicidh: ‘wos? “inh st 2 3 “quiles wrath of Ms hte Bay 30 ar Henpenet wen INDEX. A AusBert, Dominique, L.L.D., on the Rohan Potatoe, 394 ;— his process of Carbonizing Turf without close vessels, 399. Arrow-headed Character, its relation to our Modern Alpha- bet, 519. Anthracite Cast Iron, Inquiry into the Strength and other properties of it, 524. Arsenic, Method of detecting its presence, 590. Aurora Borealis, Remarkable one, 617. B. Babylonian, or Arvow-headed Character, Remarks on the Origin of the, 485. Barometer, Observations on the, at. Manchester for forty- seven years, 563 ;—at Bolton for ten years, 584. C. Carbonic Acid in the Atmosphere, 10. Corporations, Modern, Origin of from the Municipia of the Romans, 33. Cyclopian, Pelasgic, and Etruscan Remains, 325. Carbonizing Turf without close vessels, 399. Coal District of South Lancashire, Remarks on the, 426. 630 INDEX. D. Darton, John, D.C.L., F.R.SS. L. & E., &c., &c., Obser- vations on Meteorology at Manchester for forty-seven years, 561 ;—Observations on the various accounts of the Luminous Arch or Meteor, November 3rd, 1834, 617. ‘ F. FarrBairn, William, Esq., M. Inst. C. E., Experimental Inquiry into the strength and other properties of Cast Iron, 171 ;—Experimental Inquiry into the strength and other properties of Anthracite Cast Iron, 524. G. Grec, William Rathbone, Esq., On the Sepulchral Monu- ments of Sardis and Mycene, 19;—Remarks on the Mural Architecture of remote ages, 326. Greek Letters, on the use of, by the Gauls and Druids, 142. H. ' Haprietp, Mr. William, On Carbonic Acid in the Atmos- phere, 10 ;—On the specific gravities of the vapour of Water, Alcohol, Ether, Pyroxilic Spirit, and Acetic Acid, 158. i Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., His Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. Henry, F.R.S., 99. Hosson, Mr Edward, Memoir of, 298. | Heywoop, James, Esq., F.R.S., &c., Remarks on the Coal District of South Lancashire, 426. ue Jouns, Rev. William, Remarks on the Commentaries of Cesar, relative to the use of Greek Letters by the Gauls and Druids, 142. INDEX. 631 Iron, Cast, Inquiry into its properties, 171. Just, Mr. John, An Essay on the Roman Road in the vicinity of Bury, Lancashire, 409. James, Paul Moon, Esq., Observations on Sculpture, 464. Ivon, Anthracite Cast, Inquiry into its properties, 524. K. Kenrick, Rev. John, On the probable origin of Modern Corporations, 33. L. Luminous Arch or Meteor of November 3rd, 1834, 617. M. Moore, John, Esq., F.L.S., Observations on the effect of severe frost on the blossoms of the Jargonelle Pear, 1 ;— His Memoir of Edward Hobson, 298. Meteor or Luminous Arch, 617. N. Nasmytu, Mr. James, Remarks on the origin of the Baby- lonian, or Arrow-headed Character, 485. P; Pear, Jargonelle, Effect of severe frost on the blossoms, 1. R. Remarks on the Mural Architecture of remote ages, 325. Relative Attractions of Sulphuric Acid for Water, 352. Rohan Potatoe, on the, 394. Roman Road, in the vicinity of Bury, 409. Rain, at Manchester for 47 years, 574 ;—at seven places on the line of the Rochdale Canal, 578, et seg.; on the line of the Peak Forest Canal, 583;—~—at Bolton-le-Moors, 584, 632 INDEX. et seq. ;—at Hyde, 588 ; Table of, at 14 places in the neighbourhood of Manchester, 589. Ss. Sepulchral Monuments of Sardis and Mycene, 19. Salts of Soda, Efflorescing properties of, 78. Sulphuric Acid, on the combinations of, and Water, 274. Sulphuric Acid, Relative attractions of, and Water, 352. Sculpture, Observations on, 464. eh Thermometer, Observations on the, at Manchester for 47 years, 570 ;—at Bolton for 10 years, 584. U. Vapour from Water, Alcohol, Ether, Pyroxilic Spirit, and Acetic Acid, its specific gravity, 158. W. Watson, Mr. Henry Hough, On the efflorescing properties of some Salts of Soda, 78 ;—Remarks on Dr. Thomson’s Paper, on the combinations of Sulphuric Acid and Water, 274;—On the relative attractions of Sulphuric Acid for Water, &c., 352;—On detecting the presence of Arsenic, 590. (1) LIST OF BOOKS, &c. PRESENTED TO THE SOCIETY SINCE 1831. DONORS. Thomas Agnew, Esq. A Mezzotinto Print of PeTEr Cuare, F.R.A.S., one of the Secretaries of the Society. William Ainsworth, Esq. An Account of the Caves of Ballybunian, by William Ains- worth, Esq. Robert Allan, Esq.,F.R.S.E. A Manual of Mineralogy, Sc. &c., by Robert Allan, Esq., F.R.S.E., &c. John Alston, Esq. “The Gospel according to St. Luke,” printed in raised letters, for the use of the blind. » 9 » Narrative of the progress of printing for the blind at the Glasgow Institution. American Philosophical So- Transactions of the Ameri- crety. can Philosophical Society, vols. IV., V., VI., and VIL, (new series. ) 4L DONORS. 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SIMPSON AND GILLETT, PRINTERS, MANCHESTER, » Mink A'S, and ‘et be A tg Eu ty Padi "Naito 4 ty i Roma, TOMize. i ¢ Steamboat ion Seis Dorsgecnent cere Bj noted Gas deine’ oil} 4507), ih %, ele, REO in. eng tae bog 15° what oa Baia “ of “ P : Wy: ee ay oP oe : a fee aia . Yd etal ohh, ; & SveHiragartnt nk a) ri , lig) . patel) Wise Retcweches ‘gt set reap é ps - ha ep oe ph ck es he Wine eos BA oD Ye aoihaaiiteyadhad “Gk anil oe gal imargeill “hasooipe diikinty the Cet rp pees ee Ss Baar ae ae - Hien hninetantiuians, Tiitis.in Dede woh BS Oe atl Jernis# Mite iassso Viner, iypina 3 ca 3 Yeelart Ciieeell * Cie, Quits er AW kine!) vdt Yorhoqadl Mace taays since ‘aa senipeei othe eters ped eiiiyy sn, dig wtcmhere icy 1 eas i peok 2atyitabed- ; ~ eed Ya * +p — ‘the: + oe mast yey. Thomas Pats ses Po ee ool. ae ana wae nf yas ol Akos! > x * fh.” : = . P AN (et Aes 4 F a ¢ a : + 7 . ’ . g Tu ; ~ ag e' + ha ~ “A, “ -. kek) > f ms a f - Pt ne or Serko pe > A a ae ee THE,.€OUN CLL OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Of Manchester. ELECTED APRIL i5th, 1841. President. JOHN DALTON, D.C. L., LL. D., F.R.SS., L. & E., &e., &e. Pice Presidents, EDWARD HOLME, M.D., F.L.S. GEORGE WILLIAM WOOD, M.P., F.L.S., &G.S. Rev. JOHN JAMES TAYLER, B. A. JOHN MOORE, F.L.S. Secretaries. PETER CLARE, F.R. A. S. JOSEPH ATKINSON RANSOME. Treasurer. Simm BENJAMIN HEYWOOD, Barr. Librarian. EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S. OF the Council. JOHN EDDOWES BOWMAN, F.L.S. & G.S. JOHN DAVIES, M. W.S. JOHN HOLT STANWAY, F.R. A.S. PAUL MOON JAMES. F. EUGENE VEMBERGUE. REV. WILLIAM JOHNS. e AN ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Of Manchester. Date of Election. James Ainsworth ....ccccecsseeseseess January 25th, 1805 Ralph F. Ainsworth, M.D. .........++ April 30th, 1839 Thomas Ashton, M.D............000- October 29th, 1824 Thomas Ashton, jun........ceeeeeeeeee August 11th, 1837 Thomas Atkinson .........seseeeeeeees January 22nd, 1813 Richard Parr Bamber ......csseeeeee October 19th, 1821 Henry Bannerman ........sseeseeseeeseeees April 30th, 1824 Robert Barbour .......ssececeeeeeeeeees January 23rd, 1824 James Barratt, jum. .cscsececeeseeeees January 24th, 1834 Samuel Barton ........ Joccamenwaccuees January 24th, 1834 John Frederick Bateman, M. I. C. E....Jan. 21st, 1840 William Calvert Beeston .......eseeeeee April 30th, 1839 Rev. Thomas Rothwell Bentley, M.A. April 30th, 1830 Edward William Binney .........+. January 25th, 1842 Alfred Binyon ....ccccessseeseeneeeees January 26th, 1838 Hugh Hornby Birley.......sseeeseeeeeees April 27th, 1804 Richard Birley ....:.gesceeeeeeeseeeeereeeApril 18th, 1834 Date of Election. James Black, M.D., F.G.S. .......0. April 30th, John Blackwall, F.L.S. ....ccsseees January 26th, George Blake, M.A........csessseeees January 25th, Thomas Boothman, sen. .........++. January 27th, Thomas Boothman, jun. ..........+. October 29th, Henry Bowman. .... .csscscssesesseees October 29th, John Bowman ....ccccssesseesecseeees January 25th, James Blackledge Brackenbury ...... April 18th, Edward Brooke \...cccesccsscaccssedcscees April 30th, Laurence Buchan..........sceessceeses November Ist, George Watson Buck, M. 1. C. E. January 21st, Henry Cadogan Campbell ......... January 23rd, Jenn Woune. Caw es2-2:scs-cesecescesen=- April 15th, Henry Charlewood .............0000. January 25th, Gustavus A. Chaytor, M.D............ April 30th, John Chippendale ...........ssscesccsnees April 24th, eter ath. Ci Ate Ae: oo de cnceubwatecuse April 27th, MAE Noiay WvicPyrccanatcaceatcrnctessass April 15th, Spiel COUUCHL.ssstsestsssccersesecs ones April 29th, Whomas Cooke, jun-- 2.22323... iccedeee. April 17th, Samuel Elsworth Cottam, F.R.A.S. October 20th, James Crossley ...20...cscccscscooadese January 22nd, estates’ COMED ? ste 2a esse eee November Ist, John Dalton, D.C.L., LL.D.; F.R.S.S. tee Bly Gils Sedechaskinecceces April 25th, Samuel Dukenfield Darbishire ...... January 25th, John Davies, M.W:S. .:.:.::s.c0cc0e November Ist, MAVid DOCH A Gia yc vesesis Cove tewevenee April 27th, 1839 1821 1842 1837 1824 1839 1842 1834 1824 1810 1840 1835 1841 1842 1839 1812 1810 1841 1836 1838 1837 1839 1833 1794 1822 1816 1804 Date of Election. Joseph Cheeseborough Dyer............ April 24th, Rt. Hon. Lord F. Egerton, M.P.,F.G.S. Ap. 15th, Edwards Ethelston............ceserseseees April 28th, Michard Mayans oa sasce000000-cb0scesnteap April 28th, William Fairbairn, M.I.C.E. ......October 29th, Thomas Fawdington ........sssessceeseee April 29th, David Gibson Fleming............... January 25th, William Fleming, M.D. ............00+ April 18th, Pachard, Mint 2. .0d.0.te