E & ・

Ome DATHA SHELL MOUND

AT

HITACHI,

BEING
AN APPENDIX

MEMOIR VOL. I. PARTI.

Se BN OB DEE Av MAREN,
TOKIO DAIGAKU.

(UNIVERSITY OF TORI)

BY

I. IIJIMA, anv C. SASAKI,

STUDENTS oF Brorocy.

PUBLISHED BY TOKIO DAIGAKU,
TOKIO.

2543 (1883).

OKADAIRA SHELL MOUND

HITACHI,

AN APPENDIX

MEMOIR VOL. I. PART I.
SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,
TOKIO DAIGAKU.

(UNIVERSITY OF TOKIO.)

BY
I. TIJIMA, ann C. SASAKI,

STUDENTS OF BIOLoGY.

PUBLISHED BY TOKIO DAIGAKU,
TOKIO.

2542 (1882).

>

By er

PREFACE

ne the coast, there exist numerous fossil remains of marine shells which show
‘idence that the lake had once been washed by the sea in past times. Bearing

ral places not far from the.one previously mentioned, viz. one at Kihara,
oat Amimura, one at Shimadzu ; and on my return to Tokio, I again met
h a single enormously large mound at Kitakatamura in Shimösa.

In the winter of the same year in company with Mr. Tijima I again visited
e same province in order to make still farther researches in regard to these
nds by the order of Mr. Kato President of Tokio Daigaku.

了 occasion, we found a number of other mounds in the same province

on thanks are also due to Mr. M. Nishi for the determination of the
ature of the stone implements and to Mr. H. Yoshida on chemical analysis, and
st y we are much indebted to our two sincere friends Mr. O. Taneda, and Mr.

5 I. IIJIMA.
©. SASAKI.

OKADAIRA SHELL MOUND AT HITACHL

BY

I. IIJIMA ANp C. SASAKI.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE OKADAIRA SHELL MOUND.

The Okadaira shell mound lies on the south western side of a hill called ;
Okadaira, and the eastern and western sides of it are already cultivated for

_ plantations. A white appearance due to broken shells which the ground possesses

1 the vicinity of this hill is due to the remains of former mounds which have

N ea scattered and destroyed by the farmers. —

The length of this mound is estimated about eighteen ken (about 33 m.) in

length, and sixteen ken (about 29 m.) in width, and its surface is thickly covered

with a number of huge trees. The soil covering the mound is about six inches

in thickness. The height of this mound varies from a foot to seven feet. The

“The rtd itself is nearly half a ri from the lake of Kasumigaura on the
-eastern side, and also half a ri distant from a branch of the same lake on i
west. And furthermore it is distant about five ri (about 12.5 miles) from

0 of an science ee of ‘the Uae of Tokio in 2539
. A general rule, objects obtained from such a deposit in both the
a Wominents agree in their general aspect, but each

2

Prof. Morse who js the first discoverer of a mound of this character in the
Empire of Japan has pointed out the following characters in regard to the Omori
deposit :—‘‘ The Omori deposits are also specialized. First: by the presence of
enormous quantities of pottery of many different shapes, and of an almost infinite
variety of ornamentation. Second: by great scarcity of stone implements, and
the absence of arrow heads, spear points aud other pointed implements of stone.
Not a single arrow head, flake or chip has been found by the various parties who
have been there in the interests of the University; and the combined time spent
there, if represented by a single individual, would equal over eighty days work
of seven hours each.” These peculiarities exactly agree with the Okadaira

deposit.
The objects thus far found in the Okadaira mound are enumerated as
follows :—
POTTERY.
1. Cooking vessels.
2. Hand vessels.
on Bowls.
4. Pots.
5. Cups.
6. fragments of pottery possibly used for sinkers.
STONE.
4 Axes.
2. Celts.
3. Worked pumice.
4. Stone with circular pit-like depressions.
Horn.
1. Haudle.
2. Prongs of deer’s antlers.
Bone.
ll, Os caleis of Deer.
POTTERY.

Many earthern vessels, and fragments of potteries were collected in the
Okadaira deposit of Hitachi. The vessels are mainly composed of rough
materials, and some of their shapes are extraordinarily curious. The pottery is
generally thicker than that of the Omori deposit, and mostly ornamented with
various designs, plain or unornamented pottery being comparatively rare.

Knobs are generally of large size, and of diversified form. The dimension

3

of the largest one is 200 mm. in height. (Fig. 1, Pl. IV). This peculiarity in
form has never been met with in other deposits, and in most cases, the knobs are
large and thick, and perforated with from two to six holes which communicate
internally. This remarkable conformation has not been met with in other parts
of the empire, and seems to be peculiar to this deposit. In some the knob is
simply a slight projection from the rim. In others it forms a twisted loop Im
other it either projects outward, or internally from the inner surface of the rim.
Still further, some rims are conical or notched or undulating.

The designs are various, but we may be able to classify them generally as
follows :—as Prof. Morse has described in the Omori Deposit, “‘ The designs are
indifinitely varied ; generally areas partially or wholly enclosed by curved lines,
the area within or without the lines heing cord marked, the other area being
smooth ” (Omori Mounds Memoir p. 8}. In others, the entire outer surface is
cord marked though in some an area near the margin is left which is destitute
of the cord marks. Others have deep pits or grooves incised, and in others still
the surface is entirely destitute of the cord impressions, and others have a little
area near the margin which is separated from the cord-marked area below. The
cord marks which are impressed on the entire surface of potteries extend as far
as their margin. In some cases, potteries are entirely destitute of cord marks.

The margins of the potteries are generally smooth and even, but in some
cases they are deeply incised forming a sort of knobbed or undulating appearance.

The common ornamentation is either in curved, spiral, or parallel impres-
sions or lines. In many cases, lines cross each other regularly giving a reticulated
appearance to the surface. The parallel lines are unevenly interrupted, or a
number of parallel lines are interrupted by a zigzag line, or sometimes a number

of zigzag lines are arranged one after the other in regular series.

The entire absence of legs or knobs for the support of the vessel shows in
this respect a resemblance to the pottery of the Omori Deposits.

The inner surface of rims is, in some cases, marked with two or more
parallel grooves. (Fig. 12, Pl. IX., Fig. 3, 9, Pl. VIII).

One hundred and eighty seven bases more or less broken were collected, of
which four are marked with the matting impression, and six with irregular
scratched lines, and the rest are smooth. ‘The largest bottom thus far examined
is about fourteen centimetres in diameter.

In a few vessels the base is slightly larger in diameter than the wall of the
vessel arising from it.

Of thousands of specimens more or less broken, seventeen are sufficiently
complete to recognize their entire shape. Some are bowl shaped, or cup-like or

pot-like. Ten of the pots are bowl shaped of which one is marked with an

exquisite ornamentation on the whole area of the body wall, leaving a smooth
space near the bottom. The rim is provided with a single knob perforated near
the centre. In this specimen evidences of repair are seen in two small holes
which have been bored on the margins of a fracture. (Fig. 1, Pl. I).

4

One of the bowls has a narrow bottom, the mouth is triangular in form.
and three knobs marked with a circular impression stand respectively on each of
its angles. The body wall is smooth, except the upper part of it where two cord
marked bands run side by side. (Fig. 7, 8, Pl. I).

Two cup-shaped pots have thick walls, and both have smooth bases, and
uneven rims. The one (Fig. 5, Pl. I) is ornamented with incised lines forming
rude oval figures. The other (Fig. 1, Pl. II) is plain, and is somewhat cylindrical
in form.

Two pots which have a smooth bottom bulge at the upper part of the body
wall, and have flaring rims. (Fig. 6, Pl. I., Fic. 6, Pl. II).

The most curious vessel which is nearly complete, measures 300 mm. in
height. The lower half of this vessel is cylindrical in form, while the upper half
abruptly enlarges in size. The rim is provided with two knobs, and is marked
with two grooves on the upper face. The unstable form of this pot leads us to
believe that it might have been used for cooking, the narrower and lower portion
being buried in the dirt or ashes, and the fire built about it. (Fig. 3, 4, Pl. I).

Of two pots, one (Fig. 2, Pl. II) is nearly round, its bottom is ill-defined,
and its body walls are evenly ornamented with cord impressions. The other
(Fig. 3, Pl. IL) is similar in form and size, but has, besides a mouth, a single
small hole, and that part which separates the mouth from this hole is slightly
arched so as to form a sort of handle. Its body wall is rough and destitute of
any impression. The material of this pot is reddish clay.

The largest vessel which we have already described (Fig. 9, Pl. II) has the
lower half of the body wall ornamented with incised lines and its upper half
entirely smooth; and on the boundary line between these two different regions,
four small knobs occur leaving a similar space between them.

Bases:—Those with matting impressions are comparatively few, and their
figures are more or less different in different vessels. (Fig. 5, 7, Pl. II). The
majority of bases are smooth.

A single lump of reddish material was found associated with fragments of
pots. This material which is determined as Ferric oxide (Fe, O,) by our friend
Mr. H. Yoshida, seems to have been used as a mixture with the clay of which
the red colored pots were made.

A few pieces of pottery rectangular in shape have been rudely formed
probably for the purposes of a sinker, the longer axis have each a single notch.
(Fig. 3, 4, 5, Pl. X).

A single specimen of the same kind, has a roundish form and a circular
hole near the centre. It is most probable that this fragment has also been used
as sinkers of fishing nets.

The chief points which may be recognized under a careful examination of
thousands of pots and fragments are briefly as follows :—

Ist. The potteries are generally thicker than those obtained from other

destricts of Japan, and their designs are mostly very ingenious.

5

。 2nqd. The knobs are abundant in number, their forms exceedingly various,
nein sizes unusually large. The leading designs of the knobs are the opening of
several holes in various styles, as shown in the figures.

。 Srd. Bottoms are rather numerous. Most of them are smooth though a
few are ornamented with matting impressions.

Ath. Some vessels are enormous in size, in one case measuring 320 mm.

in diameter.
; Sth. All the pottery is rough and never painted with any sort of pigment.

STONE IMPLEMENTS.

The stone implements collected in the deposite were very few in number,
and many were more or less broken, and showed evidences of wear in various
ways. Those which are nearly perfect are four adzes and three others. The
four entire adzes (Fig. 9, 12, 13, 14, Pl. X) have their edges worn showing that
they had been much used. Another implement (Fig. 10, Pl. X) worked out of
chlorite schist has both ends broken off, and shows an oval form in section.
A specimen (Tig. 11, Pl. X) which is made of a sandstone is somewhat pointed
at one end and round at the other. At the rounded end, two little notches are
evidently chipped out for the purpose of fastening the stone tightly to a handle
_ by means of a string.

Besides these implements, we have found two worked stones:—the one
which is made of pumice nearly oblong in shape, well smoothed at their edges,
is morderately flattened, and at a portion near the centre a single round hole
occurs which was probably used to pass a string through in order to suspend it.
(Fig. 15, Pl. X).

A single drilled stone which is exactly similar in character with that found
in the Omori deposit was also found, and thirteen hoies are counted on its surface.
pis. '7, Bl. X).

。 No hammers, rollers, or mortars were met with such as Prof. Morse
discovered lately in the Omori deposits.
。 Ht will be observed that as in the Omori and other mounds near Tokio the
implements of stone are very rude and few in number.

i :

WORKED HORN AND BONE.

6

The os calces of deer were also found. They are, in most cases smoothed
on their lateral face or at one or both ends. (Fig. 8, Pl. XT).

Three pieces of bone of some mammal not identified are well sharpened to
a point. Besides these worked specimens, those found together with potteries
are two bones of ox (one is a left humerus, and the other the coössified radius
and ulna of the same leg), os calcis of deer, bird’s bones, teeth and jaws of deer,
a single human bone (left femur), cuttle-fish bones, and hundreds of pieces of the
bones of various animals. The human femur is roughly broken off at either end,
a comparison with the recent human femur shows no difference in proportions.

Among the deer’s antlers, only three pieces have been charred. Among the
great quantity of bones found only one bone belonging to man was met with.
It is interesting to observe that this bone is rudely broken at both ends, and
though it would be unsafe to draw any conclusion from a single example, yet its
being broken in precisely the same way as the bones of other mammals mieht be
taken as an indication of cannibalism. And this conclusion would be in ac-
cordance with the observations made by Prof. Wyman in the Florida and New
England Shell Heaps and of those of Prof. Morse in the Omori and other
deposits.

The presence of ox bones in the deposit, are evidently cases of intrusion
unless we suppose the wild ox has existed in Japan.

ANCIENT MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF OKADAIRA
f DEPOSIT.

Special efforts were made to collect sufficient material, so that a comparison
might be made between the recent and ancient mollusks of this region. We
failed to accomplish this object owing to the scarcity of the recent shells on the
adjacent coast.

The following list enumerates the species of mollusks thus met with in the
Okadaira deposit, and as special efforts were made to collect every species in the
mound, the list will not probably be much increased by future additions.

The Lamellibranchiates thus far found in the deposit are:—

Arca inflata, Reeve.

Arca subcrenata, Lischke.
Arca granosa, Linné.
Lutraria Nuttali, Conrad.
Mactra veneriformis, Deshayes.
Dosinia Troscheli, Lischke.
Cytherea meretrix, Linne.
Ostrea denslamellosa, Lischke.
Ostrea sp.

Tapes sp.

Tapes sp.

Tellina sp.
Solen sp.
Anomia sp.

Eburna Japonica, Lischke.
Lampania multiformis, Lischke.
Potamides fluviatilis, P. et M.
‚Rapana bezoar, Linne =
Turbo granulatus, Gmelin. rs"
Natica Lamarckiana, Duclos.
Cyclina chinensis, Chem.
Purpura sp.

Cyclostoma sp.

Mya arenaria, Linne.
It is interesting to observe the great scarcity of Mya arenaria, a species
-tremely abundant in the Hokkaido (Yeso) deposits as well as in the sheli
. monnds of Omori and “ua

en in the Omori mound specimens. It is a that this was its northern
mit at that time. zs
。 The most abundant species found in the deposits are Arca inflata, Reeve,
en Je Mactra veneriformis, Lake and. eee bezoar,

PLANATION OF PLATES.

Fig.

Fig.

to

PLATE I.

7 mm. thick, diameter across the mouth 205 mm., height 11 mm.,
bottom smooth. Color blended with black and red. 4 natural size.
Thickness varies from 11 mm. to 5 mm., diameter across the mouth
160 mm., height 75 mm., bottom smooth. Color reddish with some
black patches. 4 natural size.

15 mm. thick, diameter across the mouth 250 mm., height 300 mm.,
bottom (90 mm. in diam.) smooth, blackish above and below, midway
reddish. 2 natural size.

Top view of ditto. Margin 11 mm. thick. 2 natural size.

9 mm. thick, diameter across the mouth 80 mm., height 47 mm.,
bottom rough, reddish on one side, blackish on the other. # natural size.
Thickness varies from 10 mm. to 16 mm.,‘diameter across the mouth
180 mm., height 195 mm., bottom (65 mm. in diam.) reddish and
rough; blackish in color, a few interwoven string marks above, and
numerous longitudinal impressions below. 2 natural size.

6 mm. thick, mouth somewhat triangular in shape, height 135 mm.,
bottom (52 mm. in diam.) rough, blackish in color. Reddish above,
blackish below. ‘The upper part is decorated with two bands which are
composed of oblique cord marks. 4 natural size.

Top view of ditto. Margin marked with fine serrations, and a single
triangular knob rests obliquely on each angle of the mouth. 5 natural
size.

SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

is AU,

ig. 10.

PLATE II.

Thickness varies from 6 mm. to 8 mm., diameter across the mouth
45 mm., height 49 mm., bottom (48 mm. in diam.) rough and marked
with a few deep scratches. Reddish grey. 2 natural size.

‘ Thickness varies from 6 mm. to 8 mm., height 70 mm., bottom

rounded, ornamented with cord impressions except near the margin
which is smooth. 2 natural size.

Thickness varies from 4 mm. to 10 mm., height 70 mm., bottom
(60 mm. in diam.) rough. Reddish in color. 2 natural size.

9 mm. thick, height 80 mm., bottom smooth. Greyish. 2 natural size.
7 mm. thick, bottom (70 mm. in diam.) with mat impressions.
Reddish black. 4 natural size.

6 to 8 mm. thick, smooth, bottom (70 mm. in diam.) with a few
roughly scratched marks. 3 natural size.

11 mm. thick, smooth, bottom (95 mm. in diam.) with mat impressions.
> natural size.

8 mm. thick, with cord marks above, and smooth below, bottom
(SO mm. in diam.) smooth. 2 natural size.

10 to 15 mm. thick, margin smooth, mouth 320 mm. in diameter.
The upper portion smooth while the remaining portions are ornamented
with lines. 4 natural size.

10 to 13 mm. thick, margin smooth 7 mm. thick, height 90 mm., bottom
(80 mm. in diam.) smooth. Color reddish black. 3 natural size.

10 mm. thick, reddish. 』 natural size.

i RR te

SHELL MOUND or OKADAIRA.

od sy a

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PLATE III.

. 9mm. thick, reddish above blackish below. 2 natural size.

1

2. Height 140 mm., breadth 95mm. Brownish grey in color. + natural size.
3. Side view of ditto. + natural size.

4. Inside view of ditto. 4 natural size.

5. Height 105 mm. Reddish in color. 3 natural size.

6. Inside view of ditto. 4 natural size.

7. Reddish grey. 4 natural size.

8. Inside view of ditto. 4 natural size.

9

Reddish grey. 3 natural size.

e

a. inside view.
b. side view.

g. 10. Having seventeen circular pits, (eight in front, three on either side,

two behind.) $ natural size.

, 11. Front view. Reddish black in color. + natural size.
. 12. Inside view of ditto. 4 natural size.

SHELL MOUND or OKADAIRA.

上

PLATE IV.

Brownish red. 4 natural size.
Reddish. 4 natural size.
Reddish. 4 natural size.
Blackish. + natural size.
Reddish. 3 natural size.
a. front view.
b. side view.
Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish.
Body wall 10 mm. thick, blackish.

at
2
u
2

natural size.
natural size.

Body wall 13 mm. thick, reddish. 』 natural size.

IV

SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

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PLATE V.

3ody wall 10 mm. thick, blackish. $ natural size.
Body wall 10 mm. thick, blackish above reddish below.
Body wall 7 mm. thick, blackish. き natural size.

Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish. } natural size.
Body wall 12 mm. thick, reddish. 』 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish brown. % natural size.
Body wall 14 mm. thick, blackish. } natural size.

Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish yellow. 2 natural size. _

Body wall 8 mm. thick, reddish yee 2 natural size.

10. Body wall 7 mm. thick, reddish. 5 natura) size.
. 11. Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish. 3 natural size.

tn

%

PLATE V

MR

SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

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Gee

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dba

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Bis. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Tig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

PLATE VI.

Body wall 12 mm. thick, reddish with some black patches. 4 natural size.
Body wall 14 mm. thick, reddish above blackish below. 2 natural size.
Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish. 4 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

Body wall 8 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

Body wall 7 mm. thick, brownish red. } natural size.

Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish. + natural size.

Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish. 2 natural size.

. Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish above blackish below. 2 natural size.
. Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish. natural size.

. Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish black. 2 natural size.

. Body wall 13 mm. thick, reddish black. 4 natural size.

PLATE VI

SHELL MOUND or OKADAIRA.

OIA Th ow

Lo

PLATE VI.

Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish. 2 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish black. 3 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish. } natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish. } natural size.

Body wall 11 mm. thick, yellowish grey. 3 natural size.

Body wall 12 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

Body wall 7 mm. thick, reddish. Margin wavy. } natural size.

Body wall 12 mm. thick, reddish. Ornamented with a series of dots.
U natural size.

Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish. } natural size. 8

Body 9 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

. Body wall 11 mm. thick, reddish. } natural size.

. Body wall 11 mm. thick, reddish black. 3 natural size.
. Body wall 11 mm. thick, reddish yellow. 4 natural size.
. Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish.
. Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish.
. Body wall 13 mm. thick, blackish.

natural size.
- natural size.

NIH ora tole

natural size.

. Body wall 8 mm. thick, brownish red. 4 natural size.

Reset lat
ER

PLATE VII

SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

R K IN,
pie, Mur

2 FOS S&S SUES oo WY =

PLATE VIIL

Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish above reddish below.
Body wall 12 mm. thick, reddish above blackish below.
Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish. 4 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, brownish red. 4 natural size.
Body wall 13 min. thick, blackish above reddish below.
Body wall 15 mm. thick, reddish. 3 natural size.
Body wall 13 mm. thick, brownish red. 3 natural size.
Body wali 15 mm. thick, reddish. 3 natural size.
Body wall 12 mm. thick, yellowish red. 3 natural size.
. Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish black. 3 natural size.

ig. 11. Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish above, blackish below. 3 natural size.

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SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

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1. Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish above blackish below.

my

—

544 還 前 ID,
Body wall 9 mm. thick, brownish red. 2 natural size.
Body wall 13 mm. thick, light yellow. 3 natural size.

Body wall 7 mm. thick, blackish. $ natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish above greyish below. 4 natural size.
Body wall 7 mm. thick, yellowish grey. 4 natural size.

3ody wall 11 mm. thick, yellowish grey above reddish below. 5 natural
size.

Body wall 6 mm. thick, browish red. 3 natural size.

Body wall 9 mm. thick, blackish. } natural size.

Body wall 10 mm. thick, reddish. $ natural size.

. Body wall 13 mm. thick, blackish above reddish below. 4 natural size.

SE
3
a la

x natural size.
. Inside surface of ditto showing eight parallel grooves, blackish.

3 natural size.

3. Body wall 9 mm. thick, brownish red. 』 natural size.

Se Se
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=
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9

. Body wall 11 mm. thick, reddish. 2 natural size.

. Body wall 11 mm. thick, greyish. $ natural size.

. Body wall 9 mm. thick, reddish. 3 natural size.

. Body wall 8 mm. thick, blackish. $ natural size.

. Body wall 7mm. thick, blackish above, reddish below. 3 natural size.

. Body wall 11 mm. thick, blackish. 3 natural size.

PATH EDX

SHELL MOUND oF OKADAIRA.

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,

EDWARD S. MORSE.

PROFESSOR OF ZovLoey, University oF Torro, JAPAN.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

TOKIO, JAPAN.

NISSHUSHA PRINTING OFFICE.

2539 (1879.)

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The Rau Library of Archeology.
No/a 8 8

Dr. CHARLES Rau was born in Belgium in 1826. He |
came to the United States in 1848, and was engaged as
| teacher at Belleville, Illinois, and in New York. In 1875 he
accepted an invitation from the Smithsonian Institution to
prepare an Ethnological Exhibit to be displayed at the Cen-
tennial Exhibition, and subsequently was appointed Curator
of the department of Archeeology in the National Museum,
which position he held at the time of his death, July 25, 1887.
He bequeathed his Archzeologic collections and library to |
the U. S. National Museum.

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・NVaYT ‘OINOL YVAN INOWO 4° SANNOW ] コ 1 ヨ HS

MEMOIRS

OF THE

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF TOKIO, JAPAN,

VOLUME I. PART I.

SHELL MOUNDS OF OMORI.

BY

EDWARD S. MORSE.

PROFESSOR OF ZooLoGy, UNIVERSITY or TOKIO, JAPAN.

se

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. :
へ (7 お ARIES
TOKIO, JAPAN. ーー

NIBSHUSHA PRINTING OFFICE.

2589 (1879.)

PREFACE.

During the preparation of this Memoir on the Shell Mounds of Omori, I have
examined, in company with others whose names are mentioned below, deposits
of a similar nature at Otaru, on the western Coast of Yezo, Hakodate, a num-
ber within the city limits of Tokio, and one of enormous extent and depth in
the Province of Higo, Island of Kiushiu.

From all these places large collections have been made, and are now in the
Archeological Museum of the University of Tokio.

As the Omori Mounds have proved so rich in material, it was thought best
to limit this first contribution to an exhaustive illustration of the various forms
and ornamentations there occurring, thus making it the basis for future com-
parisons when the other deposits shall have been worked up. In Yamagata
Ken, for example, as well as in the Tokio Deposits, fragments of pottery are
met with, bearing so close a resemblance to the Omori forms that a reference
to them may be made without further illustration, while only new forms need
be figured and described. For these reasons, the attempt has been made to
figure every typical form of shape and ornamentation. In many cases, also,
the varietal modification in shapeand design has been given, as with the rims
on Plate VIII. and the knobs on Plates XI. and XII.

It may he stated that many of the other forms figured, are represented by a
number of varieties which are contained in the Museum of the University.

Professional duties at the University, connected with instruction and the ar-

ranging of the Museum, prevented my giving that supervision over the plates
necessary to secure the uniformity which they lack. When it is considered
however, that the drawing (with the exception of the last plate) and lithograph-
ing have been done entirely by Japanese artists,—the art of drawing in foreign
style, and the art of lithography being still new to them,—some allowances
may be made for the imperfections they present.
“ On the other hand, it may be said with truth that all the outlines are correct,
and that full reliance may be placed on the figures. The same excuse may be
made with reference to the composition and press work, as these labors have been
done in a Japanese office, the compositors not being able to speak a word of
English. With some pride, it may be said that the paper on which the book
has been printed is of Japanese manufacture, so that from composition to bind-
ing, the mechanical production is entirely Japanese. As a Japanese version
has been issued, the plates have been lettered fcr that edition also.

iv

To the intelligent and cordial interest displayed by Mr. Kato, the Direetor
of the University, and Mr. Hamao, the Vice Director, archeologists are indebt-
ed for this contribution toward a knowledge of the prehistoric pottery of Japan.

Tt is not too much to say that there is no other country in the world where
so great a number of gentlemen interested in archwology can be found as in
Japan. A native Archwological Society holds its meetings regularly in Tokio,
and many of the contributions are of great value.

In the preparation of this work I have been greatly aided by the sympathy
and practical assistance of a large number of Japanese scholars.

My thanks are especially due to Mr. Kanda, Mr. Kato, Mr. Hamao, Mr. Hat-
tori, Mr. Ninagawa, Mr. Takamine, Prof. Yokoyama, Prof. Yatabe and Prof.
Toyama, for many favors. To my special students, Mr. Sasaki, Mr. Iijima,
Mr. Iwakawa avd Mr. Fujitani, I am under many obligations for various trans-
lations which they havemade for me, and for other favors.

'To my assistant Mr. Taneda who has copied all my manuscript for the print-
er, and who has assisted me in various ways, my thanks are also due.

To Prof. T. ©. Mendenhall, of the University, my thanks are specially due
for the reduction and averages of over a thousand measurements of Omori shells.
I must also express my indebtedness to Prof. F. F. Jewett for a number of chem-
ical analyses.

To Mr. E. H. House, Proprietor of the Tokio Times, for much assistance and
advice I am also exceedingly grateful.

Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Kimura the artist, Mr. Matsuda the
lithographer, and the Nisshusha Printing Office, for the efforts they have made .
in securing accuracy in their respective lines of work.

The collecting of the material illustrated in this first part has been done
mainly by Mr. Sasaki and the lamented Mr. Matsura.

Part II. will present the pottery of the Shell Mounds of Yezo, Tokio and
Higo.

i. S. M.

Tokio, Japan.

July 16th, 1879.

—

SSS ES

CONTENTS.

Frontispiece. Shell Mounds of Omori, near Tokio. ..
ae, ae A ee Rss. se cate
The Shell Mounds of Omori, Japan. Introductory.

General character of the Omori Mounds. See schoen OCN

Special characteristies of the Omori Deposits.

roten oo PEA ENE ROO Oe alg Re ER

Ornaments. Sp Beta e epee ea nee Tee

SS も ONI

Implements of Horn and Bone. ..

Implements of Stone.

Remains of Animals. N RE

(CGN9GUUSIOOGS oo a le ner

lanbenediTibras sam. tele: Das aaa.

A comparison between the Ancient and Modern Molluscan Fauna of
Oma, aa. Aa ocala iran ate Ma ean

sglanaivommotelates: a... 2h ee ws | bee

pee Ali

*

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2

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an ‘iid Dani spies

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hit J DET. AP POM ape ty ASE APE tie

LO1202(UE け CN) PER er Aula iy Ku
i K j Far | RER 」 ws - 0

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ER ' TE TEA ic

MD 寺 。 it pe crt hy St は Viera? fons “a ionamin ad た 1

N Ener, a dei le nr ee Ba apie ai
; Mi RT ri DS DO 4 ER :
x HG Leds een bet age ‘ snd ee wi

THE SHELL MOUNDS OF OMORL JAPAN.

BY EDWARD S. MORSE.

Since the appearance of Darwiu's great work on the Origin of Species, and the
subsequent revolution in the minds of thinking men regarding the origin of man
and animals below him, a new impulse has been given to the investigations of
man’s early history ; a new science, in fact, has sprang into activity, and Societies.
and Journals of Anthropology, Archeology and Ethnology are the results of
this wonderful awakening.

With the idea so long dominant that man had been specially created at a cer-
tain time to be measured by years, only those documents and those evidences
were scanned which came within the prescribed time limits. ‘Thirty years ago
it seemed.as useless a task to study the evidences of man’s existence before these
dates, as it would be for one to study the evidences of the Spanish occupation of
America before the year 1492.

In fact so apathetic were men’s minds on this matter, or rather so throughly
was incorporated the idea of man’s recent origin, that many valuable evidences
have been neglected, or lost through this lamentable condition of things.
Observations on the high antiquity of man made by Dr. Schmerling, Mr. Mac
Enery, Mr. Godwin Austen and others attracted but little attention. Indeed
they were received with incredulity, and the memoir of Mr. Vivian read before
the Geological Society was considered too improbable for publication.* Yet the
labors and discoveries of these men have been repeatedly confirmed by sub-
sequent investigations.

Difficult indeed is it to restore the past history of mankind from the fragmen-
tary remains found buried in the earth. Their life history must be made up
entirely from the imperishable objects which have been preserved in caves,
burial places, the refuse piles of their villages, and similar places. They left no
written record, no hieroglyphics to decipher, because they had none.

* Lubbock's Pre-historic Man.

It seems at first sight impossible to build up any idea of their habits and
comparative states of savagery from the few objects which have survived the
corroding influences of time.

Were we to apply the same methods to the study of civilized races to day,
very little could be gathered of our life by an examination of the refuse piles of
our dwellings. All the delicate works of art, wood carving, embroidery, books,
models, ete. would disappear in the time that has elapsed since the earlier ages
of man, and we should only have left the glass, porcelain, and stone fragments
which would survive. From the refinement and delicacy of these objects, how-
ever, we would have a right to infer the progress and condition of the race, and
would be justified in the assumption that in their perishable art the same refine-
ment had been manifested.

It is true these deposits do not give us their textile fabrics, if they had any,
or their wood work or more perishable art; but judging the ancient savage by
the modern one, the sites of their villages, or contents of their refuse heaps, give
us a very fair indication of what they possessed. The imprint of matting or,
cloth upon their pottery tells us at once the texture and kind of fabric used.
An arrow head presupposes a wooden shaft. Knowine how scantily supplied
with objects the hut of a low savage is to day, we have every reason to believe
that the primitive savage was no better provided in these respects.

The importance of studying deposits of the nature of the Omori Mounds has
been fully realized, since the investigations of the Danish shell mounds brought
to light so many facts bearing on the habits of the primitive races of Denmark.
Of such importance was an examination of the Danish deposits considered, that
the Government appointed a commission consisting of three men highly eminent
in science to make exhaustive explorations. And now so jealously does she
guard her treasures that laws have been enacted prohibiting the exportation of
archeological specimens or antiquities of any kind from the country. With the
existence of an Archaeologica] Society in Tokio, consisting exclusively of Japanese,
who hold their meetings regularly, and the fact that there have already been a
number of works published by native archeologists who have figured with more
or less accuracy the stone implements, ancient vessels, inscriptions and the liket
it seems proper and just that Government should follow the example of Greece,
Italy and Denmark in passing laws to prevent these treasures from going ou,
of the country. May the Government not only prevent the exportation of spe-
-cimens, but may it jealously guard its ancient temples, monuments, gate ways
and idols. I can not refrain from quoting at this point the words of an aceom-
plished English archeologist, Mr. Borlase, who expresses a hope “that the liber-
al views which have hitherto prompted the Mikado’s Government in all that re-
lates to science and art, may be extended to that chef の eye of their country
( which is indeed unmatched in the world ) and that authors may yet have to
record the graceful act, on the part of the present Administration, which has

nd
ow

saved from destruction the most beautiful relic of ‘Old Japan ’ —the tombs of
the Shoguns.” *

Besides the investigations of Steenstrup in Denmark, we have the valuable
memoirs of Wyman on the shell mounds of Florida and New England. De-
posits of a similar nature have been recorded or described as occurring in Eng-
land, Scotland, Ireland, France, the Eastern coast of the United States, the valley
of the Mississippi, on the west coast from California to Behring Strait, Brazil,
the Gulf of Guayaquil, Australia, Tasmania, and the Malay Archipelago ; and
doubtless they will be found scattered all over the world.

That these deposits are not all of the same age is certain ; for just as the stone
age exists in certain parts of the world to-day, so these deposits are in process
g savage and civilized people. While the shell heaps
of New Hineland have the same essential features as those of Denmark, it can
not be safely assumed they were made long before the advent of the European ;

for the natives were then living in the stone age, as it were, and were still form-

of formation both amon

ing deposits of shell in precisely the same way. It is true that many of these
deposits when first observed by the earliest settlers were covered with a heavy
growth of forest trees, and the presence of a molar tooth of the polar bear, and
the abundance of the remains of the great auk now supposed to be extinct, lead
us to believe that the New England deposits have some antiquity.

In Japan, however, the case is quite different; for with its ancient civilization
and history, running back for fifteen hundred and perhaps two thousand years,
and the fidelity of its records, we have as it were a longer time measurement by
which to estimate the age of the shell deposits here. For this reason a much
greater importance attaches to the minute and faithful exploration of such
deposits in Japan.

Having for years studied these deposits in Maine and Massachusetts in com-
‘pany with Prof. Jeffries Wyman and Prof. F. W. Putnam, I felt prepared to
undertake a similar investigation in this country and therefore at the outset
kept a sharp look out for evidences of their ocenrrence, A. few days after my
arrival in the country I fortunately discovered a large and extensive shell mound
on the immediate line of the railway a few miles from Tokio. A series of ex-
plorations was made in company with my special students, Mr. Matsura and
Mr. Sasaki, and, in the first excavations Prof. Yatabe, Prof. Toyama, Mr.
Matsumura, Mr. Fukuyo, Dr. David Murray, and Prof. Parson participated.
The collections from Omori are now arranged in the Archeological Museum of
the Tokio Daigaku. Most of the specimens have been collected by Mr. Sasaki
and the lamented Mr. Matsura, who were indefatigable in their efforts to make
the series as complete as possible.

* Niphon and its Antiquities.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE OMORI MOUNDS.

The Omori Shell Mounds lie on the western side of the Imperial railway
between Yokohama and Tokio, at a distance of nearly six miles from Tokio.
They may be seen from the car windows just after leaving Omori Station in
going toward Tokio.

The railway has indeed passed through a large portion of the mounds, as in
the field beyond the track the ground is strewn with the fragments of pot-
tery and the shells formerly composing the deposit. The length of the deposit
along the embankment is about eightynine meters. Its depth in the thickest
part is four meters. Another exposure of considerable thickness is seen, back
from the track at a distance of ninetyfive meters, but whether it is a continuation
of the first deposit I have not been able to determine.

The fields to the south show that in their cultivation another deposit has been
removed.

The mounds are nearly half a mile from the shores of the Bay of Yedo.

As deposits of this nature are always made along the immediate shore, whether
they be upon the banks of a river, or on the coast, the occurrence of these deposits
inland may be looked upon as an evidence that the land has been elevated since
they were made. And when they occur inland, geological, and often historical
evidences are not wanting to support this view.

The shell mounds along the Baltic are in many cases far removed from the
coast line. They also contain species of shells not found in the Baltic, in conse-
quence of the freshening of tha water resulting from the geological changes that
have taken place in that water basin.

Along the eastern coast of the United States, the ocean has been encroaching
upon the land, and shell mounds in Casco Bay, Maine, are in process of being
washed away by the waves.

Rev. James Fowler, in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, comments upon the
absence of these deposits along the New Brunswick coast, and offers this as one of
the evidences that the sea is encroaching upon the land, and calls attention to the
fact that buildings which stood at some distance from the shore, fifty years ago,
have since been washed away. .

Geological evidences show that marked changes have taken place in the shore
line of the Bay of Yedo. A portion of these changes are recorded historically
on ancient maps of Yedo.

Shell mounds discovered by Mr. Kanda and Prof. Yatabe in the Botanical
Garden, and others discovered by Prof. Chaplin and Mr. Ishikawa in Oji, show
a recedence of the waters of the Bay of Yedo of from five to seven miles.

In every case these mounds are on ground slightly elevated above the sur-

I

rounding country, and in indicating their various positions on a map of Tokio,
the coincidence between the shaded line of an embankment, and the position of
the deposit is at once seen.

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OMORT DEPOSITS.

The shell mounds, or deposits, in various parts of the world have many fea-
tures in common. They also have their distinguishing peculiarities, Their
similarity arises from the fact that they are the refuse piles of savage races who
came to the shore at certain times of the year, or who occupied the shore perma-
nently and there availed themselves of the food so easily secured from the water, in
the shape of mollusks and fishes. That they were hunters as well as fishermen is
attested by the presence of the bones of wild animals, such as the deer, bear,
and wild boar, as well as the bones of certain birds. The bones being in nearly
every case broken into fragments, show that they did this to secure the marrow,
or to more conveniently get them into their cooking pots. That they cooked
their food in clay vessels, is evident from the carbonized remains of the food
found on certain fragments of pottery. In all these deposits various primitive
implements are found, fabricated out of either bone, horn, stone or shell.

The horn, bone and shell implements are generally in the shape of gouges,
bodkins, needles and other pointed instruments. The stone implements are usual-
ly of the rudest kind, and consist of hammers, celts, axes, arrows, and spear points.
The pottery is rude, and in all parts of the world bears the impression of the
well known cord mark. Beside this ornamentation, if indeed it was intended for
that purpose, there are often rude designs, (rarely, if ever imitative of natural
objects) made by incised lines in the soft clay, or impressed upon the clay by
stamps. While these features are common in deposits of this nature, even in
those most widely removed, the deposits of each country and region seem to
have their distinguishing peculiarities, so that one familiar with the description
of them might tell with considerable accuracy the place of each deposit by an
examination of a mass of material from it. The Danish deposits contain a great
many flint chips and rude flint implements. The pottery does not appear to
be common, and is of the simplest description. No evidences of cannibalism
have been noticed. The New England deposits resemble greatly the Danish
deposits in the character of the animal remains. The stone implements are very
much fewer however, and the pottery is not common.

Simple horn and bone implements occur in both. In the New Hngland
deposits, Prof. Wyman found a few evidences of cannibalism. Tn the Florida,
mounds, as studied by Prof. Wyman, the pottery is again very rude, and besides
the cord mark and incised lines, presents an ornamentation produced by stamps

6

with definite designs upon them. Itwle arrow heads and spear points were niet
with, and more rarely bone implements. ‘These are made from the bones of the
deer, and Wyman observes that the bones are broken, rather than split, as is
the case with the old world deposits. Beside the stamped pottery, another mark -
‚ed peculiarity cf the Florida mounds consists in the presence of gouges, chisels
and other implements worked out of shell, generally the columella or axis of the
large Strombus and aseiolari being used. Widely distributed evidences of
cannibalism also oceur.

The Omori deposits are also specialized. First: by the presence of enormous
quantities of pottery, of many different shapes, and of an almost infinite variety
of ornamentation. Second: by the great scarcity of stone implements, and thie
absence of arrow heads, spear points and other pointed implements of stone.
Not a single arrow head, flake or chip has been found by the various parties
who have been there in the interests of the University; and the combined time
spent there, if represented by a single individual, would equal over eighty days
work of seven hours each. The men of the Omori period were also cannibals, the
evidences of which will be presented further on. Peculiar clay tablets or
amulets, to be described elsewhere in this memoir are also unique. The Omori
deposits are not only peculiar for what they possess, but for what they do not
possess.

The following list presents the objects thus far found at Omori, and in
another column is also given a list of objects characteristic of shell mounds
generally, not yet found there.

OBJECTS FOUND AT OMORI.
EARTHEN.

Cooking vessels.

Hand vessels.

Ornamental jars.

Ornamental bead.

Tablets.

Spindle whorl 一 (? )

Disk, shaped from fragment of pottery.

STONE.

Hammers.
Celts.
Tollers。

Skin dresser —( ? )

Stone mortar.
JIONN.

Awls.
JLandle.
Prongs of deers’ antlers.

Other implements —/use unknown.)
BONN:

Fish spine needles.
jrd bone with two holes in side.
Cube from metatarsal of deer.

Os caleis of deer probably used as handle. —
MISCELLANEOUS.

Arrow point from boars, canine.

Shells used as paint cups.

OBJECTS NOT FOUND AT OMORT.

Flint or obseidian implements.
Arrow heads.

Spear points.

Scrapers.

Skinning knives.
Mortars or pestles—( ? )
Drilling stones.
Ornamental stones.
Stone net sinkers.
Pipes.

Worked shell.
Wampum.

Stone beads.

POTTERY.

A great many earthen vessels, more or less perfect, and thousands of fragments,
were collected in the Omori deposits.
The material of which the vessels is composed is coarse, and the vessels are

8

in many cases, unevenly baked.

The pottery with few exceptions is quite thin, averaging 6 mm. in thickness ;
the surfaces are in many.cases smooth. The rims of the vessels are either
straight, undulating, notched, or projecting at intervals into points, or into
variously formed knobs.

Tn some cases loops take the place of knobs. The borders of the vessels are
often ribbed within, and sometimes marked with one or more parallel lines out-
side, the lines often enclosing a row of rude dots.

The lines marking the surfaces of the vessels are either roughly incised in wet
clay, or smoothed out of wet clay, or carved in dry clay before baking.

The designs are infinitely varied ; generally areas partially or wholly enclosed
by curved lines, the area within or without the lines being cord marked, the
other area being smooth. Deep pits or grooves often join the areas, and these
may be repeated in regular succession round the vessel.

A common mode of ornamentation is a band of oblique lines running in one
direction round the vessel, followed by a band of oblique lines running in an
opposite direction. Somtimes these lines ercss each other.

Tn many cases wreaths of clay, pinched into scallops by the fingers, border
the vessel in one or more bands, either straight or undulating. These wreaths
frequently separate from the vessel, showing that they were put on after the ves-
sel was made.

Dr. Wilson in his work on Pre-Historic Man has mentioned the absence of
imitative figures in the pre-historic pottery of Europe. He says; “ In no single
ease is any attempt made to imitate leaf or flower, bird, beast or any natural
object.” His words would apply with equal truth to the Omori pottery for in no
ease can any form or design be construed into representing any natural object.

More curious still is the absence of legs or knobs of any description for the
support of the vessel from below. A feature so common in the ancient pottery of
Peru and Central America, is entirely absent in the ancient pottery of Omori.

On the contrary the Omori pottery presents knobs and loops of an infinity
of form projecting from the rim of the vessel. In this respect the Omori pottery
resembles the pre-historic pottery from Brazil and Porto Nico, though these forms
often represent the heads of animals.

Some of the knobs from the shell mounds of the Amazon discovered by Prof.
Hartt bear a remarkable resemblance to the commonest types of knobs from
Omori.

The earthen vessels may be grouped as follows :—

Cooking vessels answering to pots, stewpans, ete. Hand vessels such as bowls
and cups. Vessels with constricted necks, used as water bottles, possibly, and
a few vessels of various forms which may be designated as ornamental jars and
bowls.

The cooking vessels are of the following kinds: Deep vessels with slightly bulg-

9

ing sides and flaring rims, ornamented, walls thin. Plain deep vessels with
bulging sides and slightly flaring rims, bottoms smooth, or marked with mat-
ting impressions. These are the most common forms of all. Straight sided
deep vessels, thick walls, roughly made. Large shallow bowl shaped vessels.
The hand vessels present the following varieties. Shallow bowl shaped vessels
with incurved rims; generally ornamented. Shallow saucer shaped vessels,
plain. Very shallow bowl shaped vessels with flaring rims, plainly ornamented.

The vessels with constricted necks are very imperfect, the necks and portions
of the bodies only being found. Most of these are dry carved before baking.

The ornamental jars and vessels are figured on plate I. with accompanying
descriptions in the explanation of the plate. Two of the larger ones are graceful-
ly formed, though they may have been used for cooking.

One has four handles united above, the knobs on the handles perforated for
the passage of a cord, the handles deeply grooved in a line with the perforations.
Another one has a widely flaring margin projecting in four lobes with thickened
border.

The most extraordinary one of all has two apertures, aud recalls some of the
unique features seen in the ancient Peruvian pottery.

Of fifty vessels more or less complete, five are bowl-shaped cups, three are
large bowls, seven are cups with flaring rims, two are shallow saucer-shaped
vessels, two are ornamental bowls with flaring rims, five are deep sided pots
with slightly bulging sides, the bottoms of which generally have matting impres-
sions, ten are cooking pots, eight have constricted necks, and eight are diversi-
fied in form and ornamentation. Among these vessels, thirty-seven are orna-
mented as follows: twenty-four have smoothed depressed lines, one has wide
shallow lines, four have rough incised lines, two have dry carved lines, one has
mneyen rough lines, and four are plain.

Of the thirty-seven, also, twenty have the cord marked impressions, eighs
have the surface smooth, and the remainder have rough surfaces.

Of the same number, nineteen have straight rims, and the remaining onet
have the rims knobbed, or notched in various ways.

Several of the vessels are painted with mercury sulphide, but in no case is
an attempt made to produce designs or patterns, except that in some instances
the color is applied to interspaces between lines, or areas already marked upon
the vessel. Reference is made to these in the explanation of plates.

Many of the vessels at first sight appear remarkable for their symmetry, and
yet measurements show that they vary in their diameters, and the walls of the
vessels vary greatly in their thickness. No trace of lathe work is found.

The economy of the makers of this pottery may be seen by the careful way
in which they bored holes in the fractured edges of their vessels for the purpose»
of mending them. Tn some cases the hole was commenced too near the edge

10

and the edge breaking away, a new hole was made, further removed from the
edge.

The holes are always bored from the two sides, being smaller in diameter in
the centre, showing that the boring instrument was rude, and probably consist-
ed of a fragment of rock or bone.

Many fragments were finally matched and joined, by bringing together all
fragments having perforations in them.

The economy of these people is again illustrated by the broken base of a ves-
sel which has had its fractured margin smoothly ground down. That such an
article as the broken bottom of one of the commonest forms of pots should be
treated in this way, is an indication of the difficulty experienced in making
these objects.

The pottery is found in such great abundance, and with such an infinite
variety of form and ornamentation, that one would think that here at least was
the site of some ancient manufacture ; but thus far no unfinished vessels, or
masses of potters clay have been met with. The shell mounds of Tokio show
an equal abundance of pottery, and in many cases forms and designs similar to
those found at Omori.

ORNAMENTS.

In the remains of the work of pre-historic races in various parts of the world,
there are commonly found objects of stone, shell, bone and horn, which were
evidently intended for personal adornment. 6

The entire absence of objects of this nature in the Omori remains, with one
exception, may be looked upon as somewhat extraordinary. Considering also
the highly ornamental and extremely diversified character of the pottery, the
absence of these objects must be regarded with interest.

In various parts of Japan there are found many kinds of stone beads known
under the name of Cha-usn-ishi, Mikawa-kuda-kara, Juto-tama, Ruri-tama,
ete. 一 some long and eylindrical, others gtobular, and the Ruri-tama shaped
more like the shell beads of the United States. The well known Maga-tama
also, must have been an object of personal ornament. These various ornaments,
as well as many others, are associated with the polished stone age, which seems
well marked in Japan. Old accounts of the Ainos represent their wearing
beads and ornaments of various kinds, and whenever these are found, they are
regarded by the Japanese as personal ornaments. In fact the Japanese antiqua-
rian regards objects of this nature as of the highest antiquity.

Nothing of the kind, however, so far as I am aware, has been met with in the
Omori shell mounds, nor in the shell mounds in Tokio. In fact I have exa-
mined many shell heaps from the west esast of Yezo to the southern portions

11

of Kiushiu, without meeting with a single example of those objects above men-
tioned.

It may be suggested that the clay tablets, to be described further on, were
objects of this nature, but I am inclined to believe that they were not intended
for this purpose.

Tne clay bead which is figured, natural size, on plate XV., is made of coarse
slate-colored clay. It is dead black on the outside, and has a surface resembling
many of the ornamented vessels,

The markings, consisting of curved lines and deep incisions and punctures,
are arranged in graceful designs which are repeated three times round the cireum-
ference. The hole is eight and a half millimeters in diameter, is straight, and
of the same diameter throughout. Within the hole, light spiral lines are
plainly seen, indicating that the bead was fashioned and wrought on a round
stick, and that the stick was afterward withdrawn, and twisted several times in
the act of withdrawing,—this act being performed while the clay was yet soft.

Mr. Taneda has found at Omori, too late for illustration, a fragment of pot-
tery which has been broken into an irregular oval shape and the rough edges
partially ground or worn down. Its longest diameter is 75 mm. with a width
of 65 mm. and a thickness of 9 mm. In a line with the longest diameter the
edges are deeply and smoothly notched. A narrow and deeper channel at the
base of the notches suggests the idea that the object has been tied, or bound by
a cord which passed through these notches.

The fragment is much worn. It is impossible to suggest its use, though it is
described under this head for want of a more appropriate place.

TABLETS.

I have designated these curious clay objects as Tablets, for want of a better
name. Five tablets have thus far been fonnd ; four of them have the same
general proportions, as will be seen by reference to plate XV., where they are
all figured, natural size. The fifth one is smaller than the others, though near-
ly as thick.

The designs are widely different in each one, though a surface of one of the
larger specimens is similar in design to that made on the smaller specimen.
Two of them have designs in relief with depressed areas. The designs on the
others are produced by the fignres being cut out on a flat surface, and oue, fig. 1,
has a hole through one of its corners.

While differing so much in design, they possess some characters in common.
They are all made of the finest clay, the material being much finer than that
used in most of the vessels. "hey are all light colored, two of them being a

12

light brick red, There is no bleekening upon the surface, neither is there a
trace of the red paint.

The designs are all carved, or wrought out of dry clay before baking, in the
same manner as a certain class of pottery found with them. With the excep-
tion of the largest one, they all appear to be more or less worn. One of them
has the design almost wholly effaced.

For such solid and well made objects, it is curious that they are all broken.

It is difficult to conjecture their use. The fact that they are ornamented on
both sides, some of the figures being in high relief, and in some instances the
design being carried over the margins, excludes the idea that they were used
as stamps to impress designs upon cloth, if the fabricators possessed such material.
It is impossible that they could have been used for weapons, or implements of
any kind.

That they were considered choice, is evident from the-fine material of which
they are made, and the care and skill bestowed on their ornamentation.

That they were used as personal ornaments seems out of the question, because,
excepting in one instance there seems to be no arrangement for suspending them
about the person. heir pottery so often presents knobs, loops or holes, for the
purpose of suspending their vessels, that such conveniences might he looked for
in the tablets if they had been designed for personal ornaments.

That they were household idols, or objects of veneration, seems an equally
untenable supposition, for they are much worn; and this would not be the case
if they had been at all protected, or cared for in their huts.

We can hardly conceive of their being weights, because the weighing of things
in traftie is an advance we should hardly expect in a people of so primitive a
character as these appear to have been. They certainly were not objects to be
buried with their dead, from the fact that they appear to have been much used.

It is hardly possible that they represent substitutes for coin, for we should
expect to find more variation in their size ; and judging these people by other
primitive races, we might suppose that wampum, or some other small objects
would have been adopted for such a currency.

We may hazard some conjectures regarding their use. Fürst: they might
have been used in some game, like quoit, in which the object is pitched, or
thrown at a mark ; their being worn, and broken, and the conyenient size the
larger ones have for grasping, and tossing, suggest this idea. Second : they may
represent insignia of authority in which case they would be carried abcut the
person. Third : they may represent amulets, or the charms, possibly, of some
medicine man, in either case to be carried, or woin about the person.

So far as we know, they are unique. We can only compare them to the
famous Cincinnati Tablet, to which they bear some resemblance, in the ineurv-
ing sides and general proportions.

The Cieinnati Tablet ¢ was fouud in a mound at Cieinnati, Ohio, in the year
1841. This tablet “is made of a fine grained compact limestone of a light
brown color. It measures five inches in length, three in breadth, and two and
six tenths inches in the middle, and is about half an inch in thickness.’ One
side is wrought into curious figures in low relief, quite symmetrically disposed
on each side of a median line. The figures are in the shape of scrolls, and
curves, not unlike the conventional designs of leaves on wall paper.

The obverse side of the tablets is flat, having three longitudinal diverging
grooves. Mr. Squier was inclined to believe that this tablet resembled peculiar
stamps made of burnt clay, which occur in the Mississipi mounds, and in Mexico.
These stamps, have fanciful or imitative figures upon them in low relief, and
were used to imprint ornamental figures upon the cloth, or prepared skins, of the
people. Dr. Daniel Wilson in his “ Prehistoric Man. ” questions Squier’s inter-
pretation of its use, and suggests its being some standard of measurement,
from the oesurrence of two series of lines, bordering each end of the tablet.

It does not seem that Dr. Wilson is justified in this opinion, for the larger
lines vary in their distance from each other, and the smaller spaces vary even
more than the larger ones in proportion. A workman capable of duplicating
so closely, in bilateral symmetry, the difficult and odd shaped designs upon the
tablet would have found it the simplest thing to have made equidistant spaces.

IMPLEMENTS OF HORN AND BONE.

While the shell heaps of Denmark, Florida, and New England, present a
number of implements made of bone, and a few made of horn, those of the
Omori mounds are mostly made of horn, —or more correctly, the antlers of the
deer. Wyman figures, in his article on the shell heaps of New England
twelve implements made of bone, and one made of horn. Three of these are
awl shaped implements ; the others are variously notched or barbed at the ends.
One has a notched edge like a saw, another has a blunt pointed extremity with
seven notches on one side and eight on the other. Another one has two
notches on one side and three on the other. One is barbed on one side, others
are bluntly pointed, and one looks like an ivory tooth-pick. A tooth is also re-
presented, ground down on one side to a cutting edge. The implements of
horn are chisel, or gouge shaped, and rude.

The Florida mounds also yielded implements of bone, every one of them
pointed, One is in the shape of a long slender bodkin ; another one is worked
from a longitudinal fragment of bone. Not one of these show a notch, or con-

+ In 1872 Col. Charles Whittlesey pronounced this a forgery. Robert Clarke Esq., of Cincinnati,
has completely vindicated its genuineness in « pamphlet published in 1376, entitled “ Prehistoric
Remains of Cineinnati, Ohic.”

14

striction, or barb at the point. Of twelve bone implements figured by Wyman
from the New England shell heaps, five only are similar to the Florida speci-
mens. .

Of ten horn implements figured from Omori only two may be considered as
identical with the Florida forms, and these are bodkins. These two also bear 2
slight resemblance to one or two figured from New England. The remaining
ones are quite unlike the Florida, or the New England specimens. This mark-
ed difference in implements of so primitive a nature is warthy of attention, and
particularly so, since the relation these are supposed to bear to the Aino ought
also in turn resemble the New England specimens, which bear such a resemb-
lance to the horn and bone implements in use among the Esquimaux and Aleu-
tians. The implements of this nature in the Omori Mounds are, with few ex-
ceptions, made of fragments of deer’s antlers. The common use of this material
is shown by the frequency with which fragments of deers antlers cut at one or
both ends, were met with. These fragments were cut off by making a cireular
groove round the antler, and then breaking the piece away. No examples of
diagonal cutting from each side, were met with, such as Wyman figures from
the New England mounds, though the circular groove method of cutting occurs
in the New England and Florida mounds. The natural prongs, much worn by
use, are common.

The incisor teeth of the deer, and the canine teeth of the wild boar, are met
with in comparative abundance, and they all show marks of use. A very char-
acteristic horn handle is figured on Piate XVI Fig, 4. This was deeply and
smoothly perforated at one end, and a deer’s incisor so nicely fitted into the
cavity, that the kind of tool held by this handle was evident enough, An ex-
quisitely wrought arrow point or fish lance point was fourd, made from a boar's
canine. The natural layer of enamel forming one face of it. Its shape is
peculiar, one side appearing to be broken away, making the outline unsymetri-
eal, but as this face is polished it is evidently intentional. In the museum of
the Kaitakushi, there is a silicious specimen of almost precisely the shape is
the one above described, and that it was intended for a similar purpose is un-
questionable, Dv. A. O, ©. Geerts in his valuable work entitled “‘ Les Produits
de la Nature Japonaise et Chinoise”’ figures it on plate VIIL., fig 3.

The bone cube made from the end of a deer’s metatarsal is an odd shaped
piece; the surfaces have been evenly ground down, and its use may possibly be
surmised by associating it with some game.

A well defined hook made from a deer’s antler is unique. A bird’s bone hav-
ing two perforations is another object of interest. An irregular fragment of
bone has one end ground down to a cutting edge. A great many fish spines
were colleeted, which in many cases bear nıarks of considerable use. They
probably served as needles. The so ca/eis of the deer occur in great numbers
and nearly all of them show indications of wear.

Wyman found the oleeranon of the deer, used as an implement of some kind

15
by the builders of the Florida mounds. It is difficult to conjecture the use that
was made of the os ca/cis, unless it answered for a handle, — its irregular arti-
eular faces perhaps offering certain facilities for binding an instrument to it.

With the presence of so many shells of massive size, with thick and dense
columellas, such as Rapana, it seems a little singular that not a single work-
ed shell, either as an implement, utensil, or ornament has yet been found;
particularly so, as objects useful and ornamental made from shell are frequently
met with in the Florida mounds, and other parts of the Southern States and
Mississipi Valley. Similar articles are also found in remains of this nature along
the coast of California, Of the characteristic wampum,—thiat is little beads made
of shell, so common in the American deposits, no trace was found in the Omori
mounds.

IMPLEMENTS OF STONE.

It seems remarkable that a people capable of fabricating vessels of such sym-
metry in form, such variely in shape, and displaying such varied methods in
ornamentation, should have left the few primitive, and ill-shapen implements,
that have thus far been discovered in the Omori mounds. While thousands of
fragments of pottery, a remarkable set of tablets, a bead of curious workman-
ship, and other objects have been found, only the few rude implements figured
on Plate XVII. have thus far been met with ; and the few among these approach-
ing to any symmetry in outline are made of soft stone, and easily worked.

The stone implements thus far discovered are as follows : three chisel like im-
plements made of soft lava rock ; fragments of two rollers, one made from clay
slate, and the other of some schistose rock, the latter bearing the marks of fire.

A portion of one, composed of taleose rock, is the best finished of the
lot. It has two grooves transversely marking the blunt and smooth ends of one
extremity, ‘Two large and ill shapened implements have been worked out of
jasper pebbles, One face is broken away, the other face shows the natural sur-
face of the pebble. The constrictions have been chipped out, to accommodate a
wooden handle, probably of twisted thorn, The evidence of wear is apparent
in both. In the larger one, the rough edges are worn down in those places
where the handle would naturally rub against them. The smaller one shows
small surfaces in the same region, highly polished, and one of the worn surfaces
shines like glass. I have supposed these to be hammers, from the manner in
which one end is broken, as if by repeated blows. It is hardly probable that
they were intended for net sinkers.

As so many finished stone implements of various kinds are found widely dis-
tributed in Japan, the absence in the Omori mounds of many groups of imple-
ments, and of common forms too, is remarkable, and lends additional evidence
to the antiquity of the deposits.

16

Beside the stone implements, there were found many stones of irregular shape,
but showing no marks of an artificial character, There were also found a few
Hat pieces of rock, having conical shaped holes bored into the flat sides. There’
was no evidence of design in the way the holes were arranged on the rock, nor
did it appear that any attempt had been made to bore through the rock. These
holes were 18 to 20 mm. in diameter, and 9 to 11 mm. deep. A fragment of a
stone bowl with a heavy rim, 70 mm. thick in its widest part, and having a
comparatively thin bottom was found in the deposits. The marks of wear on
the inner surface, show that the fragment probably formed part of a mortar.

Two very symmetrically rounded stones were also found, but it was difficult
to determine whether they had been rounded artificially, or not.

Large fragments of pumice were not uncommon in the mounds.

Implements of precisely the same character have been found in a number of
the Tokio deposits.

REMAINS OF ANIMALS.

A great many bones of wild animals were found, mixed with the shells compos-
ing the deposits. ‘These were all broken or split irregularly, and in ‘this frag-
mentary condition it is difficult to identify them.

The remains of the following animals have thus far been recognized, :—Man,
Monkey, Deer, Wild Boar, Wolf and Dog.

The bones of the Deer and Wild Boar are most numerous,

A few fragments cf the vertebrie of a large cetacean, and also fragments of
the ribs of a large Tortoise were found.

A few bones of the smaller mammals and birds, and many bones of fishes
also occur, but their species have not yet been identified.

The antlers of the Deer are remarkable for their proportions, and the skulls of
the Wild Boar indicate creatures of the largest size.

In ancient deposits in other parts of the world, the same difference in size and
solidity of the bones, as compared to similar bones of recent species, have been
noticed.

Beside the remains of the Japanese monkey, Macacus, I have detected the
right lower jaw of what may prove to be a large baboon-like ape. It is certain-
ly unlike anything found in Japan to-day. It may possibly be Cynopithicus,
a species of which is found in the Philippine Islands and Celebes.

That this species existed in Japan during the historical period is not impro-
bable, as the Japanese have long been familiar with accounts of monstrous apes,
though the more intelligent among them have regarded these stories as mythical.

Mr. Ninagawa, the distinguished antiquarian, informs me that seven hundred
years ago it was reported that a curious monster, supposed to be a large mon-

17

key, was seen near the Emperor’s Palace at Kioto. Mr. Fujitani, a student in

y Ly :

the Imperial University, has kindly collected a number of references in regard

J? o
to this animal, and while many impossible things are told about it, yet some of
the figures and,deseriptions recall an ape of large size, with long muzzle and
8 0 回 g

protruding lips—features that ought well to accord with Cynopithicus.
Without specimens of the recent species to compare, it is of course impossible

to state with certainty the character of the animal from the single fragment

found at Omori.

CANNIBALISM. *

One of the most interesting discoveries connected with tie Omori Mound is
the evidence of cannibalism which it affords, this being the first indication of a
race of authropophagi in Japan. ‘The human bones were found mixed with
bones of the wild boar, deer and other animals, They were all fractured in a
similar manner, either with the object of extracting the marrow or for conveni-
ence of cooking in vessels of too small dimensions to admit them at length.
When discovered, they were entirely unrelated to each other, Some hopes were
entertained that the place might have been used for purposes of burial, and
special search was made for a continuous series of boues : but no proof was
obtained in support of this supposition, and this is in accordance with the ex-
perience of those who have examined similar deposits in other parts of the world.
The bones were mixed indiscriminately with other remains of feasts. Some of
them are strongly marked with scratches and cuts, especially in those areas of
muscular attachment where the muscles are separated from the bones with
difficulty. The very mode of fracture in some cases is conspicuously artificial,
and the surfaces for the attachment of muscles are strongly incised. These
testimonials of cannibalism are of precisely the same nature as those educed by
Professor Wyman in his memoir on the shell mounds of Florida. The accom-
panying passage is extracted from that memoir, page 8.

“ The reasons derived from our own observations for believing that the ancient
inhabitants of the St. John’s were cannibals may be stated as follows :

1.—The bones, an account of which we have given, were not deposited in the
shell heap at an ordinary burial of a dead body. In this case, after the decay
of the flesh, there would have remained a certain order in the position of the
parts of the skeleton, especially in the pelvis, the long bones of the limbs, the
vertebral column and the head. The bones would be entire, as in other burials.
Tn the cases here described, they were, on the contrary, scattered in a disorder-

* Read before the Biological Society of the Imperial University, Tokio, Jan. 5. 1879. and originally
published in the ‘Tokio Times Jan. 18. 1879.

13

ly manner, broken into many f.azments, and often some important portions were
missing, as the head, at one of the mounds near Blue Spring, the bones of
an arm and leg at another, and in other mounds a still larger number of bones.
The fractures, as well as the disorder in which the bones were found, evidently
existed at the time they were covered up, as is shown by the condition of the
broken ends, which had the same discoloration as the natural surfaces,

2.—The bones were broken, as in the case of those of edible animals, as the
deer, alligator, ete. This would be necessary to reduce the parts to a size
corresponding with the vessels in which they were cooked, or suitable for roast-
ing, or even for eating raw.

3.—The breaking up of the bones had a certain amount of method ; the heads
of the humerus and femur were detached, as if to avoid the trouble, or from
ignorance as to the way of disartienlating the joints. The shafts of these bones,
as also those of the fore arm and leg, were regularly broken through the mid-
dle. The olecranon precess of the ulna was in some cases detached in the same
manner as the corresponding part of the deer.”

Had this deseription referred especially to the Omori Mounds, there could not
lave been a more perfect accordance with the facts as they stand.

The evidence of cannibalism in the New England and Fiorida heaps was te
have been expected, as history shows us that many tribes of North American
Indians were eaters of hnman flesh, and tribes exist to-day, both in North and
South America, who retain the habit. The evidence of cannibalism in Japan,
however, has a different significance, because the minute and painstaking
chronicles of her historians, running back with considerable accuracy for fifteen
hundred years or more, give no trace of so monstrous a practice. Not only
were the Japanese nst cannibals, but there is no account of the tribes they
encountered being addicted to tastes of this character, and so remarkable a trait
would have found some acknowledgment in their records. |The early historians
speak of the Ainos as being of so mild and gentle a disposition that the art of
murder was unknown among them. The failure of an adequate supply of food
invariably drives even the highest of civilized races to this extremity, but no
such necessity foreed the people of the Omori period to so shocking an alter-
native. In this connection if would be interesting to know whether there are
any records of the Japanese having been compelled by great exigency to subsist
upon human flesh. ‘There are many accounts of drifting Japanese junks given
by Mr. Charles Walcott Brooks in the proceedings of ths California Academy
of Sciences. In these instances the survivors had prepared for burial those of
their number who had perished from exposure and starvation,

The following is a list of the human bones thus far met with in the Omori
Mounds :—
Right humerus ; lenth of fragme it, 195 mm.; proximal end gone.

19

Left humerus ; length of fragment, 215 mm.; both en-Is gone.

Left humerus ; length of fragment, 16) mm. both ends gone.

Right ulna; length of fragment, 2)0 mm. distal end gone.

Right ulna ; length of fragment, 18) mm.: both ends gone.

Right radius ; length of fragment, 80 mm.: upper portion only.

Right femur; length of fragment, 159 mm.; proximal end and portion of shaft
only. :

Right femnr ; length of fragment, 270 mm.; both ends gone.

Right femur ; length of fragment, 230 mm : both ends gone.

Right femur ; length of fragment, 197 mm.; upper portion of shaft.

Right femur; length of fragment, 394 mm.; articular surfaces broken ; child.

Left femur ; length of fragment, 160 mm.; shaft only.

Left femur ; length of fragment, 27) mm ; great trochanter and head and distal
end gone ; child.

Left femur; length of fragment, 85 mm.; lower portion only ; articular surface
gone ; child.

Right tibia: length of fragment, 135 mm. upper portion of shaft.

Right fibula : length of fragment, 205 mm.; both ends broken.

Fifth right metatarsal ; length. 65 mm.; distal articular surface partially gone.

Left lower maxillary.

Left parietal.

Of sixteen long bones of the arm and leg, nine are destitute of both extremi-
ties; and of the remaining seven, three are destitute of the lower extremity,
two of the upper extremity, and in two, the articular surfaces of both ends are
gone. Nothing more clearly illustrates the indiscriminate way in which the
bones were scattered about, than the fact that the eight femora found represent-
ed at least seven different individuals, four being adults and three either women
or children. None of the human bones show marks of having been wrought,
but this we should not expect, since most of the implements discovered are made
of horn.

A recent examination of Shell Mounds in the southern portion of the Empire
has disclosed the most abundant and unqnestionable evidences of cannibalism.

FLATTENED TIBIA.

A special search was made for fragments of the human tibia, on account of
the remarkable deviation the tibia of ancient man presents, in comparison with
that of recent man.

This deviation consists in a lateral flattening of the shaft of the bone. So
wide spread is this variation in primitive man that it has given rise to a new

20

name in science, and tibia possessing this lateral flattening are known as Platy-
enemic tibia.

It has frequently been met with in ancient mounds and Cave explorations
in Europe, and Prof. Wyman has observed platyenemic tibia in ancient
mounds in Kentucky, Tennesee, California, Florida, Labrador and other places.
Mr. Henry Gillman discovered, in mounds in Michigan, tibia that possessed a
remarkable lateral flattening.

According to Prof. Wyman’s observations, the flattening of the tibia is not
a race character, but seems to be of common occurrence in all prehistoric races.

Our labors at Omori were fortunately rewarded by the discovery of a portion
of the shaft of a tibia, associated with other human bones.

From the variation this bone presents in man, the single example here men-
tioned can have but little significance. It may be of interest, however, to give
its proportionate measurements in contrast with corresponding measurements
given by Wyman in his Florida mounds memoir.

5
Big. 1

Transverse sections of Platyenemic Tibiae
Vig 1. Omori, Musashi. Fig. 2. Onomura, Higo.

The antero-posterior diameter being taken as 100, the transverse diameter in

Twelve, white race (recent), was 0.70;

Twelve, from the Florida Mounds, 0.64 ;

Seven, from the Kentucky Mounds, 0.63 ;

One, from the Omori Mound, 0.62.

There were others from the Florida mounds as low as 0.59, aud Mr. Gillman
discovered one in a mound on Ronge River, Michigan, with the excessive lateral
flattening of 0.48. This latter tibia far exceeds the famous Cro Magnon tibia
of Broca, which gave an index of 0.60. Tae Omori specimen, with its index
of 0.62, may be looked upon as a fair platyenemie tibia. It has a remarkable
lateral flattening in contrast with nine recent Japanese tibia, which were mea-
sured at random and which gave au index of 0.74 ;—the lowest index in the lot
being 68.4.

21

This flattening of the tibia is peculiar to the higher apes also, but as Prof,
Wyman properly remarks, it is not so much the lateral flattening, as the round-
ing of the angles, and the bending of the shaft forward, which gives to it a
distinct ape like character. The Omori tibia possesses this character in a mark-
ed degree.

This peculiarity associated with its lateral flattening, gives greater importance
to the bone, and may be looked upon as an evidence of considerable antiquity
of the remains found associated with it.

Since writing the above, I have examined a shell mound of immense size in
the province of Higo.

The bones of mammals were not numerous yet of forty fragments found,
more than half were those of man. They were all broken, and were scattered
promiscuously through the deposit. Fortunately, fragments of a number of
tibia were found, and these were all platyenemic. One showed an excessive
lateral flattening, giving an index of 50.2, this being one of the lowest ever
recorded.

the human bones were remarkable for the roughness and prominence of the
bony ridges for muscular attachments.

A description of this mound with its pottery, ete. will be given in a future
memoir,

A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ANCIENT AND MODERN
MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF OMORI.

Some interesting facts are revealed in studying the remains of the animals
which form the bulk of these deposits in Denmark, New England, Florida and
Omori.

These facts show the following :

First : that a change has taken place in the relative abundance of individuals
of certain species.

Second : that a change has taken place in the relative size of certain species.

Third : that a change has taken place in the relative proportions of the shells
of certain species.

Fourth : that a change has taken place in the extinction of certain species.

The modification in the relative size and proportions of certain species is pro-
found, and would seem to indicate, either that species vary in a much shorter
time than had been supposed, or else that deposits presenting these peculiarities
have a much higher antiquity than had before been accorded them.

We quote the following from Lubbock’s “ Prehistoric Times” page 231, as
bearing upon this subject. Inthe Danish Mounds the four most abundant
species of mollusks are :

The oyster,...... OD ORTE Ostrea edulis L.
MblWeRcocliletrrar et en .. Cardinm edule L.
Une TMURSEE na ak omoocecnone Moydülussedulselo:
The periwinkle, ....... 660.008 .. Litorina litorea L.
All four of which are still used as food for man. Other species occur more

rarely, namely,— :
Nassa reticulata L.
Buceinwn undatum L.
Venus pullastra, Mont.

24

And six other species of mollusks which he enumerates: He then says, “ It
is remarkable that the specimens of the first seven species are well developed,
and decidedly larger than any now found in the neighborhood, This is espe-
cially the case with the Cardium edule, and Litorina litorea, while the oyster has
entirely disappeared, and, even in the Kattegat, occurs only in a few places; a
result which may, perhaps, be partly owing to the quantities caught by fisher-
men.” “And he concludes that “on the whole their disappearance, especially
when taken in connection with the dwarfed size of other species, is evidently
attributable in a great measure to the smaller proportion of salt in the water.”

Among the birds occuring in the Danish shell heaps, is Zetrao wrogallus,
which feeds principally on the buds of the pine, showing that at the time the
deposits were made, extensive pine forests once covered the region, a fact pre-
viously established by a study of the peat beds, Bones of the great auk, Alea
impennis, also occur in the same deposits, and this bird is now probably extinct.

The shell mounds along the coast of Maine also indicate a marked change in
the distribution of certain species. A number of species of mollusks occur in
them, which are not found at present north of Cape Cod. Some of them pre-
sent a remarkable solidity of form in comparison with recent specimens.

The bones of the great auk are likewise met with in many of the deposits, in
such numbers as to show that it was then a common bird, and furnished an ar-
ticle of food. More curious still is the occurence of a molar tooth discovered by
me in one of the deposits on the coast of Maine, which Prof. Wyman beieved
to be the molar tooth of the polar bear, a species which is now confined to the
Arctic regions,

In a paper published fifteen years ago on the occurrence of land snails in an-
cient deposits on one of the islands in Casco Bay, Maine,* I showed that at the
time of their existence, a hard wood growth must have abounded. The island
has been covered since the earliest memory of man with a dense spruce growth.

i have in preparation a paper on the changes in the character of certain spe-
cies of Mollusca from the deposits in Massachusetts. Tn those I have measured
and drawn, the differences between present existing species and their ancestors
are constant.

Prof. Wyman observed similar changes in the mollusks of the Florida de-
posits. He says, in his memoir on the Florida Mounds, that the Ampullarie,
and Paludin:e, are much larger than their living representatives. “ The average
size of the aperture in twenty large Ampullarise from the mounds was, breadth
94.4 mm, and length 53.9 mm; while in the largest living shells we have
found, the aperture did not exceed 30 mm. in breadth and 48 mm. in length,
which would seem to indicate a greater vital activity in former days.”

* On the occurence of rare Helices in ancient shell heaps. Proceedings Portland Soc. Nat. Hist.
Vol. 1 1863.

25

With these facts before me, I was impelled to examine the various species of
shells found in the Omori Mounds, in comparison with similar species now
living along the immediate shores of the Bay. The followings descriptions and
measurements will show that changes more or less great have taken place since
the ancestors of those now living along the shore formed the food of the savages
who made the deposits.

As a preparation for these comparisons, a number of visits were made to the
shores of Omori village, in which I was accompanied by a class of special
students and others who had collected with me in Yezo.

A most searching exploration was made along the coast for a considerable
distance, and many specimens of every species bearing upon the subject were
obtained. A special search was made for those forms common in the Mounds.
A similar number of visits was made to the Mounds, accompanied by the same
corps of assistants, with directions to collect every species found there. In this
way an immense amount of material was brought together, and from this mate-
rial only mature and perfect specimens were selected for comparison. Besides
this material, I had a large number of species collected at Yenoshima, year
before last, as well as a large amount of material collected by the University
Expedition at Otaru and Hakodate, in Yezo, Sendai Bay, and on the west coast
at Funagawa, and Nugata. Use was also made of valuable collections made at
Kishiu this winter by Prof. Yatabe and Mr. Sasaki. All of these collections
were of use in showing the degree of variation between Northern and Southern
forms of the same species, Collections of the edible mollusks in the Tokio mar-
kets, and at Shinagawa, were also considered in these comparisons. Measurel-
ments were made in millimeters, and the tables of figures were submitted to Prof.
T. C. Mendenhall, of the Tokio Daigaku, who kindly offered to compute the
averages and proportions for me.

Every precaution has been taken to insure accuracy, and the results will
certainly be of interest to those who recognize a change in species, coincident
with change in time, and environment.

. Area suberenata Lischke.

Specimens of this species were not uncommon in the Mounds, and were also
found scattered along the shores of the Bay. Lischke gives the number of ribs as
from 31 to 33. Twelve recent specimens from the shores of Omori averaged 3 ん
ribs, while 15 specimens from the Mounds averaged 30'/, ribs. The hinge, or
umbonal area in the recent specimens,—measuring the area of one valve trans-
versely, gave an average of 5. 7 mm., while in the mound specimens the same
area averaged 5.9 mm.

26

The following figures show that the ancient specimens are not only larger,
but that the proportions of the shell are also different ;—the shell having increas-
ed in length, in proportion to its hight.

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of ten ( Recent, 61.8 50.4
largest specimens, Mound, 65.7 52,
5 3 . (30 Recent. 81.2
Assuming length to be 100, hight in, 98 Mocca 79 1
, Rae She ane に SA 68.5 54.
Dimensions of largest speeimen, | Mound, 80.5 69

These differences, though slight, appear to be constant, and indicate a change
in the character of the shell, as to its relative size, number of ribs, size of hinge
area, and proportionate diameters.

Arca imflata 2eeve, Prarte xvi. Pic. 5.

This species is comparatively rare in the Mounds though of common occur-
rence along the shores. It is a common edible mollusk in the markets of Tokio.
The average number of ribs in the recent specimens from Omori is 41.2 Reeve
gives 40 as the number in his description of the species, though Schrenck states
that they average 42 to 43.

In the few specimens found in the Mounds the ribs averaged 39.6 This
average, drawn from so few specimens, is of but little value, yet, taken in con-
nection with the other species of Arca, wherein the ancient specimens exhibited
a less number of ribs, it is of some interest.

In the dimensions of the hinge area, however, the most remarkable change is
seen between the ancient and recent forms. The average width in nine recent
specimens, measuring one valve, was 6.4, while in five ancient specimens it
was 15. These dimensions in the recent specimens ranged as follows: 8, 5, 4,
7, 6, 6, 5, 6, 11; and in the ancient specimens, 17, 16, 13, 17, 12.

Arca granosa Linne.

This is one of the most abundant shells in the Mounds. I have never met
with it in my collections made at Yenoshima, Yedo Bay, or Yezo。 Takamine
did not obtain it m his dredgings and shore collecting at Funagawa and Niigata,
on the west coast. Sasaki did not find it at Sendai Bay. Prof. Yatabe and

27

party made exhaustive collections by dredging, and shore collecting, at various
points along the coast at Kishiu, yet failed to secure a single specimen.

Lischke in his great work, Japanische Meeres Conchylien, records examples from
Nagasaki only. He gives the following localities : Tochi-fu, North China and
Cochin China, Debeaux ; Philippine Islands, Reeve ; Ceram and Celebes, Rwi-
phius ; Tranquebar and Nikobaren, Chemnitz. R. 1. C. Stearns Esq. of the
University of California says that the Mound specimens have a less number of
ribs ;—the species at present having from 23 to 26 ribs, while the Mound speci-
mens range in number of ribs from 18 to 20.

Mr. Stearns further remarks that the Mound specimens differ from the present
form in being less equilateral, aud in having the umbones less produced. He says
it is at present a southern form, and belongs to a widely separated geographical
province.

In the digging of wells in Tokio it is often brought up in a semi-fossil eondi-
tion from considerable depths. I have also found it in great numbers in an
ancient mound in Tokio proper, associated with pottery and rude stone imple-
ments, and Mr. Ishikawa has found it associated with cord marked pottery
beyond Oji. From these evidences it must have been a common shell in past
times, but has now become extinct in this and neighboring waters.

Lischke gives the following measurements of two specimens from Nagasaki,
and one from Singapore.

Length. Hight.

JNIGWet0S2UR BS 88d855 BEE 028 006 Mat - 40

の oooooaooogoogeaooag ロ 80oO'OO ao は Sl

SHMEMDOMO 32 25

Largest specimen from the Mound, or OL 42
Average of ten largest specimens thom ‘ike kom 52.9 41.1

It is interesting to observe that the two other species of Arca from the Mound
possess a less number of ribs than the present species. In other words the three
species of Arca at the present time differ in possessing a larger number of ribs
than their ancestors, beside the other differences already recorded, as follows :

Mound. Recent.
(a sub-crenata, 30.5 33.3
Number of ribs in, + inflata, 39.6 41.2
| „» granosa, 1S to 20 23 to 26

Cyclina Chinensis Chemnitz. PrArg xvut. Fic. 1

This species is not common along the shores at Omori. Lischke records a
single example from the Bay of Yedo, and thirteen from Nagasaki, I have a
number of specimens from Omori village.

28

It is by no means an uncommon shell in the Mounds, and the larger size as
compared with the recent form is seen at a glance,

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of ( Recent, 47.5 51.4
ten largest specimens, ( Mound, 92.4 39.4

Hof Pavey = =
Assuming length to be 100, hight in 2 a specimens eed

Length. Hight.
Largest specim eco N ae
or STEIN Ione), 575 62.5

Tapes sp. PT Ap xvut, Fie. 2.

This species is one of the most abundant forms in the Mounds, as well as one
of the most common shells along the shore. It is a common edible mollusk in
the markets. Not being able to refer to a description or figure of the species,
I cannot give its specific name. It is sufficient to say that the living specimens
collected for comparison are of the same species as those found in the Mounds.

The proportions of the shell have scarcely changed, though curiously enough
the recent ones are somewhat longer than the ancient ones, and the umbones

are more eroded.

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of | Recent, 54.2 39.4
ten largest specimens, { Mound, 49.2 85.8
: EN . (49 Recent 72.3
Assuming length to be 100, hight in | i Mound! 7).
Length. Hight.
8 : BR Recent, 58. 42.
Dimensions of largest specimen, | None, 308 35.

Dosinia Japonica Dunker. TrArE xvi, Fie. 6.

This species is not common, either in the Mounds, or along the shores of the
Bay. A comparison of tle measurements shows a change in proportions, and
indicates also that the ancient specimens were larger than the recent.

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of ( Recent, 65.6 61.5
ten largest specimens, ( Mound, 69.8 65.7

( 10 specimens, Recent, 93.9

Assuming leneth to be 100, hight in =
iD an 09 3 Mound, 95.2
Length. Bisht.
Z F ロ Tece 68. 63,
Dimensions of largest specimen, ( Recent, N ER
> ( Mound, 17.5 73,

Maetra venerformis Deshayes. PIATESUNT RG, 3:

This species is very common in the Mounds, and along the shores of the Bay.
It is also common in the markets of Tokio. Lischke gives the average size of
the species as follows : length 38, hight 34.

He also gives the dimensions of a specimen from Kishiu as follows: length
48, hight 44.

The following are the dimensions of the Mound specimens in comparison with
the recent at Omori.

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of ( Recent, 43.4 38.1
ten largest specimens, | Mound, 96.6 49.1

21 Recent, 88.3

Assuming length to be 100, hight in { 15 Mound. 86.6

Length. Hight.

Dimensions of Jargest specimen { Recent, 48.5 43.5
SH "" | Mound, 59. 51.5

It will be seen by the above figures that the average hight of the Mound shell
exceeds the length of recent specimens as given hy Lischke, and is much longer
than the shell as it exists to day at Omori. Its proportions have moreover
changed,

Cytherea meretrie Linné, Prare xvi. Fie. 7.

Under this name Lischke probably refers to the species to be considered. It
is one of the principal shells in the Mounds and appears equally common along
the Omori shores.

The proportionate diameters vary but little, but the difference in size is notice-
able at once, the Mound specimens being larger.

Length, Hight,
Average dimensions of | Recent, 85.8 66.1
ten largest specimens, ( Mound, 97.3 75.1

Be 5 - (18 Recent, 772
Assuming length to be 100, hight in 118 Mound, 785
Length. Hight.
6 を : “( Recent, ID, 73.
Dimensions of largest specimen | Mound. 106.5 815

Mya arenaria Linne. PLATE xvin. Fie. 4.

Not an abundant shell in the Mounds nor common along the coast. It is
often seen in the markets at Tokio, brought from Shinagawa.

It will be seen by the figures that the proportions have changed slightly,
though the size remains nearly the same.

Length. Hight.
Average dimensions of tecent, 98.5 62.1
ten largest specimens, ( Mound, 98.2 59.9

: » 00. §17 Recent, 62.5
Assuming length to be 100, hight in 17 Mond 611

1
Length. Hight.
> 5 x RD >
f j i 0 ecent 105. 62.5
)imensions of largest specimen h 3 BE
Dime ら 1 > ( Mound, 112. 66.

The following species of Lamellibranchiates are present in the Deposits.
Arca suberenatu Lischke.

» inflata Reeve.

» granose Iuinne.
Dosinia Troscheli Vischke.
Cyclina Chinensis Chemnitz.
Mactra veneriformis Deshayes.
Mya arenaria Liune.
Cytherea meretriz Laune.
Tapes sp.

Solen strictus Gould.

Lutraria Nuttalti Conrad.

Ostrea denslamellosa Lischke.
の sp.

Those species whose dimensions have been given were represented by a sufti-
ient number of specimens for the purposes of measurements and comparisons.
Of the others, with the exception of Ostrea, only a few specimens were found,
not enough to justify comparisons.

It will be seen by the foregoing measurements that the following species from
the mounds are larger than their living representatives from the same locality :

.

9
2】

Arca suberenata, Cyclina Chinensis, Cytherea meretriz, Mactra veneriformis and
Dosinia Troscheli. Area granosa is much larger than auy dimension given by
Lischke.

Among the few gasteropods which occur insufficient numbers for comparison,
the differences in proportions between the Mound specimens and the recent ones
are quite as conspicuous,

Eburna Japonica Lischke. Priasrve xvi. Fie. 9,

This is a very common shell in the deposits, and is also found scattered along
the shores. It is very common further south in the Bay.

The differences between the ancient and recent shells are easily recognized
without the aid of measurements.

The recent shell, though larger than the ancient one, is not so broad compared
to its length, as in the aucient form. While both have the same average
breadth, the recent form is nearly six millimeters longer. This gives the recent
shell a more acute spire, while the ancient shell appears more robust.

A large number of recent and ancient specimens were brought together, and
from these, the perfect and mature ones, for the purposes of measurement were
selected.

The angle of the spire was measured in fifty specimens of the Mound and
fifty specimens of the recent, and the difference is shown in the following dia-
gram.

one, a),

to)

Diagram showing angle of spire of Recent,
and Mound shell, Edurna Japonica.

Ancient.......
Recent....

The mean angle for the recent was 57°45', and for the Mound, was 6145!

99

OL

The following measurements will show the differences in the proportions
between the recent and the Mound specimens.

Breadth. Length.
Average dimensions af tecent, 41.8 67.9
ten largest specimens, ( Mound, 40.7 63.1

Assuming length to be 100, breadth in ee: N Pee
bb) co

3 2 5 : Recent, 47 7
imensions of largest specimen ( a :
D eeu SI >) Mound, 48. 6

mx て

Purpura luteostoma Chemnitz.

The specimens referred to of this species from the Omori Mounds are so much
larger than any Purpura found today in the Bay of Yedo that it is quite difficult
to determine their affinities. At present, the species described under the names
of Zuteostoma and clavigera can be pretty easily determined. In the Omori days
the forms were not so well defined. The nearest resemblance to the Omori
Purpura is the Purpura luteostoma from the west coast of Japan at Funagawa.
Purpura luteostoma from Yenosima resembles somewhat P. Bronni Dunker as
it occurs at Kishiu, while the P. elavigera Kuster from Kishiu resembles the
variety described by Reeve under the name of P. kumulosa.

We searched in vain for an example of Parpura along the Omori shores.

The specimens from Yenosima are so small as to be worthless for comparison.

It is easy to believe that not long ago the various species of Purpura were once
varieties of a single species, and that P. Bronni, luteostoma, clavigera, tumulosa
and many others are modifications of a single form. Indeed I can recall as
great a variation among examples of Purpura lapillus along the eastern coast
of the United States as one sees among these so called species.

Lischke mentions the length of his largest specimen from Hakodate as 40
mm. The largest specimen from Omori measures 53 mm.

The following are the dimensions of the Omori specimens in comparison with
those of Hakodate.

Breadth. Length.
10 largest specimens from Omori Mounds, 27.8 47.4
en = » Hakodate, 23.9 35.4

nT で ここ | I=
Assuming length to be 100, breadth in | ee = ee
akodate, :

33

Natica Lamarchiana Duclos, Pusre svrrr。 Fira. 8.

This is another common shell in the Omori Deposits, and is also one of the
most common shells along the Omori shores.

The differences between the Mound specimens and the recent ones aro so
profound, that it may be recognized as a marked variety. The elevated spire,
the heavy callosity almost concealing the umbilicus, and the marked differences
in the proportions of the shell are noticeable at once, and distinguish it from its
iving representative.

The Omori Mound variety approaches nearer the form which occurs much
further north at Hakodate.

The differences between this species and Nutica duplicata Say, which occurs
along the eastern coast of the United States, are very slight.

Hight. Breadth.
Average dimensions of ( Recent, 60.2 68.4
ten largest specimens, (Mound, 62. 65.8

・ 5 c : 10 largest Recent, 83.1
Assuming breadth to be 100, hight in { 10 largest Mound, 94.2

fight. Dreadth.

( Recent, 68. 76.

Dimensions of largest specimen Ste NE
Ge 1 > ( Mound, 66. 71.5

Turbo granulatus Chemnitz.

This is one of the most abundant shells in the Omori deposits, but the shores
of Omori have been repeatedly searched without bringing to light a single
specimen. Lischke records forty specimens from Nagasaki only. It is a
common species at Hongkong and further south. Prof. Yatabe and Mr. Sasaki
collected a very large and marked variety at the Bonin Islands, and also the
ordinary form from Kishiu. Mr. Takamine met with it in abundance at
Funagawa some distance north of Niigata, on the west Coast, and I have collect-
ed small specimens at Yenoshima.

In past times it must have been one of the most common shells along the
shores at Omori, judging from the number that oceur in the Mounds. It must
have had a more northern range in past times, but like Arca granosa has retreat-
ed south.

94

The following measurements are given from ten largest specimens from the
Omori Mounds, Kishiu, and Funagawa.

Average dimensions of ten largest specimens.

Breadth. Hight. Proportion of hight
to breadth.
Omori Mounds, 25.4 25. 90.5
Kishiu, 24.6 21.5 84.3
Funagawa, 23.2 22.1 95.2

Lischke’s largest specimen from Nagasaki measured 25 millimeters in diameter.

As this species varies greatly with each locality, it would be unfair to make
any comparisons between the Omori Mound specimens and those from Kishiu
and Niigata. It will be observed however, that the average diameter of the
Omori specimens, exceeds the largest diameter as given by Lischke, as well as
those from Kishiu and Niigata.

Of the other species of mollusks found in the Mounds, no special comparisons
have been made, owing either to the lack of a sufficient number of mature and
perfect specimens, or of recent specimens with which to compare.

The following is a list of the gasteropods thus far found in the deposits.

; Fursus inconstans Lischke. ;
Rapana bezoar Linne.
Hemijusus tuba Gmelin.
Purpura luteostoma Ohemunntz.
Eburna Japonica Lischke.
Nassa sp.

Potamides sp.

Lampania sp.

Natica Lamarckiana Duclos.
Turbo granulatus Gmelin.
Rotella globosa Gould.

The few specimens of Fuss inconstans appears to be more robust than the spe-
cies as it exists to day in the vicinity, and resembles the typical form as figured
by Lischke, while the recent ones along the shore resembles his small varieties.

Ropana bezoar is exceedingly abundant, of large size, with massive shell.
Many of the specimens have a portion of the body wall broken through, as if
for the purpose of more conveniently extracting the flesh.

The Mound specimens of Hemifusus tuba were large, light, and the tubercles
were prominent and acute. The recent specimens along the shore were about
half the size, quite solid, with the tubercles obtuse.

The species of Nassa and Lampania were too small for edible mollusks, and
were probably accidently introduced with the larger species. Only a few speci-
mens of each species were collected, and these were too much eroded for com-
parison.

a~
oo

The following species were more or less common along the shores of Omori vil-
lage, but have not yet been found in the Mounds,

Maetra, possibly sulcataria.
Cancellaria Spengleriana Lischke.
Soletellina olivacea Jay.
Liocardium Sp.

Pecten sp.

Natica janthostoma Deshayes.

With the exception of the last species, these are all edible mollusks, and the
Mactra is one of the most common mollusks in the Tokio markets. Their ab
sence from the Deposits certainly indicates a change in the fauna.

In this respect the absence of Haliotis and Pinna from the Mounds is certain-
ly of great interest, for it shows, either the lack of proper means for water trans-
port, or a disinclination on the part of the people to go far from their abiding
place in quest of food.

On the opposite side of the Bay, and also south of Yokohama, the Ha/iotis
may be found, and large numbers of the shells are brought to Tokio for the
pearl they afford. No trace of the large species, Haliotis gigantea or of the small-
er species, Haliotis Gruner’, has as yet been met with in the Mounds.

A race of fishermen accustomed to venture far in their boats would certainly
have left some trace of these species in their refuse piles.

Tn conclusion it may be said that a pronounced change has taken place in the
molluscan fauna of the Bay of Yedo since the Omeri deposits were made.
The extinction of certain forms within comparatively recent times might be
accounted for in considering the upheaval of the water basin, and the conse-
quent narrowing of the Bay and shoaling of the waters, but the profound
changes which have taken place in the size and contour of certain species de-
mands time.

There are but few units of time that can be used to measure the interval
required to effect such changes. One of two hundred and thirty years has
presented itself to me in the removal of a portion of the Suruga-dai canal
embankment. This canal was dug through Suruga-dai two hundred and thirty
yearsago. The earth was piled up in immense embankments on each side of
the canal.

Recently at Misaki Cho, near the Suido Bashi, a portion of this embankment
was removed in the construction of a new street. Tn the removal of this earth,
a deposit of shells was exposed presumably as old as the embankment, which
rested upon it.

The deposit was composed of the following species. P/acuanomia sp, Ostrea
denstamellosa, Ostrea sp. Cytherea meretrir, Cyelina Chinensis, Mactra veneri=

36
Jormis, Arca suberenata, Tapes sp. Rapana bezoar, Turbo sy nosus, Turbo granı-
latus, and Lampania multiformis.

he shells bore the marks of age, having that peculiar yeliowish and chalky
color and characteristic appearance of the nacreous portion, gencrally seen in
shells long buried in the ground,

Not a single fragment of ancient pottery was found. On the contrary, trag-
ments of tiles and a few pieces of glazed pottery and poicela'n of Owari and
Kioto, were met with.

The two species of Ostrea formed the bulk of the deposit.

Specimens of Cyclina Chinensis were very large. A single small specimen
only of Turbo granulatus was met with. Special search, however, was made for
Purpura luteostoma and particularly for Lica granosa, but no trace of either
was found. Lica inflata had the same narrow liinge area that the species presents
to-day. In fact no appreciable change has taken place between the species living
two hundred and thirty years ago, and their descendants which live at the pre-
sent time.

Another deposit of shells, somewhat old, judging from the appearance of the
shells, was examined near Kameido, and no trace of Area granosa was found-
nor trace of pottery. ,

The occurrence of ica yranosa, in this region at least, may be looked upon
as an evidence of the presence of ancient cord marked pottery.

BIS LANATION OF PLATES.

Yi ayy
Lc が e (om

DK

Fig.

で )

&

6.

SI

PLATE I.
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

5 to 7 mm. in thickness, hight 242 mm., diameter across mouth 26%
mm. Black above, reddish below, bottom with matting impression.
1° top view of rim, natural size. 1° section of rim, natural size. 1”
front view of rim, natural size.

Margin 12 mm. thick, side 7 mm. thick, diameter of mouth, 100 mm.
Black, bottom slightly concave and smooth. Design repeated four
times. Inside of vessel stained with ferric oxide.

8 mm. thick Below, 5 mm. thick near rim, hight 200 mm., largest
diameter 177 mm. Blackish, mouth triangular in shape. 3° top
view of rim, natural size.

Wall 5 mm. thick, diameter of rim 150 mm. Black.

Body 9 mm. thick, bottom 12 mm. thick, handle 10 mm. thick.
Hight from bottom to top of handle 147 mm. Light Brick red,
Handles grooved, and loops perforated for passage of cord.

Clay nearly dry before ornamenting.

7 mm. thick at margin, 4 mm. below, diameter 120 mm. Black, bot-
tom flat.

5 mm. thick, diameter 140 mm., bottom depressed, smooth areas de-
pressed. Above first band of cord marks painted with mercury si/-
phide. Cord marked areas black, bottom smooth, olive brown color.
Inside of vessel rough clay washed. Length 150 mm., hight 125
mm., breadth 71 mm.

Varying from 5 to 13 mm. in thickness, black outside, bottom mas-

sive, greatly depressed, very roughly and coarsely made.

Rim 6 mm. thick, body 5 mm. thick, mouth 144 mm. in diameter.
Reddish, with signs of use over fire.
Many rims of vessels similar to this were found, one fragment
showing a diameter of the perfect vessel of 354 mm.

—_—- --

i an

MTT TTT SE ACN LTT OT TET u

a u で Ss

HI
| 000004
| 1 iff

SHELL MOUNDS oF OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

Oro

ou
BR.

Pig. 1.
ie, 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
ime, 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.

PLATE 1.

2
Note. All figures dvawn haf size unless otherwise mentioned.

Bottom 4 to 7 mm. thick, bulge 3 to 4 mm., rim 7 mm. Black, rudely
made.

Restored from large fragment, bottom 10 mm., rim 4 mm., diameter
165 mm. Blackish.

Bottom 7 mm. thick, margin 4 to 5 mm., diameter 120 mm. Clay
colored, made of fine clay and very light.

One quarter natural size, yim. 9 mm., below 5 mm. Black.

5 mm. thick, diameter 60 mm. Light brick red, bottom with mat im-
pression. Very nicely made.

6 mm. thick, red with black stains.

Rim 5 mm. thick, body 7 mm., black. Bottom with mat impression.
Tnerusted within, like paint.

Rim 4 mm. thick, bottom 10 mm. Black.

5 mm. thick, black with traces of red.

8 mm. thick, diameter 124 mm. Black, smooth, bottom with mat im-
pression. The bottom has not been accurately represented by the
lithographer.

6 mm. thick, diameter 190 mm. Dark colored bisquit, black within
and without. Shining. This is the finest made vessel in the whole
collection. It will be observed that the design on the bottom is
repeated four times, while the rim has five undulations. A similar

feature will be seen in the vessel figured on this plate, Fig. 1.

Wall 5 mm. thick, bottom 8 mm., diameter 260 mm., red below, black

above, smooth within.

NN

CCJUI

モ

SHELL MOUNDS ar OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

A

NE
i Ky Wie ain
Dinky

0
NM

Fig. 1.
Fig: 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16

PAC | Sle
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

5 mm. thick, diameter 100 mm., nearly black, smooth inside.

4 mm. thick, blackish, dry scratched.

Margin 7 mm. thick, black, flat bottom, rough finish inside.

Bottom 7 mm. thick, diameter 144 mm. thick, black.

Upper edge 7 mm. thick, very coarse clay, roughly made, thickly
painted with mercury sulphide. Dotted lines indicate contours of
inside and bottom.

5 mm. thick, black. Restored from large fragment.

5 mm. thick, diameters across mouth 137 and 150mm. Black, bottom
flat, groove on inside of 11m, faint mat impression on bottom, very
uneven in shape.

4 mm. thick on side, light reddish, smooth finish within.

10 mm. thick, black, smooth inside.

Lower edge 5 mm., thick, blackish.

7 to 10 mm. thick, clay colored.

6 mm. thick, diameter 160 mm.

6 to 8 mm. thick, slate color.

5 mm. thick near rim, diameter 177 mm., black, bottom rough.

5mm. thick, light reddish colored, hight 77 mm., upper margin
roughly rounded, lower rim broken, bottom flat.

S mm. thick, diameter 154 mm., clay colored, unevenly made. Dot-
ted lines indicate contours of inside and base.

UM

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

Pig. 1.
Wie. 2.
ine, &
Wie, 4.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 6.
Vig. 7.
Ing >
Ile, (Sh
Me, 9
Fig. 10.

PLATE IV.
Note. AU figures drawn half size unless otherieise mentioned.

7 mm. thick, black with reddish tinge, bands finger squeezed and put
on after pot was shaped.

+ mm. thick, nearly black, smooth inside.

5 mm. thick, rim thicker, reddish.

6 mm. thick, reddish.

One quarter natural size. 7 mm. thick, black. Inside are fine paral-
lel lines, two to a millimeter; these are partially obliterated by a
vertical smoothing motion of some implement.

7 mm. thick, dark red, smooth.

One quarter natural size. 6 mm. thick, clay colored.

5 mm. thick, margin thicker and grooved above. Diameter of vessel
about 190 mm. Central design repeated eight times round, reddish,
smooth. Numbers of fragments of this vessel were found.

6 mm. thick, reddish, diameter about 200 min.

One quarter natural size. 8 mm. thick, diameter of vessel 245 mm.
Black, coarsely made.

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

m
が
ee

ee

Fig.

PLATE VW.
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

The broken portions of pots of this nature are tlıe most common forms
inthe mounds. Varying from 5 to 10 mm. in thickness. Nearly
half show the mat impression, and these impressions show a variety
in the mode of braiding the mat. The color of the fragments are
geuerally reddish.

3mm. thick, black, very delicate walls and very fine mat impression.

10 mm. thick, light reddish. This specimen has had its fractured
edge ground down, probably for the purpose of utilizing it as a cup.

7 mm. thick, black, with areas of brick red, bowl shaped bottom
within.

6 mm. thick, black with areas of brick red, smooth bottom, rough
inside.

Light clay colored.

7 mm. thick, black.

6 mm. thick, black.

Above 10 mm. thick, below 7 mm. thick, black. One groove inside
twenty millmeters below rim and parallel to it.

Rim 10 mm. thick, lower edge of fragment 5 mm. thick, reddish col-
ored, rough surface.

8 mm. thick, hight 140 mm. thick, rim with five rude knobs around
periphery; roughly made. A few rounded pebbles mixed with bis-
quit ; burnt mud color.

5 to 6 mm. thick, light brick red, well made.

One quarter natural size. 5 mm. thick, black.

4 to 5 mm. thick, 155 mm. in diameter, light brick red.

RUHE
ay

PSA Ea

ee

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

ee, 中
Hig. 2
Fig. て

Fig. 4
Big. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. &
Mie, ©
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

ANI Vale
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

Natural size. 4 to 5 mm. thick, black, outside polished, inside rough.
6 mm. thick, light brick red, neck joined to body in making.
Natural size. 8 mm. thick, black.

7 mm. thick, reddish black. Rim put on spirally, and very roughly

joined inside.

3 mm. thick near margin, 8 mm. thick below, black, with here and
there spots of mercury sulphide ; rough inside.

5 mm. thick, blackish red, smooth inside.

Rim 9 mm. thick, body 7 mm. thick, light reddish, neck nearly at
right angle with body, dry carving.

Natural size. 5 mm. thiek, red clay, black surface with spots of mer-
cury sulphide ; dry carving.

5 mm. thick, light brick red, rough within, dry carving.

Body 6 mm. thick, broad rim thickened, black.

Rim 11 mm. thick, body 7 mm. thick, light brick red, dry carving.

jyidently not used.

Natural size. 8 mm. thick, thickly painted with mereury sulphide
outside, and inside to bottom of rim, neck put on separately, and
roughly joined ; dotted line shows where loop had heen.

Rim 8 mm. thick, body 6 mm. thick, clay colored, red inside, dry
carving.

6 mm. thick, light clay colored and blackish in spots, dry carving.

6 to 7 mm. thick, very light clay colored, dry carving.

PINT IE WI

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

の

eat

RAB UE が
1

さら の の ooo

oo

JIG AINE, 。 WU
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned,

All the specimens figured on this plate have wreaths of clay put on
in bands, and ornamented with finger squeezings, the impression
of finger nails and papille of the flesh being plainly visible.

9 mm. thick, reddish, lines made with groove pointed stick, or pos-
sibly the end of a hollow reed or bone. Hole at side made for
mending, the hole being commenced in two places.

7 mm. thick, black.

8 mm. thick, nail marks plainly seen.

9 mm. thick, groove within just below rim, very coarsely made.

6 mm. thick, reddish, deep groove within, below rim.

10 mm. thick, very coarsely made, rough inside.

7 mm. thick, reddish.

8 mm. thick, ight clay color, deep groove within, below rim.

§ mm. thick, reddish.

7 mm. thick, reddish.

One quarter natural size. 6 mm. thick, reddish, rough.

PLATE VI)

SHELL MOUNDS oF OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

1
EN:

Se

ie

ER

PEATE VIL

Note. All figuies drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

1. 5mm. thick, black.

3. 5 mm. thick, reddish black, groove within 28 mm. below margin.

3. 4mm. thick, black.

4. 6mm. thick, black, notches in rim pressed down while clay was yet

soft.

5. 7 mm. thick, black.

6. 7 mm. thick, black, notches cut while clay was soft and then round-
ed down.

7. 6 mm. thick, black.

8. 6mm. thick, groove within below rim.

9. 6to 7 mm. thick, reddish, rough.

ig. 10. 6 mm. thick, black.
ig. 11. 6 mm. thick, black.

2. 6mm. thick, reddish, grooves and punctures inside as shown in up-
per figure.

3. 5mm. thick, black within, reddish.
14. Natural size. 5 mm. thick, reddish.

Fig. 15. 8 mm. thick, reddish. Figs. 13, 14 and 15 have the inner surface

ornamented. Fragments of this nature were of rare occurrence in
the deposits. The fragments indicated shallow bowls or plates of
smooth and delicate finish. Fig. 15 was rough on the outside but
the finish within was of extreme delicacy.

It will be observed that in Figures 12 and 15 the upper figures repre
sent the inner surface, while in Figures 13 and 14 the lower figures
yepresent the inner surface.

編 物 b 尋 分 森 大 PLATE Vili

WW Ww =
see, ge

DSO On la So

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

POR ON

ZU

io)

. 13.

PLATE IX.
Note. All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

mm. thick, black, rim flaring.

mm. thick above, 5 mm. below, black.

8 mm. thick, black.

6 mm. thick, black.

6 mm. thick, black, flaring rim, cooking vessel.

5 mm. thick, red, flaring rim.

One quarter natural size. 6 mm. thick, flaring rim outside, bright red
with black discolorations from uneven baking. Inside bright red.
Never used.

One quarter natural size. Wim 7 mm. thick, body 6 mm. thick, red-
dish, smooth within.

4 to 5 mm. thick, black throughout.

6 mm. thick, black. Cooking vessel.

8 mm. thick, dark clay. Evidently fragment of shallow flat bottom-
ed basin.

7 mm. thick, black, deep groove within below rim.

6 mm. thick, black.

4 mm. thick, rim thicker, black, roughly made. Cooking vessel.

7 mm. thick, black. Most if not all of these are cooking vessels.

Those designated as such, have charred remains of food encrusted

within.

【 iT
Wi

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI

NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

Fig. 1.
je, 2
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Iie, SA
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Pig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.

PLATE X.
Note. <All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

5. mm. thick, black, outside rough, inside smooth. A series of groov-
es within.

10 mm. thick above, 8 mm. thick below, reddish, very coarsely made.

3 mm. thick, black.

10 mm. thick, black, very coarsely made.

7mm. thick, reddish black, very smooth. This vessel is unlike
anything else found in the deposits, and may be of a different age.

Thinner portion 10 mm. thick. Possibly the base, or else a projecting
knob from the side of some vessel. Clay color, very rough, finger
marks within.

4 to 6 mm. thick, black, lines deeply and sharply incised.

6 mm. thick, clay colored, very irregular in shape.

6 to 7 mm. thick, black.

5 to 6 mm. thick, reddish, dry carved.

4mm. thick, black throughout.

Natural size. 5 mm. thick, black, painted with mercury sulphide,
hole in nozzle straight, 7 mm. in diameter throughout.

8 mm. thick, black, hole in nozzle 7 mm. in diameter at tip, dilating
toward vessel, where it is 14 mm. in diameter.

Natural size. S mm. thick, black. Hole 12 mm. in diameter at
both ends and perfectly straight. Within are seen oblique spiral
lines, showing that the nozzle was made round a stick and the stick
was afterwards withdrawn with a spiral motion.

5 to 6 mm. in diameter, red, hole il mm. in diameter, irregular in
size, nozzle rudely made.

Coarse reddsh baked clay, rouglily made. Probably a spindle whorl.

PLATE X

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

な rs

Nn ae

rf,

に

DE LITE

gr go

SEE

Vote.

PLATE XI.

All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

The following measurements refer to the body wall and not to the
thickened knob.

7 mm
6 mm

. thick, black, rim thin.
. thick, black, rough.

10 mm. thick, brick red, three grooves diverging within.

S mm.

6 mm.

~

7 mm.
5 mm.
7 mm.
6 mm.
8 mm.
6 mm.
4mm.

thick, black, rim sharp, incurving.

. thick, black. Two semilunar grooves within.

. thick, brick red, delicately made.

. thick, blackish.

. thick, black, corresponding circular depression within.

. thick, black. Broad flat rim, incurving edge.

. thick, black, deep circular depression within, incurving rim.

. thick, light brick red.

. thick, black.

. thick, blackish red, incurving rim.

. thick, bright red inside, dull red without, incurving rim.

. thick, black, incurving rim.

thick, black, double groove within, rim thin.

thick, black, vertical depression within, smaller one near tip.
thick, reddish and clay color, knob perforated.

thick, red outside, black within, round depression within.
thick, black, groove within.

thick, brick red, knob projecting.

thick, reddish, incurving rim.

thick, black, knob perforated; thimble shaped depression

above, 21 mm. deep, and 22 mm. in diameter.

7mm
7 mm
5mm
mm

6 mm

C の

〇

. thick, black, rim incurving.

. thick, black, reddish within, knob perforated, incurving rim.
. thick, black, roughly wrought.

. thick, black.

. thick, reddish black, deep gtoove within, knob perforated.

Im で
ot
nes ,

の
«
a

PLATE XI

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

1

) か vr 6 中 vn 4 fs
hOM 2D 43 2
By a arte cGy 77

ニーーーー テ ーー ニーーーーーーーーーーーーーーー で

|
|
|
|

[0]
ご co Io ピ

PLATE. XII.

Note. AU figures dawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

Reddish black, rough and irregular.
7 mm. thick, reddish black.

7 mm. thick, black.

6 mm. thick, black.

5 mm. thick, black, deep depression within, corresponding to one out-

side.

mm. thick, black, rough.

7 mm. thick, black, flaring with rim incurving, double groove within.
7 mm. thick, clay black, rough.

0

Black, ridged inside, deep circular depression within with border
slightly raised.

5 to 8 mm, thick, black.

5 to 8 mm. thick.

5mm. thick, black, reddish within.

mm. thick, reddish black, very rough inside.

7 mm. thick, black, very rough inside, perforated ear.

5 mm. thick, black.

4mm. thick, light brick red, soft clay, minute perforation passing
into loop from below at place marked 0. Figures 4 to 12 are the
most common forms in the deposits. Figures 13 to 16 are unique.

PLATE X1l

>

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

ais 2

OS og u

ig. 18.
3.19),

(53)

Note.

Natu

PLATE XIII.

All figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

‘al size. 2 mm thick, handle moulded from wall, bent over

and welded.

7 mm

. thick, reddish black, rim slightly flaring, hole made in wall

while clay was yet soft.

6 mm

. thiek near rim, 4 mm. thick below, brick red.

8 mm. thick, pale red, double groove within 20 mm. below rim.

8 mm
8 mm

. thick, dark clay.
. thick, black, smooth within.

Nutural size. Black grooves and smooth areas heavily painted with

mercury sulphiae.

7 mm
5 mm

7 mm.

9 mm

6 mm.
4mm.
5 mm.

. thiek, reddish.
. thick, reddish.

7 mm. thick, black, carbonized remains of food encrusted within.

. thick, black.
. thick, black.

. thick, rim 8 mm. thick, black.

. thick, black, rim rounded and thicker.

. thick, nearly black.

thick, reddish.

. thick, black. Ears projecting from side of vessel. ~

thick, dark reddish.

thick, rim 8 mm. thick, reddish.

thick, very light clay. The hole is countersunk from both

sides, A first attempt was made too near the fractured edge.

h
4 9 in
ins
N Wh
x

PLATE XIIT

SHELL MOUNDS or: OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

oo.

ご ゝ

. 16.

> IG

PLATE XIV,
Note. AU figures drawn half size unless otherwise mentioned.

8 mm. thick, black, knob thick and massive.

5 mm. thick, black.

7 mm. thick, black.

7 mm. thick, red ; nicely and squarely finished on rim.

6 mm. thick, black.

7 mm. thick, black, end of knob continued up, and bent down in
making.

7 mm. thick, black, nicely finished.

One quarter natural size. 8 mm. thick, black, massive, symetrically
finished.

6 mm. thick, black, rim flat, 15 mm. in width, very smooth.

6 mm. thick, nearly black.

12 mm. thick in middle, black and smooth.

Natural size. Fine reddish clay, bottom depressed.

8 mm. thick, reddish.

Natural size. Light brick red, very roughly made. On three sides
grooved in a similar way. Evidently a handle.

Natural size. 8 mm. thick, reddish inside, black outside. This may
be a rim knob of a vessel.

Natural size. 10 mm. thick, black, inside rough. Evidently a
handle.

Light brick red, very coarse. Possibly a rim knob.

It is difficult to suggest the use of the objects represented by Figs.
10, 11, 12 and 15.

二 PAN
| ‘ JA
SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO

Vig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

ED. Cv > 9

PLATE XV.
Note. All figures on this plate ave drawn natural size.

Center 18 mm. thick, clay color with a pale reddish tinge. The
dark spot in one corner represents a hole which passes through the
tablet.

Light clay color, much worn.

Bright brick red.

Clay color, light reddish tinge.

Light brick red, very much worn,

Black outside, within clay colored. Central design repeated three
times round circumference. Hole straight. 8Y/, mm. in diameter.
Light spiral lines are seen on the walls of the hole showing that it
was made on a round stick, and the stick was twisted in the act of
withdrawing.

The tablets are made of the finest clay, They are all deeply,

wrought and this was done after the clay was dry and before
baking.

>
x
本
ビー
<
=
o

NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI

RIDA) SOWIE
Note. All figures on this plate are drawn natural size.

J. Prong of deer’s antler, much worn by use. The detached prongs
bearing evidences of much use, are common in the Deposits.

Portion of deer’s antler showing rude cutting.

Similar to Fig. 1.

中 CO WD

Handle made out of deer’s antler. The incisor tooth of a deer is
figured as the probable tool for which the handle was intended.

5. Fragment of deer’s antler cut at both ends.

6. Hook made of deer’s antler.

7 and 8. Bodkins made of deer’s antler.

9. Fragment of bone with lower edge ground down.

r. 10. Arrow point made from the canine tooth of a boar.

11. Bird’s bone with two perforations.

. 12. Cube made from metatarsal bone of deer.

. 13. Dorsal spine of fish used as a needle.

. 14. Mammalian claw, with lower surface cut away.

. 15. 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 are implements of various and unknown use,

worked from deer’s antlers.

. 21, 22, and 23. Dorsal spines of fish used as needles.

XVI

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

vr

ン

SRS

の

oo

PLATE XV1.
Note. All figures in this plate are drawn natural size.

Jasper pebble, one side clipped away.

Jasper pebble, one side clipped away.

Shistose rock, burnt.

Clay slate.

Lava rock.

Lava rock.

Talcose slate.

Lava rock.

r

The first two implements are probably hammers, as the lower ends are
fractured as if from use. Figs.3 and 4 arerollers. Figs. 5, 6 and
8 are rude adzes. Fig. 7 represents a portion only of some imple-
ment. Fig. 9 is a of a mortar.

w

SHELL MOUNDS or OMOR

NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

PLATE XVII

PLATE XYIII.
Tote. All figures on this plate are drawn natural size.

When two figures occur side by side, the left hand figure represents the ancient
form from the Omori Mounds. The right hand figure represents the recent
form from the Omori shore.

When an outline and a dotted line occur together, the dotted line represents
the ancient form. The figures marked by a cross also indicate the ancient

form.
Fig. 1. Cyclina Chinensis Chemnitz.
Fig. 2. Tapes sp.
Fig. 3. Mactra venerformis Deshay.
Fig. 4 Mya arenaria Linne.
Fig. 5. Arca inflata Reeve.
Fig. 6. Dosinia Japonica Lischke.

Fig. 7. Cytherea meretrix Linne.
Fig. 8. Natica Lamarckiana Duclos.
Fig. 9. Eburna Japorica Lischke.

PLATE XVIII

SHELL MOUNDS or OMORI NEAR TOKIO, JAPAN.

1

Ae ae
IDEEN ER

ER wan tn

OF THE

en SCIENCE‘ DEPARTMENT. |

UNIVERSITY OF TOKIO, JAPAN. oe
VOLUME TI. :

ON MINING AND MINES IN JAPAN. Ne

C. NETTO, M. E.

‘i ず
_PsorEssoR oF MINING AND METALLURGY, UNIVERSITY or Toxro, Japan.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

TOKIO, JAPAN.

F mo
。 NISSHUSHA PRINTING OFFICE. Be NINE CNTAA
> f a : Bie 6 a: 6

2539. (1879.) ELTERN KATIONALMU

3

4

La

7

En

N
aaa

1
!

MEMOIRS

OF THE

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT.

UNINZERSTERNZORTEORTO, "JAPAN.

MOLUNMETT.

UN MINING AND MINES IN JAPAN.

BAY:

GENEITTOF MER.

PROFESSOR OF MINING AND METALLURGY, UNIVERSITY OF TOKIO, JAPAN.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.
TOKIO, JAPAN.
NISSHUSHA PRINTING OFFICE.

2539. (1879.)

PREFACE.

When iu the present memoir I attempted a brief sketch of mining in Japan in
its technical, statistical and administrative aspects, I was fully aware, that much
was still wanting for a complete picture of the same. Although I have now been
for several years in the country, part of which time I have been occupied in the
technical supervision of mines and reduction-works, and although I when travell-
ing, whether on service or as private individual, have as far as possible improy-
ed the opportunity for collecting information, it is yet only a fraction of the
large number of mines of various kinds, which I have learnt to know from per-
sonal observation, while with regard to the remainder I have had to be guided
by communications from others.

In my efforts as far as lay in my power to discover and suggest the means for
advancing the mining industry in Japan, it became my duty clearly to expose
the still existing defects, and I trust, that the frankness, with which this has
been done in the sole interest of the problem to be solved, will on all sides be
appreciated in that sense.

The lecture was originally delivered in the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur-
und Völker-Kunde Ostasiens. As the transactions of the said society, on account
of the language in which they are published are here accessible to only a narrow
circle of readers, an English edition was decided upon by the Honourable Board

of Directors Mr. H. Kato and Mr. A. Hamao, of the Tokio Daigaku Sangakubu,

te whom I here publicly tender my hearty thanks for the courtesy, with which
they have met every wish of mine with regard to the execution of the work.
For the translation of the original, which, owing to the great number of technical
terms, offered especial difficulties, Jam indebted to Mr. A, Rosenstand.

My thanks are further due to Mr. W.Watanabe for his valuable assistance
in various directions.

As in Vol. I of the Memoirs, so also in this volume, is the entire mechanical
part of the pamphlet—drawings, lithographs, printing and paper 一 of Japanese
origin, and I wish to record my thanksful acknowledgement. to Mr. Yamaoka
the artist, Mr. Otta the draughtsman, to the lithographic establishment of Gen-
gen-do and to that of the Tokio Daigaku under Mr. Kobayashi and finally to
the Nisshusha Printing Office for their painstaking cooperation in their respect-
ive departments.

Tokio, December 1879.

INDEX.

Hntroduchiong eye tetels myeverecialeincisicvelctae ee ehr Ahe DO

Occurence of Minerals. cc 内 PO ale OO ”
IMethodkotwAttackr es ee Be alo Peshawar a う
Methodsof Breaking Ground... ti 5:.ss2) + avec nenn denne 3

ine 585.222OI BORIS CORTE C ROOK Ie BEER: So Dp
Eunlacege ne ad ACCS ae ce cerca OO は OOOGGO Qoo8ogooo ooc ”
EINEN N ee ce add Viele cle die e's Siecle N »
Woutnllmom, ,oge600000d000000de 6606000 COPD DC ae bp
Hiltamimation. feos sccssee sree’. nein riG3Ac1S0 の 7 ここ Sa). 5

Equipment of the Miner. 。。。 ti deat eat ae

Coal’ Mining) ==2525: 3: N N nee ie 5
Iniprovements suggested for Mining. | en „
Dressing? ......2822.22220%: SRC EIER NE, 588 7
Washing of Gold-Ores. ...:..... 26080006 80800409008 000508 の
Improvements suggested for Dressing. ........:.- ioDn0OOO0o >
Metallurgy. ...-2222: a en ONGER
Roasting...... ee. Gates Pte neice ae
Sirens 0 0 one eoee 0.60.00000000 00000000 OGK の
The Charge. oD BES HUE A SRN ee RE Leeroy GDI の
Defects in the old Smelting Process . . .. . poopoopoooooo0goo26 PD
Improvements suggested for Smelting.。 。 . 。 000. 508 ”
ASEESTEDS 2 は DIOOD OD OORT RE A 3
BSE NOW UN Gan pisrerestls aie cisiajeis « ET で ER ORTEN の
Officers and Workmen, . 。, a er ARE の

JIT Ta] PPP だ N FOBBOO

Genezalimprovemsntstsunresteil 0 og つの 82222 ロ 99329 フラ 2 2 っ こ
Model-Works..... ee: GOIGD2OODiO035.O 2ooogooooooooogoo
Formation of Private Companies...,....... aooogo oooogooc oo
Central Reduetion- Works. ...........+:0+0e OO らむ Oo GOC
10esWs90Wsa OUND 869598858853253 0046 ood cp00c000000¢
Cealosicnl SMA > 600000 200 5000500000009 §00000000009000

Hiumeration of thos» Mines which already are worked on

modern system. 0006000 poooooqag op 50000000000
Table I: Total Productions of Government and Private Mines. .
able IL: Comparison of average outturn and outturn in 187/;5. .

Table III: Comparison between production of Government and

Private Mines..... SMa am OEE ee AEs Xe an
Production of Iron...........+ er ER
Table IV : Import of Iron and Steel. ..... ooog 0000 ER : 3
Production and Export of Coal. lg eee, も OS
Table V: Coil- xp ort and- Import. .. arse A be, a ER,
Juxtaposition of the M.ne: val Production of Japan ih that of

other countries. SCO DOOELODC2OCOOICCOOEE フ っ
Table VI: Export of Mining Produets. ash é : elle
otal Export of Copper. a aa 50000000000 090000000000008
Export of Bullion. ........+6.. ae NN A orients RR

Table VIL: Export and ee of Bullion. re Ri ee

Total value of exported and i imported goods. Sds06000¢ 5000000

Comparison of the Produstioa an1 the Export of Billion. .. っ o

Probable future Mineral Production. HO 0000 0060000000000 -

Explanation of the Plates. 0.0.99 00.000 0000 000000000000 00000

ON
MINING AND MINES IN JAPAN,

BY

C. NETTO.

When Japan was thrown open for intercourse with the outer world, the belief
was general, that the mineral treasures of the country would in a prominent
degree become the subject of commercial enterprise. In the first place, the
reports of Marco Poro and Karm»rer spoke of the country’s inexhaustible
wealth in gold ; then the large quantities of bullion (estimated at 500 millions
of dollars), which the Portuguese and the Dutchmen, notwithstanding that their
intercourse with the natives had always remained of a limited nature, had been
able to export in the course of little more than a century (1550-1671), were
proof, that a considerable quantity at all events had existed. Add to this, that
originally the rate of exchange between the two precious metals was to the
European mind an abnormous one, as gold was only six times as much worth
as silver. People were only too apt to attribute this fact to a superfluity of
gold, instead of ascribing it to the at all events truer cause, a relative scarcity
of silver.

Also with regard to copper, the public were, immediately after the opening
of the country, enticed into an over-estimate of the power of production, as they
judged the same by the exports; but the latter included a large portion of
metal, that had already been manufactured, which the Japanese threw on the
marcket in the shape of old gate-mountings, temple-ornaments, idols &e., either
directly or after having re-melted them. Nor was it surprising, if the foreigners
relished the hope, that they here, as in other countries, which had been suddenly
opened to their invasion, might be able to discover hitherto unknown deposits,
and by the application of rational methods raise the production to its utmost
capacity. If to this we add the mystic nimbus, which surrounded the country,

(as)

and which made everything appear in the most favorable lights, then there is
nothing strange in a notion of Japan’s mineral treasures having at that time
prevailed, which was far from corresponding with the actual facts.

In the course of the succeeding years, the truth had, although reluctantly, to
be admitted, that the expectation in Japan to have found a second Eldorado,
was without any actual foundation. ‘Those happy. times have unfortunately
gone by, when a large amouut of gold could be obtained with a comparatively
small amount of labor, through the working of placers that is, spots where nature
through thousands of years has worked for man by disintegration of-rocks, by
floating away a portion of the worthless, and by leaving behind a sediment, that
had become enriched by natural washings; the few still remaining alluvia are
so poor, that it does not pay to work them. In the same manner as the miners
in the far more important goldfields of California, Australia &e., were very soon
compelled to leave off mere washing of the alluvium and to commence real mining,
so they have also here already long ago had to hunt for the gold in its original
hiding places, the veins. And even in these, it mostly occurs in only small
quantities, and the extent and volume of the veins themselves are so inconsider-
able, that in many cases even the most improved working system gives no promise
of a favorable pecuniary result. I hereby by no means intend to deny the
existence of gold-mines, which either already now are worked with profit, or at
all events, if properly worked, might yield a surplus; I merely intend to lay
stress on the fact, that the gold-mining is not of such a nature as to justify ex-
traordinary hopes for the future. In the same manner as the gold-production,
which in 1877 amounted to only about 11,000 English ounces, so the produe-
tion of silver, which in the same year aggregated about 350,000 ounces, must
also be pronounced low.

Further disappointments followed with regard to copper, the export of which
quickly fell off as soon as the old stock had been exhausted. (‘The quantity of
copper annually exported—manufactured, in ore and in slabs—,which in the years
1868-72 had risen from a value of about $33,000 to 1,330,000, fell from then
down to ¢236,000 in 1875, and has only since that time again gradually risen,
so that it in 1878 amounted to about ¢750,000.) It moreover became evident,
that the Japanese had much more throughly, than had been anticipated, search-
ed the soil for-mineral treasures: in many districts the mountains were literal-~
Jy honeyeombed with old explorations and workings. A further proof of the
zeal, with which the natives had carried on mining, was afforded by the exis-
tence of a rather comprehensive mining literature, and by the care, with which
reports on mines have been drawn up and preserved.

Formerly the hopes had been too sanguine ; now, as the same were not rea-
lized, there was a reaction in the opposite direction and a bias to entertain most

pessimistic views in respect to the future of mining in Japan. These views
could not but gain strength from the circumstance, that the mines, which the
government had commenced to work by modern methods, did not yield such
surplus as had been anticipated. The principal reason thereof is this, that it is
only in later years, that the government has become possessed of really good
mines, and that it formerly, if it at all wanted to set private industry a good
example, and to create something new, had to devote its attention to mines of
inferior importance.

If the development of private mining and metallurgical industry has not kept
pace with other industries of similar moment, several circumstances are the cause
of this. In the first place, even the best mine will always require a consider-
able outlay of capital, if it is to be organized on modern system. ‘That capital
either did not exist, because the mines mostly belong to single individuals,
and association into companies is only in its infaney, while foreign capital is by
law strictly excluded from the mines or where it perhaps might have been raised,
capitalists were afraid of the risk, the more so as the not very brilliant results
obtained by the government were not of a nature to encourage imitation. It
was therefore prefered to go on in the old fashion, which although defective re-
quires only a small ontlay of capital, and to be content with a small profit.

Another reason is this: mining and reduction works, if they are to have any
prospect of success, require much more than any other technical establish-
ment to be adopted to local circumstances. An engine—, gas—, cloth—, paper
—, soda-factory, a silk-reeling establishment &e. in the South of Japan is
not necessarily in any essential part different from a similar establishment in
the North, while the arrangements for instance of two establishments for the
reduction of silver-ores present a quite different aspect according to local
circumstances, and thus we see here, how in six different mines: Ikuno, Sado,
Kosaka, Innai, Mandokora, Ani the silver is extracted from the ore in quite
different ways. Thorough innovations are therefore much easier adopted in any
other technical establishment than in mining. And nevertheless, it is under
present circumstances of the greatest importance that this be done, that is,
that a rational working system be extended also to private establishments, other-
wise the entire mining industry in this country must gradually decline. Tor-
merly, when the country was closed to the outer world, the internal mining in-
dustry governed, so to speak, the metal market, that is, the price of metal
depended—letting alone other circumstances, which are still unaltered—on the
cost of production ; now the price is influenced from abroad, and it is evident,
that with the constant rise in wages here and in the price of charcoal, a point
must be reached, where only the richer mines will be able to compete with
the foreign mines, which are worked in a rational manner, while the poorer

4

ones must succumb, unless a remedy be applied betimes. Already now several
mines, belonging to the last named category, how had to be abandoned, and
if the total produce from the mines of the country has not decreased, but has on
the contrary increased, this is solely due to the larger production from those few
mines, which are either entirely or partially worked on modern system.

Although, as we have just seen, the prospect is only small, that Japan will
ever realize the former dreams in regard to its production of precious metals ;
although the experience hitherto made leads to the belief, that the produce of
lead, tin, cobalt, quicksilver, petroleum never will reach any considerable figure;
although the developement on a large seale of the iron-industry, according to
the latest researches, must be considered problematic,—there can be no doubt,
that copper-mining within certain limits, but especially coal-mining, is pregnant
with a great future. While the increase in the copper-produce depends princi-
pally upon the development of the already existing mines, partly in working
order partly flooded with water, and while the prospect of discovering virgin
lodes is only small, a rich field offers itself for coat-mining in the opening of
existing and already discovered seams, particularly those in Yesso, which are
now actually taken in hand by the government. It may also be assumed with
certainty, that a general geological survey of Nipon will reveal formations, from
which the presence of coal-beds may be inferred, whose actual existence then
has to be proved by trial-borings.

Mr. B. 8. Lyman, formerly chief-geologist under the Kaitakushi, in his
geological report on Yesso* estimates the quantity of the there existing accessi-
ble coal at about 150,000 million tons, an amount, which would enable the said
island during 1000 years to furnish the coal-supply at present derived from
great Britain. Although the time is still far off, that such quantities of coal,
when supplied, could find use here, and although the average quality of the
Yesso coals may be inferior to that of the English, there can from the above said
be no question, that coal mining here has a great future.

I must for a future lecture reserve the the detailed treatment of the several
here occurring minerals, and of the mines in general, as well as of those
mines, which are at present worked on modern system, in special, and my
intention to-day is merely to consider in a general way the ancient, national
methods of mining, dressing and metallurgical operations, and to suggest means
of improvement. I shall here observe, that Mr. H. Munrog, in his excellent
article : “the Mineral wealth of Japan,” has treated the same subject, although
only briefly, and that several repetitions therefore become unavoidable. After
the description of the traditional working methods, I shall add some statistical
notes and conclusions drawn therefrom.

* A general Report on the Geology of Yesso hy Benjamin Smith Lyman Tokei 1877.

OCCURRENCE.

The useful minerals, which are the object of mining or superficial winning,
ranked very nearly according to their importance, are as follows :

Coal, copper, silver, gold, iron, kaolin, petroleum, sulphur, lead, antimony,
tin, cobalt, quicksilver, marble, jasper, agate, amber, graphite.

Iron consequently at present occupies a rather secondary place. The produe-
tion of ore of antimony and of crude antimony is increasing ; lead, tin, copper,
quicksilver, petroleum are not produced in sufficient quantities to supply the
demand; nickel, zine, arsenic have not yet been found in sufficient quantities
to be of any practical value. Consequently were in 1878 imported:

Tron and steel in various shapes about., 。。 36,000,000 catties *

Lead in pigs, sheets and tubes, about... .. 520,000 ,,
@haicksiliventeeray ee eee gs 79,000 ,,
NTR atch Sete ate a An Se DION) 55
SmaltatorMbOuteeie lel sel Use) ast ate 30,000 rios.
INickelowareas men atten ac. ate ete 25,000 catties.
Tinned iron-plates N BB ae 9,031 boxes.

FRONT, Rab) ara Re ER re aise a ane 1,000,000 catties.
Coal So. oo OOUBQSWQGRIISGNDSGIIS コ IO SEHEN
IBetroleurn a aba sec ent tele 3,422,400 gallons.
In the same year were exported :
(CgML Doe oo ga oc da ca ca bo ) IGOOOOOO0 Gansics.
Copper, in various shapes .. .. ・。 ・。 3,000,000 ,,
Copper Oro ee ae 900,000 „
SPN oS oo 80° oa OO on OO Oo 1,500,000 ,,
Sulplamig aed) SA Sa 00.00 on 0A 1,400,000 ,,

Besides at all events also a certain quantity of ore of antimony, the figure of

- which I, however, am unable to give. As tothe form, under which the minerals

won by mining occur, magnetic iron-ore, ore of antimony, sometimes also

silver-ore are found in layers, the greater portion of the iron here produced is

the result from the working of alluvial sands of magnetic iron. Gold and
silver-ores, copper mostly only as copper-pyrites, lead as galena occur in lodes.

* 1 Catty=1% Ib. English avoirdupois.—1£=about 5 rios.

METHOD OF ATTACK.

If we leave out of sight those mines, which are worked by the Government
on modern system, and the eoal-mine in Takashima, then we find, that the
deposits are exclusively attacked by adits, as the machinery, requisite for the
sinking and working of deep shafts was formerly entirely unknown. In order
to prepare the working of a vein either an adit was driven along ifs strike, or
where the vein was sufficiently known and the locality favorable, the connection
with the surface was effected by a cross-cut. As soon as all the ore above this
horizon had been extracted, then a second adit had to be driven lower down and
soon. The extent of these adits is sometimes quite considerable—until about
10,000 feet—and we can imagine that such a work, carried on without the aid of
blasting powder, must have demanded, not only a large expenditure, but also
an enormous length of time. We are therefore in the abandoned mines still
able to estimate the richness of the ore deposit worked by the length of the
adits; the greater the obstacles, which were overcome in order to get at the
ore, the richer the latter must have been. Of course other agencies, which can
now no longer be ascertained, may have had some influence, for instance: cheap
wages, compulsory labor, comparatively high value of the metals extracted
ete. When finally a point had been reached, where a still lower adit,
either on account of the configuration of the soil, or on account of the expense,
did not appear practicable, then the working was continued below the water-
adit as far down as circumstances would permit, and for hoisting the produced
ores as well as the water up to the level of the adit no other motor was employed
than the human hand or foot. |

The depth, which was reached below the level of the adit, depended of course,
on the one hand on the volume of water to be met with, on the other hand on
the quantity and quality of the extracted ore. Even under the most favorable
cireumstances, a time must come at last, when the outturn no longer covered
the expenditure on winning, haulage and drainage, that is, wheu in the then
state of mining science it became necessary to abandon the mine. I myself
know several mines, which have been abandoned evidently for no other reason,
and I am convinced, that a still larger number are only waiting for the moment,
when modern engineering shall have aroused them from their centenary sleep,
again to yield a good profit. Under favorable circumstances, depths have cer-
tainly been reached, which, considering the absence of all aid from machinery,
must be declared considerable; the Innai silver-mine is for instance yet worked
fully 700 feet, the Beishi copper-mive about 800 feet below the level of the

adit, and the water is lifted to this height solely by hand-pumps, which shall
be described later.

Neither for connecting the several horizons with each other, nor for establish-
ing communication between the subterranean works and the surface, are shalts
used; it is preferred to make slopes, whieh are often very tortuous.

METHODS OF BREAKING GROUND.

The instruments here employed were until scarcely 20 years ago, when Mr.
Pumpelli first used gunpowder for blasting purposes, confined to the pick, steel-
gad and crow-bar. In working with such insufficient implements, it would of
course be an object to reduce the dimensions of the galleries to a minimum, and
as moreover joints and fissures in the rock were chosen preferentially on account
of the ground there being less hard, the result has been that the adits and gal-
leries are mostly very narrow and tortuous ill adapted both for a good ventila-
tion and extensive haulage and for the passage of Europeans.

Although gunpowder has got into general use during the later decades, the
limited width of the galleries imposes the necessity of drilling only small holes,
or the big fragments of rock, by repeated blasting would have to be prepared
for haulage. The holes drilled single-handed are about 17 in diameter and
seldom more than 14!’ English in length. The tamping is generally done with
needle, a bamboo-tube, filled with gunpowder, is used as “squib” and cotton or
paper, dipped in oil, as “ smift.” Fuzes, both of European and of native make,
are however also frequently used.

Fire-setting was also formerly known, although not used to any great extent,
and only as preparation for working with the pick and the gad.

PRODUCTIVE WORK.

The productive work in veins has, I believe, always been done by a more or
less modified stoping overhand. For the working of beds and irregular deposits
a kind of pillar-work, stock-work and piling have also been used.

PAYING FOR THE ORE.

The manner, in which the labor of winning the ores is paid for is that the
manager of the mine buys the extracted ores from contractors or middle
men, and pays for them according to weight and contents in metal. Each of
these middlemen has a number of workmen under him. ‘The contents and
solidity of the ores, as well as other conditions of winning and haulage, vary

of course at the different points of the mine, and in order therefore to do every-
body justice the pairs of workmen are constantly changed from one pitch to
another. The manager of the mine has mostly only a very limited authority
over the middlemen, who arrange among themselves about the shifts of work-
men and the choice of pitches. This baneful system results of necessity in an
ugly robbing, as it is in the interest of the contractors to extract only the best
and riehest ores, and to leave the poorer and harder ones behind. The pay-
ment for the ores includes usually the haulage underground, and often also
the transportation to the reduction works and the dressing. Nay sometimes,—
and especially is this the case with silver and gold-ores—it is only the metal pro-
duced that is paid for, and the winning and reduction of the ores are conse-
quently left entirely in the hands of the contractors. The low payment for the
metal produced often indirectly compels the contractors to work only the richer
ores.

The keeping the mine in condition, the drainage, the dead work are to the
charge of the administration of the mine, and generally contracted for by the
day. The rate of daily wages varies between 8 and 25 sen a day (100 sen=1 rio
=] yeu =about 4 shillings).

TIMBERING.

Timbering in the levels is, on account of the small dimensions of the latter,
mostly unnessary ; where requisite, sets are used, consisting of a cap, supported
by two vertical legs, which are channelled on top. The legs are kept asunder
by a stay, placed close to the top, and where the rock is soft, rest on a cross-sill.
The lowness of the galleries does not admit of a walking plank above the
water-ditch. The timbering in the slopes is the same as in the levels. There
are no ladders, steps cut into the rock or indented trunks of trees serve as sub-
stitutes. Ceder, pine and fir are used, or, where these are not to be had, leaf-
trees.

Masonry is scarcely used at all.

HAULAGE.

The haulage is done by children with the aid of baskets or bags slung on
their back; it is seldom done by men or women. Tn this way all the ores are
carried from the pitch to the surface, without relays, up and down steps, on
underground roads, often a mile and more in length. The narrow passages,
which would not allow a full-grown man to pass with a load equal to his

Ne)

strength, necessitate the employment of children with a load of 3-6 quamme
(about 25-50 lbs).

The use of any machinery whatsoever as ail, the windlass for instance or the
whim is only an acquisition of modern times.

DRAINAGE.

As to the drainage, it has already been remarked, that its miserable condi-
tion very much aggravates the difficulty of working the mines, and has often
been the cause of their abandonment. © =

Almost the only instrument for lifting the water to the water-adit, is a hand-
pump. It consists in a prismatic, wooden box, open at top and at bottom, about
3,5™ long and about 12 centimeters square wide inside. ‘The lower part of the
box is furnished with a clack-valve, that opens upwards. In this box a valve-
piston of corresponding size, with leather packing, moves up and down by aid
of a piston rod, worked directly with the hand.

As for the haulage, so also for the pumps, vertical pits are avoided, and slopes
are used, in which one pump is placed under the other in such a manner, that
the one below discharges itself into the suction-tank of the one above. The
vertical lift of each pump is between + and 7 feet, the piston-stroke about 3
feet, the quantity of water lifted per stroke about 5 sho.

The “pumpers” are paid either in daily wages, or at the rate of the avarage
number of strokes; in the above mentioned Beishi copper-mine for instance,
where 130 pumps are kept going to lift the water 222”, a laborer was paid 4.9
sen for every 1000 strokes.

We will now with the aid of these figures compare the cost of this method
with that of a good modern pumping-engine: 1 sho is about €5 cub.” Jap.; 1
gallon about 163 cub.” Jap. 1 pump-stroke =5 sho =325 cub.” =about 2 gallons.
1,000 pump-strokes therefore deliver about 2,000 gallons. 1,000 strokes with
130 pumps, which lift the water 222 meters =about 732 English feet, cost 130 x

637
2,000 X 732
=0.000436 sen, or as 1 gallon water=10 lbs. Engl., 1 footpound costs
0.0000436 sen.

Now, a good Cornish pumping engine lifts, with 1 hundred weight of coals
burned under the boiler, about 100,000,000 footpounds, that is: it lifts a hun-
dred million pounds of water one foot high. Putting the price of a ton coals at
yen 6, 1 ewt. would cost 30 sen. To lift the above quantity of 100,000,000 Ibs.
of water one foot costs then in coals 30 sen, and the cost per 1 footpound would
amount to 0.000,000,03 sen. .

4.9 sen =637 sen. ‘To lift 1 gallon 1 foot costs consequently in wages

10

To lift 100,00C,000 lbs. of water by the Japanese method would cost in wages
0.0000 436 sen x 100,000,000 = yen 43.6, that is 145 times as much as the above
engine.

In the larger mines in Europe and Amer‘e., it is not an uncommon thing to
lift 1,000 gallons per minute.

Suppose that this quantity was to be lifted 1,000 feet, then the cost by the
Japanese method would amount to:

0.0000 436 x 1000 x 1000 x10
100
ee Gly oo oo 。 oo 6000 ‘00 =6,278.40 ,, ;
penyear .. .. ; 0 =2,291,616.00 ,, 5
While the cost in using the aes engine would be:
0.0000000 3x 1000 x 1000 x 10
100

mer day co 00 oo 86 00 oo oo en

per minute =4.36 yen;

per minute =0.03 yen;

joer ae as 65 Go 6 56 50) SAGEM) 5 8

Tt is needless to remark, that to ae cost must be added interest and amor-
tisation for the engine and for the shaft-sinking, as well as expenses to attendants
and repairs; the example suffices to prove, that with the Japanese method
it is quite impossible to work on a large scale, and this, if for no other reason,
because it is scarcely feasible to procure the space required for such an enor-
mous number of pumps.

Supposing a pump, working day and night, to make on an average 10 strokes
per minute; then will during that time 10 x 2=20 gallons of water be lifted 5.2
feet high. To lift 1,000 gallons to the same height, would consequently require
1,000

20

If each pump with its attendant requires a space of 9 square feet, then the

= 50 Japanese pumps.

pump-slope alone must have an area of 50%9=450 square feet, and to lift the
water 1,0U0 feet would require 1 =
shifts 26,310 laborers.

Instead of the pumps as described above, an arrangement is used in some

x50 =8,770 pumps, and with 8 hours’

places, where the water has only to be lifted to an inconsiderable height, con-
sisting in a bucket, hanging at a straw-rope, which is carried over a roll and is
raised by coolies, who harness themselves to the rope.

VENTILATION.

に コ

No machinery whatsoever is employed for ventilation ; by brattiees, however,
it is sought to regulate the direction of the air-current. The upper adit in a

IL

mine, which serves as chimney, is called the “Kemuridashi,” while thelowest
adit, which relieves the mine from water, is the “ Midzunuki.”’

ILLUMINATION,

For illuminating purposes vegetable oil is burned in lamps made from shells,
or well dried bamboo- sticks, about 1°™-in diameter, which before being used
have been bruised by pounding with a hammer ; these require a constant atten-
dance to prevent them from going out. Their use has a considerable effect in
fouling the air at the working places, where they are stuck to the rock with clay.

EQUIPMENT.

The further equipment of a miner consists in a breech-leather of plaited straw,
“Shirishiki,” which is carried at a baldric like a sabretasche.

It not only serves to protect that part of the body, from which it derives the
first half of its technical name in German as well as Japanese Miner’s language,
_ but also as a mark of rank, in as much as the laborers are only permitted to
wear it of quadrangular shape, while an officer may indulge in the luxury of a
round one.

In those mines where protection against cold is not required, the miner’s
only other pieces of dress are a handkerchief around the head or sometimes a.
cap of plaited paper strings to guard against dust, and a pair of straw-sandals,
“Ashinaka,” which are cut in halves and only reach from the toes to the middle
of the foot-sole. This kind of sandals are said to give a surer footing than the
ordinary ones; it is also said to be unpleasant to pass through wet plates with
full-length sandals, whose flapping soles send the water against the wearer’s
legs.

COAL-MINING.

It is only since the opening of the country, that the eoal-beds are worked to
any extent. Formerly coals were only extraeted for the use of such salt-pans
for the evaporation of sea-water as happened to be situated in the visinity of
the beds, and then only where the seam cropped out, and the winning consequent-
ly presented uo difficulty.

IMPROVEMENTS.

。 Although those improvements, which from a technieal point of view might be
recommended for adoption in the mining industry, are easily inferred from the
preceding description of the present condition of affairs, I shall here Bey
mention them.

12

Where a mine, which already is being worked, is to be reformed, the first‘
care should in most cases be to widen and regulate the passages, in order to’
obtain a more rational and effective transport than the present one, and to pre-
pare the way for the use in the-working places themselves of larger drill-holes
and more powerful explosives.

Tn eases, where a thorough execution of this measure appears impracticable,
because it requires either too heavy an outlay or too much time, for the begin-
ning main-galleries might at all events be created, to which the ores could be
taken from the pitches in the old fashion. These main-galleries should, if pos-
sible, be furnished with tramways, or at least with runners for Hungarian carts.
or wheelbarrows.

Where large quantities have to be lifted to considerable heights, mechanical
aids such as windlasses or winding machines, driven by horse—, water—, or even-
tually steam-power, should be employed.

In all those mines, where work is carried on below the water-adit, a wide
field is open for improvements in the drainage.

In many instances the conditions for affording a remedy, without any dis-
proportionate outlay, are already in existence.

It is at the more important mines nearly always the case, that there between-
the upper-workings and the water-adit is a fall of several hundred feet, and also
a considerable quantity of water, which at present flows into the sump, without
doing any work whatsoever; if this water were collected in a proper manner,
and condueted over the water-adit, it might easily be made to serve for driving
a water-pressure engine or a turbine, in some instances perhaps also a water-
wheel. Under favorable circumstances these motors might do service not only:
for the drainage; but also for the hoisting.

Tn such places, where there is not sufficient water-power, steam-engines might.
be erected in the interior of the mine, to drive suction—or foree—pumps, and in
many instances the old workings above the adit might by a proper arrangement
be used as chimney for the subterranean boiler. By either of these, compara-
tively inexpensive, methods or by others based upon the application of comp-
ressed air many-a mine, that is now abandoned because of the water, could as--
suredly again be made profitable.

Tn extensive mines, where large masses of water have to be lifted, it would;
however, be necessary, for central hoisting and drainage, to establish regular
shafts supplied with proper machinery.

Good ventilation might: be procured, on the one hand in the usual way, by a
proper regulation of the natural air-current, and—where requisite—by ventilators,
by larger dimensions of the passages &e.; on the other hand by using for illu~
minating purposes a material, that fouls the air less than burning bamboo.

A further drawback, which is irreconcilable with a rational working of the
mines, lies in leaving the productive work to coutractors. As shown above, it
is in the interest of these people to extract the more easily procured or richer
ores, but to leave behind the harder or poorer ones, although these by a proper
treatment might still yield a profit. After the stoppings have proceeded on their
onward march, these ores become mostly irrevocably lost forthe mine. A
thorough change could not be effected, unless the administration hired the work
out to the workmen direct, and itself kept a strict control over the latter, while
it sent the contractors about their business. I certainly know from personal
experience, that this is not so easily effected, nor can it be done by a stroke of
the wand; but if the system were once declared doomed, it might be possible
gradually to get out of the old ways and into new ones.

It is scarcely necessary to mention, that in certain instances, especially where
levels of considerable extent are to be driven, or deep shafts to be sunk, or
where the thickness of the ore-deposit is considerable, machine-rock-drills aud
generally dynamite would be used with advantage instead of gunpowder.

Besides, masonry might in many instances be advantageously substituted

for timbering, as clay for brick-making is nearly everywhere to be had.
DRESSING.

The dressing is almost exclusively done by women and children, and without
the aid of machinery. The output is in the first place subjected to haud-picking ;
those pieces, which are already sufficient rich for metallurgical treatment, are
put aside, and the remainder—either with an ordinary hammer or with a tilt-
hammer, similar to that used for shelling rice, and like that put in motion with
the foot—pounded to a grit of a maximum size of 5™" This granulated ore is
then put into shallow willow—or bamboo—baskets, (“ Dsaruage’’), where it is
subjected to a kind of jigging operation. With this object the laborer fills the
basket with about dlbs. of stuff, seizes it with both hands, one opposite the other,
and gives it in a basin, filled with water, alternately a shaking and a rotatory
movement. When after the lapse of a few minutes, the coarse sands have nearly
grouped themselves according to their specific weight, then the upper layer of
refuse is withdrawn, the next one is put aside for a second similar treatment,
while the nethermost generally yields good ore; if not, it has to be treated
anew in the same manner. During this operation, the finer particles of the ore
have escaped through the meshes of the basket and been caught in the basin.
When these sands have accumulated in sufficient quantity, they are repeatedly
passed through an oblong buddle, and the residue is further concentrated by
being placed once or more on a slightly concave board (“ yuri ita”), which is

14

desterously impelled at times rotatory, at times in such a manner, that the
motion becomes a combination of that of the shaking-table with that of the
jigger. From the above described process, which is principally applied to cop-
per, lead, silver, eventually also to iron-ores and ores of antimony, the treat-
ment of gold-ores somewhat differs.

=

WASHING OF GOLD-ORES.

These are in the first place pounded in the usual way, and then ground on
hand-mills with the aid of water. The pulp, that flows out from the mill, is
carried over inclined scarred boards into launders. In the furrows of the boards
(“Neko ” 7. e. literally : cat), which correspond with the Californians’ blankets
and the ox-hides of the South-Americans, the heavier particles of the washings
remain as sediment. ‘They are removed by washing or knocking. The con-
centrations, thus procured, are then further concentrated either on the above
mentioned flat boards, or in laquered dishes, similar to the soup-bowls of the
Japanese table-service—, until finally gold-sand is obtained. This is then
melted with borax in clay-crucibles, and by the worker handed to the adminis-
tration of the mine against a certain remuneration—usually yen 2 per momme
(1 momme=8,75 grammes). The sands and slimes from the launders are
occasionally again returned to the mills, and repeatedly subjected to a similar
process. Nay, when ore is scarce, the tailings, which have been accumulated
through centuries, are again worked over. As this renewed manipulation re-
quires no mining expenses, it follows that it needs only a small percentage of
gold to make the operation yield a profit, although it be a rather modest one ;—
the limit is about */; ounce = $7 '/, per ton.

The winning and washing of gold-ores is very often carried on by each indi-
vidual miner’s family separately ; then the men procure the ore, the children do
the transport from the pitches to the mills, the women and girls the pounding
and washing of the ores. Under this arrangement, it is necessary, that each
family is possessor of its own mills and launders.

IMPROVEMENT IN DRESSING.

The result of the dressing, however primitive the latter, can, generally speak-
ing, not be pronounced bad; nay, the product is perhaps often purer than
can be obtained by the aid of machinery, and the skill of the gold-washers
is so great, that the worth of only $1= 1/ 20 ounce per ton, although of course
it cannot be profitably extracted, can be detected even in pyritic ores.

But it requires no further demonstration, that the dressing —from first to last

15

done with the human hand alone, without any machinery at all as motors—
must be a very expensive one. Water power is almost everywhere obtainable—
even when not always in the immediate vicinity of the mine—and the creation
of dressing establishments on modern system offers therefore in most cases no
great difficulties.

Complicated engines cost dear, both to buy and to work—in the hands of
people who don’t know how to attend to them properly—, and the transport of
the larger pieces is often a matter of considerable difficulty : it would therefore
suit the smaller establishments to employ some plain mechanisms, that could
easily be made in the country itself, such as water-wheels, wooden stamping
mills, pointed boxes or “ spitzlutten,” Rittiuger’s percussion-tables, hydraulic
Jiggers Cc.

In working gold ores in larger guantities, amalgamation would mostly be
the best method.

There exist, however, a number of poor gold-mines, which could not afford
such an establishment on account of the heavy outlay for machinery and the
high price of quicksilver, while they, at the present rate of wages, are able
to yield a profit by the washing of the ores. ‘These are especially those mines,
which are worked by farmers at times, when they are not occupied with field-
labor. There it would best serve the purpose to continue the customary method
of washing, and to have the disintegration, that is, the pounding and grinding of
the ores done by simple mechanisms.

METALLURGY.

As to the metallurgic treatment of the ores, the old processes are exclusively
based on smelting; wet methods of extraction, amalgamation &c. are only
acquisitions of modern times.

Gold—when not got by washing—is like silver extracted by liquation, lead
either by roasting with subsequent reducing smelting, or by a combination of the
same with precipitating smelting, copper by a repeated roasting and reducing
smelting.

ROASTNG.

The roasting is almost everywhere done in a kind of rude kilns (“ Yakigama’’),
built with quarry-stones and clay in a circular shape, about 4-6’ in diameter,
and about 4’ in height, on one side furnished with air-holes. Instead of circu-
lar, rectangular kilus are also often used, 5-6’ wide and until 80' long. Calei-
nation in heaps is seldom used. The ore-lumps are without further preparation
thrown into the kiln on a bedding of fuel, while the slicks, by the aid of brush-

16

wood mixed with the charge, are kept as loosely as possible in the furnace. The
time of roasting, during which the furnace is in the main left to itself, lasts
from 20 till 80 days. After the roast has cooled down, what has been badly
roasted is put aside for a second calcination, while the well roasted masses,
whether silver—, copper—, iron—, or lead—ores, are smelted all in the same
universal furnace (““ Fukidoko ”’).

SMELTING.

The furnace consists in a hollow made in the ground, covered with brasque,
of nearly hemispherical form, with a diameter of 11/,!—"/,', which receives the
requisite blast from ordinary smith’s-bellows (“ Fuigo ”) through 1 or 2 nozzles
of elay. These bellows are hand-box-bellows, the valves packed with badger’s
skin ; the piston-rod is moved backward and forward by a coolie, who draws it
out with the hand and pushes it back with the foot. Usually two such bellows
are used at each furnace. ‘The bellows furnish about 4 cub.’ air per piston stroke
=about 120 eub.' air per minute, of atmospheric pressure.

The tuyeres open into the furnace in the upper border of the same, and in
order to prevent the direct ascent of the blast, but on the contrary spread
the latter over the entire space of the furnace, a vaulted roof of clay extends
above the orifices of the tuyeres as far as half-way into the furnace. The fur-
nace is separated from the bellows by a back-wall; the products of combustion
escape through a chimney, built of frame-work and covered with loam, which is
supported partly by the back-wall, partly by pillars, and commences about 7’
above the bottom of the kiln.

To blow in the furnace, the latter is filled with dark charcoals; fire is lit
only before the tuyeres, and the bellows are put gently in motion. Gradually
the fire is increased, charcoals and charge are thrown in a heap over the fur-
nace, and thus the charge is reduced to a state of fusion. When the furnace is fill-
ed with molten masses nearly to the tuyeres, then the blast is stopped, the heap
consisting of red-hot charge and burning charcoals is pushed aside, the fire is
slackened with water, the liquid slags are withdrawn from the molten bath,
and the smelting is continued in the above manner, until at last the whole fur-
nace is filled with liquid metal respectively matt, whereupon the contents are
either laddled out, or lifted off in discs, or, although rarely, tapped. The red-
hot furnace is then repaired with some clay, and a similar smelting repeated.
When also this, and may be yet a third one, has been done, then the furnace
has become so much impaired, that it is unfit for further work ; it is then cooled
with water, repaired with brasque, and warmed over the night, in order to be
ready for use the following day.

17

In such a furnace not more than 400 一 500 guamme= 3,330 to 4,160 Ibs. Eng-
lish can be smelted in a day, and the larger establishments have therefore often
a number of 30 or more furnaces in operation. The fuel consumed is about 30
to 70 °/, of the weight of the ore.

As already observed, this kind of furnace serves with certain modifications for
nearly all sorts of smelting; only for the production of pig-iron a kind of rachette-
furnace on a small scale, with several tuyeres placed opposite to each other, is
used here and there.

To refine copper, crucibles of clay are employed ; for cupelling, tests.

THE CHARGE.

In preparing the charge, the object is to procure a tough—mostly highly
silicated-slag, which can be easily removed in skins from the bath ; it is thereby
nct to be avoided that the same, in consequence of its consistency, contains many
mechanically enclosed particles of metal and regulus. The charge is either
added at the same process or pounded and washed, or smelted separately, as
long as a profitable result is still obtainable.

The fuel is everywhere charcoal, mostly hard one.

There is no control whatsoever with the smelting through current assays,
and through smelting-books only a very insufficient one. Under these eireum-
stances great loss of metal is of course unavoidable : scoriae for instance, which
by repeated smelting yield no regulus, are thrown away, although they often
contain a still considerable quantity of useful metals,—for instance lead, copper
&e.—as silicate.

As the same construction of furnace serves for smelting the most heteroge-
neous metals, so the smelting process itself offers only insignificant variations.
It would appear, that the same process and the construction of furnace, as
were also customary elsewhere in Asia, for instance in India, were here original-
ly used for copper-ore, and afterwards applied also to other metais.

DEFECTS IN THE OLD SMELTING PROCESS.

That the adoption of the same construction of furnace and of the same process
in the treatment of all metals, must have its disadvantages, and these of a
grave nature, is selfevident. The construction of the smelting furnaces is
generally open to the following objections :

1. It causes an enormous consumption of fuel, first, because the heat from the
ehareoals, which are burning so to speak in an open heap, is not at all kept
together ; secondly, because the furnace requires every day to be warmed anew,
and thirdly because, while the smelting is going on, the already red-hot charge

18

has to be repeatedly slackened with water, in order to enable the workmen to
remove the scoriae from the metal-bath.

2. It causes a considerable loss of metal through volatilisation, as the metals,
when once reduced to gaseous state have no opportunity for condensation in the
upper parts of the kiln.

3. The attendance, both to the bellows and to the smelting itself, requires a
vast amount of labor, at the same time as it admits of only a limited production.

4. The attendance on the furnace is extremely trying on account of the in-
tense heat.

On the other hand it cannot be denied, that the furnace is extremely simple
in its construction, is easily and quickly built and requires only a small outlay.

The fuel used for the calcinations is exclusively wood, for smelting charenal.
As the disafforestation in the neighborhood of the mines has generally been
ruthlessly pursued, the fuel has now to be transported from afar, and is conse-
quently dear (10 guamme cost yen 0.15—0:36 =about yen 7.05—9.72 per Eng-
lish ton). The dealers often deliver the coals in wet condition, to make them

-weigh the more.

IMPROVEMENTS.

From the above observations it is sufficiently apparent, what improvements
ought to be introduced into metallurgic technics.

1. Selection of fitting process for the treatment of the various ores.

2. Use of proper furnaces for roasting and smelting.

Even if the kilns hitherto used are fit for the roasting of ores in lumps, their
nse for slicks must always be very disadvantageous, as they only in an insufti-
cient degree offer opportunity for oxidation. In larger smelting works it would
of course also become a matter of consideration, whether the roasting gases
might not be utilized for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

At blast-furnaces machinery, which in many cases could be driven by water,
would of course have to be substituted for hand-bellows. A comparison between
the cost of the present supply of blast and that of a supply, procured by good
machinery, would give a result similar to that subtained in the above quoted
instance of drainage.

It would carry me too far here to enumerate what furnaces are required for
the several smelting processes; suffice it to say, that in almost every instance the
present furnaces must be replaced by others which allow a continuous smelting.
The present furnaces may at most do for trial-smeltings and for the reduction
of smaller quantities.

19

.

3. Supply of the cheapest possible fuel, whether by using cokes or by the
establishment of a rational forest-management.

In either case the simultaneous improvement in the means of ecmmunication
—roads, rivers Ke. 一 js an absolute condition for success.

As yet the charcoals are burned in the woods, mostly high up in the moun-
tains, and thence carried by horses or oxen, sometimes also by coolies, to the
furnace.

The wood is burned to coal, not in heaps, but in dome-shaped ovens, made
frem quarry-stones and clay or loam, which are abandoned as soon as the
district has been denuded of its trees. The products of distillation are allowed
to escape, without being utilized.

Leaving out of sight the charcoal-burner’s constant change of working place,
the building of carriage-roads could not pay, on account of the generally high-
ly broken ground ; the coal-transpoit could, however, be very much simplified
by not burning the wood on the spot, where the trecs have been felled, but by
floating it on the water courses—which, where requisite, might be dammed up
一 to constant central coal-burning places, as near tle furnaces as possible.
There the ovens or heaps might also be furnished with apparatus for utilizing
the products of distillation, tar, pyrolignous acid.

- 4. A strict control of the smelting proceedings through current assays and
smelting books. For the lucidity and simplicity of the entire book-keeping,
the introduction of Arabic figures would be of the greatest assistance, and the
small amount of labor spent on learning the same ought not to be a matter of
consideration, when compared with the advantages that would accrue therefrom.
With regard to other matters, in which workmen and administration are concern-
ed, I shall make some further remarks, at the end of this paper.

The dressing and metallurgical establishments are at present mostly situated
elose to the mine, and consequently generally on very steep heights, where the
structures cling like swallow-nests to the rock, and in their dimensions are con-
fined toa minimum. In order to cbtain a better situation, and at the same
time a greater water-power, it would often be preferable to carry the works fur-
ther down toward the valley. In many instances this would also afford the
additional advantage of making a joint working of the ores from several mines

feasible.

ASSAYING.

The assaying of the ore is, with regard to gold, confined either to the washing
of a certain quantity of ore, or to smelting the same together with lead, and
successive cupellation of the rich lead. The latter proceeding is also used for

20

silver. The smelting is done either in clay-crucibles or directly in small hearth-
furnaces.

With regard to copper, iron, lead, antimony, there is no regular assaying
process ; but it is considered sufficient to treat certain quantities of ore in the
usual manner, and then weigh the results. In this manner it of course is only
ascertained, how much metal can be extracted by the method used, not how
much the ore really contains.
- In weighing the grains of gold and silver, the ordinary small Japanese scales,
similar to the Roman balances, are used.

As euriosum I may here mention, that of late Plattner’s blow-pipe-scale is
used here and there in a somewhat hybrid form, that is in adopting it by
prolongation of the diverging lines, for the measurement of larger grains.

The parts being placed in proportion to those on the blow-pip-scale, the
results obtained mu-t become too high. For an approximative test of the value
of gold-or silver-alloys, compositions of a fixed standard, corresponding to our
touch-needles, are also used. Thus for instance I have seen a collection of 100
pieces, in form of coins, strung on a wire, each of which represented a fixed.
standard, in gold from 0 to 100, and in silver from 100 to 0. The sample is
then with the aid of Lydian stone and sulphuric acid compared with the stand-
ard alloy. The sampling is mostly done in a manner, which is far from
guaranteeing a correct average.

SUBTERRANEAN SURVEYING.

Still to mention another branch of the mining industry, the subterranean
surveying, it has always been the custom, to lay the main-galleries and-
workings down on a map.

These drawings consist usually in a rather arbitrary combination of plans,
elevations and sections along the veins, showing at the same time often sketches
of the surface, rivers, villages, roads etc. as well as hints as to the geological
conditions.

For plotting of works in different horizons either different colours are used
or smaller plans are in the proper places stuck on to the front or to the back of
the main plan, accordingly as the work in question is above or below the main
plan. The Japanese paper being semitransparent the perspicuity is not sensibly
interfered with by this proceeding.

The instrument used for measuring horizontal angles is a sight-compass of
ca. 10°” diam. Upon the limb are marked from riglit to left the twelve signs
of the zodiac: Rat, Bull, Tiger, are, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Ape, Cock,

21

Dog, Boar. Each of these signs is again divided into 3X 10 parts (sometimes
less) thus giving in the whole a division of the limb into 360 equal parts.
» For observations, the number of degrees inside one sign is read.

For levelling is used a plumb-level and ruler; for length measurements a
measuring-staff or-cord, taking as unit the ordinary shaku (foot) with its
subdivisions. One mining ken is 5 shaku.

Although such surveys are far from being exact, they nevertheless have their

ら J 5 も
value as guides.

OFFICERS AND WORKMEN.

Although even the private mines are able to show a numerous staff of officers
the superintendence of the practical work is generally not considered of that
importanee which it might claim, while on the other hand great care is bestow-
ed upon the book-keeping.

The latter comprises the keeping of stock, produce-and wages-tables,—
smelting books being kept only to a limited exteut—and it is, owing to the
painful minuteness, with which details are recorded and the accounts kept in
fractions of a hundreth part of a sen rather voluminous ; principally on account
of the use of Chinese figures it fails, I think, to give that clear and rapid insight
which is obtained by the aid of Arabian figures.

As to the practical management of the mining operations, at least to their
productive part, it has been mentioned already that the contractors or middle-
men enjoyea rather far going authority, in most cases not to the advantage of
the mine.

The subaltern class of overseers and foremen who fill the intermediate sta-
tion between officers and workmen, is mostly recruited from people who have
learnt to read, write and cipher, but who had previously no practical training
in their respective functions.

Probably in order to do evenhanded justice to every one of them, to give them
opportunity of becoming acquainted with all the branches of the work, ete. a
frequent alternation in their functions is unfortunately the custom.

A workman can scarcely ever be promoted to any of these positions, in the
first place, because there is an objection to having a coolie in the office, secondly
on aceount of his as a rule not being sufficiently well trained in writing and
eiphering.

Now, when no opportunity is offered to a workman, by industry and good
behaviour to raise himself to a higher step, then he will not overexert himself
and especially not, if he must apprehend, that any extraordinary exertion on
his part might lead to a reduction in the contract price of task- work.

JAPANESE MINING LAW.

The Japanese Mining Law is an offspring of modern times, and carries unmis-
takable traces of Euroy can influence ; it is therefore, strictly speaking, foreign
to a description of native mining, but as it is so elosely connected with the
latter, I have thought it my duty to give an extract of its principal jclauses,
which I here subjoin : }

All minerals, with the exception of those used as building stones and for
agricultural purposes, are the property of the government and no one has the
right to win the same, until he has obtained permission from the former.

To carry on exploration works, a license must be applied for ; for the opening
and working of a mine, a mining lease. Either of these is for the whole
empire—with exception of Yesso, which is under the Kaitakushi—to be obtain-
ed from the Mining Department.

Any person, who opens and works a mine, has the right of expropriation
with regard to the land requisite for erecting buildings on the surface and for
making roads,

Explorations upon another man’s land are lawful upon payment of a proper
indemnification.

For every 500 tsubos containd in a mining sett (1 tsubo=6' square), produe-
ing metalliferous minerals, except iron, a yearly tax of 1 yen is to be paid; for
every 500 tsubos in a mining sett producing iron-ore or non-metalliferous
minerals (coal, sulphur &e.), the tax is yen 0.50. °

When working over old slag heaps, the same amount of tax is to be levied on
every 1,000 tsubos contained in the mining sett. For each unit of measure
(respectively 500 or 1,000 tsubos) contained in the mining sett leased, proof
must be given every year, that a quantity of work has Leen executed, equal at
least to the work of one hand during 800 days; cthenwise the lease is for-
feited.

Besides the above fax, every mine has to pay a royalty to the Mining Depart-
ment, not exceeding 20 %, and not less than 3°/, of the value of the produe-
tion. |

The amount of the royalty within these limits is to be fixed yearly by the
Mining Department, separately for each mine.

The lessee of a mine shall twice a year, that is, in the 1* and 7 month,
forward to the Mining Department a report showing the quantity and name of
the metals obtained, the number of hands employed, the working expenses, in
fact the results of his mining operations.

Understatements in these reports, with the intent to avoid payment of the
royalty or to pay less than due, are visited with propcrtionate fines.

23

The lease of a mining sett is co epso valid for 15 years, and may after the ex-
piration of that term be renewed ; on the other hand it may also be surrendered
before the expiration of the term.

Abandoned mines must be guarded by fencing &c. in such a manner, that
there shall be no danger for the public.

To engage foreign engineers, even to erect foreign machinery, requires a special
permission from the Mining Department. Contracts between holders of mines and
foreign engineers must be submitted to the Mining Department for its approval.

The holder of a mine is under no circumstance permitted to grant a foreigner
any pecuniary interest, in the working of the mine; nor is he under any
circumstances allowed to mortgage his mining lease or the future produce of the
mine to a foreigner.

Transgressions of the last-named provisions give the Government the right to
confiscate the mine. The structures on the surface, plant &e. may, however, be
removed by the proprietor.

If the holder of a mine is unable to pay his taxes, royalty or fines, then the
Government ‘may sell the plant and buildings at public auction and after
retaining from the proceeds realized what is due to itself, hand the balance, if
any, to the owner.

All mining operations are to be conducted in such a manner, that the small-
est possible amount of the valuable minerals, contained in the deposits, shall
be left unworked, and care must be taken, that the underground works do not
endanger houses, railways, castle-walls &e. If through infraction of this rule
injury be done, then the lessee of the mine shall pay double the amount of the
damage caused.

It is permitted to drive general galleries of a certain area, and the mine-
owner, who does so, is entitled to recover from those mines, which thereby have
been relieved from their water, a compensation, the amount of which is to be
settled by amicable arrangement, or eventually by the Mining Department.

As already said, this law has many points of contact with the mining laws of
European countries, from which it in the main differs in the strict mea-
sures, taken to prevent foreigners from becoming interested in mining, and also
by the total absence of mining-police regulations for the protection of the work-
men in the mine. The facts, that robbing, the prohibition notwithstanding, is
carried on in many mines, and that the stipulated royalty of from 2 一 30/ has
never been levied, show that the law is not strictly observed in all its points.

In the above remarks we have considered the state of the mines aud mining
in Japan, and indicated the outlines of such technical reforms as are desirable ;
it now remains for us to examine, what general measures might still be taken
with the object of raising the mining industry in this country,

x

24

There can be no doubt, that the speediest, the most effective and cheapest
means to. raise the mining industry to the height of modern times lies in
admission of foreigners to work the mines, and the question is only, how ‘far
this means would be to the interest of the country. The objection, that the
foreigners in a comparativel y short time would possess themselves of and export
the mineral treasures of the country, so that the pecuniary condition of the latter
although momentarily somewhat improved, would later, when the mines had
heen exhausted, become very much deteriorated—is scarcely tenable. In the
first place, the existing deposits, which have hitherto only been worked in their
superior levels, run for many years to come no risk of being exhausted, even by
an energetic production ; in the second place, the mines, when worked by mo-
dern methods and under foreign management, will utilize ores, which are now
entirely lost; and finally a flourishing mining industry, although the oytturn
were largely exported, would yield a considerable revenue for the finances
through their royalties to the treasury as well as by affording encouragement
to industry in general. But there is another reason, which may well have
caused the government to shrink from giving the right of mining free, and this
lies in the circumstance, that when once the interior of the country has been
opened, it becomes imyossible to prevent it being swamped by a Chinese immi-
gration.

When we consider, to what troubles even a country with such enormous
demand for labor as the United States'has been exposed through an unlimited,
pigtailed immigration ; when -we farther remember the short distance between
Japan and China, the kindred manners, the similarity in culture and mode of
life in the two countries, then it is impossible to shirk the conviction, that
Japan, through an illimited Chinese immigration, would not only get into
temporary troubles, but would find its national existence seriously jeopardized,
and this the more, because a comparison between the Japanese and the Chinese
workman does scarcely result to the advantage of the former. The Japanese
workman is undoubtedly clever and skilful, but he is generally lighthearted and
open-handed, and if he receives high pay, this rather prevents him from than
stimulates him to continued working, while the Chinaman is industrious, frugal
and saving, and by high wages is animated to still greater industry,—all of
them qualities which cannot but recommend him to the employer of workmen.
The manager of every mine, or any other establishment, worked by a foreigner,
would therefore in all probability sooner or later surround himself with a staff of
Chinese workmen. Even if the amount of the average daily wages, especially
when compared with the same in the United States is not alluring, the money
to le made by task—work, would in itself be sufficient to encourage immigration.
Tf may now easily be conceived, in what condition the Japanese workman would

25

find himself, when also the necessaries of life rose in price, in consequence of the.
increased population, while at the same time the means of procuring the same
were taken away from him, or at all events reduced through the presence of his
preferred rivals. In the face of these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at,
that the government recoils from admitting foreigners and opening the interior.
of the country as a means for promoting the mining industry.

The case would be otherwise, if foreign capital were allowed to be invested
in mining enterprises, perhaps under some such conditions as proposed by Mr.
Lyman for Yesso (“a general Report on the geology of Yesso,” by B. S. Lyman,
1877.) That the government with the most painstaking scrupulosity tries to
prevent this also, is probably due to the circumstance, that it in this manner
wants to put a stop to every attempt made by foreigners to get a foothold in
the interior, and to avoid the risk of disputes and lawsuits. We will therefore
in the following considerations renounce on all assistance from foreign capital,
and examine in what directions reforms might still be introduced.

In the first place it is requisite, that care be taken to create a staff of able
officers and workmen.

With regard to the technical education of future officers, the Government is
alive to its duty, and has with this object established well provided classes for
mining and metallurgy in the Zokio Daigaku as well as in the Kobu Daigaku.
But those officers also, who are alrealy employed in practical service, might
obtain a certain instruction by attending a brief course of studies arranged in
Tokio for their special benefit. Even if it would scarcely come within the plan
of such a course of studies to enable these students on their own hand to establish
thoroughly modern works, a great deal would already be gained, if they were
taught to appreciate the usefulness, nay the necessity of such reorganisations,
both in great and in small things, and if they would therefore kindly assist the
young men of the new era with their own long experience, instead of treating
them with mistrust.

But the creation of a reliable staff of officers requires something more than
the mere technical education, be the same ever so good. In whatever country
it be, as long as an officer has no guarantee, that a faithful performance of his
duties will secure him his place in Government service, and that, when old age
or sickness compels him to retire from active service, the future support of him-
self and family will nevertheless be provided for,—so long the temptation must
always be there, to use his position, while he has it, as a milk-cow, and to
take his work as easily as possible. To procure him that security, pension—
and widows’—funds, as we have them in our Government service and in large
private establishments, would be the most fitting means. Only then, however,
would such funds be able to subsist, if on the one hand arbitrary dismissals from

26

servize were put a stop to, on the other hand the capacities of the candidate
became the principal consideration in making new appointments.

Reforms in the workmen’s class are of no less importance than the reor-
ganization of the officers’ department. In the present condition of things, a
man may come to work or not, just as he pleases. The consequence is, that at
the time of field-work, or after pay-days, on festivals &c. he is simply bioki,
that is, does not make his appearance. In this case he of course receives no
wages, but neither does he, when he is actually laid up with sickness. The
result of this liberty for the workman to remain away whenever he likes, is
that the works at times are denuded of workmen, or—and this is more fre-
quently the case—that they engage more workmen than necessary in order to
be secured against all eventualities. Here also an improvement could be made
by the establishment of workmen’s funds. ‚Into these the workmen should pay
a certain percentage of their wages as well as eventual fines for transgression of
the working regulations, for unauthorised absence from work, while any defici-
ency is supplied by contribution from the works themselves. From this fund
the workmen would receive assistance in case of sickness, and when he had been
a contributing member for a certain time, and had become unfit for work, a
pension. To prevent the men from shamming sickness, and also to attend the
sick, the presence of a physician would of course be absolutely necessary.

MODEL-WORKS.

Another means, which the Government possesses for improving the mining,
consists in setting private mine-owners a good example by the establishment of
modern model works. It must be admitted, that in this respect as well as in
the establishment of colleges the Government has done what lay in its power,
even if—as already observed—the success not always has been in proportion to
the efforts made. The Gorvenment is now again occupied in organizing on
modern system two works, which may be made very productive, and of which
it has lately become possessed. Their success, which may safely be predicted,
must have the more influence on private mining, as one of them is a copper-
mine, and copper is the very metal, which is profitably produced also by private
mine-owners, while hitherto no establishment on a large scale for working the
same on modern system has been in existence here.

Even if, as already remarked, not all the mines and reduction works of modern
style have had the desired success, it is the duty of a rovernment by its own
initiative to open the way for new methods. As it, however, is a notorious fact
that a Government always works at a higher cost than private individuals, a
Government acts wisely when it surrenders well organized establishments to be

27

worked by private citizens, and this the Government has recently done with
regard to several mines. As observed at the commencement of this paper, the
want of capital is an obstacle to private individuals taking the initiative in the
establishment of large mining works, even in places, where there can be no
doubt about their profitable nature.

FORMATION OF PRIVATE COMPANIES.

- Instead of constantly applying the floating capital of the country to the crea-
tion of new banks, part of it might be more advantageously used for the for-
mation of companies, which besides other industries would devote their attention
to mining. Such a company would have to become owner of all the mines in
an entire mining district, in order by consolidation of neighboring mines to be-
come possessed of the great advantages to be derived from a common manage-
ment, common working of the mines, drainage, reduction.

CENTRAL REDUCTION—WORKS.

Another not less important measure would be the erection of central reduction-
works and also of central dressing-establishments, at favorably situated places.

Suppose for instance, that such a central establishment for the working of all
the ores, as well from the immediate as from the more distant neighborhood,
were created either by government or by a company, at some favorably situated
point on the coast of the inland sea, say in the vicinity of Kobe. The copper—,
silver—, gold—, lead—, sulphur-ores would be delivered from the mines—
whosoever their owners—at the smelting-works, where they would be accurate-
ly assayed and, according to their ascertained contents, paid for at fixed rates.
The advantages, which centralization offers, not only in respect to the manage-
ment, but also to the technical superintendence of the works, composition of the
charge, utilization of the roasting gases for the manufacture of sulphuric acid
&e., would enable the reduction-works, organized on the latest system, to
pay the mines a higher price for their ores than the mines themselves, with
their defective smelting methods, costly administration, high charcoal-prices,
are at present able to make, and both parties would thus be gainers by the
arrangement. ‘The cokes or coals would have to be got from the South, Karatsu,
Nagasaki, Miike.

These reduction-works would work the ores from the following mines, which are
all situated more or less in the neighborhood : Copper-mines: Tenwa, Tsubono-
uchi, Ishibe, Wake, Akasaka-Tda, Beishi, Kumayama, Kawato, T'ada, Kanahira,
Ono-Omodani, Hosono, Maibira, Shikama, Wurushiyama; the lead-mines of Man-

28

dokoro and Odome, and eventually the silver 一 and copper-ores from Ikuno and
the ores of antimony from Ichinokawa, near Saijo. According to the report on:
the Uyeno Exhibition in 1877, the present produce from these mines—with ex-
ception of Ikuno, which works annually ahout 20,000 tons of ore—amounts to
the aggregate sum of 18,000 一 19,000 tons of ores perannum. Of all the mines
quoted above, Ikuno is the only one, where ores are worked by modern methods.

The transport of the ores might here and there be rather expensive ; it would,
however, in nearly all instances be down-hill work, that is, from the mines to
the coast, and in many cases rivers, canals, the lake Biwa, the railroads between
Kioto or Tsuruga and Kobe, and the sea may be availed of. Where requisite the
transport by land must certainly be facilitated by good carriage-roads, as on the
whole the establishment of proper means of communication through the interior:
of the country is a conditio sine qud non for the progress of industry in general
and of mining in special. The objection might be raised, that the transport of
the ores to the central reduction-works would enhance their price too much ; if
it, however, be borne in mind, that ores from South-America—even from the
west-coast—are profitably smelted in Swansea, and ores from the west coast of
Mexico smelted in large quantities in Freiberg, that is, deep in the interior of
continental Europe, then it may be presumed, that the comparatively infinitesi-
mal short distances in the instance quoted by us are not of so very great conse-.
quence, even if the ores should prove less rich than those from America.

In a similar manner as in the South central reduction-works might be estab-.
lished at a convenient place on the northwest coast, perhaps in Funakawa.

ENGINEERING BUREAU.

A still further means for assisting private citizens in their mining enterprises
would be the establishment of an engineering bureau, under the Mining Depart-
ment, where on payment of a reasonable fee ores could be assayed and analyzed,
plans and estimates be obtained for such establishments as were required by the
works, a bureau in fact, where holders of mines could always obtain information
on technical questions, The Chief of this bureau should at the same time take
charge of the hitherto entirely wanting mining-police, that is, see that laws
issued with the object of procuring the workmen the greatest possible safety in
the mines, of securing a proper technical working method, of preventing robbing
&c. are observed.

29

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Finally, it would be of great importance, not less in respect of mining than
of many other branches of industry, if a systemetical thorough geological survey
were made, having for its object, not merely the rendering of the topography of
the country and the study of its geological condition in general, but also register-
ing all hitherto known places, where useful minerals occur, searching for new
ones, explaining the local laws of the occurrence and formation of ore-deposits,
indicating those places, where further explorations are to be made and those
where not; in short, collecting and making accessible to the general public all
the information, that can be of interest for mining. Besides it would have to
embrace all the examinations concerning the development of the country from
an agricultural and general technological point of view.

There has been made a beginning already in regard to a geological survey of
some places of the main island and of Yesso, the examination having chiefly
been conducted from a topographical, geological and mining standpoint. It
seems that the government has now in view to extend the researches to such
a degree that all the branches of a modern geological survey are fully

investigated.

In the subjoined plates, which have been prepared by Mr. Ota after sketches
made by my assistant Mr. W. Watanabe, the prireipal mining and smelting

apparatus and tools are represented.

ENUMERATION OF THOSE MINES, WHICH ALREADY ARE
WORKED ON MODERN SYSTEM.

After having in the foregoing remarks examined the traditional native min-
ing, I desire here to repeat, that, as far as technics are concerned, the state of
things has already, especially in the Government-mines, in many cases been
considerably improved.

The following mines, the production of which appears from the tables inserted

below, are worked on modern system :

30

1. BELONGING TO THE GOVERNMENT.

Sapo.—Guld—.and silver-mine. Mechanical dressing, smelting and pan-amalga-
mation. Organized by foreigners, now worked by Japanese only.

Ixuno.—Gclc—and silver-mine, province Tajima. 100 iron revolving stamps,
dressing by Rittinger’s percussion tables, Freiberg barrel amalgamation.
Had formerly 12, at present still 8, Frenchmen.

KamatsHi.—Iron-mine and—works, province, Rikuchiu. 2 charcoal—blast-
furnaces, puddling furnaces. Formerly 4, now 1 foreigner there ; but
metallurgists have again been engaged in England. The ore is magnetic
iron.

NakakosakA.—Iron-mine and— works, province Kozuke. 1 chareoal- blast-
furnace, built by English engineers for private individuals, recently taken
over by the Government. Worked formerly with loss, is not yet worked
anew. *

Mrrks —Coal-mince, province Chikugo. English engineer.

Besides these mines, the copper-works at Ani and the silver-works at Innai,
both in the province of Ugo, have lately come into possession of the Govern-
ment; they were hitherto worked on the Japanese system, but are now by

German engineers being organized on foreign system.

2. PRIVATE.

Oquvusu.—Gold-mine, province Ugo. Amalgamation in Californian pans and in
Hungarian bowls. 10 iron stamps. As yet the mine has not been able to
produce the quantity of ore required by the works. Organized by an
American engineer, now worked by Japanese alone.

Kosaka.—Silver—and copper-mine, province Rikuchiu. Raw Smelting. Zier-
vogel and Hunt—Douglass process. Erected by German engineers, now
worked only by Japanese.

The modern establishments in Oquusu and Kosaka were created by the
Government, and, when completely fitted up, handed over to private people for
working.

Nacano.—Gold-mine, province of Satsuma. Tassed once for one of the best
gold-mines, but is now said to be poor in ores. Californian amalgama-

tion. 10 iron stamps. Has a French engineer.

* Has been started again lately.

sl

Haxpa.—Silver mine, proviice Iwashiro. Wooden stamp-mill, Freiberg
barrel-amalgamation. This is the only establishment, which by Japanese
alone has been furnished with European machinery. ‘The production is
insignificant.

TaxkasHima.—Ooal mine, province Hizen. Now together with Miike the most
productive mine in Japan. Has 12 English engineers and overseers.

Besides, the coal-fields in Yesso are now being opened by American engineers,
in the employ of the Kaitakushi.

The following tables will help to fill up the outlines of the picture now
drawn of Japanese mining. ‘The material for the production-tables has been
taken from recently published reports from the Kobusho.

NOTES TO THE FOLLOWING TABLES.

The weight of gold and silver is given in ounces Troy, of copper, lead and
iron in lbs. English and that of coal in English tons.
The value of an ounce of gold was taken at .......... yen 20.7

” ” ” ” silver ” PO 10000000000 1.27%
» a 1b. of copper EULER Pret tae ties (0.17
” LM) ” ” うう lead ” COOO COODO 0.048
” ” ” ” „ 1TO11 > と DOGGOGOO odOC 0.01
Pe „ aton coal (lumps, dust and coke) from private mines. 4.50
99 op oo の 3009 government 0900KS に IAS 3.50

The prices have of course varied according to time and place ; those quoted
above, which eorrespond pretty closely with the actual state of the metal-and
coal-market, are rather too low than too high, considering that since the time, to
which the tables refer, most of the above-mentioned articles have fallen in price.
The expenditure, as stated in the tables, comprises both first outlay and the
working expenses. ‘The decimals have been left out.

Nores ro Taste I. Table I shows the produce from the mines at Sado,
Ikuno and Miike since the time, when modern methods were there being intro-
duced ; the expenses therefore cover all the new constructions, machinery «c.,
and as a matter of course the production could only be on a small scale as long
as the works were under construction.

The mines at Ani and Iunai were only recently taken over by the govern-
ment, and the purchase price of the mines is included in the expenditure of yen
609,725 and yen 253,465 respectively.

The production of copper from government-mines has hitherto been very
small, as the government, until it bought Ani, had no real copper-mines at all.

Tron has not yet been worked by the government ; large iron-works, on which

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35

according to the table yen 1,140,883 have been expended, are, however, under
construction in Kamaishi, while another, previously existing, but at present not
working establishment, has been purchased for yen 42,457.

The second part of the table gives a synopsis of the winning from the Japan-
ese private mines during 4 years (1874-1877).

The favorable financial result of the latter, when compared with that of the
government mines, may be explained, partly by the circumstance, that the best
mines are private property, and that private mines work cheaper than those
under governmeut administration, partly by the fact, that in the former scarce-
ly any innovations have been made, while in the latter by the erection of machi-
nery, the construction of furnaces, the sinking of shafts &e. a future extensive
and remunerative working has been prepared.

Noves to Tanne 1I. In table II the annual average for the several govern-
ment and for the private mines are calculated from the preceding table, and
compared with the results of the workings for the year 18 “/,3,

It appears therefrom, that in the government mines the production of all
metals has increased, and in some instances very considerably, while the produc-
tion of coal (in Miike). has remained nearly stationary. Whether the latter
fact be due to commercial or local conditions, or to the circumstance, that in
later years machinery has been erected, and the working perhaps thus interfer-
ed with, I am unable to tell. As in 18 7/, the new establishments (with excep-
fion of Miike) were completed, a surplus of more than a million yen was obtained.

If we in the Sado mine consider the excess of the total expenditure over the
total income, yen 690,484 (Table I), as the capital invested in establishing the
works, then the said mine would in 15”/,,—as Sado in that financial year, ac-
cording to table II, yielded a net profit of about yen 23,000—have paid
23,000 x 100 _ 31/

oa ©:
ing from interest accrued in the meantime).

In Ikuno, where the deficit amounted to yen 1,095,492, the net surplus in
18"/,, to about yen 57,000, a similar calculation would give the interest at 5'/2
°/, Unfortunately the vein, which is principally worked by that mine, does
not promise much for the future, so that another yield like that of 18"/,, can

°/, interest (exclusive of the increase in the principal, aris-

scarcely be expected any more.

If we make similar calculations from the total BN and the total surplus in
187/,,.fox Ani and Innai, the latter being for Ani yen 15€,040 against yen 51,786
and for Innai yen 40,494 against yen 13,484, then, we find Ani paying an inter-
est of 33°/, and Innai of 33°/, a result, which fully supports the view I expressed
above with regard to the productivity. of these mines.

"The deficit in working the government mines, that is, the total Noe on

36

government mines (with exception of the two not yet active iron—works), which
has not been covered by the outturn, amounts according to table I to yen
1,318,409, on which the surpluses in 18”/,, (=yen 252,783) would pay an interest
of a about 19°%/, 一 Or, if the two mines at Oquusu and Kosaka,
which have been taken over from private owners, but not yet paid for, are taken
into account with a first outlay of yen 350,000, then this would give an interest
252,783 X 100
1,318,409-+ 350,000
would still have to be deducted the expenditure connected with the administra-

of =about 15°/,, arate of interest, from which, however,

tion of the Mining section (Kozan Kioku) in Tokio, under the Ministry of Pub-
lic works.

It should not be forgotten, that this at all events tolerable result is due, not
to the production of precious metals, but to that of coal and copper, a circums-
tance, which corroborates what I have said above with regard to the prospects
of mining in Japan. Among the silver mines, Innai would seem to be the best,
as it, although worked solely on Japanese system, yielded on an average much
more than Sado and Ikuno, that is, at the time of their partial Japanese work-
ing. In the private mines the production of gold has, according to the synopsis
in tab. II, somewhat decreased, the production of all the other minerals inereas-
ed. The production of coal would at all events have been larger, if it had uot
in that year become necessary to put Takashima under water on account of
subterranean fire, in consequence of which the mine was for a long time unable
to yield auy output.

Nores ro Tage III. In table III the annual average productions from the
government mines and the private mines are compared with each other, and the
comparison shows, that the government is at the head with regard to bullion,
while private industry takes the lead in all other produce.

In the 2" part of this table a synopsis is made of the winnings of both catego-
ries in 18/,, (government mines) and in 1877 (private mines).

Finally, in order to compare a previously published estimate by Mr J. G. H.
Goldfrey of the mineral produce in 1874 (Mr. Plunkett: “On the Mines of
Japan.” Report to H. B. M.’s Minister in Yedo, 1875)—made to my know-
ledge before the materials had been officially collected—with the average num-
bers given by me (the official statistics for that year are not in my possession),
I have placed that estimate at the foot of tab. III. With the exception of gold,
the difference is unimportant.

It appears from the 2" part of the table, that the ratio between the govern-
ment and the private mines has remained about the same as before, while the
total production, as against the previous average, has increased, of gold with

97

142°, of silver with 65.2°/,, of copper with 10%, of lead with 33°/, of iron
with 18.4°/, of coal with 10%. The production of copper has not much increased,
because as yet no large copper mine has been organized on modern system.

PRODUCTION OF IRON.

The production of iron is as yet very insignificant, and does not much exceed
that of copper ; the total annual production of iron, stated for convenience’ sake
in tons, does not amount to more than 4,800 tons, a quantum, which one large
blast-furnace can turn out in about 60 days. The reason of this is, that with
the hitherto used ancient proceedings a large production is both technically aud
economically impossible ; that the apparatus requisite for the further working
of iron were hitherto wauting (it was therefore thought preferable to import
manufactured iron), and finally that for many purposes the native, very soft,
wrought iron is as useless as the brittle, hard cast iron. Even when the new
iron-works are set going, and the apprehensions, that have been entertained
with regard to the extent of the deposits of magnetic iron-ore at Kamaishi,
should, prove groundless, it still remains a question, whether the national iron-
industry, in the face of the fact that coal and iron do not occur in each other’s
vicinity, that charcoal costs dear, that the means of communication are difficult
and undeveloped, and being moreover hampered by a circumstantial adminis-
tration, is able successfully to oppose foreign competition.

On the other hand, the question is worthy of consideration, in what propor-
tion the supply of pig-iron from the three nearly finished charcoal-blast-furnaces,
besides the two more, that are under contemplation, stands to the country’s
demand for pig-iron.

Table IV represents as nearly as possible the amounts of iron and steel
imported 1868—1878 inclusive.

In that table the total amount of imported machinery must appear rather low,
if weconsiderthe quantity of plant aud stock, required for railways, mints, arsenals,
printing-, resling-establishments, mines &e.; but I have not thought myself
justified in making arbitrary alterations in the obove figures, which are taken
from the custom-house-reports. Iron, imported in the shape of ships, is not in-
cluded in the table. |

28
TABLE IV.
IMPORT OF MANUFACTURED AND ROUGH-STEEL,
CAST-AND WROUGHT-IRON,

と 1868 一 1878 INCL.

|Average price.|

Imports. Catties. | Value in yen. per catty.
yeu
1. Manufactured iron ..........| 127.917.845.| 5,021,578.| 0.039.
DAC AStERROIM: ee 19,504,676. 314,941. 0.016.
3. Kentledger........ Re 1,336,624. 18,558. 0.014.
4: Steel ae. hehe ao 3,125,886. 257,803. 0-082. .
5. Ammunition, caunon, rifles etc.| 20,096,465. 4,019,293,, 0.20. (*)
6. Iron-ware...... sooooosocson| ESBS, 1,383,588.| 0.10. (* )
fepMlachineny: eae escen vader | 16412040.) 3.282408) 0205209
Saou awitersdes ee a 3,629,827. 272,886... 0.075. -
9. Anchors and cable ..........- 1,097,000. 70,790.| 0.070.(*)
Total 206,964,743.| 20,147,577 =
Annual average ..... ale 18,814,068.| 1,831,577 0.0923
99 Ap kena, enemy fons 11,200. — —
( * ) In the items marked ( *) only the value of the imports is known, and
the quantity has been calculated therefrom. .

The blast-furnace in Inaka-Kosaka has been constructed with a view to
a daily outturn of about 15 tons, while either of the two nearly completed
blast-furnaces at Kamaishi is intended to supply a quantum of about 20 tons a
day. The three blast-furnaces would consequently in 300 working days deliver
16,500 tons pig-iron. Supposing, that for the moment only the import-articles,
mentioned in the table sub 1—4, were to be replaced by national produce, then
a quantum of ea, 10,000 ton pig annually would be sufficient, because the sum
total of these articles during 11 years aggregated 151,884,531 catties, or on an
annual average about 8,220 tons. If, moreover, the hitherto existing private
national production should be supplanted by the new government works, then a
still further quantity of about 10,000,000 Ibs. English (Tab. III), that is, in
round numbers 5,000 tons, would be required annually. Conseqnently about
15,000 tons pig-iron would be needed annually.

The total weight of al! the iron imported (both in pigs and manufactured)
amounts, according to table IV, to around sum of 12,000 tons annually. If
then a// the iron, that is consumed in the country, in whatever shape, should
be produced by the new works, and the iron, that was hitherto produced by the

39
traditional methcds, be driven cut cf the market, then there wou!d—taking into
account the diminution resulting from working the pig—annually to have been
produced a quantity of:

15,090 tons as substitute for imported iron,
L000 5. as A „ native iron-production

Total: 20,000 ,, pig-iron.

Let us now examine, whether there ‘s any jrospect, that this hitherto maxti-
mum demand for about 20,000 tons will inerease in the future.

If the building of roads and the bridging over of the numerous rivers by aid of
ivon-structures were taken energetically in hand, then certainly a considerable
quantity of iron would be required. It is moreover not impossible, that the govern-
ment, eventually by creations in the Navy Department and by constructions for
the coast-defence, as well as by building new railways, may open an outlet for
the iron produced, although, as far as railways are concerned, it has T think
already been proved, that under present circumstances in Japan the develop-
ment of the coasting trade, the creation of au extensive net of roads and canals
is of far more importance than the building of railroads, which only then are
able to prosper and to diffuse prosperity, when proper means of communication
allow of their being supplied with freight of sufficient quantities. The example,
drawn from America, where the quick progress of some states for a great part
is due to the railways, does for several reasons not hold good here.

It only requires to call attention to the geographical formation of the two
countries, and it needs no demonstration, why rail roads are of much more im-
portance on a large continent than in a prolongatel group of islands. Besides,
in America, as well as in Hngland—which latter country has been hold up to
Japan as a model on account vf its possesing so many railways, notwithstanding
its insular position—the districts, which are opened by railroa’s, are gene-
rally already able to supply large masses of produce from agriculture, mining
or manufactories. Here it is otherwise: the principal article of produce, the
rice, w.th which all the plains are plantel, is consumed within the country,
and requires consequently only a limited transport. Tea and silk, the two chief-
articles of the export-trade, are not weighty enough to require to be transported
by rail. Although the mountains and table-!unds still offer a wide field for
the cultivation of other kinds of agricultural produce, the same must first be
opened to trafic by the means of regular roads. As long as every trunk of tree,
every bag of grain has to be carried for miles after miles, by tracks hardly
passable, on the back of horses or coolies, uut 1 it reaches the railway, as long as
nearly every river offers an obstacle to circulation instead of a facility for trans-
port,—so long it scareely will pay to raise produce for distant markets. In the
few instances, where it is required to connect iron- and coal-mines with

40

the sea, care has already been taken to build railroads. Even if therefore a short
railway-line may still be built here or there, it is not to be presumed, that the
consumption of iron will be greatly increased in consequence of large railway-
enterprises.

How far the iron here produced would find an outlet in China, would de-
peud, on the one land, on the price and quality of the product, on the other
hand, on the development of Chinese iron-works, of which it is now for instance
under consideration to make an establishment as Kaiping. As a set-off to those
circumstances, which eventually might cause an increase in the average-demand,
it is to be borne in mind, that the latter, during the last decade, has been com-
paratively high on account of purchases for the foundation of 1a‘lways, navy,
army, arsenals and all sorts of industries. It may moreover with certainty be
predicted, that, all the efforts of the government to the contrary notwithstand-
ing, the use of machinery &e. in this country will yet for some time to come
remain a limited one, and that consequently the import, at least of manufac-
tured iron, will still continue. The state of transport and other local eircumst-
ances, habit &e. will likewise for a long future protect the old, national iron-
industry against being replaced by new, modern establishments, and finally
the iron here produced will, for reasons already mentioned, scarcely be offered
at so low rates as to cause a rapid increase in the consumption. Under these
circumstances the conclusion appears justified, that the three charcoal-blast-
furnaces, now under construction, always provided that they as well as the ore-
deposits realive the expectations entertained, for the moment suffice to meet the
demand, and that the building of more blast-furraces does not appear urgent.

While thus the prospects for a large, natural development of iron-production
in Japan for the moment can scarcely be called brilliant, an examination of an-
other branch of mining-industry, coal-mining shows favorable results.

PRODUCTION AND EXPORT OF COAL.

It appears from table V, that the export is continua’ly increasing, and exceeds
the import nearly tenfold ; although the proluction, when compared with that
of other countries, is still very small, it should be borne in mind, that only two
mines have recently commenced to be worked on modern system, and that a
wide field is open for further progress.

The fact, that there is still an import of coal and cokes, nay that the same is
even on the increase, is explained in this manner, that the Japanese coals are not
fit for all purposes, especially do not afford so good heating material for steamers
as the best English coals and that English coke is generaliy preferred for found-
ry purposes. A comparison between tables V and III show, that on an average

41

TABLE V.
COAL-EXPORT AND-IMPORT 1863-1878 incl.

Export. Iuporr. Average
yearly
NEE |
YEAR. Actual Export. For Ships’ use. j 2 produc- |
English | Value
in tion
Engl. tons. | Valne in |Engl. tons.| Value in tons. yen.

yen. yer. tons (*)

15,584 | 79,519 945] 4,760
14,552 | 82,978] 18,665 Be
.…| 25,162 | 139,085 | 30,845 | 159,258
…| 18,744 | 100,429 | 45,003 | 221,552 5 55,292 | 312 984
| 27,389 | 180.279 | 30,883 | 155,637 ‘
47,172 | 225,158 | 99,194] 402,931
...| 84,408 | 146,470 | 81,768) 408,870 |
...| 22,268 | 94,706 | 83,560| 452,811) 5353| 92.716

| 49,949 | 209,823 | 136,386 | 717,270] 16,977 | 149,120 |
49,597 | 185723| 82,661| 404,369 | 17,004| 182,608 |
95,064 | 335,015 | 111,785) 576,635) 23,212 | 177.730

Total...... 399,889 |1,779,184) 721,690 [3,606,696 Ze, |
Yearly average. | 36,353 | 161,744] 65.698| 527,881] 11,167| 129,555) 356,78:

Average price % |
Wee on 6 yen 4.45 yen 4.97 yen 11.52

(*) According to Table IT.

about 28°/, of the coal produce leave the country, to wit : about 10°/, are actual-
ly exported, about 18°/, supplied as fuel to foreign steamers, which touch here,
while 72°/, of the produce remain for consumption in the country, the principal
consumers being the Mitsu Bishi Company and the railroads. The construe-
tion of coke-blast-furnaces would of course have a favorable influence on the
development of the coal-industry. How far the impending working of tho
Chinese coal- -mines on modern system may influence the coal-mining in Japan,
the future will show : the interference can, however, never be great, considering
that the actual export even now only figures with 10°/, of the produce, and that
China’s coal-production, according to von Richthofen’s estimate, in late years
already amounts to about 3,000,000 tons annually, that is, about eight times
Japan’s production of coal.

42

JUXTAPOSITION OF JAPAN’S MINERAL PRODUDTION
WITH THAT OF OTHER COUNTRIES.

The following juxtaposition of the mineral production of Japan with that of
other countries, as far as known, enables us to make a comparison, even when
only approximatively.

The statistics have been collected from :

Berg-und Huettenmaennischer Kalender, 1879.

Handbuch für vergleichende Statistik, von Korp.

Zukunft des Goldes, von E. Sunss.

Reports from the Imperial Japanese Ministry for Publie works.

Report on the Exhibition in Tokio. 1877.

Engineering and Mining Journal, Mining Journal, Berg-und Huettenmacnni-
sche Zeitung &c.

Greav Brrraw 1876.

Co NR 2,709,565,645 ewt. = 933,413,360 Mark.*
IE 486,499,028 ,, = 217,690,720 ,,
OS 46,192,562 ,, = 22,782,560 ,,
1,173,836,640 ,,
igairone scr stent sae 133,217,859 „ = 321,243,840 ,,
Darrrisr OoroNrrs.
CAPE cor.ONY.
In 1875, exported :

(OSue OS38 arses BIS) 。 = 4,970,740
monde für 21,000 „,
Gola eislensant tie etic 5 3,619,460 ,,

AUSTRALIA.
Bullion produce in 1875;
Vera 1,068,418 02.
New Zealand......... 300,922 本
New South Wales... 230,883 5
Queensland.......... 399,076 ak
Se 3,010 in
South Australia....... 1,000 a (?)

Botalen. OT 140,000,000 „,
From New South Wales exported,1875, coals

19,567 160 cwt = 13,488,200 „,

* 1 Mark —1 Shilling.

43

In Queensland and Tasmania, 1873, produced 890,000 ewt.
From New South Wales exported,
| 1875, copper 238,672 cwt. = 10,027,740 Mark.
From Australia to England exported in the
year 1875, tin ......... sachoodes 144,360 ,, DEZ op
SrRAITS SETTLEMENT.
In 1875 exported to England, tin.. „220,000 es
Brmrsn Hasr TNpiA.
In 1875 coals produced about
Bririsu CoLvmB1A (with a part of Mexico).

ll

JBullbiom jeaoelues6 tn js 人 02 cogéaoococnoasdsouencnbe 10,440,000 ,,
British Nomrg America,
1875 produced coal 1,618,440 ,,
1876 ,, pig-iron ca. 150,000 ,,
Nova Scorra in 1875, gold; ......10,957 oz. = ca. 800,000 ,,
UNITED States.
SO SCORE ay Maul sere sls3 965,468,940 cwt
1877, Gold to the value of.........00-...-. 00000060 181,200,000 ,,
yo Silver& is. Re edna N TG Sap tarsi aoe keetveriarettia tave 184,000,000 ,,
) read, a AN ede otan 11,900,000 ,,
pe COUPEE, EE Koon ogee. SXUO OOO: 5;
170°. Quieksilver.. een. adesklenndeseteese een 26:50
Biotonne: SO 87,977,660 cwt.
» Petroleum exported.... 261,132,348 gallons.
GERMANY 1876.
Coal, graphite &e. ............ 991,760,966 ewt = 302,620,298 ,,
(DIRE NS eo a Aanre RS spoon DE TS > OO
a Ckeselt Sea 19,021.128 5 =" 3.903766" |

Common auk Abraum-salts .... 9,720,703 „ = 17.491.736 ,,

398,498,121 ,,

Pig-iron production „.......... 96,165,631 ,, = 109,079,554 ,,
LuxempBure.

Iron ores (1876)........ a Ben, Alan
WOU GUS TI) aa RR co LOSS ELO 4,
Austria, 1877.

Cone aan RE 240 488586 4) = 65251,240, &

Oreste ies DB loan, =26,210925607,,

Rook-and common-salt........ 985,140,578 „ = 44,647,628 „
TB066 IO

Pig-iron-production ........ .“. 10,361,400 ,„ = 27474,096 |

Hüuncanıa, 1875.
oe er paagacsa8ooaaa22a HEN 4, ea ER

\

44

IRockzralt し 1,994,950 ewt. = 18,950,000 Mark.
Metals (iron excepted)...... 505 for 11,014,343 ,,
INGO 85 800.025g te 3,194,074 „ = 15,043,244 „
06,061,120 ,,
Fraxcr.
Bullion (average 1869-74) 。。 + eee 585380 GS 5
Basen ee) 3377810200
Haie iron oo .. 28,990,754 5,
Ores eye arate eb 20 の OOOOO Qi 『
Bercıum, 1876.
Co OMN2P2 canem BE KITA) ee II
Ones cisions eleva sler res anere 500. SUES) 5 = OSPAGIT +
108,067,993 4,
Pig-iron produced........,.. 55 SRG ee 5
Russia ın Europe, 1875.
Coal a, es 。。 21,983,448 ,,
Rock-and common-salt ....... 4,582,186 ,,
Metals Sa 未だ HG 82812 も だ 2 PAIS EAL nC about 128,000,000 ,,
Petroleum ..... er RE Bee i205 00 0 bier
Pig-iron produced........-...- 8,475,136 ,,
Astaric Russta 1874.
Bold ee Derek u... 833,955 kilogr.=ca. 94,750,000 ,,
Fınran, 1876.
Silverkeg 895 06GOG ば oO2oG Ene. IZ B50 5 Sx BR2O000 。
PIGEON nee 613,857 cwt.
Copper ee 『
SWEDEN. :
SS, COMISS Gad cacons OOOIU2OOOO o。 NS Oa 。。
SWS Silver scenes 1,740 lbs.
6 Kae ER AS s 9.83 lbs.
(Oo Seat 22,574 ewt.
1876, Pig-iron...... erh 6,487,527 .,
_ Norway (annual average from 1871-75),
Copper-iron-and silver-ores
and iron pyrites. 。 . .. 、. . wae) 2yO404 00 = 50925136) ie,

Cast-iron, rod-iron, steel........ . 546,296 ,,
Turkey, 1872.

(CO UDG092aO En -. 2,000,000

CET UGCGO つ Be hs eae 240,000

”

>

Greece (annual average from 1867-74).

Oel aA を に be 120,000 cwt.
Ores and earths .......:.... ee 796,000 ,, = 1,012,360 Mark.
Irary, 1873.
Baal acs siete ex homie x eee 042 800m.
Sulphur. gene <0 paso cone Beet 0.004.220) =" 27,.6270984 5,
Lead-ore ......... Ei 665,660 „ = 5,866,904 _,,
Zinc-ore...... DO AA 158,940 , = 4,322,887 ,,
TE veer 5208.980 „ = 2,654,587 ,,
Pig-iron produced in 1873,... 520,000 ,,
SWITZERLAND.
(Ogg 。 (0692⑳ 888598G 5995856 380,900 ,,
Pig-iron ,, ..... een RI 175,000 ,,
Spain.
IST Silver 00.000080 65,966 lbs = 5,936,940 ,,
STON COA UEC 14,136,280 cwt.
» Quicksilver cg 。 。 。 ..。 。 。 。.、 。 15,000 ,,
Bio iron Scale. 1,460,000 ,,
Besides copper, zine, phosphorite, much lead,
Porrucar. (18°'/,).
Ü Ji ee efe stehe ele 180,054 , = 5559,520 ,,
Onl (USTP))s 6 nosed Os5O008o.GSOC 5 420,000 ,,
Durch CoroNrgs, 1875.
Tin exported to England: from Banca 88,000 ,,
„ Billiton 70,470 ,,
158,470,
Mexico, 1875.
(SUUNZG aadB 0 95 BoocGoQ6gO 601,800 kilogr. = 108,324,000 ,,
Gold... 60000000 GO 2,020 „ = 5636,000 ,,
CoruwprA, 1874.
Bullion..... lee 3600000000 OCROOIDSRGCD 9,200,000 ,,
Honpvuras, 1877.
GSC gooonQo ponopo 2,400,000 。
Perv.
1869 eee cooooogqogooo っ 0o 10,251,140 cwt. = 80,780,584 ,,
Saltpetre........ 。。。・。 2,944,000 ,, = 26,496,000 ,,
MORE A SPLV OLS ee le eleiciss «|e» 70,000 kilogr. = 12,600,000 ,,
G5 py EKO) KG Wi iE rr ere ene 9 360 „ = 1,004,000 ,,

1876, Quicksilver, about........ 3,000 cwt.
Cari, 1875.
Coals (1876), about ...........- 8,000,000 ,,

46

Copper いら ニン oO 00 000 Micra

SR nat HENULUN

Gold ne seen Be Be ene ecto LL OOOO Er,
BorrvrA, 1875.

Silvers Bien ones 222.500 kilogr. = - 40,050,000 ,,

Golat.n. a: PS ee 5 2000: > er 060,380 000,
ARGENIINIAN REpuprıc, 1863.

‘ASTD CMY face 022280 2282 . 4,000 oz. = ca. 300,000 ,,

の 上 SUG 852 lee ...450,00 „= 2,300,000 ,, -

Css Sosnanccsoscoses LBS2D cath
S03) 7 ee 20.000 ,,

Brazır, 18 "/,,
Diamonds about. .... SoG Odd ddpboboddosooogosos cnow OU 000
Gold es neaenana 2,826 kilopr 2 —26,100,00055
Pig-iron produced in
Brazil and the rest of

South-America together ca. 340,000 cwt. =
Tue ORANGE Starte, 1872.

Diamondar.n. ine er eb ele cists pee 5000000),
CrNA.

(According to von Richthofen’s estimate in yearly average from
1869-1878 :
GO09Gaagdap98862028so nono co oY IOOOOD asi
Japan, 1877.
Golde eimai, tater 60880800060 oO 11,281 oz. 934,572 „
Silver. ne 354,80 ae sec Oto SC
Copper ae RAW = AMON

u

Toad een: RE GO it = 13.740
On NEE CONS 5 = 431,036 ,,
Coals ss ie. 8SO66820698Qo5o25o UREA) > ER
15,877,320 ,„
Besides :
1877, Sulphur ......... 23,224 cwt. = 133,232 Mark. ( export-
1878, Sulphuric acid .... 15,767 „ = 379,116 ,„ { ed.
1876, Petroleum, refined 287,662 „ = 238316 ,, (7)
ゎぉ > Ores of antimony He 5 es Ae sy (ft)
lin une ee 892 27 1⑪)

The value of the total produce from the mines in Japan would consequently
amount to about 17,000,000 Mark (+)

(†) According to the Report on the Uyeno Exhibition, Tokio, 1877. ({) 4 Mark 一 1 yen.

49

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60

Although the export of bullion during the period 1868—1878 is not precise-
ly known, it may easily be estimated, as its amount is pretty accurately indacat-
ed by the excess in goods imported over and above exports.

TABLE VIII.

Ix Morr Export Moret Import er
ass aueh OF GOODS THAN GOoDS THAN
een TrpoRr. Export.

YEN. YEN.
1868. 4,860,401 ; _

_ 1869. ーー 7,874,655
1870. = 19,198,625
1871. ーー 3,984,119

“Total. 4,860,401 | 31,057,399
4,860,401

26,196,998

1872. ーー 9,148,168
1873. ー 。 6,475,249
1874. 2 4,144,508
1875. — 8,076,695

1876. — 7,665,275
1877. 2,381,560 ーー
1878. — 5,020,663

2,381,560 40,530,558
2,381,560
38,148,998

The excess in imported goods over and above exports during the perio d
1868—1871 was consequently............yen 26,160,998
and during the period 1872—1878 incl.....,, 38,148,998.

(The difference of more than yen 5,000,000, which exists between the last
mentioned amount and the amount of bullion exported to cover the excess in
imports [yen 43,483,446], is probably due to the fact, that the values of goods
were not correctly declared at the custom-house by the interested parties). 5

Our estimate will therefore at all events be rather too low than too high, if we
take the export of bullion during the period 1868-71 incl. to have been equal
to the excess in imported goods over and above exported goods, or with a round

sum yen 26,000,000.

The total export of bullion during the period 1868-78 would eonsequently
provided that gold and silver were represented in the same proportion as in
1872-78, amount to:

47

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S66'0gTz \ (ont = ms: i ee
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3 「 4 【 ‘ ‘
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sTQ' も CO'T N
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| ¢ ‘ Ar り Ai ) ‘ て
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efB'Og 70'g2e'gr | 0fO'GGL — au 992.181 _ = 86T099 OL8T
| (659 0 ん 5
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S¥6 GLE IST'9% | 29'96I = —_ 9238'S 一 = 9¢9'GOT 898T
| *8TO1 "8917780 *89191tO “8914980 *8at118o *B9t せ 9 “8913780 "salgyed
"NAL *HHVA *sau0 eae "AU A “AUIA UNV “SUVA
XI “ara § dIHS rgTYo Ava 2 = StLYTB NI し NI "uadıdo) “ava
TrYroT。 | 8O テ STVOD り YS aznong Oz NOE aaOO xrdaoO | 。HEddOO ECE CG) AECL YD)

PUL 848I-898I (Norrrag so Norragoxr HUM) SLOAGOUd-DNININ JO LUOdXa
"ya OW Se WW i.

48

EXPORT OF MINERAL PRODUCE.

Table VI shows the export of produce from all the mines in the country, with -
exception of bullion, sulphuric acid and ores of antimony.

Both value and quantity of the copper exports is taken from the custom-
house-reports ; as it is to the interest of the exporter to declare the value of the
copper—on which formerly an ad valorem duty was levied—as low as Bosse,
the values given in the table are not quite the actual values.

According to-table VI, the total export of copper, whether in the Ane of
metal, copper-ware, bronze or ore, amounted during the period 1868-1878 incl. to:

VALUE IN YEN. CATTIES.
Coarse copper ・.・・・ YOUU GIN) 505000805 16,883,121
Oldgeopper ao88005252c NH 5 0800500 1,336,153
Copper in sheet and wire 805,163 ........ 3,660,000 (*)
Copper-ware........ oe 30,988 。。。。。.・・。 200,000 (*)
Jopper in bars..... OR 7301039 ER 4,903,115
Bronze ..... 0805008 022.000 with 119,520 (*)
Bronze-ware........-. 114,455 = 38,000 (*)
Copper-ores ......... 。。 961,984 お 720,953 (*)
6,160,524 yen ,, 27,360,867 catties copper

Yearly average........ 56U,U57. yen ....... 2,487,351 ,,

The 2, 487, 000 catties, which were on an average annually exported, would
represent about 15,090 English tons, or in round numbers 3,300,000 lbs. Eng-
lish, that is, an export of about 43°/, of the production. According to an esti-
mate made by Dr. Geerts (Traisactions of the Asiatic Society, vol. III. p. 41),
the Dutchmen exported during the period from 1619—1858 a quantity of

280,000 American tous, and
the Chinese 250,000. 3) 5
Total 530,000 American tons, or on a yearly average 2;001 English
tons, a quantum, which certainly, when compared with the average as stated |
above, must appear somewhat large, especially when it be remembered, that this
export is said to have continued uninterrupted during two centuries and a hulf.

EXPORT OF BULLION.

If we now finally ask, what proportion the mineral production of Japan
bears to its export of bullion, then table VII will show us the details of the
latter for the years 1872-1878 incl.

(*) In the entries marked (*), the quantity of the copper has been estimated from the declared value.

Gold yen; to the value of............yen 54,144,507 and
Silverman ade ne area 9 LOsDOOs 409.
Summa ,, 69,683,446, in bullion
or on a yearly average:
Yen 4,922,191 in gold = 77.7°/, of the bullion export : Gold.
ee 21668 im silver =" 2230. 45) 5 Pr っ SSMUKeere
Yen 6,334,859 bullion 100.0 ,,

COMPARISON OF THE PRODUCTION AND THE EXPORT
OF BULLION.

The average annual production amounted, aceording to table III,
of Gold to yen 96,911
oy Sym cg 2710299
„ Bullion, ,, 368,240.
The production in the year 1877 was:
Grol, wos AOeA82282A2 Pu En. Dee

STG eT rer ee ne Male ae 451,064

Bullion GO フー os m. tr

ConscquentlY :

1.—The average production of gold amounted ............ to 1.9°/, of the average gold export.
2-— he gold production in 1877 <......4..00.eecc02ee essen ee A » » ”
3.—The average produotion of silver ....................- © 3) 19-275, 45, 53 Silwer export.

A ißheisilver-produebionsun IS re EP en Re の

5.— The average production of bullion ............ 20... » 58,, ., ,, bullion export.

6.— The bullion production in 1877.............. 2.2... EL) ees Pen or

7-—The average net proceeds from all the mines .......... „ 17.5,, ,, „average bullion っ
8.—The net proceeds from all the mines in 877 sy Ue ad 2 の) „ ”
9.—The average total production of all the mines ph Ses. SG. ple gp 2 ”
10.—The total production of all the mines in 1877 DIOR RESO の 0 の

These figures need no further comment; it is no wonder, that there is a
high premium on gold, when in the most productive year (1877 and 18/5)
only 4.7°/, of the export is covered by gold produced in the country, when in
fact an export of bullion, which is from 9 to 17 times larger than the production
of the country, is ruining the credit of the empire. Although there, accord -
ing to table III, in 1877 was an increase of 19.4°/,"in the total mineral produc-
tion, and of 40°/,in the net proceeds, when compared with the average of the
working period in question, it is not to be expectel, that Japanese mining, how-
ever susceptible of development in certain directions, will soon be able, even but
approximatively, to meet a bullion-export of such a magnitude, so much the less,
as there is no prospect of such a rapid increase in the production as the above
mentioned, at least not in the nearest future.

ぐ r
(や)

PROBABLE FULURE MINERAL PRODUCTION.

As to the probable mineral production in the nearest future, it seems under
present circumstances most likely, that the production of gold and silver fron:
the government mines will decrease on account of an inferior output from Ikuno,
(*) until the new establishments in Innai can commence operations. ‘The
copper-production will remain nearly stationary, until the reorganisation of the
Ani mines enables to obtain an increased output.

The iron-production may be predicted to increase considerably, as soon as
the new works are set going.

As Miike has lately been furnished with new machinery, it may be assumed
that the production of coal will increase, provided Takashima is successfully
protected agaiust fire from spontaneous ignition of the coals. Coal-production
from the new coal-fields of Yesso cannot be expected in the next future.

Finally, not to omit two products, which more or less come under the min-
ing industry, petroleum and sulphuric acid, the production of the former has no
prospect of any considerable increase. The wells may, as long as they are
worked by private owners at small expense, yield a profit, but it would scarcely
pay for the government to take them in hand and work them energetically.

The production of sulphuric acid, the export of which—exclusively to China,
in 1878 amounted to 1,324,456 catties, will probably flourish as long as China
does not establish works of her own ; there is no prospect of a large consump-
tion within the country, until either the discovery of rock-salt-deposits makes
it possible to establish a soda-industry, that can compete with foreign manu-
factories, or the discovery of phosphorite-deposits offers the materials requisite
for the manufactory of mineral manure.

(*) In Mikobata, four ris from the present mine, silver-ores have recently been discovered and

further explorations are proceeded with.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS.

I. For Mining
i Fig. 1—Handpump.
| » 2. 一 Basket for carriage.
の Osoolralye
55 4.—Sandals.

HN „ 5.—Breech-leather.
4 » 6.—Timber-Set.
Br. Ladder.

ぅ 8.—Gad.

Be al edge:

ぅ 10. 一 Tongs for holding gad.
Gas 11.-12.—Lamps.

/ Fig. 13.—Gad.
ぅ > 44—Sledge.
ぅ 15.—Hanımer.
Ge DI
a » 17.—Seraper.
® り nl
a). Ue Pick
uf » 19.—Match (Bamboo cane filled with gunpowder and enveloped
in paper.)
\ ぅ 20. —Tamping bar.
» 21.—Loop-drag (Bamboo with cotton rag).

II. For Dressing.

[ Fig. 22.—Dressing hammer.
Da 23.—Hand-mill.

» 24. —Tilt-hammer.

» 29.—Buddle.
», 26.—Jigging-basket.

Plate III.

» 27.—Scarred board.
っ 28. 一 Wash-dish with basin. >
(Besides Nadeki and Mizusagashi, tools for working at the scarred

\ boards).
IIT. For Metallurgie Operations.

Fig. 29.—Rectangular roasting kiln. \ 6
53 NG (Coarse charcoals at the bottom, in the middle finer
" ones, brasque on top).

31.-32. & 33.—Serapers .
34.—Shovel.

» 99.— Wooden hand-box-bellows.
» 3%.-45.—Furnace tools.

Plate V. Plate Jo.

こ ーー ブ ーー デー De ヽ
oo
er

Plate VI.

\

IV. For Copper Refining.

Fig. 46.—Furnace and crucible.
47.—Mould for casting slabs.
48.-59.—Refining tools.

„

”

—u >

Co

ERRATA.

market
thoroughly
preferred
Mandokoro
have
scale
coal
the detailed
tortuous, ill
average
vicinity
14—2%,)
Tachette
mine
10,775,918.
109,164
180,278
Dr
and
Finland
Scraps
Sulphur
961,934
1,500

instead

marcket.‘
throughly.
prefered.
Mandokora.
how.

seale.

coat.

the the detailed.
tortuous ill.
avarage.

visinity.

rachette.
mince.
70,775,918.
169,164.
180,279.
Ds.
ank.
Finlad,
Sraps.
Salphur.
961,34.
15,000.

HASHIGO ™

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UNIVERSITY て OKIO-

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IMP. UNIVERSITY TOKIO.

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mw a 側 5 Ei wo

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TOOLS FOR COPPER REFINING

Em tH

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inviscid

OF THE

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

NIVERSITY OF TOKIO, JAPAN.

た

VOLUME HL’ PART HL。 — Fi &

REPORT

ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TOKIO.

FOR THE YEAR 2539 (1379). に See

T. C. MENDENHALL.

PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS UNIVERSITY OF TOKIO.

¢

JBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

人
SORT IN

i を 。 Lay a の

4 Tr

Museu 40 月

ART

MEMOIRS

OF THE

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT -

WNIVERSITY OF TOKIO, JAPAN.

VOLUME III. PART I.

REPORT

ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TOKIO.

FOR THE YEAR 2539 (1879).
T. C. MENDENHALL.

PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS UNIVERITY OF TOKIO

——c-05¢= 00—_—_

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.
PRINTED AT THE GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

2540 (1880).

PREFACE.

This Report makes no pretensions to be other than an arrangement and
classification of the principal results of the meteorological observations made
during the year. 2539 (1879) at the meteorological station established by the
University of Tokio. A good deal of care has been bestowed upon the classifica-
tion of these results, especially in the construction of the charts which not only
exhibit the more pronounced results in a much more intellisible manner but
also invite attention to many relations and probable dependencies which might
otherwise remain hidden in the numerical tables. In no other way can a
comparison of meteorological conditions be so easily made as by these graphical
methods. At the end of the present year it will be possible to construct a series
of diagrams representing the combined results of two years’ work. These will
doubtless take the general form of those here presented, modified by such
variations as will undoubtedly occur in the present yenr.

A study of the changes which are wrought in these weather charts from year to
year cannot fail to be of use in determining to what extent the climate may be
‘regarded as constant and in revealing, as far as possible, what the normal
climatic conditions may be.

For the liberality with which this volume is illustrated, I wish to express my
indebtedness to the Directors of the University, Mr. Kato and Mr. Hamao, whose
constant desire has been that it should be rendered as complete as was possible.
I must also bear testimony to the faithfulness with which the original diagrams
have been reproduced by the Gengendo Engraving House. In common with
its predecessors in this series, this volume is throughout, in its material and its
mechanical execution, the product of the country and I may be permitted to say
that, in that particular, it is equally with them deserving of credit.

I must express my thanks to W.S. Chaplin Esq. Prof. of Civil Engineering
in the University for the facts concerning the position of the Station and to Mr.
Yamagawa, Adjunct Prof. of Physics, who has rendered much valuable aid during
the passage of the-volume through the press.

The Charts are lettered and numbered so as to serve for both this and a
Japanese Rdition which will be issued.

Av, OL JML
Tokio, March 1880.

CONTENTS.

Preface . . 5 Pees Wee
The Station and Instruments
The Observations. . ate
Barometrical Observations . .
Barometric Tables.
Barometric Charts
Temperature. . as
Thermometric Tables. .
Thermometric Charts. .
~The Wind Ney tet s
Tables Concerning the Wind
Wind Charts.
Rain

Tables of Rainfall and Humidity. .

Rain Charts. .
Conclusion

ican
2 “

REPORT ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TOKIO
FOR THE YEAR 2539 (1879)

T. C. MENDENHALL.

THE STATION AND INSTRUMENTS.

The Meteorological Station, at which the following observations were made, is
in the West wing of the small observatory belonging to the University of Tokio
and is situated in Hongo Mato-Fujimicho, Tokio. The building was completed
in the latter part of the year 2538 (1878) and the task of arranging the instru-
ments and undertaking a regular series of meteorological observations was assigned
to me at that time. The instruments were such as happened to be already in
the possession of the University and their arrangement was completed some-
time before the first of January 2539 (1879), the Directors of the University at
the same time appointing Mr. Wuyeno as observer. The observations taken
before that date, however, were in some degree irregular and the present report
includes only those made during the year 2539 (1879). They have been
continuous throughout the entire year, with a few exceptions in the case of two
or three of the instruments which suffered from accidents preventing their use
during a short time.

The instruments are, at present, all mounted in the small room constituting the
second story of the West wing of the observatory and on the roof of the same. The
approximate latitude of the station is 35° 43’ and the longitude is approximately
139° 46. The height of the stone foundation of the building above the
Sea level is 66.7 feet. The situation of the station is, all things considered, a
very desirable one. It occupies an elevated position and is in a clear open
space so that there can be no local disturbances of wind, rain, &e.

Concerning its instrumental equipment, it may be said to be the simplest
which is compatible with the attempt to record the greater fluctuations in the
principal meteorological elements. Although much information can be gained,
and I believe has been, by a careful and continuous use of the few instruments
now mounted yet there are several important additions which it would seem
desirable to make as soon as possible, to which, however, a more extended
reference will be found in a subsequent portion of this report.

2

The following list comprises the instruments now in use ;—
One mercurial barometer
One standard thermometer

One maximum Pe
One minimum SS

One hygrometer (wet and dry bulb)
One Beckley’s recording Anemograph
One Robinson’s Anemometer

One Rain gauge (Glaisher’s pattern)

All of these are from Negretti and Zambra, London, except the Robinson s
Anemometer which is French and registers in kilometres. Most of these instru-
ments are found to be satisfactory in their performance.

The thermometers and hygrometer are mounted in. or rather from, the
North window of the second floor. They are protected from undue exposure in
the ordinary manner and are separated from the observing room by glass doors
which are opened for observation. ‘The maximum thermometer is Negretti and
Zambra’s model and the minimum is Rutherford’s. The barometer is mounted
upon the wall of the room above mentioned, the mercury in its cistern being at
an elevation of 84 feet above the level of the sea. In this room is also the clock-
work and recording apparatus belonging to the anemograph which is mounted
upon the roof immediately above. The anemometer is also mounted upon the
roof at a distance of about ten or twelve feet from the anemograph. The
anemometer is not self recording.

The rain gauge is planted in the ground abont 30 feet from the building,
its upper edge being about four or five inches above the level of the ground.

x

THE OBSERVATIONS.

The observations, thus far, have been made at the hours of 7 A.M. 2 P.M.
and 10 P.M. local time. This last hour is almost identical with the time of the
“international” observation 7-35 A.M. Washington mean time. It will
doubtless be desirable to increase the number of these observations to at least
five or six during the day as soon as more complete arrangements are made. It
is also intended to undertake a series of hourly observations during some months
of. the present year for the purpose of determining as nearly as possible the
corrections necessary for the “daily means.” The Directors of the University
have recently appointed Mr. Namba as observer, Mr. Wuyeno remaining, and
this addition to the force will make several improvements possible.

The observations are all recorded, as made, upon suitably prepared blanks,
and all reductions and corrections are made afterwards. From these records the
following tables have been compiled and the accompanying charts are based upon
these tables or upon other similar ones. ‘The tables give accurately the results

3

of the observations, but the charts exhibit the various meteorological relations
and fluctuations in a much more striking manner.

3AROMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS,

The barometer in use is Fortin’s model as made by Negretti and Zambra.
The internal diameter of the tube is approximately one quarter of an inch. It is
graduated in inches aud read by vernier to thousandths. I find no record of any
reliable comparison of it with a standard. As before stated. it is mounted with
the level of the mercury in its cistern at a height of 84 feet above the sea level.
In the annexed tables the readings are reduced to the freezing point and to the
level of the sea.

Table A gives the readings thus reduced for the entire year. The most
interesting results in connection with the barometrical fluctuations are to be
found in table B which is obtained by a reduction of the results in table A. In
this table will be found the means for each month of the records at 7 A.M. 2 P.M.
and 10 P.M. and also the annual mean of the same. A comparison of these means
points clearly to the existence of diurnal maxima and minima, the mean heights
for the year being respectively 29.977 inches at 7 A.M., 29.918 inches at 2 P.M.,
and 29.962 inches at 10 P.M. It will also be observed that this same relation
exists im each set of monthly means. with two exceptions. It is hoped that a
series of frequent observations, to be undertaken in the future, will indicate
accurately the times of maxima and minima and determine the extent of the
diurnal oscillation. Table B also contains the general mean for each month and
for the year, as well as the maximum and minimem heights and the range for
each month. The greatest range during any month was in February, the amount
being 1.318 inches. The least fluctuation during any month was in July, the
amount being .389 inches. ‘The greatest barometrical height for the year was
30.515 inches which was recorded at 10 P.M. on April 21. The lowest point
reached was 29.087 inches at 7 A.M. Feb. 23., the range for the year being
1.426 inches. ‘Fhe fluctuations of the barometer during the entire year are
shown on the six pages of Chart No. 1. The first diagram of Chart No 2 shows
the fiuctuations of the monthly barometric mean, and the second exhibits the
maximum, minimum, and range for each month of the year. On comparing these
barometric Charts with others which follow, representing various meteorological
phenomena, one is tempted to enter into various speculations which, however, it
is wisdom to defer until a series covering a more extended period than one vear
can be obtained.

| Day.

4

TABLE A. SHOWING READINGS OF THE BAROMETER

February

THROUGHOUT THE Y

1
|

|
|
|

EAR

March

12

29.80)
30.174

30.283
|

|
30.145,

|| 30.158)

| 30.112
|

30.137.

129.832

30.078

| 30.240)

50.150

| 30-411

30.400
2-7

30.091

| 30.163

30.265

30.356

| 29.985

| 80.30:

30.427

30.221

29.767, 29.979)
30.155 30.257)
30.255: 30.242 |
30.034 30.102)

50.004 30.072)
| |

30-128) 30.207 |

29,882) 30.125 |

20.695

29.822

29.938 |
|

80.060 30.188 |

30.177, 30.254

30.163 30.305
30.415 30.490
30.238 30.145)
29.656 29.020
30.023. 30.126)

30.038 30.018!

30.236 30.33

30.254 30.157
29.979 30.128
20.062 29.826)

29.763 30.057)

|

30.1387, 30.116
50.225) 30.142
30.142 30.071
30.198 30.105
50.085) 50.024
30.171 30.071
30.172) 50.13!
30.091 30.045
30.151 80.066
29.998 29.877
29.870 29.836
29-942) 29/908
30.026 30.007
29.885. 29.893
29.087 29.159
29.850 29.977

30.022 30.063

| 30.135 30.129

30.405 30.332
|
30.313 30.251

30,155 |
30.174

30.179)
|
30.076 |

50.095 |

30.146)
30.123
30.125 |
30.064
20.362
29.901,
29. fel

|
29.845 |
29.754
29.028 |
30.081 |
30.088 |
30.286 |
30.308,

30.191 |

20k

29.942

30.199 30.060

20.088) 20,825

29.996) 29.976

29.935

30.035

Don

29:88) 24.707

29.493) 29.424

|
7 29.759

30.124

50.114

50.213 50.081

29.961 29.888

29.846 29.686

29.006 29.472

29.793 29.755

29.965

20.764

29.965 29.704

30.161 30.176

30.3855 50.269

30.159 29.978
DY 834) 20.831
30.269 50.074
30.083 20.801

FO)

021 29.789

29.332

30.045 |
29.82]

30.043)
|

30,057) 3

29,609) 30.
|

29.703}
29.777
|
30.222
コニー ニー) ||
|
30.059)
29.905!
29.063)

29.653
|
i}

29.915)

29.928)
29.938)
30.318)

30.231)
|
29.877,
30.075
|
|
).073)
|

8(
29.880)
29.933

on

29.880)

30.250
29.765

30.048)

30.198
30.058
29.567
30.020
30.254
30.262
30.003
30-085
30.200
30.347
30.208
29.814
29.832
30.222
30.172
30.006
30.077

2 | 2 | [oe u a

ja En) Ss cha Cane ee
1 | 29.904 29.970 30.082) 30.285) 30.254 80.357 30.055, 20.9534 29.984) 30.023) 20 959) 20.058
2 | 30.123 50.070 30.100. 30.325 30.181 30.166) 30.014 30.033 30.236) 29.813) 29.672) 29.693
3 | 30.196) 30.159 30.181) 30.113 30.011 30.117 | 30204 30.206 30214 29.792) 29.752) 29.912
4 | 30.058 29.800 29.733) 30.137 30.085 80.139) 30.089 30.041 30.012 30.123, 30.136) 30.165
5 | 29.906) 20s 30.140 30.220 30.276 20.353 29.926, 20.734 20.775, 30.125 30.045) 30.038
6 | 30.200 30.118 30.190) 30.328 30.334 30.350] 29742) 20.821 20.884 | 30.004 29.858 29.847
7 | 30.225 30.154 30.161) 30.305 30.102 20.000 29.987 29.937 2.988) 24.775 29.615 2.069
8 || 30.085 29.984 29.865 20.088 29,821 30.061 | 30.201) 30.174 30.204) 30.015 30.103) 30.222

| | | | | | |

|
30.180

29.727

30.032:

30.356

330.252:

30.139
29.887

29.714

30.164 3

50.169
50.104
30.379

30.223

30.204 :

30.287 50

30.098
29.684
29.879
30.155
30.122
29.997
30.056

30.051

2.8651

30.1271

29.459}

30.021]

29.997
29.713}
30.088
30.212
50.097
30.021

30.184

TABLE A. SHOWING READINGS OF THI

5

ュ
4
4

PAROMETER

THROUGHOUT THE YEAR.

| May | June July | August
| = || 5
| a Eee | Reeve RP a AN ea
Do dl 22 sl 10 | 2 | CSI rae eeraa
|| | | | i pe | I a,
| | | | | |
1 |30.15S 30.100 30.130! 30.040|30.054 30.132 29.074) 29.935) 30.004| 29.983 29.935] 29.958

9 | 30.086) 29:989} 29.799 |
| | |
3 129.814) 29.742) 29.782 |
| | |
4 1129:810)29.7201 29.775 |

129.880 29.351) 29.660,

| 29.999 30.016) 30.003 |

7 | 29.895) 29.765] 29.532] 29.793] 29.724 29.749
$ | 20.408 All 29.677, 29.780 29.738 29.753)
9 | 20.785| 29.736) 29.901 29.703) 29.720 20.740
| | | |
10 | 30.022 30.051 30.016 29,681) 20.653 29.814)
| | | |
IL | 30.057) 30.002) 29.949 29.863) aa 29.792)
12 | 20.784 20.675) 29.640 29.656) 29.559 29.626
13 | 29.687) 29.614) 29.714| 29.674) 29.681) 29.787]
14 | 29.819) 29.886) 29.946 29.83 | 29.783 29.8 16)
15 | 30.162 29.984| 20.062 29.821| 20.828) 29.807
16 | 30.054) 29.9990) 29.938) 20.749 20.751 29.814
17 | 29.755 29.627 29.802! 29.811 29.798 29.805)
| |
18 29.089 20.939 29.994 | 29.956) 29.026 29.938)
| | |
19 | 29.883 29.894 29.39 29.765] 29.707 29.717|
|| | | | | |
20 | 30.020 30.018 30.062 | 29.818 29.831 29.881
21 | 30.140 30.086 30.080 | 29.915 29.877 2.876
99 | 29.087 29.765] 29.721] 29.804) 29.785 20.801)
98 | 29,733 29.704 29,8211 29.848) 29.883! 29.957 |
24 | 29.957 20.952) 30.027) 29.948 29.889 29.873)
25 | 30.058 29.980 29.912) 29.879 29.804 29.738)
26 | 29.823 29.737) 29.685 29.798 29.755 29.885
27 | 29,669 29.819) | 29.947 29.913 29.910

29.996

28 | 30.023 29.944 29.955)
| | | |
29 | 30.011 29.982 30.046)

|

|

|

|

|. |

| 30.083 80.026 29.875)
| | |

|
| 29.861 29.874, 29.641 |

30.157)
30.127)
|

29.808)

|
5 PVT! >
29.607)

29.780)

29.935
1
30.085
|
29.976

|
30.104 30.128)
30.124) 30.086)
|

29.709 29.659)

29.904

29.087

50.016)

20.055 29.974 |

29,976) :

のり
|

| |
30.051) 30.040,

30.015

29.0201

|
30.079)
29.997]

20.894) 29.796

| |
24.738
| |
29.720) 29.667

29.825

29.722) 29.746

29.982! 29.916

29.965)

29.740

29.7 2 29.708

29.693
|

99.859) 29.796
|

20.844) 29.803

29.871

29:92:1)

29.849
20.883
29.965 29.944
29.985) 29.946
29.977

29.928

29.888
29.884
29.873 29.860
29.917) 29.834
20.873) 29.812
29,843) 29.310

29.860 29.800

7 29.915

29.977. 29.905

29,942) 29.876
|

if
29.945! 29.897

29.704) 2

2
| |
29.940, 29.911) 29.920

30.033}

30.018) 29.972) 29.918) 29.900

20,911) 29.82] 29.809) 29.825

29,783) 29.443) 29.770 29.819

29.742) 29.832 29.760) 29.837
| | 1

29.710| 29.810) 2! 29.700

| |

29.919) 29.709) 29.568} 29.611
29.979 29.549) 29.521) 29.588

29.690) 20.617 29.590) 29.667

29.705 | 21.722) 29.680! 29.725

29.771 | 29.774) 29.689) 29.783

29.839] 20.756 29.658) 29.640
|

29,817] 29.57 | 29.487 29.515

29.845) 29.570 29.552 29.643
| |

29.931) 29.705 29.649) 29.713

el eg 20,689

29.973 29.739) 29.675 :

| |

29,898) 29.810, 29.801 29.783

29.952) 29.932) 29.921, 29.948
|

29.901 30.032) 29.985 30.011

29.907) 30.010 29.927 29.958
|

29.811) 20.985| 20.902) 29.955

39.818) 29.950) 29.870 29.87

29.295] 29.891 29.3031 29.923

29.805) 29.048 29.029 29,987
|

29.912) 30,008) 29.968 30.007
[ |

29.976) oa 20.854, 29.889

20.918) 29,401 29.858 20.918

29,924! 20.916 20.840 29.815}

29.918} 29.825 29.250 29.955

SE SS SS A RE RSE SS

6

TABLE A. SHOWING READINGS OF THE BAROMETER
THROUGHOUT THE YEAR.

| | |

| 2
Dalle | 2 | Oj a) a fm Iz 2 | io | 7 2 Im

|
| | | | | |
1 | 29.806) 29.671! 29.711 29.855) 29.795! 29.849 30.118) 30.935 30.090
| | | | | | | | |
29.728) 29,672 29.715, 29.920 29,901) 30.035) 30.062) 29.855 29.905)| 29.812) 29.779) 29.893

| | | | |

| | | al | 3

3 || 29.745) 29.687) 29.789 | 30.158) 30.182) 30.327) 29.938) 29.896 29.920] 30.003 29.983) 30.071
| | | | |

1 1 |
4 29.780) 29.701 29.618 30.452) 30.400 30.504)| 30.002) 22-989) 20.091 29.998) 29.885) 29.905
| | |

29.966) 29.884) 29.759

F ウ

| | | | | |
5 || 29.626) 29.635) 29.762) 30.471) 30.370, 30.311) 30.187) 30.095 30.114) 29.969 30.014) 30.143
| |

| | |

6 | 29.813 29.873} 29.984 30.088) 29.895| 29.829] 30.167) 30.102) 30.275| 30.060 29.894] 29.865
| | | | i |
1 } | |

7 | 30.027| 30.022! 30.033 30.054] 30.088) 30.037) 30.382) 30.311) 30.349) 29.650, 29.489! 29.576
| | | i) |

| { | |
30.093) 30.097 30.179] 29.944) 29.958) 29.703! 29.851) 29.724
| |

に | |
September October November December

8 | 30.029 29.974, 20.945 30.159

|

|

| | | | | | | | |

| 29.862|29.691|29.679| 30.058) 29.964) 30.058 | 29.949) 29.852) 29.803}! 29.886) 29.899) 30.025
| | | |

19 | 29.742) 29.848) 29.807] 30.194) 30.119} 30.204 29.505| 29.402 29,524]

| |] | ! | |

| |

=

| |
30.037 29.973) 30.062
11 || 29.853) 29.807) 29.944] 30.292] 30.217

| 1
80.325 29.799| 29.856) 39.025) 30.188 30.079) 30.164

| | | |
12 | 29.946) 29.935 29.920] 30.253) 30.136) 30.175] 30.078) 30.032! 30.161) 30.183 30.105) 30.189

| | | | |
30.047 | 30.263) 30.092 30.106 30.222 30.081 30.094

7) 29.508} 30.185 30.099)

=
ow
bo
Re
=]
(or)
(=)
=!
(=)
=

| | |
14 | 29.407| 29.532] 29.776!) 29.905) 29.764) 29.821 29.826) 29.756) 30-017) 30.067! 29-988) 30.040
| | | | |

| | | | | |

16 | 29.964] 29.908 29.901| 29.874 29.879] 30.071 30.259) 30.181) 30.186] 30.029 24.806 29.695
| ( | | || |

| | こら | et langzalı

17 | 29.902) 29.875) 29.955] 30.263) 30.214) 30.363] 30.163, 30.035 30.073

|
| 29.884 29.953! 30.110

| | | |
18 | 30.04%) 30.044) 30.084) 30.461 30.343 30.353) 30.108 20.013 30.091) 30.182) 30.051 30.165

19 | 30.092) 30.033) 80.055| 30.291) 30.175, la 30.180 30.119 30.140) 30.135) 29.994) 29.946
|

24 | 29.946! 29.869] 29.851) 29.780 29.628 29.782) 29.990) 29.812) 29.695 29.880) 29.761) 29.718

| 1
| 30.032| 29.671| 29 585) 29.682

| | | |
22 | 29.83) 29.806) 29.839] 80.269|80.186| 30.222) 80.107| 29.989) 30.08 引

IE)
21 | 29.866) 29.791) 29.878) 30.025) 30.039) 30.198) 29.756] 29.814

29.649) 29.568) 29.658

|
23 | 29.935) 29.922) 30.011) 30.211) 30.137] 30.153} 30.056] 29.911] 29.920) 29.731) 29.764) 29.875

|
24 || 30.044 29.937) 29.919) 30.145! 30.012) 29.965) 30.001) 29.984 30.074) 29.909) 29.846) 29.904

25 | 29.895) 29.807) 29.873) 29.962) 29.900 30.024 30.087) 29.954 29.972) 29.916) 29.718) 29.532

25 | 29.969) 29.921) 30.020) 30.137) 30.091 30.061, 29.960

29.855) 29.881) 29.729) 29.898) 30.092

27 | 30.065) 30.029) 30.081) 29.758) 29.532] 29.707) 29.860) 29,826) 30.060) 30.216 30.153) 30.201
28 | 30.150 30-103) 30.185] 29.758) 29.736) 29.876] 30.187) 30.146) 30.165) 30.164) 30.033) 29.970
29 | 30.250) 30.188) 30.178) 29.964) 29.921] 30.044) 30.155] 30.027) 29.936] 29.650) 29.522] 29.430
30 | 30.169) 29.923) 29.890] 30.116} 30.056] 80.105| 29.922) 29.880 29.937] 29.210) 29.211) 29.315

EI I oo ee ee 30 103} 30.009) 30.088] -...-- | …… -…… | 29.349) 29.390) 29.641

Al | |
15 | 29.954) 29.915 29.939 | 29.823) 29.763) 29.770) 30.150) 30.099) 80.166] 30.084) 30.009) 30.0745 _
| | 1

U

TABLE B. SHOWING MONTHLY MEANS, MAXIMA, MINIMA AND
RANGE OF THE BAROMETER FOR THE YEAR.

Means General | 5
Month of | Max. | Min. | Range.

~ 8 |
Each Reading. Means. | |

| @a.m. 2 p.m. 10 p.m.

January | 930.126 30.041 30.112 | 30.093 30.490 | 29.555 | 935

29.087

February | 30.091 30.045 30.095 | 30.077 | 30.405

March | 29.987 | 29.901 | 29.965 | 29.951 | 30.555 | 29.424
April | 30.063 | 30.034 | 30.059 | 30.052 | 30.513 | 29.439 | 1.074
May 29.914 | 29.886 | 29.884 | 29.895 | 30.162 | 29.411 751
| |
June 29.856 | 29.817 | 29.853 | 29.842 | 30.157 | 29.559 | .598
| I
m a ーー ーー | |
| |
| 29.899 | 99.814 | 29.877 | 29.863 | 30.079 | 29.690 | 。 389
|
August 29.836 29.776 29.816 |. 29.809 | 30.022 | 29.487 | 580
| 1
September 29.900 29.881 29.895 29.892 30.250 | 29.407 | .848
October | 30.096 | 80.017 | 30.077 | 30.063 || 30.504 | 29.532 972
November 30.050 29.962 30.023 | 30.012 30.382 29.402 | -980
| Il
December 29.904 | 29.845 | 29.887 | 29.879 | 30.222 | 29210 | 1.012
|
29.977 | 29.918 | 29.962

© 5)
N
| a 4 IL Hsl
Hat bs R N
aE “al = Sar + - Lt
‚Her S 2 :
> + ー| = 1 4
ln 8 E 5 2 8
=I ーーー トー 」 zen 1 | 1 に
EWE | | N | | Sl | N
ド N 5 als N N
ahs qe 8 | s 1 = 1 = |
| N ey
ar ay aR = sli =
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on tee ll AU.
S | | it)
= に コト に — 0 ale
SE | 3 ト 8
RSS le
SS = ー —
Qs © a & oy
Sn el =I ゴー LA =
= So, = 中
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= 23 | | | | =
Su ぶ
"= FISIEBEPZBEIE : |
SS SS 5 S > Tr i =I ir
Er | : E
S %
So で 2 N N &
Ss トー ll= Pia |
N N
= N N S

29

Chart N°1

Showing Pluctuations in the Barometer
during the Year 253998 79) 考 -

vA 2 3 $ の

Balzer. eo ||) 27 |

Mach \n

30

29

ny ees

LUN Phat Noh 20 Bie

April. an §

WU N.
Ce tr ee A en
NT

Pape
tat
er
lad
est
re

Chart 97

Showing Fluctuations in the Barometer

during the Year 25399879)

a 1

T
|
|
|
ー
|

どの

&

HY I Ye

REX
うく
i
ire
Ir:
3 ュ

RM

laws mere

和夫 wwwt BE
yy

BL fat

/ / / の ラル ュ = a A i>
Chart N?1 a St) RL
Ä i N N a = — 3 に = FÜ 4
Show ing Fluctuations tn the Barometer Ser ee

during the Year 25391879) ae en

N

feels
i KN r

in
Mt

S |
上 ニー |
ae | 8 |
HY ho ql + さ 3⑱ |
ok | 5 i 3
HER 2 ||
„bs | = | a |
N | EM |
に Be
| | Aue
、 IF | 1 S +
| )
ae NS in |
|
et lee
き ゴート 上
S 8
SSN |
S 人 |
SS > |
o = | |
~~ Ss La | N
S: SS & 1 Q
=e.
3 8 | ]
an 3
ょ ご き S J
Sos 層
きゃ
= nal |
3 IS;
‚SON に |
き |
つの a» Sum er een
VIE mie Dr a ee ERS,

ag AZ
ig ハン

い の ioe
Ae oil apy Sa Nee! ai
DE A ET 5

co sinh bled in nt nc

こ my spay ike! 1
Ne DR
N acht

een

HN

きす

Chart N° er ae

(ay re ee) er es

ZN a ze
0 howıng Phictuations in the Barometer oe a eg ea
during the Year 253 99879) oe 4 光二 |

Nov. 23\ +

Dee. m+

yall Sey ren

x a 7
H rs Bar ae { 9
ME i i ま a
i ogre Fa 3 a
% FR ee + hy 1

—

ed yn * f PA N wi
a © ; oe i
Sty, i) é \ Gia 』
i 1 大
な

may

rs 上
の) } ul N

RR, ay Seen, RR 5 in NM

Chart N22,

Shows = = #
On の うこ ie) es
: fete Brat t+ ae
1% Mean height of the Barometer for , の 2 gt 度 晴 Er リー
each month, eg dp? ) hy
‚974 Maximum,Minimum and Range Bra BRS te
for each month, [RAK ay au
during the Year 2539(18 79). |
ze er Ber | | Be]
— = Bo WM Ne | ZEN NER IL at | A a コロ S
ese e ei S| si 2 SS Sissies
eo nS NHS A A A dA | A A
- 1 | 4 ー ト
2 Fi | トー 7 | IC = IE t | =)
nn 2 ee ae ee ee
8 — = ーーーー ーー =
ッ le ーー オーー ト ーー トーー ト ーー
ag て と を ] | ] N

A @lA &

l. May. |

OO

9

TEMPERATURE.

In the observations for temperature three thermometers have been made use
of; a “standard,” a maximum and a minimum, all by Negretti and Zambra
and graduated in degrees F. The standard bears the number 16543 and is
accompanied by a certificate of examination at the Kew Observatory. The errors
of graduation within the range of our work are so small as to make a correction
unnecessary. Most of the important results growing out of the temperature
observations are exhibited in the following tables and charts. Table C contains
all of the readings of the standard thermometer made during the year. This
table is represented graphically in the six pages of Chart number 3, from an
examination of which a good idea of the fluctuations in temperature throughout
the year, will be obtained. Table D exhibits for every day of the year the
maximum, minimum, and two mean temperatures, the first being the mean
obtained from the observations made with the standard thermometer, and the
second the mean from the observations of maxima and minima. It will be
observed that these two means agree very closely with each other in many cases
and do not differ widely in any.

A minimum temperature of 32° or under was observed as follows ;

] January een .... on 27 days
op.) Be bruanyaremeereenenseeeen BR dal,
DNovembergeiee een a Mle ee
Pep Decembenn. er cr Sr DRS

Total for the year ........ Re OR
A maximum temperature of 90° or over was observed as follows ;

Inu ya RE IE on 7 days
EAU SEE ee nee ar
NotalMiorsthenyeangr ees Dar

Table E exhibits the range of temperature for every day of the year. ‘Table
F contains in a condensed form many of the most important facts found in the
previous tables. It will be seen that the mean temperature for the whole year
was 58°.5; that the lowest monthly mean was 37°.7 for January and the highest
80°.2 for August. - The lowest maximum temperature in any month was 60°.5
in February and the highest, being the maximum temperature for the whole
year, was 93° which was reached on August 15. The highest minimum tempera-
ture in any month was 69°.4 in August and the lowest, being the minimum
temperature for the whole year, was 24°.1, which was reached on January 2 and
also on January 7. Thus the entire range of temperature for the year was 68°.9,
the maximum daily range being 29°.8 on March 23 and the minimum daily
range 3° on March 6. his table is represented graphically in Chart number 4.
The curve in the first diagram shows the fluctuations in the monthly means of
temperature. The second diagram shows the maximum and minimum tempera-
tures and range for each month and the third exhibits the maximum and
minimum daily range for each month.

10

TABLE C. SHOWING READINGS OF STANDARD THERMOMETER.

January February March April

ce
i)
し
(oa)
の
a
ep)
に
たつ
(ey)
co
(=>)
Ha
US
S
eo
Fo
Cm
こら
SI
ox
He
m
No}
oa
9
nay
ロー
cr
[0.0]
ar
a
tr
CT
=
Sai

—_
ir)
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rs
= コ
or
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f=)
(Jie)
co
or
ドコ
go
中
C=
i=
i=)
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[I
to
cS
so
bo
co

18 | 30.

| | (Petes
19 | 30.1 | 87.0} 325 | 413 | 405 | 378 | 38.5 | 415 | 406 | 57.0 | 68.0] 611
20 | 32.0 | 445 | 87.0 | 348 | 51.2 | 42.4 | 382 | 52.5 | 44.5 | 62.5 | 64.1 | 60.0

DO
で に こ
©

or
SI
ロー
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i
トー

wai
pS
=>
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=

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cc

a
[35]
=)
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to
=
co

IS
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Sy)
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tr
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fon)
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bo
cr
b=
ご
I
a
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=)
ur
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[0 2)
Ha
=
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or
to
(=)
D>
5
に
[er]
(>)
つ

11

_ TABLE C. SHOWING READINGS OF STANDARD THERMOMETER.

May June July August

Day. 7 2 10 7 2 10 7 2 10 7 2 10

1 60.0 | 70.3 | 63.5 | 62.5 | 69.8 | 64.8 | 77.2 | 86.3 | 76.4 | 79.4 | 87.7 | 79.0
2 63.3 | 70.2 | 64.0 | 59.0 | 64.0 | 61.5 | 80.4 | 85.5 | 66.9 | 75.8 | 88.8 | 80.2
3 0 | 65.4 | 59.9 | 81.5 | 86.0 | 77.4 | 78.2 | 85.5 | 78.3

9 | 64.0 | 744 63.2 | 70.6 | 72.0 | 62.0 | 71.0 | 78.6 | 71.5 | 73.0 | 80.5 | 73.7
10 60.4 | 72.0 | 62.8 | 67.0| 735 | 66.0 | 71.0 | 82.8 | 78.8 | 75.7 | 84.8 | 76.7
11 57.2 | 73.1] 68.0 | 61.5 | 74.0 | 70.0 | 75.5 | 82.8 | 78.0 | 76.0 | 81.5 | 74.7
12 3.0 | 66.8 | 64.7 | 69.0 | 72.7 | 69.5 | 75.5 | 82.5 | 73 | 75.0 | 86.7 | 77.3
13 64.5 | 64.3 | 56.5 | 65.2 | 74.8 | 70.0 | 70.2 | 80.2 | 73.3 | 76.9 | 84.4 | 79.2

TABLE C. SHOWING READINGS OF STANDARD THERMOMETER.

September October November December

Day.

ご ゝ
{0,0}
>)
Ex
=
<=
fon)
SI
Oo
(op)
=
bo
{or}
C ら m
or
G ゝ
S
to.)
a
=
bo
Cr
Ne}
Ny
iS
{0,0}
GO
記
=
>}
an
ES]
or
18
is
fom)

12 63.3 | 66.0 | 62.8 | 52.8 | 62.5 | 56.5 | 45.2 | 57.0 | 47.0 | 854 | 56.3 | 44.2
13 63.8 | 66.2 | 64.8 | 52.7 | 59.7 | 54.0 || 41.7 | 57.0 | 50.0 | 37.0 56.0 | 47.3
14 71.0 | 81.8 | 69.4 | 50.5 | 54.9 | 53.0 | 44.9 | 58.0 | 43.2 | 39.1 | 57.5 | 55.2
15 69.0 | 76.5 | 69.2 | 53:0 | 54.8 | 54.5 | 85.9 | 51.6 | 41.5 | 41.0 | 56.5 | 46.0
16 68.8 | 72.6 | 65.7 | 584 | 67.8 | 54.2 | 84.7 | 58.7 | 42.0 | 440] 46.8 | 46.1

Fo
[I
I
So
or
=]
©
= コ
ょ =]
m
(ぐつ)
Cr
bo
tr
(or)
&
[33
or
aw
ej
は
+ー
CO
or
BB
【e <)
iw
て 5
i=)
て 5
ge
(>)
Cr
テー
S
a
2)

1
=
for)
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So
[I
oO
I
〇 ゝ
Sr
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[er]
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Ss
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=
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or
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1
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(a>)
(Jy)
=
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Cr
i=)
qr
CS
J
Co

13

TABLE D. GIVING MAXIMA, MINIMA AND MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR THE YEAR.
|

| March. April.

January. - February.

Day.| Max.) Min.| M. | m. Max. Min. M. | m. ||Max.| Min.| M. | m. |Max.|Min.| M. | m.
| | | |

| |
1 || 45.1] 26.4) 35.3) 85.7| 41.7| 32.0) 85.1| 36.8 6 | 46.0 | 55.4 | 52.8 | 68.2 | 49.4 | 60.5 | 59.0
2 || 48.2) 24.1) 35. | 59.9 | 44.5 | 49.2 | 49.2 || 72.6 | 54.5 | 65.3 | 63.5

14

TABLE D. GIVING MAXIMA, MINIMA AND MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR THE YEAR.

May June | July August

ay.|Max.| Min.| M. | m. |Max.|Min.| M. | m. |Max.|'Min.) M. | m. |Max |Min.| M. | m.

70.8| 54.8 | 64.6 | 62.8| 70.4 | 58.
72.6| 59.0 | 65.9| 65.8 | 65.3 | 57.

65.7 | 64.6 || 86.6| 71.0 79.9| 78.8) 89.3} 74.0 | 82.0| 81.6
61.5 | 61.1 87.0 71.5 | 77.6| 79.2| 89.4| 73.3 | 81.6 81.3
70.2| 60.0| 63.9| 65.1| 65.2 | 57.3 | 61.8 | 61.2| 86.8| 72.0| 81.6 | 79.4 88.8 75.0 | 80.7 | 81.9
71.8 | 58.5 | 65.0| 65.1| 68.0 | 59.3 | 65.2] 63.6 | 87.4 | 77.4 82.0| 82.4 | 92.5 | 75.4 | 83.5 | 83.9
58.5 | 58.6 | 76.5 | 61.3 | 70.5 | 68.9 | 83.8 | 76.4 | 80.4 | 80.1| 92.4 | 76.3 | 88.6| 84.3
59.8| 55.0) 56.8 | 57.4 | 77.8| 59.8 | 71.2) 68.8| 86.4 | 75.0 | 81.2 | 80.7 | 88.9 | 74.8) 81.7 | 81.8
64.2 | 52.9 | 58.7 | 58.5 | 81.8 | 65.2 | 73.5) 73.5 | 91.6 | 74.4 | 88.9 | 88.0| 84.9 | 72.0 | 78.9| 78.4
77.5| 55.0 | 66.8| 60.2 82.8] 63.4 | 74.0] 73.1| 90.9 | 75.4 | 82.8 | 85.1) 84.6 | 72.9 | 77.9 73.7
75.9| 58.0 | 67.2| 66.6] 73.3 | 61.5 | 68.1| 67.7 | 74.6 | 69.1| 72.0| 71.8| 83.3 | 71.8 | 75.7 77.6
73.7| 54.4 | 65.1| 64.0 | 77.4 | 59.5 | 68.8 | 68.4 | 85.6 | 69.4 | 77.5 | 77.5| 85.6 | 69.4 | 79.1| 77.5
73.0| 54.8| 66.1| 68.9| 76.0 | 57.7 | 68.5 | 66.8
69.2 | 56.0 | 64.8 | 62.6] 75.0 | 61.0| 70.4 | 68.0 85.8 | 71.5 | 77.0 | 78.6 | 87.5 | 70.
68.3 | 55.5 | 61.8 | 61.9] 75.7 | 64.5 | 70.0| 70.1 80.0) 69.9 | 74.6 | 74.9 | 85.4 | 7
14 | 72.5 | 55.0 | 64.0| 68.7 | 77.7 | 64.7 | 72.4 | 71.2 | 80.2 | 66.6| 73.7 | 73.4 | 90.4 | 75.
15 | 73.5 | 55.4 | 66.5 | 64.4 | 73.8 | 67.4 | 71.7 | 70.6 | 77.7 | 68.0 72.6] 72.8 | 93.0 | 79.9 | 84.2} 86.4
16 | 75.4 | 56.3 | 68.5] 65.8 | 79.7 | 66.5 | 72.7 4

17 | 63.8 55.0 | 60.3 | 59.4 | 82.2 | 67.7 | 75.4| 74.9 | 86.8 | 73.5 | 80.9 | 80.1| 88.8 | 73.7 | 82.1) 81.

BY 1

1

ら の N つつ ot pP Co DR oe
&
Fo
Cu
or
こう
n

en 選 ー
Do

ュー
=

18 | 66.1| 55.5 | 61.5 | 60.8| 78.4 | 68.0 | 73.
19 | 65.2 | 57.8) 62.3) 61.5 | 80.5 | 69.0 | 76. 4 8.
20 | 74.2| 59.2 | 67.6] 66.7 | 80.8] 71.0 | 75.2 | 75.9] 88.7 | 74.0} 82.9} 81.3 | 87.0 | 72.0 | 79.9) 79.5
4 8
7 9

21 | 75.5 | 61.5 | 69.5 | 68.5 |) 78.3] 68.5} 74.4 | 73.4 | 90.8| 72.
22 | 72.8} 62.8} 66.8) 67.8] 76.3] 69.9] 72.4 | 73.1] 90.0) 74.
23 || 73.8| 64.4 | 69.5 | 69.11 75.2 | 67.9| 70.5] 71.
24 | 81.1} 60.0 | 71.8) 70.5| 79.7 | 66.5) 74.0} 73.1) 89.8) 74.5
25 | 75.7 | 67.0 | 71.9| 71.3 84.4 | 68.7 | 78.8] 76.5 | 92.0} 74.4
26 84.6 69.1| 77.1) 76.8| 84.2 | 70.4 | 76.4) 77.3
27 | 78.4 | 57.9| 62.1) 68.1| 76.9 | 68.4 | 71.8] 72.6
28 | 62.2 | 57.5| 59.1] 59.8| 77.5 | 66.8 | 72.9| 72.1 84.8] 74.5 | 78.9 | 79.6 | 85.7 | 74.
3
0)

29 | 71.3) 54.8) 63.8) 63.0| 78.8] 65.8 | 73.9 | 72.
30 | 68.8] 54.8| 60.7 | 61.8) 83.6| 68.4| 76.8| 76.0

31 | 68.4) 56.5) 62.9} 62.4] … | …| … | … | 88.6] 73.0] 80.6) 80.8} 87.8] 74.8 | 82.2 | 81.3

15

TABLE D. GIVING MAXIMA, MINIMA AND MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR THE YEAR.

September October November December

is)
=

y.|Max.| Min.| M. | m. |Max.| Min.| M. | m. |Max.| Min.| M. | m. |Max.|Min.| M. | m.

88.8| 68.5 | 72.7 | 76.1| 78.0| 64.5 | 71.6 | 71.2] 63.4 | 46.6 | 54.9 | 55.0 | 61.4 | 40.0} 50.8 | 50.7
82.0| 69.5 | 74,8 75.7 67.8 | 59.5 | 68.6 | 63.6 | 64.3 | 44.0| 54.8 | 54.1 60.5, 44.0 | 51.3 | 52.2
82.2| 68.5 | 76.1| 75.3) 70.4 | 59.2| 64.5 64.8| 64.0 | 42.0 | 53.6 | 53.0 | 57.5 | 36.5 | 49.2

80.0 | 71.4 | 74.8) 75.7 | 65.0 54.4 | 58.9| 59.7 | 64.0 | 45.0) 53.1| 54.5 | 59.5 | 36.0 | 47.7
68.4 | 74.4 | 75.1 | 66.2 | 49.9 | 56.2) 58.0| 61.3 | 40.5 | 52.4 | 50.9 | 62.4 | 36.5 | 52.5 | 49.
78.2 | 65.7 | 74.8 | 71.9) 72.0 | 53.3 60.6, 62.6 | 59.9) 43.5 | 50.5 | 51.7 | 49.8 | 38.8 48.0 44.8
74.0| 64.5 | 68.9 | 69.2 | 64.9| 57.0} 61.7 | 60.9| 58.7 | 43.0 | 50.0} 50.8] 61.7 | 44.5 | 51.4 | 53.
75.5 | 64.5 | 69.9 | 70.0| 65.3 | 57.5 | 61.8) 61.4 | 60.3| 35.5 | 49.9| 47.9 | 56.0 38.5 | 47.2 | 47.2
72.2 | 66.0| 69.0 | 69.1| 63.5 | 58.5 | 60.7 | 60.7 | 56.0 | 40.0) 51.2) 48.0 54.7 34.0 | 44.5 | 44.3
67.5) 65.4 | 55.2) 59.0 | 60.3 | 47.5 | 43.0) 45.3 | 45.2| 51.8 | 34.7 | 43.6 | 43.2
67.5| 68.5 | 50.5 | 57.8 | 57.0 57.2 | 37.5 | 48.1| 47.3 | 55.8 | 35.3 | 45.2 | 45.5
„64.0 62.7 | 48.2 | 57.2) 55.4 | 58.3) 87.5 | 47.1| 47.9 57.5 | 34.2
63.9 | 60.5 4 | 57.0 | 40.0 | 49.5 | 48.5 || 56.9 | 34.
72.2) 59.8 | 49.5 | 52.8 52.6 | 61.4 | 40.5 | 48.7 | 50.9 | 58.3 | 36.0 | 50.6 | 47.1
71.5| 70.6 59.5| 50.5| 54.1! 55.0| 53.3| 35.0) 43.0 | 44.1] 57.3| 38.5 | 47.8| 47.9
7
3

oe @ so vr» wm DD —-
oc
m
oc

テー ーー ーー テー ーー
oF wo NS OS
JS [0 2) ご ゝ fez) {er} [or]
SB MO の BD CO CS
(9) Wer SS ISA Se)
(op) ご > (o>) fer) 〇 ゝ O2
I COR
>» Cr Gr Cr a iy)

= G ゝ (or) (op) for)

eo ee een ol

| 、 Go) SS}

70.0| 67.4 | 46.0| 58.4} 5 54.2] 31.8) 43.4 | 48.0 | 50.2} 40.0] 45.6| 45.1
69.1| 64.6] 50.0| 56.0) 5 62.8 | 34.0} 51.0} 48.4 | 58.8} 43.4} 51.9) 51.1
70.5 || 68.3} 41.8] 54.2} 52.5| 61.0 | 38.0) 52.7 149.5| 55.5 | 36.0} 45.2| 45.7
69.7 || 61.2 | 44.5 | 56.8 | 52.8 | 56.5 | 40.9) 49.9 | 48.7 | 56.5
70.1} 59.0) 52.0} 57.4 | 55.5 | 60.0 | 43.5 | 52.9) 51.7 | 51.7
74.9) 69.2 52.0) 61.1| 60.6| 56.4 | 44.0 | 47.7 | 50.2| 56.4 | 32.0 | 48.2 | 49.2
8 8
7

bo nO ュー ュー — —
に つ ーー) ピー】 o に | =
oS oS ay SS
= or ds a Br
[0.0] co or ピリ (Jt) CS5
ご > (or) (Sal 〇 ゝ {er} fo)
Co op ake = Od eo ep
Ss WS Gt © 。 (Go
SS) Sy SS) es) ed) ES
OO
ey Cn Ce cS) 1 02)

72.5 | 69.5 | 50.2 | 59.6] 5 55.3 | 89.5 | 46.5 | 47.4 | 53.
23 | 70.7 | 63.0| 66.6 | 66.8 | 59.7 | 51.8 | 58.6 | 55.7 | 57.2 | 34.0 | 46.3 | 45.6 | 53.8 | 35.8 | 44.6 | 44.8

Fo
Fo
4
J
Cr
ご >
a
on
4
IS
Ny

24 | 71.5] 58.0) 66.7) 64.7 | 72.5 | 52.2| 65.1] 62.8| 62.7 | 34.5| 49.5 | 48.6 | 51.4 | 30.0} 89.5 | 40.7
25 | 78.8) 62.5) 71.2) 70.6] 70.9} 50.9| 62.3) 60.9| 51.0) 38.5 | 45.8 | 44.7 | 57.5 | 29.3) 44.3| 43.4
26 | 78.8) 60.0 67.8} 69.4 | 63.8] 58.0) 58.2 | 58.1] 56.7 | 35.9 | 46.3 | 46.3 | 48.7 | 30.0 | 44.1| 39.3
‘| 27 | 74.8] 54.5) 66.3) 64.6| 58.0] 53.5 | 56.3] 55.7 | 61.0 | 85.0 | 47.8| 48.0] 51.8] 33.5 | 40.9} 42.4
28 | 78.0] 57,7 69.4] 67.8| 65.9] 52.0] 57.5| 58.9 | 49.0) 36.0} 45.3 | 42.5 || 50.7 | 27.5] 40.1} 39.1
29 | 78.3) 58.0} 71.7] 68.1| 66.0} 41.0] 58.9) 53.5 | 58.8] 37.0 | 46.6) 45.4 | 53.4 | 28.0} 47.6] 40.7
30 | 80.8) 66.4 | 74.6 73.6] 65.3] 43.0} 55.9| 54.1] 61.5 | 37.5 | 51.2 | 49.5 | 49.5 | 37.5 | 43.6] 43.5

16

TABLE E. SHOWING THERMOMETRIC RANGE FOR EVERY DAY

IN THE YEAR.

February
March
April
August
September

Day

October

|| November

=
oo
ょ =
ce
= ュ
m
Cw
for)
—_
oo
nse
m
>
(=)
m
トー
r
fen
a
a
+ー
or
くら
fen
or
oo

24.1 | 13.0 94 | 18.1 | 13.6 83 | 15.5 | 16.1 | 12.5

> co «I = ご ココ DD mm
トー
or
u
>
Cr
co
=

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bo
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て 5
ns

no
= | December
選 D

m
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17

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ste 4
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16
6

| N
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N
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a ON = iy

ュー に = = ul IR ya 一 -

a sg yuh ーーーー ーーーー 一

y と コ
Chart N°3 MA
En ae, 3 の
Showing the readings of standard Tage ae,
thermometer during the Your L539 = Se aN ene ee
| Ac ae Boe tg
(1879) SZ
7 = Pd 5 6 IR 8 9 eee LAT ote hich 14 | Zoom | 2 の
100 ー 1 = ーーーー |
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30 ; 4 | ー
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20 |
a | | |
Ss Ba za ze 22 22, 250 Pelli 22 | =0) >27 | 28 2020| 32

+
In

Chart N°3 et
= ここ ya
Shawine Ihe reads Ä /
Shaving he readings of standard Zee ete
thermometer during the year 539 @ = =
yp
(1873) Zar
ア る 3 $ 5 6 7. ず | 9 10 11
700 | | Bist ーー
90 Ir
&0 | =
70
60 1 =p Il
50 | je
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月 | ag |
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3 AM en za 20 Ni 27; 22) 22 | 22725. 26 27) Be 129 | 30 | 27
700 1 a | | 4 L ーーーーー Lee]
| | | |
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余 | 30 Le 1 ーー に = ーーー Fa |
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xs 79 | 7B 1 ZO | Bol Di |) 222125, 2221, 9522 36 aN 23.1. 20211 20: 10517

700 2 _ i

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= ea Sa へ st に MS TS は に
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19

THE WIND.

Observations on the movements of the atmosphere have been made by
means of two instruments; the Beckley's Anemograph and the Robinson's
Anemometer. A slight interruption has occured in the use of both but
fortunately at no one time have both been disabled. Two different Anemometers
have been used during the year, one having been blown down and injured beyond
repair by the high wind of Feb. 23. As soon as possible another was mounted
in its stead. At another time the record of the Anemograph was interrupted on
account of needed repairs the interruption lasting, however, only a few days.
In the accompanying tables and charts the results as to the velocity of the
wind are made up, as far as possible, from the records of the Anemometer rather
than the Anemograph. ‘The moving mass in the former being so much smaller
than in the latter it has proved to be by far the most sensitive, often being in
motion when the Anemograph is absolutely at rest. It has also been found
upon a comparison of the two that while the Anemometer will record a wind of
low velocity to which the Anemograph will not respond, in high wind the record
of the latter is in excess of that of the former.

The direction of the wind has, however, been taken from the record sheets
of the Anemograph which are certainly correct in this respect within the limits
laid down in the charts and tables.

Table G gives the actual number of miles of movement of the atmosphere
since the last observation at each of the three observations for every day in the
year, with totals. From this it will be seen that the total movement during the
year in all directions was 49380.6 miles being at the average rate of 135.3 miles
per day or about 5.6 miles per hour.

In table H will be found the direction of the wind at the time of each
observation recorded in table G. When there is no perceptible motion of the air at
the time of making the observation the direction given is that of the last observed
movement. ‘Table I exhibits the total motion of the atmosphere for every day of
the year with the prevailing direction of the wind during the day and the
maximum and minimum movements for each month. Even with the direction
of the wind for every hour of the day correctly recorded it is difficult to determine
the prevailing direction in every instance with entire satisfaction. It is here
made to depend upon both time and velocity of wind as far as possible but it will
doubtless be found that when comparison is made between this and other tables
there will be apparent meonsistencies.

The maximum movement of the atmosphere in a single period of 24 hours
occurred on December 26, the total number of miles being 597.5 or a trifle less
than an average of 25 miles per hour for the entire 24 hours. On this day
occurred, in the city of Tokio the most extensive and disastrous conflagration
which has visited it for several years, the rapid and distructive spread of which
was due to the excessive velocity of the wind. In fact the maximum velocity

20

for the year was reached during the afternoon of that day, being about 47 miles
per hour. The wind came on that day from the North and Northwest, the
record showing North in the morning, Northwest in the middle of the day and:
North again at night. The high wind of February 23 was North in the morning,
Northwest at 2 P.M. and West at night. There have been no extremely high
winds, such as are here known as ‘‘ typhoons” during the year, although some
have been reported off the Southern and South-eastern Coast of Japan.

The least motion of the Air for any day of the year was 24.5 miles on May
ole

Tables K, L and M show the winds classified as to time and direction.
Table K shows the number of times the wind was recorded as blowing from
various directions at the hours 7 P.M. 2 P.M. and 10 P.M. for each month
and for the year. Table L shows the number of times the wind registered a
velocity of 20 miles per hour and over from various directions, for each month
and for the year. Table M shows the total miles of wind in each month from
various directions. Table L is interesting as indicating the prevailing direction
of high winds, by far the greater number coming from the North and Northwest.
There are 30 records from those points against 10 from all others combined.
The number of such winds in the first six months of the year exceeds that of the
remainder of the year in exactly the same ratio.

These facts, as well as others of interest are strikingly exhibited in the
charts which illustrate the direction and velocity of the wind. Chart No. 5 shows
the prevailing direction of the wind during each of the months of the year. It
is based upon table K and represents the relative number of times the wind has
been recorded from each of the eight points, without regard to its velocity. The
great preponderance of winds from the North and Northwest during the first three
months of the year is distinctly shown, and also the tact that during April, May
and June the winds seem to shift around to the South through the East. South
winds are largely in excess during July and August, but in September a sudden
change to the North occurs, ending in December with a diagram closely resem-
bling that of January.

Chart No. 6 is constructed in precisely the same manner, except that in it the
actual number of miles travelled by the wind in various directions is considered,
While the general forms of the diagrams are similar to those of the preceding
chart a comparison of the two will show distinctly the excess of high winds from
the North and North-west. It will be observed on this chart that in the months
in which the wind is generally in the South considerably smaller areas are
included than in the others, which is due, of course, to the much less absolute
movement of the air. Charts No. 7 and No. 8 exhibit the same results for the
whole year. An examination of these two charts establishes beyond question two
conclusions ; that the wind blows more frequently from the North and North-
west than from any other directions; and that these are especially the directions
from which winds of high velocity come. This last statement is strongly verified

and illustrated by Chart No. 9 which exhibits, relatively, the number of days on
which the velocity of the wind reached 20 miles per hour or over, from various
directions. The first diagram of Chart No. 10 shows the general course of the
movement. of the atmosphere for the year, and is constructed as follows.
Beginning at A a line is drawn representing in length and direction the sum of
all of the winds from the northwest : from the end of this line another is drawn
representing in the same manner the winds from the west and so on, finally
terminating at B. The dotted line from A to B may be said to represent in
direction and amount the resultant of the years movement. It indicates a total
distance of 11000 miles, or an average velocity of almost exactly 30 miles per day
from a point 27° West of North. The second diagram represents the total
number of miles of wind during each month of the year, without regard to
direction.

While it would be useless to generalize to any extent upon the results of a
single year’s observations of the movements of the atmosphere, yet these tables
and charts so unmistakably lead to the conclusions given above in regard to the
prevailing directions of the wind that it does not seem rash to venture the
prediction that future observations will only serve to verify them.

TABLE G. SHOWING MILES OF WIND RECORDED AT EACH
OBSERVATION IN THE YEAR.

January

March

46.8

48.6} 87.9

99]

26.7, |

116.7 |

89.0| 8.5
42.5| 58.5
28.0} 37.0
26.4] 69.7

57 35.0] 52.5
| 31.0) 25.0} 142.5
| 100.0] 53.0] 53.5

13.5] 92.5} 188.0

| 950.0} 61.0] 94.5 |
7.5| 79.5] 166.5
179.5) 80.0} 61.0
20.0| 30.0} 65.0

71.0
74.0
129.0} 115.5
24.0] 56.0
7.5| 86.0
108.5
86.0

| 84.5

26.5] 38:0) 46.2
22.6| 60.5] 77.0
56.0| 57.4) 24.8
12.6) 17.0| 40.0

Total

4192.4

Sums {1640.4 {1272.9 liz791

1671.5

1497.9 |1557.7

4727.1

5634.8

1861.8 |1728.0 2045.0

1244.1 |1885.4 |1856.1

4932.6

23

TABLE G. SHOWING MILES OF WIND RECORDED AT EACH
O

や aa so oO 中 urn

BSERVA

TION IN THE YEAR.

1092.7,

August

1005.8

3214.0

39.6
20.2
22.1
17.0
49.5
27.7
47.0
25.6
24.8
20.2
1240.2
3806.8

5.1

1620.4

1042.2 1388.9

8231.9

24

TABLE G. SHOWING MILES OF WIND RECORDED AT EACH
OBSERVATION IN THE YEAR.

September | October November | December
Ae ewe ele 10 | mo lea etn
1 44.6| 25.4] 21.0] 146.2} 236.1) 74.6 | 40.1) 319} 19.4 | 17.5) 204) 18.1
2 26.9| 59.3| 46.6| 80.6| 39.3) 42.5 | 27.3) 83.9] 17.6 | 28.8| 47.4| 21.1
3 312) 28.8) 48.5 | 27.8] 55.9) 51.5 | 202| 29.4| 15.8 | 26.4) 19.1 15.1
4 31.1) 40.5} 744 | 51.0} 30.2) 29.6 | 168.7 | 257.3) 42.8 | 22.5) 16.8) 242
5 45.7 | 18.6| 77.4 | 52.8) 36.9) 53.6 | 38.9) 81.1| 16.6| 24.1| 46.2| 73.0
6 g2.7| 87.8| 482| 811| 22.9| 32.7 | 88.1| 78.0| 106.0| 97.0| 958| 82.4
7 49.8 | 46.5| 29.8] 88.6| 55.1| 88.5 | 27.2) 13.4) 17.8 | 6.5| 548| 85.6
8 55.7| 8834| 30.5] 57.5) 213) 13.9) 55.8) 12.5) 18.7 | 55.2) 62.4} 87.1
9 41.6) 474| 247] 116) 164) 15.6 | 38.7| 15.8) 91.6] 31-4] 20.7| 33.9

10 87.8| 88.7| 87.5 | 72.14 39.4) 253 | 444) 62.4) 81.0

17 | 468] 24.0) 82.7 | 95.2] 20.2 93.1 175| 565| 163) 215.4| 752) 35.0
18 | 313] 325) 24.7| 326] 15.2) 70:8] 66.1| 141] 28.7 | 19.5| 304
19 | 31.9] 229] 925.4 | 43.9] 41.8] 803| 28.6) 32.9] 41.6] 27.1) 23.0) 105
1 88.5| 99.1] 24.0 | 512] 86] 20.8] 26.7] 17.9

21 | 218] 3222| 98| 1140| 104.3) 480 | 877| 11.4) 918] 69.7) 1242| 147.1
92 | 341 981) 172] 28.4] 30.0) 24.9] 35.4) 31.0] 145| 845] 77.4] 77.2
23 | 247| 843) 40.3) 446] 42.7) 458| 195| 195| 18.6) 123.6) 115.7) 865
24 | 514] 33.9 299| 642) 24.7 245 25.9| 68.8| 534] 24.4| 18.9| 15.9
| 41.8| 87.6| 198| gs4| 69| 613

26 | 454| 506| 487| 524| 336| 343] 38.6 204.5| 215.5 | 177.5
27 | 252| 296| 295| 505| 810| 135| 323) 547| 1183} 55.9] 281| 158
1| 27.8 981 | 19.1| 332] 28.7 | 98.2| 42.0) 29.6] 86.7| 20.7| 18.4

29 | 214| s04| 558| 22.2| 21.0| 21.6] 323] 868| 188| 581| 73.1) 20.0
30 | 55.4 0| 87.7| 27.7| 628) 21.8| 32.6) 16.6| 75.7| 38.1| 40.2
ASL usb Le | と | 33:5 .80:1| Ja... | に 89.7 | 29.4| 72.9

| | -——
Sums | 1274.0 1165.3 |1287.8 | 1487.3 1350.8 [1008.1 |1262.7 1145.1 [12538 | 1684.7 183.4 1425.9

95 | 5350| 24.2| 15.1] 22.5| 22.7| 133) 4

Total | 3727.1 | 3841.2 | 5661.6 4693.7
For the year......:.. 49380.6

25

TABLE H. SHOWING DIRECTION OF THE WIND AT EACH
OBSERVATION IN THE YEAR.

January February March April
a ort zo. 2) le. 10 a on za Pe eid
1 | N | SE | W | N |NE|NW] SE| SE] 8 | N | SE] s
2 | W | 8 |NWINw|R INw| N |NE| N SUIS GREG
3 | SW | SE | S | NW] E |NW]| N | N | N | NE/ NE| N
4 |NW|NE|8sw| N| NIN NON Ne JEN se)
NEN NWI ne ton lw tow kaw に NN los | g
6 | w | SE|Nw| N |N |NRN | NE| NR | NE|NW] S| gs
7 INW| SE|NE|NW/| N |nw| SR|NE|N | NW] s | NW
8 |NWINW| 8 INW|NW| N |NWINWINW| N | N | NE
9 |NW| N | N |NE|NE|NW|NW| BE |NW| NI| NIN
0 ls IswlINwls |smls lsw]ls |slslslwx
11 INW| N | N N | NE |NW |NW|NW| 8 | NE| E | 8
2 | N | N |INWINw| s INW| N | W | WINE| E | SE
183 |Nw| NRN | WINW|KN |w|N |RNpls NN: ON
nn | SN se inwli sw tw ion [Nw] w |N.| Ss Jos
1 |NW| S |NW| N | N/] N N | RB | N | NW/NW| N
16 | W | N | Ww |RN | wn INE.INW| w |NW|INWINw| wn
BalNnw|leN m ON | KS 14s Na SE RS UN WESEa|N tS
19 | N | N INW | Ww | 8 | sW | R E E Ne SER as
| Nininin |N |WwW inwi w-|nwiswi s | s
20 | N | NE|NE|NW| 8 | 8 St | 858 a sj 8
a | w.| N | = | Nw] se | 8 | NW] W|NW] NIN | N
2 |Nw| N |NW| N|N|N |NWINW|NW/] N] S| S
3 | N | RB |NE | N INW| W | W INWINW|INw| 8 | 8
24 | NE | © |NW|NW|NW|NW|NW/] N |nw| s | SE] s
25 | N |NE|NW1INW|INE| SE | NW| SE|SE]| S | 8 | N
26 | N |NE| W | N | |NE | S | 8 | NW] NE| NW] W
Taw NE | Nw) SH | se | win | N |N | S | W
28 |NW | E | W | Nw| S | SE |NW|SE/] S | W| 8 | 8
ag NW Ne ee | 28 lonw | sw | S Shall aS
3 NM Tn | De ee So sw Es |INw.| sk or
SI EN NN ee SS sm], 2 = jmpe®

26

TABLE H. SHOWING DIRECTION OF THE WIND AT EACH
OBSERVATION IN THE YEAR.

=
4

eo a so a mr ce5 DD —-

[ga ーー テー ビデ ご ルー
ピー】 の | ー/) [Se SS [sty DS に ーー)

21

m
bo

DD
Hu

vo wow ww ho Fo Fo
— S ピー】 CO に 1 =

June
10 7 2 10
SE S N W
SE N N NE
NE N | NE| N
SE NE | NW | SE
SE S SW
N S Ss
NE | NW S S
W NW | SE S
N S NE | NW
S NW | NW | SW
SE | NW S S

July

sssopoggogls

August

27

TABLE H. SHOWING DIRECTION OF THE WIND AT EACH
OBSERVATION IN THE YEAR.

September October | November | December
7 slml。|s 10h pe en
S | SE {NE | N | sE | E | NE | SE | sw
1 {NE} NE | NW] NE! E | NW] WN |Nw
AN IN | swi nw |w iw inl se
NIINm | @ | Iswinw| w | we | nw
N | N-} N N | SE | NE | NW | NE | N
min | NII TUNw IN IN IN INw
NEIN | y | © 8sWwllNw | 8 | s
NilN | N INwl ls | wis] s [Nw
NPN | Ne; Em |E | w | sk | ww
Nix {wi yi wi w | m lmwlnw
Nj sz | se lsw| mlr | NW | NE | Nw
x ls |lw Iselw |nw|n Isw
mon | we] NIE | NII NW | yh | Nw
NAEENE Ne wolle. || Ww | Nw | NE | NW
no} N | N | W NE NW | NW| N | N
Nin | N | wine] Nw] N | Nw] NW
NIIN |N | nwine| nu | nis [Ne
nein | KN N | E | NE | NW] NE | NE
Nein |N INwl |N | Nw] @ | u
SR | N | N | w | walese le nal w on mw
SE | NW | N |NW | N N N | N | NW | NW
"| N | se] 5’ | N } SE | SH | NW| NW] N
NE | wie N | wis | Nw lw | nw | Nw
| N | N | w ow INw INw | Nw] NE | sw
ei wsm|sm INwIRN | Nw | w | SB | 8
i | Nw] N | Nw] N | NW) NE | NW] N |RW|R
x | NIINwINw| w |N |N NII AE ge
Ss |sk | w|sw|nw| N |nE|IN | N | N | NE
s | w | s |nwi nw] ne|] N | N | NW] NE
S slNwlsslswlNlgls | w INwlsr
- | NW | NE N |i es a == | SW NO 1 N

28

TABLE J. SHOWING MILES OF WIND AND PREVAILING DIRECTION
FOR EVERY DAY IN THE YEAR.

January February | March April
Miles P. D. Miles P. D. Miles 125 1D} Miles 12% 16):
80.7 S 188.4 NE 93.0 SE 156.0 に
32.1 SW 143.5 N 250.5 N 275.5 S
90.9 SW 126.5 NE 262.2 N 235.0 NE
123.7 W 173.0 N 115.0 N 36.0 NE
250.1 | NW | 1623 N | 1532 N 108.0 E
88.3 NE 99.3 NE 229.0 N 117.0 SW
69.7 S 930 | NW |. 921 E 110.5 SW
98.8 W 338.4 | NW 2225 | NW 176.9 NE
2555 | NW 17224 | NW | 10.5 W 212.0 SW
286.5 | NW 150.8 NE 40.3 N 104.0 N
173.0 | N 131.7 N | 218.0 W 224.0 | NW
Ta ag aN 115.9 aa sey W 126.0 E
UD | iN 145.7 W | 67.1 W 88.5 W
142.7 NE 1820 | sw | 182 | nw 109.5 | NW
88.5 | NE | 1963 | NW 268.0 N 74.5 W
143.6 NE | 243.9 N 282.3 NW 413.0 NW
1954 | Nw | 1964 NE 85.5 W 132.0 E
244 | NW | 810 | NE 148.5 N 120.0 S
149.1 N | 200.0 N | 69.2 W 176.5 S
1582 | N | 1029 SW 144.5 W 193.5 S
7300 oN ||) teas |! ty 1985 | w 2865 | NW
64.1 N. | 1520 N 206.5 W 172.5 E
2019 | nw | 5406 | NW 183.0 W 103. S
68.6 NE | 2607 NE 3395 | NW 267.0 S
72.5 NE | 1338 NE 173.5 Ss 297.0 S
113.7 N | 1988 NE 183.0 SW 252.5 S
99.3 NW | 955 E 294.0 W 110.7 SW
81.1 | NE | 113.1 S 205.5 W 160.1 S
144.8 | N | Bere nee 253.5 SW 138.0 S
198.90) NW er 320.5 N 69.6 SE
252.7 | SEINE IE ent ald te 115.0 Sis Wet a ee Oe
Max.| 2944 | NW | 5406 | NW 3395 | NW 413.0 | NW
に | 64.1 | N | 81.0 NE 40.3 N 69.6 SE

29

TABLE I. SHOWING MILES OF WIND AND PREVAILING DIRECTION
FOR EVERY DAY IN THE YEAR.
June July August
5 IDS Miles 125 1D). Miles 125 1D); Miles PD:
SE 26.0 Ww 197.0 8 96.4 SE
SE 138.1 N 186.9 S | ad N
SE 62.0 N 215.5 8 1108 | NE
SE 2075 | NE | 1760 s | 82 8
NE 227.5 N 91.0 | sw | 1068 N
NE 99.8 8 697 | sw 69.8 | NE
N 145 | NE | 1427 | sw | @4| sw
Nw | 1145 N | 2000 W 92.5 | NE
B 118 | sw | 985 E 150.1 | NW
8 1855 | NW 49.8 B | 147 E
SW 154.5 SW | 839 S | 102.0 SE
E 97.5 | SW 131.4 B | 897 SE
NE 100.0 8 119.3 |e a 8
) 77.0 || eae E 77.0 | sw
SW 114.0 N | 1159 N 544 | SW
8 705 | Nw | 1293 SE 1403 | sw
NW 42.5 By) 1841 S | 610 N
N | 148.0 SE | 205.1 S 81.1 E
B 233.5 i loson|) sw 1435 | NE
a BE) N 155.3 Sean 8
SE | 6388 Sm) 10m SW | 174.6 8
W 465 | SE 97.9 s | 1946 8
N 104.5 iD 68.3 W 144.0 SE
SW 82.5 8 65.8 W 73.2
8 510 | sw 82.8 8 70.0 | NE
S 87.0 nw | 185.8 S 84.4 i
SE 615 S SG || NB 775 8
NW 61.0 E 2026 | NE 158.0 8
E 81.0 E | 118.8 E 75.8 | NE
SE 107.5 8 80.3 SE 168.1 SE
5 By, Sond ae | | name 8
W 2335 | Ss | 2155 Soma Gas
8 26.0 | W 45.5 | NW | 544 | sw
ーー

30

TABLE I. SHOWING MILES OF WIND AND PREVAILING DIRECTION
FOR EVERY DAY IN THE YEAR.

September October November December
Day. || Miles P. D. Miles 12),
1 91.0 ai) 86919) 9S 914 | NE 56.0 |
2 32.8 | ee | 738 | NW | 97.3
3 | 1085 NE 2 1352 NE 65,4 N 70.6 |
4 146.0 S 1108 | NE 463.3 bow 63.5
5 iin) Nm | 1438 N 86,6 | NE 143.3
6 | 1087 NE se7 | nw | 107 N 274.7 :
7 1256 | NE | 1272 | N 58.4 N 146.9
8 119.6 NE 92.7 N re N 204.7
9 113.7 N 43.6 N ent | N 86.0
10 | ml40 | N 1338 | N 187.8 N 76.5
Ww tea) sp | o | Np | cs N 90.8
i2 269.6 NE | 62.8 NE | 80.3 N 102.8
13 364.1 NN ero N 92.9 | NE 136.0
14 148.0 SE | (536 N | oss | NW 100,3 |
j5 95.3 NE | 860] N | 74) NW 93.6
16 107.1 NE | 168.4 N 551 | NW 213.8
iia) 1055| NE teas an lly GO3 | ae 325.6
ig | (885 | NE | 86 | w | age | NE 56.6
19 80.2 | NE | 116.0 N | 1031 N 60.6
20 498 | NE | 2066 N | 806 | W 62.1
21 638 | m | 2663 | Nw || ass | IN 341.0
22 | 794) N | 833 | NE | 809 | *NE 239.1
28 | 998| RI | 1826 | NW || 5264 sw 275.8
24 59 | N | mee | ww | mea |) mw 592
25 | 923 NE | 85 S 9.2 | NW | 966
26 | 144.7 NW 120.8 NE 93.4 N 597.5
2 | stg | sm 940 | NW | 988 N 99.8
28 | 780 SW 760 We 998 N 75.8
29 | 1000| s | cas sw I | tome
30 | 185.7 S | 1082 NE | 704 SW | 154.0
Bilas Iie epeoee bb” ceeds 83.3 IN Gl Peete GOOOC | 142.0
| Max sea] I | seco 5 ee lami. | curs
Ia 498 | nu | sse| m | 551 | nw | 560

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le la | Ile ll ilo |e ii He Io Im |e [ole 9 de a lhe lo | or lo ta
si le ja lo |» Jo |t Jo lo |ı |r Ja |e jo le |r |r |e |» \o | ar ler)
zit leileioilt jo lo |t lr |9 a Ne le |edy ip it ie ||» Wo a
eleIis|o lo |a|a|e lg Jor sis |r |2 l/r lo IE |ı Jo |e |e Jo |e |v
To |1 jo |t ET |> je to ep |ı a |v ja je |g
Bela tole io le lh fOr le WOLlnr |e Ne le Peal Or |r Ne Nt vr men
ele lg le to Ihe he jo oa Valle |e lee le le le io is le lo | ds
feta ie lot to folie aclarle It ie Io iz |e fo lit fi le |e |e ja
sie [ae le [2 lo Io |e li le le Io 18 Ie Ie lo Iie fe te le 2 a
ale face tol it lolo le le lo Ie le fo In lao ie |e fe 9 | in| ai
ole ler|s lo l¢ Ir lo Ir Jz |a Jo le |r lo |ı Je Jo Je |\s |t Jo juin
olalezlolelelolelelole|ziolelezlolelelole|elol|e|e

MN M MS S HS | H HN N

‘Wd OT GNV ‘Wd @ 'W'V 4 SINOH AHL LY HINOW HOV NI SNOILOHHI
SOIHVA NI (HHOOHH SVM (NIM AHL SAWNIL HO HHHIVHN HHL ONIMOHS M TIaV

32

TABLE L. THE NUMBER OF TIMES THE WIND REGISTERED A
VELOCITY OF 20 MILES PER HOUR OR OVER FROM
VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

Month

January
February
March
April

May

June

July
August
September
October
November

December

| ピーーーーー|

0

7

1

| 1 4

8 | 3

4 11

2 | 6

Tale 2
| |

eet Tl IM) 3
|

| 0

| 1
|

| 2

1 | 2
|

| 1

4 4

ーー ー| 『
use 17 40

TABLE M. SHOWING TOTAL MILES OF WIND IN EACH MONTH
FROM VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

12567.0

Month N |
January | 19804| 235.7| 735| izea| maa| 986
Febrnary | 17829] 2756| 1592| 1970] 3028 | eit |
March | 1524| 71) 1468| 2108| 9828| 4061
April | 6151) 2265| 5835| 5955| 20674| 2907
May | 2948| es04| 2 ser9| ers| 2465|
June 1730| 5999| 3948| 3733| 1066s| se95
July | 78| 3287| 2804 | eu| imse6| 635.7
cant | Gen wo) sin) 0| 52 169 |
September | 1756.3| 7285| 1986] 38190| 107| 81.1 |
October | 15078] 5566| 2514| 133] 332] 1211
November | 1555.1] 2482] 1562] 672] 647| 195
December | 8083) 1147| 44.7] 1880| 581] 4773
Total 9451.4 | 2880.0

214.8 | 1348.8
91.7 | 1984.9
664.0 | 1305.8
387.0 | 546.9
1413| 98
266.0 | 308.0
65.5 34.0
146.1) 262.2
170.7) 3322
6163| 7415
1796 | 13711
1202 | 2882.4
30662 | 11210.6

Chart N25
Showing the prevasling direction of
the wind during the months of the

Saat at
$m dy (

I

N
1!

WT li

N3t

BAN oe

year 2532779 79).
N3t N3E
の 2
| oe
Sa Si
Nat Nat
W- = BE W-
By Aplı x May.
Hw Fz
Sia N:
Nat N3t

7 回

ren]

Faery

as

Sm

2 AS 第
72 N06 |
N ee
Showing the number of mules of wind 7 — A. » = Fu
= AN ae ara ee ee SE a
from various directions during the = DR
"monöks of the year.2539(1879) eG a
mondhs of the your 23 / 4 ES > BE NE

N 33-
= „u

Den
Bz
=
=

Chart NOT

| Showing the prevailing direction of the
wind during the year 25394879),

、 Showing the relative numberof miles
ae Wop wind from various directions
人 during the year 2539 (1879).

‘Showing: the relative number of times
2 the velocity of the wind was in excess

of 29 miles per hour from various di-
rections during the year 2539/1879)

雪
ME
bt

yo シ

EN 2 し

Sea ©

4 a : on oe wm Ka

sn 0 ae Br ” es

し の

during the 99 の 253971879, i

a gz ihe number of miles of wind during

the manihs of the year.

テ &
- orig the general core 4 kenn 4 &
et

a, nen aad aa

= al

vo

RAIN.

Table N exhibits the rainfall in inches for every day of the year. A
graphical representation will be found on the two pages of Chart No. 11. where
the horizontal lines are drawn equal in length in inches to the rainfall for each
day. Table O contains the rainfall by months, classified according to the
prevailing direction of the wind during the fall. In each vertical column will be
found the number of days on which the rain fell, the wind being in a given
direction and also the total amount of rain in inches. Both of the results are
shown in a more striking manner in Charts No. 12 and No. 13 The first
shows, relatively, the number of times the rain has come from different
directions and the second the actual inches of rain from various directions for
each month of the year. A comparison of these curves with those already
given of a similar character representing wind alone, indicates some interesting
relations and when a longer series of observations shall have been completed
important deductions can doubtless be made. Charts No. 14 and No. 15 exhibit
the same facts for the year, being constructed from the totals of table O. A
comparison of these points clearly to a conclusion similar to that reached in
regard to the wind; that is that not only have by far the greater number of rain-
storms come from the North and North-west but that it is particularly from the
North-west that the heavy rains have come. In table P will be found the total
fall of rain with the number of days on which rain fell and the number of clear
days for each month and for the year. By a clear day is meant one during
which not more than one fifth of the sky is covered with clouds at any one time.
Of the total 58.975 inches of rain for the entire year, the greatest amount for
any one month was 9.606 inches for June. In May and June rain fell on 33
days, the total amount being 18.409 inches. Less rain fell in November than in
any other month, although the amount is only a trifle less than that for January.
The greatest amount of rain on any one day was 3.96 inches on June 4. The
maximum number of days in succession on which rain fell was 11,—from May
25 to June 4. The maximum number in succession on which rain did not fall
was 14,—from January 1 to January 14. The maximum number of clear days
in succession was 10,—from January 1 to January 10.

Snow fell on four days, as follows ;

Jemen Dil ‘125 inches (melted)
os PD 440,
IHebruany ar lern een Obs gs ay
の TE trace.
MINGVEY| ENERO. 5 cosonessoceocce [62 Ommees の

Chart No. 16 exhibits in the first diagram the proportion of clear, cloudy and
rainy days in each month, the open space representing clear days, that crossed by
one set of lines cloudy, and that by two sets of lines the days on which rain fell.
The second diagram shows the total inches of rain in each month of the year.

34

Tables R and S exhibit percentages of humidity as computed from the
observations of the wet and dry bulb thermometers. It will be observed that a
very high degree of humidity exists throughout the whole year. The minimum
percentage is 40 which was observed in December. I am inclined to the opinion,
however, that the results obtained from these hygrometrical observations are not
entirely trustworthy and during the present year the observations wil! be
checked by those made with other instruments. The tables are inserted here,
however, for comparison with those of future reports.

QF
39

TABLE N. SHOWING RAINFALL IN INCHES FOR EVERY DAY
OF THE YEAR.

December

September
November

ia
BS =
= の
= a 5
= rr =
= 2 =
3 たつ で

.002 |

| .0042

=
< と
a

trace

| 1.910 |

|
trace

002. |

2

quiet] os |orwon) sr rest | or |ssorr | | “Gor | 906701) g | 2
pe | 9 10 en i io | 0 lo o lo 0 | meem
mg | 5 lo | 1 Jo 0 0 100 Ai 0 0 |toet| 2 |
1907 | » jo 0 jo 0 0 |ooe | 1 | seu | 2 jest) e
et | s fo 0 jaw | jo | o joer) 6 jo | 0 je a IEe| 6 |
0 0 lo 9 |O QO jst | tT joe | 1 jose) 6 jen | 2 irr |r |
Too | 1 orale le0 | 2 lr | 6 lO | © le | 8 leo | | 1
were mr s jeort| 9 loeen| re | @ Im | 2 Me | a o |
goo | 8 loser) 1 |eor | U josrt| 9 le0 | t or a mern = Jer | 2 | Suny
90% | T este 6 © | 0 le | oso: | I 0 Fe lr 3 ler | 8 |
OORT] @ |% | a PO | t lm |r feat | t [toy | 1 ore Gyre | 2 |
Ge, Oo MO | oO IO |o jo | o | 1 0 | 0 la et ©
Se の |o jo |e 0 (Fo ened a lo 0 foto | Tose: | e |

| | | | | | |
JmV say) oN | muy, uy| IN | guy | oN [muy | CN amy) con | 時 =

| | a oN |) oN

"AVHA HHL GOH INV TLNON
HOVd dOW SNOLLOAAGIG SIHOIAVA NI CINTA HAL ILIM SYHONI NT NIVG
HO LNNONV "IVIOL HHL ANY TIMAI NIV SHINIG HO IHINAN WI DNIMOHS O WIV

TABLE P. SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS ON
WHICH RAIN FELL, THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF
RAIN AND THE NUMBER OF CLEAR DAYS
FOR EACH MONTH FOR THE YEAR.

| No. of days INIO WO
Month | Amount on which

Rain fall Clean devs

January 2.089

February

March

April

May 8.803
June 9.606
July

August

September

October | 6.647

November | 2.041

December | 3.745

98.975

38

TABLE R. GIVING THE MEAN PERCENTAGE OF HUMIDITY FOR
EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR.

| | | | ド 8 Restate

| 2] ae ee | ほ WI
>| | a a Bal
ale Bere erlernen Ze
1 | 72 | 73 | 100 | | oi! im| 3) 0 er
2 | 76 | 74 | 100 | 8 | 97 | 97 | 8e| 87| 90| gm | 80) 8
3 Tide 63995 an AR 100. es ee | 87 |。』79.| 89
Al 68 | 67) oe 9 中 98 00 | 8 83) 94) yes pre) or
5 91 65 | 100 | 92 ol) By) CB) BR OA BR] SB) on
6 | 8| st) 93| gl |. se] 96! | 98] 100 | | 76} 100
7 88 | 98 | 89 | 88 | 98 | 88 | S8 | 95 95 | 98 | 8] 86
8 ig) vo te | 87 | MOS ea OS a m
9 | 66 | 77 | 65 | 100 | 95 | 100) 94} | 98| al u, 67
0 | 8, ll a2] 94 | gl 87! 95] se| 100 | 80] 100) 89
i |p ma SW | a) @ | oe | 9 | 96 | 90} im| als, 987
2 | 85 7% | & | 78) 100 | | 92) 88) 10 als ®
1B | Gi) we | 85 | 9 | 99 | 9 al 92| ws 91| 89
14 || 72 | 721 | 85 93 | 92 | 8 | 88) 83] 98 86 95
is || 68 | onl gl en ee) ml ee | 85 | s2| al!) 90
16 | 64 | 8| 74 | ml 85 | 94| 88 | 87 | 9 | 71) 81 | 99
il | ml ol | 100] 97! 9! | 90) ge] 93] 38
| @| | gl ml| wi sl ml 86| 87| ss| %| 96
19 | 79| 96 | 4 | | os] 8 al ol 87| 92) 92| 79
20 | | 86 | %| | us| | al 20 | 98| 99| 93| 98
21 | 76 | 76 | 88| 66 | ゅ | 94 | 80 | 8 | 98| 84] 71| 80
2 | 3 95 | 71 | 78) 100) 100] 8 88| 91| 88| | 81
Bl eal 6 | 65} 89] 96 | 98) 83) 93| 90) 98] Jes] m
24 71 68 58 89 85 96 | 88) 94 88} 94 86 | 91
25 120 yl aCe Et a rode 0 a et >
26 | 69 | 341 mul oi) sa 06 7 ee) ae
Daal), 82 eo oe oz el eo: 79| 81

Do
oo
< っ
CT
の @ 2)
7
CO
rss
S
oo

ee
Qc
Oo
oc
OG
c 0
a
Co
=)
fe)
or
we
{02}

39

TABLE S. GIVING THE MEAN, MAXIMUM AND
MINIMUM PERCENTAGES OF HUMIDITY
FOR EACH MONTH.

Means Maximum Minimum

January 76

February 80

March
April
May

June

July
August
September
October

November

December

=

弟

吾
=
ML
年

Chari N2M
Showing the ramfall in inches for

every day of the year 2539/1879),

S 5 &
army — >

En

|

|

|
a

=F echo MA
= :

T
aah *.

ンー

Eee

Chart /V9@
Showing relatively the number of Limes
ram fellin each month with the wind

in various directions.

N3E

» SF ws

AB CU)
a ひ Y does コ 5
BANE AGT
U

Br

Me AL Mr ‘

ee
9 ンー ae
Chart N45 ee っ
Shaw ing the relatwe total amount of rain *: = = BR Et =,
im each month with Ike wind in various ae aie ee,
directions. YA R Dele 年 Au =
Oe a Ry GB) Ba es

N3E N3E

Sat by

sae

Chart NUE

Showing relatively the number of limes
rain fell during the year with thewind.

in various directions

Chart N215

Showing relaiively the number of tnches
of rain during the year with wind in

various directiong

77g あ 7/ の

Shaun 1 the relative numherofrain-
4 .
tiny cloady and clear days in cach mouth,

v
oad ihe Jotul ramfall in inches Sor cach

mail

Feb.
ml

の <
22

の oo
ER

41

CONCLUSION.

It will be remembered that the foregoing tables and charts represent the
results of only a single years observations. To enter upon any extensive
discussion of these results would be useless. Before attempting any important
generalizations concerning the local meteorology it will be necessary to wait for
a further accummulation of facts. Some general principles seem to be so clearly
indicated by these results that I have ventured in a few instances, to call
attention to them. Most of the important results of the year’s work are here
collected and classified for convenience of future comparison and it is believed
that each year will add to their value. It is hoped that the efficiency and value
of the work may be increased during the next year by carrying out some
improvements already proposed and by making a few additions to the equipment
which I will here suggest.

During the past year the necessity of duplicating several of the most
important instruments has been shown. It is to be expected that now and then
an instrument will become disabled by accident or otherwise and this may some-
times cause serious interruption to the work. The value of meteorological
observations depends on their regularity and continuity. Situated as we are, so
far from ordinary sources of supply for such material, the only way of preventing
such interruptions seems to be by keeping duplicates of the principal instruments
on hand at all times as far as possible. There is a double advantage in this, for
results obtained from the observation of two or more similar instruments are
much more reliable than those from a single one. I would therefore recommend
that a supply of thermometers and an extra barometer be obtained as soon as
possible. A wind vane is also much needed, to make us independant of the
records of the anemograph, which, owing to its great inertia is believed to be
neither sensitive nor extremely accurate. Without great expense an ordinary
light vane may be made self recording which would add greatly to its value.
As the wind is one the most interesting and important meteorological phenomena
of this locality it would be extremely desirable to erect a self-registering anemo-
meter, such, for instance, as is in use in the meteorological stations of the United
States Signal Service. If desired, a registering appatatus can be easily added to
the anemometer now in use.

It is intended during the present year to begin a series of observations upon
Earth-temperatures. ‘The temperature at and immediately below the surface of
the earth will be ascertained by means of thermometers and for greater depths,
down, perhaps, to a depth of 40 feet it is proposed to use the thermo-electrie
method. Some preliminary experiments upon this method are now in progress
in the physical laboratory of the University with results that give fair promise of

= success in its use. Early in the present year a telegraph line connecting the

Observatory with the physical laboratory was completed which will without doubt
prove to be a great convenience. One of the special considerations which led to

>

42

its construction was the desirability of taking advantage of the exceptionally
favorable conditions for the study of the velocity of sound. At 12 M. of each
day a time gun is fired which can be distinctly heard at both the Observatory and
the University. Although the location of the gun is uot precisely in the
prolongation of the line joining these two points, the deviation is not great and
the necessary reduction can be made with ease. Observations upon the direction
and velocity of the wind, the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere
will be made at the time at both stations and the time of the arrival of the sound
at each will be recorded on a chronograph. It is expected that in this way a
large number of observations upon the transmission of sound under widely
varying meteorological conditions will in time be secured, which may contribute
somewhat to the solution of a problem of very considerable importance.
Although not a question pertaining strictly to meteorology it is one of great
interest and it is hoped that a considerable series of results may be ready for the
next annual report.

There is another phenomenon which, although not strictly meteorological, is
of such interest and importance to all residents of Tokio, and indeed of Japan, as
to demand attention and investigation whenever and wherever possible. Much
attention has already been given in this country to the study of the phenomena
of earthquakes and a great variety of seismographs have been constructed and
used in their observation. Some of these are very complex, being designed to
register several of the elements of the phenomenon, while others are more simple
in their construction. It is, perhaps, not too much to say that in spite of the
efforts already made our knowledge of earthquake phenomena is still very’
indefinite and uncertain. While I would not recommend the construction or
purchase of any complex registering apparatus for use in the meteorological
observatory, I regard it as highly desirable to erect some simple indicator, which
may not be liable to get out of order and which, in connection with some of the
time cylinders in use, or to be used in the observatory, may indicate the time of
the shock, certainly, or with the smallest chance of failure. If we shall succeed
in this one determination with unfailing certainty the result will be a contribution
of no small value and well worth the trouble and expense which will be rendered
necessary.

し A

WON
3 9088 01307 8118