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Seite

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MEMOIRS
OF THE

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Wivtaienl Cltpunetzact
MEMOIRS |

OF THE

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

VOL. IV.

For THE YEARS 1821-22.

PART I.

WITH TEN ENGRAVINGS.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR
ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH:
AND LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN,

LONDON.
ee

1822.

P. Neiti, Printer.

CONTENTS

PART I. OF VOL. Iv.

I.—On the Crystalhsations of Copper-Pyrites. By
W. Haidinger, Esq. - u - :

IL—Notice of the Attempts to reach the Sea by
Mackenzie's River, since the Expedition of
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, _ - t A

I11.—Geological Notices, and Miscellaneous Remarks,
relative to the District between the Jumna and
Nerbuddah ; with an Appendix, containing

an Account of the Rocks found in the Baitool

Valley in Berar, and on the Hills of the Gun-

dwana Range; together with Remarks made

on a March from Hussingabad to Sangar,

and from thence to the Ganges. By Dr Adam,

IV.—Notices regarding the Fossil Elephant of Scot-
land. By Robert Bald, Esq. - : G

V,—Descriptions of Seven New Scottish Fungi. By
Robert Kaye Greville, Esq. Sen egies

Page.

19

PRS)
bey

V1 CONTENTS.

Page.
VI.— Meteorological Journal, kept at Clunie, Perth-

shire, ee Twelve Years, from 1809 to 1820.
By the Rev. W. Macritchie, —- - - G4

VIL.—A Description of a New Species of Grimmia,
found in Scotland. By R. rank Greville,
Ese ie eran tee eat ia

VIIT.—On the Geognosy of Germany, with Observa-
tions on the Igneous Origin of Trap. By
Dr Amie Boué, . . - 2 = oF

IX.—A4 New Arrangement of the Genera of Mosses,
with Characters, and Observations on their
Distribution, History, and Structure. By
R. K. Greville, and G. A. Walker Arnott, :
Esqs. — - - - - os - - 109

X.—Short Account of the Rocks in the Neighbour-
hood of St John’s, Newfoundland. By Mr
John Baird, - - - - > - 151

XI.—Observations on the Snowy Owl, (Strix Nyc-
tea, Linn.) By L. Edmondston, Esq. - 157

XIL.—M eteorological and EH: ydrographical Notes.
By Capt. R. Wauchope, R.N. - - 16!

XIII.—Account of the Small District of Primitive
Rocks, near Stromness, in the Orkney Islands.

By Mr G. Anderson, _ - : : - 173
XIV.—Account of a New Species of pid shot wm
Zetland, By L. Edmondston, Esq. - - 176

Additional Account of the Iceland Gull. ~ 182

XV.—Notice relative to two varieties of Nuphar
lutea, found in a Lake in Aberdeenshire.
By Mr W. Macgillivray, 2 = - 186

CONTENTS. | vil

Page
XVI.—Geognostical Sketch of Part of the Great Glen

of Scotland. By Mr G. Anderson, - - 190
XVII.—Observations on the Immer Goose of Zetland.
By L. Edmondston, Esq. : - - 207

XVIII.—<A Description of two New Plants of the
d Order Atcm, found in Scotland. By R.
K. Greville. Esq. - - - - - 213

XIX.—Some Observutions on the Natural History
of the Mole. By the Rev. J. Grierson, - 218

XX.—Account a the Island Cu Foula. By Capt.
Vetch, - - - - - 237

Last of Engravings in Part I. of Vol. LV.

Plate I. II. III. Crystallisations of Copper-pyrites.

—— IV. Tusks of the Fossil Elephant of Scotland.

—— V. New Scottish Fungi; Sporotrichum minutum,
Sp. tenuissimum, Sp. sulphureum, aurantiacum,
Penicillium candidum, Stachylidum candidum,
and Botrytis diffusa.

—— VI. Grimmia leucopheea.

—— VII. Figures illustrative of the genera Andrza,

Sphagnum, Phascum, aid Voitia.
——- VIII. New Scottish Algz; Echinella circularis, and
Gloionema apiculatum.
—-—— [X. Map of the Island of Foula.
——- X. Perspective View of Foula, &c.

ADVERTISEMENT. |

Tx laying its Memoirs before the Public, this Socrrry
does not hold itself as responsible for the facts or opinions
which may be advanced on the various topics of Natural ~
History that are discussed. ‘These, accordingly, must be
distinctly understood as resting entirely on the individual
authority of the respective Writers who have favoured the
Society with Communications. NE
November 1811.

The Council of the WERNERIAN NaTuraL History —
Society, in order to meet the wishes of Authors of Com-
munications, whose views and discoveries may be anticr-
pated by delay in the publication of the Memoirs, have re-
solved that, in future, the Parts shall be published half:
yearly, and that they shall be limited to the size and price

of the present volume.

_ May 1822.

Peano 2

pads
bi:

"PLATE I,

fk tg tay

ies ra
SR

TeLGy 27,

WL rzars Seulp £

Wern.Mem.18 22,

i

MEMOTRS, &c.

I—On the Crystallisations of Copper-Pyrites. -

By W. Hatpincer, Esq. of Freyberg, Member of the
Wernerian Society, &c.

Tue regular forms of Pyramipat CoprEer-PyYRITES,
a mineral so well known as an ore of copper, and so gene-
rally spread over the earth, have, till of late, been described
very imperfectly by mineralogical authors. The crystals of
this mineral were taken for octahedrons and tetrahedrons,
modified by the cube, the rhomboidal dodecahedron, &c..;
and the cleavage exhibited in the massive varieties was sup-
posed to take place in the direction of the faces of the octa-
hedron. :

A group of very distinct crystals, which I had the op-
portunity of examining in the year 1817, shewed, however,
forms entirely incompatible with that of the regular octa-
hedron, and with such as can be derived from it. These
crystals had almost the shape of tetrahedrons, with trun-
cated angles, as in fig. 1. (Pl. I.) The solid angle H was re-
placed by a face of cleavage, the intersections EF and FG
of which, with the adjacent faces, were parallel to the lines
AC and BD in these faces, the said lines being perpendi-
cular to the edges IH and KL... If by planes parallel to

VOL. IV. A

A ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

the smaller or triangular faces, A, I, H, &c. parts of this
form are detached, until the remainder is contained under
faces equal and similar to each other, the form will assume
the appearance of an isosceles four-sided pyramid, as repre-
sented Fig. 2. The faces of cleavage are situated like those
in the figure marked FEG, F’EG. In the hypothesis of
the regular octahedron, four, or at least two, such faces
should appear at each of the srx solid angles; the result of
which, in the first case, would be a hexahedral trigonal-
ecositetrahedron, in the second its half, the pentagonal-
dodecahedron. 'This is; however, not confirmed by an
accurate examination, since we find only four directions in
which cleavage takes place, and this produces an isosceles
four-sided pyramid, Fig. 3, the terminal edges AD,. AD’
of which are parallel to the ines AD, AD’ in the figure 2,,
drawn perpendicularly from the apex A. to the lateral edges
of the given form. Supposing the axes of the two forms,
of that of crystallisation, and that of cleavage equal, the
horizontal projection or basis of the first CC’C’C” (Fig. 4.).
will be a square circumscribed to the horizontal projection
DD‘D’D” of the second, and the sides of the bases CC’:
DD’ will be in the ratio of /2: 1. If, on the contrary,
the bases are supposed equal, the axes of the same two
forms will be im the ratio of = : 1. Let the more obtuse
pyramid be designated by P,. the more acute one will be
represented by P+1.*

These forms belong to the Pyramidal System of Mons,
and the crystallisation of Copper-pyrites can therefore, by
no methodical. means of proceeding, be derived from the

* For the derivation of these pyramids, their belonging to a series of
pyramids, and for the designation of its members, compare the Supplement
to Encyclopedia Britannica, article Mineralogy.

»

OF COPPER-PYRITES. 3

regular octahedron, or any other form of the Tessular
System. st

By considerations of this kind, it became very probable
that the angles of the four-sided pyramid of copper-pyrites
would, by an accurate investigation, prove different from
those of the regular octahedron. Such a difference has in-
deed been found by an immediate measurement with Dr
Wottaston’s reflecting goniometer, which yielded the
angle at the basis of the four-sided pyramid = 108° 40’;
due attention being given to all the necessary corrections
required in the use of that instrument. The difference be-
tween this angle of 108° 40’, and that of the regular octa-
hedron = 109° 28’ 16”, amounts only to 0° 48’, a quantity
very easily missed in employing the common goniometer *,
for the determination of the angles. Moreover the crystals
are commonly very small, which adds to the difficulty of
having correct results from the application of this instru-
ment. The little difference existing between the angles of
the pyramid of copper-pyrites and those of the regular
octahedron, the smallness, and after all the scarcity of dis-
tinct crystals, so as to have all their homologous faces of
equal extent, sufficiently account for the incorrect ideas
hitherto current among mineralogists respecting the system
of crystallisation of the present species.

* The Abbé Havy allows errors to be possible in measurements of this
kind to the amount of a whole degree. He says, (Tratté, t. ii. p. 325),
<6 On voit que les différences entre les angles donnés par les deux hypothéses
* ne vont pas audela d’un degré (being 0° 0’, 1° 1’, 0° 9’, 1° 0’), et que celle
qui appartient a la troisiéme, n’est que de 9’. Or, quoique ces différences
résultent de mesures prises avec beaucoup de soin sur des cristaux d’une
forme trés-nette, il est possible, aprés tout, qu’une erreur due a l’observation

en produise de semblables,”

Az

4 ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

The immediate measurement was nevertheless not re-
quired for proving these forms to be pyramidal. ‘This is
evident by their mere inspection, observing only how their
edges of combination are situated ; and it might. have been
found that the angles of the pyramid differed from 109°
28) 16” even: less than could be determined by any measure-
ment; without making the form by this only to cease
to be what it was, an isosceles four-sided pyramid, and to
change it into the regular octahedron. Naturalists thought
themselves, however, still more confirmed in the last opinion
by a sort of twin-crystals, very common in copper-pyrites,
which bear a strong resemblance to those of octahedral and
dodecahedral corundum, and of octahedral iron-ore, and,
therefore, had been supposed to take their rise from the
same forms, asm these species.

It will not be without terest to compare the chief mi-
neralogical authors on the present. subject, before we turn
to the observation of Nature..

The first author that treats more at large of copper-
pyrites, is HEnckEeL, who wrote at a period when the fu-
ture importance of crystallographical knowledge for mine-
ralogy scarce was thought of. He gives in the Pyritologia
(Leipzig, 1725, p. 157.). the description of those tetrahedral
varieties whose forms have since been taken for the regular
tetrahedron. The twelfth plate, however, “ Pyrites deca-
édros,” excepting only Fig. 2., represents a variety of cop-
per-pyrites not uncommon in nature, and which we shall
return to afterwards. From these drawings, founded upon
correct observations, it might have been argued, that some
one pyrites or other had a pyramidal form, though it could
not be determimed to which of them these observations re-
ferred.

Romer’ pE wiIsie, and, after him, Havy, consider
the crystalline forms of this mineral as deriveable from the

OF COPPER-PYRITES. b

regular octahedron, or, more properly, from the tetrahedron.
The latter even alleges cleavage to take place parallel to the
faces of the tetrahedron, and gives the Caractere geome-
érique of Cuivre pyriteux thus:

“Forme primitive. ‘Le tétraédre régulier, (fig. 78. pl. 1xx-)

‘Quelques cristaux offrent des indices de lames paralléles
aux faces de ce solide.” —Tratié, t. iii. p. 530.

- The forms he describes as modifications of the regular
tetrahedron, and others in connection with it, moreover
under the denomination of Cuivre pyritcux transposé, the
twin-crystal mentioned above, which he compares with those
of spinel. 3

Rome’ DE wIsxx, in order to give a distinctive character
between the hexahedral iron and the pyramidal copper-
pyrites, states the crystals of the latter always to possess the
form of tetrahedrons, more-or less modified. Crystallo-
graphie, t. i. p. 310. :

But, says Havy, sometimes copper-pyrites is observed
in the form of the octahedron, perfectly regular ; and since
this form is equally found in iron-pyrites, the line of de-
marcation disappears. T'raité, t. ui. p. 534.

"The mineralogical works, according to the Wernerian
method, infer unifornily copper-pyrites to have tessular
forms, describing them as tetrahedrons, octahedrons, &c.

- From a comparison of all the preceding, and of many
other mineralogical books, it appears that none but HENc-
KEL’s could excite even a suspicion that the form of the
present species is pyramidal; and thus our endeavours to-
wards the advancement of truth, in this particular, as. well
as in Natural Histcry in general, will be the less subject to
errors, the more strictly we follow the advice of that intel-
ligent natural philosopher, in deriving our knowledge of the
natural productions from the observations of those objects
themselves.

6 ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

The regular form most commonly exhibited by the crys-
tals of copper-pyrites, is that represented in Fig. 5. The
re-entering angles shew that it belongs to a compound, and
not to a simple mineral. It is the same twin-crystal, which,
from its great resemblance, has been confounded with those
of the octahedron in Spinel and other minerals. The forms
of the individuals can be obtained from the variety Fig. 5.,
by laying a plane through the re-entering angles, and turn-
ing one of the parts thus detached in this plane under an
angle of 180°. The result of the operation is the form
Fig. 6. |

This form is not contained under planes altogether equal
and similar to each other, and therefore is not a simple one.
It is a combination of four different simple forms, to one of
which belong the octagonal, to another the oblong rect-
angular, to a third the irregular hexagonal, and to a fourth
the trapezoidal faces. Each of these forms is produced in
succession, by enlarging the homologous faces, till the rest
disappear. Thus the irregular hexagonal faces yield that
four-sided pyramid, which by measurement is found to have
the angle at its basis = 108° 40’, and for the present. spe-
cies bears the designation P. ‘The trapezoidal faces are
parallel to the faces of cleavage; their intersections with
the faces of P are parallel to each other, and to the ter-
minal edges of that pyramid, which results from the en-
largement of the trapezoidal faces themselves; the axis of
the pyramid therefore, as we have seen above, 1s equal to
the axis of P multiplied by /2; and the pyramid itself,
P+l1. The rectangular faces likewise produce a four-sided
pyramid, which, since it appears with parallel edges of
combination in the place of the terminal edges of P, is to
this pyramid in the same ratio, in which P is to P+1. Its
axis will therefore be equal to the axis of P divided by ,/2,
and itself the member P—I of the same series, to which

_ OF COPPER-PYRITES. *

belong P and P+1. Lastly, the octagonal faces are evi-
dently perpendicular to the axis of the combination, or to
the common axis of the three pyramids, and give therefore
a four-sided pyramid of an infinitely short axis, the limit
of the series of isosceles four-sided pyramids, P — o.
The combination contains the faces of
Po. P—1.P.P-+1.

The angle at the basis of P, and the relations of all the
other pyramids to it being known, it will not be difficult to
find the dimensions of all these forms. By immediate mea-
surement the angle at the basis of P has been found
= 108° 40’. From this follows by the formula,

the axis 2a of P — ,/7.7648. The axes of the members
of the series being in the ratio of 1: /2: 2, &c., that of
P—1 will be = ,/3.8824, that of P+l = 15.5296.

If 2a signifies the axis of any isosceles four-sided pyra-
mid, 2 the angle at one of its terminal, z the angle at one
of its lateral edges, we have the formule,

1—a*

cos v7 = and cos = =———.
3 1l+a?

~ 4a?

The following table contains the angles of the three py-
ramids, calculated according to these formule, 2a of P
being supposed equal to /'7.7648.

PYRAMIDS. a Z
Pl. 12030 = 89° 9
P* 109° 53 =: 108° 40’
P+i1 101° 49’ 126° 11’

* As it is given in M. Mons’ characteristic.

3 ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

Some of the most remarkable varieties of forms hitherto
cbserved in copper-pyrites are the following:

1. P. fig. 2.. The pyramid of 109° 53’, 108° 40’, with-
out any additional face. Commonly the alternating
faces of this form are larger than the rest, a peculiari-
ty of certain series of crystallisation, which, for the
present system, has been called Hemipyramidal in
Mr Mous’ characteristic. The form thus produced
is that of fig. 1.; and it even sometimes happens, that
the smaller faces disappear entirely, so as to give
something like a tetrahedron, which, however, in
reality is only half of an isosceles four-sided pyramid.
Forms of this kind are very frequent in copper-
pyrites, though in some cases they appear more strik-
ing than in others.

2. P. P+1. fig. 7. Sometimes the faces of the latter of
these pyramids are much more extended than those
of P. Very distinct specimens of this variety have
been found in the mine Alte Elisabeth, near Frei-
berg, in Saxony.

3. P—8. P. fig. 8. The same variety to which Henc-
KEL’s drawings of * Pyrites decaédros” refer.

4. Pl. P. P+. fig. 9.

5. P—2. P+. 5 78

ramids is in the same ratio to P—1, in which P—1
isto P. Its axis will therefore be
9a — f1.9412;
terminal edge = 192° 19’;
Jateral edge = 69° 44.

zal 70 fig. 10. ‘The first of these py-

OF COPPER-PYRITES. 9

The second 1s identical with the more acute of the
second variety. ‘The last is not a member of the
principal series; in the seventh variety, its relations
to the members of that series will be developed. The
axis of this pyramid is
(2a = 17.4708 ;
terminal edge = 100° 44’;
lateral edge = 128° 5I’. |

Locality : the mines of Nassau-Sicgen.
6. P—o. P. P+. fig. 11.

ane. a gh +1. fig. 12. The first, second,
and fourth, of these pyramids, are already contained
in some of the foregoing combinations. Their posi-
tion to each other is the parallel one. We shall make
use of fig. 13. for the developement of the relations
in which the third and the fourth of these pyramids
are to the members of the principal series.

‘The intersection of the face 6 (fig. 12.) of P—2,
and the face a on one side, 1s parallel to that of the
same face J, and the face c’, opposite to c, on the
other. In fig. 13., both the faces a (LQKHF) and
6 (GKABA) pass through the pot H, and their inter-
sections with c’ (NAE) coincide therefore in the line
HK.

OI is half the axis of the more obtuse pyramid,
one of whose faces is 0, if AO is half the axis of the
more acute pyramid one of whose faces is c’ ; because,
in this case, GH 1s the side of their common hori-
zontal projection.

7. P—2. P.

10 ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

Now GO: Ol = GP: PK, and from the similarity
of the triangles KPO and AOR,
OA: PK = OR: OP.

From the triangles OKP and RKP being equal
and similar, it follows that OP = PR, and OP =
! OR, therefore PK = } OA.

Thus, the first proportion becomes
GO: OI = G0O:i04A,
and, OA: OI = 3:1.

The horizontal projections bemg equal, the axis
of the more acute pyramid is three times as long as
the axis of the more obtuse; from which follow the
angles as they have been stated in variety 5.

The pyramid which appears with parallel edges of

P+1, is

combination on the terminal edges of 3/8

evidently ab. being the subsequent more obtuse

member of the same subordinate series to which the
other pyramid belongs.

Its axis is = /8.7354;
terminal edge == 108° 18’;
lateral edge = 111° 50’.

8. P—ow. P—1. P. P+l1. fig.6. The same variety,
which in the preceding we have made use of for the
development of the three pyramids of the principal
series. It is one of the most common varieties of
copper-pyrites, and occurs more or less distinct in a
great many localities.

9, P—o. P.

10.

11.

12. P—a. P—Q. at: Pal

OF COPPPER-PYRITES. 1

ee P. P+1. fig. 14. It would have been

impossible to derive from this combination, without

other forms entering into it, the relation of -—.P

2/2

to P; the pyramids of the subordinate occurring at

the same time with P—2 of the principal series in
variety ‘7. afforded the data required for this deve-
lopment.

3 3
p—2, ajar: Pst. a79' +1. P+ o. fig. 15.
(PL. IT.)

3
P—2. 379°: P+1. sgh tH. P+. fig. 16. The

most acute of these pyramids is the member subse-
quent to that which appears with parallel edges of
combination in the place of its terminal edges. ‘The
last member, from several varieties already mention-
ed, is known to be P+1; and thus the new pyramid
can be nothing else than P+2.

Its axis is — /91.0592 ;

terminal edge = 96° 33’;

lateral edge = 140° 31’.

ciety) gil ay

2/2 2,/2

3 o

13. P—o. P—2. P. ——P. -".P+1. fig. 18.

oo

9/2 2/2

ee P—1. P. P+1. fig. 19. This combina-

tion presents very distinctly the remarkable singu-

ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

larity of the series of crystallisation of copper-pyrites,
the alternating faces of P, and of other forms, to be
much more extended than the rest of the faces of the
same, which even sometimes entirely disappear. This
last is indeed the case with the forms to which belong
the small triangular faces a, a’, situated between the
faces of P—oo, P——1, and the enlarged of P. If all
the faces ef this form would appear, the result would
be a scalene eight-sided pyramid, fig. 20; but instead
of sixteen, we find only eight faces, and if we enlarge
these, till they limit the space by themselves, the re-
sultant form is contained under eight equal and simi-
lar scalene triangles, as represented fig. 21, which
nevertheless is not a scalene four-sided pyramid, but
must be considered as half of the eight-sided. This
form is produced at once from the scalene eight-sided
pyramid by enlarging the alternating pairs of the
faces till the rest disappear. The dimensions could

not be determined, on account of the want of parallel |

edges of combination between the half of the eight-
sided pyramid, and other forms; besides the small-
ness of the crystals would not allow any application
of a goniometer.

15. P—o. P—I. P. P+1. (P+ 0)’. fig. 22. The pre-

sent variety differs from that of fig. 6. only by its
having eight rhombic faces disposed vertically round
the axis. |
Suppose fig. 23. to be the projection of fig. 22.
upon a horizontal plane *.
If the faces a, a’, &c. are rhombs, °OP’ must be
== PQ s QP” = PO, and OP = PQ.

* The letters signify the same in both the figures.

OF COPPER-PYRITES. 13

Now OP: PQ = NA: AQ, or, what follows from
ut, NA = AQ.

But since the angle OAQ is = 135°,

ON = NA,
and NQ: NO= 2:1,

which gives the angle OQN = 26° 33’ 54”, and
ORO’ = 126° 52’ 12”, equal to the angle of the
transverse section of (P-+7)*. *

16. P—2. a3 B; aah tl. P+o. [P+o]. fig. 24.
Crystals of this form are very easily taken for tessu-
lar, particularly if they are fixed to some support, so
as to allow only a few of their faces to be observed.

17. P—o@. P—2. P. an. aaPtl. P+. fig. 25.

18. —— aoe =n)

,P—I. P. P+i. P+ o. (P+ o)°.

be 26. ee occur im the present combination
only the alternating faces of the pyramid P—2. By
their enlargement we arrive at a solid contained un-
der four isosceles triangles, fig. 27., analogous to the
tetrahedron, and to that in var. 1., which is pro-
duced by the increasing of the alternating faces of P.
The form is in the designation marked with —, to

denote its faces to be alternating with the enlarged.
faces of P.

*® Encyclopedia Britannica, article Mineralogy.

14 ON THE CRYSTALLISATIONS

The last of these varieties is hemipyramidal, not only by
the two forms P—2 and (P—n)™ entering into it with half
the number of their faces, but also by the difference in the
extension of the alternating faces of P. There is, how-
ever, besides this difference in the extension, still another
existing between those faces, which can be of use, if at-
tended to, m examining crystals very much engaged and
grouped with each other. The enlarged faces of P always
bear distinct striz, parallel to the edges of combination of
this form with P+-1. Strize in the same direction occur
also upon the smaller faces of P, but they are generally
very indistinct, and even, in some cases, not at all observ-
able. The faces of the other forms are commonly smooth,
and not streaked at all, only P—1 and sae have some-

times a few horizontal strize.

The variety in the forms of Copper-pyrites, and at the
same time the difficulty of recognising them, is greatly in-
creased by the scarcity of Single Individuals affecting the
above mentioned forms. More commonly we find two or
more individuals regularly grouped with each other; so
that, besides compound forms, we have to consider com-
pound minerals, in which, however, the composition takes
place under certain crystallographic laws.

The regular aggregations or compositions of two indivi-
duals-have received the names of T'win, or Hemitrope
crystals, according to their being considered as produced by
two simple crystals; or by a single one cut in two parts, in
which the one half has undergone a revolution of 180° in the
same cutting plane. In general, regular aggregations or com-
positions may be conceived to arise from several individuals,
each two of which are in contact with each other m a face
parallel to a face, or perpendicular to an edge of crystal.

PLATE If. Wern, Men, 1822.

Fig WOO

OF COPPER-PY RITES. 15

lisation, of any simple form belonging to the species; after
having previously received such a position, that one of them
is removed 180° from the parallel position with the other,
in a plane, which is always parallel to a face of crystallisation
ef that species to which the dividuals belong.

The Face. of Composition, as well as the Plane of Revo-
lution, may assume a great many different positions, only
they must always be similarly situated in respect to both
the individuals that are jomed together.

The varieties of regular aggregation, or composition,
hitherto observed in Copper-pyrites are the following:

I. The plane of revolution parallel to a face of P.
1. The face of composition parallel to the same face
of P. Form of crystallisation: P, fig. 28.
2. The face of composition perpendicular to a ter-
minal edge of P-+1. Supposed form of crystal-
lisation: P-+-1, fig. 29.

If. The plane of revolution parallel to a face of P—I. —
1. The face of composition perpendicular to a ter-
minal edge of P. Supposed form of erystallisa-

tion: P, fig. 30. (Pl. HT.)

III. The plane of revolution parallel to a face of
[P+ oo].

1. The face of composition parallel to the same

~ face. The result of this law in the form P,

whose alternating faces are enlarged hemi-

pyramidally, would be fig. 31. This, however,

does not occur; the component individuals do

not end in their face of contact, but parts of

them appear also on the other side of this face,

16 ON THE ny

and thus bodies are produced like that repre-
sented fig. 32.

The law expressed in I. ]. is the same that occurs in
the variety, fig. 5, considered above ; it is met with in many
mstances im those represented fig. 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 19,
22, 26. This sort of aggregation is very often repeated in
faces parallel to themselves, from which, if it is in crystals,
forms result like fig. 33. It extends, however, also to
massive varieties, which then consist of alternating laminz
of this mineral to be distinguished from each other by the
different direction of the faces of cleavage. It is evident
that the alternating laminze must be in parallel position
with each other, on account of two revolutions of 180°
being required in the same plane to determine the position
of the third lamina in respect to the first.

The law I. 2. is not so generally found as the foregoing ;
it gives rise to forms as fig. 34, where the individuals are
of the variety fig. 6. The faces a and a’; a” and a” of the
pyramid P+1 fall into the same plane; so do the faces
6, b' of the pyramid P. This is a necessary consequence
of the face of composition being perpendicular to the ter-
minal edge of the pyramid P+1; which edge is parallel to
a line drawn on the face of P from the apex, perpendicular-
ly to one of the lateral edges of this pyramid.

Some varieties, as that of fig. 12, are subject to the law
II. 1., and then produce regular aggregations, as figg. 35,
36, in aes of which, as is sometimes the case, the

faces. of 5 sae between the apices of the two individuals

are wanting. ‘The compound consists very often, by a re-
petition of this law, like that occurring in I. 1, of alternat-
ing laminz, parallel, now to one, now to the other indivi-
dual. The variety of regular aggregation, or composition,

OF COPPER-PYRITES. 17

we have just described, and which takes place perpendicu-
larly to one only of the terminal edges of P, is rares
and the very few instances I know of, are to be found
among the varieties from Nassau:Siegen. But it 1s also
met with, at the same time, upon all the terminal edges
of P, and then it is one of the most common regular
ageregations in the present species. ‘The faces a a’ a’,
b b' b’, fig. 37, of the different crystals, fall imto one
and the same plane; which, of course, cannot be | the
ease with the faces c c ¢’, d d d’,.on account of the
difference of the pyramid P from the regular octahedron.
Crystals thus produced have been taken for simple, and.
described accordingly as octahedrons truncated on all their
edges and angles. ‘The appearance, indeed, is very sedu-
cing, if we do not attend to the striz, which, in the different,
individuals, follow different. directions, parallel to. lines
drawn from the poimt E to the respective apices of the
pyramid P in the three mdividuals, whose faces meet 1n this
point. ‘The remaining parts of the faces of P-+1 make
sometimes re-entering angles, as in fig. 38, which adds to
the evidence of such forms being compound.

The tetrahedral crystals from Cornwall are subject to the
same law, only the individuals appear more decidedly hemi-
pyramidal, so as to present only half the number of the
faces of P. Generally they assume the form fig. 39, where

| Pp | |
the faces of g are deeply streaked by the accession of the

faces of P+1; though the mathematical regularity would
require it to be so as represented fig. 40, where the lines
AE, AE; AC, A’C, &c. denote the junction of the differ-
ent individuals. ‘The stria of the crystals are so deep and
_ so numerous, that, imstead of the faces AEA’, A’/EA”,
A”’EA falling into one plane, the lines of junction AE,
_A’E, A’E are marked by re-entering angles.

VOL. IV. B

18 ON COPPER-PYRITES..

The individuals do not invariably jom in the aggregation
according to only one of the laws expressed before; some-
times more than one exercise their fluence at the same time.
Thus the variety, fig. 41, is a compound of two parts, ac-
cording to the law I. 1.; and each of those parts, again,
according to the law II. 1., acting simultaneously on all the
terminal edges of P. There are, in the same manner, crys-
tals to be found, in which I. 2. and IT. 1., others, in which
HI. 1. and III. 1., take place at the same time. In such
cases, the resultant crystallisations commonly lose more or
less of their regularity from the different relative size of the
individuals entering into the composition; and it would,
indeed, be sometimes difficult to pomt out the law it fol-
lows, had Nature not, since the streaking of the faces in
every case is an effect of combination, and directed parallel
to its edges, thus provided us with a means, which will al-
ways lead us the right way, and which, if duly attended to,
is also of great moment for similar considerations in other
species.

ee a

IL.—Notice of the Attempts io reach the Sea by
Mackenzie's River, since the Hapedition of Sir
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE.

(Read 17ih November 1821.)

rida

r HE North-West Company first established a fur-post
on the banks of Mackenzie’s River in the year 1795, and
have ever since maintained a greater or smaller number of
establishments on various parts of its course. At present,
the lowest or most northerly post is Fort Good-Hope,
situate about 100 or 120 miles below the influx of Great
Bear-Island Lake River, and, as is supposed, about three
days’ voyage ina light canoe from the sea, which, with
the current of such a river, is usually estimated at from 50
to 80 miles per day. From the summit of a small hill be-
hind the Fort, the upper limb of the sun is just visible at
midnight, on the 21st of June.

In the immediate vicinity of Fort Good-Hope, and on
the east side of the river, the Hare Indians reside; and
their lands, to the northward of the very extensive piece of
water which is named Great Bear-Island Lake, and which
is said to be inferior in size to Lake Superior alone, borders
upon the Eskimaux grounds, which skirt the sea-coast.
The Fort is also visited by the Loucheux, or Squint-eyes,
who mhabit the west bank of the river, and who are sepa-
rated from the Eskimaux by the Vermilion River, about
2% days’ voyage below Fort Good-Hope. At this bound-
ary, they often trade with the Eskimaux, and obtain, at a
high price, certain smooth sea-shells, to be inserted as orna-
ments into the septum of the nose. ‘They have also ob-
tained at these friendly meetings, strips of whalebone, and

BQ

89 ATTEMPTS TO REACH THE SEA

pieces of the skin and other spoils of sea animals. Notwith-

standing this occasional friendly intercourse, however, these
two tribes more often enter each other’s territories in a
hostile manner; and so many of the Eskimaux have been
cut off, that that nation is justly very jealous of the visits
of strangers.

Two attempts have been made to reach the sea since the
period of Sir ALExanpDER MackeEnzir’s voyage. The first,
by Mr Livineston, in the year 1799; when that gentle-
man, accompanied by J AMES SUTHERLAND, an interpreter,
three Canadians, and three Indians, descended in a bark-
canoe, a little below the Vermilion River above mentioned.
Here they met with a single Eskimaux in his small seal-
skin boat, whose first act, notwithstanding the disparity of
force, was to discharge an arrow, which penetrated through
the sides of the large canoe. ‘They approached him, how-
ever; and adopting the mode in use among the Indian na-
tions of discovering the intentions of strangers, presented
him with a portion of meat, having first chewed a bit of it
themselves. He threw it away with disdain, and refused
to receive any of their presents; but directed them to put
ashore, and made signs that his countrymen were at no
great distance. They complied with his request, whilst he
proceeded down the stream; and in a short time returned,
accompanied with five of his companions, each in his small
canoe, and armed with a bow and arrows. Mr Lavine-
STON endeavoured to conciliate them by presents of beads,
and other articles; but instead of appearing pleased and
grateful, they tied the strings to a pole, and cut them in
pieces with their arrows. ‘The Indians now warned Mr
Livineston, that he would in vain attempt to establish a
friendly communication with such people in their present
state of mind, and were urgent for immediate embarkation,
when it was discovered that the paddles of the canoe had

BY MACKENZIE’S RIVER. ON

been conveyed away by stealth. Such an unequivocal de-
monstration of a hostile purpose, increased the apprelen-
sions of the party, and they hurried into the canoe, but were
instantly assailed by a flight of arrows from the Eskimaux,
each of whom shot three from his bow at atime. Mr L1-
VINGsTON and a Canadian voyageur fell under the first
discharge: two of the Indians, who had not yet embarked,
but were holding on the bow of the canoe, let go, and
escaped into the woods, whilst James SuTHERLAND and
the other survivors floated down the stream. They were
instantly pursued by the Eskimaux in their boats, and the
Indians from their hiding places observed the conflict to be
carried on until five of the Eskimaux were killed, and
JAMES SUTHERLAND was left alone in the bow of his canoe,
which was in a sinking condition. This much was learnt
from one of the Indians, who travelled to Fort Chepewyan
with the account of the melancholy catastrophe, having, in
his route, had his wants supplied by parties of the Lou-
cheux, and other nations he fell in with. It was afterwards
ascertained, through the medium of the Hare Indians, that
the canoe had drifted down opposite the main encampment
of the Eskimaux, and that James SUTHERLAND there threw
himself into the water, swam ashore, and placed himself be-
twixt the knees of an elderly man, for protection. A con-
sultation being now heid, his destruction was decided upon :
and as he was judged invulnerable from his having escaped
{rom the conflict without a wound, they effected their pur-
pose by tying a stone round his neck, and throwing him into
the river; his protector having in the mean time conveyed
himself away, it being contrary to their ideas of humanity
that he should witness the death of his protegé.

The year following this tragical event, a party of the
Red-knife or Copper Indians, making war upen the Eski-
maux, at the mouth of the Copper-mine River, found some

22 ATTEMPTS TO REACH THE SKA

part of the clothing of Mr Livincsvon’s party in the huts
of those they destroyed.

A second attempt to reach the sea was made by Mr
Crarxe in 1809. He descended the river as far as the
assemblage of islands which form the various channels of
which Sir ALExaNDER MackEnzirz speaks; but here a
numerous party of Eskimaux, occupying both banks of the
river, put themselves in such a menacing attitude, that it
was deemed prudent to return, without making any attempt
either to land or to proceed farther.

In 1810, a large shoal of porpoises came up to Fort
Good-Hope, to the great ernief of the natives, who declared
that such visits were always attended by a falling off in the
fishery, which accordingly proved very bad that season.
This fact, we think, tends to prove the near vicinity of the
sea, and that Sir ALexanpEeR Mackenzie either actually
saw it, or was within a very short distance of it.

The country through which Mackenzie’s River flows,
appears to offer a fine field for a naturalist, and we have had
many interesting accounts of it from those who have resided
there. It is well worthy the attention of a mineralogist,
who would have an opportunity of viewing the operations
of Nature on a grand scale. ‘The rocky mountains range
along the western side of the river, at a greater or smaller
distance from its banks; in some places receding to the dis-
tance of 70 miles, at others approaching the very verge of
the stream, and at one spot below the Great Bear Lake River,
a continuance of the same ridge appears on the eastern side
of the river.

A kind of sheep frequents these mountains, which, from
description, appears to resemble, or to be the same with, the
Argali, or Ovis montana. It has very large, striated, spiral
horns, and is clothed in the winter with a thick coarse coat
of hair, like that of the rein-deer, which falls off in the

BY MACKENZIE’S RIVER. 93

summer, and is succeeded by a shorter and finer covering *.
There is another animal of still greater interest, which the
traders call the Goat, and which would appear to be a spe-
cies of antelope. Its horns, smooth, short, and black, are
directed backwards, with a slight curvature. It is about _
the size of a sheep, and, in the winter, has a coat of long
curled hair, said to be of a silky fineness and lustre. It
springs with great agility from precipice to precipice, and
possessing, like the sheep, a very quick eye, its capture is
attended with much difficulty. I have heard that the skins
of these animals have been sent to Europe; but neither of
them have hitherto been taken alivet. A very large kind
of rein-deer is also found on those mountains.

The natives make knives of a white translucent stone,
which they detach in large sharp-edged flakes, by greasing
a portion of the rock, and kindling a fire upon it.

They also dig up an edible unctuous earth, sumilar, pro-
bably, to that which is found at the mouth of the Orinooko;
and use as a pigment a mineral substance, which they find
at the bottom of a small subterraneous stream. It is in the
form of round, flattish, ponderous grains, of a shining black
colour, with .a greasy feel, and adheres to the skin only when
mixed with grease. A large specimen of native silver was
also found in that neighbourhood in 1796.

Near the Great Bear Lake River, there are some coal-
mines on fire. And there are several fountains of mineral-
pitch, one in particular, which rises in the channel of the
river, at a spot, which, from that circumstance, is named
the Flaming Point.

* Specimens of the head of this animal were sent from Hudson’s Bay by
Wii1am AuLp, Esq. to Professor Jameson, and proved to be the true Ar-
galii—Epir.

+ The animal described in the text appears to be the Rocky-mountain
Sheep of the Americans, noticed by Professor Jameson in the third volume
of the Wernerian Memoirs, p. 306.—Epir.

24 ACCOUNT OF THE DISTRICT BETWEEN

1Il._—Geological Notices, and Miscellaneous Re-
marks, relative to the District between theJwmna
and Nerbuddah :

WITH AN APPENDIX,

Containing an Account of the Rocks found in the Baitoot
Valley in Berar, and on the Hills of the Gundwana
Range; together with Remarks made on a March from
Hussingabad to Sangar, and from thence to the Ganges.

By Dr Anam of Calcutta, Member of the Wernerian »
Society. |

(Read 12th January 1822, &c.)

Pus specimens. of minerals sent to Professor Jamuson,
comprise all the rocks met with between the Jumna and the
Nerbuddah, by the route of Banda, Lohargong, Bellary,
and Jubbulpore. |

The first commences with the hills in Bundlecund, after
crossing the Jumna. Between these hills and the river is
situate a plain of considerable extent, the soil of which dif-
fers so greatly from that of the opposite country in the
Doab, as to merit particular notice. It may be observed,
generally, that the soil of the plains of Hindostan, from

THE JUMNA AND NERBUDDAH. 25

€annpore to Calcutta, and indeed from Hurdwar intra
Gangem, is a light-coloured mould, consisting of a due
proportion of argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous earths,
the last being most abundant above Marghyr. Its chief
characteristic is derived from the quantity of mica which it
contains, in minute grains and scales. This also prevails in
the district which I passed through, from Allahabad to
Chillyterrah Ghaut, on the Jumna. About half a mile to
the north of this river, we descend a bank, which appears
to form its boundary in the rainy season, and enter upon a
low flat, where, in place of a fair, shining, attenuated mould,
the eye meets nothing but an uniformly dull, coarse, black
earth, not unlike the half-digested soils of muirlands at
home. ‘This dark soil is still more striking on the Bundle-
cund side, and continues almost the whole way to Besse-
ramgunge. It seems to contain a larger proportion of argil
laceous earth, and vegetable reerement, than the land on
the left bank of the Jumna, and that which is generally ob-
served in the upper provinces of India.

The Jumna, where the passage is made, is a smooth
gently-flowing stream. The banks show no rock, but are
high and perpendicular; and, when viewed from the oppo-
site side, along with the advancing stream, the Cane, which
here joins its waters to the Jumna, look uncommonly
well, and are devoid of the dulness which characterises the
whole course of the united rivers the Ganges and Jumna,
below Allahabad.

On approaching the town of Banda, distant two marches,
or about twenty miles from the river, several small hills are
seen i the west, like erections for flagstaffs, posted at reou-
lar intervals. ‘They appear to run in one line, from NW.
to SE., and are of a conical, or rather pyramidal, figure.
One of them rises from the plain close to Banda ; it is about
three or four hundred feet high, and is divided, at the up-

26 HILLS NEAR BANDA.

per part, into two or more smaller elevations, of which the
central only terminates with a pomted summit. The ap-
pearance of the hill, from below, is singular and fantastic ;
huge masses of stone presenting themselves in every posi-
tion, seemingly quite unconnected the one with the other,
while a few shrubs, growing out from between them, serve
as a contrast to the nakedness of the rock. On ascending
the hill, we found it to be composed of a reddish-coloured
small-grained granite, having no regular arrangement, but
lying in blocks of great size, some perpendicular, and others
horizontal, with a convex or rounded surface in general.
Many of these are scaling off at the surface; but the greater
part remain entire, and possess more compactness of inte-
grant structure than any rocks of the kind which I have
met with. This hill at Banda may be reckoned the termi-
nation of the first of the many series which traverse Bundle-
cund from W. to E., as no more are observed here follow-
ing that line.

Soon after leaving Banda to the south, other hills come
mto view, which, at first sight, appear larger than the one
at that place. This is chiefly owing to the effect of distance,
increased by the dewy air of the morning, which is the time
of travelling ; for, on a near approach, we find these not to
exceed the congeries at Banda, or the highest does so only
in a small degree.

Though evidently entering upon a mountainous country
here, we are surprised to find no general elevation of the
surface, the same flatness of the plains continuing as on the
northern side of the Jumna, and the hills rising abruptly
from a common level, like so many islands rearing them-
selves out of the ocean. They are, in fact, mere pictures,
on dry land, of the rocky Madeira, Porto Santo, or the Ca-
naries, seen in the voyage from England to India.

About twelve miles from Banda, at the village of Ge-

HILLS AT GERAIAH. Ar

raiah, or Gerawah, we came to this second series. The general
figure of these hills, like the former mentioned, is pyrami-
dal; and they may be said, in this respect, to resemble a
fragment of the granite rock which composes them. 'They
stretch from the village of Geraiah in two or three direc-
tions, the line of some crossing that of others, and, not-
withstanding their irregularity as a range, they appear to
follow individually particular series; and we can trace. a
succession of isolated rocky elevations forming chains across
the country. ‘The largest of these, which is situate to the
right of the village, has at the summit a rock of a white
colour, like chalk, which I regretted, from the distance it
was placed at, I could not examine. The others are com-
posed of granite, similar to the rock at Banda, and present
the same arrangement, or more properly, deficiency of ar-
rangement, seen at Banda. At the lower part of, one of
those hills, quartz veins, distinct from the general composi-
tion of the granite, intersect it to a considerable extent ; and
on the summit, the blocks have assumed the shape of ba-
saltic columns, standing perpendicularly, with four sides,
which, at some distance, makes them appear like an over-
lying stratum of a different formation.

The country in this neighbourhood displays a thousand
charms, compared with the district near the Jumna. The
roads are dry; and the rocky elevations in front, having a
covering of beautiful shrubs entwined with numerous varic-
ties of climbing plants, give quite a new feeling to the mind
on viewing the prospect. New animals, too, inbabitants of
these, present themselves. ‘The peacock, arrayed in all his
gorgeous hues, and shining with a native glossiness of plu-
mage, is not .unfrequently seen perched on a_ projecting
block of granite; while herds of antelopes bound along the
plain below; and the shrill cry of the Indian partridge

98 SUN-RISE IN INDIA.

heard on every hand, first cheers the traveller with the
opening day. I was much delighted one morning here,
with viewing the natural phenomenon of sun-rise. Contrary
to my usual practice, I had started early with my baggage.
It was quite dark, excepting what light the stars afforded,
which, in India, is always considerable at this season (Octo-
ber), when not a cloud obscures the expanded vault of the
heavens. After moving on for some time, on turnmg my
eye toward the east, I could perceive the first appearance
of day. It was not dawn, but a mere greyish pillar of light
shooting from the horizon upwards, in the shape of a co-
met’s tail, but without lustre; the effulgence, if it could be
so called, resembling that of the Milky-way more than any
other object in nature which I have seen. This dull pillar
of light was well defined. It continued a long time appa-
rently little increased in size, and without having acquired
much brilliancy. At length its sides near the bottom gave
way; and the light, now stronger, diffused itself laterally
to a considerable extent. By and bye the stratum of clouds
immediately over this expansion displayed the roseate hue
of morn, and the whole heavens became (though yet faint-
ly) illuminated. The rosy tints disappearing in their turn,
were succeeded by a greater degree of pale light; and soon
after, the near approach of the great luminary himself was
announced by a pillar of red, or orange-red, light, which
terminated in the orb now appearing large and fiery, through
the medium of the horizontal morning air. This is the ge-
neral course of sun-rise in India, as I have frequently wit-
nessed since. The precursory phenomenon of the pillar of
light, with the successive changes, being then new to me,
appeared perhaps more interesting on that account.

At Pungrawah, the second stage from Banda, we find the
rock of the same nature as those already described. In the
march from this last place to the village of Kurtul, a range

PUNGRAWAH TO KURTUL. 29

of hills is seen in front, and on the left hand, much higher
than any previously passed in the route, and which, instead
of having peaked summits, are crowned with a flat table-
land. About eight miles from the road, on one of the most
conspicuous of these, to the left, stands the celebrated Fort
of Callinger. We still find at Kurtul peaked hills composed
of granite, similar to those at Banda, Gerawiah, and Pun-
grawah; and besides this, masses of a bluish-coloured trap
are met with, and boulders scaling off im concentric layers,
This trap-rock appears to have been at one time extensive,
and I could trace a superficial stratum over the granite for
some way up the hill. What remains of it rests on that
rock without any distinct arrangement. ‘The whole seems
much afiected by the action of the elements; and it is
probable that, from this cause, a very large formation has
been removed, and reduced to soil. Many of the granite-
blocks here are also fast going into decay, and the soil of
the district adjoming appears to be entirely derived from
this source. Its colour is sandy-red, that of the felspar ;
and in this red sand, as a basis, are contained a great many
small quartz-crystals, which still remain entire and unaltered
in their structure. And the chalcedonic pebbles, found at
the bottom of the hill, appear to have been imbedded in
some rock, which had likewise at a former period rested
over the granite. ‘They are of the same nature as the peb-
~ bles found in the bed of the river Kane, so much admired
on account of their beautiful variegated appearance and
lustre when cut.

After leaving Kurtul, the road strikes into a wood of low
trees, flanked on both sides by hills with flat summits ; and,
for the first time, we observe pieces of sandstone scattered
over the path, mixed with broken blocks of granite, and
the more complete detritus formme the soil. On one hill,

30 FUGUEERS HILL.

which is nearer than the others, we can distinctly see ‘a
horizontal position of the superior strata, and under the
table-face, a sort of projection enlarging the diameter of the
hill, which gradually increases to the bottom. The upper
formation is evidently of the same nature as the detached
pieces of sandstone found below; while the great body of
the hill is composed of granite, (and perhaps trap), similar
to that of the pyramidal hills formerly described. Some
Fugueers, or religious devotees, take up their abode on this
hill, at the junction of the sandstone with the granite forma-
tion; and the face of their caves, cut out of the solid rock,
and chinamed (or whitened) over, together with the eleva-
ted platform, on which are placed the objects of their idola-
trous worship, present, from the plain below, a very strik-
ing and conspicuous appearance.

On passing the Fugueers’ Hill, we come in sight of the
eastern extremity of the Fort of Adjyghur, like that of
Callinger, crownimg the summnt of an isolated hill, and ow-
ing its principal strength to a table-face of sandstone rock.
The sides of the elevation, or the declivities, are covered
with jungle or bushy wood, composed of beautiful low trees,
whose leaves exhibit every shade of green, and every varicty
of size and shape, from the pmnated and pointed leaflet of
the tamarind to the broad expanded foliage of the teak,—
which last appears to be very abundant in all those hills.
Granite forms the great body of Adjyghur, and sandstone
lies over it at the upper part, presenting a perpendicular
face of rock to the height of between 30 and 50 feet all
round, and constituting a natural barrier of defence. which
of itself seems to render the place impregnable. ‘The posi-
tion of the sandstone is perfectly horizontal, and the rock
is in general quite fresh.

The view from the ramparts of the Fort displays well

ADJYGHUR AND CALLINGER. St

the peculiarity which I before remarked, respecting the
want of general elevation in the whole of this mountainous
tract. Hills are seen in every direction covered with jungle,
rising abruptly out of an intervening flat country, the dull
and cheerless aspect of which carries to the mind the idea
of an uninhabited waste, or the haunt of savage beasts only.
It is precisely the expression which Dawnre has given in
the delineation of a fort m the Mysore, where a sort of
sombre stillness (if I may be allowed so to term it) reigns,
that no language can pourtray.

Adjyghur and Callinger are not less interesting to the
antiquary, or mythological inquirer, than to the geologist ;
and the lover of art will find abundant subject of admira-
tion in the beautiful remains of ancient Hindu architecture,
which still exist within the walls of both these forts.

The country, for a short distance beyond Adjyghur, is
open, and the soil again resembles that of the districts on
the other side of Banda. A few miles farther on, we come
to the village or hamlet of Besseramgunge, at the bottom
of the Ghaut of that name. This Ghaut, or pass, leads
from the low country of Bundlecund to the elevated table-
land, on a level with the hills last mentioned. ‘The path is
cut through, or carried over granite, trap, and sandstone.
At first, the ascent, though pretty steep, is not difficult, as
there are few large stones, and no rock risiag from the
surface. Soon, however, it becomes steeper, and more ob-
structed, granite, trap, and sandstone masses presenting
themselves in succession; and in many of the last-may be
perceived quartz-nodules included, like those found in the
sandstone of the Table-Mountain at the Cape. The ar-
rangement of the sandstone is in general horizontal, but at
some pomts it appears to rise from the surface in the form
of ridges almost vertical. The trap-rock exhibits no

32 DIAMOND MINES OF PUNNAH.

well-defined arrangement, at the several points where 1é
is found in the Ghaut; and I could not penetrate into
the jungle here to examine the strata more extensively.
It may, however, be inferred, that it is in every respect
similar to that rock at Callinger, which I have since found
lying chiefly in roundish masses, of various sizes, occupying
the middle of the elevation, and composing the greater part
of it. These are in general mouldering at the surface, and
many of the smaller boulders can be reduced to powder
without the assistance of the hammer. The larger masses’
are more compact, and possess great soundness of struc-
ture.
The Table-land here is elevated about 1200 feet, I
should suppose, above the plain of Bundlecund. On reach-
ing the top of the Ghaut, we cross one or two clear run-
ning streams, and some oozing rills and pools of stagnant
water are met with, most of which indicate, by their blue,
slimy, and iridescent surface, impregnation with the iron of
the adjoining soil. This 1s indeed composed of ferruginous
gravel and disintegrated sandstone; and if we may judge
from the fine luxuriant grass growing over it, it must be one
of great fertility.

The Tonng Punnah, celebrated for its diamond mines;
is distant about eight miles from the Ghaut; and in my
march thither, I passed several of the mines, which are
here close to the road, and have even encroached upon it
at different points. It being late, I determined to defer
my examination of these till the following day, which I in-
tended passing at Punnah. Early in the morning, my
servants, who had been dispatched for the purpose, brought
intelligence that they had observed the workmen gomg from
the town to the westward, with their implements of labour on
their shoulders. Following them, I soon reached the scene of

DIAMOND MINES OF PUNNAH. 33

operation, distant about three miles, and in a situation per-
fectly corresponding with that on the other side of the town.
It was‘a thin jungle (or wood), with long delicate grass
growing in great abundance from a red gravelly ferrugi-
nous: soil. 7

_ The mines are mere narrow pits, four, five, or more feet
deep, according to the distance of the adjacent rock from
the surface, and dug out of a ferruginous gravelly soil,
which is of a, dark. reddish-brown, or blackish colour.
It feels moist, and consists of fine sand, with a large
proportion of small. dark-red, and whitish or yellowish-
white pebbles, the former appearing to contain a large
quantity of iron. ‘Three men were engaged in the search
for the precious mineral when I arrived at the ground,
the chief of whom very readily replied to all my ques-
tions, and explained and exemplified the series of opera-
tions gone through. These are indeed very simple. ‘The
soil, as it is brought from the neighbouring pit, is thrown
into a small square excavation in the ground, about two or
three feet deep, the bottom and sides of which have been
well beaten, to prevent the gravel from adhering to them.
A quantity of water bemg added, a man steps into the
place, having an instrument like a broad hee, with a short
handle, (the common implement of the natives for all pur-
poses), and mixes the whole together, using his hands also
for that purpose, and tossing away all the larger pebbles
which eceur. This movement being continued for some
time, the water is then thrown out by means of a small
wicker-basket, and carries with it the sand, leaving the
gravel behind. After repeated applications and discharges
of water, the gravel is removed into another small bason of
a circular figure, where it receives the last washing. From
this it is conveyed to a large floor, on the surface of the
ground, made of hardened earth, and there left to dry ; the

VOL, Iv. _ c

3A DIAMOND MINES OF PUNNAH.

finishing operation consisting merely of a minute. examina-
tion of the dry gravel, by a person acquainted with the
external character of the jewel in its rough state. Judging
from the condition of the people employed, one would hard-
ly expect that they could be able to detect a diamond:
but they assured me they did so with'the greatest ease; and
it appears to be the lustre and transparency, even in this
state, which directs them. The principal man. picked out
several pieces of transparent quartz from the gravel, which
he said resembled the diamond.. He had “ found them of
all colours and sizes; but the discovering them,” he -add-
ed, did “ not depend on” his “ skill or exertions, it was
altogether the work of God vali nial at the same
time, and pointing to the heavens.

_ From the inquiries which I made, diamond mining ap-
pears by no means a profitable concern at Punnah. Any
one may dig, subject to paying the common duty of the
fourth part of the produce to the Rajah, who is here, as in
every other part of India, paramount lord of the soil. All
stones, however, beyond a certain carat are claimed exclu-
sively by him: but it may be supposed, where the means
of concealment are so much in the power of the workmen,
that the prince’s treasury very seldom benefits much by this
source of revenue. In the farm or spot which I examined,
only two diamonds had been. found during the preceding -
year, and these fetched each 200 rupees. The number of
workmen commonly engaged in the various operations of
digging, carrying, washing, and searching, is from four to
five, though I saw only three. Of those, the sirdar, or
chief, has a salary of five rupees per month, and the others
four; and when’a diamond is found, some present is made
them by their master, proportioned to its value. So that,
after paying the duty and expence of working, it is obvious,
his gains, in this instance, must have been very small, and

SOIL OF BUNDLECUND. 35
iiot ‘sufficient to induce him to persevere much longer in his
mining operations. Indeed the business of digging appeared
altogether at a stand when I passed the ground; and from
the remaihs of pits in every direction, it must have been

carried on much more extensively at a former period than
at present.

Punnah is on many accotints an interesting place. Spa-
cious tanks, that would do honour to the most liberal State,
are seen surrounded by temples and palaces, neglected
indeed, but displaying often the elegancies of architecture,
and serving as monuments of former grandeur and magni-
ficence.. As a contrast to the picture, we have only to cast
our eye to the town itself, and view the condition of the
present inhabitants, which is wretched in the extreme.

To return to the geological facts. Red ferruginous gra-
vel, the matrix of the diamonds, may be considered as ter-
minating the regular formation of the hills in this part of
Bundlecund. The order of arrangement, from below, up-
wards, being granite, trap, sandstone, and gravel.’
Before proceeding to describe the situation of the other
rocks, it may be worth while to look back on the ground
travelled over, and take a comprehensive view of these four
formations, as developed at the: sites mentioned, whether
singly or in combination, and. also to consider the general
qualities of the soil im the intermediate and adjoining dis-
tricts. | a FOO

‘The ‘prevailing soil in Bundlecwnd, and:indeed to the
south of the Jumna, is the black coarse earth already al-
luded to, apparently consisting of a larger proportion of ~
elay and. carbonized vegetable remains, than is found in the
land to the north of that stream. It retains moisture more
perfectly than the common soil of Himdostan: hence arises
its miriness in the rainy season, and its disposition to unite
into hard masses, and form rifts and hollows during the

c2

36 SOIL OF BUNDLECUND.

dry and hot weather. Even in its driest state, however, it
has not the slimy compactness of pure clay-soils; but when
separated mto small pieces from the mass, is found to be
quite friable, and easily reduced to powder. I think it
probable that this contains also a proportion of magnesian
earth, though, never having subjected it to chemical ana-
lysis, I am not warranted in drawing this, inference from
any accurate data. It is reckoned. exceedingly fertile, and
in no part of the Company’s territories are more luxuriant
crops displayed than in the districts where it. predominates.
Indeed, ‘the richness of the: Bundlecund. lands, composed
principally of this sort, is quite proverbial in India; and
from its quality of retaining moisture, the process of irrigat.
ing them is less frequently resorted to, andthe labour of
the husbandman thereby lessened. It would appear, how-
ever, that greater exertions are necessary in preparing the
soil for thie seed, and also in keeping it clear of weeds, than
we see applied to. the common lands of Hindostan. A long
grass was springing up every where at. the time L shed
through the district, and formed ‘the only obstacle to the
plough, which was then going in all directions. _

One would suppose that the above characters of the soil
should affect the climate, and render. the plain of Bundle-
cund moist and unhealthy. As far as my own observation
extends, agues are very prevalent in the whole of the low
country, and sometimes prove so severe in European habits,
as to require a total change of air for, their removal; but
the native population do not seem to suffer from any ende-
mical diseases in a greater degree than the inhabitants of
other parts of India; and their! ‘appearanice, upon the whole,
as presented to myself in passing along, rather indicated
general good health and comfort.

. This black soil has evidently been formed sie the de- |
composition of some of the many varieties of clay-rock,

SOIL OF BUNDLECUND. | 37

most probably from trap and amygdaloid, which. at one
time had rested over the granite in the hills ae ‘Bundle-
cund.

it is probable the rock at Gerawiah, and the trap forma-
tion observed on the hill of Callinger, and at Besseram-
gunge, have had their share in contributing to it. The
vegetable matter with which the soil appears to be impreg-
nated in a more than usual degree, may have been derived
from extensive forests, which it is not difficult to conceive
had flourished here at no very distant period ; and the suc-
Cessive increase of a heavy, plastic, moist soil, covermg the
wood with each return of the rainy season, had also pre-
vented its complete decay. For the amelioration or im-
provement of such a soil in Europe, the agriculturist would
have recourse to lime, as rendering it drier, and reducing
the vegetable matter which it contains, to a state more fit-
ted for supplying the requisite pabulum to the growing
plant. In India, however, such an expedient would not be
attended with success, as calcareous earth, in this country,
unites together into small masses, constituting what the na-
tives term Kunkur, and does not mingle with the other
ingredients of the soil, unless siliceous sand exist in an un-
usually large proportion. This isolation Gf it may be so
termed) of the calcarcous | earth, is very well seen in the
Baitool Valley, in Berar, where the soil is essentially the
same as the coarse black earth of Bundlecund. It is pro-
bable that a mixture of sand would be attended with a
beneficial result ; for wherever I have observed this com-
bination from natural causes, the effect appears highly
favourable. An illustration of this occurs in the route be-
tween Callinger and Allahaba, va Turrawa, where we
approach the Jumna, and the alluvial sandy deposite of
the river is seen mingling with the dark earth of the plain.
From this union results a soil possessing every requisite

38 ANCIENT CAPITAL OF THE PRASII.

quality, and perhaps the best suited for grain-crops of any
in India. 'The district in which it abounds well merits the
poet’s appellation of “ latus ager,” and is certainly not.
inferior to his boasted “‘ Gargara,” in the ease with which
it is cultivated, and the ample products it yields the hus-
bandman in return.

From the appearance of the soil between Callinger and
Allahabad, as I observed it in passing along, I could not
help drawing an inference, which, if correct, may throw
some light on the situation of the ancient capital of the
Prasi. The city of Palibothra, we are told, was situated
near to the hills, and at the conflux of the Ganges with an-
other large river ; and it is the difficulty of reconciling these
two circumstances with any modern locality, which has
given rise to so much discussion and disagreement among
the learned. Indeed, no spot that T am aware of, in Hin-
dostan, includes them both ; for Allahabad and Patna want —
the former, and the neighbourhood of Bhungulpore, which
Colonel Franklin endeavours to identify with the ancient
city, is defectite in the latter. We are therefore compelled
to believe, that some change must have taken place in re-
gard to the one or the other; and, as alterations in the
course of the river are of daily occurrence, while the re-
moval of mountains can only be effected by a great physical
convulsion, or the agency of supernatural power, it is most
reasonable to infer, that the junction of the rivers had oc-
curred nearer to the hills, at a former period, than at pre-
sent.

What is thus ieuniteil from a general view of the ques-
tion, made with reference to the Jumna and Guna, appears
to me to be confirmed by facts; and T think it exceedingly
probable, that the latter river has at a former period flowed
close to the front range of hills in the north-east extremity
of Bundlecund, and that it has gradually forsaken that

ANCIENT CAPITAL OF THE PRASII. 39

course, as its earthy contents came to be deposited on the
bank. At a short distance from the hills, we find the allu-
vion of the river mingling with the black earth; and long
before we are out of sight of these, the soil seems almost
entirely composed. of a deposite from its waters. Granting,
therefore, that the Jumna held its course farther to the
south than the present bed of the river, we can easily con-
ceive that the sister-stream of the Ganges may have joined
its waters also more to the south and east than the present
point of confluence at Allahabad, and in a situation so near
to the hills, as to correspond in every respect with the ac-
count handed down to us of the site of Palibothra by an-
cient writers.

_From the very cursory glance I could bestow onthe district,
in passing through it, I am not in possession of such exact
information relative to the changes in the appearance of the
soil as I could wish, and as would be necessary to form an
accurate conclusion on this particular pomt. It appears to
me, however, that were the existing geological relations of
countries more attended to and studied, many disputed
points in reference to their ancient history would be deter-
mined, and rules established, for the guidance of the anti-
quary, which would materially abridge his labour and re-
search. | ,
- The other soils in Bundlecund are those formed from
the debris of the granite and the sandstone rocks. The first
is found at the village of Kurtul, and is very limited; the
sandstone soil is seen between that village and Adjyghur—
it is more extensive than the other; but as it abounds
above the Ghaut, after passing Punnah, the account of its
qualities will be best: given along with the appearance of that
district. ,

The appearance of the first hills, after entering the
Aumna, has been already detailed. It is quite character-

40 FORMATION OF THE HILLS OF BUNDLECUND.

istic of the granitic formation. Their outline, contrasted
with the table-summits of the ranges in the interior, ex-
emplifies in a strikmg manner the effect of the rock in
the figure of the general elevation, from which, at the
distance of many miles, we can often determine the na-
ture and position of the strata forming very extensive
ranges. The bare aspect of these granite piles, im the first
range, and the irregular surface which they present, lead
one to conclude, that they are but the remains of hills of a
much greater extent, which have once existed here. 'They
may be said to exhibit the cores of large hills, whose exte-
rior has suffered in the lapse of time, while the more com-
pact structure of the granite still enables it to resist the
common causes of decay. I think it can hardly be doubted
that all hills, similar to those met with in Bundlecund, have
been originally formed by a force from below, elevating the
primitive rocks, and causing a disruption of the secondary
strata, at the several pomts at which it had been exerted.
‘Where the force was but slightly impressed, and in a limit-
ed area, a small elevation would be formed. The granite
would then only break through the superincumbent strata,
without carrying them along with it, while the broken strata
would rest on the sides of the mass, after the impelling force
ceased to act. The figure of the hill then would not be a
pyramid, which it now resembles, but would approach more
to that of a cone; sandstone, trap, &c. lymg on and sur-
rounding the granite, and filling up its inequalities, and the
direction of the strata of each of these deviating more or less
from the horizontal line, in proportion to the elevation of
the central mass. We could thus picture a hill more ex-
tensive than any of those now existing in the first series,
whose sides at the surface were originally composed of sand-
stone ledges, and the summit of a poimted block or mass of
granite, or, crowning the whole, may have existed a table-

DISINTEGRATION OF THE STRATA. 41

land, of comparatively small dim ensions. ‘Their: original

height, in that case, may have been from $0 to 50 feet

greater than their present, that being the average depth of
the sandstone strata in the hills in the distance. Indeed both

these ranges have been produced by the same‘ causes, and

have-at the time been composed of similar materials; ‘the

sole difference arising from the size of the primitive or gra-

nitic' base. The process of reduction or diminution of their

bulk may be conceived to have taken place in the followmg

manner. ‘The sloping sandstone on the sides of ‘the hill,
being acted on by the elements:of air and water, joined to

the heat of the sun, had first suffered disintegration. | ‘The
sand thus produced would be washed down by the torrents

im the rainy season to the bottom of the hill, where it would
spread out, and form'soil. ‘This operation continuing, the
whole of the inclined sandstone would, in course of time, be
removed, and the trap, or other rock, immediately beneath
it, would thus be exposed in its turn. From the same
causes which acted on the sandstone, this would also under-
go a change, and ultimately be reduced to soil, which would
spread over: the detritus of the former. The small table on
the summit, in the course of these operations, fallmg imto
fragments, and rolling down the hill, would also be exposed
to the same successive changes; and thus, after the lapse of
ages, nothing would remain but the central li giaho ent
tic. mass, ds it is now displayed.

This view of the original structure of these eminences,
ould the changes which they have undergone, is supported
by the present state of the larger hills in the distance.. We
see them covered by a table of sandstone still entire, resting
on an extensive pyramid of granite, on the sides of which are
found trap and pieces of sandstone, and, at the bottom,. a
soil composed: of their detritus, being either'a pure sand,

42 FERRUGINOUS CONGLOMERATE:

or a dark-coloured rich earth, according to particular lo:
calities, | : | Wished igwidos iad
It is obvious how the table-summits of the larger hills
yet remain of great extent. Though at first exposed to the
same decomposing action as the sloping strata, this could
only go on for a short time. ‘The surface of the rock suf-
fering decomposition, plants of various sorts would take
root, and grow and bind together the new soil; and shrubs
and trees by degrees shooting out, would add to the effect
of the herbage by affording a shade, and in so far obviate
the influence of the sun’s rays, in contributing to the pro-
cess of disintegration. A deep jungle being in process of
time produced, no farther changes would occur in the sub-
jacent rock, excepting in its perpendicular faces, where the
alternations of seasons might occasion fragments to be de-
tached and precipitated to the plain below, or the descend-
ing water, in the rainy months, might wear out channels in
the surface, and carry the sand to the bottom of the hill.
The ferruginous conglomerated gravel and sand met
with here is entirely a secondary production, and the
process by which it is formed resembles, in some re-
spects, that of the calcareous Kunkur, to be afterwards
described. It appears to be decomposed sandstone, unit-
ed again by means of iron, in a low state of oxidation:
I am also disposed to believe, that the iron has been deriv-
ed, not from a mineral, but from a vegetable source; that
it is, in fact, the product of decomposed ligneous fibres,
which chemical analysis shows to contain a portion of this
metal. The successive decay and production of vegetable
matter would in time accumulate; the iron and the acid-
water, also formed by the decomposition of vegetables, in
the rain, would in part dissolve it, and impregnate the sand
over which it rested. Evaporation taking place, on the ac-

MATRIX OF THE DIAMOND. 43

cession of the dry season, would complete the process. by
the abstraction of the menstrual fluid; while the metallic
oxide would enter into a more intimate union with the earth,
The chalybeate pools at the top of the Ghaut, and oozing
rills before mentioned, may be supposed therefore to con-
stitute the active instrument in the formation of the ferru-
ginous gravel.

It is remarkable, that the gravel-conglomerate should form
the matrix of the diamond in Asia and America, and, I be-
lieve, in every quarter of the globe where the gem is found,
while almost all the other precious stones are included in solid
rock, of which they constitute, as it were, an integrant part,
or are found along with its debris. How far this peculiarity —
may be connected with the singular chemical nature of the
diamond, I cannot pretend to say; but the fact appears of
importance in Jueuie on the origin of this highly prized
jewel.

With Punnah, we leave for some time all traces oF culti-
vation, and enter upon a beautiful jungle, which continues
nearly ten miles to the village of Kukurettee. The soil is
entirely formed from the debris of red sandstone, without
gravel, or apparently any impregnation of iron. It is of a
red colour, dry, and fertile, and seems peculiarly adapted
for the culture of the vine. 'To the right and left of the
road, sandstone ridges, several hundred feet high, rise from
the general level of the table-land, and present the same
horizontal arrangement as the sandstone described. ‘There
is a perceptible elevation of the surface m this course, and
the path appears to cross the range of hills, there being a
slight descent as we approach Kukurettee; where the
country again becomes open and cultivated, and displays
the same dark-coloured earth which was so often met with
below the Ghaut.

On the march from Kukurettee to the cantonment at

AA LIMESTONE FORMATION.

Lohargong, I discovered a mass of rock apparently con-
sisting of alternate layers of limestone and sandstone; and
soon limestone strata were found projecting from the
ground, having, in many places, a very thin covering of
soil, and scarcely any vegetation over it. ‘The bareness of
the plain here is altogether remarkable, and cannot fail to
strike the traveller, after passing over the jungle district to
the north. The effect of the limestone on the soil appears
unfavourable. It does not undergo decomposition; and,
in place of being soft and corroded like the sandstone, the
strata, I observed, were exceedingly compact, and the sur-
face of all the exposed masses rounded off, with a sort of
semi-vitrescent structure, as if the rock had undergone
fusion. The aspect of the whole district about the canton-
ment is barren and desolate, nothing but a reed or rushy
grass being seen, and very little of the ground in a state of
cultivation. It is not easy to discover the arrangement of
this rock, as there are no elevations or ravines to give an
opportunity of examining it minutely. The limestone for-
mation, as I have since ascertained, is of great extent;
traces of it are found about 70 miles to the west, on the
Sangar route; and it is probable that it stretches to the bot-
tom of the hills to the eastward of Lohargong, occupying
the greater part of the basin inclosed, and formed by the
ranges on both sides here.

A few miles to the south and west of Lohargong, the
sround becomes more moist and clayey, and this change is
quickly explained by the appearance of a coarse schistose
sandstone, which I found very abundant here. It seems,
however, to contain also a large proportion of calca-
reous earth. On crossing the Cane, near the village of
Kopah, the thin horizontal layers of this rock are very
conspicuous on each side, and the bed of the river seems to
pass through it. The Cane here is rather more than 100

RANGE OF SANDSTONE HILLS. AD

feet broad; but it was quite fordable in the latter end of
October,. ens I passed it.

The village of Kopah leads directly to another: range of
hills, which:rise out, of the general table. land, and form the
southern side of the basin of Lohargong. They are less
abrupt than those passed between Punnah and Kukurettee ;
but their. aspect, though not’so striking, is much more beau-
tiful, displaying every variety of shade in the foliage which
coyers them,| and affording a rich and romantic diversity of
prospect that is nowhere exceeded. The.sandstone which
composes them, like the former, is im general . horizontal.
From Kopah, to Bisseenie is 18 miles, , from Bisseenie,to
Syenngeur 10 or, 12, and. from this. last to! Bellaree as
much. more... ihe whole of the district. is hilly, with
numerous streams passing over it, and: presents the same
general features throughout. . Specimens of a red-coloured
decayed. amygdaloid were taken from the hill above . Bel-
laree, where it 1s very abundant, in the form .of large
_ masses, lying apparently « over. sandstone.... Qn, descending
this hill, the country again opens before the view, and a
large fnew with trees aol over it, is seen extending
in every. direction.

From Bellaree, to the next stage of Coreah, I travelled
by night, and in consequence could not observe the appear-
ance of the country.. At one point, where the road passes
over a small elevation, the rock projects from, the surface
m vertical ridges, in a. singularly abrupt manner; and, as
far as could be perceived by, the feeble light, of .a waning
moon, it partakes of the same general nature as the sand-
stone so. often mentioned. , :

In the next. march, quartz-rock was ey and some
beds of grey-coloured splintery foliated limestone adjoin-
ing to these, had a peculiar striped arrangement, and, in
colour, ‘lustre; and compactness, were not unlike the lime-

46 _. STRATA OF TRON-GLANCE.

stone of Lohargong. When I reached the town of Sehorra,
I found these two rocks, and some others, forming’ a small
hill, on which the Fort, or Ghur, is there pbb The
other rocks are quartz, and a beautiful slaty variety of iron-
glance, which bears so great a resemblance to primitive
clay-slate, that we at first confounded it with that rock.
They are disposed in thin and nearly’ vertical strata, and
alternate and intermix with each other. In some specimens,
the slate is singularly striped with various coloured mate-
rials, which appear to differ in their hardness. —

The village of Sehorra, where these rocks are found, is
prettily situated on two or three small gradually rising
eminences, having a good deal of open glade; which is
flanked and terminated by mango-groves, in such a manner
as to give the whole the air of an English scene. »'The soil
of the district around is of the same black colour as that of
Bundlecund, but is more clayey. It is extremely fertile;
and the appearance of the surface, at the time I passed
here, indicated great care and attention on the part of the
Ryots. For some distance to the south-west of Sehorra,
not a spot could be seen which was not cultivated, and laid
out in square pieces, with an intervening low mud-dike,
similar to the paddy fields in Bengal. |

A few miles beyond Sehorra, we pass the Tlim, a stream
of considerable width, which falls into the Nerbuddah, a
little to the westward. The bank is not rocky, like the Cane
at Kopah, but formed entirely of sand, without any gravel
or pebbles. Some large masses of a variety of round granu-
lar red iron-ore are met with at Gossulpore, a sweet little
village, which we pass between Sehorra and Punnahghur.
The soil is formed from the debris of a seo and 1 is eS
and fertile.

In the march from Punnahghur to J ubbulpore, ny Cross
the Periot, (or Pracu, as AnrowsmitH has it laid down in

FORMATION OF KUNKUR.’ AT

his Map of India), whose channel abounds with every va-
riety of agate and siliceous pebble.

- The calcareous concrete, formerly mentioned, which the
natives term Kunkur, occurs between Sehorra and Punnah-
ghur; but the finest specimens of the kind are got on the
banks of the Ganges, from Ghazapore to Caunpore. 'This
Kunkur, the calcareous tuffa of Werner, which is so
abundant. every where in the soil of India, deserves no-
- tice. On taking up a piece from the ground, its 1rre-
gular figure, from the knoblike projections, or mulberry
surface -which it exhibits, leads to the inference, that
it must at one time have been in a state of fusion or
solution ;—that fire or water has been the active instru-
ment in its formation ;—a stalactite, or rather a stalag-
‘mite, and a slag from the furnace of the founder, or a
cinder from a blacksmith’s forge, presenting a similar ap-
pearance. It appears to be a product of the latter agent
chiefly, or the joint effect of moisture and dryness, on the
calcareous and other earths, in the succession of hot or dry
and rainy seasons which occur in this country.

_ ‘The calcareous earth abounding in the soil, is, during
the rains, alternately exposed to the full action of water,
and the direct rays of a powerful sun; and the union
which is thus effected, is rendered more perfect. during
the succeeding dry and hot months. It is not so easy
to explam from what source the calcareous ingredient
has been originally derived, as limestone-rock does not ap-
pear susceptible of decomposition from exposure, in the
- manner of most other rocks mm India ;—such, at least, as I
have seen preserving its structure atthe surface, and dis-
playing an extraordinary degree of compactness. ‘The ex-
tensive strata of kunkur found in the great plain of Hin-
dostan have been evidently formed by the waters of the
Ganges ; and it is highly probable their materials have been

48 GRANITE AND SANDSTONE.

furnished from the detritus of limestone-rock; m the pass.
age of the mountain-torrents over them, at no great distance
from the head of the river, or at least within the first range
of hills. ,
Near. the town of Jubbulpore, we pass, a ridge. of granite
rocks or hills, which resemble those first met with in Bundle:
cund, but which do not rise to the same height, and are less
conspicuous from the greater continuity which they observe.
Many of the masses approach to the gneiss formation, and
they seem in general to be suffering a rapid decomposition.
The cantonments at Jubbulpore are situated to the east and
south of the town, on an open.plain, which bears only a
coarse grass, and a few shrubs or frutescent plants, if we
except a decaying mango-grove in the. centre of the build-
ing. The district around is rocky, and offers a fine field
for the geological inquirer ; but my short stay would only
admit ofa very cursory glance over it. A formation of
sandstone, directly south of the cantonment, which appears
to have been extensively quarried, has the peculiarity of ©
being arranged in strata perfectly vertical, contrary to what
is usually observed in the rock. A large mass of a whitish
clay-rock, containing quartz-pebbles, forms the base of the
hills, to the east of the plam. It appears to be washed
down by the rains into powder, and formed anew into a
boulder, or a cake, at the surface. The ridge lying over
this, north and east, displays the primitive outline; and
hence, I conclude, consists of the same eranite-blocks which
are observed at the entrance to the town from the north.
At J ubbulpore, we enter upon the great valley of the
Nerbuddah, extending from the Forty Mundelah to be-
yond Hindra, through a space of at least 250 miles. The
river, where we cross it at Tetwarra Ghaut, is a clear
mountain-stream, not much wider than the Cane at Kopah,
but of greater depth, being seldom fordable here before the

MARBLE ON THE NERBUDDAH. 4G

end of November. ‘The bed is entirely rocky, and, in as
far as I could judge in passing, the rock is a variety of
trap, having a position nearly horizontal. A few miles
lower down, I am informed, the river passes over a forma-
tion of marble, of the purest white colour, and with a gra-
nular structure. I met with some masses in the jungle
soon after crossing the Nerbuddah, which appeared to be
of the same nature. At the river, it is quarried by the
natives, who make images and various religious ornaments
of it. I saw a very large block im progress at the town of
Huttah, in Bundlecund, when TI left that part of the coun-
try, which the people told me had been brought from the
Nerbuddah. It appeared equal to the finest marble I have
seen in England, and might well come in competition with
the admired Parian and Pentelic marbles of old, or the
Carrara of modern times. The image which was then un-
der the chissel represented the God Sira, or Mah-ded,
(Magnus Deus), and his consort Bowamnee; and though
fimshed in the usual heavy style of the Hindoos, the exe-
cution was yet sufficiently delicate to display the excellence
of the materials, which I admired greatly. ‘The specimens
of the rock, with many others, I regret to say, have been
lost, through the carelessness of my servants, during my
Jong march from the Nerbuddah; but I expect soon to be
able to replace them, and transmit to you several others
from that part of India, as a friend there has oy under-
taken to supply me.

The valley of the Nerbuddah is formed by two principal
ranges of hills, which inclose it, and run nearly parallel to
each other through its whole extent; the Vindhya, in the
Malwa district, on the right,—and the Gondwana, in Be-
rar, on the left. These are both composed chiefly of sand-
stone, the Gondwana displaying often perfect table-summits,
with a horizontal arrangement ; while the strata of the op-

you. Iv. oes

50 PROBABLE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON

posite range dip very considerably to the westward,—and_
this inclination is more conspicuous the farther.we preceed
in that direction, till we reach Hussingabad, when the angle
with the horizon, in some instances, exceed 45°. Opposite —
to the Company’s military cantonments at this place, the
appearance of the sandstone strata cannot fail to strike the
most indifferent observer. The hills rise from the west,
like the waves of the ocean, gradually swelling, till they
terminate abruptly to the east, with a perpendicular face,
many hundred feet high. There is a small elevation to the
south of the Nerbuddah, and in front of the Hussingabad
cantonment, which displays the same arrangement, and has
evidently been of cotemporaneous formation, though distant
about five or six miles from the principal range. The rock
is primitive sandstone, similar to that of the Bundlecund
hills, and is in common use for building, for which it seems
well calculated. Looking at those ridges of hills on the
north of the Nerbuddah, and comparing their singular ap-
pearance with others of the same general structure, parallel
to them, or even composing part of the same lime, we can-
not hesitate in pronouncing that they must have been ele-
vated, or heaved up, from the horizontal position, by a
subterranean force acting with successive impulses, and in
all probability have owed their origin to a violent earth-
quake, which has happened at a period far beyond record
or tradition, or perhaps even the existence of the human
species. The earthquake which occurred on the 17th June
last year, only wanted force to have raised a chain of hills
of the same character, from one side of the base of the
Indian Peninsula to the other, from the Gulf of Cumbay
to the bottom of the Bay of Bengal. It was a succession
of long heaves, very different from what are usually expe-
rienced and denominated the shocks of an earthquake ; the
undulatory motion being prolonged and repeated over the

THE SANDSTONE HILLS OF THE NERBUDDAH. 61

surface in such a manner, as to appear to have proceeded
from a vast depth, and to have originated at a great dis-
tance from where it was felt by myself. This earthquake
was general over India; but its sensible effects were most
remarkable in the Guzerat district, where it seems to have
been destructive, and to have created much alarm.

The Gondwana range of hills is considerably higher than
the other, rising, near Sohagpore, to an elevation of 800
or 1000 feet (or probably much more, as I had no means
_ of ascertaining this but from their appearance at a distance)
beyond. the level of the valley. I have been informed, by
a friend, who entered these hills against the insurgents
im the end of last campaign, that rich valleys lie between
many of them, and an extensive table-land often covers
their summits. The plain of Puchmerry, where the head-
quarters of the Ex-Rajah Appah Sahib were fixed, dur-
ing the rains of 1818, is an elevated table-land of this
description, covered with the most beautiful verdure,
and having many large trees scattered over its surface,
reminding one of an English park more than a scene
in the burning climate of Hindostan. Extensive beds
of iron-ore were found here by the gentlemen who accom-
panied the troops; and from the appearance of the hills, I
think it highly probable that they abound in various mine-
ral productions. Iron is exceedingly scarce and dear in
this part of India, and the reduction of the ore becomes
therefore an object of importance. There is no want of wood
to accomplish this, and I have every reason to believe that
coal exists in the same hills, and near the situation of the
ironstone. ‘The specimens of coal sent, were found in the
bed of the Towa river, which runs through these hills,
and falls into the Nerbuddah, a few miles east of Hus-
singabad. I examined the banks of the Towa, where the
specimens were got, but could not discover any appearance

dD 2

52 SOIL OF THE NERBUDDAH VALLEY.

of strata, nor impregnation, in the adjoining soil, and, from
the rolled and worn surface of the pieces, it was evident
they had been brought down by the stream from a dis-
tance.

The soil of the Nerbuddah Valley, all the way from
Jubbulpore to Hussingabad, consists of a black coarse
earth, like that of Bundlecund, having its surface strewed
over with chalcedony and agates. It is very fertile, and,
in some places, well cultivated; but a large portion of the
country is jungly, and in a state of nature, deep forests
extending from the bottom of the Gondwana hills to the
river, which, in its whole tract, skirts along the opposite
range to Malwa. °

The specimens which I have now the pleasure to send,
were procured chiefly from the Baitool Valley, in Berar,
and the hills of the Gondwana range leading to it.

QUARTZ FORMATION OF BAITOOL. 58

APPENDIX.

SEcTION I.

Containing some Account of the Rocks found in the Baitool
Valley, in Berar, and on the Hills of the Gondwana
Range. |

On crossing the Nerbuddah Valley, at Hussingabad, we enter
on those hills, about 15 miles to the south, near a village
named Petrora. The intermediate space is partly cultivat-
ed, and partly in a neglected state, being overrun with a
tall coarse grass, and having an occasional clump of shrubs
or low trees. Its aspect is bare, and indicative of a defi-
cient population, which indeed may be said to characterize
the whole of the district. ‘The hills are considerably lower
here than to the eastward, bemg in general of a conical or
dome-lke figure, and covered to the summits with trees of
the same low description as those of the Bundlecund range.
They are composed partly of trap-boulders, especially the
first met with; but the principal rock, all the way to Bai-
tool, is harder and more compact than sandstone, but less
so than perfect quartz. Its position is quite vertical; and
this stratification is best seen in some ridges situate near
the village of Teckaree, immediately after descending the
Ghaut, which leads to the valley. At Shawpore, I found
a very extensive formation of secondary limestone. ‘There

54 GRANITE AND TRAP OF BAITOOL.

are some cultivated grounds near that village; but with
this exception, the whole road, for a distance of 50 miles,
passes through one continued jungle, composed of a great
variety of beautiful trees ; among which, the Cassia fistula
(the Awmiltass of the natives) is very conspicuous; and
another tree, which yields vast quantities of the purest and
most pellucid gum I have ever seen. At the time I passed
through these hills, this last was destitute of leaves and
quite bare, so that I could not determine its botanical cha-
racters. It attains a middling height: the branches shoot
from the main trunk, much hke the common plane-tree,
and the bark is of an unusually dark colour. Vast quanti-
ties of gum, the produce of this tree, might be got in those
hills, as it appears to be very abundant from the Baitool
district as far west as Afsarghan. |

After passing the quartz formation in Baitool, we come
to granite, which is seen in large ledges or masses, and is
principally remarkable for the great size of the felspar con-
cretions. The granite disappears under rocks of secondary
greenstone, which form the hills adjoining to the village or
town of Baitool, and these rocks continue to form the bed of
the Baitool Nullah, or rivulet, to near the town of Teckaru,
where the granite again appears. ‘The greenstone is some-
times amygdaloidal, and contains agates of various descrip-
tions, and veins of calcareous spar and amygdaloidal green
earth. ,

The soil of the valley appears to be directly formed from
decomposed secondary trap-rock, and, at a little distance,
it is difficult to distinguish the solid mass from the fresh
friable earth. This soil resembles in every respect that of
the Nerbuddah Valley, having a great variety of pebbles
of chalcedony and agate scattered over the surface; and,
besides these, there are met with, at different parts, round.

COAL OF THE TOWA. 55

ed calcareous concretions, which are varieties of the kunkur
formerly alluded to. On breaking these, we find them hol-
low, and the internal surface studded over with crystallisa-
tions of calcareous spar.

Coal occurs in the bed of the Towa, about eight miles
east from Hussingabad. I found many pieces of the
same coal near the junction of the river with the Ner-
buddah, but they had all been brought down by the stream
from the hills, where it is probable extensive beds of this
combustible exist: and from the fact of ironstone also
abounding there, and the extreme dearness of the metal, it
becomes an object to explore the whole surrounding hilly
country, and to trace the course of the river, in order to
discover the situation of the mineral.

Srcrion II.

Remarks made on a March from Hussingabad to Sangor,

and from thence to the Ganges. .

The specimens labelled “ From Mulwah,” were picked
up by me on a hasty march which I made from Hussinga-
bad to Sangor, and thence to the Ganges, im my way to
this place. I had no leisure to examine the geological fea-
tures of the country minutely; but the few memoranda
which I noted down at the time, defective as they are, may
still give some general idea of the nature of the rocks. I
shall therefore transcribe them without: alteration.

56 SANDSTONE AND TRAP.

10th December 1819.—From Hussingabad, for two or
three stages, Sandstone; near the Nerbuddah, singularly
elevated towards the east, forming an angle of upwards of
45°, with an abrupt face gradually falling off to the west.

12th & 18th.—About half way m some of those marches,
a rock at the surface, resembling the trap of Baitool, and
containing veins of calcareous spar.—Black clay earth in the
plains.—Hills of moderate height.—Abundance of agates
and chalcedony in this clay soil, and evidently derived from
‘the decomposition of the greenstone rock.

22d.—Sangor. The appearance of the rocks to this place

continue all the way as already described. At Sangor, how-
ever, trap is very abundant, forming large ridges, and
mingling with sandstone. On the plain, in front of the
cantonments, a conglomerated sandstone, contaiming frag-
ments of quartz, of a red and grey colour; and in the soil,
saw masses of radiated and fibrous calcareous spar.
- 26th.—From Sangor to Huttah, in Bundlecund. Trap
twelve miles to Sanonda, first march.—A singular white
rock, near Puterea, between that village and Saipore,
appears to be flesh-coloured flint, decomposing at the
surface. Sandstone at Puterea. Between Puterea and
Mirsinghur cross the Sonaur river, the bed of which is
grey-coloured compact secondary limestone, apparently of
good quality; occasionally schistus, and much mingled
with the caleareous rock, particularly as we approach Mir-
singhur: this schistus in horizontal layers.

From Mirsinghur, plains showing limestone at the sur-
face, and coarse schistus, with occasional sandstone; far-
ther on, sandstone predomimating, and giving the character
to the country, in the bleak aspect, and aptitude for the
resort of bustards, in this respect resembling the plain at
Lohargong.

%

LIMESTONE OF HUTTAH, BY.

3ist.— At Huttah, chiefly limestone. At the cataract on
the Sonaur, the arrangement is well seen, consisting of al-
ternate layers of soft schistus and limestone. The limestone
very impure, containing fragments of quartz and sand,
and occasionally a mineral like felspar. All the way to
Lohargong, limestone abundant. Cross the Cane river,
from the bed of which I procured the pebbles herewith
sent, One or two of these are cut and polished, as finished
by the native workmen at Banda. |

( 58 )

IV .—Notices regarding the Fossil Elephant of
Scotland.

By Rosert Bap, Civil Engineer, F. R.S. E., M. W.S.,
G.S.L,, &c. &e.

(Read 24th February 1821.)

Is the observations which I had the honour of reading
before this Society, the year before last, regarding the Clack-
mannanshire Coal-field *, I remarked, when treating of the
alluvial cover which rests upon the rocks, that it consisted
of two very distinct kinds, which are termed the Old and
Recent Alluvial Covers, and this observation applies to every
district of Great Britain which I have examined. That
termed Recent, is found along the sides of rivers and lakes,
is frequently of considerable extent, generally very fertile,
and, along the river Forth, it 1s in some places 90 feet in
depth. It contains great abundance of organic remains,
both of the animal and vegetable kmgdoms, a circumstance
familiar to every observer. ‘This cover is visibly forming
and extending every day.

On the other hand, the Old Alluvial Cover is of vast ex-
tent, occupying a great proportion of the surface of Great

* Wern, Mem. Vol. iii. p. 123.

FOSSIL ELEPHANT. 59

Britam; is found at great heights, also under the level
of the sea; and is of three kinds, viz. Ist, Sand; 2d,
Gravel; and, 3d, Clay. The clay is of two kinds, viz. 1st,
fine plastic clay, such as is used by potters; and, 2d, clay
intimately mixed with sand, gravel, and boulder-stones ;
which last are sometimes found several tons in weight. It
is this last kind of cover which at present I particularly re-
fer to.

I have had very frequent opportunities of seeing this
kind of cover laid open from the surface, to the rock on
which it rests, and have found it in thickness from a few
inches to 160 feet ; and have always remarked, that though
it contained boulder-stones, and gravel of almost every kind
of rock, and detached angular fragments of the adjoming
rock-stratification, I never had observed a single instance
of an organic remain of any kind in it. ‘This cover is
known in Agriculture by the name of Tull, and 1s impervious
to water. The soil which covers it is generally thin, and
not naturally fertile; of itself, it is indeed one of the most
sterile subsoils which is known. The first plant which most
frequently strikes root upon it, after exposure to the air, 1s
the common thistle, Carduus arvensis.

As the Union Canal, which is now making betwixt this city
and Falkirk, passes for 28 miles through a country chiefly
composed of this kind of cover, I took the opportunity of
noticing if any organic remains were found init; and I
requested my friend, Mr Hucu Bainp, civil engineer, who
directs the canal operations, to be particular in his inquiries
if any such remains were found, and to give me notice.
Having been frequently along the Canal with him for these
last three years, I had an opportunity of investigating the
excavations as they preceeded. No appearance of any ani-
mal or vegetable remain, however, was found, until the
18th day of July last, when the workmen, who were cut-

60 ON THE FOSSIL ELEPHANT

ting the Canal, in the west park of Cliftonhall estate, hav-
ing undermined a large bench of earth, it fell, and a sub-
stance, which the workmen conceived to be the horn of an
animal, was found amongst the earth, which, as a matter
that attracted their curiosity, they laid in a cottage adjoining.

Two days after this, in going along the Canal, I met
with Sir ALExanpDER Mairianp Gizgson, who informed
me that a singular remain of an animal had been found in
cutting the canal through his estate; and he politely ac-
companied me to the cottage, that I might see it. On its
being produced, I found it to be an ivory tusk, in most.
complete preservation. After taking its dimensions, and
making a drawing of it, I went to the spot where it was
found, and questioned the workmen particularly concern-
ing it. According to their information, the spot where it
was inclosed in the earth was from 15 to 20 feet from the
surface: the earth or cover was of the strong old alluvial
earth before described, and at the point where the banks
begin to decline, and form the immediate narrow valley
through which the river Almond runs. In the upper part
of the earth where the tusk was found, I observed fissures
about five inches wide at the top, and ending like a wedge
below, formed by rents in the clay, and filled with sand.
I have, however, reason to conclude, that the tooth had not
been in the sand-veins, but inclosed in the clay; for, other-
wise, it could not have been in such a complete state of
preservation. From the close texture of the clay, and being
so Impervious to water, the tooth might, I think, have re-
mained for ages in the same state. ‘This spot I afterwards
had the pleasure of examining, along with Professor J amxE-
son, when I pointed out to him the situation where the tusk
was found.

The tooth weighed, when washed, 25§ lb. aveirdupois,
and measured as follows:

Wern Mem. Vol. IV page 61,04 ,

eA IE NG

SECTION
b

ee
mw

rp

Sor @

\

| WHhLizars Seulp?

sects
2 eae

»

Mp

_OF SCOTLAND. 61

BN een ees nen emcee dale . 39 inches.
Circumference at the middle,.,......... 13 do.
Circumference at the thick end, ....... 13 do.

Circumference near the small end,.... 12 do.
And the inside curve deflected from the cord-hne
4 inches and ;%,ths of an inch.

As the specimen interested me much, more particularly
as it was the only instance of my having found any organic
remain in this kind of cover, I suggested to Sir ALEx-
ANDER MartTLtanp Gisson to take particular care of it.
He accordingly told the workman who found it, to send it
to the house of Cliftonhall, where he would give him a
gratuity for it. ‘The workman, immediately upon under-
standing that what he conceived to be a horn, was ivory,
and very valuable, went off to Edinburgh with the tooth,
and sold it. Sir ALExanpeER, the instant he heard of this,
went in search of it, and found it m an ivory-turner’s, who
had given L.2 for it; but, most unfortunately, before he
arrived, it was sawn across in three places, and part of it
prepared for the lathe, to form chess-men; which circum-
stance shews the high state of preservation in which it was
found. Sir ALEXANDER repaid the money which had been
given for it; and he has, in the most obliging manner,
permitted me now to exhibit it co the Society.

It is now five inches shorter than when I measured it,
owing to the piece cut out of it by the turner; but I have
herewith produced a drawing of it, shewing the exact di-
~ mensions when found.

Prate IV. Fig. ? & 2.

Circumference ata.......... 13 inches.
Ditto ae Bree a", 13 do.
Ditto Feat oy ieee ala AA de 12 do.

Depth on hollow Oe LSS e 7 do.

62 ON THE FOSSIL ELEPHANT

The air has now begun to operate upon the tooth; if
has shrunk considerably, and is formed into longitudinal
concentric rings. When first cut across, it was quite solid ;
this circumstance proves how completely it had been ex-
cluded from the action of air or water, otherwise . must
have decayed long ago.

I have frequently mentioned to naturalists the observa-
tion I had made of no trace of organic remains being found
in this kind of cover; and this is the more remarkable, as
in the coal-fields, where it rests on rock, the strata abound
with impressions, and casts of plants and shells; and the
shistus at Cliftonhall abounds with delicate and beautiful
impressions of the former. ‘To this observation I have res
ceived for answer, that probably both plants and animals
may have been at one time in this kind of cover, but are
now decayed. Had this been the case, some faint traces of
them would have remained, and the clay would consequent-
ly have had some of the principles of the fertility of the
recent alluvial covers. But this is not the case in the least
degree. Besides, from the specimen now exhibited, its qua-
lity of preserving organic remains is very manifest.

There are instances, however, where I have seen large
trees inclosed in this kind of cover by the sides of rivers :
this is easily accounted for. Such trees have grown on the
banks of the river: the floods have undermined them, and
the trees, after falling, were overlaid by succeeding falls of
the bank, and in such a manner as to secure them from
either the action of air or of water. Such trees, when taken
out, are as solid and hard as when they were growing. I
saw an instance lately of an oak-tree taken out of a bank
of this kind at Yester, near Haddington ; it was very black
throughout, and so close in the texture, that it was made
imto ornamental furniture, which had the appearance of
ebony. With this circumstance in view, 1 examined the

OF SCOTLAND. 63

situation of the ground where the tusk was found; but it
could not, in my opinion, have been covered with earth from
a high bank, as it was at the top of the river-bank where
the table-land commences.

This specimen being an anomaly in the general observa-
tions I have made as to organic remains, I can offer no
hypothesis on the subject, nor form any idea as to the
period when this tusk had been deposited. We know such
specimens are found in a bed of clay in the vicinity of
London, but the clay is altogether different from that at
Cliftonhall. All these specimens refer to a period very re-
mote, as to which many ingenious theories have been
brought forward, without, however, producing any satts-
factory conclusion.

As to this old alluvial cover, I am led to think, from.
many observations, that it has been gathered together by a
violent and sudden convulsion; and my chief reason for
concluding so is, from the intimate, yet heterogenous mix-
ture of clay, sand, and boulder-stones, while the sharp an-
gular fragments of the soft strata adjoining, such as sand-
stone, shistus, and coal, shew, that there had been a tear-
ing up of the strata; but the deposit made so instantly,
that there was not time for the attrition of these soft frag-
ments. Besides, had it gradually subsided, there would
have been traces of beds or divisions in it, and the stones
would have been all towards the bottom of it, upon or near
the rock head: but this is not the case; large and small
boulder-stones are found mixed alike through every part
- of it. Horizontal beds of sand seldom occur.

The only other mstance I know, of elephants’ tusks being
found im the alluvial cover in Scotland, was in the parish of
Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, near the Water of Carmel, in a pro-
perty belongmg to Lord Ec1iinroy. They were dis-

64 ON THE FOSSIL ELEPHANT

covered in the beginning of January 1817, by Mr Ro-
BERT Brown, tacksman of the sandstone quarry of Green-
hill,, while removing the earth above the rock. At the
depth of 173 feet from the surface, he discovered two
tusks, one of which measured 3 feet 54 mches in length,
and about 184 inches in circumference. The other was
similar, but so much decayed that it could not be pre-
served. The alluvial cover was clay; but where the tusks
were found, it was much changed in colour, being of a
dark-brown, and, when turned up, had a most offensive
smell. The colour of the clay, excepting at the spot around
where the tusks were found, is of a very light-brown, which
rendered the change of colour very distinct.

The tusks were found lying in a horizental position, with
several small bones near them: and it is particularly to be
remarked, that several marine shells were found amongst
the dark-coloured earth.

The tusk weighed 203 lb. English weight, and was sent
to the Earl of Ecxinron. It was afterwards cut through
across, and one part of it is to be seen in the saloon at
Eglinton Castle; the other part was sent to the College
Museum at Edinburgh.* .The part which is at Eglinton
Castle I have also examined. 'The exterior is of a brown
colour, and very hard; but the greater part of the interior
is much decomposed, has lost the ivory texture, and, though
not absolutely soft, is similar m appearance to half-rotten
wood.

From what I have stated regarding these tusks found
at Kilmaurs, we have reasons to draw the following
conclusions; namely, That the entire animal had been de-
posited in the spot where the tusks were found; and that

* See PL IV. fig. 3. (same seale as fig. 1. 2.)

OF SCOTLAND: 65
the cover of the rocks, where they were found, was not of
the old, but of the recent alluvial cover: the offensive smell,
and dark-coloured earth, proved the one point; and the
marine shells the ether. Hence; the tusk now before the -
Society; and those found at Kilmaurs, must have been de-
posited under cireumstances totally different, and at lta
in my opinion, very remote from each other.

Further, as the dark colour of the earth, and the offen-
sive smell, where the bones were found, support the con-
clusion that the entire animal had been deposited there;
and as we know that, some years ago, the entire body of
an. elephant was found in a mass of ice in Siberia, and
in such a high state of preservation, that the hair remained
on the skin,—and the flesh of it, when thawed by the sun,
was readily eaten by the dogs,—the hair was short, partly.
long, and partly woolly, altogether different from that of
the present elephants found in Asia and Africa; and as
the bones of the elephant are found frequently in the great
bed of the London clay; at a considerable depth under the
surface, may we not, with reason, infer, that a species of
elephant did once exist in northern latitudes, and in Great
Britain, whose habits suited a northern climate—and that
the tusks found at Cliftonhall and Kilmaurs did belong to
this species? This conclusion appears to be still further
supported by the fact, that the tusk found at Cliftonhall
differs from the present elephants’ tusks brought to this

country, in having a deep hollow at the small end. This
may possibly be accidental; but I am inclined to regard it
' as characteristic: for, some years ago, I had an opportuni-
ty of examining above a hundred tusks of the common ele-
phant, in the possession of Mr Josera Gurney, ivory-
merchant, Sheffield, the whole of which had the ordinary
obtuse point, and not one of them presented any hollow at
the small end. I may take this opportunity of mentioning;

VOL. IV. E

66 FOSSIL ELEPHANT.

that one of these tusks, which had been sawn across, was
very remarkable, having, in the heart of the solid ivory, a
leaden musket-bullet, which must have been lodged when
the tusk was soft at the root, the animal having been shot
at and wounded when young. The ivory around the ball
was a little discoloured, and cellular; but there was no
opening from the root to the place where the ball was in-
closed. The former species, whose habits suited a northern
climate, has become extinct, from causes as to which we
can form no reasonable conjecture *.

* To Mr Georce Jounston, factor to Lord Eauinron, I am indebted
for the particulars regarding the interesting fossil found at Kilmaurs. An
account of the finding of these tusks was sent to Professor Jameson by
ALEXANDER Hoop, Esq. surgeon, Kilmarnock, and read before the Wer-
nerian Natural History Society, 20th December 1817.—-See Wernerian Me-
moirs, vol. iii. p. 525.

Oh)

V.— Descriptions af Seven New Scottish
Fungi.

By Rosert Kaye GREVILLE, Esq. F.R.S.E:
M. W.S. &c.

(Read 29th December 1821.)

THE number of Fungi hitherto discovered in Scotland
is sO very limited, that little merit can be claimed for add
ing a few additional spéciés; yet when a view one is ascer-
tained, or one respecting which there exists any degree of
confusion, a description of the one, or observations calcu-
lated to remove uncertainty in the other, will, it is pre-
sumed, be not unfavourably received. Under this impres-
sion, I have described several species, which I have recent-
ly added to the Scottish Flora. No figures have been pub-
lished of any of them; one is described by ALBERTINI and
Scuwerniz in their Conspectis Fungorum; and two aré
so obscurely noticed, that, were it not for colour and local-
ity, I should have no data by which I could judgé of their
identity.

Since Prrsoon published his Synopsis uM. ethodica Fun-
gorum, in 1801, a great number of Species have been dis-
covered, and many necessary alterations made in the Genera,
particularly of the sixth Order, Nematorurcir Fungé

E 2

68 DESCRIPTIONS OF

byssoidet. ‘The number of genera here has been more than
doubled, chiefly by the exertions of the German Cryptoga-
mists; im most instances upon a sufficient foundation, al-
though in some their distinction of specific character seems
to be somewhat trifling; as between Virgaria and Hapla-
ria, Polyactis and Aspergillus, Verticillium and Botrytis,
Rubigo and Erinewm.

The following plants belong to the order above mention-
ed, and I have been obliged to adopt the new genera, as
no others would receive them; those, however, to which
my specimens must be referred, are distinct and satisfac-
tory.

SPoROTRICHUM, Link.

Fila ramosa implexa sports globosis aut ovalibus vage
IMSPETSA.

Sporotrichum minutum, meh.
Plate V. fig. 1.

S. subrotundum minutum candidum, filis laxe intricatis
sports numerosis ovalibus.

Has. In stercore, autumno hyemale.

Small, very white, tufted, sometimes crowded together,
tufts about half a line in diameter. ‘Threads under the
microscope, loosely interwoven, seldom and irregularly
branched, and somewhat attenuated. Sporules oval, or
suboviform, very numerous, and not so small as in mae:
species. At Braid Hermitage, on dung.

SEVEN NEW SCOTTISH FUNGI. 69

Sporotrichum tenuissimum, mhz.
: : Plate V. fig. 2.
S. candidum latum teleforme, filis dense intertextis te-
nuissimis sporis globosis sparsis minutis.

- Has. In ligno mortuo, autumno.

Pure white, and adhering so close to the wood, that, with
the naked eye, it was impossible to say whether it was a
fungus ora lichen. Very broad, and following the in-
equalities of the surface on which it grows. Threads very
fine, and seldom branched, Sporules round, very minute,
somewhat scattered. Found on a piece of dead and rather
dry wood, growing chiefly on the bark; Braid Hermitage.

Sporotrichum sulphureum, |
Plate V. fig. 3.

'S. sulphureum cespitosum, se laxe contextis sports nu-
merosis subglobosis.

Monilia sulphurea? Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 691.
ALBERT. et Scuw. Conspect. Fung. p. 346.

Has. In stercore et in cellariis, toto anno,

Tufted, roundish, of a pleasant yellow colour, varying
in shade according to age. ‘Tufts from half to two lines in
breadth. Threads remotely jomted, loosely interwoven,
and occasionally branched. Sporules globular, rather nu-
merous.

This plant is by no means uncommon, frequently grow-
ing along with the following species, in damp cellars, upon
various substances... A short tume.ago, I received from Dr
Brewsrer a specimen of this and .S. awreum, growing to-
gether on a wine cork; and a few days afterwards, met
with them on dung in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.

70 - DESCRIPTIONS OF

I dare not venture to pronounce this plant the Monilia
sulphurea of Prersoon: his whole character is comprised
in the words “ cespitosa sulphurea ; ;” and the little use he
seems to have made of the microscope, renders the point
still more doubtful.

Sporotrichum aurantiacum, mihi.
Plate V. fig. 4. |
S. cespitosum aureum, filis tenuissimis valde contextis
sporis globosis sparsis minutissimis.
Monilia aurea? Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 691.
ALBERT. et Scuw. p. 363.

Haz. In stercore et in cellarus, &c. toto anno.

Tufted, of a beautiful orange colour, which acquires a
reddish tinge in age. Tufts generally about a line in
breadth, but sometimes almost confluent. ‘Threads very
fine, branched, and much entangled. Sporules globular,
scattered, and very minute.

The same degree of Rint ed envelopes this species,
as S. sulphureum. Pxunsoon’s character is only ey caspitose
aurea ;” but from the striking similarity of colour, it is
probable that both plants are what Persoon has described
with so much brevity, and under the same specific names,
under the genus Monilia.

It appears very distinct from S. awreum of Linx, in the
Berl. Mag. 7. 18. | |

PeniciLuium, Link.
Flocci simplices aut ramosi, apicibus dilitatis finduntur
in fasciculum, ramulorum capitulum sporarum globosaruy:
colligentem. | |

SEVEN NEW SCOTTISH FUNGI. 71

Penicillium candidum, Link.
Plate V. fig. 5.
i. fila sterilia decumbentia implexa, fila fructifera erecta
sumplicia subsparsa capitulis sporarum albis.

Penicillium candidum, Lryx. in Berl. TOs 9. Ly.
Gray’s Nat. Arr. v.1. p. 554.*

Has. In caulibus subputridis plantarum, autumno.

This species forms whitish spots of half to one inch long,
by several lines wide, upon the semiputrid stems of herba- -
ceous plants. On these spots the little pure-white heads are
very visible to the naked eye, dispersed in a scattered
manner over the surface. ‘The threads are simple, erect,
and remotely jointed, dividing at the summit into two;
and then subdividing into a number of short attenuated
ramuli, covered with a profusion of sporules. Sporules
round and minute. The barren threads have the same
character, except being decumbent, simple to the very sum-
mit, and producing no sporules. ,

This species was found on the decaying stem of Arctiwm

Lappa near Edinburgh.

STACHYLIDIUM, Link.

Flocct adscendentes basi implext ; ramulis superne verti-
— cillatis, abbreviatis obtusis. Spore globose ad verticillos
congeste. |

* Gray’s Natural Arrangement of British Plants, 2 vols. 8vo. 1821,—a
most extraordinary work, of great industry, but of less judgment, in which
Jungermannia alone is split into 19 genera.

79 DESCRIPTIONS OF

Stachylidium candidum, meh.
Plate V. fig. 6.
S. fila ramosa erecta remote articulata candida sparsa
sporis globosis.

Has. Ad honum mortuum, autumno.

Spreading over rotten sticks and dead wood for an inch
or more together, but in somewhat .a scattered manner.
Under the microscope it is a beautiful object. The threads,
which vary considerably m diameter, are remotely jomted,
and attenuated at the base. 'The upper half is regularly
verticillate, the whorls bemg formed by four short and. ob-
tuse ramuli; one of these ramuli sometimes becomes a -
branch, and is then whorled in the same manner. The
sporules are small, globular, and collected at the whorls.

- Borrytis, Link.

flocci erecti, bast sepius impleat ramos, ramulis corym-
bosis, circum apices sporas globosas colligentibus.

Botrytis diffusa, Albert. et Schw.
Plate V. fig. 7.

B. candida ramosa, ramis longe lateque diffusis ramulis
undique in racemos dispositis racemuligeris.

ALBERT. et Scuw. Conspect. Fung. p. 362.

Haz. In caulibus semiputridis plantarum, autumno.

An incomparably elegant and beautiful plant, and much
larger than any of its congeners. It forms large spots, of
two or more inches in length, of the purest white imagin-
able, which, when examined, consist of a number of separ-
ate tufts, two or three lines in height. The threads are

PLATE V.

fing tor the Wern Mem Vol Wage 74:

myth ” ,

WH Lazars Seuto=.

SEVEN NEW SCOTTISH FUNGI. 73

naked towards the base, but, immediately after dividing
and subdividing into a few branches, become clothed at
nearly regular intervals, with small pedicillated clusters of
minute globular sporules. After dividing into branches,
each thread is continued simple and slender to its summit,

and is disp

osed in the most graceful curve.

‘My specimens, were gathered on a stem of Arctium
Lappa; those of ALBERTINI and ScHweErniz on that of
Solanum tuberosum.

Edinburgh, December 31. 1821.

Haplanation of Plate V.

Fig. 1. Filaments and sporules of Sporotrichum minutum,

Do.
. of Sporotrichum sulphureum, do.

TT OW
wo)
5

very highly magnified.

of Sporotrichum tenuissimum, do.

. of Sporotrichum aurantiacum, do.
. of Penicillium candidum, do.
. of Stachylidium candidum, do.

. of Botrytis diffusa, do.

da i

VI.— Meteorological Journal, kept at Clunie,
Perthshire, for Twelve Years, from 1809 to
1820. |

By the Rev. Wirt1am Macritcuie of Cluny,
| Perthshire.

(Read 14th April 1821.)
To Professor JAMESON.

Clunie Manse, 15th February 1821.
Deak Sir,

I HAVE been at considerable pains to keep a Register of
the Weather here, as exactly, every day, as possible, for the
last twelve years. The thermometer was observed regu-
larly at nine o'clock in the morning, and at eleven at night ;
and the barometer regularly at twelve o'clock noon. The
height of both instruments above the sea-level is about 190
feet ; and the distance from the nearest pomt of the German
Ocean is about 36 miles on the parallel of latitudes, which
is about 56° 35’. Clunie Manse is about 10 miles west of
the meridian of Edinburgh, near the foot of the Grampians.

I have sent you herewith a set of 'Tables, carefully, and
I hope accurately, made out from the monthly columns of

aah

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. 1D

the Register. In order to shew you, as distinctly as pos-
sible, the medium temperature and pressure of the atmo-
sphere.here, at the hours of observation, I first took the
two extremes of each monthly column of the Register, and

adding these together, and dividing their sum by 2, obtained

the medium, as you see it marked in the left hand columns
of the tables for each year. In the next place, that I might
ascertain more clearly the medium for each year, I summed
up each monthly column with great care, and dividing the
sum by the number of days in the month, obtained the
medium as you find it marked in the right hand columns
of the tables for each year. The rest of the tables will ex-
plain themselves.

I am, &e.

W. MacRirTcuir.

Pe
Sr

7
|
|
|
|

1809.
January
February
March
April
May
June

| July
August
September

| October
November
December

Monthly: average tempera-

ches tick
og/8 isle,
FR Ele OB bane
e O a s ah Sm
4813 4 S| ato
MR gy SO at »
BP} ao - | OM
2 ols. o1s's,.|
o2/sag/5 85)
S opla s ep|. 5 K
oe Ss gee
wM|O HR w/o o
SSS Sias sf]
241 | 242 | 29,9
38 | 392 | 29,93
404 | 414 | 30,2
44 | 38 | 30,24
53 | 454 | 3051
571 | 494% | 29,9
614 | 53 |30,1
60% | 54 | 29,83
503 | 48 | 29,8
484 | 45% |30,13
39 | 39 | 29,9
33 | 384 | 29,23
AS 432

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL,

TABLES
Shewing the T'smprrarurs and Parssurs of the Armo-
sPHERE, at Clunie Manse, for Twelve Years.

29,94

1809.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

ig Sits ; i
Be. |e 188
Sig ce A, b0

he i Glos ove
bg B|b a |bS
SBS oBaAylo®
5 Py a I a e

(Beale aie,
etve teed
6 os 5 x olo & a
Sesleosiaw s]

291 | 253 | 29,84
373| 374 | 29,91
42: | 404 | 30,24
424 | 374 | 30,2}
544} 473 | 30,14
581 | 52. | 29,91
613 | 543 | 30,14
583 | 544 | 29,9

534 | 50 | 29,83
49 | 472 | 30,13
382 | 373 | 30,04
344 | 351 | 29,5 |
474 | 432 | 29,93

1810.

| January

; February
March

f April

| May
June

; July

j August
September
October

! November
December

—_———=o

Yearly aver.

{

fe) 3 o
354 | 34 | 30,03
36 | 354 | 29,84
39 | 344 | 29,71
47k | 41 | 29,88
514 | 414 | 30,0
593 | 52 | 30,03
594 | 52 | 29,83
58k | 56 | 29,8
55 | 52 | 29,98
48 | 45% | 29,73
393 | 38h | 29,84
344 | 354 | 29,8

ne eaten | EE eee

M7 | 431 | 29,83

1810.
January
February
March |
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

nace

| Yearly aver.| 46%

\

354 | 354 | 30,03
354 | 351 | 29,73
374 | 341 | 29,73
454 | 41 | 29,83]
504 | 412 | 30,0
601 | 52 | 30,1
60: | 53 | 29,8
592 | 534 | 29,83 |
553 | 51 | 30,01
473 | 451 | 29,94
39 | 373 | 29,61 |
33 | 349 | 29,64

422 | 29,83 |

TT

ture, at 9 a. m., taking the

Monthly average tempera-
| two extremes.

CCE eT oer | RR

1811.

February 39
‘March 372
April 40%
‘May. 51

Yearly. aver. 454
i \

thly average tempera~ |

| Mon

January | 33k |
February . 35
March. 443,
‘Apri - AAL
May-- 54
June - 60
July 634.
August 58
September | 54
October - 48%
November | 413

| December 394
‘Yearly aver.| 48

January | 34.

June 634.
July 593
August | 574
September | 533
‘October 464
November} 39

December: | 363

es cron | SET gee

KEPT AT CLUNIE. ©

~¥
~i

TABLES continued.
g ro a o

Ble Ze |Z |Z 2
3 |34 Bs |eS |gs
S ,|&. a $3 |SE {Ae
Sita a Oa os lo
Seles . agle= |2e
Pele ee gait ale
mle Feat all ne eee
cles no BR Ele’ g
Bele 3 ys 253" 5(6 8 &
Bla A 5 Be oEe oS RS
BSizsé Ses@esle 2s
° () 1811.. ° oO o :
398 | 29,82] January 33% | 33% | 29,84
345 | 29,65 | February 355 | 35 | 29,48
413 |29,91] |March | 43 | 393 | 30,03
39 | 29,73 April. 454 | 412 | 29,82
46% | 29,83 May 55 | 473 | 29,93
521 | 29,81 June 592 | 514 | 29,48
55 | 29,92 | July 624 | 543 | 29,43
53h | 29,81 August 58} | 524 | 29,64
50° | 29,83 September | 544°) 503 | 29,44
493 | 29,6 October 514 A91 | 29,54
41% | 29,73 | November | 42 42 | 29573
39% | 29,62 December’ | 342 | 351 | 29,6
442 | 29,84 Yearly aver, 473 | 442°) 29,64
bis AN CUS ai ee ce

358 | 29,7 January 348.| 34 |: 29,73
36 | 29,5 February 38 363 | 29,52
334 | 29,9 March 333 |. 342 29,82
364 | 29:8} April 412 | 364 | 29,93 |
422 | 29,91 May 503 | 442 | 29,83
52. | 29,92. June: 59% | 502 | 29,9.
524 | 30,0 July 584 | 514 | 29,98
514 | 29,93 August 583 | 521 | 30,02
48 | 30,0 September | 542 | 49 | 29,98
463 |29,31| | October | 47 | 463 | 29,52
354 |.29,83 November | 384 | 371 | 99,81}
37. | 30,02 December | 343 | 351 | 30,0
421} 29,81 |

Yearly aver.) 45

421: | 99,81 |

rYearly aver.) 46 AlZ

78 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL,
TABLES continued.
Bl eae ie ae
Re [EP |Z 2 ee [25 [fe
82 88 [hc £3 82 |kw
B 28 i Se 2 | fog Birla! (23
ee ois 883 a| ge 8. lee |
Sais @ B/S. 8 Pa ela ee
Sa ules BR eS Fo BR Ele al
> ia mo > cn aie |
Ssroll’s. ojo gt ww ire Sia Ss ok
SEIS S28 9 & SS’sie "5/3 8 gt
SS als Salk eo Sf ols Pols = Sf
SeglS Zale 2 3] Sigs sages s
1813. us 2 4 1813. « x i
January 34 314 | 29,9 January 322 | 321 | 29,92
February 404 | 39 | 29,63 February 383 | 38 | 29,551
March 44 394 | 30,0 March 434} 402 | 30,0 |
April 43 38} | 29,92 April 454 | 403 | 29,92
May 50% | 454 | 29,73 May 512 | 45% | 29,72]
June 61 503 | 30,03 June 61 50 | 30,04
July 624 | 533 | 29,92 July 621 | 55} | 29,83
August 60 53 | 30,03 August 614 | 52 |30,08
September | 534] 504 | 29,83 September} 54% | 514 | 29,92]
October 434 | 40% | 29,7 October 43; | 414 | 29,73}
November | 342 | 364 | 29,63 November | 364 | 36} | 29,64
| December | 35 354 | 29,73 December | 36 36 | 29,8
early aver.| 47 423 | 29,83 Yearly aver.}| 474 | 433 | 29,84]
1814. fi 4 1814 3 F 3
January 25% | 244 | 29,6 January 27% | 254 | 29,68
February 303 | 27% | 29,73 | February 344 | 322 | 29,93
March 403 | 38 | 29,74 March 377 | 35% | 29,81
April 5234} 434 | 29,74] April 49% | 443 | 29,73
| May 52 43% | 30,13 May (543 | 43 | 30,03
June 55 49 | 30,03 June 57 481 | 30,03 |
July 623 | 53 | 29,84 July 612 | 542 | 29,52
August 593 | 54 | 29,9 August 593 | 56 | 29,88
September | 553 | 49 | 29,91 September | 553 | 493 | 30,04
October 444, 43 | 29,83 October 452 | 43 | 29,74
November | 37 374 | 29,83 November | 39 38 | 29,62
| December | 324 | 374 | 29,53 December | 343 | 352 | 29,61
3 | 29,89 Yearly aver.) 464 | 424 | 29,83 [)

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

September
October

November
December

Monthly average ‘tempera.

ture, at 9 o’clock a.

KEPT AT CLUNIE.

TABLES continued.

mes.

Monthly average tempera-

Mey
taking

| taking the two extre

=

| the two extremes.

Monthly average pressure,
at noonday, taking the

] two extremes.

Yearly aver.

ture, at 9 a. m., adding

| Monthly average tempera-
the columns.

|
|
|

1815.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

463

1816.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November | 37}
December | 323

Yearly aver.| 441

@
331
34
364
421
49}
561
543
573
523.
453

Monthly average tempera-
ture, at 11 p. m., adding

| the columne.

2)

43}

Al}

| Monthly average pressure, }

| at noonday,
| columns.

19

adding the

29,84

29,23 |
29,71
29,61
29,7 |
29,8
29,83
29,61
29,8}
29,74
29,74
29,64
99,53

29,63

80

ture, at 9 s. m, taking the

Monthly average tempera-
two extremes.

Monthly average tempera-

TABLES continued.

ture, at 11 p. m., taking

the two extremes.

Monthly average pressure,
at noonday, taking the

two extremes.

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL,

Monthly average tempera-
ture, at 9 a. m., adding

the columns.

Monthly average tempera-

ture, at- 1! vp. m., adding

the columns.

444 | 29,73 |.

Monthly average pressure,}
at noonday, adding the

columns.

1817. t 4 1817. i

January 9 29,5 January 394

February 404 29,81 February 403

March 37% 29,93 March 383
' April 46 30,13 April ATS

Mav 50 29,7 May 493

June 624 29,65 June 58h

July 59 29,62] | July 583

August 56 29,6 | August | 533

September | 503 29,32 September | 503

October Al 29,6 October, 424

November | 413 29,8 November | 434

December | 34 29,3 December | 322

early aver.| 47 Yearly aver.| 464

1818. Le ee 1818. j

January | 373 | 33% | 29,6 January 361 | 344 | 29,5
February | 281 | 304 | 29,43 February | 33 | 33 | 29,52}
March 39,07, 38 || 20.3) March 343 | 35% | 29,33 |.
April 431 | 39 | 29,93 April 42 | 371 | 29,8
May 52 | 492 | 29,9 May 54 48 | 29,83 }
June. 63 60 | 29,83 June 621 | 593 | 29,9 |
July - 64 57% | 29,95 July 63 52k | 29,92 |
August 60 | 54 | 29,83 ‘August | 60 | 53 | 30,0 |
September] 554 | 472 | 29,8 September | 54 491 | 29.63 4
‘October | 514 | 49 | 29,73 October 53.| 491 | 29,75).
‘November | 424 | 44 | 29,6 November | 46 46 90.71 Tt
- December | 36 39 | 29,93 December | 373 | 37 29,94
early aver.| 481 | 454 | 29,8 Yearly aver.| 48

Monthly average tempeia-

ture, at-9 o’clock a. m.,
taking the two extremes.

| Monthly avera

| January 36

| February 343
March 434
| April 463
May 534
June 57
| Tuly 634
August 655
| September | 53
October AS
November | 363

| December

Yearly aver.) 473

Se ee

REPT AT CLUNIE:

Si

TABLES continued:

ro}

ge tempera-

ture, at 11 p. m., taking

-

| the two extremes.

taking the
Se

Monthly average pressure,

at noonday,
| two extreme

fo)

pS (ee)

a2
‘

ri)
So
DN DAUOwm

+Bl—=

29
oa

COs)
SO
3

Th RB Bie phe

~)
Ses
IADDAYW

TC)
=

& 3 S
he Mm OD he

BP jae 18 2

Stes |2 >

ess 8 1, 80

(cb) S Gb), JM o =

oo fs a0 & RS:

oe s nes ao

Baile 2\S 5
Bo 5 a Sine s :
Sees s6iso6 g
ep tle ¢ PlSe Sk
iS) a o|9o oy wo|o a =
Secsiasula a &

1819. fo) °
January 36% | 29.53
February 354 | 29,42
March 40% | 29,8
April 41% | 29,73
May 463 | 29.83
June A9% | 29,74
July 554 | 29,93
August 584% | 29,92
September 503 | 29,83
October 43% | 29,72

November 344 | 29,7
December 303 | 29,63
432 | 29,74

1820. _ :

| January 26

| February 394

| March 424

| April 49
May 55

| June 61
July 63

| August 584
September | 533
October AQs

November

VOL. IV.

1820. f

January ass | 292 | 29,81
February 374 | 362 | 29,91
March 402 | 38. | 29,8
April 481 | 43 | 29,8
May 552 | 434 | 29,63
June 59 51 | 29,83
July ~ 621 | 542 | 29,9
August 58} | 53 | 29,7
September | 54 48% | 29,83
October 454 | 42 | 29,58
November | 404 | 392 | 29,84
December | 372 | 374 | 29,94
Yearlyaver.| 473 | 43 | 29,83

82 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAT,

TABLES coneluded.

Bale Shania Bin Wgaal| ea
Hele saiss & SRE: Sloe &
Bags" 8/58 8 B 45/8 5/8 § 8]
Ro Flamtiaes Bons |S |2 2's

Years. as « eke e ae Years. & & 9 3 #9 B58 9

oa 2 2s bras Bile ao

BE olf Sols § » BS wolG m/e &
Sigs sets ss SSERS SEs 85
Dx mwlO © MO & & QS Olea ao aS
=] Asie asia ash Sele ale Jal

1809 45 | 4334 | 29,92] 1809

1810 at | 431 |29,83|] 1810

1811 43 | 444 | 29,84) 1811

1912 45$ | 424 |29,81| 1822

1813 a7 | 422 | 29,8L]) 1813

1814 a6 | 412 / 29,93] 1814

1815 48} | 434 | 29,8 1815

1816 433 | 40 | 29,8 1816

1817 a7 |} 433 | 29,7 1817

1818 481 | 454 | 29,8 1818

1819 473 | 431 | 29,7 1819

1820 48 | 443 | 29,8} |] 1820

ee | were eee

Average for
jthe 12 years

The lowest fall of the barometer, here, during the twelve
years, was on the 5th of March 1818, at noonday ;—the
thermometer, at that hour, stood at 42°; very high wind ;

Inches. Lines.

eune barometer at 0 02 er ee ee
The highest rise of the barometer was on the |
Sth: January 1S20, 0. Be ee

Hence the greatest range of the barometer for
the twelve years, . Oe rer neh aa:

The warmest day during the twelve years was the 12th
of June 1818, when the thermometer stood at 844°. The
coldest. day during the twelve years was the 18th January
$820, when the thermometer fell, before sunrise, to zero;

KEPT AT CLUNIE. 83

and at 10 o'clock a.m. rose to 7°. Hence the greatest
range of the thermometer in the shade, here; during the
twelve years, was from zero to 844°.

Table denoting the Course of the W. inds, and the Number
of Days during which each Wind prevailed.

COWHMBDHROGO

| Total num- 5
| ber of days 198

N. B.—NE. means that the wind blew so many days
from some one or other of the intermediate points from N
to E., and so of the others.

S4 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL

Table shewing the Fall of Snow in Inches.

Ba hits a nae
8) (=) wn
CS) =| Oo nl oO
oi Bo |S 78) ag sacl o
= & ja.6/8 2] 3 BSS El S
o ° o 5 2 3) °o 8 gt
> & Asia | § AS|R &) 4
1809 | Jan. | 213 12
Feb. | 153 12
Dec. 43) 412) 1809 14 | 272} 1815
1810 | Jan. 53 q
Feb. 3 64
Mar. { 23 17
Dec. 6 | 162] .1810 2
1811 | Jan. 14 10
Feb. 8 18 | 6034} 1816
April| 13 53
Nov. 4 4
Dec 2 |133) 1811 3
1812 | Feb. 43 1
Mar. q 33
April| 2 3 1/20 | 1817
Dec. | 43/14 | 1912 15
1813 | Jan. 6 53 -
Feb. 13 8 | 284] 1818
Mar. 2 1}
April} 53 13
Nov. 41153] 1813 3h
1814 | Jan. 7 ‘110 | 163} 1819
Feb. | 113 7
Mar. | 8 Os
Nov. 1 3
Dec. 63/34 | 1814 3 | 134] 1820

There is no Rain-gauge at Clunie, and the place is not
very favourable for one.

“KEPT AT CLUNIE. $5

General Table of the Weather.

Years.

Number of Foul Days

Number of Fair Days
for each Year.

for each Year.
Days foreach Year.

tropics of Sunshine

ie)

Total 2832 1551 1538

—— | ee —_>
—— ——

Yearly aver. 236 1293 128 ae

_ The Fair days include the Sunshine days; and by the
Foul days is meant, that, in every one of them, more or less
of rain, hail, or snow, fell,

86 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL

Table of Phanomena which occurred during the Twelve

Years.
a | Sees (ao.¢ || a
Vearsbie yo a] oF = =“ & al &
; 4 & fowl & |e 'S a¢g| 4
3s | 2 (S88 ele 8] &
ala mele laale 3] a
1809} 3] 8}—|—|—|—]| 1] The 9th January, at 6 4. m.
ISlO | 2 Srp Ssh pee ee
Ist 4 | Hh ed | eo | eet eee
1sh2 | 10} sali ees 2) | Ss) | ee :
1818 | 2) .3}) tas | Met lee
1814 3 ail S2 1 2 A Wags I
1815 | Bright lunar rainbow, 14th
“| 9h wok So |e 7 | ee December, at 11 p. m.
1816} 1) 2)—j{ | 1|— | 1]| The 18th August, at ll » m.
1817 |}—}] 2}; 3) — 2}; 3|—
1818 7 5} Ty} Ly—l—
1819 | 5.) 2h) MBA | Ome Bee
1820 | — | 1} — 3) — | —

VII. —A ee pan of a New Species of Grin-
mia, found in Scotland. —

By Ropert Kaye Grevitir, Esq. F.R.S. E.
M.W.S. &c.

(Read 12th January 1822.)

Gen. Cuar. Seta terminalis. Peristomium simplex e
dentibus 16 integris vel perforatis (rarissime fissis) sequi-
distantibus. Calyptra mitriformis. Hoox. Musc. Brit.
p. 36.; et Musc. Exot. p. 9.

GRIMMIA LEUCOPHAA.

Grimmia caule breviusculo, subramoso, foliis ovatis,
longe piliferis, canis, nigrescentibus; seta exserta,. brevis-
sima, recta; capsula ovata, dentibus brevibus perforatis,
- operculo obtuso-rostrato. Pl. VI.

Haz. In rupibus prope Edmburgum ad lecum King’s
Park dictum.
_ Planta cxspitosa, meana, saxa sepe latissime tegens; in
ztate valde nigrescens.

88 NEW SPECIES OF GRIMMIA,

CauLEs breviusculi, erecti, subsimplices, laxe caespitosi,

Foxria laxe imbricata, erecto-patentia, atro-viridia, ovata,
concava, nervo ad folit summitatem evanescente ; pili su-
perne longissimi (folia duplo vel imo triplo longior), inferne
breves, aliquando subnulh.

SETA exserta, recta, brevissima.

CapsuLa ovata, rufo-fusca, rare summitate pilorum folio.
rum altior, ore annulato.

e

OrERcuLuM brevi-rostratum obtusum.

PERIsToMiuM breve, e dentibus 16 intense rufis perfo-
ratis.

CALYPTRA mitriformis, acuminata, meequaliter fissa.

‘¢ Numerous are the species,” says Dr Hooxer, in his
-Moscr Exorics, “ (if such they may be called), of Grim-
mia, bordering upon G. ovata and pulvinata, differing from
each other in the various modifications of the leaves, the
fruit-stalk, the capsule, and the operculum.” ‘The species
T have just described must be added to the number of this
nearly allied series; but I flatter myself, that, in G. lewco-
phea, there are such striking marks for discrimination, that
no confusion can pessibly arise in regard to its future iden-
tity. It ranks along with those species which have pili-
ferous terminations to the leaves, and an exserted and
erect fruit-stalk. They are few in number, even including
varieties, and such are not described by Bripex or Scnw-
GRICHEN. If we then separate those which have es
and subulate leaves, it will be found that there are only two.
with which the least confusion is likely to origimate: viz.
G. campestris of Burcuett, Hoox. Muse. Exot. ‘Tas.
CXXIx., a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where it STOWS
in dry places on the ground; and Campylopus levigatus

FOUND IN SCOTLAND. 89

of Brive, Meth. p. 76, which was found, in 1806, near
Rome, and has since been detected in Switzerland. —
Upon an accurate examination, essential differences are
perceived; the ieaves of G. campestris are much broader
than those of our plant, and the piliferous termimations
much shorter; the teeth of the former are rather long,
and are “ pretty regularly cleft for nearly half the way
down from the apex ;” in the latter they are short, never
cleft, but perforated, or entire. In Mr BurcueEtt’s plant,
the seta is so much exserted, as to convey the base of the
capsule considerably above the diaphanous points of the

b)

leaves; in ours, the seta is so short, that the capsule rarely
rises above them, but more commonly the diaphanous
points are on a level with the mouth of the capsule.
With regard to Campylopus levigatus, it would not be
easy to determine, from BripE’s character, its precise re-
lation to our plant, or whether indeed it be the same; in
many points they appear to agree; but “‘ pedunculis sub-
_arcuatis,” and “ folha erecta,” render the identity very sus-
picious, and, if his character be correct, must keep it dis-
imet, ef

I have received from Mr Arnort a plant, Shc he ob-
tained from the Herbarium of Panisor DE BEavvois,
marked Grimmia obiusa? or G. Doniana? It is certainly
neither species, but accords more nearly with G. leucophea,
except in the teeth, which bear a greater resemblance to
those of G. campestris, and are like them frequently divid-
ed almost half way down from the apex; in being rather
more branched, and having the seta somewhat longer than
in our plant; so that, after all, it may be said to be inter-
mediate between G. canepestris and leucophea.

Before the capsules arrive at maturity, the leaves of
G. leucophea gradually assume a blackish hue; which,
contrasted with the hoariness arising from the long silvery

90 NEW SPECIES OF GRIMMIA,

terminations of the leaves, gives an appearance to the plant
that belongs not to any other, particularly when viewed
covering a large surface of rock.

This species had for some time been mistaken for G,
ovata, and, without examination, I sent a quantity of it,
under that name, to Mr Hozson of Manchester*, who re-
turned me an answer, denying that it was G. ovata, and sus-
pecting it to be pulvinata; an attentive examination pro-
duced the above result. It has not yet been detected in
any other place, which is the more extraordinary, on ac-
count of its great abundance in the King’s Park.

EKaplanation of Plate VI.

. Plants, natural size.

. A plant magnified.

. One of the upper leaves do.

. One of the lower leaves do.

. A capsule do.

. Operculum do.

. Three teeth of the peristome do,
. Calyptra do.

jal

Fig. 1.

Cc -F S Or Bm OO WO

Edinburgh, January 6. 1822.

* The author of ** Musci Britannicr, a collection of British Mosses
and Hepatice, systematically arranged,” &c., a work now going on, and
which ought to be in the hands of every muscological student.

PLATE: Vi),

Sa a aes
Seances be ip
MWY

Pin ; oe

Beer. ROWE HP

etal

1 Be
pee

GRIMMIA LEUCOPHA A.

Wern. Mem. Vol.V. page 90.

ermcrmnorT TENT

6

Wiihldisars seuip?

( 91 )

ViIIL—On the Geognosy of Germany, with Ob-
servations on the Igneous Origin of Trap.

By Amre Bour’, M.D. M.W-S.
In a Letter to Professor JAMESON.

(Read 26th January and 9th February 1822.)

Pm
ae

My pEar Sir,

I HAD long cherished, as you already know, a desire of
visiting Germany, that country of true Geology, for the
purpose of viewing there the classical points, of retracing
the observations already made, and of becoming acquainted
with the ideas of the numerous geologists of my native
country. That desire has been gratified; and it is with
pleasure that I lay before you a short account of the results
of my inquiries.

- Germany has been visited by so many geologists, and so
many parts of that vast empire have been so minutely de-
scribed, that one might imagine the geologist, in order to
acquire a perfect knowledge of the country, had only to

92 DR BOUE ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY

compare it with the description in his hand. 'This had also
been my idea; and, indeed, I have to say, that almost all
that I have seen is recorded in the annals of science, or is
now known to the German geologists. But I found that
all had not been described with sufficient accuracy, nor ex-
amined from every possible point of view; and, particular-
ly, that the various deposits had not in all cases been pro-
perly classified, from ignorance of the true structure of
other countries. So that, if I was not a little surprised to
find new facts, or neglected appearances, in localities very
often visited by geologists, I was, on the other hand, able
to replace some deposits in their true geognostical places ;
and from this kind of review, I learned more than I could
have done in travelling over an unknown country.

An ample detail of the numerous interesting points visit-
ed during this long journey shall be sent at another time,
my object at present being only to lay before you the prin-
cipal results of my observations in open field, and in public
and private collections, and of a friendly intercourse with
many eminent men.

As I have seen in this journey all the principal forma-
tions of which the crust of the Earth seems to be composed,
I shall communicate my ideas on the series of Formations,
dwelling particularly upon those which present the most
obscurity or interest, and speaking first of the stratified
rocks, and afterwards of the unstratified ones.

I. STRATIFIED ROcKS.

1. Primitive Rocks.

The Primitive class seems to contain only two kinds ot
stratified formations, Gneiss and Mica-slate, of which,
even the first predominates in a great degree over the
other, (Erzgebirge, Bohmerwaldgebirge, primitive chain

DR BOUE ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 93

between Austria, Styria, and Hungary, and the primitive
country of the centre of France). It is yet possible that
there may exist some varieties of primitive clay-slate as
subordinate beds; but in the whole of Germany, the Clay-
slate, taken for primitive, I pronounce to be Transition, and
to pass imsensibly mto Greywacke, (the Hartz, the Fran-
kenwald, the Erzgebirge, the Carpathians, the Mountains
on both sides of the Rhine from Bingen to Bonn, &c.)

2. Transition Rocks.

The Clay-slate Formation is improperly so called; for
this rock, as in Scotland and England, forms only a very
small part, or, in other terms, only subordinate masses, in
the extensive deposits of a great variety of rocks, produced
by the various mixture of quartz, tale or mica, or chlorite.
felspar, and a little calc-spar, or limestone. Such rocks are
found, for instance, in the Alps of Savoy, on the banks of
the Rhine, in the Erzgebirge, the Carpathians, and in the
middle part of Bohemia, where these rocks are extremely
interesting, by being composed of distinctly aggregated
- materials, and by their containing many subordinate beds
or masses of various clay-slates impregnated with silica, or,
in other words, of varieties of fimty slate and Lydian-
stone. | :

To these oldest transition-rocks, succeeds the Greywacke
Formation, as, for example, in the Hartz, the Frankenwald,
the chain of hills between Silesia, Bohemia, and Moravia.
- In these two transition-formations, the limestone forms here
and there a series of separate deposits, placed on a line
parallel to the general direction of the schistose beds; and
when these series are numerous, they seem to be, as in the
primitive class of rocks, pretty parallel to each other. Seme-
times the limestone concretions are very extensive,

04 DR BOUF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

3. Flats Rocks.

The Floetz period begins with the Old Red Sandstone,
(Grés rouge). This sandstone is ordinarily red, generally
coarse at first, and afterwards finer: it appears often to be
chiefly derived from the disintegration of porphyries, sye-
nites, and granites. In it (as in Silesia), under it (Valley
of Tharandt, near Dresden), or upon it (in the Palatinate),
occur more or less extensively the coal-sandstones, or coal-
measures, having some fresh water shells, and sometimes salt
and fresh water organic remains, in different parts of the
deposit, but never together in the same bed. In some in-
stances, the sandstone of the coal-formation occupies the
greatest part of this formation, as in the Prussian and Ba
varian Rhine provinces.

Upon this deposit rests the Zechstein, or Magnesian
Limestone, or Calcaire Alpm*; for all these denomina-
tions, and the deposits which they indicate, are identical,
their various masses and their petrifactions being the same.
The Asche of the Germans, and their Limestone, with
Sparry Iron-ore (Schmalkalden), is the Caleairé Alpin of
the south of France, near Figeee, for instance, a locality
described long ago by Corpirr (Journal des Mines).
The Zechstein of the country of Swarzburg, Kamsdorf,
Gera, &c. is precisely the Magnesian Limestone, with
flustree, &c. of Sunderland, and also the Calcaire Alpin
Magnesien of the south of France. In Germany, the low-
est part of this deposit contains ores, which, m France, are
- found in the uppermost part of the Old Red Sandstone, as

* I do not mean by this term the Limestones of the Alps, which have
sometimes been so named without sufficient certainty.

DR BOUEF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 95

at Chessy. And even in Germany, the Weissliegende, or
uppermost part of the Old Red Sandstone, now and then
contains these ores, (Eisleben). In England, they are per-
haps very feebly indicated in the coal-measures.

On the north side of the Alps, in a part of the Carpa-
thians, and in the Appennines of Tuscany, the Old Red
Sandstone, and especially the Coal-formation, is found
associated with the First Floetz Limestone; or, in other
words, these two formations alternate with each other.
This is very beautifully exemplified in the chain of the
Kalenberg, near Vienna. In the Bavarian Rhine provinces,
the Zechstein appears also to be represented by beds of
Greyish-black Limestone, placed in the Coal-formation,
(Obermoschel, &c.)

Your Encrinal Limestone is nothing else than a set of
beds of transition-limestone, exactly similar to some of those
of the Hartz and the Ardennes. These beds alternate with
the undermost part of the Old Red Sandstone, which is in
England, as in the Rhine Palatinate, composed in a great
measure of coal-sandstones. Indeed this alternation is
quite natural, and conformable to the general laws of the
succession of formations; which, especially in the floetz
series, alternate universally with each other at their point
of contact.*

The Variegated Sandstone of the Germans (the Spessart),
the Red Ground or Marl, and the Gres bizarré of the
borders of the Vosges, of Homburg, &c. are one and the
same deposit, which is always superior to the First Fleetz
- Limestone. It seems to me, that it is only in this formation

“ For example, the Shell Limestone (Muschelkalkstein), with the upper-
most part of the variegated Sandstone, the Chalk with Plastic Clay, the
Plastic Clay with the coarse Marine Limestone, &c.

96 DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY) OF GERMANY,

that the great masses of Rock-salt occur, (Chester, Vie,
Wiliczka, Comitat of Marmorosh in Hungary, &c.); but
salt springs may issue also from some parts of the Old
Red Sandstone.

The Second Floetz Gypsum of the Germans is exactly
the same as the Second Gypsum of France, England, and
Ireland; the First Gypsum appears wanting in the two
last countries. '

In Germany, and in the north-eastern and eastern parta
of France, we find above the preceding formation, the
Shell Limestone (Muschelkalkstein), a very distinct forma-
tion of a greyish limestone, having a pretty perfect crystalline
texture (Wurtzburg), and sometimes presenting something
of an oolitic appearance, (Westphalia, Buckeburg, &c.) The
petrifactions which it contains are, more especially tere-
bratulites, pectinites, ammonites, encrinites, and organic
remains resembling a kind of isis. In the south-western
part of Germany (near Coburg, c.), and in the Jura
chain (Basel), this Limestone becomes a kind of Magnesian
Limestone, with siliceous infiltrations, and loses its petri-
factions almost entirely. I do not know that there is any
deposit corresponding to this in England, although I sce
it could only be your Lias: but all that I have observed
regarding the Lias of England and the northern coast of
France, induces me to consider it as the undermost part of
the Jura Limestone. Yet it might be that the Sheil Lime-
stone (Muschelkalkstein) of the Continent is represented
in England by some thin inferior beds of the Lias.

The Jura Limestone of France and Germany corresponds
exactly with your Lias, Oolites, Forest Marl, Cornbrash,
Limestone, and Clunch Clay. All these various deposits
are found in those countries. The Lias abounds in the
north of France; the Oolites are found on the northern
border of the Hartz, near Hildesheim, and near Goslar ;

DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 97

the Sultmerberg is composed of a very distinct Jura Lime-
tone; the Clunch-clay is very abundant in Westphalia,
and in the same part of Germany are found many beds of
Marls and Limestones which belong to the Jura. Lastly,
the Planerkalk of the north of Bavaria and Swabia, and of
many parts of Germany, is nothing else than certain beds
of the Jura Limestone, which extend distinctly from Swit-
zerland, through Swabia and Bavaria, as far as Staffelstein
and the neighbourhood of Cobourg.

The Quadersandstein of the Germans, to which some

authors assign a place above the Jura Limestone, I still
think occurs under it, and therefore immediately above the
Variegated Sandstone.
- The Green-sand, the Planerkalk of Werner, abounds
in the northern parts of France; it is found in Westphaha
(from Unna as far as Soist, on the borders of the Hartz,
near Goslar and Ilsenberg), near Dresden *, in Poland,
and nearly all the Planerkalk of the basin of Bohemia be-
longs to the same formation. It never contains belemnites,
seldom terebratulites, and here and there a kind of massive’
hornstone. In Moravia, France, and Bavaria, it contains
a deposit of hydrate of iron. ‘This deposit is everywhere
identical with that of England; and near the Hartz, lies
upon the Quadersandstein, and under the Coarse Chalk.

The chalk so profusely distributed m England and
France, is also pretty frequent in the north and middle of
Germany, especially the inferior part or coarse chalk,
which has there been often called Plainerkalk. It occupies
a great part of a sort of vast sinuosity, stretching from

* The Green-sand of Dresden and the neighbourhood of Meissen contains
three or four species of Terebratulites, without striz, one or two with striae,
echinites, pectinites, bivalves, and teeth of a squalus.

VOL. IV. G

98 DR BOUF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

Saltzkotten, near Paderborn, to Bielefeld and Hilter; and
extends behind Paderborn as far as the neighbourhood of
Herrenhausen and Kreutzkrieg. There it forms, in the
undermost. part, a true greyish limestone, with nodules of
black flint; and, in the uppermost part, it is a whitish
marly limestone, with many echinites, belemnites, myti-
lites, &e. It just re-appears near Hanover and Luneburg,
but forms, farther east, pretty extensive hillocks and plains
along the Hartz, from Unter-Elbe as far as Quedlinburg.
At this last place, the coarse chalk passes insensibly into
the true chalk with flint, having belemnites, echinites, tere-
bratulites, &c. im abundance.

The chalk extends also into Moravia, and forms, parti-
cularly near Tribau and Lissitz, a pretty extensive range
of hills, in which petrifactions are in some places abundant,
in others very scarce. Near Blansko, the last point which
this deposit has reached, it contains shells resembling am-
monites? or argonautes? and small bivalves; and here it
covers a coarse sandstone, under which is situated, first,
a siliceous rock, containing flint-nodules, echinites, and
small bivalves, and, undermost, a white sand (Quadersand-
stem), with rich deposits of cellular and pisiform brown
ironstone (hydrate of iron). This last deposit is only found
in three places, —at Olomuczan, and Kuditz, near Blansko,
where it lies in hollows of transition-limestone, and at Sal-
hanka, upon gneiss.

To complete the enumeration of localities where chalk
is found in Germany, I have still to mention the Isles of
Zealand, Méen, Wollin, and Rugen, and the Lake of
Ucker. In many other points of the eastern part of Prus-
sia, it seems to be indicated, or to be but shghtly covered,
by the following formations, and in Poland it is very wide-

ly distributed.

DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 99

Upon the chalk, the Plastic Clay, or Argile plastique,
is widely distributed in Germany, especially in the north-
ern parts. Indeed, the greatest portion of that immense
track of alluvial country (improperly ‘so called), from the
Rhine to Kénigsberg, belongs to it. It seems only that
the coarse marine limestone and first fresh-water forma-
tion are almost entirely wanting, and that this clay and
these sands are covered by the upper marine sandy de-
posit of Paris, to which would belong, perhaps, also the
granite-blocks, &c. The same will be the case with the
great arenaceous deposit of the Bavarian flat country, of
the neighbourhood of Vienna, and of the bottom of the
immense Hungarian basin: but in these two last localities,
the coarse marine limestone is of pretty frequent occur-
rence. a
- In the north of Germany, the plastic clay often contains
petrifactions ; as in the Magdeberg, near Halle; im Lusatia,
&e. The brown coal, which occasionally contains earthy gyp-
sum, as at Halle, and, in other places, amber, always fresh-
water shells, also coleopterous and fresh-water insects, occurs
_ in considerable abundance in the plastic clay in the north of
Bohemia and Thuringia; and from the Rhine to Konigs-
berg, geologists have observed, especially in the basins of
existing rivers, a series of these deposits ; for instance, near
Koln, in the valley of the Weser, in Thuringia, below the
town of Berlim, and farther to the north-east. In Slavonia,
it contains great masses of sulphur ; and in Hungary, and at
_ Vienna, small pieces of realgar. The very compact sandstone
which this formation sometimes contains, and which often
abounds in fragments of flint, is, for example, very well
marked near Zeitz, Beuchlitz, Blansko, Carlsbad, and
‘Toplitz, where it contains the quartz-crystals which had

once formed a part of the floetz porphyries of the neigh-
bourhood.

qe

w tt

100 DR BOUF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

All the pseudo-volcanic products of the Mittelgebirge
are owiag to the brown coal of this formation.

The Coarse Marine Limestone (Calcaire grossier) oc-
curs very rarely, and in very small patches, in the north
of Germany ; as, for instance, near Lemgo, in Westphalia,
where it contains cucullea, turritella, natica or ampullaria,
nucleola, and other bivalves*. I have also seen it with the
same shells near Cassel, Dransfeld, Ahlfeld, and Hildes-
heim.

The First Fresh-water Formation does not occur in
Germany, Austria, and Hungary, yet we have seen gyp-
sum in their plastic clays; on the other hand, the coarse
Marine Limestone, or, at least, what I take for it, contains,
in Austria and Hungary, remains of amphibious, and even
of terrestrial animals. Regarding this interesting fact, how-
ever, I cannot say more at present.

The Upper Marine Formation abeunds in Austria and
Hungary, as well as in the north of Germany; but in the
two first countries it 1s often calcareous, and is associated
with much clay, and marl, containing a numerous set of
petrifactions, many of which are lke those described by
Broccut in the Subappennine Hulls.

The Upper Fresh-water Formation exists in the basin of
Vienna, (Baden, &c.), in Hungary, and in Moravia. In
Hungary, near Pest, there is a true fresh-water limestone,
with planorbes and lymnei; and m Moravia, near Nicol-
chitz, it forms, in a valley, a small deposit, like that of
(Eningen; and the schistose marls contain there only some
impressions of aquatic plants and of insects, (Dipteres). A
kind of semi-opal also occurs there.

The north of Germany abounds in Calcareous Tuffs.

* The Nagelfluh of Switzerland belongs probably to various epochas of
the Paris formation.

DR BOUE! ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 101

II. UNSTRATIFIED Rocks.

The Unstratified Rocks, which appeared, among the pre-
ceding, as subordinate masses, or immense local deposits,
have arrested my attention during this journey; and I be-
lieve we are yet very far from knowing, either their origin,
or their true geognostic position. :

Granite appears to me to exist i the primitive class of
rocks, in great hills or domes, and in veins; of the latter
of which, some are in connection with those great bodies
of granite constituting mountains; others are isblated in
the gneiss or mica-slate, in the same manner as the basaltic
veins or dikes are in chalk and other rocks. In the great
track of primitive schistose rocks of the Scandinavian pe-
ninsula, the granite is confined to the gneiss and mica-
slate.

In clay-slate rocks, the granites often occur under the
form of syenite, and even of syenitic porphyry, their posi-
tion being the same as that of the granites in gneiss and
mica-slate. I have only to observe, that the various sye-
nitic porphyries are pretty frequent in veins or dikes. To
these granites belong some syenites in the clay-slate forma-
tion between the northern part of ‘Transylvania and Hun-
garia, perhaps the syenite near Schemnitz, the granites of
the Frankenwald, of the Cotentin, and Palatal y many
granites of Cornwall and Brittany.

Those granites, which are undoubtedly newer than
greywacke, are almost entirely syenites, or syenitic; at
least, it seems probable that-these rocks are newer than
the granites which we find in the clay-slate districts.
One of the best examples of this class of syenites and gra-
nites is seen in those which cover so great an extent of
country from Meissen to Lauban, and which are now

102 DR BOUF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

known to repose upon greywacke, and to be covered by it,
—or, if this be denied, which are situated in greywacke.
The granites of the Hartz, of the Thuringerwald, of
Westmorland, of the Criffel, the granite near Loch Ken,
&c. must be arranged here.

A peculiarity which these granitic masses have, is to be
often surrounded, in part, or m whole, with peculiar ano-
malous rocks called Hornfels in the Hartz, and varieties of
gneiss in Scotland. These last rocks are intermixed with
the true greywacke, and pass into it.

To these crystalline rocks succeed great deposits of
porphyry. These porphyries, in some countries, form
a kind of series of alternating masses with the greywacke,
as in Cumberland, and in the Fichtelgebirge, where
the Felspathic Breccias or Tuffs are particularly very re-
markable. In other countries, the porphyries seem to have
appeared later, or not to have had that facility of alternat-
ing with other rocks; and hence they rise in the form of
immense massive hills, as in Schemnitz, Kremnitz, and in
many parts of ‘Transylvania, of the north of Germany, and
of the middle of France.

In many countries, the porphyries occur in great masses,
veins, or even in beds, in the old red sandstone (Silesia).
But their appearance in the middle of the coal formation is
the most interesting, because in that case we have been
enabled to trace their origin. Near Halle, for imstance,
where such an occurrence takes place, the porphyries ap-
pear in beautiful domes, like the Puy de Sarcouy, in Au-
vergne, which pass through or under the coal-formation,
while another portion evidently extends itself above the
arenaceous deposit. ;

It is also curious to observe, im the neighbourhood of
these porphyries, the great disturbances of the strata, the al-
teration of the coal, and the great bodies of singular anoma-

DR BOUEF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 103

lous rocks, which, notwithstanding that they pass into sand-
stones, have so little of their appearance, that they receive
other names, Claystone Tuff, Lydian-stone, J asper, &c.;
and indeed their varieties are so numerous, that there is no
nomenclature large enough for them.

These porphyries of the red sandstone and coal forma-
tion are associated with many trap-rocks, which are dis-
tinctly pyroxenic or basaltic, although the trap-rocks
which accompany the crystalline deposits in the grey-
wacke appear sometimes to be much more difficultly
recognised as such. Yet, near Prague, I have seen in
transition-slate, beds or masses of well-marked dolerite,
having the common igneous accidents in their upper and
under part. ‘The same appearance I had also the pleasure
of observing in the valley of Triebisch, near chien in
transition clay-slate.

The trap-rocks form in the Floetz Period, as in the
Transition, more commonly veins, with, or without, small
coulees, or a kind of beds, than hills. The accidents of
the neighbouring rocks are various. I shall only mention
here, that, at Planitz, I observed sandstone-slate, or
slate-clay, much indurated under the amygdaloid, and be-
sides the amygdaloid contained an immense quantity of
pieces of the old red sandstone, so that the whole had pretty
nearly the appearance of an extent of mica-slate, with gra-
nitic veins, like those of Garviemore. Besides, I have ob-
served there, that a part of the amygdaloid was only an
altered sandstone; and, for this reason, many of the amyg-
daloids' do not give pyroxene by the analysis. How such a
change can be produced, I do not know; but such is the
fact, and every body may see it. I am only astonished
that it has not been recorded. Indeed, I can assert, that
the Erzgebirge contains many interesting facts, and distinct

104 DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

appearances, which might be adduced in. support, of the
Huttonian theory. Were I not apprehensive of bemg
considered rash, I would mention the appearance of por-
phyry elevating itself, with various true igneous accidents,
from below, and out of the claystone and gneiss rocks. , It
is also ascertained, I can say, that the beds. of porphyry
described in the gneiss of that country, are true veins, be-
longing, as would appear, nearly all to the beginning, of
the Floetz Period; in, which there yet appears, as in Zinn-
wald, a granite, with ores of zinc, and other minerals, which
have been erroneously named the very oldest. ones. That
the metalliferous veins are intimately united with the ap-
pearances of these crystalline igneous rocks, I cannot doubt;
but, as may naturally be supposed, some of the minerals
contained in the veins have got there from above, or have
been formed in the aqueous way. The great metalli-
ferous deposits 1n veins appeared to me to form a kind of
net-work. Certainly nearly all that Werner has said
about them is true: but his explanation, by fillmg up en-
tirely from above, is no longer admissible. When we con-
sider such vast bodies of rock impregnated. with ores, as
the auriferous transition-porphyries, of Kremnitz and of
Transylvania ; and when we reflect that all the rich mines
of Hungaria and Transylvania are in porphyry masses, ex-
_cepting a single one in greywacke;(Verespatak) ; and when
we entertain a strong suspicion. that these are igneous _pro-
ducts, we will not long be puzzled to comprehend the phe-
nomena. You will probably oppose to the igneous hypo-
thesis the Mercury-mines in the coal-formation; but these
also seem to have been produced ‘in the same way, as_re-
sults from observations I lately made in the Bavarian Rhine
provinces. ‘The ores are there contained in small veins in
porphyry, or in rocks in contact with such products; and

DE BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 105

these coaly or arenaceous rocks are almost always indurated
or altered in a thousand various ways; but I shall discuss
this subject at another time.

In the period subsequent to the Old Red Sandstone, the
Basalts have protruded from below, probably at various i-
regular periods, even before the formation of chalk ; for the
cones, hills, and. veins of basalts, so well known around the
Meissner, Eisenach, the Rhonegebirge, and Gottingen,
seem to indicate-such an age. But this is a pot that re-
quires very minute investigation.

Germany possesses a great variety of basaltic deposits,
most of which are analogous to those of Ireland, and to
the most of those in Scotland. I say most of those in Scot-
land, because I am now inclined to classify the few hills
around Edinburgh, Arthur’s Seat, Salisbury-craigs, and
such like deposits, with those of Eissenach. These are
certainly in Germany the oldest, and they comprehend some
conical hills and veins in different parts.

The other basalts in Germany can be divided into those
which have been formed under water, like the preceding,
and these which have flown in the open air. The first, like
the basalts in Ireland and Scotland, posterior to the chalk
formation, form conical or massive hills, a kind of plat-
forms, or high plains very little inclined, and veins or dikes.
The cones or hills are principally formed of various por-
phyritic clinkstones, which take, as in the Mittelgebirge
and Rhongebirge, the place of the trachyte of other great
deposits. The group of Mezen, nn Auvergne, presents the
-same fact, although it was probably formed above the wa-
ter. The plateaux, or nappes, present the same variety of
basalt and tuffs as Ireland and Scotland, and some points
in Auvergne, and also the same calcareous and zeolitic sub-
stances. |

106 DR BOUF’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY.

Basaltic veins are very frequent in Germany, and are
found in almost all the formations of that country, with
all the accidents, as in Scotland. The Quadersandstein of
the north of Bohemia, and the Shell Limestone (Muschel-
kalkstein) of the western part of Germany, yo beauti-
ful examples of these appearances.

The second less numerous class of igneous rocks which
appear to have flown in the open air, occur not only in hills
with craters, and with scoria, but also in currents. In the
south of Germany, in Hungary, and Transylvania, this class
is exceedingly well exemplified ; for there the trachytes form
great and high districts, more or less surrounded by or asso-
ciated with basalts; for example, near Feldbach, in Styria.
In Hungary and Transylvania, they are accompanied also
- with vitreous rocks, pumice, and great masses of re-agglu-
tinated trachytic, or pumice-rocks, which show, by some-
times contaimimg shells of the Parisian formation, the recent
age of these deposits. Such is particularly the nature of
these formations in Hungary, where they rest at Chemnitz
and Cremnitz upon the transition metalliferous porphyries,
and form, as it were, four or five great islands in the middle
of that immense basin.

In the other parts of Germany there exist no trachytes, but
only basaltic lavas, with scorize and craters, or indications
of them. Thus there is a very beautiful crater near the
Pferde Kopf, in the Rhongebirge; distinct lava-streams
are observed in the Vogelsgebirge; at Eger, there are
true volcanic scoriz, and indications of a crater; near
Hof, upon the borders of Moravia and Silesia, the Rauden-
berg is a great heap of red scoriz, like the Puy de Grave-
neire, in Auvergne, or in Vivarais; and there 1s a portion.
of a crater and small streams of basaltic lava; lastly, even in
the Riesengebirge, there is a crater and streams of lava.

DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY. 107

I shall now conclude this long letter, by enumerating the
characters which appear to me most distinctive of the two
kinds of igneous rocks, those formed under, and. those
formed above the water.

1. The igneous rocks formed under water, at least those
posterior to the chalk formation, do not rise into hills of so
great a height as those formed above the surface; and, in
general, the first class of rocks must have certainly, in all
periods, had more difficulty in atiaining the same height
as the second.

2. The first class produce veins or dikes more easily, and
in greater number, than the second.

3. When the first class of rokes form a kind of coulee
or stream, these streams seem generally not to unite the
length and the small breadth of the streams (coulees) above
the water.

4, The rocks of the first class are generally more com-
pact than those of the second.

5. The basalts of the first class are often intimately unit-
ed with basaltic tuffs, and the porphyries with some kinds of
felspathic breccia ; an appearance which is almost entirely
unknown in the basalts produced above the surface of the
water, because in them the small pieces which form the tuffs
had been ejected by the volcanoes under the form of rapilli.

6. Rocks with the vitreous character abound much more
in the igneous rocks formed above water, than in those
_ formed under it.

7. The igneous rocks formed under water, contain many
substances, produced by infiltration, unknown in the other
class of rocks, and more frequently also substances pro-
duced by sublimation.

8. The basalts formed under water show imbedded, very
often, pieces of the neighbouring rock, which are more or

108 DR BOUE’ ON THE GEOGNOSY OF GERMANY,

less indurated or altered. Beautiful examples of this I ob-
served in the basaltic cone of Dosenberg, near Warburg,
where the rock is full of pieces of the Shell Limestone
(Muschelkalkstem) ; and in the small clinkstoné-cone near
Banow, upon the borders of Hungary and Moravia, the
rock contains great and small masses of clay and sandstone,
so much indurated and altered, that they are like the rock
of Portrush in Ireland.

9. The neighbouring rocks are rarely altered near the
lavas: on the other hand, near the basalts formed under
water, these same rocks are very often subjected to various
indurations, alterations, and penetrations of igneous gaseous
matters.

I am, my dear Sir, &c.

se hea Oe)

IX.—d New Arrangement of the Genera of
Mosses, with Characters, and Observations on
their Distribution, History, and Structure.

By R. K. Grevittz, Esq. F.R.S.E. M.W.S. &e.,
: AND
G. A. Waker Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.R.S.E.

(Read 23d February 1822.)

Menmorr I.

Berone we proceed to the definition of the OxpER, we.
shall offer some preliminary observations on the principal
parts, of which we avail ourselves in the construction of
generic characters, and the formation of natural groups.

It is well known, that the great distinguishing character
between acotyledonous or exembryonate plants, and all
other vegetable tribes, is, as the name imports, the absence
of any cotyledon in the embryo, or, more properly, the en-
tire absence of the embryo itself. In all cotyledonous
plants, stamens and pistils are invariably present: on the
contrary, in the acotyledonous orders, they are to all ap-

110 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

pearance totally absent ; and botanists, unwilling that such
a want of uniformity should exist in the vegetable world,
have spared no labour, and taxed their ingenuity, to dis-
cover, in the more imperfect tribes, something at least ana-
logous to such organs. According to the opimons, how-
ever, of later physiologists, and in which we heartily con-
cur, it 1s extremely improbable that acotyledonous plants
are furnished with stamens and pistils, and that through
their agency the seeds or reproductive sporules are formed.

This idea is corroborated by the common phenomenon
which takes place m those cotyledonous plants which rarely
bring their seeds to maturity; small bulbs (gemme), ana-
logous to the sporuls of‘the Cryptogamia, are produced
in the axillee of the leaves, which, when they fall off, strike
root at any part indiscriminately ; thus differing most es-
sentially from true seeds, while the new plant which arises
from them 1s equally perfect. ‘This appears also to have
been nearly the opinion that D1iLLEeNius* entertained re-
specting the propagation of the Musci, and it has been
confirmed in later times by the celebrated RicHarp, and
others.

What the organs really are, in the plants under review,
which the accurate Hepwic so well figured and described
under the name of stamens, we leave to others to decide;
but we cannot help entering our protest against those bo-
dies called Stamma and Pistilla (the young theca) being
regarded in a similar light with the same organs m more
perfect plants. ‘“‘ Though,” says Sprencen,t “ I have
formerly been a zealous advocate for Hepwie’s theory of
the Fructification of Mosses, it has nevertheless appeared

* Ditt. Hist. Muse. p. 229.
+ Int. to Crypt. Plants, Letter xvii. p. 260. of the English edition.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. lil

to me an insurmountable objection, that the supposed
anthers can again produce buds and strike roots; which is
certamly the case with regard to the disks of Polytrichum
commune, Bartrama fontana, Bryum palustre, undula-
tum, cuspidatum, punctatum, and with those of Tortula
rurahs. In Bryum argenteum we see the buds contaiming
the supposed anthers constantly drop off, strike root, and
produce new plants: this I have observed myself times out
of number. Still more in point is the experiment first made
by Davip Mrzse, of sowing the stellule of Polytrichum
commune, containing merely club-shaped bodies; when he
found that plants came up, which in their turn produced
fruit. Another excellent naturalist, Dr Roru, has made
similar observations with regard to Hypnum squarrosum
and Bryum argentewm.” He afterwards adds, ‘* It is more
probable, therefore, that these supposed anthers are mere
gemme, produced by the superabundance of the juices,
and hence surrounded by succulent filaments *.”

Patisor pE Beavvoris differed from Hrenwic; he af-
firmed that the theca contained the pollen, and that the
columella (his theca) enclosed the sporulest, which were
fecundated by the pollen by means of the cilix, as they
escaped through the orifice at the summit t. This opinion
our justly celebrated countryman Mr Brown found no
difficulty in refuting, by showing, that what Patisor sup-
posed to be pollen, was nothing more than a part of the
sporulee, which had been carried into the mterior of the
columella by the dissecting instrument ||.

* Int. to Crypt. Plants, p. 262. of Engl. edit.

+ Prodrome des cinquiéme et sixiéme familles de !Athéogamie, p. 4,
t+ Same work, p. 10.

\{ Linn, Trans. vol. x. p. 314,

112 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

In thus supporting what seems to have been suggested
by Ditientvs, and confirmed by Ricwarp, &e., we do
not stand singly, having on our side one of the most acute
muscologists of which the world can boast. ‘¢ The more
intimately we become acquainted,” says Dr Hooxer *,
** with the reproductive organs of the acotyledonous or
cryptogamic plants, the more apparent is it, in my opinion,
that there are no sexes, as in the phenogamous plants, no
stamens, and no pistil, nor any thing analogous to them ;
consequently no true seed, which can only be produced |
through their co-operation.. The structure of the seeds
themselves (more properly sporules) tends greatly to con-
firm such an opinion ; there being, in reality, no distinction
into cotyledon radicle or plumule; in short, no embryo,
any more than there is in the little bulbs seen wpon the’
stalks of the Onion tribe, and upon Polygonum viviparum,
&e., which yet equally produce perfect plants.”

That part of Mosses which contains the sporulze, has been
by some termed capsula, or capsule ; others have adopted the
name theca, which, on account of the structure differing
materially from the capsule of cotyledonous plants, and
also somewhat from the similar organ im other acotyledon-
ous orders, we prefer to capsule, being, at the same time,
less liable to ambiguity ; a circumstance very desirable in-
the present period, when the great divisions of the natural
system are daily becoming better understood, and a pecu-
liar nomenclature for the abstruser departments more and
more necessary. |

The theca is always unilocular, contrary to the opinion
of Patisot DE Brauvots, who separates Pogonatum and
Polytrichum, on account of the simple and multilocular

* Flora Scotica, Pt. 2. p, 1. note.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 113

theca; mistaking the plice, or folds, of the columella,
found more or less in all the Polytrichotdee, for actual dis-
sepiments. It is also, except in the genera Andrea, Phas-
cum and. Voitea, furnished with a deciduous lid or opercu-
lum, and the sporulz are evacuated by the open apex; at
its base is sometimes a carnose body, termed an apophysis,
having externally the appearance of being a continuation
of the theca, and liable to be confounded with it; but
within, is well marked by the total absence of sporulse, and
by its containing a pulpy mass similar to that which at an
early period fills up the cavity of the columella, and sur-
rounds the sporular bag. The theca is generally support-
ed by a fruit-stalk, called a seta (pedunculus, or pedicel-
lus, of some authors), which varies in length from almost
a total absence to above three inches, and in structure re-
sembles the theca. The only exception to this fact is
found in the genera Andrea and Sphagnum ; the former
is, with its small apophysis, sessile on an elongated recep-
tacle; and the latter also, entirely sessile on a highly
curious receptacle, resembling a thin section of a cylinder
placed transversely upon a peduncle of nearly the same
nature as the receptacle itself, and altogether different
from a true seta, although like to it in form. The base of
the true or apparent seta, it is worthy of remark, is general-
ly furnished with leaves of a different kind from those of
the stem and branches; they have received the name of
Perichetial leaves, and at one time entirely surround the
receptacle, seta, theca, and calyptra. The presence or ab-
_ sence of these leaves, has been considered by some authors,
as Patisot pE Bravvois, as worthy to assist in the con-
struction of genera: thus, Pogonatwm would differ from
Polytrichum, Cecalyphum from Dicranam, &c. to which
we cannot assent; for, on this principle, Andrea nivalis
might even be separated from the others. It may, how-
yOL. Iv. H

114 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

ever, be employed with effect, in the framing of specific
characters. )

Within the theca, and attached to its sides and base by
a cellular pulp intermingled with very slender filaments, is —
placed a membrane, which forms a complete lining: pro-
ceeding from the stoma, or mouth, downwards, it is con-
tmued to the base, when it 1s reflected upwards, forming a
central column, till on a level with the mouth of the theca.
This part has been generally denominated a Columella,
and is very different from the placenta * in cotyledonous
plants, to which it has been sometimes compared +. A bag
is thus formed between the columella and that part of the
same organ which lines the theca, in which the sporulee are
situated. ‘The whole is closed by a very subtile membran-
ous expansion, stretching between the summit of the liming
and the columella, which (although in Gymnostomum it is
often of a stronger texture), by the maturing of the theca,
and separation of the operculum, lacerates, and, in most
instances, becomes evanescent +. On the open apex of the
columella is fixed another membrane, more or less of a

* Brown in Linn. Trans. vol. x. p. 315.

+ Those who, in consequence of a fancied analogy, wish to apply to the
Mosses the terms used among the Embryonatz, or phenogamous plants,
might, in the language of carpologists, designate the three principal parts of
the theca by Epicarp, Sarcocarp, and Endocarp. The sarcocarp almost al-
ways dries up, except where it forms the interior of an apophysis, and is
then more permanent. It is the endocarp which is turned upwards into the
columella; and this affords an additional argument against the columella
being regarded in the light of a placento, or trophosperm.

+ In Dr Hooxen’s excellent figure of Gymnostomum Xanthocarpum in
the Musci Exotici, the membrane which closes the sporular bag is admir-
ably delineated, Tab. 153. fig. 9.——It ought to be observed, that Patisor
has described this membrance in the Mosses without a peristome, but denied
it to the others.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 115

conical form, and of a somewhat. different texture and
colour, which, by age, often shrinks to the appearance of a
mere lid to, its orifice. Sometimes it is more rigid (as in
Splachnum, Layloria, and Gymnostomum Donianum), and
4s then not unfrequently called an exserted. columella. It
also, in some instances, adheres closely to the summit of the
imterior of the operculum (as’ in Gymnostomum. Hiemii,
and Hypnum dendroides), which it raises or, depresses, ac-
cording to the degree of dryness or humidity to which it is
exposed. It is this part which we conceive to be the stigma
of Patisor DE Beauvois, but which we propose to desig-
nate be the more appropriate name of pbacuten: Mem-
brane.
We have not been able to trace this cauical membrane
im the Polytricha, unless what Mr Brown * mentions as
the pulpy continuation of the columella within the -oper-
culum be considered as such: but, as he afterwards + re-
marks, the uniform texture, and exact form of the tympa-
-num or epiphragma, closing the mouth of the theca, remain
to be accounted for. To us this epiphragma appears to be
very different from, but to supply the place of, the opercular
membrane ; 1t adheres, when young, to the summit of the
columella, and entirely closes the stoma; then passing to the
_base of each tooth, is reflected so as to line it to the very apex,
thus forming a real membranaceous inner peristome ; and,—
a structure easily seen, if the epiphragma, of probably any
species of the genus, be carefully removed, and placed un-
der the microscope,—the margin will be found to be beauti-
fully split into segments, or cilize, equal in number to the
teeth. This we cannot but consider, as we have already

* Linns Trans. vol.x. p. 318. + Ibid. vol. xii. p. 567.
HR

116 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

‘said, to be a true inner peristome, and the epiphragma or
tympanum only an expansion of the membrane, which (as
in Hypnum) connects the bases of the inner teeth. Very
different, indeed, is the structure which Mr J ames SowERBY
first noticed, in P. subrotundum, and of which a dissection
is given in English Botany, ‘Tab. 1624., as also under the
species alpinum and undulittim. ‘This structure, which
has been also observed by Mr Brown in P. urnigerume,
and a Nepal species of his own, P. microstomum, is de-
scribed by Sir James Epwarb SMITH as an inner peri-
stome; whereas it is nothing more than the transverse
membrane which arises from the inner wall, or the lining
of the theca, and is connected with the summit of the colu-
mella. The true inner membranaceous peristome is re-
markably evident in ripe capsules of P. alpinum.

The membrane to which we have already alluded, as
closing the mouth of the sporular bag, there is every reason
to suppose, is stronger and more durable in all such as
have a naked peristome. Whatever service it may per-
form in them, the membranaceous expansion of the mner
peristome may assist to perform in Polytrichwm, for the
teeth of that genus afford but little protection to the mouth
after the operculum has fallen: and although the mem-
brane which closes the sporular bag also exists, something
more may be necessary to effect a complete dispersion of
the sporulze, which are obliged to escape by the orifices left
between the teeth, by the elevation of the tympanum.

It was not until after a very careful exammation that we
could determine whether the columella of Calymperes was
furnished with the conical or opercular membrane. The
horizontal epiphragma stretching across the stoma, which,
in a young state, much resembles that of Polytrichum, in-
duced us to think it could not be present; while, on the
other hand, the epiphragma ultimately splitting into teeth,

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 117

and the depression of the columella without showing any
marks of having been attached to the epiphragma, inclined
us to the contrary opinion,. whieh, upon farther investiga-
tion, proved to be correct. This membrane (stigma of
PaLisoT DE BEavvots) is also very difficult to be seen,
though always present in Funaria. Whence that author’s
remark, ‘ stigma simple, et non apparent dans la Stréphé-
die (Funaria).”

It is worthy of remark, that in one species of Calym-
peres, which Mr Brown examined, he mentions the mem-
brane as “ entirely wanting, or firmly adhering to the inner
surface of the operculum, along with which a considerable
portion of the columella also separates * ;” which consider-
ably favours our idea of the columella being furnished with
an opercular membrane, which in this case might have pe-
netrated the centre of the epiphragma, and produced the
above mentioned adhesion.

Mr Brown t seems to imagine that the spongy epiphrag-
ma of Calymperes is analogous to_the horizontal membrane
which arises from the lining of the theca in many Gymno-
stoma, Weissia Templetoni, &c.; thus making it merely
close up the mouth of the sporular bag. We regret, how-
ever, that our specimens of Calymperes lonchophyllum and
C. Palsoti are not in a proper state for examination; but
we can bear witness to the accuracy of that part of Dr
HookEr’s figure of C. Gardneri {, in which the membrane
is represented as arising from the outer wall of the theca,
which is really the case, and must therefore be considered
as a true and curiously modified peristomium, bearing no
very distant similitude to Leptostomum, in one species of

’

* Linn. Trans. vol. xii. p. 573, note. + Ibid.
+ Muse. Exot. Tab. 146.

118 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

which (ZL. erectum of Brown), Dr Hooxer figures and
describes the membranaceous peristomium as bearing t trices
of imperfect teeth *

The gradual aplitting! m Cala lymperes, of the membrane
into the teeth, which are never erect, 1s admirably calculated
to render the dispersion of the sporules more perfect. ;

We suspect that the lining to’the theca, the columella,
and perhaps also its terminating membrane, will never be
found wanting in any moss, if it be examined at the period
most favourable to their development, which must neces-
sarily take place at different ages in different species, but
especially in different genera. There are, however, some
instances ‘in which the reverse has been maintained. An-
drea has been denied a lining to the thecat. Phascwm
serratum, and some others, are generally declared to have no_
columella, while there is an evident one in Ph. ‘rectum and
Ph. curvicollum. Yn regard to Andrea, we believe that the
lining is present before the theca bursts into its four valves :
an operation extremely liable to render a delicate membrane
evanescent. With regard to the Phasca, the minuteness
of the theca in a young state is such, as to render the dis-
section very difficult: we therefore confess, that we have
not by actual observation been able to establish our opinions
in this instance; but have little doubt, however, that a
columella is truly present ; and we conceive that, at an early
period, the membrane, which connects it to the lining of the
theca, gives way, thus allowing it to shrink to the base of
the theca, and from its mimuteness to become inconspicuous.
The whole genus Sphagnum has more than once deceived
us by the apparent total absence of this part, and it was
not until we had repeatedly examined the theca, before it

* Muse. Exot. Tab. 169. + Hooker in Linn. Trans. vol. x.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 119

had emerged. from the perichzetial leaves, that we clearly
ascertained it to possess one. occupying a large proportion
of the theca, and bearing on its summit the opercular mem
brane. The appearance it generally assumes in maturity 1s
that of a convex membrane lying across the bottom of the
theca, suggesting the idea, that a lining to the base had se-
parated from its attachment, and had been somewhat elevat-
ed without laceration. |

We have dwelt perhaps rather longer on the columella
than we ourselves originally intended. Our excuse must be,
that we really consider it to be an important. organ, the
economy of which is at present involved in obscurity; and
we cannot regard it in the same point of view as Mr Brown
and Dr Hooker seem to do, however unwilling we may be
to differ from two of the most learned authorities of the
present day.

_Dr Hooxer* conceives he columella to be “ nothing
more than the remains of the cellular and pulpy substance
in which the seeds have not been perfected, and which, as
we may consequently expect, shrinks up into an angular
axis or columella.” In this passage, as in the following,
we conceive the columella to be spoken of generally.

_“ Tn some cases,” says Mr Brown, “ the seeds may be
formed ina much greater portion of the columella than in
others; and it is even not improbable that, in certain cases,
its whole substance may be converted into seeds; or, to
speak more accurately, that it may produce seeds even to
the centre, and that the cells in which they were probably
formed may be reabsorbed.”

The late Professor Ricuarp was also of the same opi-

* Flora Londinensis, New Series, under Dephyscium foltosum,
}~ Linn. Trans. vol. x. p. 312,

120 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

nion: “ Toute pyxidule (theca nobis) est d’abord com-
plétement solide et charnue; mais lorsqu’elle a pris un
certain accroissement, sa substance interne se grenelle fine-
ment, se distingue peu 4 peu du test, et passe enfin a l’état
dune tres fine poussiere. Assez souvent une portion cen-
trale de cette substance persiste sous la forme d’un axe
longitudinal, qu’on appelle colwmelle *.”

We do not by any means intend to assert that the spo-
rulz are not in some cases formed im much greater abund-
ance than in others: this we know to be true. The cellular
matter, in which the sporule are produced, if any remains,
will also shrink, and perhaps adhere to the columella, par-
ticularly if the sporules are first formed in that portion of
the granular mass nearest the lining of the theca. In
many cases, the columella has assuredly little appearance
of a regularly formed body, and in some it is scarcely pos-
sible to discover it at all; yet when we see the same part
constantly exhibiting a beautiful and symmetrical structure
in other species, it is surely fair to draw the general infer-
ence, that it is not formed by the contraction of the mere
debris of the cellulose or pulpy nidus of the sporules; wit-
ness the columella of Gymnostomum Xanthocarpum, of
G. pyriforme, and G. involutum; the columella of Daw-
sonea, of Lyellia, of all the Polytricha; of Tayloria, Sys-
tyliwm, and all the Splachna.

The columella is also, in very many instances, evidently
tubular, which could not be the result of contraction, but
rather a proof of the contrary, at least im the sense of the
above named learned Bryologists. We may here, however,
repeat what we have stated, when mentioning the apophy-
sis, to be our opinion, that, at an early period, the cavity of

* Buxxiarp’s Dict. Element. de Botanique, edited by Ricuann, p. 67.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 121

the apophysis, columella, and opercular membrane, as well
as the interval between the lining and the theca, is always
filled up with a pulpy matter. This is beautifully illustrat.
ed in Buabawmia, and is what Mr Brown and Mr Tour-
NER have observed in Polytrichum*. This, however,
which is quite different from the sporular granular sub-
stance, rapidly dries up in some mosses; producing, among’
other appearances, the curious effect which the apophysis
has, in the mature capsules of Splachnum rubrum and S.
lutewm. In most instances, however, it is more durable in
the apophysis, and is also sometimes permanent in the co-
lumella, as in Polytrichwm, and has then been improperly
compared to the placention of seeds in phzenogamous or co-
tyledonous plants.

Although we have noticed the distinction between the
columella and the opercular membrane, to which it is fre-
quently so united as to appear a single body,—and con-
sider the former in the light of a modified continuation of —
the lming of the theca, we shall, to avoid confusion, still
continue to call it a columella, and to use the terms of ab-
sent, elongated, or exserted, according as it appears in the
mature theca to have subsided, or, taken in conjunction
with its opercular membrane, to have remained of undi-
minished length.

The stoma or mouth of the theca ts either naked, as in
Gymnostomum and Hedwigia; or, generally, furnished
with a series of cilize, called teeth (dentes); which may be
either in a single series, as in Splachnum, Grimmia, and
Dicranum; or m a compound or double series, as in
Hookeria, Hypnum, and Bryum. In all mosses which
possess a peristomium, it arises from the surface of the

* Brown in Linn. Trans. vol. x. p. 318.

99 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

stoma, or springs from it, within the margin, and a little
below the summit of the theca. In the latter case, the teeth
are generally more or less connected by a membrane, which
not unfrequently arises to a level with the stoma, or even
above it. Sometimes all vestiges of the teeth then disap-
pear, thus presenting the aspect of a truly membranaceous
peristome, as is seen in Diphysium, Buxbawmia, and Lep-
tostomum ; and in such as have a double peristome of re-
gular teeth, the inner one is formed by this membrane, split
into a fixed number of attenuated segments.

Sometimes, though very rarely, the stoma is furnished
with a dense horizontal epiphragma, not accompanied. with
teeth (as is the case with the epiphragma of Polytrichum),
an instance of which occurs in Lyellia; or, what is still
more curious, is supplied with a pencil of fine capillary ci-
liz, as is exemplified in Dawsonia. It is remarkable that
these cilize apparently arise from around the summit of the
columella, as well as from the walls of the theca. This, how-
ever, will not appear so singular, when we consider that the
summit of the columella may nearly fill up the stoma,—and
that, in the case of a membranaceous peristome, it is not.un-
common for the peristome, or a part of it, to lose its attach-
ment to the theca, and adhere to the periphery of the summit
of the columella. 'This has occurred to ourselves, particular-
ly in Leptostomum erectum ; and we have little doubt, that
what Dr Hooxrer figures as an elongated columella in seve-
ral of his new Orthotrica is a similar instance *,: thus ren-
dering their affinity apparently more striking to Schlothei-
mia of Schwegrichen: the opercular membrane it will be
found is not on the summit of, but im the interior of, the
upright one. i

. There are several other modifications of the peristome,

* Musci Exot. Tab. 24. 127. and 128.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 123

which it is scarcely necessary to mention here, such as oc-
cur in Fontinalis, Cinclidium, Conostomum, &c.: they will
all be particularly described when we come to treat of these
genera *.

There is only one other part of which we conceive it
proper to make some mention, viz. the Calyptra; a mem-
branaceous veil, which is situated upon, and more or less

covers the theca. It is the upper portion of what in a
young state is the covering of the theca, and which in
a short time tears transversely towards its base. From
this body, which is either | fugacious or persistent, ex-
cellent generic characters may be drawn. It is either di-
midiate, mitriform, or campanulate; and sometimes, as
in various Orthotrica, is cleft into numerous, long, nar-
row laciniz, or strap-shaped segments: its surface is
smooth, or pilose, or even hirsute; plane, striated, or sul-
cated. In some instances it is furnished at its base with
cilize, or a kind of lobes, as in some Encalypte and Ortho-
trica ; but though we can scarcely call them adventitious,
they appear to be of a more tender texture than.the calyp-
tra itself : they are probably portions of the pellicle of the
vaginula, or that body of which at an early period the ca-
lyptra formed 3 a part, and from which it was torn by the
‘maturing ‘of the theca. —

‘On the other kind of fructification, the small pedicellated
and reticulated bodies, described by authors as anthers,
and likewise generally enveloped in pericheetial leaves, we
_ shall also make no comments in this place, nor even after-
wards, unless extremely’ remarkable, since they are equally
difficult to ‘detect, and unsatisfactory when employed as
characters.

a RS AT pL nO

“ The terms of inner and outer peristome, we think almost unnecessary
to change, being as applicable, after the above explanation, as hitherto.

124 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Gea,
eos oe

MUSCI.

Der. Fructification double; lateral or terminal, and
generally surrounded by leaves differing in form from
those of the rest of the plant.

I. Tueca unilocular, one or four valved, furnished with
an operculum and calyptra. 'The operculum 1s either ad-
nate, as in Phascum, Voitia, and Andrwa; or deciduous
from the mature theca, and then displaying the mouth, or
stoma, of the latter, which is either naked, or variously
furnished with a membrane, or fringe (cilia, dentes). ‘The
calyptra, when young, envelopes the theca, but, as it ad-
vances to maturity, tears transversely through the middle ;
the lower portion is then called vaginula, and is perma-
nent; while the upper part, or true calyptra, accompanies
the theca, even when it is raised by a seta or fruit-stalk,
and is more or less fugacious, very rarely persistent. Spo-
rules generally very numerous, without spiral filaments,
and, with a few apparent exceptions, surrounding a central
columella. Columella variously modified, generally cylin-
drical, sometimes with large longitudinal plicze or folds,
and, in some instances, so expanded at its summit as near-
ly to close the stoma of the theca.

II. Small pedicellated, reticulated Bopirs; they are
either enveloped in leaves of a peculiar form, or are entire-
ly naked: in the one case, the whole stem, or caulis, is
closely beset with leaves; in the other, the leaves become
gradually smaller, so as ultimately to disappear consider-
ably below the capitula, or little heads, which these masses

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 125

of fructification form. Both kinds are sometimes present
in the same plant; both are endowed with a reproductive
power, and are most abundant when the first kind of fruc-
tification (the theca) is least to be met with.

Vec. “ Plants of small size, of a more or less compact
cellular structure, readily reviving upon the application of
moisture, after bemg dry; bearing leaves, which are very
rarely divided, often nerved, entire, or toothed, or serrated
at the margin.” The leaves, though sometimes so minute
as to be invisible to the naked eye, are never totally absent.

ve
" ROD
cemmoniniore)

GEN. 1. Anpra@a, Hhrhart.

Fructiricatio. Receptaculum haud pedicellatum, plus
minusve elongatum, lineam vel sesquilineam longitudine
superans, foltis pericheetialibus paulo longius, album, suc-
culentum, vasculosum, cylindraceum, ad basin in bulbillhi
formam intumescens, ad apicem thecee apophysin sustinens.
Calyptra tenuis, pellucens, albida, laxe reticulata, thecam
juvenilem obtegens, basi receptaculum summum arcte ad-
nata; demum ut theca evadat, subhorizontaliter et irregu-
lariter disrumpens, valde fugax. Seta nulla, theca, vel
potius apophysi ejus oblonga vel turbinata, fusca, substan-
tid pulposa impleta, receptaculum insidente. T’heca intense
fusca, eylindracea, demum subquadrangularis, m quatuor

valvas sequales longitudinaliter dehiscens ; quae exsiccatione,
, apicibus semper operculo connexis, operculoque per valva-
rum involvescentiam detracto, in semicirculum eleganter
arcuate. Operculum (conjunctorium, Exe.) minutum, co-
nicum, obtusum, vel thecze concolor aut albescens. Peri-
stomium nullum ob operculum thecz valvarum extreimita-
tibus cohzrens. Colwmella thece fere longitudine, cylin-

126 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

dracea, pallide fusca, subrigida. Sporule minutissime,
numerose, fuscee, spherice, obsolete reticulate.

Cuar, Dirr. Theca quadrivalvis ; valve apicibus oper-
culo connexis.

Fructrrication. The receptacle may be said to be ses-
sile, but is elongated so as to resemble a seta, overtopping
the perichzetial leaves, until it sometimes reaches the length

of a line and a half: it 1s white, succulent, vasculose, and

cylindrical ; the base swelling out into a small bulb, while
the summit sustains the subturbinate apophysis of the theca.
The calyptra is thin, pellucid, whitish, and loosely reticu-
lated, adhering, when young, to the top of the receptacle,
and then entirely mclosing the theca; it separates early,
and is torn transversely in a very irregular manner, the
upper portion, or true calyptra, being exceedingly fuga-
cious. ‘Phere is no seta, the theca, or, more strictly speak-
ing, its apophysis, which is full of a pulpy substance, being
seated on the receptacle. The theca 1s of a deep brown
colour, cylindrical in its young state, ultimately sub-
quadrangular, and splitting longitudinally into four equal
valves, whose summits are. always bound together by the
persistent operculum. In dry weather, the operculum is
drawn down by a tendency in the valves to become invo-
lute, which -causes them to be bent outwards, until they
almost form a semicircle, and the theca becomes turban-
shaped. The operculum is small, conical, and obtuse, either
similar in colour to the theca, as in A. alpina and nivalis,
or whitish, as in the other two species. There 1s no peri-
stome. The columella is cylindrical, nearly equal in length
to the theca, pale-brown, and of a somewhat rigid texture.
The sporules are minute, numerous, brown, spherical, and
obscurely reticulated.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 197

Dirr. Cuar. The theca is four-valved ; valves coher-
ing at their apices by means of the persistent operculum.

Vecetation. The stems (caules) are branched, seldom
more than half an inch long in two species, while in 4. ni-
valis they reach sometimes five or six inches. 'The leaves
are ovate, and, from being more or less suddenly acumi-
nated, pass into lanceolate; a dark-brown, or even almost
black, colour is common to them all, yet they are some-
times mclined to yellow. ‘Two of the species have secund
leaves, while a third possesses that character only at the
summits of the branches: the other, A. alpina, has all the
leaves erect, or erecto-patent. ‘The order, however, of the
distribution of the nerves of the leaves seems to be inverted.
A. alpina and rupestris are entirely destitute of a nerve;
A. Rothii has a nerve in all, except the perichetial leaves ;
while A. nivalis, in both the perichetial and cauline leaves,
is furnished with a very strong one.

-Oxservations. The truly sessile theca seems to ally —
these plants most strongly to Sphagnum, but that is the
only point in which they can be said to bear any resemblance
to each other. The four-valved theca is a character by which
the species of this curious genus may be separated from all
other known mosses ; and notwithstanding the central colu-
mella, the robust habit, the sporule destitute of elateres or
spiral filaments, and leaves (in two species) furnished with
“nerves, one can scarcely wonder at some of the older Bo-
“tanists regarding them as Jungermannie. In a natural
arrangement, therefore, they form an admirable link be-
tween the Heratica# and the Musct1.

What we term Theca is very different from what was
here so called by Hepwie. According to him, our theca
were teeth, and our apophysis his theea: thus directly at

128 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

variance with Enruart, who had previously, and most
accurately, described them. Both Hepwic and Euruart
have, however, we conceive, fallen into an error, by de-
scribing the elongated receptacle as a pedicellus or seta.
That we are correct in our denomination of these parts,
(and we are not the first), is, we think, clearly proved; by
the sporules being never found in the apophysis, but al-
ways in the cavity formed by the four valves; and by the
texture of these parts and that of the receptacle. For those
who believe in the stamina and pistilla of mosses, we may
add, that the latter are arranged along our receptacle.

Hasirat. All the four species are natives of Great Bri-
tain, but are by no means confined to it. Three are com-
mon on all the mountainous rocks of Europe; but 4. ni-
valis has been detected only on the summit of Ben Nevis
in Scotland, and on some of the more elevated of the Swiss
Alps. Hitherto none of the species have been found out
of Europe, to whose rocks Nature seems to have restricted
them.

History. Two of the species were described by L1y-
Nzus under the names of Jungermannia alpina and J.
rupestris. From the latter, Dr Mour was the first to se-
parate A. Rothii, on account of the presence of a nerve in
the leaf, a species which is retained (without a figure) by
ScHw£GRICcHEN, but excluded by Brine in his “‘ Methodus
nova Muscorum,” and again reduced under A. rupestris,
with the (amended!) character—“ caule simpliciusculo, foliis
laxis umbricatis lanceolato-subulatis falcatis secundis, ner-
vosis, pericheetialibus sequalibus mucronatis,” which would
almost incline one to believe that he had seen neither the one
nor the other. Both species must, however, be kept up.
Lastly, Dr Hooxer has discovered to us, both in Scotland

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 129

and Switzerland, A: nivalis, the largest, and, A. alpina ex-
cepted, the most beautiful of the whole. ‘To the full ac-
count published by that excellent naturalist, in the 10th
volume of the Linnean Transactions, of the four species,
we have been greatly indebted, particularly, it will be per-
ceived, in drawing up the characters of the genus. We
have therefore followed him in his examinations, but have
described nothing that we ourselves have not verified.

The error which Linnzus committed (he used to boast
that he never employed a microscope), and which he bor-
rowed from DiLLENivs, arose from overlooking the colu-
mella; but this would have been corrected in the “ Me-
thodus Muscorum” of the younger Linn.zus, had he not
indignantly cancelled the sheet as written by Euruarr,
and retained the original descriptions of his father. ‘The
genus Andrea was, however, established by Enruarr
(Ehr. Beytrage, 1. p. 15. and 180.): it was retained by Hrp-
wie in the posthumous work ‘“ Species Muscorum,” as also
by ScuwacricuHen in his Supplement, but both place
it next to T'eéraphis, among the mosses furnished with a
peristome; deceived probably by the supposition, that in
maturity, the operculum would fall off. This, however,
we have stated, never really to separate of its own accord ;
and, indeed, ScuwacericHen adds, ‘* Peristomii dentes in
speciminibus nostris non satis maturatis emollitis forte con-
glutinati.” He also elsewhere remarks, ‘“‘ Melior forte locus
ad muscorum finem Andreee designaretur,” where it has
been since placed by Briprt. But instead of the conclu-
-sion, we think the commencement of a’ system of Mosses is
the most appropriate situation for Andr@a, as it forms a
lmk of union between the Hepatic and the Musci; the
former of which orders being the least perfect, must conse-
quently precede the latter in a proper natural arrangement ;
and in such an arrangement of Musci, both Andrea and

VOL. Iv. I

130 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Sphagnum, each sui generis, must, as it were, stand m-
termediate.

Prate VII.

Fig. 1. Theca of Andrea alpina, before it has separated,
into four valves. The ragged vaginula is seen
at the base of the small apophysis; and to-
wards the bottom of the elongated receptacle
are situate the abortive pistilla.

2. Theca of the same, in a dry state. After the spo-
rules have escaped, the columella is seen, and
is shorter than the theca.

3. Calyptra of the same.

4. Sporules.

All the figures are more or less magnified.

Gen. II. SpHacnum, Dill.

Frucr. Receptaculum lenticulare, seu in clypeolum pla-
niusculum horizontaliter dilitatum, albo-fuscescens pseudo-
pedicellatum, pedicello pallidiore, semiunciam ad sex.
cunciam longo, crasso, siccitate paulum tortili. Calyptra
pallens “ veli albi instar,” tenerrima, tunc thecam arcte
circumcingens, et thecze basin adnata, nunc transversim et
irregulariter dehiscens; cujus pars inferior, vel vaginula
receptaculo adhzret, parsque superior, vel calyptra, proprie
dicta, valde fugax est. Nec seta nee apophysis ulla. Theca
integra, ovata, globosa, urceolata, aut turbinata, in eadem
specie varians; ore amplo; brunneo-fusca, levis, recepta-
culum immediate insidens. Operculum planiusculum, seu
convexum, matutine deciduum, thecz concolor. Peristo-

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 131i

mium nudum. Columella prima extate, magna, ampla, sed.
una cum membrana operculari, postea ita deprimitur, ut
membranam thecee maturee fundum obtegentem simulet, et
nulla dicatur. Sporule vel pauco-angulatz, superficiebus
convexis, imperforatis; vel subsphzericz reticulate.

CuHar. Dirr. Theca imicora im receptaculum sessilis.

Fruct. The receptacle is m the form of a lens, or, in
other words, is dilated herizontally into a much flattened
oblate spheroid ; of a brownish-white colour, and apparent-
ly pedunculated, the peduncle being somewhat paler, vary-
ing in length from half an inch to an inch and a half, or
more, and of considerable thickness,—rather liable to be
twisted when dry, and probably a continuation of the caulis ©
or stem. The calyptra is of a pale colour, “like a white veil,”
remarkably tender, at an early period entirely inclosing the
theca, and bound to its base at its conjunction with the recep-
tacle, but soon tearing transversely and irregularly through
the middle. Its lower part, or vaginula, still continues to ad-
here to its place of attachment; but the upper portion, or
true calyptra, is very fugacious. Neither seta nor apophysis
can be said to be present, the receptacle forming the im-
mediate support to the theca. The theca is entire, ovate,
globose, urceolate or turbinate; and all these modifications
frequently occur in the same species: it is generally wi-
dened at the mouth, of a rusty-brown, with its surface de-
- stitute of either strize or sulci. The operculum is somewhat
‘plane, or inclining to convex, and similar in colour-to the
theca, from which it is at an early period detached. The
peristomium is naked. The colwmella in the young theca
is of no small dimensions, but, by the drying up of the pulp
which it contains, sinks along with its opercular membrane
so low, as to present the appearance of a mere horizontal

12

ee

132 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

tympanum, stretching across the interior of the theca, a little
way above its base. The columella, therefore, taken with
a view to the mature theca, may justly be described as ab-
sent. The sporule are in some cases almost pyramidal,
with their sides convex and imperforated ; in athens sub-
spherical and reticulated.

Dirr. Cuar. The theca is entire, and sessile on the re-
ceptacle.

Vec. The stems are for the most part branched, and,
from the influence of locality, or other causes, vary in length
from one inch to above four feet. The leaves of none of
the species are furnished with nerves; in their form they
are liable to the greatest variation, passing through ovato-
obtuse, ovato-acunimate, lanceolate, into lanceolato-subu-
late. They are either adpressed or recurved, or perhaps
even secund, thus causing the extremities of the leaves to
be sometimes obtuse and tumid, and sometimes attenuat-
ed. A remarkable pale-yellowish or greenish-white colour,
varied in: some instances with a tinge of pink, is common
to the whole genus. Their texture is also peculiar, being
so. tender as to render the apices liable to erosion, a circum-
stance which is aided by the repeated ehanges of climate,
naturally arising from their situation. This erosion has
been made a ground for the constitution of species, by
ScHW2GRICHEN and others; but it is a character which,
with Dr Hooker, we consider of no importance, and not
even constant to any one, and to which, therefore, we can-
not of course give our consent. The reticulation is no less
curious, and is sufficient to distinguish this genus from
mearly all others; it consists of oblong, longitudinal, flexuose,
nearly regularly formed Hilal abaya interrupted by trans-
verse lines. In one species (8. squarrosum) there are also

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 133

circular lines independent of, and sometimes intersecting
the transverse ones, and chiefly situated at the extremities
of the long cellules.

The perichzetial leaves differ considerably in these plants
from the cauline ones, and at an early period totally enve-
lope the theca, scarcely bursting before it has attained its
full size. At this time, especially in a dry state, they are
remarkably scariose ; and from being, as it were, so glued
together, as to prevent the form of each being visible, the
whole bears no small resemblance to the calyx of seme of
the Jungermannia. |

Oss. The species or varieties of this genus are easily
distinguished from those of all the other known genera.
Their nearest artificial affinity is to Andrea, from which
they are at first sight separated by the entire theca, deci-
duous operculum, and apparently pedunculated receptacle ;
which last, combined with the absence of a seta, affords a
distinctive mark from another series of allies, the Gymno-
stomoidee. We have, under Andrea, mentioned our rea-
sons for considering the theca sessile: the same apply also
to the present genus. We allude to the difference between
the apparent peduncle and all true setze; and for the close
followers of Hrpwie, to the situation of the pistilla, which
are here formed immediately beside the theca, on the sum-
mit of what we term the receptacle. But there is another
circumstance, which, although we omitted to state under
Andrea, applies no less to it, than to the genus under con-
sideration. Hxpwic, among his definitions, describes va-
ginula—“ Membrana tenuissima, pedunculi basin invol-
vens prima etate calyptre continua ;” yet we find him de-
scribing both Andrea and Sphagnum as possessing sete.
But it ought to be remarked, that Hepwie, in consequence
of his hypothesis of the constant presence of a true seta, was

134 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

led to call our vaginula a portion of the ealyptra; and, rest-
mg on the former part of his definition—‘ pedunculi basin
involvens,” and disregarding the latter and more important
clause, searched for the vaginula at the base of his seta,
and. therefore declared Sphagnum to be destitute of it.
Accordingly, we find that Bripxt, following up the same
most unphilosophical conclusion, separates it from all the
other Mosses, and constitutes for it a distinct section,
“ Musct Evaginulati.” Why they did not equally include
in this arrangement the former genus Andraa, or rather,
what it is that in it they term “ vaginula viv ulla,” we
really confess we do not comprehend. In both, however,
it will be found that the true vaginula, or remainder of the
calyptra, “ prima atate calyptre continua,” 1s fixed imme-
diately below the theca, and to the summit of what we and
some others denominate the receptacle, or what Hepwice
called the apophysis. We have already taken notice of the
peculiar appearance exhibited by the pericheetial leaves in
a young state, and have now only to add, that, by degrees,
as the theca advances to maturity, the caulis or stem 1s
prolonged into the setiform body, which supports the re-
ceptacle ; thus separating the perichzetial leaves, which now
become more evidently distinct from each other, and (as 1s
indeed represented in all the best figures of the species) are
seattered along it a considerable way :—a circumstance
which also militates against Hrpwre’s hypothesis of the
seta; that body, in Mosses, being always destitute of leaves,
and having the pericheetial ones situated around its base.

Has. All the species hitherto described are confined
to damp or wet situations. ‘They have been found not
only in Europe, but in North and South America; and
probably there are few countries in the whole world, which,

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 135

in the process of time, they will not be found to inhabit.
In general, where they do occur, extensive peat or turf
bogs, asin Britain, Germany, and Sweden, are found to
be almost entirely formed by them.

Hist. Ditienivus*, who first, in a system of Musco-
logy, constituted this genus, defined it, “ Musci genus
capsulas uniformes proferentis, quze capsule ab aliis diffe-
runt, quod nudz sint, seu calyptra destitute,” &c. Lin-
Naus, however, finding a calyptra in many of those de-
scribed, removed several of them to the Hypna, and to a
new genus of his own formation, Phascum,—‘‘ Anthera
operculata ore ciliata, calyptra caduca minuta,” wherein it
may be seen he had altered the nomenclature of DiLe-
nius. He still, however, kept up, with very little varia-
tion, the former definition of Sphagnuwm—“ Anthera oper-
culata; ore levi, calyptra nulla,” retaining under it Sphag-
num alpinum and S. arborewm. In the true Sphagna, the
erroneous definition is accounted for by the remarkably
fugacious and delicate nature of the calyptra. ‘That it
really possesses one, is now placed beyond a doubt; but it
generally falls off at the time the theca emerges from the
pericheetial leaves; and it is even difficult before that pe-
riod to remove those leaves without also detaching it.

The two other plants comprised in this genus by Lin-
nevus, §. alpinum and arboreum, have been generally re-
ferred, in later times, the one to Dicranum, the other to
_Neckera; but in neither is the calyptra of so fugacious a
nature, as to apologise for such a mistake even among the

* Diuienivs, though this generic name had been previously applied to
plants, was the first to restrict it to the Musci.

1360 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

early botanists. The only other plant that has been referred
to this genus, is one of more recent discovery; S. Javanense,
or 2rridans of Bripew, or S. clandestinum of PauisoT DE
Beavvotis. It has been since removed by BripEt, in his
*¢ Methodus nova,” with much more justice, to Dicranum,
near D. glaucum, under the name of D. megalophyllum.
The structure of the leaves is not very unlike to Sphag-
num, from the cellules being crossed with transverse lines ;
but the cellules themselves are very different, bemg oblong .
and quadrangular, and possessing nothing of that undulat-
ing character so peculiar to Sphagnum. The fructification
has never been discovered, unless it be the same as a Di-
cranum, which Dr Hooker has observed n Mr 'TurRNER’s
rich Herbarium.

The genus Sphagnum, as it is now universally received,
4s a very natural one, and therefore liable, like all such ge-
nera, to be reduced to too few, or extended into too many
species. 'Two.of the present species were figured by Dit-
LENIvs, while LLrnnazus introduced them under « and £ of
his Sphagnum palustre. ‘These were made by Hepwic
distinct species. Werser and Mour added other two,
iS. cuspidatum and squarrosum, which last was probably
imtended by Hxrpwic to come under his S. latifolium. |
Brivet described S. Magellicum, compactum, and simpli-
cissimum. ‘Three out of the above enumerated species were
first correctly delineated by ScuwzericHEN. It would,
however, be useless to trace all the changes that have been
made in this genus by different authors. We shall only
observe, that Patisor DE Brauvois added what he .con-
ceived to be two distinct species from North America; and
BriveEv has latterly, in his “ Methodus nova Muscorum,”
or fourth part of his “ Muscologiz recentiorum supple-

> enumerated seventeen, with one (S. simplicisst-

anentum,’

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 137

-+num*) the genus of which is doubtful.- It is not our inten-
.tion to state, under these generic characters, what we con-
sider to be good species, or what merely varieties; but we
cannot refrain from expressing our opinion, that, notwith-
standing the apparent striking difference between some of
the Sphagna, and the peculiar structure that is exhibited
in all the leaves of §. squarrosum, which we have examin-
ed, it is not improbable, that at some future period the
old Linnzean species may be again adopted. We cannot,
inthis place, do better than give BripEL’s observations at
the end of the genus, in nearly his own words.

“ Genus Sphagnum inter omnia maxime naturale, pro-
prio Marte stans, nec ulli alteri affine. Ramorum nempe
ad caulis latera dispositione fasciculari aliis muscis alienis-
sima, foliis semper concavis, integerrimis, areolisque plus
minusve trapeziformibus, a ceteris gentis nostra generibus .
longe removetur. Unicam insuper speciem diceres, jam in-
nuantibus TrREvirANo et ROHLINGIO, per varietates multas
certos inter se limjtes non admittentes diductam. A cym-
bifolio et enim, cui forte conjungenda compactum et con-
densatum, quippe quee non aliter quam ramulorum fasci-
culis approximatis indistinctis ab eo recedunt, mediantibus
tenello et patenti, contra Mount assertionem qui transitum
talem temere negat, ad squarrosum devenimus sese iterum
cum capillifolio ex habitu arctius connectens, quod a subu-
Jato et ericetorum vix specifice diversum, tandem in cuspi-
datum mediante pentasticho abit. Hine si leviora discri-
mina a foliorum reticuli areolis majus minusve dilitatis aut

* We have never observed this species in any of the herbariums abroad
that we have visited, unless it be a plant that we received by the kindness
of M. B. Dexessert, from the collection of Patisor: this, however, which
is nearly quite simple, of a pinkish hue, and has leaves broadly ovate and
obtuse, we consider only a singular variety of §. obtustfolzwm,

~

138 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

coarctatis desumpta negligantur, fatendum est thecee struc-
turam uniformem et constantem, foliorum formam per gra-
dus intermedios sensim et absque salebra leviter immuta-
tam, ramulorum denique dispositionem in Sphagno peculi-
arem solemnemque unicam speciem in genere unico pro-
mulgare videri. Non possumus tamen plures species non
admittere potius ex habitu, colore, &c. quam ex ullo cha-
ractere firmo, constante genuinoque dignoscendas.”

In addition to the above, we have only to add, that we
ourselves possess several additional connecting links between
the varieties; but that, for the present, we follow Hooxrr
and Taytor* in keeping up the four species, §. obtusi-

Jolium, squarrosum, acutifolium, and cuspidatum, to some

of which all the others (though sometimes, we confess, with
difficulty) may be referred: and these, if all are afterwards
again reduced to S. palustre, will form the types of the
varieties. |

: PuaTe VII.

Fig. 5. Theca of Sphagnum squarrosum, before it has
emerged from the perichzetial leaves, Some
of the perichetial leaves are removed. ‘The
ragged vaginula is very evident, springing,
from the receptacle; as also some abortive
pistilla (Afedw.)

6. Mature theca of a Sphagnum, showing the
naked peristomium, and the vaginula and
barren pistilla as before.

7. Operculum. >

8. A young theca cut open, to show the columella.

* Muscologia Britannica, p, 4.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 139

9. a, Spherical and reticulated sporules of 8. squar- '

rosum. 6, Deltoideo-pyramidal sporules of
S. acutifolium. See also Scuwamer. Suppl.
Tab, 5. fig. 9.

10. A portion of a leaf of 'S. devesaisianee to show
the reticulations and transverse striz. |

11. A portion of a leaf of S. squarrosum, showing,
besides a variation in the form of the areolz,
curious circular lines of the same nature as
the transverse ones.

12. Section of the stem of S. obtusifeliven.

All the figures are more or less magnified.

PHASCOIDEZ, Gen. (8—4).

Cuar. feceptaculum haud pedicellatum, sed intra folia
perichatialia sessile. Calyptra dimidiata, aut fugax ‘aut
persistens. Seta longitudine et colore valde varians. Theca
mtegra non angulata. Operculum persistens obliquum.
Peristomoum nullum. |

Cuar. The receptacle 2s sessile. The calyptra dimi-
ciate, m some very fugucious, in others persistent. The
seta very variable with respect to colour and length. The
theca entire, and without angles. The operculum persistent
and oblique, inchning to rostrate. There is no peristome,

-Ozs. We have been obliged to have recourse, more to
the structure of the theca, than to any peculiar habit in the
plants forming this tribe; indeed there are few genera,
with terminal setze and entire capsules, to which they do
not bear some affinity. ‘The above character is therefore

140 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

employed, as they cannot assimilate under any other group.
The persistent operculum brings them near to Andrea, to
which in habit they are most remote; and so long as ge-
neric characters are taken from the fruit, they must be ever
kept separate from all peristomed mosses.

Gen. III. Puascum, Linn.

Frucr. Calyptra dimidiata, fugacissima, theca in non-
nullis paulo brevior, in plurimis minima, tenera, albescens,
laxe reticulata. Seta terminalis, inmnovatione interdum quasi
lateralis; plerumque brevissima albo-virescens tenera ;_alli-
quando tamen, ut in P. bryoide, duo ad sex lineas longa,
brunnea rigidior. Thecze apophysis seepius nulla, sed in
P. splachnoide, monente Hornscuucuio, preesens. Theca
a seta decidua, integra, levis, subglobosa vel ovata; saepius
et interdum eleganter reticulata; brunnea vel brunneo-
fusca; quandoque (ut in P. crassinervio et cuspidato) tu-
nica singular cincta, tunica juniore ‘ crassa, subcarnosa
viridi-pallida pellucida,” maturiore et sicca calyptram mag-
nam scariosam indehiscentem referente. Operculum obli-
quum thecz paulo tenerius, nunquam abscedens, sed ita
thecam adnatum, separationisque linea tam tenuis, ut oper-
culum nullum, sed thecze acumen breve, tyro diceres. Pe-
ristomium nullum. Colwmella dicta valde variabilis; in
P. recto et curvicollo conspicua, prelonga; in plurimis
brevior et fere nulla. Sporule majuscule tuberculose
angulate; numero vanantes, in P. alternifolio sedecim
tantummodo, in P. serrato circiter centum.

Cuar. Dirr. Theca a seta decidua; calyptra brevis,

fuga.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 14]

Frucr. The calypira is dimidiate, and very fugacious ;
in some species, only a little shorter than the theca; im
most, however, much shorter, and small in size: it is ten-
der, of a whitish colour, and reticulated. The seta is ter-
minal; sometimes apparently lateral, in consequence of in-
novations; generally short, of a greenish-white colour and
delicate texture ; sometimes reaching the length of from
two to six lines, when it is browner, and more rigid. An
apophysis to the theca is a rare occurrence, but such a
structure has been described by Dr Hornscuucu to exist
in one species, P. splachnoides. The theca is deciduous
from the summit of the seta, entire, somewhat globose, or
ovate, and not striated; generally reticulated, but some-
times most beautifully and regularly chequered with trans-
verse bands: the colour is more or less of a deep-brown;
-m one or two instances, as in P. crassinervium and cuspi-
datum, it is, in a young state, completely surrounded by a
remarkable coating of a thick subcarnose, pale-green and
pellucid substance, which, when dry, bears a strong re-
semblance to a large scariose calyptra previous to lacera-
tion. The operculum is oblique, of a more tender struc-
ture than the theca, never deciduous, but so united to the
theca, and having the line of separation so inconspicuous,
that one would almost be disposed to call it, less an oper-
‘culum, than a short oblique termination of the theca.
There is no peristome. ‘The columella is here very vari-
able; long, and easily observed in P. rectum and curvicol-
um; but in most others, short, or apparently absent. The
sporules are large for the size of the theca, angled, and
tuberculated, varying much in regard to number, being 16
in P. alternifolium, and about 100 in P. serratum.

Dirr. Cuan. The theca deciduous from the setw; the
calyptra short, fugacious. |

142 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Vecerr. - The stems are sometimes branched, but in the
greatest number of the species extremely short. In P. ser-
ratum and coherens they are apparently absent, but really
present under the form of surculi, or creeping articulated
conferva-like shoots, destitute of foliage, upon’ which the
fructification with its perichzetial leaves is sessile.

The cauline leaves of all the species are furnished with
a nerve, and are in general reticulated. In this character,
the pericheetial leaves of P. serratum, coherens, and some
others, are remarkable, the cellules being large, and evident
under. a small power of the microscope. ‘They vary in
shape, from ovate, in P. curvicollum and patens, ovato-
apiculate, in P. rectum, to lanceolate and subulate-in other
species. Their situation is generally along the stem, with-
out any particular order; but in P. alternifolium they are

beautifully alternate. Serratures are found in some few —

species, but those with subulate leaves are always entire.
The perichzetial leaves are for the most part uniform with
the cauline ones; but in P. alternifolium they are much
larger and longer, and surround the theca.

Ozs. Two of the species of this genus are apparently at
variance with the generic character, P. aléernifolium and
axillare ; m both, the seta appears to be truly lateral. In
consequence of this, BripEx has made’a new genus of the
former, under the name of Plewridiwm— Capsula latera-
lis:inaperta decidens, calyptra decidua ;” and adds another
species, Pleuridium elobiferum, from the Isle of France,
which seems tobe merely a variety. In P. alternifolium,
the theca is, however, really terminal, or, at the summit of
smail branches, situated on the main stem. It is the short-
ness of this branchlet which deceived BripeL: but an ac-
curate inspection shows, that it is also clothed with cauline
leaves, and not with the long perichetial ones alone; the

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 143

seta cannot therefore justly be said to be axillary. The
other doubtful species, P. awillare, is more deserving of a
place under Plewridiwm, and indeed Hornscuucu seems to
be at a loss what to do with it; but even here the seta is
at first terminal. ‘ Pedicellus primo ortu terminalis, at
mox, producto caulis apice, lateralis *.”

The Phasca can scarcely be said. to possess a habit pe-
culiar to themselves. Among those with short sete, P.
alternifolium resembles closely the shoots of Dicranum
varium, while P. cuspidatum is frequently passed over by
the tyro for barren stems of Bryum caspiticium; those
with the setze exserted, especially P. rectum and bryoides,
approach intimately to some of the Gymnostoma and Weis-
sia, and more especially to what constitutes the following
genus.

Has. These plants are seldom found in lofty situations,
but generally on moist banks, and open fields in’ the low
countries. ‘Ehey abound chiefly in Europe; North Ame-
rica, however, possesses some ; and the Cape of Good Hope
two species, P. nervosum and. splachnoides. We have also
seen what we conceive to be a variety of P. subulatum,
from King George’s Sound, New Holland.

- Hist. This genus, as we have formerly noticed, was
ranked by Dituenzvs under his Sphkagna, but was separ-
ated by Linnaus, under its present name. Only two,
however, of his species prove to be true Phasca, and. the
remainder have been transferred to other genera. In Bri-
tain no more than these two appear to have been known in
the tme of Hupson, but this number was soon increased by

* Sir J. E. Surra, Flora Britannica, p. 1150.

144 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

the industry of various. botanists. Dickson added several
to the British list: Mr Turner, to whom muscology owes
so much, describes nine species as natives of Ireland, in his
excellent ‘ Muscologiz Hibernice spicilegium:;” and Sir
J. E. Smrru, in his “ Flora Britannica,” and also in his sub-
sequent and more valuable work, the Compendium of the
former, enumerates seventeen. Drs Hooxrr and Taytor,
having examined them with the utmost microscopical ac-
curacy, found it necessary in their “ Muscologia Britan-
nica *,” to reduce that number to eleven. In the mean
time, Hrpwie, on the Continent, including a species from
North America, raised the original number to twelve.
ScHW#GRICHEN, in his Supplement, describes seventeen ;
and, latterly, BrrpEt brings as many as twenty-seven spe-
cies under Phascum, and two under Pleuridium, thus
making no fewer than twenty-nine. Of these it is sufficient
to say, that thirteen only can be established as good spe-
cies. There is, however, one more (P. Florkéanum, with
an English variety, P. stellatum, Brip.), but which, until we
see better and more decided specimens than those at pre-
sent in our possession, we cannot help thinking too closely
allied to P. muticum, and its varieties,—a circumstance
also noticed in the “‘ Muscologia Britannica.” ‘Two spe-
cies, as already mentioned, have been lately added; one
by Dr Hooxer, in his beautiful ‘ Musci Exotici,” the other
by Hornscuucu in the “ Horee Physicz Berolenses ;” so
that at present only fifteen species can be enumerated of
this extremely minute genus.

*“ This most excellent work is, we know, out of print; but we hope the
public will speedily be favoured with another edition, which cannot but ace
quire an additional interest with the British muscologist, from the new ma-
terials that will enrich it.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 145

Priate VIL:
Fig, 13. Theca of Phascum curvicollum.
14. Do. of P. subulatum.
15. Calyptra of P. curvicollum.
16. Sporules of P. subulatum..
All the figures are more or less magnified.

Gen. IV. Vorria,. Hornsch.

Fruct. ‘Calyptra inidtata magna, theca paullo longior,
persistens ; , dum basi coheeret, subcylindrica; mtegra, flavo-
fusea, thec4 ditem adult4 campanulato-conica, grisea, te-
nuis, levis, glabra, altero latere deorsum fissa, sursunt
vero integra et thecze tam arcte adglutinata, ut im maturi-
fatem usque persistat, et hon, nisi tempestatum et pluviarum
injuriis demum exesa; Solvetur. Seta terminalis; lineas octo
ad quatuordecim longa; erecta, levis, quandoque torta,

‘earneo-ptrpurascens, “sub theca in discum infundibuli-

formem soliduim dilitata,” ex quo theca continuatur. Apo-
physis nulla, ‘nisi discus sub theca predictus. Theca inte-
gra, plus minusve ovata,’ levis; natura, hinc inde collapsa,
spadiceo-fusca, calyptra vestita, nunquam dehiscens, sed
una cum opercilo suo, basi humore et putredine soluto,

decidua. Opercrilum semper adnatum, obliquum, attenua-

tum, theca texture laxioris: \Peristomiem nullum. Colu-
mella magna, theca brevior; oblonga, obtusa, albida, laxe
cellulosa. Sporule, in cumulo griseo-virides, copiosissima,
compacte, exiguae, sphzericee, leves, tres vel quatuor locu-
forum vel sporulorum quasi constitute.

YOU. Tv. rg

146 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Cuar. Dirr. Theca cum seta decidua; calyptra magna
persistens.

Fruct. The calyptra is dimidiate, as long, or even
longer, than the theca, and persistent ; while it is attached
by the base, it is nearly cylindrical, entire, and of a yellow-
ish-brown colour; as the theca becomes old, it changes to
campanulato-conical, and is of a greyish hue, slender,
smooth, unfurrowed, splitting from the bottom upwards on
one side, but entire above, and so closely cemented to the
theca, that it remains attached till maturity, and is not even
then loosened, unless by injuries caused by the vicissitude
of the seasons. The seta is terminal, from eight to fourteen
lines in length, erect, and smooth, but sometimes slightly
twisted ; of a purplish-red colour, and “ dilated under the
theca, into a funnel-shaped solid disk,” of which the theca
is a continuation. There is no apophysts, unless the above
mentioned disk beneath the theea can be considered as such.
The theca is entire, more or less ovate, smooth, when ma-
ture here and there collapsed and wrinkled, of a reddish-
brown colour, and clothed with the calyptra; it is never
dehiscent, but falls along with its seta, whose base is putri-
fied and corroded by a superabundance of moisture. The
operculum, which is, as it were, firmly bound to the theca
(from which it differs, in being of a looser texture), is
oblique and attenuated. There is no peristome. The colu-
_ meila is large, a little shorter than the theca, oblong, ob-
tuse, whitish, and cellular. The sporules, viewed in the
mass, are of a greyish-green colour, very plentiful, extreme-
ly minute, spherical, smooth, apparently tri-quadri-locular,
or as if three or four smaller sporules were cemented ta-
gether.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 147

Dir. Cuan: The theca falls along with the a ca-
tai large and permanent.

View, In one species fia gical scarcely more hit
three-fourths of an inch in height, but in the other they
reach from two to three inches: they are either simple or
branched, and so closely matted together (at least in V.
nivalis), that it is extremely difficult to separate a complete
plant from the mass. The leaves are imbricated, erecto-
patent, of a yellowish-green colour, ovate, more or less con-
cave, scarcely acuminate in one, and considerably so in the
other species, very entire, embracing the stem at their base,
with a strong brown nerve reaching to the apex; their re-
ticulation i is large, and nearly rectangular ;. the pericheetial
leaves are much more acuminated, tender in their structure,
but equally furnished with a strong nerve.

Oss. Few plants are more remarkable than ‘lias leh
form the present genus. Their closest affinity is to Phas-
cum, especially P. bryoides 5 ; but the persistent calyptra of
Voitia, and what i is of much greater importance, the theca,
deciduous only along its seta, must for ever keep them dis-
tinct; while, on t the other hand, the adnate operculum is
sufficient to separate them from all other mosses that may
resemble them in habit. _Among those with which they
might at. first. be confounded, are, the Encalypte and
Splachna, and even some of the Brya.

aN in his “ Commentatio de Voitia et Say

o” (from which, by changing the terms, we have borrowed
oy the whole of our ‘description of the fructification),
describes the theca of his species —‘ ovata in acumen sub-
obliquum, truncatulum, pellucidulum attenuata,” while he
denies it to possess an operculum; so far we do not agree
with aaa and have accordingly denominated the termina-

K 2

148 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

tion of the theca an Operculum. This is not the result of
caprice; for it will be found that the oblique attenuated
point is destitute of sporule, and that the sporular bag
actually terminates at the summit of the ovate portion’ of
the theead, to which, therefore, the term Theca can only be
applied. The more pellucid appearance in the acuminated
summit, as observed by Hornscuucu, was owing to this
absence of sporulé ; we therefore consider it as a true oper-
culum. He adds also, that it is of a different texture,—
‘* texture laxioris.” Weé shall close these observations with
-aviother remark from that learned Professor, but which we
ourselves have not been able completely to verify; viz.
that the vaginula, in this genus, is composed of two valves.
In all mosses, at an early period, the vaginula and calyptra
are one and the same; the latter is, by the enlargement of
the theca, torn from the lower portion, and each part
then receives a distinct name, and becomes independ-
ent of the other. In Andrea and Sphagnum this is
peculiarly visible; the portion left at the base, now called
Vaginula, is generally entire, and it is so in Phascum. On
this character, the above mentioned commentator lays much
stress in his diagnosis of the two genera; but we do not see
that it is of so much mmportance as the points we have al-
ready enumerated.

Has. These plants have hitherto only been found on
the summit of the Carinthian Alps and in Melville Island.
We have not been able to ascertain whether those brought
from the latter place grew upon the dung of animals, as
was the case with those discovered by Dr Hornscuucu:
from our specimens we should rather :magine the contrary.

Hist. Dr Horwnscuucu was the first fortunate dis-
eoverer of this curious genus in 1817, a figure and descrip-

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 149

tion of one species of which he published in 1818. An
excellent figure is also given by Dr Hooxer of the same
in his “* Musci Exotici,” taken from specimens communi-
eated by Dr Hornscuucu. ‘This genus, though of such
recent discovery, was again met with soon afterwards in a
different part of the world, Melville Island ; in which some
specimens were collected, and from whence they were
brought to this country by Captain Sapine, who accom-
panied Captain Parry in his late adventurous and ever
memorable Arctic expedition, Although the quantity from
that habitat was small, yet having observed,plants of it in
the possession of two or three individuals, always retaining
the same characters, and having examined our own speci-
mens minutely, we have been induced, on really finding
them to differ materially from the plants gathered by Pro-
fessor Hornscuucu, to propose them as distinct species,
with the following characters :

1. Voitia nivalis, caule elongato ramoso; foliis ovato-
lanceolatis, concaviusculus, notabiliter acuminatis ;
theca oblongo-ovata ; operculo obtusiusculo.

HON fe heres, caule elongato subsimplici, foliis late
ovatis vin acuminatis, valde concavis ; theca oyato,> ~
globosa ; operculo acuto.

1. Voitia nivalis. Stems elongated, branched; leaves
ovato-lanceolate, slightly concave, much acuminat-
ed; theca oblongo-ovate ; summit of the operculum
rather obtuse.

2. V. hyperborea. Stems elongated, nearly simple ; leaves
broadly ovate, sub-acuminate, very concave; theca
ovato-globose ; summit of the operculum acute.

150

Fig. 17.
18.

19.
20.
21.
99,

NEW ARRANGEMENT, We.

Pirate VII.

Theca of Voitia nivalis, with its calyptra.

Theca of the same cut open, to show the colu-
‘mella, on the summit of which are traces of
the membrane which closes the stoma.

Theca of V. hyperborea (nobis).

Sporules; which are the same in both species.

Leaf of V. hyperborea.

A portion of the leaf of either species, sown
the form of the areolz.

All the figures more or less magnified.

_ aptamuaatis a

wt SS.

D0.

Vol WP,

Wihlazars wculp®

Mem

= Ta

Wern

ITLA,

O

cae
<

Pl

ANDREA SPHAGNUM PHASCUM 1

(_ 151)

X.—Short Account of the Rocks in the Neigh-
bourhood of St John’s, Newfoundland.

By Mr Joun Bairp.

(Head 23d February 1822.)

TIS

Iw approaching the fishing grounds on the coast of Ame-
rica, the soundings were from sixty to thirty fathoms; over
the great Bank of Newfoundland, generally about thirty-
five. The lead brought up a fine sand, and frequently
‘small pieces of a rough flint, together with particles of
a green smooth mineral, in.the form of coarse green
sand, It is certainly a singular fact, that so large a por-
tion of shallow water should exist so far out at sea, the
sea deepening so rapidly beyond the Bank. Is it not pro-
bable that a large tract of dry land had formerly existed
-where the Bank is now found? The rocks which formed
this land may have been composed of very soft mate-
rials, and the occurrence of flint and green sand over
the Bank seems to indicate that the greater part of the ori-
ginal rocks had been of the Chalk and Green Sand Forma-

tions. A country composed of these rocks, which are of

152 MINERALOGY OF ST JOHN'S,

the latest formation, must have been very low, and in con-
quence much exposed to the action of the sea. By degrees
the whole may have been inundated and entirely swept
away, leaving the harder debris, the flint and green sand,
to form the gravel at the bottom.

‘The coast round St John’s is bleak, bare, and rocky,
and almost everywhere precipitous. On both sides of
St John’s harbour, perpendicular cliffs of trap-tuff rise to
the height of three or four hundred feet. The interior of
the country is hilly, but does not rise toa great elevation,
few of the hills bemg more than five or six hundred feet
above the level of the sea. They are generally round-
backed, and frequently wooded to the top. The whole
uninhabited part of the country is one immense forest, con-
sisting chiefly of fir and birch. No extensive valleys or
plains occur, but hill succeeds hill in almost unvarying
succession. ‘The physiognomy of the country is an elegant
outline of hill and dale: the scenery, however, wants va-
riety. Lakes are numerous over the whole island, as far
as it is known, and many of them, near the coast, are large
and beautiful. They occur even on the tops of the hills,
and are said to be often of great depth. The soil is in ge-
neral hight. Oats and barley thrive; and potatoes, turnips,
and other kitchen vegetables, grow fully as well as in Eng-
land. Summer weather, in Newfoundland, is short, but
warm, and very favourable to vegetation. ‘The winter is
uncommonly severe, the spring and autumn: very change-
able. ‘There is good pasture for cattle in ground that is
cleared.

The passage into St John’s harbour, which im shape
very much resembles a man’s foot, is by a narrow entrance,
called The Narrows, which extends nearly east and west
about half a mile. Both sides of this entrance are high,
abrupt, and recky. ‘The rocks are the same on each side,

NEWFOUNDLAND. 153

‘being continued across from the one to the other. I think
there is little doubt that the opposite sides of the Narrows
had once been joined. A rapid river runs into the harbour.
The harbour itself, previous to the formation of the Nar-
rows, may have been a lake. ‘The river appears to have
‘been once much larger. By the action of the sea withont, ’
and of the river and lake within, the rent or chasm by
which the river formerly emptied itself into the sea, may
have been gradually enlarged, till it has attained its present
size. ‘The average width may be two or three hundred
yards. Quidi Vidi (pronounced Kitty-vitty) River and
Lake may one day present an entrance and harbour similar
to those of St John’s.

The mineralogy of the country round St John’s is
very simple. The first rock, on entering the Narrows,
is trap-tuff. ‘This rock is distinctly stratified, each stra-
tum generally measuring two or three feet in thickness.
The strata lhe NE. and SW., or rather NE. by N. and
SW. by S. The dip is te the NW., at an angle of from
70° to 80°. The basis of this rock consists chiefly of dis-
tinct grains of quartz, felspar, and a red claystone. The
_ imbedded minerals or pebbles are, for the most part, of the
same substances; felspar, common and compact, the latter
with small imbedded grains of quartz; quartz, often of a
slaty or fibrous structure ; jasper, red claystone, bloodstone,
hornstone, &c. These imbedded minerals, at the foot of
the hill or cliff (particularly the quartz and felspar), are
generally from an inch to three inches in diameter, and
‘gradually decrease as we ascend; at the top of the hill,
they rarely exceed the fourth part of an inch in diameter.
Does not this fact countenance the mechanical deposition
of the trap-tuff? This rock appears much harder than the
common varieties of the trap-tuff which I have seen.

tt is this rock which forms those precipitous cliffs on

154 MINERALOGY OF ST JOHN’S,

either side of the mouth of the Narrows. The opposite
sides of the Narrows rise very rapidly from the sea to a
considerable height. ‘The highest part of the trap-tuff
formation is about 300 feet above the sea; its thickness
about 500 yards. The trap-tuff passes very gradually, and
most beautifully, into the next rock, which is amygdaloid.
In this passage of the one rock into the other, the stratified
structure is still retamed, one stripe or narrow stratum
being distinctly marked trap-tuff, the next amygdaloid ;
the stripes of the former being broadest at first, gradually
becoming narrower and less defined, till the amygdaloidal
rock entirely prevails.

The strata of the amygdaloid also run in the direction
of NE. by N. and SW. by S., and dip hkewise to the
NW. at an angle of about 65°. The basis of this rock, like
that of the trap-tuff, consists of mimute grains of quartz,
felspar, and claystone. The imbedded portions are invari-—
ably of a red, smooth, hard claystone: they seldom have
the amygdaloidal form, but are square or rhomboidal, or
in longish slates. ‘The greater part of the amygdaloidal
rock is entirely destitute of these portions, while, on the
other hand, more than one half of some of the strata is
composed of them. The amygdaloid is frequently distinct-
_ ly stratified, each stratum being a few feet thick. —
The trap-tuff and amygdaloid are both of a reddish
colour; the latter, however, sometimes occurs of a grey
colour. The greatest height of the amygdaloid formation
is 500 feet *; its thickness is about three or four hundred
yards, extending from the top of Signal Hill to the foot of
the Crow’s Nest.

Resting upon the amygdaloid is found the greenstone,

* This is the height of Signal Hill, the highest part of the formation.

NEWFOUNDLAND. 155

lower in height than the amygdaloid, but higher than the
trap-tuff. ‘This rock extends from the foot of the Crow’s
Nest (it being of greenstone) to the foot of the Signal Hul,
or to the town of St John’s, a thickness of six or seven
hundred yards. The Crow’s Nest, on which is built a
small fort, is four hundred feet above the level of the sea.
The principal constituent part of this rock is apparently
felspar.. Its most common colour is green, though some-
times grey and red ; it is stratified, and sometimes possesses
a beautiful slaty structure. The strata of the greenstone
also run NE, and SW.; their dip is to the NW., at a
much smaller angle than the preceding rock, the inclination
not exceeding 50°.

Resting upon the greenstone we find the next rock clay-
stone, the strata of which have the same direction and dip
as the others, the angle of inclination, however, not beng
above 35° or 40°. The claystone formation extends two
miles in thickness beyond the greenstone, occasionally alter-
nating with strata of compact felspar, each stratum measur-
mg from half a foot to a foot in thickness. ‘The claystone
bemg much softer than the rocks before described, ‘the
country where it prevails is also much lower. The town of
St John’s is built upon the claystone. In colour, it is most
frequently grey, often also brown, dark-brown, red, whit-
ish, and of other colours. It is often beautifully striped.
It is fine-grained, smooth, and often conchoidal in the frac-
ture. The strata of this rock are occasionally columnar,
which is also sometimes the case with the greenstone ; and
the columns are composed of round concentric balls.

The next rock, whose direction, dip, and inclination are
the same as those of the claystone, 1s compact felspar. ‘This
rock first alternates with the claystone, and then prevails
alone for above a mile. Being harder than the claystone,
the country composed of it is higher. Its colour is also

156 MINERALOGY OF ST JOHN’S.

various, light and dark grey, greenish-grey, green, blue,
&c. It is translucent, or slightly translucent, on the edges,
while the claystone is perfectly opaque. The compact fel-
spar has a splintery conchoidal fracture ; the fracture of the
claystone, on the other hand, is even, and always smooth.
The compact felspar is more or less fine in the grain, and
the splinters more or less large. 'The strata of the compact
felspar, like those of the greenstone and claystone, are also
at times columnar, the columns being composed of small
round concentric balls, and very brittle. ‘These balls are
at times partially composed of hornstone. This mineral
occurs also in the compact felspar, in thin beds, in veins,
and in masses: its colour is green, its fracture smooth, con-
choidal, it is slightly translucent on the edges, and is as
hard as quartz.

Claystone again succeeds the compact felspar, and the
latter 1s again succeeded by the former, thus alternating
for about eight or ten miles across the peninsula. The
laystone always possesses a slaty structure, and soon de-
cays. The soil over the greenstone and amygdaloid is rich
and good, while over the claystone and compact felspar it —
as light and poor. if

CMDS FO

_ X1.— Observations on the Snowy Owl, (Strix
Nyctea, Linn.)

By Laurence Epmonpston, Esq.

(Read 23d M arch 1822.)

Tue Snowy Owl was long known to be a native of the
northern countries of Europe, but it has only more recent-
ly been ascertained to be a British bird.

I fell m with this species in Zetland, first in 1811; and,
the following spring, I shot an adult male, which I shortly
after presented to the proprietor of the Piccadilly Museum,
Mr Buttock, at the same time communicating to him some
facts regarding its habits which had come under my ob-
servation. That gentleman soon after published an account
of this species in the Transactions of the Linnean Society
of London; and since that period, it has, of course, been
considered as a British bird.

Its Zetland name is Catyogle, which is indeed the gene-
ral appellation given indiscriminately to all owls in that
country, and it occurs chiefly in the Island of Unst, the
most northerly of the group; but even there it is extreme-
ly rare, and very local, attaching itself only to two or three

158 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SNOWY OWL.

districts of the island. ‘The specimen now exhibited to the,
Society, which I have lately procured from that quarter of
the country, was killed in December last. It is a female:
the ovaria were very large, and well marked. It was al-
together an uncommonly muscular and robust bird.

The external appearance of this species has been well
described by ornithological writers: for this, I shall there-
fore refer to them; and shall only observe, that the plum-
age of this particular individual is singularly rich and
beautiful. The dusky spots are more numerous than usual,
which I am disposed to attribute rather to the circumstance
of this bird not being arrived at permanent plumage, than
to peculiarity of sex. The extent between the wings was
five feet five inches; and the bird weighed five pounds,

which is much beyond what has been commonly stated to
be the weight of this species; but I suspect that, in the
large owl, as in the eagle tribe, the females are larger than
the males. Though, as has been alleged by ornithologists,
it may be more active and alert during the day than other
congenerous species, especially when it is once alarmed, yet
I have never remarked it seeking for its prey but towards
evening.

It rests generally beneath some stony projection, whieh
protects it from the direct influence of the sun; and some
instances have occurred of its being surprised asleep during
the day, and forfeiting its life to its supineness.

Its form and manner are highly elegant; its flight less
buoyant, and more rapid, than that of the other owls;
and the superior boldness and activity of its disposition,
the uncommon size of its talons, and vigour of its limbs,
secure it against danger from feathered enemies.

It affects solitary, stony, and elevated districts, which,
by the similarity to it in colour of the rocks, render it diffi-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SNOWY OWL. 159

cult to be discovered, and by the inequalities of their sur-
face afford it shelter from the rays of the sun; but on the
approach of twilight, it may be seen perching on the ex-
posed eminences. It then quits its haunts, and frequents
the cultivated fields, prowling over the low grounds in
quest of mice and small birds. When first observed to leave
its retreat, it is frequently assailed by crows and other birds ;
but it receives their attacks rather as an amusement than
an annoyance, and dashes through the air despising their
hostility. 7

It preys:chiefly on'sandpipers, on which it pounces with
precision and agility as it skims along the marshes. The
specimen given to Mr Buttocx’s Museum, had an entire
one in its stomach when I shot it; and a mouse perfectly
whole was taken from that of the present specimen.

I may here remark, that the stomach appears to be pecu-
liarly small, and less membranous than what occurs in other
carnivorous birds, and the food seems to be swallowed en-
tire;—indeed, its bill being feathered to its point, renders
this almost necessary. ~

When wounded or irritated, it hoots very vehemently,
shaking its feathers, and striking rapidly with its feet; but
otherwise, it appears to be as silent as itis recluse. And
those screams, which Pennant describes as adding horror
even to the desolate polar wastes, though a fine feature of
wild sublimity, yet seem wanting to the scenery of Zet-
land,—this robust arctic warbler perhaps reserving his me-
lodious powers for the icy solitudes of his favourite regions.

From the secluded nature of its retreats, its great rarity,
and the superstitious aversion in which it is held by the
islanders, who regard it a bird of ill omen, it is not surpris-
ing that its breeding-place in Zetland is so obscure. I have
never heard of its nest having been found either there or in
Orkney,—though, from meeting with it at all seasons, and

160 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SNOWY OWL.

from its constantly, during the summer, frequenting the
same situations, in perfect plumage and well developed sex,
it is reasonable perhaps to conclude that it breeds in Zet-
land. Indeed I remember an intelligent peasant of Unst,
whose veracity and accurate acquaintance with his native
birds I had occasion to be satisfied with, assuring me of his
once having met, in the month of August, with a pair of
this species, having along with them two others, which he
termed their young. One of these latter he shot; but un-
fortunately I was not aware of the circumstance till the
specimen was destroyed. He described it as of the same
size as the Snowy Owl; indeed, in every respect the same,
but of much darker plumage ; and this is all precisely what
we should expect, on the supposition of this species breed-
ing in Zetland. ;

A new and elegant species is thus added to the list of
British birds; and a future opportunity may enable me to
communicate some details, of which the peculiar facilities
for ornithological pursuit of the Zetland Islands have put
me in possession, illustrating the habits, and defining more
accurately other genera and species of a class of animals so

interesting to the naturalist, so generally diffused, yet stil
~ too often so obscurely known.

Edinburgh,
Oth February 1822. ¥

(A GdwOw)

XII.— Meteorological and ydrographical
Notes.

By Capt. R. Waucuorg, RN.
Ina Letter to Professor J aMESON.

(Read 15th December 1821.)

Atruoven the temperature of the waters of the ocean is:
a highly curious and important subject, it is not, I believe,
many years since it claimed the attention of navigators. I

have frequently experienced the utility of noting its changes,

and have no doubt the same has been felt by many others.
‘As you are collecting observations on this subject, and ex-
pressed a wish to know the results of some of my observa-
tions, I now send you the following Table, viz. of those
made on the surface-water 7 the sea between St Helena
and England. | 7

_ The observations were wide at ire different periods of ;
the day, viz. at 8 a. mM. noon, and 8 pr.

VOL. IV, L

~~

162 METEOROLOGICAL AND

1. Ture, shewing the Relative Temperature of the Surfuce-
water of the Ocean and the Atmosphere, between the Island
of St Helena and England.

8 P. M. [October| Set of the Current
4. | we | 1819. | on each day.

sey) mm | ef | |] | -

15° 6 0” 8) 6°30! |

Lat. Lone. yl nee |_Noon. » |

eee

13 35 0 8 5
12 43 0 9 24

1146 0 | 10 35 N. 85, W. 16.
11 21 0 | 10 52 N. by W. 6.*
110..20, 1) 12.6 N. 10.

846 O | 13 49 S. 25, W. 13. }
On shore to-day. }
Ther. 81° in the

shade at noon.

Anchor at Ascension.

645 0 15 37 | S. 51, W. 63.
5 28 0 16 41 S. 21, E. 14.
4 3 0 17 48 S201 Bs Sans
159 O 18 27 West 10’.
0 O 32 N, 18 49 S. 525° H), 9:
144 0 18 40 S. 22, E. 4.
/ 247 O 18 42 S. 52, E. 17.
3 36 0 18 21 S. 12, E. 17.
| 439 O 18 39 East 12.
5 0 0 18 37 N. 56, E. 10.
— SBT 0 18 44 East 10.
5 58 O Is 40 Ni 2, HE. 3.
1 643 O 19 2 East 6.
; 7 & O 19 13 N. 56, E. 6,
728 0 | 19 4 Fast 9.
| 8e81-O™" 20-0 S. 68, E. 19.
1024 0. | 21 49° |8 N. 86, W. 12.
127533 6 2S O21 0L N. 60, W. 8.
/13.19 0 25 53. 30. | S72, Ee 9,
14 41 O 27 22 1 | N. 69,. W. 8.
16 31 0O 28 42 1} S. 84, W. 9.
17.59 0 30, 30 2 |S. 52, W. 10,
20 2 0, '|-32 15 3 | No current.
22 19 O 33° 15 41S. 84, W. 9.
,24 0 0 34 .0 5 | No current.
25 14 O 33 44 6 | No current.
26 T 0. 32: 59 7 | No current.
127 5 0 32 6 8. | East 9.
27 52 O 33 56 9 | No current.
28. 4 0 34 4 10. | S.-72, W. 11.
28 18 O ll

S. 16, W. 7.

)
y

* Current tried in a boat.

fae HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES: 163
T ARLE continued.

{
i
: Lat. Lone. W. 8 a. M. - | 8 P.M. | Noy. | Set of the Current

| a. | w. : a. | w. | 1819, on each day.
, 30° 7 OY N33. 8 | 714) 693 11693] 12 | S. 59, W.8.
| 33 34 0 32 8 |69 |69. 654] 13 | West 20’.
, 3652 0 | 31 9 [65 | 633 623] 14 | West 1V’.
—-—— - - + |62 |63 | 614} 15 | West 4.
, 41 42 0 27 86 |60 |61 2 60 |} 16 | None. . .
| 42 46 0 24 37 |594 | 60 603} 17 | N. 45, W. Be
43 48 0 21 26 | 57 | 58 |57 | 18 | Do. do.
| 4455 0 | 18 20 | 554/562] 5 \57 | 19 | Do. do.
45 29 0 15 42 | 533/553] 5 554} 20 | No observation.
| 46 42 0 10 26 | 514) 543] -. 545] 21

48 12. 0 7 35 | 523 | 528 523} 22 5
Ma ae asa ip eR atl } 23)| Midnight. Eddi-
| eRe” re Pate 24 {| stone light in sight.

In the foregomg table, the Thermometer merely marks
_ the temperature of the atmosphere, and of the water at the
surface. |

I shall state some of the advantages which may be deriv-
ed from keeping an account of this kind.

1. It may be the means of determining the various situ-
ations of banks or shoals in the ocean ; for where the bank
approaches the surface within 140 Etioms, the temperature
| wpon it will be found to fall very considerably below that
of the surrounding water.

Upon the 18th January 1819, upon approaching the
Contment of South America, at 8 a. u., I found the tem-
perature of the water to be 74% degrees; and as the ther-
momieter stood the night before at 80°, I immediately hove
to, and sounded, and got bottom in 100 fathoms, Lat. 22°
31’ S.. , Long. 40° 31’ W. The thermometer 3 in this instance
had altered 54 degrees.

Again, on the 9th April 1819, on approaching the Cape
of Good Hope, from St Helena, at noon, the thermometer
Stood ‘at — at the surface of the water; at half - past 2

02

164 METEOROLOGICAL AND

rp. M. the same; at half-past 3 it stood at 62°. I hove
to, and got bottom in 145 fathoms; Cape Point SE.,
Lion’s Head NE. Here the difference was only 3°, and

the water was 45 fathoms deeper than in the former expe~-

riment.
On coming into soundings in the English Chantel; I
found 5° difference of temperature.

If there are banks in the ocean which approach as near
to the surface as 140 fathoms, they will be indicated by the
fall of the thermometer in the surface-water; and all na-
vigators will immediately perceive the advantage of deter-
mining their latitudes and longitudes by means of such
banks, as from them ships may frequently be enabled to
ascertain their situations with as much certainty as from

land,

|

2. Temperature of the Ocean at great depths.

The following experiment was made to determine the
temperature of the ocean at a considerable depth. The
thermometer was inclosed in the middle of six cases, all of
tin, except the outer one, which was of wood; each case
had a valve below and at top, both opening up-
wards, in this manner; the valves remaiming
open when descending, but closing when coming
up. The four inside cases were separated from
each other about a quarter of an inch all round, al le i
allowing the water to pass freely between them.

The fifth case was distant from the one immediately inside
of it about half an inch, and the space between filled up with
tallow. The outer case of all, or sixth case, was of wood,

winnie aes en

HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES. - 165

of an inch thick, and separated about an inch from the fifth
case by a column of water. The size of the machine alto-
gether was about two feet high, and ten inches in diameter.
To the bottom of the machine was fastened a weight of '/2
pounds, and to the upper part the end of a coil of two-inch
rope. I first veered 779 fathoms of two-inch rope over-
board, then 390 fathoms of two and a half, then 266 fa-
thoms of three-inch, making in all 1435 fathoms of rope.

I had attached a thirty-two-pound shot to every 200 _
fathoms. It took twenty-two minutes to veer the whole
overboard ; and the apparatus was allowed to remain, after
the whole was veered out, twelve minutes, before we com-
menced hauling it in, that the whole might have time to
sink. From the great friction, we found much difficulty in
getting it on board again; it took a hundred men just one
hour and twenty minutes to do so. The thermometer,
when it came up, stood at 42°, and the temperature of
the surface-water was 73°, making a difference of 31°.
I sheuld imagine that the thermometer here had sunk
about 1000 fathoms: the line did not go down perpendi-
cularly. I determined the perpendicular depth by taking
the angle which the line made with the ship’s bow, and
calling the line veered out the hypothenuse of a right-
angled triangle, (which would not be quite correct). I
thus found the perpendicular depth to be 1100 fathoms:
but as the line would form a curve, I think the perpendi-
cular depth would be as near as possible about 1000 fa-
thoms. A. little breeze sprung up towards the end of our
operations, and the ship rode to the sunk line precisely as
if she had been at anchor.—This experiment was made on
the coast of Africa, in Lat. 3° 26’ S., Long. 7° 59’ E.

166 METEOROLOGICAL AND

3. Effects of the Weather on the Barometer, at the Cape
of Good Hope.

The next remarks I mean to trouble you with, are some
observations upon the weather, with the effects which this
has upon the Barometer, at the Cape of Good Hope. The
barometer, from beg more observed and better under-
stood, has, of late years, added much to the safety of navi-
gation. I can state for myself, that when I have got ac-
quainted with the range of the barometer in any country,
it never has deceived me in its predictions. The utility,
then, of ascertaining the range, and the way im which the
different winds affect the barometer in different climates,
becomes a matter of very high importance to the navigator,
From remarks of this description, in a very short time a
set of observatioas might be compiled for every port of the
world, to accompany the barometer: and such remarks
would, in many cases, prove of consequence to the safety
of a ship.

The summer months, at the Cape, are counted from the
middle of September to the middle of April. The prevail-
ing winds during this time are from the south-east: this is
always a dry wind here; but a degree or two, at sea, to
the westward of this, I never saw this wind unaccompanied
with rain and damp weather. I did not observe the range
of the barometer during the months of December, January,
and February, to exceed .29 parts of an inch, ranging from
30.14 to 29.85. During summer, when the barometer rises
above 30 inches, with a SE. wind, it will always blow
strong: when above 30 inches, with a westerly wind, it
will be fine moderate weather. The rainy winds, at all
seascns, are, the NE., NW., and SW. : this last is often a
dry wind.

HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES. 167

I insert two examples of the Barometer during summer ;
the first shews the state of the barometer during a SE.
gale, and the next its state during the NE. and westerly
winds.

State of the Weather dur-|
ing the SE. Wind.
Strong breezes.
Strong gale,
; Very strong gale.
SE. SSE. Very strong gale.
SE. 4 Very heavy gale.
SSE. var. i 6 Light airs, and fine.
Do. do. | Moderate and fine weather.}

State of the Weather during |
Northerly & Westerly Winds. |

a little rain.

Moderate and cloudy. ;
{ Moderate and cloudy, with |

much and heavy rain.
- Heavy rain.

Moderate and fine weather.

Light breezes, and fine,

The range of the barometer during the winter months,
viz. from the middle of April to the middle of September,
is much greater than during summer. The greatest range
I have observed being .85 parts of an inch, from 80.30 to
to 29.45. This last is by far the greatest depression I have
observed, and this but once. I had never before seen it
lower than 29.65, and then it blew very hard from NW.
It may be laid down as a general rule in this climate, that
whenever the barometer falls as low as 29.70, during the
winter months, it will blow hard from NW. or NE. ; when
as low as 29.65, it will blow very hard; and when below

168 METEOROLOGICAL AND

this, a heavy gale. The NE. wind is an uncommon wind
at the Cape. I have seen moderate and light breezes from
the NE. for twenty-four hours, but this is rare. A NW. or
SW. gale sometimes commences with the wind NE., and it
may blow very hard, with squals, for an hour or two, from
this quarter; I think rarely longer than two hours. A ship
ought to be prepared when this occurs, as the wind will most
certainly fly round to the SW. or NW. at once. And what-
ever tack the ship might have been on before, she ought now
to get upon the starboard tack ; for after it has blown hard
from the SW., and a heavy sea has got up (this wind
raises the heaviest sea), it frequently flies round to the
NW. suddenly ; and it is those sudden shifts of wind which
make the sea off the Cape of Good Hope so dangerous.

The following example shews the state of the Barometer :
during a heavy gale in winter. The quicksilver here fell
as low as 29.45, which was lower by .20 of an inch than I
had ever observed it before.

1819. me Wind. |Barom.|Therm. State of the Weather.
May 31.| 8 Pp. u. | SSE. 0, Light airs, and fine weather.
8 a.m. |NE.byN. P Mod. not blowing very strong.
J Noon. | NE.byN. i z Moderate weather.
une 1 At 14 a. m. very heav Il
y heavy squalls
8p.m- | N. by E. aes Ni arassis
Blowing strong and squally.
It had been blowing hard from
NE. when we were taken a-
back from SW. a heavy gale.
Blowing very hard; a heavy
sea getting up

{rer that ales stielosiven has

June 2. 1 a,muM.} SW.

begun to rise, the squalls are

heavier than ever, with rain,

but do not last so long.

Still blowing strong,

And squally, but more mod.

Sun out; at times much more
+ aeneeve Heavy sea.

Moderate, with much sea.

Moderate and clear; light
| winds at times.

HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES. 169

_Remarks.—At sunset, on the Ist of June, the wind was
so moderate, and the weather looked so fine, that I was al-
most tempted to believe we should not have any very bad
weather; however, the mercury still continuing to fall, in-
duced me to close-reef the topsails, and get top-gallant
yards on deck. At 8 p. m. there was no appearance of a
gale, but the mercury still falling, I got top-gallant masts
on deck, and all the storm-sails bent, and every thing pre-
pared for a gale. About 1 a. m. the gale commenced,
blowing very hard in squalls from the NE. We were on
the starboard-tack, and quite prepared for being taken
a-back with the wind from the SW., which happened ac-
cordingly at half-past 2. The wind came after this very
steadily from the W. by S. and W., blowing exceedingly
hard, with very heavy squalls. We found it here, and I
have in general observed it to be the case, that; just at the
time when the mercury begins to rise, the squalls increase
m violence, but do not last so long. From noon of the 2d,
till 4p, m., I think the sea was heaviest, very irregular, and
breaking exceedingly : some of the seas broke so much as
to have the appearance of high breakers. It. went down,
however, very fast, and at 8 p. m. there was not much sea.
Had we been to southward and eastward of the Cape, we
should have had a much heavier sea, in consequence of the
currents being stronger there. The strength of the currents
here is very extraordinary, and it will appear the more so,
when it is mentioned that they are strongest durmg a NW.
gale, which blows exactly in the opposite direction to them.
On the 7th January 1818, I was set to the westward
against a strong NW. gale 70 miles during the first 24
hours, and 63 miles during the next. With a SE. wind, I
never observed the current very streng off the Cape.

The predominating colour of the clouds during those
westerly gales 1s a very light soot colour, in large rounded

170 METEOROLOGICAL AND

masses, over a pale brass-coloured ground; as the gale
breaks, the clouds assume a darker colour. 'The sky in-
variably assumes this pale brass-colour before the gale
comes on. An old pilot, who had been upon this coast
for thirty years, first mentioned this to me: he said, when-
ever he saw the sky have that brassy-like appearance, and
those double-headed clouds, he was sure that a westerly gale
was coming on. What he meant by his double-headed
clouds, were those rounded masses I mentioned above:
they are of different shades ; the light-coloured are highest,
and they shew out from under the darker ones, giving just
that appearance which is best expressed by double-headed.

I have been thus particular about the weather here, to
shew the very great advantage which may be derived from
the study of the barometer; for had I not been prepared
before the gale came on, I most certainly should have lost
my masts, and most likely the ship and our lives; for on
our arrival at St Helena, we found our foremast so rotten,
that it was a wonder, after all our precaution, how it stood
during the gale,

4. On Under-Currents.

I have only a very few remarks to make respecting
the under-currents. That there are under-currents in
the ocean, I ascertained in the following manner. After
having moored the boat in the usual manner, I lower-
ed a very large white flag down a few fathoms below
the surface, and was surprised to see it carried out by a
current in an opposite direction to the current which was
running on the surface. In Lat, 32° 38’ 8. Long. 13° 45’ W.
the current on the surface set E. by S. 7 miles; at 10 fa-

HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES. 171

thoms, the flag was carried out NE. by N.; at 15 fathoms,
the same. I tried this experiment again the same day, and
found: the surface-current to set E. by S. 7 miles; at 10
fathoms, E.4 N.: at 13 fathoms, NE. 4 E.; at 15 fathoms,
the same. Again, in Lat. 30° 33’ S. Long. 13° 40’ W.
current on surface E. by 8. 14 miles; at 10 fathoms, NE.
by E

=S. Besllee of the Barometer at St Helena.

At St olen during the many ahonitis which I had an
opportunity of observing the barometer there, I never have
found it range more than .45 parts of an inch: the two
extremes are 30.25 and 29.80. The usual height is from
30 to 30.10. The wind here varies very much with respect
to its strength, but seldom above a few points in its direc-
tion. It seems to be affected a good deal by the moon;
for I have always observed, and had my observations con-
firmed by all the ships on the station, that, at or near full
moon, there are light winds; and at the first and last quar-
fer it blows strongest. At all times, it blows stronger
about noon than at any other time of the day.

SET

ee

6. On the Phosphorescence of the Sea.

I shall only mention one observation, which induces
me to believe, that, in some cases at least, the shining
appearance observed frequently during the night in the
ocean, is occasioned by phosphorescent animalcula. In

September 1816, in Lat, 4° 52’ S. Long. 9° 19’ E., I ob-

172 HYDROGRAPHICAL NOTES.

served this shining appearance very strongly, which im-
duced me to draw a bucket of water, for the purpose of
examining it. I had it suspended so as to have as little
motion as possible; when this was the case, it shone very
little; but the moment it was disturbed, it shone with great
beauty. I next got a little lime-juice, and put a wine-glass
full of this acid into the bucket, when the shining particles
began to move about in all directions, sometimes going only
as far as the middle of the bucket, then turning and taking
a zig-zag direction. ‘These motions certainly had every
appearance of the depending upon the will of an animal :
they shone with much splendour, and some appeared as
large as the tip of one’s finger. Another glass of lime-juice
instantly destroyed them; for, at the imstant the second
quantity was poured in, the water appeared to be one blaze
of fire, and no motion or disturbance could make it shine
after this. 7

I then drew some more water up, which shone as before ;
part of this I kept during the night in an open vessel, and
part tightly corked up in a bottle; and the next night, on
examining these two portions, I found that the water in
the open vessel shone pretty brightly, but not so bright as
it did; and that which had been corked up did not shine
in the least, the want of air seeming to have killed the ani-
mals. They appear to me to be coated with some phos-
phorescent matter ; for one of them I happened to rub upon
my fore-finger, which left a streak of light for a few seconds,
as long as the first joint of my finger. Now, when the fire-
fly, or the glow-worm, are killed, their light is immediately
extinguished.

(cia W7Be 5)

XHI.—Accownt of the Small District of Primi-
tive Rocks, near Stromness, in the Orkney
Islands.

By Mr Grorce AnpeErson of Inverness.
In a Letter to Professor J AMESON.

(Read 17th November 1821.)

Dear Sir,

Tue point on which I have taken the liberty of address-
ing you at present is not of any great importance, but I
think you will still consider it worthy of notice. It refers
to the extent of the Primitive District in the Orkneys.

- From the notes I had taken from your Lectures, and, if
“I recollect well, from your Mineralogical Travels, I was
led to expect that this district was only one or two miles in
‘length, by half as much in breadth. While examining it,
however, along with my friend Mr Cuar.es Cuovuston,
- with whom I spent some weeks this last summer, I found
that the longitudinal direction of the primitive strata hes

174 PRIMITIVE DISTRICT

from SE. to NW., commencing with the harbour of
Stromness, and running through the high hill above that
town to a place called Yeskanaby, on the west coast of Po-
mona, two miles on this side of the house of Skail. Here
it terminates in a high mural precipice overhanging the
sea, and, to the north, is immediately succeeded by the
common greywacke-slate, and by a greyish sandstone,
which, from its hardness and crystalline texture, is the
only stone of that kind used for mill-stones in the whole
island. Perhaps its vicinity to the strata of primitive gneiss
may have given it these superior qualities.

From this point of Yeskanaby we traced the gneiss
(which is of the common grey kind, traversed by numer-
ous veins of felspar and quartz) in a continuous and un-
mterrupted line back all the way to Stromness, and thus
found its greatest length to be from six to eight miles.

Its utmost breadth lies between the Island of Graemsay,
which is partly formed of gneiss, and the Bridge of Wae,;
where the road crosses Loch Stennis; in the direction of
Kirkwall- I also thought that this breadth might be still
greater, from an expectation that gneiss formed the funda-
mental rock of Hoy, founded on a report that gneiss or
granite had been seen near Rackwick, on the south-western
side of this latter island. Of this, however, we could ob-
serve no confirmation, but noticed at the same spot a large
bed of greenstone among: the strata of red sandstone. The
lateral extent of the gneiss, therefore, does not exceed two
or three, or at the utmost four, miles; and even this, as
we approach its northern extremity, near, Skail, gradually
tapers to 100 or 200 yards. :

From having thus traced the boundaries of the riliaiate
district in the Orkneys, we may presume that. no strata of
that class will be found in the Island of Pomona, or Main-
land of Orkney, to the north of Yeskanaby or Skail; for

OF THE ORKNEYS. 175

we saw the gneiss evidently running out at this point under
the waves of the Atlantic Ocean. From the same circum-
stance, we may also remark, that here, as in other parts of
this kingdom, the primitive and highest lands are on the
west; and further, that the gneiss in Pomona appears in
the form of a nucleus, round which, or towards which, the
secondary strata uniformly tend.

I am, &c.

Inverness,
Q7th October 1821.

XIV.— Account of a New Species of Lar ini i
in Zetland.

By Laurence Epmonpston, Esq.

(Read 24th March 1821.)

Tx no department of Ornithology have obscurity and error
been more conspicuous than in what relates to the Gull
tribe. Although widely diffused—of roaming and migra-
tory habits—of striking and mteresting peculiarities of in-
stinct—and comparative familiarity of denauen many of
the species of this genus of birds have been long indistinct-
ly characterised ; and some are yet hardly known to natu-
ralists.

The young, of all the species of gull of which we have
any accurate account, differ from the parent-birds: in their
plumage, and frequently in their modes of life; and the
different species approach each other often by such nice
gradations, that, without a continued and intimate acquaint-
ance with their varied appearances in their native regions,
or the possession of that practical tact in detecting specific
differences, which such an acquaintance is best calculated
to confer, a mere examination of the external characters

ICELAND GULL. 177

and anatomical structure of any. particular. individual, or a
4transient observation of its habits, will often be found in-
adequate to determine its specific rank. For example, the
‘Lesser. was long: confounded with the Greater Black-backed
Gull, and, the young of the Parasiticus. described and.
figured as.a distinct species. .

‘The rare and very interesting species of gull which
forms the subject of this paper, seems, till lately, to have
eluded the observation, of ornithologists, and, inhabiting
and. visiting only remote regions, to have been known only
to their rude inhabitants. But although I have myself ob-
served it.on the shores of the Baltic, and on the coasts of
the German Ocean, it is to its occurrence in the Shetland
Islands that my present observations are exclusively con-
fined. In that country, possessed of so many rare facilities
for the inyestigation of its zoological objects, I first became
aware of the existence of this. species, by accidentally shoot-
ing an individual of it, in the autumn of the year 1809. ~
‘The singularity of its appearance attracted my attention ;
and though then but a novice in ornithology, and diffident
in indulging the hope of discovering a new species, in a
tribe of birds so prominently exposed to the view of natu-
ralists, yet my curiosity was awakened, and my exertions
to procure, accurate information of its history and. habits
became indefatigable. ‘That specimen was, unfortunately,
soon destroyed; but, in 1814, I procured another, which
I immediately afterwards presented to Mr Butzocx, for
his Museum in Piecadilly, and~it continued to be exhibited
there till the dispersion of that valuable collection. Its de-
scription is the followmg. Length two. feet nine inches,
breadth five feet, four inches, irides, silyer-grey, and the
feet. flesh-coloured.. The general colour of the body ash,
with a slight shade of brown; darkest on the back, where,
on some of the feathers, a faint tinge of blue might be per-

VOL. Iv. M

178 ICELAND GULL.

ceived; the head streaked a little with grey; the rump
and vent irregularly barred with pale-brown, and the pri-
mary and secondary quills dull white; the bill nearly of
the same length as that of the Greater Black-backed Gull,
but more slender, and less hooked. The tail consisted of
twelve feathers, of a bluish-grey colour, some of which
were faintly and irregularly barred with dull white. In
weight, this species is little nferior to the Larus marinus,
and. occasionally it occurs even of a greater size.

The specimen which I have now the honour of submit-
ting to the examination of the Society, differs in no umport-
ant respect from the individual above described. Its size
is rather smaller; but this was obviously owing, chiefly to
the unusual leanness of the bird when it was killed, and to
the subsequent shrinking during its preservation. Its plum-
age, generally, is darker; the brown spots and bars oceur- :
ring on the wing-coverts, and on some other parts of the
body, better defined, and the irides dark-brown ; but these
varieties are at once accounted for, on the supposition of its
being a younger bird. From this consideration, I have pre-
ferred giving here the description of the specimen sent to
London, to that of the present one; and also from its afford-
ing a more accurate representation of the general appear- _
ance and size of this bird, as met with in the Zetland
Islands. |

This species is never known to breed in Zetland. It
arrives in that country about the middle of autumn, and ~
leaves it toward the end of spring; and this migration
appears to be completely general, at least, I do not -re-
member seeing one during the whole summer season. In
this respect it totally differs from all those species of known
Gull, to which, on a superficial view, it might be supposed
to approximate.

Its favourite resorts are the entrances of the more expos-

ICELAND GULL. 179

ed bays; or the ocean, a few miles off the land, where it is
often found assiduously attending the fishing-boats, to pick
up any offals that may be thrown overboard; and it is
often taken by a line and hook baited with fish, when en-
gaged in this pursuit.

It is greedy and voracious to a proverb; and when al-
lured by carrion, which seems to be its favourite food, be-
comes comparatively indifferent to danger. It then quits
the ocean and the 2 cab ioe enters thé bays, and boldly
- ventures inland:

Generally speaking, it is rare; and I have hardly above
once seen more than three or four individuals at one time.
Occasionally a single bird may be met with, attending a
large flock of its congeners, and feeding along with them.
‘Upon these occasions its peculiarity of appearance is el
‘striking.

Its usual deportment is grave and silent, exhibiting little

-of the characteristic vivacity or inquisitiveness of many of
its tribe, and it is roused to exertion chiefly by a sense of |

danger, or the cravings of hunger:

When it flies, it extends its wings more than the other ©

species of Gull; and its flight is also more buoyant.
And when not in quest of food, :it is of a reserved disposi-
‘tion, and seldom comes within the range of a fowling-piece,
-but soars at a respectful distance, uttering, at intervals; a
hoarse scream, of a sound quite peculiar to itself.

It exhibits none of that remarkable instinct so predomi-
‘nant im many species of the genus, which prompts them
-frequently, at the hazard of their own lives, to warn other
animals of the vicinity of the sportsman; but when once
alarmed, it commonly flies off. h ;

Independently of considering this bird as a new species,
I had all along been induced to regard it as.in an umperfeet

Stage of plumage, having observed a considerable diversity

m 2

180 ICELAND GULL.

of colour amongst several individuals which I had an op.
portunity of examining,—some being darker, and. others
lighter, than the specimen I have described,—and the
colour of the iris presenting a corresponding variation, from
dark-brown to silver-grey. These changes are perfectly
analogous to what occurs in the young of the greater part
of the genus, and hence I was led to the conclusion of the
present specimen being a young bird. But as, in those
species to which this resemblance applies, the iris attains
its permanent colour some time before the perfect plumage
is assumed, I could only form a vague conjecture of its
adult appearance. Fortunately, however, in the same flock,
from which I killed the specimen above described, was a
considerable number of individuals of this species, i what
I decidedly consider maturity of plumage. In general
appearance and habits, no difference could be detected.
The back and. upper part of the wings were light-blue,
passing into white. All the rest of the body, and the ies
ary and secondary quills, dull-white.

In the month of November last year, I stad a flock
of upwards of a hundred of this species in the Bay of Balta
Sound, in Shetland. They remained there for two or three
weeks, going out to sea, in search of food, regularly ata
particular period of the tide, and returning to rest for some
time in the Bay. ‘During this time I had ample opportu-
nities of observing their appearances and habits, and of
completely confirming all the views I had previously enter-
tained concerning them. Unfortunately I could not at that
time procure an adult specimen, from the want of sufficient-
‘ly heavy shot, the peculiarly thick-set plumage resisting,
at any considerable distance, the effect of the smaller sizes,
which could then alone be procured in that distant To
of the country. :

It is in Unst, the most northerly island of the group,

ICELAND GULL. 181

that I have found it most frequently, and where it is chiefly
known. It is there that I have observed it first to arrive;
and this most generally occurred when the wind was favour-
able from the Arctic regions.

In stating the claims of this bird to specific distinction,
the circumstance will not be overlooked, of its bemg re-
garded by the Shetland fishermen as a distinct species.
Such an opinion is not to be considered as wholly unim-
portant; for, unbiassed, in this instance, by prejudice or
selfishness,—possessing the most select opportunities of ac-
curate observations on the more palpable and distinguish- ‘
ing peculiarities of those birds which their country sup-
plies,—their attention, from their modes of life, naturally
directed to those observations,—and they being acute, and
perfectly competent to arrive at just conclusions in connec-
tion with them,—their testimony may ‘be considered, at
least, a: strong presumption, in support of the pretensions
of this bird to distinction of species. Indeed, I have seldom
found their sagacity fail in accurately marking such specific
boundaries; and, in this instance, in compliance with their
conviction, they have distinguished this bird by the name
of Iceland Scorie, (or the Young Iceland Gull); Scorie
being the general Shetlandic appellation for the young of
several species of the gull family.

Of the place of its breeding I know ili It is pro-
bable, I think, that it selects for this purpose the shores of
Lapland and Norway, of the Faro Isles, and of Iceland.
The name, indeed, given to it in Shetland, would seem to
indicate that it is at least found’ in Iceland, although I
have not been able to trace the origin of the appellation.
The intercourse between that country and Shetland was
formerly more frequent; and if it was observed to be
numerous, or to breed there, it might naturally enough re-
ceive the name of Iceland Gull.

182 ICELAND GULL.

Additional Account of the Iceland Gull,
By Mr Laurence EKpMonpDston.

(Read 23d March 1822.)

CEERI

in February, last year, a paper was read to the Society,
describing an interesting species of Gull, which I had first
met with in the Zetland Islands in 1809, and which is
known there by the name of Iceland Gull.. A specimen
was at the same time exhibited ; and, though a young bird,
and not arrived at mature plumage, it sufficiently displayed
the more prominent external distinctions of its species.

I have since, however, been fortunate enough to procure
an adult bird, which will more clearly confirm the opinion
of its being a distinct species, and establish the ACOUBARE of
what I formerly suggested regarding it.

This specimen, which is now exhibited, and is submitted
to the examination of the Society, weighed 5 pounds; its
breadth, between the wings, was 5 feet 2 inches; the length,
from the point of the bill to the tip of the tail, 2 feet 5 inches:
The back and upper part of the wings pale-blue, head. and
neck streaked with grey. The upper part of the two middle
tail-feathers ashy, but this appearance is quite accidental
and unimportant; the rest of the plumage and the primary
quills white; inides pale-yellow; the claws are dusky; the
feet and legs much like those of the Herring Gull, but

ICELAND GULL. : 183

considerably larger; the wings, however, proportionally
shorter; the general shape of the body fuller, and less
tapering ; the neck is unusually thick and strong ; its flight
is more equal and measured, and has less of that kite-like
soaring which others of its tribe affect. ‘The bill is long
and powerful, not so much hooked as that of the Larus —
marinus ; and when the bird is alive, it is of a pale-yellow
colour, with a patch of a deeper shade near the point of the
lower mandible ; its length is four ches.

This specimen was a very distinct male, and was shot in
Balta Sound, Zetland, in November last (1821), out of a
flock of two or three hundred of this species.

In some specimens that I have examined, in Zetland,
hardly any grey was to be seen on the head or neck, and
such I consider as in the more perfect and permanent
plumage. :

When TI first described this species in 1814, I was not
aware that any thing similar to it had been noticed by orni-
thological writers, the remote situation of Zetland bemg so
little favourable for my consulting books on natural history.
I have since, however, found species described, which, in
some points, seem to agree with the Iceland Gull; but
these descriptions are so brief and obscure, at least so far
as my ornithological research has been carried, that little
accurate or full information from them can be obtained.

It would be superfluous to repeat here what was detailed
in the paper already referred to, regarding the habits of this
bird. I might simply state, that the observations then
made, have been since amply and satisfactorily confirmed.

I have especially remarked, in this species, the ab-
sence of that instinct so conspicuous and interesting im
its congenerous birds most allied to it in size and gene-
ral appearance, which renders them so hostile to the
sportsman, by warning cther animals of his approach. It

184 ICELAND GULL.

displays little of the activity or clamorous curiosity of many.
of its tribe; nor is it equally acute in detecting danger,
though more uniformly reserved, and. sufficiently. cautious
when its fears have been once excited. |

The plumage’ is swan-like,: very full; the down enisthe
body considerable,—altogether rendering it, almost impene-
trable to any shot, but that-of a large description. |. Of my
previous knowledge of this circumstance, and of its charac-
teristic partiality for carrion, I have successfully availed
myself, to procure specimens, which otherwise would have
been inaccessible to the fowling-piece. ;

It is generally observed to keep separate from other birds;
and this fact is of itself a strong’ presumption of its distinc-
tion of species.

Its muscular vigour’ is peculiarly great, ‘proportionally.
superior to that of the other gulls; and the power and
execution of the bill are so formidable, as'to compel one to
be very circumspect in approaching it when wounded.

As in other species of this family of birds, idaadaalk
differ from each other in pot of size; and, as far as I
have observed, the male is larger than the female,—a re-
mark which may perhaps be extended to other species of
its tribe. From this difference chiefly, I was at one period
disposed to believe that there occurred two species of Ice-
land Gull, having a relation to each other, analogous to that
which exists between the Greater and Lesser Black-backed
Gulls, and the Larus fuscus and canus ; but subsequent
observation is not so favourable to this opinion.

It is more perfectly an oceanic bird than perhaps any of
the larger species of the genus; and from its habits might
be regarded as forming, in some measure, a link ‘between
- the more prominently defined Gulls and Petrels.

I have always observed this species to be uncommonly
fat when it first arrives in Zetland, in autumn. Indeed, I

ICELAND GULL. 185

hardly remember ever seemg any bird equal to it in this
respect,—a circumstance which, together with that of the
‘singular compactness of its plumage, and voracious avidity
for carrion, first nduced me to suspect this marine vulture
to be a native of the higher latitudes. ‘This conjecture was
confirmed by accidentally falling in, at London, with a, spe-
cimen of this gull, brought home by the Arctic expedition
under Captain Ross, which agreed with the description I
had given some years before, of the adult Iceland Gull;
with this trifling difference, that there were scarcely any
grey streaks to be observed on the head or neck,—a differ-
ence which might, mdeed, refer to age, or climate, or sea-
son, but certainly could not affect the identity of species.
If the opinions, then, which I have suggested regarding
this gull be adopted, they will present to ornithologists, of
a numerous and very interesting genus, a well-defined spe-
cies, before obscurely known, assuredly undescribed, as a
British bird, and may authorise the trivial name of Larus
Islandicus, by which: I have ‘proposed: to distinguish it, as
expressive, both of its Arctic haunts, and of the vulgar
appellation by which it is known in the Zetland. Islands.

eit ( 186° )

XV.—WNotice relative to two varieties of Nuphar
lutea, found wn a Lake in Aberdeensiure.

By Mr W. Maccituivray.

(Read 9th February 1822.)

Ovxz of the plants which form the subject of this com-
munication, was, in as far as I know, first observed by
Mr Guirnnte, teacher of drawing in Aberdeen, in July
1819. Not having seen the Nuphar lutea before, Mr
GLENNIE took his specimens for that plant in its common
form. There existed, however, a considerable difference in
point of magnitude, which induced me to suspect, on first
seeing his specimens, that they were not the same. TI ac-
cordingly proceeded to the lake, where, besides the variety
found by him, I had the pleasure of finding another, much
more remarkable.

The Corby Loch, situate about three miles to the north
of Don Bridge, near Aberdeen, is a circular lake, about
half a mile in diameter, with brown water, such as we com-
monly find on the muirland districts. It is in general shal-
low near the edge, and rather destitute of vegetation, hav-

NUPHAR LUTEA. 187

ing merely the common species of Potamogeton, with Lito-
rella lacustris, and Myriophyllum spicatum; but at the
north and west parts, where it is deeper, there is abundance
of Scirpus lacustris, Arundo phragmites, and other large
aquatics, in the open places, between the tufts of which
grows the beautiful Nymphaea alba, so rare on the east
side of Scotland, and so very common in the Hebrides and.
West Highlands. On the north side of the lake are some
patches of the plant found by Mr Girenniz, while on the
west side is abundance of another and more remarkable
variety.

The two plants agree in possessing the following charac-
ters, which were noted from a considerable number of fresh
specimens.

Catyx. Perianthium pentaphyllum, magnum, coloratum,
foliolis obovato-rotundatis, concavis, patentibus,

CorotLa. Polypetala, minor; petalis patentissimis, cu-
neato-linearibus, erosis, dorso nectariferis.

Stamina. Filamenta lmearia, recurvata, quadruplici se-

rie digesta, receptaculo inserta. Antherze adnate.

Pistittum. Germen ovatum. Stylus brevis crassus,
Stigma peltatum, elliptico-rotundatum, radiatum.

Pericarrium, Capsula corticosa, ovata, multilocularis,
polysperma, (vix pulposa, hinc minime bacca yera).

SuminaceNitidayirssdiacaos

_ A person Gait upon the two plants, at a distance from
each other, would be ready to describe them as distinct
species. He might thus imagine that three species existed
im. Scotland, whose essential characters might be as follow:
_ NN. major, stigmate integerrimo elliptico.

N. media, stigmate repando sub-elliptico.

ody, minor, stigmate dentato subrotundo. |

188 TWO VARIETIES OF

In the true Nuphar lutea, or common form of the plant,
the flowers are upwards of two inches in diameter ; the lobes
of the leaves are approximated, and even cross each other ;
the leaves are smooth, and their outline is regular, without
sinuosity. fac vty

In the larger Nuphar of the Corby: Loch, the flowers
are generally about an inch and a half in diameter; the
lobes of the leaves are also approximated ;. the back of the
leaf is very slightly pubescent, especially on the lobes; the
outline as in the last.

In the smaller Nuphar of the same lake, the flowers are
not more than one inch across; the lobes of the leaves are
widely separated ; the outline is irregularly waved, or sub-
angular, the lobes being distinctly angular; and on the
back of the leaf there is a good deal of fine whitish pubes-
cence, especially about the middle nerve, and on the lobes.

In the first, as has been said, the stigma 1s elliptical and
entire; in the second, elliptical, but waved; in the third,
rounded, and very distinctly dentate.

The difference between the common form of Nuphar
lutea, and that of the larger variety of the Corby Loch, is
not great, being observed chiefly in the size; and between
the latter and the small variety, specimens occur of inter-
mediate character. Hence, however different the common
N. lutea, such as it is seen in the south of Scotland, and in
the Island of North Uist, where it occurs in great perfec-
tion in the lakes near Loch Maddy, may appear from the
diminutive Nuphar of the Corby Loch, it is probable that
they form the two extremities of the same specific form.

The N. minima of Smit I have not seen; but it is to
be observed, that both it and the synonymous N. kalmiana
of Hooker, have precisely the character of the small variety
of N. lutea mentioned above,—excepting in the case of the
margin, which Smit describes as green. The species of

NUPHAR LUTEA. | 189

Nuphar, therefore, require to be more accurately deter-
mined. As to the petioles, they can furnish no character,
being two-edged in all; and the approximation of the lobes
of the leaves is scarcely of importance ; the same, of course,
must be said of the vinous odour.

_ It may further be remarked, that the’specific name lutea
is not the most eligible, when there are two species to which
it might be applied with equal propriety; and the seed-
vessel is by no means a berry, being simply a thick cap-
sule, with pulpy dissepiments, but having no gelatinous or
pulpy mass in which the seeds are imbedded. The necta-
ries on the back of the petals have not been noticed, in as
far as I know; and the stigma can scarcely be called ses-
sile, when between it and the germen there intervenes a
neck of considerable size. :

Many of our plants exhibit variations similar to the
above, even in their native situations. The Polygonum
viviparum, for instance; and the Thymus serpyllum loses
its aromatic smell on the summits of the Hebridian moun-
tains. Nymphaa alba experiences occasionally a similar
‘diminution in size; and I have seen the leaf not more than
three inches in diameter, but i in this case all the parts retain
‘their original form. It will not be ee if at least
“some of the localities of our Scottish NV. minima be found
‘to present a diminutive variety of NV. lutea. "The observa-
tions, however, which are to determine this point, can only

‘be made by those who have it in their power to compare
the eas by studying t them i in their native situation.

190 GEROGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

XVI—Geognostical Sketch of Part of the Great
Glen of Scotland. .

By Mr Grorcre Anperson of Inverness.

(Read 12th January 1821.)

Aw this communication I propose to give a mineralogical
sketch of part of the Great Glen of Scotland.

This extensive valley cuts across the Island in the direc-
tion of NE. and SW. from Inverness to Fort William, and
thereby forms the boundary between the middle and north-
ern divisions of Scotland. Its bosom is adorned and en-
riched by the Lochs Ness, Oich, and Lochy; and the al-
luvial depositions that cover its surface constitute the bed
of the Caledonian Canal. Its utmost length, from sea to
sea, may be about 62 miles; and although Inverness marks
its termination on the eastern coast, still the ranges of
mountains that bound its sides do not stop exactly at that
point, but run on for several miles, on both sides of the
Murray Frith.

As the geological description of these mountams forms
a principal object in the present communication, we shall

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 191

-trace them to their termination on the east, and then west-
ward, to the central chains, at Fort Augustus.

Fortunately the view, from any of the heights above the
town of Inverness, exactly embraces the whole circuit of
_these mountains, from their extremity on the NE. to that
on the SW.; and it is, accordingly, to the objects included
within this panoramic view, that I now intend to restrict
my description. From these hills we observe, on the NE.
side of the Frith, the entrance to the Bay of Cromarty ;
and passing the eye along towards the west, we find the
coast skirted by a line of fine sweeping hills, whose course
is interrupted at Kessock Ferry by part of the Beauly
Frith. The same chain of hills is observed rising gently
from the sea on the Inverness side of the Ferry, and, after
forming the well-known Craig Phadric, we see them ter-
minate, after a course of six miles, in the neighbourhocd
of Dochfour. At this point, which is at the lowest ex-
tremity of Loch Ness, we observe a change inthe height,.
bearing, and outline of the mountains ; and, with this change,
which I shall afterwards shew to be both of physiognomy
and. composition, we can trace the continuation of the chain
along the edge of the Loch, all the way to Fort Augustus.
Here our view is. bounded by the line of the horizon.
Stopping, therefore, at this point, and then directing our
eye to the south side of the valley, we discern a third
range. of mountains, running, opposite to the one we have
just mentioned, by Boleskine and the Fall of Foyers, to
Dores, a village situate at the lower extremity of this side
of the Loch, and nearly opposite to the above mentioned
point of Dochfour. Above this village another change
takes place, both in the difection and character of the
range; for, instead of pursuing their former course, in a
line with the edge of the lake, the mountains deflect con-
siderably towards the east, and, subsiding into: a smooth

192 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

-and:low ridge, which I shall afterwards shew: to be -coni-
posed of transition-rocks, they fall into the low grounds
‘between Fort George and Nairn.

Such are the ranges of hills, seen from. Inverness, and
which are connected with that. portion. of. the Great Glen
we are about to describe. eo

By extending the sphere of. vision,. we bs: have in-
cluded the ranges of Ben Nevis and. Strath Connon in
Ross-shire, and those of Strath Glass and. Strath Nairn in
Inverness-shire, but these. have no connection. with the
mountains of the Great Glen. 1

According, then, to the above statement, we shall flaws
to describe, in the circuit seen from. Inverness, four distinct
ranges of mountains. The first of these extends from the
entrance to the Frith of Cromarty to. Dochfour. The
second, from Dochfour, or rather from .a point. (called
Phopachy, to be afterwards noticed) behind it, to Fort
Augustus; the third, from Fort Augustus to Dores; and
the fourth, from. Dores, by the Muir of Culloden, to Fort
George.

After describing each of these in the iii order, we
shall conclude with a brief examination of the alluvial mat-
ters contained 1 in the intervening valley.

First Raner.—F rom Cromarty to Dochfour.

It may be observed at once of this range, that it is part
of the great deposit of Red Sandstone, which has been so
frequently described as skirting the whole of the east coast
of Scotland, north of the Spey. Whether this. red sand-
stone is to be considered of the same nature with that de
scribed. as occupying so large a portion of the west coast,
Tam not able to determine, having never seen any of the

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND: 193

rocks of that quarter. I may, however, observe, that, as
far as my observation extends, no clay-slate or greywacke,
similar to those which occur in the red sandstone of Sky
and Applecross, are found on this coast. Nor does the red.
sandstone of the range at present under our view, rest upon
or alternate with gneiss, or any other of the primitive rocks,
as it is said to do on the west coast, unless it be near Doch-
four, where it approaches mountains of gneiss and granite.
Its relations in this direction, however, I have not yet been
able satisfactorily to explore. 1 may also remark, before
commencing the particular description of this sandstone,
that it is in one spot (near Fortrose) covered by a small
portion of secondary strata, which, although I have not yet
examined, I conceive to be a mere prolongation of the
secondary deposits of Morayshire. The other points of
resemblance between this red sandstone and that of the
west coast, may be gathered from the following descrip-
tion.

The mela ranges ot rather ridge, which skirts along
the Ross-shire coast, rises to the height of from 300 to 500
feet, and presents an outline in general waving, frequently
tabular, and, in one or two instances, broken into short
and sharp peaks. The bearing is uniformly towards the
east or north-east, and the dip is towards the west, vary-
ing, however, i in regard to the magnitude of its angle. A
similar uniformity of dip and bearing pervades the whole
of the mountainous chains in this district; and it will per-
haps save us the constant repetition of the same north-
easterly tendency, if we here, once for all, refer to the na-
tural position of the Valley of the Ness.

Of the ridge here alluded to, the acclivities next the sea
| are fooctiently precipitous; but, as might be expected, from
the direction of the dip, the slope cowards the interior of

the country is much more gentle. Red Sandstone, which
you. Iv. N

194 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

forms the whole of this ridge, constitutes also the whole of
the peninsula called the Black Isle, lying between the F'riths
of Cromarty and Beauly, as also the land for a few miles
round all the shores of this latter Frith. On the Inverness-
shire side of Kessock Ferry, the remainder of the chain,
to Dochfour, consisting of three or four hills, is formed of
the same sandstone, and its associated conglomerate. ‘The
most conspicuous hill in this part is the beautiful and well-
known Craig Phadric, on whose summit is situate the well-
known vitrified fort. It gradually rises from the village of
Clachnaharry, situate at the entrance of the Canal, to the
height of 500 feet, and terminates in a tabular, or rather
elliptical, summit, whose length is 220 feet, and breadth
100 feet. Towards Kessock, it subsides into two lower and
mural tops; but its acclivities, towards Inverness and the
Beauly Frith, are sloping, and highly cultivated. The
highest top is surrounded by a wall of vitrified earth and
stones. Where the masses are but partially vitrified *, we
can discern them to be composed of the sandstone and con-
glomerate, which form the great body of the hill, as well
as of boulders of granite, gneiss, felspar, and quartz rock.

To the west of Craig Phadric, the country, for many
miles along the Beauly Frith, is composed of the same red
sandstone. At the extremity of the Frith, however, its
progress is stopped, by the approach of the granite and
gneiss mountains of Ross-shire; and, in the Aird, the dis-
trict lying along the south side of this sea, its umformity
is interrupted by the appearance of granite-hills at a place
called Phopachy. ‘These we shall afterwards shew to be
the termination of the Second Range, namely, that running
from Dochfour to Fort Augustus. ‘This last range conse-

“ The vitrified surface does not exceed six or eight inches in diameter.

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 195

quently cuts across the line of the sandstone chain, and
falls into the sea two miles behind Craig Phadric.
~ Tt is in a quarry in this direction, opened, near the vil-
lage of Clachnaharry, for the use of the Caledonian Canal,
that the rare and beautiful mineral foliated celestine occurs.
It is found in the sandstone, in minute detached crystals,
and in veins, and sometimes associated with calcareous spar.
Having thus noticed the general extent of country occtt-
pied by the red sandstone; it’ is now necessary to enter a
little more particularly mto its composition.
This red sandstone consists of minute particles of quartz,

and a few scales of mica, either simply attached to each

other, or connected by a basis of red, seemingly decom-

“posed, felspar. Its coarser varieties fortti a conglomerate,
‘which consists of pieces, both round and angular, of gra-

nite, gneiss, mica-slate, felspar, and common quartz, the

whole being cemented by a hard basis of quartz. In many

places the rocks are so exposed, that the transition from
the coarse conglomerate into the fine sandstone can be easi-

ly traced; and when this is the case, the transition either

takes place by a gradual diminution of the particles of the

conglomerate, thereby passing into the sandstone; or by an
-alternation of successive layers of coarse and fine stone:

Even sections of the same stratum or layer will deve-

lope these transitions: Sometimes one part of the mass
-will be of fine sandstone, and the rest of conglomerate, or
‘unconnected. portions of the conglomerate. will be found
‘completely inclosed in the sandstone: Frequently an im-

mediate passage can be discerned from the coarsest conglo-

“merate to the finest sandstone, and then the larger frag-
‘ments appear sticking in the sandstone, as if they had been
‘wedged intoit. In regard to the position of these two

substances, I have observed, that, although the sandstone
and conglomerate frequently alternate with each other, the
N2

196 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

higher strata, or the tops of the hills, are almost universally
formed of the conglomerate. This may, however, be owing
to some external forces, which have swept away the shifter
and finer strata of the sandstone.

The strata of red sandstone are generally wewtdctea but
they are also very often highly inclined, and even perfectly
vertical. They seldom continue for any great distance
straight, but are often waved, the seams between the strata
being incrusted with scales of mica. ‘They differ widely in
their hardness, thickness, and tendency to decompose.

Such are the results of my examination of this formation.
Its junction with the other strata has hitherto eluded my
research.

We shall now pass to the ean of the Second
Range, viz. that lying between Dochfour and ja ee
gustus. |

SeEconp RANGE.

This chain, from its commencing at Phopachy, is not
exactly conformable with the direction of the one just de-
scribed. It crosses the red sandstone at a small angle,
and, if its bearing were produced from Phopachy through
Dochfour, it would terminate nearly at Dores, on the op-
posite side of Loch Ness. The mountains, accordingly,
are not parallel with the margin of the lake, and appear
rather to be jomed together by their lateral planes than by
their extremities. The mountains which compose this chain
are distinguished from those of the red sandstone already
noticed, by their greater elevation, some of their summits
being 3000 feet high, by a bolder and more rugged out-
line, by steeper acclivities, and by a more uniform vertical
position of the strata. The general form of the.outline is

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 197

waving, inclining to conical; but the undulations dare
shorter, and more numerous, than those of the sandstone.

_ The most conspicuous mountain in this chain, which is
upwards of 20 miles in length, is Meaulfourvoney, distin-
guished by a single round, huge cap of granite; and the
lateral valleys it contains are only two in number, namely,
Urquhart and Invermorrison.

In tracing the strata of this range, from the shores of the
Beauly Frith, we first met with several low hills, intersect-
ed by deep gullies, rising from the sea at Phopachy, nearly
four miles to the west of Inverness, and trending in a trans-
verse direction across the country towards the higher and
more central mountains, along Loch Ness. These hills,
which gradually increase in height as they retire from the
sea, are all formed of a beautiful red variety of granite, in
which the felspar and quartz greatly predominate over the
mica, or of what Professor Jamrson denominates granitic
gneiss. ‘The structure is large, granular, inclining to slaty,
and the strata are vertical.

As far as I observed, this granite contained no interpos-
ing veins, nor did it seem to possess any additional simple
minerals besides those that enter into its own composition.
Interposed between these granite hills and the sandstone
strata formerly described, is a small tract of grey gneiss.
Its existence can be but seldom traced on the side next
| Phopachy, owing to the quantity of peat and gravel for-
_merly alluded to; but as we advance into the interior, it is
_ more and more exposed; and, on arriving at the acclivity
_ towards Loch Ness, its strata are completely developed in

the course of Dochfour, or rather Dochgarroch Burn.
-. The water of this burn has cut through the rock, in
‘some places to the depth of 100 feet, thereby forming a
wild and narrow gully, in which the nature of the strata
~ can be easily and perfectly determined. Thev seem entire-

198 GKOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

ly to consist of one substance, namely, grey gneiss. This
rock is of a very soft nature, and hence is easily penetrated
by frost and running water. It is disposed into thin strata,
which do not rise much above the horizontal position, and
are inclined, in this place, towards the south or south-east.

It would be useless to record any of the varieties of this
gneiss, as they are but few in- number, and depend only on
the proportions and colour of the different ingredients,
The most interesting circumstance attending these strata 1s
the occurrence of granite veins. ‘These are extremely nu-
merous, and thei courses are completely displayed on the
sides of the gully. They seldom coincide with the strata
of gneiss, but generally cut across their direction, at an
angle variously inclined, rarely perpendicular. ‘The gra-
nite veins vary in thickness from half an inch to two feet.
These veins consist of a red or white, large, granular gra-
nite, similar in general to the granite just described, as oc,
curring in the mass of Phopachy hills, but differmg as to
the intensity of the colour and lustre, as well as in hardness.
This latter property 1s often so great, that I have observed
the granite veins hanging over a precipice, after the softer
gneiss has been swept away. Their colour also points out
their direction among the grey strata of gneiss.

These veins afford a fine study to the geologist, exhibit-
ing great variety of intersection, shifting, and branching ;
and although the gneiss near to them is sometimes contort-
ed, it also exhibits the same structure where no veins are
visible. . i

To these observations I have only to add, that the gneiss
does not extend along the margin of Loch Ness above twa
miles. It then gives place to a small-grained granite, or
granitic gneiss, which forms nearly the whole of the re-
mainder of this chain up to Fort Augustus, and, conse-
quently, the last substance we have to describe in this part
of our circuit.

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 199

_ The grains of this granite, which are red, depending on
the felspar, vary in size from small to very fine, even to
microscopic ; and when, the rock occurs in this latter state,
it might easily be confounded with sandstone. One hill,
in fact, not far from Dochfour,. which presents a red, crum-
bling declivity, might apparently be described as composed
of red sandstone. An examination, however, of the rock
in its original position would soon disproye this fallacy.
After passmg Maulfourvoney, this granite, which occupies
the whole of this chain, at least on the side next Loch Ness,
gives place to gneiss, which continues as the prevailing rock
to Fort Augustus, and from thence all the way to the op-
posite shore of Lochaber. _

The strata of the granite seem not to be very regular as
to inclination and bearing, but their alternations with gneiss
are frequent and distinct. Whether this rock is itself to
be considered as a mere variety of gneiss, I have not yet
sufficiently determmed. As far, however, as my partial
observation has gone, I have observed little of the slaty
structure characteristic of gneiss; but, on the contrary,
have almost always found the masses of these strata to be
quite compact, and destitute of every appearance of regu-
larity or alternation of the ingredients *,

‘Their hardness and compactness, in fact, seem to make
them well adapted for building ; ; and they have, I believe,
been. accordingly used in the construction of the locks of
the Canal at Fort Augustus.

This mountain range, which may He considered as com-
posed of granite and gneiss, also contains beds of granular
foliated limestone, which are situated in the gneiss. ‘The
best known beds are those in Glen Urquhart. ‘These beds

* Professor Jamgson, I believe, considers the rock of this district as

gneiss.

200 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

contain foliated and radiated actynolite, fibrous tremolite,
and disseminated iron-pyrites. 'The tremolite and actyno-
lite occur also associated with a beautiful white variety of’
felspar, in the neighbouring strata of granite. None of the
gems, except rock-crystal and garnet, have been as yet dis-
covered in these mountains: but it is probable that zircon,
and perhaps tinstone, might be found, by a careful and
minute examination.

Having thus noticed the general characters of the range
lying between Dochfour and Fort Augustus, we shall not
trace the strata farther towards the west ; but, in pursuance
of the plan laid down at the commencement of this sketch,
continue our description, by giving an account of the chain
running along the south side of Loch Ness. ‘This chain
commences at Fort Augustus, and terminates near the vil-
Jage of Dores; it forms therefore the third chain we pro-
posed to describe,

Tuirp Rance.

For the first eight miles, after leaving Fort Augustus,
the mountains in this direction are principally composed of
granite and syenite.

These rocks possess no great peculiarities of structure or
position. They are not independent formations, but seem
rather to be connected with the great ranges of primitive
mountains that stretch across the island in a north-easterly
direction from Lochaber and the borders of Argyleshire.
I need not therefore notice them any farther, as any obser-
vations of mine (and they are as yet but few and imperfect)
could only corroborate more accurate and better known
descriptions. ‘These mountains of granite and syenite are
succeeded, near the celebrated Fall of Foyers, by a chain
composed. of quartz-rock, This beautiful rock has always

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 901

been observed by the visitors of this romantic district, but
its relations to the neighbouring strata (owing to the natural
difficulty and extent of time requisite for the investigation
of the subject) have not yet been properly ascertained. It
would, in fact, require a person resident in the country,
and well acquainted with its geography, to undertake such
a labour with any hopes of success.

- ‘The outline of this chain is of a smooth conoidal shape,
with regular and nearly equally undulating hills, which rise
to a great height, and are extremely bare, from the thin-
ness of the soil, and the hardness of the strata.

- The quartz-rock possesses in general a brecciated or
conglomerated character, and consists of portions of granite,
gneiss, mica-slate, quartz, and felspar, united either by a
white or a brownish basis of hard quartz; they also simply
adhere or penetrate each other. In some instances, chlorite
occurs instead of mica-slate ; and it is not at all improbable
that a minute examination would detect large beds of that
substance.

Small specimens are seldom found to illustrate the dis-
tinguishing characters of this quartz-rock; but in large
masses, the imbedded portions, both round and angular,
are easily observed, and are seen to vary from the size of a
pea to several feet in circumference. This conglomerated
rock differs from the corresponding member of the red
sandstone formation, by a fresher and more crystaliime ap-
pearance, by a want of the general dark-red colour, by’
forming mountains of a higher and more broken outline,
and by not containing any portions of true sandstone. I
have only farther to remark, that this chain is also con-
nected with the central ridges tending towards Badenoch ;
but that, in the direction of Loch Ness, it stops near the
above mentioned village of Dores,. which lies at the south.
ern extremity of the lake.

202 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

Fourtru Rance.

Resting upon, and immediately succeeding the moun-
tains of quartz-rock I have just been noticing, there occurs
a ridge of a lower and smoother outline, which commences
above Dores, and, after passing, in a continued line, by the
Muir of Culloden, gradually falls into the low lands situate
between Fort George and Nairn. The bearing of this
ridge tends more to the east than that of the chain: imme-
diately preceding it, and hence it does not lie in the pro-
longed line of the edge of the Loch. Consequently, be-
tween this ridge and the centre of the valley, which we
may consider as the river Ness, there intervenes a space of
from one to two miles. This space is covered. by a series
of alluvial matters, which, together with a similar deposit
fronting the sea between Fort George and Inverness, shall
be afterwards particularly noticed. At Dores, one er two
hills occur, formed of red sandstone, and described several
years ago: they are quite partial, and are to be consider-
' ed as parts of the sandstone formation formerly described,
as extending to the neighbourhood of Dochfour, on the op-
posite side of the valley.

This ridge, which forms the Stl and last chain i in the
circular view from Inverness, is known under the name of
the Leys, and may be distinctly seen in its whole. length
from the rising ground immediately above Inverness. As
seen from this position, the Leys seem to proceed from the
borders of Loch Ness, or Strath Errick, and run in an
uniform direction all the way to Nairn, where they are lost
among the alluvial and sandstone formations of that county.
The most singular character of this ridge, and the one which
distinguishes it from every other chain in the country, is its

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 203

unbroken outline throughout its whole extent, of about
twenty: miles.

Theheight of this ridge is from 300 to 500 feet, and
the acclivities on both sides are gentle, and covered with a
deep bed of alluvium. The cover of alluvial matter is so
considerable, as in general to conceal the strata, thus leav-
ing usias the only means of becoming acquainted with them,
the inspection of quarries. Judging from these quarries,
the whole range appears to be distinctly ‘disposed in: strata,
generally slightly inclined to the horizon; and composed of
slate-clay inclining to clay-slate, red sandstone, and occa-
sionally conglomerate, sometimes bearing a considerable
resemblance to greywacke; and, like some of the varieties
of sandstone, bearing marks of being in part the results of
a process of crystallisation.

In these strata, a few simple:minerals are met with, such
as arragonite, heavy spar, calcareous spar, and iron-
pyrites.

ALLUVIA.

The mountainous ranges: encircling Inverness, I have
shewn to consist of gneiss, granite, syenite, quartz-rock,
slate-clay, red sandstone, and conglomerate; and it now
seems necessary, for their final elucidation, to describe the
characters:of the alluvial matters: in the Great Valley. sur-
rounded by these mountains.

The principal part of this space is covered by-the waters
of the: Moray Frith and Loch Ness; and: the remainder
forms the bed of the Caledonian Canal.

_ At Fort Augustus, the highest point of this extensive
Valley, an alluvial collection, composed of the debris of the
neighbourmg mountains, spreads itself between the Lakes

204 GEOG NOSTICAL SKETCH OF THE

Ness and Oich; and a similar bed of gravel, except where
interrupted by Loch Lochy, can be traced to the opposite
shore at Corpach, near Fort William. ‘These alluvial de-
posits have always supplied abundance of materials, and a
compact bed for the line of the Canal, while the absence of
large masses of fixed rock contributed to render the work
more expeditious. Another alluvial flat, free from large
rocks, though otherwise rather loose in texture, occurs at
the lower extremity of Loch Ness, between it and the sea,
thus completing the track of this great Canal. All these
alluvial beds are similarly constituted; and hence, by de-
scribing those in the immediate vicinity of Loch Ness, we
may form a very good idea of the whole.

Between the Murray Frith and Loch Ness, these depo-
sits arrange themselves into three flats or banks. The first
and lowest, is the one through which the river Ness and
the Canal run, and on which the greater part of the town
of Inverness is built. Removed a little way back, but ris-
ing above this to the height of 50 or 60 feet, and occupy-
ing the space between the south bank of the river and the
ridge of the Leys formerly described, appears the second
flat, or table-ground. And, lastly, on the opposite side of
the Ness, proceed, from the confines of Dochfour, a series
of low, waving, and steep hillocks (not surpassing 200 feet
m height), which terminate, after a run of six miles, with
the celebrated Phorvaine, and Pomnahurich, or the Fairies’
Hill. This last set of hills are inclined to the sandstone
range bounding this northern side of the Valley, at an
angle of from 30° to 40°.

Agreeable to this account, a person proceeding from the
river towards the south, would first pass over the lower flat,
which appears in the form of a beautiful strath, of from
one to two miles in breadth; and then, after ascending a
steep bank (of 40 or 60 feet in height), he would come

GREAT GLEN OF SCOTLAND. 905

upon a fine smooth plain, bounded on the south by the
Leys, and containing on its surface many of the richest
and most beautiful farms in the country. This second flat,
which is the most interesting of the three, commences near
Loch Ness, and runs all the way to Fort George, a distance
of from 14 to 18 miles.. It comes close in on the back of
Inverness, forming the Castle-hill and the site of the an-
cient castle of Macsetu; and then turning to the east, it
proceeds along the coast, towering above the sea, or retir-
ing into sweeping and verdant banks. Its breadth between
the Leys and the sea varies from one to four miles; but the
most interesting circumstance attending it is, that a si-
milar gravel bank, of the very same height and character,
can be traced, with very few interruptions, along the whole
of the Beauly Frith, and on the opposite shores of Ross-
shire. :

I shall now mention the substances of which these alluvial
beds are formed. These consist of fragments of rocks be-
longing to the primitive and secondary classes, and they

exhibit not only all the varieties found in the mountains of
the neighbourhood, but also many that appear to have
come from very distant parts of the country. Such are
the white stone of Ben Nevis and Strath Conon in Ross-
shire, and the quartz-rock of Foyers. The substances
of this gravel occur in nearly horizontal beds, which vary
in fineness from the smallest sand to round boulders of se-
veral feet in circumference. The most general size, how-
ever, of these fragments, is that of a man’s head, or of a
large cannon-ball. The rocks of which these are composed,
are principally the following, viz. granite, syenite, gneiss,
mica-slate, seldom or never clay-slate, varieties of primitive
trap, green-stone, and felspar-porphyry ; quartz-rock, chlo-
rite-slate, white-stone, fresh common felspar, common quartz,
and precious serpentine. Of the secondary rocks, I only

206 GEOGNOSTICAL SKETCH, Se.

observed red sandstone and its conglomerate, occasional
pieces of white sandstone, but never any of the secondary
porphyries or trap-rocks. Clay occurs but seldom, and
hence the sandy nature‘of the soil in this district, and con-
sequent badness of the crops in dry seasons. Marl has been
discovered: in one or two places, which were formerly the
bottoms of fresh-water lakes, but. which are now deeply in-
crusted with a layer of peat.

( 207 )

XVII.—Obdservations on the Immer Goose of
| Zetland.

By Laurence Epmonpston, Esq.

(Read 6th April 1822.)

Tere are few birds to which anomalous and perverted
instincts have been more ascribed than to the Colymbus

‘Immer. It has been represented as incapable of flying,—

as crossing boisterous oceans merely by swimming,—as
hatching its egg under its wing, or forming its nest on the
surface of the water. And nothing more clearly demon-
strates the necessity of investigating patiently the habits of

birds in their native retreats, than the fact of the singular

improbabilities that have so long been mingled with our
information of a species which, from its number and gene-
ral diffusion, ought long since to have been correctly

~ known.

The erroneous and fanciful opinions which relate to this
species, seem to have been delivered either on obscure or
eredulous authority, or as loose assertions unsupported by

208 IMMER GOOSE.

actual observation, intended to account for what seemed to
be difficult. And it does appear surprising, that the only
supposition which obviously resolves or precludes these ob-
scurities, should not have at once presented itself to minds
in the least degree habituated, not indeed to closet, but
practical ornithology. |

In prosecuting this interesting branch of natural history,
I was soon struck with the unsatisfactory and obscure opi-
nions generally entertained regarding many species of the
Colymbus genus, and more especially the Immer; and I
early embraced the opinion, that this bird was merely the
young of the Great Northern Diver: but I determined to
confirm this by patient observation, and particularly by con-
trasting the two birds together, and it was not long before
this opportunity was afforded me; it has since been fre-
quently repeated, and has left no doubt on my mind of the
accuracy of the opinion I had first formed.

The Immer is found during the whole year in Zetland,
though in summer it is rather less numerous, and at this
‘season it is most frequently met with in single individuals.
Its nest has never been discovered, nor has its young been
observed accompanying it. Its size and plumage in different
individuals are various ; its organs of generation indistinct.

These facts, taken in connection, prove, I think, this
bird to be not yet arrived at an adult state; and they agree
perfectly with its general description by naturalists.

That it is the young of the Northern Diver, is, I con-
ceive, equally established in every respect. .

_ I have examined specimens in all the different gradations
of plumage, from the more imperfect appearance of the
Immer till it had almost attained the beautiful and well-
marked plumage of the C. glacialis. These specimens, ap-
parently just passing into the adult state, were mostly ob-
served during summer, and too early in the season to sup-

IMMER GOOSE: 209

pose them to have been the brood of that year. Those, on
the other hand; which I have met with m autumn, were
chiefly in that plumage most distant from the appearance
of the Northern Diver: The size, general aspect, and voice
of these two birds—their modes of swimming, diving, and
flying, are precisely the same. They frequent the same
situations, and live on the same food.

I have seen repeatedly, in Zetland, m autumn, and at
that period when the young of the Glacialis might be ex-
pected to be full grown, and to arrive in that country (ors
if hatched there, to appear in the bays), families, consist-
ing of two northern divers and two immers, apparently ins
separable, and the actions of each toward the other quite
characteristic of the reciprocal celahems of parent and young
bird: | | : ,

The immers, in this contrasted situation, seemed as large
as the others, but did not swim so erect, or look so lively
and active, and were chiefly distinguished by the absence
of the white bars across the neck; they were also less easi-
ly alarmed. When fired at, the northern divers took wing
with facility: the immers also, but apparently more reluc-
tantly ; and after flymg for a short distance, soon alighted,
when the others, as if unwilling to relinquish the care and
protection of their offspring; dropped again beside them.

That the immer should use its wings less than the adult
bird, is only what might be anticipated from the analogy of
the habits of many of the species of this family, the young of
which go to sea almost immediately after bursting the shell ;
and hence, being:so early habituated to diving, as a resource
of food and satety, seldom use their wings, but when driven
to extremity, or to effect distant and dangerous migration.
It is accordingly in autumn; immediately after their arrival
in Zetland, that the immers are most frequently observed

YOU. Iv. o

210 IMMER GOOSE.

to fly. They are more numerous also at this season, when
they are seen in companies of three or four individuals,
and. are usually more accessible than at other periods of the
year. ‘They then appear fatigued and emaciated, evidently
from the effects of a long voyage; and-are more intent in
searching for food than providing for their safety.

It flies with rapidity and ease, though it generally prefers
diving, to elude its pursuers. Its wings are very muscular,
but it does not employ them to assist its motion under
water, as‘some other birds allied to. it uniformly practise *.

In Zetland, no distinction seems to be known between
the Immer and the Glacialis, and, when the latter occurs,
it 1s termed Immer.

The Colymbus Immer, therefore, is merely the young
of the Great Northern Diver; and what here remains to
be stated, applies equally to both birds.

I have little doubt that a few pairs of the Colymbus gla-
‘cialis breed in the more secluded morasses or islets of Zet-
land; but these could not by any means supply the number
which are met with at all seasons among these. islands,
where, indeed, it is rather a numerous species.

It is one of the most expert divers; and its movements
in. its native element are highly graceful. No bird with
which I am acquainted can remain so long under water at
one time. It is partial to sheltered and retired. bays, though
it is very often found in the more exposed situations,, and
is well calculated to. brave the utmost fury of the storm.

It is never seen on land, even for repose, but only when
wounded, or diseased. Its sleep is taken on the water, and

* The fact of this. bird being able to fly, was, I believe, first stated by
Dr Epmonnston, in the first volume of the Transactions of the. Wernerian
Society.

IMMER GOOSE. pall

seems often to be continued for some hours together: witli:
its. Head under its wing, it thay be frequently observed
passively floating im the direction of the wind or tide, but
always sufficiently on its guard against surprise. It is
peculiarly fond of sand-eels (Ammodytes tobianus), and:
may commonly be a. to be’ met. with where these
abound.

The plumage on the body is so full, and the skin so
thick, that, small shot makes: little impression when the
back of the bird 1s not turned: to the sportsman; and’ it is
therefore the practice of the experienced: to wait for this
favourable situation, or. to take aim chiefly at the head or
neck. It dives with great celerity on the flash of the pan;
and henee another precaution for securing its capture, that
of waiting for the momentary dipping of the bill in the
water;—a habit which most of the divers practise from: tume
to time as they swim along the surface.

It is exceedingly tenacious of life. I have seen it even
when mortally wounded; with its head literally shattered,
and the brain perfcrated in various directions, still struggle
to escape, with almost undiminished vigour and sagacity ;
and as it seemed impossible to kill it speedily, without un-
fitting it for beg a specimen, the sportsman, relenting at
its torments, has been compelled to put an end to them, by
beheading it. |

From its marked tenaciousness of life, and comparative-
ly superior power of suspending respiration for a consider-
able time, I am disposed to expect some peculiarity of
structure in its vital organs, and, with this view, shall avail
myself of the first opportunity that occurs for its accurate

dissection.

I am at present engaged in endeavouring to determine
the validity of the claims of other birds of this genus to be
02

912 - IMMER GOOSE.

considered as distinct species. So far as I have gone, I am
disposed to consider the Black-throated and the Red-
throated Divers as the same species; and I have no hesi-
tation in asserting my belief of the Speckled Diver being the
young of the latter. I once shot a bird quite corresponding
with the description of the Colymbus stellatus ; and on ex-
amining carefully the under part of its neck, I found several
ferruginous feathers just shootmg forth, and the bird, in
other respects, beginning to assume the plumage of the Red- ~
throated Diver. Another Speckled Diver has indeed been.
described, but I do not perceive that it differs im any es-
sential respect from the C. stellatus.

If these views, then, be correct, we shall find only two
distinct species, the Colymbus giacialis and the C. septen-
trionalis, where six separate species have been usually de-
scribed.

Edinburgh,
Ist March 1822.

hie OLB: :)

“XVIIL—A Description of two New Plants of
the Order Ate, found in Scotland.

By R. K. Grevitie, Esq. F.R.S.E. M.W.S. &e,

: (Read 26th January 1822.)

EcHInELLA, Lyngbye.
Gey. Cuar. Massa sub-gelatinosa, granulis solitariis,
cuneatis, elongatisve, farcta. LLyNcs.

Echinella circularis, m/e.

Echinella, filis simplicibus, strictis, longitudinaliter o-
qualibus, compactis, cuneatis, in circulo plano dispositis.
Tab. viii. fig. 2.

Has. In paludibus et rivulis lenté fluentibus, sepe ad
_ folia mortua, &c.

Individual plants very minute, but, from generally grow-
ing in considerable quantities together, the species is suffi-
ciently conspicuous. It exists, either in dense masses, of a
dull-green colour, with a slight submetallic lustre, or occa-
sionally dispersed and attached to the stems of rushes and

914 TWO NEW PLANTS

grasses, dead leaves, or any substance immersed in the
water. The form is perfectly circular and plane; the fila-
ments or bodies of which it is composed, numerous, wedge-
shaped, and more or less translucent ; towards the base ge-
nerally, but sometimes in the middle, of each wedge-shaped
filament, is a transverse line; but I have not been able to
ascertain whether any separation takes place at that part.

From its fragile nature it rarely happens that a complete
circle is seen, but I have oftener than once obtamed more
than three-fourths of one. The circles are of different sizes,
and the filiform bodies composing them of different diame-
ters, and consequently some are more wedge-shaped than
others; those of the same circle are, however, generally
uniform. ‘The colour is a greenish-yellow (as far as the
coloured portion extends), but there is always a consider-
able part of each cuneiform body crystalline or transparent,
which may arise from a collapse of the contents. In the
centre of each circle or congeries of plants, is a circular
unoccupied space of small diameter, which being invariably
present, may perhaps be its place of attachment to the sub-.
stances on which it grows.

Of this most singular genus, LyNnesye, in his excellent
Tentamen Hydrophytologie Danice, has described nine
species. Mr Arnott and myself have ascertained three of
these to be natives of Scotland, viz. E. fasciculata, E. ge-
minata, and E. paradoxa ; besides another, that may ee
bably prove a new species. 3

Early in 1820, I found this plant in a rivulet near
Dumbryden Quarries. Soon after, Mr Arnott met with
it, and determined it to be new. I again procured it m
March 1821, from watery places in the King’ S aes Edin-
burgh.

OF THE ORDER ALG. © Q15

Gioronrma, Agardh.

Gey. Cuar. Fila gelatinosa, tenacia, continua, intus
longitudinaliter farcta sporangus ellipticis.

Gloionema apiculatum, mi/.

Gloionema; fronde continua, filiforme, ramosa aliquando
fasciculata ; granulis cylindraceo-oblongis ; apicibus ramu-
lorum incrassatis, apiculatis. Tab. vii. fig. I.

Has. Ad saxa marina, ubi ab undis marinis fere semper
inundatur.

This plant, which appears to have hitherto escaped the
observation of botanists, grows in the form of small lax
tufts, from half an inch to near one inch in height. The
individuals which compose them are filiform, about as thick
asa hog’s bristle, of a yellowish or olive-green colour, ex-
tremely flexible, and yielding to the slightest motion of the
water ; and althou gh very tender to appearance, they possess
considerable tenacity. Each thread or stem is at first
sunple, and subattenuated at its base. It soon throws out
a few branches (sometimes in a fasciculated manner), which
are continued simple to the summit, where they are not
unfrequently shortly forked. ‘The apices of the branches
are incrassated, of a darker colour, and terminate in a re-
markable semi-transparent apiculus, which of itself is suffi-
cient to determine the plant. The whole frond is filled
with a gelatinous transparent mass, containing throughout
its whole substance oblong and cylindrical granules, which
escape by incision and slight pressure.

It adheres closely to paper and mica, and, if preserved
on the latter, recovers its form on being moistened with
water.

216 TWO NEW PLANTS

This plant does not appear to be unfrequent in the Frith
of Forth. Early in March 1821, I found it, in company -
with Mr Arnort, on the Black Rocks at Leith; it grew ~
there at the bottom of small pools left by the tide at almost
low water-mark. I have since found it more sparingly be-
tween Newhaven and-Caroline Park, midway between high
and low water-mark, on rocks, and intermixed with young
plants of Ectocar. pus littoralis.

——_—-

Glotonema contains a small number of very extraordinary
plants, which have puzzled every naturalist who has touched
upon them. Of the two latest writers, Acarpu and Lyne-
BYE, the former has been most successful in establishing a
good generic character: his own observation it may be
worth while to transcribe.—*“ Species vere singulares et
loco dubias continet hoc genus; neque satis scio, an revera
tres illee, quas huc congessi, unius ejusdemque generis sint,
cum non nisi unicam vivam vidi, reliquas duas tantum sic-
catas. Multa tamen communia habent, sed adhuc dubium
comprimere nequeo, an Gl. paradoxum sit vegetabile, nec
ne.”—Aq. Syn. Alg. Scand. p. xxxv.

Acarpu has only described three species, Gil. para-
doxum, Gl. chthonoplastes, and Gl. futidum (Conferva fecti-
daof Dittwyn). Of these, the first and the last I suspect _
can only be retained; the other (Conferva of the Flora
Danica and Dieeey, and Oscillatoria of VaucuEr and
Lynezye), whatever genus it be referred to, must be ex-
cluded from Glotonema. Mr Gray, who, from the prodi-.
gious number of new genera he has himself, or in conjunc-
tion with other S, manufactured in his late work, stands some
chance of having a few of them adopted, has, from this sin-
gular plant, constituted a new genus, under the name of
Vaginari ia, a distinction w ‘hich it seems really to deserve.

P I 4 aA af hy i VII Ween. Wer, Vol IV. page 217),

GLOIONEMA .APICULATA a KCHINELLA .CIRCULARIS.

AK. Greville det?

WD are

OF THE ORDER ALG. Q17

LyNcBYE, in addition to the above Agardhian species,
has described, under his genus Bang ia, one decided Gloto-
nema, viz. B. rutilans (Conferva rutilans of Rotu. Cat,
Bot. iti. p. 179.) His B. quadripunctata, if not truly Gloio-
nema fetidum, of which he is himself doubtful, also belongs
to Acarpu’s genus, and perhaps also his B. micans, but
of this I cannot speak with equal certainty.

The genus Bangia, if made to include those plants only
which have the internal granules disposed in the form of
transyerse striae, would be a very excellent one, and would
comprehend all the species it has at present, excepting those
I have named as belonging properly to Glotonema; it
would be composed of B. crispa, laminaria, fusco-purpured,
atrovirens, and mamillosa, all of which have a distinct and
common character. |

B. laminaria has been detected in Scotland by Mr
ARNOTT.

eed
Explanation of Plate VILL.

Fig. T. Gloionema apiculatum.
1. Tuft of plants natural s1Ze.
2. Plants magnified.
3. Summit of a branch of do.
4, Granules.

Fig. I. Echanella circularis.

1. Plants magnified.
~ 2. Do. very meny magnified.

_ Edinburgh,
20th January 1822. \

(AQIS TY

XTX.—Some Observations on the Natural His-
tory and Habits of the Mole.

- By the Rev. James Grierson, M.D. M. W.S.
Minister of Cockpen.

(Read 9th March 1822.)

Tue adaptation of the objects of Nature to one another,
and to the state in which they are found to exist, must, to
every intelligent observer, appear beautiful and striking.
This is perhaps nowhere more conspicuous than in the
structure and instincts of animals. Like all other things,
however, it affects us the less forcibly in proportion as it is
familiar and ordinary. There are many animal instincts
and dispositions that would appear exceedingly curious,
and in the highest degree interesting, were it not for their
familiarity. Not to speak of the bee, the ant, the swallow,
and many others well known, there is, I think, something
exceedingly interesting in the structure and habits of the
Common Mole (Talpa Europea of Lixnavs).

Had we never seen or heard of such an animal and its
operations, and were we to be told by a traveller, that there

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 919

existed in some distant country a little quadruped, covered
with a very thick and soft down, which lived constantly
under ground, forming to itself roadways.belaw the surface,
and travelling in them to the distance of 40, 50, 100, or
even 200 yards, making these subterranean roads of just
such a height and breadth as to be convenient for itself,
and casting up in heaps the superfluous materials in its
way, and forming to itself convenient and comfortable lodg-
ings in the bowels of the earth, we should certainly think
it a very curious, or perhaps an improbable narration.
But this is nothing more than a description of the Common
Mole, that little active animal which we all so well know.
As I have never actually witnessed many of the facts I
am going to detail concerning the operations and habits of
the Mole, I must state to the Society, that I take my in-
formation with regard to them from a most experienced
and scientific mole-catcher, Mr Rosert FLercuer, gar-

dener in Bonnyrigg, near Dalkeith, Mr Fletcher is a

man of great ingenuity and accuracy of observation, and
every dependence is to be put en his statements. He is
the inventor, too, I would beg leave to observe, of a most
important improvement in the construction of vineries,
of which he has now had the experience for many years,
and finds to answer perfectly. ‘The improvement is the
making of the vinery of a circular form, so as to enable
the plants in it to enjoy the benefit of the sun’s direct rays
as Jong as that luminary is above the horizon. He finds
this so advantageous to the fruit, that he never misses an
abundant crop of grapes, and those of a quality superior
to what are usually produced in houses of the old con-
struction. General Durnam of Largo, and Mr Mit-
Lak of Arnock, have both had grape-houses construct-
ed on Mr Fletcher’s plan, and find them perfectly to
answer. I have also ‘seen other inventions by him of

220 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

great ingenuity and utility,—particularly a sort of rake,
connected with a roller, for the purpose of breaking down,
pulverising and cleaning rough ground, which I would term
a Regulated. Harrow; and a conical windlass, which works
by a rope thrown two or more times round it, joined again
at the two ends, and running in a moveable block suspended
below the roller, and to which block the weight to be raised
is attached. This invention is extremely simple, and de-
serves to be universally known. It is perhaps the most
powerful mechanical contrivance that has ever been thought
of, and is found to answer extremely well for rooting out
trees. I think it should be named Fletcher's Conical
Windlass. |

But to return.—The size and exterior appearance of the
Common Mole is so well known, as scarcely to require de-
scription. We all know it to be a little quadruped, of five
or six inches in length, covered with a soft fur-like down,
and of an iron-black colour (white individuals sometimes
occur), the feet being exceedingly short in proportion to its
body ; the fore ones much larger, stronger, and more mus- |
cular, than the hind ones. Indeed, the mole can scarcely be
said to have any fore legs. The feet seem to be fixed to the
sides of the animal, without the intervention of legs. Each
foot is armed with five claws or fingers, fortified with long
horny points, the middle claw being a little longer than the
rest, somewhat analogous to the human fingers. The fore-feet
are almost twice the breadth of the hind ones, exceedingly
strong, and well calculated for digging in the ground. The
snout is long, and very much in the shape of that of a hog;
the under jaw being extremely short in proportion to the
upper one; or, I should rather say, that a flexible snout or
proboscis projects about half an inch beyond the under jaw.
The head seems fixed to the body, without the intervention

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 991

of any neck. The tail is about an inch long, and covered.
also with down. It is observed, of almost all animals, that
the colours of the belly, or that side of the animal which is
usually towards the ground, or shaded most from the hght,
ate of the faintest hue. In the mole, this distinction is, I
think, less observable than I have noticed it to be m any
other. Its belly is very little, if at all, lighter than its back.
This may be owing to its being almost all equally exposed
to the light, or rather all equally excluded from it. The
male is considerably larger than the female. ‘They couple
in the month of March, and the female brings forth in
May. She produces usually six or seven at a litter. On
some occasions they seem to breed twice in the year. Mr
Fletcher has seen young moles in September, but this, he
says, is rare. The new-born moles are quite naked and red.

The males often engage in fierce combat with one an-
other, particularly in the spring season. Mr Fletcher
has witnessed this, and seen them seize one another with
their teeth, and push and scratch violently with their
claws, till both were much torn. He observed another
curious fact lately, in the Duke of Buccleuch’s Park, at
Dalkeith. He found a male mole caught im one of his
traps, and the entrails of it torn out, apparently by another
mole. A few minutes after, he observed a mole moving
along the track, or run towards the trap, and killed it with
his foot. On taking it up, he found it to be a female. The
same day, and near the same place, he found another male
caught, and in the same state as before described ; and he
_ killed another female in the same way coming towards it.
Had these affectionate and disconsolate wives thus torn
their husbands in endeavouring to extricate them from
their disastrous situation? Or ‘are we to suppose them
actuated by a different sentiment,—full of anger at. their
silly mates for being so stupid as thus to fall into the snare ?

923 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

\

Each of the males, when taken up in that torn state, were
still warm.

The mole constructs a snug, comfortable nest, in which
to deposit her kittens. It is commonly found in a grass or
corn field, about even with, or at no great distance below,
the surface of the ground, and, formed of grass, moss;
stubble, or whatever else the field produces. It is always,,
of course, covered above; and, to’ prevent the rai from
penetrating through the roof, there are placed on the top
of this two drains or gutters, at right angles to one another,
formed of consolidated earth, and having a gentle slope, in
all the four directions, away from the nest.. A. jakes, or
place for retirmg to when about. to evacuate the feeces, 1s
always found at a little distance from the nest, say nine or
ten inches distant. )

The food of this animal seems to consist mostly of the
common earth-worm, and it is in pursuit of these that it
makes such mighty efforts in the formation of its subterra-
neous roads, and thereby often annoys so greatly the gar-
dener and the farmer. The worms themselves often per-
ceive the approach of their enemy, and struggle to escape
from him. Mr Fletcher has seen them flee from the
mole, and the latter come out of the ground after them,
and catch them. But moles seem to prey upon other ani-
mals besides the worm, for this same observer once saw
a mole that had seized a frog, and was killing-it—It is
commonly thought that the mole goes every day to the
water to drink. Mr Fletcher; however, doubts. the truth
of this very much. After many years observation, with
the best opportunities, he has never once seen. them drink,
He is likewise disposed to believe, that they do not void
urine separately from the feces; but as dissection shews
that this quadruped, lke every other we ave acquainted
with, has a urinary bladder, the above opinion is rendered

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 295

less probable. At all events, as a proof that the meles do
not go every day to the water, Mr Fletcher tells me, that
his father (who followed the same profession. with him-
self) and he found them on the top of Arthur’s Seat, at a
great distance from the nearest springs, or any water. Pro-
bably the reason why the moles have been thought to go
every day to the water, is, that their workings are often
found near the sides of rivers or rivulets, or in the moist
parts of fields, particularly in dry weather. But this arises
from then findmg most worms in those situations.—It is:
observable, that the moles make always greatest havoc in the
way of throwing up hillocks or heaps in the winter season,,
or in the coldest weather. This arises from. the necessity
under which they find themselves in such a case to con-
struct their runs, bores, or roadways, at a greater depth;
for the worms in the winter season, or in cold weather,
keep far below the surface, so that the moles, in following
them, must go farther down, and of course have more ocea-
sion to throw up earth. In summer, when the weather
is warm, and when there is enough of moisture on the sur-
face of the ground, the worms are on, or near it; and,
then the moles, in hunting them, run among the roots, of
the grass, and have no occasion to throw up. hillocks.
For the reason why they ever do.so, is this. ‘They do not
engage in the work as a matter of choice, or of amusement,
or_of wanton mischievousness; but of necessity, in the wai
of procuring their daily food. When they are a consider-
able way down, say three or four inches, for they seldom:
go. deeper than about twice that distance from the surface,
they are then unable to move all the earth mmediately
above them, and must, in order to. get forward im their
work, contrive some plan of clearing away the materials
they detach. The plan they adopt is the following: The
mole forms an upright, or rather a sloping shaft, and, as:

994 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

he detaches the earth with his strong fore-claws and snout
from the front of the run or drift that he is making, he
pushes it backwards, m successive quantities or leads, as
we may call them, to the sloping hole or shaft which
he had opened, and by main force, and successive efforts;
heaves it up till if forms a hillock,—imitating, in this
way,’ pretty exactly the operations. of colliers and other
miners; except that these employ machinery to bring their
materials up the shaft, whereas the poor mole has to push
all up by mere muscular exertion. _A mole makes his bore
very little wider than himself, and, in working, he seems
to drag his materials backwards toward the shaft, and then
push them up. He can, however, at certain places, readily
turn himself in his road; and he can run along it ‘with his
back downwards, very nearly at the same rate as when he
has it up. Mr Fletcher has often taken moles in his
traps in this inverted position. It may be thought surpris-
mg how much work one of them will do in a short time.
He will throw up six or seven heaps or hillocks m a single
night, each of them not weighing less, by estimation, than
six or seven pounds, so that he may be said to remove forty
or fifty pounds of earth ina night. And it is observable,
that, however hard the ground may be in which he is dig-
ging, the claws are always as sharp as needles.

As the heaps thrown up by the moles, and the roads
they make among the roots of the plants and the seeds
sown, are both great deformities, and injurious to the pro-
ductions of the garden and the field, it is an object of con-
siderable importance to know the best and surest method
of catching or killing these animals. Three different methods
have been thought of,—poisoning ; watching the mole at
work, and coming upon it with the foot or some istru-
ment; and setting a trap for it. The first, I. believe, is _
seldom had recourse to; though I understand it has some~_

OR

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. | 995

times been tried, and is said to have succeeded. But as 1
have had no opportunity of reducing it to the test of ex-
periment, nor of seeing any orie who lias, I cannot pretend
to describe it. I have seen the following-recipé for poison-
ing the mole; but as I have not tried it, nor heard of any
one who has used it, I can say nothing of its merits:—
“‘ Take a handful of oatmeal, and pour so much water on
it (stirring it all the while) as to bring it into the con-
sistenice of porridge; or thin brose. With every English
pint of this, mix ten grains of corrosive sublimate. Pour a
small quantity of this mixture on a piece of board, and lay
it close by the mole’s hill: Drop on it twenty drops of the
oil of rhodium; or of the oil of thyme, which has had a

- grain or two of musk mingled with it. The poison is to be

put down at night, and in dry weather.”—It is not likely
that this should answer; as the mole is a carnivorous animal ;
but perhaps it sonietimes, like the dog; takes vegetable food:
In the “ New Monthly Magazine,” for March last, No.
15. (publishied m London), I observe the following notice

concerning moles:—* A gentleman,” says the writer, “ who

was frvinbled with these animals in his garden, adopted the

following method by way of experiment: Having opened
one of the runs or trenches, he introduced a sinall quantity
of rosm and sulphur; and; when m a sufficient blaze, co-
vered it over with the mould diawn from the trench.
Whether suffocation ensued, or (what is more probable)
the fumes were highly offensive to the finer instincts of ;

these animals, the purpose was completely arswereds as

they never afterwards made their appearance.”

A top-dressing of quicklime will sometimes clear a field
of moles. Mr Fletcher once saw this effect very strik-
ingly accomplished in a field of Captain Preston’s, at
Gorton: It was quite over-run with moles; but after the
liming, they all disappeared ; probably i in consequence of

VOL. EV. : P

296 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. .

the lime having destroyed the worms on which the moles
feed.

The mole may often be killed by watching it at work,
or when it is engaged in forcing up the materials it digs out
of itsrun. If you can then suddenly get in below it with
a spade or hoe, you may throw it out, and destroy it; or
you may come upon it with your foot, and fix it im the
ground, till you get it thrown out by some instrument. To
accomplish this, you must watch till you see the hillock
where a mole has been recently at work begin to heave,
and you must ascertain, at the same time, in what direction
the mole is going. For example, if she appear to be carry-
ing on her operations, or making her road towards the east,
you may be sure she is, when you see the hillock move,
pushing her materials towards the west; and, therefore, in
order to secure her, you must turn your back to the east,
and then tread hard and heavily on the east side of the
hillock. You will then most likely fix her. But if you
come on her the contrary way, she will turn back im a mo-
ment along her roadway, and escape. Some have employed,
with good success, to kill moles at work, a board, either
of a square or cireular form, containing about 100 square
inches, fixed on the end of a stick a few feet long, and
stuck full of iron-spikes four or five inches in length. This
instrument, plunged right upon the heap or hillock when
the mole is seen to work, can scarcely fail to destroy her.
But in order to catch a mole at work, the greatest softness
of approach is required. It is scarcely possible, such is her
acuteness of hearing or feeling, to get at her without throw-
ing off your shoes, and walking in your stockings, unless it
be near by the side of a road, or other place, where there
are constantly noise and shaking of the ground, by means,
for example, of horses and carts, or carriages, passing and
tepassing ; and then the mole may be approached when at
her work with great freedom. She does not take the alarm.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOURF. 997

- But the most usually successful method by far, of destroy-
ing the mole, is by means of traps, and of these there are
various constructions: That used by Mr Fletcher (and
he makes these traps himself) is very simple, and so perfect
in its kind as scarcely: to admit of mprovement. The prime
cost, too; he tells me, of each of his traps 1s only threepence.
It consists'of a piece of wood four inches and five-eighths
long; two and a quarter broad, and about a quarter of an
inch’ thick; with a hole a quarter of an inch diameter in
the iniddle of its; and a slit or mortice cut) transversely an
inch long; and one-eighth wide, within half an inch of each
end of it; leaving at each end of this transverse slit or mor-
tice abotit half an inch; into which space, at each end of the
slit, are fixed thé extremities of a strong double iron-wire,
80 as to form a circular arch; or almost a ring of two inches
diameter: A plug of wood; an inch and a half long, is
made to fit the hole in the middle of the board; and is em-
ployed to act as a trigger ; for it is put in when the trap is
set, only so gently as to be removeable on the shghtest touch.
Two pieces of good brass-wire; deprived of the temper;
and then formed. into two rings of three imches diameter,
are each fixed to one end of a piece of strong well-made
- fishing-Ime; or gardener’s line; of eighteen mches long:
The line thus armed, is doubled im the middle; and a knot
cast on the double line two inches from the rings: These
wire-rings; in this way, when laid together; exaétly corre-
spond with one another: A smal! piece of line; about an
inch. long; is fixed tothe other; at thie knot. I may
Mention; that the trigger is also fixed to the board bya
piece of line tied round it; to prevent it from being lost.
Things being thus prepared, the brass-wire rings” at-
tached to the ends of the line, are put each of them through
one of the slits in the board, and fitted in betwixt the sides’
of the double iron-wire rings, so as to correspond with them:

p 2 |

298 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

The small piece of twine attached to the knot on the
double line is then put through the hole in the middle of
the board, and the trigger is put in on the other side of
the board, or that in which the double iron-rings are (viz.
the under side of it), so as to prevent the bit of twine
from being drawn back again. The board or trap thus
prepared is now put into the mole’s track or run, and fixed
down by two pieces of wood eight or nine inches long,
sharpened at one end, and having a cleek or hook at the
other. Then a piece of a green or fresh stick three feet long,
and about half an inch thick, is stuck into the ground by
one end, at such a distance, as that, when bent down, the
other may be over the middle of the trap. This is the
spring. Holly answers very well; but Mr Fletcher finds
that a rod of common lilac forms the best spring, this wood
preserving its elasticity much longer than any other. The
doubling of the line is then put over the end of it, and’so
the trap is set. As soon as a mole comes along the track,
and touches the trigger, the small piece of twine, which by
means of it held down the spring, is let loose, and so the
spring acting pulls up the brass-wire-rings attached to the
ends of the line, and the mole is thus caught by the sit
and killed, being squeezed against the board. ;

The grand secret of mole-catching, by the trap, is to find —
out an old run or roadway, for such the animals seem fre-
quently to pass along. Each mole, or couple of moles about
the time of breeding, seems or seem to have a particular track
or district of road, below ground, which they frequent, and
from which, at the most convenient places, they make drifts
or runs, in pursuit of worms. An old run is often found
along the side of a hedge, or of a walk in a garden, or of a
box-edging, or the like. Ina field, it is detected not un-
frequently between two sets of hillocks. A run may often
be discovered by thrusting into the ground any small sharp

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 229

instrument, such as a common garden-weedock ; and that
in which you place your trap, should, if possible, be not
more than two or three inches below the surface of the

ground. When the run lies deep, it becomes inconvenient

for setting the trap. A little experience will soon enable
you to discover an old run or track.

_ It has been questioned by some whether moles have any
organs of vision; but that they have, must now be univer-
sally admitted. Their eyes are, however, exceedingly small ;
and it may be thought that, from the usual mode of life
pursued by these animals, the sense of sight can be of
little use to them: yet there are facts to shew, or, at least,
to render it very highly probable, that they see to a con-
siderable distance. I have been favoured with one very
remarkable fact of this sort, by the Reverend Witi1am
Macrircnit, minister of the parish of Clunie, in Perth-
shire, a member of this Society. It would seem to prove,
that moles have a much more extensive sphere of vision than
might at first. be imagined. The account of the fact alluded
to, as transmitted to me in a letter by Mr Macrircuig, is
so full and satisfactory, that I beg leave to copy his ipsis-

sima verba. Indeed I should not in any ole way do jus-

fice to the subject.

66 ‘To Dr Tae alse
« Manse of Clunic, 25th March 1822.

* Dean Sir,
“¢ T WAVE your favour of the 19th current, and, in ieply

_ fo your queries respecting the Mole mentioned to you. by
our/friend Dr Barrp, I beg leave to state the following
sees ars.

-* Though the fact, alluded to by the Principal, Ged not

fall under my own observation (it having happened about
two months previous to my coming to reside here), it. was

236 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

repeatedly confirmed to me by the verbal testimony of three
_ honest men, on whose veracity I had no hesitation in rely-
ing. ‘They all three saw the mole, handled ‘it, ' examined
its eyes, &c., but did not observe whether it was a male or
a female. ‘Two of the men are since dead; the’ third is
still alive, and has been my next-door neighbour for these
thirty-seven years past: and had I had no other authority
but his own for the truth of the fact referred to, I should
have regarded it as altogether satisfactory. He has been
jong settled here as gardener and nurseryman to the Earl
of Airly,—has himself been the death of many moles in his
day, and was himself the death of the very individual mole
in question. He has this very day, and not an hour ago,
told me, that he recollects the circumstances that attended
its death, more perfectly than many thousand oe ae
have happened to him since. :

“It was in the year 1785, within a day or two of the
summier-solstice, on a calm, mild evening, between nine and
ten o'clock, when the surface of the lake was as smooth as
a mirror, he, and another of the men above mentioned, had
rowed about fifty yards from the island towards the main-
land, when they observed the creature steering its course
from the mainland towards the island, and approaching to
their boat. ‘The gardener took off one of the oars, a arrested
the poor little voyager on its passage, struck it with the oar,
killed it with the stroke, took it up, and handed it to his
companion in the boat. Next day they shewed it to the
other man, when all the three became, for the first time,
converts to the belief, that moles could swim. ‘The animal
was killed about 100 yards from the mainland, and about
50 yards from the island. |

‘* Previous to this interesting catastrophe, molecasts had
been observed on the island, and the people were at a loss

io account for them. Ihave myself repeatedly observed

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 931

them there: and it is consistent with my own personal
knowledge, that two moles have been trapped on the island
within the last two-years, one by our mole-catcher, and an-
other by a son of the gardener.

“¢ The island, since the commencement of my incumbency
here, has been frequently overflown. I remember, one year,
the whole surface of the island lay, for nearly twenty-four
hours, under water, frem one foot to eighteen inches in
depth. Whether the whole race of moles then existing on
the island might have shared the fate of the Antediluvians,
or not, I cannot tell. It is not unlikely that a remnant (as
in the days of Noah) were saved, since my friend the gar-
dener (Alexander Duff) finds a difficulty in getting them
extirpated. It is, I think, by no means improbable, that
these curious animals carry on a sort of clandestine inter-
course betwixt the mainland and the island.

_“ These few particulars, stated and authenticated as
above, may serve so far to corroborate and illustrate some
of your remarks on the history and habits of the TJ'alpa
Europea, which I should like very much to peruse. I
mentioned the above circumstances many years ago to my
worthy deceased friend Mr Artuur Brucz, who was
some time ago secretary to the Natural History Society of
Edimburgh; whether he published them or no, I have not
learned *. In the mean time, if you find them of any service
to you, his utere mecum; and believe me to be, with cor-
dial wishes for your success in every laudable vestigation,

* Dear Sir,
** Yours sincerely,
“© W.. Macritcuix.”

* Since this paper has been put to press, I find, on looking into the
Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. iii. p. 5., that a short notice of
‘the above curious fact was sent to that Society, in 1792, by My Bruce.
See also Suaw’s Gen. Zoology, vol. i.

939 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE,

Though the very interesting fact, here so well stated by’
Mr Macritcuir, would seem to prove that the mole has
an extensive range of vision, other facts appear to render
this doubtful ; for Mr Fletcher, to whom I have so often re-
ferred, tells me, that he has frequently thrown live moles
mto the water, but he never saw them on these occasions
make for the land. They always swam round and round,
as if they knew not where they were. :

It is evident, that, if the mole had Jarge or prominent
eyes, they would be exceedingly inconvenient for it, and
very liable to be injured during its operations under ground.
They are, therefore, not only extremely small, but deep-
seated in the head, and provided with a protecting film or
integument, which the mole can bring over them, or with-
draw, at pleasure. When this covering is withdrawn, which
takes place when we throw a live mole into the water, the
eyes may be distinctly seen like two black and shining
points. GALEN, in ancient times, even without the help
of the microscope, did not hesitate to affirm, that the dif-
ferent humours of the eye of the mole, and their respective
tunics, could be seen; and though Sir Tuomas Brown,
and others, have denied the truth of this affirmation, yet
we have the fact of the existence of these humours and
‘tunics confirmed by Dr Dreruam. He tells us, in his
** Physico-Theology,” that he had made “ divers accurate
dissections of the eyes of moles, with the help of micro-
scopes, having a doubt whether what we take to be eyes
were such or no; and, upon strict scrutmy, could plainly
distinguish the crystalline and vitreous humours, and the
hgamentum ciliare, with the atramentaceous mucus.”

Ifa mole be taken alive, either by digging or otherwise,
it usually, at first, utters a sort of small scream, or blow-
ing noise, and prepares for defending. itself by its teeth
and claws. A slight blow seems sufficient to killat. «The

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 233

mole appears to be by no means tenacious of life, differ-
ing greatly, in this respect, from the class of reptiles. A
mole is not easily kept alive in a state of confinement; it
soon perishes, unless it can be-constantly supplied with
fresh damp mould. in which to conceal itself.: It is sur-
prising how rapidly it will effectuate this, even on a soil
that is tolerably firm. In a grass-field or plot, where the
soil is light, a mole will hide itself almost in a moment;
and they have been known to penetrate, and completely
cover.themselves in, a hard turnpike-road in the space of
five minutes. f

. ‘Phe following very curious and interesting statement
concerning two that were taken alive, has been obligingly
communicated to me by Mr Srarx, a member of our
Society, » | :

»“ About four years ago,” says this gentleman, “ one
morning early in summer, I caught a mole, which was
running en the ground before me, for the purpose of
shewing it alive to the children. On carrying it home in
a botanical box, I put it mto a large flower-pot full of
wmoist earth m the greenhouse. It made its way instantly
“ander the soil, and I placed a thick board over the surface
of the pot, to prevent its escape. On returning, however,
‘a short time thereafter, the board was overturned, and the
‘mole had guttered the earthen floor of the greenhouse in
‘many places, and was hard at work in a corner, where the
‘earth was less consolidated. It was now replaced in the
flower-pot, and another of nearly the same size inverted
-over it, which proved a sufficient barrier. Meantime one
-of the children had dug up a few worms, and the covering
“was removed, -to see if the mole would eat them. It re-
mained below. One or two of the worms were then drop-

234 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

ped on the surface, and in a few seconds a heaving of the
earth in the pot began, and the mole peeped out its head,
apparently smelling for the worms, which having caught
its notice, 1t immediately seized one and began to eat,
though without entirely leaving its hole. Finding no dan-
ger to arise from this essay, the little animal grew bolder,
came up full to the surface, shook the dry dust from its
glossy coat, and began to eat with great avidity the worms
which were successively laid before it. While thus occu-
pied, I stroked down its back gently with my hand. At
the first touch or two it seemed a little afraid, and shewed
an inclination to retreat, though it did not intermit its
eating; but gaining more confidence, it allowed itself to be
patted without fear, erecting its short tail like a cat, as if
the smoothing of its fur gave it pleasure. Its eyes were
at this time, as on all occasions when it came to the sur-
face, open, and it seemed to use them in the selection
of particular worms, when more than one were placed before
it. We were much diverted with its mode of eating. When
it fixed upon a worm, it seized one end in its teeth, and
taking it writhing with pain between its fore-feet, it stretch-
ed out its folds by little and little as it swallowed it, by a
constant action of the feet, perhaps for the double purpose
of freemg the worm from soil and untwining its convolu-
tions.

‘‘ This was in the morning, Occasional visits were made
to the mole in the course of the day ; and it grew so accus-
tomed to these, that no sooner was the covering pot re-
moved, and it heard the children’s voices, than it came up
to the surface for its food. Though it occasionally peeped
over the edge of the flower-pot on these occasions, it did
not attempt to leap from its place. Towards evening,
from a desire to become still better acquainted with the
little animal, it was put into a box, in which was a turf, and

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE. 235

the open side of the box was secured by a piece of wire-
grating. ‘The mole, however, did not relish this sort of
confinement, and endeavoured to escape through the aper-
tures of the wire. After some slight experimental attempts
with its snout and fore-feet, it at length placed the latter
between the perpendicular bars of wire, and turning them
outwards, in the direction it employs them when digging,
it inserted its sharp snout between the feet in the manner
of a wedge, and, by a simultaneous exertion of its muscular
force, bent the wires with great ease. The manner of its
attempt struck me at the time, on account of its singular
combination of mechanical powers, ‘The insertion of its
head between the feet gave it the power of a wedge, while,
at the same time, it served as a fulcrum for the lateral ex-
ertion of the strength of the short limbs. | It repeated this
so often, when repulsed at one place going to another,
that the greater part of the wires were bent; and, seeing
no hope of confining it in this manner, and it having ac-
quired ‘the sympathy of the little spectators in its exertions
for liberty, it was resolved to set the prisoner free, and to
restore it to its native vale again, which was done the same
night. | ee

_ & Two years after, I brought home another mole one
evening, in autumn; but not having the same convenience,
it was placed in a large earthen jar, in the bottom of which
was a quantity of diy earth. Worms were procured, and
the mole fed in the same manner as before, though by
candlelight, It burrowed in the earth freely, and came
up for the worms which were laid down; but it was un-
fortunate that the earth happened to be quite dry, for,
whether from this circumstance, or owing to its confinement
in the jar, and being kept covered up in the atmosphere of
arcom, it was found dead next morning on the surface of
the soil.

236 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOLE.

*‘ The quantity of worms devoured by these moles was
great, and more than I should have conceived it possible
for such a small animal to eat at once. Both were apparent-
ly full grown.

‘* I may mention, if the circumstance be worth noticing,
that the first mole had freely voided urine in the botanical
box in which it was carried home.”

The fate of the last of these two moles that. were thus
caught, and observed by Mr Starx, corroborates what I
have before mentioned, with respect to the difficulty of
preserving the animal alive im a state of confinement: and
what he says regarding the first of them having voided
urine in the botanical box, is a complete proof that the
mole does not in this respect differ from other quadrupeds.

As the object of the mole, in all its operations, is to ob-
tain supplies of food, it is not found m pure clay or sand,
but in such mould as is frequented by worms, and the spe-
cies seldom occurs except in cultivated countries. We do not
‘meet with it in parched deserts, nor in the frozen regions of
the north. The epithet Luropea, given by Linnaus to this
‘species, must not be understood as indicating that it is
found in Europe only, for it has been traced also in some
parts of Asia and Africa. The soil of Ireland is still ex-
empt from it, as well as from toads and serpents of all
kinds. ‘The flesh of the mole has very much of the savour
of that of the rabbit, and is esteemed a reat delicacy by
the Arabs.

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South Point

eee

XX.— Account of the Island of Foula.

es Capt. Vercn, of the Corps of Royal Engineers,
M. W.S. M. G. S. &e. |

(Read 18th May 1822.)

Tue Island of Foula is the most western of the Shetland
Islands, and, from the grandeur of its form, and secluded
situation, has attached an interest to it, which a nearer in-
spection serves but little to diminish.. As seen from the sea,
at a few miles distance, its appearance is of the most impos-
ing nature,—for though little more than three miles in its
greatest dimensions, it rises boldly to a height of 1370 feet,
and presents, along its western. shores, perpendicular cliffs
that seldom fall short of 600 feet, and in one place attain an
elevation of 1230 feet, forming a scene perhaps not. sur-
passed in grandeur by any in the British Islands. The
mountain-ridge which stretches across the centre of Foula,
and which chiefly characterises the island, bears. some re-
semblance to the rock of Gibraltar. The length and height
of both ridges are nearly the same; both present three pro-
minent points or peaks, and both terminate at one extremity
in perpendicular cliffs of nearly equal height.

238 ACCOUNT OF THE

From the summit of the Snuke, the highest and central
peak of the ridge, an extensive view of Shetland is obtained.
The Ossa Skerry, a remarkable detached rock, and Ronas
Hill *, forming interesting features on the left of the scene,
—while Fitfull Head and Fair Isle, objects of no less in-
terest, terminate the view on the nght hand, meluding a
space of about seventy miles, chiefly occupied by the Main-
land of Shetland. In very fine weather, five hills in Ork-
ney may be descried, appearing like clouds m the horizon,
but to the naked eye giving no clue to their identities.
From these hills, however, the Island of Foula assumes an
appearance riot to be mistaken. Its precipitous west end, as
seen from Westra in Orkney, at a distance of seventy miles,
forms a sttiking object. |

The Island of Foula is about fifteen miles from the near-
est point of the Mainland of Shetland, and from Lerwick
about thirty miles in a straight line, and in a direc-
tion nearly west: its greatest length is 31 miles, and
greatest breadth 24 miles. The island is divided into
two portions of nearly equal extent, by the mountainous
and flat ground. Besides the mountainous ridge I have al-
ready mentioned, the Noup occurs asa detached hill in the
south, rising very steeply to a height of 810 feet, and ter-
minating in a round summit: This hill, though of the
same height with Arthur’s Seat, becomes a feature of minor
importance in the vicinity of the Snuke. The mountain:
ridge which occupies so large a portion of the island; has
its general direction about 60° W. of N., bemg about a
mile and a half long, falling very abruptly to the north,
and with a gentle slope to the south, till it terminates in
precipices at the coast, the external form of the mountain

* Conjectured to be a corruption from Rue-Ness Hill:

ISLAND OF FOULA. 939

conforming in a general way with the tabule of the sand-
stone of which it is composed. An elevated platform, about
600 feet high, projects to the north from the west end of
the ridge, and terminates abruptly at the north-west point
of the island; and when viewed from the east, a few miles
at sea, the last mentioned point, with the three peaks of the
Snuke ridge, appear like separate hills rising behind each
other, and then, with the Noup, may probably constitute
the five hills of Foula with some, though, correctly speak-
ing, it contains but two.

This island is chiefly composed of sandstone, resting on
primary rocks; the upper 600 feet or 700 feet being of a
loose texture, occasionally ferruginous, containing numer-
ous small scales of mica dispersed through it. | Pebbles
of quartz, and fragments of other rocks, eccur, but not
frequently, and are arranged in layers and patches; the
first conformable with the direction of the strata, which is
also the line the patches assume in regard to each other.
Green-earth also occurs in some places, in considerable
quantities, in small compressed nodules, appearing, at first
sight, like the fragments of a schistose rock dispersed in the
sandstone. ‘The sandstone, which occupies the upper part
of the Snuke, has the direction of its strata nearly conform-
able with the line of the ridge, having its outgomgs on the
steep north slope of the hill, while it dips to the south-west,
at an angle of about 12°, constituting the cliffs on the south-
west side of the island, from Ravenbrag to the south
point. Along that portion of the coast, from the softer na-
ture of the rock, and the inclination of its base towards the
sea, full scope is given to the action of the waves, and a
scene of ruin and impending danger arrest the attention of
the spectator; enormous masses, quite detached, seem
ready to fall on the slightest application of force; while

QAO ‘ACCOUNT OF THE

fragments, larger than the huts of Shetland, strew the
shore. Among the cliffs of this shore may be seen some
beautiful specimens of carious sandstone, produced. by: the
action of the weather, the cells of great depth, and the
septa of the most delicate thinness. 7

In descending from the Snuke ridge to the platform at
the foot of Combe Hill, the sandstone then becomes more
-eompact ; and the small scales of mica, heretofore promiscu-
ously arranged, are now disposed with thin, flat surfaces
parallel to the stratification, and more or less in layers, giv-
ing the rock often a decided schistose character, when the
mica is abundant,—an appearance which may also be dis- _
covered by weathering, even where the mica is scanty. As
we continue to descend towards the north, the sandstone
becomes still more compact, and often passes into, or alter-
nates with, quartz rock, from which, however, the mica
is rarely absent, though in some of the harder varieties
it becomes again irregularly dispersed through it. At the
north point of the island, opposite the Friar Rocks, we
arrive at the lowest pomt in the regular stratification
of the sandstone, proceeding from the Snuke ridge. In
a small bay (marked f in the map), the sandstone is
much undulated, and even contorted ; the seams of stra-
tification become wedge-shaped, curved, and leave the
structure of the rock m an undefinable and _ unstrati-
fied mass. ‘To the east and west of this point the strata
again become remarkably straight, and their slaty struc-
ture well marked, differing in direction; however, on
the opposite sides of the unstratified mass; that on the
east side bearing 77° W. of N., while, on the west side,
the direction of the strata is 105° W. of N. The Arched
Friar, a singularly picturesque rock, arched in two op
posite directions, and supported on four columns, I con

THE ISLAND OF FOULA. 41

jecture, belongs to the unstratified portion to which it is
opposite, and to which, I imagine, it owes its ability to re-
sist the action of the waves.

‘This occasional interruption of the stratification of a rock
in the line of its direction, is a circumstance that deserves
to be well studied. A most remarkable instance of the
same kind occurs near Lambaness, in the Island of Stronsa.

Among the lower beds of the sandstone, a few thin layers
of limestone occur, very compact, of a blue colour, and re-
sembling siliceous schistus; argillaceous matter also, in
combination with the mica in very thin lamina, serve occa-
sionally to give the sandstone a schistose structure. But
the circumstance most worthy of attention, is the occurrence
of some thin beds of indurated clay, containing minute
scales of mica; these are from a foot to two inches in thick-
ness. The sandstone in the immediate vicinity has much the
appearance of quartz-rock, and fills up numerous rents and
openings of the indurated clay, which is chiefly separated
by openings vertical to the plane of stratification, present-
ing appearances similar to what clay assumes in drying.
The following sketch of a small portion will convey a no-
tion of the manner in which it occurs, in which the white
spaces represent the sandstone with its branches alternating

with and traversing the clay, which forms the black parts of
the figure.

J49, ACCOUNT OF

Proceeding from the north point of the island to the
eastward, the strata have their direction 77° W. of N.;
when two-thirds across the open bay, the sandstone begins
to rise towards the promontory (B), its direction and dip
bending round at right angles to their former bearing. Its
rise towards B is at first very gentle; but near the point
(a) the dip rapidly assumes an angle of ‘70°, where a small
gully divides the sandstone from the primary rocks; and,
on the east side of the gully, an apparent chaos of primi-
tive rocks meets the eye; thick tortuous beds or veins of
graphic granite intersect gneiss and mica-slate in the most
fantastic manner; and veins or beds of quartz, of a calcedonic
appearance, of a foot and more in thickness, tend. to increase
the variety. An attentive examination, however, shews,
that the gneiss and mica-slate, and even the granite veins,
have a general tendency to one direction and dip; and a
view of the east side of the rock A, which accompanies this
description, will shew the nature of the association. ‘The
dip is a little to the E. of S. The granite veins, however,
are not always parallel with the dip of the strata; on the
contrary, as is seen in the section of the rock A, they
sometimes intersect them at right angles. I observed in one
place a section, in the direction of the stratification, display
two curved veins of granite, inclosmg a portion of mica-
slate.

At the promontory B, the mica-slate contains fntdi fem 3

blende, and in some places is studded with garnets. Fel-
spar occurs also between the layers, by which means it
passes into gneiss, to which it seems subordinate. ‘On the

east side of the promontory B, all appearance of gneiss and

mica-slate is lost, and an unstratified mass of fine-graimed
graphic granite extends for half a mile along the coast to
the point C.. This granite is of the same nature with the
veins already mentioned ; the felspar, which is in excess,

4 wads ss La ™

ms Vollv.P, 242,

:

i

= SS

ns

SS =

Beas
a

th

THE ISLAND OF FOULA. IAS

1s sometimes nearly compact, and so abundant, as, with-
out its geological connections, would render the name of
granite rather mapplicable*. At the pomt C, the 'un-
stratified rock terminates, and a narrow cave or fissure
at that place prevents an-imspection of its contact. with
the succeeding rocks. On the south side of the fissure, at
(C), gneiss rocks occur, dipping to 25° (S. of E.), at an
angle of 45°, and extend for a space of a mile and a half
to (d), varying or curving in the direction of the strata,
_ the most general being the magnetic north, nearly at right
angles to the general dip of the sandstone. Subordinate to
the gneiss occur beds of mica-slate, hornblende-slate, and.
compact felspar, and occasionally veins of large-granular
granite present themselves. ‘The junction, near the point
_ d, of the sandstone and gneiss is effected by gradations so
minute, as to render it difficult to point out the precise spot,
affording a remarkable contrast with the junction of these
rocks at the north end of the island. At the point e, a bed
of unstratified quartzose rock occurs, apparently bending
up the strata of the superimposed sandstone. Among the
primary rocks of Foula, minute crystals of iron and copper
pyrites often occur disseminated.
_ The distinction of Primary and Secondary rocks in this
island may be rather comparative than real; for, though
the sandstone occasionally partakes both of the character of
primary sandstone and quartz-rock, it also alternates with,
and at last passes into, sandstone of a much newer aspect.
The Transition class, m this instance, seems a very conve-
_mient division to refer it to.

a

* The nature and connections of this granite are somewhat Sima to

those of Ronas Hill and Ben Layel.
a2

QAA ACCOUNT OF

The hnes drawn on the map, distinguishing the bounda-
nies of the different rocks, are in a great measure conjec-
tural, as the surface has there a deep covering of peat-moss,
and the only clue is that afforded by the direction of these
lines as they occur at the coast ; but as their extent is small,
the direction and length assigned to them cannot differ much
from the truth. |

The Island of Foula, except on the very steep acclivities,
is covered with peat-moss to a considerable depth; and the
circumstance of laying waste the country, for the purposes
of fuel and roofing, which so constantly distresses the eye
in Orkney, is here almost rendered impossible. At Stanis-
field, however, a portion of the Noup Hill, the covering of
peat-moss being scanty, the natives have managed by per-
severance to get down to the naked rock; and they seem
disposed to prevent an accumulation of soil again in that
place, as I observed some of them employed in cutting for
fuel the scattered tufts, the remains of former attacks.
This system of carrying off the soil, so prevalent in Ork-
ney and Fair Isle, cannot be sufficiently deprecated, or too
soon put an end to, as hundreds of acres of good land are
every year consigned to sterility, though abundance of
peat-moss is never far distant. Along the margins of the
brooks in Foula, white and red clover, of natural growth,
appear in considerable luxuriance; and should Mr Leisx,
the worthy proprietor of Uya, be able to draw the atten-
tion of the Shetland proprietors to pasture, instead of corn-
fields, Foula may, after no great lapse of time, present over
its greater extent rich crops of grass, instead of the heath
and scanty herbage it at present affords.

The number of inhabitants in Foula amounts to about
165. And it is a curious fact, that during the last
seven years there has been no marriage in the island, nor
illegitimate children ;-——in this respect affording an extra-

THE ISLAND OF FOULA. B45

ordinary contrast to the state of Fair Isle. Nor does the
contrast end there. In Fair Isle, the natives are in general
half-starved and ill-clothed, seem squalid and unhealthy,
and have a look of savage apathy. In Foula, the reverse
is the case: in every respect the inhabitants seem to be
much at their ease, are decently clothed, and are of a cheer-
ful, inquisitive character. Indeed, I met no peasantry in
Shetland that equal them. Their frank, free disposition,
simple primitive manners, render them a very amiable
people. It seems difficult to account for the difference be-
tween the inhabitants of two small islands so near, and in
every respect so similarly situate. The difficulty entirely
ceases, however, when it is known that the Fair Islanders
live principally by smuggling, and the Foulaese by fish-
ing: much may also be due to the exertions of the pro-
prietor of the island, Mr Scort.

Our arrival in Foula, to carry on there the operations of
the Trigonometrical Survey, excited the wonder of the
Foulaese very much; they never ceased to express their
admiration of the marquees and tents, and other objects of
novelty. But when they understood our intention of carry-
ing our baggage to the summit of the Snuke, and living
among the bonxies, they considered the attempt would be
fruitless and rash. An elderly man, looking at the great
theodolite in its case, exclaimed, “ It’s a bonny box; but
it’s no in the poor o’ man to take that up the Snuke.”
When, however, they saw our lusty artillerymen set off
with heavy packages up the steep ascent of Snifield, a kind
of emulation seized them, and we were enabled to hire
about twenty of them, on easy terms, to assist; and the
same evening we had an encampment of eight tents on the
Snuke. A respectable old woman, who seemed to pay great
respect to the Hill Trows, gave us her blessing at parting,
assured, that if we were really going to live among the

946 ACCOUNT OF

bonxies, we should never return safe again, 'The men, too,
feared “the bonny claith-houses would never stand the
north winters.” The news from the metropolis arrives in
Foula a few months after date, a good deal changed in its
course northward, but more adapted. to the ideas of the
Foulaese. I was seriously asked if it was true the King
was coming to Feula.

The name of Foula being supposed by some to have
been imposed from the quanity of fowl that mhabit. it, in
a description of the island, some notice of these may be
given; and, though ill qualified for the task, I shall state
some particulars relating to such of the feathered tribes as
particularly distinguish Foula, and shall. therefore com-
mence with the Bonxie, or Skua Gull, the Lestris catar-
ractes of naturalists. _

This bird, I believe, in the British Islands, breeds only
in Shetland, and there only on three hills, the Snuke,
Ronas, and Saxafiord, which are also the three highest. On
Foula they seem to have taken exclusive possession of the
Snuke. In its nature it appears to partake both of the na-
ture of the gull and eagle tribes. On Foula, it breeds
generally about a height of 1300 feet, and. nowhere but
on the Snuke. It is easily tamed, and is, I understand,
a very docile bird *. I often observed it walking about
within a few yards of the tent, and without fearing our
approach. When, however, his nest is approached, he
shews a determination to defend his. possession with his
life. Ravens, eagles, hawks, or other birds, are soon

* A young one, which I kept for some time, and afterwards sent to
Mr Nertt, Canonmills, near, Edinburgh, has proved remarkably docile. It
is now (May 1822) acquiring new plumage, which has every resemblance to

that of the mature bird.

THE ISLAND OF FOULA. 947

pursued from the territory they mhabit. On approach-
ing the nest, an attack mstantly commences; male and
female in rapid succession descend ‘from a ‘considerable
height, with a velocity and noise truly startling ; ‘horses,
cattle, and sheep, are immediately put to flight, and receive
no intermission of attack till well driven from the nest;
and if man, bent on sinister purposes, continues to brave
the bonxie’s fury, he will seldom accomplish his aim with-
out carrying away marks of war. ‘The nest is a mere con-
cavity in the ground; the number cf eggs two; the month
of breeding July. The young bird is a nimble, gallant
little animal, and almost as soon as hatched leaves the nest.
On the approach of danger he secrets himself im. holes, or
behind stones, with great art; and when captured, at last
_ makes a shew of defence that is quite amusing. The num-
ber of these birds that annually breed at Foula probably
does not exceed thirty pair.

The Arctic Gull (Lestris parasiticus) deserves the next
place in the description of the birds of Foula. This elegant
bird, which I have observed in Orkney to breed in single
pairs, or at most in two or three pairs in one place, seems to
have selected Foula for its head-quarters, and here it 1s chief-
ly congregated on the elevated platform under Combe Hill.
Solitary pairs may be found in other places; but at the
place above mentioned, the number of pairs breeding in
1821 probably did not fall short of 100; and having esta-
blished that as the seat of power, they are no less tenacious
of this domain than the bonxie, from which they exclude
_ all other birds. And the Skua, when it happens to stray
into the adjoining territory, is pursued by such a host of
nimble enemies, as often leave him no resource but to alight,
_ when the tactic of the Arctic gull is lost; his long wings,
SO advantageous to him on the wing, being quite the reverse

JABS ACCOUNT OF

on the ground. They are equally fierce with the bonxie in
the defence of their nest, and make up in superior velocity
their deficiency of weight. The rushmg noise that ac-
companies the dartmg resembles that of a small’ rocket.
The Arctic gull employs the same stratagems with the
plover to decoy enemies from its nest. Placing itself at some
distance from its retreat, 1t assumes the appearance of be-
ing disabled and incapable of flying, even making repeated
tumbles, and continues to excite pursuit in a direction op-
posite to that of its nest, till a safe distance is obtained ;
the Arctic gull then mounts with extraordinary velocity :
and I may venture to say, that, to a person ignorant of
the trick, the stratagem is conducted with an art that never
fails of success.

In approaching the nest of the Arctic gull, an attack
still more fierce than that of the Skua commences. The
intruder receives constant flaps with the wings of the bird.
Judging from the rapidity of the dart, and their just graz-
ing the head of the person, I imagined, if any hard sub-
stance was suddenly elevated above the head a few inches
at the moment previous to the graze, the animal would
probably terminate its existence against it. I accordingly
elevated the muzzle of a fowling-piece a few inches above
my head, and after a few trials, in which the bird shewed
a most extraordinary power of altermg its course when al-
most touching the gun, the experiment ended by its death ;
and so great was the force with which it struck the gun,
that its brains were forced out, and the death was instantane-
ous; and I have no doubt an adroit person might kill num-
bers in this way. The form of the nest, number, colour, and
shape of the eggs, resemble that of the Skua, as also the
time of breeding. The young birds, or scories, are of a
very handsome dark-speckled brown; the old birds are

THE ISLAND OF FOULA: 249)

generally of a blackish colour all over, with exception of
the belly, which is of a rusty or tarnished appearance.
Considerable numbers, however, appear with white bellies,
and a few variously speckled on the breast, forming a
gradation between those with black and those with white
bellies. ‘These varieties of colour, I imagine, are the effect
of different ages, having observed pairs belonging to the
same nest associated in every possible mode of combining
the colours, as two whites, two blacks, a white and black,
a white and speckled, and a black speckled, and two
speckled: I should imagine that not less than 150 pairs
breed in Foula. .

The Kittiwake Gull (Larus rissa); from ther num-
bers; are next im importance, and are remarkable in their
adopting a very peculiar and circumscribed place of breed-
ing; they are all congregated in a natural arch, with which
the north-west point of the cliff of Foula is perforated. It.
seems a habit of this bird to prefer covered places of breed-
ing, and the number that crowd into the arch is so great
as to completely whiten the face of the rock, and where the
fowler, if he is disposed, may destroy them by bushels.

The Puffin (Alca arctica) breeds in great numbers on
all the high cliffs of Foula, and their number probably ex
ceeds that of all the other birds put together. _

That well known bird of the sailors, Mother Cary’s
Chicken (Procellaria pelagica), conceived by many of them
to breed under the sea; and never to alight on land, breeds
in Foula in considerable numbers; and an abundant sup-
ply, both of old live birds and young ones; or eggs; may be
_obtamed from the boys of Foula for a very trifling reward.
The eggs are of a dull-white colour, and very soited at
both ends.

Ravens are in considerable numbers in Foula, and I ob-
served them more numerous on one high cliff of great

VOL. IV: : R

250 ACCOUNT OF »

height, which I have named Raven Crag in the map, though
probably it has a native name attached to it, few features
of the island being without them; but probably the omis-
sion of native names to minute parts will not be regretted,
as many of them can only be pronounced by a native, of
which the Snuke is an instance, as it is somewhat difficult
to say whether the concluding consonant should be k, g,
or d, though I think the & comes considerably the nearest.

I saw some Eagles, but am informed they do not breed
on Foula at present.

The Sea-pie, or Oyster-catcher, occurs in autdesde
numbers in Foula along the low shores; as also the small
Guillemot, and the Danish Duck. Of Plovers and Curlews,
so plentiful in other isles of Shetland, I did not observe an
individual; and I was told the appearance of curlews on the
coast of Foula was a sure indication of an approaching
storm.

Seals are abundant on the coast of Foula in the month
of July, both of the large and small species; the place
of resort seems chiefly to be under the high cliffs between
the Combe and the Kittiwake Walk. I1 ns I saw not
less than forty in one day.

The curiosities of Foula, chiefly detailed by the natives,
are, I am afraid, no longer to be found. ‘The carbuncle,
seen by boatmen under the high cliffs of Combe Hill, is
not confined to Foula, as the same ppPHeIeues is said to
occur off Hoy. uN

I regret I did not examine the Lum of Smnifield, a cre-
vice near the summit of the peak of that name, which the
natives allege descends perpendicularly to the level of the
sea (1130 feet), and then to have a subterranean passage
to the ocean. Of the truth of which, they adduce the aircum-
stance of a deg pursuing a sheep, which precipitated itself
into the creyice, and was followed by the dog, and both

THE ISLAND OF FOULA. - O51

were found afterwards at the mouth of a small cave by the
_ coast. It would, however, appear at present, if the natives
did not impose on some of our party, that the lum has
ceased to exist,.as they could discover nothing but loose
stones filling the heretofore unfathomable abyss.

~ “The following is a register of the weather in the month
of July, on the summit of Foula, or about 1340 feet above
the level of the sea, 7

252 ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND OF FOULA.

Register of the Weather on the Snuke Hill of Foula,
July 1821.

Sign — signifies before noon, and sign + after noon.

Days. | Hours:| Barom.| Ther. | Ther.

Bui ee
9 |+412
10 | +4103
+ 23
uf ce
12 |— 8
13 |+ 2
es
15{ aa
16 | 8
iG
-_ 9}
18{ Hen
as
19 Cin
mee
201 aay
a1jJi_ 8
+12
22 |. 8
93 1. 8
= 8
24<|4 33
+11
LNs
25 wae
ee
261
ag
ie
as
28~1+ 84
+11
Lg
29 +11
cg
304 De

28,8

28,737

28,523
28,488

28,297
29,275
98,755
28,848
28,824
28,667
28,505
28,210
28,133
28,118
28,170
28,242
27,982
28,046

28,058
28,037
28,092
28,122
28,206
28,278
28,277

| 28,282

28,238
28,228
28,306
28,362
28,320
28,320

General Remarks.

High north-wind, and fog.
Light do., very foggy, with showers.
Fresh do., fog clearing away,

Calm.
Calm. .
Calm. Foggy. Wlnd S.

Wind W. A gale, with fog.
Wind S. A gale, and thick fog.

Wind S. Moderate. Flying mists.
Wind S. with fog. Blowing.
Wind S. Fog on hill.

Wind S. Fresh, with showers.
Wind S. with fogs.

Do. do.

Do. do.

Clear, calm weather.

| Wind SE. Thick fog down to shore. |

Wind ESE. Fog.

Wind SE. Fog.
Do. do.
Do. do.

Clear on hill, haze in the distance.
Calm. Clear on hill.

Do. do.

Calm, clear. W. wind about 9.
Wind W. by N. Showers.

Do. do.
Wind W. do:
Calm.

Wind NE. (light). Clear.
Calm.

Wind SE. (light). Clear.
Do. do.

MEMOIRS

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
VOL. IV.

For THE YEARS 1821-22-23.

PART II.

WITH SEVEN ENGRAVINGS.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR
ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH;
_ AND LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN,
, LONDON.

PVewesee

1823.

CONTENTS

PART II. OF VOL. IV.

Page
XXI.—Skeich of the Geognosy of Part of the Coast
of Northumberland. By W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. 253

XXIT.—On the Fossil Remains of Quadrupeds, &c.
discovered in the Cavern at Kirkdale, in York-
shire, and in other Cavities or Seams in Limestone

Rocks. By the Rev. George Young, A.M. —- 262
XXIII.—List of Birds observed in the Zetland
Islands. By Laurence Edmondston, Esg.- - 271

XXIV.—<An Illustration of the Natural Family of
Plants called Melastomacee. By Mr David Don. 276
XXV.—Examination by Chemical Re-agents of a
Liquid from the Crater of Vulcano, one of the Li-
- pari Islands. By John Murray, Esq. F.L.S. - 330
XXVI.—Notice of Marine Deposites on the Margin
of Loch Lomond. By Mr J. Adamson. - - 334
XXVII.—Descriptions of the Esculent Fungi of
Great Britain, with Observations. By Robert
Kaye Greville, Esq. " ‘ a - 339

CONTENTS.

Page
XXVIII. —WNotice relative to the Habits of the Hyena
of Southern Africa. By Dr R. Knox. — - - 383

XXIX.—An Account of Three large Loadstones, one
of which presented an unusual Line of Attraction.
By John Deuchar. - — - - eoihayen - 386
XX X.—Fecollections of a Journey from Kandy to
Caltura, by the way of Adam’s Peak, made in the
Year 1819, by Simon Sawers, ca and Mr Henry
Marshall, Surgeon. - - - - - - 396
XXXI.—Some Observations on the Falco chrysaétos
and F. fulvus of Authors, proving the Identity of _
the two supposed species. By P. J. Selby, Esq. - 428
XXXIT.—Remarks on the different Opinions enter-
tained regarding the specific Distinction, or Iden-
tity, of the Ring-tailed and Golden Bagles, By
James Wilson, Esq. : - - - - 434
XXXITI.—On the Natural Roneicnis resorted to
by Mark Yarwood, a Cheshire Boy, to supply the
Want which he has sustained from Birth, of his

Fore-Arms and Hands. By Dr Hibbert. - - 449
XXXIV.—Notice in regard to the Temperature of
Mines. By Mathew Miller, Esq. — - «vee i66

XXXV.—RKemarks on some of the American Animals
of the Genus Felis, particularly on the Jaguar -

(Felis Onca, Linn.) By Dr Traill. - -_ - 468 -
XXX VI.—Observations on some Species of the Genus

Mergus. By James Wilson, Esq. - . - 475
XXXVII.—Observations on the Sertularia Cuscuta

of Ellis. By the Rev. Dr Fleming. - - - 485
XXXVIIL—Remarks on the Guanaco of South Ame-

rica. By Dr Traill. ~ - . . - 492

XXXIX.—On a Reversed Species of Fusus (Fusus
retroversus). By the Rev. Dr Fleming. - - 498

CONTENTS.

Page.
XL.—WNotice of a Specemen of the Larus eburneus,

or Ivory Gull, shot in Zetland; and further Re-
marks on the Iceland Gull. By L. Edmondston,
Esq. : s : “ : - 501
XLI.—Observations on the Formation of the various
Lead-Spars. By Mr James Braid, Surgeon. - 508
XLII.—Description of a New ose of Larus. By

Dr Trail. ; = : 2 = 2 - 514
XLIII.—Remarks on the Specific Characters of
Birds. By Mr W. Macgillivray. — - - - 517

XLIV.—WNoftes on the Geognosy of the Crif- Fell,
Kirkbean, and the Needles Eye, in Galloway. By
Professor Jameson. - : . : z - 541

XLV.—Observations ‘on the Anatomy of the Beaver,

(Castor Fiber, Linn.) considered as an Aquatic
Animal. By Dr Knox. - - = - - 548
XLVI.—Speculations in regard to the Formation of
Opal, Wood-stone, and ae By Professor —

Jameson. - a = 2 “ - 556
XLVII.—Map of Mackenzie's River. By Mr W.
F. Wenzel. : = s _ . s - 562

XLVIII.—Observations on some Species of the Genus
Vermiculum of Montagu. By the Rev. Dr Fle-
mine 2 : : = 2 - - 564

XLIX.—Notes in regard to Marine Shells found sn
the Line of the Ardrossan Canal. By Capt. Laskey. 568

- APPENDIX.
History of the Society, - = - - - S71
List of Office-Bearers for 1822-8, - - - 586
List of Members, continued from Vol. LT. - - 587 |

cee UN NEN tENY AME) Po oe NEST Boor oat

List of Engravings in Part II. of Vol. IV.

Pirate XI.

XVII.

Sketches illustrative of the Arrangement ot
the Strata near Bamborough Castle.

. Remarkable Loadstones.

. Portrait of Mark Yarwood, a Cheshire Boy,

born without hands or fore-arms.

. Specimen of Writing by Mark Yarwood.

. Figures of Sertularia Cuscuta; of a reversed

species of Fusus; and of four species of
Vermiculum.

. Figures of Scoresby’s Gull, and of the Gua-

naco of South America.

Chart of the Course of Mackenzie’s River,
by M. WEnrzEL. :

ADVERTISEMENT.

In laying its Memoirs before the Public, this Socizry
does not hold itself as responsible for the facts or opinions
which may be advanced on the various topics of Natural
History that are discussed. ‘These, accordingly, must be
distinctly understood as resting entirely on the individual
authority of the respective Writers who have favoured the —

Society with Communications.

The Council of the Wrrnerian Naturat History
Society, im order to meet the wishes of Authors of Com-
munications, whose views and discoveries may be antici-
pated by delay in the publication of the Memoirs, have re-
solved that, in future, the Parts shall be published half-
yearly, and that they shall be limited to the size and price
of the present volume.

May 1823.

PLATE XI.

Eng Shy WH Lixars

Wern. Mem. Vel. Vi Paye 253

Bamburgh C astle

= —

3

: LiF Brownsmai
Light & =
House 76

=

SSX Staples
28 a Isle

ARRANGEMENT OF THE STRATA
in the neighbourhood of
BAMIBOIRGE CAS WiG)e .

_ =) Ferne Isle
The Charm Light Ho.

XXI—~Sketch of the Geognosy of Part of thé
Coast of Northumberland:

By W. C. Trevetyan, Esq. M. W.S.

(Read 16th November 1822.)

es >
en T

J

| Tuart part of the coast of Northumberland of which I
‘Shall attempt to give a short account, extends from Budlé
Granery to Iselstone, south of Bamburgh, and is about
three miles in length:

A little west of the Granery 1s a trap dike or vein, about
_ six feet wide; beyond which are alternations of lime, sand-

stone, and shale. In the superincumbent earth are large
angular masses of a red limestone, containing madrepores;
and other organic remains:

East of the Granery; we meet with a bed of trap, which
contains small particles of iron-pyrites, calcareous spar, and.
quartz. About half-way between the Granery and Budle
Point, a distance of about half a mile, a bed of limestone
occurs, resting on the trap. The shore; extending front
Budle Granery to ‘this point; is at times covered with a
sand of a beautiful appearance, which contains iron (ats

tracted by the ae garnets, and perhaps iserine:
VoL. Iv: ; s

254 GEOGNOSY OF PART OF

At the spot marked (4.) in the map*, the rock first rises
much above the level of the sand, being there about eight
er ten feet in height. Here some small masses of compact
felspar are imbedded in the trap. After some distance, a
limestone again occurs, but wnder the trap, and on it a
sandstone (5); against the south side of which the trap
rests, and in some parts lies upon the grit, gradually ter-
minating in a thin edge. ‘The two rocks may in several
places be found adhering firmly to each other. A small
mass of crystalline limestone projects from under the trap
near this place, and on the surface of the latter is a bed of
grit, pieces of which may also be observed imbedded in that
rock, and also a fragment of an-impure limestcne (8). The
trap here gradually rises inland, forms a high hill, which is
part of a range extending to Spindlestone, about two miles
from the coast, where it forms lofty, picturesque cliffs, in their
structure approaching the columnar: the name appears to
be derived from some insulated irregular columns which
project from the mass.

A bed of limestone next: occurs, about two feet thick,
lying on the trap. Where in contact with that rock. its
appearance is very crystalline, and as it recedes from it, it
gradually loses that feature. A vein of trap is here seen,
generally three feet wide, cutting through the limestone;
and from it run many veins, from two. inches, to half an

inch, and still less, in width, and many yards in length, to
which the limestone may, be observed adhering. |

Near the spot marked 16, a vein of heavy-spar occurs
in the hmestone:. At 17, a mass of fine-graimed_ sandstone
projects from below the trap..

After passing some distance over the trap, a curious.ap-
pearance. is seen in a basin-shaped depression: a bed. of

en a

* Plate XI...

THE COAST OF NORTHUMBERLAND. 255

limestone about three feet thick (in which is the-same gra-
dation to .a’crystalline appearance, as mentioned above)
rests’ on the trap (here containmg many minute particles
of iron-pyrites); on the limestone is a shale, about eighteen:
inches: thick, contaming vegetable remains; and on it an-
other trap, approaching to columnar in its structure, about
eight feet high: a vem of the same substance connects the
upper and axe beds of that rock, passmg thr _ the
shale and: limestone.

| Beyond this, we meet with a meld sited mass: baat
coarse grit (25), a portion of a thin bed of limestone Jying
on, and a mass of the same substance imbedded in the trap:
together with portions of trap, with much imbedded quartz,
ofa impure. compact eb and of elo inchning to
jasper. © :

At 35, 5 36, area abba of fine biainal and of limestone,
under the trap.

At 37, is a clay slightly ‘hain to wacke, below the
trap, and which appears to be part of the same bed as oc-
curs again at 46 and 58. 39 is a bed of trap, with com-
pact felspar, on whicli rests a columnar trap; and under it
is a shale and a limestone about eighteen inches thick, be-
low which the trap occurs resting on 37.

The section C D shews one of ‘the most curious appear-
ances in this tract ; the columnar trap, from seven to twelve
feet high, rests in part on a shale (42) about two feet thick,
below which is a bed of trap (43): about one inch thick.

_ From this the columnar rock descends: to a limestone
_ about four feet im thickness, and from thence to 46, a bed’
resembling 37, mentioned above. In one part, a vein of
trap, connected with the upper columnar rock, passes
through these three beds, which, near it, appear much al-
tered. :

_ Leaving this spot, we pass over a eb bed of sandstone,

s 2

256 GEOGNOSY OF PART OF

a limestone, and a shale, all highly inclined. The latter’
rest on a mass of trap (apparently a vein), which termi-
nates very suddenly. 531s a highly indurated quartzy
sandstone; between it and the basalt are veins of calcare-
ous spar, pyrites, and heavy-spar. | Passing over another
bed of grit, we come to a trap, which reposes on a shale.
The next bed of this rock (59) contains large nodules of
iron-pyrites, very compact quartz, caleareous and pearl
spar, drusy cavities lined with quartz-crystals, and erystals
and. veins of iron-glance, and perhaps of titanium ; and also
masses of chert or splintery hornstone, ef a bluish-grey —
colour. In this part are also some included portions of
shale and limestone. |

We afterwards pass a bed of shale and of exit, i then
the sand prevents any further observations, venta we arrive
at Bamburgh Castle, which is seated on an eminence of
columnar trap. In the large square tower of this ancient
building is a well, supposed fo be of Roman work, sunk to
the depth of 150 feet, 75 feet of which are through trap,
and the remainder through a freestone. The junction of
the two beds is vistble in several parts of the hill; they are
sometimes separated by a thin bed of ruddle or iron-clay..

The next appearance of any rock is at Iselstone, about
a mile south of Bamburgh (a reef of rocks so called),
where, at low-water, appears a large extent of trap, and a
few yards south of it, a bed of limestone.

This is the last appearance of this rock to the south for
several miles, the next being a dike or vein at Beadnell,
described in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the
Geological Society. :

The next and only appearance of trap, on sie coast north
of Bamburgh, is at Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, where it
appears to be part of a dike or vein, probably connected
with one which crosses the nerth road near Kylse, about

THE COAST OF NORTHUMBERLAND. 257

four miles west of Holy Isle. At the latter place, near the
Abbey, the trap may be seen in some parts cutting through,
in others resting on, or inclosing, the limestone and ‘shale,
which, when in contact with it, are much altered in their
appearance. A coarse limestone appears to crop out from
below the trap, near the Castle.

~The remainder of Holy Island consists of alternations of
limestone, grit, coal, and shale. The seam of coal is seven-
teen or eighteen inches thick, and was worked for a short
time, but given up, on account of the quantity of water
which oozed in from the sea: the pits were towards the
north-west end of the Island. Small quantities of galena
have also been found here. :

The Ferne Islands, or Staples, which at high water are
_ between twenty and thirty in number, are many of them
connected at low-water (in which state they are represented
in the plan) so as to form only about thirteen. They ap-
pear to consist principally of a hard coarse trap, inclining
to columnar, which in some of them rises to the height of
nearly 100 feet above low-water mark. ‘The steep sides
generally face the south or south-west, and on the other
side they slope gradually to a level with the sea. The same
_ observation may also be made with regard to the basaltic
eminences on the opposite coast, and those more inland.

At 74, is a mass of range four or five feet thick, sur-
rounded with trap. ‘75, a limestone, and compact felspar.
At 77, large, loose, angular blocks of felspar passing into
claystone. ‘78, a bed of limestone, about five feet thick.

In a vault of a tower, on the north end of the Ferne
Island, is a well in the trap, now filled up with rubbish.

Towards the north-west point a fissure proceeds some
yards between two rocks, through which, in storms from
that quarter, the sea is driven with great violence, and

258 GEOGNOSY OF PART OF

forms a beautiful jet @eau. frequently sixty feet high, known
on the coast by the name of the Churn.

Many of the appearances described in this sketch, and
represented in the plan, can only be observed: at low water.

List of Specimens illustrative of the preceding es pre-

sented to the Wernerian Society.

The numbers correspond to the spots from whence the spe-
-cimens were taken, as represented in the Plan.

NEAR BAMBURGH.

. Trap, near Budle Granery.

. Nodule of Quartz, in do.

. Trap.under the Limestone near the ‘Granery:

- Impure.compact Felspar, m Trap.

. Junction:of Sandstone and Trap.

A. Limestone at a distance from the Trap.

B. - near the Trap.

. Sandstone above the Trap.

. Impure Limestone in Trap.

. Sandstone in Trap.

. Sand, containing Iron, Garnets, and perhaps Iserine.
. Limestone in contact with the Trap.
-———-— two feet above the Trap.

one‘ foot above:the Trap.

. From a Trap-vein in Limestone.

. The-Surface of the Trap under the Limestone.
. A Vein of Heavy-Spar in Limestone.

17. Fine-grained Sandstone under Trap.

oo 2D ee

eI aans

ee ee
Ant wWHeE OO

i
~y

THE COAST OF NORTHUMBERLAND. 259

18. Part of Trap-vein ‘three inches thick, ‘passing through a

19.
20.
21.

22.
24,

25.

26.
27.

28.
29.
30.

31.
32.

34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
4.4,
45.
AO.

bed of Limestone and Shale, and connecting two Trap
_ beds.
The upper bed of Trap, mentioned at 18.
Shale under 19.
Limestone farthest removed from’ the eile and un-
der 20.

aim

- eighteen inches from the Trap.

——— next the Trap.

The lower bed of Trap, in which many minute particles
of Iron-pyrites are disseminated.

From a small mass of coarse Grit, imbedded’ in the
Trap. |

From a small mass of Limestone in the Trap.

‘Trap with imbedded Quartz and
Carbonate of Lime. te) roe Te

Trap with Carbonate of Lime. | Forming small beds

Impure compact Felspar. pon the surface of the

Trap with Quartz. ] Trap, No. 24.

{ Fetspar inclining to Jasper. | ]

Limestone imbedded in Trap.

Fine Sandstone under Trap.

Limestone between 35, and Trap.

Clay slightly inclining to Wacke, under Trap.

Shale, under columnar Trap.

Trap, with compact Felspar.

Limestone under 38.

Quartz intimately combined with Beleuices on surface
of the Trap bed.

Shale, on which the Trap rests.

Greenstone between 42 and 44; entire thickness of
the bed, is shewn by the specimen.

Upper part of the Limestone under 43.

Central part of do. !

Clay inclining to Wacke.

260

47.

48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
5A.

55.
56.

57.
58.
59.
60.
61.

62.
- 63.

64.

65.

66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
1!
12. -

GEOGNOSY OF PART OF

Quartz and Felspar, a bed between the Trap and
Limestone 48. :

Limestone.

Grit under 46.

Limestone under 49.

Shale under 50.

Sandstone. |

Hard Quartay Sandstone in contact with Trap.

Veins of Calcareous and Heavy Spar, and Iron-pyrites,
in 52 and 53.

Crystals of Carbonate of Lime in 53.

Calcareous Spar in veins in the Trap.

Green Earth in do.

Trap in junction with Shale.

Amygdaloidal Trap.

Iron-glance in veins in the Trap.

—— in crystals, with Quartz-crystals in cavities

in Trap.

Shale, in the Trap.

From a bed of Shale.

Limestone imbedded in the Trap.

Sandstone. x

HOLY ISLAND.

Limestone in contact with the Trap.

- at some distance from the Trap.
Shale at some distance from the Trap.

in contact with the Trap.

Limestone, a bed, apparently under the Trap.
in the Trap.

————= apparently under the Trap.

Gees

THE COAST OF NORTHUMBERLAND, 261

FERNE ISLANDS.

78. Trap of Ferne Islands.
74. Limestone in Trap.
75. Do., part of a bed.
76. Compact Felspar, above 75.
77. Felspar passing into Claystone.
78. A bed of Limestone.
80. Red Limestone occurring in Bundle Bay.

The Limestones near the Trap are generally highly phos-
phorescent when put in a coarse powder on a heated iron.

262 FOSSIL REMAINS OF QUADRUPEDS, We.

XXII.—On the Fossil Remains of Quadrupeds,
&ec. discovered in the Cavern at Kirkdale, in
Yorkshire, and in other Cavities or Seams in
Limestone Rocks. :

By the Rev. Grorce Youne, A. M.,
Corresponding Member of the Wernerian Natural History
Society.

(Read 4th May 1822.)

Tue existence of the bones of quadrupeds in several
caves in Germany, in the fissures of the Rock of Gibraltar,
and in cavities in limestone-rocks in various parts of the
shores of the Mediterranean, has long been known to the
literary world; but it is only within these few years that
similar collections of animal remains have been discovered
in the limestone-rocks of Britain. These collections are
highly interesting, as they consist chiefly of the bones and
teeth of animals belonging to warmer regions, and not
known to have been natives of Britain, at the most distant
era to which our history reaches. It is not the object of
this paper, to notice all the collections of this kind hitherto
discovered in England; but to describe some phenomena
of this class which have fallen under the observation of the

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, YORKSHIRE. 263

writer. Some part of what he has to state, has already ap-
peared in a more ample form, in the Geological Survey
of the Yorkshire Coast, just published; and more may
be found in a paper lately communicated to the Royal
Society by Professor Bucktanp, which is expected to
make its appearance in a few weeks: yet several of the
following particulars have been ascertained since the de-
scriptions now referred to were drawn up.

~The opening of the cavern at Kirkdale, near Kirkby
Moorside, in Yorkshire, which occurred in J uly 1821, has
brought to light the most singular deposit of such animal
remains hitherto observed; for though the caves of Gay-
lenreuth in Germany, and some in other parts of the Con-
tinent, present much larger accumulations of bones and
teeth, the relics entombed at Kirkdale surpass them all in
point of variety. Here were found the teeth and bones of
the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the horse,
the ox, the elk or stag, the hyena, the wolf, the bear, the
tiger, the fox, and the rat; and of some other animals,
both large and small, not yet ascertamed. Some of the
larger teeth have been assigned, in the Geological Survey,
to the Palaotherium magnum, as they appeared to corre-
spond exactly with Mr Parxrnson’s description of the
teeth of that extinct animal; but the author has found
that they belong to the lower jaw of the Rhinoceros.
"The most remarkable specimen not yet identified, is that
figured in the Geological Survey, Plate xv11., No. 11.,
from the collection of the Reverend Jos. Smytu, A. B. of
Kirkby Moorside. A correct model of that specimen,
executed by Mr Brirp of Whitby, is now presented to the
~Wernerian Society. .
- Along with the bones of quadrupeds, there were dis-
covered a few bones of fowls. ‘The specimen given in the
Geological Survey, Plate xvii., Fig. 3., seems to be a wing-

964 Y¥OSSIL REMAINS OF QUADRUPEDS, &c.

bone of a goose, or large duck; and Professor BuckLanp
has wing-bones of a raven and a large pigeon, 0 ate
characterised.

The cavern, which is minutely described in the Geologi-
eal Survey, p. 271, &c. is a long and narrow opening in
the oolite limestone, on the banks of Hodgbeck, scarcely
a hundred yards to the south-east of Kirkdale Church, and
about a furlong from the place where the strata, which
gently dip toward the south, sink under the deep alluvium
of the Vale of Pickermg. The opening was discovered by
some workmen employed in quarrying the rock, on the side
of the bank, where the broken edges of the strata are
covered with alluvium, forming a slope rather steep. The
entrance is about 100 feet distant from the beck or rivulet,
36 feet above its level, and 30 feet below the level of the
top of the bank above the quarry. It has been traced in-
ward, in a direction nearly horizontal, above 250 feet, in-
cluding 45 feet laid open by the operation of quarrying.
The breadth of this aperture varies from two or three feet
to six or seven. In two places, the height is such as to
allow persons to stand upright; in some other parts, we
may walk stooping; but im most places, it is necessary to
walk on our hands and knees; and in some spots, the roof
is so low, that there is no passage but by crawling along
the ground. |

Some parts of the cave present obvious marks of fracture
and dislocation; and it is traversed by cross fissures in va~-
rious directions. Yet it is not a mere fissure in the rock,
as is evident from the want of correspondence between the
opposite sides, and from the existence of a number of round-
ed hollows or depressions, appearing in the sides, the floor,
and even the roof; resembling such water-worn hollows as
we see in rocks in the beds of rivers, or on the shores of
the ocean, The roof is for the most part quite solid, and

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, YORKSHIRE. 265

where cracks appear, they are far too narrow to have ad-
mitted the contents of the cavern to have entered by them.
It is difficult, however, to make proper observations on the
interior surface, for it is almost every where covered with a
crust of stalactite; pillars of which, at the opening of the
cavern, were found hanging down like icicles from the roof,
completely obstructing the passage in several parts, till they
were removed. Quantities of the same calcareous matter
covered the floor here and there, in the ferm of stalagmite ;
and this, in some places, was collected in the rounded cavi-
ties of the floor, each forming a small section of a sphere,
resembling a cake of bees’ wax, having one side flat, and the
other rounded.

Along the bottom of the cave, there was also found, in
most places, a soft mud, or marly clay, varying in depth
from an inch to four or five inches; and where the stalag-
mite prevailed, the surface of the mud was. glazed over
with it. In this mud, or clay, the teeth and bones were
principally met with; and the greater part of them, parti-
cularly of the larger bones, occurred in a broad part of the
cave, about forty feet from the original entrance, and just
before the present entrance.

It is of importance to observe, that the original entrance
was of very small dimensions, not exceeding two feet square;
and. being covered with the alluvium of the bank, to the.
depth of four feet or upwards, without any vestige of open-
ing or disturbance, the cavern has had no communication
with the external air since the alluvial beds were deposited.
It has, however, small outlets, running under the alluvium,
by which the water that drops from the roof makes its
escape 5 but whether they convey the water to the adjoin-
ing stream, or to a subterrancous channel connected with it,
cannot be ascertained.

966 FOSSIL REMAINS OF QUADRUPEDS, &c.

Among the relics entombed in this cavern, no entire
skeletons were found; but the bones and teeth of the vari-
ous animals were scattered about in wild confusion; and
most of the bones, particularly those of the larger animals,
were broken and mutilated. A great number of the bones
had no appearance of being water-worn; but many others
were decidedly rounded and smoothed at their projecting
parts, bearing obvious marks of having been long agitated
by water. A few of the bones were not found in the mud
on the floor of the cavern, but in the stalactite on the sides
and towards the roof; where they may have been original-
ly lodged on shelves of the rock, and fixed in their places
by the progress of the calcareous incrustation formed over
them.

The remains of the elephant and of the hippopotamus
have been found only in small quantity. No entire ele-
phant’s grinder is known to have occurred; but I have
seen several fragments of grinders, some belonging to large
elephants, and some to small. Not more than two or three
specimens of the teeth of the hippopotamus have come
under my observation. ‘The remains of the rhimoceros
were more plentiful. Some of the larger grinders of that
animal, taken from the cave, measure eight or nme inches
in circumference at the masticating surface. A specimen
of the horn of a rhinoceros is said to have been found ; but
I have not seen it. Of the ruminating animals, the remains
of the elk, or stag, are most copious; numbers of the teeth,
with some pieces of the jaw-bones, and fragments of the
horns, having been discovered ; besides shank-bones, leg-
bones, and other relics of that animal. Of the carnivorous
animals, the remains of the wolf, the bear, and the tiger,
may be noticed as of rare occurrence. Those of the fox
were more common. ‘The minute bones belonging to ani-
mals of the rat kind, have been found in the mud in con-

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, YORKSHIRE. 267

siderable quantity ; and these are generally more entire
than:the bones of the: larger animals. Several: jaw-bones,
with the teeth, have been obtained:; ‘but I have seen no
entire. cranium, even of these small animals.

Of all the relics m the cavern, however, those of the
hyena are the most abundant,’ the teeth and bones being
found: im great quantities. Not a few entire jaw-bones,
chiefly of the lower jaw, have been obtained ; and these
arevery distinctly characterised, as I have observed, on
comparing: them: with a recent skull of the hyena, im the
possession of Mr Arxinson of York.

Among the mud of the cavern, Professor Diekunnb
discovered,some rounded pieces, or balls, of a whitish sub-
stance, which he supposes to be the fecal matter of the
hyenas.|: ‘This substance, being analyzed by Dr: Wottas-
TON, was found to consist of the same ingredients as the
dung of dogs that: are fed on bones. I have seen some
specimens of this» substance; but having observed some
pieces:of bones nearly m the same state; I am not without
suspicion, thatthe whole may be portions of bone, decom-
posed.in-the cavern, and reduced to their-present form. by
a mixture of water and other ingredients. No sand or gra-
vel, or next to none, has been found in the mud; yet I
have. procured from, it two or three small pebbles.

Kirkdale Cavern is not the only cavity in the oolite rocks.
of that quarter, in which such organic remains: have been
discovered. In the year 1786, some workmen, employed at
a quarry about a mile north-east of Kirkby Moorside, laid
open a.chasm in the rock, several yards below the surface:
_ of the ground, containing a large collection of bones. They
were supposed to be the bones of men and. horses, whose
carcases had -been thrown into the chasm, after some battle
fought, in the neighbourhood: but as the chasm was com-
pletely closed above, not by mere alluvial matter, but by

268 . FOSSIL REMAINS OF QUADRUPEDS, &c:

the rock itself, forming a kind of arch over it, that explana-
tion of the phenomenon cannot be admitted: It is much
to be regretted, that no scientific inquirer examined the
contents of that cavern at the time of the discovery. Mr
W. Bearcrort, an intelligent gentleman, now living at
Aislaby, near Pickering, visited the spot some time after,
when the most interesting bones had been destroyed or lost..
He saw no bones of horses, but perceived a mutilated
under-jaw of a hog, and part of a leg-bone of a sheep.
Most of the other bones appeared to him to be human;
and he was told that, at the opening of the cave, there were
found nine human skulls, and eighteen scapula. For want
of that mimute mquiry which such a subject requires, the
real nature of that collection of relics must remain in un-
certainty ; but I am strongly inclined to consider it as co-
eval with the Kirkdale*collection.

In the Manor Vale, adjoming to Kirkby Moorside, ca-
verns in the limestone have been observed for many years.
Mr Brrp and I, at one of our latest visits to that quarter,
thought it of importance to have some remaining branches
of such caverns examined. Mr Biro, accordingly, made a
search into one or two of the branches. He found no aniz
mal remains; but discovered in the bottom a kind of mud;
like that in the Kirkdale cavern, with a slight mixture of
sand. In this were found a number of pebbles, or small
rounded stones, chiefly siliceous; and several pieces of
blackish vegetable matter, in so decayed a state, that they
had no distinct shape. ‘The spot has been since more fully
explored, under the direction of the proprietor; Caries
Duncomsr, Esq. M. P., in the hope of obtainmg animal
remains; but without success.

Another phenomenon, as mysterious as that exhibited at
Kirkdale, was also brought to light in the summer of 1821,
Some workmen employed at Pallion Quarry, near Sunder

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, YORKSHIRE. 269

land, found there, in the seams between the strata of the
imdenesian limestone, two teeth, and several fragments of
vibs and-other bones. One of the teeth appears to have
been broken or lost; the other (of which an exact: model is
presetited to the Society) was given me by Mr Tuomas
Baker, the conductor of the quarry. On my way to
‘Edinburgh, last week, I visited the spot, along with Mr
Baker, and the foreman of the quarry, by whom the teeth
and bones were found. The place, as stated in the Geo.
logical Survey, p. $22, is about sixty-five feet below the
surface of the ground, from ten to twenty feet, or more,
below the surface of the solid rock, and above an hundred
yards from the original face of the quarry, which is towards
the bank of the river Wear, fronting the north. The strata
_ have a gentle dip to the south, becoming lower as they re-
cede from the river. There is no vestige of any cave, at
the spot where the animal remains were found; nor of any
perpendicular fissure, by which they could have fallen down
from the surface; nor of any open lateral channel, by which
they could be washed into the position which they occupied :
but they were found imbedded in a kind of mud, which
fills up the seams or horizontal interstices between the beds
of limestone. ‘The mud, which is somewhat sandy, rarely
exceeds two or three inches thick ; but it is of very irregu-
lar thickness, as it accommodates itself to the surface of the
limestone beds; and these, instead of being smooth, are
generally marked with numerous hollows or dimples, which
the mud fills up. The bones were not found in any one
seam, but in a variety of seams, at various depths, some
being ten or twelve feet lower than others; nor was there
any visible communication between the higher seams and
the lower. Being anxious to ascertain whether any more
bones could be found, I directed some of the seams to be
examined in my presence ; and, after a considerable search,
VoL, Iv. vs

270 FOSSIL REMAINS OF QUADRUPEDS, &c. .

I had the satisfaction of obtaining one or two small frag.
ments of bone. I also procured from the workmen some
pieces of ribs which they had formerly taken out. These
relics are now shewn to the Society. I have also added a
specimen of the mud, with a portion of the Ais from the
Kirkdale cavern. |

Having stated the leading facts relating to thd interest-
ing phenomena, it now remains that some conjectures
should be offered ‘for explaining them. This I : propose to
attempt in a future paper.

— —List of Birds observed in the Zetland
— - 2s

By Lavrencz Epmonpsron, Esq.
Corresponding Member of the Wern. Nat. Hist: Soc:

(Read 16th November 1822.)

Tur utility of zoological topography, in enlarging our
acquaintance with the habits and distinctions of animals;
and in displaying the nature and extent of those external
circumstances, which often so powerfully change and mos
dify them, has been too long acknowledged to be now iné
sisted on. Without its aid, anomalies, in the manners and
appearances of different species, will often baffle the saga<
city of the naturalist, and, perhaps in his uncertainty and
dilemma, tempt him precipitately to take refuge in the most
- fallacious conclusions. Hence one fertile source of thé obs
scurity which so long enveloped some of the most interést=
ing and elevated provinces of zoology,—the erfoneotis
multiplication of new species, on the one hand;—and thei
equally unfounded abridgment, on the other.
t 2

72, LIST OF BIRDS

But it is not alone by facilitating our knowledge of ex-
ceptions to general and received facts in this very interest-
ing science, and guarding us against the allurements of
premature generalization, that the steady pursuit of this
branch of zoology paves the way to its advancement: cer-
tain countries, from the peculiarity of their circumstances
and geographical situation, furnish opportunities for ascer-
taining what may be regarded as the pure and general
characteristics and habits of the species that frequent them ;
experience in such favourable situations is then of directly
general application, and hence the communication of its
results becomes proportionably more imteresting. The
Zetland Islands, in relation to most of their zoological ob-
jects, are precisely in this state; and from the peculiar
facilities which they afford to the researches of the natural-
ist, combine in themselves one of the most select stations for
generally applicable and accurate observation and experi-
ment, in this department of natural history. For the study
of ornithology they are singularly adapted, and especially
for that branch of it that refers to sea-fowl, which in many
other countries are usually so difficult of access. Ini these,
Zetland is peculiarly rich for variety and number: and
though its land-birds are comparatively few, chiefly per-
haps from the absence of woodlands, yet, as far as they
extend, they are of equal interest.

The birds more commonly found in these islands have
been long since described by authors as inhabiting them.
The following list is, therefore, supplementary to theirs,
containing fifty-nine additional species that I have met with
in this country, few of which are, I believe, generally
known to occur mit. They are either permanent mhabi-
tants, annually migratory, or occasional visitants.

IN THE ZETLAND ISLANDS. 273

PERMANENT INHABITANTS.

‘Genus Fatco

STRIX

EMBERIZA
ScoLopax
TRINGA

CoLYMBUS

- PELICANUS

ANAS

ALCA

Ossifragus, Sea Eagle.

Palumbarius, Goshawk.

Peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon.

Tinnunculus, Kestril.

Subbuteo, Hobby.

Nyctea, Snowy Owl.
(Described in p. 157---160 of this Vol.)

Miliaria, Bunting.

Pusilla, ~The Dunlin.

Hypoleucos, Common Sandpiper.

Minor, Lesser Guillemot.

(This I have the most satisfactory rea-
sons for believing to be the young of
the Colymbus troile.)

Stellatus, Speckled Diver.

(Conceived to be the young of the Red«
throated Diver.)

Glacialis, Great Northern Diver.
Immer, Ember Goose.

(This is only the young of the former.)
Cristatus, Crested Shag.

(Merely the Common Shag in its per-
fect dress.)

Marila, — 'Scaup Duck.
Glaucion, Morillon.

(The young of tlie Golden Eye.)
Crecca, The Teal.
Pica, Black-billed Auk.

(This I have ascertained to be the young
of the Razor Bill.)

274

Genus Fatco
STRIX
EMBERIZA
FRINGILLA

MorTaciILLa

Hirunpo
ScoLOPAX

TrRInGa

CoLYMBUS
Larus

ANAS

MERGUS

LIST OF BIRDS

ANNUALLY MIGRATORY.

Buteo, The Buzzard.
Eruginosus, Moor Buzzard.
Stridula, Screech Owl.
Mustelina, Tawny Bunting.

(This I have no doubt is the Snow
Flake in imperfect plumage.)

Carduelis, Goldfinch.
Alba, White Wagtail.
Trochilus, Yellow Wren.
Urbica, The Martin.
Glottis, Greenshank.
/Egocephalus, Godwit.
Canutus, Knot. —
Squatarola, Grey Sandpiper.
Islandica, Red Sandpiper.
Minor, Little Grebe.
Tridactilus, Tarrock.
(Ascertained to be the young of the
Kittiwake.)
Islandicus, ~ Iceland Gull.
(Described in p. 176—185, of this Vo-
lume.)
Crepidatus, Black-toed Gull.
(The young of the Arctic Gull.)
Spectabilis, _ King Duck.
Nigra, Scoter.
Bernicla, Brent Goose.
Penelope, Wigeon.
Acuta, Pintail Duck.
Merganser, Goosander,

IN THE ZETLAND ISLANDS. 275

OCCASIONAL VISITANTS,

CuarapRrius Hemantopus,
Recurvirostra Avocetta,

FuLica

Zetland,

July 10. 1822,

Atra,

Genus Fatco Crysaétos, Golden Eagle.

Milvus, Kite.
Islandicus, Iceland Falcon.
Cyanens, Hen Harrier,

STRIX Passerina, Little Owl.

Upupa Epops, Hoopoe.

CucuLus Canorus, Cuckoo.

Turpus Musicus, Mavis.

AMPELIS Garrulus, Bohemian Chatterer.

Loxia » Curvirostra, Cross Bill,

GLAREOLA Pratincola, Austrian Pratincole.

Hirunpvo Apus, Swift.

Pratatea _ Leucorodia, Spoonbill.

ARDEA Stellaris, Bittern.

TRINGA Pusilla, Little Sandpiper.

Long-legged Plover.
Avoset.
Common Coot.

( 276 )

XXIV.—An Illustration of the Natural Family
of Plants called Melastomacee. —

By Mr Davin Dow, Curator of the Lambertian Herba-
rium, and Corresponding Member of the Wernerian
Natural History Society.

(Read 16th November 1822.) —

—

‘Tue Melastomacese may, with propriety, be ranked
among the most natural, and least understood, orders in
the vegetable kingdom. What renders the study of this
family extremely difficult, 1s, that the greater part of the
plants which compose it are natives of tropical countries,
and, except the few that we see in cultivation, we have na
opportunity of examining them im a living state. And pre-
vious to an examination of dried specimens, it is necessary
to have an extensive assortment of different species for
comparison, and these in different states, which is not easily ~
obtained. In this respect, however, I consider myself as
having been very fortunate, having had fine specimens, in
various stages, of several hundred species, for examination.

MELASTOMACE. 277

Myr Lampert has paid particular attention to this order, |
and his herbarium now contains undoubtedly the finest
collection of Melastomacese in Europe. Another, and
certainly the greatest difficulty, attending the study of this
order, is the want of striking, discriminating characters.
This circumstance has no doubt occasioned the union of a
vast number of species to Melastoma and Rhexia, which
are generically distinct from the plants on which Linnzus
founded these two genera, in the first edition of his Genera
Plantarum. His short imperfect characters, which chiefly
depended on number, might equally apply to all the plants
of this family. An attentive examination, however, of these
plants shews that we need not despair of finding sufficient
differential marks. The more free communication with the
Islands and Continent of the New World, and the re-
searches of various naturalists in these regions, had in-
creased the number of species to such an extent, that many
botanists really felt the necessity of dividing them into vari-
ous ‘genera. Among the successful labourers in this depart-
ment, we may mention in an especial manner AUBLET,
Jussieu, Ruiz and Pavon. Although Gartner does
not appear to have given any particular attention to this
subject, yet. nevertheless to him we are indebted for hav-
ing been the first to bring into the descriptions, the import-
ant aid of characters deduced from the structure of the
seeds and form of the embryo. The labours of these na-
turalists, however, do not seem to have been rightly esti-
mated, nor to have had any important influence on the
subsequent labours of other botanists. _M. BonrLanp,
who, of all others, might have been considered as the most
likely to have been able to give importance to the divisions
proposed by AUBLET, JussIEU, Ruiz and Pavon, and to
the characters illustrated by Gartner, has adhered to the
old division; and it is a remarkable fact, that, in his recent

298 MR DAVID DON

extensive monographs of Melastoma and Rhewxia, there dees
not exist almost a single species (as has been justly observed
by Mr Brown) which really belongs to these two genera.
The whole of Melastomaceg agree im some important points
of structure, the most remarkable of which, first observed
by Mr Brown *, is the singular position of the stamens in
eestivation; the filaments are inserted in the margin sur-
rounding the mouth of the calyx; the anthers hang down
in a direct position, in the space between the calyx and
ovarium. Almost immediately on the expansion of the
flowers, the stamens ascend upwards, and hence they fre-
quently become declinate, or curved. On the increase of
the ovarium, the space between it and the calyx is gradually
filled up; and, in some cases, the capsule becomes closely
united. to the tube of the calyx, as in Miconia, Conostegia,
Tococa, &c. The anthers of all open with terminal pores ;
and in the greater part of the genera, each anther opens with
only a solitary pore, but in Blakea, and a few others. with
two: they are all likewise appendiculated at the base, The
stigma is constantly simple. The capsule varies, with from
four to six cells, rarely eight, and very rarely but three

each cell opens in the middle with an oblong fissure, by
which the seeds are shed, and the dissepiments are inserted
into the centre of each valve. ‘The receptacles correspond
with the number of cells, except in Conostegia, where they
are contiguous with the alternate dissepiments, which are
consequently eight in number. They are sometimes lunate,
and attached by a short flat pedicel, to the central axis or
columella, as in Rhewia; but in most genera, they are ob-
long three-sided, and attached longitudinally to the central
axis. Where they are thick and fleshy the capsule assumes

* Observations on the Botany of the Congo, p. 435.

ON THE MELASTOMACES. 279

the appearance of a berry, as in Melastoma, Miconia, &c.,
and the seeds appear as if imbedded in a pulp. The seeds
are destitute of albumen; they are reniform in Melastoma,
Rhexia, &e., but. mostly ovate, or oblong-cylindrical.
The shell or covering in most cases is double. “The embryo
corresponds with the figure of the seeds; in those with
reniform seeds it is arcuate, and in those with ovate or
oblong seeds it is straight. The greater part of the plants
of this family have berried capsules, which are very juicy,
and of an agreeable sweet taste; some, such as those of
Blakea quinquenervis, grow to a great size, and equal that
of a pomegranate. In Guiana, Brazil, and other countries,
where the Melastomaceee abound, the berries are eagerly
sought after, and eaten by the children of the native tribes.
The Melastomaceze abound in all tropical countries, but
especially in the Islands and Continent of the New World.
The genera Miconia, Axinea, Blakea, Chitonia, Tococa,
Meriania, Pleroma, Rhexia, Microhcia, Chdemia, Crema-
num, &e. appear to be exclusively confined to it. On the
contrary, Melastoma and Osbeckia are common to both
Continents: to the former genus, I have referred the T%-
bouchina, Aus. t. 177., and Tristemma, Juss. Rhewia is
the only extratropical genus in the whole order, being sole-
ly confined to North America: its species are also all
dwarfish herbaceous perennials, or annuals. The only other
genus, in which herbaceous plants are found, is Osbeckia,
which consists of shrubs and annuals. ‘The other genera
all consist of either trees or shrubs. ‘The whole order
"agrees, however, in having opposite, undivided, mostly
petiolated, leaves, with three, five, or rarely seven, nerves
running through them. The flowers are mostly terminal,
panicled, racemose, or corymbose, rarely capitate: in
Blakea and Meriania, they are axillary and solitary, on
Jong peduncles. Number, in the parts of the flower or

280 MR DAVID DON

fructification, 1s very variable, and, therefore, as a charac-
ter, is of little importance in this order; but the regularity
and constancy in the increase of the number of these parts
is truly admirable, and affords a fine and satisfactory illus-
tration of the correctness of Mr Brown’s beautiful theory,
regarding the increase in number of the parts of fructifica-
tion, and the proportions which they bear to each other.
In some genera, for instance, Pleroma and M elastoma,
where we sometimes find the calyx of six divisions, the pe-
tals are constantly six, and the capsule has always six cells,
The stamens regularly double that number; and, there-
fore, for every additional part, two stamens are always
added. AuBLET, in describing his Blakea quinquenervis,
has evidently mistaken the exterior scales for the calyx,
and confounded the true calyx with the capsule. The
same botanist states, but very incorrectly, that the anthers
of Melastoma burst lengthwise into two cells. | Although
the T'opobawa of AuBLET recedes somewhat from Blakea, in
its beg parasitical; yet, notwithstanding, in the Lamber-
tian Herbarium are several unpublished species, from Don
JosE Pavon, natives of Peru, and not parasitical, which
agree with Topobea in every essential pomt; and these,
also, accord well with Blakea, except in having four,
instead of six scales, surrounding the calyx, which, how-
ever, is a variable character ; and, therefore, I thmk myself
justified in uniting these two genera. Some may, probably,
think the differential characters I have given too diffuse ;
but, in an order like this, where so intimate an affinity exists
among the individuals which compose it, we are obliged,
for the sake of perspicuity, to introduce, perhaps, characters
of minor importance.

ON THE MELASTOMACES. 281

Nat. Ord. MELASTOMACER, Juss.

Calyx monophyllus, tubulosus, basi nudus aut squamis
cinctus.

Petala 4-6, lata, in ore calycis margini annulari inserta,
im zstivatione involuta, lacintis aut denticulis calycinis
alterna.

Stamina eidem margini inserta, declinata, definita, peta-
lorum dupla: anthere longe, lineares, carinate, bilocu-
lares, seeplus incumbentes, rostrata, semper apice poro aut
foramine unico (in paucis gemino) hiantes, nunc basi nunc
| postice filamentis affixes, ad basin biauriculate vel processu
calcarato instructee, estivantes in vacuo inter calycem et
ovarium directo dependentes, ad explicationem assur-
gentes.

Pistillum unicum: ovarium calyce tectum, liberum
aut ibidem connatum: stylus teres, seepius incurvus: stig-
ma, simplex, integrum.
~ Capsula calyce obvoluta, libera aut cum eo cennata, in
alvis baccata in alits sicca, 3-6-locularis, (an Conostegid 8-
locularis) : doculis polyspermis, medio rima oblonga dehis-
centibus, nisi in Conostegid numero petalorum zequalibus.

Placenta 3-6, axi centrali adnatze, scrobiculatse imbricate
seminiferse, in baccatis carnosee et pulpose. —

~ Semina o, minuta, remformia vel ovata aut oblenga:
- desta crustacea, fragilis, in plerisque duplex ; interiore mem-
branacea: albwmen nullum.

Embryo semini conformis modo arcuatus, modo rectus :
cotyl. ‘breves, .crassee, obtusee, applicatee, seepe meequales :
radicula cylindracea, cotyledonibus longior.

288 MR DAVID DON |

Arbores aut frutices vel rarids herbie. Folia opposiia,
indivisa, 8, 5 vel T-nervia, impunctata, sepits integerrima;
petiolata. Flores terminales, corymbosi, paniculati, race-
mosi, aut rariis subsolitari, vel axillares solitarti aut ag-
gregati.

Oxss. Melastomaces; ut recté habet illustris Jussixw,
medium quasi inter Myrtaceas et Salicarias tenent: ab
Salicariis discrepant, antheris rostratis basi appendiculatis
poris apice hiantibus. In Myrtaceis veris anthere breves,
incumbentes, medio filamentis adnate utrinque nudz, du-
plici rim4 longitudinal: dehiscentes, folia enervia; pellucido-
punctata; sed in Petaloma, Swartz, antherze longee, basi
filamentis adnate, duplici rma breviore dehiscentes et folia
impanctata. Atque in Memecylon, Du Petit. Thouars, an-
theree oblong; incumbentes, fer per medium filamentis
adnate, dupliei rima longitudinali dehiscentes et folia nunc
uninervia, in alizs obsoleté trinervia.

ee

SYNOPSIS GENERUM, CUM CHARACTERIBUS
DIFFERENTIALIBUS.

§ 1. Semina simplici gyro cochleata, apice umbi-
lico magno cancavo notata. Hmbryo arcua-
tus, semini conformis. Cotyledones inex-
quales; suyperiore duplo crassiore. Mrutices
aut Herbe. |

1. Metastoma. Calyx limbo 5 raro 6-fidus: laciniis
deciduis, szepé minima interjectis: petala 5 raré 6:
anthere basi processu bicalcarato v. bisetoso instruc-
tae; alternis majoribus, pedicello longo filiformi suf-
fultis: stigma punctum, pruinosum: capsula bac~
cata, 5 raro 6-locularts.

2.

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 983

Ossecxta. Calyx limbo 4 raré 5-fidus: laciniis per-
sistentibus v. deciduis, sepé squamula interjectis:
petala 4 raro 5: anthere sequales, basi biauriculate,
apice in rostrum tenue desinentes: stigma punctum
pruinosum: capsuda sicca, 4 rard 5-locularis.

Preroma. Calyx limbo 5-partitus: Jaciniis caducis:
petala 5: anthere subequales, basi arcuate, in sti-
pite brevissimo productze, biauriculate : stigma punc-
tum pruinosum : capsula baccata, 5-locularis.

Dirtostecium. Calyax limbo 5-fidus, persistens, in
calyptra duplici cucullata hispida inclusus! petala 5:
anthere subquales, basi biauriculatee: stigma punc-

tum pruinosum: capsula baccata, 5-locularis.

Ruexta. Calyx basi ventricosus, apice in collo an-
gustatus: limbo 4-fido, persistente: petala 4: anthe-
r@ mcumbentes, postice filamentis affixee, basi nude :
capsula in ventro calycis hibera, 4-locularis: placentcee
lunatee, pedicellate.

ArturostrmMa. Calyx oblongus, equalis, limbo 4-
fidus, persistens: petala 4: anthere incumbentes,
basi calcare longissimo clavato adscendente instructe :
capsula sicca, 4-locularis, tubo calycino sequalis.

. Acioris. Calyx globosus, carnosus, limbo coarctatus,

persistens, 4-dentatus: petala 4, apice obliqué aris-
tata: jfilamenta medio articulata. anthere erecte,
basi nudes: capsula baccata, 4-locularis.

Microttcia. Calyx globosus, limbo 5-partitus, per-
sistens: petala 5: anthere stipite longissimo fila-
menta incumbente et cujus.extremitate processu sim-
plici calcarato instructa suffulte: capsula sicca, 3-
locularis, 3-valvis ! |

284 MR DAVID DON

§ 2. Semina ovoidea v. oblonga, umbilico laterali,
seepilis crasso, convexo, aucta. Himbryo rec-
tus, semini conformis. Cotyledones sube-
quales. Arbores aut Frutices.

9. Tococa. Calyx oblongus, basi nudus v. squamosus ;
limbo urceolato, persistente, 5-dentato: petala 5:
anthere equales, basi posticé biauriculatee: stigma
magnum, orbiculato-peltatum: capsula baccata, 5-
locularis. |

10. Cuipemia. Calyx oblongus, basi nudus v. squamosus,
limbo persistens, 5-dentatus: petala 5: anthere basi
constrictee, biauriculate: stigma punctum pruino-
sur: capsula baccata, 5-locularis.

11. Cremanium. Calya campanulatus; limbo urceolato
persistente 4 rarius 5-dentato: petala 4 v. 5: an-
there breves, subcuneatee, apice duplici foramine
hiantes!_ stigma orbiculato-peltatum: capsula bac-
cata, 4 v. 5-locularis. ; |

12. Centronia. Calyx oblongus, undique setis retrorsis
vestitus ; limbo coarctato, integro! petala5: anthere
longissimze, rostratee, basi processu longo subulato
acutissimo instructz: stylus in’ collo tubuloso elon-
gato ovarii inclusus! stigma obtusum: capsula 5-
Jocularis.

13. Miconta. Calyx limbo, persistens, 5-dentatus: den-
tibus brevissimis, apice intus membrana lata obtusa
auctis: petala 5: anthere basi auriculate: capsula

- baccata, 5-locularis. |

14. Conostec1a. Calyax limbo indiviso, conico, calyptrato,.

in estivatione e tubo circumscisso et deeidente: pe-

ON THE MELASTOMACEA. 985

tala 5-6: anthere basi biauriculate : capsula baccata,
8-locularis.

15. Carronta. Calyx tubulosus, basi squamis duabus

bracteatus, limbo persistens; 5-dentatus: petala 5:
anthere apice rostratze: stigma peltatum: capsula
baccata, 5-locularis.

16. Axtnma. Calyw cyathiformis, basi nudus, limbo pers

sistens, 5-6-denticulatus: petala 5-6: anthere apice
obtuse, duplici poro dehiscentes! basi in processu
simplici calcarato productee: capsula libera, 5-6-lo-
cularis.

17%. Mertanta. Calya campanulatus, basi nudus, limbo

persistens, 5-6-dentatus: dentibus lineari-subulatis,
intus membrana lata auctis: petala 5-6: antheré
apice obtusze, duplici poro hiantes! basi processu
brevissimo calcarato instiuctée: capsula libera, 5-6-
locularis.

18. Brakes. Calyx campanulatus, basi squamis latis 4

v. 6, cruciatim vel triplici ordine dispositis cinctus ;
limbo persistente, membranaceo, 6-lobo v. 6-denticu-
lato: petala 6: anthere magne, in annulum con-
catenatee, apice obtuse, poro gemino hiantes! basi
processu brevi calcarato instructe: capsula baccata;
_ ealyce connata, 6-locularis.

VOL. IV: tf

986 MR DAVID DON

emma

Mertastoma, Burm., Linn.

Metastome et Rurexiz sp. Auctorum.
Trzoucnuina, Audl., Juss.
TRISTEMMA, Juss.

Calyx campanulatus aut oblongus, tubulosus, extus se-
tosus v. squamulosus, raro nudus, dum juvenis squamis
duabus membranaceis ad basin munitus, limbo 5-fidus,
quandoque 6-fidus: daciniis deciduis, saeepe minima inter-
jectis. Petala 5 rarius 6, lata, obovata v. lateribus inzequa~-
libus subdolabriformia, obliqué mucronulata, basi ungue
lato brevissimo in summo tubo calycis ad marginem circu-
larem affixa. Stamina 10 v. 12, inzqualia, eidem margint
inserta: jilamenta erecta, lmearia, compressa, glabra: an-
there longissime, subtrigonee, biloculares, dorso carmatz,
anticé canaliculate et rugoso-plicate, apice poro obliquo
solitario hiantes; alternee mult6 majores, declinate, pedi-
cello (antherarum carine continuatione) longo filiform:
cujus extremitate processu bicalcarato nunc bisetosa m-
structa filamenta propria incumbente suffulte; czeteris
erectis basi similiter bicalcaratis sed. absque pedicellis.
Ovarium subrotundum v. ovatum, tubo calycino inclusum
et ejus basi arcte connatum, apice pilis coronatum. Styles
teres, declinatus, robustus, stamina brevicra subzequans,
glaber, superné curvatus et angustior. Stigma apex. iso-
perimetrus, obtusus, pruinosus. Capsula baccata tubo
calycino obvoluta, 5-locularis, 5-valvis, quandoque 6-locu-
laris 6-valvis, a rima oblongé medio cujusque loculi 5 rar6.
6-fariam dehiscens. Dissepimenta 5-6, membranacea me-
dio valvarum inserta, axi centrali levis connexa. Placenta

ON THE MELASTOMACE®, 287

5 v. 6, magne, oblong, trigons, carnosee, scrobictlate,
imbricaté seminiferz, angulis columellee adnate. Semina
numerosa, reniformi-subrotunda, punctata, badia v. fusca:
testa duplex ; exterior crustacea, fragilis ; interior membra-
nacea. Embryo arcuatus, semini conformis, lacteus: cotyl.
inzequales, crassee, breves, convexa, applicate; superiore
duplo crassiore: radicula teres, attenuata, cotyledonibus
multo longior, curvata, vaga.

Frutices (Asie Orient. Afric. et Amer. Aquin:) humiles
seepius hispidé setosi. Folia petiolata, integerrima (in dua-
bus serrata), 3--nervia. Flores pedunculati, terni v.
plures terminales sive rard axillares, ampli, roset aut pur-
purer.

Oss. Melastoma, ut nunc limitata, genus vere naturale
et abunde discrepans ab proxima Osbeckid, antherarum
structura singulari et capsuld baccata, constituere videtur.
Tristemma, Juss. cui, ni fallor, nullus character nisi falsus
est huc revocanda; ob certé triplicem annulum ciliari-
squamulosum calycis non semper stabile signum esse, et
nequaquam pro discrimine generico habenda sit. In exem-
plo sicco hujus plante ex Insulé France squamulas calycis
quandoque sparsas, ut in pluribus altis speciebus, observavi,
et in proxima specie ex Sierra-~-Leonda calyces feré nudi sunt.
Characteres omnium specierum quas determinavi, hic infra
adjiciuntur.

1. Melastoma Malabathrica, ramis squamulosis, foliis el-
liptico-oblongis acutis quinquenerviis utrique viri-
dibus asperis, floribus subternis, calycibus densé
squamulosis.

Melastoma Malabathrica, Linn.
_ffab. in Insulé Ceylona. 2. (v.v. c. et s. spont. im
Herb. Lamb.)
vd

288 MR DAVID DON

2. M. affinis, ramis squamulosis, foliis lanceolatis acutis
trinerviis utrinque pilosis asperis, floribus subternis, |
calycibus densé squamulosis.

Hab. ad Freta Sundze dicta (Georgius Staunton, ba-
ronettus) in India Orientali. Rowburgh. h. (ve S.
m Herb. Lamb.)

Oss. Preecedenti nimis affinis et forsan varietas ejus ;
sed quidem differt : foliis longioribus angustioribus-
que trinervibus magis asperis.

3. M. candida, ramis squamulosis, foliis ovalibus acutis
{-nerviis utrinque dense sericeis candidis, calycibus
mollibus squamulis lineari-elongatis appressis niveis
obtectis.

Hab. in China, etiamque ad Freta Sunde dicta.
Georgius Staunton, baronettus. h. (v. s. i Herb.
Lamb.)

4. M. aspera, foliis ellipticis acutis $-nerviis utrinque viri-
dibus ramulisque setoso-pilosis asperis, floribus pani-
culatis, calycibus hispidis: lacmiis oblongis obtusis
carinatis.

Melastoma aspera, Linn.

Hab. in Insulé Ceylona. }. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

5. M. Tibouchina, foliis ovatis, acutis 5-nerviis reticula-
tis subtus ramisque squamulosis scabris, floribus
paniculatis, calycibus cblongis extus squamulis
lineari-lanceolatis aristatis scariosis densé fectis bast
duplici squama monophyllaé vaginatis.

Melastoma Tibouchina, Lam. Encycl. 4. p. 49.

Rhexia aspera, Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 304.

Tibouchina aspera, Aubl. Guj. 1. p. 446. t. 177.

Hab. in Guiana. Aublet, Martin. hh. (v.s.in Herb.
Lamb.)

Frutex erectus, paniculatin ramosissimus. Calyces

ON THE MELASTOMACES. 289

oblongi, cylindrici, tubulosi, extus squamulis glu-
maceis dense tecti, basi squamis duabus monophyllis
tubulosis superné fissis vaginati, limbo 5-partiti:
laciniis ovato-lanceolatis aristatis scariosis extus ut
cum ramulis bracteisque lepidotis. lores magni,
purpurei. _ Anthere basi processu bicalcarate in-
structee, pedicellis brevioribus suffultze.

6. M. macrocarpa, foliis ovato-lanceolatis acumiatis 5-
nerviis utringue petiolisque viridibus asperis supra
opacis, calycibus setis longissimis patente-incuryis
tectis, ramis hispidis.

M. Malabathrica, Bot. Mag. t. 529. (exclus. Synon.)
Hab. in Chind. hh. (v. v. c.)

_. Frutex tripedalis, frondosus, ramosus, erectus. Folia
ovato-lanceolata, acuminata, 5-6-pollicaria, latitu-
dine fere biuncialia. Flores rosei, diametro 2-8-
unciales, plerumque decandri. Calyces terminales,
solitarii v. terni, pedunculo brevi tereti crassitudine
penne corvi suffulti, omnino tecti setis longissimis
viridibus incurvis intricatisque superné diaphanis :
laciniis deciduis, ovato-lanceolatis, acuminatis, intis
glabris, extus piloso-setosis, minima lineari interjectis.

Y. M. sanguinea, folis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis 5-
nervils supra viridibus nitidis subtus ad nervos ut
cum petiolis rubro-purpureis, calycibus setis longis-
simis incurvo-patentibus tectis, ramis sanguineo-his-
pidissimis.

Melastoma sanguinea, Bot. Mag. t. 2241.

fab. ad. Freta Sunde dicta (Georgius Staunton, ba-
ronettus) in China (B. M.) h. (v. v. ¢. et s. spont.
m. Herb. Lamb.)

Oxzs. Praecedenti simillima, sed differt: setis magis
confertis sanguineis, folis longioribus supra nitidis
subtiis ad nervos purpureo-rubris,

290 MR DAVID DON

8. M, grandiflora, foliis cordatis acuminatis’ 5-nerviis
utrinque viridibus ramisque setosis, calycibus pilis
patentibus setosis tectis: lacinus limeari-lanceolatis
acutis.

Melastoma grandiflora. Audl. Guj. p. 414. t. 160.
Vahl, Symb. 8. p. 59. Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 589

Hab. in pratis Guianee. Aublet. h. |

Frutex 3-pedalis. Flores violacei, terminales v. axil.
lares, terni,

9. M. Madagascariensis, folis ellipticis 3-nervis mucro-
natis basi acutis subtus ramisque hispide pilosis,
floribus paniculatis, calycibus hispidis, antheris basi
processu longissimo bisetoso instructis,

Hab. m Insulé Madagascar, Thomson. h. (v. s.
Herb. Lamb.)

10. M. Mewxicana, foltis lanceolatis acuminatis $-nervis
utrinque cauleque pilosis, floribus solitariis aut ge-
minis terminalibus axillaribusve, calycibus pilosis ;
laciniis linearibus acutis.

Melastoma aspera. Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Imperio Mexicano. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.) ¥

Frutex erectus, spithameus, ramosus. Flores rosei.

41. M4. involucrata, folus late ellipticis acuminatis 5-ner-
viis utrinque ramisque hirsutis, floribus terminali-
bus axillaribusque sessilibus glomeratis bracteis fo-
liaceis involucratis, calycibus pilosis: lacinus lanceo-
latis acuminatis,

Hab. in Sierra-Leona. Afzelius. h. (v.s. m Herb.
Lamb.)
Fruticulus facie omnino sequentis. Glomeri $-4-flori. -

12. M. virusana, folus ovalibus acummnatis 5- nerviis

~utrinque ramisque hispidé pilosis, floribus termina-

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 291

libus sessilibus glomeratis bracteis foliaceis involu-
cratis, calycibus triplici annulo setoso auctis: laci-
niis lanceolatis acutis.

Melastoma virusana, Commerson.

Tristemma virusana, Juss. Gen. p. 329.

Hab. i Insula Mauritiana (Commerson), Hardwicke.
h? (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

13. M. plumosa, foliis, subrotundo-ovatis 3-nerviis utrin-
que cauleque hirsutis, floribus sparsis solitariis, ca-
lycibus squamulis plumosis stellatis obtectis, caule
procumbente.

Hab. in Sierra-Leoné. Afselius. h. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.) :

Fruticubus procumbens.

14. M. Afzeliana, foliis ovatis acuminatis 5-nervis utrin-
- que ramisque hispido-pilosis, floribus terminalibus
subpaniculatis, calycibus setis hispidis plerumque
fasciculatis tectis: laciniis linearibus apice plumosis.
Hab, in Sierra-Leond. Afzelius. 7. (v. s. m Herb.
Lamb.) |

15. M. elongata, foliis lanceolatis acutis 3-nerviis utrinque
‘cauleque villosis, pedunculis axillaribus terminali-
busque plurifloris, calycibus oblongis extus squa-
muloso-hispidis: laciniis obloneis membranaceis
apice setosis,

Osbeckia grandiflora, Afzelius MSS.
Hab. in Sierra-Leond. Afzelius. hh. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.)

Rami elongati, tetragoni, erecti, superné nudiuscull.

16. M. diffusa, foliis ovatis acutis 3-nerviis serratis sub-
tus pilosiusculis, floribus axillaribus solitariis pedi-
cellatis, calycibus globosis subnudis: laciniis lan-

9292 MR DAVID DON

eeolatis mucronatis, caule decumbente ramosissimo
pilose.

Melastoma diffusa, Pavon MSS.

fTab. ad Portum Rico dictum. Pavon.

Fruticulus? caulibus tetragonis. Flores purpurei.

17. M. corymbosa, foliis cordatis acuminatis 'J-nerviis sub-
puosis margine serrulatis, corymbo terminali multi-
floro, calycibus nudiusculis: laciniis ovatis acutis,

Melastoma corymbosa, Hort. Kew. 8. p. 46.
fab. in Sierra-Leond. Afzelius. fh. (v. v. ¢.)

18. M. laniflora, foliis ovalibus coriaceis integerrimis supra
nudis subtus ramisque densé niveo-lanatis, floribus
axillaribus numerosis sessilibus, calycibus niveo-
lanatis. |

Hab. in Brazilia. Sello. },. (v.s. in Herb. Sims.)

Frutex erectus, dense niveo-lanatus. Folia ovalia, pol-
licaria, 4-uncialis lata, supra nuda et nitida. Flores
albi, axillares, plures, subverticillati. Calyces ob-
longi, limbo 5-partitus: Jacindés linearibus.

Ospeckia, Linn. Juss.

Calyx campanulatus aut oblongus, tubulosus, extus se-
tosus v. squamulosus, quandoque nudus, basi in eestivatione
squamis 2 aut pluribus membranaceis munitus, limbo 4
sive 5-fidus: laciniis deciduis aut persistentibus, seepé m1-
nimé setosa interjectis. Peiala 4 v. 5, late obovata, ungue
brevi lato instructa tubo calycis inserta. Stamina 8 aut 10,
zequalia, eodem margini intra petala inserta: jfilamenta
linearia, compressa, glabra, interdum superne clavata, nung
erecta nunc ad latus superius adscendentia: anthere longe,
declinate, subulate, biloculares, dorso obtuse carmate,
antiee rugose: et canalicula (quod valvas separat) depress4

ee

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 293

exarate, apice rostro longo gracili elastico nunc fere setaceo

poro obliquo dehiscente instructee, basi concave, filamentis
ferme adfixee, auriculate. Ovarium globosum v. ovatum,

calyce inclusum, apice setis aut cupula hispida coronatum.
Stylus teres, declinatus, glaber, stamina equans v. usdem
longior, superne curvatus. Stigma apex isoperimetrus, ob-
tusus, pruinosus. Capsula sicca, calyce obtecta, 4-locularis,
A-valvis, quandoque 5-locularis, 5-valvis, singulorum :locu-
lorum medio a rima longitudinal 4 v. 5-fariam dehiscens.
Dissepimenta tenuia, subcrustacea, medio valvarum inserta,

axicentrali aflixa. Placente 4 aut 5, trigonee, lunatee, valdé

scrobiculate, imbricate seminiferee, in singulis loculis sin-
gule, angulis columella basi lata plana adnate. Semina
reniformi-globosa, parva, numerosa, badia v. cinereo-fusca,

_ punctata aut papilloso-scabra: testa duplex ; exterior crus-

tacea, fragilis; interior tenuissima, membranacea: albumen _
nullum. Hmbryo semini conformis, arcuatus, lacteus: cotyl.
inzequales, plano-convexz, breves, crassee: radicula cylin-
dracea, cotyledonibus longior, curvata, vaga.

Frutices humiles aut herbee (plerumque Asie Orient.
Trop.) hispida v. hirsute. Folia integerrima, petiolata,

3 2. 5-nervia, Flores magni, hiacin v. purpuret aut albi,
-rarissiemé lutei, plerumque plures terminales glomerati,

nunc sessiles nunc breve pedunculati, rard subsolitari aut
axillares.

Ozss. Huc referende sunt, Osbeckia Chinensis et Zey-

Janica, Linn., Rhexia glomerata, Retib. Willd., preeter
-plures ineditas ex Nepalid.

PLEROMA.

MrELAstoMs sp. Auctor.

Calyx oblongus, tubulosus, quandoque obtuse pentago-

nus, extus ser:ceo-canescens aut raro hispidus, basi squamis

294 MR DAVID DON

duabus membranaceis in estivatione munitus: limbo 5
quandoque 6-partito, patente, rotato, fere simul cum petalis
caduco. Petala 5 rard 6, obovata v. obcordata, apice
quandoque oblique mucronulata, ad summam tubi calycini
insidentia. Stamina 10 raro 12, declinato-assurgentia, sub-
zequalia: jfilamenta teretia (interdum compressiuscula),
glandulis paucis capitatis aspersa aut rarius pilosa y. bar-
bata: anthere longissime, subulatee, basi supra papilloso-
glandulose, biauriculatze, in stipite brevissimo arcuato pro-
ductz, anticé transverse rugose, superne rostratee _poro
unico obliquo dehiscentes. Ovariwm ovatum tubo calycis
inclusum, truncatum. Stylus teres, elongatus, declinatus,
superneé curvatus. Stigma punctum pruinosum. Capsula
baccata, tubo calycino obtecta, 5 rarius 6-locularis, medio
cujusque loculi a rima oblonga quinquefariam dehiscens.
Dissepimenta membranacea, medio valvarum inserta, axi
centrali levius connexa. Placente 5 interdum 6, oblong,
trigonee, carnosee, in singulis loculis singule et tisdem con-
formes, scrobiculatee, imbricaté seminiferse. Semina numero-
sa, reniformi-globosa, punctata, pallide fusca: testa sumplex,
crassiuscula, crustacea, fragilis: albumen nullum. Embryo
arcuatus, semini conformis, albus: cotyl. ineequales, breves,
crass, subovales: radicula teres, vaga, cotyledonibus lon-
gior.

Frutices (Brazilenses v. Peruviani) spectabiles, sericeo-
canescentes aut hispidé setosi. Folia integerrima, 3 2. 5-
nervia, petiolata aut rariis (in holosericea) subsessilia.
Flores terminales, paniculate, speciost, purpurei aut vio-

lace?.

Oxzs. Genus ab Melastomé cui proximum discrepans :
limbo calycis feré simul cum petalis caduco, antheris sub-
sequalibus basi arcuatis absque processu bicalcarato, testa
seminis stmplici. | :

ON THE MELASTOMACES® R2O5

Nomen duxi ab voce Greeta xangopa, plenitudo, quod lo-
culi capsule placentis carnosis seminiferis farcti sunt. Ad
hoc genus pertinent species hic infra descripte.

1. P. heteromaila, foliis cordato-ovalibus petiolatis sub-
tis flocculoso-lanatis, laciniis calycinis oblongis ob-
tusis, petalis obcordatis.

Melastoma heteromalla, Don in Bot. Reg. t. 644.
Hab. in Brazilia. 1. (v. v. c.)

2, P. holosericea, foliis cordato-ovalibus sessilibus ob-
tusis utrinque cano-sericeis, lacinis calycinis ovato-
lanceolatis acutis, petalis late obovatis.

Melastoma holosericea, Swartz Obs. 176.
velutina, Walld. Sp. Pl. 2. p, 584.
Hab. in Jamaicd (Swartz), in Brazilia. Georgius

Staunton, baronettus, Sello. fy. (v. v. c. et s. spont.
Herb. Lamb.)

3. P. ochypetala, foliis lanceolatis, acutis, 5-nerviis, utrin-
que ramulisque hispidis, calycibus hispidis, Betas
oblique mucronulatis, filamentis pilosis.

Rhexia ochypetala, #7. Perwv. 3. p. 86. t. 321.

'Hab. in Chinchao prerupto, et in Pillao montibus
apertis aliisque regionibus montosis Peruvie. Ruiz
et Pavon. hh. (v.s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Fruitex 3-orgyalis, Flores magni, purpurel. Anthere
basi supra glandulosa. Capsula baccata, 5-locularis.

4. P. granulosa, ramis tetragonis foliaceo-alatis, foliis
lanceolatis acutis supra scabris subtus velutinis,
calycibus cano-sericeis, filamentis barbatis.

Melastoma granulosa, Lam, Encycl. 4. p. 44.
-Rhexia Fontanesu, Bonpl. Rhea. t. 36. |
Hab. in Brazilia. Commerson, Georgius Staunton, ba-
ronettus, Langsdorff. (v. v. ¢. et s. spont. in Herb.

Lamb,)

296 MR DAVID DON

5. P. viminea, foliis ovato-lanceolatis acutis petiolatis ra-
misque scabris subtus canescentibus, calycibus glan-
duloso-pilosis: lacmus lanceolatis mucronatis.

Hab. in Brazilia. Georgiws Staunton, baronettus, Sello,
h. (v. v. c. et s. spont. in Herb, Lamb.)

DIPLOSTEGIUM.

Calyx oblongus, campanulatus, dense sericeo-pilosus,
limbo persistens, 5-fidus, in calyptra duplici cucullata dense
setosa omnino inclusus, calyptra quee accreto flore é basi
calycis circumrumpens et denique decidens. Petala 5, late
orbiculata, sessilia, in ore calycis margini circumambienti
affixa. Stamina 10, inzequalia, eidem margini inserta: fila-
menta linearia, compresso-plana, hispidé pilosa; alternis
brevioribus: anthere longissime, subulate, carinatee, basi
auriculis duabus glanduliferis munite, supernée compresse,
foramine obliquo terminatz. Ovariwm ellipticum, apice
cum parte inferiore styli dense pilosum, calyce inclusum.
Stylus teres, robustus, superne glaber et paulo curvatus.
Stigma punctum pruinosum. Capsula baccata, 5-locularis,
5-valvis, calyce involuta et ejus basi connata: valvis coria-
ceis, in medio loculi cujusque ab apice hiantibus. Placenta
5, oblong, trigonz, scrobiculatae, columella: (axi centrali)
longitudinaliter adnate. Semina.......

Frutex Brazilensis ; caulibus teretibus, densé cano-
pilosis; folus ovatis, acutis, integerrimis, petiolatis, 5-
nervus, subtus sericeo-pilosis, supra scabris; pedunculis
terminalibus, ternis, trichotomis, trifloris, tomentosis ; flo-
ribus magnis, roseis.

1. D. canescens. ;;

Hab. in Brazilia. Seilo. . (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)

ON THE MELASTOMACE®, 207

Ozs. Genus ab singulari integumento calycis bené discri-
minatum est. Semina nondim vidi, quod capsulam esse im-
maturam, ideoque genus solum habitu in hac sectione ordi-
nandum. Nomen a %a0;, duplex, et cen, tectum, ab calyp-
tra duplici calycis.

RuHeExis, Linn., R. Brown.
RueExtix sp. Auctor.

_ Calyx tubulosus, basi demim amplians, ventricosus,
apice in collo angustatus: limbo urceolato, 4-fido, persis-
tente. Petala 4, in ore calycis insidentia, late obovata.
Stamina 8: filamenta longa, erecta, compressa, squalia,
in ore calycis intra petala inserta, imarticulata: anthera
lineares, declinatee, obtuse absque rostro, zquales, apice
foramine hiantes, infra dorso nec basi filamenta insidentes,
basi non constricte. Ovariwm in ventro calycis lberum.
Stylus rectus, teres staminibus brevior. Stigma parvum,
subcapitatum, tenuissime barbatum. Capsula globosa, in
ventro calycis inclusa, libera, 4-locularis, 4-valvis: valvis
rum oblonga smegulis in medio loculi hiantibus. Placentew
4. lunatee, pedicello brevi plano ad axem centralem ad-
nato suffultsze, compresse, valdé scrobiculate, in medio
loculi centralize, seminibus creberrime et imbricatim tecte.
Semina o, reniformia, punctata, umbilico amplo concavo
terminata: desta simplex crassiuscula, crustacea, fragilis:
albumen nullum. Embryo teres, curvatus, lacteus: cotyl.
breves semicylindricee: radicula curvata, centripeta, coty-
ledonibus duplo longior.
Herbz leves, humiles (Boreali-Americane), perennes
rarius annue. Caules erecti, tetragoni,. glabri. Folia
opposita, sessilia, integerrima, lincaria, lanceolata v. ovata.

298 MR DAVID DON

Flores’ terminates, subterni v. multi, corymbosi, purpures
aut lute: magni.

Ad hoe cert® pertinent Rhezvia mariana Linn., virgi-
nica Linn., ciliosa Mich., slabella Mich., lutea Mich.,
stricta Pursh, angustifolia Lam., excludende alize species
fere omnes ad hoc genus ab auctoribus adjunctee, quas sunt
Melastome affiniores, et forte genus proprium constituere.

ARTHROSTEMMA, Pavon MSS.
Ruexiz sp., Fl. Perwz.

Calyx oblongus, tetragonus, tubulosus, aequalis, basi
nudus, sepils pilosus, limbo 4-fidus, persistens: lacinits
lanceolatis, acutis aristatisque. Petala 4, \ata, lateribus in-
eequalibus dolabriformia, apice oblique aristata, basi ungui-
eulata, in ore calycis margini circumambienti inserta. Sta-
mina 8, erdem margin inserta: filamenta longa, gracilias —
compressa, basi dilatata : anther: incumbentes, longee, com-
presse, carina magna dorso instructe, apice foramine obli-
quo hiantes, basi processu longo calcarato clavato assur-
gente nunc apice tridentato munitz, quasi filamenta duplict
anthera quarum una inanis et imaperiens predita. Ovariwm
ovali-oblongum, setis pluribus coronatum, basi cum calyce
connatum. Stylus teres, declinatus, basi latior. Stigma
apex, obtusus, pruinosus. Capsuda sicca, 4-locularis, 4-
valvis, cum calyce connatum, et eidem zequalis: valvis laté
oblongis medio cujusque loculi rima ab apice longitudinall-
ter dehiscentibus. Dissepimenta firma, medio valvarum in-
serta, columellze tetragonze adnata. Placente 4, lunatee, valdé
scrobiculate, imbricaté seminiferse, basi lata plana axi ad-
nate. Semina numerosa, reniformia, fulva v. fuscescentia,
nunc lzevia nune papilloso-scabra, umbilico concavo magno
atro terminata: testa simplex, crassa, crustacea, fragilis :
albumen nullum. Embryo arcuatus semini cenformis,

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 999

ochroleucus: cofyl. insequales, crass, convexe, applicate: :
radicula cylindracea, crassa, obtusa, cotyledonibus longior,
curvata, vaga.

Herbz v. suffrutices (Amer. diquin. 1 ex Nepalid) hir-
suti, ramosi. Folia integerrima v. serrulata, 5-nervia,
petiolata. Flores terminales, paniculati, purpuret v. roset,
Speciost.

§ Appendice antherarum apice tridentata.

. A. ciliatum, folis cordatis utrinque levibus marge

serrulatis ciliatisque, caule herbaceo.
Arthrostemma ciliatum, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. 7. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

2. A. latifolium, folus laté ovatis acuminatis serrulatis

2

ciliatisque, panicula ampla, antherarum appendice
-trisetosa, caule fruticoso. :

Hab, in Guiana. Martin. h. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb.)

§ Appendice antherarum apice integra.
Suffrutices.

A. hngatuce, foliis lanceolatis integerrimis utrinque
lneato-hirsutis, caule piloso.

- Rhexia. ‘sp. nov. Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.

A. multiflorum, folis ovatis integerrimis ante
cauleque hirsutissimis.

Rhexia dicrananthera, £7. Perwv. 3. p. 84. t. 320.

Hab. wn Peruviee sylvis ad Cuchero et Muna. Rutz

et Pavon. }. (v. s. 11 Herb. Lamb.)

A. paniculatum, folis elliptico-oblongis acuminatis
‘serrulatis coriaceis supra nudis subtus cauleque la~
-natis, panicula ampla pyramidata, floribus cernuis.

Rhexia paniculata, Buchanan MSS.

300 MR DAVID DON

Hab. in Nepalia. Buchanan, Wallich. . },. (v. s+ in.
Herb. Lamb.) :

Semina hujus minutissima, arcuata, scrobiformia, utrin-
que aristata. Petala obliqué mucronata.

ACIOTIS.

Calyx globosus, glaber, basi nudus: limbo parvo, coare-
tato, persistente, 4-dentato: dentibus ovatis, acutis aristatis-
que patente-recurvis. Petala 4, sessilia, ovato-cblonga,
apice obliqué aristata, summo calycis inserta. Stamina 8,
erecta, zequalia: filamenta gracilia, compressa, supra me-
dium articulata: anthere breviores, oblongse, non rostrate,
poro simplici aperientes, dorso earma quod in filamentum
percurrente instructe, basi nude. Ovarium globosum,
calyce vestitum. Stylus teres, rectus, glaber, superne cur-
vatus et angustatus. Stigina punctum, minutum, pruino-
sum. Capsula calyce carnoso arcté connata, demim bac-
cata, purpurea, 4-locularis. Placente 4, lunate, succu-
lentae, scrobiculatee, in quas semina nidulantia. Semina
numerosa, parva, reniformi-globosa, fusca, papilloso-scabra,
umbilico magno concavo terminata: testa duplex ; exterior
crassiuscula, crustacea, fragilis; interior tenuissima, mem-
branacea: albumen nullum. Embryo albus, arcuatus, teres,
semini conformis: cotyl. breves, crasse, inequales: radicula
cylindracea, attenuata, cotyledonibus multo longior, centri-
peta. :

Herba (Indie Occid.) perennis, glabriuscula, virens.
Caules erecti, plures, tetragoni, spithamet, ramosi. Felia
elliptico-oblonga, acuminata, petiolata, 3-nervia, subtus
purpurea, supra intensé viridia lucida. Flores terminales,
spicato-racemosi, parvi, rosei. Bacce globose, purpurers
grati acidi edules.

ON THE MELASTOMACE. 301

Oss. Genus valdé distinctum, cui pertinet Rhexia bi-
color Anderson MSS. Nomen duxi ab axis, cuspis, ct ovs,
wros, Auris, quod petala apice aristata.

1. A. discolor.
Hab. in Insula S. Vincentii. Anderson. Y. (wv. v: &.
et s. spont. in Herb. Lamb.)

Microuicia:

Calyx globosus, glaber v. setosus, basi nudus, limbo 5.
vartitus, persistens: segmentis lineari-lanceolatis, mucro-
natis, rectis, Petala 5, obovato-cblonga, in ore calycis m-
serta, basi angustata, apice obliqué mucronulata, lateribus

‘Imeequalibus subdolabriformia. Stamina 10, in calycis ore

inserta: jilamenta longa, recta; compresso-plana, glabra:
anther@ oblong, carinate, apice membranaceze, poro sim-
plici obliquo dehiscentes, stipite longissimo filiformi cujus
basi processu simplici calcarato instructa filamenta propria
incumbente suffulte. Ovarium globosum calyce tectum.
Stylus teres, declinatus, filiformis, stamina subaequans.
Stigma punctum,; pruinosum. Capsula sicca, calyce libere
inclusa et eodem brevior, 3-locularis, $-valvis! apice um-
bilicata: valvis oblongis v. ovalibus, tenuibus, apice emar-
gmatis, medio loculorum singulorum a rima longitudinal:
trifariam dehiscens. Dissepimenta membranacea, valvarum
medio inserta, columelle filiformi levits connexze. Placenté
3! lunatee, anguste, subtrigone, scrobiculate, axi centrali

_adnatee, imbricaté seminiferee. Semina numerosa, oblonga,

arcuata, rufa, punctata: éesfa simplex, crassiuscula, crusta-
cea: albumen nullum. Embryo arcuatus, semini conformis,
teres, lacteus: cofyl. semicylindracese, crass, breves, in-
gquales: radicula cylindracea, cotyledonibus duplo longior;
curvata, vaga.

VOL« IV: *

302 MR DAVID DON

Fruticuh (Brazikenses), ramosissimi, erécti, foliosi fucie
ericoided. Folia omnium ordinis minima, linearia v. lan-
ceolata aut ovalia, opposita, sessilia, integerrima, glabra
aut pubescentia, nunc imbricata nunc laxa. Flores termi-
nales, subsolitarti, purpurer, majusculi.

Ozs. Genus veré naturale et quidém nullo affine, cujus
species inter se optimé convenientes. Singularis est exceptio
in ordine, quod flores utpote 5-fidi decandri capsulam tri-
Jocularem redderent. Nomen desumpsi 4 guixgos, parvus, et
namie, Statura, propter species hujus generis omnes humilli-
mi fruticuli sunt.

1. M. ericoides, folis hnearibus mucronatis planis laxis,
floribus geminis, calycibus glabris.

Hab. in Brazilia. Sello. h. (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)

Caules numerosi, adscendentes, palmares, tetragom,
subsimplices, czespitosi, e radice crassiuscula fibris
instructa enati.

2. M. cupressina, folus lanceolatis pungentibus crebris
imbricatis marginatis, floribus solitariis, calycibus
hispidis. |

Hab. in Brazilia. Sello. }. (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)

Caules erecti, ramosissimi, spithamei. Rami teretes,
graciles, proliferi, supernée crebré foliosi, inferné
nudi.

ca

M. serpyllifolia, folus ellipticis acutis patentibus utrin-
que ramulisque pubescentibus, floribus solitariis
pedicellatis, calycibus pubescentibus.

Hab. in Brazilia. Sello. h. (v..s. in Herb. Sims.)

Caulis erectus, ramosissimus. Rami tetragoni, dense
pubescentes. olia elliptica, acuta, imtegerrima,
plana, patentia, obsoleté trinervia, utrmque pubes-
centia, magnitudine Zhymi serpylli. Flores purpu-

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 308

‘rei, terminales et axillares, solitarii, pedicellis bro.
vissimis teretibus suffulti.

4 M. linophy ta, foliis lanceolatis aristatis planis inte-
gerrimis trinervils olabris, floribus solitariis subses-
: aviaee terminalibus axillaribusve.
Hab. in Brazilia. Sello. h. (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)
Fruticulus erectus, ramosissimus, pedalis, virgatus.
Rami ramulique vimineli, tetragoni, glabri. Folia
patentia, lanceolata, integerrima, plana, trinervia,
glabra, aristata. Fores terminales et axillares, pur-
purei, brevissimé pedicellati, erecti. Calyces glabri.

5: M. marifolia; folus decussatis ovatis obtusiusculis tri-
- nerviis breve petiolatis utrinque ramisque pubescenti-
_ bus, floribus axillaribus solitarus pedicellatis.
Hab. in Brazilia: Sello. h. (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)
Fruticulus erectus, ramosissimus, foliosus, spithameus.
Rami tetragoni, densé pubescentes. Folia decussata,
ovata, obtusiuscula, 3-nervia, obsoleté crenulata,
utrinque pubescentia. Flores sparsi, solitarii. Caly-
"ces pubescentes.

Tococa, Aubl., Juss,

Mayeta, Aubl., Juss.
Merastome sp. Auctor.

Calyx oblongus; tubulosus, basi extus nudus v. squamis

5 munitus: lambo urceolato, persistente, coriaceo, 5-dentato.
oy) >) >)

Petala 5. subrotunda, emarginata, margine superiore in-

3 3 y)
flexa, basi ungue brevissimo lato in ore calycis margoini an-
b)

nulari mserta. Stamina 10, declinata, aqualia, edem mar-.

gini inserta: flamenta linearia, compresso-plana, glabra,
x Q2

304 MR DAVID DON

v. (in 7. sanguinea) glandulosa, basi parim latiora: an-
there longissimee, subulate, trigone, carina lata crassa
auctee, antice canaliculate, apice non rostrate, foramine
solitario terminatee, basi filamentis adfixee, posticé biauricu-
latee. Ovariwm subrotundo-ovatum, calyce obtectum, apice
corona urceolata fimbriata instructum. Stylus filiformis,
glaber aut (in 7. sanguined) densé glandulosus, elongatus,
dechnatus aut Gn 7. Mayeté) brevis, rectus. Stigma
magnum, orbiculato-peltatum, umbilicatum. Capsula bac-
eata, 5-locularis, 5-valvis, mediq cujusque loculi a rima
longitudinali quinquefariam dehiscens. Placente 5, magnee,
pulposze, loculis conformes. Semina numerosa, ovata, fus-
eescentia, umbilico magno crasso laterali convexo nigro
aucta, i placentis pulposis nidulantia: ¢esta duplex; ex-
terior crassiuscula, crustacea, fragilis; interior tenuissima,
membranacea: albumen nullum. Hmbryo rectus, semini
conformis, ovoideus, luteus: cofyl. eequales, crassz, plano-
convexee, ovales, obtuse: radicula cylmdracea, crassa, co-
tyledonibus brevior, obtusa, recta.

Frutices (Amer. Aiquin.) hispidi, erecit. Folia crenulata,
3 aut 5-nervia, sepiis disparia. Petioli breves, valde se-
tosi, superné tumidi et inflati im vesicd magna biloculart
medio constricté subtis in drvisuris nervorum foliorum
dupléct foramine hiante. Flores roset aut albi, paniculate
v. spicato-paniculati, terminales, in T. Mayeta azillares,
solitari, sessiles.

Oss. Vesicee supra petiolos plane opus formicarum, quas
ab gemina apertura (observante Aubletio) ad cavum cauli-
num penetrant. In his vesicis jam in siccis formicas extinc~
tas 1pse seepissime inveni.

1. 7. Aubletia, folus late ovalibus oblongisve acuminatis
crenulatis 5-nerviis squalibus, utrinque cauleque

ON THE MELASTOMACESA. 305

hispidé setosis, petiolis aleimid inflatis, panicula
terminali spicata.

Tococa Gujanensis, Aubl. Guj. p. 438. t. 1°74.
Melastoma physiphora, Vahl, Eclog. 1. » 45. Willd.
Sp. Pl. 2. p. 590. .
Hab. in Guiana (Aublet, Martin), in Brazilia. New-

mann, Sello. wh. (vy. s. im Herb. Lamb.)

2 T. heterophylla, foliis disparibus crenulatis 3-nervus
acuminatis utrinque ramisque setosis; alteris maxi-
mis elliptico-oblongis petiolo superne vesiculosis ;
alteris sessilibus cordatis, paniculis hispidissimis ter-
minalibus axillaribusque. —

Melastoma heterophylla, Lam. E’ncycl. 4. p. 35. Walld.
Sp. Pl. 2. p. 590.

Hab. m Peruvia. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Folia altera maxima, palmaria v. pedalia, petiolata,
3-5-pollicis lata; altera sessilia, vix 3-pollicaria.
Stylus staminibus longior.

3. I’. sanguinea, foliis cordato-ovalibus -acuminatis 5-
nerviis crenulatis utrimque cauleque dense setosis, |
petiolis simplicibus, panicula brachiata, calycibus basi
squamosis, filamentis styloque dense glandulosis.

Melastoma sanguinea, Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Tota planta setis sanguineis tecta. Folia seepé palma-
ria, 3-4-pollicis lata. Filamenta brevia, compressa,
densé glandulosa. Stylus brevis, rectus, robustus,
glandulosus.

4, T'. Mayeta, foliis disparibus elliptico- oblongis acu-

minatis crenatis 3-nerviis utrinque cauleque his-

, ha setosis; alteris maximis petiolo superneé vesicu-

~ Josis, floribus axillaribus solitarius sessilibus basi 5-
squamosis. |

306 MR DAVID DON

Mayeta Gujanensis, Awbl. Guj. p. 443. t. 1'76.

Melastoma Mayeta, Willd. Sip. Pl. 2. p. 589.

Hab. in Guiana (Audlet), in Peruvia. Pavon. kh. (v.
s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Stylus staminibus brevior, rectus.

CLIDEMIA,
Metastome sp. Auctor.

Calyx oblongus, tubulosus, dense setosus v. hirsutus,
basi squamis pluribus cinctus aut nudus, limbo persistens,
5-dentatus: dentibus seepiis linearibus, plumosis, rectis.
Petala 5, subrotunda v. oblonga, obtusa, sessilia, in summo
tubo calycis inserta. Stamina 10, subsequalia, declinato-
assurgentia ; jilamenta subulata, compresso-plana, glabra,
apice acuta: anthere longs, anguste, subtrigonze, carina-
tee, basi biauriculatee, filamentis adfixae, apice membrana-
cex, poro unico aperientes. Ovariwm subrotundum, calyce
inclusum, apice glabrum, rostro umbilicato coronatum.
Stylus filiformis, gracilis, declinatus, sgepius staminibus lon-
gior. Stigma punctum parvum, pruinosum. Capsula bac-
cata, subrotunda, calyce vestita et cum eo arcté connata,
apice rostrato-umbilicata, coronata denticulis persistentibus
calycis, 5-locularis, 5-valvis, medio cujusque loculi a rima
longitudinali quinquefariam dehiscens: doculis smgulis intis
placenta pulposa in qué nidulantia semina farctis. Semina
numerosa, subrotundo-ovalia, rufa, papilloso-scabra, raro
lzevia, umbilico magno convexo laterali quandoque arcuato,
utrinque acuto aucta: éesta duplex; exterior crassiuscula,
crustacea, fragilis; interior tenuissima, membranacea: ail-
bumen nullum. Embryo lacteus, teres, curvulus, cavitati
seminis conformis: cote yf ~uibaed tales’ brevissimee, crasse,

ee 4

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 307

vetundatee:: radicula cylindracea, crassa, obtusa, cotyledo-
nibus longior, centripeta.

Suffrutices (Amer. Aiquin.) hirsutissimi. Rami tetra-
goni. Folia crenata petiolata, 8 v. 5-nervia, spe disparia.
Flores axillares v. terminales, albi aut roses, verticillats aut
varie dichotomi, sepids in paniculam v. racemum digesti,
munc sessiles. Bacce succulente, purpuree v. coccinea,
grati dulcis saporis edules.

Ozs. Hoc genus distinctissimum in memoriam dixi Cl-
demit Botanices antique Greeciee, cujus cognitio in rem
Herbaru a Theophrasto memorata.

1. C. neglecta, folus amplis cordatis acuminatis crenatis
septemnerviis utrinque cauleque asperé hirsutissi-
mis, spicis elongatis axillaribus cernuis simpiicibus
v. compositis, calycibus basi 5-squamosis.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. 7%. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

2. C. dependens, foliis ellipticis crenatis acuminatis 3-
nervils utrinque cauleque hirsutissimis, spicis termi-
nalibus cernuis, calycibus sessilibus basi 5-squamosis.

Melastoma dependens, Pavon MSS.
_ Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. }%. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

3. C.dichotoma, foliis amplis ovatis acuminatis serratis
‘{-nerviis subtus cauleque villosissimis, panicula ter-
minali racemosa. |

Melastoma dichotoma, Pavon MSS.
fab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

4. C. tristis, foliis cordato-oblongiscrenulatis acuminatis
5-Nervils supra asperé pilosis subttis fusco-lanatis,
panicula terminali lanata.

Melastoma tristis, Pavon MSS.
Hab, in Peruvia. Pavon. A. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

308 MR DAVID DON

5. C. crenata, folus cordato-oblongis acutis $-nerviis
crenulatis utrinque cauleque asperé pilosissimis,
panicula terminali ampla, calycibus sessilibus, basi
squamosis.

Melastoma crenata, Pavon MSS.
ffab. m Peruvid. Pavon. fh. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb)

6. C. purpurea, foliis late ellipticis acuminatis crenula-
tis 5-mnerviis cauleque hirsutis subtus purpureis,
pedunculis axillaribus trichotomis trifloris.

Melastoma purpurea, Pavon MSS.
fab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

¢ C. pilosa, folus cordatis acuminatis crenulatis 7-ner-
viis utrinque cauleque pilosissimis, panicula parva
terminali, pedunculis subtrifloris.
Melastoma pilosa, Pavon MSS.
Hab. m Peruvid. Pavon. %. (v. s. in Herb. Laiwnb.)

8. C. capillaris, folus ellipticis crenulatis 3-merviis acu-
minatis utrinque ramulisque sericeo-villesis, pedun-
culis capillaribus axillaribus geminis unrfloris.

Had. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

9. C. spicata, folus late ellipticis crenulatis triplmervus
uirinque acutis subtus ramisque sericeo-villosis, ra-
cemo terminal spicato, pedunculis trifloris. _

Melastoma spicata, Pavon MS'S. an Aubl. Guy. t. 165?
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

10. C. secunda, foliis ovatis acuminatis 5-nervus crenula-
tis basi rotundatis utrinque cauleque pilosissimis,
panicula terminali divaricaté, pedunculis unilaterali-
bus bifidis multifloris.

Melastoma secunda, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. Q. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

1. Cydentata, folus ovalibus crenatis acuminatis 5-ner-

12,

13.

14.

15.

16.

ON THE MELASTOMACEAS. 309

viis utrinque cauleque asperé hirsutis, pedunculis
axillaribus brevibus trichotomis multifloris.
Melastoma dentata, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruviad. Pavon. h. (v. s, in Herb. Lamb.)

C. ciliata, foliis cordatis acutis crenulatis subsessili-
bus supra pilosis subtus ramisque densé stellato-
tomentosis, pedunculis axillaribus, calycibus tomen-
tosis.

Melastoma ciliata, Pavon MSS.

fab. m Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. im Herb. Lamb.)

C. agrestis, foliis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis 5-ner-
vus crenulatis utrinque cauleque villosissimis, pa-~
nicula terminali, pedunculis bifidis multifloris.

Melastoma agrestis, Aubl. Guj. p. 425. t. 166. Willd.
Sp. Pl. 2. p. 5877.

Hab. m Guiana. Aublet. fh.»

C. hirta, foltis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis 5-nerviis
crenulatis utrinque cauleque asperé pilosis, |floribus
axillaribus aggregatis breve pedicellatis.

Melastoma hirta, Mill. Dict. N. 3. Swartz Obs. 1%5.
Willd. Sip. Pl. 2. p. 588.

Hab. in Jamaica. Swartz, Dancer. h. (v.s. in Herb.
Lamb.) ,

C. elegans, foliis cordatis mzequaliter crenatis 5-ner-
vis acuminatis utrinque cauleque asperé pilosissi-
mis, pedunculis axillaribus trichotomis divaricatis-
que multifloris.

Melastoma elegans, Aubl. Guj. p. 427. t. 167. Vahl
Lclog. 1. p. 44. Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 589.

_ Hab, in Guiana (Aublet, Anderson), in Insula S. 'Tri-

nitatis, Lochhead. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

C. aggregata, foliis ellipticis 3-nerviis integerrimis

310 MR DAVID DON

-utrinque acutis ramisque hispidé pilosis, floribus
axillaribus verticillatis subsessilibus.

Melastoma aggregata, Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Peruviad. Pavon. kh. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

17. C.. sericea, foliis ovalibus acutis crenatis 5-nerviis
utrinque sericeo-villosis, floribus axillaribus. sessili-
bus verticillatis basi squamosis. :

Melastoma sericea, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. 7. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

18. C. heteromalla, foliis ellipticis subsessilibus crenulatis
supra pilosis subtus cano-tomentosis, floribus axilla.
ribus subsessilibus verticillatis octandris.

Melastoma rubra, Richard in Bonpl. Monog. p. 89.
t. 89. (exclus. synon.)

Hab. in Guiana (Richard), im India Occidentali (Dan-
cer), in Insula S. Trinitatis (Lochhead). h.. (v. s.
in Herb. Lamb.)

19. C. capitellata, foliis cordato-ovalibus acuminatis cre-
natis 5-nerviis supra pilosis subtus petiolisque to-
mentosis, floribus glomeratis in spicd racemosa in-
terrupta dispositis, calycibus lanatis.

Melastoma capitellata, Bonpl. Monog. p. 5. t. 3.
Hab. in Regno Novogranatensi. Humb, et Bonpl. h.

(v. s. in Herb. Lamb. specim. a clariss. Bonpland.
communicata.)

CREMANIUM.

Calyx brevis, campanulatus, coriaceus, basi nudus, extus
slaber aut setis hispidus: limbo urceolato, persistente, 4 v.
5-dentato: dentibus brevissimis, remotis. Pefala 4 v. 5,
orbiculata, sessilia, in ore calycis margini annulari inserta.

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 311i

Stamina 8-10, declinata, qualia: filamenta subulata, com.
pressa, glabra aut hispida, basi dilatata: antherer totius ordi-
nis brevissimee, subcuneate, crassze, basi nude, dorso cari-
natge, apice obtusze, duplici foramine hiantes! Ovarium
sphericum, calyce arcte connatum. Stylus cylindraceus,
glaber, declinatus v. erectus. Stigma orbiculato-peltatum,
disco umbilicatum sulcis duobus.cruciatum. Capsula bac-
cata, globosa, 4-locularis, 4-valvis, quandoque 5-locularis,
5-valvis, calyce coriacea vestita et arcte connata. Placenta
4v. 5, oblongee, latee, carnosee, valde scrobiculatze, imbri-
cate seminiferse. Semina numerosa, subrotundo-ovalia v.
oblonga, luteo-fusca, glabra, seepius nitida, umbilico laterali
magno convexo pallido aucta: testa duplex ; ; exterior cras-
siuscula, crustacea ; interior membranacea : albumen nul-
lum. Embryo rectus, ochroleucus, ovoideus, cavitati seml-
nis conformis : : cotyl. breves, crassee, obtuse: radicula cy-
lindracea, cotyledonibus longior, curvula, basi attenuata.

Frutices (Peruviani) ramosi, patentes et radicantes v
scandentes, alu erecti, glabri aut hispidi. Folia petiolata,
coriacea, dentata v. serrulata rare integerrima, 3 v. 5-ner-
via, quandoque enervia! Flores terminales, tha yrsoideo-
TAaCCMOS? V. pened, albi, sepius nutantes.

Oxss. Genus habitum Blakeze zmulans, et antherz pari-
ter duplici apertura hiantes, sed longeé recidet calyce basi
nudo, stigmate lato peltato, antheris basi nudis et inflores-
centid. Nomen desumpsi a xegeaw, suspendo, propter plures
frutices hujus generis per arbores scandentes et flores szepe

pendulos.

§ Flores octandri.
1. C. rotundifolium, folus orbiculato-cordatis integerrimis
_utrinque hispidis, floribus subquaternis breve pedi-
cellatis, ramis tomentosis, caule repente.

312 MR DAVID DON

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. +,. (v. s.in Herb. Lamb.)

Fruticulus ramosus, repens, radicans. Folia orbiculato-
cordata, integerrima, coriacea, petiolata, utrinque
pilis setosis hispida, viridia. Flores pauci (3-4) ad
apicem ramorum, breve pedicellati, magmi, albi.
Pedicelli bracteolis 2 parvis linearibus instructi.
Filamenta hispida. |

2. C. nitidum, foliis ovatis acutis glabris nitidis margine
subulato-dentatis, racemis glabris nutantibus, caule
radicante. |

Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. }. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex patens, repens. Rami teretes, glabri. Folia 3-
nervia. lores majusculi, albi. Milamenta glandu-
loso-pilosa, basi late dilatata.

3. C. thyrsiflorum, folus lanceolatis acutis mtegerrimis
glabris nitidis subtus ad nervos pilosis, floribus
cernuis in thyrso composito confertis, ramis tomen-
tosis, caule radicante.

fab. in Peruvia. Pavon. }. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex patens, repens. Rami fusco-tomentosi. Folia
3-nervia. Flores numerosi, albi, preecedente triplo
minores, cernul, in thyrso composito suberecto con-
ferti.

4. C. latifolium, folus cordato-ovatis acutis serrulatis
supra nudis lucidis subtts ramulisque pilosis, pani-
cula terminali multiflora.

Hab. im Peruvia. Pavon. h. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb.)
Flores parvi, albu.

5. C. vaccinioides, foliis ovalibus obtusis trimerviis inte-
gerrimis ramulisque glabris, floribus cernuis pedicel-
latis terminalibus subquinis axillaribusque solitariis.

Melastoma vaccinioides, Bonpl. Monog. p. 15. t. 8.
Hab. in Peruvie Andibus. Humbd. et Bonpl. h. (v. s.

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 313

in Herb. Lamb. specim. a clariss. Bonpl. communi-
cata.) }
Frutex suborgyalis ramosissimus, conferté foliosus. Fo-
» ha parvula, feré Buai, Flores majusculi, albi, oc-
tandri.

§ Flores decandri.

6. C. medium, foliis ellipticis acutis serrulatis supra nu-
dis lucidis subtus un le pilosis, thyrsis compo-
sitis.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. },. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex erectus. Flores cernui, parvi, albi.

Y. C. calophyllum, foliis cuneato-oblongis coriaceis gla-
bris integerrimis marginatis supra nitidissimis sub-
tus penninerviis et pulchre reticulatis, panicula ter=
minali ramosissima.

Melastoma obovata, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)
Frutex erectus, folus pulcherrimis, Myrtaceis quibus-
dam simillimus. Flores albi omnium minimi. Stylus
staminibus duplo brevior. Stiema peltatum.

8. C. laurinum, folus lanceolatis obtusis integerrimis 3-
nervis supra glabris subtus ramulisque pilosis, pani-
cula racemosa.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. },. (v. s. iz Herb. Lamb.)
Frutex erectus. Flores aibi, parvi, cernui.

Q. C. ceruleum, foltis lanceolatis acuminatis integerrimis —
3-nerviis supra asperis subtus ramulisque pilosissi-
mis, panicula brachiata hispida.

Melastoma ceerulea, Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex scandens? Flores minimi, albi. Stylus stamini-
bus duplo longior. Bacce parvee, globose, ceerulex.

314 ' MR DAVID DON

10. C. celeste, foliis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis crenulatis
3-nervis subtus ramulisque pulverulentis, paniculé
_ brachiata, floribus glomeratis.
Melastoma ccelestis, Pavon MSS.
Hab. m Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. JTiamb)
Frutex erectus. Flores parvi, albi. Stylus staminibus
duplo longior:

11. C. serrulatum, foliis elliptico-oblongis acutis serrulatis
3-nerviis glabris, panicula brachiata, floribus glo-
meratis, stylo staminibus duplo breviore.

Melastoma serrulata, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)
Frutex erectus. Flores parvi, lactei.

CENTRONIA.

Calyx oblongus, tubulosus, undique setis retrorsim de-
flexis densé vestitus: limbo brevi, coarctato, integro bo Pe.
tala 5, subrotunda, margini annulari infra limbum calyci-
num inserta. Stamina 10, eidem margini infra petala in-
serta: filamenta brevissima, lata, plana: anthere longissi-
mee, subcompress, carinate, erectz, apice in rostro atte-
nuatee, poro unico hiantes, basi processu longo subulato
acutissimo instructe. Ovarium ovatum, calyce’ inclusum,
8-10-costatum, apice in collo longo tubuloso, ore octoden-
tato, stylum ipsum includente elongatum! Stylus erectus,
teres, superné angustatus. Stigma apex obtusus, pruino-
sus, vaginam superans, sed limbo calycis brevior. Capsula
5-locularis, 5-valvis, calyce tecta, sed libera. Placente 5,
oblonge, crasse, trigone, sublunate, scrobiculate, axl
centrali adnate. Semend............ ee

Arbor (Peruviana) ramulis dense ferrugineo-tomentosis.
Folia ampla, opposita, petiolaia, elliptica, acuminata, inte-

ON THE: MELASTOMACE. 315

gerrima, coriacea, penninervia, reticulato-venosa, supra
glabra, nitida, subtus in junioribus fusco-tomentosa, demdm
denudata. Panicula terminalis, magna, brachiata. Flores
magni, purpurei. Calyces valde setosi.

Oss. Nomen desumpsi a xsvrgov, stimulus, quod antherze
postice calcare longo acutissimo instructee.

1. C. laurifolia.
Osbeckia peruviana, Pavon MSS.
Hab. m Peruvie nemoribus. Pavorn. Hh. (v. s. in

Herb. Lamb.)

¢ Miconta, Ruiz ei Pavon.

MELASTOME magna pars Auctor.

Calyx brevis, tubulosus: limbo 5-dentato urceolato, per-
sistente : dentibus brevissimis, acutis, apice intus membrana
obtusa ipsis latiore auctis. Petala 5, oblonga, obtusa caly-
cis ori inserta. Stamina 10, erecta: jilamenta longa, linea-
ria, compressiuscula, apice curvata: anthere longe, decli-
ndto-curvatee, subulatee, carina dorsali crassé obtusa apice
poro hiantes, basi filamentis adnate, auriculo crasso obtuso
auctee. Ovarium calyce obvolutum. Stylus teres, staminibus
longior, rectiusculus, superne curvatus. Stigma parvum,
planiusculum, tenuissime barbatum. Capsula baccata, glo-
bosa, glabra, 5-locularis, 5-valvis, calyce arcté connata, limbo
calycino persistente coronata: valvis in medio cujusque lecult
rima oblonga hiantibus. Dissepimenta 5, membranacea, me-
dio valvarum inserta, axi centrali adnata, utrinque simul cum
parietibus capsulze lacunosa, imbricate seminifera. Placenta
5, succulentee, latae, oblongee, scrobiculate, angulis columellze
adfixse,imbricatéseminiferse. Semina numerosa, parva, ovata,
angulata,umbilico cblongo convexocrassolaterali nigroaucta:

$16 MR DAVID DON

testa duplex; exterior crustacea, fragilis; interior tenuissima;
membranacea: albumen nullum. Embryo ochroleucus, recs
tus, cavitati seminis conformis: cotyl. crassee, obtuse, sequa-
les: radicula teres, attenuata; cotyledonibus longior, recta.

Frutices (America diquin. et Indie Occid.) ramosi, seepids
elatt, ramis oppositis. Folia petiolata, opposita, in plerisque
erenulata vel remote denticulata, sepiis glabra. Flores nu-
merost, terminales, paniculatt, roset vel albi.

Oxs. Preeter Miconia emarginata R. P., tripleneroiis
R. P., pulverulenta R. P., lanuginosa R. P.

Hiuc referendse quidem species sequentes Melastome,
scilicet, M. Guayaquilensis Bonpl. Monog. t. 49, M. punc-
tata Rich. in Bonpl. Monog. t. 40, Jf. ampetiolaris Rich.
im Bonpl. Monog. t. 29, I. tomentosa Bonpl. Monog. t. 16,

et multas alias preeter ineditas.

CONOSTEGIA.

MELastTome sp. Auctor.

Calyx coriaceus, glaber: tubo campanulato: limbo indi-
viso calyptreeformi figura omnind coni umbonati, in estiva-
tione genitalia et petala tegente, demum ad explicationem
floris é tubo circumrepente et integrum decedente. Petala
5-8, i tubi ore circumambienti margini affixa. Stamina
10-16, erecta: filamenta gracilia, compressa, eidem margini
inserta: antherc lineari-oblongee, carimatee, trigonze, basi
brevé cornutz filamentis affixee, apice poro hiantes. Ovarium
globosum calyce arcté connatum. Stylus teres, rectiusculus,
staminibus brevior, apice curvulus, incrassatus. St2gma ob-
tusum, planiusculum, pruimosum. Capsula baccata, globosa,
glabra, 8-locularis, calyce truncato-obvoluta et arcté connatay,
summo umbilicata. Dissepimenta8, coriacea, medio valvarum

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 317

inserta, axi centrali adnata, utrinque simul cum parietibus
capsulze lacunosa, imbricaté seminifera. Placente vere nulle,
sed loculi capsule pulpa molli (in qua semina midulantia)
farcti. Semina numerosa, ovato-oblonga, minutissima, lutes-
centia, umbilico lato oblongo plano laterali notata: testa
duplex ; exterior crustacea, valde fragilis; interior tenuissi-
ma, membranacea: albumen nullum. Embryo rectus, semini
conformis, albus: cotyl. squales, semicylindricz, crasse :
radicula cylindracea, cotyledonibus longior, basi attenuata.

Arbores v. frutices (Amer. Aiquin. et Insular. Societat.)
erectee, ramose. Folia petiolata, opposita, integerrima v.
crenata. Flores terminales, paniculati, albr.

Huc Melastoma glabra Forst., procera Swartz, Bonpl.
Monog. t. 51, montana Swartz, superba Bonpl. ined.,
eatinctoria Bonpl. Monog. t. 57, Xalapensis Bonpl. Monog.
t. 54, calyptrata Lam. Encycl. Bonpl. Monog. t. 46, cu-
cullata Pavon MSS., holosericea Pavon MSS.

Ozs. Distinctissimum et figura calycis admodim singu-
lari bené notatum genus; ab Miconia cui habitu convenit
ealycis forma, stamimum numero, capsula 8-loculari, disse-
pimentis alternis contiguis cum receptaculis longé distat.
~Nomen deduxit é xays;, conus, et ory tectum, ab forma
SUE calycis.

CHITONIA,

ForHercitia, Awol.
MELASTOME sp. Auctor.

Calyx tubulosus, coriaceus, extus canus, basi instructus
‘squamis duabus cuneatis szepé Jatis in eestivatione conni-
-ventibus et feré totum florem includentibus: Limbo urceo-

VOL. IV. x

318 MR DAVID DON

lato, coriaceo, 5-dentato, persistente. Petala 5, lineari-
oblonga, summo tubo calycis inserta. Stamina 10: jfila-
muenta erecto-adscendentia, compresso-plana,: antherc lon-
gissime, subulatee, carmatee, declinate, basi constrict,
biauriculatee, filamenta insidentes, apice rostrate, adscen-
dentes, poro hiantes. Ovariwm liberum, sulcatum, apice
tomentosum. Stylus rectus, teres, staminibus brevior. Stig-
ma crasstusculum, peltatum. Capsula subrotunda, baccata,
5-lecularis, 5-valvis, calyce obvoluta, basi ejus connata:
valvis rim& oblongd in medio cujusque loculi hiantibus.
Dissepimenta membranacea, medio valvarum aflixa et facile
separabilia, axi centrali adnata. Placente 5, oblongee, ru-
gose, scrobiculate, axi centrali longitudinaliter affixe.
Semina subrotunda v. oblongo-ovata, nigro-fusca, levia
aut papilloso-scabra, umbilico magno convexo laterali
aucta: testa duplex ; exterior crassa, crustacea ; interior te-
nuis, coriacea. Embryo ovoideus, rectus, ochroleucus: cotyl. .
crassze, obtusee, plano-convexze: radicula cylindracea, coty-
ledonibus longior, recta.

Frutices (Indie Occid. et Guianee) elati, speciosi, ramis
oppositis densé tomentosis. Folia elliptica v. lanceolata, cre-
nulata, opposita, petrolata, 5-nervia, bast rotundata, supra
nuda, subtis sepe fusco-tomentosa. Flores terminales, nu-
merost, paniculati, albi aut albo-carnei rard aurei.

Ad hee genus pertinent sequentes species.

1. C. Fothergilla, folus ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis 5-
nervus basi rotundatis margine crenulatis subtus
fusco-tomentosis, panicula terminali subracemos4 ca-
no-tomentosa.

Fothergila mirabilis, dwbl. Guj. 2. p. 441. t. 175.

Melastoma Fothergilla, Rich. in Bonpl. Monog. p. 71.
12:

Melastoma 'Tamonea, Sw. Prod. ejusd. FV. Ind. Occid.

ON THE MELASTOMACES. 319

Melastoma Swartziana, Rich. in Bonpl. Monog. p. (4.
t. 3d. "
fab. in Guiana (Aublet), in Jamaica (Swartz).
Arbor elegans, 10-15-pedalis. Flores albo-carnei.
2. C. caudata, foliis laté ellipticis integerrimis 5-nerviis
apice longé cuspidatis, floribus glomerato-paniculatis.
fab. in Peruvié. Pavon. 7. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)
C. aurea, foliis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis triplinervis
integerrimis basi acutis utrinque glabris, panicula

ee

pyramidata leevi.
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. kh. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb.)
Flores aurei.

4. C. bubalina, foliis ovato-lanceolatis dentatis acuminatis
5-nervus subtus ramulisque fulvo-tomentosis, pani-
cula multiflora, calycibus cano-tomentosis.

Melastoma bubalina, Pavon ALS. |
Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (vy. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Folia seepé pedalia, 4-uncialis lata. Flores parvi.

CR

. C. macrophylla, foliis cordato-ovalibus acuminatis cre-
nulatis subtis ramulisque fulvo-tomentosis, paniculé
pyramidata, calycibus sulcatis.

Melastoma macrophylla, Pavon MSS.
Hab. in Mexico. Pavon. 1. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb.)
Folia palmaria v. pedalia, latitudine 3-5-pollicari.

Oss. Nomen € yrov,tunica; quod calyces in zestivatione
fere obvoluti duplici squama cuneata.

Axinza, Ruiz et Pavon.

Calyx cyathiformis, glaber, basi nudus : limbo persistente,
obsolete denticulato. Petala 5-6, orbiculata, subcoriacea,
sessilia, in calycis ore margini circumambienti insidentia.

x2

320 MR DAVID DON

Stamina 10-12 eidem margini inserta: jfilamenta brevia,
gequalia, compresso-plana, basi dilatata: anthere longe,
valdé declinatze, carinate, subtrigonz, apice obtuse absque
rostro, poro gemino hiantes, basi in calcare longius producte,
infra ad latus internum filamentis adnate. Ovarium glo-
bosum, liberum. Stylus incurvus, crasstusculus, staminibus
multo brevior. Stigma simplicissimum, obtusum. Capsula
globosa, sicca, 5-6-locularis, 5-6-valvis, calyce coriaceo laxé
obvoluta, et eundem superans, angulis 5-6 corniculatis
coronata: valvis coriaceo-crustaceis, rimaé oblonga singulis
in medio loculi hiantibus. Disseprmenta crassiuscula, crus-
tacea, valvarum medio inserta, axi centrali adnata. Placenta
5-6, oblongee, crassa, subtrigonee, valde rugosze et scrobi-
culate, axi centrali longitudinalitér adnate. Semina ovata,
fusca, punctata, umbilico oblongo convexo laterali aucta:
testa duplex; exterior crassa, crustacea; imterior membra-
nacea: albumen nullum. Hmbryo rectus, cavitati seminis
conformis: cotyl. crassze, hemispheericee, sequales: radicula
cylindracea, crassa, obtusa, cotyledomibus longior.

Axbores aut frutices (Peruvia) frondose. Folia ovato-
lanceolata v. laté cordata, coriacea, dentaia v. crenata, 5-
nervid, reticulaiim venosa, opposita, petrolata, supra rugosa
v. plana nuda, subtuis tomento brevissimo fusco tecta.
Flores terminales, corymbosi v. subracemosi, magni, pur-
purer aut alba.

Oxs. Hue species sequentes, scilicet :

1. A. purpurea, foliis cordatis '7-nerviis crenatis reticulato-
venosis supra rugosis scabris subtus lacunosis fusco-
tomentosis, pedunculis unifloris corymbosis.

Axinea purpurea, #. P. Syst. Veg. Fl. Per. et Chil,
Tp. 122.
Ibid. Fl. Peruv. 4, ined. t. 510.

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 393

Hab. in Peruvize nemoribus. Ruiz ef Pavon. h. (v. s:
in Herb. Lamb.) _
Frutex 5-6-pedalis. Flores purpurei.

2, A. muricata, foliis amplis ellipticis crenatis breve acu-
minatis 3-nerviis basi subcordatis supra nudis subtus
ramulisque densé granulosis, calycibus muricatis.

Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. }. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)
Folia pedalia, 5-pollicaris lata. Panicula terminalis,
multiflora, grantiloso-muricata.

3. A. lanceolata, foliis ellipticis acuminatis dentatis 5-nerviis
supra planis glabris subttis fusco-tomentosis, racemis
paniculatis terminalibus lateralibusque.

Axineea lanceolata, R. P. Syst. Veg. Fl. Per. et Chil.

jade pid 22: |

Ibid. FI. Perwv. 4. ined. t. 509.

Hab. in Peruvie sylvis, ad Muna et Pinao. Ruiz et
Pavon. },. (v. s. m Herb. Lamb.)

Arbor magna, frondosa. Flores albi.

4. A; glandulosa, folis ovatis 5-nerviis denticulatis subtus
flavescenti-tomentosis supra planis glabris basi bi-
glandulosis, panicula terminali multiflora.

Axinea glandulosa, R. P. Fl. Perwo. 4. ined. t. 512.

Hab. in Peruvid: Rutz et Pavon: h. (v: s. in Herk
Lamb.)

Arbor frondosa. Flores albi:

5. A. dependens, foliis lanceolatis acuminatis dentato-serratis
5-nervius supra glabris, racemo terminali paniculato
pendulo.

Axinea dependens, #. P. Fl. Peruv. 4. ined. t. 511:
Hab. in Peruvid. Ruiz et Pavon. hs

3Q2 MR DAVID DON

Mentania, Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occid.

Wricutia, Soland. MSS.
Metastom sp. Swartz Prod.

Calyx campanulatus, coriaceus, glaber, basi nudus ; Limbo
urceolato, persistente, 5 rarits 6-dentato: dentibus longis,
lineari-subulatis, persistentibus, inths membrana lata rotun-
data persistente auctis. Petala 5 rarits 6, laté obovata,
fauci annulari latiusculse inserta. Stamina 10 rarits 12,
eidem margini intra petala mserta: jilamenta erecta, com-
presso-plana, dilatata: anther oblong, subcompresse,
declinatz, basi processu calcarato nunc bifido imstructee,
apice poro gemino hiantes, infra dorso filamentis adnate.
Ovarium liberum. Stiylus teres, curvatus, crassus. Stigma
simplicissimum ebtusum. Capsula globosa, calyce crasso
coriaceo vestiia at libera, 5-locularis 5-valvis, nunc 6-locularis
6-valvis: valvis rima oblonga in medio cujusque loculi hi-
antibus. Dissepimenta membranacea in medio valvarum
inserta, axi centrali adnata. Placenta 5, oblougee, subtri-
gonze, lunatee, rugosee, scrobiculatee in loculis centrales, semi-
nibus creberrimé tectee. Semina ovata, majuscula, fusca,
umbilico magno laterali convexo nigro aucta: testa duplex ;
exterior crassa, coriaceo-crustacea ; mterior membranacea.
Embryo luteus, rectus, oveideus cavitati seminis conformis ;
cotyl. crassee, hemispheericee, aequales; radicula cylindracea,
obtusa, cotyledonibus lougior, recta.

Arbores superboe (Jamaicenses), frondose, nitidissime.
Volia oblonga v. lanceolata, acuta, trinervia, coriacea, cre-
nulata, petiolata, opposita, utrinque glabra, nitida, bast ro-
tundata. Pedunculi avillares, oppositi, uniflori, glabri,
apice bibracteati. Flores magni, spectost, albt aut pur-
purer, : -

ON THE MELASTOMACEZA. 323

Ozs. Distinctissimi hujus generis preter novas quas infra
descripsi duze sunt species, scilicet, Meriania leucantha Sw.
et Meriania purpurea Sw., que Wrightia superba Soland.
In anno 1777 nomen Wrightiz imposuit celeberr. Solander,
teste Wrightio ipso; tamen alia Wrightia inter Apocineas
extat, ab illust. Brown in memoriam viri clarissimi dicata.

M. prunifolia, folis ovatis serrulatis, floribus subsessi-
libus.

Osbeckia axillaris, Pavon MSS.

Hab. in Peruvia. Pavon. RQ. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

frutez ramosissimus, frondosus. flores axillares, bre-
vissime pedunculati, bibracteati, purpurei, magni.

M. parviflora, foliis ellipticis acutis denticulatis, pedun-
culis trifidis trifloris.

flad. in Brazillia. Sello. (v. s. in Herb. Sims.)

Frutex erectus, ramosus, glaber. Folia ultra pollicaria.

Flores parvi, rosei.

BLaAKkeA, Browne, Linn.

Torozaa, Aull.
VaLpEsia, Ruiz ct Pavon.

Calyx campanulatus, squamis 4 v. 6, subrotundis, latis
coriaceis cruciatim vy. triplici ordine dispositis cinctus, in
zestivatione extts fusco-tomentosus: dimbo urceolato, leviter
6-lobo v. 6 raré 8-denticulato, persistente. Petala 6 raro
8, elliptica, coriacea, sessilia v. unguiculata lateribus in-
zequalibus, basi seepitis obliqua, in orem calycis circum-
ambienti margini latiusculo inserta. Stamina 12, nunc 16,
gequalia,eidem margini inserta :_filamenta brevia, compresso-
plana: anther in cylindrum v. annulum subcoalite, mag-

3Q4 MR DAVID DON

nz, suborbiculatae, compressze v. oblongee, trigonze, basi in
calcare brevissimo emarginato productee, ad basin lateris
interni filamentis adnate, apice obtusze (rarissimé subacutze)
poris geminis hiantes. Stylus robustus, rectus, superné
angustatus, parum curvatus. Stigma obtusum, simplex,
pruinosum. Capsula baccata, spheerica, calyce crasso coria-
ceo obvoluta, et cum eo connata, 6-locularis, 6-valvis, inter-
dim 8-locularis, 8-valvis: valvis crassis, coriaceis, rima
oblonga singulis in medio loculi hiantibus. Déissepimenta
coriacea, medio valvarum inserta, axi centrali firme ad-
nate. Placente: 6, crass, carnosee, trigonee, scrobiculate,
simul cum parietibus capsule imbricaté seminiferee, axi
centrali longitudinalitér affixs. Semina ovata; majus-
cula, fusca, punctata, umbilico oblongo laterali, convexo,
nigrescente aucta: testa duplex; exterior crassa, coriaceo-
crustacea; interior membranacea: albumen nullum. /'m-
bryo luteus, rectus, ovoideus, cavitati seminis conformis:
cotyl. crassee, hemispheric, aequales: radicula cylindracea,
crassa, obtusa, cotyledonibus longior, recta.

Arbuscule aut frutices (Amer. Anquin. et Ind. Occid.),
ramis teretibus v. tetragonis sa@piis tomentosis. Folia
opposita, petiolata, 3-5-nervia, coriacea, imtegerrima. v.
crenulata, supra glabra, nitida, subtis scepiis dense fer-
rugineo-tomentosa. Pedunculi awillares teretes, wniflori,
nudi, oppositr v. solitarn, folws breviores, seeps fusco-
tomentost. Flores magni, speciost rosei.

Ozs. Ad hoc genus referenda preter species omnes
infra descriptas forte Melastoma Cacatin Aubl. |

~§ Calycibus limbo 6-lobis, squamis 4 rard 6 basi cinctis.

1. B. trinervis, folus ovali-oblongis trinerviis; adultis
utrinque glabris nitidis, petiolis ramulisque rufo-

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 325

tomentosis, pedunculis solitariis petiolo longioribus,
squamis calyce longioribus triplici ordine dispositis.
Blakea trinervia, Linn.
Hab. in insula Jamaica. Browne, Wright. th. (v. v. c.
et s. spont.)

2. B. Mexicana, folis ellipticis acutis 5-nerviis denticulatis
subtus pilosis, pedunculis subternis, squamis calyce
longioribus.

Hab. in Mexico. Pavon. h. (v.s. in Herb. Lamb.)

3. B. rosea, foliis ovali-lanceolatis acuminatis glabris, pe-
dunculis geminis, squamis calyce longioribus, petalis
mucronatis.

Vaidesia rosea, #7. Perwo. v. 4. ined. t. 408.
Hab. in Peruvia. Ruiz e¢ Pavon. h.
Arbor erecta.

4. B. ovalis, foliis ovalibus acuminatis utringue nudis
nitidisque 3-nerviis, pedunculis geminis, squamis
calyce longioribus, petalis obtusis.

Valdesia ovalis, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv.
p-. 121.

Ibid. Fl. Perwv. v. 4. ined. t. 406.

Hab. in Peruvia. Ruiz et Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.)

Arbor erecta, 8-orgyalis.

_ 5. B. repens, folis lanceolatis acuminatis 3-nerviis subtus
pilosis, pedunculis geminis, squamis calyce breviori-
bus, petalis mucronulatis.

Valdesia repens, Ruiz e¢ Pavon Syst. Veg. Fil. Perwo.
p- 121, et Fl. Perwv. v. 4. ined. t. 405.

Hab. in Peruvia. Ruiz et Pavon. h. (v. s.1n Herb,
Lamb.)

6. B. latifolia, foliis amplis ovalibus triplinerviis acumi-

326 MR DAVID DON

natis glabris, pedunculis solitaris, squamis calyce
longioribus.

Valdesia latifolia, FY. Perwo. v. 4. ined. t. 407.

Hab. in Peruvia. Ruiz et Pavon. h.

Arbor erecta.

§ Calycibus limbo 6-denticulatis, squamis quatuor cinctis.

Y. B. quinquenervis, foliis ellipticis acuminatis 5-nerviis
utrinque nudis nitidisque, pedunculis geminis pe-
tiolo brevioribus, squamis calyce longioribus.

Blakea quinquenervia, Aubl. Gu. 1. p. 525, t. 210,
Lam. Encycl. 4. p. 61.

Blakea triplinervia, Linn. Suppl. p. 246, Vahl. Symb.
3. p. 61, Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 845.

Hab. in Guiane sylvis. Aublet. h.

Arbor 16-pedalis. Folia spithamea. Pedunculi seepe
gemini. Flores magni, speciosi, carnei, disco albi.
Bacca subrotunda, magnitudine fructus Mespili
Germanice.

8. B. muitifiora, foliis ovali-oblongis breve acuminatis 5-
nervis subtus pilosis, pedunculis subternis, squamis
calyce triplo brevioribus. |

Hab. in Peruvid. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.) >

9. B. rotundifolia, foliis amplis subrotundis 5-nerviis sub-
tus ramulisque dense ferrugineo-tomentosis, pedun-
culis solitariis, squamis calyce longioribus.

Hab. in Peruviad. Pavon. }. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Foliorwm pagina, 6-7-pollicaris, latitudine 4-6-unciali.

10. B. macrophylla, foliis amplis ovalibus 5-nerviis utrin-
que nudis, pedunculis solitariis, squamis calyce lon-
gioribus.

ON THE MELASTOMACE&. 327

Hab. in Mexico. Pavon. h. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)
Foha pedalia, latitudine 7-pollicaria.

11. B. parasitica, foliis subrotundo-cordatis 5-nervus mu-
cronatis supra glabris nitidisque, pedunculis brevi-
bus subternis, squamis calycem sequantibus.

Topobeea parasitica, Aubl. Guy. p. 4°76. t. 189.
Hab. in Guiana. Aublet, Martin. h. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.)

Frutex supra truncos arborum scandens et radicans.

12. B. levigata, folis ovalibus integerrimis trinerviis ra-
wulisque glabris, pedunculis solitartis petiolo bre-
vioribus, squamis basi connatis calyce brevioribus.

Blakea trinervis, Pavon MSS.
Hab. im Mexico. Pavon. h.

CHARIANTHUS.
MeEtastomz sp. Auctior.

Calyx tubuloso-campanulatus, pube steilata lepidotus,
fauci urceolatus: limbo patente 4-lobo, coriaceo, persistente :
lobis rotundatis. Petala 4, erecta, ovalia, obtusa, incum-
benti-tubulosa, sessilia, concava, subcoriacea, fauci annulari
incrassatze inserta, lateribus obliqua. Stamina 8, erecta,
subzqualia, fauci inserta: jfilamenta longissima, anguste
linearia, compressa, glabra: anther filamenti continue,
oblongee, claveeformes, erecta, persistentes! introrsum bi-
loculares, duplici rima longitudinal: dehiscentes! basi om-
nind nuda in filamentis contmua. Ovariwm cum calyce
arcte connatum. Stylus staminibus longior, rectus, cylin-
dricus, glaber, superné curvatus. Stigma simplex, obtu-
sum, prumosum. Capsuia baccata, globosa, glabra, calyce

898 MR DAVID DON

inclusa et.arcté cum eo connata, summo levitér umbilicata,
4-locularis, 4-valvis, ab apice quadrifariam dehiscens limbo
calycino coronata: valvis coriaceis. Placenie 4, lunatee,
trigone, carnosze, valde scrobiculatee simul cum parietibus
capsule: crebré seminiferee. Semina numerosa, minuta,
ovata, fusca, umbilico magno oblongo laterali nigrescente
notata: festa duplex ; exterior crassiuscula, coriaceo-crus-
tacea ; interior tenuissima, membranacea: albumen nullum.
Embryo rectus, albus, cavitati seminis conformis: cotyd.
breves, crassze, hemispheericee: radicula teres, crassa, coty-
ledonibus duplo longior, infera, basi attenuata.

Frutices v. arbusculee (Ind. Occid.) erect, ramose.
Folia opposita, 5-nervia, integerrima, petiolata. Flores
terminales, numerosi, corymboso-paniculati, magni, pur-
purer Vv. sanguine. Bacce atro-purpurec, edules.

Ozs. Hocce novum et pulcherrimum genus interea ad
calcem ordinis adjeci; dum mihi est sententia quod illum
melius inter Myrtaceas ordinandum, et preesertim si quidem
dehiscentia antherarum magni valoris characterem habenda
est quod ipse judico; vero si in adversa sententia ve-
niunt Botanici, et hocce signum differentiale minimé valere
sestimant, vere limites horum ordinum nec facile erint de-
finiendi, quia vix ullus erit character sejungere illos. Cha-
rianthum dixi a yagses, venustus, et avbos, flos.

1. C. coceineus, foliis ovalibus acuminatis subtus petiolis-
que stellato-pubescentibus: basi integerrima, ramulis
pubescentibus.

Melastoma coccinea, Act. Soc. Nat. Hist. Paris. 1. p.
109, Richard in Bonpl. Monog. p. 31. t. 16.

Melastoma alpina, Sw. FU. Ind. Occid. 2. p. 800, Weild.
Sp. Pl. 2. p. 597.

Hab. in Insulee Guadelupze Monte la Soufriere dicto

ON THE MELASTOMACEZ. 39,

(du Ponthieu, Richard), in Insula St Christophorii
(Tobin), in Martinica (Richard). h. (v. s. in Herb.
Lamb.)

2. C. purpureus, foliis cordato-ovalibus breve acuminatis
5-nerviis subtus marginibusque pilosis: basi emargi-
nata, petiolis ramulisque hispide setosis.

Melastoma coccinea, Vahl Eclog. 1. p. 48, Willd. Sp.
Pl. 2. p. 599.

Hab. m Insula Montserrat (Ryan), in Insula Nevis
(Tobin). hk. (v. s. in Herb. Lamb.)

3. C. tinifolius, folus ovatis coriaceis utrinque ramulisque
glabris.

Hab. m India Occidentali. Anderson. hh. (v. s. im
Herb. Lamb.)

Flores sanguineo-purpurei. Folia coriacea, glabra, ni-
tida, nervis lateralibus obsoletis, praecedentibus qua-
druplo minora, apice brevissime obtuséque acumi-
nata.

N.B. At p. 282, after Hemceyon, read Linn. instead
of Du Petit Thouars.

330 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF A LIQUID

XXV.—Ewamination by Chemical Re-agents of
a Liquid from the Crater of Vulcano, one of
the Lipari Islands.

By Joun Murray, F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. &e.

(Head 30th November 1822.)

Tuts liquid, the Earl of Mountnorris informs me, is
from the bottom of the crater of Vulcano, one of the Lipari
Islands, the seat of active fires.

The liquid is quite diaphanous. Its taste is styptic and
astringent, and it shghtly reddens litmus paper.

Diluted with distilled water, it was submitted to chemical
re-agents.

Lime-water rendered it milky, and magnesia was infer-
red. ;

Oxalate of ammonia produced, after a few minutes re-

pose, a slight opacity, indicating the presence of lime.

Solutions of silver determined the existence of muriates.

Nitrate of baryta exhibited a copious precipitate, and
thus shewed sulphates to be present in the solution.

FROM THE CRATER OF VULCANO, 331

Phosphate of soda determined an abundant precipitate,
corroborating the inference obtained from the phenomena
presented by the lime-water.

With chromic acid, chromate of potassa, muriate of tin,
muriate of ammonia, and tincture of iodine, no new phe-
nomena were presented ; or, at any rate, if a change did
occur, it was not appreciable.

Ferro-cyanate of ammonia, and ferro-cyanate of potassa,
produced a copious prussian-blue precipitate, and therefore
tron was held suspended in the liquid.

With pure ammonia, the solution became turbid, and
chanyed to a brownish-green.

Hydriodate of potassa yielded a yellow-green precipitate.

Ferro-cyanate of potassa gave a greenish-white precipt-
tate, with the colourless liquid which remained, after sepa-
rating the prussian-blue by the filter.

The three last chemical tests appear to epee the
existence of nickel in this liquid.

With much diluted tincture of galls, a reddish tint was
primarily obtained; it became subsequently darker, and
finally attenuated into a lighter shade.

Hydro-sulphuret of ammonia formed an immediate copi-
ous green precipitate, clouded with cobweb-like films.

The phznomena presented by the agencies of the tinc-
ture of galls, and hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, are such as
would be exhibited by éitaniwm, and, therefore, this metal
may also be concluded upon.

Pure potassa was mixed with the liquid undiluted, in a
watch-glass, and a feather moistened with muriatic acid
brought near ; the white vapours produced, determined the
evolution of ammoniacal gas: the odour of ammonia was
also unequivocal.

Nitro-muriate of platinum dropt into the undiluted li-
quid, in a small capsule, and allowed to evaporate spon-

332. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF A LIQUID

taneously, yielded arenaceous crystals, of a yellowish-red
tint: examined by the lens, these were found to be chiefly
octahedrai; some seemed to be duodecahedral. Stars
formed of groups of transparent and diaphanic acicular
crystals also pervaded the liquid mass—(Muriate of pot-
assa ?)

This volcanic liquid is unusually interesting from its
containing iron associated with nickel and titaniwm, and
particularly remarkable for holding in solution the consti-
tuents of meteoric stones, with the solitary exception of
silica. 'This liquid must have been ejected in the form of
vapour, and subsequently condensed. The fact clearly
proves the susceptibility of iron, thus combined with nic-
kel, &c. being held suspended in the atmosphere. In refe-
rence to silica, we have Dr Maccuttocn’s authority for
assuming that it may be sublimed; and in the thermal
waters of Lucca, Bath, &c. it 1s intimately combined with
oxide of iron, where it seems to act the part of an acid.

Before that I can believe aérolites to be the exotic growth
of an extra atmospheric locality, I must possess more ample
evidence than has yet been adduced.

Among a variety of interesting minerals from the Lipari
Islands which the Earl of Mountnorris presented to me,
two merit particular netice; and both of them, his Lord-
ship told me, were from the crater of Vulcano. One formed
part of a stalactitic mass of Alwm,—and the other, Lord
Mountnorris assured me, had been pronounced to he
Baryta.

By reducing a portion of this volcanic alum to powder,
and triturating it with a saturated solution of pure caustic
-potassa, ammoniacal gas was copiously evolved, and deci-
ded by its odour,—white fumes, with muriatic acid, and
violet tint, with cupreous solutions. ‘The alum was some-
what granular and spongy, and on its solution in distilled

FROM THE CRATER OF VULCANO. 833

water did not develope the octohedral form, but evolved.
air-bells. Nitro-muriate of platinum did not affect a satu-
rated solution of this alum. Its composition, therefore, is
an ammoniaco-sulphate of alumina. :

The Baryta was not at any rate terra ponderosa, for it
was exceedingly ght and tender; the minute folize which
composed the mass were of a pearly semblance, and felt
somewhat unctuous to touch. The scales had every appear-
ance of boracic acid; dissolved im distilled water, it red-
dened litmus paper; and, with alcohol, exhibited, when in-
flamed, the green colour which characterizes boracic acid.

That the waters of the ocean have some subterranean
communication with the source of volcanic fires, has ever
appeared to me a conclusion perfectly warrantable; but
the spring whence the muriate of ammonia has flowed, is
a problem of more difficult complexion. I greatly deceive
myself, however, if an ammoniacal combination does not
obtain in marine salt. If sea-salt be finely powdered and
triturated with a solution of caustic potassa, or even with dry
guicklime, muriatic acid will announce the escape of am-
monia.

This circumstance, combined with the researches of
RovELLeE and Proust, respecting the existence of a mer-
curial salt in the oceanic waters, would lead us to conclude,
when conjoined with the discovery of muriate of potassa
in them by Dr Wot tasvon, that their chemical constitu-
ents are more complex than had been hitherto supposed.

VOL IV. Z

334 NOTICE OF MARINE DEPOSITES

XXVI—WNotice of Marine Deposites on the
Margin of Loch Lomond.

By Mr J. Adamson.

(Read 14th December 1822.)

Se

As to beauty or magnificence of scenery, Loch Lomond.
has many interesting features common to it with the other
Scottish lakes which occupy the chasms of the great primi-~
tive mountainous district ; it is, however, more closely con-
nected with a different set of hollows. It is the most cha-
racteristic example of a group of long recesses which lie
together, and nearly parallel to each other, but which, in-
stead of following the direction of the mountain ranges,
stretch almost perpendicular to it, generally cutting through
the Transition and part of the Primitive roeks, together
with the older members of the Fleetz formation. All the
others of those valleys are connected with the sea by means
of the Frith of Clyde, and are partly filled with its salt
water, and enlivened by its appropriate animals. ‘There is:
reason enough to believe, that this was at one time the
condition of Loch Lomond also; but at present, we find

there, along with the Ocean’s depth, only the remains of its:
inhabitants.

ON THE MARGIN OF LOCH LOMOND:. 335

‘One of these marine deposites was about eight or ten feet
above the highest level of the present waters. It lay in a
small hollow, under a projecting precipice of limestone,
close to the margin of the lake. The only remains of it now
are some fragments of a very compact calc-tuff, contain-
ing sea-shells disseminated through it. The limestone-rock
is now guarried ; and the calc-tuff being the most accessible
and richest limestone; was first carried off for use. 'The
shells appear to have been accumulated in a situation ex-
posed to the stalactite droppings from the lime-rock. Int
the interior of the tuffa, they are chiefly the Mytilus edulis,
or its congeners; but the surface is sprinkled with imbed-
ded specimens, belonging to the genera Planorbis and Helix,
which have accidentally fallen upon it. This quarry is on
the east side of the lake, about two miles north-west from
the mouth of the Endrick, and on the north side of the
great range of islands composed of Secondary Conglomerate;
which stretches across the southern end of the lake. This
limestone is on the lands of his Grace the Duke of Mon-
trose, and is worked for his tenantry, but is not much
esteemed for agricultural purposes. It is highly crystalline
in its fracture, appearmeg to be irregular layers of crystals;
separated by quartz and clay.

- There are other two places, which afford shells, in very
different circumstances. Those points are similar in situa-
tion; both are in slight bays opening to the north, and
‘presenting a steep gravelly beach to the water. One of
them is on the island Inch Lonach, opposite to the village
of Luss; and the other, on the lands of H. Macponaip
. Bucnanan, Esq., near the south-east angle of the lake.
The shells begin to appear about half-way between the
highest and lowest, or the winter and summer, surfaces of
the water, which varies in this respect about six feet. After
removing a slight covering of coarse gravel, we find a thir’
we

$30 NOTICE OF MARINE DEPOSITES

bed of clay, of different shades of brown, passing into yel-
low colours, as we descend. In the upper, or brown clay,
are found shells of the following species. ‘Those marked ?
ave doubtful.

Buccinum reticulatum ?

Nerita glaucina.

Tellina tenuis ?

Cardium edule.

Venus striatula.

_ Venus Islandica.

Nucula rostrata, young.

Pecten obsoletus.

Anomia ephippium, young.

Balanus communis.

Balanus rugosus.

Echinus esculentus.

A skilful conchologist would: discover many others, from
the numerous traces of them in the clay. Those shells ap-
pear to have been deposited generally in an entire state,
and many are found with both valves in their natural posi-
tion. ‘The Balanus is still slightly attached to’ the Venus
or Pecten; and the spines of the Echinus are found clustered
m the clay inclosing its fragments; so that they must have
been either covered by water to a considerable depth, or
thrown on a beach not much exposed to waves. Few of
them, however, can be extracted entire, as several of the
species are always in a state of gritty chalk; but many
complete and beautiful specimens of the pecten can easily
be procured. Few of their fragments appear on the exposed.
part-of the beach, but, during summer, many may be seen
a few feet under water. ‘Those deposites cannot be more
than about twenty-two feet above the present level of the
sea. It is probable that an attentive imspection of the mar-
gin of the lake would discover many others similar to them.

&

ON THE MARGIN OF LOCH LOMOND. 337

A little attention may be necessary, to an opinion, which
we sometimes hear expressed in conversation, ‘ that such
hollows, as Loch Lomond, with a bottom so far below the
level of the ocean, ought, if ever they were filled by it, stall
to retain its salt water.” It seems to be imagined, that the
sea-water, on account of its greater specific gravity, is still
retained in the deep pits of these chasms, and that the
fresh-water glides unmixed above it, or changes by evapo-
ration and renewal, without affecting its deeply buried mass.
It does not seem difficult to demonstrate the improbability
of this supposition. For the phenomena of solution can be
accounted for only on some hypothesis such as this: that,
when a film of pure water is applied to a film containing
salt in solution, there is a tendency in them to unite, and
form a compound of less saturation than the latter ; which
compound has a corresponding influence on the nearest, or
on any number of saturated films beneath it; and will, in
like manner, be affected and changed by the next pure
film above it, and, successively, by any number of films in
any depth of water. The changes will cease only when an
equilibrium of attractions has taken place through the whole
mass, which will then be in a state of medium and uniform
saturation. Whatever be the time required for the com-
bination of two films, that time would be an element in the
equation, representing the whole period necessary to pro-
duce uniformity, which must therefore depend on the num-
ber of films, or be a function of the depth. Changes of
temperature at the surface would very much accelerate the
result, by sending downwards dense films, having the high-
est degree of attraction, until stopt among others, having
the same specific gravity, arising from greater saturation ;
so that probably no long time would elapse before nearly
uniform saturation took place, even though the combined
depth of the fluids were considerable. But the tendency

398 NOTICE OF MARINE DEPOSITES,

towards uniform saturation is opposed in a manner which
must quickly draw off the salt-water from a hollow, such
as a lake; because the surface-water, in general, is con-
tinually changing, and the water, which has become slight-
Jy saturated, flows off, and is replaced by that which is
purer, and has a greater attraction for the salt; and to
satisfy this augmented attraction, the progress of change
downwards must be much more rapid. Consequently, how-
ever slowly the tendency to equilibrium may act in an 1so-
lated solution,—in the other case, as the progress of ex-
haustion goes on more rapidly, we may expect that no long
period would be required to destroy all perceptible saltness.
That this period has long since passed, in our Scottish
lakes, can scarcely be doubted; but though we be not
able to bring up sea-water from the bottcm of any of them,
yet all are interesting objects of observation. Loch Lomond
in particular, as the additions it receives are so uniformly
distributed over the whole space of its margin, is admirably
fitted for experiments on the changes or stability of tem-
perature in deep waters.

(22339 ~’)

XXVII.—Descriptions of the L:culent Fungi
of Great Britain, with Observations.

By Rosert Kaye Grevitite, Esq. F.R.S. E.
M.W.S. &e.

(Head 28th December 1822.)

CRRA
een SEES

(GREAT BRITAIN is the only country in Europe in
which, with the exception of two or three species, the
Fungi are looked down upon with contempt and aversion; —
nor have its inhabitants profited of late, by the knowledge,
that they possess most of those species which supply a con-
stant resource to thousands of their continental neighbours.

If we go back to the earliest European writers on Na-
tural History, we find mention invariably made of a num-
ber of kinds employed as food in France, Italy, and Ger-
many. The old descriptions of Fungi are indeed unintel-
ligible, and they are frequently merely enumerated as
Fungus esculentus primus, secundus, &c.; but the number
thus given, shews them to have been extensively used, and,
we have reason to conclude, long before authors arose to
notice them. At present, they form a regular article of
diet throughout the greater part of Europe, and not merely

340 MR GREVILLE ON THE

as a resource in times of scarcity, but as a delicacy. It is
therefore not a little extraordinary, that we, who have be-
fore our eyes several esteemed species in the utmost profu-
sion, should neglect the whole, except the common Mush-
room, the Truffle, and the Morelle. On the Continent,
it is a common practice to eat various fungi in a raw
state, which, it is said, renders them more nutritious.
SCHWEGRICHEN mentions this expressly, in an extract of a
letter quoted by Prrsoon.——“ In travelling through Ger-
many and Austria, I observed the peasants in the vicinity
of Nuremberg, where I lived a part of the summer, to eat
raw mushrooms seasoned with anise-seed and carroway-seed,
along with their black bread. Being then employed on the
study of cryptogamous plants, I resolved to try the effect
of this kind of food on my own person.

‘<I therefore imitated these people, and succeeded so com-
pletely, that, during several weeks, I ate nothing but bread
and raw fungi, and drank nothing but water. Instead of
finding my health affected, I rather experienced an increase
cf strength. I preferred those species which had neither a
bad flavour nor a disagreeable smell, and which had a
tolerably firm consistence ; as, Boletus esculentus, B. rufus,
Agaricus campestris, Ag. procerus, Clavaria coralloides,
&e.

-* ] have observed that fungi, if moderately used, are
very nourishing, but that they lose their good qualities by
culinary preparation, which deprives them of their natural
taste."—Prrsoon Traié sur les Champignons comestibles,
p. 157. |

Of all people I am acquainted with, the Russians seem
to employ them most exclusively as aliment; and on this
subject, Professor Patuas, in his Voyage dans plusieurs
Provinces de VEmpire de la Russie, vol.i. p. 65, has given
us a few interesting details, which are so much to the pur-

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 34]

pose, that they are worth transcribmg.—“ Le temps doux
et humide avoit fait crottre dans les bois un grand nombre
de champignons de toutes sortes @especes. Les gens de la
campagne en mangent beaucoup, et en font de fortes provi-
sions pour Thiver. Ces champignons et ie pain sont a peu
pres pendant le caréme, la seule nourriture des pauvres
paysans des contrées forestieres. Ils font sécher ou ils
salent ceux qwils veulent conserver pour Vhiver. On mange
généralement en Russie toutes les espéeces de champignons,
et méme ceux gui sont ou passés ow verreux, Le champig-
non de mouche (Amanita muscaria) ; le champignon puant
du fumer, et plusieurs autres petits, entierement denués
de chair, sont les seuls dont on ne fait point usage. Les
premiers nont encore causé aucuns malheurs. Les paysans
se conientent de les faire bouillir dans Peau, avec un peu de
sel. Le pewple connott parfaitement toutes ces espéces-ct ;
chacune a sa denomination particuliere. It en mange plu-
sieurs espéces que Ton regarde ailleurs comme tres-perni-
cieuses, telles que ? Agaric des champs, (Agaricus campes-
tris, Griz, Russ.), ?Agaric pur, (Agaricus integer, Vo-
Loni, Russ.), PT Agaric de Georgie (Ag. Georgi, Growuzp,
Russ.), V Agaric delicieux (Ag. deliciosus, Ris1x, Russ.),
(Agaric a canelle (Ag. cnnamomeus, Votsanxa, Russ.),
LP Agaric destructewr (Ag. extinctorius, Skrieitza, Huss.),
a TAgaric fragile (Ag. fragilis, Optonxa, Russ.) On fait
secher ces especes. On se sert encore dela Truffe visqueuse
(Boletus viscidus, Mastunix, Russ.), de [Agaric jaune
| (Boletus luteus, Berzsovix, Russ.), dela Truffe de boeuf
(Boletus bovinus, Borovix et Korovix, Russ.), et du
Champignon de couches 4 réseaux (Morchella esculenta,
Sinorcnox, Russ.)”
The Russians employ in dyemg, those Boleti which
change immediately to a blue colour on being cut.

S42 MR GREVILLE ON THE

All the eatable fungi are contained in the genera T'uder,
Morchella, Helvella, Clavaria, Hydnum, Cantharellus,
Boletus, Agaricus, and Amanita; species of all of which
Wwe possess in this country. |

As a guide in the selection of unknown fungi, welders 1s
probably of considerable importance. ‘* Quamobrem recte
scribit Avicenna,” says Marios, * eos nocentiores CSSC,
qui nigri vel virides, vel in nigro purpurascentes visuntur.”
PrErsoon remarks, that a pure yellow or golden colour,
especially in the lamellze of Agarics, denotes a good quality.
Many excellent species have a very pale or nearly white
pileus; some are brown. A vinous red and violet is said
to be universally wholesome; but orange-red and rose-
colour, poisonous. In regard to the Boleti more especially,
all are edible according to DE Canpo.tiz, Essai, p. 328,
except, Ist, coriaceous and ligneous species; 2d, those
whose stem is furnished with a collar or annular veil; 3d,
those with an acrid taste; and, 4¢h, those whose flesh turns
to a blue colour on being cut. Wherever this last character
is perceived im any plant of the order, it always denotes a
poisonous property.

An excellent rule, and perhaps the best, in selecting or
in making experiments upon unknown mushrooms, is to
taste them. If they are astringent, styptic, or leave a dis-
agreeable sensation on the tongue (the arriere-gott of
Prrsoon), reject them. Those also that have a pungent
or unpleasant smell, should be equally neglected.

Agarics growing in tufts and clusters from the trunks or
stumps of trees are almost universally to be avoided.

Fungi, especially Agarict and Boleti, should be gathered
for the table before they arrive at their full age, as they
frequently then become tough and insipid. The hyme-
mum, or that part containing the fructification, should,
when it consists of tubes (as in the Boleti), be invariably

ESCULENLT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 343

removed, as it is often noxious, when the rest of the plant
is unexceptionable. When the hymenium consists of gills
or lamellz (as in Agaricus and Amanita), they need not
be separated if the plant be taken quite young; but if the
pileus or cap be expanded, they must be removed before
cooking.
As the plant saminonly known by the name of the fly-
Jungus (from its property of destroying flies when steeped in
milk), has made some noise of late on the Continent, I must
warn these who might feel inclined to try it in this country,
_ of the danger they would expose themselves to. It has not
been clearly ascertained whether the species which grows
in this country, and in the south of Europe, be indeed the
same as that which 1s found in Kamtschatka, and called
Amanita Muscaria Kamtschatica. At any rate, our plant
is known to be highly poisonous; and the Kamtschatka
variety may be another species, or have partly lost its viru-
lence, from inhabiting a more northern climate. ‘The pro-
perties of this variety are exceedingly curious, and as they
are contained in a German essay by Dr Lancspvorr, in
Annalen der Wetterauischen Gesellschaft fiir die gesamente
Naturkunde, I trust a concise account of them will not be
unacceptable.
- This variety of Amanita Muscaria is used by the inha-
bitants of the north-eastern parts of Asia, in the same man-
ner as wine, brandy, arrack, opium, &c. is by cther nations.
These fungi are found most plentifully about Wischna
Kamtschatka, and Milkowa Derewna, and are very abun-
dant in some seasons, and scarce in others. ‘They are col-
lected in the hottest months, and hung up by a string in
the air to dry: some dry of themselves on the ground, and
are said to be far more narcotic than those artificially pre-
served. Small deep-coloured specimens thickly covered

344 MR GREVILLE ON THE

with warts, are also said to be more powerful than those of
a larger size and paler colour.

The usual mode of taking the fungus is, to ay itt it up
like a bolus, and swallow it without chewing, which, the
Kamtschadales say, would disorder the stomach. It is
sometimes eaten fresh in soups and sauces, and then loses
much of its intoxicating property; when steeped in the
juice of the berries of Vaccinium uliginosum, its effects are
those of strong wine.

One large, or two small fungi, is a common dose to pro-
duce a pleasant intoxication for a whole day, particularly —
if water be drunk after it, which augments the narcotic
principle.

The desired effect comes on from one to two hours after
taking the fungus. Giddiness and drunkenness result from
the fungus, in the same manner as from wine or spirits;
cheerful emotions of the mind are first produced ; the coun-—
tenance becomes flushed ; involuntary words and actions fol-
low, and sometimes at last an entire loss of consciousness. It
renders some remarkably active, and proves highly stimu-
lant to muscular exertion: with too large a dose, violent
spasmodic effects are produced.

So very exciting to the nervous system, in many indivi-
duals, is this fungus, that the effects are often very ludi-
crous. Ifa person under its influence wishes to step over
a straw or small stick, he takes a stride or a jump sufficient
to clear the trunk of a tree ; a talkative person cannot keep
silence or secrets; and one fond of music is perpetually
singing.

The most singular effect of the Amaniia is the influence
it possesses over the urine. It is said that, from time im-
memorial, the inhabitants have known that the fungus im-
parts an intoxicating quality to that secretion, which con-
tinues for a considerable time after taking it. For mstance ;

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 345

a man moderately intoxicated to-day, will by the next
morning have slept himself sober; but (as is the custom)
by taking a tea-cup of his urine, be more powerfully in-
toxicated than he was the preceding day by the fungus.
It is therefore not uncommon for confirmed drunkards to
preserve their urine as a precious liquor, against a scarcity
of the fungus. This intoxicating property of the urine is
capable of being propagated ; for every one who partakes
of it has his urine similarly affected. Thus, with a very
few Amanita, a party of drunkards may keep up their de-
bauch for a week. Dr Lancsporr mentions, that by
means of the second person taking the urine of the first,
the third that of the second, and so on, the intoxication
_ may be propagated through five individuals.

Sursweor ee

Nat. Orv. GASTROMYCI, Link., Grev.

(funet sarcocarpi, Pers.)

%

TUBER.

“1. T. cibarium, subrotundum, nigrescens, valde verru-
cosum.

T. cibarium, Bull. Champ. p. (4, t. 356.—Sibth. F7.
Oxon. p. 398.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 126.— With. Bot.
Arr, ed. 6. v. 4. p. 422.— Sow. Fung. t. 309.—De
Cand. Fl. Frang. v. 2. p. 278. Ejusd. Syn. p. 58.—
Propriet. Med. des Plantes, p. 322.—Pers. Champ.
comest. p. 262.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 10.—Gray’s
Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 592.

Tuser gulosorum, Wigg Fl. Holsat. p. 109.

346 MR’ GREVILLE ON THE

Tuner brumale, Mich. p. 221. t. 102. 3

Lycorervon tuber, Linn. Sp. Pl. 68a <aihiah Fi,
Scot. v. 2. p. 1064.

Lycorrrpon gulosorum, Scop. Fl. pe v. 2: p. 421.
Trufftes.

Han. A few inches beneath the surface of the soil, espe-
cially where of a light sandy or gravelly nature. Au-
tumn.

Desc. Gregarious, roundish, but sometimes irregular,
covered with subpyramidal warts, pale, at length near=
ly quite black. Within firm, solid, yellowish or pale-

whitish-brown, and marbled with flexuose lines.

No fungus is more esteemed for the table than the truffle,
and, in order to procure a constant supply, dogs, and even
pigs, are employed to detect it. Kew hkewise have been
longer noticed; GaLEN, AVICENNA, Pury, Matuioius;
and many others, having mentioned it, in various terms of
approbation. Parxinson, along with a rude figure, gives
us the following account : “ There is yet another kinde of
mushrome (for so it may most fitly be termed, and not
rootes, as some would make them to be) that groweth not
out or above the ground, as all the former sorts doe, but
within or under the upper crust thereof, called in Greeke
either vdvev and we, ab imbribus, or ove, ab humore ; in
Latine, tuber and tubera; in the Arabian tongue, rameck
alchameck, tumer and kema; in Italian, tartuffi and tartu-
fole ; 1a Spanish, turmas de tierra; in French, truffes and
truffies ; in Germane, hirtz brunst; in English some call
them Spanish fusse-balls, because they are somewhat like
our fusse-balls, which are not edible, but containe a smoaky
dust or pouther in them: but I would rather call them
Underground Mushrooms, or Spanish trubbes, to distin-

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 347

guish them.” GaeEn affirms them to have no peculiar
property; but Avicenna says, they are pre-eminent in
breeding ‘* grosse and melancholicke humours ;” that they
‘* trouble the stomacke, whether they be rosted under the
embers or otherwise boiled in broth, and eaten with pepper,
oyle, and vinegar.” Vid. Park. Theat. Bot. p. 1320.

Der Cannottt, in his Essai sur les Propriétés Médicales
des Plantes, remarks, that all the species are wholesome
and agreeable to the palate; T'uber moschatum and 7’.
album being often substituted for the common species, and
known to the Piédmontais by the names of Bianchetti and

_ Rossetit. PERsoon in his T'raité corroborates this, and adds
several additional details.

The modes of cooking truffles are very numerous. They
are dressed with champagne; in potages; in all kinds of
ragouts; in patés; in pyes; as stuffing to fowls; and are
made even into cream. Vid. Butttarp. By true epicures
they are usually only roasted under the embers. In Piéd-
mont, according to Basis, they are often eaten raw, as
sallad ; particularly with snipes, which are scarcely valued
unless accompanied with truffles. |

_. Truffles vary much in size ; common specimens are about
2—~-3 inches in diameter; but there are instances mentioned
by Hatter, and others, of their weighing even fourteen
pounds. As they increase in size, they often raise slightly
the ground above them, which frequently cracks, and gives
access to a species of fly, of a blue colour, which deposites

its eggs in the fungus, and acts as a sort of guide to the
truffie-hunter. A figure of this insect is given in the Lettres
de M. pe Borcu sur les Truffes du Piédmoni.
The reader will find in Boxitarp, directions for forming.

a Trufficre..

348 MR GREVILLE ON THE

2. T'. moschatum, subrotundum, leeve, intus et extus ni-

grescens.

Tuser moschatum, Ball. Champ. p. 79, t. 479.—Pers.
Syn. Fung. p. 127.—Sow. Fung. t. 420.—De Cand.
Fl. Frang. v. 2. p. 297. Ejusd. Syn. p. 58.—Gray’s
Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 592.

Has. The same as the preceding, but much rarer.

Desc. Rounded or oblong, smooth, blackish both within
and without. It shrinks and becomes corrugated when
dry. Smaller than Tuber cibariwm, from which the
smooth surface alone is sufficient to distinguish it.

Perfectly wholesome and edible, but inferior to the pre-
ceding. When young, or in a fresh state, smelling strongly
of musk.

8. T. album, subrugosum ex albido rufescens, vix sub-
terraneum.

T. album, Bull. Champ. p. 80. t. 404.—De Berch Letires,
p. 6-7.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 128.—Sow. Fung. t.310.
— With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 442.—De Cand. Fl.
Frang. ed. 3. v. 3. p. 279. Ejusd. Syn. p. 58.—Gray’s
Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 592.

LycorERpon gibbosum, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. fasc. 2. p. 26.
White Truffles.

Has. On the ground; very slightly or only partly bu-
ried. Autumn. |

Desc. Roundish, or irregularly oval, unequal, somewhat
rugose, but not warty, solid, firm, whitish, at length
changing to a reddish colour, and marked within with
reddish lines. Diameter 1-3 inches.

This species possesses similar properties with the two
preceding, and is equally wholesome. Butirarp states
that the wild boar is excessively fond of them.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 349

Nat. Orp. FUNGI, Link, Grev.
| (Part of Fune1, Juss. &c.)

AMANITA.

4, A. cesarea, pilei margine striato, lamellis luteis, sti-

pite farcto, volva laxa. Fries.

AMANITA ceesarea, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 252.

AMANITA aurantiaca, Pers. |. c. p. 252.—Gray’s Nat.
Arr. v. 1. p. 599. -

Acaricus cesareus, Scheff. Fung. 253.—Mich. t. 77.
f. 1.—All. Fl. Ped. p. 339.— Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1.
p. 15.

Acaricus aurantiacus, Bull. t. 120.—De Cand. Fi.
Frang. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 209.—Ejusd. Syn. p. 42.

Aearicus aureus, Baisch, and Ac. speciosus, Gouan

_ (fid. Fries.)

Has. In fir-woods. Autumn.

Desc. Pileus or cap hemispherical, becoming less con-
vex in age, orange-red, 4-5 inches broad, striated at
the margin, generally smooth, and wholly wartless,
often splitting at the edge. Lamedle or gills yellow,
and rather thick. Séem 3-6 inches high, firm, thick,
solid. Veil annular, persistent. Plant furnished with
a complete volva or wrapper, from which it bursts,
leaving the remains at the base of the stem.

This Amanita is liable to be confounded by careless m-
dividuals with Amanita muscaria, which is poisonous; two
simple characters are nevertheless sufficient to banish all
uncertainty. In 4. muscaria, the volva or wrapper is not

VOL. IV. Aa

350 MR GREVILLE ON THE

perfect; i A. ce@sarea, it envelopes the whole plant when
young, and the remains are always to be found at the base
of the stem: in 4. muscaria the gills are white, in A. ca-
sarea always yellow.

This fungus was well known to the ancients, and highly

esteemed by them. The Romans were particularly fond of

it; and Acriprina, when she sought to raise her son Nero
to the throne, administered poison to her husband Cuav-
pius, by means of this delicacy. It is to this crime that
JuvENAL alludes in the following passages :.

Vilibus ancipites fungi ponentur amicis,
Boletus domino ; sed qualem Claudius edit,
Ante illum uxoris, post quem nihil amplius edit.
Sat. V. 146.

——_-_——— Minus ergo nocens erit Agrippinz

Boletus 3 si quidem unius precordia pressit
Ille senis, tremulumque caput descendere jussit
In coelum, et longam manantia labra salivam.
Sat. VI. 620..

MarrTtAu also did not allow so notorious a fact to escape
him. Thus,

Quid dignum tanto ventrique gulzque precabor ?
Boletum ut, qualem Claudius edit, edas.
Epig. 21. Lib. I.
And in another of his epigrams, Lib. x111., he shows in a
strong light the value placed upon this article of luxury :
Argentum atque aurum facile est)

Lanamque togamque
Mittere ; Boletos mittere difficile est..

The name by which it was known to the ancients was
Boletus, and Fungorum princeps et dominus. Nero, for
whose sake Ciaupius had been poisoned, had the impiety
to call it the food of Gods, because CLaupius was placed
among the gods after his death.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 351

It appears that the fungus was afterwards held in less
celebrity, from having been the innocent vehicle of poison ;
an unfortunate kind of logic which Pxriny amusingly
adopts, and whom I shall quote; preferring, however, to
give Hotianp’s translation, rather than the original.

*¢ Among all those things which are eaten with danger,
I take that mushromes may be justly ranged in the first
and principal place: true it is, that they have a most plea-
sant and delicate tast; but discredited much they are, and
brought into an ill name, by occasion of the poyson which
Acrirrina the Empresse conveighed unto her husband
TisERius CLraupius the Emperour, by their means: a
dangerous president given for the like practice afterwards.”
_ Purny adds, that before the pileus has burst from the
volva, the volva is as “ good meat as the mushrome itselfe.”
He also observes, that “ none are able to discern hurtful
mushromes from others, how curious and circumspect so-
ever they be, save only the peasants of the country where
they grow.” And another source of danger lies, according
to the same author, in fungi being very fit objects to retain
the poison conveyed by the breath of serpents.

In later times, 4. cesarea has recovered its reputation ;
and, next to Agaricus campestris, it is the one most em-
ployed. In this country, it probably is comparatively rare;
and my only authority for its being really indigenous, is
Mr Gray (who, by the way, gives no stations for his new
British plants, and no authority, except his own). In this
_ country, therefore, it has no popular name. In France, it
is called Porange, dorade, jaune Cauf, cadran; in the
Pays des Voges, jazeran or gasserans ; in Italy, coccolt or
uovalt; and in Piédmont, bole réal....Vid. Pers. Traité,
p. 175.

ey ee

352 MR GREVILLE ON THE

Purrsoon has given the following modes of dressing this
fungus, taken partly from Dr Pauter’s Work.

In Italy, it is commonly eaten, fried in oil, or sliced with

sour vegetable sauce: it is also used to garnish seasoned.
dishes.
According to M. Pauter, the best manner of cooking
it, 1s, to peel off the skin, and having removed the stem, to
dress it. with the gills uppermost, filling the cavity with a
mixture of herbs, bread-crumbs, garlic, pepper and salt,
and sprinkling the whole with olive oil.

The Romans, Aritcius informs us, served it up m wine,
or in: gravies, and sometimes ate it with honey, oil, and the
yolks of eggs. The latter, with wme, Dr PauLet recom-
mends as the best correctives, after having partaken freely
of the orange.

Wirnerine has fallen into a strange error, in supposing
that Agaricus Xerampelinus or Ag. deliciosus was the
much-celebrated | Boletus of the ancients, as neither pos-
sesses the least trace of a volva; the latter is certainly still
sold in the Italian market, but its identity with the F'un-
gorum princeps does not necessarily follow. All the older
authors agree in saying, that it resembles an egg in its
young state, from which the plant 1s protruded.

AGARICUS.

5. Ag. procerus, elatus, pileo squamoso late umbonato.
rufescente-cinereo, lamellis albidis, remotis, strpite annulo:
mobili, bulboso. |

Acaricus procerus, Scop. Fl. Carn. v. 2. p. 1465.—

Scheff. Fung. t. 22. & 23.—Fl. Dan. t. '172.—Huds.
Fl. Angl. v. 2. p. 612.—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4.
p. 33).—F 7. Dan. t, T72.—Curt. et Hook. Fl. Lond.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 353

ed. 1. & 2. t. 15.—Sow. Fung. t. 190.—Pers. Syn.
Fung. p. 257.—Purt. Midl. Fl. v. 2. p. 648. & v. 3.
p. 418.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 23.—Fries’ Syst.
Mycol. v. 1. p. 20.—Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.
Acaricus colubrinus, Bull. Champ. t. 78.
Ag. squamosus, Vill. p. 1015.
- Ac. annulatus, Bolt. Fung. t. 23.

Hass In open woods. Autumn. Extremely common.

Desc. Plant very elegant, tall, gregarious. Pileus 3—T
inches broad, covered with adpressed broad scales,
pinkish-brown or greyish, whitish and fibrillose to-
wards the margin, convex, at length nearly plane,
umbonate. Lamelle distant, white. Stem 4—8 inches

| high, 3—% of an inch thick, white, solid, cylindrical,
bulbous at the base, and furnished with a moveable
annular white veil.

This Agaric is very generally eaten in France and Italy,
and might be rendered a general article of food in this —
country, where it is exceedingly abundant. ‘Vhe birch and
fir woods in the Highlands of Scotland ‘produce it in a
profusion scarcely to be credited by those who have not
seen it there. Its character is too strongly marked to render
mistakes liable; and the numerous provincial appellations
it has received on the Continent, is a sufficient proof of its
general use and innocent properties. Its French and Ita-
lian names, according to Dr Canpoez and PErsoon, are,
colemelle, coulemelle, couamalle, couleuvrelle, coulewvrée,
eormelle, goilmelle, quamelie, fussée, coche, cocherel, coulsé,
verte, cluseau, eclusiau, potiron, cowrtmotte, coulmote, pa-
rasol, boutarot, poturon, pippio, mort de froid, escargoule,
penchinado, cucamele; bubbola maggiore, bubbola mozzana,
mazza di tamburo, scaroges, canella, escomel, copelon, pou-

354 MR GREVILLE ON THE

melle, nez de chat, &c.—De Cand. ate p. 340. Pers.
Traité, p. 188.

It is received as an ingredient in most sauces and_fri-
cassées ; and is often broiled with butter, oul, pepper and
salt, with a sprinkling of bread-crumbs and fine herbs.
The stem being rather tough, 1s rejected.

In the Flora Londinensis, it 1s mentioned as often ex-
posed to sale in Covent-Garden Market, for the true eat-
able one; and that, though its spongy flesh renders it less
fit for the table than the common mushroom, it is frequent-
ly used in making ketchup.

The sponginess of the flesh may be obviated by proper

cooking.

6. Ac. campestris, pileo carnoso, sicco, subsquamoso
sericeove, lamellis liberis, ventricosis, demum fuscis, stipite
farcto, annulato albo. Fries.

Acanricus campestris, Linn. Suec. no. 1203.—F!. Dan.

t. 704.—Schaff. Fung. t. 833.—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6.
v. 4. p. 285.—Huds. Fl. Angl. v. 2. p. 610.—Sow.
Fung. t.305.—Bolt. Fung. t. 45.—Pers. Syn. Fung.
p- 418.—Nees’ Syst. t. 24. f.195.—Purt. Midi. FI. v.
2. p. 638.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 21.—Grev. Fl.
Edin. ined.

Ac. edulis, Bull. Champ. t. 184. & t. 514. f. L & M.

PRATELLA campestris, Gray’s Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 626.

Mushrooms.

Haz. Pastures and meadows, abundant. Spring to
autumn.

Desc. Plant gregarious, without particular smell. Pélews
hemispherical, at length convex, and in old plants
nearly plane, fleshy, dry, smooth and sericeous, or
slightly squamose, 2—4 inches broad, white, changing
toa yellowish or brownish hue in decay. Lamelle

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 355

numerous, free, delicate, vinous red or flesh colour, be-
‘coming fuscous, and even nearly black. Flesh spongy,
white, thick. ‘Stem firm, solid, white, generally short,
and often somewhat bulbous. Vedl mostly annular and
persistent, but sometimes fugacious.

This is the common mushroom of this country, the cham-
pignon of the French, and prataiolo of the Italians. It is
one of the most generally diffused species we know, being
found throughout the whole of Europe, even in Lapland;
‘as far as Japan, in Asia, on the authority of 'THuNBERG ;
in Africa (Barbary) Drsront. Atlant. p. 433. and m Ame-
rica, according to MuHLENBERG, and others.

It was well known to the ancients, under various names.
Moxng edwdie of DioscornipEs, Callo rubens of Puiny, Pra-
teolt of CasaLrinus, as a Fungus esculentus by Cuusivus,
and many others. It is by no means improbable, however,
that several species may be confounded together, even by
the moderns; and that the popular names in France, such
as paturons, potirons, envinassas, cabalas, champignons
des pres, champignons de fumier, and champignons de
couche, may not belong to one species. They are.all decid-
edly wholesome, and bear, if really specifically different, a
near affinity to each other. The single term champig‘non,
however, is considered as exclusively belonging to the spe-
cies or variety in question, as much as the term ¢rue mush-
room by the natives of this country. De Canpoiue thinks
there is only one species of champignon, or pratelle a collier,
in which he follows Butuiarp. Prrsoon retains two in
his Synopsis Fungorum, Pavuxer five, and Mrcueur ten!
Vid. De Cand, Essai, p. 336.

The two plants that Persoon describes are, the common
champignon, Ag. campestris of authors, and Ag. edulis,
which wall be presently described, for I cannot but think

356 MR GREVILLE ON THE

them different; at any rate, the Jatter is so well marked as
a variety, that it is well known to mushroom-gatherers in
this country, and has received peculiar names on the Con-
tinent. :

Neither the true mushroom, nor the following species,
can be confounded with any poisonous ones; as no others
have, along with the complete or semicomplete collar (an-
nular veil), gills which change from a pale-flesh or vinous
‘colour to’ brown, and become at length black.

‘The mushroom is so well known, that it would be super-
fluous to particularise the different modes of dressing it for
the table. Ample directions are given in the work of M.
PavuLET; the most common ways are also copied from him
into Persoon’s Traité, p. 195.

7. Ag. edulis, magnus, gregarius, pileo longo-convexe
demum planiusculo, candido, jamellis pallido-carneis, m-
erescentibus, stipite annulo distincto.
Acaricus edulis, Bull. Champ. t. 514. figs. N. O. P. Q. R.
—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 418.—De Cand. Fl. Frane.
ed. 3. v. 2. p. 157. var. a.

Ac. arvensis, Scharff: Fung. t. 310. & 311.

Ac. Georgii, With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 281. var. 2.
—Sow. Fung. t. 304.

Pratetya edulis, Gray's Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 626.

Foneus esculentus magnus albus, &c. Mich. Nov. Gen.
p. 174.

White-caps.

Has. Woods, pastures, hot-beds, &e. Autumn.

Desc. Plant large, gregarious, altogether of a paler co-
lour than the preceding. Pilcus, when young, hemi-
spherical or oval, gradually becoming convex, and at
Jength plane, very fleshy, 3--8 inches broad, white,

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 357

sometimes yellowish in the centre, not unfrequently
somewhat squamose. Lamelle numerous, whitish or
very pale-flesh colour becoming slowly darker, but at
length black, of a more fleshy substance than the pre-
ceding. Stem 3—5 inches long, thick, firm, solid,
white, somewhat bulbous at the base, furnished with
a distinct collar or annular veil.

SowErsy mentions, that, in England, this fungus is
known to the country people by the name of white-caps.
In France it is called champignons des bruyeéres, and boule
de neige; m Piédmont, prataiolo maggiore bianco buono.

I was rather doubtful for some time whether Ag. edulis
of authors was the same as Ag. Georgia of our botanists.
I have, however, seen the latter vary so much in some re-
spects, especially in the pileus being quite smooth, or some-
what scaly, that I was convinced of their general identity,
on reading the following description by M. PauLet, whom
PERsooN quotes. “ Ce champignon est @un blanc de neige
lorsqwil est frais, avec des feuillets couleur de rose tendre,
quelquefois lilas ; sa peau est toujours unie, fine, et niest
point sujette a secailler ; ad mesure que son chapiteau setale,
son voile ce déchire pour former le collet ; sa surface finit
par roussir ou jaunir, et ses feuillets par nourcir. Il forme
alors un plateau horizontal.” :
SoweEnrsy, after mentioning their common name in Eng-
jJand, observes, that they are constantly sold in the London
markets; and though, says he, “ their dry and tough qua-
lity renders them unfit for the table in any shape, we do
not know that they possess any poisonous property.” Those
which I have tasted myself, certainly were as good as the
common mushroom, which is itself tough, if suffered to be-
come too old before it is used. The French even give it

358 MR GREVILLE ON THE

the preference, but never use it after the gills have become
dark.

It requires less cooking than the common mushroom,
and, in broiling it over a brisk fire, “ cest Taffaire Cun
quart Vheure.”

8. Ac. oreades, pileo carnoso, tenaci, subumbonato, e
rufo pallescente, lamellis distantibus, stipiteque solido, te-
reti, villoso-corticato, pallidis. Fries.

. Acaricus oreades, Bolt. Fung. t. 151.—With. Bot. Arr.
ed. 6. v. 4. p. 275.—Purt. Midl. Fi. v. 2. p. 627.—
Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 12.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2.
p. 21.—Grev. Fl. Edin. ined. |

Ae. pratensis, Huds. Fl. Angl. v. 2. p.616.— Sow. .

t. 247. (not good.)

Ace. coriaceus, Lightf: Fl. Scot. v. 2. p. 1020,

Ac. caryophylleus, Scheff: Fung. t. 7'7.

Ac. pseudo-mouceron, Bull. Champ. t. 144. & 528. f, 2.

Ace. tortilis, De Cand. Fl. Frang. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 194.

Ejusd. Syn. p. 40.

Ag. collinitus, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 33. (eaclud. syn.

except Sow.)

Scotch bonnets.

Has. Meadows, dry pastures, heaths, &c. common.
Summer and autumn.

Desc. Plant gregarious, often forming fairy-rings. Pi-
leus convex, or very obtusely conical, rarely becoming
quite plane, and generally more or less umbonate ;
1—2 inches broad, coriaceous, smooth; when moist,
subpellucid and striated; when dry, very pale, buff-
ish, and opake. Flesh thin, except in the centre.
Lamelle free, distant, thickish, rather broad, buffish,
white. Stem 3-4 inches high, 2-3 lines thick, firm,

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 359

solid, furnished with a kind of bark or rind, attenuat-
ed downwards, and more or less crooked ; beneath the
pileus it becomes suddenly thickened, so as to form a
shoulder, rendering the gills at first sight adnate. It
is often radicating.

The French names for this species are, le mousseron
godaille, mousseron de Dieppe, mousseron @ Orleans, mous-
seron @automne, faux mousseron, and mousseron pied-dur.
It is much esteemed on the Continent, though not equally
so as the true mousseron, on account of its flesh being less
abundant and less tender. It is nevertheless in constant
request, and is frequently dried, and afterwards used in the
form of powder, to add a flavour to many sauces. Dr
Pautet says, “ Ce mousseron se conserve bien, donne un
gout dehcieux aux sauces, et wincommode point ; lorsqu’on
veut bien en parfumer les sauces, u nexige pas une longue
cuisson: son parfum trés-volatil finiroit par se perdre.”

_In some parts of this country Ag. oreades is very abun-
dant, and is the most common species to be seen forming
those circles known by the name of fairy-rings.

9. Ac. odorus, fragrans, planiusculus, plus minusve vi-
rescens; pileo levi; lamellis confertis, pallidis, vix subde-
currentibus ; stipite solido subflexuoso,

Acaricus odorus, Bull. Champ. p. 567. t. 176. & 566.

f. 3.—Humb. Frib. Spec. p. 85.—Sow. Fung. t. 42.
—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 214.— Pers. Syn.
Fung. p. $23.—De Cand. Fl. Frang. ed. 3. v. 2.
p. 175. Hjusd, Syn. p. 35.—Purt. Midi. Fl. v. 2.
p. 624.—Fl. Dan. t. 1611.—F ries Syst. Mycol. v. 1.
p. 90.—Grev. Scott. Crypt. Fl. t. 28.—Fl. Edin.
anced.

Ac. erugineus, Schum. Sclland. p. 298.

*

360 MR GREVILLE ON THR

Ag. anisatus, Pers. Obs. Mycol. pars 1. p. 44.
Gymnorus odorus, Gray’s Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 606.

Has. Woods, and fields in their neighbourhood. Au-
tumn. Frequent.

Desc. Plant fragrant, scattered, rarely SAbaeeaRbnK.
Pileus 2-8 inches broad, convex, at length nearly
plane, more or less umbonate, and of various shades
of green, sometimes bluish-grey, and rarely near-
ly white, smooth, subirregular, and somewhat fleshy.
Lamelle numerous, pale whitish or fait flesh-colour,
rather narrow, and scarcely. at all decurrent. Stem
1-24 inches long, about 2 lines thick, subflexuose,
solid, firm, whitish or greenish.

This species has a most agreeable smell, especially when
drying, which strongly resembles that of dried woodroof,
or new-mown hay; and one variety has so much the odour
of aniseed, that it has been called by some authors Ag.
anisatus. Butuiarp, who first described the species, has
no observation on its qualities; but Prrscon declares it te
be wholesome, though without entering into any details.
This is the less to be regretted, as, in this country, though
frequent in a botanical sense, it is not found in sufficient
abundance to pay for the trouble of collecting.

10. Ac. eburneus, candidus, pileo levi viscoso, lamellis
latis, distantibus, decurrentibus, stipite farcto, longo, apice
squamuloso.

Acaricus eburneus, Bull. Champ. t. 118. & 551. f. 2.

(male).— Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 8364.—With. Bot. Arr.
ed. 6. v. 4. p. 201.—Purt. Midl. Fl. v. 2. p. 622.—
Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 88.—Grev. Fl. Edin. med.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 36f

Ac. virgineus, Batsch, Elench. Fung. f.12.—Sow. Fung.
t. 32. , :

Ag. jozzolus, Scop. Fl. Carn. 2. p. 431.

Ae. nitens, Sow. Fung. t. 71.

Ac. cossus, Sow. Fung. t. 121.

Ac. elongatus, Schum. Salland. p. 310.

Haz. In meadows, pastures, heaths, rarely in woods,
Very common. Autumn.

Desc. Plant wholly white, often gregarious. Pileus
convex, or broadly conical, at length plane, and in age
even turned up at the margin, centre obtusely umbo-

nate, smooth, slimy in young plants and m moist wea-
ther, when dry shining, 1-2 inches broad, fleshy.

- Lamelle distant, few, broad, thick, decurrent. Stem

1-3 inches high or more, 2-3 lines thick, firm, solid,

except in very old plants, somewhat crooked, scurfy
or slightly squamose towards the top, often attenuated
towards the base.

| Persoon, in his Traité, keeps up Agaricus jozzolus of
Scoroii (4g. eburneus of Buttiarp, and himself, in Syn.
Fung.), and gives Ag. virgineus as a distinct species. I
have not followed Frizs in uniting the various synonymes
above quoted, without examining the plants in their living
state. I must, at the same time, confess, that, from the
limited. accounts given by some authors of the species they
describe, I am not completely satistied respecting Ag. ebur-
neus of Buttiarp, whose gills are represented. as far too
numerous. SowErzy’s 4e. virgineus is the common ap-
pearance of the plant, and the character faithfully pour-
trayed; I have no doubt of his Ag. cossus being a variety,
notwithstanding his report of its villanous smell. . Of his
Ag. nitens I am not so certain. This confusion to the epi-

362 MR GREVILLE ON THE

cure is of little consequence, as both species are equally
wholesome, and it matters not which is collected. In Italy
one is called jozzolo, according to Dre CaNnpotLE; and
Ag. virgineus of Batscu and SowErsy is known and
eaten in France under the names of mousseron and petite
oreillette.

11. Ac. ulmarius, pileo compacto, carnoso, glabro, pal-
lescente, lamellis emarginatis albis, stipite valido adscen-
dente subtomentoso. fries.

Acanricus ulmarius, Bull. Champ. t. 510.—Sow. Fung.

t. 67.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 473.—De Cand. Fl. Frang.
ed. 3. v. 2. p. 188. Ejusd. Syn. p. 28.—Purt. Mid.
Fl. v. 3. p. 200.—Fries Syst. Ma ee v. 1. F 186.—
Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.

Pievrorus ulmarius, Grays Nat. Aris v. 1. p. 615.

Has. On trunks of trees, espatilily old sera elms,
in autumn.

Desc. Plant somewhat tufted, or several growing to-
gether. Pilews compact, 4-9 inches broad, smooth,
subcoriaceous, but within very white, soft, but of a
remarkably close texture, thick, sometimes marbled
with livid spots. Lamelle numerous, broad, white,
emarginate, very irregular, adnate, or sometimes
shghtly decurrent. Stem more or less excentrical, ac-
cording as the plant grows from a perpendicular or an
horizontal. surface, 2-3 inches long, at least 1 inch
thick, solid, incrassated at the base, white, sometimes
furfuraceous.

This Agaric, named in France Voredlle @Orme, is scarce-
ly of common occurrénce in Great Britain, and has not
been admitted to our tables. The flesh has an agreeable

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 363

odour. I have not met with any directions how to dress it.
Dr CanpoirE observes, that in Italy there are several
species of the same section (Pleuropus, Pers.) commonly
eaten, and distinguished by the names of gelone, cardena,
cerrena and ragagno; but he cannot speak with precision
as to the species.

Sowrrsy says, this species sometimes attains the prodi-
gious size of two or even three feet in circumference, and
that he has seen it constant to the same tree for several
successive years.

12. Ac. ostreatus, substipitatus, imbricatus, pileo carnoso
plano-convexo, cinereo vel fusco, lamellis decurrentibus basi
anastomosantibus.

Acaricus ostreatus, Jacg. Fl. Austr. t. 288.— Curt. &
Hook. Fl. Lond. ed. 1. & 2. t. 116.—With. Bot. Arr.
ed. 6. v. 4. p. 362.— Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 477.—Fries

Syst. Mycol. v:.1. p. 182.—Greo. Fl. Edin. med.

Ac. dimidiatus, Bull. Champ. t. 508.

Ac. nigricans, Fl. Dan. t. 892.

Ag. atro-albus, Otto. p. 102. (fide Fries.)

Crepiporus ostreatus, Gray's Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 616.

Has. Trunks of trees. Spring and autumn..

Desc. Plant growing in a ceespitose or umbricated man-
ner. Pileus at first dark-grey, at length brownish,
sometimes even yellowish, 3-7 inches broad, plano-
convex, smooth, margin rounded and involute, coria-

-‘ceous. Lamelle numerous, whitish, broad, decurrent
and anastomosing at the base. Stem very short, or
none; when present, mostly lateral, solid; most gene-
rally absent in large plants.

364 MR GREVILLE ON THE

This species is liable to be confounded with Age. conchatus
of Bunirarp and Ag. glandulosus of the same author ;
from the latter, indeed, it seems only to differ in wanting
the very curious glandular bodies between the gills. In
this difference, however, it is constant. All the three spe-
cies are perfectly innocent. i

Agaricus ostreatus is known in France by the name of
@oreille de noiret, and in the Pays des Voges by that of
couvrose.

Fries, under this plant, refers to a work by TratrTinick
on the Esculent Fungi of Austria, which I regret not find-
ing in the public libraries of Edinburgh, as I have nct yet
been able to procure a copy from the Continent.

13. Ac. violaceus, obscure violaceus, pileo margine vil-
loso, lamellis distantibus, stipite spongioso, intus violaceo-
cinereo. ;

Acaricus violaceus, Linn. Fl. Suec. p. 448.—Hedw. fil.

Obs. Bot. t. 4.—Bolt. Fung. t. 52.—With. Bot. Arr.
ed. 6. v. 4. p. 260.—Sow. Fung. t. 209.—Hook. Fl.
Scot. pt. 2. p. 20.—Fries So yst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 217.
Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.

Ag. hercynicus, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 277.

Cortinaria violacea, sibs Nat. Arr. v.1. Ps 628.

Bluets.

Haz. Woods, and waste grounds in their neighbour-
hood.

Desc. Plant of a dull violet or obscure purple tinge.
Pileus convex, fleshy, rounded, in old plants some-
times depressed in the centre, 3-5 inches broad, faint
violet or violet-brown, colour brightest at the margin,
where it is also more or less fibrillose. Flesh thick,
spongy, tinged with grey-violet. Lamelle adnate,

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 365

tinged more or less with violet, numerous, irregular.
Stem tomentose in young plants, 3-4 inches long, 3-7
of an inch in diameter, bulbous, solid, spongy, flesh
darker than in the pileus. Veil cobweb-like, fugacious.

Agaricus violaceus does not seem to be very highly
prized either in this country or on the Continent. SowEr-
BY, in a note at the end of the index to his Fungi (in
Engl. Bot.), mentions that it is sold in the English markets
under the name of dblwets, but that it is not good for much.
Persoon has not admitted it into his catalogue of edible
species; but incidentally alludes to its beg eaten in some
countries.... T’raité, p. 163. Ds Canpo.u» observes, that
Ag. araneosus and Ag. violaceo-cinereus, which bear the
nearest affinity to Ag. violaceus, are eaten in Italy, and
named fungo vedovo “and grumato paonazzo.

Confusion seems still to exist between some of the species
of this group, and as it contaims several that are considered
poisonous, great caution should be observed in regard to
them. The plant commonly sold as bluets, and that which
has the nearest resemblance toit (Ag. glaucopus, Sow. t. 223.
which I suspect may not be specifically distinct), are quite
innocent, and may either be eaten like the common mush-
room, to which they are similar in flavour, or be made into

ketchup.

14. Ac. piperatus, pileo infundibuliformi, rigido glabro,
albo, lamellis angustissimis, confertis, lacte stipiteque solido,
-obeso albis. Fries.

AcaRricus piperatus, Scop. Fl. Carn. p. 449.... Boldt.

Fung. t. 21....F1. Dan. t. 1182....Pers. Syn. Fung.
p. 429....F ries’ Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. '%6....Greo. FI.
Edin. ined.

Ac. amarus, Scheff. Fung. t. 83.

vol Ivy. Rb

366 MR GREVILLE ON THE

Has. Woods. Summer and autumn.

This species is eaten in Germany, France, Italy, and
Russia; but is not much commended. The Italian name
is fungo peperone, and in the Pays des woes it is called
auburon and vache blanche.

15. Ac. acris, pileo viscoso azono, cimereo-fuligineo, la-
mellis flavis, lacte ex albo rubescente, stipite farcto. Fries.
Acaricus acris, Bolt. Fung. t. 60....With. Bot. Arr.
ed. 6: v. 4. p. 224. ..Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 48'7....F ries
Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 65.

Has. Near and im woods. Common. Autumn.

Both the preceding species are eaten on the Continent,
as well as Agaricus Listeri, which is Ag. acris of But-
LTARD, t. 588. figs. c. d. e. f.; and Fries considers many
more as wholesome. I have not described or entered mto
any details respecting them; for they approach so very
near to species decidedly poisonous, that they had better
be dismissed entirely from the list of eatable kinds; parti-
cularly as the discriminating characters are too nice for
common observers. Dz CanpoLeE, speaking of this group
of lactescent fungi, says, ‘‘ La plupart sont vénéneux, et
quoique quelques-uns servent d’alimens, je crois que, vu
Pextréme difficulté de ee distinguer, il est plus prudent de
sen mefier.”

The following species, however, is fortunately well
marked, although belonging to the same suspicious group.

16. Ac. deliciosus, pileo viscoso, obsolete zonato aurantio-
expallente, lamellis lacteque aurantiacis, stipite cavo glabro,
scrobiculato. Fries.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 367

Agaricus deliciosus, Linn. Fl. Suce. 1211.—Schaeff:

Fung. t. 11.—Sow. Fung. t. 202.—Pers. Syn. Fung.
p. 432.—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 219.—Purt.
Midl. Fl. v. 3. p. 187.—F ries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 67.
—Greov. Fl. Edin. ined.

Ag. zonarius, Bolt. Fung. t. 141.

Lacrarius deliciosus, Gray’s Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 624.

Lact. lateritius, Pers. Disp. p. 64. |

Has. Woods. July to November. Not unfrequent.

Desc. Plant exuding an orange juice, which changes
to a livid green; the plant also turning green on being
wounded. Pileuws plano-depressed, sometimes in age
approaching to funnel-shape; 2—4 inches broad, dull
orange or brick colour, becoming dingy and pale, and
often greenish in decay ; glutinous, smooth, obscurely
zoned. Lamelle somewhat decurrent, bright reddish
orange, frequently but not always nor regularly di-
chotomous, narrow, turning green on being wounded.
Flesh, pale orange. Stem solid, becoming hollow, 2
inches high, orange, somewhat attenuated at the base.

A universally approved species throughout the whole of
Europe, named by the Piémontais Lapacendro buono and
Goccia liquore colore di zaffrano. 1 have not been able to
ascertain the French provincial names.

Sir James Epwarp Smiru, in his Tour on the Conti-
nent, mentions haying seen a prodigious quantity of this
agaric exposed to sale in the market at Marseilles, and
that it really deserved its name, being the most delicious
fungus known. SoweErsy also speaks in its favour, having
dressed and eaten it. His question, whether it be the true
Ag. cesareus, as well as Wirnertne’s errors respecting the
two plants I have already discussed.

Bb2

368 MR GREVILLE ON THE

This species must not be confounded with Ag. theiogalus
of Butiiarp, t. 567. f.2., the juice of which is yellow,
and whose surface is also zoned. It is, however, only half
the size, and, besides being of a pinkish red colour, has
never been seen with orange juice, er to turn green when
bruised. |

The taste of Ag. deliciosus is rather acrid and disagree-
able, but this is entirely removed by cooking. __

CANTHARELLUS.

17. C. cibarius, vitellinus, pileo carnoso, subrepando,,
glabro, plicis tumidis, stipite solido, deorsum attenuato.

CaNTHARELLUS cibarius, ries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 318.
—Grev. Fl. Edin. ied.

CANTHARELLUS vulgaris, Gray's Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 636.

Mervtivs. cantharellus, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 418.—
With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p.196.—De Cand. Fl.
Franc. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 128.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2.
p: 25.

Acaricus cantharellus, Linn.—Bull. Champ. t. 62. et
t. 505. f. 1.—F7. Dan. t. 264.—Bolt. Fung. t. 62.—
Sow. Fung. t. 40.

Has. In woods, and borders of fields. July to November.
Desc. Plant wholly buff, or of the colour of yolk of egg.
Pileus iregular, subrepand, often almost lobed, 2—4
inches broad, depressed in the centre, margin rounded
and often involute, smooth. Veins subdistant, promi-
nent, tumid, dichotomous, sometimes anastomosing.
Stem 1-2 inches long, 2-3 lines thick, attenuated
downwards, and seldom quite straight, firm and. solid.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 369

Flesh buff. When recent, scentless; but in a few hours
smelling lke ripe apricots.

According to Prrsoon, this is the most abundant of all
the eatable fungi, especially in France, where it has received.
a number of popular names, as, chanterelle, girille, girolle,
gérille, escau, virolle, girandet, gingoule, escraville, cas-
sine, chevrille, chevrette, mousseline, jeannelet, &c. In
Italy it is called galinattio. In some provinces, it is asserted
by the same author, that it forms almost the only article of
food. Pers. Traité, p. 228. Dr Canpotte affirms it to
be a species possessing little delicacy, but one that cannot
be confounded with any that are dangerous. Whatever
may recommend it, it is certainly as much used as food, and
as seasoning to dishes, as any other. Vid. BuLtiarp and
Prrsoon. Itis dressed either with butter, lard, or-oil, pep-
per and salt; frequently with the addition of onions. Some
eat it fresh, only with vinegar, oil, pepper and salt. It is
also used in fricassées, or dried and mixed with all kinds
of ragouts.

In this country, the chanterelle is not so plentiful as
many other edible fungi. Sowrrsy, however, says, they
are often eaten, and they are certainly sufficiently common
to render the collecting of them desirable.

BoLETUS.

18. B. edulis, pileus amplus, glabrus, tubulis semiliberis,

subrotundis, minutis albis, flavescentibus, stipite crasso re-
ticulato.

Botrtus edulis, Bull. Champ. p. $22. t. 60. et t. 494.

—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 510.— With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6.

v. 4 p. 381—Sow. Fung. t.111.—De Cand. Fi.

370 MR GREVILLE ON THE

Frane. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 124. Hjusd. Syn. p. 25.—Purt.
Midi. Fi. v. 2. p.663.—F ries’ Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 392.
—Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.

B. bulbosus, Scheff: Fung. t. 134. et t. 135.

B. esculentus, Pers. Obs. Mycol. 1. p. 23.

B. crassipes, Schum. Salland. p. 8'78. fide Fries.

Leccinum edule, Gray's Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 64°7.

Has. In woods. Common. Autumn.

Desc. Pileus convex, or even hemispherical, becoming
more dilated in age, smooth, large, 3-6 inches broad,
almost shining, spongy, reddish-brown, dingy yellow,
cinereous or whitish, cracking sometimes in dry wea-
ther so as to appear reticulated. Flesh white, either
not changing colour, or slightly reddening, taste plea-
sant. J'ubes long, white, at length yellowish, or green-
ish. S%em sometimes short, thick, ‘* ovato-bulbous,”
or 4—5 inches long, and nearly equal; pale, whitish,
or tinged with brown, reticulated. Syporules, accord-
ing to Frixs, dark and ochreous.

So much use is constantly made of this excellent fungus
on the Continent, that it is surprising how it has been so
long neglected in this country. In France, it is well known
by the names of brug wet, ceps, cépe, gyrole, bole, porchin,
potiron, issalon, mourses, cepe-franc téte rousse; and in
Italy, by those of potello, ceppatello, scuro, ghaz%0, pinuzzo
buono, porcino, &c.

In preparing this Boletus, of which Frings says, “ spe-
cies in cibariis laudatissima,” for the table, the skin must
be peeled off, and the hymenium or tubes removed; the
latter, it may be observed, are in all species to be avoided.
Some people eat the stem, but it is rather tough. Old plants
should not be taken.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 371

This fungus is used in white sauce, or fricassées; or
broiled or baked, with fresh butter, olive-oil, pepper and
salt, bread-crumbs,.and fine herbs. Some persons add. ham
and minced anchovies. Even beignets and excellent creams
are made from it. It is frequently eaten raw, a@ la poivrade.
According to Butit1arp, it is also sliced, and, being care-
fully dried, is regularly sent from Provence under the name
of cépe. | |

In Hungary, on the authority of Paver, Bol. edulis is
made into a soup, which is much liked, ‘The manner of
cooking it is this:—'The fungi prepared as above directed,
are placed for a short time in an oven or stove, and then
steeped in tepid water. In this water toasted bread is boiled
until the whole has become of a thick consistence (consist-
ence de purée), when the fungi, partly dressed with butter
and proper seasonings, are to be added.

19. B. scaber, pileo pulvinato, glabro, tubulis liberis, ro-

tundis, albis, stipite firmo, attenuato, squamoso-scabro.

Boxetus scaber, Bull. Champ. p. 319. t. 182. et 489.
f. 1.—Sow. Fung. t. 175.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 505.
—Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 394.—Pers. Traité, p.
235.

B. viseidus, Linn. Fl. Suec. p. 452.

B. procerus, Bolt. Fung. t. 80.

B. aurantiacus, Bull. Champ. p. 320. t. 236. et 489.—
Pers. Traité, p. 234.—Sow. Fung. t. 110.—Hook.
Fil. Scot. pt. 2. p. 26.

B. aurantius, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 504.

B. leucopodius, Pers. Obs. Mycol. 2. p. 11.

B. rufus, Scheff. Fung. t. 103.

B. bovinus, Schaff: t. 104.

SHS MR GREVILLE ON THE

Has. Woods, borders of fields, &. Summer and au-
tunm; frequent.

Desc. Pileus convex above and Helo: 2-5 inches broad
or more, humid, somewhat glutinous, sometimes scaly,
and in dry weather losing its gluten and cracking, of
various colours, orange, red, brownish, olivaceous,
livid, or dark-grey. Flesh white, either not changing
or turning blackish. T'ubes long, white, orifice minute,
obtuse, at length dingy, free. Stem whitish, long,
attenuated above, particularly at its attachment to the
pileus, firm, scabrous, with dark furfuraceous minute
scales.

Persooy, in his T'raité, keeps Bol. awrantiacus and
scaber distinct, but observes that they possess the same
properties ; and Dre Canpbo.Le, in his Essai, so frequently
quoted in these observations, states them to be confounded
together throughout the greater part of France under the
names of roussile and gyrole rouge, and in Italy under that
of leccino. It is called lingua di leccio m Piémont.

According to Buttiarp and others, it is eaten either
broiled, or in the form of white sauce. It ought to be ga-
thered while young, as in old plants the flesh becomes dis-
agreeably soft and insipid.

In the determination of the species, I have followed
Fries, and given his description almost verbatim. I ex-
amined a great number of specimens this autumn (1822)
in the Highlands of Scotland, and fully agree with him in
the union, not only of B. scaber and aurantiacus, but of -
the other vaneties brought together in the synonymes.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 373

FISTULINA.

20. F. hepatica.

Fistutina hepatica, With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 371.
—Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p.396.—Gray’s Nat. Arr.
v. 1. p. 648. |

Fist. buglossoides, Bull. Champ. p. 314. t. 74. 464. et
496.—Pers. T'raité, p. 245.

Botetvus hepaticus, Huds. Fl. Angl. v. 2. p. 625.—
Scheff: Fung. t. 116. & 120.—Sow. Fung. t. 58.—
Bolt. Fung. t. 19.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 549.—De
Cand. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 113. —Lightf. Fl. Scot. p. 1034.
—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 26.

Bot. buglossum, Fl. Dan. t. 1039.

Has. Trunks of trees, especially the oak. Autumn.

Desc. Plant of no regular form, entire or lobed, sessile
or supported on a short thick stem, colour like that of
an ox-liver; substance fleshy and very juicy, becom-
ing glutinous in age, when cut, the flesh is more or
less flesh-red, and somewhat marbled or zoned. Pileus
3~6 inches long, 3-4 broad, at first bright-red, which
gradually darkens; surface scattered over with little
eminences, resembling, under the glass, minute roses,
which fall off, and are nothng more than the rudi-
ments of tubes. Hymenium or- under surface plane,
yellowish, or pale reddish. Tubes pale whitish or yel-
lowish, crowded, distinct, and separated by fleshy —
fibres, } an inch long, the mouths denticulated.

The only species of the genus, which is characterized by
the tubes being distinct, and separated from each other by
an intervening substance.

B74 MR GREVILLE ON THE

This extraordinary fungus is certainly not very tempt-
ing in appearance, but is very generally eaten and esteemed.
_ PauLeEr says it is an agreeable food, and that a single
fungus is sufficient for an ample repast ; also, that young
plants are to be preferred, as im age the surface becomes
too viscid, and the interior ligneous. ‘There are two modes,
according to him, of using it; the one, roasting under the
embers; the other, in fricassée de poulet. ‘The seasoning
should always be piquant. Vinegar has been ascertained
not to suit this species, and it spoils the sauce.

TRATTINICK, as quoted in PErsoon, T'raité, p. 247,
reports, that, in Austria, they cut it into slices, and eat it,
as a sallad, with endive, &c. ‘They also dress it with veal,
adding cream and lemon juice.

The French call this plant, foie de bauf; langue de baw/,
glue de chene, langue de chene. In 'Tuscany it is known
by the name of lingua de castagno, or lingue only ; =
m Piémont by that of langhe.

Old authors, on the Materia Medica, call it hypodris.

HYypDNUM.

21. A. repandum, pileo carnoso, subrepando, glabro,
azonono, aculeis inzequalibus, stipiteque difformi pallidis.
FE 7208) sai 3

Hypnum repandum, Linn. Fl. Suec. 1258.—FU. Dan.

t. 310.—Bull. Champ. t. 172.—Sow. Fung. t. 176.— .
With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 403.—De Cand. Fi.
Frang. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 111.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 555.
—Purt. Midl. Fl. v. 3. p. 450.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2
p. 28.—Grev. Fl. Edin. ined. —Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1.
p. 400.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. $75

Hyp. imbricatum, Bolt. Fung. t. 87.

Hyp. flavidum, Scheff. t. 318.

Hyp. rufescens, Schaff: t. 141.

Hyp. carnosum, Batsch, Elench. Fung. f. 136.
Hyp. clandestinum, Batsch, |. c. f. 44.

Hyp. medium, Pers. Obs. Mycol. 2. p. 97.

Has. Woods; frequent. Summer and autumn.

Desc. Plant solitary or gregarious, pale buff, sometimes
turning reddish. Pélews repand, irregular, lobed, or
entire, depressed in the centre, margin mostly round-
ed, smooth, brittle. Flesh pale, buffish, not changing
colour when cut. <Awl-shaped processes of the hyme-
nium, irregular, unequal, generally entire at the apex,
but sometimes jagged, and almost hollow, $ of an
inch in length. Stem thick, unequal, often deformed,
solid, expanding into the pileus, 13-2 inches long.

This Hydnum is regularly sold in France and Austria.
In the former it has acquired the appellations of eurchon,
chrevorette, chevratine, rignoche, and arresteron. 'The Ita-
lians, at least m Tuscany, name it steccherrino and dentino-
dorato. In the Pays des Voges it is also called pied de
mouton and barbe de vache.

No mistakes can arise in the choice of this Fait On
the Continent, indeed, Hydnwm album might be gathered
for it by very inattentive persons, but that is even superior
to the present species as an article of food. The flavour
somewhat resembles that of the chanterelle, and is improved
in the same way by cooking. It is often broiled; but
M. Paver says, the best manner of dressing them is to
plunge them for a short time into boiling water, and then
commit them “4 la 2raisse ct aw bouillon,” as having little

376 MR GREVILLE ON THE

juice of their own. . They are rather tough when dressed
with butter, and require a liquid vehicle.

This species is tolerably abundant in this country ; and
no one need be under any apprehensions, as the whole ge-
nus is wholesome, and well defined, by having their hyme-
nium, or seat of fructification, composed of little spmous or
awl-shaped processes.

Hydnum imbricatum, H. erinaceum, and H. caput-
— medusa, are all used on the Continent as food; but they
are too rare in this country ever to be applied to a similar
purpose: to describe them here would be therefore super-
fluous.

CLAVARIA.

22. Cl. coralloides, alba, erecta, caule crassiusculo, ramis
elongatis, ineequalibus, apicibus plerumque acutis.

Ciavaria coralloides, Linn. Fl. Suec. 1268.—Sow.
Fung. t. 278. fig. sup—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4.
p- 487. var. 2.— Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 29.—F ries
Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 467.—Greo. Fl. Edin. ined.

Cu. alba, Pers. Mycol. Europ. v. 1. p. 161.

Ramazzia coralloides alba, Holmsk. v. 1. p. 113. cum fig.

Has. On the ground, among grass, &c. especially after
much rain. Autumn.

Desc. Very smooth and white, but sometimes with a
violet tinge at the base; variously branched. Branches
elongated, unequal, and generally acute at their sum-
mits.

23. Cl. cinerea, vamosa incrassata, ramis coralloideis,
rugosis, dilatatis, glabris, solidis subcompressis.

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 397

Cravaria cinerea, Bull. Champ. p. 204. t. 354. male.
—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 586.—De Cand. Fl. Frang:
ed. 3. v. 2. p. 100.—Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 468.
Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.

Cu. fuliginea, Pers. Mycol. Europ. v. 1. p. 166.

Cx. grisea, Pers. Comm. p. 44. et Syn. Fung. p. 586.—
Fries Syst. Mycol. v. 1. p. 468.

Ramartia cinerea, Gray's Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 656.

Has. Woods, borders of fields, and shaded places among
grass, frequent. Autumn.

Desc. 1-4 inches high or more, solitary or gregarious,
tufted, much branched, pale, cinereous, bluish,. purple-
grey, or sometimes even approaching to flesh-colour.
Stem very short, }—3 of an inch thick, dividing imme-
diately into several thick irregular branches. Branches
unequal, rugose, smooth, often producing a number
of little incrassated. divisions, summits somewhat dila-
ted, subcompressed, mostly obtuse and knobby, or even
bluntly palmate, rarely unequally cylindrical and acute.

The above two species are very generally employed as —
food in France, where the inhabitants name the former
barbe de bouc, bonquinbarde, gantelines, gallinoles, fri-
pettes, chevelines, pied-de-cog, poule, mousse, barbes, mui-
nottes, menottes, barbe de chévre, espigneites, pattes @alléor,
drables, balais, &c. &c. and use the same terms to desig-
nate the latter, adding only the epithet grise. In Italy
they are called ditola gialla, ditola rossa, and ditola bianca,
according to the colour of the varieties. Dr CanponLe
justly observes, that they may be considered as among the
least hazardous of all fungi, as they bear ne resemblance,
even remote, to dangerous kinds: he does not, however,
think them eminently delicate.

378 MR GREVILLE ON THE

M. PauEt’s mode of cooking them, 1s to stew them
with a little butter, and, when they have become softened,
to throw off the water which has come from them, and re-
place them on the fire with butter, parsley, and young
onions, sprinking the whole gently with flour; they are
afterwards moistened with “ bowillon,” to which yolks of
egos are added to complete the process. |

Others dress them with lard, adding salt, pepper, some —

ham, and a little parsley; this requires about an hour;
afterwards they are put into a gravy-sauce, or a fricassée
of fowls. Care must be taken to cover the stew-pan with
paper beneath the lid, in order to prevent the flavour from
escaping.

In some parts of Great Britain the Clavarie are abun-
dant.

MorcHELLA.

24, M. esculenta, pileus rotundatus, margine contracto,
areolis profundis; stipite albo, cylindrico, basi dilatato.

Morcuexta esculenta, Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 618. et
Mycol. Europ. v. 1. p. 206.—De Cand. Fl. Frang.
ed. 3. v. 2. p. 213. Ejusd. Syn. p. 48.— Hook. Fl.
Scot. pt. 2. p. 31.—Gray’s Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 661.—
Grev. Fl. Edin. ined. :

Hetvetya esculenta, Sow. Fung. t. 51. fig. sinistra.

Puauuus esculentus, Linn.—Scheff. Fung. t. 199.—
Bull. Champ. t. 218. f. a—d.— Bolt. Fung. t. 91.—
—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4. p. 428.

_ Morell.

Has. On the ground, m woods, &c. loving a sandy soil,

ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 379

and springing up most plentifully where fires have
been made. Spring.

Desc. Plant 2-5 inches high. Pileus roundish or oval,
from the size of a pigeon’s to that of a swan’s egg,
closely contracted at the base, round the stem; cellular
like a honey-comb, cells deep. Stem hollow, white,

cylindrical, somewhat dilated towards the base. Scent
agreeable.

All the Morells are excellent ; and as, im old authors, and
many modern ones, several species are confused together,
the following observations apply to the genus, or all the
species collectively.

The Morelle is one of our most celebrated fungi for the
table. Cxustus places it among his principal edible mush-
rooms, and every botanist since his time has more or less
commended it.

Throughout the greater part of Europe it is known by
the names cof morille, morchelle, morcheélen, spagniole,
spongignole, spongiola, and pungola. 'The name Morchell
seems, from CameErarius, to have originated with the
Germans, who, according to Parkinson, ‘* be much de-
lighted with them.” In Piémont they are a spugnino,
spugnolo buono, and tripetto.

The best manner of dressing the Morelle, I shall trans-
late from Prrscon’s T'raité, p. 257. ‘* Besides the use
made of Morelles in many ragouts, they are also served by
themselves, and much esteemed. After having well washed
them to remove the soil they are liable to contain in the
areolze of the pileus, they must be well drained and dried,
and then put into a stew-pan, along with butter, pepper,
salt, parsley, and sometimes a little ham. They require
about an hour’s cocking ; and as they do not produce much
moisture themselves, it is necessary to add a little gravy

880 MR GREVILLE ON THE

now and then. In removing them from the fire, the addi-
tion of a few yolks of eggs is usually made, to firm them.
Some people add a little cream. They are served by them-
selves, or on a buttered toast.”

M. PavuLet gives directions for stuffing Morelles; for
which purpose the freshest specimens must. be selected.
They are opened at the insertion of the stems, and filled
with fine stuffing, then broiled with lard, and served up
with champaigne, lemon-juice, and bread-crumbs.

In Austria, they stuff Morelles with bread-crumbs, the
the flesh of fowls, pickled pilchards, craw-fish, and proba-
bly lobsters. :

In Germany, it was ascertained by the country people,
that they grew most abundantly in places where fires had
been made; and, in order to encourage their production;
the woods frequently fell a sacrifice. The law was at length
obliged to interfere, and the Morelle was left, to spring up
in the due course of nature.

It appears almost unnecessary to guard the morelle-
gatherer against the Phallus fctidus, which has a smell so
bad, as rather to repel instead of attracting intimate notice.
It has, however, besides, a volva, or wrapper ; and the cells
of the pileus are not visible till a viscid dark-green slime
has fallen, or been eaten by flies.

HELVELLA.

25. H. Mitra, pileo livido, inflato, adnato,. stipite sul-

cato-lacunoso, pallido.

HELVELLA mitra, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1649.—Bull. Champ.
p. 298. t. 190. & t. 466.—Pers. Syn. Fung. p. 615.
—De Cand. Fl. Fr anc. ed. 3. v. 2. p. 94. Ejusd.
Syn. p. 19.—With. Bot. Arr. ed. 6. v. 4 p. 406.—

-ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN. 381

(excl. Syn. Sow. t. 39.)—Nees’ Syst. Fung. t. 18.
_f. 163.—Hook. Fl. Scot. pt. 2. p. 31. (excl. Syn. Sow.

t1189!—Purt.. Modl. FU v.3) p. 255. ‘t: 16. (central
fig. ?)—Grev. Scott. Crypt. Fl. t.39.—Fl. Edin. ined.

ELvEtya mitra, Cider Fl. Dan. t. 116.

Hetvewia lacunosa, Holmsk. v. 2. p. 45. t. 24.

Het. sulcata, Willd. Berol. p. 398.

ELvELuA nigricans, Scheff. Fung. t. 154.

Eu. monacella, Schaef: |. c. t. 162.

Has. On the ground, in woods and shaded places, among
grass. Autumn. :

Desc. Pilews membranaceous, smooth on both sides, of
different shades of colour, but generally dark and livid,
inflated, irregular in form, deflexed at the sides, and
partially adnate with the stem; from being thus fold-
ed down, 2 or 3 prominent ascending lobes are pro-

duced, often giving the resemblance of a mitre. Stem
26 inches high, 3—1} inches thick, whitish; chan-
nelled, and lacunose or pitted, variously divided
through its whole substance into longitudinal cavities,
the partitions of which are semitransparent like wax.
Sporuliferous cells on the upper surface, throwing out
their sporules in the form of an elastic powder.

This species has long been confounded with others by
the botanists of this country ; SowERBy’s figure being the
following, and Bouton’s H: elastica. I believe, m every
state, H. mitra will be found with the pileus more or less
adnate with the stem. In the smaller figure of the plate,
in Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, I have represented a spe-
cimen, which, at first sight, much resembled H. leucophaa ;
the pileus was, however, partially adnate, a circumstance F
never observed in that species.

VOL. Iv. Cc

382 ESCULENT FUNGI OF GREAT BRITAIN.

26. H. leucophea, pileo deflexo, irregulariter lobato,

libero, pallido, strpite sulcato, lacunoso, albo.

Hetvetta leucophcea, Pers. Obs. Mycol. 2. p. 19. et
Syn. p. 616. et Mycol. Europ. v. 1. p.210.—Gray’s
Nat. Arr. v. 1. p. 662.—Grev. Fl. Edin. ined.

Het. mitra, Sow. Fung. t. 89.—Purt. Midl. Fl. v. 2.
p. 678. et v. 3. p. 451. t. 16.

Haz. In the same places as the preceding, and in this
country much more common. Autumn.

Desc. Size the same as the preceding, but more prone
to monstrosity. Pilews quite free, generally more or
less lobed, or even crisped and curled; upper surface
yellowish-white, pale-brownish beneath. Stem some-
what ventricose towards the base, deeply lacunose,
white, often very thick.

The Helvelle are very similar to the Morelles as articles
of food, and, like the Morelles and the Truffles, there
are no poisonous species. According to ALLion1, H. mitra
is eaten in Piémont; and De CanpoLLE mentions having’
seen an analogous species (probably H. leucophwa), used
in the environs of Aignes-mortes under the name of orev/-
leitte.—Essai sur les Proprictés Med. des Plantes, p: 324.

On the authority of Pzrsoon, it is employed in the
neighbourhood of Paris in the same way as Morelles. The
same author has also a remark, that the larger Pezize may
be eaten without fear, and prepared in the same manner.

| Epinsuren,
December 12. 1822,

( 383 )

XX VIII—WNotice relative to the Habits of’ the.
Hyena of Southern Africa.

By R. Knox, M.D. M. W.S.

(Read 28th December 1822.)

SoME of the habits of the hyena of modern times seeni
to me to afford an objection, which, so far as I know, has
not yet been offered. to Professor BuckLannp’s speculations
as to the mode in which the bones of various animals have
been introduced into the Cave of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire.
The Society is aware that Professor Buckianp ascribes
their presence to the agency of antediluvian hyenas, to
whom this cave served as a place of retreat, and whither
_ they retired with their prey, in order to feast on it more at
leisure than they could well do in the open country, and
by cracking the bones leave nothing they could possibly
devour. Now, this theory, so far as regards the hyena,
rests, in my humble opinion, on a misapprehension of the
habits of that animal. Two varieties of the hyena abound in
the southern peninsula of Africa, viz. the spotted or tiger-
wolf of the colonists, and the striped: these infest the
cc

384 NOTICE RELATIVE TO THE HABITS

whole country, attacking almost every animal but man ;
they prefer, however, as being easier procured, the carcases
of animals which have either died ef disease, or fallen under
the hands of the huntsman. The carcase they often drag
away to a considerable distance from the place where it fell ;
but I have almost always been able to discover the skele-
ton, and that often, tolerably entire. Negative evidence, I
am aware, is never reckoned so good as positive ; and while
I assert, that the carcases of animals killed at a distance
from human habitations are generally devoured on the spot
by the hyena, vulture, &c.—a fact proved by the bones being
found scattered about, and often confined to a small space,
—yet I do not wish it to be understood that I deny that hye-
nas ever drag their prey, including the bones, to the caverns,
or wild mountain-tracts, they inhabit. Many instances oc-
curred, however, which indicate that they do net; and the
most remarkable happened to me whilst surveying the ex-
ceedingly wild district bordering the Great Fish River and
Caffraria. A large elepharit had been killed about two
months before, and had fallen in the centre of a forest of
bush, infested with hyenas, panthers, and other beasts of
prey. I proceeded to the spot, with a view of examining
the grinding-teeth, and was surprized to find almost the
whole skeleton present, perfectly well cleaned, but almost
untouched. It seemed to me, that, had I been so inclined,
I might have collected almost every bone, or at least a spe-
eimen of each, uninjured,

Again, at the distance of many months, we used to visit
the spots where large elephants, hippopotami, or buffaloes
fell, and never failed to discover the remains of the skele-
tons, often exceedingly perfect. On the deserts lay the ske-
letons of numerous antelopes, which had fallen a sacrifice
to the lion and panther; and even close to the abode of
man, the carcases of sick oxen, sheep, horses, &c. are de-

OF THE HYENA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 385

voured by the hyena, and the bones left within a hundred
yards of the inhabited buildings. In 1819, a dreadful
drougl:t devastated the country ; the pastures were parched
up, and the cattle died in vast numbers of hunger and
thirst: now the carcases lay within a few yards of the
farm-houses, and were there devoured by hyenas; but
never, so far as I know, were they carried off. The ani-
mals which carry off their prey are the lion and panther,
but not the hyena or wild dog. I have, moreover, re-
marked, that the young of these animals follow them early
into the field, so that I much question if they ever carry
a portion of their prey, on any occasion whatever, to their
dens. I may finally observe, that I have often roused the
hyena from his lurking place; but, assuredly, these places
bore no resemblance to charnel-houses. ,

I entertain no hopes that this brief notice shall in any way
induce Professor Buckianp and his supporters to change
their theory, which, after all, is perhaps the best hitherto of-
fered. It may be said that antediluvian British hyenas may
have differed much in their habits from the postdiluvian
ones of southern Afrca. Moreover, the animal cailed a
Hyena, and whose bones exist in such abundance in the
Cave of Kirkdale, is allowed to have been much larger than
the African one; it may fairly be asked, Was it a hyena?
The tiger-bones, also found there, are supposed to have
belonged to a variety larger than the Bengal or royal tiger ;
and the bear is described as being as large as a horse.
Now, the fair inference from all this is, that these bones
may possibly be the remains of hyenas, bears, and tigers ;
but that it 1s just as probable that they are not.

EDINBURGH,
December 10. 1822.

386 MR DEUCHAR’S ACCOUNT

XXIX.—An Account’ of Three large Load-
stones, one of which presented an unusual
Line of Attraction, :

By Jonun Devcuar, M.W.S.
and Lecturer on Chemistry in Edinburgh.

(Read 10th March 1821.)

W uen we come to try the magnetic energy of large
loadstones, or natural magnets, we seldom find them to
display that force, in proportion to their size, which we
" should expect. This circumstance seems to have drawn to
it the attention of philosophers at a very early period of
the history of magnetism; and hence, from the various
facts they had noticed, was formed the conclusion, that a
small fragment broken from a loadstone, might possess as
great power as the whole mass; and that, in some cases,
the power of the fragment was actually greater than the
mass from which it was taken. With regard to the truth
or falsehood of this hypothesis, or to the existence of the
specimens upon the powers of which it is built, I do not at
present mean to offer any remark.

PLATE XI. Wern Menr Vol.IV P, 386

SS
SS Gs SSS SSS

a

7 |
ae

ri Ls

j ‘l it A
jo ew \

Bil iidh

S

=|
i soll

Big. §.

OF THREE LARGE LOADSTONES. 387

It is a fact well known, that large masses of this mineral
often have a weak power, and that small specimens gene-
rally have a stronger proportional energy. We have an
example of this in the account given of the large specimen
im the Leverean Museum, which is stated to have a very
weak power; and the three small specimens noticed by
Mr Martin, which presented a very great power. One
of these belonged to Mr Haac; it weighed 143 ounces
when armed, and carried 16 times its own weight. Another
belonged to the Honourable Mr Berxerzy, then at Bru-
ton; it weighed 43 grains when armed, and carried 1032
grains, being 24 times its own weight. And the third,
which Mr Newron wore in a ring, weighed scarce 3 grains,
it took up ‘746 grains, being 250 times its own weight. (See
‘Plate XII. fig. 1.) In these three small specimens we find
the power of attraction to be comparatively greatest the
smaller their size is. Mr Nrwron’s carried no less than
250 times its weight, whereas Mr Berxuxty’s only carried
24 times, and Mr Haac’s only 16 times, their respective
weights.

Such being the general character of natural magnets,
with regard to the comparative attractive power of small
and large ones, it is of some importance to notice three
large loadstones, which arrived. here a few years ago, and
were purchased by Mr Sanprrson,. lapidary in this city.
These form an exception so far to the above conclusions.
No public notice has yet been taken of these natural pro-
ductions; and as two of them remained for ten months in
“my possession, and presented several peculiarities, I now
take the liberty to notice them to the Society.

They are said to have been removed from Moscow, when
the French were advancing towards that city, previous to
its beg burnt; they were then conveyed to Petersburgh,
and from thence shipped to this country. They were cased

a88 MR DEUCHAR’S ACCOUNT

with an iron armature; and when they came into Mr San-
derson’s possession, were supposed to have but a very trif-
ling magnetic power. A report of the great size of these
loadstones was very rapidly circulated, and many gentle-
men called to examine them, who generally evinced their
surprise that so little attractive power was displayed; but
it is rather extraordinary that none of them traced out the
cause, which we can only attribute to the rusty state in.
which the magnets were at the time: be this, however, the
case or not, there can be little doubt that the full energy
of these valuable minerals might still have remained latent,
as they were for some time laid by as nearly useless, had
not Mr Sanderson thought of cleaning them, to see what
effect that might have. For which purpose, the iron arma-
ture was removed; and this was scarcely done, when the
cause of the inactivity was found to have rested in the
armature, for the unarmed loadstone now lifted pieces of
iron. They were thereafter armed with copper and brass,
and began to exhibit an increasing power, as additional
weights were added to them.

It may appear, at first view of the circumstance, that the
person who armed these magnets with iron, displayed little
knowledge of magnetism; but upon considermg it more
maturely, we will form an opposite opinion. Let us for a
moment trace the effect of such an armature. The two
surfaces, upon which the artificial poles are placed, present
imnumerable magnetic points, or so far combined poles,
——and soft iron has the power of receiving and convey-
ing these to a focus, as it were. Now, suppose N (see
fig. 2.) to be a magnet, and the lines OP and RS its two
polar surfaces; if we put a slip cf soft iron round the por-
tion marked AB, then that soft iron receives the magnet-
ism of all the polar surface which it covers, and conveys it
round in a circle, and will thus take away so much of the

OF THREE LARGE LOADSTONES. 389°

full energy of N: if we now put another strip of soft iron
round CD of the magnet, we in the same way cut off from
action another portion of the magnetic surface of N: and
if we proceed to add more strips of iron, as EF, GH, IK,
and LLM, we gradually weaken the effective power of N, _
till we nearly prevent it altogether. This might be illus-
trated by numerous experiments. Let us select one. Let
us apply to the poles of a horse-shoe magnet (as shewn in’
Pl. XII. fig. 3.) two such pieces of soft iron as are usually
employed to connect the two kinds of magnetism (T and
U), and leaving them in contact with iron-filings, and they
will be attracted to T’ and U in great abundance: now
place a similar piece of soft iron (see fig. 4.) on both poles,
and V will not attract iron-filings, for the magnetic circle
is complete. If, again, we place the pieces of soft iron,
T and U, .as shewn in fig. 5, then T will shew scarcely
any power of attraction; but if we draw away U, the at-
traction of T becomes powerful, and is again lost when we
return U to its situation. From all these facts, then, it
would appear, that, when we complete the magnetic circle,
we prevent considerably the escape of the attracting power,
or rather, I should say, we retain the acquired activity of |
the magnet. And it was most likely for this purpose that
these magnets were covered with an iron armature.

The largest of the loadstones, independent of its arma-
ture and connecting iron, weighs 125: pounds; and it

measures,
In length, - - - - ~- 10% inches,
~—readth, =f) <a ey xo) 7 SE
—height, - - - - - "

When I received it, it could carry 163 pounds; but, by
gradually increasing the weight, I afterwards brought it to
support 165 pounds, exclusive of a connecting iron of

390 ' MR DEUCHAR’S ACCOUNT

about 28 pounds, and the ropes and pullies, which might.
be 12 pounds more, ‘making in all 205 pounds; thus giv-
ing an improved power equal to 42:pounds. 'This load-
stone 1s now in the: possession of Dr Horr, Professor of
Chemistry, in this city, and is the most powerful one cf its
size of which we have any recorded account. And it must
be gratifying to know, that this valuable specimen is not to
be lost to science, as it might have been, had it fallen into
the possession of a. private collector; but that Dr Hors,
with his usual liberality, means it to form an addition to
the invaluable collection of minerals in the Museum of the
Edinburgh University.

The weight of the second loadstone, independent of its
armature and connecting iron, is 28% pounds; it mea-
sures, :

In length, - - - - 52 inches,»
— breadth, - - 96. 2-4
—height, - - - - 8

On die 28th November 1818, I had suspended from it a
mass of caleedony weighing 80 pounds, to which is to be
added the weight of the connecting iron and ropes, which
is 5$ pounds. ‘This loadstone is still in the possession of
Mr Sanderson. |

The third of these minerals I have never seen, but I
understand its size‘and power are intermediate between the
two first. It 1s now the ‘property of: —_ Innes, Esq.
of Stowe.

These natural magnets came to this country in the same
vessel; and during their passage, the two first mentioned
had been placed beside each other with their improper
poles ‘in contact, by means of which, the weaker one had
its poles changed, the north being converted into a south,
and the south into a north pole.

OF THREE LARGE LOADSTONES. 391

A cutious circumstance, which I found to be exhibited
by the largest of these three loadstones, deserves particular
notice. The full energy vf the south pole was not dis-
played at E (see Plate XII. fig. 6.), nor did it run along
the line EF, as is usual; but it was strongest at C, more
than an inch from the proper situation of the south pole of
the mass, and the force of the south attraction ran along
the lime CD. The north pole, however, was quite correct,
being most powerful at H, and along the lime HG. It
may be proper here to notice, that these lines of attraction
were ascertained by means of a small pocket-compass,
about one inch in length, which was very delicate, and
most sensibly affected by the slightest changes from the
lines of attraction just mentioned. In case the peculiar
situation of the loadstone might have any effect, the posi-
tion was changed in various trials, and the same results al-
ways accompanied the application of the small compass.
The experiment was again repeated, to discover what effect
an attached weight might have on the result, when it was
invariably found, that weights of different sizes, such as
20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150,: and even 205 pounds, had no
influence in altering the line of south attraction along CD.
Such, then, is the fact with regard to the south pole of this
loadstone, and we are naturally led to trace some cause for
so unusual an appearance. It may arise from one of three
circumstances :

lst, ‘Uhe part A, cut off by the line of south attraction
CD, may be a mass of ironstone unmagnetic, which, of
‘course, by its presence, may not much affect the full force
of attraction at the artificial south pole.

- 2dly,The part A, may be an ironstone-paste, added by
art, for the purpose of completing the shape of the load-
stone,—~as is generally done, in smaller quantities, when

592 MR DEUCHAR’S ACCOUNT

slight irregularities occur in shaping the natural stone.
The presence of this paste may not weaken the magnetic
force of B obtained at the connecting poles. Or,

3dly, A, may be a distinct loadstone, of a smaller size,
and probably a very weak one, in comparison with B, but
still possessing the full characters of a complete magnet ;
in which case, it must have a tendency so far to weaken
the power of B. From its magnetic energy being less, A
cannot change the poles of B, nor alter the line of its at-
traction, but it may probably weaken them :—on the other
hand, B, possessing the stronger power, will alter the poles
of A, so as to correspond with its own; that is to say, the:
part of A immediately in contact with C, will be converted
into a north pole, and the part at E will be converted into
a south pole. From this, it follows, that when the different
weights noticed are attracted by the artificial poles IK,
they are not sustained there solely by the energy of B;
but by the strong north pole of B, and the weak south
pole of A, to which last may very likely be added a minute
portion of south attraction conveyed through A from C to
E; but this quantity must be very small, from the com-
bined effects of the attraction at C, and the repulsion at E,
for south magnetism. Thus, the artificial pole I will not’
keep up a corresponding strength with K ; and this appears
verified by experiment, for the small compass was found
not to be attracted so powerfully by one-half at E as at H,
or at I as at K, nor at C as at H, for the whole south
situations seemed to be weakened in their power. From
the external appearance also of the loadstone, on both sides
of the line of extreme south attraction CD, this third seems
the more probable nature of A. If we allow this to be the
case, then, by removing A, we must greatly add to the.
quantity of magnetic effect displayed at the two poles;.

OF THREE LARGE LOADSTONES. 3593

‘but as a loadstone is very apt to be injured by bemg struck
forcibly, it might be hazardous to make the trial.

Before concluding this paper, I may take notice of an
imposition which was, about three years ago, attempted to
be kept up upon the prosecutors of science in different
parts of the united kingdoms by a needy shoemaker, as
this disgraceful fraud was first exposed by means of the
largest of the magnets just explained. ‘This individual
pretended he had discovered a black substance which did
not conduct magnetic energy through it, and he wished it
to appear, that when this substance was made to come be-
tween a steel beam and a magnet, the power of attraction
was at least lessened, if not altogether stopped. He placed
machinery in such a situation as not to be observed, and,
with the assistance of a few falsehoods, which he found
very useful in raising the curiosity and extorting the cha-
rity of credulous visitors, he tried to induce a belief that a
pendulum was then moving a clock, and had continued
to do so for six months, without any other exciting
power than two small magnets. ‘This is shewn in fig. 7.
A. B are the two supposed non-conductors of magnetism,
affixed to the opposite ends of a beam moving on its centre;
C D are the two magnets, which were said to attract alter-
nately the end EK of the pendulum EF. At the commence-
ment of the motion of the pendulum, it was said that one
of the pieces of the black substance, say A, was moved from
between the magnet C and the pendulum; this enabled
the attraction between C E to take place, and cut off the
attraction between D FE; and this is the state in which the
figure on the plate is drawn. But as E approaches nearer
to C, so as to present the actual. contact of C E, then A
moves up, and entirely cuts off the effect, and at the same
time B leaves the power of D in full action; therefore i

394 MR DEUCHAR’S ACCOUNT

moves from C towards D, and, when it has nearly arrived
there, B again moves up, and A descends: and thus, it
was maintained, the continued motion of the pendulum
was kept up.

Another way of exhibiting this deception is shewn in
fig. 8. Here, by the false account given, we are told, that
a very fine steel beam, about an inch in length, has been
made to revolve with great rapidity for many months, and
that two magnets, partially coated with the extraordinary
black substance already noticed, and placed at opposite
sides, are the sole cause of the motion. This motion, it is
almost unnecessary to add, was also induced by secreted
machinery in the box on which it rested. On one of the
nights of lecture, when I was upon the subject of magnet-
ism, this scientific juggler brought his perpetual motion, as
he called it, to the class-room. As at this time I had the
largest of the three magnets (fig. 9.) suspended there, for
the purpose of explaining its peculiarities and powers, I
thought it would be a good opportunity to try the truth of
his assertion with regard to the cause of the motion. I
therefore placed the revolving needle (fig. 8.) on a table
under the large magnet, while the usual weight which it
carried was removed, but the needle moved as rapidly as
before. Here, then, a loadstone, capable of lifting 205
pounds, did not affect a needle, said to be moved by two
very small artificial horse-shoe magnets.—On another occa-
sion, I placed a piece of the black substance, which was
called a non-conductor, between a magnet and a magnetised
sewing-needle, which I balanced on the point of my finger,
and I found it to be attracted and repelled, as the different
poles were presented, in the same way as if no such black
substance had intervened.

OF THREE LARGE LOADSTONES. 308

Se

EXPLANATION OF Plats XII.

Fig. 1. Represents the original size of Mr Newton’s mag-
netic rmg, and the weight attached to1t. See
page 387.

2, A magnet, surrounded by slips of iron AB, CD;
EF, GH, IK, and LM, described p. 388-9.

3. 4. & 5. Horse-shoe magnets, with flat bars of -soft
iron, I’, U, and V, attached to them, to shew the
effect of completing and breaking off the magnetic
circle; see p. 389.

6. Dr Hore’s large magnet, shewing its unusual line
of attraction CD; p. 391.

4. The pretended pendulum-motion. by magnetism,

-p. 393.

8. The pretended perpetual magnetic motion, p. 394. |

9. Represents Dr Horn’s large magnet, as it was sus-
pended in Mr Devucuar’s class-room, for the
purpose of allowing the pupils attending to try
its great power.

396 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

XXX.—Recollections of a Journey from Kandy
to Caltura, by the way of Adam’s Peak, made
in the Year 1819,

By Simon Sawers, Esq.
Commissioner of Revenue in the Kandyan Provinces,

AND

Mr Henry Marsnatz, Surgeon to the Forces,
and Author of a Work on the Medical Topography and
Diseases of the Interior of Ceylon.

(Communicated by Mr Marswat, and read 28th De-
cember 1822.)

From Kandy to Gampoola, 15 miles

1819, March 99 A BouT 6 a. m., Mr Sawers was’
waited upon by an astrologer, for the purpose of announ-
cing to him that the lucky period for beginning his journey
had arrived. The astrologers in the Kandyan country are
generally weavers, or tom-tom beaters (drummers). They
calculate eclipses, and profess to predict ‘‘ good days and
good seasons.” ‘The King of Kandy never commenced a
journey, or any work of importance, without previously
consulting an astrologer. Lands were held by the King’s:
astrologer as a remuneration for the performance of his’
duties.:

OFROM KANDY TO CALTURA: - 397

We left Kandy about 'f a.m. The road to Gampoola
cerosses the Maha Villa Ganga at the ford of Mee Watera,
about one mile above the Gan-Orua ferry, and leads south-
ward along the left bank of the river. On each side of the
‘river a broken ridge of mountains rises, which slopes
-abruptly to the edge of the current. The pathway passes
‘through thick jungle, and seldom deviates to any consider-
able extent from the side of the river.

In consequence of the abrupt sloping of the hills towards
the river, there is very little ground fit for the cultivation
of paddy (rice) on either of its banks. For the first six or
‘seven miles there are, at distant intervals, small level spaces
where paddy is raised, on the nght bank of the river. On
‘the left bank, however, there is no ground fit for its culti-
‘vation, until within a few miles of Gampoola. As we ap-
proach this station, the mountains on the left of the river
‘diverge, leaving a valley of about a mile broad between
them and the river. This is the Valley of Gampoola.

The mountains and hills which bounded the view from
the pathway, were, for the most part, thickly covered with
jungle, and had a sombre autumnal appearance.

We reached Gampoola about 1 p. m. The vale of
.Gampoola is well watered, and yields two crops annual-
ly. ‘The seasons of sowing depend greatly upon the
‘state of the weather in regard to rain. _ Fields that can be
arrigated from a river or constant stream, may be sown
during any period of the year, and many spots of ground
-thus situated ,yield. three crops a-year. ‘There are two kinds
of paddy much raised in the Kandyan provinces, namely,
.the Maha Wee, and Himettee or Sinnettee. The former
yields the best crop, but it requires from six to seven
months to arrive at maturity; the latter is sooner ripe, but

the crop is less abundant. The Maha Wee is sown im
July or August, and is generally reaped 1 in Februar y or

VOL. Iv. pnd

898 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

‘March; whereas the Hinettee is sown in September and
October, and reaped in January and February. When
the paddy is reaped, it is immediately carried to the Ko.
mutah, or thrashing-floor, which is an elevated spot, of a
circular form, made perfectly smooth and even, and is ge-
‘nerally at the edge or very near to the border of the paddy-
field. The grain is trodden from the straw by means of
buffaloes, and occasionally by men.

At the limits of each district Mr Sawrrs was met by
the disauve, or native chief, of the province, who, for the
most part, accompanied him through his disauvony.. On
occasions of this kind, thie chiefs bring along with them a
number of flags, together with tom-toms, wind-instruments,
and a large retinue of followers. 'The flags of each province
have particular devices painted upon them, generally the
figures of some animals. Mr Sawrrs was always accom-
panied by the musical train of one district until he reached
the confines of another. The chiefs sent great quantities
of ready dressed rice for Mr Sawrrs’ followers. When
the disauves, and native chiefs of less note, travel through
the country, the inhabitants of the different villages must
furnish them with whatever food they require, both for
themselves and their followers; the former with uncooked,
the latter with ready-dressed victuals.

Gampoola is a royal village. It was formerly the capital
of the kings of the Udda Rata (upper country). It is said
that the last king, who resided at Gampoola, one day pur-
sued a hare, and that she ran to the place where the king’s
bed-room was afterwards built, in Kandy (the present 'Trea-
sury). ‘This bemg considered a favourable omen, the king
immediately fixed upon Kandy for his future residence.
All religious processions proceed from this spot, or from
the Nata Dewala, they being considered very holy.

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. © 399°

There was a small-military detachment at Gampoola,
We slept in a temporary building, which had been con-’
structed for Mr Sawrrs’ accommodation. Except the huts °
for the troops, there are no houses in Gampoola. The
habitations of the natives were situated on the margin of
the valley ; but being enveloped in thick topes or copses,
the houses could not be seen.

March 30.—From Gampoola to Ambegamme, distance:
probably about 14 miles.

We left Gampoola about 6 a: m., accompanied by all the °
drums and squeaking trumpets the district could afford: .
The pathway lay very near to the margin of the Maha»
Villa Ganga, and skirted the hills which sloped to its left
bank. At Pasbage, which is about half way to Ambe::
gamme, the Kotmale river is joined by the Pasbage river,
and these form the Maha Villa Ganga. The Kotmale
river sometimes obtains the name of Maha. Villa Ganga.
before the junction, Our route lay along the left bank of
the Pasbage river. Near to Pasbage, we had a distant
view of Adam’s Peak ; it bore SSW. from:us. The hills:
that we passed to-day were less densely covered with jungle
than those which bounded our view yesterday. The ravines
and hollows upon the declivities of the hills were in general
thickly overgrown with trees and underwood, but the ridges.
and lower swells were covered with tall lemon-grass: On>
many ocedsions it was difficult to account for the margins
ated and distinct patches of trees and jungle. In general,
the trees were most abundant where they seemed to have a
chance of being well watered: The tops of the hills were
more frequently covered with trees than the tidges upoi:
the declivities. Perhaps this is owing to the summits of
the mountains being more frequently in contact with clouds:
than the lower inequalities.

pad @

400 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

The lemon-grass is burned annually by the natives.
The young shoots which spring up after this operation: are
much relished by cattle. It is for the purpose of affording
a-rich and tender pasture: that the old lemon-grass 1 is con-
sumed. » :

We saw very little ground under cultivation atl this
day’ s journey ; indeed there was very little level surface on.
either side of the pathway, which would admit of being
cultivated. ‘Most of the small paddy-fields which we passed
during this day, appeared to have been originally merely _
water-courses, that had been enlarged by human labour.
By cutting away a portion of the sloping part of the hill
on each side of the rivulet, and depositing the earth in the
centre of the ravine, a small flat is formed, which becomes
easily irrigated from the water-course oe is made to run
along one of its sides.

- At the upper corner of these small svi atl fields, we
sometimes saw an apparently snug little cottage thatched
with straw, and half hidden from view by the trees which
surrounded it. The Kandyan cottages are in general deeply
embewered in trees and low jungle. At a distance, the
residence of a Kandyan is discovered by the nature of the
trees and shrubs that grow around his dwelling. These
are chiefly the broad-leaved talipot, the tall coco-nut, the
erect and stately jagery tree, the elegant and slender areca,
the dark-green-leaved jack, the luxuriant ahaa and the
silvery glistentng kokun-gaha. |

, Within about a mile of Ambegamme, there is, at the
ae side of the pathway, a large fragment of rock, nearly
covered with inscriptions, in a character unknown to the
natives of the country. | a

~ Ambegamime hes on the right bank of the Pasbage river,
and close to a ford which we crossed. There are only two

.

- FROM KANDY TO CALTURA, © 401

or three’ huts here, which the mhabitants had deserted.
We slats one of them during ihe night.

: Mond 31 —Krom _aarsebeain to Wella M ee 5t
“hours on the road ; probable distance about 10 miles.

At 6 A. M. we left Ambegamme, For about a quarter
of a mile the pathway leads along the right bank of the
river, and then crosses to the left by a ford. From this
ford the road led along the bed of a very rugged ravine to
‘the top of a high hill. After gaining the summit, we had
_to descend the hill, on the other side, by a still more rug-
ged and precipitous ravine than the one in which we had
ascended, In wet weather, these ravines contain mountain-
torrents, which sweep away the earth and small stones,
leaving only the large masses of rock. ‘The pathway is
therefore extremely rugged, and the labour which attends

the ascending or descending is very considerable. The
large roots of trees arene cross the ravines, form as
serious impediments as the rocky. masses that are found
lying, along their course. ‘The, flanks of the ravines
_were overgrown with trees of all ages; some were. mere-
ly. young shoots; others in a state of. maturity, and of
enormous magnitude, while many were in a state of great
_decay., We were nearly two hours in traversing this hill.
At the. bottom of the hill we crossed the Kihel-gamme-
_ganga (plantain-village-river), w which runs westward. In
wet weather this river must be very large and rapid, and
cannot then be passed. We were here informed that no
European had ever proceeded farther by this route,

__ About an hour after crossing the Kihel-gamme-ganga,
“we reached the Maskilia-ganga. Both these rivers run in
the same direction. Eventually they unite, and contribute
to form the Calany-ganga, or Moot-waal river, which falls
into the sea near to Colombo. Hitherto we had trav elled

"402 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

in a direction nearly south-west : the route now lay —
east-south-east. ib

Shortly after crossing the Maskilia-ganga, the country
“beeame a little more open. On each side of the pathway
there was a range of high hills; that on our right was
much broken, remarkably rugged, and peaked. Many of
the peaks were composed of masses of granitic rock, with
scarcely enough of sail upon them to support vegetation.
The range on the left was more distant, and 245 broken,
than that on the right.

The entire face of the country through which we tra-
velled to-day was covered with forest-trees and low jungle.
We did not observe a single paddy-field, or even a spot of
ground capable of being cultivated with that grain. At
very distant intervals we saw marks of the cultivation of
natchenny (Cynosurus Carrocanus) on the acclivities of the
adjoining hills, which seemed more to display the density
of the mountain-forest, than to relieve the sameness oe aon
prospect of interminable woods. |

Far elevated upon the sides of the ulprindaliud hills
‘we sometimes remarked a hut. A few jagery-trees (Caryota
urens) generally grew close adjoining to the huts. On in-
quiry, we learned that the inhabitants of these alpine abodes
constructed their huts upon spots of difficult access, in the
hopes of thereby escaping the ravages of wild elephants.
“These animals spread complete ruin and devastation when
they enter a field under crop. Their strength enables them
‘to destroy even fruit-trees, which they do by pushing them
over, and feeding upon the branches. ‘They are particu-
larly fond of the leaves of the jagery-palm. Elephants
have an astonishing sagacity in discovering deposits of grain.
Nothing can prevent their plundering the grain when it is
once discovered. 'The mud-huts of the natives are too frail
to present an impediment of any consequence, To gain his

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. ‘403

end, an elephant will demolish a cottage in the course ofa

‘few minutes, by pushing the walls over with his trunk.
During these periods of depredation it is dangerous for any
person to come near them. Few of the natives of this part
of the country attempt to keep black cattle or buffaloes, on
account of the great number of chitahs, which destroys
‘many of the young calves. Bears are here numerous, and
prove a source of great annoyance to the inhabitants.

‘These highland cottagers subsist chiefly by drawing
toddy from the kettule or jagery tree, and extracting from
it hackaroor, or jagery, which is a coarse kind of sugar.
This tree grows here in a wild state, and I could not dis-
cover that the people ever cultivated it. When a cluster of
fruit bearing jagery-palms 1 is discovered, one of the natives
constructs a hut in the neighbourhood, and there resides
while the product 1 is ehinaddan

Jagery is the chief food of these Eeoples bakin
although but rarely, they raise a little natcheny. Rice is
‘a luxury they scarcely ever enjoy. They dispose of a little
jagery, and thereby procure by barter a piece of cloth to
wrap round their loins, and the small portion of salt they
‘require. ‘They seem to have no other wants.

It was on the sides of these rugged hills that we first
saw the plantain-tree in a state of nature. When unculti-
vated, the fruit of this plant is comparatively small. It
contains a great many seeds, and has but little pulpy matter.
At Welle-malloo, where we halted, there is a little hut,
which stands on the bank of a small river, and is situated
“immediately below an abrupt and acutely peaked moun-
‘tain, formed of an immense mass of granite. On the
top of the mountain there was some vegetation, but the
“precipitous front, which looked towards the hut, was a
bare frowning black rock. Here the mercury of the ther-
“mometer rose in our tent to 100°. Ina hut made of the

404 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

leaves of the coco-nut tree, the temperature was only 90°,
During all this day’s journey, the road was extremely
rocky and rugged.

April 1.—From Welle-malloo to Doonatibory, 1 i
hours; probable distance about 12 miles.

We left Welle-malloo about half-past 6 a. m, From ein
station none of the native chiefs accompanied us. . For
about a mile and a half the pathway was very rugged;
still, however, a track was evident. To this distance the
road had been opened, by cutting down the jungle which
-grew upon it. In many places the pathway became now
so overgrown with succulent plants and jungle, that the
guides found it often difficult to trace the route. Some-
times we could not perceive an object before us above the
distance of a few yards, so completely were we enveloped
in thick jungle. This overgrown state of the pathway re-
tarded our progress greatly.

During the native government, it was customary. for, a
number of the inhabitants of the interior of the island to
go every year by this route on a pilgrimage to the Peak.
The chiefs were particularly attentive to this act of devo-
tion; and as they always travelled with a great retinue, it
was the business of part of their attendants to clear the
pathway of the jungle and young trees. These pilgrimages
‘have nearly ceased, since the English occupied the country.
‘In the month of February 1817, two chiefs, with about
two hundred followers, went from Kandy by this way to
the Peak ; but since that period it was supposed not.a hu-
man being had passed by this road. Hence the extremely
overgrown condition of the pathway. :

During this day’s journey there was a vrata lasellale de.
gree of ascent in the road. The trees began to be covered
with moss, or lichen, and to show other signs, that the

’ FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. ~ 405

situation in which they grew was much elevated above the
site‘of Kandy. For some time the pathway lay along the
ridge of a narrow hill, on each side of which was a river,
or oya. Beyond each river was a range of peaked moun-
tains; that on our right was remarkably high and
rugged. ‘The rivers at some places fe!l over stupendous
‘precipices, forming cascades of great magnitude. From the
height of one of ‘these cascades, the whole mass of water,
which passed over the rock, seemed to rise again in white
‘vapour.— Before reaching Doonatiboo-Oya, we ascended
the Heremetya-hela (Walking-stick Hill). ‘The pathway
is here excessively steep. Formerly, when the number of
pilgrims who visited the Peak by this route was numerous,
it was considered meritorious for each pilgrim to dispose
of his walking-staff on the face of the hill, so as to assist
future travellers in effecting an ascent. For this purpose,
‘some of the walking-sticks are pushed perpendicularly into
the earth about a foot and a half, or two feet, distant. Be-
hind these vertical sticks, bundles of rods are laid horizon-
tally, by which means steps are formed that greatly assist
ain ascending the steep face of the hill. “We did not see a
single cottage during this day’s Journey. ‘The guides which
Mr SAWERS had procured at Welle-malloo, asserted | they
were ignorant of the road shortly after they left that place;
they, haweren: penetrated into the jungle, and discovered
a’ hut, the proprietor of which they brought away with
them, and insisted that he should act as a guide. This
man stated that he had been sixteen times at the Peak, but
he evinced great reluctance to revisit it on this occasion.
His scruples were eventually removed, ‘and he afterwards
proved. to be very useful. Although the constant inhabit-
ant of a dreary inhospitable wilderness, he conducted him-
self with much propriety, I may even say politeness, and
evinced intellectual qualities far beyond our expectation. ©

406 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

* We halted at Doonatiboo-oya, on a small spot of ground
which had been cleared of jungle, for the accommodation
of pilgrims. |

April 2.— From Doonatiboo-oya to Gangalonuts 3 4
hours, probable distance about 6 miles.

We left Doonatiboo-oya, at half past 6 a. mM. The path,
way was, if possible, more rugged than any part of the
road we had already passed. 'The guides were frequently
at a loss to distinguish the tracks of elephants through the
jungle, from the path which we ought to follow. In some
places it was greatly obstructed by extremely tall ferns.
The chief part of our journey this day lay across a very
high hill. The trees were now comparatively stunted,
much covered with moss, and the leaves coriaceous. On
reaching the top of the hill we had a near view of the Peak.
The descent to the Gangaloo-oya, which runs at the bot-
tom of the hill, was uncommonly rugged.

We encamped on the left bank of the Giessigindigas
upon a spot of ground which had been cleared for the ac-
commodation of pilgrims. Immediately from the opposite
bank of the river, the Peak rose abruptly like an immense
acuminated dome. It was completely covered with jungle,
except in some spots near to the top, where the naked pre-
cipitous rock protruded. On the right of our encampment
there was a very high mountain, seemingly formed of an
enormous mass of granitic rock, uncovered in many places
with soil or vegetation. i

_ April 3.—From Gangaloo to the top of the Peak.

We left our ground this morning at a quarter past 7 A. M.
For a short way our route led up the left bank of the Oya;
it then crossed to the right bank. Upon reaching the Oya,
our native attendants commenced the ceremonies of ablu-

“ FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. © 407

-tion, preparatory to the delivery of their poojah, or offermg
‘at the shrine of the Sri pade, or impression of the holy foot.

The offerings were of various kinds; in general, they con-
sisted of a few small copper-coms. ‘These the devotees
‘wrapped in a piece of cloth, which they put into’a hand-
kerchief that encircled their head; it being requisite that
‘the offering should be borne on the head. After leaving
the river, the pathway led up a deep narrow rugged ravine,
which, in wet weather, must be the bed of a mountain-
torrent, and consequently then impassable. Thick jungle
‘and large trees grew close to the edge of the ravine, by
which means the view was greatly intercepted. As we ap-
‘proached the top of the mountain, the altitude of the trees
‘diminished, the shade was less dense, and the prospect
‘more open. When we had reached about two-thirds of the
‘ascent, our followers informed us that they had arrived at
the place where needles and threads are usually offered to
Buddhoo. The offering is laid upon a small rock, which
stands on the right of the road. The Buddhists, among
our followers, had been very improvident m regard to an
‘oblation of needles, &c.; only one needle and thread were
found among the whole party. As soon, however, as one
Buddhist deposited the needle and thread wpon the rock,

‘they were seized and replaced 1 in the same manner is an-
‘other. : |

During the course of the sbibtney when our followers
‘saw the Mallua Sri Pade (the Hill of the Holy Foot, or
_ Holy Impression), they raised their joined hands over the
head, and, in a kind of holy fervour, called out Saa-—Saa.
Their zeal in this respect increased greatly as we approached
the end of our journey. The superior portion of the Peak
eonsists of an immense cone of granitic rock, which is in
‘general but very partially covered with vegetation. . The
‘track ‘over several ‘places of this cone is abrupt; and

408 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

where the pathway leads over a bare declivous rock,
there are steps cut in the’stone, and chains so fixed as to
lie along the steps, for the purpose of assisting sei
-In ascending and descending.

About a quarter past 9 o’clock we spidglael the top of va
Peak. Here we found about forty or fifty pilgrims, who
had ascended by the Saffragam or western route. ‘They
were busily employed in the performance of the usual cere-
monies, and our arrival did not appear to disconcert them
in the slightest degree. Upon the completion of the cus-
tomary ritual, they abruptly departed, and descended the
mountain, without seeming to look to the right or left.

The apex is surrounded by a wall, in which there
are two distinct openings, corresponding to the two tracks
by which the mountain can be ascended, one by the route
we came, and another from the district of Saffragam. The
area included within the wall is about 23 paces long by 18
broad. Nearly in the centre of the area there is a large
rock, one side of which is shelving, and can be easily
ascended. On the top of this mass of granite there is a
small square wooden shed, which is connected with the
rock, as also with the outer wall, by means of heavy
chains. The roof and posts of this little building we

found adorned with flowers and artificial figures made
of party-coloured cloth. The use of the shed is to
cover the Sri pade (Holy Foot). . This impression has
been in part formed by the chisel, and partly by elevating
its outer border with chunam (lime). , In length it is about
53 feet long, and in breadth about 2! feet. The depth is
irregular, and varies from about 1% to 2 inches. Much of
the margin of the impression, and all the elevations which
mark the spaces between the toes, are made of lime and
sand. A border of gilded copper, in which a few valueless
gems are set, encircles the impression. According to the

_FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. © 409

books respecting Buddhoo, it appears that he stepped from
the top of the Peak to the kingdom of Siam. The Bud-
dhists profess to believe the impression is a mark made by
the last foot of Buddhoo which left Ceylon... But:so little
did the contrivers of the fable know of geography, that
even the direction of the impression is destructive of the
credibility of the story regarding the stepping of Buddhoo
from Ceylon to Siam. From heel to toe, the direction of
the impression is NW. by W., while Siam lies very differ-
ently from Ceylon., It seems to have been intended that
the mark in the rock should resemble the impression of the
left foot.

- From the time we resolved vaglob visiting the Sri pade,
it was our intention to remain for a night on the top of the
Peak. We found some difficulty in carrying this intention
into effect. Our servants and followers anxiously requested
us to change the resolution we had formed. They pleaded.
want of accommodation and extreme cold, as excuses for
wishing to abandon the top of the mountain as soon as pos-
sible. ‘These were only pretences; the real cause of their
reluctance to remain on the Peak may be attributed to the
superstitious. awe and dread with which they are impressed
when near to places held sacred. by the tenets of Buddhism.

~ Immediately upon our reaching the top of the mountain,
the chief priest waited upon us, and affected to be much
concerned respecting our alan He asked us whether
we intended to remain there: all night, and. was answered
im the affirmative. He then most Hicieledly begged that we
should alter our determmation. Disease, he said, would be
the inevitable consequence of our remaining on the Peak
during night. He told us only one white man had ever
slept iit and, that he ‘sickened soom-after: By what mo-
tives the priest was actuated, when he entreated us so earnest-
ly to leave the Peak, it is difficult to conjecture. When he

410. RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

found, however, that his arguments were not likely to avail.
much, he disappeared. In a short time he returned, bring: :
ing with him a number of plants, a portion of which he
gave to each of us. He took great pains to impress us
with a belief in the potency of their virtues, and informed
us, that, by wearing a part of one of them as an amulet,
we should be protected from the injurious attacks of bears.
In like manner, scme were calculated to protect us from
elephants; and others from devils, sickness, &c. One herb.
he asserted would prevent misfortune, sickness, and evils:
of every kind *. .

* It is not improbable that the priest did really entertain fears that we
should become sick, by remaining all night in the vicinity of a place which
is held remarkable for holiness; and that he considered the amulets, with
which he provided us, necessary for our protection. The Buddhists theme
selves approach celebrated temples and depositaries of the relics of Buddhoo
with a veneration mixed with terror, and seem always apprehensive that
some evil may happen to them. Europeans are not considered to he
favourites of the oriental divinities; and it is the universal opinion of the
Kandyans, that misfortune and disease owe their origin to the vengeance of
good or bad spirits. Before the Captivity, the Jews held opinions, in this
respect, not very different from the Kandyans. With the view of averting
disease, and any national calamity, the Jews made expiatory sacrifices,
which consisted of both animal and vegetable substances; and for a similar
purpose, the Kandyans devote a portion of their ordinary food (rice) as 2
means of assuaging the wrath of a malignant spirit. Sometimes, however,
during disease, they promise to present some article of value to a particular
Vihary (temple), in the event of recovery. . I have known the figure of att
eye, in silver, placed under the keeping of the priests of a temple, upon
recovery from an attack of ophthalmia. The means of propitiation adopted
by the Philistines, as recorded in 1 Samuel, chap. vi., resembles that of the
inhabitants of Ceylon. In ancient times, a similar practice ébtained in the
Greek temples. Sprencer, in his History of Medicine, informs us, that it
was customary for individuals labouring under disesse, to resort to ¢ertaitt
places that were deemed saered, in the hope of recovery; and adds;

. FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. Al}

Not having room to pitch our tent, we occupied a small
hut of about six feet square, which stands close to the rock
that rises within the area.
- During the day, small parties of pilgrims occasionally
reached the top of the Peak. The pilgrims appeared to be
chiefly inhabitants of the maritime provinces. Many of the
parties consisted of individuals of all ages; some were
mere children, while others had become decrepit from old
age. Lon

The pilgrims seemed to ascend the Peak in parties. As
soon as a party entered the area within the wall, the indi-
viduals immediately approached the rock in the centre, and
gradually ascended to the Sri pade. 'The pilgrims do not
go under the shed ; they stand close to that end of the im-
pression which is intended to mark the toes. Here they
make a number of profound salaams, by putting the palms
of the hands together, and holding them before the face, or
raising them above the head. While thus employed, they
appear to be muttering some words. Each individual then
presents his offering, which is deposited in the sacred im-
pression. The presents consist of copper-money, rice, coco-
nuts, cotton-cloth, handkerchiefs, betel -leaves, flowers,
onions, ornaments for the shed which covers the S7i pade,
a lock of the hair of the head, or a portion of the beard.
_ After depositing the offerings, the pilgrims continue for a
few minutes upon the rock, making profound reverences to
the holy impression. The party then descend, and form a

“¢ Quand les malades etaient gueris, ils allaient remercier le Dieu et lui
porter des offrandes. Quelquefois les malades aprés leur guerison faisaient
modeles en ivoire, en or, argent, ou autre metal, le partie qui avait été le
siege de Vaffection, sorte @offrande dont on conservait un grand nombre
dans les temples.”

419 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

ne in the-area, with their faces: towards the impression,
Here one of the group opens a small book, formed of palm-
leaves, and reads, or rather chaunts, a passage from it. At
the termination of each passage or stanza he is jomed by
the whole party, male and female, in a loud chorus, or re-
sponse. The form of words used on this occasion is, I am
informed, called the Pan Sile, or Five Commandments of
Buddhoo. | They are all prohibitory, and forbid,

1st, Killing any living creature.

2d, Stealing.

3d, Committing adultery.

4th, Uttering a falsehood.

5th, Drinking intoxicating liquors. |
__ This part of the ceremonies being completed, the pilguions
proceed to one of two bells, biel are suspended upon
frames situated close to the central rock. Here the pilgrims
individually ring one of the bells, by pulling a string at-
tached to the clapper. They then take some strips of cloth
which have been previously dipped in oil, or ghee (clarified
butter), and light them at one end. These wicks are placed
upon an iron-stand or platform, erected for the purpose,
and sometimes upon the edge of a large stone. re

-In all the Singhalese temples, whenever offerings. ae
srs) lamps are lighted, and occasionally incense is burned.
Lighted lamps, or censers, are carried before religious pro-
cessions, and HOS used to precede the sovereign in car of
state.
On a shelf of the same rock in which the S72 pade is cut,

there is a small deyo wahalla. A deyo wahaila is a temple
consecrated to Vishnoo, Natte, or some other Brahminical
deity. The literal meaning of the words deyo wahalla,
is, ‘ House of God.” Wahalle or Wassal (the / and
s being used indifferently) means palace. When speaking
of the king, the Kandyans used to call him Maha Wassal,

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. 413

or Great Palace; in like manner, as the Ottoman emperer
is styled the Sublime Gate.

Some of ‘the pilgrims worship at the shrine of Vishnoo,
and propitiate his good will by a small poojah, or offering.
Vishnu’s favour is courted for the purpose of averting from
his supplicants the evils of this world, such as poverty and
sickness, and that he may bestow upon his devotees happi-
ness and prosperity. Sterile women solicit his interference,
that they may become mothers ; and pregnant women im-
plore his aid in the hour of child-birth. The offerings
made to Vishnoo are generally small sums of money.

The pilgrims, in general, finish the requisite ceremonies
in about twelve or fifteen minutes, when they istantly pro-
ceed to the opening in the surrounding wall, and abruptly
descend the cone. The Singhalese, for the most part, evince
much indifference to romantic views and sublime scenery ;
on this occasion, their want of taste for the contemplation
of natural objects is very remarkable. By far the greater
number of the pilgrims never cast a look beyond the wall
which surrounds the area all the time they are on the top
of the mountain, from which the view is so grand and ex.»
tensive. ,
‘The veneration which the inhabitants of Ceylon ree to
the ceremonies of Buddhoo is very surprising. Shortly
after we reached the Svrz pade, all our native followers
joined the pilgrims in the ceremonies usually performed
before the holy impression. The professed Christian Ca-
tholic, as well as the Christian reformado, made offerings
to the Sri pade apparently with as much zeal as the Bud-.
dhist did. .The Mussulman of Hindoostan make pilgrim-
ages to the Peak; and, according to report, the rea-
son they assign for visiting this mountain is, that they

VOL. IV. Ee

414 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

believe the impression to be that of Adam, our first
parent *.

The Kandyans, as well as the inhabitants of the mari-
time provinces, appear to consider a visit to the Peak a
business of much importance. Mr Sawers had a number
of servants along with him who had never shaved. Shortly
after we had entered the area of. the S7i pade, their chins
were trimmed, and the beards religiously offered at. the
shrine of Buddhoo; which ceremony is performed by tymg
the hair to the chains that are attached to the shed.

We found two priests of Buddhoo on duty at the S7é
pade; one of them was a man far advanced im life, the
other seemed to be only about twenty years of age. They
reside here only during the period when pilgrims visit it,
or from January to April inclusive, being the dry season,
on the west side of the island., During the wet months the
Peak is commonly enveloped in clouds, and in rainy wea-
ther the two pathways by which it can be ascended become
impassable. ‘The priests, while on duty at the Sri pade,
occupy a little hut immediately without the encircling, wall.
The old priest informed us, that the period when he ought
to leave the Peak was annually announced to him, in a .
dream, by a Brahmin. When he neglected the suggestion
of the Brahminical phantom, a warning of a very different

€

* The fabulous accounts which have been given of the Srz Mallua Pade
by the author of the Arabian Nights Entertainment, and some eompilers of
travels, &c. are not a little ludicrous. Sir Tuomas Hersert, Baronet, who
published an account of his travels in the ‘¢ Oriental Indies and Isles adja-
cent,” about the year 1626, tells us, that “‘ upon Candy’s high Peak was
shewed and credited the footsteps of old Adam, born and buried here, if we
will believe them. In the same place they shew a lake of salt water, upon
a high hill, said to be no other than the tears afflicted Eve shed a hundred
years together for the losg of her righteous son Abel.”

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. ALS

kind was given to him—his clothes were devoured by rats
and mice. ‘This hint to remove was always effectual:

We did not observe the priests assist the pilgrims in theit!
devotion. In general, however, when offerings are made
to Buddhoo, a priest attends, and repeats his five precepts
or commands.

The chief duty of the priests appears to be to super
intend the collection and sorting of the offerings. A lay-
person is appointed to receive them, but an account is kept
of the receipts by the priests. At the end of the season
the general amount is forwarded to the Tirinaney, or chief
priest in Kandy. The average annual amount is about
8000 rix-dollars, or L. 250 sterling.

A little before stin-set, thé old priest repaired to the
Sacred Impression. He was accompanied by a boy bears
-ing a small pareél. On reaching the side of the Impression;
lie made a number of profound reverences. ‘The parcel
being dpened, he took from it a small bell; which he ring
over the Impression, and then laid it aside: then followed
a number of profound salaams, or reverences: He then
took from the parcel a small fan; and. for a considerable
time waved it over the impression: this was laid aside, fol:
lowed by 4 number of low bows. Next followed a piece of
— eotton-cloth, which was deposited for about a minute upoti
the itfipression, and then removed with the usual numbet
of reverences. ‘Tlie priest then placed Howers upon the
— Sri pade; they were permitted to remain. Having ters
-minated the ceremonies for the day, he returned to the hut;
followed by the boy bearing the bell, fan, &c. &c.

The height of the Peak above the level of the sea has
been ascertained by barometrical measurement to be about
6500 feet. From a mountain of this altitude, the view, in
clear weather, must be very extensive. As far as the eye
ean reach, the surface of the country below appears remark-

Ee

416 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

ably unequal and rugged. Immediately in the neighbour-
hood of the Peak, a number of rugged and acuminated.
rocky projections rise to a great height. The whole country
is covered with interminable forests: Here and there a
frowning rock appears, covered only with grey-coloured
lichen. While on the top of the mountain we could dis-
cover neither human habitations nor cultivated fields.

At the time we reached the top of the Peak, the sun was
rapidly dissipating the foggy white clouds which had been
precipitated upon the surface of the earth during the pre-
ceding night. The hills, and more elevated prominences of
the surface, were nearly free from the white fog, but the
spaces which intervened between the mountains were still
densely covered with it. Our attention was soon directed
to the various motions of the clouds under dissipation :
being far below us, we had a very distinct view of their
transitions. In some places, the white cloud seemed to he
still on the bosom of the earth ; in others, the foggy vapour
was in rapid motion, not only horizontally, but, in many
places, vertically. While we were admiring these pheno-
mena, a westerly wind rose, which seemed to compress, ra-
ther than dissipate, the fog. By means of this wind a large
mass of white vapour was driven along the surface until it
reached a transverse mountainous ridge, which overlooked
a hollow space. Although the wind continued to blow, no
vapour appeared to pass over the ridge :—the cloud was
instantly dissipated by the high temperature of this hot
basin. But what appeared most remarkable in this pheno-
menon, was the distinct Ime which marked the influence of
the increased temperature of the hollow space upon the
dense white fog. By about 10 o’clock a. m. the atmosphere
was nearly free from clouds; during the course of the day,
however, it became comparatively obscure, and the pro-
spect more indistinct. The atmosphere above us was all

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. 417

day free from clouds, and the sky a deep blue. We did
not feel the heat of the sun ardent, nor was the light strong.
Several times during the course of the day there were slight
showers of rain, without an impending cloud. Distant ob-
jects appeared comparatively near.

Towards sun-set, the clouds which floated in the lower
strata of the atmosphere became more dense than they had
been during the day. The view from the Peak was now
remarkably sublime, various and attractive. Our attention
was strongly arrested by the rapid formation and seemingly
fantastical motions of the clouds. Their transitions did not
appear to be occasioned by any very general cause. ‘This
was evident by the extreme variety of their motions, and
the limited extent of the atmosphere, which seemed to be
influenced by one current of air.

Sometimes we saw distinct patches of white clouds lying
quite still on the surface of the earth, while, in their imme-
diate neighbourhood, other clouds were in rapid motion.
A small cloud, which at first appeared like smoke rising
from a chimney, would sometimes expand, and in a short
time cover a hill, or large extent of surface. In a few in-
Stances we saw clouds rise from the earth in a perpendi-
cular column, having, at the same time, a whirling or rota-
tory motion. When we turned our attention to another
mountain, there, perhaps, we saw its top completely enve-
loped in a fleecy cloud, which rolled in large volumes im-
petuously down the upper portion of the mountain, like a
tremendous cataract, sweeping every impediment before it.
These vapours were instantly dissipated and dissolved in
the pure atmosphere, when they ‘reached a certain way
down the mountain. There was evidently a great number
of strata or currents of air in the atmosphere, which were
shown by the various directions of different clouds. But,
independently of the horizontal strata, there seemed to be
vertical columns of clouds.

418 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

Shortly after sun-set the rapid transition of the clouds
became greatly moderated. By midnight they had sub-
sided. to the lower strata of the atmosphere, and appeared
to be lying on the surface of the earth. ‘The moon shone
bright, by which means we had a magnificent view of the
upper surface of a dense stratum of white fleecy cloud. It
is impossible to convey in words the grandeur of this scene.
The surface of the earth was overspread with a covering
resembling the finest white down, through which many
dark-coloured mountains and cliffs projected. Could we
conceive a white sea studded over with islands extremely
various in size and figure, a faint idea might be entertained
of the prospect from the Peak durmg the night.

The clouds ccntinued to rest undisturbed on the bosom
of the earth until a little after six o'clock. For some time
before sun-rise, the sky towards the east had a bright
flame-colour, indicative of the approach of day. The sun
burst forth suddenly in all his glory: not a cloud inter-
vened to dim his splendour. Immediately after the rising
of the sun, the shadow of the Peak appeared like an im-
mense cone or triangle standing at the edge of the western
horizon. In a few minutes the base of the shadow ap-
proached the foot of the mountain. Soon after the appear-
ance of the sun, light and floating vapours began to rise
from the upper surface of the clouds, which were quickly
dissolved in the superincumbent stratum of transparent air.
The elevation and dissipation of the vapours increased as
the sun approached the meridian.

The temperature of the air in the shade varied during
day from 64° to 68°.

AtSpmM.itwas - - - = 57°

9 Pp. M. —_ S > a ba = ook
oat ait tan Byiircehy) hi eee SEY ii peeing
BAL Me jowia eopoe cme e ee Oe

0: ACO Ore I eee

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. A19

The temperature of the water of a spring situated a few
-yards without the wall was at 6 a. mu. 53°. The water of
this well is supposed to be a sovereign remedy in cases of
sterility. Female pilgrims, who have been disappointed in
regard to children, make a point of drinking from it before
they leave the top of the Peak.

- Immediately without the encircling wall, and for a few
yards only down the declivity, there is a species of rhodo-
dendron found growing. It bears large crimson-coloured
flowers, and its leaves are remarkably thick. These flowers
are offered at the shrine of Buddhoo; but indeed almost
every other flower which the vegetable creation produces
in Ceylon is thus honoured. ‘The priests did not object to
our plucking the flowers of this tree. The limited extent
of the space upon which it grows is remarkable.

From the foot of the wall, the declivity of the mountain
is excessively abrupt on all sides. The upper portion of it
is a large cone of granitic rock, resting upon a very high
‘mountain belonging to the range of hills which form the
rampart of the upper country.

April 4.—From Sri Pade to Patlepattoola.

- At about half past 6 a. m. we left the top of the Peak.
The descent of the cone is much more abrupt by the route
from Saffragam than by the one which we ascended. At
several places the track leads over a bare, smooth, precipi-

“tous rock. ‘The more difficult places of ascent are furnished
with iron-chains, which have been put there by Buddhists,
who, by charitable acts of this kind, expect to enjoy a
higher state of existence after their next birth. These
chains assist in ascending and descending. ‘There are no
steps cut in the rock on this side of the cone. At two or
three places of the pathway, the view downwards is remark-
ably grand and awful. The cone at these spots seems in

: 420 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

some measure to overhang the lower mountain, by which
means a perperidicular view is obtained to the extent of al-
most the entire height of the Peak. When we descended
the sun shone bright upon the space where the view ter-
minated at the bottom of the mountain, thereby greatly in-
creasing the sublimity of the prospect. It is impossible to
describe the terrific grandeur of this scene. But indeed the
prospect is really so frightful, that I believe it is rarely
contemplated with due composure.

‘The Saffragam side of the cone is nearly destitute of
trees. We took about twenty-five mimutes to descend the
precipitous apex of the Peak. ‘The road, or rather ravine,
by which we descended was very rugged in a great num-
ber of places, and led through thick forests of very large
trees,

About 11 a. mM. we were met by a large band of native
musicians and dancers, which had been sent by the agent
of revenue in the district of Saffragam, as a mark of respect
to Mr Sawers. The musical instruments were chiefly
tom-toms, a species of trumpet, and a number of small
bells, which were suspended round the ankles of the
dancers, thereby causing a constant tinkling when they
walked or danced. All the performers were clothed in a
particular kind of mountebank-dress, which is worn only
on occasions when they wish to make a demonstration of
great joy. Immediately after we met them, they com-
menced their performances, which consisted in making all
the noise they were able, with drums, bells, and trumpets,
the clangour of which, although sufficiently loud, was less
clamorous than the singing and shouting of the vocal per-
formers. They preceded us in the pathway, and continued
their music and vociferation until we arrived at Palepat-
toola. Having obtained a copy of one of their songs, in the

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. 421

Pali language, I subjoin a translation, by Mr Armour,
interpreter to the judicial commissioner in Kandy *,

We halted on the road about an hour, and reached
Palepattoola at 2 Pp. m.

April 5.—F rom Eee roa to vnshile deere distance
about 12 miles.

1.
™ Having divested himself of fear for personal safety, and of anxiety for
his wealth, through loyalty to the European Potentate, Ekneligoda Dessave,
with undaunted courage and resolution, Prosperity perched on his shoulders,
and, followed by armed bands, went forth against the rebel multitude, and,
like the bird Garooda, destroyed the insurgent serpents,

2.

Possessed of courage, and gifted with victory, as were the mighty heroes
Ramah Arguna, Vasoo Deva, and Beema Lena, and bounteous as the Kalpa
Wurksha, did not he, the great Eknelgoda, rush forward, and extinguish
rebellion throughout Orwah ?

3.

He having received the approbation of the great B——, the English
Commander accompanied the troops with a powerful host of Saffragam
people, pursued and hanged the rebels on trees, thereby stunning them with
terror and dismay.

Are
‘The archers, in their ambuscades, laid their hand on the bow-string, but
before they could discharge their arrows, they were stultified with fear, and
underwent severe chastisement. Why have ye forgotten all which brave
Ekneligoda accomplished ? 3

- Ekneligoda is Dessave, or first native chief, in the province of Saffragam.
He was the only Kandyan of rank who seemed to take an active part, in aid
of the English troops, to subdue his countrymen, in 1817 and 1818. Pro-
tected by the troops, the Saffragam host did certainly excite terror and dis-
may among the inhabitants, by spreading over the country, and plundering
whatever came in their way. Nothing was too insignificant for their exces-
sive cupidity. °

ADD, RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

Palepattoola is a rest-house or caravansary, situate at
the bottom of the Peak, for the accommodation of pilgrims.
We left this place about half past 5 a.m. During the
early part of this day’s journey, the road was remarkably
rugged, and passed through woods of tall trees and thick
jungle. As we approached Ratnapore, the prospect be-
came more open. The country was now comparatively
level, and some marks of cultivation were perceived. We
reached Ratnapore about 10 a.m. Here we halted until
about 5 p. m., and then embarked in a boat on the Calloo
Ganga (Caltura River), and at 2 p. M. next day we reached
Caltura, a station situate at the estuary of the river.

We left Kandy in the hope that the road would per-
mit of our being carried in chairs great part of the way.
After reaching Ambegamme, however, the road became too
narrow and rugged to admit of this mode of conveyance.
We had therefore to prosecute the irae on foot until
we reached Palepattoola.

Owing to the uninhabited state of the country through
which the route lay, we could not expect to be often accom-
modated with a hut to sleepin. Mr Sawers had there-
fore provided a tent. On this account, the number of fol-
lowers was greatly increased. Including the coolies who
carried the tent, chair-bearers, baggage-coolies, servants,
&e. the whole party consisted of about ninety individuals,

Although our road passed through ever-verdant forests,
and frequently within view of some grand and picturesque
displays of inanimate nature, still the scene was seldom
particularly pleasing. Tropical woods of great extent pre-
sent few objects capable of exciting delightful emotions,
A gloomy silence prevails 1n these solitudes to a remarkable
degree. The stillness and absence of animated nature is
more striking while the sun sheds his ardent meridian rays
on the earth, than during any other time of the day,

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. AQS

When the sun was high, we seldom saw an animal of any
kind, except a few butterflies flickering in the air, and oc-
casionally a crow-pheasant flitting from one bush to an-
other. Few scenes give intense and permanently pleasing
emotions, which are not more or less connected with the
labours and comforts of man. While vegetable nature
abounded with the most wanton luxuriance, there were’
many parts of our journey where, except the insect tribe,
no animated being seemed to exist.

When opportunities offered, we endeavoured to obtain
some information regarding the moral habits of the people.
The guide, who was caught in the jungle shortly after we
left Welle Mallco, furnished us with a few facts regarding
the exposure of female infants in his part of the country.
The practice of several men (frequently brothers) cohabiting
with one woman is very general im almost every part of the
Kandyan provinces. As reasons for this species of copartner-
ship, the poor assign want of means to support individually
a woman; while the wealthy say, that they adopt this mea-
sure for the purpose of concentrating the property of
several males among the children of one woman. No one
of the males has a better right to the denomiation of hus-
band than another. In consequence of a difference of opi-
nion, the partnership is occasionally disselved; in which
case, an appeal is sometimes made to the magistrate, to de-
cide with whom the woman should domiciliate, as also re-
garding the appropriation of the common offspring.

Captain Rizexrio, who spent eighteen years in the wocds
of Ceylon, gives a very particular account of the practice
of polyandrism among the Kandyans. He says, “ La pre-
miere nuit des néces est pour le mari, la seconde pour le
frére du mari, et sil y a un troisieme ou un quatriéme
frere, jusqu’au septieme, ils ont chacun leur nuit, mais s‘il
y a plus de sept fréres, le septiéme, et ceux qui sont apres,

AQ4A RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

‘n’ont pas le meme droit que les six autres. Le premiers
jours passé, le mari n’a pas plus de privilege que ses fréeres:
Jorsque la femme est seule il peut la prendre: mais si Pun
des freres est avec elle, i1 ne peut pas entrer: ainsi une
femme suffit pour toute une famille, et fout est commun
entres les fréres; ils apportent 4 la maison ce quils gagnent,
les enfans ne sont pas plus au mari qu’a ses fréres, aussi les
enfans les appellent tous leurs peres.” RrsERto dignifies
one of the brothers with the title of husband, while he
withholds it from the other members of the corporation.
I never could learn that any one of the fraternity had a
greater claim to this appellation than another.

The Kandyans have no idea of the meaning we attach
to the word wife. A female, who lives as a wife with a
man, is denominated by a word in the Singhalese language
expressive of “‘ the woman who cooks and gives.” A Kan-
dyan may call as many women to his bed as he pleases,
and when he chooses he may send them back to their rela-
tions, provided he returns the property they brought along
with them. Separations of this kind cause no disgrace to
either party. Knox was perfectly correct when he stated,
the woman, after she is dismissed, becomes “ fit for another
man, being as they account never the worse for wearing.”
Sterility is sometimes assigned as a cause for repudiation.
In such a case, the female frequently succeeds in prevail-
ing upon the husband to call one of her sisters, when she
has any. |

When a female is called by a male, the connexion is de-
nominated diga dilaw. By a union of this kind the female
loses all hereditary right to the property of her father’s
family ; she is, in fact, completely transferred to that of her
husband. The privilege of repudiation is not reciprocal.
A woman can only leave her husband when she proves
that he has omitted to supply her with food and clothing
suitable to his rank.

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. 425

- There is another kind of connexion between a male and
female, denominated “ beene wasse.” In this union, the
female remains in her own house, or the house of her
father, and cohabits with one or more males as she pleases.
There is no disgrace attending such conduct. By this
means, she does not lose a right to a share of the property
of her family. The man who cohabits with her she may
turn away at pleasure: he has no claim upon her or her
property. ‘In allusion to the rapidity with which a man,
who has formed a beene wasse connexion, may be dismissed,
the Kandyans say, he should always be provided with a
staff and a laniern. 'The progeny of a beene wasse con-
nexion never speak of their father; they assume a station
m society suitable to the rank of their mother.

According to the information we obtained, the exposure
of female infants is a frequent occurrence in some of the
districts through which we passed. When an infant is
born, the male-parent proceeds to the residence of an astro-
loger, who is consulted regarding the future fortune of the
new-born. ‘The fee given to an astrologer on such an oc-
casion, in general, consists of one chally, a copper coin,
value about a farthing, and forty betel-leaves. ‘The stars
are then consulted, according to the gibberish of the pre-
tended wise man. Should the astrologer discover that the
infant has been born under a lucky star, and that it will
be fortunate through life, the parent returns home, and
reports the circumstance to the mother, who commences to
nurse her offspring. . A different fate awaits an infant
which is supposed to have come into the world under the
influence of an unlucky planet or star. The old woman
who assisted at the birth of the babe, sometimes accom-
panied by the father, proceed to the jungle, where they
dig a small hole in the earth: here they deposit the infant,
which 1s in general soon devoured by jackals. We were

496 RECOLLECTIONS OF A JOURNEY

informed that mothers sometimes evince much reluctance
to allow their infant to be exposed: But as the reating of
unlucky infants is supposed to brmg misfortune upon the
parents, the yearning of the mother yields to the confidence
she has in the prediction of the astrologer ; ‘and, to prevent
an imaginary and contingent evil, the poor infatuated wo-
man consents to the murder of her offspring. In some rare
instances, a mother sends a messenger to the jungle the
day after the infant has been exposed, for the purpose of
ascertaining its fate. Should it be found alive, this cireum-
stance is considered a favourable omen, and the poor babe
is commonly brought home to the mothet; who now per-
forms her duty ‘o the little innocent.

The astrologer easily learns the nature of the prediction
regarding the fate of an infant which will please the parent:
Male-children are much desired; hence mfants of this sex
are seldom deemed to be born under an unlucky star, and
very rarely exposed. The first female infant born in a
family is generally considered lucky, and therefore not ex-
posed. The succeeding daughters are sometimes deemed
unlucky, and murdered accordingly. Our informant on
this subject said, no peor man ever thought of bringing
up more than one of his female offspring. He likewise told
us, that very few parents, even of the wealthier class;
would, if they had a son; save three daughters. By a
census, which was taken of the inhabitants of the Kandyan
provinces in 1820, the proportion of females to males was
as 84 is to 100. In one of the districts the proportion was
as low as 554 to 100. It may be feared that the murder
of female infants is a principal cause of the disproportion:
between the numbers of the sexes. We are not warranted
in presuming that a warm climate has any influence in this
respect. Matte Bruw asserts, that it has been satisfac-
torily demonstrated by good authority, that “ the number

FROM KANDY TO CALTURA. ADM

of children of both sexes is not more disproportionate in the
East than in Europe.” According to the last census, the
number of females in Great Britain is greater than that of
males; and by a census taken of the inhabitants of Java,
by Sir T’. Rarrzes, we learn that the proportion of females
to males in that island is.‘as 103 to 100. During last year a
proclamation was issued by the governor of Ceylon prohibit
ing infanticide. Some hopes may therefore be entertained
that this horrid practice will soon be rendered less frequent,
if not completely repressed. The late king of Kandy pro-
hibited the exposure of infants among his subjects, but his
measures had little if any effect, in checking the practice;
particularly in the districts distant from the seat of govern<
ment.

Epixpuren,
January 1823.

428 OBSERVATIONS ON

XXXI.—Some Observations on the Falco chry-
saétos and FI’. fulvus of Authors, proving the
Identity of the two supposed species.

By P. J. Setsy, Esq.

(Read 25th January 1823.)

|

Iw Mr Witson’s excellent and scientific observations on
some species of the genus Falco, contained in the second
volume of the Society’s Memoirs, he has stated it as his
belief, that the Golden and Ring-tailed Eagles (alco
chrysaétos and F’. fulvus) of authors, are in reality distinct
species, and cannot be considered as individuals of the
same kind, varying only in plumage, from a difference of
age or sex. In this opinion, I believe, he still remains sup-
ported by many ornithologists.

In consequence of his remarks, and of certain doubts as
to their correctness, which I was led to entertain from the
remarkable changes I had seen developed in the Falco
albicilla, or Cinereous Eagle, during its progress to matu-
rity, I was induced to pay particular attention to the his-
tory of these birds, and especially to the changes of plu-

FALCO CHRYSAETOS AND F. FULVUS. 429

mage to which. they might. be subject,—from the state of
nestlings to the attainment of maturity. The result of my
inquiries and observations has been such as to convince me,
that no specific distinction exists between the Golden and
Ring-tailed Eagles, bat that the difference arises entirely
from a difference of plimage proper; to the respective ages

the. individuals. In ies epinicn, I am also supported
bathe powerful and concurrent testimony of Mons. 'TEm-
MINCK, who, in his Manuel @Ornithologie, considers the
Ring-tailed Eagle to be the young of his Aigle Hovals: the
F. chrysaétos of authors.

My attention was also directed to he anatomical sinfie-
ture of the two supposed species, as I considered that a
strict conformity in this respect would constitute a strong
argument. in favour of their identity. ‘The difficulty of
procuring subjects, for some time prevented me making
the comparison I wished; but I was at length fortunate
enough to obtain, though at different times, a specimen of
each kind, and, as far as I can rely upon the accuracy of
my own observation, or the notes taken at the dissection
of. each, their st tructure appeared the same. In such out-
ward essential characters, as are visible to all observers,
viz..the bill; legs, scales upon the last phalanges of the
toes, &c. an exact: accordance also exists. |
- Another fact that forcibly struck me, was, that all ‘hinds
eagles which I had an opportunity of examining, and which
had. been kept. 3 in confinement beyond a certain age, proved
of the golden or chrysaétos species; although, I was in-
formed, when young, they had exhibited dees white caudal
band of the Ring-tailed Eagle (2. fulous.) i ie

The progress of this change I have been fortunate
enough to witness in a bird, which I obtained from Scot-
land a few years ago. When first procured,..it was about
fourteen. months ald, and at that time exactly answered the

VOL. IY. Ff

480 OBSERVATIONS ON THE IDENTITY OF

general description of the Ring-tailed Eagle. Soon after-
wards it began to moult. I attentively watched the pro-
gress of the moulting. The tail-feathers, after the change —
was completely effected, were now considerably altered in
appearance ; as the line which divided the white or basal
half of the tail from the other part, and which, previous to
moulting, was distinct and well-defined, became somewhat
interrupted or irregular, by spots of a hair-brown and ash-—
grey encroaching upon the white. At each succeeding
periodical change of feather, these spots and blotches in-
creased in number and size, advancing upwards upon the
white, m form of indistinct bars, till the whole, with the
exception of the roots of the feathers, which appear always
to remain white, became clouded with brown and deep
ash-grey,—the characteristic colours of the tail of the
F’. chrysaétos. 'This was accomplished a short time ago,
when the bird had attained its fourth year. Except im size,
it now resembles in its markings a magnificent specimen of
the Golden Eagle, which I also possess alive, and which I
received from Scotland, but not till after it had attained
the adult or mature state. The habits and manners of these
birds are similar, and their note is the same.—In further
confirmation of this change, I may add, that, in the autumn
of 1821, when upon a tour to the Highlands of Scotland,
I had an opportunity of examining two confined eagles at
Mar Lodge, the hunting-seat of the Earl of Fife. ‘They
were then about fourteen months old, having both been
taken from the same eyry the summer of the preceding
year. One of them had commenced moulting, and had al-
ready renewed several of its tail-feathers, which were
readily to be distinguished from the old rectrices, not only
by their freshness and gloss, but by the encroachment of
several ash and hair-brown spots upon the white caudal
band. <A sketch of the appearance it then exhibited was

FALCO CHRYSAETOS AND f. FULVUs. 4381

inade upon the spot, a copy of which accompanies these
remarks. The other had not begun to moult, and its
plumage answered the description of the Ring-tailed
Eagle. |

| nie, B, C, D; new feathers, shewing the encroachment of
the brown and ash coloured patches upon the white
- or upper half of the tail.

- M. Temmincx; in a note; also informs us, that he kept

_ two eagles of this kind in confinement for many years, both

of which underwent the gradual change of plumage, from

the Ring-tailed to the Golden Eagle. With such strong

and well authenticated facts, we must either believe that
: Ff£Q

432 OBSERVATIONS ON THE IDENTITY OF

the two supposed species constitute in reality but one, or
that the young of two distinct species, at first precisely.
similar m colour, appearance, and manners, differ in this.
respect, that, in the one, the white caudal band gradually.
gives place to a different arrangement of colours,—while,
in the other, it remains permanent’ and unaltered. No
direct evidence, however, has, to my knowledge, been ad-
vanced, to shew that this white ring is ever permanent; on
the contrary, every experiment hitherto instituted or made,
with living birds, proves that a gradual change 1s effected.
Ought we then to permit, the mere assertion of PENNANT,
or other writers, without a statement of the facts upon
which such assertion is founded, to outweigh evidence so
conclusive as that now advanced? ‘That the Ring-tailed
Eagle should appear to be more numerous in Britain than
the Golden Eagle, as Mr Witson asserts, and I believe to
be the case, cannot be a matter of surprise, if we consider
the number of young annually produced, and the period
that elapses before maturity is attamed, and that during
the slow progress to this state, or at least for the space of
two years, it may, by superficial observers, or where an
opportunity of close examination is not allowed, be con-
sidered. as a bird of : the ring-tailed species. We also. find
that young animals are seldom so wary or attentive to their
own preservation as adults, and are therefore more liable
to be shot or otherwise destroyed, and thus more frequently
come under examination, than those which, with age and
maturity, have acquired a superior degree of intelligence
and cunning. Young birds (particularly of the genus
Falco) are also generally driven from the place of their
birth by their parents, when. fully fledged, and able to
provide for themselves; and to this cause, I imagine, must
be attributed the wider and more general dissemination of
the Ring-tailed, compared with its parent the Golden
Eagle.

“FALCO CHRYSAETOS AND F. FULVUS. 433

With respect to Mr Witson’s remark, that although
the adult specimen of the Golden Eagle in the Sprunglian
Cabinet at Berne, appears to bear a close resemblance to
that in the Parisian Cabinet ; yet, that the supposed young
of this species in the latter collection, answering the descrip-
tion of the F. fudous, or Ring-tailed Eagle, is different from
the young of the Golden Eagle preserved by M. Srruneti,
I beg to suggest, that this specimen may perhaps be the
- Falco imperialis of Tremmincx, the F. mogilhik of authors,
—a bird which, in its mature state, closely resembles in
plumage the Golden Eagle, Ff’. chrysaétos. It is also called
Gold-adler by some of the German writers; and what in-
clines me to think that this may be the case, is, that Mr
Witson’s description of this young Golden Hagle, ap-
proaches very near to that given by M. Tremminckx of the
young Aisle imperial, Falco imperialis, or mogilhik. It
is therefore upon the evidence of ocular demonstration, and
the concurrent testimony of others who have made the like
experiments with living birds, that 1 ground my opinion
of the identity of the Golden and Ring-tailed Eagles; and
_ I venture to hope, that, in removing this Ring-tailed Eagle,
as well as the Sea Eagle (Falco ossifr agus), from the sta-
tion they occupy in the British Fauna, as distinct species,
I shall not incur the imputation of having done so, without
due consideration, or sufficient and satisfactory grounds,

ee,

434. MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

XXXIT.— Remarks on the different. Opinions
entertained regarding the specific Distinction,
or Identity, of the Ring-tailed and Golden
Fragles. | |

By James Witson, Esq. M. W.S. &c.
(Read 22d February 1823.)

Tuer question concerning the identity of the Ring-tailed
and Golden Eagles has been again entered into, and the
probability of such identity actually existing was maintained
and. illustrated by Mr SExy, a very skilful and zealous
ornithologist, in an interesting and ingenious paper lately
read to the Society. As such opinion is in opposition to
the one which I have adyocated at some length, in a paper
on certain species of the genus Falco, some years since
honoured by the Society with a place in the second volume
of its Memoirs, and as I still adhere to the sentiments which
I then expressed, I think it dye, as well te the mainte-
nance of my own opinion, as to the free spirit of discussion
which has always pervaded our inquiries, to state without
reserve what has occurred to me on Mr SELBY’s paper.

THE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 435

The state of opinion at present regarding these birds
seems to be as follows. ‘There are three theories on the
subject.

lst, The oldest, and probably most general opinion, is
that of their constituting two separate and distinct kinds,
hitherto distinguished by the names of the Golden and the
Ring-tailed Eagles (F'. chrysaétos and F. fulvus, Linn.)

2dly, There prevailed in France some time ago, and I
believe still exists in that country and elsewhere, an opinion
that these birds were not specifically distinct, but were
merely the adolescent and mature states of one and the
same species,—the Golden Eagle being considered as the
young of the Ring-tail, which latter was supposed to repre-
sent the plumage of the perfect bird. And,

Sdly, ‘There also prevailed a belief (now strengthened
by the concurrence of Mr Sexsy) similar to that last men-
tioned, in as far as these birds are considered as specifically
the same, but: differing in this, that the Ring-tailed Eagle
is considered as the young of the Golden Eagle, and not
as the parent of that supposed species.

Notwithstanding the arguments which have been brought
forward by Mr Sexzy and other competent judges, I still
_ continue te adhere to the first opinion, that which advocates
the distinction of the species, It will not of course be in-
sisted upon that I should assign particular proofs in sup-
port of my belief in this specific distinction, because the
opinion which I maintain is that which has been supported
by the whole mass of ornithological authorities from the
most remote periods of the science downwards, till within
these last few years, and therefore the onws proband may
fairly be supposed to fall on the other parties. Leaving,
therefore, for the present, the old opinion to stand its
ground till such time as it be disproved by positive facts,

436 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

‘established by a continued series of observations, I’ proceed
to state a few of those arguments which I think may fairly
be objected against the other more recent opinions,—and,

first, rekcutdleis that which maintains that the Golden Eagle
is the young of the Ring-tail. © | ;

' ‘The uncertainty which recently prevailed on 1 this point,

was the reason why more minute and careful attention was
bestowed upon it by some of the French ornithologists,
with whom I believe the doubt itself originated. In con-
‘sequence of this, the specimen of the Golden Eagle pre-
served in the aviary of the King’s Garden in Paris, was
particularly examined from time to time for a series of
‘years, but no change was perceived to take place sufficient
in any degree. to warrant the belief, that that species ever
passed into or assumed the plumage of the Ring-tail. The
specimen alluded to is now six or eight years old; and as.
no bird is known to require more than one-half of that pe-
riod to attain maturity, the French ornithologists have
naturally inferred, that had the individual under their in-
spection been destined to undergo such mutation at all, it
would have done so before now. Hence they conclude
that these species are distinct. Baron Cuvier, in referring
to this subject of dispute, affirms, “ Il y a meme des natu-
ralistes qui croient que PAigle Royal n’est qu’an jeune de
TAigle Commun; mais on en éléve un, depuis plusieurs
années a la menagerie, qui conserve toujours sa gucue bar-
rée de noir et de gris*.” Y need scarcely remark, that the
Aigle Royal and the A igle Commun of the French are sy-
“nonymous with the Golde en and Ring-tailed Eagles of the
English ornithologists.

* Note to the “ Regne Animal,” t. i. p. 314

THE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 437

- Besides the strongly-marked distinction -in the plumage
of the tail, the colour of the iris is usually different in these
birds, that of the Golden Eagle being yellow, that of the
Ring-tail hazel. ‘This character, I am aware, is subject to
_ variation; and I therefore mention it under the objection,
arising from: that’ uncertainty, which many may annex to
its value as a specific character. But it may fairly be ar-
gued, that every external character, taken singly, is subject
to exhibit: occasional discrepancies, and that this character
is as permanent, and therefore as valuable, as many others ;
not, to be sure, as a positive specific distinction viewed
singly, but yet asa very strong corroboration, when con-
sidered i in its generality, and as connected with other cir-
cumstances. It may be worth while, moreover, to consider
for a moment the nature, as well as the value, of this varia-
tion. There is no doubt, in the first place, of the fact, that
the colour of the iris in these birds is wswally different, the
Golden Eagle’s being, as I have stated, bright yellow, the
_ Ring-tail’s deep hazel. Now, if it can be shewn, that in
either of these, or m any other species, there is a regular
and customary change of the ins from one colour to an-
other taking place, like the changes in the colouring of the
. plumage, in consequence of an advaie to maturity, then
TI confess that the argument to be derived from a disagree-
ment in this character between the two birds in question
would be ereatly, if not altogether, invalidated. But I
maintain, that’ this imagined change does not take place,
or at least has never yet been ascertained, or even asserted
to take place, in consequence of an advance from youth to
age; that it is an accidental circumstance taking place
rarely, and irregularly, and not characteristic of, or in any
way connected with, a particular period of life.. It follows,
therefore, that this distinction, bemg usual between the
birds hitherto named the Golden and the Ring-tailed Eagles,

438 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

and yet not the result of a difference in age, may be re-
garded as of very considerable value in the discrimination
of the species, and adduced as a fair argument in proof of
their distinction.

I shall now refer to some more general considerations,
which I should deem of themselves sufficient to prove that
the Golden Eagle cannot be regarded as the young of the
Ring-tail.

In the British dominions, the Golden Eagle is, perhaps,
the rarest of the feathered tribe. ‘The Ring-tail, on the
contrary, though no where abundant, is yet sufficiently well
known, and is called the Black Eagle in the Scottish High-
lands, to distinguish it from the Great Erne, or Sea-Eagle,
the most numerous of the British aquiline birds. In Swit-
zerland, and among the Alps of Savoy, Northern Italy,
and the Tyrol, the Ring-tail is the most common species
of any; whereas the Golden Eagle continues to be there,
as it is with ourselves, a bird of comparatively rare occur-
rence. Now, it appears, I think, reasonable to conclude,
that if the Golden Eagle were merely the young of the
Ring-tailed Eagle, it would not only be as common as that
species, but much more so; because, if every pair of adult
Ring-tailed Eagles breed once in each season, and produce
two young at a brood, and if these young take three years
to attain their perfect plumage, it follows, that at the lapse
of every period of three years, there would be three pair of
young Golden Eagles for every single pair of adult Ring.
tailed Eagles which existed at the commencement of that
period,—in other words, that the Golden Eagle would be
at least. three times more common than the Ring-tailed one,
The reverse of this is, however, the case; the Ring-tailed
Eagle being not only three times, but probably six, or
eight, or even ten times more common than the Golden one.
How, then, can it be the parent of that species ?

° HE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 439

This terminates what I had to state in the way of objec-
tion to the second opinion. I come now to the third opie
nion (that of Mr Sexy), which reverses the preceding
one, and maintains that the Ring-tailed Eagle is not the
parent, but the young of the Golden Eagle. This view of
the subject accounts, to a certain extent, for the much
greater frequency of the one than the other, and in so far
it escapes the objection arising from the disparity in point
of numbers, which I deem insuperable in regard to the se-
cond opinion; but in every other respect I incline to view
it as even more mmprobable, or at least more inconsistent
with the known analogies, than that opinion itself.

In a small journal which I kept during a tour in Swit-
zerland a good many years ago, there are the following
notes on this subject, afterwards inserted in my remarks on
the genus Falco, and referred to in Mr SEtzy’s recent ob-
servations.

In the celebrated collection of Swiss birds, formed by
the late M. Sprunext of Berne, the specimen of the Golden
Eagle resembles in all respects that in the Parisian cabinet :
but the bird in the latter collection, supposed to be the
young of that species, by some of the French naturalists,
though described as a distinct species by preceding writers
on ornithology, under the name of F. fulvus, or Ring-
tailed Eagle, is not the same as the young of the Golden
Eagle preserved by M. Sprunext.

<< 'This, conjoined with some other circumstances, induces
me in this instance to doubt the accuracy of the Parisian
nomenclature.

_ Jn the Swiss specimen, which is known to be the young
of the Golden Eagle, the tail has no appearance of a ring
or band at the base. The feathers there are bluish-black,

barred with brown and ash colour, the overlying central
tail-feathers being likewise barred, but the ground colour

440 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

is brownish-black. ‘The bill is of a deep blue colour, darker
towards the tip. Cere and irides yellow. Head and neck
brown and tawny; the feathers long and pointed, and,
particularly towards the back of the neck and hinder part
of the head, tinged with bright ferruginous or rust colour.
The general colour of the plumage is dark-brown, with
shades of tawny and ferruginous. Quill-feathers of a cho-
colate colour, with white shafts. Legs yellow, large, and
feathered to the toes; toes large and scaly ; claws black.
It bears a close resemblance to the adult bird, but the fea-
thers on the thighs are lighter in colour, and spotted i irre
goss with sshiive!”

_ If the preceding décapuen be correctly taken, and if I
was not in error regarding the species from which I took
it, it would, of course, follow, that the Ring-tail is not the
young of the Golden Eagle, and Mr Sexsy’s opinion would
fall to the ground. Mr Se.sy, therefore, supposes that
the bird. in Sprune tr’ collection was the young, not of the
Golden Eagle, but of the Falco imperialis of 'Temmtncx.
This bird, I presume Mr SEtsy is aware, is one of re-
markably rare occurrence in Switzerland, and, mdeed, in
all the western and central parts of Europe. It is, in fact,
quite a southern species, having its centre of dominion in
Egypt, and along the coasts of Barbary. ‘The ground-
colour of all the inferior parts of the plumage in the young
bird is of a reddish-yellow, or what the French call Isabella-
colour. ‘The breast is spotted; but the throat, thighs, and
abdomen, are Isabella-colour, and quite immaculate. Se-
veral feathers of the scapularies are spotted with white,
and these in the adult bird become, as M. 'Temmincx ob-
serves, @un blanc Bur
“ It will be easy,” says the author of the Manuel dOr-
_ nithologie, “to distinguish the Imperial from the Royal or
Golden Eagle, by the preceding characters, especially by

THE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 441%

Ne

| the beautiful white scapulary feathers of the old Imperial
Eagle, which are always wanting in the golden one. As to
the young of these two species, they are so dissimilar in the
colours of their plumage, that it is impossible ¢ ever to con-
| found them*.” 2
Had Mr Srxsy himself seen the specimen in the Sprun-

ghian cabinet, from which I took my description, and had

he been then of opinion that it was the young of the Falco

|
|

_ imperialis, his extensive experience, and the general value

of his sentiments on such subjects, would have caused me

_ some hesitation in admitting the nomenclature even of the —
_ well-practised ornithologist of Berne; but having shewn,
by the testimony of M. Temmincx, that there is no likeli-
hood of the one being ever confounded with the other, I

am free to confess, that I think it very improbable that I
should have been mistaken in this instance, although such
_a mistake would certainly suit the views of those who
maintain the identity of the Ring-tailed and Golden Eagles,
. All I can add on this point is, that the specimen described
| by me was believed and asserted te be the young of the
_ Golden Eagle by those who had spent their lives in the
| mountainous districts of Berne, and other central parts of
the Swiss Alps, where these ‘species, whether distinct or
otherwise, are at least as well known as they can be in any
| other part of the world. ‘There was no specimen of the
| Falco imperialis itself; nor did I ever hear any thing said
or hinted regarding either the occurrence of that bird in
| the territory of Berne, or the liability of confounding its
_ young with those of either of the other two.
_ The observations made by Mr Szxsy are certainly ‘il
|| deserving the attention of ornithologists, and, together with

* Ti. p. 40.

442 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

those of Temmrncx, they at least shew that certain ano-
malous changes of plumage take place, either occasionally
or usually, of which preceding naturalists were not aware.
But the following simple fact, which Iam able to state,
both from personal observation, and the coneurrent testi-
mony of those who have passed the greater part of their
lives in the spot alluded to, and its neighbourhood, would
of itself be sufficient to prevent my drawing the same con-
clusion as that at which Mr Sexsy has arrived. In Jura,
one of the Western Isles, there are two species of eagle in-
habiting the least accessible of the cliffs. These are the
great Sea-Eagle or Erne, and the Ring-tail, of which the
latter is the rnore numerous. But no bird in the plumage
of the Golden Eagle has been found there that I can learn;
within the memory of man. The mature Ring-tail 1s
known to haunt and breed there every season; and may
often be seen by the tourist or the sportsman soaring im
magnificent circles above its ancient eyrie. Further, in the
Fauna Orcadensis of the Reverend Georcr Low, an ac-
curate and interesting volume, made public some years ago
by Dr Leacu, I find thie following hotice of the Ring-tailed
Fagle. “The great characters which distinguish this from
other species of eagles are, a large broad band of white,
which encompasses the root of the tail; the legs, which are
feathered to the very feet; and m some (which perhaps
may be the young) the head is hoary. It 1s of a large size,
and very frequent in the hills, where it makes its nest in
the rocks, which is often placed within reach, and, when
this is the case, always becomes a prey to destruction.
These birds are very strong, and make vast havock (in
breeding-time especially} among lambs, young and old
swine, which they often destroy in the mountains, rabbits,
and poultry. A clergyman some time ago told me, he met
with one of them mounted in the air, with a pretty large

Rte

HE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES: 443

pig in her talons, which she dropt alive upon his firing at
her. We have even a tradition here of an eagle’s having
taken up a child from behind some reapers, in the parish
of Orphir, and carried it to her nest in Hoy; but by the
assiduity of the people; who immediately followed her, the
child was rescued unhurt *.”

The Work from which the preceding extract is taken,
was executed by one who passed more than twenty years
in the Orkney Islands, and who, possessed of more than
usual zeal for the study of natural history; and encouraged
by the friendship and patronage of Mr Pennant and
Sir Josreru Banks, was anxious to render the result of his
observations as complete and comprehensive as possible.
But there is no mention whatever made of the Golden Eagle
as an inhabitant of the Island of Hoy, or any of the Ork-
ney Islands. :

. The well-known circumstance of the extreme attachment
of old eagles to the places of their accustomed incubation,
and the fact alluded to by Mr Sexsy, of their driving off
their young to shift for themselves elsewhere, as soon as
sufficiently fledged, would, of course, in these instances of
Jura and Hoy, increase, instead of diminishing, the pro-
bability of encountering the mature and perfect bird, rather
than the young+. I am altogether unable to account for

* The same story is told in a somewhat different manner by Sir Rozert
Sipsaxp in his Scotia Illustrata.

+ I hope I shall be excused for transcribing in a note the following fine
description of the above-mentioned trait in the character of the parent eagle,
It is by Tuomsox, whom Pennant used to call the Naturalist’s Poet.

High from the summit of a craggy cliff,
Hung o’er the deep, such as amazing frowns
On utmost Kilda’s shore, whose lonely race
Resign the setting sun to Indian worlds,

444. \iR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

this circumstance of the non-occurrence of the olden Eagle |
upon Mr Sexsy’s theory. | )
Reasoning from analogy, we chould ezpit quite a dif.
ferent succession of colours from that which is presumed
regularly to take place by those who coincide in Mr SeLBy’s
opinion. For example, in the case of the Sea Eagle, and
the White-tailed Eagle, so long described as distinct ‘spe-
cies, but now ascertained and ye to be the same, we
find that those with the brown tail are the young, and that —
the great proportion of white, which is afterwards assumed,
is the characteristic mark of the matured species. And in
his description of the Falco imperialis, still more nearly
allied to the Golden Eagle, M. Tzemmrncx writes as fol-
lows: ‘Les individus un peu-plus avancés en age, ont des
teintes plus foncées ; le blanc sur quelques-unes des plumes
scapulaires est plus marqué, et quelques plumes noiratres
et dun brun jfoncé, paraissent sur toutes les parties du
corps.” Indeed, I believe that although no general prin-
ciple has hitherto been formally established on the subject by
ornithologists, yet most of those who are conversant in the |
general changes of plumage will admit, that a change from

- The Royal Eagle draws his vigorous young,
Strong pounc’d, and ardent with paternal fire. -
Now fit to raise a kingdom of their own,

He drives them from his fort, the towering seat
For ages of his empire; which in peace -
Unstain’d he holds, while many a league at sea
He wings his course, and preys in distant isles.

The circumstance alluded to, of the old eagle driving its young to adis-
tance, whether it is as true as Tuomson has rendered it poetical, is consist-
ent withearly observation. It is related by Puiny: ‘ Adultos persequitur
parens, et longé fugat, amulos scilicet rapine. Et alioqui unum par aqui-
Jarum magno ad populandum tractu, ut satietur, indiget.’ See Dr Arkin’s
Essay on the Application of Poetry to Natural Hisisty. § +

!

THE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 445

one or move pure, unmixed, and distinctly expressed
colours, into those of an obscure, ill-defined, and mixed
nature, is in opposition to. all the known facts from which
any thing like a general principle could be evolved. Now,
the change maintained to take place by Mr SExsy is a
change from a pure and unmingled black and white, to a
mingled combination of black, brown, ferrugmous, and asls
colour.

I believe, that if any one general law regulates the
changes in the plumage of birds, it is this, ‘That if any
given species exhibits, in an important part of its plumage,
a combination of comparatively obscure shades of black,
brown, dusky, ferruginous, and other colours, intermingled
with each other, and, if other individuals of the same spe-
cies exhibit the like iraportant parts.of their plumage, com-

- posed, not of these obscure and mingled colours, but of

two simple and strongly contrasted colours, such as black
and white, we may, with as much certainty as any induc-.
tive process warrants, infer, that the combined and less
distinct colours belong to the immature,—whilst the purer,

_ unmixed, and more strongly contrasted colours, adorn the
| parent birds. This I look upon as a law of Nature = it is
a general truth, derived: from the consideration of common
| properties in individual facts, and is- therefore a: legitimate
induction. For the sake of those who may not have con-
_vinced themselves of this fact from observation, and who

may naturally enough feel disinclined to rest their belief

upon a mere assertion, I beg leave to mention a few ex-
| amples which at once occur to me out of the numerous
‘instances: which a special investigation of the subject would

bring to light, in confirmation of the rule. In all the fol-
lowing species, there are important parts of the plumage
which change from various obscure shades of brown, dusky,

VOL. IV. Gg

446 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY OF

and ferruginous, to simple and distinct bands or portions
of black and white, or into one or other of these two; viz.
the Sea-Eagle, the Peregrine Falcon, the Goshawk, the
Hen-harrier, several Butcher-birds, several Fly-catchers,
the Grey Wagtail, the Pied Wagtail, the common Spar-
row, the Goldfinch, the Black-headed Bunting, the Black-
bird, and the Ring-ouzel, exclusive of almost the whole
tribe of Gulls, Mergansers, and many other aquatic fowls.
Now, the change assumed to take place by Mr Spy is in
exact opposition to these and many other instances; for, if
his idea be correct, the broad black and white bands of the
tail, which have hitherto (independent of all general rea-
soning) been considered as the chief mark by which to dis-
tinguish the Ring-tail from the Golden Eagle, are merely
the characters of immaturity, and are parted with at an
after period, and their place supplied by the more obscure
and clouded colours already referred to.

A mature bird is generally characterised by the depth
and clearness of its colours, by their greater contrast when
different, and their greater uniformity of hue when the
same. But the Ring-tail (the supposed young) is much
darker and more uniform in its general plumage than the
Golden Eagle; and the broad and strongly contrasted
bands of black and white on the tail form apparently a
very distinguishing character, and one which, according to
PENNANT, it maintains in all its stages, and in every coun-
try where it is found. The difference in the colour of the
iris, too, if a valid objection at all, is of course equally
available against the opinion which I am now contesting,
as it was against the one previously discussed. I may add,
that, as far as my limited reading enables me to judge, the
geographical distribution of the Ring-tail is considerably
more extended (at least in a northerly direction) than that

THE RING-TAILED AND GOLDEN EAGLES. 447

of the Golden Eagle, the former stretching as far as Hud-
_ son’s Bay in Lat. 64° or 65°, the latter being confined within
the 56th or 57th degree *.

On the whole, I still feel inclmed to recur to the question
which I formerly put, while treating of this contested point :
If the birds in question were specifically the same, and sup-
posing the white band to be merely the colour of immatu-
rity, would not the individuals in the more advanced state
of plumage approximate more nearly to the adult bird, so
that by degrees all distinctions must be effaced, and they
could not be recognised but as one and the same? Where-
as, on the contrary, we find that the more perfect the
plumage of the bird becomes, the more apparent are those
characters which have hitherto entitled it to rank as a dis-
timet species, and that it is chiefly between the young of
the two species that there is any difficulty in discriminating.
In corroboration of this, I may mention the specimens in
the possession of the Duke of Buccleugh, one of which, it
may be in the recollection of some here present, I formerly
exhibited to the Society. Its plumage is of a deep clear
brown, like dark mahogany ; and its whole aspect, both in
respect to colour and condition, indicates a bird in what

* The Ring-tailed Eagle occurs in Northern Europe, at least as far as
Drontheim. According to Pautas, it also inhabits the highest rocks of the
Uralian Chain, where these are free from wood. ‘The independent Tartars
train it for the chace of hares, foxes, antelopes, and even wolves. This noble
amusement was observed by that curious traveller Marco Poto, while at
. the court of the Great Cham of Tartary, so far back as the year 1269. The
Tartars esteem the feathers of the tail as the best they have for pluming their
arrows. PENNANT, in describiug a northern specimen of this bird, observes,
‘¢ The tail is white, tipt with black; but in young birds dusky, blotehed with
white.” I have not been able to trace the Golden Eagle to any of the above
mentioned countries. See Leems, p. 233; M. Potro, in Purcuas’s Collec-
tion, t. iii, p. 85; and Pannant’s Arctic Zoology, vol. ii. p. 195.

GEA

448 MR WILSON ON THE SUPPOSED IDENTITY, &c.

may be called the prime of life. It has none of the irre-
gular lighter markings of the Golden Eagle, and its tail is
strongly barred with pure black and white.

I fear I have already occupied too much of the Society’s
time on this subject, which I certainly intended to have
discussed within narrower limits. I shall therefore con-
clude, by observing, that till such time as the reverse be
actually demonstrated by the taking of a young bird from
the nest or eyrie of a breeding Ring-tail, and the sub-
sequent transmutation into the plumage of the Golden
Fagle actually proved by the continued observation of the
same individual, and, also, until the circumstance of certain
highland districts and islands being inhabited by one of the
alleged varieties, and not by the other, be satisfactorily ex-
plained and accounted for, I shall certamly prefer adher-.
ing to the old opinion, that the Ring-tailed and Golden
Eagles form two distinct species.

PLATE. XII.

Lng? far the Wern.Memotrs Vol]

MARK YARW OOD

S

N

Ss

SS
~

2~SS\
FrRNRzAZF}RRSS

—=.
SSS

NS

Etched by WHLizars from a kinished Drawtng by MI Thestindt,Manchester.

( 449 )

XX XIT.—On the Natural Expedients resorted
to by Marx Yarwoop, a Cheshire Boy, te
supply the Want which he has sustained from

. Birth, of his Fore-Arms and Hands.

By S. Hiszert, M.D. F.R.S.E. M.W.S. &c.

(Read 11th January 1823.)

—_
Berore entering on the narrative which I beg leave
to submit to the Society, I shall venture to make a few
general observations relative to cases of organic privation.
In describing the means employed by any individual ‘to
remedy the loss of certain organs of the body, I consider
* that the term natural expedients ought to be used in con-
tradistinction to the mechanical or artificial devices which
may be resorted to with the same object in view: for, while
the devices termed mechanical are produced by the improve-
ments of science, or the requisitions of civilized society; those
expedients, on the contrary, which may be strictly compre-
- hended under the designation of natural, are such as would
first suggest themselves to man in the untaught infancy of
life, or would be adopted by him, to the exclusion of arti-
ficial contrivances, in a savage state. In fact, they are
exertions of certain organs of the body substituted for other
parts, the object of which 1s to compensate for the priva-

450 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

tion which may have occurred ;—these nearly instinctive
efforts being, at the same time, aided by an admirable law
of our frame, by which it is ordained, that whenever, either
from choice or necessity, the imcreased energies of any
particular organ are required, a corresponding and extra-
ordinary degree of ability in accomplishing the motions re-
quired, is the undeviating consequence.

I need not remind the Society that there are on record
several cases of individuals, who, having sustained from
birth a complete privation of their arms, have rendered
their toes such excellent substitutes for fingers, that, with
these members, they have executed works of art, such as
are ranked amongst the most difficult of manual operations.
It is also no less remarkable, that these persons, although
existing at different intervals of time, and dwelling in dif-
ferent parts of the globe, should, m the course of remedying
their deficiency, have severally availed themselves of similar
natural expedients.* - In judging, then, from these in-
stances, it would appear that a more than common in-
crease of skill in the use of the toes, ought to be considered
as a result constantly attending the total loss of both
arms; for which reason, it may not appear too trivial an
employment, if we endeavour to ascertain the resources to °
which a human being may have been urged, who has sus-
tained from birth a privation of the arms rather less than
that of the imstances cited, being of such a kind, that,
instead of taking place immediately below the shoulder
joints, it has commenced from the elbows. An instance,
however, where the fore-arms and hands have been wanting
from birth, and the stumps of the ossa humeri brought into
action, may be deemed as of the rarest description ; only

* A few of these cases, which I have collected, are subjoined as an Ap-
ypendix to this Memoir.

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 451

one case of the kind having ever, I believe, been com-
municated to the public *: on which account, I flatter my-
self that this narrative, respecting a boy thus circum-
stanced, whom I accidentally met with, in the course of the
last autumn, at an ebscure village in England, may not
prove wholly uninteresting. We shall at least learn from
this instructive example, that the mere stumps of the ossa
humeri are not only capable of being applied to the great-
est use, but that, admirably as the hands are constructed
for the exigencies of man, their total loss, even though the
toes should not be required to act as their substitutes, 1s
by no means irremediable.

Marx Yarwoop, the subject of the present memoir, 1s
the son of poor, but respectable, parents, dwelling at Ash-
ley, a small village, included in the parish of Bowden,
in Cheshire. He was born without fore-arms and hands;
has arrived at the age of twelve; and is now a fine, stout,
healthy-looking boy, of a lively and cheerful temper, and
good disposition. On each of the ossa humeri there are
prominences which bear a faint resemblance, in their ap-
pearance and situation, to those of the external condyles,
whence two prolongations, one on each arm, may be ob-
served, which are slightly bent inwards; neither of them, how-
ever, is much more than an mch in length, while that of the
left limb is perhaps about a quarter of an inch longer than
the one which terminates the right os hwmeri+-. (See Plate

* The case of a German, mentioned in p. 459 of this volume, and com-
municated to the Society by Ginspert Innes, Esq. upon the occasion of
reading this paper.

+ The measurement cf the Ossa humeri arid their projections, sent me by
a medical friend since drawing up this Memoir, may be stated as follows ; it
being necessary previously to remark, that the distance between the nearest

452 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

XIII.) As the bones of these prolongations feel as af they
were bifid at their extremities, they might probably be each
considered as the scanty rudiments, or even relics, of an
ulna and radius; while their firm and immoveable junction
with the ossa humert might be mterpreted as the result-of
a process of.anchylosis. But this view, though calculated
to serve the purpose of anatomical description, meets with
little countenance from physiology ; there is not the least
indication that a joint ever existed, nor are there any signs
of demarkation between the ossa humeri and the short
processes which form their respective terminations.*

We may now consider the importance of these projecting
additions to the length of the ossa humeri, which almost
indicate, that Nature, in meditating the formation of an
ulna anda radius, had, from some inexplicable cause, been
abruptly thwarted in her .design. ‘Though projecting
scarcely above an inch, these processes, by more effectually
enabling the stumps to come into close junction, convert
them into no mean organs of prehension, and supersede the
necessity of exclusively usmg the toes as substitutes for
hands. 'Vhere is also another circumstance to be noticed
in the censtruction of the arms, which has its distinct use: —
while the extremity of the right limb 1s well protected with
muscles and cellular substance, that of the left limb, which
has been described as a little longer than its fellow, is but

‘points of the spinous processes of the scapule is 74 inches. Length of the
right arm 7 ; inches ; lesser length of the projection 3 inch; greater length
1} inch. Lengthi of the left arm 73 inches; lesser length of the projection
finch ; greater length 14 inch. A general notion of the ossa‘humeri and
their appendages, maybe obtained by a reference to the engraved outlines
of his portrait, which are taken from a finished and well-executed portrait
-of him by Mr Tuomas Hunt of Manchester.

* The mother attributes the loss which her son has sustained from birth
.to.a.fall she received during gestation. The labour was.a natural one.

ao od

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 453

thinly covered with an integument of skin. It may be
readily conceived what great advantage the boy would
take of this peculiarity. Any solid substance which he
purposes to carry, is, by the bony and unyielding extremi-
ty. of the left stump, so pressed against the fleshy cushion
that invests the termination of the right limb, as to form
for its reception a hollow or bed. By this simple contri-
vance, substances of almost any shape, whether angular
or spherical, are equally well retained in their situation.
Nor is the strength and activity with which the lad wields
his stumps less worthy of attention; his play - fellows
being well aware how able he is to defend himself with
them, and how severe a blow they are capable of inflicting.
Lastly, in describing the peculiar formation of these limbs,
I may remark, that, at their abrupt terminations, there 1s
the same curved or waving configuration of the cuticle,
which so peculiarly distinguishes the apices of the fingers ;
and, consistently with this appearance, the boy affords, on
all occasions, the most ample proofs, that the extremities
of his stumps are gifted with a sensibility and accuracy of
touch, by no means inferior to that degree of delicacy which
physiologists have conceived to be peculiar to the structure
of the hands. _

_ When I first saw Mark Yarwocd, he was actively en-
gaged at a well-known school-game with the boys of his vil-
lage. He took up a common marble, and with a conjunct
mction of the muscles of the arms, seldom failed to hit,
with the greatest dexterity, the mark at which he aimed.
He has, indeed, the reputation of being the best marble-
player in the school. It is, however, evident, that the
united effort of the two stumps can, at the utmost, exer-
cise the function of only one hand. The lad’s ingenuity
is, therefore, continually on the alert in forming devices
for the execution of projects, which, in others, require the

A544 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

active exertions of all the fingers. For instance, when I
proposed to him to thread a small needle, he immediately
undertook the task, but rendered the labour far less
complex and difficult, by previously availing himself of a
very artful expedient. After delicately pressmg the small
instrument between the stumps, he lifted it up, and stuck
the point of it into the felt of a hat, so as to fix it steadily
in a vertical position. He then directed his attention to
the thread: retained it im like manner between the extre-
mities of the stumps; rubbed it with them, as the good
housewife would with her finger and thumb, making
it taper to a pomt, and, after this simple preliminary step,
the task did not appear difficult to insinuate the silk through
the small eye of the needle,—an operation which the lad
accomplished on the first trial.

Most of the labours which occupied the attention of
Mark Yarwood, were not, however, to be achieved without
pressing into service other organs of the body, the na-
tural expedients of the boy being necessarily included in
their combined aid. This is, indeed, an inference which
cannot fail to arise, when it is kept m view that the
stumps, like a solitary instrument of prehension, can, when
brought into mutual contact, do nothing more than exe-
cute the functions of a single thumb and the four fingers
that act as its antagonists. In describing, then, the aid
imparted to the ossa humeri, when motions were demand-
ed, which in other individuals must require the con-
currence of two hands, it may be readily conceived,
that the various organs connected with the mouth would
be among the most prompt of such auxiliaries. When, for
instance, a substance is presented to Mark Yarwood, of
such a shape as to require some particular adjustment be-
fore it can be taken up, it is, if not too large, first seized
by the lips or teeth, preparatory to its being placed on

THE WANT-OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 455

the surface formed by the soft integuments of the mght
stump. It is then, as usual, preserved in its position by the
pressure of the bony extremity of the left defective limb.
The lad was requested by one of my friends to receive a
sixpence, purposely exposed. before him on the open hand.
After placing the extremity of his right arm on the edge of
one side of the palm, and with his left limb removing the
piece of silver to the position necessary for receiving it be-
tween the two stumps, his next object was to transfer the
coin to his mouth. Here it was for a few moments retained,
until he had inserted one of his stumps within his waistcoat-
pocket, which being opened for the purpose very wide, al-
lowed the money to fall into it from his lips. In the ope-
ration, however, of tying a common bow, every organ con-
nected with the mouth is employed. As the occasion may
require, either one extremity of the string with which the
knot is to be made, or the two ends of a double, are fixed
between the teeth. ‘That flexible member, the tongue, as-
sumes, by its guidance and gentle pressure, the functions
of a finger, being employed to pass one thong under an-
other. 'This office of the tongue having been executed,
either of the two extremities of the string, or either of the
two doubles that may have been formed, is caught and
retained by the stumps; and when, after one string or
double has been received between the teeth, and another
between the stumps, it is necessary that they should be
pulled in opposite directions from each other, a synchro-
nous and corresponding motion of the head and the ossa
humeri soon complete the task. All these complex motions
incidental to the formation of the knot, are performed with
such celerity and adroitness, that it requires the utmost at-
tention to trace the work in its progress.

In many operations, the chin is an organ of no small im-
portance. ‘The lad, in undertaking to stir up the coals

456 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

within a common fire-grate, pressed the poker between
his stumps at about a middle distance from the extremity
of it; he next pressed the head of this lever under his chin,
with the view of finding for it a fulerum. Assisted by this
expedient, he easily insinuated the point of the poker be-
tween the bars, and, while the defective limbs acted as the
moving power, the office was performed with as much agi-
lity as it would have been by any individual possessed of
both his hands.

On ‘a similar principle may be explained the mode in
which Mark Yarwood contrives to feed himself. The
handle of the spoon with which he eats, being passed a
little way between the coat-sleeve and the arm, is pressed
downwards by the application of the left stump; at the
same time, the extremity of the handle meets with some re-
sistance in the hollow caused by the short-bending process
that terminates the ossa humeri, by which means the im-
plement is steadied in its position; it is then plunged into
the trencher, and, when filled, is instantly elevated, for the
purpose of meeting the lips. Occasionally, however, the
boy varies his mode of using the spoon; the stumps se-
cure it by the middle of the handle, while the extremity of
the haft is steadied by being pressed against the lower edge
of the malar or cheek bone.

But besides calling in the services of the organs connected
with the mouth, together with the chin, and even cheek-
bone, to aid the stumps, it 1s easy to conceive that, im so
general a requisition, the knees would not be forgotten. Ac-
cordingly, these last mentioned organs are very frequently
employed to close upon such substances as are of larger
bulk than the teeth can secure, or, in reference to their low
situation, to otherwise aid the objects which may happen
to engage the labour of the stumps. When, likewise, it is
considered, that the ossa humeri, though fully extended,

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 457 -

cannot reach to the soles of the feet, we shall not be sur-
prized that the feet and toes also should be occasionally
ealled upon to do their quota of duty for their absent bre-
thren, the fingers. ‘Thus, when the lad has occasion to
dress, he finds it necessary, before he can insinuate ei-
ther leg into a stocking, to open the orifice by means of the
other foot. This preliminary step being accomplished, he
is then enabled by means of his toes, assisted even with the
teeth, to drag up the stocking to the necessary height.
Such are the natural expedients resorted to by Mark
Yarwood, with the view of obviating a privation, which no
one laments less than himself“ I do not wish to have
hands,” said the contented little fellow, with much pride and
naiveté, ‘as I have never known the use of them, nor have
I ever felt the loss of them.”—It cannot be concealed, how-
ever, that he is not so entirely independent, as he would
conceive himself to be, of the manual offices of the friends
by whom he is surrounded. Thus, for instance, in dress-
mg himself, the act of buttoning has hitherto eluded his
utmost skill. Yet many of the operations which have hi-
therto baffled his ingenuity, might be easily surmounted by
artificial means, the expence of which, it is to be regretted,
his parents can little afford. It may, therefore, be hoped,
that the opulent individuals of the neighbourhood in which
the youth resides, and by whom the astonishing expedients
he uses cannot fail to have been often witnessed, may feel
such an interest in his case, as to assist him in increasing
those resources to which he has been hitherto most happily
prompted by Nature herself.
. The last information I have to communicate relative to
the case of Mark Yarwood, concerns his education. He
was placed some time ago at the National School be-
longing to the extensive parish of Bowden, with the
view of being merely taught to read. But about nine

458 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

months ago, he was removed to the neighbouring town
school of Hale, conducted by Mr Crampton, under whom
he made rapid progress; and the lad is now able, with
very little help, to read a chapter in the Bible. The most
interesting incident, however, in his education remains yet
to be stated. His teacher, a well-informed and humane
man, being soon interested in the case of his pupil, whom
he found very tractable, and observing how successfully he
could find a substitute for hands, soon conceived the possi-
bility of instructing his pupil to write, and the attempt has
been crowned with complete success. ‘The manner in which
he performs the operation is as follows. The paper is fixed
to the table by means of a small weight. ‘The boy first
seizes the pen with his teeth, from which, by his own un-
assisted dexterity, it is lodged, in a proper position, on the
soft integuments of the right stump, and retained, as usual,
by the pressure of the left; then, by a conjoined mo-
tion of both arms, but more particularly by the guidance
of the left arm, the pen is drawn along the paper with most
remarkable facility. ‘The advancement the boy has made,
after a tuition of six months, is very surprising; it rivals,
if it do not surpass, the proficiency of such of his com-
rades as are of equal age with himself, or who have had
the same opportunity of instruction.

The Society, in examining the specimen of Mark Yar-
wood’s penmanship, which I beg leave to submit to them,
will, no doubt, be of opinion, that, among the various means
of which Mark Yarwood has availed himself, to obtain,
from his limited means, the effect of operations which have
ever been considered as strictly manual, the most import-
ant acquirement is that of his being able to write; and,
that this art may, under his peculiar circumstances, be
so perfected as to render him essential service in his
pursuits of life, is a very reasonable anticipation. But

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 459

if any doubt exist on this subject, it may be removed
by the very interesting case, mentioned in this Society,
relative to a German, born in the year 1674, who, to
the loss of fore-arms and hands, added even that of
the feet. This individual visited Edinburgh about a cen-
tury ago, and attracted the attention of many scientific men,
among whom was Mr Rozrert Stewart, then filling
the chair of the professorship of Natural Philosophy. 'This
is the only account of a privation similar to that of the
Cheshire boy, which has come to my knowledge; and I
reeret not being yet able to find any narrative of the man’s
habits on record. In the possession, however, of GILBERT
Innes, Esq. of Stow, the gentleman to whom the Society
has been indebted for this information, there are some
exquisite specimens of penmanship, accomplished by this
German, with the stumps of the ossa humeri alone. With
a pen he has very minutely drawn the plan of an air-pump,
the solar and lunar systems, and the anatomy of the ear
and eye. 'These sketches, being all contained in the same
sheet of paper, have their vacant places supplied with seve-
ral apposite Greek and Latin quotations, most beautifully
written; and the whole being surrounded with an elegant
border, executed likewise with a pen. Another production
of penmanship, which is cn vellum, comprises the Ten
Commandments, the Creed, and the Lord’s Prayer, writ-
ten in such fine and diminutive characters, as not to be
read without the aid of a powerful magnifying glass. These
are, as in the other specimen, included within a very deli-
- cately sketched margin.

But to return from this digression to Mark Yarwood.—
When I was in Cheshire, his schoolmaster, im a conver-
sation which I had with him relative to the views of life
that might be intended for his pupil, conceived that he
would scarcely be able to undertake the care of some vil-

460 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

lage-school, as a great obstacle to such a design was his in-
ability to make a pen. ‘This impediment, however, the
boy’s natural genius has since surmounted; and I have
now the pleasure of communicating to the Society the mode
in which this process of pen-making is accomplished, as it
has been described to me in the letter of a medical friend.*
The lad places the quill between his knees, the barrel up-
wards; then, with a knife held between bis stumps, cuts
off the end, and, forcing the blade within the barrel,
makes the slit. He next cuts away due portions from
each side of the quill, the direction of the parings being from
below upwards, unti! a point is formed. He, lastly, places
the pen on a flat surface of some hard substance, by which
means he is enabled to perform with ease the usual finish-
ing act of snipping off the point. The boy is so proud of
this latest acquirement of pen-making, that he has sent me
two specimens of his art, and a letter written with a pen
made by himself. (See Plate XIV. for a. fac-simile of his
writing.)

I have at length concluded my account of the Cheshire
boy, most of the circumstances narrated having been the
result of a short conference I had with him, during which
period I induced him to perform, by the means in his
power, as many manual operaiions as I could then think
of, which, in other individuals, were of the most complex
nature}. Since visiting him, however, a few additional
trials, which might have been made of his abilities, occur-
red to me, that would illustrate still farther the expedients

* Mr Jorpan, surgeon, Manchester.

+ I was for many days residing at Hale Barns Green, situated within a
mile of the place where Mark Yarwood lived, but it was only my good
fortune to see him the day before I left the neighbourhood.

Ling tor the Werm Memoirs TAMP 460,

PLATE. XIV.

Cr?

etter to Dr lthbert tron Mark Farwood, a bey
72 vears of age bore without forearms and hands.

Hacsimele ol a

WH Lezars Scudp!

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 46]

he had recourse to, in order to compensate for his natural
loss. I accordingly requested the assistance of my intelli-
gent and respected friend, Mr Jorpawn, surgeon, and lec-
turer on anatomy in Manchester, whose obliging and effi-
cient exertions I have much pleasure in acknowledging.
He was so struck with the various modes in which the lad
contrived to remedy the defects of nature, that, for the
purpose of completing his cbservations upon them, he ad-
mitted the boy as an inmate of his house for several days.
I am thus happy to think, that the case of Mark Yarwood
will, in the neighbourhood where he resides, meet with
that attention which science, conjoined with humanity, may
render of material advantage to the poor lad, in reference
to the particular profession of life for which he may be in-
tended. This object, if properly selected, cannot fail to give
him much farther opportunity of improving his great na-
tural resources.

I shall not detain the Society with more observa-
tions on this remarkable boy, farther than in hoping, that,
of the importance of recording such mstances of organic
privation, there will be but one opinion. To the truly
philosophic mind such cases can never fail to be acceptable :
the physiologist will learn from them the ample means
which a benevolent Providence has afforded to certain indi-
viduals, that they may remedy privations from birth, which
common opinion has considered as irreparable; he will
learn from such sources of information, that whenever the
loss, from birth, of any particular organ of the body takes
place, certain expedients, from the increased exertions of
other parts of the body, will follow, with all the definite
certainty which is assigned to a regular cause and effect.
It 1s for this reason, that the record of every varied case
of organic privation inseparably connects itself with the
natural history of Man.

VOL. IV. Hh

402 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

APPENDIX...

Cases referred to in page 450, of Individuals completely de-
proved of their Arms from the Shoulder-joints, in which
it 1s shewn, that, under such circumstances, the natural
Expedients they made use of, to obviate that loss, con-
sisted in the nearly exclusive use of their Feet and Toes.

Or the first of these cases, I find but a very scanty notice,
in a scarce folio work, entitled, “ A complete History of
the most remarkable Providences, both of Judgment and
Mercy, by William Turner, M. A.” Under the head of
“¢ Wonderful Shapes,” &c., there is the following passage:
~—°* We have seen,” saith ALEXANDER BENEDIcTUs, “a
woman born without arms, that: could spin and sew with
her feet.”

The second case which has come to my knowledge, is
that of a woman born without arms, who exhibited herself
in England about twenty-five or thirty years ago. She
executed with her toes many curious specimens of needle-
work, cut out watch-papers, and wrote in a very beautiful
style.

The third case was obligingly pointed out to me by a
gentleman, as it occurs in the Calcutta Journal of 1st No-

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 463

vember 1821. The narrative is so curious, that I beg leave
to subjoin it at length.

“ Case of Witi1am Kineston, born without arms or
hands.

—‘T went to Ditcheat last Monday, and the next morn-
ing got him to breakfast with me at Mr GoopFEeLtLows.
He highly entertained us, by putting his naked feet upon
the table as he sat, and carrying his tea and toast between
his great and second toe to his mouth, with as much facility
as if his foot had been a hand, and his toes fingers. I put
half a sheet of paper upon the floor, with a pen and ink-
horn. He threw off his shoes as he sat, took the inkhorn
in the toes of his left foot, and held the pen in those of his
right. He then wrote three lines as well as most ordinary
writers, and as swiftly. He writes all his own bills and
other accounts. He then shewed us how he shaved himself
with his razor in his toes; and he can curl his own hair.
He can dress and undress himself, except buttoning his
clothes. He feeds himself, and can bring both his meat or
broth to his mouth, by holding the fork or spoon in his
toes. He cleans his own shoes, can clean the knives, heht
the fire, and do almost any other domestic business as well
as any other man. He can make hen-coops. He is a farmer
by occupation. He can milk his cows with his toes; and
cuts his own hay, binds it up in bundles, and carries it
about the field for his cattle. Last week he had eight hei-
fers constantly to fodder. This last summer he made all
-his own hay-ricks. He can do all his business of the hay-
field (except mowing) as fast and as well with his feet, as
others can with rakes and forks. He goes to the field and
catches his horse ; he saddles and bridles him with his teeth
and toes. If he has a sheep among his flock that ails any
thing, he can separate it from the rest, drive it into a cor-

Hh 2

464 NATURAL EXPEDIENTS FOR SUPPLYING

ner, when nobody else can; he then examines it, and ap-
plies a remedy to it. He is so strong in his teeth, that he
can lift ten pecks of beans with them. He can throw a
great sledge-hammer as far with his feet as other men can
with their hands. Ina word, he can nearly do as much
without, as others can with their arms. ee

‘¢ He began the world with a hen and chickens; with
the profit on them he purchased an ewe; the sale of these
procured a ragged colt (as he termed it) and a sheep; and
he now occupies a small farm.”

The fourth and last case that I have heard of, I extract
from a Dumfries paper, dated 10th December 1822, pre-
mising, however, that, from personal inquiry, I am given
to understand that it 1s authentically reported.

—‘* There is at present in Belfast, an ingenious young
man, named Roger Branaen, who was born without
arms, and is of course devoid of hands, which may be just-
ly classed amongst the most useful members of the human
frame. His feet, however, serve him in their place, and
enable him to perform various operations, for which, at first
view, he would appear wholly incapacitated. He has been
seen opening out, with his toes, a closed pen-knife, with
which he trimmed a quill, and made an excellent pen, in a
very short space of time. He can write rapidly and dis-
tinctly, his small letters being well formed, and his capitals
cut with taste and ease. It is surprismg with what expedi-
tion he can thread needles, and even tie a knot at the ex-
_tremity of the thread with nearly as much facility as the
most practised sempstress. He can darn his own stockings,
and twist the thread or worsted line which he uses for that
purpose to the proper degree of thickness. Branagh can
row in a boat with singular energy, though it must be
confessed his attitudes are more unique than graceful. On

THE WANT OF FORE-ARMS AND HANDS. 465

such occasions he leans his back against the stern, and one
foot on one of the seats, so as to keep the oar, which he
propels with the other, in due position. With boys he can
play at marbles, and clear the ring with remarkable skill,
his big toe bulking, as the phrase is, his taw to the mark
with the precision of an air-gun. He can conyey his food
to his mouth with his toes, and is by no means deficient as
acarver. Neither is he a timid equestrian, but can even
drive a cart or carriage. ‘The reins, on such occasions, are
placed round his body, and by moving to and fro, to the
right or to the left, he so varies their position as to affect
the horse’s mouth and direct his motions. This ingenious
poor man makes his livelihood by running errands.”

( 466 )

XXXIV .—Notice in regard to the Temperature
of Mines.

By Matuew Miter, Esq. 51st Light Infantry,
M.W.S.

(Read 8th February 1823.)

Tue late experiments on the temperature of mines made
in Cornwall, and in other countries, having given rise to
various speculations in regard to the distribution of heat
in the crust of the earth, all of which appear to me to be
unsatisfactory, I now beg leave to offer for consideration of
the Society, an explanation, which does not seem liable to
the objections that have been opposed to the others.

In every mine, with the exception of a few, which are
level-free, the ventilation is carried on by causing the air at
the surface to descend, and traverse the works, and then
ascend. - Now, it is evident, that if a portion of air from
the surface be carried down to the bottom of the mine, it
will be condensed in proportion to the depth of the mine,
and, in consequence of this condensation, will become
heated, and the degree of heat will of course be in propor-
tion to the depth of the mine. The air thus heated tra-

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF MINES. 467

verses the works, and imparts its heat to the strata; it then
ascends, and is succeeded by a fresh portion of air from
the surface, which in the same way becomes heated, and
imparts its heat to the strata, and they, in turn, communi-
cate it all around. ‘Thus, in a long course of working in a
deep mine, the air at the bottom is heated, and also the
rocks to a considerable depth; and when the working
ceases, the mine takes a long time to lose its temperature ;
and this is found to be the case, particularly when the mine
becomes full of water, the water being found at first of a
high temperature, and gradually to lose its heat, which is
in consequence of the strata imparting theirs to the water,
and as soon as they have given out all their heat, the water
indicates the mean temperature nearly of the place.

The reverse takes place in an old mine when reworked ;

in that case, the temperature rises gradually as the work-
ing continues: and in those mines which are not worked,
but in which the ventilation still goes on, I believe it will
be found that they do not lose more of their temperature
than can be placed to the abstraction of the other causes of
heat in working mines, such as that produced by the men,
and the lights.
_ The exact quantity of heat given out by air, in propor-
tion to its condensation, it is difficult to ascertain, but every
day’s experience proves it to be very considerable; and, I
believe, this, added to the other obvious sources of heat in
mines in a state of working, will be found sufficient to ac-
count for their high temperature.

{ 468 5

XXXV.— Remarks on some of the American
Animals of the Genus Felis, particularly on
the Jaguar, Felis Onca, Linn.

By T.S. Trattt, M.D. FLR. SE. &e.

(Read 25th January 1823.)

AMONG the genera into which Linnaus has distri
buted the higher animals, none seems more natural, or bet-
ter defined, than the genus Felis; yet such is the vague
descriptions given by most travellers, and by the older
naturalists, that we are still in uncertainty respecting seve-
ral of the species which compose it. My attention has been
particularly drawn to this genus, by accidentally meeting
with skins, and occasionally with living animals belonging
to it, which I have in vain endeavoured to reconcile to the
descriptions of authors; and the magnificent collection of
zoological drawings in the possession of Lord Stanuey,
has made me acquainted with several of the feline genus,
which do not appear to have attracted the attention of our
sbest systematic writers.

Ke apiows

GENUS FELIS OF AMERICA. 569

The feline animals belonging to the American Continent.
are numerous, and have generally been ill-described by
naturalists. Indeed there appears to be a singular preju-
dice respecting them in the minds of many zoologists. Be-
cause neither the lion nor the tiger (the monarchs of the
forest in the Old World) are found in America, it was a
favourite dogma with a celebrated author, that the beasts
of prey of the New Continent were inferior in courage and
ferocity to those animals of the Old World, which they
most nearly resembled. It is true, that none of the beasts
ef prey of America equal in size and power the lion of
Africa, or the great tiger of Bengal: but the jaguar, the
puma, and black tiger of South America, equal in courage
and ferocity the panther, leopard, and onca, the animals of
the other Continents which they approach most nearly in
size and habit.

Burron, and some other writers, have described the
jaguar and puma as destructive to other quadrupeds; but
as cowardly, and fleeing from the approach of man. It is
now well ascertained that Burron has confounded the
true jaguar of South America with the ocelot, a much
smaller and less formidable animal; and his account of the
puma seems to be taken from the descriptions of those who
have only seen the animal in the vicinity of human civilisa-
tion. ‘That eloquent writer has admitted the commanding
influence of the experience of human prowess in subduing
the courage of even his favourite animal the lion. ‘‘ A
single lion of the desert wiil frequently attack a whole
caravan; and if, after a violent and obstinate encounter,
he experiences fatigue, instead of flying, he retreats fight-
ing with a bold front to his pursuers. Those lions, on the
contrary, who dwell in the neighbourhood of the towns
and villages of India and Barbary, being acquainted with
‘man, and having felt the power of his weapons, have lost

470 ON AMERICAN ANIMALS

their native courage to such a degree, that they fly from
the threatenings of his voice, and dare not assail him.
They content themselves with preying ,on small cattle;
and will fly before women and children, who make them
indignantly quit their prey, by striking them with clubs.”

Had Burrow not been tramelled by a favourite hypo-
thesis respecting the alleged inferiority of the animal king-
dom in America, he would have seen that the writers who
notice the cowardice of the larger beasts of prey of that
Continent, only speak of them as observed near Kuropean
colonies, where their native ferocity has been compelled to
acknowledge the superiority of human intellect and arms.
Recent observations have shewn how ill-founded these spe-
culations of the French naturalist have been.

HumsBotpt mentions many instances of the ferocious
courage of the Great Jaguar. Among others, an ammal
of this species had seized a horse belonging to a farm in
the province of Cumana, and dragged it to a considerable
distance. ‘* The groans of the dying horse,” says Hum-
BOLDT, ° awoke the slaves of the farm, who went out armed —
with lances and cutlasses. ‘The animal continued on its
prey, awaited their approach with firmness, and fell only
after a long and obstinate resistance. ‘This fact, and a
great many others, verified on the spot, prove that the
Great Jaguar of Terra Firma, like the Jaguaret of Para-
guay, and the real Tiger cf Asia, does not flee from man,
when it is dared to close combat, and when it is not
alarmed by the great number of its assailants. Naturalists
are now agreed, that Burron was entirely mistaken with
respect to the largest of the feline genus of America.
What that celebrated writer says of the cowardly tigers of
the New Continent, relates to the small ocelots; and we
shall shortly see, that, on the Orinoko, the real jaguar of

OF THE GENUS FELIS. ATL

America sometimes leaps into the water to attack the In-
dians in their canoes.”

I am personally acquainted with gentlemen who have
hunted the Jaguaret in Paraguay, and who describe it
as a very courageous and powerful animal, of great activity,
and highly dangerous when at bay. Both this species and
the puma are rendered more formidable by the facility
with which they can ascend trees. I have been assured by
several friends, who have repeatedly hunted the tiger in -
India, that even this “‘ most beautiful and cruel of beasts
of prey,” as it is termed by Linnzus, generally endeavours
to escape from the hunters, unless hard pressed, or sur-
prised in a situation from which retreat is difficult: and
one gentleman informed me, that, on a shooting excursion,

to his great horror he found himself without a companion

in a small field, in which he espied a tiger watching him;
that, finding retreat impossible, he advanced against the
animal firmly, when it slowly retired, until he had an op-
portunity of despatching it with his rifle.

Such instances shew that there is no striking difference
between the habits and courage of the beasts of prey of the
Old and New Continents, as imagined by Burrow.

While naturalists have been so unjust to the character
of the American animals of this genus, the forms of these
quadrupeds have not been more fortunately delineated in
our engravings. For instance; the figure of the black
tiger in Burrow, and in his copyist SHaw, 1s so wretchedly
drawn, and its limbs are so distorted, that not a trace of

_ the genuine form is preserved ; but it is considerably better
given in the respectable work of Pennant. The figures
of the jaguar and puma, in both the former works, are in-
accurate in many respects, especially in the form of the
heads, and in giving no idea of the fierce expression of the
Bre nanges. The figure of the ocelot, in SHaw, is an

472, ON AMERICAN ANIMALS

absolute caricature, and conveys no idea of the sprightly
motions and strength of this beautiful miniature of the
leopard. .

These circumstances have induced me to lay before the
Society a fine drawing of a very beautiful jaguar from
Paraguay *, which was some time ago alive in Liverpool.
When the animal arrived, it was in full health, and, though
not fully grown, was of very formidable size and strength.
The captain who brought it could venture to play with it,
as it lay in one of the boats on deck, to which it was
chained ; but it had been familiarised to him from the time
it was the size of a small dog. I did not venture to take
measurements of it; but if appeared to be between 6 and 7
feet in length (including the tail), and to stand between 2
and 3 feet in height at the shoulder. The size of the fore-
legs seemed very great in proportion to the bulk of the
body, and especially of the hind-legs and rump of the ani-
mal. The ground-colour is bright fulvous; the fur is
short, thick, and glossy, all over the body. It is variegated
by long chain-like spots. A chain of such spots passes
down the spine from the shoulders to the tail, which con-
sists chiefly of single spots; but some of them are double.
On each side of this chain are several rows of open spots,
formed by a glossy border of black, mcluding one or more
spots of the same colour. As they descend the sides of the
animal, these borders become interrupted, and present the
appearance of clusters of four irregular oblong spots, with
occasionally one or more small central dots. Viewed from
above, the back has uo inconsiderable resemblance to the

* The drawing was made by Mr Atexanper Mosses, a young artist of
great merit, who was employed by me for this purpose, and has succeeded
admirably in giving the character of the animal.

OF THE GENUS FELIS. AWS

markings of the shells of some species of tortoise, from the
peculiar arrangement of the colours, and the equality of
the spaces between each cluster of spots. The face, sides
of the neck, and both sides of the legs, are thickly studded
with small black spots. The ground-colour of the lower
part of the body and inside of the thighs is dull-yellowish
white; but the belly is spotted with large, black, irregular
marks.

The hair of the tail is not glossy: its upper part is
marked with a zigzag pattern, as in the figure; and its
lower part is annulated with two or three broad blackish-
brown rings, separated by dull yellow stripes. There are
two distinct sets of vibrissze; the first of which are the
longest, and are placed two or three mches before the
scanty hairs of the other set. ‘The teeth are very large and
strong. ‘The whole animal had an appearance of activity
and strength, which fully confirmed the accounts of its.
prowess collected by Humszoxpr.

FreLis Puma.

For this animal I would propose the following snecific
character, which appears necessary to distinguish it com-
pletely from Felis unicolor, described by me in the third
volume of the Society’s Memoirs.

Felis, corpore diluté badio; auribus nigris ; cauda cla-
viformi, apice nigricanit. |

Cat, with a light-bay body ; black ears ; a claviform tail,
brownish-black at the tip.

I had an opportunity of inspecting several skins of this
animal, the property of Mr Epmowpston, who had killed
them in the mterior of Demerary. None of them were

AT A GENUS FELIS OF AMERICA.

without the marks indicated in the specific character. The
whiskers of all arose from a dark-coloured spot on the face.
The blackish tip of the tail measured 5 inches; and, from
the length and position of the hairs, made the extremity
the thickest part of the tail, or gave it a claviform shape.
One of these animals was a female, shot while searching for
prey in a lofty tree: its whelp was at the bottom, feeding
on a monkey, which had probably been killed by the mo-
ther. The young one was also shot. The bedy of the
latter measured, from nose to tail, 2 feet, and the tail 1 foct
1 inch. The upper part of the body was not of an uniform
colour like the dam, but it had three chains of blackish-
brown spots along its back, with several scattered markings
of the same colour on its sides, neck, and shoulders. ‘The
crown of the head had several obscure stripes; but the
blackish spot at the roots of the vibrissze, and the black
backs of the ears, were very conspicuous. The lower part
of the body, and the insides of the limbs, were of a dirty
yellowish-grey, with dull-brown bars. ‘These marks disap-
pear in the full-grown animal.

The largest of Mr Epmonpston’s specimens seemed an
animal of prodigious power. It had a much larger head,
in proportion to its size, than the figures of Burron and
SHaw; and its canine teeth were enormously large. ‘The

dimensions are as follow:
Feet. Inches.

Length from nose to tail, - - - - - - 4 9
OF tarlyet BUSI OCR ST
Total lengthy (i=), - pawest Hy hl de BOS
Length of the head, - - - .- - - - 1 0
Circumference of ditto, - - - - = + > Lb 98
Length of the large canine teeth above the jaw, 0 1}

LivERPOoor,

November 1822.

GATS.) )

XXXVI.—Observations on some Species of the
Genus Mergus.

By James Witson, Esq.

(Read 22d March 1823.)

|

Aone many recent elucidations of the more difficult
points in ornithology, certain species of the genus Mergus
appear to have continued almost im the same state of ob-
scurity ever since the days of WiiLovensy. This has not
been owing to the want of zeal or to any negligence on the
part of naturalists, because the subject has greatly occupied
the attention not only of those who have published on the
British ornithology, but of foreign authors. In our own
country it has been especially investigated by Hrysuam,
Latuam, and Montact, although certainly not with any
very definite or satisfactory results. ‘The avant of success
m a matter to which so many acute men have applied them-
. selves, must therefore be sought for in some peculiar cir-
cumstances attending the history of the species.

The Mergus castor, usually called by us the Dundiver,
was described by Linnaus as a distinct species. Some

476 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES

naturalists, his contemporaries, as well as others whose
works were published after his death, were imclmed to
doubt the accuracy of this opmion, rather regarding it as
the female of the Mergus merganser, ov Goosander ; yet
without bringing forward any positive proof of the accu-
racy of their own opinion, or of the fallacy of that of Liy-
nevus. In the thirteenth edition of the Systema Nature,
they are held as distinct ; but the many inaccuracies in that
edition, as compiled by GMELIN, render it very slightly
authoritative in any disputed point. The same opinion,
however, being maintained, and its accuracy apparently
well illustrated by Dr Hrysuam, from personal experience
and observation, it was received by Laruam and Mon-
taGu, and, accordingly, the Dundiver and Goosander are
described as distinct species in their respective works. The
French naturalists, on the other hand, in conformity with
an old opinion of Burron’s, have recently preferred follow-
ing the idea of their being the same, and, as such, they are
united in the latest Parisian system, the Reone Animal of
Cuvier. As, however, there are no additional reasons as-
signed in support of this opinion, nor any facts or series of
observations related, from which it may be supposed to have
resulted,—those who regarded these birds as distinct, saw
no reason to alter their sentiments, or to resign one belief,
however unsupported, in favour of another, which was
equally so. In shcrt, the matter remained precisely as it
was fifty years ago.

In the absence of special facts applicable to any parti-
cular species, the history of which we wish to illustrate, I
conceive the next safest rule to be, to proceed upon the
analogies observable among other nearly allied species of
the same genus. As, for example, with the species now
under consideration: 'T'wo birds, entirely dissimilar in re-
spect to plumage, are alleged to be distinguished from each

OF THE GENUS MERGUS. AT?

other by no specific characters, but to differ in sex alone.
When we observe that the prevailing colour of the one,
said to be the male, is black and white, and of the other,
said to be the female, ferruginous and lead colour, and
when it is not asserted that they have ever been produced
from the same brood, or otherwise proved to be one and
the same, we are certainly authorised in withholding our
assent, more especially if our prior belief, however vaguely
founded, should have been in opposition to such opinion.
If, however, on examining all the other known species of
the genus, we should find that the prevailing plumage of
the males is invariably composed of black and white, and
of the females of ferruginous and lead colour, there would
certainly be nothing either rash or unphilosophical in be-
lieving, that what was really applicable to those whose
sexual characters had been ascertained, was probably also
applicable to a solitary species in which they had not been
ascertained ; and thus, that very difference in the plumage
of the sexes, which had induced naturalists to class them
as distinct species, would come to be adduced as the strong-
est argument in favour of their being actually the same.
Such a mode of determining the point in dispute, by re-
ferring to the sexual relations in the plumage of other spe-
cies of the same genus, F conceive to be particularly admis-
sible in the present instance. ‘There seems to be a uni-
formity of distinction, both in the colours themselves, and
in their distribution, as characteristic of the sexes, which
strongly marks this genus, and distinguishes it from every
other. This sexual distinction in plumage, though almost
always perceptible in the species considered singly of other
genera, is not, as far as I have observed, perceived to run
so distinctly according to one model, through a whole group
of species, as in the Mergus; and, therefore, any argu-
VOL. IV. Ll

478 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES

ment drawn from one species, and applied to another, could
not in any other case be so securely relied upon.

It will be perceived that Ihave adopted that opinion,
which maintains that there is no specific distinction between
the Mergus Merganser and the Mergus Castor, but that
they form the male and female of the same species; and I
think I have done away with any cbjection in respect. to
the disagreement in plumage, by pointing out the same
distinction, not only as existing in, but as characterising
the sexes of the other nearly allied species, thus converting
it from a specific difference, into a trait of generic resem-
blance and agreement.

I have examined all the British and Erenchy, species of
the genus, and likewise an American species, called the
Mergus cucullatus ; and in the plumage of these I have
found the same sexual distinctions existing as we perceive
between the Goosander and the Dundiver, the colouring
of the males being like the former, of the females like the:
latter. It was this general survey, and the uniform sexual
contrasts pointed out by it, which confirmed me in the. be-
lief, that no specific distinctions were to be found between.
the castor and the merganser.

The chief arguments which have been adduced in favour
of these birds being distinct, are as follows.

1st, The much greater abundance of the Castor, or
Dundiver, than of the Merganser, or Goosander, there
being, according to Dr Hrysuam, from ten to fifteen of
the former to one of the latter. Now that the former (re-
garded as the female) should be much more numerous
than the latter (considered as the male), is in perfect agree-
ment with what I should have anticipated to be the case,
from the fact, established by many recent observations in
ornithology, that these birds (in common with almost all

OF THE GENUS MERGUS. A79

those which differ essentially in the plumage of the sexes),
whether male or female, are fledged whilst immature in the
plumage of the female only. In addition to this, the female
of another species, the Mergus serrator, or Red-breasted
Merganser, so greatly resembles the Dundiver in plumage,
that it 1s often confounded with that species in the young
state; and as I have ascertained that the young males of
the Serrator also resemble the females whilst immature,
we may see clearly in what manner it happens that indivi-
duals in the female plumage are so much more numerous
than those in the male; in other words, how the Dundiver
should be so much more common than the Goosander.
Therefore no good argument can be drawn from this cir-
cumstance against their forming one species.

2dly, It has been said that the Dundiver cannot Be the
female of the Goosander, because, on dissection, indivi-
duals of the former kind have been found to be males. It
may be answered, that reasoning even on the general law
already alluded to, which assigns to the young individuals
of both sexes the plumage of the female, whenever there is
a marked distinction in their adult plumage, we would be
authorised in rejecting such circumstance as in any way
conclusive ; but it fortunately happens that we are not
left in doubt, because one of the specimens before you
clearly marks the transition from the female plumage to
that of the male. This is very perceptible in the black ring
which is forming at the base of the ferruginous portion of
the neck, and in the sooty hue which has begun to spread
_over the brown feathers of the head. ‘There is also an evi-
dent commencement, above the scapulary feathers, of that
great. portion of black which afterwards spreads down
the back, and forms the most distinguishing sexual cha-
racter of the adult male. Lastly, the mature plumage

112

480- OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES

of the wing-coverts is becoming apparent, that is, the
feathers on these parts are changing from lead-colour to
white *. '

The same circumstance has been observed by Latuam
and Mowracu in the plumage of the Mergus minutus, or
little Merganser,. so long regarded as a distinct species, but
now ascertained to be the female of the ergus albellus, or
Smew. Both sexes occurring in the plumage of the female,
it was natural enough to suppose that they constituted a
species, and that the real adult male was distinct. In hke
manner, and from the same cause, the error has arisen in
regard to the Dundiver and Goosander, although the ar-
guments in the ene case are no better founded than in the
other. I therefore conceive this latter objection to be as
invalid as the former. ,

In conclusion, £ may ask, if the Dundiver is not the
female of the Goosander, where are we to seek for it?
Although the latter is not an abundant species,. it 1s by no
means, in Scotland at least, particularly rare; and, how
are we to account for the fact, that we have still to discover
the female of a bird, the male of which exists in every cabi-

* The leading distinctions between. the plumage of the Goosander. and
Dundiver are as follows. In the former, the head and neck are glossy
greenish-black, the scapularies are black, and the wing-coverts are white ;
in the latter, the head and neck are ferruginous, and the scapularies and
wing-coverts lead-colour. Now, the specimen above referred to, shews, in
each of. these points, a combination of the plumage of the two sexes ;. the
head being of a sooty brown, the neck ferruginous and black, the scapularies
black and lead-colour, and the wing-coverts lead-colour and white. In its
prevailing plumage it bears a greater resemblance to the Dundiver than to
the Goosander, but its dimensions are those of a full-sized Goosander. It
belonged to the collection of the late Captain Grorcre Fatconar of the Scots
Greys, recently added to the Edinburgh Museum.

OF THE GENUS MERGUS. 481

net in Europe? I have myself no doubt that they are
merely different sexes of the same species *.

Having alluded to the resemblance which existed between
the plumage of the Dundiver and the female Red-breasted
Merganser, I shall add, that the latter, notwithstanding ‘its
being considerably less, is frequently confounded with the
former, both in fereign and British collections, as well as
by systematic writers.

Indeed, I conceive that the only obscure point or desi-
deratum in the history of this genus, is the establishment
of a precise and unvarying specific character, by which to
distinguish the female of the Red-breasted Merganser from
the Dundiver, or female of the Mergus merganser. 'This 1s
a point which, <I do not know for what reason, has never been
alluded to by any writer on ornithology as a matter of dif
ficulty, and yet none of them has given any character by re-
ference:te which such difficulty may, with certainty, ‘be-ob-
viated. Knowing the fact that they were really distinct, they
have disregarded the circumstance that in many instances

* Dr HrysHam, and others, have combated ‘the opinion of the Goos-
ander and Dundiver being specifically the same, by referring to the pendent
crest which frequently adorns the nape of the Dundiver, an ornament with
which the Goosander is more sparingly provided. This mark being, in
other crested species, either peculiar to the males, or, when common to both
sexes, less elongated in the females, has, therefore, been regarded as a proof
that the Dundiver could not be considered as the female of the Goosander.
This objection to the identity of these two birds is, however, done away
with by the legitimate supposition, that the Dundivers with elongated crests,
‘described by various authors, were not Dundivers commonly so called (by
which, of course, I mean the females of the Goosander), but rather the
females of the Red-breasted Merganser, the male of which is distinguished
by a very fine pendent crest. Such specimens of the Dundiver as ‘were re-
markable for their length.of crest, when compared with that of the male
Goosander, I have always found, upon examination, to be either females or
young males, of the Red-breasted Merganser.

482 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES

they were apparently the same ; and hence it happens, that,
in mo3t collections, it is a matter of chance whether these
birds are assigned to the proper species to which they re-
spectively belong. I have been as yet unable to perceive any
determinate difference in plumage ; and the distinction in
size being rather an individual than a specific difference, can-
not be safely relied upon, because, as many birds vary in
weight and dimensions, according to the season of the year,
and their relative condition, where there is not a very great
and constant difference in that respect, nothing can be de-
termined by it. I was at one time of opinion, that, in the
Mergus merganser, and its female the Mergus castor, the
bill was uniformly deeper at the base laterally, and the
nostrils further removed from the frontal feathers, that is
nearer the point, than in the Mergus serrator. This dis-
tinction I believe is general between the full grown and
perfectly matured birds of both sexes of these species ; but
IT am in doubt whether it holds good im regard to the
younger individuals *.

* J am aware of the frequent discussions which have been entered inte
regarding the structure of the windpipe in this genus, though I have taken
no notice of these in the preceding paper, being unwilling to venture upon
any thing like anatomical detail, when the points in question can be deter-
mined by reference to external characters. I may mention, however, that,
notwithstanding the frequent assertion to the contrary, by those who have
endeavoured to prove the distinction between the male Dundiver and the
Goosander to be founded on anatomical differences, no internal distinction
whatever exists between these birds. The apparent difference in the shape
and formation of the trachea, and the contradictory statements and errone-
-ous conclusions to which it has given rise, result simply from the circum-
stance above alluded to, of which anatomists were not aware, namely, the
resemblance which the young males and females of the Red-breasted Mer-
ganser bear to those of the Goosander. The trachea of the male Goos-
-ander possesses two swellings, or enlargements, in its course, besides the

OF THE GENUS MERGUS. 483

-T have thought it right te call the-attention of the Society
to this difficulty in distinguishing the Dundiver, commonly

bony labyrinth of the inferior larynx ; the Red-breasted Merganser possesses
only one of these enlargements, It has happened that birds in the plumage
of the Dundiver, proving on dissection to be males, and the windpipe being
found to be furnished with only one enlargement, the conclusion has natu-
rally enough been drawn, that these birds were the males of a separate and
distinct species (the supposed Mergus castor of Guertin), and could not be
assigned to any condition of the Goosander. Such specimens, however,
had nothing to do with the true Dundiver; they were immature males of
the Red-breasted Merganser, and, therefore, prove nothing more than that
the young of that species resemble in anatomical structure the adult birds,
in like manner as the true male Dundiver resembles the adult Goosander.
This view of the subject explains the error in Montacu’s reasoning on this
point. The mistake seems to have originated in the Berlin Transactions ;
in the third volume, tab. 7. fig. 5, there is a drawing of the trachea of the
Dundiver; and in the fourth volume of the same work, tab. 18. fig. 3,
there is another of that of the Goosander; the former with one enlarge-
ment, the latter with two. Mr Simmonps, on the contrary, (Linn. Trans.
wol. viii.), who dissected these birds, with a view to this disputed point,
asserts that there is a perfect agreement in their internal structure ;
and the same opinion is maintained by M. Tremmincx in his “ Manuel
d’Ornithologie.” These seeming contradictions are easily reconciled, by
bearing in mind the close resemblance which exists between the plumage
of the immature males of the Goosander and Red-breasted Merganser,
and the consequent liability of their being confounded by the dissector.’
Those who still entertain any doubts on the subject, may easily satisfy
themselves in this quarter of the island, where both kinds are sufficiently
common. When a male bird, in the plumage of the Dundiver, is observed
on dissection to have two enlargements in the course of the windpipe, it
may then be considered as the young of the Goosander (Mergus merganser) ;
when only one such enlargement is perceptible, it may safely be regarded
as an immature Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator). The difference
in the bill, as mentioned in the text, will form, it is hoped, a more import-
ant external character of distinction than any previously pointed out. In
regard to the title of Mergus castor (the bird indicated by it being an ima-
ginary species), it should of course be erased from the list of specific
names.

ASA ‘OBSERVATIONS, «We.

so-called, fromthe female of the Red-breasted Merganser,
because it has been hitherto entirely overlooked by ornitho-
logists. If kept in view during future examinations, by
such of our members as devote their leisure to the elucida-
tion of ornithology, I have no doubt it will speedily receive
sufficient illustration. :

P L AXP 1) XN Wern Men. Vol. IN. PAGS

PION RIA

Catal

ii

WR Zezars sculp*

( 485 )

ee a ions on fic Secs Cae
cuta of ELuis; with a Figure.

_ By the Rev. Jou Fizmine, D.D. F.R.S.E.
M. W.S. &c. Minister of Flisk.

(Read 8th March 1823.)

"Tuere are many objects in the animal kingdom which
baftle the exertions of naturalists to determine their charac-
ters. They are seldom met with even by those who are
indefatigable in their researches, or, when secured, they
are not in a condition calculated to furnish satisfactory re-
sults. These remarks apply in all their bearings to the
Sertularia Cuscuta. Mr Exxis, the well-known author of
the * Essay on Corallines,” examined the Zoophytes of the
British shores with the most persevering industry, visiting,
at different seasons of the year, various parts of the coast,
and receiving from correspondents the productions of those
districts which his circumstances did not permit him to ex-
plore. Yet, with all these favourable opportunities, the
present Corallime seems to have occurred to him in such
an imperfect state, that he was unable to detect evex the

486 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

remains of the pulpy matter of the polypi, and could only
describe and delineate the sheath or protecting case.

Succeeding naturalists, who have attached themselves to
the study of zoophytes, seem to have been equally un-
successful, in reference to this species*. Pa.tas, in his
‘© Elenchus Zoophytorum,” borrows his characters from
the imperfect description of Hiiis, and seems disposed to
consider the subject as belonging to the vegetable rather
than to the animal kingdom: “ Structura etiamnum ob-
scura; et quo magis examino, eo magis confervis potius
quam Sertulariis adnumeranda mihi videtur.” P. 125.

M. Lamovrovx, the author of the “ Histoire des Poly-
piers Coralligenes Flexibles,” appears to have had an op-
portunity of examining this species ; but in his description
he adds nothing to the characters previously assigned to it
by Extis, excusing himself, on account of the difficulty of
examining so small an object. He adds, in a note, “ Ce
Polypier doit former un genre particulier, mais il m’a paru
si difficile 4 définer, que j’ai préféré me borner 4 Vindication
plutét que de mal characteriser ; il est presque impossible
de le bien observer a cause de sa petitesse ; cependant j’ai
essayé de rendre dans la phrase specifique de cette Sertu-
lariée, le peu que jen ai vu.” P. 198.

* Since the observations in the text were sent to the press, I have had
an opportunity of consulting the “ Zoologia Danica,” vol. iii. p. 62. tab.
cxvii. f. 1. 2. 3. (middle), where there is a description and figure of this
species by AplLDGaaRD, taken from luxuriant specimens found in the Baltic.
The figures are good, and the description has been drawn up with consider-
able care. The author notices the axillary mode of growth, but he has
failed to record his observations on the internal structure of the body. He
states the tentacula as 12 in number. In the course of my observations, 8
tentacula only were perceived; and, as I particularly directed my attention
to this subject, and exercised considerable caution in the enumeration, I am
disposed to consider the number fixed on by ApinpGaarp as exceeding the
truth.

SERTULARIA CUSCUTA OF ELLIS. 487

Last spring I had the good fortune to find a small: tuft
of this Sertularia, which had been left on the beach by the
tide, in the Frith of Tay, and at this place (Flisk), where
the water is only brackish. Upon placing it in’a glass of
the Tay water, strengthened by the addition of a little salt,
for the purpose of inducing the parasitical rotiferae to’ ex-
pand (having frequently observed that these were more
vivacious than the corallines which they imfest), I was glad
to find: the Sertularia itself in a living state, the polypi
speedily issuing from their cells, and enabling me to make
some Interesting observations.

In this Sertularia ‘several stems usually proceed from the
same base; these are filiform, jointed, and slightly waved,
and support all the branches and denticles in opposite pairs,
and on the same plane. They maintain their primary rank
throughout. |

The branches occur in pairs, rather remote, placed oppo-
site to'each other, and proceeding from the stem fiearly at
right angles. The joints on the stems occur immediately
above the insertion of the branches.

The denticles or cells are oval, sessile, and upwards of
ten times the breadth of the stem. In general, they occur
in pairs, at remote distances, on the stem or branches, pro-
jecting nearly at right angles; and are probably ultimately
converted into branches, when no longer necessary as an
intecument to the polypi, as I have observed take place in
the Sertularia gelatinosa of Pattas*. Sometimes they
occur in the axille of the branches, in pairs, or in greater
numbers, crowded together.

The polypi, when expanded, project considerably beyond
the mouth of the denticle, as at a, Plate XV. fig. 1., with

* Hdin. Phil, Journ. v. ii. p. 86.

488 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

the margin of the aperture of which, their skin has a perfect
continuity. When ina state of rest or contraction, they
are doubled in the cell, as exhibited at 5, and its margin
in this state is obviously inflected.

The arms, or tentacula, are nearly cylindrical, and
limited to the number of eight. :

In some Sertularize which I have examined, the arms
seemed furnished on all sides with suckers, analogous
to those of the cuttle-fish. On the arms of this species,
however, I detected a very different arrangement, and
one which I suspect has not hitherto been noticed.
Each arm is furnished, laterally, with a row of -short
hairs or plates; for the highest magnifier which I could
conveniently apply did not enlarge the object above a
hundred diameters, and was incapable of enabling me to
determine their true shape. ‘The motions of these hairs,
were, in consequence of the currents which they produced
in the water, sufficiently obvious. The hairs, on one side
of the arm, exercised a continued motion, so as to cause the
water to flow from its base to the extremity; while those
on the opposite side executed a motion the very reverse of
this, causing the water to descend from the extremity of
the arm towards its base. And again, if the hairs on the
right side of one arm were fitted to cause the water to ascend,
the hairs on the left side of the contiguous arm were
found suited to produce a current in the opposite direction,
as exhibited (not from nature, but to render the description
intelligible) at c, fig. 1. Plate XV. Analogous hairs exist
on many species of Meduse, Tritoniz, &c. in which they
are obviously unconnected with the digestive system as
assisting prehensible organs, and may probably be con-
sidered as forming a part of the aérating organs. In this
Sertularia, their occurrence on the arms, which are true
prehensible organs, and belonging to the digestive system,

SERTULARIA CUSCUTA OF ELLIS. 489

may induce a belief that they are merely parts of that sys-
tem, and destined by the currents which they produce, to
bring the small animals, their prey, more easily within
reach of seizure. The currents, however, which are pro-
duced by their motion, seem better calculated for bringing
fresh portions of water in contact with the sides of the
arms, than to bring animalculz within the space which
they surround. ‘They may possibly be destined to act as
organs of touch, though J am rather disposed to regard
them as branchie, placed in the most favourable position
for receiving the influence of the oxygen of the water.

In that part of the body of the expanded polypus, situate
towards the middle and bottom of the cell, I observed a
pale-coloured organ with darker matter both above and
below. This organ was frequently in very rapid motion,
by means of which portions of the dark matter beneath
were brought up and added to that which was above the
organ, or portions abstracted from above and carried. be-
neath. The portions of matter moved were not unlike
grains of sand, which had probably been taken in along
with the food. |

The small egg-shaped bodies in some parts of the
branches, which were regarded as vesicles or ovaria by
Extis, are merely the rudiments of young polypi. It is
probable, however, that, after having served the purposes
of polypi, they may be changed into ovaria. This is a
metamorphosis which takes place in some of the other kinds
of Sertulariz, and is not more surprising than the conver-
sion of the cell and its polypus into a branch, as I have
elsewhere observed. We are apt to consider these animals
as simple. in their construction, possessing few organs, and
exercising very limited: functions ; and, when they are com-
pared with the Vertebral tribes, the opinion is perhaps
well founded. But we may carry this view too far, and,

490 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

by regarding the fresh water species of Hydree, which are
very simple animals, as the type of the group which in-
cludes the Sertularia, rest satistied, that all that is singular
in their construction, has been detected by the acuteness
of Exuis, and thus neglect a field of investigation, not more
rich in elegant forms, than in variety of structure and func-
tion.

I may add, that the Sertwlaria cuscuta and S. woa agree
in the remarkable character of having only eight tentacula,
and in the ovate subsessile denticles. ‘The former is placed
by M. Lamovrovx m his genus Sertularia, while the lat-
ter forms a part of a very motley group, which he terms
Clytia. Neither of these species, however, can be con-
sidered as belonging to the genera in which they are classed,
since they differ from the characters by which these genera
are distinguished. It is my imtention, in a synopsis of
British animals which I am engaged in preparing for the
press, to constitute these two species into a new genus, and
by naming it WaLKERIa, consecrate it to the memory of
the late Dr Watxer, Professor of Natural History in the
University of Edinburgh. Known, as he was, to several
members of the Wernerian Society, as: profoundly versed
in all the departments of natural history, and extolled as
he has been, in the sketch of his life which has been :com-
municated. to the Society by his meritorious successor, the
present compliment to his name may be deemed insigni-
ficant. Perhaps it is so; but I have been led to pay it,
from having had an opportunity of judging of his intimate
acquaintance with the tribe of zoophytes to which ‘this
group belongs, by inspecting a collection of ‘specimens of
various species of Sertulariz, which he had collected on
the Scottish shores, and arranged and named. ‘These have
exhibited numerous proofs of his zeal, his knowledge, and
his sagacity.

2

SERTULARIA CUSCUTA OF ELLIS. AGT

On several parts of the stem of this Sertularia I observed
a Vorticella, which I had not met with before, and which
is not figured in the mvaluable work of Mutuizr on In-
fusory Animals. It is more nearly related to V. citrina of
that author than to any other; but its composite nature,
and dark internal medullary matter, form sufficiently
marked characters. It continued always fixed; otherwise,
had it been a free animal, with caudal claspers, I should
have traced its affinity to the V. senta of that author, and
to the genus Furcularia of Lamarx. It may be termed
Vorticella coalita. ‘The annexed figure (Plate XV. fig. 2.)
will convey an idea of its characters.

Manse oF FL isx,
February 15. 1828.

a

XXX VITI.—Remarks on the Guanaco of South
America. |

By Tuomas Stewart Traitt, M.D. F.R.S.E. &e.

(Read 8th February 1823.)

Many authors have described four animals inhabiting
South America, the Llama,* Vicuna, Paco, and Guanaco,
as distinct species: but there appears so much confusion in
their descriptions, that there is every reason to conclude
they have mistaken the effects of domestication for specific
differences. CuviEr has followed PENNANT in considering
the Llama as the domesticated Guanaco, and the Vicuna
the tamed variety of the Paco. This pomt has probably
been illustrated by the researches of the indefatigable
Humeotpt; but never having had the good fortune to see
the zoological portion of his splendid work, I am unable
to state the opinion of that illustrious traveller.

* This is the Glama of Suaw, and other writers, who appear not to have
been aware of the force of the Zl in Spanish. It has the sound of the Italian
Gl in the word figlio. The w in Spanish, has the sound of Gz in the Italian

word ignudo.

THE GUANACO OF SOUTH AMERICA. 493

While there appears much confusion in the descriptions
of our systematic writers on this subject, their engraved
figures seem to be little calculated to aid our conceptions
of their forms.

Several living specimens have been, at different times,
brought from South America to Liverpool, under the
name of Guanaco; and I availed myself of the opportu-
nity to procure an accurate drawing of one from the pencil
of Mr Atexanper Mossss, a very promising artist of this
town. The animal is represented in profile, and its head,
of which the expression is very peculiar, is drawn in front.
The following description was drawn up on September 23.
1819, from two living animals, one of which is represented

in the drawing. (Plate XVI. fig. 2.)

CAMELUS GUANACO.

Cuar. spEcIFic.—Camelus pilis lanosis, confertis; dorse
arcuato; cruribus posterioribus maculo nigrescenti
acute elliptico utrinque distinctis ; cauda pendula.

Camel with thick set woolly hair ; an arched baek ; the
hand legs marked, on both sides, by an acutely ellipti-
cal, blackish spot; tatl pendulous.

Description. The general colour of the animal is a
russet-brown above, and an ash-grey passing into greyish-
white below. The head is fawn-coloured, which is deepest
on the nose. ‘The upper part of the neck, the shoulders,
and back, have a pale russet-brown hue, dashed with a
purplish tint, which is most discernible on the shoulders.
The lower jaw, chin, throat, belly, outside of the lower
part of the legs, are ash-grey; the inside of the legs, and
middle of the belly, are greyish-white. The fur is thickly

VOL, IV. K k

4Q4 REMARKS ON

set on the head, neck, and upper part of the body: it is
woolly on the back, flanks, and tail; but its length is not
above two inches on any part of the body, except at the
extremity of the tail, where it is nearly three inches long.
The belly and inside of the upper part of the legs are
nearly naked. The hair on the lower part of the limbs is —
very short, and sleek; and the whole coat of the animal is
extremely soft. |

The upper lip is bifid; the swlcus is moist; peculiarities
which become very apparent when the animal is eating.
The structure of the upper lip gives it very considerable
power in collecting the food. The sides of both lips appear
wrinkled ; their edges thick. The tip of the nose is covered
with hair like the rest of the face. The nostrils are oblong.
The eyes are of a deep-blue, and have a very mild expres-
sion, like those of an antelope: they are furnished with
long, silky, black eye-lashes, and there are long hairs of
the same colour in the supercilia. The face suddenly con-
tracts below the eyes, though the muzzle is not very acute.
The forehead is broad: the ears are very long, and often
in brisk motion, though generally erect.

The neck is long, slender, and cylindrical, and is gene-
rally arched into a graceful curve: it springs easily from
the chest, without shewing any abrupt curve. 'The animal
has vast command over this part, and can readily turn its
head over its rump, without moving the limbs. The hair
on the neck is remarkably woolly, and soft, but very short.
The arching of the back is very considerable: the shoulder
is lower than the rump: the circumference of the loins is
slender. The tail was either observed to be freely pendu-
lous, or to be pressed down over the anus when the animal
dreaded any thmg. The under side of the tail is provided
with long whitish hair, which hangs down below its tip.

THE GUANACO OF SOUTH AMERICA. 495

The limbs are very slender, like those of the antelope:
the posterior extremities are longer than: the fore-legs;
hence the animal in running proceeds by vast bounds. On
the fore-legs the tawny fur descends below the carpus, or
what is commonly called the knee of quadrupeds;- but on
the posterior extremity, it does not reach the corresponding
joint by three inches. The spot mentioned in the character
occurred in all the specimens of this animal which have
fallen under my observation, and had, in all, the same form
and colour. Its hue is deep chocolate-brown, when nar-
rowly examined, or almost blackish-brown: it lies in the
space between the bone and the strong flexor tendons: its
form is acutely elliptical. The exterior spot is larger than
the mterior. ‘The former was 2 inches long, and ¢ an inch
broad at its widest part.

The foot of this animal is singularly formed. 'The divi-
sion extends up to the first joint of the leg; yet the sole is
very flat, and the sulcus apparently small, when seen from
below. The soles of the feet are furnished with callus, of
an elongated form, and slightly rounded at the extremities.
The hoofs are very small, and rather resemble nails or
claws, forming triquetrous coverings to the extremities only
of each toe, with the acute edge towards the inner and up-
per part, being quite open below, and projecting beyond
the end of the toes in a sharp point. _This is the structure
of both feet.

The habit of the animal resembles that of some of the
more slender antelopes. The limbs are long, and convey
‘the idea of great fleetness. Its manners appeared gentle;
yet, when irritated, it turned its head round, and, by a
forcible expiration, projected its saliva, in small quantity,
at the object of its dislike. ‘The Spaniards assert, that the
saliva, thus projected, has an acrid quality, slightly infla-
ming the skin where it alights, and producing some itching. ©

Kk2

496 REMARKS ON

This I cannot either affirm or deny from personal observa-
tion; but the sailors of the ship which brought some of
these animals to Europe, asserted the same story.

When the Guanaco rests, it gathers its legs below it,
bending the knees, so as to fold the fore-legs directly under
the breast, and reclines on the centre of its breast and ab-
domen.

The specimens brought to Liverpool fed on hay, from
which they selected the moister portions. On their arrival
they would not taste oats, though they seemed fond of bar-
ley ; a preference, no doubt, owing to their Spanish educa-
tion: for the horses and mules of Spain will not eat oats,
when they can obtain barley. The Guanacoes seemed fond
of apples, but would not eat cabbage. ‘They were tame,
and gentle; seemed to love being caressed by those who
approached them, and smelt their hands and clothes; but
were impatient when their mouths or ears were handled.
They occasionally uttered a faint sound or groan when
much teased, and usually accompanied this with a hissing
ejaculation of saliva.

The following are the dimensions of the Guanaco:

Feet. Inches.
Length from the tip of the tail to the end of the

nose, along the curvature of the back andneck, 5 5
Height at the shoulder, -- - 2° <\°- 7.) ) ao oh
o— atthe haunchy (Je) ) Suerte he HAS
Circumference of the body at its widest part, - 3 4
Length oftthesheadyinei72 2) oa See Sle
Breadth of the head over the eyes,s - - - - 0 5
Gaperof, the mouth, () 207) 3 ey;/snoe ei ee ee Oe
Length: of ithe ears): ici <j/2" - > cede ee eS

of the eyes is iek ay al Shyer ene: pe
oftithemneck iid Bap Silene of syhehy Se ae ae

THE GUANACO OF SOUTH AMERICA. 497

Feet. Inches.

Circumference of the neck, - - - - - - = 1 O

Length of the division of the upper lip, - - - 0 1

Breadth of the chest, - - - - - - - - - 0 Q9

Length of the tail, to the end of its hairs, - - 0 8
of the fore-leg, from the joint of the sca-

Se ee

, of the hind-leg from the hip-joint, - - 2 6
of the cleft of the foot from the point of

the toe, - - - - - = - = - = = = O 4y

= of the callus of the sole of the fore-foot, 0 33

— of a hoof of that foot, - - - - - - 0 1

LIvERPOOL,

November 1822. §.

(498)

AXAITX.—On a Reversed Species of Fusus,

(Fusus retroversus.)

By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D.D. F.R.S. E.
M. W.S. &c. Minister of Flisk. =

(Read 5th April 1823.)

ke:

Ir is well known to British conchologists, that sinistral,
or reversed spiral shells, are of frequent occurrence among
the terrestrial and fluviatile mollusca, while they are seldom
to be met with among those which inhabit the sea. Exten-
sive genera, indeed, occur in the former groups, in which
all the species exhibit reversed whorls, not as a monstrosity,
but as a permanent feature. The genera Clausilia and
Vertigo, in the terrestrial, and Physa, Aplexa, and Plan-
orbis, among the aquatic pulmonifera, are striking exam-
ples, and embrace about twenty indigenous species. |
Among the marine spiral shells belonging to the branchi-
ferous mollusca, those with sinistral whorls are of such rare
occurrence, that not more than one species in a genus has
yet been detected. In the British Fauna, only two species
have hitherto been recorded among the recent kinds, viz.

ON A REVERSED SPECIES OF FUSUS. 499

the Murex adversus and Voluta heterochta, of Montacu’s
¢ 'Testacea Britannica.” ‘The addition, therefore, of a third
reversed species, cannot fail to interest the British concho-
logist. ‘The following description, with the accompanying
magnified drawing, (Plate XV. fig. 2.), which exhibits a
front and back view, will, we trust, sufficiently establish
its characters.

Shell with five rounded whorls, well defined at the line
of junction. ‘These mcrease somewhat rapidly in size, and,
being a little depressed, give to the shell what is termed a
bethed appearance. 'The mouth is oblong, placed obliquely, —
and interrupted: by the convexity of the body-whorl. ‘The
outer lip joins the body-whorl at an acute angle. The pillar
is straight, and slightly scooped out at the apex for the
canal, which is shallow, regular, and short.

The whole shell is smooth, glossy, and so transparent as
to permit the pillar to be distinctly perceived throughout
its whole length. The layers of growth are scarcely per-
ceptible even when highly magnified. The whole shell
scarcely exceeds a line in length.

Three specimens of this shell have occurred to us in
shell-sand from Noss Island, Zetland, which we collected
after a storm in the spring of 1809.

None of the characters of this shell would lead us to
consider it as the young of any of the larger species. The
relative proportion of the different whorls, and their num-
ber, intimate that the shell is nearly at its full growth, or,
at least, that it has assumed its true form. Had any doubts
-remained on this subject, we would not have offered the
preceding description, as we are aware, that fry of several
shells hold the rank of species in the systems of British
conchologists.

This shell belongs to the section of the genus Fusus
distinguished by the absence of a pillar-cavity, and which

500 ON A REVERSED SPECIES OF FUSUS.

is known to include the Murex despectus and corneus of
British writers, as examples.

In this section, it will form a group along with the Mu-
rex contrarius of SowErzy’s Mineral Conchology, vol. i.
p- 63. tab. xxin., distinguished by the whorls being re-
versed. Perhaps they might constitute a new genus, to be
denominated Heterofusus. The Murex contrarius (now
before me), which is found in gravel-pits in Essex and Suf-
folk, and which is considered as eatinct, differs from the
recent one, which we have described, in size, and in the
shape of the whorls, the mouth, and the pillar. Our species,
indeed, acquires considerable interest from this circum-
stance, that it is the only known representative of a tribe,
inhabiting our seas at present, the Murex contrarius hav-
ing probably flourished when the seas of Europe were
peopled with a different series of molluscous animals.

MansE oF FLIsk,
February 21. 1823.

(19301)

XL.—Notice of a Specimen of the Larus ebur-
neus, or Ivory Gull, shot in Zetland; and fur-
ther Remarks on the Iceland Gull.

By Laurence Epmonpston, Esq.

(Read 8th March 1828.)

1

LARUS EBURNEUS.

Ni AM not aware that any individual of this very beauti-
ful species has been hitherto noticed as occurring on the
British coasts. The specimen now exhibited to the Society
was killed in Baltasound, Zetland, on the 13th December
last. It was remarkably lean, weighing only 10 ounces.
The length is 16 inches, the breadth 3 feet 3% inches.
The irides are stated by many ornithological writers to be
brown ; by others, as Fasricius, black: in this individual,
however, they were of a pale lead colour. The bill 1s
bluish-black at the base, gradually becoming paler towards
the point. Feet and legs black; four toes, the hind onc
being very distinct: claws black, large, and tolerably sharp
and. hooked. The tibia naked a little above the knee. The
skin is throughout covered by a profusion of remarkably
1

502 IVORY GULL.

thick, fine white down. The ground-colour of the whole
plumage is of a delicate glossy ivory-white (as the name
indicates), with brownish-black circular spots disper-
sed through it; these are very sparingly distributed on
the back and lower part of the body; most numerous on
the wing-coverts and scapulars: the tail and primaries
tipped with the same colour: the throat is mottled in a
similar manner: the dusky spots are, however, of a paler
shade, running more into each other. The forehead and
space between the eyes and bill, lead-colour. The tail con-
sists of only eleven feathers, but this may be accidental.
Its sex was very distinctly male; and I should be disposed
to consider it a bird of the second year *.

This species in its adult summer-plumage is of a snowy
whiteness, and in this state has been often and accurately
described by many naturalists. I do not, however, find
any account of its winter-dress, or whether, durmg that
season, it assumes a similar change of colour about the
head as its congenerous species.

Fasricius, in his Fauna Grenlandica, states, that it
generally keeps out at sea, seldom approaching the land ;
‘et tune admodum incautus, ut facile occidatur.” It is
little fastidious in the selection of its food, and very vora-
cious, feeding chiefly on carrion. .'The voice is harsh and
strong. The mode of breeding seems not to have been
ascertained. It is peculiarly an arctic bird, inhabiting
chiefly Spitzbergen, and the highest northern latitudes.

* Meyer describes a second year’s bird having the characters here stated.
Meyer's specimen, however, was killed in March.—Epr.

ICELAND GULL. 503

ICELAND GULL.

In my earlier observations on this bird, I had adopted
the opinion of two species existing, to which this name was
im common applied in Zetland ; the one having to the other
a relation analogous to that which exists between the Greater
and Lesser black-backed Gulls. This opinion was founded
chiefly on the great inferiority of size; greater elegance and
delicacy of form; the different markings of the plumage,
and the livelier and more active habits—of the smaller
variety. But as I had never quite assured myself of
having seen it in its mature plumage, and very seldom, till
lately, having fallen in with even the young, I was rather
inclined to believe, that what I had conceived to be a new
species, was merely an accidental variety, or the result of
my own inaccurate observation. Last spring, however, I
had an opportunity of satisfying myself of the correctness
of my first views, by obtaining possession of an individual
of this species; it was killed in Baltasound in April last ;
it was a female, though the sex was not very conspi-
cuous. |
_. This specimen, which was a very interesting one, and in
a stage of plumage exhibiting very aptly the young and
adult appearance, was sent off from Zetland, last. October,
to this city, for the inspection of the Society; but the
vessel by which it was forwarded, has been unfortunately
lost. Its size was rather smaller than that of the female
Herring-Gull, while the Great Iceland Gull, described in
the last part of the Wernerian Memoirs, is often larger
than even the Larus Marinus. The primaries were white,
still, however, retaining on their exposed edges the slight
livid hue characteristic of the immature young. The under
part of the body was white; the wing-coverts, scapulars,

504 ICELAND GULL.

and head, tinged with blue and ashy colour, of a paler
shade than what occurs on the same situations in the larger
species. The bill was smaller than even that of the Her-
ring-Gull. The inides were evidently in a state of change,
and of a dingy yellow colour ; the back was very pale blue:
in other respects it was similar to the greater species of the
same name. A specimen is exhibited, of what I conceive
to be one of these birds in its first year’s plumage, which
will illustrate some of these remarks. The difference of
size, especially of the bill, will appear very strikmg. The
general brownish ash-colour of the plumage is also paler
than in the young of the larger species of equal age; and
the dingy spots occasionally occurring on both are, in the
Lesser, fainter and less numerous. It is precisely by such
analogous differences alone, that the young of the other
species of gull are distinguished from each other. This
individual was also killed in Zetland, but its sex could not
be determined. These Lesser Iceland Gulls are much
more rarely met with than the Larger, with which they
do not appear often to mingle; but when seen accident-
ally together, the difference of size and general appearance
seems very obvious. ‘The mature plumage I believe to be
almost the same as that of the Greater Iceland Gull, or
Larus glaucus of PENNaNtT’s Arctic Zoology, and of
Latuam; and in this state it would agree precisely with
the Larus argentatus, or Silvery Gull of the same authors,
and also of Briinnicu, and the older northern natu-
ralists.

TEMMINCK, in his very able and accurate work (anuel
@ Ornithologie), seems to regard the Larus argentatus as a
mere variety of the Herring-Gull, and has transferred its
name to this latter species; considering the variety, which
he regards as chiefly consisting in the white colour of the
tips of the primaries, as the result of a residence in an are-

ICELAND GULL. 505

tic climate *; but this opinion appears partial and hypo-
thetical.

The summer-plumage of the Greater Black-backed
Gull, of the Razor-Bill, and Black Guillemot, and other
water-birds commen to the arctic and temperate ‘climates,
is the same in whatever region they are met with; yet the
plumage of the Lesser Iceland Gull remains at this, as at
every other season, quite distinct from that of the Herring-
Gull.

There is no instance of the Iceland Gull breeding in
Zetland that has ever come to my knowledge, though in
that country the Herring-Gulls are remarkably numerous.
The habits and general aspect, the size and shape of the
bill, the voice, mode of flight, shape of the wings, are all
different; nor does it attempt to alarm other birds on the
approach of the sportsman, a quality for which the Herring-
Gull is so remarkable. The young of each are also equally
distinct.

“It will also be borne in mind, that I had formed the opi-
nion of two species of Iceland Gull as early as the year 1809;
and in 1814, had sent a specimen, and full description of
the greater species to the London Museum, before I had
heard of such a name as the Larus glaucus or argentatus,
or any other synonym of these two species, whose exist-
ence and description by the older ornithologists, were till
recently forgotten, or only obscurely and indefinitely re-
membered. It was not likely that my impressions were
biassed by the opinions of others, when, from remoteness
and peculiarity of situation, my ornithological library was
confined to a book or two on British birds, and my mu-
seum to the precipices and heaths of Zetland.

“ See Captain Sazinz’s paper on the birds of Greenland, published in the
Linnean Transactions for 1818.

506 ICELAND GULL.

If this species be to be identified with any of its con-
geners, the Large Iceland Gull is that to which it is most
assimilated ; but the reasons that induce me to reject this
supposition I have already detailed. It therefore appears
to me that there does exist a Lesser as well as Greater
Iceland Gull, as we have a Greater and Lesser black-backed
Gull.

According to the celebrated naturalist before quoted
(Temmincr), the Large gulls are thus named: Larus ma-
rinus, Great black-backed Gull; £. elaucus, (fully de-
scribed by me under the name of Iceland Gull) ; L. argen-
tatus, the Herring-Gull. L. fuscws, is the Lesser black-
backed Gull. An appellation is therefore wanting for the
Lesser Iceland Gull; and the one of Jslandicus, which,
for the‘sake of precision, I proposed to apply to the Greater
species, may be transferred to the Lesser, as perpetuating
the only distinct vernacular name which they appear to
have received, and by which they have been long accurately
known to the fishermen of Zetland *.—*‘ Souvent le peuple,
qui voit sans le prestige des systemes, observe mieux que
nous, qui ne voyons quelquefois que ce que nous cherchons
a croire d’apres Popmion que nous nous sommes prelimi-
nairement formé.”—(Bicrat.)

EDINBURGH,
February 9. 1823.

* It thus appears that the young of the Lesser Iceland Gull is the Larus
glaucoides of Temminck; the old bird, the Z. argentatus of Briinnrcu.—

Epit.

ICELAND GULL. 507

Since this paper was read to the Society, I have fortu-
nately had an opportunity of examining an adult specimen
of the Lesser Iceland Gull, which was killed in the Frith
of Clyde about two months ago ; and it satisfactorily con-
firms what I have stated regarding the general appearance
of the species. ‘The back and upper wing-coverts are very
pale blue; all the rest of the plumage is white, except the
head and upper part of the neck, which are streaked with
grey, as occurs in the winter-dress of the other large gulls.
Wing-feathers and scapulars are tipped with a more bril-
liant and pure white tinge than that which occurs on the
rest of the plumage. The breadth 4 feet 4 inches, length
22 inches; iris pale yellow; bill smaller and more slender
than in the Herring-Gull; feet deep-flesh colour; toes four.
This interesting specimen I met with in the rich zoological
cabinet of my highly respected friend Cuartes Epmon-
stone, Esq. of Cardross Park.

508 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORMATION

XLI.— Observations on the Formation of the
various Lead-Spars.

By Mr James Braip, Surgeon, Leadhills ;

Contained in a Letter to CoartEs ANpERson, M.D,
M.W.S. &c. Leith.

(Read 5th April 1823.)

Dear Sir,

ir is more than four years since I first hinted to you my
opinion regarding the formation of the different lead-spars
- found in the mines here; and now, after various oppor-
tunities of repeating my observations on the same subject
(which confirm the opinion then stated), I most readily
comply with your late request, of communicating to you
my ideas on the subject, im a more extended and perfect
form, than then given.

I had not resided long at Leadhills, before the appear-
ances presented by the various spars of lead found in the
mines,—the nature of the situations in which they most
generally occur,—and the peculiar circumstances which en-

OF THE VARIOUS LEAD-SPARS. 509

able such as are conversant with mining operations, to
guess at those situations which are likely to abound with
them in greatest perfection, attracted my notice, and led
me to bestow some share of attention on the subject. I
was soon induced to think that the galena was the first
formed of the minerals occurring in this neighbourhood,
and that all the others were formed by its decomposition :
and I am strongly inclined to think that the same will be
found to be the case in every situation where lead eccurs.

To this conclusion I have been led by the following con-
siderations.

I. Galena, or sulphuret of lead, is by far the most
abundant, and generally diffused form, under which this
metal is found ; indeed, I may say it is ncomparably more
abundant than all the other lead-spars taken together.

II. I have not been able to ascertain that any one of the
various lead-spars has been found where galena was not
either immediately present, or in the vicinity of such situa-
tions, or had been wrought out in that quarter at some for-
mer period.

III. The appearance of the galena itself, in many situa-
tions, strongly evinces the reality of the change I have al-
luded to; for it may be seen in every gradation of decay,
from its being merely covered with a dusky coating in
place of its usual metallic lustre, to that state in which the
greatest part of it is reduced to a black, ora dark-blue or
grey powder.

In such situations, the cellular, or worm-eaten ore, fre-
quently shews itself, owing to this very process going on:
and still more frequently, such masses of decayed galena,
and the contiguous veinstones, are studded over with crys-

VOL. Iv. ul

510 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORMATION

tals of the various lead-spars; but most frequently, and
abundantly, with crystals of the carbonate. Indeed, speci-
mens sometimes occur with nearly all the different spars,
distinctly marked in close approximation. I have in my _
own possession a specimen 24 inches square, and 2 inches “
deep, which has in perfection every variety found here,
except the sulphate of lead.

IV. The various lead-spars occur most abundantly,
and in greatest perfection, in those very situations where
we would naturally expect to find them, on the supposition
of their being formed from the decomposition of the galena ;
namely, in those veins which are open, and full of druses,
and especially where the galena lies in detached masses, sur-
rounded either entirely, or in part, by such vein-stuff as is
readily permeable to water and air; agents, of course,
quite essential to the production of the change in question.

V. In situations where it has been necessary to cut out
solid rock in the vicinity of galena, the walls of a cavity so
formed have been found, in a few years after, to be stud-
ded over in various places with minute crystals of carbon-
ate of lead: also, the solid stones, which are sometimes left
impacted on various parts, on being brought to day, some
years after, are found to be covered with the same incrus-
tations, conveyed there, no doubt, by the agency of water.

To the same point, I may mention, that the vem-stuff,
which it is necessary to brmg to bank, and which, when
brought up, has no appearance of being any thing but
stones and rubbish, is, after bemg exposed for a few years,
found to be covered with an incrustation of mimute crystals
of carbonate and phosphate of lead, which had not been
observed when first brought to bank, owing to the very
comminuted state in which it then existed.

OF THE VARIOUS LEAD-SPARS. 511

VI. Many years ago, Mr Joun Taytor, an intelligent
overseer at Wanlockhead (about a mile from this), obser-
ving a drop of water, which was forming an incrustation
on the sides of the vein, placed a phial under the drop, to
ascertain if any crystals would be formed, by what dropt
into the phial. ‘The experiment succeeded so far, that he
had an incrustation of minute crystals formed on the bot-
tom and lower part of the inside of the phial, which he
considered as carbonate of lead. I have seen a piece of
this phial (for it was broken); about two inches of the
under part remain, and is covered with a coating of minute
splendent crystals. I must, however, remark, that no parti-
cular analysis of these has been made, so far, at least, as is
consistent with my present knowledge. 'The crystals are
too minute to allow us to ascertain, even with a magnifier,
their exact form ; but from their very splendent lustre, and
appearance in general, I have not the smallest doubt of
thew being the carbonate.

VII. I would refer those who may still feel sceptical,
candidly to examine the appearances presented by the
mines in this neighbourhood, when I think there is no
doubt that they will be fully convinced of the facts I state
being sufficient to warrant the conclusions I have drawn.
I propose to send a few specimens to Professor J AMESON,
which, beng deposited in the Museum, may afford those
who cannot ‘visit the Mines an opportunity of forming a
more correct opinion on this point, than can be done with
“out an examination of the whole in situ.

It is no difficult matter to imagine how this change may
be brought about. We know how readily sulphur combines
with oxygen, to form sulphuric acid, as is evinced m the for-
mation of sulphate of iron from iron-pyrites. The lead bemg
oxidised by the oxygen, arising from the decomposition of

it?

5128 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORMATION

water, or of air, or both; the oxide of lead will combine with
the sulphuric acid, to form sulphate of lead; carbonic acid
(which is constantly present in water) may combine with
another portion of oxide of lead, and will form the carbon-
ate; this last will be pure, dark, of various shades of black,
according to the quantity of decomposed galena present.
“If oxides of iron or copper be present, they will communi-
cate to the crystals as they form, various shades, according
to their quantity. What are called the new minerals,
namely, combinations of carbonate and sulphate of lead, in
various proportions, can be easily conceived to oecur from
being simultaneously formed, and combining as compound
crystals. As to the phosphates, I presume the acid must
be derived from the surface; and what countenances this
opinion is, that the best phosphates have been found either
not far from the surface, or in veins which seem to have a —
pretty free communication with the surface, and to have a

plentiful supply of water. I am aware that there are con-
siderable quantities of apparently solid galena, which, on
being broken, are found to contain masses of lead-spars,
of various sizes and forms, interspersed through them,
and which would seem as if necessarily formed contem-
poraneously with the consolidation of the galena. This
seemed to me, for some time, to have been in reality the
case ; and, therefore, that an exception must be made to thie
general truth of the theory I am endeavouring to advocate.
But now, I conceive that this difficulty may be easily sur-
mounted, by supposing the galena to have been consoli-
dated, with a number of these small cavities in it. Galena
in higher situations, being transformed in the manner which
I have supposed, the water which permeates the strata may
take up the carbonate of lead, and, in its course through
the neighbouring parts of the same, or other strata, may
deposit it, in a crystalline form, in situations, where, by rest

OF THE VARIOUS LEAD-SPARS. 513

and other favourable circumstances, an opportunity is of-
fered for the formation of crystals; or it may be deposited
in a massive form. I may observe farther, that galena,
abounding with such patches of the other lead-spars, is,
in general, what is brought from a considerable depth,
thus affording full opportunity for the operations I have
pointed out going forward.

I am aware of the objections which may be brought
against my hypothesis, in consequence of the insolubility
of the lead-spars, in the menstruum stated to be the
principal agent in these operations; but when it is recol-
lected that silica (a substance of equal insolubility) fre-
quently occurs in many natural craters, the objection, I
apprehend, will not be considered a very valid one.

I have stated my ideas to most of those engaged in the
works here, and I now feel myself warranted in saying,
that their opinions (and these I consider valuable) coincide
generally with that I have myself formed, and which I
have now communicated to you. —

T have frequently conversed on the subject with Prefes-
sor Invinc, whose acquirements in science, and residence
here for twenty years as agent for one of the companies,
have afforded him ample opportunity of forming correct
ideas; and these, I am happy to say, agree with my own.

I hope the few observations I thus offer, may mduce
others, more fitted for the task, to direct their attention
more particularly to this subject than has hitherto been
‘done; and any further observations I may have an oppor-
tunity of making shall be most readily communicated to you.

I remain, &c.
James Brain.

LEADHILLS,
March 4. 1823.

( 614)

—XLIT.—Description of a New Snpiee oh

Larus.
By Tuomas Stewart Traitt, M.D. F.R.S.E. &e.

(Read 8th February 1823.)

Larus ScorEssur, Scoresby’s Gull.

as Car. speciFic. Larus rostro_ forti, sanguineo ; Cruri-

bus pedibusque gjusdem coloris ; capite, colo, parti.
busque amis dilute canescentibus ; ; alis pga eaaatelnts
cauda aquali, alba. :

Gull with bill strong, and oS a vermilion-red ; legs and
Jeet of the same colour ; head, neck, and lower parts
pale ash-grey ; wings blackish ; tail even, white.

Tuts bird, which is now in the Museum of the Liver-
pool Royal Institution, appears to be a non-deseript species,
of which the characters are extremely well marked, while
it has no indication of being a gull in imperfect plumage.
It is said to frequent the frozen regions of ,the Southern
Ocean; and I have named it in honour of the celebrated
navigator of the Icy Seas. | sige

¢ for the Wern. Mem Vol. IVP, 514.

rz,

TE Je) De

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aus SCcoresbie .

if we

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EE ELIOT OLE,
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Camelus GUanaco
So. America .

516 SCORESBY’S GULL.

which reach to within half an inch of the extremity of the
tail. |

The thighs are naked a little above the knee; their co-
lour, as well as that of the legs and feet, is a deep vermilion- —
red. The claws are of a brownish-horn colour.

Nothing is known of the habits of this bird ; the skin of
which was brought by one of our ships, that was sent to
New South Shetland, for the purpose of prosecuting the
seal-fishery. By the same vessel also were received the fol-
lowing specimens:

2. Larus Catarractes. Rather smaller than the Skua of
Foula.

. Aptenodytes Magellanica.

. Aptenodytes Papuensis.

. Sturnus Magellanicus.

. Charadrius. Probably a non-descript species.

Loxia?

. Fringilla. Probably a species hitherto undescribed.

\ LatHamM.

C0 Eo Be OO

LivERPooL,

November 1822. §-

sisal halal,

XLIII.—Remarks on the Specific Characters of
Birds.

By Mr W. Macceitiivray.

(Read 22d March 1823.)

Ty laying the following observations before the Society, I
trust that, however fanciful they may at first sight appear,
they will at least receive an impartial consideration; and
if rejected as inadequate to the object in view, they may yet
not be entirely without their use, as they may tend to ex-
cite a greater degree of attention to an interesting and im-
portant subject, and prove the means of ultimately supply-
ing a desideratum in ornithology, which cannot but have
_ been deeply felt by all who have seriously engaged in that
department of natural history.

The views which I have taken of the subject, although
directed toward circumstances of general application, have
no reference to the various degrees of generic association.
I have no alterations at present to propose m the divisions

518 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

of systematic ornithology, nor is it my intention to find
fault with the grouping of specific forms as made by dif-
ferent naturalists, according to the limited or extended op-
portunities or knowledge, or faculties of perception or dis-
erimimation, which they may have possessed: my object is
to rectify a series of misapprehensions,—a want of method,
and still more of precision,—-a laxity of characterisation,
productive of a useless, tiresome, and unphilosophical
diffuseness of expression, on the one hand,—and, on the
other, of an awkward and unsuccessful wresting of marks,
not in themselves sufficiently important, to answer particu-
lar purposes, which, in many instances, may, with as much
probability of truth, be construed into a desire for celebrity,
as into a regard for the advancement of science.

The want of sufficiently precise and distinctive characters
to designate the various species of birds, cannot have passed
unobserved by any who have been in the habit of consult-
ing systematic arrangements. From the concise characters
of the great Linnzus, to the exuberant and seemingly
comprehensive ones of the justly celebrated Temmincx,
we find, among considerable diversity of method, and va-
riety of manner, few that can bear the test of critical ex-
amination. ,

Of the different modes of characterising the specific forms —
of the feathered tribes, I shall mention a few, and those the
most generally adopted, stating, at the same time, their
peculiar deficiencies; but previous to this, it becomes ne-
cessary to propose a short series of aphorisms, contaming
some of the principal points upon which the ultimate object
of all classification is founded. These aphorisms will admit
of little discussion : they are generally acknowledged truths,
and which, it is conceived, must arise spontaneously, as it
were, in the mind of any one who, in thinking seriously

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 519

upon the subject, has endeavoured to divest himself of all
prepossession. It is only further to be premised, that the
Specific characters alone, not the generic, or ordinal, or clas-
sic ones, are those which it is mtended to elucidate.

1. The characterisation of specific forms is the principal
object of systematic arrangement.

2. In a natural-history point of view, the characters are
to be taken, in zoology, from obvious, consequently from
external parts. — |

3. They must be taken from permanent and essential
organs, or circumstances.

4, From whatever circumstances the characters of the
more general or comprehensive divisions of a system or ar-
rangement, as bemg in some measure arbitrary, may be
taken; those by which specific forms are to be designated,
must be from circumstances positive, certain, fixed, deter-
minate, not liable to lead to misinterpretation or ambi-
guity.

5. Specific characters, in a logical point of view, should
be concise, positively expressed (the negative form giving
rise to misapprehension, and’ n6t presenting an image of
the object), direct, and perspicuous; essentially or intrin-
sically, they should be perfectly distinctive, whether in their
simple and individual capacity, or by comparison with
others.

This much being admitted,—and the exclusion of nega-
tive characters, which is a pomt that may be allowed or
not, is perhaps the only objectionable part,—I proceed, as
proposed, to mention a few of the more generally adopted
modes of characterising the Species of birds.

The first and most generally, in fact universally, used
character, 1s that derived from Colour, chiefly from the
colour of the plumage, To characterise the different spe-

520 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

cies of a genus, it has been thought sufficient, where the
colour was laid out in mass, a Partical tint pervading the
greater part of the plumage, to epitomise the whole by a
general expression, adding to this one or more of the
colours by which the subordinate parts were marked ; or,
where the colours were distributed in patches, to select the
most striking, or seemingly characteristic. For example :

T'rochilus moschitus ; 'T. viridescens, vertice purpureo
aurato, gutture auroreo-rutilo. Brum.

Parus major ; P. capite nigro, temporibus albis, nucha
lutea. Brum.

And various other modifications of the same principle
have been used, according to the particular circumstances
of the case.

The feathers, however, are not the only parts whose
colours have been thought of sufficient importance to fur-
nish specific characters: the bill, the eyes, the legs, the
claws, the wattles, and other appendages, have also afforded
marks of this kind. For example:

Falco communis; F. rostro coerulescente, cera iridibus
_ pedibusque luteis. Lat.
Vultur pondicerianus; V. capite collate. incarnatis,
lateribus colli caruncula, rubra. Latu.

The colour of the iris, in particular, has been assumed as
a character to which much importance has been attributed,
and which Brisson, Monracu, Temminck, and others,
seem to have regarded as an infallible criterion. ‘Thus, for
example, the last-mentioned ornithologist, in giving what
he considers as the distinctive characters of the raven and
carrion-crow, describes the iris of the first as being “a

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 521

deux cercles, gris blanc et cendré brun,” and that of the
other as “ couleur de noisette.” |

Now, in forming an estimate of the sufficiency of such
characters as these for fulfilling the objects intended, name-
ly, the distinction of specific forms, the questions which
necessarily occur are,—Do they possess the essential requi-
sites? Are they taken from obvious parts? From positive,
certain, fixed, determinate organs'or circumstances? Are
they liable to misinterpretation, or are they ambiguous?
And, lastly, are they essentially distinctive?

It may be observed, in the first place, and before pro-
ceeding to the solution of these questions, that characters
taken, not from forms, but from qualities, and those, too,

not essential, as is the case with colour, cannot well be said

to be peculiarly fitted for distinguishing specific forms.
But as this may have something ef sophistry in it, ihas-
much as specific form being an abstract idea, 1t may as well
be rendered tangible to the comprehension, through the
medium of qualities as of forms,—or, at the best, may not
be an obvious objection, the idea simply of species may be
substituted for that of specific forms.

With regard to obviousness, no one surely will deny
that these characters are taken from obvious paris; and
the quality of those obvious parts on which they depend is
not merely obvious, but that which, next to the size and
general contour of a bird, impresses itself the most forcibly
upon the mind, and, on taking a very hasty glance, it is
almost the only property fetainind by the perceptive faculty.

This, however, of itself will not constitute an incontro-
vertible qualification, for, in most respects, it is on a simi-
lar footing with Size, which, in all departments of physio-
graphy, has been not without reason rejected as a specific
character.

599 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

From positive, certain, fixed, determinate organs, they
cannot, in the true meaning of the words, be said to be
taken, inasmuch as it is merely a quality of circumstance
of such organs that they express. But let this pass; and
let the question be, Is the circumstance from which they
are taken possessed of those qualifications? It is not neces-
sary, as I shall afterwards shew, that the quality or cireum-
stance should be common to all the-varieties of a species ;
but is colour certain, fixed, and determinate in the male~
birds of a species, from which the distinctive characters are
usually taken? That it is not, every one at all acquainted
with even a very limited number of the species of birds,
knows and laments. The colours of the same species vary
in different stages of life (not reckoning those which pre-
cede maturity), in different states of plumage, at different
seasons, and in different climates. This assertion cannot
be disputed ; it is acknowledged by all: nevertheless, that
nothing which I advance as fact may seem to be deficient
in authenticity, I shall adduce examples. | ,

Colour differing in the same species, beyond maturity, is
seen in the Falco Albicilla, which, from a light-brown, be-
comes much paler, the head tinged with cinereous, and the
tail at length altogether white. Falco Butco, varies from a
deep chocolate-brown, through paler shades cf the same
colour, to white. ne

In different states of plumage, and at different seasons,
almost all birds vary in some degree: witness in particular
the Ptarmigan, the Uria Grylle, Charadrius pluvialis,
Tringa variabilis, TEM.

Climate operates like season: birds, in general, become —
whiter in arctic countries; as, Sire Bubo, Corvus Corax.

That colours are liable to misinterpretation, surely no
one will think of denying. From the very nature of colours;

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 523

from the endless combinations which they undergo, it be-.
comes, in many cases, impossible to express, and even dif-
ficult to perceive, their true relations. When we see such
vague and indeterminate expressions, as, cincreus, cineras-
cens, albus, albicans, niger, nigricans, fuscus, fusco-nigri-
cans, viridisv, trescens, ruber, rufus, rubicundus, rubescens,
rosaceus, aureus, eaneus, luteus, and find that each of these
terms, as applied to different species of birds, includes a
great variety of tints, differing widely from each other, we
cannot but perceive that no precise ideas have been at-
tached to them. A general objection, therefore, to the use
of colour as affording specific distinctions, is, that however
people may agree with regard to the principal colours, such
as white, black, brown, blue, scarcely two individuals will
be found who have precisely the same ideas with regard to.
many or most of the almost innumerable tints with which
the hand of Nature has pencilled the plumage of the aérial
wanderers. The ideas even of the best writers on this sub-
ject have been, and still continue to be, very confused, and
their descriptions of colours are often at utter variance, not
only with those of others, but even with their own depic-
tions. ‘This, however, may be thought to form no true
objection: were the statement correct, as it is believed to
be, it might not, after all, form an insuperable bar to the
use of such characters; for objects, as apparently beyond
the reach of investigation, have been illustrated, and even
specified, with great precision. And although a philoso-
phical arrangement of colours be still a desideratum in
science, it is a desideratum which may be supplied, when
persons qualified for the undertaking shall direct their at-
tention to it.

The colour of the feathers, however, as has been shewn,
and as is pretty generally felt, being deficient as a character

§24 MR MACGILLIVARY ON THE

in the essential qualities enumerated, cannot with any pro-
priety be used, should a method possessed of those quali-
ties be pointed out. It is the difficulty of finding such a
method, more than the conviction that the present one is
the most eligible, that would appear to induce ornithologi-
cal writers to adhere to this method. . |
Enough, I imagine, has been said on this subject: it re-
quires little ingenuity to shew the futility of what every
body acknowledges to be futile, however much it may re-
quire to persuade men to abandon a practice established
by authority, and sanctioned by habit. . The observations
made would be of little importance, were they not intended
as introductory to a method of characterising the species of
birds, which shall presently be announced. With this ob-
ject in view, a few more remarks may not be altogether im-
proper. |
And first, it is necessary to advert to the colour of the
iris (some have even gone so far as to notify the colours of
the down and even of the skin ; all which is very becoming
in the way of description, but can have little to do with
specific distinction), which may be thought to merit parti-
cular attention. ‘The colour of the iris forming a character,
belonging to a very delicate part, which is the most easily
altered by the action of the air, and by other causes, after
death, is seldom in a condition to be examined by the time
that a specimen comes to the hands of a naturalist. From
my own experience, I can say little more on this subject
than merely, that, being precisely in the same predicament
with the colour of the feathers, it must necessarily share
the same fate. This conclusion is corroborated by the expe-
rience of Mr Joun Witson, who will be found to possess
a stock of practical information in ornithology, which,
in a matter of fact, entitles him to much more credit

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 525

than the best systematist, or closest naturalist. The result
‘of Mr Witson’s observations is, that, in general, in his
opinion, no great reliance can be placed upon the colour of
the iris, for it varies not a little in a great proportion of the
birds which have conie through his hands. He adduces as
examples the Falco salon and F. Buteo, which, even after
being full grown, exhibit in their iris all the intermediate
tints between a deep brown and bright yellow. The iris
of the Sula alba, when young, is black, in the second year
brownish or dusky, 1 in the third whitish or light grey, and
the white becomes purer as age advances. ‘The iris of the
Sea-Eagle, or young of the Albicilla, lightens from deep
brown, or blackish, as the bird advances toward maturity,
and continues to become paler and paler long after this
period. And the same also he has observed of other birds.
The colour of the beak, the legs, the claws, and other
parts, may be somewhat more permanent; but the variety
exhibited here is of by far too little extent to afford specific
characters: the almost universal colours are, dusky, horn-
colour, and blackish, with a considerable proportion of yel-
low, and some greenish, and a few other tints; so that the
colours of these parts can only at the utmost afford: a very
casual distinction: :
Finally, Has not an adherence to colour been productive
of disjunictions which are every day becoming more appa-
rent? And have not individual species been split mto two,
three, even four, by this uncertain and misapplied distinc-
tion? The Colymbus glacialis and Immer, the Alca Torda
-and Pica, the Anas Clangula and Glaucion, the T'ringa cin-
clus and alpina, the Larus tridactylus and Rissa, and a
numerous host of other binary schisms, support in so far
the truth just stated; and for ternary and quaternary ones,
we have only to consult the Gmelinian edition of the “ Sys-
tema Nature,” and even the more precise ‘‘ Index Orni-
VOL. Iv. Mm

526 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON

thologicus” of LarHam. That this also may not be
thought deficient in proof, T shall adduce an example:

GMELIN. LatHaM.

Falco cyaneus. Falco cyaneus.
——— bohemicus. -—— europhigistus.
——— albicans. ——— griseus.
——— pygargus. ——— pygargus.
——— griseus. ——— rubiginosus.

montanus. ~——— ranivorus.
——— hudsonius.
——— Buffon.

And not only has this adherence to colour produced divi-
sions in identical species, but it has even induced systematic
authors to place at wide distances from each other animals
of precisely the same specific form. Nothing can more dis-
play our want of real knowledge in ornithology than this:
it is surely little calculated to make us proud of our ac-
quirements, when, on determing two birds to be of the
same species, we turn to our systematic arrangements, and
find these two birds not placed the one after the other, as
their natural identity would lead us to expect them, but
with the intervention of half a dozen or more species. The
Falco Albicilla and ossifragus are of this description, and
many others, which it is unnecessary and would be tedious
to enumerate. Characters, therefore, derived from colour,
are not sufficiently distinctive.

The comparative length of the tail, of the wings, and
still more of the tarsus and middle toe, are also characters
in use; but these, at least the two first, cannot ‘be of gene-
ral application, being only capable of being used occasion-
ally as a specific character, and more frequently as a divi-
sional one. The latter of these modes I cannot imagine to
be of the most trifling utility: it affords no positive cha-

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 527

racter, being founded merely upon a comparison of parts,
in themselves of little interest, in as far as regards mere
length ; nor does it appear in what respect advantage is to
be gained from knowing that the middle toe of one duck
is a quarter of an inch longer than its tarsus, or a tenth
shorter than that of another duck. No systematic ornitho-
logist has as yet thought of founding his generic characters
upon the length alone of the beak ; and, although the case
‘be somewhat different with regard to the feet, they seem
to be as little capable of affording distinctive marks for the
species.

The form of the wings, as well as of the tail, has been
used as a character; and here all the requisite qualifications
are present: but in these parts there is by no means a suf-
ficient variety of form to admit of any thing like general
application ; and, in very many cases, almost all the species
of a genus have precisely the same form of wings and of
tail. Witness the genera, Gallus, Phasianus, Sterna, Larus,
Motacilla, Phaeton, Turdus, Oriolus, &c. In fact, from
this uniformity of the wing in birds of the same genus,
TEmMtInck has derived one of his numerous generic cha-
racters.

The presence of certain appendages (or ornaments, as
we usually denominate them, forgetting that Nature pro-
duces nothing merely ornamental), such as tufts of feathers
on the head or neck, of various forms,—fleshy, cartilaginous
or bony excrescences on the same parts,—spurs oa the
legs,—and spines at the flexures of the wings, has also been
used to characterise specific forms, as in the Pavo cristatus,
the different species of the genus Crar, Phasianus cornutus,
Ph. nycthemerus, Anas gambensis, Palamedea cornuta, &c.
All these are only occasionally present, however, with the
exception of the spur on the flexure of the wing which is
nearly universal, and consequently can only furnish an oc-

Mma

5298 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON

casional, and in most instances merely an auxiliary charac-
ter. These parts, however, being in general permanent and
definite, afford, when present, very good distinetive marks.
With regard to the spur on the wing, so remarkable in the
Anas gambensis, Parra jacana, Charadrius spinosus, Pa-
lamedea cornuta, and a few others, 1 may here observe,
though this has no immediate connection with the subject,
that, so far from being’ confined to a few species, as has
hitherto been imagined, it is present in almost every bird,
though under a very slight degree of development in the
greater number. Of this fact, any one may very easily
satisfy himself. It is particularly evident, or rather pal-
pable, in the Heron tribe, among the waders in general,
and in the Gallinacese: nor do I remember a genus at pre-
sent destitute of it, excepting those birds whose wings are
so small as to be of no use for flying, such as the Apteno-
dytes, Casuarius, and one or two more. When it has ac-
quired so great a degree of elongation as to protrude be-
yond the feathers, it may be used as a character; but as
' this is very rarely the case, it cannot be of much import-
ance as affording a character of whatever kind.

The only universal character, namely, colour, therefore,
being found deficient in many essential respects, and the
others being only capable of occasional use; I would pro-
pose, as being of general application, founded upon per-
manent and essential organs, and sufficiently diversified to
comprehend a much greater number of specific forms than
any others, characters derived from the situation, form,
structure, and position, of the feathers.

The experienced botanist would smile at the idea of cha-
racterising the species of plants by the colours of their roots,
or stems, or leaves or petals, in preference to the form and
position of those parts. Is it not equally unsatisfactory to
describe the colour of a feather, of an adventitious circum-

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 529

stance liable to alteration and misapprehension, in prefe-
rence to the form and structure of that feather, qualities
essential to its existence, permanent and positive, and not
hable to misinterpretation ?

In this point of view, the matter does not seem to admit
of a doubt; and it cannot but appear singular, that if the
characters afforded by the forms of the feathers be in reali-
ty such as they have been here represented, they should
have been overlooked. _They have not, however, been ab-
solutely overlooked: as I have already mentioned, they
have occasionally served to furnish an auxiliary character
when they obtruded themselves, as it were, upon the view
by some remarkable peculiarity,—chiefly, however, elonga-
tion, and net form or structure. Ornithologists would seem
to have looked upon the plumage as one individual mass.
or aggregate ; and hence as capable of affording no other
characters than those of dulness or glossiness of surface, a
silky or harsh feel, and such like. But the moment it is
considered as composed of very numerous parts, arranged
into groups assuming a vast variety of characters, it cannot
fail to excite attention, and direct the current of thought
into a new channel. | |

By the opportunities afforded me im the course of my
duty in the Museum, of observing the varieties of plumage
in many hundreds of species, I have benefitted so far as to
see, that a better mode of characterising species than any
hitherto used, could, with some attention, be brought into
a condition fit for application. Nor is it a crude idea that
-I have presumed to force upon the notice of the Society:
it was first formed in the spring of last year, and since
then I have fully convinced myself of its practicability.

Before applying the character, it would be necessary to
form a sufficient nomenclature or termimology. This would
not be an extremely difficult task; and the number of new

530 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON

terms to be invented would not be very considerable, as
the terminology of botany would afford a great proportion
in as far as regards form,—and that of comparative ana-
tomy, or even of ornithology itself, in as far as concerns
situation. In the deficiency of. a systematic terminology,
my illustrations of the method proposed can only be limited :
but if, by selecting a few genera from among the various
tribes of birds, I shall be able to shew, that it not only
applies with great effect to them, but also affords characters
far superior to those previously used, it may be in a man-
ner taken for granted, or at least allowed as probable, that
the method is capable of being extended to the whole series.
The terms which I shall use may not be the most judicious,
in a logical pomt of view, as the object must be to present
a clear picture, and it 1s therefore necessary to use familiar,
and, at the same time, perspicuous illustrations.

The genera which have been selected for the purpose of
exhibiting the application of the method, are the following :
Gallus, Paradisea, Corvus, Ardea, and Anas; and of these
a few only of the species will be taken, as the whole would
occupy too much time. Let it, however, be understood,
that particular attention is not paid to the regular construc-
tion of the characters, according to the rules prescribed by
methodical writers, or arising necessarily from the nature
of things, it not being mtended to exhibit a specimen of
what characters ought to be with regard to verbal or logi-
eal precision, but with regard to cbvious and determined
distinctions.

GALLUS. |
GatLus Sonneratii, Jungle Cock.
G. plumis collaribus, alarum tectricibus, uropygii latera-

~ hbus, rachi complanata membranacea, nitentibus, pec-
toralibus dorsalibusque sub-ellipticis obtusis.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 531

Feathers of the neck and rump and wing-coverts having
a flattened cartilaginous shaft, and glossed; those of
the breast and back sub-elliptical obtuse.

Gattus furcatus, Fork-tailed Cock.

G. plumis collaribus rotundatis, bullosis, metallizatis,
pectoralibus elongatis, dorsalibus attenuatis obtusis
laxe marginatis.

Neck-feathers rounded, bullate, with metallic lustre,
breast-feathers elongated, dorsal attenuated obtuse,
with a loose margin.

Gattus danatus, Silk Cock.
Plumis universis, preesertim collaribus laxissimis, barbis
apice simplicibus, setosis.
All the feathers, especially those of the neck, extremely
loose; the barbs simple at the tip, and bristly. ©

PARADISEA.

ParapisgEa apoda, Common Bird of Paradise.

P. plumis hypochondriis laxissimis arcuatis, corpore lon-
gioribus acutis, rectricibus duabus intermediis, longis-
simis setosiusculis, barbulis obsoletis.

Feathers of the hypochondria extremely loose, arcuate,
longer than the body, acute; the two middle tail-
feathers very long, bristly, the barbs obsolete (or rudi-
mentary).

PaRapIsEa regia, King Bird of Paradise. —

P. plumis hypochondriis densiusculis oblongis, quadra-
tim obtusis, apice metallizatis; dorsalibus laxiusculis,
barbis setosis; pennis caudz duabus setosis longissi-
mis, apice extrorsum barbatis, gyratis. —

Feathers of the hypochondria somewhat dense, oblong,
squared at the ends, with metallic lustre; dorsal fea-

532 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON

thers somewhat loose, their barbs bristly; two very
long bristly feathers in the tail, barbed externally at
the tip, and gyrate.

PaRaDIsEa seaxsetacea, Gold-breasted Paradise-Bird.

P, plumis hypochondriis longitudine alarum laxis apice
rotundatis, rigidis, metallizatis ; capitis utrinque tribus
setosis apice barbatis.

Feathers of the hypochondria of the same lexi as the
wings, loose, rounded at the tip, stiff, with metallic
lustre ; three bristly feathers on each side of the head,
barbed at the tip.

PARADISEA nigricans.

P. plumis hypochondriis oblique tortis, quatuor posteri-
oribus in seta desinentibus simplici, abrupte curvata,
pectoralibus elongatis, lateralibus oblique curvatis, la-
tissimis, margine metallizatis.

Feathers of the hypochondria obliquely twisted, the four
posterior terminating in a simple bristle, which is
abruptly bent; side-feathers obliquely curved, very
broad, with metallic lustre on the margin.

CORVUS.

The genus Corvus may be taken next for illustration of
the method proposed. And here it is necessary to remark,
that where the forms and other qualities of feathers are not
very prominently marked, or rather not obviously singular,
it is impossible, in the deficiency of terms, to render those
forms and qualities perfectly intelligible by ordinary lan-
guage. In the genus Corvus, therefore, where some diffi-
culty exists, instead of inventing terms to express the qua-
lities of the plumage, I shall merely point out such of those
qualities as are necessary for specific distinction, in a some-

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 533

what diffuse manner, in order to be the better under-
stood.

In commencing the consideration of this genus, an inte-
resting subject of discussion presents itself in the perfect si-
milarity, with regard to colour, of two of the more gene-
rally diffused species, the Raven and Carrion Crow, species
nearly allied in habit, and, according to our present modes,
distinguishable only or chiefly by size, the first bemg about
2 feet long, the other 14. The characters, as given by
‘TEMMINCK are,

C. Corax,—Of a beautiful glossy black, with purple re-
flections, on the upper part of the body, tail much rounded
and black; beak strong, black, as well as the feet; iris
with two circles, light grey and perp ash. Length
-Q feet.

C’. Corone,—Much smaller, of a deep black, with violet
reflections, the tail slightly rounded; beak and feet black ;
iris hazel. Length 1: feet. —

And such, or of similar import, are the usual characters
given by authors. With regard to the differences, ‘* beau-
tiful glossy black, with purple reflections,” and “ deep black,
with violet reflections,” they are neither obvious nor dis-
tinctive. The fact is, no difference of the kind exists. In
both species, the whole plumage is glossy or shining, espe-
cially the back, of a deep black, tinged with purple on the
upper parts, and having a few green tints interspersed, and
tinged with green, and having a few purple tints beneath.
Colour, therefore, is out of the question. :

The more obvious distinctions are the followmg: In
C. Corax, the tail is longish, that is more than one-half the
length of the body, and much rounded, the feathers slight-
ly bent upwards: in C. Corone, the tail is moderate, that
is, about half the length of the, body, very slightly round-

534 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

ed, the feathers slightly deflected. ‘These characters, how-
ever, are not distinctive, for another species, the Cornia,
agrees precisely with the Corone, m this respect. Better
eharacters can be obtained from the plumage ; im fact, the
ronly characters that can be of sufficient weight, for the co-
lours of the iris, are neither such as 'Temmrincx has de-
scribed them, nor are they, as I have already shewn, to be
much depended upon.

In the raven, the gular feathers are elongated, raised,
compact, acuminate; in the crow, they are small, ad-
pressed, with the barbs loose at the margins ;—1in the ra-
ven, again, the cervical feathers are long and tufted, ha-
ving that soft and silky texture which produces an uniform
glossy plumage, in which the individual feathers cannot be
distinguished ; im the crow, the same feathers are mode-
rate, and have that particular texture, im which the plu-
mage appears composed of small ragged pomts.

Here, then, the method which I propose, furnishes a suf-
ficient character. :

Between the Corvus Corone and C. Cornix, the diffe-
rences in the structure of feathers are so small, though they
do palpably exist, that, for want of terms, I cannot give
any adequate idea of them. The most obvious differences
exist in the gloss of the plumage, it being perfect in the
first, and wanting in the other, and in the different form
and structure of the gular and pectoral feathers.

In the Monedula, the gular feathers are small, lax,
rounded, with the rachis downy, the vertical feathers are
compactish and distinct, those of the neck blended, soft,
and elongated.

The Pica, which is assuredly a true Corvus, is distin-
guished at once by the long cuneated tail, and the singular
form of the gular feathers, in which the barbs are few and
distant, and each feather terminated by a longish bristle,

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 535

covered at its base with a very fine down. The breast fea-
thers are rounded, compact, and abruptly separated from
the lax elongated feathers of the lower pectoral and abdo-
minal regions.

The Jay, which is also a true Corvus, is also easily dis-
tinguished by the peculiar loose texture, and elongated
form of the whole under surface and neck, as well as by
the wing coverts, which are compact and stiff.

The next tribe to which I shall apply the character, is
the great group of waders, distinguished by the name of
Ardeze.

The Common: Heron might be characterised as follows ;
A. cinerea,—Plumis verticis elongatis, attenuatis, laxis ;
cervicis inferioribus laxissimis ee elongatis,
apice producta, lmeari, acuta.

The Garzetta,—Plumis verticis elongatis laxissimis, bar-
bis simplicibus, cervicis inferioribus elongatis, laxissimis,
scapularibus ad caudze apicem protensis, tortis, barbis re-
Motissimis simplicibus secundis. 7 :

A. Agami might be characterised by the curved and h-
near form of the lateral neck feathers, the peculiar texture
of the pectoral and ventral feathers, &c.

In short, I have not been able to find any two herons
of acknowledged and mdubitable species, that did not pre-
sent obvious differences in the plumage.

Of the genera proposed, there now only remains that in
which the numerous family of ducks is included ; and here
it is, in general, easy to mark the differences.

A. atrata, for mstance, is distinguished at once by the
undulated form of the imner quills, from the white swan,
A. mollissima may be taken as an example of the great va-
riety of plumage exhibited in one and the same bird, being
peculiarly easy to distinguish, on account of the remark-
able grouping of the feathers. Those of the head are, in

3360 - MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

general, very minute, linear, cut even at the tip: a large
patch on the back of the neck, having the feathers termi-
nated by a sort of flattened stiff brush; on the back, the
feathers are very broad, and clipped, as it were, or cut
even at the ends: the mner quills are weak, and curved
outwards, so as to overlap some of the primaries. ,

In the T'adorna, there is a similar characteristic group-
ing of the feathers, affording five or six varieties of outline,
and many more of texture, &c.

Between this and the King Duck, which belongs to aie

same division, the differences are obvious and great, imde-

pendently of the protuberance at the base of the beak, or
even of the inner quills, which are curved outwards, as in
the Eider.

Anas Boschas, Querquedula, Penelope and Crecca, are
very distinct in plumage.

A. viduata, besides other obvious markings, has a singu-
lar appendage to the tip of the tail feathers, consisting of a
short bristle, with an augmented and rounded termination.

From the specimen here produced, it will be seen, that
the character proposed might apply to at least a great pro-
portion of the species of birds. My opinion is, that it
could be extended to the whole; but allowing only a par-
tial application, even this would be a matter of import-
ance; and, were the attention of ornithologists directed to-
ward this point, there can be little doubt that discoveries
would quickly be made, which would determine species
and varieties with much greater precision than can be at-
tained by attending to colour alone. I find, by an obser-
vation of TrmmMinck, regarding a species of Falco, that
VIEILLOT would seem to have attended, at least in some
“instances, to the differences exhibited in the forms of the
feathers, and it is probable others may have done so too.
As to making any claims of discovery, or imagining there

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 337

can be any great merit in observing what any person, who
has the right use of his eyes, may see, is by no means
my intention. I shall, on the contrary, be happy to find,
when I have better opportunities of extending my reading,
that others may have fostered the same ideas.

The specific characters, not only of birds, but of qua-
drupeds, fishes, reptiles, and other animals, is a subject,
which, so far from being reduced to any sort of precision,
exhibits a melancholy proof of the very limited progress,
which, after all our labour and ingenuity, often misapplied,
has been made in systematic arrangement. Until we be-
come acquainted with the ultimate causes of things, until
we have traced the whole machinery of the animated sys-
tem, and can look around from the centre of life, as it
were, upon all that complication of forms and actions which
emanate from it, we can never attain perfection in system.
At present our modes are exceedingly awkward and insuf-
ficient, and eyen lead not unfrequently to false conceptions.
How to characterise a specific form, including the two pri-
mary divisions of sex, and the various modifications of
those divisions, existing in the different relations of age,
and of forms and qualities, induced er altered by changes
in circumstanees, of climate, food, air, and other causes, is:
what we know as little, as to resolve the complicated phe-
nomena of mind to their simple elements.

The specific characters of birds are commonly taken
from adult males, in their spring plumage. <A character
of this kind, therefore, it is obvious, cannot apply in ten.
_ cases out of twelve, to the female, or other division of the
specific form; and much less to the young birds of dif-
ferent years or months. As I have just observed, we can
have no hope of becoming so intimately acquainted with
the organization of animals, as to be able to fix upon cha-
racteristic differences, that would include the whole va-

588 MR MACGILLIVRAY ON THE

rieties of a species. And knowing this, would it not be
a more judicious plan to have a series of characters, pecu-
liarly applicable to each variety of a species, in order to
discriminate or designate that form with precision? In that
case, the student,—and the mest accomplished naturalist
must never hope to be more than a student,—could deter-
mine a ‘particular animal with precision, by comparing it
with the series of specific characters. Nor is it by any
means the case, that, even from such a series, a general
character could be elicited, by taking the common points,
for, according to our present knowledge, no such common
points can be indicated. What, for example, is there in
common in the plumage, much less colour, of the very old,
middle aged, adult, third year, second year, first year,
new-fledged and nestling, male and female Goshawk? Yet
it is obvious, that, unless a specific character could compre-
hend something common to all these, it cannot be perfect.
Such a character, if elicited, would preve to be an anato-
mical one; but how far distant is modern anatomy from
the hope of this precision? Natural History does not found
her distinctions upon investigations of ternal structure:
it is from the remoter,. but to us more obvious, forms and
qualities, which are manifested at the extremity, as it were,
of the animated mass, where external causes exert their
more immediate influence, and to guard against whose en-
croachments these very forms and qualities are adapted,
being modified according to the peculiar circumstances of
each specific mode of life, that we must take our charac-
ters,—from circumstances that are more immediately with-
in our reach. Of those circumstances, surely colour cannot
be the most important, nor shall I transgress farther upon
your indulgence, by making any other remarks upon the
defects attendant upon adherence to it. The forms and
qualities of the feathers certainly do not afford characters

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. 539

comprehensive of all the varieties produced by circum-
stances; that is, the feathers are not absolutely alike in all
the stages of life; but surely no colourist can urge such an
objection as this, for it would instantly recoil upon himself.

From what I have said, it will appear, that if the method
which I propose were applied to the disputed species of
birds, and should fail to determine whether they be ‘really
distinct cr identical, this can form no objection to it. The
form of the plumage, in fact, does vary in the same species
with age; although apparently not ‘by any means so much
as colour. In the breast of the old Goshawk, for example,
the feathers are broad; in that of the young bird they are
narrow and elongated. In the first, the colour markings
are transversal ; in the other, they are longitudinal. In
this respect, the methods may ‘be even admitted to ‘be in
equilibrio. And here it may be remarked, that, between
the colour ‘and form or texture of feathers, there is a cer-
tain analogy, which, if strictly investigated, might lead to
interesting results. A particular surface, or texture of fea-
thers, seem, in general, to have a particular colour inva-
riably attached to them; insomuch, that when a feather
is described as to form, &c., we may yet be able to pro-
nounce with certainty, without seemg it, what might be its
colour.

But although form cannot identify the different varieties
of a species, it would seem probable, that when two dispu-
ted birds agree perfectly in plumage, both being of the
same genus, they must necessarily be both of one and the
same species. ‘This, for example, is the case with the Alca
Torda and Pica, with the T'’ringa alpina and Cinclus, with
the Anas Bernicla and Erythropus, and many others.

Whatever changes the same species undergoes as to co-
lour, it often happens that the form of the feather remains

unchanged ; as in the Falco buteo, where, while the colour
: 3

540 ON THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BIRDS.

varies from deep chocolate to nearly white, the feathers: are
the same in form and arrangement, whatever they may be
in regard to surface.

Although I have not, by any means, exhausted the ab.
ject, while in truth I may, on the other hand, have ex-
pressed. myself too diffusely, perhaps too vaguely, on some
points, I cannot, in prudence, continue to impose upon you
‘the irksome task of listening longer to a subject that has
already been fully announced. It is a subject that would
seem worthy of some attention ; unfortunately, however, it
requires minute, patient, strict investigation. But surely
Nature cannot be too closely interrogated, nor can the la-
bour of examining the plumage of birds be misapplied by
the ornithologist. It is to Nature herself that I make my
appeal, for the correctness of my ideas. ‘The question is
not, Are the views which I have taken such as may readily
be entered into by others; but are they such as will be
found, on examination, to lead to important results, while
they are, at the same time, founded on Nature only? ‘To
determine this question, is a task that, in all probability,
very few, or none, will readily trouble themselves with. I
shall not, however, for this be the less induced to cultivate
the subject; and if the result of my investigations prove of
such a nature as I anticipate, I may have the satisfaction
of again soliciting the attention of the Society, to a com-
munication more worthy of their notice than the present.

EDINBURGH,
28th February 1823. J

XLIV.—WNotes on the Geognosy of the Crif-Fell,
Kirkbean, and the Needle’s Eye, in Galloway.

By Professor JAMESON.

(Read 16th April 1814.)

Tne road from the town of Dumfries to New Abbey
leads through a country composed of transition rocks,
which are principally greywacke-slate, greywacke, and
transition clay-slate. One of the most interesting points in
this tract is Whinny Hill, which rises above the school-
house of the parish of Traquair, where there is a junction
of the syenite of the Crif-Fell group with the slate and other
rocks of the transition series. The syenite in this hill is
commonly of a grey, seldom of a red colour, and composed.
of grey felspar, green hornblende, grey quartz, and brown-
coloured mica. The general structure is granular; some
varieties, however, are slaty; while others, besides these
structures, exhibit also variously formed contemporaneous
portions of hornblende, of hornblende and felspar, of fel-
spar and mica, and of felspar and quartz, varying in size
from an inch to several feet in diameter, which give to

VOL. IV. Nn

5AQ PROFESSOR JAMESON’S NOTES ON

the rock a conglomerated aspect. In some of these contem-
poraneous masses the structure is simply granular, in others
it is granular and slaty, and these latter in particular have
much the appearance of broken masses; and phenomena of a
similar kind, in other parts cf Scotland, have been described
as fragments contained in granite. These pseudo-fragments
are sometimes intermixed with the syenite at their line of
junction with it ; in other instances, they gradually pass into
the bounding rock; and occasionally veins or mequalities
of the one shoot into the mass or body of the other, or there
is a mutual interlacement of the pseudo-fragment and the
syenite; and imbedded masses also occur, which are not
intermixed with the bounding rock at their junction.
These phenomena are of the same description as those we
observe with the constituent parts of granite; for the con-
cretions of felspar, quartz and mica, as is well known, are
sometimes intermixed at their line of junction with each
other, or there is no intermixture, or branches or veins
from the different concretions mutually penetrate each
other. Now, as it is universally admitted that the felspar,
quartz and mica, in granite, have crystallised at the same
time, it follows, that all mineral! ageregates, such as the
pseudo-fragments just mentioned, which exhibit similar
phenomena, are to be viewed as instances of simultaneous
or contemporaneous formation *.

There rests upon the coarse granular syenite, exhibiting |
the characters already mentioned, strata of syenite, having
the fine granular, compact, and slaty structures, ran-

ging from NE. to SW., and dipping to the SE. under an

* Even true fragments of various rocks, as of porphyry, syenite, &c,
caused by agitations during the gencral crystallisation of the rock, may oc-
eur In granite.

THE CRIF-FELL, &c. 543

angle of 60°. ‘They vary in thickness from one foot to six
or seven feet. The strata are generally straight; some-
times, however, they are waved in one part of their course,
and straight in another: in some strata the slaty structure
is throughout parallel with the seams of stratification; in
others, it is more or less waved, and the waved and parallel
structures sometimes occur together in the same stratum.
Other varieties of arrangement are observable: thus, in the
same stratum, one part will be a compact slaty syenite, in
another, a compound of felspar and mica, forming a slaty
micaceous rock, somewhat resembling gneiss. In other in-
stances, a stratum, in part of its course, will appear as slaty
syenite, while, in another, from the nearly complete exclu-
sion of all the ingredients but hornblende, will have the
character of hornblende-rock, hornblende-slate, or even
greenstone: in other cases, portions of a stratum are formed
entirely of felspar, and nearly in a compact state; or
the whole stratum, as far as it can be examined, is of
a greenish colour, and is compact felspar coloured with
hornblende. These strata of compact and slaty syenite
alternate with others of coarse granular grey syenite,
and sometimes they contain imbedded contemporaneous
portions and veins of coarse granular syenite and of felspar,
and. all of them are occasionally intersected with veins of
quartz. These interesting rocks extend for several hundred
feet from the line of junction with the great mass of syenite
of this district, and gradually pass into the more common
rocks, as greywacke slate.

. The usual transition-rocks, with syenite, continue to the
beautifully situated village of New Abbey. The hills
above New Abbey are of granite’ and syenite, in both of
which there are numerous imbedded crystals of sphene,
and rarely crystals and grains of hyacinth. Both rocks are
generally coarse granular, sometimes porphyritic, and the

nn2

544 PROFESSOR JAMESON’S NOTES ON

prevailing colour is grey, red being of comparatively rare
occurrence. In some cliffs we observed numerous pseudo-
fragments of granite in granite, of syenite in syenite, of
hornblende in syenite, of felspar in granite and syenite’;
and also contemporaneous veins of granite, of felapar and
quartz, and of felspar alone.

From New Abbey to Kirkbean, the usual transition-
slates are met with; but on approaching Carse, a watering-
place on the shore, not far from Kirkbean, rocks of the
coal-formation, more or less covered with alluvial matters,
make their appearance. To describe all the geognostical
phenomena in this quarter, would be inconsistent with the
nature of these memoranda; but a few sentences will be
sufficient to convey a very general view of the nature of
the strata. Immediately under the soil, in many places,
there is a bed of peat about a foot thick; below this a bed
of clay, a foot and upwards in thickness; next a bed of
gravel: in some places below the gravel there is a bed of
clay, and the undermost layer of the alluvial series 1s a
bed of gravel and rolled masses. The gravel and rolled
masses are fragments of rocks of the district, and therefore
are of slate, syenite, granite, sandstone, &c. ‘The alluvial
clays are sometimes impregnated with iron-pyrites, and the
percolating waters issuing from them have chalybeate pro-
perties. None of the newer secondary formations occur in
this part of the island; even those of a middle age are want-
ing, for the forination directly below that we have just de-
scribed, is one of the oldest of the secondary class,—it is
the principal coal formation. ‘The strata of this formation,
as it occurs here, are sandstone, mountain or first second-
ary limestone, abounding im petrified corals, particularly
madrepores of great beauty, slate-clay, bitummous shale,
and clay iron-stone. The positions of the strata are various,

ane afford a fine study for those interested in-such geo-

THE NEEDLE’S EYE. 545

gnostical relations. These strata, as we approach Crif-Fell,
are succeeded by transition rocks, of which the best section
I had an opportunity of examining, is in the burn of
Kirkbean, in which the following arrangement is distinctly
seen. In the burn immediately above the inn of Kirk-
bean, the rocks are of a greywacke, more or less inclined
to sandstone; these are succeeded by a thick bed of por-
phyry, and this bed by an alternating series of beds and
strata, of which the direction is NE. and SW., the dip to
SE. These extend upwards for above 200 feet to their
line of junction with the granite and syenite, of which the
Crif-Fell is principally composed, and consist of slaty syenite
and compact gneiss, which alternate with beds of coarse
granular syenite. All above the line of junction just men-
tioned is granite and syenite. The syenite is sometimes
slaty, and these slaty varieties resemble coarse granular
gneiss. Contemporaneous veins of syenite, granite, and fel-
spar, varying in magnitude from half an inch to two feet
im width, are met with; and imbedded contemporaneous
masses of various sizes and forms of syenite, and of greyish-
black porphyry, coloured with hornblende, make their ap-

‘pearance in many places.

The rocks extending from Kirkbean to the neighbour-
hood of General Duntop’s, as far as they could be seen,
were transition. About a mile beyond General Duntop’s,
the syenite of Crif-Fell crosses the high road which leads to
Colvend Kirk, and a by-path leads from this pomt down
to the alluvial land of the Carse, and to a perforated rock
named the Needle’s Eye, concerning which some interest-
ing details are given by Sir James Hatz, in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 'The rock is
composed of syenite and of slaty felspar, which are
variously intermixed with each other. The syenite is red,

546 PROFESSOR JAMESON’S NOTES ON

smaller pranular than that of the Crif-Fell, and contains im-
bedded contemporaneous pseudo-fragments of slate. This
slate, which is of a brownish-red colour, is a compound of
compact felspar, and scales of brown-coloured mica: it is
of the same nature as some of the slates at the junction on
Whinny Hill already described, and is traversed by veins
of red syenite. The slate is but a modification of the sye-
nite,—a fact which shews that the slate, syenite, and veins,
are of contemporaneous formation. A hittle to the west of
the Needle’s Eye, there are patches of a conglomerate,
composed of fragments of the various rocks of the district ;
and to the westward of these, there is a display of strata,
having the usual NE. and SW. direction, and a SE. dip
under an angle of 60°. They are principally of rocks
having a slaty structure ; and of these the following are
the chief varieties we had an opportunity of examining.
1. Slaty compact felspar, which is sometimes of a green
colour, owing to disseminated earthy hornblende. 2. Slate,
composed of compact felspar and brown-coloured- mica.
3. Slate of compact felspar and hornblende, in short, a
variety of greenstone-slate. These slaty rocks contain
beds of syenite, granite, porphyry, and compact felspar.
The syenite is of a red colour, like that of the Needle’s
Eye; and is disposed in beds of considerable thickness, which
alternate with the slate: contemporaneous portions of it oc-
cur in the slate; and veins of it, sometimes several fathoms
wide, traverse the slaty strata, which, notwithstanding their
magnitude, may be viewed as of contemporaneous forma-
tion with the strata. The porphyry is of a green colour,
-with a felspar base, and contains scales of pinchbeck-brown
mica. The compact felspar is red, has a perfect con-
choidal and splintery fracture, and is not unlike some of
the beautiful varieties of that rock found in Sweden. The
slaty rocks and the syenite rocks are traversed by veins of

THE NEEDLE’S £YE. 547

red compact felspar, and also by veins containing quartz,
heavy-spar, copper-pyrites, and copper green.

The rocks of the Needie’s Eye and the neighbourhood,
afforded to the active and enterprising mind of Sir JamzEs
Hatz proofs in favour of the Huttonian theory of the
Earth; to me they were interesting as illustrations of the
doctrine of contemporaneous formation.

548 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

XLV.—Observations on the Anatomy of the
Beaver, (Castor Fiber, Linn.), considered as
an Aquatic Animal.

By R. Knox, Esq. M.D. M.W.S.

and Member of the Medico-Chirurgical Society.

(Read 19ih April 1823.)

An opportunity having occurred to me lately of dissecting
the Canadian Beaver, a few anatomical facts presented them-
selves, which apparently have hitherto escaped notice. Of
these, one is in a remarkable manner connected with the
habits of aquatic animals, and more especially with the
power they possess of remaining for a considerable time
under water. I shall now submit an account of these to
the Society.

The specimens, two in number, were both females: their
exact weight is unknown, but the cartilaginous condition of
the bones demonstrate them to have been young animals.
During a hasty examination of the integuments, I observed
the supernumerary nail on one of the toes of the hind leg, a
peculiarity known to exist in the Beaver of the Rhine and

ANATOMY OF THE BEAVER. 549

Danube, and which, added to the general resemblance of
their respective anatomical structures, would lead us to
suppose that those of Europe and America belong not only
to the same species, but even to the same variety. The
Specimens were so far mutilated, as to prevent any exami-
nation of the head and organs of sense contained therein.
i observed, however, that the Beaver resembles many of
the Rodentia, in having hairs growing on the inside of the
mouth, near the angles; these perfectly resemble the hairs
‘covering the integuments.

As both animals had died of inflammation of the intes-
tines, producing, in one case, an extensive intus-susception,
‘I found it impossible to make minute researches either into
the structure of the internal tunic, or into the exact distri-
bution of the bloodvessels. ‘That which appeared to me
most remarkable in the sanguiferous systems of the abdo-
minal ‘viscera, was the presence of an extensive sinus,
or receptacle for the blood, situate close to and above the
liver, at the point where the peritoneal coat is reflected
from the abdomimal surface of the diaphragm ‘upon that
organ. Into this horizontal sinus entered the lower cava
and hepatic veins, and from it arose a single trunk convey-
ing the blood into the right auricle of the heart; the dia-
meter of which trunk certainly did not exceed that of the
abdominal cava, immediately on its receiving the renal
veins. ‘The foramen ovale of the heart was closed, and the
ductus arteriosus converted intc a ligament. The Eusta-
chian valve was very perfect; and another similar valve
was found at the entrance of the swperior cava into the
right auricle of the heart.

The ductus communis choledocus and pancreatic duct
entered the intestines at a distance of about 144 inches
from each other. The physiology of this part of the struc-
ture of animals is not at all understood. In general, how-

550 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

ever, it may be said, that, in the Rodentia, the passage of
the bile and pancreatic fluid into the intestines is much
apart. I consider it unnecessary to dwell on the minute
anatomy of the intestinal canal or generative organs, as it
would be difficult. to add any thing to the descriptions of
M. Cuvier, contained in the celebrated works of that dis-
tinguished anatomist. I could not perceive the least dif-
ference in the lungs from those of the class Rodentia.

The peculiarity in the structure of the venous system I
have just described, is, no doubt, connected with the habits
of the beaver as an aquatic ammal. ‘That it is exposed
occasionally to long submersion, we may readily imagine,
as well in escaping from its enemies, as passing under the
ice in winter. In some animals whose habits are similar,
we are assured that a similar venous smus exists: it has
been remarked in the seal, and in diving birds, as the duck: —
but I have observed that, in birds of this kind, the whole
venous system is remarkable for the large caliber of the ves-
sels; for their number, and for the frequent and extensive
plexuses they form in almost every part of the body. The
golden-eyed duck presents this appearance most remark-
ably.

It is extremely probable that this theory, drawn from
anatomical facts, and supported by the authority of Brvu-
MENBACH, would have been universally adopted long ago,
but for the limited views of the strictly human anatomist :
these led to some curious, but uninstructive experiments in
France, which contributed to throw the subject into still
greater confusion. The fetal circulation of the mammalia
was transferred by a false analogy to the full-grown Cetacea,
and to other aquatic animals: it was supposed that these
animals were amphibious, by reason of the peculiar distri-
bution of vessels, and of structure, enabling the blood to
pass from the right to the left side of the heart, without

ANATOMY OF THE BEAVER. 554

traversing the lungs. We now know that this false ana-
logy gave rise to many errors, and to some singularly un-
productive experiments.

Of the objections which may be offered to this opinion
of the uses of the venous sinuses in aquatic animals, one
may be urged, drawn from the apparent adequacy of the
means provided by nature, for the suspending of a function
so essential to life as the oxygenation of the blood. But
to obviate this, we may remark, that Man, who neither is
nor can become amphibious, can yet suspend his respiration
for a space of time nearly equal to six minutes. Now, if
an animal in which there exists no special apparatus for
that purpose, and aided only by the momentary congestion
of the blood in the liver, spleen and branches of the vena
portse, can suspend for so long a time the function of re-
spiration, it is not unphilosophical to suppose, that in those
furnished. with peculiar organs, such as large venous sinuses,
and numerous venous trunks of large caliber, the same func-
tion may be suspended for double, treble, or even quadruple
the time, without any inconvenience to the animal. It is
more difficult to offer the rationale of the phenomenon, and
to explain how the collecting of blood in venous trunks and
sinuses should enable an animal to dispense with a function,
on the continuance of which animal life so immediately de-
pends.

It was very generally believed, previous to the experi-
ments of Bicnat, that, in cases of suffocation, generally
_ speaking, the first imterruption to the circulation of the
blood occurred in the lungs; that, in consequence of this,
it accumulated in the pulmonary artery, right side of the
heart, and whole venous’ system. 'To explain this distribu-
tion of the blood after death, in cases of suffocation, some
very erroneous mechanical theories were brought forward,
affecting to demonstrate, that the impediments to the blood’s

3

552 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

course, arose from a compression of the capillaries of the
lungs, or from their becoming twisted in a variety of ways.
These mechanical theories, like every other mechanical
theory which has been applied to vital action, did not
stand their ground; but the fact remained unexplained,
viz. that, after death by suffocation, the venous system is
found gorged with blood, and that the obstruction to the
blood’s course seems to commence in the lungs. If this
view be correct, the advantages to be derived from addi-
tional reservoirs for the blood will be apparent; and the
fatal effects of suspended respiration may be perhaps in
the ratio of the capacities of the two systems of vessels ;
that is, if the veins be small in caliber, and few as to num-
ber, the powers of the animal to suspend respiration will
be proportionally feeble, and the distress arising from a
suspension of respiration proportionally great. (The dis-
tressing sensations occurrmg in suffocation I consider as
chiefly owing to the accumulation of blood m the right side
of the heart and in the head). On the contrary, if the
venous system be capacious, and more especially if addi-
tional reservoirs be annexed, capable of considerable dis-
tension, as we find to be the case in some Cetacea, in
the beaver, and in the diving birds, as the duck tribe,
then there will exist considerable powers of suspending
respiration at will. Perhaps we may be allowed to illus-
trate this speculation, by the fact, well known to phy-
sicians, that almost imstantaneous relief follows the ab-
straction of a few ounces of blood, in laborious respiration,
occasioned by an obstruction to the passage of the blood
through the lungs. The relief follows equally whatever
‘may be the cause of the disease, ‘whether an inflammatory
point in the organ itself, or a watery or mucous effusion,
causing obstruction. |

If we consider the distribution of the blood in the abdo-

ANATOMY OF THE BEAVER. 553

xainal cavity, we may perceive, that, even in man himself,
there exists a certain provision for its sudden accumulation
im some of the abdominal organs, as'the spleen and liver..
We are not yet acquainted with all the physiology of these
organs, though the subject has been very excellently in-
vestigated by Sir Everarp Home, in his various experi-
mental inquiries into the functions of the spleen. It would
seem that, during digestion, there is a very considerable
accumulation of blood in these two organs, and that, more-
over, the spleen is more directly filled with fluids by ve-
nous absorption from the cardiac portion of the stomach.
I had an opportunity of observing both these facts in the
examination of a horse which dropt suddenly dead in the
field. The circumstances attending his death were briefly
these: he had been hunted during the morning for about
five hours of a very hot day, and baited at noon; he was
a powerful horse, and his rider did not exceed ten stone
weight. As the horses came in very warm from the chase,
great care was taken that they should eat previously to
drinking water, and they were accordingly allowed to graze
for somewhat more than an hour, and then to drink at will.
The subject of the present history was cbserved to do as

the rest. The lapse of a few minutes occurred at saddling,

and they were rode off gently at a moderate trot; but be-
fore proceeding three hundred yards, the animal began to
stagger, drew up his legs under him, and in a few seconds
expired. Naturally anxious to ascertain the cause of death,

LT examined him unmediately after. ‘The heart and lungs

were apparently sound, the stomach quite full of food, but
did not contain a drop of liquid ; the spleen moderately full
of blood; but we all observed the deficiency of blood in
the integuments and in the abdominal viscera generally, as
also'in the limbs, so much so, that no blood followed the
WACISLONS by which the abdominal and thoracic cavities were

554 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

exposed. An explanation, however, of this scon offered,
for, on plunging the knife into the liver, the blood gushed
out in such quantities as presently to fill the whole abdo-
minal cavity; it seemed as if the entire mass of blood. na-
turally belonging to the animal had been accumulated in
this viscus only. ‘The real cause of death seems to me
obscure; but the facts are valuable in so far as they illus-
trate the physiology of these organs.

The observations I have had the honour to detail to the
Society seem sufficient to establish, as a general theory,
that the power of suspending respiration, possessed by
aquatic animals, is connected with a peculiar formation of
their venous system. An ingenious friend, Mr Tuomas
Hopexins, has endeavoured to shew, that the spleen, in
man, is intended as a reservoir for the blood, in cases of
altered circulation ; but it is probable that the whole system
of the vena porte assists in this function. Moreover, if this
were really a function peculiar to the spleen, we ought to
find this organ proportionally largely developed in aquatic
animals, which is not the case.

I have already remarked, that there exist valves at the
mouths of the vene cave, where they expand into the right
auricle of the heart. The physiology of these valves is not
very well understood, and must necessarily remain obscure,
from the circumstance of their being occasionally absent or
present, withopt any general law explanatory of this fact
having been traced. Every anatomist knows, that im man
the Eustachian valve is sometimes very large in the adult,
at other times scarcely perceptible. It exists in animals of
various classes, without our being able to trace any con-
necting physiological theory.

In all the animals I have dissected, 1t has uniformly ap-
peared to be strictly membranous, and to bear a close
resemblance to other valves found in veins. It 1s incom.

ANATOMY OF THE BEAVER. 555

plete, constituting only a semicircle, and can never shut
the orifice of the vein against the reflux of blood from the
right auricle. From these observations, I have been long
in the habit of considering these semi-valves as quite ana-
Jogous to the other valves of the venous system; but I
readily admit, that much more extended researches into
the comparative anatomy of these organs are required, be-
fore the physiologist can venture to decide on their func.
tions.

559 PROFESSOR JAMESON’S SPECULATIONS

XLVI.—Speculations in regard to the Formation
of Opal, Wood-stone, and Diamond.

By Professor J AMESON.

(Read 22d February 1823.)

if SHALL now offer a few observations on the natural history
of the Diamond, with the view of shewing that its geognos-
.tical distribution and modes of formation are probably more
varied than has been generally believed. As opal and
hornstone agree in many of their geognostical relations with
carbon, the essential ingredient of diamond, we shall first
trace the various modes of distribution of these mierals,
and then those of the diamond, in order to shew that they
have been formed in the same manner, and that all of
them appear to be still forming on the surface of the earth,
in the newest alluvial formations, and probably even in
vegetables.

1. Opai.—-Opal, which is a hydrate of silica, and emi-
nently distinguished by the beauty of its range of external
characters,—occurs in small vems and imbedded portions,

ON THE DIAMOND, OPAL, &c. 557

in various primitive rocks. But its principal distribution
is in rocks of the secondary class, particularly in traps and
porphyries. In these it is arranged in veins, drusy eavities,
and imbedded masses, and assumes the various forms of
precious opal, common opal, semi-opal, wood-opal, and
menilite. ‘The menilite and wood-opal are the most mo-
dern of these,—the first occurring imbedded in the adhe-
sive slate of the Paris formation, the other in tuffaceous
rocks, of the nature of trachyte. The opals are found
sometimes so soft, that they can be flattened between
the fingers. The alluvial rocks are not without opal,
for it is daily forming by deposition, from the waters
of various springs, particularly hot springs, as those of Ice-
land. From the magnitude and abundance of these
springs, in many regions of the earth, and the quantity of
siliceous matter they deposite, we can form a general esti-
mate of the great quantity of opaline matter formed in this
way. We have now traced opal, from the primitive to the
newest rocks, thus proving that it is one of those minerals
which have an extensive geognostical range, and which are
still forming in the mineral kingdom ; but one of the most in-
teresting features in its natural history remains to be noticed.
I allude to its fermation by the organic powers of plants.
It is well known to botanists, that silica occurs in conside-
rable abundance in several tribes of plants, and that it
communicates to the parts of the plants containing it, a
considerable degree of hardness. ‘The Bamboo is one of
the most remarkable in this respect, as the earth it con-
tains occurs not only tn the vegetable structure itself, but is
secreted from it, and appears in the joints of the plant, in
solid masses, named Tabasheer, and which bear a strong
resemblance to opal. We have thus shewn that opal is a
formation of primitive, secondary, and alluvial strata; and
finally, that it is a product of vegetables.
VOL. IV. 00

558 PROFESSOR JAMESON’S NOTES

2. Hornstone.—We shall next trace the distmbutron
and formation of hornstones This mineral, which, m its
pure state, is principally composed of silica, occurs im
considerable abundance in several primitive rocks. It.
appears also in rocks of the transition-class, and is asso-
elated with different secondary rock formations. W ood,
penetrated with hornstone, occurs occasionally in alluvial
strata, as in clays and sands of various kinds, and ex-.
hibiting such characters, as shew that the petrifaction or
penetration of the wood with the hornstone, had taken
place in it after it was enveloped in the clays and sands.
Like opal, hornstone seems to be a product of vegetable
origin; for the specimen which I now exhibit to the
Society is a variety of woodstone. ‘This remarkable spe-
cimen, which is 18 inches long, 5 inches thick, and 8 inches:
broad, was torn from the interior of a log of teakwood
(Tectona grandis), in one of the dock-yards at Calcutta.
The carpenters, on sawing the log of teakwood, were ar-
rested in their progress by a hard body, which they found
to be interlaced with the fibres of the wood, and, on cut-
ting round, extracted the specimen now on the table. ‘This
fact naturally led me to conjecture, that the mass of wood-
stone had been secreted by the tree, and that m this parti-
cular case, a greater quantity of silica than usual had been
deposited ; in short, that this portion of the trunk of the tree
had become silicified, thus offering to our observation in
vegetables, a case analogous to the ossifications that take
place in the animal system. I was further led to suppose,
that this wood might contain silica in considerable quantity,
as.one of its constituent parts, a conjecture which was con-
firmed by some experiments made by Dr Wotzaston.
Other woods appear also to contain silica, and these, in all
probability, will occasionally have portions of their structure
highly impregnated with silica, forming masses which will

GN THE DIAMOND, OPAL, &c. _ 559

present the principal characters of petrified wood. Indeed,
I think it probable, that some of the petrified woods in
cabinets, are portions of trees that have been silicified by
the living powers of the vegetable, and not trunks or
branches which have been petrified or silicified by a mere
mineral process.

_ 8. Diamond.—Having now shewn that opal and horn-
stone extend in this series of rock-formations, from the pri-
mitive to the newest alluvial rocks, and that both appear to
be forming in vegetables of particular kinds, we shall next
endeavour to shew that the same is probably the case with
the diamond. The diamond, as is well known, is carbon in
a pure and highly crystallised state,—and although carbon is
a very generally distributed substance, it has hitherto occur-
red but very sparingly in its pure and crystallised state, or
in that of the diamond. Primitive rocks, of almost every
description, contain carbon,—either in the state of an acid,
forming carbonic acid, as in the carbonates of lime and
magnesia,—or in the state of an oxide, as in glance or
metallic coal,—or in graphite or black lead, which is also
an oxide of carbon, but of a different nature from that in
glance-coal,—-and, from information lately obtamed from
India, even carbon, in its purest state, in the form of
diamond, is said to oceur imbedded in a heating
quartz, subordinate to clay-slate.

Greywacke, and other rocks of the transition class, con-
tain graphite and glance-coal, but hitherto have afforded
no traces of the diamond. Graphite and glance-coal occur
in considerable beds in formations of the secondary class.
The diamond, according to different authors, is met with
in trap-tuffas, in sandstone, and in amygdaloids of the se-
condary series. But the geognostical distribution of this
gem does not appear to terminate here, for we are as-
sured by those who have attended to its situation in the

002

560 PROFESSOR JAMESON’S- NOTES

earth,. that it is‘ found in alluvial beds of clay, not as a
secondary deposite,. but as: an original one; in’ short,
that the diamond continues to form, or to’ use a more
common language, to grow in alluvial districts m India.
This opinion is not improbable, and nothing more seems
to be necessary for the formation of the diamond im such
situations, than tne, or. other favourable circumstances,
for allowing portions of the carbonaceous matter in the soik
to be reduced to the adamantine state, and afterwards to
coalesce, according to the laws of affinity, into the granular
and crystallised form,—in short, to form diamond. The
gradual formation of calcareous grains, crystals and masses
of calcareous spar in clays, of siliceous compounds in simi-
lar rocks, appears to be occasioned by the gradual concen-
tration of the calcareous and siliceous particles by some at-
tractive power, in the same manner as we conceive diamonds
may have been formed by the concentration of particles of
carbon. :

The preceding details, in regard to opal and horn-
stone, naturally lead us to inquire, if it is probable
that the diamond, like these substances, is occasionally
formed by the powers of vegetation? Reasoning 4 priori,
we would:say it is much more likely that some plants.would
produce diamonds, than that they would secrete siliceous
matter in a state fit to form opal and hornstone, because
diamond is but carbon, the principal constituent part of
plants, in a peculiar state; whereas the silica of the opal
and hornstone are subordinate ingredients in vegetation.
But a direct appeal to the characters of some woods seem
to countenance the idea I some years ago suggested in the
Society, that vegetables may contain carbonaceous matter
approaching to the adamantine state. Certain woods which
have not the gritty feel of those that contain silica, ave un-
commonly hard, dark-coloured, and take a_high polish;

ON THE DIAMOND, OPAL, Ac. 561

these I conjecture, may be somewhat of an adamantine
nature. If this should prove to be the case, it would neither
be surprising nor unexpected, that such trees may secrete
carbon in the adamantine state, which, on being removed
from the influence of the living principle of the plant,
would, by the power of affinity, form into true diamonds,—
just as the silica secreted from the bamboo takes the form
of opal, and that from teakwood the characters of horn-
stone.

‘The preceding statement, then, seems to give plausibility
to the idea, that some sorts of trees may be characterised
by the power of forming a mineral matter of the nature of
hornstone; that others secrete silica, which assumes the
character of opal; while others may possess the power of
secreting and forming diamonds. |

It may be added, that the carbonate of lime, which oc-
~eurs in all the rock formations, from the primitive granite
to the newest alluvial formation, is one of the mineral sub-
stances secreted by vegetables. Some lichens and the chara
‘tribe afford remarkable examples of this fact.

( 562 )

RAIDEN TT RVR ARIA REUNITE LATIN FY
i a

XLVIL—Notice regarding the Map of Mac-
kenzie’s River by Mr W. F. Wenzzt, of the
North-West Pur Company.

(Read 22d March 1823.)

Tus valuable map was transmitted to Professor JAME-
son, for publication in the Society’s Memoirs, and is the
most satisfactory delimeation of the celebrated Mackenzie’s
River hitherto presented to the public. Besides the de-
tails in the map itself, others of importance are contained —
in the article ‘‘ On the attempts to reach the Sea by Mac- _
kenzie’s River,” published in the first part of the present —
volume of Memoirs. In addition to these the following
notices have been communicated.

Horn Mountain Indians, are a tribe of the Dog-rib na-
tion. They speak the Chepewyan language, amount to
about 600 souls, and inhabit the country between Great
Bear and Slave Lakes.

Hare Indians speak a dialect of the Chepewyan, but
their number is unknown.

Loucheua Indians perforate the septum. of their nose,
resemble the Esquimaux in their dress, and are supposed
to speak a dialect of the Esquimaux language. Number
unknown. ;

* er

———

PLATE XVIL.

1a

—.

~~ RVEY
s\ ~~ Op = |

WR eNeres RIVER

ME WF. WENTZEL OF

Ang! far the. Were Memeirs Fol TOP

| the North West Fur Com pany.

oucheux India,

|
i 7
|, i Lcrur Leeyres es
Fort Good Hope Re EG eo A iret
|

&

L

| os

p

|
}

| |
? Laid |
o} |

Point

Country

syuirmaux

vi
‘

i

\a0¢a

ISS:
a eae Bear Like
Six davs wath | \\\ Lorlages

— Fev north to South

x
N
:
4
+

Q fe days wedlhactlps

BEAR

Y Roucann

e. 1 ee Ye)
4 Cross ™~
Roche ¥
MPU? Norme - |

peal eat

foun tary

Ny | | , ;

ih J = . [heBatse Tae)
tvInd . Pes zs not

The lndivsrtie pp ace Va Lf re ‘ fourd beneath the kok

come to theFares oy
gan
a s
le a ed
Rapiaggyee7y ;

- | a. f Nexde ligrhe ©
| 7 ot = - i ~
Large limb, ge i i ‘ } ¥
Wallies Tteorn fe f 7 of: ‘e
Patcantccitiee he AJ 4%
i | 3
a ] a=
5 , m Xe

SL LZean dy duerre

Strong!

1 Plain,
Sf whiley
carth |

SQ LF Xilornk.
‘ = a Led For Tittle
R B s y 2 " R oe) Fare Lake
ai famite wide ‘ ‘

wermuddy mach drife timber

Med IBL3,

Deeale: vk)
Way Riv. fence From little Adabaage
Furs are carried fr hence tn the Minter,

6 Lair ey

MAP OF MACKENZIE’S RIVER. 563

Rocky Mountain Indians. Number about 160 souls,—
speak a dialect of Chepewyan.

Strong-Bow Indians. They frequent the country from
Fort Nelson to the forks of Mackenzie’s River, and muster
about 280 souls. They speak Chepewyan, as:do all those

tribes that are known in that quarter, except the Lou-
cheux.

Ranges of Mountains. —The natives speak of there being
eleven distinct ranges of the Rocky Mountains, which lie
parallel to each other, and have a general direction from
north to south.

Edible Earth—An edible earth is found below the
JSorks, which is described as unctuous clay, which the In-
_dians eat from choice.

Meteoric Stone.—The Strong-Bow Indians observed a
meteoric stone, several feet in diameter, to fall from the
sky. It had a bad smell, and its fall was attended with a
report like thunder. The year is unknown, but it was
since 1795, when the traders first established themselves
there. :

Petrifying Spring.—There 1s a petrifying spring about
_ forty miles above the forks. ‘The petrifactions are as white
as snow, and the spring issues from a stone of a light-grey
colour, which is used for grinding tools, and is supposed to _
be a kind of calcareous sandstone. The river cuts this bed
of stone into two, and produces a small cascade.

Flints or Calcedonies—Above the Montagne de Bou-
_ Jeau, on the Riviere aux Liards, there are many stones
described as flints, but which appear, in general, rather to
be varieties of calcedony; the colours are black, blue,
milk-white,. and veined, clouded and striped; the blackish
varieties are softer than the others; and all have a thin
yellowish coat or crust. Flint or caleedony is found im all
parts of Mackenzie's river, and is used by the natives to tip

their arrows with.

564 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES OF

XLVIII.—Observations on some Species of the
Genus Vermiculum of Monracu.

By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D.D. F.R.S. E.
M.W.S. &c. Minister of Flisk.

(Read 5th Apri 1823.)

In the “* Testacea Britannica,” the late Mr Monracv,
in the first section of his genus Vermiculum, has given a
description of five shells, which now belong to the more
recent genus Miliola. 'These descriptions, however, are
scarcely sufficient to enable the young conchologist to iden-
tify the species, even when assisted by the figures which
he has added, or those of Watker, in the “ Testacea
minuta rariora,” to which he has referred. In order to
establish satisfactory specific characters, the permanent
conditions of the mouth must be attended to, rather than
the variable forms of the chambers. Under this impression,
I shall here give the distinguishmg marks of four species,
accompanied by figures of their appearance when mayni-

fied.

&

1. V. intortum. Test. Brit. 520. Mouth compressed,
with a simple tooth attached to the side next the body.

THE GENUS VERMICULUM OF MONTAGU. 565

Plate XV. fig. 3. a and b, each side of the body; ¢, the
mouth; d, a lateral view of the tooth.

This species appears to be the Serpula seminulum of
Liynavus,—the Serpula subovalis umbilico pervio of Wau-
KER, Test. Min. tab. 1. f. 1.,—and the Serpula ovalis of
Avams, Linn. Trans. vol. v. p. 4. tab. 1. fig. 28. 29. 30.
The shell is in general a little compressed, and the external
margin subacute. ‘Three chambers are usually visible on
one side, and four on the other. These are slightly striated
across, and have the limits of separation well defined. The
tooth is a triangular thin plate, a little recurved at the tip,
and so persistent as frequently to remain after the outer
side of the chamber has been destroyed.

2. V. oblongum. Test. Brit. 522. tab. 14. f.9. Mouth
round, with a pedunculated forked tooth. Plate XV. fig. 4.
d, e, each side of the body; ,f, the mouth and tooth.

Three chambers are usually visible on one side, and two
on the other. In the first, the middle chamber is partially
embraced by the outer ones, so that a shallow depression is
formed at the outside of the line of junction. On the other
side of the shell a similar depression is observable, and pro-
duced by the margin of the last chamber rising on the side
of the second. ‘The chambers are rounded externally.

3. V. subrotundum. Test. Brit. 521. Mouth depressed,
toothless. Plate XV. fig. 5. g and h, each side of the body ;
4, the mouth. :

This appears to be the Serpula subrotunda dorso elevato
of Watker’s Test. Min. tab. 1. f. 4. This shell differs
from the two preceding species in being globular. The
chambers are three, sometimes four in number, inflated and
wrinkled. The fourth chamber, when present, seems al-

ways imperfectly formed.

566 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME SPECIES OF

"These three species occur on corallines, &c. in abundance
on all parts of the coast. They are slightly translucent and
glossy, when recent, but, like other shells, they become
after death opake and dull by maceration. ‘They seldom
exceed the tenth of an inch in size. Their inhabitants are
unknown. ‘The V. bicorne (including the V. POAT as
a synonyme) has never-occurred to me.

A. V.lactewm. ‘Test. Brit. 522.

This species differs so widely from the preceding ones
in structure, as to justify us im considering it as the type
of another genus. In these, the second chamber is placed
at the end of the first, in such a manner as that its mouth
has the same aspect as the base of the preceding one. The
base of the third chamber, taking its rise from the mouth
of the second, stretches along the remaining side of the
first, and has its mouth formed so as to possess the same
aspect. ‘Thus the mouths of the chambers are placed al-
ternately at the opposite ends of that line which is parallel
with the direction of growth. In the V. dactea, on the other
hand, the cells are arranged obliquely and alternately along
an axis, with the mouths of all the chambers always having
an aspect towards the same pole, as is represented at Plate
XV. fig. 6. where & and Z are representations of each side
of the body, and m of the mouth.

The chambers are ovate, and well defined on one side;
but they appear less numerous and distinct on the other.
The chambers become narrower towards the mouth, which
is in the form of a small circular aperture. The whole shell
is delicately transparent, with the inner walls of the cham-
bers appearing as white veins. ‘The specimen figured by
Watker as Serpula tenuis ovalis levis (Test. Min. tab. 1.
f. 5.), is probably a young individual. I am, however,
more disposed to refer the species before me to the V. /ac-

THE GENUS VERMICULUM OF MONTAGU. 567

tewm, from the character of being pellucid, with milky
veins, than from its resemblance to the figure quoted. A
remark, indeed, of Monraev, who was in possession of the
specimens and the drawings of Waker, weakens the con-
fidence we might otherwise have been disposed to place in
the accuracy of the engravings in the Test. Min. “ Indeed
we perceive so considerable a difference between the original
drawings of this (Nautilus calcar) and other shells of
Watker, and the engravings taken from them, that we
should scarce have known them to be the same, had they
not been marked with the same numbers.” ‘Test. Brit.
p. 190. I have only observed this species in sea-sand from
Zetland.

Manse or Ftisx,
April 14, 1823.

XLIX.—WNotice in regard to Marine Shells
found in the Line of the Ardrossan Canal.

By Captain Laskey.

(Read 8th January 1814.)

On cutting through a bed of sand and clay, which is
about forty feet above the level of the present bed of the
Clyde, nearly four miles from Glasgow, and in the line of the
Ardrossan Canal, a considerable accumulation of marine
shells was met with. ‘The sands and clays are of the same
nature with those that form the immediate shores and bot-
tom of the Clyde, and hence it is probable that they were
deposited in their present situation by the salt waters of the
Frith of Clyde. This opinion is further illustrated by his-
torical tradition, for it is reported that vessels of large size
were at a former time able to navigate the Clyde beyond
Rutherglen; and we are told that the remains of a boat
were found at the depth of twelve feet, in digging out the
foundation of the Tontine Inn in Glasgow, which is at pre-
sent at a considerable distance from the banks of the river.
The following shells were collected :

FOSSIL MARINE SHELLS. §69

Turbo littoreus.
rudis.
teretra.

Arca minuta.

nucleus.

Patella pellucida.
vulgaris.

Buccinum lapillus.

Mytilus edulis.

Pecten opercularis.

Venus Islandica.

Venus striata.
literata.
Balanus communis.
Buccinum undatum.
Anomia ephippium.
Tellina plana.
Cardium echinatum.
Nerita littoralis.
glaucina.
Mya truncata.
Trochus erassus.

All these still inhabit the Frith of Clyde and its shores,
but occur only below Dumbarton, or where the water is

constantly salt.

APEEN DIX,

HISTORY

OF THE

POC Py:

(Continued from Vol. LIT. p. 541.):

In consequence of the unusual number of visitors to-day,
desirous of witnessing the opening of the Mummy from
Thebes, presented to the Museum of the University by
Colonel Stratton, it was found necessary to adjourn from
the Hall of the Society, and to delay the reading of the
papers announced.

In the lecture-room of the Professor of Natural History,
the Mummy was opened by direction of Colonel Srrarron,
who was present, and gave various explanations. It proved
to be a female of the Arab-European race, and of very high
-antiquity.

Professor JamEson read a notice by Mr Blackadder,
W. S. of the Sounds emitted by Woods or Forests on the
approach of Storms; likewise a communication from the
Rey. Mr Jameson regarding a remarkable Scotch Terrier.
Mr Deuchar continued his Account of Experiments on

1821.
Jan. 2h,

Feb. 10.

1821.
Feb. 24.

1821.

March 10.

1821.

March 24.

fy 6 APPENDIX.

Flame, made with Colonel Yule’s apparatus for dischar-
ging ordnance.

Mr Bald read an Account of the Discovery of an Ele-
phant’s Tusk in an alluvial clay, in the course of digging
the Union Canal. The Secretary read-a note communi-
cated by Mr Trevelyan, of an Experiment made at Howick,
by inclosing a living 'Toad in a small chamber under ground
for the space of more than two years, at the end of which
time the animal appeared as healthy as when inclosed.
Professor Jameson read the first part of an account of the
Proteus anguina, by Signor Configliachi, communicated by
Daniel Ellis, Esq. A fine specimen of the Musk Ox, shot
on Melville Island by Captain Parry, and presented to the
Royal Museum of the University by Lord Melville, was
exhibited; and the preparation having been made with —
great care and success, excited general admiration. Pro-
fessor Jameson, at the same time, made some remarks illus-
trative of the habits and manners of the animal.

Mr Trevelyan read a Geognostic Account of the Rocks in
the neighbourhood of Bamborough Castle, accompanying
his description with Specimens and Plans. Dr Knox read
a notice respecting a Caffre Albino. Mr Deuchar laid be-
fore the Society the conclusion of his Experiments on
Flame, and also gave an Account of three very large
Loadstones brought from Moscow.

The Secretary read Mr Edmondston’s Account of a new
Species of Gull from Shetland, the Larus Islandicus ;
likewise, Remarks by Mr Burke on a Tartar Book, pre-
sented by the Marquis of Hastings to Professor Jameson,
for the College Museum; and Notices, by Mr Trevelyan,
of some remarkable Hail-showers which have of late years

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 573

occurred in England. Professor Jameson then gave a Ge-
neral Account of Mr Anderson’s Geognostic Survey of the
Country around Inverness, and of the Great Glen of Scot-
land, illustrating his description by a reference to a Plan of
the district. The Professor then exhibited a very fine pre-
pared specimen of the Tapir of Malacca, and the Jungle-
Cock of India, making remarks on the habits of these ani-
mals.

The Funeral of Professor Dr Gregory having been

fixed for this day, the Society did not. proceed to business,
but immediately adjourned the Meeting till next Saturday,
the 14th instant.

The Secretary read an account of Meteorological Ob-
servations made at Clunie, in Perthshire, by the Reverend

Mr Macritchie ; also the Description of a very large Fossil.

Reed, or Tree, which occurred in the sandstone of the

Coal Formation on the coast of Northumberland, illustrated:

by an Etching by Mr Trevelyan; and a Notice regarding
the Extent of the Plantations of the Duke of Athol in

Perthshire, by Mr Graham. Professor Jameson then gave
the Society an account of a Map of the Interior of Africa, _

illustrating the Course of the Niger, constructed by Mr

Macqueen of Glasgow ; and also read a Series of Observa-

tions on the Metamorphoses of some of the minute Algee.

The Secretary read a Biographical Memoir of. the late
Dr William Wright, communicated by the Doctor’s rela-
tives. Professor Jameson then read a communication from
Dr Fleming, deseribing the growth of a plant resembling
a Trichia, in a solution of succinate of ammonia, illustrated
with a drawing.

VOL. Iv. Pp

1821.
April 7.

April 14.

April 21.

1821.
May 19.

Nov. 17s.

Dec. ke

Dee. 15.

oT4 APPENDIX.

Professor Jameson read a series of Meteorological Ob-
servations made at the Cape of Good Hope, by Dr Knox.
The Secretary then read a Notice by Mr Falconar regard-
ing the T'udléipa oculus solis, and also exhibited a flowering
specimen of Iris sordida from Carlowrie. Mr Deuchar then
read his Explanation of a Cause for the Occurrence of Drops
of Water in the interior of regularly shaped Crystals.

The Secretary read. two communications from Captain
Scoresby junior ; one containing further Remarks on the
Impregnation of Wood by Sea-water, when sunk to great
depths; and the other on the Cause of Fogs in the Green-
land Seas. Likewise a Letter from Dr Fleming to Profes-
sor Jameson, giving a short account of an Excursion round
the North-West of Scotland; and also a Letter from Mr
Anderson to the Professor, stating correctly the Boundaries
of the District of Primitive Rocks in Orkney. Professor
Jameson communicated to the Society a Letter from Dr
Oudney, mentioning the object of the Expedition to Africa,
in which he was about to embark: also a Note from Mr
Barrow, secretary to the Admiralty, relative to the Progress
of the Arctic Overland Expedition; and Extracts of a
Letter to Professor Jameson, from Dr Richardson, Natu-
ralist tothe Expedition, giving an Account of the general
Geognostical Features of the Country they had traversed.

Professor Jameson laid before the Society a communica-
tion on the Crystallisations of Copper-Pyrites, by Mr Hai-
denger of Freyberg.

The Secretary read, lst, A Notice regarding the Fossil
Animal of Whitby, contained in a Letter from the Rev.
Mr Young, addressed to Professor Jameson; 2d, Meteoro-
logical Observations, made during a long residence on the

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 575

north side of the Island of Jamaica, by Dr Arnold; and,
3d, Observations, by Captain Wauchope, R.N., on the
‘Temperature of the Ocean at different Depths,—on the
Indications of the Weather, afforded by the Barometer, off
the Cape of Good Hope,—and on the Under-Currents. ob-
servable in the Ocean, generally flowing in a direction dif-
ferent from the Surface-Current. Dr Yule then read some
Remarks on the Calamus Rotang, a very fine specimen of
which, originally 250 feet in length, was exhibited.

The Secretary read a Letter, from Mr Young of Whit-
by to Professor Jameson, contaming a further Account of
the Bones of Elephants, Hyzenas, &c. found in the Kirk-
dale Cavern, Yorkshire; 2. A Letter regarding the Arctic
Land-Expedition, communicated by the Earl of Dalhousie,
Governor of Canada, to Principal Baird, dated 16th April
1821, at the Winter-quarters (Fort Enterprize) of the
Expedition, in Lat. 64° 28’, and W. Long. 113° 0.6, bemg
1338 miles directly North from Fort Providence, and 56
geographical miles South of Copper-Mine River, which
had been visited by some of the party, and reported to be
navigable. Mr Greville then read an Account of several

Fungi new to Scotland.

Mr Greville read the Description of a new species of
Grimmia found in the King’s Park at Edinburgh. The
Secretary read Extracts from Mr Selby’s List of Birds
which occur in Northumberland; likewise the first part of
Dr Adam of Calcutta’s Account of a District of Country
between the Jumna and Nerbuddah; and a Letter from
Mr Bald relative to the Girvan Coalfield in the south-west
of Scotland.

Pp2

1829.
Jan. 12.

1822.
Jan. 26.

Feb. 9.

Beb. 23.

March 9.

576 APPENDIX.

Professor Jameson read Dr Boué’s Account of the Rocks
of Germany, illustrating the demonstration by sketches, &e.
The Secretary read the account of the Diamond Mines in
the district between the Jumna: and the Nerbuddah, by
Dr Adam of Calcutta. Mr Greville gave an account of
Two New Plants of the Order Alga, found im Scotland ;
and the Reverend Mr Nelson read Extracts of a Letter
from Dr Oudney, one of the gentlemen sent by Govern-
ment to explore the Interior of Africa, dated Tripoli, the
end of October last..

Fhe Secretary read a communication from Mr Macgil-
livray, describing Two remarkable Varieties of the Nuphar
lutea, found in the Corby Loch, near Aberdeen. Profes-
sor Jameson read a notice in regard to Twin-Crystals of
Sulphat of Lead. ‘The Professor next gave an account of
the second part of Dr Boué’s Memoir on the Rocks: of
Germany. A fine specimen of the Snowy Owl (Striz
Nyctea: shot in Zetland. by Mr L. Edmondston,. was.ex-
hibited.

Mr Greville read the first part of a Memoir, by himself
and Mr Arnott, on a New Arrangement of the Genera of
Mosses, according to their natural affinities. Professor
Jameson communicated an interesting notice, by Mr Mur-
ray of Symprim, in regard to the Non-existence of Fossil
Human Remains in Europe; and a Geognostical Descrip-
tion of the Country around St John’s in-Newfoundland, by
Mr John Baird, illustrated by sketches.

The Secretary read a communication from Dr Grierson

of Cockpen, on the Natural History and Habits of the

- Common Mole; likewise an Account of the Phaenogamous

Vegetation and of the Birds observed along the Banks of

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 577

the Dee, from its sources in Braemar to its mouth at Aber-
deen, by Mr Macgillivray.

The Secretary read two communications from Mr Lau-
rence Edmondston of Unst, in Zetland, in regard to the
Snowy Owl, and the Icelandic Gull. Professor Jameson
then read an Essay on the Distribution of Fossil Organic
Remains, as connected with the Theory of the Earth.

Mr Greville gave an account of four new species of
Peziza found in Scotland, illustrated by drawings. Professor
Jameson read a notice from Captain Scoresby jun. regard-
mg recent Experiments made by him on the remarkable
Effects of Percussion on Steel in producing strong Magnetic
Powers. 'The Professor also read an account of Tiede-
mann’s Comparison of the Brain of Man with that of Apes,
Seals, Whales, Bats, and other Animals of the Class Mam-
malia. ‘The Secretary then read a notice regarding the

Northern and Speckled Diver, by Mr L. Edmoxdston.

Professor Jameson read a short account of the Tusk of
a Fossil Elephant dug up in Lincolnshire, illustrated by a
drawing of the Tooth. He then gave an account of the
various Strata, Beds, and Veins around Lochgilphead, il-
lustrating his descriptions by sketches. The Professor like-
wise read extracts of a letter from Dr Oudney, dated Tri-
poli, 24th January last. The Secretary read a notice of a
remarkable Hail-Storm in Essex: likewise extracts of a
letter from Mr Strang of Lopness, in Orkney, describing
some singular Effects of the violent Gales in that quarter.
He also laid before the Society a Thermometrical Register
taken every hour of the day and night, between 6 a. m. of
Ist April and 6 p. m. of 6th April: the general results
were, that. generally the mimimum was at 6 a. m., and the

1822.
March 23.

April 6,

April 20.

1822.
May 12.

May 18.

August 10.

578 APPENDIX.

maximum at 6 Pp. w.; that the average rise was 2.8, the
fall 2.12; that on the night of the 4th and morning of the
5th April the temperature was stationary for five hours;

_and that the average temperature of each day was the same

nearly as what was observed at 8 a. m. and 8 Pp. m.

The Secretary read a paper on the Arctic Gull, by Mr
Edmondston; and a notice regarding some Habits of the
Common Mole, by Mr Stark. The Reverend Mr Young

of Whitby being present, read his Account of Caverns in

Yorkshire which contain Remains of Animals.

Professor Jameson read to the Society Captain Vetch’s
Account of the Island of Foula, one of the Shetlands.
He also read a notice relative to the Cannibalism of the
Battas, in the interior of Sumatra, communicated by a
gentleman now engaged. in surveying the Indian Islands;
together with an Account of the Dryobalanops, or Suma-
tran Camphor-Tree. ‘The Professor likewise read. extracts
from a Memoir presented by Dr Daubeny, on the methods

of separating Magnesia from Lime, and on its Distribution

through Rocks of the Transition and Secondary classes.
Mr Deuchar read an account of some Experiments on

Glass; and the Secretary communicated someé Observations

-on the Greenland Kittiwake and Colymbus Grylle, by Mr

L. Edmondston.

An Extraordinary Meeting ‘was held this day, in order
to vote a Congratulatory Address to His Majesty King
Grorcx the Fourrs, on occasion of his Visit to Scotland.
The same being agreed to, and prepared, the President was

requested to present it to His Majesty at the Levee to be

held at Holyroodhouse. ‘The Society at the same time di-
rected a copy of the Memoirs of the Society to be presented
along with the Address. The following is a copy of the
Address :

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 579

“ To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.

66 May iT PLease your Masrsry,

“We, your Majesty’s most dutiful and loyal Subjects, the Members of the
Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, beg leave to approach the
Throne with the warmest sentiments of congratulation on the happy event
of your Majesty’s condescending Visit to this part of the United Kingdom;
an event which will be recorded as forming a brilliant and memorable era in
the Annals of Scotland.

“¢ Amongst the various descriptions of our Countrymen, who are now so
eagerly pressing forward to testify their veneration and attachment to your
Majesty, we, too, would humbly hope that the tribute of loyalty, gratitude,
and affection, cordially presented by a Body of Men who have associated
for the cultivation of one of the most beautiful and useful of the Sciences,
will not be unacceptable to a Prince who, besides possessing the noblest
qualifications of a Sovereign, is so eminently distinguished by his knowledge,
taste, and personal accomplishments, and who is, we believe, himself an ad-
mirer of our favourite study. It is, indeed, one of the greatest glories of
your Majesty’s Reign, that you have evinced an ardent desire to assist the
progress of Science, Art, and Literature, in all their departments.

*¢ On this occasion, so important and auspicious to our Native Country,
permit us, in common with all the other classes of your Majesty’s faithful
subjects in Scotland, to assure your Majesty, that we deeply feel the un-
rivalled blessings which we enjoy under your Majesty’s mild and paternal
Government; and that we reflect with pride and joy on the unparalleled
lustre which has been shed'on your Majesty’s Reign, by the firmness of your
character, the wisdom of your councils, and the vigour of your arms 3 which,
under Providence, have exalted our Country to the highest rank among the
nations of Europe, and placed the security, the glory, and prosperity of the
British Empire, on a basis never, we trust, to be moved.

<¢ That Your Majesty may long be spared to fill the Throne which you so
‘nobly adorn, to enjoy the affection of a People by whom you are so justly
beloved and revered, and to cherish, as their munificent Patron, those
Sciences and Arts which have so eminently contributed to the glory and
prosperity of the Empire, is the earnest prayer of,

“ May it please Your Majesty,
“¢ Your Majesty’s most loyal and devoted Subjects,
*¢ The Members of the Wernerian Natural History Society
of Edinburgh.
*¢ Signed in oux name, and by our appointment, by
ROBERT JAMESON, President.”

Epinspurcu, }
12th August 1822.

1822.
August 24.

Nov. 16.

Nov. 30.

580 APPENDIX. .

Memorandum.—The above Address, and a copy of the
Society’s Memoirs, were presented by Professor Jame-
‘son, the President of the Society, to the Kine, at the
Levee held by His Majesty at Holyroodhouse, on
Saturday the 1'7th August,—most graciously received,
and afterwards published in the Edinburgh Gazette
of Friday 23d August.

~The Secretary read Mr L. Edmondston’s List of Birds
observed in the Shetland Islands, additional to those re-
corded by Authors: also Mr Don’s paper on the Melasto-
maces, including Descriptions of Eleven new Genera.

‘Dr Hibbert then gave an Account of the Natural Expe-

dients resorted to by a Boy in Cheshire, for supplying the
Want whichhe has sustained since Birth, of his Fore-Arms
and Hands. The Secretary read two communications from
Lord Gray, now in Italy, contaiming Notices of the Experi-
ments of the Chevalier Morozi of Milan, on the Excitation
of Heat by Friction, and on the Mode of soldermg Broken

Pieces of Cast-Iron. Professor Jameson read a Letter
from Dr Oudney, dated Mourzuk, in June last.

The Secretary read Mr Young’s paper on the Mode in
which the Remains of Quadrupeds may have been brought

together in the Karkdale.Cavern, Yorkshire. Dr Charles

Anderson read .a Description of a new Drop-Measure.
Professor Jameson then communicated Extracts of a Letter
from Dr Traill of Liverpool, and from Capt. Scoresby jun.
giving a General Account of Discoveries made by Captain

Scoresby, during last summer and autumn, on the East

Coast of West Greenland, he having explored a stretch of
about 700 miles of nearly unknown coast. He was within

- 200 miles of the presumed site of the lost colony: he every

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 581

where met with traces of inhabitants, without, however,
seeing any. He-found in some parts of the coast a line of
open sea, about 20 miles broad, caused by the influence of
the sun, between the shore and main body of ice; thus
giving reason to hope that Captain Parry may, by keeping
close along the shores, make good his passage, next season,
round Icy Cape, into the Pacific Ocean. The Professor
then read an Account of a new species of Lophius (ZL.
histrio) of the West Indies, by the Reverend Mr Guilding
of St Vincent’s; and he also communicated a Notice of a
Mammoth’s Tusk, 6, feet long, dug up at Rugby, in
Warwickshire, the Tusk being at the same time exhibit-
ed. :

_ Professor Jameson communicated Observations on sub-
jects connected with Natural History, made in a Voyage
round the North of Scotland, by Dr Fleming; likewise
the Account of a Marine Deposite on the margin of Loch
Lomond, by Mr James Adamson. The Professor also
gave a short Account of the Zeus Luna, or King-Fish, a
very fine and full-grown specimen of which had been taken
in the Frith of Forth, and presented to the College Mu-
seum by the Earl of Wemyss, and which was now exhibited
to the Meeting.

The Secretary read the first part of the Journal of a
Vasit to Adam’s Peak, in Ceylon, by Mr Henry Marshall,
Staff-Surgeon. Mr Greville then communicated his Ac-
‘count of the Esculent Fungi of Great Britain. Dr Knox
read a Notice in regard to the Habits of the Hyzena of
Southern Africa. And Dr Yule communicated specimens
of Maize ripened in Scotland, and made some Observations
on the practicability of naturalising that grain.

1822.
Dec. 14.

Dec. 28.

1823.
Jan. Li.

Jan. 25.

582 APPENDIX.

The Secretary read the second part of the Account of a
Journey to Adam’s Peak, in Ceylon. ‘The Hour-Cup,
which belonged to the King of Kandy, was exhibited, and
found to snk in water in about 28 minutes of our time,
being the Cinghalese Hour. ‘The Secretary also read an
Abstract of a Letter from the Reverend William Dunbar
of Applegarth to Principal Baird, confirming the Doctrines
of Schirach and Huber respecting Queen-Bees. He like-
wise read a Proposal for an Improvement im the Form of
Cannon-Balls, calculated to communicate the advantages
of projecting them from a Rifled Barrel, by M. Miller,

‘Esq. of the 51st Regiment. Dr Hibbert then read an ad-

ditional Account of the Expedients resorted to by a Boy
in Cheshire, to supply the Deficiency of Fore-Arms and
Hands, and presented a Portrait of the Boy. Mr Innes
of Stow exhibited to the Meeting some admirable speci-
mens of Drawing and Ornamental Penmanship, by Mathew
Buckinger, who was destitute of Hands and Feet: these
specimens were dated KMdinburgh 1723.

The Secretary read a paper on the Identity, considered
as species, of the Golden and the Ring-tailed Eagles, by
Mr Selby. Professor Jameson read a notice of a remark-

-able Thunder-storm m Berwickshire, in the course of

which all the surrounding objects assumed the colour of
copper. He then exhibited the Horn of a Rhinoceros,
found in one of the Marl-pits at the Loch of Forfar. He
next laid before the Society the Skeleton, and also the
Stuffed Skin, of the Dugong of Singapore. He likewise
read Dr Traill’s Remarks on American Animals of the
Genus Felis. A live specimen, in fine condition, of the
Ichneumon, belonging to the Reverend Dr W. Ritchie,
was then shewn to the Members.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 583

Dr Macdonald read a short account of the Geognosy of
part of the Point of Cantyre. ‘The Secretary read Dr
Traill’s Account of the Guanaco of South America, and
his Description of the Larus Scoresbii; and also a 'Trans-
lation, by the Reverend Principal Baird, from the Chih
Gazette, of a Report by Senor Levasse, relative to Human
Fossil Remains discovered in South America. Professor
Jameson communicated ‘a short paper, by Mr M. Miller,
on the Increasing Temperature of the Earth as we descend
m Mines.

» The Secretary read a paper by James Wilson, Esq. on
the different Opinions entertamed regarding the Specific
Distinction or the Identity of the Ring-tal and Golden
Bagles; likewise a notice from Mr Selby, concerning some
rare Birds which had occurred on the Coast of Northum-
berland during the great storm in the beginning of Fe-
bruary of this year. Professor Jameson then read to the
Society Observations on the Medes of Formation of Opal,
Hornstone, and Diamond.

The Secretary read an account of a new Species of Pi-
geon from New Holland, by Sir William Jardine, Baronet,
illustrated by a Drawing; likewise Remarks on the Sertu-
laria Cuscuta of Ellis, by Dr Fleming; and a Notice by
Mr L. Edmondston, in regard to the Ivory Gull and Ice-
land Gull. Professor Jameson communicated to the So-
ciety a Register of the Thermometer, Adie’s Sympicsome-
‘ter, and Leslie’s Hygrometer, kept at Corfu, by Mathew
Miller, Esq. of the 56th Regiment, with Remarks; like-
wise a Letter from Mr William Jameson, dated Lima, de-
seriptive of his Voyage round Cape Horn, and a Chart of
the Course, laid down in the mode recommended by Capt.
Basil Hall.

1823.
Feb. 8.

Feb. 22.

March 8:

1823.

March 22.

April 5.

April 19.

April 26.

584 APPENDIX.

Dr Yule read his Observations on the presumed Ana-
logy of certain Organs of the Embryo, in the several dis-
tinct Races of Vascular Plants. The Secretary read a paper
by James Wilson, Esq. on the Genus Mergus. Professor
Jameson read Extracts of a Letter from Dr Oudney,
Leader of the African Expedition, dated Mourzuk, 17th
September 1822; likewise the first part of Mr Macgilli-
vray’s Remarks on the Specific Characters of Birds.

The Secretary read an Extract from a Letter relative to
the appearance of Pompei, written by Lieutenant Boyd,
R. N., and communicated by Mr Arnott; also a Descrip-
tion of a Reversed Species of Fusus, by Dr Fleming. Mr
Greville then read Observations on the Formation of Lead-
Spars, communicated by Mr Braid of Leadhills. And Mr
Deuchar exhibited and explained some curious Experiments
on Crystallisation.

The Secretary read a paper by Dr Knox on the Ana-
tomy of the Beaver; and Observations by Mr Don on a
new Natural Family of Plants, to be called Cobeacee. Dr

.Knox then read an Inquiry into the Ongmal and Charac-

teristic Differences of the Native Races inhabiting the
extra-tropical part of Southern Africa. Professor Jameson
gave an account of a communication from Dr Boué, dated
Vienna, in which he controverts the late Observations of
Professor Buckland of Oxford, in regard to the Secondary
Formations of the Alps of Switzerland, and also detailed
his Observations on the Pyrenees, and South of Germany.

Mr Arnott read a paper, by Mr L. Edmondston, on the
Black-billed Auk and Lesser Guillemot, and Professor

Jameson described the specimens exhibited. Dr Knox

read a paper on some Pcculiarities of the Structure of the

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 585:

New Holland Casuary. A memoir on the Bignomiacez,
by Mr Don, was read; and likewise the first part of Mr
Ellis’s Account of Dr Rusconi’s Observations on the Natu-
ral History and Structure of the Aquatie Salamander.
Before the close of the Meeting, Professor Jameson gave
an account of a series of Models, exhibited at the Meeting,
representing the different Indian Castes in Bengal; like-
wise some Cinerary Urns, lately dug up at Dean Bank,
near Stockbridge. Some remarkable Javanese Deities, and
a complete set of Musical Instruments from Nepaul, were
likewise exhibited.

The Secretary read Dr Ramsay’s Account of Macquarrie
Island, and of the Sea-Cow Chase, for which it is frequent-
ed; and Dr Fleming’s Observations on some species of
Vermiculum. Mr Arnott read some extracts from Mr
William Jameson’s Journal of a Voyage round Cape Horn,
and presented an Account of several new Musci, sent from
South America, by Mr Jameson. Lastly, the Secretary
read the concluding part of Dr Rusconi’s paper on the
Natural History of the Aquatic Salamander.

The Secretary read Professor Hansteen’s Observations
made on a Journey from Christiania to Bergen, across the
high mountains. Dr Knox read a Memoir on the Organs
of Sense and the Anatomy of the Poison-Gland, and Spur

of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus of New Holland. Dr

Hibbert read a notice regarding Pisiform Iron-Ore lately
‘found at Papa Stour, in Shetland. And Mr Parry exhi-
bited the Fossil Head of a very large Wild Boar, found
unbedded in a peat-moss in Berkshire. ,

1823.
May 3:.

' May 1%.

586 APPENDIX.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1823.

Office-Bearers elected at the Meeting on the 1st December
1822.

President,
Rozert Jameson, Esq. Prof. Nat. Hist. Edin. &c.

Vice-Presidents,

Rozert Stevenson, Esq. | Rev. Dr Davin Ritcuiz,
Davin Fatconar, Esq. Rev. Principal Bairp.

Secretary, Patrick Nz1iy, Esq.
Treasurer, WituiaM Exuts, Esq.
Librarian, JamEs Wi son, Esq.
Painter, P. SymE, Esq.

Council.

R. K. Grevittx, Esq.
Sir Wm. Jarprne, Bart.
Rev. J. Grierson, M. D.
Professor GRAHAM.

Dr SaMvuEL Hib3err.
Patrick Smatt Kuir, Esq.
Ropert Bap, Esq.
Professor DunBaAR.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 587

List of Members of the Wernerian Natural His-
tory Society of Edinburgh,—continued from

Vol. £10.
RESIDENT.
1821.
May 19. Joun Strico, Esq. of Seacliff.

Dec. 1.

1822.

April 20.

Nov. 30.

1823.

Apmil 19.

Rosert Epmonp Grant, M. D. Edinburgh.

Rozert Knox, M. D. Edinburgh.

Apam Gisp Exxis, Esq. Edinburgh.

Antuony H. Gutsmere, Esq. Leith-Walk.

Dr Rosert Grauam, Professor of Botany, Edin-
burgh.

Joun Boerz, M. D. Edinburgh.

Joun Starx, Esq. Edinburgh.

Dr Joun Macintosu, Royal Artillery.

JoHN STEWART, Esq. East Pilton.

JoHNn ANDERSON, Esq. younger of Gladswood.
Roserr Scott, Esq. Edinburgh.

Roserr Hamitton, M. D. Edinburgh.

The Rev. Dr Davin Scott of Corstorphine.
Grorce A. Watxer Arnort, Esq.

Lieutenant Hucu Criarrrerton of the African
Expedition.
Rosert Jounston, Esq. Edinburgh.

588 APPENDIX.

1823.
April 19. James Youne, Esq. Edinburgh.
Capt. Ropert AnpREw Waucu of Foxhall.
Francis Cuaries Parry, Esq. Edinburgh.

NON-RESIDENT.
1821.
May 19. The Rev. Tuomas Warieurt of Borthwick.
Dec. 1. The Most Noble the Marauis of Hastines.
The Right Hon. the Eart of Datuouste.
Lieut.-General Sir Tuomas Brispane, Bart.
1822. 3
April 20. Joun Ricuarpson, M. D. Naturalist to the Arc-
tic Overland Expedition.
Nov, 30. Hercutzs Scort, Esq. Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University and King’s College,
Aberdeen.
The Rev. Lanspown Guiupine, B. A. F. L. S.
&c. of St Vincent’s.
Captain Wititiam Epwarp Parry, R.N.
Captain WituiaM Franky, R.N.
ALEXANDER Fisner, Esq. Surgeon, R. N.
1823.
April 19. Joun Daviss, Esq. Manchester.
May 31. GrorcE StrickLann, Esq.

FOREIGN.
1821.
Dec. 1. Dr WitLt1am Arno.p, Jamaica.
1822.

April 20. Dr H. F. Aurnuzensieru of Tubingen.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 589

H. Bowpicu, Esq. Paris.

Nov. 80. Rospert tale M. D. Moscow.

1823.
April 19. Dr D. Freprericx ScuwacricHen, Professor of
Natural History, Leipsig.

Prof. FREDERICK Hornscuucu of Greifswaldt.
Mons. Cuarues Kuntsa of Paris.
Mons. ApotPHEe Bronenianrt of Paris.
Mons. Le Baron DELEssERT of Paris.
Mons. J. Gay of Paris.
Professor Stnniman of New York.
Dr Joun Torrey of New York.

CORRESPONDING.

1822.
Nov. 30. The Rev. Gzorcz Younc, A. M. Whitby.
LavuRENCE Epmonpston, Esq. Zetland.
Davip Don, Esq. Librarian to the Linnean So-
ciety.
WittiaM Jack junior, Esq. Naturalist, Sumatra.
J.S. Mitter, Esq. A. L.S. Bristol.
1828.
April 19. James Braip, Esq. Surgeon, Leadhills.

VOL. IV, Q q

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INDEX

TO

VOLUME FOURTH.

WUC UVSVVEVVVWUVEVLEB

A

Aciotis, description of the genus, ma a
Adam, Dr, his geological account of the district between
the Jumna and Nerbuddha, &c. “5
Adam’s Peak, account of an Ascent to the summit of, by
Messrs Sawers and Marshall, “
Adamson, Mr J., his account of Marine deposites on the
margin of Lochlomond, - oe

Alea artica, numerous in the Island of Foula, -

Alluvial cover, divided into Old and New, 58; a rare in-
stance of organic remains in the former,
Alge, Mr Greville’s descriptions of two new plants of the

order, found in Scotland, a
Anas, Mr Macgillivray’s proposed specific characters ap-
plied to the genus, 2

Anatomy of the Beaver, Dr Knox’s observations on the, .
Anderson, Mr S., his account of Primitive Rocks near
Stromness, in Orkney, 173; Geognostical
sketch of part of the Great Glen of Scotland,
Andrea, description of the genus,

Page
300

2A

592 INDEX.

Page
Arctic Gull breeds in considerable numbers in Foula, 247
Arctic Sea, attempts to reach the, by Mackenzie’s River, 19
Ardea, Mr Macgillivr ay’s proposed specific characters ap-

plied to the genus, - - 535
Argali, or Rocky Mountain Sheep, occurs in the. vicinity
of Mackenzie’s River, - - 22
Arnott, G. A. W,, and R. K. Greville, Esquires, their new
arrangement of the genera of Mosses, 109
Arthrostemma, description of the genus, “ 298
Astrologers, consulted by the Kandyans as to the fate of
their offspring, - - AQ5
Axinea, description of the genus, a a 319
B
Baird, Mr John, his account of the Rocks in the neigh-
bourhood of St John’s, Newfoundland, - 151
Bald, Robert, Esq. his notices regarding the Fossil Ele-
phant of Scotland, | : - 58
Barometer, effects of the Weather on, at the Cape of Good
Hope, 166 ; its range at St Helena, = 171
Basalts of Germany described, - - 105
Basaltic Lavas with scorie and craters in Germany, 106
Blakea, description of the genus, | - - 323
Beaver, Dr Knox’s observations on the anatomy of the,
| considered as an aquatic animal, - 548

Birds, List of, observed in the Zetland Islands, by Mr
Edmondston, 271; permanent inhabitants,
273 ; annually migratory, 274; occasional visi-

tants, ~ - 275

Mr Macgillivray, on the specific characters of, 517

Boué, Dr Ami, on the Geognosy of Germany, - 91
C

Caltura, recollections of a journey from Kandy to, by
Messrs Sawers and Marshall, - 396

INDEX. 593

Page
Camelus Guanaco, Dr Traill’s account of the, = 4.92
Canal, Ardrossan, notice regarding the Marine Shells
found in the line of the, Bw, al 568
Centronia, description of the genus, “= ae 314,

Characters, remarks on the specific, of Birds, by Mr Mac-
gillivray, 517; form and structure of the fea-
thers more important than the colours, 528 ;
application of the proposed characters to seve-

| ral genera, 530; general observations, 536
+. distinctive, of the two kinds of igneous Rocks,
those formed below, and those above the wa-

ter’, “ “= 107
Chalk Formation, localities of the, in Germany, ‘ 98
Charianthus, description of the genus, - 327
Chitonia, description of the genus, ~ 317
Clarke, his attempt to reach the Arctic Sea, ~ 29
Clay-Slate, improperly named a formation, 04
Clidemia, description of the genus, = = $306
Clifton-Hall, Fossil Elephant’s tusk found near, —< 60
Clunie, Meteorological Journal kept at, = 14:

Coal, found in the bed of the Towa River, in India, 51—55
mines of, in a state of combustion, near the Great

3

Bear Lake River, e z 23
€olymbus Immer, Mr Edmondston’s account of, 207;
Hints regarding some other species of, . ae 212
Conostegia, description of the genus, - - 3 316
Copper Pyrites, on the Crystallization of, by Mr Haid-
inger, ~ a - ~ 1
Corvus, characters proposed by Mr Macgillivray applied
to the genus, - ~ - 538
Cremanium, description of the genus, - 311
Criff-Fell, Professor Jameson’s geognostical description
of, = = - - 541

Currents, under, of the ocean, notes regarding, —- 170

594 ' FNDEX,

Page

D

Deuchar, Mr John, his account of three remarkable Load-
stones, - = ~ 386

Diamond, Professor Jameson’s speculations on the forma-—
tion of, 556; Mines of Tonng Punnah, Dr Adam’s ac-

count of the, 32; Matrix of the, 2 * AS
Diplostegium, description of the genus, - 296

Divers, Mr Edmondston’s observations on some of the spe-
cies of, - = 207, 212
Mr Wilson’s remarks on the Dundivers, « 48k

Don, Mr David, his illustrations of the natural family of
Melastomacez, - - n 276

E

Eagles, ring-tailed and golden, Mr Selby’s observations on
the, 428 ; Mr Wilson’s remarks on the same species, 434
Echinella circularis, Mr Greville’s description of, = eho
Edmondsten, Laurence, Esq. his observations on the snowy
owl, 157; his account of a new species of gull, 176;
additional remarks, 182; his observations on the Im-
mer goose, 207 ; his list of birds observed in Zetland,
271; his notice regarding the ivory gull shot in Zet-

land, 501 ; farther remarks on the Iceland gull, 503
Elephant, fossil of Scotland, notice regarding the, by Mr
Bald, = ae ad 58
Eskimaux, tradé between the, and the Loucheux Indians
at the Vermillion River, 19; instances of their feroci-
ty, ~ = 20, 2k
F
Falco chrysaétos and fulvus, Mr Selby’s observations on,
428 ; not specifically distinct, = 420, 433

we-- Mr Wilson’s remarks on the same species, 434;
their specific distinctions maintained, 435, 448

INDEX. 595

¥elis, Dr Traill’s remarks on some of the American ani-

mals of the genus, 468 ; Jaguar of Paraguay described,
472; Puma, _ e

Fleming, Dr, his description of a reversed species of Fu-
sus, 498 ; his observations on the Sertularia cuscuta of
Ellis, 485; his notice of a new species of Vorticella,
491: his observations on some species of the genus
Venricilaks of Montagu, - -

Fort Good Hope, the most northern post of the N. W.
Company on Mackenzie’s River, 19; Sun visible at
midnight from its vicinity on 21st of June, -

Forts of Adjyghur and Callinger, remarkable for beauti-

_ ful remains of Hindu architecture, fe

Fossil Elephant of Scotland, Mr Bald’s notices regarding
the, 58; remarkable as occurring in the old al-
luvial cover, - =

- Remains in the Cavern at Kirkdale, Mr Young’ S

account of, 262; near Kirby Moor Side, 267; near

Sunderland, - : “

Foula, account of the Island of, by Captain Vetch, 237 5

its geology, 239 ; its ornithology, 246; register of the
weather kept at, - “

_ Fusus, Dr Fleming’s account of a reversed species of,
Fungi, Mr Greville’s description of seven new Scottish,
67; Esculent, of Great Britain, described by Mr Gre-
ville, — - “ “

G
Galloway, notes on the geognosy of certain remarkable
mountains in, by Professor Jameson, t
Gallus, new specific characters applied to certain species
of the genus, by Mr Macgillivray, ds
Germany, on the geognosy of, by Dr Boué, 91 ; stratified
rocks, 92; unstratified rocks, 101; basaltic deposit.

Page

ATS

504

19

31

60

268

252
498

339

548

531

596 INDEX.

of, analogous to those of Scotland and Iceland, 105 ;
basaltic lavas with scoriz and craters in various parts of,

Glen, Great, of Scotland, geognostical sketch of part of,
by Mr G. Anderson, * -

Gloionema apiculatum, Mr Greville’s dbseridtion of,

Goosander, Mr Wilson’s observations on the, -

Goose, immer, Mr Edmondston’s observations on the,

Granites of Germany, account of the, -

Greville, Robert Kaye, Esq. his descriptions of seven new
species of fungi, 67 : his description of a new species
of Grimmia found in Scotland, 87 ; of two new plants
of the order Algz, found in Scotland, 213 ; of the Es-
culent Fungi of Great Britain, 339; his new arrange-
ment of the genera of mosses, with characters, &c.

Grierson, Reverend James, his observations on the natu-
ral history of the mole, - -

Guanaco of South America, Dr Traill’s remarks on aie,

Gull, new species of, shot in Zetland, Mr Edmondston’s
account of, 176 ; called Iceland gull by the Zetlanders,
181 ; additional remarks on, =

other species of, described by Captain Vetch,

Ivory, shot in Zetland, notice regarding, by Mr

Edmondston, - Z
—~— Iceland, further observations on,
«—--- Scoresby’s, a new species so called, described by
Dr Traill, “ -
| H
Haidinger, Ww. Esq. on the Crystallizations of Copper Py-
rites, = “ 2
Hibbert, Dr, his account of Mark ie the Cheshire
boy, | - “ in

Huttonian Theory, supported by many appearances in the
Erzgebirge, - s Z

Page
106

190
215
481
207
101

INDEX. 597

Wydrographical and meteorological notes, by Captain
Wauchope, ~ - -

Hyzena of Southern Africa, notice relative to the habits of
the, by Dr Knox, “ =

I

Immer goose of Zetland, Mr Edmondston’s observations
on the, 207 ; supposed to be the young of Northern
Diver, = “ .

India, geology of certain districts of. by Dr Adam,

Infants, female, frequently left exposed by the Kandyans,

Interruption in the stratification of rocks, a remarkable in-
stance of, in Stronsa, eee ui

Island of Foula, Captain Vetch’s account of the, =

ef Ceylon, various particulars relating to the, nar-

rated in Messrs Sawers’ and Marshall’s Journey,

Islands, Zetland, their ornithology illustrated by Mr Ed-.
mondston,. ~ 157, 176, 182, 207, 271,

Si

Jaguar, an American animal, its description by Dr Traill,
Jameson, Professor, his notes on the geognosy of the Criff-
Fell, Kirkbean and Needle’s-eye in Galloway, 541 ; his
speculations on the formation of opal, woodstone, and

diamond, t = =
John’s, St, Newfoundland, account of rocks of the neigh-

bourhood of, by Mr John Baird, ~
Journal, meteorological, kept at Clunie,

_Journey from Kandy to Caltura, by the way of cee s
Peak, Recollections of a, by Messrs Sawers and Mar-
shall, - «

Jumna and Nerbuddah, Geology of the district between
the, by Dr Adam, ~ -

Page
161

383

24
425

241
237

396

501

472

556
151

74:
396

24

598 INDEX.
Page

K

Kandy, Messrs Sawers and Marshall’s recollections of

Journey from, to Caltura, ~ £ 306
Kilmaurs, fossil elephant’s tusk found in the parish of, 68
Kittiwakes congregate in one spot of the Island of Foula, 249
Knox, Dr, his notice relative to the habits of the Hyena

of Southern Africa, 383; his observations on the ana-

tomy of the beaver, considered as an aquatic animal, 584
Kunkur, or calcareous ‘Tuffa, mode of formation. of, in In-

dia, a - ~ Ary

L

Larus, see Gull.
_ Leadspar, observations on the formation of, by Mr James

Braid, = ~ - 508
Lestris Catarractes, its manners described by Captain __
Vetch, ~ - 946
— parasiticus, do. - - QAT
Lipari Islands, examination of a liquid frem the crater of
one of the, by Mr John Murray, = 330
Livingstone, Mr, his attempts to reach the Arctic Sea by
Mackenzie’s River, 20 ; slain by the Eskimaux, 21
M

Macgillivray, Mr, his notice relative to two varieties of
Nuphar lutea, 186 ; remarks on the specific characters
of birds, - = alah 517
Mackenzie's River, notice of attempts to reach the sea by,
19; country through which it flows interesting to the
naturalist, 22 ; map of the river by Mr Wentzel, 562 ; .
additional particulars regarding its vicinity, = 563
Macritchie, Reverend William, his meteorological jour-
nal kept at Clunie, : A

INDEX. 599

Page

Map of Mackenzie's River, by Mr Wentzel, : 562

Marble, statuary, in Bundlecund, “ AQ
Marine deposits on the margin of Lochlomond described

by. Mr Adamson, “ - 334

shells found in the line of the Ardrossan Canal, 568
Marshall, Messrs Sawers and, their account of a journey

from Kandy to Caltura, — “ = 306
Melastomacee, illustration of the, by Mr David Don, 276
Melastoma, description of the genus, do. - 286
Mergus, observations on some species of the genus, by Mr

James Wilson, ~ = ATS
————- Female red-breasted Merganser, frequently con-

founded with the female M. Merganser, 484
Meriania, description of the genus, “ 322
‘Meteorological and Hydrographical notes, by Captain

Wauchope, E = ~ 161
Miconia, description of the genus, - | 315
Microlicia, description of the genus, “ 301
Miller, Mathew, Esq. his notice in regard to the tempera-

ture of mines, - ~ 468
Mines of coal on fire, near the Great Bear Lake River, 23

- Mr Miller’s notice in regard to the temperature of, 468
Mole, Dr Grierson, on the natural history of the, 218

Mosses, Arrangement of, by Messrs Greville and Arnott,
109; Fructification, 110; Definition and division,

124 ; Generic characters and descriptions, = 125
Murray, Mr John, his chemical examination of the liquid
from the crater of one of the Lipari Islands, « 330
Muschelkalkstein, no rock in England analogous to, 96
N \
Northumberland, sketch of the geognosy of part of the
coast of, by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. 253

Nuphar lutea, notice relative to two varieties of, - 186

600 INDEX.

Page
O
Ocean, its temperature at great depths, 164; its undey
currents, 170; its phosphorescence, - 171
Opal, on the formation of, by Professor Jameson, - 556
Orkney, account of Primitive Rocks near Stromness in,
by Mr G. Anderson, ~ ~ = 173
Osbeckia, description of the genus, - 292
Owl, Snowy, Mr Edmondston’s observations on, - 157
iP
Paradisea, specific characters proposed by Mr Macgilli-
vray, applied to some species of the genus, - 53%
Peacock, wild, not uncommon about Banda, 2 an
Peak, Adam’s, account of an ascent of, by Messrs Sawers
and Marshall, = = 396
Peat-moss in the Island of Foula, s s 245
Phascum, description of the genus, - . 140
Phosphorescence of the Sea, = a 171
Pitch, Mineral, fountains of; near the Great Bear Lake
River, - = = 23
Pleroma, description of the genus, - - 293
Polyandrism, account of, as practised by the natives of
Ceylon, - - - 423
Porphyries of Germany, account of the, 102 ; considered
as of igneous origin, - 104
Porpoises, ascend Mackenzie's River from the Arctic Sea, 22
Procellaria pelagica, breeds in Foula, - 249
Puffin, numerous in the Island of Foula, - 249
Puma, Dr Traill’s description of the, . = “473
R
Register of the Weather, at Clunie, - . 74:
, of ditto, on the summit of Foula, - 262

Remains, Fossil, of the Elephant in Scotland, 58; of

INDEX. 601

Page
various Quadrupeds in the Cavern at Kirkdale, 262 ;
in other quarters, - - 267-8
Rhexia, description of the genus, — ~ = 207
River, Mackenzie’s, notice of the attempts to reach the Sea
by, 19; Mr Wentzel’s Map of, 562; with ad-
| ditional particulars regarding its vicinity, 563
———, Vermillion, a trading boundary between the Eski-.
~ maux and the Loucheux Indians, = 19
Rocks of Germany, stratified, 92 ; unstratified, 101; Ba-
saltic, of Germany analogous to those of Scot-
land and Ireland, - = 105
Rock-Salt occurs in great masses only in the variegated
sandstone, = i 95
S

Sawers, Messrs Marshall and, their recollections of a
Journey from Kandy to Kaltura, by the way of
-Adam’s Peak, B - 396

Scotland, Remains of Fossil Elephants found in, 58 ; Mr
Greville’s descriptions of seven new species of
Fungi found in, 67; his description of a new
species of Grimmia found in, 87; of two new
Algee found in, ~ - 213

Sea. See Ocean.

Selby, P. J. Esq., his observations on the identity of Fal-

co Chrysaétos and F. fulvus of authors, 428
Sertularia Cuscuta, Dr Fleming’s observations on, 485 ;
tentacula only eight in number, - 438

Sheep, Rocky Mountain, found near Mackenzie’s River, 22
Shells, marine, notice in regard to the, found in the line
of the Ardrossan Canal, 568 ; account of depo-
sites of, found on the shores of Lochlomond, 334
Silver, native, specimen of, found near Mackenzie’s River, 23
Skua Gull breeds on the Snuke of Foula, - 246
Soil, peculiar qualities of the, in certain districts of India, 24, 35

602 INDEX.

Sphagnum, description of the genus, ufone
Strix nyctea, Mr Edmondston’s observations on the,
Sun visible at midnight on 21st of June, from hill near

Fort Good Hope, Mackenzie's River, °
Sun-rising in India described, Te ie
Sutherland, James, his Journey towards the Arctic Sea,

20; slain by the Eskimaux, “ le

T

Temperature of the ocean at great depths, sii)

—- of mines, Mr Miller’s note regarding the,

Tococa, description of the genus, “

Traill, Dr, his remarks on some of the American animals
of the genus Felis, 468 ; his account of the Guanaco
of South America, 492 ; his description of a new gull

named Larus Scoresbii, “ =
Trevelyan, W. C. Esq. his sketch of the geognosy of part

of the coast of Northumberland, i “4

V

Vermiculum of Montagu, observations on some species of

the genus, by Dr Fleming, - :
Vermillion River, a trading boundary between the Eski-

maux and Loucheux Indians, =

Vetch, Captain, his account of the Island of Foula,

Voitia, description of the genus, -

Vorticella coalita, a new species described by Dr Fleming,

Vulcano, Mr Murray's examination of a liquid from the
crater of, > u 2

W

Wauchope, Captain, his Meteorological and pd
phical notes, = «

Page
130
157

19
28

21

564:

161

INDEX. 603

Weather, its effects on the barometer at the Cape of Good
Hope, 166; Mr Macritchie’s register of the, kept at
Clunie, 74; Captain Vetch’s do. kept on the summit
of Foula, ~ = ~

Wentzel, Mr, his notice of attempts to reach the sea by
Mackenzie's River, 19; his map of the river, and fur-
ther particulars, “ “

Wilson, James, Esq. his remarks on the supposed identity
of the ring-tailed and golden eagles, 434; his observa«
tions on some species of the genus Mergus, “

Woodstone, on the formation of, by Professor Jameson,

Y

Yarwood, Mark, the Cheshire Boy, Dr Hibbert’s account
of, 449; born without fore-arms and hands, 451: an
expert marble-player, 455 ; a good penman, 458 ; ap-«
pendix of cases, ~ i

Young, Reverend George, his account of the fossil re-
mains of quadrupeds found in the cavern at Kirkdale,

L
Zetland Islands, their ornithology illustrated by Mr Ed-

mondston, * 157, 176, 182, 207, 271,

END OF VOLUME FOURTH,

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