/ J ■v..:->. UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY SPECIAL COLLECTIONS S 108 P54 V.3 . • JV.O J o v.S Trottpzna> GEOIie:B llLlTMEIi JLateViceJPjresideiiLt o£€hL?]F]hila V. 3 CONTENTS. Page. Preface^ - - - - - - iii Laws of the Philadelfihia Society for promoting Agriculture^ ix Officers of the Society^ - - - - - xvi List of members elected since the fiublication of the last vol, xvii Exiilanation of the Medal, Resolution of the Society, Introductory Lecture to a course of lectures upon comparative anatomy^ and the diseases of domestic animals^ - - xix Additions to the Library.^ - - - - Ixx Biographical Sketch of George Clymer, late vice-president of the Society, - - - - - " l^xv CONTENTS OF THE MEMOIRS. I. On the cultivation of the vincy by Timothy Matlack, II. On hedges, by Richard Peters, III. On hedging and ditching, by William Mill, Delai^ar^ county, - . - - IV. On French rye, and Syrian or Jerusalem wheat, by Rich ard Peters, - - - * - V. Remarks on different grains, by the same, VI. On a simple wheat drill, by John Lorain, with a plate, VII. On the use of lime in England, by James Eckroyd, Phi ladelfihia county, - - - - VIII. On cyder makings by Henry Wynkoop, Bucks county, IX. On various agricultural topics, by James Eckroyd, Phila delphia county, . - - - - X. Case of croup in a calf, by Richard Peters, XI. Onforin grass, by the same, XII. On the diseases of sheep, and the similarity of their na ture with the prevalent complaints of mankind, by Dr. Pe trikin, .----- 1 9 11 17 19 32 37 43 50 58 63 78 CONTENTS. Pag-e. XIII. On the agriculture of England^ on mariures^ converti- ble husbandry^ and soilings by John Lorain^ - - 84 XIV. Observations ujion the agriculture and roads of the neiu settlements in Pennsylvania^ ivith hints for imfirove- ment^ by John Lorain^ of Philifisburg^ Pennsylvania^ - 98 XV. Observations on the comparative value of soilsy by the same, - - - - - . - 103 XVI. Account of the modes fiursued in clearing la7id in Penn- sylvania, and on the fences in new settlements^ by the same^ 112 XVII. jin account of some experiments with sulfihuret of ba^ rytes as a manure', by Dr. Isaac Chajiman., of Bucks county., 120 XVIII. On the cultivation and use of the mangel wurtzel^ or scarcity root^ by Richard Peters^ - - - 126 XIX. On fax mills ^ by William J\!'eill^ of Delaware county^ with a filatCy - - - - - -135 XX. Account of the Cayuga lake gy^isum^ by Jacob Cist., of Wilkesbarre, • - - - --138 XXI. Observations on the Jiro/iriety of a farmer living on the produce of his ow?i land., by James Tilton, M, D. - 142 XXII. On plantvig Indian corn., by John Steele., - - 151 XXIII. On trench ploughing for Indian corn., and on courses ofcropsyby William Bakewtll, - - - - 155 XXIV. A short historical sketch of agricultural improvements in the county of Roxburgh, (Scotland,) with some account of the means whereby it was accomplished, by John Jang, 158 XXV. On the haws, or hooks, (so called,) in horses^ by Rich- ard Peters, - - - - - - 167 XXVI. 071 breeding in and in, by the satne, - - 171 XXVII. Observations on Guinea grass, by S. Brown, M. D. JVatchez, Mississippi territory, - - - - 173 XXVIII. Account of a crab apple orchard, by Henry Wyn^ koop, of Bucks county., - - - - - 189 XXIX. Progress of Col. Taylor's hedge, and on cultivating Indian cor?:, agreeably to a plan formerly suggested,^ • 195 XXX. 0?i the great damage to apple trees by bad pruning, by the Rev. Dr. Mcholas Collin, - - - 199 CONTENTS. Page. XXXI. On lime and marls, by John Lang 407 LXI. On succession of timber, by Richard Peters, -. - 411 LXII. On Duckefs skim coulter, with a cut, by the same, 413 LXIIL Oil scalded cream, coinmrniicated by a correspondent, to Dr. Robert H. Rose, of Susquehanna county, Penn. 419 LXIV. On the disease in wheat, mentioned in the Agricultu- ral Memoirs, vol. 1, by James Mease, M. D. - - 422 LXV. Facts relative to the preparation of a dry leaven or yeast, for making good bread, by Samuel L. Mitchell, M. D, 427 LXVI. On the cultivation of the barilla plants in the United States, by Joseph Correa de Serra, - - - 432 LXVII. On engrafting the chesnut tree, by J. Mease, M. D. 435 LXVIII. yidditional observation^ on trimming hedges ; on the vegetation of haws ; and the ijijurious effects of the wal- nut and cedar tree on them, by James Mease, M. I). - 439 CONTENTS OF THE APPENDIX. I. Description of Fisher's swivel headed churn staffs to faci- litate the inaking of butter, - - - . i II. On the natural history and medical effects of the secale cornutuniy or ergot, by Oliver Prescott, A. M. - - 5 III. Directions from the Farming Society of Ireland, for treat" ment of sheep, ^c. - - - - - II IV. Information concerning coarse wool,for the cheapest sup- ply of very strong and useful woollens a?id worsteds, - 15 CONTENTS. Page. V. Practicability of a canal between the head of Seneca lake with Tioga creek^ by Philip, Churchy - - - 23 VI. Shepherd's dog ^ from the Sportsman^ s Cabinet^ - - 36 VII. Account of the Pyracantha^ or evergreen thorn, by Tho- mas Main, - - - - - - 42 VIII. On potatoes, by Arthur Young, - - - 54 IX. On internal improvements, by roads, canals, Ijfc, by W. J. Duane, - - - - . - 59 X. Pruning, and after management of hedges, by Robert So- merville ; from communications to the board of agriculture of England, voL 2, page A7, London, \^05, - - 78 XI. On sheep folding ; from a publication on manures, draivn up for the board of agriculture, England, by Robert Somer- ■ville, of Haddington. London, 1795, - - - 82 XII. On the same, from Davis's survey of Wiltshire, drawn up for the board of agriculture, England, • - 86 XIII. On barilla as a manure. Communicated to the president of " the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture,"* by Robert Barclay, Esq. London. - - -87 XIV. On mixing lime and stable manure, - - 94 XV. Mangel wurtzel, winter food for cattle, - - 97 XVI. Mode of analysing and testing gypsum ; from Cooper* s Emporium, new series, vol. I, page 325, - - 104 XVII. Professor Cooper's analysis of various specimens of Pennsylvania limestone. Cooper's Emporium, new series, vol. \, page 318, - - - - - 106 XVIII. Observatio7is on the culture of sumnier wheat, or spring wheat ; from a pamphlet by C. T. Skurray, Esq, of Devonshire. London, 1813, - - - -114 XIX. On the cultivation of carrots, - - - 115 XX. Plaster and salt, - - - - - 119 XXI. On the duration of posts, when their natural position is reversed, - - - - - - 170 CONTENTS. CUTS. Page. I. Horse hay rake, - - - - - 2 1 3 II. Corn shelling Diachine, - ... 250 III. Mr. KdWs hedges^ - . - . - 382 IV. Wheat rubber, ..... 400 V. Ducket* s skhn coulter filough, - - - . 418 VI. Breast filough, - - - . . 425 VII. Grafting, . - . - - - 437 VIII. Swi-v el headed churn staff, jlpfiendix, - - 3 IX. Forms of ridges. Jpfiendix, - - - - 101 PLATES. I. Portrait of Mr, Clynier, - - - , 1 II. The Society's medal, III. Wheat drill, - - . ... 35 IV. Flax mill, - - - - - - 137 V. Shepherd's dog, - - - - -373 VI. Batterer's corn grinder, . - - - 399 VII. Potatoe or turnip slicer, - » at the end, NOTICES. On turnips, - - - - ^ at the end. Scavenger eels, - - . - . do. Description of a potatoe or turnip slieer, - - do. PREFACE. IN presenting to agriculturists our third volume, we evince our desire to promote their interests, by promulgating all the information our correspondents have favoured us with, on the subjects we deem generally important. Some, of minor consideration, have been omitted. But we thank- fully acknowledge, the public and patriotic motives of all. We should be highly gratified by the increase in number of our correspondents ; because it would evidence an increase of a spirit of true patriotism, in thus diffusing a knowledge of the art, by which the great body of our citizens^ in this agricultural country, not only gain a plentiful subsistence, but contribute to that of others ; and mainly augment the public prosperity. The reception given to our former pub- lications, justifies a hope, that the present will be favour- ably, and, we trust, profitably accepted. AVe conceive that it will not suffer by a comparison w ith our former volumes ; as many subjects are brought forward well worthy attention. If the circumstances of our country require an extension of domestic manufactures, and especially of those in which capitalists engage ; the labours of the husbandman should be encouraged, as all-important to them. Whilst our belligerent situation blocks up the channels of external commerce, and calls our citizens to the fields of warfare, thereby abstracting from agriculture, the labour- ers it demands ,• it is the more necessary to know how to use the number spared to us, with the greatest economy and ad- vantage. In such case we must endeavour to raise the great- est product, from the more limited surface to which our ca- voL. III. a iv Freface* ' ' ■ ' - — ■ ' ■ ■■■■ ■ ■' ' ■■ ' -'• ■'^' ■ pabilities, as to labour and means, reduce us. That this can be done, in no small degree, by superior attention and management, no doubt ought to be entertained. In the stages of advance to the state of prosperity, with which, heretofore, we have been blessed ; constant proofs have been afforded, of the increase of products, by improvements in our style and systems of husbandry. Let any who recollect, (as some of us do,) the forlorn situation of our old settlements, before the Flaster and Clover-Husbandry was introduced, and be- came general, now view the fields transformed from barren- ness to fertility ; and contemplate the enviable state of com- fort and wealth enjoyed by their present possessors. They are the owners of the soil they cultivate ; which has grown fruitful and durably profitable, under the labours of their own hands. The *♦ 52c vos non voUs^' of other countries, is inapplicable here. — Let, then, those who have thriven, teach, by their encouragement to the diffusion of agricultural in- formation, those who require it, to thrive. It is a duty de- manded of them, in return for the blessings they enjoy. Our new countries, owing to the circumstances in which the first settlers are placed, are incapable of exhibiting pat- terns in the art of husbandry. This must be done, in our old settlements. It can be, and has been, accomplished ; so as to exceed, in uniformly profitable product, any thing known by the cultivators of newly cleared lands. Such lands may, and do, throw up luxuriant crops, for a short period ; but their continuance, in a constant and systematical succes- sion, is not experienced. A¥hen they are exhausted by bad management, other lands must be sought for ; to be also worn out by similar ill-treatment. No farmers of well and long cultivated fields, now wish to sacrifice the remnants of their timber, to the acquisition of a new surface. They know the advantages of renovated old lands. But much as they know, they have yet much to learn. A life may be spent in acquiring information, from individual experience. But knowledge is soon gained, from publications in which Preface. v '■■..'■ ■ ' , . ■ the experience of many is concentrated. It were to be ear- nestly desired, that our farmers were more generally sensi- ble of this important truth. We have endeavoured to pro- mulgate information, (and should rejoice in additions to it,) highly useful to those, whose lots are cast , either in old or new settlements. If a continuance of the contest in which we are, unhappilyv engaged, should turn the attention and industry of many of our citizens who have heretofore been employed in other pursuits, to the choice or necessity of becoming cultivators of our soil ; they will profit by, and should encourage, agri- cultural publications. They know, precedently, the enjoy- ments of good habitations; and to those they too often sa- crifice their means. They should patiently endure priva- tions of their accustomed comfortable dwellings ; and yield, in the beginning, a portion of their ease, to the primary ob- ject of fertilizing their lands, and cultivating them with judgment. Erecting and ornamenting their buildings and rural accommodations, should be a secondary consideration. Yet mistakes are too frequently made, in this regard. It is, however, indubitably proved, in repeated and encouraging instances, that citizens who have no agricultural prejudices to encounter, and have had intelligence and industry, in busi- ness very dilferent from the pursuits of husbandry, have far exceeded old farmers, in their own art. If to them wc can furnish any useful lessons, we shall deem our labours well rewarded. Those who are engaged in the professions and employ- ments requiring a permanent residence in our city, should be more convinced than they have heretofore been, of the obligations they owe to Agriculture. Their daily sub- sistence, and their necessary comforts, and even luxuries, depend, either directly or consequentially, on this first of ARTS. The better the style of husbandry, the more benefits they derive from it. It is no reasonable excuse for with- holding their assistance, or their patronage, that they ara vi Preface, not agriculturists. They possess? and should bestow, the means of promulgating encouragement and information, to those who are engaged in the labours of the field. It has been ac- knowledged, through all ages, that husbandmen peculiarly require instruction, and fostering care. The greatest charac- ters of either ancient or modern times, have felt, and prac- ticed upon, this important conviction. We make no obser- vations querulously, or reproachfully ; persuaded as we are, that many of our intelligent and respectable fellow citizens only require their attention to be called to the subject. If we repeat such remarks, the reiteration flows from our sen- sibility to their truth. It is also prompted by our mortify- ing experience of the necessity which curtails and chills our efforts, under the want of the aid our fellow citizens have it in their power to furnish, with ease to themselves, and ad- vantage to their country. A Pattern Farm, — a Veterinary Institution, — a Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments, — and a Ware-Koom in which to exhibit and vend them, — and to receive and show Models of all new or useful Implements, — a Repository of the best griiins, grass-seeds, and those of esculent rootSf — seeds of hedge plants, as well as those for OrchardistSf and cultivators oi fruits, — distributions of cheap Treatises or Selections, on Agriculture, and all sub- jects connected with it, as school books, and among hus- bandmen who will not buy expensive publications, — were some of the greater and less objects we aimed at. The whole of these would now have been in progress, if not in complete operation. But our voice has been too feeble, and our influence too limited, to elicit private munificence, or legislative patronage and endowment. To those who, from insensibility to the true point of the subject, or disinclination to afford assistance, in any way, assert, that « farmers are doing well enough ; — -and must make their own progress ;" — we have nothing to say. We wish them, however, more just and liberal sentiments -, and Preface. Vll more Avortby of the citizens of a country, the basis of whose strength and prosperity is Agrictjlture. Those who feel the importance of generally diifusing agri- cultural information, and creating a spirit of emulation and improvement ; yet believe us (as is too truly the case) in- competent fully to accomplish the task; we cordially in- vite, to — come and help us. — They may easily bring along with them superior talents ; and we earnestly wish they ma\ be accompanied with equally well intentioned zeal, and as persevering endeavours. We have the satisfaction to know, that such endeavours have not been unsuccessfully em- ployed. Those who look for wonder- Avorking nostrums, by which poor and ill attended grounds can be, at once, made to pro- duce good crops; will be utterly disappointed. Nor will they be gratified, who expect lessons, teaching modes of bringing forth salutary and profitable avails, even from fertile soils, without industry, system, and good management. With these, poor lands may be made rich ; and rich soils doubly productive. On tliose who are so occupied with their own performan- ces, that they turn a deaf ear to all advice not falling in with their own ideas; and who, instead of listening, candidly and patiently, to the experience of others, tested by undeniable principles, and practical facts ; fondly descant upon what thcij do, have done, and intend to accomplish, (a propensity too common,) — we can only observe, — non canemus surdis : —we do not address those who will not hear. Ours is not a receptacle of controversy. If we or our correspondents are mistaken, (a predicament from which neither we nor they have any pretensions to deem ourselves exempt) we thankfully receive decent and well intended cor- rection. But with those who captiously endeavour to shake, by disputation and misplaced criticism, the influence of useful opinions, without establishing any better in their stead, — we enter not the lists. — It is only for the encouragement of viii Preface. correspondents who may Lave unnecessary apprehensions on such subjects, that we make these observations. For our- selves, we have had no important reasons to complain ; and we shall carefully avoid affording cause of uneasiness to others. LAWS OF THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. AS REVISED AjXD PASSED AT THE AJ^TJSTUAL MEETIJVG, JAJVUABY 11, 1814. I. THE society sliall be stiled, THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. IL The society's attention sliall be confined to agriculture and rural affairs. III. The society shall have a president, a first and second vice- president, a treasurer, five curators, a secretary, and an as- sistant secretary ; all of whom shall be annually elected, by the tickets of a majority of the members present, at the stated meeting of the society in January ; but if any oflicer be not elected at the annual meeting in January, the oflicer not then elected may be chosen at any stated meeting there- after, on being nominated at a precedent meeting, which nomination shall be duly notified in a public newspaper, in a reasonable time, before the meeting on which a choice is to be made ; the persons, so elected, to continue in oflice one year, and until others shall be chosen in their stead. And in case of any vacancy, by death, resignation, or otherwise. X Laws, the same may be supplied by a new election, to be made at any stated meeting of the society ; the person thus newly elected, to serve the remainder of the year. IV. A quorum for business shall consist of at least five mem- bers, including the president or vice-president. V. At all meetings of the society, the president sliall exer- cise the usual duties of that office ; all motions shall be ad- dressed to him ; and on all questions he shall collect and declare the votes. He shall also have power to call special meetings of the society, by notice published in at least two of the city newspapers. In his absence the same duties shall be performed by a vice-president. And if it happen, at any meeting of the society, that both the president and vice-pre- sidents be absent, the members present (being a quorum to constitute a regular meeting for the business to be transact- ed) may choose a vice-president for that meeting. VI. The treasurer shall keep the accounts, methodically sta- ted, in the books of the society ; and, when called upon, pro- duce them for inspection. At the last meeting of every year, and also whenever his office ends, he shall produce a fair and regularly stated account of all receipts, payments, and expenditures ; and deliver it, together with those books, and all other property of the society, in his hands, to his suc- cessor in office, or to the orders of the society. VII. The curators arc to take the charge and care of all pi'b- perty and articles belonging to the society ; the books and papers excepted, which are to remain in charge of the se- cretary, who is to assist the curators in every thing in which his aid is required. TJic curators are to take measures, from time to time, for collecting all native fossils, earths and substances, proper for manures, or deemed so to be ; and to cause or procure Laws* xi the same to be analyzed; and report to the society the re- sults. TJiey are also to procure experiments to be made by careful agriculturists, of any sucli fossils, earths, or substan- ces ; and to promote, in every practicable way, explorations for the discovery of native substances, either known, or pre- sumed, to be manures; or auxiliaries in fertilizing land. They are also to keep minutes of their proceedings, to col- lect models of the best agricultural instruments ; and report their usefulness and properties ; and cause such models to be deposited in the apartments of the society. They are to recommend to the society, from time to time, tlie offering premiums for any discovery or experiment on the foregoing subjects : and to examine into the merits of all claims for premiums, and report their opinions thereon, Avhcn the so- ciety do not think proper to appoint special committees for the purpose. Till. The secretary and his assistant shall have in charge all the books and papers of the society, and keep the same in exact order. They shall also register all letters which shall be written by the committee of correspondence, or by them- selves, by order of the committee. IX. At the annual meeting of the society in January, shall be chosen a committee of correspondence, to consist of five members, any three of whom to be a quorum, for the pur- pose of corresponding with any other society, or persons, touching the objects whicli this society has in view. The same members shall also be a committee of accounts, to re- ceive and adjust all claims against the society, for its con- tingent expenses ; and the president or vice-president shall give orders on the treasurer for the payment of them. X. The stated meetings of the society shall be on the second Tuesday of every month. vol. ITT. b xii Laws. XI. The members of the society shall be distinguished into reskUnU honorary, and contributing members, Besulent members shall consist of persons residing within a convenient distance, to attend the meetings of the Society at Philadelphia ; and these are defined to be such only, as at the time of election, reside within ten miles of the said city, on either side of the Delaware. All members of agri- cultural societies, in other states and countries, with whom this Society shall correspond ; and all persons of this state, and of other states and countries, who shall be elected for the purpose, shall be honorainf members ; and are hei'cby in- vited to assist at the meetings, whenever they come to Phi- ladelphia. Strangers who desire to be present, as auditors, may be introduced by a resident member. Honorai^ contributing mtmbers are of the description hereafter mentioned. Every citizen contributing, and paying into the hands of the treasurer, a sum not less than Fifty Doiiars, may be elected, agreeably to the rules, an honorary member ; with- out regard to place of residence. Those who thus laudably enable the Society to extend its usefulness, and promote its objects, are invited to assist at its meetings. They will be styled honorary contributing members. All donations and bequests for general purposes, shall be faithfully used ; and regular accounts kept of their applica- tion. Such donations or bequests as are given, granted, made or devised, on terms directing their being used in, or appli- ed to, any particular branch or branches of husbandry, or rural (economy; or subjects connected therewith, shall, with all due fidelity, be so used or applied. And if they, or any of them, shall not be, at the time, sufficient to accom- plish the object designated, in whole or in part, they and every of them, shall be placed in a situation, if practicable. Laws. xiii ■ ■ " ■ ■ ■ ...I.I I . r- to accumulate ; until hj additions of other means, the ob- ject intended can be effectuated. The names, and amount and description of donations, of all citizens contributing pecuniary or other donations, of any amount or description whatever, shall be re.^istered, in a roll kept for that special purpose. They will merit and receive the thanks of tlie society, for the patriotism and public spirit, evinced by their thus affoiding the means of accomplishing the objects of the institution. XII. New members, whether resident or honorary, shall be elected by ballot. And the secretary shall issue notit^e to each person, of his being elected, to the following purport — The Philadelphia Society for promoting Agricidtnre, have elected a fresident or honorary J member, in teslimony of their confidence in his capacity and inclination to promote the objects of their institution. XIII. All elections and appointments shall be between eight and nine o'clock in the evening, at one of the stated meet- ings of the society. And no person shall be elected a mem- ber, whether resident or honorary, unless, at a preceding stated meeting, he shall have been openly proposed, and such nomination duly entered on the minutes of the society. The nomination and election to be in the absence of the can- didate. XIV. The society shall annually propose prizes upon interest- ing subjects, relative to actual experimenis and impiove- ments, and for the best pieces written on pioposed subjects. And in order more effc'ctually to disseminate the knowledge of useful discoveries and improvements in husbandry, the society v»ill, from time to time, publish collections of me- moirs and observations, selected from such communications as shall be made to them. To promote these views, the xiv Lcnvs, friends of agriculture are invited to assist the society with information of experiments and incidents in husbandry. XV. All claims of prizes sliall be sent in writing; and Avhen read, the society shall determine wliich of the claims, rela- tive to each prize, shall be selected for their definitive judg- ment, on a future comparison. This judgment is to be given at the stated meeting on the second Tuesday in Febru- ary, but previously to such determination, all such claims shall be submitted to, and reported upon by the curators. If it happen, in any case, that there be no competition for a prize, but only a single claim, the society will consider such claim ; iiad if the claim or claims be supported an- swerably to the views and just expectations of the society, the prize proposed shall be decreed. Premiums and prizes are equally due to any persons residing in any of the United States, according to the merit of their respective exhibi- tions. X\T. For the purpose of defraying the necessary expenses of the society, for premiums and prizes, books on agriculture, improved instruments of husbandry, and other important objects and contingencies, every member shall annually pay to the treasurer a contribution of three doilars, and any member paying thirty dollars, shall be considered a member for life ; and shall not be called on for any farther annual payments. This contribution shall be considered as due and payable at or before the last day of December, in every year. And at the first meeting in January of every year, the treasurer shall lay before the society a list of the members, specifying who have, and who have not paid their contributions ; and any member whose contribution shall be found to be more than two years in arrears, after the same shall have become due and payable, as aforesaid, provided payment thereof has been personally demanded of him by Laivs. XV the treasurer, or collector, authorised by him for the pur- pose, such member shall be considered as withdrawing from the society, and be no longer deemed a member of it ; and the same shall be entered on the minutes. XVII. New rules, or alterations to be made in old rules, (except at the annual meeting in January,) shall be proposed, and the proposal entered on the minutes, at a preceding stated meeting ,* and may then be made by not less than two thirds of the members present. XVIII. When any part of the society's funds is to be disposed of, (excepting at the annual meeting, or for ordinary contin- gent exj)enses) the same shall be done at a stated or special meeting, after having been proposed at a previous stated meeting. XIX. Still further to advance the objects of this institution, the society will promote the establishment of other similar so- cieties in the United States. XX. On the first meeting of the society in January, in every year, there shall be a revision of the then subsisting rules ; and the same shall stand confirmed, so l\ir as two thirds of the members present, including the president or a vice-pre- sident, do not revoke or alter tlicm. OFFICERS OF THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. ELECTED AT THE AJ^JSTUAL MEETIJVG, JANUARY 11, 1814. PRESIDENT RICHARD PETERS. Vice-President WILLIAM TILGHMAN. Treasurer EDWARD BURD. Secretary JAMES MEASE. Assistant Secretary-ROBERTS YAUX. CORRESPONDING COMMITTEE, RICHARD PETERS. WILLIAM TILGHMAN. JAMES MEASE. ZACCHEUS COLLINS. REUBEN HAINES. CURATORS. ZACCHEUS COLLINS. RALPH EDDOWES. SOLOMON W. CONRAD. CHARLES ROBERTS. A LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. ELECTED SIJVCE THE PUBLICATIOjX OF THE LAST VOLUME. RESIDENT MEMBERS. Benjamin Warner, Pliilad. Alexander Wilson, Philad, Joseph Warner, do. Charles Roberts, do. William Wharton, do. William Meredith, do. Thomas Gilpin, do. William M'Corkle, do. James B. Thompson, do. John B. Wallace, do. Joseph Rotch, do. John Sergeant, do. William Rodman, do. Horace Binnej, do. Mordeeai Lewis, do. T. P. Jones, M. D. do. Samuel N. Lewis, do. Ralph Eddowes, jr. do. Jonah Thompson, do. Joseph Jones, do. Benjamin B. Howell , do. William James, do. Jeremiah Warder, jr, .do. Roberts Vaux, do. George Vaux, do. J. W. Condj, do. Solomon Conrad, do. John Smith, Marshall do. Samuel Hazard, do. Turner Camac, do. Benjamin B. Howell, ► do. William Lee, do. xviii Lint of Members. HONORARY MEMBERS. Caleb H. Parry, M. D. Bath, England. Samuel Emlcn, Burlington, New Jersey. Samuel L. Mitchell, M. D. New York. William Gibbons, M. D. Wilmington, Delaware. Robert Coleman, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Samuel H. Howell, Gloucester County, New Jersey. William P. Dewees, M. D. Centre Co. Pennsylvania. Josiah Quincy, Boston. Joseph Correa de Serra, Paris. Isaac Wayne, Chester County, Pennsylvania. Abraham Eves, Newcastle County, Delaware. George Pierce, do. do. James Booth, do. do. Thomas Forrest, Philadelphia County. R. K. Meade, Millwood, Frederick County, Virginia. Brigadier General Joseph Bloomiield, Trenton, N. J. Henry Waddel, Morrisville, Bucks County, Penn. Archibald Lee, District of Columbia. .Samuel L. Howell, Gloucester County, New Jersey. Samuel Patterson, Edinburgh. Dr. John Manners, Flemington, New Jersey. George Holcombe, Allen Town, do. George Pollok, North Carolina. John Moore White, Woodbury, New Jersey. Robert G. Johnston, Salem, do. Algernon Sidney Logan, Philadelphia County. Thomas Cooper, Professor of Chemistry, Carlisle Col- lege, Pennsylvania. Dr. Petrikin, Adams County, Pennsylvania. Edward OTIale, York Counly, do. Peter Robeson, Philadelphia County. David Ross, Newcastle County, DelaAvare. Bushrod Washington, Mount Vernon, Virginia. ^Ae JJ/{}^ci€/i/^ ■^-^trfe^A-n ^"f EXPLANATION OF THE MEDAL. 1 . *1 plough ;—'and oxen, at rest. One pawing ;— impatient tinder idleness ;-^the other, looking for the arrival of the ploughman.— This emblem is preferred to the plough with hor- ses ;-^to shoxv, emphatically, the Society's desire to encourage the use of oxen, and the breeding of cattle. EXPLANATION OF THE REVERSE. 2. Agricultural implements; honourable badges of hus- bandmen. More estimable and generally useful, than armo- rial bearings. (Q* *^ space is reserved for engraving the cause and oc- casion inducing the mark of approbation bestowed. The engraver has unfortunately not given the corporate title of the Society, which is, « The Philadelphia Society for promoting Jlgriculture.^' At a stated meeting of the Philadelphia Society for pro- moting Agriculture, July 12th, 1814, the following resolu- tion was on motion unanimously passed. The society having been long impressed with the import- ance of veterinary knowledge, and having offered a premi- um for the best essay thereon, are with great satisfaction informed of the merit of a course of lectures, delivered last winter, by Dr. Mease, on ^* comparative anatomy and the diseases of domestic animals;" whereupon resolved, That Dr. Mease be requested by the president to permit the introductory lecture, on the subject mentioned, to be print- ed in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Society. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE TO A COURSE OF LECTURES UPON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, AND THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. DELIVERED JVOVEMBER 3, 1813. Gentiemen, A conviction of the great necessity at present of a course of lectures upon Compakative Anatomy, and the Diseases of Domestic Animais, has induced me to undertake to de- liver them. I had indeed contemplated a course on the last subject, several years since, hut Avas prevented from com- mencing it, hy circumstances that no longer exist. The dif- fusion of knowledge upon the subject of my intended course, although at all times desirable, from mere motives of huma- nity, as connected with the means of increasing the comfort of a class of animals over which Providence has made us masters, who labour for us, feed, and clothe us ; is particu- larly important, if we reflect upon the value of some of those animals at the present time, when a laudable spirit of im- provement induces agricultural gentlemen to stock their farms at a considerable expense, with foreign breeds, or to take great pains in originating new stock at home, for the purpose of increasing the quantity and quality of flesh, milk, or fleece ; and w hen the employment of a large body of ca- VOli. III. c XX On Comparative Jlnatomy, and the valry is rendered necessary, by the war in which the United States ave engaged. — But independently of this latter consi- dei'ation, which is of a public nature, and certainly of suffi- cient consequence to claim the notice of government ; if the noble animal, the horse, considered in a domestic view, were alone the object of our attention, the importance and high ralue set upon him, when his powers for either speed or drauglit, or the beauty of his form have been greatly im- proved, would be an inducement sufficiently great to autho- rise a course of instruction upon his structure, diseases, and the means of preserving his health. As it is very probable that a part of my hearers are en- tirely unacquainted with the subject upon which I am to lec- ture, and even with the meaning of the words " Comimrative Anatomijf^ it is due to the importance of this branch of knowledge to explain them, to show what attention the stu- dy has excited in the old world, to enumerate the names of the distinguished characters who have cultivated it, and to lay before you the very great benefits derived from it, in elucidating the structure and functions of the human body*, and explaining the doctrines of its physiology : in aiding the Painter^ Sculptorf and Engravtr, and lastly, to point out its intimate connexion with Veterinary Medicine. By the term <' Comparative Anatomy" is understood, the investigation of the structure of brute animals ; and its ob- jects are to demonstrate the diversity that exists among si- milar organs, and analogous parts, and to compare them with one another, and with man. It is reasonable to suppose that this study must have at- tracted the attention of mankind in very early times. The slaughter of animals for food, the preparation of the ofter- higs on the altar, by the priest, and the custom of deducing auguries from the state of the entrails;, would naturally lead to some knowledge of the structure and appearances of tlie parts : we know likewise, from the book of Exodus, that names were even attached to them, and the parts declar- Diseases of Domestic Animals, xxi cd to be clean, and unclean, are particularly designated. But Greece first distinguished itself among nations, in the study of anatomy, as a science, as it did in the study and practice of the fine arts; and Homer,^ by the familiar use of several anatomical terms, and the mention of certain parts of the body, and their connexion with each other, shows that some knowledge of the structure of the human frame was then extant. Pythagoras, after an extensive tour to India and Egypt, brought to his native country, the knowledge on all subjects to be acquired at that time, and of anatomy among others, and disseminated it among his countrymen, with great ardour. His pupils, Alcmeon and Empedoclcs, but more especially Democritus of Abdera, extended the fame of their master, and raised themselves to deserved emi- nence among the philosophers of that day. Upon the suppo- sition that all the disorders of the human body proceeded from bile, he endeavoured to discover its origin and course, and by the ardour of his pursuits, and consequent frequent seclusion from the public, laboured under the imputation of insanity, until the sage Hippocrates, who was sent to visit him, discovered his retreat, and while he undeceived his fel- low citizens, with respect to his mental derangement, did ample justice to his industry and merits. Aris'totle, however, was the first scientific anatomist : he enjoyed particular advantages under (lie patronage of his pupil, Alexander the Great, who granted him a very large sum of money, to purchase animals for dissection, and to de- fray the expenses attending his studies. He did honour to the munificence of his royal ^jatron, by hh attention to, and improvement of the subject : his regular anatomical works have "been lost, but he has given much comparative anatomy in the first part of his treatise on animals, and he has form- ed an anatomical nomenclature, which is in part still receiv- ed. Without dwelling on the labours of Diodes of Carystus, and of Praxagoras of Cos, I shall pass on to mention tlic xxii On Comparative Anatomy, and the successors of Aristotle, viz. Erasistratiis his grandson, and Herophilus, who having been protected and employed by the Ptolemies, sustained the character of the school of Alexan- dria so well, that, during their lives, and for a long time after, it continued the chief place of resort for students, from all nations. About the year 160 of the Christian account, Galen, a name familiar to the whole world, settled at Rome, and con- tributed very largely to the advancement of medical science generally, and particularly of anatomy, by his talents, in- dustry in experiments and dissections, and by collecting to- gether all that had been previously written on the subject by the Greek teachers.^ After his days we have no account of any addition having been made to the previous knowledge, in either human or comparative anatomy, for a very long time. To this suspension of the labours of science, the de- cay and division of the Roman empire, in the close of the second century, greatly contributed ; but the finishing stroke to all liberal studies or mental improvement, in the western parts of Europe, was given by the irruption of the Barbarian tribes of Germany and Scythia, first into Rome, in 410, un- der Alaric, and finally over the whole of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, at different times afterwards, until the year 4^76, when the Roman empire was finally extinguished in the West. A long interval of midnight darkness in science of every kind, succeeded in the western parts of Europe. The Sara- cens were at length, in their turn, destined to be the rulers of the former seat of learning and of the liberal arts in the East,, and for a long time they did little except destroy. The burn- ing of the library of Alexandria will forever remain a splen- did monument of their fanatic barbarity .^ Tlieir successors were fortunately better disposed, and encouraged the arts,4 and after the subversion of the Visigoths in Spain, Arabian learning was introduced by them into that country, (anno 710,) where it maintained its ground, and spread through Diseases of Domestic J.nimaJs, xxiii western Europe, until the sera when the genuine spirit for improvement and for science began to appear in the world. A worse enemy to science than even the Saracens originally had been, succeeded in the Turks, who from their first de- scent on the great theatre of the world, from the mountain- ous regions of Taurus and Imaus, to the present day, have uniformly evinced a settled hostility to improvement and in- novation of any kind. In 1055 they pillaged Bagdad, and the ruin of that seat of splendor and of learning, was com- pleted by the Moguls in 1258. In the progress of their victo- ries, but not until after a long siege, the Turks became mas- ters of Constantinople, (the last remnant of the Roman em- pire,) in the year 14<53, and thus became the unwilling instru- ments of the diffusion of learning and the arts througliout Eu- rope : for the philosophers who had made that city their place of residence, after having been driven from Rome, fled to the Italian states for protection, bringing with them their own works, and those of the Greek authors in their origiual dress, and fortunately found the people eager to receive the information they had to communicate^ and, what was of most consequence, the different rulers of the country were disposed to aftbrd them all the protection and support they desired. This spirit for the liberal arts had been revived, in part, in consequence of the acquaintance which the cru- saders had made with iirabian learning, during their chi- valrous expeditions to the holy land ; and the means of gra- tifying it had been already obtained, by the discovery of the mode of making paper, in the eleventh century, and had been powerfully promoted by that of the precious art of printing, in the year lii5, which facilitated the multiplication of co- pies of books. Europe thus enriched and roused made some progress iti medical literature, and in anatomy, but it was slow ^ the popular prejudices, nay the abhorrence against touching dead bodies, and much more against their patient examination, long continued in almost all countries except Italy, and the xxiv On Comparative ^Inatomy, and the consequence was, that Italy was the country in which human and comparative anatomy was for a long time chiefly taught. Upon the general diffusion of the spirit of inquiry in Eu- rope, which continued to take place, the study of human and comparative anatomy kept equal pace ; for nearly all those eminent men who attended to one branch, were zealous in the prosecution of the other. But the sixteenth century may be considered as the Eera whence we must date the re- vival of anatomical knowledge in general ,• during which, we find among others that might be mentioned, the names of Vesalius, Fallopius, Eustachius, and Fabricius,^ promi- nent as teachers. The science was prosecuted with ad- ditional spirit in the succeeding century, after the doctrine of the circulation of the blood had been taught by Harvey in London ; and more especially after his publication of the great discovery in 1628, when a new field was opened, from which both branches of our subject derived important bene- fits, by the new stimulus to experiment which it excited, and by enabling medical men to illustrate many points, before inexplicable, relative to the animal economy. In the course of the 17th, and the early part of the 18th century, the world was favoured with the labours of Grew,« Willis,^ Ty- son,« Collins,^ Lower,io Keill, and others in England ,• Pey- er," in Switzerland ,• De Graaf,i2 Leewenhoek,i3 Blazius,!-* Swammerdam,i5 Ruysch,!^ Steno, and others in Germany and the Netherlands ; Rudbecki^ in Sweden ; and Bartho- linens in Denmark ; Bellini, Valisneri, Malphigi,!^ and Redi, in Italy; Casserius,2o Perrault, G.J. Duverney,^! and others, in France. The collection of facts made by the foregoing anatomists was great, no complete system however was formed, until about the middle and latter end of the last century, when the observations of preceding authors were arranged, and the science was prosecuted with new ardour. We were then favoured with the discoveries of D'Auben- ton,22 the friend and coadjutor of the Count de Buffon, in his great work on natural history, and Vic D'Azyr,23 in Diseases of Lomesiic *3.nimals. xxv France ; Camper^^ and Sandifort, in Holland ; Pallas, in Russia; the illustrious Haller, professor at Gottingen ; Scar- pa and Camparetti, in Italy. In England, we are indebted to William and John Hunter, Hewson, Home, M'Cartney, A. Cooper, Townson, Haighton, Cruikshank, and others, and in Scotland, to the t\yo Munros (1st and 2nd,) for the elucidation of the organs of various animals, and for very considerable additions to our stock of knowledge on the sub- ject. Lastly, Cuvier,-^ of Paris, and Blumenbach,^^ of Got- tingen, may justly be considered as the most eminent contri- butors to comparative anatomy, in modern times. It would be tedious to detail the particular animals and subjects, to the investigation and dissection of which, these illustrious men devoted their attention ; it may be therefore only necessary to say, that scarcely any part of the animal creation, from the colossal elephant to the crawling cater- pillar, escaped their attention ; and that from all of their la- bours, instruction of the most useful kind, and from some of them, of the most pleasing nature, has been derived. I shall now proceed to enumerate the advantages that have resulted to mankind from the prosecution of comparative anatomy. Every well read medical man, who, not content with know- ing merely the present state of the science of medicine and the art of surgery, has investigated the progress of their improvement, must be acquainted with the essential services which have been rendered to both professions by comparative anatomy ; yet as some of my hearers are not expected to be informed on this subject, it is due to the study, and may not prove uninteresting to them, to give a short account of the benefits which have resulted from it. 1. The study of comparative anatomy opens to the mind a source of the highest satisfaction and interest, and tends most powerfully to give exalted ideas of the wisdom of the Author of all existence. In the words of the eloquent Her- der, it "gives man a dew to himself, which conducts hbu xxvi On Comparatwe Anatomij, and the through the great labyrinth of living creation ; and if we can say of any method, that through it our understanding ventures to scrutinize the profound and comprehensive mind of God, it must he this/'^r From a very slight knowledge of the structure of the human frame, the royal psalmist was enabled to exclaim, " man is fearfully and wonderfully made," and had he been acquainted with the structure of the inferior order of animals, he would have found in them additional sources of wonder and of praise, from contempla- ting the infinite variety of modes in which the same func- tions are performed in different animals, and in tracing the contrivances and structure of the organs and general me- chanism of their frames, which are so nicely adapted to theii' different economies and necessities, whether their residence be in air, in water, or on land. 2. In the early stages of society, this study materially promoted the knowledge of the structure of the human body: for owing to the invincible prejudices against human dis- sections, and the prevalence of the opinion that the handling of a dead body communicated a degree of moral pollution to the living, it was extremely difficult to procure human bo- dies for the purpose of examination, and injurious to the re- putation of medical men to dissect them even if procured. The ancient physicians therefore were under the necessity of drawing their inferences with respect to the anatomy of the human body, and the uses of its various organs, from brute animals ; and apes, probably from their external form more nearly than any other animal, resembling that of man, were the chief sul)jects of investigation; and we know from the disagreement of Galen's account of the structure of va- rious parts of the body, with what has been ascertained by anatomists in later times, and from recent dissections of those animals, that it was from them his descriptions were chiefly taken.28 3. Upon various questions of physiology, which from their nature could not be ascertained in tiie human subject, this Diseases of Domestic Animals, xxvii study lias rcnderetl the most essential services. The deer, in the park of king Charles the first, with which he gene- rously furnished Dr. Harvey, served to make some progress in the discovery of the process of the evolution of the foetus^ a suhject that has since heen greatly elucidated by De Graaf, Spalanzani, Br. naighton,^? and Mr. Cruikshank.^o gy experiments on other animals. Dr. Harvey also ascertained, beyond contradiction, the circulation of the blood through the body, and its rotatory motion by the heart arteries and veins, so as to make many complete circuits round the body in twenty hours.^^ 4. It is to comparative anatomy we owe the discovery of the lymphatic system, and the certainty of the use it was in- tended to perform in the human body. The office of this ad- mirable and curious system of vessels, is to absorb and con- vey back to the blood, all the decayed parts of the human body, (even bone itself,) and all those thin, pellucid iluids, that wander from the course of the circulation, that they may undergo new preparations, or be thrown entirely out of the body : and in the intestines, they perform the important office of conveying the nutritious and watery part of the food into the system. Hence they arise from every organ of the body. An opinion may be formed of the active pow- er possessed by those apparently tender, and minute vessels, from considering the rapidity witli which they transmit their contents : this has been satisfactorily ascertained by Mr. Cruikshank, to be at the rate of twenty feet in length, in one minute. His experiments were made upon dogs, and the well known facts of a peculiar smell in the urine, being perceived in less than one hour after eating asparagus and certain species of cabbage; and the increase of urine in the same space of time, after drinking certain mineral waters, lead us to suppose that the activity of the lactcals in man, is equally great.^^ 5. It is to this study we owe the discoveries of tlie cele- brated Italian professor Spalanzani, I)r. -Stevens, John Ilun- voi,. ;tt. d xxviii On Comparative Anatomyf and the ter, and others, on the digestion of food in the human sto- mach, and in many other animals, ahout which process vari- ous erroneous theories had been previously entertained. The consideration of this process, as conducted in animals, with an examination of the admirable organs for the purpose, will form a very interesting part of our course.^^ 6. " Comparative anatomy becomes necessary in ascertain- ing the action of organs. All the functions have ceased long before the human body can be opened, and it is only in the inferior animals that we can presume to make experiments examining the movements of the different organs before the principle of life has escaped." It is chiefly in this field of in- quiry, that we have obtained the correct knowledge which we now possess, of many of the animal functions.^^ Nor can the supposition be admitted, that this study savours of cru- elty : every humane mind is shocked at the idea of wantonly giving pain to any animal ; but when such pain is requisite to illustrate the animal physiology, the sacrifice is indispen- sable and justifiable. Without it, we might, in all probabi- lity, have been ignorant at this day of the sublime discovery of the circulation of the blood, and deprived of the impor- tant benefits resulting from it to mankind. 7. By comparing the internal organization of different animals, we are enabled to distinguish those parts which are common in the structure of every animal body, and essen- tially necessary for the performance of the vital functions | from such as are peculiar to certain animals, and exclusive- ly subservient to their necessities, economy, or enjoyment. I'hus when we find particular organs impei'fectly developed ill certain animals, or extracted^^" in some, and naturally want- ing in a third, without any essential injury to life, we arc then enabled to judge of the rank which these organs hold even in the human species : and by the circumstance of life being supported, and the functions of llic body going on, after a cessation in the performance of certain functions, ♦AC are not only taught the propriety of attempting the sav- Diseases of Ddmcsiie Animals. sxix ing of life, under circumstances which without such know- ledge would have been deemed impossible; but are induced to admiiHi the Avonderful kindness of Providence, in furnish- ing the system with resources, which enables it to survive after such serious privations, and outrages to the animal economy. We had long known that in tlie operation for aneurism, where a wounded or diseased artery is taken up, and completely divided at the elbow, or in a thigh ; the parts below are supplied with blooil by the anastomosing branches given oif from the larger artery, above the point of obstruc- tion : but Mr. Astley Cooper, of London, has shown us, that even the carotids, the femoral, and brachial arteries of a dog, in which the stoppage of circulation, it might naturally be supposed would be followed by death ; may be tied with impunity: nay, that the aorta of the same animal Biay be lied and divided without injury to his health ;36 and hence we are taught the propriety of attempting the saving of a human life, by ligature, in case of a wound in the large arte- ries of the body, instead of amputating the limb. To military or naval surgeons, who are often called upon suddenly to ex- ert their skill, in cases of dreadful wounds, the inferences to be drawn trom Mr. Cooper's experiments are invaluable.37 8. It was by the study of comparative anatomy that we have ascertained the cause, why ouran-outangs, apes and monkeys cannot speak. J. J. Rousseau, with the strangest inconsist- ency, while he laboured to perfect his system, by which hu- man reason and the human powers were to attain the high- est possible exaltation; absurdly wished to degrade man by assimilating his nature to that of brutes, and asserting that those animals had originally been endowed with the divine faculty of speech, but had lost it from disuse. Although the assertion or opinion was contradicted, by the negative fact, that no savage nation had been discovered without an artificial language, while herds of ourans had been found, without any ; yet no public refutation had ever been made, of this absurd opinion, until after tbe yeat 177% when XKX On Comimrative Anatomy, and the the excellent professor Camper of Holland, bj dissecting several ourans, apes and monkeys, demonstrated that no mo- dulatiofl of the voice, resembling human speech, can be pro- duced in those creatures, because the air passing through the rima glottidis, (or chink on the top of the wind pipe,) enters a slit or hole at the root of the epiglottis, and is lost in two ventricles or hollow bags in the neck, causing it to swell, and out of which the air is returned, by the con- traction of the muscle over them, without any force or me- lody, within their throat and mouth.^^ 9. It is essential to the study of natural history: for ana- tomical structure is the only true basis of a natural classifi- cation of the animal kingdom. It Avas owing to his not be- ing conversant with comparative anatomy, that the zoologi- cal arrangement of the celebrated Linnaeus is deficient ; and to an opposite reason may be ascribed the admirable and comprehensive classification of the French naturalists. 10. An attention to this study has enabled us to explain the facts related by some travellers, the extraordinary na- ture of Avhich had occasioned an unbelief in them, and the imputation of a disregard to truth — I allude to the narra- tives of the surprising power of the camel to take in at one time a sufficient quantity of water to last four or five days, and thereby to become capable of inhabiting the parch- ing deserts of Arabia,- and of the practice of the people of a caravan, of opening those animals when they die, in order to obtain the water from their stomachs The ex- amination of the stomach of this useful animal, shows how it is enabled to retain the water, and that it is pure enough to be drank when taken from his body, by men whose thirst is great.35 11. But while comparative anatomy enables us to do jus- lice to travellers, it also furnishes us with the means of putting to the test the truth of various stories of the vulgar, some of which have been unaccountably admitted by men of science,4o Such, among others that might be mentioned. Diseases of BomesUe Animals, xxxi is that of the submersion of swallows in rivers, creeks, or ponds, during the winter, which has long been implicitly believed.^^ 12. A knowledge of the principles of comparative anato- my are as essential to the landscape painter, sculptor and engraver, as the knowledge of the human anatomy is to the painter of mankind. An artist may indeed depict upon canvass aii animal, which without an inscription under it, may be known to be of the species intended to be represented ; but unless he is acquainted with the relative and natural proportions and forms, which modern improvements have shown are connected Avith not only beauty of person but pro- fit, he will not reach that perfection in his portraits or deli- neations, nor produce that effect by his labours, which is at all times desirable. It was this knowledge that has render- ed the engraved figures of the horse, by Stubbs, so much and so justly admired, although done so many years since, (1766, London ;) and w hich contributed greatly to the reputation of the painter Adrian Vandervelde,^^ and a few others ; and although a minute knowledge of the anatomy of all animals is not expected from an artist, yet an acquaintance with the structure and mechanism, peculiar to each, is essen- tially necessary to enable him to delineate the muscles, and their action in various positions of the body, and to prevent the commission of those gross absurdities we sometimes see in statues and paintings, such as a walking horse represented with two diametric opposite feet in an elevated position.^^ 13. Comparative anatomy is as essential to the successful practice of veterinary medicine, as a knoAvledge of the struc- ture of the human body is to the cure of the diseases and accidents incident to mankind. It is owing to a want of this knowledge of their structure, that our useful domestic animals arc so mismanaged by farriers, and pretenders to animal medicine ; and that diseases, trivial in their nature, or that slight suigieal cases often end in death, or lameness. xxxii On Comparative Anatomy, and the which might have heen easily prevented hy a scientific treat- ment. The aid which comparative anatomy is capahle of afford- ing to veterinary medicine, must he evident to every one who reflects a moment upon the subject. " The veterinary art is a practical application of scientific principles, to the preservation of the health of domestic ani- mals, and to the cure of their diseases, in the same manner as the art of medicine applies to the health and preservation of man : and the science on which this art is grounded, and which it requires for its perfect exercise, comprises the na- tural history, anatomy, physiology, and pathology of those animals, together with such portions of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms as are connected with them, either in the way of aliment or remedy, ^< To practice this art with certainty, it is necessary to make a special and accurate investigation of the economy of the animal itself, and to observe minutely the different effects that the different subjects of the materia medica might have upon it, and to repeat those inquiries with the same exact- ness, for every animal that is the subject of the art ; and moreover, to superadd such knowledge of the human anato- my, as may be of use in the way of comparison. "^^ ^ ^i^^ of study like this, requires a leisure and education, far be- yond the capacities and circumstances of those to whom the care of our animals has been hitherto abandoned, and yet such is the importance of the art, that a course of study as long and as circumstantial as that just detailed, is indispen- sable for those who would fully, fairly, and honourably en- gage in the exercise of it ; nay, from the inability of the sick animal to describe his feelings, and to point out the scat of his pain, his pathology must necessarily be uncertain, and consequently we might suppose, that a greater degree of judgment and penetration are requisite for the physician of animals than of mankind. What then must be the feelings Diseases of Domestic Animals. xxxiii of any humane mind, to have a favourite horse, which may have greatly coatrihuted to his eomfort, health or pleasure, committed to the care of the most ignorant smith or farrier, whose stock of knowledge may consist in knowing how to ruin the poor animaP s foot, hy had shoeing, or in giving him when sick, the same drench from a horn, whether the dis- ease he pleurisy or colic ? This regret will necessarily con- tinue so long as veterinary medicine is not studied scientifi- cally, or until medical gentlemen cease to think it heneath their notice ; and 1 may add, until the owners of fme horses will hy pecuniary rewards, encourage men of respectahiiity and knowledge to engage in its practice. Further, it is a truth, that nature, amidst tlie infinite variety in structure, seems to have fashioned all the living creatures on our earth after one grand model of organization : this is more especi- ally the case with those composing the extensive class mam- malia, of which man is the head. The hones, the muscles, the vessels, the nerves, the or- gans that prepare and secrete the various fluids of the body, and those of the different senses, seem to he substantially the same ; except as regards some difference in iorm, size and position, arising from the peculiar wants of each animal. The diseases of mankind and of some animals, particular- ly the horse, are moreover very similar. Independently of the various accidents requiring the aid of surgery, such as ^younds and fractures of bones ; the horse is also subject to fever, pleurisy, dropsy in the brain, severe catarrh, violent colics, dysury or difficulty in staling, d-abetcs or a preterna- tural flow of urine, various kinds of w.>rlns, epilepsy, asthma, locked jaw, and otiier complaints: with the locked jaw, ma- ny horses are carried off in this city every year. The Goitre or swelied neck, which is so prevalent a com- plaint among the inhabitants of Switzerland, of Thibet, and other countries of the old world, and also in the new fron- tier settlements of the United States, attacks sheep and calves -xxxit ^ On eomparative Aiatotmj, and the 111 this countrv, and dogs in Switzeiland according to Mr. Coxe. From my inquiries into tliis complaint, as it ex- ists in the United States, I have ascertained that it invaria- bly disappears when the land is well cultivated, and drained. But the fact is far otherwise in the other quarters of the globe ; (here it seems to be indissolubly connected with the climate and soil. Calves are also subject to tlie croup or hives,« and dogs, sheep and hogs to inveterate cutaneous eruptions. Dr. Sims, president of the Medical Society of London, says he knows the mange-in dogs and cats will give the itch, and that of two sorts, the one being evidently larger than tae o(!,er;« and a friend of mine was aiTecfcd with a lar^e mistule, similar to (he chicken pock, from touching his face after handling an impoi-(ed merino sheep, at tJic time the aumial was affected with the disease called by the French clav^eau, or sheep-pock. Poultry have (heir peculiar diseases! as the gaps in fowls," and dropsy in the craws of turkeys. If we consider the present state of animal medicine in this country, under its appellation of farriery, we see it in as de- plorable a situation, as was the art of n.edicine, during the barbarous ages, when the gross ignorance of its professors brought disgrace upon the art itself, and when many disea- ses, which now yield readily to judicious treatment, raged without controul 5 yet that the veterinary art, like humaa medicine, in the hands of a judicious person, is made respect- able, we may see by the example of ancient times, and by the present example of several nations of Europe. If we Jook into ancient history, we find that before the downfall of the Roman empire, which crushed in its ruins all arts and sciences, veterinary medicine was esteemed among the most important objects, and worthy the consideration of an in- quiring mind. Connected on the one hand with human me- dicine, and on the other with agriculture, it both enlarged the stock of human knowledge, amj improved an imiiortant Diseases of Domestic Animals. xsxv braneh of rural economy.^^ The venerable Hippocrates M-rote a treatise upon the subject—In Carthage, Mago com- posed an elaborate work on rural and veterinary i..ed.c.ne. -Columella, who lived about the fiftieth year of the Chris- tian account, devoted four booUs, out of twelve on husbanory in general, to veterinary medicine. Cato, Varro, Phny, and Ve,-ee, or from the interior, to the vicinity of the sea, are invariably attacked by a disease which is generally fatal. Cattle from the interior of the state of South Carolina, (but only a particular district,) so certainly disease all others with w hich they mix in their progress to the north, that I am told they are prohibited by the people of Tirginia from passing through the state. A singular fact attending the disease is, that the cattle alluded to, have the power of infecting others with which they associate, while they themselves are in perfect health ;5i this I can assert from my own personal ob- servation, in the year 1796. The particulars of this singular but fatal complaint I shall hereafter detail. Pennsylvania has to re.2;ret the loss of many thousand horses, by a disease which deserves no other name than yellow fever. I allude to the *< ijellow water,'^ the symptoms and method of cure of which are totally different from the jaundice, yellows, or yellow water of Europe. This disease, I have reason to be- lieve, is peculiar to North America.^^ Europe furnishes no disease similar to the mortification in the limbs of the New England cattle ;53 nor to that peculi- ar salivation which has Avithin the last twenty years attack- ed our horses, from eating second crop grass, particularly red elover,^^ and which from its debilitating effects, amounts to a disease. For the last four or five months, a new and very fatal disease has prevailed among the horses in the vi- cinity of New Brunswick, New Jersey. 4. It has already been shown, that by means of compara- tive anatomy we have ascertained the uses of various organs of the human body ; and I now can add, that by an attention to the diseases of brute animals, the following advantages have also resulted to mankind. On Comparatwe ^Anatomy, and the 1. We have been enabled to obtain precise ideas of the nature and seat of some serious diseases of the animal frame. Of the facts illustrative of this position, one of the most im- portant to mankind is the knowledge of the cause of the lo- cal and general disease that sometimes succeeds the opera- tion of bleeding in the arm. — For a long time the inflamma- tion and suppuration beginning at the orifice made by a lancet, and the fever that ensued, were ascribed to a punc- ture of the tendon of the biceps muscle, or of the fascia of the arm, or of a nerve ; by others these symptoms were sup- posed to originate from a bad habit, or from the introduc- tion of some poison adhering to the lancet -, but that great benefactor to medical science and to surgery, the late John Hunter, of London, having observed a similar accident to take place after the rough operation of bleeding horses in the neck, was led to ascribe the disease in both cases to the same cause, viz. an inflammation of the internal coat of the vein ; and repeated dissections of inflamed veins, in which the operation had been performed, have proved the accura- cy of his opinion. By the elucidation of the disease in ques- tion, Mr. Hunter has made us acquainted with the true cause and seat of a serious disease, and increased the obligations lie has laid the medical world under, by his other improve- ments in surgery and medicine.^^ 2. We have been indebted to the brute creation for one of the greatest temporal blessings, ever conferred upon man- kind by Providence, in the discovery, that by conveying from a small pustule on a cow's udder a particle of matter, under the cuticle of a human subject, he is secured against that scourge of his existence, the small pox. If before this new source of happiness to mankind had been drawn from that animal, such an event as that Just mentioned, had been declared within the compass of possibility, it would have been thought as improbable as the one I now venture to express, viz. that there is reason to believe, as in the instance Diseases of Domestic Jlnimals, xli here exhibited, the possibility that aa incapacity of being acted upon by the canine virus in both man and animals, may be produced by exciting in them a previous disease. In alhiding to the disease sometimes produced by the bite of a rabid animal, I am sorry, very sorry to be obliged to declare, that it still continues to humble the pride of the me- dical profession. We know indeed its peculiarities and symp- toms, and I myself have contributed to elucidate its patho- logy; but we also know its extreme fatality ,* and with regard to the means of cure, the learned and experienced physician is brought at once to the level of the most uninformed among the multitude ; for, gentlemen, the disease has never been cured, and to this day, we are obliged to remain the helpless spectators of our patient's sufferings .^'^ But we must not despair ; for I cannot think that Provi- dence has determined to permit this disease to he forever in- curable, and can any more powerful argument be adduced for investigating the diseases of domestic animals, than the. knoAvledge of this fact, that all of us are every day of our lives liable to the attack of an awful and incurable malady from one of them, and who is the grateful companion, and faithful midnight defender of our houses and property ? On this disease I shall deliver a particular lecture ; and although I will not assert that I can point out a mode of cure, yet it will still be useful to investigate its pathology, for truth is always elicited by discussion. 3. An attention to the diseases of domestic animals is more- over of infinite importance to the practitioner of medicine in another point of view : for by them we are led sometimes to anticipate fatal epidemics, and of course are provided with the means of guarding against them. Homer tells us, that the plague that spread among the troops at the siege of Troy with great fury, first made its appearance among dogs and cats. In the phigue that ravaged the island of Egina, to the south of Athens, about sixty years before tlie Trojan war, and of which Ovid has given an aiTecting aopount." ih*-. xlii On Comparative Anatiomy, and the disease also first invaded dogs, then slieep and oxen, and lastly mankind. The pestilence epidemic among the cattle, in the year 576, at Rome, Avas succeeded the next year by a mortal plague.^^ Dr. Sims of London, informs us, that the scarlet fever which prevailed with very great mortality in the city of Lon- don, in the year 1798, was preceded by a remarkable epide- mic among cats, which is said to have killed myriads of them. In the following year an epidemic prevailed among the hor- ses, which appeared to be a peripneumony, attended with a discharge from the nostrils like glanders. A similar mor- tality among cats prevailed in the months of May and June, in 1797, in Philadelphia, and destroyed thousands of them : and we all remember the pestilential fever that prevailed during the following autumn. Fish too, often experience the effects of a pestilential atmosphere, of which the history of the epidemics in 1793, 179i, and 1797, in our own country, afforded strong proofs.^^ In other cases, epidemic diseases, or a general unhealthi- ness of the air, have been preceded or accompanied by a vast increase of insects and small animals. Of this, a number of instances might be mentioned, from Lord Bacon respecting the plague in London in 1666 ; from Diemerbroek on the same disease in Holland in 1635 and 1636 ; from Baddam, on the plague of Dantzick in 1709^ and from the account of the epidemic at Bengal in 1771. During the fever at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1633, the woods were filled with innumerable large flies, of the size of bees.eo o,ul daring the pestilential time in the United States, between 1792 and 1801, various other insects abound- ed in difterent parts.^^ In particular, during the year 1798, grasshoppers overspread the country; and we know that that year was very unhealthy. In the year 1805 also, the grass was destroyed by thein in the low counties of New Jersey; and the same year, such was the mortality in Salem county, that I was informed the courts could not proceed in i)iseases of Domestic tlnimals, xliii their business, owing to the death of many jurymen by malignant fevers. The same year the yellow fever prevail- ed in Philadelphia. Many more facts of a similar nature might be mentioned, were it necessary. In the prosecution of my course, it is my intention to adopt the following plan : 1. I shall demonstrate the structure of different animals. 2. Explain the use and functions of the several parts, and compare them with those of the human body. 3. Point out the causes, nature and symptoms of diseases in our domestic animals, with the method of cure. 4. Give the natural history, operations and doses of me- dicines. From this plan it will be seen, that farriery, strictly so called, or what relates to the fashionable operations on a horse, nTakes no part of the course. By thus separating the scientific from the merely mechanical part, the veterinarian science will be at once put in a condition to go hand in hand with human medicine ; but it is proper to remark, that in respect to the noble animal just mentioned, the preservation of whose health is so essentially important to us, the proper method of shoeing shall be taught, and directions given for restoring to a natural state those hoofs which have been in- jured by a bad system having been previously followed ; with ample instructions how to preserve his health in all situa- tions in which he may be placed. VOL. IIT. NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. JSTote 1. See the Iliad, book 5, verses 65 and 304. Book 11, verse 574 : other passages might be referred to. JV*ofe 2. Galen was a native of Pergamiis in Lesser Asia ; and af- ter travelling wherever instruction was to be obtained, settled at Rome. Althongh a pupil of the Alexandria school, he did not blindly adopt its dogmas. On the contrary, he thought and acted for himself; as a proof of which it may be men- tioned, that he disproved by a simple and obvious experi- ment, the opinion it had long entertained and taught, (viz. that the arteries carried air,) by laying bare a branch of one of them, in a living animal, and dividing it between two li- gatures. JVofc o. This event, it is said, took place in the year 640 of Christ, and that for six months the Turks heated their numerous baths by the MSS collections of one thousand years. The fact is not credited by M. Renaudot or Gibbon. The writer upon whose authority it is given, is Abul Pharagius, " and the solitary report of a stranger, who wrote at the end of 600 years, on the confines of Media, is overbalanced by the silence of two annalists of a more early date, both christians, both natives of Egypt, and the most ancient of whom, Eu- tychius, has amply described the conquest of Alexandria." Gibbon's Decline, &c. chap. 51. Eutychius lived between J^otes to Introductory Lecture, xlv Ihe years 876 and 950. Abul Pharagius was a native of Malatia, and died in 1286, at Aleppo, primate of the East. His work (Historia Dynast.) was translated from the Ara- bic, by the learned Pococke, into Latin, 1659. JSTote i. Under the auspices of Almanzur, the second caliph, and his son Abdallah, Bagdad arose and flourished in the East, (762) and at once became the residence of the successors of Mahomet, and for a long time the seat of all the learning in that quarter of the world. The exertions of the learned men of that day, however, were confined to translating an- cient Greek manuscripts : they made no dissections. Never- theless the spirit of inquiry was thus kept up, and to their translations did the western part of Europe owe their ac- quaintance with the learning of the ancients. JK'ote 5. Andrew Vesalius was born at Brussels about the year 1512 or 1514. He was educated at Louvain, and studied anatomy at Paris, under Sylvius. In 1537 he was appointed professor at Padua, by the republic of Venice. Charles the iifth called him to be his physician, and he was also physician to Philip the second. He published his celebrated work, lie Humani Corporis fahrica, in 1543, when only about 30 years of age : in this he detected the anatomical errors of Galen, and proved that he had taken his descriptions from brutes. This service to truth raised him numerous enemies. He is said to have been forced to fly, or to banish himself, in con- sequence of having opened the body of a Spanish nobleman, supposed to be dead, but Avhose heart he found beating. Other causes are ascribed for the act, but whatever was the motive, he set out to visit Jerusalem with Rimini, general of the Venetian army, and returning at the invitation of vas elected to the professorship of the theory of medicine in that university, in 1656, but soon afterwards accepted of a similar appointment at Pisa, which situation he resigned at the end of three years, as the air of that place w as pre- judicial to his health. In 1662, he succeeded Castelli in the professorship of physic at Messina, where he remained four years, and then returned again to Bologna. Here he continued as a teacher of medicine in the highest repute, from 1666 to 1691, when he was invited to Rome, and ap- pointed chief physician to Pope Innocent XII. He died at Rome of an apoplexy, in 169i. Malphigi's labours have thrown great light upon the structure and physiology of the human, brute, and vegetable creation ; as may be seen by consulting his Jlnatome Plantariim, Epistolce Anatonricce, Exercitationes •inutomicce, Dissertationes de Utero, de For- matione imlli in ovo, de hombyce, &c. These tracts were col- lected into two folio volumes, printed in London in 1686, un- der the title of MtdpMgii opera Pliijsica el Medica. And in 1697 a third folio volume appeared, containing his Opera Poslhuma. In his anatomical investigations he resorted to what in those days were new methods ; viz. to maceration of the parts, injection of the vessels with coloured liquors, and the employment of magnifying glasses. By such means he was very successful in developing the intricate structure of some of the viscera in man and quadrupeds, as well as the minute fabric of insects and vegetables. He appears to have been the first who used the microscope for examining the circulation of the blood. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. JVeiv M, col, 1, j}. 190. Francis Redi was born at Arezzo, in 1626 ; studied phy- sic at Pisa ; was appointed physician to Ferdinand II, and afterwards to Cosmo III, for w ith the family of the Medici, literary and scientific merit led to preferment, and was sure of receiving its due tribute and reward. After his death, in 1698, Cosmo caused a medal to be struck to perpetuate his name. His letters (2 vols. Svo) contain a variely of medi- J^otes to Introduclory Lecture. liii cal cases and remarks, with observations on anatomy, natu- ral history, and experimental philosophy. His style is re- garded by his countrymen as highly classical. His works amount to 7 volumes 4to. Hutchinson, vol. 1, p. 429. J^^ote 20. Casserius wrote Be voce auditusque organis Mstoria ana- tomica. Paris, 1600, folio, with plates and cuts. JVofe 21. The title of one of Perrault's works is OEnvres dlverses de PMsiqnc et de Mechanique, par Mess, C, & P. Pcrraiilt, (a work of the latter, on fountains, having been published with those of his brother Claude,) Leyden,1622, 2 vols. 4to. Claude Perrault also wrote Memoives jtoiir scrvir a Vhis- toire naturelle des animaux, 1676, folio. He was an excel- lent architect, and designed the superb entrance of the Lou- vre. He died in 1687, aged 75. His life may be seen in Hutchinson's Biographia Medica, London, 1799. G. J. Duverney, professor of anatomy, Paris. Haller says of him, "per sexaginta annos innumerabilia corpora incidit, et a praxi etiam medica abstinuit, iit inter mortuos viveret : multorum certe inventorum aiictor, que aliis nominibus tri- buuntur." Bibl. Anat. tom. 1, p. 626. Duverney was the human and comparative anatomical pioneer of the latter part of the 17th, and beginning of the 18th centuries. ' JV^ofc 22. D'Aubenton gave the anatomy of most of the animals, whose natural history was described by BulTon. Two edi- tions were originally published of Bu (Ton's work ,• one in 4to. and another in 12mo. — But later French and English editions liave omitted the anatomical parts. JS^ote 23. Vic D'Azyr, the son-in-law of D'Aubenton, was a very able human and comparative anatomist ; he compiled the excellent system of comparative anatomy inserted in the J^Touvelle Encyclopedic Methodiqne in which tbe anatomy of each animal is given separately ; and published many papers liv ^otes to Introductory Lecture. ■ ' ' ■ ■ ■ ■ - • — — '^^ ■ —m- -H on the subject in the Memoirs of the French Academy. The anatomy of each animal is given separately, whereas Cuvier and Blumenbach treat the subject according to the organs and functions of the body. JS^ote 24. An excellent account of Camper may be found in the New Edinburgh Encyclopsedia, published by Edward Parker, Philadelphia. JSTote 25. Cuvier's work is entitled Lecons D'Anatomie Comparee ; in 5 vols. 8vo. and a 6th of plates, Paris, 1805. The two first vols, have been translated in London by Mr. Ross under the direction of Mr. McCartney, lecturer on comparative anatomy. A larger work by Cuvier is shortly expected on the same subject. JVoffi 26. Biumenbach's work is in one vol. Svo. and forms an ex- cellent compend of the science* It is well translated by Mr. Lawrence of London. The transactions of the royal society of London contain a great number of papers on com- parative anatomy by various persons : a list of which is given in Dr. Thompson's excellent and entertaining " His- tory of the Royal Society from its institution to the end of the ±8th centmnj, London, 1812," p. 112. The subjects be- ing scientifically classed, by Dr. Thompson, a reference to it will save much unnecessary labour in searching the volu- minous work of the society for a paper on comparative anatomy, or any other subject that he may wish to investi- gate. See also the article " Comparative Anatomy*' in the Philadelphia edition of the New Edinburgh Encyclopaedia for a list of authors and papers on our subject. J^ote 27. The title of Herder's profound work is " Outlines of the philosophy of the history of man, by John Godfrey Herder." An English translation was published by T. Churchill, Lon- don, 1800, 4to. JS*otes to Introductory Lecture, Xote 28. Anatomists might have reasonahly concluded that Galen's anatomical descriptions had been taken from brutes ; he- pause, although he says, he had dissected many of the latter, yet he makes no mention of having examined human bodies : we know also that he expressly advises physicians to prac- tice the dissections of apes and monkeys, and not to lose the opportunity of dissecting human subjects if by chance, the German war, or any other accident, they should find one ; and had Galen ever dissected a human body, his vanity which is so conspicuous in his writings would not have permitted him to conceal the fact. Vesalius first discovered that Galen- s description of the human body was formed from the dissection of brutes, by comparing his descriptions with the actual structure of the parts as laid open by the knife, and for this service to medicine and to truth he excited the en- mity of all the medical professors, who had been promulgat- ing Galen's mistatements, as truths. ^''otes 29, 30. Trans. Royal Soc. London, 1797. ^"ote 31. Harvey's account of his discovery is entitled " Exercitatio Anatomica de Cordis et sanguinis motu," It is an extraordi- nary circumstance that the circulation of the blood through the body, should not have been discovered before tlie time of Harvey, considering that the fact (although not founded on experiment) is plainly asserted by Plato, whose writings liad been so long familiar to the learned world. " The heart, says he, is the centre or knot of the blood vessels : the spring or fountain of the blood which is carried impetuously round: the blood is the pabulum, or food of the flesh : and for the purpose of nourishment, the body is laid out into canals, like those which are drawn through gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a fountain to every part of the pervi- ous body." Iri JV'otes to Introductory Lecture, Hippocrates also speaks of the <* vessels communicating with each other, and of the hlood undergoin.^ a kind of flux and reflux from and to the heart like the ehhing and flowing of the sea," and even mentions the throhhing of the temporal arteries, as an evidence of the fact. Galen also had (as I have before said,) showed that the arteries contained blood as Avell as the veins, bj the simple experiment of dividing a branch between two ligatures in a living subject, and thus disproved the opinion of the Alexandria school, that they merely contained air. The lesser circulation, or that through the lungs, had been ascertained by Servetus a Spanish phy- sician, and by Columbus the pupil of Vesalius, and was known to other eminent men; and Cossalpinus an Italian even men- tions the communication between the arteries and veins at ^heir extremities, and speaks of the valves of the arteries and auricles as capable of preventing the return of the blood, but still it is apparent from other parts of his writings that he had no consistent idea of their use or of the circulation. Further, the early discovery of the valves of the heart, and those placed at the mouths of the large arteries which had been made by Erasistratus ; of those in the veins of the ex- tremities by Sylvius, as mentioned by Stephanus, and the dis- covery of similar valves in the veins of the arm by Fabricius of Padua, the preceptor of Harvey, it would seem might at once have led to the belief of the existence of a similar organization in the veins of other parts of the body, and to a knowledge of their use in preventing the return of the blood, to the extremities, and to the deduction of its having been previously carried from the heart by the arteries. It was this organization of the veins that furnished Harvey with one of the strongest arguments in favour of his sublime dis- covery. Finally, says Dr. Hunter, " the obvious phsenomena in bleeding animals to death, the different eff*ects of ligatures on diff*ereut vessels, the practice of surgery with regard to bleeding and blood vessels, the action of the heart when ex- posed to view in living bodies, ail these so evidently proclaim J^otes to Introductory Lecture, Ivii the circulation, that there seems to have been nothing more required for making the discovery than laying aside gross prejudices, and considering fairly some obvious truths."^ Yet anatomists continued until the time of Harvey to assert that the liver was the source of blood, and that from it, the vital fluid was distributed to other parts of the body. For an account of the opposition made to Dr. Harvey by the envious part of his contemporaries, and of the injurious effects which this sublime discovery had upon tlie temporal prosperity of its author, the reader is referred to Dr. Rush's ToUime of Introductory Lectures, a work which ought to be in the possession of every gentleman, and of every professor of divinity, medicine or law. — The life of Harvey may be found in Hutchinson's Biographia Medica. JVofc 32. See Cruikshank's anatomy of the absorbent vessels, p. 30. London, 1790. The history of the absorbents is curious and extremely interesting. — Erasistratus the grand son of Aris- totle had certainly discovered these vessels in the intestines of a kid, but he thought they were arteries and agreeably to the opinion of the Alexandrian school of which he was a pupil, he supposed they contained air like other vessels of tlie same nature. These vessels are also hinted at by Hip- pocrates, and Galen, but their real use was ascertained by Azeilius of Cremona in 1622, who in dissecting first a dog, and afterwards other quadrupeds, observed vessels contain- ing a Diilky fluid to commence from the intestines; but though he traced them to a cluster of glands which he called pan- creas, yet because he also found a few similar vessels on the liver he supposed that viseus to be their final place of termi- nation. The result of the labour of Azeilius was published with coloured plates in 1627, after the death of the author, and the year before Harvey's work on the circulation came * Introductory Lecture, p. 'H, Iviii ^'*otes to Tntrodiictory Lecture. '"'*'■•■■• ' • ' ■ > - out : for many years both these works excited great interest and the anatomists of all Europe were zealous in verifying their discoveries, and in testing their remarks by the dissec- tion of living animals. At length Pecquet of Paris saw the chyle actually flowing into the heart of a living dog in a regular stream, and traced the source of this fluid to the com- mon receptacle of the thoracic duct. He published his ac- count in 1651 : Eustachius before had seen this duct, but did not know the real use of it : he called it vena sine pari. Van Home a Dutch professor laid claim to the merit of the same discovery the following year. Eustachius had a century be- fore discovered the same vessels in a horse, but he was igno- rant of their use in the economy of the animal, or of their origin. The honour of ascertaining both points was reserv- ed for Pecquet. The discovery of another set of absorbents, which arise from all the cavities of animal bodies soon fol- lowed by the dissection of dogs, viz. in 1651 or 1652. These were called lymphatics from the pellucid nature of their con- tents, and were found to end with the laeteals in the thoracic trunk. In later times, the same system of vessels was found by various anatomists in all other animals that were examined, of both land and water, and in the human brain by Mascagni of Italy, from whose dissections a series of the most elegant plates have been published. The merit of discovery of the lymphatics in other parts of the body, besides the intestines, was due to Bartholine and Rudbeck, who were contempora- ries in the 17th century. The priority of time however by a few months seems to belong to Rudbeck, although Bartho- line first published his account of the lymphatics. Xote S3. Dr. Edward Stevens of St. Croix : his experiments are contained in his inaugural dissertation on digestion, Edin- burgh, 1777 : a very* good abstract of them may be found la Smeliie's idiilosophy of natural history. Dr. Stevens made some of his experiments upon an Hungarian. JS^otes to Introductorij Leclure, Ijx^ New Edinburgh Enejclopsedia, article comparative anato- my, la this way the verniiciilar and peristaltic motion of the bowels — the respiration of birds, and the action of their gizzards, &c. ka, were ascertained. A^ote o5. The spleen has been extracted from dogs and other animals without any injury, and even from man : as Ilaller shows hy numerous authorities : Phys. torn. 6, p. 421, 4to, Lugdun. Batav. 1764. Mr. Shiptoa cut out two fingers length of the ilium of a dog, without injury to him. Phil. Trans. No. 283. Dr. Musgrave cut out the cjecum of a bitch, without any in- jury. Phil. Trans. No. 151. The late Dr. Jones of Phila- delphia cut off a portion of the pancreas of a man, that pro- truded from a wound, and he did well. Xote 36. One dog lived " for more than twelve months, with the two carotids, the two femorals, and one brachial artery ob- literated." The vessels were tied in succession, after the wounds of a previous operation had healed. The dog whose aorta was tied, lived two years, and was then killed ; and the body being injected, the anastomosing vessels were beau- tifully seen. Med. and Chirurg. Trans. London, vol. 2. JS'*ole 37. The saving of life by taking up the vessels of the neck, or the large vessels of the extremities, w hen they are diseased or wounded, is a modern improvement in surgery. In form- er times, death in the one case, and the loss of the limb in the other, was the fate of the sufterer. Mr. John Bell of Edinburgh, took up the posterior iliac artery, in consequence of its division, by the points of a long pair of scissars, *•' at the place over the sciatic notch, where it comes out from the pelvis ^" it was tied exactly where it turns over the bone, and the man was cured, ^* and walked stoutly." Surgery, 4to, vol. 1, p. 423. vox. III. h ix J\^otes to Introductory Lecture, Mr. Abernetliy of London, first tied the external iliac ar- tery above Poupart's ligament, which operation he perform- ed in a case of femoral aneurism. His first and second at- tempts were unsuccessful, owing to the desperate nature of one case, and an unusual occurrence in the other. Mr. A. afterwards was happy in saving two lives by it.^ Mr. FrecF and Mr. Tomlinson of Birmingham, performed the same ope- ration with success, each ouee.f Dr. Dorsey also perform- ed it in the Pennsylvania Hospital, in 1811, successfully.:!: The patient walked on the twentieth day. Mr. Astley Cooper of London, has also tied the carotid artery for aneu- rism, in two cases, the first, in 1805, was in the right caro- tid ; death took place from <^ an inflammation of the aneu- rismal sac and parts adjacent, by which the size of the tu- mour became increased so as to press on the pharynx, and prevent deglutition, and upon the larynx, so as to excite vio- lent fits of coughing, and ultimately impede respiration.'* In the second case, in 1808, the disease was in the internal carotid, and was cured. See Medico-Chirurgical Trans, vol. 1, pages 1 and 222. London, 1809. Dr. Post of New York, has also within the last year successfully operated in New York for aneurism in the carotid artery.q: See also Mr. Cooper's account of the dissection of a limb, in which the operation for poplitial aneurism had been performed, in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. 2, London* 1812. JTote 38. Professor Camper rendered most important services both to human and comparative anatomy. His account of the dis- section of apes, monkeys and ourans outang is inserted in the Trans. Royal Soc. London, for 1779 — vol. 69, and is entitled * Surgical observations on the constitutional origin and treatment of local diseases, and on Aneurisms. London, 1809. f Freer on Aneurism. Birmingham, 1807, 4to i Dorsey's Surgery, vol. 2. eVbfcs to Inlroductorij Lecture, Ixi *« On the organs of speech of the ouran outang*** But as tliese animals cannot speak, the expression should have heen voice and not <* speech." — Dr. Tyson of London who was himself an accurate dissector, had puhlished in 1G99 " ourang outang, or the anatomy of a pigmy compared with a monkey, an ape and man," 4to. without discovering the difference he- tween their organs of speech and voice. Albinus, Martini and even D'Aubenton are also silent on the striking construc- tion of this organ in apes. The merit of professor Camper was therefore the greater, for it unravelled the mystery of their incapacity of speaking, although possessed of organs, (as was supposed) equally well adapted to the end, as those of man. Mr. White confirms professor Camper's statement, and exhibited a preparation of the membranous bag of the monkey to the Manchester Society. Account of the regu- lar gradation of man, by C. White, p. 27 — London 1799. There can be no doubt of the confirmation, nor any difficul- ty in accounting from it, for the want of speech in ourans, apes, &c. Lord Montboddo labours hard to prove, with Rousseau, the humanity of the ouran outang, and accounts for the difference between the result of Tyson's and Camper's dissections of ourans, by the circumstance of the first having examined one from Angola, and the other those from Borneo. See Origin and Progress of Language, vol. 1. p. 344: and Ancient Metaphysics, vol. 3. p. 44. No anatomist or natural historian who grounds his distinctions of animals upon anatomy will attend to this argument. JVote 39. B'Aubenton, by the dissection of a camel for BufTon's na- tural history, had many years since actually found a consi- derable quantity of water in the cells of the stomach, though tlie animal had been dead ten days. The water was clear, almost insipid, and drinkable. He therefore assents to the assertion of travellers, that camels are killed for tJie water in their stomachs. Pcrrault, who dissected a camel in 1676, Mem. dc I'Acad. de Scicn. torn. 3, was of the same opinion^ Ixii J\'*otes io IitivoAiicionj Lecture, but Mr. Home has put the question beyond all doubt, by the dissection of a camel in London, in the year 1806 ; an ac- count of which may be found in the Trans, of the royal soci- ety Lond. for that year. He fully and very clearly explains, from the structure of the camel's stomach, how that animal is enabled to take in a supply of water for future use, thus fitting him to live in sandy deserts, where supplies of water are precarious or scanty. Dr. Russel says he knew an instance of a camel in a Bas- sora caravan, remaining fifteen days without water ; but none of the natives recollected a similar instance. Leo Afri- canus however mentions one. Descript. Africa;, lib 9, p. 281. Dr. Russel says that camels sometimes show a preference for salt water. Nat. History of Aleppo, vol 2, p. 167, 168, London, 1794, 4to. J^^ote 40. Chemistry also has recently lent its aid to disprove a po- pular error, which has long prevailed respecting the origin of the salt familiar to most persons by the name of sal am- moniac, which was first brought to Europe from Egypt, and was said in early times to be formed by the action of the camel's urine upon the sands of the desert, near the temple of Jupiter Amnion. Lemery and Pomet both give assent to this notion, and the latter, in his history of drugs, gives a plate of a camel in the act of discharging his urine, and the mfiss of salt forming in consequence of it under his body !* But the recent analysis of the urine of the camel, shows that ammonia exists in it in so small a proportion, as to render it impossible to suppose it could have the least agency in the formation of the salt in question. The analysis of the urine of camels referred to, was made by two good chemists, in different countries, viz. Messrs. * Pomet on Drugs, page 250. London, 1737. The work was originally pub- lished in French, in 1694. Lemery derives ammonia from atftz-ao?, (ammos) arena, saud. J^otes to Introductolnj Lecture, Ixiii Rouelle in France and Mr. Brande in London, and their agreement in the general result, leaves no doiiht as to the accuracy of it. Analysis of the camel's urine, as given by Mr. Home. BRANDE. ROUELLEu* Water, . 75 Carbonat of Potash, Phosphat of Lime, 1 Sulphat of Potash, Miiriat of Ammonia, Muriat of Potash, Sulphat of Poash, >. 6 Urea. Urat of Potash, Carbonat of Potash, Muriat of Potash, . 8 * Thompson's Chemistry, second Urea, - 6 Edition, vol. 4, pag-e 655. 95 The urine of cows was also analyzed by both Mess. Brande and Rouelle, both of whom agree in stating that potash is the only fixed alkali in them. We now know that the salt which the ancients called sal ammoniac f was common salt : and that the true sal ammoni- ac is not found native. The Egyptians are stated to have procured it by sublimation from soot of cow's or camel's manure, urine and common salt : but from accounts trans- mitted to the royal society at Paris, it appears certainly that this salt is procured by sublimation from the soot taken alone without any addition. Nicholson's Chemical Dictionary, vol. 1, p. 116 ; and 31agellan's edition of Cronstadt*s Mineralogy, p. 4fb8, The soot taken from the chimneys in wbich cow dung only, as fuel, is burnt, is said to furnish the best sal ammoniac. This salt is however commonly prepared from burnt bones, in the United States, and in Europe. From Vauquelin's analysis of the urine of various animals, (Annales de Chimie, tom. 82, p. 197,) it appears that the urines of the lion and the tiger are perfectly similar, and differ from the human in some essential points. 1. It is alkaline, even at the instant of being voided, and hence its bad odour : while the urine of a healtby man is al- wavs acid. IxiT ^'*ot€s to Introductonj Lecture. 2. Thej do not contain any uric acid, nor any combination of this acid with the alkalis. The defect of uric acid in those urines, struck Mr. Vauquelin more forcibly, as he used to ascribe its formation to animal food. 3. They contain only a very small quantity of muriate of soda, (sea salt,) whereas that of man contains a great deal. ■\Ve find in these urines, much urea, phosphates of soda and of ammonia, sulphate of potash, mucous matter, and a trace of iron. The urine of the beaver has a great resemblance to the urine of herbiverous animals ; that of a rabbit, con- tains lime, magnesia, and carbonate of potash, sulphates of potash and of lime, muriate of potash, urea, gelatine, and sulphur. He did not find any soda in the urines of the ca- mel, cow, Guinea pig, or rabbit. The urine of the horse, according toFourcroy and Vauquelin, (Thompson's Chemis- try, vol. 4,) contains carbonates of lime and of soda, much benzoat of soda, muriate of potash, and urea. Mr. Brande's analysis of the horse's urine, agrees with that of Messrs. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, but he also found in it sulphate of soda, muriate of soda, but no urea, potash or ammonia. Mr. Brande found that the urine of the ass contains a much great- er relative proportion of the phosphat of lime and urea, also carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, and a small quan- tity of potash. The urine of both the horse and ass is des- titute of ammonia. The foregoing details of the urine of various animals are given, as being connected with the interests of agriculture ; urine having been found to be highly stimulant to vegeta- bles : and from the abundance of certain ingredients in that of a particular animal, and their deficiency in others, we may ascertain why certain urines are prejudicial, or useful to particular plants. JS'^ote 41. The notion of the submersion of swallows during winter is of Swedish origin. Glaus, the bishop of Upsal first promul- gated it, and naturalists more worthy of attention assented ^otes to Introductory Lecture. Ixv to it. Linnaeus confined submersion to chimney swallows and martins. Kalm his pupil believes the story, and begins the discussion of the subject by saying that " natural history like all other histories depends not always upon the intrinsic degree of probability, but upon facts founded on the testi- mony of people of noted veracity."^ But this testimony must not violate probability, nor be inconsistent with one of the first rules of philosophising, viz. that " like causes produce like effects ;" now, if we find that the lungs of two animals are constructed precisely alike, and that one of them cannot live under water, we must conclude that the other is also defi- cient in that same power. This is the case with man and swallows: both are formed alike, and hence they must be sub- ject to the same laws. Those who wish to see more on this question are referred to a paper I published (anonymously) in the Med. Repository of N. York, vol. 3, p. 2i.l. — 1800. Bar- ton's Fragments, Philad. 1799, Caldwell's Memoirs, 1801, and to " Observations on the brumal retreat of the swallows," hy Thomas Foster, F. Lin. Soc. London, 1813. The argu- ments of this author in favour of the swallow being a bird of passage are indisputable : he has also annexed an index to passages relating to the swallow in the works of the antients, and in modern European authors, which is curious and liighly interesting. JS'ote 42. Adrian Vandervelde was born in 1639 at Amsterdam, and was a pupil of John Wynants. lie died at the age of 33. See further, Pilkington's dictionary of painters, p. G&'j, 4to. London, 1798, and Camper on the connexion between ana- tomy and drawing, &c. translated from the Dutch by Dr. Cogan, London, 1794. JS'ole 43. Aristotle long since remarked that tlie motion or steps of animals in general are made in the line of their diagonal : * Travels, vol. 2, p. 140. Ixvi ^^otes to Introductory Lecture, that is, ill the direction of their two opposite quarters. The absurdity of the error noticed is evident. But the camel forms a striking exception to the rule : he walks by raising the two legs of the same side, the one immediately after the other. Aristotel. de hist, animal, lib. 11, cap. 1. Dr. Rus- sel confirms Aristotle's statement. Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, vol. 2, p. 169, & p. 423. The engravings of the skeletons of some of the animals in Buffon's natural history, particularly of the horse, are very inaccurate. Artists should read the following works besides Camper's, 1. Reflections on the painting and sculpture of the Greeks, with instructions for the connoiseur, and an essay on grace in works of art, translated from the German original of the Abbe AVinkleman, by Henry Fusseli, London, 1765 — 8vo. 2. Count Algarotti on painting, London, 1763 — 12mo. 3. Dr. Brisbane on the anatomy of painting, with 6 plates, London, 1769. 4. Essays on the anatomy of expression in painting, with plates, by Charles Bell, ^io, London, 1804. This last is by one of the first anatomists of the present day, and ought to be studied by every painter or engraver, of either man or animals. J^ofe 44. Gentleman's Magazine, 1790, p. 299. JVofe 45. See an account of a case of croup in a calf, in memoirs of the Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture, vol. 3. by Mi". Peters, president of the society. JVofe 46. Memoirs medical society, London, vol. 5. JV^ofc 47. This disease has prevailed with great mortality in Phila- delphia county during the last spring. Mr. G. Montague gives some reasons, for believing that by mixing the food of fowls with urine instead of water, and feeding them with it three or four times a day, it may be removed. Memoirs of ^^otes to Introductory Lecture, Ixvii Wernei'ian Nat. Hist. Soe. Edinburgh, vol. 1. ISll. Mr. Peters informs me that he cures it by small pills of camphor, given twioe a day. J^Totcs 48, 49. Gentleman's Magazine, 1790, page 497. eVofe 50. Mr. Lawrence, <^ Philosophical and practical treatise on liorses," has justly ridiculed, and with much pleasantry, the absurd farrago of nostrums administered by farriers. JS^ofe 51. I was told by an intelligent drover, that it is the cattle from the district of the long-leaved pine, that possess the power of diseasing other cattle. This species is the Finns Jlustralis of jMicliaux, Pinus Patustris of Linnaeus, the pitch pine, yellow pine, red pine, or broom pine. According to Michaux, the country occupied by this pine commences near Norfolk, and continues in a south west direction for 250 leagues in length, and 40 to 50 in breadth. See Histoire des Jlrhres Forestiers de VJlmer, Septent, Paris, 1810. I would be very thankful for any information on the subject of the disease in question. AV^e see something similar to the dis- ease produced among northern cattle, by mixing with those from the south, in the human race. During the revolution war in the United States, the mixture of southern with northern troops, speedily induced disease, if encamped to- gether, although both had been previously healthy. Se^ Rush's AVorks, vol. 1. In like manner, the mixture of the crews of ships of different nations, at sea, has often produ- ced disease. See Blane's diseases of seamen, page 235 ; and the arrival of a stranger at St. Kilda, one of the remote and small western islands of Scotland, produces a catarrh among the inhabitants. — Martin's History of the Western Islands, page 284. The case of the South Carolina cattle is however peculiar. We do not find that those from other states pro- duce a similar complaint, or any other, when mixed with the stock of Pennsylvania. The fatal disease alluded to, that Vot. Ill, i Ixviii •N'otes to Introductory Lecture. occurred in 1796, in one instance, at Columbia, on the Sus- queliannali, attacked stock Avhich had merely strolled about, or had lain down in a ploughed field, in which the South Carolina cattle had been previously penned for one night ; a full proof of the virulence of the effluvia left by them on the ground. The precaution suggested by the foregoing facts, in grazing, and in armies and navies, is obvious. JTote 52. See Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, vol. 1, pages 139, 154. JSTote B5. See account of this disease, by the Rev. Mr. Parsons, in the New York Medical Repository, vol. 1. JSTote 54. See Archives of useful knowledge, vol. 1, page 398, and Tol. 2, page 400. JVok BB. For Mr. Hunter's account of the inflammation of a vein from bleeding, (Avhich is highly interesting,) see Transac- tions of a society for the improvement of medical and chi- rurgical knowledge, London, 1793, page 18. Also, Dorsey's Surgery, vol. 1. The late Mr. Wignell, of the Philadelphia Theatre, died of this disease. Inflammation in the veins of horses or man, after bleed- ing, according to Hunter, arises from not fully closing the external wound, <^ and when inflammation takes place be- yond the orifice, the surgeon should immediately put a compress upon the vein, at the inflamed part, to make the two sides adhere together : or if they do not adhere, yet simple contact will be sufiicient to prevent suppuration in this part : or if inflammation has gone so far as to make the surgeon suspect that suppuration has taken place, then the compress must be put upon that part of the vein just above the suppuration. This I once practiced, and as I suppose, witli success." If the disease proceeds, bleeding and other depleting remedies arc to be used. Dr. Physick has applied J\*otes to Introductory Lecture, Ixix a blister over the part with success. Dorsey's Surgery vol. 1. ^^ Upon tracing the vessels, after death, from the inflamed part," Mr. Hunter says, <^ pus is found mixed with the blood. In some places the sides of the vein were adhering, and in others the inner surface of the vein was furred over with coagulable lymph." J\*ote 56. The cases of the cure of the disease produced by the bite of a mad dog, in Calcutta, which have been recently pub- lished by Mr. Tymon, Dr. Shoolbred, and Dr. Bqrry, ought possibly to be adduced as exceptions to the general position ; but we must have more cures by the same remedy, before it can be said to be safe. It never has succeeded before in any country. See Medical Repository, vol. 2, New Series, and Eclectic Repertory, Philadelphia, vol. 3, for the cases al- luded to. JVofe 57. Metam. lib. 7. v. 523. JS'ote B8. Livy, lib. 41. JVofe 59, Mem. Med. Soc. London, vol. 5, and Webster's history of epidemic and pestilential diseases, vol. 1, pages 139 and 321. Hartford, 1799. Xotes 60, 61. Webster, vol. 1, pages 86,181, and other places. Mr. Webster has rendered an essential benefit to medicine, by his great collection of facts on the subject of epidemic diseases, and by showing their connexion with, and occasional depen- dence on natural phpenomena. LIBRARY. The following books have been added to the library since the publication of the first volume. FOLIO. The Farmer's Account Book of expenditure and produce for each day, month, and year, by D. Young, Edinburgh. Gift of James Ronaldson. QUARTO. Rules of the West Lothian Farmer's Club. Gift of James Ronaldson. A Volume of memoirs and pamphlets on agriculture, botany, and rural economy, by M. Thouin, professor of agricul- ture, Paris, 333 pages. Paris. Communications to the Board of Agriculture of England, vol. 5. Michaux on the forest trees of the United States, with ele- gant coloured plates, 10 Numbers. 2^ complete the work. Transactions of the society for promoting agriculture in Connecticut. New Haven, 1802. Gift of Samuel Hazard. Proposals for establishing an institution, called ** the plough or joint stock farming society," by Sir John Sinclair. Gift of James Mease. OCTATO. General View of the agriculture of the North Riding of Yorkshire, by John Tuke. London, 1800. General View of the agriculture of the West riding of l^ork- shire, by Robert Brown, London, 1799. Monthly Register, and Encyclopsedian Magazine, S vols. London, 1802—3. Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, by Dr. Dickson, vol. 1, 2, 3. Library. IxsA Letters and papers of the Bath society, vols. 10, 11. Gift of the society. Agricultural Mechanism, or a display of the properties of vehicles and implements of husbandry, with 20 copper- plates, by Captain Thomas Williamson, London, 1810. Veterinary Physiology and Pathology, by James Clark, Edinburgh, 1806. The Husbandry of three British farmers, Bakewell, Arbuth- not, and Ducket, by A. Young, London, 1811. Gift of Mr. Peters. Sir John Sinclair's account of the system of husbandry adopt- ed in the more improved districts of Scotland, Loudon, 1812. Gift of Robert Barclay, Esq. of London. The following five works were presented by Mr. Samuel Patterson, of Edinburgh. Hogg, on Sheep, Edinburgh, 1807. Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, No. 1 aiyl 2, Edinburgh, 1812. Sir John Sinclair's account of the system of husbandry adopt- ed in the more improved districts of Scotland, Lond. 1812. Repertory of Arts, London, first 5 vols. Farmer's Magazine, Edinburgh, vols. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and No. 49 and 50. Memoirs of the Agricultural society of the department of the Seine, 9 vols. Paris. Gift of the society. On the cultivation of the horse^hesnut tree, by A Baume» Paris, 1798. Gift of N. G. Dufief. The following are the gift of James Mease. Two Letters to Sir J. Sinclair, on draining wet lands, by Dr. Anderson, Edinburgh, 1796. Constitution of the Merino Society of the middle states of North America, Philadelphia, 1811. On the Pine lands of Georgia, by George Sibbald, Augusta, Georgia, 1801. , Observations on the agriculture of the United Statics, by Mr. Strickland, London, 1801. Ixxii Library. On the agriculture, manufactures and commerce of the Uni- ted States, New York, 1789. Essay on the mending the breed of horses in America. Bartley's observations on the conversion of pasture land into tillage, and on using potatoes in manufacturing starch and feeding sheep, Bath, 1802. On Fiorin grass, by Dr. Richardson, London, 1810. Report of the committee of the Highland society of Scotland on Shetland \yool, with an appendix by Sir John Sinclair and Dr. Anderson, on the same subject. Edinburgh, 1790. DUODECIMO. The following pamphlets, in French, are the gift of the author, M. De Cubieres, of Versailles. 1. Memoir on the ash-leaved maple facer negiindoj of the United States, Versailles, 180i. 2. On the red cedar (^Jnniperus VirginianaJ of the United States, Versailles, 1805. 3. On the nettle tree, fCeltis.J 1808. i. On the Magnolia Auriculata. 5. On the Cypress, fCupressus Distioha.J 6. On a remarkable marble, called Magnesian Greek, fGrec Magnesien.J 7. Discourse on the advantages rendered to agriculture by women. Memoir on the utility of hedges, by M. Bosc, Paris, 1807. Exposition of the plan of operation adopted at the various nurseries for vines, at Luxembourgh, by M. Bosc. These two last presented by Mr. Michaux. (French.) Summary vieAV of the courses of crops in England and Ma- ryland, by J. B. Bordley, Philad. 178i. Gift of the author. Rules, orders and premiums of the Bath Society, for 1809. Gift of Dr. Parke. Ditto for 1812 and 1813. Gift of James Mease. The following are in French. Elements of the veterinary art. On the Materia Medica, by C. Bourgelat, 2 vols. 8vo. 4th edition, Paris, 1805. Lihrarij. Ixxiii Treatise on sheep, by M. Chambon, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810. Treatise on tbe exterior of the horse, by C. Bourgelat, 6th edition, with notes by J. Huzard, and plates, 8vo. Paris, 1808. Instructions on sheep, and particularly Merinos, by M. Tes- sier, Paris, 1810. Treatise on building, en Pise, by Francois Cointeraux, Paris, 1790. Gift of M. De Lormerie. Memoir on a cabbage that can be mowed. Chou a faucher, by the Abbe Commerel, Paris, 1789. Gift of ditto. On the culture of rice in France, by M. Lasteyrie. Gift of the author. Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on M. Michaux's voyages to the United States, Paris, 1809. Gift of Mr. Michaux. List of the members of the Agricultural Society of the de- partment of the Seine, for 1809. Gift of the Society. The following French pamphlets are the gift of J. Mease. Memoir on furze, whin, or gorze — ^L'ajonc, (Ulcx Europeus, Lin.) by M. Colvcl, Paris, 1809. Treatise on the management of forests and woods, by M. Dralet, Paris, 1807. Memoir on a disease that affected the milk cows of Paris and its vicinity, Paris, year 8tli. On sheep, by the Marquis de G''^*^^, Paris, 1788. On Merino sheep, by F. H. Gilbert, Paris, year 7th. i Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on the improve- ment of agriculture in the department of the Higli Alps, (des Hautes-Alpes,) by M. Pettit, Paris, 1810. On the farming of Baron Flotbeck, and on the cultivation of Chicory, at Brunswick, (Germany,) by M. Brunn-Nccr- gard, Paris, 1808. Manual of practical agriculture, by the Senator, M. tlie Count de Pere. Some facts on Merinos, by C. Pictet. Ixxiv Library* The following are the gift of John Vaiighan. Observations on the sowing of spring wheat, published by order of the Dublin society, Dublin, 1807. Essay on the construction of ice houses, and a description of a refrigerator, (for the preservation of butter or meat,) by Thomas Moore, Baltimore, 180i. The great error of American agriculture exposed, and hints for improvement suggested, by Thomas Moore, Baltimore, 1801. Treatise on practical farming, and on the use of plaster of Paris, deep ploughing, &e. &c. by John Binns, of Loudon county, Virginia. Frederick Town, Maryland, 1803. Virgil's Pastorals and Georgics, translated into English prose, with notes and reflections, by James Hamilton, Edin. 1742. Gift of Mr. Samuel Patterson, Edinburgh. Papers published by the Massachusetts society for promoting agriculture, 2 numbers, 1796, J 804. Gift of F. Nichols. Bakewell on Wool. Gift of Solomon W. Conrad. An Essay on the utility of soap ashes as a manure, London, 1812. Gift of James Mease. The Society are collecting specimens of native manures : and also w^orking models of useful agricultural implements as far as their limited funds will permit. They will cheer- fully receive models of all improved or patented implements, from the proprietors. BI0T3RAPHICAL SKETCH _ OF GEORGE CLYMER, LATE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. As a tribute to the memory of our departed vice-president, we have prefixed to our volume, a portrait of the late most worthy and painfully lamented, GEORGE CLYMER. He was born in 1738, in the city of Philadelphia. He died February 19th, 1813— Aged 75. His education was liberal, and his time and studies were always directed to useful pursuits. In the earliest stages of our late revolution, he was the exemplary and steady friend to its principles. To those he not only devoted his time and talents, but also no small portion of his property. He was a captain of a company, among the earliest asso- eiators, who took up arms in support of tlie liberties of our country, when we were under the necessity of resorting to force for their defence. Through the arduous contest for our independence, he uni- formly enjoyed the confidence of his fellow citizens ; and served in various public stations, with integrity and ability ; executing in seasons of great difficulty and danger, the most important public trusts. He was a member, for the state of Pennsylvania, of the venerated congress of 1776 : and one of those eminent patri- ots, who signed the Declaration of ludepondence. vol. III. k Ixxvi Biographical Sketch of George Clymcr. He served, with steady patriotism and ability, during se- veral other periods, in the national congress, and state le- gislature ; and always shared the difficulties and dangers of embarrassing seasons, in which fortitude, and inflexible con- stancy in the cause of our country were indispensably requi- red, to ensure its safety and success. He was a steady supporter of our present invaluable na- tional constitution, active in allaying prejudices and misun- derstandings on its first promulgation ; and always firmly attached to its principles. He was a member from Pennsyl- vania, of the convention, ever respectable for its talents and virtue, which suggested and framed that instrument. His benevolence of disposition, and liberality of sentiment, were always conspicuous. An instance the most highly ho- nourable is, that of his having been a principal promoter of the amelioration of our state penal code. He filled the honourable and confidential stations of presi- dent of the Bank of Philadelphia, and of the Academy of Fine Arts, from their establishment to the time of his decease. What entitles him to our particular veneration, and most sincere regrets, is, his having been mainly instrumental in forming the society in the year 17S5. Although not a practical agriculturist, liis conviction of the all-essential uses and general importance of such associ- ations, induced and stimulated his successful exertions in our establishment. He was a constant and well informed attendant at our meetings. He assisted, with a zeal patriotic and intelligent, in pro- moting the knowledge and interests of agriculture ; and af- forded one among many other proofs, that practical hus- bandry depends, fur its improvement and prosperity, more on science, and the acquiiements of well educated and public spirited men, who devote a portion of their means, time, and talents to the principles of this first or arts, than on the Biographical Sketch of George Clymej\ Ixxvii limited experience, and iminstructed examples of merely practical husbandmen. Whilst the miseries and dangers of war, create a necessity for characters distinguished in the arts and works of de- struction ; and portraits of heroes are exhibited, as remem- brances of achievements, — attractive, — because they are dazzling and brilliant ; — we have deemed it as meritoriously exemplary, and as highly obligatory, to hand down to pos- terity, (so far as our humble efforts can accomplish the agree- able task,) a memorial of retiring, yet conspicuous worth and talents, employed in the equally honourable, and far more de- sirable and salutary, Arts of Peace. MEMOIRS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY PHIL.WELPHM. On the cultivation of the Fine, in a Letter to the Presi- dent of the Society^ by Timothy Matlack^ Esq, Read June 11, 1811. Dear Sir, YOU and I are both old enough to know, that Christianity and vine dressing are best taught by ex- ample. On the first you have had many excellent les- sons, and I am perfectly content with your practice on them ; but on the latter 1 suspect you have had less experience than myself, and therefore offer you a short lesson upon it, and recommend that you practice on this also, with an equal zeal. The interest of our coun- try calls for the example, and your situation affords the opportunity of giving it the greatest eflcct. The lesson shall not only be short, but easy to practice : for I am persuaded, that so much has been said about raising vines, as to have frightened people with the ghosts of difficulties that never existed ; the practice really being a very plain, simple business. VOL. III. A Oil the Cultivation of the Vine. That our country is naturally fitted for the purpose is undeniably evident, from the spontaneous produc- tion of the vine in every part of the sea coast, from Georgia to Maine, and to the westv^^ard as far as wc know any thing of its productions. Which is the best of those grapes, remains to be enquired j but it is as- certained, that several kinds of them are superior, for wine, to any of those called European grapes, hitherto imported into this country. — For example, the bull or bullet grape of Carolina, the Bland grape of Virginia, and Cooper's grape of New Jersey,* all of which stand our climate perfectly well, without covering ; and their fruit, instead of being injured by the frost, as all the European grapes are known to be, is improved by a slight frost. Of the European grapes, the downy leafed vines have the important advantage, that the down se- cures them from the ravages of the rose-bug ; these grapes are the *' Miller Burgundy," the *' White Mor- rillon," and above all others the *' Genuine Tokay," which to the advantage of the hoary leaf, adds that of producing the best wine in the world ; and growing in a country eight or ten degrees further northward ihan we are, may be relied on to stand our climate, as well as our own vines. Thus far you will set down as preface : what fol- lows is to be considered as a simple, plain lesson, and it shall be confined to the consideration of a single vine; because if the cultivation of one vine is well under- stood, the application of that knowledge to any num- ber, is an operation of plain common sense only. * A variety of the Vitis Sylvestris, or blue bunch grape. J. IVT. On the Cultivatio?! of the Fine. In February, take a single joint of the vine you choose, the " Genuine Tokay" if you can find it, cut it ofFat half an inch above the eye, and again at two inches below the eye, cover each end with a sticking plaister of any kind, and set it in a pot of garden mould (about 5 or 6 inches diameter and unglazed). The eye of the cutting must be covered with earth, and then watered to settle the ground ; after this lay half an inch of horse dung on the surf\\ce to keep it from becoming dry and hard. Place the pot in your hot bed, prepared for raising your cabbage plants, when- ever that is ready. The vine will require no further care than that extended to your cabbage plants. If more than one shoot rises from the eye, rub off all but the strongest. About the first of June, turn out the vine from the pot and set it in your garden, or at the east or north end of your house, wherever it can be protected from violence. It will grow in any soil, but, like other plants, it grows best in the best soil. When first removed, water it at a distance from the plant, so as to draw the earth toward the vine, instead of washing the ground from it. If you water it after- ward, pour the water into a trench at least eighteen inches from the plant ; for unless this precaution be used, watering does more harm than good, and does most injury in the driest time. As the vine shoots upward, it must be supported from falling. No other care than keeping the ground clear of weeds is ne- cessary for the first summer. In November, a slight covering of straw or Indian-corn husks, is beneficial in preventing a frequent freezing and thawing of the vine. In February it must be trimmed ; and here On the Cultivatmi of the Vine, commences ^vhat I conceive to be the sole difficulty in cultivating the vine — to wit— to determine at which of the eyes it is to be cut off. What is here about to be said, deserves the more attention, as it applies to every succeeding cutting of the vine in every stage of its existence ; goes directly to the ground and princi- ple of its cultivation, and will not be found in any au- thor who has written on this subject. Every joint of a grape vine has its own separate pith. This most important circumstance commences at the lowest leaf that has a clasper* opposite to the leaf. A solid woody substance passing from the leaf to the clasper, through the vine, and connecting them toge- ther, cuts off entirely the communication between the pith and the joint below, with that of the joint next above ; and so on, upward, at every joint through the whole length of the vine. And it is a circumstance not less important to be known, and kept in mind, that all the eyes below this first clasper are formed in the bosom of smaller and more feeble leaves ; and that the base of these eyes does not extend across the vine, so as entirely to cut off the pith of the joint below, from that of the joint next above it : these eyes are there- fore imperfect, and whenever you trim the vine, ought to be rubbed off. * The word clasper is alone used to avoid prolixity ; but this cir- cumstance, in after stages of the growth of the vine, takes place, also, where the first bunch of grapes stands opposite to a leaf j which pever fails to stand below all the claspers, which are indeed the bar- ren fruit stems, and whose chief office is to support the vine and the clusters below them. On the Cultivation of the Vine, It is at this first trimming of the vine, that we begui to apply the principle above laid down, and it is here only that there ever can be any difficulty in the appli- cation of it : and this difficulty can only arise from the circumstance of so very feeble a growth in the vine, as not to have produced a clasper in any part of it, which will seldom happen ; but if it should happen, the vine must be cut off at half an inch above the lowest strong full eye ; otherwise it is to be cut off at half an inch above the first clasper, and in both cases all the eyes below are to be carefully rubbed off. The eye thus left on will sometimes produce more than one shoot, in which case all but the strongest should be rubbed off, and that supported from fiilling down ; which, except the keeping of the ground free from weeds, is all the care required for this year. In November, this shoot is again to be covered as before directed, and in the following February is to be again Gut off just above the second lowest clasper ; that is, leaving on two eyes to shoot this season, and again rubbing off all the eyes below the lowest clasper. Both these shoots should be permitted to grow to their ut- most length ; which, if the soil be favourable, will be very considerable, and there will be reason to hope for fruit in the next season. Here you ought to be apprised that the lowest clasper appears higher up on some kinds of the vine, than on others : on some it appears at the third leaf, on some at the fourth, and on some kinds so high up as the fifth leaf; but the same rule is to be alike applied to all, and every eye below the lowest clasper be rubbed off. On the Cultivation of the Vine, In the third February cutting, three eyes upon each shoot may be left on, and not more, however strong the shoots may be. From this time forward all the side branches from the shoots of the year are to be rubbed off; taking great care not to injure the leaf from whence they spring, which is the nurse of the bud at the root of its stem. At the fourth time of cutting the vine, and from ihat time forward, it may be cut about the last of Oc- tober, four eyes on each shoot may be left ; and at the fifth cutting five eyes on each shoot may be left on, but more than five eyes on a shoot, ought never to be left on, even in the most vigorous state of growth, at any age of the vine : for, however pleasing the increase for the year may be, the injury thereby done to the vine, will be seen and lamented in the following, and probably many succeeding years. If it ]:»e enquired why a single eye is recommended, rather than a cutting of sixteen inches long, it is repli- ed, that roots shooting from a single eye, are exclusive- ly from itself, are much the strongest, and strike more directly downward ; the shoot from it has less pith in it, the wood is firmer and shorter jointed, and comes sooner into full bearing ; and appears to be much the most healthy vine. And to these important advanta- ges may be truly added, that a thousand plants, fit to set out, may be raised from the single eye with less la- bour and within less space, either in a hot bed, or in the open ground, than a hundred plants can be raised from long cuttings ; which have not, that I know of, one single advantage in their favour : and, in a new On the Cultwation of the Fine. country, it is of no small consideration that the same cuttings will produce five times the number of plants. As to the manner of accommodating your vine to its situation, an active imagination would suggest a vo- lume upon the subject, and possibly unluckily miss the only direction suited to the case ; but, fortunately, the fact is, that a very small share of common sense will in all cases, be fully sufficient to supply the deficiency ; and very little more will be required to apply the prin- ciple and practice here laid down, to an hundred or a thousand vines, whenever the people of the country shall feel the advantage, or necessity, of raising vine- yards for a supply of wine within ourselves. A few ex- amples by men of your standing, will lead them into the practice, in the only way in which we can hope for speedy success. And I pledge myself to you, that whether you immediately succeed or not, you shall derive a pleasure from the attempt itself, that shall am- ply satisfy you for every expense, of money or time, it shall cost you. Sporting with the long branches, bending them in festoons, and marking the growth of the fine clusters from the upper buds, that in this way may be preserved, and occasionally displaying them at a festive board, has the happiest effect upon the human mind — such as Bonaparte never felt. These are the proper play things of great men ; and had General Washington lived to this day, I would have said to him " one thing lackest thou yet," in that, after saving the world from a political deluge, thou hast not yet planted a vineyard. Lame by an accident and confined, I have cheated a wearysomc hour by intruding this upon you ; for On the Cultivation of the Vine. which I have no apology to offer, but that I think the subject worth your consideration, and that it is ad- dressed to you from the honest motive of real respect -by Your humble servant, T, Matlack. Philad. 2Sth May, 1811. Hon. Richard Peters. POSTSCRIPT. Mr. Matlack, in a very instructive lecture delivered to the Agricultural Society, by particular request, proved the accuracy of his theory, and the justness of his remarks, on the physiology of the vine. j. m. C 9 3 On Hedges^ by Richard Peters. Read, July 9, 18U. Belmont, Juhj 8, 1811. Dear Sir, I enclose a letter from Mr. TVilliam A^eiil, on the subject of hedges, detailing his mode of planting. He says this practice is common in the county of Antrim, in Ireland. Accident presented to me the opportunity of seeing Mr. Neill's hedges, and I was highly grati- fied, and instructed. He has no fear of frosts under- mining his banks, after a year or two ; and is not much alarmed at any time. I stated to him all my objec- tions ; which did not seem to make an impression. I never beheld more beautiful and flourishing young hedges. The ride to his little farm would be amply re- paid ; if any person wished to imitate his spirited exam- ple. The whole operation can be viewed, from the com- mencement of the work to its completion ; and more learned in an hour, than could be understood from a description on paper of any length, or minuteness. He depends, for the security of his bank, and ditch, on the roots of the thorn matting and retaining the earth in its place. He says no accident has hitherto happen- ed, occasioned by frosts. When we re-entered Phila- delphia, in June 1778, after the British troops had re- tired, a great part of the commons in the city plan were neatly enclosed by ditches and sod banks, widi bermes of about a foot or eighteen inches \\ Ide. Eut the succeeding winter undermined almost the whole of VOL. TIT. B 10 On Hedges. them ; and the banks filled the ditches. I have seen such accidents frequently. But Mr, Neill thinks his quick roots and good workmanship, will prevent such casualties. He wants no protecting fences ; and his inclosures are at once secure. Comparative experi- ment must decide between the advocates for plain hedg- ing ; and those who deem the ditch and bank prefera- ble. Yours, truly, Ri&HARD Peters, Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad. Soc, for promoting Agriculture, Nov. 2, 1812. This season lias been very unfavourable to the leaves of thorn hedges. In the summer I visited the gardens and shrubberies of Mr. M'Mahon. I had not seen them for some time, and was agreeably surprised by the perfection to which he has ar- rived, in a short period. But most of his thorn plants were leaf- less. The jYenv Castle thorn was an exception. I never beheld a more verdant, vigorous plant. The contrast with other thorns was striking and captivating. He, with reason, prefers it, on every account. He says the objection of slow growth, is not founded on fact. It has every valuable attribute of other thorns. It super- adds the capacity of resisting the maladies, and thriving amidst the misfortunes, to which others are subject. Richard Peters. [ 11 ] On Hedging aiid Ditching, by William Neill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, Read July 9, 1811. 16 Mile Stone, Phil. ^ Lan. Turnpike, June 8, 1811. Sir, According to promise I proceed to give you what information I can, respecting a mode of hedging and ditching, which in my opinion is the most complete method yet found out, and if well done the cheapest also, as you receive its benefit from the first day it is made ; whereas in hedges planted on the surface you have long waiting, and as much expense in protecting them, as would complete your hedge and ditch at once: nor will they be ever half so formidable when done ; a country that abounds so much with hogs, requires good fences, and if planted in the last mentioned way, if they succeed ever so well, hogs will always work through under : whereas the ditch and bank make all so dark below that they will rarely attempt it. Many other advantages attend it ; they are easier kept clear of weeds ; the weight of the bank keeps a moisture about the root ; they stand dry seasons better, grow quicker, nor are they half so apt to die, as when planted in the other way. Good ground always produces the best hedge if managed properly : and although I had as poor ground as any man in his senses could wish for, and it was also high and dry, yet by manuring the ground, and attention, I have four successive years planting, 12 On Hedging and Bitching. perhaps not excelled in any country : — keep them from the shade of woods or trees as much us possible. Method of making the Hedge, You first lay down stone convenient to where you intend your fence, say one cart load of middle sized stone to 15 feet ; — then run your line where you design the front of your bank, and close to that line lay one row of stone compactly together ; then move your line 12 inches out, towards where you design to dig your ditch : the last 12 inches remain in front of your bank, to keep the frost from working under, till the roots grow through to bind the earth together, which they will do in three years :— with a spade cut along your line the depth of a good sod, keeping the face of your spade always in towards your ditch: then lift your line, and lay it four feet apart from the last, and cut with the spade as before ; then sod off the four feet between the last two lines, and throw it back behind your row of stone : let the mother earth on your sod be mashed fine with the spade, and drawn in with the hand care- fully to and over the stone to the depth of two or three inches, then lay your thorns in a horizontal direction, the top rather inclining upwards, at six inches apart. Advancing two or three inches through the stone, carefully drawing the nicest mother earth with the hand over the root ; the next row is of middle sized stone, (but be as careful as possible not to pinch your plant be- tween fiat broad stones,) and go on with row of stone and layer of earth until 3^our bank is three feet six inches high, your ditch three feet deep carried down so as to On Hedging and Ditching. 13 meet at two feet at bottom: in raising the wall in front of your bank, carry it up almost plumb, for as your earth settles down, your wall will lean back and become too shelving. I am, Sir, respectfully. Yours, William Neill, Hon. Richard Peters. On the same Subject, by the Same. Read January 12, 1813. 16 Mile Stone, Phil. £^ Lan, Turnpike^ November 28, 1812. Sir, The spring before last I made 360 feet of hedge and ditch ; which cost me, as near as I can recollect, as follows, 13 days work at 3^. 9d. Boarding the men, - - - 5 days of a cart and 2 horses "> hauling stone at 2 dollars, 3 800 thorn plants, Whiskey to the men, S26. Z 9 15 0 360 feet, allowing 10 feet to the pannel, make S6 pan. nel which, will cost about 5s. 5d. \ 2 8 9 1 10 0 3 15 0 1 10 0 11 3 Post and Rail in this place 7 will cost, 5 rails at 9(/. \ 3 9 Post, . . - 1 2 Putting up, - ... 2 4 14 On Hedging and Ditching, You perceive, sir, by this, that the stone constitutes more than one third the whole expense, those who have stone in their way, or on their own ground, can have that part at little or no expense : one good cart load will face 15 feet, but where stone is difficult to be obtained, rather than do without, I prefer laying one row of stone under the plant and two above : this mode keeps them close about the neck, and hinders the earth from mouldering away ; it likewise keeps weeds from growing so close up to the plant as they otherwise would do ; then, by giving it a good high top of earth, and running one good broad rail along the top, it will turn cattle till your thorn gets so up as to make a good fence ; which they will do in four or five years with all kinds of thorn fence. Calculate so as to have them round those fields you intend to have in with grain, or grass, for two or three years ; or the longer the better. By turning in your cattle in the fall, they will brouze on them,, especially calves and sheep ; but they will do little or no harm, as you will of course clip them in the fall or spring. I have made about 450 pannel of that kind of fence ; the oldest is five years old, and has stood four winters, without losing a stone by frost, or mouldering down ; nor do I expect they will. I lost about three yards by the floods last summer ; but that was my own fault, in not having a passage for the water, in a place where one was required. The stones and bank were swept oft', but the thorns kept their places. Several of my neighbours tried them, and my opinion is that they will stand on any kind of ground, excepting swampy ground. Mr. William Siters, of Radnor, planted one thousand in swampy On Hedging and Ditching. 15 ground, about two years ago, and rolled on large heavy stones that required two men to lift them up. The spring following they all sunk down. But give them dry ground, and moderate light stone, say from ten to thirty pounds, and they are more secure. In laying out the fields, they ought to be so planned, that as little water as possible would run into the ditches ; ex- cept what falls from above. And by leaving one foot escarpment, by the time that foot wastes off, so as to bring it into the edge of the stones, it will be at such a degree of level as to moulder no more ; unless carried off by water from the bottom. It will likewise get matted over with grass ; and in a very few years, the thorn roots will bind all together. In Europe, we al- ways had the best and earliest pasture on those banks and ditches, so that we never considered it as waste ground. I imagine the weight and shade of the bank hinders the frost from penetrating or getting into the ground in that part, as much as it otherwise would. As to trimming, I think I have reduced it too much. I have all along trimmed in July and November, and thus kept them very nice. But the two last years they grew little or none after the July trimmings ; and are beginning to show other bad effects on the plant. Some I trimmed this summer, and some I did not, and I see a material difference in favour of tliiose I did not trim, therefore, I will confine my dressings to fall or spring. The two first years trimming is useful. It gives those of slow growth a chance of keeping up with those that are more luxuriant. Where I became first acquainted with hedges, unless around kitchen gardens, or towns, or villages, where 16 On Hedging and Ditching. lots were small, you would not see one in five hun- dred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a sharp handsaw, take them off a few inches above the bank, when you would immediately have a more for- midable fence than ever, and so on for ages. The best way to proceed by those who wish to adopt this method, is to find a man who has wrought a little at it in Eu* rope, and agree with him by the rod : the common di- mensions that I have made, he could perhaps aiford to do at twenty five or thirty cents a rod, if found in all necessaries. Then lay down all your plants, in a state of growing, early in spring. By that means he can work all summer, and you have no other trouble than provide him in stone. This way was much practiced in Europe. By all means let them be kept clear of weeds the two first years. My hedges are in general handsome, but I have no thorn I value so high as the American Cockspur,^ It will make a fence which nothing can get through. I am, very respectfully. Yours, ^ William Neill. Hon. Richard Peters. President^ Agric. Sec. * Cratagus Cms galli, L. C 17 ] On French Rye, and Syrian, or Jerusalem iVheat^ by Richard Peters, Esq. Read July 9, 1811. Belmont, July 8, 1811. Dear Sir, I send by way of report, of the success of the grain, transmitted by general Armstrong, from France, a few heads of die big rye, and the die d'^abondance, or Sy- rian wheat. Both have arrived at perfection, beyond my expectations. I was obliged to cut my rye a litde too early, so as to escape the ravages of the birds and poultry. But a sheaf feels heavy, as if every grain were a pigeon shot. Some of the heads are lighter than others ; possibly, because they should have been left a few days longer. It was cut the 1st of July. Out of two quarts, I gave away, in small portions, all but half a pint. I regret that some have had it, who have paid to it no attention. Finding that the balance left to me was so small, I was compelled to take pains to remedy my over-liberality. I stretched my garden lines and took a rake head (wooden) and dotted along the line with the rake teeth. In every hole I dropped a seed. The drills 18 inches asunder. I discovered that each seed produced three plants, two whereof I transplanted, as they grew vigorous, at unequal times. By this means, I have 18 tolerably sized sheaves, which I think will produce a bushel, — probably more. The trans- planted is universally the largest and best. The small- est heads of the original growth, arc larger than the VOL. III. (" 18 On French Rye and Jerusalem Wheat, one sent as a sample with the seed from France. There were 25 and 26 spears from each plant in most of the stalks. Of the Syrian wheat I had but a pint left, af- ter distribution of the rest. I have failed in several attempts with this grain heretofore. The mildew has generally caught it before maturity. I sowed this in drills, 18 inches apart. I shall cut it now without de- lay. But it has not yet been ripe enough. Both rye and wheat were kept clean ; and hoed two or three times. Of the wheat I shall have much more than of the rye. But I value the rye the most, being convinc- ed, if it will suit our climate, it will become a great and valuable addition to our stock of grain. The sainfoin grows vigorously. The wild rabbits devoured all above ground, in the winter ; prefering it to every thing else. Possibly it saved the rye and wheat, to which it was near. The birds have robbed me of every seed, save a handful or two. Probably I have more rye and wheat owing to this preference of the sainfoin. The largest and best heads of the trans- planted rye, were those set the latest. I transplanted, from time to time, till the second week in November last. Richard Peters, Dr. Mease. Secretary of the Agric. Soc. Philad, [ 19 ] Remarks on different Grains, by^ Richard Peters, Esq, ' Read November 12, 1811. Belmont, August 10, 1811. Dear Sir^ I give through you, to the society, the results of sundry experiments made in the present and past years, on subjects which may be useful ; and particularly on those which, as they relate to the society, I think my- self bound to report. The foreign grain sent by general Armstrong from France, mentioned in our second volume Memoirs, page 140. No. 1. The wheat, said to be of African origin— sometimes called Egyptian ^h^^t, and Le Ble d'abon^ dance. Called also Syrian, and Smyrna, wheat. I have, this third time of sowing this wheat (having in two former trials entirely failed) completely suc- ceeded ; though it was not placed in a favourable situa- tion. From a pint, drilled and hoed, I have obtained a bushel and one peck of grain, well filled, thin skined, and very farinaceous. We have been this season high- ly favoured with freedom from mildews or blights, in our grain crops of every species ; and have had an abundant harvest. No doubt this wheat partook of this felicitous circumstance. I sent to the society, samples of the heads and straw. The former really warrant the appellation, of Ble d'abondance, given to this wheat. I had six heads of very good common bearded wheat selected, -and the grains contained in 20 Remarks on different Grains. them counted. In these were contained an average of 374- grains each. Six heads of the Ble d'abondance, not selected, but taken at random, contained an average of 93- grains each, and the aggregate heavy in propor- tion. Each grain, I believe, contains as much fari- naceous substance as that of the common wheat, though in shape more globular, and not so long. The straw is so powerfully strong, that it resisted all winds ^nd heavy showers, and remained erect, while other grain felj, wholly or partially, under the attacks of wind and rain. I fear, however, that reapers will com- plain much, while cutting any extensive field of such grain. I shall sow it this season in broad cast, and inform of the result. It ripens somewhat late, and I most dread the mildew, blight, or rust. No. 2. The big rye. I sent a sample of the heads and straw. I have ob- tained on^ bushel from half a pint, drilled and trans- planted. Both the grain and straw have undergone a change from those sent by General Armstrong. The grain is flinty, like rice, and the straw more pipy. I have heard the same account from some of my friends, to whom I distributed parts of my original stock. I should be indeed sorry, if it should continue to exhibit such symptoms of deterioration ; having formed high expectations of the superior excellence o'f this grain. I find it to be a fortuitous discovery in France ; and cultivated, to any extent, but by a ftw : by our D. Parker, Esq. the most. It ripens early, and about the same time with winter barley ; which it resembles more than it does our common rye. I con- tinue to cherish favourable hppes as to this grain ; and Remarks on different Grains* 21 shall sow it this season in broad cast. Perhaps the grain may be more soft and mealy in some other spils than such as mine. The rye was situated near the wheat ; and, though stronger than our common rye, it fell much, under heavy rains ; but received no ulti- mate injury. It is certainly an extraordinary kind of grain, in size and weight ; and well deserves repeated trials and persevering attention ; both as to soils, modes of culture, and situations. I have sent to France for a supply of seed grain of this species of rye. The wheat and rye thresh as kindly as common grain. No. 3. jL'c>r^ Circumference, in. From a to b, -) b to c, \ ' « 11 c to d, J e to f. - . 3 3 e to h, 3 3 The wheat diill, described by Mr, Lorain, was originally invent- ed in Sussex county, New Jersey, and first described by the late Mr. Rutherford, in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, of New York. One of the drills is deposited in the Room of the Agri- cultural Society, Philadelphia. J. M, /? 1 ^''1 < * %M 1 ft ""'1 •! 1 .1 c^^ 1 %^ 1 p- p^. r J : 1 ! ■ ' ' '"1 V. y^ 1 Ni J^ ^^ ■1 J-ll s ^!'ji C 37 ] On the use of Lime in England^ by James Ecroyd, Farmery Philadelphia County. Read April 14, 1812. Reading lately the Memoirs of the Agricultural Society, on the subject of lime, and having been accus- tomed from my youth, to see it used as a manure in England, I thought some observations on the subject might not be uninteresting to those who may not have had similar opportunities. I will first observe, that the parts of the country containing the different qualities of lime, are as obvi- ous in their productions and appearances, as the effects produced by each species, when employed in agricul- ture. For instance, in the fine rich grazing farms in Craven, and all along the course of the river Ribble, the lime is of the mild kind, and the soil the most prolific for grasses perhaps in the world, but the coun- try is so mountainous and the climate so rainy, that very little grain is raised except oats, so that the lime when used as a manure, is mostly spread on grass with- out ploughing, and appeared to answer better on springy wet ground, that had been previously well drained, than on any other. This lime was generally car- ried on the backs of small Scotch ponies, with wooden pack saddles, from twenty to thirty miles, and laid on at the rate of two hundred bushels per acre : and the ponies returned laden with pit coal. The Leeds and Liverpool canal was not then finished, but it now runs through this beautiful lime country, and transports it 38 On the use of Lime in England. ■ • . ..I . . . . „., ■ , ill! > into Lancashire, which abounds with coal, and carries back coal to burn the lime. Chymistry, had not then been so much applied to Agricultural purposes as now ; and I have heard intel- ligent men frequently give it, as their opinion, that the caustic quality of the lime, had little or nothing to do with its vegetative powers, and that the only operation it performed, was mixing intimately with the soil, and pulverizing and making it more porous : and the principal reason for this supposition was, that the more was laid on, the more it fertilized, whereas, had it acted by its causticity, it might have been over done, and as this part of the country produces but one kind, they could not judge by comparison. The whole of this lime, in its native bed, appears a solid body of chrys- tals or spars, from ten to fifteen feet thick, and lumps of it make handsome ornaments for chimney pieces. I frequently have seen it laid on so thick, that at a dis- tance it appeared as white as snow ; it was commonly laid on the sod, and left to mix of itself, with the earth; though some, more enterprizing than the rest, had begun to lay on half that quantity, and harrowed till it was well mixed with the top earth, and found its vege- tative powers much encreased. I moved from the county of Lancaster, into the West Riding of Yorkshire, a district where tillage farming is managed, perhaps to as great perfection, as in any part of England, where I have had an op- portunity of comparing produce, owing to the improv- ed turnip husbandry, by hoeing, introduced by the Marquis of Rockingham, and on a soil that before this introduction, was deemed scarce worth cultivating, I On the use of Lime in England, 59 have heard farmers say, that it would scarcely yield six bushels of wheat per acre. Here I was also in the middle of lime again, and had an opportunity of see- ing both sorts in constant use ; the mild, or Knotting- ley lime, we had to fetch in carts or waggons, twenty two miles; and was used as a top dressing, for clay, or low lands well drained, as in Lancashire, at the rate of one hundred bushels per acre, on old sod ; though the more we applitd the better, yet when harrowed in, its vegetative effects were very conspicuous for twenty years. What the appearance of this lime is, in its native bed, I do not remember, but the appearance of the country producing it was good. For the plough-farming we used the caustic lime,* of such a quality, that if more was applied than a chaldron or sixty four bushels per acre it would en- tirely stop vegetation, and where a heap was suffered to lie but a short time, would, like the lime in Penn- sylvania, cause the spot, on which a load is laid, to be two or three years entirely bare, this lime was general- ly use^ on winter grain, and harrowed in at the rate of from twenty to twenty five bushels per acre, and in the spring the land was seeded with grass seeds. The rotation of crops on this light soil,t was fal- low, dunged with from ten to fifteen cart loads per acre, * This lime, from the colour before burning, appeared as if mixed with sand, and though in a climate as congenial for farming, as any part of Yorkshire, yet the soil is so stiif, dry and unfriend- ly to vegetation, that its average produce is very little, compared with the other parts of the country. t Soil a light loam on a hungry gravel scarcely any where deep: er than four inches, and a great deal two and an half or three. 40 On the use of Lime in England. of farm yard and stable dung, seeded with turnips, be- tween the 10th and the 15th of sixth month, ard sold at from three to five guineas per acre, to dealers who bought the large Lincolnshire sheep, weighing gene- rally from 26 to 36 lbs. per quarter, to eat off the tur- nips in winter ; and in the spring, ploughed very shal- low, and seeded with barley, either drilled with two bushels per acre, or if sown broad cast from three to four ; the produce generally six quarters or 48 bushels, Winchester measure, (which is common measure through the West Riding of Yorkshire, as is also the statute acre) with the barley, clover seed, or else the spring following peas and beans : the clover was mow- ed twice, ploughed in and seeded with wheat, the ave- rage produce 30 bushels, then the wheat stubble was ploughed in for fallow again. For the first 25 or 30 years, clover was regularly sown every round of crops, but it depreciated so much, that during my residence there, it was only seeded every other round, and peas and beans alternately, an evidentproof of the necessity of change. On heavy clays, particularly in ope|^ town fields where the farmers are obliged for mutual conve- nience to sow always alike, the rotation is summer fallow, dunged as for turnips, in the fall w^heat, clover or peas and beans one year, and again wheat ; the ave- rage produce of wheat, ^vas from 20 to 25 bushels per acre, first crop ; second from 16 to 20; lime was oc- casionally used as on the light soils. I remember one curious circumstance ; a relation of mine, who was in the habit of using the caustic lime, as we used to call it, (the magnesian not having enter- ed our chymical nomenclature) having thrown in a On the use of Lime in England, 41 greater quantity of land for fallow than common, find- ing that his dung would not reach over the whole of it, tried what the farmers call stealing a crop, that is, taking one crop more than the common routine, al- ways condemned by good farmers, as a bad practice ; but supposing he could balance the want of dung, for one crop, by a coat of lime, he had recourse to it, but it is so many years since, that I forget the quantity used, however he seeded it with oats, but such was the effects of the lime, that scarcely any thing grew on the whole field but thistles, and of those there was an abundant crop, I believe there was not, on the whole, one cart load of straw. In confirmation of the practice of stabbing hoven cattle, (as quoted by judge Peters from John Wynn Baker,) I will just remark, that I have long been in the practice of it, and always do it with a small pen-knife very sharp at the point, with a sudden push, four inches from the hip bone, and four inches from the edge of the loin, and never use a tube of any kind ; the wind rushes out like whistling with the mouth, nor have I found it necessary to use any kind of applica- tion to the wound. I performed the operation this spring on a cow that had lately calved, and she is now near calving again, and is as fat and hearty as any cow in my flock. I always stab in the place mentioned, as the paunch is the nearest the outside of any other part, and the paunch is what always contains the malady, as VOL. III. F 42 Ofi stabbing Hoven Cattle. is evident by the emission of its contents through the orifice, with great force. With best wishes for the success of so extensively useful an institution, I remain, thine sincerely, James Ecroyb. Dr. James Mease, Secretary y Philad, Jgric. Soc, C 43 ] On Cyder makings by Henry Wynkoop^ Esq, in a Letter to Joseph B. M'Kean, Esq. Member of the Philadel^ phia Agricultural Society. Read May 12, 1812. Northampton^ Bucks County^ April 1, 1812. Dear Sir, Agreeably to your request, I proceed to afford you a detailed statement, of the whole process of cyder- makmg, as now conducted on my farm. About the middle of October, we begin to gather the apples, when they are perfectly dry, and lay them down in layers, in the cider house and other out houses on floors, not exceeding two feet thick ; where there is space sufficient, thiner will be preferable, for the object is, to promote the ripening of the fruit, and the evaporation of the watery particles. In this situation they are left about two weeks, secured from rain and wet, but ex- posed to the air as much as possible ; early in Novem- ber, they are again sorted, the rotten ones thrown out, and the sound ground in the mill ; the pumice of the common apples is laid in troughs, for 12 or 24 hours, having regard to the state of the weather: this tends to sweeten the juice and greatly improves the cyder. As to the Virginia crab, I have not discovered so great a difference, whether the pumice is pressed from the mill or left to lay some time ; the remainder of the process will be exhibited by answering the questions proposed to me in your letter, viz. Query 1st, What is the best construction of a mill and the least expensive, to grind the apples ? 44 On Cyder making. Ansxver, The best and least expensive mill I know of, is that of two nuts standing perpendicular, with a sweep fixed to one of them, and formed so as t6 take the apple from the hopper, and break it on the end plank of the frame of the mill, and then convey the broken parts to the other nut, so as to effect a double grinding by the two nuts ; those of my mill, are made of black walnut, which is to be preferred, both on ac- count of the solidity of the wood and not being so lia- ble to crack and split as those of white oak : they have now been in use for three seasons, and are in as good order as when first made. Qiieri/ 2ncL Should the apples be ground very fine, and more than once ? Answer. As to the Virginia crab, it matters not how fine they are ground ; the finer all other kinds of apples are ground, the more the particles of the pulp will mix with the must, and the more difficult will be the fermentation : that degree of fineness is therefore to be sought for, that will best promote the expression of the juice, without overloading it with the fine par- ticles of the apples. The pumice after having been pressed may be ad- vantageously ground over again, for the making of water cyder, which when made of the crab, affords a pleasant table drink, during the winter ; but as to mak- ing whole cyder from it, the must is too thick to an- swer any good purpose. Query SrcL The best construction of a press, — is the screw or lever preferred ? Ansxver, Our cyder being made in a house, the screw press becomes indispensable, as the lever would On Cyder making, 45 occupy too much space, but were it not for that cir- cumstance, I should prefer the screw press, on account of the simplicity of its construction, the speed and fa- cility of encreasing or diminishing the force, and the greater security from accidents to the men that work it. Query AtJu How long, and to what degree, should the pumice be pressed ; may it not be too hard press- ed ? Answer, The object in pressing the pumice, is to separate it from the must ; the pressure therefore is to be continued until that purpose is effected, which can generally, by proper attention, be done in six or eight hours : the pressure may be so hard, as to over charge the grooves in the floor of the press, so as to run over and waste the liquor, but I do not conceive that the hard pressure can be any otherwise injurious. Qiiery 5th, Does not the first pressure produce the best cyder ? Ansrver. I do not know whether the first pressure is the best or not, only one circumstance I have ob- served, that the women applying for sweet cyder, to make their apple butter, prefer the last. Query 6th, Which of the several species of ap- ples is best to make cyder, and the difference in the strength and quality of each ? Ansxver, The Virginia crab is the best apple for making cyder, within my knowledge : when all other apples are ground, the particles of the pumice mix with the must, and cannot be separated otherwise than by fermentation, a process which, in the variable wea- ther of our climate is extremely difficult to controul, 46 On Cyder making. whereas the crab when crushed in the mill, no matter how fine, the particles of the pulp adhere together, and are separated from the juice, without intermixing with it, so that whea pressed, the liqaor flows from the pumice as water from a sponge, and to take off those small particles of apple that may have escaped through the straw, or the crevices of the frame, it can be strain- ed through flannel, which cannot be done with any- other kind of cyder : until, therefore, some other spe- cies of apple shall be discovered, possessing that spon- gy quality, or some other yet unknown, which shall occasion a preference, the Virginia crab will remain superior, for making good cyder, to all other kinds of apples. As to the strength, I have not the means neces- sary to ascertain it, and as to the quality, that has been described in the preceding part of this answer. Qiiery 1th, Is it injurious to mix several species and grind them together, if so, the effect ? Answer. I am of opinion that no ill effects can arise from mixing and grinding together, several species of equal ripeness ; but mixing and grinding together un- ripe fruit with that which is ripe, would induce the acetous fermentation and of course prove injurious. Query Sth. Do you put the juice to ferment in large vessels, before it is drawn oft' into barrels, and expose it to the air, till the fermentation ceases ? Answer, We put the juice to ferment into the largest vessels we can get, in which it remains un- til the fermentation ceases : it is then drawn off* from the lees, the cask well cleansed, and then replaced in the same or similar sized vessels, till it is again completely settled, when it is again drawn off* into simi- On Ct/der Making* 47 lar sized clean vessels, on the fining, and is not put in- to barrels before the whole process of fermentation and fining is completed; the juice when put into the cask from the press, is left exposed to the air, until the fermentation begins to decline, wlien the bung is laid loose upon it, with a gimblet hole by the side, till the fermentation is completed ; then the bung is driven in, and the gimblet hole stopped. Qiiery 9tk. How soon does the fermentation com- mence, in general, and how long continue ? Ansrver. The commencement and continuance of the fermentation, depends so much on the state of the weather, that it cannot be predicted with any degree of certainty. Query lOtk. How do you ascertain when the fer- mentation has so far subsided, as to make it proper to draw off into barrels, or other vessels, and what is the consequence of not drawing off at a certain stage of the fermentation ? Ansxver, By placing the ear, at the bung hole of the vessel, during the fermentation, a certain hissing kind of noise is heard in the liquor, when that ceases, the fermentation is completed, and is then in a proper state to be drawn off, and if then neglected, the parti- cles of pumice that had settled down to the bottom of the cask, will, during a warm or damp state of the wea- ther, rise up again, mix with the juice, and thus pro- duce a second fermentation, which is always acetous and injurious to the cyder. Query llt/i. When drawn off, do you stop the cask perfectly tight, so as to exclude all air, or do you leave a vent ? 48 On Cyder making. Answer. When cyder is drawn off and put into cleansed casks, a certain ebullition pervades the liquor, and while that continues, the bung is laid loose on, and the gimblet hole left open until it subsides ; when the bung may be closed tight, and the gimblet hole gradually, but not perfectly tightened before the ebul- lition has entirely ceased. Qiiery 12th, How do you prevent the acetous fer- mentation or check it if commenced ? Ansrwer, To prevent the acetous fermentation, is answered in question ten ; as to checking it if com- menced, the only method I know of is to put the cy- der on the fire in kettles, to boil it gently, so as to raise the floating particles of pumice into a scum on the surface of the liquor, to be scummed off till the rising ceases, then to be returned hot into the cask, previous- ly well cleansed and bunged up tiglit ; this liquor will afford a pleasant drink, during the months of May, June, and perhaps July, but will not keep good through the summer. Qiiei'y ISth, Do you fine cyder; if so, at what time, and with what fining ? Answer . We do fine cyder, and the time is, after the ebullition, which succeeds the second racking is completely subsided, we then draw off some gallons of cyder, proportioned to the quantity of cyder to be fined, into some vessel, to this we add of isinglass, pounded and unraveled into shreds, about two ounces to the hogshead, containing 112 or 115 gallons, the li- quor with the isinglass, is frequently stirred up for three or four days, so that it is completely diluted into a thin jelly, it is then strained through a fine hair sieve, On Cyder making. 49 and put into a well cleansed hogshead, which is filled with the fermented cyder. Querj/ I4th, Do you rack the cyder, if so, at what times, and how often ? Answer. We rack the cyder for the first time, soon after the fermentation has ceased, a second time, soon after the ebullition of the first racking has completely subsided ; the third time, when drawn off to be put on the fining ; the fourth time, when drawn off from the lees of the fining ; the fifth time, when the consequent ebullition has again completely ceased, and the cyder has lain perfectly still for eight or ten days, when it may be drawn off into barrels, so that drawing from the barrels into bottles may be counted a sixth racking. I am, dear sir, Your obedient servant, Henry Wynkoop. Joseph B. M'Kean, esq^. VOL. iir. C so ] On various Agricultural Topics^ by James Ecroydy Phi- ladelphia County. Read June 9, 1812. According to my promise, in my former communi- cation, I again take the liberty of troubling the socie- ty with some further remarks on a few subjects, al- ready dibcussed in the Agricultural Memoirs ; and though I may not have it in my power, to add any thing new on this subject, yet if by giving a statement of observations of positive practice, for a number of years, I may be able to confirm a good one, or correct any mistakes in attempts to imitate such practices in this country, perhaps they may have their uses. And as I wish, as little as possible, to encroach on the time of the society, I will first enumerate the dif- ferent subjects I have at present in view, and endeavour to comprise my remarks on them, within the compass of one letter. 1. On harrowing grain in the spring, and eating it off with sheep. 2. On the diseases of swine. 3. On breeding in and in, 4. On artificial grasses, 5. On smut in wheat. The harrowing of wheat, is a practice I have seen constantly pursued for a number of years, but most generally on stiff soils, and the effects produced were always considered as highly beneficial ; but this ope- ration, was generally preceded by eating off the wheat On the Diseases of Swine. 51 with sheep ; and this was done by turning on so many as to eat it literally into the ground in two or three days, and so close, that no appearance of a blade could be seen. Partial eating, by too small a flock, was al- ways esteemed rather injurious, by retarding the growth of some more than others, and preventing it from growing and ripening even. If wheat was sown on a rich fallow, so as to be in danger of lodging, the eating it off makes it grow shorter and stifi'er, and vice versa ; if it be sown on a poor soil, in the spring it looks pale and sickly, and instead of its leaves creep- ing and spreading on the surface of the ground, it rises straight up and does not stool, in this case the eating it off makes it stool more, mends the colour, and adds considerably to the produce. The method of perform- ing this operation was, after the sheep are taken ofi^, we take a light roller and two light turnip harrows, the width of the roller ; these are fastened with chains to the roller, and follow it, the roller breaks and pulver-> izes the clods, and the harrow loosens the surface and earths up the plants ; then both harrowing and rolling are performed at once, with one pair of horses ; this operation is always performed in the fourth month, (April) when the ground is dry ; it is also practiced on wheat and rye, that is not eat off with sheep, and with equal success ; its uses are not altogether confined to the grain crop, as it is the very best methofi of cover- ing grass seeds. 2. The disease of pigs I allude to, is the complaint first mentioned by J. P. De Gruchy, in his letter, pub- lished in the second volume of Agricultural Memoirs, He calls it the staggers, a name very descriptive of the 52 On Breeding In and In. complaint, as the poor animaPs contortions are very vi- olent, running round and round, and frequently tum- bling over and squealing violently ; and as he justly re-- marks, it never attacks old hogs, and I believe 1 may al- so remark, never attacks poor ones, but such as are in a high state of health and keep ; from this circumstance I supposed, that the disorder must be occasioned by plethora and costiveness, and have succeeded com- pletely in curing it, lately, by giving two table spoons- full of castor oil, and cutting the end of the tail to make it bleed. 3. Breeding in and in. The subject of breeding in and in, I must acknow- ledge, has been supported by such respectable evi- dence, that I feel a diffidence in dissenting from them, but yet, as Judge Peters remarks, *' I cannot be so compliant as to abandon the repeated evidence of my senses," and I am confident, that where ever I have seen a trial made of it, that a constant deterioration has taken place ; the bone becomes smaller, and perhaps for the' second and third generation, the shape rather handsomer, but a continual diminution of size takes place ; perhaps however the greatest defect is a want of increase, arising both from barrenness of the ewes, and the lambs being so weak and sickly as to die in great numbers. I saw an instance in Yorkshire, where an old man kept a £ock of sheep without changing, till at last, the flock diminished to almost nothing, but coming under the management of a young man, he, by crossing with good rams, in a little time had them equal to his neighbours, almost all the observations I have made on this subject have been on sheep, which, On Breeding In and In, 53 both from their numbers and value, are kept more se- lect than any other animal. Another circumstance which always convinced me as much as any other, was this, that take a poor moun- tain ewe, that would not weigh more than from 12 to 14 pounds per quarter, and cross Avith a large Lincoln- shire or Leicester ram, the lambs would be ready sooner for market, and for the first two months weigh as much as lambs bred from the ewes of the same large breed, though afterwards, the large breed would get the ascendancy. And though it has been the gen- eral opinion, that the noted Bakewell, (a man who de- serves the thanks of every farmer) always bred in and in, yet during ten years that I lived in Yorkshire, the shape of his sheep was so entirely altered twice, that it was the opinion of intelligent farmers in that neighbourhood, that such a speedy change could only be effected by crossing the breed. One change in par- ticular I will specify : the first kind of them that came into Yorkshire, had very short legs, and broad backs, and were so heavy and clumsy, that in the spring when loaded with wool, they would get over on their backs, and there lie till they died, if not continually watched and turned over. To remedy this inconvenience, in the course of two seasons, the fashion varied, and the rams that were hired were much longer on the legs, and walked loftier, whilst the beautiful small nose and sharp ears were retained, also the general appearance of the carcass, but yet many were of opinion, they could distinctly trace a resemblance with the South Down ; this, however, was only conjecture, as at our distance we could only judge by appearances. 54 071 Breeding In and In, The next circumstance I will call the attention of the society to, is respecting cattle ; and though it may not be a positive trial, yet it shews the opinion of mankind in general, and in a large district of course may be considered as circumstantial evidence. In the northern parts of Lancashire, where, owing to the ex- treme of rain and cold, very little grain, except oats, is raised, and being so full of inhabitants, arising from the vast extent of manufactures, as to make the de- mand for milk and butter almost equal to a city, they are very particular in their breed of cows, and their farms are generally so small, that perhaps there are not more bulls kept, than one in two or three miles, which are let to cows at stated prices, like stallions, and such is the received opinion of breeding in and in, that the owners of the bulls, are obliged to change them every three years, (or they would entirely lose their custom- ers,) that being the age at which they generally let their heifers take the bull. There is also another circum- stance, perhaps rather more corroborative than the last. An intimate acquaintance of mine being on a visit to some relations on the verge of Norfolk, where cours- ing hares with grey hounds, is the favourite rural sport in winter, was invited by a neighbouring gentleman, to partake of the amusement, on a general coursing day ; they had about ten brace of dogs brought into the field, and to every hare they started, run one brace of grey hounds ; they run so many hares, as to tire both horses and dogs, and if I recollect right, killed about one in four, however he observed one brace of dogs that kill- ed every hare they started, with apparent ease, this ex- cited his curiosity, and on enquiring the cause, he was On Artificial Grasses* 55 told that the gentlemen m that part of the country, who keep such numbers of grey hounds, in order to keep up the strength and swiftness of them, are obliged to cross the breed with large dogs of other species, generally the mastiff or bull, and then by carefully breeding back, nearer and nearer, they gain the strength and fleetness necessary for such sports, and mentioned this as being the case with this brace of dogs. 4. According to my observations, the omitting to seed land with other grasses besides red clover, has ap- peared to me, one of the greatest defects in the whole system of agriculture in this country. The introduc- tion of it in England, together with that of the turnip husbandry, (and which I believe happened both about the same time, that is, 40 or 50 years ago) has doubled the average produce of England ; and though the use of plaster and red clover, have added here so aston- ishingly to the value and richness of the country, as to make the average produce of grain, in many parts of this state, nearly equal to the best farms in England, yet for want of other grasses, to fill up the vacancy, as the red clover runs out, there seems almost a constant necessity of ploughing every third year, for if the ground by ploughing and fallowing previously to seed- ing, is put in such a fine tilth, as to destroy all the roots and weeds, the clover the first year is very fine, the second about one half freezes out, and the third, seven eighths, this leaves such a vacancy, as to give room for every weed so noxious to agriculture, blue bottle, gar- lic, St. John's wort, and a whole host of foes to rise, as to make an almost entire loss for two years, before the native grasses can gain the ascendancy. Besides, ano- 56 Oil Stnut in Wheat* ther circumstance prevents the native grasses from ar- riving at the perfection they might otherwise acquire, even in good ground, if seeded with the clover, whilst the ground is light and in fine tilth, that by the time the clover runs out, and these grasses begin to grow, the ground is so hard and solid, that one might almost as well expect a good crop of wheat by seeding without ploughing, as these to gain the perfection they might otherwise acquiie; and the complaint that farmers make of land binding, would, I apprehend, seldom take place, in ground sufficiently rich, if this method of seeding was once introduced : and I have little doubt but the native green grass and white clover, if a pro- per method was once adopted for saving the seed, would answer the intention, without the introduction of foreign grasses. 5. On smut in xvheat. On this subject I will only men- tion an occurrence that took place about the year 1790 or 1791. A person, of the name of Rodger Trefry, (if I remember right) a native of Wiltshire, came into Yorkshire, with the following proposals ; that if 1000 farmers would subscribe one guinea each, to be given him as a premium for discovering the cause and cure of the smut in the wheat, he would make the discove- ry, and would not ask for the money, till he had fully satisfied them of the fact. Accordingly in the differ- ent neighbourhoods through which he passed, he se- lected such men, as could be mutually depended on, to whom to entrust the secret, as it must take one whole season before it could be proved, they giving their promise of secresy, till the money was paid. A first cousin of mine, with whom I was in habits of inti- On Smut ill Wheats 57 macy, was the one selected for this purpose in our part, and I had an opportunity of seeing the whole experi- ment made in a variety of forms : he would take a sam- ple of the cleanest wheat, and after being sown in any situation the farmer chose, it would produce more or less smut ears from tvery seed, or vice versa, he would take the dirtiest sample, and it should produce wheat sound and good ; he did this in a number of rows, drilled in various places, alternately, and all the rows invariably yielded according to his predictions : he accordingly gained the premium, but to what amount I do not remember : the whole art and mystery was this ; take a smut ear and pulverize it, mix the pow- der with clean wheat and it would produce smut, but take the wheat and wash it completely with spring water and it would entirely prevent it. yoL. in, C 58 3 Case of Croup in a Calf, hij Richard Peters j Esquire. Read, June 9, 1812. Belmont, May 24, 1812. S'lTy I was pleased to observe a late request of the so- ciety, to be furnished with facts relative to diseases of our domestic animals. You know that my opinion has long been, that the brute creation are afflicted with dis- eases exactly similar to those to which the human race are subject. To contribute my mite towards the ob- ject of the society, in thus calling for information, I mention the following facts. A few weeks ago, I had a fine, healthy, playful, Calf, suddenly attacked in a manner I had never before ob- served. I did not notice its extraordinary symptoms, early enough to treat the disease in a mode likely to conquer it. Nor did I conceive soon enough, the na- ture of its malady. But having some knowledge of the Croup in children, I was struck, at too late a stage of the disease, with the exact resemblance of the disor- der, which had fatally fixed itself in the animal. Its mode of breathing could not be distinguished from that of a child, under similar circumstances. As soon as I was convinced of the nature of the disease, I had the calf copiously bled ; and directed castor oil to be thrown down the throat, through the neck of a bottle ; after opening the passage of the wind pipe with a flex- ible twig, to which a sponge dipt in sweet oil was at- tached. It was relieved, surprisingly, for two days ; Case of Croup in a . Calf. 59 sucked, and swallowed the milk ; which it had not done for several days before. But the disease return- ed ; and continued for four or five days, with restless- ness, a cough, and the sharp sound of difficult respira- tion. It finally died, by suffocation, in a spasmodick, or convulsion, fit. I believe about eight or nine days had elapsed, from the time I had the first notice of the disease. The calf was about a week old, when it was first seized with the disorder. I had it dissected (not very neatly) by my old farmer. In the wind pipe there was every appearance I had seen or read of in human subjects, victims to the Croup. The mem- braneous substance obstructing the inside of the tra- chea^ and the coagulated lymph, or tough mucus, which formed a kind of false casing to the trachea^ and a sort of ill digested greyish pus^ filled up the pas- sage ; and the preternatural membrane, or enlarge- ment of a natural one, was remarkably apparent. There were appearances of inflammation, in one or two places. I intended to have sent the whole of the parts aflfected to you ; and your professional knowledge would have enabled you to have given of them a de- scription, of which I am incapable. But my old far- mer conceived my curiosity sufficiently satisfied ; and, in my absence cut to pieces the wind pipe, and sepa- rated all the morbid parts, for his own amusement. 1 regretted my disappointment much. It is certainly an inflammatory disease ; and in its incipient state should be treated accordingly ; with depleting and cooling remedies, among which frequent bleeding is essential. After its being fixed, I doubt the effica- cy of any remedies. Dr. Rush informs me he ha 60 Case of Croup in a Calf, read of two instances of the croup in brute animals ; and his son James mentioned one other. I think that of a colt, which fell a victim to this disease, or some disorder similar to it. Possibly the practice of bleed- ing calves, to blanch the veal, may prevent the disease appearing more commonly, than it otherwise would. My calf had not been precedently bled. In a British agricultural publication, of March 9th, last, a circumstance is mentioned, of " a exve belong- ing to Francis Fag, of Enfield, on the night of Janua- ry 29th, having yeaned a lamb, which, in consequence of the ewe having no milk, died the night following : and in the night of February 16th, the same ewe yean- ed another lamb ; has a fine hag of mUk, and both ewe and lamb are doing welV* This is mentioned as an extraordinary circumstance, as, no doubt, it is. — My neighbour, Mr. Thomas Bones, met with a similar oc- currence, in one of his ewes ; save that his ewe eject* ed a diseased and dead lamb. In 18 days thereafter, she yeaned a fine healthy lamb ; and both the ewe and the Jamb were as well, as if np circumstance of the kind mentioned had happened. Such facts are encouraging to sheep breeders, who may meet with similar disas- ters ; and posterior good luck. Every fact relating to accidents or diseases of our stock, is interesting, in the present dearth of veterinary information. Those who neglect to attend to such facts, deeming them trifling and unimportant, are either culpably careless, or reprehensibly fastidious. Let every farmer and owner of stock, inform of any uncommon occurrences of accidents or diseases in domestic animals, happen- ing under his observation ; and a body of facts and Case of Croup in a Calf, 61 information will be accumulated, which may, by men of medical science, and inteUigence on such subjects, be turned to the greatest advantage. It has been al- ways my habit to cause to be opened, and examin- ed, every beast which could furnish instruction, for my own, or the benefit of others, when, on my farms, the animal had died by disease, or accident. Every far- mer should follow this practice ; and note the appear- ances, or probable causes, occasioning, or supposed to have produced, the loss of the animal. A knowledge of diseases will point to remedies ; and both himself and his neighbours may derive future advantage, from his present misfortune. Dr. Rush informs me that horses and horned cattle are subject to Diabetes, I have seen, and heard of, a greater number of twin calves, this season, than I recollect to have known or heard of in any season before. Some country people believe, that such circumstances occur at particular pe- riods ; and assign causes fanciful and various. I have not heard of more than one or two instances of txvins of different sexes. Nature in this instance discovers a delicacy, directed by the wisdom displayed in all the works of our great Creator. A female calf, twin with a bull calf, is rare, and is called a Free-Martin. These are generally accounted hermaphrodite and bar- ren. In an English agricultural publication (1811,) I have seen an account of a Free-Martin having had a calf. But it is there asserted, that no such occurrence had been before known. The writer requests informa- 62 Free-Martin, tion of any similar fact ; if any such fact had ever came to the knowledge of English breeders of horned cattle. I have seen no answer to this request, though the papers in which it was inserted are devoted to agricultural subjects; and have been transmitted to me down to a very recent date. 1 have not paid any particular attention to such circumstances ; although they have not passed entirely unnoticed. I do not re- collect an instance of a Free-Martin breeding. Your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease, Secretary^ Philach Agric* Soc, E 63 ] On Fiorin Grass, by Richard Peters^ Esquire. Read June 9, 1812. Belmont, May 30, 1812. Sir, I send to you strings of the Fiorin Grass, brought, at my request, for me, from Ireland, by my friend Z)a- vid H, Conyngham, Esq. who merits much praise for his attention to an article, which may turn out of great benefit to our country. They are not direct from Dr. Ri c H A R D so N , (of Clonfeclc in Ireland, the original dis- coverer of the extraordinary qualities and almost in- credible product of this grass) but are of the kind cul- tivated by him. For moist grounds, more especially marshesyfensy bogs, and soils of this nature, no grass can be more highly desirable. It will grow in any soil, but thrives best where there is the most moisture. No doubt it will be discovered to be an indigenous plant ; and when it is perfected from the strings now introdu- ced, a comparison can be made with those of our coun- try. It is common in all parts of the world ; but its qualities have only recently been developed. They were not fully known until Dr. Richardson discovered and proved them. A fair experiment should be made ; and all prejudice and incredulity should be banished. Success, by a careful and persevering few, will soon bring conviction to the many. The ship in which the Fiorin came, was unhappily cast away on our coast. The grass, confined in a box and a sack, w^as wet with sea- water, and so remained for two weeks or more. 64 On Fiorin Grass* Yet the strings retain perfectly the principle of life ; under circumstances which would have destroyed any other plant ; nor does any feculency or putrefaction appear to have affected them. The misfortune affords a strong additional fact to prove Dr. Richardson's as- sertions in this respect. Weeding and cleanliness are required, the first year of laying the strings ; but after- wards it eats out and destroys all other vegetation. Its culture must, therefore, be gradual ; and within the cultivator's power to keep it clean. If ten acres will produce of this, as much as thirty or forty of com- mon grass, the pains it requires are well bestowed. In bulk, the quantity produced does not much exceed some other luxuriant grass. But its substance, weight, and nutrition, surpass any thing hitherto known. It strikes its roots shallow and superficially, like strawberry runners ; grows from every joint in con- tact with the earth, and finally mats like a rug. Weeds of various kinds are peculiarly hostile. Shade is not so; for it grows vigorously under trees. I have subjoined an account of its culture ; and some facts concerning it. Yours, very truly, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease, Secretary of the Philad» Agric. Soc, Culture of Fiorin, or Agrostis stolonifera. It will be enough, for present purposes, to give con» cise directions to those who obtain a small number of strings for experiment. On Florin Grass. 65 1. Dig a small plat, and clear ofFall weeds. Rake and level the surface, and thereon lay the joints, cut so as to have an inch or more of the string, on each side ; or the runners may be laid or stretched lengthwise, in rows, nine or twelve inches apart, to admit the hoe or hand-weeding. 2. Cover them with mould, or compost, thinly ; merely to keep them from being blown off, and to set the joints, so as to ensure their striking root. 3. Weed and clean them when requisite. Next sea- son, they will conquer, with very little aid, all other vegetation. The later the crop, of any year, is cut, the better. The strings or runners are the objects ; and not what is commonly preferred in hay. The former in winter remain highly succulent ; and can be used to as great a degree of profit, as green grass in sum- mer. They promote milk in cows, become healthy food for sheep ; — ewes and lambs particularly ; and are pre- ventives of many diseases ; by supplying succulent fodder in winter or spring, when no other is to be ob- tained. The seed of the panicles will grow ; but the progress is more tedious. The culms* and leaves are of little advantage ; though they may serve for fodder. The enemies of this grass have confounded it with quicks conchy or knot grass, than which nothing is more erroneous; as Dr. iiLic/zardswz has clearly shewn. The abundance it affords for winter consumption, doubly compensates for exclusion of grazing, which the growtlx of the runners indispensably requires. * The cnlniB are upright stalks, supporting): the fmnlcla^ or seed spikes. VOL. IIT. T 66 Oji Fiorin Grass* A damp piece of ground, and the more so the bet- ter, to a reasonable extent ; or one in a situation to be watered by a stream, will be preferable ; though any other will answer sufficiently. Watering the seedling plants, if the weather be dry, would ensure success in a soil not naturally moist. The facts and mode of culture, I have gathered from European correspondents of such respectability, that I have not the least doubt of their correctness. Nor have I any doubts of the accounts given by Dr. Rich- ardson, and others who have followed his practice, re- specting the qualities and wonderful product of Fio- rin, in Europe, How it will answer here, is yet to be known by experience. The trial is well worthy our unprejudiced exertions, and persevering attentions. Fiorin seems to be best calculated for grounds, fit only for, and permanently devoted to, grass. Because it forbids alternate farming, and is difficult to eradicate after gaining possession, it has been reprobated by European adversaries, who depreciate its real excel- lencies, on account of its not falling in with a system of husbandry, for which it may not be proper. But if it will bring into great profit, soils not fit for the plough, it. will supersede the necessity of keeping in grass, lands which may be otherwise employed. If it will add most abundantly, to the store of winter forage, and is preferred to all other provender, by horses, sheq:) and cattle ; — other grass lands may be grazed, or placed under tillage, at the pleasure of the proprie- tors of them. That it will grow well in grounds fit for tillage, I have no doubt ; but it secerns best adapted On Florin Grass, 67 to those on which the ploufijh cannot be employed to the best advantage. In those which can be watered, or evt^n flooded, the crops exceed any thing ever ex- perienced from any other grass heretofore known. That six, eight and ten tons to the acre (the first the most common) have been produced, is well ascertain- ed to me, by indubitable proofs. The experiment here, is, therefore, fully justified by European facts; be the result what it may. If Fiorift produces even double the quantity of nutritious matter, compar- ed to that in other grasses, on the same space or con- tents, of ground, — one half of our meadows fit for other branches of husbandry, are released from being devoted to winter-forage ; and are added to the fields employed in courses of grain, or other crops, or to grazing, at the will of the farmer. Any time between March and October, or even No- vember, will answer for laying ; but in April, is the best. The strings, in extensive culture, are merely scat- tered over the surface, and covered with earth, lightly ; after due preparation of the ground. The cover may consist of scourings of ditches, or draining-furrows ; or part of the vegetable mould of the soil in which the grass is to grow ; or of richer earth, or compost. Draining wet swamps, at first, will be proper; but when the grass has taken full possession, no matter how moist the soil remains. It will stiffen the surface of a bog ; so as to support heavy loads. In some pitrts of Ireland, the strings are twisted in- to ropes, and chopped with an hatchet, for strewing. 68 On Fiorin Grass* Sometimes the ropes are buried through the winter. In the spring, they are found in a forward state of ve- getation ; and thus are chopped for strewing, to great adviin^age. In Ireland and Scotland^ they prepare the ground and lay or scatter the strings, any time either in, or be- tween October and March. In mild open winters, and favourable autumns, this may be done here. There is a singular advantage attending the culture of this grass. The dry hay, or rather strings, will vegetate, from the joints, many months after being cut, or hous- ed. The operations may be carried on in seasons, when no other such work can safely be done. When- soever, even in winter, the frosts admit pulverizing the earth, so as to cover the strings, the laying may pro- ceed. The joints will be ready to shoot at the earliest opening of the spring ; and, being hardy, will not suf- fer by late frostsr. * This plant endures wet, drought, heat, and cold, with far less injury than any of the Gra- 772ma tribe. No other grass should grow with it ; be- cause that will be sooner ripe ; and fall and feculate, before the Fiorin is fit for the sithe, or hook. The cutting and curing the crops are performed in the common mode. But it is certainly more tedious and troublesome to cut, than common grass ; and fre- quently requires the hook, instead of the sithe, in some places. Lap, or grass- cocks of small size, arepreferred to larger accumulations, at first. Cocks of size may be finally made, but they must not be tramped or consolidated ; and may lay out, if necessity requires, in rain or snow, without injury, for weeks, or even On Fiorin Grass. 69 months. The later, in the fall, the grass is cut, the better. This gives time for the most valuable parts, the runnersy to grow and encrease in number. Dr. Richardson prefers the first or second week in October (in Ireland) though he has mown as late as December, or January. Our severer winters forbid such procras- tinated gathering the crops. All our crops ripen ear- ly ; and this grass may be fit to cut here in August, or September, at farthest. Winrows may answer, in the first instance, as well as lap-cocks. In Europe they find that turnips^ potatoes^ carrots^ or other such food, are unnecessary, when dairy covjs^ or ewes while suckling, are fed constantly, on Fiorin strings. It is called stolonifera, from the lateral shoots or sto- h?ies, projecting from the main stem. These become parent stems, and shoot out their stolones, till all the surface is covered with a kind of net work ; which rises in thickness, and plentifully affords a heavy sward. I met with a worthy, intelligent, Irish woman (the mother of my neighbour, Mr. Thomas Bones) at a time when I had some of the strings of Fioinn in my hand. She was highly delighted with them, and recognized at once '* her favorite Irish grass ;" as she expressed herself. She called it ^'fiotter grass. ^^ She informed me that it grew, in great plenty, on the shores of Lough Neagh, It spreads itself into the Lough, in extensive floating sheets ; tied to the shores, by strongly rooted stems. The neighbouring cottagers, at all seasons, in winter most commonly, haul on shore what they re- quire, in great abundance ; and carry off car loads for 70 On Fiorin Grass, their cattle. Its joints throw out roots in the water. She called those collections of Fiorin^ — *' floating is- lands."^ R. P. July 12, 1812. I find the Fmin in plenty, in my neighbourhood. It grows on my own, and other, farms; and, most commonly, in moist spots. It is found on the sides of roads, gullies, and cart-routes where waters of streams, or rains, have moistened the soil ; and it de- lights in the banks of muddy runs, or ditches newly thrown. I perceive several varieties ; some much more succulent, and less rigid, in the stems, or strings, than others. I have strewn the L'ish strings, or joints, on a low piece of ground ; but not sufficiently moist, and I have native plants in the same spot. We shall be thus enabled to discover the best kinds for cultivation. Some of the native plants appear mean and unpromis- ing ; some very much otherwise. Whether owing to the difference of species, or thequality of the soil, I know * My informant is a respectable and venerable woman. She is 85 years old ; and enjoys, perfectly, her health and faculties. She is remarkably industrious ; and spins the finest thread, either of flax or cotton, I have been accustomed to see. She rides on horse back thirty miles, in less than a day, with no fatigue. Her horse (well known to me) is as extraordinary, as its rider. He is perfectly sound and sure footed. He is a New England horse ; and was the saddle horse of the late governor John Penn. I think he is now as pleasant a hackney, as he was in his youth ; though he is 41 years old, at this time. [May, 1812.] R. P. On Florin Grass. 71 not. No doubt this, like all other grasses and plants, grows btst in rich soil, but I have no fault to find with the soil ; except its not being wet. November 5. My Irish Florin is very healthy ; and continues to grow luxuriantly. It holds a great superi- ority over the native piants ; though some of the latter look well. R. P. June 10, 1813. I was out of hopes as to my Florin^ of all kinds, in the early part of the spring ; which has been uncommonly cold and injurious to vegetation. But now the grass has wonderfully thriven. The Irishy still the best. A friend who has recently arrived from Ireland^ w^here he paid particular attention to Fiorin, gives me much encouragement. He says, for the stage of its growth, it is very promising. The Irish strings are, he says, exactly the kind cultivated by Dr. Richardson ; and advises me to cut my little crop in August. Some of the native grass, he thinks, will equal the Irish. Others are very much inferior. R. Peters. WINTER HAY-MAKING. To the people of Ireland, with whom the adage of *' make hay while the sun shines" is often useless, Winter-hay^making does not appear impracticable or extraordinary. To us, who are accustomed to clear skies and fine weather, the maxim is useful ; and its injunction attainable. I have seen in Ireland common hay in large stooksy in their fields in January ; waiting 72 PFmter- Hay -making. for an opportunity of hauling it in for final security. The interior was dry, but musty. The musty smell, though to me strikingly perceptible, was not so to the farmer. The oats and hay^ and frequently the meal^iudL grain, had, to me, a musty smell. I was deemed egre- giously prejudiced, ' when I mentioned the circum- stance ; though it was indubitably true. It is well known, that, owing to wet harvests, grain, in Ireland^ must be kiln dried, before it can be profitabl) manufac- tured. I am satisfied that the insensibility of the Irish people to the musty savour of their grain, is produced by the force of habit, which frequently overpowers our natural faculties ; and I do not mention it ta their dis- paragement. I have seen their horses eagerly devour musty oats, far better, in every other respect, than ours; but such as our horses, would, on this account, reject. I perceived a strong taint of the turf, in all victuals cooked by that fuel. But Irish gentlemen, nice in other matters, could not observe it. Their winter-made hay is, most probably, musty ; though Irish horses, or cattle, do not perceive, or dislike it. In the Cork grain and meal market, (wherein I was, many years ago) I had the unlucky curiosity, to taste and smell a great number of samples o^ flour and grai?i, I was not aware of the risk I ran. Finding most of them musty, in a greater or less degree, I, no doubt, involuntarily, betrayed symptoms of disgust. The dealers observed it ; and before I left the market, the large doors were closed on me. I was a perfect stran- ger, surrounded by a motley multitude ; chiefly native Irish women, of thaiestrian and amazonian ferocity. I saw that I had brought myself, however innocently, Winter 'Hay -making. 73 into a predicament ridiculously unpleasant. Fortu- nately, a dexterous and sudden thought, furnished a plausible excuse for untoward appearances. I re- lieved myself, in addition to this, by a forfeit of sundry Irish shillings, to the self created janitrices ; and amused the main body, by throwing some small coins among them. I retreated with plaudits instead of curses, during the scramble ; and, no doubt, escaped some comfortable huslings and ' not a few vollies of poissarde rhetorick ; in which those Jiowenj oratrixes are copiously fluent. I avoided, ever after, any rnun- dungus or smell fungus appearances, or expressions, on this delicate subject, I perceived that some Cork acquaintances, to whom I related my adventure, not deeming the penance for my heresy sufiicient, were not perfectly pleased with the handsome retreat I had effected ; which really had required some generalship. Nevertheless, I had been punished, by fine and ini- prisonment, in a tribunal whose proceedings are al- vi^ays rapid and summary, for a venial offence. A very intelligent American^ lately returned from England^ favoured me with a visit ; and informed me that an English horse^ kept hungry for the purpose of experiment, utterly refused Fiorin hay sent over by Dr. Richardson. K\\ American horse alike unused to musty winter- made hay, as most probably this was, would have thus conducted himself. Having, recently, occasion to write to a respectable citizen of Massachusetts^ on the subject of Fiorin^ I stated the foregoing fact, as to the squeamishness of the English horse, and my observations on Irish hay and grain ; as a mode of accounting for the circuni- VOL. III. k: 74 Winter-Hay-Making. stance ; which, most probably, arose from the savour, and not any other bad quality of the hay. It ^eems that I am not singular in the view I took of Irish harvests, and their consequences. Yet we should not be alarmed, who are not subject to the like misfor- tunes ; and can* gather our crops in propitious seasons; with very few exceptions. My fellow citizen of Mas- sachusetts writes, on this part of the subject, in the fol- lowing words. '* Many of your observations relative to the injured ** state of Irish harvests, occasioned by the excessive *' humidity of their atmosphere, I have frequently ** noticed myself, I passed two thirds of the year " 1798, in the cities of Dublin and Cork^ and in the '^ counties of Wexford and Limerick ; and have often ** expressed my astonishment at the musty smell, so *' very perceptible (to me) in ihtir fodder and grain; as ^* well as the insufferable smell and taste of turf in their '* culinary articles ; but more especially in their drawn ** butter. They, one and all, denied the existence of " any thing of the kind." He mentions a distinguish- ed Irish gentleman, with whom he was well ac- quainted, and whose candour and freedom from other prejudices he well knew, who joined in the dis- avowal of any perception of the taste and smell so dis- gusting to him. He might have named many ethers ; for of the candour of Irish gentlemen there can be no doubt. But all animals, as well human as others, are subject to the indelible impressions, and the dominion, of inveterate and long continued habit. JFe should be ridiculously presumptuous, in affecting to exempt our- selves from this common propensity ; which, undoubt- Winter-Hay 'Making. 75 ediy, strangers observe, while we are unconscious of it. The hospitality of Irish gentlemen, soon extin- guishes all minor objections to the fare, it so freely and amply furnishes.* Whether the musty savour generally taints the hay, grain, or meal, in Ireland^ in all seasons ; I do not know. I speak of the fact in 1785, 1786 ; and my cor- respondent experienced the like unpleasant tang, in 1798. Nor do we stand alone, in this experience; and that in seasons less remote. Richard Peters. Nov. 12, 1812. CONCLUSION. Wishing to give every information I could obtain re- specting the FioRiN, about which so much has been said and written in Europe^ I may have been too de- sultory and prolix, as it regards our publication. The conclusion, in my own mind, is, — that upland-farmers will not profit by this grass, unless they devote to it, parts of their watered meadows ; or have swamps, or boggy grounds, intermixed with their farms. This often happens ; — and to those the Fiorin should be ap- * I have known many persons here, from habit, fond of our gar- licky butter and milk ; preferring them to all other. The people of some of the islands, (whether owing to a natural, or acquired pro- pensity I know not,) those of Curracoa particularly, were accus- tomed to send orders to JN'ew York and Philadeljihia^ for what they called " hiejh flavoured" i. e. garlicky butter. Our people in general dislike and nauseate it. 76 On Fiorin Grass. plitd ; *hd may so be to great advantage. — I need not . add, that the owners of low-lands naturally moist, or wet even to excess, can wonderfully improve them, by cultivating this grass. I liHve, (since the foregoing communications were made,) read a well written statistical survey of the county of x\ N T R I M , in Ireland ; full of interesting agri- cultural information ; by the Reverend Mr. DuboiirdieUy an Irish clergyman. 1812. He mentions Dr. iZzV/zarJ- son and his discoveries and exertions, with great ap- probation. He gives a clear and concise account of the Fiorin^ both in its natural and cultivated state ; on the borders of the Lough- Neagh particularly ; where it grows in great abundance. What has been detailed in the foregoing sheets, is confirmed ; in all substantial facts. It appears that it will not answer well in dry grounds ; unless they can be occasionally irrigated, or flooded. The idea that it can be profitably cultivated in poor ground, is exploded. Bogs, swamps, and wet soils, even those fit for nothing else, are its element ; as are the shores of lakes, and rivers, naturally rich and moist. Such situations are generally capable of being occasionally flooded ; and are subject to over- flows. But these should pass away ; either of them- selves, or by artificial means. Deposits of sand, or other foreign matter, when floods are frequent, injure the Fiorin, in regard to its profitable expenditure, in the manner they affect other grass : but its principle of life, and progress of growth, are not retarded. As to wet seasons, and winter-hay- making, — we have little occasion of putting to the test, the qualities and capacities of the Fiorin. To those who are under On Florin Grass. 77 the necessity of extracting this kind of comfort from local misfortune, it is happy, that the subject warrants the facts alledged ; in this regard. All provender cured in favourable weather, is, most assuredly, the most pa- latable, wholesome, and nutritious. But that which will sustain, without injury, circumstances under which other grasses would perish, is certainly worthy of every commendation. It should be introduced by us, ^vherever it is proper and practicable, as an important and sure resort, when anomalous seasons destroy our other crops ; as well as for its positive good qualities, and profitable uses, at all times. R, Peters. Ju?te 18, 1813. [ 78 ] On the Diseases of Sheep^ and the similarity in their Nature with the prevalent Complaints of Mankind^ by Dr. Petrikin. Read November 12,1811. Belmont^ October 7, 1811. Dear Sir^ My friend Dr. Rush, having been so obliging as to communicate to me a letter (to him) from Dr. Da- vid Petrikin of Danville^ in Northumberland county, Pennsylvania, containing some information apparent- ly important, on a subject which, in this country, is most lamentably neglected — to wit — the diseases of domestic animals ; I extract a part of that letter (dated 1st Sept. 1811) for the information of the society. Any thing relative to veterinary subjects is desirable, in our present dearth of information ; but this seems peculiarly worthy of attention ; though I have before observed very strong facts proving the similarity of diseases in horses, cattle^ and other animals, with those afflicting the human species ; originating in like, or the same causes ; and requiring similar treatment. — Whe- ther the symptoms or exact description of the maladies existing at the same time, and in the same place, both in men and the brute creation, are alike, I will not de- termine.— But I have repeatedly observed diseases ap- pearing to me to originate in the same causes, and ex- isting at the same time, in the same place, in our do- mestic animals and the human species. No doubt this has been observed by others more competent to On the Diseases of Sheep^ ^c. 79 turn the circumstance to useful account. And it is very desirable, that those qualified in such subjects, should promulgate both facts and opinions. — Dr. Pet- rikm has set a laudable example to professional charac- ters ; who cannot employ their anatomical and medi- cal talents to more advantage, than by exerting them in inquiries of this nature. Some of the most respect- able men of their profession in Europe, have deemed the subject honorable to them ; and have devoted their acquirements in the medical art, as well as all branch- es of knowledge connected with it, to the great benefit of their country ; by developing the causes and cures of diseases in domestic animals ; whereof a most va- luable part of the property of all countries consists. Your very obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease, Secretary of the PhilacL Agric, Soc, EXTRACT, " The hooping cough has been the prevalent disease in this neighbourhood, since the first of June. It has been very mild, and required medical aid only in a few cases ; and in those a free use of the lancet was all that w^s necessary. There have been a few cases of Ty- PHUs, within two or three weeks past, on the high hills, about five miles from this place. Blisters, bark, wine, Sec. were successful. The persons attacked were under 20 years of age. An inflammatory disorder has appeared among the Horses in the neighbourhood of 80 Oil the Diseases of Sheep ^ ^d. these cases ; which is generally mortal, principally from their being generally wrong treated. On the^r^^ appearance of the hooping cough amongst the human species, an inflammatory sore throat was epidemic among the horses throughout this country ; attended with loss of appetite, fever, inflammation of the Tonsils, and sup- puration and very severe cough. I found that bleeding andpu7gi?ig was the remedy indicated in the beginning of the disease, or at any time before the suppuration of the tumors* But after suppuration^ peruvian bark^ steely assafostida and tar, were useful ; and bleeding, &c. in- jurious. This disease has been generally called the throat distemper, " I never was more forcibly struck with the simi- larity of the diseases of the human and brute creation, than last winter ; of which the following is a history ; from my note book." " January 12th, visited six patients. — Disease pneumonia — pulse tense and quick ; — remedies — bleeding — cathartics, and blisters to breast : — called on a visit to Mr. W. B. Montgomery. — Several of his Sheep have died of disease. Upon dissection, I find considerable inflammation of the membrane lining the Thorax; an eflfa sion of water around the lungs; in one of them the lungs do not appear to be inflamed. In several others the lungs are inflamed ; and upon cutting into the substance of the lungs, the cells ap- pear full of a frothy liquid. The rest of the body ap- pears healthy ; as also the brain. Examined several alive : Symptoms ; — cough, — the falling of both ears backwards, — vertigo ; — so that in attempting to walk, they stagger. — Prescribed bleeding and purges of mo- On the Diseases of Slieep, ^c, 81 lasses and yeast. January 16th, called to see Mr. Montgomery's Sheep. Several had recovered^ that had been bled and purged the first day of the disease. *' The similarity of the diseases is evident ; and Mr. Montgomery asserts, that bleeding alone saved one or two valuable half blooded Merino sheep in this disease. The blood was taken by opening a vein near the arti- culation of the lower jaw. Mr. M. had at the time about 300 sheep ; of which he lost about thirty by this inflammatory Disease; and chiefly the fattest of the flock." I copy no more of the letter ; because it concludes with an apology to Dr. Rush^ for the trouble given to him by the writer. The society have had the most sa- tisfactory proof, in the excellent lecture delivered by Dr. Riish^ and printed in our first volume, that he re- quires no apology ; but takes an interest in all such communications of information : — I mention, with not the most distant idea of reproach, but with serious and sincere regret, that, until this communication, we have had no instance of the good effect produced on medical men, by the important example set in that lec- ture. So that our domestic animals are either, from necessity, placed in the hands of ignorant and fraudu- lent quacks, and low pretenders to veterinary know- ledge, or abandoned to their fate. The latter is, in most cases, the safest alternative. R. Peters. VOL. Ill, 82 On the Diseases of Sheep, ^c. June 20, 1813. Great numbers of sheep (many valuable Merinos) have fallen victims, this season, to the worm in the head. A Tunis sheep of high blood, nor any of its crosses (except in one instance with a Merino) never have been known to have worms in the head. The nostril of this sheep is differently formed, from those of common sheep ; so as to exclude flies, or other in- sects. Nor are they subject to mucous defluxions at the noses, in any degree equal to other sheep. It is supposed that the sheep fly deposits its eggs, or worm, in the mucus of the nose ; and that by this means, access to the fatal deposit in the head is gained. The passages of the nostrils of common sheep, in hot wea- ther, when they breathe violently, are widely distended; and they may inhale, probably, the fly, or their ova. Some repellant of tar, or other substance disgusting to the fly, might be applied to the nostril ; if this con- jecture, as to the cause of the malady, be well found- ed. It will be highly conducive to the interest of sheep breeders, if both cause and remedy were investi- gated and communicated. See Mr. Capner^s account of the worm in the head. Vol. 1. p. 133. This malady seems to be peculiarly fatal to sheep. Whether other cloven footed animals are subject to it, in a degree so destructive, I know not. Deer, and some others of the Cei-vi, have worms in the head ; similar to those in sheep. It is highly desirable that some re- medies or preventives should be discovered, to save our flocks ; which have become, under the circum- stances of our country, objects of primary importance. On the Diseases of Sheep ^ Ssfc. 83 Worms have been detected in the frontal sinuses of human subjects ; perhaps produced by the ova^ or se- minal principle, inhaled. Whether fatal effects have followed, I know not. There is, probably, no animal more subject to diseases occasioned by worms, than is man. Those diseases put on every appearance. Their diagnostics are so perfectly protean^ that they deceive the most skilful physician. If I should not subject my- self to the merited retort, of *' ne sutor ultra crepidam,^^ I would advise, that doubtful and unknown diseases should be considered, and treated, as originating from worms ; instead of being styled nervous affections ; or, (according to the fashion of the day,) gout. I think, the chances of cure, would be by far the most favour* able. R. P. [ 84 ] On the Agi'iciilture of England^ — on Manures^ — Coji- vertible Husbandry ^ — and Soiling , by Mr» John Lo- rain* Read November 10, 1812. Philip sburg^ on the Mushanon^ Centre County ^ Fenn. July 21, 1812. Dear Sir^ Previous to my departure from Philadelphia, I pro- mised you some observations on the alarming appre- hensions of a scarcity of bread, which sometimes takes place in Great Britain, and also remarks on any sub- ject considered worthy of attention, which might be presented in the recent settlements of our extensive forests ; and unexpected leisure has furnished me with ample opportunity for that purpose. The remarks on British management are novel, and although the substance of many of the observations made on agriculture, may be found dispersed in vari- ous writings on that subject ; still, the condensing and applying them simply to the best methods of practice, cannot be considered uninteresting, more especially as the value of grass grounds, do not appear to be clearly understood, either in the procuring, management, or the most advantageous application of them, or their lays to future crops. But here I would wish to be un- derstood, that what I have advanced on convertible husbandry, cannot be considered in any other light, than barely as rough and unconnected hints on the sub- ject, and calculated to claim the attention of those who 071 the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ ^c. 85 are possessed of abilities, clearly and properly to ex- plain this invaluable practice. How far my observations on the forests and the re- cent settlements, which have either been attempted or established in them, have been anticipated, is entirely unknown to me. Except what has been published by the president of your society, which I cheerfully ac- knowledge, has been of great advantage to me, in my researches into the revolutions of nature, and the events that take place among timber, I have seen nothing on the subject. I am, dear sir, your friend, and humble servant, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. Philipsburg^ June 10, 1812. Dear Sir, Scanty harvests will sometimes occur in every coun- try, and when they take place in Great Britain, to any considerable degree, they excite alarming apprehen- sions, and seriously affect the tranquillity of the inha- bitants, until plenty has been introduced by importa- tion, and a return of more plentiful crops : and as the evil appears to originate in the prevailing partiality for old pastures, and the methods pursued in laying them down, some observations on that subject may be inter- esting. The immense advantages which the agriculture of Great Britain derives from an abundance of grass, has been too generally attributed to the superior manage- ment of their grass grounds; when in fact the produce S6 On the Agriculture o/Engla7id, Manures, ^c. and profits of those crops are greatly diminished in con- sequence of their management, and their grain and other crops are deficient from the same cause. When Britons became agriculturists, the grasses which had supplied their cattle while they were shep- herds, were ploughed in proportion to the extent of their cultivation, until it became necessary for art to assist nature in the multiplication of grass grounds. It is probable, that at that period, they introduced the injudicious practice of forming pastures from seeds indiscriminately gathered from hay lofts, without re- flecting, that by this means they introduced late and early, good and worthless plants, with all the interme- diate qualities between those wide extremes, together with innumerable weeds : and it appears strange, that the enlightened agriculturists of that country should still persist in the same mode, with little deviation, al- though they are frequently disappointed in accomplish- ing that object, after much labour has been expended, and the income from the grounds are either lost, or considerably curtailed ; and after all this expense, to procure permanent pastures, they are frequently in- debted to nature, aided by expensive extra manurings, to cover their grounds with grasses ; some, after be- ing frequently disappointed, have even encountered the enormous expense of covering the ground with sods, procured from lanes, road sides, and other places. Although the agriculture of Pennsylvania is in gene- ral inferior to that of Great Britain, yet there are im- provements in this country worthy their attention. The Pennsylvania farmer selects his grass seeds from the most approved plants : no unknown mixtures are ad- On the Agriculture of England, Manures, ^c. 87 mitted : they are gathered, threshed, cleaned, and kept separate, and by this means we are m possession of the best plants that have as yet claimed our attention ; and those who are in the habit of attentive observation, are acquainted with their different properties, except the relative value of each in fattening cattle, a point that has been too little considered, either here, or in any other country, although there are some plants in- finitely superior to others for that purpose. If those Vi^ere known and cultivated separately, much less ground would be found sufficient to fatten an ox, than is at this time necessary for that purpose. Indeed there are few questions equally interesting to the farmer, or that can be more readily determined, than the fatten- ing properties of grasses, especially in England, where they have easy modes of weighing cattle, and can rea- dily ascertain what they have gained or lost, in any given space of time. But not only the knowledge of the fattening properties of grasses, that may be obtain- ed from the separate collecting of grass seeds, but all the different properties of the various kinds of grasses may be thereby understood, such as those best calcu- lated to increase the quantity of milk, butter or cheese,* and to give additional value to their flavour. Useless plants may also be eradicated, and the space they * Tlie possibility of attaining these objects has been rendered probable, by the sudden change in the taste of cows' milk, from feeding a short time on Florin grass. See x\rchives of Useful Knowledge, vol. 2, p. 273, Farmf;r*s Magazine, Edinburg, March 1812, p. 12. J. M. 88 On the Agriculture of England ^ Manures^ ^c\ would occupy may be filled with other plants, that spring early, and continue growing through every sea- son, until frost has locked up the powers of vegeta- tion. By this means also, grasses suitable for every soil and climate, may be obtained, and the fruitless la- bour of endeavouring to establish such as are not con- genial with either, avoided. Finally, farmers may in this way, as readily become acquainted with the grasses best adapted to their different fields, as they now are with the best grain, roots, &c. Although the abolition of naked summer fallows, has unquestionably introduced an immense improve- ment in the agriculture of Great Britain, there can be but little doubt, that the abolition of old grass grounds, and the methods of laying them down, would intro- duce much greater improvement, the extent of which will be found incalculable : for many of the plants growing in them, ripen late in tlie season, others are very diminutive, or are not relished by any kind of stock ; all those, as well as innumerable weeds, which too generally take possession of a considerable proportion of old grass grounds, may be eradicated by a well conducted system of convertible husbandry ; and grounds which have been recently laid down, in a high state of cultivation, with good grasses, suited to the soil and climate, will yield at least double the income which could be obtained from the same grounds, had they continued in old pasture. The land holders of Great Britain would have long since seen the value of convertible husbandry, had not their judgments been blinded by the imaginary value of their old grass grounds, for they consider submit- On the Agriculture of England^ Manures, ^c. 89 ing them to the plough, little less than a sacrilege, and it appears that the opinion is not confined to men of contracted sentiments, for the board of agriculture, in that country, (who, when influenced by the alarming apprehension of scarcity, which not very long since took place,) were induced to make an extensive enqui- ry into the expediency of ploughing up old pastures, and after a course of crops returning them back again to grass, appear to have confined that enquiry so point- edly to the ultimate design of returning the grounds back again to permanent pasture, that information in any other shape was rather too much discouraged. Had the board simply requested information on the best measures which could be pursued, to introduce, at all seasons, a sufficiency of grain and other crops, suita- ble for the consumption and comfortable support of the nation, without diminishing an ample supply of food for live stock, the subject would have been left open, and it is probable, the practice of convertible husbandry would have been recommended by some cultivators, who appear from their writings to under- stand the value of that practice, although they have not considered it advisable to recommend it, being con- fined by the questions of the board, or probably de- terred by an apprehension, that popular opinion was too much opposed to the practice, to admit any hope of attention being paid to their advice. When grounds become matted with the roots of old grass plants, it does not appear reasonable to sup- pose them capable of producing crops, that will bear any tolerable comparison with those gathered from grounds of equal quality, which have been recently VOL. III. M 90 On the Agriculture o/Eftgland, Manures^ ^c. laid down, with the best artificial grass seeds ; for the roots of those young plants are healthy, and vigorous, and capable of pressing forward, in search of nutri- ment, through a soil, which, being free and open, ad- mits a ready passage for them in every direction, and if those grounds are ploughed up, before they become bound, or consolidated, and while the roots of the grass still remain vigorous, and filled with sap, they possess powers of exciting and promoting future vegetation, far beyond what has been generally supposed ; for al- though their effects would be trifling, were they ex- tracted, heaped, and decomposed, previously to their being applied to the crop, they are immensely power- ful, when their fermentation and decomposition take place in the soil ; for the soil is warmed, moistened, and expanded, in due proportion to the quantity and qua- lity of decaying vegetation, which it contains : this subject is well understood in Great Britain, when ap- plied to clover lays, which are there very judiciously managed, but their old grass grounds are seldom ploughed, until they become so consolidated, and in- fested with destructive grubs and other insects, that the labour and risk, necessarily attached to the first crops, which are grown on those grounds, render them very expensive, as well as precarious ; and it some- times happens, that two seasons are wasted in cultivat- ing them, before the firm texture of the soil, and the enemies with which it w^as infested, are subdued. It appears, therefore, that old grass grounds are inca- pable of producing as luxuriant crops, cither before or after they have been broken up, as might have been procured from the same grounds, under a system of On the Agriculture of England^ Manures y ^c. 91 well directed convertible husbandry, and that grass may be justly considered, not only nature's grand re- storative of the soil, but also the pabulum of succeed- ing- vegetation ;* thence it should be laid down as a maxim in farming, that no grounds should continue in grass until they become hard, bound, or consolidated, and the roots become old and matted, and that the plough should be stopped, before decaying vegetation has been reduced to actual soil or earth, for great crops of grass can be no longer obtained, than while the soil continues free and open, and the roots remain unim- paired, neither can superior crops of grain be expect- ed, after decaying vegetation ceases to stimulate and open the soil, without the aid of frequent manurings. As manure is a very expensive article, whether pur- chased, or made on the farm, the judicious application of it becomes highly important to the farmer ; and as gentlemen of considerable agricultural information, have differed very widely in their sentiments on the time and mode of its application, it may not be impro- per to state what has been my practice and observa- tions on it. *That pjrass acts with amazing energy, in both those ways, is readily conceived, by considering that the tops shelter and de- fend the soil, and also gather and confine the nutritious proper- ties, with which the surrounding atmosphere is charged, until they are conveyed to the earth ; the dropping of the leaves are also an addition to fertility, and the tops fed away to cattle, procure ma- nure, and the roots fill the soil, in every direction, with a profusion of vegetation, which, when they decay, enrich it, and most power, fully excite the growth of succeeding crops. 92 On the Agriculture of England, 3famires, ^c. I have invariably applied my farm yard manure, to my summer fallow crops, which have ever been far superior to those who have pursued a contrary prac- tice, and the wheat, barley, and grass crops, grown after those summer fallows, without any further addi- tional manure, I have ever found fully equal, and fre- quently superior, to the crops grown by my neigh- bours, who almost universally applied their manure immediately to their wheat and barley crops: and when their fields of those grains were poisoned with weeds, and the grasses sown over them greatly injured, from the same cause, my grain crops were clean, and much readier and sooner harvested, for it was not found ne- cessary for them to stand exposed in the shocks, until the succulent weeds were sufficiently dried, to pre- vent injury from fermentation, in the stacks or barns, and the harvesting of my grasses derived equal advan- tage, from the same cause, in quantity and quality. Leaves, straw, weeds, vines, cornstalks and their roots, were all carefully gathered and used by me, ei- ther for littering the stalls or cattle yards. This mode of management produced a large quantity of manure, for as those substances were fully saturated with the moisture of the cattle yards, they formed a valuable compost, without the labour of heaping and turning, and in this situation, previously to fermentation, they were hauled, spread over, and immediately ploughed under the soil designed for my summer fallow crops, which were principally Indian corn and potatoes ; and I am well satisfied, that as much ground may be ma- nured in this way by one ox, as could be effected with two, if it is suffered to ferment and rot in the cattle On the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ ^c. 93 yards, or heaped up in the fields for that purpose ; and if farmers did not suffer their judgments to be biased, either by reasoning, or prejudices imbibed from early practice, their organs of sense would supply sufficient means to determine the subject; for the sight and smell of a fermenting dunghill, would quickly demonstrate the course that should be taken with this invaluable article, for when fermentation takes place beneath the soil, the fructifying and exciting properties of the -ma- nure are diffused through the whole mass, and nothing is lost which could have been possibly saved. You have witnessed the rapid improvement, and luxuriant crops which have been obtained on the farm (from which I have lately removed,) by this method of using manure, joined with a regular system of convertible husbandry and soiling, and are capable of judging whether I may with propriety recommend the prac- tice to others. Although a large share of this improve- ment was obtained by the addition of soiling, yet inde- pendent of that invaluable practice, (which, neither the population, capital or inclination of this country ap- pear to favour,) convertible husbandry, joined with a well regulated system of making, saving and apply- ing manure, promises immense advantages ; and every grade of soil, from blowing sands, to the most adhe- sive, cold clay grounds, may be much more profitably managed, as well as sooner improved, through the medium of that practice, than by any other method which has yet been proposed.* * Well watered meadows, also, grounds inaccessible to the plough, and those subject to land floods or inundations, are excepted. 94 • On the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ ^c. Cold, retentive clay soils are not so favourable for summer fallow crops, or grain crops, as some other soils ; yet even they have been frequently highly im- proved by that practice in England, and the crops ob- tained from them were much more luxuriant than they had ever produced before, under the system of naked summer fallowing; and the grass following those crops was infinitely superior to any that had ever grown previously on those lands, and as it clearly appears, that those two wide extremes of soil, are capable of being profitably managed, under a well directed sys- tem of convertible husbandry, it will be useless to sub- stantiate the capability of improvement, in the same way, of the intermediate grades of soil ; — and although iirst rate grass grounds, and those near cities or large towns, and superior grazing, and dairy farms, may be all profitably managed in their present state, yet if one fifth part of those lands were annually cultivated, in summer fallow crops, and another one fifth part in grain, the remaining three fifths would produce more grass than the whole, while laying in old pastures or grass grounds, provided the soil was properly cultivat- ed, in regular succession. The plough, in the hands of an inconsiderate farmer, may be justly considered an instrument of certain and speedy destruction, being capable of exciting the soil to its utmost efforts of fertility, which naturally debili- tates and exhausts it, when nothing has been returned to renovate its powers, yet this same instrument, in the hands of a judicious cultivator, who returns back to the soil a due proportion of vegetation, which he can readily gather, becomes the most powerful and rapid On the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ %£c. 95 enricher of the soil; for the more effectually it has been excited by this and other implements of husbandry, to produce luxuriant crops, the more food and litter for cattle are obtained, and of consequence, the more ma- nure. Hence we can readily account for the great im- provements which have been achieved by enterprising and intelligent cultivators, on exhausted soils. The cause of this is clear, for the strength and vigour of the plants are promoted, and they are rendered capable of extend- ing their roots through the soil, and gathering the nu- triment which has been provided in it, for their sup- port, and the tops also of the plants, equally invigorat- ed by good cultivation, extract from the atmosphere with which they are surrounded, the rich nutritive pro- perties with which it is continually charged, and the pulverized and open soil readily imbibes the enriching properties, flowing from the same source, and conveys them to the roots of the plants, with which it has been covered. Why then should the enlightened cultiva- tors of Britain dread the effects of the plough on their grass grounds ? If the grounds which have been very recently laid down in grass, are found too tender to bear heavy stock, they may be either mown, or grazed with light- er animals, and those which are heavy turned on the grasses of longer standing. When convertible husbandry is properly managed, much labour is saved. A summer fallow crop which will admit of regular horse-hoeing or shimming, is the first which follows after grass, the dung is spread on the sod, and immediately ploughed under, and great care should be taken that it is not turned up, and ex- 96 On the Agricultwe of England^ Manures^ ^c, posed in the after cultivation of the crop ; and for the ensuing crop, ploughing will be useless, as well as in- jurious, as a line tilth, with less than half the expense, may be readily procured, without exposing the ma- nure, by means of the scufflers or cultivators, common- ly used in that country, which are very similar to the hoe, or fluke harrow used here. The number of crops taken, before the ground is returned back to grass, should not be many, but must be, in a great measure, governed by the views and situation of the cultivator : if they are exhaust- ing, and more than two are taken, ameliorating crops, as turnips, potatoes, peas, or clover, should in- tervene, and 1 believe there are few crops which af- ford sufficient shade, and produce a plentiful supply of fodder and litter for cattle, and will admit of efiectual horse-hoeing, which may not be justly deemed ameli- orating, provided a sufficiency of manure has been ap- plied to the soil. Indian corn has ever been my fa- vourite summer fallow crop, for if properly arranged, it affiords sufficient shade, and admits the most perfect cultivation, and if the value of the grain, fodder, and litter of this crop is considered, the plant may be just- ly esteemed far more valuable than any other that has yet been discovered; but it is a large, and very power- ful plant, and when grown without manure, and the fodder stalks and roots are suftered to perish in the field, which is too often the case, it becomes a power- ful exhauster, and unless it has been planted on grounds recently reclaimed from the forest, or on deep fresh bottoms, its effects on the fertility of the soil are manifest. On the Agriculture of England, Manures, ^c. 97 Soiling has been practiced with great success, and on a considerable scale, in England, by several gen- tlemen, whose talents are highly estimated, and they have published very accurate accounts of their expe- riments, which certainly were worthy much more at- tention, than has yet been given to them, either in that country, or any where else ; for it appears that farm- ers are the most difficult of any other people under the sun, to be convinced of the errors which are manifest in their practice, or of the utility of the most advanta* geous improvements, which may be readily made in their profession, and that they believe the knowledge of their art hereditary, for they are immediately up in arms, against any person who attempts to dock the en- tail of ignorance. Yours, respectfully, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. VOL. irr. [ 98 ] Observations upon the Agriculture and Roads of the new Settlements in Pennsylvania^ with Hints for Improve- ment, by Mr, John Lorain, Read November 10, 1812. Fhilipsburgy June 28, 1812. Dear Sir^ In passing westwardly from Philadelphia to this place, I observed with peculiar pleasure, that much attention had been given to grass and red clover, in the older settlements ; and that notwithstanding a very imperfect system of husbandry almost universally pre- vailed, yet great improvement had been effected, and the crops were generally promising, and in many in- stances very luxuriant : and there can be but little doubt, that the agriculture of Pennsylvania must flour- ish to a very great extent, even if no further improve- ment should take place in the general mode of manage- ment ; for it is very obvious, that as population pro- gresses toward the more recent settlements, an atten- tion to the multiplication of artificial grasses, gradually spreads, and a practice so obviously advantageous, cannot fail of ultimately becoming general throughout the state : and if Agricultural Societies should cease, and enlightened cultivators forbear writing on that subject, still, the industrious and economical farmers of this state must be very opulent ; yet if they pursued a better mode of management, improvement and wealth would progress with much greater rapidity, without Observations on Agriculture, ^fc. 99 either encreasing their own motion, or that of their justly valued stout and fat horses. To effect this pur- pose, little more is necessary, than to avoid the plant- ing of Indian corn without manure, and also laying aside the preposterous practice of breaking up oat, buckwheat, and rye stubbles, and fallowing of them for wheat ; and instead of applying their manure to the latter crop, apply it to summer fallow crops, which will admit effectual horse-hoeing, shimming, or hoe-har- rowing, agreeably to the mode mentioned to you in my letter of the IGth instant, on the agriculture of Great Britain. If I have been properly informed, the road leading through Lancaster, Harrisburg, &c. to this place, would have presented a country for which nature and art has done much more than for that through which I passed ; my route laid through Reading and Sunbury, where I crossed the Susquehannah to Northumber- land, and followed the course of the west branch of that river, to the big island, where I crossed it again, about 25 miles below Bellefonte. If I am not mista- ken, nature has not been peculiarly lavish on the soil of that long range of country, except in the bottoms, which are by no means extensive, and are really trifling w^hen compared with the rising grounds, without taking into consideration the immense chains of mountains, which present themselves in constant succession, after leaving Hamburg, at the foot of the blue mountain ; for from that town to the Bear Gap, a distance of about 40 miles, there is scarcely any cultivation to be seen, or a spot on which it could be effected, except the sides or tops of the mountains, or some trivial and lot) Observations on the Agriculture very narrow bottoms, closely hemmed in on each side by them : yet the new turnpike road, through that extensive mountainous country, has been planned and executed with such ingenuity that the ascents and de- scents are perfectly easy, and without perplexity : the road also is well leveled, with sufficient width for carria- ges safely to pass each other ; and it would have been a model of perfection, if the hardy mountaineers had considered the feelings of their Atlantic brethren, and left the trees and bushes standing on the sides of the road, next the valleys, which, in case of accident, would afford considerable security to the passenger, and would hide from his view the descents into the val- ley, which are frequently almost perpendicular, and to an immense depth, presenting a tremendous prospect to those who have not been accustomed to the sight : for, notwithstanding the goodness of the road, and full confidence in the abilities and sobriety of the driver, and gentle disposition of the horses, reflections on what might possibly happen, cannot be agreeable until habit has familiarized those grand but terrific objects. I wish it had been in my power to give you as favour- able an account of the improvement which has taken place in the more recent and scattered settlements of the forests, as I have done of those where agriculture has been much longer established, but this cannot be done.— The first object with the settler, is, either to build a cabin or house, and such buildings are much more easily erected, and may be readily rendered more comfortable than is generally supposed : after this ob- ject is effected, they fall or girdle the timber, scratch the soil, and commence cropping, which is continued and Roads of Pennsylvania, 101 without intermission, until the fertility of the ground has been exhausted, which renders fresh soil and fur- ther clearing necessary, and this new spot also under- goes the same destructive process. Little attention is given to grass, which is seldom seen, except in bottom meadows, and then in but a small quantity, and to those patches of grass all the scanty manure gathered on the farm is hauled on sleds, when hands and leisure will admit of this operation ; for it is only the compa- rative opulent farmer that possesses either waggon or cart, and distant excursions are performed on pack horses, mounted with simple saddles, constructed for the purpose. Here the pride of affluence may be led to depreciate the capacity and ingenuity of those ap- parently stupid cultivators, but recent serious misfor- tunes heive taught me to feel for the miseries of others, and to participate in the disadvantages under which they labour. I do not observe that those men are deficient in the talents or enterprise requisite for a bet- ter mode of management ; but that they have been driven, either by folly or unmerited misfortunes, to seek refuge in the forests, without sufficient funds to meet the expenditures^ actually necessary to accomplish a better mode of management, and are doomed, by the stern hand of adversity, to deprivations, hardships and sufferings, which could have been readily avoided, had they possessed a capital commensurate with their un- dertaking. A very inconsiderable sum of money would have rendered them entirely easy and indepen- dent, when compared with the funds necessary to form a comfortable and independent establishment, where any considerable population has taken place ; for, in 102 Observations on Agriculture^ ^c, our older settlements, the prices of lands are high, and the fertility of the soil has been so much exhaust- ed by the pioneers, or first settlers of the country, that much labour, and very considerable expense, will be found necessary to restore the grounds to their origin- al state of fertility. But when the agriculturist encoun- ters the forest, he commences on a fresh soil, which has been accumulating the riches of decaying vegeta- tion for ages, and under a proper system of manage- ment, and with but very little comparative labour and expense, will continue its original fertility for ages yet to come ; a circumstance that cannot fail of insuring independence to well conducted enterprize, although accompanied with but moderate capital, and to those who are wealthy and equally enterprising, noble estates, and to the intermediate grades of capital, proportionate success, provided the plans and expenditures of the cultivator are governed by the true principles of rural economy, a proper system of agriculture is pursued, and a rich soil has been selected. This v/ill not be found a difficult task to the practical, observing, and reflecting farmer, if he does not suffer his judgment to be led astray by the various and erroneous opinions of the inhabitants, on the comparative value of soils, — on which I expect hereafter to make some observa- tions, which, I flatter myself, will not be entirely un- interesting to you. I am, yours, respectfully, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. [ 103 3 Observations on the comparative value of Soils ^ ^c. by Mr, John Lorain. Read November 10, 1812. Philipsburg, July 12, 1812. Dear Sir, In my last, of the 28th ultimo, some observations were promised on the erroneous opinions that go- verned the settlers here, in their estimation of the va- lue of the soil. This appears to rest too much on the different kinds of timber with which it happens to be covered ; for, after excepting influence of climate and an excess of moisture, together with the adhesive, or free open properties of the upper soil, and the next under stratum, (which are both readily seen where the trees have been blown down,) it will be found, if due investigation has been made, that the different kinds of timber with which every soil is covered, have been en- tirely produced either by the periodical revolutions or changes of nature, or else by fortuitous events; and that the idea of perpetual succession, of the same kinds of timber, on the soils on which they are found, origi- nates in deficiency of observation and attention to this interesting subject. This fact may be readily traced by any observing traveller, who passes through this coun- try, yet men of talents pass through it, live and die in it, and appear to give but very little attention to the subject. White pine, and spruce pine (or hemlock) cover alike the moistest bottoms and the dryest ridges, for 104 On the comparative imlue of Soils ^ ^c, they appear calculated to grow on any grounds, which are not too poor to afford them sufficient support ; but neither those, nor any other timber, are found luxuri- ant, unless the ground on Vv^hich they are growing is rich, but there are certainly a variety of timbers, which have not been furnished with properties, to flourish equally on moist, dry, open, or adhesive soils, and on neither of those grounds, whether rich or poor, will timber prevail, which nature has endowed with pro- perties inconsistent with the soil ; consequently, those persons who estimate the value of lands, by the kinds of timber which grow on them, may pass by rich lands, and fix on those which are greatly inferior, merely be- cause they happen to be furnished with properties to grow their favourite timber, which now occupies the room of some others, that had previously covered the same grounds. After, those prefatory observations, I proceed to state the leading facts, which have proved, to my en- tire satisfaction, the periodical and fortuitous changes of timber on the same grounds. Ocular demonstration clearly discovers, that yellow pines have, at some time, prevailed throughout this extensive country, although they are at present so thin- ly scattered, in this settlement, that the inhabitants have recourse to their knots for making tar ; they are^ also, almost exclusively used in place of candles, and when properly fixed in the backs or jams of the fire places, for burning them, and they are properly split and quartered, they afford a brilliant light through the room, without the least offence from smoke. Those knots spring from the heart of the tree, and it is not On the comparative value of Soils, £sPc. 10l5 until after the rest of the wood has decayed, that they come into use. They are found dispersed on the ground in every direction, through the forests, and are in equal plenty where the soil is covered with timber, whether deciduous or evergreen ; and although they claim the constant attention of the inhabitants, for either of the purposes mentioned, and are turned up when they are ploughing, yet it appears, they do not consider, that the grounds which they are ploughing, were once co- vered with yellow pine. But it is not wonderful, that the distant operations of nature should escape atten- tion, when the changes of timber, within the compass of three or four years' observation, appear to be but little observed by them ; yet those men are as capable of reflection as other people, and exercise it too, on objects which they consider combined either with theh' interest, convenience, or pleasure ; but they have not conceived this subject connected with either ; and, of consequence, the positive proof of the changes which take place, in the prevailing timber, on the same grounds, entirely escapes their observation, notwith- standing it is readily gathered from the multitude of settlements, which have been attempted, in various directions, throughout the back country, and after- wards deserted by the settlers, either from poverty, or a conviction that the situation was unfavourable to their prosperity, or a restless disposition to ramble in search of some spot, where the eftbrts of industry, and the unpleasant attention to a persevering economy, are rendered useless. The grounds thus deserted, either immediately after the timber had been subdued, or after more or less gbI- VOL. III. o 106 On the comparative value tivation had taken place, present a truly interesting subject of enquiry, for in every instance, as far as my observation has extended, (and it has been considera- ble,) the prevailing timber, whether just springing up, or of considerable growth, is found, universally, of an entirely different kind from that which had been sub- dued. This fact is readily ascertained, by examining the stumps, or girdled trees, which are still standing. Locust,* which approaches nearer to indestructibi- lity than any other wood which I have observed here, excepting the yellow pine knots, is found lying on the ground, in various directions, where but little traces of tliem are to be discovered among the growing timber ; other varieties having taken possession of the grounds, which were formerly covered with them, and it often happens, in the neighbourhood of Philipsburg, and elsewhere, that when either log-heaps or the timber in general, has been burned, that locust imm.ediately springs up in profusion, where little or no traces of tliis timber, either dead or alive, had been previously observed. ^ But here it will be proper to observe, that although no grounds, which are not rich, will be found covered with a profusion of very luxuriant timber, yet fortuitous circumstances frequently occur, which are inimical to the growth of timber, on the best of soils. The hunts- men burn the woods, to obtain a better chance for kill- ing their game, and the inattention of the inhabitants, who kindle fires for various purposes, also spreads de- * Robinia Pseudo-Acacia. Lin. of Soilsy and of Timber. 107 vastation far and wide, which has destroyed a vast quan- tity of timber, where the settlements have been made for any considerable length of time, and where frequent repetitions of burnings have taken place, among the young timber, which had sprung up after the destruc- tion of the old. The consequence has been, that the young plants, from being scorched, have become dis- eased and debilitated, and appear as scrubby, when growing even on rich lands, as they would have been if the soil was actually poor, and nothing had injured their growth. After attentively investigating, and duly considering this subject, I have selected my farm, and fixed on ground where white pine and hemlock are the prevail- ing timber, intermixed with sugar maple trees, and a variety of other valuable deciduous timber, although I might have made my selection from extensive forests, covered with timber of a contrary description. For notwithstanding I do not consider any soil either bet- ter or worse, in consequence of the kind of timber which happens to be prevalent on it, at the present time, yet I am persuaded, that after correct investiga- tion has been made of the various advantages and dis- advantages, arising from the different kinds of timber, with which the soil may be covered, that lands where white pine prevails, will be found much more valuable than those where deciduous timber is predominant, but as this cannot be demonstrated, until it has been ascertained by well directed experiment, I will state the advantages and disadvantages on each side of the question, leaving every person to determine for him- self. 108 On the comparative value The stumps of white and spruce pines, (which arc frequently companions,) stand much thicker and much longer on the grounds, than those from deciduous trees ; and the roots from those pines being very nu- merous, spread very superficially, and present a mat- ted mass of obstructions to cultivation, but by no means so formidable as some imagine, for they are soft and more easily cut, or broken by the plough, than those growing from deciduous timber, and suckers never spring from the stumps or the roots of those pines, neither are the grounds which are well covered by them, infested with grubs, brambles, or weeds : for the very close shade they afford, is unfavourable to their growth, of consequence the stumps and roots of the pines, form the principal difficulties to cultivation. But the grounds covered with deciduous timber, also present some considerable obstacles of the same kind, for open wood lands are particularl}^ favourable to the growth of suckers, grubs, brambles and weeds, and grubbing is expensive before cultivation commences, and suckering and weeding require considerable la- bour, which must be performed with attention for some time to come. It is allowed by all with whom I have conversed on the subject, that notwithstanding the evergreen tim- ber far exceeds the quantity of the deciduous trees, on any given space of ground, it is much more readily re- moved from, or burnt on the lands, being softer, light- er, and more inflammable. The timber of white pine is, moreover, peculiarly valuable in a new country for buildings, which are erected with it in one half the time required by harder and heavier woods; for be- of Soils, and of Timber. 109 • ^- ' ' = sides being soft and light, it is straight and free from knots, and of consequence is much more readily cut, squared, and put up ; hence a comfortable house, or a convenient barn, is built with an astonishing rapidity of it. The shingles are also very durable, and rea- dily wrought, and the boards exactly suited for every purpose, except the lower floors, and even for those they are by no means a bad substitute for the yellow pine. Rails also, for fencing, are readily formed from this timber, and are only exceeded in durability by chesnut. Hemlock is sometimes used for'buiiding, but does not last when exposed to the weather, and of course rails are not split from this wood: but the poles, when used for that purpose, prove by no means defi- cient in point of durability, when the fence does not lie under the shade, and dripping from the trees, — Hemlock roots generally rot quickly, and the tree falls quite as soon, or sooner, than any other, and for this quality it is less dreaded by the cultivators than the white pine, but it appears that experience has taught them that they sometimes continue sound, and stand much longer on the ground, than usual, and also ob- tain considerable additional hardness, and, they sup- pose, proportionate durability, but this has not been tried, neither can I gather from them, with any de- gree of certainty, the time when those durable trees were girdled, although they believe this effect was pro- duced by the season, when the operation of girdling took place. It appears probable, that this opinion is correct ; for the practice of barking trees, while standing, has been adopted in some parts of Europe, 1 10 On the comparative value for the express purpose of communicating solidity and durability to the sap wood,* and it has also been found in this country, that hickory, when cut and barked with the sap in full flow, becomes very useful and last- ing for the inside work of barns, and is never injured by worms, although generally more subject to their depredations than most other timber ;f and it appears equally probable, that if hemlock is barked standing, the sap will sink into the open pores of the sap-wood of the tree, and communicate solidity to those parts, by condensing within them, instead of spending its powers in increasing the size of the tree, which it wotild have done, if the tree had not been stripped of its bark ; this measure, it is likely, will increase the value of this kind of timber considerably, and bring it into bet- ter repute, and much greater demand in our sea port towns, where it is already used for many purposes, and together with the bark, (now much used, and in considerable demand for tanning,) may eventually raise the value of this tree equal to almost any other timber. The youth of this country are remarkably active, and accustomed to the woods, and are better qualified to bark trees while standing, than most other people. The bark of this tree strips much easier than any other timber that is barked, and will admit the operation in the summer, as well as in the spring. The value of white pine lumber is too well known to require explanation, and is readily cut and trans- * See Darwin's Phytologia, Dublin edition, page 25. t Domestic Encyclopedia, Philadelphia edition, vol. 2. p. 484. of Soils y and of Timber. Ill ported, and the quantity which a rich acre of land will produce, is very considerable, and the neat clear pro- fit, arising from the sales, far exceeds what could be obtained from the same surface of soil, equally good, covered with deciduous trees, I am. Yours, respectfully, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. C 112 3 Account of the modes pursued in clearing Land in Pemu sylvania^ and on the Fences in new SettlementSy by Mr, John Lorain, Read November 10, 1812. Philipsburg, July 16, 1812. Bear Sir, There are but two modes of clearing ground pirr- sued in this county ; one is termed the Yankee me- thod, and the other girdling the timber, but those two systems are sometimes intermixed. When the Yankee system is pursued, all the timber is cut down, burnt on the grounds, and pot ash is made from the ashes ; after which crops are either sown or planted without cultivation, except what may be found necessary to cover the seeds at proper depths. For Indian corn, no after cultivation is found necessary, excepting occasionally removing with the hand-hoe some weeds, which will arise notwithstanding the ef- fects produced by the fire, but they are few, and re- quire but trivial attention. Potatoes are hilled up ei- ther by the plough or hand-hoe, as may be considered most convenient. One luxuriant crop is generally ob- tained from this practice, but if the soil is thin, or only middling, another crop worth cultivation must not be expected ; but if it is deep and rich, more are obtain- ed before the strength of the ground is entirely ex- hausted : for the ordeal, or trial by fire which it has undergone, does not as readily penetrate to the bottom of a deep soil, and the whole of its virtues are not de- stroyed by this barbarous practice. After the burning On cteari?ig Land, and on Pence $• 113 has ceased, slumps (from under which the rich loose soil has been burnt,) are seen standing on their roots like spiders, whose bodies are supported by long legs^ and clay or gravel appears where a luxuriant soil lately prevailed. It requires but little reflection to de- termine, that this practice cannot be eligible for those who are determined to continue on the soil, although it exactly accords with the interest and views of the laborious first settler, who makes what are termed ** im* provements," for the express purpose of selling them to those who do not wish to encounter the forests ; for the luxuriant crops which have been obtained by this practice, together with the potash, and advance in the price of the grounds, amply reward the hardy son of enterprize, and with the proceeds, he removes further back, and continues a succession of '' improvements" and sales. When the other method is pursued^ the trees are girdled, the grubs removed, and preparatory cultiva- tion takes place ; after which the grounds are either planted or sown. The first crop is seldom luxuriant, except when potatoes are planted, or turnips are sown, which generally grow large, and prove productive in fresh grounds, without the aid of manure. Whether Indian corn would prosper for a first crop does not ap. pear, and opinion is against the practice, but it should be a subject of experiment, for small grain is sown too frequently, a practice that lets in cheat and other weeds, together with brambles, and suckers from the roots of the grubs, which have not been entirely eradicated, as well as those from the seeds of locust, and other plants, which frequently prove very injurious to the crops, un- VOL. III. p 114 On clearing Land, and on Fences, less removed by hand, an operation tedious and expen- sive, and seldom well executed ; and why Indian corn would not prosper as well on fresh grounds as on those which have been longer cultivated, I cannot readily un- derstand, for it has prospered with me formerly, in that way, but my experiment was upon a small scale and not repeated. Girdling the timber, though less productive in the commencement of cultivation, appears well calculated to insure the prosperity of the owners of the lands, who wish to continue on them. This operation requires so little labour, that it would be useless to attempt any comparison between it, and that required to cut off and burn all the timber, previously to the commencement of cultivation ; for the quantity of ground on which the timber may be subdued by girdling, without breaking in on the other multiplied attentions of a recent settler, is considerable, and fully adequate to all the purposes, which he can justly calculate on executing with his force and capital ; and it will be some time, before either the falling of the limbs, or the trunks of the trees, Avill claim his attention ; and ihcn the removal, or heap- ing and burning them, will come on in slow progres- sion, and the most leisure seasons may be chosen to accomplish this business. If after falling the timber, it is heaped and burnt on the grounds, the ashes, judi- ciously applied on his fields, will amply remunerate the cultivator for the labour so expended, for few ma- nures will be found more favourable, either to the growth of grass, or grain. The trees too, when they fiiU, act as powerful levers on their stumps, which they bring up with them, and by this means the stumps On clearing Land, and on Fences. 115 do not stand near as long, as they would have done, had the timber been cut off instead of being girdled, and as it will seldom be found convenient for the cul- tivator to commence sawing and rafting lumber, until some considerable improvement has been made, and a tolerable cultivation has taken place, his girdled limber may stand on his fields, until he can engage in this bu- siness with profit. This is certainly an object worthy of consideration, and although some loss will arise from the continued falling of the timber (when it is suffered to stand until it decays,) on the grain, grass, and other crops, yet I am disposed to believe that the losses from this cause bear too small a proportion to the numerous advantages arising from it, to claim the serious attention of those who impartially investigate the subject. Those who girdle timber never have to cut it down, and this not only saves expense, but the farmer derives great advantage from an early remov- al of the stumps and roots : yet the alarming appear- ance of heavy timber, generally induces some, either to purchase where it is lighter, or to commence gird- ling on the thinner ridges of their farms, without suf- ficiently considering, that this measure entails on their future industry all the losses arising from cultivating a thin, instead of a deep soil, and in return for this sa- crifice, they only save the trivial labour of more gird- ling, and escape contending with more roots, when both those evils seldom amount to near the extent of labour, which they must necessarily encounter from the extra grubs, brambles, &c. generally prevailing in the less heavy timbered, and more open wood lands. 116 0?i cleaj-'mp- Land, and on Fences. Ihose who pursue the Yankee practice of clearing grounds, do not appear to be any better governed by tlie principles of reason, than the girdkrs ; for although they prefer grounds which are heavily timbered, it is merely because those grounds are not infested with grubs, bramble, &.c. and aiford ample combustibles to burn the soil, sufficiently for the immediate growth of luxuriant grain crops, requiring little labour in their cultivation. The fences of this country are, generally, either the common worm fence, or those constructed with logs. For the former, rails are generally split, but when poles fitted for the purpose are found at hand, they are some, times used. The log fences are formed of such tim- ber as is readily cut and put up, and are br.ilt in a di- rect line, with the ends intersecting and lying close to each other, where they join, and those ends are sup- ported by short pieces of small timber, split for that purpose ; both those fences are good, when they have been properly made, but it is probable the latter are most expensive, although they are considered the cheapest, but they do not calculate the extra whiskey, and other good cheer, introduced on such occasions, nor the labour they are bound to return, when their neighbours have to encounter the same work. Another kind of fence which is only partially used here, and principally by the indolent, or those who cannot afford time sufficient to put up others, which are considered much better, has claimed more atten^ tion from me than any other, for I consider them far the best and cheapest, and exactly calculated for a new On clearing Land, and on Fences. 117 ■ T-" — ■ = country, where timber abounds, and the population and capital are inconsiderable. They are formed by falling the timber in the line where the fences are de- signed to be run, and by supplying the deficiencies which will afterwards appear, with the limbs and tops of the trees which happen to have taken too great a spread, from the center of the line of the fence, after which, the residue of the work is completed, from the sound timber which has been blown down, if at hand, or such saplings or trees as are found growing close to the spots where they are wanted. When this kind of fence has been properly built, or heaped up, it is said that even deer do not often pass over them ; the rea- son assigned is, that they will not venture to leap, where they cannot see the spot of ground on which they must land : but it possesses other advantages : 1st. The close texture of this fence excludes all ani- mals from either creeping or breaking through it. 2d. When repairs become necessary, the limbs or trunks of the girdled trees will furnish a sufficient supply for the purpose, until a thick growth of plants has spread themselves throughout the whole length of the fence, by which they will be protected, and also nourished from the decaying of its parts, until they acquire suf- ficient strength, to form a better and more lasting fence than any other, except those made with thorn. 3d. When it shall be found convenient to remove this fence, the extensive ridge of rich soil which will be found under it, from the decayed vegetable matter, furnishes an immense quantity of valuable manure. Such a fence as this will not occupy more room than 118 On clearing Landy and on Fences* the bank and ditches of a regular thorn hedge, and al- though they will not be equally uniform and beautiful, yet when viewed by those who duly estimate their uti- lity, and the trivial labour which has been expended on them, they will certainly aiford an instance of eco- nomical and advantageous management. I have seen a mode of clearing, since my communi- cation on that subject, which will prove highly bene- ficial where capital and force will admit it, and where there is no prospect of turning the girdled timber into use until it is decayed. The whole of the timber is fallen in winter, and when it and the earth have be- come sufficiently dry in the spring, to burn off the brush, chips, and moss, without injury to the soil, the cleared place is set on fire, and the logs are left be- hind, to be afterward rolled, heaped and burnt, this mode saves much labour in picking, raking and burn- ing brush and grubs, and leaves a handsome dressing of ashes on the land, without injuring the soil : but care should be taken in falling the trees, that they will range side by side, for when they are fallen cross and pile, the fire will not run regularly through the clear- ing. When population and a scarcity of timber have ren- dered live fences necessary, they may be readily made from the abundance of thorn which are found in this settlement, and the country around. Stone coal abounds in every direction, and there is little question, that ere long this coal will become a valuable article of exportation down the Mushanon, and Clearfield creeks, which empty into the Susque- On clearing Land, and on Fences. 119 hannah ; for it lies in large banks near the surface, and is so readily come at, that the farmers on the Clear- field have already began to dig and export it : but in this they are wrong, for this business should not be attempted, until a greater population, and more exten- sive cultivation have taken place. Yours, respectfully, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. [ 120 3 An Account of some Experiment with Sulphuret ofBa- rytes as a Manure , by Dr. Isaac Chapman^ of Bucks County. Read November 10, 1812. Wright St ow7i^ Bucks County, Oct, 20, 1812. Respected Friend, I send herewith, an account of some experiments I have been making with sulphat of barytes as a ma- nure, which I think are worthy of being published. If thou shalt be of the same opinion, thou may publish them in any way shall be thought most proper. I have not found the sulphat of barytes in my neigh- bourhood in sufficient quantities to authorise the ne- cessary works for manufacturing of it, although many tons might be collected, and from the best information I can obtain, it might be manufactured, at about 25 cents per bushel ; if the matter is made public, it is not unlikely, considerable bodies of this mineral may be discovered, which I believe would be of incalcula- ble advantage to the agriculture of our country. I send by this opportunity a specimen of the sulphat of barytes, and also a specimen of the sulphuret. Thy Friend Etc. Isaac Chapman. Dr. James Mease. On Sulphuret ofBarytes as a Manure. 121 Finding considerable quantities of the sulphat of barytes in my neighbourhood ; and judging from the similarity of it to plaster of Paris, that it might have the same properties as a manure, I some years ago tried some of it, but it had no effect ; I attempted to burn some of it in a small furnace, by making a fire of wood under the grate, but when hot, the stones decrepitated, and flew out of the chimney of the furnace in small scales; so that I was discouraged from pursuing the ex- periments any further at that time. Last spring, on examining the subject more careful- ly I found that sulphat of barytes was insoluble in water, from which circumstance I concluded its inef- ficacy as a manure arose : I further found, that, when made into sulphuret, it Was very soluble in water ; and after making a sulphuret of a small quantity, I judged, from its sensible qualities, it must be a powerful ma- nure, and concluded to make some experiments with it. In April last I powdered 24 lbs. of the sulphat, and three lbs. of charcoal, and mixed them well together, had them put into an earthen jar, with a light cover thereon, and put into a potter's kiln and burnt with the earthen ware, where it was calcined sufficiently. In this operation it lost nearly one fourth in weight, and was converted into a sulphuret, became very soluble in water, and gave out large quantities of hepatic gas^ (sulphurated hydrogen) so that it became very offen- sive in the shop, although a bladder was tied over the top of the jar, and made it necessary to remove it in- to the garret. VOL. III. % 122 On Sulphuret ofBarytes as a Mmiure. 1. In the beginning of May I sowed with the sulphu- ret a strip of wheat, about three perches in length and three yards wide, in a short time the wheat assumed a much deeper green, than that adjoining, and appear- ed to grow with greater luxuriance, so that it could be plainly distinguished at 15 or 20 perches distance, and held its superiority until some time in June, when there came a severe hail storm, that cut down all my wheat, and totally destroyed the crop, and spoiled the result of this experiment ; however, the young clover felt the effect of the sulphuret, and grev/ with greater luxuriance than I had ever experienced from plaster of Paris, on the same ground, being a clay soil. 2. About the same time, I sowed about 12 square yards of clover, (a clay soil : ) it was a misty day, and with a small sieve, I sifted near a pint on that quantity of ground. In a day or two on examining it, I found most of the stalks of clover, that had. grown four or five inches high, and the weeds and garlick, to which the sulphuret adhered, ^vere killed ; and nearly two weeks of cool, dry weather having followed, it had an unpromising appearance, but moist weather succeed- ing, it recovered, grew rapidly, and when mown, gave a greater crop than the adjoining grass that was plas- tered. The second crop shews the effect more fa- vourable, it appearing to afford double the quantity, and growing with great luxuriance, while that adjoin- ing is small and ripening the seed. 3. When planting corn I put in each of 30 hills, (a clay soil,) about half a table spoonful of the sulphuret, dropped the corn on it, and covered it as usual ; it came up well, and appeared to exceed what was plas- On Sulphuret of Barytes as a Manure, 123 tered. When the corn was harrowed I sprinkled some sulphuret about each hill, and that adjoining was plas- tered about the same time : that sulphuretted grew the fastest and was of the deepest green. On a gravelly soil, of a reddish colour, called 7'ed- shell, I applied on fifty hills of corn when planting, about a tea spoonful of the sulphuret to a hill ; which had a very great effect ; my tenant who farmed the ground, remarked, when the corn was about knee high, that " it appears as if it had been manured with hen dung, the leaves look greasy." This corn was of a deeper green than that adjoin- ing, which was plastered, and something larger, and a few hills being left without either sulphuret or plaster, were not half so large, and of a pale yellow colour, when contrasted with the other, and the difference con- tinues to this time (September.) 4. Finding the insects very troublesome in my garden, on the cucumbers, and likely to destroy them, I applied some of the sulphuret on them, and the in- sects troubled them no more. In this application some care is necessary, or it will kill the plants, I had some of the sulphuret dissolved in water and corked up in a phial ; a small quantity of this I put on each plant, which destroyed them. On other plants I sprinkled some of the powder when they were wet with dew, and it injured them very much ; on others I applied the powder when they were dry, and sprinkled some of it on the ground about them, which effectually preserved them from the insect, and did not injure the plants. I may likewise observe. 124 On Sulphur et ofBarytes as a Manure, »■■ ■ ■ , ■ ■ ,, ,«,. that the corn to which the sulphuret was applied, was not disturbed by the ants or any other insect. I think sulphuret of barytes is the most powerful manure hitherto discovered, and wish others to make experiment with it : sulphat of barytes is the heaviest of the stones, metallic stones excepted ; rather whiter and harder than plaster of Paris ; roughly crystallized, of no determinate form. Any person finding such a mineral, can decompose some of it, and form a sulphu- ret in the following manner ; powder it with about an eighth of its weight of charcoal, put the powder into a tobacco pipe and calcine it in a common fire, by keep- ing it in a white heat for about a quarter of an hour, exciting the fire with a pair of hand bellows. What the food of vegetables is, appears as yet some- what doubtful, but the most probable conclusion is, that, it consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen va- riously combined, but principally of the two first : now the sulphuret of barytes gives out great quantities of hydrogen, combined with a small quantity of sulphur : and as sulphurets are powerful solvents of carbon, and indeed the only true solvents of that substance, yet discovered, the sulphuret dissolves the carton in the ground, thus we have the two principal ingredients in the food of plants, prepared for their nourishment, the oxygen being easily found in abundance, either in the air or water. In calcining the sulphat of barytes and carbon, the carbon unites with the oxygen of the vitriolic acid and flies off, and sulphur is produced in large quantities, and in a state very soluble in water, in which state it On Sulphur et of Barytes as a Manure. 125 acts as a very powerful manure ; in confirmation of which, it appears, that some soils in volcanic countries, that contain considerable quantities of sulphur, are very fertile ; the same soils, likewise give out sulphur- eted hydrogen gas, and this gas which is given out in large quantities by sulphuret of barytes, produces much of the deep green in the vegetables to which it is applied, as it is found that those plants which grow in the dark, if surrounded with a small quantity of hydro- gen gas, are changed from a white appearance to a green. There is also reason to believe that the barytes may have some agency in promoting vegetation, as in its pure state it is exceedingly caustic, and when taken into the stomach proves a violent poison, yet when dissolved in the muriatic acid, has been given in some obstinate diseases, with much advantage, particularly the scrophula. C 126 ] On the Cultivation and Use of the Matigel Wurtzcly or Scarcity Root, by Richard Peters, Esquire. Read December 8, 1812. After some intermission of the zeal with which this root had been cultivated in England, 20 or 25 years ago, I perceive, in some recent English publications, that its culture is again revived and progressing exten- sively. It will be seen in the English agricultural papers, particularly those of the Bath and West of England Society, about the year 1786 and those following, that much attention was then paid to it ; though various opinions were formed. The balance was highly fa- vourable. Dr. Lettsom in England, was its zealous champion ; and in his accounts of it, almost every thing relating to its culture, qualities, and uses, maybe found. In Germany and France, it has long been held in the greatest estimation. The Germans sXWt it Mangel WuRTZEL, the French, Disette, the English, Root OF Scarcity; and the botanists, of all countries, B£TAALTissiM\;it being, in fact, the largest species of Beet. It might have been called Beta excel- lentissima; for it possesses much superior quali- ties to those of the common beet. I know it well ; having cultivated it, for several years, extensively. I think it far preferable to the common beet, as a culinary esculent. Its bulb, or root, has none of the earthy savour of the common beet ; and its leaves are, in many respects, better for the table than Spinach, to which, when boiled young, they have some resem- On Mangel WurtzeL 127 blance. But the most essential uses of this root, are those applicable to rural economy. For cattle, sheepy and store hogs, no root» within my knowledge, can com- pete with it. I have had horses, to whom it was grateful and nutritive ; though some would refuse it. My sheep were remarkably fond of it. The leaves^ which are very abundant, may be stripped or cut fre- quently through the season ; leaving the heart shoots or leaflets ; and the root will thrive the better for the stripping. For milch cows, they are superior to any other green herbage ; and the quantity afforded by them exceeds that of any other plant cultivated on a similar extent of ground. Those who prefer the soil- ing system, would do well to try the experiment. I believe good seed may be had of some of the seeds- men ; who would, if encouraged, soon have it in great plenty. European accounts of the weight of roots from an acre, and the almost incredible quantity of leaves to be gathered in a season ; would appear exaggerated to those unacquainted with this plant. I therefore forbear to mention them. The greatest produce can be had by cultivating in broad cast ; and hand-hoeing. The mode I followed, as hereafter detailed, will not equal in product, what increase of the number of drills, and multiplying plants, either in drills or broad- cast, would accomplish. But I spread over surface, and left unoc- cupied intervals, to bring it into the best order for fu- ture crops ; and thus to afford room for working with instruments calculated to save manual labour. I have cultivated carrots and parsnips, in the field, with great success. Those, \wi\\\ turnips and potatoes. 128 On Mangel iVurtzel. to both whereof I have done ample justice, have en- abled me, in the same season, to make a comparative estimate between them and the scarcity root. My ex- perience was always greatly in favour of the latter. There is more saccharine quality, and of course, more nutrition, in these, than in any other root, within my knowledge. I have long ceased to use either turnips or potatoes for Jatting cattle or swine. The small pota« toes, however, are profitably devoted to store cattle or hogs. — A fatting bullock will eat one half his weight of turfiips, in 24 hours. Of the scarcity roof, I am per- suaded, he will not consume any thing like this pro- portion.— The greatest portion of the turnips passes oft' in urine. If potatoes are applied to the support of stock on farms, it must be by those who have no mar- ket near them. The intelligent Mr. Arthur Young y has recently given a table of calculations of the value of potatoes, used in England, as food for various spe- cies of stock. I have it not now at hand ; but when I perused it, I was perfecly satisfied, that our Indian corn could be more profitably applied to y^f^^m^ either cat- tle or swine, at the cost, per bushel, of four times his average value of the same quantity of potatoes. Al- though I decidedly prefer the scarcity root to the pota- toe, for the food of cattle, sheep or swine, I do not mean to depreciate this estimable product. But more is expected from it, than I have found justifiable. The same observation would apply in England, to the mangel ivurtzel ; which had there its day of rage ; and fell into neglect, because too great expectations con- cerning it, had been held out. I shall avoid saying more than my own experience warrants. — The purity Oji Mangel JVurtzeL 129 •*. of the seed is all in all) in this vegetable. Dr. Ander^ ^o;2,and some others, reprobated it in England^ after one small experiment. He had not good seed ; and so hasty a condemnation was unworthy of /mn, under any circumstances. I have fed off the scarcity root^ with carrots^ pars- nips and potatoes, through several winters ; it is true, without so much attention to measure or weight, as would have been required in a nice comparative ex- periment. Some of my stock were capricious ; and preferred other food to the mangel xvurtzeL But I have never tailed to perceive, that those who were constant (and in general they so were) in their prefer- ence of this root, were, undeniably, the most healthy, thriving, and easily kept. Yet none were exclusive* ly confined to this food alone. I have been, some- times, obliged to invite sheep and cattle ; by strewing a little meal and salt over the cut, or chopped scarcity- roots. But after a few messes, no such inducements were necessary. Notwithstanding the practical proof I exhibited, I was not able to induce my neighbours (worthy but old fashioned farmers) to follow my example. If, now^ I have no further success, I shall, at least, have the sa- tisfaction of recording the services I have received from this valuable product. It is certainly vforthy the: attention of those who embark in the sheep husiness extensively. Vegetable winter, or early spring food, is to them all essential. All animals require a change ,of food. Let this be introduced as an important va- riety. If farmers in general would cultivate the man- gel wurtzel in quantities no greater than their other VOL. III. R 130 On Ma7tgd JVurtzeL concerns would admit, they would find not only its positive advantages, but they could bring to market, more of grain, potatoes, or other articles usually con- sumed in feeding their stock. Great relief would be had from the leaves, when in seasons of drought the pastures are parched and scanty. I have observed that the root given to milch cows in winter, adds to the richness, more than to the quan- tity of milk. But its tendency to fatten was always perceived. Boiling the roots seemed best for milch cows ; and appeared to encrease the quantity of milk. I begun the culture of the mangel wurtzely soon af- ter the close of the revolution war. My information relative to its uses, qualities and culture was obtained from German books ; put into my hands by some of my friends, who had received them from Germany. Accident presented specimens of the seed ; and expe- rience directed the selection of the best roots for future operations. Like other products, some kinds are much inferior to others. Those of a rose coloured skin, with the interior solid and white; not laminated and motled, like the common beet, are the best. Our worthy member, Robert Barclay, Esq. of Englaiid^ with his accustomed kindness and attention, sent to me a small quantity of the seed three years ago. I found much of its produce inferior in quality ; but re- cognized a few of my old acquaintances. From these and some I procured from Mr, M'Mahon, I raised ex- cellent roots, for the purpose of producing and distri- buting the seed ; whereof I now have sufficient plen- ty for experiments ; at the service of those members of the society, or others, who will either cultivate thr On Mangel IFiirtzeL 131 root or assist in their distribution. I have had in my recent culture, roots of 10 and 12 lb. In general the good roots may average 4 pounds each. The latter was the average weight produced in my first opera- tions. Many then weighed from eight to twelve pounds. Many were, however, small and not worth preserving for winter consumptiou. Those bore no great proportion to the whole. In the latter part of the past summer, a farmer from New Jersey, called on me ; and was much captivat- ed by the appearance of my little crop. He discover- ed a few roots of the last year's crop, which had been carelessly thrown aside, in the spring ; and had been a long time exposed in the open air. I found him eat- ing, with apparent pleasure, part of one of them. It was perfectly sound, crisp and free from any wilt, or nauseous or feculent smell, or taste. I know not any other root which would have remained sound and pa- latable, under similar circumstances. My crop of this year is inferior to that of the last. It was raised in the same spot, (contrary to my own ideas of propriety) in which two former crops had been. The season, too, was not favourable. I have, however, of my late crop, had few, if any roots as pure and genuine, as were those I formerly possessed. In the autumn, the roots must be housed ; or pro- tected like turnips, in conical mounds, in the mode known to every body. I have formerly preserved those destined for immediate use, (in which were included the small roots and cullings,) with a covering of straw or corn stalks. No moisture, or damp earth must re- main on the roots, when laid up. They are by no 132 On Mangel JFurtzd. means delicate ; but they must be dry, to prevent heat- ing and rotting. Frost injures them ; but not more (if so much) than it does the potatoe. When given to cattle or sheep, they are to be wash- ed and cut, or chopped. I have boiled th^ra for pigs ; and sometimes for other stock ; and they were prefer- red in this way by miich cows, mixed with a little bran or meal. I have never known any animals reject them permanently ; though at first some were shy, and dis- inclined to feed on them. Most of my stock ate them raw. They are always to be considered as a winter food, the leaves excepted. When cattle or sheep have been on grass, they do not eat these roots, or any other, v;ith much relish. They delight in loamy or sandy soils ; and I had them the largest and best, in my trenched fields — The depth of loose eardi gave room for the tap-root, and its fibres, to penetrate and spread. The soil must be in good tilth, and the richer, the better. Miracles have ceased ; and it cannot be expected that sterile land will profitably produce this, or any other crop. Yet they do not require manure, in such quantity as do potatoes ; nor are they so exhausting a crop. I'hey leave the ground finely prepared, for any crop. Like many garden vegetables, they grow well in virgin soils. Cabbages in new land, have not the flatulency of those in dunged ground. New land turnips are best. — They grow in limed land, remarkably fine. So does the scar^ city root, CULTURE. 1. Your ground must be deep and well ploughed or dug ; cleansed ft om weeds and other pests, harrowed, On Mangel JFurtzel. 133 or raked ; and in every respect in good tilth ; as early in the spring as possible. 2. Mark with the plough, lightly, or by a line stretched where your drills are to be fixed, their dis- tances. Mine were ; — 1st, two drills, two feet apart, 2nd, a space of three feet, 3d, two other Drills, two feet apart, and thus proceeding, through the whole of your field, or plat. 3. Drop and slightly cover a seed or two, to ensure one growing ; then, at the distance of 10 or 12 inches in the drill, dibble in and drop other seed, and thus progress, 'till your ground is filled up. — Every seed throws up three plants. At the time of the first dress- ing, transplant, (or use for cattle) the extra plants; eidier where there are failures in the drill, or in other ground. Every plant must stand sirigle. Those trans- planted are seldom equal to those unmoved. This I find to be the case with all tap-rooted plants. 4. Stir the intervals, when requisite, with a small plough or horse-hoe ; and hand-hoe in the vicinity of the plants ; to keep them constantly clean. I have a small instrument with multiplied hoes ; calculated for drilled carrots, &c. which I used when I cultivated such crops in the field. I have such implements of several sizes and breadths. 5. The roots must grow chiefly above the surface, and if a cup, or excavation be made round the root, the Germans prefer it. Cleanliness is all that is neces- sary while the plants are growing. Not so much la- bour is required, as that bestowed on corn or potatoes. They may be cultivated in broad cast and hand-hoed ; where drilling is not deemed more eligible. 134 On Mangel JVurtzeL 6. Strip, when full grown, the leaves ; except those of the crown, or heart. Some cut them (as less trou- blesome) about two inches above the crown. — It is in- jurious to cut them too close. In about two weeks (according to season) they may be stripped again. In a large extent of cultivation (two or three acres) the roots first stripped will be ready for another stripping, by the time you have gone over the whole. Strip no more than can be consumed in a day. They wilt, and are rejected, if they be exposed to the sun, air, or rain, for any considerable time. I have candidly, if even it should be deemed imper- fectly, given my actual experience in the uses and culture of this estimable product. I cannot but hope that what I have said will induce some of our farmers to make trial of this auxiliary to the comforts and sup- port of their domestic animals. — There seem more en- terprize and spirit of improvement, among our hus- bandmen of this day, than existed at the time of my more extensive cultivation of the mangel ivurtzel many years ago. A book-farmer was then an out- cast j in the estimation of too many of our agricultural fel- low citizens. The character has not yet acquired com- plete reputation, though it is regarded now, with so7ne degree of complacency. If I have added practice to book farming ; I trust the former will atone for the ve^ nialsin of the latter. Yet by transplanting, and naturali- zing here, foreign and valuable product and practices, by means of information derived from foreign writers, we gain all the benefits of travel, without its toil, dan- gers and expense. Richard Peters. C 135 ] On Flax Millsy by Mr. William JVeill, Delaware County. Read, January 12, 1813. 16 Mile Stone, P/iiL £s? Lan, Turnpike, November 24, 1812. Sir, From the progress of our manufactories and the situation of our country, labour saving machinery is daily becoming of great importance. I have often thought that the introduction of mills for dressing and cleaning flax, would be of great utility in the United States, and had I v^ater on my place, I would have erected one long before this time. In the north of Ireland they are to be met with every two or three miles, and although labour is there at a very low rate, they have entirely abandoned the mode of dressing flax at home by hand, and send all to the mill, as it is lifted oflf the ground : when broken and swingled ready for the hackel, it is returned at an ex- pense of six cents, United States money, per pound. The quantity done by a mill in Ireland was from 150 to 220 pounds per day, but that depends much on the quality of the flax, and state of the weather. No mill is more simple in its construction, and less than half the water requisite for a grist mill will be fully sufficient for it, and as all the inside works are light, they can be erect- ed at a very small expense ; I think not more than 300 dollars : a mill house of 30 feet by 18 feet, of one story, would be large enough ; which with a frame building 136 On Flax Mills. to store the flax as it comes to the mill, are all the buildings required. The works consist of a water wheel, a cog wheel, and three sets of flyers on one axle for cleaning. Each set is birthed off" with boards to secure the men, and a small space is left between the inside of the births and the ends of the flyers, to hold the flax against them : there are three fluted rol- lers like the nuts of an apple mill, that work on their sides for breaking. These rollers are best made of apple tree wood, the swingle must be of a wood, the texture of which is close, and not apt to splinter. The swingles have six arms in each stand, but there are only four in the model. Three men are a full complement for a mill : if they roll and swingle at one time, one of the men leaves his place at the swingles, and attends the rollers : the owner of the flax in Ireland, kept a person to make up the flax in handfulls, and to attend the^ man at the rollers. In rolling the flax, there is a pulley and a weight fixed to the end of the two extreme rollers, so that they may compress or expand upon the center roller, in proportion as there is more or less flax given in. The flax is put in between the two upper ones, and is shot out between the two under rollers. The rollers and flyers will work independently of one an- other. I understand it is allowed good work for a man to break and swingle 60 pounds in a week : if he works by the pound he has six cents per pound ; if by the day, he will not do so much, so that at any rate he has board and drink over mill price, and allowing two dollars for those, the 60 pounds will cost three pence a pound more than if done at mill, neither will it be s© On Flax Mills.. 137 well done by hand. Men who follow swingling at the mill as a trade, become skilful, and can make the best of any kind of flax ; whereas the men we employ in this country are generally unskilful and careless. The machinery may be attached to other mills. I have seen the swingles attached to other mills, and heard of the rollers being also fixed to them ; but I by no means think it prudent in this country, as the cli- mate is dry, and they are apt to catch fire, for in win- ter our millers work by lamp light, and other mills are very valuable property. Horses or oxen rpiove too slow, and fiax mills require a rapid motion. There is a mill in Lancaster county, near the 48 mile stone on this road, and I have seen flax dressed at it, that look- ed as well done, as any I have seen in Europe : and I am told that the proprietor has more to do than he can perform. The price for preparing it is six cents per pound : three hands dress 180 pounds in one day. I am, your obedient servant, William Neill. The Hon. Richard Peters. POSTSCRIPT, I have succeeded in procuring a model of the in- side works of a flax mill, by which you will have a clearer idea of the work than by any description I can give. I now send it, and if it can be of any service to my adopted country, I am completely satisfied. CSee the Plate. J W. N. VOL. III. S C 138 3 Account of the Beds of Gypsum, found in the western part of the State of New York, by Jacob Cist, Esq. of JFilkesbarre, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. Read January 12, 1813. Dear Sir, This very valuable mineral, appears to have been first discovered on the farm of a Mr, Buck, in the town of Sempronius, Onondago co. N. York. — The bed is very extensive, and is composed n'early one half of transpa- rent and chrystallized plaster, termed by mineralogists Selenite, Specimens of it have been sent to France, where it has been found equal in quality to the best in that country, for stucco work, for casting of busts, basso relievos, &c. ; owing, however, to its inland si- tuation, and the surrounding country being naturally rich and fertile, and but lately brought into cultivation, it is at present not much used for agricultural purpo- ses. From the experiments which have been made with the grey, or amorphous part of it, it is found to be equally as strong as any other. The second discovery was made in Oneida county, in the town of Sullivan ; it is very similar to the Onon- dago : — the same causes which prevent that being much used also operate here. It has since then been discovered, viz. in 1806, in Cayuga county, in the town of Aurelius, near the sul- phur spring, on the eastern margin of Cayuga Lake ; — The quarries here consist solely of the grey plaster, are very extensive, nearly a mile in length, on the Lake ; — their extent to the east has not yet been ascer- Gypsum^ found in the State of Nero York, 139 tained ; for agricultural purposes, this is thought by many who have tried it, to be superior to the Nova Scotia plaster, and it is generally agreed, that its eft'ect on vegetation is earlier perceptible : — the ground where it is found is very uneven, and broken into ab- rupt hillocks, the timber, fine, thrifty white oak, soil very rich, and the gypsum lies generally so near to the surface, as to be within reach of the pick. Its shistose appearance, the strong marks it bears of hav- ing been once worn by the waters, evince that it is a deposition, — and tends to strengthen the theory ad- vanced by the chevalier De Lamanon, of its formation. The piaster is here dug and delivered at the water's edge for three dollars per ton — the water carriage to Ithaca, at the head of the Lake, brings it to four dol- lars ; from thence there is a portage of 30 miles to Owego, on the Susquehannah, to this point it is brought in great quantities, principally during the win- ter season, where it usually sells, at 10 dollars ; — these prices yield a great profit to the owners of the land, and afford a lucrative trade to all engaged in it. From Owego it is brought down the Susquehannah in arks and on rafts, the former generally about 75 feet long, and carrying about 40 tons, and the latter from 10 to 12 tons. At VVilkesbarre, Berwick, Sunbury, and other places on the river, it is eagerly bought up at 15 and 16 dollars per ton. At all these places, owing to its comparative cheapness and excellent quality, it has en- tirely superseded the use of imported plaster. Another bed has been lately found at the outlet of the Seneca Lake ; it was purchased in the fall of 181 1 by Mr. Thomas Grant, of Sunbury, and opened the 140 Gypsum^ found in the State of New York. ensuing summer : about 350 tons have been taken from it, and forwarded to the head of the Cayuga Lake. It is very similar to the last mentioned, and has the same outlet to the waters of the Susquehannah, For some time after the discovery of this plaster, the usual want of confidence, in native productions, caused these beds to be neglected, but owing to the spirited exertions of Mr. John Laning, merchant at Owego, and a few others, in the introduction of it into this state, it has already become a trade of considera- ble importance. During the summer of 1811, about 1000 tons were taken from the beds, and sent as far as Harrisburg — through the whole of this distance it was much approved of by the most experienced farmers, in the counties of Luzerne, Northumberland, Dau- phin, and Lancaster, and during the year 1812, about 3500 tons have been delivered at the head of the Lake, or at Ithaca, chiefly destined for the Pennsylvania mar- ket.^ If the communication between the Susquehannah and Delaware v/as once opened, we should be able to supply Philadelphia with both plaster and coal, in abundance. This last article alone would be of sufficient conse- quence to your city, and the country through which the canal will pass, to warrant the expenditure of half a mallion of dollars ; — and when the immense quantity * During the last year, ( 1 8 1 2,) it is calculated that 6000 tons have been sent into Pennsylvania from the vicinity of Cayuga Lake. See annual address before the society of arts of N, York. — By Th. R. Beck, M. D. p. 35. Albany, 1813. J. M. Gypsum^ found in the State ofJVexu York. 141 of lumber, produce and stock, of plaster and coal, which now pass down this rive^, and the consequent in- creased consumption, are taken into view, the stock of the canal company cannot otherwise than be very pro- ductive. The advantages of a cheap and excellent fuel, to- your city, are incalculable. Why then are not some efforts made to procure this kind of coal from the Le- high, proportioned to the magnitude of the subject ? Is it of less importance than a supply of good water ? How many miserable wretches, who shiver over your wood fires, which costs them 6 and 8 dollars per cord, could be made comfortable at half the price ? Much of the coal from here is shipped at Havre de Grace, or at tide, for New York, and readily commands 50 per cent, per bushel more than the best Liverpool coal. very respectfully, Your obedient servant, Jacob Cist. Dr. James Mease. Specimens of the lake gypsum, and also of coal from the inexhaustible mines in Luzerne county, were sent by Mr. Cist and are deposited in the cabinet of the socie- ty. Many of the beds of coal are on the banks of the river, J. M. C 14.2 3 Observations on the propriety of a Farmer living on the produce of his oxvn Landy by James Tilton^ M, D, Read February 9, 1813. Bellevuey (near Wilmington^ DeLJ Dec. 25, 1812. Dear Sir, I have to beg your pardon for omitting so long to contribute to the useful labours of your agricultural society. In return for my negligence, I propose to entertain you with a subject entirely new. Multitudes of writers instruct us how to raise corn, cattle, &c. but I find none, of modern date, who inform the farm- er how to live to the greatest advantage, on the pro- duce of his plantation. I shall attempt this interest- ing subject, with this single apology, that I hope you will not accHse me of vanity or egotism, from the fre- quent reference to myself, since I declare to you, that my object is to convince my fellow farmers, the opi- nions and advice I give are as practicable, as they are reasonable and profitable. Indeed, I cannot commu- nicate ideas, that have been strongly impressed upon my mind bctter,than by interweaving some history of my domestic economy, since I became a farmer; to- gether with the advantages resulting therefrom. When I resolved to retire to my little plantation of about 60 acres, it was natural to cast about, amongst agricultural authorities, for advice and instruction. As remarked above, I found many to advise me in the production of grain, stock, Sec. but Virgil alone how to eat and drink. Besides regarding his Georgics as a standard of agricultural science to this day, I was led to consider his Eclogues as recommending agri- Observations^ Cs^c. 14S cultural life, from the superior capacity for enjoyment it gave to its votaries, above all other employments ; and, at the same time, as recommending it to husband- men, to avoid the luxuries of the day and live upon the produce of their farms. The beauties of the poet are, in my opinion, surpassed by the wisdom of the philosopher. In that mem.orable invitation of his friend to supper, hear him sing ! sunt nobis niifia fioma Castanice mtillts^ ct firessi co/iia lactis. The liberal translation we used to give this bill of fare at grammar school, was, we have mellow apples^ boiled ckes7tuts, and a plenty of curds and cream, A volume might be written on this single text. I will only remark, that Virgil wrote at the most luxurious epoch of the Roman empire, when the luxury and ex- travagance of that people surpassed every thing that ever happened before or since ; and yet this sage pa- triot advises, in a manner the most persuasive and delightful, to live on home produce. In his bill of fare no foreign luxury is mentioned, but only the delicious productions oi Mantua, Have we not occasion of similar advice in our days ? and oh my friend, that we could employ the same in- fluence ! for the best classics agree, that Macaenas, the proud minister of the powerful Augustus, thought him- self honoured by VirgiPs invitation. Independence has been the theme of descant from the days of 1776 to this time. During the revokition, independence of government or self government, as it was emphatically styled, was the rage, from Georgia to Maine. At present, an equal zeal appears for indepen- 144 On the propriety of a Farmer living dence in our clothing. And, yet, strange to tell, few or none of us think of eating and drinking indepen- dently. Is it not a thousand times more ridiculous to send to the East and West Indies for breakfast and supper, than to Europe for clothing ? It would seem as if we were so constituted as to admit but one sub- ject at a time, into our heads, and that one of dire ne- cessity. We are compelled to make our own clothes ; and Providence may, in compassion to our weakness, by cutting us off from foreign luxuries, oblige us to eat our own better victuals. All good men, like Virgil, will be forward and early in promoting a reformation, equally important in private economy and public policy. Whatever apology the inhabitants of cities and towns may have, for their obstinate adherence to tea, coffee, &C. surely farmers have none. Their farms furnish much better food, and at a cheaper rate. How then are we to estimate the folly of crossing the ocean at an expense and hazard incalculable, for the sole pur- pose of indulging in articles universally admitted to be injurious to health and destructive of property? A Chi- nese would give ten breakfasts of tea for one of milk. An American farmer purchases tea, at great expense, when he might have plenty of milk and other good things for nothing. Which of these characters disco- vers the wise dictates of native instinct ; and which shews us the depravity of infatuation ? But a gentleman farmer, who has plenty of revenues, and mav live as he lists and do as he likes, will answer me, that I reason like an attorney on one side, regard- less of the good sense and general information of my on the Produce of his own Lajid* 145 »■"»— ■ ' ■ .. . fellow citizens. I, in that case reply, that I acknow- ledge myself an attorney upon one side, and the ge* neral information of my fellow citizens; and, therefore, do not hesitate to state my arguments with confidence and energy, against a peculiar infatuation. And if called upon to account for it, I answer ; that when we were British colonists, we were forced to be sub- servient to the lucrative policy of the mother country : we were taught to drink tea, coffee, rum, &c. and to indulge in a variety of foreign luxuries, in subservien- cy to their carrying trade. They did not encourage the like among their own people. The policy of the British was to favour the use of their own malt liquors and other domestic productions ; and to prohibit rum, even of their own colonies : and tea and coffee were dutied and regulated in such a manner, that the use of them was very limited, among farmers at least. They thought it more expedient to send them to us ; and would fain have made us pay duty upon them, besides freight and other charges. This gave occasion to our disunion ; and considering we had spirit and energy enough to separate from so unjust a nation of mer- chants, I appeal to the good sense of my countrymen, if it is not very astonishing, that it has never yet occurred to us, to abandon the vicious and injurious habits im- posed upon us by mercantile intrigues. It might well have been expected, that we should have felt some re- sentment at the means employed, as well as the measures of government, for enslaving us. But strange to tell, from the day of our deliverance to this time, we have consumed their teas with apparent delight. Vol. ITT, T 146 On the propriety of a Farmer living But my plan may be further criticised, by asking, how do you entertain your friends without tea and cof- fee ? I answer, that I do not own eidier tea cups or sau- cers, and yet, I am at no loss to entertain my friends agreeably. My dinner is not very different from that of other folks. Breakfast and supper I eat out of soup plates. Supper is the principal meal of entertainment ; and with the best fruits of the season, with and with- out cooking ; bread, butter, cheese, &c. I can make a handsomer display, and furnish a more delicious and salutary aliment than with tea and coffee. Old and young never fail to commend those repasts. It must be confessed, however, the more advanced in years frequently remark, that, however they may now and then relish a feast of this sort, they are very reluctant to relinquish their old habits. But I have the satisfac- tion to observe, that all my younger brethren and sis- ters, who are less corrupted by fashion and habit, do not hesitate to declare their willingness to give up their tea and coffee, everij day, for a Virgiliaji supper. But what are the advantages of this Virgilian econo- my ? I answer, many. In a political point of view, it gives us independence. This requires no demonstra- tion. It also saves many lives ; for since my resi- dence at and near Wilmington, more fine young men of the borough have died, in the West India trade, than from any other cause whatsoever. As to expense, besides the tea and china ware, the time and maintenance of one person about house is nearly saved, from the washing and piddling which these frivolous trinkets require. on the Produce of his 0W7i Land. 147 In point of health, if you will indulge me in talking about myself, as a familiar example, I will inform you how I have profited, by VirgiPs advice. When I re- sided at Dover, in a flat country and vapid atmosphere, the faculty advised me to live above the climate. Be- sides my meridian before dinner, I generally drank wine in the afternoon. All would not do. I was obliged to fly for my life to this hill country. While I resided in Wilmington, I continued my usual habits. Soon afterwards I was attacked by the gout, and had regu- lar fits for some years. Since I became a farmer and indulged the Virgilian economy, I have never had the gout. For more than 12 years, I have been free from this scourge of intemperance. Although I am now on the wrong side of 60 years of age, my feet have re- covered their tone and hardihood ; I can walk and ride, and do manual labour as well as ever I could. The trimming of my orchards is an amusement reserv- ed for my own hands : for I would not be hired to let an awkward fellow spoil my fruit trees. — I never learn- ed to reap or mow ; but I can shock wheat or make hay with any body. Besides, I am chief gardener in a lot of two acres. My local situation precludes me from extensive professional duties ; but such as fall to my lot are not neglected. All this too without self-de- nial, so great as might be imagined ; for although I have quit the use of wine, along with other foreign luxuries, I indulge in a cheering glass of spirit and water, once or twice a day. For this purpose, I pre- fer good rye whiskey or high proof apple-brandy : for I scorn to go abroad for any thing that I can get bet- ter at home. 148 On the propriety of a Farmer living Are not these advantages worthy of communication to my brother farmers. Is there a man among you, that duly estimates a cheerful and vigorous old age, free from pain and decrepitude, who would think these blessings dearly purchased by taking Virgil's advice, to live on the produce of his own farm ? It would take up too much time and space to be particular as to the rest of my family. Suffice it to observe, that if any of them go from home, a few days, they rejoice on returning to their domestic fare ; and I have never known a person yet, who had once lived with me, that objected to returning and living with me again, on account of the well known family economy. By living on the produce of our farms, I would not wish to be understood, 2.s excluding all trade and com- merce. Individuals may exchange, and states and na- tions trade to advantage. But these abstract ideas are very different from the habitual folly of our country. Trade should be encouraged when advantageous ; but a commerce that is injurious ought to be repressed. The different states of the union might exchange com- modities to great advantage, even in articles of diet. These should be regarded as domestic produce, and ought certainly to be preferred to those of foreign grov/th. There is a wide distinction to be taken be- tween sending to New England for cod-fish^ and send- ing to China for tea. The same may be said of bring- ing rice from Carolina, and rum^Yom the West-Indies. Having a continent of our own, if domestic commerce were duly cultivated we should have occasion of but few articles from the eastern continents. As no tiai on the Produce of his own Land. 149 has been discovered in America we ought to import it from England or elsewhere, as we can get it most conveniently. But certainly the importation of iron ought to be discouraged. You will perceive that I have advocated a general proposition, that of living on domestic fare, in prefer- ence to foreign luxuries. Much might be added in detail, on the subject of frugal, healthful and indepen- dent living. Your treatise on brown biscuit is an ex- cellent specimen of this sort. Although I commenced the use of biscuit along with my husbandry, you have taught me to make it better than I used to do. My present composition is two parts of ship stuff, and one of common flour. The bakers inform me, a little flour is necessary to the due consistence or tenacity of the dough. Well baked biscuit of this sort, with boiled milk, is my regular breakfast at home. Being al- ways ready, I find biscuit a great accommodation to a family. I commonly break my biscuit in a wooden mortar, which I happened to have for shop use. A friend of mine, who had lost his teeth, took occasion to observe, one day, at breakfast, that he found my mortar the best substitute for teeth he had ever dis- covered. I mention these little circumstances with a view to remove all possible objections to a form of bread that is equally frugal, healthful and delicious. Regarding this essay as fundamental on the subject of independent living, if well received by your society, it may give encouragement to numberless details, all tending to shew die wide distinction between good living, and fine or fashionable living : a distinction, 150 Observations on the propriety y ^c. which, if generally and well understood, would be of immense consequence to society at large. With great respect, I am, dear sir, your friend, and humble servant. James Tilton. Richard Peters, Esq^. President of the Philad, Agric. Soc. C 151 3 On planting Indian Corny by John Steele ^ Esq. Read February 9, 1813. Custom House^ Fhilacl. Feb. 2, 1813, Dear Sir^ Agreeably to request made in your note of the 25th ult. I proceed to give you a short account of the me- thod I have practiced, for several years, in the culture of Indian corn, together with a brief description of the implements employed for that purpose. I plough the ground, carefully, about six inches deep, after which I spread lime, at the rate of 45 or 50 bushels to the acre, which I mix with the surface, by the use of the common harrow, then mark the ground, with a shallow furrow, for planting, (the com rows five feet apart,) drop the seed three or four feet from hill to hill, and cover in the usual manner. When the corn is up to the height of three or four inches, I give each row a stroke with a common har- row, relieving any of the plants that may be covered in the operation, with a small rake adapted to the pur- pose— when this is completed, or within a few days after, I commence what is generally termed moulding. — This is performed by two strokes, between each of the rows, with what I call a coulter harrov/, (its teeth being coulters in miniature,) which completely mel- lows the ground, by cutting through the furrow, and much closer to the corn, than it is possible with any other instrument I have used, leaving the vegetable surface, turned down in the ploughing, in the same 152 On planting Indian Corn, position throughout the season, which affords, to the roots of the corn, the best soil for nourishment, in whatever direction they may be extended. At the season of big hilling (in the technical language of Pennsylvania,) I give my corn a similar course, with the same machine, but with small shovels, resembling that of the shovel plough, introduced into the places before occupied by the coulters, when the dressing is ended. It remains only to give you some description of my corn machine, and to state to you my reason for adopt- ing this method of raising corn, and the consequent advantages. The frame of my harrow is perhaps no way material- ly different from that of the common triangle corn har- row ; the sides about 44 feet long, with a spread that places the two back teeth 42 inches apart : the whole number of teeth is seven; the front tooth in the centre, and the other three aside, at equal distances : a light piece of scantling is framed into the sides, in front of the back teeth, for the purpose of strengthening the frame and supporting the handles. — The coulter tooth is about 104^ or 11 inches below the timber, forming such angle with the shank as to give the coulter that direction best calculated to penetrate the ground and perform the office intended. The shovel tooth, be- low the shank, is about six inches in length, and 4^^ in breadth, projecting in that position best adapted for cutting grass or weeds, and generally for cleaning and mellowing the surface. The shanks of each are fitted to the same hole and fastened with a screw on the top : the coulter tooth must be supported with a consi- On planting Indian Corn. 153 derable shoulder behind, otherwise it would be bent back, the resistance being so great as to produce a suf- ficient draft for two horses : — with the shovel teeth one horse can travel with ease. The farm, on which I have used this machine, I purchased, in a very exhausted state, about 15 years ago, and designing to improve it with lime, I deem- ed it of importance to retain the lime (which I have uniformly introduced with corn crop) as much on the surface as possible for the first year. This would not have been the case if the plough had been used ; and perceiving that the raising of corn, in the usual way, exposed the soil to wash, my object was to prevent this injury by reducing the surface to a perfect plane, having neither hill nor furrow. I have uniformly found that the coulter harrow pre- pared the ground to imbibe and retain a greater quan- tity of rain water, than in any other Avay ; in addition to this advantage, that a much less surface is exposed to evaporation, than if the land had been ploughed into ridges, which in a season of drought affords a decided advantage ; as in the year 1808 I had nearly 40^ bush- els to the acre, when land of the same quality, in my neighbourhood, farmed in the usual manner, had not half that quantity. I have tried both fall and spring ploughing and am inclined to prefer the latter, as I have generally found that, by midsummer, the sod was as well rotted in the * Mjr son informs me that the crop of 1808 exceeded 40 bushels to the acre. VOL. III. iJ 154 On planting Indian Corn* one as the other, and have experienced much less trou- ble from the rising of grass, than when the ground was ploughed in the fall. The farm is a thin gravelly loam, with a mixture of clay, and being in a progressive state of improvement, I have not planted corn a second time, in the same field, subsequent to liming — The average crop may be rated at 40 bushels per acre, but with a light dressing with stable manure I have raised sixty. The dung should be turned down in the ploughing. In order to be somewhat particular in the account I have given you, I may, perhaps, have failed in render- ing the description sufficiently intelligible, but you will please to accept it as it is, with my wish that the me- thod I have practiced may be tried by others ; as I be- lieve a saving of labour would not only be gained, by its adoption, but also an increase of crop from ten to twenty per cent, and in seasons of drought to a much greater amount. I am, very respectfully, sir, your obedient servant, John Steele. Richard Peters, Esq^. t 155 ] On Trench Ploughing for Indian Corn^ and on courses of CropSy by Mr. William BakewelL Read March 9, 1813. Fatland Fordy Montgomery Co. Feb. 25, 181S. Dear Sir, I have been in the habit for several years, of trench ploughing for Indian corn. The last summer I was induced at the solicitations of my servant, to try about an acre, by simply ploughing the ground, and plant- ing it in the usual mode. I was much surprised at the difference in the produce of the two parts of the same field ; that of the trenched part was at least double the quantity of the single ploughed, and each part had ex- actly the same culture after the corn was planted. The mode I use is a saving of labour instead of an addition to it. About two weeks before the usual time of planting corn, two furrows are backed upon each other ; an experienced ploughman can manage them so as just to meet ; but they will be better to fall somewhat short, than to lap over on each other. — At the time of planting I put three horses to the plough, and trench plough the furrow that was ploughed be- fore ; a board must be placed between the coulter and the mould-board of the plough, to prevent the soil from falling down, and it will completely cover the seed corn, which saves the trouble of covering it by the hoc in the usual way. I generally plant about 18 inches distant, and my rows of corn are eight feet apart ; a hoe is used to 156 On I'rench Floughmg for Indian Corn^ ^e, make a small cavity in the soil in which three grains are deposited, the cavity should not be made very deep as the trench ploughing will cover it effectually. The planted ground must be looked over afterwards, to see if any of the seed is left uncovered, and some time before the corn is up, the intervals between the rows should be ploughed, or at least one furrow on each side of every row. The usual course of crops in this neighbourhood is, 1st. Indian corn, 2nd. oats or barley, 3rd. wheat or rye, 4th. clover. — My routine is 1st. wheat, 2nd. rye and buckwheat soxvn together, 3rd. Indian corn, 4th. barley or oats, with manure, 5th. clover or grass seeds, or both. I generally give the wheat two ploughings, especially if there is any grass among the clover. I have sown part of my wheat stubble with rye and buck- wheat, (as soon as can conveniently be done after har- vest,) and part with rye alone, at the usual time of sow- ing that grain, and I thought the rye and buckwheat produced a greater quantity than the rye sown alone, and it is a great saving of labour. — Besides, a good quantity of wheat is gained mixed with rye, from the stubble of the preceding year. The proportion of seed I use is one bushel of rye and half a bushel of buck- wheat. The buckwheat may be cut at the usual time without any injury to the rye. I attribute my having as good crops of corn as any of my neighbours, solely to trench ploughing. When the ground has borne three crops before, the surface of the soil may well be exhausted. The trench plough brings a substratum of fresh soil to the roots of the corn, and gives the small fibres more liberty to expand. I On Trench Ploughing for Indian Corn, ^e. 15' also find trenching very good for pumpkins, which I usually grow between my corn, when the ground is not too full of weeds. I remain, dear sir, yours sincerely, William Bakewell^ Dr. James Mease. Secretary^ Philad. Agric, Soc. POSTSCRIPT. JprilS, 1813. I omitted to mention that I generally put a handful of two parts leached ashes, and one part hen or pigeons' dung, on every hill of corn ; but the chief object of this appendix is to caution any person who follows my system, not to sow the oats too thick when sown with clover or grass seeds. One bushel to the acre is the proportion I commonly make use of. As barley requires a drier lighter soil than oats, I always sow my barley on the lightest soil, at the rate of two bushels to the acre, and the oats on the heaviest. As wheat is the golden grain according to Mr. Af. thur Young's definition, I think the ground should not be exhausted by Indian corn, especially when a crop of oats follows it. I had upwards of 500 bushels of wheat from a field of 1 8 acres last year. I first ploughed the ground six inches deep in August, it was harrowed twice over in September ; and the first week in October, the surface of the ground was ploughed as shallow as possible, and sown with wheat at the rate of 1^^ bushel per acre. William Bakewell. [ 158 3 A short Historical Sketch of Agricultural Improvements in the County of Roxburgh, / Scotland, J with some Account of the means whereby it was accomplished^ by Mr. John Lang. Read, March 9, 1813. From forty to fifty years ago, the old system of out- field and in-field was universal, with very few excep- tions. There were generally no fences of any kind, except a few fields, or parks as they were called, near a gentleman's seat. On common farms, the only fence was a stone wall or dyke, built without mortar, round the barn yard ; and in some instances, two or three acres were inclosed in the same manner, near the farm house, called a croft. These crofts were most common in small villages, where the land had been let on ground rent, in lots of a few acres, for building. There were few or no artificial grasses ; their hay was all from natural meadows or swamps. The pas- ture-ground and fields of grain lay promiscuously in- terspersed over the farm, without any security from the depredations of the farmer's own cattle, or those of his neighbours, except from the vigilance of the shepherds and their dogs. Thus, though the whole country would have appeared to an American in a state of commons, every man's property was held sacred, and damages were recoverable at law, for trespasses committed upon a neighbour's grain or pasture, &c. That part of the farm which lay most contiguous to the farm house, was termed in-field ; upon which por- tion was put all the manure made upon the farm. This On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh, 159 was divided into five brakes or patches, the rotation as follows : wheat, peas, barley, oats, fallow. The wheat and the barley were always well dunged ; and this was accounted a highly improved rotation. — Sometimes oats instead of peas were sown after wheat. Wheat- land-oats, as they were termed, were reckoned good seed for the out-field ; seed oats for the in- field were generally purchased from a distant farm, famed for good oats. By far the greatest proportion of the farm was out-field ; of this, a patch of unequal dimensions, (being a portion of the oldest pasture ground) was broken up every year, and sown with oats ; again ploughed in the fall, and left all winter to be pulveri- sed by the frost, and in the following March, the oats were sown without any more ploughing. This course was pursued for three years successively, and then the land was left to rest, for an indefinite number of years, without any grass-seeds of any kind sown upon it. Upon those farms where sheep walks w^re a prin- cipal object, little grain was sown in the out-field, and such was the sagacity of the shepherds' dogs, that they would lead the sheep to feed close to the very edge of the growing grain, without touching a stalk of it, and at night the sheep were confined in a pen or fold. These folds, when ploughed out, produced very strong* crops of oats, for three years sussessively. All the land, whether in-field or out-field, was formed into high ridges, the middle of which was raised to the height of perhaps a foot, to a foot and a half, or in some instances two feet, above the level of the furrows between : these had remained in the same form from time immemorial, and were all 160 On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh, less or more crooked, and the bends lay all in one direc- tion, originating from the horses naturally falling off from the land, and so taking a less furrow when they came near the end. The broader ridges required to be sown with four casts, the narrower kind with three casts ; the first required four or five reapers, the last always three. Between many of those ridges were banks of three or four feet wide, or more, which had ne- ver been ploughed ; and the first step towards improve- ment was the breaking up of these banks. This was no small undertaking, where the soil was a stiff clay, and matted together with the roots of briars, rushes, and grasses, and the horses from being poorly fed were thin and light. The common mode of ploughing was with four horses, two and tw^o abreast, with a boy to drive them : but to plough up these old tough balks it was necessary to put six horses, or two oxen and three horses before them ; and notwithstanding, this ar- duous task was at last almost universally effected. The success which attended this, suggested the idea of another more formidable improvement. This was no less than leveling the old ridges, and laying out their fields in regular form. This was much reprobated, chiefly by the old men, who did not hesitate to predict the certain ruin of whoever would undertake it : and indeed appearances were much against it at first. To level these high ridges required a number of repeated ploughings, always one way, until the hollow between was filled up higher than the other parts, to allow for the settling of the loose mould ; the field was then laid out into straight narrow lands, which could be sown with two casts, and reaped with two reapers. On Agricultural Liipj'&uements in Roxburgfu 161 One great inconvenience attended this improvement ; the middles of the old ridges were now so completely deprived of vegetable mould, that nothing would grow upon them without being manured, and after all, it was generally three years before the field could be brought to bear so uniformly, but that one could see at any reasonable distance the form of the old ridges, while the crop was growing. This, by industry and perseverance, was at last overcome, and such is the force of example, that the prejudices of the old farmers were at last subdued, and the whole country was final- ly drawn into the spirit of improvement. But this leveling system made it absolutely necessa- ry to have manure of some kind ; lime could not be had in Roxburgh county, except what was brought at least 30 miles, in any direction ; and turnpike roads and carting had but lately been introduced to any con- siderable extent ; yet under all these disadvantages, great quantities of lime were used for manure. Marl was likewise used where it could be had, but this could not be carried with advantage, to a distance of more than two or three miles from the spot where it was found. But even where lime and marl were botli employed, the improvement was not considered com- plete without the addition of dung, and this could not be made upon the farm while the old system of farm- ing prevailed ; to remedy this inconvenience the arti- ficial grasses were introduced with great advantage. The abundance of excellent upland hay they made, enabled the farmers to keep a more numerous stock, and the straw upon which their half starved cattle and horses were wont to be fed in winter, could now be VOL. III. X 162 On Agricultural Lnprovements in Roxburgh. spared for litter ; and it was soon found, that one field thus improved produced more grain, &c. than three such fields in their former state. The rotation of crops was now totally changed, and the distinction of in-field and out-field was no more known : a comparatively small proportion of the farm was now under grain crop, and two grain crops were never taken without an intervening green crop ; the greater part of the farm was occcupied with turnips, or with clover, or other up-land meadow, rich pasture, or fallow. The old Scottish plough, the only one which had ever been used in the old husbandry, was found to be poorly adapted to the new. In ploughing the old, high, crooked ridges, a straight uniform furrow was not ab- solutely necessary, but upon a level field this was in- dispensable, particularly where the soil was generally a strong clay, upon a substratum of schistus, through which no water could pass. In this case, the least un- evenness would retain the water, and in long continu- ed wet weather ruined the crop. The object now was a square furrow, equal in breadth and deepness, that would stand on its edge, only so much turned as not to fall back. The first substitute was a small plough introduced from England ; which, instead of the round sock, and long narrow coulter, had a flat share, a short beam, a short broad coulter, and a mould board cut to a nice curve, out of a solid piece of wood, and covered all over with sheet iron. This plough was easily worked with two horses without a man or boy to drive ; it answer- ed well for a light sandy or gravelly soil, but for a te- On Agricultural Improvements m Roxburgh, 163 nacious clay it turned the furrow too much on its back, and in wet weather it was apt to sour, (stagnate) and on such soil, if the weather was inclined to wet at the time of pkmghing, the furrow was so nicely smooth- ed off, that when it became dry it was like baked earth upon which the harrow could take little or no effect. To remedy this inconvenience, another plough was in- vented by a Mr. Small, for which he obtained a patent. Improvements were from time to time made upon Small's plough, until it was conceived to be brought to such a state of perfection, that no farther improve- ment was wanted : since that time almost every part of the plough has been made of cast iron. Ploughing was now learned like a trade, and plough- ing matches were instituted, at which premiums were given to the best performers, and such is the perfec- tion to which they at last arrived, that a good marks- man, in taking an aim along a furrow, could not see any variation in the whole length of a long land. While these improvements were going on, it be- came necessary to have the fields fenced in : where stones were in plenty, stone dykes were used, but the most general mode of fencing was with hedge and ditch ; this was greatly facilitated by the extraordina- ry industry of Mr. Archibald Dickson, who from a small beginning, became famous for being the first who raised nurseries of thorn-quicks, upon the great scale ; his sons are well known all over the kingdom. It was common for the landlord to pay out the original ex- pense of fencing in this manner, and charge the tenant five per cent upon the sums so expended ; the latter was bound to k^ep the hedges clean, and trim them as 164 On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. occasion required. In some cases they were bound not to put any cattle, and more particularly sheep, in such fields, for five years from the time of planting. This was at first a considerable loss to the tenants, but a great advantage in the end. It now remains to take notice of the means whereby such a wonderful change was produced. It will be readily conceived that the original expenses of such improvements must be very great, before any return could be expected; and besides the long established ha- bits and prejudices which had to be overcome, the farm- ers were generally so very poor, that it was not without the most rigid economy that they could support their fa- milies, and pay a comparatively small rent, so that nothing could be raised from the land in its then state, to meet such expense. Most of the farmers at that time were totally ignorant of the nature of banks, nei- ther could their credit command any money in that way, and there were no banks nearer than Edinburgh, which was from 30 to 50 miles distance. At first, some landlords more liberal minded than their neigh- bours, put their tenants in the way of getting money at the Edinburgh banks, by giving their names to their notes, and this induced others to follow their example. About this time a branch of the bank of Scotland was established at Kelso, a considerable market town, to which the farmers generally resorted to sell their cattle and produce. Here they formed themselves into clubs, to assist each other with their names, to their respec- tive bills or notes. This business was not transacted in the form of discounts, as at the banks in the United States, but when a note was presented, if the cashier ()n Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh, 165 was satisfied with the names, the money was paid at once, always deducting the interest.* It was not al- ways required that the subscribers to a note should at the time have a running account with the bank, but it was essential that one or more of the subscribers should be possessed of real property to the satisfaction of the bank. No person or club could draw any more money until the first note was paid, but in order to en- sure a constant supply of money, the different clubs, by mixing and forming new combinations, found means to pay their respective notes, with the very money which they had drawn from the same bank on the same day. As improvements advanced, the demand for money became greater, and the number of banks in- creased, until one, two, or more banks, or branches of banks, were established in almost every town and vil- lage over the country, and a very great proportion of the business was ingrossed by farmers, manufacturers, and mechanics. This capital might be said to be ficti- tious and illusory, but the fruits produced by it were real and substantial. By this means three or four bushels of wheat were raised, where one had been rais- ed before, and twenty or thirty fat cattle sold to the butch- er, in one season, from a farm which formerly could hardly feed one beef for the farmer's own family. Eve- ry farmer could now afford to pay three times the rent * It may be proper to observe, that notwithstanding the constant practice of discounting good paper on any day, and paying the money over the counter, the instant it is presented and approved ; yet they have besides, their regular discount days, particularly the large banks in the cities ; some of them three times a week. 166 On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. ■^t ■ \ which he was wont to pay, and at the same time live in as good a house, have as rich furniture, keep as good a table, and ride as fine a horse as the gentlemen for- merly did. We have now abundance of banks, in the United States, with the names of Farmers' Banks, and Mechanics' Banks, but the farmers of this country will reap little benefit from them, until some such plan as the above is fallen upon, whereby they can have a con- stant supply of money, until they can bring their grain and cattle to a good market. The farmers of this country are generally proprietors of the land which they farm, whereas the others were only renters and very poor, yet by the assistance of the banks they were enabled to buy lime and other manures, cultivate sown grasses, turnips, kc. ; buy in cattle for feeding, which produced abundance of dung, whereby the land was enriched from year to year, until the whole country at last became like a garden. C 167 ] On the Hawsy or Hooks^ fso called J in Horses^ by Rich- ard Peters J Esquire, Read June 8, 1813. Belmont, June 2, 1813, Dear Sir, During the last winter, I had in my service, what is too conamon, — a conceited driver of my carriage, who believed himself exclusively acquainted with the management of the affairs of the stable. He wished me to clothe my horses, and had a foppery on this subject, whereof there are too frequent examples. I would not indulge this unnecessary and highly injurious propen- sity. Clothing horses subject to sudden and frequent exposure to cold and wet, I have known through my life (and I have owned horses almost half a century) to be dangerous to their health ; and a preventive to, or de- stroyer, of the hardihood and strength, which that ani^ mal by nature possesses. On those its usefulness mainly depends. Were I compelled to the alternative, I would prefer an open shed, in which horses should be sheltered from bleak winds and rain, to a close stable. Much less would I choose, in any situation, to clothe them, when in health. But servants who wish to spare labour, will have horses wrapped in blankets, and kept in close stables. They add high feeding, (which is still more prejudicial,) to give them a sleek coat, and save themselves ihe trouble of rubbing and cleanliness. As my servant could not carry his point in one way ; he determined on a course he considered equivalent. — He 168 On the Haws or Hooks, in Horses > stopped every crevice in the stable, through which air could be admitted ; and fed unsparingly, contrary to my frequent injunctions. The consequences were, that several of my horses were seized with violent fe- vers. These appeared with the usual symptoms, and particularly in morbid affections of the eyes. The youngest horse was the most affected. On this account, horses of three to seven years old, are always in the most danger, as diseases of the eyes, in such horses, most frequently occur. It is not uncommon for young horses, especially if pampered, to be afflicted with ear- ly blindness. The loss of one eye is frequent ; and in this case, that remaining is, generally, the stronger for the privation. Both eyes, however, often are lost. Pampering and over-working young horses should be carefully avoided. My servant knew, as he believed, effectual remedies* '' My horses had the hooks,'^'* as the haws are vulgarly denominated. — ** These must be cut out of the eyes." But, before I was acquainted with the subject, in my early life, I had a capital young horse, sacrificed to this mistaken and ruinous operation. Ignorant quacks do not know, that the horse has a membrane, peculiar to this animal ; which is at plea- sure, drawn over the eye, by means of a muscle with which he can draw the eye into the socket. The en- largement of this, by a fever, produces the appearance, which, in the jockey slang, is called the Hooks. Re- duce the fever, by depleting remedies, such as bleed- ing plentifully, purging, &c. and the hooks disappear; — i. e. the membrane is restored ^o its natural size and office ; which is, to clear the eye from insects, dust, and other pests inserting tliem selves, or accidentally On the Haws or Hooks ^ in Horses* 169 entering, this organ. I need not mention, that I would not permit the cutting out this useful membrane. Two of my horses had swellings of the bars, or roof of the mouth, called lampas. Young horses are the most subject to it. It is occasioned by fever ; and the horse should be treated accordingly. Sometimes a mess or two of hard corn (Indian) banishes this protu- berance. Burning is usually practiced. It is not so ruinous as eutting for the haxvs ; but I never suffer it to be done ; having known horses irretrievably injur- ed, by repetitions of this operation. My horses were recovered from their fevers ; but I believe two of them will never be totally relieved from the consequences. The complaints in the eyes fre- quently recur ; and I fear will occasion blindness in one, or both of them. I blame myself, in some de- gree, for unusual remissness in frequent visits to my stables. Such negligence every owner of horses should cautiously avoid. True, we cannot controul or com- mand servants in this country ; in which the Satur- nalia are celebrated every day in the year. Among the ancients, the servants were satisfied with one annual, but short, term of equality. The exemplary quali- ties of our ever lamented General Washington, shewed themselves in every department of his private as well as public, life. He was an early riser, and he commenced, every day with a visit to his stables ; in which he minutely examined and directed every ne- cessary arrangement ; and no person of his day knew better how to treat the horse ; both in his support, and the various uses to which tlie services of this noble ani- mal can be applied. It is to be earnestly desired, that VOL. in. V 170 On the Haws or Hooks, in Horses. his example in this, as well as greater concerns, were more generally followed. Proofs of the capacity of horses to bear the incle- mencies of seasons ; and their hardihood in a state of nature, are before us constantly. The danger of high feeding and pampering, we experience every day. Yet both are overlooked. I have lately received an account of some wild horses, on an Island opposite Accomack in Virginia ; which, though on a smaller scale than I had been informed it was, serves, among a thousand other proofs, to shew the inexpediency of over care in regard to this invalu- able animal. I by no means wdsh to encourage inat- tention, or cruelty ; not only because I abominate both ; but because it w^ould be a work of supereroga- tion, as it respects too many proprietors of horses, or those they employ. — I send to you the letters contain- ing the information I sought on this subject ; with a wish to promulgate any important facts relating to it. After the free use of the fleam, and the drugs of the shops, I began to despair of the recovery of my horses. But I put them on a diet, which most rapidly operat- ed. I fed them, exclusively, on r?cw potatoes. The in- flammation in the eyes subsided entirely ; and the whole system recovered its usual functions, by this cooling, laxative, and detergent regimen. Precedent remedies, no doubt, were highly useful. Yours very truly, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Phihid, Agric^ Sac. E 171 ] On Breeding In and In, by Richard Peters^ Esq, Read July 14, 1813. Belmont, June 2d, 1813. Dear Sir, I perceive in Mr. Ecroyd'^s communication, page 52, " 3rd. breeding in and in ;'' there is a striking co- incidence of his experience with mine. You know that I very much despise accumulating facts, merely for the pui-pose of supporting an opinion. But truth re- quires individual facts, pro and con, to form just con- elusions. Mr. E. remarks "that (by breeding in and in) a *' constant deterioration h.' taken place ; the bone be- " comes smaller, and perhaps for the second and third ** generation, the shape rather handsomer, but a conti- *' nual diminution of size takes place ; perhaps, how- ** ever, the greatest defect is a want of increase, ari- " sing both from barrenness of the ewes, and the lambs ** being so weak and sickly, as to die in great num- " bers." I can truly say that this, in most particulars, is exactly my experience. The last proofs I have had, were exhibited by my Tunis sheep. The original pair continued vigorous, and the ewe prolifick, to a late pe- riod of their lives. But their lineal descendants of the full blood, though handsome, were small ; and mere runts in size, after four or five descents.. They re- minded me of a Polish dwarf I saw in London ; who was a Lilliputian figure of a very handsome man. He said he was a nobleman of unmixed blood, through many descents. Whatever was the fact, he seemed t© 172 On Breeding In and In. be so ; i. e. bred in and in. — I was compelled to sell ofF (last year) all the diminutives of my flock; at the price of small common sheep. In human subjects, such would be called manikins. Yet they preserved their figure ; and superiority of mutton. The lambs were not appa- rently sickly ; but they would die suddenly. Holders of Merino flocks can lamentably attest similar facts, in this respect. At least several flock- owners ; of whose losses, in this way, I have been informed. The bar- renness of the full blooded Tunis ewes, of the fifth or sixth descent, was also remarkable. But in the crosses, this was not perceived. The crosses, bred back, were always fine and superior sheep ; and are yet so. I know that intelligent breeders hold contrary opi- nions. Yet wishing, anxiously, for the prosperity of their flocks ; I humbly think, that it would be best for them not to disregard any well attested warnings. Let them continue their in and in system, on their own judgment ; which may be the best. But let them also cross ; lest, per chance, they may, in the end, find themselves mistaken. It can do no harm, to mul- tiply their chances ; or,— in trite phraseology,— have two strings to their bow. — Many of them cross from necessity ; or fortuitously. But let them do it syste- matically ; i. e. cross, and breed back, — to ^^, They will find (as I presume, from some experience, to fore- tell) such to be the best sheep in their flocks. Yours, very truly, Richard Peters. I)r. James Mease. Secretary y Philad* Agric. Soc. C 173 ] Observations on Guinea Gi'ass^ by S. Brown, M, D, of Natchez, Mississippi Territory, Read, July 13, 1813. Six years ago, I saw one or two plants of the Gui- nea grass, in the garden of M. Treme, near the city of New- Orleans ; but as I was, at that time, in no way concerned in agricultural pursuits, it attracted little of my attention. Last autumn, I again met with it, in great perfection, at Mr. Munson's, a few miles north of Fort Adams. Although Mr. Munson had not more than half a dozen of plants, he obligingly furnished me with a pint of seed, which I shared with my friends, in this territory, in Tennessee and Kentucky. Mr. Abner Green of Adams county had, for two or three years, cultivatedthisluxuriantgrass, but I cannot learn that any person except Mr. Munson had followed his example. From two acres of this grass, Mr. Green fed from 30 to 40 or 50 animals every day during the summer season. As neither Mr. Green nor Mr. Munson had any knowledge of the history of this grass, and as I had determined to cultivate it, I sought for further infor- mation in such books as were within my reach. In Bryan Edwards's, history of Jamaica we have the following account of it. '' Guinea grass may be considered as next to the *' sugar cane, in point of importance, as most of the gra- 174 On Guinea Gras^» *' zing farms or pens * throughout the Island, were ** origmally created, and are still supported chiefly by ** means of this invaluable herbage. Hence the plenty '^^ of horned cattle both for the butcher and planter, ** which is such, that few markets in Europe can fur- '* nish beef at a cheaper rate or of better quality than "Jamaica. Perhaps the settlement of most of the *^ north side parishes is wholly owing to the introduc- *' tion of this excellent grass, which happened about ** 50 years ago, the seeds having been brought from *' the coast of Guinea, as food for some birds which " were presented to Mr. Ellis, chief justice of the Is- ** land. Fortunately the birds did not live to consume ** the whole stock, and the remainder being carelessly " thrown into a fence grew and flourished, and it was " not long before the eagerness displayed by the cat- " tie to reach the grass attracted Mr. Ellis's notice, " and induced him to collect and propagate the seeds ; " which now thrive in some of the most rocky parts ** of the Island, bestowing verdure and fertility on lands " which otherwise would not be worth cultivation." Vol. 1. page 186. * Many of the pens of Guinea grass, in Jamaica, are of great ex- tent ; some contain 700 or 800 acres. I am informed by gentle- men who have lately observed it in that Island, that it is perennial, and that it forms a turf, which is divided and set out for the pur- pose of extending the pasture grounds. Some of it was brought from Jamaica to New-Orleans, in June last, by captain Califfe, who was highly gratified at finding it growing in such perfection in Natchez. He had been informed in Jamaica that it was difficult to procure seed that would vegetate. I gave him a quantity of it for his friends in N. Carolina. On Guinea Grass. 175 From Willich's Domestic Encyclopedia, I make the following extract. " Guinea grass* a valuable species of herbage thus ** denominated as it was first discovered on the coast of ** Guinea, whence it was brought to Jamaica and after- ** wards imported into this country. (England.) " In point of real utility, this plant ranks in Jamaica *' next the sugar cane; for the breeding farms through- *' out the Island were originally established and are still " supported chiefly by means of the Guinea grass " which bestows verdure and fertility on lands that "would otherwise not deserve to be cultivated. About ** 10 years since it was introduced into the East Indies, " where it is now successfully cultivated, and grows to " the height of seven feet ; it admits of being frequent- " ly cut, and makes excellent hay : cattle eat it both in " a fresh and dry state with great avidity ; hence the " culture of this valuable herbage has been strongly re- '* commended to the farmers of Cornwall and Devon- " shire. — " The subsequent remarks on the culture of this grass are by the late H. Laurens, of S. Carolina, and added to the foregoing by the American editor of that work. * I could have wished that the author of the Domestic Encyclope- dia, had given us the botanical name and characters of this plant. For want of books I am unable to supply this deficiency. f Bruce in his travels in Egypt and Abyssinia mentions Guinea grass, but gives no account of its character or properties. I have conversed with many natives of Africa, who recollect to have seen it in many parts of that continent. t A botanical description is subjoined to this paper T. M 176 -- On Guinea Grass, *' In the last spring I procured from Jamaica three " half pints of Guinea grass seed, which I planted in *' drills of one fourth of an acre of very indifferent land. ** The seed sprung, and soon covered the ground with " grass, four feet high and upwards. Being desirous *' of saving as much seed as possible, I cut one bun- " die of grass for horses : they ate it all with great avi- " dity.* In August I took one of the grass roots and ** divided it into 28 parts, which were immediately re- *' planted ; every part took root, and the whole are " now growing very finely, and seeding. I am of opi- " nion this grass will make the best pasture we can *' wish for. — From former experience I have reason " to believe the Guinea grass is perennial. It is easi- ** ly managed, requires but one good hoeing, after *' which it will take care of itself. Domestic Encyclo- " pedia, article Guinea grass." With this little stock of information I commenced my experiments. In the month of April, I prepared a piece of ground in the city of Natchez, and planted the seed I had reserved for my own use, in holes two feet distant from each other. The season proving un- usually cold,! and torrents of rain falling almost eve- * It is curious to calculate the quantity "which an industrious, planter can obtain from one seed. — Suppose that each of the 28 di- visions of the root produced less than one half of the number of stalks I obtained from one seed, for instance 50 stalks, this will give 1400 stalks in one season, from a single seed. On good soil, in a favouruble year, these will all attain the height of at least seven feet. t Persons who have resided in the vicinity of Natchez for 37 years, do not recollect to have seen frost in May before this year, Oft Guinea Grass, 177 ry day, all our small seeded crops were either totally lost, or materially injured. The vegetation of the Guinea grass seed was so much retarded, that until some time in May, I could discover no young plants. They at length made their appearance, in some parts of the lot. But some seeds remained six weeks in the earth, before they vegetated : and most of those gen- tlemen, to whom I had given seed, supposing them to have been gathered too green, appropriated their grounds to other purposes, or suftered the weeds to smother the young grass. As soon as I could designate the Guinea grass, I had the ground well hoed, and where two or more plants came up together, I had the supernumeraries transplanted to spots where the seed had failed. When the plants attained such a size as would admit of it, I took them up, and dividing the roots, set them out when the soil was wet, and in this way filled up the vacancy in the ground I had appropriated to my ex- periments. At Percy field, near Fort Adams, Mr. Oglesby, my manager, planted about the eighth of an acre of vefy fertile laiid, with plants obtained from Mr. Munson, in the first and second week of May. They grew without any trouble except that of cutting down the first growth of weeds. On the 20th of June, he be- gan to cut it for the use of the plough horses and mules, and continued to supply them with as much as (1812.) On Uie nights of the 3id and' 4th of May the hoar fio/ was so severe as to destroy ahnost all the tender ])Iants in thi" ter- ritory. VOL. III. 7. 178 On Guinea Grass. they could eat of it, during the whole summer. On the 25th of September he wrote me, that he had cut itfoiir times. From 20 roots he obtained at xh^ fourth cutting 250 pounds of green grass, and in two weeks, he would cut it the ffth time. The weather being very unfavourable, he did not succeed in curing the hay, by weighing which, he intended to ascertain the loss in drying. '* I did not begin to cut that which I had planted in Natchez, until the i6th of July, I then weighed the produce of one seed, in the presence of a number of gentlemen, at Mr. Robinson's hotel. One hundred and sixty four stalks, from six to seven feet high, growing from one root weighed together 30 pounds. At Mr. Winn's tavern, on the 10th of September a second cutting, from one seed, weighed 2>S pounds. The number of stalks was 184, some of which measured 10 feet 11 inches in length. Some parts of the lot in Natchez is very poor soil, and the grass on those places did not grow higher than six or seven feet. But on a good soil, in a favourable season, in this cli- mate, I am persuaded it is a very moderate estimate to allow to every square yard 10 pounds at a cutting, when we cut only three times in the season. This would give 30 pounds to every square yard, or 147,000 pounds of green grass to the acre. But this produc- tion seems so enormous, that I should not have ven- tured on such a calculation had I not the respectable authority of Mr. Edwards to support me. He asserts * (See certificate of Mr, Oglesby.) On Guinea Grass, 179 that the Scots grass^ which he seems to consider as far inferior to the Guinea grass, is so productive, that one acre of it will support five horses the whole year round, allowing each horse 56 pounds per day, which is 102,200 pounds per acre. vol. 1, p. 185. It is not pretended that the Fiorin grassf which, of late, has excited so much attention in Europe, will pro- duce more than nine tons of hay per acre, and Mr. Livingston bestows great encomiums on Lucerne, which requires much more cultivation than Guinea grass, and yields only 4500 pounds per acre, at three cuttings. I am informed that the best timothy mea- dows in Kentucky never produce more than six tons per acre, in the most favourable seasons. But I am sufficiently aware of the fallacy of such calculations as I have been making. An experiment on a large scale is absolutely necessary to the attainment of an accurate * Panicum hirtellum Lin. t For an account of this grass see " Dr. Mease's Archives of useful knowledge" Vol. II, No. III. The plate of it given in that work might be readily mistaken for the Bermuda grass in this Territory, which the late much lamented Mr. Dunbar, had so much merit in introducing, and which will be found so valuable when the planters begin to perceive the folly of encreasing the number of their slaves instead of breeding Merino sheep. Few men were more capable of forming a just estimate of the comparative value of the stock farm and the cotton plantation than Mr. Dunbar — The cultivation of cotton, he has often observed yielded a miserable return compared to the profits of a stock of Merinos. His solici- tude to procure that precious breed of sheep, for some months be- fore his death, ought to suggest to his survivors the true and per' haps the only means of restoring the country to its former flourish- ing condition. .80 On Guinea Gr^ ass* result. This season has been very wet, and grasses of all kinds, in this territory, have grown to an unusual length. Planters have found it necessary to make the most vigorous exertions to save their crops of corn and cotton from being choaked with grass and weeds. But admitting that my calculations are extravagant, let us suppose that an acre will produce only one third of what I have stated, still we must consider Guinea grass as the most valuable of all the known grasses. I regret very much that Mr. Laurens did not men- tion the grounds upon which he expresses an opinion that this grass is perennial. In Jamaica I have no doubt it is so, but in this climate, I am persuaded, it is annual, and that during the months of September and October, it drops as much seed as is requisite to produce the crop of the ensuing year.* Indeed it is necessary every spring to cut down the superfluous plants in order to leave room for the spreading of those which are suffered to come to m.aturity — I have tried Mr. Laurens's method of dividing the roots and trans- planting them, and find it answers very well for filling up such vacancies as happen from the imperfection of the seed, or from other causes, and ^diich would occa- sion a great waste of labour and of land. The sooner in the season this is done the better, for I did not find that those plants which were thus removed in August, * Since wriiing the above, Mr. Munson informed me that Mr. Laurens ".vas correct, and that the roots which he examined in the last spring were perfectly green and putting forth a great niimhcr of shoots. On Guinea Grass, 181 attained the usual size. In June and July this plan will succeed perfectly well. I find very little difficulty in collecting the seed,^ I have already obtained a bushel in return for three or four spoonfuls which I sowed on my lot in town — I cut off about two feet of the top with the panicle, as soon as the seed begins to fall, and after it is dry comb out the seed with a coarse comb — I hope to collect at least two bushels of seed during the autumn. As the seeds vegetate very slowly, and as many of them are imperfect, the most certain mode of obtain, ing the young plants, would be that practiced by the cultivators of tobacco, who, early in the season, pre- pare a small spot of ground by burning the surface. On this they sow the seed, and tread them down with their feet. They then cover the spot w ith brush wood, to protect it from the action of cold winds, and the seed from the depredations of birds. As soon as the plants have attained the height of two or three inches, and when the danger of frost is past, they should be removed to the ground where they are to stand, where * After our early corn is bent down in this territory, we may plant Guinea grass between the rows, and when we take out the corn in October, the fields will afford abundance of food for fatten- ing cattle. I made a small experiment in this way, and have no doubt it may prove useful to those who have not a sufficiency of cleared land. If corn is planted in the succeeding March, the grass will not do any injury, as it does not vegetate until about the be- ginning of May. I think the seed might be sowed on wheat, in February or March, and as we cut our wheat about the 10th of May, the young grass would grow up among the stubble. 182 On Guinea Grass. they readily take root.* A rich black mould, and a soil somewhat moist, I think produces the most luxu- riant grass, but I have had very little experience on this subject. I hope that before many years, it will be tried in every climate in the United States, and on every variety of soil.f No kind of grass with which I am acquainted, supports the heat of the sun so well, and this property, was it even less productive, would recommend it to the notice of the agriculturalist, for, from the first of July, until it is killed by the autumnal frosts, it will afford a constant, and an abundant sup- ply of green food, and consequently enable the farmer, * There is no more difficulty in transplanting it, than in plant- ing tobacco or cabbage. A basket or two of the young plants will be sufficient for an acre. One hundred plants would enable a poor family to keep a cow in town, or to supply a dray horse with green food all summer. How much would the general cultivation of this grass add to the comfort of the poor and middling classes of so- ciety ! t The planters are beginning to be sensible of the importance of winter pasturage in this climate, where snows seldom remain 24 hours. Wheat fields, and the tall meadow oats, [avena elatior,] may be pastured from November until March, when the white clover begins to supply our animals with green food. This grows luxuriantly until the month of July. Then Guinea grass will fur- nish a still more grateful food, until our early wheat lots require to be eat down, in October or November. Wheat, tall meadow oats, clover, and Guinea grass, afford green food every day in the year, in the climate of the Mississippi Territory. In what part of the union can sheep be raised with so little expense ? In most parts of Europe, and in the middle and northern States, the winter keeping constitutes a principal part of the expense, and the severe frosts and deep snows destroy multitudes of Iambs. On Gtdnea Grass. 183 whatever may happen to his other meadows, to lay up a plentiful stock of hay, for the winter. If the hay is cut before the grass has grown too tall, less than two days sunshine will dry it completely. It is uncommon- ly fragrant, and horses prefer it greatly to the best corn blades. This experiment was tried on the 28th of September, when I sent Mr. Winn, of Natchez, a small bundle of hay, which had been exposed to the sun, about a day and a half. Mr. Winn put it into the bottoms of his mangers, and covered it with the best corn blades he could procure. The horses threw aside the fodder, and ate the hay with eagerness. An acre of corn will not yield more than from 500 to 1000 pounds of dry blades. Considerable labour is necessary in gathering them, they are preserved with ilifficulty, as we cannot choose a favourable season, and with us they are always to be carried to the stack on the backs of labourers. As the Guinea grass, on the contrary, retains its verdure for several months, we can always cut it when the weather is the most pro- mising ; we can cultivate it on most plantations, near the place where we wish to feed it, or it may be cart- ed out of the enclosure where it grows. If subsequent experience should confirm the principal facts which I have stated with regard to this grass, the intelligent farmer will soon perceive the advantage of cultivating it, instead of trusting to the scanty supply of blades, which he obtains from his corn fields, with such a waste of time and human labour. A Pennsylvania farmer, who knows the advantage of a timotl^y or clo- ver meadow, considers it a folly to spend time in col- lecting corn blades. If Guinea grass succeeds as well 184 On Guinea Gras. with others, and in every season, as it has done this season, with me, and as it has done in the West In- dies for more than half a century, the planters of the south will have no reason to envy their northern neigh- bours, their luxuriant clover pastures, or their nume- rous ricks of timothy hay. Meadows are generally the most fertile part of every farm where they exist, and their value is augmented by their contiguity to the farm houses. If Guinea grass is substituted for clover, timothy, and lucerne, at least seven eighths of all the grounds appropriated to those crops will be given to the cultivator for the purpose of raising sustenance for the human species. To what amount this change will increase the sum of national wealth, I leave to those to estimate, who are more conversant with such cal- culations. Certificates respecting Guinea Grass* February 23, 1812, Dear Sir, Your favour of the 15th instant reached me yes- terday. In reply to your inquiries respecting the Gui- nea grass, I will with pleasure give you such informa- tion as I have been able to make, to fulfil your wishes. The first winter after I sowed the seed was fortu- nately mild, as it did not go to seed, in the spring it put up from the old roots. The branches I transplant- ed, and they grew luxuriantly. It seeded late in Octo- ber. The roots were killed by the frost, but in the spring following, the seed that fell came up abundant- On Guinea Grass. 185 ly, these plants I divided, and transplanted about three acres of ground, but owing to the spring being very dry, this could not be effected until the month of June, wishing to have the ground well stocked with seed, I made but little use of it. It seeded much earlier this year, and much more abundantly. In the spring follow- ing, (that is last spring) it came up in great abundance; when it got about two feet high, I began to use it for my riding horses and work creatures, in all not less than thirty head, and the growth was so rapid, that not more than half the ground was cut over, and some of this not more than once : my son, who was more par- ticular than myself, informed me it grew six inches in twenty four hours. The seed sprouts about the time of the common grasses, coming up with a single spire and putting out a vast number of branches, something like wheat, each of which may be transplanted. This winter I have reason to believe the roots are also killed. It seeded in great abundance last fall, and much earlier than the two previous years. It continues green until it is killed by the frost. On the river I am persuaded it would seldom if ever be destroyed in the winter. I am, respectfully, Your obedient servant, Abner GREEfr. Henry Turner, Esq_. On the 16th of July, 1812, I weighed the first cut- ting of one plant of Guinea grass, which grew in Dn Brown's lot. Its weiglit was thirty pounds of green grass. 'J'homas Robinson, VOL. I IT. A a 186 On Guinea Grass, Wilkinson County, M. T, Oct. 10, 1812. I have frequently examined your lot of Guinea grass at Percyfield, and having for many years been in the habit of viewing both timothy and clover meadows, in the state of Virginia, where plaster of Paris has been used, I have no hesitation in saying, that one acre of Guinea grass will produce more than six times the quantity I have ever known produced by an acre of any other kind of grass. M. Bronaugh. Dr. Brown. Percyfield^ Wilkinson Co, M, T. October 15, 1812. I have for many years been accustomed to both ti- mothy and clover meadows, and have frequently as- sisted in cutting some of the best in the state of Ken- tucky. At Percyfield, near Fort Adams, I cultivated a lot of Guinea grass, somewhat less than a quarter of an acre, from which I fed six or eight horses, during the summer of 1812. I planted it the second week in May, and began to cut it the 20th of June, and cut it five times before the 15th of October, and obtained from each plant (which occupied a square yard) about sixty pounds of green grass. I have frequently ob- served it to grow four inches in twenty four hours. From the astonishing growth, and from the result of all my experiments, I have no hesitation in saying, that it will yield ten times as much grass as any timo- thy or clover meadow I have ever seen. It is now (15th Oil Guinea Grass. 187 October) as green as it was in June, and animals are remarkably fond of it, both green and dry. The hay is excellent, and cures without difficulty. Joseph B. Oglesby. Of Jefferson Co, Kentucky. Guinea grass, according to Browne, is a species of Holcus, the characters of which, he says, agree pretty well with those of Panicum in general, but the flowers commonly grow very luxuriant, and though often her- maphrodite, are generally observed to be male and female, distinct, surrounded by separate involucres, and standing on distinct pedicels, within the same calyx, — See Browne's Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. Folio, page 366. London, 1756. Dr. Martyn treats of it under the genera Holcus and Panicum. Mr. Correa de Serra informs me, that in " the bo- tanic garden at Paris, where Guinea grass has been with great care cultivated by Mr. Thouin, it is known by the name of Panicum altissimum, and it is very probable, that the frequent abortion of either of the sexes, in a great number of flowers, was the reason why Browne, and other scrupulous and literal Linnean bo- tanists, put it in the genus Holcus, notwithstanding all its characters were of Panicum.'*^ Dr. Martyn de- scribes it among the panicums, under the name of Pa- nicum maximum, in the following words : Panicum maximum. Culms from five to ten feet high ; upright, simple, even. Leaves lanceolate, to- wards the top convolute and sharp, smooth, except at the 188 On Guinea Grass > edge, which is rugged, and at the base, which is rough haired. Panicle erect, a foot long and more ; the low- er branches in whorls, the upper in pairs. Florets nu- merous, alternate, ovate, sharpish, pressed to the ra- ceme, on short, subflexuose pedicels. Spikelets poly- gamous. Outer valve of the calyx very small, inner oblong, sharpish, pale. Instead of the hermaphrodite, there is often a female floret, with a male at the side of it, or a female alone, without the hermaphrodite and male. Seed oblong, shining. In Jamaica it flowers in October. Directions for the culture of Guinea grass will be found in Dr. Martyn's edition of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, under the article Holcus pertusus. Besides the account of Guinea grass in Edwards, and the Domestic Encyclopedia, additional informa- tion may be obtained by referring to the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, vol, 5, and Young's Annals of Agriculture, vols. 9 and 13. All agree in the extraordinary fattening properties of this plant, and to our southern States it cannot fail of being of incalculable benefit, J, M, C 189 ] Account of a Crab Apple Orchard^ by Henry Wynkoopy Esquire^ of Bucks County, Read August 10, 1813. Belmont, July 24, 1813. Sir, I send, for the Society, a letter from my old and much esteemed friend, Henry Wynkoop, Esquire, in answer to some questions I troubled him with, re- lative to his orchard. He gives a highly encouraging account of the profitable produce of two hundred trees, on five acres of ground. I will endeavour to obtain the history of the Virginia Crab. Most of the orchards in my neighbourhood, as well as my own, have long been declining. I have spared no pains in endeavours to render them flourishing : but have not succeeded to my wishes. They are planted in every soil and situa- tion. Some are cultivated, i. e. sown with grasses and grain. All well manured, save one, which is in a soil by no means poor, but it has not been disturbed by the plough, for many years. The trees are of all ages, from seventy or eighty years, to twelve and fifteen. In the grounds kept loose and rich, they bear abundantl}^ ; but ripen and fall too early for winter use as fruit, or for cider. I have no Crabs ; but have every variety of other sorts. The oldest kinds, such as Pippins, Van- devers, Spitsenbergs, &:c. which, in my youth, were fair, inviting, and plentiful, are now forbidding, knot- ty, and scarce. Such is the case in Europe, with their old fruit trees ; as may be seen in Marshals account 190 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard. ■ • - ■ ' ■ ' ' ■'■>' — of the most famed apples of Herefordshire, in England, I recur to my old doctrine, that the earth delights in changes of products. The o/^ trees give evident proofs of this position. Natural trees endure longer than those engrafted. I think Mr. Wynkoop's trees are all too near each other. Mine stand in squares of forty feet. I have heretofore, Vol. I. pages 211, and seq. given an ac- count of my orchards. It will be seen, page 217 of that volume, that I had suggested to Mr. Coxe, the belief of many orchardists, that clover was in itself injurious. He thought otherwise ; but in Mr. Wynkoop's an- swer to query 2d, he mentions a fact relative to the bad effects resulting from clover ; which may, indeed, apply to any other plant, likely to invite vermin. I know several crab orchards; some whereof are plough- ed round the trees, some not stirred ; and yet they are generally more productive, than those of the kinds commonly planted. I think Mr. Wynkoop's success, is a conclusive argument that his practice is the most favourable, on every account ; at least so far as re- spects this species of tree ; than which no fruit-tree can pay better for the pains bestowed on it. Your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary^ Philad, Agric. Sac. Account of a Crab Apple Orchard. 191 Vredensburgy July 18, 1813. Dear Sir, Having had the pleasure to receive your letter of the 28th ult. I proceed to answer your enquiries rela- tive to the kind of fruit, of which the cider you allude to is made by me ; some of those questions would have required dates, which 1 do not possess, to render the answers perfectly correct ; I shall, therefore, with the assistance of my son, who now has the entire ma- nagement t)f my farm, endeavour to give you such in- formation, as our joint recollections afford. Queri/ 1. As to the species of apple ? Answer. That is entirely of the Virginia crab. Query 2. The number of trees ? Answer. The whole number of trees is two hun- dred and forty, but the actual bearing trees do not ex- ceed two hundred, for having some years ago, for the purpose of preserving the ground in a loose state, and also to procure some produce from the soil, sowed it with red clover, such numbers of ground mice were harboured therein, as effectually to destroy not less than forty trees : those have been replaced, but the young ones are not yet in a perfect bearing state. Query 3. The extent of ground ? Answer. That we suppose to be about five acrest Query 4. How long planted ? Answer. We suppose about twenty two years. Query 5. The distance the trees are from each other? Answer. That is twenty feet, but is much too close; all the orchard in \vhich we have since planted, the trees are thirty three feet apart, which I consider as the shortest distance that ou^rht to be l:)etween them. 192 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard. Query 6. The nature of the trees as to hardihood ? Answer. We have reason to believe it may be rank- ed among the most hardy of apple trees, it also pos- sesseth a greater degree of toughness and elasticity, than what commonly exists in the wood of any other Species of that fruit, that I know of, for the branches will bend, loaded with fruit, until they hang almost perpendicular, and yet rarely break. Query 7. What soil they most delight in ? Answer. This I do not know, for they appear to thrive equally well, wherever planted, and weU attend- ed to. Query 8. How long are they coming to maturity ? Answer. This depends so much on the care and culture of the ground, as to render the time of coming to maturity very uncertain, but I believe that of the crab to be as early as that of any other apple trees, under like culture. Query 9. Whether or not they are long lived ? Answer. The length of time, during which we have^ cultivated this species of fruit, is insufficient to enable me to answer this question correctly. Query 10. The general annual value of the crop ? Answer. The crab is a biennial bearer, so that for some time past, every other year has yielded us about forty iron bound hogsheads, averaging 112 gallons each, of the crab cider, which has been hitherto sold from the press, and delivered in Philadelphia, at two shillings and six pence per gallon : when fermented, fined, and fully prepared for bottling, we have sold it for the use of private families, at thirteen dollars per barrel, exclusive of the cask. Account of a Crab Apple Orchard. 195 Qiiery 11. Are they more or less productive, or more or less liable to failure of crops ? Answer, As they only bear every other year^ I have hitherto discovered no failure of crop, in the bearing year, but a uniform profusion of fruit. Query 12. As to the mode of pruning ? Answer, My method of pruning has been, as early as the young growth of the tree would permit, to form or shape it so as to render the top spreading, and to remove all superfluous branches : and afterwards, once a year, in the months of February or March, to repeat this process, and remove all sprouts from about the roots, and particularly from the branches, so as to leave them unincumbered with unnecessary growths, and afford a free admission of the sun and air to the fruit. , There exists, as you observe respecting your own orchards, an undoubted failure in the apples generally, which probably may arise from causes over which we have no controul, such as easterly winds and storms : and also insects which injure the fruit during the time of blossoming. Two species of apples appear as yet to have escaped this general decay, viz. the crab and the pear- main ; they continue smooth and fair, while most other kinds are small, knotty, and absolutely unfit for any use but the distillery. What I have found most bene-^ ficial, to preserve the trees and improve the fruit, is manuring and cultivating the ground without cropping, solely for the purpose of preserving the soil in a loose and pulverised state, and to prevent the growth of grass. The alternate bearing of the crab, 1 consider as advantageous, because thereby, in every other year, vol. III. B b 194 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard, an opportunity is afforded, for the free use of the plough and harrow, and also for fertilizing the soil, which cannot be done in the bearing year, because of the bending down of the branches, by the weight of the fruit. The last manure, put on my crab orchard, was entirely of leaves and virgin earth from an adjoin- ing wood, which has produced a powerful effect on the growth and verdure of the trees. I remain, yours, &c. Henry Wynkoop. Hon. Richard Peters. C 195 3 Account of the progress of Col. Taylor'' s Hedge ^ and on cultivating Indian Corn, agreeably to a plan formerly suggested,* being an Extract of a Letter to the Se- cretary, dated Port Royal, Virginia, July 24, 1813. Read, August 10, 1813. My hedging experiment proceeds, not with the spi- rit nrierited by its importance, but in a degree to ascer- tain its practicableness. I have used no manure, some culture, and only an annual clipping ; and yet the old- est hedge is at this time handsome. It is however only half the hedge ; the idea of planting cedars on the out- side of the dead fence not having presented itself for several years after they were planted within, so that the latter have gotten greatly the start. Upon a view of it, I believe the most incredulous would agree, that when the younger half of the hedge attains to the same state, a more perfect live fence will hardly be expected. The cedar hedge around my stable yard, being suf- fered to grow too high before it was cut, it became necessary to lop boughs, extending to two inches in diameter. The operation was nearly destructive to the hedge, and it has not yet recovered the blow. At the same time I dipt, with garden shears, the young hedg- es, without injuring them. From these facts it is pro- bable, that the training of the hedge by clipping, ought ♦ See Agricultural Memoirs, Vol. II. pages St^ 75, 196 Account of the pro-gress of a Cedar Hedge, to commence the second year, and that its form ought to be regulated with a view to limit all its wounds to small boughs. Apertures are certainly closed by bending boughs into them, to be covered with earth about the middle, where they will take root, and their extremities will of course grow and spread. By raising the bank of the ditch about six inches, after the hedge is nearly grown, the earth and the bottom boughs (if the latter have been properly managed) are brought into close contact; and the hillocks made in planting boughs, are brought to a level, by filling up the interstices. The culture of a cedar hedge on a ditch is extreme- ly easy, and the expense of manuring it trifling. The surface of the bank of the ditch is drawn with a hand hoe, from the top to the bottom, together with the weeds and grass on it ; ground so covered with the boughs, as not to admit of the hoe, is weeded with a spade ; and shrubs not otherwise to be removed, are cut up with a mallet and a wide chissel, fixed to a handle three feet long. The collection of earth, grass, and weeds, lies a few days in the ditch, on one side, and at the bottom of its bank on the other, with the clippings of the hedge, and constitute a compost, the whole of which is returned as a dressing for the hedge, which, though poor, is beneficial. Without culture, a hedge is not to be expected. The experiment of cultivating annually and alter- nately, a moiety of the same field in Indian corn, keep- ing the other moiety ungrazed, and using gypsum, is On cultivating Indian Corn, 197 still proceeding. The difficulty of getting gypsum, has however, compelled me to bestow only three pecks to the acre, on the moiety cultivated, and none on that at rest. Though the project is thus crippled, the crops annually increase. I am uncertain, however, as to the causes of this, because an improvement of crop is re- gular in those parts of the farm, in which Indian corn, every fourth year followed by wheat, is the course. Hence I refer it, in some degree, to a practice common to all. It is this — For a few years past, I have raised corn, and most other crops, on ridges, live and an half feet wide, divided by very deep and wide furrows, and both the land and crops have improved faster, since this practice commenced, than before. When the field comes into culture after rest, these ridges are reversed by deep ploughing, with four horses. The alternation deepens the soil. The chief part of the rubbish of dead grass or weeds, falls of itself, or is thrown by the plough into these deep, wide furrows. There it is buried so deep, as not to produce the common injury to the crop from breeding insects, or rendering the earth too loose, frequently caused even by clover lays. The air, gene- rated by its gradual putrefaction, keeps the ridge mel- low and warm, and the roots of the crop, whatever it is, find their way to this stratum of manure, which, during its slow decomposition, preserves a moisture, constituting a considerable resource against drought. Much labour is saved in fallowing, because the deep furrow enables the plough to cut off a wide land on each side of it, by which it is filled, without needing itself a touch of the ploughshare, leaving a string of the old ridge, so narrow, that a large plough, with two 198 On cultivating Indian Coryi, mould boards, splits it. And thus three furrows re- verse ridges of five and an half feet wide. The old fur- row enables the ploughing to be done deeper, than could otherwise be effected, as it is a receptacle for the two lands by which it is filled, and these leave wide and deep furrows, to receive each a moiety of the re- sidue of the old ridge. The deep ploughing, and com- plete subversion of the sod, produced by the strength of four horses, with the advantage of the furrow to re- ceive the lands, buries seeds so deep, that few can pierce the tegument, and greatly facilitates the culture of the crop ; or if it be oi the culmiferous family, sown broad cast, obstructs the vegetation of weeds among it. The ridges are made east and west, to equalize the influence of the sun. If the theory '' that the atmo- sphere is the source of manure, into whatever form it may be elaborated by an animal or vegetable process'' is true, it is probable that the bringing a greater por- tion of the surface of the earth in contact with it, by high and frequent ridges, may increase the inhalation of this its food ; and that the direction of these ridges may diminish exhalation. How far these or other circum- stances, may have co-operated with the gypsum, in the second experiment, or in the general improvement of the farm, 1 have not attempted to discover, but my im- pression is, that the detailed practice, constitutes no mean auxiliary to the other fertilizing expedients. C 199 3 Remarks on the great damage done to Apple Trees by erroneous Pruning^ by the Rev, Dr, Nicholas Collin, Read October 13, 1812.* Philadelphia, September 25 y 1812. Dear Sir, Desirous of contributing my small aid to the pur- suits of the Agricultural Society, I present some re- marks on the pruning of apple trees, the communica- tion of which may be useful to the public, though not to persons well skilled in horticulture. I have the honour to be, with great esteem, Dear Sir, your most obedient servant, Nicholas Collin. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Soc, Apples being the principal fruits in the greater por- tion of the United States, merit particular care. I shall confine my observations to them for the present, though in part also applicable to other kinds. Mismanagement often begins in the nursery, by leaving suckers from the roots, by letting* the trees grow so crooked as to become incapable of a good shape, and, especially, by leaving branches for two or three years, which must be cut away when the tree is planted, because they are too low, or crowd the head. * This, and the two following papers were accidentally misplaced. SOO Remarks on pruning Apple Trees, ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ J— < This incumbrance has wasted a great part of the sap, which would otherwise have increased the regular growth. The wounds occasioned by this lopping can- not soon be covered with new bark, and in the mean time often produce a decay. Sometimes this neglect is continued in part, when the trees are removed from the nursery, because some persons regret the loss of branches which would bear the same or the next year, and others cannot foresee the bad consequences of keeping them, which will increase with their growth, and force a much worse amputation. The head of eve- ry tree should begin at least six feet from the ground ; and of those whose branches are sloping, eight. When the head has been formed so low as five feet, but is well grown, it may be continued, but then its branch- es ought to be trimmed near the stem, and by some contrivance be enabled to rise. The head ought to have but one leader, because two seldom succeed, as the inward lateral boughs will cross each other. Its branch- es should be equidistant, and not more than six, nor less than four. If the tree has ample root, and a strong body, the head may retain an upper tier, provided it is two feet above the first ; but if not, it is best to leave only such upper branches, that have this height, and form the others from good buds. It is a bad practice to shorten the top or the branches, except a little when they are too slender for their length ; by excess, it rnay be very difiicult to procure a good leader ; the branches will grow bushy, and be later in bearing, be- cause the first fruit comes towards their ends^ Trees are not to be kept too long in the nursery, b.ecause the small space allotted for them will not per- Remarks on pi'uning Apple Trees, 201 mit a regular expansion either of the root or the branch -^ es ; besides, the removal, however careful, often kills them, or causes a lingering decay. An accurate in- spection of the roots is necessary, for taking away any carious parts, and worms, and also for cutting off those that cross each other, or are too close. None but long ramblers ought to be shortened ; and they should be spread equidistant, so far ate is practicable, which may be facilitated by wooden pegs. The too common fault of squeezing them into small holes, has ruined many trees ; they must be wide enough to extend at least one foot beyond the limits of the longest roots, and the mould be made quite mellow. A tree well pruned, planted, and secured by stakes against violent winds, requires frequent attention for some years : — the sprouts that come from the places of the removed branches, must be rubbed off at their first appearance ; so likewise all that would produce irregular boughs, whether crowding, crossing, or shooting too upright from the regular branches : ne^v tiers are to be formed at proper distances, as the trees advance : moss, insects, and any filth must be scraped off without damaging the bark : the roots must also be examined near the surface of the earth, as worm.s have lately been observed to corrode the bark. When a tree has by this management acquired an habit of regular growth, it will be easy to keep it in good order. When, by neglect, irregular branches have become large, as beyolid a diameter of two and an half inches, it is unsafe to cut them off, but some of their smaller VOL. III. r r 202 Remarks on pruning Apple Trees. boughs may be removed. If they gall others, the am- putation cannot be avoided, but healing plaster, and good covering should be applied to the wounds. Many persons are so stupid as to mangle regular and healthy trees, on the pretence of making them bet- ter by thinning; lopping off branches thicker than their own arms and legs, moreover, lacerating the parts ; and leaving them exposed to all the injuries from heat, cold, wet, and insects, and thus a certain prey to gangrene. Saving the stumps will not avail, because they convey moisture and frost to the stem, even before they rot. In a few years, large holes ap- pear in the body of the tree, the remaining branches become sickly, and produce bad fruit, and a prema- ture death is generally certain. Often have I, with in- dignation, seen waggon loads of the finest branches, full of bloom-buds, in the spring, brought from the orchards by such senseless wood-choppers ! A regular position of the branches round the stem, will give to the inner parts ventilation, and admit sun- shine, without much thinning. It will also by a balance of weight, keep the tree upright, and enable the seve- ral parts to resist violent winds, and to support loads of fruit. Clusters of limbs on one side must incline the tree more and more, so as to be easily torn up by the root, and also weaken the hold of these branches to the stem. Indiscreet pruning of the inner parts will accumulate the fruit on the outward, and thus make the weight more powerful, as on a lever. The importance of good prui ::ing is additional in this country, from the frequency of westerly winds, which Remarks on pruning Apple Trees* SOSJ - -'" ■ ■ ■■■,.■■ give a contrary bias, and from the irregularity of the seasons, which in some years causes a great defect, and in others an excess of apples. A striking example of this happened in the autumn of 1810, when a vast number of trees lost many of their branches, and ma- ny in a leaning posture were torn up, owing to the ad- mirable quantity of fruit, without any uncommon gales. [ 204 ] 0?i LimQ and Marls'^ by Mr, John Lang. Read April 14, 1812. 9ir, The inquiries which have lately been set on foot in our society, concerning the different varieties of lime, have created a considerable degree of interest, but per- haps not more than the subject deserves. Were the question clearly decided, whether lime is possessed of any nutritious quality, or if it only acts as a stimulant;, by dissolving such animal and vegetable substances as lie inert in the soil, and thereby preparing them for the food of plants, it would go a great way towards re- moving any difficulties which may stand in the way of such conclusions as we may find it necessary to draw from our farther investigations upon lime, or other cal- careous substances. Besides, we might be thereby en- abled to account for the various theories which have been adopted, by practical and scientific enquirers, up- on these subjects. You have declared yourself freely in favour of the last position, and have done me the honour to take me into the list with yourself. Dr. Tennent, in his remarks upon the recent im- provements in Scots husbandry, thus observes, " It is '^ the property of calcareous substances to act very " powerfully in dissolving such vegetable and animal " substances as are deprived of life. Under the action ** of lime, vegetable matter in particular is speedily ^' dissolved ; but, if it be either used in excess, or if *' the land be too severely cropped, without allowing a '* necessary restorative of putrescent manure, every one On Lime and Marls, 205 " knows that the soil is soon exhausted, and rendered " incapable of supporting any kind of vegetation.'^ Here, in my opinion, the terms calcareous substances are too general and i^ague ; for, though some calcare- ous substances are known to be powerful solvents, others perhaps possess nothing of that quality at all, or at least in a very inferior degree. We know that from 25 to 50 or 60 bushels of our best lime is a suffi- cient dressing for an acre of land ; according to the poverty or richness of the soil, at the time it is ap- plied ; whereas Dr. Anderson says he has had expe- rience of lime in all proportions ; from one hundred, to seven hundred bushels to the acre, upon a great va- riety of soils ; and has always found that its effects in promoting the fertility of the soil, have been in pro- portion to the quantity employed, other circumstances being alike. From these, and other cases which might be enu- merated, would it not be a natural conclusion to sup- pose that our strong lime acts by its solvent quality, in dissolving or decomposing such soluble substances as they meet with in the soil ? We find, when too great a quantity is applied, especially if the land is poor, in- stead of benefiting, it is often hurtful to the crop ; but when applied in proper proportions, and with a judi- cious rotation of crops, it is a most valuable manure \ whereas Dr. Anderson's lime, of which too great a quantity could not be employed, must have possessed very little, if any, solvent quality, and its fertilizing powers must arise from a nutritious principle. And this agrees with the account of the mild lime, which my friend, Joh;i Mills, of Chester county, put upon 206 On Lime and Marls* part of a field which I saw. He said its effects were si- milar to dung, giving out its strength to the first crop, but that they were soon exhausted. Perhaps if he had put on two or three hundred bushels to the acre, in- stead of sixty, they might have lasted longer, tor though the lime he used is considered of very little value, it may possibly be considerably stronger than that of which Dr. Anderson put ^even hundred bushels. But if our farmers in Pennsylvania, had no other lime ex- cept such as would require three hundred bushels per acre, I presume very little would be used for manure, for this plain reason, that they could buy as much land for the money, as the lime would cost. Dr. Anderson sets it down as a fixed principle, ^' that there is only one kind of calcareous matter ; and '' that all the varieties of calcareous substances we '' meet with, are entirely occasioned by a diversity in '' the nature of the extraneous bodies with which the '' calcareous matters are wnited, or a difference in the '' form it may appear in at the time." If this is the case, the enquiry should be, whether the most pure and unmixed calcareous substances, or those which we find in combination with other matters, are the most valuable, either as a cement or for manure. The most pure calcareous substances which we know, are chalk, pulverized shell, and the most pure shell marl. For a cement it is well known, that these three varie- ties are of little or no value ; and as a manure they re- quire a great quantity to produce any effect. The most pure shell marl, which will be found to contain less extraneous matter than any stone lime, requires at least forty loads to an acre, and, sometimes, from one hun- On Lime and Marls, 207 dred to three hundred loads are put on. But if the most pure calcareous substances are the most valua- ble manures, how much more pure must gypsum be, of which one or two bushels to an acre produces such an effect ? And how much purer must we suppose the limes, which require no more than from twenty five to fifty or sixty bushels to an acre ? But the contrary has been shown to be the fact. It is also a fact, that those limes, of which a great quantity is required for ma- nure, when used in building admit of a very small proportion of sand ; and that of a fine soft grit. Of this class is the lime made from chalk, and all the limestone of the Bahamas, the West India islands, and the south west coast of this continent, which I am told consists of immense rocks formed of shells, in some instances very little changed from their original state ; whereas our strong lime in Pennsylvania re- quires a great proportion of sand, of a sharp grit, and makes a very strong cement. I am- inclined to think, with Dr. Anderson, that there is only one kind of calcareous matter ; and with Dr. Darwin, that it has all originally been an animal production ; that though the putrescent particles with which it had been formerly combined, have long been dissipated, it may still retain gases, which, when dis- engaged, are nutritive to plants ; that pure calcareous matters have little or nothing of a solvent quality ; and that gypsum and lime derive their respective proper- ties and additional value from the combination of cal- careous matter with mineral acids, and other extrane- ous substances. Hence I conceive, that if the pure cal- 208 Oil Lime and Marls^ careous matter contained in gypsum (which is said to be Z'^ per cent) were separated, it might make a very- good manure, at the rate of three hundred bushels, more or less, to an acre. All the English writers on this subject consider the different varieties of lime and gypsum valuable in proportion to the quantity of cal- careous matter which they respectively contain ; and that this class of manures has most effect upon soils which contain the least calcareous matter, previous to their application ; upon this principle, how will they account for the effects produced by one or two bush- els of gypsum to an acre, not only upon lands which never have been limed, but also upon limed land, a fact confirmed beyond a doubt, by the universal ex* perience of our farmers ? It is true, indeed, that marl is less valuable, in proportion to the quantity of extra* neous substances which is mixed with it ; but in this case, the calcareous matter has not entered into a che- mical combination with the extraneous particles ; but, though mixed, are still distinct ; and these generally consist of clay, sand, or peat-moss, which are in their nature more inert than the calcareous matter. Dr. Anderson gives the best account of the natural history of shell marl, that I have any where met with ; but it appears to me, that he has never had the oppor- tunity of using it ; because his account of its effects upon the soil will only apply to \vhat he calls clay marl; which is nothing more nor less than mixing different soils. But the use of what is called clay marls and stone marls, are nov/ almost universally laid aside ; the ex- pense of hauling.bcing found, in most cases, to exceed On Lime and Marh^ 209 the profit derived from them. It would seem that the circumstance of the dressing Du Hamel's marble chim- ney-piece, has become the ground work of Dr. An- derson's, or more properly the English, theory, con- cerning calcareous substances, which has been car- ried to such a length as to lose sight of the practical experience of farmers. But had Du Hamel been along with me, I could have shown him many instances of a remarkable effect produced upon natural as well as sown grasses, by the small dust, from the dressing with the hammer of the hard why n- stone, of which many stone dykes, or fences, are built in Scotland. This has been often observed by many besides myself, and could not be attributed to calcareous matter. Whe- ther sulphuric acid was the active principle I shall not pretend to say; but the whyn- stones, when broken, emit a strong sulphuric smell. For my own part, I pro- nounce nothing positive, my motive is to bring every theory to the test of experiment. If these hints have any effect in calling forth further investigation, my object is obtained. If you think this worth presenting to the society, you may, if you please, accompany it with your free remarks. I am, sir, with great respect, yours, &c» John Lang- Richard Peters, Esq^. VOL. III. D d 210 On Lime and Mark. In presenting to the society this legacy of our late worthy member, Mr. Lang, I cannot repress my sin- cere regret for his loss. His constant desire to be use- ful, was always evident ; and the efforts of a strong natural understanding overcame the privation of litera- ry acquirements. Such men are more valuable in so- ciety, than are those who hide their talent under a bushel ; or turn their faculties, however improved by education, to subjects subservient to ambition, or self- ish pursuits. I shall leave the subjects of his letter on their own merits. I have always been of opinion, that English writers knew little of the modus operandi of the gypsum; and I have great reason to believe, that their acquaint- ance with limey is not correct, or sufficiently extensive. Mr. Lang and myself have taken much pains to pro- cure, from our chemists, analises of our limestones ; in hopes of confuting opinions, considered erroneous, by facts. But we have heretofore been unsuccessful in our endeavours. Until facts are settled, opinions must remain as they are. Meantime, what Mr. Lang has suggested will be a ground of inquiry ; and stimulate some public spirited chemists to make investigations, we know results ; and causes must continue problema- tical. What he says of the effects of the offals of the whyn- stone, or basalt, I have perceived in the application of every kind of matter having sulphur in its composition. There is a sharp dispute among the learned, concern- ing the composition of basalt. Some affirm it to be a volcanic production. Others that it consists of ochres, On Lime and Maris. 211 zeolite, marine shells, and calcareous matter. Great bodies of limestone, are often found in contiguity, or in its vicinity. I am not competent to say whether the ivhyn-stone, does or does not contain sulphuric acid. A species of the basalt, m Ireland, is used in cement ; instead oipnzzolan^ with equal effect. Richard Peters. August, 1813. C 212 ] On the Long Island Hay Horse-Rake^ by Mr. Reuben Haineso Read July 14, 1812. Philadelphia 6 mo, Sth, 1812. Esteemed Friend, During my visit last summer, on Long Island, I met with a horse-rake of a very simple construction, with which I was so well pleased that I requested a friend to get one made, that I might present it to the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, and have this day received from him. Captain De Groot's receipt for the same, having been put on board the schooner Ex- press, at New York, and now inclose it. The account given by the inventor is as follows : '* Description of a horse-rake used in the southern ^^ parts of the state of New York, which in raking hay, " on^ level ground, is believed to save the labour of six. ** 7nen, " The rake is generally made of white oak ; the ''head frame is nine to ten feet in length, and three '* and an half inches by two and an half in diameter ; '* the teeth are about two and an half inches apart, ** twenty two inches long, and one inch by one and an " half in diameter : — the one sent has thirty teeth, *' there are seven small standards on the head, design- '' ed to collect the hay, and are about eighteen inches "high: — there are two curved handles, about three ** and an half feet long.'* The great advantage that this rake appears to me to possess over all others that I have seen, is, its extreme- On the Long Island Hay Horse-Rake. 213 ly simple construction ; and less liability to get out of order, owing to the teeth lying flat, instead of standing perpendicularly to the ground, as is usually the case ; and in case of striking a stone or other obstacle, in- stead of being broken off by it, are merely driven more firmly into the frame. Should this instrument not prove v\^ell adapted to our Pennsylvania farming, I hope its presentation will be considered by the society as evincive of a wish to promote their laudable designs, on the part of a sincere well wisher to the true interests of agriculture ; — their fellow member. Reuben Haines. Dn. James Mease. Secretary^ Philad. Agric, Soc, One of the hay rakes was presented by Mr. Haines, and is preserved in the apartments of the Agricultural Society, [ 214 ] Salutary Effects of Fi re, on Soils, by R. Peters, Esq. Read September 14, 1813. Belmont, July 20, 1813. Dear Sir, I frequently introduce points worthy of considera- tijn, that they may be more ably treated, by those ivhose science and practice are superior to mine. I have often experienced the great utility of Fire, in fertilizing land. I could give many instances which have passed under my own observation ; both recent, and of very old date. I can shew numerous spots in fields, on which large collections of weeds were burnt, twenty years ago ; which now exhibit, and have so done ever since the operation, a most extraordinary comparative fertility, in ground, the whole whereof has been well limed, and otherwise manured. Burning heaps of straw, I have found efficient. Leaves, and other trash, from hedge rows, chips and brush, have given fertility to barren spots ; most evidently and du- rably. Although I have been long in the practice of devoting some of such materials to the compost heap ; yet I am convinced that burning most of them on the ground, would produce equally good effects ; and most probably, extend their influence longer and farther, than if rotted down. If this idea should even be thought whimsical ; it is, at least, worthy of consideration and experiment. Having frequently turned the subject in my mind, I have not been able to account for it, in a manner satisfactory to myself. The ashes of such light Salutary Effects of Fire ^ on Soils. 215 ... ■ ■ ■ , ,., ■ . ..ja. substances, soon spend their force. No ashes will so durably evidence fertilizing effects ; be they even of wood, coal, or other solid material. It must, therefore, be some unaccountable result ; produced on the soil, by the agency of Fire. And of this opinion, I have long been. That I may not be deemed singular, in an opinion not generally attended to, yet, no doubt, transiently perceived, without endeavours either to account for it, or to extend its advantages ; I will copy some passa- ges from the Rev. Mr. Buhordieu'' s ^^ Statistical Ac- count and Survey of the County of Antrim^"^^ before cited, on another occasion. The facts relative to this subject are drawn into a compass, which will not fa- tigue those who read little, and believe less, of what they call *' book-farming." Other authorities might be cited. " Of the Effects of Fire upon Land. Vol. I, pag. 231. " The effects of Fire upon land, as a manure, do '^ not seem to have been understood till of late vcars. " That sod-burning, burning clay, or peat or turf bog, '* have long been practiced with success, is well known '* to every person acquainted with the practices of hus- " bandry in different countries ; but the good derived '' has always been attributed to the quantity o^ ashes " that have been obtained ; and not the mechanical or *' chymical operation of tht fire upon the soil. But to *^ prove that it is that operation which does produce the *' benefit, nothing more is necessary, than to mention *^ the substances used for this purpose, and the small 216 Salutary Effects of Fire, on Soils * " quantity of them. Mr. Young, in that excellent book "the P'armer's Calendar, mentions numerous in- " stances of the crops of turnips obtained by manur- '* ing the ground in this way : particularly of a Mr. " Richardson in the Wolds, a tenant of Lord Yarbor- " rough's, who has long practiced the method oi spread- " i7ig straw upon fields prepared for turnips, and set- " ting fire to it, thereby raising crops superior to those *^ afforded by the usual portioii of dung. The quantity " of straw he makes use of (for an acre) is five tons ; " let it be supposed then, that these five tons of straw, " were turned into five tons of dung (which is a large " allowance) those five tons of dung would make ten *' good car-loads ;* a quantity not sufficient for the " fifth part of an acre.f The same gentleman found " not only the turnip crop better, but the barley also, ^^ than what followed from the manuring with dung; ** and he is clearly of opinion, that it is the warmth " from the fire that has the effect, and not the ashes ; " for the quantity is nothing, and would be blown ** away by the first blast. This straw -burning husband- ^^ry, Mr. Young found again at Belesby, practiced by " a Mr. Lloyd, an excellent farmer, who thinks that it " will take six tons an acre, which will last longer in * An Irish car is much inferior, in capacity, to one of our one horsed-carts. t The Irish acre is larger than the English statute acre. The number of poles is the same ; but the L'ish pole is twenty one feet ; whereas the English pole contains only sixteen feet, six inches. So that the Irish acre is one acre, two roods, and nineteen perches, English. Salutary Effects of Fire, on Soils, 217 ** its effect y and beat the dung the straw ivould makt, " The Rev. Mr. Allington, at Swinop, has cut gorse '* (whins) and burnt it in May, for turnips ; it also *' answered well ; — the effect great on the turnips, — *' on the barley better. In Gascony^ and almost to Ba- ** yonne^ Mr. Young observed the same mode of ma- ** nuring for raves^ a sort of turnip, in use there. A " similar mode of manuring has been, a length of time, " carried on in the north of Ireland^ though with a dif- *' ferent and more substantial material; it consists in *' drawing the crumbly and friable parts of boggy ** grounds, to the gravelly or clay fields, in summer ; *' then spreading it, until it becomes dry ; afterwards *' gathering it in small heaps, setting it on fire, and " whilst it is flaming, spreading it on the grass. The " effect of this on the grass is great, also on the suc- *' ceeding crop. If it were used for a fallow crop, there ** is no doubt the advantage would be much greater, ** and more permanent. JP^hins,^ I know to be a ** most excellent plant." &c. I was gratified when I met with this confirmation of an opinion I have long entertained. — Very long before I saw Mr. Young'' s Calendar, or this book. I have no sympathy in feelings like diose of Dennis the critic ; who was enraged when he was told of an old author, who had anticipated opinions professed by him. He was accustomed, on such detections, to execrate the * W7«'ns— Furze, or Gorse. OeJiisia S/iivosa of Ray ; U/ex of Linnaeus. VOL. III. E e 218 Salutary Effects of Fire ^ on Soils* ancients ; and accused them of having stolen his best thoughts ! The pleasure I experience in the coinci- dence, arises from the opportunity it affords of pro- mulgating the practice, under authorities better than my own. I have, very often, burnt brush, on patches intended for melons, under the idea that it w^ould de- stroy the eggs or larv^ of insects, which vrould other- Avise infest the vines. It always had the effect I wish- ed. But I have observed a fertility in such spots, for years, beyond those in their vicinity. I have burnt the stubble (too thick to plough in) on a wheat field, ge- nerally ; but have left some spots unburnt and plough- ed in. The buckwheat, sown on the burnt stubble, was strikingly superior. Clover, sown with the buck- wheat, was by far the best, the next season, on the burnt parts.* It is in the power of every farmer, to turn to his ad- vantage, the nuisances and pests on his farm. Very probably some lands will be more benefited than others, by this operation. Every kind of manure does not operate alike on every soil. The experiment will cost little ; and the materials for trying and extending it^ * This was before the excellent practice of sowing clover on our wheat, was introduced. I generally, t/ien, ploughed in the stubble, to rot as a manure. But, now, I cut the clover and stubble ; and have great store of fodder for the barn-yard cattle. What they do not eat, becomes manure. My fields are left in the best condi- tion, for either feeding or mowing, the next season. I have heard objections to mowing the clover and stubble ; as rendering the roots exposed to injury by droughts or frosts. But I am convinced? by long experience, that, if the cutting be in proper time, there are no solid grounds for such objections. Salutary Effects of Fire ^ on Soils. 219 are every where to be found. A neat and managing successor to one slovenly and negligent, will be re- warded for his exertions, by burning on his fields the incumbrances left by his careless predecessor. I do not mean to say, that burning of land may not be carried too far. Extreme cases prove nothing. Like wagers, they are often the ne plus ultra of controver- sy ; when argument is deficient. A certain quantity of lime is salutary ; but an overchcirge is destructive. Some soils will bear, and require, heavier liming than others. Soils differ in their capacities, textures and qualities, so as to be injured or ameliorated, as much when FIRE is applied, as when any other manure or auxiliary is used. The use or abuse of fire must be discovered by experiment ; as must any other opera- tion in husbandry. And, certainly, the safest mode is, to begin moderately ; and increase or diminish, as ex- perience dictates. I add, however, that I never yet saw an instance, the one hereafter mentioned excepted, where injury had been done in this way ; although I have myself cleared much land, originally ; and burn- ed vast heaps of timber and brush, both on new and worn lands.* Yet I have one decisive proof of the in- * Our correspondent, Mr. Lorain^ [pages 112, 113,] condemns what is called the Yankee mode of clearing new lands ; preferring the girdling method, [for an account of which, see our list of premi- ums ; Vol. I pages xlii, xliii.] This is not a place to enter into that subject; with which I profess to be tolerably well acquainted. It is the vile mode of farming (common to both) — scratching with harrows only, stubbling in crop after crop, of culmiferous plants ; where it is not left under grass choked with nuisances, — and not the FIRE, which merits the severest condemnation. Neither mod? 220 Salutary Effects of Fire, on Soils. jury occasioned by over-burning land ; which may be deemed an extreme case. More than sixty years ago, the bricks, whereof the walls of my house are com- posed, were burned in a kiln, the site whereof is now in my garden. I have, in vain, endeavoured, at vari- ous periods, to recover the fertility of this small spot. Two years ago, it was limed. Last year, I selected the best well rotted dung ; and applied it plentifully. I planted on it, this season, for experiment, Indian corn, scarcity roots, cauliflowers, and water-melons. The culture has been the same with that on other parts of the garden. But every plant is inferior, most percepti- bly, to other similar plants, on other spots ; and so it has invariably been, with plants on this over-burned soil. Your very obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Soc. of clearing is a good one ; but I think the Yankee mode the best ; and when it is faithfully and carefully pursued, it is unobjectiona- ble, on the account noticed by our correspondent. Both methods are pursued from necessity ; and are such as the state of things, in a new country, imperiously, and probably exclusively, demands. Mr. Lorain deserves much praise, for investigating a subject of primary importance in our new countries ; and one -vvhich, hither- to, has been too little noticed, or discussed, R. P. .[ 221 ] On well-rotted Dtmg. Fresh and hot Muck. Stercora- Ties ; and their Usesy by Richard Peters^ Esquire. Read September 14, 1813. Belmont, August 22, 1813. Sir, Having frequently had occasion to mention my opi- nion respecting the state in which dung is most pro- per for use ; I take the liberty of explaining my mean- ing on that subject. If my theory be even unsound and dissatisfactory, it may at least lead farmers to thirik on atopic, on which their interests materially depend. My experience warrants the statement I have given. If the experience of others be different, they will, no doubt, be governed by their own knowledge of facts ; which, in such cases, are the safest and most certain guides. The dung should be applied when it is well-rotted ; — that is, before the fermentation has ceased, — yet when it is so far advanced, that the texture of the parts is destroyed ; and all seeds contained in it are com- pletely putrescent, and incapable of germination. I am convinced, by long experience, that muck, or dung, in the latter stages of putrescence, is in the best state of salutary efficiency ; and most proper, on every ac- count, for application. Carbonaceous, over- rotted dung is of little service. What in grammar, would be called the penultima, or antepeiiultima, is the most preferable stage of its progress to putridity. There is an impor- tant dii^XmcXiovLhtiw^^n putrescence ^ndjjutriditi/. The 222 Oil tvell-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, ^c. violent and outrageous operations of fresh and hot muck, (acting as well on the pests it brings along with it, as on the crop it is intended to stimulate and nou- rish,) are as ungovernable, and often as morbid, ex- hausting, and mischievous, as are the unrestrained, though temporarily potent, exertions of one making enfuriated and desultory efforts, under the paroxysms of a fever. Sometimes its fury is spent on itself. What- ever may be its success in Europe, (where opinions are divided, but the majority against it,) our ardent heats assist in its consumption. I have ploughed it in very deep ; and, after a long drought, turned it up entirely dry rotten. This may be often observed in the litter, or strawy muck, frequently applied for potatoe crops, and the myriads of mice and moles infesting them, are fatally known. I am not convinced by the argument I have often heard ; — that the strength of the " dung had better be applied in throwing up a crop, than wasted in the muck heap.'* Whatever be the food of plants, there is an evident analogy between the structure of their parts, and that of animals. The food for both must be in due prepa- ration to enter the vessels, before it can have a salu- brious effect. The violent fermentation necessary and preparatory to making bread, is most suitable for the dough-trough. None would venture to recommend this preparatory operation to be carried on in the stomach ; * * See Vol. I. pages, 235, 236. Where instances are mentioned of previously fermented and baked provender, being given as food for horses ; alleged to be more nutritious and economical, than On well-rotted Dung^ Stercoraries^ ^c, 223 or successfully contend, that it is uselessly employed, or wasted, in its proper place. True it is, that a fer- mentation, more gentle and profitable, must proceed in the natural ventricles, allotted for fitting all food, after it is duly prepared, for entering the system of ani- mals. I should presume, that the analogy requires si- milar circumstances, in regard to plants. The stereo- raryy and not the earth, seems to be the place of prepa- ration of what is to become the food, or stimulus to the growth, of plants ; for we know not, correctly, the mo- dus operandi. After such preparation, and not before, it is fitted for the place of final deposit ; — to wit, — the ground in which the plant is to grow. Strength of manure, as it is called, amounting to force and violence, is not desirable. It has an indis- criminate, partial, and irregular impetus ; very differ- €nt from constant, durable, and wholesome endea- vours. A heated, overflowing, and rapid circulation, occasioned by the violent operations of hot muck, bursts the vessels of the most valuable plants ; and produces, in grain-crops, smut, blight, and mildew ; or loss, by laying, of over-abundant straw. Weeds, and vermin are generated, increased, and invited by it; raw meal, or grain. This analogous illustration, may be deemed a mere fanciful speculation.— Be it so. — I rely ot\ facts to which my attention has been called, through many periods of my life. The subject has always produced difTerences of opinion and practice, among farmers ; from the time of rny earliest recollection. The great majority have preferred well rotted dung. But few, indeed, have paid sufficient attention to the all-essential uses of the sterco- rarv. 224 On xvell-rotted Dting^ Stercoraries^ ^c. — beyond all comparison with that having previously undergone a proper degree of fermentation and de- composition. And it is indubitably true, that the du- ration of dung operating violently, is shorter ; and leaves the ground in worse condition ; than that duly and moderately rotted. I know, that some men of intelligence, differ with me on this subject. But I must, with all due deference, be permitted to form conclusions (for myself) from facts with which I have been long acquainted. Truth is the result of facts generally occurring; although there may be some exceptions, and contrary evidence. I have taken it for granted, that most of the advo- cates for the use of fresh muck, plough it in. But I have heard of those who practice hauling it from their stalls, or stables, without fermentation ; and thus spread the litter, on grain, or grass !* As a cover, to * See Vol. II. '' On Plaster of Paris." Note, page 78. Well rotted dung, or compost, as a top dressing, is there approved. But this kind of raw cover is of a very different nature. All top dress- ings are better for grass, than grain.— -In addition to many prece- dent experiments, I allotted two contiguous stripes, of about forty feet wide each, in my wheat field, sown last autumn, for the pur- pose of comparison. On one, I ploughed in a liberal allowance of excellent dung. The other, I top-dressed, plenteously, with the best selected dung. On the strip ploughed in, the wheat was strik- ingly superior. But the grass, (orchard and some clover,) from seed sown on the wheat, was, incomparably the best on the strip top-dressed. The results of many similar experiments, have been uniformly so with me. Tenants, careless about permanent improve- ment, spread, superficially and thinly, their manure for a present purpose. But those who wish to prolong its efficacy, should, in ciuanlity sufficient, plough it in. R. P. On well-rafted Dung^ Stercoraries^ tsPc, 225 protect the crop from bleak winds and frosts, (deduct- ing the evils accompanying it,^-— i. e. afibrding harbour for vermin, and sowing the pestiferous seeds contained in the litter,) it may be serviceable ; and, in the parts consisting of alvine-ejections, some manure may be af- forded. But the evaporation must be dissipated more uselessly than it is said to be in the stercorary ; and but a small proportion of its efficacy can be applied to the crop. In some instances whereof I have been in- formed, this cover has had the credit of producing great crops. I never doubt facts alleged by men of in- tegrity. But I cannot avoid expressing my surprise, that this wasteful mode of application should be advo- Gated. If the straw- burning husbandry be as efficaci- ous as it is said to be, it would seem, that the straw of the litter thus spread, independently of its use as a co- ver, would be more serviceable,' if burnt on the ground. I leave, however, the friends to the system of hot or fresh muck-husbandry, (among v/hom, it seems, there are sectaries) to settle among themselves, the mode they deem the best. Abstract reasonings on a subject capable of proof by practical tests, are seldom satis- factory. The balance of facts, not solitary instances, must finally decide all questions relating to it. How this premature use of the materials essentially required for increasing the store of manure, can be justified on a principle of economy, and " getting all the good of one's dung," as some have expressed themselves, I cannot perceive. The animal excremen- titious matter is not merely estimable and operative in itself; but its value and effi.cacy are extended, when, VOL. III. F f 226 On well-rotted Dung, Stercorariesy &?c. in a well conducted stercorary, it converts other sub-= stances into manure. Weeds, ofFal, earth, and innu- merable articles, otherwise not only useless but nui- sances, may be turned into valuable manure ; by be- ing fermented and impregnated, by means of the ani- mal ejections with which they are mixed. Time is re- quired for the process of putrescence ; and this time is denied, by a too early evacuation of the dung- pen. The dreams, or the labours, of alchymists, certainly have never realised, if they have even imagined, so much treasure by transmutation, as well managed ster- coraries are capable of producing. But removing from them, prematurely, the foundation of their utility, is at once blowing out the furnace. Whatever justification there may be for using the earth as a laboratory, by ploughing in the muck ; it would seem, that spread- ing and exposing what I call the raw material, on the surface ; is entirely without reasonable excuse. Yet I have known men, on whose judgments, in other mat- ters, I should rely, not only defend, but persist in the practice ; although it effectually supersedes, as the former custom curtails, the use of that all important repository, — the stercorary. This indispensable maga- zine is too little attended to. Yet it is to the farmer, what his dam is to the miller. The process of fermen- tation and decomposition, is as needful in the prepara- tion of the materials essential to his art ; as it is to the distiller, and the brewer, in their respective occu- pations. I have not, in the imperfect discussion I have enter- ed into on this subject, had any anxiety, on a personal On welUrotted Diing^ Stercoraries^ ^c, 227 account, to establish my own opinions. But I feel a strong desire, that it may be well considered ; and that both sides of a question, in which the prosperity of our agriculture is so deeply involved, should be fairly examined, and deliberately investigated. Yours, very truly, Richard Peters, Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc, POSTSCRIPT. I add the following as a Postscript, to my com- munication on muck, and rotted dung. As long as opinion is subject to variety, differ- ences of sentiment, on the subject of fresh muck, and rotted dung, will exist. I do not enter the field as a controversialist, but as a narrator of my own experi- ence. If in doing this, I have wandered into reasoning on causes, or theories ; facts must, nevertheless, decide all questions. Since the date of the foregoing communication, a collection of agricultural essays, entitled Arator, by a citizen of Virginia, has been put into my hands. It is attributed to a citizen of that state whose talents I always respect, and whose facts I do not, in the small- est degree, doubt. He is an able advocate for the use of long and hot muck ; and the earth, not the stercora- ry, is his laboratory. The constituent parts of his ma- nure, exposed in open -pens, till it is hauled into his fields, early in the season, are, in no small proportion, 228 On well-rotted Diing^ Stercorariesy &?(?, ■" ' - ' ■ — ^ the offils of Indian corn. He cuts off the whole stalk (as many of us do, and all ought,) and uses it for litter. He does not intermix the cobs among his muck. These I always rot down in the stercorary. He strews plaster on his muck, before it is ploughed in ; — than which nothing more efficaciously promotes putrefaction.* See * Theories are unimportant, when compared with facts. An able chemist and mineralogist alleges, that an experknent had been made here to test the conjecture 1 hazarded, in my compilation on Plaster, that the sulphuric acid was the cause of operation in the Gypsum. The experimenter had found no reason to believe my conjecture to be correct. He, therefore, concludes my idea to be unsound, and unsupported. He substitutes another conjecture in place of mine ; i. e. that it operates as a " sefitic to dead fibres ; and a stimulus to living' ones'* On subjects merely chemical I enter not the lists with chemists. The fields of the farmer are far the best expositors. On these I have tried many experiments, on scales both small and exlensive, with a view to my theory. In some I have failed ; but have so often succeeded, that the ballance has fixed my opinion. Still subject to the controul of more able experimenters. Plaster is good or bad according to the proportion of the sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, in its composition. Forty eight parts in a hundred, are the proportionate quantities in the best plaster. It operates v/ilh less of this acid. But it requires more in bulk, or total, of the matter containing the acid, according- ly as the requisite proportion is deficient. The acid has been de- tached, and the earth, Sec. in which it had been detained, strewed ; without the least agricultural effect. To produce any important effect, an enormous quantity of this earth would be required. It is far from my intention to enter into controversy ; or to hold out pretensions to chymical acquirements. I think, that causes of operation, however desirable the knowledge of them may be, are, most commonly, subjects of mere conjecture ; as I still (however confident I may appear) continue to consider the one assigned by me. Probably, having assigned it, I may have yielded to a bias On well' rotted Diing^ Stercoraries^ SsV. 229 Vol. 11. Plaster of Paris, page 44. No material yields flattering to first impressions ; which is not singular. But I do not stand alone in believing ; and actual results of frequent experi- ments, give me strong grounds to support such belief; that sw/- Jihur in its crude state, and its offspring the sulfihuric-acid, are, of themselves, operative in promoting vigorous and healthy vegeta- tion. See Vol. II. page 206. Same; On plaster of Paris, 92,94, 95. Whether they act merely as seplics, or stimulants, or both ; or in what way they operate, I do dot presume, peremptorily to ducide ; though I have strongly urged an opinion. But it is of indispensable importance to know, what are the component parts essentially re- quired, to constitute good plaster. The fallacy of experiments, too, I am practically convinced of ; having myself failed in so many. Yet I never presume, that my success, or failure, is the test of truth. Times, seasons, state of atmosphere, quality and situation of land, differ so materially, that experiments may fail at one time, and at one place, which would succeed at others. In the year 1772 (more than forty years ago) I began the career of plas- ter. In this long course of time, I have never ceased applying it. I have experienced numberless failures and disappointments, from the htst gyfisum, on the most suitable soils. This season, with me, has been so remarkably unfavourable ; that, had I exclusively to decide on its efiicacy, on the results of this year, I should really pronounce the plaster worthless and inefficient. Yet I know the quality of that I used, to be perfect ; and the soil exactly suitable. On some other farms, it has succeeded as well as is common. I therefore conclude, that no decisive opinion ought to be formed, from the experiments of any one person (including myself in this remark) or those tried at one place, or in one, or two seasons. It is fortunate, however, that we have a cloud of witnesses to practical results. If causes remain hidden, ingenuity and science may conti- nue their speculations. But farmers (among whom alone I class myself) have long experience in practical proofs, to animate them, in their unhesitating reliance on this invaluable substance. R. P. 230 On tvell-rotted Dung, Stercorariesy t^c more valuable manure, when rotted, than corn stalks. The mode he takes in earthmg over, and using the raw materials, appears to be perfect. His covermg the muck, by deep ploughing, as fast as it is hauled out, seems highly proper for his system. But seeds deep- ly buried, are not always destroyed. They will of- ten vegetate on the first exposure. Aware of the necessity of meeting the fermentation of his muck, with a powerful plant ; his Indian corn crop stands the brunt of the battle. It is the only plant I know, {pota- toes excepted, if they be not caught by a long drought) fit to encounter the assaults of fermenting muck. It will thrive among lime, the first season of spreading ; when wheat would perish. Wheat (I fear sown among the corn) is his second line, of less able bodied troops. The fermentation is nearly over, and the conflict less dangerous, when this crop takes the field. He seems conscious, that the force must be previously weakened. So far do we differ in nomenclature, that he considers what I deem a foe, to be a friend and ally. And so it certainly is, after due subordination is established, and all hostile propensity subdued. Whatever difference of opinion I may entertain on this particular subject, I cheerfully recommend a pe- rusal of the agricultural principles and observations in this collection ; as being well worthy of the attention of all farmers in every district of our country. Other subjects therein discussed, I enter not into. It will be seen, that I always conceived, some pro- cess of fermentation and putrefaction necessary to dis- engage the gases supposed to be the food of plants. Sec also 2d vol. Plaster of Paris, 94, 99. But an On xvell-rotted Dungj Stercomrics, ^e» 231 overcharge of any of these, is certain destruction to a less powerful plant than Indian corn ; and, not sel- dom, even to this. In our hot beds the evaporation of hot muck, however well covered with mould, or rich earth, unless suffered to escape ; by frequently opening the glass covers, will kill the strongest plants. This I have repeatedly suffered under, through the care- lessness of my gardeners. The heat and evaporation must subside, before we dare plant our hot- bed vege- tables. Every species of our common field-plants, have been killed or stunted, by mephitic exhalations, or the drainings of stercoraries. Yet when weakened, by sufficiently diluting them, nothing can be more salu- brious than the latter. Exhalation is the great foe, Arator constantly combats, watches, and studies to defeat. Yet 1 do not fear it, in a well conducted ster- corary, or compost heap. It is, in fact, nothing equal, in volume or compound, to the waste he imagines. I doubt whether he ever made a fair comparative expe- riment. I think the loss, by the common and inevi- table exhalation of stercoraries, which can be, in a great degree, restrained; is, in profitable result, a gain. The superabundant azote, and poisonous qua- lities of the muck, escape ; and the residuum is more than worth the whole mass. It may not spread over a space so extensive. But " exiguum colito^'^^ has always been my motto. After all, — whatever may be the correctness, or mis^ tfike, in the opinion I entertain, as to the qualities of the dung ; I do not presume to enter into the expedi- fncy of the mode adopted by Arator. He is the best judge of the circumstances, in w^hich Virginia farmers 232 On well-rotted Dung^ Stercoraries^ ^c. are placed, on the large scope tliey occupy, in their husbandry. These may overbalance all objections, even if well founded, as to the state of the material, when it is used on their lands. I am now hors de combat J in extensive farming. Were I to begin my course over again, I should follow, in this regard, the practice my past experience justifies. I should be utterly fearless of any competition with hot-muck* farmers ; on the scale to which we are accustomed. If my apprehensions of violent fermentation, and its noxious effects, and the concomitant pests of weeds and vermin, be deemed extreme, and my ideas of the less injurious consequences of evaporation, and loss, by rotting of muck in the stercorary, be thought be- low the mark ; — so let them be. I have not been without repeated proofs, and comparative experiments, to satisfy my own mind. Our muck, it is true, is chiefly composed of straw, offals of hay, and the weeds and coarse grasses intermixed ; to which we add, in the stercorary, all the animal and vegetable putrescible substances \\t can obtain. That in Firgiiiia, as I un- derstand, consists, for the most part, of corn stalks . and remnants of blades ; and may not be liable to. all the consequences enumerated. If the author of Arator be the one suggested tome, he will give his plan a fair and persevering experiment. Any improvement in husbandry is highly meritorious ; and more particularly so in a country which has been, (so far as I have been informed,) for a long course of time, stationary, in a course of Agriculture not gejie- rally worthy of praise. He has, on his side, the justly celebrated Arthur Youngs than whom he could not On well-rotted Dw^g, Sfercorafiesy tsj^c, 233 have higher authority. Although I have thought Mr^. Young, from the most laudable motives, over zealous on this and some other subjects, I entertain so exalted an idea of his talents, and long, faithful, and invaluable labours, in promoting the agricultural interests, not only of his own, but of every country ; that it is, in no small degree, painful to me, when I am compelled on any occasion, to differ on a subject in which he is de» cidedly an advocate for a contrary opinion. See Vol. II. p. 172. 204. It may be said, that my ideas of the noxious quali- ties of fermeimng muck, can only apply to summer crops ; as the fermentation and heat are spent, before they can affect the straw, or seed, of winter-gram. But this is fully answered by the case hereafter mentioned ; and, to mt/ additional satisfaction, by my own experi- ence. It appears, that it infects the ground with du- rably deleterious taint ; instead of fertilizing it with wholesome capacities. When I speak of stercoraries, I mean covered repo- sitories. Better with roofs ; but well enough with a proper thickness of earth. I am as inimical to exposed ipuck, as any of the muck -farmers can be. Perhaps stercoraries thus constructed would be baubles, in the estimation of Virginia farmers, on their large scale. Our farmers frequently plough up (deeply) the head lands of the field intended for wheat, (never sown among corn, by prudent husbandmen) and hale out their muck early, on the head-lands ; which afford loose earth, to mix with, and completely cover, and rot down sufficiently, the manure for their crop. This is found highly beneficial. TOL, III. G g 234 On well-rotted Dungy Stercoraries, ^c. Three years ago, I used, from necessity, unrotted litter, for potatoes. I was punished for my aberra- tion, by a most terrific and profuse growth of the May-tveed, or Daisy^ the seeds whereof had been among the muck. I am scourged by this vile and ex- hausting pest ; which I cannot subdue without great exertions ; and, with them, not entirely ; unless I hand-weed. Like a slave flagellated by his driver, I revolt ; and my hatred is increased by every repeti- tion of the lash. This season, I have sacrificed a fine sod of timothy and clover, infested by the Daisyy which I have ploughed under, with another potatoe crop. With this I shall defeat the foe ; attacked be- fore becoming a veteran. Many years ago I met, in one of the agricultural publications of either Great Britain or Ireland, a most convincing proof of the bad effects, and ruinous con- sequences, of an inveterate attachment to the hot muck system. I have it not now in my power to lay my hands on the book ; which was one of indubitable authority. It is really a strong case in point ; and made an indelible impression on me. A nobleman of large property, who kept a numer- ous stud of horses, leased part of his estates to a full handed tenant, who brought, on the estate leased, seve- ral thousand guineas. A part of the contract was, that the tenant should have all the muck of his lordship's stables ; in consideration of his furnishing all the straw required. This contract was complied with ; and, through a course of many years, the tenant applied the fresh muck to his fields. He rarely, if ever, reap- ed a clean and healthy crop. Smut, blight, mildew, or On well-rotted Dung, Stercorariesy ^c. 235 laying of his grain, were continual. He finally became a bankrupt, though not deficient in industry ; and in other matters intelligent. The estate was again offer- ed for leasing ; but was not readily taken. At length, one, accounted daring and adventurous, leased the es- tate, on the same terms with the former unfortunate tenant. His ruin was predicted. But he was aware of the mistake, into which his predecessor had fallen. By a judicious course, he cleansed the polluted fields ; to which, for several years, he applied no more dung. The muck from the stables was composted, and sufficiently rotted ; before it was used for any crop. To the astonishment of all the foreboders of his fate, he never had an infected crop ; and made what was deemed a fortune. By potatoes and frequent ploughing (i#Autumn and early Spring) I have conquered the pest I men- tioned in our 2d Volume, 178 ; — the Star of Bethle- hem, or Ornithogallum umbellatiim. This had alarm- ed me more than any other weed I had encountered. The bulbs were brought into my field, among unrot- ted litter from my garden. Your very obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the PhilacL Agric, Soc, Addition to the Note on Gypsum. Pages 228, 229. Having seen, since my note on Gypsum was put to press, a work (about being republished in Phila- delphia, by Mr. John Conrad, &c.) deserving encou- 2S6 Oft Gypsum. ragement, — Sir H. Davy's Elements of Agricul- tural Chemistry ; — I cannot refrain from adding to that note ; although I may not be justified by the importance of my observations. When the paper of Mons. Berard{s^t Vol. 2d, 206) on the ^^ Efficacy o/" Sulphur, as a Manure,'^'' v^2i^ shewn to Mr. Davy^ he observed to a friend of mine, who related to me the circumstance, that he expected he should soon prove, that Mr. Berard was mistaken in his ideas of the operative causes, both of Sulphur and Plaster, I confess my curiosity was strongly ex- cited, when I saw Sir // Davy's work announced, I have the highest opinion of Mr. D's talents as a che- mist, and able investigator, into all subjects he under-, takes. But \ was completely disappointed, in all my expectations on the subject of Gypsum ; whatever may be their weight with others. It most assuredly appears, to nie, the least satisfactory of any part of this estimable and popular performance ; and causes me to despair of any profitable assistance, in this desideratum, from the most eminent chemists. Little or nothing (so far as I am capable of judging) can be collected from it, decisively settling any, useful question. To us, who are so well, and have been so long, acquainted with results, that we need no further experimental speculations ; the facts or conjectures, are really unimportant. What I expected to see luminously treated (after what I had heard) is either not touched on, or by no means (as I conceive) proved. He finds Gypsum (its component parts not mentioned) in all animal manure, grasses, and in the earth of cultivated, as well as soddy, fields. When the plaster strewed does not operate, it is be^ 071 Gypsum. 237 cause there '' is enough in the land,'^ or in the animal manure, or grasses, precedently. Yet xue find that it will, and often will not, operate, where there is no pro- bability of any similar substance having been ; owing to manure, or other cause he assigns. — In the barren- est and worn fields ; destitute of almost every living plant : and sometimes it fails, or succeeds, on grounds of the opposite description. If there be enough (as he supposes) to nourish a meager grass ; yet, we find, adding more, will make a starved plant vigorous ; or substitute a better in its place. And if there " be enough in the land,'' or " in the plant ;" why does the one remain steril, and the other starved ? If it be true, as some allege, that dew, in great pro- portion, rises out of the ground ; and there be '' enough Gypsum already in the soil ;'' why does it not over- balance the trifling addition superficially spread ; and detain the dew, or moisture, from rising-? If the gyp- sum spread be, (as the fact of superficial moisture, drawn out, non obstante the alleged gypsum in the earth, seems to designate,) differently composed from that in the soil ; one can account for the circumstance. I never saw plastered ground, which did not exhibit profuse moisture, superficially. Whatever kinds of calcareous, or other, matter, be in the soils of other countries, are to be found in our ground ; notwith- standing any opinion to the contrary. It is in this, and every other, respect, like the soils of odier parts of our globe, almost infinitely various. This conjec- ture seems, therefore, quite as inexplicable and the- oretical, as any other can be. He denies its septic faculty, or capacity to promote S38 On Gypsum. putrefaction of animal substances ; or to decompose manure. Yet we know, from thousands of instances, that it does both ; — freely and amply. It is, too, well established, (see Sir John Pringle^s experiments) that some septics (whether plaster be one or not I do not allege) operate differently on animal and vegetable matter : so as to preserve, or not affect, the one, and putrefy the other. He says, its capacity of attracting moisture from the air, in any important quantities ; or its adhesive attraction for it, is *' insignificant and inconsiderable." Yet xve have daily evidence, to shew, most palpa- bly and decisively, and even every farmer's boy, who drives his cattle to and from their pastures, can prove bij his feet, without speculating on causes, that dews and moisture are constantly and profusely retained on plastered fields, for hours, in the early part of the day, after they have passed away from grounds, on which the plaster had not been strewed. If, as he alleges, when combined with ^vater, " it retains that fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the plant," — how can we account for the superior strength and verdure of grass bedewed with the moisture at- tracted, and retained from evaporation, on plastered grounds ; compared with those adjacent, on which no Gypsum has been strewed ? The same difference in the roots, and the whole of the plants, is strikingly per- ceptible : — either in adjacent fields, or strips, purpose- ly left unplastered, in the same field ; in which Mr. D's natural store of gypsum must have been equally deficient, or distributed ? In the evening, too, the dew on plastered ground is the soonest perceived. Until On Gypsum. 239 the English acquire more experience in the use of plaster, we shall, I fear, derive little benefit from the speculations of their most scientific writers on this subject ; however instructive they may be, and certain- ly are ; on other agricultural topics. The sulphuric ackl^ or oil of vitriol^ is known to pos- sess the faculty of attracting, and being diluted by, water ^ in an uncommon degree : and the solvent pow- er of water is well established. What other parts of the gypsum has, so peculiarly, this property ? If the sulphuric acid does not produce the effect on vegeta- tion, as stated in my conjecture ; there is no other part likely thus to operate. All substances containing this acid, operate alike on vegetation ; and that^ as I have reason to believe, ac- cording to the proportions of the acid included in them : and, although these substances be totally vari- ant in their natures. — To instance only a few ; — 1. The Plaster of Paris, we use, consists of calcareous earth; mixed, irregularly, with other earths: and the sulphuric acid^ combined with them, is in, the greatest proportion of any other part of tl>e mass. 2. The Pyrites are a genus of inflamable substan- ces, composed chiefly of sulphur ; which has dissolv- ed, or saturated itself with, metals; oftenest with IRON. It is the principal ore oi sulphur. The use of this, when calcined, or burnt, as a manure^ occasioned Dr. Priestly to mention to me, what I relate in Vol. I. page 158. And see appendix to Vol. I. page 32. 3. Barytes, is an alkaline earth. It posses- ses strong and peculiar attraction for the sulphuric acid. It will always detect its presence, in any substance ; ^40 On Gypsum, and immediately unite with it, and form a sulphat. This renders it a very valuable chemical test. That this is a most powerful manure, (though, that it may be the more readily decomposed, it must be reduced to a sulphur et,) is clearly proved, by our intelligent correspondent, Dr. Isaac Chapman ; page 120, of this volume. Strange, then, (to one of the Laugens,) that this commonproperty of possessing the sulphuric acid, should go for nothing ; and other causes of operating on vegetation should be sedulously sought for ! If my conjecture, (whether original or borrowed, I cannot myself now tell) should really be, as some respectable chemists deem it, unfounded ; I see not that those they have substituted, (opposite and variant) have more fact, or probability, to support them. It is of no other consequence to farmers, — than that it will furnish a guide to discover what substances are likely to be operative on vegetation ; until a more certain index be established. Mean time, a conjecture which has been, and may be, practised upon, seems to be, — to say no more of it, — quite as good as any other. It is practically well known to multitudes of farmers here ; to me particularly, who have been the longest acquainted with this substance ; — that, in proper soils, and in places free from constant moisture, and not im- pregnated with, or affected by, common salt, either in the earth or atmosphere ; the plaster operates, or not, accordingly as decayed vegetable, or putrescent animal matter, is, or is not, found in the soil. If none such originally exists, or becomes exhausted, one or the other must be supplied, by green-manures, dung, (in On Gypsum. 24 i moderate quantities,) ploughed in, or compost as a top-dressing. With such auxiliaries, the plaster works vigorously ; either when first strewed, or on repeti- tions ; however frequent. Without them, it lies inert and useless. The fact is well established ; be the theory what it may. Anomalous exceptions some- times occur. But these do not shake the general rule ; which is, in practice, as much in course, and as com- monly successful, as any other operation in husbandry. R. Peters. September 25, 1813. TOL. III. Hh [ ^42 ] Colonel Pickerings on Hedges* Read September 14, 1813. Wenhamy Mass. August 13, 1813. Dear Sir, In the 2d volume of the Memoirs of the Philadel- phia Society for Promoting Agriculture, is published the letter I wrote you from Washington, in 1809, on the subject of hedges. As you are printing a third volume, I wish, in this communication, to correct two errors in that letter, in which I refer to Lord Kaims and Dr. James Anderson, on the same subject. Thorn Hedges. Expressing my doubts, from what I had read, whether the English thorn-hedges constituted com- plete fences ; especially as it seemed to be a common practice to introduce trees into them ; I then mention- ed Lord Kaims as ** expressly saying, that he never saw a good hedge in England." Not having his book (The Gentleman Farmer) by me, I trusted to my re- collection. This I afterwards found, as to the precise terms used, to be incorrect. Lord Kaims says — *' there never was a good thorn hedge with trees in it ;" and that *' in England there is scarce a thorn-fence to be seen without a hedge-row of trees ; and these hedge-rows (of trees) have been the destruction of fences.'' Your own observation on English hedges, which you had seen, corresponded with the idea I had On Hedges. 243 formed of them from their books, that they were far from being complete fences. Lord Kaims proposes a method of training thorn hedges similar to Dr. Anderson's; and describes a comparative experiment he had made, during a period of twelve years, of three modes of rearing thorn hedges, in which that of leaving the stems iincut^ until they had attained sufficient stability, appeared to be decidedly the best. His book being in the hands of few persons, I here transcribe the passage referred to, as highly interesting to all who would make hedge fences. *' I have the experience of three hedges trained twelve years as follows. The first has been annually pruned top and sides. The sides of the second have been pruned, but the top left entire. The third was left to grow without any pruning. The first is at pre- sent about four feet broad and thick from top to bot- tom ; but weak in its stems, and unable to resist any horned beast. The second is strong in its stems, and close from top to bottom. The third is also strong in its stems, but for two feet up bare of lateral branches, which have been destroyed by the overshadowing of those above, depriving them both of rain and air. That the second is the best is ascertained by experience. And that it ought to be so, will be evident if we trust to analogy. In the natural growth of a tree, its trunk is proportioned to its height: lop off* the head, it spreads laterally, and becomes a bush, without rising in height, or swelling in the trunk. The lime tree is the only exception I know : the white thorn I am certain is not an exception. Hence the following method of train* 2U On Hedges. ing up a hedge; which is, to allow the thorns to grow without applying a knife to their tops, till their stems be five or six inches in circumference. In good soil, with careful weeding, they will be of that bulk in ten or twelve years, and be fifteen feet high or upward. The lateral branches only must be attended to. Those next the ground must be pruned within two feet of the stem: those above must be made shorter and shorter, in proportion to their distance from the ground ; and at five feet high they must be cut close to the stem ; leaving all above full freedom of growth. By this dressing, the hedge takes on the appearance of a very steep roof; and it ought to be kept in that form by pruning. This form gives free access to rain, sun and air ; every twig has its share, and the whole is preserved in vigour. When the stems have arrived at their proper bulk, cut them over at five feet from the ground, where the lateral branches end.-^A hedge trained up in this manner, is impenetrable even by a bull ; he may press in the lateral branches ; but the stems stand firm. — Good thorns are more es- sential in this manner of training a hedge than in any other : they ought all to be of an equal size and equally vigorous, that they may not overtop one an-^ other. ^' See part I. chap xii. on fences. In Great Britain, hedge-fences are generally accom- panied by ditch and bank : principally (I presume) be- cause the ditch and bank, aided by a slight railing, make an immediate fence ; and because in fiat grounds ditches serve for drains. But in America, where wood is yet sufficient in quantity for complete fences, while the hedges are growing; and where, too, we are sub- On Hedges. 245 ject to heavier rains, which cause destructive gullies ; doubtless Mr. Maine's mode of plain hedging, without ditch and bank, is most eligible.* A ditch is an arti- ficial gully, which, in sloping grounds, every consi- derable rain must mischievously increase. The Larch Tree. The other error that I wish to correct respects larch trees. It was not Dr. Anderson, in his essays on Agriculture, as I stated, but Dr. Hunter, in his notes on Evelyn's Silva, or Discourse on Forest Trees, who mentioned the larch as growing fastest in the poorest soil and bleakest exposure. After observing that the larch was a native of the Alps and Appenine Moun- tains, and had become common in the nurseries of Great Britain, he says—" It is remarked that these trees which have been planted in the worst soils and most exposed situations, have thriven the best." Dr. Anderson, on the contrary, after stating the rapid growth of some larch trees planted when only from six to nine inches high, which in twelve years had reached the average height of from 34 to 36 feet, remarks that " this plantation was made on a very good soil, and favourably situated." At the same time he says ** the larch may be made to grow upon almost any soil, even from a stiff clay to a barren sand, if not drowned in water." — I have two native larches growing among white pines and maples, in a moist, peaty earth. They * This practice of Mr. Maine is not original : IMarshall mentions and commends it, in his Rural Economy of Yorkshire, Avhere he observed it in 1782. 246 On Hedges. are about six feet in circumference and perhaps eighty- feet in height. The very great value of the larch tree for timber seems to have been little understood in Great Britain, till within a few years past ; and I be- lieve that but few persons have any knowledge of it in the United States : yet doubtless it is one of the most useful trees that could be raised. Dr. Anderson's ex- cellent directions for making plantations of them, are to be found in his third volume of Essays on Agricul- ture and rural affairs. Scotland, so remarkable for its nakedness in respect to trees, they are now covering with the larch. Dr. Anderson says that for many- years, one person (the duke of Athol) had been in the practice of planting out from his own nurseries, one hundred thousand larches annually ; and the doctor himself above two hundred thousand, for the three years before he wrote. The Common Locust Tree. In your first volume of Memoirs is a communica- tion from Caleb Kirk, near York in Pennsylvania, in which he says, that after trying various trees and shrubs for hedges, " he at length fixed on the common locust. He tried for seven years to propagate this tree, and at length adopted a method by which he could make himself as sure of a plant from every seed, as from Indian corn :" but what this method was he does not mention. My own first experiment was by sowing the seed in May, which produced plants from two to four feet high the first year, although the soil was poor. My other trial was two years ago ; sowing the seed partly on the 10th and partly between the On Hedges. 247 10th and 20th of May, The seed sown immediately before a refreshing rain, came up well ; while that sown two days after, followed by dry weather, gen- erally failed. Like the apple tree, the locust, while young, is subject to be eaten by the field mice. The locust seed is easy to collect in the pods. It is in shape and taste like a bean. The time of sowing must be directed by the climate, to be secure against frosts. Whenever, in the spring, it will be safe to plant the common beans of our country, the locust seed may be sown with assurance of success. It should be sown in rows far enough apart to admit the hoe in cultivating the plants in the seed beds. I am, dear sir, very truly yours. Timothy Pickering. Mr. Kirk has recently communicated his method of raising locust trees from seed ; — it is as follows : " The method is to immerse the seed in water, hot enough to scald a hog ; to let them remain in the water till it cools, then to sow them in drills, eighteen inches or two feet apart, that they may- be the more readily kept clear from weeds, as the plant is very ten- der when young, and will be entirely lost if the weeds are suffered to grow up with them. — They should be sown in the spring, in common gardening time, and they will grow very soon, and if kept clean in the fore part of summer, they will be out of danger. — !f they are not too thick in the rows, they will stand so till they are two years old, when they will be fit to plant out." J. Mease. [ 248 ] Account of a Corn Shellifig Machine, by Charles TF. Peale. Read September 15, 1813. Beljield, Philad. Co. Aug. 27, 1813. Dear Sir, The enclosed sketch and explanation will I hope give a perfect idea of the corn shelling machine ; a description of my mill and the various application of it to husbandry in the saving of labour, I must reserve for some future day, when I may be able to make the various machines more complete, by extending the building. I am, dear sir, with high consideration. Your friend, C. W. Peale. P. S. By some experiments I find that butter is best made by churning very fast, but great care is neces- sary to stop the mill the instant the butter begins to gather; then the movement must be very slow to gather the butter, otherwise it will be very soft, and the but- ter milk will be so much beat into it, as to render the separating of it extremely difficult.^ * Every chymist knows, that Butter is the oxigenated oil of the milk. The more rapidly and completely this oil is separated (its mixture being mechanical or very slightly chymical) so as to ex- pose the most particles to the oxigen of the air ; the shorter is the time, for whjit is vulgarly called, " the coming of the butter." I Account of a Corn shelling Machine, 24^ The name of the inventor of the com shelling machine, I have just understood, is John Haven, of Montgomery county. am procuring to be made, a churn^ with a staff, to which is attach- ed, on a pivot at the lower end, an horizontally and rapidly turning dasher^ with four arms or vanes, like those operated on by wind. In the up and down strokes, the dasher moves in contrary direc- tions. This is said, in an agricultural work, from which I took the drawing, to be the easiest and most expeditious mode of churning the butter, by exposing the greatest number of particles to oxige- nalion, in the shortest time. I shall give to it a fair experiment. In some parts of Eur o fie ^ the new milk is churned. But I should presume our usual mode is preferable. By the standing of the milk in the pans, the cream (which contains the oil) rises, and is separa- ted. The albuminous, gelatinous, and watery parts begin to sepa- rate in the cream pot, if left to stand a reasonable time ; and acidu- lation (not acetous) forwards the process. Oxigenation commences before the agitation in the churn takes place ; and a portion of the work is anticipated. In the severe weather of winter, difficulties sometimes occur in churning. In addition to immersing part of the churn in hot water, one or two spoonfuls of sharp vinegar^ mixed with the cream in the churn, are very efficacious. The separation of the oil is thus promoted ; without, in the least, affecting the but- ter. The vinegar, as do all acids and spirituous liquors, combines with the ivhey ; — alkalies and rennet enter the curds, Soafij mischievously slipt into a churn, prevents the cream ever making butter. Jlkalies are as destructive, as acetous acids are salu- tary. See Bath Society Memoirs, 3d vol. 2d ed. 309. 1788. Where, probably, I picked up the information respecting vinegar. The writer used Ci\s\\\\^(\. vinegar ; but any good vinegar will answer. The quantity is arbitrary ; and if too little be used at first, it must be increased. He recommends a table spoon full to a gallon ; after the cream has been considerably agitated. I have not been nice, ei- ther as to quantity or time. R, Peters, VOL. III. I i 250 Account of a Corn shelling Machine, Description of the Coi'u sheller. No. 1, is a white oak log, 22 inches long, and turned to 20 inches diameter, in which are triangular pieces of iron, giving a length of one inch, and drove in at an equal height of 1-4 inch, in an oblique position, as in- dicated by the drawing. The pulley. No. 2, is six inch- Description of the Corn shelter. 251 es diameter, carrying an elastic band to a pulley of 3 inches diameter, which turns the roller. No. 3, of 2 1-2 inches diameter. This roller also has iron pins of about 1-2 inch on the surface, in like oblique position as the large roller. The handle, No. 4, moves in a groove, with the pivot of the small roller passing through it, in order to bring the said roller forward to receive the maize to be shelled. No. 5, is a view of the frame underneath the small roller, to show the iron wedges, drove in an oblique position ; about an angle of 45 degrees, and on the side next the large roller is an iron plate, placed at the same height of the wedges, i. e. 1-2 inch. The large pulley is made to receive its motion from a drum in a mill, but a small crank may be put in place of it, and then be moved by a treadle. One bushel of corn in the ears, may with ease be shelled in five minutes. C 252 ] Rotations and Changes of Crops defendedy by Richard Peters, Esquire, Read November 9, 1813. Belmont, October 17, 1813. Dear Sir, I send, for communication to the society, a letter from Z). Cassat, Esqr. of York Borough, in this state, and its enclosure ; handed to me by Captain Ai7thony Robinson^ to whom it was directed. There can be no doubt of the truth of any facts, avowed, or countenanc- ed, by one so respectable as Mr. Cassat, Nor is there any occasion for my disbelief of such facts ; which are similar to many I have met with. I have, however, ob- served, that almost all the like facts, have arisen in the way in which Mr. Eckerfs have been established.— They have occurred in the cases of owners of small spots, whom necessity had compelled (on a calculation that it was the most valuable product) to sow wheat, in constant succession. I have known the same prac- tice succeed, for a considerable length of time, (most Xrequently fail) with Indian corn, and other grains. But the great balance of such farming, on any exten- sive scale, has been unsuccessful and injurious. That wheat would, in some anomalous instances, grow well on the same spot, with repetitions of manure, for seve- ral successive years, I never denied ; though, as a ge- neral practice, I have always reprobated it. TFhen the pabulum for this, or any other grain, will be exhausted in the soil of any particular spot ; or how long renc\y^ Rotations and Changes of Crops defended, 253 als of manure, will linger on, its capability to produce the same species of plant ; depends so much on cir- cumstances beyond our ken, that no determinate judg- ment, by anticipation, can be formed. But, that its ex- haustion, and the deterioration of the crop, will finally happen, we have the experience of the most intelligent men, from the dawn of agricultural information to this day, to warrant our belief. It is not an abstract and speculative opinion; but a conclusion from long known practical experience. Many individual animals, the human race included, will begin earlier, and longer continue, a state of fecundity, than the common mass. But it would not be a sound conclusion to say, that, generally^ animals are alike, in this regard. I consider such anomalous instances as the one I present to the society, to be, (as they respect the ge- neral subject,) unfortunate occurrences. They claim from us our assent ; and should have every fair oppor- tunity afforded for their publicity. Yet they tend to foster and confirm bad practices ; and to root out, so far as they are influential, all attention to, or reliance on, system and principle. I continue to be convinced, that, however it may be in particular instances, the general prosperity of our agriculture, and that of every well cultivated country, most essentially depends on adherence to the well esta- blished system, of a rotation and change of crops. It would be endless to cite the numberless authorities, from the best writers, both elementary and practical, in proof of this position. It w^ould Le still more irk- some and unpleasant, to repeat ^vhat I have heretofore said on this subject. 254 Rotations and Changes of Crops defended, Mr. Cassat adds his own experience ; no doubt also on a small spot. If practical farmers (who read little on such subjects) should ever see this communication, it will be happy if they should be forcibly struck with Mr. C.'s suggestions of the probability, that this in- tailed or settled perpetuitj/, (which is generally as inju- rious in farming, as he knows such to be odious in law,) ** depends upon the quantity of land a farmer "will be able to manure." If this practice should in- duce those who have a passion for it, to increase their stores of manure, some good will come out of evil. If, on account of deficiency of manure, the better prac- tice be followed, from convenience and necessity, it will be salutary in result ; though not so meritorious, as when it flows from both convenience and principle. But what can be said in favour of it, where, in our new countries, the most fertile lands, requiring no manure, are filled with sorrel ^^ and other pests, by the practice of stubbling in, and sowing one culmiferous crop after another; till the land will bear no more such? The soil remains rich enough; and will bear (with better ploughing and management,) any other crop, than one of the species of that, whereof it had been (in the coun« try phrase) sickened, A deficiency of animal and vege- * Where lime is easily procured, if the land overran by sorrel, were dressed plentifully with the lime ; the capacity to bear wheat, or any other crop, would be restored. See our list of firemiums, Vol. I. page xliv. To this, Lord Dundonald*s authority may be added. The efficacy of the sorreline acid on vegetation, is well known. This acid is produced by the application of lime ; which decomposes and banishes the sorreL R- P« Rotations and Changes of Crops defended. 255 table manure, has not always occurred. For, (although time has brought forward wiser convictions,) it has not been singular, in our new countries, to remv)ve barns and stables, from sites deemed to be incumbered by dung-heaps ! Of constant and long successions of Indian corn crops, in sundry places, and particularly on rich bot- toms ; especially on those subject to overflows, which bring along with them, and deposit, accessions of new soil ; I have heard accounts, the most favourable to the idea of perpetuating the same species of crop. Probably the culture of this plant, never occupying exactly the same place in the hills of succeeding years, keeps down weeds, in greater or less degrees, and en- ables it to thrive the longer, like grain sown accord- ing to TuWs drill husbandry, on the same field. — Pe- culiarly on rich bottoms ; which are commonly abun- dantly fertile. These may furnish more of the speci- fc pabulum, than soils of common texture afford ; if there be any well founded evidence of this doctrine ; for I vouch theories with hesitation. — But I have no more idea of thus establishing a general principle, or shaking one well fixed ; than I have of determining the duration of human life, by the longevity, or strength of constitution, of some men : much less would I adopt as a rule, the instances of some, who live long, under the practice of inveterately bad habits. General results, and common calculations, are not impugned by such examples. It is safer and better, to follow methods generally approved ; than to suffer ourselves to be carried away from them ; because, in some instances, contrary prac- ^56 Jlotations and Changes of Crops defended. tices succeed for a time, or under particular circum- stances. Wandering from settled habits, known by experience to be salutary, will create confusion and uncertainty ; and baffle every past and future endea- vour, to reduce the art of husbandry, to any unques- tionable system, or fixed principles. I do not feel the less obliged to Mr. Cassat, for the laudable pains he has taken to furnish information ; ■whatever I may think on the subject of it. It was a leading motive with us, in the establishment of our society, that facts, on all sides of agricultural questions, should be collected and promulgated ; to enable every farmer to judge for himself; according to the circum- stances in which he is placed. The mere point of de- terioration of grain, is not the sole question. The ad- vantages of rotations, and changes of crops, or what is called convertible husbandry, reach far beyond any consideration, in which that point is involved. Your very obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretari/ of the Philad. Agric. Soc. [ 257 ] Wheat on the same spot for several successive years. Read November 9, 1813. Sir, I enclose you the certificate of Peter Eckert, on the subject of raishig wheat several years in succes- sion, on the same ground. From my knowledge of Pe» ter Eckert, I have reason to believe that what he states is strictly true.— -I got him to state his manner of til- lage and manuring, and I have no doubt from what I have observed in my own experiments, that wheat may be annually raised on the same ground for many years, but whether it would be more profitable than a rota- tion of crops, will depend upon the quantity of land a farmer will be able to manure.^ I am, with respect, yours, Sec. D. GassaTo Capt. Anthony Robinson. * Those who concei^-e, that ^-ain can be perpetually raised on the same field, without manure, by any changes, either of the species, or locality of drills; are certainly less justifiable, than the perpetuallsts who manure their grounds. I think that both would find themselves mistaken, on a scale of any considerable extent. No prudent advocate for changes, or rotations, would recommend constant successions of tillage-crops ; under any circum- stances of change. Grasses fill the intervals, required in good husbandry, between the crops calling for the plough. The period of rest, is thus bene ficially employed. Rest and manure are as essential to worn lands, as chan- ges of croiJs ; and neither are efficient, without tlie olbcrs. Changes of crop's prolong the fertility of new lands ; which, by tlic bad farming usually prac- ticed, are hurried into poverty, in a period lamentably short. Although in the drill-husbandry, more may be done, (as the TulUans assert) than in broadcast, toithout rest and manure; yet I must be excused for my increduli- ty ; when I doubt the durably beneficial results of either mode. VOL. III. K t ^^S Wheat on the same spot Certificate, I live in Hanover, in York County, and have a lot adjoining the town lots, containing one acre, and one hundred and fifty three perches, enclosed with a fence standing on the line, by which I am prevented from ploughing about two feet of the lot all round it, which takes oiF nine perches, and reduces the whole of the lot under the plough to one acre and one hundred and forty four perches. Six years ago it was in grass, and poor. I ploughed up the sod, put on some stable manure, and then sow- ed three bushels of wheat on it. — The crop was very heavy, but I did not measure the grain. I then stub- bled it down, harrowed it, and sowed three bushels of the wheat which I had just taken off. The second year's crop was full as good as the first. When I took off the second crop, I ploughed down the stubble again, and sowed w^ieat of the crop of the preceding year. — In the winter I put on a thin coat of dung — the third year the crop was quite equal to any of the preceding years I ploughed down the stubble, and sowed orange-straw- wheat, (the three first years was red-chaff.) The fourth crop was overgrown in the straw, and therefore did not yield so well as the former years. That crop, however, I had measured, and it yielded 83 1-2 bushels, weigh- ing 62 1-2 pounds per bushel. The former crops A suifuce clothed witli a cover of grass ; clover particularly, is always tiicliorated. Constant stirring forbids gi-azing. Even where the hoof and tooth arc excluded h-om clover ; sown to rot, and supply vegetable pabuluin ; gi-eat benefits arise to those who farm only for crops requiring the plough or hoe. The interval of rest affords manure ; where none other caji be ob- tained, j^ p for several successive years. 259 were all better than the last mentioned. I then plough- ed down the stubble, and sowed wheat the fifth year in succession, and put a coat of manure on it in the winter. The crop was reaped this summer, and when threshed will yield as much as any of the preceding crops, if not more. The wheat this year was very strong and well filled. I intend to sow the ground with wheat this year again.—I verily believe, that the crop of the fourth year, which measured 83 1-2 bushels, was the lightest of the five. A number of the most respectable inhabitants of Hanover, are well acquainted with most of the facts here stated, as the lot has been frequently examined, and the crops which I have raised on it have excited the attention of the neighbourhood. Every crop was clean, and fit for seed wheat. I have made this statement at the request of D. Cas- sat, this 10th day of August, 1813. I intend to put wheat in this lot, every year, for a long time to come, as the land seems to improve un- der it. Several of my neighbours have began the same plan, and have had wheat on the same ground three years in succession, and it succeeds as well with them as it does with me. Peter Eckert. Witness. D. Cassat. [ 260 ] 071 Fiorin^ Mangel- Wiirtzel^ Onions^ and Cabbages^ by Richard Peters^ Esquire, Read, November 9, 1813. Belmont, October 7, 1813, Dear Sir, On the 4th instant I cut my Fiobin. I found, that practice, to a large extent, will be required, before our people will become adroit in cutting this grass. My little crop was matted and much entangled ; and the smooth edged hook was employed in preference to the sithe ; with which latter, little could be done. In Ire^ land J the sithe is always used. I caused the produce of a small patch, measuring nearly two square perches, to be weighed, as soon as cut. It weighed 306 pounds. I calculate this to be p.t the rate of near eleven tons, to the acre, (sta- tute) of green fodder. When dried, it weighed 120 nett pounds ; or at the rate of only four tons, one quar- ter of a ton and eighty pounds. What older grass, or that on wet soils, or those flooded or irrigated, will do ; further experiments must determine. Though perfect- ly free from any disagreeable smell ; it has not the in- viting savour of our good hay. I think it should have been cut sooner ; as many of the strhigs appeared dry, and not flourishing at the root ; though in general sound and succulent. I presume that, in Ireland, the twenty tons of green fodder, in a season, to the acre, mentioned, by Dr. Richardson, as having been made by Mr. Curiven, must have been calculated on more cuttings, or older and On Florin. ^61 more luxuriant grass, than any we can yet expect. Perhaps the acre meant, is the Irish acre ;— more than one half larger than ours. The strings of my grass are, certainly, much inferior, both in size and succu- lency, to the best of the imported Irish Fiorin. My horses ate the green Fiorin greedily ; though there is, in some parts, a small tang of mustiness. My cows do not relish it, now ; whatever they may do in winter, when I shall try them with that cured for keep, ing. I send some strings; which will serve as a speci- men of the crop ;— tolerably promising for the first year ; and considering my having yet every thing to learn, as to its culture ; and that my ground is dry. Many strings measure five and six feet in length. I have furnished every means I possess, in the present stage of the experiment, to enable the society to form its opinion. I have frequently chewed the strings. They afford a remarkable sweetness, or saccharine taste ;— far be- yond other grass. In Evans ^ Euffifs Former's Jour- nal, London. May 3d, 1813, there is the following paragraph ; which they give from an Edinburgh paper ; —without vouching for the truth of it.— This weekly journal, is a valuable collection of agricultural informa- lion ; of unimpeached credit, and well supported. " Fiorin Grass. A chemist, whose accuracy may '' be depended on, has lately submitted this celebrated '* herb to analysis ; and found, as might have been ex- '' pected, that it contained a very unusual quantity of '' saccharine matter, not unlike treacle in colour; and '' halving very much the taste of a mixture of that sub- 252 ^^^ Florin* <* stance with currant jelly. A trial was then made, to '' ascertain the quantity of spirit, that could be obtain- *< ed from the same material ; when, on the first at- *' tempt, (from forty pounds of Fiorin hay,) seven pints '• of very palatable spirit was distilled ; much superior " to common Whiskey ; and far better than the pro- *« duce of any other kinds of grasses ; beside being <« more abundant." — Whether this be a satire on the Fiorinists, or a serious fact ; it is not difficult, experi- mentally, to determine. I send also some culms with panicles ; and seed. The former slightly resemble the panicles of blue grass; and the latter, the seed of herd grass ; though smaller. It is more for curiosity than real use ; for it is agreed, that propagating from the joints of the strings, is the only eligible mode. I have some now for distribution, to experimenters. Any one may see, how widely dif- ferent the Fiorin is, from the squitch or hwt grasSy ftriticwn repensj with which it has been confounded. MANGEL-WURTZEL, I weighed the first stripping of the leaves. The patch in which they grew, contains about a sixteenth of an acre. The weight of the whole was 680 nett pounds. I have stripped them three times ; and am proceeding in the fourth. Three strippings, at 4, 1-4 tons each, is 12, 3-4 tons, per acre. But the quantity is unequal, in the several strippings ; yet I think I may safely calculate, for the season, on fifteen tons, to the acre -.—allowing two tons, as deduction from 17 On MangeUWurtzel. 263 tons ; which would be the amount of the total, if all were equal. My cows are so fond of the leaves, that, with them and common pasturage, they have been kept (generally) flush, through the season. My dairy-maid informs me, that ,t makes an odds of one and an half, and frequently two pounds of butter to each cow, per week ; when theyare fed, or not, on scarcity leaves. I offered them the green /"iom; but they rejected it. The scarcity, leaves were immediately thereafter thrown to them ; which they ravenously devoured; though they had been through the day, in excellent pasture. My horses are not now inclined to eat the leaves; though, in the last wmter, they ate the roots with avidity. These quantities of green fodder are highly encou- rag'ng; andean be obtained, easily, in our climate. Dr. Brown's account of G;;in^ a Grass, for a more southern latitude, exceeds all products our climate ad- mits. We must be content with the best n-e can ob- tam ; without regretfully comparing ours, with the ad- vantages reaped, in other regions, from a grass which may not succeed here ; though well worth the trial. -W^^ Mangel-wurtzel has, however, the advantage of aSordmg constant supplies of green forage ; when other such are scarce. Add the roots, which exceed the weight of the leaves ; and no plant seems more va- luable. I have had a much greater weight of leaves, in for. mer times : and European accounts far exceed any I have experienced. Double my present product of both leaves and roots, has been known. Mine, this season were planted for cleansing a piece of ground, which 264 On Mangel- Wurtzel. required such a crop ; and were not set thick. Half as many more (possibly double, in broad-cast) could have been planted, in the same ground. I do not think this season has been flivourable, either for leaves or roots. They have, however, yet, time to increase. ONIONS. I have been in the habit, for the past three years, oi raising onions, agreeably to the method mentioned by our member JViUiam Phillips, Esq. ; page 18, of our 2d vol. I sowed the seed in September, or the latter part of August. They have uniformly been so far su- perior, in weight, quality, and facility of culture, that, did I not know the inflexibility of old prejudices, I should wonder at any other mode being persisted in. My old gardener is inveterately prejudiced, in favour of his accustomed culture by plant-onions. He strives to exceed those sown, in the way first mentioned ; and will even neglect them, while he pays every attention to his favourites. Yet he has never been able to equal what he calls my - new fashion ;" in any respect. I have weighed them against picked onions, in his old mode of culture ; and mine sometimes exceed as two to three ; and always weigh the heaviest. I think those sown in the autumn, should be gathered a week or fortnight sooner than the others. If they are left on the ground too long, they are apt to split, or grow double. —Earthing over a few rows, makes them much more mild and palatable, for early use ; than those left to bulb entirely above ground. On Cabbages. 265 CABBAGES. I have, during a great part of my life, practiced sowing cabbage seed (a particular species of Savoy is the best, though many kinds will answer;) about harvest time ; and planting them out in September, or the be- ginning of October, in drills. Some perish, and on this account they must be thickly planted ; but more than sufficient stand the winters, without cover, uninjured. They are fit for the table quite as soon, and often soon- er, than those where the plants are raised in hot beds. The drills must be on ridges, elevated St) as to pre- vent water lying on the plants, in winter. I forget who suggested to me this method ; but I think it was the late Dr. Wither spoon ., who was intelligent in horticul- ture, among his other valuable acquirements. It is a practice well known in several parts of Europe, where the winters are quite as severe as are ours. I have practiced this method (excepting a few in- stances, for experiment) only in my garden. But I am satisfied iSvM field crops may be raised in the same way. Your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Phllad. Jgric. Soc, VOL. IIT, L I [ 266 3 On American Gypsum^ Read November 9, 1813. Belmont y October 30, 1813. Dear Sir, This day only, I received the enclosed letter ; for which I am much obliged to Philip Churchy Esq. of the state of New York, Before I was informed of the letter of Mf. Cisty inserted in this volume, I took pains to gain information on the subject of it ; and WTOte to Mr. Churchy for the purpose. Although the letter of the former would have been sufficiently satisfactory ; yet Mr. Church'^s account is not only corroboratory, but it adds circumstances well worthy of notice. The inexhaustible quantities, and accessibility, of this all- essential material, — the Plaster ; — found in our own national territory ; — not liable to obstruction in its transportation, by disturbances on the ocean ; — and withal so perfectly convenient to our own state; — must be a source of singular satisfaction. More espe- cially to those (myself particularly) who recollect the small, and, for a long time, unpromising beginnings, of this now great and widely extended improvement to our husbandry. — Not longer ago than the time of pub- lication of our first volume, in 1808 ; the subject of its existing, in any great quantities, Avithin our territo- ry, and its description, or quality, was involved in doubt and obscurity. Now, a full development is made ; and the facts are actually tested, by the irrefra- gable evidence, of experience, on a large scale. To a On American Gypsum^ 267 Pennsylvanian, the information must be doubly grati- fying. In this state, on its eastern border, the efficacy of the Plaster was first proved, and promulgated. Now, endless supplies, within reach of our northern boundary, are to be obtained ; and safely brought to us, even under present circumstances, at no formida- ble expense ;* and in quantities amply sufficient not only for our own ; but other states. To facilitate the transportation even of this article, the canals and roads necessary to communicate with the quarries ; would be highly desirable and lucrative. But when, in addi- tion, the other countless benefits we should derive from them, are considered ; no doubt can remain, of this being one of the greatest objects, to which the public attention can be applied. Warning, as well as encouraging, examples of attracting internal trade ; and its materials for external commerce ; are held up to us by a sister state. She spares no pains, and ne- glects no opportunities, to take every advantage which ♦ Although we, in this quarter of the state, may pay high for plaster from the lakes; yet our case is only reversed. We change circumstances, with those who were heretofore supplied from the sea board. But when the war ceases, and plaster is again brought by sea ; we shall derive a solid advantage, indirectly, by the sup- plies afforded from the lakes, to the country accustomed to deal with us. All their demand for the article here, will be at an end ; and we shall obtain it the cheaper ; because there will be fewer purchasers in the market. No impediments to our trade for this article, out of our territory, can now be apprehended. Such impediments will be perceived to be idle : it being ascertained} that we now have our supplies, within our own power. R. P 268 On American Gt/psitni, either nature or capital affords. — In peace, the facili- ties of roads and canals are evident ; — in war, — we now perceive their indispensable use ; and feel the pri- vation. I am your obedient servant, Richard Peters, Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Ag)'ic. Soc, Belvidere, October 8, 1815. Dear Sir, I had not the pleasure of receiving your letter un- til the latter end of July ; since then I have been try- ing to procure the information necessary to enable me to answer the enquiries you have made respecting the locality and quality of the gypsum, lately discovered on our lakes. The greatest bed of plaster yet discovered, is upon the eastern bank of Cayuga lake, extending the dis- tance of thirteen miles, from the salt springs, at Mon- tezuma, up the lake, to Union spring, (see enclosed map) the whole of the distance between these two pla- ces, abounds so much with plaster, that it is found wherever the trouble of digging for it is taken, An^ other considerable quarry has been opened at the ter- mination of the rapids of the outlet of Seneca lake, (see A) By far the greater part, if not all, of the plaster sent to your state, is taken from these two quarries, and it is supposed that they will produce plaster enough to supply the demand of your state for ages to come. On American Gypsum. 269 There are also various beds of plaster, lying in differ- ent directions, from ten to twenty miles, north, north- west, and north-east of Geneva. As to its quality, several farmers, upon whose word and judgment I can rely, and who have also tried the Nova Scotia plaster, at their former places of residence, assure me, that if there is any difference, ours is the stronger and more efficacious. When, however, a quar- ry is first opened, the plaster found near the surface is of an inferior quality. The New England people, liv- ing near the quarries, have tested the fertilizing effects of the gypsum, by strewing it upon their wheat and grass lands, so as to represent their own names, and various characters and figures. The luxuriance of the wheat and grass show where the gypsum has been sown. They now make great use of it ; and many farmers from Tioga and Steuben counties, this year, as well as last, have gone a distance of thirty and forty miles, to procure it as a manure for their land, which is mostly a dry, gravelly soil. In consequence of the discovery of plaster, this land has risen very much in value. The gypsum is carried by water, either to the head of Cayuga lake ; thence by land twenty liight miles to Owego : (the head of Seneca lake;) thence by land, eighteen miles, to Newtown ; from Owego and Newtown, down the Susquehannah to dif- ferent parts of your state. The plaster transported by the way of Seneca Lake and Newtown, is obliged to be carried round the falls of the Seneca outlet ; a dis- tance of about two miles. A canal will be cut round these falls next summer; in which case, the probability is, that much of the plaster will be transported to your 270 On American Gypsum, state, by the way of Seneca lake and Newtown. Should our northern, ever be connected with your southern waters, by means of a canal, from the head of Sene- ca lake, to the Susquehannah, at Newtown, not on- ly plaster will be transported that way, but a great quantity of salt, as well as all the produce of a very great portion of the Genesee country. So that the dis- covery of plaster on our lakes, will be the means, not only of enriching the lands of Pennsylvania, but also of promoting improvements, which will turn the pro- duce of the most fertile and best cultivated portion of the western part of New York state, from Canada, to Pennsylvania. — On the subject of a canal, from the head of Seneca lake to the Susquehannah, I refer you to two letters, page 119, published in a pamphlet en- titled, *' Letters addressed to the people of Pennsylva- nia, respecting the internal improvement of the com- monwealth, by means of roads and canals," by W. J. Duane.* Respectfully and truly yours, Philip Church, Hon. Richard Peters. * Internal Improvement ; by Roads, and Water Trans/iortation. These all important auxiliaries to the business and piosperity of our country, do not depend, for their permanent usefulness, on cir- cumstances, to which transportation on the ocean is subject. They are under our own command ; while the navigation of the ocean is under the control of the most powerful at sea. The demand for them is often the greatest, when external commerce is interrupted. Our foreign trade, so far as it depends on our own ships, is now nearly annihilated, by the amlntion, jealousies, and injustice, of two great nations, who, through ages, have been in conflict for predomi* Internal Improvements^ by Roads, ^c. 271 nance. With the view to each other's annoyance, we have been, for a long course of time, subjected to the violences of both. One claimed the right of visiting our ships, at its pleasure. If they escaped the fangs of the visitants ; the other burnt them, for being thus visited. TVe were driven from the ocean ; and resorted first to ineffectual expedients, for repelling aggressions ; and finally arc involved in all the vicissitudes and dangers of war. Under this predicament, our active and enterprizing character, prompts to the employment of capital and labour, in other objects than external commerce. Manufactures are now the prevalent passion ; and agriculture seems to be regarded as only important, according as it is subservient to them. Yet agriculture and commerce are the great and leading interests of our country. They will so re- main : although we are now thrown into an attitude, requiring our attention and exertions to the supply, among ourselves, of the fabricks we have been accustomed to receive from abroad ; in re- turn for the exports of our products. The Plough, and the Sail, are the appropriate emblems ; and *' laissez nous faire*^* the motto, of an agricultural and maritime nation. The less the governments of such nations interfere with those leading interests, agriculture and commerce ; (except to foster, promote, and protect them,) the better they flourish. And they must flourish, or fail, together ; their interests being insepa- rably connected. Manufactures^ to a certain degree, may be, at all times, and are especially in our present situation, necessary, and highly desirable. They should always, however, be secondary to the more general interest, — agriculture : — with and to which, if not extended too far, they are compatible, and auxiliary. When- ^soever they are predominant, the situation is temporary, and unna- tural. But suppose, that we were to state an extreme case, not likely to happen ; and say, that,— to accommodate our agriculture, and facilities of water powers, to the present state of things ; — the greater part of our farms were converted into sheep walks ; and, (reserving the fewest possible for grinding our bread-stufis,) alnlbst * " I.ct us vianage our otvn business,'* 272 Internal Improvements, by Roads, ^c. every stream were devoted to spinning jennies, and other machines for turning spindles ; and moving tilt-hammers, rollers, and other machinery for works in metals. Still we should require agricultu- ral operations, and the necessary conveyance of their products, for our own, and the support of the manufacturers ; — too much immu- red,— and, most frequently, too dissipated, — to cultivate the ground; — even for their own sustenance. If the great body of our domestic animals, were metamorphosed ; and changed into sheep ; — the PLASTER will yet be the grand requisite for enriching their pas- tures : and land and water transportation will be constantly requi- red for its conveyance ; as well as that of the materials for manu- factures, and the fabricks produced by them. I have heretofore mentioned, the great distances, in England, from whence heavy and bulky materials are conveyed, by canals, to the manufactories ; placed where they are, merely on account of the pit-coal, used as fuel. Interior land and water transportation, by artificial roads, and canals, (the latter the cheapest and best) will be always in requisition. In peace, it is all essential ; — in war, — not less so. Even in our late anomalous situation, — when neither at peace nor at war, — we should have found its inestimable use. I c^m under obligations to Mr. Church, not only for the informa- tion he gives ; but for the reference he makes to the pamphlet pub- lished by Mr. W. J. Duane : which, itis possible, I should not have seen, but for this reference ; however highly worthy it may be, (and certainly is,) of the serious attention, of every well wisher to the prosperity of Pennsylvania. Although I may not agree in all Mr. D.'s sentiments collateral to his main object ; yet I think his assi- duity, and judgment in collecting facts ; and his patriotic, animat- ed, and sensible observations on, and elucidations of them ; entitle him to the thanks of his fellow citizens. — Mine he has, sincerely. Mr. D.'s mortifying embarrassments, in his endeavours to prevail on the great body of a legislature, to see the plainest truths, through the film of prejudice ; — I can well conceive. I had a quant, siiff. of th^e, to encounter ; in my legislative career. I believe the bill, for establishing the first appropriation for roads and internal naviga- tion, passed 23 or 24 years ago, was drawn by myself; to effeclu- Internal Improvements y by Roads ^ CsV. 273 ate the measures proposed by an association of some of the most respectable citizens of that day. Sure I am, that I took unwearied pains, to forward the objects of it. Heavily enough, did it drag through the house ; and sufficiently maimed and curtailed (particu- larly as to the sum proposed to be appropriated) was it, in its pas- sage. Yet it has served as a nest ^^^ ; to use a trite phrase ; and a brood has sprang from it, which, so far as it has been spread, has been highly beneficial to our state. Abuses, mistakes, and misma- nagements, in public operations ; and in private enterprizes not before attempted ; are no curiosities. It is to be earnestly hoped, that the efforts of the friends to public improvements, will still be exerted ; and, — though the fruits be slow in maturating, — they will finally be sure and nutritious. If, as Mr. D. truly laments; the people do not send representatives sufficiently clear sighted ; it may be^ that the people are not a little blind themselves. And, in such case, they are truly and appropriately, though very unfortu- nately, represented. If such pamphlets, a little condensed, could be generally dispersed ; and, what is more difficult ; — and would be miraculous ; — should they be read, and fairly and candidly consi- dered ; — a great and profitable result, — felt in all quarters of our state, — would undoubtedly follow. I think it would be of public benefit, to impress and disperse the sentiments and facts, expressed and collected by Mr. Duane, in this pamphlet ; which gave rise to the foregoing remarks. For this purpose, I would take the liberty to recommend the insertion of letters xii and xiii, (the immediate subjects of Mr. Church'' s reference,) among our collections, in the appendix to this volume. Bat it should be mentioned, as due to the character and honour of our state, that, since the publication of the letters contained in this pamphlet, great advances have been made towards the accomplishment of its objects ; though much remains to be done. I am far from wishing to depress, (if I could) the present lauda- ble spirit, fur establishing and promoting manufactures ; which the existing circumstances of our country invite and recjuire. But I think the increase of an independent agricultural population, is a far greater security to the freedom and happiness of our country ; VOL. Ill, M m 274 Internal Intprovements, by Roadsy ^c. than is the employment of our surplus labour, (the true balance of wealth, in all countries,) in too extensive manufacturing establish- ments. Multiplying the facilities of intercourse, by interior im- provements of roads and navigation ; tends, in the most eminent degree, to increase settlements of our waste lands i and thereby to multiply also the numbers of our best people. Increasing the num- bers oi such men, is giving real strength, and permanent freedom, to the state. I wish to every enterprizing citizen, either in com- merce or manufactures, the wealth he is entitled to. Yet I believe, with an old author, that, to save a country from external attacks, or internal commotions, " a wall of men, (such as agriculturists ge- nerally are) is far better than bags of money." And I think, with Berkley^ that "a numerous stock of people," (such as agricultural people are most likely to be) " wellfed^ clothed, and lodged, will constitute a flourishing nation." The improvements of our roads, and transportation by canals and rivers, should, most assuredly, be the primary objects of both pub- lic and private exertions. Our country, holds in contemptuous de- fiance, the visions and sophistry of Malthus; and those of his school; — and will so continue to do, for ages yet to come. There cannot, here, be an excess of population ; beyond the means of subsistence. Lands will constantly afford an exhaustless source of employ- ment. Commerce, when revived, will open boundless channels for labour and capital. Manufactures furnish another fund, for industry to draw on. True, the latter have arisen, chiefly, from com7/7er«a/ restrictions, during /^eace; and are now extended to war speculations : inviting, or compelling, a wish for its continuance ; and thus exhibiting one of the evils of an hostile position. They are, on this account, subject to great uncertainty, both in their profits and duration. Yet even in this, they share with other pursuits ; and the " laissez nous /aire,'' must still be the motto. They will (like trade) regulate themselves ; and find their true level. Uncalculat- ing ardour in pursuit of wealth, and not want of means ; is the sin, that " too easily besets" too many of our countrymen. Whatever may be the changes to which circumstances may expose our ma- nufactures ; a seed of a gigantic plant is sown ; which time will in- Internal Improvements^ by Roads, ^c, 275 crease. Prudence, warned by partial misfortune, may change its habits ; and lop its exuberances. But no alteration of circumstances will ruinously blast, or eradicate it. Whatever may be the state, either positive or relative, in which agriculture and manufactures may be found, at the cessation of hostilities ; and the consequent, and most desirable, return of commerce ; roads and interior NAVIGATION, will cvcr be mainly the auxiliaries to their prosperityi and the hand-maids, constantly ministering to their advancement and success. R. Peters. C 276 3 On Jerusalem^ or Syrian Wheat, Big Rye ; properly called, Taiigier- Wheat. Read December 14, 1813. Belmont, October 26, 1813. Dear Sir, In our present volume, page 19, & seq. I gave an account of the Syrian^ or Egyptian Wheat, and the Big Rye; as circumstances then warranted. Both the wheat and the rye, are now widely dispersed ; and will be valuable additions to our grains, in some quarters of our country. In my neighbourhood, nor with myself, neither the wheat, nor the rye, have thriven so as to encourage extensive culture. In a more southern lati- tude, I am certain, both will do well. I have had, sent to me from the Delaware state, a sample of excellent flour of the rye, as we call it ; and I never ate better bread, than that made of it. By an error in the press, or in the copy, the xvheat is stated to be of ''African,'' whereas it should have been said to be of Asiatic, origin. Had the origin of the rye been thus designated, it seems now, that it would have been correct. For I have received, by the cartel Robert Burns, a letter da- ted the 14th of August last, from my highly esteemed friend, Robert Barclay, Esq. of England, to whom I had sent some samples of the rye, as we have impro- perly termed it, in which he gives me the following account of that grain. On Jerusalem Wheats ^c. 277 ■-'^- V** The grain you sent me in 1811, as new FrencJi " rije^ I have growing freely on my ground ; and proves " Tangier wheat; as it was deemed, the last spring, " by Sir John Sinclair , and others of the Board of *' Agriculture. The same kind was brought to me by *' a gentleman from the Mediterranean, this spring."* So that we now know, exactly, what it is ; — and the climate in which it prospers. We can, therefore, ac- commodate our culture accordingly. Our extensive national territory, in one or the other of its parts, par- takes in the advantages of all climates. I have long suspected, that this grain would be, finally, discovered to be one most suitable to a temperate region. Wheat may, nevertheless, be indigenated in any country ; it being the grain of all climates. MANGEL- WURTZEL. On the subject of this root^ I had corresponded with Mr. Barclay ; and had sent to him a copy of my com- munication, which appears in this volume. He writes, in the letter before cited, as follows. — '* My experiment of the Mangel- TFurtz el, goes on " prosperously ; and, I hope, next year, that the peru- '' sal of your paper, (which, in my last parcell, I sent * The ghost of the " dead French soldier" [see page 26] need not, now, come from the grave to tell us where it grows. Most probably it is the grain of regions bordering on the Mcdittrraneany other than Tangier, Tliese, the soldier " had traversed in his cam- paigns." 278 071 Mangel- Wurtzel *' to you, published in the Farmer's Journal^) will have ** added to the present favourable opinion of that valu- ** able root : of which, Mr. Curwen, of Cumberlandy ''asserts, he has raised forty to fifty tons, per "acre. I find, in JEssex, north-east oi London^ it has '' become a regular part of the produce of many farms; ** and much approved." Mr. Ciirwen is one of the most respectable men of his country. Therefore, I should have had no doubt of the fact he asserts ; on his single authority. But I have had a multitude of similar European facts ; — which, in the state of incredulity generally shown by our farmers, on all points new to them, I did not ven- ture to mention. One who asserts uncommon facts, is, most frequent- ly, on all subjects, discredited. In agriculture particu- larly, it seems that caution is peculiarly required.- — The exemplary prudence of one, who, in the most ex- alted and important concern, promulgated truths, com- pared to which, all others are trifling indeed ; should be recollected, and humbly imitated. — ''/ have yet *' many things to say unto you ; but ye cannot bear them ^''now^ The small specimens of my modern experiments, which I have candidly detailed, are, I think, encourag- ing. But, I can, after mentioning Mr. Curwen^s autho- rity, widi more confidence declare, that they bear but a feeble comparison with my former experience. Much less can they be considered as complete tests, of the extent to which the culture of this root may be carri- ed. Yet it must be relied on as a powerful auxiliary ; and not a dependence in chief. Season of IS13. 279 THE SEASON. This season has not been favourable to the roots of the 3fangel- JFurtzel ; nor, latterly, to the leaves. They have, indeed, escaped caterpillars, aphides, and other insects, better than those of many other plants ; but the early frosts have nipped and lessened my fourth stripping. The growth of the leaves, in most years, continues late in November. If we have yet mild wea- ther, the roots will increase. I do not know how it is, generally, with others ; but my tap-rooted plants, of all kinds, have smaller roots, (the tops being too luxuriant,) than I heretofore remember, in any season. The common beet exhibits this diminutive appearance. My grounds were never better attended ; nor in higher condition. Frosts, and cold weather, have arrived uncommonly early. We have had, through the season, frequent cold rains ; but few, if any, genial and invigorating showers. A drought at a critical period, retarded the progress of tap-root- ed plants ; in this quarter. Hardy, coarse, and pestiferous weeds, of all kinds, have been thrown up in such embarrassing profusion, that I do not recollect ever to have been so much in- fested by them. Mice, moles, and vermin of all sorts, have been uncommonly numerous. Grasshoppers and crickets, aphides, of countless varieties ; and caterpil- lars, of every size and species, have annoyed us, in pro- fuse numbers; — the caterpillars, most remarkably abun- dant. The latter were stupidly indiscriminate, as to their places of resort ; and, not having been governed by the usual instinctive attractions, our houses have been defiled, by their nauseating visits ; and vast ag- 280 6'eason of ISlo. gregations have been frequent, in other places, as httle likely to furnish their accustomed food. They seemed to be of an uncommon species, for the most part ; and they appeared, in tho^greatest plenty, at an unusual time of the year ; — about midsummer ; — and continu- ed till the first frosts in October. Our orchards were not, in any great proportion, if at all, their breeding places. I carefully examine mine, and destroy their nests, or webs ; or place sods in the crotches of the trees, to banish them, every spring. I found few nests, this season, on the apple trees. Many forest trees in- vite and support them. None more than the walnut, and ivild cherry. The leaves of most plants, and the foliage of vines and trees, (I think those of young peach trees the least,) have been, more or less, injured, or ruined, by their ravages. It has been unpleasant, in the hottest day, to seek the shade of trees; from whence the caterpillars were continually dropping. Their al- most incredible numbers, exhibited, with the aid of their coadjutors in mischief, an epitome of an Egypti- an plague. The columns of those creeping spoilers, climbing the stocks of trees, and moving, in hosts, on fences ; and their detachments, on grass and other plants ; would have furnished, to an uncandid and aci- dulated touristy (a sort of literary caterpillar,) matter for an episodical philippic on our country; — as if it were generally infested with such nuisances ; — which, in any degree like the present, I never before beheld. Warned by the caution I have before recommended ; perhaps, I had better have refrained from dilating on a topic, so disgustingly singular. Season o/1813. 281 3irds, and poultry^ have, in former seasons, preyed on, and thinned the insects. But few of our poultry Avill feed on caterpillars, unless hard pressed. — I do not remember, in any former year, so many, and so captivating and beautiful a variety of birxis ; as, in the early parts of the spring and summer, filled our forests and fields. They disappeared, as if by common con- sent, early and suddenly. On their return to us, from their more northern excursions, they made but a short stay. This dereliction gave full scope to the depreda- tions of insects, and other pillagers. Snakes and toads (great destroyers of other vermin) were scarce. But land-terrapins were in greater plenty, than I have ever before known. They delight to feed on and destroy beetles; and are peculiarly fond of the cock chaffer;^ — the parent of the most mischievous grubs. The terrapins (an excellent esculent, if prejudice could be banished,) are often seen about cow-dung; in search of the beetles ; which deposit, and roll up, their eggs, * The Cockchaffer produces the larj^e whiiQ grub, with a brown, horny or shelly head ; turned up by the plough, with the sod ; and TTiuch relished by birds and poultry ; who follow the ploughman, for their prey. It remains in its grub-state, three or four years. It is highly mischievous to grass, or any crop ploughed in with, or sow- ed on, the sod ; — particularly potatoes. See Rath Socifiy Memoirs^ 1787; also IViilich's Domestic Encyclopedia^ article Cockchaffer ; for a curious account of tliis beetle^ or bug. The beetles.) last mentioned in the text, bring forth the Corn- Crubs or CuT-wouMS ; which have been seen, in great numbers, in an embryo state, in the holes in which the balls have been depo- sited. R. W VOL. Til. N n 282 Season of ISV3, in balls of this material; which they bury under ground. Hence these beetles are called, by a vul- gar appellation The teri'apins are, mistakenly, suppos- ed to feed on this filthy ejection ; when, in fact, they are only seeking their prey. Of the beetles, I have not seen any thing like so many, as I have observed in former years. The terrapins have thinned and destroy- ed them ; thereby proving their race to be the farmer's friend. When vermin on farms, or miscreants in soci- ety, prowl on one another ; the mass of mischief con- sumes itself. I have heard some predictions, that the locusts will appear next season. If so, we could more readily have dispensed, this season, with the scourges of their (I presume accidental) precursors. I have kept no en- tomological accounts ; and cannot determine the pe- riod of return of those destructive visitants ; in which nurserymen and gardeners, are peculiarly interested.. In a former visitation, I lost the greater part of my young fruit-trees. Some of the survivors have, yet, the scars of wounds, inflicted on them by the locusts ; fifteen or sixteen years ago. Information of circumstances known to many of us, may not be necessary, at this time. Causes of increase of the annoyances described, are not easily developed. But some benefits often arise, from recording peculia- rities attending anomalous seasons. If the state of crops, and remarkable circumstances, of every year. w*ere annually reported, it would be highly useful. Our first crops oihaij, were very abundant ; and so were, in general, those of whiter^ and summer grain : 1 Season of l^U. 283 buckwheat (not extensively cultivated, in this part of the country) is an exception. I have heard little of ei- ther mildexv, smut, or the Hessian fiy. The second crop of hay, was bad. The /?a^^z/7'(?^, were much complained of; though plentiful. The ^m^^ was not nutritive; and did not, as usual in good seasons, promote milk in dairy-cows, or quick fatting, in other cattle. Fruity of all kinds, is bad, and scarce. Our orchards \\i\vt ge- nerally failed. Oi potatoes, there is but a scant crop, in general. I had a good crop ; and I have heard of some others. But most commonly I have had unla- vourable accounts. Salivary defluxions (ptyalism) in horses, be- gun earlier, and yet continue more inveterately, than usual ; though they have been lamentably common, for many years past. Myriads of small spiders, of va- rious colours and configurations, and diminutive insects, almost imperceptible to the ny.ked eye, might be seen through a glass, on the stalks and blades of grass. Whether the-e have any agency, in producing /Jify«/- ism, I do not venture to determine. Nor do I believe, that the cause has ever been clearly ascertained.* But J have been repeatedly informed, (as I have, on a for- * There are scarcely any tolerably plausible conjectures, which have not been formtd on this subject. But none seem yet to have hit the point. If the spiders and insects were the causes, (and they may so be in some instances) they must infect the grass ; so as to leave a taint, or acrid feculence, in its system. For the hay of our second crops, has, for a lonp; time past, had tiie same morbid fa- culties, with the pastures. Horses and cattle run at the mouth, when fed on it, nearly as much in winter ; as in summer on the pastures. My neighbours, as well as myself, have repeatedly 284 ^m^on 0/1813. mer occasion, mentioned,) that strewing small qiianti. ties of hot, powdered, lime^ on pastures, (with a view to the destruction of spiders, and other such pests,) has prevented, in several instances, defiuxions from horses fed on them. It is well worthy of experiment ; and I cannot account to myself why I have not tried it. The whole field must be thus top-dressed ; otherwise the defiuxions may be caused by feeding on the part neglected. The lime will be, indubitably, serviceable to the grass ; if it even fails to produce the intended effect. Such discussions as some of the foregoing, may appear trifiing ; to the inconsiderate and fastidious. But a farm, like a ship, is often the victim of a combi- nation of destroyers ; appearing, individually, the most contemptible and impotent. A farmer should study the habits and nature of weeds and vei'min ; to learn how to prevent, banish, or destroy them. A wise and care- ful magistrate, must occupy his mind with the mean- throv/n out, for litter, many tons of second crop hay ; as being found mischievous, instead of nutritive. This effect is not confined to clover ; — aftermath of other grasses being also equally infected. Plaster destroys insects, quite as much as lime. Yet it has been said, (most unv^^arrantably) that plastered grounds promote ptyaU zs?n, more than others. Long before an handful of plaster was sown, I well remember this malady in horses. A farm, in my neighbour- hood, well known to me, whereon not a particle of gy/i&um (owing to bigotted prejudice) has been strewed ; is, and has been for many years, before and since the knowledge of plaster has existed among us, most remarkable for promoting this disease in horses. On the marshes, and other unplastered grounds, it is often as rife, as in any other places. R. P. Season of I^IS. 285 est subjects. He never gains, or merits, more celebri- ty ; than he justly acquires, by preventing, or correct- ing, the vices of the lowest and most worthless of man- kind.* I am your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Soc. * I have known, in the course of my life, several years, remarka- ble for insects and vermin, of all kinds. The seasons were always sickly ; either for man, or beast. Two of them occurred during the prevalence of the yellow fever, in Philadelphia. They were uni- formly bad fruit years. This season the dysenterij h?is been rife; and often fatal. We have lost by it, some of our most valuable neighbours. I have heard of its being prevalent in many other parts of the country. It defied the medical art, if it were not attacked in its incipient stages ; and even then, assistance was not always successful. The cases were often attended with symptoms more malignant, than had been here- tofore known. The worst cases, so far as my knowledge extends, were those of persons inhabiting near swampy grounds, mill ponds, or dull streams ; where bilious complaints had, in other years, pre- vailed. R. P. During the past summer, the dysentery has been unusually fatal in Philadelphia. It is commonly a very manageable complaint. J. M. C 286 ] On Fioririy by John Clifford^ Esquire, Read, December 14, 1813. Clifford Farm^ November 17, 1813. Dear Sir, There have been many publications, and much in- terest excited among our experimental agriculturists, on the subject of fiorin grass, (agrostis stolonifera) in- troduced into cultivation by the ingenious Doctor Wil- liam Richardson, of Moy, in Ireland, whose great in- dustry and perseverance, in agricultural pursuits, has enabled him to give much useful information on that interesting subject, and whose publications on this va- luable grass, induced me to take much pains to pro- cure some of the plants from that country. iVfter re- peated attempts, I at length succeeded, and now hand you the result of my experiments, as it may not be un- interesting to our society. On the second of January, 1812, I received from captain Wallington, of the ship Mary, from Limerick, in Ireland, a tub containing a few plants of the fiorin, (say five or six) which he kindly procured for me. They arrived in a very unpromising state, having been wet with salt water on their passage, and to all appearance were dead ; I set the tub in my green-house, placing it near the window, to give the plants every chance of recovering, in which I succeeded, and early in the spring set them out in a bed in my garden, and by the autumn they increased so much by stolones, or run- ners, that I set out as many plants in rows of about On Florin* 287 three feet apart, and nine inches from each other, as filled a bed of 29 feet by 32. — This bed was weeded and kept clean, and became covered and matted over with the grass, like a fleece of wool, in the course of the season. On the fourth of the present month I had it cut, and let it remain on the ground until the 8th, during which time the weather was clear and dry, I then had it carefully weighed, and found 165 pounds the result, as follows : The piece of ground on which the grass grew, was 32 feet by 29 288 64 sq, ft. 928 ) 43560*(47th part of an acre, less a small 3712 fraction. 6440 165 pounds, multiplied by 6496 47 being that proportion of an acre occupied. 1155 660 C. qr. lb. 112)7755(69 0 27 being near 3^ tons per acre. Had the grass been planted in a moist soil, I am con- fident the quantity would have been much larger. I am, respectfully, John Clifford. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Sac. * Number of square feet in an acre. C 288 ] Account of a Stercorary^ on a large Scale, Read December 14, 1813. Belmonty December 8, 1813. Dear Sir, 1 have received the enclosed letter from Josiah QuiNCY, Esq. of Massachusetts ; which contains valu- able information, on a subject interesting to all farm- ers. Plis account of his Stercorary, is well worthy our attention. I presume on his forgiveness, when I request you to communicate that part of his letter, to the society. I have a desire, on a personal account, that any erroneous opinions of mine, should be correct- ed. The opinions I venture to communicate, are al- ways formed from the best information I can obtain ; or from facts passing under my own observation. But the experience of an individual, goes but a small way, towards the establishment of a general truth. The Stercoraries, I spoke of, in the page of our 1st vol. ci- ted by Mr. Quiiicy, were on a m.uch smaller scale, than the one he has, in a most spirited manner, brought into operation, and most promising use. Many with whom I have conversed, have corroborated my asser- tions, by similar facts known to them. But Mr. Q^uhi' cy has remedied one evil, attendant on close reposito- ries of dung ; and even on some open ones ; — the dry- rot ; which is a kind of spontaneous combustion. None of those I mention with disapprobation, were Account of a Stercorary, 289 waterecL His mode of irrigating, is excellent ; and nswers all objections on that score. I cannot con- ceive, however, unless the extraordinary depth de- mands it, that the throwing over the muck is indis- pensable. Yet this must b€ regulated by experience. I know none so deep as the one he describes ; nor should I covet one of similar depth. Nor is the area of any within my knowledge, so extensive ; though to this I do not object. The moisture, both intrinsic and adventitious, is retained in deep stercoraries ; and there- by fermentation is checked ; and a necessity for either throwing over, or long detention of the materials in the pit, created. In all those I have ever known, under barns, or stables, I have not found an exception to the mischief of the dry rot ; in a greater or less degree. They were however, neither thrown over, nor irrigated. The fumes of the hot muck, fermenting under car- riage houses in cities, always mould and tarnish car- riages, harness, and tlieir furniture. In barns and sta- bles, the air is nauseously infected ; and the health of horses and cattle have been considered as injured. Veterinary writers constantly recommend the removal even of foul litter, when horses or cattle are disordered; especially in fevers affecting the eyes, and pulmonary and iliac complaints. Few, if any, of such stercoraries are so well ventilated, as is that of Mr. Quincy ; and this is all-essential. One great advantage of those of common depths, is that of superseding the costly ne- cessity of throwing over the muck. It would be well, if more communications were made ; that some ge- VOL. III. o o 290 Account of a Stercorary. neral result might be known. My object always is, to invite others to develope their experience, as freely as I communicate mine. In my enquiries on the subject of the z/ellow-wafe)' in horses, I found discordant opinions, as to the nox- ious qualities of 5?ci^/^ dung. Some persons, among whom were some medical characters, did not conceive it prejudicial, when the desolating epidemics raged in our city. Others were of a directly contrary opinion. In all cases wherein there are even doubts, and more so, when opinions are divided ; and peremptory on both sides ; I hold it most prudent to avoid risk. It is certainly the safest, to place the stercorary in a situa- tion not liable to operate on the air of the stables ; and the health of the animals confined in them. I never found deep stercoraries eligible. The bot- toms should admit of the sap of the dung (as the drain- ings are called) running into pits, furnished with the means of pumping up the drainings, especially after irrigation ; and restoring to the heap what it had lost, or otherways using them, at pleasure. No dung, be the quantity what it may, in stercoraries above ground, well ventilated, covered and watered, requires the ex- pensive operation of throwing over ; if the materials be properly arranged. If it be irrigated thoroughly, two or three times in a season, artificially, by spouts, to convey rain or other water, it will rot sufficiently and promptly, by its own fermentation ; and never be- come a caput mortuum, by the dry-rot. I have said often, that dung more than one year old, becomes car- bonated, in a greater or less degree. Its fermentation Account of a Stercorary, 291 ceases ; and its stimulating qualities are either feeble, or entirely torpid;* when over-rotted. Many object to covered stercoraries (though they allow the manure to be the better for being secluded from the sun and winds,) on account of the dryness of the materials ; which they conceive, prevents fermen- tation, and produces combustion. I have seldom found this objection important. But, Mr. £luincy has prac- tic iliy established a cheap and convenient mode of ir- rigation J which must silence all complaints in this regard. I think some means might be used, for introducing air, through the muck of deep stercoraries ; to promote fermentation, and save the trouble and expense of throwing it over. Faggots placed vertically, or hori- zontally, among the muck, in proper places, would ad- mit of currents of air. Brick-wells, or vertical tunnelsy built higher than the heap, would, at any time, rise ; checkered with holes, or vacancies, in the brick work, would both admit air, and drain the muck. These re. servoirs might be pumped out; and the drainings thrown over the heap. When the superabundant * During our revolutionary war, the late general P. Schuyler mentioned that he had once purchased a farm from tlie representa- tives of an old settler in the then colony of New York. A great inducement was, that some thousands of loads of dun^^ had been accumulating, for half an age ; it having been considered as useless, when the land was fresh ; and thrown into a vast ravine. At first, the dung was operative ; but the lower the mass was penetrated, the more worthless it became. 'Till, finally, it would not compen- sate the labour and expense of hauling it out on the land. R. P. 292 Account of a Stercorary. moistbire, introduced by irrigation, was decreased ; the fermentation would be accelerated. The xvells^ may be deeper than the bottom of the stercorai^y, I am truly yours, " Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric Soc, Extract from Mr. Qidncy^s Letter ; dated, Bostoji^ November 27, 1813. *' It is now more than a year, since I had the honour of receiving from you some hints on the subject of a Stercorary, having previously availed myself of those contained in the first volume of your memoirs. The result of my adoption of your hints has been even greater than you promised. I have no question that the saving of manure by a water-tight bottom, and a co- vered stercorary, will pay me the expense of paving and securing the bottom, the first year ; and yet the scale on which I proceeded was not either very limited or rigidly economical. There is, however, one point, in which I ventured to deviate from your suggestions ; — rather I had advanced so far in my plan, before I received your cautionary letter, that I could not recede. The result has not been according to your anticipation. And as I have no doubt of the correctness of your opi- nion, in the general, I think I owe it to you to state the fyct of the difference in the result of my experi- ment, and the causes of it. You warned me against a stercorary under my ham, referring me to p. 153 of the 1st vol. in corroboration of Account of a Stercorary. 293 your opinion. I have however as yet experienced none of the ill effects you anticipated — certainly there has been no injurious eifect upon the health of my cat- tle, and from the salubrity of the atmosphere of my barn, notwithstanding the subjacent manure cellar, there is no idea of that kind entertained by any of the farmers in my neighbourhood to whom I have men- tioned the apprehension. The truth is, the barn is not at all sensibly affected by the exhalation from the ma- nure heap ; or not more than is usual, in this country, where the practice is to expose the whole deposit of the cattle to the air, in an open yard. In respect to the inequality of fermentation^ which is another objection, my experience does not evidence it. I have now about six hundred tons^ in my cellar, which has been collecting about a year and a half. It has been in the course of the summer, all turned over and piled anew from the bottom, and I directed my work- men to attend particularly, if there was any quantity of any importance, *' dry rotten, mouldy, or worthless." Their report has been constant as to the perfect state of the manure ; except in a very small part which had been pressed by the mass into the parts adjoining the cistern, where, as you state, " the overabundant moist- ure obstructed putrefaction." This, in such a mass, is of no consequence. And inverting the heap brings into action the desired power. As I thought I owed to the interest you was pleased to take in my success, this explanation, I ought to add, that I have no doubt whatever, your reasonings were right, and that your experience is supported by my observation in general. The difference arises from 294 Account of a Stercorary, the scale on which my stercorary is built, compared with the common '•^ pits and dung-hole s^^"* against which you so justly warn farmers. The area of my stercora- ry is 90 feet by 40, the cellar is in the shallowest part 8 feet deep, in its deepest 12, and in the well, if I mis- take not, 15. — It is open, nearly the whole length of one of its short sides, and one half of the long, viz. at the north and west, besides large openings at the east. There is ahvays 4 or 5 feet atmosphere above the top of the manure, and between it and the barn floor ; and a constant current setting one way or another. This gives the advantage of a free circulation of air, which in general, in such cases, is not obtained. The great difiiculty I have had to encounter, arises from the necessity of an equal irrigation of the heap ; a difficulty, which must attend all permanently covered stercoraries. For water turned upon the heap through spouts, runs in currents, and is not equally sprinkled over the heap, like rain ; which is nature's process in this business. To obviate this difficulty, I have con- structed a very simple machine, which answers per- fectly. The stone piers, which support the beams of the barn divide the cellar, lengthways, into three equal compartments. I have a box 6 inches deep, 4 feet wide, and about 13 feet long, which runs by means of wheels, upon a sort of wooden railway, made by strips of planks, and fixed about a foot from the floor of the barn, this is perforated with suitable holes. A perma- nent spout extends through the middle of the cellar, and a moveable spout extends from this to the perfo- rated box — regular openings are made in the perma- nent spout, which may be closed at will — It is also Account of a Stercorary. 295 closed at the end. By these means the box is filled from the reservoir and pump, and each part succes- sively irrigated, perfectly and with great ease. A man by two days labour, can irrigate my whole cellar, and if effectually done, twice in a season is sufficient. I have been thus minute, because I thought the de- tail would not be unpleasing to you, and that I owed it to the interest you expressed in my project." I have known several stercoraries under barns, suc- ceed satisfactorily to the proprietors of them. Those the best ventilated, were the most profitable. All were subject to dry rot ; in a greater or less degree. Yet the farmers confidently alleged, that even the dry rotted dung, was superior, in effect, to that left exposed in the farm yard. I cannot speak so favourably of it. R. P. [ 296 ] Plaster^ t?i moderate quantities^ assists in the putrefac- tion of animal and vegetable substances. Read December 14, 1813. Belmont, November 21 , 1813. Dear Sir, I do not wish to prolong a discussion of a specula- tive nature, for any objects I have in the establishment of an opinion. But, in the hasty observations (made while the press was waiting) on Sir H. Davy's conjec- ture on the causes of operation of the gypsum ; it es- caped my recollection to mention a recent fact on the subject. The use I should then have made of it, would have been to show, that small and contracted experi- ments, made, in relation to agricultural facts, in the laboratory of a chemist, (however eminent and truly respectable he may be,) are not competent to establish a general principle ; though no one can hold in higher estimation than I do, the aid chemistry is capable of affording to agriculture. Nor do I mean to say, that uncommon instances occurring in the fields of a prac- tical farmer, are to be deemed decisive. Mr. Davy grounds his opinion relative to the plaster, being, or not, a septic; on an experiment he tried on minced veal, mixed with the gypsum. He found it had no effect in putrefying the meat ; and concludes against its septic qualities. Not wishing to load the subject with instan- ces of practical proofs, failing under my own observa- tion, and that of others ; which would show that the contrary conclusion (without venturing to pronounce On Plaster. 297 a positive opinion) would have been most conformable to experience ; I shall barely remark ; that it requires no small degree of practice to enable any one to form a tolerable estimate (for no accurate judgment has yet been promulgated) of the quantity of plaster required for any of the operations, (great or small,) in which it is used. We know that common salt in small quanti- ties is septic ; but in large portions it is the reverse. Whether xh^ plaster does or does not, produce the same eftects, no person has yet been sufficiently informed, to be enabled to decide. I have always believed, that there must be an inchoate putrescence in the subject acted on, to give the plaster an impetus ; or, at least, to evidence sudden and immediately perceptible ef- fects. I have no doubt that it will, in due time, ope- rate as a principal, be it solvent or septic ; but its pow- ers are the soonest perceived, when it acts as an aux- iliary. I have found its operation the most prompt, when in contact with muck, or other animal or vege- table manure ; in which the putrefaction had com- menced ; as is most commonly the case in such sub- stances, when collected, and properly arranged. The f.ict I wish to mention, will probably furnish speculations to theorists ; and some useful information for further experiment, to practical farmers ; should it be deemed of importance sufficient to excite the atten- tion of either. Two years ago, I scowered the ditches of a watered meadow ; some whereof ran through boggy ground. I had a great collection of tussocks, composed of aqua- tic, coarse, grasses and weeds. I composted those ma- terials, in the following manner ; — in two heaps. One VOL. iir. p p 298 On Plaster. contained about sixty two-horse-cart-loads, after it was rotted down ; and the other not more than twelve, of the like loads. In the first, I begun with a layer of tussocks; then, a layer of muck, from the stables, in a fermenting state ; next, a layer of leaves and wood- soil, (each layer about one foot thick,) until the heap was sufficiently high. On each layer, I strewed plas- ter, very little thicker, than I should have scattered it on grass ground. This was done in the autumn. In the succeeding spring, I began to throw it over ; and mixed with it, a quantity of slaked Ihjte. I found the heap far advanced in its putrefaction ; so that, after being once thrown over, it was (in the fall) in the best order for top-dressing. I never had better compost. There were, (in this heap,) not above four bushels o^ plaster, used. In the small heap, I employ- ed no muck, or dung ; but formed it of alternate lay- ers of tussocks, and leaves from the woods intermixed with wood- soil. Each layer was plastered. But the la- bourer to whom I entrusted this small operation, thought he would supply the deficiency of dung, by an over-dose of plaster. He strewed nearly the like quan- tity in the small heap, with that mixed in the large one. When 1 came to view it in the spring ; very little pro- gress had been made in putrefaction. I was compelled to throw it over twice, during the summer. I found it, in the fall, unfit for use. The plaster was unchanged, in many parts of the heap. So was a considerable pro- portion of the leaves and tussocks. 1 suffered it to re- main until the last spring ; when I found it but imper- fectly rotted ; and much of the plaster unaltered. None of the plaster in the other heap, was visible ; but On Plaster. 299 the spot on which the small heap was spread, was uni- versally whitened by it. Having, frequently and successfully, rotted down leaves, tussocks and wood-soil, plastered lightly; I was surprised at the disappointment in this instance. I can- not account for the circumstance, otherwise than by presuming, that an overcharge of plaster is a quiescent force ; that is, — it preserves compounds in a state of rest. A moderate quantity may be divellent ; — that is, — it assists in destroying a state of combination. Plas- ter must, no doubt, be decomposed itself, before it acts on other substances. So must be marine salt ; which is also a chymical compound. But whether there be, or not, any analogy in their modes of operating ; I do not presume to decide. The instance I relate, reminded me of the fact, and my conclusion from it, mentioned in our first volume, page 174. — No more of the plaster will act, than the materials, necessary to cooperate with it, require. The balance remains in its original state of composition ; — inert and useless. And yet had even the quantity ap- plied in the small heap, had access to all the materials ; one would imagine, there were more than sufficient of them, for the pabulum of a larger proportion of the plaster ; when it is considered that the number of loads of the raw materials, before rotting down, was far great- er than after the putrefaction. Whether my conjectures be or not sound or rele- vant, in a chymical point of view, I think farmers may from this and numberless other fiicts, conclude ; that plaster does not operate, like dung, according to the abundance bestowed on the ground. At all times, it is 300 On Plaster. requisite for us to avoid waste ; but now^ a saving of this desirable but scarce article, is doubly incumbent on us. • To a person incredulous as to the efficacy of plaster, this singular instance of its inefficiency in the small heap, would furnish a proof in support of his doubts. Yet it only evinces the fallacy of drawing general con- clusions from one experiment, or even a few facts. It shows also the capriciousness, if the term be allowable, of the gypsum. For I do not recollect ever before to have experienced (and multitudes of farmers could at- test the like fact) a failure in accelerating the putrefac- tion, or decomposition, of vegetable matter, by means of plaster. The dried leaves of forest trees, are, how- ever, the most difficult to rot down ; unless first used as litter in the stable, or cattle-yard. I am satisfied, too, that (in conjunction with the plaster) the addition of fermenting muck, in the large heap, hastened its progress in putrefaction. It operated, like the stock- yeast in a brewer's receiver, or gyle-ton, to forward the fermentation of the whole *tnass. I am your obedient servant, Richard Peters* Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Pliilad. Jgric, Soc. [ 301 ] Swivel headed Churn Staff, Read December 14, 1813. Belmont^ December 6, 1813, Dear Sir, In my observations on Mr. Peale^s letter, page 248, 249, of this volume, I mention the subject of butter. I mistook the book throuerh which the information re- specting a " swivel headed churn staff,''^ was conveyed to me. It is not an *' agricultural work ;" but '* JVz- cholsori's Journal of Natural Philosophy ^'''^ &c. In vol. 26, article viii, the description and account of the churn staff will be seen. I have had much difficulty in getting a churn and staiF made ; because it was un- common, and not an object of gain ; for the churn and staff, large enough to churn twelve or fifteen pounds of butter, cost but one dollar and fifty cents. I promis- ed " to give a fair experiment." This I have done ; and can decidedly confirm what is said by Mr. Fisher; who received a premium for his invention, from the London Society of Arts. See Nicholsoti's Journal, vol. 26. August, 1810, page 296. It facilitates the process of butter-making, superior to any other churn, the barrel churn included. A child of five years old, can work my churn, for a short time, wdth no difficulty ; as I have found, by actual experi- ment. It performs the operation in one third less time, with a like quantity of cream, than the barrel churn ; and with much less labour. I find Mr. Fisher's obser- vation, that " it must be worked much slower than the 302 Swivel headed Churn Staff. '* common, (churn) otherwise it is found to churn the *' cream too soon, or, according to the technical term " in his county, to swelt it," to be perfectly just. I must therefore modify my remark, as to the rapidity of separating the oil. I had intended to have added another set of vanes, on the staff, some inches above those at the end of it. But I think it best to continue its present form, as a beginning. I shall also try one or two such, on a cen- tral rod, inside the wings of a barrel churn. But I am inclined to think, that too much agitation of the cream is not desirable. In winter, this kind of churn can be partially immersed in hot water, to accelerate the pro- cess. A barrel churn may so be ; but not so conveni- ently. My people, for small churnings, now, entirely neglect the barrel churn. The size of the churn may be increased, to any reasonable capacity.* Your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Soc. * See Appendix for account and cut of the churn. C 303 ] Qbsej'vatlons on Indian Corn and Potatoes, by M7\ John Loi^ahiy of Philip shurgy Centre Co. Pennsylvania. Read February 8, 1814. Philipsbiirg, October 25, 1813. Dear Sir, I promised to write you on the early planting of Indian corn, and the power which it possesses to with- stand frost, in the earlier stages of its growth, and shall now fulfil that engagement ; but conceive it will be useful to commence with remarks on the general pro- perties of this plant. The prevailing opinion is, that the cultivation of this plant is preeminently injurious to the soil, this opinion has been produced by a bad system of management, originating from a thin population, deficiency in capi- tal, and an abundance of fresh, uncultivated lands, for those causes have retarded the progress of all improve- ments in husbandry here.^ * It is well known, that many of the farmers in this country think too little of returning back to the soil, the scanty aid which even a bad system of management would readily afford, until their fields have been entirely exhausted, and that some have been indu- ced to remove their barns, rather than remove their manure, which in process of time rendered admission to them inaccessible. Only a single shovel full of this manure, applied to each hill of corn, growing on their impoverished fields, would, year after year, (if the practice had been continued,) have produced valuable crops, from the same ground, and in a few years rendered the soil capable ol' growing luxuriant crops of wheat and grass. 304 On Indian CorUy Potatoes^ ^c. The origin of this error is obvious to me ; viz. Maize being a very powerful plant, is capable of con- tending with an impoverished soil ; and when tolera- bly cultivated, will remunerate the planter on grounds incapable of producing crops of almost any other de- scription, equally valuable, and the farmer abuses this plant, because it continues faithful until the last dying gasp of the soil, which his avarice has destroyed. But it is strange, that men of observation and reflection, viewing the effect without sufficiently examining the cause, have adopted the opinion of the exhausting pro- perties of the corn plant. It is generally agreed, that potatoes, turnips, and cabbages, are meliorating crops; notwithstanding it is known, that neither of those crops will grow on a thin soil, without the assistance of manure, and that if they are continued year after year, (or grown in rotation with others,) without ma- nure, the soil will soon become incapable of producing either of those plants, so as to pay for the gathering of them. This furnishes a striking contrast between those justly esteemed meliorating crops, and the corn plant; for after the former cannot be grown with tolera- ble advantage, crops of maize, sufficiently productive to induce the continuation of them, may be introduc- ed on the same injured soil, without additional manure : but the fact is, that all the crops that will admit per- fect horse hoeing or hand hoeing, may be justly con- sidered meliorating, and also some others, which do not admit this after cultivation, but form a shade suffi- ciently close to destroy weeds. But it has been well established, that some of the most luxuriant of those crops are great exhausters of the soil; yet they are just- 0?i Indian Corn, Potatoes^ tsfc. 305 \v in high estimation ; for it being known to every farmer, that they cannot be grown profitably on thin soils, without manure, he readily submits to this ne- cessity ; but finding that Indian corn will grow year after year, without manure, he continues the destruc- tive practice of cultivating it in that way, until his fields are ruined, and without due consideration, blames the corn plant for exhausting his soil ; an opinion in which he is confirmed from observing the poor crops of wheat he gathers from those fields which have been sown with that grain, among his corn, after the ground had been nearly exhausted, and often overrun with weeds ; but being seldom disappointed in obtaining good crops of this or other small grain, after potatoes or turnips, he conceives those plants are exclusively friendly to the soil : they are indeed friendly ; for the cultivator is compelled to use them kindly, or lose the labour bestowed on them. The product of Indian corn being vastly more abun- dant than any other corn crop, it will demand a due proportion of nutriment from the soil, but will also re- turn much back to it again, 'even when the grain is not expended on the farm ; for the fodder from one acre of luxuriant maize, is fully equal in quantity and nutri- ment, to one ton of good hay, and the stalks more than equal in value to one ton of straw, for littering the cat- tle yard ; and but few, if any other summer fallow crop, is capable of returning back to the soil, half this amount, unless the most nutritive and most valuable proportion of the crop is added to the amount ; and if the grain and fodder of a crop of maize are applied to VOL. III. c^q OG On Indian Corn, Potatoes, isrc. ouo the fattening of cattle, it will be found much more pro- fitable than turnips and potatoes from the same quan- tity, and equal quality of land, notwithstanding a state- ment directly opposite to this assertion has been pub- lished, by a very respectable writer on agriculture : but that statement will be found replete with error through- out; for here again, Indian corn, without manure, pro- duced 15 bushels per acre ; potatoes manured, produ- ced 200 bushels per acre, the expense of ten acres of potatoes manured, rated at 36 dollars and 60 cents, when it actually cost nearly double that sum to remove them from the ground, and secure them properly. That Indian corn does not exhaust the soil more than potatoes, appears clear to me, from some mixed crops of those plants, which were grown on my farm. After the ground had been equally manured, one row of corn occupied the same quantity of soil as was as- signed to two rows of potatoes, throughout the fields : the plough was too frequently used in the cultivation of the potatoe crop, and sufficiently in the cultivation of the corn, of consequence, a communication between the corn roots with the potatoes was too effectually cut off. Those crops were removed in the fall, and the grounds immediately sown with wheat, and no per- ceptible difference was ever discovered in the crop growing either where the corn or potatoes had grown, even where the ground had been but once ploughed for seeding, and that too in the same direction the corn and potatoes had stood. The crops of wheat were abun- dant, except in one field, which being struck with the mildew throughout, yielded only about twenty On Indian Corn, Potatoes^ ^c. 307 bushels per acre, of light ordinary grain ; this crop you saw, previous to this disaster, and admired it much, and you have now in your possession an ab- stract copy of the accounts kept for the whole of mv crops for 1810, and will find a neat clear profit of about four hundred dollars, from eight and an half acres of wheat, grown after a mixed crop of corn and potatoes. In that statement, not only every expen- diture on this crop has been deducted, but also a ground rent of nine dollars per acre, and interest on the capital employed in the cultivation of it. No ma- nure was applied to any of these crops, after the mix- ed crops were removed. The lateral roots of Indian corn take a horizontal course, filling the ploughed ground in every direction. The finger-like or perpendicular roots dip deep, far below the range of plants in general. I have seen them traced two feet below the level of the ridge in which they grew, with no better implement than a grubbing hoe, in the hands of an awkward workman ; how much further proper investigation might have traced them, I cannot determine : but I am satisfied, that they were numerous, and more capable of running deep and col- lecting nutriment, than they would have been, had na- ture formed them into one tap root of equal length and dimensions : this opinion is further confirmed, from the well known properties cf this plant to withstand drought, of which a striking instance has occurred in my little field, planted here on a high and dry ridge ; for no rain fell on it from the 30th of July until the 1st of September, during which, moisture is particularly 308 On Indian Coniy Potatoes, ^c, wanted in this climate, to fill the grain ; yet I have never grown better ears. One just shelled measures one pint and near one gill, but if it had been cribbed, till dried perfectly, might not measure more than one pint. The prop roots of this plant are wisely constructed to support the great additional height and weight ac- quired, soon after their appearance, from the shooting of the tassel and ears ; for they are stout, and very nu- merous, and answer the double purpose of props and gathering nutriment; which the plant requires in much greater abundance, than at any other time, for filling the ears. I have seen fields very luxuriant, previous to this very trying crisis, which immediately after, be- came pale and sickly, and proved unproductive ; which is the natural result of crowding the soil with more plants than it is capable of perfecting. The traces of numerous original corns, are evident- ly seen in our fields and gardens. Only five of those are in general use for field planting. First, the big yel- low and white, in size ad form very much alike, the cobs, long and thick, the grains are large, firm, and without indenture ; but their size consists principally in their width, which is greatest near the cob, and from this point, the rotundity of their outside surface forms a very considerable vacuity between the rows ; and a large circumference, being filled with a few rows of very wide grains, which are short even at their deep- est points, covers an extensive surface, without intro- ducing measurement in proportion to the size of the cobs. Secondly, the little yellow and white, resembling On Indian Corn, Potatoes, ^c, 309 each other in size, form and texture, producing still harder grains, more compactly arranged, but not suf- ficiently so, which, with shorter and slimmer cobs, render them less productive than the two first men- tioned ; but they ripen early, and are considered safer crops in high latitudes. Thirdly, the gourd-seed. The cob of this is nehher so long or thick as the large, so- lid corns ; but the grains are very long, forming a com- pact round, from the cob to the outside surface of the ear, and gradually taper to a point, where they join in- to the cob ; of course it is vastly more productive than any other known original corn, but ripens late, and the grains are too soft and open for exportation, unless kiln dried. This variety, so far as my observation goes, is invariably white ; for although I have frequently heard of a solid yellow gourd-seed corn, yet on inves- tigation, nothing more has appeared than a mixture of the hard yellow corns, with the white gourd-seed. If such an original, firm yellow corn, equally productive with the white gourd-seed, could be procured, it would be invaluable; but by forming a judicious mixture with the gourd- seed and the flinty corn, a variety may be introduced, yielding at least one third more per acre, on equal soil, than any of the solid corns are ca- pable of producing, and equally useful and saleable for exportation. But this mixture should be with the yel- low corns ; that colour being greatly preferred by ship- pers, and is most productive, it having the longest and thickest cobs, and would at least compensate for short- ening the grain of the original gourd-seed ; provided a sufficiency is introduced to lengthen the grain so far 310 Oft Indian Corn, Potatoes y ^c. as will be consistent with retaining solidity, and that yellow tinge required to make it saleable. The proportion of the big yellow with the gourd seed, may be determined by the length and thickness of the cob, with wide grains ; and of the little yellow, by shorter, slimmer cobs, with narrower grains, of a brighter yellow tinge, and an increased number of rows, in proportion to the width of the grains, and size of the cob; which sometimes amount to upwards of thirty, and seldom less than twenty rows. This sort is firmer and handsomer than that formed with the big yellow, and better calculated for high latitudes, but not so productive. I am induced to believe, that by com- bining those three, the most valuable properties of each, might be concentered in one variety, in a much greater degree, than at first sight appears, by selecting the ears with the greatest number of rows, compactly formed on the cob, and ripening early. The experi- ment is easy, and the prospect promising ; for in the present unimproved state of that plant, from ninety, to more than one hundred bushels of shelled corn, per acre, have been frequently obtained, and when the seed has been improved, and the arrangement and cuhiva- tion of tlie plant better understood, it does not appear unreasonable to suppose, that one bushel per perch, (160 bushels per acre,) will be obtained with equal fa- cility. Mr. Stevens's crop of 118 bushels, published in vour edition of the Domestic Encyclopedia, is the largest I have noticed ; he introduced 26,880 plants- per acre. A large ear shells one pint of corn ; moderate On Indian Corn^ Potatoes^ ^c, 311 sized ears will average more than half a pint ; if each plant in his field had produced only half a pint of shell- ed corn, his crop would have yielded at the rate of about 200 bushels per acre, of consequence the num- ber of plants, or their arrangement, or, perhaps, both those causes combined, injured his crop. And the same cause produced similar effects in my crop of 91 bushels, grown in the year 1811, in double rows, on ridges half a perch asunder. The number of plants not exceeding 20,000 per acre, were too much crowded, and leaned out from the ridges into the intervals, to procure the air, until the tops of the plants standing on opposite ridges, intersected, and those which got un- dermost in the scuffle were entirely barren ; and those which predominated, had the shortest ears which had ever been grown before by me ; but still the greatest crop of corn. If the same number of plants had been introduced on the same ground, in single rows, at half the distance, it appears reasonable to suppose, that the crop would have been much more productive, but whether so many can be arranged on an acre, so that they will produce large and perfect ears, is unknown to me. Those crops are merely introduced to show, that large increase does not always determine judici- ous management of the crop ; and that if cultivators would carefully observe the progress of their crops, and publish their errors with the publication of the ma- nagement and the result ; those errors, instead of being copied and perpetuated by others, would be avoided, and the knowledge of agriculture rapidly increase. 1 introduced the greatest crop of maize that has been 312 On Indian Corn, PotatoeSy bV. published, with another large crop, to show that great increase has been obtained, from very injurious ar- rangements of the plants, and that much greater might be acquired, if we knew how to arrange the full com- plement which the soil and climate are capable of per- fecting. But it is far better to introduce too few, than too many plants, for in the first case, a good crop is insured, while in the latter, the soil is uselessly ex- hausted, and the crop is rendered precarious. Corn should be planted early, more especially in high latitudes, where the farmer's expectation is fre- quently blasted by an early frost, or a cool spring and summer procrastinating the growth and maturity of the plants ; and this evil is increased, if he cultivates the larger and more productive corns, not only as it af- fects his crops, but also as it establishes the erroneous opinion, that they cannot be grown. But I had been pre- pared to encounter those false opinions, having planted, my crop much sooner than my neighbours, and observ- ed that maize, in the early stages of its growth, was not subject to such injury from frost, as was generally sup- posed. For though its tops were frequently turned yellow, and sometimes severely scorched, the roots were established early in the soil, and the plants press- ed forward with great rapidity ; and no question with me, derived at least as great advantage from early plant- ing, as barley, or any other spring crops. And it fre- quently occurs, that the weather is more favourable for vegetation in April, than in May, at the usual time of planting ; and the ground, early in the spring, is less subject to become dry and crusty, which often pre- On Lidian Corn, Potatoes, ^c. vents the plants from penetrating the soil. The Indi- ans' ideas of planting, are suited to their limited ob- servation ; but we see those trees which are generally in blossom at the time of planting corn, are some- times in full bloom, in February and March. I have not been long enough here to determine how much later spring generally commences here than with you : but believe it cannot be less than two weeks. My corn, and that of some of my neighbours, was planted the last day of April and the first day of May. The weather was mild, and continued so until the 13th of May, when some white frost appeared on the fence rails and bridges. On the 14th some of the corn came up ; on the 16th considerable white frost, and ice were also seen in an earthen pot, standing on boards in my yard ; on the 17th, the ground was frozen in the bottoms, and ice in troughs, and the same oc- curred every morning until the 22d, during which the corn continued coming up, and few, if any of the plants were destroyed, although some of them were killed level with the ground. The tops of early planted po- tatoes were killed, but the crop was abundant. Beans fared worse, being incapable of a general recovery. The older settlers say, this was the severest frosty time, they have seen here at the same season of the year. On the 19th of August there was a considerable white frost, with ice. The upper blades of the corn were wrinkled from twelve to fifteen inches from their points, and hung downward, but generally retained a healthy, rusty, weatherbeaten, green. From this, injury was expected, but none appeared in the crops. The next VOL. III. R r 314 On Indian Corn, Potatoes, bV. frost occurred on the 6th of October, and finding the corn plant debilitated by age, it scorched it oxessive- ly ; and another on the 11th killed it effectually. I have never seen better ears of corn, than were grown m those two crops, when for forty miles or more round, we hear of no good crops, not even on the Susquehan- nah and other rich bottoms, justly famed for growing corn ; except a field grown by a neighbour, which was planted from the 11th to the 13th of May, and that part of his crop seeded with the same kind of corn grown by me, to wit, highly impregnated with the gourd-seed, was not perfectly matured. This general failure m crops of corn, has been commonly attributed to a great redundancy of wet, during the spring and first summer months, and an unusual drought in the latter part of the summer. But the fertile fields men. tioned above, were subjected to the same, therefore those causes could have had no general effects else- where, except those arising from late planting, which the difficulty of the seasons have rendered more con- spicuous. From these facts, I infer, that early plant- ing of corn, more particularly in high latitudes, would augment the general crop to an immense extent. A grass lay is vastly preferable for corn. The very minute division of the soil, by its innumerable roots, with their fermentation and decomposition, furnish considerable heat and nutriment, and introduce cavi- ties in due proportion to the number and size of those roots, keeping the soil open and mellow, for the ready admission of the corn roots. Stable, or other animal manure, should be spread regularly over the lay. But it is seldom properly done, in the usual random mode On Indian Corn, Potatoes ^ bV. 315 of dropping the heaps. The field sh6uld be staked on one side, and each end ; the distance of one perch is convenient for spreading, and will readily determine the number of loads per acre, with the size of the field. The dropping of the heaps, commencing along the stakes on the side of the field, with the stakes at the ends, insures regularity. If patches appear materially thinner than the soil in general, they should be mark- ed, and additional manure spread over them. The sod, with the manure, should be regularly turned under, with one deep ploughing, or by trench ploughing, which is far preferable ; for it will furnish a surface readily pulverized with the harrow, and bury the seeds of most weeds beneath the power of vegetation, and provide larger scope for the roots of the corn. It is said the skim coulter plough, vv^ill effect this purpose equally well, and with much less labour and expense. If obstacles prevent trench ploughing, the furrow-slice must be compressed with a roller, and the ground har- rowed lengthwise the furrows, sufficiently to close the seams between them, which greatly prevents the growth of the grass. If the cultivator wishes to introduce lime, it may be spread now, with great advantage, and mixed by the harrow with the upper surface of the soil, without injuring the animal manure by its caus- tic properties : for the cultivation of the crop, and those succeeding it, if readily and effectually executed, will keep the lime near the surface, until it is sunk by its own gravity. Wide intervals, or right angles may be formed, sufficiently correct, with the plough, if they have been regularly staked out, but crossing those furrows, for narrow distances, on the rows, and 316 Oji Indian Cor ft , Potatoes^ ^c, striking the smaiier angles, require mathematical pro- portion, to admit ready and eftectual cultivation. The four furrow wheat drill in your repository, will furnish simple principles for forming a very cheap implement, to effect this purpose. For dropping the seed, cut an elder stalk of about one inch diameter, just below a limb, which will form a handle ; cut and hollow it out above, to hold the number of grains planted, paring the upper edge thin : with this and a small basket, a little boy or girl may drop three times more than a man in the usual way, and more correctly. If two plants are designed at each angle, eight or ten grains should be planted ; for nu- merous birds, and cut- worms, will have their share, and some of the seed will rot, and many that vegetate will not get through the soil. The extra expense of seed is scarcely worth consideration ; while replanting is very expensive. Where the planting fails, it u ill be more profitable to introduce three or four bunch beans, or a potatoe, for neither require hilling, if plant- ed at a proper depth, and the latter will certainly be more profitable than replanted corn. The seed should be covered no deeper, than one inch, with the loosest, moistest, and best mould at hand ; and no clods, or other obstacles introduced ; moderately patting this covering with the hoe, to secure the moisture. If the soil should form a crust over the seed, near the time of its coming up, the clusters must be daily examin- ed, and when the points of the plants turn downward, they should be liberated immediately, by carefully breaking the crust. I have saved one field of corn by this practice, which must have perished without as- On Indian Corn y Potatoes, yc» 317 sistance. This may be readily done, with a small rake, the teeth formed with nails, whose edges have been previously blunted : but a three forked hook, in the form of those used by gardeners, is preferable. Farmers have been told, and might have seen, the very superior properties of a grass lay for corn, but many who do know it, have not appreciated the ad- vantage, or they would not grow other crops, for the express purpose of subduing the grass, previously to the cultivation of the corn. The cultivation of corn should commence, so soon as the first leaves expand ; otherwise grass and weeds will take the lead ; hence much labour is saved, by commencing their destruction before they are established. On the proper or impro- per management, at this critical time, the prosperity of the crop greatly depends ; for, if the plants now scarcely three inches high, are pulled up from a free open soil, the roots will be found more than twelve inches long, besides what remain in the ground. Where- superficial roots abound, the shovel plough should be used, for the cultivation of the crop ; but if those do not exist, a hoe-harrow is much better, and greatly su- perior to a mould board plough. This circumscribes the roots of the plants, forms ridges and furrows cal- culated to turn oft' the rains, and by turning up the grass sods, with the seeds of weeds, causes much use- less labour from the growth of both ; stops fermenta- tion and decomposition, forming channels from which the heat, moisture and nutriment already accumulated, escape, exposing the manure to be washed away b\' rain, and exhaled by the sun. The hoe-harrow will more effectually pulverize, and clean the soil without 318 Oil Indian Corn, Potatoes, ^t\ producing any of those injurious effects, and with half the labour, provided a triangular harrow, with tines and handles, follows, with hand hoers after it, to era- dicate weeds and grass near the plants, and uncover- ing and setting up the plants at the same time. The hoe-harrows should have handles, and be formed to close or expand behind, to suit the cultivation of the plants, in the different stages of their growth, with three triangular hoes, supported by coulters, sharp in front and point, for the smaller sizes, and five for the larger, formed and fixed effectually to cut all the ground to the extent of their spread : if wheels were added, they would ensure any desirable depth, with perfect regularity and ease. Although the open texture of a grass lay admits ve- ry early cultivation, after rain it may be too soon done, and cause serious injury. If the corn has been planted at right angles, the har- rows should operate, in the first cultivation, through both directions of the field; first lengthwise the ploughing, and progress until the soil is well pulveriz- ed, and the weeds and grass within their reach, entire- ly destroyed. This will leave little for the hand hoers to do, and the field will be properly cultivated. The supernumerary plants must be pulled up, so soon as the seed at the root disappears, but while a vestige of it remains, squirrels will pull up the plants. The suckers growing at the joint, in contact with the ground, and the next joint above, should be pulled off so soon and often as they appear in sufficient size to admit the operation. When suffered to become numerous, and large, the nutriment required for their On Indian Corn^ Potatoes ^ ^c. 319 ■J- - ' ' — support, with the large and numerous wounds inflicted at once, injure the plants excessively, at the time they require every possible assistance from nature and art. In the second cultivation, the harrows should stop a few days after they have effectually destroyed the grass and weeds, in one direction of the field, allowing time for the mangled and misplaced roots to form a suffi- cient establishment, to support the plants after they have been subjected to the same unavoidable injury, by the second harrowing. This precaution must be observed if a third cultivation -should be found neces- sary ; this may in some measure depend on the sea- sons, but principally on whedier the lay has been ploughed sufficiently deep, and the grass turned under. If this has been done, and the execution of the first and second cultivation effectuahy performed, the farm- er will generally controul the seasons, and sometimes derive advantage from occurrences which prove very injurious to the crops of his less provident neighbours. To ensure good crops of corn, the cultivation with the harrows must be accomplished, before the tasspls and prop roots appear, for after this, the plants requir- ing all the nutriment which nature and art can supply ; their roots should remain perfectly at rest. Still a har- row with blunt or worn tines, may be advantageously used in wide intervals, which fiivour the growth of weeds, longer than narrow. But this harrow can have little effect among weeds already established, and sel- dom does much good when contending with grass ; therefore the farmer should see the absolute necessity of pressing on a cultivation, to give an early and safe F€st to his crop, more especially in narrow intervals^ 320 On Indian Corny Fotatoes, csr'c. where the size of the plants will soon render the intro^ duction of the harrow impracticable. For although their shade will smother many more weeds than when the intervals are wide, still far too many will remain for the hand hoers, either to pluck or cut off, if the previous cultivation has been procrastinated, or imper- fectly executed. The plants should not be cut off or topped and strip- ped, until the grain has attained a tolerable solidity, and the milk has entirely disappeared, unless the plants have been killed by frost ; in that case they should be immediately cut off, or topped and stripped, to admit the sun and air to the ears. Some say the latter is the surest practice in high latitudes, where the sun is less powerful, and where more cloudy and dripping wea- ther prevails ; but others think the former safe, if the plants are set up in small heaps ; and that it is the best way, my experience will not authorize a decision. But I do know, from actual and well tried experiments, and regular accounts, that cutting off the plants saves the fodder better, with one half the labour. With an old sithe, crooked at the point, and rags wrapped round the heel for a handle, a man will cut off at least as much more corn, as he could with a hoe, and with greater ease to himself. While he grasps the plants with one hand, he cuts them off at one stroke with the other, and by poising their buts with the point of the sithe, lays them regular with great facility, for the cart- ers. A wooden handle would improve this instru- .ment. The plants may be set up in heaps of six or eight feet diameter at bottom. After the corn has been husked, three or four of those heaps, set up in one, On Indian Corn, Potatoes, SsV. 321 and banded with the stalks, preserves the fodder bet- ter than stacking, wliere the moisture accumulated in the stalks, introduces mould: much labour will be saved by setting up the corn in the field where it was grown, if the fields are not cultivated, until the ensu* ing spring, in that case the difference in labour, com- pared with topping and stripping, will be still far great- er. Hilling at any time is destructive, it cuts and con- fines the roots within a narrow compass, and turns off the rains ; exhausts the plants by compelling them to form fresh sets of roots, at the expense of those alrea- dy established, converting the prop roots into common roots, and forming other prop roots from the joints above, which seldom get established in time to sup- port the plants. I should have mentioned before, that a grass lay is more especially necessary for corn, when it is planted on a fiat retentive soil ; for unless the ground is very much disposed to wet, it will preclude the necessity of ridging, and the lay forms a tough surface for hauling* the manure, which eases the draught. Each furrow- slice forms an effectual underdrain, more especially if the field has not been pastured or mown in the fall, and the furrow-slice is only moderately compressed with the roller, and if a man with a shovel and mattock, follows in the furrows, leveling the heights, removing such roots, stones, Sec. as will obstruct the course of the water, forming cuts across the hea.d lands, at con- venient distances, for its escape. Tens of thousands of wheat, and other grain fields, are annually injured to an immense extent, through inattention, or to savg this trivial labour. The water is stopped in the fields VOL. m, s s 322 On Lidian Coj'ri, Potatoes, ^c. by the obstructions in the furrows, and backed on them at the head lands, or finds a passage over the declivi- ties, sweeping the soil and plants before it, forming in- numerable gullies, none of which would appear, if the furrows were opened in proper directions. Mixed crops of maize are profitable, and believing my crops of this description, have been more produc- tive than any of the same sort, which have been pub- lished ; the errors in management, with observations on them, may be beneficial. Accident in my crop first published, led me to expect considerable advantage from ridging for corn ; but have since found that it was an increased quantity of soil and manure, introdu- ced by the ploughing, that rendered the plants on the ridges which had been accidentally formed, better than the rest of the field, and not, as was supposed, the con- centering a double quantity of manure under them ; and that ridges produced artificial droughts, without any perceptible advantage from them. I also believed, and continue in the same opinion, that wide intervals, admitting large scope for sun and air, permits the in- troduction of numerous corn plants with safety, in the rows, and that this is the principal cause why corn is more productive in proportion to the soil occupied by it, when mixed with low growing plants, more especi- ally, if the cultivation of the crops, cuts off" the com- munication between the corn plant and its neighbours, which has been the case with my crops, till a trivial experiment ma^e last summer; and till then, close planting on the rows had been entirely overdone by me. My mixed crop of corn and potatoes, for 1810, published in the second volume of the memoirs of On Indian Corn, Potatoes^ ^c. 323 your society, did not discover the impropriety of such close planting, for the failure in corn plants, reduced their number very considerably. But more experi- ence and observation have taught me, that the pota- toes planted in that crop, were much too thick, and if two single, instead of two double rows, had been in- troduced, and planted deeper, the crop would have been much more productive. My mixed crop of corn and barley, for 1811, clear- ly discovered the error of too many corn planes. The barley was sown at the rate of three bushels per acre, on six feet beds, and the corn planted on ridges of the same width ; the produce in barley at the rate of 36 bushels per acre, and of shelled corn, 138 1-2 bushels per acre. The corn in the ridges was certainly too thick, about 64 plants within the length of one perch, planted triangularly, in double rows. Many plants were entirely barren, nubbins numerous, and the ears generally very short, and badly filled. Although one of the best ridges, husked and shelled under my own inspection, measured at the rate of 152 1-2 bushels per acre, and another ridge, ordered in the same way, at the rate of 149 1-2 bushels per acre, still, every per- son who saw the crop matured, joined in opinion with me ; that half the plants would have produced much more corn. What might have happened, if the soil had not been generally very thin, previous to manur- ing, for those crops, or if a sufficient quantity of ma- nure had been introduced to supply this defect, I can- not determine ; but where the soil was good, evident marks of the injudicious practice, of this close, hedge row planting appeared. 324 On Indian Corn, Potatoes, ^c. Last spring I planted on one side of my garden, In- dian corn, with intervals of six feet, two plants eighteen inches asunder in the rows ; the soil appeared good, and the plants were dressed with leach ashes. They were stout, and the ears well filled, although the soil is stiff* and disposed to bake, and the latter part of the summer was dry. The only cultivation of this crop Was with the hand hoe, until narrow strips were broke up deeper, for the introduction of cabbage between the rows. This mode of planting introduces 9680 corn plants per acre, with an additional produce from one row of potatoes between the rows ; or, the large white kidney bunch bean may be introduced, provided neither are hilled or hoed up, for by this practice, the roots of the corn plants will be greatl}^ circumscribed, and compelled to take directions so opposite to nature, that they could not prosper. If potatoes are planted between the corn rows, the lay should be well turned, eight or nine inches deep. This will introduce no extra labour ; for that depth, though not absolutely indispensable, is requisite for the corn crop. A narrow strip, for planting the pota- toes, should be well pulverized with a small hoe har- row, without turning up the grass. The ridges form- ed by opening the furrows, should be turned back for covering the seed. If potatoes are planted at a proper depth, I do not believe that hilling up that plant is so. advantageous, as most farmers imagine. It is certain, they too frequently injure the produce by this practice ; and their management of it is frequently inconsistent throughout, for they provide a light covering of long- manure for planting, and during the cultivation of the 071 Indian Corn^ Potatoes^ £5V. 325 crop, heap up on the ridges an enormous weight of mould, and frequently poor cold clay, destroying num. bers of the plants, which in a potatoe crop are frequent- ly far behind in vegetation, and greatly injure others of the same description ; cutting the wire or fruit roots, and oppressing the bulbs which escape, with a weight that prevents due expansion. And this is not all the evil produced, for trenches are formed below the level of the roots, which greatly increases the artificial droughts. — The largest crop of potatoes I ever saw grown but one, was obtained from a stubble field with- out manure, planted in every furrow, and cultivated with the tined harrow alone, although this mangled some of the plants greatly, and injured others in a less degree. For several years my early potatoes for fami- ly use, have been planted in the Irish way, on beds, and have ever been productive and good. This year some of them weighed one pound, which were larger than any early potatoes grown by me before.* Your's, with respect, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. * Observing a publication promising layers of potatoes succeed- ing each other, if the plants were hilled beyon.d the common prac- tice, two varieties were cultivated by me in that way ; the plants were regularly ridged, or rather banked up, with good mould, until killed by frost, and then the ridges were regularly removed. Nu- merous roots appeared in due succession on the vines, but the fruit was found where nature designed it should grow, to wit, at the bot- tom, and was greatly inferior in size to that grown in the lisual way. Still i; might have been otherwise, if the hilling had ceased sooner. C 326 ] Oil Grass Lays, Manures^ is'c, by Mr. John Lorain. Read February S, 1814. Philipsburg^ January 1^^, 1814. Dear Sir, If grass lays and farm yard manure were pro- perly managed and applied, the productions of agri- culture would be doubled ; and one half the usu- al labour in the process of farming saved ; but this has been little considered, and less practiced here, and also in England. Both they and we know the merits of a clover lay, for wheat, but it is seldom properly applied ; as more than one half the roots are frequent- ly hove out by frost, previous to being turned down for wheat. For the lateral roots become weak, and in- capable of holding the plants in the ground, more than one winter, and the second year's mowing is light, and the lay very indifferent for wheat. It is strange that the valuable properties of clover lays, so long esta- blished for wheat, have been extended to so few culti- vated plants ; and that it has not led us to reflect more on the value of grass lays of every other descriptiqn, more especially in a new country like this, where those lays have been so frequently and successfully applied for the construction of gardens. The cause is obvi- ous, and has been defined in my observations on corn. The grasses are nature's pabulum of cultivated plants, and if properly applied, will create good soil where it never existed before ; and will communicate sufficient Oji Grass Lays^ Manures^ ^c. 327 adhesion to light blowing sands, for growing luxuriant grain crops ; and red clover, with the aid of gypsum, will in this highly favoured country, enrich a thin soil to an almost incredible extent, in a very few years ; and will plentifully replenish the farmer's mows with excellent hay, if a proper system of management is pur- sued. If this grass is mown instead of pastured, it will soon render the effects of wild garlic perfectly harm- less, either in the dairy or grain fields, as I know from what was effected on the farm lately occupied by me, which was overrun with this pest, Man, in all his pursuits, is too fond of complication, or we might have been long since taught the proper application of manure ; for a smoking dunghill, with the aid of our eyes, nose, and reflection, should have instructed us, that farm yard manure loses at least a full half of its most valuable properties, if kept over spring and summer. Some gentlemen imagine that fer- mentation and decomposition produce combinations and properties highly beneficial ; but this appears to rest on conjecture ; for they differ widely in what those properties consist. Observation and practice have taught others, that when the manure is turned under the soil, previous to fermentation, nature performs those chymical operations within the soil, spreading the riches of the manure through it, with the least pos- sible loss, provided she is not counteracted by an inju- dicious cultivation, and that immense, and very inju- rious labour is saved in extra hauling, and mixing the manure with other substances, which arc much readi- er, and (very generally) fur better applied, before or after the manure. 328" On Orass Lays^ Alauures^^^c, They plough, harrow and hoe their fallow grounds, through spring and summer, effectually destroying the weeds, but introduce those pests in great profusion,, with the farm yard manure, applied previous to seed- ing their crops. It is readily granted, that the appli- cation of manure in a progressed putrefaction, will greatly hasten vegetation, and if the crop is not laid, which too often happens, when applied to wheat and other small grain, the produce will be increased. And it is this, which has led to the erroneous opinion of the proper application of manure, and has sacrificed to the trivial, and at the same time, very uncertain advantage gained in one crop, the future prosperity of the soil, and ensuing crops, to an amount fully equal to the loss sustained in the nutritive and stimulating properties, contained in the manure. The spire grasses are much hardier than red clover, and will be found troubhsome companions for wheat or other small grain, unles the furrow-slices are well turned, and the seams between them, well closed with the harrow ; but this is readily done, where stumps, roots, or other obstacles do not abound ; and if our native, simple, and very cheap four furrow drill-plough is introduced, a man, with a boy and oiie horse, will effectually seed and cover with it, at a proper depth, more grain than can be sown and covered with two horses, and the harrow, in the same time : provided a rake with tines, calculated to cover the grain, is at- tached to the hinder part of the drill ; and should a few stumps be in the way, the man lifts the plough quickly over them. In the spring, an intelligent boy, with one horse, will effectuallv horse hoe, \yith the Oji Grass Lays, Manures y ^c, 329 same instrument, more acres per day, than were sown by it in the same time ; and if another rake is construct- ed, with the tines to run in each furrow, and overturn some weeds cut off, under the surface of the soil, which have escaped being tu'^ned over with the hoes in the drill, the cultivation will be as complete as can be rea- dily imagined ; this rake will also effectually cover the grass seeds, which should be sown previous to the se- cond horse hoeing. Both of those rakes should be fix- ed, not to swerve in the least from side to side, but to traverse readily up and down. To be better understood, it may be necessary to ap- ply the system recommended, to a round of crops, leaving the farmer to apply the principles of it, to such crops as may be best suited to his market and purpo- ses ; for with prudence he may grow any. The cul- tivation of the corn crop, furnishes an open, free soil for barley, in the spring. The decaying manure and roots of the grasses have not been exposed to loss, the weeds within the power of vegetation, have been ge- nerally destroyed, and it being an object of high con- sideration, that all the seeds of weeds, which can be avoided, should not be turned up, and the riches at the bottom preserved, a large hoe harrow, calculated for two horses, should be introduced. Implements of this description, but more expensively formed, are call- ed by some, cultivators, and are sometimes made very large, but those spread over too much ground, to ef- fect good cultivation, in the uneven surface of fields generally. That proposed will cultivate the soil eftec tually for the barley, and with half the usual labour, and if the farmer wishes to introduce beans, or any VOL, III, T t 330 On Grass Lays, Manures, ^c, ■■ . ■ . ■ .■-„-.., — other fallow crop, previous to the barley, the same tool will effectually cultivate the soil for both crops : and if the grounds are sufficiently rich, this intermediate crop will be an excellent practice, for it will more ef- fectually destroy the weeds, brambles, sprouts, dock, or other hardy root plants, which have been crippled, but not eradicated, by the cultivation of the corn. If wheels were added to the hoe harrow, the difficulties mentioned before will be avoided. These may be rea- dily made of thick, hard plank, dubbed to form naves and rims. Clover seed should be immediately sown over the barley, and brushed in, but a light harrow will not drag the soil, &c. in heaps, on the surface, or if spire grasses are preferred, they may be sown in the room of clover, and covered in the same way. The clover or spire grasses should be mown but one sum- mer, and the lay with a second or good third crop, turned under, not more than six inches deep, in the fall, for wheat. This leaves the manure and numerous seeds of weeds, which had been turned under for the corn, still at the bottom. On the wheat, sow orchard, oat, or timothy grass seeds, the two former immediate- ly well harrowed in, with a light harrow, or the com- mon harrow brushed, for although this may bury some seeds too deep, the deep rooting of the plants saves them from being hove out by frost, which generally destroys those which root on, or very near the surface, and if those light, chaffey seeds, are sown on the settled ground in the spring, they rot on the surface, and are blown away with the winds. Timothy or clover pros- pers well, when sown on wheat, very early in the spring, but are frequently very inj^urious to the grain crops, if On Grass Lai/s, Manures, ^c. 33 1 — ■■ ' ■ ..-..■-,■ ,. , _ , , .. ,_ sown in the fall. In some climates and seasons, Fe- bruary will suit better for sowing those seeds. The spire grasses sown on the wheat may be mown two years, if the farmer's cattle yard will admit a plentiful manuring for maize ; if not, the ground should be mown or pastured until this can be done, but the soon- er the lay can be turned, consistent with the preserva- tion and improvement of the soil, the roots of the grass- es will be oftener brought into use, which hastens the improvement, from the frequent decomposition, of their full growth in the soil. A gentleman whose extensive talents should be re- spected, has published, that wheat sown in England, from two to three bushels per acre, yields great crops, where the soil and climate are favourable to its growth and perfection, but that the same quantity sown here, would yield straw, without grain. This is entirely op- posed to my practice and observation, and nursery men who have long sown and planted there and here, agree, that the same plants will double the size here, in one season, which they generally attain there in the same time ; and certainly our climate is much better calcu- lated to ripen a heavy crop of wheat, than the climate of England, where a less powerful sun, and frequent cloudy, dripping, foggy weather, injures those crops to an immense extent, and compels the inhabitants to become tributary to us, and other nations, for bread. But the real state of the question is simply this; — the Hessian fly has darkened knowledge, but having com- pelled us to manure our grounds, one corner of many a field, now produces more, than the whole previous to this visitation. And if farmers had considered ob- Oil Grass Lat/s, Mamires, ^c. servation and reflection, necessary ingredients, in the composition of their business, millions of bushels of wheat might have been grown, which have been en- thely lost, from a deficiency of seed. But even a loss like this, has not been sufficient to awaken those men, who conceive they inherit from their fathers, the same fee simple in the knowledge of agriculture, as they ac- quired from their will or death, in their estates, al- though if they had acted wisely, the manuring of their grounds would not have been the only advantage de- rived, from this potent insect, for before their depre- dations, wheat was sown very early, and where the soil was tolerably good, a trivial quantity sufficed ; for the plants tillered very profusely in our prolific climate ; where copious showers, succeeded by a clear sky and an animating sun, are peculiarly favourable to vegeta- tion. But since this supposed calamity, wheat has been sown later, and the same quantity of seed gene- rally continued, although farmers might have seen that less vegetated, more plants were killed by frost, and that they tillered less ; and that all those deficiencies increased in due proportion, as the season had advanc- ed previous to seeding ; of consequence, when farm- ers will be persuaded to sow a sufficiency of seed, to introduce the same number of stems, as were formerly grown, from very early sown wheat, they will obtain as good crops as were formerly grown, and probably much better : for they will introduce many more plants than were produced from early seeding, and the same number of stems, nourished by many more original roots, each proceeding from its own grain, which will certainly be much more productive, than the same On Grass Lays^ Manures^ £dV. 333 number of stems, supported and nourished by much fewer original roots. To illustrate this, I could readily refer to numerous tillering or suckering fruit-bearing plants. Thus, one grain of corn will produce numerous stalks, but their production is found trivial, when compared with the same number of stalks, standing also in one cluster, but suckered, and each proceeding from its own grain, and supported and nourished from its own original root : and were it not too laborious to sucker wheat, to one stem, and a sufficiency of seed was introduced to meet this practice, it would soon display crops ex- ceeding credibility. When wheat is sown in a climate similar to that near Philadelpliia, previously to the 15th of October, two bushels per acre may be found sufficient, increas- ing the quantity, in proportion as the season advances, until the 5th of November, after which three bushels will be found little enough, — If barley or oats are sown early in the spring, three bushels per acre may suffice, particularly of the former, but an addition, equal to the progress in season, should be added to both, for they also tiller, in due proportion to the time when they are sown. I believe that little, if any seed can be saved, by the drill, without very serious injury to the crops, and this opinion is progressing in England, where a false economy in seed, for a long time prevented that full display of the very superior crops, which may be grown, when this instrument is properly applied. Eng- lishmen sow grass seeds profusely, and in this they are perfectly right, and excel us greatly, who sow far too little, for this economy in seed, gives rise to nu- 334 On Grass Lays^ Manures, £sPr. merous >v'eeds, where grasses would abound, if a suffi- ciency of seed ivas sown, and introduces tussocks, the curse of bad husbandry, which compel high, wasteful mowing, difficult ploughing, and furnishes a poor, starved lay for cultivated crops. Here I wish to be understood, that nothing will su- persede the necessity of farm yard manure ; for al- though it is very probable that a judicious farmer, with a very circumscribed capital, might profitably extend his cultivation, to many acres of ground, with but lit- tle aid from farm yard manure, by ploughing under the tops and roots of the grasses, yet I do know, that in general, a farmer whose capital, with the workers in his family, might enable him with industry and good management, to extend advantageously his cultivation to a farm of twenty acres of ground, is very seldom satisfied with a hundred, although he continues poor on the latter, and might become independent, and com^ paratively rich on the former ; and it is this, and not maize, which has impoverished so much of the Ame- rican soil, and stripped off the timber, which nature had liberally provided for many ages yet to come. Those who possess a fee simple in property, may do as they consider best ; but those who let lands to others would act wisely, to circumscribe the plough and the axe, within the limits of their tenants' capital, for until this is done, the soil will be ruined, and the timber wantonly destroyed. The fall of the leaves and branch- es will continue to enrich the wood land, and if fences are kept up round the cleared grounds, nature will in this country, soon cover them with white clover, and other grasses, and the decay of their roots and tops On Grass Lays, Manures f ^c. 335 will slowly enrich the soil, and if cattle are admitted, and not suffered to carry off at night, the greater part of what they have gathered in the day, the same pur- pose will be sooner effected. When practices are recommended, without explain- ing the principles on which they are founded, they can do little good, unless the reader's reflection supplies this deficiency ; and when a farmer is in possession of the principles, on which a practice is founded, he may readily determine whether they a; e consonant with the operations of nature, and if he finds them inconsistent with this criterion, they should be rejected ; even if sanctioned by men of talents, and backed by very large crops ; unless he clearlv discovers, that no other a2:en- cy, but that recommended, could have effected the pur- pose : for men of genius are sometimes egregiously mistaken, and crops may be grown to a wonderful ex- tent, under a system of very improper and expensive management, when capital, talents, and attention are employed, in the production of them. Agriculture might be highly improved, were farm- ers convinced that a small knowledge and application of arithmetic, is indispensable in the practice of an im- proved husbandry, and that perfection in this art will never be attained, until calculation clearly defines the quantity of seed, and proper depth and distances for sowing and planting. Not only a great increase would certainly follow the introduction of those principles, but random practices would be abandoned, from which certain information can seldom be obtained, or com- municated so as to be clearly understood. Much la- bour would be saved, for when any business is pro- 336 On Grass Lays, Manures^ ^c. perly simplified, it is more readily managed, even with inferior powers of body or mind, and always much sooner and better done. A boy or girl, under mathe- matical arrangements, would frequently do more, than an active man in our present random practice. It is from gentlemen farmers we are to expect the introduction of good farming. Their previous pur- suits forms habits of observation, reflection and calcu- lation. But gentlemen most generally commence farming, without practical knowledge of the business ; and a multiplicity of books, though containing much useful information, introduces great confusion, until the gentleman becomes better acquainted with agri- culture, which frequently never happens ; for serious expenses, and mortifying disappointments, induce ma- ny to quit farming, who would have been ornaments to that profession, if they had set out right at first. Your's, very respectfully, John Lorain. Dr. James Mease. The Society have declared on a former occasion, that they publish impartially all communications ; and do not deem themselves answerable, except in cases wherein they expressly take responsibility. They have inserted the above from their valuable correspondent, on the principles here stated. Some of the ideas are not in unison w^ith opinions commonly entertained. [ 337 ] Usefulness^ to Husbandmen^ of attending to natural Phcenomena^ by Richard Peters. Read February 8, 1814. 1 know not whether the account I gave, of some of the prominent circumstances of the season of 1813, may, or not, claim any serious attention. It would be well, however, if observations on seasons of every de- scription, either favourable, or otherwise, to the busi- ness of the farmer, were more commonly noted. Al- though some circumstances may, at first, appear tri- fling, and not worthy of any attention ; yet, in a course of time, they may be found highly important. Much of Virgil's Georgics, is devoted to the signs and motions of the heavenly bodies, — the phcenomena ex- hibited in the air, and in the ocean, — according to the state of knowledge in his day, — the habits of animals, — including reptiles and insects, however mean, and otherwise insignificant. He draws, out of these, in- structions and warnings for husbandmen, written in a style of elegance, and even practical correctness, which have not been surpassed in modern times ; with all their boasted improvements, in science, or the arts. The great character Linn^us, whose acumen of re- search pervaded all nature, has not disdained to inves- tigate subjects, which would appear unworthy his no- tice, but for the interesting uses, to which he applies them. The times of arrival of certain birds, — the ap- pearance Ok c'^viixinjloxucrsy — the vegetation of certain VOL. III. u u 338 On natural Phenomena. plants and trees^ — arc all enlisted into the service of the husbandman ; and rules suggested, drawn from natural phcenomena^ which are practically useful, as to times of seeding, and other operations in agriculture. So far are circumstances not appearing directly appli- cable to the practice of husbandry, from being uncon- nected with it ; that there are few subjects which are not, in a greater or less degree, related to it. True, there are few persons, who can either observe or ad- vise, in so masterly a manner, as the prince of poets, and the great philosopher and naturalist. But there are few, indeed, who cannot furnish some materials for men of science to work on. I have made these re- marks, in excuse for my humble attempts to accumu- late facts ; as they, from time to time, fall under my notice. Let others usefully apply, or reject them. Natural phcenomena should be turned to uses, with which the superstition and folly of astrologers and lu- nologists, have no concern.^ * Virgil was much addicted to the study of astrology ; and ei- ther believed, or affected to have faith in, the fortunate or unlucky days of the J7ioon's age. It was the fashion of his day. His advice, to cut dry grass and stubble^ by moonlight ; was not, however, the effect of this kind of credulity. Two men are now living, who, very many years ago, for several seasons, cut, of choice, my dry meadows by moonlight ; in very hot weather. They declared they worked with more ease than in the day ; and found the dampness of the grass, with the dews of the night, of great utility. I paid them by the acre ; and never had my grounds better mowed. I might have cited the Plato of poets, as Virgil was called, on several subjects, which I have had occasion to mention. The doctrine of changes of crops is as old as the Georgicsy at On natural Phenomena, 339 Among the birds, whose departure I had observed, least. See Georgic lib 1. ver. 82. " Sic quoque mutatis, &;cj*' — which Dryden translates, — " Thus change of seeds for meagre soils is best, *' And earth manured ; — not idle, tho' at rest." I find too, that I learned at grammar school, the mode of improv- ing ia7id, by burning. See ver. 84, Sc seq. " Saepe etiam steriles incendere profuit agros," &c. whereof I give Dry den* s translation. — " Long practice has a sure improvement found, *' With kindled Jires to burn the barren ground ; " When the light stubble^ to the flames resign'd, " Is driv*n along and crackles in the wind. " Whether from hence the hollow womb of earth *' Is warm'd with secret strength for better birth ; *' Or when the latent vice is cur'd by fire, " Redundant humors thro' the pores expire ; " Or that the warmth distends the chinks, and makes " New breathings, whence new nourishment she takes ; " Or that the heat the gaping ground constrains, " New knits the surface, and new strings the veins, '' Lest soaking showers should pierce her secret seat, *' Or freezing Boreas chill her genial heat ; " Or scorching suns too violently beat." Some other excellent practices, deemed modern, might be shown to be more than seventeen hundred years old. Virgil has also anticipated Linnaus^ in his tests of the characters of seasons ; from observations on the Jloiveiing oi trees, or shrubs. See 1 Georg. v. 187. " Contemfilator item quum se JSfux plurima Silvisy" — kc. " Mark well ihejloivering alinojids in the wood,— " If od'rous blooms the bearing-branches load, *' The glebe will answer to the sylvan reign, " Great heats will follow, and large crops of grain. 1 340 On natural Ph^enomena, was the species of Hirundo^^^ called the chimney * Hirundo Pelasgia, See Vol. 5, Wilson's Ornithology, page 48, & seq. " But if a wood of leaves o'ershade the tree, " Such, and so barren, will the harvest be. " In vain the hind shall vex the threshing-floor, " For empty chaff and straw will be thy store." Dryden, Whatever be the fallacy or correctness of such prognostics ; they have existed from the earliest times. — Following this, we shall find the practice oi steeping seed-grain, mentioned ; — " Semina vidi eguidem multos medicare ferentes" &c. Also, culling or choosing the largest grain for seed ; (the best sub- stitute for change,) we perceive to be recommended. " Degcnerare tamen : n't vis humana quxjtannts^ &c. So that, with Solomon, one may truly say, " there is no new thing under the sun." We see that Virgil was of opinion, that grainy (like every other product,) has a tendency to deteriorate ; " dege- iierare.'* '——4——" Sic omnia fatis " In pejus mere, ac retro, sublapsa refer ri.*^ I give Dryden' s translation of what Virgil has said, on these sub- jects.— It would occupy too much room and time to take notice of other topics, treated on in his other books. " Some steep their seed, and some in cauldrons boil, " With vigorous nitre, and with lees of oil, " O'er gentle fires ; th' exuberant juice to drain, " And swell the flattering husks with fruitful grain. *' Yet is not the success for years assured, *' Tho* chosen is the seed, and fully cured ; " Unless the peasant, with his annual pain, " Renews his choice, and culls the largest grain, " Thus all below, whether by nature's curse, '' Or Fate's decree, degenerate still to worse. On natural Phcenomena, 341 SWALLOW. They are guiltless of depredations on our valuable products; and are destroyers of flies, and other insects which annoy us. Although their nests, and visitations in our chimneys, are unpleasant ; their arrival and departure are thereby the more strongly marked, and more evidently perceived. They aban- doned our houses uncommonly early in the last au- tumn. Soon after their arrival in the spring ; when they are in large and countlessly numerous flocks, frequenting hollow trees, chimnies, and caverns ; they separate for- breeding. So that they are not observed in numerous assemblage, until the chilly nights of au- tumn arrive. They then, with the reinforcements of their young, produced through the summer, congre- gate ; and again frequent, previously to their depar- ture, their usual places of rendezvous ; unless some disturbance to their former place of assemblage had been given : in which case they seek another point of collection for the occasion.* The places of their na- " So the boat's brawny crew the current stem, " And, slow advancing, struggle with the stream ; — " But if they slack their hands, or cease to strive, " Then down the flood, with headlong haste, they drive. * It would be endless, and probably, by some, not credited, to enumerate many instances of the vast numbers of chimney siuaU loius^ resorting to one place of rendezvous. I content myself with giving one indubitable account, related by some of the most re- spectable inhabitants of Merioru Mr. J. Williams is among the best characters in Montgomery county ; and lives near the gulf, in U/ifier Merion, The following is an extract of a letter I have 342 On natural Phenomena, tivity, or resort, they well know ; and visit, in vast lately received, from an intelligent friend. Dated February 18th, 1814. R. P. " Agreeably to your request, in company with Mr. H. we called " on Mr. Williams. As nearly as I can recollect, the following is " his story. " Some time in April last, in the evening, his kitchen chimney, " (the funnel large,) was entirely stopped by chijnney birds^ so that " the smoke would not ascend. The fire was put out, by the soot " and dust that fell. Being an old man, he feared it was something *' ominous ; and would not have them disturbed. But he, after- " wards, made up his mind, that if they returned, he would oust " them from their quarters. About the middle of May following, " in the evening, coming from his barn, he perceived the atmo- " sphere darkened by those birds. Presently, he saw them desce?7d- ^^ ing into the chimnies of his house and out houses ; till they all " disappeared. On going into his kitchen, his housekeeper ex- *' claimed ! There was nothing but smoke and dust within. He " called to his boy, at the barn, to bring a bundle of straw, and a " long-handled fork. He set the straw in ablaze, and pushed it up " the chimney. Down came the birds. Some without wings ; ** some without legs. The fire was smothered out ; and the floor " covered with the wounded. Their noise was so distressing, that " he was almost induced to leave the house. His intention had been " to scare,— not to maim them. He set his servants to collect both *' the dead and wounded. They counted between two and three " thousand ; and then gave it up as an endless job. They measured " about two bushels. His hogs were fond of them ; and feasted " on them, for several days.'* It is to be noted, that these were only the birds, which had made a lodgment in one chimney. Instances in proof of departure, for hybernation, and return, of birds, might be multiplied without number. The fact of local attach- ments, either natural or acquired, could also be amply verified. Martins ( Hirundo fmrjiurea) have had red cloth, and wire-rings, sowed and fastened round their legs. Those thus marked, have On natural Phenomena. 54^ flocks, for long courses of years ; in like instinctive predilections with beasts, who have regular haunts ; or FISH, who undeviatingly revisit the rivers in which they were bred ; after migrating, in the early stage of their existence at first, and thereafter when full grown, from their native streams, into the vasty and bound- less receptacle and nursery of the finny tribes, — the ocean. From this immense region of waters, they re- turn to the places of their usual resort ; for breeding, and continuing their species. And this appears to be a propensity common to all animals, in which instinct amply supplies the absence of reasofi ; and is, to them, the most unerring directrix. Who can now tell what agricultural uses might be made, by intelligent and observing men, of the migrations and return, oi birds, regularly returned after migrations, in the spring seasons of many years ; and made use of the boxes, placed for their accommoda- tion, by several persons who have related the facts to me. This animus revertendi, to places of resort, either native, or adopted, and habitually frequented ; is not confined to siuallows. Godfrey Esq. oi Cafie May, winged a wild goose ; which fell, and was caught. It was fed among his flock of tame geese ; and appeared domesticated. The wing, which had been broken, became again perfectly sound. The goose, through several sea- sons, fled away with the wild flocks, passing over Mr. G's proper- ty, towards their distant resorts, for hybernation. It returned, how- ever, every spring ; and associated, constantly, with the tame flock. Finally, by clipping its wings, its flight with the wild flock was in- terrupted and prevented. Its vagrant habit was changed ; audit became entirely stationary, and domified. Other instances, were it necessary to multiply them, could be given ; showing that birds, of other kinds, have the like propensi- ties. R. P. 344 On natural Phccnomena, beasts, dindijish, from and to their native districts of country, places of shelter from temporary inclemen- cies, or rivers ; in the tributary streams whereof, the latter cast their spawn ? To these they are directed by natural impulses, which never fail them in pointing to their objects, with more precision and certainty, than astronomical observations, the auxiliary direction of the needle, and all the aids, the deficient, though high- ly boasted, reason of man, requires. None of the ani- mals guided by instinct, regard the artificial divisions of months, or years. They are regulated by the ri- gour or mildness of seasons ; and are taught by the author of nature, when to appear in, and when to de- part from, the places of resort allotted to them. Plants in their early stages of advance or decline, are operat- ed upon by similar stimuli, or cautionary care ; and vegetation begins and ends, under the like influences of the state of season ; without regarding the artificial designations which man has invented, for his guidance. Seasons differing in their temperature so materially, cannot furnish general rules, applicable to every quar- ter of our globe. It is high time, therefore, that, pro- fiting by the suggestions of the great naturalist, and their evident reasonableness and utility, ive should make and promulgate observations, from whence the like corollaries may be drawn, for the practical uses of our husbandmen ; whose labours must prosper, or fail, according to the state of our climate and seasons ; and cannot be governed by the rules established in confor- mity with the climate and seasons, of other divisions of the world. Migration of Swalloxvs* 345 MIGRATION OF SWALLOWS. A SWALLOW TREE. If ever the swallow^ should become a bird, whose appearance in the spring, and departure in the autumn, would mark the seasons, as they regard agricultural operations ; the litigated point of hybernation here, would be of some importance. Yet their disappear- ance in the autumn might be noted, with nearly as much usefulness, even if they actually hybernated with us, and retired from view ; as the departure of birds indisputably migratory. This is vexata questio ; and I do not engage in it, as a controversialist. The hank swalloxv, and chimney bird, have been, by the advo- cates of lujbernation, the most relied on, for the facts adduced in support of that side of the question ; whe- ther they contend for their submersion, or their re- tirement into holes, trees, or other places, in which they have been alleged to pass away the period of sus- pended animation. I have, in the course of my life, met with instances of torpid bank swallows, taken out of ca- vities in stone quarries, both in winter and early spring ; which leave an impression on me, that, by nature they have a capacity to become sleepers, whhout injury, I have seen them, apparently inanimate, when brought into a warm room, — revive and become agile, and per- fectly capable of performing all their functions. I have heard of more than I have seen, of such instances. But I never saw one, which had hybernated in a state of submersion under water. Yet some fiicts on this point, are confidently alleged. I had, for a long time, settled the fact, in my own mind, that some species of the swallow, actually hy- bernated here. But, on more mature deliberation, and VOL. III. XX 346 Migration of Srw allows. attention to circumstances, I have thought myself mis- taken ; and that the few instances exhibited, were ex- ceptions to the generally credited averment of their migration ; and not solid evidence of the general fact ; in proof whereof those partial testimonies are pro- duced. What has been said by that able and much lament- ed ornithologist — Wilson^ — has tended to eradicate any remnants of credit, in which I have regarded my former opinion. But I have never ceased to hold my- self open to conviction ; should undeniable proofs be brought forward. Through several years past, some members of ^^The Blockley and Merion Society of Agriculture and rural Economy,^'' whose chair I have long had the pleasure to occupy, have related some of the strongest circum- stances, in proof of the hybernation of swallows, of the bank and chimney species, I had ever before heard. The country people, in the vicinity of an aged poplar^ growing on the western bank of the Schuylkill, nearly opposite the soap stone quarry, and about a mile from Crichthaum'' s mill, generally believed, that vast num- bers of chimney birds wintered in this ancient hollow tree. Season after season, they had, what they deemed, incontrovertible proofs. The birds were seen, in thou- sands, retiring into a large aperture, forty feet from the ground, in the beginning of winter. And, at the earli- est opening of the spring, they made their appearance again. In sunny and warm days, they had been seen, coming out and returning, in great numbers ; and re- tiring finally, as was supposed, into these their winter- quarters. The circumstantial evidence appeared, to Migration of Swallows. 347 some of our members (intelligent men, and very far removed from credulity, in other matters,) so strong ; that, on the arrangement hereafter mentioned being put in progress, bags were carried, for the purpose of bringing off torpid swallows. In order to satisfy the curiosity of some, and the earnest desire of others, to ascertain the fact, — we ap- pointed a committee, to take every measure the case required. In the first instance, holes had been bored, with a large auger, breast-high. Foria (Hquid ordure) of birds, as it appeared, mixed with swallow feathers, and rotten- wood-powder, issued from the holes. En- couraged by these appearances, ultimate measures were taken, A day was appointed, — ladders and ropes prepared, — and carpenters engaged to block the tree ; — for which purpose a stage was erected. Among other members, I attended ; and a concourse of people of the neighbourhood. The ladders were placed so as to enable a person to enter the aperture in the tree, near its forks. He descended, by a rope, through the dark tunnel, till he came within eleven or twelve feet of the surface of the ground. He lodged on a dry ajid soft footing ; and the opening into the tree, was cut, at this place, by the carpenters, of size sufficient to per^ mit a man to enter ; so that the whole interior of the tree was exposed to examination. The critical mo- ment arrived for development. — Expectation was on tiptoe ! — The composition of the soft^ and somewhat elastic collection of matter, which filled the lower ca- vity of the tree, — was found to be — not swallows /— ^ but the deposits of those birds, both feathers and or- dure,— mixed with the rotting and rotten remnants of 348 Migration of Swallows > the heart of the tree. A person went into the tree with a shovel, and threw out, to a considerable depth, the contents; which were intermixed with white worms, or maggots, and feathers of swallows, and of the eagle, and some other birds ; probably birds of prey, in quest of their victims. Every mark of swallows having fre- quented the tree, in great numbers, was evident. But not a bird, — dead or alive, — was seen. The day of examination was the 16th of the present month ; — suf- ficiently late in the season : and we were favoured with fine weather, for our reconnoissance. The opening we had made was closed ; to prevent the birds from aban- doning their v/onied asylum, on their return, next sea- son. So that this long credited testimony of hyberna- tion, entirely failed. If I have been too minute, I have been operated on by a desire to show, that every necessary measure was taken, to ascertain the truth, or fallacy, of a firm be- lief, which had been entertained for more than forty years, that this tree would furnish an irrefragable proof, in support of the doctrine of hybernation here, of this species of the swallow. The tree must be five or six feet in diameter ; and is in tolerable vigour. The thickness of the alburnum^ or sapwood, (for there is little else,) does not exceed six or seven inches. Yet it proves the doctrine men- tioned by Darwin, that the life of the tree is in the sapwood ; and the heart, being only a deposit from it, has little to do with its vigour, or growth. We saw here, that the heart was almost entirely gone. The in- terior was clear of all obstruction, up to the forks of the tree ; and was nicely polished by the wings of the Migration of Swallows* 349 birds, in their downward and upward flights ; w^hilst this place of retirement from chilly nights, or untime- ly inclemencies of the spring, or autumn, afforded, to the myriads who resorted thither, a comfortable shel- ter ; when they had collected, on their arrival from their winter quarters ; and before dispersion to breed ; and for more easy subsistence. Or, after their sum- mer, and during their autumnal abidance, they had reassembled, for departure, to seek mxore temperate re- gions; having arrived, in some years earlier, and depart- ed in others, later, on their distant flights, to and from milder latitudes. If one were to form a comparative esti- mate, between the smaller birds, and the wild pigeon, which flies sixty or eighty miles to its feeding place ; and returns to its nest or roost, between sun rise and ten o'clock in the same morning ; (see Wilson^ vol. 5,) we might conclude, that migratory birds may linger with safety, before they set out on their aerial voya- ges. They can soon arrive at their places of destina- tion. They breathe, in proportion to size, the great- est quantity of air, and are endowed with superior muscular strength, beyond any other animal.* * Some birds of passage hybernate with us, and leave us in the spring. One of these kinds is the short-eared owl, described by Wilson^ in his 4ih vokime. The numbers of 7?n'ce, moles^ and other vermin, destroyed by the iStrix brachyotos^ or short-eared oivl, are truly suprising. All the owl tribe are mousers. A pine tree, spreading and thick set, near my house, affords a shelter and roost to about a dozen of these owls, through the winters. The quantities of fur, teet!i, and mashed bones, of a variety of diminutive animals, — such as mice, moles, small squirrels, and probably also young rats, — contained in the or- 350 Migration and Return of Fish. MIGRATION, AND RETURN OF IISH. Whilst we were attending the operations necessary to the accomplishment of our object of exploring the supposed retreat of the swallows, the subject of migra- tions of various animals, was discussed. The elder Mr. Hagify an intelligent, and highly respectable resident, near the mouth of Mill creek, in il/moTz, reminded me of a fact well ascertained to me, respecting the Schuyl- kill SHAD. Twenty five or six years ago, it was brought forward in our legislature, when a bill was be- fore them, relating to dams and obstructions in naviga- ble waters, and streams frequented by fish ; to the breed dure of those useful and keen hunters, (among which, not a feather is to be seen,) most plentcously dropped under the tree, show the in- dustry, and astonishing powers of digestion, of these birds. A few of them, (and they generally are gregarious,) will soon clear the barns and outhouses of a farm ; and thin the vermin of fields in the vi- cinity of their head quarters. Farmers should encourage them to resort to roosts near their buildings ; and invite their visits in eve- ry way. I believe this species of the owl, guiltless of depredations on poultry. I had observed, during several summers, the extraordinary growth oi green grasSy* under the pine tree frequented by the owls ; but did not, until lately, perceive the cause. The ejections from them create a most uncommon fertility. They arrive in Pennsyl- vania, in November ; and leave us in April. They always return to the places from whence they migrated, unless disturbed and for- ced from them, by untoward circumstances. The services they render, by exterminating the pernicious vermin, which so ruinous- ly infest us ; fully compensate for the unmusical tones, by which their notes are distinguished. R. P. * Poa viridis. Migration and Return of Fish. 351 whereof, such obstructions are fatal. I could then have proved it by many witnesses ; and can now verify one similar, by referring to Mr. Hagy; than whom there can be no better authority. Sundry fishermen on the Schuylkill, in the months of August and September, when the young shad were descending the river, on their way to the sea, marked, I believe, about one hun- dred, in various modes. Some had slight scores, in the fleshy parts ; and others had parts of their tails and fins cut off. In the ensuing fishing season of the next year, upwards of thirty of these fish, full grown, were caught, at the fisheries, (mine included) above and be- low the great falls. Other marked fish, undotabtedly, passed up the stream. I have heard of more recent proofs ; but have no personal knowledge of them. Thirty years ago, Mr. Hagy was acquainted with similar facts. A considerable number of young shad were marked, in various ways ; and above thirty of them were caught at one now his own, and other fish- eries in his vicinity, during the ensuing season. Pro- bably, others were taken, at more distant fisheries, and the marks unnoticed. There can be no more incon- trovertible proofs, that fish, constantly and exclusive- ly, return to the rivers in which they are bred, * Connec- ticut river, formerly famous for the greatest plenty of SALMON, having been obstructed, in many places, by dams, has not now, (as I have heard,) in any parts of its waters, one of that most valuable species of fish. If they cannot arrive at their breeding places, they lin- ger in the lower waters, for a season or two ; but they * See Note, page '15 o. oo: Migration and Return of Fish, finally abandon the river ; and are there no more seen. This remark not only applies to the salmon ; but to every species offish. I have mentioned the foregoing facts, merely as in- cidents in natural history. They show, that the law- definition of fera natura, whose characteristical pro- perties are, by lawyers, said to be, that they are erra- tic, and do not possess the animus revertendi^ is not correct. Beasts have the like propensities to seek their native homes, Wiih fishy or birds. But all of them will change their haunts, or places of breeding and re- sort ; when uncommon circumstances occur. Neither have I, here, any view to plans for dam- ming rivers, for carrying on internal navigation. If the fish, in streams devoted to such purposes, are less va- luable than the object aimed at ; it is said to be an af- fair of calculation, (however much their destruction is to be lamented,) for those interested ; and an object of compensation to the sufferers. At least, it is thought so, by those who sacrifice the bountiful gifts of nature, to gainful pursuits. Public benefits, may overbalance private considerations. But the advantages, in this re- spect, ought to be extensive, and evident; and their accomplishment should be certain. Otherwise the fish of a whole river may be destroyed ; and the professed public benefits never attained. Canals leave the fish- eries uninjured ; and afford the safest and surest navi- gation. The BEDS OF RIVERS, subjcct to floods and their consequences, are generally avoided by Europe- an hydraulic engineers. The famous Brinley, in his examination before the house of commons, in Eng- land^ having spoken slightly of river navigation, was Migration and Return of Fish, 353 asked *^ zvhat then were rivers designed for ?" He an- swered— '^ to feed canals :^^ — or words to this efiect. Although this anecdote is well known, it is regarded with less consideration than it deserves. The quaint- ness of the reply, may not please those who are over- nice in such matters ; but the strong sense of prefer- ence he gives to canals^ over beds of rivers^ is decisive- ly shown. Than this self taught, but (in this branch, and in his day,) peerless hydraulic engineer, Europe has not produced one superior, in the fundamental prin- ciples and practical knowledge of the art, whereof he has exhibited the most convincing and stupendous proofs. Richard Peters. December 20th, 1813. To the PhilacL Agric, Soc. NOTE. Mr. Hagy^ and other of my friends, who furnished, and certified, the following proofs of the facts relating to the Schuylkill shady 2iVC among the principal and highly respectable inhabitants of Montgo- mery county. The proofs might have been multiplied, had it been required. R. P. About thirty years ago, John Roberts, Cooper, and myself, (in the fall season,) marked a considerable number of young shad, then from four to five inches long, by cutting off a part of the upper fin, or fork, of their tails ; in order, if possible, to ascertain whether they returned to the Schuylkill, in the following year. I was in- formed by Philip Shubert, and Jacob and John Colp, that they had caught, the ensuing spring, many full grown fish, marked as afore- said. Signed by order or request of my father, WILLIAM WARD. Per H. R. WARD. Lower Merion, \Oth March, 1814. VOL. Ill, y y 154 Migration a?id Return of Fish. Having been told by William Ward, that himself and John Ro- berts, cooper, had marked a number of small shad, the preceding fall season, in their passage down Schuylkill, for the purpose of knowing whether they returned to the same waters ; the following spring, I observed one fish ; and found the marks mentioned by said Ward, viz. a piece cut off the upper tail fin, or fork. We caught on the same day, at Port Royal, seven fish, bearing the same mark, of full growth and size. There were two or three hundred fish taken and sold on the same day, and among them there might have been more of the same mark. What induced the search was, that Joseph Johnson, one of the fishermen, took up a large shad, and observed, — " here is one of William Ward*s mark !"* — I was in- formed that at Peewee, the same season, seventeen of the same mark were caught. At an island, nincy and at another island called the Welch island, eleven. The four fisheries are all within a mile of each other. The shad were marked at the last mentioned fishery. JACOB COLP. Roxborough, Philadelfihia County^ March 10, 1814. We, the subscribers, have been long acquainted with William Ward and Jacob Colp, and know them to be persons of veracity, deserving full credit. WILLIAM HAGY, JOSEPH PRICE, JOHN BUSH, JONATHAN JONES, Montgomery County ^ March 10, 1814. * This shad is said to have weighed above eight pounds. At the place where the fin had been cut, there grew a lump, or gristle, about the size of a pea. This appeared in every marked fish. R. V C 355 ] Estinmte of the probable Profit in keeping one thousand Sheep, by Dr. Robert H. Rosey of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. Read February 3, 1814. We cheerfully insert the following information, respecting the capabilities of our new countries to raise and keep large flocks of sheep. It was not intended for publication ; but it has been deem- ed worthy a place in our memoirs. The regret we feel under the deficiency of information upon the popular subject of Sheep, is great indeed. We should have been gratified by receiving, and promulgating, statements founded in experience. Such might have been furnished ; practice having enabled many of our fellow citizens to afford facts, on a topic of such general concern. Those facts would encourage the timid ; or check the over ardent zeal of the miscalculating and unwary. The following is more conjectural than practical ; but it results from inquiries made by one of our very intelligent members, aided by other men of respectability ; whose opinions we highly value. Al- though it appears to be local, as to the scene in which the data are placed ; yet it will equally well apply to all our new countries, un- der the like circumstances wi^h Susquehanna county ; as most of them are. It will, at least, furnish hints, of no small importance to those who would wish to give value to their newly settled, or settling property ; by encouraging its occupants to enter into the sheep business, on a suitable scale ; especially in situations wherein i^razing is preferred to iillat^e. The following calculation, respecting* the cost of keeping one thousand sheep, in Susquehanna county, is made by Captain Birchard, Z. Bliss, and P. Catlin, Esq. whom I consider as among the most prudent and judicious men in our county. 356 On Sheep. Captain Birchard thought two hundred acres of clear- ed land would be a large allowance for meadow and pasture. The other two gentlemen thought one hun- dred and sixty six acres a sufficiency ; sixty- six in meadow, and the rest in pasture. The part reserved for meadow to be pastured after harvest. They all calculated the produce of the reserved part, to be a ton and a half of hay per acre. It should be observed, that we have no watered meadows in Susquehanna county, and the above quantity of hay they considered as being yielded by sixty-six acres, well selected, and which the sheep should be prevented from pasturing on in the spring. The questions were asked of each one alone, so that no one knew the sentiments of the others, on the sub- ject, till after he had given his own. Capt. Birchard. Expense of making the hay, ]S 150 do. for salt, 40 do. corn, potatoes, Sec. 20 do. attendants, 400 do. w^ashing & shearing 40 Z. Bliss. p. Catlin. S200 S200 16 8 75 75 400 585 60 50 S 650 .^751 S 918 Captain Birchard and 'squire Bliss calculated on one man and two boys being sufficient to attend the flock. Mr. Catlin calculated on two men and two boys. On being informed of the number of attendants, allowed to the flock by the other gentlemen, he said he thought he had overrated the labour, and was inclined to be- lieve that they were right. He estimated the labour of each man, together with his maintenance, at % 195. On Sheep. 357 ^ . This sum, deducted from his total, would leave the estimates thus : Captain Birchard, % 650, Z. Bliss, Z 751, P. Catlin, S 723. Their estimates of the wool, and increase of the flock, were exactly the same, viz. An increase of 500 per annum, (after making up all losses,) at S 2, - - % 1000 Three pounds of wool per fleece at 50 cents, 1500 2500 From this deduct the greatest estimated expense, - - - - - 918 Annual profit, - . . . - S 1582 It was understood that the flock should have the common proportion of wethers in it. These calculations are made on the common sheep ; the profit would of course be greater on the improved breeds. All these gentlemen concur in opinion, that the increase of sheep is much greater here than in Con- necticut, (from whence they came,) a much greater proportion of the ewes having twins; and that in weight of fleece and carcass, the sheep of Susquehanna county exceed those of Connecticut by at least one third. Mr. Catlin's flock is about one hundred and fifty, amongst which are several full blooded Merinos. They think the settlers on any tract, could easily, in addition to their present stock of cattle, keep twenty sheep each, on an average, which for three hundred settlers, would be 6000, and yield 18000 pounds of wool. In three years from this time, if a woollen manufactory were established at the lake, they think the settlers would 358 On Sheep. have double that number. At present they may have about 3000 sheep in the settlement : though I believe hardly so many. It is common to let out sheep here, and the usual mode is, for the person who takes them, to return dou- ble the number, or value, in three years — he keeping the surplus, and the vi^ool. Another mode of letting out sheep is, at a pound of wool, annually, a head, the person taking them being responsible for their safety. The latter, it is supposed, would be generally prefer- red by the settlers, and that from one to two thousand sheep might be distributed among them next summer. It is supposed that it takes six years to change a flock of common sheep into Merinos. Price of 1000 common ewes, - JS 2000 Value of 1000 Merinos, at the end of six years, estimated at S 20, - - 20000 Difference of value in six years, - S 18000 The annual increase has been estimated at 500, and these valued at S 1000. But this amount would be gradually increased by the conversion of the common sheep into Merinos, on the first year they would be half bloods, — second year, three quarter bloods, &c. Take therefore some medium value for the progeny, say ten dollars a head. On 500 this would be S 5000. The difference per annum would therefore be S 4000, which in six years is % 24000. Add this to the above dif- ference in value of the flock in six years, (18000) and it gives an increased profit in that time of S 42000. Be- sides which, the profit on the wool would also be gra- On Sheep. 359 dually increased, as it improves in fineness or quantity. To eiFect the above change, a certain number of Me- rino rams would be necessary in the commencement. It is calculated with us, that Clearing and fencing cost per acre, - S 12 00 One bushel of wheat sowed per acre, 1 50 Harrowing, (we don't plough,) - - 3 00 Harvesting, - - - - 2 00 Threshing, - - - - - -3 75 Total, 22 25 The first cost may be fairly estimated at 20 bushels of wheat per acre, which at S 1 50 the price it commonly sells for, between spring and harvest, is - - - 30 00 Which leaves a profit, (besides paying the above expenses) of, per acre, - - S 7 75 From which it appears, that the cleared land necessa- ry to support a thousand sheep, could scarcely be con- sidered as adding to the expense of their support. I think the foregoing calculation moderate. I have ask- ed some of the best farmers among my settlers, the amount of their crops the present season. John Swan, Isaac Hiscock, and Abel Pearcc, say they had 25 bush- els of wheat per acre. William Ladd had 33 bushels of rye. Lark Moore had 33 bushels of wheat. Swan, Hiscock and Pearce's crops, 25 bushels, at S 1 50, would be, - - - S 37 50 Deduct for clearing, &c. 22 25 Profit per acre, B 15 25 560 On Sheep. William Ladd's crop of rye, 33 bushels, at S 1 33 00 Deduct for cleaning, &c. 22 25 Profit per acre, % 10 75 Lark Moore's crop, 33 bushels of wheat at S 1 50, - . - 49 50 Deduct for clearing, &c. 22 25 Profit per acre, S 27 25 If you take the lowest estimate of these, the profit of clearing 1000 acres would be, S 10750 Which would pay for the land at - - 3000 And leave a balance, (sufficient to put up the necessary buildings,) of - - - jS 7750 To keep 5000 sheep in this country, would require about one thousand acres of cleared land. This, near Philadelphia or Wilmington, of a good quality, pro- bably could not be got for less than forty or fifty dol- lars per acre.* I presume the farms there have at least one fifth part of wood land attached to them. This would make 1250 acres, and at forty dollars per acre, would cost S 50000, the third part of which sum would in this country, procure the land, sheep, and set a small manufactory in operation. I believe that very few of the farms near Philadelphia or Wilmington, are equal to our lands for grazing. * Dr. R. might now double his estimate, in this item. On Sheep. 361 All the above caiculations tend to prove the advan- tages of raising sheep in this county. Even one half of the estimated profits on the items, would be very great. If sheep can be raised to profit in places where the land sells from fifty to one hundred dollars per acre, surely the business might be very successfully carried on here. I know of no upland country, where the timber is principally oak and chesnut, as it is in Dela- ware, and the lower part of this state, where the com- mon fields, that are well seeded, if kept from grazing, will turn out from one to two tons of hay per acre, as ours will, and this without manure or irrigation. Our timber is principally beech, sugar maple, hemlock, ash, birch, basswood, elm, chesnut, cherry, and white pine, and the soil a deep loam. The only grasses raised in the county, are clover and timothy. To the foregoing calculations of profit might be ad- ded the increased value of the land employed, after it was well laid down to grass, especially if a manufacto- ry were erected in the vicinity ; and as the lands here are rising rapidly in value. Four years ago, I sold my land from one dollar and an half, to two dollars per acre. I now sell from three to four dollars per acre, according to situation, giving three years without interest. This is lower than any other lands in the county. Were my lands in the state of New York, and equally situated, as it respects market, 8cc. they would sell for from seven to ten dol- lars per acre.^' They are rising fast in value. I sell to * This is a mortifying reflection, for Pennsijlvania landholders. It shows a superior manai^ement in the policy of our sister State. VOL. III. ^' z 362 On Sheep. none but actual settlers, and in lots from one to two hundred acres, generally. Facilities to transportation, by roads and inland navigation, (with some natural advantages,) are the magical powers. Although our state lingered too long, before public assistance and patronage were afforded to those great public improvements, it is encouraging to perceive the important advances, now in progress, to remedy the oversight. But much remains to be done. R. P. Common Sheep ; coarse, long, and combing Wool. Read February 8, 1814. Some members of our society are apprehensive, that calling the attention of farmers to coarser wools, would tend to damp the laud- able endeavours now making, to increase the numbers of sheep with fine fleeces. No such intention exists in my mind. But common sheep want an advocate ; whilst, with laudable prejudices in their favour, those of fine fleeces recommend themselves. I am as de- sirous as any one can be, to forward every measure for propagating the breeds of fine woolled sheep. I consider the addition of the Sfianish sheep^ which the troubles of the oppressed country from whence they came, have occasioned our acquiring, to be a blessing most important to the interests, all of us should cherish. But ^ocks iov every fiurp-ose, are essential; and must be encouraged. There is room enough for every variety ; and no incompatibility in their being objects of profitable attention, in different quarters of our extensive country. See 2d vol. 214-15, 241, &c. In the English prints,* it will be seen ; that apprehensions are * Extract from an Eng-lish print. London^ December 23c/, 1813. *' An enormous advance has taken place on carpeftingy blankets, dniggets, coarse cloths ,• and most kinds of woollen goods. In the rage for encouraging; the fine breeds of sheep, the agriculturists seem to have forgotten, that tlif- Common Sheep, 363 now 'entertained, in Great Britain, of a scarcity of wools for the coarser fabricks ; owing to the more general attention to sheep of fine fleeces. The neglect of the common breeds, is already severe- ly felt. The wools of common sheep in this country, I have long believed, are finer than those of the like species in Eurofie. Our climate has a favourable influence on the filament of wool. But the combing and coarser wools, for articles most generally required, are as in- dispensable, as are the men composing the great mass of our po- pulation, who daily stand in need of them. Whilst men of refined taste and manners, and superior endowments, are the ornaments of society ; the labouring classes are the strength and bulwarks of every country. Their accommodation, within their capacity to ob- tain, at reasonable rates, the articles they cannot dispense with, should always be objects of peculiar attention. The fabricks pro- duced from common fleeces, and coarser wools, are among these objects ; and are, indeed, essential to the comforts of every member of our community, whatever may be his wealth, his acquirements, or his condition. In vain shall we look to foreign nations, to sup- ply deficiencies in our own country ; if the coarser wools are also scarce dPhiong them. Were it, from inevitable necessity, to be de- cided by a general vote, whether fine fleeced, or common, coarse, and long woolled sheep, should be stricken out of existence ; the wants of mankind would compel the suffrage in favour of the latter. The calculations of those who pursue exclusively, the fine-wool system, are,—-" How much money can be made, by fine and high priced fleeces and fabricks ?" " Make money, (a most desirable object, no doubt,) and you can buy all things." — Nevertheless, without plenty of long and coarse, or common and appropriate wools, money will not buy a competent supply of good blankets.* grand staple manufactures of this country are produced from Uie long" wools of the old native growth ; which are now scarcely to be obtained, at double tlieir former prices; while the demand for the finer sorts, is, comparatively trifling-." * iMy duty, during the war of the revolution, called my attention to the clothing of our troops, Multitudes became disabled, and great numbers pe« 364 Comino7i Sheep, The value ofthis article consists in its weight, as well as in its ma- nufacture ; in which latter, American workmen are lamentably de- ficient. Wools are so much applied to other purposes, that our workmen have not had the necessary practice, to teach them per- fection. Render scarce by neglect, or annihilate, the materials whereof it is made ; and the golden dreams, as to the capacity of money to buy even this article, so common and so necessary, both to the rich and the poor, — vanish at once. The true question, as it concerns the general welfare, is ; — " What material will produce the greatest abundance of fabricks, essential to the health and comforts of the greatest number of our fellov/-men ?" This material will be demanded by the most peo- ple ; and therefore, in the end, yield the most money, in the ag- gregate. Should this be, finally, the result ; though it may noW be otherwise, — our patriotism will be stimulated by our cupidity.— We should not calculate merely on Jleece, — Farmers have different views, from those of flock-masters. The former pursue Cidley's opinion ; which, to farmers (who do not keep sheep for the fleece alone,) will be found, generally, correct ; though temporary cir- cumstances may form exceptions. — " That breed is the best, that brings the most profit in fleece and carcass together, from tfce same ground.'* Cull ey on livestock, 153. He has judiciously added,— *' in equal times."— For valuable fleeces induce the procrastinating the slaughtering sheep bearing them, 'till the carcasses are of lit- tle value ; and, at any rate, prevent plentiful supplies of them. Should such as have been grazing and dairy farms, be now de- voted to shee^i, beyond a due proportion, it will (as already begins to be apprehended,) tend to decrease the numbers of cattle^^ of all descriptions ; and, of course, diminish the quantities of beef, veal, butter, and milk, in our markets. Mutton^ is not, generally, relish- ed by our labouring people. Should necessity force it on them, as a substitute for beef, the flocks affording the greatest plenty of mut- ton, and the most inviting carcasses, will be the most in demand ; be the breed producing them what it may. I enter into no discus- rlshed, for want of blankets, which we could not supply. Painful recollections have induced me to notice this article, emphatically. Very many others might be mentioned. R- I*- Cofnmon Sheep. 365 sions on this subject. In the English prints, I perceive very warm, and even acrimonious controversies, on this point ; on which, after all, the e^fierience of sheep-breeders, and the taste or fancy of con- sumers, must decide. I have been long of opinion, that an immense and certain supply of wool, either for home manufacture, or exportation, could be most surely obtained, by a distribution of sheep, in small flocks, of the va- rious and best breeds, among the farmers of our old settlements.— The more of those bearing fleeces the most in demand for general purposes, and of the best carcasses for mutton, — the better. They might be, however, calculated either for wool or mutton. But a good fleeced sheep, (though the wool be not of the finest filament,) with a saleable and superior carcass, will be most eligible for the great body of husbandmen. Each farmer would keep more careful- ly, and in the best order, the numbers his other agricultural employ- ments would permit ; and, on this plan that number, should not be ex- ceeded. Large flocks may be established by capitalists. 7%ei/ would find their account in extensive establishments, conducted as a busi- ness, separate from the common and more confined operations in husbandry. In our new countries, wherein ready markets for com- mon products are not attainable, sheep establishments may be made highly advantageous. ^\x\. factories must be combined with them. These would not only be profitable in themselves, but they would create markets, both for the wool and the mutton, as well as other pro- duce of farms. Dr. Bose seems to be sensible of this ; and has con- nected factories of cloth with his plan of raising sheep, and improving their breeds. But he will have, also, to procure the best breed of shepherd's dogs;* which are essential, as guards against * See Appendix. I think the rAld beasts of the forest, are not more dan- gerous to sheep, than are tbe dogs of our settled country. A true sheep- killing dog attacks the sheep, exactly in the mode in which a wolf destroys them. They both seize the neck and throat and gorge themselves with the blood. See 2d vol. 247 and 317. Tlic following, I extract from a newspa- per. It is well worthy attention and preservation. The quarter from whence it comes, induces a belief in its efficacy. The neck and throat being the points aimed at, if repellents are placed there, it seems the destroyer avoids them. It would, however, be advisable not to ti'ust entirely to 366 Common Sheep, 'wolves, and other beasts of prey, in our new countries. In our old settlements they are as necessary to protect flocks from other this method. Sheep have been preserved from destruction by dogs by col' lars filled with sharp pointed nails. No doubt the same guard against ivolves^ would be equally effectual.* Many smells are disgusting to animals. It is a jockey's trick, — calculated to throw the work on a dull horse, — or one not his own, — coupled with another horse, to rub assafxtida, aloes, or some forbidding drug, on the horse he wishes to spare. The other horse presses forward, with ceaseless exertion, to leave the nauseating scent behind him. The dog and the tvoI/ may have an antipathy to the smell, and taste, of the loathsome ointment hereafter described. Should the unguents required to cure the cutaneous diseases of the Merijioes, shield them from dogs and loolves ; no small good would flow from a most deplorable evil. I believe the horse has an antipathy to assafosiida. This is otherwise with other animals. Possibly those which even like the smell when slight, are disgusted, when it is heavy and powerful. This may be the case, with the horse. Wolves are enticed by a trail, or bait, tinged with assafcetida. RatSy and wice, are fond of this drug, or that of mnsk ; though they prefer the odour of the oil of vhodittm, to any other. I have heretofore mentioned, that -ivhite-iuash embued with oil of vitriol, is a repellent to flies, which will not settle on a wall covered with this mixture. The sulphuric acid also banishes bugs from bedsteads. It would be greatly beneficial to farmers, gardeners, and all who are sub- ]ect to be visited by destructive vermin, if the nature and qualities of any substances, drugs, plants, flowers, &c. likely to be thus useful, were studied; with tlie view to discover their repelling-, as well as inviting facul- ties. JSWer powers, Ave know, drive off' some insects; mhify others. Pennij- royal will expel ^eas, from beds, or apartments infested by them; and may be used either in substance, infusion, or decoction, for banishing this vile pest, from dogs, sivine, or other animals. Hound'' s-tongue, is detested by mice and moles. The smell of dead crabs and lobsters, is also disgusting to them. It will also expel, from a granary, the loeevil. Tobacco is so inviting to ~vee- •vil, that there is no surer way of completely destroying them, than placing refuse tobacco, in gi-anaries. The weevil eat, greedily, of the tobacco, and die. I could enumerate other instances ; but those I have mentioned, aie sufficient to shew the uses to which the subject may be applied. * SHEEP. *' A simple and effectual method of preventing the destruction of sheep by <* wolves. — Communicated to the Society for the promotion of Useful Arts In Common Sheep. 367 dogs, equally dangerous with the wild beasts of our forests. The sheep-killmg dogs are more difficult to destroy ; because many of their owners are scarcely ever sufficiently sensible of their enormi- ties ; and seldom liberal enough to permit, without resentment, or opposition, their destruction. So far are just sentiments from being generally entertained on this subject ; that some owners of common dogs, have indulged their vindictive passions to the inju- ry of flock-masters ; whose faithful guardians have, in defence of their charge, wounded or killed other dogs, lying in wait, or act- ually found, under the most suspicious circumstances, among flocks. It is idle to keep inferior sheep ; which are equally expensive *With the best breeds, and yield the smallest profit. In the selec- tions of breeds we should, however, be regulated by a sound dis- cretion and attention to circumstances. Varieties and plenty of " the state of New -York, by Ezra L'Hommedieu, vice president of the soci- " ety. " Mr. Walter Briggs, a respectable farmer in Scoharie, who keeps a lai-ge "number of sheep, informs me that he loses noiie of them by wolves, which " are plenty in that part of the country, and cannot be driven off or desti-oy- *'ed except by traps. — He makes an ointment, composed of gunpowder and *• brimstone, powdered fine and mixed with tar and gurr}-, or currier's oiL *' With this he anoints the under part of the throat of the sheep. It must be "renewed as often as the ointment becomes dry, or loses its moisture, which " will be four or five times in a season. — He says he has lost no sheep since he " has been in this practice, and has often seen the wolves' tracks among the " shecps' tracks in the fields. He had a parcel of sheep which had been out *' a number of weeks, and no care taken of them, except their necks being " anointed with this ointment, when he was informed by his neighbor that the " sheep were at his house, and that early on Sunday morning they came "running into his door-yard — he looked out of the window, and saw a wolf "among them, who ran from one sheep to another, and jumped upon them, " but did not offer to bite any of them. The sheep were brought home, and " none of them injured by the wolf *'I tliought it advisable to make this communication to the societ}% as "many parts of our country are so infested i)y wolves, that they are obliged *' to yard tlieir sheep every night, to prevent their being destroyed by tho.sc " voracious animals." 368 Common Sheep* clothing are as essential to the demands, support, and comfort, of man, as varieties and plenty of food. Fine wool is only suitable for certain fabrics, which are within the pecuniary ability of the less portion of the community. Yet fine v/ool should be an object of great consideration ; and every encouragement should be given to breeds producing it. But ali classes of our people, whether rich or poor, require, in whole or in part, the fabrics which fine wool will not make. Even the Merino^ when mixed with the better kinds of common wool, works more advantageously ; both for the manufacturer and the fabric. Let any one inquire of those who have had, and of those who now have, the providing of supplies of clothing, blankets, S^c. for our troops, (if he be not satisfied with his own experience,) relative to the fact of scarcity of coarse wool, and the fabrics composed of it. He will find, that those articles are difficult to be obtained ; beyond all comparison with those made from fine wool. A large contract for coarse woollens, for the army, was offered to the pro- prietor of an extensive manufacturing establishment. It was refu- sed ; not only on account of the greater profit on fine cloths ; but because the raw material for the coarse goods, could not be profit- ably or easily obtained. The scarcity of animal wool, has forced the incompetent substitute of cotton ; wheresoever it can, in any tolerable degree, answer the purposes required. I am aware that no inconsiderable portion of wool is withheld, from the market, by household manufactures ; — a most com- mendable mode of employing it. But it does not follow, that all this is coarse wool. On the contrary, we know, that country peo- ple have a laudable pride in devoting their finest and best fleeces to their own use. Household manufactures may have increased, (owing to the present state of things,) beyond their usual standard. If so, it is a most desirable and fortunate event. Such manufac- tures deduct no labour from agriculture ; nor are they subject to the objections, vicissitudes, and expense, attendant on large manu- facturing establishments. Nevertheless it must be apparent, that articles requiring the coarser wools, either for household or other manufiictures, will continue to be more and more scarce, in p. j- Common Sheep. 369 portion to the increase of fine woolled sheep ; which naturally leads to the neglect of other breeds. I do not presume to direct public opinion ; or regulate private propensities. But, at the same time, I do not hesitate to declare, that a spirit should be roused and encouraged, for breeding the long woolled and heavy fleeced sheep, calculated for worsteds, blankets, and all the coarser fabricks. Such sheep, or some of them, would th; ive in our new countries ; and in parts of older settlements, where coarser grasses, and more moist grounds, ren- der the pastures less fit for fine woolled sheep; both as they respect quality of esculent and insalubrity, or other forbidding circum- stances attending the position. But sheep of all breeds thrive most in wholesome, dry, and high situations. The rot is the malady of sheep fed on wet pastures. It is, howeverj little known in this country. The world has been long in a state so precarious and unnatural, that persons of more penetration than I pretend to, may be egre- giously mistaken in their anticipations, concerning the affairs of our own, or other countries. But, it would seem, that, if peace should return, within a short time, our manufactories will be the most in demand, for furnishing the coarser fabricks ; because they are the most generally in requisition ; and are not so injuriously subject to European competition.* If the necessary materials for * Some who have embarked extensively in manufactures, may probably kave more correct views of tlie subject; and think that we can, with the most certain prospects of success, compete in fne woollen goods.— At an} rate, the necessity and demand for them will be limited. What will be the state of our manufactures, when peack is durably esta- blished, and commerce resumes its wonted course, I do not pretend to fore- see. Those of cottou seem to bid fairest, for most permanent success. Our commerce, and all the manuflictures, arts, and occupations, dependent upon, or auxiliary to it, have been suffered to linger, or perish. It is, then, not confidently to be expected, that those growing out of the ruins of external trade will be more favourably treated, after the occasion which brouglit tliem into existence has passed away. It will be deemed too great a stretch of patriotism iu consumers, to pay more for domestic than for foreign goods, even if of equal quality. High protecting duties will be found to promote fraud and perjury; and to starve the tieasury. Local jealousies will forbid VOL. III. '^ ^ 370 Commoji Sheep. fabricks composed of long and coarser wool, and those made from the wool of heavy fleeced sheep, should, as they now are, and will be, wanting, Avhen they are indispensibly required ; we shall still remain under dependence on foreign countries, for a great propor- tion of the woollens, most generally in use. I should be the last, to encourage speculative, or speculating pursuits. But appearances strongly favour the idea, that plans for raising fine wooUed sheep exclusively, are the most zealously and extensively adopted. This propensity, to a certain point, possi- bly not yet reached, is highly worthy of praise. But, it assuredly, throws into the back ground, the breeds of other descriptions. Of course^ their numbers decrease ; while the demand for them con- tinues undiminished. I should therefore presume, that those who would calculate their breeds of sheep, (well selected, both as to stock and local circumstances,) for the coarser woollens for cloth- ing, and all other articles of accommodation, composed of animal wool ; and to which fine fleeces cannot be applied ; would secure to themselves solid and certain advantages, and greatly benefit their country ; either on the happy and most desirable return of peace, or the continuance of our hostile position. I do not mean, here, to designate any breed, particularly. If f had so intended, I should not have omitted the Timi's broad tailed sheep, which still holds its valuable character, in my estimation j sacrifices by one section of the union in which manufiictories of woollen goods are not numerous, to encourage those established extensively in ano- ther division of our country ; more especially when no direct equivalent benefit is derived from such encouragement. Every manufacture must therefore depend, for its success and durability, on its own merits. AVhe- ther the manufactures whereof fine wools are the materials, be or not capa- ble of resisting competition, and finally securing, by their own excellence, the success essential to their durability ; experience only can decide, lyarge capitalists are the most concerned in such questions, and can resist, with the most likelihood of success, the shock of sudden vicissitudes. — Prudent /armers should, individually, embark so moderate a proportion of their means, in objects thus subject to the vacillations of public circum- stances, as not to risk being ruinously affected, m whatever way the sub- ject may finally settle down, K- F. Common Sheep. 371 and is capable of thriving, in every situation. It would be pre- sumption in me to point out any particular breeds. — Local circum- stances,— such as damp or dry pastures, — mountainous or flat country, — short and fine, — or long and coarse, bites, — heathy and barren browsing, — and numberless other circumstances, must gov- ern the selection ; and experience only can decide on the success. Large sheep, of any breed, are the least profitable. I have in our i?d vol. page 219, fully expressed an opinion on this subject. Some have said, — " Encourage the growth of fine wools ; and there will be a sufficiency of common wool, in the sorting, cull- ings, and ofH^ils of fine fleeces.'* But this is, for the most part, an erroneous opinion. As much care and judgment are necessary, in growing wools appropriate to the various coarser fabricks ; as can be required in the growth of the finest fleeces. True, offals, cullings, and ordinary parts, may be niixed^ in many coarse arti- cles. But in most of those peculiarly necessary and valuable; the wool, in the great body of it, must be exactly suitable to the fabrick. The wool of fleeces may, and must be, sorted by intelli- gent 9tafilersj so as to suit different fabricks. But no sorting can, profitably, substitute short wool, where long is required ; nor vice versa. The long or short, and the fine or coarse, filament, depend entirely on the breed of the animal, and the keep. Intelligence, and care, in the farmer or flock master, are the predominant essentials, indispensibly required to ensure the value and welfare of the flock.* R. PETERS. January^ 1814. * See our 2d vol. 215, 221. 07* In our selections will be seen excellent directions, extracted from Evans Sc Ruffy's Farmers* Journal. London^ Sept. 20ih, 1813; for the keeping, washing, shearing, and marking of sheep and lambs. Taken from an official document ; signed by Mr. Dix, secretary to the farming society of Ireland, [ 372 ] Account of Montague, a shepherd's dog^ by Mr. F. JBaudui/, of Delaware, Read February, 1814. Dear Sir, I received your letter of the 27th inst. it was the first knowledge I had of the information you request- ed, respecting the dogs imported from Spain. I think that too much cannot be said, to encourage their pro- pagation throughout the United States. Therefore I recommend the subject to your able pen. We have heretofore laboured under very great dis- advantages with regard to our flocks ; I am at a loss to know, whether the destruction of sheep by dogs in this country does not exceed that by wolves in Europe. The imported dog from Spain is a very great security to our flocks. I will not undertake to determine from what breed he springs. Buffon thinks that the shepherd dog is the root of all the canine race. The dog you enquire after is three times as large as the shepherd's dog de- scribed by BufFon; but is endowed with the same good qualities ; immense strength, great mildness in his usual deportment, though ferocious towards other dogs. I can say, without exaggeration, that at least 20 dogs have been killed in my barn-yard or on my farm by him ; but this good quality is like all things in this world attended with an evil; for I find that Montague has as many enemies as I have neighbours. My fellow citizens have no objection to their dogs destroy- ing my sheep, but a very great one to see my dog kill Montagne. 373 their dogs ; here sir I want your help, here the welfare of the country requires your eloquence, to prove that it is ungenerous and selfish, to prefer the death of a va- luable Merino, to that of an insignificant whelp or cur. I annex to this a picture of Montagne, with his di- mensions, he is a fine animal, entirely white, I prefer that colour in recollection of the story of old Jacob. In fact I had formerly a black dog, and many of my lambs were born black. Since I have Montagne and his mother, I have very few black lambs. The natural instinct of this animal is to guard your sheep against wolves and dogs ; no other training is required but to keep them constantly with your flock, the moment they are from the litter, until they are grown. P. BAUDUY. [ 374 ] On Succession oj Timber^ by R» Peter Sy President of the Agricultural Society. Read April 12, 1814. Belmont, March 22c/, 1814. Dear Sir, I had considered the subject of changes of timber, on spots which had been deprived of precedent growths, either by artificial or natural means, to be at rest. I conceived that, although publishing the facts related in our first volume, had excited the curiosity of some, and the incredulity of others ; yet the circumstance was generally acknowledged by every one who had given themselves the trouble to attend to it. I was surprised, however last year, by its having been as- serted, that the country in which our valley forge en- campment was situated,^ during the revolution- war, would incontestibly refute my doctrine. I had wit- nessed, at the time, the havock and vast scene of de- struction among the timber there. Knowing the ex- tent and variety of the desolation, my curiosity was excited to gain information of. the renewal, or succes- sion of the timber. I accordingly wrote to Isaac Wayne, Esq. the worthy son of my old friend, the late General TVayne. It seems that his letter, containing the information I wished, most unfortunately miscar- ried. He has, however, been so obliging as to send the enclosed account of facts, from his recollection. It suiRciently proves every thing required. So far from justifying the suggestion I have before mentioned, it Gn Timber Succession. 375 fully supports the facts and opinions I had formerly- promulgated. These are now generally agreed to be correct ; though at first many had doubts respecting them. Every opportunity I have had, has fully con- firmed what I have asserted. I never attempted to account for this wonderful occurrence in the course of natural operations. Theories as to plants, and the ne- cessity of changes, are to be found in celebrated writers. Practical and intelligent farmers find them indispensa- ble. The great use of the iacts concerning changes of timber, is, to incite us, in our agricultural pursuits, to regard the phenomena, which the beneficent Cre- ator exhibits, in the grand scenery of nature, for our instruction. The propensities evidenced in natural products, to changes and successions on a great and extensive scale, point out, most evidently to us, the wisdom of imitations in our more contracted con- cerns ; by attending to the salutary practice of changes and rotations of crops. It was with a view to their exemplary and practical advantages, that I gave, at first, and now repeat, the information, with which I troubled the society. Your's, very sincerely, Richard Peters Dr. James Mease. [ 376 ] [saac JVayney Esq* on Timber at Valley Forge, EastowHy Chester County ^ March 4th, 1814. Dear Sir, It is a source of regret to me, that my letter to you, either of September or October last, should have mis- carried ; especially as the enclosures were completely corroborative of the opinions and facts which you have repeatedly stated on the subject of the change of timber ; and I regret the miscarriage of this letter the more, because I have not a copy of either the letter or the enclosure ; and death has recently deprived me of a very valuable source of information, the late wor- thy John Bartholomew, Esq. whose statement was en- closed, setting forth in detail many facts and observa- tions relative to the change of timber ; more particu- larly of that, on, and within the vicinity of the old en- campment, near the Valley Forge. From the best recollection I have of the said state- ment ; it contained (inter alia) the following facts. That the timber prevalent about Valley Forge, pre- viously to its being fallen for the use of the American army, in the autumn of 1777, and winter and spring of 1778, consisted of white oak, black oak, Spanish oak, rarely interspersed with scrubby chesnut and hickory. That the ground on which white oak was formerly the most conspicuous, now exhibits black oak, hicko- ry and chesnut, in abundance, and in great perfection. On Timber at Valley Forge. 377 That where bkick oak had been most general, white oak, hickory and chesnut now plentifully exist. That of the hickory and chesnut, there were at least 16 to 1 of what grew on the same ground in the year 1777 ; and that these two latter species of timber, were now flourishing, in the highest degree, in many places where no other timber formerly grew, than v^diite oak, black oak, and Spanish oak. That notwithstanding the old encampment, and the ground within its vicinity, yet present considerable quantities of timber, similar to that which was cut in the autumn of 1777, and the winter and spring of 1778; it has originated almost universally from the old stumps or roots. Since I had the pleasure of last conversing with you on the subject of the change of timber, I have availed myself of opportunities of mentioning to several in- telligent characters, the statements which I have re- ceived, with respect to the change of timber, on the ground of the old encampment, and its vicinity ; and they have, without exception, confirmed the general facts above stated. I have only to add, that from re- cent information, the farmers, in many parts of this county, are so decidedly convinced of the change of timber ; that they reluctantly cut their full grown w^hite oak, black oak, and hickory ; knowing that these spe- cies will be succeeded by some other, of a quality in- ferior for fuel. Believe me to be, Sir, with great respect, your obedient servant, Isaac Way.ve. Richard Peters, Esc^. VOL. III. B 3 [ 378 ] Observations upon Mr. NeiWs Hedges,"^ and on the 7node of trimtnmg Thorn Hedges, by James Mease, M.D. Read, August 10, 1813. Being desirous of knowing accurately the mode adopted by Mr. Neill, in making his hedges, I paid him a visit on the 26th of last month. I found his hedges to consist of the following species of thorns. 1. The American cockspur, {Crattcgus cms galli,) which grows abundantly about Newcastle, in the state of Delaware, and other places. 2. The Virginia, Maryland, or Washington thorn, {Crat^gus eordata,) which has been so highly praised, and cultivated by Mr. Main, of George Town, district of Columbia,! and called by him the American hedge thorn. 3. The great American hawthorn, {Cratagus coc- cinea,) 4. A variety of this last species. 5. The English white thorn, {Crataegus oxycantha,) They are all planted in the manner described by Mr. Neill, in the present volume, but the first and se- cond species well deserve the preference bestowed on them, by those who have tried them. The second is inferior to the first, only because the haws vegetate sooner : that is, the first season they are sown ; where- as the others w^ill not grow until the second year. * See page 1 1, of this volume. t See Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agri- culture, Vol. IL 0/2 Hedges. 379 The Cratagics coccinea,^ or great American haw- thorn, is inferior to all the rest, in the following re- spects ; 1st, The spines are much shorter, and less numerous than those of the Newcastle, Virginia, or English thorn. 2d, The plant, although it grows vi- gorously, early in the spring, according to Mr. Neill, makes no progress after the month of May, and then begins to lose its verdure, the leaves to wrinkle, or curl, and to become rusty, and their upper surfaces to be covered with a white down. The branches are also rendered unsightly by warty excrescences, of a red- dish hue, which in some cases embrace and surround them, and in others project from them, like the spur of a cock, which they also resemble in size ; so that the whole plant is sickly, and has a disagreeable ap- pearance. 3d, Its progress in growth is slow. The other species of American thorns, composing die hedges of Mr. Neill, looked healthy and vigorous, and the leaves of the Newcastle thorn in particular, exhibited a very deep green colour, and that high gloss for which they are so remarkable ; while its numerous long spines seemed to defy all intrusion from man or beast. The branches of this species coming out low, constitute a great defence against pigs, and may indeed be said to form the perfection of a hedge- Each plant sends out from five to eight top shoots, each three feet long, besides numerous shoots in the course of the season. The spines of the English white * See Miller's Gardener's Dictionary ; and M'Mahon's Garden- er. It is the mes/iiius coccinea of Marshall. See Arbustriim Amer. 380 Ofi Hedges. thorn are not more than half as long as those of the New- castle thorn : the leaves of some of the plants were be- ginning to look red when I saw them, preparatory to their dropping. Mr. Neill informed me, that about this time last year, the plants were entirely leafless. I have observed them in other years to keep their leaves until August ; whereas the Newcastle thorn holds them until even after frost : but they have the advantage in the leaves coming out two weeks before the cockspur thorn, in the spring, and while they last, the hedge has a neat appearance. The Washington thorn [Cratagiis cordata) grows straight, is thrifty, and the plants pre- sent a singular uniformity in their appearance. Mice and moles are very destructive of their roots. Upon inquiring of Mr. Neill how he supplied live plants in place of those that die, (as they often do in hedges,) without deranging the wail or bank, he said, that in case of a plant dying, he plucks it out, aiid thrusts in a dibble to enlarge the hole left by it, then inserts a fresh thorn plant, pushing in some rich earth after it, and finds that it takes root without diffi- culty. In the hedges planted from four to six years, I saw no gaps, but on the contrary, a uniformity of growth, which was highly pleasing. In a hedge about two years old, I saw only one vacancy. When a gap takes place in an old hedge, he draws the bodies of the two nearest plants as close together as possible, by means of a cord, and in one season they take the de- sired set, and fill up the vacant space. This method he thinks preferable to plashing. He does not think a double row, one above the other, (the upper plants being placed in the spaces left by the first row,) so 0?i Hedges. 381 eligible as single rows, having each plant six inches apart. Mr. Neill obligingly went through the whole pro- cess of making a sample of a hedge, according to the directions given by him in the present volume. A few particulars which he has omitted to detail, and some other facts respecting his hedges, shall now be noticed. The stones are not laid edge to edge, but are lap- ped, or ride one another a little : and in the progress of the wall he takes care to keep the earth closely pack- ed behind it, as by throwing it in loosely it sinks, and causes the stones to lean too much back from the hedge. After the plants are laid and covered with earth, and the first row of stones is placed upon it, no more earth is used for the upper rows than is sufficient to fill up their inequalities, and cause them to lay regularly. If more were used, it would of course freeze in winter, and when thawed in the spring, the stones, by being forced out, would destroy the wall, which it is of consequence to pr"^serve. Mr. Neill says it is important to state, that a wall of three and a half feet in height, ought not to lean back more than three or four inches from the perpendicular. The age of the oldest hedge of Mr. Neill is six years, and is eight feet high. Independently of other considerations, one point in which the superiority of Mr. Neill's plan is evident, consists in the lower or first rows of stone preventing the growth of weeds among the thorn plants, which often retard the progress of thorn hedges, whether planted on a plain surface or on a bank ; and as the la- 382 On Hedges. hour of weeding them is very great, many hedges are abandoned to their fate, after a zealous commencement of planting.^ What few weeds do spring up, in front of the thorns, are cleaned very speedily with a hoe, by a boy. Mice are not so troublesome among the roots of thorns planted in Mr NeilPs way, as when growing in the common way. The injurious effects of the trimming which Mr. Neill gave his hedge last summer, was very evident, and cannot fail of striking every one who sees the stunt- ed plants in the same row with others of the most lux- uriant growth, which were not trimmed. The annexed cut represents Mr. NeilPs hedge. But the thorn ought to have been represented as growing close to the wall. A, Front view of the ditch. B, The froint of the bank, twelve inches broad, and * Fresh slaked lime, spread among ihorn plants, will almost effectually prevent the growth of weeds. On Hedges, showing the mode of placing the thorn plant, and its growth.* C, The top of the stone wall. D, The slope of the bank behind the wall. E, The thorn plant, growing up in front of the wall. A hedge somewhat resembling Mr. Neill's, is no- ticed in the communications to the British Board of Agriculture, vol 2, page 90,t as having been made to a considerable extent by Sir James Hall, of Dunglass, in East Lothian, who, it is said, ** first introduced it on the East Coast (of Scotland) from Gallom." We must therefore suppose that it is common in the latter district. It differs however, from Mr. Neill's, in a stone wall being carried eighteen inches or two feet high, before the thorns are laid down ; and hence Mr. Somerville remarks, it would seem impossible to sup- ply any deficiency that may take place from weakness of the plants, or accident, without taking down the wall at least as low as the place where the dead plant was laid, and if such deficiency should occur in seve- ral places in the wall, the expense of repair would be great, and the task arduous, whereas in Mr. NeilPs hedge, vacancies are easily filled up, and is therefore preferable on that account, as well as by reason of its requiring fewer stones. * The cut represents the thorn in a sloping direction, but this is unnecessary in laying them ; for they will take the perpendicular direction, although laid horizontally, as directed by Mr. Neill, page 12, of this volume. t The paper is by Mr. Somerville, of Haddington, and er.titled " Observations on the various modes of enclosing land." Tt is ilhi^~ trated by numerous plates, and is highly interesting. 384 On Hedges. Mr. Neill's land is pan of a tract that begins at the Spread Eagle village on the Philadelphia and Lancas- ter turnpike road, and continues to the tavern, sign of admiral Warren, for the distance of one and a half miles, embracing about a mile on each side of the road, and noted for the extreme poverty of the soil. A red- dish steatite in small pieces, is so intimately mixed with the soil as to constitute an essential part of it : and yet though naturally extremely poor, it is capable of very great improvement by lime and gypsum, as Mr. Neill has evinced : the sub-soil is a light yellow loam. It was mentioned in the beginning of this paper that the American cockspur, or Newcastle thorn would not vegetate until the second season ; unless a particular process be used. The following fact on this head is given by Mr. Bordley. ** The late Gen. Cadwalader sowed haws of the country without effect, until he was informed that young thorns were seen to be grown through the cow dung dropped near a road. From this hint he penned up a number of cattle and fed them during winter, with bran mixed with haws. The place was then plowed up and the dung of the cattle covered with earth. In the summer, the ground was there abounding in young plants of the country haw, but they were soon much injured by grass and weeds, for want of the ground be- ing previously fallowed or cleaned."^ All we have to do, therefore, is to collect the haws when ripe, tak- ing care to spread them out on the floor of a loft to pre- * Notes on husbandry, 2d. edit. p. 1 98. 1801. On Hedges. 385 vent their spoiling, and to feed cattle with them ; to heap up the dung, covering the mass with earth, as it enlarges, and to sow the cow dung and earth in drills early in the spring, in ground previously cleansed ; — whence the young plants may be transplanted to the spot intended for their reception ; or if planted on the surface, they may be sown in trenches on the borders of the field previously prepared for them, by a crop of potatoes or turnips or a clean fallow. They may be thinned as they grow to the proper distance, and the spare plants removed to other places. The following practice of a ''judicious farmer" in the vale of Pickering, Yorkshire, may be profitably adopt- ed with the haw of the Newcastle, or cockspur thorn. ** His practice has been to plough a slip of ground on each side of the intended line of the fence, the preced- ing spring ; and having previously dunged it, he plant- ed it with potatoes. During summer, the land is re- peatedly cleaned with the hoe ; in autumn, the pota- toes being removed, the entire slip is gathered into a ridge with the plough ; and the ensuing spring the quick is planted, nursery-wise, in a trench run along the middle of the ridge. The success of this method has proved equal to what might be expected from ma- nagement so obviously judicious." Marshall's Econo- my of Yorkshire, vol. I, page 202, London, 1796. On pruning hedges. — The injurious effect of sum- mer pruning is mentioned by Mr. Neill, and his expe- rience accords precisely w^ith the remarks of Dr. An- derson of Scotland, one of the very best authorities on every subject either connected with agriculture or any other on which he treats. He was a practical farmer and VOL. III. c 3 386 On Hedges. a man of education, and never wrote on any subject ca- pable of experiments, without fully testing his opinions by practice. Mr. Neill's experience also agrees with the directions of Mr. Somerville in the communications to the board of agriculture, vol. 2d.*^ Mr. Main does indeed admit of a trimming in the latter end of June, when the hedge has generally ter- minated its annual growth ; but he confines this to a hedge growing *' on a strong soil, when in its fifth year," and when the " shoots are large and rank.^f He speaks, however, of the American thorn (Crataegus cor- data.) The Newcastle or cockspur thorn grows 'till frost, and was not cultivated by Mr. Main. Anderson and Somerville, refer only to the English white thorn. Mr. Main on the whole agrees with both these authors, in their directions about pruning. * See Appendix. t Memoirs Agiic. Soc, Philad. vol. 2d. Appendix, p. 32. [ 387 3 — i Singular hardihood and sufferings of a BulL Read April 12, 1814. Upper Merion, Montgomery Co, February 3dy 1814, Dear Sir, As your society are preparing matter for a book of information and facts, for farmers ; perhaps the follow- ing occurrence may be somewhat interesting to its readers. On the morning of the 21st of July, 1811, A bull, belonging to my brother William, was missing out of the pasture field. — Search was made for him through- out the neighbourhood, but all to no purpose. — And, — astonishing to relate ; — on the 14th of August fol- lowing, he was found alive, by some boys, in the same field he was missing from. He had fallen into a lime stone sink, from eight to ten feet deep ; in which situ- ation he lay twenty four days ; without any thing to subsist on but the air. — And, what still added to his sufferings, he lay on the north side of the hole ; and was exposed to the hot rays of the sun, for at least eight hours in the day. I was present when he was taken out of his solitary confinement. The lower part of his belly and hind parts were completely mired. Nearly all the hair, and part of the hide, came off; when exposed to the air. When he was first taken out, he could not stand, without support ; being almost no- thing but a skeleton. A bucket of water was put be- fore him, but he drank very sparingly ; not exceeding 388 Hardihood and sufferings of a Bull, two quarts. Some grass was given him ; but he ate as sparingly as he drank. Next day he could walk a little ; and in two weeks he could go with the rest of the cattle. The next season he was fattened, and weighed near a thousand weight. If you think the above statement worth publishing, you are at perfect liberty to do so ; as the fact can be attested by a number of witnesses.^ I am your's, &c. George W. Holstein. Richard Peters, Es(^. * Our correspondent has not mentioned the state of the bull, as to fatness, before falling into the pit. Many authorities could be cited, to show, that an animal will live, or linger, without food, for times proportioned to its fatness, or the contrary. No doubt the animal, respecting which this extraordinary anecdote is related, must have been in high order, as to fatness. See Vol. II. " high estimation of broad tailed shceji.'^* v, vi. cites Scheuzer. Physica Sacra, Tom. 1, pag. 231. Ubriy 1731. The writer of the foregoing letter is a person of the most unim- peachable character. The fact he relates can be attested by multi- tudes of people, who were eye witnesses. On inquiry I found the bull was fat, precedent to his falling into the pit. R. Peters. [ 389 ] On a Fire Stone , by Richard Peters^ Esquire. Read May 10, 1814. May eth, 1814. Sir^ Mr. George Krebs, an intelligent and long expe- rienced brick- maker, of Philadelphia, spoke to me, a long time ago, on the subject of a most valuable Fire- Stone, which lies, entirely neglected, though in great plenty, in the quarries on my Belmont farm, near the borders of the tide water of the Schuylkill. I have re- peatedly endeavoured to obtain such an account of this stone, from persons of mineralogical knowledge, as would enable any one, standing in need of such stone, to find it, at places convenient to them. I have no doubt of its being dispersed in many parts of our coun- try ; it being, to all appearance, a common stone. But I have, on this, as on many other occasions, been dis- appointed. I have, however, received the following- short description. — '* The stone appears to be a fine granular aggregation of quartz and black mica^ — a va- riety oi gjiiess,^^ Any person desirous of experimenting, (if that be necessary, )\or using it, for furnaces, fire places, and all works requiring such material, may have, out of my quarry, what they want, either for actual use, or for comparison with stones in their neighbourhood. Some experience is necessary, in the selection. There must be no flinty veins. I have had the stones in the backs of chimnies, and ovens, unhurt, for fifty yqars. The On a Fire Stone, late Mr. Reuben Haines, then an eminent brewer, in Philadelphia, from no other than a public motive, ad- vertised, in a newspaper I cannot now find, before our revolution, the valuable and singular qualities of the stone procured from my father's quarry ; (the one now mine,) by his predecessor in the brewhouse, Mr. MaU lack. Those he mentioned had been under the cop- per of the extensive brewery, now occupied by Morris and Gaul, in or near Market street, for a period, I think, of sixty years. They were, at the time of Mr. Haines's advertising the circumstance, entirely uninjured ; and even the marks of the tools undefaced. I enclose the certificate of Mr. Krehs ; who expresses a laudable anxiety, that others should experience the like advan- tages he has received, from the superior qualities of this material. For myself, I have no objects of per- sonal interest ; but wish the subject introduced for in- quiry and multiplication of materials, essential in fur-^ naces, manufactories and fire places of every species. I am, your obedient servant, Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad, Agric, Soc. A specimen of this stone is preserved in the Cabinet of the Society. Certificate. I do hereby certify, that the Fire Stone I procur- ed out of the quarries of Judge Peters, near the Schuyl- kill, and on his Belmont farm, have been exposed to the fires of my brick kilns, for a period of sixteen years. On a Fire Stone, 391 during every fortnight, of seven months of each year. Each kiln consumes, at one burning, about sixty cords of wood. So that no heat of the kind can be more in- tense. I see not the smallest defect in the stone. From their present appearance, I cannot anticipate any rea- sonable period, when their duration will end. I have tried stone procured on Morris's Hill, near the upper ferry ; but they are very inferior to those ob- tained out of the Belmont quarry. I have used soap stone, which spawl (scale) with the force of fire in my kilns. The Belmont stone, not hav- ing flinty veins, never spawls. I therefore prefer the latter, decidedly, to the former ; which although fit for more moderate heat ; will not resist the severe force of the flame and fire of my kilns. Independent of this circumstance, the original price, and expense of workmanship of the Belmont stone, bear a proportion to those of soap stone, in a degree very moderate in- deed. At least half the price, both of stone and work- manship. Judgment and experience are required in the selection. Flinty veins, and very hard stones, are to be avoided. But great plenty of the proper kinds are to be found in the quarry. I have been a brick- maker forty six years ; and m very extensive business, during thirty five years of that period. Persons desirous of viewing the stone, will gain more knowledge of its qualities by viewing my kilns, than from the most elaborate description on pa- per. My kilns are situated in Chesnut street, on Sixth and Seventh streets from Schuylkill. George Krebs* May 6fh, 1814, [ 392 ] Some account of the Virginia Crab Apple^ by the Hon. Timothy Pickering. Read May 10, 1814. City of JVashington^ April 7, 1814. Dear Sir, I duly received your letter of the 4th, in which you mention your fruitless attempts to get *' the history of the Hughes's, or Virginia crab apple ;" and suggest that perhaps it might be obtained at Washington. Having lately conversed with colonel John Roan, of Virginia, relative to an apple of distinguished excel- lence for cider, which he has cultivated ; and observ- ing in him a disposition to more than ordinary atten- tion to the subject generally ; it seemed probable that I could derive from him the most satisfactory informa- tion concerning Hughes's crab. I have just returned from visiting him. — As I had some knowledge of the apple, my first inquiry respected the age of the species. His answer was general, that the name was common, from his earliest remembrance ; and that it must be a very ancient apple. Presently he recollect- ed, that about twenty years ago, a Virginia gentleman of the name of West, then about ninety years old, men- tioned an orchard, consisting wholly of Hughes's crab, which was planted when he (Mr. West) was a boy, on the plantation now owned by colonel Roan. Some of the trees remain, and continue to bear well. Colonel Roan remarked, that there are several vari- eties of Hughes's crab, varying in appearance and good 6n the Virginia Crab Apple. S93 Cjualities for cider. The sort on his land is but faintly striped with red ; but produces cider, he thinks, of the best quality, and resembling, mere than any other, Champagne wine. The Hughes's crab apple that I have met with, has been nearly covered with dull red stripes. In their sizes, the apples of the different va- rieties pretty well agree, all being very small, with long stems, and growing on slender twigs : from all which circumstances it was to be presumed, that the fruit would hang on well ; and such is the fact. He says the wood of Hughes's crab apple tree is exceedingly- close and hard. I observed to colonel Roan, that the leaf of my young Hughes's grafted crab differed from the leaf of all other apple trees ; resembling, in its shining and smooth sur- face, the pear leaf much more than the apple leaf. This he said, was characteristic of Hughes's crab. But colonel Roan prefers his own crab to Hughes's : and this is its history. — In the year 1790, going with his father, in the month of October, to view a patch of tobacco; as they were passing an apple tree (situated among briars,) from which the apples had fallen, and covered the ground ; his father told him to pick up one for him to taste. He answered, that they could not be good for any thing, or the negro children would have eaten them up. His father persisted, and on tasting the apple, pronounced it excellent ; and directed his son to have them collected the next day. It was done. They were made into cider, producing about nine gal- lons ; which proved to be of an admirable quality. In consequence, in the year 1792, an entire orchard was planted and grafted with this fruit, to which has been VOL. III. D S 394 On the Virginia Crab Apple, given the name of Boa?i^s white crab, — To my inqui- ries of the size and probable age of the original tree, colonel Roan answered, That it was in the stem about the bigness of his thigh — say seven or eight inches in diameter, and sound. It was killed by accident. — Some brush having been cut and thrown about it, the negro children set lire to the brush, and so destroyed the tree. Its natural growth is smaller than that of any other apple tree; but it bears much sooner, after grafting; a circum- stance which colonel Roan ascribed to the dwarfish cha- racter of the tree : but it is a great bearer, every other year. In extending his plantations of this apple, he sets the trees nearer together than other sorts. He has one orchard, in which the rows are sixty feet apart ; but the trees are only fifteen feet apart in a row. — He grafts the stocks when small, and so near the ground, or rather a litde below the surface, that the grafts are, eventually, partially sustained by their own roots. — The wood of this tree, like that of Hughes's crab, is close and hard. The skin of the apple is pale yellow ; its size a little bigger than Hughes's crab ; and the juice very sweet, but not abundant* The pulp being more tender than that of Hughes's crab, more of it mixes with the cider, in the process of grinding; where- by the Jini?ig is more difficult than that of the cider of Hughes's crab. It will occur to you, that the inter- vals of sixty feet between the rows, were designed to render the cultivation of any crops in the orchard more easy and convenient, and such is colonel Roan's object in the experiment. I am dear sir, your's, &c. Timothy Pickerinc. Richard Peters, Es(^. On the Virginia Crab Apple. 395 POSTSCRIPT. A few years ago, when general Sumter, of South Carolina, was in the senate, he told me that the juice of his Hughes's crab apples was so rich as to be dum- my. Quere, if a transfer of apples of thin, meagre juice to the south, and those of rich, thick or viscous juice to the north, would not produce a valuable im- provement ? T. P. t 396 3 On the utility of grinding Maize f Indian Corn) in the Cob, as food for Cattle, with a description of a Mill for the purpose, by James Mease, M, D» Read, May 10, 1814. The practice of grinding Indian corn in the cob, to powder, for the purpose of horse feed, is now common with our German farming fellow citizens. Those in- dustrious men are ever attentive to the health and ge- neral welfare of their farm stock, and readily adopt any measure calculated to promote either object, and as they are convinced of the nourishing qualities of the cob, and the economy of the practice of using it as an article of food, they have encouraged the general erec- tion of the necessary apparatus, in the flower mills in their different settlements. The first apparatus used for the purpose of grinding corn in the cob, was a screw, which was originally in- vented by Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, and now in general use to break gypsum. Mr. Evans first reduc- ed it to practice in the year 1795, but no measures having been taken to give publicity to it, the know- ledge of it was diffused very gradually through the country ; and it even appears that private offers for the gratuitous use of it were ineffectual, (until after some years,) in causing a trial of what is now deemed an economical practice of the first consequence. It was not until the year 1803, that I heard of the practice having been adopted in Lancaster county, and in 1804 I had great pleasure in seeing it in operation, in a mill on the Perkiomen creek, in Montgomery Oil grinding Maize in the Cob, £s? ges, some few store-keepers take their produce to, and buy their goods in Philadelphia ; but it is mostly those who make their remittances in live stock ; and even many of these, within a few years have preferred driving their cattle to the North river. — This they have done with reluctance, because vegetation lasts a month Canal between Seneca lake md Tioga creek. longer in Pennsylvania than in this country, the effect of which is that the cattle may be kept in this country until the very moment that the grass fails, and yet could get good pasture on their way to the southward, and of course would arrive in so much better order ; that the grazier in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, being able to keep them on pasture some time after their ar- rival, could afford to give more for them than the gra- zier on the North river. Great as these advantages of your southern situation are, they are still insufficient to compensate for the state of your roads, which are so very bad, that the cattle cannot be prevented from leaving them and running into the woods, where they feed upon the laurel and of course many of them are thereby killed. This last circumstance entirely pre- vents the sending sheep into Pennsylvania." NUMBER II. November 25th, 1810. ** My last letter fmished with taking a general view of the trade between this country and the cities of Bal- timore, Philadelphia and New York. I shall now pro. ceed to consider what portion of the trade of tlie west- ern part of this state, Pennsylvania would immediately enjoy from the making the proposed turnpike road, and from the contemplated improvements in the navi- gation of the Susquehanna ; and also, how far those be- nefits might be extended, and the ultimate benefits your state would derive from the extension. '« The turnpike road being finished, the country 28 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. through which it passed, would soon be settled ; the laurel and other noxious plants would be destroyed, and the pasture would be in much greater quantity, better and cheaper, than on the present roads ; — this would not only enable us to send sheep into Pennsyl- vania and increase the number of cattle dri^^en to that state, but would also bring back to their former market those storekeepers, who have, within these three years past, resorted to the North river. Many farmers, who have not sufficient employment for their horses during the winter, would take their produce to the establish- ments, which would naturally be made on the Susque- hanna, sell it, and bring back, at a moderate price, either goods for the store-keepers or necessaries for their own families. In the event of an extraordinary failure of the waters of the Susquehanna, the store- keeper could bring up into the country the goods of light carriage absolutely necessary to carry on his trade, and wait until the waters should rise to transport his heavy goods. It is, however, to be hoped, that the navigation of the Susquehanna would be so far im- proved as to render such an alternative unnecessary. Men of business could not only travel speedily from this country to Pennsylvania, say to your capital, but the establishment of a regular and frequent communi- cation by mail would take place, a circumstance of more importance, both in carrying on and promoting trade and intercourse between distant places, than is, perhaps, generally imagined. '' The navigation of the Susquehanna being improv- ed, so as to admit loaded boats to return up to New- town, those, who at present consider Baltimore as A P L A X, Sluy-ina the H^Jatire Situation of the Sm-eca. a^nd- Cayuga Zake* With that of tJxe Su^{fue7i^nna?i Hiver; also a proposed Can^ from tkr Sdne<-a Lakf to the Waters of tJie Susc/uehannah . Drann at tlu request of du ^ricuTlural Aciets of the City of Fhila-hy ^-htios Lay, Land SuJ. ' ^^' 1/ew VoYh Lai 41'^ Pennsylvania Canal between Seneca lake a7id Tioga creek, 29 their market, owing to the facility with which they can return with their goods, would find it more to their advantage to carry their produce to Philadelphia ; and for the same reason, all those who took their produce, whether in wheat or live stock, to Philadelphia, would exchange them for goods in that city, and thereby save the expense and other inconveniencies, which I have before stated they were subjected to, in proceeding to New York for the purpose of purchasing the articles of their trade. ** The circuit of rich and fertile country, the pro- duce of which Pennsylvania vi^ould command, and the inhabitants of which she would supply with foreign and domestic merchandize and manufactures, would be enlarged to an extent far beyond what your mer- chants, manufacturers or legislators are, I conjecture aware of. But let me more particularly consider how far those improvements might be extended. ** The first operation, which presents itself, is the connecting Seneca lake with the Tioga ; from the in- formation contained in my last letter you will be ena- bled to judge of the practicability of accomplishing this. The next is the improvement of the navigation of the Tioga above Newtown, and of the Conhocton and Canisteo rivers, as far up as Bath on the former, and Arkport on the latter. Whether it is possible to render those streams navigable at all seasons of the year, I cannot positively say, but I conclude that it is from the circumstance of some families, wlio now re- side in this country, having moved up from Fishinj^ creek, near Northumberland, in the months of June of the years 1796-7, in boats carrying ten tons, to within 30 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. one mile of HornilPs (within a few miles of Arkport) on the Canisteo. After that month, or until the fresh- ets prevail, those streams are so shallow as not to ad- mit of navigation, although they always contain a con- siderable quantity of water. The next improvement is the making a turnpike road from Philadelphia to Amsterdam on lake Erie, making Angelica one of the points of direction. From the Pennsylvania line to Angelica and Amsterdam, the country would admit of a good road, the practicability, expense, 8cc. of making the road from Philadelphia to the Pennsylvania line, you can best determine. I should suppose, that those improvements would secure to Pennsylvania a trade with nearly all the country between Seneca lake and lake Erie, and certainly the trade in live stock of the whole of the Genessee country. How far I may be correct in these opinions, the enclosed map, together with the information I shall give you respecting the trade with Montreal, will in some degree enable you to decide. Had there been a direct road from Philad- elphia to Angelica, it would have saved several thou- sand dollars, in the expense of making a new settle- ment. By a reference to the map you will find that Angelica is nearer to Philadelphia, in a direct line, than to New York, or to the North river, by the pro- posed turnpike in this state, which will be nearly finished next fall. How many gentlemen of your city have been incredulous, when they have been informed that Amsterdam was nearer, in a direct line, to Philad- elphia than to New York, merely because it happens to lie in the same state, of which the latter city is the metropolis. Canal betzveen Stneca lake and Tioga creek, 31 '* I consider Montreal, and not New York, as your great rival in the trade of our western country, which has within these two years commenced, and must ra- pidly continue, to be diverted from the latter to the former city. The merchants of Montreal have, with- in a few months, established stores at the mouth of of the Genessee river, at Sodus bay, and at Otsego, and are giving notice in all our papers that they will not only purchase produce, but advance money on produce deposited with them for transportation to Montreal. They are even extending their views still further, and are making diligent enquiries as to the practicability of rendering the Genessee river naviga- ble, whereby they hope to be enabled to send mer- chandize up that river, and thence crossing to the Alle- gheny (a distance of but twenty-five miles) be able to supply the western part of Pennsylvania, the state of Ohio &c. with goods at a cheaper rate than they can be furnished from any of the ports of the United States. From the number of very high and perpen- dicular falls in the Genessee, many may deem such an undertaking not only as utterly impracticable, but vi- sionary ; yet who shall say what it is impossible, for enterprize, aided by capital, and stimulated by a suffi- cient motive, to effect ? who, that is acquainted with the history of the internal improvement of Great Bri- tain, the hills that have been surmounted, the moun- tains that have been bored through, the rivers over which canals have been thrown, shall assert that Nia- gara itself will not yield to their exertions ? who, that contemplates the assiduity and perseverance, with which her merchants and manufacturers, aided bv 32 Canal betiveen Seneca lake and Tioga creek. government, are turning into canals the ditches of those countries, from which there is the remotest pros- pect of any quantity of produce being diverted to their island, thus making up for their own want of territory, by engrossing to themselves the interior of other na- tions— can suppose that they will not strain every nerve to possess themselves of the productions of so rich and extensive a country, rapidly increasing in population and wealth, and with the importance of which its own Atlantic inhabitants are either unac- quainted, or else undervalue and disregard. '* Montreal, however, cannot divert from you the produce of this country in live stock, nor can she, as her harbor is frozen for a very great portion of the year, enter into a competition with you to obtain the produce in wheat, to that extent which her local situa- tion and the enterprize of her merchants would other- wise enable her to do. The high price of wheat ge- nerally depends upon foreign demand, and in propor- tion as the demand^ for so absolutely necessary an ar- ticle of support is urgent, in that proportion the price is exorbitant ; which, together with the bounty, on the importation of that grain, frequently given by the countries in which scarcity exists, produces such an influx of wheat as speedily to supply the exigency, and to render the demand of short duration. The proba- bility, therefore, is, that a foreign market would be glutted from the ports of the United States, before Montreal could supply it with a ship-load of grain, and of course the Montreal merchant could not afford to give so much for wheat as our merchants of the mid- dle states. Indeed it is a fact, that except during the Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek, 33 embargo, wheat never has been so high at Montreal as in the ports of the United States. '' It is evident that the return trade from a sea-port to the interior, which consists of articles of high value in comparison with their bulk and weight, is carried on with cheapness, in some degree proportionate to the quantity of the trade, from the interior to the sea-ports, which consists of heavy and bulky produce but of small value. The immense quantity of this rude pro- duce, w^hich, by making the improvements suggested, Pennsylvania would certainly draw into the midst of her population from the Genessee country, &c. would enable her to transmit by return, up the Susquehanna and Canisteo, her merchandize, manufactures and surplus articles, at a very cheap rate, by means of the numerous persons and conveyances employed in bring- ing the rude produce to her markets. Nor is the im- portance of the measure limited here, Pennsylvanians might transport their goods from the Canisteo to the Allegheny (a distance of only 48 miles, 20 of which, from Hornill's to Angelica, is nearly turnpiked) and thence down that river to the western part of Pennsyl- vania, to Pittsburgh and the Ohio, and thus undersell the Montreal merchant, however enterprising and in- dustrious. " I assure you, that I suggested, several years ago, to many gentlemen of Philadelphia, tlie practicability of supplying the whole western country with goods at a much cheaper rate, by means of the Susquehanna and Allegheny rivers, than they have been furnlbhed at by the present mode of land carriage to Pittsburgh — and, yet, there were very few, who did not regard the c ^ 34 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. project as visionary ! this last summer, two store-keep» ers, one of whom had purchased his goods in Phila- delphia, the other in New York, passed through Angeli- ca, and thence proceeded with their property down the Allegheny — a circumstance, which increases my con- fidence, that, when the proper improvements shall have been made, the Ohio or western states will all be supplied with goods by this route. '* I shall be happy to communicate such further in- formation as may be calculated to induce your legisla- ture to make those improvements, and to convince them of the absolute necessity of commencing them speedily, if they wish to prevent the trade of this im- portant country from passing entirely to Canada. But let me remark that, besides addressing the legislature, Franklin ought to appeal to the merchants, manufac- turers and holders of real estate, in Philadelphia, and urge them to exert themselves to obtain a cheap and expeditious route of communication with the head- waters of the Susquehanna and Allegheny, and of course with the northern and western lakes. I believe that, if they had any just conception of the importance of such a measure that they would make every effort, in conjunction with the legislature to complete the improvements I have mentioned." NOTES, The Gene^see country consists of seven counties ; three north' eruf viz. Ontario, Genessee, and Niagara ; iouv souther?i, viz. Steu- ben, Allegheny, Cattaraugus and Chatauque. — Ontario county is, it is believed, the third in the state as to population, although there is still much unsettled land in it. Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 35 Prom Geneva, the principal town of Ontario county, to Albany, the distance is 192 miles, in a direct line : from the same town to Philadelphia, about 210. From Amsterdam, the principal town of Niagara county, to Al- bany 299 miles— to Philadelphia 305 miles. From Batavia, the principal town of Genessee county, to Albany 259 miles — to Philadelphia 242. From Bath, principal town of Steuben county, by the turnpike now completing, to Kingston on the North river, 205 miles— to Philadelphia, by Newtown, Wilkesbarre and Easton, 210. From Angelica, principal town of Allegheny county, to Kingston 245 miles— to Philadelphia 218. From Great Valley creek, centre of Cattaraugus county, by way of Angelica, to Kingston 273 miles— to Philadelphia 248. From Mayville, principal town of Chatauque county, bordering on lake Erie, by way of Angelica, to Kingston 297 miles— to Phi- ladelphia 272. [ 36 ] Shepherd's Dog. — From the Sportsman' s Cabinet ^ 2 vols, 4to. London, This dog is the most timid, obedient, placid, serene, and grateful in the creation : he seems studiously con- scious of the purposes for which he was formed, and is never so perceptibly gratified, as when affording the most incesssant proofs of his unsullied integrity. — In- st inctively prone to industry he is alive to the slightest sensation of his employer, and would radier double and treble the watch line of circumspection, than be seen indulging in a state of neglectful indolence. — The breed is propagated and preserved with the greatest respect to purity in the northern parts of the kingdom of England, as well as in the highlands of Scotland, where, in the extensive tracts and uncultivated wilds, their services exceed description. — Constitutionally calm, patient, and philosophic, the sheep dog seems totally lost to every appearance of novelty, and insensible to every attraction beyond the protection and indefatigable preservation of the flock committed to his charge. — In the most sequestered and remote spots, dreary wilds and lofty mxountains, al- most inaccessible to man, this dog becomes an incredi- ble and trusty substitute ; for once initiated in the ground- work of his office, he soon acquires a perfect knowledge of the extent of his walk, as well as every individual of his flock. And will as regularly select his own, and disperse obtruders as the most faithful and attentive shepherd in existence. — This becomes the more extraordinary to the contemplative mind. The Shepherd's Dog. 37 when it is recollected what immense flocks are seen to cover the downy hills of Hants and Wilts, as far as the eye can reach without control ; and to know that by a single signal from the shepherd, this faithful, saga- cious animal, replete with energy, vigilance, and acti- vity, will make his circle, so as to surround a flock of hundreds, and bring them within any compass that may be required. The sheep dog is so completely absorbed in what seems the sole business and employment of bis life, that he does not bestow a look, or indulge a wish be- yond the constant protection of the trust reposed in hhn, and to execute the commands of his master ; which he is always incessantly anxious to receive, and in fact is invariably looking for by every solicitous at- tention it is possible to conceive. — Inured to all wea- thers, fatigue and hunger, he is the least voracious of the species, subsists upon little, and may be justly considered truly emblematic of content. — Though there is the appearance of a somniferous indolence in the exterior, it is by no means a constitutional mark of habitual inability ; on the contrary, the sagacity, fi- delity, and comprehensive penetration of this kind of dog is equal to any other, but that there is a thought- ful or expressive gravity annexed to this particular race, as if they were absolutely conscious of their own utility in business of importance, and the value of the stock so confidently committed to their care. Amidst the infinity of cases so constantly issuing from the press, in which proofs almost incredible arc authentically adduced of the courage, sagacity, fidelity, gratitude, and self denial of different kinds of dogs, SB The Shepherd's Dog. many are to be found upon record appertaining to this particular race ; if they are not so numerous as some other sorts, it may be fairly attributed to the little pro- portional chance they have (from their remote and se- questered employment) of displaying those powers im an equal degree with dogs more engaged in the bustle of human society. Dr. Anderson (in his translation from Dr. Pallas) introduces the following instance of sagacity in a shepherd's dog, which he considers truly astonishing ; and it will create no surprise with those who are in the least acquainted with their perfections. " The owner himself having been hanged some years ago for sheep stealing, the following fact, among others respecting the dog, was authenticated by evi- dence upon his trial. When the man intended to steal any sheep, he did not do it himself, but detached his dog to perform the business. With this view, under pretence of looking at the sheep with an intention to purchase them, he went through the flock with the dog at his feet, to whom he secretly gave a signal, so as to let him know the individuals he wanted, to the number of ten or twenty, out of a flock of some hundreds ; he then went away, and at a distance of several miles sent back the dog by himself in the night time, who pick- ed out the individual sheep that had been pointed out to him, separated them from the flock, and drove them before him by himself, till overtaking his master to whom he relinquished them." The shepherd's dog rather shuns than seems anxi- ous to obtain the caresses of strangers, of whom he al- ways appears to be shy and suspicious ; it being re- The Shepherd's Dog. 39 markable, that when refreshing upon a journey with the flock, he seldom reposes but close to the feet or body of his master ; who well knows if he but depo- sits his coat or his wallet, and gives the animal the ac- customed signal ; when the sheep are at pasture, he may absent himself for hours, and at his return find the whole as safe and regular as if it had been under his own inspection. Although it is already observed, these dogs afford no evident external proof of quick conception, or rapid execution (except in all matters relative to the flock, to which their every faculty ap^ pertains,) yet their sagacity and fidelity is found equal to every other branch of the species, when necessarily brought into useful action. ** In the month of February 1795, as Mr. Boulstead's son, of Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, was attending the sheep of his father upon Great Salkeld common, he had the misfortune to fall and break his leg. — He was then at the distance of three miles from home, no chance of any persons coming in so unfrequented a place within call, and evening very fast approaching : in this dreadful dilemma, suffering extreme pain from the fracture, and laying upon the damp ground at so dreary a season of the year, his agitated spirits sug- gested to him the following expedient : Folding one of his gloves in his pocket handkerchief, he fastened it round the neck of the dog, and rather emphatically or- dered him " home." These dogs, trained so admira- bly to orders and signals during their attendance upon the flock, are well known to be under the most minute subjection, and to execute the commands of their mas- ters with an alacrity scarcely to be conceived. 40 The Shepherd's Bog. Perfectly convinced of some inexplicable disquie- tude from the situation in which his master lay, he set off at a pace, which soon brought him to the house, where he scratched with great violence at the door for immediate admittance. — This obtained, the parents were in the utmost alarm and consternation at his ap- pearance, but more particularly when they had ex- amined the handkerchief and its contents. — Instantly concluding beyond a doubt, that some accident had befallen their son, they did not delay a moment going in search of him ; and the dog, apparently conscious the principal part of his duty was yet to be performed, anxiously led the way and conducted the agitated pa- rents to the spot where their son lay overwhelmed with pain, increased by the awful uncertainty of his situa- tion.— Happily this was effected just at the close of day, when being immediately removed, and the neces- sary assistance procured, he soon recovered, and was never more pleasingly engaged than when reciting the sagacity and gratitude of his faithful follower, ^vho then became his constant companion." The instances of intelligence in the shepherd's dog- are recorded in all books treating of the manners and habits of the dog tribe. One more may be mentioned from a recent publication. It is given for the pur- pose of stimulating the American farmer to possess himself of one of the breed as soon as possible. — Speaking of the " Currach of Kildare," the author says, " The commonage is stocked by a prescriptive pro- The' Shepherd's Dog. 41 portion, attached to the adjacent farms : every sheep owner has a particular raddled mark ; the shepherd's dogs are so trained, that if a sheep, with a strange mark, comes on his master's front, the dog will single him out and worry him off." — See statistical survey of the county of Kildare, by T. J. Rawson, Dublin, 1807, p. 121. J. M. VOL. III. f * [ 42 ] The Pyracanihay or evergreen-thorn^ recommended to the attention of the farmer ^ as superior in many res- pects to any other plant yet tried in this country for the purpose of forming close and substantial live fen- ces. With remarks on the proper mode of its applica- tion^ culture^ trimmings ^c. Respectfully inscribed to the President and members of the Agricultural So- ciety of Philadelphia, By Thomas Main, The Pyracantha is an indeciduous shrub, thickly set with small oval leaves, and abundantly armed with sharp prickles, After it is three years old, it annually produces its umbels of white flowers, which are rather pretty than splendid, in the month of June, at the same time when the American hedge thorn is in blos- som. By the beginning of September it appears em# bellished with numerous long roquets, and large clus- ters of scarlet coloured berries, which continue on the plant through a great part of the winter. At the com- mencement of frosty weather, the green hue of its fo- liage is changed into a deep purple, of which complex- ion the whole plant remains until the return of spring, when its leaves again resume their verdant tincture, but of a tarnished and dingy appearance, till the new shoots restore its former freshness and beauty. The mode of growth, and appearance of the Pyracantha, is not easy to be described ; its lowermost limbs and sprays recline upon the surface of the earth, and in a few years closely cover a considerable space, around the original stem, which in a generous soil will some- times soon acquire the size of a person's ancle ; but it The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn, 43 carries this thickness to no great height, being branched from the bottom, and irregularly diffused into numbers of rambling limbs, mixed and naturally interwoven with many other more flexible sprays and upright shoots, rising in an entangled mass to the height of ten or twelve feet ; but of the altitude which this plant may ultimately attain, in a congenial soil, I am not in- formed. The Pyracantha, like most other plants that nature . has in part consigned to human care, requires to be cultivated in its infancy. Stirring the soil and clearing the surface around occasionally from weeds, tends gready to accelerate its progress to strength and matu- rity. Whenever any of its procumbent limbs or sprigs happen to be covered with mould in the genial season, they immediately take root ; so that one original plant may in a few years be surrounded with a numerous progeny, attached to each other by intermediate ties, and connected with the common parent, by conjunc tive bonds of union, at difterent heights from the sur- face. The roots of the Pyracantha, however, do not run far and send up suckers at a distance like the com- mon locust ; so that its propensity to take root, by layers, is no way detrimental to its being closely con- fined within a desirable and correct boundary. No plant appears to agree better with pruning than the Pyracantha. Trimming its smaller sprays with the hedge-shears, and loping off its larger limbs with the bill, in proper seasons, and at due intervals, is pro- ductive of a numerous train of new vigorous shoots, and contributes to multiply their entangled ramifica- tions. 44 The Pyracanthay or evergreen-thorn. The early and extraordinary fecundity of the Pyra- cantha, is a circumstance of much importance to the hedger. To shew this in the following point of view may perhaps savour of the extravagant, it is neverthe- less strictly true. Since the commencement of my nursery here, I have furnished plants of the hedge- thorn, sufficient, at the distance which they ought to be set, only, to plant upwards of 100 miles of hedging. Had each of these been a Pyracantha, they would have Been enough to have run 1000 miles of a close hedge ; Avhich in a very few years, say ten, would have been capable of furnishing seed and plants sufficient to have enclosed every arable field in the United States. Every one who has attempted to raise thorn-hedges in this country, must know how difficult it is to obtain seed even for small experiments, of the several species of haw thorns, indigenous to America, and if I had not by accident discovered, in the year 1795, that kind which is a distinct species of the Crataegus Cordata, or of the two haw thorns with heart shaped leaves, one of which I have named the American hedge-thorn, I am certain I never should have been able to procure a sufficiency of seed from all the other sorts in this neighbourhood, to have answered my intention. But however plentiful the berries of the hedge-thorn gene- rally are, in comparison to those of the other species of haw thorns, its fecundity is far inferior to the Pyracan- tha, which cannot only be propagated by seed, but every plant in a hedge of it may, in the third or fourth year of its age, be made, by laying, to produce ten, twenty, or more plants, with good roots, and conse- quently afford materials for planting a new hedge, ten The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn, 45 or twenty times the length of the origmal ; and this by the mere play-work of children. This, when taken into the estimate along with its exuberant production of seed, renders the increase of its prolific powers so rapid, as almost to exceed belief, to stagger credulity, and outstrip the celerity of our wishes. These are not the visionary prospections of an infatuated theorist, pursuing the shadows of imagination, but the deduc- tions of practical veracity. Disastrous events sometimes lead to far off and fu- ture benefits. It is now thirty five years, when, being at sea, and forced to. land at the back of the British • Isle of Wight, in travelling across the country, I, for the first time, saw the Pyracantha ; it was a single plant, trained upon the gable end of a brick building, and neatly spread upon the wall ; it exhibited at that season, being the month of October, a drapery of dark green foliage, profusely interspersed with large clus- ters of scarlet coloured fruit. I never saw a Pyracan- tha again until the year 1796, when being employed in collecting different kinds of plants to bring over here, I happened to see two or three of the Pyracantha in training to cover a t(;ol house, in a garden in Scotland. These had no fruit upon them, but the beauty of the one I had formerly seen in the Isle of Wight, instantly recurring to my remembrance, I resolved to bring some sets along with me ; these, from the length of the voyage, all perished by the way ; but sending for a new assortment the next year, I received two phmts of the Pyracantha in tolerable preservation, tliough it was late in June when they arrived, and the whole package much abused, and contentiously detained by 46 The Pyracantha, or evergreen-thorn, the custom house in Alexandria. By careful nursing, my two little plants both succeeded. I planted them in different parts of my nursery, intending to propa- gate from them merely for ornament ; for at that time I had no idea of the Pyracantha being a suitable plant for live fences ; nor ever had heard, or read, that it had been applied to that purpose. Each of these two plants, in about four years, by the extension of their lower branches, covered a space of nine or ten feet in diameter, spread naturally close upon the surface. But in the second year I layed forty or fifty of their sprigs in the ground, after these were rooted next year, I planted them in a row in the nursery, and culled from thence occasionally, several of them for sale : leaving the remainder at last about a yard apart. The two original plants began to bear the third year, and find- ing it more convenient to raise handsome plants from seed, I never troubled myself afterwards to raise them from layers. Being at length in the habit of raising considerable numbers of Pyracantha plants, for the purpose of ornamental hedges to purchasers, and en- couraged by the promising appearance of the short row, raised from layers, and the encreasing strength of my two original plants, I began to entertain a no- tion of trying it on a larger scale, as a live fence, and in the year 1806, commenced the execution of my projected essay. Every part of the farm which I now occupy, on every line where I could have any hope that the hedge-thorn would succeed, being already hedged with that plant. I had no ^vhere to try the Pyracantha but a length of about two hundred yards of thin, meagre clay soil, in a bleak situation, exposed The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn, 47 to the clear scope of the north west wmd. Forced by a sort of necessity, to try it there, I accordingly did so, setting the plants about a yard apart. Having great distrust that the soil was too poor to nourish them to sufficient strength, even with the aid of a little manure, which I scattered along the central furrow, I planted a small honey locust in each interval between, and in the same line with the Pyracantha. Twice, and some- times but once a year, I stirred the hedge course with the plough, and cleaned the intervals about the roots of the plants, from weeds, by a small garden hoe. Per- ceiving in a few years, from its thriving appearance, that this hedge would soon produce a considerable quantity of seed, I trimmed it sparingly for that pur- pose, and not so much as I knew to be requisite, to induce the plants quickly to close with each other ; and to give the whole a more handsome appearance. Being in a remote corner, not in sight of the house, it suffered in its infancy many species of injury. It has however thriven in such a manner, that the greater part of the honey locusts have been smothered by the luxuriant growth of the Pyracantha. I never had much notion of a mixture of plants in live fences, and this experiment has in some measure, though not com- pletely, confirmed my opinion. I have now trimmed and ditched a small portion of this line of hedge, in order to show what powers the Pyracantha possesses to form a live fence, on such a poor soil, with the assistance of a ditch outside, and a bank taken from thence and raised close to the hedge on the inside of it. On a better soil, I am confident that the Pyracantha will less require the assistance of 48 The Pyracantha, or evergreen-thotiu ditching, than the hedge- thorn, as the short row which I raised from layers now sufficiently evinces. Being anxious to save every sprig of it for the sake of seed, I never trimmed it until last year, when I cut it down to about four feet from the surface. It is now up- wards of nine feet in height, and presents a close, strong and commanding aspect of defence, affording a handsome specimen of accidental hedging, naturally interwoven, without splashing, training or trimming, except the once cutting down as mentioned. On a view of the ditched portion of my Pyracantha hedge, the consequence is easy to be perceived ; the flexible undergrowth of the plants will lean down and serve to defend the face of the ditch from the effects of frosts. In a free soil, they will reach the bottom, where the extremities of the sprays will sometimes, in situations nearly level, be covered by the sediment which they will serve to arrest in the time of rain, and taking root from thence, send up in process of time a new offspring of shoots, strong or weak, according as the nature of the soil may be more or less favourable for their nourishment : and where stagnant water is not too long retained in the ditch to injure them. This it is evident will take place in favourable situations. But although this will not always be the result, it is beyond doubt, that in forming the bank close by the back of the hedge, numbers of the extremities of the limbs and sprigs will be covered up in the earth, and will there certainly take root and surmount the top of the bank with new embattled ranks of eminent resist- ance ; so that the whole exterior face of the work will in time be covered with a double or treble range of The Pyracantha, or evergreen thorn. 49 impenetrable armour, connected in one thorny mass of defiance. But although I have now such a high opinion of the Pyracantha, for live fences, I am not out of conceit of the American hedge-thorn, as it is truly flir superior to all the other species of hawthorns, that ever I have seen, for the purpose of hedging. Other names have also been invented lately for this plant, with what ho- nesty of intention, I shall leave it to the consciences of such geniuses to determine : it has been called by such the Virginia thorn, the Washington thorn, and per- haps by other names that I have not heard of; but whicli I, as being the first who discovered its superior properties as a hedge plant, and introduced it to pub- lie notice, have long since distinguished by the name of the American hedge-thorn. This plant is easily known from all the other kinds of hawthorns, by its commonly bearing large clusters of very small light crimson coloured berries, each of which contains five stones, and by its flowering in the month of June, when all the other sorts have set their fruit. But nei- ther hedges of this, nor of any other of the various na- tive hawthorns, including the European hawthorn, (or Cratagiis oxijcantha) also, can so easily or effectually be made close at the bottom, as the Pyracantha. It is not such hedges as are generally seen in Bri- tain, that will prove a sufficient security to us, against the intrusion of hogs and other small domestic ani- mals. Our larger cattle, also, being of necessity suf- fered to range in woods, and unenclosed lands, at dis- cretion, have every opportunity to find out, and break through the weaker parts of our fences. It is there- voL. iir. g"^ 50 The Pyracantha, or evefgreen-thom. fore necessary that our hedges should possess the dou- ble properties of closeness and strength to guard against both those species of trespassers. The Pyracantha, by itself, on a good soil, is the best plant that I know of, to effect both of those purposes. On a poorer soil it will often require the aid of ditching, but the ditch ought never to be made, until the hedge is four or five years old, by which delay, the hedge can be much more easily and effectually cultivated, than if it had been planted on the bank of a ditch at first, as in the British method : this however cannot be done without the assistance of temporary fences. But on a fiat, rich and deep soil, such as the prairies of the west, where timber cannot be obtained, a five or six foot ditch, and bank proportional, may answer for the Pyracantha pretty well, without any other protective or temporary fence ; planting a double hedge row in this case, one in the usual place outside, next the ditch, and another near the foot of the bank, inside, which will, with very little training, cover the whole bank, in a few years, with a complete coat of resistance. On land that is but tolerably good, one row of the hedge thorn, and another of the Pyracantha, at the distance of four or five feet from the former, and on the outside of it, will make an excellent fence in a few years, where the hedge- thorn alone would be a long time easily pervaded, both by large and small animals : even with the aid of the troublesome and tedious operation of splashing. I am sorry that it is out of my power, by any description that I am capable of writing, to give the reader a clear and correct idea of a hedge of this double description, The Fyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn. 51 and more sorry that I have had no opportunity, though long desired, to show a model of it in practice. Different soils, situations and circumstances, will require a somewhat different mode in the application of the Pyracantha. In the early stages of the business of hedging, which is yet but beginning in this country, no ingenious experimentalist ought to tye himself to the opinions and practices of others that have gone be- fore him ; but set his own skill and contrivance to work, in order, if possible, to discover a still better method. The writings and recommendations of others are oftentimes not to be implicitly received. Infatu^ ated, as it were, with the children of our own begets ting, we see in our own inventions, beauties and per- fections which no other eye can perceive. It is there- fore prudent to adopt with caution, whatever is thus brought forward for imitation. An essay on a small scale, conducted widi attention, patience and perseve- rance, where there are any doubts respecting the re- sult, is always the safest ; and when successful, will do more towards introducing the practice to a neighbour- hood, than all that books or writings can perform. To the enterprising, industrious and discerning agricultu- ralists, in the various parts of the country where live fences are becoming every day more and more indis- pensable, it is unnecessary to say more in recommend- ing them to try the Pyracantha, although something more yet remains to be stated. In the year 1810, being about to publish a treatise on hedging, which fell through for the want of sup- port, a gentleman, friendly to the work, advised me to read Dr. Anderson's Essays on rural subjects, before 52 The Pyracantha, or evergreen^thom. I should issue my own piece to the public. His book was written many years ago, and adapted to the cli- mate and other local contingencies of Britain. In reading it I was highly gratified to find that a writer of his practical skill and discernment, had long since recommended the Pyracantha, as a fit plant to fill up gaps, and close the bottoms of hedges in that country ; though I had never heard of, nor seen it applied to that purpose, nor ever knew it, but in the transient glance of its name, in catalogues of plants, except as already related, until I became intimately acquainted with it in this country. Previous to reading Dr. An- derson's essays, I had for a number of years perceived, that the most intemperate heat of the weather here had no other effect upon the Pyracantha, than to che- rish its growth, and that when once it had taken root, it never languished during the severest drought, but continued in those times more rapidly to elongate its shoots; and retained, without shrinking, the usual brightness of its verdure. I considered that the strong- est heat of our summer sun was congenial to its nature ; and knowing now that it has been recommended by the judicious agriculturist above named, as a suitable plant for the purpose which he describes, under the weak and winking influence of the sun in Scodand, I am confident that it grows faster, and will attain to far superior strength in America. Of what country it is a native, I know not ;^ but I know that it bears the * Dr. Martyn says that it is a native of the south of Europe ; common on Caucasus, and in the Chersonesus Taurica ; also in China. It was cultivated in England in 1629. It is now called The Fyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn. 53 utmost intensity of our frosts, equally well as the indi- genous plants in this neighbourhood. I have said no- thing of the beauty of Pyracantha hedges, that being only a secondary consideration : nevertheless, few of the vegetable tribes can exhibit, in the fall of the year, a richer and more splendid display of beauty, than the vast profusion of its clustered berries show among the empurpled foliage of the plant, particularly as it ap- pears before the eye that pursues the long continued perspective riband of it in a hedge-row. I have a considerable quantity of Pyracantha ber- ries, which will be sold in small parcels to applicants, any time before March, Letters (post paid) will re- ceive all proper attention. George Town, District of Columbia, Dec, 1812. mesfiilus pyracantha by botanists : and buisson ardent in French, from the redness of its berries. Dr. Martyn further remarks, that the genera Crataegus, Sorbus and Mespilus are very nearly allied, and scarcely to be distinguish- ed by the number of styles. The leaves in Sorbus are pinnate, in Crataegus, angular, and in Mespilus, commonly entire. Martyn' s Edition of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary. J. M. C 54. 3 On Potatoes, The following paper onpotatoes, by Arthur Young, Esquire, is published to shew the curious facts it contains, and as information to us of the value of the root. That it is an exhauster we have long known. The idea that potatoes are valuable as pre- paratory to a wheat crop is not now so prevalent as formerly. The desire of those farmers who wish to save labour, and double work their dung, by planting potatoes on fallows intended for wheat , is injurious and fallacious. The ground for potatoes must be more highly manured, than a crop of wheat requires. If the quantity of dung proper for a wheat crop only, is laid on for potatoes and wheat, little fertility will be left after the crops are gathered ; nor will either crop be abundant. The late gathering potatoes retards sowing wheat in due season; and although in some sea- sons, wheat after potatoes succeeds, it is generally a hazardous and ineligible practice. In Englaiid the planting potatoes, and particularly on wheat fallows is forbidden in leases ; and restrictions on their cul- ture are common. Their frequent failures of grain crops force the cultivation of the potatoe ; which, no doubt, is a highly valuable product, but should be cul- tivated as a crop by itself; and not in connexion with a grain course. I find this opinion, though not gene- rally adopted, is not singular, and is the result of my own experience. When I mean to sow^ w'mter grain after potatoes, I always allow a greater proportion of manure, and believe rye a much'surer crop than wheat. Ofi Potatoes. 55 Mr. Young, in another paper on the subject, gives a long detail of experiments on i^t^ing potatoes y to va- rious species of stock. His enumeration of pecuni- ary value per bushel, will shevi^ the advantages of this food, compared with other esculents, for our domes- tic animals and enable our farmers xk draw their own conclusions. Feeding horses with potatoes^ brings their value, for this sterling-. purpose, to X. 0 1 6 or 33i- cents. Feeding cattle, 0 1 0 or 1^\ Feeding hogSy 0 10 Reckoning our dollar at 4^. 6d sterling. R. Peters. [Mr. Bordley has clearly shown the greater econo- my of potatoes, over corn, in fatting hogs. See " Notes on Husbandry," 1st edition, p. 230.] J. M. Copy of a letter from Arthur Young, Esq. on the sub- ject of Potatoes, published in the Farmers Journal, SOth March, 1812. To the editor of the Farmer's Journal.* Sir, Having been urged by several gentlemen, who heard a lecture lately read to the Board of Agriculture, on extending the culture of potatoes, to print that paper * Printed by Evans and Ruffy, at the oflTice of the Farmer's Jour- nal, 29, Budge Row, London. 56 On Potatoes. as soon as possible, I declined it, for a reason which appeared to me sufficient ; because not one pamphlet in an hundred circulates among farmers : but as your useful paper is very generally read, I beg leave to communicate to you those circumstances which may immediately tend to induce a more general cultivation of that important root. The average import of wheat for the last twelve years has been little short of 700,000 quarters per an- num, at an expense, in that period, of above 30,000,000 pounds sterling. Supposing the grass and arable land of the kingdom to amount only to 25,000,000 of acres ; half an acre in every hundred added to the present space under this crop, would produce human food suf- ficient to answer the purpose of all such imported wheat ; and this at the moderate estimate of one acre of potatoes being equal to two of wheat : hence then the difficulty of feeding ourselves without a depend- ence on foreigners and enemies cannot be reckoned in- superable ; in truth, it Vv^ould be so very easy a busi- ness, that we can only express astonishment that some means have not already been adopted to secure so ne- cessary a supply. But if the root was attended to, merely with a view of human food, the culture would be liable to great variations, according to the sale price ; so that if wheat happened to be cheap, and po- tatoes consequently low in price, they might be ne- glected, and a scarcity of wheat happen without the root for a substitute ; such a vibration, of many pota- toes in one year and few in the next, is greatly to be de- precated when the subsistence of the people is in ques- tion. On this account I urged the necessity of the On Potatoes. 57 root being cultivated for the use of horses, cattle, and hogs, in order that the farmers might be able to spare a portion of their crops in times of scarcity, to sell to the people ; and I presume to suppose, that if four or five per cent, of the land of every farm were thus em- ployed, the advantage to the farmer would be very con- siderable ; as he would in such a case be paid for that support of the people, which in the present order of things, has cost, as stated above, more than 30,000,000 pounds sterling paid for foreign wheat. The inducement to landlords and farmers thus to extend this branch of cultivation, would necessarily depend on their being convinced that the root is profit- ably applicable to the live stock I have mentioned : to prove this point I quoted a great variety of experi- ments, published by the men who made them, shew- ing, that potatoes paid Is. 6d. per bushel of 66 lbs. as food for horses, in saving oats or hay, or both ; and Is. per bushel on the average of horses, cattle, and hogs : these trials were made by practical men, many of them ©f great experience, and of known accuracy. In what- ever manner the produce of potatoes is, on an average, reasonably calculated, it will evidently appear, that no farmer could entertain any well-founded apprehen- sion of the culture proving disadvantageous. It is ad- mitted that in many cases the root is an exhauster, and consequently by no means beneficial to the farm, relative to that portion of the crop which is sold ; but for all the rest of the produce applied to feeding and fattening live stock, the dunghill amply remunerates for the deficiency. When the present state of the corn markets is con- VOL. TIT. h ^- 58 On Potatoes. sidered, I trust that you will agree with me, that an extended cultivation of potatoes is, at the present mo- ment, an object much deserving attention ; and when it is further considered that the parochial poor, through .much the greater part of the kingdom, are enabled, by rates, to consume wheat at present as in ordinary times, the importance of the proposal now submitted to your consideration, may receive additional weight. Such a subject as this calls for the attention of par- liament, but not on the spur of a difficulty : it should be taken into consideration when none presses. I fear that such an interference will become doubly necessa- ry, from a circumstance not immediately apparent ; leases of a right duration are quickly going out of fa-, shion, so that we may expect a gradual declension in the produce of corn, which will by and by be felt se- verely, if it be not so at present. The mischievous idea of a depreciated currency, has given a severe blow to long leases ; and I cannot but think it an astonish- ing solecism, to find that orators and writers can at one time speak and write in favour of agriculture and leas- es, and at other times declaim on the visions of depre- ciation ; a notion which, if it continues to be blazoned as it has been, will not leave a long lease in the king- dom, and consequently not permit a valuable improve- ment by any tenant, from Cornwall to Caithness. I have the honour to be, &:c. Arthur Young. Sackville Street, London, March 25, 1812. C 59 ] On internal Improvements, by Roads, Canals, ^c. [The two following letters are taken from Mr. WiU Ham J. Diiane's pamphlet, referred to, page 273, of this volume, and should be read in connection with Mr. Church's letters, page 23, Sec. of this appendix.} LETTER XII. I have shown that the most important internal im- provement would be, a water communication between the eastern and western rivers ; that on this object the legislature ought to bestow immediate attention ; and that it is not necessary for the state to expend a cent of public money upon that part of the route between the Delaware and the Susquehanna, which is more than one fourth of the whole distance, and the most difficult to open ; I say the most difficult to open, because it is now ascertained that a canal must be opened the whok way, and that even that part of the Schuylkill between Norristown and Reading, which it was at first suppos- ed, might be used, will not answer. n:^^ As, therefore, no money is necessary for the east- ern part, there ought to be the less difficulty in going on with the remainder, that is, the improvement of the west branch of the Susquehanna. But before any thing of this kind can be attempted, accurate surveys, esti- mates, &c. will be necessary, and these should be ob- tained from able engineers, aided by watermen of ex- perience, and from no other persons. The next object, most worthy of legislative atten- tion j and which can be effected without any impedi- 60 Internal Improvements. ment to the other, is the substantial improvement of the Susquehanna, from Middletown to the north line of the state. This work should also be superintended by an engineer, that the navigation may be really improv- ed, and not made more difficult, as has hitherto been often the case in other instances. In order that this improvement, which is of great importance, may be so considered by every reader, I will offer my remarks under these distinct heads : 1. The present state of the river : 2. The improvement wanted, and the expense of making it : 3. The effects of improvement from the north east branch : 4. Those from the north west branch. 1. The Susquehanna has at all seasons a sufficient quantity of water for any sort of river navigation, if it were confined within one channel, or rather if its breadth were not so great ; but, the bed of the river being very ^Vude, owing to the force and volume of the spring floods, it frequently happens in summer that large boats cannot obtain an ascending navigation. As it is here proposed merely to improve the river from Middle- town to tNvitate line, there is no necessity for saying any thing of that part of it below Middletown ; fiom that town to Wilkesbarre, about 125 miles, the river is in several places im.peded by rocks and ripples, which might be easily removed, under the direction of an engineer, so as to diminish the width of the main channel, and afford a complete ascending, as well as descending navigation, at all times. From Wilkesbarre to the state line, 103 miles, there are no falls, and but two or three rocks injurious to navigation ; the ob- structions, to be removed, are what are termed turn. Internal Improvements. 61 bling stones, or pieces of rocks detached from a fixed foundation, and ripples, which may be termed rapids in contradistinction from the pools, or deep gently flowing water above and below them. As it is to the ripples that most attention is due, there being above 20 in the distance of 95 miles, it is necessary to men- tion their nature more particularly : — they appear like so many bars running across the river ; they are prin- cipally formed of clay and gravel ; and, as the volume of water is always very great, in passing these bars it flows with a rapidity in proportion to the obstruction. So easily may these ripples be removed, that it has not been uncommon for boatmen to dig a channel through them, in order that they might ascend. Perhaps the best way to remedy these defects would be to raise wing walls wherever there is a ripple, that is, to dimi- nish the width, and of course increase the depth of the channel ; if this were done, the navigation would be so complete, that boats of ten or twelve tons might ascend the river in its lowest state in summer. 2. Should the legislature think proper to improve this river, the improvement should be made from the state line, with the stream ; because by the lower im- provement, the general navigation would not be so soon brought into action, as by the upper ; because the great utility of the work will be to draw into our state, the produce of the south west part of New York ; and, because the work itself can in this manner be best accomplished. I have now before me a statement of the nature and extent of the obstructions to be removed, in the first 100 miles, as well as an estimate of the expense of re- 62 Internal Improvements* moval : these data are founded upon the authority of Judge Mathias HoUenbach, who is well known to pos- sess great personal knowledge of the Susquehanna, and upon that of Messrs. Alpheus Dodge, John P. Arndt and David Rosecrantz, for many years, and at this time boatmen upon this river, upon whose knowledge and veracity strict reliance may be placed. According to this statement, the extent of all the obstructions for 103 miles, is but eight miles ; these obstructions I have before described ; the average distance between the obstructions is about two and an half miles ; the ex- pense of removing the whole is stated to be 3205 dol- lars, but as we know that all estimates of clearing ri- vers and opening roads, have hitherto been exceeded by the actual expenditure, I add to this sum 50 per cent, which makes the total cost 4807 dollars and 50 cents. The nature of the obstructions from Wilkesbarre to Middletown, I am not so well acquainted with ; it is certain, however, that their removal will require great- er labour and expense than those above Wilkesbarre, say twice as much, or 10,000 dollars ; and that the whole cost of clearing 230 miles of one of the most important rivers in the union, will amount to 15,000 dollars ; this surely is so insignificant a sum compared with the object, that there should be no hesitation in appropriating it. But, as I have before said, much will depend upon the superintendence ; the money ought not to be appropriated, if ignorant or interested men are to expend it ; but, if put at the disposal of an honest and capable engineer, aided by intelligent wa. termen, will certainly answer all expectations. Internal Improvements. 63 3. To be able to appreciate justly and fully the im- portance of the Susquehanna, and the immense advan- tages which Pennsylvania would derive from opening the navigation eficctually from the north line of the state, little more is necessary than to examine a good map, and to trace the sources of this great river. The north east branch of it rises in the lakes Otsego and Canederago ; it is navigable for small boats from its source, and might be easily made so for boats of any description : its source, therefore, is nearly in the geographical centre of the state of New York ; it is within ten miles of the Mohawk river and of the canals making by New York along the bank of that river as a w^ater communication to the lake Ontario. After passing lake Otsego, this branch flow^s nearly in a southern direction for 70 miles, through some of the most productive lands and flourishing settlements in the state of New York ; in its course, it is joined by the Unadilla river, and having reached our line passes it, forms what is called the Great Bend, and then re- enters New York : it then proceeds along the south- ern line of New York for about 60 miles, receives the river Chenango, again enters Pennsylvania, and is join- ed by the north west or Tioga branch from the west- ward. This north eastern branch is so intimately connect- ed, by its own and its tributary waters, with the pro- ductive counties of Otsego and Chenango in particu- lar, and affords advantages so superior to those of the Mohaw^k, at least in its present state, that it cannot but become the medium of an intercourse highly benefici- al to Pennsylvania, if our legislature will faithfully do 64 Internal Improvements. their duty. For, however desh'ous New York may be to serve its own capital, as Pennsylvania ought to be to serve Philadelphia, it will not be so unjust and im- politic as to tax its remote citizens to do so, but will aid in improving its southern districts and waters, al- though serviceable to Pennsylvania, as we now im- prove ours, although obviously and chiefly to the be- nefit of Baltimore. We may, therefore, reasonably calculate upon the improvement of those rivers, within New York, which water some millions of her best lands, although, as those rivers flow into Pennsylvania, the produce of the lands may be conveyed into this state, and not be transported to New York. At all events, it is our duty to do our part in this great work ; the people of New York who reside upon the waters flowing into Pennsylvania, call for improvements, and if we were to derive no other advantages than the north east branch offers to us, they would be sufficient to justify the expense of thoroughly improving the Sus- quehanna within our own lines. Important as this branch is, however, it is much less so in every point of view than the north west branch, of which I am now to treat. 4. The north western branch, as every reader may see upon the map of the United States, opens a trade with from six to eight millions of acres of as fine land as any in the world ; that is, by good management on the part of Pennsylvania, the whole import and export trade, into and from the middle and western districts of New York, from lake Oneida to lake Erie, and com- prehending the flourishing Genessee country, may be secured or made to pass through Pennsylvania. That Internal Improvements, 65 this may be clearly understood, 1 will mention the par- ticular points, by which this connexion may be opened. ^ The north western branch of the Susquehanna is formed by rivers and creeks, some of which have the same source as the Genessee and Allegheny rivers, whilst others are connected with, or rise with the nu- merous small lakes, which flow into the Ontario. The southern, or Tioga source, is within about twelve miles of the head and navigable waters of the Allegheny ; a fact, which shows, that if there were no route entirely through our own state, connecting the eastern and western w^aters, a good one might thus be opened. By this source a direct and easy communication is opened to the head waters of the Genessee river, and down that river there is a direct communication with lake Ontario. The middle source is the river Canistro, which is navigable to the town of Arkport, situated at the head of the Canistro, about 75 miles by water from the Pennsylvania line : from Arkport to the Genessee river the distance is but twelve miles ; to lake Cana- darque ten miles ; to Angelica twenty two miles ; and to the Allegheny at Oleanne, Major Hoop's settlement, forty five miles. At the latter place the Allegheny is sixteen rods wide, and the navigation excellent all the way to Pittsburgh. The northern source is the river Conhocton, upon which is situated the town of Bath, from whence it is but about ten miles to Crooked lake, which opens a water communication to lake Ontario. These three sources unite a little to the west of the town called Painted Post, and form the north west branch of the Susquehanna, which flows for almost 80 miles, nearly in a south eastern direction, until it en- VOL. III. i '^ 66 Internal Lnprovements. ters Pennsylvania, and joins the north eastern branch at Tioga Point. Upon this north western branch, and at a distance of eighteen miles north west of Tioga Point, is situ- ated a handsome and flourishing village, called New- town, from whence it is but twenty one miles to Sene- ca lake, and from the head of Seneca lake, the distance by water to lake Ontario is under one hundred miles. Of all the points that I have mentioned, this is, in my opinion, the most important ; 1. Because I have the best information, that can perhaps be furnished, from persons well acquainted with the country, for say- ing that a complete water communication, by canals and a few small locks, can be opened from Newtown to the head of Seneca lake, for less than 10,000 dol- lars : 2. Because I know that Mr. Philip Church, son of Mr. J. B. Church, who owns a large and valuable estate ( 100,000 acres) upon both banks of the river Genessee, including the town of Angelica, attended during two sessions of our legislature at Lancaster, and pledged himself that a canal or a turnpike road should be made between Newtown and Seneca lake, if Pennsylvania would improve the Susquehanna within her own lines, say for 200 miles, which I have already shown could be done for 15,000 dollars at the utmost ; 3. Because the formation of this canal or road, and this improvement of the Susquehanna, would certainly, as Mr. Church declared, be the means of conveying the produce of six millions of acres into Pennsylvania, but a small portion of which we now receive, owing to the neglect of the legislature to improve the Susque= hanna. Internal Improvements. When it is considered, therefore, that nature has formed four important and safe outlets, for the trade of the western part of New York, all of which unite at our state line ; that whatever difficulties exist in New York, its citizens offer to remove ; and that the pre- sent state of the Susquehanna alone opposes the entrance into our state of all the produce conveyed by those outlets ; it surely is not only surprising but shameful, that Pennsylvania should have representatives so igno- rant or regardless of her interests, as not to have heark- ened to the admonition of Mr. Church, and proceeded at once to improve our own waters. No doubt, Mr. Church and the other residents in the western part of New York, would prefer aiding the trade of the city of New York, and not that of Phila- delphia, if they could do so as cheaply and convenient- ly ; but, as that gentleman said, *' the Susquehanna is the natural course through which we should go, that route is shorter and cheaper than by the turnpike road to Catskill or Newburgh ; clear your river, and you will command the whole of our trade." But Pennsylvania has as yet done nothing, and there- fore Mr. Church and others have abandoned the works, which they had begun, for opening a communication between the Susquehanna and the lakes, and are now actively engaged in improving the roads from the west- ern counties to the Hudson. For one road alone Mr. Church subscribed to the amount of 13,750 dollars, a fact, which shows the enterprize and ability of this gen- tleman, and the supineness of our legislature in not adopting the useful suggestions which he offi^red to them. In consequence of this narrow policy, the trade 68 Internal Improvements* of the western counties now passes either to Montreal by the St. Lawrence, or to New York, by the Bath, Coshecton and Newburgh turnpike, and thence down the Hudson. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that the reports of the treasury should exhibit the decline of Philadelphia, and the rise of New York, in very striking colours. — Before the state of New York be- gan to form roads and canals, Pennsylvania, as an im- porting state, stood in comparison with New York as twelve to seven ; but since New York began to make roads and canals, since even party rancour has been suppressed for this great object, the scale has turned as much against Pennsylvania and for New York, as it was before the reverse. What indeed can be a more convincing proof of the intelligence of the New York legislature, and the ig- norance of our own, than these facts : a canal naviga- tion is now completing along the Mohawk : a turnpike road is now forming from Bath to Angelica : at the last session of the legislature of New York, Dewitt Clinton, Gouverneur Morris, Stephen Van Rensellaer, P. B. Porter, Simeon Dewitt, Thomas Eddy and Wil- liam North, all men of talents, of high reputation, and of opposite politics, were appointed a committee to ex- plore the country between the Hudson and lake Erie, and to report to the next legislature such improve- ments as they might think necessary for the internal prosperity of the state, and for securing to the city of New York its present high standing ; these commis- sioners left Albany in June last, and have just returned after performing their duty. What a contrast does this form to our stagnant condition ; not one public Internal Improvements^ 69 road, not one canal forming ; not one cent appropria- ted at the last session for any public improvement whatever ; not one commissioner appointed to inquire what should be done to raise the state to its former splendor, or preserve it upon a level with our sister states — all this economy too, whilst millions are left in the hands of delinquent and able creditors, at one or two per cent, interest. In my next I will continue to point out the impor- tance and necessity of abandoning this negative kind of legislation and government, and to show how easily we may derive from the south western part of New York, ten times as much trade and intercourse as Ma- ryland derives from our own south western districts. No one can pretend to dispute the superiority of Bal- timore as a market, for the counties of Adams, York, Franklin, Cumberland, &:c. however he may regret the loss of their intercourse with Philadelphia ; and it must be equally apparent, that Philadelphia offers a superior market to that of New York for twelve or fourteen counties of that state ; we have given the peo- ple of Adams, &c. turnpike roads and canals to carry their produce to Maryland, and the least we can do is to improve our northern waters, our Susquehanna, if for no other purpose than to supply us with an equal quantity of produce to that which Maryland naturally receives. September Sth, 1810, 70 Internal Improvements* LETTER XIII. In my last letter, I endeavoured to show the impor- tance of improving the Susquehanna, from its entrance at the north line of our state to Middletown ; and, in order to induce you to agree with me in opinion re- specting that object, I traced the sources of the river and the several outlets, by which we may draw into Pennsylvania, the immense and valuable products of the western parts of New York. Although my chief intent is to urge the improve- ment of the Susquehanna, and although I intended to defer to another number any recommendation for improving the Delaware, I find this place the most fit for speaking of that object, since it is connected with the question of relative distance to New York or Phi- ladelphia from the lakes, which I intend to discuss in this letter. The river Delaware is principally formed by two large streams, the Mohock, which rises in the county of Delaware, and the Popacton, which rises within the county of Ulster, both in the state of New York, and the latter within fifteen miles of the Hudson. The na- vigation of both these streams is adequate to the ascent or descent of vessels of ten tons, for above fifty miles, before they unite and form the Delaware. After hav- ing joined, the Delaware flows nearly in a south east- ern direction, for about eighty five miles, where it turns to the south at the town of Milford, and passes nearly in a south western direction, for about seventy miles, to Easton, from Easton to tide water at Trenton, fifty miles, nearly a south eastern direction ; from head Internal Improvements. 71 of tide water to Philadelphia, in a south western direc- tion, thirty four miles — total 239. I am aware that, to render the navigation of this ri- ver perfectly safe, a large expenditure would be ne- cessary ; but it is not the cost but the advantages that follow the expenditure, which a wise legislature should consider. The society for promoting internal improve- ments, which existed in 1791-2, estimated the cost of clearing the river at less than 8000 dollars, but if it could be cleared for thrice that sum, the state should rejoice at the appropriation. In its present state, the river is navigable during the spring floods from its source : from Milford, heavy articles are transported on rafts to Philadelphia, at a less expense than they could be boated to Philadelphia from Easton ; upon a single board or spar raft, from 300 to 400 bushels of grain have often been transported for above 150 miles : the transportation in this way costs 75 per cent, less than the carriage from Ulster county to New York. It is, however, on account of its advantages as a route of communication from the western parts of New York, that the river deserves attention ; and that these ad- vantages, as well as those of the Susquehanna, may be understood and compared with the routes to New York, I will now enumerate the claims of each : 1. I have heretofore shown that there is no water 9ommunication from lake Otsego to the Hudson : the distance by land from that lake to Albany is 60 miles, from Albany to New York 165 miles — in all 225. But there is a water communication from lake Otsego down the Susquehanna to Harmony 70 miles, from Harmony to Stockport by land 20 miles turn- 72 Internal Lnprovements. pike ; from Stockport to Philadelphia 239— total 329. It is evident therefore, that as the route to New York has 40 miles land carriage, more than the route to Phi. ladelphia, nothing is wanting to secure even some of the trade of the middle counties of New York, but the improvement of the Delaware and Susquehanna. But if this were problematical on account of the difference in distance, this objection is more and more removed every mile to the south and west of lake Otsego. 2. I will not, however, dwell upon the trade of the middle counties, although I am persuaded that the greater part of it may be acquired by Pennsylvania, ei- ther by the Susquehanna or the Delaware, should the legislature improve those rivers. The most important object is a communication with the extensive and im- portant country from Seneca lake to lake Erie ; and I do again aver, that the whole import and export trade into and from this country may be acquired by this state, through any or all of five distinct routes. Which of those routes should be first made perfect may be ascertained sufficiently w^ell, perhaps, by the subjoined statements ; my opinion is, that the improvement of the Susquehanna from the boundary line would an- sv/er all the present purposes. The turnpike road, which is now making from Cats- kill, on the Hudson, to a point on lake Erie, 20 miles north of Presqu'lsle, passes nearly in a direct line from east to west, and is 296 miles in length. This road passes at the head of Seneca lake, which head is almost exactly half v/ay between the extreme ends of the road at the Hudson and lake Erie. I shall there- Internal ImprovemenU. 73 fore calculate the distances by the several routes to Philadelphia and New York, 'from Seneca lake. First Route— 'To New York. From Seneca lake to Catskill, by turnpike, 156 From Catskill to New York, by water, 125 281 Although the total distance by this route is not great, the extent of turnpike is an insurmountable disadvan- tage, greater than any of the routes to Philadelphia is affected by. Second Route — To New York, From Geneva, at the outlet of Seneca lake to Oneida lake, ... - 90 Oneida lake to Mohawk falls, - 109 Mohawk falls to Schenectady, - 56 Schenectady to Albany, - - - 15 Albany to New York, - - - 165 435 Of these 17 miles by land : it is to be remarked be- sides, that although New York has done much to im- prove the water route for the first 250 miles, the navi- gation is still more difficult in many places than any part whatever of the Susquehanna, from Middletown to our north line. First Route — To Philadelphia. From Seneca lake to Newtown, by land, - 21 Nevvtown to Harmony, by water, - 78 Harmony to Stockport, by turnpike, 20 Stockport to Philadelphia, by Delaware, 240 359 VOL, HI. k * 74 Internal Lnprovements. Second Route — To Philadelphia. From Seneca lake to Newtown, by land, - 21 Newtown to Tioga Point, by water, 18 Tioga Point to Wilkesbarre, on Susquehanna, 95 Wilkesbarre to Easton, by land, - 60 Easton to Philadelphia, - - - 84 278 I consider this as the best route, under present cir- cumstances, or at least until the canal navigation should be opened from the Delaware to the Susquehanna. Should the legislature expend 5000 dollars upon that part of the route from our state line to Wilkesbarre, there can be no doubt but that the preceding 33 miles would be rendered capable of an easy transportation, by the legislature or citizens of New York. Of that part of the route from Wilkesbarre to Easton, 32 miles were turnpike in 1807, the remaining 28 miles were then an excellent road, and no doubt will also be made turnpike, under the law in force for that purpose. An appropriation for the Delaware part of this route is an object of great consequence. This route, it is to be observed, is shorter than ei- ther of the New York routes ; but there are other cir- cumstances which call upon the legislature to improve the north western part of it, from the state line to Wilkesbarre. This town is well situated for becoming a depot for the general produce brought down the Sus- quehanna ; and the Philadelphia bank is about to open a branch there, which will greatly contribute to this object. Should the Susquehanna be improved, there- fore, a market is here opened, to which the produce of Internul Improvements* 75 the western counties of New York may be brought the whole way by water, and from whence by water and by an average land carriage of but fifteen miles, return cargoes may be taken either to lake Ontario, to the town of Arkport, to Genessee, or within twelve miles of the Allegheny. No route that New York can esta^ blish, can prevent this result, if the legislature of Penn- sylvania will do their duty. Third Roiite'—To Philadelphia. From Seneca lake to Tioga Point, 39 Tioga Point to Nescopeck, on Susquehanna, 121 Nescopeck to Lausanne, by turnpike, 28 Lausanne to Easton, by the Lehigh, 45 Easton to Philadelphia, - - - 87 320 Of this route but 49 miles by land. Nescopeck is also favourable for a depot, and the communication with Easton a matter of much consequence. For ma- ny articles, particularly grain, Easton is as good a mar- ket as Philadelphia : having an excellent stream of wa- ter and good mills, the millers of Easton give as good a price for wheat as can be got any where in the neigh- bourhood of Philadelphia ; their flour they send to Phi- ladelphia at twenty five cents per barrel. Fourth Route — To Philadelphia, From Seneca lake to Nescopeck, - - 160 Nescopeck to Sunbury, - - - 38 Sunburv to Philadelphia, - - 120 318 76 Internal Improvements, Of this route, 141 by land. Much of the road from Philadelphia to Sunbury is turnpike, and laws exist, authorizing the construction of the remainder in the same manner. Fifth Route — to Philadelphia, From Seneca lake to Tioga Point, - - 39 Tioga Point to Middletown, - - 221 Middletown to Philadelphia, - - 84 344 Of these 344, 105 by land, of which the last 84 are turnpike. If the canals from the Susquehanna to the Delaware were completed, the whole distance from Seneca lake to Philadelphia would be but 330 miles ; the whole of which route may be made by water, if the legislature will adopt a system of policy, worthy of the reputation and ability of Pennsylvania. 3. On a fair comparison between these routes to New York and Philadelphia, no intelligent man can hesitate in giving the latter a decided preference, as the market with which a trade can best be maintained by the people residing west of Seneca lake. — Two mil- lions two hundred thousand dollars must be expended, even according to Mr. P. B. Porter and Mr. Gallatin, before the circuitous route of 435 miles, from lake On- tario by the Mohawk, can be opened for an ascending or safe descending navigation to the Hudson, and if this were done, another perhaps equally large expen- diture would be necessary to open the navigation from lake Ontario to lake Erie. On the other hand, the route by the turnpike, from the Hudson to lake Erie, Internal Improvements* 77 although very direct, is so expensive, that, if the Sus- quehanna were improved, there is no doubt but that ten tons would pass down that stream, for every one sent by turnpike to the Hudson. And, as it is so apparent, that, with due exertion, Pennsylvania can secure the trade of that part of New York west of Seneca lake, the superiority as an im- porting and exporting state to the western waters, must be equally so ; yet, as I shall show in a subsequent letter, unless Pennsylvania shall soon exert herself, she will lose not only the trade to the Genessce, &c. but the trade, which she now in a great measure possesses to the western part of Pennsylvania, to Ohio, Kentuc- ky, &c. All, then, that is wanting, to secure to this state a valuable exchange trade in the products of the respec- tive states, and the profits upon exports, and the goods imported by sea, in return, is, that the legislature should gradually clear the Susquehanna, as I have heretofore pointed out, from its entrance upon our northern boun- dary line, to Wilkesbarre, Nescopeck, Sunbury, and Middletown. Nature has done much for us, but we have done, comparatively, nothing for ourselves. September llth, 1810. [ 78 ] Pruning and after Management of Hedges^ by Robert Soinerville, From Communications to the Board of Agriculture of England, voL 2d, page 47. London 1805. Though a strict attention to the foregoing circum- stances, during the infancy of a hedge, is highly ne- cessary to produce healthy, vigorous plants, a very considerable part of its beauty and future value will depend upon the pruning and after management that is bestowed upon it. There is perhaps, no part of the subject upon which a greater contrariety of opinion at present prevails, than the age at which the pruning of hedges ought to com- mence, the manner of that pruning, or the season of the year, at which it may be given with the greatest possible advantage, and the least risk ; the practice with some is to prune from the first year, not only the lateral branches, but the tops also, and give as a rea- son, that cutting oif the extremities of the shoots con- tributes to the thickening of the hedge, by making them push out a great number of new ones. — The fal- lacy of this argument, and the mischief with which the practice is attended, we shall elsewhere have oc- casion to notice. — As to the manner of pruning, or the form of the hedge, these seem, with many, to be matters of indifference, no attention being paid to dress- ing them in such a way as to have them broad at bot- tom, and tapering gradually towards the top, many of them being not only of one width from top to bottom, and not a few much heavier and broader above than On Hedge Pruning, 79 they are below ; it is obvious that such hedges can neither look well, nor be useful. — The season at which they are trimmed is, in many instances, an improper one, for in place of choosing that time when the plants are least in danger of suffering from an effusion of their juices, which is either at a late period in the autumn, or very early in the spring, the pruning is given in the summer season, when vegetation is in its prime, and the plan4:s are full of juices ; the check and injury they must receive from having the whole of their extremi- ties cut off at that period, may well be conceived. In speaking of the treatment of hedge plants before they are put into the ground, notice has been taken of the necessity of preserving the roots as much as pos- sible ; and at the same time shortening the tops : this last operation has two good effects ; for by curtailing the top and branches, the roots have ^ess to nourish ; and by leaving only two or three inches of the top above ground, in place of growing up with a single stem, it sends out two or three ; and as these strike out from the plant so near the earth, each of them has the same effect, and strengthens the hedge as much as the ori- ginal stem would have done by itself, with this addi- tion, that in place of one prop or support, the hedge will have three or four. After this first pruning, how- ever, no hedge should be touched, or at least very gendy, for some years ; from an inattention to this circumstance, and the injudicious application of the knife or shears, at an early period, many young hedges are rendered useless, which, under different treatment, would have made excellent fences, with one half the trouble that was required to destroy them. The prac- 80 On Hedge Pruning. tice of cutting over the tops yearly, which is done with a view to render the hedge thicker and more per- fect, is one of these mistakes which we would natu- rally have supposed common sense and observation would have sooner corrected ; the effect produced be- ing in almost every instance, the very reverse of what was intended : shortening the main stem of a thorn or any other plant, makes it brush out a number of small stems immediately at the place where it has been cut ; and if this operation is repeated once or twice a year, every one of these is again subdivided as it were, by sending out more branches ; thus, in a course of years, during which, the hedge makes very small progress upwards, if it be examined, instead of being found to consist of strong vigorous plants, with a good main trunk, each reaching from top to bottom of the hedge, and a sufficient number of lateral branches throughout the whole length of it, it will be found, by such re- peated cuttings, in the same stunted situation as cer- tain young trees and shrubs, that are frequently crop- ped by sheep or cattle. From the repeated crops of young shoots, which the tops send out after every clip- ping, and the great quantity of nourishment necessary to support such additional numbers, the lateral shoots at the bottom, upon the strength and numbers of which the value of the hedge in a great measure depends, are stinted in their growth, and soon die : the hedge, of course, becomes open and naked at the bottom, and consequently useless as a fence. Where a hedge has been thus ruined, there is no remedy but cutting it over, close by the ground : this will immediately pro- duce a number of healthy, vigorous, upright stems, On Hedge Pruning* 31 which, under proper management, will soon form a good fence. From the first year of planting, till the hedge has risen to the height of five or six feet, the main stems ought to be left untouched, and the pruning confined solely to the side branches, leaving those next the root l^retty long, and gradually tapering towards the top : this pruning of the side branches will make them send out many new shoots from their extremities, which, by repeated trimmings, will become so thick as to fill up every interstice from top to bottom of the hedge ; while the main stems, by beiiig left untouched, continue their growth upward, till they arrive at the necessary height ; when they may have their extremities cut off with perfect safety. When a hedge has attained the wished for height, all that is requisite afterwards, is regular switchings with a hedge-bill, preserving it pretty broad at bottom, and drawing it gradually to a point at top ; this form of a hedge is pleasant to the eye, is well calculated to stand the weather, and by being thus above the nourishment that would have been wast- ed in supporting a thick, bushy, overgrown top, is re- tiiined by the branches at the bottom, which are there- by strengthened, and their numbers considerably in- creased ; while the trunk, by having no more exertion to make in an upward direction, becomes every year stronger and thicker. — A hedge of this sort in full leaf lias the appearance of a solid wall ; and when viewed after the leaves arc shed, presents to the eye a set of massy growing piles, so strong and formidable as to bid defiance to any attempts that may be made to break through them. VOL, III. 1 * [ 82 ] On Sheep Folding. From a Publication on Manures^ draxvn up for the Board of Agriculture, England, by Robert Somerville of Haddington, London, 1795. The practice of folding sheep as a manure, or rather as a top dressing, is common in many parts of Eng- land, and is productive of considerable advantage. They are folded both upon arable and pasture lands ; upon the arable lands it is sometimes done before the last furrow, at other times after the grain is sown. This last is found from experience to be the best method of folding, as the urine and dung of the animal remain upon the surface, and soak down gradually ; whereas, when the field is folded before the last ploughing, a considerable part of the manure is turned down and lost. The spring and summer seems to be the time when this practice is most beneficial ; at that time the food of the animal is rich and juicy, but during the winter, unless the sheep are fed upon turnips or hay, their dung is of small value. It is obvious that fold- ing, after the grain is sown, can never be practiced but upon dry soils, and during dry weather. This way of manuring seems peculiarly adapted to farms, where there is a considerable extent of hill or common pasture, or grass lands, that never come un- der the plough. In these cases, by bringing the sheep in the evening to the fold, a considerable quantity of manure will be saved, that would otherwise be lost. If the pasture upon which the sheep feed through the day is good, they may be folded, without any detriment to the animal, (if not intended to be fattened,) for a great 071 Sheep Folding. , 83 part of the year ; but where the pasture is scanty, this cannot be done, as they will not be able to pick up a sufficiency of food through the day, to enable them to bear the fatigue of travelling to and from the fold, and fasting all night. When they are fed in the fold, the case is different ; but feeding in the fold will not admit of being practi- ced as a top dressing after the seed is put in ; it seems best calculated as a preparation for v/heat or barley, upon fallows ; in either of these cases they may be fed in the fold with propriety, as the offal of their food will be ploughed in with the last furrow, and the land pro- perly opened for the reception of the crop ; even this requires to be done upon dry light soils ; upon these a gentle shower will not be felt, nor will there be any danger of the land being battered with the feet of the sheep ; whereas upon clays or deep loams, the soil will sustain more injury by the treading of the sheep in wet weather, than all the benefit communicated by their manure. Defects of the common way of folding Sheep. The custom of putting a great number of sheep into a small fold, is very common, allowing them little more than a square yard each, and confining together sheep of every description, young and old, strong and weak ; both practices are bad. In the first, if sheep are fed in the fold, the space allotted to each will be so small, that they will be crowded, and a considerable quantity of their food trodden down and destroyed ; the breaths of so many, confined together, within such narrow limits, will keep them too warm, and when they ^re disposed 84 On Sheep Foldijig, to lay themselves clown, there will not be sufficient room for that purpose. To avoid these inconveniences, a space containing room enough to afford three or four square yards to every sheep, would answer the purpose much better, and though this large area would not receive so much advantage from one night's folding, yet by allowing the sheep to remain upon it for two or three nights, it would be sufficiently manured, with this additional be- nefit, that no part of the fodder would be destroyed, by trampling upon, and the animals would have a dry bed, and plenty of room. The second defect in the present way of folding is equally bad, if not worse ; that is the custom of fold- ing sheep of every description together. When a great number, eidier sheep or other animals, are put toge- ther to feed, unless they have an over quantity of food given them, (which every good farmer wishes to avoid) there will always be a struggle, who shall get most of it ; in a contest of that kind, it is evident that the strong- est will succeed, and by depriving the weaker ones of their food, their weakness will be increased, and a risk incurred of losing them altogether ; whereas by picking the flock, and folding the strong and weak sheep separately, both would be benefitted thereby ; the strong ones would still have a sufficiency of food, and the weaker sort would be allowed to feed, and lie at their ease : in this situation they would gain strength, and improve in value ; in the former, they would be daily growing worse. In short, wherever folding is practiced, it should be a principal object with the farmer to assort his flock, On Sheep Folding. 85 and as near as possible, to class those of the same age and strength together, and whatever preference is giv- en, either in the quantity or quality of the food, should fall to the share of the young and weak. The practice, as far as we are able to judge from the information before us, is entitled to the notice of farm- ers in every part of the kingdom ; but in that, as in every other branch of agriculture, much must be left to the judgment and attention of the farmer, it being impossible to lay down rules that will apply to all the different circumstances of soil, situation, &c. It cer- tainly is best adapted for dry lands, and farms contain- ing much pasture that is never ploughed ; upon these, as we have already observed, much manure may be collected that would otherwise be lost ; but upon farms that are entirely arable ; and where grass makes a part of the rotation, to bring the flock from the pasture, and fold them upon another field, is depriving the grass field of a great part of the benefit that might be expect- ed from its being in pasture, and is enriching one part of the farm at the expense of another. The only in- stance in which it is warrantable upon an arable farm, is in cases where turnips are raised either upon clay or heavy loam ; in either of these cases, they may be eat- en with advantage upon grass or stubble fields, as no farmer of common sense would think of eating them •where they grow ; but as we have already observed, the propriety of this must be left to the judgment of the farmer ; much advantage may certainly be derived from it in some situations, and great loss sustained iu others. [ 86 ] On Sheep Foldings from Dcwis^s Survey of ffiltshirCy drawn up for the Board of Agriculture, In distant [wheat] lands, the farmers depend solely on the sheep fold for manure. They fold as close as possible to the sowing, waiting day by day for the fold to keep pace with them : and in very dry seasons, they fold again, after the wheat is sown. The great dependence for the barley crop, in the common- field system, is the sheep fold. After the wheat is sown, the fold is sometimes, and very properly, put upon the down land, but more usu- ally upon the wheat stubble, which is to be prepared for barley ; but the manure from the fold is not consi- dered of any great value, until the ewes and lambs be- gin to feed on the water meadows ; it then becomes almost invaluable. The manure of ewes is reckoned much better than that of wethers, on account of the great quantity of urine which they make. Five hun- dred ewes, with their lambs, will fold an acre well in one night : and none but those who have seen this kind of husbandry, can form a just idea of the value of the fold of a flock, coming immediately on the fallow land, with their bellies full of quick young grass, from a good watered meadow, and particularly how much it will in- crease the quantity of the barley crop. The increase may be fairly stated at a quarter (eight bushels) of bar- ley per acre. The quantity of barley seed sown, is sometimes six bushels, and seldom so little as five. The crop is mown. C 87 ] On Barilla as a Manure^ com?nimicated to the President of ^^ the Philadelphia Society for promoting AgricuL ture,'^^ by Robert Barclay^ Esquire ^ London. Beceiv- ed May 20th, 1814. Repeated experiments have proved that Barilla is the most powerful manure that can be applied to land ; it produces to the farmer and gardener a considerable saving in time and labour, as it imparts immediately to the soil that sweetening principle, which can other- wise only be acquired by means of the tedious and ex- pensive process of fallowing ; in addition to these ad- vantages, it possesses the power of destroying grubs, slugs, and worms, as well as that of correcting every species of acidity in a sour clay or peat soil, the adhe- sive texture of the former of which wdll be gradually mellowed by the constant use of Barilla. An old worn- out garden, that has been so repeatedly manured widi dung as to produce nothing but luxuriant wood shoots, and rank haulm and leaves, instead of well-flavoured fruit and sweet vegetables, may be restored to fertility by a moderate dressing with Barilla, trenched into the ground at the rate of five hundred weight per acre. The value of Barilla as a manure, may be easily es- timated by those who have used soap ashes, the ferti- lizing properties of which depend on the quantity of Barilla left in them after the manufacture of the soap ; and it appears by analysis, that one ton of soap ashes contains only from seven to ten pounds of Barilla. With any sort of crop on a farm, this article may be drilled into the ground with the seed, at the rate of one 88 On Barilla, as a Manure* or two hnndred weight per acre : used in this way, or sowed by hand over the land as a top dressing, it pos- sesses the power of preventing the fly from destroying the turnip crop ; it may be sown broadcast by hand over the land, and immediately harrowed in with any sort of seed ; or it may be made up into compost with ditch or pond scourings, road scrapings, peat or sand, if intended for clay land ; or if intended for light sand, peat, or chalk land, it may be made into compost with clay, and after blending the materials together, by turn- ing, may be used on grass or plowed land, as other manures. It will make a very strong and most valuable com- post manure used thus : — Deposit on the ground a lay- er of peat, road- scrapings, or any other earth, twelve inches thick, on this place a layer of couch grass, young furze, green brambles, ling, fern, or weeds, twelve inches thick, or a layer of long dung, six inches thick, strew over the couch weeds, fern, Sec. or dung, a layer of Barilla, half an inch or an inch thick : — thus proceed with alternate layers, until you have made up the de- sired quantity of compost ; it should then be left a pro- per time to ferment, after which it may be turned over to blend its particles together, and used as other ma- nures, either on grass or plowed land. In this way, valuable manure may be made on lands which would otherwise be inaccessible to the dung cart without a heavy expense. Barilla is a most valuable wash for seed wheat or any other seeds. For this purpose, put one pound of it to every gallon of soft \vater used ; place the seed in this mixture, and stir it well for ten minutes, after which On Barilla, as a Manure, 89 it may be taken out and sowed immediately on the land, or spread thin on a floor and dried for use : the wash may be carried to the compost heap or dung- hill, as manure. It is recommended in all cases where Ba- rilla is used as manure, that it be plowed, harrowed, or dug in as soon as possible after being spread on the land ; as, if exposed, the air will rob it of a portion of its salts. It is probable, from a due consideration of the com- ponent parts of Barilla, that the use of it as a manure, at the rate of one hundred weight per acre, on sour wet grass land, will, in addition to rendering the herb- age of such land nutritive and abundant, tend to pre- vent its occasioning the rot to sheep and deer which graze on it. On Barilla, as a Manure, by the Editor q/' Evans and Ruffy's Farmer''s Journal^ — a JFeekly Paper of re- spectahility ^ published in London, Having lately read, and heard in conversation, ver}* high encomiums on the fertilizing powers of Barilla, when used as a manure, I was anxious to go farther than mere hear-say, and to see experimental proofs of its effects ; and being introduced by a friend to the gen- tleman who I believe was the first to whom the thought of using it occurred, I Avas by him ^ery courteously and frankly shewn or told all that he had done by way of experiment. I must premise that, independently of his garden, the chief scene of his experiments was a few acres, taken in from a common, of sour, wet, VOL. III. m "^" 90 On Barilla^ as a Manure, infertile clay, impregnated with oxide of iron, filled in winter with pools of stagnant water, and rent in sum- mer into deep fissures. He levelled the ground, and deepened and widened the ditch that skirted it, through which the winter stream runs : he then, late in autumn, had it dug ten inches deep, with a spade, such as na- vigators or canal diggers use, at an expense of two guineas and a half per acre, ridging it up to abide the influences of a winter sky. It was then a reddish and very adhesive clay. On this unpromising soil he has tried potatoes, carrots, parsnips, hemp, flax, pease, beans, cabbage, wheat, and clover, trusting solely to the effects of the Barilla, which he applied in different proportions, at the rate of from one hundred weight to live hundred weight per acre : it was beneficial in eve- ry proportion, and most so where the greatest quanti- ty was used. The clover w^as luxuriant, once cut for soiling, the second time for hay, and a third time for soiling. I have seen some of the straw of the wheat, which is the strongest I ever saw ; I have seen the po- tatoes, carrots, and parsnips, which, in point of size, are not inferior to the best 1 have ever raised or seen, — and the acreable quantity I learn was great ; but the ground and produce have not been accurately ascer- tained. One thing struck me forcibly ; — among other sorts of potatoes, planted in this experimental ground, was one cwWtd ladies^ Jitigers, which the gentleman had before cultivated in his garden, where their shape and size accorded nearly with their name ; but in their new habitation, and with the new manure, they grew to six times the size : and the esculents raised on the expe- rimental ground, to be dressed for family use, far ex- Oft Barilla, as a Manure, 91 ceeded in luxuriance and flavour those formerly raised in the garden. He has used it likewise as a top dressing on a sour meadow, where the herbage was coarse, on which when his cows were before pastured, the butter was rank and indifferent, and I am informed it has not since been so. I can vouch that it is now sweet and rich, but his three cow^s have been fed entirely through the winter on the roots produced on the new ground, and the small patch of clover hay ; the meadow hay being still untouched. The ground is at present in a second course of ex- perimental cropping, with different manures for com- parison. I saw some of it digging ; it has become more loose and friable, and to use the expression of the labourer, the stuff has spilt its colour : it has cer- tainly changed in colour, and apparently in quality. The account I have received of its productiveness might by some be questioned, and as I do not attri- bute it entirely to the Barilla, but partly to indefati- gable and persevering manual exertion, directed by skill and judgment, I shall not name it, because on an extended scale, in the common routine of husbandry and under common management, it cannot be ap- proached. If drilled in with the crop, two hundred weight of the Barilla will do ; if sown broadcast, from two to five hundred weight will be required, according to the nature of the soil, and other circumstances, to be judged of by him who uses it. On a large field of heavy clay, belonging to a neigh- bouring farmer, which had been summer fallowed for wheat, the gentleman proposed, as an experiment, that a part of it should be dressed with Barilla, in such 92 On Barilla, as a Manure. quantity that the acreable expense should be under that which the other portions cost him ; one side of the field being heavily manured with soap ashes, and the other side with dung. This was acceded to, and six- teen hundred weight of Barilla was sown and harrow- ed in with the wheat, on about 3| acres, in the middle of the field, on the 15th of November ; but I must re- mark, that from what I saw, this is by no means a fair trial : for, besides the lateness of sowing, the wheat in the other parts of the field being at that time well out of the ground, the middle of the field is more wet and full of springs than any other part, so that in places there were sheets of ice some days ago, where the springs had bubbled up. If, under these disadvanta- ges, it succeed, it will be irrefragable proof of its pow- ers, and should it even fail, it will be no solid ground of condemnation ; for, on such land, labour and ex- pense will never make an adequate return, without that indispensible part of good husbandry — under draining. There is one very observable circumstance that shows it has been in operation through the winter, whether beneficially or not will hereafter appear ; the colour of the ground is so changed as to point out, even at a dis- tance, where the Barilla was sown. The beneficial effects of soap ashes have beyond all doubt been experienced in many instances, and in others equally well authenticated, they have entirely failed. Some of these failures may have arisen from their application to a soil that did not want that pecu- liar quality that they impart, or by which they operate ; other failures may have arisen from a deficiency of that quality in the ashes themselves : for, by an analysis of On Barilla, as a Manure. 93 different specimens of soap ashes, instituted by the gen- tleman I have spoken of, it was found that the best contained no more than ten pounds of alkali in a ton ; and in some, where kelp had been used instead of Ba- rilla, a ton of ashes contained no more than three pounds of alkali. It was this discovery that first induced him to try the pure Barilla, on the supposition that the al- kali in the ashes was what imparted fertility. If this be so, two hundred weight of Barilla will benefit an acre of land as much as twenty tons of the best ashes. Impressed with this idea, he has collected clay, pond mud, scraping of roads, weeds, and every rubbish and refuse of the garden and fields, adding to every ton ten or twelve pounds of Barilla strewed over it ; and, after lying a length of time, the whole has been turn- ed : what its effect will be on the land has not been yet fully ascertained, but he is sanguine in the hope that it will be equal to a dressing of dung. The change pro- duced on the whole mass is apparent; it has a whitish nitrous appearance, and is become mellow, and he thinks it will be peculiarly adapted for light soils and top dressings. Applied in its pure state, it would seem best calcu- lated for sour infertile clays, impregnated with metal- lic oxides ; and from being so powerful an alkali, equal- ly proper for peaty soils ; in both cases laying hold of and neutralising the superabundant acid, sweetening the soil, and producing fertility ; but its effects are yet too little known to hazard general conclusions, or to say for what soils it may be adapted, or how often, and at what intervals it may safely be applied. C 94, ] On mixing Lime and Stable Manure, [The following are the remarks alluded to in page 423 of the Memoirs. The circumstance of the stinted wheat appearing chiefly in manured fields, naturally excites wonder in those who think that nothing is wanting to secure a good crop, except abundance of stable dung : but from the observations of Mr, Somer- ville, it appears that a failure of wheat on manured spots takes place in England, similar to that observed in Maryland : the reason of which he ascribes to the insects bred in the fresh manure.] For many years I have been struck with the failure of the wheat crop in the spring, more particularly at the circumstance of this failure happening oftenest up- on the richest and best prepared lands , and after the most severe weather was over ; and could never ac- count for it upon any other principle than the loose- ness of the soil, occasioned by the manure put into it, and the operation of the winter frosts. The observations which I have recendy made, have however given me very different ideas ; and though I am still of opinion that a number of the plants may, and in fact do perish, by being thrown out of the ground, I am at the same time convinced, that a very great majority of all the plants which die in the spring, are killed by vermin, and as I believe upon inquiry the as- sertion will be found true, that great numbers of ver- min are generated in the manure, there must always be an evident risk of the crop being destroyed thereby. On mixing Lime and Stable Manure, 95 The only probable remedy for such an evil seems to be, that of either preparing the manure in a particular manner, by mixing it with some substance or substan- ces, whose deleterious effects will prove fatal to the in- sects ; or by applying it in a form somewhat different from the mode commonly practiced. Upon the first of these points I have to observe, that a cheap and valuable remedy may be had in most si- tuations, which, when mixed with the dung, will not only destroy the vermin, but, by its operation upon the manure, render it much more valuable. — The ar- ticle I allude to is lime, which, when mixed with well digested animal and vegetable manures, not only de- stroys every insect, or animalcule, which they contain, but by its solvent qualities accelerates putrefaction, and renders their effects upon the crop more certain and valuable, and accordingly many of the best farmers in England employ a mixture of lime in all their manure ; but when to the advantage above mentioned, is super- added the destruction of such vermin as are likely to breed in the dung, and afterwards to destroy the crop, the mixture of lime with it will appear to be one of the most beneficial improvements in modern husbandry.* When dung is intended for a compost, no attempt should be made to add any large quantity of lime or earth, till it is properly fermented ; as every addition of that kind will be found to check fermentation, and diminish the value of the compound. — The lime and earth should be added, after the fermentation is finish- * Inquiry into the cause of the blight and smut in wheat. Com- munications to Board of Agriculture, vol. 2, page 208. 96 On mixing Lime and Stable Manure, cd, and the whole carefully mixed and laid up toge- ther. A few days after this is done, a second fermen- tation will come on, and, if the mixture has been pro- perly turned over, and thoroughly incorporated, in a month or six weeks afterwards it will be fit for use. Considerable judgment and attention will, however, be requisite, with regard to the quantity of lime, and other active principles employed ; for if the quantity is small, their action upon the rich substances contain- ed in the dung, will be partial and imperfect ; and if too great, a considerable loss may be sustained by their over action. The proportion that will bring their ac- tive and passive qualities nearest to a balance, or, in plainer language, the quantity that will dissolve the en- riching substances contained in the dung, will certain- ly be found the most useful.* * "Outlines of the fifteenth chapter of the proposed general report from the Board of Agriculture ;'* on the subject of manures ; by Robert Somerville. London. 1795. On the impropriety of mixing lime with fresh dung, see Lord Dundonald's " Treatise on the intimate connexion that subsists be- tween agriculture and chemistry." London. 1803. [ 97 ] Mangel JFurtzeL JFinter Food for Cattle, [The following account of methods used in the cul- tivation of the improved beet-root^ or mangel wurtzel, is taken from a recent publication by Mr. P'mder >S'/wj&- ^f?n, of the county of Essex, England, 1814.* Experi- ment must decide to what degree these statements will apply to the culture of this root in our country. Fifty tons have been raised on an acre in England. The produce of one tenth of an acre will keep a bul- lock fatting^ fourteen weeks. Dry fodder must ac- company this green food. The produce of six acres will fiitten sixty bullocks ; allowing each 100 pounds per day ; as appears in the statements made in this ^publication. 1. In broad cast, on strong land, spade trenched, ten inches deep, leaving the plants after hoeing nearly fif- teen inches apart each way. Produce per acre 50 tons. 2. Transplanted in rows, three feet apart, the plants eighteen inches apart in each row. Produce per acre 2-2 tons. 3. Dibbling the seed, in rows two feet apart, and the plants left twelve inches apart in each row. Produce per acre 48 tons. By these different methods, results will prove which is preferable. Its great advantages over turnips are * The advertisernent prefixed to the book states, that the obser- vations were made upon crops of the root grown upon a farm at Bedfords, in the county of Essex, containin(> 600 acres, belonging to John Heaton Esq. and in his own occupation. VOL, III. n * 98 Mangel WurtzeL shown in every way, as well on account of the beet be- ing more nutritious, as its not being subject to the fly, or other annoyances to turnip crops. Nor is the ex- pense of cultivation so great.] For the information and guidance of those occupi- ers of land, who may be desirous of cultivating the im- proved beet root upon strong land, the next chapter will contain a particular account of the method used in cultivating that root upon strong land at Bedfords. The method there stated, is that which has been found, on three years^ trial, to be least expensive in the be- ginning, and most profitable in the end. — The cultiva- tion of this root is earnestly recommended to the at- tention of all persons farming strong lands with a view to profit. It should never be forgotten, that 48 tons, the produce of only a single acre, of this root, will make ten bullocks fat enough for the butcher; and that six acres, of equal produce, will fatten sixty bullocks ; that the profit on each bullock will be considerable ; and that when the business of feeding is over, the yard will be full of rich dung : neither should it be forgotten, that the tenant who sells his straw, cannot partake of any of these advantages. In proo^of this assertion, the following facts are sub- mitted for consideration : Mr. Heaton bought two lean Welch bullocks, at Harlow Bush Fair, on the 9th of September. They cost together 34 pounds. They were pastured on the Rowens till the 20th of November following, when they were tied up, and fed with beet root and oat straw till the 9th of February following, when they were sold Mangel WurtzeL 99 together, in Romford market, for the sum of 50 pounds; yielding in twenty two weeks, a profit of 16 pounds, which is equal to 7s. 3d. per week, for each bullock. These two bullocks were tied up twelve weeks each, in which time they ate eight tons, two hundred weight of beet root, the produce of only one sixth part of an acre of land, cultivated according to the method re- commended in the following chapter. The method used in the cultivation of the improved Beet Rootf upon strong land^ at Bedfords* It may be proper, in the first place, to state what is meant by strong land. The surface soil is loamy, and from four to twelve inches deep, upon a bed of strong clay mixed with gravel. It is too heavy, and general- ly too wet, in the winter, even for sheep to eat a crop of turnips on the ground ; and although good turnips are grown upon it, it is always necessary to draw them for the sheep, stall-fed cattle, or for cattle in the yards. The ground is prepared to receive the seed, and clean- ed in the same way as it would have been for Swedish turnips. As that part of the business is so well known to all farmers, it is not necessary to enter into any de- tail upon it. In the middle, or latter end of the month of April, the furrows are set out with the plough, two feet apart, and double ploughed; that is, the plough returns on the furrow to the point whence it set out, forming a ridge between each furrow. Double ploughing with a common plough is prefer- red to single ploughing with a double mould board 100 Mangel WurtzeL plough, because it affords a greater depth of loose earth than the double mou'd board plough would produce. In these furrows, the manure, which should be in a rotten state, is deposited, after the rate of six cubic yards to an acre. The ridges are then split by the plough going and returning the same way as before mentioned, leaving the manure immediately under the middle of the new ridges. A light roller is then passed along the ridges, in the middle of which the seed is dibbled, so that the plants may receive all the benefit which can be derived from the m.anure. The seed is deposited about an inch deep, whilst the moisture is fresh in the earth, and covered by drawing a garden rake along the rows. After this, the light roller is again passed along the ridges, and the work is finished. When the plants are about the size of a radish, they are hoed with a turnip hoe, leaving the plants in the rows about twelve inches apart. If any of the seeds fail, and there happen not to be an even crop, the roots, where they are too thick, are drawn out before the hoeing takes place, and transplanted, to fill up the va- cant places, and insure a full crop, which is always certain, inasmuch as 99 plants out of 100, thrive and do well. In transplanting, care is necessary to pre- vent the point of the root from turning upwards. The weeds, whilst the plants are young, are kept hoed, but after the head of the plant has once spread, no weed can live underneath its shade, and the expense of hoeino: afterwards is very trifling indeed. Mangel Wurtzel 101 The whole of the crop is taken up in the month of November, in dry weather. The tops are cut off near the crown of the plants, and the plants, when perfectly dry, are piled up in a shed, and covered with straw sufficiently thick to preserve them from the frost. They kept last year till the latter end of March, and they would have kept much longer. The seed may be had of Cochran, seedsman, in Duke street, Grosvenor square, and of Messrs. Gibbs and Co. Half Moon street, Piccadilly. From three to four pounds of the seed will be sufficient for an acre of ground, prepared and dibbled according to the method here stated. The price last year was seven shillings per pound, but it may probably be less hereafter, as the growers of the root, so long as that high price con- tinues, will of course save their own seed, and thereby lessen the demand from the seedsman. THE METHOD BEFORE DESCRIBED ELUCmATED. Form of the Ridges before manuring. b b b The tops of the ridges, about two inches broad, a a a a. Intervals of twenty four inches from one a to another. Depths about twelve inches from a to b. Furrows where the manure is deposited, b b b. Form of the Ridges after splitting and rolling. A A A A B B B Tops, A A A A, nine inches broad, in the middle of which the seed is deposited. Situation of the manure, B B B B. 102 Mangel WurtzeL It will not be supposed, by any intelligent farmer, that where the quantity of the improved beet root given daily to a bullock is stated, it is meant that it should be given without dry food. It may, however, be ne- cessary to say, that the same dry food must be given with the beet as is usually given with turnips. Mr, Heaton last year gave oat straw only, and the bullocks did well upon that food, and were sold to profit. No doubt they would have been ready for the butcher sooner, had good hay been given to them : but this fact may be relied upon, that fresh bullocks, fed upon the beet root and oat straw, will, in three months time, get fat enough for the butcher. It may also be necessary to observe, that not a word, here stated, is intended to apply to such light turnip soils as will bear the trampling of sheep, without inju- ry to the land. Mr. Heaton has none upon his farm, and I have not sufficient knowledge of the manage- ment of turnip land, of that description, to say, whe- ther prudence would warrant any trial of the beet root upon a large scale, on such soil, to be eaten on the land. Where a field, selected for a crop of beet, happens to be in a foul state, the seed had better be sown in a garden, and the whole field planted with the young beet, when of the size of a radish. This will give time for cleaning the ground, and fitting it for a crop ; for, although the beets are destroyers of weeds, it is not meant to recommend sowing them on foul ground, or in any way to encourage a slovenly system of farming. Although manure has been used in the cultivation of this root, it is not absolutely necessary ; and, if not in a rotten state, it does mischief. Good crops have Majigel JVurtzel. 103 been obtained at Bedfords without manure, and without injury to the succeeding crops of corn. Beet is fed from a depth considerably below the reach of the plough, as generally used ; so that it does not draw the surface soil in which corn is fed. The method of cultivating the beet root here recom- mended, is the same as that which is used in the culti- vation of turnips, in Northumberland and other parts of the north, with this exception, that the rows there are 27 inches apart. There may be reasons in the north for still preferring that space, but in Essex the effect of it, in the cultivation of the beet root, would be, that, instead of 48 tons per acre, 43 tons only would be ob- tained. Experience has proved, that the roots do not get to a larger size in rows three feet apart, than they do in rows two feet apart. It may, therefore, fairly be presumed, that they would not be larger in rows 27 inches apart ; and if not larger, the weight of the crop, per acre, must be less, because the plants de- crease in number as the rovi^s increase in space. The advantages that would arise from the cultiva- tion of these roots, upon a small part of every strong- land-farm throughout the kingdom, must be obvious. Calculations might be given that would astonish and almost exceed the belief of most readers. Such calcu- lations, however, in general, are but little attended to, and it is thought better to omit them, hoping that enough has been said upon the subject, to fix the at- tention of every person interested in the cultivation of land. t 104 ] Mode of analyzing and testing Gypsum ; extractedfrom Professor Cooper'' s account of his experiments on suU phat of lime* Cooper's Emporium, New Series, vol. I, page 325. I procured 150 grains of gypsum from 100 of pure limestone, when the gypsum after being carefully wash- ed in a moderate proportion of water, was dried for an hour on the top of a ten plate stove, on which I could just bear my hand. But when I calcined it for an hour in a full red heat, I procured from 100 grains of car- bonat of lime, but 130 grains of gypsum. I took a well characterized piece of compact gypsum from a ton that lay for sale in the street here ; and re- ducing it to fnie powder, I calcined it in a crucible in difull red heat for an hour. 1 drove off 2\~ parts : this occurred to me three times. I took from a lump of the sane gypsum (Nova Sco- tia, imported to Baltimore, and thence sent to Carlisle) some of the semi-transparent chrystals of a vein that ran through the lump. Exposed to heat in the same manner, the result was the same. Hence I conclude ; that 100 parts of pure carbonat of lime, will yield 130 parts of anhydrous gypsum (from which the water has been expelled) and from 151 to 152 parts of gypsum as it is commonly found. The country adjoining the waters of the north east branch of Susquehanna, are now supplied with gypsum from the Genesee. This commerce began in 1811. A set of people in the neighbourhood of Pine creek, Mode of analijzing and testing Gypsum, 105 in 1812, sold great quantities of common limestonr for gypsum, and deceived many farmers, and injured ma- ny millstones by the deception. It may be worth white to give a few characters of gypsum that may prevent a similar imposition. First. When a piece of stone is presented to you as gypsum, try to scratch it with your nail, and to chew it between your teeth. You may thus scratch and pul- verize gypsum, but you cannot easily do so with lime- stone, which is much harder. Secondly. Drop on it, a drop of spirit of salt, or of aqua fortis. If an effervescence, a bubbling, and ex- trication of air ensue, the stone is probably limestone ; for no such effervescence takes place on a piece of gyp- sum, but the acid spreads evenly upon the surface, as a drop of water would do. Now and then indeed, a specimen of gypsum may contain a small portion of limestone, but this does not occur often. Thirdly. If the preceding tests do not give satisfac- tion, then take 100 grains of the stone : reduce it to a fine powder : grind up with it 250 grains of common pearl ash, boil them in a tin or earthen vessel, with half a pint of water, to dryness. Wash what remains by three separate affusions of half a pint of boiling wa- ter : dry the sediment at the bottom. If the stone be gypsum, that sediment will weigh 77 or 78 grains ; it will have all the properties of common limestone redu- ced to powder, it will effervesce with, and totally dis- solve in a mixture of one part of spirit of salt to two parts of water, added by degrees till the wliole be dis- solved. VOL, III. o *" C 106 3 Professor Cooper^s Ajialysis of various Specimens of Pennsylvania Limestone. Cooper^s Emporium^ New Series, vol. 1, page 318. Some time ago the honourable Richard Peters, of Belmont, near Philadelphia, requested I would take the trouble of analyzing some limestones, for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of magnesia they might contain. In England, the impression among scientific men, in consequence of the experiments of Mr. Te- nant, in Phil. Trans. 1790, are, that limestone contain- ing a considerable quantity of magnesia, such as the limestone of York, in Yorkshire ; Bredon, in Leices- tershire ; Matlock, in Derbyshire, and some other pla- ces, were unfavourable to agriculture. Mr. Tenant found that seeds sown in earth, sprinkled with lime made from calcareous limestone, vegetated very well, and the lime operated favourably : but when sprinkled with an equal quantity of lime, made from a stone that contained two parts of magnesia to three of pure lime, they did not vegetate. His experiments were made, evidently on secofidary limestones containing magnesia ; and the stratum of this kind of limestone he found superincumbent on the purer calcareous stone ; and which in general he con- siders as alluvial limestone, in reference to the strata on v»7hich his experiments were made. Judge Peters transmitted to me, nine different spe- cimens of limestone from Chester county, [and Mont- gomery county] numbered and named as follows : Analysis of Limestone, 107 No. 1 Holstein's. No. 6 Dr. Gardener's. 2 Coates's. 7 Barnet's. 3 Yocum's. 8 Bull's. 4 Cleaver's. 9 Baker's. 5 Hughes's. Of these, No. 7 is regarded as the strongest for building or for land, and No. 9 the weakest. The first four are strong lime, 5 and 6 of medium quality, and No. 8 nearly equal to No. 7 : that is, according to their reputation in the neighbourhood. Upon these limestones I have made experiments for the purpose of ascertaining their component parts, but chiefly as to the magnesian earth, they may hold. It is not an easy problem to discover the most sim- ple, the cheapest, and the most accurate method of se- parating magnesia from limestone and clay, (from lime and alumina.) We have no good precipitant of magnesia : phos- phoric acid requires combinations that make the results complicated, and drive us to calculation, which when I can, I would avoid. The following metliods have been used, to separate magnesia from a combined solution of lime and mag- nesia in the muriatic acid. 1st. Separate the lime by the oxalic acid. This is too expensive. 21y. Precipitate the lime by saturated carbonat of potash, which in the cold throws down the carbonat of lime, and the residual liquor heated lets fall the car- y6onat of magnesia. This is a method recommended /by Davy and Henry ; but I have never been able by 108 Analysis of Limestone. this method perfectly to keep separate the carbonats of these two earths. 31y. Throw down the carbonat of lime by carbonat of ammonia : filter : then add to the muriat of magne- sia containing carbonat of ammonia, phosphat of soda. The ammoniaco-phosphat of magnesia is precipitated ; and 151 grains of this triple salt dried at 90° of Fah- renheit, answers to 100 grains of muriat of magnesia. Hence, if 20 grains of a mixed solution of the muriats of lime and magnesia give 15,1 grains of ammoniaco- phosphat of magnesia, the mixture contains equal quantities of muriat of lime and magnesia. Or, 100 grains so dried are equal to 111 grains chrystaliized, or 62,2 of dried sulphat of magnesia. But this seems to me below the average w^ater of chrystallization in sulphat of magnesia, which contains nearly 50 per cent. 26 Nich. Journ. 277. This process, is used by Dr. Henry, Dr. Wollaston, and I believe by Dr. Marcet. 41y. The lime may be precipitated by oxalat of pot- ash, and the muriat of magnesia, may be separated ei- ther by the filter or by alcohol ; and precipitated either by hot carbonat of potash, or by ammoniaco-phosphat of soda. Or the alcohol or the acid may be driven off by exposure for an hour to red heat. Or, by sulphu- ric acid, the magnesia may be chrystaliized under gen- tle evaporation into Epsom, or the bitter purging salt of magnesia. 51y. The muriat of lime, may be precipitated into Gypsum, either by sulphuric acid, or by Glauber's or Epsom salt, acidulated with a few drops of oil of vi- triol. Analysis of Limestone, 109 6ly. The limestone containing magnesia, may be reduced into an impalpable powder, and treated with an equal weight of oil of vitriol, mixed with thrice its quantity of water. When the limestone is well pow- dered and sifted through fme muslin, and the super- fluous acid driven off by heat, I believe this is as good a method as any. In making the experiments of which I am about to give the result, I proceeded in two ways. First, I took 100 grains of the stone powdered and sifted, and treated it with muriatic acid diluted with three waters by measure, stirring it frequently : after four hours, the supernatant liquor was poured oft', and the undissolved residuum washed with an equal quan- tity of hot water as of the acid liquor, filtered, and dri- ed in the heat of about 160 Fah. and then weighed. The solution, was then precipitated by a sufiicient quantity of oil of vitriol cautiously added : it was left to stand after stirring till the gypsum had formed. Then filtered, and the separated gypsum put aside. This second filtered solution, contained, muriat of magnesia, a small quantity of sulphat of magnesia, a small quantity of sulphat of lime, and alumina, with excess of acid. The alumina was thrown down in a dirty-coloured floculent precipitate, by the cautious ad- dition of carbonat of ammonia, and was separated by the filter and washed, dried and weighed. The solu- tion was then precipitated by hot carbonat of potash which threw down the magnesia and the lime ; and fil- tered. This precipitate was re- dissolved in sulphuric ^cid, and left to stand. The sulphat of lime (general- 110 Analysis of Limestone, ly about one sixth) separated spontaneously, fell down and was added to the first portion. The whole of the magnesia was then thrown down by carbonat of potash, well washed, dried over a char- eoal fire in the heat of about 160° and then weighed. The sulphat of lime, or gypsum, was exposed in a crucible for two hours to a red heat, and the lime cal- culated on the proportion of 100 parts limestone to 130 of the anhydrous gypsum. A proportion, for which I will assign my reasons in a supplement to the present paper. Secondly. I proceeded in another way. I treated the finely powdered limestone with strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol of commerce;) triturating them together in a glass mortar. 1 then added four times the quantity of water. The clear liquor was de- canted from the sediment which w^as washed with an« other portion of water, and the liquors added together. The sediment (gypsum) was rendered anhydrous by exposure to a red heat in a crucible for two hours, and the limestone calculated on the proportion of 10 parts limestone to 13 of anhydrous gyps : deducting the si- lex previously found. The filtered solution to which the washings were added, was concentrated by evapo- ration, which occasioned a slight precipitate (about 4^th) of sulphat of lime : it was then treated with carbonat of ammonia for the alumina, and with carbonat of pot- ash for the magnesia as before. The component parts of the stones sent to me, were ascertained on the average of these two methods. The limestones transmitted to me, bore evident marks of contiguity to primitive strata. The colour- Analysis of Limestone, 111 ing matter was black hornblende, sometimes in streaks or veins, sometimes minutely divided and mixed with .the limestone, giving the greyish tinge to the stone. The 9th specimen was intermixed with mica ; the in- soluble residuum of the four first specimens in dilute marine acid contained a small portion of matter, silky to the touch. I believe all the limestones connected with the range of primitive formations on the seaboard of our country from Boston to Virginia contain more or less of magnesia. They are in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the steatite and other magnesian strata, that envelope as a matrix, the chromat of iron. I tried the specific gravity of three of them, which varied from 2,65 to 2,72 the usual range of common limestones. No. 1. Holstein^s .'Colour, greyish white : Fracture, uneven : Surface, common splintery : the stone seems to consist of minute lustrous chrystals : slightly fetid on being pounded. I obtained in 100 parts, silex 3, alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 12. The rest was carbonat of lime or pure limestone. The traces of iron were evident with tincture of galls and prussiat of pot- ash, but in no greater degree than might be attributed to the usual impurity of the acids of commerce. Mv muriatic acid was freed from the sulphuric, by muriat of Baryt. No. 2. Coatesh. Colour, greyish white : Fracture, uneven : Surface, fine splintery, consisting of minute sparkling chrystals. I obtained in 100 parts, of silex 3, alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest was pure limestone. No. 3. Yoeum^s. Colour, greyish white streaked with blueish grey, being coloured W'lth hornblende (amphi- 1 12 Analysis of Limestone. bole.) Fracture uneven: Surface, splintery, small sparkling chrystals. I obtained in 100 parts, silex 4, alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 14, The rest was pure ' limestone. No. 4. Cleaver's. Colour, blueish grey : Fracture uneven in one direction, but splitting into lamina of about half an inch thick in the other ; there was a very thin clay coloured sediment between the lamina : Sur- face, opake, without lustre. I obtained from 100 parts, silex 4, alumina 6, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest was pure limestone. No. 5. Hughes's. Colour, white inclining to grey : Fracture uneven : Surface, splintery, opake, void of lustre. I obtained from 100 parts, silex 5, alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 12. The rest, pure limestone. No. 6. Dr. Gardener's. Colour, greyish inclining to blueish white. Fracture uneven : Texture, a very line, easily-poundf d, sandy grit, consisting of minute lustry chrystals. I obtained from 100 parts, silex 2, alumina 0, carbonat of magnesia 16. The rest, pure limestone. No. 7. Barnefs. Colour, white with a very slight clay colom*ed tinge ; Fracture uneven : Surface, chrys- tallized lustry facets : Texture, saccharoid, the same as the saccharoid limestone on the York turnpike road about 10 miles from Baltimore. I obtained, silex 1, alumina 0, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest, pure limestone. No. 8. Bull's. Appearance like No. 7, only the fa- cets of the chrystals much smaller. Silex 1, alumina 0, carbonat of magnesia 14, the rest limestone. No. 9. Baker's. Colour, ash-grey intermixed with brown mica, so as to bear the appearance of a mixture Analysis of Limestone. US of pepper and salt : Small lustry chrystals. I obtained silex o(b, undecomposed mica 4, alumina by precipita- tion 6, carbonat of magnesia 4. The rest limestone. Hence it would seem, that the proportion of magne- sia in these stones, is not so great as to produce any remarkable effect, either in agriculture, or as cements. The last (No. 9,) is doubtless the worst, as containing so large a proportion of siliceous sand, which on light soils is worse than useless. Tenant's limestones, contained a much larger por* tion of magnesia, and the effect was therefore more evi- dent. The greater proportion of limestone used in England than in this country, with the same effect, may arise not from the nature of the lime, but of the soil whereon it is put. It is there used in large proportion to strong loamy arable soils, and to swampy, spouty ground, that tends to produce sorrel. When it is used for the purpose of producing white clover, for which it seems to be a specific stimulus, it is not applied in greater proportion there than here, and merely as a top dressing. That is, so far as my observation and recol- lection enable me to speak on the subject.* * In Evans and Ruffy*s Farmer's Journal, August 30th, 1813, there is a paper, in which it is averred, that Magnesian Lime, in profier quantities^ is much used in several parts of ILuglajid. The writer cites highly respectable authorities, (among them Sir H, Davy:) to prove the salutary efficiency of such lime ; in quantities not exceeding one fourth of the dressing with other lime. It is therein said, that no limestone in England contains more than 22 per cent, of magnesia^ and the most usual proportion is about one fifth. R V, VOL, in. p * C 114 ] Observatiojis on the culture of Summer Wheats or Spring Wheats from a Pamphlet by C, T, Skurray^ Esquire^ of Devonshire. London, 1813, According to Mr. Sktirray, the real summer wheat is a native of the south of Europe, where it is called BIS Tremois, and is so tender in the early stages of its growth, that a severe frost would destroy it : the mid- dle of April, therefore [in England] is the proper tJhie to begin sowing it, and from that until the beginning of May. It ripens as early as the common wheat ; and in fact rarely exceeds four months between the sowing and reaping. It is not liable to rust or mildew, even in those situations where other wheat is often destroy- ed by it. The soil best adapted for it is a good loam ; but any soil that is in good heart, if not too light, will produce a crop. The quantity of seed required is about three bushels per acre, prepared with lime and brine, as customary ; it should be well roiled after sowing, and again when three inches above ground, and of course, weeded in due season, if requisite. As it is the peculiar nature of this wheat to appear ripe, by the colour of the straw, long before the grain has arrived at maturity, great care should be taken to examine the ears, before the harvest people are order- ed into the field, otherwise a serious loss may be sus- tained. It is a small grain, but very heavy, and the husk -or skin is thinner than most spring wheat ; con- sequently it produces more flower. It is sometimes bearded, but this distinction varies with the soil. The ' On Summer Wheat, 115 straw is slender and short, the ears small, but general- ly so well filled, that the chests open and expose the grain before it is ripe. The stem of the straw is al- ways a little bent at the joints, which is not the case in any other wheat. There are numerous varieties of spring wheat, ac- cording to Mr. Skurray, and one sometimes answers while another will not. Seed of the genuine sort may be had of Messrs. Cook, Fisher and Co. opposite the Pantheon, Oxford street, London. On the Cultivation of Carrots* [The providing an abundance of succulent food for sheep, and other farm stock, when they have young, is all essential to their health and prosperity. For this reason, the attention of farmers is called to the cultivation of the carroty of the utility of which root the most abundant testimony is afforded by various British farmers ; and some in the United States, whose experiments have been commu- nicated to the Agricultural Society. With a good stock of carrots and mangel wurtzel, a,farmer need not dread along or severe win- ter, or be apprehc;nsive about the health of his breeding stock. The attention of the sheep farmers in Albany and Saratoga coun- ties, New York, is particularly called to the growth of carrots. The nature of much of their soil is particularly adapted for them, and they have hills of leached ashes for manure, of which, (in 1812,) no use was made ! ! The body of the following paper is chiefly abridged from Dick- son's Agriculture, London, 1805] The orange carrot, the root of which is larger, the colour darker, and the flesh more juicy and saccha- rine, than in the other varieties, is the most proper sort for field culture. Deep friable, loamy, or sandy 116 On the Cultivation of Carrots. soils, are the best, but most soils will answer, except those of a stiff clay, and thin gravel. Two or three deep ploughings, (say 14 inches,) are essential, to en- able the roots to push downward. — Two should be given in the autumn, or early in the winter, and one in the spring. xA.t the last ploughing, in March, the farm yard manure should be turned in, and the surface of the ground immediately well harrowed.* The cultivator should save his own carrot seed, by selecting annually some of the most perfect and best shaped roots of the preceding year's growth ; to be set out separately for the purpose, early in the spring. Saw dust, bran, ashes, or dry sand, are to be mixed with them [and wxll rubbed together] that they may be se- parated and sown more regularly. J. C. Curwen, M. P. of Cumberland, England, sow- ed carrot seed, previously mixed with wet sand, and placed in a warm situation, on high ridges, three feet asunder. By this method the seed is in a state of ve- getation before it is sown ; so that a fortnight is gained by it, and the carrots are less liable to be injured by weeds, t From four to six pounds broadcast are necessar}'-. The seed should be sown as early as the frost will per- mit, and covered with a light harrow. As carrots are of a delicate nature while young, and do not rise quick- * Mr. Cooper, of New Jersey, recommends ashes as a manure, and to choose ground that has been in potatoes the preceding year. J. M. t Transactions Society of Arts. London, vol. 24-. On the Cultivation of Carrots. 117 ly,* they must be kept free from the shade of weeds, by small hand hoes, or by hand weedmg. This ope- ration may be rendered less difficult by having the crops sown on ridges of such breadth as may be easily managed by two or three persons. A second hoeing should be given in three weeks from the first ; and the plants set out to their proper distances, which varies from nine to eighteen inches each v/ay ; experience proving that the crops are finer and the roots larger, than when the plants stand nearer to each other. A third hoeing will be requisite, when the weeds must be completely cut out, and the weak plants and double ones removed ; further hoeings may be necessary, of which the cultivator must be the judge; the object being to keep the land well stirred and the crop clean. Harvesting. — Mr. Mason recommends the use of a narrow spade, which the labourer strikes with one hand into the ground, pressing it sideways at the same time, while he draws the root with the other hand. After being raised from the ground, the roots should remain in the field for two or three days to dry,! then packed in heaps, with dry straw, or dry sand, in some dry building. — When piled in the field, a ditch should be made round the heaps, to carry off the water.f Mr. * Six weeks will sometimes elapse between the sowinr^ of the seed and the appearance of the parsley leaf. Mr. Mason, Transac- tions Society of Arts, London, vol. 23 t The dryin.q; of the plants would be expedited by cutting off the tops, when first taken out of the ground. They may be given to cattle. J, ]\r. f Rev. Mr. Eldridge. Com. to Board of Agriculture, vol. 5. 118 On the Cultivation of Carrots. ■ " --- ■ ' » Curwen directs a small piece to be cut out from the top of each root, to prevent it from vegetating.^ All farm stock relish carrots and are improved in health by them. For sheep or cows, while suckling, tliey are invaluable. The Rev. Mr. Eldridge says he mowed carrot tops for his cow, twice in a season, without injury to the root, and aftbrded an opportunity of cleaning them bet- ter than could be done when they had their tops on. The)^ greatly enrich and sweeten milk.f Mr. Curwen, from one acre and a rood, in 1804, had 4143 stone, (of 14 pounds.) Mr. Mason had eighteen loads, of forty heaped bush- els to the load, per acre. J Mr. Cooper, of New Jersey, states, that he has had at the rate of 800 bushels of carrots to the acre. * Transactions Society of Arts, vol. 24. t Com. to Board of Agriculture, London, vol. 5, page 211 \ Transactions Society of Arts, vol. 23. [ 119 ] [From the Wilkesbarre Gleaner of April, 1814.] Owego Village, — Plaster end Salt. A friend of ours has lately returned from Owego, and has been polite enough to favour us with a sche- dule obtained from a respectable merchant of the vil- lage, of the business transacted there during the last winter. The curious cannot fail to be pleased with the perusal. It should be borne in mind, that it is but a few years since the place where Owego is built was a wilderness. During the sleighing (last winter, 1813-14) there were on the road from Ithaca, the head of the Cayuga lake, to Owego, from 500 to 700 sleighs : there are now at Owego (March 10th) about 9500 tons of plas- ter; and 2500 barrels of salt ; — to transport these to market will require 200 arks, which will cost about 100 dollars each. Plaster, the arks given in, is about 20 dollars per ton at Ovrego ; and the salt itself will bring 6 dollars per barrel, making in the whole, 9500 tons of plaster, at 20 dollars, jS 190,000 2500 barrels of salt, at 6 dollars, 15,000 9 arks, to carry salt, at 100 dollars, 900 S 205,900 The oats consumed daily, allowing one bushel to each team, (many of them had from four to six horses,) would be 700 bushels. Cost of plaster at the bed, three to four dollars per ton. — Transportation to Owego, seven to eight dollars per ton. [ 120 ] From the Minute Book of the Agricultural Society. On the Duration of Posts, when their natural Position is reversed, — Extract of a Letter from Mr, John R. Evans, to the Secretary of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture^ dated Nov, 29, 1811. On removing the old fence of my garden, to set a new one, about five years since, I found that the old fence was supported by a few posts, that were forked, and the fork down, and that they were quite sound, while the rest were rotten, and broken off at the ground ; the yard fence, (only five pannel,) three parts of which were strong and sotmd, and likely to last for ten years more, were not forked, but from their being knotty, it was easy to see that they were top in the ground. I have made enquiry of the carpenter who built the fence, (who is yet living,) and he says the fence stood 20 or 21 years, and that it was the design of my predecessor to turn all posts top down, that would admit of it, the fact being known to him that they would last longer.* John R. Evans. * I have experienced the truth of the fact above stated. I do not pretend accurately and satisfactorily to account for it. I have cou' jectured, that by reversing the vessels in which the sap had been accustonied to circulate, whilst the tree was in life, the moisture drawn up by the sun, in vessels even of dead timber, was impeded by the reversed position. Had the posts been, as they generally are, placed with their butt ends downward, the vessels designed for circulation of sap, might be filled with moisture from the air or earth. However fanciful this conjecture may appear, the fact men- tioned by Mr. Evans, is important, and proved in many instances. R. Peters. INDEX. A Agriculture, of England, Manures, kc. - . - 84 in the new settlements of Pennsylvania, - 98 Commerce and manufactures ; remarks on, 270, Sec. Alkalies ; [8c so, it is said, doth sugar :] prevent cream be- ing converted into butter, - - - - 249 restore to overdunged ground, profitable fertility, 416, 417 Anderson, Dr. the lime applied by him, in so great quan- tities must have been mild ; and acted by its fertilizing and nutritious qualities ; dif- ferent from caustic, which is solvent, - 205 Animals ; domestic, sacrificed by the ignorance of quacks ; owing to medical characters neglecting vete- rinary acquirements, - - - 81 invited or repelled by scents. — Usefulness of at- tending to this subject, - - - 366 Apple, Crab, account of an orchard, - - - 189 Trees, on pruning ; and management of orchards, 199 Crab, account of it in Virginia, - - 392 Arator, agricultural essays ; noticed, - - - 227 Ashes, spent, or soapers— only valuable for the alkali con- tained in them, - - - - 417 Appendix, - - 92, 93 of various species of timber, quantities of potash yielded by them, respectively, - - - 418 Atmosphere, said to be the source of fertility in manure, 198 see vol. 1st. trench ploughing, winter fallow, B Uakewell, William, his mode of planting Indian corn ; and course of crops, - - ^55 the noted breeder. Improved his sheep, Sec. by crosses, - - 53 VOL. III. q^ INDEX. Barclay, Robert, his information respecting Tangier wheat, and mangel wurtzel, - 277, 278 transmits accounts of barilla, used as manure. Appendix, - - 87 Barilla, a powerful manure, account of its uses. Appen- dix, - - - - 87, 88, 8cc. Facts and observations on, by the editor of the Farmer's Journal, - - . 89, &c. Cultivation of, in U. S. recommended, and places where plants grow, . - - 432 Barking Trees, when standing, or girdling, at particular seasons, has been found conducive to du- rability ; and inquiries on the subject re- commended, ... 109, 110 Bark Mill, employed in threshing grain, - - 400 Barytes, sulphuretof, a powerful manure, - 120, 239 Bauduy, P. account of a shepherd's dog, - - 372 Birds, absence of, give opportunity to increase of insects, 281 Migration and return of, - - - 348 Biscuit, brown, eulogized, - - - 149 Breast, Plough, for paring soils, a cut, - - 425 Breeding in and in, remarks on, - - 52, 171 Brindley, his preference of canal navigation, to beds of rivers, ..... 252 Brown, Dr. see his account of Guinea grass, - 173 to 189 Bull, hardihood and sufferings of one, - - 387 Burning Land, to excess, prejudicial ; but, generally, fire salutary on soils, - - - 214 Butter, of what it consists ; and process of making, 248, 249, 302 C Cabbages, culture of, - - - - 265 Calcareous Substances, only one kind of: apparent differ- ences are owing to foreign matter, 206 Earths, inquiry into their composition and qualities, ... 206, 207 Calf, case of croup in one, - ... 58 INDEX. Calf, twins, at some times more frequent than at others, 61 Free-martin, what ? rare, and seldom prolific, - ib. Canals, advantages of opening, from Seneca lake to Sus- quehanna, thence to Delaware, - - 270 Navigation through, preferred to that on beds of rivers, - - . - 35Q Carpetting, made from hair of cattle, - - 403 Carrots, cultivation of recommended, - - 115 Cassat, D. Esq. letter on successions of wheat crops, - 257 Catterpillars, account of vast numbers, - - 280 Sods, placed in crotches of trees, will banish them, - - - - ^^• Walnut, and wild cherry trees, invite and support them, - - - ib. Cattle, refuse hair of their hides made into cloth, - 403 Hoven, account of, - - - 41 Cayuga Lake, great bed of plaster there, - - ^ 268 Cement, the weaker the lime, the less sand required, 207 Changes of Crops, rotation and changes defended, - 252 and see pages, 375, 376, 377. A proof of necessity of, in land clover- sick, - . - - 40 Animals, for stock, recommended, 52, 53, 54, 55 Timber, - - - 104, 105, 376, 377 Chesnuts, best kinds ; grafted by juxta position, - 435, 436 Chesnut Tree, engrafting, - - - - 435 Churchman and Martin, their description and cut of a rubber, for threshing grain, 400 Church, Philip, Esq. his letter on gypsum of the Lakes, - - 268,269,270 and see appendix, pages, 2, 3, &c. Churn, one of peculiar construction, - - 249 See appendix, I, 2, 3, and pages of text, - 301, 302 Cist, Jacob, Esq. his account of lake plaster, - - 138 Clifford, John, Esq. his account of fiorin, - - 286 Clothing, over coats, and other clothing, for labourers, made from hair of cattle, - - 404 INDEX. Clover, degenerates, if sown too frequently on same field, 40 Coal, fossil, abundant in our western and northern coun- try, and great advantages of opening canals for its transport, - - - - 118, 140, 141 Of Luzerne county, sells higher at New York, than that from Liverpool, - - - ib. Cock Chaffer, account of it, - - - 281 Collin, Rev. Dr. on pruning apple trees, - - * 199 Commerce, remarks on, - - - - 271, &c. Cooper, Professor, his mode of testing gypsum. Appendix, 104 Analysis of sundry Pennsylvania lime- stones, - - - - 106 Corn Cob, gives stimulus of distension, when ground with the corn, and also contains much nutriment, 297 Corn Indian, successions in rich bottoms, - - 255 Strong in its system, and will withstand lime, or hot muck, .... 230 Stalks rotted, valuable manure, - - 231 With potatoes, observations on, - - 303 Early planting recommended, - - 312 Inquiry whether, or not, it be exhausting, 304 Varieties of, - - - 308, 309 Large crops of, - - - 311 Not injured by frost, when young, - 312 Dropping the seed properly, - - 316 Covering thinly, and breaking clods, - ib. When and how to cut off the whole plant profitably, - - - . 320 Grass lay, best for corn, - - - 321 Mixed crops of, - - - . 323 Shelling machine, - - - 250 See title, Indian corn, - - . Correa de Serra, Joseph, on the cultivation of barilla plants, - - • 432 Cows, milk and butter increased, by leaves of scarcity plant, ------ 263 INDEX. Coxe, Tench, Esq. his information concerning wool. Appendix, - - - 15 Cream, scalded, process of making, - - 419, 420 Crops, course of by W. Bakewell, - - - 155 Rotations and changes of, defended, - - 252 Curds, rennet and alkalies, combine only with them, - 249 Cutworms, the progeny of certain beetles, - - 281 Cyder, directions for making, - - - - 43 Virginia crab apple, best for cyder, - - 44, 45 Ripe, should not be mixed with unripe fruit, - 46 Fermentation, how managed, ... ib. Fining, racking, &c. - - - - 48, 49 D Davis, on sheep folding. Appendix, - - 86 Davy, Sir H. his conjecture on operative principle of plaster and remarks thereon, 235, 236, 237 Dogs, Shepherd's, account of, [see appendix, 36,] 366, 372, 373 Dotterer, Henry, his machine for breaking plaster, corn in the ear, shelling, 8cc. - - 398 Drill, Wheat, description of, - - - - 32 Dry Rot, (fire»fang) in dung, various opinions relating to it, - - - 288, 289, 290, 295 Duane, W. J. his pamphlet on roads and navigation, ap- proved, - - . - 272 Ducket, his skim coulter, - - - - 413 Dung, Long, Arthur Young's account of it, and mode of using it, - - - - 414 Mixing with lime, injurious if done previous to fermentation, appendix, - - 94 Dung, should be applied previously to fermentation, 92, 93, See contra, - - - 224, 225, 338 Well rotted, preferable to hot and fresh muck, 221 Dry rotten, (fire-fanged,) heats of our climate pro- duce, 222 What state of putrescence is best, - - 221 Violent fermentation injurious, - - 222 Applied superficially when fresh, wasteful, 224, 225 INDEX. Dung, use of, in converting other substances into ma- nure, ----- 225, 226, Essays on, by Arator, noticed— advocates fresh dung, ----- 227, &c. Remarks on, - - - 228, 229, to 223 Strong instance of injurious hot-muck -farming, 235 overrotted dung being worthless, 29 1 Top dressing, and ploughed in — comparative ex- periment, - - - - . 224 Stable dung, whether or not it be pestilential, 291 Preparation of it, for winter crops, - - 233 Fresh, how to spread and cover it, - - 315 Dysentery, and other diseases, rife in bad fruit years, and when insects and vermin plenty, - - 285 E Eckhart, Peter, sows wheat in frequent succession, - 257" Eckroyd, James, on the use of lime, - - 37 to 42 Stabbing hoven cattle, - - 41 Diseases of swine, - - • 50 Breeding in and in, - - 52 Artificial grasses, - - 55 Smut in wheat, - - - 56 Eels, useful to clear out obstructed water pipes, at the end. England, use of lime there, - - - . 37 Agriculture of, in certain instances, - , - 84 Engrafting, chesnut trees recommended, - - 435 Ergot, spured rye, a disease in that grain — appendix, 5, &c. Exhalation, of dung in stercoraries, not injurious ; and can be restrained, - - - 230 of exposed muck, ruinous, - - 225 F Fallows, summer, with fresh dung, - - - 93, 94 Naked, disapproved, - - - - gg Farmers, their prejudices condemned, - - 97 Should live on their own, and not foreign pro- ducts, - - - - - 142 Fences, in new clearings, - - - - 116,117 INDEX. Fences, live and dead, comparative expense, - - 40r Ferae Naturae, (wild animals,) law definition of, erroneous, all have the animus revertendi, (the dis- position to return,) ... 352 Fiorin Grass, account of, - - - 63,260,286,287 Fire, salutary effects of, on soils, - - - 214 Fire-Stone, for furnaces, brick kilns, &c. - 389, 390, 39 1 Fish, migration and return of, to places where bred, - 350 Destroyed by damming rivers, - - 351,352 Flax-Mill, with a plate, and description, - - 135 Forman, T. M. Esq. his estimate of live and dead fences, 407 Free-Martin, what ? seldom prolific, - - - 61 G Genessee Country, route by which its produce may be brought into Pennsylvania, - 270 Girdling-Method of clearing new lands, - - 219 Gout, instance of cure, by temperance and exercise, - 147 Grafting, chesnuts, en flute, - - - - 436 Grapes, what foreign kinds best agree with our climate ? 2 Grasses, more durable than red clover, should be sown along with it, - - - - - 55 Their meliorating and estimable qualities, - 91 (Note) 258 Old lays should be ploughed, see course of crops substituted, - - - - - 94 Soddy grass grounds, ploughed and rotted, greatly promote future vegetation, - - 90 Prejudice for old grass lays, condemned, - 88, 89 Clover degenerates, if too often repeated, - 40 Fiorin, account of, • - - - 63 Guinea grass, account of, - - - 173 Advantages of studying the nature of grasses, so as to adapt them to the soil, and ends re- quired, - - - - - - S7 Gypsum, found in the state of New- York ; and its quali- ties and description, - - - 139, 26<^ INDEX. Gypsum, whether the sulphuric acid, be or not, its operat- ing cause, ... - 228,229 Remarks on Sir H. Davy's conjecture, relative to this subject, - - - 235 to 242 In moderate quantities assists ; but overabun- dantly applied, prevents, putrefaction, 296, 297, Sec. Mode of testing and analysing. Appendix, 104 H Habits, agricultural, well settled, and salutary, should be adhered to, - - . - - - 256 Force of, ... - 72,73,74,75 Haines, Reuben, his account of the Long Island hay rake, 2 12, 2 1 3 Harrow, excellent one, for Indian corn, described, - 152 Harrowing, wheat in the spring, recommended, - 24 Haws, called hooks, consequences of fevers, in horses, cut- ting them, highly injurious, - - - 16^ Of thorns, to promote their vegetation, - - 439 Haws of Thorn, modes of accelerating their vegetation, 439 Hedges, walnut and cedar trees peculiarly injuri- ous in hedge rows, - - - 440 and see ante, as to all trees growing in thorn hedge rows, - - - 242 Hedges, William Neili's mode of enclosing, by mound and ditch, - - - - - 9, 11 Observations on W. N's hedges ; by the secre- tary, 374,439 On hedges by col. Pickering, - - 242 On col. Taylor's cedar hedges, - - 195 Tenants in Scotland forbidden to turn sheep or cattle, into hedged fields, for five years after planting, - - - - - 164 Trees in hedge rows, injurious, - - 242 Mr. Forman's remarks on Mr. Quincy's hedges ; and calculation comparative, between live and dead fences, . - - - - 407, &c. Somerville's mode of pruning and management. Appendix, - - - - - 78 INDEX. Hemlock timber, account of it. Barked, or girdled, standin.^, 109 Hickory, useful for inside work ; when barked, or cut when sap flowing, - - - - 110 Horse rake, for hay ;— described. Cut. - - 212,213 Horses, improper treatment of their diseases, by ignorant quacks, - - - - - 167 exposed to vicissitudes of weather, should not be pampered, clothed, or kept in close stables, - lb. lampas, burning, often injurious, - - 169 diseases affecting their eyes, - - - ib. salivary defluxions in, (see v. 2, plast. Paris, p. 124,) 283 Hoven cattle, stabbing recommended, - - - 41 Husbandry, convertible, - - - - 84 in Scotland, account of, - - - 159 disadvantages of permanent high ridges, 160, 161 two successive grain crops, liighly prejudicial, 162 straw-burning, account of, - - 210 Hybernation, of swallows ; vexata guxstioy (a litigated point,) account of a sv/allow tree ; supposed to have been the place of frequent hyberna- tion of those birds, - - 345, 346, 8cc. I In and in, breeding, instances where that practice is disap- proved, - - - . 52, 53, 54 Indian corn, red, account of, - - - - 24 (see title corn, Indian,) mixed with, and tinged, all other kinds, - - - - ib* fallow crop of, with fresh dung, - - 92, 93 mode of planting, - - - 151 to 155 trench ploughing for, - - - 155 Col. Taylor's mode of cultivating, 196, 197, 198 moiety of a field planted, the other part plastered, and not mowed, or grazed j alternate- ly and annually cropped, - 197 high ridges, divided by deep furrows, said to be the best VOL. iir. r * INDEX. mode, - - - 198 OCT* In a flat, heavy soil, annoyed by moisture, this mode may be preferable. Indian Corn, species fit for field planting, and mode of culture, - - . - 308, 18, &c. Dotterer's machine for breaking it in the ear, 398 Insects, sulphuret of barytes destroys, - - - 123 see vol, 2, p. 209, same effect produced by sulphur per se ; or sulphuric acid. burning brush, on ground intended for melons, de- stroys insects, or their larvae, - - 218 "When in plenty, seasons generally unhealthy to ani- mals, - - - - - 285 K Kaims, Lord, his mode of training thorn hedges, - 243, 244 Kirk, Caleb, of Delaware, his mode of accelerating the vegetation of haws, - - - 439 Kirk, Caleb, of York town, his mode of raising locust trees from seed, - - - - 247 Krebs, George, his certificate of the qualities and uses of a remarkable fire stone, - - 390, 39 1 L Lake plaster, found on the borders of the Cayuga and Se- neca lakes, state of New York, in inexhaust- ible quantities, - - - - 268 and see ante, - - - - 138 Lampas, in horses, burning for, disapproved, - - 169 Land, modes of clearing in new countries ; and modes of cultivation therein, - - - - 113,114 Yankee mode, by burning, disapproved, - 112,113 fire, salutary effects of on soils, - - - 221 potatoes and turnips, best crops, when first cleared, 1 1 3 a specified mode of clearing recommended, - 118 limed ; plaster acts favourably on, - - 208 rich or poor, not designated by species of timber, (vol. l,p. 31.) - . - - - 104 INDEX. Lang, John, his account of the agricultural improvements in Scotland, - - - - 158 on lime and marls, . - - 204 Larch trees, what soils most propitious to their growth, 245 will grow in any, but best in good soils, - ib. Dr. Hunter, Georgical Essays, contra. the great value, and good properties of the, 246 Lime, its varieties, mode of operating, component parts, quantity per acre, &c. - - - 204, 205 mild, beneficial, spread on grass, of moist soils ; es- pecially on those drained, - - - - 37 caustic, in small quantities, best for plough farming, 39 mild, its appearance before burning, - - 33 the more laid on, the more it fertilizes. Other- wise of caustic lime, see page 200. - ib. best harrowed in, though often laid on the sod, 39 of caustic lime, in England, more than 64 bushels on light soil, highly injurious, - - - ib. 25 bushels harrowed in, generally enough, - ib, instance of land overlimed, and sown with oats, 40, 41 on lands overran with sorrel, greatly beneficial, 254 use of lime in England, - - - 37 mixing with stable dung, to destroy insects, appendix, 94 should not be mixed, till dung properly fermented, 95 and see vol. 2, pages 280, 283. Limestones, various limestones in Pennsylvania analysed, ap. 106 and see magnesia, in limestone. Locust timber, the most durable of any we have. Found prostrate where no living timber of that species appears. Springs up in places where log heaps are burnt ; though no tra- ces of the same kind can be discovered, to have previously grown, - - 10^ mode of raising from seed, - - 247 Lorain, John, on a simple wheat drill, - - 32 on sundry agricultural subjects, - - 84 on corn and potatoes, - - . 303, 304 INDEX. Lorain, John, on grass lays, manures, 8cc. - 326, 327, Sec. Luzerne county, inexhaustible coal mmes there, 140, 141 M Magnesia, in limestone, see professor Cooper*s analysis. Appendix, - - - 104, 105, & se(|. it?^ Not seen when the remarks, pa8:e 210, were written. And see Mr. Lang's observations on lime, vol. 2, p. 299, 8c seq. Mr. Cutbush's ana- lysis of limestone, ibid. p. 305, 306, 307, and note. See also, ibid. 284, 285. Main, Thomas, his account of the Pyracantha, or ever- green thorn, appendix, - - 42, Sec. Maize, or Indian corn. Mill for breaking and grinding cob, 396 Mangel Wurtzel, its culture and qualities, 120 to 135, 262, 277,-8 [See appendixj 97 to 103, inclusive.] Manufactures, remarks on, - - - 271, 396, Sec. Manures, , - ^ ... 84 sulphat of Barytes a powerful one, 122, 123, 124 remarks on, - - 91,92, 326, 327, &c. Marls, their composition, qualities, and quantities per acre, 208,-9 stone and clay much out of use, when expensive in transportation ; and require great quantities to be efficient, m - - - - ib. shell, is a pure calcareous substance ; but requires a great quantity to the acre, ... 206 Matlack, Timothy, his account of the cultivation of the vine, 1 Mease, Dr. on W. Neill's hedges, ... 373 on grinding Indian corn in the cob, - 396 on disease in wheat, ... 422 on engrafting chesnut trees, - - 435 on hedges, trimming, additional observations, 439 Migration, and return of birds, beasts, and fish, 348, 349, 350, Sec. Milk and cream, acids and spirits combine with whey ; al- kalies and rennet enter the curds, - 249 Mitchell, Dr. S. L. his account of a portable yeast, or dry leaven, - - - - 427 INDEX. N Navigation, inland, great advantages of, to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, - - 270 & seq. Neill, W. his mode of hedging, with stone, mound and ditch, 9, 1 1 on flax mills, - - - - 135 O Oats, South American white, account of it, - - 22, 27 Chili, white, 31 Egyptian, white, ------ ib. Onions, culture of, - - - - - 264 Orchards, crab apple, account of one, - - • 191 general decay of, - - - - 193 pruning trees in, . - - - 199 Owego village, salt and plaster collected there, appendix, 119 Owl, short eared, or strix brachyotos. Its usefulness in destroying vermin, - - - 249, 250 P Paring and burning, with a cut, - - - 424, 425 Peale, C. W. account of a corn shelling machine with a cut, 248 Peters, Richard, on hedges, - - - - 9 French rye, (Tangier wheat) Syrian, or Jerusalem wheat, - - 17 Remarks on different grains, - 19 on a case of croup in a calf, - - 58 Fiorin grass, - - - 63 the cultivation and use of the mangel- wurtzel, or scarcity root, - - 126 the haws, or hooks (so called) in horses, 167 breeding in and in, - - 171 salutary effects of fire on soils, - 214 well rotted dung, muck, stercoraries, and their uses, - - - 221 rotations and changes of crops, - 253 Fiorin, mangel- wurtzel, onions, cabbages, 260 American gypsum. Internal improvement, 266 Jerusalem wheat, big rye. Season of 1813, 276 a stercorary, on a large scale, - 28^ INDEX. Peters, Richard, on plaster, in moderate quantities, assists in the putrefaction of animal and vege- table substances, - - - 296 a swivel-headed churn-staff, - - 301 usefulness, to husbandmen, of attending to natural phaenomena, - - 337 common sheep, coarse, long, and comb- ing wool, - - - - 362 succession of timber, - 374,412 a fire stone, - - - - 389 Ducket's skim coulter, - - 413 potatoes, appendix, ... 54 Phaenomena, natural, utility of observing, - - 337 Pickering, Col. Timothy, on hedges, - - - 242 his account of Virginia crab apple, 392 Pine, white, its qualities, - - - - 108 knots, substituted for candles ; found where no pine timber growing, or other remnants of former growths appeared, . - - . - 104, 105 Plaster, rolling seed wheat in, highly beneficial, - 23 its component parts, - - - - 239 what substances cooperate with it, - 240, 241 found in abundance on the lakes Cayuga and Seneca, 268 English writers deemed mistaken, as to modes of operation, ----- 2O8 its efficacy on limed lands, - - - 269 lake, equal to that from Nova Scotia, - - ib. quantity sent into Pennsylvania from the lakes, in 1812 ; and route by which it arrives, - 139, 140 effects according as quantity is moderate or pro- fuse, ----- 296 to 300 Dotterer*s machine for breaking, - - 398 and salt, collected in one season at Owego vil- lage, appendix, - • - - 119 Plough, ploughing, use and abuse of it, - - 94 deep, its advantages, - - 198 See vol. 1. Trench ploughing. INDEX. Plough, ploughing, in ridges, with deep furrows between them, recommended, [no doubt, for ^ wet, heavy, and flat lands,] - 197 Posts, most durable when natural position reversed, - 412 and see appendix, - ■ - - 120 Potash, quantity produced respectively by ashes of sundry species of timber, - - - 417,418 Potatoes, not profitable to cultivate, when combined with wheat crop, sown in the same season, appendix, 54 and see Arthur Young's letter on the potatoe, as cultivated in England, appendix, - 55, &c. planted on the sides of young hedge rows, advan- tageous, ... - 385,409 Pruning, hedges, appendix, . „ - . orchards, observations on, - - - Ptyalism, running of saliva from horses, observations on, Putrefaction, plaster promotes, - . - Pyracantha, or evergreen thorn, appendix. Pyrites, burnt, become mamire, _ - - Q Quincy, Josiah, Esq. account of his stercorary, his hedges, and see page 385, extract from Mar- shall's economy of Yorkshire. R Radish seed, sown with turnip, guards against the turnip fly, - - - - at the end. Rake, horse rake of Long Island, with a cut, - 212, 213 Rennet, and alkalies combine with curds ; acids and spi- rituous liquors mix with whey, of milk and cream, 249 Ridges, old and reprobated mode of laying down grounds, 1 60 iiy only fit for dead flats and wet clays. Roads, and face of the country in sundry parts of Pennsyl- vaniaj described, ... - 100 and internal navigation, - - - 270, &c. Appendix, - - - 59 to 77 - 7S 199 283 228 42; , Sec. 239 292, &c. 409, 410 INDEX. 392 355 252, 257 24 20, 276 - 27 30 31 17, IS 5 Roan, Col. John, of Virginia, account of his valuable cider apple, Rose, Dr. his calculations on sheep, in Susquehanna Co. Rotations, and changes of crops, Rust, in wheat ; rolling seed in plaster, often prevents, Rye, called big, French, &c. but in fact, Tangier wheat, thought to be a summer grain, farther account of it, - - - six rowed rye, - - - - - great increase, and how produced, diseased with the ergot, (spur,) appendix, S Sainfoin, unsuccessful attempts to cultivate, - 21, 27 Salt, may be brought by a canal or road into Pennsylvania, from Seneca lake, - . - - 276 Salt and plaster, quantity collected in 1814, at Owego, app. 119 Sand, less or more in cement required, accordingly as the lime is strong or weak, - - - 207 Scarcity root, or mangel wurtzel, - - - 126 Scotland, improvement in husbandry of, - 157,158 Season of 1813, some account of it, - - 278, &c. Secale cornutum, or ergot ; — diseased rye, appendix, - 5 Seneca lake, canal between it and Tioga creek, appendix, 23, Sec, piaster found there, - - 268 See appendix, - 23, &c. Settlers on new lands, their practices, - - 100,101 Shad, Schuylkill, proofs of their migration and return to that river, - - - 350, &c. Sheep, a living lamb brought forth, eighteen days after a dead one had been ejected, - - - 60 their diseases similar to those of the human race, 78 worm in the head, fatal, - - - 82 calculations on flocks in our new countries, - 355 common, for coarse and long wools, recommended, 362 ointment applied to the throat, disgusting to wolves, 366 preserved from dogs, by leather collars, pierced with sharp nails, - - - - ib. INDEX. Sheep, treatment of, [see page 371] appendix, - U folding and management, Somerville's, appendix, 82 Davis's, ditto. • 86 Shepherd's dog, P. Bauduy's account of one, - 372 see appendix, . - - 36, S;c. Skim coulter, Ducket's, for turning down green manures, long dung, Sec. - - 413 Smells, disgusting ones to animals, ... 366 Smut, in wheat, curious fact concerning it, - - 56 Soap, and all alkaline substances prevent coming of butter, 249 Soddy grass grounds, ploughed and rotted, greatly pro- mote future vegetation, - 90 Soiling, recommended, - - - - 84, 97 Soils, comparative value, and modes of judging on the subject lo: Somerville, his mode of pruning, and management of thorn hedges, appendix, - . - 7S on sheep folding, appendix, - - 82 on mixing lime with stable dung. Insects bred in manure, destructive to wheat crops, appen. 94 Sorrel, decomposed, and converted to manure by lime, 254 Stabbing, hoven cattle, recommended, - - 41 Stalks, corn, (Indian) rotted, yield a most valuable manure, 230 should be wholly cut off, and brought into yard, or stercorary, - - - 228 Steele, John, Esq. on planting Indian corn, - - 151 Steeping seed grain, recommended by Virgil in his Georgics, 340 Stercoraries, their uses, - - 221, 226, 288, Sec. what kinds are best, . - - 233 account of one on a lar^e scale, - 288 Stock, dissecting animals, dead by diseases or accident, on farms, recommended, - - - - ^i Straw-burning husbandry, account of, - - 210 Straw, when luxuriant, heads of grain generally small, 28 Stubble, cutting it, when clover grows among it, approved, 2 1 8 Sulphur, in whyn stones, promotes vegetation, - 209 VOL. III. S * INDEX. Sulphur, and sulphuric acid ; all substances containing them, said to be manures, - 209. 210, 239 sulphuric acid, combined in barytes, destroys insects, - - - . - 123 Swallows, migration and return of, - - 345, Sec. Swallow tree, account of one, - - - 346 Swine, diseases of. Staggers, and remedy, - - 51,52 T Tangier wheat, improperly called big, or French rye, - 277 Taurine cloth, made from hair of cattle, and a small pro- portion of wool, - - - 403 Taylor, Col. on his cedar hedges, - - - 195 on cultivating Indian corn, - - 197 Tennent, Dr. his account of calcareous substances, - ^ 204 Terrapins, land, destroy beetles, - - - 281, 2 Thorn, Newcastle, or American cockspur, highly approved, 10, 16 said to be preferable to any others ; and the American hedge, or Virginia thorn, the next best, . - . 373 found in great abundance, in our new countries, 1 18 trees in thorn hedge rows, highly injurious, 242, 3 hedges, see remarks on, - - - 243 lateral branches only, should be trimmed, or cut ; the head should grow for ten or twelve years, 244 account of the thorn plants in William Neill's hedges, ----- 378 Threshing, a simple machine for, with a cut, - - 400 Tilton, Dr. James, on the propriety of a farmer living on the products of his own farm, - 142 Timber, hemlock and white pine, their qualities and de- scription, - 108, 109 hickory, how it can be usefully employed, and proper time to fell it, - - 110 changes of, in our forests ;-— proofs of this doc- trine, - - - - 104, 5, 6, 374, 6 comparative value of, - - 104,8,9,10 does not designate quality of soils, - ib. INDEX. Timber, succession of - - 12, 44, 374, 5, 6, 7 Top dressing, of dung, better for grass, than grain. - 224 well rotted dung preferred to hot and fresh muck, for top dressins^, - - ib. plaster not foundbeneficial as a top dressing for wheat ; though serviceable on buckwheat, 23 Turnip fly, radish seed sown with that of the turnip, guards against its ravages, - - at the end. Turnip or potatoe slicer, - - - ib. V Valley Forge, Isaac Wayne's account of changes of tim- ber there, - - - 376, 377 Vine, cultivation of, - - - - - 1 downy leaved, secure from ravages of rose-bug, 2 great varieties in our country, - - - ib. some said to be superior to European grape, for wine, ib. mode of raising young vines, - - - 3 eyes, perfect and imperfect, - - - 4 mode of trimming, time of the year, and stages of growth, - - - - --5, 6 advantages of raising from a single eye, over the common mode, from cuttings, - - - ib. Vinegar, conduces to coming of butter ; when mixed with cream in the churn, - - - 249 combines with whey ; and does not injure the butter, - - - - - ib. Virgil, his Georgics. Sundry passages cited ; to show the agreement between the practice of agriculture in his day, and that of the present time. (Notes.) 338, 8cc. Virgilian supper. — Bill of fare, and eulogy, - - 146 Vitriolic acid, supposed to be the operative part of plaster, and to promote putrefaction of animal and vegetable matter, - - . 228 denied by some celebrated chemists, 228, 236, &c. W Washington, General, his exemplary attention to the eco- nomy of his stables, - 168,169 INDEX. 17, 19 21 23 24 27, 333 ib. 29 50 56, 57 23 29 Wayne, Isaac, on successions of timber, - - 376 Wheat, Syrian or Jerusalem ; quantity raised from a small experiment, . . . - - Barley, or l^orge fromenter^ - - - seed, rolled in plaster, beneficial, harrowed in the spring, greatly serviceable, - quantity of seed per acre, growth must be gradual, r • - Smyrna, farther account of it, harrowing, and eating off by sheep, in the spring, recommended, - - - - smut in, - - - • - our climate, now, requires more seed sown, than in former times, - - - - Syrian, or Jerusalem, excellence of its bread, partial feedini^ off condemned ; it should be eaten bare, in the spring, by sheep, - - 51 harrowing and rolling, in the spring, best method of performing, - - - - ib. a wheat drill, ... - 32 sown in frequent successions ; observations thereon, 252 southern, disease in, [see vol. 2, p. 200.] 422, 3, 4 on richest and best prepared lands, fails, owing to insects bred in the dung or manure, appendix, 94, 95 spring, or summer, recommended to be sown, where winter wheat fails, owing to disease, or otherwise, - - - - 426 should not be sown in the season when lime first applied, [vol. 2, p. 279.] - - 40, 41, 424 summer and spring, account of it, appendix, - 114 Whey, acids and spirituous liquors combine with whey ; rennet and alkalies, with curds, - - 249 Whiskey, alleged to have been distilled from fiorin grass, 263 Whyn- stones— basaltic, dressings of them promote vege- tation in grasses, and emit strong sulphu- ric smell, - ... 209 remarks thereon, - - • .210 ^^ INDEX. Wolves, mode to prevent destruction of sheep by, 366, 367 Wool, coarse and combing wools, should be objects of primary attention, - - - - 362, &c. and see appendix, page 15, & seq. Worms, in the head, fatal to sheep, and other animals, 82, 83 Wynkoop, Henry, his account of cider making, - 43 of a crab apple orchard, 189 Y Yankee mode of clearing land, condemned, - 219,220 contra, in a note. Yeast, account of a portable yeast, or dry leaven, - 427 Young, Arthur, an advocate for fresh and hot dung-farm- ing, - - - - 233 but see the mode he recommends, 414, Sec. his letter on the subject of potatoes, ap- pendix, - - - 55, &c. ERRATA. Page vii, line 27, for canemns, read canitmis-. Memoirs, xvn, Ixxvi, ib. 19, 41, 44, 65, n, re, 134, 143, 168, 210, 229, 238, 239, 271, 281, 339, 341, 342, 351, 370, 378, 389, 389, Appendix, 94, 11, omit Benjamin B. Hoivell. 1, omit steady. 7, for steady, read zealous. 13, for .African, read Asiatic. 23, for t/iis, read last. 23, for pumice, read pomace, passim, 25, for qnicky read quitch. 28, for stooks, read tramp-cocks. 15, for sheets, read pages. 28, for product, read products. 10, for Castauice, read Castanex. 24, for draivn, read spread. 24, for we A77iow, (^c. read W^e ^now, ^c, 9, for f?o?, read no?. 5, after plaster be, insert sz; cA are. 9, for parts, read />a/'^. 19, laissez les faire, original expression. 20, before broivn, insert redish. 26, for seve7iteen, read eighteen. — No chronological accuracy was intended. But the observation seems to refer to the Georgics of Virgil, which are believed to have been written shortly be- fore the Christian aera. 9, after they are, insert seen. 8, for funnel, read tunnel. 3, for species offish, read species of river fish. 3, for indispensibly, read indispensably. 24, for inferior, read superior. 14, for them, read him. 22, for person, read persons. 10, for reason, read caMse. Grammatical errors, not noticed, and those in punctuation, are left f«r correction to candid readers. NOTICES A communication on the subject of Turnips, was neglected to be brougkt forward, by the writer, in time for publication in its proper place. He had been long" in the practice of sowing- radish seed, (in a proportion of about one eighth,) with that of the turnips to guard the latter against the ravages of the fly. The radish shoots earlier, its top outgrows that of the turnip ; and, by affording a more agreeable and plentiful repast to the fly, protects the young turnips from injiu-y. This circumstance has been long known in America. The writer's attention was attracted to it, by his seeing, in a late English print, an account of a handsome reward having been recently bestowed on one who claimed^ in England, to be the discoverer of this salutary practice. The radishes may be drawn for feeding, or destroyed by the hoe, when the turnip is out of danger. R- P- SCxWENGER EEES. James Hamilton, Esa. at his seat — the Woodlands, is completing a plan, begun by the late William Hamilton, Esq. for conducting the water of a spring, or springs, from a considerable distance, into liis garden. A number of the pipes, (wooden,) had been laid and covered some years ; and had been so neglected, that they became choaked with mud, and other pervious obstruc- tions. An ingenious person, f Miller, J one of the workmen, suggested an expedient, which was found perfectly successful in clearing the pipes. He made use of Eels ; which soon worked their way through the mud and silt ; and, with the assistance of the water constantly flowing into the tubes, freed the pipes from every obstruction. As such impediments may exist in other pipes, now commonly used for the conveyance of water stibterraneously, it is deem^ed useful to mention the circumstance, for general information. There were two ranges of pipes ; each from a spring distant from the other ; but iinally united in one conductor. The diameter of the tubes, two inches. The wood, white cedur — generally laved several feet under ground; each log from eight to ten feet long, and joined in the usual manner. Tlic length of one arm, 100 yards— that of the other, 130. In the longest three eels were inserted ; — in the shorter, two. They were selected for strength, more than size. The eels were turned in at the ends next the springs ; tliat the water might assist them, in their exertions to reach the opposite ends. Plates of perforated metal, secured against the escape of the eels, at the spring-heads ; and yet admitted the water. Tliey worked through the tubes NOTICES. in three days, in the whole ; but the shortest arm was cleared the soonest, by twelve or fourteen hours. Two of the eels came out dead ; — but those living- were, evidently, slimy and debilitated by their laborious passage. Mil- ler, (who gave this information,) said, that if the dead eels had, at first, re- mained in the tube, he should not have been uneasy. — The living eels had worked a sufficient passage for the water ; which ultimately would have brought away the putrefied remains of those dead. Sandy sediment, with shavings or borings, and viscous vegetable matter, issued, plenteously, from the pipes. Syringes (as they are called,)— that is — ^poles, like sponges for cannon, with wool, tow, or straw, lashed or otherwise attached to one end, are often used to assist in clearing such conducting pipes. By pumping, or working the syringes, they agitate and operate on the water and air in the tubes ; and thus the foreign matter is expelled or floated out. R. P. August 5th, 1814. It is said, that in Ireland, (and probably in other parts of Europe,) it is nat imcommon to turn Eels into French, or other covered hollow drains ; for the purpose of clearing the passages for the water, when, in boggy or wet grounds, they are obstructed by mud or silt. R. Petebs. DESCRIPTION OF THE POTATOE OR TURNIP SLICER. This useful agricultural implement was invented in France, and is descri- bed in an excellent work on sheep, by Mr. Tessier, C Instructions sur les Be- tes a Laine, Paris, 1810,) a faithful translation of which has been made ia New York, and is also for sale by Kimber and Conrad, Philadelphia. In that work, which no sheep farmer should be without, a cut, differing from the plate here annexed, and a full description of the parts, are given, from which, and the two draughts, there will be no difficulty in the construction of a slicer, — A wooden cylinder, having ten iron blades, nearly its whole length, is so fixed, that the edge of one projects over the back of the one before it. — The knives are each 1 1-4 inches wide, and set at the height of one line, (12th of an inch,) one from the other : as the cylinder revolves, two of the knives open, and permit the sliced roots to fall out ; and in its progress they close- again. 00= The Society resolved, at their annual meeting in January last, to con tinue the premiums heretofore offered. THE END. FOTATOM or Trxi^^ir szji':s2to A. I"; — -^ '. ' Jcah cf an Inch Cc a Fret. Scale cf half an Inch tc a Foot. JJ-BaTaUt del. iSio. Memoirs ojF FMladlfAg: Society, Vol. 3, J.H.Seyrwur ,re. ADDITIONAL ERRATA Page 210, Dele " hide their talent," and insert, or hide their candle." 348, after "life of the tree is in the," insert dele " from it," after « deposit.'* 366, Note. After "nauseating scent b/ehind him," insert " Some horses shew their antipathy, by holding back from the scent, in this case, the order of the trick would requ^'tre to be reversed." ■bury their talent, bark, and" —