Title: Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting

Agriculture, v. 3

Place of Publication: Philadelphia

Copyright Date: 1814

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PHILADELPHIA SOcijetJ: /
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE,

CONTAINING

V

COMMUNICATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS

IN

HUSBANDRY AND RURAL AFFAIRS.

VOL. in.

• • • * *

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"Let us cultivate the ground, 'that the poor, as well as the rich, may be
"filled; and happiness and peace be established throughout our borders."

Tentanda Via eat, qua nos quogue posnmus toUere Hum :•

,

PHILADELPHIA :

PUBLISHED BY JOHNSON AND WARNER,

NO. 147, MARKET STREET.

1814.

J*RIKT£B BT I.TDIA B. BAII.ET.

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CONTENTS.

Page.

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ix

xvi

xvii

Preface^ - - . - . - '

LawH of the Philadelfihia Society for fir omoting jlgriculture^

Officers of the Society^ * -

List of members elected since the publication of the last voL

Explanation of the Medal,

Resolution of the Society,

Introductory Lecture to a course of lectures ufion comparative

anatomy^ and the diseases of domestic animals j - - xix

jldditions to the Library^ . - • - - Ixx

Biografihical Sketch of George Clymer^ late vice 'fir eeident of

the Society^ - - , . . . . Jxxv

CONTENTS OF THE MEMOIRS.

I. On the cultivation of the vincy by Timothy Matlacky - 1

II. On hedgesy by Richard Peters^ - - - 9

III. On hedging and ditching^ by William JSTeill, Delaware
county^ - ••• • . -11

IV. On French rye^ and Syrian or Jerusalem wheat ^ by Rich"

ard Peters, - - - - - - 17

V. Remarks on different grains, by the same, - - 19

VI. On a simfile wheat drill, by John Lorain, with a filate, 32

VII. On the use of lime in England, by James Eckroyd, Phi-
ladelfihia county, - - - • '37

VIII. On cyder makings by Henry Wynkoofi, Bucks county, 43

IX. On various agricultural topics, by James Eckroyd, Phila*
delfihia county, - - - - • - 50

X. Case of croup, in a calf, by Richard Peters, - - 58

XI. On florin grass, by the same, - • - 63

XII. On the diseases of sheep, and the similarity of their na»
ture with the prevalent complaints of mankind, by Dr, Pe»
trikin, • - * • ••^73

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CONTENTS.

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JCIII. On the agriculture of England^ on manures j converti-
ble husbandry, and soiling', by John Lorain,

XIV. Observations upon the agriculture and roads of the
new settlements in Pennsylvania^ with hints for improve'
ment, by John Lorain, of Philipsburg, Pennsylvania,

XV. Observations on the comparative value of soils, by the
same, • «• • • ♦ • *

XVI. jiccount of the modes pursued in clearing land in Penn-
sylvania, and on the fences in new settlements, by the same,

XVII. ^n account of some experiments with sulphur et of ba-
rytes as a manure, by Dr. Isaac Chapman, of Bucks county,

XVIII. On the cultivation and use of the mangel wurtzel, or
scarcity root, by Richard Peters, - -

XIX. On fax mills, by William JSTeill, of Delaware county,
with a plate, •-•---

XX. jiccount of the Cayuga lake gypsum, by Jacob Cist, of
Wilkesbarre, - - - - - -

XXI. Observations on the propriety of a farmer living on the
produce of his own land, by James Tilton, M, D,

XXII. On planting Indian corn, by John Steele,

XXIII. On trench ploughing for Indian corn, and on courses
of crops, by William Bakewell, - . - .

XXIV. ji short historical sketch of agricultural improvements
in the county of Roxburgh^ (Scotland,) with some account
of the means whereby it was accomplished, by John Lang,

XXV. On the haws, or hooks, (so called,) in horses, by Rich-
ard Peters, - - - - ^ . .

XXVI. On breeding in and in, by the same, -
XXVI L Observations on Guinea grass, by S, Brown, M, D.

Natchez, Mississippi territory, • ...

XXVIII. jiccount of a crab apple orchard, by Henry Wyn»
koop, of Bucks county, - • - . .

XXIX. Progress of Col. Taylor's hedge, and on cultivatiiig
Indian corn, agreeably to a plan formerly suggested,

XXX. On the great damage to apple trees by bad pruning,
by the Rev, Dr, JVicholas Collin, ...

84

98

103

112

129

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138

142
151

155

158

ler

171

irs

189
195
199

Page.
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212
214

S21
242

248

XXXI. On lime and marlsy by John Lang,

XXXII. On the Long Island hay 'horse-rake, by R, Haines,

XXXIII. Salutary effects of fire on soils, by Richard Peters,

XXXIV. On well rotted dung, fresh and hot muck, etercora-
ries, and their uses, by the samcj - -

XXXV. On hedges, by Timothy Pickering,

XXXVI. jiccount of a corn-shelling machine, by Charles W.
Peale, - • • • ...

XXXVII. Rotations and changes of crops defended, by Rich-
ard Peters, - - • - • . 252

XXXVIII. On florin, mangel wurtzel, onions and cabbages,

by the same^ - • * . - . 260

XXXIX. On jimerican gypsum, and internal improvement^

by the same, • • • • • . 2d6

XL. On Jerusalem, or Syrian wheat. Big rye ; properly calU

ed Tangier wheat. Season of 1813, by the same^ • - 276
XLI. Onforin, by John Clifford, ... 286

XLII. jiccount of a stercorary on a large scale, by Richatfl

Peters, • - - - . . 288

XLIIL Plaster, in moderate quantities, assists in the putre-
faction of animal and vegetable substances, by the same, - 296
XLIV.» Swivel headed churn staff, by the same, - - 301

XLV. Observations on Indian com and potatoes, by John Lo-
rain, of Philipsburg, Centre county, Pennsylvania, - 303
XLVI. On grass lays, manures, Istc. by the same, - - 326
XLVil. Usefulness to husbandmen, of attending to natural

phxnomena^ by Richard Peters, - ... 337

XL VIII. Estimate of the probable profit in keeping one thou-
sand sheep, by Dr. Robert H, Rose, of Luzerne co. Penn. 355
XLIX. Common sheep ; coarse, long, and combing wool, by

Richard Peters, - - • • - 362

L. jiccount of a shepherd's dogy by P, Bauduy, of Delaware,

with a print, - • • . . . 372

LI. On succession of timber, by Richard Peters, - . 374

LII. On timber at Valley Forge, by Isaac Wayne, - . 376

LI II. Observations upon Mr, JVeill*s hedges, and on the mode

tf trimming thorn hedges, by James Mease, M, D. • 378

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CONTENTS.

LIV. Singular hardihood and sufferings of a bull,

LV. On afire stone, by Richard Peters^ . - -

LVI. Some account of the Virginia crab afijile by Timothy

Pickerings - - •

LVII. On the utility of grinding maize, ("Indian corn J in

the cob, as food for cattle^ with a description of a mill for

that purpose^, by James Mease, M. D,
LVIII. J descrijition of the Pennsylvania Rubber, for thresh-
ing grain, by Caleb Churchman and George Martin, Jun.
LIX. On Taurino cloth, by Shotwell and Kinder, of jV. York,
LX. Comparative estimate of expense of live and dead fences,

by T, M. Forman, of Maryland, . - -

LXI. On succession of timber, by Richard Peters,
LXII. On Ducket's skim coulter, with a cut, by the same,
LXUL On scalded cream, communicated by a correspondent,

to Dr. Robert H. Rose, of Susquehanna county, Penn.
LXIV. On the disease in wheat, mentioned in the JgricultU'

ral Memoirs, vol. \, by James Mease, M. D.
LXV. Facts relative to the preparation of a dry leaven or

yeast, for making good bread, by Samuel L. Mitchell, M. D,
LXVl. On the cultivation of the barilla plants in the United

States, by Joseph Correa de Serra, - - -

LXVII. On engrafting the chesnut tree, by J. Mease, M. D.
LXVIII. Additional observations on trimming hedges ; on

the vegetation of haws ; and the injurious effects of the waU

nut and cedar tree on them, by James Mease, M. D,

m

CONTENTS OF THE APPENDIX.

I, Description of Fisher's swivel headed churn staff, to faci-
litate the making of butter, . - - -

II, On the natural history and medical effects of the secale
cornutum^ or ergot, by Oliver Prescott, A. M,

III. Directions from the Farming Society of Ireland, for treat-
ment of sheep, i:fc, - • -

IV. Information concerning coarse wool,for the cheapest sup-
ply of very strong and useful woollens and worsteds^

Page.
387
389

392

396

400
403

407
411
413

419

- 422

427

432
435

. 439

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15

CONTENTS.

V. Practicability of a canal between the head of Seneca lake
with Tioga creek, by Philip Church,

VI. Shepherd's dog, from the Sportsman's Cabinet,

VII. Account of the Pyracantha, or evergreen thorn, by Tho-
mas Maiuj ••....

VIII. On potatoes, by Arthur Young, « .- -

IX. On internal improvements, by roads, canals, Isfc, by W,
J, Duane, - . • • • .

X. Pruning, and after management of hedges, by Robert So-
mervUle ; from communications to the board of agriculture
of England, vol, 2, page 47, London, 1805,

XI. On sheep folding ; from a publication on manures, drawn
up for the board of agriculture, England, by Robert Sofner-
ville, of Haddington. London, 1795, - - -

XII. On the same, from Davis's survey of Wiltshire, drawn
up for the board of agriculture, England,

XIII. On barilla as a manure. Communicated to the president
of " the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture,**
by Robert Barclay, Esq. London. ...

XIV. On miodng lime and stable manure,

XV. Mangel wurtzel, winter food for cattle,

XVI. Mode of analysing and testing gypsum ; from Cooper's
Emporium, new series, vol, \, page S25,

XVII. Professor Cooper's analysis of various specimens of
Pennsylvania limestone. Cooper's Emporium, new series,
vol. \,page 318, - - . .

XVIII. Observations on the culture of summer wheat, or
spring wheat s from a pamphlet by C. T. Skurray, Esq. of
Devonshire. Lojidon, 1813,

XIX. On the cultivation of carrots, .

XX. Plaster and salt, - • . , .

XXI. On the duration of posts, when their natural position
is reversed, •---•-

Page.

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42

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82

86

87
94
97

104

106

114
115

119

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CONTENTS.

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CUTS.

I. Horse hay rake, • * ^

II. Corn shelling' machine^ •

III. Mr. J\/eill*s hedges^

IV. Wheat rubber^

V. Ducket's skim coulter plough^

VI. Breast filough^ - ' -

VII. Graftings - -

VIII. 5wir^/ headed churn staff. J/ifiendixj

IX. Forms of ridges. Jpfiendix^

^- PLATES.

I. Portrait of Mr. Clymer^ «*

II. The Society's medaly

III. Wheat drilly • -

IV. i^/aj: mf//, - . -

V. Shefiherd's dog^ . - -

VI. Dotterer's corn grinder^

VII. Potatoe or turni/i slicer^

NOTICES.

On turnifiSj - • • •

Scavenger eels, - - -

Descrifition ofafiotatoe or turnifi slicer.

Page.
213
250
382
400
418
425
437
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101

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- 373
. 399

at the end.

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PREFACE.

IN presenting to agriculturists our third volume, we
evince our desire to promote their interests, by promulgating
all the information our correspondents have favoured us
with, on the subjects we deem generally important. Some,
of minor consideration, have been omitted. But we thank-
fully acknowledge, the public and patriotic motives of all.
We should be highly gratified, by the increase in number of
our correspondents,' because it would evidence an increase
of a spirit of true patriotism, in thus diffusing a knowledge
oTthe art, by which the great body of our citizens, in this
agricultural country, not only gain a plentiful subsistence,
but contribute to that of others; and mainly augment the
puMic prosperity. The reception given to our former pub-
lications, jusliiies a hope, that the present will be favour-
ably, and, we trust, profitably accepted. We conceive that
it will not suffer by a comparison with our former volumes ;
as many subjects are brought forward well worthy attention.

If the circumstances of our country require an extension
of domestic manufactures, and especially of those in which
capitalists engage ; the labours of the husbandman should
be encouraged, as all-important to them.

Whilst our belligerent situation blocks up the channels of
external commerce, and calls our citizens to the fields of
warfare, thereby abstracting from agriculture, the labour-
ers it demands ; it is the more necessary to know how to use
the number spared to us, with the greatest economy and ad-
vantage. In such case we must endeavour to raise the great-
est product, from the more limited surface to which our ca-
VOL. III. a

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Preface*

Preface*

pabilities, as to labour and means, reduce us. That this
can be done, in no small degree, by superior attention and
management, no doubt ought to be entertained. In tlie stages
of advance to the state of prosperity, with which, heretofore,
we have been blessed ; constant proofs have been afforded,
of the increase of products, by improvements in our style
and systems of husbandry. Let any who recollect, (as some
of us do,)' the forlorn situation of our old settlements, before

^ the Plaster and Clover-Uusbandnj was introduced, and be-
/ ' came general, now view the fields transformed from barren-
ness to fertility ; and contemplate the enviable state of com-
fort and wealth enjoyed by their present possessors. They
are the owners of the soil they cultivate ; which has grown
fruitful and durably profitable, under the labours of their
own hands. The *< Mc vos non vohis^* of other countries, is
inapplicable here. — ^Let, then, those who have thriven^ teach,
by their encouragement to the diffusion of agricultural in-
formation, those who require it, to thrive. It is a duty de»
mandcd of them, in return for the blessings they enjoy.

Our new countries, owing to the circumstances in which
the first settlers are placed, are incapable of exhibiting pat-
terns in the art of husbandry. This must be done, in our
old settlements. It can be, and has been, accomplished ; so
as to exceed, in uniformly profitable product, any thing

7) known by the cultivators of newly cleared lands. Such lands
may, and do, throw up luxuriant crops, for a short period ;
but their continuance, in a constant and systematical succes-
sion, is not experienced. AVhcn they arc exhausted by bad
management, other lands must be sought for; to be also
worn out by simihir ill-treatment. No farmers of well and
long cultivated fields, now wish to sacrifice the remnants of
their timber, to the acquisition of a new surface. They

— know the advantages of renovated old lands. But much as
they know, they have yet much to learn. A life may be
spent in acquiring information, from individual experience.
But knowledge is soon gained, from publications in which

the experience of many is concentrated. It were to be ear-
nestly desired, that our farmers were more generally sensi-
ble of this important truth. We have endeavoured to pro-
mulgate information, (and should rejoice in additions to it,)
highly useful to thos^, whose lots are cast either in old or
new settlements.

If a continuance of the contest in which w c are, unhappily,
engaged, should turn the attention and industry of many of
our citizens who have heretofore been employed in other
pursuits, to the choice or necessity of becoming cultivators
of our soil ; they will profit by, and should encourage, agri-
cultural publications. They know, precedently, the enjoy-
ments of good habitations ; and to those they too often sa-
crifijee their means. They should patiently endure priva^
tions of their accustomed comfortable dwellings ; and yield,
in the beginning, a portion of their ease, to tlic pi^imary ob-
ject of fertilizing their lands, and cultivating them with
[ judgment. Erecting and ornamenting their buildings and
rural accommodations, should be a secondary consideration.
Yet mistakes are too frequently made, in this regard. It
is, however, indubitably proved, in repeated and encouraging
instances, that citizens who have no agricultural prejudices
to encounter, and have had intelligence and industry, in busi-
ness very different from the pursuits of husbandry, have far
exceeded old farmers, in their own art. If to them >ve can
furnish any useful lessons, we shall deem our labours well
rewarded.

Those who are engaged in the professions and employ-
♦ments requiring a permanent residence in our city, should
be more convinced than they have heretofore been, of the
obligations they owe to Agricuxture. Their daily sub-
sistence, and their necessary comforts, and even luxuries,
depend, either directly or consequentially, on this tirst of
ARTS. The better the style of husbandry, the more benefits
they derive from it. It is no reasonable excuse for with-
holding their assistance, or their patronage, that they are

VI

Preface,

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not agnciilturists. They possess, and should bestow, Uic means
of promulgating encouragement and information, to those
who are engaged in the labours of the field. It has been ac-
knowledged, through all ages, that husbandmen peculiarly
require instruction, and fostering care. The greatest charac-
ters of either ancient or modern times, have felt, and prac-
ticed upon, this important conviction. We make no obser-
vations querulously, or reproachfully: persuaded as we are,
that many of our intelligent and respectable fellow citizens
only require their attention to be called to the subject. If
we repeat such remarks, the reiteration flows from our sen-
sibility to their truth. It is also prompted by our mortify-
ing experience of the necessity which curtails and chills oui*
efforts, under the want of the aid our fellow citizens have it
in their power to furnish, with ease to themselves, and ad-
vantage to their country. 4-

A Pattern Farm, — a Veterinary Institution, — a
Manufactory or Agricultural Instruments, — and a
Ware-Room in which to exhibit and vend them, — and to
receive and show Models of all new or useful Implements, —
a Repository of the best grains^ grass-seeds^ and those of
esculent roots, — seeds of hedge plants, as well as those for
OrchardistSf and cultivators o£ fruits, — distributions of cheap
Treatises or Selections, on Agriculture, and all sub-
jects connected with it, as school books, and among hus-
bandmen who will not buy expensive publications, — were
some of the greater and less objects we aimed at. The
whole of these would now have been in progress, if not in
complete operation. But our voice has been too feeble, and
our influence too limited, to elicit private muniflcence, or
legislative patronage and endowment.

To those who, from insensibility to the true point of the
subject, or disinclination to afford assistance, in any way,
assert, that " farmers are doing well enough ;— .and must
make their own progress ;" — we have nothing to say. We
wish them, however, more just and liberal sentiments ; and

more worthy of the citizens of a country, the basis of whose
strength and prosperity is Agriculture.

Those who feel the importance of generally diff*using agri-
culturU information, and creating a spirit of emulation and,
improvement ; yet believe us (as is too truly the case) in-
competent fully to accomplish the task; we cordially in-
vite, to — come and help us. — They may easily bring along
with them superior talents ; and we earnestly, wish they may
be accompanied with equally well intentioned zeal, and as
persevering endeavours. We have the satisfaction to know,
that such endeavours have not been unsuccessfully em-
ployed.

Those who look for wonder-working nostrums, by which
tk)or and ill attended grounds can be, at once, made to pro-
duce good crops; will be utterly disappointed. Nor will they
be gratified, who expect lessons, teaching modes of bringing
forth salutary and profitable avails, even from fertile soils,
without industry, system, and good management. With
these,- poor lands may be made rich ; and rich soils doubly
productivie.

On those who are so occupied with their own performan-
ces, that they turn a deaf ear to all advice not falling in with
their own ideas ; and who, instead of listening, candidly and
patiently, to the exjierienee of others, tested l)y undeniable
principles, and practical facts ; fondly descant upon what
they do, have done, and intend to accomplish, (a propensity
too common,) — we can only observe, — non canemus surdis ;
— we do not address those who will not hear.

Ours is not a receptacle of controversy. If we or our
correspondents are mistaken, (a predicament from which
neither we nor they have any pretensions to deem ourselves
exempt) we thankfully receive decent and m ell intended cor-
rection. But with those who captiously endeavour to shake,
by disputation and misplaced criticism, the influence of useful

opinions, without establishing any better in their stead,

we enter not the lists. — It is only for the encouragement of

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Preface,

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correspondents who may have unnecessary apprehensions
on such subjects, that we make these observations. For our-
selves, we have had no important reasoris to complain ; and
we shall carefully avoid affording cause of uneasif^ss to
others.

LAWS

OF THE

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY

FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.

^S REVISED JiJ^D PASSED AT THE AJ^CJ^UAL MEETIJSTG,

JAJ^UARY 11, 1814.

I.

THE society shall be stiled, THE PHILADELPHIA
SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.

IL

The society's attention shall be confined to agriculture
and rural affairs.

IIL

The society shall have a president, a first and second vice-
president, a treasurer, five curators, a secretary, and an as-
sistant secretary ; all of whom shall be annually elected, by
the tickets of a majority of the members present, at the
stated meeting of the society in January ; but if any officer
be not elected at the annual meeting in January, the officer
not then elected may be chosen at any stated meeting there-
after, on being nominated at a precedent meeting, which
nomination shall be duly notified in a public newspaper, in a
reasonable time, before the meeting on which a choice is to
be made ,• the persons, so elected, to continue in office one
year, and until others shall be chosen in their stead. And .
in case of any vacancy^ by death, resignation, or otherwise.

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the same may be supplied by a new election, to be made at
any stated meeting of the society ; the person thus newly
elected, to serve the remainder of the year.

IV.

A quorum for business shall consist of at least five mem-
bers, including the president or vice-president.

V.

At all meetings of the society, the i)resident shall exer-
cise the usual duties of that office ; all motions shall be ad-
dressed to him ; and on all questions he shall collect and
declare the votes. He shall also have power to call special
meetings of the society, by notice published in at least two
of the city newspapers. In his absence the same duties shall
be performed by a vice-president. And if it happen, at any
meeting of the society, that both the president and vice-pre-
sidents be absent, the members present (being a quorum to
constitute a regular meeting for the business to be transact-
ed) may choose a vice-president for that meeting.

VI.

The treasurer sliall keep the accounts, methodically sta-
ted, in the books of the society ; and, when called upon, pro-
duce them for inspection. At the last meeting of every year,
and also whenever his office ends, he shall produce a fair
and regularly stated account of all receipts, payments, and
expenditures ; and deliver it, together with those books, and
all other property of the society, in his hands, to his suc-
cessor in office, or to the orders of the society.

VII.

The curators are to take the charge and care of all pro-
perty and articles belonging to the society; the books and
papers excepted, which are to remain in charge of the se-
cretary, who is to assist the curators in every thing in which
his aid is required.

The curators are to take measures, from time to time, for
collecting all native fossils, earths and substances, proper
for manures, or deemed so to be : and to cause or procure

the same to be analyzed ; and report to the society the re-
sults. They are also to procure experiments to be made by
careful agriculturists, of any such fossils, earths, or substan-
ces; and to promote, in every practicable way, explorations
for the discovery of native substances, either known, or pre-
sumed, to be manures; or auxiliaries in fertilizing land.
They are also to keep minutes of their proceedings, to col-
lect models of the best agricultural instruments ; and report
their usefulness and properties ,• and cause such models to
be deposited in the apartments of the society. They are to
recommend to the society, from time to time, the offering
premiums for any discovery or experiment on the foregoing
subjects : and to examine into the merits of all claims for
premiums, and report their opinions thereon, when the so-
ciety do not think proper to appoint special committees for
the purpose.

VIII. n

The secretary and his assistant shall have in charge all
the books and papers of the society, and keep the same in
exact order. They shall also register all letters which shall
be written by the committee of correspondence, or by them-
selves, by order of the committee.

At the annual meeting of the society in January, shall be
•hosen a committee of correspondence, to consist of five
members, any three of whom to be a quorum, for the pur-
pose of corresponding with tmy other society, or persons,
touching the objects which this society has in view. The
same members shall also be a committee of accounts, to re-
ceive and adjust all claims against the society, for its con-
tingent expenses ; and the president or vice-president shall '
give orders on the treasurer for the payment of them.

X.

The stated meetings of the society shall !>e on the second
Tuesday of every mt)tith.

vol. III. li

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Laws.

XI.

The members of the society shall be distinguished into
residenU honoranj, and contrihiting members.

Resident members shall consist of persons residing witbm
a convenient distance, to attend the meetings of the Society
at Philadelphia ; and these are defined to be 3uch only, as
at the time of election, reside Avithin ten miles of the said
city, on either side of the Delaware. All members of agri-
cultural societies, in other states and countries, with whom
this Society shall correspond; and all persons of this state,
and of other states and countries, who shall be elected for
the purpose, shall be lionorary members ; and are hereby in-
Yitcd to assist at the meetings, whenever they come to Phi-
ladelphia. Strangers who desire to be present, as auditors,
may be introduced by a resident member.

Honorary contrihuiing members are of the description
hereafter mentioned, g

Every citizen contributing, and paying into the hands of
the treasurer, a sum not less than Fifty Dollars, may be
elected, agreeably to the rules, an honorary member ; with-
out regard to place of residence. Those who thus laudably
enable the Society to extend its usefulness, and promote its
•objects, are invited to assist at its meetings. The| will be
styled honoranj contributing members.

All donations and bequests for general purposes, shall be
faithfully used ; and regular accounts kept of their applica-
tion.

Such donations or bequests as are given, granted, made
or devised, on terms directing their being used in, or appli-
ed to, any particular branch or branches of husbandry, or
rural oeconomy; or subjects connected therewith, shall,
with all due fidelity, be so used or applied. And if they, or
any of them, shall not be, at the time, sufficient to accom-
plish the object designated, in whole or in part, they and
every of them, shall be placed in a situation, if practicable.

Laws.

XJU

to accumulate ; until by additions of other means, tho ob-
ject intended can be eflTectuated.

The names, and amount and description of donations, of
all citizens contributing pecuniary or other donations, of
any amount or description whatever, shall be registered, in
a roll kept for that special purpose. They will merit and
receive the thanks of the society, fur the patriotism and
public spirit, evinced by their thus affording the means of
accomplishing the objects of the institution.

XII.

New members, whether resident or honoraryf shall be
elected by ballot. And the secretary shall issue notice to
each person, of his being elected, to the following purport
— The Philadelphia Society for promoting Jlgriculturef have
elected a Ci*esident or honorary J member 9 in

testimony of their conjidence in his capacity and inclination
to promote the objects of their instilMtion.

XIII.

All elections and appointments shall be between eight
and nine o'clock in the evening, at one of the stated meet-
ings of the society. And no person shall be elected a mem-
ber, whether resident or honorary, unless, at a preceding
stated meeting, he shall have been openly proposed, and
such nomination duly entered on the minutes of the society.
The nomination and election to be in the absence of the can-
didate.

XIV.

The society shall annually propose prizes upon interest-
ing subjects, relative to actual experiments and improve-
ments, and for the best pieces written on proposed subjects.
And in order more effectually to disseminate the knowledge
of useful discoveries and improvements in husbandry, the
society will, from time to time, publish collections of me-
moirs and observations, selected from such communications
as shall be made to thenu To promote these views, the

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XIV

Laws,

friends of agriculture are invited to assist the society with
inibrmation of experiments and incidents in husbandry.

XV.
All claims of prizes shall be sent in writing; and when
read, the society shall determine which of the claims^ rela-
tive to each prize, shall be selected for their definitive judg-
ment, on a future comparison. This judgment is to be
given at the stated meeting on the second Tuesday in Febru-
ary, but previously to such determination, all such claims
shall be submitted to, and reported upon by the curators.
If it happen, in any case, that there be no competition for
a prize, but only a single claim,* the society will consider
such claim ; and if the claim or claims be supported an-
swerably to the views and just expectations of the society,
the prize proposed shall be decreed. Premiums and prizes
are equally due to any persons residing in any of the United
States, according to the merit of their respective exhibi-
tions.

XVI.
For the purpose of defraying the necessary expenses of
the society, for premiums and prizes, books on agriculture,
improved instruments of husbandry, and other important
objects and contingencies, every member shall annually pay
to the treasurer a contribution of three doixars, and
any member paying thirty dollars, shall be considered a
member for life ; and shall not be called on for any farther
annual payments. This contribution shall be considered as
due and payable at or before the last day of December, in
every year. And at the first meeting in January of every
year, the treasurer shall lay before the society a list of the
members, specifying who have, and who have not paid their
contributions ; and any member whose contribution shall be
found to be more than two years in arrears, after the same
shall have become due and payable, as aforesaid, provided
payment thereof has been personally demanded of him by

Laws.

XV

the treasurer, or collector, authorised by him for the pur-
pose, such member shall be considered as withdrawing from
the society, and be no longer deemed a member of it; and
the same shall be entered on the minutes.

XVII.

New rules, or alterations to be made in old rules, (except
at the annual meeting in January,) shall be proposed, and
the proposal entered on the minutes, at a preceding stated
meeting ; and may then be made by not less than two tliird$
of the members present.

XVIII.

When any part of the society's Hmds is to be disposed of,
(excepting at the annual meeting, or for ordinary contin-
gent expenses) the same shall be done at a stated or special
meeting, after having been proposed at a previous stated
meeting.

XIX.

Still further to advance the objects of this institution, the
society will promote the establishment of other similar so-
cieties in the United States.

: XX.

On the first meeting of the society in January, in every
year, there shall be a revision of the then subsisting rules ;
and the same shall stand confirmed, so far as two thirds of
the members present, including the president or a vice-pre-
sident, do not revoke or alter them.

• ^ 'I

OFFICERS

OF THE

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY

FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.

ELECTED JIT THE .IJVJVUAL MEETIJVG, JJUVVART 11, 1814.

L'M

President

Vice-Presidekt —

Treasurer

Secretary—— —

-RICHARD PETERS.
-WILLIAM TILGHMAN.
-EDWARD BURD.
-JAMES MEASE.

Assistant Secretary-ROBERTS VAUX.

TO

CORRESPONDING COMMITTEE.

RICHARD PETERS.
WILLIAM TILGHMAN.
JAMES MEASE- •
ZACCHEUS COLLINS.
REUBEN HAINES.

CURATORS.

ZACCHEUS COLLINS.
RALPH EDDOWES.
SOLOMON W. CONRAD.
CHARLES ROBERTS.

A LIST

OF THE

MEMBERS

OF THE

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY

FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.

ELECTED SIJsrCE THE PUBLICATIOJST OF THE LAST

VOLUME.

RESIDENT MEIVIBERS.

Benjamin Warner, Philad.
Joseph Warner, do.

William Wharton, do.
Thomas Gilpin, do.

James B. Thompson, do.
Joseph Rotch, do.

William Rodman, do.
Mordecai Lewis, do-

Samuel N. Lewis, do.
Jonah Thompson, do.
Benjamin B. Howell, do.
Jeremiah Warder, jr. do.
George Vaux, do.

Solomon Conrad^ do-
Samuel Hazard, do.
Benjamin B. Howell^ do.

Alexander Wilson, Philad.

Charles Roberts, do.

William Meredith, do.

William M'Corkle, do.

John B. Wallace^ do.

John Sergeant, do.

B[prace Binnej, do.

T. P. Jones, M. D. do.

Ralph Eddowes; jr. do.

Joseph Jones, do/

William James^ do.

Roberts Vaux, do.

J. W. Condy, do.
John Smith, Marshall do.

Turner Camae, do;

William Lee, do.

■im^

•••

List of Members.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Caleb H. Parry, M. D. Bath, England.
Samuel Emlen, Burlington, New Jersey.
Samuel L. Mitchell, M. D. New York.

William Gibbons, M. D. Wilmington, Delaware.

Robert Coleman, Lancaster, Pennsylvania,

Samuel H. Howell, Gloucester County, New Jersey.

William P. Dewees, M. D. Centre Co. Pennsylvania.

Josiah Quiney, Boston.

Joseph Correa de Serra, Paris.

Isaac Wayne, Chester County, Pennsylvania.

Abraham Eves, Newcastle County, Delaware.

George Pierce, do. do.

James :Booth, do. do.

Thomas Forrest, Philadelphia County^

R. K. Meade, Millwood, Frederick County, Virginia.

Brigadier General Joseph Bloomfield, Trenton, N. J.

Henry Waddel, Morrisville, Bucks County, Penn.

Archibald Lee, District of Columbia.

Samuel L. Howell, Gloucester County, New Jersey.

Samuel Patterson, Edinburgh.
Dr. John Manners, Flemington, New Jersey.
George Holcombe, Allen Town, do.
George Pollok, North Carolina.
John Moore White, Woodbury, New Jersey.
Robert G. Johnston, Salem, do.

Algernon Sidney Logan, Philadelphia County.
Thomas Cooper, Professor of Chemistiy, Carlisle Col-
lege, Pennsylvania.
Dr. Petrikin, Adams County, Pennsylvania.
Edward O'Hale, York County, do.

Peter Robeson, Philadelphia County.
David Ross, Newcastle County, Delaware.
Bushrod Washington, Mount Vernon, Virginia.

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EXPLANATION OF THE MEDAL.

1 . ^ plough ;—and oxen, at rest. One pawing -,— impatient
under idleness ;~tJie other, looking for the arrival of the
ploughman— This emblem is preferred to the plough with hor-
ses ;~-to show, emphatically, tlie Society's desire to encourage
the use of oxen, and the breeding of cattle.

EXPLANATION OF THE REVERSE.

2. Agricultural implements; honourable badges of hus-
bandmen. More estimable and generally useful, than armo-

rial bearings.

(tr »i space is reserved for engraving the cause and oc-
casion inducing th mark of approbation bestowed.

The engraver has unfortunately not given the corporate
title of the Society, which is, " The Philadelphia Society for
promoting ^Agriculture."

%

..J5«*''V..™«ici

t

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE

TO

A COURSE OF LECTURES

UPON

At a stated meeting of the Philadelphia Society for pro-
moting Agriculture, July 12th, 1814, the following rescdu-
tion was on motion unanimously passed.

The society having been long impressed with the import-
ance of veterinary knowledge, and having offered a premi-
um for the best essay thereon, are with great satisfaction
informed of the merit of a course of lectyres, delivered last
winter, by Dr. Mease, on " comparative anatomy and the
diseases of domestic animals;'' whereupon resolved.

That Dr. Mease be requested by the president to permit the
introductory lecture, on the subject mentioned, to be print-
ed in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Society.

COMPARATIVE VNATOMY,

AND

THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

BY JAMES MEASE, M. D.
DELIVERED J^OVEMBER 3, 1814.

Gentlemen,

A conviction of the great necessity at present of a course
of lectures upon Comparative Anatomy, and the Diseases
of Domestic Animals, has induced me to undertake to de-
liver them. I had indeed contemplated a course on the last
subject, several years since, but was prevented from com-
mencing it, by circumstances that no longer exist. The dif-
fusion of knowledge upon the subject of my intended course,
although .at all times desirable, from mere motives of huma-
nity, as connected with the means of increasing the comfort
of a class of animals over which Providence has made us
masters, who labour for us, feed, and clothe us ; is particu-
larly important, if we reflect upon the value of some of those
animals at the present time, when a laudable spirit of im-
provement induces agricultural gentlemen to stock their
farms at a considerable expense, with foreign breeds, or to
take great pains in originating new stock at home, for the
purpose of increasing the quantity and quality of flesh, milk,
or fleece ; and when the employment of a large body of ca-

VOI. III. c

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On Comparative Anatomy, and the

valry is rendered necessary, by the war in which the United
States are engaged. — But independently of this latter consi-
deration, which is of a public nature, and certainly of suffi-
cient consequence to claim the notice of government ; if the
noble animal, the horse, considered in a domestic view, were
alone the object of our attention, the importance and high
value set upon him, when his powers for either speed or
draught, or the beauty of his form have been greatly im-
proved, would be an indftcement sufficiently great to autho-
rise a course of instruction upon his structure, diseases, and
the means of preserving his health.

As it is very probable that a part of my hearers are en-
tirely unacquainted with the subject upon which I am, to lec-
ture, and even with the meaning of the words <* Comparative
JlnatomiJ9^* it is due to the importance of this branch of
knowledge to explain them^ to shoAV what attention the stu-
dy has excited in the old world, to enumerate the names of
the distinguished characters who have cultivated it, and to
lay before you the very great benefits derived from it, in
elucidating the structure and functions of the human body,
and explaining the doctrines of its physiology : in aiding the
Fainter, Sculptor, and Engraver, and lastly, to point out its
intimate connexion with Veterixary Medicine.

By the term « Comparative Anatomy'^ is understood, the
investigation of the structure of brute animals ; and its ob-
jects are to demonstrate the diversity that exists among si-
milar organs, and analogous parts, and to compare them with
one another, and with man.

It is reasonable to suppose that this study must have at-
tracted the attention of mankind in very early times. The
slaughter of animals for food, the preparation of the offer-
ings on the altar by the priest, and the custom of deducing
auguries from the state of the entrails, would naturally lead
to some knowledge of the structure and appearances of the
parts : we know likewise, from the book of Exodus, that
names were even attached to them, and the parts declar-

Diseases of Domestic Jinimals*

^XXl

■ i.

ed to be clean, and unclean, are particularly designated.
But Greece first distinguished itself among nations, in the
study of anatomy, as a science, as it did in the study and
practice of the fine arts; and Homer,^ by the familiar use
of several anatomical terms, and the mention of certain parts
of the body, and their connexion with each other, shows that
some knowledge of the structure of the human frame was
then extant. Pythagoras, after an extensive tour to India
and Egypt, brought to his native country, the knowledge on
all subjects to be acquired at that time, and of anatomy
among others, and disseminated it among his countrymen,
with great ardour. His pupils, Alcmeon and Empedocles,
but more especially Democritus of Abdcra, extended the
fame of their master, and raised themselves to deserved emi-
nence among the philosopliers of that day. Upon the suppo-
sition that all the disorders of the human body proceeded
from bile, he endeavoured to discover its origin and course,
and by the ardour of his pursuits, and consequent frequent
seclusion from the public, laboured under the imputation of
insanity, until the sage Hippocrates, who was sent to visit
him, discovered his retreat, and while he undeceived his fel-
low citizens, with respect to his mental derangement, did
ample justice to his industry and merits.

Aristotle, however, was the first scientific anatomist : lie
ci\joyed particular advantages under the patronage of his
pupil, Alexander the Great, who granted him a very large
sum of money, to purchase animals for dissection, and to de-
fray the expenses attending his studies. He did honour to
the munificence of his royal patron, by his attention to, and
improvement of the subject : his regular anatomical works
have been lost, but he has given much comparative anatomy
in the first part of his treatise on animals, and he has form-
ed an anatomical nomenclature, which is in part still receiv-
ed. Without dwelling on the labours of Diodes of Carystus,
and of Praxagoras of Cos, I shall pass on to mention the

• •

xtii

On Comparative Anatomy 9 and the

successors of Aristotle, viz. Erasistratus his grandson^ and
Herophilus, who having been protected and employed hy the
Ptolemies, sustained the character of the school of Alexan-
dria so well, that, during their lives, and for a long time
after, it continued the chief place of resort for students,
from all nations.

About the year 160 of the Christian account, Galen, a
name familiar to the whole world, settled at Rome, and con-
tributed very largely to the advancement of medical science
generally, and particularly of anatomy, by his talents, in-
dustry in experiments and dissections, and by collecting to-
gether all that had been previously written on the subject by
the Greek teachers.* After his days we have no account of
any addition having been made to the previous knowledge,
in either human or comparative anatomy, for a very long
time. Tq this suspension of the labours of science, the de-
cay and division of the Roman empire, in the close of the
second century, greatly contributed ; but the finishing stroke
to all liberal studies or mental improvement, in the western
parts of Europe, was given by the irruption of the Barbarian
tribes of Germany and Scythia, first into Rome, in 410, un-
der Alaric, and finally over the whole of Italy, Gaul, and
Spain, at different times afterwards, until the year 476, when
the Roman empire was finally extinguished in the West.

A long interval of midnight darkness in science of every
kind, succeeded in the western parts of Europe. The Sara-
cens were at length, in their turn, destined to be the rulers of
the former seat of learning and of the liberal arts in the East,
and for a long time they did little except destroy. The burn-
ing of the library of Alexandria will forever remain a splen-
did monument of their fanatic barbarity .^ Their successors
were fortunately better disposed, and encouraged the arts,^
and after the subversion of the Visigoths in Spain, Arabian
learning was introduced by them into that country, (anno
710,) where it maintained its ground, and spread through

Diseases of Domestic Animals.

xxiii

western Europe, until the ajra when the genuine spirit for
improvement and for science began to appear in the world.
A worse enemy to science than even the Saracens originally
had been, succeeded in the Turks, who from their first de-
scent on the great theatre of the world, from the mountain-
ous regions of Taurus and Imaus, to the present day, have
uniformly evinced a settled hostility to improvement and in-
novation of any kind. In 1055 they pillaged Bagdad, and
the ruin of that seat of splendor and of learning, was com-
pleted by the Moguls in 1258. In the progress of their victo-
ries, but not until after a long siege, the Turks became mas-
ters of Constantinople, (the last remnant of the Roman em-
pire,) in the year 1453, and thus became the unwilling instru-
ments of the diffusion of learning and the arts throughout Eu-
rope : for the philosophers who had made that city their
place of residence, after having been driven from Rome, fled
to the Italian states for protection, bringing with them their
own works, and those of the Greek authors in their original
dress, and fortunately found the people eager to receive the
information they had to communicate; and, what was of
most consequence, the different rulers of the country were
disposed to aftbrd them all the protection and support they
desired. This spirit for the liberal arts had been revived,
in part, in consequence of the acquaintance which the cru-
saders had made with Arabian learning, during their chi-
valrous expeditions to the holy land; and the means of gra-
tifying it had been already obtained, by the discovery of the
mode of making paper, in the eleventh century, and had been
powerfully promoted by that of the precious art of printing,
in the year 1445, which facilitated the multiplication of co-
pies of books.

Europe thus enriched and roused made some progress in
medical literature, and in anatomy, but it was slow ; the
popular prejudices, nay the abhorrence against touching dead
bodies, and much more against tlieir patient examination,
long continued in almost all countries except Italy, and the

I

xxjr

On Comparathe •iuatomiif and the

i

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as:

consequence was^ that Italy was the country in which human
and comparative anatomy was for a long time chiefly taught.
Upon the general diffusion of the spirit of inquiry in Eu-
ropcy which continued to take place^ the study of human and
comparative anatomy kept equal pace ; for nearly all those
eminent men who attended to one branchy were zealous in
the prosecution of the other. But the sixteenth century
may he considered as the eera whence we must date the re-
vival of anatomical knowledge in general ; during which^
we find among others that might be mentioned^ the names
of Vesalius^ Fallopius, Eustaehius^ and Fabricius/ promi-
nent as teachers. The science was prosecuted with ad-
ditional spirit in the succeeding century, after the doctrine
of the circulation of the blood had been taught by Harvey
in London ; and more especially after his publication of the
great discovery in 1628, when a new field was opened, from
which both branches of our subject derived important bene-
fits, by the new stimulus to experiment which it excited, and
by enabling medical men to illustrate many points, before
inexplicable, relative to the animal economy. In the course
of the 17th, and the early part of the 18th century, the
Avorld was favoured with the labours of Grew,« Willis,^ Ty-
!son,8 Collins,® Lower,i^ Keill, and others in England ; Pey-
er," in Switzerland ; De Graaf,^^ Leewenhoek," Blazius,i«
Swammerdam,*^ Ruysch,!^ Steno, and others in Germany
and the Netherlands ; Rudbeck^^ in Sweden ; and Bartho-
linei» in Denmark ; Bellini, Valisneri, Malphigi,!® and Redi,
in Italy; Casserius,^^ Perrault, G. J. Duverney,2i and others,
in France. The collection of facts made by the foregoing
anatomists was great, no complete system however was
formed, until about the middle and latter end of the last
century, when the observations of preceding authors were
arranged, and the science was prosecuted with new ardour.
We were then favoured with the discoveries of D'Auben-
ton,«2 the friend and coadjutor of the Count de Bufibn, in
his great work on natural history, and Vic B'Azyr,^ in

Diseases of Domestic Animals.

XXV

Prance; Camper^^ and Sandifort, in Holland; Pallas, in
Russia; the illustrious Haller, professor at Gottingen ; Scar-
pa and Camparetti, in Italy. In England, we are indebted
to William and John Hunter, Hewson, Home, MTartney,
A. Cooper, Townson, Haighton, Cruikshank, and others,
and in Scotland, to the two Munros (1st and 2nd,) for the
elucidation of the organs of various animals, and for very
considerable additions to our stock of knowledge on the sub-
ject. Lastly, Cuvier,25 of Paris, and Blumenbach,^^ of Got-
tingen, may justly be considered as the most eminent contri-
butors to comparative anatomy, in mo<lern times.

It would be tedious to detail the particular animals and
subjects, to the investigation and dissection of which, these
illustrious men devoted their attention ; it may be therefore
only necessary to say, that scarcely any part of the animal
creation, from the colossal elephant to the crawling cater-
pillar, escaped their attention; and that from all of their la-
bours, instruction of the most useful kind, and from some of
thin, of the most pleasing nature, has been derived.

I shall now proceed to enumerate the advantages that have
resulted to mankind from the prosecution of comparative
anatomy.

Every well read medical man, who, not content with know-
ing merely the present state of the science of medicine and
the art of surgery, has investigated the progress of their
improvement, must be acquainted with the essential services
which have been rendered to both professions by comparative
anatomy ; yet as some of my hearers are not expected to be
informed on this subject, it is due to the study, and may not
prove uninteresting to them, to give a short account of the
benefits which have resulted from it.

1. The study of comparative anatomy opens to the mind
a source of the highest satisfaction and interest, and tends
most powerfully to give exalted ideas of the wisdom of the
Author of all existence. In the words of the eloquent Her-
der, It « gives man a clew to himself, which conducts him

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XXVl

On Comparative Anatomyrand the

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through the great labyrinth of living creation ; and if we
can say of any method, that through it our understanding
ventures to scrutinize the profound and comprehensive mind
of God, it must be this.^^r From a very slight knowledge
of the structure of the human frame, the royal psalmist was
enabled to exclaim, « man is fearfully and wonderfully
made," and had he been acquainted with the structure of
the inferior order of animals, he would have found in them
additional sources of wonder and of praise, from contempla-
ting the infinite variety of modes in which the same func
tions are performed in different animals, and in tracing the
contrivances and structure of the organs and general me-
chanism of their frames, which are so nicely adapted to their
different economies and necessities, whether their residence
be in air, in water, or on land. ..

3. In the early stages of society^ this study materially
promoted the knowledge of the structure of the human body :
for owing to the invincible prejudices against human dis-
sections, and the prevalence of the opinion that the handling
of a dead body communicated a degree of moral pollution to
the living, it was extremely difficult to procure human bo-
(Kes for the purpose of examination, and injurious to the re-
putation of medical men to dissect them even if procured,
llie ancient physicians therefore were under the necessity
of drawing their inferences with respect to the anatomy of
the human body, and the use of its various organs, from
brute animals ; and apes, probably from their external form
more nearly than any other animal, resembling that of man,
were the chief subjects of investigation; and we know from
the disagreement of Galen's account of the structure of va-
rious parts of the body, with what has been ascertained by
anatomists in later times, and from recent dissections of those
animals, that it was from them his descriptions were chiefly

taken.28

3. Upon various questions of physiology, which from their
nature could not be ascertained in the human subject, this

■f fpi'?'"*!' "

Diseases of Domestic Animals*

xxvil

» I

V study has rendered the most essential services. The deer,
in the park of king Charles the first, with which he gene-
rously furnished Dr. Harvey, served to make some progress
in the discovery of the process of the evolution of the foetus;
a subject that has since been greatly elucidated by De Graaf,
Spalanzani, Dr. Haighton,^^ and Mr. Cruikshank.^o By
experiments on other 9nimals, Dr. Harvey also ascertained^
beyond contradiction, the circulation of the blood through
the body, and its rotatory motion by the heart arteries and
veins, so as to make many complete circuits round the body
in twenty hours.^*

4, It is to comparative anatomy we owe the discovery of
the lymphatic system, and the certainty of the use it was in-
tended to perform in the human body. The office of this ad-
mirable and curious system of vessels, is to absorb and con-
vey back to the blood, all the decayed parts of the human
body, (even bone itself,) and all those thin, pellucid fluids,
that wander from the course of the circulation, that they
may undergo new preparations, or be thrown entirely out of
the body : and in the intestines, they perform the important
office of conveying the nutritious and watery part of the
food into the system. Hence they arise from every organ
of the body. An opinion may bd formed of the active pow-
er possessed by those apparently tender, and minute vessels,
from considering the rapidity with which they transmit their
contents : this has been satisfactorily ascertained by Mr.
Cruikshank, to be at the rate of twenty feet in length, in one
minute. His experiments were made upon dogs, and the
well known facts of a peculiar smell in the urine, being
perceived in less than one hour after eating asparagus and
certain species of cabbage ; and the increase of urine in the
same space of time, after drinking certain mineral waters,
lead us to suppose that the activity of the lacteals in man,
is equally great.32

5. It is to this study we owe the discoveries of the cele-
brated Italian professor Spalanzani, Dr. Stevens, John Hnn-

VOL. TTT» d

'^TUliS^

XXVUl

On Comparalive Anatomy^ and the

iHseases of Domestic Animals*

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ter, and others^ on the digestion of food in the human sto-
machy and in many other animals^ about which process vari-
ous erroneous theories had been previously entertained. The
consideration of this process, as conducted in animals, with
an examination of the admirable organs for the purpose, will
form a very interesting part of our course.^^

6. " Comparative anatomy becomes necessary in ascertain-
ing the action of organs. All the functions have ceased long
before the human body can be opened, and it is only in the
inferior animals that we can presume to make experiments
examining the movements of the different organs before the
principle of life has escaped." It is chiefly in this field of in-
quiry, that we have obtained the correct knowledge which
we now possess, of many of the animal functions.^^ Nor can
the supposition be admitted, that this study savours of cru-
elty : every humane mind is shocked at the idea of wantonly
giving pain to any animal ; but when such pain is requisite
to illustrate the animal physiology, the sacrifice is indispen-
sable and justifiable. Without it, we might, in all probabi-
lity, have been ignorant at this day of the sublime discovery
of the circulation of the blood, and deprived of the impor-
tant benefits resulting from it to mankind.

7. By comparing the internal organization of difierent
animals, we are enabled to distinguish those parts which are
common in the structure of every animal body, and essen-
tially necessary for the performance of the vital functions;
from such as are peculiar to certain animals, and exclusive-
ly subservient to their necessities, economy, or enjoyment.
Thus when we find particular organs imperfectly developed
iu certain animals, or extracted^^ in some, and naturally want-
ing in a third, without any essential injury to life, we are
then enabled to judge of the rank which these organs hold
even in the human species : and by the circumstance of life
being supported, and the functions of the body going on,
after a cessation in the performance of certain functions,
we are not only taught the propriety of attempting the sav-

ISC

ing of life, under circumstances which without such know-
ledge would have been deemed impossible; but are induced
to admire the wonderful kindness of Providence, in furnish-
ing the system with resources, which enables it to survive
after such serious privations, and outrages to the animal
economy. We had long known that in the operation fof
aneurism, where a wounded or diseased artery isjtaken up,
and completely divided at the elbow, or in a thigh ; the parts
below are supplied with blood by the anastomosing branches
given off from the larger artery, above the point of obstruc-
tion: but Mr. Astley Cooper, of London, has shown us, that
even the carotids, the femoral, and brachial arteries of a
dog, in which the stoppage of circulation, it might naturally
be supposed would be followed by death ; may be tied with
impunity: nay, that the aorta of the same animal may be
tied and divided without injury to his health ;3d and hence
we are taught the propriety of attempting the saving of a
human life, by ligature, in case of a wound in the large arte-
ries of the body, instead of amputating the limb. To military
or naval surgeons, who are often called upon suddenly to ex-
ert their skill, in cases of dreadful wounds, the inferences to
be drawn from Mr. Cooper's experiments are invaluable.37

8. It was by the study of comparative anatomy that we have
ascertained the cause, why ouran-outangs, apes and monkeys
cannot speak. J. J. Rousseau, with the strangest inconsist-
ency, while he laboured to perfect his system, by which hu-
man reason and the human powers were to attain the high-
est possible exaltation ; absurdly wished to degrade man by
assimilating his nature to that of brutes, and asserting that
those animals had originally been endowed with the divine
faculty of speech, but had lost it from disuse. Although
the assertion or opinion was contradicted, by the negative
fact, that no savage nation had been discovered without an
artificial language, while Jlierds of ourans had been found,
without any; yet no public refutation had ever been made,
of this absurd opinion, until after the year 1779, when

11

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dn Comparative *inatomy^ and the

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the excellent professor Camper of Holland, by dissecting
several ourans, apes and monkeys, demonstrated that no mo-
dulation of the voice, resembling human speech, can be pro-
duced in those creatures, because the air passing through
the rima glottidis, (or chink on the top of the wind pipe,)
enters a slit or hole at the root of the epiglottis, and is lost
in two ventricles or hollow bags in the neck, causing it to
swell, and out of which the air is returned, by the eon-
traction of the muscle over them, without any force or me-
lody, within their throat and mouth.^^

9. It is essential to the study of natural history : for ana-
tomical structure is the only true basis of a natural classifi-
cation of the animal kingdom. It was owing to his not be-
ing conversant with comparative anatomy, that the zoologi-
cal arrangement of the celebrated Linnaeus is deficient ; and
to an opposite reason may be ascribed the admirable and
comprehensive classification of the French naturalists.

10. An attention to this study has enabled us to explain
the facts related by some travellers, the extraordinary na-
ture of which had occasioned an unbelief in them, and the
imputation of a disregard to truth.-— I allude to the narra-
tives of the surprising power of the camel to take in at
one time a sufficient quantity of water to last four or five
days, and thereby to become capable of inhabiting the parch-
ing deserts of Arabia ; and of the practice of the people
of a caravan, of opening those animals Avhen they die, in
order to obtain the water from their stomachs. — The ex-
amination of the stomach of this useful animal, shows how
it is enabled to retain the water, and that it is pure enough
to be drank when taken from his body, by men whose thirst
is great.^

11. But while comparative anatomy enables us to do jus-
tice to travellers, it also furnishes us with the means of
putting to the test the truth of various stories of the vulgar^
some of which have been unaccountably admitted by men
of science.'*^ Such^ among others that might be mentioned^

Diseases of Domestic JLnimals.

XXXI

is that of the submersion of swallows in rivers, creeks, or
ponds, during the winter, which has long been implicitly
believ^d.^^

12. A knowledge of the principles of comparative anato-
my are as essential to the landscape painter, sculptor and
engraver, as the knowledge of the human anatomy is to the
painter of mankind. An artist may indeed depict upon
canvass an animal, which without an inscription under it,
may be known to be of the species intended to be represented ;
but unless he is acquainted with the relative and natural
proportions and forms, which modern improvements have
shown are connected with not only beauty of person but pro-
fit, he will not reach that perfection in his portraits or deli
neations, nor produce that effect by Ids labours, which is at
all times desirable. It was this knowledge that has render-
ed the engraved figures of the horse, by Stubbs, so much and
so justly admired, although done so many years since, (1766,
London;) and which contributed greatly to the reputation of
the painter Adrian Vandervelde,^^ and a few others ; and
although a minute knowledge of the anatomy of all animals
is not expected from an artist, yet an acquaintance with
the structure and mechanism, peculiar to each, is essen-
tially necessary to enable him to delineate the muscles, and
their action in various positions of the body, and to prevent
the commission of those gross absurdities we.#omeUmes sec
in statues and paintings, such as a walking horse represented
with two diametric opposite feet in an elevated posiUon.^

13. Comparative anatomy is as essential to the successful
practice of veterinary medicine, as a knowledge of the strue-
ture of the human body is to the cure of the diseases and
accidents incident to mankind. It is owing to a want of
this knowledge of their structure, that our useful domestic
animals are so mismanaged by farriers, and pretenders to
animal medicine ,• and that diseases, trivial in their nature,
or that slight surgical cases often end in death, or lameness!

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xxxii On Comparative Anatomy, and the

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which might have been easily prevented by a scientific treat- '

ment*

The aid which comparative anatomy is enable of aflTord-
ing to veterinary medicine, must be evident to every one
who reflects a moment upon the subject.

« The veterinary art is a practical application of scientific
principles, to the preservation of the health of domestic ani-
mals, and to the cure of their diseases, in the same manner
as the art of medicine applies to the health and preservation
of man : and the science on which this art is grounded, and
which it requires for its perfect exercise, comprises the na-
tural history, anatomy, physiology, and pathology of those
animals, together with such portions of the vegetable and
mineral kingdoms as are connected with them, either in the
way of aliment or remedy.

«< To practice this art with certainty, it is necessary to make
a special and accurate investigation of the economy of the
animal itself, and to observe minutely the different effects
that the different subjects of the materia medica might have
upon it, and to repeat those inquiries with the same exact-
ness, for every animal that is the subject of the art ; and
moreover, to superadd such knowledge of the human anato-
my, as may be of use in the way of comparison."** A plan
of study like this, requires a leisure and education, far be-
yond the capacities and circumstances of those to whom the
care of our animals has been hitherto abandoned, and yet
Buch is the importance of the art, that a course of study as
long and as circumstantial as that just detailed, is indispen-
sable for those who would fully, fairly, and honourably en-
gage in the exercise of it ; nay, from the inability of the
sick animal to describe his feelings, and to point out the scat
of his pain, his pathology must necessarily be uncertain, and
consequently we might suppose, that a greater degree of
judgment and penetration are requisite for the physician of
animals than of mankind. What then must be the feelings

Diseases of Domestic ^Animals.

xxxiii

of any humane mind, to have a favourite horse, which may
have greatly contributed to his comfort, health or pleasure,
committed to the care of the most ignorant smith or farrier,
whose stock of knowledge may consist in knowing how to
ruin the poor animal's foot, by bad shoeing, or in giving him
when sick, the same drench from a horn, whether the dis-
ease be pleurisy or colic ? This regret will necessarily con-
tinue so long as veterinary medicine is not studied scientifi-
cally, or until medical gentlemen cease to think it beneath
their notice ; and I may add, until the owners of fine horses
will by pecuniary rewards, encourage men of respectability
and knowledge to engage in its practice. Further, it is a
truth, that nature, amidst the infinite variety in structure,
seems to have fashioned all the living creatures on our earth
after one grand model of organization : this is more especi^
ally the case with those composing the extensive class mam-
malia, of which man is the head.

The bones, the muscles, the vessels, the nerves, the or*,
gans that prepare and secrete the various fluids of the body,
and those of the different senses, seem to be substantially the
same ; except as regards some difference in form, size and
position, arising from the peculiar wants of each animal, i
The diseases of mankind and of some animals, particular-
ly the horse, are moreover very similar. Independently of
the various accidents requiring the aid of surgery, such as
wounds and fractures of bones ; the horse is also subject to
fever, pleurisy, dropsy in the brain, severe catarrh, violent
colics, dysury or diflieulty in staling, diabetes or a preterna-
tural flow of urine, various kinds of worms, epilepsy, asthma,
locked jaw, and other complaints: with the locked jaw, ma-
ny horses are carried off in this city every year.

The Goitre or swelled neck, which is so prevalent a com.
plaint among the inhabitants of Switzerland, of Thibet, and
other countries of the old world, and also in the new fron-
tier settlements of the United States, attacks sheep atfd calves

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Mxiv On Campar alive Anatomy, and ilte

Diseases of Domestic nB.nimals.

XXXV

SEC

in this country, and dogs in Switzerland according to Mr.
Coxe. From my inquiries into this complaint, as it ex-
ists in the United States, 1 have ascertained that it invaria-
bly disappears when the land is well cultivated, and drained.
But the fact is far otherwise in the other quarters of the
globe ; there it seems to be indissolubly connected with the

climate and soil.

Calves are also subject to tlie croup or hives,« and dogs,
sheep and hogs to inveterate cutaneous eruptions.

Dr. Sims, president of the Medical Society of London,
says he knows the mange in dogs and cats will give the itch,
and that of two sorts, the one being evidently larger than
the other ,-^^ and a friend of mine was affected wiUi a large
pustule, similar to the chicken pock, from touching his face
after handling an imported merino sheep, at the time the
animal was affected with the disease called by the French,
olaveau, or sheep-pock. Poultry have their peculiar diseases,
as the gaps in fowls,^^ and dropsy in the craws of turkeys.

If we consider the present state of animal medicine in this
country, under its appellation of farriery, we see it in as de-
plorable a situation, as was the art of medicine, during the
barbarous ages, when the gross ignorance of its professors
brought disgrace upon the art itself, and when many disea-
ses, which now yield readily to judicious treatment, raged
without controul ; yet that the veterinary art, like human
medicine, in the hands of a judicious person, is made respect-
able, we may see by the example of ancient times, and by
the present example of several nations of Europe, If we
look into ancient history, we find that before the downfall
of the Roman empire, which crushed in its ruins all arts and
sciences, veterinary medicine was esteemed among the most
important objects, and worthy the consideration of an in-
quiring mind. Connected on the one hand with human me-
dicine, and on the other with agriculture, it both enlarged
the stock of human knowledge, and improved an important

branch of rural economy .^^ The venerable Hippocrates
wrote a treatise upon the subject. — In Carthage, Mago com-
posed an elaborate work on rural and veterinary medicine.
—Columella; who lived about the fiftieth year of the Chris-
tian account, devoted four books, out of twelve on husbandry
in general, to veterinary medicine. Cato, Yarro, Pliny, and
Vegetius, (A. C. 300,) also laboured to serve veterinary me-
dicine.— ^Indeed I find from my researches on this subject,
that the course of human and animal medicine proceeded to-
gether, until they both fell at the irruption of ignorance and
barbarity into Europe, in the third and fourth centuries ;
but at the revival of knowledge, and of a spirit of inquiry,
while the intrinsic value of the life of man animated those
labours which have advanced human medicine to its present
state of perfection, it was the undeserved lat of veterinary
medicine to be excluded from the asylum of the sciences,
and to be left to the undisturbed possession of the most illi-
terate and obstinate of men. — To withdraw it from its obscu-
rity, and to restore it to that rank among the arts and scien-
ces which it was its right to hold, was a merit reserved to
France. So long back as the beginning of the sixteenth
century, Huellius compiled by order of Francis the first, a
large assemblage of veterinary matter, which he translated
into Latin, and published in folio, in the most splendid style,
at the expense of his king. Afterwards, the government of
the same country, under Lewis the fourteenth, formed the
first establishment for studying the diseases of animals ; and
in the year 1762, a regular school was founded at Lyons, in
France, for the study and improvement of veterinary sci-
ence, with every convenience for that purpose ; apartments
for dissections, with a botanic garden, and professors in che-
mistry and materia medica, and others to teach the anato-
mical structure of animals in general ; with the nature and
cure of the diseases incidental to them, that thereby the
whole nation might be provided with skilful farriers.** This
shortly after gave riso to a similar one near Paris, and
VOL. III. e

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xixvi On Compavalive Anatomy, and the

Mseases of Domestic Jlnimals*

xxxvii

1^

at present veterinary schools are as regulariy organized
throughout France, as schools for arts and sciences. The ce-
lebrated D'Aubenton, the friend of the count de Buffon, pre-
sided over the school at Charenton, and afterwards at Ram-
bouillet, on the removal of the national farm to that place.
All these establishments being directed by men of zeal and
science, and set on foot and supported by government, gave
a degree of respectability unknown before to the study, and
so completely removed all former prejudices against it, that
it soon afterwards became very generally cultivated by peo-
ple of education throughout the kingdom.

The example set by France was soon followed in Vienna
by Maria Theresa, and her successor Joseph the second ; by
Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia ; and last of all England. —
The veterinary college was established in London in the
year 1790 ; and 1500 pounds sterling are annually granted by
government for its support. No person is permitted to offer
as a candidate for the post of veterinary surgeon in the ar-
my, without attending a stated time, the lectures and demon-
strations of the professor, and undergoing an examination,
conducted by some of the most eminent medical and surgi-
cal characters in London, who from patriotic motives take
on themselves (hat trouble. The professor of the college is
Edward Coleman, a regular bred surgeon. The Dublin so-
ciety, which is liberally endowed by the government of that
country, and which has done so much for the improvement
of Ireland, has also established a veterinary professorship,
and a regular bred physician (Dr. Peel) gives lectures on
the subject.

It remains for this country, in which the spirit for im-
provement in stock of every kind is so visibly increasing,
and the value of which is enhanced by the high price and
the growing demand for some of them ; to follow those ex-
amples ; and by advancing the art to a height as yet unat-
tained, to make it amends for the neglect we have hitherto
shown it. Indeed I am persuaded tjiat in a short time the

public attention will be called to the subject, and that men
of education will think it no derogation from their medical
character, to become acquainted with the diseases of cattle,
^ or to lend their aid in the removal of them when required ;
and thus rescue our useful animals from the unqualified
hands to whose care they must otherwise,' as at present, from
necessity be committed.

A distinction must be made between veterinaryr medicine
and farriery. The first is founded upon science, whereas
farriery disclaiming any connexion with science, proves itself
a mere practice, habit or routine, and as it rests on nothing
regular or solid, so it must ever be varia <e. The course of
veterinary medicine and farriery are indeed the same, but
with this difference, that the former condescends to admit a
guide, while the latter prefers to ramble at risk and hazard.
Were their objects any way different, farriery would have a
plea for rejecting the assistance of veterinary science, found-
ed on the peculiarity of its own object. But they are strict-
ly the same, so that the only alternative iaight be in the su-
perior excellence of the means by which it endeavours to ac-
quire it. But we know that farriery pretends to no such
means, that its practice is a collection of prescriptions and
operations, without rule or precision, communicable to any
body, in the form of a pamphlet. With this view of the
subject, how is it possible that we can sacrifice so much of
our common prudence, as to give to it any portion of that
confidence which medicine itself is only capable of exacting
from us, in proportion as it exhibits a quite opposite cha-
racter.50

Such being the facts with respect to the knowledge re.
quired for the veterinary practitioner, and such the distinc-
tion between veterinary science and farriery, let us inquire
into the inducements and necessity that exist for acquiring
the knowledge of this branch of the medical profession.

1. The importance of the subject.

The argument derived from this source rests on the value

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■^SPI^BPS^

xxxviii

On Comparative Anatomy, and the

Diseases of Domestic Jlnimals.

xxxix

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of cattle, as they are a source of public and private opulence;
the means of our subsistence, and the instruments of our
convenience and pleasure. This value, 1 repeat, is daily in-
creasing, owing to the spirit for improvement now spreading
through the United States, and to the high price of some
stock, particularly fine woolled sheep, the demand for which
even in the^case of peace, will rapidly increase, from the
mere increase of population.

3. The veterinary science offers a new and respectable
means of employment to its professors.

It must be obvious, that to the medical practitioner in the
country, the knov ; :dge of the diseases of domestic animals
will be the means of not only greatly extending the sphere
of his utility, but his personal consideration, particularly
with respect to the noble animal the horse, which always
contributes so largely to our wants, which augments our
enjoyments, and preserves our health, and is on many oc-
casions an object of particular interest, from the (?ircum.
stances of cost acd individual merits. Will tl^e young
practitioner think that he derogates from his medical dig-
nity by performing an act of humanity, and extending the
sphere of his usefulness in any way connecte! with the ex-
ercise of his profession, especially in one that has engaged
the attention and labour of some of the most eminent men,
both of ancient and modern time, in Europe?— Will he de-
rive no satisfaction—nay more, will he not add to his medi-
cal eclat, or obtain pecuniary recompense, from saving the
life of a favourite racer of a sportsman, or the hackney of a
>^althy invalid ? Will he not think himself well employed
in setting the leg of a horse of the hunter breed, so valuable
for cavalry, and the carriage, and which, although no longer
able in consequence of the accident to shine in the field, may
still propagate his valuable race ?

3. In the United States, an additional necessity for atten-
tion to improvement in our knowledge of veterinary medicine
arises not only from the fact of our ignorance of the sub-

d^-.—'ylH.

ject ,• but of our stock being liable as well to the common dis-
eases to which they are from their nature exposed in all
countries, as to peculiarly fatal diseases, the origin of which
is involved in great obscurity.

In the states of South Carolina and Georgia, cattle brought
from Europe, or from the interior, to the vicinity of the sea,
are invariably attacked by a disease which is generally fatal.
Cattle from the interior of the state of South Carolina, (but
only a particular district,) so certainly disease all others with
which they mix in their progress to the north, that I am told
they are prohibited by the people of Virginia from passing
through the state. A singular fact attending the disease is,
that the cattle alluded to, have the power of infecting others
with which they associate, while they themselves are in
perfect health j" this I can assert from my own personal oh-
servation, in the year 1796. The particulars of this singular
but fatal complaint I shall hereafter detail. Pennsylvania
has to regret the loss of many thousand horses, by a disease
which deserves no other name than yellow fever. I allude
to the " yellow water," the symptoms and method of cure
of which are totally different from the jaundice, yellows, or
yellow water of Europe. This disease, I have reason to be-
lieve, is peculiar to North America.'*

Europe furnishes no disease similar to the mortification
in the limbs of the New England cattle ;« „or to that peculi-
ar salivation which has within the last twenty years attack-
ed our horses, from eating second crop grass, particularly
red clover,^ and which from its debilitating effects, amounts
to a disease. For the last four or five months, a new and
very fatal disease has prevailed among the horses in the vi-
cinity of New Brunswick, New Jersey.

4. It has already been shown, that by means of compara-
tive anatomy we have ascertained the uses of various organs
of the human body ; and I now can add, that by an attention
to the diseases of brute animals, the following advantages
have also resulted to mankind.

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fl On Comparatwe 9B.natamy, and the

Sg_: ggy—i^ I III ■ I I ■ i I i,..i» -I.I.I II .L.j.i..— i'^rji^r

1. We have been enabled to obtain precise ideas of the
nature and seat of some serious diseases of the animal frame.
Of the facts illustrative of this position^ one of the most im-
portant to mankind is the knowledge of the cause of the lo-
cal and general disease that sometimes succeeds the opera-
tion of bleeding in the arm. — For a long time the inflamma-
tion and suppuration beginning at the orifice made bj a
lancet, and the fever that ensued, were ascribed to a punc-
ture of the tendon of the biceps muscle, or of the fascia of
the arm, or of a nerve ; by others these symptoms were sup-
posed to originate from a bad habit, or from the introduc-
tion of some poison adhering to the lancet ; but that great
benefactor to medical science and to surgery, the late John
Hunter, of London, having observed a similar accident to
take place after the rough operation of bleeding horses in the
neck, was led to ascribe the disease in both cases to the
same cause, viz. an inflammation of the internal coat of the
Tein ; and repeated dissections of inflamed veins, in which
the operation had been performed, have proved the accura-
cy of his opinion. By the elucidation of the disease in ques-
tion, Mr. Hunter has made us acquainted with the true cause
and seat of a serious disease, and increased the obligations
lie has laid the medical world under, by bis other improve-
ments in surgery and medicine.^^

2. We have been indebted to the brute creation for one of
the greatest temporal blessings, ever conferred upon man-
kind by Providence, in the discovery, that by conveying from
a small pustule on a cow^s udder a particle of matter, under
the cuticle of a human subject, he is secured against that
scourge of his existence, the small pox. If before this
new source of happiness to mankind had been drawn from
that animal, such an event as that just mentioned, had
been declared within the compass of possibility, it would
have been thought as improbable as the one I now venture to
express, viz. that there is reason to believe, as in the instance

Diseases of Domestic Animals*

here exhibited, the possibility that an incapacity of being
acted upon by the canine virus in both man and animals,
may be produced by exciting in them a previous disease.

In alluding to the disease sometimes produced by the bite
of a rabid animal, I am sorry, very sorry to be obliged to
declare, that it still continues to humble the pride of the me-
dical profession. We know indeed its peculiarities and symp-
toms, and I myself have contributed to elucidate its patho-
logy,- but we also know its extreme fatality ,• and with regard
to the means of cure, the learned and experienced physician
is brought at once to the level of the most uninformed among
the multitude ; for, gentlemen, the disease has n>ever been
cured, and to this day, we are obliged to remain the helpless
spectators of our patient's sufferings.^*

But we must not despair ; for I cannot think that Provi-
dence has determined to permit this disease to he forever in-
curable, and can any more powerful argument be adduced
for investigating the diseases of domestic animals, than the
knowledge of this fact, that all of us are every day of our
lives liable to tlie attack of an awful and incurable malady
from one of them, and who is i\^c grateful companion, and
faithful midnight defender of our houses and property ? On
this disease I shall deliver a particular lecture ; and although
I will not assert that I can point out a mode of cure, yet it
will still be useful to investigate its pathology, for truth is
always elicited by discussion.

3. An attention to the diseases of domestic animals is more-
over of infinite importaneeto thepractitioner of medicine in
another point of view : for by them we are Jed sometimes
to anticipate fatal epidemics, and of course are provided with
the means of guarding against them. Homer tells us, that
the plague that spread among the troops at the siege of Troy
with great fury, first made its appearance among dogs and
cats. In the plague that ravaged the island of Egina, to
the south of Athens, about sixty years before the Trojan
war, and of which Ovid has given an affecting aocount," tho

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xlii

On Comparative Anatomy, and the

It 'I

disease also first invaded dogs, then sheep and oxen, and
lastly mankind. The pestilence epidemic among the cattle,
in the year B76, at Rome, was succeeded the next year by

a mortal plague.^^ *

Dp. Sims of London, informs us, that the scarlet fever
which prevailed with very great mortality in the city of Lon-
don, in the year 1798, was preceded by a remarkable epide-
mic among cats, which is said to have killed myriads of them.
In the following year an epidemic prevailed among the hor-
ses, which appeared to be a peripneumony, attended with a
discharge from the nostrils like glanders. A similar mor-
tality among cats prevailed in the months of May and June,
in 1797, in Philadelphia, and destroyed thousands of them :
and we all remember the pestilential fever that prevailed
during the following autumn. Fish too, often experience
the effects of a pestilential atmosphere, of which the history
of the epidemics in 1793, 1794, and 1797, in our own country,
afforded strong proofs.*^

In other cases, epidemic diseases, or a general unhealthi-
ness of the air, have been preceded or accompanied by a vast
increase of insects and small animals. Of this, a number of
instances might be mentioned, from Lord Bacon respecting
the plague in London in 1666 ; from Diemerbroek on the
same disease in Holland in 1635 and 1636 ; from Baddam,
on the plague of Dantzick in 1709 ; and from the account of
the epidemic at Bengal in 1771.

During the fever at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1633,
the woods were filled with innumerable large flies, of the
size of bees,«> and during the pestilential time in the United
States, between 1792 and 1801, various other insects abound-
ed in different parts.^^^ In particular, during the year 1798,
grasshoppers overspread the country ; and we know that
that year was very unhealthy. In the year 1805 also, the
grass was destroyed by them in the low counties of New
Jersey; and the same year, such was the mortality in Salem
county, that 1 was informed the courts could not proceed in

Diseases of Domestic *^nimals.

xliii

their business, owing to the death of many jurymen by
malignant fevers. The same year the yellow fever prevail-
ed in Philadelphia. Many more facts of a similar nature
might be mentioned, were it necessary.

In the prosecution of my course, it is my intention to adopt
the following plan :

1. I shall demonstrate the structure of different animals.

2. Explain the use and functions of the several parts, and
compare them with those of the human body.

' S. Point out the causes, nature and symptoms of diseases
in our domestic animals, with the method of cure.

4. Give the natural history, operations and doses of me-
dicines.

From this plan it will be seen, that farriery, strictly so
called, or what relates to the fashionable operations on a
horse, makes no part of the course. By thus separating the
scientific from the merely mechanical part, the veterinarian
science will be at once put in a condition to go hand in hand
with human medicine ; but it is proper to remark, that in
respect to the noble animal just mentioned, the preservation
of whose health is so essentially important to us, the proper
method of shoeing shall be taught, and directions given for
restoring to a natural state those hoofs which have been in-
jured by a bad system having been previously followed ; with
ample instructions how to preserve his health in all situa-
tions in which he may be placed.

f ■ '■■ '

•I

TOI. III.

mm

J^otes to Introdudmni Lecture,

xlv

nf*

w'-i-

1

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u

NOTES

TO THE

/^

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE

J^Tote 1.

See the Iliad, book 5, verses 6B and 301.. Book 11, verse
574 : other passages might be referred to.

JVofc 2.

Galen was a native of Pergamus in Lesser Asia ; and af-
ter travelling wherever instruction was to be obtained, settled
at Rome. Althongh a pupil of the Alexandria school, he
did not blindly adopt its dogmas. On the contrary, he thought
and acted for himself; as a proof of which it may be men-
tioned, that he disproved by a simple and obvious experi-
ment, the opinion it had long entertained and taught, (viz.
that the arteries carried air,) by laying bare a branch of one
of them, in a living animal, and dividing it between two li-
gatures.

JVofc S.

This event, it is said, took place in the year 640 of Christ,
and that for six months the Turks heated their numerous
baths by the MSS collections of one thousand years. The
fact is not credited by M. Renaudot or Gibbon. The writer
upon whose authority it is given, is Abul Pharagius, " and
the solitary report of a stranger, who wrote at the end of
600 years, on the confines of Media, is overbalanced by the
silence of two annalists of a more early date, both christians,
both natives of Egypt, and the most ancient of whom, Eu-
tychius, has amply described the conquest of Alexandria.'*
Gibbon's Decline, &c. chap. 51. Eutychius lived between

the years 876 and 950. Abul Pharagius was a native of
Malatia, and died in 1286, at Aleppo, primate of the East.
His work (Historia Dynast.) was translated from the Ara-
bic, by the learned Pococke, into Latin, 1659.

JVote 4.

Under the auspices of Almanzur, the second caliph, and
his son Abdallah, Bagdad arose and flourished in the East,
(762) and at once became the residence of the successors of
Mahomet, and for a long time the seat of all the learning in
that quarter of the world. The exertions of the learned
men of that day, however, were confined to translating an-
cient Greek manuscripts : they made no dissections. Never-
theless the spirit of inquiry was thus kept up, and to their
translations did the western part of Europe owe their ac-
quaintance with the learning of the ancients.

JV*oie 5.

Andrew Vesalius was born at Brussels about the year
1512 or 1514. He was educated at Louvain, and studied
anatomy at Paris, under Sylvius. In 1537 he was appointed
professor at Padua, by the republic of Venice. Charles the
fifth called him to be his physician, and he was also physician
to Philip the second. He published his celebrated work, de
Uumani Corporis fabrica, in 1S43, when only about 30 years
of age : in this he detected the anatomical errors of Galen,
and proved that he had taken his descriptions from brutes.
This service to truth raised him numerous enemies. He is
said to have been forced to fly, or to banish himself, in con-
sequence of having opened the body of a Spanish nobleman,
supposed to be dead, but whose heart he found beating.
Other causes are ascribed for the act, but whatever was the
motive, he set out to visit Jerusalem with Rimini, general
of the Venetian army, and returning at the invitation of the
senate of Venice, to fill the chair at Padua, he was ship-
wrecked, and died on the island of Zante, in 1564.

Fallopius was bom in 1490, and was a pupil of Vesalius,
and afterwards professor at Pisa, and at Padua, where he

:M

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" .S',

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I,

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I

xlvi

JV*of68 to Introductm*y Lecture*

died in 1563. His works arc contained in three volumes
folio. He was deemed among the lirst physicians and ana-
tomists of the age, and cultivated medicine and anatomy
with great zeal.

Eustachius was contemporary with the two Ibrmer, and
taught at Rome. He was a zealous anatomist, and the pas-
sage from the ear to the mouth is called after him, the Eu-
stachian tube.

Fahricius Ah Aquapendente, (the preceptor of Dr. Har-
vey,) was professor at Padua, which for nearly 200 years
was the most respectable medical school on the continent of
Europe. His works were collected and published in Latin,
at Leipsic, by professor Bohn, in one volume folio, 1687, with
numerous plates. Besides much human anatomy, he has
treated largely of the organs of animals.

JVofc 6.

Nehemiah Grew, an ingenious and learned physician, was
the son of Mr. Obadiah Grew, minister in Coventry. Hav-
ing been sent to a foreign university for some years, he re-
turned, after taking the degree of doctor of physic, to Lon-
don, and was admitted to fellowship in the college of physi-
cians in 1680. He obtained extensive practice ; was elected
a fellow of the royal society ; and on the death of Mr. Old-
denburg, succeeded to the office of secretary ; in consequence
of which he carried on the publication of the Philosophical
Transactions for a considerable time. He also drew up a
catalogue of the articles in the museum of the society, which
he finished in folio, under the title of Museum Regalis So-
cietatis. To this is generally appended a work entitled the
'^ comparative anatomy of stomachs and guts,'' being seve-
ral lectures read before the royal society in 1676. The work
however by which Grew is most deservedly celebrated, is
his anatomy of plants, in which he has shown a wonderful
degree of ingenuity. This work is accompanied by very nu-
merous and well executed engravings, and may be consider-
ea as one of the most curious performances of the seven-

J^otes to Introductory Lecture.

xlvii

teenth century. Another very celebrated publication of this
author, is the Cosmologia Sacra, or " a discourse of the uni-
verse, as it is the creature and kingdom of God." — ^This was
chiefly composed to demonstrate the truth and excellence of
the sacred writings. Dr. Grew died in 1711. Trans. Eoyul
Soc. Loud. JSTew Mrid. vol. 1. page 660.

JTote 7.
Thomas Willis was born in Wiltshire, in 1621, and died in
1675. He was an excellent anatomist, as he has proved in his
Anatome Cerebri. He also wrote Pathologia Cerebri, and Be
Anima Brutorum. His works were published in London,
1679, in Latin, and 1681, in English.

JVofc 8.

Edward Tyson was a celebrated physician and anatomist
of the seventeenth century, and a great* contributor to the
Philosophical Transactions, especially on subjects relative
to natural history and comparative anatomy. He read lec-
tures at Gresham college. Besides his numerous commu-
nications to tbe royal society, he published the following
works : Phocsena, or an anatomy of a porpus, 1680. Cari-
gueya sen Marsupiale Americanum, or the anatomy of an
opossum, dissected at Gresham college, 1698, (of which an
account is also inserted in the Philosophical Transactions.)
The anatomy of a pigmy compared with a monkey, an ape,
and man, 1699. 2'rans. Royal Soc. Loud. JCew Mnd. vol. 2.
page 448.

J^ote 9.

Samuel Collins published " a system of anatomy of the bo-
dy of man, beasts, birds, insects and plants," 2, volumes folio,
1685, with numerous plates, accurately representing the
parts described ; there is as much comparative as human
anatomy in the work.

J^Tote 10. ^ '

Richard Lower was one of the best anatomists of the se-
venteenth century. He was educated at Oxford, took his
degree of M. D. in that University, and exercised his pro-

,: '^\

'J

xlviii

JVotes to Introductory Lecture.

fession there for some years ; but at length removed to Lon-
don, where he got into extensive praetlee. He and Dr. King
appear to have been the first who performed the experiment
of the transfusion of blood. Besides several papers mserted
in the Philosophical Transactions, he wrote a treatise, yhieh
proeured him a great and deserved renown, de corde, item <W
motu et colore sanguinis et chyli in earn ''««*«;'/J'':. f^™""^
other things in this treatise, he pointed out the differenee

between arterial and venous blood, V^^-S "^V'lZt
colour of the arterial blood is derived from the a.r. Irans,
Rogal Soe. Land. J^ew Mrid. vol. i. p. 197-

JVote 11.
John Conrad Peyer. M. D. rendered important services
to the anatomists of his day, by his work entitled « Meryco-
logia, sivc de ruminantibus et ruminatione commentar.us.

Bazil, 1685.

JVofe 12.
Keener de Graaf was born at Shoonhovcn, in 1641 ; he
studied at Leyden under de le Boe Sylvius and Van Home ;
h„t took his doctor's degree at Angers, and P-t. «d a*
Delft. He was the author of the following anatomical trea-
tises • De sued pancreatici natura, 166*, and 1666 5 De vi-
rorun organis generationi inscrrientihuS, 1668 ;De mulu-

run organis generationi inservientil,., T/ .^TZeZo
tiumgemtaUum,167S. These were collected >»!««»««;;
volume, and reprinted after his death, unuer the title oi
Opera Omnia, Leyden, 1677. He died P--ture y when
only 32 years of age, in consequence, as ,s supposed, of great
uneasiness of mind, brought on by the warm disputes in which
he was involved with Swammerdam. In h» ^^^ ;» J^^
pancreatic juice, he gives an account of a very difficult ana-
tomical experiment which he performed on a living dog,
opening the abdomen, and inserting a tube into the pancrea-
tic duct, for the purpose of collecting the juice thereof ; to
which he, like Sylvius, ascribed acid properties. By his
other writings he threw considerable light on the structure

JS*ote8 to Introductory Lecture.

xlix

i4

and uses of tjie different parts belonging to the organs of ge-
neration in both sexes. Traits. Moyal Soc. J^Tew Mrid* vol,

1, page 2*1-

De Graaf also rendered essential services to anatomy^ bj
eontriving convenient instruments for injecting vessels, the
idea of which had however occurred before to others, and
had even been carried into effect.

J^otelS.

Anthony Van Leewenhoek, so highly celebrated for his
curious microscopical observations, was a Dutch gentleman,
of Delft in Holland. He was born in the year 1632, and
died in 1723, aged 91 years. Leewenhoek was not, properly
gpeaking, a man of letters, but from the extraordinary assi-
duity with which he pursued hisresesTrches into the minuter
parts of nature, and the striking novelty of the curious ob^
servations which he published, his name is perhaps more
frequently quoted by philosophers and naturalists, than that
of any other writer of his time. This celebrated observer
had the good fortune to live at a period, when the instru-
ment by which he obtained his fame, was yet in some de-
gree in its infancy. He applied himself with uni'emitted
care to the grinding and polishing into a state of perfection,
the simple lens, as being the best calculated for accurate in-
vestigation ; and less liable to those deceptions which a com-
position of glasses sometimes occasions. So many, and so
extraordinary were the discoveries of Leewenhoek, that he
may be said to have brought into view a new world in sci-
ence ; and such was the general truth and fidelity of his ob-
servations and descriptions, and the respect paid to his com-
munications, that he has been not unaptly complimented
with the title of the Delphic Oracle, and yot he was not free
from errors. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. JVetv Abrid. vol. 2,
page 66.

His works were printed in Latin at Leyden, in 172£, and
afterwards in Low Dutch; and have been translated into
English by Samuel Hoole, London, 1800.

'M

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JViofcs to Introductm*y Lecture,

JS^otes to Introductory Lecture.

li

JVotc 14.

Blazius published in 1681^ a volume in quarto, on the ana-
tomy of various animals, with plates, entitled Anatomia •Ant-
maliumjiguris variis illustrata. He had previously publish-
ed a smaller one in 1673, entitled Anatome Hominis, Bruto-
rumque varioimm, and other works.

J^ote 15.

John Swammerdam. This celebrated anatomist and natu-
ral historian was born at Amsterdam in 1637. His father
was an apothecary in that city, and possessed a small cabi-
net of natural curiosities, by the frequent survey of which
his son acquired a taste for those pursuits, by which he af-
terwards rendered himself so conspicuous. He studied at
Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor in medicine, in
1667, but never engaged in the practice of physic, devoting
himself wholly to anatomical and physiological inquiries,
and to collecting and examining insects. Of this class of
animated beings he investigated the generation, structure,
and metamorphoses, with astonishing patience and assiduity,
and described and elucidated the same in his admirable work
entitled, «A general history of insects," first published in the
Dutch language, in 1669, and afterwards translated into Eng-
lish. His Historia Ephemera appeared in 1675. These and
other observations, relative to the natural history of insects
were collected into a folio volume, (Dutch and Latin,) print-
ed at Leyden in 1737, under the title of Bihlia J^aturce^ sire
historia insect orum. This" edition was superintended by Bo-
erhave, who wrote the biographical memoirs which are pre-
fixed to it ,• but the Latin translation was by Gaubius, pro-
fessor of pathology at Leyden. Besides a tract on respira-
tion, Swammerdam wrote another anatomical work, entitled,
Miraculum JSTaturce scu uteri miilieris fahricuy published in
1672. He appears to have been the first who practiced the
art of injecting the blood vessels with wax ; for his country-
man and contemporary Ruysch learned this method of him.

His collection of insects and other objects belonging to

natural history, for which the Grand Duke of Florence once
offered him 12000 florins, was sold for a very inconsiderable
sum. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. JSTew Ahrid. vol. 1. p. 190.

Swammerdam first employed hot wax to inject into the
blood vessels.

JSTote 16.

Frederick Ruysch was born at thcHague in 1638, studied
at Leyden, and settled at Amsterdam, on being appointed
professor of anatomy there. He formed a fine collection of
anatomical preparations, and curiosities in natural history,
which was purchased by Peter the Great, and sent to Peters-
burgh. He died in 1731, aged 91 years. Ruysch excelled in
the art of injecting the blood vessels, and in filling the ca-
pillary vessels. He also employed maceration and erosion*
He first discovered valves in the lymphatics, and contributed
largely to the progress of anatomical knowledge by his la-
bours. His works make four volumes quarto, enriched with
a great number of plates.

JVofc 17.

Rudbeck was born in Sweden in 1630, was professor of
physic in the university of Upsal, and founder of the botanic
garden there.

J^otelS.

Thomas Bartholine was the son of Caspar Bartholine, (a
man of universal erudition,) he was at first made professor
of mathematics, at Copenhagen, but afterwards filled the
anatomical and medical chair in that university. In this si-
tuation he discovered the lymphatic vessels. He also traced
the course of the thoracic duct in the human subject, con-
firming and elucidating Pecquet's description thereof. His
anatomical and medical writings are very numerous. This
celebrated man died in 1680, aged 64* years. Philos. Trans,
abridged, vol. 1, p. 247.

J\*ote 19.
Marcellus Malphigi was born in the year 1628, near Bo-
logna, where he studied and graduated, M. D. in 1653. He

f

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S

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J^otes to Introductory Lecture.

tit

was eieeted to the professorship of the theory of medicine
in tha university, i„ 1656, but soon afterwards accepted of
a similar appointment at Pisa, which situation he resigned
at the end of three years, as the air of that place was pre-
judicial to his health. In 1662, he succeeded Castelli i„
the professorship of physic at Messina, where he remained
four years, and then returned again to Bologna. Here he
continued as a teacher of medicine in the highest repute,

pointed chief physician to Pope Innocent XII. He died at

thrown great light upon the structure and physiology of the

f rZ ' r '"""■''"' ^i^^ertationes ie Vtero, d. For-

ketdIL '"r7' '' "^'"'"'' ^" '^'•-^ <-*« --e col-
lected into two foho volumes, printed in London in 1686 un

TraMn !h . "''*"'""^' 'nvestigations he resorted tl
furpal"''"7n »--"-<•« ^ viz. tomacei^tion

al; ITn^pi;^^^^^^^^^ -^»-<' «^-,

ipioyment ol magnifying glasses. By such means

msi wno used the microscope for examining #i
circulation of the blood. Tran* RmJ/ « r . ^ '*

mc^TpS" "" '"" '' ^"^^'•' ™ "^« ' ^^-d-d phy-
sic at Pisaj was appointed physician to Ferdinand II .i

afterwards to Cosmo III, for with the family^ The j^^^^^^^
literary and scientific merit led to prefermenf ! 5 '

of receiving its due tribute and reward T« u T '"''
1698, Cosmo caused a medal toh! f' if " *'""'''' '»
name. His letter, r^ T \ '"""'' *" P^'-P^tuate his
^«««rs (2 vols. 8V0) contain a variety of medi-

Jifotes to Introductory Lecture.

m

cal cases and remarks, with observations on anatomy, natu-
pal hisJoiy, and experimental philosophy. His style is re-
garded by his countrymen as highly classical. His works
amount to 7 volumes 4to. Hutchinson, vol. 1, p. 429.

JVo(e20.
Casserius wrote De voce auditusqiu organis historia ana-
tomica. Paris, 1600, folio, with plates and cuts.

J^ote 21.
The title of one of Perrault's works is OEuvres diverses
de Phisiquc et de Mechanique, par Mess. C. & P. Perrault,
(a work of the latter, on fountains, having been published'
with those of his brother Claude,) Leyden, 1622, 2 vols. 4to.
Claude Perrault also wrote Memoires four servir a Vhis-
toire naturelle des animaux, 1676, folio. He was an excel-
lent architect, and designed the superb entrance of the Lou-
vre. He died in 1687, aged 75. His life may be seen in
Hutchinson's Biographia Mediea, London, 1799.

G. J. Duverney, professor of anatomy, Paris. Haller says
of him, "per sexaginta annosinnumerabilia corpora incidit,
et a praxi etiam mediea abstinuit, ut inter mortuos viveret :
multorum eerte inventorum auetor, que aliis nominibus tri-
buuntur." Bibl. Anat. tom. 1, p. 626. Duverney was the
human and comparative anatomical pioneer of the latter part
of the 17th, and beginning of the 18th centuries.

JVote22.
B'Aubenton gave the anatomy of most of the animals,
whose natural history was described by Buffon. Two edi-
tions were originally published of BufTon's work ,• one in 4to.
and another in 12mo._But later French and English editions
have omitted the anatomical parts.

JVote 23.
Vie D'Azyr, the son-in-law of D'Aubenton, was a very
able human and comparative anatomist ; he compiled the
excellent system of comparative anatomy inserted in the
J^ouvelle Encyclopedie Methodique in which the anatomy of
each animal is given separately ,• and publishefl many papers

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J^otes to Introductonj Lecture.

and Rf.l T u ^"""' separately, whereas Cuvier

and BTamenbaeh treat the subject aceording to the organ
and functions of the body. '"e organs

JyoteU.

Phtdelphia ^'''"''"''^' ^"'"^'••"' ''^ ^'-^^' ^-ker,

JViofe 25.
Cuvier's work is entitled Lemons D'Anatomie Comparee •

':« .^ttLTofTr^i "'" r "" '•^ ^^- '^-^ ""^-

anatoinv Ti **«•• ^'^artney. lecturer on comparative

•^^ofc 26.

paralivp ^no^ i, ^ number of papers on com-

given in Dr t7 ' T""^ ^^"""^ = ^ '-' «f -hich is

»3t« century, London, ±812," n. H2 t-i.^ i.. . .
ing scientifically classed, L Dr Thl •""*' ''"■

Will save m„r.i. ^ Thompson, a reference to it

wm save much unnecessary labour in searching fK. .
minous work of <i.« «„ • * ^ searcning the volu-

for a list of author, »„. J^'l'n'^ufgh Encyelopasdia

01 authors and papers on our subject.

'M'ote 27.

Ihe title of Herder's profound work is « o-hi-
philosophy of the hUinnJ p '"work is Outlines of the

An Engnrtll; '^"'^'"?' ''^ J"''" ^^odfrey Herder."

JVotea to Introductory Lecture.

Iv

■•im ' r

JVofe 28.
Anatomists might have reasonably concluded that Galen's
anatomical descriptions had been taken from brutes • be
cause, although he says, he had dissected many of the latter,"
yet he makes no mention of having examined human bodies

tice the dissections of apes and monkeys, and not to lose the
opportunity of dissecting human subjects if by chance h"

and had Galen ever dissected a human body, his vanity which
I 80 conspicuous in his writings would not have permitted
h-m to conceal the fact. Tesalius first discovered ^^It

dissection of brutes, by comparing his descriptions with the
acua structure of the parts as laid open by the knife, and

n t*o Zr *«-f •"^"'^'^ truth he excited the en-
mity of all the medical professors, who had been promul-^ut-
mg Galen's mistatements, as truths. P™mm^.u

JVoto 29, 30.
Trans. Royal Soe. London, 1797.

J^Tote Si.

Jlnatomtca de Cordis et sanguinis motu." It is an extraordi
nary circumstance that the circulation of the blood through
the body, should not have been discovered before the time Vf
Harvey, considering that the fact (although not founded on
experiment) is plainly asserted by Plato, whose writings had
been so long familiar to the learned world. .^The heart
says he, is the centre or knot of the blood vessels : the spring
or fountam of the blood which is carried impetuously round!
the blood IS the pabulum, or food of the flesh : and for the
purpose of nourishment, the body is laid out into canals, like
those which are drawn through gardens, that the blood may
be conveyed, as from a fountain to every part of the pervi-
0U8 body.'^ *

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J^otcs to Introductory Lecture.

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Hippocrates also speaks of the " resscls communicating
with each other, and of the blood undergoing a kind of flux
and reflux from and to the heart like the ebbing and flowing
. of the sea/' and even mentions the throbbing of the temporal
arteries, as an evidence of the fact. Galen also had (as I
have before said,) showed that the arteries contained blood
as well as the veins, by the simple experiment of dividing a
branch between two ligatures in a living subject, and thus
disproved the opinion of the Alexandria school, that they
merely contained air. The lesser circulation, or that through
the lungs, had been ascertained by Servetus a Spanish phy-
sician, and by Columbus the pupil bf Vesalius, and was known
to other eminent men ; and Coesalpinus an Italian even men-
tions the communication between the arteries and veins at
their extremities, and^speaks of the valves of the arteries
and auricles as capable of preventing the return of the blood,
but still it is apparent froni other parts of his writings that
he had no consistent idea of their use or of the circulation.
Further, the early discovery of the valves of the heart, and
those placed at the mouths of the large arteries which had
been made by Erasistratus ; of those in the veins of the ex-
tremities by Sylvius, as mentioned by Stephanus, and the dis-
eovery of similar valves in the veins of the arm by Fabricius
of Padua, the preceptor of Harvey, it would seem might
at once have led to the belief of the existence of a similar
organization in the veins of other parts of the body, and to a
knowledge of their use in preventing the return of the blood
to the extremities, and to the deduction of its having been
previously carried from the heart by the arteries. It was
this organization of the veins that furnished Harvey with one
of the strongest arguments in favour of his sublime dis
eovery. Finally, says Dr. Hunter, -the obvious pha^nomena
m bleeding animals to death, the different effects of ligatures
on different vessels, the practice of surgery with regard to
bleedmg and blood vessels, the action of the heart when ex-
posed to view in living bodies, all these s^ evidently proclaim

the circulation, that there seems to have been nothing more
required for making the discovery than laying aside gross
prejudices, and considering fairly some obvious truths.'**
Yet anatomists continued until the time of Harvey to assert
that the liver was the source of blood, and that from it, the
vital fluid was distributed to other parts of the body.

For an account of the opposition made to Dr. Harvey by
the envious part of his contemporaries, and of the injurious
effects which this sublime discovery had upon the temporal
prosperity of its author, the reader is referred to Dr. Rushes
volume of Introductory Lectures, a work which ought to be
in the possession of every gentleman, and of every professor
of divinity, medicine or law — The life of Harvey may be
found in Hutchinson's Biographia Mediea.

JS*ote 32.

See Cruikshank's anatomy of the absorbent vessels, p. 30,
London, 1790. The history of the absorbents is curious and
extremely interesting. — Erasistratus the grand son of Aris-
totle had certainly discovered these vessels in the intestines
of a kid, but he thought they were arteries and agreeably to
the opinion of the Alexandrian school of which he was a
pupil, he supposed they contained air like othpr vessels of
the same nature. These vessels are also liiiiteVat by Hip-
pocrates, and Galen, but their real use was ascertained by
Azellius of Cremona in 1622, who in dissecting first a dog,
and afterwards other quadrupeds, observed vessels contain-
ing a milky fluid to commence from tlie intestines; but though
he traced them to a cluster of glands which he called pan-
creas, yet because he also found a few similar vessels on the
liver he supposed that viscus to be their final place of termi-
nation. The result of the labour of Azellius was published
with coloured plates in 1627, after the death of the author^
and the year before Harvey's work on the circulation came

•m »

* Introductory Lecture, p. 43.

m

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Iviii

J^oles to tnlroduclory Lectu

re.

f

out : for many years both these works excited great interest

and the anatomists of all Europe were zealous in verifying

he.r diseoveries, and in testing their remarks by the dissee

r, 7'".! '"™'''- ^* '*"S*'' P«^q"«t of Paris saw the
chyle actually flowing into the heart of a living dog in a

regular stream, and traced the source of this fluid to the com-
mon receptacle of the thoracic duct. He published his ac
count ,n 1651 : Eustachius before had seen this duct, but did
not know the real use of it : he called it vena sine pari. Van
Horne a Dutch professor laid claim to the merit of the same
discovery the following year. Eustachius had a century be-
fore discovered the same vessels in a horse, but he was igno-
rant of their use in the economy of the animal, or of their
origm. The honour of ascertaining both points was reserv-
ed for Pecquet. The discovery of another set of absorbents,
which arise from all the cavities of animal bodies soon fol-
lowed by the dissection of dogs, viz. in 1651 or 1652. These
were called lymphatics from the pellucid nature of their eon-
tents and were found to end with the lacteals in the thoracic
trunk. In later times, the same system of vessels was found by
various anatomists in all other animals that were examined!

of taly, frJUwhose dissections a series of the most elegfnt
plates have been published. The merit of discovery of the
lymphatics in other parts of the bo^y, besides the intestines
was due to Bartholinc and Rudbeck, who were contempora
ries in the irth century. The priority of time however ^
a few months seems to belong to Rudbeck, although Bartho-
l.ne first published his account of the lymphatics

J^ote S3.

co„"aw7"".' '•'"""'''• ""''''■■ '"' e^rimentsare

iZtrr. T '"''"«"-', ''""*^*'"" "" •''^-*-' E'^'-

slir . u. ''"■^ ^'"^ '''''*''*•'* "<■*»•«'» may be found ia
Sme he's philosophy of natural hi.tory. Dr. Stevens ma
some of his experiments upon an Hungarian.

J^otes to Tntroductory Leciure*

lix

J^ote 34.
New Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, article comparative anato-
my. In this way the verniicular and peristaltic motion of
the bowels — the respiration of birds, and the action of their'
gizaards, &c. &c. were ascertained.

JSTote 35.
The spleen has been extracted from dogs and other animals
without any injury, and even from man : as Haller shows
by numerous authorities : Phys. tom. 6, p. 421, 4to, Lugdun.
Batav. 1764. Mr. Shipton cut out two fingers length of the
ilium of a dog, without injury to him. Phil. Trans. No. 283.
Dr. Musgrave cut out the csecum of a bitch, without any in-
jury. Phil. Trans. No. 151. The late Dr. Jones of Phila-
delphia cut off a portion of the pancreas of a man, that pro-
truded from a wound, and he did well.

J^ote 56.
One dog lived " for more than twelve months, with the
two carotids, the two femorals, and one brachial artery ob-
literated.'* The vessels were tied in succession, after the
wounds of a previous operation had healed. The dog whose
aorta was tied, lived two years, and was then killed ; and
the body being injected, the anastomosing vessels were beau-
tifully seen. Med. and Chirurg. Trans. London, vol. 2.

JSTote 37.
The saving of life by taking up the vessels of the neck, or
the large vessels of the extremities, when they are diseased
or wounded, is a modern improvement in surgery. In form-
er times, death in the one case, and the loss of the limb in
the other, was the fate of the sufferer.

Mr. John Bell of Edinburgh, took up the posterior iliac
artery, in consequence of its division, by the piwnts of a long
pair of scissars, " at the place over the sciatic notch, where
it comes out from the pelvis ;" it was tied exactly where it
turns over the bone, and the man was cured, <* and walked
stoutly.'* Surgery, 4to, vol. 1, p. 423.

TOt. III. ' h

'k

Jx

JVofe* to Introduclmij Lecture.

if

t

tJT

Mr. Abernethj of London, first tied the external iliac ar-
tery above Pouparfs ligament, which operation he perform-
ed in a case of femoral aneurism. His first and second at-
tempts were unsuccessful, owing to the desperate nature of
one case, and an unusual occurrence in the other. Mr. A.
afterwards was happy in saving two lives by it.# Mr. Freer
and Mr. Tomlinson of Birmingham, performed the same ope-
ration with success, each once.f Dr. Dorsey also perform-
ed it in the Pennsylvania Hospital, in 1811, successfully.:^
The patient walked on the twentieth day. Mr. Astley
Cooper of London, has also tied the carotid artery for aneu-
rism, in two cases, the first, in 1805, was in the right caro-
tid,- death took place from « an inflammation of the aneu-
rismal sac and parts adjacent, by which the size of the tu-
mour became increased so as to press on the pharynx, and
prevent deglutition, and upon the larynx, so as to excite vio-
lent fits of coughing, and ultimately impede respiration.''
In the second case, in 1808, the disease was in the internal
carotid, and was cured. See Medico-Chirurgical Trans, vol.
1, pages 1 and 222. London, 1809. Dr. Post of New York,
has also within the last year successfully operated in
IVew York for aneurism in the carotid artery.:|: See also
Mr. Cooper's account of the dissection of a limb, in which
the operation for poplitial aneurism had been performed,

in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. 2, London.
1812.

JS'ote 38.
Professor Camper rendered most important services both
to human and comparative anatomy. His account of the dis-
section of apes, monkeys and ourans outang is inserted in the
Trans. Royal Soc. London, for 1779— vol. 69, and is entitled

• Surgical observations on the constitutional origin and treatment of local
diseases, and on Aneurisms. London, 1809.
t Freer on Aneurism. Birmingham, 1807, 4to.
i Dorset's Surgery, vol. 2. .

I T

J\*ot€8 to Introductory Lecture.

Ixi

^* On the organs of speech of the ouran outang.*^ But as
these animals cannot speak, the expression should have been
voice and not " speech.'' — ^Dr. Tyson of London who w as
himself an accurate dissector, had published in 1699 <^ ourang
outang, or the anatomy of a pigmy compared with a monkey,
an ape and man," 4to. without discovering the difference be-
tween their organs of speech and voice. Albinus, Martini
and even D'Aubenton are also silent on the striking construe*
tion of this organ in apes. The merit of professor Camper
was therefore the greater, for it unravelled tlie mystery of
their incapacity of speaking, although possessed of organs,
(as was supposed) equally well adapted to the end, as those
of man. Mr. White confirms professor Camper's statement,
and exhibited a preparation of the membranous bag of the
monkey to the Manchester Society. Account of the regu-
lar gradation of man, by C. White, p. 27 — London 1799.
There can be no doubt of the confirmation, nor any difficul-
ty in accounting from it, for the want of speech in ourans,
apes, &c. Ijord Montboddo labours hard to prove, with
Rousseau, the humanity of the ouran outang, and accounts
for the difference between the result of Tyson's and Camper's
dissections of ourans, by the circumstance of the first having
examined one from Angola, and the other those from
Borneo. See Origin and Progress of Language, vol. 1.
p. 54^: and Ancient Metaphysics, vol. 3. p. 44. No anatomist
or natural historian who grounds his distinctions of animals
upon anatomy will attend to this argument.

JVofc 39.
D'Aubenton, by the dissection of a camel for Buffon's na-
tural history, had many years since actually found a consi-
derable quantity of water in the cells of the stomach, though
tlie animal had been dead ten days. The water was clear,
almost insipid, and drinkable. He therefore assents to the
assertion of travellers, that camels are killed for the water
in their stomachs. Perr^ult, who dissected a camel in 1676,
Mem. de I'Acad. de Scien. tom. 3, was of the same opinion.

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JSTotes to Introducioi'y Leciurd

J^otes to Introductory Lecture*

boAi

but Mr. Home has put the question beyond all doubt, by the
dissection of a camel in London, in the year 1806; an ac-
count of which may be found in the Trans, of the royal soci-
ety Lond. for that year. He fully and very clearly explains,
from the structure of the camel's stomach, how that animal
is enabled to take in a supply of water for future use, thus
fitting him to live in sandy deserts^ where supplies of water
are precarious or scanty.

DK Russel says he knew an instance of a camel in a Bas-
sora caravan, remaining fifteen days without water ; but
none of the natives recollected a similar instance. Leo Afri-
canus however mentions one. Descript. Africaj, lib 9? p. 281.
X)r. Russel says that camels sometimes show a preference
for salt water* Nat. History of Aleppo, vol 2, p. 167, 168,
London, 1794, 4to.

JS*ole 40»

Chemistry also has recently lent its aid to disprove a po-
pular error, which has long prevailed respecting the origin
of the salt familiar to most persons by <he name of sal am-
moniac, which was first brought to Europe from Egypt, and
was said in early times to be formed by the action of the
camel's urine upon the sands of the desert, near the temple
of Jupiter Ammon. Lemery and Pomet both give assent to
this notion, and the latter, in his history of drugs, gives a
plate of a camel in the act of discharging his urine, and the
mass of salt forming in consequence of it under his body !*
But the recent analysis of the urine of the camel, shows that
ammonia exists in it in so small a proportion, as to render
it impossible to suppose it could have the least agency in the
formation of the salt in question.

The analysis of the urine of camels referred to, was made
by two good chemists, in different countries, viz. Messrs.

* Pomet on Drugs, page 250. London, 1737. The work, was originally pub-
lished in French, in 1694. Lemery derives ammonia from ttfj^/jLos, (ammo»)
ai'ena^ sand.

Bouelle in France and Mr. Brande in London, and their
agreement in the general result, leaves no doubt as to the
accuracy of it.
Analysis of the camePs urine, as given by Mr. Home.

-f"..' ^•'

BRANDE.

Water,

Phosphat of Lime,
Muriat ef Ammonia,
Sulphat of Poiash,
Urat of Potash,
Carbonat of Potash,
Muriat of Potash,
Urea,

75

8
6

95

ROUELLE.*

Carbonat of Potash,
Sulphat of Potash,
Muriat of Potash,
Urea.

* Thompson's Chemistry, seconH
Edition, vol. 4, page 655.

The urine of cows was also analyzed by both Mess. Brande
and Rouelle, both of whom agree in stating that potash is
the only fixed alkali in them.

We now know that the salt which the ancients called sal
ammoniac, was common salt : and that the true sal ammoni-
ac is not found native. The Egyptians are stated to have
procured it by sublimation from soot of cow's or camel's
manure, urine and common salt : but from accounts trans-
mitted to the royal society at Paris, it appears certainly that
this salt is procured by sublimation from the soot taken alone
without any addition. Nicholson's Chemical Dictionary, vol.
1, p. 116 ; and Magellan's edition of Cronstadt's Mineralogy,
p. 458. The soot taken from the chimneys in which cow
dung only, as fuel, is burnt, is said to furnish the best sal
ammoniac. This salt is however commonly prepared from
burnt bones, in the United States, and in Europe.

From Vauquelin's analysis of the urine of various animals,
(Annales de Chimie, tom. 82, p. 197,) it appears that the
urines of the lion and the tiger are perfectly similar, and
differ from the human in some essential points.

1. It is alkaline, even at the instant of being voided, and
hence its bad odour ; while the urine of a healthy man is al-
ways acid.

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JSTotes to Introductory Lecture,

2. They do Dot contaio any uric acid, nor any combination
of this acid with the alkalis. The defect of uric acid in those
urines, struck Mr. Yauquelin more forcibly, as he used to
ascribe its formation to animal food.

3. They contain only a very small quantity of muriate of
soda, (sea salt,) whereas that of man contains a great deal.
"We find in these urines, much urea, phosphates of soda and
of ammonia, sulphate of potash, mucous matter, and a trace
of iron. The urine of the beaver has a great resemblance
to the urine of herbiverous animals; that of a rabbit, con-
tains lime, magnesia, and carbonate of potash, sulphates of
potash and of lime, muriate of potash, urea, gelatine, and
sulphur. He did not find any soda in the urines of the ca-
mel, cow, Guinea pig, or rabbit. The urine of the horse,
according to Fourcroy and Yauquelin, (Thompson's Chemis*
try, vol. 4,) contains carbonates of lime and of soda, much
benzoat of soda, muriate of potash, and urea. Mr. Brande's
analysis of the horse's urine, agrees with that of Messrs.
Fourcroy and Yauquelin, but he also found in it sulphate of
soda, muriate of soda, but no urea, potash or ammonia. Mr.
Brande found that the urine of the ass contains a much great-
er relative proportion of the phosphat of lime and urea, also
carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, and a small quan-
tity of potash. The urine of both the horse and ass is des-
titute of ammonia.

The foregoing details of the urine of various animals are
given, as being connected with the interests of agriculture ;
urine having been found to be highly stimulant to vegeta-
bles : and from the abundance of certain ingredients in that
of a particular animal, and their deficiency in others, we
may ascertain why certain urines are prejudicial, or useful
to particular plants.

JS*oteU.

The notion of the submersion of swallows during winter is
of Swedish origin. Olaus, the bishop of Upsal first promul-
gated it, and naturalists more worthy of attention assented

■■'■ •:*•»

JVotM to Introductory Lecture,

IxV

S=£

to it. Linnaeus confined submersion to chimney swallows
and martins. Kalm his pupil believes the story, and begins
the discussion of the subject by saying that « natural history
like all other histories depends not always upon the IntriKsie
degree of probability, but upon facts founded on the testi-
mony of people of noted veracity .*'* But this testimony must
not violate probability, nor be inconsistent wkh one of the
first rules of philosophising, viz. that *^ like causes produce
like effects f ' now, if we find that the lungs of two Uninfials
are constructed precisely alike, and that one of them cannot
live under water, we must conclude that the other is also defi-
cient in that same power. This is the ease with man and
swallows: both are formed alike, and hence they must be sub-
ject to the same laws. Those who wish to see more on this
question are refeu*ed to a paper I published (anonymously) in
the Med. Repository of N. York, vol. 3, p. 2U. — 1800. Bar-
ton's Fragments, Philad. 1799, Caldwell's Memoirs, 1801,
and to " Observations on the brumal retreat of the swallows,'*
by Thomas Foster, F. Lin. Soc. London, 1813. The argu-
ments of this author in favour of the swallow being a bird of
passage are indisputable : he has also annexed an index to
passages relating to the swallow in the works of the antients,
and in modern European authors, which is curious and
highly interesting.

JVofc42.
Adrian Yandervelde was born in 1639 at Amsterdam, and
was a pupil of John Wynants. He died at the age of 33.
See further, Pilkington's dictionary of painters, p. 686, 4to.
London, 1798, and Camper on the connexion between ana-
tomy and drawing, &c. translated from the Dutch by Dr.
Cogan, London, 1794.

JVotc43.
Aristotle long since remarked that the motion or steps of
animals in general are made in the line of their diagonal :

M

.Am*.

I I *t

* Travels, vol. 2, p. 140.

.Kf'V

Ixvi

^otes to Introductory Lecture.

f-

that is, in the direction of their two opposite quarters. The
absurdity of the error noticed is evident. But the camel
forms a striking exception to the rule ; he walks by raising
the two legs of the same side, the one immediately after the.
other. Aristotel. de hist, animal, lib. 11, cap. 1. Dr. Rus-

^el confirms Aristotle's statement. Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, vol.

2, p. 169, & p. 423. The engravings of the skeletons of

some of the animals in Buffon's natural history, particularly

of the horse, are very inaccurate.
Artists should read the following works besides Camper's.

1. Reflections on the painting and sculpture of the Greeks,
with instructions for the connoiseur, and an essay on grace
in works of art, translated from the German original of the
Abbe Winkleman, by Henry Fusseli, London, 1765— 8v0r

2. Count Algarotti on painting, London, 1763 — l2mo.

3. Dr. Brisbane on the anatomy of painting, with 6 plates,
London, 1769.

4. Essays on the anatomy of expression in painting, with
plates, by Charles Bell, 4to, London, 1804. This last is by
one of the first anatomists of the present day, and ought to
be studied by every painter or engraver, of either man or
animals.

JV(0fc44.
Gentleman's Magazine, 1790, p. 299.

JVofc45.
See an account of a case of croup in a calf, in memoirs of
the Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture, vol. 3,
by Mr. Peters, president of the society.

JVofc 46.
Memoirs medical society, London, vol. 5. v i

JVofe47.
This disease has prevailed with great mortality in Phila-
delphia county during the last spring. Mr. G. Montague
gives some reasons, for believing that by mixing the food of
fowls with urine instead of water, and feeding them with it
three or four times a day, it may be removed. Memoirs of

■''-^- -■■■

,V^-

J^otes to Introductory Lecture*

IxvH

sac

Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc. Edinburgh, vol.1. 1811. Mr.
Peters informs me that he cures it by small pills of camphor,
^ given twice a day.

J^Totes 48, 49.

Gentleman's Magazine, 1790, page 497.

J^ote 50.

Mf. Lawrence, " Philosophical and practical treatise on
horses," has justly ridiculed, and with much pleasantry, the
absurd farrago of nostrums administered by farriers.

JVote51.

I was told by an intelligent drover, that it is the cattle
from the district of the long-leaved pine, that possess the
power of diseasing other cattle. This species is the Pinus
Jlustralis of Michaux, Pinus Pahtsfris of Linnseus, the pitch
pine, yellow pine, red pine, or broom pine. According to
Michaux, the country occupied by this pine commences near
Norfolk, and continues in a south west direction for 250
leagues in length, and 40 to 50 in breadth. See Histoire des
Arbres Forestiers de UAmer. Seplent. Paris, 1810. I would
be very thankful for any information on the subject of the
disease in question. We see something similar to the dis-
ease produced among northern cattle, by mixing with those
from the south, in the human race. During the revolution
war in the United States, the mixture of southern with
northern troops, speedily induced disease, if encamped to-
gether, although both had been previously healthy. See
Rush's Works, vol. 1. In like manner, the mixture of the
crews of ships of different nations, at sea, has often produ-
ced disease. See Blane's diseases of seamen, page 235 ; and
the arrival of a stranger at St. Kilda, one of the remote and
small western islands of Scotland, produces a catarrh among
the inhabitants. — Martin's History of the Western Islands,
page 284. The case of the South Carolina cattle is however
peculiar. We do not find that those from other states pro-
duce a similar complaint, or any other, when mixed with the
stock of Pennsylvania. The fatal disease alluded to, that
vol. irr. i

m^ism

Ixviii

J^otes to Inlrodudoini Lecture,

3

occurred in 1796, in one instance, at Columbia, on the Sus-
quehannah, attacked stock ^hich had merely strolled about,
or had Iain down in a ploughed field, in which the South
Carolina cattle had been previously penned for one night ;
a full proof of the virulence of the effluvia left by them on
the ground. The precaution suggested by the foregoing
facts, in grazing, and in armies and navies, is obvious.

•Vote 52.

See Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting
Agriculture, vol. 1, pages 139, 154.

J\*ote 53.

See account of this disease, by the Rev. Mr. Parsons, in
the New York Medical Repository, vol. 1.

J^Tote 54.

See Archives of useful knowledge, vol. 1, page 398, and
vol. 2f page 400.

JVofc 55.

For Mr. Hunter's account of the inflammation of a vein
from bleeding, (which is highly interesting,) see Transac-
tions of a society for the improvement of medical and chi-
rurgical knowledge, London, 1793, page 18. Also, Dorsey's
Surgery, vol. 1. The late Mr. Wignell, of the Philadelphia
Theatre, died of this disease.

Inflammation in the veins of horses or man, after bleed-
ing, according to Hunter, arises from not fully closing the
external wound, " and when inflammation takes place be-
yond the orifice, the surgeon should immediately put a
compress upon the vein, at the inflamed part, to make the
two sides adhere together: or if they do not adhere, yet
simple contact will be sufllcient to prevent suppuration in
this part : or if inflammation has gone so far as to make the
surgeon suspect that suppuration has taken place, then the
compress must be put upon that part of the vein just above
the suppuration. This I once practiced, and as I suppose,
with success.'* If the disease proceeds, bleeding and other
depleting remedies are to be used. Dr. Physick has applied

^oies to Introductory Lecture,

Ixix

a blister over the part with success. Dorsey's Surgery vol. 1.
<< Upon tracing the vessels, after death, from the inflamed
part,'* Mr. Hunter says, « pus is found mixed with the blood.
In some places the sides of the vein were adhering, and in
others the inner surface of the vein was furred over with

eoagulable lymph.'*

JVotc56.
The cases of the cure of the disease produced by the bHo
of a mad dog, in Calcutta, which have been recently pub-
lished by Mr. Tymon, Dr. Shoolbred, and Dr. Berry, ought
possibly to be adduced as exceptions to the general position ^
but we must have more cures by the same remedy, before it
can be said to be safe. It never has succeeded before in any
country. See Medical Repository, vol. 2, New Series, and
Eclectic Repertory, Philadelphia, vol. 3, for the cases al-
luded to. * ,

JVote 57.

Metam. lib. 7. v. 523.

•Vote 58.

Livy, lib. 41.

J^ote 59.
Mem. Med. Soc. London, vol. 5, and Webster's history of
epidemic and pestilential diseases, vol. 1, pages 139 and 321.

Hartford, 1799.

JVoto 60, 61.
Webster, vol. 1, pages 86, 181, and other places. Mr.
Webster has rendered an essential benefit to medicine, by his
great collection of facts on the subject of epidemic diseases,
and by showing their connexion with, and occasional depen-
dence on natural phtenomena.

u

Library*

Ixxx

LIBRARY.

HHi

55

The following books have been added to the library sinc6
the publication of the first volume.

FOLIO.
The Farmer's Account Book of expenditure and produce for
each day, month, and year, by D. Young, Edinburgh.
Gift of James Ronaldson.

QUARTO.
Rules of the West Lothian Farmer's Club. Gift of James

Ronaldson.
A Volume of memoirs and pamphlets on agriculture, botany,
and rural economy, by M. Thouin, professor of agricul-
ture, Paris, 333 pages. Paris.
Communications to the Board of Agriculture of England,

vol. 5.

Michaux on the forest trees of the United States, with ele-

gant coloured plates, 10 Numbers. 24 complete the work*

Transactions of the society for promoting agriculture in

Connecticut. New Haven, 1802. Gift of Samuel Hazai*d.

Proposals for establishiiiig an instftution, called << the plough

or joint stock farming society ,'' by Sir John Sinclair. Gift

of James Mease.

OCTAVO.
General View of the agriculture of the North Riding of

Yorkshire, by John Tuke. London, 1800.
General View of the agriculture of the West riding of York-
shire, by Robert Brown, London, 1799.
Monthly Register, and Encyclopsedian Magazine, 5 vols.

London, 1802-^3.
Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, by Dr. Dickson,
vol. 1, 2, 3.

1.

^1

Letters and papers of the Bath society, vols. 10, 11. Gift of

the society.
Agricultural Mechanism, or a display of the properties of

vehicles and implements of husbandry, with 20 copper-

plates, by Captain Thomas Williamson, London, 1810.
Veterinary Physiology and Pathology, by James Clark,

Edinburgh, 1806.
The Husbandry of three British farmers, Bakewell, Arbuth-

not, and Ducket, by A. Young, London, 1811. Gift of

Mr. Petersr

Sir John Sinclair's account of the system of husbandry adopt-
ed in the more improved districts of Scotland, London,
1812. Gift of Robert Barclay, Esq. of London.
The following five works were presented by Mr. Samuel

Patterson, of Edinburgh.

Hogg, on Sheep, Edinburgh, 1807.

Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, No. 1 and
2, Edinburgh, 1812.

Sir John Sinclair's account of the system of husbandry adopt-
ed in the more improved districts of Scotland, Lond. 1812.

Repertory of Arts, London, first 5 vols.

Farmer's Magazine, Edinburgh, volsi. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and

No. 49 and 50.
Memoirs of the Agricultural society of the department of

the Seine, 9 vols. Paris. Gift of the society.
On the cultivation of the horse-chesnut tree, by A Baume,
Paris, 1798. Gift of N. G. Dufief.
The following are the gift of James Mease.
Two Letters to Sir J. Sinclair, on draining wet lands, by

Dr. Anderson, Edinburgh, 1796.
Constitution of the Merino Society of the middle states of

North America, Philadelphia, 1811.
On the Pine lands of Georgia, by George Sibbald, Augusta,

Georgia, 1801.
Observations on the agriculture of the United States, by Mr.
Strickland, London, 1801.

''^^'^^^F^ 'Wiif^i"

T'

I)

(

ff

Ixxii

lAhrai'y.

On the agriculture, manufactures and commerce of the Uni-
ted States, New York, 1789.
Essay on the mending the breed of horses in America.
Bartley's observations on the conversion of pasture land into
tillage, and on using potatoes in manufacturing starch and
feeding sheep, Bath, 1802.
On Piorin grass, by Dr. Richardson, London, 1810.
Report of the committee of the Highland society of Scotland
on Shetland wool, with an appendix by Sir John Sinclair
and Dr. Anderson, on the same subject. Edfaiburgh, 1790.

DUODECIMO.
The following pamphlets, in French, are the gift of the
author, M. De Cubieres, of Versailles.
1. Memoir on the ash-leaved maple facer ntgundoj of the
United States, Versailles, 1804.

S. On the red cedar CJuniperus VirginianaJ of the United

States, Versailles, 1805.
3. On the nettle tree, fCeltis.J 1808.
*. On the Magnolia Auriculata.

5. On the Cypress, fCupressm J)istioha.J

6. On a remarkable marble, called Magnesian Greek, fCfrec
Magnesien.J

7. Discourse on the advantages rendered to agriculture by
women.

Memoir on the utility of hedges, by M. Bosc, Paris, 1807.

Exposition of the plan of operation adopted at the various
nurseries for vines, at Luxembourgh, by M. Bosc. These
two last presented by Mr. Michaux. (French.)

Summary view of the courses of crops in England and Ma-
ryland, by J. B. Bordley, Philad. 1784. Gift of the author,/ ^

Rules, prders and premiums of the Bath Society, for 1809
Gift of Dr. Parke.

Ditto for 1812 and 1813. Gift of James Mease.
The following are in French.

Elements of the veterinary art. On the Materia Medica, by
C. Bourgelat, 2 vols. 8vo. *th edition, Paris, 1805.

Librtti*y,

Ixxili

Treatise on sheep, by M. Chambon, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.
Treatise on the exterior of the horse, by C. Bourgelat, 6th

edition, with notes by J. Huzard, and plates, Svo. Paris,

1808.
Instructions on sheep, and particularly Merinos, by M. Tes*

sier, Paris, 1810.
Treatise on building, en Pise, by Franeois Cointeraux, Paris^

1790. Gift of M. De Lormerie.
Memoir on a cabbage that can be mowed. Chou a faucher,

by the Abbe Commerel, Paris, 1789. Gift of ditto.
On the culture of rice in France, by M. Lasteyrie. Gift of

the author.
Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on M. Michaux's

voyages to the United States, Paris, 1809. Gift of Mr.

Michaux.

List of the members of the Agricultural Society of the de-
partment of the Seine, for 1809. Gift of the Society.
The following French pamphlets are the gift of J. Mease.

Memoir on furze, whin, or gorze — ^L'ajonc, (Ulex Europeus,
Lin.) by M. Colvel, Paris, 1809.

Treatise on the management of forests and woods, by M.
Dralet, Paris, 1807.

Memoir on a disease that affected the milk cows of Paris
and its vicinity, Paris, year 8th.

On sheep, by the Marquis de G*^*, Paris, 1788.

On Merino sheep, by F. H. Gilbert, Paris, year 7th.

Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on the improve-
ment of agriculture in the department of the High Alps,
(des Hautes-Alpes,) by M. Pettit, Paris, 1810.

On the farming of Baron Flotbeck, and on the cultivation of
Chicory, at Brunswick, (Germany,) by M. Brunn-Neer-
gard, Paris, 1808.

Manual of practical agriculture, by the Senator, M. the

Count de Pere.
Some facts on Merinos, by C. Pictet.

y

I

MMAX^ta^kAiHaU^

jLSSSsitxjiu.wii

llxiv

Library*

3ES

I f II. imi ■!

^>:?:-

The following are the gift of John Vaughan.
Observations on the sowing of spring wheat, published by

order of the Dublin society, Dublin, 1807.
Essay on the construction of ice houses, and a description of

a refrigerator, (for the preservation of butter or meat,) by

Thomas Moore, Baltimore, 180i».
The great error of American agriculture exposed, and hints

for improvement suggested, by Thomas Moore, Baltimore,

1801.
Treatise on practical farming, and on the use of plaster of

Paris, deep ploughing, &c. &c- by John Binns, of Loudon

county, Virginia. Frederick Town, Maryland, 1803.
Tirgil's Pastorals and Georgics, translated into English

prose, with notes and reflections, by James Hamilton,

Edin. 1742. Gift of Mr. Samuel Patterson, Edinburgh.
Papers published by the Massachusetts society for promoting

agriculture, 2 numbers, 1796, J80i. Gift of F. Nichols.
Bakewell on Wool. Gift of Solomon W. Conrad.
An Essay on the utility of soap ashes as a manure, London,

1812. Gift of James Measa.

The Society are collecting specimens of native manures :
and also working models of useful agricultural implements
as far as their limited funds will permit. They will cheer-
fully receive models of all improved or patented implements,
from the proprietors.^

•,s^^

. tfiA^iitkr^' - 'i^. Mj^^*

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF

GEORGE CLYMER,

LATE VICE-PRESIDENT OF

THE PfflLADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING

AGRICULTURE.

<w;,.

As a trihute to the memory of our departed vice-president,
we have prefixed to our volume, a portrait of the late most
worthy and painfully lamented,

GEORQE CLYMEB.

He was born in 1738, in the city of Philadelphia. He died
February 19th, 1813 — Aged 7h.

His education was liberal, and his time and studies were
always directed to useful pursuits. In the earliest stages of
our late revolution, he was the exemplary and steady friend
to its principles. To those he not only devoted his time and
talents, but also no small portion of his property.

He was a captain of a company, among the earliest asso-
ciators, who took up arms in support of the liberties of our
country, when we were under the necessity of resorting to
force for their defence.

Through the arduous contest for our independence, he uni-
formly enjoyed the confidence of his fellow citizens ; and
served in various public stations, with integrity and ability ;
executing in seasons of great difficulty and danger, the most
important public trusts.

He was a member, for the state of Pennsylvania, of the
venerated congress of 1776 : and one of those eminent patri-
ots, who signed the Declaration of Independence,
vol. III. k

I-

w

Jxxvi Biographical Sketch of George Clymer.

t

He served, with steady patriotism and ability, during se-
veral other periods, in the national congress, and state le-
gislature ; and always shared the difficulties and dangers of
embarrassing seasons, in which fortitude, and inflexible con^
stancy in the cause of our country were indispensably requi-
red, to ensure its safety and success.

He was a steady supporter of our present inyaluable na-
tional constitution, active in allaying prejudices and misun-
derstandings on its first promulgation ; and always firmly
attached to its principles. He was a member from Pennsyl-
vania, of the convention, ever respectable for its talents and
virtue, which suggested and framed that instrument.

His benevolence of disposition, and liberality of sentiment,
were always conspicuous. An instance the most highly ho-
nourable is, that of his having been a principal promoter of
^he amelioration of our state penal code.

He filled the honourable and confidential stations of presi-
dent of the Bank of Philadelphia, and of the Academy of Fine
Arts, from their establishment to the time of his decease.

What entitles him to our particular veneration, and most
sincere regrets, is, his having been mainly instrumental in
forming the society in the year 1785.

Although not a practical agriculturist, his conviction of
the all-essential uses and general importance of such associ-
ations, induced and stimulatcfl |us successful exertions in our
establishment.

He was a constant and well informed attendant at our
meetii^gs.

He assisted, with a zeal patriotic and intelligent, in pro-
moting the knowledge and interests of agriculture ,• and af-
forded one among many other proofs, that practical bus-
bandry depends, for its improvement and prosperity, more on
science, and the acquirements of well educated and public
spirited men, who devote a portion of their means, time, and
talents to the principles of this first of arts, than on the

^-:^-'

Biographical Sketch of George Clymer. Ixxvii

limited experience, and uninstructed examples of merely
practical husbstndmen.

Whilst the miseries and dangers of war, create a necessity
for characters distinguished in the arts and works of de-
struction ; and portraits of heroes are exhibited, as remem-
brances of achievements, — attractive, — because they are
dazzling and brilliant 5— we have deemed it as meritoriously
exemplary, and as highly obligatory, to hand down to pos-
terity, (so far as our humble efforts can accomplish the agree-
able task,) a memorial of retiring, yet conspicuous worth and
talents, employed in the equally honourable, and far more de-
sirable and salutary, Arts of Peace.

.If

1

m

!/ ' .

MEMOIRS

OF TII£

f

* .

til!!

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF

PHILABELPHM.

On the cultivation of the Vine^ in a Letter to the Presi-
dent of the Society i by Timothy Mat lack y Esq.

Read June 11> 1811.

Dear Sirj

YOU and I are both old enough to know, that
Christianity and vine dressing are best taught by ex-
ample. On the first you have had many excellent les-
sons, and I am perfectly content with your practice ori
them ; but on the latter I suspect you have had less
experience than myself, and therefore offer you a^short
lesson upon it, and recommend that you practice on
this also, with an equal zeal. The interest of our coun-
try calls for the' example, and your situation affords
the opportunity of giving it the greatest effect. The
lesson shall not only be short, but easy to practice : for
I ani persuaded, that so much has been said about
raising vines, as to have frightened people with the
ghosts of diflBculties that never existed ; the practice
really being a very plain, simple business.

VOL. III. A

;i:

I

I

f I

i

'^T'-'' '•-.'""' "i-^j^v^ i ■,

fill

On the Cultivation of the Vine.

i

■;' it

li

That our country is naturally fitted for the purpose
is undeniably evident, from the spontaneous produc.
tion of the vine in every part of the sea coast, from
Georgia to Maine, and to the westwafd as far as we
know any thing of its productions. Which is the best
of those grapes, remains to be enquired ; but it is as-
certained, that several kinds of them are superior, for
wine, to any of those called European grapes, hitherto
imported into this country. — For example, the bull or
bullet grape of Carolina, the Bland grape of Virginia,
and Cooper's grape of New Jersey,* all of which stand
our climate perfectly well, without covering ; and their
fruit, instead of being injured by the frost, as all ftie
European grapes are known to be, is improved by a
slight frost. Of the European grapes, the downy leafed
vines have the important advantage, that the down se-
cures them from the ravages of the rose-brug ; these
grapes are the *' Miller Burgundy," the " White Mor-
rillon," and above air others the " Genuine Tokay,"
which to the advantage of the hoary leaf, adds that of
producing the best wine in the world ; and growing
in a country eight or ten degrees further northward
than we are, may be relied on to stand our climate, as
well as our own vines.

Thus far you will set down as preface : what fol-
lows is to be considered as a simple, plain lesson, and
it shall be confined to the consideration of a single vine;
because if the cultivation of one vine is well under-
stood, the application of that knowledge to any num-
ber, is an operation of plain common sense only.

* A variety of the Vitia Sylvestris^ or blue bunch grape. J. M.

^'.y»^7'

On the Cultivation of the Fine.

In February, take a single joint of the vine you
choose, the ** Genuine Tokay" if you can find it, cut
it off at half an inch above the eye, and again at two
inches below the eye, cover each end with a sticking
plaistcr of any kind, and set it in a pot of garden mould
(about 5 or 6 inches diameter and unglazed). The
eye of the cutting must be covered with earth, and
then watered to settle the ground ; after this lay half
an inch of horse dung on the surface to keep it from
becoming dry and hard. Place the pot in your hot
bed, prepared for raising your cabbage plants, when-
ever that is ready. The vine will require no further
care than that extended to your cabbage plants. If
more than one shoot rises from the eye, rub off all
but the strongest. About the first of June, turn out
the vine from the pot and set it in your garden, or at
the east or north end of your house, wherever it can
be protected from violence. It will grow in any soil,
but, like other plants, it grows best in the best soil.
When first removed, water it at a distance from the
plant, so as to draw the earth toward the vine, instead
of washing the ground from it. If you water it after-
ward, pour the water into a trench at least eighteen
inches from the plant ; for unless this precaution be
used, watering does more harm than good, and does
most injury in the driest time. As the vine shoots
upward, it must be supported from falling. No other
care than keeping the grouiid clear of weeds is ne-
cessary for the first summer. In November, a slight
covering of straw or Indian-com husks, is beneficial
in preventing a frequent freezing and thawing of the
vine. In February it must be trimmed ; and her^?

i

r <

x

On the Cultivation of the Vine.

V ;•

I ?

commences ^vhat I conceive to be the sole difficulty in
cultivating the vine— tp wit— to determine at which
of the eyes it is to be cut off. What is here about to
be said, deserves the more attention, as it applies to
tvtry succeeding cutting of the vine in every stage of
its existence ; goes directly to the ground and princi-
ple of its cultivation, and will not be found in any au-
thor who has written on this subject.

Every joint of a grape vine has its own separate pith.
This most important circumstance commences at the
lowest leaf that has a clasper* opposite to the leaf. A
solid woody substance passing from the leaf to the
clasper, through the vine, and connecting them toge-*
ther, cuts off entirely the communication between the
pith and the joint below, with that of the joint next
above ; and so on, upward, at every joint through the
whole length of the vine. And it is a circumstance
not Jess important to Ue known, and kept in mind, that
all the eyes below this first clasper are formed in the
bosom of smaller and more feeble leaves ; and that the
base of these eyes does not extend across the vine, so
as entirely to cut off the pith of the joint below, from
that of the joint next above it : these eyes are there-
fore imperfect, and whenever you trim the vine, ought
to be rubbed off,

M

^ The word clasper is ^lone used to avoid prolixity ; but this cir-
cumstance, in after stages of the growth of the vine, takes place,
also, where the first bunch of grapes stands opposite to a leaf; which
never fails to stand below all thej:laspers, which are indeed the bar-
ren fruit stems, and whose chief'oflice is to support the vine and
tlie clusters below them,

; 'f ( ^

On the Cultivation of the Vine.

It is at this first trimming of the vine, that we begin
to apply the principle above laid down, and it is here
only that there ever can be any difficulty in the appli-
cation of it : and this difficulty can only arise from the
circumstance of so very feeble a growth in the vine, as
not to have produced a clasper in any part of it, which
will seldom happen ; but if it should happen, the vine
must be cut off at half an inch above the lowest strong
full eye ; otherwise it is to be cut off at half an inch
above the first clasper, and in both cases all the eyes
below are to be carefully rubbed off.

The eye thus left on will sometimes produce more
than one shoot, in which' case alLbut the strongest
should be rubbed off, and that supported from falling
down ; which, except the keeping of the ground free
from weeds, is all the care required for this year. In
November, this shoot is again to be covered aa before
directed, and in the following February is to be again
cut off just above the second lowest clasper ; that is,
leaving on two eyes to shoot this season, and agaiii
rubbing off all the eyes below the lowest clasper. Both
these shoots should be permitted to grow to their ut-
most length; which, if the soil be favourable, will be
very considerable, and there will be reason to hope for
fruit in the next season.

Here you ought to be apprised that the lowest
clasper appears higher up on some kinds of the vine,
than on others : on some it appears at the third leaf, on
some at the fourth, and on some kinds so high up as the
fifth leaf; but the same rule is to be alike applied to all,
and every eye below the lowest clasper be rubbed off.

0

On the Cultivation of the Vine.

On the Cultivation of the Vine*

II ■ f

(' .1

1

I I'll

Mm

■n ■'

In the third February cutting, three eyes upon each
shoot may be left on, and not more, however strong
the shoots may be. From this time forward all the
side branches from the shoots of the year are to be
rubbed off ; taking gi*eat care not to injure the leaf
from whence they spring, which is the nurse of the bud
at the root of its stem.

At the fourth time of cutting the vine, and from
that time forward, it may be cut about the last of Oc-
tober, four eyes on each shoot may be left ; and at the
fifth cutting five eyes on each shoot may be left on,
but more than five eyes on a shoot, ought never to be
left on, even in the most vigorous state of growth, at
any age of the vine : for, however pleasing the increase
for the year may be, the injury thereby done to the
vine, will be seen and lamented in the following, and
probably many succeeding years. •

If it be enquired why a single eye is recommended,
rather than a cutting of sixteen inches long, it is repli-
ed, that roots shooting from a single eye, are exclusive-
ly from itself, are much the strongest, and strike more
directly downward ; the shoot from it has less pith in
it, the wood is firmer and shorter jointed, and comes
sooner into full bearing ; and appears to be much the
most healthy vine. And to these important advanta-
ges may be truly added, that a thousand plants, fit to
set out, may be raised from the single eye with less la-
bour and within less space, either in a hot bed, or in
the open ground, than a hundred plants can be raised
from long cuttings ; which have not, that I know of,
one single advantage in their favour : and, in a new

4

country, it is of no small consideration that the same
cuttings will produce five times the number of plants.

As to the manner of accommodating your vine to its
situation, an active imagination would suggest a vo-
lume upon the subject, and possibly unluckily miss the
only direction suited to the case ; but, fortunately, the
fact is, that a very small share of common sense will
in all cases, be fully sufficient to supply the deficiency ;
and very little more will be required to apply the prin-
ciple and practice here laid down, to an hundred or a
thousand vines, whenever the people of the country
shall feel the advantage, or necessity, of raising vine-
yards for a supply of wine within ourselves. A few ex-
amples by men of your standing, will lead them into the
practice, in the only way in which we can hope for
speedy success. And I pledge myself to you, that
whether you immediately succeed or not, you shall
derive a pleasure from the attempt itself, that shall am-
ply satisfy you for every expense, of money or tirne,
it shall cost you. Sporting with the long branches,
bending them in festoons, and marking the growth of
the fine clusters from the upper buds, that in this way
may be preserved, and occasionally displaying them at
a festive board, has the happiest effect upon the human
mind — such as Bonaparte never felt.. These are the
proper play things of great men ; and had General
Washington lived to this day, I would have said to
him *' one thing lackest thou yet," in that, after saving
the world from a political deluge, thou hast not yet
planted a vineyard.

Lame by an accident and confined, I have cheated a
wearvsome hour by intruding this upon you ; for

f'-A

■'>'>^m^

8

On the Cultivation of the Fine.

m

i t

'm

II

I ■/

which I have no apology to offer, but that I think the
subject worth your consideration, and that it is ad-
dressed to you from the honest motive of real respect
—by I

Your humble servant,
T. Matlack.

Philad. 28th May, 1811.
Hon. Richard Peters.

POSTSCRIPT.

Mr. Matlack, in a very instructive lecture delivered
to the. Agricultural Society, by particular request,
proved the accuracy of his theory, and the justness of
his remarks, on the physiology of the vine. j. m.

II 1 1

•r

[9 3

On Hedgesy by Richard Peters.

\

. Read, July 9, 1811.

Belmont, July 8, 1811.

Dear Sir,

I enclose a letter from Mr. fFilliam Neill, on the
subject of hedges, detailing his mode of planting. He
says this practice is common in the county of Antrimy
in Ireland. Accident presented to me the opportunity
of seeing Mr. Neill's hedges, and I was highly grati-
fied, and instructed. He has no fear of frosts under-
mining his banks, after a year or two ; and is not much
alarmed at any time. I stated to him all my objec-
tions ; which did not seem to make an impression. I
never beheld more beautiful and flourishing young
hedges. The ride to his little farm would be amply re-
paid ; if any person wished to imitate his spirited exam-
ple. The whole operation can be viewed, from the com-
mencement of the work to its completion ; and more
learned in an hour, than could be understood from a
description on paper of any length, or minuteness.
He depends, for the security of his bank, and ditch, on
the roots of the thorn matting and retaining the earth
in its place. He says no accident has hitherto happen-
ed, occasioned by frosts. When we re-entered Phila-
delphia, in June 1778, after the British troops had re-
tired, a great part of the commons in the city plan
were neatly enclosed by ditches and sod banks, with
bermes of about a foot or eighteen inches wide. But
the succeeding winter undermined almost the whole of

ii

VOL. HI.

B

10

On Hedges,

['{'>

i'i

:i

them ; and the banks filled the ditches. I have seen
such accidents frequently. But Mr. NeiU thinks his
quick roots and good workmanship, will prevent such
casualties. He wants no protecting fences ; and his
inclosures are at once secure. Comparative experi-
ment must decide between the advocates for plain hedg-
ing ; and those who deem the ditch and bank prefera*
ble.

Yours, truly,
Ri^HAKD Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Soc. for promoting Agriculture.

ES

Nov. 2, 1812. This season has been very unfavourable to the
leaves of thorn hedges. In the summer I visited the gardens and
shrubberies of Mr. M'Mahon. I had not seen them for some time,
and was agreeably surprised by the perfection to which he has ar-
rived, in a short period. But most of his thorn plants were leaf-
less. The J^ew Castle thorn was an exception. I never beheld a
more verdant, vigorous plant. The contrast with other thorns
was striking and captivating. He, with reason, prefers it, on every
account. He says the objection of slow growth, is not founded on
fact. It has every valuable attribute of other thorns. It super-
adds the capacity of resisting the maladies, and thriving amidst the
misfortunes, to which others are subject.

Richard Petebs*

f

C 11 ]

% :'== =

On Hedging and Ditchings by William Neill^ Delaware
County f Pennsylvania.

Read July 9, 1811.

^ '16 Mile Stone, Phil. &? Lan. Turnpike,

June 8, 1811.

Sir,

According to promise I proceed to give you what
information I can, respecting a mode of hedging and
ditching, which in my opinion is the most complete
method yet found out, and if well done the cheapest
also, as you receive its benefit from the first day it is
made ; whereas in hedges planted on the surface you
have long waiting, and as much expense in protecting
them, as would complete your hedge and ditch at once:
nor will they be ever half so formidable when done ;
a country that abounds so much with hogs, requires
good fences, and if planted in the last mentioned way,
if they succeed ever so well, hogs will always work
through under : whereas the ditch and bank make all
so dark below that they will rarely attempt it. Many
other advantages attend it ; they are easier kept clear of
weeds ; the weight of the bank keeps a moisture about
the root ; they stand dry seasons better, grow quicker,
nor are they half so apt to die, as when planted in the
other way. Good ground always produces the best
hedge if managed properly : and although I had as poor
ground as any man in his senses could wish for, and it
was also high and dry, yet by manuring tjie ground,
and attention, I have four successive years planting,

I

"."^i. %!!£'■:

a:

12

On Hedging and Ditching.

i

i

perhaps not excelled in any country : — keep them from
the shade of woods or trees as much as possible.

Method of making the Hedge.

You first lay down stone convenient -to where you
intend your fence, say one cart load of middle sized stone
to 15 feet ; — then run your line where you design the
front of your bank, and close to that line lay one row
of stone compactly together ; then move your line 12
inches out, towards where you design to dig your
ditch : the last 12 inches remain in front of your bank,
to keep the frost from working under, till the roots
grow through to bind the earth together, which they
will do in three years : — with a spade cut along your
line the depth of a good sod, keeping the face of your
spade always in towards your ditch: then lift your line,
and lay it four feet apart from the last, and cut with the
spade as before ; then sod off the four feet between the
last two lines, and throw it back behind your row of
stone : let the mother earth on your sod be mashed
fine with the spade, and drawn in with the hand care-
fully to and over the stone to the depth of two or three
inches, then lay your thorns in a horizontal direction,
the top rather inclining upwards, at six inches apart.
Advancing two or three inches through the stone,
carefully drawing the nicest mother earth with the hand
over the root ; the next row is of middle sized stone, (but
be as careful as possible not to pinch your plant be-
tween flat broad stones,) and go on with row of stone
and layer of earth until your bank is three feet six inches
high, your ditch three feet deep carried down so as to

wi,

Hedging and Ditching.

13

meet at two feet at bottom: in raising the wall in front of
your bank, carry it up almost plumb, for as your earth
settles down, your wall will lean back and become too
shelving. ;

I am, Sir, respectfully, Yours,

William Neill.
Hon. Richard Peters*

/I

On the same Subject j by the Same.

»

t Read January 12, 1813.

16 Mile Stone y Phil. ^ Lan. Turnpike ^

November 28, 1812.

Sir,

The spring before last I made 360 feet of hedge

and ditch ; which cost me, as near as I can recollect,

as follows,

13 days work at 3^. 9d.
Boarding the men,
5 days of a cart and 2 horses
hauling stone at 2 dollars,
800 thorn plants.
Whiskey to the men,

S26. Z, 9 15 0

360 feet, allowing 10 feet to the pannel, make 36 pan-
nel which, will cost about Ss. 5d.

Post and Rail in this place

will cost, 5 rails at 9d.

Post, . - . . . 12

Putting up, - . . -^ . 2 4

X 2 8

9

1 10

0

3 15

0

1 10

0

11

3

3 9

. 7 3

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14

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tX '

liliiir

On Hedging and Ditching.

N'

You perceive, sir, by this, that the stone constitutes
more than one third the whole expense, those who
have stone in their way, or on their own ground, can
have that part at little or no expense : one good cart
load will face 15 feet, but where stone is difficult to be
obtained, rather than do without, I prefer laying one
row of stone under the plant and two above : this mode
keeps them close about the neck, and hinders the earth
from mouldering away ; it likewise keeps weeds from
growing so close up to the plant as they otherwise
would do ; then, by giving it a good high top of earth,
and running one good broad rail along the top, it will
turn cattle till your thorn gets so up as to make a good
fence ; which they will do in four or five years with
all kinds of thorn fence. Calculate so as to have them
round those fields you intend to have in with grain, or
grass, for two or three years ; or the longer the better.
By turning in your cattle in the fall, they will brouze
on them, especially calves and sheep ; but they will do
little or no harm, as you will of course clip them in
the fall or spring. I have made about 450 pannel of
that kind offence ; the oldest is five years old, and has
stood four winters, without losing a stone by frost, or
mouldering down ; nor do I expect they will. I lost
ajDout three yards by the floods last summer ; but that
was my own fault, in not having a passage for the
water, in a place where one was required. The stones
and bank were swept off; but the thorns kept their
places. Several of my neighbours tried them, and
my opinion is that they will stand on any kind of
ground, excepting swampy ground. Mr. William
Siters, of Radnor, planted one thousand in swampy

/

On Hedging and Ditching.

15

ground, about two years ago, and rolled on large heavy
stones that required two men to lift them up. The
spring following they all sunk down. But give them
dry ground, and moderate light stone, say from ten to
thirty pounds, and they are more secure. In laying
out the fields, they ought to be so planned, that as
little water as possible would run into the ditches ; ex-
cept what falls from above. And by leaving one foot
escarpment, by the time that foot wastes off, so as to
bring it into the edge of the stones, it will be at such a
degree of level as to moulder no more ; unless carried
off* by water from the bottom. It will likewise get
matted over with grass ; and in a very few years, the
thorn roots will bind all together. In Europe, we al-
ways had the best and earliest pasture on those banks
and ditches, so that we never considered it as waste
ground. I imagine the weight and shade of the bank
hinders the frost from penetrating or getting into the
ground in that part, as much as it otherwise would. As
to trimming, I think I have reduced it too much. I
have all along trimmed in July and November, and
thus kept them very nice. But the two last years they
grew little or none after the July trimmings ; and are
beginning to show other bad effects on the plant.
Some I trimmed this summer, and some I did not,
and I see a material difference in favour of those I did
not trim, therefore, I will confine my dressings to fall
or spring. The two first years trimming is useful.
It gives those of slow growth a chance of keeping up
with those that are more luxuriant.

Where I became first acquainted with hedges, unless
around kitchen gardens, or towns, or villages, where

\

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16

On Hedging and Ditching.

C 17 ]

\

1 «

lots were small, you would not see one in five hun-
dred trimmed. They, in general, let them grow till
ten, twelve, or perhaps twenty years old, then, with a
sharp handsaw, take them oflF a few inches above the
bank, when you would immediately have a more for-
midable fence than ever, and so on for ages. The best
way to proceed by those who wish to adopt this method,
is to find a man who has wrought a little at it in Eu-
rope, and agree with him by the rod : the common di-
mensions that I have made, he could perhaps afford to
do at twenty five or thirty cents a rod, if found in all
necessaries. Then lay down all your plants, in a state
of growing, early in spring. By that means he can
work all summer, and you have no other trouble than
provide him in stone. This way was much practiced
in Europe. By all means let them be kept clear of
weeds the two first years. My hedges are in general '
handsome, but I have no thorn I value so high as the
American Cockspur.^ It will make a fence which
nothing can get through.

I am, very respectfully. Yours,

^ William Neill.

Hon. Richard Peters.
President^ Jgric. Soc.

\

* Cratagua Crus galli. L,

On French Rye, and Syrian, or Jerusalem fVheat, by
Richard Peters, Esq.

Read July 9, 1811.

JB elmont y July 8 J IQll.

Dear Sir,

I send by way of report, of the success of the grain,
transmitted by general Armstrong, from France, a few
heads of the big rye, and the ble d'abondance, or Sy-
rian wheat. Both have arrived at perfection, beyond
my expectations. I was obliged to cut my rye a little
too early, so as to escape the ravages of the birds and
" poultry. But a sheaf feels heavy, as if eyery grain
were a pigeon shot. Some of the heads are lighter
than others ; possibly, because they should have been
left a few days longer. It was cut the 1st of July. Out
of two quarts, I gave away, in small portions, all but half
a pint. I regret that some have had it, who have paid
to it no attention. Finding that the balance left to me
was so small, I was compelled to take pains to remedy
my over-liberality. I stretched my garden lines and
took a rake head (wooden) and dotted along the line
with the rake teeth. In every hole I dropped a seed.
The drills 18 inches asunder. I discovered that each
seed produced three plants, two whereof I transplanted,
as they grew vigorous, at unequal times. By this
means, I have 18 tolerably sized sheaves, which I think
will produce a bushel,— probably more. The trans-
planted is universally the largest and best. The small-
est heads of the original growth, are larger than the

VOL. III.

C

^

■^^-

18 On French Rye and Jerusalem Wheat.

If

[ 7 >

one sent as a sample with the seed from France. There
were 25 and 26 spears from each plant in most of the
stalks. Of the Syrian wheat I had but a pint left, af-
ter distribution of the rest. I have failed in several
attempts with this grain heretofore. The mildew has
generally caught it before maturity. I sowed this in
drills, 18 inches apart. I shall cut it now without de-
lay. But it has not yet been ripe enough. Both rye
and wheat were kept clean ; and hoed two or three
times. Of the wheat I shall have much more than of
the rye. But I value the rye the most, being convinc-
ed, if it will suit our climate, it will become a great
and valuable addition to our stock of grain.

The sainfoin grows vigorously. The wild rabbits
devoured ^1 above ground, in the winter ; prefering it
to every thing else. Possibly it saved the rye and wheat,
to which it was near. The birds have robbed me of
every seed, save a handful or two. Probably I have
more rye and wheat owing to this preference of the
sainfoin. The largest and best heads of the trans-
planted rye, were those set the latest. I transplanted,
from time to time, till the second week in November
last.

Richard Peters.
Dr. Mease. *

Secretary of the Agrie. Soc. Philad.

«'

C 19 3

Remarks on different Grains, by Richard Peters, Esq.

Read November 12, 1811.

*

Belmonty August 10^ 181^'

«

Dear Sir,

I give through you, to the society, the results ot
sundry experiments made in the present and past years,
on subjects which may be useful ; and particularly on
those which, as they relate to the society, I thmk my-
self bound to report.

The foreign grain sent by general Armstrong from
France, mentioned in our second volume Memoirs,

page 140.

No. 1. The wheat, said to be of African origm—
sometimes called Egyptian wheat, and Le Bib d'abon-
dance. Called also Syrian, and Smyrna, wheat.

I have, this third time of sowing this wheat (having
in two former trials entirely failed) completely sue

' ceeded; though it was not placed in a favourable situa-
tion. From a pint, drilled and hoed, I have obtained
a bushel and one peck of grain, well filled, thin slaned,
and very farinaceous. We have been this season high-
ly favoured with freedom from mildews or blights, in
our grain crops of ever>- species; and have had an
abundant harvest. No doubt this wheat partook ot

• this felicitous circumstance. I sent to the society,
samples of the heads and straw. The former really
warrant the appellation, of Bib d^abotidance, given to
this wheat. I had six heads of very good common
bearded wheat selected, and the grains contained m

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, 20

Remarks on different Grains*

Remarks on different Grains.

21

»

!

them counted. In these were contained an average of
374^ grains each. Six heads of the Ble d'abondance,
not selected, but taken at random, contained an average
of 93i grains each, and the aggregate heavy in propor-
tion. Each grain, I believe, contains as much fari.
naceous substance as that of the common wheat,
though in shape more globular, and not so long. The
straw is so powerfully strong, that it resisted all winds
tmd heavy showers, and remained erect, while other
grain fell, wholly or partially, under the attacks of
wmd and rain. I fear, however, that reapers will com-
plain much, while cutting any extensive field of such
grain. I shall sow it this season in broad cast, and
inform of the result* It ripens somewhat late, and
I most dread the mildew, blight, or rust.

No. 2. The big rye.

I sent a sample of the heads and straw. I have ob.
tained one bushel from half a pint, drilled and trans^
planted. Both the grain and straw have undergone
a change from those sent by General Armstrong,
The grain is flinty, like rice, and the straw more pipy.
I have heard the same account from some of my
friends, to whom I distributed parts of my original
stock. I should be indeed sorry, if it should continue
to exhibit such symptoms of deterioration ; having
formed high expectations of the superior excellence of
this grain. I find it to be a fortuitous discovery in
France ; and cultivated, to any extejit, but by a few •
by our D. Parker, Esq. the most. It ripens early,*
and about the same time with winter barley ; which
It resembles more than it does our common rye. I con-
tinue to cherish favourable hopes as to this grain ; ancj

shall sow it this season in broad cast. Perhaps the
grain may be more soft and mealy in some other spils
than such as mine. The rye was situated near the
wheat ; and, though stronger than our common rye, it
fell much, under heavy rains ; but^^eceived no ulti- *
mate injury. It is certainly an extraordinary kind of
grain, in size and weight ; and well deserves repeated
trials and persevering attention ; both as to soils,
modes of culture, and situations. I have sent to
France for a supply of seed grain of this species of rye.
The wheat and rye thresh as kindly as common grain.
No. 3. Vorgefromenter^ or wheat-barley.
I gave away too much of this grain. I had but a
small portion left for my own experiment. I have,
however, obtained more than two bushels ; which I
shall sow next spring. It resembles wheat, and con-
tinues its good qualities far feeyond the rye. I deem
it a valuable species of grain. I sowed it broad-cast.
No. 4. Sainfoin.

Of this grass, I continue to hold the same opinions
I have heretofore entertained. I have it in perfection
on a^mall scale ; which requires labour and expense
in cleaning and hoeing the drills. But I am not flat-
tered, by the appearance of this specimen, into a per-
suasion, that it will succeed in fields where the weeds
would overpower it, in its young state, and this is the
case with most fields in our old settled country. I
have repeatedly endeavoured to cultivate this grass, in
every way. But I have never been encouraged to
extend my endeavours to any great length. If others
have succeeded, I am not informed. I highly esteem

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22

Remarks on different Grains.

%

«

the qualities of this grass ; and am not a little morti-
fied, that I have so repeatedly failed in its culture. I
have been lately told, that, in the state of New York, it
has been cultivated to no great advantage. The same
result has occurred in South Carolina. Endeavours
should not cease ; because discouragements have hap-
pened in several attempts. In some quarter of our
country it may succeed ; and no plant, for soiling, pas-
ture, or hay, can exceed it.

I had, two years ago, about two quarts of the South
American white oats presented to me. I carefully at-
tended to the culture of this most excellent grain : in
every way superior to the common oat of our country.
It was white, full and Weavy, originally, but now the
produce of this year is tawny and deteriorated. It is
yet more productive and heavier than the common
oat. My usual bad luck attends me, in my endea- *
vours to continue grain in its original state of perfec-
tion. I can charge myself with no gross neglect or in-
attention. . > .

My common wheat of this year was a good and
plentiful crop ; but not equal to some crops I have had
off the same field. I cannot account for the disparity,
as I took every degree of pains in the preparation of
the^field, and cultivation of the crop. The field was
iimed the year before, and last year well dunged.
Possibly the seed has been too long on my farm. My
pea ground did not this year equal my expectations,

»

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Remarks on different Grains.

23

though the grain on it was good, and thought by
several farmers from good farming counties, equal to
the best they had seen. The heads were large, but
it did not tiller or stool, as in former years.

I rolled my seed wheat in plaster, and, having wet
the grain before rolling, it swelled, and the sower ap-
prehended he should be deceived as to the quantity of
seed per acre. This might have been the case. I
left about half an acre, sown with wheat, unplastered.
The difference might be seen at any distance from
whence the crop was visible. That rolled in plaster,
shot into heads a week sooner than the other, and al-
ways retained a superiority.- The shirts of the reap-
crs were redened with the rust off the unplastered
wheat. But not a straw of that plastered was in the
least discoloured. Its backwardness as to maturation,
which was very perceptible, exposed the unplastered
wheat to be attacked by the rust. I have frequently
experienced the good effects of rolling wheat or other
grain in plaster, but I have never found any advan-
tage (except on buckwheat) in strewing the gypsum
on grain as a top-dressing. I was formerly of opinion,
and succeeded under H> that thin sowing was, in clean
and fertile ground, the best. But I am now convinced
that, by some shift of circumstances, and change of
seasons, our fields, in whatever state of either fertility
or poverty, require more seed than we have heretofore
been accustomed to sow. I shall encrease my quantity
generally hereafter ; never having sown more than a
bushel per acre. I will also make some particular
comparative experiments, as to quantities, on different

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'24

Memarks on different Grains.

%

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aqres. Cold and unfavourable springs have, for seve-
ral years past, retarded the early shooting of the plants,
and in such case they do not stool as formerly.

In the beginning of the last April, I harrowed my
wheat field, except that part on which I had sown peas.
The benefit of this operation was surprising to those
not accustomed to it. The stubble will now show the
last stroke of the harrow. I have practiced this hereto-
fore, and never failed to profit by it. But I cannot per-
suade my^own tenants to harrow even one acre. I
could scarcely prevail on my ploughman to perform
this highly beneficial operation ; which at length he
consented to, under a protestando, that he should lose
no credit by my failui'e, as he had remonstrated against
it. He has now changed his opinion. My timothy^
sown with the wheat, was denounced^ as devoted to
ruin. But this prophecy has completely failed. I re-
pent that I had not harrowed a part of my pea ground,
as I now attribute its inferiority to its not having been
harrowed.

Last year I planted (for the first time) some curious
Indian-corn ; having ears of a deep red, and stalks and
leaves with a cover, like silk o^ fine linen dipped in
blood of a deep tinge. The stalks and leaves will dye
a durable deep red, inclining to purple. This corn,
again planted, has, this season, discoloured, or tinged
and spotted a great part of the corn of my garden and
field ; though kept at a great distance from the corn
in other parts. This effect is more striking than I have
been accustomed to, but it is not new to me. What
surprises me, however, is, that, in the ground in which

\i^

ttemafks on different Grains*

21

•.*A

y

I first planted the red com, I have this year planted
delicately white seeds of early com, carefully selected.
In this spot, in which I am certain not a seed of the
red corn was either left from the crop of last year, or
planted this season, there are very many of both stalks
and ears, entirely (in colour) of the species of the red
com. My old farmer says it is owing to the mealy as
he calls it, dropped from the tassels of last year, re-
maining in the ground. But as this is not, as appears
to me, botanically correct, I leave the fact to be ac
counted for by the teamed. I shall banish this red corn
entirely. It is an additional proof of the difficulty at-
tending attempts to continue any species of grain, free
from mixtures with other varieties of the same genus.
The hybridous connexion can be effected, notwith-
standing every care, usually taken, is practiced. It is
also a warning not to indulge in varieties ; when, by
adhering to what we know to be ^ood, we may ensure
both comfort and substantial advantage. This lesson
would not be amiss, in our more important concerns.
The white and yellow corn of both this and the past
year, though not near the red, have played the back-
game on it ; and very perceptibly altered its tints. In-
somuch, that, on many hills of the present crop, the
redness is scarcely distinguishable. Yet I was careful
in selecting ears of the deepest red, for this year's
planting. Thus it is with every species of the same
genus of plants ; the farina fecimdans whereof floats in
the air to incredible distances. But where the colour
is remarkably different, the mixtures are the soonest,
and the most strikingly perceived ; while that distant

i

VOL. Ill-

frrr

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26

Remarks on different Grains.

from the colouring matter, though slightly tinged, pass-
es without notice. The next season I must change the
seed of all my com, by procuring it from distant farm-

ers.

Yours, very truly,

Richard Peters.
Dk. James Mease,

Secretary^ Phil. Agric. Sac.

July 15, 1812. No. 1. The Smyrna wheat is now
ripe, and fit for the sickle. It is a fair promising crop,
and has withstood the storms and unfavourable season,
far beyond any other grain. The harvest is later, at
least ten days, than it has been for many years past.

No. 2. The big rye. I have lost this crop ; and am
not a little mortified. It was sown too late, owing to a
gross mistake of my farmer, who sowed the wheat-
barley instead of the rye. Having no other ground pre-
pared, I was obliged to sacrifice the barley, and in its
place sowed the rye, in the second week of November.
Still it would have done well in a common season.
But a violent storm of hail and heavy rain, broke the
stalks, and prostrated the greatest part of it. I shall
perhaps have a few bushels^ some tolerably good, but
most of it shrivelled. If Sir Joseph Banks's doctrine
be true, my shrivelled grain will continue the species.
I expected a quantity from France. But Mr. Parker
informs me, that he had but a pint to begin with ; and
this was found in the knapsack of a dead French sol-
dier, who had traversed various regions, in his cam-
paigns. It is not known in what country he found it.

Remarks on different Grains.

27

Mr. Parker has never been able to sow more than two
acres, in any one season. He sent a bag' of the grain,
intended to be brought in the Constitution frigate. A
culpable inattention, in those to whom he gave it in
charge, has rendered his kindness abortive. It was left
at Cherburg. Mr. Livingston, of New York state, told
ine, that, by accident, some of ^i§ grain (obtained
from general Armstrong) was sown in the spring ; and
it has thriven so well, that he believes it to be a suni-
mer grain. Few of those to whom I distributed grain
have informed of their success. This neglect is too
common in all such cases, and highly discouraging.

No. 4. The sainfoin continues to give me unfavour-
able prospects of its ever doing well.

I obtained a fresh supply of the white oats ; and it
promises to be a great crop. I distributed several par-
eels of it, and those to whom I gave samples speak
highly in its favour. My friend, general C. C. Pink-
ney, who sent me the white oats, also sent some six
rowed rye. I have sowed a small part of it this spring,

and it promises well. %■

In consequence of the opinion as to quantity of seed,
I mentioned in the foregoing letter, I have tried vari-
ous quantities on different acres. All are good ; but
I think the grain from one bushel and an half of seed
has the largest heads, and will yield the greatest num-
ber of bushels. I have a fine harvest, but much of the
grain fell, and is deteriorated by this misfortune.

The wheat of this season has, generally, smaller
heads and more straw than usual. Wheat is never per-
fectly well eared, unless its growth is gradual. The
crops were retarded by an unfavourable spring. They

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28

Memarks on different Grains*

ss

came to their full growth too rapidly, when the wea-
ther became warm. We have suflered little by mildew
or blight, but the Hessian fly has infested some of my
neighbours' fields^ Some farmers, not accustomed to
heavy and luxuriant crops, say, " Give me straw in
plenty, and I will ensure enough grain." I have never
observed the soundness of this remark. Land apply-
ing its powers to a crop of straw, has the less to give
to the ean The heads of my grain have been invaria-
bly the smallest, when the straw was the most luxuri-"
ant and rank. The falling of the crop, too, is not the
least of the evils of over abundant straw. Sowing
too much seed encreases the numbers, but not the
strength of the stalks. I was, in my youth, an advo-
cate for three pecks of seed per acre. I now think five
(or six at the utmost) pecks sufficient.

Contrary to all expectation, at the opening of this sin-
gularly unpromising season, my crops of grass have
been abundant beyond most former years. I believe
the grass crops have, every where, been good : espe-
cially on high grounds. My watered meadows are in.
ferior to other grass lands. The season operated on
them very unfavourably. Labourers are more scarce
than they have been for many years. The causes may
be readily assigned. ~ R. P,

f

POSTSCRIPT.

November 1, 1812. Syrian, Smyrna, or Jerusalem
fFheat. Ble (TAbondance.

To this grain I have now given the fairest experi-
ment within my power, but I do not think the field in

Remarks on different Grains.

29

which it was sown, was eligible ; though it was the
only spot I could devote to its pulture. The gram was
sown among apple trees, and I was compelled to cut
the shaded parts too green, lest I should lose the rest,
by over-ripeness and consequent sheding. I am con-
vinced that it merits the French appellation, for I had,
of this grain, at the rate of forty bushels to the acre ;
when of the common wheat, in the same field, my crop
averaged about twenty fivebushels per acre. Storms
of hail, and heavy rains, layed and injured my other
wheat, but had little efifect on this, owing to the strength
of the straw. It is, nevertheless, as easily reaped, as

any other grain.

I sent to the capital mill of Messrs. Robeson of
Roxborough, six bushels of the wheat, for experiment
as to flour. They endeavoured to make the best flour,
' but failed. Mr. Peter Robeson, than whom there is
none more capable, assisted with his advice. But the
report I received with the flour was so discouraging,
that I had devoted it to my hogs. I nevertheless was
determined not to yield without a trial of its esculent
qualities. I ordered my cook to make a loaf of bread
of this unpromising material. She complied with some
hesitation. The result was an agreeable disappoint-
ment. The bread was remarkably light, but very
brown. It rises with little yeast, and requires little
water. I continue to be fond of brown bread, and I ne-
ver ate better. I have submitted it to the palates of
several friends, some of whom are fastidiously nice in
such matters ; yet they all agree that no bread can be
better, in every respect. My family, who all generaUy
prefer white to brown bread, now confine themselves

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30

Remarks on different Grains,

to this. I informed my friend P. Robeson of this cir-
cumstance. He sent a defiance to my cook, and de-
sired her to try her skill in making pie crust, from this
" harsh and stubborn flour." I directed a meat, and a
fruit pie to be made,— The crust, or paste, is really
better than the bread, and its colour is more inviting.
So that this species of wheat must be reserved for
household consumption, and other kinds raised for sale.
Its abundance will recommend it as economical, and
its excellent qualities as an esculent, will ensure its ex-
penditure. Possibly those who raise it in more propi-
tious situations will have more success in the manu-
facture of this grain into flour. In all substantial requi-
sites, no grain can be more profitable. But as an arti-
cle of merchandize, it will not be extensively cultivat-
ed. The starch of this wheat is peculiarly white, but
it cannot be separated from the husk. This latter con-
tains the animalized matter ; and is the cause of the '
extraordinary sweetness and nutrition of the bread.
See vol. 1, page 227. '

Large Rye. I gleaned a few bushels from the wreck
of my crop. I have distributed and sowed all but half
a bushel, which I reserve for experiment as a summer
grain. I have heard, that in Virginia, some of the spe-
cimens I sent thither, have far exceeded any raised in
this quarter. Our products from this grain have been
generally flinty, though the original stock was not so.
It is very desirable, that those who have received the
grain, either through my distributions, or in any other
way, would inform of the results ;— a return, seU
dom, indeed, experienced! The straw appears sub-

Remarks on different Grains.

31

stantial, yet it too commonly, in damp or wet weather,
yields to the weight of the head.

ChUi white Oats. This gram is much improved this
season. I have threshed my little crop, and find it hea-
vy, and I think equal to the Irish oat in weight, and
superior in appearance.

Egyptian Oats. I have also threshed out this small
specimen, and have a few bushels for further experi.
ment. I think highly of it, but it is not equal to the

Chili oat.

The six rawed Rye. This is one of the handsomest

culmiferous plants. It appears with beards or awns,
more like barley than rye. My experiment was on so
small a scale, that I can pronounce no practical opinion.
M It is a dwarf plant, and must be very productive to
render it worthy general .attention. Those who send
grains for experiment, should designate the times of
sowing. I cannot yet tell whether the dwarf rye be a
summer or winter grain. I sowed part of my sample
in the spring, and have sown the rest in this autumn.

R. Petees.

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On a simple ffTieat Drills by Mr. John Lorain ; with
a Plate.

Read January 14, 1812.

Tackonet/j December 17, 1811.

Dear Sir^

Agreeablyto your request, the bearer brings the
four coulter drill plough, the merit of which consists
in the simplicity of its construction. The leathern bot-
tom of the seed hopper forms the principal superiority
of this tool, rendering brushes and complication un-
necessary, and yet I have not observed the sefed bruis-
ed, or the delivery of it either uncertain or irregular. ^
It came to me with a tongue, but finding two horses
entirely unnecessary, a pair of old shafts were fixed to ♦
it, and one horse, a man, and an active boy, were
found sufficient to drill at the rate of six acres per day ;
the boy leads the horse, and the man, walking behind,
observes the delivery from the funnels, lest any thing,
accidentally mixed among the seed, should retard or
stop the delivery ; and also to clear away from the
coulters any rubbish they may gather, when it is like- -
ly to stop the funnels. This is best done with a light
handy pole, sharpened at the point, and an upright
thumb left near the point of this pole, and with
such an instrument as this, and proper attention,
the horse need not stop until the through is per-
formed, unless an occasional stump happen to be
in the way, and over this the plough is readily lifted.
At the end of each through, the boy turns the horse,

#

On a simple Wheat Drill.

33

while the man with ease lifts up the plough, bodily,
and sets the wheel in the track of the outside drill, tak-
ing care to place it far enough back fof the grain to
have time to run down the funnels, and commence de-
livery in the drills at the proper place. The horse should
not stop until the through has been performed, as the
seed delivered from the axle, previously to stopping,
will run down, and the whole will be deposited imme-
diately under the funnels— but if an unavoidable acci-
dent should make it necessarj' to stop the horse, be-
fore the through is performed, the plough must be lift-
'ed up, and the horse backed sufficiently for the fun-
nels to commence delivery at the proper place, or there
will be a vacancy left unsown.

The person from whom I purchased this plough,
near Downing Town, conceived that it sowed rather
more than one bushel per acre, on his grounds ; but it
was found here to sow but little more than three pecks
per acre, and the notches in the axle were altered to
sow nearly two bushels per acre.

The farmers who have used this plough, say that
the falling in of the mould after the coulters, forms a
sufficient covering for the grain, and that the moulder-
ing down of the soil through the winter, is very bene-
ficial to the crop ; but in this I believe they are as
much mistaken as they are in many other things. My
grounds were level and in fine tilth, yet the trivial in-
equalities of the surface were sufficient to prevent some
of the coulters from sinking sufficiently deep for the
mould to fall into the furrows and cover the grain,
vAile the rest of the coulters went quite deep enough
to effect this purpose : a rake harrow, attached behind

VOL. III.

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34

On a simple Wheat DrilL

the plough, so as to rise and fall, but not swerve from
side to side, will answer this purpose. My drills were
covered by a light fence rail, extending across them, and
drawn up and down the lands by a horse, for this was
considered better than leaving a good deal of wheat en-
tirely uncovered, and exposing that which was cover-
ed to the running, settling and freezing of water in the
drills throughout the winter, which cannot be other,
wise than very injurious to the plants. Two of the
coulters are fixed in the plough, and also two hoes,
which were made for a hoe harrow. I have found four
of the latter, fixed in the drill plough, to eifect every
purpose to my entire satisfaction, of horse-hoeing the
wheat after it is up, and they will do this from skim-
ing the surface to any desirable depth, the horse, in
walking, straddles one of the rows of wheat, and a man
leading him, will horse-hoe more acres per day, than
could be drilled with the same tool. Triangular hoes
are less expensive, more effectual, and stronger, either
for the drill or a hoe harrow, but those I used were rea-
dy made, and on the farm. If this plough is made by a
plough maker, it should not cost as much as a com-
mon swing plough, but any farmer who can use tools
tolerably, may make it for himself, either in rainy wea-
ther, or when he has little else to do, and almost any
thing will answer for funnels, as may be seen by the
motley mixture of mine ; but tin is best, for the grain
is heard running down it, and the tin being smooth, the
grain is not liable to be stopped in its progress.

Yours, '

John Lorai#.
Dr. James Mease.

m

On a simple Wheat Drill.

35

PLATE II. FIG. 1.
A side view : a, b, c, d, the end of the seed box,
which is thirteen and an half inches wide at top, eleven
inches deep, gradually lessening to five inches at the
bbttom : this bottom is soal leather, and is punched
with holes directly over the mortises in the axle placed
under it. The leather is made to fit close on the axle.
The coulters are twenty one inches long ; the upper
part is of wood, the lower end is sheathed with iron, in
front, and is seven inches high, and five inches broad.
The back of the lower part of the coulters is grooved to
receive the end of the funnel, n, o, through which the
seed drops into the drill, made by the coulter.

FIG. 2.
Is a view of the axle. There are four sets or rows
of mortises, the rows are eleven inches apart from cen-
ter to center : and there are seven mortises, at equal
distances round the axle, one inch long, three fourths
of an inch wide, and three eighths deep, at the further
or outer end, and gradually lessening in depth, inward,

to nothing.

FIG. 3.

An end view : a, b, c, d, represent iron rods ex-

tending from the cross bar of the frame to the fore part

of the coulters. The heads of the coulters penetrate

the fore part of the frame at g, h, i, k. 1 is a board, 4i

inches in diameter, placed upright before the axle, and

resting upon the edge of the hoppers, to direct the seed

into them. It is supported by a shoulder in the frame,

against which it rests. The hoppers are represented

by the letters m, n, o, p. q, r, are handles to lift the

drill at the end of the field.

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Description of the Wheat Drill.

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Reference to the Plate.
FIG- 1.
ft.

From

a to by

b to Cy

c to d,
e to f,
e to by
i to ky
1 to nif
n to Of

From a to b,
c to d,
c to f.

From a to b,
b
c

e to fr
e to hi

to b, y

to e, >
to d, J

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10

5

1 ^

3 S

S

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1 %

FIG. 2.

ft. in.

i
1

FIG. 3.

ft.

8

2 {• CircumfercBee.

IV

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3
3

11

3

3

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t •

The wheat drill, described by Mr. Lorain, was originally invent-
ed in Sussex county, New Jersey, and first described by the late
Mr. Rutherford, in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, of
New York. One of the drills is deposited in the Room of the Agri-
cultural Society, Philadelphia. J. M.

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On the use of Lime in England, by James Ecr&yd,
Farmer, Philadelphia County.

' ' ^ Read April 14, 1812.

Reading lately the Memoirs of the Agricult^ral
Society, on the subject of lime, and having been accus-
tomed from my youth, to see it used as a manure in
England, I thought some observations on the subject
might not be uninteresting to those who may not have
had similar opportunities.

I will first observe, that the parts of the country
containing the different qualities of lime, are as obvi-
ous in their productions and appearances, as the effects
produced by each species, when employed in agricul-
ture. For instance,, in the fine rich grazing farms in
Craven,, and all along the course of the river Ribble,
the lime is of the mild kind, and the soil the most
prolific for grasses perhaps in the world, but the coun-
try is so mountainous and the climate so rainy, that
very little grain is raised except oats, so that the lime
when used as a manure, is mostly spread on grass with-
out ploughing, and appeared to answer better on
springy wet ground, that had been previously well
drained, than on any other. This lime was generally car-
ried on the backs of small Scotch ponies, with wooden
pack saddles, from twenty to thirty miles, and laid on
at the rate of two hun4red bushels per acre : and the
ponies returned laden with pit coal. The Leeds and
Liverpool canal was not then finished, but it now runs
through this beautiful lime country, and transports it

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On the use of Lime in England.

into Lancashire, which abounds with coal, and carries

back coal to burn the lime.

Chyrnistfy had not then been so much applied to
Agricultural purposes as now ; and I have heard intel.
ligent men frequently give it, as their opinion, that the

caustic quality of the lime h^A\\*f\^ J

^u\. u ^ ^ ine lime, had little or nothing to do

w.«h Its vegetative powers, and that the only operation it
performed, was mixing intimately with the soil, and
pulverizing and making it more porous : and the
pnncpal reason for this supposition was, that the more
was laid on. the more it fertilized, whereas, had it ac'ed
by its causticity, it might hav*. h^.„ „ ^
this narf ^r.u ^ ^" ^^^'^ ^°"e, and as

fould not . T"''" P"'""^ '^"^ °- '^-d, they
could not judge by comparison. The whole ofthil
™e, m Its native bed, appears a solid body of chrv
tals or spars, from ten to fifteen feet thick Z T
of it maW Ko«,io ' ^"° lumps

ot itmake handsome ornaments for chimney pieces
I frequently have seen it laid on so thick, that j d L
ance it appeared as white as snow ; it was commoi^;
aid on the sod, and left to mix of itself, with th" eai^h-
though some, more enterprizing thai the restTad
begun to lay on half that quantity! and hairo Jed tiU u
was well mixed with the top ea«h, and found its v " e
tative powers much encreased. ^

I moved from the county of Lancaster, into the
West Riding of Yorkshire, a district where illat ^

in any part of England, where I have had an .
Portuni^- of comparing produce, owing ot^f^proT

IZof ri"'^^K '' '°^'"^' -tfoducedT; he" '
Ma Jis of Rockmgham, and on a soil that before this

introduction, was deemed scarce wonh cultivating

On the use of Lime in England,

S9

3^

have heard farmers say, that it would scarcely yield six
bushels of wheat per acre. Here I was also in the
middle of lime again, and had an opportunity of see-
ing both sorts in constant use ; the mild, or Knotting-
ley lime, we had to fetch in carts or waggons, twenty
two miles; and was used as a top dressing, for clay, or
low lands well drained, as in Lancashire, at the rate of
one hundred bushels per acre, on old sod ; though the
more we applied the better, yet when harrowed in, its
vegetative effects were very conspicuous for twenty
years. What the appearance of this lime is, in its native
bed, I do not remember, but the appearance of the
country producing it was good.

s For the plough- farming we used the caustic lime,*
of such a quality, that if more was applied than a
chaldron or sixty four bushels per acre it would en-
tirely stop vegetation, and where a heap was suffered
to lie but a short time, would, like the lime in Penn-
sylvania, cause the spot, on which a load is laid, to be
two or three years entirely bare, this lime was general-
ly used on winter grain, and harrowed in at the rate of
from twenty to twenty five bushels per acre, and in the
spring the land was seeded with grass seeds.

The rotation of crops on this light soil,t was fal-
low, dunged with from ten to fifteen cart loads per acre,

* This lime, from the colour before burning, appeared as if
mixed with san^, and though in a climate as congenial for farming,
as any part of Yorkshire, yet the soil is so stifT, dry and unfriend-
ly to vegetation, that its average produce is very little, compared
with the other parts of the country.

t Soil a light loam on a hungry gravel scarcely any where deep-
er than four inches, and a great deal two and an half or three.

■

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40

On the use of Lime in England,

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of farm j-ard and stable dung, seeded wiU, turnips be
•"r "■? '«* ">■' "he 15,h of sixth n,o„th,7d s^id

„!n. ;„ • • P'^'' ''■'""• '» "< off the tur.

.or::::;d:tr::,:n-:r:"r^^-

wi„;h nrsr';:j;t ^"--^ - *^ ^"*^'-

.'.rough the Wer^Tdin'gtfyrrJhTeT- TT
«a.u.e acre) with the bariey, d've ted o^ t° ',
spring following peas and Ja « Z T ""■

cd twice, plong^h^d in and^ I th Tat": ""°''-
"ge produce 30 bushels, then the he« s 'bb, """
poughed in for fallow again. For tie 7. t"o
years, clover was regularly sown everv r„„n/ r
but it depreciated so much th.,T -^ "-""nd of crops,
.hete, it was only seeded el^lTr'nTd '^t""

: htr "'oT- '■', -""•~"eres'^;

fi MsX ,he°?ar "'• r""'"'^ '" "I-" 'o-
vvnere the tarmers are ob ^ed for mntnol ^„

'"enceto sow alwavs alike the rll. ''^"

fallow, dunged as for tur^t: zn thTf ,7 /' '"'"'"'''

or peas and beans oneyeaTand i ""^"''^ ''°^^''

«iio wiicyear, and aMin wheat • t^« o

™ge produce of wheat, was from 20 ,o^LZ

acre, first crop ; second from 16 ,oo^ ,*''"'

casionally used as on the ligta stilt "" ' ""^ »— ^

-":r::;rtr;ri:~r="''*"°'

} mical nomenclature) having thrown in a

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On

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» • » • 9 •

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the use oft-iw in England. ^'\ 41

greater quantity of land for fallciw ilfeh c^rilm^h, find-
ing that his dung would not rcach'over the whole of
it, tried what the farmers call stealing a crop, that is,
taking one crop more than the common routine, al-
ways condemned by good farmers, as a bad practice ;
but supposing he could balance the want of dung, for
one crop, by a coat of lime, he had recourse to it, but
it is so many years since, that I forget the quantity
used, however he seeded it with oats, but such was the
effects of the lime, that scarcely any thing grew on the
whole field but thistles, and of those there was an
abundant crop, I believe there was not, on the whole,
one cart load of straw.

« •

>•>»

m

In confirmation of the practice of stabbing hoven
cattle, (as quoted by judge Peters from John Wynn
Baker,) I will just remark, that I have long been in the
practice of it, and always do it with a small pen-knifc
very sharp at the point, with a sudden push, four
inches from the hip bone, and four inches from the
edge of the loin, and never use a tube of any kind ;
the wind rushes out like whistling with the mouth, nor
have I found it necessary to use any kind of applica-
tion to the wound. I performed the operation this
spring on a cow that had lately calved, and she is now
near calving again, and is as fat and hearty as any cow
in my flock. I always stab in the place mentioned, as
the paunch is the nearest the outside of any other part,
and the paunch is what always contains the malady, as

VOL. III.r p

*JXBil.t.

■*5b

II

I

' 'If

'ii

o • , • • • "i • • » • ♦ « •

»< •»• t^ •»• ••••, •

•'f-",'*^., ... ••;; Ott'stab&i^ff,IfSven Cattle.

• '' _A_t ^^^t t « «•• • ••••

^' !?i^<^H^i*t ^^ of its contents through the
orifice, with great force.

With best wishes for the success of so extensively
useful an institution,

I remain, thine sincerely,

n» T Ti>r James EcROYB.

Ur. James Mease,

Secretary, Philad. Agnc. Soc.

%i

i 43 3

On Cyder makings by Henry fTynkoopy Esq.' in a Letter
to Joseph B. M'Kean, Esq. Member of the PhiladeU
phut Agricultural Society.

Read May 12, 1812.

Northampton^ Bucks County ^ April 1, 1812.

Dear &>,

Agreeably to your request, I proceed to afford you
a detailed statement, of the whole process of cyder-
making,, as now conducted on my farm. About the
middle of October, we begin to gather the apples,
tehen they are perfectly dry, and lay them down in
layers, in the cider house and other out houses on floors,
not exceeding two feet thick ; where there is space
sufficient, thiner will be preferable, for the object is, to
promote the ripening of the fruit, and the evaporation
of the watery particles. In this situation they are left
about two weeks, secured from rain and wet, but ex-
posed to the air as much as possible ; early in Novem-
ber, they are again sorted, Ihe rotten ones thrown out,
and the sound ground in the mill ; the pumice of the
common apples is laid in troughs, for 12 or 24 hours,
having regard to the state of the weather: this tends to
sweeten the juice and greatly improves the cyder. As
to the Virginia crab, I have not discovered so great a
difference, whether the pumice is pressed from the
mill or left to lay some time ; the remainder of the
process will be exhibited by answering the questions
proposed to me in your letter, viz.

Query \st. What is the best construction of a mill
and the least expensive, to grind the apples ?

*

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44

ill

On Cyder maJcing.

of tZTof ?^ * ""' ''"* ^^P^"^'^^ ">"' I know

sieo fil? ""f '"'"''"^ perpendicular, with a
sweep fixed to one of them, and formed so as to take

plank of the frame of the mill, and then convey the

It of r r.'^ ^'^ '' *° •'" P'"^^^"^^' both on ac.
count of the sohdity of the wood and not being so lia-

ble to crack and split as those of white oak : thi have

andtri^LT^^^^^^'^^^^^-^-^^-

howretev""' *° *' ''•••^•"•^ ^'^''' •* -««ers not
Mow fine they are ground ; the finer all other kinds of

w,u mix with the must, and the more difficult will Z

he fermentation : that degree of fineness Js I'lre

to be sought for. that will best promote the expression

vanT!l' ''T''' ""''' ^""'"^ '^^^ P'-^^ed may be ad
vantageously ground over aeain fnr ♦!, ,

wa«r cyder. »bich when Vr^/^^^'-^^f '"« °f

Plea«„. ubie drink. d„™gAe „i„,e:;b„"t Jit"
2 whole cyder fr„„ u. ^.e „„,, j, ^ ^Tck ,o "
Bwer any good purpose. '" °°-

^uery 3rd. The best constni„io„ of a press i»
the screw or lever preferred » Pre»s,— ,s

scrlHL K^" "'''' '^"S made in a house, .he
' !>-« l-ecomes indispensable, as ,he lever ;ould

(

On Cyder making.

45

occupy too much space, but were it not for that cir-
cumstance, I should prefer the screw press, on account
of the simplicity of its construction, the speed and fa-
cility of encreasing or diminishing the force, and the
greater security from accidents to the men that work

it.

/

Query 4th. How long, and to what degree, should
the pumice be pressed ; may it not be too hard press-
ed ?

Answer. The object in pressing the pumice, is to
separate it from the must ; the pressure therefore is to
be continued until that purpose is effected, which can
generally, by proper attention, be done in six or eight
hours : the pressure may be so hard, as to over charge
the grooves in the floor of the press, so as to run over
and waste the liquor, but I do not conceive that the hard
pressure can be any otherwise injurious.

Query 5th. Does not the first pressure produce
the best cyder ?

Answer. I do not know whether the first pressure
is the best or not, only one circumstance I have ob-
served, that the women applying for sweet cyder, to
make their apple butter, prefer the last.

Query &th. Which of the several species of ap-
pies is best to make cyder, and the difference in the
strength and quality of each ?

Answer. The Virginia crab is the best apple for
making cyder, within my knowledge : when all other
apples are ground, the particles of the pumice mix
with the must, and cannot be separated otherwise than
by fermentation, a process which, in the variable wea-
ther of our climate is extremely difficult to controul,

: a

46

On Cyder making.

whereas the crab when crushed in the mill, no matter
how fine, the particles of the pulp adhere together, and
are separated from the juice, without intermixing with
It, so that when pressed, the liquor flows from the
pumjce as water from a sponge, and to take off those
small particles of apple that may have escaped through
the straw, or the crevices of the frame, it can be strain-
ed through flannel, which cannot be done with any
other kmd of cyder : until, therefore, some other spe-
cies of apple shall be discovered, possessing that spon-
gy quality, or some other yet unknown, which shall
occasion a preference, the Virginia crab will remain
superior for making good cyder, to all other kinds of
apples. As to the strength, I have not the means neces.
sary to ascertain it, and as to the quality, that has been
described in the preceding part of this answer. -

Query 7tL Is it injurious to mix several species
and grmd them together, if so, the effect ?
Jnsrver. I am of opinion that no ill effects can arise
from mixmg and grinding together, several species of
equa ripeness; but mixing and grinding together un-
npe fruit with that which is ripe, would induce the

Huery 8th. Do you put the juice to ferment in
large vessels, before it is drawn off into barrels, and
expose It to the air, till the fermentation ceases P

Answer. We put the juice to fermem into the
Wgest vessels we can'get, in which it remains un.
til the fermentation ceases : it is then drawn off from
the lees, the cask well cleansed, and then replaced
m the same or similar sized vessels, till it is aeain
completely settled, when it is again dra;„ off ll S

'i.ii'^

On Cyder making.

47

BB

.AO

lar sized clean vessels, on the fining, and is not put in-
to barrels before the whole process of fermentation
and fining is completed ; the juice when put into the
cask from the press, is left exposed to the air, until the
fermentation begins to decline, when the bung is laid «
loose upon it, with a gimblet hole by the side, till the
fermentation is completed ; then the bung is driven in,
and the gimblet hole stopped. ^

Quenj 9th. How soon does the fermentation com-
mence, in general, and how long continue ?

Answer. The commencement and continuance of
the fermentation, depends so much on the state of the
weather, that it cannot be predicted with any degree
of certainty.

Query \Qth. How do you ascertain when the fer-'
mentation has so far subsided, as to make it proper
to draw oflf into barrels, or other vessels, and what is
the consequence of not drawing off at a certain stage
of the fermentation ? ^

Answer. By placing the ear, at the bung hole of
the vessel, during the fermentation, a certain hissing
kind of noise is heard in the liquor, when that ceases,
the fermentation is completed, and is then in a proper
state to be drawn off, and if then neglected, the parti-
cles of pumice that had settled down to the bottom of
the cask, will, during a warm or damp state of the wea-
ther, rise up again, mix with the juice, and thus pro-
duce a second fermentation, which is always acetous
and irijjurious to the cyder*

Query Wth. When drawn off, do you stop the
cask perfectly tight, so as to exclude all air, or do you
leave a vent ?

*; I*

48

On Cyder makings

l>?:

i'-«i

Answer. When cyder is drawn oflF and put into
cleansed casks, a certain ebullition pervades the liquor,
and while that continues, the bung is laid loose on,
and the gimblet hole left open until it subsides ; when
the bung may be closed tight, and the gimblet hole
gradually, but not perfectly tightened before the ebul-
ution has entirely ceased.

Query I2th, How do yo« prevent the acetous fer-
mentation or check it if commenced ?

Answer. To prevent the acetous fermentation, is
answered in question ten ; as to checking it if com-
menced, the only method I know of is to put the cy-
der on the fire in kettles, to boil it gentiy, so as to raise
the floatmg particles of pumice mto a scum on the
surface of the liquor, to be scummed off tiU the rising
ceases then to be returned hot into the cask, previou^
ly well cleansed and bunged up tight; this liquor will
afford a pleasant drink, during the months of May
June, and perhaps July, but wiU not keep good through
the summer. ^

Query IZth. Do you fine cyder; if so, at what
time, and with what fining ?

Answer. We do fine cyder, and the time is, after
the ebullition, which succeeds the second racking is
completely subsided, we tjien draw off some gallons
of cyder, proportioned to the quantity of cyder to be
findd, into some vessel, to this we add of isinglass
pounded and unraveled into shreds, about two ounces
to the hogshead, containing 112 or 115 gallons, the li.
quor with the isinglass, is frequently stirred up for three
or four days, so that it is completely diluted into a
thm jelly, it is then strained through a fine hair sieve

On Cyder making.

49

and put into a well cleansed hogshead, which is filled
with the fermented cyder.

Query lAth. Do you rack the cyder, if so, at
what times, and how often ?

Answer. We rack the cyder for the first time, soon

after the fermentation has ceased, a second time, soon

after the ebullition of the first racking has completely

subsided ; the third time, when drawn off to be put on

the fining ; the fourth time, when drawn off from the

lees of the fining ; the fifth time, when the consequent

ebullition has again completely ceased, and the cyder

has lain perfectly still for eight or ten days, when it

may be drawn off into barrels, so that drawing from the

barrels into bottles may be counted a sixth racking.

I am, dear sir,

Your obedient servant,

Henry Wynkoop.
Joseph B. M'Kean, esc^.

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vol. 111.

n

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ii

On various Agricultural Topics, by Janes Ecroyd, Phi-
tadelphia County.

Read June 9, 1812.

According to my promise, in my former communi-
cation I again take the liberty of troubling the socie-
ty mth some further remarks on a few subjects, al-
ready discussed in the Agricultural Memoirs; and
though I may not have it in my power, to add any
thmg new on this subject, yet if by giving a statement
of observations of positive practice, for a number of
years, I may be able to confirm a good one, or correct
any mistakes in attempts to imitate such practices in
this country, perhaps they may have their uses.

And as I wish, as little as possible, to encroach on
the time of the society, I will first enumerate the dif.
ferent subjects I have at present in view, and endeavour
to comprise my remarks on them, within the compass
OX one letter. ■

off wifh-J:;:™^ '""■ '" *' =^""«' ^"^ ^«'"« "

2. On the diseases of swine.

3. On breeding in and in.

4. On artificial grasses.

5. On smut in wheat.

The harrowing of wheat, is a practice I have seen

constantly pursued for a number of years, but most

generally on stiff soils, and the effects produced were

always considered as highly beneficial ; but this ope-

ration, was generally preceded by eating off the wheat

On the Diseases of Swine.

51

with sheep ; and this was done by turning on so many
as to eat it literally into the ground in two or three
days, and so close, that no appearance of a blade could
be seen. Partial eating, by too small a flock, was al-
ways esteemed rather injurious, by retarding the
growth of some more than others,, and preventing it
from growing and ripening even. If wheat was sown
on a rich fallow, so as to be in danger of lodging, the
eating it off makes it grow shorter and stifFer, and vice
versa ; if it be sown on a poor soil, in the spring it
looks pale and sickly, and instead of its leaves creep-
ing and spreading on the surface of the ground, it rises
straight up and does not stool, in this case the eating
it oflF makes it stool more, mends the colour, and adds
considerably to the produce. The method of perform-
ing this operation was, after the sheep are taken off,
we take a light roller and two light turnip harrows, the
width of the roller ; these are fastened with chains to
the roller, and follow it, the roller breaks and pulver-
izes the clods, and the harrow loosens the surface and
earths up the plants ; then both harrowing and rolling
are performed at once, with one pair of horses ; this
operation is always performed in the fourth month,
(April) when the ground is dry ; it is also practiced on
wheat and rye, that is not eat off with sheep, and with
equal success ; its uses are not altogether confined to
the grain crop, as it is the very best method of cover-
' ing grass seeds.

2. The disease of pigs I allude to, is the complaint
first mentioned by J. P. De Gruchy, in his letter, pub-
lished in the second volume of Agricultural Memoirs.
He calls it the staggers, a name very descriptive of the

. %

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52

Q« ■Breeding' fn and In.

'in

complaint, as the poor animal's contortions are very vi

-L,itne:etxroi;c^^^^^^^^^^^

so remark, never attarK ^ ^''^^^ ^ "^^^ ^-

high state;f hea^a X W" ^^^^^ '^^
I supposed, that the ^7 ' '' circumstance

Pletely in curing it late !' bv ' '""''"''^^ ^°'"-

f"ll of castor ofl VT ^' ^ ^'"'"^ *^° ^^''^^ «Poons.
. -alee it bleed. ' '"'^^ ^^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^ L to

3. Breeding in and in.

dence, that I feel a dfl l ^ ^^ respectable evi.

but yet, as Judge Peters remarks "r! " ^"'

compliant as to abandon the "p "^d ev-T"* .' "
senses," and I am .« cj repeated evidence of my

-en aVia, 1,™ :""*"•• *« »"- -.r I have

<ale„ place ■ ,he ^ "' k ' '°"='»"' "'""io^ion ha,

Jo. .he^ec„;r,„^:h;^:::r rs r '^''■='''

handsomer, but a m^f °?Z ' ^^ ^^^P^ '•^ther

■ncrease, arising bo* fro™ li^e™^ f 1 ""'
1.« lambs being so weak and sLZas „ 1"''' '""
numbers. I saw an ins«nce in Y^ksht J ^'
old man kept a dock of =1.. 'oi-kshire, where an

a. .as., U,e «oek 1. uf Jl""', ^"""r^" ''■'
comi„g„nderU,emanaKeme„ ofj °^' ''"'

eroding „i.h ,^ ramr:! urZeT;":-"^
equal to his neiehhn„r« ""'^ ^^^ ^''em

.•ave made onltXtat: bT' °^™"°"^ '

"oject nave been on sheep, which,

On Breeding In and Jn^

53

both from their numbers and value, are kept more se-
lect than any other animal.

Another circumstance which always convinced me
as much as any other, was this, that take a poor moun-
tain ewe, that would not weigh more than from 12 to
14 pounds per quarter, and cross with a large Lincoln-
shire or Leicester ram, the lambs would be readv
sooner for market, and for the first two months weigh
as much as lambs bred from the ewes of the same
large breed, though afterwards, the large breed would
get the ascendancy. And though it has been the gen-
eral opinion, that the noted Bakewell, (a man who de-
serves the thanks of every farmer) always bred in and
in, yet during ten years that Hived in Yorkshire, the
shape of his sheep was so entirely altered twice,
that it was the opinion of intelligent farmers in that
neighbourhood, that such a speedy change could onFy
be effected by crossing the breed. One change in par-
ticular I will specify : the first kind of them that came
into Yorkshire, had very short legs, and broad backs,
and were so heavy and clumsy, that in the spring when
loaded with wool, they would get over on their backs,
and there lie till they died, if not continually watched
and turned over. To remedy this inconvenience, in the
course of two seasons, the fashion varied, and the rams
that were hired were much longer on the legs, and
walked loftier, whilst the beautiful small nose and
sharp ears were retained, also the general appearance
of the carcass, but yet many were of opinion, they
could distinctly trace a resemblance with the South
Down ; this, however, was only conjecture, as at our
distance we could only judge by appearances.

•'A

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54

■ t'T

On Breeding In and In.

©

The next circumstance I will call the attention of
the society to, is respecting cattle ; and though it may
not be a positive trial, yet it shews the opinion of
mankind in general, and in a large district of course
may be considered as circumstantial evidence. In the
northern parts of Lancashire, where, Owing to the ex-
treme of rain and cold, very littie grain, except oats, is
raised, and being so full of inhabitants, arising from
the vast extent of manufactures, as to make the de-
mand for milk and butttr almost equal to a city they
are very particular in their breed of cows, and their
farms are generally so small, that perhaps there are not
more bulls kept, than one in two or three miles, which
are let to cows at stated prices, like stallions, and such
IS the received opinion of breeding in and in. that the
owners of the bulls, are obliged to change them every
three years, (or they would entirely lose their custom-
ers,) that bemg the age at which they generally let their
heifers take the bull. There is also another circum.
stance, perhaps rather more corroborative than the last
An mtimate acquaintance of mine being on a visit to
some relations on the verge of Norfolk, where cours
ing hares with grey hounds, is the favourite rural sport
m winter, was invited by a neighbouring gentleman, to
partake of the amusement, on a general coursing day •
they had about ten brace of dogs brought into the field'
and to every hare they started, run one brace of grey
hounds ; they run so many hares, as to tire both horses
and dogs, and if I recollect right, killed about one in
four, however he observed one brace of dogs that kill,
ed every hare they started, with apparent ease, this ex.
cited his curiosity, and on enquiring the cause, he was '

«y

On Artificial Grasses,

55

^1

told that the gentlemen in that part of the country,
who keep such numbers of grey hounds, in order to
keep up ihe strength and swiftness of them, are obliged
to cross the breed with large dogs of other species,
generally the mastiff or bull, and then by carefully
breeding back, nearer and nearer, they gain the strength
and fleetness necessary for such sports, and mentioned
this as being the case with this brace of dogs.

4. According to my observations, the omitting to
seed land with other grassesbesides red clover, hasap-
peared to me, one of the greatest defects in the whole
system of agriculture in this country. The introduc-
tion of it in England, together with that of the turnip
husbandry, (and which I believe happened both about
the same time, that is, 40 or 50 years ago) has doubled
the average produce of England ; and though the use
of plaster and red clover, have added here so aston-
ishingly to the value and richness of the countr)% as to
make the average produce of grain, in many parts of
this state, nearly equal to the best farms in England,
yet for want of other grasses, to fill up the vacancy, as
the red clover runs out, there seems almost a constant
necessity of ploughing every third year, for if the
ground by ploughing and fallowing previously to seed-
ing, is put in such a fine tilth, as to destroy all the roots
and weeds, the clover the first year is very fine, the
second about one half freezes out, and the third, seven
eighths, this leaves such a vacancy, as to give room for
every weed so noxious to agriculture, blue bottle, gar-
lie, St. John's wort, and a whole host of foes to rise, as
to make an almost entire loss for two years, before the
native grasses can gain the ascendancy. Besides, ano-

U

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56

On Smut in fHieat.

f

ther cxrcumstance prevents the native grasses from ar-

rmng at the perfection they might other^,se acquirl

even ,n good ground, if seed-d with the clover, whilst'

he ground is light and in fine tilth, that by C^

the clover runs out. and these grasses begin to grow t^

well expect a good crop of wheat by seeding without
P oughmg, as these to gain the perfection th'ey ^gh

make of land binding, would, I apprehend, seldom take

s dLw^"" "®'""'^ "^^' ^^*W« "method of
but th was once mtroduced : and I have little doub
but the native green grass and white clover, if a pro
per method was once adopted for saving ^e se'ed'
would answer the intention, without the introdue on
of foreign grasses. ""i-non

5. On smut in wheat. On this subject I will only men-
tK.n an occurrence that took place about the year 1790
or 1791 A person, of the name of Rodger Trefrv fif
I remember right) a native of Wiltshire, came bto
Vorksh.re. with the following proposals ; that if looo
farmers would subscribe one guinea each, to be given
h.m as a premium for discovering the cause and cure
of the smut m the wheat, he would make the discove.

sT;- f ,Tr T ''^ ^°'' '^' •"""^J'' *"» he had fully
en r u ''' '"' Accordingly in the differ-

ent neighbourhoods through which he passed, he se-

whlm Z r"' t """ '^ ""^"^"^^ ^^P-ded on, to.

eason h T ' ''' ""'*' ^^ '* "^"«* '-"^^ --- whole
season before u could be proved, they giving their

promise of secresy. till the money was'paid. A fi
cousm of mine, with whom I was in habits of inti-

On Smut in Wheat.

57

macy, was the one selected for this purpose in our part,
and I had an opportunity of seeing the whole experi-
ment made in a variety of forms : he would take a sam-
ple of the cleanest wheat, and after being sown in any
situation the farmer chose, it would prqduce more
or less smut ears from every seed, or vice versa, he
would take the dirtiest sample, and it should produce
wheat sound and good ; he did this in a number of
rows, drilled in various places, alternately, and all the
rows invariably yielded according to his predictions :
he accordingly gained the premium, but to what amount
I do not remember : the whole art and mystery was
this ; take a smut ear and pulverize it, mix the pow-
der with clean wheat and it would produce smut, but
take the wheat and wash it completely with spring
water and it would entirely prevent it.

'i-.

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VOt. III.

IP"

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lit

Case 0/ Croup in a Calf, by Richard Peters, EsqMtre,

Read, June 9, 1813.

• Belmont, May 2^y IZ12.

Sir,

I was pleased to observe a late request of the so-
ciety, to be furnished with facts relative to diseases of
our domestic animals. You know that my opinion has
long been, that the brute creation are afflicted with dis-
eases exactly similar to those to which the human race
are subject. To contribute my mite towards the ob-
ject of the society, in thus calling for information, I
mention the following facts.

A few weeks ago, I hadafine, healthy, playful, Calf,
suddenly attacked in a manner I had never before ob-'
served. I did not notice its extraordinary symptoms,
early enough to treat the disease in a mode likely to
conquer it. Nor did I conceive soon enough, the na-
ture of its malady. But having some knowledge of the
Croup in children, I was struck, at too late a stage of
the disease, with the exact resemblance of the disor-
der, which had fatally fixed itself in the animal Its
mode of breathing could not be distinguished from
that of a child, under similar circu mstances. As soon
as I was convinced of the nature of the disease, I had
the calf copiously bled ; and directed eastor oil to be
thrown down the throat, through the neck of a bottle •
after opening the passage of the wind pipe with a flex'
ible twig, to which a sponge dipt in sweet oil was at-
tached. It was relieved, surprisingly, for two days ;

Case of Croup in a Calf,

S9

^^M^i"

sucked, and swallowed the milk ; which it had not
done for several days before. But the disease return-
ed ; and continued for four or five days, with restless-
ness, a cough, and the sharp sound of difficult respira-
tion. It frnally died, by suffocation, in a spasmodick,
or convulsion, fit. 1 believe about eight or nine days
had elapsed, from the time^riiad the first notice of the
disease. The calf was about a week old, when it was
first seized with the disorder. I had it dissected (not
very neatly) by my old farmer. In the wind pipe
there was every appearance I had seen or read of in
human subjects, victims to the Croup. The mem-
braneous substance obstructing the inside of the tra-
chea^ and the coagulated lymph, or tough mucus,
which formed a kind of false casmg to the trachea,
and a sort of ill digested greyish pus^ filled up the pas^
sage; and the preternatural membrane, or enlarge-
ment of a natural one, was remarkably apparent.
There were appearances of inflammation, in one or
two places. I intended to have sent the whole of the
parts affected to you ; and your professional knowledge
would have enabled you to have given of them a de-
scription, of which I am incapable. But my old far-
mer conceived my curiosity sufficiently satisfied ; and,
in my absence cut to pieces the wind pipe, and sepa-
rated all the morbid parts, for his own amusement. I
regretted my disappointment much. It is certainly
an inflariimatory disease ; and in its incipient state
should be treated accordingly ; with depleting and
cooling remedies, among which frequent bleeding
is essential. After its being fixed, I doubt the effica*
cy of any remedies. Dr. Itush informs me he ha

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60

Case of Croup in a Calf.

r

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II T

read of two instances of the croup in brute animals v
and his son James mentioned one other. 1 think tHat
of a colt, which fell a victim to this disease, or some
disorder similar to it. Possibly the practice of bleed,
ing calves, to blanch the veal, may prevent the disease
appearing more commonly, than it otherwise would.
My calf had not been precedently bled.

In a British agricultural publication, of March 9th,
last, a circumstance is mentioned, of " a ewe belong,
ing to Francis Fag, of Enfield, on the night of Janua-
ry 29th, having yeaned a lamb, which, in consequence
of the ewe having no milk, died the night following :
and in the night of February 16th, the same ewe yean-
ed another lamb ; has a fine bag of milk, and both ewe
and lamb are doing weU:' This is mentioned as an
extraordinary circumstance, as, no doubt, it is.— My
neighbour, Mr. Th>mas Bones, met with a similar oc
currence, in one of his ewes ; save that his ewe eject-
ed a diseased and dead lamb. In 18 days thereafter,
she yeaned a fine healthy lamb ; and both the ewe and
the lamb were as weU, as if no circumstance of the kind
mentioned had happened. Such facts are encouraging
to sheep breeders, who may meet with similar disas-
ters ; and posterior good luck. Every fact relating
to accidents or diseases of our stock, is interesting,
m the present dearth of veterinary information. Those
who neglect to attend to such facts, deeming them
tnflmg and unimportant, are either culpably careless
or reprehensibly fastidious. Let every farmer and
owner of stock, inform of any uncommon occurrences
of accidents or diseases in domestic animals, happen^
ing under his observation; and a body of facts and

^: 'A' ''4V

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Case of Croup in a Calf.

61

information will be accumulated, which may, by men
of medical science, and intelligence on such subjects,
be tuT*ned to the greatest advantage. It has been al-
ways my habit to cause to be opened, and examin-
ed, every beast which could furnish instruction, for my
own, or the benefit of others, when, on my farms, the
animal had died by disease, or accident. Every far-
mer should follow this practice ; and note the appear-
ances, or probable causes, occasioning, or supposed to
have produced, the loss of the animal. A knowledge
of diseases will point to remedies; and both himself
and his neighbours may derive future advantage, from
his present misfortune.

Dr. Rush informs me that horses and horned cattle
are subject to Diabetes.

4 \

I have seen, and heard of, a greater number of twin
calves, this season, than I recollect to have known or
heard of in any season before. Some country people
believe, that such circumstances occur at particular pe-
riods ; and assign causes fanciful and various. I have
not heard of more than one or two instances of twins
of different sexes. Nature in this instance discovers
a delicacy, directed by the wisdom displayed in all the
works of our great Creator. A female calf, twin with
a bull calf, is rare, and is called a Free-Martin.
These are generally accounted hermaphrodite and bar-
ren. In an English agricultural publication (1811,) I
have seen an account of a Free-Martin having had a
calf. But it is there asserted, that no such occurrence
had been before known. The writer requests mforma-

^*

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62

*.

Free-Martin.

sssae

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tion of any similar fact ; if any such fact had ever
came to the knowledge of English breeders of homed
qattle. I have seen no answer to this request, though
the papers in which it was inserted are devoted to
agricultural subjects ; and have been transmitted to
me down to a very recent date. I have not paid any
particular attention to such circumstances ; although
they have not passed entirely unnoticed. I do not re-
collect an instance of a Free-Martin breeding.

Your obedient servant,

■ RiCHAKD PeTEBS.

i>R. James Mease,

Secretary y Philad. Agric. Soc,

y

in

I 63 3

On JPtprin Grah, by Mkhard Peters^ Esquire.

Read June 9, 1812.

JBelmont^ May 30f 1812.

I send to you strings of the Fiorin Grass, brought,
at my request, for me, from Ireland, by my friend Da-
vid H. Conyngham, Esq. who merits much praise for
his attention to an article, which may turn out of great
benefit to our country. They are not direct from Dr.
Richardson, (of Clonfecle m Ireland^ the original dis-
coverer of the extraordinary qualities and almost in-
credible product of this grass) but are of the kind cul-
tivated by him. For moist grounds, more especially
marshes, fens^ dogs, and soils of this nature, no grass
can be more highly desirable. It will grow in any soil,
but thrives best where there is the most moisture. No
doubt it will be discovered to be an indigenous plant;
and when it is perfected from the strings now introdu-
ced, a comparison can be made with those of our coun-
try. It is common in all parts of the world ; but its
qualities have only recently been developed. They
were not fully known until Dr. Richardson discovered
and proved them. A fair experiment should be made ;
and all prejudice and incredulity should be banished.
Success, by a careful and persevering few, will soon
bring conviction to the many. The ship in which the
Fiorin came, was unhappily cast away on our coast.
The grass, confined in a box and a sack, was wet widi
sea- water, and so remained for two weeks or more.

■ 'I i

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■ win. J^jtjiimium ■

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On Fiorm Grass.

»:

Yet the strings retain perfectly the principle of life ;
under circumstances which would have destroyed any
other plant ; nor does any feculency »r putrefaction
appear to have affected them. The misfortune affords
a strong additional fact to prove Dr. Richardson's as-
sertions in this respect. Weeding and cleanliness are
required, the first year of laying the strings ; but after,
wards it eats out and destroys aU other vegetation. Its
culture must, therefore, be gradual ; and within the
cultivator's power to keep it clean. If ten acres wUI
produce of this, as much as thirty or forty of com-
mon grass, the pains it requires are well bestowed. In
bulk, the quantity produced does not much exceed
some other luxuriant grass. But its substance, weight,
and nutrition, surpass any thing hitherto known.

It strikes its roots shallow and superficially, like
strawberry runners ; grows from every joint in' con-
tact with the earth, and finally mats like a rug. Weeds
of various kinds are peculiarly hostile. Shade is not so-
for it grows vigorously under trees. I have subjoined
an account of its culture ; and some facts concerning

Yours, very truly,

^ Richard Petees.

u^. James Mease,

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

Culture of Fiorin, or Agrostis stolomfera.
It will be enough, for present purposes, to give con.
cise directions to those who obtam a small number of
strings for experiment.

< /

On Fiorin Grass.

65

1. Dig a small plat, and clear oflf all weeds. Rake
and level the surface, and thereon lay the joints, cut so
as to have an inch or more of the string, on each side ;
or the runners may be laid or stretched lengthwise, in
rows, nine or twelve inches apart, to admit the hoe or
hand- weeding.

2. Cover them with mould, or compost, thinly ;
merely to keep them from being blown off, and to set
the joints, so as to ensure their striking root.

3. Weed and clean them when requisite. Next sea-
son, they will conquer, with very little aid, all other
vegetation. The later the crop, of any year, is cut, the
better. The strings or runners are the objects ; and
not what is commonly preferred in hay. The former
in winter remain highly succulent ; and can be used
to as great a degree of profit, as green grass in sum-
mer. They promote milk in cows, become healthy food
for sheep ; — ewes and lambs particularly ; and are pre-
ventives of many diseases ; by supplying succulent
fodder in winter or spring, when no other is to be ob-
tained. The seed of the panicles will grow ; but the
progress is more tedious. The culms^ and leaves are
of little advantage ; though they may serve for fodder.

The enemies of this grass have confounded it with
quicky conchy or knot grass, than which nothing is more
erroneous ; as Dr. Richardson has clearly shewn. The
abundance it affords for winter consumption, doubly
compensates for exclusion of grazing, which the growth
of the runners indispensably requires.

I '-- >i

t^i^

* The culma are upright stalks, supporting the panicle9 or seed
spikes.

VOL. III. I

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66

On Morin Grass*

On Fiorin Grass.

67

A damp piece of ground, and the more so the bet-
ter, to a reasonable extent ; or one in a situation to be
watered by a stream, will be preferable ; though any
other will answer sufficiently. Watering the seedling
plants, if the weather be dry, would ensure success in
a soil not naturally moist.

The facts and mode of culture, I have gathered from
European correspondents of such respectability, that
I have not the least doubt of their correctness. Nor
have I any doubts of the accounts given by Dr. Hich-
ardsorij and others who have followed his practice, re.
specting the qualities and wonderful product of Fio-
RiN, in Europe. How it will answer here, is yet to be
known by experience. The trial is well worthy our
unprejudiced exertions, and persevering attentions.

FioR IN seems to be best calculated for grounds, fit
only for, and permanently devoted to, grass. Because
it forbids alternate farming, and is difficult to eradicate
after gaining possession, it has been reprobated by
European adversaries,, who depreciate its real excel-
lencies, on account of its not falling in with a system
of husbandry, for which it may not be proper. But if
it will bring into great profit, soils not fit for the plough,
it will supersede the necessity of keeping in grass,
lands which may be otherwise employed. If it will
add most abundantly, to the store of winter forage,
and is preferred to all other provender, by horses,
sheep and cattle ; — other grass lands may be grazed,
or placed under tillage, at the pleasure of the proprie.
tors of them. That it will grow well in grounds fit
for tillage, I have no doubt ; but it seems best adapted

«£

to those on which the plough cannot be employed to
, the best advantage. In those which can be watered,
or even Jloodedj the crops exceed any thing ever ex-
perienced from any other grass heretofore known.
That six, eight and ten tons to the acre (the first the
most common) have been produced, is well ascertain-
ed to me, by indubitable proofs. The experiment
here, is, therefore, fully justified by European facts;
be the result what it may. If Fiorin produces even
double the quantity of nutritious matter, compar-
ed to that in other grasses, on the same space or con-
tents, of ground, — one half of our meadows fit for
other branches of husbandry, arc released from being
devoted to winter-forage ; and are added to the fields
employed in courses of grain, or other crops, or to
grazing, at the will of the farmer.

Any time between March and October, or even No-
vember, will answerfor laying ; but in April, is the
best.

The strings, in extensive culture, are merely scat-
tered over the surface, and covered with earth, lightly;
after due preparation of the ground. The cover may
consist of scourings of ditches, or draining-furrows ;
or part of the vegetable mould of, the soil in which
the grass is to grow ; or of richer earth, or compost.
Draining wet swamps, at first, will be proper ; but
when the grass has taken full possession, no matter
how moist the soil remains. It will stifien the surface
of a bog ; so as to support heavy loads.

In some p rts of Ireland^ the strings are twisted in-
to ropes, and chopped with an hatchet, for strewing.

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68

On Fiorin Grass*

Sometimes the rop^s are buried through the winter.
In the spring, they are found in a forward state of vc-
getation ; and thus are chopped for strewing, to great
advantage.

In Ireland and Scotland^ they prepare the ground and
lay or scatter the strings, any time either in, or be-
tween October and March. In mild open winters, and
favourable autumns, this may be done here. There
is a singular advantage attending the culture of this
grass. The dry hay, or rather strings, will vegetate,
from the joints, many months after being cut, or hous-
ed. The operations may be carried on in seasons,
when no other such work can safely be done. When-
soever, even in winter, the frosts admit pulverizing the
earth, so as to cover the strings, the laying may pro-
ceed. The joints will be ready to shoot at the earliest
opening of the spring; and, being hardy, will not suf-
fer by late frosts. This plant endures wet, drought,
heat, and cold, with far less injury than any of the Gra^
mina tribe. No other grass should grow with it ; be-
cause tfmt will be sooner ripe ; and fall and feculate,
before the Fiorin is fit for the sithe, or hook.

The cutting and curing the crops are performed in
the common mode. But it is certainly more tedious
and troublesome to cut, than common grass ; and fre.
quently requires the hook, instead of the sithe,
in some places. Lap, or grass- cocks of small size,
are preferred to larger accumulations, at first. Cocks of
size may be finally made, but they must not be tramped
or consolidated ; and may lay out, if necessity requires,
in rain or snow, without injury, for weeks, or even

On Fiorin Grass*

69

months. The later, in the fall, the grass is cut, the
better. This gives time for the most valuable parts,
the runners^ to grow and encrease in number. Dr.
Richardson prefers the first or second week in October
(in Ireland) though he has mown as late as December,
or January. Our severer winters forbid such procras-
tinated gathering the crops. All our crops ripen ear-
ly ; and this grass may be fit to cut here in August,
or September, at farthest. Winrows may answer, in
the first instance, as well as lap-cocks.

In Europe they find that turnipSy potatoes^ carrots^
or other such food, are unnecessary, when dairy convs^
Or ewes while suckling, are fed constantly, on Fiorin
Strings.

It is called stolonijera^ from the lateral shoots or sto^
lonesy projecting from the main stem. Th^ become
parent stems, and shoot out their stolonesy till all the
surface is covered with a kind of net work ; which
rises in thickness, and plentifully affords a heavy sward.

I met with a worthy, intelligent, Irish woman (the
mother of my neighbour, Mr. Thomas Bones) at a time
when I had some of the strings of Fiorin in my hand.
She was highly delighted with them, and recognized
at once " her favorite Irish grass ;" as she expressed
herself. She called it ^'fiotter grass.'^ She informed
me that it grew, in great plenty, on the shores of Lough
Neagh. It spreads itself into the Lough, in extensive
floating sheets ; tied to the shores, by strongly rooted
stems. The neighbouring cottagers, at all seasons, in
winter most commonly, haul on shore what they re-
quire, in great abundance ; and carry off car loads for

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70

On Fiorin Grass*

their cattle* Its joints throw out roots in the water.

She called those collections of /w?m,—« floating is-
lands."* jk p

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July 12. 1812. I find the Fiorin in plenty, in my
neighbourhood. It grows on my own, and other, farms;
and, most commonly, in moist spots. It Is found on
the sides of roads, gullies, and cart-routes where waters
of streams, or rains, have moistened the soil ; and it de-
lights in the banks of muddy runs, or ditches newly
thrown. I perceive several varieties ; some much more
succulent, and less rigid, in the stems, or strings, than
others. I have strewn the Irish strings, or joints, on
a low piece of ground ; but not sufficiently moist, and
I have lAive plants in the same spot. We shall be
thus enabled to discover the best kinds for cultivation.
Some of the native plants appear mean and unpromis-
mg ; some very much otherwise. Whether owing to
the difference ofspecies, or thequality of the soil, I know

• My informant is a respectable and venerable woman. She
« 85 years old ; and enjoys, perfectly, her health and faculties.
She IS remarkably industrious ; and spins the Bnest thread, either
of flax or cotton, I have been accustomed to see. She rides on
horse back thirty miles, in less than a day, with no faUgue. Her
horse (well known to n,e) is as extraordinary, as its rider. He is
perfectly sound and sure footed. He is a New England horse ; and
was the saddle horse of the late governor JoAn Penn. I think he
IS now as pleasant a hackney, as he was in his youth j though he is
41 years old, at this time. [May, 1812.]

R. P.

-577T . ,.7-

On Fiorin Grass.

71

not. No doubt this, like all other grasses and plants,
grows best in rich soil, but I have no fault to find with
the soil ; except its not being wet.

Noveml^er 5. My Irish Fiorin is very healthy ; and
continues to grow luxuriantly. It holds a great superi-
ority over the native plants; though some of the
latter look well. R* P»

'^-"1

June 10, 1813. I was out of hopes as to my Fiorin^
of all kinds, in the early part of the spring ; which has
been uncommonly cold and injurious to vegetation.
But now the grass has wonderfully thriven. The Irish^
still the best. A friend who has recently arrived from
Ireland^ where he paid particular attention to Fioriuy
gives me much encouragement. He says, for the
stage of its growth, it is very promising. The Irish
strings are, he says, exactly the kind cultivated by Dr.
Richardson ; and advises me to cut my little crop in
August. Some of the native grass, he thinks, will
equal the Irish. Others are very much inferior.

R, Peters.

WINTER-HAY.MAKING.

To the people of Ireland^ with whom the adage of
*^ make hay while the sun shines" is often useless,
IFinter-hay^making does not appear impracticable or
extraordinary. To us, who are accustomed to clear
skies and finfe weather, the maxim is useful ; and its
injunction attainable. I have seen in Ireland coramon
hay in large stooksy in their fields in January ; waiting

\ii

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72

Hf'

WinteT'Hay^ making.

^

M I

for an opportunity of hauling it in for final security.
The interior was dry, but musty. The musty smell,
though to me strikingly perceptible, was not so to the
farmer. The oats and hai/j and frequently the meal and
grairiy had, to me, a musty smell. I was deemed egre-
giously prejudiced, when I mentioned the circum-
stance \ though it was indubitably true. It is well
known, that, owing to wet harvests, grain, in Ireland^
must be kiln dried, before it can be profitably manufac
tured. I am satisfied that the insensibility of the Irish
people to the musty savour of their grain, is produced
by the force of habit, which frequently overpowers our
natural faculties ; and I do not mention it to their dis-
paragement. I have seen their horses eagerly devour
musty oats, far better, in every other respect, than ours ;
but such as our horses, would, on this account, reject.
I perceived a strong taint of the turf, in all victuals
cooked by that fuel. But Irish gentlemen, nice in
other matters, could not observe it. Their winter-made
hay is, most probably, musty ; though Irish horses, or
cattle, do not perceive, or dislike it.

In the Cork grain and meal market ^ (wherein I was,
many years ago) I had the unlucky curiosity, to taste
and smell a great number of samples oi flour and grain.
I was not aware of the risk I ran. Finding most of
them musty, in a greater or less degree, I, no doubt,
involuntarily, betrayed symptoms of disgust. The
dealers observed it ; and before I left the market, the
large doors were closed on me. I was a perfect stran-
ger, surrounded by a motley multitude ;^chiefly native
Irish women, of thalestrian and amazonian ferocity.
I saw that I had brought myself, however innocently,

. '<kC>4eiU».kk. ' tiitt.,»tli.t\.iaJI.AAC: 1-^ ..*!■.

ffmter- Hay -making.

73

\m f I

into a predicament ridiculously unpleasant. Fortu-
natcly, a dexterous and sudden thought, furnished a
plausible excuse for untoward appearances. I re-
lieved myself, in addition to this, by a forfeit of sundry
Irish shillings, to the self created janitrices ; and
amused the main body, by throwing some small coins
among them. I retreated with plaudits instead of
curses, during the scramble ; and, no doubt, escaped
some comfortable huslings and not a few voUies of
poissarde rhetorick ; in which thost flowery oratrixes
are copiously fluent. I avoided, ever after, any mun-
dungus or smell fungus appearances, or expressions,
on this delicate subject. I perceived that some Cork
acquaintances, to whom I related my adventure, not
deeming the penance for my heresy sufiicient, were
not perfectly pleased with the handsome retreat I had
effected ; which really had required some generalship.
Nevertheless, I had been punished, by fine and im-
prisonment, in a tribunal whose proceedings are al-
ways rapid and summary, for a venial offence.

A very intelligent American, lately returned from
England^ favoured me with a visit ; and informed me
that an English horse, kept hungry for the purpose of
experiment, utterly refused Fiorin hay sent over by
Dr. Richardson. Xn American horse alike unused
to musty winter-made hay, as most probably thii^ was,
would have thus conducted himself. ^

Having, recently, occasion to write to a respectable
citizen oi Massachusetts, on the subject of Fiorin, \
stated the foregoing fact, as to the squeamishness of
the English horse, and my observations on Irish hay
and grain ; as a mode of accounting for the circum-

▼OL. III. K

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74

Winter-Hay^Making.

niRiiii

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Stance ; which, most probably, arose from the savour,
and not any other bad quality of the iiay. It seems
that I am not singular in the view I took of Irish
harvests, and their consequences. Yet we should riot
be alarmed, who are not subject to the like misfor-
tunes ; and can gather our crops in propitious seasons;
with very few exceptions. My fellow citizen of Mas-
sachusetts writes, on this part of the subject, in the fol-
lowing words.

" Many of your observations relative to the injured
" state of Irish harvests, occasioned by the excessive
"humidity of their atmosphere, I have frequently
" noticed myself, I passed two thirds of the year
" 1798, in the cities of Dublin and Cork, and in the
" counties of Wexford and Limerick ; and have often
'' expressed my astonishment at the mustt/ smell, so
'' very perceptible (to me) in ihcir fodder and grain; as
" well as the insufferable smell and taste of turf in their
" culinary articles ; but more especially in their drawn
" butter. They, one and all, denied the existence of
" any thing of the kind.'' He mentions a distinguish,
ed Irish gentleman, with whom he was well ac-
quainted, and whose candour and freedom from
other prejudices he well knew, who joined in the dis-
avowal of any perception of the taste and smell so dis-
gusting to him. He might have named many others ;
for of the candour of Irish gentlemen there can be no
doubt. But all animals, as well human as others, are
subject to the indelible impressions, and the dominion,
of inveterate and long continued habit. TFe should be
ridiculously presumptuous, in affecting to exempt our.
selves from this common propensity ; which, uncjoubt-

»«

Winter- Hay 'Making.

75

edly, strangers observe, while we are unconscious of
it. The hospitality of Irish gentlemen, soon extin-
guishes all minor objections to the fare, It so freely and
amply furnishes.*

Whether the musty savour generally taints the hay,
grain, or meal, in Ireland^ in all seasons ; I do not
know. I speak of the fact in 1785, 1786 ; and my cor-
respondent experienced the like unpleasant tang, in
1798. Nor do we stand alone, in this experience;

and that in seasons less remote.

Richard Peters.

Nov. 12, 1812.

CONCLUSION.

Wishing to give every information I could obtain re*
specting the Fiorin, about which so much has been
said and written in Europe, I may have been too de-
sultory and prolix, as it regards our publication. The
conclusion, in my own mind, is, — that upland-farmers
will not profit by this grass, unless they devote to it,
parts of their watered meadows ; or have swamps, or
boggy grounds, intermixed with their farms. This
often happens ; — and to those the Fiorin should be ap-

* I have known many persons here, from habit, fond of our gar-
licky butter and milk ; preferring them to all other. The people of
some of the islands, (whether owing to a natural, or acquired pro-
pensity I know notO those of Curracoa particularly, were accus-
tomed to send orders to J\/ew York and Fhiladel/ihiat for what they
called « hi^h flavoured'* i. c. garlicky butter. Our people ia
general dislike and nauseate it.

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76

On Fiorin Grass*

plied ; and may so be to great advantage. — I need not
add, that the owners of low-lands naturally moist, or
wet even to excess, can wonderfully improve them, by
cultivating this grass.

I have, ( since the foregoing communications were
made,) read a well written statistical survey of the
county of A N T R I M , in Ireland ; full of interesting agri-
cultural information ; by the Reverend Mr. Dubourdieu,
an Irish clergyman. 1812. He mentions Dr. jRicAarrf-
son and his discoveries and exertions, with great ap-
probation. He gives a clear and concise account of the
Fiorbty both in its natural and cultivated state ; on the
borders of the Lough-Neagh particularly ; where it
grows in great abundance. What has been detailed in
the foregoing sheets, is confirmed ; in all substantial
fltcts. It appears that it will not answer well in dry
grounds ; unless they can be occasionally irrigated, or
flooded. The idea that it can be profitably cultivated
in poor ground, is exploded. Bogs, swamps, and wet
soils, even those fit for nothing else, are its element ;
as are the shores of lakes, and rivers, naturally rich
and moist. Such situations are generally capable of
being occasionally flooded ; and are subject to over,
flows. But these should pass away ; either of them-
selves, or by artificial means. Deposits of sand, or
othfr foreign matter, when floods are frequent, irijure
the Fiorin, in regard to its profitable expenditure, in
the manner they afiect other grass : but its principle of
life, and progress of growth, are not retarded.

As to wet seasons, and winter-hay.making.—wc
have little occasion of putting to the test, the qualities
and capacities of the Fiorin. To those who are under

^

On Fiorin Grass.

77

the necessity of extracting this kind of comfort from
tocal misfortune, it is happy, that the subject warrants
the facts alledged ; in this regard. All provender cured
in favourable weather, is, most assuredly, the most pa-
latable, wholesome, and nutritious. But that which
will sustain, without injury, circumstances under which
other grasses would perish, is certainly worthy of every
commendation.'

It should be introduced by us, wherever it is proper
and practicable, as an important and sure resort, when
anomalous seasons destroy our other crops ; as well as
for its positive good qualities, and profitable uses, at

all times.

R. Peters.

June 18, 1813.

y "■■

r^isa

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C 78 3

*v

mW

On the Diseases of Sheep^ and the similarity in their
Nature with the prevalent Complaints of Mankind^ by
Dr. Petrikin.

Read November 12,1811.
Belmont f October 7 J 1811.

Dear Sir^

My friend Dr. Rush, having been so obliging as
to communicate to me a letter (to him) from Dr. Da-
vid Petrikin of Danville^ in Northumberland county,
Pennsylvania, containing some information apparent-
ly important, on a subject which, in this country, is
most lamentably neglected — to wit — the diseases of
domestic animals ; I extract a part of that letter (dated
1st Sept. 1811) for the information of the society.
Any thing relative to veterinary subjects is desirable,
in our present dearth of information ; but this seems
peculiarly worthy of attention ; though I have before
observed very strong facts proving the similarity of
diseases in horses^ cattle j and other animals, with those
afflicting the human species ; originating in like, or the
same causes ; and requiring similar treatment. — Whe-
ther the symptoms or exact description of the maladies
existing at the same time, and in the same place, both
in men and the brute creation, are alike, I will not de-
termine.—But I have repeatedly observed diseases ap-
pearing to me to originate in the same causes, and ex-
isting at the same time, in the same place, in our do-
mestic animals and the human species. No doubt
this has been observed by others more competent to

'^;>«JS

On the Diseases of Sheep, ^c^

79

turn the circumstance to useful account. And it is
very desirable, that those qualified in such subjects,
should promulgate both facts and opinions-— Dr. Pet^
rikin has set a laudable example to professional charac-
ters ; who cannot employ their anatomical and medi-
cal talents to more advantage, than by exerting them
in inquiries of this nature. Some of th^ most respect-
able men of their profession in Europe, have deemed
Ae subject honorable to them ; and have devoted their
acquirements in the medical art, as well as all branch-
es of knowledge connected with it, to the great benefit
of their country ; by developing the causes and cures
of diseases in domestic animals ; whereof a most va-
luable part of the property of all countries consists.

Your very obedient servant,

Richard Peteks.

Dr. James Mease,

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

':i1

i»i

EXTRACT.

" The hooping cough has been the prevalent disease
in this neighbourhood, since the first of June. It has
been very mild, and required medical aid only in a few
cases ; and in those a free use of the lancet was all that
was necessary. There have been a few cases of Ty-
PHus, within two or three weeks past, on the high hills,
about five miles from this place. Blisters, bark, wine,
&c. were successful. The persons attacked were
under 20 years of^age. An inflammatory disorder has
appeared among thp Horses in the neighbourhood of

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80

O/i the Diseases of Sheep ^ yc.

these cases; which is generally mortal, principally
from their being generally wrong treated. On the frst
appearance of the hooping cough amongst the human
species, an inflammatory sore throat was epidemic among
the horses throughout thi;s country ; attended with loss
of appetite, fever, inflammation of the Tonsils, and sup-
puration and very severe cough. I found that bleeding
iM\A purging was the remedy indicated in the beginning
of the disease, or at any time before the suppuration of
the tumors. But after suppuration^ peruvian bark. steeL
assafoetida and tar^ were useful ; and bleeding, &c. in-
jurious. This disease has been generally called the
throat distemper.

" I never was more forcibly struck with the simi-
larity of the diseases of the human and brute creation,
than last winter ; of which the following is a history ;
from my note book."

" January 12th, visited six patients.— Disease

pneumonia — pulse tense and quick ; — remedies

bleeding— cathartics, and blisters to breast :— called
on a visit to Mn W. B. Montgomery. — Several of his
Sheep have died of disease. Upon dissection, I find
considerable inflammation of the membrane lining the
Thorax; an eff'usion of water around the lungs; in
one of them the lungs do not appear to be inflamed.
In several others the lungs are inflamed ; and upon
cutting into the substance of the lungs, the cells ap-
pear full of a frothy liquid. The rest of the body ap-
pears healthy ; as also the brain. Examined severaji,
alive : Symptoms ;— cough,— the falling of both ears
backwards,— -vertigo ;— so that in attempting to walk,
they stagger — Prescribed bleeding and purges of mo-

On the Diseases of Sheep ^ &?<?,

81

ac

s

I .11 ]■

lasses and yeast. January 16th, called to see Mr.
Montgomery's Sheep. Seytvdil had recovered, that
fiadbeen bled and purged the first day of the disease.

<* The similarity of the diseases is evident ; and Mr.
Montgomery asserts, that bleeding alone saved one or
two valuable half blooded Merino sheep in this disease.
The blood was taken by opening a vein near the arti-
culation of the lower jaw. Mr. M. had at the time
about 300 sheep; of which he lost about thirty by this
inflammatory Disease'; and chiefly the fattest of
the flock."

I copy no more of the letter ; because it concludes
with an apology to Dr. Rush, for the trouble given to
him by the writer. The society have had the most sa-
tisfactory proof, in the excellent lecture delivered by
Dr. Rush, and printed in our first volume, that he re-
quires no apology ; but takes jtp interest in all such
communications of informatic«r-I mention, with not
the most distant idea of repro^p, but with serious and
sincere regret, that, until this communication, we
have had no instance of the good efiect produced on
medical men, by the important example set in that lec-
ture. So that our domestic animals are either, from
^necessity, placed in the hands of ignorant and fraudu-
lent quacks, and low pretenders to veterinary know-
ledge, or abandoned to their fate. The latter is, in
most cases, the safest alternative.

R. Peters.

VOL. irr.

-Cl.

i'<'

..Vv

MMW

■Ml

P ft"

'■A in

ili

82

On the Diseases of Sheep, t^c.

June 20, 1813^
Great numbers of sheep (many valuable Merimi)
have fallen victims, this season, to the worm in the
head. A Tunis sheep of high blood, nor any of its
crosses (except in one instance with a Merino) never
have been known to have worms in the head. The
nostril of this sheep is differently formed, from those
of common sheep; so as to exclude flies, or other in-
sects. Nor are they subject to mucous defluxions at
the noses, in any degree equal to other sheep. It is
supposed that the sheep fly deposits its eggs, or worm,
in the mucus of the nose ; and that by this means,
access to the fatal deposit in the h^ad is gained. The •
passages of the nostrils of common sheep, in hot wea-
ther, when they breathe violently, are widely distended-
and they may inTiale, probably, the fly. or their ova.'
Some repellant of tor, or other substance disgusting
to the fly, might be applied to the nostril ; if this con-
jecture, as to the cause of the malady, be well found-
ed. It wiU be highly conducive to the interest of
sheep breeders, if both cause and remedy were investi.
gated and communicated. See Mr. Capner's account
of the worm in the head. Vol. 1. p. 133.

This malady seems to be peculiarly fatal to sheep.
Whether other cloven footed animals are subject to it*
in a degree so destructive, I know not. Deer, and some
others of the Cm>?, have worms in the head; similar
to those in sheep. It is highly desirable that some re-
medies or preventives should be discovered, to save
©ur flocks ; which have become, linder the circum-
stances of our country, objects of primary importance.

On the Dif eases of Sheep, &f c.

83

Worms have been detected in the frontal sinuses of
bwpwft subjects ; perhaps produced by the ova, or se-
minal principle, inhaled. Whether fetal efiects have
followed, I know not. There is, probably, no animal
more subject to diseases occasioned by worms, than is
man. Those diseases put on every appearance. Their
diagnostics are so perfectly protean, that they deceive
the most skilful physician. If I should not subject my-
self to the merited retort, of " ne sutor ultra crepidam,"
I would advise, that doubtful and unknown diseases
should be considered, and treated, as originating from
worms ; instead of being styled nervous afiections ; or,
(according to the fashion of the day,) gout. I think,
the chances of cure, would be by far the most favour-

able.

R. P.

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C 84 ]

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v. ^.

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On the Agriculture of England,— on Manures, -^Con^
vertible Husbandry,— and Soiling, by Mr. John Lo-

rain.

Read November 10, 1812.

Philipsburg, on the Mushanon,
Centre County, Fenn. July 21, 1812.

Dear Sir,

Previous to my departure from Philadelphia, I pro-
mised you some observations on the alarming appre-
hensions of a scarcity of bread, which sometimes takes
place in Great Britain, and also remarks on any sub-
ject considered worthy of attention, which might be
presented in the recent settlements of our extensive
forests ; and miexpected leisure has furnished me with
ample opportunity for that purpose.

The remarks on British management are novel, and
although the substance of many of the observations
made on agriculture, may be found dispersed in vari-
ous writings on that subject ; still, the condensing and
applying them simply to the best methods of practice,
cannot be considered uninteresting, more especially as
the value of grass grounds, do not appear to be clearly
understood, either in the procuring, management, or
the most advantageous application of them, or their
lays to future crops. But here I would wish to be un-
derstood, that what I have advanced on convertible
husbandry, cannot be considered in any other light,
than barely as rough and unconnected hints on the sub-
ject, and calculated to claim the attention of those who

On the Agriculture of England, Manures, &?r. 85

are possessed of abilities, clearly and properly to ex-
plain this invaluable practice.

How far my observations on the forests and the re-
cent settlements, which have either been attempted or
established in them, hav^been anticipated, is entirely
unknown to me. Except what has been published by
the president of your society, which I cheerfully ac
knowledge, has been of great advantage to me, in my
researches into the revolutions of nature, and the events
that take place among timber, I have seen nothing on

the subject.

I am, dear sir, your friend,

and humble servant,

John Lorain.
Dr. James Mease.

Philipsburg, June 10, 1812.
Dear Sir,

Scanty harvests will sometimes occur in every coun-
try, and when they take place in Great Britain, to any
considerable degree, they excite alarming apprehen-
sions, and seriously affect the tranquillity of the inha-
bitants, until plenty has been introduced by importa-
tion, and a return of more plentiful crops : and as the
evil appears to originate in the prevailing partiality for
old pastures, and the methods pursued in laying them
down, some observations on that subject may be inter-
esting.

The immense advantages which the agriculture of
Great Britain derives from an abundahce of grass, has
been too generally attributed to the superior manage-
ment of their grass grounds ; when in fact the produce

♦v, >,

4^

;:r*t

Manures,

\i

and profits of those crt^s are greatly, diminished in con-
sequence of their management, and their grain and
other crops are deficient from the same cause.

When Britons became agricuhurists, the grasses
which had supplied their cattle while they were shep-
herds, were ploughed in proportion to the extent of
their cultivation, until it became necessary for art to
assist nature in the multiplication of grass grounds.
It is probable, that at that period, they introduced
the injudicious practice of forming pastures from seeds
indiscriminately gathered from hay lofts, without re.
fleeting, that by this means they introduced late and
early, good and worthless plants, with all the interme-
diate qualities between those wide extremes, together
with innumerable weeds : and it appears strange, that
the enlightened agriculturists of that country should
still persist in the same mode, with little deviation, al-
though they are frequently disappointed in accomplish-
ing that object, after much labour has been expended,
and the income from the grounds are either lost, or
considerably curtailed ; and after all this expense, to
procure permanent pastures, they are frequently in-
debted to nature, aided by expensive extra manurings,
to cover their grounds with grasses ; some, after be-
mg frequently disappointed, have even encountered the
enormous expense of covering the ground with sods,
procured from lanes, road sides, and other places.

Although the agriculture of Pennsylvania is in gene-
ral mferior to that of Great Britain, yet there are im.
provements in this country worthy their attention. The
Pennsylvania farmer selects his grass seeds from the
most approved plants : no unknown mixtures are ad-

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On the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ ^c. M

mitted : they are gathered, threshed, cleaned, and kept
separate, and hj this means we are in possession of
the best plants that have as yet claimed our attention ;
and those who are in the habit of attentive ob^rvation,
w*e acquainted with their different properties, except
the relative value of each in fattening cattle, a point
that has been too little considered, either here, or iti
any other country, although there are some plants in-
finitely superior to others for that purpose. If those
were known and cultivated separately, much less
ground would be found sufficient to fatten an ox, than
is at this time necessary for that purpose. Indeed there
are few questions equally interesting to the farmer, or
that can be more readily determined, than the fatten-
ing properties of grasses, especially in England, where
they have easy modes of weighing cattle, and can rea-
dily ascertain what they have gained or lost, in any
given space of time. But not only the knowledge of
the fattening properties of grasses, that may be obtain-
ed from the separate* collecting of grass seeds, but all
the different properties of the various kinds of grasses
may be thereby understood, such as those best calcu-
lated to increase the quantity bf milk, butter or cheese,*
and to give additional value to their flavour. Useless
plants may also be eradicated, and the space they

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* The possibility of attaining these objects has been rendered
probable, by the sudden change in the taste of cows' milk, from
feeding a short time on /^/or/n grass. See Archives of Useful
Knowledge, vol. 2, p. 275. Father's Magazine, Edinburg, March
1812? p. 12.

» J. M.

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88 On the Agriculture of England, Manures, &?<*.'

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would occupy may be filled with other plants, that
spring early, and continue giowiug through every sea-
son, until frost has locked up the powers of vegeta-
tion. By this means also, grasses suitable for every
soil and climate, may be obtained, and the fruidess la-
bour of endeavouring to establish such as are not con-
genial with either, avoided. Finally, farmers may in
this way, as readily become acquainted with the grasses
best adapted to their different fields, as they now are .
with the best grain, roots, &c.

Although the abolition of naked summer fallows,
_ has unquestionably introduced an immense improve.
^ ment m the agriculture of Great Britain, there can be
but litde doubt, that the abolition of old grass grounds,
and the methods of laying them down, would intro-
duce much greater improvement, the extent of which
will be found incalculable : for many of the plants
growing in them, ripen late in the season, others are
very diminutive, or are not relished by any kind of
stock ; all those, as well as innumerable weeds,
which too generally take possession of a considerable
proportion of old grass grounds, may be eradicated by
a well conducted system of convertible husbandry ; and
grounds which have been recently laid down, in a high
state of cultivation, with good grasses, suited to the
soil and climate, will yield at least double the income
which could be obtained from the same grounds, had
tlicy continued in old pasture.

The land holders of Great Britain would have long
smce seen the value of convertible husbandry, had not
their judgments been blinded by the imaginary value
of their old grass grounds, for they consider submit-

On the Agriculture of England, Manures, &?c. 89

ing diem to the plough, litde less than a sacrilege, and
it appears that the opinion is not confined to men of
contracted sentiments, for the board of agriculture, in
that country, (who, when influenced by the alarming
apprehension of scarcity, which not very long since,
took place,) were induced to make an extensive enqui-
ry into the expediency of ploughing up old pastures,
and after a course of crops returning them back again
to grass, appear to have confined that enquiry so point-
edly to the ultimate design of returning the grounds
back again to permanent pasture, that information in
any other shape was rather too much discouraged. Had
the board simply requested information on the 'best
measures which could be pursued, to introduce, at aU
seasons, a sufiiciency of grain and other crops, suita-
ble for the consumption and comfortable support of
the nation, without diminishing an ample supply of
food for live stock, the subject would have been left
open, and it is probable, the practice of convertible
husbandry would have been recommended by some
cultivators, who appear from their writings to under,
stand the value of that practice, although they have not
considered it advisable to recommend it, being con-
fined by the questions of the board, or probably de-
terred by an apprehension, that popular opinion was
too much opposed to the practice, to admit any hope
of attention being paid to their advice.

When grounds become matted with the roots of
Old grass plants, it does not appear reasonable to sup-
pose them capable of producing crops, that will bear
any tolerable comparison with those gathered from
grounds of equal quality, which have been recently

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90 On the Agriculture ofEngkmd, Manures^ &?c.

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laid down, with the best artificial grass seeds ; for the
roots of those young plants are healthy, and vigorous,
and capable of pressing forward, in search of nutri-
ment, through a soil, which, being free and open, ad-
mits a ready passage for them in every direction, and
if those grounds are ploughed up, before they become
bound, or consolidated, and while the roots of the grass
still remain vigorous, and filled with sap, they possess
powers of exciting and promoting future vegetation,
far beyond what has been generally supposed ; for al-
though their effects would be trifling, were they ex-
tracted, heaped, and decomposed, previously to their
being applied to the crop, they are immensely power-
ful, when their fermentation and decomposition take
place in the soil ; for the soil is warmed, moistened, and
expanded, in due proportion to the quantity and qua-
lity of decaying vegetation, which it contains : this
subject is well understood in Great Britain, when ap-
plied to clover lays, which are there very judiciously
managed, but their old grass grounds are seldom
ploughed, until they become so consolidated, and in-
fested with destructive grubs and other insects, that
the labour and risk, necessarily attached to the first
crops, which are grown on those grounds, render them
very expensive, as well as precarious ; and it some-
times happens, that two seasons are wasted in cultivat-
ing them, before the firm texture of the soil, and the
enemies with which it was infested, are subdued.
It appears, therefore, that old grass grounds are inca-
pable of producing as luxuriant crops, either before
or after they have been broken up, as might have been
procured from the same grounds, under a system of

On the Agriculture ofEngland^ Manures ^ is?c. 91

TJ' U

well directed convertible husbandry, and that grass
may be justly considered, not only nature's grand re-
storative of the soil, but also the pabulum of succeed-
ing vegetation ;* thence it should be laid down as a
maxim in farming, that no grounds should continue in
grass until they become hard, bound, or consolidated,
and the roots become old and matted, and that the
plough should be stopped, before decaying vegetation
has been reduced to actual soil or earth, for great crops
of grass can be no longer obtained, than while the soil
continues free and open, and the roots remain unim-
paired, neither can superior crops of grain be expect-
ed, after decaying vegetation ceases to stimulate and
open the soil, without the aid of frequent manurings.

As manure is a very expensive article, whether pur-
chased, or made on the farm, the judicious application
of it becomes highly important to the farmer ; and %s
gentlemen of considerable agricultural information,
have differed very widely in their sentiments on the
time and mode of its application, it may not be impro-
per to state what has been my practice and observa-
tions on it*

•That grass acts with amaaing energy, in both titoae ways, is
readily conceived, by considering that the tops shelter and de«
fend the soil, and also gather and confine the nutdtious proper-
ties, with which the surrounding atmosphere is charged, until
they are conveyed to the earth ; the dropping of the leaves are also **
an addition to fertility, and the tops fed away to cattle, procure ma-
nure, and the roots fill the soil, in every direction, with a profusion
of vegetation, which, when they decay, enrich it, and most power*
fully excite the growth of succeeding crops.

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92 On the Agriculture of England ^ Manures^ h?c. '

On the Agriculture of England^ Manures^ &fr. 93

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I have invariably applied my farm yard manure, to
my summer fallow brops, which have ever been far
superior to those who have pursued a contrary prac-
tice, and the wheat, barley, and grass crops, grown
after those summer fallows, without any further addi-
tional manure, I have ever found fully equal, and fre-
quently superior, to the crops grown by my neigh-
bours, who almost universally applied their manure
immediately to their wheat and barley crops: and when
their fields of those grains were poisoned with weeds,
and the grasses sown over them greatly injured, from
the same cause, my grain crops were clean, and much
readier and sooner harvested, for it was not found ne-
fcessary for them to stand exposed in the shocks, until
the succulent weeds were sufficiently dried, to pre-
vent injury from fermentation, in the stacks or barns,
and the harvesting of my grasses derived equal advan. ,
tage, from the same cause, in quantity and quality.

Leaves, straw, weeds, vines, cornstalks and their
roots, were all carefully gathered and used by me, ei-
ther for littering the stalte or cattle yards. This mode
of management produced a large quantity of manure,
for as those substances were fully saturated with the
moisture of the cattle yards, they formed a valuable
compost, without the labour of heaping and turning,
and in this situation, previously to fermentation, they
were haulqd, spread over, and immediately ploughed
under the soil designed for my sumnler fallow crops,
which were principally Indian corn and potatoes ; and
I am well satisBed, that as much ground may be ma-
nured in this way by one ox, as could be effected with
two, if it is suffered to ferment and rot in the cattle

yards, or heaped up in the fields for that purpose ; and
if farmers did not suffer their judgments to be biased,
either by reasoning, or prejudices imbibed from early
practice, their organs of sense would supply sufficient
means to determine the subject; for the sight and smell
of a fermenting dunghill, would quickly demonstrate
the course Jhat* should be taken with this invaluable
article, for when fermentation takes place beneath the
soil, the fructifying and exciting properties of the ma-
nure are diffused through the whole mass, and nothing
is lost which could have been possibly saved. You
have witnessed the rapid improvement, and luxuriant
crops which have been obtained on the farm (from
which I have lately removed,) by this method of using
manure, joined with a regular system of convertible
husbandry and soiling, and are capable of judging
whether I may with propriety recommend the prac-
tice to others. Although a large share of this improve-
ment was obtained by the addition of soiling, yet inde-
pendent of that invaluable practice, (which, neither the
population, capital or inclination of this country ap-
pear to favour,) convertible husbandry, joined with
a well regulated system of making, saving and apply-
ing manure, promises immense advantages ; and every
grade of soil, from blowing sands, to the most adhe-
sive, co!d clay grounds, may be much more profitably
managed, as well as sooner improved, through the
medium of that practice, than by any other method
which has yet been proposed.* '

•Well watered meadows, also, grounds inaccessible to the
plough, and those subject to land floods or inundations, are excepted.

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94 On the Agrkulture of England, Manures, tfc.

Cold, retentive clay soils are not so favourable for
summer fallow crops, or grain crops, as some other
soils ; yet even they have been frequently highly im-
proved by that practice in England, and the crops ob-
tained from them were much more luxuriant than they
had ever produced before, under the system of naked
summer fallowing ; and the grass following those
crops was infinitely superior to any that had ever grown
previously on those lands, and as it clearly appears,
that those two wide extremes of soil, are capable of
being profitably managed, under a well directed sys-
tem of convertible husbandry, it will be useless to sub-
stantiate the capability of improvement, in the same
way, of the intermediate grades of soil ; — and although
first rate grass grounds, and those near cities or large
towns, and superior grazing, and dairy farms, may be
all profitably managed in {heir present state, yet if one
fifth part of those lands were annually cultivated, in
summer fallow crops, and another one fifth part in
grain, the remaining three fifths wopld produce more
grass than the whole, while laying* in old pastures or
grass grounds, provided the soil was properly cultivat-
ed, in regular succession.

The plough, in the hands of an inconsiderate farmer,
may be justly considered an instrument of certain and
speedy destruction, being capable of exciting the soil
to its utmost efforts of fertility, which naturally debili-
tates and exhausts it, when nothing has been returned
to renovate its powers, yet this same instrument, in the
hands of a judicious cultivator, who returns back to
the soil a due proportion of vegetation, which he can
readily gather, becomes the most powerful and rapid

On the Agriculture of England^ Manures, t^e. 9S

enricher of the soil; for the more efiectually it has been
excited by this and other implements of husbandry, to
produce luxuriant crops, the more food and litter for
cattle are obtained, and of consequence, the more ma-
nure. Hence we can readily account for the great im-
provements which have been achieved by enterprising
and intelligentcuitlvators, on exhausted soils. Thecause ,
of this is clear, for the strength and vigour of the plants
are promoted, and they are rendered capable of extend-
ing ^heir roots through the soil, and gathering the nu-
triment which has been provided in it, for their sup-
port, and the tops also of the plants, equally invigorat-
ed by good cultivation, extract from the atmosphere
with which they are surrounded, the rich nutritive pro.
perties with which it is continually charged, and the
pulverized and open soil readily imbibes the enriching
properties, flowing from the same source, and conveys
them to the roots of the plants, with which it has been
covered. Why then should the enlightened cultiva-
tors of Britain dread the effects of the plough on their
grass grounds ?

If the grounds which have been very recently laid
down in grass, are found too tender to bear heavy
stock, they may be either mown, or grazed with lights
er animals, and those which are heavy turned on the
grasses of longer standing.

When convertible husbandry is properly managed,
much labour is saved. A summer fallow crop which
will admit of regular horse-hoeing or shimming, i^ the
first which follows after grass, the dung is spread on
the sod, and immediately ploughed under, arid great
care should be taken that it is not turned up, and ex-

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96 On the Agriculture of England, Maniires, h?if.

posed in the after cultivation of the crop ; and for the
ensuing crop, ploughing will be useless, as well as in-
jurious, as a fine tilth, with less than half the expense,
may be readily procured, without exposing the ma-
nure, by means of the scufflers or cultivators, common-
ly used in that country, which are very similar to the,
hoe, or fluke harrow used here. " «

The number of crops taken, before the ground
is returned back to grass, should not be many, but
must be, in a great measure, governed by the views
and situation of the cultivator : if they are exhaust-
ing, and more than two are taken, ameliorating,
crops, as turnips, potatoes, peas, or clover, should in-
tervene, and I believe there are few crops which af-
ford sufficient shade, and produce a plentiful supply of
fodder and litter for cattle, and will admit of effectual
horse-hoeing, which may not be justly deemed ameli-
orating, provided a sufficiency of manure has been ap-
plied to the soil. Indian corn has ever been my fa-
vourite summer fallow crop, for if properly arranged,
it affords sufficient shade, and admits the most perfect
cultivation, and if the value of the grain, fodder, and
litter of this crop is considered, the plant may be just-
ly esteemed far more valuable than any other that has
yet been discovered; but it is a large, and very power-
ful plant, and when grown without manure, and the
fodder stalks and roots are suffered to perish in the
field, which is too often the case, it becomes a power,
ful exhauster, and unless it has been planted on
grounds recently reclaimed from the forest, or on deep
fresh bottoms, its effects on the fertility of the soil are
manifest.

On the Agriculture of England, Manures^ ^c. 97

Soiling has been practiced with great success, and
,on a considerable scale, in England, by several gen.
tlemen, whose talents are highly estimated, and they
have published very accurate accounts of their expe-
riments, which certainly were worthy much mpre at-
tention, than has yet been given to them, either in that
country, or any where else ; for it appears that farm-
ers are the most difficult of any other people under the
sun, to be convinced of the errors which are manifest
in their practice, or of the utility of the most advanta-
geous improvements, which may be readily made in
their profession, and that they believe the knowledge
of their art hereditary, for they are immediately up in
arms, against any person who attempts to dock the en-
tail of ignorance.

Yours, respectfully,

John Lorain*
Dr. James Mease*

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Observations upon the Agriculture and Roads of the new
Settlements in Pennsylvania^ with Hints^Jbr Improve-
menty by Mr. John Lorain.

Ill

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Read* November 10, 1812.

Philip sburgy June 28, 1812.

Dear Sir^

In passing westwardly from Philadelphia to this
place, I observed with peculiar pleasure, that much
attention had been given to grass and red clover, in the
older settlements ; and that notwithstanding a very
imperfect system of husbandry almost universally pre-
vailed, yet great improvement had been effected, and
the crops were generally promising, and in many in-
stances very luxuriant : and there can be but little
doubt, that the agriculture of Pennsylvania must flour-
ish to a very great extent, even if no further improve-
ment should take place in the general mode of manage-
ment ; for it is very obvious, that as population pro-
gresses toward the more recent settlements, an atten-
tionto the multiplication of artificial grasses, gradually
spreads, and a practice so obviously advantageous,
cannot fail of ultimately becoming general throughout
the state : and if Agricultural Societies should cease,
and enlightened cultivators forbear writing on that
subject, still, the industrious and economical farmers of
this state must be very opulent ; yet if they pursued a
better mode of management, improvement and wealth
would progress with much greater rapidity, without

Observations on Agriculture ^ &?r.

99

either encreasing their own motion, or that of their
justly valued stout and fat horses. To effect this pur-
pose, little more is necessary, than to avoid the plant-
^ing of Indian corn without manure, and also laying
aside the prcposterousr practice of breaking up oat,
buckwheat, and rye stubbles, and fallowing of them
for wheat ; and instead of applying their manure to the
latter crop, apply it to summer fallow crops, which will
admit effectual horse-hoeing, shimming, or hoe-har-
rowing, agreeably to the mode mentioned tg you i^ my
letter of the 10th instant, on the agriculture of Great
Britain.

If I have been properly informed, the road leading
through Lancaster, Harrisburg, &c. to this place,
would have presented a country for which nature and
art has done much more than for that through which I
passed; my route laid through Reading and Sunbury,
where I crossed the Susquehannah to Northumber-
land, and followed the course of the west branch of
that river, to the big island, where I crossed it again,
about 25 miles below Bellefonte. If I am not mista-
ken, nature has not been peculiarly lavish on the soil of
that long range of country, except in the bottoms, which
are by no means extensive, and are really trifling when
compared with the rising grounds, without taking
into consideration the immense chains of mountains,
which present themselves in constant succession, after
leaving Hamburg, at the foot of the blue mountain ;
for from that town to the Bear Gap, a distance of about
40 miles, there is scarcely any cultivation to be seen,
or a spot on which it could be effected, except the
sides or tops of the mountains, or some trivial and

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100

Observations^ on the Agriculture

very narrow bottoms, closely hemmed in on each side
by them : yet the new turnpike road, through that
extensive mountainous country, has been planned and
executed with such ingenuity that the ascents and de-
scents are perfectly easy, and without perplexity : the
road also is well leveled, with sufficient width for carria-
ges safely to pass each other ; and it would have been
a model of perfection, if the hardy mountaineers had
considered the feelings of their Atlantic brethren,
and left the trees and bushes standing on the sides of
the road, next the valleys, which, in case of accident,
would afford considerable security to the passenger,
and would hide from his view the descents into the val-
ley, which are frequently almost perpendicular, and to
an immense depth, presenting a tremendous prospect
to those who have not been accustomed to the sight :
for, notwithstanding the goodness of the road, and full
confidence in the abilities and sobriety of the driver
and gentle disposition of the horses, reflections on
what might possibly happen, cannot be agreeable until
habit has familiarized those grand but terrific objects.
I wish It had been in my power to give you as favour-
able an account of the improvement wjiich has taken
place in the more recent and scattered settlements of
the forests, as I have done of those where agriculture
has been much longer established, but this cannot be
done.-The first object with the settler, is, either to
build a cabin or house, and such buildings are muchi
niore easily erected, and may be readily rendered more
comfortable than is generally supposed : after this ob-
ject IS effected, they fall or girdle the timber, scratch
the soil, and commence cropping, which is continued

«

and Roads of Pennsylvania.

101

without intermissiojq^,. until the fertility of the ground
has been exhausted, which renders fresh soil and fur-
ther clewing necessary, and this new spot also under,
goes the same destructive process. Little attent;ion is
given to grass, which is seldom seen, except in, bottom
meadows, and then in but a small quantity, and to
those patches of grass all the scanty manure gathered
on the farm is hauled on sleds, when hands and leisure
will admit of this operation ; for it is only the compa-
rative opulent farmer that possesses either waggon or
cart, and distant excursions are performed on pack
horses, mounted with simple saddles, constructed for
the purpose. Here the pride of affluence may be led
to depreciate the capacity and ingenuity of tlwse ap-
parently stupid cultivators, but recent serious misfor-
tunes have taught me to feel for the miseries of others,
and to participate in the disadvantages under which
they labour. I do not observe that those men are
deficient in the talents or enterprise requisite for a bet-
ter mode of management ; but that they have been
driven, either by folly or unmerited misfortunes, to seek
refuge in the forests, without sufficient funds to meet
the expenditures, actually necessary to accomplish a
better mode of management, and are doomed, by the
stern hand of adversity, to deprivations, hardships and
sufferings, which could have been readily avoided, had
they possessed a capital commensurate with their un-
dertaking. A very inconsiderable sum of money
would have rendered them entirely easy and indepen-
dent, when compared with the funds necessary to fprm
a comfortable and independent establishment, where
any considerable population has taken place ; for, in

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102 Observations on Agriculture^ h?c.

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our older settlements, the prices of lands are high,
and the fertility of the soil has been so much exhaust-
ed by the pioneers, or first settlers of the country, that
much labour,- and very considerable expense, will be
found necessary to restore the grounds to their origin,
al state of fertility. But when the agriculturist encoun-
ters the forest, he commences on a fresh soil, which
has been accumulating the riches of decaying vegcta.
tion for ages, and under a proper system of manage,
ment, and with but very little comparative labour and
expense, will continue its original fertility for ages yet
to come; a circumstance that cannot fail of insuring
independence to well conducted enterprize, although
accompanied with but moderate capital, and to those
who are wealthy and equally enterprising, noble estates,
and to the intermediate grades of capital, proportionate
success, provided the plans and expenditures of the
cultivator are governed by the true principles of rural
economy, a proper system of agriculture is pursued,
and a rich soil has been selected. This will not be
found a difficult task to the practical, observing, and
reflecting farmer, if he does not suffer his judgment
to be led astray by the various and erroneous opinions

of the inhabitants, on the comparative valtie of soils,

on which I expect hereafter to make some observa-
tions, which, I flatter myself, will not be entirely un-
interesting to you.

I am, yours, respectfully,

3oRH LoRAIJr.

Tit, James Mease.

C 103 3

Observations on the comparative value of SoUs, 6?c. by
Mr. John Lorain.

*

Read November 10, 1813.

Philipsburg, July 12, 181^.
Dear Sir,

In my last, of the 28th ultimo, some observations
were promised on the erroneous opinions that go-
verned the settlers here, in their estimation of the va.
lue of the soil. This appears to rest too much on the
different kinds of timber with which it happens to be
covered ; for, after excepting influence of climate and
an excess of moisture, together with the adhesive, or
free open properties of the upper soil, and the next
under stratum, (which are both readily seen where the
trees have been blown down,) it wUl be found, if due
investigation has been made, that the different kinds of
timber with which every soil is covered, h^ve been en-
tirely produced either by the periodical revolutions or
changes of nature, or else by fortuitous events; and that
the idea of perpetual succession, of the same kinds of
timber, on the spils on which they arc found, origi-
nates in deficiency of observation and attention to this
interesting subject. This fact may be readily traced by
any observing traveller, who passes through this coun-
try, yet men of talents pass through it, live and die in
It, and appear to give but very little attention to the
subject.

White pine, and spruce pine (or hemlock) cover
ahke the moistest bottoms and the dryest ridges, for

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Oti the comparative value of Soils, &?c.

they appear calculated to grow on any grounds, which
are not too poor to afford them sufficient support ; but
neither those, nor any oth^r timber, are found luxuri-
ant, unless the ground. on which they are growfaig is
rich, but there are certainly a variety of timbers, which
have^ not been furnished with properties, to flourish
equally on moist, dry, open, or adhesive soils, and on
neither of those grounds, whether rich or poor, will
timber prevail, which nature has eridowed with pro-
perties inconsistent with the soil ; consequently, those
persons who estimate the value of lands, by the kinds
of timber which grow on them, may pass by rich lands,
and fix on those which are greatly inferior, merely be-
cause they happen to be 'furnished with properties to
grow their favourite timber, which now occupies the
room of some others, that had previously covered the
same grounds.

• After those prefatory observations, I proceed to
state the leading facts, which have proved, to my en-
tire satisfaction, the periodical and fortuitous changes
of timber on the same grounds.

Ocular demonstration clearly discovers, that yellow
pmes have, at some time, prevailed throughout this
extensive country, although they are at present so thin-
ly scattered, in this settlement, that the inhabitants
have recourse to their knots for making tar ; they are
also, almost exclusively used in place of candles, and
when properly fixed in the backs or jams of the fire
places, for burning them, and they are properly split
and quartered, they afford a brilliant light through the
room, without the least offence from smoke. Those
knots spring from the heart of the tree, and it is not

On the comparative value of Soils, &?c. 105

l'.

until after the rest of the wood has decayed, that they
come into use. They are found"dispersed on the ground
in every direction, through the forests, and are in equal
plenty where the soil is covered with timber, whether
deciduous or evergreen ; and although they claim the
constant attention of the inhabitants, for either of the
purposes mentioned, and are turned up when they are
ploughing, yet it appears, they do not consider, that
the grounds which they are ploughing, were once co.
vered with yellow pine. But it is not wonderful, that
the distant operations of nature should escape atten-
tion, when the changes of timber, within the compass
of three or four years' observation, appear to be but
little observed by them ; yet those men are as capable
of reflection as other people, Imd exercise it too, on
objects which they consider combined eitlier with their
interest, convenience, or pleasure ; but they have not
conceived this subject connected with either ; and of
consequence, the positive proof of the changes which "
take place, in the prevailing timber, on the same
grounds, entirely escapes their observation, notwith-
standing it is readily gathered from the multitude of
settlements, which have been attempted, in various
directions, throughout the back country, and after-
wards deserted by the settlers, either from poverty or
a conviction that the situation was unfavourable to their
prosperity, or a restless. disposition to ramble in search
of some spot, where the efforts of industry, and the
unpleasant attention to a persevering economy, ate
rendered useless. * ,

The grounds thus^'deserted, either immediately after
the timber had been subdued, or after more or less cul-

VOL. III. ^ *•

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106

On the comparative value

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tivation had taken place, present a truly interesting
subject of enquiry, for in every instance, as far as my
observation has extended, (and it has been considera-
ble,) the prevailing timber, whether just springing up,
or of considerable growth, is found, universally, of an
entirely different kind from that which had been sub-
dued. This fact is readily ascertained, by examining
the stumps, or girdled trees, which are still standing.
Locust,* which approaches nearer to indestructibi-
lity than any other wood which I have observed here
excepting the yellow pine knots, is found lying on the
ground, in various directions, where but little traces of
them are to be discovered among the growing timber ;
other varieties having taken possession of the grounds
which were formerly covered with them, and it often
happens, in the neighbourhood of Philipsburg, and
elsewhere, that when either log-heaps or the timber in
general, has been burned, that locust immediately
springs up in profusion, where little or no traces of
this timber, either dead or alive, had been previously
observed.

But here it will be proper to observe, that although
no grounds, which are not rich, will be found covered
with a profusion of very luxuriant timber, yet fortuitous
circumstances frequently occur, which are inimical to
the growth of timber, on the best of soils. The hunts
men burn the woods, to obtain a better chance for kill,
mg their game, and the inattention of the inhabitants
who kindle fires for various purposes, also spreads de!

TT

of Soils, and of Timber.

107

ORB

W

• Robinia Pseudo-Acada. Lin.

vastation far and wide, which has destroyed a vast quan-
tity of timber, where the settlements have been made
for any considerable length of time, and where frequent
repetitions of burnings have taken place, among the
young timber, which had sprung up after the destruc-
tion of the old. The consequence has been, that the
young plants, from being scorched, have become dis-
cased and debilitated, and appear as scrubby, when
growing even on rich lands, as they would have been
if the soil was actually poor, and nothing had injured
their growth.

After attentively investigating, and duly considering
this subject, I have selected my farm, and fixed on
ground where white pine and hemlock are the prevail-
ing timber, intermixed with sugar maple trees, and a
variety of other valuable deciduous timber, although I
might have made my selection from extensive forests,
covered with timber of a contrary description. For
notwithstanding I do not consider any soil either bet-
ter or worse, in consequence of the kind of timber
which happens to be prevalent on it, at the present
time, yet I am persuaded, that after correct investiga-
tion has been made of the various advantages and dis-
advantages, arising from the different kinds of timber,
with which the soil may be covered, that lands where
white pine prevails, will be found much more valuable
than those where deciduous timber is predominant,
but as this cannot be demonstrated, until it has been
ascertained by well directed experiment, I wUl state
the advantages and disadvantages on each side of the

question, leaving every person to determine for him.
self.

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108

On the comparative value

%

The stumps of white and spruce pines, (which are
frequently companions,) stand much thicker and much
longer on the grounds, than those from deciduous
trees; and the roots from those pines being very nu-
merous, spread very superficially, and present a mat-
ted mass of obstructions to cultivation, but by no
means so formidable as some imagine, for they are
soft and more easily cut, or broken by the plough, than
those growing from deciduous timber, and suckers
never spring from the stumps or the roots of those
pines, neither are the grounds which are well covered
by them, infested with grubs, brambles, or weeds : for
the very close shade they afford, is unfavourable to
their growth, of consequence the stumps and roots of
the pmes, form the principal difficulties to cultivation.
But the grounds covered with deciduous timber, also
present some considerable obstacles of the same kind
for open wood lands are particularly favourable to the
growth of suckers, grubs, brambles and weeds, and
grubbmg is expensive before cultivation commences
and suckering and weeding require considerable la-'
bour, which must be performed with attention for
some, time to come.

It is allowed by all with whom I have conversed on
the subject, that notwithstanding the evergreen tim
bcr far exceeds the quantity of the deciduous trees on
any given space of ground, it is much more readily re
moved from, or burnt on the lands, being softer, light-
er, and more inflammable. The timber of white pine
IS, moreover, peculiarly valuable in a new country for
buildings, which are erected with it in one half the
time required by harder and heavier woods ; for be-

■>v.-

qf Soils, and, of Timber.

109

PCSC

sides being soft and light, it is straight and free from
knots, and of consequence is much more readily cut,
squared, and put up ; hence a comfortable liouse, or a
convenient barn, is built with an astonishing rapi4ity
of it. The shingles are also very durable, and rea-
dily wrought, and the boards exactly suited for every
purpose, except the lower floors, and even for those
they are by no means a bad substitute for the yellow
pine. Rails also, for fencing, are readily formed from
this timber, and are only exceeded in durability by
chesnut. Hemlock is sometimes used for building,
but does not last when exposed to the weather, and of
course rails are not split from this wood: but the poles,
when used for that purpose, prove by no means defi-
cient in point of durability, when the fence does not
lie under the shade, and dripping from the trees. —
Hemlock roots generally rot quickly, and the tree falls
quite as soon, or sooner, than any other, and for this
quality it is less dreaded by the cultivators than the
white pine, but it appears that experience has taught
them that they sometimes continue sound, and stand
much longer on the ground, than usual, and also ob-
tain considerable additional hardness, and, they sup.
pose, proportionate durability, but this has not been
tried, neither can I gather from them, with any de-
gree of certainty, the time when those durable trees
were girdled, although they believe this eflfect was pro-
duced by the season, when the operation of girdling
took place. It appears probable, that this opinion
is correct ; for the practice of barking trees, while
standing, has been adopted in some parts of Europe,

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110

On the comparative value

4AL

for the express purpose of communicating solidity and
durability to the sap wood,* and it has also been found
m this country, that hickorj-, when cut and barked
with the sap in full flow, becomes very useful and last-
ing for the inside work t)f bams, and is never injured
by worms, although generally more subject to their
depredations than most other timber jf and it appears
equally probable, that if hemlock is barked standing,
the sap will sink into the open pores of the sap-wood
of the tree, and communicate solidity to those parts,
by condensing within them, instead of spending its
powers in increasing the size of the tree, which it would
have done. If the tree had not been stripped of its bark •
this measure, it is likely, will increase the value of
this kind of timber considerably, and bring it into bet-
ter repute, and much greater demand in our sea port
towns, where it is already used for many purposes,
and together with the bark, (now much used, arid in
considerable demand for tanning,) may eventually raise
the value of this tree equal to almost any other timber.
The youth of this country are remarkably active,
and accustomed to the woods, and are better qualified
to bark trees while standing, than most other people.
The bark of this tree strips much easier than any other
timber that is barked, and will admit the operation in
the summer, as well as in the spring.

The value of white pine lumber is ^o well known
to require explanation, and is readily cut and trans-

• See Darwin's Phytologja, Dublin edition, page 35.

t Domestic Encyclopedia, Philadelphia edition, vol. 2. p. 484.

>^■*»

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of Soik, and of Timber.

Ill

ported, and the quantity which a rich acre of land wiU
produce, is very considerable, and the neat clear pro-
fit. arismg from the sales, far exceeds what could be
obtained from the same surface of soil, equally good,
covered with deciduous trees. ^ j f> *

* I am.

Yours, respectfully,

UR, JAuza Meask.

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Account of the modes pursued in -clearing Land in Pernio
sylvania, and on the Fences in new Settlements, by
Mr. John Lorain.

% Read November 10, 1812.

Philipsburg, July 16, 1812.
Dear Sir, ,

There are but two modes of clearing ground pur-
sued in this county ; one is termed the Yankee me-
thod, and the other girdling the timber, but those two
systems are sometimes intermixed.

When the Yankee system is pursued, all the timber
is cut down, burnt on the grounds, and pot ash is
made from the ashes; after which crops are either
*# sown or planted without cultivation, except what may
be found necessary to cover the seeds at proper depths.
For Indian corn, no after cultivation is found necessary,
excepting occasionally removing with the hand-hoe
some weeds, which will arise notwithstanding the eif-
fects produced by the fire, but they are few, and re-
quire but trivial attention. Potatoes are hilled up ei-
ther by the plough or hand-hoe, as may be considered
most convenient. One luxuriant crop is generally ob-
tained from this practice, but if the soil is thin, or only
middling, another crop worth cultivation must not be
expected ; but if it is deep and rich, more are obtain-
ed before the strength of the ground is entirely ex-
hausted : for the ordeal, or trial by fire which it has
undergone, does not as readily penetrate to the bottom
^ of a deep soil, and the whole of its virtues' are not de-
stroyed by this barb^ous practice. After the buftiing

On elearing Land, and on Fences. 113

has ceased, stumps (from under which the rich loose
soil has'been burnt,) are seen standing on their roots
like spiders, whose bodies are supported by long legs,
and clay or gravel appears where a luxuriant soil
lately prevailed. It requires but little reflection to de-
termine, that this practice cannot be eligible for those
who are determined to continue on the soil, although
it exactly accords with the interest and views of the
laborious first settler, who makes what are termed " im-
provements," for the express purpose of selling them to
those who do not wish to encounter the forests ; for
the luxuriant crops which have been obtained by this
practice, together with the potash, and advance in the
price of the grounds, amply reward the hardy son of
enterprize, and with the proceeds, he removes further
back, and continues a succession of «* improvements"
and sales. .

When the other method is pursued, the trees are
girdled, the grubs removed, and preparatory cultiva-
tion takes place ; after which the grounds are either
planted or sown. The first crop is seldom luxuriant,
except when potatoes are planted, or turnips are sown,
which generally grow large, and prove productive in
fresh grounds, without the aid of manure. Whether
Indian corn would prosper for a first crop does not ap-
pear, and opinion is against the practice, but it should
be a subject of experiment, for small grain is sown too
frequendy, a practice that lets in cheat and other weeds,
together with brambles, and suckers from the roots of
the grubs, which have not been entirely eradicated, as
well as those from the seeds of locust, and other plants,
which frequently prove very injurious to the crops, un-'

VOL. III.

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114

On clearing Land, and on Fences.

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less removed by hand, an operation tedious and expen-
sive, and seldom well executed ; and why Indian corn
would not prosper as well on fresh grounds as on those
which have been longer cultivated, I cannot readily un.
derstand, for it has prospered with me formerly, in that
way, but my experiment was upon a small scale and
not repeated.

Girdling the timber, though less productive in the
commencement of cultivation, appears well calculated
to msure the prosperity of the owners of the lands, who
wish to continue on them. This operation requires
so httle labour, that it would be useless to attempt any
comparison between it, and that required to cut oiFand
burn all the timber, previously to the commencement of
cultivation ; for the quantity of ground on which the
timber may be subdued by girdling, without breaking
m on the other multiplied attentions of a recent settler is
considerable, and fully adequate to all the purposes
which he can justly calculate on executing with his
force and capital; and it will be sometime, before
either the falling of the limbs, or thetrunks of the trees
will claim his attention ; and then the removal, or heap '
mg and burning them, will come on in slow progres-
sion, and the most leisure seasons may be chosen to
accomplish this business. If after falling the timber it
IS heaped and burnt on the grounds, the ashes, judi-
ciously applied on his fields, will amply remunerate
the cultivator for the labour so expended, for few ma
nures will be found more favourable, either to the
growth of grass, or grain. The trees too, when they
fall, act as powerful levers on their stumps, which
they brmg up with them, and by this means the stumps

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On clearing Land, and on Fences. 115

do not stand near as long, as they would have done,
had the timber been cut off instead of being girdled,
and as it will seldom be found convenient for the cul-
tivator to commence sawing and rafting lumber, until
some considerable improvement has been made, and a
tolerable cultivation has taken place, his girdled timber
may stand on his fields, until he can engage in this bu.
siness with profit. This is certainly an object worthy
of consideration, and although some loss will arise
from the continued falling of the timber (when it is
suffered to stand until it decays,) on the grain, grass,
and other crops, yet I am dUposed to believe that the
losses from this cause bear too small a proportion to
the numerous advantages arising from it, to claim the
serious attention pf those who impartially investigate
the subject. Those who girdle timber never have to cut
it down, and this not only saves expense, but the
farmer derives great advantage from an early remoy-
al of the stumps and roots : yet the alarming appear,
ance of heavy timber, generally induces some, either
to purchase where it is lighter, or to commence gird-
ling on the thinner ridges of their farms, without suf-
ficiently considering, that this measure entails on their
future industry all the losses arising from cultivating
a thin, instead of a deep soil, and in return for this sa-
crifice, they only save the trivial labour of more gird-
ling, and escape contending with more roots, when
both those evils seldom amount to near the extent qf
labour, which they must necessarily encounter from
the extra grubs, brambles, &c. generally prevailing in
the less heavy timbered, and more open wood lands.

■»

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116 On clearing Land^ ahd on Fences.

Those who pursue the Yankee practice of clearing
grounds, do not appear to be any better governed by
tlie principles of reason, than the girdlers ; for ahhough
they prefer grounds which are heavily timbered, it is
merely because those grounds are not infested with
grubs, bramble, &c. and afford ample combustibles
to burn the soil, sufficiently for the immediate growth
of luxuriant grain crops, requiring little labour in their
cultivation.'*

The fences of this country are, generally, either the
common worm fence, or those constructed with logs.
For the former, rails are generally split, but when-poles
fitted for the purpose are found at hand, they are some,
times used. The log fences are formed of such tira.
ber as is readily cut and put up, ind are built in a di-
rect line, with the ends intersecting and lying close
to each other, where they join, and those ends are sup.
ported by short pieces of small timber, split for that
purpose ; both those fences are good, when they have
been properly made, but it is probable the latter are
most expensive, although they are considered the
cheapest, but they do not calculate the extra whiskey,
and other good cheer, introduced on such occasions!
nor the labour they are bound to return, when their
neighbours have to encounter the same work.

Another kind of fence which is only pj^rtially used
here, and principally by the indolent, or those who
cannot afford time sufficient to put up others, which
are considered much better, has claimed more atten.
tion from me than any other, for I consider them far
the best and cheapest, ^n^ exaptljr calculated for a new.

On charing Landy and on Fences* \n

country, where timber abounds, and the population
and capital are inconsiderable. They are formed by
falling the timber in the line where the fences are de-
signed to be run, and by supplying the deficiencies
which will afterwards appear, with the limbs and tops
of the trees which happen to have taken too great a
spread, from the center of the line of the fence, after
which, the residue of the work is completed, from the
sotind timber which has been blown down, if at hand,
or such saplings or trees as are found growing close to
the spots where they are wanted. When this khid of
fence has been properly built, or heaped up, it is said
that even deer do not often pass over them ; the rea-
son assigned is, that they will not venture to leap,
where they cannot see the spot of ground on which
they must land : but it possesses other advantages :
1st. The close texture of this fence excludes all ani-
mals from either creeping or breaking through it. Sd.
When repairs become necessary, the limbs or trunks of
the girdled trees will furnish a sufficient supply for the
purpose, until a thick growth of plants has spread
themselves throughout the whole length of the fenfce,
by which they will be protected, and also nourished
from the decaying of its parts, until they acquire suf-
ficient strength, to form a better and more lasting
feitce than any other, except those made with thorn.
3d. When it shall be found convenient to remove this
fence, the extensive ridge of rich soil which will be
found under it, from the decayed vegetable matter,
furnishes an immense quantity of valuable manure.
Such a fence as this will not occupy more room than

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118 Oh clearing Land^ and on Fences,

the bank and ditches of a regular thorn hedge, and al;
though they will not be equally uniform and beautiful,
yet when viewed by those who duly estimate their uti-
lity, and the trivial labour which has been expended
on them, they will certainly afford an instance of eco-
nomical and advantageous management.

I have seen a mode of clearing, since my communi-
cation on that subject, which will prove highly bene-
ficial where capital and force will admit it, and where
there is no prospect of turning the girdled timber into
use until it is decayed. The whole of the timber is
fallen in wmter, and when it and the earth have be-
come sufficiently dry in the spring, to burn off the
brush, chips, and moss, without injury to the soil, the
cleared place is set on fire, and the logs are left be.
hind, to be afterward rolled, heaped and burnt, this
mode saves much labour in picking, raking and burn,
mg brush and grubs, and leaves a handsome dressing
of ashes on the land, without injuring the soil : but
care should be taken in falling the trees, that they will
range side by side, for when they are fallen ^ross and
pile, the fire will not run regularly through the clear-

When population and a scarcity of timber have ren.
dered live fences necessary, they may be readily made
from the abundance of thorn which are found in this
settlement, and the country around.

Stone coal abounds in every direction, and there is
little question, that ere long this coal will become a
valuable article of exportation down the Mushanon,
and Clearfield creeks, which empty into the Susque-

\

On clearing Land^ and on Fences. 119

hannah ; for it lies in large banks near the surface, *
and is so readily come at, that the farmers on the Clear-
field have already began to dig and export it : but in
this they are wrong, for this business should not be
attempted, until a greater population, and more exten-
sive cultivation have taken place»

Yours, respectfully,

John Lorain.
Dr. Jambs Mease.

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C 120 3

^

^« Account of some Experiment with Sulphuret ofBa^
rytes as a Manure, by Dr. Isaac Chapman, of Bucks
County.

Read November 10, 1812,

«

Wrightstown, Bucks County^ Oct. 20, 1812.

Respected Friend,

I send herewith, an account of some experiments
I have been making with sulphat of barytes as a ma-
nure, which I think are worthy of being published. If
thou shalt be of the same opinion, thou may publish
them in any way shall be thought most proper.

I have not found the sulphat of barytes in my neigh,
bourhood in sufficient quantities to authorise the ne-
cessary works for manufacturing of it, although many
tons might be collected, and from the best information
I can obtain, it might be manufactured, at about 25
cents per bushel ; if the matter is made public, it is
not unlikely, considerable bodies of this mineral may
be discovered, which I believe would be of incalcula-
ble advantage to the agriculture of our country.

I send by this opportunity a specimen of the sulphat
of barytes, and also a specimen of the sulphuret.

Thy Friend &c.

Dr. James Mease,

Isaac Chapman,

>»

dn Sulphuret of Barytes as a Manure. 12 1

33E

Finding considerable quantities of the sulphat of
barytes in my neighbourhood ; and judging from the
similarity of it to plaster of Paris> that it might have the
same properties as a manure^ I some years ago tried
some of it, but it had no effect ; I attempted to burn
some of it in a small fiirnace, by making a fire of wood
under the grate^ but when hot, the stones decrepitated,
and flew out of- the chimney of the furnace in small
scales; so that I was discoutaged from pursuing the ex*
periments any further at that time.

Last spring, on examining the subject more careful*
ly I found that sulphat of barytes was insoluble in
water, from which circumstance I concluded its inef-
ficacy as a manure arose : I further found, that, when
made into sulphuret, it was very soluble in water ; and
after making a sulphuret of a small quantity, I judged,
from its sensible qualities, it must be a powerful ma.

nure, and concluded to make some experiments with
it.

In April last I powdered 24 lbs. of the sulphat, and
three lbs. of charcoal, and mixed them well together,
had theia put into an earthen jar, with a light cover
thereon, and put into a potter's kiln and burnt with the
earthen ware, where it was calcined sufficiently.

In this operation it lost nearly one fourth in weight,
and was converted into a sulphuret, became very soluble
in water, and gave out large quantities of hepatic gas,
(sulphurated hydrogen) so that it became very offen-
sive in the shop, although a bladder was tied over the
top of the jar, and made it necessary to remove it in-
to the garret.

VOL. IIX. (^

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122 On Sulphuret ofBarytes as d Manure,

1. In the beginning of May I sowed with the sulphu-
ret a strip of wheat, about three perches in length and
three yards wide, in a short time the wWfeat assumed
a much deeper green, than that adjoining, and appear-
cd to grow with greater luxuriance, so that it could
be plainly distinguishcd*at 15 or 20 perches distance,
and held its superiority until some time in June, when
there came a severe hail storm, that cut down all my
wheat, and totally destroyed the crop, and spoiled the
result of this experiment ; however, the young clover
felt the effect of the sulphuret, and grew with greater
luxuriance than I had ever experienced from plaster
of Paris, on the same ground, being a clay soil.

2. About the same time, I sowed about 12 square
yards of clover, (a clay soil :) it was a misty day, and
with a small sieve, I sifted near a pint on that quantity of
ground. In a day or two on examining it, I found most
of the stalks of clover, that had grown four or five
inches high, and the weeds and garlick, to which
the sulphuret adhered, were killed ; and nearly two
weeks of cool, dry weather having followed, it had an
unpromising appearance, but moist weather succeed-
ing, it recovered, grew rapidly, and when mown, gave
a greater crop thou the adjoining grass that was plas-
tered. The second crop shews the effect more fa-
vourable, it appearing to afford double the quantity,
and growing with great luxuriance, while that adjoin-
ing is small and ripening, the seed.

3. When planting corn I put in each of 30 hills, (a
clay soil,) about half a table spoonful of the sulphuret,
dropped the corn on it, and covered it as usual ; it
came up well, and appeared to exceed what was plas-

On Sulphuret ofBarytes as a Manure. 123

tN

tered. When the corn was harrowed I sprinkled some
sulphuret about each hill, and that adjoining was plas-
tered about the same time : that sulphuretted grew the
fastest and was of the deepest green.

On a gravelly soil, of a reddish colour, called red-
shell, I applied on fifty hills of com when planting,
about a tea spoonful of the sulphuret to a hill ; which
had a very great effect ; my tenant who farmed the
ground, remarked, when the corn was about knee high,
that " it appears as if it had been manured with hen
dung, the leaves look greasy.'^

This corn was of a deeper green than that adjoin-
ing, which was plastered, and something larger, and a
few hills being left without either sulphuret or plaster,
were not half so large, and of a pale yellow colour,
when contrasted with the other, and the difference con-
tinues to this time (September.)

4. Finding the insects very troublesome in my
garden, on the cucumbers, and likely to destroy them,
I applied some of the sulphuret on them, and the in-
sects troubled them no more.

In this application some care is necessary, or it will
kill the plants, I had some of the sulphuret dissolved
in water and corked up in a phial ; a small quantity
of this I put on each plant, which destroyed them. On
other plants I sprinkled some of the powder when they
were wet with dew, and it injured them very much;
on others I applied the powder when they were dry,
and sprinkled some of it on the ground about them,
which effectually preserved them from the insect, and
did not injure the plants. I may likewise observe,

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124 0» Sulphur et ofBarytes as a Manure.

■aasi

that the- corn to which the sulphuret was applied, was
not disturbed by the ants or any other insect.

I think sulphuret of barytes is the most powerful
manure hitherto discovered, and wish others to make
experiment with it : sulphat of barytes is the heaviest
of the stones, metallic stones excepted ; rather whiter
and harder than plaster of Paris ; roughly crystallized,
of no determinate form. Any person finding such a
mineral, can decompose some of it, and form a sulphu-r
ret in the following manner ; powder it with about an
eighth of its weight of charcoal, put the powder into a
tobacco pipe and calcine it in a common fire, by keep-
ing it in a white heat for about a quarter of an hour,
exciting the fire with a pair of hand bellows.

What the food of vegetables is, appears as yet some-
what doubtful, but the most probable conclusion is,
m that, it consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen va^
riously combined, but principally of the two first : now
the sulphuret of barytes gives out great quantities of
hydrogen, combined with a small quantity of sulphur ;
and as sulphurets are powerful solvents of carbon,
and indeed the only true solvents of that substance,
yet discovered, the sulphuret dissolves the carbon in
the ground, thus wc'have the two principal ingredients
in the food of plants, prepared for their nourishment,
the oxygen being easily foun^ in abundance, either in
the air or water.

In calcining the sulphat of barytes and carbon, the
carbon unites with the oxygen of the vitriolic acid and
flies off*, and sulphur is produced in large quantities,
and in a state very soluble in water, in which state it

On Sulphuret of Barytes as a Manure. 125

acts as a very powerful manure ; hi confirmation of
which, it appears, that some soils in volcanic countries,
that contain considerable quantities of sulphur, are
very fertile ; the same soils, likewise give out sulphur-
eted hydrogen gas, and this gas which is given out in
large quantities by sulphuret of barytes, produces
much of the deep green in the vegetables to which it
is applied, as it is found that those plants which grow in
the dark, if surrounded with a small quantity of hydro-
gen gas, are changed from a white appearance to a
green. '

There is also reason to believe that the barytes may
have some agency in promoting vegetation, as in its
pure state it is exceedingly caustic, and when taken
into the stomach proves a violent poison, yet when
dissolved in the muriatic acid, has been given in some
obstinate diseases, with much advantage, particularly
the scrophula.

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On the Cultivation and Use of the Mangel Wurtzel, or
Scarcity Root^ by Richard Peters^ Esquire.

Read December 8, 1812.

After some intermission of the zeal with which this
root had been cultivated in England, 20 or 25 years
ago, I perceive, in some recent English publications,
that its culture is again revived and progressing exten-
sively.

It will be seen in the English agricultural papers,
particularly those of the Bath and West of England
Society, about the year 1786 and those following, that
much attention was then paid to it ; though various
opinions were formed. The balance was highly fa-
vourable. Dr. Lettsom in England, was its zealous
champion ; and in his accounts of it, almost every thing
relating to its culture, qualities, and uses, maybe found.
"^ In Germany and France, it has long been held in the
greatest estimation. The Germans sxW^ it Mangel
WuRTZEL, the French, Disette, the English, Root
OF Scarcity ; and the botanists, of all countries,
Beta Altissim a ; it being, in fact, the largest species
of Beet. It might have been called Beta excel-
lentissima; for it possesses much superior quali-
ties to those of the common beet. I know it well ;
having cultivated it, for several years, extensively. I
think it far preferable to the common beet, as a culinary
esculent. Its bulb, or root, has none of the earthy
savour of the common beet ; and its leaves are, in
many respects, better for the table than Spinach, to
which, when boiled young, they have some resem-

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On Mangel WurtzeL

127

blance. But the most essential uses of this root, arc
those applicable to rural economy. For cattle, sheep^
and store hogs, no root, within my knowledge, can com-
pete with it. I have had horses, to whom it was
grateful and nutritive ; though some would refuse it.
My sheep were remarkably fond of it. The leaves^
which are very abundant, may be stripped or cut fre-
quently through the season ; leaving the heart shoots
or leaflets ; and the root will thrive the better for the
stripping. For milch cows, they are superior to any
other green herbage ; and the quantity afforded by
them exceeds that of any other plant cultivated on a
similar extent of ground. Those who prefer the soil-
ing system, would do well to try the experiment. I
believe good seed may be had of some of the seeds-
men ; who would, if encouraged, soon have it in great
plenty.

European accounts of the weight of roots from an
acre, and the almost incredible quantity of leaves to
be gathered in a season ; would appear exaggerated to
those unacquainted with this plant. I therefore forbear
to mention them. The greatest produce can be had
by cultivating in broad cast ; and hand-hoeing. The
mode I followed, as hereafter detailed, will not equal
in product, what increase of the number of drills, and
multiplying plants, either in drills or broad-cast, would
accomplish. But I spread over surface, and left unoc-
cupied intervals, to bring it into the best order for fu-
ture crops ; and thus to afford room for working with
instruments calculated to save manual labour.

I have cultivated carrots and parsnips, in the field,
with great success. Those, with turnips and potatoes^

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Ow Mangel Wurtzel.

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to both whereof I have done ample justice, have en-
abled me, in the same season, to make a comparative
estimate between them and the scarcity root. My ex-
perience was always greatly in favour of the latter.
There is more saccharine quality, and of course, more
nutrition, in these, than in any other root, within my
knowledge. I have long ceased to use either turnips
or potatoes for fatting cattle or swine. The small pota-
toes, however, are profitably devoted to store cattle or
hogs. — A fatting bullock will eat one half his weight of
turnipsy in 24 hours. Of the scarcity rooty I am per-
suaded, he will not consume any thing like this pro-
portion.— The greatest portion of the turnips passes
off in urine. If potatoes are applied to the support of
stock on farms, it must be by those who have no mar-
ket near them. The intelligent Mr. Arthur Youngy
has recently given a table of calculations of the value
of potatoes, used in Englandy as food for various spe-
cies of stock. I have it not now at hand ; but when I
perused it, I was perfecly satisfied, that our Indian corn
could be more profitably applied to yamVz^ either cat-
tie or swine, at the cost, per bushel, of four times his
average value of the same quantity of potatoes. Al-
though I decidedly prefer the scarcity root to the pota-
toe, for the food of cattle, sheep or swine, I do not
mean to depreciate this estimable product. But more
is expected from it, than I have found justifiable.
The same observation would apply in Englandy to the
mangel wurtzel; which had there its day of rage ; and
fell into neglect, because too great expectations con-
cerning it, had been held out. I shall avoid saying
more than my own experience warrants. — The purity

On Mangel Wurtzel.

12$

of the seed is all in all, in this vegetable. Dr. Ander^
Sony and some others, reprobated it in Englandy after one
small experiment. He had not good seed ; and so
hasty a condemnation was unworthy of himy under any
circumstances.

I have fed off the scarcity rooty with carrotSy pars*
nips and potatoesy through several winters ; it is true,
without so much attention to measure or weight, as
would have been required in a nice comparative ex-
periment. Some of my stock were capricious ; and
preferred other food to the mangel wurtzel. But I
have never failed to perceive, that those -who were
constant (and in general they so were) in their prefer-
ence of this root, were, undeniably, the most healthy,
thriving, and easily kept. Yet none were exclusive-
ly confined to this food alone. I have been, some-
times, obliged to invite sheep and cattle ; by strewing
a little meal and salt over the cut, or chopped scarcity
roots. But after a few messes, no such inducements
were necessary.

Notwithstanding the practical proof I exhibited, I
was not able to induce my neighbours (worthy but
old fashioned farmers) to follow my example. If, now^
I have no further success, I shall, at least, have the sa-
tisfaction of recording the serv^ices I have received
from this valuable product. It is certainly worthy the
attention of those who embark in the sheep business
extensively. Vegetable winter, or early spring food,
is to them all essential. All animals require a chang€i
of food. Let this be introduced as an important va-
riety. If farmers in general would cultivate the man-
gel wurtzel in quantities no greater than their other

VOL. Ill, |l

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On Mangel WurtzeL

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concerns would admit, they would find not only its
positive advantages, but they could bring to market,
more of grain, potatoes, or other articles usually con.
sumed in feeding their stock. Great relief would be
had from the leaves, when in seasons of drought the
pastures are parched and scanty.

I have observed that the root given to milch cows
in winter, adds to the richness, more than to the quan-
tity of milk. But its tendency to fatten was always
perceived. Boiling the roots seemed best for milch
cows ; and appeared to encrease the quantity of milk.

I begun the culture of the mangel wurtzely soon af-
ter the close of the revolution war. My information
relative to its uses, qualities and culture was obtained
From German books ; put into my hands by some of
my friends, who had received them from Germany.
Accident presented specimens of the seed ; and expe-
rience directed the selection of the best roots for future
operations. Like other products, some kinds are
much inferior to others. Those of a rose coloured
skin, with the interior solid and white ; not laminated
and motled, like the common beet, are the best. Our
worthy member, Robert Barclay^ Esq. of England^
with his accustomed kindness and attention, sent to
me a small quantity of the seed three years ago. I
found much of its produce inferior in quality ; but re-
cognized a few of my old acquaintances. From these
and some I procured from Mr. M'Mahon^ I raised ex-
cellent roots, for the purpose of producing and distri-
buting the seed ; whereof I now have sufficient plen-
ty for experiments ; at the service of those members
of the society, or others, who will either cultivate the

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On Mangel WurtzeL

131

root or assist in their distribution. I have had in my
recent culture, roots of 10 and 12 lb. In general the
good roots may average 4 pounds each. The latter
was the average weight produced in my first opera-
tions. Many then weighed from eight to twelve
pounds. Many were, however, small and not worth
preserving for winter consumption. Those bore no
great proportion to the whole.

In the latter part of the past summer, a farmer from
New Jersey, called on me ; and was much captivat-
ed by the appearance of my little crop. He discover-
ed a few roots of the last yearns crop, which had been
carelessly thrown aside, in the spring ; and had been a p
long time exposed in the open air. I found him eat-
ing, with apparent pleasure, part of one of them. It
was perfectly sound, crisp and free from any wilt, or
nauseous or feculent smell, or taste. I know not any
other root which would have remained sound and pa-
latable, under similar circumstances. My crop of this
year is inferior to that of the last. It was raised in
the same spot, (contrary to my own ideas of propriety)
in which two former crops had been. The season, too,
was not favourable. I have, however, of my late crop,
had few, if any roots as pure and genuipc, as were those
I formerly possessed.

In the autumn, the roots must be housed ; or pro-
tected like turnips, in conical mounds, in the mode
known to every body. I have formerly preserved those
destined for imjpiediate use, (in which were included
the small roots and cullings,) with a covering of straw
or corn stalks. No moisture, or damp earth must re-
main on the roots, when laid up. They are by no

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On Mangel Wurtzel.

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means delicate ; but they must be dry, to prevent heat-
ing and rotting. Frost injures them ; but not more (if
so much) than it does tiie potatoe.

When given to cattle or sheep, they are to be wash-
ed and cut, or chopped. I have boiled them for pigs ;
and sonxctimes for other stock ; and they were prefer,
red in this way by milch cows, mixed with a little bran
or meal. I have never known any animals reject them
permanently ; though at first some were shy, and dis-
inclined to feed on them. Most of my stock ate them
raw. They are always to be considered as a winter
food, the leaves excepted. When cattle or sheep have
been on grass, they do not eat these roots, or any other,
^ with much relish.

They delight in loamy or sandy soils ; and I had
them the largest and best, in my trenched fields— The
depth of loose earth gave room for the tap-root, and
its fibres, to penetrate and spread. The soil must be
in good tilth, and the richer, the better. Miracles
have ceased ; and it cannot be e^xpectcd that sterile
land will profitably produce this, or any other crop.
Yet they do not require manure, in such quantity as
do potatoes ; nor are they so exhausting a crop. They
leave the ground finely prepared, for any crop. Like
many garden vegetables, they grow well in virgin soils.
Cabbages in new land, have not the flatulency of those
in dunged ground. New land turnips are best.— They
grow ii) limed land, remarkably fine. So does the scar^

city rooti

«

CULTURE.

1. Your ground must be deep and well ploughed or
dug ; cleansed from weeds and other pests, harrowed,

On^J^angel IFurtzeL

133

«JK^-»^

or raked ; and in every respect in good tilth ; as early
in the spring as possible.

2. Mark with the plough, lightly, or by a line
stretched where your drills are to be fixed, their dis-
tances. Mine were ; — 1st, two drills, two feet apart,
2nd, a space of three feet, Sd,, two other Drills, two
feet apart, and thus proceeding, through the whole of
your field, or plat. ^

3. Drop and slightly cover a seed or two, to ensure
one growing; then, at the distance of 10 or 12 inches
in the drill, dibble in and drop other seed, and thus
progress, 'till your ground is filled up. — Every seed
throws up three plants. At the time of the first dress-
ing, transplant, (or use for cattle) the extra plants;
either where there are failures in the drill, or in other
ground. Every plant must stand single. Those trans-
planted are seldom equal to those unmoved. This I
find to be the case with all tap-rooted plants.

4. Stir the intervals, when requisite, with a small
plough or horse-hoe ; and hand-hoe in the vicinity of
the plants ; to keep them constantly clean. I have a
small instrument with multiplied hoes ; calculated for
drilled carrots, &c. which I used' when I cultivated
such crops in the field. I have such implements of
several sizes and breadths.

5. The roots must grow chiefly above the surface,
and if a cup, or excavation be made round the root,
the Germans prefer it. Cleanliness is all that is neces-
sary while the plants are growing. Not so much la-
bour is required, as that bestowed on corn or potatoes.
They may be cultivated in broad cast and hand-hoed ;
where drilling is not deemed more eligible.

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On Mangtl fFurtieU

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m

6. Strip, when full grown, (he leaves ; except those
of the crown, or heart. Some cut them (as less trou-
blesome) about two inches above the crown. — It is in-
jurious to cut them too close. In about two weeks
(according to season) they may be stripped again. In
a large extent of cultivation (two or three acres) the
roots first striiijped will be ready for another stripping,
by the time you have gone over the whole. Strip no
more than can be consumed in a day. They wilt,
and are rejected, if they be exposed to the sun, air, or
rain, for any considerable time.

I have candidly, if even it should be deemed imper-
fectly, given my actual experience in the uses and
culture of this estimable product. I cannot but hope
that what I have said will induce some of our farmers
to make trial of this auxiliary to the comforts and sup*
port of their domestic animals. — There seem more en-
terprize and spirit of improvement, among our hus-
bandmen of this day, than existed at the time of my
more extensive cultivation of the mangel wurtzel
many years ago. A book-farmer was then an outcast^
in the estimation of too many of our agricultural fel-
low citizens. The character has not yet acquired com-
plete reputation, though it is regarded now, with some
degree of complacency. If I have added practice to
book farming ; I trust the former will atone for the ve-
nial sin of the latter. Yet by transplanting, and naturali-
zing here, foreign and valuable product and practices,
by means of information derived from foreign writers,
we gain all the benefits of travel, without its toil, dan-
gers and expense.

RicHAED Peters.

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C 135 J

On Flax MllSf by Mr, WilUatn Neill, Delaware County.

Read, January 12, 1813.

16 Mile Stone, Phil. &? Xan. Turnpike^

November 24, 1812.

From the progress of our manufactories and the
situation of our cfountry, labour saving machinery
is daily becoming of great importance.

I have often thought that the introduction of mills
for dressing and cleaning flax, would be of great utility
in the United States, and had I water on my place, I
would have erected one long before this time.

In the north of Ireland they are to be met with every
two or three miles, and although labour is there at a
very low rate, they have entirely abandoned the mode
of dressing flax at home by hand, and is^hd all to the
mill, as it is lifted ofi* the ground : when broken and
swingled ready for the hackel, it is returned at an ex-
pense of six cents. United States money, per pound. The
quantity done by a mill in Ireland was from 150 to 220
pounds per day, but that depends much on the quality
of the flax, and state of the weather. No mill is more
simple in its construction, and less than half the water
requisite for a grist mill will be fully suflficient for it,
and as all the inside works are light, they can be erect-
ed at a very smdl expense ; I think not more than 300
dollars : a mill house of 30 feet by 18 feet, of one story,

would be large enough ; which with a frame building

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136

On Flax Mills.

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to store the flax as it comes to the mill, are all the
buildings required. The works consist of a water
wheel, a cog wheel, and three sets of flyers on one
axle for cleaning. Each set is birthed off" with boards
to secure the men, and a small space is left between
the inside of the births and the ends of the flyers, to
hold the flax against them : there are three fluted rol-
lers like the nuts of an apple mill, that work on their
sides for breaking. These rollers are best made of
apple tree wood, the swingle must be of a wood, the
texture of which is close, and not apt to splinter. The
swingles have six arms in each stand, but there are
only four in the model.

Three men are a full complement for a mill : if they
roll and swingle at one time, one of the men leaves his
place at the swingles, and attends the rollers: the
owner of the flax in Ireland, kept a person to make up
the flax in handfulls, and to attend the man at the
rollers. In rolling the flax, there is a pulley and a
weight fixed to the end of the two extreme rollers, so
that they may compress or expand upon the center
roller, in proportion as there is more or less flax given
in. The flax is put in between the two upper ones,
and is shot out between the two under rollers. The
rollers and flyers will work independently of one an-
other. I understand it is allowed good work for a man
to break and swingle 60 pounds in a week : if he
works by the pound he has six cents per pound ; if by
the day, he will not do so much, so that at any rate he
has board and drink over mill price, and allowing two
dollars for those, the 60 pounds will cost three pence a
pound more than if done at mill, neither will it be so

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On Flax Mills,

137

3Cn:

well done by hand. Men who follow swingling at the
mill as a trade, become bkilful, and can make the best
of any kind of flax ; whereas the men we employ in
this country are generally unskilful and careless.

The machinery may be attached to other mills. I
have seen the swingles attached to other mills, and
heard of the rollers being also fixed to them ; but I by
no means think it prudent in this country, as the cli-
mate is dry, and they are apt to catch fire, for in win-
ter our millers work by lamp light, and other mills are
very valuable property. Horses or oxen move too
slow, and flax mills require a rapid motion. There is
a mill in Lancaster county, near the 48 mile stone on
this road, and I h^ve seen flax dressed at it, that look-
ed as well done, as any I have seen in Europe : and I
am told that the proprietor has more to do than he can
perform. The price for preparing it is six cents per
pound : three hands dress 180 pounds in one day.

I am, your obedient servant,

William Neill.
The Hon. Richard Peters.

/■

POSTSCRIPT.

I have succeeded in procuring a model of the in-
side works of a flax mill, by which you will have a
clearer idea of the work than by any description I can
give. I now send it, and if it can be of anv service to
my adopted country, I am completely satisfied.
fSee the Plate. J W. N.

VOL. III. S

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C 138 3

Account of the Beds of Gypsum, found in the western
part of the State of New York, by Jacob Cist, Esq.
of Wilkesbarre, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania.

Read January 12, 1813.

Dear Sir^

This very valuable mineral, appears to have been first
discovered on the farm of a Mr. Buck, in the town of
Sempronius, Onondago co. N.York.— The bed is very
extensive, and is composed nearly one half of transpa-
rent and chrystallized plaster, termed by mineralogists
Selenite. Specimens of it have been sent to France,
where it has been found equal in quality to the best in
that country, for stucco work, for casting of busts,
basso relievos, &c. ; owing, however, to its inland si-
tuation, and the surrounding country being naturally
rich and fertile, and but lately brought into cultivation,
it is at present not much used for agricultural purpo-
ses. From the experiments which have been made
with the grey, or amorphous part of it, it is found to
be equally as strong as any other.

The second discovery was made in Oneida county,
in the town of Sullivan ; it is very similar to the Onon-
dago :— the same causes which prevent that being
much used also operate here.

It has since then been discovered, viz. in 1806, in
Cayuga county, in the town of Aurelius, near the sul-
phur spring, on the eastern margin of Cayuga Lake ;

The quarries here consist solely of the grey plaster,

are very extensive, nearly a mile in length, on the
. Lake ;— their extent to the east has not yet been ascer-

"♦v-

Oypsum^fotmd in the State of New York. 139

tained ; for agricultural purposes, this is thought by
many who have tried it, to be superior to the Nova
Scotia plaster, and it is generally agreed, that its effect
on vegetation is earlier perceptible : — the ground
where it is found is very uneven, and broken into ab-
rupt hillocks, the timber, fine, thrifty white oak, soil
very rich, and the gypsum lies generally so near to
tlie surface, as to be within reach of the pick. Its
shistose appearance, the strong marks it bears of hav-
ing been once worn by the waters, evince that it is a
deposition, — and tends to strengthen the theory ad-
vanced by the chevalier De Lamanon, of its formation.

The plaster is here dug and delivered at the water^s
edge for three dollars per ton*— the water carriage to
Ithaca, at the head of the Lake, brings it to four dol-
lars ; from thence there is a portage of 30 miles to
Owego, on the Susquchannah, to this point it is
brought in great quantities, principally during the win-
ter season, where it usually sells, at 10 dollars;-—
these prices yield a great profit to the owners of the
land, and afford a lucrative trade to all engaged in it*
From Owego it is brought down the Susquchannah in
arks and on rafts, the former generally about 75 feet long,
and carrying about 40 tons, and the latter from 10 to
12 tons. At Wilkesbarre, Berwick, Sunbury, and other
places on the river, it is eagerly bought up at 15 and
16 dollars per ton. At all these places, owing to its
comparative cheapness and excellent quality, it has en-
tirely superseded the use of imported plaster.

Another bed has been lately found at the outlet of
the Seneca Lake ; it was purchased in the fall of 1811
by Mr. Thomas Grant, of Sunbury, and opened the

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140 Gypsum J found in the State of New York.

ensuing summer : about 350 tons have been taken
from it, and forwarded to the head of the Cayuga
Lake. It is very similar to the last mentioned, and
has the same outlet to the waters of the Susquehannah.

For some time after the discovery of this plaster,
the usual want of confidence,, in native productions,
caused these beds to be neglected, but owing to the
spirited exertions of Mr. John Laning, merchant at
Owego, and a few others, in the introduction of it into
this state, it has already become a trade of considera-
ble importance. During the summer of 1811, about
1000 tons were taken from the beds, and sent as far as
Harrisburg — through the whole of this distance it was
much approved of by the most experienced farmers,
in the counties of Luzerne, Northumberland, Dau-
phin, and Lancaster, and during the year 1812, about
3500 tons have been delivered at the head of the Lake,
or at Ithaca, chiefly destined for the Pennsylvania mar-
ket.*

If the communication between the Susquehannah
and Delaware was once opened, we should be able to
supply Philadelphia with both plaster and coal, in
abundance.

This last article alone would be of sufficient conse-
quence to your city, and the country through which
the canal will pass, to warrant the expenditure of half
a million of dollars ; — and when the immense quantity

I i.r

* During the last year, ( 1 8 12,) it is calculated that 6000 tons have
been sent into Pennsylvania from the vicinity of Cayuga Lake.
See annual address before the society of arts of N. York.— By
Th. R. B«ck, M. D. p, 35. Albany, 1813. J. M.

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Gypsum, found in the State of New York. 141

of lumber, produce and stock, of plaster and coal,
which now pass down this river, and the consequent in-
creased consumption, are taken into view, the stock of
the canal compriny cannot otherwise than be very pro-
ductive.

The advantages of a cheap and excellent fuel, to
your city, are incalculable. Why then are not some
efforts made to procure this kind of coal from the Le-
high, proportioned to the magnitude of the subject ?
Is it of less importance than a supply of good water ?
How many miserable wretches, who shiver over your
wood fires, which costs them 6 and 8 dollars per cord,
could be made comfortable at half the price ? Much of
the coal from here is shipped at Havre de Grace, or at
tide, for New York, and readily commands 50 per
cent, per bushel more than the best Liveq^ool coal*

very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
^ Jacob Cist.

Dk. James Mease.

Specimens of the lake gypsuni, and also of coal from
the inexhaustible mines in Luzerne county, were sent
by Mr. Cist and are deposited in the cabinet of the socie-
ty. Many of the beds of coal are on the banks of the
river. J. M.

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Observations on the propriety of a Farmer living on the
produce of his aiun Land^ by James Tilton^ M. D.

Read February 9, 1813.

Bellevue, (near ffilmington, Del.) Dec. 25, 1812.

Dear Sir^

I have to beg your pardon for omitting so long to
contribute to the useful labours of your agricultural
society. In return for my negligence, I propose to
entertain you with a subject entirely new. Multitudes
of writers instruct us how to raise corn, cattle, &c.
but I find none, of modem date, who inform the farm-
er how to live to the greatest advantage, on the pro-
duce of his plantation. I shall attempt this interest,
ing subject, with this single apology, that I hope you
will not accuse me of vanity or egotism, from the fre-
quent reference to myself, since I declare to you, that
* my object is to convince my fellow farmers, the opi-
nions and advice I give are as practicable, as they arc
reasonable and profitable. Indeed, I cannot commu-
nicate ideas, that have been strongly impressed upon
my mind better ,than by interweaving son^e history of
my domestic economy, since I became a farmer; to-
gether with the advantages resulting therefrom.

When I resolved to retire to my little plantation
of about 60 acres, it was natural to cast about, amongst
agricultural authorities, for advice and instruction. As
remarked above, I found many to advise me in the
production of grain, stock, &c. but Virgil alone how
to eat and drink. Besides regarding his Georgics as
a standard of agricultural science to this day, I was
led to consider his Eclogues as recommending agri-

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4}bservationSj 6f#»

14S

cultural life, from the superior capacity for enjoyment
it gave to its votaries, above all other employments ;
and, at the same time, as recommending it to husband-
men, to avoid the luxuries of the day and live upon
the produce of their farms. The beauties of the poet
are, in my opinion, surpassed by the wisdom of the
philosopher. In that memorable invitation of his
friend to supper, hear him sing !

II aunt nobis mitia fioma

Caatania moilesj et fireaai cofiia lactia.

The liberal translation we used to give this hill of
fare at grammar school, was, we have mellow apples^
boiled chesnutSf and a plenty of curds and cream. A
volume might be written on this single text. I will
only remark, that Virgil wrote at the most luxurious
epoch of the Roman empire, when the luxury and ex-
travagance ofthat people surpassed every thing that
ever happened before or since ; tod yet this sage pa-
triot advises, in a manner the most persuasive and
delightful, to live on home produce. In his bill of fare
no foreign luxury is mentioned, but only the delicious
productions of Mantua.

Have we not occasion of similar advice in our days f
and oh my friend, that we could employ the s^me in-
fluence ! for the best classics agree, that Macaenas, the
proud minister of the powerful Augustus, thought him-
self honoured by VirgiPs invitation.

Independence has been the theme of descant from
the days of 1776 to this time. During the revolution,
independence of government or self government, as it
was emphatically styled, was the rage, from Georgia to
Maine. At present, an equal zeal appears for indepen-

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144 On the propriety of a Farmer living

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dence in our clothing. And, yet, strange to tell, few
or none of us think of eating and drinking indepen-
dently. Is it not a thousand times more ridiculous to
send to the East and West Indies for breakfast and
supper, than to Europe for clothing ? It would seem
as if we were so constituted as to admit but one sub-
ject at a time, into our heads, and that one of dire ne-
cessity. We are compelled to make our own clothes ;
and Providence may, in compassion to our weakness,
by cutting us off from foreign luxuries, oblige us to eat
our own better victuals. All good men, like Virgil,
will be forward and early in promoting a reformation,
equally important in private economy and public

policy.

Whatever apology the inhabitants of cities and
towns may have, for their obstinate adherence to tea,
coffee, &c. surely farmers have none. Their farms
furnish much better food, and at a cheaper rate. How
then are we to estimate the folly of crossing the ocean
at an expense and hazard incalculable, for the sole pur-
pose of indulging in articles universally admitted to be
injurious to health and destructive of property? A Chi-
nese would give ten breakfasts of tea for one of milk.
An American farmer purchases tea, at gi-eat expense,
when he might have plenty of milk and other good
things for nothing. Which of these characters disco-
vers the wise dictates of native instinct ; and which
shews us the depravity of infatuation ?

But a gentleman farmer, who has plenty of revenues,
and may live as he lists and do as he likes, will answer
me, that I reason like an attorney on one side, regard-
less of the good sense and general information of my

- ^>

on the Produce of his own Land.

145

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sac

asc

fellow citi2ens* I, in that csise teply^ that I acknow-
ledge myself an attorney upon one side^ and the ge.
neral information of my fellow citizens; and, therefore,
do not hesitate to state my arguments with confidence
and energy, against a peculiar infatuation* And if
called upon to account for it, I answer ; that when
we were British colonists, we were forced to be sub>-
servient to the lucrative policy of the mother country :
we were taught to drink tea, coffee, rum, &c. and to
indulge in a variety of foreign luxuries, in subservien-
cy to their carrying trade. They did not encourage
the like among their own people. The policy of the
British was to favour the use of their own malt liquors
and other domestic productions ; and to prohibit rum,
even of their own colonies : and tea and coffee were
dutied and regulated in such a manner, that the use of
them was very limited, among farmers at least. They
thought it more expedient to send them to us ; and
would fain have made us pay duty upon them, besides
freight and other charges. This gave occasion to our
disunion ; and considering we had spirit and energy
enough to separate from so unjust a nation of mer-
chants, I appeal to the good sense of my countrymen, if
it is not very astonishing, that it has never yet occurred
to us, to abandon the vicious and injurious habits im-
posed upon us by mercantile intrigues. It might well
have been expected, that we should have felt some re-
sentment at the means employed, as well as the measures
of government, for enslaving us. But strange to tell,
from the day of our deliverance to this time, we hare
consumed their teas with apparent delight.

VOL. III. * T

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146 On the propriety of a Farmer living

But my plan may be further criticised, by asking,
how do you entertain your friends without te^ and cof-
fee ? I answer, that I do not own either tea cups or sau-
cers, and yet, 1 am at no loss to entertain my friends
agreeably. My dinner is not very different from that
of other folks. Breakfast and supper I eat out of soup
plates. Supper is the principal meal of entertainment ;
and with the best fruits of the season, with and with-
out cooking ; bread, butter, cheese, &c. I can make a
handsomer display, and furnish a more delicious and
salutary aliment than with tea and coffee. Old and
young never fail to commend those repasts. It must
be confessed, however, the more advanced in years
frequently remark, that, however they may now and
then relish a feast of this sort, they are very reluctant
to relinquish their old habits. But I have the satisfac-
tion to observe, that all my younger brethren and sis-
ters, who are less corrupted by fashion and habit, do
not hesitate to declare their willingness to give up
their tea and coffee, every day ^ for a Virgilian supper.

But what are the advantages of this Virgilian econo-
my ? I answer, many. In a political point of view, it
gives us independence. This requires no demonstra-
tion. It also saves many lives ; for since my resi-
dence at and near Wilmington, more fine young men
of the borough have died, in the West India trade,
than from any other cause whatsoever.

As to expense, besides tlie tea and china ware, the
time and maintenance of one person about house is
nearly, saved, from the washing and piddling which
these frivolous trinkets require.

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jon the Produce of his own Land.

147

In point of health, if you ^vill indulge me in talking
about myself, as a familiar example, I will inform you
how I have profited, by Virgil's advice. When I re-
sided at Dover, in a flat country and vapid atmosphere,
the faculty advised me to live above the climate. Be-
sides my meridian before dinner, I generally drank
wine in the afternoon. All would not do. I was obliged
to fly for my life to this hill country. While I resided
in Wilmington, I continued my usual habits. Soon
afterwards I was attacked by the gout, and had regu-
lar fits for some years. Since I became a farmer and
indulged the Virgilian economy, I have never had the
gout. For more than 12 years, I have been free from
this scourge of intemperance. Although I am now
on the wrong side of 60 years of age, my feet have re-
covered their tone and hardihood ; I can walk and
ride, and do manual labour as well as ever I could.
The trimming of my orchards is an amusement reserv-
ed for my own hands : for I would not be hired to let
an awkward fellow spoil my fruit trees. — I never learn-
cd to reap or mow ; but I can shock wheat or make
hay with any body. Besides, I am chief gardener in a
lot of two acres. My local situation precludes me
from extensive professional duties ; but such as fall to
my lot are not neglected. All this too without self-de-
nial, so great as might be imagined ; for although I
have quit the use of wine, along with other foreign
luxuries, I indulge in a cheering glass of spirit and
water, once or twice a day. For this purpose, I pre-
fer good rye whiskey or high proof apple-brandy : for
I sconi to go abroad for any thing that I can get bet*
ter at home.

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148 On the propriety of a Farmer living

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Are not these advantages worthy of communication
to my brother farmers. Is there a man among you,
that duly estimates a cheerful and vigorous old age,
free from pain and decrepitude, who would think these
blessings dearly purchased by taking Virgil's advice,
to live on the produce of his own farm ?

It would take up too much time and space to be
particular as to the rest of my family. Suffice it to
observe, that if any of them go from home, a few days,
they rejoice on returning to their domestic fare ; and
I have never known a person yet, who had once lived
with me, that objected to returning and living with me
again, on account of the well known family economy.
By living on the produce of our farms, F would not
wish to be understood, as excluding all trade and com-
merce. Individuals may exchange, and states and na-
tions trade to advantage. But these abstract ideas arc
very different from the habitual folly of our country.
Trade should be encouraged when advantageous ; but
a commerce that is injurious ought to be repressed.
The different states of the union might exchange com*
modities to great advantage, even in articles of diet.
These should be regarded as domestic produce, and
ought certainly to be preferred to those of foreign
growth. There is a wide distinction to be taken be*
tween sending to New England for cod-fish^ and send-
ing to China for tea. The same may be said of bring-
ing rice from Carolina, and rum from the We^t- Indies,
Having a continent of our own, if domestic commerce
were duly cultivated we should have occasion of but
few articles from the eastern continents. As no tin

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on the Produce of his own Land,

149

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has been discovered in America we ought to import
it from England or elsewhere, as we can get it most
conveniently. But certainly the importation of iron
ought to be discouraged*

You will perceive that I have advocated a general
proposition, that of living on domestic fare, in prefer-
ence to foreign luxuries. Much might be added in
detail, on the subject of frugal, healthful and indepen-
dent living. Your treatise on brown biscuit is an ex- -
cellent specimen of this sort. Although I commenced
the use of biscuit along with my husbandry, you have
taught me to make it better than I used to do. My
present composition is two parts of ship stuff, and one
of common flour. The bakers inform me, a little flour
is necessary to the due consistence or tenacity of the
dough. Well baked biscuit of this sort, with boiled
milk, is my regular breakfast at home. Being al-
ways ready, I find biscuit a great accomn^odation to a
family. I commonly break my biscuit in a wooden
mortar, which I happened to have for shop use. A
friend of mine, who had lost his teeth, took occasion
to observe, one day, at breakfast, that he found my
mortar the best substitute for teeth he had ever dis-
covered. I mention these little circumstances with a
view to remove all possible objections to a form of
bread that is equally frugal, healthful and delicious.

Regarding this essay as fundamental on the subject
of independent living, if well received by your society,
it may give encouragement to numberless details, all
tending to shew the wide distinction between good
living, and fine or fashionable living : a distinction.

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150 Obsetvations on the propriety ^ 6fr.

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which, if generally and well understood, would be of
immense consequence to society at large. ^

With great respect, I am, dear sir,

your friend, and humble servant.

James Tilton.

Richard Peters, Esq.

President of the Philad. Agric. Soc^

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C 151 ]

On planting Indian Corn, by John Steele, Esq.

Read February 9, 1811,

Custom House ^ Philad. Feb. 2, 18 13*

Dear Sir^

Agreeably to request made in your note of the 25th
ult. I proceed to give you a short account of the me-
thod I have practiced, for several years, in the culture
of Indian corn, together with a brief description of the
implements employed for that purpose.

I plough the ground, carefully, about six inches
deep, after which I spread lime, at the rate of 45 or
50 bushels to the acre, which I mix with the surface,
by the use of the common harrow, then mark the
ground, with a shallow furrow, for planting, (the com
rows five feet apart,) drop the seed three or four feet
from hill to hill, and cover in the usual mannen

When the com is up to the height of three or four
inches, I give each row a stroke with a common har-
row, relieving any of the plants that may be covered
in the operation, with a small rake adapted to the pur-
pose— when this is completed, or within a few days
after, I commence what is generally termed moulding.
—This is performed by two strokes, between each of
the rows, with what I call a coulter harrow, (its teeth
being coulters in miniature,) which completely mel.
lows the ground, by cutting through the furrow, and
much closer to the corn, than it is possible with any
other instrument I have used, leaving the vegetable
surface, turned down in the ploughing, in the same

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152

On planting Indian Corn.

:ii"iT.'

position throughout the season, which affords, to the
roots of the com, the best soil for nourishment, in
whatever direction they may be extended.

At the season of big hilling (in the technical language
of Pennsylvania,) I give my corn a similar course, with
tlje same machine, but with small shovels, resembling
that of the shovel plough, introduced into the places
before occupied by the coulters, when the dressing is
ended.

It remains only to give you some description of my
corn machine, and to state to you my reason for adopt,
ing this method of raising corn, and the consequent
advantages.

The frame of my harrow is perhaps no way material-
ly different from that of the common triangle corn har-
row ; the sides about 4^^ feet long, with a spread that
places the two back teeth 42 inches apart : the whole
number of teeth is seven; the front tooth in the centre,
and the other three aside, at equal distances : a light
piece of scantling is framed into the sides, in front of the
back teeth, for the purpose of strengthening the frame
and supporting the handles. — The coulter tooth is
about lOi or 11 inches below the timber, forming
such angle with the shank as to give the 9oulter that
direction best calculated to penetrate the ground and
perform the office intended. The shovel tooth, be-
low the shank, is about six inches in length, and 4i- in
breadth, projecting in that position best adapted for
cutting grass or weeds, and generally for cleaning and
mellowing the surface. The shanks of each are fitted
to the same hole and fastened with a screw on the top :
the coulter tooth must be supported with a consi-

^w^

On planting Indian Com.

153

<-«*-

derable shoulder behind, otherwise it would be bent
back, the resistance being so great as to produce a suf-
ficient draft for two horses :— with the shovel teeth
one horse can travel with ease.

The farm, on which I have used this machine, I
purchased, in a very exhausted state, about 15 yeaA
ago^ and designing to improve it with lime, I deem-
ed it of importance to retain the lime (which 1 have
uniformly introduced with corn crop) as much on the
surface as possible for the first year. This would not
have been the case if the plough had been used ; and
perceiving that the raising of corn, in the usual way,
exposed the soil to wash, my object was to prevent
this injury by reducing the surface to a perfect plane,
having neither hill nor furrow.

I have uniformly found that the coulter harrow pre-
pared the groiuxl to imbibe and retain a greater quan-
tity of rain water, than in any other way ; in addition
to this advantage, that a much less surface is exposed
to evaporation, than if the land had been ploughed into
ndges, which in a season of drought affords a decided
advantage ; as in the year 1808 I had nearly 40* bush-
els to the acre, when land of the same quality, in my
neighbourhood, farmed in the usual manner, had not
half that quantity.

I have tried both fall and spring ploughing and am
inchned to prefer the latter, as I have genen,lly found
that, by midsummer, the sod was as well rotted in the

MU4

• My son informs me that the crop of 1808 exceeded 40 btisheh
to the acre.

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154

On planting Indian Corn,

one as the other, and have experienced much less trou-
ble from the rising of grass, than when the ground was
ploughed in the fall.

The farm i$ a thin gravelly loam, with a mixture of
clay, and being in a progressive state of improvement,
I^have not planted corn a second time, in the same
field, subsequent to liming — The average crop may be
rated at 40 bushels per acre, bi;t with a light dressing
with stable manure I have raised sixty. The dung
should be turned down in the ploughing.

In order to be somewhat particular in the account I
have given you, I may, perhaps, have failed in render-
ing the description sufficiently intelligible, but you will
please to accept it as it is, with my wish that the me-
thod I have practiced may be tried by others ; as I be-
lieve a saving of labour would not only be gained, by
its adoption, but also an increase of crop from ten to
twenty per cent, and in seasons of drought to a much
greater amount.

I am, very respectfully, sir,

your obedient servant,
John St££L£.
llicHJiRD Peters, Esq.

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C 155 3

On Trench Ploughing for Indian Corn^ and on courses
of Crops J by Mr. fTilliam Bakewell.

" . Read March 9, 1813,

FatlandFord, Montgomery Co. Feb. 25, 18 IS.

Dear Sir^

I have been in the habit for several years, of trench
ploughing for Indian corn. The last summer I was
induced at the solicitations of my servant, to try about
an acre, by simply ploughing the ground, and plant-
ing it in the usual mode. I was much surprised at the
difference in the produce of tlie two parts of the same
field ; that of the trenched part was at least double the
quantity of the single ploughed, and each part had ex-
actly the same culture after the corn was planted.

The mode I use is a saving of labour instead of an
addition to it. About two weeks before the usual
time of planting corn, two furrows are backed upon
each other ; an experienced ploughman can manage
them so as just to meet ; but they will be better to fall
somewhat short, than to lap over on each other. — At
the time of planting I put three horses to the plough,
and trench plough the furrow that was ploughed be-
fore ; a board must be placed between the coulter and
the mould-board of the plough, to prevent the soil from
falling down, and it will completely cover the seed
corn, which saves the trouble of covering it by the hoe
in the usual way.

I generally plant about 18 inches distant, and my
rows of corn are eight feet apart ; a hoe is used to

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156 On Trench Ploughing for Indian Corn, i^c.

make a small cavity in the soil in which three grains
are deposited, the cavity should not be made very deep
as the trench ploughing will cover it effectually-

The planted ground must be looked over afterwards,
to see if any of the seed is left uncovered, and some
time before the corn is up, the intervals between the
rows should be ploughed, or at least one furrow on
each side of every row.
A The usual course of crops in this neighbourhood is,
1st, Indian corn, 2nd. oats or barley, 3rd. wheat or
rye, 4th. clover. — My routine is 1st. wheat, 2nd. rye
and buckwheat sown together, 3rd. Indian corn, 4th.
barlev or oats, with manure, 5th. clover or grass seeds,
or both. I generally give the wheat two ploughings,
especially if there is any grass among the clover. I
have sown part of my wheat stubble with rye and buck-
wheat, (as soon as can conveniently be done after har-
vest,) and part whh rye alone, at the usual time of sow-
ing that grain, and I thought the rye and butik wheat
produced a greater quantity than the r)e sown alone,
and it is a great saving ^i labour. — Besides, a good
quantity of wheat is gained mixed with rye, from the
stubble of the preceding year. The proportion of seed
^ I use is one bushel of rye and half a bushel of buck-
wheat. The buckwheat may be cut at the usual time
without any injury to the rye.

I attribute my having as good crops of com as any
of my neighbours, solely to trench ploughing. When
the ground has borne three crops before, the surface of
the soil may well be exhausted. The trench plough
brings a substratum of fresh soil to the roots of the corn,
and gives the small fibres more liberty to expand. I

On Trench Ploughing fir Indian Corn, t<?e. 157

IS

also find trenching very good for pumpkins, which I
usually grow between my corn, when the ground i
not too full of weeds.

I remain, dear sir, yours sincerely,

William Bakewell.
Da. James Mease.

Secretary, Philad. Agric. Soc.

POSTSCRIPT.

-^pril 3, 1813.

I omitted to mention that I generally put a handful
of two parts leached ashes, and one part hen or pigeons' '
dung, on every hill of corn ; but the chief object of
this appendix is to caution any person who-follows my
system, not to sow the oats too thick when sown with
clover or grass seeds. One bushel to the acre is the
proportion I commonly make use of.

As barley requires a drier lighter soil than oats, I
always sow my barley on the lightest soil, at the rate
of two bushels to the acre, and the oats on the heaviest.

As wheat is the golden grain according to Mr. Ar.
thur Young's definition, I think the ground should
not be exhausted by Indian corn, especially when a
crop of oats follows it. I had upwards of 500 bushels
of wheat from a field of 18 acres last year. I first
ploughed the ground six inches deep in August, it
was harrowed twice over in September ; and the first
week in October, the surface of the ground was
ploughed as shallow as possible, and sown with wheat
at the rate of l\ bushel per acre.

William Bakewell,

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A short Historical Sketch of Agricultural Improvements
in the County of Roxburgh^ f Scotland J with some
Account of the means whereby it was accomplished^
by Mr. John Lang.

Read, March 9, 1813/

From forty to fifty years ago, the old system of out-
field and in-field was universal, with very few excep-
tions. There were generally no fences of any kind,
except a few fields, or parks as they were called, near
a gentleman's seat. On common farms, the only fence
was a stone wall or dyke, built without mortar, round
the barn yard ; and in some instances, two or three
acres were inclosed in the same manner, near the farm
house, called a croft. These crofts were most common
in small villages, where the land had been let on ground
rent, in lots of a few acres, for building.

There were few or no artificial grasses ; their hay
was all from natural meadows or swamps. The pas-
ture-ground and fields of grain lay promiscuously in-
terspersed over the farm, without any security from
the depredations of the farmer's own cattle, or those
of his neighbours, except from the vigilance of the
shepherds and their dogs. Thus, though the whole
country would have appeared to an American in a state
of commons, every man's property was held sacred,
and damages were recoverable at law, for trespasses
committed upon a neighbour's grain or pasture, &c.
That part of the farm which lay most contiguous to
the farm house, was termed in- field ; upon which por-
tion was put all the manure made upon the farm. This

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On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. 159

was divided into five brakes or patches^ the rotation as
follows : wheat, peas, barley, oats, fallow. The wheat
and the barley were always well dunged ; and this was
accounted a highly improved rotation. — Sometimes
oats instead of peas were sown after wheat. Wheat-
land-oats, as they were termed, were reckoned good
seed for the out-field ; seed oats for the in-field were
generally purchased from a distant farm, famed for
good oats. By far the greatest proportion of the farm
was out-field ; of this, ajjatch of unequal dimensions,
(being a portion of the oldest pasture ground) was
broken up every year, and sown with oats ; again
ploughed in the fall, and left all winter to be pulveri-
sed by the frost, and in the following March, the oats
were sown without any more ploughing. This course
was pursued for three years successively, and then the
land was left to rest, for an indefinite number of years,
without any grass-seeds of any kind sown upon it.

Upon those farms where sheep walks were a prin-
cipal object, little grain was sown in the out-field, and
such was the sagacity of the shepherds' dogs, that they
would lead the sheep to feed close to the very edge of
the growing grain, without touching a stalk of it, and
at night the sheep were confined in a pen or fold.
These folds, when ploughed out, produced very strong
crops of oats, for three years sussessively.

All the land, whether in-field or out-field, was
formed into high ridges, the middle of which was
raised to the height of perhaps a foot, to a foot
and a half, or in some instances two feet, above the
level of the furrows between : these had remained in
the same form from time immemorial, and were all

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160 On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh.

less or more crooked, and the bends lay all in one direc*
tion, originating from the horses naturally falling off
from the land, and so taking a less furrow wlien they
came near the end. The broader ridges required to
be sown with four casts, the narrower kind with three
casts ; the first required four or five reapers, the last
always three. Between many of those ridges were
banks of three or four feet wide, or more, which had ne-
ver been ploughed ; and the first step towards improve-
* ment was the breaking up of these banks. This was
no small undertaking, where the soil was a stiff clay,
and matted together with the roots of briars, rushes, and
grasses, and the horses from being poorly fed were
thin and light. The common mode of ploughing was
with four horses, two and two abreast, with a boy to
drive them : but to plough up these old tough balks
it was necesfery to put six horses, or two oxen and
three horses before them ; and notwithstanding, this ar-
duous task was at last almost universally effected.
The success which attended this, suggested the idea of
another more formidable improvement. This was no
less than leveling the old ridges, and laying out their
fields in regular form. This was much reprobated,
chiefly by the old men, who did not hesitate to predict
the certain ruin of whoever would undertake it : and
indeed appearances were much against it at first. To
level these high ridges required a number of repeated
ploughings, always one way, until the hollow between
was filled up higher than the other parts, to allow for
the settling of the loose mould ; the field was then
laid out into straight narrow lands, which could be
sown with two casts, and reaped with two reapers.

On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. 161

;^v:^

One great inconvenience attended this improvement ;
the middles of the old ridges were now so completely
deprived of vegetable mould, that nothing would grow
upon them without being manured, and after all, it
was generally three years before the field could be
brought to bear so uniformly, but that one could see
at any reasonable distance the form of the old ridges,
while the crop was growing. This, by industry and
perseverance, was at last overcome, and such is the
force of example, that the prejudices of the old farmers
were at last subdued, and the whole country was final-
ly drawn into the spirit of improvement.

But this leveling system made it absolutely necessa-
ry to have manure of some kind ; lime could not be
had in Roxburgh county, except what was brought at
least 30 miles, in any direction ; and turnpike roads
and carting had but lately been introduced to any con-
siderate extent; yet under all these disadvantages,
great quantities of lime were used for manure. Marl
was likewise used where it could be had, but this
could not be carried with advantage, to a distance of
more than two or three miles from the spot where it
was found. But even where lime and marl were botli
employed, the improvement was not considered com-
plete without the addition of dung, and this could not
be made upon the farm while the old system of farm-
ing prevailed ; to remedy this inconvenience the arti-
ficial grasses were introduced with great advantage.
The abundance of excellent upland hay they made,
enabled the farmers to keep a more numerous stock,
and the straw upon which their half starved cattle and
horses were wont to be fed in winter, could now be

VOL. III. X

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162 On Agritultural Improvements in Roxburgh.

spared for litter ; and it was soon found, that one field
thus improved produced more grain, &c. than three
such fields in their former state.

The rotation of crops was now totally changed, and
the distinction of in- field and out-field was no more
known : a comparatively small proportion of the farm
was now under grain crop, and two grain crops were
never taken without an intervening green crop ; the
greater part of the farm was occcupied with turnipg,
or with clover, or other up-land meadow, rich pasture,
or fallow.

The old Scottish plough, the only one which had
ever been used in the old husbandry, was found to be
poorly aditjDted to the new. In ploughing the old, high,
crooked ridges, a straight uniform furrow was not ab-
solutely necessary, but upon a level field this was in-
dispensable, particularly where the soil was generally a
strong clay, upon a substratum of schistus, through
which no water could pass. In this case, the least un-
evcnness would retain the water, and in long continu-
ed wet weather ruined the crop. The object now was
a square furrow, equal in breadth and deepness, that
would stand on its edge, only so much turned as not
to fall back.

The first substitute was a small plough introduced
from England ; which, instead of the round sock, and
long narrow coulter, had a flat share, a short beam, a
short broad coulter, and a mould board cut to a nice
curve, out of a solid piece of wood, and covered all over
with sheet iron. This plough was easily worked with
two horses without a man or boy to drive ; it answer-
ed well for a light sandy or gravelly soil, but for a te-

On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. 163

nacious clay it turned the furrow too much on its
back, and in wet weather it was apt to sour, (stagnate)
and on such soil, if the weather was inclined to wet at
the time of ploughing, the furrow was so nicely smooth-
ed off, that when it became dry it was like baked earth
upon which the harrow could take little or no efi'ect.
To remedy this inconvenience, another plough was in-
vented by a Mr. Small, for which he obtained a patent.
Improvements were from time to time made upon
Small's plough, until it was conceived to be brought
to such a state of perfection, that no farther improve-
ment was wanted : since that time almost every part
of the plough has been made of cast iron.

Ploughing was now learned like a trade, and plough-
ing matches were instituted, at which premiums were
given to the best performers, and such is the perfec-
tion to which they at last arrived, that a good marks-
man, in taking an aim along a furrow, could not see any
variation in the whole length of a long land.

While these improvements were going on, it be-
came necessary to have the fields fenced in : where
stones were in plenty, stone dykes were used, but the
most general mode of fencing was with hedge and
ditch ; this was greatly facilitated by the extraordina-
ry industry of Mr. Archibald Dickson, who from a
small beginning, became famous for being the first who
raised nurseries of thorn-quicks, upon the great scale ;
his sons are well known all over the kingdom. It was
common for the landlord to pay out the original ex-
pense of fencing in this manner, and charge the tenant
five per cent upon the sums so expended ; the latter
was bound to keep the hedges clean, and trim them aJi

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164 On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh.

occasion required. In some cases they were bound
not to put any cattle, and more particularly sheep, in
such fields, for live years from the time of planting.
This was at first a considerable loss to the tenants, but
a great advantage in the end.

It now remains to take notice of the means whereby
such a wonderful change was produced. It will be
readily conceived that the original expenses of such
improvements must be very great, before any return
could be expected; and besides the long established ha-
bits and prejudices which had to be overcome, the farm-
ers were generally so very poor, that it was not without
the most rigid economy that they could support their fa,
milies, and pay a comparatively small rent, so that
nothing could be raised from the land in its then state,
to meet such expense. Most of the farmers at tliat
time were totally ignorant of the nature of banks, nei-
ther could their credit command any money in that
way, and there were no banks nearer than Edinburgh,
which was from 30 to 50 miles distance. At first,
some landlords more liberal minded than their neigh-
bours, put their tenants in the way of getting money at
the Edinburgh banks, by giving their names to their
notes, and this induced others to follow their example.
About this time a branch of the bank of Scotland was
established at Kelso, a considerable market town, to
which the farmers generally resorted to sell their cattle
and produce. Here they formed themselves into clubs,
to assist each other with their names, to their respecr
tive bills or notes. This business was not transacted
in the form of discounts, as at the banks in the United
States, but when a note was presented, if the cashier

On Agricultural Improvements in Roxburgh. 165

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was satisfied with the names, the money was paid at
once, always deducting the interest.* It was not al-
ways required that the subscribers to a note should at
the time have a running account with the bank, but it
was essential that one or more of the subscribers
should be possessed of real property to the satisfaction
of the bank. No person or club could draw any more
money until the first note was paid, but in order to en-
sure a constant supply of money, the different clubs,
by mixing and formingnew combinations, found means
to pay their respective notes, with the very money
which they had drawn from the same bank on the same
day. As improvements advanced, the demand for
money became greater, and the number of banks in-
creased, until one, two, or more banks, or branches of
banks, were established in almost every town and vil-
lage over the country, and a very great proportion of
the business was ingrossed by farmers, manufacturers,
and mechanics. This capital might be said to be ficti-
tious and illusory, but the fruits produced by it were
real and substantial. By this means three or four
bushels of wheat were raised, where one had been rais-
ed before, and twenty or thirty fat cattle sold to the butch-
er, in one season, from a farm which formerly could
hardly feed one beef for the farmer's own family. Eve-
ry farmer could now afford to pay three times the rent

* It may be proper to observe, that notwithstanding the constant
practice of discounting good paper on any day, and paying the
money over the counter, the instant it is presented and approved ;
yet they have besides, their regular discount days, particularly the
large banks in the cities ; some of them three times a week.

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166 On Agricultural ImprovemenU in Roxburgh.

which he was wont to pay, and at the same time live
in as good a house, have as rich furniture, keep as good
a table, and ride as fine a horse as the gentlemen for-
merly did. We have now abundance of banks, in the
United States, with the names of Farmers' Banks, and
Mechanics' Banks, but the farmers of this country will
reap little benefit from them, until some such plan as
the above is fallen upon, whereby they can have a con-
stant supply of money, until they can bring their grain
and cattle to a good market. The farmers of this
country are generally proprietors of the land which
they farm, whereas the others were only renters and
very poor, yet by the assistance of the banks they were
enabled to buy lime and other manures, cultivate sown
grasses, turnips, &c. ; buy in cattle for feeding, which
produced abundance of dung, whereby the land was
enriched from year to year, until the whole country at
last became like a garden.

C 167 3

On the Haws, or ffooksj (so called) in Horses^ by Rich*
ard Peters J Esquire*

Read June 8, 1813.

Belmont^ June 2, 1813.

Dear Sir^

During the last winter, I had in my service, what
is too common, — a conceited driver of my carriage,
who believed himself exclusively acquainted with the
management of the affairs of the stable. He wished me
to clothe my horses, and had a foppery on this subject,
whereof there are too frequent examples. I would not
indulge this unnecessary and highly injurious propen-
sity. Clothing horses subject to sudden and frequent
exposure to cold and wet, I have known through my life
(and I have owned horses almost half a century) to be
dangerous to their health ; and a preventive to, or de-
stroyer, of the hardihood and strength, which that ani-
mal by nature possesses. On those its usefulness
mainly depends. Were I compelled to the alternative, I
would prefer an open shed, in which horses should be
sheltered from bleak winds and rain, to a close stable.'
Much less would I choose, in any situation, to clothe
them, when in health. But servants who wish to spare
labour, will have horses wrapped in blankets, and kept
in close stables. They add high feeding, (which is still'
more prejudicial,) to give them a sleek coat, and save
themselves the trouble of rubbing and cleanliness. As
my servant could not carry his point in one way ; he
determined on a course he considered equivalent.~He

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168

On the Haws of HookSy in Horses.

stopped every crevice in the stable, through which air
could be admitted ; and fed unsparingly, contrary to
my frequent injunctions. The consequences were,
that several of my horses were seized with violent fe-
vers. These appeared with the usual symptoms, and
particularly in morbid affections of the eyes. The
youngest horse was the most affected. On this account,
horses of three to seven years old, are always in the
most danger, as diseases of the eyes, in such horses,
most frequently occur. It is not uncommon for young
horses, especially if pampered, to be afflicted with ear-
ly blindness. The loss of one eye is frequent ; and in
this case, that remaining is, generally, the stronger for
the privation. Both eyes, however, often are lost.
Pampering and over-working young horses should be
carefully avoided. My servant knew, as he believed,
effectual remedies. *' My horses had the hooksy^^ as the
haws are vulgarly denominated. — ** These must be cut
out of the eyes." But, before I was acquainted with
the subject, in my early life, I had a capital young
horse, sacrificed to this mistaken and ruinous operation.
Ignorant quacks do not know, that the horse has a
membrane, peculiar to this animal ; which is at plea-
sure, drawn over the eye, by means of a muscle with
which he can draw the eye into the socket. The en-
largement of this, by a fever, produces the appearance,
which, in the jockey slang, is called the Hooks. Re-
' ducc the fever, by depleting remedies, such as bleed-
ing plentifully, purging, &c. and the hooks disappear;
— i. e. the membrane is restored to its natural size and
office ; which is, to clear the eye from insects, dust,
and other pests inserting themselves, or accidentally

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On the Ha'XJds or Hooksy in Horses.

169

9tx=s:

3X1

entering, this organ. I neeld not mention, that I would
not permit the cutting out this useful membrane.

Two of my horses had swellings of the bars, or roof
of the mouth, called lampas. Young horses are the
most subject to it. It is occasioned by fever ; and the
horse should be treated accordingly. Sometimes a
mess or two of hard corn (Indian) banishes this protu-
berance. Burning is usually practiced. It is not so
ruinous as cutting for the haws ; but I never suffer it
to be done ; having known horses irretrievably injur-*
ed, by repetitions of this operation.

My horses were recovered from their fevers ; but I
believe two of them will never be totally relieved from
the consequences. The complaints in the eyes fre-
quently recur ; and I fear will occasion blindness in
one, or both of them. I blame myself, in some de-
gree, for unusual remissness in frequent visits to my
stables. Such negligence every owner of horses should
cautiously avoid. True, we cannot controul or com-
mand servants in this country ; in which the Sattir^
nalia are celebrated every day in the year. Among the
ancients, the servants were satisfied with one annual,
but short, term of equalityv The exemplary quali-
ties of our ever lamented General Washington,
shewed themselves in every department of his private ,
as well as public, life. He was an early riser, and he
commenced every day with a visit to his stables ; in
which he minutely examined and directed every ne-
cessary arrangement ; tmd no person of his day knew
better how to treat the horse ; both in his support, and '
the various uses to which the services of this noble ani-
tnal can be applied. It is to be earnestly desired, tlic\t

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170* On the Haws or Hooks, in Horses.

C 171 ]

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his example in this, as well as greater concerns, were
more generally followed.

Proofs of the capacity of horses to bear the incle-
mencies of seasons ; and their hardihood in a state of
nature, are before us constantly. The danger of high
feeding and pampering, we experience every day. Yet
both are overlooked.

I have lately received an account of some wild horses,
on an Island opposite Accomack in Virginia ; which,
though on a smaller scale than I had been informed it
was, serves,, among a thousand other proofs, to shew
the inexpediency of over care in regard to this invalu-
able animal. I by no means wish to encourage inat-
tention, or cruelty; not only because I abominate
both ; but because it would be a work of supereroga-
tion, as it respects too many proprietors of horses, or
those they employ.— I send to you the letters contaiu-
ing the information I sought on this subject ; with a
wish to promulgate any important facts relating to it.
After the free use of the fleam, and the drugs of the
shops, I began to despair of the recovery of my horses.
But I put them on a diet, which most rapidly operat-
ed. I fed them, exclusively, on raw potatoes. The in-
flammation in the eyes subsided entirely ; and the
whole system recovered its usual functions, by this
cooling, laxative, and detergent regimen. Precedent
remedies, no doubt, were highly useful.

Yours very truly,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Jgric. Soc.

f

On Breeding In and In^ by Richard Peter s^ Esq.

Read July 14, 1813.

Belmont, June 29, 1813.

Dear Sir^

I perceive in Mr. Ecroyd^s communication, page
52, " 3rd. breeding in and in ;" there is a striking co-
incidence of his experience with mine. You know
that I very much despise accumulating facts, merely
for the purpose of supporting an opinion. But truth rCr
quires individual facts, pro and con, to form just con-
clusions.

Mr. E. remarks " that (by breeding in and in) a
" constant deterioration has taken place ; the bone be-
•* comes smaller, and perhaps for the second and third
" generation, the shape rather handsomer, but a conti-
** nual diminution of size takes place ; perhaps, how-
" ever, the greatest defect is a want of increase, ari-
" sing both from barrenness of the ewes, and the Iambs
" being so weak and sickly, as to die in great num-
" bers." I can truly say that this, in most particulars,
is exactly my experience. The last proofs I have had,
were exhibited by my Tunis sheep. The original pair
continued vigorous, and the ewe prolifick, to a late pe-
riod of their lives. But their lineal descendants of the
-AH blood, though handsome, were small ; and mere
runts in size, after four or fiive descents. They re-
minded me of a Polish dwarf I saw in London ; who
was a Lilliputian figure of a very handsome m jn. He
said he was a nobleman of unmixed blood, .through
many descents. Whatever was the fact, he seemed to

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On Brtcding In and In.

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be so ; i. e. bred in and in.--I was compelled to sell off
(last year) all the diminutives of my flock; at the price
of small common sheep. In human subjects, such would
be called manikins. Yet they preserved their figure ;
and superiority of mutton. The lambs were not appa-
rently sickly ; but they would die suddenly. Holders
of Merino flocks can lamentably attest similar facts, in
this respect. At least several flock-owners ; of whose
losses, in this way, I have been informed. The bar-
renness of the full blooded Tunis ewes, of the fifth or
%ixth descent, was also remarkable. But in the crosses,
this was not perceived, Tlie crosses, bred back, were
always fine and superior sheep ; and are yet so.

I know that intelligent breeders hold contrary opi-
nions. Yet wishing, anxiously, for the prosperity of
their flocks ; I humbly think, that it would be best
for them not to disregard any well attested warnings.
Let them continue their in and in system, on their
own judgment ; which may be the best. But Jet them
also cross j lest, per chance, they may, in the end,
find themselves mistaken. It can do no harm, to mul-
tiply their chances ; or, — in trite phraseology ,-^have
two strings to their bow. — Many of them cross from
necessity ; or fortuitously. But let them do it syste-
matically ; i. e. cross, and breed back, — to 44. They
will find (as I presume, from some experience, to fore-
tell) such to be the best sheep in their flocks.

Yours, very truly,

Richard Peters,
Dr. James Me4se.

Secretary J Philad, Agric, Soc.

'V •

Observations on Guinea GrasSy by S. Brawn^ M. D. of
Natchez^ Mississippi Territory.

Read, July 13, 1813.

Six years ago, I saw one or two plants of the Gui-*
nea grass, in the garden of M. Treme, near the city of
New- Orleans ; but as I was, at that time, in no way
concerned in agricultural pursuits, it attracted little
of my attention. Last autumn, I again met with it,
in great perfection, at Mr. Munson's, a few miles north
of Fort Adams. Although Mr. Munsbn had not more
than half a dozen of plants, he obligingly furnished me
with a pint of seed, which I shared with my friends, in
this territory, in Tennessee and Kentucky. Mr. Abner
Green of Adams county had, for two or three years,
cultivated this luxuriant grass, but I cannot learn that any
person except Mr. Munson had followed his example.
From two acres of this grass, Mr. Green fed from 30
to 40 or 50 animals every day during the summer
season.

As neither Mr. Green nor Mr. Munson had any
knowledge of the history of this grass, and as I had
determined to cultivate it, I sought for further infor-
mation in such books as were within my reach/

In Bryan Edwards's, history of Jamaica we have the
following account of it.

** Guinea grass may be considered as next to the
'' sugar cane, in point of importance, as most of the gra-

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174

On Guinea Grass.

" zing farms or pens * throughout the Island, were
« originally created, and are still supported chiefly by
^* means of this invaluable herbage. Hence the plenty
« of horned cattle both for the butcher and planter,
« which is such, that few markets in Europe can fur-
" nish beef at a cheaper rate or of better quality than
♦'Jamaica. Perhaps the settlement of most of the
** north side parishes is wholly owing to the introduc-
" tion of this excellent grass, which happened about
" 50 years ago, the seeds having been brought from
' «* the coast of Guinea, as food for some birds which
"were presented to Mr. Ellis, chief justice of the Is-
" land. Fortunately the birds did not live to consume
" the whole stock, and the remainder being carelessly
" thrown into a fence grew and flourished, and it was
^ not long before the eagerness displayed by the cat-
" tie to reach the grass attracted Mr. Ellis's notice,
" and induced him to collect and propagate the seeds;
" which now thrive in some of the most rocky parts
" of the Island, bestowing verdure and fertility on lands
" which otherwise would not be worth cultivation."
Vol. 1. page 186.

* Many of the pens of Guinea grass* in Jamaica, are of great ex-
tent ; some contain 700 or 800 acres. 1 am informed by gentle-
men who have lately observed it in that Island, that it is perennial,
and that it forms a turf, which is divided and set out for the pur-
pose of extending the pasture grounds. Some of it was brought
from Jamaica to New-Orleans, in June last, by captain Califl'e,
who was highly gratified at finding it growing in such perfection in
Natchez, tie had been informed in Jamaica that it was difficult to
procure seed that would vegetate. I gave him a quantity of it for
his friends in N. Carolina.

On Guinea Grasps.

175

4fe

From Willich's Domestic Encyclopedia, I make the
following extract.

" Guinea grass* a valuable species of herbage thus
" denominated as it was first discovered on the coast of
" Guinea, whence it was brought to Jamaica and after-
"wards imported into this country. (England.)

" In point of real utility, thi3 plant ranks in Jamaica
"next the sugar cane; for the breeding farms through-
" out the Island were originally established and are still
"supported chiefly by means of the Guinea grass
" which bestows verdure and fertility on lands that
"would otherwise not deserve to be cultivated. About
" 10 years since it was introduced into the East Indies,
" where it is now successfully cultivated, and grows to
" the height of seven feet ; it admits of being frequent-
" ly cut, and makes excellent hay : cattle eat it both iri
" a fresh and dry state with great avidity ; hence the
" culture of this valuable herbage has been strongly re-
" commended to the farmers of Cornwall and Devon-
*' shire.—"

The subsequent remarks on the culture of this grass
are by the late H. Laurens, of S. Carolina, and added
to the foregoing by the American editor of that work.

♦ I could have wished that the author of the Domestic Encyclope-
dia, had given usnhe botanical name and characters of this plant.
For want of books I am unable to supply this deficiency.! Bruce in
his travels in Egypt and Abyssinia menuons Guinea grass, but gives
no account of its character or properties. I have conversed with
many natives of Africa, who recollect to have seen it in many
parts of that continent.

t A botanical description is subjoined to this paper.

J. M.

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176

On Ouin^ brass.

3&S

" In the last spring I procured from Jamaica three
** half pints of Guinea grass seed, which I planted in
" drills of one fourth of an acre of very indifferent land.
•* The seed sprung, and soon covered the ground with
" grass, four feet high and upwards. Being desirous
*' of saving as much seed as possible, I cut one bun-
" die of grass for horses : they ate it all with great avi-
" dity.* In August I took one of the grass roots and
*> divided it into 28 parts, which were immediately re-
** planted ; every part took root, and the whole are
" now growing very finely, and seeding. I am of opi-
" nion this grass will make the best pasture we can
" wish for. — From former experience I have reason
" to believe the Guinea grass is perennial. It is easi-
"ly managed, requires but one good hoeing, after
" which it will take care of itself. Domestic Encyclo-
, ** pedia, article Guinea grass." ^

'^Vith this little stock of information I commenced
my experiments. In the month of April, I prepared
a piece of ground in the city of Natchez, and planted
the seed I had reserved for my own use, in holes two
feet distant from each other. The season proving un-
usually cold,t and torrents of rain falling almost eve-

♦ It is curious to calculate the quantity which an industrious,
planter can obtain from one seed. — Suppose that each of the 28 di-
visions of the root produced less than one half of the number of
stalks I obtained from one seed, for instance 50 stalks, this will give
1400 stalks in one season, from a single seed. On good soil, in a
favourable year, these will all attain the height of at least seven
feet.

t Persons who have resided in the vicinity of Natchez for 37
years, do not recollect t^o have seen frost in May before this year,

On Guinea Grass.

177

ry day, all our small seeded crops were either totally
lost, or materially injured. The vegetation of the
Guinea grass seed was so much retarded, that until
some time in May, I could discover no young plants.
They at length made their appearance, in some parts
of the lot. But some seeds remained six weeks in the
earth, before they vegetated : and most of those gen-
tlemen, to whom I had given seed, supposing them to
have been gathered too green, appropriated their
grounds to other purposes, or suffered the weeds to
smother the young grass.

As soon as I could designate the Guinea grass, I
had the ground well hoed, and where two or more
plants came up together, I had the supernumeraries
transplanted to spots where the seed had failed. When
the plants attained such a size as would admit of it, I
took them up, and dividing the roots, set them out
when the soil was wet, and in this way filled up the
vacancy in the ground I had appropriated to my ex-
periments.

At Percy field, near Fort Adams, Mr. Oglesby, my
manager, planted about the eighth of an acre of very
fertile land^ with plants obtained from Mr. Munson,
in the first and second week of May. They grew
without any trouble except that of cutting down the
first growth of weeds. On the 20th of June, hf be-
gan to cut it for the use of the plough horses and
mules, and continued to supply them with as much as

(1812.) On the nights of the 3rd and 4th of May the hoar frost
was so severe as to destroy almost all the tender plants in the ter-
ritory.

VOL. III. Z

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On Ouinea Orass.

they could eat of it, during the whole summer. On
the 25th of September he wrote me, that he had cut
It four times. From 20 roots he obtained at the fourth
cutting 250 pounds of green grass, and in two weeks,
he would cut it the ffth time. The weather bein^
very unfavourable, he did not succeed in curing the
hay, by weighing which, he intended to ascertain the
loss in drying.*

I did not begin to cut that which I had planted in
Natchez, until the 16th of July, I then weighed the
produce of one seed, in the presence of a number of
gentlemen, at Mr. Robinson's hotel. One hundred
and sixty four stalks, from six to seven feet high,
growing from one root weighed together 30 pounds. At
Mr. Winn's tavern, on the 10th of September a second
cutting, from one seed, weighed 35 pounds. The
number of stalks was 184, some of which measured 10
feet 11 inches in length. Some parts of the lot in
Natchez is very poor soil, and the grass on those
places did not grow higher than six or seven feet.
But on a good soil, in a favourable season, in this cli-
mate, I am persuaded it is a very moderate estimate to
allow to every square yard 10 pounds at a cutting,
when we cut only three times in the season. This
would give 30 pounds to every square yard, or 147,000
pounds of green grass to the acre. But this produc-
tion sf ems so enormous, that I should not have ven-
tured on such a calculation had I not the respectable
authority of Mr. Edwards to support me. He asserts

• (See certificate of Mr. Oglesby.)

On Guinea Grass.

179

that the Scots grass* which he seems to consider as
far inferior to the Guinea grass, is so productive, that
one acre of it will support five horses the whole year
round, allowing each horse 56 pounds per day, which
is 102,200 pounds per acre. vol. 1, p. 185.

It is not pretended that the Fiorin grassf which, of
late, has excited so much attention in Europe, will pro-
duce more than nine tons of hay per acre, and Mr.
Livingston bestows great encomiums on Lucerne,
which requires much more cultivation than Guinea
grass, and yields only 4500 pounds per acre, at three
cuttings. I am informed that the best timothy mea-
dows in Kentucky never produce more than six tons
per acre, in the most favourable seasons. But I am
sufficiently aware of the fallacy of such calculations as
I have been making. An experiment on a large scale
is absolutely necessary to the attainment of an accurate

* Panicum hirtellum Lin.
t For an account of this grass see " Dr. Mease's Archives of
useful knowledge" Vol. II, No. III. The plate of it given in that
work might be readily mistaken for the Bermuda grass in this
Territory, which the late much lamented Mr. Dunbar, had so much
merit in introducing, and which will be found so valuable when
the planters begin to perceive the folly of encreasing the number
of their slaves instead of breeding Merino sheep. Few men were
more capable of forming a just estimate of the comparative value
of the stock farm and the cotton plantation than Mr. Dunbar —
The cultivation of cotton, he has often observed yielded a miserable
return compared to the profits of a stock of Merinos. His solici-
tude to procure that precious breed of sheep, for some months be-
fore his death, ought to suggest to his survivors the true and per-
haps the only means of restoring the country to its former flourish-
ing condition.

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On Guinea Orasr.

result. This season has been very wet, and grasses of
all kinds, in this territory, have grown to an unusual
length. Planters have found it necessary to make the
most vigorous exertions to save their crops of corn
and cotton from being choaked with grass and weeds.
But admitting that my calculations are extravagant,
let us suppose that an acre will produce only one third
of what I have stated, still we must consider Guinea
grass as the most valuable of all the known grasses.

I regret very much that Mr. Laurens did not men-
tion the grounds upon which he expresses an opinion
that this grass is perennial. In Jamaica I have no
doubt it is so, but in this climate, I am persuaded, it
is annual, and that during the months of September
and October, it drops as much seed as is requisite to
produce the crop of the ensuing year.* Indeed it is
necessary every spring to cut down the superfluous
plants in order to leave room for the spreading of those
which are suffered to come to maturity — I have tried
Mr. Laurens's method of dividing the roots and trans-
planting them, and find it answers very well for filling
up such vacancies as happen from the imperfection of
the seed, or from other causes, and >vhich would occa-
sion a great waste of labour and of land. The sooner
in the season this is done the better, for I did not find
that those plants which were thus removed in August,

^ ^

* Since writing the above, Mr. Munson informed me that Mr.
Laurens was correct, and that the roots which he examined in the
hist spring were perfectly green and putting forth a great number
of slioots.

On Guinea Grass.

181

attained the usual size. In June and July this plan
will succeed perfectly well.

I find very little difficulty in collecting the seed,* I
have already obtained a bushel in return for three or
four spoonfuls which I sowed on my lot in town — I
cut off" about two feet of the top with the panicle, as
soon as the seed begins to fall, and after it is dry comb
out the seed with a coarse comb — I hope to collect at
least two bushels of seed during the autumn.

As the seeds vegetate very slowly, and as many of
them are imperfect, the most certain mode of obtain-
ing the young plants, would be that practiced by the
cultivators of tobacco, who, early in the season, pre-
pare a small spot of ground by burning the surface.
On this they sow the seed, and tread them down with
their feet. They then cover the spot with brush wood,
to protect it from the action of cold winds, and the
seed from the depredations of birds. As soon as the
plants have attained the height of two or three inches,
and when the danger of frost is past, they should be
removed to the ground >vherc they are to stand, where

* After our early corn is bent down in this territory, we may
plant Guinea grass between the rows, and when we take out the
corn in October, the fields will afford abundance of food for fatten-
ing caule. I made a small experiment in this way, and have no
doubt it may prove useful to those who have not a sufficiency of
cleared land. If corn is planted in the succeeding March, the grass
\vill not do any injury, as it does not vegetate until about the be-
giftning of May. I think the seed might be sowed on wheat, in
February or March, and as we cut our wheat about the 10th of
May, the young grass would grow up among the stubble.

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182

On Guinea Grass*

they readily take root.* A rich black mould, and a
soil somewhat moist, I think produces the most luxu*
riant grass, but I have had very little experience on
this subject. I hope that before many years, it will be
tried in every climate in the United States, and on
every variety of soil.f No kind of grass with which I
am acquainted, supports the heat of the sun so well,
and this property, was it even less productive, would
recommend it to the notice of the agriculturalist, for,
from the first of July, until it is killed by the autumnal
frosts, it will afibrd a constant, and an abundant sup-
ply of green food, and consequently enable the farmer.

♦ There is no more difficulty in transplanting it, than in plant-
ing tobacco or cabbage. A basket or two of the young plants will
be sufficient for an acre. One hundred plants would enable a poor
family to keep a cow in town, or to supply a dray horse with green
food all summer. How much would the general cultivation of this
grass add to the comfort of the poor and middling classes of so-
ciety !

t The planters arc beginning to be sensible of the importance of
winter pasturage in this climate, where snows seldom remain 24
hours. Wheat fields, and the tall meadow oats, [avena elatiorO
may be pastured from November until March, when the white
clover begins to supply our animals with green food. This grows
luxuriantly until the month of July. Then Guinea grass will fur-
nish a still more grateful food, until our early wheat lots require to
be eat down, in October or November. Wheat, tall meadow oats,
clover, and Guinea grass, affi)rd green food every day in the year,
in the climate of the Mississippi Territory. In what part of the
union can sheep be raised with so little expense ? In most parts of
Europe, and in the middle and northern States, the winter keeping
constitutes a principal part of the expense, and the severe frosts and
deep snows destroy multitudes of lambs.

On Guinea Grass.

4 . < ***

18S

If
whatever may happen to his other meadows, to lay up

a plentiful stock of hay, for the winter. If the hay is
cut before the grass has grown too tall, less than two
days sunshine will dry it completely. It is uncommon-
ly fragrant, and horses prefer it greatly to the best
corn blades. This experiment was tried on the 28th of
September, when I sent Mr. Winn, of Natchez, a
small bundle of hay, which had been exposed to the
sun, about a day and a half. Mr. Winn put it into the
bottoms of his mangers, and covered it with the best
corn blades he could procure. The horses threw aside
the fodder, and ate the hay with eagerness.

An acre of corn will not yield more than from 500
to 1000 pounds of dry blades. Considerable labour
is necessary in gathering them, they are preserved with
difficulty, as we cannot choose a favourable season,
and with us they are always to be carried to the stack
on the backs of labourers. As the Guinea grass, on th«
contrary, retains its verdure for several months, we
can always cut it when the weather is the most pro-
mising ; we can cultivate it on most plantations, near
the place where we wish to feed it, or it may be cart-
ed out of the enclosure where it grows. If subsequent
experience should confirm the principal facts which I
have stated with regard to this grass, the intelligent
farmer will soon perceive the advantage of cultivating
«, instead of trusting to the scanty supply of blades,
which he obtains from his corn fields, with such a
waste of time and human labour. A Pennsylvania
farmer, who knows the advantage of a timothy or glo-
ver meadow, considers it a folly to spend time in col-
lecting corn blades. If Guinea grass succeeds as well

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184

On Guinea Grass*

with others, and in every season, as it has done this
season, with me, and as it has done in the West In-
dies for more than half a century, the planters of the
south will have no reason to envy their northern neigh-
hours, their luxuriant clover pastures, or their nume-
rous ricks of timothy hay- Meadows are generally the
most fertile part of every farm where they exist, and
their value is augmented by their contiguity to the
farm houses. If Guinea grass is substituted for clover,
timothy, and lucerne, at least seven eighths of all the
grounds appropriated to those crops will be given to
the cultivator for the purpose of raising sustenance for
the human species. To what amount this change will
increase the sum of national wealth, I leave to those
to estimate, who are more conversant with such cal-
culations.

Certificates respecting Guinea Grass.

February 23, 1812.

Dear Sirj

Your favour of the 15th instant reached mc yes-
terday. In reply to your inquiries respecting the Gui-
nea grass, I will with pleasure give you such informa-
tion as I have been able to make, to fulfil your wishes.
The first winter after I sowed the seed was fortu-
nately mild, as it did not go to seed, in the spring it
put up from the old roots. The branches I transplant-
ed, and they grew luxuriantly. It seeded late in Octo-
ber. The roots were killed by the frost, but in the
spring following, the seed that fell came up abundant-

On Guinea Grass.

185

ly, these plants I divided, and transplanted about three
acres of ground, but owing to the spring being very
dry, this could not be effected until the month of Juae,
wishing to have the ground well stocked with seed, I
made but little use of it. It seeded much earlier this
year, and much more abundantly. In the spring follow-
ing, (that is last spring) it came up in great abundance;
when it got about two feet high, I began to use it for
my riding horses and work creatures, in all not less
than thirty head, and the growth was so rapid, that not
more than half the ground was cut over, and some of
this not more than once : my son, who was more par-
ticular than myself, informed me it grew six inches in
twenty four hours. The seed sprouts about the time
of the common grasses, coming up with a single spire
and putting out a vast number of branches, something
like wheat, each of which may be transplanted. This
winter I have reason to believe the roots are also
killed. It seeded in great abundance last ftdl, and
much earlier than the two previous years. It continues
green until it is killed by the frost. On the river I am
persuaded it would seldom if ever be destroyed in the
winter.

I am, respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

^ Abner Green.

Henry Turner, Esc^.

On the 16th of July, 1812, I weighed the first cut-
ting of one plant of Guinea grass, which grew in Dr.
Brown's lot. Its weight was thirty pounds of green
S^^^^* Thomas Robinsox.

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On Guinea Grass.

mikinson County, M. T. Oct. 10, 1812.
I have frequently examined your lot of Guinea grass
af Percyfield, and having for many years been in the
habit of viewing both timothy and clover meadows, in
the state of Virginia, where plaster of Paris has been
used, I have no hesitation in saying, that one acre of
Guinea grass will produce more than six times the
quantity I have ever known produced by an acre of

any other kind of grass.

M. Bronaugh.

Dr. Brown.

Percyjield, mikinson Co. M. T.

October 15, 1812.

I have for many years been accustomed to both ti-
mothy and clover meadows, and have frequently as-
sisted in cutting some of the best in the state of Ken-
tucky. At Percyfield, near Fort Adams, I cultivated
a lot of Guinea grass, somewhat less than a quarter of
an acre, from which I fed six or eight horses, during
the summer of 1812. I planted it the second week in
May, and began to cut it the 20lh of June, and cut it
Jive times before the 15th of October, and obtained
from each plant (which occupied a square yard) about
sixty pounds of green grass. I have frequently ob-
served it to grow four inches in twenty four hours.
From the astonishing growth, and from the result of
all my experiments, I have no hesitation in saying,
that it will yield ten times as much grass as any timo-
thy or clover meadow I have ever seen. It is now (15th

On Guinea Grass.

187

October) as green as it was in June, and animals are
remarkably fond of it, both green and dry. The hay
is excellent, and cures without difficulty.

Joseph B. Oclesby.

Of Jefferson Co. Kentucky.

Guinea grass, according to Browne, is a species of
Holcus, the characters of which, he says, agree pretty
well with those of Panicum in general, but the flowers
commonly grow very luxuriant, and though often her-
maphrodite, are generally observed to be male and
female, distinct, surrounded by separate involucres,
and standing on distinct pedicels, within the same calyx.
— See Browne's Civil and Natural History of Jamaica.
Folio, page 366. London, 1756.

Dr. Martyn treats of it under the genera Holcus and
Panicum.

Mr. Correa dc Serra informs me, that in " the bo-
tanic garden at Paris, where Guinea grass has been
with great care cultivated by Mr. Thouin, it is known
by the name of Panicum altissimum^ and it is very
probable, that the frequent abortion of either of the
sexes, in a great number of flowers, was the reason why
Browne, and other scrupulous and literal Linnean bo-
tanists, put it in the genus Holcus, notwithstanding all
its characters were of PanicumJ*^ Dr. Martyn de-
scribes it among the panicums, under the name of Pa-
nicum maximum, in the following words :

Panicum maximum. Culms from five to ten feet
high; upright, simple, even. Leaves lanceolate, to-
wards the top convolute and sharp, smooth, except at the

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On Guinea Grass*

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edge, which is rugged, and at the base, which is rough
haired. Panicle erect, a foot long and more ; the low-
er branches in whorls, the upper in pairs. Florets nu-
merous, alternate, ovate, sharpish, pressed to the ra-
ceme, on short, subfle:^uose pedicels. Spikelets poly-
gamous. Outer valve of the calyx very small, inner
oblong, sharpish, pale. Instead of the hermaphrodite,
there is often a female floret, with a male at the side
of it, or a female alone, without the hermaphrodite and
male. Seed oblong, shining. In Jamaica it flowers in
October.

Directions for the culture of Guinea grass will be
found in Dr. Martyh's edition of Miller's Gardener's
Dictionary, under the article Holcus pertusits.

Besides the account of Guinea grass in Edwards,
and the Domestic Encyclopedia, additional informa-
tion may be obtained by referring to the Letters and
Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, vol.
5, and Young's Annals of Agriculture, vols. 9 and 13.
All agree in the extraordinary fattening properties of
this plant, and to our southern States it cannot fail of
being of incalculable benefit. J, M,

Account of a Crab Apple Orchard^ by Henry Wynkoop^
Esquire^ of Bucks County.

Read August 10, 1813.

Belmont, July 24, 18 IS.

Sir,

I send, for the Society, a letter from my old and
much esteemed friend, Henry Wynkoop, Esquire,
in answer to some questions I troubled him with, re-
lative to his orchard. He gives a highly encouraging
account of the profitable produce of two hundred trees,
on five acres of ground. I will endeavour to obtain
the history of the Virginia Crab. Most of the orchards
in my neighbourhood, as well as my own, have long
been declining. I have spared no pains in endeavours
to render them flourishing : but have not succeeded to
my wishes. They are planted in every soil and situa-
tion. Some are cultivated, i. e. sown with grasses and
grain. All well manured, save one, which is in a soil
by no means poor, but it has not been disturbed by
the plough, for many years. The trees are of all ages,
from seventy or eighty years, to twelve and fifteen. In
the grounds kept loose and rich, they bear abundantly ;
but ripen and fall too early for winter use as fruit, or
for cider. I have no Crabs ; but have every variety
of other sorts. The oldest kinds, such as Pippins, Van^
(levers, Spitsenbergs, &c. which, in my youth, were
fair, inviting, and plentiful, are now forbidding, knot-
ty, and scarce. Such is the case in Europe, with their
old fruit trees; as may be seen in Marshals account

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190 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard.

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of the most famed apples of Herefordshire^ in England.
I recur to my old doctrine, that the earth delights in
changes of products. The o/rf trees give evident proofs
of this position. Natural trees endure longer than those

engrafted.

I think Mr. Wynkoop's trees are all too near each
other. Mine stand in squares of forty feet. I have
heretofore, Vol. I. pages 211, and seq. given an ac-
count of my orchards. It will be seen, page 217 of that
volume, that I had suggested to Mr. Coxe, the belief
of many orchardists, that clover was in itself injurious.
He thought otherwise ; but in Mr. Wynkoop's an-
swer to query 2d, he mentions a fact relative to the
bad effects resulting from clover ; which may, indeed,
apply to any other plant, likely to invite vermin. I
know several crab orchards; some whereof are plough-
ed round the trees, some not stirred ; and yet they are
generally more productive, than those of the kinds
commonly planted. I think Mr. Wynkoop's success,
is a conclusive argument that his practice is the most
favourable, on every account ; at least so far as re-
spects this species of tree ; than which no fruit-tree
can pay better for the pains bestowed on it.

I

I

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary^ Philad. Jgric. Soc.

i

Acc6unt of a Crab Apple Orchard. 191

Fredensburgy July 18, 1813.

Dear Sir^

Having had the pleasure to receive your letter of
the 28th ult. I proceed to answer your enquiries rela-
tive to the kind of fruit, of which the cider you allude
to is made by me ; some of those questions would
have required dates, which I do not possess, to render
the answers perfectly correct ; I shall, therefore, with
the assistance of my son, who now has the entire ma-
nagement of my farm, endeavour to give you such in-
formation, as our joint recollections afford.

Query 1. As to the species of apple ?

Answer. That is entirely of the Virginia crab.

Query 2. The number of trees ?

Answer. The whole number of trees is two hun-
dred and forty, but the actual bearing trees do not ex-
ceed two hundred, for having some years ago, for the
purpose of preserving the ground in a loose state, and
also to procure some produce from the soil, sowed it
with red clover, such numbers of ground mice were
harboured therein, as effectually to destroy not less
than forty trees : those have been replaced, but the
young ones are not yet in a perfect bearing state.

Query 3. The extent of ground ?

Answer. That we suppose to be about five acres.

Query 4. How long planted ?

Answer. We suppose about twenty two years.

Query 5. The distance the trees are from each other?

Answer. That is twenty feet, but is much too close;
all the orchard in ^vhich we have since planted, the
trees are thirty three feet apart, which I consider as
the shortest distance that ought to be between them.

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192 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard.

Query 6. The nature of the trees as to hardihood ?

Answer. We have reason to believe it may be rank-
ed among the most hardy of apple trees, it also pos-
sesseth a greater degree of toughness and elasticity,
than what commonly exists in the wood of any other
species of that fruit, that I know of, for the branches
will bend, loaded with fruit, until they hang almost
perpendicular, and yet rarely break.

Query 7. What soil they most delight in ? "

Answer. This I do not know, for they appear to
thrive equally well, wherever planted, and well attend-
edto.

Query 8. How long are they coming to maturity ?

Answer. This depends so much on the care and
culture of the ground, as to render the time of coming
to maturity very uncertain, but I believe that of the
crab to be as early as that of any other apple trees,
under like culture.

Query 9. Whether or not they are long lived ?

Answer. The length of time, during which we have
cultivated this species of fruit, is insufficient to enable
me to answer this question correctly.

Query 10. The general annual value of the crop ?

Answer. The crab is a biennial bearer, so that for
some time past, every other year has yielded us about
forty iron bound hogsheads, averaging 112 gallons
each, of the crab cider, which has been hitherto sold
from the press, and delivered in Philadelphia, at two
shillings and six pence per gallon : when fermented,
fined, and fully prepared for bottling, we have sold it
for the use of private families, at thirteen dollars per
barrel, exclusive of the cask.

Account of a Crab Apple Orchard, 193

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Query 11. Are they more or less productive, or
more or less liable to failure of crops ?

Answer. As they only bear every other year, I have
hitherto discovered no failure of crop, in the bearing
year, but a uniform profusion of fruit.

Query 12. As to the mode of pruning ?

Ansxver. My method of pruning has been, as early
as the young growth of the tree would permit, to form
or shape it so as to render the top spreading, and to
remove all superfluous branches : and afterwards, once
a year, in the months of February or March, to repeat
this process, and remove all sprouts from about the
roots, and particularly from the branches, so as to
leave them unincumbered with unnecessary growths,
and afford a free admission of the sun and air to the
fruit.

There exists, as you observe respecting your own
orchards, an undoubted failure in the apples generally,
which probably may arise from causes over which we
have no controul, such as easterly winds and storms :
and also insects which injure the fruit during the time of
blossoming. Two species of apples appear as yet to have
escaped this general decay, viz. the crab and the pear-
Hiain ; they continue smooth and fair, while most other
kinds are small, knotty, and absolutely unfit for any
use but the distillery. What I have found most bene-
ficial, to preserve the trees and improve the fruit, is
manuring and cultivating the ground without cropping,
solely for the purpose of preserving the soil in a loose
and pulverised state, and to prevent the growth of
grass. The alternate bearing of the crab, I consider
as advantageous, because thereby, in every other year,

VOL. Ill, B b

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194 Account of a Crab Apple Orchard.

se

an opportunity is aflforded, for the free use of the
plough and harrow, and also for fertilizing the isoil,
which cannot be done in the bearing year, because of
the bending down of the branches, by the weight of
the fruit. The last manure, put on my crab orchard,
was entirely of leaves and virgin earth from an adjoin-
ing wood, which has produced a powerful effect on
the growth and verdure of the trees.

I remain, yours, &c.

Henry Wynkoop
Hon. Richard Peters.

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C 195 3

1,

Account of the progress ofCoL Taylor'* s Hedge ^ and an
cultivating Indian Corn^ agreeably to a plan formerly
suggested y^ being an Extract of a Letter to the Se-
cretary y dated Port Roy al^ Virginia^ July 24, 1813.

Read, August 10, 1813.

My hedging experiment proceeds, not with the spi-
rit merited by its importance, but in a degree to ascer-
tain its practicableness. I have used no manure, some
culture, and only an annual clipping ; and yet the old-
est hedge is at this time handsome. It is however only
half the hedge ; the idea of planting cedars on the out-
side of the dead fence not having presented itself for
several years after they were planted within, so that
the latter have gotten greatly the start. Upon a view
of it, I believe the most incredulous would agree, that
when the younger half of the hedge attains to the same
state, a more perfect live fence will hardly be expected.

The cedar hedge around my stable yard, being suf-
fered to grow too high before it was cut, it became
necessary to lop boughs, extending to two inches in
diameter. The operation was nearly destructive to the
hedge, and it has not yet recovered the blow. At the
same time I dipt, with garden shears, the young hedg-
es, without injuring them. From these facts it is pro-
bable, that the training of the hedge by clipping, ought

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• «See Agricultural Memoirs, Vol. II. pages 57, 75.

^

196 Account of the progress of a Cedar Hedge.

w

to commence the second year, and that its form ought
to be regulated with a view to limit all its wounds to
small boughs.

Apertures are certainly closed by bending boughs
into them, to be covered with earth about the middle,
where they will take root, and their extremities will
of course grow and spread. By raising the bank of the
ditch about six inches, after the hedge is nearly grown,
the earth and the bottom boughs (if the latter have been
properly managed) are brought into close contact;
and the hillocks made in planting boughs, are brought
to a level, by filling up the interstices.

The culture of a cedar hedge on a ditch is extreme-
ly easy, and the expense of manuring it trifling. The
surface of the bank of the ditch is drawn with a hand
hoe, from the top to the bottom, together with the
weeds and grass on it ; ground so covered with the
boughs, as not to admit of the hoe, is weeded with a
spade ; and shrubs not otherwise to be removed, are
cut up with a mallet and a wide chisscl, fixed to a
handle three feet long. The collection of earth, grass,
and weeds, lies a few days in the ditch, on one side,
and at the bottom of its bank on the other, with the
clippings of the hedge, and constitute a compost, the
whole of which is returned as a dressing for the hedge,
which, though poor, is beneficial. Without culture, n
hedge is not to be expected.

The experiment of cultivating annually and alter-
nately, a moiety of the same field in Indian corn, keep-
ing the other moiety ungrazed, and using gypsum, is

VAii/^ri^

On cultivating Indian Corn,

197

still proceeding. The difficulty of getting gypsum, has
however, compelled me to bestow only three pecks to
the acre, on the moiety cultivated, and none on that at
rest. Though the project is thus crippled, the crops
annually increase. I am uncertain, however, as to the
causes of this, because an improvement of crop is re-
gular in those parts of the farm, in which Indian corn,
every fourth year followed by wheat, is the course.
Hence I refer it, in some degree, to a practice common
to all. It is this — For a few years past, I have raised
corn, and most other crops, on ridges, five and an half
feet wide, divided by very deep and wide furrows,
and both the land and crops have improved faster, since
this practice commenced, than before. When the field
comes into culture after r^, these ridges are reversed
by deep ploughing, with four horses. The alternation
deepens the soil. The chief part of the rubbish of dead
grass or weeds, falls of itself, or is thrown by the plough
into these deep, wide furrows. There it is buried so
deep, as not to produce the common injury to the crop
from breeding insects, or rendering the earth too loose,
frequently caused even by clover lays. The air, gene-
rated by its gradual putrefaction, keeps the ridge mel-
low and warm, and the roots of the crop, whatever it
is, find their way to this stratum of manure, which,
during its slow decomposition, preserves a moisture,
constituting a considerable resource against drought.
Much labour is saved in fallowing, because the deep
furrow enables the plough to cut off a wide land on
each side of it, by which it is filled, without needing
itself a touch of the ploughshare, leaving a string of
the old ridge, so narrow, that a large plough, with two

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198

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On cultivating Indian Corn.

mould boards, splits it. And thus three furrows re-
verse ridges of five and an half feet wide. The old fur-
row enables the ploughing to be done deeper, than
could otherwise be effected, as it is a receptacle for the
two lands by which it is filled, and these leave wide
and deep furrows, to receive each a moiety of the re-
sidue of the old ridge. The deep ploughing, and com-
plete subversion of the sod, produced by the strength
of four horses, with the advantage of the furrow to re-
ceive the lands, buries seeds so deep, that few can
pierce the tegument, and greatly facilitates the culture
of the crop ; or if it be of the culmiferous family, sown
broad cast, obstructs the vegetation of weeds among
it. The ridges are made east and west, to equalize the
influence of the sun. If the theory ** that the atmo-
sphere is the source of manure, into whatever form it
may be elaborated by an animal or vegetable process"
is true, it is probable that the bringing a greater por-
tion of the surface of the earth in contact with it, by
high and frequent ridges, may increase the inhalation of
this its food ; and that the direction of these ridges may
diminish exhalation. How far these or other circum-
stances, may have co-operated with the gypsum, in the
second experiment, or in the general improvement of
the farm, 1 have not attempted to discover, but my im-
pression is, diat the detailed practice, constitutes no
mean auxiliary to the other fertilizing expedients.

If.

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C 199 ]

¥.:

Remarks on the great damage done to Apple Trees by
erroneous Pruning^ by the Rev. Dr. Nicholas Collin.

Read October 13, 1812.*

Philadelphiay September 25, 1812.

Dear Sir^

Desirous of contributmg my small aid to the pur-
suits of the Agricultural Society, I present some re-
marks on the pruning of apple trees, the communica-
tion of which may be useful to the public, though not
to persons well skilled in horticulture.

I have the honour to be, with great esteem,

Dear Sir, your most obedient servant,

Nicholas Collin.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

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Apples being the principal fruits in the greater por-
tion of the United States, merit particular care. I shall
confine my observations to them for the present, though
in part also applicable to other kinds.

Mismanagement often begins in the nursery, by
leaving suckers from the roots, by letting the trees
grow so crooked as to become incapable of a good
shape, and, especially, by leaving branches for two or
three years, which must be cut away when the tree is
planted, because they are too low, or crowd the head.

This, and the two following papers were accidentally misplaced,

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200 Remm'ks on pruning Apple Trees.

This incumbrance has wasted a great part of the sap,
which would otherwise have increased the regular
growth. The wounds occasioned by this lopping can-
not soon be covered with new bark, and in the mean
time often produce a decay. Sometimes this neglect
is continued in part, when the trees are removed from
the nursery, because some persons regret the loss of
branches which would bear the same or the next year,
and others cannot foresee the bad consequences of
keeping them, which will increase with their growth,
and force a much worse amputation. The head of eve-
ry tree should begin at least six feet from the ground ;
and of those whose branches are sloping, eight. When
the head has been formed so low as five feet, but is
well grown, it may be continued, but then its branch-
es ought to be trimmed near the stem, and by some
contrivance be enabled to rise. The head ought to have
but one leader, because two seldom succeed, as the
inward lateral boughs will cross each other. Its branch-
es should be equidistant, and not more than six, nor
less than four. If the tree has ample root, and a strong
body, the head may retain an upper tier, provided it
is two feet above the first ; but if not, it is best to leave
only such upper branches, that have this height, and
form the others from good buds. It is a bad practice
to shorten the top or the branches, except a little when
they are too slender for their length ; by excess, it
may be very difficult to procure a good leader ; the
branches will grow bushy, and be later in bearing, be-
cause the first fruit comes towards their ends.

Trees are not to be kept too long in the nursery,
because the small space allotted for them will not per-

' I I

JRemar/cs on pruning Apple Trees. 20 i

mit a regular expansion either of the root or the branch-
es ; besides, the removal, however careful, often kills
them, or causes a lingering decay. An accurate in-
spection of the roots is necessary, for taking away any
carious parts, and worms, and also for cutting off those
that cross each other, or are too close. None but long
ramblers ought to be shortened ; and they should be
spread equidistant, so far ae is practicable, which may-
be facilitated by wooden pegs. The too conxmon fault
of squeezing them into small holes, has ruined many
trees ; they must be wide enough to extend at least
one foot beyond the limits of the longest roots, and the
mould be made quite mellow.

A tree well pruned, planted, and secured by stakes
against violent winds, requires frequent attention for
some years :— the s^^routs that come from the places
of the removed branches, must be rubbed oflF at their
first appearance ; so likewise all that would produce
irregular boughs, whether crowding, crossing, or
shooting too upright from the regular branches : new
tiers are to be formed at proper distances, as the trees
advance : moss, insects, and any filth must be scraped
off without damaging the bark : the roots must also
be examined near the surface of the earth, as worms
have lately been observed to corrode the bark.

When a tree has by this management acquired an
habit of regular growth, it will be easy to keep it in
good order.

When, by neglect, irregular branches have become
large, as beyond a diameter of two and an half inches,
It is unsafe to cut them olF, but some of their smaller

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202 Remarks on pruning Apple Trees*

boughs may be removed. If they gall others, the am.
putation cannot be avoided, but healing plaster, and
good covering should be applied to the wounds.

Many persons are so stupid as to mangle regular
and healthy trees, on the pretence of making them bet-
ter by thinning; lopping off branches thicker than
their own arms and legs, moreover, lacerating the
parts ; and leaving them exposed to all the injuries
from heat, cold, wet, and insects, and thus a certain
prey to gangrene. Saving the stumps will not avail,
because they convey moisture and frost to the stem,
even before they rot. In a few years, large holes ap-
pear in the body of the tree, the remaining branches
become sickly, and produce bad fruit, and a prema-
ture death is generally certain. Often have I, with in-
dignation, seen waggon loads of the finest branches,
full of bloom-buds, in the spring, brought from the
orchards by such senseless wood-choppers !

A regular position of the branches round the stem,
will give to the inner parts ventilation, and admit sun-
shine, without much thinning. It will also by a balance
of weight, keep the tree upright, and enable the seve-
ral parts to resist violent winds, and to support loads
of fruit. Clusters of limbs on one side must incline
the tree more and more, so as to be easily torn up by
the root, and also weaken the hold of these branches
to the stem. Indiscreet pruning of the inner parts will
accumulate the fruit on the outward, and thus make
the weight more powerful, as on a lever.

The importance of good prur ing is additional in this
country, from the frequency of westerly winds, which

Remarks on pruning Apple Trees. 203

ac

give a contrary bias, and from the irregularity of the
seasons, which in some years causes a great defect,
and in others an excess of apples. A striking example
of this happened in the autumn of 1810, when a vast
number of trees lost many of their branches, and ma-
ny in a leaning posture were torn up, owing to the ad-
mirable quantity of fruit, without any uncommon gales.

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On Lime and Marhj by Mr. John Lang.

Read April 14, 1812.

Sir^

The inquiries which have lately been set on foot in
our society, concerning the different varieties of lime,
have created a considerable degree of interest, but per-
haps not more than the subject deserves. Were the
question clearly decided, whether lime is possessed of
any nutritious quality, or if it only acts as a stimulant,
by dij^olving such animal and vegetable substances
as lie inert in the soil, and thereby preparing them for
the food of plants, it would go a great way towards re-
moving any difficulties which may stand in the way of
such conclusions as we may find it necessary to draw
from our farther investigations upon lime, or other cal-
careous substances. Besides, we might be thereby en-
abled to account for the various theories which have
been adopted, by practical and scientific enquirers, up-
on these subjects. You have declared yourself freely
in favour of the last position, and have done me the
honour to take me into the list with yourself.

Dr. Tennent, in his remarks upon the recent im-
provements in Scots husbandry, thus observes, " It is
'' the property of calcareous substances to act very
*« powerfully in dissolving such vegetable and animal
" substances as are deprived of life. Under the action
^' of lime, vegetable matter in particular is speedily
" dissolved ; but, if it be either used in excess, or if
" the land be too severely cropped, without allowing a
'* necessary restorative of putrescent manure, ^vcry one

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On Lime and Marls.

205

** knows that the soil is soon exhausted, and rendered
"incapable of supporting any kind of vegetation."
Here, in my opinion, the terms calcareous substances
are too general and vague ; for, though some calcare-
ous substances are known to be powerful solvents,
others perhaps possess nothing of that quality at all,
or at least in a very inferior degree. We know that
from 25 to 50 or 60 bushels of our best lime is a suffi-
cient dressing for an acre of land ; according to the
poverty or richness of the soil, at the time it is ap-
plied ; whereas Dr. Anderson says he has had expe-
rience of lime in all proportions ; from one hundred,
to seven hundred bushels to the acre, upon a great va-
riety of soils ; and has always found that its effects in
promoting the fertility of the soil, have been in pro-
portion to the quantity employed, other circumstances
being alike.

From these, and other cases which might be enu-
merated, would it not be a natural conclusion to sup-
pose that our strong lime acts by its solvent quality,
in dissolving or decomposing such soluble substances
as they meet with in the soil ? We find, when too great
a quantity is applied, especially if the land is poor, in-
stead of benefiting, it is often hurtful to the crop ; but
when applied in proper proportions, and with a judi-
cious rotation of crops, it is a most valuable manure ;
whereas Dr. Anderson's lime, of which too great a
quantity could not be employed, must have possessed
very little, if any, solvent quality, and its fertilizing
powers must arise from a nutritious principle. And
this agrees with the account of the mild lime, which
my friend, John Mills, of Chester county, put upon

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On Lime and Marls.

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part of a field which I saw. He said its effects were si-
milar to dung, giving out its strength to the first crop,
but that they were soon exhausted. Perhaps if he had
put on two or three hundred bushels to the acre, in-
stead of sixty, they might have lasted longer, for though
the lime he used is considered of very little value, it
may possibly be considerably stronger than that of
which Dr. Anderson put seven hundred bushels. But
if our farmers in Pennsylvania, had no other lime ex-
cept such as would require three hundred bushels per
acre, I presume very little would be used for manure,
for this plain reason, that they could buy as much land
for the money, as the lime would cost.

Dr. Anderson sets it down as a fixed principle,
** that there is only one kind of calcareous matter ; and
" that all the varieties of calcareous substances we
*' meet with, are entirely occasioned by a diversity in
** the nature of the extraneous bodies with which the
" calcareous matters are united, or a difference in the
" form it may appear in at the time." If this is the
case, the enquiry should be, whether the most pure
and unmixed calcareous substances, or those which
we find in combination with other matters, are the
most valuable, either as a cement or for manure. The
most pure calcareous substances which we know, are
chalk, pulverized shell, and the most pure shell marl.
For a cement it is well known, that these three varie-
ties are of little or no value ; and as a manure they re-
quire a great quantity to produce any effect. The most
pure shell marl, which will be found to contain less
extraneous matter than any stone lime, requires at least
forty loads to an acre, and, sometimes, from one hun-

On Lime and Marls.

207

/ * I

dred to three hundred loads are put on. But if the
most pure calcareous substances are the most valua-
ble manures, how much more pure must gypsum be,
of which one or two bushels to an acre produces such
an effect ? And how much purer must we suppose the
limes, which require no more than from twenty five to
fifty or sixty bushels to an acre ? But the contrary has
been shown to be the fact. It is also a fact, tb«it those
limes, of which a great quantity is required for ma-
nure, when used in building admit of a very small
proportion of sand ; and that of a fine soft grit. Of
this class is the lime made from chalk, and all the
limestone of the Bahamas, the West India islands,
and the south west coast of this continent, which I am
told consists of immense rocks formed of shells, in
some instances very little changed from their original
state ; whereas our strong lime in Pennsylvania re-
quires a great proportion of sand, of a sharp grit, and
makes a very strong cement.

I am inclined to think, with Dr. Anderson, that
there is only one kind of calcareous matter ; and with
Dr. Darwin, that it has all originally been an animal
production ; that though the putrescent particles with
which it had been formerly combined, have long been
dissipated, it may still retain gases, which, when dis-
engaged, are nutritive to plants ; that pure calcareous
matters have little or nothing of a solvent quality ; and
that gypsum and lime derive their respective proper-
ties and additional value from the combination of cal-
careous matter with mineral acids, and other extrane-
ous substances. Hence I conceive, that if the pure cal-

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508

On Lime and Marls.

careous matter contained in gypsum (which is said to
be 33 per cent) were separated, it might make a very
good manure, at the rate of three hundred bushels, more
or less, to an acre. All the English writers on this
subject consider the different varieties of lime and
gypsum valuable in proportion to the quantity of cal-
careous matter which they respectively contain ; and
that this class of manures has most effect upon soils
which contain the least calcareous matter, previous to
their application ; upon this principle, how will they
account for the effects produced by one or two bush-
els of gypsum to an acre, not only upon lands which
never have been limed, but also upon limed land, a
fact confirmed beyond a doubt, by the universal ex-
perience of our farmers ? It is true, indeed, that marl
is less valuable, in proportion to the quantity of extra-
neous substances which is mixed with it ; but in this
case, the calcareous matter has not entered into a che-
mical combination with the extraneous particles ; but,
though mixed, are still distinct ; and these generally
consist of clay, sand, or peat-moss, which are in their
nature more inert than the calcareous matter.

Dr. Anderson gives the best account of the natural
history of shell marl, that 1 have any where met with ;
but it appears to me, that he has never had the oppor-
tunity of using it ; because his account of its effects
upon the soil will only apply to Avhat he calls clay marl;
which is nothing more nor less than mixing different
soils. But the use of what is called clay marls and stone
marls, arc now almost universally laid aside ; the ex-
pense of hauling being fouad, in most cases, to exceed

On Lime and Marls.

200

the profit derived from them. It would seem that the
r circumstance of the dressing Du HamePs marble chim-
ney.piece, has become the ground work of Dr. An-
derson's, or more properly the English, theory, con-
cerning calcareous substances, which has been car-
ried to such a length as to lose sight of the practical
experience of farmers. But had Du Hamel been along
with me, I could have shown him many instances of a
remarkable effect produced upon natural as well as
sown grasses, by the small dust, from the dressing with
the hammer of the hard why n* stone, of which many
stone dykes, or fences, are built in Scotland. This
has been often observed by many besides myself, and
could not be attributed to calcareous matter. Whe-
ther sulphuric acid was the active principle I shall not
pretend to say; but the why n- stones, when broken, emit
a strong sulphuric smell. For my own part, I pro-
nounce nothing positive, my motive is to bring every
theory to the test of experiment. If these hints have
any effect in calling forth further investigation, my

object is obtained. /

If you think this worth presenting to the society,
you may, if you please, accompany it with your free

remarks.

I am, sir, »

with great respect,

yours, &c.

John Lanc.

Richard Peters, Esc^.

VOL. III. I) d

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210

On Lime and Marls.

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In presenting to the society this legacy of our late
worthy member, Mr. Lang, I cannot repress my sin-
cere regret for his loss. His constant desire to be use-
ful, was always evident ; and the efforts of a strong
natural understanding overcame the privation of litera-
ry acquirements. Such men are more valuable in so-
ciety, than are those who hide their talent under a
bushel ; or turn their faculties, however improved by
education, to subjects subservient to ambition, or self-
ish pursuits.

I shall leave the subjects of his letter on their own
merits. I have always been of opinion, that English
writers knew little of the modus operandi of the gypsum;
and I have great reason to believe, that their acquaint-
ance with lime^ is not correct, or sufficiently extensive.
Mr. Lang and myself have taken much pains to pro-
cure, from our chemists, analises of our limestones j
in hopes of confuting opinions, considered erroneous,
by facts. But we have heretofore been unsuccessful in
our endeavours. Until facts are settled, opinions must
remain as they are. Meantime, what Mr. Lang has
suggested will be a ground of inquiry ; and stimulate
some public spirited chemists to make investigations,
we know results ; and causes must continue problema-
tical.

What he says of the effects of the offals of the wjiyn-
sfonCy or basalt, I have perceived in the application of
every kind of matter having sulphur in its composition.
There is a sharp dispute among the learned, concern-
ing the composition of basalt. Some affirm it to be a
volcanic production. Others that it consists of ochres,

' «.

On Lime and Marls*

211

zeolite, marine shells^ and calcareous matter. Great
bodies of limestone^ are often found in contiguity, or in
its vicinity. I am not competent to say whether the
whyn-stone, does or does not contain sulphuric acid.
A species of the basalt, in Ireland, is used in cement ;
instead oi puzzolan, with equal effect.

Richard Peters.
August ^ 1813.

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On the Long Island Hay Horse-Rake^ by Mr. Reuben

Haines.

Read July 14, 1812,

Philadelphia 6 mo. Sth, 1812.
Esteemed Friend^

»

During my visit last summer, on Long Island, I
met with a horse-rake of a very simple construction,
with which I was so well pleased that I requested a
friend to get one made, that I might present it to
the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, and have this
day received from him, Captain De Groot's receipt for
the same, having been put on board the schooner Ex-
press, at New York, and now inclose it.

The account given by the inventor is as follows :
" Description of a horse-rake used in the southern
^^ parts of the state of New York^ which in raking hay^
*' on level ground^ is believed to save the labour of six,
*^ men*

" The rake is generally made of white oak ; the
*' head frame is nine to ten feet in length, and three
** and an half inches by two and an half in diameter ;
**the teeth are about two and an half inches apart,
** twenty two inches long, and one inch by one and an
" half in diameter : — the one sent has thirty teeth,
*' there are seven small standards on the head, design-
*' ed to collect the hay, and arc about eighteen inches
"high: — there are two curved handles, about three
" and an half feet long,"

The great advantage that this rake appears to me to
possess over all others that I have seen, is, its extreme-

On the Long Island Hay Horse- Rake. 213

ly simple construction ; and less liability to get out of
order, owing to the teeth lying flat, instead of standing
perpendicularly to the ground, as is usually the case ;
and in case of striking a stone or other obstacle, in-
stead of being broken oflf by it, are merely driven more
firmly into the frame.

Should this instrument not prove well adapted to
our Pennsylvania farming, I hope its presentation will
be considered by the society as evincive of a wish to
promote their laudable designs, on the part of a sincere
well wisher to the true interests of agriculture ; — their

fellow member.

Reuben Haines.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary J Philad. Agric. Soc.

One of the hay rakes was presented by Mr. Haines,
and is preserved in the apartments of the Agricultural
Society.

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Salutarij Effects of ¥ ike ^ on Soils ^ by R. Peters^ Esq.

R€ad September 14, 1813.

Belmont^ July 20, 1813.

Dear Sir,

I frequently introduce points worthy of considera-
tion, that they may be more ably treated, by those
ivhose science and practice are superior to mine.

I have often experienced the great utility of Fire,
in fertilizing land. I could give many instances which
have passed under my own observation ; both recent,
and of very old date. I can shew numerous spots
in fields, on which large collections of weeds were
burnt, twenty years ago ; which now exhibit, and have
so done ever since the operation, a most extraordinary
comparative fertility, in ground, the whole whereof has
been well limed, and otherwise manured. Burning
heaps of straw, I have found efficient. Leaves, and
other trash, from hedge rows, chips and brush, have
given fertility to barren spots ; most evidently and du-
rably. Although I have been long in the practice of
devoting some of such materials to the compost heap ;
yet I am convinced that burning most of them on the
ground, would produce equally good effects ; and most
probably, extend their influence longer and farther,
than if rotted down. If this idea should even be thought
whimsical ; it is, at least, worthy of consideration and
experiment. Having frequently turned the subject in
my mind, I have not been able to account for it, in a
manner satisfactory to myself. The ashes of such light

Salutary Effects of Fire y on Soils. 2^

substances, soon spend their force. No ashes will so
durably evidence fertilizing effects ; be they even of
wood, coal, or other solid material. It must, therefore,
be some unaccountable result ; produced on the soil,
by the agency of Fire. And of this opinion, I have
long been.

That I may not be deemed singular, in an opinion
not generally attended to, yet, no doubt, transiently
perceived, without endeavours either to account for it,
or to extend its advantages ; I will copy some passa-
gesfrom the Rev. Mr. Dubordieu's '' Statistical Ac-
count and Survey of the County of Antrim^'' before
cited, on another occasion. The facts relative to this
subject are drawn into a compass, which will not fa-
tigue those who read little, and believe less, of what
they call '' book-farming.'* Other authorities might
be cited.

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Of the Effects of Fire upon Land. Vol. I, pag. 231.
" The effects of Fire upon land, as a manure, do
not seem to have been understood till of late years.
That sod-burning, burning clay, or peat or turf bog,
have long been practiced with success, is well known
to every person acquainted with the practices of hus-
bandry in different countries ; but the good derived
has always been attributed to the quantity of ashes
that have been obtained ; and not the mechanical or
chymical operation of the f re upon the soil. But to
prove that it is that operation which does produce the
benefit, nothing more is necessary, than to mention
the substances used for this purpose, and the small

216 Salutary Effects ofFire^ on Soils*

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quantity of them. Mr. Young j in that excellent book
the Farmer's Calendar, mentions numerous in-
stances of the crops of turnips obtained by manur-
ing the ground in this way : particularly of a Mr.
Richardson in the Wolds, a tenant of Lord Yarbor-
rough'SjWho has long practiced the method oi spread-
ing straw upon fields prepared for turnips, and set-
ting Jire to it J thereby raising crops superior to those
afforded by the usual portion of dung. The quantity
of straw he makes use of (for an acre) is five tons;
let it be supposed then, that these five tons of straw,
were turned into five tons of dung (which is a large
allowance) those five tons of dung would make ten
good car-loads ;* a quantity not sufficient for the
fifth part of an acre.f The same gentleman found
not only the turnip crop better^ but the barley alsOy
than what followed from the manuring with dung ;
and he is clearly of opinion, that it is the warmth
from the fire that has the effect, and not the ashes ;
for the quantity is nothing, and would be blown
away by the first blast. This straw-burning husband-
ry^ Mr. Young found again at Belesby, practiced by
a Mr. Lloijdy an excellent farmer, who thinks that it
will take six tons an acre, which will last longer in

* An Irish car is much inferior, in capacity, to one of our one
horsed-carts,

t The Irish acre is larger than the English statute acre. Tlic
number of poles is the same ; but the Irish pole is twenty one feet ;
whereas the English pole contains only sixteen feet, six inches. So
that the Irish acre is one acre, two roods, and nineteen perches?
Ei^lish,

Salutary Effect 9 of Fire ^ on Soils. 217

fgr-cc

" its effect^ and beat the dung the straw would make.
" The Rev. Mr. AUington, at Swinop, has cut gorse
** f whins J and burnt it in May, for turnips ; it also
" answered well ; — the effect great on the turnips,—-
" on the barley better. In Gascony^ and almost to -ffa-
^^yonnCf Mr. Young observed the same mode of ma-
** nuring for ravesy a sort of turnip, in use there. A
" similar mode of manuring has been, a length of time,
" carried on in the north of Ireland^ though with a dif-
" ferent and more substantial material ; it consists in
"drawing the crumbly and friable parts of boggy
*' grounds, to the gravelly or clay fields, in summer;
** then spreading it, until it becomes dry ; afterwards
" gathering it in small heaps, setting it on fre^ and
" whilst it is flaming, spreading it on the grass. The
" effect of this on the grass is great, also on the sue-
" ceeding crop. If it were used for a fallow crop, there
" is no doubt the advantage would be much greater,
"and more permanent. ff^hinsy^ I know to be a
" most excellent plant." &c.

I was gratified when I met with this confirmation of
an opinion I have long entertained. — Very long before
I saw Mr. Young^s Calendar, or this book. I have
no sympathy in feelings like those of Denjiis the critic ;
who was enraged when he was told of an old author,
who had anticipated opinions professed by him. He
was accustomed, on such detections, to execrate the

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* W^A«n«— Furze, or Gorse. Genista Sfiinosa of Ray ; Ulvx of
Linnaeus.

VOL. III.

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218 Salutary Effects of Fire ^ on Soils.

ancients ; and accused them of having stolen his best
thoughts ! The pleasure I experience in the conici-
dence, arises from the opportunity it affords of pro-
mulgating the practice, under authorities better than
my own, I have, very often, burnt brush, on patches
intended for melons, under the idea that it would de-
stroy the eggs or larva of insects, which would other-
wise infest the vines. It always had the effect I wish-
ed. But I have observed a fertility in such spots, for
years, beyond those in their vicinity. I have burnt the
stubble (too thick to plough in) on a wheat field, ge-
nerally ; but have left some spots unburnt and plough-
ed in. The buckwheat, sown on the burnt stubble,
was strikingly superior. Clover, sown with the buck-
wheat, was by far the best, the next season, on tlic
burnt parts.*

It is in the power of every farmer, to turn to his ad-
vantage, the nuisances and pests on his farm. Very
probably some lands will be more benefited than others,
by this operation. Every kind of manure does not
operate alike on every soil. The experiment will cost
little ; and the materials for trying and extending it,

* This was before the excellent practice of sowing clover on our
wheat, was introduced. I generally, then^ ploughed in the stubble,
to rot as a manure. But, now, I cut the clover and stubble ; and
have great store of fodder for the barn-yard cattle. What they
do not cat, becomes manure. My fields are left in the best condi-
tion, for either feeding or mowing, the next season. I have heard
objections to mowing the clover and stubble ; as rendering the
roots exposed to injury by droughts or frosts. But I am convinced,
by long experience, that, if the cutting be in proper lime, there
arc no solid grounds for such objections.

Salutary Effects of Fire, on Soils.

219

are every where to be found. A r.eat ar^d managing
s^c essJrto one slovenly and -gUgent, yU ^ -
varded for his exertions, by burning on his fields the
incumbrances left by his careless predecessor.

Uo not mean to say, that burning of land may no
be carried too far. Extreme cases prove nothing. Like
wars, they are often the ne plus ultra of controver-
r when argument is deficient. A certain quantity of
L is salufary ; but an overcharge is destruc ive
Some soils will bear, and require, heavier limmg than
others. Soils differ in their capacities, textures and
qualities, so as to be injured or ameliorated, as rnuch
'when PIKE is applied, as when any ot^ier manure o
auxiliary is used. The use or abuse of firb must be
discovered by experiment ; as must any other opera-
tion in husbandry. And. certainly, the safest mock is,
to begin moderately ; and increase or dimmish, as ex-
perience dictates. I add, however, that I never yet saw
L instance, the one hereafter mentioned excepted
where injury had been done in this way ; although I
have myself cleared much land, originally ; and burn-
cd vast heaps of timber and brush, both on new and
worn lands.* Yet I have one decisive proof of the in-

• . Our correspondent, Mr. Lorain, [pages 112, 113,] condemns
.hat is called the Yxkkbe mode of clearing new lands ; prefemng
the sirdlins method, [for an account of which, see our Ust of prem.
urns. Vol I. pages xUi, xliil.] This is not a place to en e mto
that subject ; with which I profess tobe tolerably well aa,uaun d.
It is the vile mode of farming (common to both)-scratchmg w h
harrows only, stubbling in crop after crop, of culm.ferous plants
whe,o it is not left under grass choked with n«isances.-and not
the nitE, which merits the severest condemnation. Neither mod,

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220 Salutary Effects of Fire, on Soils.

C 221 ]

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jury occasioned by over-burning land ; which may be
deemed an extreme case. More than sixty years ago,
the bricks, whereof the walls of my house are com-
posed, were burned in a kiln, the site whereof is now
in my garden. I have, in vain, endeavoured, at vari-
ous periods, to recover the fertility of this small spot.
Two years ago, it was limed. Last year, I selected the
best well rotted dung ; and applied it plentifully. I
planted on it, this season, for experiment, Indian corn,
scarcitv roots, cauliflowers, and water-melons. The
culture has been the same with that on other parts of
the garden. But every plant is inferior, most percepti-
bly, to other similar plants, on other spots ; and so it
has invariably been, with plants on this over-burned

soil.

Your very obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the PhilacL Agric. Soc.

of clearing is a good one ; but I think the Yankee mode the best ;
and when it is faithfully and carefully pursued, it is unobjectiona-
ble, on the account noticed by our correspondent. Both methods
are pursued from necessity ; and are such as the state of things, m
a new country, imperiously, and probably exclusively, demands.
Mr. Lorain deserves much praise, for investigating a subject of
primary importance in our new countries ; and one which, hither-
to, has been too little noticed, or discussed. R« P*

On well'rotted Dung. Fresh arid hot Muck. Stercora-
ries : and their Uses^ by Richard Peter Sy Esquire.

Read September 14, 1813.

Belmont, August 22, 1813.

Sir,

Having frequently had occasion to mention my opi-
nion respecting the state in which dung is most pro-
per for use ; I take the liberty of explaining my mean-
ing on that subject. If my theory be even unsound and
dissatisfactory, it may at least lead farmers to think on
a topic, on which their interests materially depend.
My experience warrants the statement I have given.
If the experience of others be diflFerent, they will, no
doubt, be governed by their own knowledge of facts ;
which, in such cases, are the safest and most certain

guides.

The dung should be applied when it is well-rotted ;
— ^that is, before the fermentation has ceased, — yet
when it is so far advanced, that the texture of the parts
is destroyed ; and all seeds contained in it are com-
pletely putrescent, and incapable of germination. I am
convinced, by long experience, that muck, or dung,
in the latter stages of putrescence, is in the best state
of salutary efficiency ; and most proper, on every ac-
count, for application. Carbonaceous, over- rotted dung
is of little service. What in grammar, would be called
the penultima, or antepenultima, is the most preferable
stage of its progress to putridity. I'here is an impor-
tant ^\?^\\\c\\onhQX\\tt\\ putrescence 2X1^ putridity. The

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222 On well-rotted Dungy Stercoraries, ^c.

violent and outrageous operations of fresh and hot
muck, (acting as well on the pests it brings along with
it, as on the crop it is intended to stimulate and nou-
rish,) are as ungovernable, and often as morbid, ex-
hausting, and mischievous, as are the unrestrained,
though temporarily potent, exertions of one making
enfuriatcd and desultory efforts, under the paroxysms
of a fever. Sometimes its fury is spent on itself. What-
ever may be its success in Europe, (where opinions arc
divided, but the majority against it,) our ardent heats
assist in its consumption. I have ploughed it in very
deep ; and, after a long drought, turned it up entirely
dry rotten. This may be often observed in the litter,
or strawy muck, frequently applied for potatoe crops,
and the myriads of mice and moles infesting them, are

fatally known.

I am not convinced by the argument I have often
heard ;— that the strength of the *' dung had better be
applied in throwing up a crop, than wasted in the muck

heap."

Whatever be thcfood of plants, there is an evident
analogy between the structure of their parts, and that
of animals. The food for both must be in due prepa-
ration to enter the vessels, before it can have a salu-
brious effect. The violent fermentation necessary and
preparatory to making bread, is most suitable for the
dough-trough. None would venture to recommend this
preparatory operation to be carried on in the stomach;*

♦ See Vol. I. pages, 235, 236. Where instances are mentioned
of previously fermented and baked provender, being given as food
(or horses ; alleged to be more nutritious and economical, than

On well-rotted Bung, Stercoraries, ^d. 223

^il

or successfully contend, that it is uselessly employed,
or wasted, in its proper place. True it is, that a fer-
mentation, more gentle and profitable, must proceed
in the natural ventricles, allotted for fitting all food,
after it is duly prepared, for entering the system of ani-
mals. I should presume, that the analogy requires si- .
milar circumstances, in regard to plants. The stereo- .
rarify and not the earth, seems to be the place of prepa-
ration of what is to become the food, or stimulus to the
growth, of plants ; for we know not, correctly, the mo-
dus operandi. After such preparation, and not before,
it is fitted for the place of fiinal deposit ; — to wit, — tlie
ground in which the plant is to grow.

Strength of manure, as it is called, amounting to
force and violence, is not desirable. It has an indis-
criminate, partial, and irregular impetuii ; very differ-
ent from constant, durable, and wholesome endea-
vours. A heated, overflowing, and rapid circulation,
occasioned by the violent operations of hot muck,
bursts the vessels of the most valuable plants ; and
produces, in grain-crops, smut, blight, and mildew ;
or loss, by laying, of over-abundant straw. Weeds,
and vermin are generated, increased, and invited by it;

raw meal, or grain. This analogous illustration, may be deemed a
niere fanciful speculation.— Be it so.— -I rely on facts to which my
attention has been called, through many periods of my life, ^^he
subject has always produced differences of opinion and practice,
among farmers ; from the time of my earliest recollection. The
great majority have preferred well rotted dung. But few, indeed,
have paid sufficient attention to the all-essential uses of the sterco-
rary.

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224 On well-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, Wc.

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—beyond all comparison with that having previously
undergone a proper degree of fermentation and de.
composition. And it is indubiubly true, that the du-
ration of dung operating violently, is shorter ; and
leaves the ground in worse condition ; than that duly

and moderately rotted.

I know, that some men of intelligence, differ with
mc on this subject. But I must, with all due deference,
be permitted to form conclusions (for myself) from
facts with which I have been long acquainted. Truth
is the result of facts generally occurring ; although
there may be some exceptions, and contrarj- evidence.
I have taken it for granted, that most of the advo-
cates for the use of fresh muck, plough it in. But I
have heard of those who practice hauling it from their
stalls, or stables, without fermentation; and thus
spread the litter, on grain, or grass!* As a cover, to

I

• See Vol. II. " On Plaster of Paris." Note, page 78. Well
rotted dung, or compost, as a top dressing, is there approved. But
this kind of raw cover is of a very different nature. All top dress-
ings are better for grass, than grain.— In adiUtion to many prece-
dent experiments, I allotted two contiguous stripes, of about forty
feet wide each, in my wheat field, sown last autumn, for the pur-
pose of comparison. On one, I ploughed in a liberal allowance of
excellent dung. The other, I top-dressed, plenteously, with the
best selected dung. On the strip ploughed in, the wheat was strik-
ingly superior. But the grass, (orchard and some clover,) from
*ieed sown on the wheat, was, incomparably the best on the strip
top-dressed. The results of many similar experiments, have been
uniformly so with me. Tenants, careless about permanent improve-
ment, spread, superficially and thinly, their manure for a present
purpose. But those who wish to prolong its efficacy, should, in
quantity sufficient, plough it in.

R.P.

(in xveil^roited Jbwigf Stercoraries^ £s?c* 2^5

,ni I nil I ■ ' '.-'•■ ■ • ■■■•-

protect the crop from bleak winds and frosts, (deduct-
ing the evils accompanying it, — i. e. affording harbour
for vermin, and sowing the pestiferous seeds contained
in the litter,) it may be serviceable ; and, in the parts
consisting of alvine-ejections, some manure may be af^
forded. But the evaporation must be dissipated more
uselessly than it is said to be in the stercorary ; and
but a small proportion of its efficacy can be applied to
the crop. In some instances whereof I have been in-
formed, this cover has had the credit of producing
great crops. I never doubt facts alleged by men of in-
tegrity. But I cannot avoid expressing my surprise,
that this wasteful mode of application should be advo-
cated. If the straw-burning husbandry be as efficaci-
ous as it is said to be, it would seem, that the straw of
the litter thus spread, independently of its use as a co-
ver, would be more serviceable, if burnt on the ground*
I leave, however, the friends to the system of hot or
fresh muck-husbandry, (among whom, it seems, there
are sectaries) to settle among themselves, the mode
they deem the best. Abstract reasonings on a subject
capable of proof by practical tests, are seldom satis-
factory. The balance of facts, not solitary instances,
must finally decide all questions relating to it.

How this premature use of the materials essentially
required for increasing the store of manure, can be
justified on a principle of economy, and " getting all
the good of one's dung," as some have expressed
themselves, I cannot perceive. The animal excremen-
titious matter is not merely estimable and operative in
itself; but its value and efficacy are extended, when,

VOL. III. F f

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226 On well-rotted Dunf^, Stereoraries, ts'r.

On welUrotted Dung, Stereoraries, isfc, 227

in a well conducted stercorary, it converts other sub.
stances into manure. Weeds, offal, earth, and mnu-
merable articles, otherwise not only useless but nui-
sances, may be turned into valuable manure ; by be-
ing fermented and impregnated, by means of the am-
mal ejections with which they are mixed. Time is re.
. quired for the process of putrescence ; and this time
is denied, by a too early evacuation of the dung.pen.
The dreams, or the labours, of alchymists, certainly
have never realised, if they have even imagined, so
much treasure by transmutation, as well managed ster-
coraries are capable of producing. But removing from
them, prematurely, the foundation of their utility, is at
once blowing out the furnace. Whatever justification
there may be for using the earth as a laboratory, by
ploughing in the muck ; it would seem, that spread-
ing and exposing what I call the raw material, on the
surface ; is entirely without reasonable excuse. Yet I
have known men, on whose judgments, in other mat-
ters, I sliould rely, not orfy defend, but persist in the
practice ; although it effectually supersedes, as the
former custom curtails, the use of that all important
repository,— the stercorary. This indispensable maga-
zine is too little attended to. Yet it is to the farmer,
what his dam is to the miller. The process of fermen-
tation and decomposition, is as needful in the prepara-
tion of the materials essential to his art ; as it is to
the distiller, and the brewer, in their respective occu-
pations.

I have not, in the imperfect discussion I have enter-
ed into on this subject, had any anxiety, on a personal

account, to establish my own opinions. But I feel a
strong desire, that it may be well considered ; and that
both sides of a question, in which the prosperity of
our agriculture is so deeply involved, should be fairly
examined, and deliberately investigated.

Yours, very truly,

Richard Peteks.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

POSTSCRIPT.

I add the following as a Postscript, to my coni:
munication on miick^ and rotted dung.

As long as opinion is subject to variety, differ-
ences of sentiment, on the subject of fresh muck, and
rotted dung, will exist. I do not enter the field as a
controversialist, but as a narrator of my own experi-
ence. If in doing this, I have wandered ijito reasojiing
on causes, or theories; facts must, nevertheless, decide
all questions.

Since the date of the foregoing communication, a
collection of agricultural essays, entitled Arator, by
a citizen of Virginia, has been put into my hands. It
is attributed to a citizen of that state whose talents I
always respect, and whose facts I do not, in the small-
est degree, doubt. He is an able advocate for the use
of long and hot muck ; and the earth, not the stercora-
ry, is his laboratory. The constituent parts of his ma-
nure, exposed in open pens, till it is hauled into his
fields, early in the season, are, in no small proportion,

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228 On well-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, isfc.

On xveU-rotted Dung^ Stercorariesy ^c. 229

3SB

the ofllils of Indian corn. He cuts off the whole stalk
(as many of us do, and all ought,) and uses it for litter.
He does not intermix the cobs among his muck. These
I always rot down in the stercorary. He strews plaster
on his muck, before it is ploughed in ; — than which
nothing more efficaciously promotes putrefaction.* Sec

• Theories are unimportant, when compared with facts. An
able chemist and mineralogist alleges, that an experiment had been
made here to test the conjecture I hazarded, in my compilation on
Plaster, that the sulfihuric acid was the cause of operation in the
Gypsum. The experimenter had found no reason to believe my
conjecture to be correct. He, therefore, concludes my idea to
be unsound, and unsupported. He substitutes another conjecture
in place of mine ; i. e. that it operates as a " sefitic to deadfbrea ;
and a stimulus to living' ones." On subjects merely chemical I
enter not the lists with chemists. The fields of the farmer arc
far the best expositors. On these I have tried many experiments,
on scales both small and extensive, with a view to my theory. In
some I have failed ; but have^so often succeededi that the ballance
has fixed my opinion. Still subject to the controul of more able
experimenters. Plaster is good or bad according to the proportion
of the sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, in its composition. Forty
tight parts in a hundred, are the proportionate quantities in the
best plaster. It operates with less of this acid. But it requires
more in bulk, or total, of the matter containing the acid, according-
ly as the requisite proportion is deficient. The acid has been de*
tached, and the earth, Sec. in which it had been detained, strewed ;
without the least agricultural effect. To produce any important
effect, an enormous quantity of this earth would be required.

It is far from my intention to enter into controversy ; or to hold
out pretensions to chymical acquirements. I think, that causes of
operation, however desirable the knowledge of them may be, are,
most commonly, subjects o/ mere conjecture ; as I still (however
confident 1 may appear) continue to consider the one assigned by
me. Probably, having assigned il, I may have yielded to a bias

Vol. II. Plaster of Paris, page 44. No material yields

flattering to first impressions ; which is not singular. But I do not
stand alone in believing,; and actual results of frequent experi-
ments, give me strong grounds to support such belief; that auU
fihur in its crude state, and its offspring the aul/ihuric-acid, are, of
themselves, operative in promoting vigorous and healthy vegeta-
tion. See Vol. n. page 206. Same; On plaster ofParis^ 92,94, 95.
Whether they act mepely as septics, or btimulaiits, or both ; or in
what way they operate, I do dot presume, peremptorily to decide j
though I have strongly urged an opinion. But it is of indispensable
importance to know, what are the component parts essentially re-
quired, to constitute g^od plaster. The fallacy of experiments, too,
lam practically convinced of; having myself failed in so many.
Vet I never presume, that my success, or failure, is the test of
truth. Times, seasons, state of atmosphere, quality and situation
of land, differ so materially, that experiments may fail at one time,
and at one place, which would succeed at others. In the year
1772 (more than forty years ago) I began the career of plas-
ter. In this long course of time, I have never ceased applying it.
I have experienced numberless failures and disappointments, from
the best gyfisum^ on the most suitable soils. This season, with me,
has been so remarkably unfavourable ; that, had I exclusively to
decide on its efficacy, on the results of this year, I should really
pronounce the plaster worthless and inefficient. Yet I know the
quality of that I used, to be perfect ; and the soil exactly suitable.
On some other farms, it has succeeded as well as is common. I
therefore conclude, that no decisive opinion ought to be formed,
from the experiments of any one person (including myself in this
remark) or those tried at one place, or in one, or two seasons. It is
fortunate, however, that we have a cloud of witnesses to practical
results. If causes remain hidden, ingenuity and science may conti-
nue tlieir speculations. But farmers (among whom alone I class
niyself ) have long experience in practical proofs, to animate them,
in their unhesitating reliance on this invaluable substance.

R. P.

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230 On well-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, i^c.

On well-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, &?f. 231

;*

more valuable manure, when rotted, than corn stalks.
The mode he takes in earthing over, and using the
raw materials, appears to be perfect. His covering the
muck, by deep ploughing, as fast as it is hauled out,
seems highly proper for his system. But seeds deep-
ly buried, are not always destroyed. They will of-
ten vegetate on the first exposure. Aware of the
necessity of meeting the fermentation of his muck,
with a powerful plant ; his Indian corn crop stands the
brunt of the battle. It is the only plant I know, {pota^
toes excepted, if they be not caught by a long drought)
fit to encounter the assaults of fermenting muck. It
will thrive among lime, the first season of spreading ;
when wheat would perish. IFheat (I fear sown among
the corn') is his second line, of less able bodied troops.
The fermentation is nearly over, and the conflict less
dangerous, when this crop takes the field. He seems
' conscious, that the force must be previously weakened.
So far do we differ in nomenclature, that he considers
what I deem a foe, to be a friend and ally. And so it
certainly is, after due subordination is established, and
all j;\pstile propensity subdued.

Whatever difference of opinion I may entertain on
this particular subject, I cheerfully recommend a pe-
rusal of the agricultural principles and observations in
this collection ; as being well worthy of the attention
of all farmers in every district of our country. Other
subjects therein discussed, I enter not into.

It will be seen, that I always conceived some pro-
cess of fermentation and putrefaction necessary to dis-
engage the gases supposed to be the food of plants.
Sec also 2d vol. Plaster of Paris, 94, 99. But an

overcharge of any of these, is certain destruction to a
less powerful plant than Indian corn ; and, not scl-
dom, even to this. In our hot beds the evaporation of
hot muck, however well covered with mould, or rich
earth, unless suffered to escape ; by frequently opening
the glass covers, will kill the strongest plants. This
I have repeatedly suffered under, through the care-
lessness of my gardeners. The heat and evaporation
must subside, before we dare plant our hot-bed vege-
tables. Every species of our common field- plants, have
been killed or stunted, by mephitic exhalations, or the
drainings of stercoraries. Yet when weakened, by
sufficiently diluting them, nothing can be more salu-
brious than the latter. Exhalation is the great foe,
Arator constantly combats, watches, and studies to
defeat. Yet I do not fear it, in a well conducted ster-
corary, or compost heap. It is, in fact, nothing equal,
in volume or compound, to the waste he imagines. I
doubt whether he ever made a fair comparative expe-
riment. I think the loss, by the common and inevi-
table exhalation of stercoraries, which can be, in a
great degree, restrained; is, in profitable resuh, a
gain. The superabundant azote, and poisonous qua-
lities of the muck, escape ; and the residuum is more
than worth the whole mass. It may not spread over a
space so extensive. But *' exiguum colito,'' has always

been my motto.

After all, — whatever may be the correctness, or mis-
take, in the opinion I entertain,. as to the qualities of
the dung ; T do not presume to enter into the expedi-
mcy of the mode adopted by Arator. He is the best
judge of the circumstances, in which Virginia farmers

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232 On well-rotted Dungy Stercorariesj ^c.

m

On well'Totted Dung, StercorarUs, ^e. 233

are placed, on the large scope they occupy, in their
husbandry. These may overbalance all objections,
even if well founded, as to the state of the material,
when it is used on their lands. I am now hors de
combat, in extensive farming. Were I to begin my
course over again, I should follow, in this regard, the
practice my past experience justifies. I should be
utterly fearless of any competition Avith hot-muck-
farmers ; on the scale to which we are accustomed

If my apprehensions of violent fermentation, and its
noxious effects, and the concomitant pests of weeds
and vermin, be deemed extreme, and my ideas of the
less injurious consequences of evaporation, and loss,
by rotting of muck in the stercorary, be thought be-
low the mark ; — so let them be. I have not been
without repeated proofs, and comparative experiments,
to satisfy my own mind. Our muck, it is true, is
chiefly composed of straw, offals of hay, and the weeds
and coarse grasses intermixed ; to which we add, in
the stercorary, all the animal and vegetable putresciblc
substances we can obtain. That in Firginiay as I un-
derstand, consists, for the most part, of corn stalks
and remnants of blades ; and may not be liable to
all the consequences enumerated. If the author of
Arator be the one suggested tome, he will give
his plan a fair and persevering experiment. Any
improvement in husbandry is highly meritorious ; and
more particularly so in a country which has been,
(so far as I have been informed,) for a long course of
time, stationary, in a course of Agriculture not gene-
rally worthy of praise. He has, on his side, the justly
celebrated Arthur Young, than whom he could not

ts

have higher authority. Although I have thought Mr.
Young, from the most laudable motives, over zealous
on this and some other subjects, I entertain so exalted
an idea of his talents, and long, faithful, and invaluable
labours, in promoting the agricultural interests, not
only of his own, but of every country ; that it is, in no
small degree, painful to me, when I am compelled on
any occasion, to differ on a subject in which he is de-
cidedly an advocate for a contrary opinion. See Vol.

II. p. 172. 204.

It may be said, that my ideas of the noxious quali-
ties of fermenting muck, can only apply to summer
crops ; as the fermentation and heat are spent, before
they can affect the straw, or seed, of winter-grain. But
this is fully answered by the case hereafter mentioned ;
and, to my additional satisfaction, by my own experi-
ence. It appears, that it infects the ground with du-
rably deleterious taint ; instead of fertilizing it with
wholesome capaciti'.s.

When I speak of stercoraries, I mean covered repo-
sitories. Better with roofs ; but well enough with a
proper thickness of earth. I am as inimical to exposed
muck, as any of the muck-farmers can be. Perhaps
stercoraries thus constructed would be baubles, in the
estimation of Virginia farmers, on their large scale.
Our farmers frequently plough up (deeply) the head
lands of the field intended for wheat, (never sown
among corn, by prudent husbandmen) and hale out
their muck early, on the head-lands ; which afford
loose earth, to mix with, and completely cover, and
rot down sufficiently, the manure for their crop. This
is found highly beneficial.

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234 On xvell-rotfed Dung, Stercoraries, fc?f .

On well-rotted Dung, Stercoraries, &?c. 235

Three years ago, I used, from necessity, unrotted
litter, for potatoes. 1 was punished for my aberra-
tion by a most terrific and profuse growth of the
May.tveed, or Daisy, the seeds whereof had been
among the muck. I am scourged by this vile and ex-
hausting pest ; which I cannot subdue without great
exertions ; and, with them, not entirely ; unless I
hand-wced. Like a slave flagellated by his driver,
I revolt ; and my hatred is increased by every repeti-
tion of the lash. This season, I have sacrificed a fine
sod of timothy and clover, infested by the Daisy,
which I have ploughed under, with another potatoc
crop. With this I shall defeat the foe ; attacked be-
fore becoming a veteran.

Many years ago I met, in one of the agricultural
publications of either Great Britain or Ireland, a most
convincing proof of the bad efiects, and ruinous con-
sequences, of an inveterate attachment to the hot
muck system. I have it not now in my power to lay
my hands on the book ; which was one of indubitable
authority. It is really a strong case in point ; and
made an indelible impression on me.

A nobleman of large property, who kept a numer-
ous stud of horses, leased part of his estates to a full
handed tenant, who brought, on the estate leased, sevc-
ral thousand guineas. A part of the contract was, that
the tenant should have all the muck of his lordship's
stables ; in consideration of his furnishing all the straw
required. This contract was complied with ; and,
through a course of many years, the tenant applied
the fresh muck to his fields. He rarely, if ever, reap-
ed a clean and healthy crop. Smut, blight, mildew, or

laying of his grain, were continual. He finally became
a bankrupt, though not deficient in industry ; and in
other matters intelligent. The estate was again offer-
ed for leasing ; but was not readily taken. At length,
one, accounted daring and adventurous, leased the es-
tate, on the same terms with the former unfortunate
tenant. His ruhi was predicted. But he was aware
of the mistake, into which his predecessor had fallen.
By a judicious course, he cleansed the polluted fields ;
to which, for several years, he applied no more dung.
The muck from the stables was composted, and
sufficiently rotted ; before it was used for any crop.
To the astonishment of all the foreboders of his fate,
he never had an infected crop ; and made what was

deemed a fortune.

. By potatoes and frequent ploughing (in Autumn
and early Spring) I have conquered the pest I men-
tioned in our 2d Volume, 178 ;— the Star of Bethle-
hem, or Ornithogallum imbellatum. This had alarm-
ed me more than any other weed I had encountered.
The bulbs were brought into my field, among unrot-
ted litter from my garden.

Your Very obedient servant,

liicHARD Peters.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric Soc.

Addition to the Note on Gypsum. Pages 228, 229.

«

Having seen, since my note on Gypsum was put to
press, a work (about being republished in Phila-
delphia, by Mr. John Conrad^ &c.) deserving encou-

i

236

On Qypsum.

\i

ragement,— Sir H. Daw's Elements of Agricul.
turalChemisiry;— I cannot refrain from adding

to that note ; although I may not be justified by the
importance of my observations.

When the paper bf Mons. j9f rare? (see Vol. 2d, 206)
on the "Efficacy 0/ SutPHtrR, as a Manure," ^^^
shewn to Mr. Davy, he observed to a friend of mine,
who related to me the circumstance, that he expected
he should soon prove, that Mr. Berard was mistaken
in his ideas of the operative causes, both of Sulphur
and Plaster. I confess my curiosity was strongl) ex-
cited, when I saw Sir H. Davy's work announced.
I have the highest opinion of Mr. D's talents as a che-
mist, and able investigator, into all subjects he under-
takes. But I wxis completely disappointed, in all my
expectations on the subject of Gypsum ; whatever may
be their weight with others. It most assuredly appears,
to me, the least satisfactory of any part of this estimable
and popular performance ; and causes me to despair of
any profitable assistance, in this desideratum, from the
most eminent chemists. Little or nothing (so far as I am
capable of judging) can be collected from it, decisively
settling any useful question. To us, who arc so well,
and have been so long, acquainted with results, that
we need no further experimental speculations ; the
lacts or conjectures, are really unimportant. What I
expected to see luminously treated (after what I had
heard) is either not touched on, or by no means (as I
conceive) proved. He finds Gypsum (its component
parts not mentioned) in all animal manure, grasses,
and in the earth of cultivated, as well as soddy, fields.
When the plaster strewed does not operate, it is be-

W

On Gypsum.

237

cause tliere " is enough in the land;' or in the animal
manure, or grasses, precedently. Yet we find that it
will, and often will not, operate, where there is no pro-
bability of any similar substance having been ; owing
to manure, or other cause he assigns.--In the barren-
cst and worn fields ; destitute of almost every living
plant : and sometimes it fails, or succeeds, on grounds
of the opposite description. If there be enough (as he
supposes) to nourish a meager grass ; yet, we find,
adding more, will make a starved plant vigorous ; or
substitute a better in its place. And if there " be
enough in the land;' or " in the plant ;" why does the
one remain steril, and the other starved ?

If it be true, as some allege, that dew, in great pro-
portion, rises out of the ground ; and there be " enough
Gypsum already in the soil ;" why does it not over-
balance the trifling addition superficially spread ; and
detain the dew, or moisture, from rising ? If the gyp-
sum spread be, (as the fact of superficial moisture,
drawn out, non obstante the alleged gypsum in the
earth, seems to designate,) differently composed from
that in the soil ; one can account for the circumstance.
I never saw plastered ground, which did not exhibit
profuse moisture, superficially. Whatever kinds of
calcareous, or other, matter, be in the soils of other
countries, are to be found in our ground ; notwith-
standing any opinion to the contrary. It is in this,
and every other, respect, like the soils of other parts
of our globe, almost infinitely various. This conjee-
tare seems, therefore, quite as inexplicable and the-
oretical, as any other can be.
He denies its septic faculty^ or capacity to promote

•A

238

On Gypsum.

putrefaction of animal substances ; or to decompose
manure. Yet we know, from thousands of instances,
that it does both ;— freely and amply. It is, too, well
established, (see Sir John Pringle's experiments) that
some septics (whether plaster be one or not 1 do not
allege) operate differently on animal and vegetable
matter: so as to preserve, or not affect, the one, and

putrefy the other.

He says, its capacity of attracting moisture from
the air, in any important quantities ; or its adhesive
attraction for it, is " insignificant and inconsiderable."
Yet we have daily evidence, to shew, most palpa-
bly and decisively, and even every farmer's boy, who
drives his cattle to and from their pastures, can
prove by his feet, without speculating on causes,
that dews and moisture are constantly and profusely
retained on plastered fields, for hours, in the early part
of the day, after they have passed away from grounds,
on which the plaster had not been strewed. If, as he
alleges, when combined with water, *^ it retains that
fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the
plant,"— how can we account for the superior strength
and verdure of grass bedewed with the moisture at-
tracted, and retained from evaporation, on plastered
grounds ; compared with those adjacent, on which no
Gypsum has been strewed ? The same difference in
the roots, and the whole of the plants, is strikingly per-
ceptible :— either in adjacent fields, or strips, purpose-
ly left unplastered, in the same field ; in which Mr.
D's natural store of gypsum must have been equally
deficient, or distributed ? In the evening, too, the dew
on plastered ground is the soonest perceived. Until

►^^?ca

On Gypsupt.

239

the English acquire more experience in the use of
plaster, we shall, I fear, derive little benefit from the
speculations of their most scientific writers on this
subject ; however instructive they may *e, and certain-
ly are ; on other agricultural topics.

The sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is known to pos-
sess the faculty of attracting, and being diluted by,
water, in an uncommon degree : and the solvent pow-
er of water is well established. What other parts of
the gypsum has, so peculiarly, this property ? If the
sulphuric acid does not produce the effect on vegeta-
tion, as stated in my conjecture ; there is no other
part likely thus to operate.

All substances containing this acid, operate alike on
vegetation ; and that, as I have reason to believe, ac-
cording to the proportions of the acid included in
them : and, although these substances be totally vari-
ant in their natures. — To instance only a few ; —

1. The Plaster of Paris, we use, consists of
calcareous earth ; mixed, irregularly, with other earths:
and the sulphuric acid, combined with them, is in the
greatest proportion of any other part of the mass.

2. The Pyrites are a genus of inflamable substan-
ces, composed chiefly of sulphur ; which has dissolv-
ed, or saturated itself with, metals; oftenest with
IRON. It is the principal ore of sulphur. The use of
this, when calcined, or burnt, as a ?nanure, occasioned
Dr. Priestly to mention to me, what I relate in Vol.
I. page 158. And see appendix to Vol. I. page 32.

3. Barytes, is an alkaline earth. It posses-
ses strong and peculiar attraction for the sulphuric acid.
It will always detect its presence, in any substance ;

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On OypsurH,

=B

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^

and immediately unite with it, and form a sulphat.
This renders it a very valuable chemical test. That
this is a most pfrwerfnl manure, (thoogh, that it may
be the more reSdily decomposed, it must be reduced
to a sulphuret,) is clearly F^^ed, by our mtelhgent
correspondent, Dr. Isaac Chapman ; page 120, of this

volume. V t. V

Strange, then, (to one of the Lai-gens,) that this
common property of possessing the sulphuric acid,
should go for nothing ; and other causes of operating
on vegetation should be sedulously sought for ! If my
conjecture, (whether original or borrowed, I cannot
myself now tell) should really be, as some respectable
chemists deem it, unfounded ; I see not that those they
have substituted, (opposite and variant) have more
fact, or probability, to support them. It is of no other
consequence to farmers,— than that it will furnish a
guide to discover what substances are likely to be
operative on vegetation ; until a more certain index
be established. Mean time, a conjecture which has
been, and may be, practised upon, seems to be,— to
say no more of it,— quite as good as any other.

It is practically well known to multitudes of farmers
here ; to mc particularly, who have been the longest
acquainted with this substance ;— that, in proper soils,
and in places free from constant moisture, and not im-
pregnated with, or affected by, common salt, either m
the earth or atmosphere ; the plaster operates, or not,
accordingly as decayed vegetable, or putrescent animal
matter, is, or is not, found in the soil. If none such
originally exists, or becomes exhausted, one or the
other must be supplied, by green- manures, dung, (m

On Oypsum,

2ii

moderate quantities,) ploughed in, or compost as a
top-dressing- With such auxiliaries, the plaster works
vigorously ; either when first strewed, or on repeti-
tions ; however frequent. Without them, h lies
inert and useless. The fact is well established ; be
the theory what it may. Anomalous exceptions some-
times occur. But these do not shake the general rule ;
which is, in practice, as muclifci course, and as com-
monly successful, as any other operation in husbandry.
^ ^ R. Peters!

September 25, 1813.

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VOL. III.

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jil«tyC- «_ ^

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iff

[ 242 3

Colonel Pickering, on Hedges.

Read September 14, 1813.

JVenham^ Mass. August 13, 1813.

Dear Sir, '"^^l

In the 2d volume of the Memoirs of the Philadel-

phia Society for Promoting Agriculture, is pubUshcd

the letter I wrote you from Washington, in 1809, on

the subject of hedges. As you are printing a third

volume, I wish, in this communication, to correct two

errors in that letter, in which I refer to Lord Kaims

and Dr. James Anderson, on the same subject.

Thorn Hedges.

Expressing my doubts, from what I had read,
whether the English thorn-hedges constituted com-
plete fences ; especially as it seemed to be a common
- practice to introduce trees into them ; I then mention-
ed Lord Kaims as " expressly saying, that he never
saw a good hedge in England." Not having his book
(The Gentleman Farmer) by me, I trusted to my re-
collection. This I afterwards found, as to the precise
terms used, to be incorrect. Lord Kaims says—
" there never was a good thorn hedge with trees in it ;
and that " in England there is scarce a thorn-fence to
be seen without a hedge-row of trees; and these
hedge-rows (of trees) have been the destruction of
fences." Your own observation on English hedges,
which you had seen, corresponded with the idea I had

On Hedges.

243

formed of them from their books, that they were far
from being complete fences.

Lord Kaims proposes a method of training thorn
hedges similar to Dr. Anderson's; and describes a
comparative experiment he had made, during a period
of twelve years, of three modes of rearing thorn
hedges, in which that of leaving the stems uncut, until
they had attained sufficient stability, appeared to be
decidedly the best. His book being in the hands of
few persons, I here transcribe the passage referred to,
as highly interesting to all who would make hedge

fences. ^

« I have the experience of three hedges trained
twelve years as follows. The first has been annually
pruned top and sides. The sides of the second have
been pruned, but the top left entire. The third was
left to grow without any pruning. The first is at pre-
sent about four feet broa^ and thick from top to bot-
tom ; but weak in its stenis, and unable to resist any
horned beast. The second is strong in its stems, and
close from top to bottom. The third is also strong in
its stems, but for two feet up bare of lateral branches,
which have been destroyed by the overshadowing of
those above, depriving them both of ram and air. That
the second is the best is ascertained by experience.
And that i| ought to be so, will be evident if we trust
to analogy. In the natural growth of a tree, its trunk
is proportioned to its height : lop off the head, it spreads
laterally, and becomes a bush, without rising in height,
or swelling in the trunk. The lime tree is the only
exception I know: the white thorn I am certain is not
an exception. Hence the following method of train.

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244

On Hedges*

ing up a hedge ; which is, to allow the thorns to grow
without applying a knife to their tops, till their stems
be five or six inches in circumference. In good soil,
with careful weeding, they will be of that bulk in ten
or twelve years, and be fifteen feet high or upward.
The lateral branches only must be attended to. Those
next the ground must be pruned within two feet of
the stem: those above must be made shorter and
shorter, in proportion to their distance from the ground ;
and at five feet high they must be cut close to the
stem ; leaving all above full freedom of growth. By
this dressing, the hedge takes on th% appearance of a
very steep roof; and it ought to be kept in that form
by pruning. This form gives free access to rain, sim
and air ; every twig has its share, and the whole is
preserved in vigour. When the stems have arrived
at their proper bulk, cut them over at five feet from
the ground, wliere the lateral branches end. — A
hedge trained up in this manner, is impenetrable even
by a bull ; he may press in the lateral branches ; but
the stems stand firm. — Good thorns are more es-
sential in this manner of training a hedge than in any
other: they ought all to be of an equal size and
equally vigorous, that they may not overtop one an-
other." See part I. chap xii. on fences.

In Great Britain, hedge-fences are gener^ly accom-
panied by ditch and bank : principally (I presume) be-
cause the ditch and bank, aided by a slight railing)
make an immediate fence ; and because in flat grounds
ditches serve for drains. But hi America, where wood
is yet sufficient in quantity for complete fences, while
the hedges are growing; and where, too, we arc suU-

On Hedges.

245

■^fr:

ject to heavier rains, which cause destructive gullies ;
doubtless Mr. Maine's mode of plain hedging, without
ditch and bank, is most eligible.* A ditch is an arti-
ficial gully, which, in sloping grounds, every consi-
derable rain must mischievously increase.

The Larch Tree.

The other error that I wish to correct respects larch
trees. It was not Dr. Anderson, in his essays on
Agriculture, as I stated, but Dr. Hunter, in his notes
on Evelyn's Silva, or Discourse on Forest Trees, who
mentioned the larch as growing fastest in the poorest
soil and bleakest exposure. After observing that the
larch was a native of the Alps and Appenine Moun-
tains, and had become common in the nurseries of
Great Britain, he says—'' It is remarked that these
trees which have been planted in the worst soils and
most exposed situations, have thriven the best." Dr.
Anderson, on the contrary, after stating the rapid
growth of some larch trees planted when only from six
to nine inches high, which in twelve years had reached
the average height of from 34 to 36 feet, remarks that
*' this plantation was made on a very good soil, and
favourably situated." At the same time he says " the
larch may be made to grow upon almost any soil, even
from a stiff clay to a barren sand, if not drowned in
water." — I have two native larches growing among
white pines and maples, in a moist, peaty earth. They

* This practice of Mr. Maine is not original : Marshall mentions
and commends it, in his Rural Economy of Yorkshire, where hq
observed it in 1782.

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246

On Hedges.

arc about six feet in circumference and perhaps eighty
feet in height. The very great value of the larch tree
for timber seems to have been little understood in
Great Britain, till witliin a few years past ; and I be-
lieve that but few persons have any knowledge of it in
the United States : yet doubtless it is one of the most
useful trees that could be raised. Dr. Anderson's ex-
cellent directions for making plantations of them, are
to be found in his third volume of Essays on Agricul-
ture and rural affairs. Scotland, so remarkable for its
nakedness in respect to trees, they are now covering
with the larch. Dr. Anderson says that for many
years, one person (the duke of Athol) had been in the
practice of planting out from his own nurseries, one
hundred thousand larches annually; and the doctor
himself above two hundred thousand, for the three
years before he wrote.

The Common Locust Tree.

In your first volume of Memoirs is a communica-
tion from Caleb Kirk, near York in Pennsylvania, in
which he says, that after trying various trees and
shrubs for hedges, ^' he at length fixed on the common
locust. He tried for seven years to propagate this
tree, and at length adopted a method by which he
could make himself as sure of a plant from every seed,
as from Indian corn :" but what this method was he
does not mention. My own first experiment was by
sowing the seed in May, which produced plants from
two to four feet high the first year, although the soil
was poor. My other trial was two years ago ; sowing
the seed partly on the 10th and partly between the

On Hedges.

247

10th and 20th of May, The seed sown immediately
before a refreshing rain, came up well ; while that
sown two days after, followed by dry weather, gen-
erally failed. Like the apple tree, the locust, while
young, is subject to be eaten by the field mice.

The locust seed is easy to collect in the pods. It
is in shape and taste like a bean. The time of sowing
must be directed by the cliriiate, to be secure against
frosts. Whenever, in the spring, it will be safe to
plant the common beans of our , country, the locust
seed may be sown with assurance of success. It
should be sown in rows far enough apart to admit the
hoe in cultivating the plants in the seed beds.
I am, dear sir, very truly yours.

Timothy Pickering.

.^ .1

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Mr. Kirk has recently communicated his method
«f raising locust trees from seed ; — it is as follows :

" The method is to immerse the seed in water, hot enough to
scald a hog ; to let them remain in the water till it cools, then to
sow them in drills, eighteen inches or two feet apart, that they may
be the more readily kept clear from weeds, as the plant is very ten-
der when young, and will be entirely lost if the weeds are suffered
to grow up with them. — They should be sown in the spring, in
common gardening time, and they will grow very soon, and if kept
clean in the fore part of summer, they will be out of danger — !f
Ihey are not too thick in the rows, they will stand so till they are

two years old, when they will be fit to plant out."

J. Mease.

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[ 248 i

A(row/2? of a Corn Shelling Machine, by Charles W.

Peale.

Read September 15, 1813.
Beljield, Philad. Co. Aug. 27, 1813.

Dear Sir,

The enclosed sketch and explanation will I hope
give a perfect idea of the corn shelling machine ; a
description of my mill and the various application of
it to husbandry in the saving of labour, I must reserve
for some future day, when 1 may be able to make the
various machines more complete, by extending the

building.

I am, dear sir, with high consideration,

Your friend,

C. W. Peale.

P. S. By some experiments I find that butter is best
made by churning very fast, but great care is neces-
sary to stop the mill the instant the butter begins to
gather; then the movement must be very slow to gather
the butter, otherwise it will be very soft, and the but-
ter milk will be so much beat into it, as to render the
separating of it extremely difficult.*

* Every chy mist knows, that Butter is the oxigenated oil of the
milk. The more rapidly and completely this oil is separated (its
mixture being mechanical or very slightly chymical) so as to ex-
pose the most particles to the oxigen of the air ; the shorter is the
lime, for what is vulgarly called, " the coming of the butter."

Account of a Corn shelling Machine.

249

The name of the inventor of the corn shelling
machine, I have just understood, is John Haven, of
Montgomery county.

am procuring to be made, a churriy with a staff, to which is attach-
ed, on a pivot at the lower end, an horizontally and rapidly turning
dasher^ with four arms or vanes, like those operated on by wind.
In the up and down strokes, the dasher moves in contrary direc-
tions. This is said, in an agricultural work, from which I took the
drawing, to be the easiest and most expeditious mode of churning
the butter, by exposing the greatest number of particles to oxige*
nation, in the shortest time. I shall give to it a fair experiment.

In some parts of Europe^ the new milk is churned. But I should
presume our usual mode is preferable. By the standing of the milk
in the pans, the cream (which contains the oil) rises, and is separa-
ted. The albuminous, gelatinous, and watery parts begin to sepa-
rate in the cream pot, if left to stand a reasonable time ; and acidu-
lation (not acetous) forwards the process. Oxigenation commences
before the agitation in the churn takes place ; and a portion of the
work is anticipated. In the severe weather of winter, difficulties
sometimes occur in churning. In addition to immersing part of the
churn in hot water, one or two spoonfuls of sharp vinegar^ mixed
with the cream in the churn, are very efficacious. The separation
of the oil is thus promoted ; without, in the least, affecting the but-
ter. The vinegar, as do all acids and spirituous liquors, combines
with the ivhey ; — alkalies and rennet enter the curds,

Soa/i, mischievously slipt into a churn, prevents the cream ever
making butter. Alkalies are as destructive, as acetous acids are salu-
tary. See Bath Society Memoirs, 3d vol. 2d ed. 309. 1788. Where,
probably, I picked up the information respecting vinegar. The
writer used distilled vinegar ; but any good vinegar will answer.
The quantity is arbitrary ; and if too little be used at first, it must
be increased. He recommends a table spoon full to a gallon ; after
the cream has been considerably agitated. I have not been nice, ei-
ther as to quantity or time. R. Peters.

VOL. III.

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250 Account of a Corn shelling Machine.

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Description of the Corn shelter.

No. 1, is a white oak log, 22 inches long, and turned
to 20 inches diameter, in which are triangular pieces
of iron, giving a length of one inch, and drove in at an
equal height of 1-4 inch, in an oblique position, as in-
dicated by the drawing. The pulley, No. 2, is six. inch-

la «■

Description of the Corn shelter.

251

es diameter, carrj^ing an clastic band to a pulley of 3
inches diameter, which turns the roller, No. 3, of 2 1-2
inches diameter. This roller also has iron pins of about
1-2 inch on the surface, in like oblique position as the
large roller. The handle. No. 4, moves in a groove,
with the pivot of the small roller passing through it,
in order to bring the said roller forward to receive the
maize to be shelled.

No. 5, is a view of the frame underneath the small
roller, to show the iron wedges, drove in an oblique
position ; about an angle of 45 degrees, and on the side
next the large roller is an iron plate, placed at the
same height of the wedges, i. e. 1-2 inch.

The large pulley is made to receive its motion from
a drum in a mill, but a small crank may be put in place
of it, and then be moved by a treadle.

One bushel of corn in the ears, may with ease be
shelled in five minutes.

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[ 252 ]

notations and Changes of Crops defendedy by Richard
Petersy Esquire. . ,'

Read November 9, 1813.

Belmont y October 17, 1813.

Dear Sir^

I send, for communication to the society, a letter
from D. Cassaty Esqr. of York Borough, in this state,
and its enclosure ; handed to me by Captain Anthony
Robinson^ to whom it was directed. There can be no
doubt of the truth of any facts, avowed, or countenanc-
ed, by one so respectable as Mr. Cassat. Nor is there
any occasion for my disbelief of such facts ; which are
similar to many I have met with. I have, ho^vever, ob-
served, that almost all the like facts, have arisen in the
way in which Mr. Eckcj't^s have been established. —
They have occurred in the cases of owners of small
spots, whom necessity had compelled (on a calculation
that it was the most valuable product) to sow xvheaty
in constant succession. I have known the same prac-
tice succeed, for a considerable length of time, (most
frequently fail) with Indian corn, and other grains.
But the great balance of such farming, on any exten-
sive scale, has been unsuccessful and injurious. That
wheat would, in some anomalous instances, grow well
on the same spot, with repetitions of manure, for seve-
ral successive years, I never denied ; though, as a ge-
neral practice, I have always reprobated it. TVhen the
pabuhim for this, or any other grain, will be exhausted
in the soil of any particular spot ; or how long rencw-

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Rotations and Changes of Crops defended. 253

als of manure, will linger on, its capability to produce
the same species of plant ; depends so much on cir-
cumstances beyond our ken, that no determinate judg-
ment, by anticipation, can be formed. But, that its ex-
haustion, and the deterioration of the crop, will finally
happen, we have the experience of the most intelligent
men, from the dawn of agricultural information to this
dav, to warrant our belief. It is not an abstract and
speculative opinion ; but a conclusion from long known
practical experience. Many individual animals, the
human race included, will begin earlier, and longer
continue, a state of fecundity, than the common mass.
But it would not be a sound conclusion to say, that,
generally^ animals are alike, in this regard.

I consider such anomalous instances as the one I
present to the society, to be, (as they respect the ge»
neral subject,) unfortunate occurrences. They claim
from us our assent ; and should have every fair oppor-
tunity afforded for their publicity. Yet they tend to
foster and confirm bad practices ; and to root out, so
far as they are influential, all attention to, or reliance
on, system and principle.

I continue to be convinced, that, however it may be
in particular instances, the general prosperity of our
agriculture, and that of every well cultivated country,
most essentially depends on adherence to the well esta-
blished system, of a rotation and change of crops. It
would be endless to cite the numberless authorities,
from the best writers, both elementary and practical,
in proof of this position. It would be still more irk-
Jiome and unpleasant, to repeat what I have heretofore
said on this subject.

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254 i?ofaf ion^ and Changes of Crops defended.

Mr. Cassat adds his own experience ; no doubt also
on a small spot. If practical farmers (who read little
on such subjects) should ever see this communication,
it will be happy if they should be forcibly struck with
Mr. C.'s suggestions of the probability, that this zn-
tailed or settled perpetuity, (which is generally as inju-
rious in farming, as he knows such to be odious m
law,) " depends upon the quantity of land a farmer
will be able to manure.'^ If this practice should in-
diice those who have a passion for it, to increase their
stores of manure, some good will come out of evil- If,
on account of deficiency of manure, the better prac
tice be followed, from convenience and necessity, it
will be salutary in result ; though not so meritorious,
as when it flows from both convenience and principle.
But what can be said in favour of it, where, in our new
countries, the most fertile lands, requiring no manure,
arc filled with sorrel,* and other pests, by the practice
of stubbling in, and sowing one culmiferous crop after
another; till the land will bear no more such? The
soil remains rich enough; and will bear (with better
ploughing and management,) any other crop, than one
of the species of that, whereof it had been (in the coun-
try phrase) sickened. A deficiency of animal and vegc-

♦ Where lime is easily procured, if the land overran by sorrely
were dressed plentifully with the lime ; the capacity to bear ivheah
or any other crop, would be restored. See our list of /iremium^f
Vol I. page xliv. To this, Lord Dundonald's authority may be
added. The efficacy of the sorreline acid on vegetation, is we
known. This acid is produced by the application of lime ; whiy
decomposes and banishes the sorrel.

Rotations and Changes of Crops defended. 255

table manure, has not always occurred. For, (although
time has brought forward wiser convictions,) it has not
been singular, in our new countries, to remove bams
and stables, from sites deemed to be incumbered by

dung-heaps !

Of constant and long successions of Indian corn
crops, in sundry places, and particularly on rich bot-
toms ; especially on those subject to overflows, which
bring along with them, and deposit, accessions of new
soil ; I have heard accounts, the most favourable to
the idea of perpetuating the same species of crop.
Probably the culture of this plant, never occupying
exactly the same place in the hills of succeeding years,
keeps down weeds, in greater or less degrees, aYid en-
ables it to thrive the longer, like grain sown accord-
ing to TuWs drill husbandry, on the same field.— Pe-
culiarly on rich bottoms ; which are commonly abun-
dantly fertile. These may furnish more of the speci-
fic pabulum^ than soils of common texture afibrd ; if
there be any well founded evidence of this doctrine ;
for I vouch theories with hesitation. — But I have no
more idea of thus establishing a general principle, or
shaking one well fixed ; than I have of determining
the duration of human life, by the longevity, or strength
of constitution, of some men : much less would I
adopt as a rule, the instances of some, who live long,
under the practice of inveterately bad habits. General
results, and common calculations, are not impugned
by such examples.

It is safer and better, to follow methods generally
approved ; than to suffer ourselves to be carried away
from them ; because, in some instances, contrary prac-

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256 Rotations and Changes of Crops defended.

tices succeed for a time, or under particular circum-
stances. Wandering from settled habits, known by
experience to be salutary, will create confusion and
uncertainty ; and baffle every past and future endea-
vour, to reduce the art of husbandry, to any unques-
tionable system, or fixed principles.

I do not feel the less obliged to Mr. Cassat^ for the
laudable pains he has taken to furnish information ;
whatever I may think on the subject of it. It was a
leading motive with us, in the establishment of our
society, that facts, on all sides of agricultural questions,
should be collected and promulgated ; to enable every
farmer to judge for himself; according to the circum-
stances in which he is placed. The mere point of de-
terioration of grain, is not the sole question. The ad-
vantages of rotations, and changes of crops, or what is
called convertible husbandry, reach far beyond any
consideration, in which that point is involved.

Your very obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad, Agric. Soc.

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[ 257 ]

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Wheat on the same spot for several successive years*

Read November 9, 18 1:?.

Sir,

I enclose you the certificate of Peter Eckert, on
the subject of raising wheat several years in succes-
sion, on the same ground. From my knowledge of Pe-
ter Eckert, I have reason to believe that what he states
is strictly true. — I got him to state his manner of til-
lage and manuring, and I have no doubt from what I
have observed in my own experiments, that wheat may
be annually raised on the same ground for many years,
but whether it would be more profitable than a rota-
tion of crops, will depend upon the quantity of land a
farmer will be able to manure.*

I am, with respect, yours, &c.

D. Cassat.

Capt. Anthony Robinson.

'^i

• Those who conceive, that grain can be perpetually raised on the same
field, witliout manure, by any changes, either of the species, or locality of
drills; are certainly less justifiable, than the pr^rpctualists who manure
their grounds. I think that both would find themselves mistaken, on a scale
of any considerable extent. No prudent advocate for changes, or rotations,
would recommend constant successions of tillage-crops ; under any circum-
stances of change. Grasses fill tlic intervals, required in good husbandry,
between the crops calling for the plough. The period of rest, is tlius bene-
ficially employed. Rest and manure are as essential to worn lands, as chan-
ges of crops I and neither are eflRcicnt, witliout the otheri. Changes of crops
prolong the fertility of new lands ; which, by the bad farming usually prac-
ticed, are hurried into poverty, in a period lamentably short. Although in
the drilUiusbandry, more may be done, (as the TuUiana assert) than in
broadcast, without rest and manure t yet I must be excused for my i^crcdoli-
ty ; when I doubt the durably beneficial results of either mode.

VOL. III.. K k

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IFheat on the same spot

for several successive years*

259

ir. ■;

Certificate,

I live in Hanover, in York County, and have a lot
adjoining the town lots, containing one acre, and one
liundred and fifty three perches, enclosed virith a fence
standing on the line, by which I am prevented from
ploughing about two feet of the lot all round it, which
takes off nine perches, and reduces the whole of the
lot under the plough to one acre and one hundred and
forty four perches.

Six years ago it was in grass, and poor. I ploughed
up the sod, put on some stable manure, and then sow-
ed three bushels of wheat on it.— The crop was very
heavy, but I did not measure the grain. I then stub-
bled it down, harrowed it, and sowed three bushels of
the wheat which I had just taken off. The second year's
crop was full as good as the first. When I took off the
second crop, J ploughed down the stubble again, and
sowed wheat of the crop of the preceding year. — In the
winter I put on a thin coat of dung — the third year the
crop was quite equal to any of the preceding years — I
ploughed down the stubble, and sowed orange-straw-
wheat, (the three first years was red-chaff.) The fourth
crop was overgrown in the straw, and therefore did not
yield so well as the former years. That crop, however,
I had measured, and it yielded 83 1-2 bushels, weigh-
ing 62 1-2 pounds per bushel. The former crops

A surface clotlicd willi a cover of grass ; clover particularly, is alw ay?
meliorated. Constant stirrings forbids grazing-. Even wlicrc the hoot aiul
tooth are excluded from clover ; sown to rot, and supjdy vegetaljlc ])al)ulum ;
great benefits arise to those who farm only for crops requiring the plough or
lioc. The interval of rest affords manuic •, where none other can be oh-

t;;inect

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were all better than the last mentioned. I then plough-
ed down the stubble, and sowed wheat the fifth year
in succession, and put a coat of manure on it in the
winter. The crop was reaped this summer, and when
threshed will yield as much as any of the preceding
crops, if not more. The wheat this year was very
strong and well filled. I intend to sow the ground with
wheat this year again. — I verily believe, that the crop
of the fourth year, which measured 83 1-2 bushels,
was the lightest of the five.

A number of the most respectable inhabitants of
Hanover, arc well acquainted with most of the facts
here stated, as the lot has been frequently examined,
and the crops which I have raised on it have excited
the attention of the neighbourhood. Every crop was
clean, and fit for seed wheat.

I have made this statement at the request of D. Cas-
sat, this 10th day of August, 1813.

I intend to put wheat in this lot, every year, for a
long time to come, as the land seems to improve un-
der it. Several of my neighbours have began the same
plan, and have had wheat on the same ground three
years in succession, and it succeeds as well with them

as it does with me.

Peter Eckert.

Witness. D. Cass at.

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[ 260 ]

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On Fiorin^ Mangel- TVurtzely Onions y and CabbageSy by
Richard Peter Sy Esquire.

Read, November 9, 1813.

Belmont J October 7, 1813.
Dear Sir^

On the 4th instant I cut my Fiorin. I found, that
practice, to a large extent, will be required, before our
people will become adroit in cutting this grass. My
little crop was matted and much entangled ; and the
smooth edged hook was employed in preference to the
sithe ; with which latter, little could be doile. In Ire-
landy the sithe is always used.

I caused the produce of a small patch, measuring
nearly two square perches, to be weighed, as soon as
cut. It weighed 306 pounds. I calculate this to be
at the rate of near eleven tons, to the acre, (sta-
tute) of green fodder. When dried, it weighed 120
nett pounds ; or at the rate of only four tons, one quar-
ter of a ton and eighty pounds. What older grass, or
that on wet soils, or those flooded or irrigated, will do ;
further experiments must determine. Though perfect-
ly free from any disagreeable smell ; it has not the in-
viting savour of our good hay.

I think it should have been out sooner ; as many of
the strings appeared dry, and not flourishing at the
root ; though in general sound and succ^^lent.

I presume that, in Ireland^ the twenty tons of green
fodder, in a season, to the acre, mentioned, by Dr.
Richardson^ as having been made by Mr. Curweny must
have been calculated on more cuttings, br older and

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On Fiorin.

261

more luxuriant grass, than any we can yet expect.
Perhaps the acre meant, is the Irish acre ; — more than
one half larger than ours. The strings of my grass
are, certainly, much inferior, both in size and succu-
lency, to the best of the imported Irish Fiorin.

My horses ate the green Fiorin greedily ; though
there is, in some parts, a small tang of mustiness. My
cows do not relish it, now ; whatever they may do in
winter, when I shall try them with that cured for keep-
ing.

I send some strings ; which will serve as a speci-
men of the crop ; — tolerably promising for the first
year ; and considering my having yet every thing to
learn, as to its culture ; and that my ground is dry.
Many strings measure five and six feet in length. I
have furnished every means I possess, in the present
stage of the experiment, to lenable the society to form
its opinion.

I have frequently chewed the strings. They afford
a remarkable sweetness, or saccharine taste ; — far be-
yond other grass. In Evans fe? Ruffy^s Farmer^ Jour-
ml, London. May 3d, 1813, there is the following
paragraph ; which they give from an Edinburgh paper ;
— without vouching for the truth of it. — This weekly
journal, is a valuable collection of agricultural informa-
tion ; of unimpeached credit, and well supported.

** Fiorin Grass. A chemist, whose accuracy may
** be depended on, has lately submitted this celebrated
" herb to analysis ; and found, as might have been ex-
** pected, that it contained a very unusual quantity of
** saccharine matter, not unlike treacle in colour ; and
*^ havii>g very much the taste of a mixture of that sub-

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On FiorifU

aec

** Stance with currant jelly. A trial was then made, to
" ascertain the quantity of spirit j that could be obtain-
** cd from the same material ; when, on the first at-
*< tempt, (from forty pounds of Fiorin hat/y) seven pints
*' of very palatable spirit was distilled ; much superior
** to common Whiskey ; and far better than the pro-
*< duce of any other kinds of grasses ; beside being
" more abundant." — Whether this be a satire on the
Fiorinists, or a serious fact ; it is not difficult, experi-
mentally, to determine.

I send also some culms with panicles ; and seed.
The former slightly resemble the panicles of blue grass;
and the latter, the seed of herd grass ; though smaller.
It is more for curiosity than real use ; for it is agreed,
that propagating from the joints of the strings, is the
only eligible mode. I have some now for distribution,
to experimenters. Any one may see, how widely dif-
ferent the Ftori?i is, from the squitch or knot grass,
ftriticum repensj with which it has been confounded.

MANGEL-WURTZEL.

I weighed the first stripping of the leaves. The
patch in which they grew, contains about a sixteenth
of an acre. The weight of the whole was 680 nctt
pounds. I have stripped them three times ; and am
proceeding in the fourth. Three strippings, at 4, 1-4
tons each, is 12, 3-4 tons, per acre. But the quantity is
unequal, in the several strippings ; yet I think I may
safely calculate, for the season, on fifteen tons, to
the acre : — allowing two tons, as deduction from 17

On Mangel- fFurtzeL

263

tons ; which would be the amount of the total, if all

were equal.

My cows are so fond of the leaves, that, with them
and common pasturage, they have been kept (generally)
flush, through the season. My dairy-maid informs me,
that it makes an odds of one and an half, and frequently
two pounds of butter to each cow, per week ; when
they are fed, or not, on scarcity leaves. I offered them the
green Fiorin ; but they rejected it. The scarcity leaves
were immediately thereafter thrown to them ; which
they ravenously devoured ; though they had been,
through the day, in excellent pasture. My horses arc
not now inclined to eat the leaves ; though, in the last
winter, they ate the roots with avidity.

These quantities of green fodder are highly encou-
raging ; and can be obtained, easily, in our climate.
Dr. Brown's account of Guinea Grass, for a more
southern latitude, exceeds all products our climate ad-
mits. We must be content with the best we can ob-
tain ; without regretfully comparing ours, with the ad-
vantages reaped, in other regions, from a grass which
may not succeed here ; though well worth the trial.
The Mangel'Wurtzel has, however, the advantage of
affording constant supplies of green forage ; when
other such are scarce. Add the rootsj which exceed
the weight of the leaves ; and no plant seems more va-
luable.

I have had a much greater weight of leaves, in for-
mer times : and European accounts far exceed any I
have experienced. Double my present product of both
leaves and roots, has been known. Mine, this season,
were planted for cleansing a piece of ground, which

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On Mangel' Wurtzel.

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required such a crop ; and were not set thick. Half as
many more (possibly double, in broad-cast) could have
been planted, in the same ground. I do not think this
season has been favourable, either for leaves or roots;
They have, however, yet, time to increase.

ONIONS.

I have been in the habit, for the past three years, oT
raising onions^ agreeably to the method mentioned by
our member IVilliani Phillip s^ Esq.; page 18, of our
2d vol. I sowed the seed in September, or the latter
part of August. They have uniformly been so far su-
perior, in weight, quality, and facility of culture, that,
did I not know the inflexibility of old prejudices, I
should wonder at any other mode being persisted in.
My old gardener is inveterately prejudiced, in favour
of his accustomed culture by plant-onions. He strives
to exceed those sown, in the way first mentioned ; and
will even neglect them, while he pays every attention
to his favourites. Yet he has never been able to equal
what he calls my *' new fashion ;" in any respect. I
have weighed them against picked onions, in his old
mode of culture ; and mine sometimes exceed as two
to three ; and always weigh the heaviest. I think those
sown in the autumn, should be gathered a week or
fortnight sooner than the others. If they are left on the
ground too long, they arc apt to split, or grow double.
— Earthing over a few rows, makes them much more
mild and palatable, for early use ; than those left to
bulb entirely above ground.

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On Cabbages.

265

CABBAGES.

I have, during a great part of my life, practiced
sowing cabbage seed (a particular species of Savcnj is
the best, though many kinds will answer;) about harvest
time ; and planting them out in September, or the be-
ginning of October, in drills. Some perish, and on this
account they must be thickly planted ; but more than
sufficient stand the winters, without cover, uninjured.
They are fit for the table quite as soon, and often soon-
er, than those where the plants are raiiied in hot beds.
The drills must be on ridges, elevated so as to pre-
vent water lying on the plants, in winter. I forget who
suggested to me this method ; but I think it was the
late Dr. Wither spoon,, who was intelligent in horticul-
ture, among his other valuable acquirements. It is a
practice well known in several parts of Europe, where
the winters are quite as severe as are ours.

I have practiced this method (excepting a few in-
stances, for experiment) only in my garden. But I am
satisfied that ^cVJ crops may be raised in the same way.

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.
Qr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Phdad. Agric. Soc.

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[ 266 ]

On American Gypmni.

267

On American Gypsum.

Read November 9, 1813.

Belmontj October 30, 1813.

2)6»^r Sir J

This day only, I received the enclosed letter ; for
which I am much obliged to Philip Churchy Esq. of
the state of New York, Before I was informed of the
letter of Mr. Cisty inserted in this volume, I took pains
to gain information on the subject of it ; and wrote to
Mr. Churchy for the purpose. Although the letter of
the former would have been sufficiently satisfactory ;
yet Mr. Churches account is not only corroboratory,
but it adds circumstances well worthy of notice. The
inexhaustible quantities, and accessibility, of this all-
essential material, — the Plaster ; — found in our own
national territory ; — not liable to obstruction in its
transportation, by disturbances on the ocean; — and
withal so perfectly convenient to our own state ; —
must be a source of singular satisfaction. More espe-
cially to those (myself particularly) who recollect the
small, and, for a long time, unpromising beginnings,
of this now great and widely extended improvement to
our husbandry. — Not longer ago than the time of pub-
lication of our first volume,^ 1808; the subject of
its existing, in any great quantiti|^, within our territo-
ry, and its description, or quality, was involved in

•

doubt and obscurity. Now, a full development is
made ; and the facts are actually tested, by the irrefra-
gable evidence, of experience, on a large scale. To a

Pennsylvaniany the information must be doubly grati-
fying. In this state, on its eastern border, the efficacy
of the Plaster was first proved, and promulgated.
Now, endless supplies, within reach of our northern
boundary, are to be obtained ; and safely brought to
us, even under present circumstances, at no formida-
ble expense ;* and in quantities amply sufficient not
only for our own ; but other states. To facilitate the
transportation even of this article, the canals and roads
necessary to communicate with the quarries ; would
be highly desirable and lucrative. But when, in addi-
tion, the other countless benefits we should derive
from them, are considered ; no doubt can remain, of
this being one of the greatest objects, to which the
public attention can be applied. Warning, as well as
encouraging, examples of attracting internal trade ;
and its materials for external commerce ; are held up
to us by a sister state. She spares no pains, and ne-
glects no opportunities, to take every advantage which

• Although we, in this quarter of the state, may pay high for
plaster from the lakes; yet our case is only reversed. We change
circumstances, with those who were heretofore supplied from the
sea board. But when the war ceases, and plaster is again brought
by sea ; we shall derive a solid advantage, indirectly, by the sup^
plies afforded from the lakes, to the country accustomed to deal
with us. All their demand for the article here, will be at an end ;
and we shall obtain it the cheaper ; because there will be fewer
purchasers in the market.

No impediments to our trade for this article, out of our territory,
can now be apprehended. Such impediments will be perceived to
be idle : it being ascertained, that we now have our supplies, within
our own power. R. P.

-■■]'■

<■•■'

^,

i •

--^•'■^ ■

268

On American Gypsum.

On American Gypsum.

269

ae

either nature or capital affords. — In peace, the facili-
ties of roads and canals are evident; — in war,— wc
now perceive their indispensable use ; and feel the pri-

vation,

I am your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric* Soc.

'j\

Belviderey October 8, 1813,

Dear Sir^

I had not the pleasure of receiving; your letter un-
til the latter end of July ; since then I have been try-
ing to procure the information necessary to enable mc
to answer the enquiries you have made respecting the
locality and quality of the gypsum, lately discovered
on our lakes.

The greatest bed of plaster yet discovered, is upon
the eastern bank of Cayuga lake, extending the dis-
tance of thirteen miles, from the salt springs, at Mon-
tezuma, up the lake, to Union spring, (see enclosed
map) the whole of the distance between these two pla-
ces, abounds so much with plaster, that it is found
wherever the trouble of digging for it is taken. An-
other considerable quarry has been opened at the ter-
mination of the rapids of the outlet of Seneca lake, (see
A) By far the greater part, if not all, of the plaster sent
to your state, is taken from these two quarries, and it
is supposed that they will produce plaster enough to
supply the demand of your state for ages to come.

There are also various beds of plaster, lying in differ-
ent directions, from ten to twenty miles, north, north-
west, and north-east of Geneva.

As to its quality, several fajrmers, upon whose word
and judgment I can rely, and who have also tried the
Nova Scotia plaster, at their former places of residence,
assure me, that if there is any difference, ours is the
stronger and more efficacious. When, however, a quar-
ry is first opened, the plaster found near the surface is
of an inferior quality. The New England people, liv-
ing near the quarries, have tested the fertilizing effects
of the gypsum, by strewing it upon their wheat and
grass lands, so as to represent their own names, and
various characters and figures. The luxuriance of the
wheat and grass show where the gypsum has been
sown. They now make great use of it ; and many
farmers from Tioga and Steuben counties, this year,
as well as last, have gone a distance of thirty and forty
miles, to procure it as a manure for their land, which
is mostly a dry, gravelly soil. In consequence of the
discovery of plaster, this land has risen very much in
value. The gypsum is carried by water, either to
the head of Cayuga lake ; thence by land twenty
eight miles to Owego : (the head of Seneca lake;)
thence by land, eighteen miles, to Newtown ; from
Owego and Newtown, down the Susquehannah to dif-
fcrent parts of your state. The plaster transported by
the way of Seneca Lake and Newtown, is obliged to
be carried round the falls of the Seneca outlet ; a dis-
tance of about two miles. A canal will be cut round
these falls next summer; in which case, the probability
^% that much of the plaster will be transported to your

i

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270

On American Gypsum.

<i

Internal Improvements^ by Boadsy fc?r. 271

r '■

state, by the way of Seneca lake and Newtown. Should
our northern, ever be connected with your southern
waters, by means of a canal, from the head of Sene-
ca lake, to the Susquehannah, at Newtown, not on-
ly plaster will be transported that way, but a great
quantity of salt, as well as all the produce of a very
great portion of the Genesee country. So that the dis-
covery of plaster on our lakes, will be the means, not
only of enriching the lands of Pennsylvania, but also
of promoting improvements, which will turn the pro-
duce of the most fertile and best cultivated portion of
the western part of New York state, from Canada, to
Pennsylvania. — On the subject of a canal, from the
head of Seneca lake to the Susquehannah, I refer you
to two letters, page 119, published in a pamphlet en-
titled, ** Letters addressed to the people of Pennsylva-
nia, respecting the internal improvement of the com-
monwealth, by means of roads and canals," by W. J.

Duane.*

Respectfully and truly yours,

Philip Church.
Hon. Richard Peters.

• Internal Improvement ; by Roads^and Water Transfiortation.
These all important auxiliaries to the business and piosperity of

•

our country, do not depend, for their permanent usefulness, on cir-
cumstances, to which transportation on the ocean is subject. They

•

are under our own command ; while the navigation of the ocean is
under the control of the most powerful at sea. The demand for
them is often the greatest, when external commerce is interrupted.
Our foreign trade, so far as it depends on our own ships, is now
nearly annihilated, by the ambition, jealousies, and injustice, of two
great nations, who, through ages, have been in conflict for predomi-

nance. With the view to each other's annoyance, we have been,
for a long course of time, subjected to the violences of both. One
claimed the right of visiting our ships, at its pleasure. If they
escaped the fangs of the visitants ; the other burnt them, for being
thus visited. We were driven from the ocean ; and resorted first to
ineffectual expedients, for repelling aggressions ; and finally are
involved in all the vicissitudes and dangers of war. Under this
predicament, our active and enterprizing character, prompts to the
employment of capital and labour, in other objects than external
commerce^ Manufactures are now the prevalent passion ; and
agriculture seems to be regarded as only important, according as
it is subservient to them. Yet agriculture and commerce are
the great and leading interests of our country. They will so re-
main : although we are now thrown into an attitude, requiring our
attention and exertions to the supply, among ourselves, of the
fabricks we have been accustomed to receive from abroad ; in re-
turn for the exports of our products.

The Plough, and the Sail, are the appropriate emblems ; and
"/amez wott« /aire"* the motto, of an agricultural and maritime
nation. The less the -governments of such nations interfere with
those leading interests, agriculture and commerce ; (except to
foster, promote, and protect them,) the better they flourish. And
they must flourish, or fall, together ; their interests being insepa-
rably connected. Manufactures^ to a certain degree, may be, at all
times, and are especially in our present situation, necessary, and
highly desirable. They should always, however, be secondary to
the more general interest,^AGRicuLTURE : — with and to which,
if not extended too far, they are compatible, and auxiliary. When-
soever they are predominant, the situation is temporary, and unna-
tural. But suppose, that we were to state an extreme case, not
likely to happen ; and say, that,— to accommodate our agriculture,
and facilities of water powers, to the present state of things ; — the
greater part of our farms were converted into sheep walks; and,
(reserving the fewest possible for grinding our bread-stufi's,) almost

* " Let us manage our own busiiicftfi,'"

272 Internal Improvements, by Roads, i^c.

every stream were devoted to spinning jennies, and other machines
for turning spindles ; and moving tilt-hammers, rollers, and other
machinery for works in metals. Still we should require agncultu-
ral operations, and the necessary conveyance of their products, for
our own, and the support of the manufacturers ;-too much immu-
red,«and, most frequently, too dissipated,^to cultivate the ground;
—even for their own sustenance. If the great body of our domesuc
animals, were metamorphosed ; and changed into sheep ;-the
PLASTER will yet be the grand requisite for enriching their pas-
tures : and land and water transportation will be constantly requi-
red for its conveyance ; as well as that of the materials for manu-
factures, and the fabricks produced by them. I have heretofore
mentioned, the great distances, in England, from whence heavy and
bulky materials are conveyed, by canals, to the manufactories ;
placed where they are, merely on account of the pit-coal, used as
fuel. Interior land and water transportation, by artificial roads,
and canals, (the latter the cheapest and best) will be always in
requisition. In peace, it is all essential ;-in war,-not less so.
Even in our late anomalous situation,— when neither at peace nor
at war,— we should have found its inestimaV.le use.

I am under obligations to Mr. C/mrc/i, not only for the informa-
tion he gives ; but for the reference he makes to the pamphlet puh-
lished by INlr. IV. J, Duane : which, it is possible, I should not have
been, but for this reference ; however highly worthy it may be, (and
certainly is,) of the serious attention, of every well wisher to the
prosperity of Ptnnsylvania, Although I may not agree in all Mr.
' D.'s sentiments collateral to his main object ; yet I think his assi-
duity, and judgment in collecting facts ; and his patriotic, animat-
ed, and sensible observations on, and elucidations of them ; entitle
him to the thanks of his fellow citizens— Mine he has, sincerely.
Mr. D.*s mortifying embarrassments, in his endeavours to prevail
on the great body of a legislature, to see the plainest truths, through
the film of prejudice i— I can well conceive. I had a quant, auff. ol
these, to encounter ; in my legislative career. I believe the bill, for
establishing the first appropriation for roads and internal naviga-
tion, passed 23 or 24 years ago, was drawn by myself; to effectu-

Internal Improvements, by Roads, &f^. 273

3e

ate the measures proposed by an association of some of the most
respectable citizens of that day. Sure I am, that I took unwearied
pains, to forward the objects of it. Heavily enough, did it drag
through the house ; and sufficiently maimed and curtailed (particu-
larly as to the sum proposed to be appropriated) was it, in its pas-
sage. Yet it has served as a nest ii^% ; to use a trite phrase ; and a
brood has sprang from it, which, so far as it has been spread, has
been highly beneficial to our state. Abuses, mistakes, and misma-
nagements, in public operations ; and in private cnterprizes not
before attempted ; are no curiosities. It is to be earnestly hoped,
that the efforts of the friends to public improvements, will still be
exerted ; and,— though the fruits be slow in maturating,— they
will finally be sure and nutritious. If, as Mr. D. truly laments;
thefieofUe do not send representatives sufficiently clear sighted ; it
may be, that the people are not a little blind themselves. And, in
such case, they are truly and appropriately, though very unfortu-
nately, represented. If such pamphlets, a little condensed, could be
generally dispersed ; and, what is more difficult ;— and would be
miraculous ;— should they be read, and fairly and candidly consi-
dered ;— a great and profitable result,— felt in all quarters of our
state,— would undoubtedly follow. I think it would be of public
benefit, to impress and disperse the sentiments and facts, expressed
and collected by Mr. Duane, in this pamphlet ; which gave rise to
the foregoing remarks. For this purpose, I would take the liberty
to recommend the insertion of letters xii and xiii, (the immediate '
subjects of Mr. Churches reference,) among our collections, in the
appendix to this volume. But it should be mentioned, as due to the
character and honour of our state, that, since the publication of
the letters contained in this pamphlet, great advances have been
made towards the accomplishment of its objects ; though much
remains to be done.

I am far from wishing to depress, (if I could) the present lauda-
ble spint, for establishing and promoting manufactures ; which the
existing circumstances of our country invite and require. But I
think the increase of an independent agricultural population, is a
fii«' greater security to the freedom and happiness of our countrv •
VOL. III. M m A

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274 Liternal Improvements, by Roads, ^c.

than is the employment of our surplus labour, (the true balance of
wealth, in all countries,) in too extensive manufacturing estabUsh-
ments. Multiplying the faciliUes of intercourse, by interior im-
provements of roads and navigation ; tends, in the most eminent
degree, to increase settlements of our waste lands ; and thereby to
multiply also the numbers of our best people. Increasing the num-
bers oUuch men, is giving real strength, and permanent freedom,
to the state. I wish to every enterprizing citizen, either in com-
merce or manufactures, the weahh he is entitled to. Yet I believe,
with an old author, that, to save a country from external attacks,
or internal commotions, " a wall of men, (such as agriculturists ge-
nerally are) is far better than bags of money." And I think, with
Berkley, that "a numerous stock of people," (such as agricultural
people are most likely to be) « well fed, clothed, and lodged, will
constitute a flourishing nation.*'

The improvements of our roads, and transportation by canals and
rivers, should, most assuredly, be the primary objects of both pub-
lic and private exertions. Our country, holds in contemptuous de-
fiance, the visions and sophistry of Malthus; and those of his schoolj
—and will so continue to do, for ages yet to come. There cannot,
here, be an excess of population ; beyond the means of subsistence.
Lands will constantly afford an exhaustless source of employ-
ment. Commerce^ when revived, will open boundless channels
for labour and capital. Manufactures furnish another fund, for
industry to draw on. True, the latter have arisen, chiefly, from
f ommercifl/ restrictions, during //<race; and are now extended to war
speculations : inviting, or compelling, a wish for its continuance ;
and thus exhibiting one of the evils of an hostile position. They are,
on this account, subject to great uncertainty, both in their profits
and duration. Yet even in this, they share with other pursuits ; and
the " laissez nous f aire,*' must still be the motto. They will (like
trade) regulate themselves ; and find their true level. Uncalculat-
ing ardour in pursuit of wealth, and not want of means ; is the sm,
that " too easily besets" too many of our countrymen. Whatever
may be the changes to which circumstances may expose our ma-
nufactures ; a seed of a gigantic plant is sown ; which time will in-

;-.\"'

Internal Improvements^ by Roads ^ £s?r. 275

crease. Prudence, warned by partial misfortune, may change its
habits ; and lop its exuberances. But no alteration of circumstances
will ruinously blast, or eradicate it. Whatever may be the state,
either positive or relative, in which agriculture and manufactures
may be found, at the cessation of hostilities ; and the consequent,
and most desirable, return of commerce i koads and interior
NAVIGATION, will cver be mainly the auxiliaries to their prosperity;
and the hand-maids, constantly ministering to their advancement

and success.

R. Peters.

I,

''■' I,

C 276 ]

On Jerusalem Wheat, £sV.

277

H':

On Jerusalem, or Syrian TFIieat. Big Rye ; properly
calledy Tangier- Jf'heat.

Read December 14, 1813.

Belmont, October 26, 1813.

Dear Sir,

In our present volume, page 19, & seq- I gave an
account of the Syrian, or Egyptian JVheat, and the Big
Bye; as circumstances then warranted. Both the wheat
and the rye, are now widely dispersed ; and will be
valuable additions to our grains, in some quarters of
our country. In my neighbourhood, nor with myself,
neither the wheat, nor the rye, have thriven so as to
encourage extensive culture. In a more southern lati-
tude, I am certain, both will do well. I have had, sent
to me from the Delaware state, a sample of excellent
flour of the rye, as we call it ; and I never ate better
bread, than that made of it.

By an error in the press, or in the copy, the wheat
is stated to be of *' African,'*^ whereas it should have
been said to be o[ Asiatic, origin.

Had the origin of the rye been thus designated, it
seems now, that it would have been correct. For I
have received, by the cartel Robert Burns, a letter da-
ted the I4th of August last, from my highly esteemed
friend, Robert Barclay, Esq. of England, to whom I
had sent some samples of the rye, as we have impro-
perly termed it, in which he gives mc the following
account of that grain*

** The grain you sent me in 1811, as new French
*< rye, I have growing freely on my ground ; and proves
" Tangier wheat; as it was deemed, the last spring,
" by Sir John Sinclair, and others of the Board of
** Agriculture. The same kind was brought to me by
"a gentleman from the Mediterranean, this spring."^

So that we now know, exactly, what it is ; — and the
climate in which it prospers. We can, therefore, ac-
commodate our culture accordingly. Our extensive
national territory, in one or the other of its parts, par-
takes in the advantages of all climates. I have long
suspected, that this grain would be, finally, discovered
to be one most suitable to a temperate region. Wheat
may, nevertheless, be indigenated in any country ; it
l)eing the grain of all climates.

IVJANGEL-WURTZEL.

On the subject of this root, I had corresponded with
Mr. Barclay ; and had sent to him a copy of my com-
munication, which appears in this volume. He writes,
in the letter before cited, as follows. —

" My experiment of the Mangel- Wurtzel, goes on
'* prosperously ; and, I hope, next year, that the peru-
" sal of your paper, (which, in my last parcell, I sent

*The ghost of the " dead French soldier" [see page 26] need
not, now, come from the grave to tell us where it grows. Most
probably it i^ the grain of regions bordering on the Mediterranean,
other than Tangier. These, the soldier " had traversed in his cam-
paigns."

y

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278

On Mangel' Wurtzel.

*« to you, published in the Farmer's Journal,) will have
** added to the present favourable opinion of that valu-
" able root : of which, Mr. CurweUy of Cumberland^
"asserts, he has raised forty to rirTV tons, per
"acre. I find, in Essex, north-east oi London, it has
" become a regular part of the produce of many farms;

" and much approved."

Mr. Ciirwen is one of the most respectable men of
his country. Therefore, I should have had no doubt
of the fact he asserts ; on his single authority. But I
have had a multitude of similar European facts ; —
which, in the state of incredulity generally shown by
our farmers, on all points new to them, I did not ven-
ture to mention.

One who asserts uncommon facts, is, most frequent-
ly, on all subjects, discredited. In agriculture particu-
larly, it seems that caution is peculiarly required.—
The exemplary prudence of one, who, in the most ex-
alted and important concern, promulgated truths, com-
pared to which, all others are trifling indeed ; should
be recollected, and humbly imitated. — " / have yet
" many things to say unto you ; but ye cannot bear them

" /tow."

The small specimens of my modem experiments,
which I have candidly detailed, are, I think, encourag-
ing. But, I can, after mentioning Mr. Curweti'^s autho-
rity, with more confidence declare, that they bear but
a feeble comparison with my former experience. Much
less can they be considered as complete tests, of the
extent to which the culture of this root may be carri-
ed. Yet it must be relied on as a powerful auxiliary ;
and not a dependence in chief.

Season of 1813.

279

II5^>^**Sm

THE SEASON.

This season has not been favourable to the roots of
the Mangel- TFurtzel ; nor, latterly, to the leaves. They
have, indeed, escaped caterpillars, aphides, and other
insects, better than those of many other plants ; but
the early frosts have nipped and lessened my fourth
stripping. The growth of the leaves, in most years,
continues late in November. If we have yet mild wca-
ther, the roots will increase.

I do not know how it is, generally, with others ;
but my tap-rooted plants, of all kinds, have smaller
roots, (the tops being too luxuriant,) than I heretofore
remember, in any season. The common beet exhibits
this diminutive appearance. My grounds were never
better attended ; nor in higher condition. Frosts, and
cold weather, have arrived uncommonly early. We
have had, through the season, frequent cold rains ; but
few, if any, genial and invigorating showers. A drought
at a critical period, retarded the progress of tap-root-
ed plants ; in this quarter.

Hardy, coarse, and pestiferous weeds, of all kinds,
have been thrown up in such embarrassing profusion,
that I do not recollect ever to have been so much in-
fested by them. Mice, moles, and vermin of all sorts,
have been uncommonly numerous. Grasshoppers and
crickets, aphides, of countless varieties ; and caterpil-
lars, of every size and species, have annoyed us, in pro-
fuse numbers; — the caterpillars, most remarkably abun-
dant. The latter were stupidly indiscriminate, as to
their places of resort ; and, not having been governed
by the usual instinctive attractions, our houses have
•>een defiled, by their nauseating visits ; and vast ag-

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Season q/'lSlG.

Season o/'lSlS.

28X

u.

gregations have been frequent, in other places, as little
likely to furnish their accustomed food. They seemed
to be of an uncommon species, for the most part ; and
they appeared, in the greatest plenty, at an unusual
time of the year ;— about midsummer ;— and continu-
ed till the first frosts in October. Our orchards were
not, in any great proportion, if at all, their breeding
places. I carefully examine mine, and destroy their
nests, or webs ; or place sods ia the crotches of the
trees, to banish them, every spring, I found few nests,
this season, on the apple trees. Many forest trees in-
vite and support them. None more than the walnut,
and -wild cherry. The leaves of most plants, and the
foliage of vines and trees, ( I think those of young peach
trees the least,) have been, more or less, injured, or
ruined, by their ravages. It has been unpleasant, in
the hottest day, to seek the shade of trees; from whence
the caterpillars were continually dropping. Their al-
most incredible numbers, exhibited, with the aid of
their coadjutors in mischief, an epitome of an Egypti-
an plague. The columns of those creeping spoilers,
climbing the stocks of trees, and moving, in hosts, on
fences; and their detachments, on grass and other
plants ; would have furnished, to an uncandid and aci-
dulated touristy (a sort of literary caterpillar,) matter
for an episodical philippic on our country ; — as if it
were generally infested with such nuisances ; — which,
in any degree like the present, I never before beheld.
Warned by the caution I have before recommended ;
perhaps, I had better have refrained from dilating on
a topic, so disgustingly singular.

Birds, and poultry, have, in former seasons, preyed
on, and thinned the insects. But few of our poultry
will feed on caterpillars, unless hard pressed. — I do
not remember, in any former year, so njany, and so
captivating and beautiful a variety of birds ; as, in the
early parts of the spring and summer, filled our forests
and fields. They disappeared, as if by common con-
sent, early and suddenly. On their return to us, from
their more northern excursions, they made but a short
stay. This dereliction gave full scope to the depreda-
tions of insects, and other pillagers. Snakes and toads
(great destroyers of other vermin) were scarce. But
land terrapins were in greater plenty, than I have ever
before known. They delight to feed on and destroy
beetles; and are peculiarly fond of the cockchaffer;*
—the parent of the most mischievous grubs. The
terrapins (an excellent esculent, if prejudice could be
banished,) are often seen about cow-dung; in search
of the beetles ; which deposit, and roll up, their eggs.

* The Cockchaffer produces the larj^e vihiiQ grub , with a brown,
horny or shelly head ; turned up by the plough, with the sod ; and
much relished by birds and poultry ; who follow the ploughman, for
their prey. It remains in its grub-state, three or four years. It is
highly mischievous to grass, or any crop ploughed in with, or sow-
«d on, the sod ;— particularly fiotatoea. See Bath Socitty Memoirs,
^^87; also lVillich*8 Domestic Encyclofiedia, article Cockchaffer ;
for a curious account of this beetle, or bug.

The beetles, last mentioned in the text, bring forth the Corn-

'RUBs or CuT-woiiMs ; which have been seen, in great numbers,

»n an embryo state, in the holes in which the balls have been depo-

"'"'• R. r.

VOL. HI. jf n

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Season o/'lBlS.

Season of 1813.

283

^'H!

in balls of this material; which they bury under
ground. Hence these beetles are called, by a vul-
tar appellation. The terrapins are, mistakenly suppos-
ed to feed on this filthy ejection ; when, in fact they
are only seeking their prey. Of the beetles, I have
not seen any thing like so many, as I have observed m
former years. The terrapins have thinned and destroy-
,d them ; thereby proving their race to be the farmer s
friend. When vermin on forms, or miscreants m soci-
ety, prowl on one another ; the mass of mischief con-

sumes itself.

I have heard some predictions, that the locusts
will appear next season. If so, we could more readily
have dispensed, this season, with the scourges of their
(I presume accidental) precursors. I have kept no en-
tomological accounts ; and cannot determine the pe-
riod of return of those destructive visitants ; m which
nurserymen and gardeners, arc peculiarly interested.
In a former visitation, I lost the greater part of my
young fruit-tVees. Some of the survivors have, yet,
the scars of wounds, inHicted on them by the locusts ;
fifteen or sixteen years ago.

Information of circumstances known to many of us,
may not be necessary, at this time. Causes of increase
of the annoyances described, are not easily developed.
But some benefits often arise, from recording peculia-^
rities attending anomalous seasons. If the state o
crops, and remarkable circumstances, of every year,
were 'annually reported, it would be highly useful.

Our first crops of haij, were very abundant ; and so
were, in general, those of winter, and summer grain .

buckwheat (not extensively cultivated, in this part of
the country) is an exception. I have heard little of ei-
ther mildeiVj smuty or the Hessian fiy. The second crop
of hay^ was bad. The pastures ^ were much complained
of; though plentiful. The gra^^ was not nutritive;
and did not, as usual in good seasons, promote milk
in dairy-cows, or quick fatting, in other cattle. Fruit,
of all kinds, is bad, and scarce. Our orchards have ge-
nerally failed. Oi potatoes, there is but a scant crop,
in general. I had a good crop ; and I have heard of
some others. But most commonly I have had unfa-
vourable accounts.

Salivary defluxions fptyalismj in Iiorses, be-
gun earlier, and yet continue more inveterately, than
usual ; though they have been lamentably common,
for many years past. Myriads of small spiders, of va-
rious colours and configurations, and diminutive insects,
almost imperceptible to the n^ked eye, might be seen
through a glass, on the stalks and blades of grass.
Whether these have any agency, in producing /?^yflf/-
ismy I do not venture to determine. Nor do I believe,
that the cause has ever been clearly ascertained.* But
I have been repeatedly informed, (as I have, on a for-

* There are scarcely any tolerably plausible conjectures, which
have not been formed on this subject. But none seem yet to have
hit the point. If the spiders and insects were the causes, (and they
niay so be in some instances) they must infect the grass ; so as to
leave a t^nt, or acrid feculence, in its system. For the hay of our
second crops, has, for a long time past, had the same morbid fa-
culties, with the pastures. Horses and pattle run at the mouth,
>vhcn fed on it, nearly as much in winter ; as in summer on the
pastures. My neighbours, as well as myself, have rencatedly

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284

Season of 1815.

Season (j/*1813.

285

mer occasion, mentioned,) that strewing small quanti-
ties of hot, powdered, lime, on pastures, (with a view
to the destruction of spiders, and other such pests,)
has prevented, in several instances, defluxions from
horses fed on them. It is well worthy of experiment ;
and I cannot account to myself why I have not tried it.
The whole field must be thus top-dressed ; otherwise
the defluxions may be caused by feeding on the part
neglected. The lime will be, indubitably, serviceable
to the grass ; if it even fails to produce the intended

effect.

Such discussions as some of the foregoing, may
appear trifling; to the inconsiderate and fastidious.
But a farm, like a ship, is often the victim of a combi-
nation of destroyers ; appearing, individually, the most
contemptible and impotent, A farmer should study the
habits and nature of weeds and vermin ; to learn how
to prevent, banish, or destroy them. A wise and care-
ful magistrate, must occupy his mind with the mean-

thrown out, for litter, many tons of second crop hay ; as being
found mischievous, instead of nutritive. This effect is not confined
to clover ;— aftermath of other grasses being also equally infected.
Plaster destroys insects, quite as much as lime. Yet it has been
said, (most unwarrantably) that plastered grounds promote fityal'
ism, more than others. Long before an handful of plaster was sown,
I well remember this malady in horses. A farm, in my neighbour-
hood, well known to me, whereon not a particle oi gyfisum (owing
tobigotted prejudice) has been strewed ; is, and has been for many
years, before and since the knowledge of plaster has existed among
us, most remarkable for promoting this disease in horses. On the
marshes, and other unplastered grounds, it is often as rife, as in
any other places. ., R* "•

est subjects. He never gains, or merits, more celebri-
ty ; than he justly acquires, by preventing, or correct-
ing, the vices of the lowest and most worthless of man-
kind.*

I am your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

* I have known, in the course of my life, several years, remarka-
ble for insects and vermin, of all kinds. The seasons were always
sickly ; either for man, or beast. Two of them occurred during the
prevalence of the yellow fever, in Philadelphia. They were uni-
formly bad fruit years.

This season the dysentery has been rife ; and often fatal. We
have lost by it, some of our most valuable neighbours. I have heard
of its being prevalent in many other parts of the country. It defied
the medical art, if it were not attacked in its incipient stages ; and
even then, assistance was not always successful. The cases were
often attended with symptoms more malignant, than had been here-
tofore known. The worst cases, so far as my knowledge extends,
were those of persons inhabiting near swampy grounds, mill ponds,
or dull streams ; where bilious complaints had, in other years, pre-
vailed. * j^ p^

During the past summer, the dysentery has been unusually fatal
m Philadelphia. It is commonly a very manageable complaint.

J. M.

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C 286 ]

I

On Florin, by John Clifford, Esquire.

Read, December 14, 1813.

Clifford Farm, JVovember n , 18U.

Dear Sir, .

There have been many publications, and much in-
terest excited among our experimental agriculturists,
on the subject of florin grass, (agrostis stolonifera) in-
troduced into cultivation by the ingenious Doctor Wil-
liam Richardson, of Moy, in Ireland, whose great in-
dustry and perseverance, in agricultural pursuits, has
enabled him to give much useful information on that
interesting subject, and whose publications on this va-
luable grass, induced me to take much pains to pro-
cure some of the plants from that country. After re-
peated attempts, I at length succeeded, and now hand
you the result of my experiments, as it may not be un-
interesting to our society.

On the second of January, 1812, I received from
captain Wallington, of the ship Mary, from Limerick,
in Ireland, a tub containing a few plants of the fionn,
(say five or six) which he kindly procured for me. They
arrived in a very unpromising state, having been wet
with salt water on their passage, and to all appearance
were dead ; I set the tub in my green-house, placing
it near the window, to give the plants every chance of
recovering, in which I succeeded, and early in the
spring set them out in a bed in my garden, and by the
autumn thcy increased so much by stolones, or run-
ners, that 1 set out as many plants in rows of about

On Fiorin*

287

three feet apart, and nine inches from each other, as

filled a bed ol 29 feet by 32. — This bed was weeded

and kipt clean, and became covered and matted over

with the grass, like a fleece of wool, in the course of

the season. On the fourth of the present month I had

it cut, and let it remain on the ground until the 8th,

during which time the weather was clear and dry, I

then had it carefully weighed, and found 165 pounds

the result, as follows :

The piece of ground on which the grass grew, was

32 feet by
29

288
64

sq. ft. 928 ) 43560*(47th part of an acre, less a small

3712 fraction.

6440
6496

165 pounds, multiplied by
47 being that proportion of
an acre occupied.

1155

660

C. qr. lb.

112)7755(69 0 27 being near
3i tons per acre.

Had the grass been planted in a moist soil, I am con-
fident the quantity would have been much larger.

I am; respectfully,

John Clifford.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

* Number of square feet in an acre*

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[ 288 3

.Account of a Stercorary,

289

3S

Account of a Stercorary ^ on a large Scale.

Read December 14, 1813.

Belmonty December 8, 1813.

Dear Slr^

I have received the enclosed letter from Josiah
QuiNCY, Esq, oi Massachusetts ; which contains valu-
able information, on a subject interesting to all farm-
ers. His account of his Stercorary, is well worthy
our attention. I presume on his forgiveness, when I
request you to communicate that part of his letter, to
the society. I have a desire, on a personal account,
that any erroneous opinions of mine, should be correct-
ed. The opinions I venture to communicate, are al-
ways formed from the best information I can obtain ;
or from facts passing under my own observation. But
the experience of an individual, goes but a small way,
towards the establishment of a general truth. The
Stercorariesy I spoke of, in the page of our 1st vol. ci-
ted by Mr. Quincify were on a much smaller scale,
than the one he has, in a most spirited manner, brought
into operation, and most promising use. Many with
whom I have conversed, have corroborated my asser-
tions, by similar facts known to them. Bi- 1 Mr. Quin-
cy has remedied one evil, attendant on close reposito-
ries of dung ; and even on some open ones ; — the dry'
rot; which is a kind of spontaneous combustion.
None of those I mention with disapprobation, were

watered. His mode of irrigating, is excellent ; and
nswers all objections on that score. I cannot con-
ceive, however, unless the extraordinary depth de-
mands it, that jhe throwing over the muck is indis-
pensable. Yet this must be regulated by experience.
I know none so deep as the one he describes ; nor
should I covet one of similar depth. Nor is the area
of any within my knowledge, so extensive ; though to
this I do not object. The moisture, both intrinsic and
adventitious, is retained in deep stercoraries ; and there-
by fermentation is checked ; and a necessity for either
throwing over, or long detention of the materials in the
pit, created.

In all those I have ever known, under barns, or
stables, I have not found an exception to the mischief
of the dry rot ; in a greater or less degree. They
were however, neither thrown over, nor irrigated.
The fumes of the hot muck, fermenting under car-
riage houses in cities, always mould and tarnish car-
riages, harness, and tlieir furniture. In barns and sta-
bles, the air is nauseously infected ; and the health of
horses and cattle have been considered as injured.
Veterinary writers constantly recommend die removal
even of foul litter, when horses or cattle are disordered;
especially in fevers affecting the eyes, and pulmonary
and iliac complaints. Few, if any, of such stercoraries
are so well ventilated, as is that of Mr. Quincy ; and
this is all-essential. One great advantage of those of
common depths, is that of superseding the costly ne-
ccssity of throwing over the muck. It would be well,
if more communications were made ; that some ge-

VOL. III. o o

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290

Account of a Stcrcorary.

neral result might be knoWn. My object always is, to
invite others to develope their experience, as freely as
I communicate mine.

In my enquiries on the subject of the yellmv-water
in horses, I found discordant opinions, as to the nox-
ious qualities of stable dung. Some persons, among
whom were some medical characters, did not conceive
it prejudicial, when the desolating epidemics raged m
our city. Others were of a directly contrary opinion.
In all cases wherein there are even doubts, and more
so, when opinions are divided ; and peremptory on both
sides ; I hold it most prudent to avoid risk. It is
certainly the safest, to place the stercorary in a situa-
tion not liable to operate on the air of the stables ; and
the health of the animals confined in them.

I never found deep stercoraries eligible. The bot-
toms should admit of the sap of the dung (as the drain-
ings are called) running into pits, furnished with the
means of pumping up the drainings, especially after
irrigation ; and restoring to the heap what it had lost,
or othcrways using them, at pleasure. No dung, be
the quantity what it may, in stercoraries above ground,
well ventilated, covered and watered, requires the ex-
pensive operation of throwing over ; if the materials
be properly arranged. If it be irrigated thoroughly,
two or three times in a season, artificially, by spouts,
to convey rain or other water, it will rot sufficiently
and promptly, by its own fermentation ; and never ho.-
come a caput mortuum, by the dry-rot. I have said
often, that dung more than one year old, becomes car-
bonated, in a greater or less degree. Its fermentation

Account of a Stercorary.

291

ceases ; and its stimulating qualities are either feeble,
or entirely torpid ;* when over-rotted.

Many object to covered stercoraries (though they
allow the manure to be the better for being secluded
from the sun and winds,) on account of the dryness of
the materials ; which they conceive, prevents fermen-
tation, and produces combustion. I have seldom found
this objection important. But, Mr. Quificy has prac-
tically established a cheap and convenient mode of ir-
rigation ; which must silence all complaints in this
regard.

I think some means might be used, for introducing
air, through the muck of deep stercoraries ; to promote
fermentation, and save the trouble and expense of
throwijig it over. Faggots placed vertically, or hori-
zontally, among the muck, in proper places, would ad-
mit of currents of air. Brick-wells^ or vertical tunnels^
built higher than the heap, would, at any time, rise ;
checkered with holes, or vacancies, in the brick work,
would both admit air, and drain the muck. These re-
servoirs might be pumped out ; and the drainings
thrown over the heap. When the superabundant

v.

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* During our revolutionary war, the late general P. Schuyler
mentioned that he had once purchased a farm from the representa-
tives of an old settler in the then colony of New York. A great
inducement was, that some thousands of loads of f/wn^, had been
accumulating, for half an age ; it having been considered as useless,
"When the land was fresh ; and thrown into a vast ravine. At first,
the dung was operative ; but the lower the mass was penetrated,
the mojre worthless it became. 'Till, finally, it would not compen-
sate the labour and expense of hauling it out on the land. R. P.

>i-

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II

292

Account of a Steuorary.

Account of a Stercorary.

293

xnoistHre, introduced by irrigation, was decreased ;
the fermentation would be accelerated. The -welh,
may be deeper than the bottom of the stercorary,

I am truly yours,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric Soc.

Extract from Mr. Quincy^s Letter; dated, Boston,
November 27, 1813.

«' It is now more than a year, since 1 had the honour
of receiving from you some hints on the subject of a
Stercorary, having previously availed myself ot
those contained in the first volume of your memoirs.
The result of my adoption of your hints has been even
greater than you promised. I have no question that the
saving of manure by a water-tight bottom, and a co-
vered stercorary, will pay me the expense of paving
and securing the bottom, the first year ; and yet the
scale on which I proceeded was not either very limited
or rigidly economical. There is, however, one point,
in which I ventured to deviate from your suggestions ;
—rather I had advanced so far in my plan, before 1
received your cautionary letter, that I could not recede.
The result has not been according to your anticipation.
And as I have no doubt of the correctness of your opi-
nion, in the general, I think I owe it to you to state
the fact of the difference in the result of my experi-
ment, and the causes of it.

You warned me against a stercorary under my barn,
referring me to p. 153 of the 1st vol. in corroboration ol

t

your opinion. I have however as yet experienced
none of the ill effects you anticipated — certainly there
has been no injurious effect upon the health of my cat-
tle, and from the salubrity of the atmosphere of my
barn, notwithstanding the subjacent manure cellar,
there is no idea of that kind entertained by any of the
farmers in my neighbourhood to whom I have men-
tioned the apprehension. The truth is, the barn is not
at all sensibly affected by the exhalation from the ma-
nure heap ; or not more than is usual, in this country,
where the practice is to expose the whole deposit of
the cattle to the air, in an open yard.

In respect to the inequality of fermentation^ which is
another objection, my experience does not evidence it.
I have now about six hundi^ed tonsy in my cellar, which
has been collecting about a year and a half. It has
been in the course of the summer, all turned over and
piled anew from the bottom, and I directed my work-
men to attend particularly, if there was any quantity of
any importance, '* dry rotten, mouldy, or worthless."
Their report has been constant as to the perfect state of
the manure ; except in a very small part which had
been pressed by the mass into the parts adjoining the
cistern, where, as you state, ** the overabundant moist-
ure obstructed putrefaction." This, in such a mass,
is of no consequence. And inverting the heap brings
into action the desired power.

As I thought I owed to the interest you was pleased
to take in my success, this explanation, I ought to add,
that I have no doubt whatever, your reasonings were
right, and that your experience is supported by my
observation in general. The difference arises from

fr- -;

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294

Account of a Stercorary,

id..

k ^

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,'■■ ■!

the scale on which my stercorary is built, compared
with the common ''pits and dung-holes y'' against which
you so justly warn fiirmers. The area of my stercora-
ry is 90 feet by 40, the cellar is in the shallowest part
8 feet deep, in its deepest 12, and in the well, if I mis-
take not, 15.— It is open, nearly the whole length of
one of its short sides, and one half of the long, viz. at
the north and west, besides large openings at the east.
There is always 4 or 5 feet atmosphere above the top
of the manure, and between it and the barn floor ; and
a constant current setting one way or another. This
gives the advantage of a free circulation of air, which
in general, in such cases, is not obtained.

The great difficulty I have had to encounter, arises
from the necessity of an equal irrigation of the heap;
a difficulty, w^iich must attend all permanently covered
stcrcoraries. For water turned upon the heap through
spouts, runs in currents, and is not equally sprinkled
over the heap, like rain ; which is nature's process in
this business. To obviate this difficulty, I have con-
structed a very simple machine, which answers per-
fectly. The stone piers, which support the beams of
the barn divide the cellar, lengthways, into three equal
compartments. I have a box 6 inches deep, 4 feet
wide, and about 13 feet long, which runs by means of

m

wheels, upon a sort of wooden railway, made by strips
of planks, and fixed about a foot from the floor of the
barn, this is perforated with suitable holes. A perma-
nent spout extends through the middle of the cellar,
and a moveable spout extends from this to the perfo-
rated box — regular openings are made in the perma-
nent spout, which may be closed at will — It is also

Account of a Stercorary.

295

closed at the end. By these means the box is filled
from the reservoir and pump, and each part succes-
sively irrigated, perfectly and with great ease. A man
by two days labour, can irrigate my whole cellar, and
if effectually done, twice in a season is sufficient.

I have been thus minute, because I thought the de-
tail would not be unpleasing to you, and that I owed
it to the interest you expressed in my project."

I have known several stcrcoraries under barns, suc-
ceed satisfactorily to the proprietors of them. Those
the best ventilated, were the most profitable. All were
subject to dry rot ; in a greater or less degree. Yet the
farmers confidently alleged, that even the dry rotted
dung, was superior, in effect, to that left exposed in
the farm yard. I cannot speak so favourably of it.

R. P.

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C 296 ]

Plaster, in moderate quantities, assists in the putrefac-
tion ofajiimal and vegetable substances.

Read December 14, 1813.

Belmont, November 27, 1813.

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*' ,:^';

Dear Sir,

I do not wish to prolong a discussion of a specula-
tive nature, for any objects I have in the establishment
of an opinion. But, in the hasty observations (made
while the press was waiting) on Sir H. Davy's conjec-
ture on the causes of operation of the gypsum ; it es-
caped my recollection to mention a recent fact on the
subject. The use 1 should then have made of it, would
have been to show, that small and contracted experi-
ments, made, in relation to agricultural facts, in the
laboratory of a chemist, (however eminent and truly
respectable he may be,) are not competent to establish
a general principle ; though no one can hold in higher
estimation than I do, the aid chemistry is capable of
affording to agriculture. Nor do I mean to say, that
uncommon instances occurring in the fields of a prac-
tical farmer, are to be deemed decisive. Mr. Davn
grounds his opinion relative to the plaster, being, or
not, a septic; on an experiment he tried on minced veaU
mixed with the gypsum. He found it had no effect in
putrefying the meat ; and concludes against its septic
qualities. Not wishing to IqAd the subject with instan-
ces of practical proofs, falling under my own observa-
tion, and that of others ; which would show that the
contrary conclusion (without venturing to pronouncr

«r^¥

On Plaster.

297

a positive opinion) would have been most conformable
to experience ; I shall barely remark ; that it requires
no small degree of practice to enable any one to form
a tolerable estimate (for no accurate judgment has yet
been promulgated) of the quantity of plaster required
for any of the operations, (great or small,) in which it
is used. We know that common salt in small quanti-
ties is septic ; but in large portions it is the reverse.
Whether the /?/«^^er does or does not, produce the same
effects, no person has yet been sufficiently informed, to
be enabled to decide. I have always believed, that
there must be an inchoate putrescence in the subject
acted on, to give the plaster an impetus ; or, at least,
to evidence sudden and immediately perceptible ef-
fects. I have no doubt that it will, in due time, ope-
rate as a principal, be it solvent or septic ; but its pow-
ers are the soonest perceived, when it acts as an aux-
iliary. I have found its operation the most prompt,
when in contact with muck, or other animal or vege-
table manure ; in which the putrefaction had com-
menced ; as is most commonly the case in such sub-
stances, when collected, and properly arranged.

The fact I wish to mention, will probably furnish
speculations to theorists ; and some useful information
for further experiment, to' practical farmers ; should it
be deemed of importance sufficient to excite the atten-
tion of either.

Two years ago, I scowered the ditches of a watered
meadow ; some whereof ran through boggy ground.
I had a great collection of tussocks, composed of aqua-
tic, coarse, grasses and weeds. I composted those ma-
terials, in the following manner ; — mi two heaps. One

VOL. III.

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On Plaster.

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contained about sixty two-horse-cart-loads, after it was
rotted down ; and the other not more than twelve, of
the like loads. In the first, I begun with a layer of
tussocks; then, a layer of muck, from the stables, in
a fermenting state ; next, a layer of leaves and wood-
soil, (each layer about one foot thick,) until the heap
was sufficiently high. On each layer, I strewed plas-
tevy very little thicker, than I should have scattered
it on grass ground. This was done in the autumn.
In the succeeding spring, I began to throw it over ;
and mixed with it, a quantity of slaked lime. I
found the heap far advanced in its putrefaction ; so
that, after being once thrown over, it was (in the fall)
in the best order for top-dressing. I never had better
compost. There were, (in this heap,) not above four
bushels o{ plaster, used. In the small heap, I employ-
ed no muck, or dung ; but formed it of alternate lay-
ers of tussocks, and leaves from the woods intermixed
with wood- soil. Each layer was plastered. But the la-
bourcr to whom I entrusted this small operation,
thought he would supply the deficiency of dung, by an
over-dose of plaster. He strewed nearly the like quan-
tity in the small heap, with that mixed in the large one.
When 1 came to view it in the spring ; very little pro-
gress had been made in putrefaction. I was compelled
to throw it over twice, during the summer. I found it,
in the foil, unfit for use. The plaster was unchanged,
in many parts of the heap. So was a considerable pro-
portion of the leaves and tussocks. I suffered it to re-
main until the last spring ; when I found it but imper-
fectly rotted ; and much of the plaster unaltered. None
of the plaster in the other heqp, was visible ; but

/

On Plaster.

299

the spot on which the small heap was spread, was uni-
versally whitened by it.

Having, frequently and successfully, rotted down
leaves, tussocks and wood-soil, plastered lightly; I was
surprised at the disappointment in this instance. I can-
not account for the circumstance, otherwise than by
presuming, that^n overcharge of plaster is a quiescent
force ; that is, — it preserves Compounds in a state of
rest. A moderate quantity may be divellent ; — that is,
— it assists in destroying a state of combination. Plas-
ter must, no doubt, be decomposed itself, before it
acts on other substances. So must be marine W^;
which is also a chymical compound. But whether there
be, or not, any analogy in their modes of operating ;
I do not presume to decide, ^

The instance I relate, reminded me of the fact, and
my conclusion from it, mentioned in our first volume,
page 174.— No more of the plaster will act, than the
materials, necessary to cooperate with it, require. The
balance remains in its original state of composition ; —
inert and useless. And yet had even the quantity ap-'
plied in the small heap, had access to all the materials ;
one would imagine, there were more than sufficient of
them, for the pabulum of a larger proportion of the
plaster ; when it is considered that the number of loads
of the raw materials, before rotting down, was far great-
er than after the putrefaction.

Whether my conjectures be or not sound or rele-
vant, in a chymical point of view, I think farmers may
from this and numberless other facts, conclude ; that
plaster does not operate, like dung, according to the
<ibimda7ice bestowed on the ground. At all times, it is

1^

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300

On Plaster.

V ,. -.

[ 301 ]

requisite for us to avoid waste ; but now, a saving of
this desirable but scarce article, is doubly incumbent

on US.

To a person incredulous as to the efficacy of plaster,
this singular instance of its inefficiency in the small
heap, would furnish a proof in support of his doubts.
Yet it only evinces the fallacy of drawing general con-
clusions from one experiment, or even a few facts. It
shows also the capriciousness, if the term be allowable,
of the gypsum. For I do not recollect ever before to
have experienced (and multitudes of farmers could at-
test the like fact) a failure in accelerating the putrefac-
tion, or decomposition, of vegetable matter, by means
of plaster. The dried leaves of forest trees, are, how-
ever, the most difficult to rot down ; unless first used
as litter in the stable, or cattle-yard. I am satisfied,
too, that (in conjunction with the plaster) the addition
of fermenting muck, in the large heap, hastened its
progress in putrefaction. It operated, like the stock-
yeast in a brewer's receiver, or gyle-ton, to forward
the fermentation of the whole mass.

I am your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Jgric. Soc.

Srvivel headed Churn Staff.

Read December 14, 1813.

Belmont J December 6, 1813.

Dear Sir^

In my observations on Mr. Peale'^s letter, page 248,
249, of this volume, I mention the subject of butter.
I mistook the book through which the information re-
specting a " swivel headed churn staff,^^ was conveyed
to me. It is not an '' agricultural work ;" but *' JVi-
cholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy,'' Sec. In vol.
26, article viii, the description and account of the
churn staff will be seen. I have had much difficulty in
getting a churn and staff made ; because it was un-
common, and not an object of gain ; for the churn and
staff, large enough to churn twelve or fifteen pounds
of butter, cost but one dollar and fifty cents. I promis-
ed '« to give a fair experiment." This I have done ;
and can decidedly confirm what is said by Mr. Fisher;
who received a premium for his invention, from the
London Society of Arts. See Nicholson's Journal^ vol.
26. August, 1810, page 296.

It facilitates the process of butter-making, superior
to any other churn, the barrel churn included. A child
of five years old, can work my churn, for a short time,
with no difficulty ; as I have found, by actual experi-
nient. It performs the operation in one third less time,
with a like quantity of cream, than the barrel chum ;
and with much less labour. I find Mr. Fisher's obser-
vation, that ** it must be worked much slower than the

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Swivel headed Churn Staff.

" common, (churn) otherwise it is found to chum the
" cream too soon, or, according to the technical term
" in his county, to ^elt it," to be perfectly just. 1
must therefore modify my remark, as to the rapidity

of separating the oil.

I had hitended to have added another set of vanes,
on the staff, some inches above those at the end of it.
But I think it best to continue its present form, as a
beginning. I shall also try one or two such, on a cen-
tral rod, inside the wings of a barrel churn. But I am
inclined to think, that too much agitation of the cream
is not desirable. In winter, this kind of churn can be
partially immersed in hot water, to accelerate the pro-
cess. A barrel churn may so be ; but not so conveni-
ently. My people, for small churnings, now, entirely
neglect the barrel churn. The size of the churn may
be increased, to any reasonable capacity.*

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc. '

• See Appendix for account and cut of the churn.

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»

Observations on Indian Corn and Potatoes, by Mr. Jolm
Lorain^ of Philipsburg, Centre Co. Fennsylvania.

Read February 8, 1814.

Philipsburg^ October 25, 1813.

Dear Sir,

I promised to write you on the early planting of
Indian corn, and the power which it possesses to with-
stand frost, in the earlier stages of its growth, and shall
now fulfil that engagement ; but conceive it will be
useful to commence with remarks on the general pro-
perties of this plant.

The prevailing opinion is, that the cultivation of this
plant is preeminently injurious to the soil, this opinion
has been produced by a bad system of management,
originating from a thin population, deficiency in capi-
tal, and an abundance of fresh, uncultivated lands, for
those causes have retarded the progress of all improve-
ments in husbandry here.*

* It is well known, that many of the farmers in this country
think too little of returning back to the soil, the scanty aid which
even a bad system of management would readily afford, until their
fields have been entirely exhausted, and that some have been indu-
ced to remove their barns, rather than remove their manure, which
in process of time rendered admission to them inaccessible,
^^nly a single shovel full of this manure, applied to each hill of corn,
growing on their impoverished fields, would, year after year, (if the
practice had been continued,) have produced valuable crops, from
the same ground, and in a few years rendered the soil capable of
growing luxuriant crops of wheat and grass. '

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, i^c.

The origin of this error is obvious to mc ; viz.
Maize being a very powerful plant, is capable of con-
tending with an impoverished soil ; and when tolera-
bly cultivated, V.11 remunerate the planter on grounds
incapable of producing crops of almost any other de.
scription, equally valuable, and the farmer abuses this
plant, because it continues faithful until the last dying
gasp of the soil, which his avarice has destroyed. But
it is strange, that men of observation and reflect.on,
viewing the effect without sufficiently exammmg the
cause, have adopted the opinion of the exhaustmg pro-
perties of the corn plant. It is generally agreed, that
potatoes, turnips, and cabbages, are melioratmg crops;
notwithstanding it is known, that neither of those crops
will grow on a thin soil, without the assistance ot
manure, and that if they arc continued year after
year (or grown in rotation with others,) without ma-
nure' the soil will soon become incapable of producing
- either of those plants, so as to pay for the gathering of
them. This furnishes a striking contrast between
those justly esteemed meliorating crops, and the corn
plant; for after the former cannot be grown with tolera-
ble advantage, crops of maize, sufficiently productive
to induce the continuation of them, may be introduc-
ed on the same injured soil, without additional manure .
but the fact is, that all the crops that will admit per-
fect horse hoeing or hand hoeing, may be justly con-
sidered meliorating, and also some others, which do
not admit this after cultivation, but form a shade suih-
ciently close to destroy weeds. But it has been well
established, that some of the most luxuriant of those
crops are great exhausters of the soil; yet they are just-

On Indian CorUy Potatoes^ ^c.

305

\y in high estimation ; for it being known to every ,
farmer, that they cannot be grown profitably on thin
soils, without manure, he readily submits to this ne- J
cessity ; but finding that Indian corn will grow year '
after year, without manure, he continues the destruc- '
tive practice of cultivating it in that way, until his*
fields are ruined, and without due consideration, blames
the corn plant for exhausting his soil ; an opinion in
which he is confirmed from observing the poor crops of
wheat he gathers from those fields which have been
sown with that grain, among his corn, after the ground
had been nearly exhausted, and often overrun with
weeds ; but being seldom disappointed in obtaining
good crops of this or other small grain, after potatoes
or turnips, he conceives those plants are exclusively
friendly to the soil : they are indeed friendly ; for the
cultivator is compelled to use them kindly, or lose
the labour bestowed on them.

The product of Indian corn being vastly more abun-
dant than any other corn crop, it will demand a diie
proportion of nutriment from the soil, but will also re-
turn much back to it again, even when the grain is not
expended on the farm ; for the fodder from one acre of
luxuriant maize, is fully equal in quantity and nutri-
jnent, to one ton of good hay, and the stalks more than
equal in value to one ton of straw, for littering the cat-
tle yard ; and but few, if any other sjimmer fallow
crop, is capable of returning back to the soil, half this
amount, unless the most nutritive and most valuable
proportion of the crop is added to the amount ; and if
the grain and fodder of a crop of maize are applied to

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, bV.

the fattening of cattle, it will be found much more pro-
fitable than turnips and potatoes from the same quau-
tity. and equal quality of land, notwithstanding a state-
ment directly opposite to this assertion has been pub
lished, by a very respectable writer on agriculture: but
that statement will be found replete with erro. through-
out; for here again, Indian com, without manure, pro-
duced 15 bushels per acre ; potatoes manured, produ-
ced 200 bushels per acre, the expense of ten acres ot
potatoes manured, rated at 36 dollars and 60 cents,
liven it actually cost nearly double that sum to remove
them from the ground, and secure them properly.

That Indian corn does not exhaust the soil more
tlvan potatoes, appears clear to me, from some imxed
crops of those plants, which were grown on my iurm.
\fter the ground had been equally manured, one row
'of corn occupied the same quantity of soil as was as-
signed to two rows of potatoes, throughout the fields .
tht plough was too frequently used in the cu twafon
of the potatoe crop, and sufficiently in the cu Uvation
of the corn, of consequence, a communicaUon between
the corn roots with the potatoes was too effectually cu
off Those crops were removed in the fell, and the
grounds immediately sown with wheat, and no per-
ceptible difference was ever discovered in the crop
throwing cither where the corn or potatoes had grown,
even where the ground had been but once ploughed
for seeding, and that too in the same direction the corn
and potatoes had stood. The crops of wheat were abu.v
dant, except in one field, which being struck wi h
the mildew throughout, yielded only about twentj

On Indian Com^ Potatoes ^ fePc*

307

bushels per acre, of light ordinary grain ; this crop
you saw, previous to this disaster, and admired it
much, and you have now in your possession an ab-
stract copy of the accounts kept for the whole of my
crops for 1810, and will find a neat clear profit of
about four hundred dollars, from eight and an half
acres of wheat, grown after a mixed crop of corn and
potatoes. In that statement, not only every cxpen-
diture on this crop has been deducted, but also a
ground rent of nine dollars per acre, and interest on
the capital employed in the cultivation of it. No ma-
nure was applied to any of these crops, after the mix-
ed crops were removed, ,

The lateral roots of Indian corn take a horizontal
course, filling the ploughed ground in every direction.
The finger-like or perpendicular roots dip deep, far
below the range of plants in general. I have seen them
traced two feet below the level of the ridge in which
they grew, with no better implement than a grubbing
hoe, in the hands of an awkward workman ; how much
further proper investigation might have traced them,
I cannot determine : but I am satisfied, that they were
numerous, and more capable of running deep and col-
lecting nutriment, than they would have been, had na-
ture formed them into one tap root of equal length and
dimensions : this opinion is further confirmed, from
the well known properties of this plant to withstand
drought, of which a striking instance has occurred in
my little field, planted here on a high and dry ridge ;
for no rain fell on it from the 30th of July until the 1st
of September, during which, moisture is particularly

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On Indian Corny Potatoes ^ ^c»

wanted in this climate, to fill the grain ; yet I have
never grown better ears. One just shelled measures
one pint and near one gill, but if it had been cribbed,
till dried perfectly, might not measure more than one
pint.

The prop roots of this plant are wisely constructed
to support the great additional height and weight ac-
quired, soon after their appearance, from the shooting
of the tassel and ears ; for they are stout, and very nu-
merous, and answer the double purpose of props and
gathering nutriment; which the plant requires in much
greater abundance, than at any other time, for filling
the ears, I have seen fields very luxuriant, previous
to this very trying crisis, which immediately after, be-
came pale and sickly, and proved unproductive ; which
is tlie natural result of crowding the soil with more
plants than it is capable of perfecting.

The traces of numerous original corns, are evident-
ly seen in our fields and gardens. Only five of those
are in general use for field planting. First, the big yel-
low and white, in size and form very much alike, the
cobs, long and thick, the grains are large, firm, and
without indenture ; but their size consists principally
in their width, which is greatest near the cob, and from
this point, the rotundity of their outside surface forms
a very considerable vacuity between the rows ; and a
large circumference, being filled with a few rows of
vpry wide grains, which are short even at their deep-
est points, covers an extensive surface, without intro-
ducing n^easurement in proportion to the size of the
cobs. Secondly, the little yellow and white, resembling

On Indian Coniy Potatoes^ &fr.

309

=5=

each other in size, form and texture, producing still
harder grains, more compactly arranged, but not suf-
ficiently so, which, with shorter and slimmer cobs,
render them less productive than the two first men-
tioned ; but they ripen early, and are considered safer
crops in high latitudes. Thirdly, the gourd-seed. The
cob of this is neither so long or thick as the large, so-
lid corns ; but the grains are very long, forming a com-
pact round, from the cob to the outside surface of the
ear, and gradually taper to a point, where they join in-
to the cob ; of course it is vastly more productive than
any other known original corn, but ripens late, and the
grains are too soft and open for exportation, unless
kiln dried. This variety, so far as my observation goes,
is invariably white ; for although I have frequently
heard of a solid yellow gourd-seed corn, yet on inves-
tigation, nothing more has appeared than a mixture of
the hard yellow corns, with the white gourd-seed. If
such an original, firm yellow corn, equally productive
whh the white gourd-seed, could be procured, it would
be invaluable; but by forming a judicious mixture
with the gourd-seed and the flinty corn, a variety may
be introduced, yielding at least one third more per
acre, on equal soil, than any of the solid corns are ca-
pable of producing, and equally useful and saleable for
exportation. But this mixture should be with the yel-
low corns ; that colour being greatly preferred by ship-
pers, and is most productive, it having the longest and
thickest cobs, and would at least compensate for short-
ening the grain of the original gourd-seed ; provided
a sufficiency is introduced to lengthen the grain so far

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, ^c.

as will be consistent with retaining solidity, and that
yellow tinge required to make it saleable.

The proportion of the big yellow with the gourd
seed, may be determined by the length and thickness
of the cob. with wide grains; and of the httle yellow,
by shorter, slimmer cobs, with narrower grams, of a
brighter yellow tinge, and an increased number ot
rows, in proportion to the width of the grains, and size
ofthUob; which sometimes amount to upwards
thirty, and seldom less than twenty rows. ^^'^^^''''
firmer and handsomer than that formed with the b.g
vellow, and better calculated for high latitudes but not
L productive. I am induced to believe, that by com-
bilg those three, the most valuable properties of
each, might be concentered in one variety, m a much
jrreater degree, than at first sight appears, by selecting
the ears with the greatest number of rows, compactly
formed on the cob, and ripening early. Tlie expen-
ment is easy, and the prospect promising ; for m tl c
present unimproved state of that plant, from ninety, to
more than one hundred bushels of shelled corn, per
acre have been frequently obtained, and when the seed
has been improved, and the arrangement and cultiva-
tion of the plant better understood, it does not appear
unreasonable to suppose, that one bushel per perch,
(160 bushels per acre,) will be obtained with equal la-

''^Mr. Stevens's crop of 118 bushels, published in

vour edition of the Domestic Encyclopedia, .s the

argest I have noticed ; he introduced 26,880 plants

per acre. A large ear shells one pint of corn ; moderate

On Indian Corn, Potatoes, ^c.

311

ffl

sized ears will average more than half a pint ; if each
plant in his field had produced only half a pint of shell-
ed corn, his crop would have yielded at the rate of
about 200 bushels per acre, of consequence the num-
ber of plants, or their arrangement, or, perhaps, both
those causes combined, injured his crop. And the
same cause produced similar effects in my crop of 91
bushels, grown in the year 1811, in double rows, on
ridges half a perch asunder. The number of plants not
exceeding 20,000 per acre, were too much crowded,
and leaned out from the ridges into the intervals, to
procure the air, until the tops of the plants standing on
opposite ridges, intersected, and those which got un-
dermost in the scuffle were entirely barren ; and those
which predominated, had the shortest ears which had
ever been grown before by mc ; but still the greatest
crop of corn. If the same number of plants had been
introduced on the same ground, in single rows, at half
the distance, it appears reasonable to suppose, that the
crop would have been much more productive, but
whether so many can be arranged on an acre, so that
they will produce large and perfect ears, is unknown
to me. Those crops are merely introduced to show,
that large increase does not always determine judici-
ous management of the crop ; and that if cultivators
would carefully observe the progress of their crops,
iind publish their errors with the publication of the ma-
nagement and the result ; those errors, instead of being
copied and perpetuated by others, would be avoided,
itnd the knowledge of agriculture rapidly increase.
I introduced the greatest crop of maize that has been

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, t?c.

published, with another large crop, to show that gre t
Lease has been obtained, from very unjunous ar-
g^ents of the plants, and that much greater ..ght
: acquired, if we knew how to arrange the ul co.
plement which the soil and climate are capable of pe.
fecting. But it is far better to introduce too few, than
too many plants, for in the first case, a good crop .s
l:red,'wLe in the latter, the soil is uselessly ex-
hausted,andthe crop is rendered precarious.

Corn should be planted early, more especially m
hio-h latitudes, where the farmer's expectation is frc^
,uently blasted by an early frost, or a cool spring and
summir procrastinating the growth and maturity of
Tints • and this evil is increased, if he cultivates
helarger and more productive corns, not only as it at-
fects 4 crops, but also as it establishes the erroneous
opinion, that they cannot be grown But I had been pre-
pared to encounter those false opinions, havmg planted,
'nv crop much sooner than my neighbours, and observ-
ed that maize, in the early stages of its growth, was n
subject to such injury from frost, as was ge^^^^^
,,osed. For though its tops were frequently turned
ve low. and sometimes severely scorched, the roots
were established early in the soil, and the plants press-
ed forward with, great rapidity ; and no question wUU
xne derived at least as great advantage from eiirly plant-
•J, as barley, or any other spring crops And it ire-
;^'ntly occurs, that the weather is more favotuabl^^^^^^
vegetation in April, than in May, at the usual time o
planting; and the ground, early >" ^^^ :^P""J' " ^^ ^
Lbiect to become dry and crusty, wbch often pre

0?i Indian Corny Potatoes, ^c.

313

.|,

vents the plants from penetrating the soil. The Indi-
ans' ideas of planting, are suited to their limited ob-
servation ; but we see those trees which are generally
in blossom at the time of planting corn, are some-
times in full bloom, in February and March. I have
not been long enough here to determine how much
later spring generally commences here than with
you : but believe it cannot be less than two weeks.
My corn, and that of some of my neighbours, was
planted the last day of April and the first day of
May. The weather was mild, and continued so until
the 13th of May, when some white frost appeared on
the fence rails and bridges. On the 14th some of the
corn came up ; on the 16th considerable white frost,
and ice were also seen in an earthen pot, standing on
boards in my yard ; on the 17th, the ground was frozen
in the bottoms, and ice in troughs, and the same oc-
curred every morning until the 22d, during which the
corn continued coming up, and few, if any of the plants
were destroyed, although some of them were killed
level with the ground. The tops of early planted po-
tatoes were killed, but the crop was abundant. Beans
fared worse, being incapable of a general recovery.
The older settlers say, this was the severest frosty time,
they have seen here at the same season of the year.
On the 19th of August there was a considerable white
frost, with ice. The upper blades of the corn were
wrinkled from twelve to fifteen inches from their points,
and hung downward, but generally retained a healthy,
rusty, weatherbeaten, green. From this, injury was
expected, but none appeared in the crops. The next

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frost occurred on the 6th of October, and finding the
corn plant debilitated by age, it scorched it excessive-
\y ; and another on the 11th killed it effectually. I have
never seen better ears of corn, than were grown in
those two crops, when for forty miles or more round,
we hear of no good crops, not even on the Susquehan-
nah and other rich bottoms, justly famed for growing
corn ; except a field grown by a neighbour, which
was planted from the 11th to the 13th of May, ai:d that
part of his crop seeded with the same kind of corn
grown by me, to wit, highly impregnated with the
gourd-seed, was not perfectly matured. This general
lailure in crops of corn, has been commonly attributed
to a great redundancy of wet, during the spring and
first summer months, and an imusual drought in the
latter part of the summer. But the fertile fields men-
tioned above, were subjected to the same, therefore
those causes could have had no general effects else-
where, except those arising from late planting, which
the difiiculty of the seasons have rendered more con-
spicuous. From these facts, I infer, that early plant-
ing of corn, more particularly in high latitudes, would
augment the general crop to an immense extent.

A grass lay is vastly preferable for corn. The very
minute division of the soil, by its innumerable roots,
with their fermentation and decomposition, furnish

•

considerable heat and nutriment, and introduce cavi-
ties in due proportion to the number and size of those
roots, keeping the soil open and mellow, for the read}
admission of the corn roots. Stable, or other animal
manure, should be spread regularly over the lay. But
it is seldom properly done, in the usual random mode

On Indian Corn, PotatoeSy bV.

315

of dropping the heaps. The field should be staked on
one side, and each end ; the distance of one perch is
convenient for spreading,, and will readily determine
the number of loads per acre, with the size of the field.
The dropping of the heaps, commencing along the
stakes on the side of the field, with the stakes at the
ends, insures regularity. If patches appear materially
thinner than the soil in general, they should be mark-
ed, and additional manure spread over them. 'J'he sod,
with the manure, should be regularly turned under,
with one deep ploughing, or by trench ploughing,
which is far preferable ; for it will furnish a surface
readily pulverized with the harrow, and bury the seeds
of most weeds beneath the power of vegetation, and
provide larger scope for the roots of the corn. H is
said the skim coulter plough, will effect this purpose
equally well, and with much less labour and expense.
If obstacks prevent trench ploughing, the furrow-slice
must be compressed with a roller, and the ground har-
rowed lengthwise the furrows, sufliciently to close the
seams between them, which greatly prevents the growth
of the grass. If the cultivator wishes to introduce
lime, it may be spread now, with great advantage, and
mixed by the harrow with the upper surface of the
soil, without injuring the animal manure by its caus-
tic properties : for the cultivation of the crop, and
those succeeding it, if readily and effectually executed,
will keep the lime near the surface, until it is sunk
hy its own gravity. Wide intervals, or right angles
may be formed, sufficiently correct, with the plough,
if they have been regularly staked out, but crossing
those furrows, for narrow distances, on the rows, and

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Striking the smaller angles, require mathematical pro-
portion, to admit ready and effectual cultivation. The
four furrow wheat drill in your repository, will furnish
simple principles for forming a very cheap implement,

to effect this purpose.

For dropping the seed, cut an elder stalk of about
one inch diameter, just below a limb, which will form
a handle ; cut and hollow it out above, to hold the
number of grains planted, paring the upper edge thin :
with this and a small basket, a little boy or girl may
drop three times more than a man in the usual way,
and more correctly. If two plants are designed at each
angle, eight or ten grains should be planted ; fcr nu-
merous birds, and cut-worms, will have their share,
and some of the seed will rot, and many that vegetate
will not get through the soil. The extra expense of
seed is scarcely worth consideration ; while replanting
is very expensive. Where the planting fails, it will
be more profitable to introduce three or four bunch
beans, or a potatoe, for neither require hilling, if plant-
ed at a proper depth, and the latter will certainly be
more profitable than replanted corn. The seed should
be covered no deeper, than one inch, with the loosest,
moistest, and best mould at hand ; and no clods, or
other obstacles introduced ; moderately patting this
covering with the hoe, to secure the moisture. If the
soil should form a crust over the seed, near the tnne
of its coming up, the clusters must be daily examin-
ed, and when the points of the plants turn downward,
they should be liberated immediately, by carefully
breaking the crust. I have saved one field of corn by
this practice, which must have perished without as-

sistance. This may be readily done, with a small rake,
the teeth formed with nails, whose edges have been
previously blunted : but a three forked hook, in the
form of those used by gatdeners, is preferable.

Farmers have been told, and might have seen, the
very superior properties of a grass lay for corn, but
many who do know it, have not appreciated the ad-
vantage, or they would not grow other crops, for the
express purpose of subduing the grass, previously to
the cultiv^ation of the corn. The cultivation of corn
should commence, so soon as the first leaves expand ;
otherwise grass and weeds will take the lead ; hence
much labour is saved, by commencing their destruction
before they are established. On the proper or impro-
per management, at this critical time, the prosperity
of the crop greatly depends ; for, if the plants now
scarcely three inches high, are pulled up from a free
open soil, the roots will be found more than twelve
inches long, besides what remain in the ground. Where
superficial roots abound, the shovel plough should be
used, for the cultivation of the crop ; but if those do
not exist, a hoe-harrow is much better, and greatly su-
perior to a mould board plough. This circumscribes
the roots of the plants, forms ridges and furrows cal-
culated to turn off the rains, and by turning up the
grass sods, with the seeds of weeds, causes much use-
less labour from the growth of both ; stops fermenta-
tion and decomposition, forming channels from which
the heat, moisture and nutriment already accumulated,
escape, exposing the manure to be washed away by
rain, and exhaled by the sun. The hoe-harrow will
niore effectually pulverize, and clean the soil without

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, &?c.

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producing any of those injurious effects, and with hull
the labour, provided a triangular harrow, with tuies
and handles, follows, with hand hoers after it, to era-
dicate weeds and grass near the plants, and uncover-
ins? and setting up the plants at the same time. Ihc
hoe-harrows should have handles, and be formed to
close or expand behind, to suit the cultivation of the
plants, in the different stages of their growth, with
three triangular hoes, supported by coulters, sharp m
front and point, for the smaller sizes, and five for the
larger, formed and fixed effectually to cut all the ground
to the extent of their spread : if wheels were added,
they would ensure any desirable depth, with perfect

regularity and ease.

Although the open texture of a grass lay admits vc-
ry early cultivation, after rain it may be too soon done,
and cause serious injury.

If the corn has been planted at right angles, the har-
rows should operate, in the first cultivation, througl.
both directions of the field ; first lengthwise the
ploughing, and progress until the soil is well pulveriz-
ed and the weeds and grass within their reach, entire-
ly destroyed. This will leave little for the hand hoers
to do, and the field will be properly cultivated. The
supernumerary plants must be pulled up, so soon as
the seed at the root disappears, but while a vestige ot
it remains, squirrels will pull up the plants.

The suckers growing at the joint, in contact with
the ground, and the next joint abo\ e, should be pulled
off so soon and often as they appear in sufficient size
to admit the operation. When suffered to become
numerous, and large, the nutriment required for then

support, with the large and numerous wounds inflicted
at once, injure the plants excessively, at the time they
require every possible assistance from nature and art.
In the second cultivation, the harrows should stop a
few days after they have effectually destroyed the grass
and weeds, in one direction of the field, allowing time
for the mangled and misplaced roots to form a suffi-
cient establishment, to support the plants after they
have been subjected to the same unavoidable injury,
by the second harrowing. This precaution must be
observed if a third cultivation should be found neces-
sary ; this may in some measure depend on the sea-
sons, but principally on whether the lay has been
ploughed sufficiently deep, and the grass turned under.
If this has been done, and the execution of the first
and second cultivation effectually performed, the farm-
er will generally controul the seasons, and sometimes
derive advantage from occurrences which prove very
injurious to the crops of his less provident neighbours.
To ensure good crops of corn, the cultivation with
the harrows must be accomplished, before the tassels
and prop roots appear, for after this, the plants requir-
ing all the nutriment which nature and art can sui:)ply ;
their roots should remain perfectly at rest. Still a har-
row with blunt or worn tines, may be advantageously
used in wide intervals, which favour the growth of
weeds, longer than narrow. But this harrow can have
little effect among weeds already established, and sel-
dom do(^s much good when contending with grass ;
therefore the farmer should see the absohite neccssitv
of pressing on a cultivation, to give an early and safe
rest to his crop, more especially in narrow intervals.

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On Indian Corny PotatoeSy ^c.

where the size of the plants will soon render the intro-
auction of the harrow impracticable. For although
their shade will smother many more weeds than when
the intervals are wide, still far too many will remain
for the hand hoers, either to pluck or cut off, if the
previous cultivation has been procrastinated, or imper-

fectly executed. .

The plants should not be cut off or topped and strip-
ped, until the grain has attained a tolerable solidity,
and' the milk has entirely disappeared, unless the plants
have been killed by frost ; in that case they should be
immediately cut off, or topped and stripped, to admit
the sun and air to the ears. Some say the latter is the
surest practice in high latitudes, where the sun is less
powerful, and where more cloudy and drippmg wea-
ther prevails ; but others think the former safe, if the
plants are set up in small heaps ; and that it is the best
way, my experience will not authorize a decision. But I
do know, from actual and well tried experiments, and
regular accounts, that cutting off the plants saves the
fodder better, with one half the labour. With an old
sithe, crooked at the point, and rags wrapped round
the heel for a handle, a man will cut off at least as
much more corn, as he could with a hoe, and with
greater ease to himself. While he grasps the plants
with one hand, he cuts them off at one stroke with the
other, and by poising their buts with the point of the
sithe, lays them regular with great focility, for the cart-
ers. A wooden handle would improve this instru-
ment. The plants may be set up in heaps of six or
eight feet diameter at bottom. After the corn has been
husked, three or four of those heaps, set up m one,

On Indian CorUy Potatoesy £s?r.

321

and banded with the stalks, preserves the fodder bet-
ter than stacking, where the moisture accumulated in
the stalks, introduces mould: much labour will be
saved by setting up the corn in the field where it was
grown, if the fields are not cultivated, until the ensu-
ing spring, in that case the difference in labour, coqi-
pared with topping and stripping, will be still far great-
er. Hilling at any time is destructive, it cuts and con-
fines the roots within a narrow compass, and turns off
the rains ; exhausts the plants by compelling them to
form fresli sets of roots, at the expense of those alrea-
dy established, converting the prop roots into common
roots, and forming other prop roots from the joints
above, which seldom get established in time to sup-
port the plants.

I should have mentioned before, that a grass lay is
more especially necessary for corn, when it is planted
on a flat retentive soil ; for unless the ground is very
much disposed to wet, it will preclude the necessity of
ridging, and the lay forms a tough surface for hauling
the manure, which eases the draught. Each furrow-
slice forms an eft'ectual underdrain, more especially if
the field has not been pastured or mown in the fall,
and the furrow-slice is only moderately compressed
with the roller, and if a man with a shovel and mattock,
follows in the furrows, leveling the heights, removing
such roots, stones, 8cc. as will obstruct the course of
the water, forming cuts across the hccvd lands, at con-
venient distances, for its escape. Tens of thousands of
wheat, and other grain fields, are annually injured to
an immense extent, through inattention, or to save
this trivial labour. The water is stopped in the fielcjs

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by the obstructions in the furrows, and backed on them
at the head lands, or finds a passage over the dechyi.
ties, sweeping the soil and plants before it, forming ni-
numerable gullies, none of which would appear, if the
furrows were opened in proper directions.

Mixed crops of maize are profitable, and believing
my crops of this description, have been more produc
tive than any of the same sort, which have been pub-
lished ; the errors in management, with observations
on them, may be beneficial. Accident in my crop first
published, led me to expect considerable advantage
from ridging for corn ; but have since found that it
was an increased quantity of soil and manure, introdu-
ced by the ploughing, that rendered the plants on the
ridges which had been accidentally formed, better than
the rest of the field, and not, as was supposed, the con-
centering a double quantity of manure under them ;
and that ridges produced artificial droughts, without
any perceptible advantage from them. I also believed,
and continue in the same opinion, that wide intervals,
admitting large scope for sun and air, permits the m-
troduction of numerous corn plants with safety, in the
rows, and that this is the principal cause why corn is
more productive in proportion to the soil occupied by
it, when mixed with low growing plants, more especi-
ally, if the cultivation of the crops, cuts off the com-
munication between the corn plant and its neighbours,
which has been the case with my crops, till a trivial
experiment made last summer ; and till then, close
planting on the rows had been entirely overdone by
me. My mixed crop of corn and potatoes, for 1810,
published in the second volume of the memoirs ol

your society, did not discover the impropriety of such
close planting, for the failure in corn plants, reduced
their number very considerably. But more experi-
ence and observation have taught me, that the pota-
toes planted in that crop, were much too thick, and if
two single, instead of two double rows, had been in-
troduced, and planted deeper, the crop would have
been much more productive.

My mixed crop of corn and barley, for 1811, clear-
ly discovered the error of too many corn plants. The
barley was sown at the rate of three bushels per acre,
on six feet beds, and the corn planted on ridges of the
same width ; the produce in barley at the rate of 36
bushels per acre, and of shelled corn, 138 1-2 bushels
per acre. The corn in the ridges was certainly too
thick, about 64 plants within the length of one perch,
planted triangularly, in double rows. Many plants
were entirely barren, nubbins numerous, and the ears
generally very short, and badly filled. Although one
of the best ridges, husked and shelled under my own
inspection, measured at the rate of 152 1-2 bushels per
acre, and another ridge, ordered in the same way, at
the rate of 149 1-2 bushels per acre, still, every per-
son who saw the crop matured, joined in opinion with
me ; that half the plants would have produced much
more corn. What might have happened, if the soil
had not been generally very thin, previous to manur-
ing, for those crops, or if a sufficient quantity of ma-
nure had been introduced to supply this defect, I can-
not determine ; but where the soil was good, evident
marks of the injudicious practice, of this close, hedge
row planting appeared.

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On Indian Corn, Potatoes, £sV.

Last spring I planted on one side of my garden, In-
dian corn, with intervals of six feet, two plants eighteen
inches asunder in the rows ; the soil appeared good,
and the plants were dressed with leach ashes. I hey
were stout, and the ears well filled, although the so.l is
stiff and disposed to bake, and the latter part of the
summer was dry. The only cultivation of this crop
was with the hand hoe, until narrow strips were broke
up deeper, for the introduction of cabbage between
the rows. This mode of planting introduces 9680
corn plants per acre, with an additional produce from
one row of potatoes between the rows ; or, the large
white kidney bunch bean may be introduced, provided
neither are hilled or hoed up, for by this practice the
roots of the corn plants will be greatly circumscribed,
and compelled to take directions so oj^posite to nature,
that they could not prosper.

If potatoes are planted between the corn rows, tlic
lay should be well turned, eight or nine inches deep.
This will introduce no extra labour ; for that depth,
though not absolutely indispensable, is requisite for
the corn crop. A narrow strip, for planting the pota-
toes, should be well pulverized with a small hoe har-
row, without turning up the grass. The ridges form-
ed by opening the furrows, should be turned back lor
covering the seed. If potatoes are planted at a proper
depth, i do not believe that hilling up that plant is so
advantageous, as most farmers imagine. It is certain,
they too frequently injure the produce by this practice ,
and their management of it is frequently inconsistent
throughout, for they provide a light covering of long
pianure for planting, and during the cultivation ol tnc

On Indian Corn, Potatoes, is?c.

325

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crop, heap up on the ridges an enormous weight of
mould, and frequently poor cold clay, destroying num-
bers of the plants, which in a potatoe crop are frequent-
ly far behind in vegetation, and greatly injure others
of the same description; cutting the wire or fruit roots,
and oppressing the bulbs which escape, with a weight
that prevents due expansion. And this is not all the
evil produced, for trenches are formed below the level
of the roots, which greatly increases the artificial
droughts. — The largest crop of potatoes I ever saw
grown but one, was obtained from a stubble field with-
out manure, planted in every, furrow, and cultivated
with the tined harrow alone, although this mangled
some of the plants greatly, and injured others in a less
degree. For several years my early potatoes for fami-
ly use, have been planted in the Irish way, on beds,
and have ever been productive and good. This year
some of them weighed one pound, which were larger
than any early potatoes grown by me before.*

Your's, with respect,
^ John Lorain.

Dr. James Mease.

* Observing a publication promising layers of potatoes succeed-
ing each other, if the plants were hilled beyond the common prac-
tice, two varieties were cultivated by me in that way ; the plants
were regularly ridged, or rather banked up, with good mould, until
killed by frost, and then the ridges were regularly removed. Nu-
merous roots appeared in due succession on the vines, but the fruit
was found where nature designed it should grow, to wit, at the bot-
tom, and was greatly inferior in size to that grown in the usual way.
Still it might have been otherwise, if the hilling had ceased sooner.

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On Grass Lays, Manures, t?tf. brj Mr. John Lorain.

^ Read February 8, 1814.

Philipsbur^i January \sty 1814.

Dear Sir^

If grass lays and farm yard manure were pro-
perly managed and applied, the productions of agri-
culture would be doubled ; and one half the usu-
al labour in the process of farming saved ; but this
has been little considered, and less practiced here, and
also in England. Both they and we know the merits
of a clover lay, for wheat, but it is seldom properly
applied ; as more than one half the roots are frequent-
ly hove out by frost, previous to being turned down
for wheat. For the lateral roots become weak, and in-
capable of holding the plants in the ground, more than
one winter, and the second year's mowing is light, and
the lay very mdifferent for wheat. It is strange that
the valuable properties of clover lays, so long esta-
Wished for wheat, have been extended to so few culti-
vated plants ; and that it has not led us to reflect more
on the value of grass lays of every other description,
more especially in a new country like this, where those
lays have been so frequently and successfully applied
for the construction of gardens. The cause is obvi-
ous, and has been defined in my observations on corn.
The grasses are nature's pabulum of cultivated plants,
and if properly applied, will create good soil where it
never existed before ; and will communicate sufficient

On Grass Lays^ Majiures^ ^c,

327

adhesion to light blowing sands, for growing luxuriant
grain crops ; and red clover, with the aid of gypsum,
will in this highly favoured country, enrich a thin soil
to an almost incredible extent, in a very few years ;
and will plentifully replenish the farmer's mows with
excellent hay, if a proper system of management is pur-
sued. If this grass is mown instead of pastured, it will
soon render the effects of wild garlic perfectly harm-
less, either in the dairy or grain fields, as I know from
what was eflected on the farm lately occupied by me,
which was overrun with this pest.

Man, in all his pursuits, is too fond of complication,
or we might have been long since taught the proper
application of manure ; for a smoking dunghill, with
the aid of our eyes, nose, and reflection, should have
instructed us, that farm yard manure loses at least a full
half of its most valuable properties, if kept over spring
and summer. Some gentlemen imagine that fer-
mentation and decomposition produce combinations
and properties highly beneficial ; but this appears to
rest on conjecture ; for they differ widely in what those
properties consist. Observation and practice have
taught others, that when the manure is turned under
the soil, previous to fermentation, nature performs
those chymical operations within the soil, spreading
the riches of the manure through it, with the least pos-
sible loss, provided she is not counteracted by an inju-
dicious cultivation, and that immense, and very inju-
rious labour is saved in extra hauling, and mixing the
manure with other substances, which are much readi-
er, and (very generally) far better applied, before or
after the manure.

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On Grass Lays, Manures^ &Pc,

329

They plough, harrow and hoe their fallow grounds
through spring and summer, effectually destroying the
weeds, but introduce those pests in great profusion,
with the farm yard manure, applied previous to seed-
ing their crops. It is readily granted, that the apph.
cation of manure in a progressed putrefaction, will
jrreatly hcrsten vegetation, and if the crop is not laid
which too often happens, when applied to wheat and
other small grain, the produce will be increased. And
it is this, which has led to the erroneous opinion ot the
proper application of manure, and has sacrificed to the
trivial, and at the same time, very uncertain advantage •
gained in one crop, the future prosperity of the soil,
and ensuing crops, to an amount fully equal to the loss
sustained in the nutritive and stimulating properties,
contained in the manure.

The spire grasses are much hardier than red clover,
and will be found troublesome companions for wheat
or other small grain, unles the furrow-slices are mil
turned, and the seams between them, well closed with
the harrow ; but this is readily done, where stumps,
roots, or other obstacles da not abound ; and if our
native, simple, and very cheap four furrow drill-plough
is introduced, a man, with a boy and one horse, will
effectually seed and cover with it, at a proper depth,
more grain than can be sown and covered with two
horses, and the harrow, in the same time : provided
a rake with tines, calculated to cover the grain, is at.
tached to the hinder part of the drill ; and should a
few stumps be in the way, the man lifts the plough
quickly over them. In the spring, an intelligent boy,
with one horse, will effectually horse hoe, with the

same instrument, more acres per day, than were sown
by it in the same time ; and if another rake is construct-
ed, with the tines to run in each furrow, and overturn
some weeds cut off, under the surface of the soil, which
have escaped being turned over with the hoes in the
drill, the cultivation will be as complete as can be rea-
dily imagined ; this rake will also effectually cover the
grass seeds, which should be sown previous to the se-
cond horse hoeing. Both of those rakes should be fix-
ed, not to swerye in the least from side to side, but to
traverse readily up and down.

To be better understood, it may be necessary to ap-
ply the system recommended, to a round of crops,
leaving the farmer to apply the principles of it, to such
crops as may be best suited to his market and purpo-
ses ; for with prudence he may grow any. The cul-
tivation of the corn crop, furnishes an open, free soil
for barley, in the spring. The decaying manure and
roots of the grasses have not been exposed to loss, the
weeds within the power of vegetation, have Seen ge-
nerally destroyed, and it being an object of high con-
sideration, that all the seeds of weeds, which can be
avoided, should not be turned up, and the riches at
the bottom preserved, a large hoe harrow, calculated
for two horses, should be introduced. Implements of
this description, but more expensively formed, are call-
ed by some, cultivators^ and are sometimes made very
large, but those spread over too much ground, to ef-
fect good cultivation, in the uneven surface of fields
generally. That proposed will cuUivate the soil effec-
tually for the barley, and with half the usual labour,
and if the fiirmer wishes to introduce beans, or any

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On Grass Lai/Sy Manures^ ^c.

331

saaa

SS:

Other fallow crop, previous to the barley, the same tool
will effectually cultivate the soil for both crops : and
if the grounds are sufficiently rich, this intermediate
crop will be an excellent practice, for it will more ef.
fectually destroy the weeds, brambles, sprouts, dock,
or other hardy root plants, which have been crippled,
but not eradicated, by the cuUivation of the corn. If
wheels were added to the hoe harrow, the difficulties
mentioned before will be avoided. These may be rea-
dily made of thick, hard plank, dubbed to form naves
and rims. Clover seed should be immediately sown
over the barley, and brushed in, but a light harrow
will not drag the soil, &c. in heaps, on the surface, or
if spire grasses are preferred, they may be sown in the
room of clover, and covered in the same way. The
clover or spire grasses should be mown but one sum-
mer, and the lay with a second or good third crop,
turned under, not more than six inches deep, in the
foil, for wheat. This leaves the manure and numerous
seeds of weeds, which had been turned under for the
corn, still at the bottom. On the wheat, sow orchard,
oat, or timothy grass seeds, the two former immediate-
ly well harrowed in, with a light harrow, or the com-
mon harrow brushed, for although this may bury some
seeds too deep, the deep rooting of the plants saves
them from being hove out by frost, which generally
destroys those which root on, or very near the surface,
and if those light, chaffey seeds, are sown on the settled
ground in the spring, they rot on the surface, and are
blown away with the winds. Timothy or clover pros-
pers well, when sown on wheat, very early in the spring,
but are frequently very injurious to the grain crops, n

sown in the fall. In some climates and seasons, Fe-
bruary will suit better for sowing those seeds. The
spire grasses sown on the wheat may be mown two
years, if the farmer's cattle yard will admit a plentiful
manuring for maize ; if not, the ground should be
mown or pastured until this can be done, but the soon-
er the lay can be turned, consistent with the preserva*
tion and improvement of the soil, the roots of the grass-
es will be oftener brought into use, which hastens the
improvement, from the frequent decomposition, of
their full growth in the soil.

A gentleman whose extensive talents should be re-
spected, has published, that wheat sown in England,
from two to three bushels per acre, yields great crops,
where the soil and climate are favourable to its growth
and perfection, but that the same quantity sown here,
would yield straw, without grain. This is entirely op-
posed to my practice and observation, and nursery men
who have long sown and planted there and here, agree,
that the same plants will douBle the size here, in one
season, which they generally attain there in the same
time ; and certainly our climate is much better calcu-
lated to ripen a heavy crop of wheat, than the climate
of England, where a less powerful sun, and frequent
cloudy, dripping, foggy weather, injures those crops
to an immense extent, and compels the inhabitants to
become tributary to us, and other nations, for bread.
But the real state of the question is simply this; — the
Hessian fly has darkened knowledge, but having com-
pelled us to manure our grounds, one corner of many
a field, now produces more, than the whole previous
to this visitation. And if farmers had considered ob-

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servation and reflection, necessary ingredients, in the
composition of their business, millions of bushels of
wheat might have been grown, which have been en-
tirely lost, from a deficiency of seed. But even a loss
like this, has not been sufiicient to awaken those men,
who conceive they inherit from their fathers, the same
fee simple in the knowledge of agriculture, as they ac
quired from their will or death, in their estates, al-
though if they had acted wisely, the manuring of their
grounds would not have been the only advantage de-
rived, from this potent insect, for before their depre-
dations, wheat was sown very early, and where the soil
was tolerably good, a trivial quantity sufficed ; for the
plants tillered very profusely in our prolific climate ;
where copious showers, succeeded by a clear sky and
an animating sun, are peculiarly favourable to vegeta-
tion. But since this supposed calamity, wheat has
been sown later, and the same quantity of seed gene-
rally continued, although farmers might have seen that
less vegetated, more plants were killed by frost, and
that they tillered less ; and that all those deficiencies
increased in due proportion, as the season had advanc-
ed previous to seeding ; of consequence, when farm-
ers will be persuaded to sow a sufficiency of seed, to
introduce the same number of stems, as were formerly
grown, from very early sown wheat, they will obtain
as good crops as were formerly grown, and probably
much better : for they will introduce many more plants
than were produced from early seeding, and the same
number of stems, nourished by many more original
roots, each proceeding from its own grain, which will
certainly be much more productive, tlian the same

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On Grass Lays^ Manures^ ^c.

33S

number of stems, supported and nourished by much
fewer original roots.

To illustrate this, I could readily refer to numerous
tillering or suckerihg fruit-bearing plants. Thus, one
grain of corn will produce numerous stalks, but their
production is found trivial, when compared with the
same number of stalks, standing also in one cluster,
but suckered, and each proceeding from its own grain,
and supported and nourished from its own original
root : and were it not too laborious to sucker wheat,
to one stem, and a sufficiency of seed was introduced
to meet this practice, it would soon display crops ex-
ceeding credibility.

When wheat is sown in a climate similar to that
near Philadelphia, previously to the 15th of October,
two bushels per acre may be found sufficient, increas-
ing the quantity, in proportion as the season advances,
until the 5th of November, after which three bushels
will be found little enough. — If barley or oats are sown
early in the spring, three bushels per acre may suffice,
particularly of the former, but an addition, equal to the
progress in season, should be added to both, for they
also tiller, in due proportion to the time when they are
sown. I believe that little, if any seed can be saved,
by the drill, without very serious injury to the crops,
and this opinion is progressing in England, where a
false economy in seed, for a long time prevented that
full display of the very superior crops, which may be
grown, when this instrument is properly applied. Eng-
lishmen sow grass seeds profusely, and in this they
are perfectly right, and excel us greatly, who sow far
too little, for this economy in seed, gives rise to nu*

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On Grass Lays, Manures, t?c.

On Grass Lays, Manures, t^c.

335

merous weeds, where grasses would abound, if a suffi.
ciency of seed ^vas sown, and introduces tussocks, the
curse of bad husbandry, which compel high, wasteful
mowing, difficult ploughing, and furnishes a poor,
starved lay for cultivated crops.

Here I wish to be understood, that nothing will su-
persede the necessity of farm yard manure ; for al-
though it is very probable that a judicious farmer, with
a very circumscribed capital, might profitably extend
his cultivation, to many acres of ground, with but lit-
tie aid from farm yard manure, by ploughing under
the tops and roots of the grasses, yet I do know, that
in general, a farmer whose capital, with the workers in
his family, might enable him with industry and good
management, to extend advantageously his cultivation
to a farm of twenty acres of ground, is very seldom
satisfied with a hundred, although he contuiues poor
on the latter, and might become independent, and com-
paratively rich on the former ; and it is this, and not
maize, which has impoverished so much of the Ame-
rican soil, and stripped off the timber, which nature
had liberally provided for many ages yet to come.
Those who possess a fee simple in property, may do
as they consider best ; but those who let lands to others
would act wisely, to circumscribe the plough and the
axe, within the limits of their tenants' capital, for until
this* is done, the soil will be ruined, and the timber
wantonly destroyed. The fall of the leaves and branch-
es will continue to enrich the wood land, and if fences
are kept up round the cleared grounds, nature will m
this country, soon cover them with white clover, and
other grasses, and the decay of their roots and tops

will slowly enrich the soil, and if cattle are admitted,
and not suffered to carry oft" at night, the greater part
of what they have gathered in the day, the same pur-
pose will be sooner efi'ected.

When practices are recommended, without explain- •
ing the principles on which they are founded, they can
do little good, unless the reader's reflection supplies
this deficiency ; and when a farmer is in possession of
the principles, on which a practice is founded, he may
readily determine whether they are consonant with the
operations of nature, and if he finds them inconsistent
with this criterion, they should be rejected ; even if
sanctioned by men of talents, and backed by very large
crops ; unless he clearly discovers, that no other agen-
cy, but that recommended, could have effected the pur-
pose : for men of genius are sometimes egregiously
mistaken, and crops may be grown to a wonderful ex-
tent, under a system of very improper and expensive
management, when capital, talents, and attention are
employed, in the production of them.

Agriculture might be highly improved, were farm- •
ers convinced that a small knowledge and application
of arithmetic, is indispensable in the practice of an im-
proved husbandry, and that perfection in this art will
never be attained, until calculation clearly defines the
quantity of seed, and proper depth and distances for
sowing and planting. Not only a great increase would
certainly follow the introduction of those principles,
but random practices would be abandoned, from which
certain information can seldom be obtained, or com-
municated so as to be clearly understood. Much la-
bour would be saved, for when any business is pro-

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On Grass Lays, Manures, yc.

[ 337 ]

perly simplified, it is more readily managed, even with
inferior powers of body or mind, and always much
sooner and better done. A boy or girl, under mathe-
matical arrangements, would frequently do more, than
an active man in our present random practice.

It is from gentlemen farmers we are to expect the
introduction of good farming. Their previous pur-
suits forms habits of observation, reflection and calcu-
lation. But gentlemen most generally commence
farming, without practical knowledge of the business;
and a multiplicity of books, though containing much
useful information, introduces great confusion, until
the gentleman becomes better acquainted with agri-
culture, which frequently never happens ; for serious
expenses, and mortifying disappointments, induce ma-
ny to quit farming, who would have been ornaments
to that profession, if they had set out right at first.

Your's, very respectfully,

John Lorain.

Dr. James Mease.

The Society have declared on a former occasion, that
they publish impartially all communications ; and do
not deem themselves answerable, except in cases
wherein they expressly take responsibility. They have
inserted the above from their valuable correspondent,
on the principles here stated. Some of the ideas are
not in unison with opinions commonly entertained.

.aWSf * .- -r

Usefulness^ to Husbandmen^ of attending to natural
Phanomcna^ by Richard Peters.

Read February 8, 18 14.

I know not whether the account I gave, of some of
the prominent circumstances of the season of 1813,
may, or not, claim any serious attention. It would be
well, however, if observations on seasons of every de-
scription, either favourable, or otherwise, to the busi-
ness of the farmer, were more commonly noted. Al-
though some circumstances may, at firsv, appear tri-
fling, and not worthy of any attention ; yet, in a course
of time, they may be found highly important. Much
of Virgil's Georgics, is devoted to the signs and
motions of the heavenly bodies, — the phenomena ex-
hibited in the air, and in the ocean, — according to the
state of knowledge in his day, — the habits of animals,
— including reptiles and insects, however mean, and
otherwise insignificant. He draws, out of these, in-
structions and warnings for husbandmen, written in a
style of elegance, and even practical correctness, which
have not been surpassed in modern times ; with all
their boasted improvements, in science, or the arts.
The great character Linnausy whose acumen of re-
search pervaded all nature, has not disdained to inves-

•

tigate subjects, which would appear unworthy his no-
tice, but for the interesting uses, to which he applies
them. The times of arrival of certain birdsy — the ap-
pearance oi QQxXsan Jlowersj — the vegetation of certain

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On natural Phanomena.

On natural Phanomena.

339

plants and .r...,-arc-all enlisted into the service of
the husbandman ; and rules suggested drawn from
natM phenomena, which are practically useful^s U>
times of seeding, and other operations in ag cu Uur .
So far are circumstances not appearing directly appli-
cable to the practice of husbandry, from bemg uncon-
nected with it; that there are few sul^ects which are
not in a greater or less degree, related to it. True
L're are 'few persons, who can either observe or ad
vise, in so masterly a manner as the prince of po^^
and the great philosopher and naturalist. But here
are few, fndeed, who cannot furnish some materials or
„,en of science to work on. I have made these re-
marks, in excuse for my humble attempts to accumu-
late facts ; as they, from time to time, fall under my
notice. Let others usefully apply, or reject them.
Natural phmomena should be turned to uses, with
which the superstition and folly of astrologers and lu-
nologists, have no concern.*

. Virgil ..as much addicted to the study of a,trolosy ; and «•
ther beUeved, or affected to have faith in, the fortunate or unlucky
t s of ^^e --•« age. It .as the fashion of his day H.s adv..
to cut iry grass and s<ut5U, by n^oonUgHc ; was not, however ^.
.ffect of this kind of creduiiiy. Two men are now hvmg.jvho
very many years ago, for several seasons, cut, of choice, my d y
meadows by moonlight; in very hot weather. They declared t^^y
Irked with more ease than in the day ; and found the dampn-
of the grass, with the dews of the night, of great uul.ty. I P»'
them by the acre ; and never had my grounds better mowed.

1 might have cited the Plato oi poets, as Virgil. .s called, on
several subjects, which 1 have had occasion to mention.

The doctrine of changes of crops is as old as the Qccrgtce,

Among the BIRDS, whose departure I had observed,

least. See Georgic lib 1. ver. 83. " Sic quoque mutatis, kc,"—

which Dryden translates, —

« Thus change of seeds for meagre soils is best,
" And earth manured ; — not idle, tho* at rest."
I find too, that I learned at grammar school, che mode o/improv

hg iandy by burning. See ver. 84, & seq.

« S^epe etiam steriles incendere profuit agros," &c.

whereof I give Dryden's translation.—

«* Long practice has a sure improvement found,
<* fVieh kindled Jires to burn the barren ground ;
« When the light atubble^ to the flames resign'd,
« Is driv'n along and crackles in the wind.
<< Whether from hence the hollow womb of earth
" Is warm'd with secret strength for better birth ;
«< Or when the latent vice is cur'd by fire,
« Redundant humors thro' the pores expire ;
« Or that the warmth distends the chinks, and makes
" New breathings, whence new nourishment she takes ;
« Or that the heat the gaping ground constrains,
« New knits the surface, and new strings the veins,
« Lest soaking showers should pierce her secret seat,
« Or freezing Boreas chill her genial heat j
" Or scorching suns too violently beat.**
Some other excellent practices, deemed modern, might be shown

to be more than seventeen hundred years old.

Virgil has also anticipated Linnausy in his tests of the characters

of seasons ; from observations on they^ow^r/n^" onrees, or shrubs.
See 1 Georg. v. 187,

« Contemplator item quum se J^ux filurima Silvisy* — &c.
" Mark well Khe flowering almonds in the wood,—
" If od'rous blooms the bearing-branches load,
" The glebe will answer to the sylvan reign,
" Great heats will follow, and large crops of grain.

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On natural Phanomena.

was the species of Hirundo,^ called the chimney

• Hirundo Pelaagia. See Vol. 5, misori^a Ornithology, page
48, & seq.

" But if a wood of leaves o'ershade the tree,
" Such, and so barren, will the harvest be.
« In vain the hind shall vex the threshing-floor,
« For empty chaff and straw will be thy store." Dnjdai.

Whatever be the fallacy or correctness of such prognostics ; they
have existed from the earliest times.— Following this, we shall find
the practice oisteejiing seed-grain^ mentioned ; —

" Semina vidt equidem mulioa medicare ferentca** 8cc,
Also, culling or choosing the largest grain for seed ; (the best sub-
stitute for change,) we perceive to be recommended.

" Degenerare tamen : ni vis humana quotann'ts^ &c.
So that, with Solomon^ one may truly say, « there is no new thing
under the sun." We see that Virgil was of opinion, ih^t grain,
(like every other product,) has a tendency to deteriorate ; " dege-

nerare.

»>

-" Sic omnia fa tia

• »»

" In pejus ruercy ac retro^ aublafiaa referri,^
I give Dryden's translation of what Virgil has said, on these sub-
jects.—It would occupy too much room and time to take notice of
other topics, treated on in his other books.

" Some steefi their seedy and some in cauldrons boil,

" With vigorous nitre, and with lees of oil,

a O'er gentle fires ; th' exuberant juice to drain,

« And swell the flattering husks with fruitful grain.

" Yet is not the success for years assured,

" Tho* chosen is the seed, and fully cured ;

" Unless the peasant, with his annual pain,

" Renews his choice, and culls the largest grain,

« Thus all below, whether by nature's curse,

" Or Fate's decree, degenerate still to worse.

On natural Phenomena.

341

smx3

SWALLOW. They are guiltless of depredations on our
valuable products ; and are destroyers of flies, and
other insects which annoy us. Although their nests,
and visitations in our chinuieys, are unpleasant ; their
arrival and departure are thereby the more strongly
marked, and more evidently perceived. They aban-
doned our houses uncommonly early in the last au-
tumn. Soon after their arrival in the spring ; when
they are in large and countlessly numerous flocks,
frequenting hollow trees, chimnies, and caverns ; they
separate for breeding. So that they are not observed
in numerous assemblage, until tlie chilly nights of au-
tumn arrive. They then, with tiie reinforcements of
their young, produced through the summer, congre-
gate ; and again frequent, previously to their depar-
ture, their usual places of rendezvous ; unless some
disturbance to their former place of assemblage had
been given : in which case they seek another point of
collection for the occasion.* The places of their na-

" So the boat's brawny crew the current stem,

" And, slow advancing, struggle with the stream ;—

" But if they slack their hands, or cease to strive,

" Then down the flood, with headlong haste, they drive.

* It would be endless, and probably, by some, not credited, to
enumerate many instances of the vast numbers of chimney swaU
lows^ resorting to one place of rendezvous. I content myself with
giving one indubitable account, related by some of the most re-
spectable inhabitants of Merion, Mr. J. IVilliams is among the
best characters in Montgomery county ; and lives near the gulf, in
Utitier Mtrion. The following is an extract of a letter I have

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On natural Phcenomena.

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tivity, or resort, they well know ; and visit, in vast

lately received, from an intelligent friend. Dated February 18lh,

1814.

R. P.

« Agf^eably to your request, in company with Mr. H. we culled
« on Mr. Williams. As nearly as I can recollect, the following is

^ his story.

" Some time in April last, in the evening, his kitchen chimney,
*» (the funnel large,) was entirely stopped by chimney birds, so that
« the smoke would not ascend. The fire was put out, by the soot
« and dust that fell. Being an old man, he feared it was something
" ominous ; and would not have them disturbed. But he, after-
" wards, made up his mind, that if they returned, he would oust
« them from their quarters. About the middle of May following,
" in the evening, coming from his barn, he perceived the atmo-
" sphere darkened by those biixis. Presently, he saw them descend-
" ing into the chimniea of his house and out houses ; till they all
»« disappeared. On going into his kitchen, his housekeeper ex-
" claimed I There was nothing but smoke and dust within. He
« called to his boy, at the barn, to bring a bundle of straw, and a
" long-handled fork. He set the straw in a blaze, and pushed it up
« the chimney. Down came the birds. Some without wings ;
•' some without legs. The fire was smothered out ; and the floor
« covered with the wounded. Their noise was so distressing, that
*' he was almoit induced to leave the house. His intention had been
" to scare,— not to maim them. He set his servants to collect both
" the dead and wounded. They counted between tv>o and three
»» thousand ; and then gave it up as an endless job. They measured
« about two bushels. His hogs were fond of them ; and feasted
« on them, for several days.'' It is to be noted, that these were
only the birds, which had made a lodgment in one chimney.

Instances in proof of departure, for hybernation, and return, of
birds, might be multiplied without number. The fact of local attach-
ments, either natural or acquired, could also be amply verified.

Martins ( Hir undo pur fmrea) have had red cloth, and wire-rnigs,
sowed and fastened round their legs. Those thus marked, have

On natural Phenomena.

543

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flocks, for long courses of years ; in like instinctive
predilections with beasts, who have regular haunts ;
or FISH, who undeviatingly revisit the rivers in which
they were bred ; after migrating, in the early stage of
their existence at first, and thereafter when full grown,
from their native streams, into the vasty and bound-
less receptacle and nursery of the finny tribes, — the
ocean. From this immense region of waters, they re-
turn to the places of their usual resort ; for breeding,
and continuing their species. And this appears to be
a propensity common to all animals, in which instinct
amply supplies the absence of reason ; and is, to them,
the most unerring directrix. Who can now tell what
agricultural uses might be made, by intelligent and
observing men, of the migrations and return, oi birds ^

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regularly returned after migrations, in the spring seasons of many
years ; and made use of the boxes, placed for their accommoda-
tion, by several persons who have related the facts to me.

This animus revertcndi, to places of resort, either native, or
adopted, and habitually frequented ; is not confined to swailoivti,

Godfrey Esq, oiCafie May, winged a wiid goose ; which

fell, and was caught. It was fed among his flock of tame geese ;
and appeared domesticated. The wing, which had been broken,
became again perfectly sound. The goose, through several sea-
sons, fled away with the wild flocks, passing over Mr. G's proper-
ty, towards their distant resorts, for hybernation. It returned, how-
ever, every spring ; and associated, constantly, wiih the tame flock.
Finally, by clipping its wings, its flight with the wild flock was in-
terrupted and prevented. Its vagrant habit was changed j audit
became entirely stationary, and domified.

Other instances, were it necessary to multiply them, could be
given ; showing that birds, of other kinds, have the like propensi-
ties. R. P.

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On natural Phanomena.

beasts, m^fisK from and to their native d.stncts of
country, places of shelter from temporary inclemen-
cies, or rivers; in the tributary streams whereof the
latter cast their spawn? To these they are directed by
natural impulses, which never fail them in pointing to
their objects, with more precision and certainty, than
astronomical observations, the auxiliary direction of
the needle, and all the aids, the deficient, though high-
ly boasted, reason of man, requires. None of the ani-
mals guided by instinct, regard the artificial divisions
of months, or years. They are regulated by the r.-
L^our or mildness of seasons ; and are taught by the
author of nature, when to appear in, and when to de-
part from, the places of resort allotted to them. Plants
in their early stages of advance or decline, are operat-
ed upon by similar stimuli, or cautionary care ; and
veo-etation begins and ends, under the like influences
of "the state of season ; without regarding the artificial
designations which man has invented, for his guidance.
Seasons differing in their temperature so materially,
cannot furnish general rules, applicable to every quar-
ler of our globe. It is high time, therefore, that, pro-
fiting by the suggestions of the great naturalist, and
their evident reasonableness and utility, ive should
make and promulgate observations, from whence the
like corollaries may be drawn, for the practical uses of
our husbandmen ; whose labours must prosper, or fail,
according to the state of our climate and seasons ; and
cannot be governed by the rules established in confor-
mity with the climate and seasons, of other divisions
of the world.

Migration of Swallows.

345

•SBZ

MKiRAllON OF SWALLOWS. A SWALLOW TUBE.

If ever the swallow , should become a bird, whose
appearance in the spring, and departure in the autumn,
would mark the seasons, as they regard agricultural
operations; the litigated point of hybernation here,
would be of some importance. Yet their disappear-
ance in the autumn might be noted, with nearly as
mucli usefulness, even if they actually hybernated with
us, and retired from view ; as the departure of birds
indisputably migratory. This is vexata qiiestio ; and I
do not engage in it, as a controversialist. The bank
swallow^ and chimneij bird^ have been, by the advo-
cates of hybernation^ the most relied on, for the facts
adduced in support of that side of the question ; whe-
ther they contend for their submersion, or their re-
tirement into holes, trees, or other places, in which
they have been alleged to pass away the period of sus-
pended animation. I have, in the course of my life, met
with instances of torpid bank swallo\vs, taken out of ca-
vities in stone quarries, both in winter and early spring ;
which leave an impression on me, that, by nature they
have a capacity to become sleeper Sy without injury.
I have seen them, apparently inanimate, when brought
into a warm room, — revive and become agile, and per-
fectly capable of performing all their functions. I have
heard of more than I have seen, of such instances. But
I never saw one, which had hybernated in a state of
submersion under water. Yet some facts on this point,
are confidently alleged.

I had, for a long time, settled the fact, in my own
niind, tliat some species of the swallow, actually hy-
bernated here. But, on more mature deliberation, and

VOL. III. X X

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Migration of Swallows*

attention to circumstances, I have thought myself mis-
taken ; and that the few instances exhibited, were ex-
ceptionsto the generally credited averment of their
migration ; and not solid evidence of the general fact ;
in proof whereof those partial testimonies are pro-
duced.

What has been said by that able and much lament-
cd ornithologist- //^7^o«,-has tended to eradicate
any remnants of credit, in which I have regarded my
former opinion. But I have never ceased to hold my-
self open to conviction ; should undeniable proofs be

brought forward.

Through several years past, some members of ''The
Blockley and Merion Society of Agriculture and rural
Economy r whose chair I have long had the pleasure
to occupy, have related some of the strongest circum-
stances, in proof of the hybernation of swallows, of the
bank and chimney species, I had ever before heard.
The country people, in the vicinity of an aged poplar,
growing on the western bank of the Schuylkill, nearly
opposite the soap stone quarry, and about a mile from
Crichthaum's mill, generally believed, that vast num-
bers of chimney birds wintered in this ancient hollow
tree. Season after season, they had, what they deemed,
incontrovertible proofs. The birds were seen, in thou-
sands, retiring into a large aperture, forty feet from the
ground, in the beginning of winter. And, at the earh-
est opening of the spring, they made their appearance
again. In sunny and warm days, they had been seen,
coming out and returning, in great numbers ; and re-
tiring finally, as was supposed, into these their winter-
quarters. The circumstantial evidence appeared, to

Migration of Swallows.

347

some of our members (intelligent men, and very far
removed from credulity, in other matters,) so strong ;
that, on the arrangement hereafter mentioned being
put in progress, bags were carried, for the purpose of
bringing off torpid swallows.

In order to satisfy the curiosity of some, and the
earnest desire of others, to ascertain the fact, — we ap-
pointed a committee, to take every measu^'e the case
required. In the first instance, holes had been bored,
with a large auger, breast-high. Foria (liquid ordure)
of birds, as it appeared, mixed with swallow feathers,
and rotten- wood-powder, issued from the holes. En-
couraged by these appearances, ultimate measures
were taken, A day was appointed, — ladders and ropes
prepared, — and carpenters engaged to block the tree %
— for which purpose a stage was erected. Among
other members, I attended ; and a concourse of people
of the neighbourhood. The ladders were placed so as
to enable a person to enter the aperture in the tree,
near its forks. He descended, by a rope, through the
dark tunnel, till he came within eleven or twelve feet
of the surface of the ground. He lodged on a dry and
soft footing ; and the opening into the tree, was cut, at
this place, by the carpenters, of size sufficient to per-
mit a man to enter ; so that the whole interior of the
tree was exposed to examination. The critical mo-
ment arrived for development. — Expectation was on
tiptoe ! — The composition of the soft, and somewhat
elastic collection of matter, which filled the lower ca-
vity of the tree, — was found to be — not swallows ! —
but the deposits of those birds, both feathers and or-
dure, — mixed with the rotting and rotten remnants of

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Migration of Swallows*

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the heart of the tree. A person went into the tree
with a shovel, and threw out, to a considerable depth,
the contents; which were intermixed with while worms,
or maggots, and feathers of swallows, and of the eagle,
and some other birds ; probably birds of prey, in quest
of their victims. Every mark of swallows having fre-
quented the tree, in great numbers, was evident. But
not a bird,— dead or' alive,— was seen. The day of
examination was the 16th of the present month ;— suf-
ficiently late in the season : and we were ftivoured with
fine weather, for our reconnoissance. The opening we
had made was closed ; to prevent the birds from aban-
doning their wonted asylum, on their return, next sea-
son. So that this long credited testimony of hyberna^

tiojiy entirely failed.

If I have been too minute, I have been operated on
by a desire to show, that every necessary measure was
taken, to ascertain the truth, or fiillacy, of a firm be-
lief, which had been entertained for more than forty
years, that this tree would furnish an irrefragable prooi;
in support of the doctrine of hybernation here, of this
species of the swallow.

The tree must be five or six feet in diameter ; and
is in tolerable vigour. The thickness of the alburnum,
or sap wood, (for there is little else,) does not exceed
six or seven inches. Yet it proves the doctrine men-
tioned by Darwin, that the life of the tree is in the
sapwood ; and the heart, being only a deposit from it,
has little to do with its vigour, or growth. Wc saw
here, that the heart was almost entirely gone. The in-
terior was clear of all obstruction, up to the forks of
the tree ; and was nicely polished by the wings of the

Migration of Swallows.

349

birds, in their downward and upward flights ; whilst
this place of retirement from chilly nights, or untime-
ly inclemencies of the spring, or autumn, afforded, to
the myriads who resorted thither, a comfortable shel-
ter ; when they had collected, on their arrival from
their winter quarters ; and before dispersion to breed ;
and for more easy subsistence. Or, after their sum-
mer, and during their autumnal abidance, they had
reassembled, for departure, to seek more temperate re-
gions; having arrived, in some years earlier, and depart-
ed in others, later, on their distant flights, to and from
milder latitudes. If one were to form a comparative esti-
mate, between the smaller birds, and the wild pigeon,
which flies sixty or eighty miles to its feeding place ;
and returns to its nest or roost, between sun rise and
ten o'clock in the same morning ; (see JFilson, vol. 5,)
we might conclude, that migratory birds may linger
with safety, before they set out on their aerial voya-
ges. They can soon arrive at their places of destina-
tion. They breathe, in proportion to size, the great-
est quantity of air, and are endowed with superior
muscular strength, beyond any other animal.*

si.

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* Some birds of passage hybernate with vis, and leave us in the
sprinj?. One of these kinds is the shout-eared owl, described
by W7/«ow, in his 4th volume.

The numbers office, molea^ and other vermin, destroyed by the
6Vr/x brachyotoa^ or short-eared owl^ are truly suprisinjj;- All the
owl tribe are mousers. A pine tree, spreading and thick set, near
my house, affords a shelter and roost to about a dozen of these owls,
through the winters. The quantities of fur, teeth, and mashed
bones, of a variety of diminutive animals, — such as mice, moles,
small squirrels, and probably also young rats> — contained in the or-

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Migration and Return of Fish,

MIGRATION, AND RETURN OF FISH.

Whilst we were attending the operations necessary
to the accomplishment of our object of exploring the
supposed retreat of the swallows, the subject of migra-
tions of various animals, was discussed. The elder Mr.
Hagy, an intelligent, and highly respectable resident,
near the mouth of Mill creek, in Merion, reminded me of
a fact well ascertained to me, respecting the Schuyl-
KILL SHAD. Twenty five or six years ago, it was
brought forward in our legislature, when a bill was be-
fore them, relating to dams and obstructions in naviga-
ble waters, and streams frequented by fish; to the breed

dure of those useful and keen hunters, (among which, not a feather
is to be seen,) most plenteously dropped under the tree, show the in-
dustry, and astonishing powers of digestion, of these birds. A few of
them, (and they generally are gregarious,) will soon clear the barns
and outhouses of a farm ; and thin the vermin of fields in the vi-
cinity of their head quarters. Farmers should encourage them to
resort to roosts near their buildings ; and invite their visits in eve-
ry way. I believe this species of the owl, guiltless of depredations

on poultry.

I had observed, during several summers, the extraordinary
growth oi green grass,* under the pine tree frequented by the owls -,
but did not, until lately, perceive the cause. The ejections from
them create a most uncommon fertility. They arrive in Pennsyl^
vania, in November ; and leave us in April. They always return
to the places from whence they migrated, unless disturbed and for-
ced from them, by untoward circumstances. The services they
render, by exterminating the pernicious vermin, which so ruinous-
ly infest us ; fully compensate for the unmusical tones, by which
their notes are distinguished.

♦ Poa viridis.

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Migration and Return of Fish*

S51

aeac

whereof, such obstructions are fatal. I could then have
proved it by many witnesses ; and can now verify one
similar, by referring to Mr. Hagtj; than whom there can
be no better authority. Sundry fishermen on the
Schuylkill^ in the months of August and September,
when the young shad were descending the river, on
their way to the sea, marked, I believe, about one hun-
dred, in various modes. Some had slight scores, in the
fleshy parts ; and others had parts of their tails and fins
cut off. In the ensuing fishing season of the next year,
upwards of thirty of these fish, full grown, were
caught, at the fisheries, (mine included) above and be-
low the great falls. Other marked fish, undottbtedly,
passed up the stream. I have heard of more recent
proofs ; but have no personal knowledge of them.

Thirty years ago, Mr. Hagy was acquainted with
similar facts. A considerable number of vounsr shad
were marked, in various ways ; and above thirty of
them were caught at one now his own, and other fish-
cries in his vicinity, during the ensuing season. Pro-
bably, others were taken, at more distant fisheries, and
the marks unnoticed. There can be no more incon-
trovertible proofs, that fish, constantly and exclusive-
ly, return to the rivers in which they are bred.^ Cojinec-
ficut river^ formerly famous for the greatest plenty of
SALMON, having been obstructed, in many places, by
dams, has not now, (as I have heard,) in any parts of
its waters, one of that most valuable species of fish.
If they cannot arrive at their breeding places, they lin-
ger in the lower waters, for a season or two ; but thev

* See Note J page 353.

•

'-^^^.■^^

I' '«c'

#1

Mi

352

Migration and Return of Fish.

Migration and Return of Fish.

553

Wy abandon ,l>e river ; and arc .here no more ^c„
This remarlc no. only applies .o .he «ta . bu. .o

every species of fish.

I have mentioned the foregoing faets, merely as m-
cidents in natural history. They show, that the law-
detnition of fer. natur., whose charaeter.stxeal pro-
pe a s are, by lawyers, said to be, that tl.y are e„a
tic, and do not possess the anln^us revcrten^^J^ ^
correct. Beasts have the like propensities to eck
h rlive homes, with/./, or Ms. But all of them
will change their haunts, or places of breedmg and re-
sort : when uncommon circumstances occur.

Neither have I, here, any view to plans for dam-
ming rivers, for carrying on internal navigation If the
li.h, in streams devoted to such purposes, are less v.j-
U,able than the object aimed at ; it is said to be an a -
lair of calculation, (however much their destruction is
to be lamented,) for those interested; and an object o
- compensation to the sufferers. At least, it is thought
so by those who sacrifice the bountiful gifts of nature,
to'gainful pursuits. Public benefits, may overbalance
private considerations. But the advantages, in this re-
spect, ought to be extensive, and evident; and their
'.'compu'hment should be certain. Otherwise the fish
'of a whole river may be destroyed ; and the professed
,niblic benefits never attained. Canals leave the fish-
Ivies uninjured ; and afford the safest and surest navi-
.ation. The behs o. kxve«s, subject to floods aiKl
S.eir consequences, are generally avoided by Lurope-
an hydraulic engineers. The famous ««'«^^;' ';
his examination before the house of commons, m ii»i-
hnd, having spoken slightly of river navigation, was

;^ked ** what then were rivers designed for ?" He an-
swered— ^"^ to feed canals :^^ — or words to this effect.
Although this anecdote is well known, it is regarded
with less consideration than it deserves. The quaint-
ness of the reply, may not please those who are over-
nice in such matters ; but the strong sense of prefer-
ence he gives tocanalsy over beds ofriversy is decisive-
ly shown. Than this self taught, but (in this branch,
and in his day,) peerless hydraulic engineer, Europe
has not produced one superior, in the fundamental prin-
ciples and practical knowledge of the art, whereof he
has exhibited the most convincing and stupendous
proofs.

Richard Peters.

December 20th, 1813.

To the Philad. Agric. Soc.

NOTE.

Mr. Hagy^ and other of my friends, who furnished, and certified,
the following proofs of the facts relating to the Schuylkill shad f2iVt
among the principal and highly respectable inhabitants of Montgo-
mery county. The proofs might have been multiplied, had it
been required. R» P»

About thirty years ago, John Roberts, Cooper, and myself, (in
the fall season,) marked a considerable number of young shad, then
from four to five inches long, by cutting off a part of the upper fin,
or fork, of their tails ; in order, if possible, to ascertain whether
they returned to the Schuylkill, in the following year. I was in-
formed by Philip Shubert, and Jacob and John Colp, that they had
caught, the ensuing spring, many full grown fish, marked as afore-
said.
Signed by order or request of my father, WILLIAM WARD.

Per H.R.WARD.
Lovjcr MerioHy \Qth March y 1814.

VOL. III. y y

fel

{^.

i>

'm^

i

',(!'

I

us

354

Migration and Return of Fish.

[ 355 ]

Having been told by William Ward, that himself and John R^-
be"! cooper, had marked a number of small shad, the preceding

^season, i'n their passage do.n ^^-V^^''' ^^''^^Xw
knowing ^.hether they returned to the same waters ; the ollowmg
sZg, I observed one fish ; and found the marUs menuoned by
aid Ward, viz. a piece cut offthe upper tail fin. or fork. We caugM
: the ..me day, at Port Royal, se..n fish, bear ng ^he sa- -^^
of full growth and size. There were two o. three hundred fish
taken and sold on the same day, and among them there m.ght have
btn more of the same mark. What induced the search was, tha
jI 1 Johnson, one of the fishermen, took up a large shad, and
observed,-" here is one of William Ward's mark !> -I was m-
formed that at Peewee, the same season, seventeen of the same mark
,vere caught. At an island, nine, and at another .sland calk he
Welch island, eleven. The four fisheries are all wUhm a m le f
each other. The shad were marked at the last mentume^d fishej.

Roxboroughy Philadeljihia County^
March 10, 1814.

We, the subscribers, have been long acquainted Vith William
AVard and Jacob Colp, and know them to be persons of veracity,

deserving full credit. ^^^^.^» xrArv

WILLIAM HAGY,

JOSEPH PRICE,
JOHN BUSH,
JONATHAN JONES.

Montgomery County j March 10, 1814.

• This shad is said to have weighed above eight pounds ^t the pUce
where the fin had been cut, there grew a lump, or gristle, about the si^ ^
a pea. Thin appeared in every marked fish.

Estimate of the probable Profit in keeping one thousand
Sheep, by Dr. Robert H. Rose, of Luzerne County y
Pen7i$ylvama.

Read February 8, 1814,

We cheerfully insert the following information, respecting the
capabilities of our new countries to raise and keep large flocks of
sheep. It was not intended for publication ; but it has been deem-
ed worthy a place in our memoirs.

The regret we feel under the deficiency of information upon the
popular subject of Sheep, is great indeed. We should have been
gratified by receiving, and promulgating, statements founded in
experience. Such might have been furnished ; practice having
enabled many of our fellow citizens to afford facts, on a topic of
Buch general concern. Those facts would encourage the timid ; or
check the over ardent zeal of the miscalculating and unwary. The
following is more conjectural than practical ; but it results from
inquiries made by one of our very intelligent members, aided by
other men of respectability ; whose opinions we highly value. Al-
though it appears to be local, as to the scene in which the data arc
placed ; yet it will equally well apply to all our new countries, un-
der the like circumstances with Suaquehanna county ; as most of
them are. It will, at least, furnish hints, of no small importance
to those who would wish to give value to their newly settled, or
settling property ; by encouraging its occupants to enter into the
sheep business, on a suitable scale ; especially in situations wherein
grazing is preferred to tillage.

The following calculation, respecting the cost of
keeping one thousand sheep, in Susquehanna county,
is made by Captain Birchard, Z. Bliss, and P. Catlin,
Esq. whom I consider as among the most prudent and
judicious men in our county.

h.:.

* , I

I

\ ■

356

On Sheep,

On Sheep.

357

1 ■

Captain Birchard thought two hundred acres of clear-
ed land would be a large allowance for meadow and
pasture. The other two gentlemen thought one hun-
dred and sixty six acres a sufficiency ; sixty-six in
meadow, and the rest in pasture. The part reserved
for meadow to be pastured after harvest. They all
calculated the produce of the reserved part, to be a ton
and a half of hay per acre. It should be observed,
that we have no watered meadows in Susquehanna
county, and the above quantity of hay they considered
as being yielded by sixty-six acres, well selected, and
which the sheep should be prevented from pasturing

on in the spring.

The questions were asked of each one alone, so that
no one knew the sentiments of the others, on the sub-
ject, till after he had given his own.

Capt. Jiir chard

Expense of making the hay, S 150
do. for salt, 40

corn, potatoes, &c. 20
attendants, 400

washing & shearing 40

Z. Bliss. P. Catlin.

S 200 S 200

do.
do.
do.

16

75

400

60

8
75

585
50

S 650 S 751 S 918

Captain Birchard and 'squire Bliss calculated on one
man and two boys being sufficient to attend the flock.
Mr. Catlin calculated on two men and two boys. On
being informed of the number of attendants, allowed
to the flock by the other gentlemen, he said he thought
he had overrated the labour, and was inclined to be-
lieve that they were right. He estimated the labour of
pach man, together with his maintenance, at S 195.

This sum, deducted from his total, would leave the
estimates thus : Captain Birchard, S 650, Z. Bliss,
S 751, P. Catlin, g 723.

Their estimates of the wool, and increase of the
flock, were exactly the same, viz.
An increase of 500 per annum, (after making

up all losses,) at g 2, - - . g 1000

Three pounds of wool per fleece at 50 cents," 1500

From this deduct the greatest estimated
expense, - - - -

Annual profit, - . - -

2500

918

- g 1582

It was understood that the flock should have the
common proportion of wethers in it.

These calculations are made on the common sheep ;
the profit would of course be greater on the improved
breeds. All these gentlemen concur in opinion, that
the increase of sheep is much greater here than in Con-
necticut, (from whence they came,) a much greater
proportion of the ewes having twins; and that in weight
of fleece and carcass, the sheep of Susquehanna county
exceed those of Connecticut by at least one third. Mr.
Catlin's flock is about one hundred and fifty, amongst
which are several full blooded Merinos. They think
the settlers on any tract, could easily, in addition to
their present stock of cattle, keep twenty sheep each,
on an average, which for three hundred settlers, would
be 6000, and yield 18000 pounds of wool. In three
years from this time, if a woollen manufactory were
established at the lake, they think the settlers would

\"\

358

0» Sheep.

f si

W

f

have double that number. At present they may have
about 3000 sheep in the settlement : though I beheve

hardly so many. ^

It is common to let out sheep here, and the usual
mode is, for the person who takes them, to return dou-
ble the number, or value, in three years-he keeping
the surplus, and the wool. Another mode of letting
out sheep is, at a pound of wool, annually, a head, the
person taking them being responsible for their safety.
The latter, it is supposed, would be generally prefer-
red by the settlers, and that from one to two thousand
sheep might be distributed among them next summer.
It is supposed that it takes six years to change a
flock of common sheep into Merinos*
Price of 1000 common ewes, - ^ 2000

Value of 1000 Merinos, at the end of six

years, estimated at S 20, • - JOOO^

Difference of value in six years, - 8 1^000

The annual increase has been estimated at 500, and
these valued at S 1000. But this amount would be
gradually increased by the conversion of the common
sheep into Merinos, on the first year they would be
half bloods,— second year, three quarter bloods, he.
Take therefore some medium value for the progeny,
say ten dollars a head. On 500 this would be S 5000.
The difference per annum would therefore be S 4000,
which in six years is S 24000. Add this to the above dif-
ference in value of the flock in six years, ( 18000) and it
gives an increased profit in that time of 8 42000. Be-
sides which, the profit on the wool would also be gra-

I'

On Sheep.

359

-:1

dually increased, as it improves in fineness or quantity.
To effect the above change, a certain number of Me-
rino rams would be necessary in the commencement.

It is calculated with us, that
Clearing and fencing cost per acre,
One bushel of wheat sowed per acre,
Harrowing, (we don't plough,)
Harvesting, - - - -
Threshing,

2 12 00

1 50
3 00

2 00

3 75

Total, 22 25

The first cost may be fairly,estimated at 20
bushels of wheat per acre, which at S 1 50
the price it commonly sells for, between
spring and harvest, is - - - 30 00

Which leaves a profit, (besides paying the

above expenses) of, per acre, - - S 7 75

From which it appears, that the cleared land necessa-
ry to support a thousand sheep, could scarcely be con-
sidered as adding to the expense of their support. I
think the foregoing calculation moderate. I have ask-
ed some of the best farmers among my settlers, the
amount of their crops the present season. John Swan,
Isaac Hiscock, and Abel Pearce, say they had 25 bush-
els of wheat per acre. William Ladd had 33 bushels
of rye. Lark Moore had 33 bushels of wheat.
Swan, Hiscock and Pearce's crops, 25 bushels,
at S 1 50, would be, - - • S 37 50

Deduct for clearing, Scc^ 22 25

«

Profit per acre,

» 15 25

360

t)n Sheep.

William Ladd's crop of rye, 33 bushels, at S 1 33 00
( Deduct for cleaning, &c. 22 25

Profit per acre^
Lark Moore's crop, 33 bushels of wheat

S 10 75

at » 1 50,

49 50

Deduct for clearing, &c. 22 25

Profit per acre.

S27 25

If you take the lowest estimate of these, the

profit of clearing 1000 acres would be, S 10750
Which would pay for the land at - - J^

And leave a balance, (sufficient to put up the

necessary buildings,) of - - - ^^^

To keep 5000 sheep in this country, would require
about one thousand acres of cleared land. This, near
Philadelphia or Wilmington, of a good quality, pro-
bably could not be got for less than forty or fifty dol-
lars per acre.* I presume the farms there have at least
one fifth part of wood land attached to them. This
would make 1250 acres, and at forty dollars per acre,
would cost S 50000, the third part of which sum would
in this country, procure the land, sheep, and set a small
manufactory in operation. I believe that very few of
the farms near Philadelphia or Wilmington, are equal
to our lands for grazing.

» Dr. R. might now double his estimate, in this item.

Qn Sheep.

361

''»■'

All the above calculations tend to prove the advan-
tages of raising sheep in this county. Even one half of
the estimated profits on the items, would be very great.
If sheep can be raised to profit in places where the
land sells from fifty to one hundred dollars per acre,
surely the business might be very successfully carried
on here. I know of no upland country, where the
timber is principally oak and chesnut, as it is in Dela-
ware, and the lower part of this state, where the com-
mon fields, that are well seeded, if kept from grazing,
will turn out from one to two tons of hay per acre, as
ours will, and this without manure or irrigation. Our
timber is principally beech, sugar maple, hemlock, ash,
birch, basswood, elm, chesnut, cherry, and white pine,
and the soil a deep loam. The only grasses raised in
the county, arc clover and timothy.

To the foregoing calculations of profit might be ad-
ded the increased value of the land employed, after it
was well laid down to grass, especially if a manufacto-
ry were erected in the vicinity ; and as the lands here
are rising rapidly in value.

Four years ago, I sold my land fcom one dollar and
an half, to two dollars per acre. I now sell from three
to four dollars per acre, according to situation, giving
three years without interest. This is lower than
any other lands in the county. Were my lands in the
state of New York, and equally situated, aa it respects
market, &c. they would sell for from seven to ten dol- .
lars per acre.* They are rising fast in value. I sell to

• This is a mortifying reflection, for Pennsylvania landholders.
It shows a superior management in the policy of our sister stat^.

VOL. III. z Z

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362

Ort Sheepi

Common Sheep,

363

none but actual settlers, and in lots from one to two
hundred acres, generally.

Facilities to transportation, by roads and inland navigation, (with
Bome natural advantages,) are the magical power*. Although our
state lingered too long, before public assistance and patronage were
afforded to those great public improvements, it is encouraging to
perceive the important advances, now in progress, to remedy the
oversight. But much remains to be done. ^'^'

Common Sheep ; coarse, long, and combing Wool.

Read February 8, 1814.

Some members of our society are apprehensive, that calling the
attention of farmers to coarser wools, would tend to damp the laud-
able endeavours now making, to increase the numbers of sheep with
fine fleeces. No such intention exists in my mind. But common
sheep want an advocate ; whilst, with laudable prejudices in their
favour, those of fine fleeces recommend themselves. I am as de-
sirous as any one can be, to forward every measure for propagaung
the breeds of fine woolled sheep. 1 consider the addition of the
Sitanhk »heeti, which the troubles of the oppressed country from
whence they came, have occasioned our acquiring, to be a blessing
most important to the interests, all of us should cherish. But
flocks for tvcry fiurliosc, are essential ; and must be encouraged.
There is room enough for every variety ; and no incompatibility m
their being objects of profitable attenUon, in different quarters ot

our extensive country. See 2d vol. 214-15, 241, Sec.
In the EnglM prints,* it will be seen ; that apprehensions are

•Extract from an English print.

London, December 23J, lolJ-

" An enormous advance lias taken place on carpeting, blanket; druggeU,
coar,e cloth, , and most kinds of woollen goods. In the rage for encouraging
the fine breeds of sheep, the agriculturists seem to have forgotten, that the

>;^j!r*r'^

now entertained, in Great Britain, of ^ scarcity of wools for the
coarser fabricks } owing to the more general attention to sheep of
fine fleeces. The neglect of the common bre^s, is already severe-

lyfelt. ^y^'^^

The wools of common sheep in this country, I have long believed,
are finer than those of the like species in Europe. Our climate has
a favourable influence on the filament of wool. But the combing
and coarser wools, for articles most generally required, are as in-
dispensable, as are the men composing the great mass of our po-
pulation, who daily stand in need of them. Whilst men of refined
taste and manners, and superior endowments, are the ornaments of
society ; the labouring classes are the strength and bulwarks of
every country. Their accommodation, within their capacity to ob-
tain, at reasonable rates, the ardcles they cannot dispense with,
should always be objects of peculiar attention. The fabricks pro-
duced from common fleeces, and coarser wools, are among thesd
objects ; and are, indeed, essential to the comforts of every member
of our community, whatever may be his wealth, his acquirements,
or his condition. In vain shall we look to foreign nations, to sup-
ply deficiencies in our own country ; if the coarser wools are also
scarce among them. Were it, from inevitable necessity, to be de-
cided by a general vote, whether fine fleeced, or common, coarse,
and long woolled sheep, should be stricken out of existence ; the
wants of mankind would compel the suff*rage in favour of the

latter.

The calculations of those who pursue exclusively, the fine-wool
system, are,—" How much money can be made, by fine and high
priced fleeces and fabricks ?" " Make money, (a most desirable
object, no doubt,) and you can buy all things."— Nevertheless,
without plenty of long and coarse, or common and appropriate
wools, money will not buy a competent supply of s^od blankets.*

grand staple manufactures of this country are produced from the long wools
of tlie old native growth ; which are now scarcely to be obtained, at double
their former prices; while the demand for the finer sorts, is, comparatively
trifling."

• My duty, during the war of the revolution, called my attention to the
ftlotUing of our troops. Multitudes became disabled, and ^^rcat numbers p«-

I

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^•■iti^}

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364

Common Sheep,

The value of this article consists in its weight, as well as in Us ma-
nufacture ; in which latter, American workmen are lamentably de-
ficient. Wools are so much applied to other purposes, that our
workmen have not had the necessary practice, to ttach them per-
lection. Render scarce by neglect, or annihilate, the mater.als
thereof it is made ; and the golden dreams, as to the capacity of
money to buy even this article, so common and so necessary, both
to the rich and the poor,— vanish at once.

The true question, as it concerns the general welfare, is ;-
« What material will produce the greatest abundance of fabricks,
essential to the health and comforts of the greatest number of our
fellow-men ?" This material will be demanded by the most peo-
pie ; and therefore, in the end, yield the most money, in the ag-
gregate. Should this be, finally, the result ; though it may now
be otherwise,-our patriotism will be stimulated by our cifp.d.ty.-
\Ve should not calculate merely onfeece-F^vm^rs have different
views, from those of flock-masiers. The former pursue OaUy s
opinion ; which, to farmers (who do not keep sheep for the fleece
alone,) will be found, generally, correct ; though temporary cir-
cumstances may form exceptions.-" That breed is the best, that
brings the most profit in fleece and carcass together, from the same
ground." CVWfy on live stock, 153. He has judiciously added,-
» in equal times."— For valuable fleeces induce the procrastinating
the slaughtering sheep bearing them, 'till the carcasses are of Ut-
ile value ; and, at any rate, prevent plentiful supplies of them.

Should such as have been grazing and dainj farms, be now de-
voted to shcefi, beyond a due proportion, it will (as already begins
to be apprehended,) tend to decrease the numbers of cattle, of all
descriptions ; and, of course, diminish the quantities of beef, veal,
butter, and milk, in our markets. Mutton, is not, generally, relish-
ed by our labouring people. Should necessity force it on them, as
a substitute for beef, the flocks affording the greatest plenty of mut-
ton, and the most inviting carcasses, will be the most .in demand }
be the breed producing them wh^t it may. I enter into no discus-

rished, for want of blmikets, which wc co,dd not supply. Painful r«"»"«'=''°"'
have induced me to notice this article, emphatically. Very many ot

It. 1 •

might be mentxoned.

Common Sheep.

365

7 *

sions on this subject. In the English prints, I perceive very warm,
and even acrimonious controversies, on this point ; on which, after
all, the exfierience of sheep-breeders, and the taste or fancy of con-
sumers, must decide.

I have been long of opinion, that an immense and certain supply
of wool, either for home manufacture, or exportation, could be most
surely obtained, by a distribution of sheep, in small flocks, of the va-
rious and best breeds, among the farmers of our old settlements.—
The more of those bearing fleeces the most in demand for general
purposes, and of the best carcasses for mutton, — the better. They
might be, however, calculated either for wool or mutton. But a
good fleeced sheep, (though the wool be not of the finest filament,)
with a saleable and superior carcass, will be most eligible for the
great body of husbandmen. Each farmer would keep more careful-
ly, and in the best order, the numbers his other agricultural employ-
ments would permit ; and, on this plan that number, should not be ex-
ceeded. Large flocks may be established by capitalists. TV/ei/ would
find their account in extensive establishments, conducted as a busi-
ness, separate from the common and more confined operations in
husbandry. In our new countries, wherein ready markets for com-
mon products are not attainable, sheep establishments may be made
highly advantageous. I^ui factories must be combined with them.
These would not only be profitable in themselves, but they would
create markets, both for the wool and the mutton, as well as other pro-
duce of farms. Dr. Rose seems to be sensible of this ; and has con-
nected factories of cloth with his plan of raising sheep, and improving
their breeds. But he will have, also, to procure the best breed
of shepherd's dogs;* which are essential, as guards against

• See Appendix. I think the -mid beasts of the forest, are not more dan-
gerous to sheep, than are the dogs of our settled country. A true sheep-
killing dog attacks the sheep, exactly in the mode in which a wolf destroys
them. They both seize the neck and throat and gorge themselves with the
blood. See 2d vol. 247 and 317. The following, I extract ft-om a newspa-
per. It is well worthy attention and preservation. The quarter from whence
it comes, induces a belief in its efficacy. The neck and throat being the
points aimed at, if repellents are placed there, it seems the destroyer
uvoids them. It would, however, be advisable not to tfust entirely to

f

*ii.i

^-

-'^'V7^• vi-j

h

■' TJ

M

366

Common Sheep,

^olve,, and other beasts of prey, in our new countries In our
old settlements they are as necessary to protect flocks from other

this method. Sheep have been preserved from destruction by J«?. by co(.
ZmTL sharp'pointed nail.. No doubt the same guard agamst^oa.,

would be equally effectual.* o i^rlcpv's trict-caleulatcd to

Many .».«. are d.,g,»sting to annals. It ■- "fj^'J^;'^^^ ^.^ ,„„,,,
throw the work on a dull horse,-or one nothjs own,-couplea w
ZL, to rub ../..v. a,., or -e ^i^^^ ^-^^^^^^ ^,
wishes to spa«.. The other horse presses fo--j^' -* ^^ ^ ,,,,
to leave the nauseating scent behmd him. The dj and the / y

.„ antipathy to the smell, ^'^ ^--' .<'\'::::^zi:::^^:::^^

described. Should the unguents required to cure the cu^a

the ;M-mno«. shield them from doff, and »<.Jt,« ,• no small good wo

"rb:r tatCrst ant-pathy to ../.... This is otherwise with
.her animals. Possibly those which even ^^^^^^^ Z
disgusted, when it is heavy and P-^^J''' J,^ ^^ „^V\ith ^.^/-.V.

r • an?:::: ^^^ - -^ r :r'™.r t^ugh they pre.
/faf5, ana wicc;, , «4U^« i have heretofore mentioned,

the odour of the oi7o/rAcrf»um, to any other. 1 have here ^^

h!t .Me-^ash embued with oil of vitriol, is a repellent to fl.es which wiU
mat wmre w« mixture. The sulphuric acid also

not settle on a wall covered with this mixture. r

je :t vUiS b destructive vermin, if the nature and qua.t.es o.

C substances, drugs, plants, flowers. Sec. likely to be hus useluU -«=
7I\ with the view to discover their repellmg. as well as mv.t.ng facnl

: :f ir> -. we know, drive off some insects ; «..>. others. P.-.-
Zal STSfea., from beds, or apartments infested by them : and ma
blld "Sin substance, infusion, or decoction, for banishing th.s v.
rflmrfl „„•,.. or other animals. i/.«n.'«..on^«.. is detested by mK.

sufficient to shew tl.e uses to which the subject may be apphed.

• SHEEP.
.< A simple and effectual metl.od of preventing U.c <l-truction of shc^^^^^^
- .. wolves-Icommunicated to the Society for the promotion of Useful Arts m

Common Sheep.

367

dogs, equally dangerous with the wild beasts of our forests. The
sheep-killing dogs are more difficult to destroy ; because many of
their owners are scarcely ever sufficiently sensible of their enormi-
ties ; and seldom liberal enough to permit) without resentment) or
opposition, their destruction. So far are just sentiments from
being generally entertained on this subject ; that some owners of
common dogs, have indulged their vindictive passions to the inju-
ry of flock-masters ; whose faithful guardians have, in defence of
their charge, wounded or killed other dogs, lying in wait, or act-
ually found, under the most suspicious circumstances, among
flocks.

It is idle to keep inferior sheep ; which are equally expensive
with the best breeds, and yield the smallest profit. In the selec-
tions of breeds we should, however, be regulated by a sound dis-
cretion and attention to circumstances. Varieties and plenty of

"the state of New-York, by Ezra L'Hommedieu, vice president of the soci-
" cty.

" Mr. Walter Briggs, a respectable farmer in Scoharie, who keeps a large
" number of sheep, informs me that he loses none of them by wolves, whicli
" are plenty in that part of the country, and cannot be driven off or dcstroy-
"ed except by traps. — He makes an ointment, composed of gunpowder and
** brimstone, powdered fine and mixed with tju* and gurry, or currier's oil.
" With this he anoints the under part of the tliroat of the sheep. It must be
*' renewed as often as the ointment becomes dry, or loses its moisture, which
" will be four or five times in a season. — He says he has lost no sheep since he
" has been in this practice, and has often seen the wolves' tracks among the
" sheeps' tracks in the fields. He had a parcel of sheep whicli had been out
" a number of weeks, and no care taken of them, except their necks being
" anointed with this ointment, when he was informed by his neighbor that the
" sheep Were at his house, and that early on Sunday morning they came
"running into his door-yard — ^lie looked out of the window, and saw a wolf
"among them, who ran from one sheep to another, and jumped upon them,
" but did not offer to bite any of them. The sheep were brought home, and
"none of them injured by the wolf.

**I thought it advisable to make this communication to the society, «s
* many parts of our countiy are so infested by wolves, that they are obliged
" to yard tJieir sheep every night, to prevent their being destroyed by thope
" voracious animals."

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Common Sheep.

Common Sheep.

O

69

clothing are as essential to the demands, support, and comfort, of
tan as varieties and plenty of food. Fine «ool » on y su. ab e
fo certain fabrics, Wtch are .ithln the pecuniary ab.Uty of the
I s poln of the community. Yet fine >vool should be an object
of great consideration ; and every encouragement ^l-^'-^ ^J S-

^ . • w..f nil rlaK«^es of our people, whether

to breeds producing it. But a I classes ol P P

t^::on:;;:rr---^^^^^

^LbltteUinds of common woo,, worUs more advantageously,
both for the manufacturer and the fabric.

Let any one inquire of those who have had, and of those ^vho
not have,' the providing of supplies of clothing, blankets a.c. for
Ttr^s, (if he be not satisfied with his own experience,) relauve
^ h Tac of scarcity of coarse wool, and the fabrics composed of
r^H^wiUfind, thit those articles are difficult to be ob...d.
tyond allcomparison with those made from fine wool A arg
contract for coarse woollens, for the army, was o«^-d - ^ P _
prietor of an extensive manufacturing estabhshment. It was .el«
! inot only on account of the greater profit on fine cloths ; b t
bec^u e the raw material for the coarse goods, could not be pre.,
ably or easily obtained. The scarcity of an.mal wool, has for d
Ihl Competent substitute of couon ; wheresoever U can, m any
tolerable degree, answer the purposes required.

I am aware that no inconsiderable portion of ^-^ -J^ ' ';^:
iVom the market, by hovsbhox.i> M..u.xcr«K.s |-« -^ J^
„endable mode of employing it. But it does -'>^f^J^^'^^^_
.hU i, coarse wool. On the contrary, we know, that country pco
r Le ; laudable pride in devoting their finest ^^^^^^
their own use. Household manufactures may have incea e ,
ow ns to the present state of things,) beyond their usual standan .
Hi is a most desirable and fortunate event. Such manu. '
tures deduct no labour from agriculture ; nor ^^^^^^^^'^^^^^
the objections, vicissitudes, and expense, attendant on >=»'^S«J*"
ttur ing establishments. Nevertheless it must be aPP-nt, J
rtlls requiring the coarser wools, either for ^ouseho.'l "^^^^^^^^^^^
manufactures, will continue to be more and more scaice, P

portion to the increase of fine woolled sheep ; which naturally
leads to the neglect of other breeds.

I do not presume to direct public opinion ; or regulate private
propensities. But, at the same time, I do not hesitate to declare,
that a spirit should be roused and encouraged, for breeding the
long woolled and heavy fleeced sheep, calculated for worsteds,
blankets, and all the coarser fabiicks. Such sheep, or some of
them, would thrive in our new countries ; and in parts of older
settlements, where coarser grasses, and more moist grounds, ren-
der the pastures less fit for tine woolled sheep ; both as they respect
quality of esculent and insalubrity, or other forbidding circum-
stances attending the position. But sheep of all breeds thrive most
in wholesome, dry, and high situations. The rot is the malady of
sheep fed on wet pastures. It is, however, little known in this

country.

The world has been long in a state so precarious and unnatural,
that persons of more penetration than 1 pretend to, may be egre-
giously mistaken in their anticipations, concerning the afl'airs of
our own, or other countries. But, it would seem, that, if t^eace
should return, within a short time, our manufactories will be the
most in demand, for furnishing the coarser fabricks ; because they
are the most generally in requisition ; and are not so injuriously
subject to European competition.* If the necessary materials for

♦ Some who have embarked extensively in matuifacturcs, may probably
kave more coiTcct views of the subject; and think that we can, with the
most certain prospects of success, compete in fne woollen goods.— At any
i-atc, the necessity and demand for them will be limited.

What will be tlic state of oar manufactures, when pkacb is durably esta-
blished, and commerce resumes its wonted course, I do not pretend to fore-
see. Those of cottoa seem to bid fairest, for most pcmanent success. Our
commerce, and all the manufactures, arts, and occupaticms, dependent upon,
or auxiliary to it, have been suffered to linger, or perish. It is, then, not
confidently to be expected, that those growing out of the ruins of external
trade will be more favourably treated, after the occasion whicli brought
lliem into existence has passed away. It will be deemed too great a stretch
«f' patriotism in consumers, to pay more for domestic than for foreign goods,
even if of equal quality. Higli protectiiiff duties will be found to promote
fiaud and perjury ; and lo sturx c th^- treasury. Local jealousies will forbid

VOL. III.

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570

Common Sheep,

fabricks composed of long and coarser wool, and those made from
the wool of heavy fleeced sheep, should, as they now are, and will
be, wanting, when they are indispensibly required ; we shall still
remain under dependence on foreign countries, for a great propor-
tion of the woollens, most generally in use.

I should be the last, to encourage speculative, or speculating
pursuits. But appearances strongly favour the idea, that plans for
raising fine woolled sheep exclusively, are the most zealously and
extensively adopted. This propensity, to a certain point, possi-
bly not yet reached, is highly worthy of praise. But, it assuredly,
throws into the back ground, the breeds of other descriptions. Of
course, their numbers decrease ; while the demand for them con-
tinues undiminished. I should therefore presume, that those who
would calculate their breeds of sheep, (well selected, both as to
stock and local circumstances,) for the coarser woollens for cloth-
ing, and all other articles of accommodation, composed of animal
wool ; and to which fine fleeces cannot be applied ; would secure
to themselves solid and certain advantages, and greatly benefit
their country ; cither on the happy and most desirable return of
peace, or the continuance of our hostile position.

I do not mean, here, to designate any breed, particularly. If I
had so intended, I should not have omitted the Tunis broad tailed
sheep, which still holds its valuable character, in my estimation ;

sacrifices by one section of the union in which manufactories of woollen
goods are not numerous, to encourage those established extensively in ano-
ther division of our country ; more especially when no direct equivalent
benefit is derived from such encouragement. Every manufacture must
therefore depend, for its success and durability, on its own merits. Whe-
ther the manufactures whereof fine wools are the materials, be or not capa-
ble of resisting competition, and finally securing, by their own excellence,
the success essential to their durab'dity ; experience only can decide
Large capitalists are the most concerned in such questions, and can resist,
wiUi the most likeliliood of success, the shock of sudden vicissitudes. —
Prudent /a rmers should, individually, embark so moderate a proportion ot
their means, in objects thus subject to the vacillations of public circum-
stances, as ttot to risk being ruijiouily affected, in whatever way the sub-
ject may finally settle down. ^' ^'

Common Sheep.

371

and is capable of thriving, in every situation. It would be pre-
.sumption in me to point out any particular breeds. — Local circum-
stances,— such as damp or dry pastures, — mountainous or flat
country, — short and fine, — or long and coarse, bites, — heathy and
barren browsing, — and numberless other circumstances, must gov-
ern the selection ; and experience only can decide on the success.
Large sheep, of any breed, arc the least profitable. I have in our
2d vol. page 219, fully expressed an opinion on this subject.

Some have said,—" Encourage the growth of fine wools ; and
there will be a sufficiency of common wool, in the sorting, cull-
ings, and off*als of fine fleeces." But this is, for the most part,
an erroneous opinion. As much care and judgment are necessary,
in growing wools appropriate to the various coarser fabricks ; as
can be required in the growth of the finest fleeces. True, offals,
cuUings, and ordinary parts, may be mixedy in many coarse arti-
cles. But in most of those peculiarly necessary and valuable; the
wool, in the great body of it, must be exactly suitable to the
fabrick. The wool of fleeces may, and must be, sorted by intelli-
gent sta/iUrsy so as to suit different fabricks. But no sot ting can,
profitably, substitute short wool, where long is required ; nor vice
versa. The long or short, and the fine or coarse, filament, depend
entirely on the breed of the animal, and the keep. Intelligence,
and care, in the farmer or flock master, are the predominant
essentials, indispensibly required to ensure the value and welfare

of the flock.* R. vi:ters.

January f 1814.

* Sec our 2d vol. 215, 221.

d7* In our selecXions will be seen excellent directions, extracted
from Evans Sc Ruffy's Fanners* Journal, London^ Sept. 20th,
1813; for the keeping, washing, shearing, and marking of
>ilieep and lambs. Taken from an official document ; signed by
Mr, Z)i>, secretary to the farming society of Ireland.

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[ 372 ]

Account of Montagney a shephercPs dogj by Mr. P.
Baudu7/y of Delaxvare.

Read February, 1814,

Dear Sir^

I received your letter of the 27th inst. it was the
first knowledge I had of the infortiiation you request-
ed, respecting the dogs imported from Spain. I think
that too much cannot be said, to encourage their pro-
pagation throughout the United States. Therefore I
recommend the subject to your able pen.

We have heretofore laboured under very great dis-
advantages with regard to our flocks ; I am at a loss to
know, whether the destruction of sheep by dogs in
this country does not exceed that by wolves in Europe.
The imported dog from Spain is a very great security
to our flocks.

I will not undertake to determine from what breed
he springs. Buffon thinks that the shepherd dog is
the root of all the canine race. The dog you enquire
after is three times as large as the shepherd's dog de-
scribed by Buffon ; but is endowed with the same
good qualities ; immense strength, great mildness in
his usual deportment, though ferocious towards other
dogs. I can say, without exaggeration, that at least 20
dogs have been killed in my barn-yard or on my farm
by him ; but this good quality is like all things in this
world attended with an evil ; for I find that Montague
has as many enemies as I have neighbours. My
fellow citizens have no objection to their dogs destroy-
ing my sheep, but a very great one to see my dog kill

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Montague.

373

their dogs ; here sir I want your help, here the welfare
of the country requires your eloquence, to prove that it
is ungenerous and selfish, to prefer the death of a va-
luable Merino, to that of an insignificant whelp or cur.

I annex to this a picture of Montague, with his di-
mensions, he is a fine animal, entirely xvhite. I prefer
that colour in recollection of the story of old Jacob.
In flict I had formerly a black dog, and many of my
lambs were born black. Since I have Montague and
his mother, I have very few black lambs.

The natural instinct of this animal is to guard your
sheep against wolves and dogs ; no other training is
required but to keep them constantly with your flock,
the moment they are from the litter, until they arc

grown.

P. BAUDUY.

«<

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C 374 ]

On Succession oj Timber, by R.Peters, President of the
Agricultural Society.

Read April 12, 1814.
Belmont, March 22d, 1814.

Dear Sir,

I had considered the subject of changes of timber,
on spots which had been deprived of precedent growths,
either by artificial or natural means, to be at rest. I
conceived that, although publishing the facts related
in our first volume, had excited the curiosity of some,
and the incredulity of others ; yet the circumstance
was generally acknowledged by every one who had
given themselves the trouble to attend to it. I was
surprised, however last year, by its having been as-
serted, that the country in which our valley forge en-
campment was situated, during the revolution-war,
would incontestibly refute my doctrine. I had wit-
nessed, at the time, the havock and vast scene of de-
struction among the timber there. Knowing the ex-
tent and variety of the desolation, my curiosity was
excited to gain information of the renewal, or succes-
sion of the timber. I accordingly wrote to Isaac
JVayne, Esq. the worthy son of my old friend, the late
General TVayne. It seems that his letter, containing
the information I wished, most unfortunately miscar-
ried. He has, however, been so obliging as to send
the enclosed account of facts, from his recollection. It
sufiiciently proves every thing required. So far from
justifying the suggestion I have before mentioned, it

On Timber Succession.

575

fully supports the facts and opinions I had formerly
promulgated. These are now generally agreed to be
correct ; though at first many had doubts respecting
them. Every opportunity I have had, has fully con-
firmed what I have asserted. I never attempted to
account for this wonderful occurrence in the course of
natural operations. Theories as to plants, and the ne-
cessity oUhayiges, are to be found in celebrated writers.
Practical and intelligent farmers find them indispensa-
ble. The great use of the facts concerning changes
of timber, is, to incite us, in our agricultural pursuits,
to regard the phenomena, which the beneficent Cre-
ator exhibits, in the grand scenery of nature, for our
instruction. The propensities evidenced in natural
products, to changes and successions on a great and
extensive scale, point out, most evidently to us, the
wisdom of imitations in our more contracted con-
cerns ; by attending to the salutary practice of changes
and rotations of crops. It was with a view to their
exemplary and practical advantages, that I gave, at
first, and now repeat, the information, with which I
troubled the society.

Your's, very sincerely,

Richard Peters
Rr. James Mease.

|i',«i

[ 376 ]

haac Wayne, Esq. on Timber at Valley Forge.

Eastown, Chester County, March Uh, 1814.

Dear Sir,

It is a source of regret to me, that my letter to you,
either of September or October last, should have mis-
carried ; especially as the enclosures were completely
corroborative of the opinions and facts which you
have repeatedly stated on the subject of the change of
timber ; and I regret the miscarriage of this letter the
more, because I have not a copy of either the letter or
the enclosure ; and death has recently deprived me of
a very valuable source of information, the late wor-
Ihy John Bartholomew, Esq. whose statement was en-
closed, setting forth in detail many facts and observa-
tions relative to the change of timber ; more particu-
larly of that, on, and within the vicinity of the old en-
campment, near the Valley Forge,

From the best recollection I have of the said state-
ment ; it contained (inter alia) the following facts.

That the timber prevalent about Valley Forge, pre-
viously to its being fallen for the use of the American
army, in the autumn of 1777, and winter and sprhig
of 1778, consisted of white oak, black oak, Spanish
oak, rarely interspersed with scrubby chesnut and

hickory.

That the ground on which white oak was formerly
the most conspicuous, now exhibits black oak, hicko-
ry and chesnut, in abundance, and in great perfection.

On Timber at Valley Forge.

377

That where black oak had been most general, white
oak, hickory and chesnut now plentifully exist.

That of the hickory and chesnut, there were at least
16 to 1 of what gi'ew on the same ground in the year
1777 ; and that these two latter species of timber, were
now flourishing, in the highest degree, in many places
where no other timber formerly grew, than white oak,
black oak, and Spanish oak.

That notwithstanding the old encampment, and the
ground within its vicinity, yet present considerable
quantities of timber, similar to that which was cut in
the autumn of 1777, and the winter and spring of 1778;
it has originated almost universally from the old stumps
or roots.

Since I had the pleasure of last conversing with you
on the subject of the change of timber, I have availed
myself of opportunities of mentioning to several in-
telligent characters, the statements which I have re-
ceived, with respect to the change of timber, on the
ground of the old encampment, and its vicinity ; and
they have, without exception, confirmed the general
facts above stated. I have only to add, that from re-
cent information, the farmers, in many parts of this
county, are so decidedly convinced of the change of
timber ; that they reluctantly cut their full grown white
oak, black oak, and hickory ; knowing that these spe-
cies will be succeeded by some other, of a quality in-
ferior for fuel. Believe me to be. Sir,

with great respect,

vour obedient servant,

IsjiAc Wayne.
Richard Peters, Es(^.

VOL. III. * B 3

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[ 378 3

Obsewations upon Mr. NeiWs Hedges,^ and on the
mode of trimming Thorn Hedges, by James Mease,

M.D.

Read, August 10, 1813,

Being desirous of knowing accurately the mode
adopted by Mr. Neill, in making his hedges, I paid
him a visit on the 26th of last month. I found his
hedges to consist of the following species of thorns.

1. The American cockspur, {Cratagus cms galii,)
which grows abundantly about Newcastle, in the state
of Delaware, and other places.

2. The Virginia, Maryland, or Washington thorn,
{Crat^gus cordata,) which has been so highly praised,
and cultivated by Mr. Main, of George Town, district
of Columbia,! and called by him the American hedge

thorn.

3. The great American hawthorn, {Cratagus coc-

cinea.)

4. A variety of this last species.

5. The English white thorn, {CraUgus oxycantha.)
They are all planted in the manner described by

Mr. Neill, in the present volume, but the first and se-
cond species well deserve the preference bestowed on
them, by those who have tried them. The second is
inferior to the first, only because the haws vegetate
sooner : that is, the first season they are sown ; where-
aS the others will not grow until the second year.

* See page U, of this volume.

t See Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agri-
culture, Vol. II.

On Hedges.

379

■:y-;

The Crataegus coccinea,* or great American haw-
thorn, is inferior to all the rest, in the following re-
spects ; 1st, The spines are much shorter, and less
numerous than those of the Newcastle, Virginia, or
English thorn. 2d, The plant, although it grows vi-
gorously, early in the spring, according to Mr. Neill,
makes no progress after the month of May, and then
begins to lose its verdure, the leaves to wrinkle, or
curl, and to become rusty, and their upper surfaces to
be covered with a white down. The branches are also
rendered unsightly by warty excrescences, of a red-
dish hue, which in some cases embrace and surround
them, and in others project from them, like the spur
of a cock, which they also resemble in size ; so that
the whole plant is sickly, and has a disagreeable ap-
pearance. 3d, Its progress in growth is slow.

The other species of American thorns, composing
the hedges of Mr. Neill, looked healthy and vigorous,
and the leaves of the Newcastle thorn in particular,
exhibited a very deep green colour, and that high gloss
for which they are so remarkable ; while its numerous
long spines seemed to defy all intrusion from man
or beast. The branches of this species coming out
low, constitute a great defence against pigs, and
may indeed be said to form the perfection of a hedge.
Each plant sends out from five to eight top shoots,
each three feet long, besides numerous shoots in the
course of the season. Tlie spines of the English white

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* See Miller's Gardener's Dictionary ; and M'Mahon's Garden-
er. It is the mes/iilus coccinea of Marshall. See Arbustrum
Amer.

380

On Hedges.

thorn are not more than half as long as those of the New-
castle thorn : the leaves of some of the plants were be-
trinnin^ to look red when I saw them, preparatory to
their dropping. Mr. Neill. informed me that about
this time last year, the plants were entirely leafless. 1
have observed them in other years to keep their leaves
until August ; whereas the Newcastle thorn holds them
until even after frost : but they have the advantage lu
the leaves coming out two weeks before the cockspur
thorn, in the spring, and while they last, the hedee has
a neat appearance. The Washington thorn {Cratctgm
cordata) grows straight, is thrifty, and the plants pre-
sent a singular uniformity in their appearance. Mice
and moles are very destructive of their roots.

Upon inquiring of Mr. Neill how he supplied hvc
plants in place of those that die, (as they often do
in hedges,) without deranging the wall or bank, he
said, that in case of a plant dying, he plucks it out,
and thrusts in a dibble to enlarge the hole left by it,
then inserts a fresh thorn plant, pushing in some rich
earth after it, and finds that it takes root without diffi-
culty. In the hedges planted from four to six years,
I saw no gaps, but on the contrary, a uniformity of
growth, which was highly pleasing. In a hedge about
two years old, I saw only one vacancy. When a gap
takes place in an old hedge, he draws the bodies of the
two nearest plants as close together as possible, by
means of a cord, and in one season they take the de-
sired set, and fill up the vacant space. This method
he thinks preferable to plashing. He does not think
a double row, one above the other, (the upper plants
being placed in the spaces left by the first row,) so

On Hedges.

381

eligible as single rows, having each plant six inches

apart.

Mr. Neill obligingly went through the whole pro-
cess of making a sample of a hedge, according to the
directions given by him in the present volume. A
few particulars jvhich he has omitted to detail, and
some other facts respecting his hedges, shall now be
noticed.

The stones are not laid edge to edge, but are lap-
ped, or ride one another a little : and in the progress
of the wall he takes care to keep the earth closely pack-
ed behind it, as by throwing it in loosely it sinks, and
causes the stones to lean too much back from the
hedge. After the plants are laid and covered with
earth, and the first row of stones is placed upon it, no
more earth is used for the upper rows than is sufiicient
to fill up their inequalities, and cause them to lay
regularly. If more were used, it would of course
freeze in winter, and when thawed in the spring, the
stones, by being forced out, would destroy the wall,
which it is of consequence to preserve.

Mr. Neill says it is important to state, that a wall of
three and a half feet in height, ought not to lean back
more than three or four inches from the perpendicular.
The age of the oldest hedge of Mr. Neill is six years,
and is eight feet high.

Independently of other considerations, one point in
which the superiority of Mr. Neill's plan is evident,
consists in the lower or first rows of stone preventing
the growth of weeds among the thorn plants, which
often retard the progress of thorn hedges, whether
planted on a plain surface or on a bank ; and as the la-

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382

On Hedges.

>4

i

hour of weeding them is very great, many hedges are
abandoned to their fate, after a zealous commencement
of planting-^ What few weeds do spring up, in front
of the thorns, are cleaned very speedily with a hoe, by
a boy. Mice are not so troublesome among the roots
of thorns planted in Mr Neill's way, as when growing
in the common way. ■^■

The injurious effects of the trimming which Mr.
Neill gave his hedge last summer, was very evident,
and cannot fail of striking every one who sees the stunt-
ed plants in the same row with others of the most lux-
uriant growth, which were not trimmed.

The annexed cut represents Mr. Neill's hedge. But
the thorn ought to have been represented as growing
close to the wall.

A, Front view of the ditch.

B, The front of the bank, twelve inches broad, and

• Fresh slaked lime, spread among thorn plants, will almost
effectually prevent the growth of weeds.

On Hedges.

383

showing the mode of placing the thorn plant, and its
growth.*

C, The top of the stone wall.

D, The slope of the bank behind the wall.

E, The thorn plant, growing up in front of the wall.
A hedge somewhat resembling Mr. Neill's, is no-

ticed in the communications to the British Board of
Agriculture, vol 2, page 90,t as having been made to
a considerable extent by Sir James Hall, of Dunglass,
in East Lothian, who, it is said, *' first introduced it
on the East Coast (of Scotland) from Gallom." We
must therefore suppose that it is common in the latter
district. It differs however, from Mr. Neill's, in a
stone wall being carried eighteen inches or two feet
high, before the thorns are laid down ; and hence Mr.
Somerville remarks, it would seem impossible to sup-
ply any deficiency that may take place from weakness
of the plants, or accident, without taking down the
wall at least as low as the place where the dead plant
was laid, and if such deficiency should occur in seve-
ral places in the wall, the expense of repair would be
great, and the task arduous, whereas in- Mr. Neill's
hedge, vacancies are easily filled up, and is therefore
preferable on that account, as well as by reason of its
requiring fewer stones.

* The cut represents the thorn in a sloping direction, but this is
unnecessary in laying them ; for they will take the perpendicular
direction, although laid horizontally, as directed by Mr. Neill, page
12, of this volume.

t The paper is by Mr. Somerville, of Haddington, and entitled
" Observations on the various modes of enclosing land." It is illus-
trated by numerous plates, and is highly interesting.

»i .i',

384

On Hedges,

Mr. Neill's land is part of a tract that begins at the
Spread Eagle village on the Philadelphia and Lancas-
ter turnpike road, and continues to the tavern, sign of
admiral Warren, for the distance of one and a half
miles, embracing about a mile on each side of the road,
and noted for the extreme poverty of the soil. A red-
dish steatite in small pieces, is so intimately mixed
with the soil as to constitute an essential part of it : and
yet though naturally extremely poor, it is capable of
very great improvement by lime and gypsum, as Mr.
Neill has evinced : the sub- soil is a light yellow loam.

It was mentioned in the beginning of this paper that
the American cockspur, or Newcastle thorn would not
vegetate until the second season ; unless a particular

process be used.

The following fact on this head is given by Mr.
Bordlcy. '' 1 he late Gen. Cadwalader sowed haws of
the country without effect, until he was informed that
young thorns were seen to be grown through the cow
dung dropped near a road. From this hint he penned
up a number of cattle and fed them during winter, with
bran mixed with haws. The place was then plowed
up and the dung of the cattle covered with earth. In
the summer, the ground was there abounding in young
plants of the country haw, but they were soon much
injured by grass and weeds, for want of the ground be-
ing previously fallowed or cleaned."* All we have
to do, therefore, is to collect the haws when ripe, tak-
ing care to spread them out on the floor of a loft to pre-

* Notes on husbandry; 2d. edit. p.l93. 1801,

On Hedges.

385

• J

■: "»■.

vent their spoiling, and to feed cattle with them ; to
heap up the dung, covering the mass with earth, as it
enlarges, and to sow the cow dung and earth in drills
early in the spring, in ground previously cleansed ; —
whence the young plants may be transplanted to the
spot intended for their reception ; or if planted on the
surface, they may be sown in trenches on the borders
of the field previously prepared for them, by a crop of
potatoes or turnips or a clean fallow. They may be
thinned as they grow to the proper distance, and the
spare plants removed to other places.

The following practice of a " j udicious farmer" in the
vale of Pickering, Yorkshire, may be profitably adopt-
ed with the haw of the Newcastle, or cockspur thorn.
" His practice has been to plough a slip of ground on
each side of the intended line of the fence, the preced-
ing spring ; and having previously dunged it, he plant-
ed it with potatoes. During summer, the land is re-
peatedly cleaned with the hoe ; in autumn, the pota-
toes being removed, the entire slip is gathered into a
ridge with the plough ; and the ensuing spring the
quick is planted, nursery- wise, in a trench run along
the middle of the ridge. The success of this method
has proved equal to what might be expected from ma-
nagement so obviously judicious." Marshall's Ecotw-
my of Yorkshire^ vol, I^ page 202, Londoft, 1796.

On pruning hedges. — The injurious effect of sum-
mer pruning is mentioned by Mr. Neill, and his expe-
rience accords precisely with the remarks of Dr. An-
dcrson of Scotland, one of the very best authorities on
every subject either connected ^vith agriculture or any
other on which he treats. He was a practical farmer and

VOL. III. c 3

II!"'

1.

386

On Hedges*

a man of education, and never wrote on any subject ca-
pable of experiments, without fully testing his opinions
by practice. Mr, NeilPs experience also agrees with
the directions of Mr. Somerville in the communications
to the board of agriculture, vol. 2d.*

Mr. Main does indeed admit of a trimming in the

latter end of June, when the hedge has generally ter-

minated its annual growth ; but he confines this to a

hedge growing " on a strong soil, when in its fifth year,'*

and when the " shoots are large and rank."t He

speaks, however, of the American thorn (Crataegus cor-

data.) The Newcastle or cockspur thorn grows 'till

frost, and was not cultivated by Mr. Main. Anderson

and Somerville, refer only to the English white thorn.

Mr. Main on the whole agrees with both these authors,

in their directions about pruning.

* See Appendix.

t Memoirs Agric. Soc. Philad. vol. 2d. Appendix, p. 32.

[ 387 3

Singular hardihood and sufferings of a BulU

Read April 12, 1814.

Upper Merion^ Montgomery Co.

February 3c/, 1814.

Dear Sir^

As your society are preparing matter for a book of
information and facts, for farmers ; perhaps the follow-
ing occurrence may be somewhat interesting to its
readers.

On the morning of the 21st of July, 1811, A bull,
belonging to my brother William, was missing out of
the pasture field. — Search was made for him through-
out the neighbourhood, but all to no purpose. — And,
— astonishing to relate ; — on the 14th of August fol-
lowing, he was found alive, by some boys, in the same
field he was missing from. He had fallen into a lime
stone sink, from eight to ten feet deep ; in which situ-
ation he lay twenty four days ; without any thing to
subsist on but the air. — And, what still added to his
sufferings, he lay on the north side of the hole ; and
was exposed to the hot rays of the sun, for at least
eight hours in the day. I was present when he was
taken out of his solitary confinement. The lower part
of his belly and hind parts were completely mired.
Nearly all the hair, and part of the hide, came off;
when exposed to the air. When he was first taken out,
he could not stand, without support ; being almost no-
thing but a skeleton. A bucket of water was put be-
fore him, but he drank very sparingly ; not exceeding

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388 Hardihood and sufferings of a Bull.

I

two quarts. Some grass was given him ; but he ate
as sparingly as he drank. Next day he could walk a
little ; and in two weeks he could go with the rest of
the cattle. The next season he was fattened, and
weighed near a thousand weight.

If you think the above statement worth publishing,
you are at perfect liberty to do so ; as the fact can be
attested by a number of witnesses.^

I am your's, &c.

George W. Holstein.

Richard Peters, Esq.

* Our correspondent has not mentioned the state of the bull, as
to fatness, before falling into the pit. Many authorities could be
cited, to show, that an animal will live, or linger, without food,
for times proportioned to its fatness, or the contrary. No doubt
the animal, respecting which this extraordinary anecdote is related,
must have been in high order, as to fatness.

See Vol. II. " high estimation of broad tailed s/iee/i,*' v, vi. cites
Scheuzer. Physica Sacra. Tom. 1, pag. 231. Ulrriy 1731.

The writer of the foregoing letter is a person of the most unim-
peachable character. The fact he relates can be attested by multi-
tudes of people, who were eye witnesses. On inquiry I found the
bull was fat, precedent to his falling into the pit. R. Peters.

[' 389 ]

On a Fire Stone^ by Richard Peters^ Esquire.

■ * .

Read May 10, 1814,

May 6th, 1814.

Sir,

Mr. George Krebs, an intelligent and long expe-
rienced brick- maker, of Philadelphia, spoke to me, a
long time ago, on the subject of a most valuable Fire-
Stone, which lies, entirely neglected, though in great
plenty, in the quarries on my Belmont farm, near the
borders of the tide water of the Schuylkill. I have re-
peatedly endeavoured to obtain such an account of this
stone, from persons of mineralogical knowledge, as
would enable any one, standing in need of such stone,
to find it, at places convenient to them. I have no
doubt of its being dispersed in many parts of our coun-
try ; it being, to all appearance, a common stone. But
I have, on this, as on many other occasions, been dis-
appointed. I have, however, received the following
short description. — ** The stone appears to be a fine
granular aggregation of quartz and black mica, — a va-
riety o{ gniessJ*^

Any person desirous of experimenting, (if that be
necessary,) or using it, for furnaces, fire places, and all
works requiring such material, may have, out of my
quarry, what they want, either for actual use, or for
comparison with stones in their neighbourhood. Some
experience is necessary, in the selection. There must
be no flinty veins. I have had the stones in the backs
of chimnies, and ovens, unhurt, for fifty years. The

V

390

On a Fire Stone.

On a Fire Stone.

391

•1

late Mr. Beuben Haines, then an eminent brewer, in
Philadelphia, from no other than a public motive, ad-
vertised, in a newspaper I cannot now find, before our
revolution, the valuable and singular qualities of the
stone procured from my father's quarry ; (the one now
mine,) by his predecessor in the brewhouse, Mr. Mat.
lack. Those he mentioned had been under the cop-
per of the extensive brewery, now occupied by Morris
and Gaul, in or near Market street, for a period, I think,
of sixty years. They were, at the time of Mr. Haines's
advertising the circumstance, entirely uninjured ; and
even the marks of the tools undefaced. I enclose the
certificate of Mr. Krebs ; who expresses a laudable
anxiety, that others should experience the like advan-
tages he has received, from the superior qualities of
this material. For myself, I have no objects of per-
sonal interest ; but wish the subject introduced for in-
quiry and multiplication of materials, essential in fur-
naces, manufactories and fire places of every species.

I am, your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

A specimen of this stone is preserved in the Cabinet of the Society.

Certificate.
I do hereby certify, that the Fire Stone I procur-
ed out of the quarries of Judge Peters, near the Schuyl-
kill, and on his Belmont farm, have been exposed to
the fires of my brick kilns, for a period of sixteen years,

during every fortnight, of seven months of each year.
Each kiln consumes, at one burning, about sixty cords
of wood. So that no heat of the kind can be more in-
tense. I see not the smallest defect in the stone. From
their present appearance, I cannot anticipate any rea-
sonable period, when their duration will end.

I have tried stone procured on Morris's Hill, near
the upper ferry ; but they are very inferior to those ob.
tained out of the Belmont quarry.

I have used soap stone, which spawl (scale) with the
force of fire in my kilns. The Belmont stone, not hav-
ing flinty veins, never spawls. I therefore prefer the
latter, decidedly, to the former ; which although fit
for more moderate heat ; will not resist the severe
force of the flame and fire of my kilns. Independent
of this circumstance, the original price, and expense of
workmanship of the Belmont stone, bear a proportion
to those of soap stone, in a degree very moderate in-
deed. At least half the price, both of stone and work-
manship. Judgment and experience are required in the
selection. Flinty veins, and very hard stones, are to be
avoided. But great plenty of the proper kinds are to
be found in the quarry.

I have been a brick-maker forty six years ; and in
very extensive business, during thirty five years of that
period. Persons desirous of viewing the stone, will
gain more knowledge of its qualities by viewing my
kilns, than from the most elaborate description on pa-
per. My kilns are situated in Chesnut street, on Sixth
and Seventh streets from Schuylkill.

George Krebs.

May 6th, 1814.

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C 392 3

On the Virginia Crab Apple.

393

Some account of the Virginia Crab Apple, by the Hon.
Timothy Pickering. j

Read May 10, 1814.

City of JVashingtony April 7, 1814.

Dear Sir,

I duly received your letter of the 4th, in which you
mention your fruitless attempts to get " the history of
the Hughes's, or Virginia crab apple ;'' and suggest
that perhaps it might be obtained at Washington.

Having lately conversed with colonel John Roan, of
Virginia, relative to an apple of distinguished excel-
lence for cider, which he has cultivated ; and obscrv-
ing in him a disposition to more than ordinary atten-
tion to the subject generally ; it seemed probable that
I could derive from him the most satisfactory informa-
tion concerning Hughes's crab. I have just returned
from visiting him.— As I had some knowledge of
the apple, my first inquiry respected the age of the
species. His answer was general, that the name was
common, from his earliest remembrance ; and that it
must be a very ancient apple. Presently he recollect-
ed, that about twenty years ago, a Virginia gentleman
of the name of West, then about ninety years old, men-
tioned an orchard, consisting wholly of Hughes's crab,
which was planted when he (Mr. West) was a boy,
on the plantation now owned by colonel Roan. Some
of the trees remain, and continue to bear well.

Colonel Roan remarked, that there are several van-
etics of Hughes's crab, varying in appearance and good

qualities for cider. The sort on his land is but faintly
striped with red ; but produces cider, he thinks, of the
best quality, and resembling, more than any other.
Champagne wine. The Hughes's crab apple that I
have met with, has been nearly covered with dull red
stripes. In their sizes, the apples of the different va-
rieties pretty well agree, all being very small, with long
stems, and growing on slender twigs : from all which
circumstances it was to be presumed, that the fruit
would hang on well ; and such is the fact. He says
the wood of Hughes's crab apple tree is exceedingly
close and hard.

I observed to colonel Roan, that the leaf of my young
Hughes's grafted crab differed from the leaf of all other
apple trees ; resembling, in its shining and smooth sur-
face, the pear leaf much more than the apple leaf. This
he said, was characteristic of Hughes's crab.

But colonel Roan prefers his own crab to Hughes's :
and this is its history. — In the year 1790, going with
his father, in the month of October, to view a patch of
tobacco ; as they were passing an apple tree (situated
among briars,) from which the apples had fallen, and
covered the ground ; his father told him to pick up one
for him to taste. He answered, that they could not be
good for any thing, or the negro children would have
eaten them up. His father persisted, and on tasting
the apple, pronounced it excellent; and directed his
son to have them collected the next day. It was done.
They were made into cider, producing about nine gal-
lons ; which proved to be of an admirable quality. In
consequence, in the year 1792, an entire orchard was
planted and grafted with this fruit, to which has been

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VOL. III.

D 3

394

On the Virginia Crab Apple,

I''

given the name of Roan's white crab.-— To my inqui-
ries of the size and probable age of the original tree,
colonel Roan answered, That it was in the stem about
the bigness of his thigh— say seven or eight inches in
diameter, and sound. It was killed by accident.— Some
brush having been cut and thrown about it, the negro
children set fire to the brush, and so destroyed the tree.
Its natural growth is smaller than that of any other apple
tree; but it bears much sooner, after grafting; a circum-
stance which colonel Roan ascribed to the dwarfish cha-
racter of the tree : but it is a great bearer, every other
year. In extending his plantations of this apple, he
sets the trees nearer together than other sorts. He has
one orchard, in which the rows are sixty feet apart ;
but the trees are only fifteen feet apart in a row. — He
grafts the stocks when small, and so near the ground,
or rather a little below the surface, that the grafts are,
eventually, partially sustained by their own roots. —
The wood of this tree, like that of Hughes's crab, is
close and hard. The skin of the apple is pale yellow ;
its size a little bigger than Hughes's crab ; and the
juice very sweet, but not abundant. The pulp being
more tender than that of Hughes's crab, more of it
mixes with the cider, in the process of grinding; where-
by the filing is more difficult than that of the cider of
Hughes's crab. It will occur to you, that the inter-
vals of sixty feet between the rows, were designed to
render the cultivation of any crops in the orchard more
easy and convenient, and such is colonel Roan's object
in the experiment. I am dear sir, your's, &:c.

Timothy Pickering.
Richard Peters, Esq^.

On the Virginia Crab Apple.

395

POSTSCRIPT.

A few years ago, when general Sumter, of South
Carolina, was in the senate, he told me that the juice
of his Hughes's crab apples was so rich as to be clam-
my. Quere, if a transfer of apples of thin, meagre
juice to the south, and those of rich, thick or viscous
juice to the north, would not produce a valuable im-
provement ? T. P.

♦ .

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C 396 ]

W '

'I,

!^h

Ow the utility of grinding Maize ('Indian Corn J in the
Cob, as food for Cattle, with a description of a Mill
for the purpose y by James Mease, M. D.

Read, May 10, 1814.

The practice of grinding Indian corn in the cob, to
ppwder, for the purpose of horse feed, is now common
with our German farming fellow citizens. Those in-
dustrious men are ever attentive to the health and ge-
neral welfare of their farm stock, and readily adopt any
measure calculated to promote either object, and as
they are convinced of the nourishing qualities of the
cob, and the economy of the practice of using it as an
article of food, they have encouraged the general erec-
tion of the necessary apparatus, in the flower mills in
their different settlements.

The first apparatus used for the purpose of grinding
corn in the cob, was a screw, which was originally in-
vented by Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, and now ia
general use to break gypsum. Mr. Evans first reduc-
ed it to practice in the year 1795, but no measures
having been taken to give publicity to it, the know-
ledge of it was diffused very gradually through the
country ; and it even appears that private offers for
the gratuitous use of it were ineffectual, (until after
some years,) in causing a trial of what is now deemed
an economical practice of the first consequence.

It was not until the year 1803, that I heard of the
practice having been adopted in Lancaster county, and
in 1804 I had great pleasure in seeing it in operation,
in a mill on the Perkiomen creek, in Montgomery

On grinding Maize in the Cob, is?c» 397

county, Pennsylvania. I was ^o fully persuaded of
the utility of the practice, that I wished to profit by it,
and endeavoured to persuade a miller in Delaware
county, near to where I had a farming interest, to erect
one, but without avail. His scruples arose from an
apprehension of an insinuation on the part of some
people, that he would mix the meal of the corn and
cob with his wheat flower, and he well knew that the
mere suggestion of such a practice might prove inju-
rious to his reputation.

Indian corn is of itself too nourishing, and too heat-
ing as a constant article of diet for horses, and if fed
alone, a sufiicient quantity cannot be given to them to
produce the stimulus of distension, (which is as neces-
sary for a working horse, or even to man, as nourish-
ment,) without great expense, and at the same time
endangering the health of the animal. Corn meal is
therefore mixed with a portion of cut straw, and coarse-
ly ground rye, or shorts, and in this state constitutes
the daily food of that fine body of draught horses that
do so much credit to our draymen and carters of Phi-
ladelphia, and the industrious farmers of the state at
larg^.

The powder of the corn cobs, however, does not act
entirely by distension : it also contains much nutri-
ment, and I have heard of a poor woman in Maryland,
who prepared during the winter, a very grateful daily
mess for her cow, by boiling the bruised cobs with
which she was furnished by her wealthy neighbours ;
with this liquor, mixed with what other vegetable mat-
ters she could procure, and a few corn blades, she

I

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398 On grinding Maize in the Cob, 5jfc.

supported her cow well through the winter and spring,

until the return of grass.

The screw of Mr. Evans's invention is set to re.
volvc over a grate, fixed in the bottom of a hopper,
strongly made, and plated inside with iron. The corn
in cob is thrown into the hopper, and taken hold of by
the screw, and as fast as they are broken, they fal
through the grate, and are guided by a slopmg spout
into millstones, or into an elevator, to be raised to the
millstone hopper. But it is improper to use the same
apparatus for both plaster and corn, on account of the
impossibility of cleaning it sufficiently on an emergen-
cy when wanted to grind corn, from the dust of the
.ipsum, which of course would mix with the corn
Swer. and cause injurious concretions m the mtes-
tines of the horse.*

Explanation of Henry Batterer^ s --'^«J-''>'" ^7^^"^'
Plaster of Paris, and Corn in the Ear, and shelhng
Corn, and grinding Bark, andother hard substances.

Fie. 1. Represents the machine in a frame, with a
,vhee! attached to the spindle, which may either be
connected to the bolting gears, or any other part of a
grist mill, as best suits, or may be turned by ha.d A
L hopper, which is of cast iron ; B, the frame^
Which the hopper A is fastened by four screws, CCCC.

. such concreUons have been forced in several ho.es ^^^ Per-n-
sylvania, after having been employed for some ume to turn
for grinding plaster.

I

On gritiding Maize in the Cob, Csfc. 599

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»hl

which frame B is fastened in the two upright planks
DD. E, the step in which the foot of the spindle F
runs in, which step E is regulated by four screws,
GGGG. H, the head piece, in which there is an iron
screw, similar to the screw in a turning lathe, by which
the spindle F is screwed down so as to keep it from
raising out of the step E. I, a cast iron piece, which
is more fully explained in fig. 2.

Fig. 2. A represents the inside of the hopper A, in
figure 1. E, the step in which the spindle runs. K,
the sieve, and L the nut, which is made of cast iron,
with a square inch hole through the middle, so as to
admit of the spindle F, in fig. 1, which is wrought iron.
I, a cast iron piece, with teeth, similar to the teeth in
sieve K, which is used in breaking and shelling corn,
and grinding bark, but is taken out in breaking plaster
of Paris and other hard substances. Also the sieve K,
and another applied in the place of K, with teeth in
half the length, but of a similar shape.

When this machine is used for shelling Indian corn,
there is a fan underneath the hopper A, similar to the
fan of a shelling mill, and put in motion at the same
time the machine is, by which the cob is blown away,
but in breaking corn in the ear, the fan is put out of
gear, and the corn and cob come from it together.
This machine, when properly put in motion, will break
corn as fast as three pair of four and a half feet stones
will grind it ; and will shell four hundred bushels of
com in twelve hours.

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[ 400 ]

J description of the improved patent Bark Mill, or ma-
chine for threshing Grain, called the Pennsylvania
Rubber, with directions for using, by Caleb Church-

man and George Martin, Jun.

ReadJune 14, 1814.

A represents an upright shaft, with an iron gudge-
on in each end. standing on the centre of the barn floor
or other place where the machine is intended to be
used ; B, a wheel five feet in diameter, eighteen inches
in thickness in the centre, and twelve on the tread,

'''•S,-.

Vf

Simple PFheat Rubber.

401

which is cut in large grooves ^ it is made of three or
more square pieces of wood doweled together, in the
centre two iron boxes are placed, to receive the axle ;
C, an axle nine feet long, one end of which passes
through the wheel, having a whirter fastened on the
under side, also a washer and lince pin ; the other end
has a mortise or notch cut in it to receive the curved
edge of a plank marked D ; this plank is five feet in
length, by one and a half inches in thickness, and is
fixed horizontally in a notch cut in the side of the up-
right shaft, and made fast by a wedge on the upper
side. The part marked E, is seven feet long, one end
of which is fixed in a mortise in the upright shaft so
loosely as to admit of the wheel rising at least one foot
from the floor, the other end is fastened to the under
side of the axle near the wheel, by an iron pin through
both ; by this means the end of the axle may be re-
moved to any part of the curved edge, and may be fix-
ed by a pin at pleasure. The piece marked G, is add-
ed for convenience in fastening a horse to the machine,
one end being fixed in the upright shaft ; it is sup-
ported a proper height from the floor by a brace mark-
ed F, and is connected with the axle by a chain seen
in the plate.

The above dimensions are given for a machine to
work on a floor twenty feet square ; for a larger or
smaller floor the dimensions of the machine should be
proportionally increased or diminished in all its parts.
In order to use this machine to the b«st advantage in
threshing grain, the straw should be unbound and
thrown around the upright shaft, and the end of the
axle drawn backward to the end of the curved edge ;

V©L. III.

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402

Simple Wheat Rubber.

[ 403 * ]

the wheel being put in motion, will, with a littk at-
tendance, remove the straw outside of the circle which
it describes ; which being done, the end of the axle
should be removed forward to the other end of the
curved edge, and the straw will then be removed in.
ward ; in this manner the operation should be continu-
ed, till the straw is sufficiently clean, the loose grain
need not be removed till several floorings are threshed.
It is presumed the expense of erecting this machine
will not exceed ten dollars.

Those who wish to make the experiment, may sub-
stitute two cart or wagon wheels in place of the large
wooden wheel ; to accomplish this, one end of the axle
of the hindmost wheel should be fixed in the upright
shaft ; this axle should also have a crook or bend in it
near its entrance into the wheel, forming an angle with
the radius of the circle, of from fifteen to twenty de-
grees, this will give the wheel an inclination to run in-
ward, which will remove the straw outward ; the other
wheel should have a straight axle, fixed in a mortise,
in the middle of the hinder axle, and the two axles
connected firmly together.

As these machines will answer for threshing all kinds
of grain, particularly clover seed and even flaxseed, it
is presumed their cheapness, with the great progress
they make in threshing, will sufficiently recommend
them to the farmers generally.
Chichester^ Delaware Co. Penn.

Numbers of this simple and economical substitute for a threshing machine,
are eiecled in Delaware county, and are found to answer the puipose fully.
A neat model is deposited in the cabinet of the Agricultural Society, for
public inspection.

On Taurino Cloth, by Messrs, Shotxvell arid Kinder y of
New York.

Read June 14, 1814.

New York, 5 mo. 8th, 1814.

Respected Friend,

Thine of the 3d instant addressed to our William
Shotwell, was duly received. We feel highly gratified
that our patent Taurino fabric should have met the ap-
probation of a body so respectable, and so well quali-
fied to give an opinion on the subject, as that of the
•* Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture."

Having discovered a method of disengaging the
hair of black cattle from the dandruff" and lime, which
were left in it ; we conceived the idea that a cloth
could be made from it, which might be applied to ma-
ny useful purposes ; and notwithstanding the discou-
ragements from many English woolen manufacturers,
of high credit, and many unforeseen difficulties, which
we had to encounter, we have succeeded in attaining
the object of our pursuits. We can now make a strong
heavy cloth from hair alone, suitable for carpeting, &c.
and which, if wove rather loose, and not much fulled,
might be used for coarse blankets, and doubtless for
many other valuable purposes. By selecting the white
and black hair, and leaving the other colours as a third,
we can make a neat figured carpeting, with three co^
lours, without dying ; and should more colours be re-
quired, the red hair can be dyed green, blue, olive, or
any dark colour ; so that a carpet from hair can be pro-
duced, equalling in fancy, and exceeding in durability

■'■5,

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404

On Taurino Cloth.

On Taurino Cloth*

405

,. r*ij

any that can be made of wool. We have also made
excellent coatings of it, calculated for over coats and
clothing for labouring people : this has generally a small
portion of wool intermixed with the hair, the whole of
which we believe can be afforded at a lower price than
any woolen fabrics of an equal quality, that can be im-
ported from England. The carding, spinning, weav-
ing and fulling, are done with a facility equal to wool.
A committee of the society for the promotion of use-
ful arts in this state, to whom specimens of the cloth
have been submitted,

** Report, that they have examined said specimens,
" amounting to four in number, that they find two of
" the samples exhibited to consist of one third com-
*' mon wool, and two thirds hair from the tanneries;
** one sample of one fourth common wool, and three
" fourths hair ; and one of one fifth common wool, and
" four fifths hair. — That they find the whole number
** of specimens extremely well manufactured, of equal
** quality and texture, well dyed, and apparently very
"firm and strong. — The committee further report,
" that from documents accompanying the specimens,
" it is certain that a cloth equal, if not superior in du-
" rability, is manufactured from hair alone, and that it
" is a valuable substitute for felting, in the paper ma-
" nufacture.

" The committee have satisfied themselves by ex-
" periment, that this cloth is not only lighter than that
" manufactured from wool, but that it has the proper-
" ty of resisting moisture to a much greater degree,
" and that therefore it is much better calculated for
" great or over coats ; and further, that from actual

ae

<(

n

u

a
n

trial, it forms an equally elegant, and much more du-
rable carpeting than wool. — The committee feel a
degree of pride in having to state, that this invention
which converts a hitherto useless refuse into a useful
and highly important branch of manufacture, has ori-
ginated in our own state ; and we feel a degree of
confidence, that a discovery of so much real practi-
cal importance, will meet with the patronage of the
public generally, butparticularly of the legislature. '^
(Signed.) James Low,

Horatio Gates Spafford,
E. C. Genet.

Thomas Jefferson, late President of the United
States, to whom also a specimen was forwarded, has
been pleased to communicate his opinion of its merits,
in a letter to us, in the following —

i '^ Monticello, February 10, 1814.

*^ Messrs. Shotwell and Kinder y

" Your favour of December 24th, came but by our
" last mail, and with it the piece of cloth, made of wool
" and hair, which you were so kind as to send me, I
** pray you to accept my thanks for this present, which,
** while it is an acceptable mark of good will, shows
" also how important a resource we have in an article
" hitherto mostly thrown away, towards supplying our
** stock of wool, not yet quite equal to our wants.
" Although our flocks of sheep are multiplying rapidly
** in this state, they are still so far short of what arc
" necessary for clothing our labourers, that we arc

f

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m

406

On Taurino Cloth.

I t407 3

1

h \

^

I

« obliged to mix half cotton in their clothing, this has
'' by no means the substance you give with hair.

" I rejoice in this progress towards a real indepen-
" dence, and while I hope a permanent support to those
" generally, to whose spirited enterprize we are likely
<^ to be indebted for it, I add sincere wishes for suc-
<« cess to your particular exertions, and with a repeti-
" tion of my thanks, I tender the assurances of my re-

"spect."

(Signed.) Th. Jefferson.

Our manufacture is still in its infancy, having esta-
Wished it more as an experiment, than with a view to
profit ; we have however made from seven to eight
thousand yards of the cloth, and propose increasing it,
having obtained a charter of incorporation, with a ca-
pital of 400,000 dollars ; we are of opinion, and that
confirmed by persons well qualified to judge, that there
is enough of hair wasted in the United States, to make
more than one thousand [yards] of cloth a day ; if we
were to estimate two thousand, we should not proba-
bly far exceed the mark. Should your society con-
ceive any part of the foregoing worthy an insertion in
your valuable work, you have the approbation of

thy friends,

Shotwell & Kinder.

Dr. James Mease.

Comparative estimate of Expense^ of live and dead Fett'
cesj by T. M. Forman^ Esquire.

■s\

Read June 14, 18U.

Rose Hilly near George Town Cross Roads^

Maryland^ April ISthy 1814.

Dear Sir^ ^

I am indebted to the politeness of John Prince, Jun,
Esquire, of Boston, for the first number of the 3d vol.
of the Massachusetts Agricultural Repository and Jour-
nal, and my attention has been drawn to an estimate
therein, respecting hedges, made by the honourable
Josiah Quincy.

This estimate is made exactly as all estimates for
public benefit should be made, upon the greatest pos-
sible expense. But in order that it may have a full
effect, a comparative estimate of post and railing should
be made. This I now offer to you, and request, that
if these statements meet your approbation, you will
communicate them.

The pannel of post and rail fence may be
fairly fixed at 9 feet, consequently 255
rod, gives 4674: pannels, say of 4 rails,
1868 rails, at 9 cents per rail, is S 168 12

467 posts, at 121 cents, is 64 371-

For mauling, hewing, boring posts, dress-
ing rails, and putting up fence, at 25 cts.
a pannel, • - - - - 116 75

8 349 24^

' H

m

4 '

; '• ■ 'i -:•?>■ •>

'#'

408 ' Expense of live and dead Fences,

Expense of live and dead Fences.

409

Thus without considering the expense of hauling,
which is often very great, the loss on account of
defective posts, and broken rails, it appears that the
post and rail fence will cost, within a fraction, 137 cts.
a rod, and must be renewed every twelfth year, with
the expense of erecting, new posts, and some new rails.
We cannot count upon the duration of the white oak
post for more than twelve years, but a farmer desirous
to have good fencing, must reset in ten years, by which
time a great proportion of the posts are rotten, and
many broke. The cedar rail, very tender and liable
to break, will last two sets of posts, by shortening the
pannel to eight feet, and by continuing to shorten, if
they were originally thick rails, will even stand a thud
set of posts, but they will have become extremely thin

and tender.

From the comparative estimate it appears, that S 349
24'-, the expense of putting up 255 rod of ience, will
pay for planting, and bringing to near maturity, more
than 530 rod of permanent live and ornamental fencing.
I am inclined to believe that the Virginia thorn has
but one advantage over our black or cockspur thorn.
The seed will vegetate the first year, but the spines or
thorns, in which the strength of the fence consists, are
much smaller and weaker. Plant none but healthy,
well rooted seedlings of the black thorn, cultivate and
manure them with equal care, and you will have a fence
quite as soon, and more impenetrable.

Mr. Quincy's reserve of plants should be strictly
attended to. I can say, from repeated experience, that
it is scarcely possible to fill up the missing places,. m
old hedges, with young quicks, or indeed with any.

.? 'g

Every spring the hedge should be examined, and the
vacancies made good with well rooted quicks, rather
larger thaii those in the hedge.

I am, dear sir,
your obedient servant,

t. m. forman.
Hon. William Tilghman.

Vice President Philad, Agric. Soc.

The foregoing calculations are, no doubt, correct ; and encour-
age the substitution of live for dead fences. Protecting fences
must, however, be taken into the account, in all calculations on the
expense o^filain hedging. The mound and ditch, with the stone
facing, as before described, pages 9, 1 1, 8c seq. supersede the ne-
cessity of protecting fences. But stone must be at hand ; and in
plenty.

To understand the objects of the writer of this communication,
Mr. Quincy's mode of cultivating the thorn should be examined.
His method is common, in plain hedging, for the most part.- He
ploughs the site of the hedge four feet wide, manures and prepares
it, precisely as if for Indian corn. He aftades the centre, two feet
wide ; and in this he sets his plants, eight inches apart ; — near
enough, as Mr. Q. observes, " in a country where hoga are not
permitted to run at large." He advises to plough six feet wide ;
and plant the nvhole course, one year, in potatoes ; (as it would
seem) precedently to setting the thorn plants. After this, t/ie aides
are to be planted with potatoes, for six years. The manure for-
wards the growth, and the culture of the crop promotes the clean-
liness of the hedge. At the end of this period it is perfect ; and
capable of resisting any cattle. To fill vacancies, he selects plants
(out of a nursery,) " thriving a liule better than those in the hedge
course.** His calculation on all expense, for six years, is, on a de-
tailed cost, *' leas than sixty six centa a rod,*' — A very encouraging
example. See Massachusetts Agricultural Repo^»itory. No, 1, Vol.
3, p. 27, & seq.

VOL. III. f 3

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.A '.'-.l. ■■■■x-ir

410

Expense of live and dead Fences.

It is to be observed ; that one should know the prices oflabour
in each section of our country, .hen co„,parative calculations are

" Mt Quincy has beet,, for so^e tin.e past, -^--'^^'^^^^^^J
y conquered, by actual and visi-

i„,provement m hedging. He has conq X ^^^ ^^^^^^^

ble evidence, the prejudices of ^^^f^^^;";;; ;„„^ J,„„„,on in
Several mean to follow his example. Stone lences arc
NrEnriand ; and their necessities and the over abundance ofth
lll^^ have rivetted the prejudices of the farmers m favour ot
:;: l; of enclosure. But on Mr. Q.'s farm, there ar. no so
He has no fear of hogs, for the reason he assigns. He js beg
„ine a plan of .oili«g his live stock, of every species ; and never
'luang them to run at large. He can. therefore dispense wiU.
the otherwise essential additions to the expenses of thorn hedges,
nrctccUng fences ;-y^\^\ch, when cattle, horses, or hogs, run at
large, are as necessary, (and as expensive,) as any part, or even aU,
of the operation.

C 411 ]

On Succession of Timber, by Richard Peters^ Esquire.

Read June 14, 1814.

Belmont^ May 20th, 1814.
Dear Sir^

I intended to have added, by way of note to the
letter of Isaac Wayne, Esquire, on timber, the follow-
ing information, which I have recently received from
an old and intelligent land surveyor, Mr. Edward
Ohaily who has frequent occasions of traversing vari-
ous parts of our old settlements.

On the south mountain, running through Adams,
York, and part of Cumberland counties, there are se-
veral extensive places on, and skirting, that mountain,
on which pine timber alone had grown. Now, many
of the pines are standing, though dead ; the Whole of
the living pine timber having been long banished.
Among the dead pines, and generally through large
spots formerly occupied by them, very flourishing
chesnut is growing ; and not a living pine is to be seen.
The same person reminds me, that particular species
of timber perishes, while on the same land, and inter-
mixed with it, other trees continue flourishing. At
this time, and for some time past, all the pin oak of the
counties before mentioned, on light soils, is perishing,
and passing away rapidly ; though other timber among
which it grows is in great vigour. It is a fact well .
known, that, generally, trees of different species, on the .
same acre or spot, flourish better than all of one kind.
To this, resinous timber may be an exception. The
perishing of one species, whilst other kinds remain vi-
gorous, encourages the idea of specific pabulum ; i. e.

t

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412

On Succession of Timber.

C 413 3

each sort has a peculiar attraction for its own specific
nourishment. If this could be established, it might ac-
count for the whole of one species failing, because its
supplies of peculiar nourishment were exhausted;
whilst that for other kinds either contemporaneously
existing, or succeeding, remained in abundance ; for
the support of the species to which it is appropriate.
On this theory, I give no opinion. The facts are indu-
bitable ; whilst the cause remains hidden.

The same informant told me that he had evidence
of the fact stated in our present volume, of the supe-
rior duration of reversed timber used for posts. It was
to me singular, that he assigned the same reason for
his belief in the cause, which I have long entertained ;
— to wit, — the impracticability of the circulation of
moisture, in the reversed vessels of the timber.

He mentions a fact I have often heard. Take a
piece of hiccory, cut when the sap is in full flow ; and
lean it against the most flourishing pine. The worms
bred in the hiccory sap wood, will pass into the pine,
and inevitably destroy it.

There is a certain stage of the growth of hiccory,
when it is very durable for fences and other uses. I do
not know exactly when it should be felled for such pur-
poses ; but I have understood, that it is best cut when
the sap is flowing : (see page 110) contrary to what I
have observed as to all other timber, I have never used
hiccory, exposed to the weather, for purposes in which
duration was essential. Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

On DuckeVs Skim Coulter Plough^ by Richard Peters j
Esquire*

Read June 14, 1814.

, Belmont^ May 2Sdy 1814.

Sir,

ITie enclosed draft of Ducket's Skim Coulter,
I think well worthy of insertion, either in our memoirs,
or the selections annexed to them. Mr. Ducket was
a distinguished ^awcf-farmer. He is highly eulogized
by Arthur Young, and is one of the "three cele-
brated British farmers," whose husbandry
afforded the subjects of Mr. Young^s lecture, read
to the Board of Agriculture, June 6, 1811. Mr. Duck-
et is much praised for the whole of his agricultural
operations ; and, no doubt, deservedly. He had Mr.
Young^s approbation, peculiarly, for his use ol long or
fresh dung, in preference to that rotted. He, with a
Mr. Arbuthnot, also mentioned in the same lecture, al-
ways ploughed, or trenched, deeply for '* depositing ma-
nure y without any apprehension of losing it.^^ If the
practice of using long and fresh dung should be ex ten-
sively introduced here, I believe nothing will ensure
its success, and guard against the ardent heats of our
climate, so effectually, as trenching it in with the tre?tch
plough ; or using the skim coulter described and shown
in the plate. Whatever may be my opinion on the
subject, I think it fair and candid to render every as-
sistance to those who are desirous of following a prac-
tice, which has in its favour the weight of such respect-
able authorities*

II

■ !.: V

¥:

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l

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4!4

On Ducket's Skim Coulter Plough.

On DuckeCs Skim Coulter Plough. 415

By means of this implement, Mr. Young had repeat-
edly seen, on Mr. Duckefs farm, stubble completely
turned down ; and crops of turnips, &c. instantly put
in. Weeds were converted to manure. He " once
saw him turn down a crop of rye, six feet high, and
immediately roll in turnip seed. Not an atom of the
rye [green] was visible, though the depth of plough-
ing was only eight inches." Long dung, he says, has
been ploughed in, by other farmers, twelve inches deep.
I copy what Mr. Young has published relative to Mr.
DuckeVs practice, many years ago ; and repeated in
this lecture. But Mr. Young's long dung, is not the
straw and unfermented mass, applied by hot and fresh

muck-farmers.

« Dependent on the trench plough, is Mr. Ducket s
" system of dunging : he conceives, and I apprehend
" very justly, that the more dunghills are stirred and
« turned over,* and rotted, the more of their virtue is

• Dung in tight pens, or covered stercoraries, is never « ^ttrrcd
or turned," necessarily. But the juices, or moisture, are preserv-
ed from evaporation, the drainings returned on the heap, and thctr
virtue" preserved ; instead of being " lost." «• •

1 take this opportunity of mentioning, that I have recently re-
ceived a letter from J. Quincy, Esq. which completes the requisite
information as to his stercorary. It shev^s, that the only objec-
tion to covered stercoraries is irrefragably obviated by irrigation. A
neighbour of mine, who spares no necessary cost or pains, built a
hay.house over an excellent stercorary ; made according to the plan
suggested by me, in our first volume. His dungbecame>^->«ff^^.
or dry rotten ; and he abandoned all use of the stercorary, for his
manure. 1 was certain that he did not irrigate the muck suffici-

i(

((

" lost. It is not a question of straw merely wetted ;
but good long dung he esteems much more than that
quantity of short dung, which time will convert the
" former to. Two loads of long^ may become one of
" short; but the two are much more valuable than the
**one. Without the trenching plough, however^
" his opinion would be different. If long dung isplough-
" ed ifiy in the common manner y with lumps and bundles
** sticking out at many places along every furrorw^ which

ently. He depended only on accidental wetting, by rain through
spouts. I am in great hopes that he will resume the use of his ster-
corary, for its wonted purpose when he reads Mr. Qwfwct/** account
of his success. I am persuaded Mr. Quincy will not deem it ne-
cessary, hereafter, to throw over his muck in the stercorary. Or,
at least, that he will try.'^ome thrown over, and some not ; for com-
parison.

Extract from Mr. Qtdncy*s Letter,

June 1, 1814.
" As to the STERCORARY, I Can now affirm, from a most perfect
*^ experiment, that, in the mode I have managed it, the inconveni-
'^ encies arising from keeping the manure in a cellar, or pit, and
" stated in your Memoirs, are wholly obviated. I have carted out,
"this year, between t/iree and /our hundred tons ; and there was
" not one spade full dry rotted, or burnt ; but the whole mass was
" in as perfect a state, as could be wished. At least, so my work-
** men assured me.— As to that part which lay in the centre of the
" heap, and in the vicinity oj the welly my principal farmer, a man
" of great judgment and experience)— said that he never saw any
" thing like it ; — that one load was yiovi\\Jbur of the ordinary ma-
" nure made on the farm.— The repeated irrigation of the heap, has
" a tendency to circulate all its richness through every part. But
" in the winter, when this process of irrigation is supended, the par-
" ticles settle ; and make the central mass extremely powerful."

R. P.

I ^»f

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^^^V^B^tf^

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416 On Ducket's Skim Coulter Plough.

Oti Manures, (s'c.

417

«' lets the sun and air into the rest, that seems covered ;
" he thinks, that so used, it is mostly lost, or given to
" the winds. In such a case, short rotted manure w/Z
<^ be better, covered ; and should be preferred : but with
« his plough, nothing of this happens ; and it enables
" him to use his dung in such a state as gives him a
" large quantity, instead of a small one."

With the opportunity, thus afforded, of viewing both
sides of a question of no small import to them, farmers
can judge for themselves ; and test, by experiment,
which practice is the most profitable in result ; under
the circumstances of climate and situation in which we
are placed. If they prefer the use of long and fresh
dung, let them pursue the only mode which is deem-
ed effectual, by the most exemplary advocates of this
practice.* Yet, I must add, that I have trenched in
long dung, sufficiently deep ; and nevertheless, it has
become burnt, or fir e-fanged, in a dry season.

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

• I have known garden-beds rendered dung-aick, (as it is calttd.)
^ by too frequent application of muck, dug in. It seems, this is not
uncommon. For, in our appendix, will be seen, a mode of recovery
of such feculated grounds,* by manuringthem with an a/*a/.,to cor-
rect the injurious effects of the muck, or dung. An interesting
account is there given of BAUiLtA, (carbonate of Wa) used as a
manure. This is the most powerful Alkal,.-" It is produced by
the incineration of different dried sea plants, in pits like lime kilns,
«r those for charring wood or coal, chiefly in Sfiain and I'aly :

See pages 234, 5.

where whole fitlds (often their wheat fields) are sowed with them
to good advantage. From this impure and mixed mass of cinders,
is obtained the marine or mineral^ alkali,'* There are materials suf-
ficient in our country, for preparing this substance. Jshes, of wood,
or any vegetable, may be substituted ; to cleanse or recover over
dunged grounds. But the ashes are good or bad, according to the
greater or less quantity of alkali found in them. It would seem,
that ground requires a change of manure^ as v/cU as of crofi. See
Vol. II. *'^ on pilaster of Paris'* page 46.

Carbon is the basis of dung. Oil is an ingredient in manure ;
and the fattest animals are said to yield the richest, i. e. the most
oleaginous, dung. It is probable, that when land has been over-
charged with the dung of animals, applied for a succession of years,
the residuum has been carbon insoluble in water, (the vehicle of the
food of plants,) and perhaps, an overabundance of oils^ — which are
found in the composition of both plants and animals. The use of
alkalies may be, to produce, from the materials deposited in this
over-dunged soil, a soap ; which, being soluble in, and miscible
with, water, enters into the vessels of plants thereafter cultivated.
Thus furnishing, or elaborating, their food,--whatever that may
be ; — and thereby giving salutary activity, to an otherwise pernici-
ous and unwholesome mass. — See Hornbifs Dissertation on Lime j
Londo?i, 1814, p. 27.

It is reasonable to believe the allegation,* that soafier's ashes are
only valuable for the alkali contained in them. According to the
relations of those who have analysed them, in EnglandyihQ quanti-
ty of alkali in a ton of such ashes, never exceeds ten ; and seldom
amounts to above four or five pounds. It is evident, then, that the
greatest proportion is worse than useless ; because it encumbers
the ground, and adds greatly to the expense of applying it. What
proportion of alkali may be contained in a ton of our wood-ashes,
either live or spent, I do not know. l^* I**

The quantity of potash yielded by different vegetables and trees,
varies very considerably. A manufacturer at the Saratoga springs,

VOL, III.

* Sec Appcndiv

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1;)

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418

Proportion of Alkali to Ashes.

New York, informed me, in 1 8 1 2, that 400 bushels of the ashes of the
water ash, black ash, and elm, yielded one ton of salts.

At Chazy, on lake Champlain, near the Canada line, Mr. Lam-
bert states that the following proportions between ashes and potash

are found.

1000 pounds of oak ashes will make 1 1 1 pounds of potash.

1000
1000
1000
1000

do.
do.
do.
do.

hiccory,
beech,
elm,
maple,

180

219

166

110

do.
do.
do.
do.

do.
do.
do.
do.

Labour is

The management of the fire influences the product,
well paid with 700 pounds of potash from 400 bushels of ashes.
The harder and better woods afford the most alkali.— Travels in
Lower Canada, and the United States, vol. 3. p. 500. Lond. 1810.

J. M.

Ducket's Skim Coulter Plough.

•^

:^

[ 419 ]

On Scalded Cream^ Communicated by a Correspond-
ent^ to Dr. Robert H. Rose of Susquehanna County^
Pennsylvania^ and by him to the Society.

Read June U, 1814.

London^ January 1, 1812,

In passing through some of the southern counties
of England, a few weeks since, I was so struck, and
so much pleased with the superior excellence of the
cream which was offered me, that I enquired particu-
larly into the manner of forming it, and have written
this letter almost expressly with a view to make known
to my country-women what I conceive to be one of
the chef d'ouvres of the dairy.

This cream is peculiar to the counties of Somerset,
Cornwall, and Devon. Attempts to form it in other parts
of Great Britain have been hitherto unsuccessful. When
brought upon the table it has the consistence of jelly,
and is often spread upon bread instead of butter,
salt being sprinkled over it.

The milk when twenty-four hours from the cow, is
put into a kettle over a slow fire. The fire should be
hot enough to bring it very near the boiling point in
about two hours, and not less. A person (in England
usually a child) is set to watch it. The moment a bub-
ble rises to the top, formed by the vaporised milk, the
whole is taken off and set to rest twenty-four hours
more. At the end of this time if the quantity of milk
be considerable, the cream will be an inch or more
thick on the surface. It is now divided with a knife

. M

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p«»1

ml
mi

420

Oji Scalded Cream.

On Scalded Cream.

421

p

^ll^-

into squares of a convenient size, and removed. The
milk that remains after the cream is taken off, contains
little beside the watery particles in its original compo-
shion. The cream is excellent for use with coffee, but
when put into tea it injures its taste by being instant-
ly converted in part into butter, which rises to the sur-
face. A few strokes of the churn will form it into ex-
cellent butter. It is not uncommon to see the cream
brought upon the table, and butter made for the use of
the company by one young lady, while another is pre-
paring the tea or coffee. Sah is added by every one
according to his liking.

A month or two past, I saw a Devonshire girl making
butter in this way. She put about a half a pint of
cream into a bowl, and stirring it with a spoon made
butter, (she said half a pound) in two or three

minutes.

The dairy women say that milk treated in the mode
I have mentioned will yield one fourth more butter than
in that commonly in use in England and America.

The cream will keep sweet somewhat longer than
common cream. It is often sent to London in the
winter, more than two hundred miles, and is consider-
ed a great treat. Mr. Stephens, when he is in town in
the winter season, receives his supplies of it regularly,
by mail, from Treguna Castle, which is very near
Land's End, and more than 90 miles distant.

containing the milk is put " over the wood embers of
the ordinary hearth ; but sometimes over charcoal in
stoves fitted up for that purpose ; and remains in that
situation until it approaches nearly to boiling heat -. the
proper degree of heat being indicated by pimples or
blisters that rise on the surface of the cream. The
smallest degree of ebullition mars the process." He
adds, however, that butter made " from scalded cream
has frequently a smoky flavour, and wants the even
wax-like texture observable in well manufactured but-
ter." Marshall's West of England, vol. 1, p. 253.
London 1796. The practice of scalding cream is well
known in some parts of the United States. J. M.

■sA

Mr. Marshall notices the practice of scalding the
cream in West Devonshire. He says, that the vessel

jr%

[ 422 ]

t

111'

On the Disease in Wheat, mentioned in the Agricultural
Memoirs, vol. 1. By James Mease, M. D.

Read, June 14, 18U.

In the first volume of the Memoirs of our society,
p. 124, &c. two letters were published on a new disease
in wheat, that within the last seven years has appeared
in the state of Maryland, near Elkton ; and I am very
sorry to learn that it not only continues, but appears
to increase. Some roots of this diseased wheat have
been sent to me, by John R. Evans, Esq. of Elkton,
within a few weeks, in which however no insect, or any
other cause is discoverable either by the naked eye or
glasses, to which the stinted appearance of the wheat
can be justly attributed. The leaves of the stalks sent
are not more than two inches and a half in length, and
many of them are dead : in several roots no more than
six leaves are green. In a letter accompanying these
roots Mr. Evans says, " in those parts of the field that
show the disease in March, the wheat dries up, and
leaves the ground at this season (May 4th,) quite bare,
but if attacked in April, will remain on the ground until
the healthy wheat ripens, and is cut, without any appa-
rent change from the branches I now send you ; if the
attack is later, say about the lOth of May, it will some-
times make stalks about a foot long, with very short
heads without wheat, or very few grains in them.

'< I have looked in vain for the cause ; and especially
for insects, for five years past, and have tried a num-
ber of preparations of the land without effect, and last

year I limed the ground before my spring crop, QU

Disease in Wheat.

423

which I collected the wheat I send you : my wheat is
not much injured this spring, but some of my neigh-
hours have suffered more than usual. The disease
increases on the land that was Z. Hollingsworth's, on
which I am told the whole crop is destroyed. — I yes-
terday saw a highly manured field about two miles
from me, the property of Mrs. Gilpin, and at least one
third of it is destroyed : in many places the land is as
bare as the public road. I have not seen any field in
my vicinity, but what is somewhat injured. I have no
doubt of the disease being also in the wheat near Phi-
ladelphia.— I saw it in the wheat near Lancaster, \\v
June, 1807.'^

The most likely means to remedy the evil are the
following.

1. Attention to the stable manure put on the land
intended for wheat.

2. Attention to the time of liming the land.

3. Paring and burning the injured spots.

One of the best papers ever written on manures in
general, is by the late Robert Somerville, of Hadding-
ton, and was drawn up for the consideration of the
British Board of Agriculture : and as nothing in the
whole round of agricultural operations is of more
importance than the right management of manure, and
few are so little understood, I havethought it would
be rendering a service to the agricultural interest to
insert an extract from the paper of Mr. Somerville,
in the appendix. It is more than probable that the
disease in the wheat proceeds from very minute in-
sects bred in the manure, and that a right management
of it will tend to destroy or to lessen their number.

V' ' tj

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424

Disease in Wheat.

Breast Plough,

425

m

\ 2. It is a common practice of our farmers in Penn-
sylvania to haul lime in the autumn, on the field on
which it is to be spread the following spring, and to co-
ver the heaps with earth until it is wanted, (by which
time it will be fully slaked) and then to spread it
on the field. Oats are very commonly sown after
it, in which case wheat is invariably put in, the same
year. If oats are not sown, Indian corn is plant-
ed, and the crop being gathered, the field remains idle
until the next year, when oats are sown ; or if the land
be strong enough, barley is put in. In some cases, the
stalks of Indian corn are cut off early, that is before
the ears are quite hard or dry, and set up in bundles
against the fence in the field, where they remain until
they are fully ripened and hardened from the sap re-
maining in the stalks, and from exposure to the wea-
ther. But the practice of sowing wheat on land limed
the same year has been so uniformly found to injure
the crop, that it should no longer be followed. This
subject having been already discussed by the president
of the society, no remarks are now requisite on it. Sec
Memoirs, vol. 2d, p. 279.*

3. The practice oi paring and burning land, is scarce-
ly known in the United States, although a favourite
practice in England ; where it frequently is adopted
for the purpose of quickly destroying the matted roots

• For rye, the practice of liming the land the same season an-
swers admirably, but the lime should be hauled in the spring or
early in the summer, and mixed with the rich earth from a head
land or hedge row, grubbed and ploughed up. Clover sown early
in the following spring, on rye thus manured, thrives luxuriantly.

of sour grass. The implement used to pare the surface
' of the soil, is a breast ploughy a cut pf which is

annexed.*

The implement " is called a breast plough, from
the nfianner of using it, being pushed with the breast,
by the man who pares the land.

" At A there is a a small edge turned tip, that cuts
the furrow or paring from the rest of the sward, by
means of which when the paring is cut of a proper
length, it is turned over with the cutting iron*" Com-
n^unications to the Board of Agriculture, London, vol.
2d, page 73.t

P. S. When the foregoing paper was read in the
society, Mr. Miers Fisher of Philadelphia County,

^ Breast ploughs may be purchased at B. M*Mahon's seed and
nursery store, South Second Street, Philadelphia.

There are fiaring" filoughs, calculated for extensive operations in
paring and burning, (called Denshiring,) drawn by horses.

t After the sods are pared off, and dfied, they arc to be put up in
small heaps, and burnt. The ashes may be spread thin on the sur-
face of the soil, either of the field that has been pared, or on a grass
lot or corn field. Care must be taken to clear well from under the
h eap, to prevent too great a luxuriance of the succeeding crop.

*

VOL, III. h3

H

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) M

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. ■.■■ "^S vf^

tV'*

£•

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426

Disease in Wheat

C 427 ]

■ • ' — —

stated that the late Samuel Chew, Esq. of Chester
town, Maryland, informed him, about 10 years smce,
that he had lost upwards of 1000 bushels of wheat by
the disease described. Mr. Chew mentioned the same
fact to the president of the agricultural society ; and
Mr, Fisher found a spot in a field near him, which was
affected by the same disease. The wheat was about
a foot high, and had the appearance of heads, but with-
out grains in them. The disease now exists m the vi-
cinity of Snow Hill, Maryland.

From the fact of the sickly wheat, only appearmg m
spots in the fields, there is a greater probability that
by the use of proper means, the cause of it may be re-
moved; and the evil is so alarming that the farmers
should lose ho time in attending to every hint that is

offered to remedy it. ,

A fourth remedy, for the disease in question, is the

sowing spring or summer wheat.

There are several varieties of this wheat, some
of which have been tried in England and found not to
answer. In Canada a kind is cultivated with success ;
and in 1812, I saw at Burlington, Vermont, a very
fine sample of it, that had been raised in the vicinity ;
the seed of which had been obtained from Montreal.
In fields, therefore, which have been sown with wm-
ter grain, and destroyed by the disease under consi-
deration, the deficiency may be supplied by spring
wheat.*

• See the Appendix for observations on the culture of spring

wheat. .1

Facts relative to the Preparation of a dry Leaven or
Yeasty for making good Bread. Communicated to
James Mease ^ M. D. by Samuel L. Mitchill^ M. Z).
of NeW'Yorky Honorary Member of the Philadelphia
Society for promoting Agriculture ; in a Letter dated
June \stj 1814.

Read June 14, 1814.

One of the important improvements in the econo-
mical arts, is the preparation of bread from seeds or
grain. A further convenience in the manufacture of
this article, is the extrication of air through the dough
or paste of which it is made, to puff it up. This con-
stitutes the chief difference between leavened and un-
leavened bread.

Leaven is a material or mixture, which on being
kneaded with meal or flour, and exposed for some time
to a convenient warmth, undergoes fermentation and
produces carbonic acid gas. This aerial product fills
the soft and plastic mass with bubbles, dilates it into
cells, and imparts to it the quality of sponginess so
much approved. The leaven itself is a raised portion
of a former batch, reserved for the next occasion. It
is rendered fit for elevating a new mass of dough, by
incorporation with water, wort, or some other fer-
mentable liquid, capable of increasing its intestine ac-
tion. And the product of leaven thus mingled with
water or wort, is a foaming compound called emptyings.
Experience has shewn that leaven and emptyings, are
liable to sourness, moulding, and spoiling : and when

I

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>/

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428

On Dry Leaven.

i-?j

Ir-

i^':

l|'%

the stock is exhausted it is very troublesome to re-
commence the operation.

A substitute is folmd in barm or yeast. This is the
froth or scum that rises during the fermentation of malt-
liquor. It consists of a portion of the farinaceous
matter of the malt, associated with an abundance of
fixed air. This latter answers the pilrpose of impart-
ing to dough, an approved degree of lightness ; but
can be procured by none but those who dwell in the
neighbourhood of breweries, and that only during the
cooler season of the year while the vats are working.

Another method of raising the dough is by the ad-
dition of carbonated potash. A small quantity of this
alkaline ley, mingled with the paste, assists in the en-
largement of its volume. It is employed by the house-
wives of Long-Island, in preparing an extemporane-
ous cake, called potash'ed cake, which, when properly
managed, is palatable and excellent. The heat of the
oven, probably separates carbonic acid gas enough for
this effect. But the quantity is insufficient to make
bread of the first rate. Its agency therefore is much

limited.

Of those three materials, the two former are subject
to the inconvenience of souring, spoiling, running out,
or failing. This is owing principally to their moisture.
In leaven, a fermentation must be excited for the pur-
pose of producing fixed air ; while in yeast the air is
■ the product of a previous fermentation. It has there-
fore, for a long time been the object of particular de-
sire, to possess a dry composition that would readily
yield a sufficiency of gas for preparing good bread.
Neither potash nor pearlash corresponded fully with

On Dry Leaven.

429

this character. They usually attracted water from the
atmosphere, and became liquid. This was no objec
tion. But the scantiness of the gas extricated during
the baking-process, was an objection, where the alkali
was small in quantity ; and its disagreeable taste was
an additional objection, where the quantity was large.

Under such circumstances, it was expected that sci-
ence would step forward, to the relief of the domestic
arts. From chemistry, more especially, some nice
and well-adapted project was confidently hoped. To
men of learning and experiment, the followers of the
trades and arts looked for a dry and portable substance,
that should quickly be capable, like leaven and yeast,
of yielding a plenty of carboriic acid.

But while the wise and enlightened were pondering
upon the subject, under an utter inability to direct how
the thing ought to be done, a series of fortunate acci-
dents led to the discovery of a leaven or yeast durable
to keep, and ready to ferment.

This composition became known to the New- York^
ers, in the first instance, through the emigrants from
the eastern states. Some of these persons who la-
boured on the turnpike roads, in Orange county, were
observed to possess an efficacious method of preparing
their own bread, by means of mealy lumps or pallets
of dough, dried to hardness. These they carried with
them in a bag or box. With the single precaution of
guarding against humidity, these sons of toil and thrift,
could preserve their stock of dried yeast, for an inde-
finite time. It was found by the neighbouring inhabi-
tants, to be so valuable, that they too learned the art
of manufacturing an article, called since by them, in

'S-

-\

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«\

430

On Dry Leaven.

m)

^ i

commemoration of the way by which they procured

it, Turnpike leaven.

The preparation is plain and easy. For getting it
from the raw materials, they make a fermenting mix-
ture from a strong decoction of hop-blossoms, thicken-
ed with flour of wheat or rye. This they set in a con-
venient vessel and temperature for the intestine action.
When the operation is at its height, and the mixture
brisk with froth and bubbles, flour of maize, (Indian
meal,) is stirred into it, until the whole becomes thick
and stiff. Immediately, it is taken out of the vessel,
moulded into pieces of the size of a finger or less, and
dried in the sunshine. When properly freed from hu-
midity, it is put away for use.

The employment of it, is likewise ready and conve-
nient. By infusing and stirring a few ounces of the
turnpike yeast into a pint or more of warm water, a
fermentation soon commences. This may be aided by
the admixture of a little wheaten or rye flour. In a
moderate time, the duration, for example, from bed
time until the ensuing mom, the fixed air will be suf-
ficiently extricated ; and on being incorporated with
the meal by kneading, will raise it quickly into excel-
lent dough for bread. A more expeditious way than
this is practiced, by incorporating the mixture of the
leaven and water, with the flour into paste ; without
taking the time and trouble of exciting fermentation.
• The exposure of the dough to the requisite warmth in
the kitchen or chimney corner, will promote the work-
ing directly.

Nor is the renewal difficult. For when the quan-
tity of drj' yeast is nearly consumed, and a fresh sup-

On Dry Leaven.

431

aoE

ply desired, it may be renewed by adding some of the
remaining dry yeast to hop- water, and promoting their
fermentative action by a due application of warmth.
When the carbonic acid gas shall be in free evolution,
the action is retarded by adding Indian corn meal to
stiffness, as before ; and afterwards stopped, by dry-
ing the lumps and morsels of it, in the solar rays.
Such is the history of this economical composition,
whose inventor is unknown. By a succession of lucky
expedients, the result has probably been attained here,
as in various other cases, by persons who possessed
the capacities of artists, and the faculties of observers,
without the accomplishments of philosophers. It is ne-
vertheless, the true business of philosophy to draw im-
portant facts from obscurity, to state them fairly for
consideration, and to display the usefulness of their ap-
plications. In the present instance, science may con-
template with satisfaction, the formation, the suspen-
sion, and the renewal of fermentative motion, in a class
of substances intimately connected with the comfort
of social and civilized man.

.V V.

''S^FT

e.432 3

On the Cultivation of the BARitLA Plants in the United
States ; by Joseph Correa de Serra, F. B. S. Hono.
rary Member of the Philadelphia Society for pro-
moting Agriculture.

Read June 14, 1814.

Philadelphia May 23, 1814.

Sir, .

Considering on the subject of our last conversation,

I am come to the persuasion, that this is the proper
epoch for introducing the cultivation of Barilla m the
United States. You are arrived at the period of being
no more a merely agricultural nation, possessing only
the most necessary arts. Circumstances, and the en-
terprising spirit of your people, have thrown the na-
tion in the manufacturing career. Glass houses have
already been successfully established in many parts,
and more wiW undoubtedly be established. The ba-
rilla, you could before this, cultivate only for exporta-
tion, and you had more important articles to attend
to ; but now its importation from Europe would be re-
quired, and its price, enhanced by freights, expenses,
merchant's profits, See. would be an obstacle to the
arts to which it is necessary, and embarrass, at least,
their progress amongst you. This culture I have from
observation, the certainty will be successful in your
■ country, since the most valuable of the different plants
from which the carbonate of soda is extracted, grow
spontaneously in the territory of the United States. The
salsola kali I have found without any particular re-

.*-^^i-;

On Barilla.

43S

search, in the island of New York, towards the East
river, very near the city ; in Boston near Dorchester,
at the end of South Boston Bridge, and what surprised
me, at Falmouth on the Rappahannock opposite Fre-
dericksburgh, and at Ricket's near Richmond, both
places very remote from the sea. This makes me be-
lieve that this useful plant may enrich the bad sandy
soil as far as the head of tide in your rivers, which is
not the case in Europe, where it is generally found
near the sea shores. The salsola salsa^ another of the
barilla plants, I have observed in Boston neck, cover-
ing the low grounds inundated by the tide. The sa^
licornia fruticosa^ which is one of the materials of the
fine Alicant barilla, grows in almost all your salt marsh-
es, and your sea shores present quantities of different
species oifucusy which are in Europe employed to the
same use.

The salsola kali would be to the owners of your
sandy soils near the shore, an object of profit, with the
labour only of sowing it on such grounds, and cutting
and burning it in proper time. A little printed in-
struction on this subject would excite their attention
first ; but more is to be expected, if together with this,
they can witness the success of some practical example.

At Rome and its neighbourhood, and in several
parts of Turkey, they cultivate a superior species of
barilla plant, the salsola sativa of the botanists. This
crop alternates very profitably with the wheat and bar-
ley crops.* The Roman name of the plant is riscolu

*^ II I HI I. -.,11 II ^ - .-.-_.__ . 1^^ J

* In some cases the seeds are sown with the barley crops. After
the barley is reaped, the barilla plants occupy the ground. J. M.
VOL. III. I 3

J

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434

On Barilla.

It would be worth while to introduce the culture of
this plar^t into the United States, and to procure from
Rome not only the seed, but practical details about. ts
Lture and profits, - order that the first tnals that
should-be here made of it. may have no chance of mis-
carriage. It is a general effect of an unsuccessful a •
tempt at any new thing, let it be ever so useful, to re-
tard for a long while its introduction.

Joseph Coruea de Serra.

Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.

NOTE.

^ I have bee« informed, that, in RhoUe Island, they use the sea
^veeds,with great success, on their lands. Commonly as green
manu;es, often dried and burnt. No doubt the soda or rn.nera aU
Mi, in these plants is the operative principle : though, m add.t.o ,
the putrified vegetable is highly efficacious. TU. soda ex.
salt sedge, or marsh grass, much employed on the coasts or shor
of Ne. Jersey ; either as a top dressing, or ploughed m. It wouW
be ^vell to gain information respecting this mode of -VV^y^^^
.eeds or plants. Possibly extracting the alMi, >vhen it .s knov^.
that barilla plants are in plenty, may become a business hig...y con-
ducive to the interests both of agriculture and manufactures. R. •

l^-:r,'m

[. 435 ]

'.i

On the engrafting the Chesniit Tree. By James Mease ^
M.D.

Read June 14, 1814.

The fruit of the chesnut tree of North America is in
general, not above half the size of the Spanish ches-
nut. But it makes up for its comparatively diminutive
size, by superior sweetness. I have, however, seen
a variety of the chesnut brought to our market, which
was nearly of the size of the European species, and
as the propagation of such a variety i^ of importance,
I think it will be rendering a service to our farmers to
point out a sure and easy mode of effecting so desirable
an object.

If a young farmer would inclose ten acres of land
the first year of his farming life, plant them in ches-
nuts, and engraft them when of a proper age from a
tree bearing large chesnuts, I venture to predict that at
the end of 20 years he will have secured to himself a
greater revenue, than if the same land had been kept
in the alternate husbandry of our country.

When in flower, the chesnut tree is highly orna-
mental ; and no article raised by a farmer would com-
mand a better price in foreign parts, than its fruit.
The Spanish and French chesnuts are exported to all
the world, besides constituting the substantial part
of the diet of the peasantry, to whom they ^re as
essential as the potatoe to the generous sons of Ire-
land. Horses are also fed on chesnuts in those coun-
tries ; and the Portuguese hams, which are very much
admired, derive their excellent flavour and fatness

^

i

^m i.

,.': ,

4

436

On Grafting.

from the hogs feeding in extensive forests of chesnut
trees. 1 his fact was communicated to me by a gen-
tleman who resided eleven years in Portugal.

The method of engrafting chesnuts, to which I allude,
is translated from the " Cours Complet d' Agriculture,"

by Rosier.*

I do not find this mode of engrafting noticed by such
late American or English writers on gardening as I
have seen. Michaux notices it in his elegant and use-
ful work, on the forest trees of the United States, ar-
ticle *^ Castanea vesca."

On Grafting, by Juxta Position; otherwise called Flute,
Pipe, Cannon, Whistle, Shank, or Ring Grafting.

«« Although all grafting is by juxta position, yet this
expression applies more particularly to that now un-
der consideration ; because it is indispensable that all
the parts touch as close as possible, and that a just
proportion be preserved between the grafting piece,
and the subject to be grafted.

A branch must be selected, sound, and of the growth
of the preceding year, when possible, and while the
sap is running ; this must be cut off some inches near
the trunk, or farther off, according to its strength or

size.

The annexed cut represents a piece of a branch

separated ; but we must suppose it attached to the

trunk. From the point A, to the point B, the bark is to

» Vol. 5, p. 324. Paris 1793.

On Grafting.

437

be slit in strips by the edge of a pruning knife ; and
these strips are to be gently detached from the wood,
without bruising them, as is seen at E.

While an assistant is engaged in this operation,
another prepares a cylinder or tube, C, having a bud
D, or several buds, and of equal diameter, to that of
the wood A, when barked. Then without loss of time
it is to be slid upon the wood, until its lower extre-
mity touches the basis of the strips : if the cylinder,
applied to the wood, is proportioned to it, and if it
covers all the wood, and unites exactly with it ; the
strips are to be cut off below the cylinder, by a circu-
lar cut, and after having made the two barks join, the
united parts are to be covered with the ointment of
St. Fiacre.*

) I

1 \

■: m

• The ointment of St. Fiacre (the patron of gardeners) is a mix-
ture of cow dung and clay. The object being merely to cause the
just approximation of the edges* of the bark, and to defend them
from the air and rain, any adhesive plaster will answer the purpose.
A mixture of turpentine, wax and resin spread on thin leather,
would probably answer better, not being liable to contract and fall
oiF by heat, or to be washed off by rain.

i^i

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• !'i

438

On Grafting.

Another and a surer mode consists in preserving
the strips, and covering the cylinder with them, except
the bud or eye, and to retain them by means of ban-
dages, which may afterwards be easily detached when

required. . , r v.- u

When it isdifficult to find a branch, the bark of which

will fit exactly the branch which is cut in strips, the fol-
lowing expedient must be adopted. If it is too narrow,
a branch must be slit longitudinally on the side oppo-
site to the bud, and the cylinder being taken off, is to
be applied to the wood. Then a part of a strip is to be
raised that corresponds to the deficiency in the cylin-
der and must be divided in its whole length, of a
breldth wanting in the ring, so that this division fills
the vacant space : finally, we raise up and surround it
all around with the strips, as has already been di-
i"i*f ted

If the bark cylinder is too large, we cut it to the di-
ameter of the wood ; then fit the edges, as nearly as
possible, and cover them with the strips."

Mr. Thomas A. Knight says that " the Spanish
chesnut succeeds readily when grafted in almost any
of the usual ways, and when the grafts are taken from
bearing branches, the young trees afford blossoms in
the succeeding year."* I entertain no doubt of the
same observation applying to our American chesnut.

Those who may wish to plant chesnuts on a large
scale, or to raise nurseries of the trees, ought to take
the precaution of planting the nuts in the burs, for the
field mice will certainly destroy them if the bare nuts
be planted.

[ 439 ]

* Trans. HorticuUural Soc. London, vol. 1, p. 62,

Additional Observations on trimming Hedges; on the Ve-
getation of the Haws ; and the injurious Effects of
the Walnut and Cedar Tree on them. By James
Mease y M. D.

Read July 12, 1814.

In pages 15, and 382, it is stated that Mr. Neill in-
jured his hedges by summer trimming, but their age
was not mentioned. ** At the time they were trimmed
they were three years old, and were cut down to 12 or
14 inches. The following year, he says, they kept alive
and but little more : this year, (1813) they show more
vigour, and he thinks that in another year they will
send out well."

The haws of the Washington thorn f Crataegus cor-
data J require to be buried one winter before they
sprout, and they should be put into the ground the
same autumn they are taken off the tree ; the pulp sur-
rounding the stones having been previously rubbed
off, and the stones washed. The usual way is to put
them in a box of sand, and to stand it under the eaves
of a house, to receive the dropping of water from it,
and by the spring they will be open and ready for
planting. But Mr. Caleb Kirk of Brandywine tried
with success a more expeditious way, viz. immersing
the stones, previously rubbed and washed, in hot wa-
ter to swell them, then exposing them to the air, at
night, to freeze the water in which they were immer-
sed, and afterwards thawing them in the sun, repeat-
ing this process for four or five days, when he found
them open and fit for planting. He tried this ex-

,(/.'

'\\:

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k

tr..{

440

On trimming Hedges.

periment even so late as the first of March, with sue
cess. The haws will not vegetate, if sent to any dis-
tance in the pulp, as Mr. Kirk knows, to his cost and
disappointment. It is probable that the alternate
freezing and thawing of the Newcastle thorn rCraUgus
cms gallij will also expedite their vegetation : they
require to lay in the ground two winters before they

veeetate. _

Mr. Kirk stated to me further what may be of great
consequence to the success of a hedge, viz. the injuri-
ous effects of the common black walnut tree upon it.
One of those trees that stood at the distance of 15 feet
from a hedge three feet high, killed three pannel of it.
Anotherwalnut tree only three inches in diameter at the
root, also killed six thorn plants, and at the above dis-
tance : both trees stood directly opposite to the hedge
they blighted : on removing the walnut trees, the
hed-e grew well t-whereas an apple tree that shaded
a part of the hedge was not found injurious to it.
Cedar trees likewise are injurious to hedges, from the
farina which is so abundantly discharged from them,
settling on the leaves of the plants.

Ii'il

V

APPENDIX.

SELECTIONS.

Description of a Swivel- headed Churn Staff] to facilitate
the making of Butter : by Mr. Timothy Fisher^ of
Ormskirky Lancashire.^ ^

Siry

I beg leave to lay before the Society of Arts, &c. my
swivel-headed churn staff, which, on repeated trials, is
now fully proved to answer the very desirable purpose
of relieving the hard labour of churning ; which it does
in a much greater degree than could be supposed,
from a slight view of its simplicity and apparent small
deviation from the common churn staff. It however,
passes with much more ease through the cream. It
must be worked much slower than the common, other-
wise it is found to churn the cream too soon, or ac-
cording to the technical term in this county, to swelt it.

* Trans, of the Soc of Arts, London, vol. XXVI, p. 131, Five
guineas were voted to Mr. Fisher for this invention.

a*

'^1^:

2

Swivel-headed Churn Staff.

I have tried it in a variety of forms and sizes ; with
six wine:s the labour was less relieved ; also when I
gave less bevel to the ends of the wings.

When I gave more bevel it passed through without
producing the intended effects. Experience therefore
has convinced me, that it is best to have four wings
from six to seven inches in length, frbm the centre,
according to the size of the churn for which it is in-
tended, from two and a half to three inches in breadth,
made plane in the centre or middle, about the fourth
part of their length, and then bevelled regularly off, so
that the extreme point shall form an angle of about 45
degrees with the plane of the middle. The plane part
acts with its usual force upon the middle of the body
of the milk ; and the points turning rapidly round give
a kind of compound motion to the whole, and that also
ahernate, and yet it does not in the least splash or throw
out the cream as in the common mode.

I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

TIMOTHY FISHER,
Gun-maker.

Thomas Ecclestone, Esq., of Scarisbrick Hall, near
Ormskirk, certified, that he had seen Mr. Fisher's new
method of churning butter, and that he thinks it supe-
rior to any he had heretofore known for that purpose,
and that such was also the opinion of several other per-
sons in the farming line who had witnessed its effects.

Swivel-headed Churn Staff.

Fig. 1.
K

IT

Fig. 2.
M

O

Fig. 3.

r

D

Reference to the engraving of Mr. Fisher''^ Churn

Staff.

Fig. 1, is a section of an upright churn, in the situ-
ation it would be when at work, and figs. 2 and 3,
are enlarged views of the head of the churn staff.
ABDE fig. 1, is a section of the churn; FG is the
lid ; KL is the churn staff, and HI the wings, or beat-
ers ; it is this part only which differs from the ordinary
churn ; it consists of four wings or vanes MNOP, fig.
2, firmly fixed together, and turning freely on a pin
tiriven into the end of the churn staff. The flat part of

f ■

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4

Swivel-headed Churn Staff.

[5 ]

sx

each vane is cut, so as to be inclined to the plane in
which all four lie, in the same manner as the sails of a
windmill, as is well explained by figs. 2 and 3. When
the beater is moved up and down through the cream,
its action upon the oblique vanes causes it to turn round
upon a pin above mentioned, as a centre, a, Fig. 1,
is a small wooden bolt sliding in a groove made in the
chum staff, KL ; its end shuts into a hole b, fig. 2,
made in one of the vanes ; when this bolt is pushed
down, it prevents the vanes from turning round, for
the purpose of collecting the butter together at the top
of the butter-milk when the churning is done.

Extract from a Dissertation on the Natural History
and medical effects of the Secale Cornutum^ or Er-
^ty by Oliver Prescotty A. M,*

This production is generated by a peculiar disease,
which occasionally affects the grains of rye, and is
one of the four diseases of plants enumerated by Lin-
nseus, and by him denominated clavus ; some natural-
ists call it clavus secalinus or mater secalisy others seca-
le cornutuiny and secale luxurians. The French term
this production bled cornuy seigle ergote^ or ergot.
This disease yery often attacks the rye in France. In
the province of Salonia, [Sologne] more especially, it
is very predominant ; and in such seasons as are very
moist, is occasionally seen in Great Britain and other
parts of Europe. The rye in this country also, is so
liable to the same disease, that in our new settlements,
there is always, I believe, more or less of it to be
found in this grain ; but is more rarely to be discover-
ed on fields that have been kept in a state of con-
stant cultivation, for a considerable number of years ;
as those in the vicinity of Boston, and other towns on

the sea-board.

The earliest account of this diseased rye is probably
that of M. Dodart in 1676 ; the latest I have seen is a
memoir of L'abbe Tessier, read before the Royal Me-
dical Society at Paris in 1776. To this last I am
principally indebted for the following facts relative to
its natural history, most of which accord with my own
observations.

! i

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.i-:,t

• Eclectic Repertory, Vol. IV, No. 2, page 249.

6 Dissertation on Secale Cornutum, or Ergot.

V .

Xhis diseased grain, which I sliall call ergot, is found
in the ear of the rye, in greater or less quantity, ac-
cording to the season, and its situation. Its form is
ordinarily crooked and long ; it projects much from
the glume ; is larger in the middle than at the extre-
mities, which are sometimes blunt, and sometimes
pointed. It is seldom round in its whole length, there
being generally three angles, and certain longitudinal
lines, extending from one end to the other. In many
grains, particularly the largest, there are small cavities,
supposed by some to be occasioned by insects, by
others, by the sun. Its external colour is violet of
different degrees of intensity, which encloses a dull
white substance of a firm consistence, from which the
external coat does not separate itself even after long

boiling.

A grain of ergot breaks short, like a dry almond,
and has nothing disagreeable either in its odour or
taste ; the grains are of different size, and vary in their
length. Some are less than the grains of rye them-
selves, while others, are eighteen or nineteen lines in
length, and two or three in thickness ; but the length
is more usually ten or twelve lines. Sometimes they
are short, and at the same time large ; but these are
not of an ordinary form.

When the ergot is large, there are generally but few
upon an ear, and the grains of rye, on the same ear,
are fine and healthy, and the whole plant vigorous ; on
the contrary, when the grains of ergot are small, there
are many on an ear, and the stalk is less strong and
thrifty. There are commonly found four or five of
these grains upon one ear, frequently ten or twelve,
and sometimes, even twenty. The grains of rye in

Dissertation on Secale Cornutuniy or Ergot. 7

those ears which have many ergots are nev^f good, but
are shrunk, and covered at their superior extremity,
with a black powder.

This production, if exposed to the air, dries readily,
and becomes less in size, and very light. A measure
of it, that holds fourteen pounds of rye, will weigh but
nine pounds.

It is occasionally found on wheats but on the ears of
this grain, it is always short, though thick and well
nourished ; the quantity, however, produced by this
riant, is very inconsiderable.

On many ears of rye, there are to be found grains
composed of rye and ergot, the portion ergotted makes
sometimes one half, and sometimes only one third of
the grain, and is that part within the husk, while that
part which is rye is most distant from the ear. These
grains, if planted, will not vegetate, the germ being de-
stroyed. Winter and spring rye are, as far as has been
observed, equally liable to this disease.

Much time and attention have been devoted by dif-
ferent naturalists, to ascertain the cause of this produc-
tion in rye. Some, from the circumstance that there
is more produced in rainy seasons, and in wet grounds,
have attributed its formation to the moisture of the air
and the earth-; others believe it to proceed from the
grains having been pierced by insects ; while others
have regarded it as a mole, occasioned by a faulty fe-
cundation. This last opinion is more probably cor-
rect, for nothing has been found to contribute so much
to its production, if the soil be moist, as a storm of
rain falling upon the grain when in bloom.

There will always be more of it found on the bor-

h

r

i*

Dissertation on Secale Cornutum, or Ergot.

ders of fields, than in other parts, where the soil is less
beaten and more mellow. The humidity being equal,
those fields are most infested with it, which have been

newly turned up. 11

The soil and climate of Sologne are so peculiarly
adapted to the growth of this substance, that it is said
to produce more of it, than all France beside ; for, in
some years, not less than one fourth of all the grain,
raised in that province, is ergotted. In this district
and its vicinity, there has, at different periods, pre-
vailed among the peasants, a very malignant and mor-
tal disease, which is characterized by a dry gangrene
in some one of the extremities, sometimes in all of
Ihem, which has been generally ascribed to their living
upon bread, made of the ergotted rye.* This bread,
M. Dodart informs us, does not differ, in regard to
taste, from ordinary bread ; is more particularly perni-
eious when new ; but its effects are not observed un-
til it has been eaten a considerable time. According
to the observations of M. Noel, the ergot loses its de-
leterious qualities altogether, after having been kept a
few months in sheaf : and writers all agree in this, that
the disease it is supposed to induce is prevalent only
at the conclusion of harvest, and ceases entirely before
the commencement of the winter.

Besides this spontaneous gangrene of the limbs,
Hoffman and other writers have attributed also to its
use, another species of disease, which prevailed at dif-
ferent periods, in various parts of Europe, attended

• For a particular account of this disease, and the method adopt-
od for its cure, vid. Duncan's Med. Com. Vol. ix. p. 78.

Dissertation on Secale Cornutum^ or Ergot. 9

by convulsions and spasmodic affections. But these
are now generally considered as originating from other
causes.

In France, many experiments have been made on ani-
mals, to prove its malignant effects, and numerous
communications have been published, shewing its nox-
ious properties : but I believe it has never been con-
sidered by any of these writers, as capable of subserv-
ing any medicinal or other useful purpose.

Some few empirics, however, it is said, have long
known that the ergot would expedite lingering labour, -
But these ignorant pretenders bestow upon their nos*
trums so extravagant encomiums, and their impositions
upon the credulity of the public are so numerous anS
frequent, that no credit whatever can be attached to
their recommendations. Most of their mighty secrets,
when disclosed, prove altogether inert ; or at best very
incompetent to effect the purposes for which they are
intended. Their powder, to promote delivery, was
consequently derided, and was thought by the faculty
to be unworthy of serious attention or regard.

The first information the public received, from a
source entitled to credence, that this production was,
in reality, endued with such an unexampled property,
was through the medium of the New York Medical
Repository,* by' ^ letter from Dr. J. Stearns to Dr.
Akerly, In this communication, Dr, Steams desig-
nates it by the appellation of pulvis parturiens.

* Vol. II. p. 508.
b ^

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"it

kin- !\:tr^.

m

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C 11 1

[An account of this disease in rye, is given in seve-
ral foreign publications, and was noticed by M. Per-
rault, in the Trans, of the Royal Academy of Paris ;
an extract of whose paper is given in the Trans. Roy-
al Soc. Lond. for 1676, No. 130, p. 758. In the 54th
vol. of the transactions of the same society, there is an
account by Mr. Tissot of the disorder produced by
eating bread made of rye affected by efgot. It is de-
nominated by Sauvage, necrosis ustilaginia. The dis-
e^se termed raphania is thought to originate from the
same cause. From the observations of Dr. Stearns of
Albany, state of New York,* and Dr. Prescott, there
can be no doubt of the ergot possessing very active
medicinal powers.] J. M.

» Med. Repos. Vol. I. p. 303.

The following excellent directions^ from The
Farming Society of Ireland, are deemed well
worthy of being recommended to our sheep keeper s> These
directions arg^ the results of experience in a country in
which xvool has become of primary importance^ and re-
ceives the attention and fostering care of the first cha-
racters of the kingdom ; of whom the farming society
consists*

" 1^^. — ff^ith respect to keep. — It is essential to the
evenness and strength of the staple, that the feeding
of the aapkimal should be uniform, without any sudden
interruption or transition; where that is suffered to
take place, the natural progress of the wool is check-
ed, a second growth succeeds, and the point of con-
tact is so weak as to snap under the operation of the
manufacturer, who, being aware of this disadvantage,
cannot of course afford such a price for wool of this
description, as he could for that of a more perfect sta-
ple:— much wool is injured in this way, between
summer and winter keep, which, it is conceived,
should be made to blend, as gradually as possible,
that the mischief here spoken of might be prevented
— what the quality of the keep should be, seems not
to be of so much consequence. Merino wool, from
the rich pastures of Meath and Carlow, was allowed
to be as fine as any from the Wicklow mountains. —
The sudden transition from rich to poor diet, or from
poor to rich, appears to be the circumstance which
ought to be avoided.

m

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12

Treatment of Sheep.

Treatment of Sheep.

13

" In aid of both winter and summer keep, salt is
made use of, by the most judicious breeders— and is
recommended for a particular purpose, exclusive of
its healthful tendency, viz. for training in the flock to
such docility as renders either the crook or the dog,
or even a second person to assist in gathering the sheep
unnecessary— The shepherd of the largest flock in
Ireland always carries some salt in his pocket, of
which the sheep are so particularly fond, tl^at, when
he calls to them in the field, they flock round him to
lick the salt from his hand, by which means he can,
without any trouble, lay hold on whatever sheep he

wishes to inspect.

*c 2d— With respect to washing.— Careful river wash-
ing, on the sheep's back, is that which is at present
considered the most approved method-— for the native
sheep it is obviously suflicient, and many lots of Meri-
no wool, treated in that way, were considered suffi.
ciently clean — but where much dirt has fastened itself
at the points of the wool, and the hardened yolk cannot
be dissolved in cold water, it might be wise to have a
large tub of water, at about blood heat, in which to
place the sheep, till the wool shuU have been well
washed and softened, and that it should be river wash-
ed directly after.

" This, it is said, was the mode used by lord Ban-
try, not with the sheep, but with the fleeces which
were produced at the Cork sale, as clean as wool im-
ported from Spain.

" This process would not be so troublesome as
might be supposed— The heat of the animal will keep
nearly a sufficient warmth in the water, which will

-«— r

at all events be produced, by a few pails of hot water
put in occasionally-— and it is worthy of remark, that
the greater the number washed, the better will the
water cleanse. ' . ■

" Something similar to this has been communicated
by an eminent authority in England, who states, that
if ten flocks be washed in a clay pit of stagnant water,
the last flock will come out with the cleanest wool.

" Indeed, these facts seem to be strongly corro-
borated by the following circumstance, viz. That
clothiers who have a certain liquor in which they scour
their wool, merely add to the quantity to supply the
waste, but do not throw away the liquor itself for
years, considering that it is improved, for their pur-
pose, by repeated use.

" 3d — With respect to shearing. — It is recommend-
ed, that previous to the sheep being handed over to
the shearer, a person should clip oflf all coarse and
kempy wool from the hips, legs, pate, and forehead,
and put it in a bag or a basket apart.

** This is particularly necessary to be observed in
shearing of lambs ; as in lambs' wool, if the coarse part
and kemps be suffered to mix with the fine, they never
can be sorted out, and must spoil any fabrick to which
the wool is applied — the kemps will not take any dye,
and whatever colour may have been intended, the ar-
ticle must be a mixture. Great care should be taken
in shearing, not to give the wool a second cut, which
wastes and injures the fleece materially.

" That lambs should be shorn is not now contro-
verted — if the weather be fine and warm they should
be shorn at the same time with the sheep, or soon

.^M

i

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■-' ^

ii

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14

Treatment of Sheep.

i 15 3

after-the wool will be shorter and fitter for hatters'
use, and will be the better grown as a protection
against the cold of the ensuing winter.

" Lambs wool is much injured by a pitch brand—
a small paint brand is recommended, and that it should
be placed on the forehead or hip, rather than the side
or shoulder, which bears the finer wool.

" ith.—JVith respect to making up.— The fleece,
when shorn, is to be spread at large, with the outside
uppermost, upon a platform of boards, and is to be
carefully folded and rolled, beginning at the hinder
part, and folding in the sides, or belly wool, as the roll-
ing proceeds; when arrived at the shoulders, the wool
of the forepart is to be rolled back to meet the other,
instead of having the binder twisted from thence in
the usual manner, and the whole is to be secured by
a packcord band, in the common way in which parcels

are tied up. v • t,

♦♦ The fleece is by these means kept much tighter
together, and unfolds itself with more regularity, un-
der the hand of the sorter, who is otherwise much in-
convenienced, by the confusion or breaking of these
parts of the fleece, which are twisted together for the
band, in the common method."

The following papers are taken from a newspaper,
with a view to prevent their falling into obscurity ; so
far as we are capable of securing to them a permanent
usefulness. They are written by a gentleman of ta-
lents, who is practically well acquainted with the sub-
ject.* (See communication on common sheep and
coarse and combing wools, p. 362, of the present
volume.)

V'S

I

Information concerning Wool^ suitable for the cheapest
supply of very strong and useful woollens and wor-
steds*

In the late experiments to procure home-made arti-
cles of military clothing for the United States, the suc-
cess was greater than could have been expected, in
the present unperfected and untried state of American
manufactures. In regard to all goods made of cotton,
for purposes requiring strength or neat, uniform ap-
pearance, the present capacity of this country was ma-
nifested, on this occasion, to be far greater than our ac*
tual or probable wants require. In this valuable class
of cotton goods, are included strong neat shirting and
sheeting, cotton (and half cotton) hose, cotton drilling
for vests, pantaloons, guetres, bedsacks, working
frocks and trowsers, rifle frocks and overalls, knap-
sacks and haversacks, sewing cotton, and various small
but necessary articles.

In the woollerf branch, offers were abundant and the
finer the goods or the materials proposed, the more

* Mr. T. Coxe, late purveyor of public supplies.

4 '

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16

Information concerning

PFool.

Information concerning TVool.

17

ready the disposition, the more abundant the quantity
in proportion to the demand, and moderate the prices.
-The best cloths, suitable for the commissioned ofli-
cers. were offered upon terms the least advanced above
the European prices, owing to the spreading of the Me-
rino sheep. The cloths for the non- commissioned of-
ftgers and privates, were offered upon terms advanced
in the next degree of moderation above the European
prices, because the great body of our native or old
stock of sheep produce wool, which, after pickmg out
a little coarse and a good deal of fine, will do well for
cloths suitable for these two purposes. But it is a
substantial fact well worthy of observation and consi-
deration, that the inferior qualities of strong heavy
goods, though most easy to make, (requiring no nicety
of color, dressing, or finishing) were the most advanced
above the European goods of the same kinds m the
terms on which they were offered. The reason of
this clearly appears to be, that a sufficient number of
our sheep are not of the breeds which yield great quan.
tities of the coarse wool. The descriptions of goods
made out of this sort of wool in England are as fol-

lows : — , , T 11 4.

Kendall woollen cloths (usually called kendall cot-

tons) in pieces of twenty yards, 27 and 28 inches wide

for nineteen to twenty-four shillings sterling, undyed,

used these ten or twelve years for vest backs,— white

stoved twilled kerseys for overalls, of the same widths,

in 30 yard pieces at 45 shillings and 6 pence to 48

shillings and 6 pence sterling per piece. Undyed bock-

ing baizes, 5 to 6 quarters wide, at 2s. to 2s. 2d. ster-

ling per yard. White stoved swanskins for vests, un-

twilled or plain, raised, about 7-8 of a yard wide, at
2s. sterling per yard, and blankets for the private men,
at 2s. to 2s. 4d. sterling per pound.

It is plain, that there is not the least difficulty to pro-
cure an abundance of wool for these and all other purposes
of the armi/y navy and hospitals. But it is certain, that
they require a quality of wool inferior to what our
sheep produce. It has therefore appeared to be a duty
to bring these facts before the public, in order that our
farmers may consider the propriety of breeding sheep,
which are great bearers of long, coarse wool, the long-
er part of which is necessary for combing, and the
shorter part of which will make kendalls, kerseys,
bocking baize, drapery baize, welch plains, &c. The
best of this coarse wool is the kind fit for common
point blankets. It is well understood, that in making
this last mentioned important article, if the coarse
wool be too long, the manufacturers in England chop
it with an axe^ that it may be the better raised by the
card, after the blanket has been wove.

It is well known, that there are sufficient numbers
of these heavy fleeccjd sheep in the country, for breed-
ers. They ought to be taken great care of and used
to get up a sufficient stock of common wool. In Eng-
land, they breed both kinds (besides Merino's) and
keep the breeds and flocks carefully separated. It is to
be observed, that these heavy fleeces would be in
weight, more than'double the common ones, yet they
will sell within ten per cent, or perhaps fi.ve per cent,
in price, of the good common wool.

The manufacture of the coarser hosiery and coat*

c *

^

w

18

Information concerning IVooL

Information concerning PFool.

19

:r'?iii

ings and cheapest wool hats and carpets, also require
these cheap and heavy fleeces.

It is well known, that no nation has ever assisted
their manufactures and business in general, so effectu-
ally as the English, by breeding animals suitable to
the various objects and purposes. As we are to hold
competition with them we must do the same..

It is believed, on repeated examination and consi-
deration, that these ideas about heavy fleeces of coarse
wool are founded in absolute truth, and highly impor-
tant to our manufactures of strong, useful and coarse
woollens, and especially of all worsted stuffs and worsted
hosiery, as this wool can, nearly all, be prepared by
the comb— not by the card. Callimancoes, shalloons,
rattinets, durants, tammies, camblets, moreens, bom-
bazetts, bombazines, rvorsfed hosiery, caps and mit-
tens, and other useful goods can only be made of wool
long enough to be combed. The Merino and other fine
Avool cannot be combed. It must be carded and is fit
only for woollen, not xvorsted goods.

Xotes, on Wool and Kersey.

The last paper . treated of the twilled three point
woollen blanket. It may be useful to add, that it is
certain, that if a parcel of wool were collected in the
United States, no better than the worst fourth part ot
the average quality of our native fleeces (unimproved
by the Merino) that wool woiild be found better than
the quality of the wool of the excellent three point
blankets imported from England. Such worst quar-
ter part of our wool would not be too long for blankets.

Very little of it is so long as to render it diflicult
to card. — That little may be chopt to make it card.
The longest, which will card, is best for point blankets.
It is repeated, that the chain or warp of blankets ought
not to be too hardly twisted ; and that the xveft orfll-
ing cannot be too soft and loose, if it has only strength
or adherence enough to bear the operation of weaving.

Kersey is usually made for the army, the navy, the'
working people, and the frugal. It is equally durable,
compared with low priced broad cloths, as milled cas-
simere is, compared with the fine broad cloths. —
Cassimerc, called at first kerseymer was a mere hand-
some improvement on the kersey in England, about 40
or 45 years ago.

The weight of good 7t;//z7e' kersey, 27 inches wide
is from eleven ounces and one-half to twelve ounces
and one-half, or thirteen ounces per running yard. It
is always tweeled, and certainly owes a great part of its
strength to the tweel. It is made out of the coarsest
wooUed breeds of sheep in England, after the long
wool fit for combing and stujfs, is taken out of the hea-
vy fleeces. Hence the cost of good strong kerseys in
England, white and undyed, is as low as forty-five
shillings sterling for a piece, which is called thirty,
and will measure twenty-nine yards : that is eighteen
► pence and three-fifths sterling, or about thirty-four
cents and one-half. This article, white kersey, makes ^
excellent military vests and overalls and is peculiarly
acceptable to armies. When dyed drab, blue, brown,
&CC. it is equally good for working people, seamen,
fishermen, &c. It ought never to be forgotten, that the
Bpecie price of the Lincolnshire^ English, wool is about

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20

Information concerning Wool.

I 1,

A

w

one-sixth of a dollar there, and that after taking out
for the comb J tht wool that will not card, the rest is
kept for kerseys and blankets. Hence England leads
the world in the coarse woollen manufacture and com-
merce. This point has escaped the emperor of France
in his energetic Merino plan. He is in real danger of
rendering his woollen branch too fine and costly. The
comparative utility of the two kinds of wool is evin-
ced by the fact, that the British do not manufacture of
Spanish and Hereford and South Down (the finer class-
es of) wool, one-fourth part of their whole quantity.
Very much of the cloths of these, are used in the
United Kingdom, and in their various colonies. Their
foreign trade rests but little on ihtst finest wools and
cloths. Their great shipments to foreign countries are
in ** worsted stuffs'' of combed wool, and in woollen
cloths, plains, coatings, kerseys, bookings, draperies,
kendalls, flannels, lion skins, carpets, blankets and
other goods of carded wool, from the heavy fleeced
and long wooUed sheep of the Lincolnshire, Teeswater,
Leicestershire, South (Devon:) Cotteswold (Gloces-
tershire) and Kentish flocks, and from various other
flocks or breeds that do not bear fine wool.

The great object at present in the United States, is the
tit most economy of our wool. It is therefore suggested
and submitted, that every thing for service, should be .
tweeled or twilled, for strength and duration. The
kersey is a peculiarly important example. Cotton and
leathern substitutes for woollens arc well worthy of at-
tention, and ought to be used. The size of yarn for
the chain and filling of kersey, (and so of blankets) can
be exactly settled by examining a piece of narrow, or

Information concerning JFooL

21

three-quarter English kersey. This sort is always
single folded, never double folded. The English dou-
ble fold kerseys are dressed like coatings for surtouts.
They are valuable, but are not here meant. It is the
proper narrow kersey, which requires very little dress-
ing. They are stretched on tenter hooks to dry, or
for stoving with brimstone, in which manner the nicest
and best for military dress are often finished in the
white. For that purpose the wool should be made
quite clean by picking and washing.

It is remarked of kerseys, that the filling or weft
should be considerably larger than the chain or warp.
One side is alwavs better covered than the other. That
should be made the right side, and the goods require
only to be stretched and pressed.

It may be useful to remark here, that it is computed
in England, that rather more than one third of their
whole wool is adapted to the comb^ and therefore not
fit to card without chopping. But this operation is
very easy.

The prospect of the United States, as to sheep may
be inferred from the fact, that the lowest average esti-
mate for the whole kingdom of England with Wales,
is twenty-six sheep to every quantity of thirty-three
acres and one third of land, rich and barren, vale, plain
and mountain.

It is a duty, and it is sound policy always to bear v^ •
decided testimony in favour of those respectable citi-
zens of the United States, who have taken successful
pains to introduce into our country the very valuable
merino breed of sheep, from Spain and Portugal. No
i^anufacture has progressed here with such rapidity as

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22

Information concerning Wool

C 25 3

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that of fine broad cloths. The merino breeders have
justly a high credit for their intelligence and exertions,
in extending their attention to that nice and curious ma-

nufiicturc.

There appears in the United States a redundancy of
young men, collegiately educated in the arts and sciences,
and of the classes, which usually apply to divinity, me-
dicine, law, and commerce. It is a truth, that a know-
ledge of the arts and sciences, is extremely valuable as
a preparative and an accompaniment to an intelligent
apprenticeship to manufactures. Mechanism, chemis-
try, metallurgy, hydraulics, geometry, mensuration,
pneumatics, the mechanic powers, natural history, &c.
&c. are very useful, and almost necessary in the
great manufacturing establishments, which enrich Eu-
rope. The powerful Lavoisier was placed at the head
of that manufacture of France, which now governs Eu-
rope—^A^^ art of making gunpoivder. The good and
scientific Priestley poured a gratuitous flood 'of light
upon the metallick manufactures, which have enriched
Birmingham. The mechanical talents of Arkwright,
Bolton, Watt and others, informed by nature or in the
schools, have rendered the world tributary to Britain.
It is observed with great satisfaction that many of our
ypunger citizens of the most respectable connexions,
have recently applied themselves to the manufacturing
branches, and it is suggested, on much consideration,
that it may be well for themselves and for our country,
if a number of our best educated, best connected, and
best endowed young men should turn their earliest at-
tention, in the character of apprentices to the owners of
respectable establishment Sy to the manufacturing depart,-
ment of our trade and commerce.

a=-s

On the practicability of a Canal betxveen the head of Se-
neca lake, with Tioga creek. By Philip Church,
Esquire.

[The following letters are those referred to by Mr.
Church, in Memoirs, p. 270.]

" I have not, until a few days since, been able to
procure such precise and accurate information, as
would authorize me to make any communications to
you, respecting the practicability of connecting, by a
canal, the head of Seneca lake with the Tioga branch
of the Susquehanna : and I have thought it better not
to write to you, on the other subjects of your letter,
until it was ascertained whether there was a probabi-
lity that the canal in question could be made ; because
had the making of it been deemed impracticable, it
might in some respects have altered the steps, which
your legislature will (perhaps I should rather say,
ought to) take, to connect Philadelphia with the west-
ern part of this state.

" Between the Seneca lake and the Susquehanna
there is a large and very wet swamp, from this issues
Seneca inlet, which after running thirteen miles in a -^^
northerly, direction, falls into Seneca lake : no part of
this stream is navigable excepting the last three miles
adjoining the lake ; this part will admit boats of consi-
derable burden ; the stream is a perennial one, rather
swift, but its course is not obstructed by rapids or
falls : — Newtown creek rises in the same swamp, and,
after running in a southerly direction nine miles, falls
into the Tioga branch of the Susquehanna, near the

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24 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek.

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village of Newtown : no part of this stream is naviga-
ble, it is not so swift a stream as the Seneca inlet, and
is equally free from falls or rapids. I have no doubt
but that the waters of these creeks, together with what
could be obtained from the swamp, out of which they
flow, would be more than sufficient to feed a canal.

" This information will convince you that no obstacle
exists to prevent the opening the proposed canal ; in-
deed nature has permitted it to be more easily accom-
plished than the most sanguine person could have ex-
pected. What the cost of making it would be, a per-
sonal survey by a scientific person can alone deter-
mine ; it may, however, be safely asserted, that the
expense, when compared with the magnitude of the
object, will not only be moderate but trifling.

" If the members of your legislature intend to benefit
Pennsylvania, by obtaining, to any considerable extent,
the trade of the Gennessee country, or by retaining
the small portion of it which you now possess, I should
suppose, that the undertaking,, which would first natu-
rally present itself, would be the complete improve-
ment of the navigation of the Susquehanna, from that
part of it, which can be most advantageously connect-
ed, by roads or canals, with the Delaware and its wa-
ters, as far up the river as the point where the Tioga
branch crosses your state line. This, although of pri-
mary importance, is not the only necessary under-
takin<' : it is essential, for reasons which will be here-
after mentioned, that a good turnpike road should be
made from the western bank of the Susquehanna
(opposite to the place, which may be deemed most eli-
gible to connect with the Delaware) to that part of the

■' ,J

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\

A P LAN,

Shtwin^f the Ji^Uuive SiUi4UUn of the Sm^^^ and Ctvyu^a
Lake^ With that of ih^ Su4qMh4iruuih Hiven also a proposed' Can4»l

from die Sen..^ L^ke- tc th^ ^^^. ''^'^•/"t.'^"^''"^ ^'"J c ^
at ttu rrqurst of ^ Agricuhurtd Aci^ ^ iiu- CUy of Fhda.- hy Anu>s Lay,Land Su^

Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 25

Pennsylvania line, from which the road could be most
easily continued to the village of Newtown. Should
such exertions be made on your part, to procure our
trade, they will be met by reciprocal efforts on ours.
Your turnpike road and improvement of the Susque-
hanna, would doubtless be immediately extended from
your line to the village of Newtown — operations,
which, from the shortness of the distance, might, to
be sure, be easily effected, but which are so entirely
dependent upon yours that they never will be even
commenced until yours shall be in great forwardness.

" Previous to the consideration of the advantages,
that the proposed improvements would produce, both
for your state and for the western part of New York,
it will not, perhaps, be useless to take a general view"
of the most usual mode pursued by the storekeepers in
this country, in making their remittances to the mer-
chants from whom they purchase goods.

*' By much the greater part, indeed I believe all the
goods, that are sold in this country, are brought either
from Philadelphia or from New York. The produce
of this country, if wheat, is sent in arks (which cannot
return against the stream) to Baltimore or Philadel-

»

phia, or which is the same thing to some intermediate
place ; if live stock, it is driven to Philadelphia or New
York. The advantage of sending wheat to Baltimore
is, that, the conveyance of it being solely by water,
the expense and waste of storage, loading and unload-
ing, Sec. are prevented. This saving is, nevertheless,
more than counterbalanced, by the dangerous naviga-
tion of the lower part of the Susquehanna ; by the ad-
ditional distance, which the hands, who navigate the

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26 Canal bet-ween Seneca lake and Tioga creek.

Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 27

u

arks, have to return home by land ; by the loss of time
and expense which the storekeeper experiences m go-
ing to' Philadelphia or New York, to purchase goods •
and by, what is of more consequence to him than all
the rest, the unwillingness of merchants to credit coun-
try storekeepers, who, instead of making a direct re-
mittance of their produce in payment for the goods
purchased, turns that produce into cash in a distant
city by which the certainty of making the regular re-
mittance is lessened in proportion to the accidents and
temptations, to which the storekeeper will be liable,
by either losing, squandering, or defrauding the mer-
chant of so transferable a property as money. You
will readily perceive that the store-keeper, who takes
his produce to Philadelphia and purchases his goods
in New York, is almost equally subjected to the last
mentioned disadvantage : then, why, you ask, does he
not purchase his goods in Pennsylvania ?— because
the navigation of the Susquehanna is so uncertam that
he cannot tell when to calculate upon receiving them ;
and because, even if he could wait, without inconve-
nience, for five or six months, for heavy articles, there
is no road to enable him to carry home goods bearmg
land carriage, and without which he could not carry on

his business.

" It is true, that, notwithstanding these disadvanta-
ges some few storekeepers take their produce to, and
buy their goods in Philadelphia ; but it is mostly
those who make their remittances in live stock ; and
even many of these, within a few years have preferred
driving their cattle to the North river.-This they have
done with reluctence, because vegetation lasts a month

longer in Pennsylvania than in this country, the effect
of which is that the cattle may be kept in this country
until the very moment that the grass fail's, and yet could
get good pasture on their way to the southward, and
of course would arrive in so much better order ; that
the grazier in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, being
able to keep them on pasture some time after their ar-
rival, could afford to give more for them than the gra-
zier on the North river. Great as these advantages of
your southern situation are, they are still insufficient
to compensate for the state of your roads, which are
so very bad, that the cattle cannot be prevented from
leaving them and running into the woods, where they
feed upon the laurel and of course many of them are
thereby killed. This last circumstance entirely pre-
vents the sending sheep into Pennsylvania."

NUMBER II.

November 25th, 1810.

" My last letter finished with taking a general view
of the trade between this country and the cities of Bal-
timore, Philadelphia and New York. I shall now pro-
ceed to consider what portion of the trade of the west-
ern part of this state, Pennsylvania would immediately
enjoy from the making the proposed turnpike road,
and from the contemplated improvements in the navi-
gation of the Susquehanna ; and also, how far those be-
nefits might be extended, and the ultimate benefits
our state would derive from the extension.

f

^* The turnpike road being finished, the country

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28 Canal betxveen Seneca lake and Tioga creek.

Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 29

'M

through which it passed, would soon be settled ; the
laurel and other noxious plants would be destroyed,
and the pasture would be in much greater quantity,
better and cheaper, than on the present roads ;-tlus
;vould not only enable us to send sheep into Pennsyl-
vania and increase the number of cattle driven to that
state, but would also bring back to their former market
those storekeepers, who have, within these three years
past, resorted to the North river. Many farmers, who
have not sufficient employment for their horses during
the winter, would take their produce to the establish-
ments, which would naturally be made on the Susque-
hanna, sell it, and bring back, at a moderate price,
either goods for the store-keepers or necessaries for
their own families. In the event of an extraordinary
failure of the waters of the Susquehanna, the store-
keeper could bring up into the country the goods of
light carriage absolutely necessary to carry on his
trade, and wait until the waters should rise to transport
his heavy goods. It is, however, to be hoped, that
the navigation of the Susquehanna would be so far im-
proved as to render such an alternative unnecessary.
Men of business could not only travel speedily from
this country to Pennsylvania, say to your capital, but
the establishment of a regular and frequent communi-
cation by mail would take place, a circumstance of
more importance, both in carrying on and promoting
trade and intercourse between distant places, than is,
perhaps, generally imagined.

" The navigation of the Susquehanna being improv.
ed, so as to admit loaded boats to return up to New-
town, those, who at present consider Baltimore as

their market, owing to the facility with which they can
return with their goods, would find it more to their
advantage to carry their produce to Philadelphia ; and
for the same reason, all those who took their produce,
whether in wheat or live stock, to Philadelphia, would
exchange them for goods in that city, and thereby save
the expense and other inconveniencies, which I have
before stated they were subjected to, in proceeding to
New York for the purpose of purchasing the articles
of their trade.

** The circuit of rich and fertile country, the pro-
duce of which Pennsylvania would command, and the
inhabitants of which she would supply with foreign
and domestic merchandize and manufactures, would
be enlarged to an extent far beyond what your mer-
chants, manufacturers or legislators are, I conjecture
aware of. But let me more particularly consider how
far those improvements might be extended.

" The first operation, which presents itself, is the
connecting Seneca lake with the Tioga ; from the in-
formation contained in my last letter you will be ena-
bled to judge of the practicability of accomplishing
this. The next is the improvement of the navigation
of the Tioga above Newtown, and of the Conhocton
and Canisteo rivers, as far up as Bath on the former,
and Arkport on the latter. Whether it is possible to
render those streams navigable at all seasons of the
year, I cannot positively say, but I conclude that it is
from the circumstance of some families, who now re-
side in this country, having moved up from Fishing
creek, near Northumberland, in the months of June of
the yeai*^ 1796-7, in boats carrying ten tons, to within

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36

Canal between Seneea lake and Tioga creek.

one mile of Hornill's (within a few miles o Arkport)
on the Canisteo. After that month, or unt.l the fresh-
ets prevail, those streams are so shallow as not to ad-
mit of navigation, although they always contama con-
siderable quantity of water. The next .mprovemen
is the making a turnpike road from Phxladelphu to
Amsterdam on lake Erie, making Angelica one of
the points of direction. From the Pennsylvania Ime to
Aneelica and Amsterdam, the country would admit of
a good road, the practicability, expense, &c. of ma^mg
the road from Philadelphia to the Pennsylvama hne,
YOU can best determine. I should suppose, that those
improvements would secure to Pennsylvania a trade
with nearly all the country between Seneca lake and
lake Erie, and certainly the trade in live stock of the
whole of the Genessee country. How far I may be
correct in these opinions, the enclosed map, together
with the information I shall give you respecting the
trade with Montreal, will in some degree enaWe you
to decide. Had there been a direct road from Philad-
elphia to Angelica, it would have saved several thou-
sand dollars, in the expense of makmg a new settle,
ment. By a reference to the ipap you will find that
Angelica is nearer to Philadelphia, in a direct line,
than to New York, or to the North river by the pro-
posed turnpike in this state, which will be nearly
Lshed next fall. How many gentlemen of your aty
have been incredulous, when they have been informed
that Amsterdam was nearer, in a direct line, to PhUad-
elphia than to New York, merely because it happens
to lie in the same state, of which the latter c.ty is the
metropolis.

Canal bctxi^een Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 31

** I consider Montreal, and not New York, as your
great rival in the trade of our western country, which
has within these two years commenced, and must ra-
pidly continue, to be diverted from the latter to the
former city. The merchants of Montreal have, with-
in a few months, established stores at the mouth of
of the Genessee river, at Sodus bay, and at Otsego,
and arc giving notice in all our papers that they will
not only purchase produce, but advance money on
produce deposited with them for transportation to
Montreal. They are even extending their views still
further, and are making diligent enquiries as to the
practicability of rendering the Genessee river naviga-
ble, whereby they hope to be enabled to send mer-
chandize up that river, and thence crossing to the Alle-
gheny (a distance of but twenty-five miles) be able to
supply the western part of Pennsylvania, the state of
Ohio &c. with goods at a cheaper rate than they can
be furnished from any of the ports of the United
States. From the number of very high and perpen-
dicular falls in the Genessee, many may deem such an
undertaking not only as utterly impracticable, but vi-
sionary ; yet who shall say what it is impossible, for
cnterprize, aided by capital, and stimulated by a suffi-
cient motive, to effect ? who, that is acquainted with
the history of the internal improvement of Great Bri-
tain, the hills that have been surmounted, the moun-
tains that have been bored through, the rivers over
which canals have been thrown, shall assert that Nia-
gara itself will not yield to their exertions ? who, that
contemplates the assiduity and perseverance, with
which her merchants and manufacturers, aided by

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32 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creeff.

Canal between Seneca lake and Tio^a creek. 33

ti ^

government, are turning into canals the ditches of
Lse countries, from which there is the remotest pros-
pect of any quantity of produce being ^^^^^f^^^
Land, thus making up for their own want o tern o^.
by engrossing to themselves the mtenor of other na-
tions-can suppose that they will not stram eve.y
nerve to possess themselves of the productions of so
rich and extensive a country, rapidly increasmg m
population and wealth, and with the importance of
which its own Atlantic inhabitants are either unac-
quainted, or else undervalue and disregard.

« Montreal, however, cannot divert from you the
produce of this country in live stock, nor can she, as
her harbor is frozen for a very great portion of the
year, enter into a competition with you to obtam the
produce in wheat, to that extent which her local situa-
tion and the enterprize of her merchants would other-
wise enable her to do. The high price of wheat ge-
nerally depends upon foreign demand, and m propor.
tion as the demand for so absolutely necessary an ar-
tide of support is urgent, in that proportion the price
is exorbitant ; which, together with the bounty, on
the importation of that grain, frequently given by the
countries in which scarcity exists, produces such an
influx of wheat as speedily to supply the exigency, and
to render the demand of short duration. 1 he proba-
bility, therefore, is, that a foreign market would be
lt[ d from the ports of the United States, before
Montreal could supply it with a ship-load of gram -^
of course the Montreal merchant could not afford to
give so much for wheat as our merchants of the mid-
dle states. Indeed it is a fact, that except during the

embargo, wheat never has been so high at Montreal as
in the ports of the United States.

'* It is evident that the return trade from a sea-port
to the interior, which consists of articles of high value
in comparison with their bulk and weight, is carried on
with cheapness, in some degree proportionate to the
quantity of the trade, from the interior to the sea-ports,
which consists of heavy and bulky produce but of
small value. The immense quantity of this rude pro-
duce, MThich, by making the improvements suggested,
Pennsylvania would certainly draw into the midst of
her population from the Genessce country, &c. would
enable her to transmit by return, up the Susquehanna
and Canisteo, her merchandize, manufactures and
surplus articles, at a very cheap rate, by means of the
numerous persons and conveyances employed in bring-
ing the rude produce to her markets. Nor is the im-
portance of the measure limited here, Pennsvlvanians
might transport their goods from the Canisteo to the
Allegheny (a distance of only 48 miles, 20 of which,
from Hornill's to Angelica, is nearly turnpiked) and
thence down that river to the western part of Pennsyl-
vania, to Pittsburgh and the Ohio, and thus undersell
the Montreal merchant, however enterprising and in-
dustrious.

" I assure you, that I suggested, several years ago,
to many gentlemen of Philadelphia, the practicability
of supplying the whole western country with goods at
a much cheaper rate, by means of the Susquehanna
and Allegheny rivers, than they have been furnished
at by the present mode of land carriage to Pittsburgh —
and, yet, there were very few, who did not regard the

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54 Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek.

Canal between Seneca lake and Tioga creek. 35

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3SK

project as visionary ! this last summer, two store-keep,
ers, one of whom had purchased his goods in Phila-
delphia, the other in New York, passed through Angeli-
ca, and thence proceeded with their property down the
Allegheny — a circumstance, which increases my con-
fidence, that, when the proper improvements shall
have been made, the Ohio or western states will all be
supplied with goods by this route.

*« I shall be happy to communicate such further in-
formation as may be calculated to induce your legisla-
ture to make those improvements, and to convince
them of the absolute necessity of commencing them
speedily, if they wish to prevent the trade of this im-
portant country from passing entirely to Canada. But
let me remark that, besides addressing the legislature,
Franklin ought to appeal to the merchants, manufac-
turers and holders of real estate, in Philadelphia, and
urge them to exert themselves to obtain a cheap and
expeditious route of communication with the head-
waters of the Susquehanna and Allegheny, and of
course with the northern and western lakes. I believe
that, if they had any just conception of the importance
of such a measure that they would make every effort,
in conjunction with the legislature to complete the
improvements I have mentioned." '

NOTES.

The Ge?ies8€e country consists of seven counties ; three riort/i^
erriy viz. Ontario, Genessee, and Niagara ; huv southern, viz. Steu-
ben, Allegheny, Cattaraugus and Chatauque.— Ontario county is,
it is believed, the third in the state as to population, although there
is still much unsettled land in it.

Prom Geneva, the principal town of Ontario county, to Albany,
the distance is 192 miles, in a direct line : from the same town to
Philadelphia, about 210.

From Amsterdam, the principal town of Niagara county, to Al-
bany 299 miles — to Philadelphia 305 miles.

From Batavia, the principal town of Genessee county, to Albany
259 miles— to Philadelphia 242.

From Bath, principal town of Steuben county, by the turnpike
now completing, to Kingston on the North river, 205 miles — to
Philadelphia, by Newtown, Wilkesbarre and Easton, 210.

From Angelica, principal town of Allegheny county, to Kingston
245 miles— to Philadelphia 218.

From Great Valley creek, centre of Cattaraugus county, by way
of Angelica, to Kingston 273 miles— to Philadelphia 248.

From Mayville, principal town of Chatauque county, bordering
on lake Erie, by way of Angelica, to Kingston 297 miles — to Phi-
ladelphia 272.

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4

Shepherd's Dog.— i^ro/T? Me Sportsman's Cabinet , 2
vols. Ato. London.

This dog is the most timid, obedient, placid, serene,
and grateful m the creation : he seems studiously con-
scious of the purposes for v/hich he was formed, and
is never so perceptibly gratified, as when affording the
most incesssant proofs of his unsullied integrity.— In-
stinctively prone to industry he is alive to the slightest
sensation of his employer, and would rather double
and treble the watch line of circumspection, than be
seen indulging in a state of neglectful indolence. — The
breed is propagated and preserved with the greatest
respect to purity in the northern parts of the kingdom
of England, as well as in the highlands of Scotland,
where, in the extensive tracts and uncuUivated wilds,
their services exceed description. —

Constitutionally calm, patient, and philosophic, the
sheep dog seems totally lost to every appearance of
novelty, and insensible to every attraction beyond the
protection and indefatigable preservation of the flock
committed to his charge. — In the most sequestered
and remote spots, dreary wilds and lofty m.ountains, al-
most inaccessible to man, this dog becomes an incredi-
ble and trusty substitute ; for once initiated in the
ground- work of his office, he soon acquires a perfect
knowledge of the extent of his walk, as well as every
individual of his flock. And will as regularly select
his own, and disperse obtruders as the most faithful
and attentive shepherd in existence. — This becomes
the more extraordinary to the contemplative mind,

The Shepherd's Dog.

37

when it is recollected what immense flocks are seen to
cover the downy hills of Hants and Wilts, as far as the
eye can reach without control ; and to know that by
a single signal from the shepherd, this faithful, saga-
cious animal, replete with energy, vigilance, and acti-
vity, will make his circle, so as to surround a flock of
hundreds, and bring them within any compass that
may be required.

The sheep dog is so completely absorbed in what
seems the sole business and employment of his life,
that he does not bestow a look, or indulge a wish be-
yond the constant protection of the trust reposed in
him, and to execute the commands of his master ;
which he is always incessantly anxioii^to receive, and
in fact is invariably looking for by every solicitous at-
tention it is possible to conceive. — Inured to all wea-
thers, fatigue and hunger, he is the least voracious of
the species, subsists upon little, and may be justly
considered truly emblematic of content. — Though
there is the appearance of a somniferous indolence in
the exterior, it is by no means a constitutional mark
of habitual inability ; on the contrary, the sagacity, fi-
delity, and comprehensive penetration of this kind of
dog is equal to any other, but that there is a thought-
ful or expressive gravity annexed to this particular
race, as if they were absolutely conscious of their own
utility in business of importance, ^nd the value of the
stock so confidently committed to their care.

Amidst the infinity of cases so constantly issuing
from the press, in which proofs almost incredible are
authentically adduced of the courage, sagacity, fidelity,
gratitude, and self denial of different kinds of dogs,

: i '

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38

The Shepherd's Dog.

■<':i

many are to be found upon record appertaining to this
particular race ; if they are not so numerous as some
other sorts, it may be fairly attributed to the little pro-
portional chance they have (from their remote and se-
questered employment) of displaying those powers iiu
an equal degree with dogs more engaged in the bustle

of human society.

Dr. Anderson (in his translation from Dr. Fallas)
introduces the following instance of sagacity in a
shepherd's dog, which he considers truly astonishmg ;
and it will create no surprise with those who are in the
least acquainted with their perfections.

*^ The owner himself having been hanged some
years ago for sheep stealing, the following fact, among
others respecting the dog, was authenticated by evi-
dence upon his trial. When the man intended to steal
any sheep, he did not do it himself, but detached his
dog to perform the business. With this view, under
pretence of looking at the sheep with an intention to
purchase them, he went through the flock with the dog
at his feet, to whom he secretly gave a signal, so as to
let him know the individuals he wanted, to the number
of ten or twenty, out of a flock of some hundreds ; he
then went away, and at a distance of several miles sent
back the dog by himself in the night time, who pick-
cd out the individual sheep that had been pointed out
to him, separated them from the flock, and drove them
before hirn by himself, till overtaking his master to
whom he relinquished them."

The shepherd's dog rather shuns than seems anxi^
ous to obtain the caresses of strangers, of whom he al-
ways appears to be shy and suspicious ; it bemg re-

The Shepherd's Dog.

39

markable, that when refreshing upon a journey with
the flock, he seldom reposes but close to the feet or
body of his master ; who well knows if he but depo-
sits his coat or his wallet, and gives the animal the ac-
customed signal ; when the sheep are at pasture, he
may absent himself for hours, and at his return find
the whole as safe and regular as if it had been under
his own inspection. Although it is already observed,
these dogs afford no evident external proof of quick
conception, or rapid execution (except in all 'matters
relative to the flock, to which thefr every faculty ap-
pertains,) yet their sagacity and fidelity is found equal
to every other branch of the species, when necessarily
brought into useful action.

" In the month of February 1795, as Mr. Boulstead's
son, of Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, was attending
the sheep of his father upon Great Salkeld common,

he had the misfortune to fall and break his leg. He

was then at the distance of three miles from home, no
chance of any persons coming in so unfrequented a
place within call, and evening very fast approaching :
in this dreadful dilemma, suffering extreme pain from
the fracture, and laying upon the damp ground at so
dreary a season of the year, his agitated spirits sug-
gested to him the following expedient : Folding one
of his gloves in his pocket handkerchief, he fastened it
round the neck of the dog, and rather emphatically or-
dered him ** home." These dogs, trained so admira.
bly to orders and signals during their attendance upon
the flock, are well known to be under the most minute
subjection, and to execute the commands of their mas-
ters with an alacritv scarcelv to be conceived.

K'

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40

The Shepherd's Dog,

«:.

Perfectly convinced of some inexplicable disquie-
tude from the situation in which his master lay, he set
off at a pace, which soon brought him to the house,
where he scratched with great violence at the door for
immediate admittance— This obtained, the parents
were in the utmost alarm and consternation at his ap»
pearance, but more particularly when they had ex-
amined the handkerchief and its contents.— Instantly
concluding beyond a doubt, that some accident had
befallen- their son, they did not delay a moment going
in search of him ; find the dog, apparently conscious
■ the principal part of his duty was yet to be performed,
anxiously led the way and conducted the agitated pa-
rents to the spot where their son lay overwhelmed with
pain, increased by the awful uncertainty of his situa-
tion.—Happily this was effected just at the close of
day, when being immediately removed, and the neces-
sary assistance procured, he soon recovered, and was
never more pleasingly engaged than when reciting the
sagacity and gratitude of his faithful follower, Avho then
became his constant companion."

The Shepherd's Dog.

41

portion, attached to the adjacent Tarms : every sheep
owner has a particular raddled mark ; the shepherd's
dogs are so trained, that if a sheep, with a strange
mark, comes on his master's front, the dog will single
him out and worry him off." — See statistical survey
of the county of Kildare, by T. J. Rawson, Dublin,
1807, p. 121. J. M.

P'^-:i-\

!k"JK!i<

The instances of intelligence in the shepherd's dog
are recorded in all books treating of the manners and
liabits of the dog tribe. One more may be mentioned
from a recent publication. It is given for the pur-
pose of stimulating the American farmer to possess
himself of one of the breed as soon as possible.—
Speaking of the " Currach of Kildare," the author says,
" The commonage is stocked by a prescriptive pro-

VOL, III. '

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C 42 ]

The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn. 43

r

k

The Pyracantha, or evergreauthorn, recommended to
the attention of the farmer, as superior in many res^
peats to any other plant yet tried in this country for
the purpose of forming close and substantial live fen-
ces. JVith remarks on the proper mode of its applica-
tion, culture, trimming, ^c. Respectfully inscribed
to the President and members of the Agricultural So-
ciety of Philadelphia. By Thomas Main.

The Pyracantha is an indeciduous shrub, thickly set
with small oval leaves, and abundantly armed with
sharp prickles, After it is three years old, it annually
produces its umbels of white flowers, which are rather
pretty than splendid, in the month of June, at the same
time when the American hedge thorn is in bios-
som. By the beginning of September it appears em-
bellished with numerous long roquets, and large clus-
ters of scarlet coloured berries, which continue on the
plant through a great part of the winter. At the com-
mencement of frosty weather, the green hue of its fo-
liage is changed into a deep purple, of which complex-
ion the whole plant remains until the return of spring,
when its leaves again resume their verdant tincture,
but of a tarnished and dingy appearance, till the new
shoots restore its former freshness and beauty. The
mode of growth, and appearance of the Pyracantha, is
not easy to be described ; its lowermost limbs and
sprays recline upon the surface of the earth, and in a
few years closely cover a considerable space, around
the original stem, which in a generous soil will some-
limes soon acquire the sijxe of a person's ancle ; but it

carries this thickness to no great height, being branched
from the bottom, and irregularly diffused into numbers
of rambling limbs, mixed and naturally interwoven
with many other more flexible sprays and upright
shoots, rising in an entangled mass to the height of tea
or twelve feet ; but of the altitude which this plant
may ultimately attain, in a congenial soil, I am not in-
formed.

The Pyracantha, like most other plants that nature
has in part consigned to human care, requires to be
cultivated in its infancy. Stirring the soil and clearing
the surface around occasionally from weeds, tends
greatly to accelerate its progress to strength and matu-
rity. Whenever any of its procumbent limbs or sprigs
happen to be covered with mould in the genial season,
they immediately take root ; so that one original plant
may in a few years be surrounded with a numerous
progeny, attached to each other by intermediate ties,
and connected with the common parent, by conjunc-
tive bonds of union, at dift'erent heights from the sur-
face. The roots of the Pyracantha, however, do not
run far and send up suckers at a distance like the com-
mon locust ; so that its propensity to take root, by-
layers, is no way detrimental to its being closely con-
fined within a desirable and correct boundary.

No plant appears to agree better with pruning than
the Pyracantha. Trimming its smaller sprays with
the hedge- shears, and loping off its larger limbs with
the bill, in proper seasons, and at due intervals, is pro-
ductive of a numerous train of new vigorous shoots,
and contributes to multiply their entangled ramifica-
tions.

I '3

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44 The Pyracanthay or evergreen-thonu

The early and extraordinary fecundity of the Pyra-
cantha, is a circumstance of much importance to the
hedger. To shew this in the following point of view
may perhaps savour of the extravagant, it is neverthe-
less strictly true. Since the commencement of my
nursery here, I have furnished plants of the hedge-
thorn, sufficient, at the distance which they ought to
be set, only, to plant upwards of 100 miles of hedging.
Had each of these been a Pyracantha, they would have
been enough to have run 1000 miles of a close hedge ;
which in a very few years, say ten, would have been
capable of furnishing seed and plants sufficient to have
enclosed every arable field in the United States.

Everv one who has attempted to raise thorn-hedges
in this country, must know how difficult it is to obtain
seed even for small experiments, of the several species
of haw thorns, indigenous to America, and if I had
not by accident discovered, in the year 1795, that kind
which is a distinct species of the Crataegus Cordata,
or of the two haw thorns with heart shaped leaves, one
of which I have named the American hedge-thorn, I
am certain I never should have been able to procure
a sufficiency of seed from all the other sorts in this
neighbourhood, to have answered my intention. But
however plentiful the berries of the hedge-thorn gene-
rally are, in comparison to those of the other species of
haw thorns, its fecundity is far inferior to the Pyracan-
tha, which cannot only be propagated by seed, but
every plant in a hedge of it may, in the third or fourth
year of its age, be made, by laying, to produce ten,
twenty, or more plants, with good roots, and conse-
quently afford materials for planting a new hedge, ten

The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn. 45

^'^;

or twenty times the length of the original ; and this
by the mere play- work of children. This, when taken
into the estimate along with its exuberant production
of seed, renders the increase of its prolific powers so
rapid, as almost to exceed belief, to stagger credulitv
and outstrip the celerity of our wishes. These are not
the visionary prospections of an infatuated theorist,
pursuing the shadows of imagination, but the deduc-
tions of practical veracity.

Disastrous events sometimes lead to far off and fu-
ture benefits. It is now thirty five years, wlien, being
at sea, and forced to land at the back of the British
Isle of Wight, in travelling across the country, I, for
the first time, saw the Pyracantha ; it was a single
plant, trained upon the gable end of a brick building,
and neatly spread upon the wall ; it exhibited at that
season, being the month of October, a drapery of dark
green foliage, profusely interspersed with large clus-
ters of scarlet coloured fruit. I never saw a Pyracan-
tha again until the year 1796, when being employed in
collecting diffi:;rent kinds of plants to bring over here,
I happened to see two or three of the Pyracantha in
training to cover a tool house, in a garden in Scotland.
These had no fruit upon them, but the beauty of the
one I had formerly seen in the Isle of Wight, instantly
recurring to my remembrance, I resolved to bring
' some sets along with me ; these, from the length of
the voyage, all perished by the way ; but sending for
a new assortment the next year, I received two plants
of the Pyracantha in tolerable preservation, though it
was late in June when they arrived, and the whole
package much abused, and contentiously detained by

1 1

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46

The Pyracantha, or evergreen-thorn.

The Pyracantha, or evergree/t-thorn.

47

the custom house h. Alexandria. By careful nursing,
my two little plants both succeeded. I planted them
m different parts of my nursery, intending to propa-
gate from them merely for ornament ; for at that time
I had no idea of the Pyracantha being a ^"^table plan
for live fences ; ..or ever had heard, or read that it
had been applied to that purpose. Each of these two
plants, in about four years, by the extension of their
lower branches, covered a space of nine or ten feet m
diameter, spread naturally close upon the surface. But
in the second year I layed forty or fifty of their spr.gs
in the ground, after these were rooted next year, 1
planted them in a row in the nursery, and culled from
thence occasionally, several of them for sale : leavmg
the remainder at last about a yard apart. The two
original plants began to bear the third year and find-
ing it more convenient to raise handsome plants from
seed I never troubled myself afterwards to raise them
from' layers. Being at length in the habit of raising
considerable numbers of Pyracantha plants, for the
purpose of ornamental hedges to purchasers, and en-
couraged by the promising appearance of the short
row raised from layers, and the encrcasing strength
of my two original plants, I began to entertam a no-
tion of trying it on a larger scale, as a live fence and
in the year 1806, commenced the execution ot my
projected essay. Every part of the fiirm which I now
occupy, on every line where I could have any hope
that the hedge-thorn would succeed, being already
hedged with that plant. I had no where to try the
Pyracantha but a length of about two hundred yards
of thin, meagre clay soil, in a bleak situation, exposed

to the clear scope of the north west wind. Forced by
a sort of necessity, to try it there, I accordingly did so,
setting the plants about a yard apart. Having great
distrust that the soil was too poor to nourish them to
sufficient strength, even with the aid of a little manure,
which I scattered along the central furrow, I planted
a small honey locust in each interval between, and in
the same line with the Pyracantha. Twice, and some-
times but once a year, I stirred the hedge course with
the plough, and cleaned the intervals about the roots
of the plants, from weeds, by a small garden hoe. Per-
ceiving in a few years, from its thriving appearance,
that this hedge would soon produce a considerable
quantity of seed, I trimmed it sparingly for that pur-
pose, and not so much as I knew to be requisite, to
induce the plants quickly to close with each other ;
and to give the whole a more handsome appearance.
Being in a remote corner, not in sight of the house, it
suffered in its infancy many species of Injury. It has
however thriven in such a manner, that the greater
part of the honey locusts have been smothered by the
luxuriant growth of the Pyracantha. I never had much
notion of a mixture of plants in live fences, and this
experiment has in some measure, though not com-
pletely, confirmed my opinion.

I have now trimmed and ditched a small portion of
this line of hedge, in order to show what powers the
Pyracantha possesses to form a live fence, on such a
poor soil, with the assistance of a ditch outside, and a
bank taken from thence and raised close to the hedge
on the inside of it. On a better soil, I am confident
that the Pyracantha will less require the assistance ol*

•f I.

Mr:, \^ \- V ,>n

'MM^':

48

The Pyracantha, or evergreen^thorn.

The Pyracantha^ or evergreen thorn. 49

ditching, than the hedge-thorn, as the short row which
I raised from layers now sufficiently evmces. Be.ng
anxious to save every ^png of it for the saK
I never trimmed it until last year, when I cut it down .
o about four feet from the surface. It is now up
wirds of nine feet in height, and presents a close,
It otg and commanding aspect of defence, affording a
nndsome specimen of accidental hedgmg, naturally
l:;frwoven.'without splashing, training or trimming,
except the once cutting down as mentioned.

On a view of the ditched portion of my Pyracan ha
hedge, the consequence is easy to be perceived; the
flexfbb undergrowth of the plants will lean down^and
t e to defend the face of the ditch ^ro^^^^^^
of frosts. In a free soil, they will reach the bottom,
where the extremities of the sprays will sometimes
Tn situations nearly level, be covered by the -diment
which they will serve to arrest in the time of rain and
taking root from thence, send up m process of time a
new offspring of shoots, strong or weak accordmg a
the nature of the soil may be more or less favourable
for their nourishment : and where stagnant water is
not too long retained in the ditch to injure them. This
it is evident will take place in favourable situations.
But although this will not always be the result it is
beyond doubt, that in forming the bank close by the
back of the hedge, numbers of the extre«iities of the
limbs and sprigs will be covered up m the earth, and
will there certainly take root and surmount the top ot
the bank with new embattled ranks of eminent resist-
ance •, so that the whole exterior face of the work will
in time be covered with a double or treble range of

impenetnible armour, connected in one thof ny mass
of defiance.

But although I have now such a high opinion of the
Pyracantha, for live fences, I am not out of conceit of
the American hedge-thorn^ as it is truly far superior to
all the other species of hawthorns, that ever I have
seen, for the purpose of hedging. Other names have
also been invented lately for this plant, with what ho-
nesty of intention, I shall leave it to the consciences of
such geniuses to determine : it has been called by such
the Virginia thorn, the Washington thorn, and per-
haps by other names that I have not heard of ; but
which I, as being the first who discovered its superior
properties as a hedge plant, and introduced it to pub-
lie notice, have long since distinguished by the name
of the American hedge-thorn. This plant is easily
known from all the other kinds of hawthorns, by its
commonly bearing large clusters of very small light
crimson coloured berries, each of which contains five
stones, and by its flowering in the month of June,
when all the other sorts have set their fruit. But nei-
ther hedges of this, nor of any other of the various na-
tive hawthorns, including the European hawthorn, (or
Cratcegus oxycantha) also, can so easily or efTectuallv
be made close at the bottom, as the Pyracantha.

It is not such hedges as are generally seen in Bri-
tain, that will prove a sufficient security to us, against,
the intrusion of hogs and other small domestic ani-
mals. Our larger cattle, also, b^ing of necessity suf-
fered to range in woods, and unenclosed lands, at dis-
cretion, have every opportunity to find out, and break
through the weaker parts of our fences. It is there-

W'S

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VOL. III.

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50

The Pyracantha, or evergreen-thorn.

fore necfssary that our hedges should possess the dou-
ble properties of closeness and strength to guard against
both those species of trespassers. The Pyracantha,
by itself, on a good soil, is the best plant that 1 know
of, to effect both of those purposes. On a poorer soil
it will often require the aid of ditching, but the ditch
ought never to be made, until the hedge is four or
five years old, by which delay, the hedge can be much
more easily and effectually cultivated, than if it had
been planted on the bank of a ditch at first, as m the
British method : this however cannot be done without
the assistance of temporary fences. But on a flat, rich
and deep soil, such as the prairies of the west, where
timber cannot be obtained, a five or six foot ditch, and
bank proportional, may answer for the Pyracantha
pretty well, without any other protective or temporary
fence ; planting a double hedge row in this case, one
in the usual place outside, next the ditch, and another
near the foot of the bank, inside, which will, with very
little training, cover the whole bank, in a few years,
with a complete coat of resistance. On land that is
but tolerably good, one row of the hedge thorn, and
another of the Pyracantha, at the distance of four or five
feet from the former, and on the outside of it, will make
an excellent fence in a few years, where the hedge-
thorn alone would be a long time easily pervaded, both
by large and small animals : even with the aid of the
troublesome and tedious operation of splashing. I am
sorry that it is out of my power, by any description
that I am capable of writing, to give the reader a clear
and correct idea of a hedge of this double description .

The Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn. 51

and more sorry that I have had no opportunity, though
long desired, to show a model of it in practice.

Different soils, situations and circumstances, will
require a somewhat different mode in the application
of the Pyracantha. In the early stages of the business
of hedging, which is yet but beginning in this country,
no ingenious experimentalist ought to tye himself to
the opinions and practices of others that have gone be-
fore him ; but set his own skill ^nd contrivance to
work, in order, if possible, to discovema still better
method. The writings and recommendations of others
are oftentimes not to be implicitly received. Inflitu-
ated, as it were, with the children of our own beget-
ting, we see in our own inventigpg, beauties and per-
fections which no other eye can perceive. It is there-
fore prudent to adopt with caution, whatever is thus
brought forward for imitation. An essay on a small'
scale, conducted with attention, patience and perseve-
rance, where there are any doubts respecting the re-
sult, is always the safest ; and when successful, will do
more towards introducing the practice to a neighbour-
hood, than all that books or writings can perform. To
the enterprising, industrious and discerning agricultu-
ralists, in the various parts of the country where live
fences are becoming every day more and more indis-
pensable, it is unnecessary to say more in recommend-
ing them to try the Pyracantha, although something
more yet remains to be stated.

In the year 1810, being about to publish a treatise
on hedging, which fell through for the vant of sup-
port, a gentleman, friendly to the work, advised me to
read Dr. Anderson's Essays on rural subjects, before

.H S.^

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52 The Pyracantha, or evergreen-thorn.

I should isi^ue my own piece to the public. His book
was written many years ago, and adapted to the cli-
mate and other local contingencies of Britain. In
reading it I was highly gratified. to find that a writer
of his practical skill and discernment, had long since
recommended the Pyracantha, as a fit plant to fill up
gaps, and close the bottoms of hedges in that country ;
though I had never heard of, nor seen it applied to
that purpose, nor ever knew it, but in the transient
glance of its^ame, in catalogues of plants, except as
already related, until I became intimately acquainted
Avith it in this country. Previous to reading Dr. An-
derson's essays, I had for a number of years perceived,
. that the most intemperate heat of the weather here,
had no other cfiect upon the Pyracantha, than to che-
rish its growth, and that when once it had taken root,
it never languished during the severest drought, but
c^ontinued in those times more rapidly to elongate its
shoots; and retained, without shrinking, the usual
brightness of its verdure. I considered that the strong-
est heat of our summer sun was congenial to its nature ;
and knowing now that it has been recommended by
the judicious agriculturist above named, as a suitable
plant for the purpose which he describes, under the
weak and winking influence of the sun in Scotland, I
am confident that it grows foster, and will attain to for
superior strength in America. Of what country it is
a native, I know not ;* but I know that it bears the

* Dr. Martyn says that it is a native of the south of Europe ;
common on Caucasus, and in the Chersonesus Taurica ; also m
China. It was cultivated in England in 1629. It is now callcl

The- Pyracantha^ or evergreen-thorn.

:3

* utmost intensity of our frosts, equally well as the indi-
genous plants in this neighbourhood. I have said no-
thhig of the beauty of Pyracantha hedges, that being
only a secondary consideration : nevertheless, few of
the vegetable tribes can exhibit, in the fall of the year,
a richer and more splendid display of beauty, than the
vast profusion of its clustered berries show among the
empurpled foliage of the plant, particularly as it ap-
pears before the eye that pursues the long continued
perspective riband of it in a hedge-row.

I have a considerable quantity of Pyracantha ber-
ries, which will be sold in small parcels to applicaiUs,
any time before March. Letters (post paid) will re-
ceive all proper attention.

George Town^ District of
Columbia. Dec. 1812. .

mesfiilus fiyracantha by botanists : and buis son ardent in French,
from the redness of its berries.

Dr. Martyn further remarks, that the genera Crataegus, Sorbus
and Mcspilus are very nearly allied, and scarcely to be distinguish-
ed by the number of styles. The leaves in Sorbus are pinnatej in
Crataegus, angular, and in Mespilus, commonly entire.

Marti/n*s Edition of AriUer^a Gardener* a Dictionarij,

'■'■'.■ J. M.

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On Potatoes.

The following paper onpotatoes, by Mthur Young
Esquire, is published to shew the -"-« ^^ ^
contains and as information to us of the value ot
TZ, That it is an exhauster we have long
known. The idea that potatoes are valuable as pre-
p'aTory to .^heat crop is not now so prevalent as
formerly. The desire of those farmers who wish to
avT abour, and double .ork their dung by plantmg
;;atoes on fallows intended for .keae, is mjur.ous .^
Macious. The ground for potatoes must be more
highly manured, than a crop of -'j^^^y^^-^^^^,
th! quantity of dung proper for a wheat crop on ly, .
laid on for potatoes and wheat, little fertility wdl be
left after the crops are gathered ; nor will either crop
"be abundant. The late gathering potatoes retards
sowing wheat in due season ; and although in some sea-
ons, Iheat after potatoes succeeds, it - gei^r^^^
Urdous and ineligible practice. In ^«^/-^ *
planting potatoes, and particularly on whea fallows
I forb-fdden in leases ; and restrictions on their ■
ture are common. Their frequent failures of grarn
crops force the cultivation of the potatoe ; which.no
doubt, is a highly valuable product, but should be cuU
tivated as a crop by itself; and not i" ^^^^^^^j:'^^
a grain course. I find this opinion, though not g ne-
rally adopted, is not singular, and is the result of
my own experience. When I mean to sow T.mf.r gram
after/,o^afo.., I always allow a greater proportion ot
. manure, and believeri/ra much surer crop than xvheat.

On Potatoes.

55

i-'.f

Mr. Young, in another paper on the subject, gives
a long detail of experiments on fteding potatoes y to va-
rious species of stock. His enumeration of pecuni-
ary value per bushel, will shew the advantages of this
food, compared with other esculents, for our domes-
tic animals and enable our farmers to draw their own
conclusions.
Feeding horses with potatoes^

brings their value, for this sterling.

purpose, to X. 0 1 6 or 33| cents.
Feeding cattle, 0 1 0 or 224.
Feeding hogs, 0 10

Reckoning our dollar at As. 6c/. sterling.

R. Peters.

[Mr. Bordley has clearly shown the greater econo-
my of potatoes, over corn, in fatting hogs. See " Notes
on Husbandry," 1st edition, p. 230.] J, M.

I

m

Copy of a letter fro7n Arthur Youngs Esq. on the sub-
ject of Potatoes, published in the Farmer'* s Journal,
30th March, 1812.

K

To the editor of the Farmer's Journal.^

Sir, '.. *

Having been urged by several gentlemen, who heard
a lecture lately read to the Board of Agriculture, on
extending the culture of potatoes, to print that paper

m

\:y*'

• Printed by Evans and RufTy, at
nal, 29, Budge Row, London.

flfice of the Farmer's Jour-

jH|;

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56

On Potatoes.

On Potatoes.

57

as soon as possible, I declined it. for a reason which
appeared to mc sufficient ; because not one pamphlet
rLdred circulates a... f«^^ ,

useful paper s very generally rcaa, ^ " &
comlniLe to you those circumstances wh.ch -y
immediately tend to induce a more general cultwat.on
of that important root ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^

The averacrc import ot wiieax lui
rfh^s been little short of 700,000 quarters per an-
' an expense, in that period, of above 30,000,000

num, at an ^^^P*^"'^' ^^^ .^.d arable land

pounds sterhng. Supposmg tne g
of the kingdom to amount only to 25,000,000 of acres
halfan acre in every hundred added to the prese.U
space under this crop, would produce human food suf
SL to answer the purpose of all - -P; -
vvhe.t • and this at the moderate cstmiatc of one acre
1 toes being equal to two of wheat : hence then
he difficulty of feeding ourselves without a depexK^-
cnce on foreigners and enemies cannot be reckoned m-
superable ; in truth, it would be so very easy a busi-
:: that we can only express astonishment that some
.nea;s have not already been adopted to --re sone
cessarv a supply. But if the root was attended to
:rely with a'vLw of human food, the culture would
be liable to great variations, according to the sale
price ; so that if wheat happened to be cheap and po-
tle consequently low in price, they m,ght be ne
elected, and a scarcity of wheat happen without the
root for a substitute ; such a vibration, of many po^^"
toes in one year and few in the next, . greatly to be dc-
precated when the subsistence of the people is n. que
tion. On this accq^L »^§"^ ^^^^^ "^'^^^^''^ "^ '

root being cultivated for the use of horses, cattle, and
hogs, in order that the farmers might be able to spare
a portion of their crops in times of scarcity, to sell to
the people ; and I .presume to suppose, that if four or
five per cent, of the land of every farm were thus em-
ployed, the advantage to the farmer would be very con-
siderable ; as he would in such a case be paid for that
support of the people, which in the present order of
things, has cost, as stated above, more than 30,000,000
pounds sterling paid for foreign wheat.

The inducement to landlords and farmers thus to
extend this branch of cultivation, would necessarily
depend on their being convinced that the root is profit-
ably applicable to the live stock I have mentioned :
to prove this point I quoted a great variety of experi-
ments, published by the men who made them, shew-
ing, that potatoes paid Is. 6d. per bushel of 66 lbs. as
food for horses, in saving oats or hay, or both ; and Is.
per bushel on the average of horses, cattle, and hogs :
these trials were made by practical men, many of them
of great experience, and of known accuracy. In what-
ever manner the produce of potatoes is, on an average,-
reasonably calculated, it will evidently appear, that
no farmer could entertain any well-founded apprehen-
sion of the culture proving disadvantageous. It is ad*
mitted that in many cases the root is an exhauster,
and consequently by no means beneficial to the farm,
relative to that portion of the crop which is sold ; but
for all the rest of the produce applied to feeding and
fattening live stock, the dunghill amply remunerates
for the deficiency.

When the present state of the corn markets is coit-

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On Potatoes.

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sidered I trust 'that you will agree with me, that an
extended cultivation of potatoes is, at the present mo-
nient, an object much deserving attention ; and when
it is further considered that the parochial poor, through
much the greater part of the kingdom, are enabled,
by rates, to consume wheat at present as m ordmary
times, the importance of the proposal now submitted
to your consideration, may receive additional weight.
Such a subject as this calls for the attention of par-
liament, but not on the spur of a difficulty : it should
be taken into consideration when none presses. I fear
that such an interference will become doubly necessa-
ry from a circumstance not immediately apparent ;
lelses of a right duration are quickly going out of fa-
shion, so that we may expect a gradual declension la
the produce of corn, which will by and by be felt se-
verely, if it be not so at present. The mischievous
idea of a depreciated currency, has given a severe blow
to long leases ; and I cannot but think it an astonish-
ing solecism, to find that orators and writers can at one
time speak and write in favour of agriculture and leas-
es, and at other times declaim on the visions of depre-
ciation ; a notion which, if it continues to be blazoned
as it has been, will not leave a long lease in the king-
dom, and consequently not permit a valuable improve-
ment by any tenant, from Cornwall to Caithness.

I have the honour to be, &c.

Arthur Youkc«

Sackville Street, London,
March 25, 1812,

On internal Improve?nentSy by Roadsy Canals, fcrc.

[The two following letters are taken from Mr. Wil-
liam J. Duane's pamphlet, referred to, page 273, of
this volume, and should be read in connection with
Mr. Church's letters, page 23, &c. of this appendix.]

LETTER XIL

I have shown that the most important internal im-
provement would be, a water communication between
the eastern and western rivers ; that on this object the
legislature ought to bestow immediate attention ; and
that it is not necessary for the state to expend a cent
of public money upon that part of the route between
the Delaware and the Susquehanna, which is more than
one fourth of the whole distance, and the most difficult
to open ; I say the most difficult to open, because it is
now ascertained that a canal must be opened the whole
way, and that even that part of the Schuylkill between
Norristown and Reading, which it was at first suppos-
ed, might be used, will not answer.

As, therefore, no money is necessary for the east-
ern part, there ought to be the less difficulty in going
on with the remainder, that is, the improvement of the
west branch of the Susquehanna. But before any thing
of this kind can be attempted, accurate surveys, esti-
mates, &c. will be necessary, and these should be ob-
tained from able engineers, aided by watermen of ex-
perience, and from no other persons.

The next object, most worthy of legislative atten-
tion, and which can be effi^cted without any impedi-

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Internal Improvements.

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ment to the other, is the substantial improvement of
the Susquehanna, from Middletown to the north line of
the state. This work should also be superintended by
an engineer, that the navigation may be really improv-
ed, and not made more difficult, as has hitherto been
often the case in other instances. In order that this
improvement, which is of great importance, may be so
considered by every reader, I will offer my remarks
under these distinct heads : 1. The present state of the
river : 2. The improvement wanted, and the expense
of making it : 3. The effects of improvement from the
north east branch : 4. Those from the north west

branch.

1. The Susquehanna has at all seasons a sufficient

quantity of water for any sort of river navigation, if it
were confined within one channel, or rather if its breadth
were not so great ; but, the bed of the river being very
wide, owing to the force and volume of the spring
floods, it frequently happens in summer that large boats
cannot obtain an ascending navigation. As it is here
proposed merely to improve the river from Middle-
town to the state line, there is no necessity for saying
any thing of that part of it below Middletown ; from
that town to Wilkesbarre, about 125 miles, the river
is in several places impeded by rocks and ripples,
which might be easily removed, under the direction of
an engineer, so as to diminish the width of the main
channel, and afford a complete ascending, as well as
descending navigation, at all times. From Wilkesbarre
to the state line, 103 miles, tliere are no falls, and but
two or three rocks injurious to navigation ; the ob-
structions, to be removed, are what are termed tum-

Internal Improvements.

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bling stones, or pieces of rocks detached from a fixed
foundation, and ripples, which may be termed rapids
in contradistinction from the pools, or deep gently
flowing water above and below them. As it is to the
ripples that most attention is due, there being above
20 in the distance of 95 miles, it is necessary to men-
tion their nature more particularly : — they appear like
so many bars running across the river ; they are prin-
cipally formed of clay and gravel ; and, as the volume
of water is always very great, in passing these bars it
flows with a rapidity in proportion to the obstruction.
So easily may these ripples be removed, that it has not
been uncommon for boatmen to dig a channel through
them, in order that they might ascend. Perhaps the
best way to remedy these defects would be to raise
wing walls wherever there is a ripple, that is, to dimi-
nish the width, and of course increase the depth of the
channel ; if this were done, the navigation would be
so complete, that boats of ten or twelve tons might
ascend the river in its lowest state in summer.

2! Should the legislature think proper to improve
this river, the improvement should be made from the
state line, with the stream ; because by the lower im-
provement, the general navigation would not be so
soon brought into action, as by the upper ; because
the great utility of the work will be to draw into our
state, the produce of the south west part of New York ;
and, because the work itself can in this manner be best
accomplished,

I have now before me a statement of the nature and
extent of the obstructions to be removed, in the first
100 miles, as well as an estimate of the expense of re-

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moval : these data are founded upon the authority of
Judge Mathias HoUenbach, who is well known to pos-
sess great personal knowledge of the Susquehanna, and
upon that of Messrs. Alpheus Dodge, John P. Arndt
and David Rosecrantz, for many years, and at this time
boatmen upon this river, upon whose knowledge and
veracity strict reliance may be placed. At:cording to
this statement, the extent of all the obstructions for 103
miles, is but eight miles ; these obstructions I have
before described ; the average distance between the
HT obstructions is about two and an half miles ; the ex.
pense of removing the whole is stated to be 3205 dol-
lars, but as we know that all estimates of clearing ri-
verl and opening roads, have hitherto been exceeded
by the actual expenditure, I add to this sum 50 per
cent, which makes the total cost 4807 dollars and 50

cents.

The nature of the obstructions from Wilkesbarre to
Middletown, I am not so well acquainted with ; it is
certain, however, that their removal will require great-
• er labour and expense than those above Wilkesbarre,
' say twice as much, or 10,000 dollars ; and that the
whole cost of clearing 230 miles of one of the most
important rivers in the union, will amount to 15,000
dollars ; this surely is so insignificant a sum compared
with the object, that there should be no hesitation in
appropriating it. But, as I have before said, much
will depend upon the superintendence; the money
ought not to be appropriated, if ignorant or interested
men are to expend it ; but, if put at the disposal of an
honest and capable engineer, aided by intelligent wa-
termen, will ceruinly answer all expectations.

•xsz

asc

3. To be able to appreciate justly and fully the im-
portance of the Susquehanna, and the immense advan-
tagcs which Pennsylvania would derive from opening
the navigation effectually from the north line of the
state, little more is necessary than to examine a good
map, and to trace the sources of this great river.

The north east branch of it rises in the lakes Otsego

and Canederago ; it is navigable for small boats from

its source, and might be easily made so for boats of

any description : its source, therefore, is nearly in the

geographical centre of the state of New York ; it is

within ten miles of the Mohawk river and of the canals

making by New York along the bank of that river as

a water communication to the lake Ontario. After

passing lake Otsego, this branch flows nearly in a

southern direction for 70 miles, through some of the

most productive lands and flourishing settlements in

the state of New York ; in its course, it is joined by

the Unadilla river, and having reached our line passes

it, forms what is called the Great Bend, and then re-

enters New York : it then proceeds along the south-

ern line of New York for about 60 miles, receives the

river Chenango, again enters Pennsylvania, and is join-

ed by the north west or Tioga branch from the west-

ward*

This north eastern branch is so ultimately connect-^
ed, by its own and its tributary waters, with the pro-
ductive counties of Otsego and Chenango in particu-
lar, and affords advantages so superior to those of the
Mohawk, at least in its present state, that it cannot but
become the medium of an intercourse highly benefici-
al to Pennsylvania, if our legislature will faithfully do

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their duty. For, however desirous New York may be
to serve its own capital, as Pennsylvania ought to be
to serve Philadelphia, it wUl not be so unjust and im-
politic as to tax its remote citizens to do so, but will
aid in improving its southern districts and waters, al-
though serviceable to Pennsylvania, as we now im-
prove ours, although obviously and chiefly to the be
nefit of Baltimore. We may, therefore, reasonably
calculate upon the improvement of those rivers, withm
New York, which water some millions of her best
lands, although, as those rivers flow into Pennsylvania,
the produce of the lands may be conveyed mto this
state, and not be transported to New York. At all
events, it is our duty to do our part in this great work ;
the people of New York who reside upon the waters
flowing into Pennsylvania, call for improvements, and
if we were to derive no other advantages than the north
east branch offers to us, they would be sufficient to
iustify the expense of thoroughly improvmg the Sus.
quehanna within our own lines. Important as this
branch is, however, it is much less so in every point
of view than the north west branch, of which I am now

to treat. v

4 The north western branch, as every reader may

see upon the map of the United States, opens a trade
with from six to eight millions of acres of as fine land
as any in the world ; that is, by good management on
the part of Pennsylvania, the whole import and export
trade into and from the middle and western districts
of New York, from lake Oneida to lake Erie, and com-
prehending the flourishing Genessee country, may be
secured or made to pass through Pennsylvania. 1 hat

this may be clearly understood, I will mention the par-
ticular points, by which this connexion may be opened.

The north western branch of the Susquehanna is
formed by rivers and creeks, some of which have the
same source as the Genessee and Allegheny rivers,
whilst others are connected with, or rise with the nu-
merous small lakes, which flow into the Ontario. The
southern, or Tioga source, is within about twelve miles
of the head and navigable waters of the Allegheny ; a
fact, which shows, that if there were no route entirely
through our own state, connecting the eastern and
western waters, a good one might thus be opened. By
this source a direct and easy communication is opened
to the head waters of the Genessee river, and down
that river there is a direct communication with lake
Ontario. The middle source is the river Canistro,
which is navigable to the town of Arkport, situated at
the head of the Canistro, about 75 miles by water from
the Pennsylvania line : from Arkport to the Genessee
river the distance is but twelve miles ; to lake Cana-
darque ten miles ; to Angelica twenty two miles ; and
to the Allegheny at Oleanne, Major Hoop's settlement,
forty five miles. At the latter place the Allegheny is
sixteen rods wide, and the navigation excellent all the
way to Pittsburgh. The northern source is the river
Conhocton, upon which is situated the town of Bath,
from whence it is but about ten miles to Crooked lake,
which opens a water communication to lake Ontario.

These three sources unite a little to the west of the
tdwn called Painted Post, and form the north west
branch of the Susquehanna, which flows for almost 80
miles, nearly in a south eastern direction, until it en-

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Internal Improvemeitu.

ters Pennsylvania, and joins the north eastern branch

at Tioga Point.

Upon this north western branch, and at a distance
of eighteen miles north west of Tioga Point, is situ-
ated a handsome and flourishing village, called New-
town, from whence it is but twenty one miles to Sene-
ca lake, and from the head of Seneca lake, the distance
by water to lake Ontario is under one hundred miles.
Of all the points that I have mentioned, this is, in
my opinion, the most important; 1. Because I have
the best information, that can perhaps be furnished,
from persons well acquainted with the country, for say-
ing that a complete water communication, by canals
and a few small locks, can be opened from Newtown
to the head of Seneca lake, for less than 10,000 dol-
lars : 2. Because I know that Mr. Philip Church, son
of Mr. J. B. Church, who owns a large and valuable
estate (100,000 acres) upon both banks of the river
Genessee, including the town of Angelica, attended
during two sessions of our legislature at Lancaster,
and pledged himself that a canal or a turnpike road
should be made between Newtown and Seneca lake,
if Pennsylvania would improve the Susquehanna withm
her own lines, say for 200 miles, which I have already
shown could be done for 15,000 dollars at the utmost ;
3. Because the formation of this canal or road, and this
improvement of the Susquehanna, would certainly, as
Mr. Church declared, be the means of conveying the
produce of six millions of acres into Pennsylvania, but
a small portion of which we now receive, owing to
the neglect of the legislature to improve the Susque-
hanna.

Internal Improvements.

67

When it is considered, therefore, that nature has
formed four important and safe outlets, for the trade of
the western part of New York, all of which unite at
our state line ; that whatever difficulties exist in New
York, its citizens offer to remove ; and that the pre-
sent state of the Susquehanna alone opposes the entrance
into our state of all the produce conveyed by those
outlets ; it surely is not only surprising but shameful,
that Pennsylvania should have representatives so igno-
rant or regardless of her interests, as not to have heark-
ened to the admonition of Mr. Church, and proceeded
at once to improve our own waters.

No doubt, Mr. Church and the other residents in
the western part of New York, would prefer aiding the
trade of the city of New York, and not that of Phila-
delphia, if they could do so as cheaply and convenient-
ly ; but, as that gentleman said, *' the Susquehanna is
the natural course through which we should go, that
route is shorter and cheaper than by the turnpike road
to Catskill or Newburgh ; clear your river, and you
will command the whole of our trade."

But Pennsylvania has as yet done nothing, and there-
fore Mr. Church and others have abandoned the works,
which they had begun, for opening a communication
between the Susquehanna and the lakes, and are now
actively engaged in improving the roads from the west-
ern counties to the Hudson. For one road alone Mr.
Church subscribed to the amount of 13,750 dollars, a
fact, which shows the enterprize and ability of this gen-
tleman, and the supineness of our legislature in not
adopting the useful suggestions which he offered to
them. In consequence of this narrow policy, the trade

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Internal Improvements.

of the western counties now passes either to Montreal
by the St. Lawrence, or to New York, by the Bath,
Coshecton and Newburgh turnpike, and thence down
the Hudson. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that
the reports of the treasury should exhibit the decline
of Philadelphia, and the rise of New York, in very
striking colours.— Before the state of New York be-
gan to form roads and canals, Pennsylvania, as an im-
porting state, stood in comparison with New York as
twelve to seven ; but since New York began to make
roads and canals, since even party rancour has been
suppressed for this great object, the scale has turned
as much against Pennsylvania and for New York, as it

was before the reverse.

What indeed can be a more convincing proof of the
intelligence of the New York legislature, and the ig-
norance of our own, than these facts : a canal naviga-
tion is now completing along the Mohawk : a turnpike
road is now forming from Bath to Angelica : at the
last session of the legislature of New York, Dewitt
Clinton, Gouvemeur Morris, Stephen Van Rensellaer,
P. B. Porter, Simeon Dewitt, Thomas Eddy and Wil-
liam North, all men of talents, of high reputation, and
of opposite politics, were appointed a committee to ex-
plore the country between the Hudson and lake Erie,
and to report to the next legislature such improve-
ments as they might think necessary for the internal
prosperity of the state, and for securing to the city of
New York its present high standing ; these commis-
sioners left Albany in June last, and have just returned
after performing their duty. What a contrast does
this form to our stagnant condition ; not one public

Internal Improvements.

69

road, not one canal forming ; not one cent appropria-
ted at the last session for any public improvement
whatever ; not one commissioner appointed to inquire
what should be done to raise the state to its former
splendor, or preserve it upon a level with our sister
states — all this economy too, whilst millions are left
in the hands of delinquent and able creditors, at one
or two per cent, interest.

In my next I will continue to point out the impor-
tance and necessity of abandoning this negative kind
of legislation and government, and to show how easily
we may derive from the south western part of New
York, ten times as much trade and intercourse as Ma-
ryland derives from our own south western districts.
No one can pretend to dispute the superiority of Bal-
timore as a market, for the counties of Adams, York,
Franklin, Cumberland, &c. however he may regret
the loss of their intercourse with Philadelphia ; and it
must be equally apparent, that Philadelphia offers a
superior market to that of New York for twelve or
fourteen counties of that state ; we have given the peo-
ple of Adams, &:c. turnpike roads and canals to carry
their produce to Maryland, and the least we can do is
to improve our northern waters, our Susquehanna, if
for no other purpose than to supply us with an equal
' quantity of produce to that which Maryland naturally
receives.

September 8thf 1810.

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LETTER XIII.

In my last letter, I endeavoured to show the impor-
tance of improving the Susquehanna, from its entrance
at the north line of our state to Middletown ; and, m
order to induce you to agree with me in opmion re-
specting that object, I traced the sources of the r.ver
and the several outlets, by which we may draw mto
Pennsylvania, the immense and valuable products of
the western parts of New York.

Although my chief intent is to urge the improve-
ment of the Susquehanna, and although I intended
to defer to another number any recommendation lor
improving the Delaware, I find this place the most fit
for speaking of that object, since it is connected with
the question of relative distance to New York or Phi-
ladelphia from the lakes, which I intend to discuss m

this letter. , . ^ „

The river Delaware is principally formed by two
large streams, the Mohock, which rises in the county
of Delaware, and the Popacton, which rises within the
county of Ulster, both in the state of New York, and
the latter within fifteen miles of the Hudson. The na-
vigation of both these streams is adequate to the ascent
or descent of vessels of ten tons, for above fifty miles,
before they unite and form the Delaware. After hav-
inK joined, the Delaware flows nearly in a south cast-
. ern direction, for about eighty five miles, where it
turns to the south at the town of Milford, and passes
nearly m a south western direction, for about seventy
miles, to Easton, from Easton to tide water at Trenton,
fifty mUes, nearly a south eastern direction ; from heaa

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of tide water to Philadelphia, in a south western direc-
tion, thirty four miles — total 239.

I am aware that, to render the navigation of this ri.
vcr perfectly safe, a large expenditure would be ne-
cessary ; but it is not the cost but the advantages that
follow the expenditure, which a wise legislature should
consider. The society for promoting internal improve-
ments, which existed in 1791-2, estimated the cost of
clearing the river at less than 8000 dollars, but if it
could be cleared for thrice that sum, the state should
rejoice at the appropriation. In its present state, the
river is navigable during the spring floods from its
source : from Milford, heavy articles are transported
on tSs to Philadelphia, at a less expense than they
could be boated to Philadelphia from Easton ; upon a
single board or spar raft, from 300 to 400 bushels of
grain have often been transported for above 150 miles :
the transportation in this way costs 75 per cent, less
than the carriage from Ulster county to New York,
It is, however, on account of its advantages as a route
of communication from the western parts of New York
that the river deserves attention ; and that these ad-
vantages, as well as those of the Susquehanna, may be
understood and compared with the routes to New
York, I will now enumerate the claims of each :

1. I have heretofore shown that there is no water
communication from lake Otsego to the Hudson:
the distance by land from that lake to Albany is 60
miles, from Albany to New York 165 miles— in all
225. But there is a water communication from lake
Otsego down the Susquehanna to Harmony 70 miles,
from Harmony to Stockport by land 20 miles turn-

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pike ; from Stockport to Philadelphia 239-^otal 329
I is Evident therefore, that as the route to New York
has 40 miles land carriage, more than the route to Phi-
ladelphia, nothing is wanting to secure even some of
the trade of the middle counties of New York, but the
i„.provement of the Delaware and Susquehanna Bu
if this were problematical on account of the difference
L distance, this objection is more and more removed
every mile to the south and west of lake Otsego.

2 1 will not, however, dwell upon the trade of the
middle counties, although I am persuaded^ that the
greater part of it may be acquired by Pennsylvan., e.
L by the Susquehanna or the Delaware, should the
gislature improve those rivers. The most m.^r a^t
object is a communication with the e-t-s,ve and m-
portant country from Seneca lake to lake Ene ; and I
Tagain aver,'that the whole import and export trad
into and from this country may be acquired by this
state, through any or all of five distinct routes Which
of those routes should be first made perfect maybe
ascertained sufficiently well, perhaps, by the subjoined
statements ; my opinion is, that the >-F-ement of
the Susquehanna from the boundary line would an-
swer all the present purposes.

The turnpike road, which is now making from Ca s-
kill, on the Hudson, to a point on lake Erie 20 miles
north of Presqu'Isle, passes nearly in a direct line
from east to west, and is 296 miles in length- Thi^
road passes at the head of Seneca lake, which head is

almost exactly half way between '^^^^^^''^^'T ^t^c
the road at the Hudson and lake Ene. I shall there

Internal Improvements.

73

fore calculate the distances by the several routes to
Philadelphia and New York, from Seneca lake.

First Route — To New York.
From Seneca lake to Catskill, by turnpike, 156

From Catskill to New York, by water, 125

281

Although the total distance by this route is not great,
the extent of turnpike is an insurmountable disadvan*
tage, greater than any of the routes to Philadelphia is
affected by.

Second Route — To New York.
From Geneva, at the outlet of Seneca lake to

Oneida lake, - - - - 90

Oneida lake to Mohawk falls, - 109

Mohawk falls to Schenectady, - 50

Schenectady to Albany, - - - 15
Albany to New York, ... 165

435
Of these 17 miles by land : it is to be remarked be-
sides, that although New York has done much to im-
prove the water route for the first 250 miles, the navi-
gation is still more difficult in many places than any
part whatever of the Susquehanna, from Middletown
to our north line.

First Route — To Philadelphia.

From Seneca lake to Newtown, by land, - 21

Newtown to Harmony, by water, - 78

Harmony to Stockport, by turnpike, 20

Stockport to Philadelphia, by Delaware, 240

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Second Route— To Philadelphia.
From Seneca lake to Newtown, by land, - 21
Newtown to Tioga Point, by water, 18

Tioga Point to Wilkesbarre,on Susquehanna, 95
Wilkesbarre to Easton, by land, - 60

Easton to Philadelphia, - - " ^^

• , ' 278

I consider this as the best route, under present cir-
cumstances, or at least until the canal navigation should
be opened from the Delaware to the Susquehanna.
Should the legislature expend 5000 dollars upon that
part of the route from our state line to Wilkesbarre,
there can be no doubt but that the preceding 33 miles
would be rendered capable of an easy transportation,
by the legislature or citizens of New York. Of that
part of the route from Wilkesbarre to Easton, 32 miles
were turnpike in 1807, the remaining 28 miles were
then an excellent road, and no doubt will also be made
turnpike, under the law in force for that purpose. An
appropriation for the Delaware part of this route is an
object of great consequence.

This route, it is to be observed, is shorter than ei-
ther of the New York routes ; but there are other cir-
cumstances which call upon the legislature to improve
the north western part of it, from the state line to
Wilkesbarre. This town is well situated for becoming
a depot for the general produce brought down the Sus-
quehanna ; and the Philadelphia bank is about to open
a branch there, which will greatly contribute to this
object. Should the Susquehanna be improved, there-
fore, a market is here opened, to which the produce of

Internal Improvements.

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the western counties of New York may be brought the
whole way by water, and from whence by water and
by an average land carriage of but fifteen miles, return
cargoes may be taken either to lake Ontario, to the
town of Arkport, to Genessee, or within twelve miles
of the Allegheny. No route that New York can esta-
blish, can prevent this result, if the legislature of Penn-
sylvania will do their duty.

Third Route — To Philadelphia.
From Seneca lake to Tioga Point, 39

Tioga Point to Nescopeck, on Susquehanna, 121
Nescopeck to Lausanne, by turnpike, 28

Lausanne to Easton, by the Lehigh, 45

Easton to Philadelphia, ... 87

320

Of this route but 49 miles by land. Nescopeck is
also favourable for a depot, and the communication
with Easton a matter of much consequence. For ma-
ny articles, particularly grain, Easton is as good a mar-
ket as Philadelphia : having an excellent stream of wa-
ter and good mills, the millers of Easton give as good
a price for wheat as can be got any where in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia ; their flour they send to Phi-
ladelphia at twenty five cents per barrel.

Fourth Route — To Philadelphia.
From Seneca lake to Nescopeck, - . 160
Nescopeck to Sunbury, ... 38
Sunbury to Philadelphia, - - 120

318

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76

Internal Improvements*

sac

"*"*

Of this route, 141 by land. Much of the road from
Philadelphia to Sunbury is turnpike, and laws exist,
authorizing the construction of the remainder in the

same manner.

Fifth Route— to Philadelphia.

From Seneca lake to Tioga Point, - - 39

Tioga Point to Middletown, - - 221

Middletown to Philadelphia, - - 84

344
Of these 344, 105 by land, of which the last 84 are
turnpike. If the canals from the Susquehanna to the
Delaware were completed, the whole distance from
Seneca lake to Philadelphia would be but 330 miles ;
the whole of which route may be made by water, if
the legislature will adopt a system of policy, worthy of
the reputation and ability of Pennsylvania.

3. On a fair comparison between these routes to
New York and Philadelphia, no intelligent man can
hesitate in giving the latter a decided preference, as
the market with which a trade can best be maintamed
by the people residing west of Seneca lake.— Two mil-
lions two hundred thousand dollars must be expended,
even according to Mr. P. B. Porter and Mr. Gallatin,
before the circuitous route of 435 miles, from lake On-
tario by the Mohawk, can be opened for an ascending
or safe descending navigation to the Hudson, and if
this were done, another perhaps equally large expen-
diture would be necessary to open the navigation from
lake Ontario to lake Erie. On the other hand, the
route by the tumpikerfrom the Hudson to lake Erie,

Internal Improvements.

77

although very direct, is so expensive, that, if the Sus-
quehanna were improved, there is no doubt but that
ten tons would pass down that stream, for every one
sent by turnpike to the Hudson.

And, as it is so apparent, that, with due exertion,
Pennsylvania can secure the trade of that part of New
York west of Seneca lake, the superiority as an im-
porting and exporting state to the western waters, must
be equally so ; yet, as I shall show in a subsequent
letter, unless Pennsylvania shall soon exert herself, she
will lose not only the trade to the Genessce, &c. but
the trade, which she now in a great measure possesses
to the western part of Pennsylvania, to Ohio, Kentuc-
ky, &c.

All, then, that is wanting, to secure to this state a
valuable exchange trade in the products of the respec-
tive states, and the profits upon exports, and the goods
imported by sea, in return, is, that the legislature should
gradually clear the Susquehanna, as I have heretofore
pointed out, from its entrance upon our northern boun-
dary line, to Wilkesbarre, Nescopeck, Sunbury, and
Middletown. Nature has done much for us, but we
have done, comparatively, nothing for ourselves.
September llth^ 1810.

<;*

i^ •

a

i 78 3

' ■>

%

Pruning and after Management of Hedges, by Robert
Somerville. From Communications to the Board of
Agriculture of England, vol. 2d, page 47. London
1805.

Though a strict attention to the foregoing circum-
stances, during the infancy of a hedge, is highly ne-
cessary to produce healthy, vigorous plants, a very
considerable part of its beauty and future value will
depend upon the pruning and after management that

is bestowed upon it.

There is perhaps, no part of the subject upon which
a greater contrariety of opinion at present prevails, than
the age at which the pruning of hedges ought to com-
mence, the manner of that pruning, or the season of
the year, at which it may be given with the greatest
possible advantage, and the least risk ; the practice
with some is to prune from the first year, not only the
lateral branches, but the tops also, and give as a rea-
son, that cutting off the extremities of the shoots con-
tributes to the thickening of the hedge, by making
them push out a great number of new ones.— The fal-
lacy of this argument, and the mischief with which
the practice is attended, we shall elsewhere have oc-
casion to notice.— As to the manner of pruning, or
the form of the hedge, these seem, with many, to be
matters of indifference, no attention being paid to dress-
ing them in such a way as to have them broad at bot-
tom, and tapering gradually towards the top, many of
them being not only of one width from top to bottom,
and not a few much heavier and broader above than

^

On Hedge Pruning.

79

they are below ; it is obvious that such hedges can
neither look well, nor be useful—The season at which
they are trimmed is, in many instances, an improper
one, for in place of choosing that time when the plants
are least in danger of suffering from an effusion of their
juices, which is either at a late period in the autumn,
or very early in the spring, the pruning is given in the
summer season, when vegetation is in its prime, and
the plants are full of juices ; the check and injury they
must receive from having the whole of their extremi-
ties cut off at that period, may well be conceived.

In speaking of the treatment of hedge plants before
they are put into the ground, notice has been taken of
the necessity of preserving the roots as much as pos-
sible ; and at the same time shortening the tops : this
last operation has two good effects ; for by curtailing
the top and branches, the roots have less to nourish ;
and by leaving only two or three inches of the top above
ground, in place of growhig up with a single stem, it
sends out two or three ; and as these strike out from
the plant so near the earth, each of them has the same
effect, and strengthens the hedge as much as the ori.
ginal stem would have done by itselfj with this addi-
tion, that in place of one prop or support, the hedge
will have three or four. After this first pruning, how-
ever, no hedge should be touched, or at least very
gently, for some years ; from an inattention to this
circumstance, and the injudicious application of the
knife or shears, at an early period, many young hedges
are rendered useless, which, under different treatment,
would have made excellent fences, with one half the
trouble that was required to destroy them. The prac-

W

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80

On Hedge Pruning.

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it

tice of cutting over the tops yearly, which is done
with a view to render the hedge thicker and tnore per-
fect is one of these mistakes which we would natu-
rally have supposed common sense and observation
would have sooner corrected ; the effect produced be.
ing in almost every instance, the very reverse of what
was intended : shortening the main stem of a thorn or
any other plant, makes it brush out a number of small
stems immediately at the place where it has been cut ;
and if this operation is repeated once or twice a year,
every one of these is again subdivided as it were, by
sending out more branches ; thus, in a course of years,
during which, the hedge makes very small progress
upwards, if it be examined, instead of being found to
consist of strong vigorous plants, with a good mam
trunk, each reaching from top to bottom of the hedge,
and a sufficient number of lateral branches throughout
the whole length of it, it will be found, by such re-
peated cuttings, in the same stunted situation as cer-
tein young trees and shrubs, that are frequently crop-
ped by sheep or cattle. From the repeated crops of
young shoots, which the tops send out after every clip-
ping, and the great quantity of nourishment necessary
to support such additional numbers, the lateral shoots
at the bottom, upon the strength and numbers of which
the value of the hedge in a great measure depends,
are stinted in their growth, and soon die : the hedge,
of course, becomes open and naked at the bottom, and
consequently useless as a fence. Where a hedge has
been thus ruined, there is no remedy but cutting it
over, close by the ground : this will immediately pro-
duce a number of healthy, vigorous, upright stems.

On Hedge Pruning.

81

which, under proper management, will soon form a
good fence.

From the first year of planting, till the hedge has
risen to the height of five or six feet, the main stems
ought to be left untouched, and the pruning confined
solely to the side branches, leaving those next the root
pretty long, and gradually tapering towards the top :
this pruning of the side branches will make them send
out many new shoots from their extremities, which, by
repeated trimmings, will become so thick as to fill up
every interstice from top to bottom of the hedge ; while
the main stems, by being left untouched, continue
their growth upward, till they arrive at the necessary
height ; when they may have their extremities cut off
with perfect safety. When a hedge has attained the
wished for height, all that is requisite afterwards, is
regular switchings with a hedge-bill, preserving it
pretty broad at bottom, and drawing it gradually to a
point at top ; this form of a hedge is pleasant to the eye,
is well calculated to stand the weather, and by being
thus above the nourishment that would have been wast-
ed in supporting a thick, bushy, overgrown top, is re-
tained by the branches at the bottom, which are there-
by strengthened, and their numbers considerably in-
creased ; while the trunk, by having no more exertion
to make in an upward direction, becomes every year
stronger and thicker. — A hedge of this sort in full leaf
has the appearance of a solid wall ; and when viewed
after the leaves are shed, presents to the eye a set of
massy growing piles, so strong and formidable as to
bid defiance to any attempts that may be made to break
through them.

VOL. III.

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C 82 ]

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1

0« 5Af<'/' -FoMrt^. From a Publication on Manures,
draivn up for the Board of Agriculture, England, by
Robert Somerville of Haddington. London, 1795.

The practice of folding sheep as a manure, or rather
as a top dressing, is common in many parts of Eng-
land, and is productive of considerable advantage.
They are folded both upon arable and pasture lands ;
upon the arable lands it is sometimes done before the
last furrow, at other times after the grain is sown. This
last is found from experience to be the best method of
folding, as the urine and dung of the animal remam
upon the surface, and soak down gradually ; whereas,
when the field is folded before the last ploughing, a
considerable part of the manure is turned down and
lost. The spring and summer seems to be the time
when this practice is most beneficial ; at that time the
food of the animal is rich and juicy, but during the
winter, unless the sheep are fed upon turnips or hay,
their dung is of small value. It is obvious that fold-
ing, after the grain is sown, can never be practiced but
upon dry soils, and during dry weather.

This way of manuring seems peculiarly adapted to
farms, where there is a considerable extent of hill or
common pasture, or grass lands, that never come un-
der the plough. In these cases, by bringing the sheep
in the evening to the fold, a considerable quantity ot
manure will be saved, that would otherwise be lost. H
the pasture upon which the sheep feed through the day
is good, they may be folded, without any detriment to
the animal, (if not intended to be fattexaed,) for a great

On Sheep Folding.

>•

83

part of the year ; but where the pasture is scanty, this
cannot be done, as they will not be able to pick up a
sufficiency of food through the day, to enable them to
bear the fatigue of travelling to and from the fold, and
fasting all night.

When they are fed in the fold, the case is different ;
but feeding in the fold will not admit of being practi-
ced as a top dressing after the seed is put in ; it seems
best calculated as a preparation for wheat or barley,
upon fallows ; in either of these cases they may be fed
in the fold with propriety, as the offal of their food will
be ploughed in with the last furrow, and the land pro-
perly opened for the reception of the crop ; even this
requires to be done upon dry light soils ; upon these
a gentle shower will not be felt, nor will there be any
danger of the land being battered with the feet of the
sheep ; whereas upon clays or deep loams, the soil will
sustain more injury by the treading of the sheep in wet
weather, than all the benefit communicated by their
manure.

Defects of the common way of folding Sheep.

The custom of putting a great number of sheep into
a small fold, is very common, allowing them little more
than a square yard each, and confining together sheep
of every description, young and old, strong and weak ;
both practices are bad. In the first, if sheep are fed in
the fold, the space allotted to each will be so small, that
they will be crowded, and a considerable quantity of
their food trodden down and destroyed ; the breaths of
so many, confined together, within such narrow limits,
will keep them too warm, and when they are disposed

v^-

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84

On Sheep Folding.

I

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to lay themselves down, there will not be sxifficicnt

room for that purpose.

To avoid these inconveniences, a space containing
room enough to afford three or four square yards to
every sheep, would answer the purpose much better,
and though this large area would not receive so much
advantage from one night's folding, yet by allowing the
sheep to remain upon it for two or three nights, it
■would be sufficiently manured, with this additional be-
nefit, that no part of the fodder would be destroyed,
by trampling upon, and the animals would have a dry
bed, and plenty of room.

The second defect in the present way of folding is
equally bad, if not worse ; that is the custom of fold-
ing sheep of every description together. When a great
number, either sheep or other animals, are put toge-
ther to feed, unless they have an over quantity of food
given them, (which every good farmer wishes to avoid)
there will always be a struggle, who shall get most of
it ; in a contest of that kind, it is evident that the strong-
est will succeed, and by depriving the weaker ones of
their food, their weakness will be increased, and a
risk incurred of losing them altogether ; whereas by
picking the flock, and folding the strong and weak
sheep separately, both would be benefitted thereby ;
the strong ones would still have a sufficiency of food,
and the weaker sort would be allowed to feed, and he
at their ease : in this situation they would gain strength,
and improve in value ; in the former, they would be

daily growing worse.

In short, wherever folding is practiced, it should be
a prmcipal object with the farmer to assort his flock, •

: ,7W<.^-T^.-S»«llC

On Sheep Folding.

85

and as near as possible, to class those of the same age
and strengdi together, and whatever preference is giv-
en, either in the quantity or quality of the food, should
fall to the share of the young and weak.

The practice, as far as we are able to judge from the
information before us, is entitled to the notice of farm-
ers in every part of the kingdom ; hut in that, as in
every other branch of agricuhure, much must be left
to the judgment and attention of the farmer, it being
impossible to lay down rules that will apply to all the
different circumstances of soil, situation, &c. It cer-
tainly is best adapted for dry lands, and farms contain-
ing much pasture that is never ploughed; upon these,
as we have already observed, much manure may be
collected that would otherwise be lost ; but upon farms
that are entirely arable ; and where grass makes a part
of the rotation, to bring the flock from the pasture, and
fold them upon another field, is depriving the grass
field of a great part of the benefit that might be expect-
ed from its being in pasture, and is enriching one part
of the farm at the expense of another. The only in-
stance in which it is warrantable upon an arable farm,
is in cases where turnips are raised either upon clay or
heavy loam ; in either of these cases, they may be eat-
en with advantage upon grass or stubble fields, as no
farmer of common sense would think of eating them
where they grow ; but as we have already observed,
the propriety of this must be left to the judgment of
the farmer ; much advantage may certainly be derived
from it in some situations, and great loss sustained in
others.

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On Sheep Folding, from Davis^s Survey of mitshire,
drawn up for the Board of Agriculture.

In distant [wheat] lands, the farmers depend solely
on the sheep fold for manure. They fold as closers
possible to the sowing, waiting day by day for the fc^d
to keep pace with them : and in very dry seasons, they
fold a^ain, after the wheat is sown.

The great dependence for the barley crop, m the
common-field system, is the sheep fold.

After the wheat is sown, the fold is sometimes, and
ver>- properly, put upon the down land, but more usu-
aly upon the wheat stubbld, which is to be prepared
foJbarley ; but the manure from the fold .s not consi-
dered of any great value, until the ewes -d ^^^^ ^ ;
ein to feed on the water meadows ; it then becomes
Lost invaluable. The manure of ewes is reckoned
n^uch better than that of wethers, on^^^^^fj;
.reat quantity of urine which they make. Five hun-

Ld ewes, with their lambs, will fold an acre well in
o^e night ; and none but those who have seen this kind

• of husbandry, can form a just idea of the va^ue of he
fold of a flock, coming immediately on the allow land
with their bellies full of quick young grass, ^om a ^'^^
Tatered meadow, and particularly how r^^:^^ .^^^^
crease the quantity of the barley crop. The incre^e
^^^be fairiy stated at a quarter (eight bushels) of bar-

'''Z ;rattity of barler seed sown is sometime she
bushels?and sidom so little as five. The crop is mown.

C 87 3

On Barilla as a Manure^ communicated to the President
of " the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agricul-
ture y'*^ by Robert Barclay ^ Esquire ^ London. Receiv-
ed May 20th, 1814.

Repeated experiments have proved that Barilla is
the most powerful manure that can be applied to land ;
it produces to the farmer and gardener a considerable
saving in time and labour, as it imparts immediately
to the soil that sweetening principle, which can other-
wise only be acquired by means of the tedious and ex-
pensive process of fallowing ; in addition to these ad-
vantages, it possesses the power of destroying grubs,
slugs, and worms, as well as that of correcting every
species of acidity in a sour clay or peat soil, the adhe-
sive texture of the former of which will be gradually
mellowed by the constant use of Barilla. An old worn-
out garden, that has been so repeatedly manured with
dung as to produce nothing but luxuriant wood shoots,
and rank haulm and leaves, instead of well-flavoured
fruit and sweet vegetables, may be restored to fertility
by a moderate -dressing with Barilla, trenched into the
ground at the rate of five hundred weight per acre.

The value of Barilla as a manure, may be easily es-
timated by those who have used soap ashes, the ferti-
lizing properties of which depend on the quantity of
Barilla left in them after the manufacture of the soap ;
and it appears by analysis, that one ton of soap ashes
contains only from seven to ten pounds of Barilla.

With any sort of crop on a farm, this article may be
drilled into the ground with the seed, at the rate of one

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On Barilla, as a Manure.

yli

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or two hundred weight per acre : used in this way, or
sowed by hand over the land as a top dressing, it pos-
sesses the power of preventing the fly from destroying
the turnip crop ; it may be sown broadcast by hand
over the land, and immediately harrowed in with any
sort of seed ; or it may be made up into compost with
ditch or pond scourings, road scrapings, peat or sand,
if intended for clay land; or if intended for light sand
peat or chalk land, it may be made into compost with
clay and after blending the materials together, by turn-
ing, may be used on grass or plowed land, as other

manures.
V It will make a very strong and most valuable com-
^ post manure used thus -.-Deposit on the ground a lay-
cr of peat, road-scrapings, or any other earth, twelve
inches thick, on this place a layer of couch grass, young
furze, green brambles, ling, fern, or weeds, tvyelve
inches thick, or a layer of long dung, six inches thick,
. strew over the couch weeds, fern, &c. or dung, a layer
of Barilla, half an inch or an inch thick -.-thus proceed
with alternate layers, until you have made up the de-
sired quantity of compost ; it should then be left a pro-
per time to ferment, after which it may be turned over
to blend its particles together, and used as other ma-
nures, either on grass or plowed land. In this way,
valuable manure may be made on lands which would
otherwise be inaccessible to the dung cart without a

heavy expense.

Barilla is a most valuable wash for seed wheat or any
other seeds. For this purpose, put one pound of it to
every gallon of soft water used ; place the seed in this
mixture, and sti^it well for ten minutes, after which

^*ik

On Barilla^ as a Manure.

89

it may be taken out and sowed immediately on the land,
or spread thin on a. floor and dried for use : the wash
may be carried to the compost heap or dung-hill, as
manure. It is recommended in all cases where Ba-
rilla is used as manure, that it be plowed, harrowed,
or dug in as soon as possible after being spread on the
land ; as, if exposed, the air will rob it of a portion of
its salts.

It is probable, from a due consideration of the com-
ponent parts of Barilla, that the use of it as a manure,
at the rate of one hundred weight per acre, on sour
wet grass land, will, in addition to rendering the herb-
age of such land nutritive and abundant, tend to pre-
vent its occasioning the rot to Jiheep and deer which
graze on it.

,1

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On Barilla, as a Manure y by the Editor of Evans and
Ruffy's Farmer'* s Journal, — a Weekly Paper of re-
spectability, published in London.

Having lately read, and heard in conversation, very
high encomiums on the fertilizing powers of Barilla,
when used as a manure, I was anxious to go farther
than mere hear-say, and to see experimental proofs of
its effects ; and being introduced by a friend to the gen-
tleman who I believe was the first to whom the thought
of using it occurred, I ^vas by him very courteously
and frankly shewn or told all that he had done by way
of experiment. I must premise that, independently
of his garden, the chief scene of his experiments was
a few acres, taken in from a common, of sour, wet,
VOL. HI. m ^

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90

On Barilla, as a Manure.

•, iff

k

infertile clay, impregnated with ox.de of -n fill dm
winter with pools of stagnant water, and rent m sum-
Ir into deep fissures. He levelled the ground, and
Xepened and widened the ditch that skirted .t, through
vMch the winter stream runs : he then, late m autumn
had it dug ten inches deep, with a spade, such as na-
vigators or canal diggers use. at an expense of two
guineas and a half per acre, "dg-g Jt up to ab.d e

■ ^ «f n winter skv. It was then a reddish and

influences ot a winter sKy.

very adhesive clay. On this unpromismg sod he has
tried potatoes, carrots, parsnips, hemp. flax, pease
beans cabbage, wheat, and clover, trusting sole y to
U.e effects of the Barilla, which he applied m different
proportions, at the rate of from one hundred weight to
il^ve hundred weight per acre : it was beneficial m eve-
ry proportion, and most so where the greatest quanti-
ty was used. The clover was luxuriant, once cut for
soiling, the second time for hay, and a third time for
soiling. I have seen some of the straw of the wheat,
which is the strongest I ever saw ; I have seen the po-
tatoes, carrots, and parsnips, which, in point of size,
are not inferior to the best 1 have ever raised or seen,
-and the acrcable quantity I learn was great ; but the
jrround and produce have not been accurately ascer-
tained. One thing struck me forcibly ;-among other
sorts of potatoes, planted in this experimental ground.
was one called ladies^ fingers, which the gentleman had
before cultivated in his garden, where their shape and
size accorded nearly with their name ; but in their new
habitation, and with the new manure, they grew to six
times the size : and the esculents raised on the expe-
rimental ground, to be dressed for family use, tar ex-

On Barilla^ as a Manure

91

't:

ceeded in luxuriance and flavour those formerly raised
in the garden.

He has used it likewise as a top dressing on a sour
meadow, where the herbage was coarse, on which when
his cows were before pastured, the butter was rank and
indifferent, and I am informed it has not since been so.
I can vouch that it is now sweet and rich, but his three
cows have been fed entirely through the winter on the
roots produced on the new ground, and the small patch
of clover hay ; the meadow hay being still untouched.

The ground is at present in a second course of ex-
perimental cropping, with different manures for com-
parison. I saw some of it digging; it has become
more loose and friable, and to use the expression of
the labourer, the stuff has spilt its colour : it has cer-
tainly changed in colour, and apparently in quality.
The account I have received of its productiveness
might by some be questioned, and as I do not attri-
bute it entirely to the Barilla, but partly to indefati-
gable and persevering manual exertion, directed by
skill and judgment, I shall not name it, because on an
extended scale, in the common routine of husbandry
and under common management, it cannot be ap-
proached. If drilled in with the crop, two hundred
weight of the Barilla will do ; if sown broadcast, from
two to five hundred weight will be required, according
to the nature of the soil, and other circumstances, to
be judged of by him who uses it.

On a large field of heavy clay, belonging to a neigh-
bouring farmer, which had been summer fiiUowed for
wheat, the gentleman proposed, as an experiment, that
a part of it should be dressed with Barilla, in such

k-i^'

92

On Barilla J as a Manure.

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quantity that the acreable expense should be under that
which the other portions cost him ; one side of the
field being heavily manured with soap ashes, and the
other side with dung. This was acceded to, and six-
teen hundred weight of Barilla was sown and harrow,
cd in with the wheat, on about 31- acres, in the middle
of the field, on the 15th of November ; but I must re-
mark, that from what I saw, this is by no means a fair
trial : for, besides the lateness of sowing, the wheat in
the other parts of the field being at that time well out
of the ground, the middle of the field is more wet and
full of springs than any other part, so that in places
there were sheets of ice some days ago, where the
springs had bubbled up. If, under these disadvanta-
ges, it succeed, it will be irrefragable proof of its pow-
ers, and should it even fail, it will be no solid ground
of condemnation ; for, on such land, labour and ex-
pense will never make an adequate return, without that
indispensible part of good husbandry — under draining.
There is one very observable circumstance that shows
it has been in operation through the winter, whether
beneficially or not will hereafter appear ; the colour of
the ground is so changed as to point out, even at a dis-
tance, where the Barilla was sown,
v^" The beneficial effects of soap ashes have beyond all
doubt been experienced in many instances, and in
others equally well authenticated, they have entirely
failed. Some of these failures may have arisen from
their application to a soil that did not want that pecu-
liar quality that they impart, or by which they operate ;
other failures may have arisen from a deficiency of that
quality in the ashes themselves : for, by an analysis of

.uii

11 >, V

On Barilla, as a Manure.

13

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f' nl

different specimens of soap ashes, instituted by the gen-
tleman I have spoken of, it was found that the best
contained no more than ten pounds of alkali in a ton ;
and in some, where k^Hp had been used instead of Ba-
rilla, a ton of ashes contained no more than three pounds
of alkali. It was this discovery that first induced him
to try the pure Barilla, on the supposition that the al-
kali in the ashes was what imparted fertility. If this
be so, two hundred weight of Barilla will benefit an
acre of land as much as twenty tons of the best ashes.
Impressed with this idea, he has collected clay, pond
mud, scraping of roads, weeds, and every rubbish and
refuse of the garden and fields, adding to every ton
ten or twelve pounds of Barilla strewed over it ; and,
after lying a length of time, the whole has been turn-
cd : what its effect will be on the land has not been yet
fully ascertained, but he is sanguine in the hope that it
will be equal to a dressing of dung. The change pro-
duced on the whole mass is apparent ; it has a whitish
nitrous appearance, and is become mellow, and he
thinks it will be peculiarly adapted for light soils and
top dressings.

Applied in its pure state, it w^ould seem best calcu-
lated for sour infertile clays, impregnated with metal-
lie oxides ; and from being so powerful an alkali, equal-
ly proper for peaty soils ; in both cases laying hold of
and neutralising the superabundant acid, sweetening
the soil, and producing fertility ; but its effects are yet
too little known to hazard general conclusions, or to
say for what soils it may be adapted, or how often,
and at what intervals it may safely be applied.

•?,::
')."

[ 94 ]

^^

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On mixing Lime and Stable Manure.

[The following are the remarks alluded to in page
423 of the Memoirs. The circumstance of the stinted
wheat appearing chiefly in manured fields, naturally
excites wonder in those who think that nothmg is
wanting to secure a good crop, except abundance of
stable dung : but from the observations of Mr. Somer-
ville, it appears that a foilure of wheat on manured
spots takes place in England, similar to that observed
in Maryland : the reason of which he ascribes to the
insects bred in the fresh manure.]

For many years I have been struck with the failure
of the wheat crop in the spring, more particularly at
the circumstance of this failure happening oftenest up-
on the richest and best prepared lands, and after the
most severe weather was over ; and could never ac-
count for it upon any other principle than the loose-
ness of the soil, occasioned by the manure put mto it,
and the operation of the winter frosts.

The observations which I have recently made, have
however given me very different ideas ; and though I
am still of opinion that a number of the plants may,
and in fact do perish,by being thrown outof the ground,
I am at the same time convinced, that a very great
majority of all the plants which die in the spring, are
killed by vermin, and as I believe upon inquiry the as-
sertion will be found true, that great numbers of ver-
min are generated in the manure, there must always
be an evident risk of the crop being destroyed thereby.

I

On mixing Lime and Stable Manure.

95

The only probable remedy for such an evil seems to
be, that of either preparing the manure in a particular
manner, by mixing it with some substance or substan-
ces, whose deleterious effects will prove fatal to the in-
sects ; or by applying it in a form somewhat different
from the mode commonly practiced.

Upon the first of these points I have to observe, that
a cheap and valuable remedy may be had in most si-
tuations, which, when mixed with the dung, will not
only destroy the vermin, but, by its operation upon
the manure, render it much more valuable. — The ar-
ticle I allude to is limCy which, when mixed with well
digested animal and \^^R)\e manures, not only de-
stroys every insect, or tnimalcule, which they contain,
but by its solvent qualities accelerates putrefaction, and
renders their effects upon the crop more certain and
valuable, anil accordingly many of the best farmers in
England employ a mixture of lime in all their manure ;
but when to the advantage above mentioned, is super-
added the destruction of such vermin as are likely to
breed in the dung, and afterwards to destroy the crop,
the mixture of lime with it will appear to be one of the
most beneficial improvements in modern husbandry.*

When dung is intended for a compost, no attempt
should be made to add any large quantity of lime or
earth, till it is properly fermented ; as every addition
of that kind will be found to check fermentation, and
diminish the value of the compound. — The lime and
earth should be added, after the fermentation is finish-

* Inquiry into the cause of the blight and smut in wheat. Com-
inunications to Board of Agriculture, vol. 2, page 208.

5{;

/■[

»

I

96 On mixing Lime and Stable Manure.

ed, and the whole carefully mixed and laid up toge-
ther. A few days after this is done, a second fermen-
tation will come on, and, if the mixture has been pro-
perly turned over, and thoroughly incorporated, m a
month or six weeks afterwards it will be fit for use.

Considerable judgment and attention will, however,
be requisite, with regard to the quantity of lime, and
other active principles employed ; for if the quantity
is small, their action upon the rich substances contain-
ed in the dung, will be partial and imperfect ; and if
too great, a considerable loss may be sustained by their
over action. The F^^'O" ^^^^ ^^" """"S their ac
live and passive qualit»||U:est to a balance, or, m
plainer language, the quantity tiat will dissolve the en-
riching substances contained in the dung, will certain-
ly be found the most useful.*

* "Outlines of the fifteenth chapter of the proposed general report
from the Board of Agriculture ;" on the subject of manures ; by
Robert Somerville. London. 1795.

On the impropriety of mixing lime with fresh dung, see Lord
Dundonald's « Treatise on the intimate connexion that subsists be-
nveen agriculture and chemistry." London. 1803.

C 97 ]

Mangel TFurtzel. Winter Food for Cattle.

1

[The following account of methods used in the cul-
tivation of the improved beet-root, or mangel wurtzel,
is taken from a recent publication by Mr. Finder Simp.
*ow, of the county of Essex, England, 1814.* Experi-
ment must decide to what degree these statements will
apply to the culture of this root in our country.

Fifty tons have been raised on an acre in England.
The produce of one tenth of an acre will keep a bul-*
lock fatting, fourteen weeks. Dry fodder must ac
company this green food. The produce of six acres
will fatten sixty bullocks ; allowing each 100 pounds
per day ; as appears in the statements made in this
publication.

1. In broad cast, on strong land, spade trenched, ten
inches deep, leaving the plants after hoeing nearly fif.
teen inches apart each way. Produce per acre 50 tons.

2. Transplanted in rows, three feet apart, the plants
eighteen inches apart in each row. Produce ncr acre
22 tons.

3. Dibbling the seed, in rows two feet apart, and the
plants left twelve inches apart in each row. Produce
per acre 48 tons.

By these different methods, results will prove which
is preferable. Its great advantages over turnips are

• The advertisement prefixed to the book states, that the djser-
vations were made upon crops of the root grown upon a farm at
Bedfords, in the county of Essex, containing 600 acres, belonging
to John Heaton Esq, and in his own occupation.

yoi,. III. n *

t

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I I

98

Mangel JfurtzeL

:\

^

\

shown in every way, as well on account of th bee be-
ins more nutritious, as its not being subject to the fty,
or other annoyances to turnip crops. Nor is the ex-
pcnse of cultivation so great.]

For the information and guidance of those occupi-
ers of land, who may be desirous of eultivatmg the im-
proved beet root upon strong land, the next chapter
will contain a particular account of the method used m
cultivating that root upon strong land at Bedfords.
The method there stated, is that which has been found,
on three years^ trial, to be least expensive m the be-
ginning, and most profitable in the end.-The cultiva-
tion of this root is earnestly recommended to the at-
tention of all persons farming strong lands with a view
to profit. It should never be forgotten, that 48 tons,
the produce of only a single acre, of this root, will make
ten bullocks fat enough for the butcher ; and that six
acres, of equal produce, will fatten sixty bullocks ; that
the profit on each bullock will be considerable ; and
that when the business of feeding is over, the yard will
be full of rich dung : neither should'it be forgotten,
that the tenant who sells his straw, cannot partake of
any of these advantages.

In proof of this assertion, the following facts are sub-
mitted for consideration :

Mr. Heaton bought two lean Welch bullocks, at
Harlow Bush Fair, on the 9th of September. They
cost together 34 pounds. They were pastured on the
Rowens till the 20th of November foUowmg, when
they were tied up, and fed with beet root and oat straw
till the 9th of February following, when they were sold

'^■

Mangel JVurtzel.

99

together, in Romford market, for the sum of 50 pounds;
yielding in twenty two weeks, a profit of 16 pounds,
which is equal to 7s. 3d. per week, for each bullock.

These two bullocks were tied up twelve weeks each,
in which time they ate eight tons, two hundred weight
of beet root, the produce of only one sixth part of an
acre of land, cultivated according to the method re-
commended in the following chapter.

The method used in the cultivation of the improved Beet
jRootf upoji strong land^ at Bedfoi^ds.

It may be proper, in the first place, to state what is
meant by strong land. The surface soil is loamy, and
from four to twelve inches deep, upon a bed of strong
clay mixed with gravel. It is too heavy, and general-
ly too wet, in the winter, even for sheep to eat a crop
of turnips on the ground ; and although good turnips
are grown upon it, it is always necessary to draw them
for the sheep, stall-fed cattle, or for cattle in the yards.
The ground is prepared to receive the seed, and clean-
ed in the same way as it would have been for Swedish
turnips. As that part of the business is so well known
to all farmers, it is not necessary to enter into any de-
tail upon it.

In the middle, or latter end of the month of April,
the furrows are set out with the plough, two feet apart,
and double ploughed; that is, the plough returns on
tlxe furrow to the point whence it set out, forming a
ridge between each furrow.

/ Double ploughing with a common plough is prefer-
red to single ploughing with a double mould board

f:

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100

Mangel Wurtzel.

Mangel JVurtzel.

101

ITTTm

plough, because it affords a greater depth of loose earth

than the double mould board plough would produce.

In these furrows, the manure, which should be in a

rotten state, is deposited, after the rate of six cubic

yards to an acre. .

The ridges are then split by the plough going and
returning the same way as before mentioned, leaving
the manure immediately under the middle of the new
ridses A light roller is then passed along the ridges,
in the middle of which the seed is dibbkd, so that the
plants may receive all the benefit which can be derived

from the m.anure. ,., u

The seed is deposited about an inch deep, whilst the
moisture is fresh in the earth, and covered by drawing
a garden rake along the rows.

After this, the light roller is again passed along the
ridges, and the work is finished.

When the plants are about the size of a radish, they
are hoed with a turnip hoe, leaving the plants in the
rows about twelve inches apart. If any of the seeds
fail, and there happen not to be an even crop, the roots,
where they are too thick, are drawn out before the
hoeing takes place, and transplanted, to fill up the va-
cant places, and insure a full crop, which is always
certain, inasmuch as 99 plants out of 100, thrive and
do well. In transplanting, care is necessary to pre-
vent the point of the root from turning upwards.

The weeds, whilst the plants are young, are ktipt
hoed, but after the head of the plant has once spread,
no weed can live underneath its shade, and the expensfe
of hoein? afterwards is very trifling indeed. \,

The whole of the crop is taken up in the month of
November, in dry weather. The tops are cut off near
the crown of the plants, and the plants, when perfectly
dry, are piled up in a shed, and covered with straw
sufficiently thick to preserve them from the frost. They
kept last year till the latter end of March, and they
would have kept much longer.

The seed may be had of Cochran, seedsman, in Duke
street, Grosvenor square, and of jVlessrs. Gibbs and
Co. Half Moon street, Piccadilly. From three to four
pounds of the seed will be sufficient for an acre of
ground, prepared and dibbled according to the method
here stated. The price last year was seven shillings
per pound, but it may probably be less hereafter, as
the growers of the root, so long as that high price con-
tinues, will of course save their own seed, and thereby
lessen the demand from the seedsman.

THE METHOD BEFORE DESCRIBED ELUCmATED.

Form of the Ridges before rnanuring.

b ' b b

The tops of the ridges, about two inches broad, a a a a.
Intervals of twenty four inches from one a to another.
Depths about twelve inches from aio b.
Furrows where the manure is deposited, b b b.

Form of the Ridges after splitting and rolling.
A A A A

B

B

B

B

Tops, A A A A, nine inches broad, in the middle of which

the seed is deposited.
Situation of the manure, B B B B.

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102

Mangel Wurtzel.

It will not be supposed, by any intelligent farmer,
that where the quantity of the improved beet root gwen
daily to a bullock is stated, it is meant that it should
be given without dry food. It may, however be ne-
cesLy to say, that the same dry food must be gxven
with tL beet as is usually given with tu-ps. M^^^
Heaton last year gave oat straw only, and the bullocks
did well upon that food, and were sold to profi^. No
doubt they would have been ready for the butcher
sooner, had good hay been given to them : but this
fact may be relied upon, that fresh bullocks, fed upon
the beet root and oat straw, will, in three months time,
eet fat enough for the butcher.

It may also be necessary to observe, that not a word,
here stated, is intended to apply to such light turnip
soils as will bear the trampling of sheep, without inju-
rv to the land. Mr. Heaton has none upon his farm,
Jid I have not sufficient knowledge of the manage-
ment of turnip land, of that description, to say, whe-
ther prudence would warrant any trial of the beet root
upon a large scale, on such soil, to be eaten on the land.
Where a field, selected for a crop of beet, happens
to be in a foul state, the seed had better be sown m a
garden, and the whole field planted with the young
beet, when of the size of a radish. This will give time
for cleaning the ground, and fitting it for a crop; for,
although the beets are destroyers of weeds, it is not
meant to recommend sowing them on foul ground, or
in any way to encourage a slovenly system of farming.
AUhough manure has been used in the cultivation
of this root, it is not absolutely necessary ; and, it not
in a rotten state, it does mischief. Good crops have

I

A

Mangel PFurtzel.

103

>t-.-'

been obtained at Bedfords without manure ^ and without
injury to the succeeding crops of corn. Beet is fed
from a depth considerably below the reach of the
plough, as generally used ; so that it does not draw
the surface soil in which corn is fed.

The method of cultivating the beet root here recom-
mended, is the sanie as that which is used in the culti-
vation of turnips, in Northumberland and other parts
of the north, with this exception, that the rows there
are 27 inches apart. There may be reasons in the north
for still preferring that space, but in Essex the effect
of it, in the cultivation of the beet root, would be, that,
instead of 48 tons per acre, 43 tons only would be ob-
tained. Experience has proved, that the roots do not
get to a larger size in rows three feet apart, than they
do in rows two feet apart. It may, therefore, fairly
be presumed, that they would not be larger in rows
27 inches apart ; and if not larger, the weight of the
crop, per acre, must be less, because the plants de-
crease in number as the rows increase in space.

The advantages that would arise from the cultiva-
tion of these roots, upon a small part of every strong,
land-farm throughout the kingdom, must be obvious.
Calculations might be given that would astonish and
almost exceed the belief of most readers. Such calcu-
lations, however, in general, are but little attended to,
and it is thought better to omit them, hoping that
enough has been said upon the subject, to fix the at-
tention of every person interested in the cultivation of
land.

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[ 104 j

t'}

Mode of analyzing and testing Gypsum ; extracted from
' Professor Cooper^ account of his experiments on suL

phat of lime. Coopefs Emporium, New Sertes, vol,

lypage 325.

I procured 150 grains of gypsum from 100 of pure
limestone, when the gypsum after being carefully wash-
ed in a moderate proportion of water, was dried for an
hour on the top of a ten plate stove, on which I could
Just bear my hand. But when I calcined it for an hour
in a full red heat, I procured from 100 grains of car.
bonat of lime, but 130 grains of gypsum.

I took a well characteri'zed piece of compact gypsum

from a ton that lay for sale in the street here ; and re-

• ducing it to fine powder, I calcined it in a crucible

in a/«// red heat for an hour. I drove off 214: parts :

this occurred to me three times.

I took from a lump of the same gypsum (Nova Sco-
tia imported to Baltimore, and thence sent to Carlisle)
some of the semi-transparent chrystals of a vein that
ran through the lump. Exposed to heat in the same
manner, the result was the same.

Hence I conclude ; that 100 parts of pure carbonat
of lime, will yield 130 parts of anhydrous gypsum (from
which the water has been expelled) and from 151 to
152 parts of gypsum as it is commonly found.

The country adjoining the waters of the north east
branch of Susquehanna, are now supplied with gypsum
from the Genesee. This commerce began in 1811.
A set of people in the neighbourhood of Pine creek,

mm

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Mode of analyzing and testing Gypsum. 105

in 1812, sold great quantities of common limestone for
gypsum, and deceived many farmers, and injured ma-
ny millstones by the deception. It may be worth while
to give a few characters of gypsum that may prevent a
similar imposition.

First. When a piece of stone is presented to you as
gypsum, try to scratch it with your nail, and to chew
it between your teeth. You may thus scratch and pul-
verize gypsum, but you cannot easily do so with lime-
stone, which is much harder.

Secondly. Drop on it, a drop of spirit of salt, or of
aqua fortis. If an effervescence, a bubbling, and ex-
trication of air ensue, the stone is probably limestone ;
for no such effervescence takes place on a piece of gyp-
sum, but the acid spreads evenly upon the surface, as
,a drop of water would do. Now and then indeed, a
specimen of gypsum may contain a small portion of
limestone, but this does not occur often.

Thirdly. If the preceding tests do not give satisfac-
tion, then take 100 grains of the stone : reduce it to a
fine powder : grind up with it 250 grains of common
pearl ash, boil them in a tin or earthen vessel, with
half a pint of water, to dryness. • Wash what remains
by three separate affusions of half a pint of boiling wa-
ter : dry the sediment at the bottom. If the stone be
gypsum, that sedfment will weigh 77 or 78 grains ; it
will have all the properties of common limestone redu-
ced to powder, it will effervesce with, and totally dis-
solve in a mixture of one part of spirit of salt to two
parts of water, added by degrees till the whole be diS-
solved.

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VOL. III.

<)

*

I 106 3

Professor Cooper^s Analysis of various Specimens of
Pennsylvania Limestone. Cooper^ s Emporium, New
Scries, vol. 1, page 318.

Some time ago the honourable Richard Peters, oi
Belmont, near Philadelphia, requested I would take the
trouble of analyzing some limestones, for the purpose
of ascertaining the quantity of magnesia they might
contain. In England, the impression among scientific
men, in consequence of the experiments of Mr. te-
nant, in Phil. Trans. 1790, are, that limestone contam-
in^ a considerable quantity of magnesia, such as the
limestone of York, in Yorkshire ; Bredon, in Leices-
tcrshire ; Matlock, in Derbyshire, and some other pla-
ces were unfavourable to agriculture. Mr. Tenant
found that seeds sown in earth, sprinkled with lime
made from calcareous limestone, vegetated very well,
and the lime operated favourably : but when sprinkled
with an equal quantity of lime, made from a stone that
contained two parts of magnesia to three of pure lime,

they did not vegetate.

His experiments were made, evidently on secondary
limestones containing magnesia ; and the stratum of
this kind of limestone he found superincumbent on the
purer calcareous stone ; and which in general he con-
siders as alluvial limestone, in reference to the strata
on which his experiments were made.

Judge Peters transmitted to me, nine different spe-
cimens of limestone from Chester county, [and Mont-
gomery county] numbered and named as follows :

m

M Sim

7 ' '

Analysis of Limestone*

107

No. 1 Holstein's.

2 Coates's.

3 Yocum's.

4 Cleaver's.

5 Hughes's.

No, 6 Dr. Gardener's.

7 Barnet's.

8 Bull's.

9 Baker'^.

Of these, No. 7 is regarded as the strongest for
building or for land, and No. 9 the weakest. The first
four are strong lime, 5 and 6 of medium quality, and
No. 8 nearly equal to No. 7 : that is, according to their
reputation in the neighbourhood.

Upon these limestones I have made experiments for
the purpose of ascertaining their component parts, but
chiefly as to the magnesian earth, they may hold.

It is not an easy problem to discover the most sim-
ple, the cheapest, and the most accurate method of se-
parating magnesia from limestone and clay, (from lime
and alumina.)

We have no good precipitant of magnesia : phos-
phoric acid requires combinations that make the results
complicated, and drive us to calculation, which when
I can, I would avoid.

The following metliods have been used, to separate
magnesia from a combined solution of lime and mag-
nesia in the muriatic acid.

1st. Separate the lime by the oxalic acid. This is

too expensive.

21y. Precipitate the lime by saturated carbonat of
potash, which in the cold throws down the carbonat of
lime, and the residual liquor heated lets fall the car-
bonat of magnesia. This is a method recommended
by Davy and Henry ; but I have never been able by

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108

Analysis of Limestone.

ai

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this method perfectly to keep separate the carbonats of

these two earths.

Sly. Throw down the carbonat of lime by carbonat
of ammonia : filter : then add to the muriat of magne-
sia containing carbonat of ammonia, phosphat of soda.
The ammoniaco.phosphat of magnesia is precipitated ;
and 151 grains of this triple salt dried at 90- of Fah-
renheit, answers to 100 grains of muriat of magnesia.
Hence, if 20 grains of a mixed solution of the muriats
of lime and magnesia give 15,1 grains of ammoniaco-
phosphat of magnesia, the mixture contains equal
quantities of muriat of lime and magnesia. Or, 100
grains so dried are equal to 111 grains chrystallized,
or 62,2 of dried sulphat of magnesia. But this seems
to me below the average water of chrystallization in
sulphat of magnesia, which contains nearly 50 per cent.

26 Nich. Journ. 277.

This process, is used by Dr. Henry, Dr. WoUaston,

and I believe by Dr. Marcet.

41y. The lime may be precipitated by oxalat of pot-
ash, and the muriat of magnesia, may be separated ci-
ther by the filter or by alcohol : and precipitated either
by hot carbonat of potash, or by ammoniaco-phosphat
of soda. Or the alcohol or the acid may be driven off
by exposure for an hour to red heat. Or, by sulphu-
ric acid, the magnesia may be chrystallized under gen-
tie evaporation into Epsom, or the bitter purging salt

of magnesia.

6ly. The muriat of lime, may be precipitated into
Gypsum, either by sulphuric acid, or by Glauber's or
Epsom salt, acidulated with a few drops of oil of vi-
triol.

Analysis of Limestone.

109

61y. The limestone containing magnesia, may be
reduced into an impalpable powder, and treated with
an equal weight of oil of vitriol, mixed with thrice its
quantity of water. When the limestone is well pow-
dered and sifted through fine muslin, and the super-
fluous acid driven off by heat, I believe this is as good
a method as any.

In making the experiments of which I am about to
give the result, I proceeded in two ways.

First. I took 100 grains of the stone powdered and
sifted, and treated it with muriatic acid diluted with
three waters by measure, stirring it frequently : after
four hours, the supernatant liquor was poured off, and
the undissolved residuum washed with an equal quan-
tity of hot water as of the acid liquor, filtered, and dri-
ed in the heat of about 160 Fah. and then weighed.

The solution, was then precipitated by a sufiicient
quantity of oil of vitriol cautiously added : it was left
to stand after stirring till the gypsum had formed.
Then filtered, and the separated gypsum put aside.

This second filtered solution, contained, muriat of
magnesia, a small quantity of sulphat of magnesia, a
small quantity of sulphat of lime, and alumina, with
excess of acid. The alumina was thrown down in a
dirty-coloured floculent precipitate, by the cautious ad-
dition of carbonat of ammonia, and was separated by
the filter and washed, dried and weighed. The solu-
tion was then precipitated by hot carbonat of potash
which threw down the magnesia and the lime ; and fil-
tered. This precipitate was re-dissolved in sulphuric
acid, and left to stand. The sulphat of lime (general-

ii f

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110

Analysis of Limestone.

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I

ly about one sixth) separated spontaneously, fell down
and was added to the first portion.

The whole of the magnesia was then thrown down
by carbonat of potash, well washed, dried over a char-
coal fire in the heat of about 160- and then weighed.

The sulphat of lime, or gypsum, was exposed ma
crucible for two hours to a red heat, and the hme cal-
culated on the proportion of 100 parts limestone to 130
of the anhydrous gypsum. A proportion, for whicih I
will assign my reasons in a supplement to the present

paper.

Secondly. I proceeded in another way.
I treated the finely powdered limestone with strong
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol of commerce;) trituraUng
them together in a glass mortar. 1 then added four
times the quantity of water. The clear liquor was de-
canted from the sediment which was washed with an.
other portion of water, and the liquors added together.
The sediment (gypsum) was rendered anhydrous by
exposure to a red heat in a crucible for two hours, and
the limestone calculated on the proportion of 10 parts
limestone to 13 of anhydrous gyps : deductmg the si-
lex previously found. The filtered solution to which
the washings were added, was concentrated by evapo-
ration, which occasioned a slight precipitate (about ^th)
of sulphat of lime : it was then treated with carbonat
of ammonia for the alumina, and with carbonat of pot-
ash for the magnesia as before.

The component parts of the stones sent to me, were .
ascertained on the average of these two methods.

The limestones transmitted to me, bore evident
marks of contiguity to primitive strata. The colour-

1'

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Analysis of Limestone.

Ill

ing matter was black hornblende, sometimes in streaks
or veins, sometimes minutely divided and mixed with
the limestone, giving the greyish tinge to the stone.
The 9th specimen was intermixed with mica ; the in-
soluble residuum of the four first specimens in dilute
marine acid contained a small portion of matter, silky
to the touch. I believe all the limestones connected
with the range of primitive formations on the seaboard
of our country from Boston to Virginia contain more
or less of magnesia. They are in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the steatite and other magnesian strata,
that envelope as a matrix, the chromat of iron. I tried
the specific gravity of three of them, which varied from
2,65 to 2,72 the usual range of common limestones.

No. 1. Holstein*s : Colour, greyish white : Fracture,
uneven : Surface, common splintery : the stone seems
to consist of minute lustrous chrystals : slightly fetid
on being pounded. I obtained in 100 parts, silex 3,
alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 12. The rest was
carbonat of lime or pure limestone. The traces of iron
were evident with tincture of galls and prussiat of pot-
ash, but in no greater degree than might be attributed
to the usual impurity of the acids of commerce. My
muriatic acid was freed from the sulphuric, by muriat
ofBaryt.

No. 2. Contests* Colour, greyish white : Fracture,
uneven : Surface, fine splintery, consisting of minute
sparkling chrystals. I obtained in 100 parts, of silex 3,
alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest was
pure limestone.

No. 3. Yocum^s. Colour, greyish white streaked with
blueish gtey, being coloured with hornblende (amphi-

. . • i-j

'*^P'

m

m ■

112

Analysis of Limestone.

*''V

f

bole.) Fracture uneven: Surface, splintery, small
sparkling chrvstals. I obtained in 100 parts, silex 4,
alumina 2, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest was pure

limestone.

No. 4. Cleaver^s. Colour, blueish grey : Fracture
uneven in one direction, but splitting into lamma of
about half an inch thick in the other ; there was a very
thin clay coloured sediment between the lamma : Sur-
face, opake, without lustre. I obtained from 100 parts,
silex 4, alumina 6, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest
was pure limestone.

No. 5. Hughes's. Colour, white inclining to grey :
Fracture uneven : Surface, splintery, opake, void of
lustre. I obtained from 100 parts, silex 5, alumina 2,
carbonat of magnesia 12. The rest, pure limestone.

No. 6. Dr. Gardener's. Colour, greyish inclining to
blueish white. Fracture uneven : Texture, a very fine,
easily-pounded, sandy grit, consisting of minute lustry
chrystals. I obtained from 100 parts, silex 2, alumma
0, carbonat of magnesia 16. The rest, pure limestone.
No. 7. BarneVs. Colour, white with a very slight
clay coloured tinge : Fracture uneven : Surface, chrys-
tallized lustry facets : Texture, saccharoid, the same
as the saccharoid limestone on the York turnpike road
about 10 miles from Baltimore. I obtained, silex 1,
alumina 0, carbonat of magnesia 14. The rest, pure

limestone.

No. 8. BuWs. Appearance like No. 7, only the fa-
cets of the chrystals much smaller. Silex 1, alumina
0, carbonat of magnesia 14, the rest limestone.

No. 9. Baker's. Colour, ash-grey intermixed with
brown mica, so as to bear the appearance of a mixture

'if'

Analysts oj* Limestone.

113

of pepper and salt : Small lustry chrystals. I obtained
silex 36, undecomposed mica 4, alumina by precipita-
tion 6, carbonat of magnesia 4. The rest limestone.

Hence it would seem, that the proportion of magne-
sia in these stones, is not so great as to produce any
remarkable effect, either in agriculture, or as cements.
The last (No. 9,) is doubtless the worst, as containing
so large a proportion of siliceous sand, which on light
soils is worse than useless.

Tenant's limestones, contained a much larger por-
tion of magnesia, and the effect was therefore more evi-
dent. The greater proportion of limestone used in
England than in this country, with the same effect, may
arise not from the nature of the lime, but of the soil
whereon it is put. It is there used in large proportion
to strong loamy arable soils, and to swampy, spouty
ground, that tends to produce sorrel. When it is used
for the purpose of producing white clover, for which
it seems to be a specific stimulus, it is not applied in
greater proportion there than here, and merely as a top
dressing. That is, so far as my observation and recol-
lection enable me to speak on the subject.*

* In Evans and RufTy's Farmer's Journal, August 30th, 1813,
there is a paper, in which it is averred, that Magnesian Lime, in
firofier quantities^ is much used in several parts oi England, The
writer cites highly respectable authorities, (among them Sir IL
Davij,) to prove the salutary efficiency of such lime ; in quantities
not exceeding one fourth of the dressing with other lime. It is
therein said, that no limestone in England contains more than 22
per cent, of magncda^ and the most usual proportion is about one
iifth. R. P-

VOL. III.

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C 114 ]

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^.

Observahons on the culture of Summer Wheat, or Spring
meat, from a Pamphlet by C. T. Skurray, Esquire,
of Devonshire. London, 1813.

According to Mr. Skurray, the real summer wheat
is a native of the south of Europe, where it is called
Ble Tremois, and is so tender in the early stages of its
growth, that a severe frost would destroy it : the mid-
die of April, therefore [in England] is the proper time
to begin sowing it, and from that until the beginnmg
of May. It ripens as early as the common wheat ; and
in fact rarely exceeds four months between the sowmg
and reaping. It is not liable to rust or mildew, even
in those situations where other wheat is often destroy-
cd by it. The soil best adapted for it is a good loam ;
but any soil that is in good heart, if not too light, will

produce a crop.

The quantity of seed required is about three bushels
per acre, prepared with lime and brine, as customary ;
it should be well rolled after sowing, and again when
three inches above ground, and of course, weeded in
due season, if requisite.

As it is the peculiar nature of this wheat to appear
ripe, by the colour of the straw, long before the grain
has arrived at maturity, great care should be taken to
examine the ears, before the harvest people are order-
ed into the field, otherwise a serious loss may be sus-
tained. It is a small grain, but very heavy, and the
husk or skin is thinner than most spring wheat ; con-
sequently it produces more flower. It is sometimes
bearded, but this distinction varies with the soil. The

'i

On Summer Wheat.

115

straw is slender and short, the ears small, but general-
ly so well filled, that the chests open and expose the
grain before it is ripe. The stem of the straw is aU
ways a little bent at the joints, which is not the case in
any other wheat.

There are numerous varieties of spring wheat, ac-
cording to Mr. Skurray, and one sometimes answers
while another will not. Seed of the genuine sort may
be had of Messrs. Cook, Fisher and Co. opposite the
Pantheon, Oxford street, London.

-'i:

i:,

Oil the Cultivation of Carrots.

[The providing an abundance of succulent food for sheep, and other
farm stock, when they have youn^, is all essential to their health
and prosperity. For this reason, the attention of farmers is called
to the cultivation of the carrof, of the utility of which root the most
abundant testimony is afforded by various British farmers ; and
some in the United States, whose experiments have been commu-
nicated to the Agricultural Society. With a good stock of carrots
and mangel wurtzel, a farmer need not dread a long or severe win-
ter, or be apprehensive about the health of his breeding stock.

The attention of the sheep farmers in Aibany and Saratoga coun-
ties, New York, is particularly called to the growth of carrots. The
nature of much of their soil is particularly adapted for them, and
they have hills of leached ashes for manure, of which, (in 18 1 2,) no

use was made ! I '

The body of the following paper is chiefly abridged from Dick-
son's Agriculture, London, 1805 ]

The orange carrot, the root of which is larger, the
colour darker, and the flesh more juicy and saccha-
rine, than in the other varieties, is the most proper
sort for field cuhure. Deep friable, loamy, or sandy

.^'

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t :

116

On the Cultivation of Carrots.

soils, are the best, but most soils will answer, except
those of a stiff clay, and thin gravel. Two or three
deep ploughings, (say 14 inches,) are essential, to en-
able the roots to push downward. — Two should be
given in the autumn, or early in the winter, and one in
the spring. At the last ploughing, in March, the farm
yard manure should be turned in, and the surface of
the ground immediately well harrowed.^

The cultivator should s^ive his own carrot seed, by
selecting annually some of the most perfect and best
shaped roots of the preceding year's growth ; to be set
out separately for the purpose, early in the spring. Saw
dust, bran, ashes, or dry sand, are to be mixed with
them [and well rubbed together] that they may be se-
parated and sown more regularly.

J. C. Curwen, M. P. of Cumberland, England, sow-
ed carrot seed, previously mixed with wet sand, and
placed in a warm situation, on high ridges, three feet
asunder. By this method the seed is in a state of ve-
getation before it is sown ; so that a fortnight is gained
by it, and the carrots are less liable to be injured by

weeds.f

From four to six pounds broadcast are necessar)^*

The seed should be sown as early as the frost will per-

mit, and covered with a light harrow. As carrots arc

of a delicate nature while young, and do not rise quick-

I

* Mr. Cooper, of New Jersey, recommends ashes as a manure,
and to choose ground thr\t has been in potatoes the preceding year.

J. M.

t Transactions Society of Arts, London, vol. 24.

On the Cultivation of Carrots.

117

\m

i

ly,* they must be kept free from the shade of weeds,
by small hand hoes, or by hand weeding. This ope-
ration may be rendered less difficult by having the
crops sown on ridges of such breadth as may be easily
managed by two or three persons. A second hoeing
should be given in three weeks from the first ; and the
plants set out to their proper distances, which varies
from nine to eighteen inches each way ; experience
proving that the crops are finer and the roots larger,
than when the plants stand nearer to each other. A
third hoeing will be requisite, when the weeds must be
completely cut out, and the weak plants and double
ones removed ; further hoeings may be necessary, of
which the cultivator must be the judge ; the object
being to keep the land well stirred and the crop clean.
Harvesting. — Mr. Mason recommends the use of a
narrow spade, which the labourer strikes with one hand
into the ground, pressing it sideways at the same time,
while he draws the root with the other hand. After
being raised from the ground, the roots should remain
in the field for two or three days to dry,t then packed
in heaps, with dry straw, or dry sand, in some dry
building. — When piled in the field, a ditch should be
made round the heaps, to carry off the water. J Mr.

"ii

•<„ ■■^

4

* Six weeks will sometimes elapse between the sowinf)^ of tlie
seed and the appearance of the parsley leaf. Mr. Mason, Transac-
tions Society of Arts, London, vol. 23.

t The drying- of the plants would be expedited by cutting off the
tops, when first taken out of the ground. They may be given to
cattle. J. M.

t Rev. Mr. Eldridge. Com. to Board of Agriculture, vol. 5.

-»'.■ "-^ ■

li:,;

ill

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118

On the Cultivation of Carrots.

Curwen directs a small piece to be cut out from the
top of each root, to prevent it from vegetating.*

All farm stock relish carrots and are improved m
health by them. For sheep or cows, while suckling,

they are invaluable.

The Rev. Mr. Eldridge says he mowed carrot tops
for his cow, twice in a season, without injury to the
root, and afforded an opportunity of cleaning them bet-
ter than could be done when they had their tops on.
They greatly enrich and sweeten milk.f Mr. Curwen,
from one acre and a rood, in 1804, had 4143 stone,

(of 14 pounds.)

Mr. Mason had eighteen loads, of forty heaped bush-
els to the load, per acre. J

Mr. Cooper, of New Jersey, states, that he has had
at the rate of 800 bushels of carrots to the acre.

.f 1

* Transactions Society of Arts, vol. 24.

t Com. to Board of Agriculture, London, vol. 5, page 211

i Transactions Society of Arts, vol. 23.

'T

.^:i1

I. ,.'

C 119 3

[From the Wilkesbarre Gleaner of April, 1814.]

Owego Village. — Plaster and Salt.

A friend of ours has lately returned from Owego,
and has been polite enough to favour us with a sche-
dule obtained from a respectable merchant of the vil-
lage, of the business transacted there during the last
winter. The curious cannot fail to be pleased with the
perusal. It should be borne in mind, that it is but a
few years since the place where Owego is built was a

wilderness.

During the sleighing (last winter, 1813-14) there

were on the road from Ithaca, the head of the Cayuga

lake, to Owego, from 500 to 700 sleighs : there are

now at Owego (March 10th) about 9500 tons of plas-

ter; and 2500 barrels of salt : — to transpprt these to

market will require 200 arks, which will cost about

100 dollars each. Plaster, the arks given in, is about

20 dollars per ton at Owego ; and the sah itself will

bring 6 dollars per barrel, making in the whole,

9500 tons of plaster, at 20 dollars, % 190,000

2500 barrels of salt, at 6 dollars, 15,000

9 arks, to carry salt, at 100 dollars, 900

S 205,900
The oats consumed daily, allowing one bushel to

each team, (many of them had from four to six horses,)

would be 700 bushels.

Cost of plaster at the bed, three to four dollars per

ton.— Transportation to Owego, seven to eight dollars

per ton.

It-

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C 120 ]

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)V

From the Minute Book of the Agricultural Society.

On the Duration of Posts, when their natural Position
is reversed.— Extract of a Letter from Mr. John R.
Evans, to the Secretary of the Philadelphia Society
for promoting Agriculture^ dated Nov. 29, 1811.

On removing the old fence of my garden, to set a
new one, about five years since, I found that the old
fence was supported by a few posts, that were forked,
and the fork down, and that they were quite sound,
while the rest were rotten, and broken off at the ground ;
the yard fence, (only five pannel,) three parts of which
were strong and soimd, and likely to last for ten years
more, were not forked, but from their being knotty, it
was easy to see that they were top in the ground- I
have made enquiry of the carpenter who built the fence,
(who is yet living,) and he says the fence stood 20 or
21 years, and that it was the design of my predecessor
to turn all posts top down, that would admit of it, the
fact being known to him that they would last longer.*

John R. Evans.

* '«:

W^

* I have experienced the truth of the fact above stated. I do not
pretend accurately and satis f^ictorily to account for it. I have con.
jcctured, that by reversing the vessels in which the sap had been
accustomed to circulate, whilst the tree was in life, the moisture
drawn up by the sun, in vessels even of dead timber, was impeded
by the reversed position. Had the posts been, as they generally
are, placed with their butt ends downward, the vessels designed for
circulation of sap, might be filled with moisture from the air or
earth. However fanciful this conjecture may appear, the fact men-
tioned by Mr. Evans, is important, and proved in many instances.

R. Peters.

j»

INDEX.

205

Agriculture, of England, Manures, &c. - . - 84

in the new settlements of Pennsylvania, - 98

Commerce and manufactures ; remarks on, 270, &c.
Alkalies ; [& so, it is said, doth sugar :] prevent cream be-
ing converted into butter, - • - - 249
restore to overdunged ground, profitable fertility, 416, 417
Anderson, Dr. the lime applied by him, in so great quan-
tities must have been mild ; and acted by
its fertilizing and nutritious qualities ; dif-
ferent from caustic, which is solvent.
Animals ; domestic, sacrificed by the ignorance of quacks ;
owing to medical characters neglecting vete-
rinary acquirements, . - -
invited or repelled by scents.— Usefulness of at-
tending to this subject, . - •
Apple, Crab, account of an orchard, • • - -
Trees, on pruning ; and management of orchards.
Crab, account of it in Virginia,
Arator, agricultural essays ; noticed, - - •
Ashes, spent, or soapers — only valuable for the aikali con-
tained in them, . . • •

Appendix, •

of various species of timber, quantities of potash

yielded by them, respectively, . - -

Atmosphere, said to be the source of fertility in manure,

see vol. 1st. trench ploughing, winter fallow,

B
Bakewell, William, his mode of planting Indian corn ; and

course of crops,

the noted breeder. Improved his
sheep, &c. by crosses, '
VOL. III. q *

81

366
189
199
392
227

417
92, 93

418
198

155

5.1

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INDEX.

ii

Barclay, Robert, his information respecting Tangier ,

■wheat, and mangel wurtzel, - ^Ty^'o
transmits accounts of barilla, used as
manure. Appendix,

Barilla, a powerful manure, account of its uses.^ Appen-^ ^^^ ^^

Facts and observations on, by the editor of the

Farmer's Journal,

Cultivation of, in U. S. recommended, and places

where plants grow,
Barking Trees, when standing, or girdling, at particular

seasons, has been found conducive to du-
lability ; and inquiries on the subject re-

A A . - 109, 110

commenaed,

, . • • . 400

Bark Mill, employed in threshing grain, - ^^^

Barytes, sulphuret of, a powerful manure, - ' ^^^

Bauduy, P. account of a shepherd's dog, - •

Birds, absence of, give opportunity to increase of insects.

Migration and return ol, -

Biscuit, brown, eulogized, - * *

.•14. a « 4'o5

Breast, Plough, for paring soils, a cut, ^^ ^^^

Breeding in and in, remarks on, - " ' .

Brindley, his preference of canal navigation, to beds of

. . - • ^^^

""^^^^^ ' 17*? to 189

Brown, Dr. see his account of Guinea grass, - i^ ^ ^^ ^^^

Bull, hardihood and sufferings of one.

Burning Land, to excess, prejudicial ; but, generally, fire ^ ^ ^

salutary on soils, - " " -

Butter, of what it consists ; and process of making, 248, 249, 302

C

265
Cabbages, culture of.

Calcareous Substances, only one kind of: apparent differ-

ences are owing to foreign matter.

Earths, inquiry into their composition and

... . • 205, ^U'

qualities, •

, • Do

Calf, case of croup in one,

INDEX.

4

Calf, twins, at some times more frequent than at others, 61

Free-martin, what ? rare, and seldom prolific, • ib.

Canals, advantages of opening, from Seneca lake to Sus-
quehanna, thence to Delaware,
Navigation through, preferred to that on beds of
rivers, - . • -

Carpetting, made from hair of cattle.
Carrots, cultivation of recommended,
Cassat, D. Esq. letter on successions of wheat crops,
Catterpillars, account of vast numbers.

Sods, placed in crotches of trees, will banish
them, . . - -

Walnut, and wild cherry trees, invite and
support them, - • -

Cattle, refuse hair of their hides made into cloth, -

Hoven, account of, - • •

Cayuga Lake, great bed of plaster there.
Cement, the weaker the lime, the less sand required.
Changes of Crops, rotation and changes defended,

and see pages, 375, 376, 377.
A proof of necessity of, in land clover-
sick, - - - * - 40
Animals, for stock, recommended, 52, 53, 54, 55
Timber, • - - 104, 105, 376, 377
Chesnuts, best kinds ; grafted by juxta position, - 435, 436
Chesnut Tree,' engrafting, . . - - 435
Churchman and Martin, their description and cut of a

270

352
403
115
257
280

ib.

ib.

403
41

268
207
252

rubber, for threshing grain,

400

Church, Philip, Esq. his letter on gypsum of the

Lakes, - - 268,269,270

and sec appendix, pages, 2, 3, &c.
Churn, one of peculiar construction, • • 249

See appendix, 1, 2, 3, and pages of text, - 301, 302
Cist, Jacob, Esq. his account of lake plaster, - - 138

Clifford, John, Esq. his account of fiorin, • - 286

Clothing, over coats, and other clothing, for labourers,

made from hair of cattle, • • 404

I

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INDEX.

m

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V

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WA

%

1

f 1

I

Clover, degenerates, if sown too frequently on same field, 40

Coal, fossil, abundant in our western and northern coun-
try, and great advantages of opening canals for its

/ , . - 118,140,141

transport, - - -

Of Luzerne county, sells higher at New York, than

that from Liverpool, - • *

281
Cock Chaffer, account of it, - - '

Collin, Rev. Dr. on pruning apple trees,

- 27 1 Scc»

Commerce, remarks on, - • • "

Cooper, Professor, his mode of testing gypsum. Appendix, 104

Analysis of sundry Pennsylvania lime-
stones, , - • •
Corn Cob, gives stimulus of distension, when ground with

the corn, and also contains much nutriment,
Corn Indian, successions in rich bottoms,

Strong in its system, and will withstand lime,
or hot muck, . . - -

Stalks rotted, valuable manure,
With potatoes, observations on.
Early planting recommended.
Inquiry whether, or not, it be exhausting, ,
Varieties of, •

Large crops of, - • *

Not injured by frost, when young.
Dropping the seed properly.
Covering thinly, and breaking clods.
When and how to cut off the whole plant
profitably,

Grass lay, best for corn, - - -

Mixed crops of, - - • '

Shelling machine,

See title, Indian corn, * ' "

Correa de Serra, Joseph, on the cultivation of barilla

plants, - • •

Cows, milk and butter increased, by leaves of scarcity
, plant,

106

297
255

230
231
303
312
304
308, 309
311
312
316
I ib.

320
321
323
250

432

263

■< '-I

INDEX.

I

15

419,420

155

252

249

281

43

44, 45

46

ib.

48, 49
86

Coxe, Tench, Esq. his information concerning wool.

Appendix, . - -

Cream, scalded, process of making.
Crops, course of. by W. Bakewell,

Rotations and changes of, defended,
Curds, rennet and alkalies, combine only with them.
Cutworms, the progeny of certain beetles.
Cyder, directions for making, - - .

Virginia crab apple, best for cyder,
Ripe, should not be mixed with unripe fruit,
Fermentation, how managed.
Fining, racking, &c. - - - -

D
Davis, on sheep folding, Appendix,
Davy, Sir H. his conjecture on operative principle of

plaster and remarks thereon, 235, 236, 237

Dogs, Shepherd's, account of, [see appendix, 36,] 366, 372, 373
Dotterer, Henry, his machine for breaking plaster, corn in

the ear, shelling, &c. • • 398

Drill, Wheat, description of, - - - - 32

Dry Rot, (fire-fang) in dung, various opinions relating

to it, . - . 288, 289, 290, 295

Duane, W. J. his pamphlet on roads and navigation, ap-
proved, - • , -
Ducket, his skim coulter, • • • .
Dung, Long, Arthur Young's account of it, and mode of
using it, - ...
Mixing with lime, injurious if done previous
to fermentation, appendix, . - 94
Dung, should be applied previously to fermentation, 92, 93,
See contra, ... 224, 225, 338
Well rotted, preferable to hot and fresh muck, 221
Dry rotten, (fire-fanged,) heats of our climate pro-
duce, -.-.-- 222
What state of putrescence is best, • - 221
Violent fermentation injurious, - - 222
Applied superficially when fresh, wasteful, 224, 22.5

272
413

I

1114

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r

INDEX.

I"

!■

Dung, use of, in converting other subsUnces into ma-^^^^ ^^^^

nure, - * * * * , u "

Essays on, by Arator, noticed-advocates fresh

, . 227, &c.

i""^\ • * ; . 228,329,10 223

Remarks on, - •

Strong instance of injurious hot-muck-farming, 235

overrotted dung being worthless, 29 1
Top dressing, and ploughed in-comparative ex-

- • •

periment,

Stable dung, whether or not it be pestilential,
Preparation of it, for winter crops,
Fresh, how to spread and cover it,
Dysentery, and other diseases, rife in bad fruit years, and
when insects and vermin plenty,

E
Eckhart, Peter, sows wheat in frequent succession,
Eckroyd, James, on the use of lime.

Stabbing hoven cattle,
Diseases of swine,
Breeding in and in, - . •

Artificial grasses.
Smut in wheat,
Eels, useful to clear out obstructed water pipes,
England, use of lime there, • - - "?

Agriculture of, in certain instances.
Engrafting, chesnut trees recommended,
Ergot, spured rye, a disease in that grain-appendix.
Exhalation, of dung in stercoraries, not injurious ; and
can be restrained, - • "

of exposed muck, ruinous,

F
Fallows, summer, with fresh dung,

Naked, disapproved, • - * "

Farmers, their prejudices condemned, -

Should live on their own, and not foreign pro

ducts.
Fences, in new clearings, , - - •

234
291
233
315

285

257

37 to 42

41

50

52

56

at the end.

- 37

84

435

5, Sec.

230
225

93, 94
88
97

142
116,117

INDEX.

if.

sr:

407

135

407

61

Fences, live and dead, comparative expense,
Ferae Naturae, (wild animals,) law definition of, erroneous,

all have the animus revertendi, (the dis-
position to return,) • • - 352
Fiorin Grass, account of, - - - 63, 260, 286, 287
Fire, salutary effects of,-on soils, • • - ^l*
Fire-Stone, for furnaces, brick kilns, &c. - 389, 390, 39 1
Fish, migration and return of, to places where bred, - 350
Destroyed by damming rivers, • - 35 1, 352
Flax-Mill, with a plate, and description,
Forman, T. M. Esq. his estimate of live and dead ftnces,
Free-Martin, what ? seldom prolific, - - -

G
Genessee Country, route by which its produce may be

brought into Pennsylvania,
Girdling-Method of clearing new lands.
Gout, instance of cure, by temperance and exercise.
Grafting, chesnuts, en flute, . - - -

Grapes, what foreign kinds best agree with our climate ?
Grasses, more durable than red clover, should be sown
along with it, - - - ' -

Their meliorating and estimable qualities,

(Note)

Old lays should be ploughed, see course of crops
substituted, • . . - -

Soddy grass grounds, ploughed and rotted,
greatly promote future vegetation.
Prejudice for old grass lays, condemned,
Clover degenerates, if too often repeated,
Fiorin, account of, - - • "

Guinea grass, account of, - - -

Advantages of studying the nature of grasses,
so as to adapt them to the soil, and ends re-
quired, "'"**.*
Gypsum, found in the state of New-York ; and its quali-
ties and description.

270
219
147

436

S

55
91

258

94

90

88, 89

40

63

173

8!

139, 266

i

V

m

\

n

INDEX.

f

isx

Gypsum, whether the sulphuric acid, be or not, its operat-

^ . ... 228,229

ing cause.

Remarks on Sir H. Davy's conjecture, relative

X .w u- ^f - - - 235 to 242

to this subject,

In moderate quantities assists ; but overabun-
dantly applied, prevents, putrefaction, 296, 297, 8cc.

Mode of testing and analysing. Appendix, 104

H
Habits, agricultural, well settled, and salutary, should be

adhered to, - - " " '

Force of, . - - - 72,73,74,75

Haines, Reuben, his account of the Long Island hay rake, 212,213
Harrow, excellent one, for Indian corn, described.
Harrowing, wheat in the spring, recommended.
Haws, called hooks, consequences of fevers, in horses, cut-
ting them, highly injurious, - • •

Of thorns, to promote their vegetation, ^

Haws of Thorn, modes of accelerating their vegetation,
Hedges, walnut and cedar trees peculiarly injuri-

ous in hedge rows, . - -

and see ante, as to all trees growing in
thorn hedge rows, - -

Hedges, William Neill's mode of enclosing, by mound
and ditch, . - - - -

Observations on W. N's hedges ; by the secre-

374,439
tary, - - *

On hedges by col. Pickering, . - 2

On col. Taylor's cedar hedges, - - ^^^

Tenants in Scotland forbidden to turn sheep or
cattle, into hedged fields, for five years after

planting, - " ' " '

Trees in hedge rows, injurious,
Mr. Forman's remarks on Mr. Quincy's hedges ;
and calculation comparative, between live and

, J f .... 407, &c..

dead fences, - - -

Somerville's mode of pruning and management.

7B
Appendix, * - • "

152

24

16S
439
439

440

242

9, n

164

242

INDEX.

SB

'-"' "■ — "

Hemlock timber, account of it. Barked, or girdled, standing, 109
Hickory, useful for inside work; When barked, or cut

when sap flowing, • - • • JIO
Horse rake, for hay ; — described. Cut. - • 212,213
Horses, improper treatment of their diseases, by ignorant

quacks, * - - - • 167

exposed to vicissitudes of Weather, should not be

pampered, clothed, or kept in close stables, - ib.

lampas, burning, often injurious, • • 169

diseases affecting their eyes, • * • ib.

salivary defluxions in, (see v. 2, plast. Paris, p. 124,) 283

Hoven cattle, stabbing recommended, • • - 41

Husbandry, convertible, - • * • 84

in Scotland, account of, * • - 159

disadvantages of permanent high ridges, 160, 161

two successive grain crops, liighly prejudicial, 162

straw-burning, account of, • - 210

Hybernation, of swallows ; vexata quasfioy (a litigated

point,) account of a swallow tree ; supposed
to have been the place of frequent hyberna-
tion of those birds, • • 345, 346, £€c.

I

In and in, breeding, instances where that practice is disap-
proved, * • - . 52, 53, 54
Indian corn, red, account of, • - • • 24
(see title corn, Indian,) mixed with, and tinged.

VOL, III,

all other kinds,

fallow crop of, with fresh dung,
mode of planting, • . -

trench ploughing for, • . •

Col. Taylor's mode of cultivating,

moiety of a field planted, the
other part plastered, and not
mowed, or grazed ; alternate-
ly and annually cropped, •
high ridges, divided by deep
furrows, said to be the best

ib.

92, 93

151 to 155

155

196, 197, 198

197

r\

INDEX.

>»

ac

)J

>

!•■

it'

198

123

mode, • " '

J7» In a flat, heavy soil, annoyed by

moisture,' this mode may be
preferable.
Indian Corn, species fit for field planting, and mode^of ^ ^^^ ^^

culture, - • ' ' onq

Dotterer's machine for breaking it in the ear, 398
Insects, sulphuret of barytes destroys, - * '

see vol. 2, p. 209, same efi-ect produced by sulphur
fier se ; or sulphuric acid,
burning brush, on ground intended for melons, de-
stroys insects, or their larvae, - •

when in plenty, seasons generally unhealthy to ani-
mals, - - • •

K
Kaims, Lord, his mode of training thorn hedges, - 243, 244
Kirk, Caleb, of Delaware, his mode of acceleratmg the

vegetation of haws, •

Kirk, Caleb, of York town, his mode of raising locust trees

from seed, • " ' '

Krebs, George, his certificate of the qualities and uses of a

remarkable fire stone, - - ^^"' ^'^

\

218

285

439

247

Lake plaster, found on the borders of the Cayuga and Se-
neca lakes, state of New York, in inexhaust-
* . ible quantities,

and see ante, • • * *

Lampas, in horses, burning for, disapproved, - -

Land, modes of clearing in new countries ; and modes ot^ ^^ ^ ^^

cultivation therein, - - • " ' ir

' Yankee mode, by burning, disapproved, - 1 1 , •>

268
138
169

fire, salutary effects of on soils,

potatoes and turnips, best crops, when first cleared,

a specified mode of clearing recommended,

limed ; plaster acts favourably on,

rich or poor, not designated by species of timber,

Cvol. l,p. 31.) - •

221
113
118
208

104

INDEX.

3S

158

204

245

ib.

246

Lang, John, his account of the agricultural improvements
in Scotland, . - - -

on lime and marls, - •

Larch trees, what soils most propitious to their growth,
will grow in any, but best in good soils,

Dr. Hunter, Georgical Essays, contra.
the great value, and good properties of the.
Lime, its varieties, mode of operating, component parts,

quantity per acre, &c. • • - 204,205

miid, beneficial, spread on grass, of moist soils ; es-
pecially on those drained, - . -

caustic, in small quantities, best for plough farming,
mild, its appearance before burnings

the more laid on, the more it fertilizes. Other-
^ wise of caustic lime, see page 200.
^ best harrowed in, though often laid on the sod,
of caustic lime, in England, more than 64 bushels
on light soil, highly injurious, - - -

25 bushels harrowed in, generally enough,
instance of land overlimed, and sown with oats,
on lands overran with sorrel, greatly beneficial,
use of lime in England,

mixing with stable dung, to destroy insects, appendix,
should not be mixed, till dung properly fermented, • 95
and see vol. 2, pages 280, 283.
Limestones, various limestones in Pennsylvania analysed, ap. 106

and see magnesia, in limestone.
Locust timber, the most durable of any we have. Found

prostrate where no living timber of that
species appears. Springs up in places
where log heaps are burnt ; though no tra-
ces of the same kind can be discovered, to
have previously grown,
mode of raising from seed,
Lorain, John, on a simple wheat drill, -

on sundry agricultural subjects,

37
39
33

ib.

39

ib.
ib.
40, 41
254
$7
94

lOG

247

32

84

m

' ^

on corn and potatoes,

303, 304

'' i

I

INDEX.

Lorain, John, on grass lays, manures, &c. - ',.',:

Luzerne county, inexhauslible coa\ mines there,

M
Magnesia, in limestone, see professor Cooper's an^ysis,^^ ^ ^^^

Appendix,
ar Not seen when the remarks, paRe 210, were
written. And see Mr. Lang's observations on
lime, vol. 2, p. 399, & seq. Mr. Cmbush's ana-
lysis of limestone, ibid. p. 305, 306, 307, and
note. See also, ibid. 284, 285.
Main, Thomas, his account of the Pyracantha, or ever- ^^^

green thorn, appendix, - "

Maize, or Indian corn. Mill for breaking and grinding cob, 396
Mangel Wurtzel, its culture and qualities, 120 to 135, 262, 277,-8

rSee appendix, 97 to 103, inclusive.]

y r^ . . . 271,396, 8cc.

Manufactures, remarks on, , -

, • • o*

Manures, - • • " 109 1 9- 124

sulphat of Barytes a powerful one, 1^^^ ^^^»

^ , . 91,92, 326, 327 &c.

remarks on, - ' '

Marls, their composition, qualities, and quantities per acre, 208,-9
stone and clay much out of use, when expensive m
transportation ; and require great quantities to be

efficient, - * ' * . *

shell, is a pure calcareous substance ; but requires

a great quantity to the acre, - * "

Matlack, Timothy, his account of the cultivation of the vine,
Mease, Dr. OB W. Neiirs hedges,

on grinding Indian corn in the cob,
on disease in wheat, • • - •

on engrafting chesnut trees,
on hedges, trimming, additional observations,
' Migration, and return of birds, beasts, and fish, 348, 349, 350, &c.
Milk and cream, acids and spirits combine with whey ; al-

kalies and rennet enter the curds,
Mitchell, Dr. S. L. his account of a portable yeast, or dry ^^^

leaven, - • " '

ib.

206
1
378
396
422
435
439

f

INDEX.

as:

N

/

Navigation, inland, great advantages of, to agriculture,

commerce, and manufactures, - - 270 & seq.
Neill, W. his mode of hedging, with stone, mound and ditch, 9, 1 1

on Rax mills.

135

I

m

Oats, South American white, account of it.

Chili, white, - - - - .

Egyptian, white, ------

Onions, culture of, - - - - •

Orchards, crab apple, account of one, •

general decay of, - - - •

pruning trees in, • • - •

Owego village, salt and plaster collected there, appendix.
Owl, short eared, or strix brachyotoa. Its usefulness in

destroying vermin, - • - 249, 250

424, 425

23, 27
31
ib.
264
191
193
199
119

Paving and burning, writh a cut, - - -

Peale, C. W. account of a corn shelling machine with a cut,

Peters, Richard, on hedges, -

French rye, (Tangier wheat) Syrian,
or Jerusalem wheat.
Remarks oif different grains,
on a case of croup in a calf, • •

Fiorin grass, - . -

the cultivation and use of the mangel-
wurtzelror scarcity root,
the haws, or hooks (so called) in horses,
breeding in and in,
salutary effects of fire on soils,
well rotted dung, muck, stcrcoraries,

» and their uses, ...

rotations and changes of crops,

Fiorin, mangel-wurtzel, onions, cabbages
American gypsum, Internal improvement, 266
Jerusalem wheat, big rye. Season of 1813, 276
a stercorary, on a large scale, • 288

248
9

17
19
58
69

126'
167
171
&14

321
252
260

\

INDEX.

■?. '

Kl?

296
301

337

362
374, 412
389
413
54
337
242
392
108

table substances,

a swivel-headed churn-staff, - '

usefulness, to husbandmen, of attending

to natural phxnomena, - '

common sheep, coarse, long, and comb-

ing wool,
succession of timber,

a fire stone.
Ducket's skim coulter,
potatoes, appendix, -> -

Phenomena, natural, utility of observing, - - ^

Pine, white, ^^s ^^f '-;' '.^^ . f„J„d .here no pine

Unots, substituted foca^^^^^^^^^^
timber growmg, or other remn4 I ^ ^ ^ 104,105

PlasterfSfg^eed wLt in, highly beneficial, ^ -^ ^'^^
its component parts, - ^^^^ ^41

.Uat substances -P-*; ;^; '^ ,;, Seneca, .68

found in abundance on the laws v.ay b

English writers deemed mist\ccn, as to modes of ^^^

operation, * ^ .269

its efficacy on Umed lands, J- ' _ .^^

lake eaual to that from Nova |coUa, •

la*e, equal p„_„,„i^aiia from the lakes, m

quantity sent into Pennsyiya^* ^^^

. 812 ; and route by which it wrives,

j:„„ ,<! nuantitv^ is moderate or pro-
effects according as quantity 1!. 296 to 300

fuse,

Dotterer's machine for breaking, - '

Tnd salt, collected in on^ season at Owego v.l

lage, appendix, -^ * * " ^

Plough, ploughing, use and abuse of it, • ' ^

deep, its advantages,

See vol. 1-. Trench ploughing.

393

119

94
198

^'1

yi*"

INDEX.

«!=

197
412
120

Plough, ploughing, in ridges, with deep furrows between

them, recommended, [no doubt, for
wet, heavy, and flat lands,]
Posts, most durable when natural position reversed,

and see appendix, - - - -

Potash, quantity produced respectively by ashes of sundry

species of timber, - - - 417,418

Potatoes, not profitable to cultivate, when combined with

wheat crop, sown in the same season, appendix, 54

and see Arthur Young's letter on the potatoe,
as cultivated in England, appendix, - 55, &c.

planted on the sides of young hedge rows, advan-
tageous, .... 385,409
Pruning, hedges, appendix, - - . - 78
orchards, observations on, • • • l^^
Ptyalism, running of saliva from horses, observations on, 283
Putrefaction, plaster promotes, . - -
Pyracantha, or evergreen thorn, appendix, - 42, &c.
Pyrites, burnt, become mapure, - - - ^^^

Q

Quincy, Josiah, Esq. account of his stercorary, 292, &c.

his hedges, - - 409,410

and see page 385, extract from Mar-
shall's economy of Yorkshire.
R

Radish seed, sown with turnip, guards against the turnip

fly . • - - at the end.

Rake, horse rake of Long Island, with a cut, * - 212,213

Rennet, and alkalies combine with curds ; acids and spi-
rituous liquors mix with whey, of milk and cream.

Ridges, old and reprobated mode of laying down grounds,
it?* only fit for dead flats and wet clays.

Roads, and face of the country in sundry parts of Pennsyl-
vania, described, . • -

and internal navigation, - • •

Appendix, - . -

249
160

100
270, &c.
59 to 77

»-;i

n

m

►

' i

^^CJi;

Ji4

t

I

i

INDEX.

Roan, Col. John, of Virginia, account of his valuable cider

apple,
Rose, Dr. his calculations on sheep, in Susquehanna Co.
Rotations, and changes of crops.
Rust, in wheat ; rolling seed in plaster, often prevents.
Rye, called big, French, &c. but in fact, Tangier wheat,

thought to be a summer grain,

farther account of it, • *

six rowed rye, • ' "

great increase, and how produced,

diseased with the ergot, (spur,) appendix,

S
Sainfoin, unsuccessful attempts to cultivate, -

Salt, may be brought by a canal or road into Pennsylvama,

from Seneca lake, - • "

Salt and plaster, quantity collected in 1814, at Owego, app
Sand, less or more in cement required, accordingly as the

lime is strong or weak, - • '

Scarcity root, or mangel wurtzel,
Scotland, improvement in husbandry of,
Season of 1 8 1 3, some account of it,
Secale cornutum, or ergot ;-diseased rye, appendix,

. m» I. A<->*-vfkir

392
355
252, 257
24
20, 276
27
30
31
17, 18
5

21,27

276
119

207

126

157, 158

278, 8cc.

5

Seneca lake, canal between it and Tioga creek, appendix, 23, &c^

plaster found there,

See appendix, - 23, &c.

Settlers on new lands, their practices, - - ^^^'

Shad, Schuylkill, proofs of their migration and return to

, . . ■ 35U, oCC»

that river,
Sheep, a living lamb brought forth, eighteen days after a
dead one had been ejected, - • "

their diseases similar to those of the human race,
worm in the head, fatal,
calculations on flocks in our new countries,
common, for coarse and long wools, recommended,
ointment applied to the throat, disgusting to wolves,
preserved from dogs, by leather collars, pierced
with sharp nails,

60

78

82

355

362

366

ib.

INDEX.

11

82

86

372

Sheep, treatment of, [see page 371] appendix, f

folding and management, Somerville's, appendix,

Davis's, ditto.

Shepherd's dog, P. Bauduy's account of one,

see appendix, - - - 36, &c.

Skim coulter, Ducket's, for turning down green manures,

long dung, &c.
Smells, disgusting: ones to animals, ...

Smut, in wheat, curious fact concerning it.
Soap, and all alkaline substances prevent coming of butter,
Soddy grass grounds, ploughed and rotted, greatly pro-
mote future vegetation.
Soiling, recommended, . . - -

Soils, comparative value, and modes of judging on the
subject, . - • • •

Somerviile, his mode of pruning, and management of thorn
hedges, appendix, . . -

on sheep folding, appendix,
on mixing lime with stable dung. Insects bred
in manure, destructive to wheat crops, appen.
Sorrel, decomposed, and converted to manure by lime,
Stabbing, hoven cattle, recommended, - -

Stalks, corn, (Indian) rotted, yield a most valuable manure,
should be wholly cut off, and brought into
yard, or stercorary, . • •

Steele, John, Esq. on planting Indian corn,
Steeping seed grain, recommended by Virgil in his Georgics, 3 10
Stercoraries, their uses, - • 221, 226, 288, S.c.

233
what kinds are best,

account of one on a large scale, • ^^^

Stock, dissecting animals, dead by diseases or accident, on

farms, recommended, - "

Straw-burning husbandry, account of,
Straw, when luxuriant, heads of grain generally small.
Stubble, cutting it, when clover grows among it, approved.
Sulphur, in whyn stones, promotes vegetation, ^

413

366

56

249

90
84,97

103

78
82

94
254

41
230

228
151

61
210

28
218

209

i^

'11

VOL. III.

S

i1

t

INDEX.

1

Sulphur, and sulphuric acid; all substances -ntaWn^^ ^
them, said to be manures,
sulphuric acid, combined in barytes, destroys ^^^

^"^""''' ■ ', ■ ". "345, Sec.

Swallows, migration and return 01,

Swallow tree, account of one,

Swine, diseases of. Staggers, and remedy,

346
51, 52

277

403
195

197

204

281,2

Tangier wheat, improperly called big, or French rye,
Taurino cloth, made from hair of cattle, and a small pro-

portion of wool,
Taylor, Col. on his cedar hedges,

on cultivating Indian corn,
Tennent, Dr. his account of calcareous substances,
Terrapins, land, destroy beetles, - ' *

Thorn, Newcastle, or American cockspur, highly approved, 10, 16

said to be preferable to any others ; and
the American hedge, or Virginia thorn,

the next best,
found in great abundance, in our new countries,
trees in thorn hedge rows, highly injurious,
hedges, see remarks on, - "

lateral branches only, should be trimmed, or cut ;
the head should grow for ten or twelve years,
account of the thorn plants in William Neill s

hedges,
Threshing, a simple machine for, with a cut, -

Tilton, Dr. James, on the propriety of a farmer hvmg on

the products of his own farm,
Timber, hemlock and >vhite pine, their qualities and de-

scription, • *^°>

hickory, how it can be usefully employed, and ^ ^^

proper time to fell it,
changes of, in our forests ;-proofs of this doc
. . - 104, 5, 6, 374, 6

^''"^' . " 1 J . . 104, 8, 9, 10

comparative value ot, -

does not designate quality of soils.

378
118

242, 3
243

244

378
400

142

' ^ ly —

vu

INDEX.

f

Timber, succession of . - n, 44, 374,»5, 6, 7

Top dressing, of dung, better for grass, than grain. - 224

well rotted dung preferred to hot and fresh
muck, for top dressing, - - ib,

plaster not found beneficial as a top dressing
for wheat ; though serviceable on buckwheat, 23

Turnip fly, radish seed sown with that of the turnip,

guards against its ravages, - - at the end.

Turnip or potatoe slicer, • - . jb.

V

Valley Forge, Isaac Wayne's account of changes of tim-
ber there, - - . 375^ 377
Vine, cultivation of, - - ... j
downy leaved, secure from ravages of rose-bug, ' 2
great varieties in our country, . - - ib.
some said to be superior to European grape, for wine, ib.
mode of raising young vines, • . . 3
eyes, perfect and imperfect, - • . 4
mode of trimming, time of the year, and stages of
growth, . .^ . . - - 5, 6
advantages of raising from a single eye, over the
common mode, from cuttings, - • - ib.
Vinegar, conduces to coming of butter ; when mixed with

cream in the churn, - - - 249

combines with whey ; and does not injure the
butter, - - • • - ib.

Virgil, his Georgics. Sundry passages cited ; to show the
agreement between the practice of agriculture in
his day, and that of the present time. (Notes.) 338, &c.
Virgilian supper.— -Bill of fare, and eulogy, • . 140

Vitriolic acid, supposed to be the operative part of plaster,

and to promote putrefaction of animal and
vegetable matter, • • . 228

denied by some celebrated chemists, 228, 236, &c.

W
Washington, General, his exemplary attention to the eco-
nomy of his stables, • 168,169

■tr-^- t

^ \\

y

I

INDEX.

Wayne, Isaac, on successions of timber, • *

Wheat, Syrian or Jerusalem ; quantity raised from a small

376

17, 19
21
23
24

27, 333

• «

10.

29

experiment, - * "

Barley, or Porge fromenter^
seed, rolled in plaster, beneficial,
harrowed in the spring, greatly serviceable

quantity of seed per acre,

growth must be gradual, -

Smyrna, farther account of it,

harrowing, and eating oif by sheep, in the spring,

recommended, - • *

. - • "

smut in, •

our climate, now, requires more seed sown, than

in former times, - • *

Syrian, or Jerusalem, excellence of its bread,
partial feeding off condemned ; it should be eaten
bare, in the spring, by sheep,
harrowing and rolling, in the spring, best method
of performing, • " '

a wheat drill, • * " '

sown in frequent successions ; observations thereon, 252

southern, disease in, [see vol, 2, p. 200.] 422, 3, 4

on richest and best prepared lands, fails, owmg to
insects bred in the dung or manure, appendix,
spring, 6r summer, recommended to be sown,
where winter wheat fails, owing to disease, or

otherwise, • *

should not be sown in the season when lime first

applied, [vol. 2, p. 279.] - ' 40,41,424

50
56, 57

23
29

•I

ib.

32

94,95

426

summer and spring, account of it, appendix,
Whey, acids and spirituous liquors combine with whey ;

rennet and alkalies, with curds.
Whiskey, alleged to have been distilled from fiorin grass,
Whyn. stones-basaltic, dressings of them promote vege-

tation in grasses, and emit strong sulphu-
ric smell,
remarks thereon, • ^

114

249
263

209
210

INDEX.

Wolves, mode to prevent destruction of sheep by, 366, 367

Wool, coarse and combing wools, should be objects of

primary attention, - • . , 352, &c.

and see appendix, page 15, & seq.
Worms, in the head, fatal to sheep, and other animals, 82, 83

Wynkoop, Henry, his account of cider making,

of a crab apple orchard,
Y
Yankee mode of clearing land, condemned,

contra, in a note.
Yeast, account of a portable yeast, or dry leaven, . 427

Young, Arthur, an advocate for fresh and hot dung-farm-

mg, • • . . 233

but see the mode he recommends, 414, &c.

his letter on the subject of potatoes, ap-
Pe^^^i-^* - - - 55, &c.

43
189

219,220

'•f^'

rl

<:'>>■
*

^

\

%

i ERRATA.

Page vU, line 27, ioT catiemns, read canimuy.

Memoirs,

(.

U'

xvii,
.Ixxvi,
ib.
19,
41,
44,
65,

71,
76,
134,
143,
168,
^ 210,
229,
238,
239,
271,
281,
339,

Appendix,

341,
342,
351,
370,
378,
389,
389,
94,

11, omit Benjamin B. Howell
1, omit steady.
7, for steady, read zealous.
13, for Jifrican, read Jsiatic.
23, for this, read last.
23, for pumice, read pomace, passim.
25, for <7MicA7, read ^m'^c/i.
28, for stooks, read tramp-cocks. ' -

15, for s/ieeis, read pages.
28, for product, read products.
10, for Casiani<e, read CasmJiecC.
24, for Jrflwn, read «/>rea</.
24, for we fcnotc^, !^c. read TFe fcnow, ^c.
9, for dot, read «or.
5, after ptos^er 6e, insert such an.
9, for /jar^s, read part.
19, iaissez /es/a£re, original expression,
oo before bro-wn, insert redish.
le for .eT,.n.e.«, read eighteen.-^^o chronological
' accuracy was intended. But the observation
seems to refer to the Georgics of Vtrgi:, whieli
are believed to have been written shortly be-
fore the Christian xra.

9, after <Aei/ are, insert seen.
8 for funnel, read tunnel.

I for species offish, read species of river fish.

3' for indispensibly, read indispensably.
24, for inferior, read superior.
14, for t}iem, read him.
22, for person, read persons.

10, for reason, read canse.

Grammatical errors, not .oticc<l. and those in punctuation, a.-c kftfor
correction to candid readers.

;' i

:.v,..

»

NOTICES.

A communication on tl.e subject of Tc„„ps, was neglected to be brought
forward, b^ the writer, in time for publication in its proper place

He had been long in .he practice of sowing ,-adM .eed, (in a proportion
of about one e.gh.h,) with that of the turnip, to guard the latter against
he ravages of .he fly^ The radish shoots earlier, its top outgrows that of
theturn.p, and, by afTordmg a more ag,-eeablc and plentiful repast to the
fly. protects the young turnips from injury. This circumstance has been
long known in A,neHca. The writer's attention was attracted to it, by hi,
secn,g ,n a late English print, an account of ahandsome reward havin/been
recently bestowed on one who claimed, in Ensland. to be the discoverer of
this sahitary practice.

tur^n'n "'"'"V?"'' "' '''"^'" ^"' '""'"'^' "' ''''"•">■''' •'•^- "'« l.oe, when the
turnip IS out of daneer.

" I{. P.

SCAVENCiER EKLS.

.lAMKs lUmLTox. E.a. at his seat-the ,n„,l!ands, is completing a plan
begun by the late mman, ,fan,iUon, £«7. for conducting the water of! spring
or spr.ngs, f, om a consi.lerable distance, into his garden. A number of Z
P.pcs, (wooden,) had been laid and covered some years ; and had been so
neglected, that they became choaked with mud, and other pervious obstruc
tions An mgenious person, fMillerJ one of the workmen, suggested an
expe,l.ent, which was found perfectly successful in clearing the pines He
made u.,e of E..s ; winch soon worked their „ ay through the mud and silt •
and, w.th the assistance of the water constantly flowing into the tubes, frc.ed'
tbe pipes from every obstruction. As such impediments may exist in other
p.pe.s, now commonly used for the conveyance of water subterraneously. it
IS deemed useful to mention the circumstance, for general inforn.ation.

There were two ranges of pipes ; each from a spring distant from the
other; but hnally united in one conductor. The diameter of the tubes tw«
mches. 1 he wood, white ce.lar-generally layed several feet under ground ■
each log from eight to ten feet long, and joined in the usual manner. Th.!
length of one arm. 100 yards-that of the other. 130. In the longest th,^e
eels were inserted ;-i„ the shorter, two. They were selecte.l for strengt
more than s,.e The eels were turned in at the ends next the springs -, La'
ti e water m.ght assist them, in their exertions to reach tl.e opposUe en
Plates of perforated metal, secured against the escape of the Lisa te
»prmg.heads; and yet a.hnitted the water. They worked through the tube.

L

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■\

I

F NOTICES.

. '...test arm was ckarcd the soonest,

i„ three days. mthewWe. ^^ -';- 1 ..„e out <lead.---'-
by twelve or fourteen l'"-- TXJ.Utated by their laborious P- S- •^^.
,L, were. -^-"^ -ii'^l that if the dead eels 1. • - «- ^^

Bhavmgs or bormg ^ ^^^ ^^^^^„^

*^ ''■"'"• fas they are called.)-that --I'''^- j^/, ^ ^ end. are often

r T tlw or straw, lashed or ot^^erw.s- -hed ^^

rdlot; -rn; aea^n, - ;:::::rr r J^ - m U. tubes , and
rtTr;r:r-.eUoraoated^

jugust 5th, 1814.

^»rnF OK TURNIP SUCER.
„BSCRIPTI0N OF THE ^OTA JOE «« ^ .^^ ^^^^^^^ ,„, , descn-

u- «.ful affriculturaV implement vvas m ^^„,,i„„, ^r (« Se-

Th.s useful agr j^^ ^,. Tess.er ^^^^ ^^^^ ,„

bed in an excellent wor ^ j^^^f^i translat.on of wh.c^ ^^^^^^

- " ^"t" du'a so for sale by Kimber -d <:onrad J^'^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^,^
New Vork. and is also i ^^ without, a cut, a

L., which no sheep -;^^^

^l,,elKreanne.cd^^and ^^.^,,,„„aifficultymt^^^^^^^
and the two draughts, xu ^^^^^^ ^^^rly its wn . _xhe

I wooden cylinder, havmg ten «<> ^^^^ „f ,be one before . •

; .K,t the edge of one projects over ^^^^^ !,„£, (Ism

fi^ed, that the eag ^.^^^ ^^^ ,,, '^V ..vies two of the kn.ves

knives are each ^ J* '" . ,, the cylinder ^«\°^;;^' tUey close

an inch.) on. ^--^f ^ ^^ ,„„,, to fall out ; and m its pr g
.pen, and permit the sue

again.

, a at their annualmeetingin January last, to con-

^^^^-^'^'^l^^ieoirred.
tinue the premiums hcieio

THE END.

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F OTA TOE or TirMWJfF SZICJEMl

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'4.

JVW^ of JuxJl/jmIrich^_ a Foot,

£

f Ai/r<i/i«?- <^. /<f;o.

Mfamoars of FliilaafAg: Society, Yol. S

J.H.St^pmrur »ftf.

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