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- MEMOIRS >
OF THE

WERNERIAN
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

a
a

MEMOTRS

OF THE

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
VOL. V.

For THE YEARS 1823-24.
PART I.

WITH SEVEN ENGRAVINGS.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR
ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH ;
AND LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN,
LONDON.

1824.

P. Next, Printer.

CONTENTS

OF

PART I. OF VOL. V.

I.—An Account of the Foramen centrale of the Retina,
generally called the Foramen of Scemmering, as seen
nm the Eyes of certain Reptiles. By Dr R. Knox.

II.—Obdservations on the Lesser Guillemot and Black-
billed Auk, the Colymbus Minor and the Alca Pica
of Linneus. By L. Edmondston, Esq. ~ ey ee

III.—Observations on the Anatomy of the Duck-billed
Animal of New South Wales, the Ornithorynchus
paradoxus of Naturalists. By Dr R. Knox. s

IV.—Tentamen Methodi Muscorum; or, A New Ar-
rangement of the Genera of Mosses, with Charac-
ters, and Observations on their Distribution, His-
tory, and Structure. By R. K. Greville, LL. D.,
and G. A. W. Arnott, Esq. - - ; -

V.—Register of the Weather at Corfu, during the
Months of August, September, October, and No-
vember, 1821. By Mathew Miller, Esq. :

V1.—Additional Observations relative to the Foramen

Page.

26

AR

90

centrale of the Retina in Reptiles. By Dr Knox. 104

vi- CONTENTS.
; Page.
VII.—Contribution to a Natural and Economical

History of the Coco-Nut Tree. By Mr Henry
Marshall, Surgeon. : = - 107

VIII.—Observations on the Organs of Digestion and
their Appendages, and on the Organs of Respira-
tion and Circulation, in the Ormthorynchus para-

doxus. By Dr R. Knox. e es - 144

IX.—An Account of a Series of Thermometrical
Observations, made hourly at Leith, during
Twenty-four successive Hours, and once every
Month, from July 1822 to July 1823. By Mr |
John Coldstream. - - - - 175

X.—WNotice of a Journal of a Voyage from Rio de
Janeiro to the Coast of Peru, by Mr William
Jameson, Surgeon. By G. A. W. Arnott, Esq. 187

XI.—IJnquiry into the Origin and Characteristic
Differences of the Native Races inhabiting the
Extra-tropical Part of Southern Africa. By Dr

R. Knox. - - - : - 206
XII.—A Monograph of the Genus Pyrola. By Mr
David Don. — - - - - - 220

XITI.—Descriptions, Characters, and Synonyms of
the different Species of the Genus Larus, with
Critical and Explanatory Remarks. By Mr Wil-
liam Macgillivray. i : - - 247
XIV.—Skeich of the Geographical Distribution of
Plants in Yorkshire. By J. Atkinson, Esq. - 277
XV.—On a new British Species of Spatangus. By
the Rev. Dr Fleming. - : - 287

Van

Last of Engravings in Part I. of Vol. V.

PiateE I. Represents the Poison-gland and Duct in the

If.

III.

VI:

VII.

foot of the Ornithorynchus Paradoxus; de-
scribed at p. 40.

Illustrative of the Characters of the genera
Gymnostomum, Schistostega, Anictangium,
and Hedwigia; pp. 54, 60, 66, 71.

Illustrative of the characters of the genera Di-

physcium and Buxbaumia; pp. 78, 88.

. Represents the Foramen centrale as seen in the

eye of the Lacerta superciliosa, and of Apes ;
described at p. 105.

. Represents the complex Clavicle and Scapule

of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus, and the
Sternum of a Fossil Animal; described at
p- 172.

Organs of Generation in the Male Ornithoryn-
chus; described at p. 174, under Art. 4.
Also, Spatangus ovatus ; described at p. 288.

Cranium of a Kaffre; alluded ‘to at p. 211.
Also, Female Figure from the Cave of Ele-
phantina, noticed at p. 216.

ADVERTISEMENT.

Ly laying its Memoirs before the Public, this Socrery
does not hold itself as responsible for the facts or opinions
which may be advanced on the various topics of Natural
History that are discussed. ‘These, accordingly, must be
distinctly understood as resting entirely on the individual
authority of the respective Writers who have favoured the
Society with Communications.

MEMOIRS, Sc.

I—An Account of the Foramen centrale of the
Retina, generally called the Foramen of
Scmmering, as seen in the Eyes of certain

Reptiles.

‘By Rozert Knox, M.D. M.W.S. Med. Ch. Soc. &e.

(Read 15th November 1823.)

W uen Dr SemmeErtine announced his discovery of a
transparent point or foramen m the human retina, nearly,
or, as some say, precisely in the axis of vision, it excited
very strongly the attention of anatomists, and of the philo-
sophic world generally. It was indeed a singular circum-
stance, that so remarkable, and so easily detected, an ap-
pearance should have escaped the observation of the dis-
tinguished anatomists who preceded SammErine. The
public attention having been much roused, numerous re-
searches were immediately instituted by many English and
foreign Anatomists, with the view of determining whether
this perforation, or transparent portion of the retina, was

VOL. VY. A

2 ACCOUNT OF THE FORAMEN CENTRALE

peculiar to man, or was extended to other species of ver-
tebral animals. The result of these inquiries, so far as I
have been able to collect, is as follows.

—‘ In Man,” (cbserves Baron Cuvier, Anat. Compar.
t. 1. p. 422.), “ there is, near the entry of the nerve, and
almost at the point which corresponds to the axis of the
eye, a small fold of the retina, which forms a slight con-
vexity, when the more external membranes are removed.
In the midst of this fold there is a transparent point, which
at first sight appears like a hole; the edges of this point
are tinged with: yellow in adults, but not in the new-born
infant. This peculiarity of the human eye, which had
escaped. the observation of all anatomists before Semmer-
RING, is found in no other animal, except in monkeys. We
have observed it in the Cynocephalus,. in the White-nosed
Guenon, &c. In the first, the transparent part is consider-
ably larger than in man, and of an oval form: there 1s
sometimes a yellow spot at its side.

‘The Maki, which of all Mammalia approaches nearest
the monkeys, has only a slight fold, without any spot or
transparent point. The other species have nothing simi-
lar.”

These facts, and others, relative to the pathology of this
foramen in the human retina, were pointed out by many
distinguished comparative anatomists.. The yellow spot or
tinge, more or less surrounding the foramen, is said to be
wanting when vision has been obstructed ; and the plait is
small and wrinkled.. In monkeys, the yellow spot is occa-
sionally absent. 'The important fact, that the appearances
are limited to the eyes of man and a few quadrumanous
animals, has been much dwelt on by physiologists, whilst
the existence of a foramen, or transparent point of the
membrane of the retina, situated in the actual line of vi-
sion, has been deemed by most absolutely inexplicable.

IN THE EYES OF CERTAIN REPTILES. 3

In a work just published by De BiatnviL_e, a distinet
and direct allusion is made to a theory, partially supported
by, nature, but which, in the present instance, is not appli-
cable.

It is there remarked *, that “ the differences which the
Mammalia present, in the point of view we at present con-
sider, are always susceptible of being divided into two
categories; the one sort, pretty nearly inexplicable, is con-
nected with what we have called the classical degradation,
and with the degree of organisation to which the species
belongs; the others are evidently in relation with the me-
dium in which the animal must seek its food, or with the
time of day during which it is so employed,—or, finally,
perhaps with the nature and kind of its food.”

** T arrange (he continues) in the first category, the sort
of yellow spot, with a small depression, more or less oval,
translucid in the middle, around which the retina is some-
what folded, which may be remarked in this membrane at
some distance externally from the entrance of the optic
nerve, in the axis itself of the globe of the eye. It is found
only in the human species, and in the real apes of the Old
and New Continent.” :

Unfortunately for the ingenious theory just quoted, the
transparent point of the retina or foramen, and the fold of
the membrane, exist in a class of animals differmg widely
from man, and from the apes of the Old and New Conti-
nent: the class I allude to is Reptiles. I shall here briefly
describe the appearances, and the particular species in which
I have detected so singular an appearance.

Professor JamEson having requested me to re-examine
with great care my dissections of the class of Reptiles, and

* Principes d’Anatom. Compar. p. 375.

a2

# ACCOUNT OF THE FORAMEN CENTRALE

having most kindly and liberally furnished me with the
necessary specimens from the Museum, and, at the same
time, pointed.out the works of the comparative anatomists
of Germany, with whose labours he is intimately acquainted,
I deemed it a favourable opportunity for completing my
Inquiry into the organ of vision, and of adding to those
observations which I had the honour lately to submit to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is not my intention
here to enter into any details relative to the eye of Reptiles
generally, but simply to describe the transparent point, or
Joramen centrale, and fold of the retina, which I have
found to be comparatively much more developed in these
animals than in man himself.

The animals in which these appearances were discovered
by me were all of the Lizard tribe *, and the first in which
I. remarked the presence of the transparent pomt, was the
Lacerta superciliosa of naturalists. The notes taken during
the dissection are as follow.

Imo, The eye-ball comparatively large, resembling in
external form that of the bird; the sclerotic horny and
strong anteriorly, of a bluish colour, soft and elastic pos-
teriorly. The retina very thick, somewhat firm and opaque.
Where the optic nerve enters the interior of the eye-ball,
there 1s a distinct marsupium, or black circular body, pro-
ceeding forwards apparently through the centre of the vi-
treous humour: this membrane, no doubt, incloses the
bloodvessels distributed’ to the lens, hyaloid membrane,
&c. 'Anteriorly, somewhat superiorly and towards the
mesial line or plane, we perceive, on looking on the surface
of the retina which regards the vitreous humour, a com-
paratively large transparent, nearly circular spot, through

* Tought to remark, that the most of these specimens had been pre-
served for a great length of time im spirits.

IN THE EYES OF CERTAIN REPTILES. 5

‘which may be distinguished the dark-coloured . choroed.
Close to this is generally placed a fold or reduplication of
‘the retina, which is in general ‘remarkably distinct. This
fold..(or folds, for, occasionally, there are more than one),
either proceeds from the transparent point towards the in-
sertion of the optic nerve, or close to it. Sometimes the
fold, seems, as it were, to lie over the transparent point,
-and partly to conceal it from view; or the-point:is formed
an the edge of the fold itself, asin apes; but, in general,
_the fold runs directly from the insertion of the optic nerve
upwards .and inwards, passing very close to the edge of
-the foramen centrale. It will readily be imagined, that
the farther dissection of this part of the-retina was attended
with much difficulty, on account of the smallness of the eye-
-ball. On the inner surface of the retina, and covering even
the transparent point, is an excessively delicate vascular
membrane, apparently supporting the branches of the cen-
tral artery of the retina. When we remove the retina from
the choroid, the former of these membranes, in some speci-
mens, divides readily into two very distinct layers. The
first, or that nearest the vitreous humour, is of an opaque-
white, pulpy and thick; the second, or that situated next
the choroid, is thin, of a slight bluish cast internally, pale
brown externally, and cannot be detached en masse from
the choroid, though sufficiently large flakes:may be forced
off with the edge of the knife.. Near the Point of Soem-
mering inwards, towards the insertion of the optic nerve,
and around the. foramen centrale, these twomembranes are
strongly connected with each other, and cannot be separa-
.ted. When the whole of the membrane which we generally
call retina is removed from the choroid, and drawn gently.
towards the optic nerve, there is evidently a circular aper-
‘ure in the retina, constituting the foramen centrale,.and

6 ACCOUNT OF THE FORAMEN CENTRALE

the choroid has at this point a slight projection in-
wards *,

I have stated that the fold of the retina is sometimes
totally unconnected with the foramen centrale, but may be
found occasionally proceeding from the point of insertion
of the optic nerve outwards. When there are more than
one, they resemble radii drawn from the centre of a circle
towards its circumference. Sometimes a large deep fold
proceeds from the optic nerve towards the edge of the
transparent point, and from it outwards in a straight un-
interrupted line. It would seem, therefore, that the forma-
tion of these folds is accidental, in so far as regards their
presence, or absence, or situation; but that they do not
depend for their production, as has been supposed, on any
mechanical disturbance of the internal parts of the eye-ball
after death.

Two specimens of the Lacerta superciliosa were e€X-
amined, and one of the variety called Scutata: im all these
the above anatomical appearances were remarkably dis-
tinct ; and being comparatively larger than in man, did not
require, in order to be perfectly seen, the aid of magnify-
ing glasses.

Three specimens of a small lizard, agreeing in descrip-
tion with the Lacerta Calotes of naturalists, were examined.
In these the eye-ball is somewhat less than in the super-
ciliosa; but in all other points, as the distribution of the
retina, the existence of the transparent point, deep and ex-
tensive folds of the retina, &c., the animals entirely agree.

In a very small specimen of the Lacerta striata, I ob-
served the retina folded ina remarkable manner, and, by
the aid of a strong glass, I thought I perceived a small

“ There is in my possession a very beautiful preparation illustrative of
“this. long disputed point.
8

IN THE EYES OF CERTAIN REPTILES. 7

‘transparent point situated as usual, and close to the edge of
this duplication of the retina: and, in a smail variegated
lizard, with lobated feet, I observed the foramen or point
very distinctly *.

In the lizard called by naturalists the Gecko, the mar-
‘supium is very small, and the foramen centrale, or trans-
‘parent point, is wanting. Neither could I perceive it in
the lizard called by naturalists Lanins (the Lacerta Ma-
buya); in them also the marsupium is very small, though
distinct. We thus discover that the foramen of SemmME-
RING is found in a particular family of lizards, whilst it is
wanting in others. Analogy would lead us to suspect its
presence in the Chameleon, whose eye I have not yet had
an opportunity of examining. It remains also to be dis-
covered, whether the same anatomical distribution extends
to the higher orders of lizards, as the Iguana, Tupinambis,
and Crocodile t.

There remains only a single additional fact which I wish
to communicate in this notice; it regards the supposed ex-
astence of vessels passing between the foramen:of ScemmE-
RING and the vitreous humour. ‘With the view of deter-
wining this point, I opened: the eye-ball in situ with the
greatest care, and watched the removal of the humours
from the retina; but however frequent the.examination, I
‘could never discover the smallest appearance of blood-
aessels, lymphatics, or membranes, connecting at this point
the retina and vitreous humour.

* These lizards belong more strictly to the class of true or proper Lizards
‘than either:the Superceliosa or Calotes.

+ I have since ascertained that neither marsupium nor foramen centrale
are present in the Crocodile.

EDINBURGH, )}
June 20. 1823. $

*
a

$ ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

I1.— Observations on the Lesser ‘Guillemot and
Black-billed Auk, the Colymbus Minor and
the Alca Pica.of Linneus.

By Laurence Epmonpston, Esq.

| Corresponding Member of the Wernerian Natural ili
Society.

(Read 26th April 1823.)

parr
SSS

THE practice of conferring specific distinctions on ani-
mals essentially identical, has been, among systematic wri-
ters, more general than that of confounding those which
are distinct; and in the progress of extended and accurate
observation, it becomes perhaps equally advantageous to
retrench fictitious species as to discover new ones. |

The system of Linnzus, long maintaining an influence
so powerful and extended, and fixing on certain artificial,
and often arbitrarily assumed, external characters, as legi-
timate grounds of specific difference, contributed much to
that excessive and fallacious multiplication of species of
which we find so many instances in zoology. ‘This was
‘indeed a very natural result of that artificial system, which
it was perhaps expedient and necessary for Linwzvs to

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. g

select in the infancy of that science which his genius and
industry so surprisingly advanced. Hence it happened
that, in zoology, as in botany, the attention was perpe-
tually in search of some one or two characters which, it
was presumed, must necessarily distinguish each indivi-
dual species. In birds, for instance, the colour of the plu-
mage, especially of certain parts, as the tips of the pri-
mary quill-feathers, the tints of the iris, of the bill, feet,
er peculiarity of habits, without noting the causes of diver-
_ sity, were each separately held to be immutable: specific
distinctions. ;

It seemed to be forgotten, that it is seldom by one dif-
ference, but an assemblage of many, that nature marks
specific distinctions; and had this been more frequently
kept in view, we should have had less now to unlearn in
some of the most interesting and apparently simple walks
of natural history. | |
’ Burron and his followers adopted an opposite, but more
erroneous, course,—preferring vivacity and eloquence of
description to conciseness and accuracy of systematic ar-
rangement; and their labours are conspicuous chiefly for
the elegance of their style. |

The modern French school seems peculiarly to have dis-
tinguished itself by the variety of its divisions in the higher
departments of classification; and a tendency to excessive
refinement of nomenclature has perhaps been too frequent
im their writings. Authors on classification have outstrip-
ped the progress of observers on species, and, amidst the
multiplicity of their subdivisions, seem sometimes to have
lost sight of one of their chief objects—the discovery and
accurate delineation of species. But it is still to this school,
next to that of Linnzus, to which zoology owes most of
its interest and-accuracy. The illustrious Cuvrer has en-
nobled and exalted it to the rank in the scale of knowledge

10 ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

which it has a right te occupy, and has unfolded its inti-
mate connection with physiology and geology.

Discussions that have for their object the enlargement
and more accurate knowledge of such a science, will always
be candidly appreciated by a mind truly philosophical,
though they may be destitute of the parade of diagrams,
or the mazy ingenuities of political arithmetic. The period
is long past when flippant sneers at the patient and neces-
sarily minute labours of the naturalist were received as wit ;
it is now practically known that it is infinitely easier to ri-
dicule than to reason; and that nothing is so contemptible
as contempt from ignorance.

Another frequent source of error in specific distinctions
may obviously be found in the practice of determining spe-
cies merely from the examination of stuffed specimens, with
little of that previous and necessary preparation, alone to
be derived from the frequent and continued habit of ob-
serving animals in their living state, and ranging over their
native haunts untrammelled by persecution or domestica-
tion. It could hardly be expected that museums alone
could confer that visws eruditus, so necessary and useful in
discriminating animals from each other, as it is in other
subjects of comparison. ‘There is a physiognomy that
marks different species, as individuals of the same species
are often easily distinguished, when we have frequent op-
portunities of observing them, which, although difficult to
be described, is yet strongly felt by the experienced, and
which often affords the hint for the detection of more tan-
gible grounds of difference. What is it chiefly but this that
renders the rude fisherman or woodman often more accurate
in specifically distinguishing his native animals than the
systematic naturalist,—or which enables the shepherd to
know each individual of his flock of many hundreds ?—
differences in their aspect, which by others are inappreci-

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. Il

able, are to him prompt and certain grounds of distinction.
With what superior facilities to the northern naturalist
would a native of the tropical regions enter on the descrip-
tion of his indigenous animals, that, for example, of the
numerous species of birds of paradise, of humming-birds,
parrots, monkeys, insects? and the tropical zoologist would
find a difficulty of a similar kind, though not so extensive,
in describing our northern animals.

To these causes are mainly to be ascribed much of the
difficulty and error which we meet with in the study of
zoology, as well as to the immense diversity of its objects ;
and much requires yet to be supplied, even in one of its
most interesting and apparently most accessible branches,
Ornithology.

Our knowledge of many species of European birds is still
sufficiently defective; and from their bemg more frequent-
ly presented to our observation, and naturally furnishing
criterions of distinction for others, they especially require
to be clearly known.

In the notices of a few of those species that have occa-
sionally been submitted to the attention of the Society, I
have felt the influence of the preceding views, and have
uniformly communicated only the result of my own obser-
vations, in the first instance.

When I found opinions of others on the same subjects,
whether favourable or opposed to my own, I have freely
examined them; but have not allowed myself to enter into
discussions in regard to all the speculations that have been
advanced, as these add but little to the value of ornitholo-
gical investigation.

I shall have the honour of continuing this series of ob-
servations which I have commenced on several northern
animals, regarding which obscure notions may still be en-
tertained ; and those to which I shall confine my attention

1g ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

at present, and which aptly illustrate the preceding views,
are, the two supposed species of Lesser Guillemot and
Black-billed Auk, the Colymbus Minor and Alca Pica of
LINN&US. vr :

It cannot but appear surprising that their claims to spe-
cific distinction should not long since have been disposed
of, and that there should be still naturalists who remain
in doubt, or assert their distinction. I was induced to ap-
ply particular attention in endeavouring to settle this ques-
tion, not more from its involving the knowledge of the
identity of two species, and opposing established opinions
regarding them, than from my desire not hastily to deny
the accuracy of the views of Monraeu, an ornitholo-
gist of whose acuteness and industry I entertain so high
an estimate; and I feel quite satisfied, that had his op-
portunities of observation in this instance been more va-
ried and. continued, his candour would have induced him
to have relinquished opinions which he has so elaborately
and ingeniously supported.

Last summer, while in Zetland, I possessed opportuni-
ties the most select for determing the weight to be at-
tached to his opinions on these two species, and clearly
convinced myself that what I had always believed regard-
ing them was literally correct. I had also collected a re-
gular uninterrupted series of specimens of the Razor-Bill
and Foolish Guillemot, from the egg to the full-grown
birds, erroneously described as distinct species. And the
loss of the parcel, containing also other specimens of inte-
rest, from the shipwreck of the vessel by which they were
transmitted to this city for the inspection of the Society,
I much regret, as it not cnly deprives me of many conclu-
sive and satisfactory illustrations, but precludes that brevity
which I am anxious to observe in discussions of this de-
scription.

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. . 13

The opinion which I hold regarding the Colymbus Mi-
nor and Alca Pica is, that they are merely the young, or
the old in winter-plumage, of the two species Colymbus
Troile and Alcea Torda, the Foolish Guillemot and Razor-
Bill. Many ornithologists have maintained that they are
separate species, but as Monracu has included all. that
has been advanced for this opinion, I shall examine chiefly
what he has stated on this subject.

It has been imsisted on as a very strong circumstance in
favour of the distinction of the two disputed species, that
they are uniformly inferior in size and length of bill to
those which are maintained to be their respective species in
a state of maturity; but even if this difference of size were
admitted, it could not be of any weight in specific distinc-
tion :—it is very inconsiderable, and very varying, and can
be observed only for a limited time; for, according to
Montacu, we can have an opportunity of seeing these
species of Lesser Guillemot and Black-billed Auk only
during the winter months. Is it not very natural to anti-
cipate that the young should not attain the full size of the
parent birds for some time? Inferiority of size, therefore,
should rather be a presumption against the opinion of their
distinction. But, as far as my observations go, there is no
uniform difference of size; they are fully as often to be
met with equal in size as inferior; and even individuals of
the C. Troile and A. Torda often materially differ in this
respect. This irregularity may chiefly be attributed to in-.
equality in their supplies of food, to which they must often
be exposed in their earlier age, when the tendency to per-:
manent size is impressed,—from the habit of prematurely
committing themselves to a boisterous and capricious ele-
ment, and, consequently, often being separated from the
" protection of the parent birds. |

14 ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

The bill is said to be longer in the Foolish Guillemot,
and there is an indenture near the point in both mandibles,
while, in the Lesser, there are only the rudiments of a
slight indentation in the lower mandible. My experience
proves that the bill of the Foolish Guillemot is shorter in
the young, and gradually lengthens with age. 'This was
the case with those I reared from a few days old till they
were ready to fly, when they had acquired precisely the
plumage of the Lesser Guillemot; but were still inferior
even to it in size and length of bill. ‘The less numerous
indentures in the bills, which are regarded by Montacu
as peculiarly supporting his opinion, seem to me to lead to
an opposite one. It 1s well known (as he himself admits)
that the Razor-Bill, so analogous to the Foolish Guillemot
m its changes of plumage and habits, has in its young state
neither the size of bill, nor the numerous mdentations,
which it has in the adult.

It is surprising that this analogy aetld not have excited
his suspicion. The white line extending from the bill to
the eye in the Razor-Bill, and from the eye down the neck
in the Foolish Guillemot, are conceived to be distinctive.
In many specimens I examined, during last summer, these
marks were absent; and in many specimens of the other
two birds I have found them well defined ; and the Danish
writer Mour *, in his Islandik Natur Historie, expressly
mentions this as no ground of distinction.

* In this author I find most of the opinions f entertained on northern
sea-fowl fully confirmed. For instance, he distinctly states the Colymbus
Immer to be the young of the Northern Diver ; and mentions not only its
capability, but vigour of flight,—a fact which, being so long unaccountably
overlooked, gave rise to so many fanciful and ridiculous conjectures to ac-
count for its habits and incubation. It is singular that this book, which is
one of the best topographical works in natural history, seems so little
known. It was published at Copenhagen in the year 1786.

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. 15

The sulcz in the bill of the Alca Torda cannot be con-
sidered as peculiar, for Monracu mentions a specimen of
Black-billed Auk shot in February, in which the bill was
as much furrowed as in the Razor Bill; and Fasricius
also says, that all the young Alcze have the bill less sulca-
ted and coloured than the adults; —*‘* hinc character de
<¢ sulcis sumptus lubricus satis.”

This I have myself repeatedly verified. It may be stri-
kingly seen m what occurs in the Puffin: and indeed it
seems surprising that ts young should not also have been
described as a distinct species, equally as the young Razor-
Bill.

The black in the plumage of the Razor-Bill and Foolish
Guillemot is less deep, and it extends over the whole head
and neck; while, in the others, the throat and sides of the
head are white, and the black parts of the plumage are of
a deeper tint. Tis, which is stated as peculiar to the
Lesser Guillemot and Black-billed Auk, is exactly the
winter-plumage of the young of the others. ‘The old ones
also assume the same appearance, still retaining the slight
difference of a fainter shade of black on the upper part of
the body. The specimen of young Guillemot, caught by
Montacu in June, exhibits distinctly the young of the
preceding autumn, passing into the plumage of the adult ;
and. the winter-plumage of the Razor-Bill, as stated by
Fasricius, is the same as that of the Black-billed Auk.
The Little Auk is admitted to change its plumage in win-
ter, to become white on the throat and sides of the head,—
while these parts are black in summer. This is exactly such
a change as its congenerous bird the Razor-Bill is asserted
to undergo.

If the Colymbus Troile and Alca Torda be distinct spe-
cies from the others, and preserve their distinct appearance,
how happens it that we never meet with them in winter ?

16 ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

Though it were granted that they migrate, yet a few ought
occasionally to be seen during winter. ‘The fact stated by
Monrtacu, of a few Guillemots, m their usual plumage,
being found in the end of January on the coast of Eng-
land, is merely an instance of the old birds acquiring the
summer-plumage sooner than the young ones; and, more-
over, this is confessed by Montacv to be “ a single in-
stance :” besides, if it were necessary, it might still be rea-
sonably supposed, without receiving his conclusion from
this fact, that these individuals had assumed their summer
plumage earlier than is the general habit of the species;
and this is an irregularity not unfrequent in other birds,
and which may often result from their not having paired
the preceding year; their moulting, and winter change
may thus have been less complete; for I have certainly
remarked, that incubation renders the moulting succeeding
it more severe, and the change of plumage more marked. _
If the Colymbus Minor and Alca Pica be distinct spe-

cies, Why are we not acquainted with their young ?—or,
Are the young always the same in appearance as the old ?
This is, however, contrary to the analogy of all water-fowl
in our latitudes, and especially to that of the other species
of this genera.

_ The Black-billed Auks are said to occur more numerous-
ly m Greenland than the Razor-Bill; but Fasricrus,
whom Monracu quotes for this fact, expressly says, he
never saw the Razor-Bills there durmg summer,—it applies
to the winter season ; and the winter-plumage of the Razor-
Bill, according to his description, is the same as that of the
other. If then, as he admits, the suleze in the bill are no
specific distinction—how could he distinguish these two
species from each other? It is sufficiently suspicious that
he should never have seen the Razor-Bills in summer,
when they are comparatively numerous in winter; but it

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK: 17

1s edsy to account for this, when he informs us, that the
plumage of the Black-billed Auk in summer is just that of
the Razor-Bill at the same season. It is farther remark-
able, that while Fasricius gives minute details regarding
the Razor-Bill in summer, a bird he declares he had never
seen in Greenland during that season, he should say com-
paratively so little of the Pica at the same season, a spe-
cies he mentions having seen at all periods of the year. He
also states, that the Razor-Bill lays two eggs; and every
other naturalist, ncluding Montacu himself, mentions
only one; and my observation agrees with this. And he
asserts that the weight of the Black-billed Auk is superior
to that of the Razor-Bill; yet he maintains the same opi-
nion as Montacu, of the distinction of these two species.
These remarks shew the contradictions imto which this
author has been led; and that, though his authority is
highly respectable in many other poimts of Arctic zoology,
in this it must be received with limitation.

If they be the same species, Monracu conceives they
must moult four times a-year, since four different states of
plumage may be remarked ; but this inference is not at all
necessary. These different states are accounted for by sup-
posing, what is the fact, and what is acknowledged to be so,
that they moult partially twice a-year; and that the other
changes of plumage are acquired, not by new feathers, but
by the change of colour of the old ones. Of facts exem-
plifying this change of colour in the old feathers, every
practical naturalist has ample opportunities of satisfying
himself; and for farther information on this point, I have
only to refer to a very useful and interesting work, “ The
* Philosophy of Zoology,” by a most intelligent and zealous
naturalist, Dr Fiemine, whose opinion respecting these
disputed species I am happy to find 1s the same as my own:

VOL. Y. B

1s ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

Monracu refers the disappearance from the British
coasts during winter of the Razor-Bills and Foolish Guille-
mots to migration ; but this is a cause that has been much
too generally applied to account for the apparent absence
of many species in certain countries; it thay be often ac-
counted for by supposing them to change their plumage,
or merely to disperse, when not induced by incubation to
keep to certain haunts, and in numerous assemblages.

Fapricius says, that the Razor-Bills and Black-billed
Auks breed in Greenland, and are found there during the
winter; but Montacvw states, that the Razor-Bills, not
being so hardy as the others, migrate from the British
coasts in winter, and their place is taken by the others.
How, then, does it happen that the tribe of Razor-Bills in
Greenland are so much superior in hardihood to their ef-
feminate race on our coasts, and aré able to brave the ri-
gours of the frozen regions, when so many of the Black-
billed Auks even are compelled to quit them? Or, if some
migrate southward, how comes it to pass that they are
never seen on the British coasts? The Black-billed Auks
are very far from being so numerous in Zetland as m Scot-
land,—perhaps not much more frequent in that country
than in England,—yet if such multitudes came from Are-
tic countries, we ought occasionally to observe them there
on their passage southward, as happens with other birds,
which visit it as a half-way station.

Not a single Lesser Guillemot or Black-billed Auk is
seen on the coasts, even of Zetland, for six weeks after the
alleged migration of the other species. This is decidedly
opposed to all my observations. I have met with them
from the period at which the Razor-Bills and Foolish
Guillemots are first observed to quit the cliffs (im August),
throughout the winter, till the middle of the ensuing spring.
If they be not the same species, how shall we account

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. 19

for this circumstance, that they are uniformly found in
Zetland a month or six weeks before any other Arctic birds
make their appearance? Many of them are also then in a
state of moulting, and incapable of flying; others have
their osseous system almost cartilaginous,—their sexual or-
gans imperfect, proving them to be young birds, and there-
fore also equally incapable of flymg. All this could not
have happened if they had had so distant and ey a
migration to have effected.

There are no Lesser Guillemots or Black-billed Auks to
be found in Zetland in summer. Those met with in winter
are regarded by the fishermen as the same species as the
others. ‘Their habits are said to be different. It is men-
tioned that the Lesser Guillemots and Black-billed Auks
are found in great numbers on the coast of Scotland during
the winter, while very few are found on the coast of Eng-
land; and in neither country a single individual of the
other two species is to be found, though vast numbers
breed in England. ‘To migrate northward m winter is
conceived to be unnatural and inconsistent, and, it is pre-
sumed equally so, to suppose the young birds to be dif-
ferent in their habits from the parent birds. If the old and
young present the same plumage in winter, then there is
no necessity for supposing that the former migrate; and
the objection of distinction of habits does not exist: but,
besides, difference of habits is not a specific mark in many
instances; it of course constitutes an important feature in
specific distinction ; but then it is permanent difference, not
that of season or age, or insulated from other circumstances.
Many birds of the same species are very different both in
plumage and habits in the young and adult state, and many
species modify thew habits according to locality.

The Black-backed Gull, for instance, feeds on fish net
carrion alone in some countries; in others, he mimics the

Bg

20 ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

Eagle, and treats himself to birds and young lambs! The
Cormorant, in some situations, perches on trees, while, for
the most part, he rests only on rocks by the water-side.

The Hooded Crow, in maritime situations, forgets his
characteristic timidity for the water, and skims along its
surface like a Gull in pursuit of small sea animals, though,
as I have sometimes witnessed, he occasionally suffers from
his aquatic excursions. I believe one of the most charac-
teristic marks of distinction of species of birds is to be found
in their modes of flight ; it at least furnishes a good gene-
ric distinction. And to those who are in the practice of
observing the habits of birds, this difference of flight is
very striking: no one is more aware of this than the expert
sportsman, for much of his success depends on this know-
ledge.

The reason of these birds accumulating im Scotland in
winter, and not in England, is quite apparent; the deep
bays and friths of the former afford them food and shelter,
which the exposed coasts of the latter cannot confer. It
cannot be mere climate; for there is surely not so great a
difference between the winter temperatures of these coun-
tries, as in proportion to the greatly superior numbers that
are found in Scotland at that period of the year. It is ac-
cordingly in the Frith of Forth and the Moray Frith. in
the east, and the corresponding lochs in the west, that they
are chiefly found, while they are comparatively rare on the
intermediate exposed coasts. ‘The supposition, therefore,
that they should migrate northward to a short distance in
the winter, is not in “ violation of the actual cause of the
propensity to migrate.” |

The Foolish Guillemot and Razor-Bill produce each
one young. one in the year. The young, till about a week
old, are covered by a dusky-grey down ; and the first co-
lour of the feathers is that of the parent-bird. Previous

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. 91

to quitting the cliffs, about the middle of August, they
have attained about one-half the size of the old ones: at
this period the plumage is changed, the under part of the
neck and sides of the head having become white. ‘This is
the state of plumage in which they have been described as
distinct species, and they preserve it during the winter. In
December they have attained the size of the adult birds.
To assure myself of their changes, I kept several indivi-
duals tame till they were able to fly, and thus distinctly
traced them. On the approach of spring, they may be seen
passing into the summer-plumage of the mature birds.
These also change in winter, turning white on the lower
part of the neck and sides of the head; but, in the earlier
part of this season, they may be distinguished from the
young, by their greater size, and the less vivid black of the
plumage. In the old Razor-Bill, also, the bill is larger,
and more furrowed. In the adult Guillemot, the bill is
considerably longer. As the season advances these distinc-
tions become less apparent; but the old birds acquire their
summer-plumage earlier in spring than the young.

There appears, therefore, no reason for separating the
Colymbus Minor and Alca Pica from the Foolish Guille-
mot and Razor-Bill; and hence two species are expunged
from the list. In the discussion which has led me to this
result, I have been necessarily mute; but I have hardly
been more so than the very ingenious and respectable or-
nithologist from whom principally I have differed. The
opinion I have supported is not a new one, but has been
held by many naturalists, who have, however, chiefly con-
tented themselves with its mere statement, without satisfy-
ing their readers with an exposition of their reasons for it.
This I conceived it to be useful to supply, especially as
the advocate for the opposite opimion had displayed so
much elaborate ingenuity in maintaining it. The discus-

O29 ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

‘sion may also not be useless, in illustrating some of ‘those
sources of error and precipitancy of observation, which
have so much obstructed the advancement of zoology. If
‘species so much in our way have been so long erroneously
known, it is not surprising that others less numerous and
accessible should be also so. The great influence, too, of
‘Moyracu, in questions of British Ornithology, required
that the few errors into which he had been unconsciously
led by partial observation should be fully understood.

The habits of the Razor-Bill and Guillemot are similar,
‘and very interesting ; they are gregarious, more or less, all
the year round. ‘They occupy the same kind of cliffs du-
ving the breeding-season, though the two species do ‘not
indiscriminately mingle on the same rock. ‘They select
long parallel ledges in the precipices about half-way from
their summits, where they may be seen in large flocks, ‘sit-
ting close together, and ranged above each other in regular
rows; their white breasts, black heads, and erect forms,
giving them a peculiar and orderly appearance.

They live in the most cordial harmony with each other,
‘and display uncommon affection for their young. ‘These
are taken to sea long before they seem capable of flying,
and when their wings'can be employed chiefly in assisting
their motions under water. The fishermen assert, that the
-old birds carry them on their backs to the sea; but ‘this
seems unnecessary. I have seen some quit the rock for the
first tme; they were not one-third of the size of the adult
‘birds; and all that the wings seemed able to effect, was a
kind of balancmg motion, to weaken their fall in the water.
‘When they reached it, they immediately dived, and, ‘al-
though visiting it only for the first trme, swam well, ‘and
kept long under it; and some even dexterously eluded,
after the manner of their species, shots fired at them, by
diving on the flash of the pan. The parent-birds were near,

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. 93

and anxiously endeavouring to allure them from our reach.
After the old ones have brought the young to sea, they
almost. immediately leave the land, and both young and old
are then found in great numbers several miles off. The
object of thus hurrying out to sea, seems to be to remove
their young from their more numerous enemies, and to
place themselves in comparative safety in commencing the
process of moulting. 'This is very complete, or at least
leaves them during part of its progress without the power
of flight, the old feathers being generally cast before the
new are sufficiently long for this purpose. The Velvet
Ducks in North America are annually killed in great num-
bers during the moulting process, when they are incapable
of flying; and the Auks and Guillemots would experience
similar havoc, if instinct did not teach them to withdraw
from the reach of their more formidable pursuers. After
an absence of two or three weeks, they again approach the
coast, and are found occasionally in parties of three or four
individuals.

‘The young are easily tamed, but I think rather difficult
to rear. They display an unaccountable restlessness to-
wards evening, incessantly moving about, and uttering a
plaintive, piping sound. ‘They do not seem to be able to
exist long in situations where they have not the opportunity
of diving, and this, perhaps, is the reason of their going so
early to sea. 'The fact, at.all events, seems certain, how-
ever difficult it may be to assign a physiological reason for
At.

The thorax is very much elongated, and capable of great
distension. _ The circulating system is much developed ;
the heart and primary red vessels peculiarly capacious.
The blood seems in greater quantity, and its colour is
deeper than in Jand-birds,—-a fact I have remarked in most
diving animals. The tenaciousness of life 1s very remark-

9A. ON THE LESSER GUILLEMOT

able. ‘Two old Guillemots were confined in a cage for a
fortnight, in endeavouring to domesticate them : during the
whole time they obstinately refused all food; and when I
released them to their native element, they seemed little
changed, but in weight. One was a little weaker than the
other; and it was interesting to observe the care and ten-
derness with which it was regarded by its more vigorous
companion: when it was unable to keep up with him, he
would occasionally turn back, swimming round it, and ap-
parently encouraging it by sounds and gestures to a
beyond the reach of danger.

‘They are often observed to swim long after bemg shot
through the heart: if the lungs, however, are wounded,
they are unable to continue under water. The more speedy
way of depriving them of sensation and life 1s by a sudden
and violent concussion of the whole body.

It seems almost impossible to tame the old birds; im-
deed this is no unusual case, where birds naturally familiar
in the wild state, or easy of domestication in the young, are
incapable of it when in the old.

From their breeding, for the most part, in situations of
tolerably easy access, so much devastation is annually com-
mitted by the fishermen among old birds, eggs, and young,
that their number seems progressively diminishing; and it
is to be regretted that the proprietors do not exert them-
selves to limit this abuse. It is not as it was formerly in
Zetland, and still is in some remote islands, when sea-fowl
constituted a regular and necessary article of subsistence.
The fishermen never trust to them for this use, and the
most experienced and adventurous climbers are often the
most indigent; besides, it is only the inhabitants of a few
districts, that, from their vicinity to the haunts of sea-fowl,
can practise their annual depredations, and they are ob-
served to be certainly not more substantial than their

AND BLACK-BILLED AUK. 95

neighbours. The practice encourages irregular, rapacious,
and dangerous habits, for fatal accidents are not unfre-
quently occurring to the fowlers: and checking its excess,
would be repelling no romantic notions of liberty and at-
tachment to country, associated with the chace, in minds
alive to the refined pleasure of sublime scenery; for it is
not the love of the chace, but its supposed subserviency to
their emolument or taste, that induces them to pursue it.

It has been observed, that, around grazing islands, and
situations where sea-birds were formerly numerous, fish
were also very abundant; and that the diminution of both
keeps pace in some degree with each other, although fishing
is not now more generally practised than before. Causes
for this result it might not be difficult to assign. Besides,
water-birds, by scattering migratory fish, as the herring,
tend to render them more stationary and permanent in
countries through which they might merely pass.

Many of these species, also, in defence of their nests,
prevent the more powerful rapacious birds from approach-
ing near them, and thus are indirectly the protectors of the
flocks that pasture in their vicinity.

Proprietors seem not sufficiently aware of these advan-
tages, or of the inexpressible interest and ornament which
the feathered inhabitants throw over the rocky scene.

EDINBURGH,
March 24. 1823.

26 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

IL.— Observations on the Anatomy of the Duck-
billed Animal of New South Wales, the Orni-
thorynchus paradoxus of Naturalists.

By Rosert Knox, M.D.
Member of the Wernerian Natural History Society, and.
of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh.

(Read 17th May 1823.)

Menmorr I.

On the Organs of Sense, and on the Anatomy of the
Poison-Gland and Spur.

Ir will not be expected that, after the numerous dissec-
tions of the Ornithorynchus, performed in England, Ger-
many, and France, by the most distinguished living ana-
tomists, any very remarkable facts should have escaped
notice. J am anxious that this should be borne in mind,
for there are many who, viewing the Ornithorynchus as an
excessively rare animal, might suppose every fact brought
forward to be new, and censure the want of details, which
could be useful only in the description of an animal hitherto
altogether unknown. Now, this is far from being the case
with the subject of the present memoir; for, at least one
specimen has been anatomized in Germany, by Professor
BLUMENBACH; one in Prussia, by M. Rupoirut; several

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 277

in France by the very celebrated author of the Lecons
@ Anatomie comparée, and by others ; ‘and about ‘ten speci-
mens, in the best state of preservation, in London. ©

Professor JAMESON, who did me the honour ‘to entrust
‘thedissection to me, encouraged me to proceed in carefully
noting the details, because, though nothing novel should
present itself, the investigation might still prove useful, by
confirming the discoveries of others. We were also aware
‘that the descriptions of the most celebrated anatomists were
‘completely at variance with each other, and with those of
naturalists, relative to the anatomy of some very important
organs; and that, consequently, the physiology cf these
organs must remain doubtful and conjectural, until the
‘cause of these differences should be satisfactorily explained.
‘have only farther to mention, that as it was necessary to
respect the skeleton, which is intended for the Museum, I
did not consider myself at liberty to attempt any very mi-
nute dissections of the nerves, organs of sense, ligaments
of the jomts, and soft parts situated in the bottom of the
neck and upper part of the thorax, which were otherwise
required to render the observations complete.

It is well known that the specimens of this very extra-
-ordinary animal first brought to Europe were considered
by many as impositions. ‘They reached England by ves-
sels which had navigated the Indian seas, a circumstance
in itself sufficient to rouse the suspicions of the scientific
naturalist, aware of the monstrous impostures which the
artful Chinese had so frequently practised on European
-adventurers; in short, the scientific felt inclined to class this
_rare ‘production of ‘nature with easternmermaids and other
works of art; but these conjectures were immediately dis-
proved by an appeal to anatomy.

_. As the animal became. better known, attempts were made
by naturalits to arrange it with the Mammalia, to which

28 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

grand division of the animal kingdom it evidently belonged;
and, accordingly, in the Manuel of M. BLumensacu, we
find it classed with the Beaver, Seal, Lamantin, &c. In
the “ Regne Animal,” the Ornithorynchus is better ar-
ranged with the Edentata, and is placed last. Two species
are mentioned, one with reddish, smooth and slender hair,
the Ornithorynchus paradoxus of BLUMENBACH ; the other
characterised by dark-brown hair (6rwn-noiratre), flattened
and crisped*. M. Cuvier conjectures that these may be
but a variety from age; but I have observed, that all the
dried specimens preserved in the Museum belong to the
first species,—whilst the two animals lately imported, and
of which I dissected one, belong decidedly to the second.
These different species may be distinguished, not merely
by the colour and texture of the hair, but also by the shape
of the tail, which, in the latter, altogether resembles that
of the beaver, as well in external appearance as in internal
structure. \

The specimen dissected measured 16% inches from the
end of the upper bill to the extremity of the tail; from the
edge of the cloaca to the extremity of the tail measured
about four inches.

The Ornithorynchus and Echidna (an animal closely al-
lied to the former) are oviparous +. As they have no mam-
mz, they are without the grand characteristic mark of the
first class of animated beings. Already naturalists begin
to think, that animals differing so remarkably from the
Mammalia, cannot with propriety be arranged with them.

The skin being the part to which naturalists chiefly di-
rect their attention, has been sufficiently well described.

* Voyag. de Prnon, I. pl. xxxive The drawings of the Ornithorynchus
in Pexon’s Works arc ill-executed, judging by the specimen now before me.

+ Homer, Phil. Trans. 3

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 29

The palmated feet, and membrane extending beyond the
toes of the anterior extremity ; the remarkable peculiarity
of the bill, resembling so closely that of the duck, and to
which an almost incredible number of nerves are distri-
buted by all the great divisions of the fifth pair of cerebral
nerves; the peculiarity of the hair, which is of two sorts,
one sort fine and jointed, found on most parts of the body,
but chiefly on the sides and abdomen,—the other bristly,
flat, and shaped like the head of a spear, and which is
found chiefly on the back and tail; all these facts, I be-
lieve, have been already noticed. The beaver-like tail of
the animal is covered with short hairs of the spear-pointed
form; these more resemble bristles than hairs. The skin
is thick and compact; and a powerful panniculus carnosus
extends over the whole body, the feet, tail, and bill, being
of course excepted. Some very distinct muscular slips
arise from the panniculus carnosus ; the most remarkable
are, Ist, The platysma myoides, or dermo-clavicular, ari-
sing near the angle of the jaw, and proceeding downwards
to be inserted into the aponeurosis covering the horizontal
branch of the clavicle; 2d, The dermo-humeral, a strong
muscular slip, arising from the panniculus carnosus, lying
over the lower ribs, and following the course of the pec-
toral muscles, is inserted into the os humeri, tendinous in
common with the above muscles; 3d, The dermo-tibial, a
strong slip, which joins the caudo-tibial, and has a common
insertion with it; dastly, Two very strong muscular expan-
sions, arising from the skin of the back, and loins, and con-
verging like the radii of a circle towards its centre, are in-
serted into the root and sides of the tail, and into the
transverse processes of several caudal vertebrze: these are
elevators of the tail, and may be called dermo-caudal.
The action of the others does not require any particular
motice. ‘These are the chief pecularities of the panniculus

30 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

carnosus in the Ornithorynchus paradoxus: under the
skin of the tail it degenerates mostly into a cellular tissue,
in which is deposited a dark-yellow fatty matter. We may
readily imagine the great powers possessed by this, the most
extensive muscle of the body, over the viscera contained -
within it; and how, being only a little increased in the
Echidna, this latter should thereby be enabled to roll itself
up into the form of a ball, after the manner of the common —
hedge-hog.

The skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue abounded so
much with oil, as to render this part of the dissection un-
pleasant; the cellular tissue betwixt the panniculus carno-
sus and subjacent muscles was coarse, and in many places
assumed the form of semitendinous fascia. The skin ex-
tending beyond the toes of the anterior extremity contains
within its substance five narrow longitudinal horny pro-
cesses, resembling that which is found within the integu-
ments of the upper mandible; the two innermost toes of
the hind feet are likewise characterized by a process of the
skin extending beyond the nails. I shall consider the bill
of the Ornithorynchus as the organ of touch, by means of
which the animal searches for its food; the supply of
nerves is such as to render it the most perfect instrument
of the kind with which we are acquainted. The length
of the upper mandible, including the flap, is three inches
nearly; that of the lower bill, and flap, only two.

The organs of taste and smell will not detain us long :
the latter organ, indeed, could not be properly examined, asI
was not at liberty to injure the bones of the face ; it is pro-
bably not very energetic. The nostrils open anteriorly near
the point of the upper mandible; the anatomy of the pos-
terior nares is regular, as in the Mammalia. The tongue
has already been sufficiently well described by authors; it
is covered with a thick cuticle, and cannot be considered

9

~

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 31

as possessing’ much sensibility; it seemed to me that the
gustatory branch of the fifth was comparatively very small,
but the hypoglossal nerves were large, and proportioned to
the development of the strong muscles connected with, or
entering into, the composition of the tongue. It is suffi-
ciently curious, that the muscular apparatus supplying the
tongue of the Ornithorynchus should much resemble that
with which animals having a highly extensile tongue are
furnished; yet, in the former, the lower surface of the
tongue is so secured. as to render extensive motions of this
organ impossible. The tongue is fleshy and thick: at
about ;%;ths of an inch from its base, or 1,%,ths of an inch
from its point, are inserted the lingual teeth, which, like
the other teeth of the animal, are entirely cuticular, and
may be removed by maceration along with the cuticle. I
shall return to this subject when speaking of the organs
subservient to digestion. The palate is marked by several
transverse folds: deep notched indentations run along the
sides of the lower bill, from its angle nearly to the point;
those of the upper bill are found only near the angle of the
mouth. These reduplications of the membrane of the bill
might be supposed to increase the sentient surface; but it
seemed to me that the nerves did not proceed to them in
such abundance as to the anterior portions of the bill. I
should consider, then, these folds as intended merely to al-
low the mandibles to close very accurately, and thus to
prevent the escape of those smaller insects on which pro-
bably the animal feeds. —

Though the actual organ of hearing did not come under
my observation, still there presented themselves. several
appearances relative to those appendages, placed between
it and the external air, which merit the attention of the
Society. There is no external ear, or rather there is no. ear
externally ; for although there be no cartilaginous projec-

32 oBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

tion exterior to the integuments, yet a tolerably perfect
concha exists immediately beneath them. The longitudinal
aperture by which the ear opens on the integuments is
situated immediately behind the eye, and not far from the
posterior or floating edge of the flap of the bill: The hairs
are disposed around this aperture, as the feathers around
the ear in birds. There is nothing peculiar in the aperture
itself as to muscles, &c., but it opens immediately into a
considerable cavity, formed by a cartilaginous plate, dis-
posed after the manner of the concha of the Mammalia,
and which we must consider as the true external ear of the
animal, though it be not external to the integuments. The
cartilaginous plate is fixed, on the one hand, to the long
tube, connecting it with the cavity of the tympanum, and,
on the other, in a very loose manner, to the superjacent
integuments. Distinct muscles are attached to it, as in the
Mammalia, which have the concha situated externally.
These arise from the panniculus carnosus, and are inserted.
into the concha: there can be little doubt, that, by their
action, and the loose attachment of the cartilage of the ear
to the integuments, considerable motions are performed by
it,—the object of which must be to increase the general
cavity formed by the concha, and cartilaginous tube of the
ear, and in some measure to increase the size of the exter-
nal aperture. Nearly one half of the external opening of
the ear is formed by the edge of the cartilagmous tube;
the common integuments form the remaining half, because
the cartilage properly called Concha is thrown back under
the integuments, having an extensive margin attached
slightly by cellular tissue to the integuments, completing,
in this way, the circle of the meatus externus. We thus
see that there is a certain degree of inaccuracy in stating
that the Ornithorynchus has no external ear; and that it
should be said that it has no ear externally, since a tolerably

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 33

perfect external ear exists immediately beneath the integu-
ments. It is extremely probable that a similar distribution
of these parts may exist in some other animals described as
being without external ears.

We may now proceed from without inwards towards the
internal ear, and briefly sum up the anatomy of the whole,
as far as a respect for the skeleton permitted me to investi-
gate. There is, first, the external opening, which had been
mistaken for the simple termination of the cartilaginous
tube of the ear, but which we have demonstrated to be the
opening of the concha, that part of the cartilage which, in
other animals, is in part detached from the head to form a
true external ear, beg in this animal concealed by the in-
teguments, but in such a way as not to impede its functions.
I need hardly mention, that the concha was situated at the
side of the opening farthest removed from the cranium.
From the cartilage of the concha arises a remarkably long
cartilaginous tube, proceeding from the upper part of the
head, close to the eyes, over the lower jaw, as far as the
base of the cranium; it measures in length 1,%ths of an
inch, and nearly ;4,ths in breadth, when opened. The tex-
ture of the middle tunic is not quite cartilaginous; it ter-
minates at the root of the styloid process, and opens wide
into the cavity of the tympanum. Near its termination in
the tympanie cavity, a few projecting points, on its inner
surface, mark the probable existence gf small cartilaginous
bodies. The Eustachian tube is entirely cartilaginous, and
is not inclosed in any osseous case; this is owing to a defi-
ciency of a great part of the osseous circle constituting the
frame of the membrana tympani. Now, in consequence of
this deficiency, the anatomy of these parts is somewhat pe-
culiar; for, in addition to the Eustachian tube being sim-
ply cartilaginous, and not inclosed in any osseous case,
(which, so far as I know, is peculiar to this animal), the

VOL. V. c

34 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

ossicula of the ear are much exposed, and the tympanic
eavity has a great portion of its parietes composed of soft
parts, or, in other words, is placed in a great measure ex-
ternal to the cranium. The anterior part of the malleus
is strongly attached to the extremities of the pterygoid pro-
eesses of the sphenoid bone. ‘The stapes is composed of a
single stalk and cireular plate, by which it is inserted into the
vestibular foramen of the internal ear, the foramen being
itself also circular. The form of the stapes appeared to me
to be that in which the ear differed most from that of the
Mammalia,. and even approached reptiles and birds; and
had nature preserved the same form of stapes throughout
the whole class of Mammalia, we might have noticed the
stapes in the Ornithorynchus as a wonderful peculiarity.
But this is not the case, for, in the Cetacea, the stapes dif-
fers from all other mammiferous animals; it does not in-
deed resemble that of the Ornithorynchus; but it is suffi-
cient for our present purpose, that it differs essentially from
that type which nature has so extensively observed. ‘* In-
stead of the two branches,” observes Cuvisr, ‘° the Cetacea
have a solid body, compressed conically, and perforated by
only a very small foramen.” In the Ornithorynchus this
perforation is wanting, (though it be present in some birds,
as m the Owl); and the slender stalk and circular plate of
the stapes bear the closest resemblance to the analogous
ossiculum im birds and reptiles. Between the external os-
siculum, or that connected with the membrana tympani,
and which bears a close resemblance to the malleus in
many of the Mammalia, and the stapes, there exists an ir-
recular triangular-shaped bone, evidently analogous to the
incus. Itis true, that this bone may, in the Ornithorynchus,
be merely a process of the malleus; but I am by no means
of this opmion, for the following reasons: Ist, It 1s most
readily detached from the malleus; 2d/y, It has a consider-

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 35

able resemblance to the incus of the Mammalia, and has
precisely the same situation; Jastly, The vertical direction
i which it is placed, shows that it cannot be a process of
the malleus. In thus reducing the ossicula of the ear to an
analogy with those of the Mammalia, I am not unwilling
to admit, that there are certain points of resemblance with
those of reptiles and birds, more particularly in the semi-
cartilaginous state of the bones themselves, in the exposed
situation of the cavity of the tympanum, in the very pecu-
liar form of the stapes; but it must be evident, I think, to
all, that certain of these deviations from the usual structure
arise out of the deficiency in the osseous parietes of the
tympanic cavity, and consequent attachment of the small
bones of the ear, and the membrana tympani itself, to a
portion of the pterygoid processes. On the other hand, the
internal aspect of the cavity of the tympanum appears quite
regular; the vestibular foramen, that which in Man, by a
faulty nomenclature, is called oval, isin the Ornithorynchus
perfectly circular. An attempt is made, by a projection of
the bones, to divide the tympanum into two cavities, in one
of which is situated the ossicula auditus, and the vestibular
opening. By the wide opening into the other cavity passes
the facial nerve, which escapes from the cavity by a hole
close to the cochlear opening of the internal ear ; this latter
is much larger than the vestibular. The principal branch
arising from the superior cervical ganglion passes along the
roof of the tympanum, and internally with regard to the
stapes, on its way to join the fifth pair of cerebral nerves.
It will be readily understood that the cavity of the tym-
panum, which is inclosed partly by osseous, and partly by
cartilaginous parietes, is considerable. Its anterior portion
may be divided inte two principal cavities, viz. that which
contains the ossicula and vestibular foramen, and that
c2

$6 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

which extends upwards under a portion of the temporal
bone, forming the glenoid cavity, and consequently extend-
ing towards the zygomatic arch. The posterior: cavity,
whose parietes are in like manner partly osseous and partly
cartilaginous, contains the cochlear opening, and a part of
the facial nerve in its passage outwards. A strong osseous
plate, proceeding from the temporal bone to the base of the
styloid process, is that which chiefly divides the anterior
and posterior cavities from each other; but as the parietes
of this second cavity of the tympanum are cartilaginous on
one aspect, viz: the lower, the foramen by which the facial
nerve: escapes from the cranium is not completely osseous,
but has about a third of its circle composed of cartilage.
T shall conclude this sketch of the organ of hearing of the
Ornithorynchus, by observing, that im no part of the ana-
tomy of this:animal have I found a greater deviation from
the strictly mammiferous structure, as in the formation of
the tympanic cavity, and in the small bones contained with-
in it.

The position of the eyes in the upper and anterior part
of the head, close to the edge of the flap, has been already
noticed. ‘Fhe eye-balls are small, and placed deep in the
orbits; they seemed to me quite regular, both as to inter-
nal structure, and to the muscular and nervous parts si-
tuated externally to the eye-ball: I could not pereeive very
distinctly any lachrymal gland, though anteriorly there is
a small duct, which would seem to lead into the cavity of
the nose, and,. if real, may be considered as analogous to
the lachrymal duct in the Mammalia. The convexity of
the cornea belonged to a sphere not much smaller than the
sclerotic; the lens is flat and soft; the orbit mcomplete.
Owing to the long immersion in spirits the internal struc-
ture of the eye-ball could not be distinctly made out, and

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 87

it would be tedious to describe its external muscles, which,
so far as I could judge, did not differ greatly from those
of the Mammalia *.

2. On the Poison-Gland and Spur.

It seldom happens that Nature leaves animals unprovided
with means of defence against their enemies, and she has
furnished the Ornithorynchus Paradoxus with one of the
most extraordinary which probably exists. ‘The compara-
tive anatomists, as well of the Continent as of England,
who first examined this animal, viewed the spurs as con-
nected with the organs of generation: they were evidently
peculiar to the male; and it was conjectured by Sir E.
Home, and by the celebrated Cuvier, that they were

merely accessory organs, and were accordingly classed with

the organs of prehension. ‘They are thus described: in the
Anatome Comparée: ‘ L’ergot de YOrnithorinque et de
P’Echidné est composé de deux osselets ou de deux pha-
dJanges, dont l'une tres court, applatie, s’articuli sur une fa-
cette de l’astragale, située du cote interne et inferieur de
cet os, et Lautre orgueale plus longe, de figure conique,
sert de moule a la corne qui forme lergot. Cette corne est
pointue, assez longue, fixée du coté interne de articulation
‘du pied, ayant sa pointe dirigée en dedans.”—'Tom. v.
p. 116.

_ A similar opinion was formed of the use of these spurs
by most French and German anatomists. Some years after,
a brief notice found its way to this country of severe cases
of poisoning having followed a wound made by the spur
of the Ornithorynchus. In consequence of this notice, the
attention of anatomists was roused, and a specimen. ex-
amined by Dr De Brainvitiz, and one by Professor

* I thought I noticed a third eye-lid, though very small,

38 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

Ruporrut, with a view to discover the poison apparatus,
if any existed. The known excellency of these distinguished
naturalists, as comparative anatomists, induces me to think
that the specimens examined by them must have been ex-
tremely mutilated, for their descriptions bear no resem-
blance to the true anatomy of the poison-gland and spur.
On the heel of each of the hind ‘feet there appears exter-
nally a spur, much resembling that found in the common
dunghill-cock. It is strong, semitransparent, and pointed ;
and there is evidently an aperture at the point, or rather
on its convex surface, and sloped, as if a small piece had
been cut out of it, without shortening the spur. ‘Through
this, a delicate black body, like a bristle, projects ; it seems
of a horny consistence; though a strong magnifying glass
was used, it did not appear to be hollow. On removing the
integuments carefully, the spur is found to rest by its base
on a flat bone, placed longitudinally over the tarsal bones,
and situated between the lower extremity of the tibia (to
which it is attached), and the tarsal bone corresponding to
the inner toe. Its principal connection, however, is prin-
cipally with the astragalus. In this way two joints are
formed, viz. one between the bone on which the spur rests
and the other bones of the tarsus, and the other between
the spur itself and the bone. 'The motion in both these
joints is inwards towards the tail, and this is the direction
_ which the spur assumes, and the only one in which it can
possibly wound. If a longitudinal section be made of the
spur, it will be found to contain a comparatively large
membranous canal, gradually increasing as we proceed to-
wards the base; this membranous tube is contained in the
centre of the spur, which immediately around it has a
whiter appearance than the more external portions, but
has no resemblance to bone, as some estimable authors
-have stated : it 1s merely a litte firmer than the other parts

THE ORNITHORY NCHUS PARADOXUS. 39

of the horn. As the membranous duct approaches the
base of the spur, it becomes very strong, as if semicartila-
ginous tunics were superadded to it; just as it quits the
spur to enter the sole of the foot, the duct makes a sudden
turn, and is much contracted; it next expands a little, and
~at this point its parietes are so thick as to give it the ap-
pearance of a'bulb or gland, an appearance which, together
with the deep situation of the sac in the hollow of the foot,
Jed M. De Buatnvit.e to consider it as the poison-gland
itself, and which evidently has been the cause of the very
singular errors commited relative to the anatomy of the
spur. When this bulb ‘is laid open, it is found to be merely
@ continuation of the mucous canal, which has at this point
become greatly strengthened in its parietes, and assumed
an almost muscular appearance. In the hollow of the foot
the duct opens by a sudden turn into a comparatively large
sac, surrounded and inclosed by strong ligamentous and
tendinous parts, connected with the small bones of the foot.
From this sac or bag, which in either foot contained a good.
deal of a brownish, mucous matter, arises the great duct
leading to the poison-gland. ‘We may now trace this duct
either from the sac towards the gland, or vice versa. If
the first plan be adopted, we perceive that the duct en-
ters the central sac by a small round orifice, and next makes
4, very sudden turn to reach the superficial part of the foot,
and is soon found almost immediately under the integu-
ments. From this point it proceeds towards the gland,
gradually decreasing in strength of parietes, but increasing
in diameter until it terminates, or rather commences in the
poison-gland itself, situated over and somewhat above the
hip-joit and lois. Throughout its course the duct lies
imbedded in loose cellular membrane, and beneath the
caudo-tibial muscle, which must be removed, in order to

40 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF

have a perfect view of the duct®. It is rather difficult to
state the precise length of the duct from its origin in the
poison-gland to its passage into the small sac situated in

*the hollow of the foot; for about 1,$,ths of an inch its
parietes are comparatively thin, and its diameter sufficient
to admit.a common blowpipe. The remainder of the duct,
and the sudden turn it makes to pass down into the centre
of the foot and to reach the sac, have been already de-
scribed.

The poison-gland itself is about an inch in length, and
yoths.of an inch in breadth. It is a conglomerate gland,
that is, made up of smaller ones, imbedded ina tissue of a
different appearance, and which is probably cellular. It
lies longitudinally with respect to the spine, immediately
above the hip-joint, and close to the os innominatum of the
corresponding side. It advances but little towards the
loins; it covers many of the muscles which rotate the thigh,
and may readily be found by merely removing the integu-
ments, panniculus carnosus, and a small quantity of loose
cellular membrane lying over the os innominatum and ‘hip-
joint. ;

The functions of these parts may now be very readily
understood. The poisonous fluid secreted by the gland is
conveyed by the long duct into the sac situated deep m the
hollow of the foot close to the heel. From this it is pro-
jected into the membranous canal contained in the centre
of the spur, and which, by an almost inexplicable error, has
hitherto been mistaken for a bone. Along this it will easily
flow into the wound inflicted by the spur, passing through

® The whole anatomy of the Poison Gland and Duct, has been beautiful-

ly depicted by the artist I employed, Mr R.'Macinnes ; and the cireumstance,

.that none of the artists employed had the least knowledge of the anatomy of
ithe parts, will no doubt be deemed of considerable importance by many.

oot
at
EC

Wern. Mem. Vol.V. page 41,

PLATE I.

NX
\
\\\\
\\\

\\\

A

\\

\\
WY

EAA

EE

\\\\\\
A\W\\\\

Sez

Lizars

THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. At

the small perforation existing, as well in the termination of
the membranous canal, as in the spur itself. I am not pre-
pared to say what may be the precise use of the small dark
bristle-like body filling up, as it were, the extremity of the
canal in the spur. It is not connected particularly with the
membranous canal, but it must be evident that the poison-
ous fluid may find its way to the point of the spur by the
sides of the horny substance alluded to. Fluids injected
into the duct, near its commencement in the gland, pass |
into that contained within the spur, and even out of the
extremity of the latter; and the pressure of a moderate co-
lumn of quicksilver forced the metal to distil in excessively
minute globules from the point of the spur.

The accompanying engraving (Plate I.) scarcely requires
any explanation. On the upper and back part of the thigh
and loins may be seen the large poison-gland and duct leading
from it towards the bottom of the foot; a small steel-probe
hhas been passed along the duct into the sac, in order to
show the mode of its entrance into the latter; the bulb at
the base of the spur, the membranous canal, and the spur
itself, are all sufficiently distinct.

42, NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

IV.—TENTAMEN Metuopi Muscorum;
OR,

A New Arrangement of the Genera of Mosses,
with Characters, and Observations on their
Distribution, History, and Structure.

By RR. K. Grevitte, Esq. F.R.S.E. M.W.S. &e.
AND |
G. A. Waker Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.R.S.E. M.W.S.

(Continued from Vol. IV. p. 150.)

(Read 26th April 1823.)

Mewmorr IT.
GYMNOSTOMOIDE, Gen. (5—8.)

CHar. Os aut dimidiata aut mitreformis. Seta
terminalis vel lateralis, longitudine et colore valde va-
rians. ‘Theca integra, saepius squalis, sed quandoque
angulata. Operculum deciduum. Peristomium nullum.

Cuan. Calyptra either dimidiate or mitriform. Seta termi-
nal or lateral, varying much in length and colour. Theca
entire, generally equal, sometimes, however, angular.
Operculum deciduous, and leaving beneath it no trace
of a peristome.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. Ag

Ons. To this tribe belong all Hepwic’s Gymnostomii
(excepting Sphagnum), and Patissor’s section of “ Les
Apogones urne tubulée,” with the exception of Tetraphis,
which that author unfortunately supposed to be destitute
of teeth; not having seen the true operculum, he mistook
the peristome for that part,—‘“ se divisant en quatre por-
tions egales dentiformes permanentes.”

Gen. V. Gymnostomum, Hedw. Schreb.

Fruct. Calyptra dimidiata, magna, vel thecze appressa
vel inflata, et tune interdum 4-angulo-pyramidata, persis-
tens et maturitate medio latere rumpens sic pseudo-mitree-
formis. Seta terminalis innovatione quandoque quasi late-
ralis, plerumque foliis perichzetialibus multo longior, thecs
subconcolor, rigida, stricta aut Hexuosa, in una tamen spe-
cie pallida, crassa, carnosa. Apophysis raro ulla? — Theca
integra subglobosa hemispheerica, turbinata, ovata, oblonga,
aut cylindracea, etiamve angulata aqualis, aut quandoque
sic medio subconstricta ut quasi apophysata, in speciebus
diversis varians, sed in eadem plerumque at non semper
constans; ore interdum contracto sed seepius amplo, nudo,
in quibusdam tamen annulo gaudente, brunneo-fuscescens,
levis, striata vel sulcata. Operculum deciduum, thece con-
color, obliquum, rostratum, conicum aut mammillatum in
quibusdam acutum, in alius obtusum, semper integrum.
Peristomium nullum. Columella etate plerumque theca
brevior, interdum longior et operculo adnatum, seepius fili-
formis vel subclavata, stricta, rarius ampla, obconica vel
potius infundibuliformis. Siporule valde variantes.

Cuar. Dirr. Calyptra dimidiata. Seta terminalis. Theca
ore nudo.

44, NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Fraucr. Calyptra dimidiate, large, either closely em-
bracing the theca, or inflated, and then sometimes quadran-
gular and pyramidal, persistent, and, in consequence of a
lateral fissure, which then takes place midway between the
base and the apex, becoming eventually pseudo-mitriform.
Seta terminal, but sometimes apparently lateral from inno-
vations ; generally much longer than the pericheetial leaves;
similar in colour to the theca; rigid, straight, or flexuose ;
im one species, of a whitish colour, thick, and carnose.
Apophysis rarely any? T'heca entire, subglobose, hemi-
spherical, turbinate, ovate, oblong or cylindrical, or even
angular, equal, or sometimes so contracted in the middle as
to appear furnished with an apophysis; varying in different
species, but tolerably constant in the same; the orifice is
sometimes contracted, but more frequently large, naked ; in
some instances furnished with an annulus, reddish-brown,
smooth, striated or sulcated. Operculum deciduous, of the
same colour as the theca, oblique, rostrate, conical or mam-
millose, acute or obtuse, always entire. Peristoméum none.
Columella, when mature, usually shorter than the theca, in
some species, however, exserted, and even adnate with the
operculum ; mostly filiform or clavate, straight, rarely large,
obconical, or rather infundibuliform. Sporule various.

DirF. Cuan. Calyptra dimidiate. Seta terminal. Mouth
of the theca naked.

Vec. The stems of the Gymnostoma are extremely va-
riable in length. In some species there is scarcely any at
all; in others they are longer, but still simple; while in
several they are much elongated, and repeatedly branched.
The former, as might be expected, grow either in a solitary
or tufted manner; the latter closely matted and inter-
woven together. The leaves present a reticulation curiously

THE GENERA, OF MOSSES. A

varied; that of G. Griffithtanum being perhaps the most
remarkable, and resembling concave fovce or pits, rather
than regular cellules. G. ovatum is worthy of notice, from
its leaves having a mass of minute round gemmee on their
nerve and centre. In regard to form, the leaves differ con-
siderably ; in G. Griffithianum they are nearly round; in
G. ovatum ovate, with a hair-point; in G. microstomum
and Donianum subulate; and if Drepanophyllum of
RicHARD, Hooxer *, and ScHW&GRICHEN +, be added to
the genus, they are sometimes falcate. They are also either
acute or obtuse, entire, dentate or serrate, usually slightly
concave; but in G. involutum, they are remarkably invo-
lute; and in G. julacewm convolute; their arrangement on
the stem is in every instance imbricated; the doubtful
Drepanophyllum alone having them inserted bifariously.
In none of the species are the cauline ones destitute of a
nerve.

Ozs. In this genus the two opposite extremities exhibit
little in common; yet, with the exception of Drepanophyl-
lum, the species may be said to form an uninterrupted se-
ries. Some bear a near affinity in general habit to other
genera; as, for instance, G. Griffithianum to Splachnum,
and G. microstomum to Weissia, &c.: such anomalies,
however, must necessarily occur both in the embryonate
and exembryonate tribes of vegetables. Of the above ex-
amples, however, G. Griffithianwm is not m reality so
closely allied to Splachnum as has been by some imagined ;
the reticulation of the leaves is of a very different nature,
and the thick carnose seta is totally at variance with that

- genus.

* Musci Exotici, tab, 145. + Sp, Musc. Supp. 2. tab. 125.

46 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Drs Hooxer and Taytor have said (Muscologia Bri-
tannica), ‘* A delicate horizontal annular membrane may
be seen to arise within the mouth of the capsule of some
species, when examined in a fresh state, as in G. microsto-
mum, G. fasciculare, G. truncatulum, and, above all, in
G. Griffithianum, in which, not unfrequently, this mem-
brane is entire.” And afterwards, ‘‘ The membrane stretch-
ing across the mouth of the capsule is only to be seen in
fresh specimens.” Should this membrane in the latter moss
be found hereafter to arise from the stoma (which, indeed,
we very much doubt, but which, if it were the case, would
bring this extraordinary plant under Brown’s character of
Hymenostomum), and not to be a mere cover to the spo-
rular sac, it would lead to the formation of a new genus.
Scuw#¢ricHEen, indeed, in his Second Supplement to
Hepwie’s Species Muscorum, has ventured to constitute
of it a genus from such dried specimens, as in which he
confesses he never saw the character: he has called it Qdi-
podium, and has separated it from Gymnostomum, because
it has “ peristomium nullum aut exigua membranula indi-
visa.” Now, every moss possesses this ‘‘ membranula indi-
visa,” arising from the lining of the theca; but in all the
species of Gymnostomum, it is peculiarly evident at some
particular stage.

In our description of the fructification, we have noticed
the columella, which, in some few species, is of a most re-
markable form. Dr Hooxer has delineated a curious ex-
ample in G. Xanthocarpum, and we have added that of
G. pyriforme in one of the plates accompanying this paper.
In the latter, if a specimen be taken before the fructification
be quite mature, and the operculum with the opercular
membrane be forcibly, but carefully detached, we perceive
a membranaceous expansion, which, if the sporules be re-
moved, resembles an inverted cone, the base or superior

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. ANY

portion of which, is attached all round to the sporular bag
at the margin of the theca. That part of this membrane
which unites the Iming of the theca to what is usually
called the summit of the columella, is in this genus com-
monly of a strong nature,—so much so, as to induce Mr
Brown, and also ourselves at one time, to conclude that
G: microstomum * possessed a horizontal membrane actual-
ly arising from the wall of thetheca. This, however, is not
the case: but even supposing it were so, the difficulty of
examination is so great, and the membrane itself so eva-
nescent, this character alone would be but of little use,
though certainly sufficient to remove any plant from the
true Gymnostoma.

With the membrane which covers the sporular bag, the
peristome of Leptostomum must not be confounded. In
that genus, Dr Hooxer remarks, that the peristome is very
near that of Diphyscium ; and we add, also, to the internal
peristome of Buwbaumia and Ptychostomum, (Hornscn.)\;
but Leptostomum and Piychostomum we think more natu-
rally allied to Bryum.

We have already mentioned that some species possess
an annulus. Dr Hooker, in his “* Musci Exotici,” has
figured two, G. julacewm and involutum. Weber and
Mour (Handbuch, p. 86.) first pointed out this part in
G. tenue,— Arte solventes operculum, annulum s. fim-
briam, cujus nec Hepw. nec Scurap. mentionem fecerunt,
observavimus.” ‘This was soon afterwards also observed. by
Routine. To these three must be added, G. trichodes

® Mr Brown constitutes of this plant his genus Hymenostemum, with
the character——“‘ Stoma edentulum, clausum epiphragmate (e membrana
exteriore orto), disco tenuissimo (a columello libero) mox rupto et evanido ;
limbo persistente, horizontali indiviso.”.«-Linn. Trans, v. 12. p. 572.

2

48 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

(Weser and Mour), the Weissta trichodes of Hoox. and
Tayu., and Grimmia trichodes of Smitu, which we con-
ceive to belong to this genus.

We shall conclude our observations, by noticing, that Sir
James Enwarp Smirn alludes to the Hyssop of Soromon
being contained in this genus, and states it (according to
the Linnean Herbarium) to be G. fasciculare*. Wuzen —
and Mour do not seem certain as to the species; and
Pauissor DE BeEavvois, without assigning any reason, ~
changes it into a Phascum, as, when speaking of the
Phasca, he observes, ‘ parmi lesquelles on croit recon-
noitre PHyssope de Salomen.” The last notice of this sub-
ject is to be found in Mr Gravy’s extraordinary work on
British Plants, where he gravely adds, and with his usual
brevity, the following synonym, under Gymnostomum fas-
eiculare: “ The hyssop that groweth on the wall.—English
Bible.” !

We shall only add to the above, conceiving the whole to
be a matter of mere speculation, on which every one has a
right to say what he pleases, and without much danger of
refutation, that it is as probable that the hyssop may be nei-
ther a species of the genus Hyssopus nor of Gymnostomum.
If we examine the New Testament, we shall perceive, that at
the time of our Saviour’s crucifixion, when he thirsted, that
they filled a sponge with vinegar, and placed it on hyssop,
“6 yoowmw mepibevees,” im order to extend it to him, (St John,
ch. xix. v. 29.) Now, Matthew uses a different expression ;
he says, they put the sponge on a reed, “ xs wegibes xard-
#9,” (Matth. ch. xxvii. v. 48.) And Mark, (ch. xv. v. 36.,)
confirms this, zegibes r= xecaduo.” From these authorities,
one might infer, either, that hyssop was a reed, or, as xaAdjos

* Fl. Brit. p. 1166. and Eng. Bot. t. 1245.

9

a

“THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 49

may be a wand, or slender branch of any kind, so codes is
the bush or tree from which the twig was taken; but which-
ever be the reading, the hyssop of St John can neither be the
herb known at this day under that name, nor any of the
Musci. In interpreting rigorously the passage in 1. Kings,
ch. iv. v. 33. we do not find any thing dissonant to this:
“¢ And he spake of trees (lignis in the Vulgate, and Zoaay in
the Septuagint), from the cedar that is in Lebanon, even
unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.” But might
not hyssop have been the name for any small plant, in con-
tradistinction to the magnificent cedar * ?

Has. Gymnostomum is a genus widely distributed in
every quarter of the globe, each claiming a greater or less
number of species; temperate climates are, however, the
most favourable to their production. Most of the species are
found on the ground, some on rocks, and one only, that we
are aware of, on trees (G. viridissimum). Those most rare

® As this subject has excited no small interest with many speculators,
we shall add here the literal translations in Latin of the passage, taken
from different Versions;

1. Hesrew—“‘ Et locutus est super lignis a ¢edro que in Lebanon, et
usque ad hyssopum que egrediens in pariete.”

2. Syriac—< Disseruit etiam de arboribus, a cedris Lebani usque ad .
sempervivum quod prodit in pariete.”

3. AraBic—‘* Locutus est de arboribus, et 2xposuit virtutes earum 3 dis-
seruit autem de quibuscunque-arboribus, a cedro Libani usque ad
herbam que nascitur in pariete.”

4, Greex—* Et locutus est de lignis, a cedro que est in Libano, et us-
que ad hyssopum egredientem per parietem.”

5. Vutcatr—“ Et disputavit super lignis, a cedro que est in Libano,
usque ad hyssopum que egreditur de pariete.”

It will be remarked, that the Syriac and Arabic use a different phrasé

from hyssop. ‘The Chaldee Version has not this passage at all, but a totally
different. one in its place.

VOL. V. D

50 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

' in this country are, G. Griffithianum, trichodes, conicum,
and Donianum. 'The first has been gathered on Ingle-
borough, Snowdon, and the mountains of Angusshire ;
the second in Sussex, and near Dublin; the two last are
abundant in the very few stations in which they are found.
G. conicum is, according to Mr Macxay, too frequent in the
Dublin Botanic Garden; and G. Donianum we have re-
cently had the pleasure of rediscovering, in the utmost
profusion, in Mr Don’s old and only station, the Den of
Dupplin, Perthshire. Very few Gymnostoma are to be met
with on elevated mountains, though many occur in subalpine
districts.

Hist. The Mosses composing the present genus, formed
with DittEenivus and Linnazus a part of Brywm. At that
period. no attention was paid to the peristome; but as soon
as Hepwic commenced his work of reformation, the genus
Gymnostomum was established: and at the same time was
described another genus nearly allied to it, by the name of
Hedwigia, the same as Anictangium of the Species Musco-
rum. In that work fifteen Gymnostoma are published, and
seven Anictangia, from which must be deducted, as bemg
varieties, or belonging to other genera, the following; from
Gymnostomum five (of which one is Schistostega), and
from Anictangium six species (of which one is a Gymno-
stomum, and another an Hedwigia). In the first Supple-
ment published by SCHWEGRICHEN, twenty-four species of
the one, and ten of the other, are enumerated. BripEL
in his last work gives us no fewer than four genera formed.
out of the above, Gymnostomum, Pyramidula, Schistidium,
and Anictangiwm ; of which, the first contains thirty spe-
cies, the second one, the third six, and the last two: Pyra-
midula, however, is a true Gymnostomum, and ranks next
to G. pyriforme, and of his two species of Anictangium, the

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 51

_one is a variety of a Gymnostomum, and the other an Ortho-
tricum. Upon the whole, there are scarcely more than
twenty-nine or thirty true species known of Gymnostomum,
including those described by Dr Hooxrr in Muse. Exot.,
(with the exception of Mr Brown’s Leptostoma, which
we conceive to form an excellent genus). In Great Britain,
Sir James Epwarp SMITH enumerates sixteen species (F'l.
Brit.) ; these he increases in his Compendium to twenty ;
but Drs Hooxer and Taytor, in their Muscologia Britan-
nica, reduces them to fourteen. |

There are a few plants which require to be noticed in
this place, some of which have been denied to belong to
this genus, and others improperly retained.

CEdipodium, the new genus constituted by Scuwaz-
GRICHEN, we have already mentioned. Gymnostomum
trichodes has been described by Hrpwic as an Anictane
gium, by Suiru as a Grimmia, and as a Weissia by
Drs Hooker and Taytor. We are more inclined to
follow Werzer and Mour, and other authors, who deny
it a peristome, than those who hold a contrary opinion.
The authors of the Muscologia Britannica observe,—
‘¢ The curious peristome of this plant, in an early stage,
represents only a membranous ring, lying horizontally
within the edge of the mouth of the capsule: this, however,
as maturity advances, splits into sixteen equal, short, and
very obtuse teeth, which become erect, and afterwards re-
flexed over the mouth of the capsule.” Sir J. EK. Smiru,
in Eng. Bot. tab. 2563, also remarks, “Mr Borrer ob-
serves, that the frmge seems a continuation of the inner
coat of the capsule, and looks at first like a thin inflexed
membrane, nearly closing the mouth; afterwards, when
dry, it becomes reflexed, forming sixteen very short, blunt,
flat, and pale teeth, and soon falls off—Mr J. D. Sowrrsy
found each tooth divided by a line, transversely furrowed,

D2

52 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

and occasionally emarginate *. Now, it should be observed, .
that these teeth, which are acknowledged to arise from the
interior of the theca, appear to be a continuation of the lin-
ing; whereas, in all the Weissie, the teeth either spring
from the surface of the stoma, or immediately from within ;
and are formed at the same time with the theca itself; but
the supposed teeth being thus only formed by the splitting
of the horizontal membrane which connects the lining of
the theca with the summit of the columella (and which we
have already remarked to be peculiarly strong in Gymno-
stomum), the plant should perhaps be retained among those
destitute of a true peristome *f.

Dr Hooxer has published a new and smgular species of
Gymnostomum in his exquisite Musci Exotici [, under
the name of Capense, which Mr Brown conceives to form
of itself a distinct genus, named by him Glyphocarpa }.
Unfortunately the latter has published no character; but,
whatever it be, it assuredly ought not to rest on the form
or strize of the theca, as, by the same principle, G. Lappo-
nicum might also be removed; and Bartramia arcuaia, on

® By the plate in English Botany, the peristome is decidedly that of an
Orthotrichum ; and indeed were the Muscologia Britannica and English Bo-
tany description of actual teeth to be correct, we would feel rather inclined to
constitute of this a new genus, and arrange it close to Calymperzs, in the
Orthotrichotdee.

+ Since the plates for this paper have been engraved, we have observed,
in Gym. microstomum, a similar structure, the horizontal membrane, which
is usually striated, being, by age, turned upwards into sixteen very obtuse
teeth. May not, in a similar way, Weissia affints of Hooker and Taytor’s
Muscologia, be merely Gymnostomum conicum, from which it does not other-
wise differ ?

+ Muse. Exot., vol. ii. t. 165.

|| Linn. Trans. vol. xii. p. 575.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 53

account of its smooth theca, be separated from all the re-
maining Bartramie. As long, therefore, as generic distinc-
tion is rigorously taken from the fructification, it will, if
Dr Hooxer’s character be correct, remain in that group
among which he has placed it.

Depranophyllum of Ricuarp, first published by Dr
Hooker as a Dicranum? is another very extraordinary
plant, which we have hitherto alluded to in the light of a
doubtful Gymnostomum ; the fact is, no character has yet
been formed which excludes it from that genus. From its
most peculiar habit alone, we have no hesitation in believ-
ing it to be totally distinct; at the same time, the little that
is known about it, renders it impossible for us to notice it,
except in this place*. Scuwa#e¢RicHEN also describes and
figures it in his second Supplement, and makes the sole
character depend on the naked male flowers. Were we to
hazard an opinion, we should be inclined to consider it an
Anictangium, and not far from An. torquatum, with which it
has a considerable affinity ; and if its calyptra be ultimately
proved to be mitriform, we would feel inclined in that case
to destroy the next genus we are to describe, Schistosiega,
and form the whole into a distichous-leaved section of
Anictangium. :

' Species referable to other genera, are, G. pennatum (vid.
Schistostega), G. aquaticum (vid. Hedwigia). G. pulvi-
natum and subsessile belong to Anictangzium. G. prore-
pens, retained as such by all authors, we have ascertained
to possess sixteen geminate teeth, without a capitate colu-
mella, so that it belongs to the Orthotrichoidee. From an

* We wrote, some time ago, to our friend M. Acninug Ricwarp, request.
ing him, if possible, to examine his father’s specimens, and endeavour to dis-«
cover something additional respecting the fructification. We have not yet
been favoured with an answer to our queries. |

54

NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

examination of many specimens we have also ascertained
that the calyptra is actually mitriform ; though, from its ir-
regular splitting at the base, it sometimes appears with one
predominant fissure, or dimidiate, as in Hepwic’s figure:
this plant is therefore a true Orthotrichum *.

Tt

=

10.

Lit.

PLATE II.

. Theca of Gymnostomum Donianum, shewing the

elongated columella.
A young plant of the same species.

. A mature calyptra of the same.

Theca of Gym. microstomum, with the membrane
within the orifice.

. Theca of Gym. Griffithianum exhibiting the same

structure.

Theca of Gym. viridissiemum.

Theca of Gym. involutum divided, to shew the
columella.

Calyptra of the same.

Theca of Gym. pyriforme, with the pprendet
membrane within the mouth.

The mouth of the theca of the same dissected,
and more highly magnified ; it exhibits the sum-
mit of the columella expanding into a membrane
which is attached to the top of the lining of the
theca; the sporules are seen within.

Calyptra of the same species when full grown. In
a young state it is almost mitriform.

* We find that Bripex once formed a genus of this plant, called Anodon-
tzum, which Mr Brown seems rather inclined to favour, by mentioning, in
Linn. Trans,, vol. x. p. 315., that he had ascertained two new species.
Brivex, however, in his Methodus nova Muscorum, reduces the genus again

to Gymnostomum.

PLATE I

GYMN OST™ SCHISTOSTEGA ANICTAN

Ting “for the Wern. Memoirs Vol. V.P. TF, H&E

GM HEDWIGIA .

WH Lizars sculpt

ahs mo)
rad

eS

ane Gat
Ss a .

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Aj.

18.

19.

20.

21.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 55

Operculum of Gym. fasciculare.

Do. of Gym. conicum.

Do. of Gym. involutum.

Cellules of the leaves of Gym. Griffithianum.

Do. of Gym. pyriforme. Similar to which are
those of Gym. fasciculare and Gym. (Pyrami-
dula) tetragonum.

Do. of Gym. minutulum ; which may also serve
to represent those of Gym. truncatulum and
ovatum.

Do. of Gym. Donianum ; resembling also those
of Gym. conicum.

Do. of Gym. Xanthocarpum.

Do. of Gym. tortile.

Do. of Gym. microstomum. (The smallest reticu-
lation of any of the Gymnostoma.)

All the figures more or less magnified.

GeN. VI. Scuistosteca, Mohr.

Frucr. Calyptra mitreformis*, basi integra, fugax,
theca paulo brevior, tenera, pallido-fuscescens, laxe reticu-
lata. Seta terminalis, cauli subsequalis, lutescens demum
rufescens, erecta, capillaris, nunquam tortilis, apice paulu-
lum incrassata. Apophysis nulla. Theca integra, levis,
_ subglobosa, minutissima, maturitate luteo-fusca, ore con-
tracto, incrassato, thecze concolore ++ absque annulo. Oper-
culum tenerrimum, convexiusculum, striato-reticulatum,

* —° integra secedit.” Hewn. Stirp. Cr.
+ —-“* luteo.” HeEpw, Stirp. Cr.

56 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

**non integrum, sed de summitate in lacinias irregulares
illico sese revolventes decedens dilutissime rutilans *.” Peri-
stomium nullum. Colwmella maturitate nulla. Sporule exi-
guee, globose, pallido-virides, hyaline.

Cuar. Dirr. Seta terminalis. Theca ore nudo. Oper-
culum laciniatum, laconiis deciduis. Calyptra campanulata,
basi integra,

Frucr. Calyptra mitriform, entire at the base, fuga-
cious, somewhat shorter than the theca, tender, of a pale
brownish colour, and loosely reticulated. Seta terminal,
equal in length to the stem, yellowish, at length reddish,
erect, capillary, never twisted, somewhat incrassated at the
apex. <Apophysis none. Theca entire, smooth, subglebose,
excessively minute, yellowish-brown when mature; orifice
contracted, with an incrassated margin, without an annulus,
and of the same colour as the theca. Operculum delicate,
slightly convex, reticulated in a striated manner ; “ not en-
tire, but splitting from the centre into irregular lacinize,
which are revolute and deciduous, and of a very pale red
colour.” Peristomiwm none. Columella m the mature theca
none. Sjporule exceedingly minute, globose, pale green,

pellucid.

Dirr. Cuan. Seta terminal. Theca with a naked mouth.
Operculum lacimated, the lacenie deciduous. Calyptra cam-
panulate, entire at the base.

Vec. The roots of Schistostega are simple or branched,
of a brownish colour, and pellucid. The stems are simple,

* Hepw. Stirp. vol. 1. p. 76.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 5T

or most rarely branched, one to three-fourths of an inch in
length, filiform, erect, and flexuose; naked from the base
to about two-thirds of the whole length, when it becomes
clothed with distichous leaves of a lanceolate form, plane,
bright green, nerveless, entire, and loosely reticulated ;—
‘“‘they are decurrent at the base, but by no means con-
fluent ; those in the centre are the longest, and they gra-
dually diminish in size above and below *.” The periche-
tial leaves are much narrower than those of the stem.

Ozss. The calyptra of this moss we have found, by care-
ful examination, to be campanulate, or entire, as Hepwic
describes it. Few authors seem to have noticed it since his
time from their own observation. As to the operculum, we
have borrowed part of our character from Hepwice, having
never been able to satisfy ourselves completely respecting
the lacinize, but this we shall mention more particularly
when we come to the history. If we consider the excessive
minuteness of the theca, its form, and naked stoma, no
other known moss can be confounded with it; the foliage,
however, much resembles that of Dicranum bryoides, for
which, as Dr Hooxer remarks, it has probably been fre-
quently passed over. Among the Gymnostomoidee it ap-
proaches to Drepanophyllum alone.

Has. This singular moss seems to be confined to Europe,
and hitherto has chiefly been observed in the northern divi-
sion. In Britain, the only known stations are in Devon-
shire, where it was originally discovered by the Reverend
Mr Newserery, on the road from Zele to South Tawton
Church, four miles from Okehampton. This habitat, about

* Hook: and Tayi Musc. Brit:

58 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

three years ago, we spent some days in examining without
success. Since that time, however, this plant has been
rediscovered by our friend the Reverend J. S. Tozzr,
who finds it on hedge-banks by the side of the Kings-
bridge Road, a few yards after leaving the old road from
Totness to Plymouth; also near the village of Harberton,
about two miles anda half from Totness; and near Chel-
will, in the same parish. He has likewise a fourth station,
at Meavy Parsonage, near Horrabridge. Mr Tozer also
writes, ‘¢ I have invariably found it in the hollow moulder-
ing part of our high hedges, the earth of which as the
summer advances scales off, and renders it difficult to de-
tect at that season of the year.” SmiTu’s account agrees
well with this: ‘* In cavitatibus aggerum, sub sepibus: ve-
tustioribus, solo pingui *.”

Hist. This moss was first described by Dicxson t,
under the name of Mniwm osmundaceum. \ HEpwie very
soon afterwards published it in his “ Stirpes” as. a Gymno-
stomum?; and Kuruart, about the same time, as Dicksonia
pusilla, in his “ Plantee Cryptogamee.” It was still con-
tinued, however, as a Gymnostomum (G. pennatum) by
Hepwic in the Species Muscorum, and by Scuwzert-
CHEN in the Supplement. Mor, in 1803 and m 1807,
conjointly with Wrsrr, made a distinct genus of it, on
account of the remarkable operculum, and named it Schisto-
stega, a genus which is retamed by the authors of the
British Muscologia. HEpwic, in his Stirpes already
quoted, thus describes the operculum: ‘ Non integrum,
sed de summitate in lacinias irregulares illico sese: revol-

* Fi. Brit. p. 1161. + Crypt. Fase. i. p. 3. t. 1. f 4.
t Vol. i, p. 77. t, 29.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 59

ventes decedit.”. WezeEr and Moar say, “ Operculum ab
apice fissum in lacinias revolvende-aufuges.” ~ScuxuHR
positively denies this structure; and Bret, in his last
work, ‘‘ Methodus nova Muscorum,” fully agreeing with
that author, observes at some length,—‘“ ScuKunrivs
acerrimus muscorum investigator e soli veritati studens,
Hxpwicium gyaviter erravisse in observatione, descrip-
tione et adumbratione hujusce musci operculis, nos
edocuit. Herpwicius nempe ills striis tenerrimis a cen-
tro ad perispheriam radiantibus ornatum esse, néc inte-
grum sed de summitate in lacinias irregulares illico sese
revolventes ac delabentes (quod casu semel fieri potuit)
discedere affirmat. Tanta auctoritate moti WrEBERUsS
Monrvusque, imo idem se observasse dictitantes novum ge-
nus Schistostega a fisso operculo. dictum effinxerunt.
ScHKUHRIvs autem diu et pertinaciter hujusce musci cap-
sulam percontatus operculum nec aliter reticulatum nec
alio pacto quam in czeteris muscis abscedens invenit, quam-
vis valde tenerum fugaxque esse fateatur. Genus igitur
Schistostega natura repudiat ipsa, et nomen illud in Mus-
cologia non aliter quam T'rentepohlia remanebit, nempe,
argumenti instar optimos observatores facile in errorem de-
labi, si naturam paulo segnius aut mente jam preeoccupata
scrutantur.”

Notwithstanding the high authority of Scuxunr, and
BripEw’s opinion of him, and we are led to believe that
SCHWEGRICHEN now agrees with them on that point, we
certainly cannot suppose that Hrpwice’s description of the
laciniated operculum originated wholly in imagination.
Mr Tozer, who has examined this part very attentively,
informs us, that one, which he placed under the microscope,
split, on being touched, into many segments radiating from
the circumference to the centre; which, though it contra-
dicts Hepwie’s character, “ de swmmitate in lacinias,” &c.,

60 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

yet contributes to establish the existence of a peculiar
structure *. We ourselves, after repeated scrutiny, and
lately, even in company with the learned authors of the
Muscologia Britannica, have not been so fortunate. We
could, however, perceive a series of striz filled up by a
reticulated vasculose structure, which, under favourable cir-
cumstances, might split in the manner described. Upon the
whole, therefore, (not forgetting the uncommon habit of
the plant, so unlike any Gymnostomum), we feel inclined,
with Mone, to consider it as a distinct genus. Besides,
the calyptra is distinctly entire, which is sufficient of itself
to remove it from Gymnostomum.

PLATE II.
Fig. 22. & 23. Thecee of Schistostega pennata, the first
without the operculum.
24. Operculum of the same, shewing the striated and
vasculose structure, as it appeared to ws.
25. Calyptra of the same.
26. Sporules.
27. An entire frond.
28, Cellular structure of the leaf.
All the figures are more or less magnified.

* This structure, as far as we may judge by Hooxer’s Plate, appears
also to exist in Drepanophyllum ; unless this be owing to the remains of some
teeth lurking in the interior, as we have perceived in Hedwigia Schmidtiz
(Hoox.); in that case, Drepanophyllwum must be again removed to the Di-
eranotdec. 3

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 61

Gren. VII. Anicraneium, Hedw.

Fruct. Calyptra mitreformis plus mmusve ad basin in
lacinias irregulares fissa, quandoque pseudo-dimidiata, pal-
lida, levis, glabra. Seta terminalis, perbrevis, seepius vix
ulla, recta, rigida, thecze concolor. Apophysis nulla. T'heea
quandoque subcylindracea, plerumque tamen turbinata, in-
tegra, nec sulcata nec striata, leevissima, rutilans seu fusca,
ore nudo, subamplo crassiusculo colore saturatiore. Oper-
culum deciduum, integrum, umbonatum seu convexo-ros-
tratum, thecze concolor, irregulariter celluloso-reticulatum.
Peristomiwm nullum. Columella valde collapsa, et in fundo
thecee retracta*. Siporule magiusculz subspheerice, reti-
culatze ; in una specie tripartitee, punctate. |

Cuar. Dirr. Seta terminalis. Theca ore nudo. Oper-
culum deciduum, integrum. Calyptra mitreformis, bast
wrregulariter fissa.

Fruct. Calyptra mitriform, cleft more or less into ir-
regular segments at the base, sometimes even pseudo-
dimidiate, pale, without striz, glabrous. Sefa terminal,
extremely short, sometimes almost none, straight, rigid, of
the same colour as the theca. Apophysis none. Theca
sometimes almost cylindrical, but generally turbinate, en-
tire, smooth, neither sulcated nor striated, reddish, or
‘brown; the mouth naked, usually large, somewhat. thick-
ened, and of a deeper colour. Operculwm deciduous, en-
tire, umbonate or convexo-rostrate, of the same colour as

* Una in specie solummodo bene observayimus.

62 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

the theca, irregularly reticulated. Perisiome none. Colu-
mella collapsed into a minute globular mass at the bottom
of the theca. S‘porules rather large, subspheerical, reticu-
lated; in one species tripartite, and punctated.

Dirr. Coar. Seta terminal. Mouth of the theca naked.
Operculum deciduous, entire. Calyptra mitriform, cleft ir-
regularly at the base.

Vec. The stems of the species in this genus grow in a
tufted manner, and are in all the species but one consider-
ably branched. In A. ciliatum, jiliforme (Micu.), imberbe *
(Hook. & Tayt.), repens (Hoox.), and torquatum (Hooxr.),
they are either decumbent or creeping; in all the others,
erect. Those of A. torquatum are tomentose beneath ;
“* caulibus ramisque inferne ubique tomento ferrugineo ob-
sitis, stipulisque admixtis+.” It is remarkable, that, in
this genus, the leaves of most of the species are entirely
destitute of a nerve,—a circumstance which assuredly con-
tributes to mark a natural limit between it and Gymno-
stomum. A nerve, however, terminating in a piliferous
point, is present in 4. pulvinatwm and subsessile; and
there is a percurrent one, of a brown colour, and remark-
able strength, in 4. torquatum. In regard to form, the
leaves are usually ovate, obtuse, acuminate, and sometimes
serrated at the apex; but in 4. torquatwm, they are heu-
_late, somewhat undulate, and ‘‘ when dry, are so much
curled as to cover the whole upper surface of the stem;
and. if macerated for ever so great a length of time, con-
tinue involuted in a most remarkable manner {.” It is also

* A. filiforme and imberbe, certainly do not differ from each other; and
we are even inclined, along with Wrser and Mour, and Bripez, to add
them both to A. ciliatum.

+ Hook. Muse. Exot. t. 41. + Hook. loc. cit.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 63

worthy of notice, that, in A. torquatwm, they are distichous,
while in all the other species they are “ spissa imbricata.”
The perichetial leaves also vary, though not much, from
each other. In A. ciliatwm they are laciniated towards the
apex, while the cauline ones are only denticulated. In
A. torquatum they are erect, lanceolate, and imbricated,
differing very widely from those of the stem.

Ozs. The Aniciangia bear considerable affinity to a
few Gymnostoma, and in some instances come near to se-
veral Grimmie; from all of which, however, a slight ex-
amination shews them to be sufficiently distinct*. The
genus, if the species be compared with each other, seems

to divide naturally into two sections; of which A. ciliatum,
amberbe, jiliforme, repens, and perhaps subsessile, would
form the first.

The calyptras seem to vary exceedingly. In A. pulvina-
tum, Hupwic represents it almost dimidiate; but ScuxuurR,
with more accuracy, makes it mitriform, with a few fissures
at the base. ScHwaericHEN figures and describes that of
A, subsessile, ** subcampanulata lateraliter secedens ;” and
Weser and Monr agree by saying, “ mitreeformis in plu-
res lacinias fissa, fissura una preevalente.” Again, in A.
cespititium, SCHWEGRICHEN delineates it completely dimi-
diate, but describes it “ conica, basi bis aut pluries fissa ;”
and We=xer and Mour, to reconcile all parties, say, “ di-

“midiato-mitreeformis.”. Briprt notices the contradiction
between Scuwaericuen’s figure and description; “ Ca-
lyptram SCHWEGRICHENII icon valde diversam ab ejus

* With Grimmia, Anictangium has nevertheless been confounded ; for,
by an examination of Patissor pz Brauvors’ own specimens, we found his
Hedwigia (Anictangium ) nervosa to be nothing more than Grimmia apocar-
pa, var. 2, or Grimmia stricta of Turner, Musc. Hib.

64 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

descriptione sistit.” Notwithstanding all these discrepan-
cles, as far as our own observations extend, the calyptra
may be pronounced truly mitriform; and im most, nay, in
all, the species hitherto known to us, more or less cleft into
several basilar fissures. This circumstance shews how
closely this genus is allied to Gymnostomum, for in G.
pyriforme, and some others, the calyptra is almost mitri-
form.

All the calyptras we have observed are glabrous; but
Ricuagrp *, in Micwavx’s Fl. Bot. Am., describes that
of A. filiforme as subvillose; a fact doubted by WEBER
and Mour, who suggest, ‘‘an lusus nature?” and also by
BripEL, “ quod accuratius inquirendum.” Unfortunately
in those specimens received from M. AcuitLe Ricuarp,
we have not been able to discover a single calyptra; but in
others, from Boston, sent us lately by Mr Grerne, we
have at length detected it, and found it apparently fur-
nished with a few hairs. It ought, however, to be re-
marked, that, in this American variety, the ciliz, towards
the extremity of the pericheetial leaf, are so extremely
brittle, as soon to render the leaf only serrated, and, from
the structure of the hairs on the calyptra, we have little
doubt that they are simply the broken and detached cilize
of the leaf: we therefore still consider the calyptra to be,
strictly speaking, glabrous.

Has. The Anictangia appear to be as widely distri-
buted as their neighbours the Gymnostoma. Europe,

* On examining the Herbarium of Ricuanp, we found the following exe
cellent description of this variety, which we take the liberty to publish :—
*¢ Folia arcte quasi squamatim imbricata, ovalia acuminata; involucri folia
superne ciliata; operculum conoideum, muticum; calyptra caduca, oblonga,
conoidea subvillosa ; peristomium nudum.”

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 65

‘North and South America, and New Holland, possess a
greater or less number. ‘The species so abundant in this
country was found by Mr Brown in Australia, and has
recently been sent to our friend Dr Hooxer, from Nepal.
A. imberbe, found in Ireland, does not appear to differ
from that in North America. All, we believe, grow either
on the ground or on rocks.

Hist. We have adopted the genus nearly according to
the definition given by Mr Turner im his Muscologia
Hibernica, and: by Drs Hooxer and Taytor in the
Muscologia Britannica, which differs considerably from
that given by HEpwic. It is the same as Hedwigia of
Patisor DE Bravvots, but more precisely the Schistidiwm
of BripEL, whose Anictangiwm, by the definition, is the
Hedwigia of HooxEer. One species, A. ciliatum, was in-
deed described by Enruart, and by HeEpwic in his
Stirpes, under the name of Hedwigia ; but that name was
afterwards changed in the Species Muscorum to Anictan-
gium; which species, it may be observed, was called a
Sphagnum by DittEN1vs, and made by Linnavs (under
the generic name of Brywm) a variety of Grimmia apo-
carpa.

In the Species Muscorum seven species are enume-
rated, of which cne only ought to be retained. Scuwa-
GRICHEN, in the Supplement, describes ten, from which
eight may be rejected; but, at the same time, two of his
Gymnostoma should be added. BripEw’s Anictangium,
on which we shall enlarge in the next genus, contains two
plants, neither Anictangia nor Hedwigie. In this coun-
try, Mr Turner was the first to adopt the genus, and de-
scribe one species; another was added in the Muscologia
Britannica; two more in the Musci Exotici; and one,

VOL. V. E

66 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

which we have however not seen, has been described by
SPRENGEL in his “‘ Neue Entdeckungen.”

The principal alterations made in this genus, since
ScHw#GRIcHEN published the Supplement, consist m the
rejection of 4. setosum, bulboswm, planifolium, and cirrho-
sum. The first, as a Neckera, and the second as a Hookeria,
have been beautifully delineated by Dr Hooxer in his
Musci Exotici, which may be consulted for further in-
formation. A. planifolium is still undecided, and from not
having been seen by ScHwzeRtcHEN, is probably not in
Hzpwic’s Herbarium. It appears not to differ materially
from Hypnum aciculare, as ScuwecricHEN himself con-
jectures; and there is little doubt of its having a double
peristome. As to A. cirrhoswm, it 1s most wretchedly
figured in the Species Muscorum; but has, in the second
part of the first Supplement, been called a Schlothesmia.
Bret. also coincides in this. Weezer and Mone in their
Synopsis Muscorum make it a Ulota. We regard it as
an Orthotrichum*, thinking that Schlotheimia, Ulota, and
Macromitrion, do not essentially differ from that genus.

PLATE IL.

Fig. 29. Theca of Anictangium cilatum.
30. Calyptra of the same.
31. Operculum do.

* We allude here to a plant which is not uncommon in herbaria in this
country, under Hepwie’s name. ‘This has very long leaves, serrated towards
their extremity. But is this really Hepwie’s plant? We must trust to
ScHWGRICHEN, and the German muscologists, for information. We also
possess another, perhaps more likely to be the true A. cérrhosum, as it has en-
tire leaves ; this, again, we consider only a variety of Orth. pallidum, (P, B.):

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 67

32. Structure cf the operculum of the same:

33. Theca of the same divided, to shew the retracted
and small columella at the bottom.

34. A pericheetial leaf, and,

35. A cauline leaf of the same species.

36. Sporules do.

$7. 'Theca and pericheetial leaf of Anict. repens ;
copied from Hooker.

38. Cauline leaves of Anict. torquatum.

46. Structure of the leaf in Anict. ciliatum:

All the figures more or less magnified.

Gen. VIII. Hepwic1a:

Frucr. Calyptra dimidiata, thecee subaqualis, scariosd
(ut in fere omnibus muscis), straminea. Seta lateralis, tres
ad octodecim lineas longa, plerumque caules longe super-
antes, rigida, stricta vel rarius tortilis, fusca, ad summita-
tem sepius incrassata. Apophysis nulla. Theca integra,
leevissima (in una tantum specie siccatione sulcata) vel
globosa, vel subcylindracea, fuscescens, ore nudo, in qui-
busdam amplo, in aliis contracto, in omnibus? crassiusculo,
rubescenti. Operculum deciduum, integrum, subulatum
vel rostratum, theese concolor. Peristomium nullum. Colu-
_ mella filiformis*. Sporule (in A. ag/anicg) spheericee, tri-
partito-reticulatae, pellucidee.

* In una specie subulata, stricta, ad operculi apicem porrectens, siccitate
sulcata; in ceteris plane nobis ignota.

E 2

68 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Cuar. Dire. Seta lateralis. Theca ore nudo. Operculum
deciduum, integrum.

Fruct. Calypira dimidiate, nearly as long as the theca,
scariose (as in most mosses), yellowish. Seta lateral, three
to eighteen lines in length, mostly rising considerably
above the stem, rigid, straight, brown, often somewhat in-
crassated at the apex. <Apophysis none. Theca entire,
very smooth (in one species sulcated when dry), globose
or subcylindnical, brown; the mouth naked, large in some,
and contracted in others, always? somewhat thickened and
reddish. Operculum deciduous, entire, subulate or rostrate,
of the same colour as the theca. Peristomiwm none. Colu-
mella filiform. Syporule (only observed in H. aquatica)
spherical, tripartite, and pellucid.

Dirr. Cuar. Seta lateral. Theca with a naked stoma.
Operculum deceduous, entire.

Vec. The stems of the Hedwigie are much branched,
as might be generally inferred from the fructification bemg
lateral. In one species they are floating, in another pro-
cumbent, in the others erect; in H. Hornschuchiana they
are also densely matted. H. Humboldtii and secunda are
branched in a subpinnated manner. ‘The leaves differ
much in shape, passing from obovate to subulate, and are
in some species destitute of a nerve; but there is one in
fT. aquatica, and one also remarkably broad in H. Horn-
schuchiana. 'The leaves are rarely piliferous, and as rarely
serrated; they are smooth or striated, inserted on all sides
of the stem, erect, and sometimes flexuose or secund.

Oss. Several species of this genus bear a strong resem-
blance by their leaves to Anictangiuwm. H. Hornschuchi-

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 69

ana* in habit comes near to Gymnostomum rupestre.
Some are also in habit nearly allied to several Lewcodontes,
to Hypnum, Fontinalis, and to some Neckere. Indeed,
were it not from a wish to bring all the Gymnostomoid
plants together (on account of their characteristic fructifi-
cation), we would have confined that tribe to those. genera
furnished with ¢erminal setze alone, and have removed
Hedwigia to the Hypnoid division.

The calyptra seems in all to be strictly dimidiate. Jac-
autn, in his Flora Austriaca, made it mitriform, but he
had only seen it im a young state. ‘* Calyptra mihi pluries
omnino dimidiata subulata, cuculliformis,” says Briper,
and we entirely accord with him.

Has. These plants are natives of Europe, South Ame-
rica, Guadaloupe, and some of the South Sea Islands.
None are found in Britain, though A. aquatica is by no
means very rare on the Continent. ‘Their situation is va-
rious, some growing in water, others on rocks and trees.
They seem also to be exposed to a considerable range of
temperature; from the mild rivulets in the south of France
to the “loca frigida” of the Andes.

Hist. The only species known to DitiEnius and
Linnezvus was described by them as Hypnum aquaticum.
Hepwic, in his Stirpes, changed the generic name to
Hedwigia; but afterwards, in his Species Muscorum,
removed it to Anicfangium, in which he was followed by
ScHwac¢RICHEN in the Supplement to that work. The

® May not Scuwzericuen’s conjecture be correct? “ H, Hornschu-
chiana ambigua videatur, nisi forte flos femineus initio, etiam terminalis sit,
et tantum per caulis innovationem lateralis reddatur.” We ourselves have
little doubt on the subject, and only hesitate to remove this plant to Gymno-
stomum, until we shall have an opportunity of examining more specimens,

70 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

analysing authors of the Muscologia Britannica first
clearly explained, im the preface to their admirable work,
the proper method of separating this genus from its allies ;
and Dr Hooxrer, in Musci Exotici, has added several
species. Bripet’s definition of Anictangium, “ PLEURO-
CARPI; stoma nudum; calyptra dimidiata swbulata,” does
not separate it from Hedwigia; and it is curious that the
two “ wndoubted” species which he describes, are plants of
two other genera, the one being a Neckera, and the other
a Gymnostomum ; and Hedwigia aquatica, which has truly
lateral setee, he places under Gymnostomum, characterised
by its terminal setze !

In regard to the new species published by Dr Hooxrr, one
was called an Anictangium by Hornscnucnu; and another
is the Leucodon Canariense * of ScHwmGRICHEN and other
authors. Of this, Drs Hooxer and Taytor, m the Ad-
denda to the Muscologia Britannica, remark, “‘ We have
received plants of Leucodon Canariense (Schweegrichen)
from our late lamented friend Professor Scumrpt of Nor-
way, which he gathered in the Canary Islands; and we
can safely assert that it does not belong to this genus.” In
Musci Exotici, we accordingly find this plant figured and
described as Hedwigia Schmidtu, but, probably by an
oversight, there is no mention made of its being identical
with Leucodon Canariense, which we find to be the case,
from the examination of specimens of the Hedwigia re-

* We might perhaps add to these H. Humboldtiz, of which we have seen
specimens received by Dr Hooxer from Guadaloupe, under the name of
Hypnum taxiforme (Brip.), and said to have been named by SprENcEL. We
are afraid yet to assert them to be identical, until we have seen Scuw*cRI-
cHEN or Bripex’s plant, especially as that from Guadaloupe does not well

agree with their descriptions. May not, however, Hyp. nigrocaule be the
same with Hed, Humboldti ?

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 71

ceived from Dr Hooker himself, and compared with the
Leucodon, which was presented to us by botanical friends
abroad. In this moss, the same learned bryologist re-
marks, ‘‘ Capsula ore contracto, tus membrana annulari
alba;” and afterwards, ‘‘’The annular membrane within
the mouth of the capsule of this moss was noticed by its
lamented discoverer Dr Curistran Scumipt, and it is
very evident in all the specimens I possess.”

Notwithstanding, this plant is really a Leucodon: we
observed the above mentioned membrane exhibiting, as it
were, traces of sixteen separate teeth, each furnished with
a dark longitudinal line; and it gave us therefore no small
pleasure to find the sixteen broken-off parts of the teeth
adhering closely to the interior of the operculum. Thus,
DILLENIvs’s figure, tab. 39. f. 41. is more accurate than
has been supposed.

PLATE ITI.

Fig. 39. Theca of Hedwigia aquatica, with the opercu-
lum on.

40. Sporules of the same.

Al. Theca of the same divided, to shew the colu-
mella, which is elongated to the summit of
the operculum.

42. 'Theca of Hedw. Hornschuchiana.

43. 'Theca of H. Humboldtii, copied from Hooker.

44, Calyptra of the same.

45. Structure of the leaf in Hedw. aquatica.
All the figures more or less magnified.

72 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

BUXBAUMOIDE®, Gen. (9—10.)

Cuan. Calyptra mitreformis, fugax. Seta terminalis.
Lheca gibba, obliqua, margine oris plus minusve crenulato.
Operculum conicum. Peristomiwm, membranum conicum
longitudinaliter plicatum ex interiore ortum, sine vel cum
peristommo exteriore e processubus filiformibus constante.
Columella perlonga ad opercult summitatem porrectens.

Cuar. Calyptra mitriform, fugacious. Seta terminal.
Lheca gibbous, oblique, the mouth being more or less ere-
nulate. Operculum conical. Peristomiwm furnished with a
conical membrane, longitudinally plicate, arising from with-
in the stoma, either without, or accompanied with, an ex-
ternal peristome of numerous filiform processes. Columella
very long, reaching to the summit of the operculum.

Ozs. The two genera we have here associated toge-
ther are most nearly connected, as well by the peculiar
form of the theca, as by the similar, conical, plicate, white
membrane, with which the stoma is furnished.—*% Of the
propriety,” says Dr Hooker, “ of their being placed next
each other there can be no question, notwithstanding that
one has a single peristomium, and the other a double one;
their habit requires it ; and if we were to consider alone the
number of these parts, there would be no difficulty in as-
signing them a situation; the one to be last in the division
of mosses with the single peristomium, the other the first
in those with double ones. Yet this would, in other points
of view, be unnatural, Diphysciwm having more affinity
with the genus Leptostomum, and some of the Gymnostoma

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 73

with membranous borders to the mouth, than with Weis-
sta, Dieranum, and T'richostomum.” Dr Hooker pro-
ceeds, however, to state, ‘‘ I therefore think that our two
genera might be brought near to Leptostomum of Brown,
in consequence of their being furnished with a membranous
peristome: and Buabawmia may claim to be separated not
only from the double-fringed mosses, but from the gene-
rality of the single-fringed ones, from the ¢ircumstance of
the teeth, or cilia, not exhibiting any appearance of articu-
lation, along with Dawsonia and Polytrichum *.”

In much of these observations we readily concur, and
have consequently assigned this place to the Buabawmoi-
dea; im respect, however, to their affinity with Lepto-
stomum, we cannot but dissent from Dr Hooker, and con-
sider that genus (as, indeed, has been already remarked by

Mr Brown) far more nearly allied to Bryum.
4

GEN. IX. Dipuyscivum.

Fruct. Calyptra conico-acuminata, mitreeformis, fugax,
theca multo brevior, i pleneials subeequalis, membranacea,
fuscescens. Seta terminalis, perbrevis, levis, thecse con-
color. T'heca dubie apophysata (interne columna cylin-
dracea saccum sporuliferum sustinenti mferne insigniter
dilatata), integra, levis, ‘‘ ovata obliqua supra parum de-
pressa, sed basin versus gibbosa, subtus ventricosa,” vicize

* The two plants forming this group have been so ably and so fully de.
scribed by Dr Hooxer in the New Series of the “ Flora Londinensis,” that
our readers will find almost nothing additional in this portion of our paper ;
his descriptions are so accurate that we have frequently borrowed whole
passages from that work, which we have marked by inverted commas.

7A NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

sativee seminis magnitudine, viridis, demum fusco-flavescens,
foliis pericheetialibus immersa; ore contracto, ad marginem
sedecies? subcrenulato. Operculum elongato-conicum, rec-
tum, deciduum, theese concolor. Peristomiwm simplex ex
interiore ortum, “‘ tenerum, membranaceum, albidum, co-
num efformans,” erectum sedecies? ‘ plicatum, striatum ;
siccitate subtortuosum.” Columella permagna levis, mem-
branacea, ventricosa, elongata, ad operculi summitatem in-
teriorem affixa; inferne fusca, superne alba. Sporule exi-
gue, fuscee, globose, pellucidee.

Cuar. Dirr. Thece peristomium simplex, membrana
conoidea truncata plicata. Calyptra nutreeformis.

Fruct. Calyptra conico-acuminate, mitriform, fuga-
cious, much shorter than the theca, but nearly of the same
length as the operculum, membranaceous, pale, brownish.
Seta terminal, exceedingly short, smooth, of the same
colour as the theca. Z'heca furnished with a dubious apo-
physis (having the small cylindrical pular supporting the
sporular sac dilated at the base), entire, smooth, ‘* ovato-
oblique, somewhat depressed above, but gibbous towards
the base, ventricose below,” greenish, at length brownish-
yellow, immersed among the perichzetial leaves ; the mouth
contracted, obscurely crenate at the margin mto sixteen?
seoments. Operculum elongato-conical, straight, deciduous,
similar in colour to the theca. Pcristomiwm simple, arising
from within the stoma, ‘ delicate, membranaceous, white,
forming a plicate cone,” erect, ‘* striated, when dry some-
what twisted.” Columella very large, smooth, membrana-
ceous, ventricose, elongated, fixed to the interior summit of
the operculum, fuscous beneath, white above. Sporule
very minute, fuscous, globose, pellucid.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 73

Dirr. Cuar. Peristome simple, formed of a conical,
truncate plicate membrane, Calyptra mitriform.

Vec. This plant grows in thick and often widely ex-
tended patches; including the leaves, it is not more than
two or three lines in height. The stems are extremely
short. ‘The root is small, and, like a little mass of ferru-
ginous down, similar to (what is usually called) Conferva
castanea*. 'The cauline leaves are few in number, and
crowded, small in comparison with those of the perichz-
tium, and various in their direction: they are crisped when
dry, of a thick opake substance, and of a lurid green co-
Jour; they are also undulate, and slightly carinate, with a
very entire margin and strong nerve. The lower leaves are
Iingulate and obtuse, with the nerve for the most part
reaching to the apex; while the upper ones, or those im-
mediately beneath the perichztium, are linear, subulate,
*¢ lanceolato-subulate” (Wes. and Mour), “ lanceolato-
oblonga obtusa” (Hoox.), and the nerve somewhat excur-
rent ; ‘ folia infima nervo subexcurrente, folia media nervo
subexcedente” (Wes. and Mour); “ folia utraque nervo
sub apicem evanescente instructa” (Hoox.) The periche-
tial leaves are remarkably large for the size of the plant,
“¢ numerous, erect, exceeding the length of the theca, and
almost covering it, oblongo-lanceolate, acuminate, a little
convex towards the apex, having the margin remarkably
laciniate, or rather lacerate; it has a strong, rigid, brown
nerve, much exceeding the length of the leaf, and is there
- serrulate. The substatice of these leaves is rigid, yet mem-
branaceous; the colour yellow-brown.”

* This Conferva we suspect may be nothing else than radicular fila-
ments. Some other Confervz, such as C. velutena (as Mr Drummonp has
ascertained), and C. Pteridis (according to the observations of Captain Can-
MICHAEL), are in the same predicament. .

76 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Ozs. Few mosses are more curious in the internal struc-
ture of the theca than Diphysciwm. When a mature theca
(from which we can alone expect to draw conclusions in
any moss) is divided, we find a considerable space between
the outer wall and the sporular sac, the intermediate pulpy
matter having early dried up, and left nothing but “ nu-
merous whitish, branched, jointed succulent fibres” con-
necting these two parts together. ‘The pulpy substance
above mentioned, seems, at an early stage, to have ex-
tended in this moss considerably below the sporular bag,
where it contained in its centre a small cylindrical pillar,
which is left entire on the shrinking of the above substance,
and acts as a supporter to the sporular bag, but is evidently
of a different nature. A support of this kind seems pecu-
liarly necessary both im this and the following genus, on
account of the distance between the sporular sac and the
wall of the theca. But it must not be understood that we
give this pillar or support to Diphysctum and Buxbaumia
alone: on the contrary, we have now every reason to sus-
pect that it is common to most mosses; we have during this
spring seen it in the junior state of Didymodon purpureum,
but in none is it so beautiful as in Brywm ligulatum
and Gymnostomum pyriforme ; of which last we regret
that our plates were too much advanced in the engraver’s
hands to add dissections of this part.

Within the sporular sac we have always found a colu-
mella, formed as usual by the turning up of the sac, but
fixed with it to the summit of the little pillar above men-
tioned. The best mode of observing it, is to puncture a
ripe sac, and by repeatedly plunging it in water, wash out
the sporules; the sac may then easily be drawn down or
away from the columella, which appears almost equal in size
to the sac. The columella is furnished at its summit with
an opercular membrane, of a whitish colour, reaching and

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 77,

even adhering, to the summit of the operculum, well deser-
ving the name, therefore, of elongated columella. Dr
Hooxer says, ‘‘ the extremity of the sac is lengthened out
into a columella:” a minute dissection, however, very dis-
tinctly shews the columella to be continued from the base,
and the sporular sac to be attached ¢o it at the mouth of
the theca. The columella, into which, according to Dr
Hooxerr, the sporular sac is lengthened out, is our oper-
cular membrane; between which, and the summit of the
columella stricily so called, the line of separation is very
evident.

The peristome of this moss is worthy of much attention.
It consists of a beautiful white, plicate, and slightly twisted
cone. This Hepwic considered to be formed entirely of
cilize, connected together into a membrane furnished with
sixteen sulcee, or furrows. ‘I have myself seen,” says Dr
Hooxer, “ what appeared to be distinct ciliz, but whether
they were really so, or only the plicee of the membrane, I
could not satisfy myself ;” neither have we been able to
trace any thing satisfactory beyond a mere ridge, formed
by the duplication of the membrane.

Almost all authors describe the peristome of Diphyscium
as double, mistaking the crenate margin of the theca for
an outer one; but this appearance is, indeed, widely dif-
ferent from any thing like teeth. Waxrzer and Monr ob-
serve, © Peristomium exterius vix ullum. Marginem oris
erenulatum pro tali sumsit Hepw. Euru. denegavit.”
Thus censuring Hrowie, but adopting his opinion. Bri-
DEL and others represent the plice of the membrane as al-
ternating with the crenule of the margin; in some cases
we have clearly perceived this, but, as it depends upon the
margin being cleft into a definite number of segments, it is
rather uncertain whether it uniformly occurs.

13 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Has. Europe and North America, where it is chiefly
found in subalpine countries, growing in woods, and dry,
sandy, heathy places, on the istounid

Hist. This plant was described by Hatier and Dit-
LENIUs asa Sphagnum. By ScuMipEL it was added to
Buaxbaumia, a genus to which it has been also referred by
Herpwie, ScHwHG¢RICHEN, and a great many modern
authors. Jacquin and Necker at different times made it
a Brywm. Hunpson called it a Phascum, in which he was
followed by Licutroor and others. Enruart, finding the
peristome to difier from Buabaumia, threw it into a distinct
genus, which he called Webera. Monr, however, in his
Observ. Bot. changed it to Diphyscitum. Hymenopogon,
the only other name it has since received, was bestowed by
Pa isoT DE Brauvots, who was not aware at the time of.
that of Diphyscium. His name is justly remarked by Dr
Hooker, to be “‘ so much more applicable, that we cannot
but regret that it was published subsequently to Mour’s
Observationes, which renders it impossible for it to be

adopted.”

PLATE III.
Fig. 1. Plants of Diphyscitwm foliosum.
2. Theca of the same, with the operculum not re-
* moved.
3. Calyptra.
4, Operculum, with the upper pi of the columella,
which generally remains thus attached, if the.
operculum be forcibly removed.
. Peristome and mouth of the theca.
Structure of the cauline leaf.
. Cauline leaves. |
. Pericheetial leaf. ! o

CO -E Ox

ting “Yar the Wern. Memoirs Vol .V. P.76.,

PLATE IQ.
SCIUM B

f

AN

ML

UXBAU

DTP HY

PGS

ma

}

s'

}
é

}

ie

vn)

\

WH Lizars seudp! din?

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. a!)

9. The columella and sporular sac removed from
the theca; the columella with its elongation,
is shewn by dividing and throwing back the
sporular sac, Precisely the same appearance
occurs in Buxbaumia.

10. A mature theca divided, and exhibiting the spo- |
rular sac connected with the sides of the theca
by white-jointed filaments; the columella with
its elongation passing through the conical pe-
ristome; and the whole supported by the
small column, to the summit of which both
the columella and sporular sac are most firmly
attached.

11. Sporules.

12. A portion of the peristomium highly magnified.

All the figures, except the first, more or less
magnified.

Gen. X. Buxpaumia, Haller.

Pruct. Calypira conica vix acuminata, mitreeformis,
integerrima, fugacissima, brevis, membranacea, leevis, viridi-
fuscescens. Seéa terminalis, tres ad sex lineas longa, erecta,
rigida, crassiuscula, cylindracea, tuberculata, nitidiuscula,
ruberrima. Apophysis brevis, cylindracea, seta vix crassior,
leevis, thecee concolor, interne columna cylindrica saccum —
sporuliferum sustinenti medio in orbem inflata. Theca
“magna, ovata, obliqua, supra plana, submarginata, basi
producta vel gibba, infra convexa,” “ parte superiore tene-
ra, tnferiore membranaceo-carnosa ;” colore “ viridis, rube-
dine szepe tincta, maturitate rufo-fusca,” oris margine ele-
vato crenulato. Operculum obtuso-conicum, breve, rectum,

80 §. NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

deciduum, leve, thecze concolor. Peristomiwm duplex ;
ext. e ‘ ciliis numerosis subsequalibus inarticulatis, subtoru-
losis, opacis, obscura rufescentibus; int. membranaceum,
tenerum, albidum, conum efformans plicatum striatum,”
rectum haud tortuosum. Coluwmella permagna levis, mem-
branacea, ventricosa, elongata, inferne fusca, superne pal-
lida. Sporule exiguee, globpse, ex viridi fuscee.

Cuar. Dirr. Theca peristomn duplex ; ext. e processu-
bus filiformibus subconneats ; int. membrana conica plicata
truncata. Calyptra mitreformis.

Frucr. Calyptra conical, scarcely acuminated, mitri-
form, very entire, fugacious, short, membranaceous, smooth,
brownish-green. Seéa terminal, three to six lines long, erect,
rigid, thickish, cylindrical, rough with tubercles, somewhat
shining, deep red. Apophysis short, cylindrical, somewhat
thicker than the seta, smooth, of the same colcur as the
theca, within exhibiting the small pillar supporting the spo-
rular sac, dilated in the middle into a little globe. Theca
‘* large, ovate, oblique, above fiattish, somewhat margined ;
at the base produced or gibbous, below convex; the sub-
stance in the upper part is thin and delicate, the rest be-
tween membranaceous and carnose; the colour greenish,
often tinged with red, when ripe red-brown;” the margin
of the mouth elevated and crenulate. Operculum obtusely
conical, short, straight, deciduous, smooth, of the same co-
lour as the theca. Peristomiwm double; cat. of “numerous,
nearly equal, joimtless, somewhat torulose, opaque, reddish
cilia; és. membranaceous, delicate, whitish, forming a pli-
cate and striated cone,” erect, scarcely at all twisted. Co-
Jumella large, smooth, membranaceous, ventricose, elon-
gated, brown beneath, pale above. Sporu/e minute, glo-
bose, green, at length brown.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. SL

Dirr. Cuan. Peristome double; ext. of filiform sub.
umited processes; it. membranaceous, conical, plicate;
truncate. Calyptra mitriform.

Vec. The root of this most curious plant is rather more
than a line in length, mostly tortuous, thick, fleshy, brittle,
slightly hollow towards its extremity, which divides into
two or three branches *. ‘There is really no stem, but the
leaves are situate on the summit of the root, and form to
the naked eye a minute, brown, rough or bristly tufted
mass, from the centre of which springs the seta. According
to Mr Brown, “‘ the leaves of the barren plant are lanceolate,
and but slightly divided. Those at the base of the female
perichzetium are even broader than the former, but more
deeply cut, both laterally and at top, into several capillary
seoments ; while the leaves which proceed from the surface
of the pericheetium are still more deeply divided, and their
segments so much elongated, that the minute foliaceous.
base has been universally overlooked, and the pericheetium
consequently described as covered with hairs +.” We have
never been so fortunate as to meet with the leaves first
mentioned by Mr Brown, and, indeed, never saw a barren
plant; but the rest we have examined, and they appear to
differ considerably from each other, and not to resemble
those of any known moss. Those on the summit of the
pericheetium are, as Mr Brown observes, deeply divided,
and terminate m remarkably long filamentous segments :
indeed, unless very great care be taken in the examination,
‘they may pass for mere bundles of long interwoven confer-
void filaments. Those at the base of the perichetium are

* See Grevitiz in Wern. Trans. vol. iii, p. 447.
+ Linn. Trans. vol. xii. p. 583.

YOR, V. K

82 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

the most easily examined ; “ the lower part is strongly re-
ticulated ; the reticulations very irregular, and the bars or
cellular divisions remarkable, being uniform in their dia-
meter, which is considerable, smooth, semitransparent, and
of a peculiar inflated appearance, difficult to describe or re-
present. Before the leaf begins to contract, the reticulations
cease, and a number of conferva-like filaments are produced,
which seem to be seldom if ever jointed, but are long, and
generally much entangled. The colour of all the leaves is
a light-green, tinged with a brown that increases in age;
but the filaments are even then generally diaphanous, and
exactly resemble the dark-coloured filaments that are to be
met with on every specimen towards the upper part of the

bulb *.”

Oxzs. What we have said under Diphysciwm, equally
applies to the structure of the interior of the theca of this
“¢ Regina Muscorum.” The only difference seems to be, that
the little pillar or column which supports the sporular sac
(it may almost be called a continuation of the interior of the
seta) is dilated half-way up, into a small hollow globe.
The economy of this part we have not been able to conjec-
ture, nor have other botanists been more successful. Our
observations relative to the peristome of Diphysciwm also
apply here; in that genus, however, it is strictly simple;
in Buxbaumia it is double. The outer one has been al-
ready described as composed of numerous filiform cilia;
these cilia do not, however, seem to be free to their base,
but to be more or less laterally connected, so much so, in-
deed, as to form a sort of corona, equal in height to the
inner peristome ; ‘¢ eminet ab inde corone imago, e numero-

™® GREVILLE, Wern. Trans. vol. iii. p. 445.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 83

sissimis succulentis processubus exstructa, quos dentibus
quasi adglutinatos reperi, cum horum unum alterumque
de sua sede solverem.” With this account given by
Wesrr and Mour*, our examinations induce us to coin-
cide, and to differ somewhat from Dr Hooxer, who, in the
Flora Londinensis, seems to describe and figure them as
free to the base,—a circumstance also supported by Mr
Brown, who remarks, “ The peristomium of Buabaumia,
originating entirely from the outer membrane, may, though
consisting of several, and even of dissimilar, series, be re-
garded as analogous to that portion of the pencil of Daw.
sonia, which arises from the same part of the capsule.
This analogy is suggested by Mr Hooxer, and is con-
firmed by a circumstance that he does not seem to have
noticed, namely, that his outer peristomium, the corona of
HeEpwie, consists of a double series of cilia. The number
of cilia in each series exceeds sixteen, but hardly amounts
to thirty-two; it probably, however, corresponds with that
of the plicee in the membranaceous peristomium t.” Though
Buxbaumia resembles Dawsonia in the similarity of the
origin of the cilia, the cilia themselves only resemble each
other in being destitute of articulation.

Bouxsavm, in his Centuria II. p. 8, described the theca
of this moss as bivalve; —“ Huic insidet capitulum recur-
vum, ex duabus valvis compositum secundum longitudinem
dehiscentibus, quarum inferior teres, superior vero magnis
depressa in unquem brevem desinit.” Upon this passage

there is the followmg remark, in the Amcenitates Acade-
~micet: “Dum Buxsavarus dicit capitulum findi vel
secundum longitudinem dehiscere, a vero maxime deflectit ;

* Handbuch, p. 382. + Linn. Trans. vol. vol. xii. p. 582.
+ Vol. v. p. 88.

84 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF.

nam tenuior illa membrana lateralis a crassiore nec finditur,
nec dirumpitur; eadem ratione capitulum quoque depinxit
gibbosius ad basin, quod tamen longe aliter se habet.”
Even Dr Hooxer seems to think that Buxsaum mistook
‘a line, formed by the shrinking of the capsule, for the
suture of the valves.” Buxpaum, however, was partly
right ; for though the theca cannot be said to be really bi-
valve, yet the upper portion actually separates from the
lower, and falls to the ground, while the plant is undecayed.
Among the specimens which the late Mr Joun STEWART
was so fortunate as to find in Selkirkshire, were many
thecee in this condition; two of these _we have before us,
and find that the upper membranaceous portion is com-
pletely gone *, without the least apparent laceration, and
the wnruptured sporular sac is lying in the cavity of the
remaining half. ‘This fact 1s extremely curious. As the
mouth of the theca in this moss is so strongly fortified, and
as the inner, conical, membranaceous peristome shrinks
without being deciduous, and consequently closes the ori-
fice,—may not the above apparent valvular structure be a
wise provision for the more complete dispersion of the spo-
rules ?

We have already noticed that this plant is really pos-
sessed of leaves, though so minute as to escape the naked
eye. Of that part on which they are found, Buxpaum
observes, “‘ Hic, omnibus destitutus foliis, ex basi rotunda
villosa,” &c. In the Ameen. Academice the base is called
“ Tuberculum subovatum, vestitum tomento-ferrugineo,
minime repens,” &c. The curious character given by Mt1-
CHELI, ‘* Muscus nanus tuberosa radice, foliis juniperinis,
tenuissime serratis capitulo magno ovato ventricoso ; calyp-

* Vide Edinb. Phil. Journ. vol, ii. p. 377,

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 85

tra tomentosa *,” is generally understood to have been oc-
casioned by receiving a species of Polytrichum along with
Buxbaumia. De CanpoLtE describes it as possessing
*‘ un faisceau de poils courts et serrés au lieu de feuillest ;”
and Dr Hooxer, “ Perichzetium in terram parte immersum
et radices tomentosas emittens, ovato-oblongum, bulbiforme,
villis migricantibus, brevibus, strictis, varieque itertextis
obtectum {.” It would be easy to multiply quotations to
prove, that whatever light this part of Buabawmia was re-
garded, no one ever thought it was covered with true leaves.
The illustrious Hatter, indeed, made a near approach in
saying, ‘* Ipse, cinctus foliaceo quasi involucro, emittit du-
rum, purpureum, pediculum ||,” &c. It was reserved, how-
ever, for our countrymen, Mr Brown, and the late Mr J.
StEWwaRT, lecturer on Botany in this city, clearly to ascer-
tain their existence, and describe their true structure. The
latter gentleman noticed them particularly in his lectures
on Cryptogamic Botany in the commencement of the win-
ter of 1818-19, and read an account of them some time
afterwards to the Wernerian Society §. Mr Brown also
mentioned them in one of his admirable papers on Musco-
logy, read before the Linnean Society April 6. 1819; and
states, that he had “lately ascertained” their existence.
In consequence of the lamented death of Mr Srewrt, it is
now impossible to ascertain to whom the precedence in this
discovery is due; but both assuredly are entitled to equal
merit.

* Nov. Gen. Pl. p. 109. No. 13.

+ Fl. Frane. ed. 6. v. ii. p. 513,

+ Fi. Lond.

|| Enum, Stirp. Helvet, p. 10,

§ Edin. Phil. Journ. vol, ii, p. 377. See also Edin. Encycl. art) Musct.
3

86 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

Has. This extraordinary moss is thinly scattered through
the forests and heathy parts of middle and northern Eu-
rope, but is more common in North America. Its natural
habit appears to be gregarious ; at the same time, and espe-
cially in this country, it sometimes loses that character. Its
duration has usually been thought annual from the time of
Linnzus to the present; Mr Stewart, however, finding
plants in different and opposite stages of growth arising
from the same perichaetium, was induced to consider it as
perennial; and we agree with him in thinking it biennial
at the least *. In Britain, since its first discovery by Dr
Hooker, at Sprowston, near Norwich, it has been found
by Mr E. J. Maueuan, at Rosslin, near Edinburgh; by
Mr Jacxson, near Aberdeen; by Dr Waps, at Killarney,
in Ireland; by Mr J. Srewarr, at Waddenshope-rig, near
Peebles; and by one of the authors of the present paper,
on the Hill of Dungloe, in Kinross-shire +.

Hist. ‘The first discoverer of this singular plant, was
“the modest” Buxzaum, who found it on the banks of the
river Wolga, not far from Astracan, and published it in
his Centuria, but without generic or specific name. He
states in his description, that he felt a desire to name it
after his father, but was afraid of derision; ‘ sed venit
mihi in mentem vulpes, qui deridebatur ab aliis, quod uvas
non pro se, sed pro segrota posceret matre.” His character
is very brief: ‘‘ Muscus capillaceus aphyllos, capitulo
crasso bivalvi.” Muicurt, from specimens received from
Monrivs, and gathered in Italy, also gave afterwards a

* Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. ii. p. 377. and Wern. Trans. vol. iii. p. 443.

+ At this station, as well as the Irish one, only a single specimen has
been hitherto found; and from all the other habitats it has entirely vanished,
except from Mr Srrwarr's.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 87

short definition, but appears to have described in it the
leaves and calyptra of some Polytrichum. DiILLENtus,
who also received specimens from Monttus, detected Mr-
CHELI’s error, and, in the Historia Muscorum, added a few
observations; but in the Appendix to that work (p. 554),
we find a much fuller notice, drawn up from the plants
transmitted by Oxav. Cexsivs. Hauer, in his “ Enu-
meratio methodica Stirpium Helvetize mdigenarum,” first
bestowed on it the name of Buxbaumia, a name which
Fasricivs changed to Hippopodium, from the shape of
the theca; but Linnzus and ScumiEeDeEn restored the one
given by Hater.

So far it had been considered a moss. Hatirr, how-
ever, in the first edition of his Enumeratio, mentions it as
a fungus: “ Character fere Clathroidis, planta ambigens
inter id genus plantarum, et Clavarias. 'Testam habet
Clathroidis Micheliani, et spongiosum reticulum. Sed vita
perennis, et natura durior est, atque reticulum in vacuas
areolas non resolvitur.”"——DrintEnius, in his Appendix,
seems also to doubt whether it be not a fungus: “ Pro
musco faciunt textura pediculorum, color eorum et capitu-
lorum spadiceus splendens, sed preecipue opercula trans-
versim obscedentia; fungum arguunt figura capitulorum,
pulvis similior Bovista, quam farma capitulorum musco-
rum, et quod nec calyptra, nec folia ulla adsunt, sed basis
mucida villosa. Color pediculis et capitulis erat fuscus et
spadiceus, sed superficies non splendebat. Villebatur pri-
mum Musci et speciatim Lichenastri species, sed cum ex
muscis crustaceis sque ac herbaceis, putrescentibus enasci
observarem, Bovistam credidi. Qui nascentem videbunt,
utrum fungus an muscus sit planta illa a Buxsavumno pri-
mum observata, decernere poterunt.”—Linnavs, in his
Species Plantarum, did not venture to arrange it among any
of the well known plants; and, in the Flora Suecica, it is

88 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

inserted in an Appendix, being referable by him to neither
order nor genus. ‘ Buxbaumia vero usque ad hunc diem
in obscura latuit; adeo ut dum WN. D. Preses in speciebus
suis plantarum cognita, facile omnes enumeraverit plantas
-usque ad. minimos muscos, Buxbaumia agmini iUlorum ac-
cedere non potuit; cumque tam scientifice et ornata plan-
tas omnes patrias detexit atque locavit, Buxbaumia in ap-
pendice ad Floram Suecicam venire debuit planta: instar,
nec ad genus nec ordinem relate *.”——Lastly, GLEDITsSCH,
in his Methodus Fungorum, mentions it, and has the fol-
lowing note, under the genus Stemonitis. “ Buxbawmia,
Hatt. Enum. Helvet. p. 10, Spherocephalus ejyusd. p. 9,
‘et Clathroides Micuewiu, N. Pl. G. 214. tab. 94. ut con-
ferenti patebit, charactere generico parum differunt. Bua-
bawmia igitur recte conjungantur, nec ne? et qua sit ne-
gative: sententize ratio, queeritur? Buabawmia vero (Ob-
servat. Hau. docente) et Stemonitis in methodo nostro
fungorum genera inter Clathrum et Lycoperdon media con-
stituunt.” |

But of these cld speculations we have already said
enough. ‘The plant has been described by HEepwic, and
all following authors, as a moss; and, with the exception
of Patissot, who calls it Saccophorus, all have retained
HALuer’s name of Buabaumia.

PLATE III.

Fig. 13. Plants of Buxbaumia aphylla, natural size, in
different stages of growth.
14. A theca with the operculum.
15. A calyptra.
16. Operculum.

* Ameen. Acad, vol. v. p, 79.

17.

18.

19.

20.

QI.
22.

29.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 89

The peristome and mouth of the theca; shewing
the crenated margin of the theca,—the outer
peristome composed of ciliz (which are
usually more or Jess injured in removing the
operculum),—and the inner conical membra-
naceous peristome.

A mature theca divided, and exhibiting the
same parts as in the corresponding figure of
Diphyscium, the only difference being in the
small pillar which supports the sporular sac
and columella. It is here dilated into a little
hollow globe, which nearly fills up the passage ©
from the theca to the apophysis, and is again
contracted and continued down to the base of
the apophysis.

A sectional view of the two pericheetia, the mouth
of the theca, the summit of the sporular sac,
and that part of the columella which is above
the line at which the sporular sac is attached
to it.

A leaf taken from near the base of the pericha-
tium.

The root divided longitudinally.

The little pillar which supports the sporular sac
removed.

Sporules.

All the figures, except the first, are more or less
magnified.

& 90»)

V.—Register of the Weather at Corfu, during the
Months of August, September, October, and
November, 1821.

By Matuew MiLier, Esq. Lieutenant in the King’s
own Light Infantry *.

(Read 17th May 1823.)

To Professor J AMESON.

Edinburgh, 26th February 1823.
Dear Sir,

I SEND you inclosed the registers of the state of the weather,
and of the thermometer, ADIE’s sympiesometer, and Lxs-
Liz's hygrometer, kept by me at Corfu, during the months of
August, September, October, and November, 1821. The
first column, on the left, contains the days of the month,
—the next, the time of observation,—the three next, the
thermometer, sympiesometer, and hygrometer,—and, last-
ly, the observations on the wind and weather for the day.

® It is with feelings of deep sorrow we announce the sudden death of the
accomplished author of this memoir. The Society, by the death of Mr
Miter, loses an intelligent and active member, and the army an officer of
high promise.—<Sept. 1823. =

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU. 91

ADIE’s sympiesometer I found most useful, and, I may
mention, that I always found it correspond with a mercu-
barometer kept in the garrison-library, although the sympie>
someter always stood about an inch higher than the mer-
cury, consequently 30.00 must be understood to represent
29.00 by the register. Lxrstiz’s hygrometer has explained
some of the phenomena attending the Sirrocco wind, which
is the SW. and SE., but more particularly the SW. winds.
You will observe by the register the extreme moisture of
all the south winds, and the no less remarkable dryness of
the north winds.

The extreme moisture of the south winds, and the very
frequent appearance of sheet-lightning during their conti-
nuance, seems to indicate their being highly electrical; and
the fact, that meat will not cure, wine keep if bottled, or
paint dry, during a Sirrocco, I think favours the supposi-
tion (not to speak of its very unpleasant effects on all living
beings, such as are invalids particularly), that its great
moisture alone could not produce aii those effects. I re-
gret having no means of making any experiments on its
electrical properties, but hope on my return to do so.

I am, &c.
M. MItyer.

P. S.—I may mention that, according to the best obser-
vations, Corfu is in Lat. 39° 38’ 20” N., and Long. 17°
55’ 50” E.

92

. ‘Day.

G9

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

Time.

5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. m.
5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p. m.
10 p. m.
5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p. m.
10 p. m.
5a,m
- Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. m.
5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p.m.
5a. m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. m.
5 a. m.|
Noon.
3 p- m.
10 p. m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. m.
5 a.m,
Noon.
10 p.m.
5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. m.
5 a.m.
Noon.
3 p.m.
10 p. ma.)
5 a.m.
Noon.
7 p.m.
{0 p. m.

THERMOMR- |
TER }

TABLE ror Aucust [82].

o
ty
81
81}
78
16
81
83
79
716
81
84.
79
17
82

85
80
77
84
86
82
78
83
85
82
78
83
85
80
82
86
81
78
83
8!
78
84
87
78
7
83
86
81
79
84.
87
82

Sympirsome- |
TER

30,18
30,12
30,13
30,30
30,46
30,40
30,30
30,33
30,46
30,28
30,17
30,15
30,27
30,18
30,03
30,12
30,24
30,06
30,02
30,25
30,21
30,05
29,99
30,03
30,07
29,97
29,83
29,99
29,83
29,79
29,99
30,05
29,79
29,89
30,08
29,91
29,89
30,07
30,09
29,93
29,85
29,90
30,08
29,91
29,81

29,94

Lesuie’s Hy- |
GROMETER.

emennores | wee hee | el
a

fo)

D >
Or G&

Ee
Io

Jw
S Gr Gr

BD <3 UO 09-49
ewod ss

Gr Gr
Or or ©

re)
ve

30

He 09
Oe ©

ao best
me Gr Gr

iS)
Or

25

O9 a9
D>

a5
DP Gx WD

OBSERVATIONS.

eee

Clear and sunshine all day. Wind light |
from NE.

Light wind from the SE. Sunshine. §
At noon wind changed to NW. Va-|}
riable at three, S.E., when, in a few |
minutes, the hygrometer fell to 40°. §

Light SE. wind at ten in the morning ; |
changed to NE.; and, about six in |
the evening, toSK, ©

Clear and sunshine. Light 8.SE. wind |
till ten in the morning, when it f
changed to SE,

Light S.SE. wind in the morning; }
changed to E. about 2 p.m. Clear |
and sunshine all day. i

Clear, light S.SE. wind ; changed to E.
about 2 P. M.

Little or no wind from S.; changed to |
_SE. about 2 p. m.; clear all day.

Wind E.SE all day. Clear and sun-
shine. .

Clear all day. Wind SE.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE.; changed
to E. about 2 p. m. ; and to S. about
6 evening.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE. till 2
p.m., when it changed to W., and
raised the hygrometer instantly from
28° to 53°; at 6 p. m. changed to S.

Clear and sunshine all day, with SE.
wind in the morning, till 3 p. m,
when wind changed SW.

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU. 93

TABLE FOR Aveust 1821,—Continued.

OBSERVATIONS.

Sv MPIESOME=
TERe
Lesziis’s Hy-
GROMETER,

13 Cloudy and sunshine. Wind SW. alll
3l day.

55 (Morning cloudy. High wind from N ;
3 changed to “NW. about 2 p. m.3 ra-}
28 ther squally.
35 |Clear and sunshine, with high wind|
38 from N., and a few white clouds.}
AS Very heavy rain after 2 p.m. Inj
20 evening fair. |
28 |Morning. Sunshine, with clouds. Gver-}
15 cast about J]0 a.m. Wind SSW.;}
15 changed to NW., with very heavy
17 rain and thunder.
13. | Rain during night. Fair after 9 in morn-|
25 ing. Wind N.in morning; changed to}
20 NE, about 10 a.m. Cloudy at 3 p.m.
18 High SE. wind, with rain and thunder. |
14 |Morning cloudy. Clear all day, with
25 high E. wind. Began to rain about|
30 5 p. m., and continued raining all}
14 night. :
13 | Wind SE. Cloudy. Partial rain. Severe}
22 storm of thunder about S$ p.m. Even-
17 ing cloudy, Great deal of sheet light-|
15 ning in the evening.
18 |SE. wind. Clear and sunshine. A little}
a rain and thunder at 4 p.m. Even-|
27 ing fine. -
26 |Clear and sunshine, Wind NE.; changed]
52 to SK. about 4p.m. Evening cloudy, |
45 and a good deal of sheet lightning. |

25 |Clear and sunshine. Wind SE. ; changed |
36 about noon to NW., with a few clouds}
57 and sheet lightning in evening.

26 |Clear and sunshine. Wind NW. ; changed |
33 to SW. about 11 a. m., and to SE.
Al about 2 p.m. Evening cleudy, with{
24 sheet lightning.
30 |NW. wind. Clear and sunshine at 21
43 p.m. Wind changed to SE. Even-{
32 ing cloudy.
14 |

94 REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

TABLE ror SEPTEMBER,—Continued.

OBSERVATIONS.

Lestise’s Hy-
GROMETER,

TTHERMOME=2
SyMPIFSOME-

Peer

Sunshine. A few clouds. Wind light}
SW., and changed NE. about 2 p. m.}

o9
S
(9
oo

Morning overcast and thunder. Wind
NW. Clear and sunshine from 11 a.m.}
till 1 p. m., when wind changed NE..|
with rain and thunder. :
Clear and sunshine. Wind'N. &, till
noon ; changed NW. ; rather squally.|

Clear and sunshine. Little or no wind
from SE.; changed to NE. about 2}
p- m.

Clear and sunshine. Light SW. wind ;
changed about 11 a. m, to NW.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE.; changed}
to NW. about I p. m. and NE. about
2 p.m.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SW. all
day.

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFOD.

TIME.

'THERMOME=
TER.

95

TABLE ror SerremsBer 1821.

SyMPIESOME-
TER

Lesuiez’s Hy. |
GROMETER,

|

Clear and sunshine,

OBSERVATIONS,

Clear and sunshine. ‘Wind SE, till 2
p- m., when it changed to N.NW.}
Rather squally at 4 p.m. Observed}
Hygrometer stand at 760.

Morning overcast, Wind SE.; changed}
atlla.m.to NE. Squally. Wind}
less, and evening clear.

Clear and sunshine all day, with N. wind}
in morning, till 1 p. m., when it}
changed NE. Very high wind till}
3 p.m,

Light NW. wind in morning ; changed}
to NE. about {1a.m. Clear and sun-|
shine all day.

Clear and sunshine all day, with NE.j
wind, Rather squally about 3 p, m. |

Wind E.NE. all]
day. t

Clear and sunshine, Wind N. all day 3}
changed SE, at 6 p. m.

Clear and sunshine all day. Wind SW.}
till 2 p, m., when it changed to NW.§

Clear and sunshine. SW. wind in}
morning. At 2 p.m. changed NE.

Thunder and rain in the morning. Wind
variable from the S. Wind SE. after
2 p.m.

Wind S.SE. all day. Clear and sunshine
ali day.

96. REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

TABLE ror SrrremBrr 1821,—Continued.

Davy
TIME.

Noon.
3 p- m.
10 p. m.

CAEP TE SERA ELE EE

THERMOME-
TER.
SYMPESOME=
PERe
Lesuiz’s Hy- |
GROMETER.

Cloudy. Wind NW. about 2 p. m3

Clear and sunshine. Wind S.SW. till]

OBSERVATIONS.

Clear and sunshine all day. Wind SE.}
till 2 p. m:, when it changed to SW.|

Morning overcast, and a little rain.|
Cloudy all day. Wind SW. till 2
p: m., when it changed io N.NW. j|

Heavy rain and high SW. wind. Aftere}
noon fair. Wind W. Sheet light-
ning at night.

2

changed SW. Partial rain.

Wind high from N.NW.s changed SE.| —
about 10 a.m. Heavy rain all day. |

Clear and sunshine. Wind S.SW. till}
Ill a. m., when it changed W.

IL a. m., when it changed to W.

Clear and sunshine. Wind E.SE all
day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SW. till 2]
p. m., when it changed to S.

Clear and-sunshine. Wind SE: ; changed
to NW. about 2 p, m.

Clear and sunshine. Wind W. all day.j

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

97

TABLE ror Sepremsber 1821 ,—Continued.

Satis: | Set ere | ees | perenne BE |

VOL. V.

THERMOME-
TER,

SyMPIESOME=
TER.

Lesuiz’s Hv- |
GROMETER:

OBSERVATIONS.

Cloudy. Wind §.SE. all day.

Cloudy. Wind S.SW.; changed at 11
a.m. to W.

Cloudy. Wind S.; changed at 11 a. m.[
to NW., with violent rain and thun-]
der. Fair at 3 p. m.

Clear. Wind SE. all day. Sheet light-j
ning in the evening.

Clear in morning. Wind S.3 changed
to a high N.NW. wind about 2 p. m.
Evening cloudy.

Clear and sunshine all day, with high}

N.NW. wind.

Rather cloudy. Wind NW. in morn- |
ing ; changed to S.SE about 2 p. m.

Cloudy all day. Wind SE. Partial rain,
High wind and great deal of sheet
lightning at night.

98

TIME.

THERMOME-
TER.

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

TABLE For Ocroser 1821.

SYMPIESOME- |
TER.

Lesuiz’s Hy-}§
GROMETER.

Clear and sunshine.

OBSERVATIONS.

Rain in morning. Wind NE. 3; varia-
ble. Fair and clear after 10 a. m.
This morning, a most violent storm
of thunder.

Rained all day. Wind high from NNW.

Clear and sunshine... Wind ENE. till 2
Pp. m., when it blew hard from NNE.

High NNE. wind
all day.

Clear and sunshine, Wind NE. all day.

Clear and’ sunshine.
all day.

Light S.SE. wind

Clear and sunshine, Light SSE. wind
till 2 p.m., when it changed toN.NW.

Clear and sunshine, with S.SE. wind till
2 p, m., when it changed to KE,

Morning clear. Overcast during the
day, with S.SE. wind till 2 p. m,
when it changed to N.NW.

Wind E.SE. all
Rather squally in the after-

Clear and sunshine.
day.
noon,

Morning cloudy. Wind SE.; changed
to S. about noon; biew hard; and
rained all day from 2 p. m.

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU. 99

THERMOME-
TER.

|

°

Q
a

Ion
ooo

SIR HOIS
mM OOOOH

ARIAQAaS
2s30 00M

=z)
op)

DDAADDAAGDADAAGHLAABAARHAWOH

SYMPIESOME- {|
TER i

30,96
30,96
30,79
30,86
30,88
30,94
30,82

30,91

30,94
30,86
30,81
30,86
30,84
30,77
30,70
30,68
30,64
30,62
30,50
30,47
30,40
30,42
30,50
30,54
30,63
30,61
30,57
30,56
30,57

30,56

30,48
30,45
30,45
30,40
30,46
30,45
30,52
30,50
30,53
30,60
30,79
30,71
30,72
30,78

Lesuie’s Hy- |
GROMETER.

fo}

—
—_

G9 2D aD aD Ww =
~tE SO = W WL Gr 09

iL}

=! bt DO AO
OEWA

= 0 mS 29 OO OO OO 2 = aD
WMWWAAGNRNVIOODVNKVWNS

a =
a

DO kt DO et at DD et Ht aD Ht pet

TABLE ror Ocroser 1821,—Continired

OBSERVATIONS.

|Thunder in morning, and heavy rain}
from 7 a.m. till 1 p.m. Wind E.f
and W. 3; variable. :

‘Clear and sunshine all day. Wind S.SE.
all day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind light S. E.
all day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE. all day.

Rain in morning. Fair. and clear from
10 a.m. Wind variable from SE. all}
day.

Rained all day. Wind S.; variable.

Clear and sunshine. Wind S. till 2 pem.}
when it changed to N.NW.

Wind E.3 variable. Rained all day,]
with thunder.

Morning fair. Rained all afternoon.}
Wind S.SE.

Rain in morning, with 8. wind ; changed §
at 2 p.m. to E.NE., with high wind}
and rain. 4

Wind §, all day, with rain and thunder.

100 REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

TABLE For Octoser 1821,—Continued.

| ee
a ed

23} 9 a.m.
Noon,

3 p.m.

10 p. m.

24,| 9 a. m.
Noon,

3 p. m.

10 p. m.
25| 9 a.m.
Noon.

THERMOME-
TER

SYMPIESOME-
TER.

Lesuie’s Hy.
GROMETER

OBSERVATIONS.

Wind 8S. Morning rain. 2 p.m. wind]
changed to S.SE.; blew most violent-
ly. At half past 5 p. m. felt the
shock of an earthquake.

Rain in morning. Clear and sunshine}
all day. Wind E.

Morning cloudy. Partial rain. Wind
S.SW. all day. Violent thunder storm §
and heavy rain at 7 p. m.

Wind SE. Partial rain and thunder in}
the evening.

Clear and sunshine. Wind NE. all!

day.

Cloudy. Wind E. A little rain in |

the evening.

Wind SE. Clear and sunshine till 5]
p- m,, when it rained.

Clear and sunshine. Wind E. by $. till}
sunset, when it changed to N.NE.

Clear and sunshine. Wind N.NE. till
‘sunset, when it changed to SE.

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU. 101

‘Day.

TABLE ror Novemser 1821.

a
el
5
26
a &
q

62

59
60
49

SyMPresome-

30,72
30.75
30,94
30,41
30,33
30,33
30,41
30,13
29,96
30,07
30,04
29,90
29,82
29,80
29,74
29,60
29,54
29,48
29,47
29,30
29,09
29,14
29,10
28,99
28,96
28,88
28,90
28,83
28,82.
28,88
28,87
28,75
28,75

28,78.

28,75
31,41
31,46
31,44
31,49
31,45

Lesuiz’s Hy-
CROMETER

4A |

48
27

OBSERVATIONS.

EES |

Clear and sunshine. Wind E. and NE.

all day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SW. till 2
p- m., when it changed to NE. Even-
ing cloudy, with a good deal of thun-
der.

Clear and sunshine.
very little of it.

Wind SW. but

Clear and sunshine all day. Wind SE.

Wind SE. Cloudy, and a good deal of
rain.

Cloudy, and very heavy rain, with thun-
der and high NE. wind.

Wind SW. in morning; changed to HE.
about 2 p. m. Cloudy, and partial
rain all day, with the wind very high.

Cloudy, with NE. wind ; changed to high
EK. wind about 2 p. m.

Clear and sunshine. Wind NE. all day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind NE. till 3}
p- m., when it changed to EK. Blew
rather hard in the evening.

Clear and sunshine. Wind E., blowing

hard all day,

102 REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU.

TABLE ror NovemBer 1821,—Continued.

Day
TIME.

10 p. m.
22) 9 a, m.
' | Noon.

3 p.m.

10 p.m.

THERMOME-
TER

Sy MPIESOME-
TER.

Lesiin’s Hy- |

GROMETER,

— OO
©S 2

GO GO a
=I 2 J 2

LAS)
ao

23

OBSERVATIONS.

Clear and sunshine. Wind E. all day. |
Ciear and sunshine. Wind E. all day.
Clear and sunshine. Wind E. all day.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE. 3; va-
riable all day.

Wind SE. Rained all day till 4 p. m.
Wind changed to NE. about 1 p. m.}|

Clear and sunshine. _ Wind SE. all day.|

Pod

Light SE, wind all day. Clear and sun-
shine.

Cloudy, Partial rain. Wind SW.

Light SE. wind. Clear and sunshine]
all day.

Clear and sunshine. Light wind from
S.SE. all day.

Clear and sunshine. High S.SE. wind
all day,

REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT CORFU. 103

TABLE ror Novemser 1821,—Continued.

Davy.
TIME.

|
|
|

THERMOME=
TER.

.| 60
| 64

64
58
60

| 63
| 61

62

| 60
| 60
| 63

61
59

| 60
| 63

60
61

| 61

63

| 60

61
62
63

58

SyMPIESOME-
TER
Lestuir’s Hy-
GROMETER»

31,18 |
31,16

31,12 |
31,14 |
31,10

31,10 |
31,22 |
31,18 |
31,14 |
31,11 |
31,06 |
31,08 |
31,23 |
31,28 |
31,18 |
31,10 |
31,14 |
31,10 |
31,16 |
31,15 |
31,18 |
31,15 |
31,12 |
31,11 |

17

Oo =H 0 = = 09 29
9 Fs © GO Gr Gr =k 09 Gr 29

— mt 2 ao
or 09 Bm

oO —t st =! 9
Sw SP ® 20

OBSERVATIONS.

|Wind SE. Clear and sunshine all day.|
Wind SE. Clear and sunshine all day.

Morning rainy. Wind changed from
SW. to NE. at 4p. m.

Clear and sunshine. Wind SE. all day.|

Clear and sunshine. Wind changed
from E. to SE. about 10 a. m.

Wind SE. Clear and sunshine all day.]

= a9
w= OO

104 DR KNOX ON THE FORAMEN CENTRALE

VI.— Additional Observations relative to the Fo-
ramen centrale of the Retina in Reptiles.

By Rozert Knox, M.D.

Prenabet of the Wernerian Natural History Society, and of the pedro
Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh.

(Read 22d November 1823.)

CRATE
eer

SIN CE my first observations on the discovery of the fo-
ramen centrale in reptiles were written, I have had an
opportunity of examining, through the kindness of Profes-
sor JamESON, the anatomy of a large variety c of the Cha-
meleon, which had been sent to the Museum of the Uni-
versity by the Marchioness of Hastings. The conjecture
offered by me formerly, that the foramen centrale would
be found to exist in the eye of this animal, was now con-
firmed ; for the whole of this very singular structure, viz.
the foramen, and the fold of the retina, are remarkably
developed in the chameleon, and actually much larger than
in the human species. There extends also from the entrance
of the optic nerve to the foramen, a fissure, which, how-
ever, 1s not real, but apparent: this semblance of a fissure

; PLATE Iv.

AN

\ \\ SAAN \
“UNA

MAY

a

\ \)
ALAN
LAN
\

Oe O27

Werye. Alem. Vob. Vp

IN THE EYE OF THE CHAMELEON. 105

is caused by a remarkable thinness of the retina at this

point. The retina around the foramen has adhering to it

a quantity of black granulated matter, which it probably
. receives from the choroid.

Exactly at the point corresponding to the foramen, the
choroid is somewhat elevated internally, whilst it transmits
externally a dark-coloured membranous canal or tube to
the sclerotic. ‘This is the only point at which I have found
the choroid adhering to the, sclerotic in these animals.

Nothing novel is shewn by examining the foramen cen-
trale under the microscope, but the structure is naturally
rendered more distinct. We perceive that the foramen is
not quite circular, but somewhat irregular in its margin,
and that the actual aperture is smaller than might be other-
wise supposed. ‘This diminution in the real size of the
aperture is owing to a thin semitransparent layer, proceed-
ing from the more solid and opaque retina towards the
centre of the aperture. I hope soon to be able to submit
to the Society some further researches on this subject.

T ought perhaps to have added, that most of the dissec-
tions detailed in this and in my former paper announcing

a the discovery, were performed in the presence of numerous
& fiends, ; most of the preparations are in my possession, and
will be deposited 3 in the Museum; but I have reserved a
few specimens, lest any of the members of the Society, ac-
customed to minute research, should desire to examine the
structure for themselves.

Haplanation of Plate IV.

Fig. 1. Represents the head of a variety of the Lacerta
superciiosa. ‘The eye was dissected in situ; the
whole dissection consists in snipping off with a pair of

106 ON THE FORAMEN CENTRALE, &c.

very sharp scissars the anterior third of the eye-ball,
including the cornea and iris: the lens and capsule of
the vitreous humour must now be very carefully re-
moved. with a fine brush. I have thought it worth
while to mention the mode I adopt in displaying the
retina, because, by its adoption, any one, whether ana-
tomist or not, will readily ascertain the presence or ab-
sence of this very extraordinary structure.

The black point 6, marking the entrance of the
optic nerve into the interior of the eye-ball, may rea-
dily be distinguished from the foramen centrale (a),
by the little marsuprum which has been left attached
to the former. I regret that the drawing had not been
taken from the eye of the chameleon, in which the
structure is naturally so greatly magnified.

Fig. 2. The eye-ball viewed posteriorly, to shew that the
transparent Point of Scemmering is really a foramen.
The sclerotic c, and choroid d, have been removed,
leaving the retina (marked ¢), in which the foramen
(a) is distinctly visible. 6, marks the entrance of the
optic nerve.

Fig. 3. The foramen conta fold, and yellow spot, as
seen in the eye of apes. This latter figure is of the

natural size; the others are somewhat magnified. ‘The
letters refer to the same parts as in the former figures.

EDINBURGH,
Sept. 1. 1829.

COLOR »

VIL—Contribution to a Natural and Economical
History of the Coco-Nut Tree.

By Mr Henry Marsnatt,

Surgeon to the Forces, and Author of Notes on the Medical Topography
and Diseases of the Interior of Ceylon.

(Read 22d November 1823.)

‘Tue Coco-nut tree (Cocos nuciféra) belongs to the class
Moneecia, order Hexandria, of the Linnean classification of
plants.
Stem erect, without branches, from 60 to 90 feet in
height, and from one to two feet in thickness. It is marked
with parallel rmgs from. the cicatrices of the fallen leaves,
about two of which separate annually. By these cicatrices
or marks the age of a tree is ascertained.
The stem is crowned with a bunch of about twelve or
fifteen fronds (palm-leaves), each twelve or fourteen feet
long, and composed of a double row of opposite sword-
shaped leaflets, in length from three to four feet; upper
leaves are erect, middle horizontal, lower ones. rather
drooping. A single leaf closely resembles a greatly magni-
fied ostrich-feather. i

108 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

The flower is axillary, and proceeds from a large single-
leaved pointed spathe, which always opens on the under
surface. The spadix is spicate; each spike has towards its
base one or two female flowers, the others being male. In
both male and female flowers the calyx has three divisions,
and the corolla three petals. ‘The male flowers have six
stamens, and the female three stigmas. Drupe oval, three-
sided, about from eight to ten inches long, exterior cover-
ing smooth, interior fibrous ; nut monospermous, very hard,
has three unequal holes at the base closed with a black
membrane ; medullary part nearly half an ich thick,
white, hard, commonly filled with a sweetish watery liquid.
Ripe nuts are known by a succussion of the water they con-
tain, when shaken. |

A reticulated substance, resembling coarse cloth, involves
the base of each leaf; it falls off before the leaf has attained
a state of maturity. In Bengal, this filamentous body is
supposed to harbour insects, which are destructive to the
tree: on that account, it 1s there destroyed by fire.

The roots are slender, and very flexible: they rise sepa-
rately from the bottom of the trunk, some sinking deep in
the earth, while others take a horizontal direction very little
under the surface. ‘They do not penetrate an indurated
soil.

The young tree bears a near resemblance to a herba-
ceous plant; imdeed, during the whole progress of its
growth it has some analogy with vegetable productions of
this kind. ‘The stalk of some species of Brassica (or Cab-
bage genus) consists chiefly of pith, until the plant attains a
certain age, when the exterior crust of the trunk becomes
ligneous, and the proportion of pith diminishes. In several
respects the Coco-nut tree has a similar progress. It has
no brak ; the surface appears to be formed of the cicatrices,
which succeed the fall of the leaves, much hardened by the.

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 109

action of the air and sun. A slight wound in the central
bud is fatal to the tree; but the hardened trunk is capable
of bearing considerable injury with impunity.

Coco-nut trees are often struck by lightning, which fre-
quently kills the terminal leaf-bud, and thereby occasions
the death of the tree. This tree never changes the diame-
ter it has once acquired. Should any circumstance occur
capable of retarding the growth during one or more years,
such as transplantation, the effect is very evident in the stem
by a permanent contraction in its diameter. Immediate-
ly above these strangulated parts small roots sometimes
protrude, but they seldom extend beyond a few inches.
Frequently the trunk has a larger diameter at the base and
top than in the middle.

The wood of the stem is composed of hard, flexible, lig-
neous, black fibres, united by a soft brownish pith, or cellu-
lar substance, capable of being reduced to powder. ‘ The
palms have in the interior structure of their trunks no ana-
logy with other trees. In habit and in structure they re-
semble the ferns, in their blossom the grasses, and the aspa-
ragi in their mode of fructification*.” All the palms have
in a greater or less degree a spongy structure. The cellular
substance of the Cycas circinalis (Sago-palm) is, in some of
the islands of the eastern Archipelago, manufactured imto
the nutritive substance called Sago. The Caryota urens
(Nepery tree) yields a considerable quantity of fecula, or
sago; but in Ceylon this substance 1s not extracted, except
during a period when rice is scarce. Sago 1s easily ob-
tained from the interior part of the trunk of these trees.
The process consists in pounding the spongy or cellu-
lar texture of the stem, and washing it with water, which
is strained, to separate the ligneous fibres from the feculent

* Marre Brun.

110 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

substance. The process of granulating sago is not practised
in Ceylon. The exterior lamina and base of the stem of a
Coco-nut tree is always much harder than the interior and
upper portion.

There is a palm called the King’s Coco-nut, the fruit of
which has a bright yellow colour, but it does not appear to
be a different species from the Cocos nucifera. Nuts of
this kind contain a great proportion of fluid, which, on
account of its supposed cooling quality, is given to inva-
lids, in preference to that of the common nuts; but they
are not esteemed so good as common nuts for culinary
purposes. . !

The nut known by the name of the Maldive Coco-nut,
Coco de Mer, Zee-calappers, T'avarcarse, Sea Coco-nut,
Double Coco-nut, Nux medica (Borassus Sechellensis), is the
produce of a palm-tree, which Rocuown tells us abounds in
the Isle of Palms, one of the Scychelle Islands, but no
where else. ‘The fruit presents an appearance of two thighs ;
in other respects it is not materially different from the com-
mon coco-nut. The nuts which are occasionally found at
the Maldive Islands have been carried by the current from
the above-named Island.

When the Maldive traders arrive at the ports of Galle
or Colombo, in Ceylon, which they usually do once a year,
it is customary for them to make a present to the governor
of the island, or the commanding officer of the garrison, in
a very formal manner. On this occasion, I have known a
small portion of the kernel of one of these nuts form part
of the donation; from which it may be inferred that they
imagine it to be an article of some value.

Great medicinal virtues are ascribed to this nut by the
Indians, both in the prevention and cure of diseases. The —
venereal disease is supposed to be radically cured by it.
THUNBERG says, it is deemed a sovereign remedy against

3

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. ill

the flux, the epilepsy, and apoplexy. Rocuow tells us that
it was not uncommon at one time to see them sold for up-
wards of L. 400 sterling each. The Emperor Ropotruus
the Second could not proctire one at the price of 4000 flo-
rins. Some of the wealthy Indians had cups made of them,
which they ornamented with gold and precious stones.
They are now more generally diffused than formerly, and
consequently much less valuable. Maitre Brun informs
us that it has been found profitable to cultivate them in the
Isle of France. Many of the mendicants im Ceylon have
nuts of this kind, in which they put the provisions they re-
ceive in alms *. ;

The Coco-nut tree, both in regard to the variety and
utility of its products, is the most interesting of the palm
tribe, “ the princes of the vegetable kingdom.”

The tree sometimes bears fruit in five or six years from
the time it is transplanted from the seed-bed, but the pro-
duce is rarely abundant before the eighth or ninth year.
It continues to yield fruit for sixty or seventy years. In
good soils, and particularly during wet seasons, the tree
blossoms every four or five weeks; hence there are gene-
rally fresh flowers and ripe nuts on the tree at the same
time. ‘There are commonly from five to fifteen nuts in a
‘bunch ; and, in good soils, a tree may preduce from eight
to twelve bunches, or from 80 to 100 nuts annually.

Coco-nut trees are sometimes much injured by various:
species of Scarabeus, particularly the Scaradcus rhinoceros.
They excavate a liole of about an inch diameter in the ter-
minal leaf-bud, and, when the leaves expand, the leaflets
“appear full of holes, as if they had been battered with shot
of different sizes. In consequence of the injury done to the
bud by this insect, the trees are sometimes killed.

* System of Geography by Maite Bron, vol. iv. p. 420. THUNBERG’S
Travels, vol. iv. p. 209.

112 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

This species of the Palm family has its habitat in inter-
tropical Asia, Australia, America, and Africa. It is by
some authors said to have in ancient times been cultivated
in Arabia, but Nresunr informs us that it is not found to
the north of Mocha. Like all other equinoctial plants, the
Coco-nut tree becomes less luxuriant as we approach the
Tropics. At the suggestion of Mr Duntop, who lately, in
go able a manner, superintended the work now in progress,
to clear Saugur Island, at the estuary of the Hooghly, that
den of tigers is likely soon to be a continued grove of coco
trees. Saugur lies in N. Lat. 21° 30’, which is perhaps as
far from the Equinoctial Line as this species of palm can
be cultivated with advantage. In the neighbourhood of
Lucknow, which lies in N. Lat. 26° 24’, the Coco-nut tree
grows, but it does not produce fruit. I am informed by
Dr Bucuan, Deputy-inspector of Hospitals, who was for
some time on duty in Egypt, that it is not found in that
part of Africa. As the Coco tree seems to require for its
perfection a mean temperature of not less than 72° Faun-
RENHEIT, the proper climate for it will therefore be from
the Equator to the 25th parallel of latitude, and in the
Equinoctial Zone to an altitude of about 2900 feet. This
general statement will no doubt admit of some qualification
in regard to particular situations. There may be exposed
spots within its favourite climate where the fruit will not
come to maturity, and warm valleys beyond the above
limits where the tree will grow, and perhaps produce ripe
nuts. The Coco tree occupies, therefore, a zone of 25° of
latitude on both sides of the Equator, which includes nearly
four-fifths of Africa, one-sixth of Asia, one-third of Ame-
rica, and excludes Europe. It may be remarked, that trees
which grow on the immediate neighbourhood of the sea are
much more luxuriant and productive than those which are
planted inland or upon elevated situations. The cause of this

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 113

degeneration is not very evident, it cannot invariably be
attributed to a reduction of temperature. The Coco tree
is much cultivated on some parts of the east coast of Ame-
rica; from the river St Francisco to the Bar of Maman-
guape, or from about 77° 30’ to 10° S. Lat., being about 94
leagues, the Brazilian coast is with few breaks planted
with Coco trees. ‘The small island of Itamaraca, which is
only three leagues in length, yields annually about 360,000
nuts *. But perhaps this palm is no where so extensively
cultivated as in Ceylon, and the following remarks regard-
ing its products are intended more immediately to apply to
the tree as it grows in that island. ‘The Coco tree is culti-
vated both in the interior of Ceylon and along the flat
country adjoining to the sea; it thrives best, however, on
the coast of the south-west aspect of the island, or from
_Calpenteen on the north, to Dondrahead on the south.
About the year 1813, it was estimated that 10,000,000
trees grew between these two points, and that since that
period. the number has been annually increasing. The ex-
tent of coast between Dondrahead and Calpenteen is about
184 miles; the whole circuit of the island is %54 miles.
Except cinnamon, the products of the Coco tree form the
chief staple commodities of Ceylon t. The Maldive Islands
produce great quantities of coco-nuts; they are there said
to be the price of labour. In Congo, this palm forms one
of the greatest blessings in nature tf.

° | Kosten’ s Description of Brazil.
+1 have attempted to detail the leading facts fevaniing the natural his-
hg of the Cinnamon tree, the mode of preparation, and trade of Cinna-
mon, in two papers, one of which is published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, for the year 1817. The other is inserted in the
10th volume of Dr Tuomson’s Annals of Philosophy.

~ System of Geography, by Matte Brun, vol. iv. p. 298.
VOL. V. isi

114 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

It does not appear that the coco-tree is nearly as much
cultivated in the West India islands as in the East. Mr
STEWaRT, in his account of Jamaica, says, however, that
“On some estates groves of them are planted, and an oil
extracted from them to light the works during crop-time.
Occasionally the nuts are served out to the slaves as an
article of food.” |

In many places along the coast coco trees thrive well
upon the sandy soil near to the sea, where hardly any
other plant will vegetate. Those coco groves, through
which the eye can reach for a preat extent, inter-
mixed with the huts of the natives, composed entirely of
coco leaves, form a very picturesque object. When the
trees are full grown, the bare trunks rise like columns of
from 60 to 90 feet in height, while the horizontal pmnated
foliage interlace, by which means a grove resembles the
long aisles and Gothic arches of a cathedral; above these
arches a profusion of fine leafy plumes rise from the centre
of the trees, and project almost perpendicularly towards
the sky, thereby adding greatly to the beauty and variety
of the prospect. About twenty years since, the Colonial
Government of Ceylon had it in contemplation to impose
a tax upon coco trees, but, in consequence of the strongly
marked aversion of the people to such a measure, the plan
was abandoned. It is not unusual, however, for palm trees
to be taxed directly, instead of indirectly, upon the products,
as in Ceylon. On the Malabar coast, coco-nuts pay a land-
tax of half a fanam for every tree that is in full bearing,
old and young trees being exempted as unproductive. And,
at Marzouck, in northern Africa, a tax of one dollar is
levied upon every 200 date-trees *.

® Bucuanan’s Travels through Mysore, &c. vol. ii, p. 401. Lyon's
Travels in Africa.

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 115

The cottages of the inhabitants are always surrounded
by a great number of palm-trees, more particularly of the
coco-nut palm; and those plants seem to thrive best which
are situated near to the dwellings of the inhabitants. This
circumstance has given. rise to an observation of the na-
tives, namely, that a coco-nut tree delights in conversa-
tion. ‘The ashes which result from the burning of wood,
for culinary purposes, is a more probable cause of the
luxuriance of the trees close to the cottages, as the sweep-
ings of the huts are generally deposited at the foot of a
tree. ‘The cluster of trees which surrounds a hut is called
a “ Toddy tope” by the English. 'ope is perhaps a cor-
ruption of our word copse. Watte, a Singhalese word, is
used to designate every description of plantation. Pol-watte
signifies a coco-nut garden or plantation. I have already
stated that the Singhalese almost always construct their
huts under the dense shadow of palm-trees of different
kinds. This comfortable mode of defending habitations
from the direct influence of an ardent sun, seems to
have in ancient times been practised in Judea (Judges,
iv. 5.), and it is very generally adopted in all countries
where the palm family is found to thrive.

SYNONYMES.
Nari Kaylum Tangadra, - Sanscrit.
Polgaha, - - - Singhalese.
Palma Indica coccifera angulosa, Burman. Zeyl.
Calappa Palma indica major, Rumph. amb.
Tenga, - : - Rheede.
Taygana, - - - Canarese.
Tenkay, Narica, Kobari, - Telinga.
Cagollz, - - = Mexican.
Masogua Inmguaruiba, - - Brasillian,
Cay Dua, - - - Cochin Chinese,
Yai Xt, - - - Chinese.
Cocos Palma, - - = Loureiro.
Cocotzer or Cocos, - - Labat.
Coco or Coco-nut tree, = = English.

He

=

116 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

‘When very young, the fruit is called Bellaca by the in-
habitants of the Malabar Coast, who speak the Tamool
language, and Coguinhas by the Portuguese; Singhalese,
Kooroomba. When fully formed, but with a soft pulp, it
is called EHlant by the Tamools, m Portuguese Lania.
When a httle firmer, it is called enga in the Tamool
language, and Coquo in the Portuguese. The mature nut
is called Cotta tenga by the Malabars, and Coquo sicco by
the Portuguese. In the Singhalese language, the nut 1s
called Pol. The term Coco, by which this palm and its
fruit is distinguished, 1s said by several authors to be of
Portuguese origin. Bauutn tells us, that Coco, or Coguen,
is derived from the three holes at the end of the nut, giv-
ing it the resemblance of a Cercopithecus, a species of
monkey. St Pierre, in his Harmonies of Nature, says,
that a coco-nut, stripped ef its pericarp, bears an exact re-
semblance to the head of a negro. Piso asserts, that the
term Coco has been applied to the tree, on account of the
sound emitted, when air is blown into one of the holes of
the nut, having a resemblance to the voice of an ape. The
Portuguese name for a monkey is macaco, or macoco.
There is, however, better foundation for supposing that
Coco is derived from the Greek word xoxes, a seed, or berry.

UsEs.

Roots.—This part of the tree is sometimes masticated by
the natives in place of the areca-nut. The Brazilians make
baskets of the small roots.

The hard woody shell or crust of the trunk is employed
by the natives in making drums, and in the construction of
their huts, &c. It is also much employed for making gut-
ters. ‘Towards the base of the trunk the wooed is remark-
ably hard, and admits of a high polish. A transverse sec-
tion of this part of the tree, when well polished and var-

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 117

nished, has a lapideous gloss and beauty, which rival those
of an agate. I have seen a polished portion of the wood
set in the lid of a silver snuff-box, in the same manner as
jewellers occasionally fix agates or cornelians. It might,
I think, be found highly useful in ornamental cabinet-
work,

In some parts of the world, I am informed that a kind
of cradle or couch for young infants 1s made of the reticu-
lated substance formed at the base of the leaf. I never
saw it applied to this purpose in Ceylon; it is there chiefly
employed as an instrument of filtration, for straining the
sweet juice which is extracted from the flowering spath of
this tree. The Reverend J. CorpINEr asserts, that it “is
manufactured into a durable sackcloth, called gunny, which
is used in making bags for transporting grain,” &c.; and
Captain PErcivat says, that it is manufactured into a
coarse cloth called srinjakken (I presume he means ganja
sakken) or gunny-cloth. If I mistake not, their statements
are erroneous; gunny-cloth is made of hemp. Gunny or
Goni is not improbably a corruption of ganja, the Hindos-
tanee name of the hemp-plant (Cannabis sativa). Ac-
cording to Bucuanay, goni-cloth is made: from the Ja-
nupa (Crotolaria juncea) *. Sacks made of goni-cloth, are
in India called gunny-bags by the English, and ganja
sakken by the Dutch.

The unexpanded leaves or terminal leaf-bud is occasion-
ally eaten by the Europeans as well as by natives. When
boiled it is tender, and forms a good substitute for cabbage.
The natives sometimes preserve it in vinegar, and eat it as
‘a pickle. It may be observed, that the tree dies when this
part is removed.

Many of the indigenous inhabitants, as well as natives of

as ourney through Mysore, &c, vol. i. p. 226,

118 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

Europe, thatch their houses with coco-nut leaves, in the Sin-
ghalese language called polattu. Sometimes they are deno-
minated ollahs, and at other times cadjans. The latter term
has, I believe, a Malay origin. 'To prepare cadjans, the cen-
tral ligneous portion of the leaf is divided longitudinally, the
leaflets of each half are then plaited or interwoven, by which
means they are adapted for a variety of uses. In this state
they are employed to thatch cottages, to shelter young plants
from the scorching rays of the sun, to construct fences, to
form the ceiling of rooms, and to make baskets for carry-
ing fruit, fish, &c. Sometimes baskets are made of palm-
leaves, so close as to serve the purpose of buckets to draw
water from deep wells. In the Maldive Islands, bonnetta,
a species of fish, is preserved by a process in which coco-
leaves are employed. The process consists in removing the
back-bone, and laying the fish in the shade, occasionally
sprinkling it with sea-water. After a certain period has
elapsed, the fish is wrapped up in coco-nut leaves, and
buried in sand, where it becomes hard. Fish thus pre-
pared, is known in Ceylon, and perhaps over all India, by
the name of cummelmus. The pieces of this fish brought
to the market have a horny hardness. It is rasped upon
rice, to render it savoury.

The unexpanded leaves are employed to shew marks of
respect to persons in power. When the Governor or Chief-
Justice travels, lines, made of the stems of creeping plants,
are stretched along on each side of the road, about three or
four feet from the ground. Upon these lines young palm-
leaves are suspended. The head civil servant of a district
may command the inhabitants under his immediate con-
troul to adorn the road along which he passes, but he is
not warranted in claiming this mark of attention beyond
his own district.

4 °
Vhe immature leaves of the coco-nut tree have a fine

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 119

yellow colour, and a beautiful texture resembling fine lea-
ther or satin. In some parts of Ceylon, the natives evince
great taste in ornamenting triumphal arches, as also ball-
rooms, and similar places of public resort, with the leaves
of this tree, and some remarkably beautiful species of moss.
As the young leaves are translucent, they serve to make
lanterns, in the construction of which many of the inhabi-
tants are very dexterous.

The practice of shewing respect to individuals by means
of the branches of palm-trees appears to be very ancient.
See Matthew xxi. 8, Mark xi. 8, and John xu. 13. The
fohage of the palm tribe of plants has been in many coun-
tries considered an emblem of joy and victory, and hence
the word palm is sometimes employed as a synonyme of
victory and triumph. See Leviticus xxii. 40. In ancient
times, when pilgrims resorted te Palestine, they commonly
returned bearing palm-leaves; on this account they were
denominated Palmers. Captain Lyon, when describing
the amusements of the natives of some parts of northern
Africa, informs us, that the dancers ‘* were directed by an
old woman, with a torch in one hand, and a long palm-
branch in the other, and sung in chorus verses which she
repeated to them.” In the island of Otaheite, the female
inhabitants wear bonnets constructed of the leaflets of the
coco; and, in Ceylon, the European soldiers manufacture
hats of small strips of the leaves, in the same manner that
straw-hats are made. Indeed, broad-brimmed hats of this
construction are frequently worn both by Europeans and
natives, particularly by fishermen, who are much exposed
‘to the direct rays of an ardent sun.

The leaflets are sometimes used to write upon, and the
instrument employed to make the impression is an iron sty-
lus. The leaves of the Palmyra (Borassus fiabelliformis),
or Talipot (Corypha umbraculifera), are, however, much

120 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

more frequently employed for this purpose. Contracts and
other legal instruments are often engraven upon tablets of
copper, which have occasionally a border of silver. An
allusion is made to the practice of writing upon tablets in
Isaiah xxx. 8, and Habakkuk ii. 2. Palm-leaves generally
undergo some preparation to fit them to receive the im-
pression of the stylus. They are then called ollahs. The na-
tives write letters to one another upon ollahs, which are
neatly rolled up, and sometimes sealed with a little gum-lac.
During the operation of writing, the leaf is supported by
the left hand, and the letters scratched upon the surface
with the pointed piece of iron. Instead of moving the hand
with which they write towards the right, they move the
leaf in a contrary direction, by means of the thumb of the
left hand. To render the characters more legible, the en-
graved lines are frequently filled by besmearing the leaf
with fresh cow-dung. This substance is then tinged black,
which makes the writing very plain. Sometimes this object
-is obtained by rubbing the lines over with coco-nut oil, or
a mixture of oil and charcoal-powder. The natives do not
require tables to write upon; they can write standing as
well as walking. Jne-ad

_ Baskets for catching fish, shrimps, &c. are made of the
ligneous ribs of the leaflet ; the same substance is employed
by the natives for many of the purposes for which we use
pins. A bundle of these ribs is in universal use, as a broom,
to sweep the cottages; and when an European asks for a
tooth-pick, his servant brings him a portion of one of these
fibres. Lately, I am informed, they have been recommended
to be employed as a nucleus for bougies.

In a domestic state, elephants are fed chiefly upon coco-
nut leaves, and this animal evinces much sagacity in sepa-
rating the elastic woody fibre from the thinner margin of
the leaf.

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. Pot

For temporary purposes, cadjan-houses are frequently
constructed, both by natives and Europeans. During the
insurrection in the Kandyan country in 1818, many of the
sick were accommodated in cadjan-hospitals. Except the
frame-work, every part of the house, walls, and roof, is
formed of coco-nut leaves. They are capable of resisting
all kinds of weather for a year or more.

To prevent thieving, the owners of topes frequently fix
a coco-nut leaf along the stems of fruit-trees. As the leaf
rustles much when touched, a thief is cautious of ascending
the trunk of the tree, lest he should alarm some of the in-
mates of the neighbouring huts. ‘THunsEere mistook the
use of these leaves, and supposed that they supplied “ the
place of ladders, by means of which the natives could climb
up, and gather the fruit *.” : :

‘In warm climates, it is customary to travel during night,
with the view of avoiding the infiuence of an ardent sun.
Torches then become necessary, and coco-nut leaves are
chiefly employed for this purpose. By tying the leaflets
close to the centre-rib of a leaf, the ignition is prevented
from being too rapid. ‘Torches of coco-nut leaves are com-
monly denominated chels (ooloo attu, Singhalese); they
are in constant use, to obstruct the inroads of wild beasts
upon cultivated fields, more particularly of elephants. In
the interior of Ceylon, every field under cultivation must
be watched durmg night, to prevent the depredations
which would be made upon the crops, were these animals
to have free ingress. When burned, the coco-nut tree,
especially the leaves, afford a large proportion of potash.
' ‘The caste of washermen avail themselves of this qua-
lity, and procure all the potash they require by the incine-

ne

* Travels, vol. iv. p. 192,

122 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

ration of different parts of the tree. Soap is very little used
by the native washermen in Ceylon. |

Boats are rowed with the centre-rib of the leaf, in which
operation it forms a substitute for paddles. The end of
this part of the leaf is sometimes well-bruised, and thereby
converted into a brush, that may be used for a variety of
purposes. eG

The spaths, or fibrous covering of the blossoms, are in-
flammable; on that account they are often employed as
torches. In some parts of India this part of the tree is
soaked in water, and converted into coarse cordage, with
which the thatch of houses is tied.

Many useful products are derived from the flower and
fruit of this tree. By a peculiar manipulation the flower
yields a rich saccharine juice, convertible into arrack or
sugar. The word arrack, or arak, or rack, is probably a
corruption of the Arabic word wrugq, spirit or juice, indefi-
nitely ; whence we may infer that the art of distillation was
conveyed from Arabia to India and the eastern archipelago.
We are informed that, in the Ladrone Islands, it is called
wraca. In Ceylon, and many other parts of India, the
term arrack is employed in a sense similar to that with
which we use the phrase spiritous liquors. Distilled spi-
rits, of whatever kind, obtain this denomination through a
great part of Asia, and along the northern coast of Africa,
In the Singhalese language, sugar, manufactured from
palm-juice, is called hackurur, which is commonly corrupted
by foreigners into jagery, and may be the origin of the
Arabic word sukker. A Sanscrit scholar has suggested,
that swear may be derived from the Sanscrit word goor
(sweet); the superlative of which, he tells me, is seogoor
(sweetest).

Sweet jnice is extracted from the unexpanded flower, in
the following manner :—A man, in colloquial language,

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 123

called a “ Toddy-drawer,” cuts off the point of the spadix,
and ties the stump firmly round with a ligature. It is then
beaten with a stick; which operation is supposed to deter-
mine the sap to the wounded part. This process is re-
peated for several days, cutting off daily a small portion of
the end of the spadix. Under this management, the juice
soon begins to flow from the cut surface of the flower,
and is carefully collected in an earthen-ware vessel, sus.
pended from the spathe. A thin portion of the flower
and spathe is sliced off daily, and the end of the stump is
bound with a ligature. A good healthy blossom will give
from two to four English pints of sweet juice daily, and
some flowers will continue to yield juice for about four or
_ five weeks. Hence there are frequently two spaths on one
tree, yielding toddy at the same time *.

I may here state the mode by which a toddy-drawer
ascends the tree. He takes the dried stem of a creeping
plant, and forms it into a circle of about a foot diameter.
The feet are next put into this circular band. He then
raises himself up a little on the stem of the tree, by means
of his hands, and subsequently supports his whole weight
upon the’ feet and the connecting ligature. By the alter-
nate motion of his hands and feet, he reaches the top.
The ordinary implements of a toddy-drawer, are, the shell
of a large gourd, capable of containing several pints of
sweet juice, and a broad knife, which he suspends to a belt
tied round his waist. In Bombay, the stem is sometimes
notched on each side, to enable the toddy-drawer to ascend
the tree.

# « The Gomuti Palm yields teddy for two years, at the average rate of
three quarts a-day.”—Cnrawrurp on the Indian Archipelago.

According to Lasinnarpiere, a date-palm will furnish, for upwards of
two months in the year, six or eight litres of liquor a day,—-** Account of a
Voyage in search of Perouse, by M Lasitiarpier®, vol. i. p. 334.

124 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

But when it is intended to draw juice from a “ tope” or
cluster of trees, the toddy-drawer collects a quantity of
some creeping plants, with which he connects the heads of
a great number of trees. In some districts, coir-rope is
used in place of these creepers. There are a number of
species of creepers, suitable for this purpose, which have
stems many yards long, The toddy-drawer selects a tree,
of easy access, near to the centre of the tope, the trunk of
which he surrounds with a number of bands made of some
creepers, each at about a foot distance. He then ascends,
by means of these bands, and passes along, from tree to
tree, upon the connecting stems, assisted by the horizontal
leaves, collecting, as he proceeds, the sweet juice, which he
pours into the shell of the gourd, suspended from his waist,
and conveys it to the ground by means of a line. The
gourd is emptied by a person ready to receive it, and the
lime is drawn up by the man on the tree.

Juice is seldom drawn from a coco-nut tope, above six
or seven months at a time, as this operation is supposed to
exhaust the trees. During the intervening period, nuts are
produced. d

Toddy is the name given by the English to the sweet
juices which are extracted from the different species of the
palm tribe, including that of the coco-nut tree. It is per-
haps a corruption of tari or tarce, the Mussulman name of
the juice of the Palmyra palm, of which éar or fal is the
Sanscrit name*. Ma, which literally means juice, is the
Singhalese name of the fluid extracted from the flower of a
coco-nut tree. Sometimes it is called Mee-ra (honey or
sweet juice); seldom, however, except when prepared for
making jagery. Among the inhabitants of the maritime
provinces of Ceylon, it is frequently denominated sur,
which is said to be a Sanskrit word. With the above ex-

“ Bucnanan’s Journey. through Mysore, &c,

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 125

‘planation, the words foddy, ra, mee-ra, and suri, may be
used synonimously. Fresh drawn juice is sweet, and has a
peculiar flavour, in consequence of some extractive matter
it contains; and, in general, it operates as a laxative. When
it is intended to distil arrack from sun, the toddy-drawers
seldom change or clean the pots into which it is received,
hence the juice soon ferments, and emits an acid smell.
In a half fermented state, suri is much relished by some
Europeans. When it has become, by fermentation, highly
intoxicating, the European soldiers, and the dissipated
portion of the natives, drink it freely. To render this
beverage acrid, the soldiers occasionally add green chillies
( ees cuss Srutescens ) to it.

Is it not very probable, that the strong dank mentioned
in Scripture was mee-ra, drawn from the flower of some of
the palm tribe (palm-wine)? In several of the Oriental
languages, there appears to be an intimate connection be-
tween the words which designate honey, sugar, sweetness,
and the juice of the palm family of plants. Mee, in the
Singhalese language, means honey, sweet ; and the toddy,
or juice extracted from palm trees, is called mee-ra. Juice
drawn from the flower of the Sago-palm, is, by the Malays,
denominated der (water) saguer. As the word saguer
appears to be only a slight alteration from the Sanscrit
adjective implying sweet, aer saguer will therefore literally
mean sweet water, or the sweetest water. In the Javanese
language, the juice of the Gomuti-palm is called lagen,
which means the sweet material by distinction *. We
learn from Suaw, that the Hebrew word rendered honey
-in Scripture, is, by some commentators, supposed to deno-
minate the sweet juice procured from palm trees, as well as
the honey of bees. He tells us that, in Barbary, the sweet
Juice extracted from date-palms, is called dipse ; and that

* CRAWFURD.

126 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

dibse or dipse, which is a Hebrew word, is generally trans-
lated honey in the Old Testament *. Dr Moszny, in his
Treatise upon Sugar, &c. says, that the strong drink of the
- Scripture was called shecar, a word which likewise means
éntoxication. This word shecar, does not differ much in
enunciation from the Sanscrit adjective implying sweet; and
it very closely resembles the Malay name of the intoxicating
toddy of the Sago-palm (Aer saguer). Dr MosELey con-
cludes his disquisition on the strong drink of the Old Tes-
tament, by saying, ‘* What sottish liquor shecar was, no
person knows. It was probably made from grain, perhaps
from honey +.”

The suri pots are sometimes visited, and the contents
carried off durmg night. ‘To detect the thief, the leaves
of a species of datura are occasionally put into some of the
pots. By means of the highly intoxicating effect of this
compound, the marauder is often discovered.

Arrack may be distilled from sur the same day it is
drawn; but sometimes this operation is delayed for a few
days, without diminishing the quantity, or injuring the
quality of the spirit. The process of distillation is carried
on, in the maritime provinces, in copper stills; but, in the
Kandyan Provinces, earthen-ware vessels are chiefly em-
ployed. Suri yields, by distillation, about one-eighth part
of arrack, of the same strength as good brandy. Arrack,
when well prepared, is clear and transparent: generally,
however, it is slightly straw-coloured. It has a peculiar
flavour, no doubt depending upon an essential oil which
rises from the suri during distillation. Arrack is issued to
the soldiers in India and Ceylon, as part of the established

* Snaw’s Observations relating to Barbary and the Levant, vol. ii.
p. 144, note.
+ Medical Tracts, by Dr Mosgxy, 2d edit. p. 138.

ie)

OF THE. COCO-NUT TREE. 127

ration. ‘The seamen belonging to the Royal Navy in the
Indian Seas are furnished with this spirit in place of rum.

Ceylon exports annually, and, for the most part, to the
Presidences of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, from 5000
to 6000 leaguers of arrack, each containing 150 gallons.
Including freight, duties upon exportation and importation,
this spirit is sold at Madras at about Is. 3d. per gallon.
The prime cost of arrack in Ceylon varies from 8d. to
10d. per gallon. It is stated by Mr Baxroxacct, that
arrack distilled at Batavia, is said to be sold in India from
10 to 15 per cent. cheaper than that brought from Colombo.*
Ten per cent. duty is levied upon arrack exported from
Ceylon. In England, this spirit has brought as high a
price as from 5 to 6 shillings per gallon.

Batavian arrack is made from a mixture of molasses,
palm-wine, and rice, in the following proportions:

Molasses, - - - 62 parts.
Toddy (palm-wine), - “ 3 ditto.
Rice, - - - - 35 ditto.

100 parts of these materials yield 233 of distilled proof
arrack.

The rice is first boiled ; and, after cooling, a quantity of
yest 1s added to it, and is pressed into baskets. In this
condition, it is placed over a tub or tubs, for eight days,
during which time, a liquor flows abundantly from the
mixture. At the end of that time, the liquor which has
subsided, is taken out and mixed with the molasses and
palm-wine, which has been previously combined. The
mixture remains in a small vessel for one day only, when
“it is removed into large fermenting vats, in which it re-
mains for seven. ‘The liquor is finally removed into the
still; and, according to the number of distillations it un-

* Bartoracci on the Revenue and Commerce of Ceylon.

128 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

dergoes, becomes arrack of the first, second, or third qua-
lity in commerce. The above account of the preparation
of arrack, is extracted from Mr Crawrurp’s work on the
Indian Archipelago. Mr Marspren®* informs us, that the
“¢ Palm-wine ” used in this kind of arrack, is obtained from
the coco-nut tree, and that arrack of the first quality may
be purchased for about 60 Spanish dollars; second for 50;
and the third for 30; each leaguer of 160 gallons. At this
rate, the best arrack may be procured for 20d. per gallon.
It is at present manufactured chiefly for domestic con-
sumption. | eg

The phrase ‘“ Pariah-arrack” is often used to designate
a spirit distilled in the Peninsula of India. Arrack, there
prepared, is said to be often rendered unwholesome, by an
admixture of ganja (Cannabis sativa), and a species of
datura, with the intention of increasing its intoxicating
quality. It is not clear, whether the term Pariah-arrack
be colloquially employed to designate an mferior spirit, or
an adulterated compound. 3

There is a spirit prepared in the neighbourhood of Ma-
dras, called puttay or putta arrack, literally bark arrack.
Puttay, in the Tamool language, signifies the bark of a
tree. Dr Arnstte tells us, that the barks chiefly used in
making arrack, are those of the Mimosa ferruginea, and
the Mimosa leucophlea of Roxburgh +.

Suri is the yest commonly used by bakers in Ceylon.
By allowing it to pass into the acetous fermentation, an
excellent vinegar is obtained.. A great variety of vegetable
substances are pickled with vinegar of this kind.

When it is intended to extract jagery from suri, great
care is taken to prevent it from fermenting. The earthen-

* History of Sumatra.
+ Materia Medica of Hindoostan.

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 1¢9

ware pot into which it falls is emptied twice or thrice in
twenty-four hours. After this operation, the pot is always
well cleaned, then dried, and a small quantity of chunam
(lime) is thrown into it, before being replaced. Sometimes
a portion of the bark of a tree; whose name I do not recol-
lect, is imtroduced into the receiving vessel, instead of
chunam. ‘The lime perhaps contributes to check the pro-
gress of fermentation. Almost immediately after the mee-ra
is drawn from the tree, it is filtered through a portion of
the reticulated substance found at the base of the leaf.

The juice is then slow!y boiled in an earthen-ware vessel,
until it becomes light coloured, and acquires a considerable
degree of consistency. While still warm, and semi-fluid,
it is poured into sections of coco-nut shells, where it soon
becomes solid. ‘Twenty-four ounces of jagery may be pro-
eured from a gallon of mee-ra. I state the quantity of
jagery which mee-ra yields, on the authority of Mr Brr-
ToLacci, who paid much attention to this subject. It
would appear that mee-ra is richer in saccharine matter
than juice expressed from the sugar-cane in the West In-
dies. Dr Mosety, in his History of Sugar, says, “« We
consider a pound of sugar from a gallon of cane-juice as
good yielding.” According to Mr Crawrurpb, cane-juice
in Java, yields, on an average, 25 per cent. of sugar.
Jagery contains both the crystallizable portion of the juice,
and a quantity of molasses, or liquid sugar; but, by a sub-
sequent operation, they can be, in a great measure, sepa-
rated. This coarse sugar is generally made into little
loaves, having the shape of a hemispherical vase, from the
form of the vessel in which it cools. It has a deep choco-
late colour ; and, when broken, presents many clear shin-
ing particles of sugar. In the Malay language, jagery 1s
denominated goola or goora itan (black sugar or black
sweet.)

130 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

The ordinary price of jagery is about 2d. per pound.
It is the only sugar used by the native inhabitants, and no
other is prepared in Ceylon. They enjoy the juice of the
cane, by masticating the green shcots, but in no other way,
although they have a name for sugar extracted in other
countries from this plant, which is sinee or chince. ‘The
common soldiers ordinarily use jagery ; and many Euro-
peans of the upper ranks prefer it to a more refined species
of sugar for sweetening coffee. Sugar-candy, which is
chiefly imported from China, is the saccharine substance
commonly used by the higher classes of Europeans in
India. In some parts of the interior of Ceylon, particu-
larly in the vicinity of Adam’s Peak, great numbers of the
inhabitants support themselves by extracting a sweet juice
from the nepery tree (Caryota urens), and manufacturing
it into jagery. This tree grows spontaneously in the woods.
The people thus employed, subsist chiefly upon coarse su-_
gar. ‘They occasionally procure a little rice and salt by
barter, but they do not raise grain by cultivating the soil.

There is some foundation for suppesing, that the sugar
of the ancients, which seems to have been imported from
India, was the produce of the palm family of plants, and
not that of the sugar-cane. SatMasius, the commentator
of Prrny, is decidedly of opinion, that the sugar of the
moderns is the produce of a different plant from that
which produced the sugar of the Greeks and Romans.
All the authors on this subject, with whose writings I am
acquainted, describe the sugar of the ancients as being of
a very coarse quality, and mixed with a large portion of
molasses, exactly resembling jagery, the produce of some
of the palms. Virry, in his Account of Sugar, says ex-
pressly, that ‘* le premier sucre apporté des Indes n’etoit
qu’une moscouade (sucre brut). And, m an Essay upon
the History of the Commerce of Venice, it is stated, that
the sugar which was manufactured in Sicily, as early as

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 181

1173, brought a higher price than that which they im-
ported from Egypt or from India, by the way of the Red
Sea. 'The extraction of sugar from the sugar-cane is much -
more operose than from the juice afforded by palms; and
this may be one reason why palm-sugar should be more
early known than cane-sugar, even in countries where the
sugar-cane 1s indigenous.

Among the articles of commerce which the Venetians
imported from Asia, about the year 996, sugar is men-
tioned ; but whether it was the produce of palm trees, or
the sugar-cane, cannot be satisfactorily ascertained *. It is
the opinion of Mr Marspen, that the sugar of the an-
cients was procured from palms. In his History of Su-
matra he says, ‘ If the ancients were acquainted with
sugar, it was produced from some species of the palms,
-as the sugar-canes were not brought into the Mediterranean.
from the coast, till a short time before the discovery of the
passage to India by the Cape. The word saccharum is con-
jectured to be derived from jagyree, which the French
pronounce schagaree.” His opinion is corroborated by Dr
Crawrurp, who informs us that, “ although the cane be
a native of the Indian Islands, the art of manufacturing
sugar from it is certainly a foreign art. ‘There is no name
for sugar im any dialect of the Indian Islands, but a foreign
one eula (perhaps a corruption of goor sweet); and this
foreign one is pure Sanskrit. When Europeans first be-
came acquainted with the natives of these islands, they
found them ignorant of the manufacture of sugar from the
eane. The Hindoo word gula (sometimes written gour) is
indeed equally applicable to palm sugar as to that of the
cane. I therefore suppose that the Hindoos instructed the
Indian islanders only in the simple process of manufacturing
the former, and that the manufacture of the latter was in-

~ * Essai de Historie du Commerce de Venise, p. 71.
12

ow

132 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

troduced by the Chinese, under the auspices chiefly of
Europeans, and in times comparatively very recent.” I
am aware, however, that Humsotpr infers, from some
Chinese paintings which he saw at Lima, representing the
different processes for extracting sugar, that this art is ex-
tremely ancient in that country.—(Hssai Politique sur la
Nouvelle Espagne, tom. 11. p. 425, 4to.)

It is stated, upon the authority of the Crusaders, that
the inhabitants of Tripoli, in Syria, were acquainted with
the art of extracting sugar from the sugar-cane, as early as
1108. The process they practised was extremely rude,
and: consisted in pounding the cane in a mortar with a
pestle. At this time, they do not appear to have been ac-
quainted with the means of employing fire in the making
of sugar. ‘The expressed juice was set aside until crystals
formed in it*. For a long time, sugar appears to have, in
Europe, been confined to the apothecary’s shop; and, by
some of the older authors, it 1s recommended as a good sub-
stitute for honey, to render nauseating medicines palata-
ble; this seems to have been the chief purpose for which it
was, during a considerable period, employed. Sugar did
not become general, as an article of food in Europe, until
it was extensively cultivated in the West Indies and Ame-
rica +.

»

* Fatconer’s Sketch of the History of Sugar.

+ Neither sugar nor the sugar-cane is mentioned in Scripture. The word
Sweet-cane, which we find in two places of the Old Testament, Isaiah xliii.
24., and Jeremiah vi. 20., seems to express a different substance, most pro-
bably cinnamon. In both passages, sweet-cane is mentioned as an article of
merchandize, and not asa native of Judea, which the sugar-cane seems to
be. It likewise may be inferred, that the substance here meant was con-
secrated to religious uses. Now, we know that, under the Levitical law,
cinnamon was required to compose the holy oil for anointing the tabernacle.
Kurope is indebted to the conquests of ALEXANDER, for a knowledge of sugar.

SPRENGEL,

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 133

When intimately mixed with lime, jagery forms an ex-
cellent cement, which resists moisture, and endures great
solar heat. It is capable of taking on a very fine polish.
Walls are prepared for receiving this covering, by wetting
them with a strong infusion of the husk of unripe cocos;
and the same kind of fluid is used for mixing and temper-
ing the materials. In Madras, and some other parts of
India, the flat tops of the houses are covered with this
cement. It is much employed to cover columns, as also
to form the ficors of rooms. Floors of this kind are some-
times stained and made to resemble the finest marble. It
is said that jagery-cement has succeeded very well in Hol-
land. In 1813, Ceylon exported jagery to the value of
39,245 rix dollars. The Ceylon rix dollar at par, is equal
to 1s. Od. Sterling.

When the flower has not been injured, the tree bears
nuts which are converted to many useful purposes. Young
coco-nuts are much used by the natives as an article of
diet. During the unripe state of the fruit, the shell is lmed

SPRENGEL, in his Historia rei Herbarie, informs us, that the sugar-cane
is a native of the banks of the Euphrates; and that the first account we
have of the fabrication of sugar from this plant, is not earlier than the fifth
century. From Arabia, this reed found its way to Egypt, and eventually to
Europe. In 1306, it was common in the Island of Cyprus; and, a hun-
dred years after, it enriched Calabria, and the coasts of Spain. While
Spain was under the dominion of the Moors, the sugar-cane was cultivated
in Andalusia, and sugar manufactured from it. From Sicily it passed to
Madeira, and the Canary Islands. Early in the sixteenth century it was
transported to America, by a native of Portugal. Ovinpo saw some sugar
manufactories in operation at St Domingo, in the year 1513; and, in 1520,
it was carried to the Continent of America. In 1535, GonzaLes pz Veiosa
constructed the first cylinder for expressing the sugar cane; and, in 1641,
canes were transplanted from Brazil to Barbadoes, and thence to the other
West India Islands.-Humeoxprt’s Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 179; Jour-
nal de Pharmacie, tom. ii. p. 386; Rees’ Encyclopedia, Article Sugar.

1384 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

with a pulpy substance, while the centre is filled with an
aqueous fluid. This fluid is at first slightly astringent
and sub-acid ; as the fruit ripens, it becomes sweetish,
and not unlike the colour and consistence of the whey of
milk *. When drank before the sun has far advanced, it
is much cooler than the atmosphere, and is then a pleasant
beverage. Natives, particularly when travelling, generally
furnish themselves with a few unripe nuts (Lanzas -Por-
tuguese), the water of which they drink, and eat the pulpy
portion or kernel. Upon a few repasts of this kind, a man
will labour from morning till night, without any other article
of diet +. The native inhabitants of the coasts of some of the
islands in the Equinoctial Zone, are more palmivorous than
granivorous. Where a people can be satisfied with food so
easily procured as the produce of the coco-nut tree is, in
some tropical regions, they are little sensible to the ordinary
motives which impel mankind to labour. The Reverend _ :
Mr Corpiner says, and perhaps with truth, that the per-
son who possesses a garden with twelve coco trees and two
jack trees, has no call to make any exertion.

The husk or fibrous pericarp of the nut is employed
to polish furniture, and to scour the floors of rooms, &c.
Birds, who build pendulous nests, commonly construct
them of this substance. Its chief use, however, is in the

® The following are the proportions of the liquid contained in the nut,
as given in the Journal de Pharmacie, tom, ii. p. 98., extracted from
Trommsporrr’s Journal:—“ Le liquide est clair et-sans couleur comme de
l'eau, sans odeur, et dune saveur douceatre semblable aux noix. La pesan-
teur specifique comparée a celle de eau est de 1,010.” ;
_ The result of a chemical examination of the liquid is, that ‘¢ le suc de la
noix serait composé de beaucoup seaund du sucre liquide, d’un peu de gomme,
et d’un sel vegetal.

+ To fetch coco-nuts from trees as they are wanted, the Malays have
trained monkeys, which are more expert at the business than any toddy-drawer
on the coast of Coromandel.-Heyne’s Letters on Sumatra.

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 135

manufacture of coir, and for this purpose the nut ought
not to be completely ripe. The word coi7, sometimes writ-
ten cair, and caira, is probably derived from the Portu-
guese substantive cairel, a periwig, or fringe. The Sin-
ghalese word for coir is kohu. ‘To remove the husk, an
iron-spike, or sharp piece of hard wood, is fixed in the
ground; the nut is then forced upon the pomt, which
passes through the fibres, thereby separating the rind from
the shell. In this manner a man can clear 1000 nuts daily.
Coir is prepared by soaking the rind in water for several
months, and then beating it upon a stone with a piece of
heavy wood. On the coast of America, where a running
stream of water is not near at hand, the coir-manufacturers
dig holes in the sand below high water-mark, and bury the
rind of the coco-nut, before beating it. Subsequently it is
rubbed with the hand until the interstitial substance be
completely separated from the fibrous portion of the husk.
The rind of forty cocos furnished Mr Koster with six
pounds weight of coir. ‘The next operation is to twist the
fibres into yarns, which are manufactured into cordage of
all sizes. Coir is remarkably buoyant, and well suited for
ropes of a large diameter. Until chain-cables were intro-
duced, all the ships which navigated the Indian seas had
cables made of this substance. Sea-water is said to be
rather beneficial than hurtful to it. Coir-cordage, when
properly prepared, is pliable, smooth, strong, and elas-
tic: it is very well suited for running-rigging, more espe-
cially where lightness is deemed an advantage, such as
top-gallant studding-sail sheets, &c. On account of its
contractility, seamen consider it not well fitted for standing
rigeing. Dr Roxpurcu, in his observations on the com-
parative strength of English hemp and other vegetable
fibres, states, that he found hemp-rope and coiv-rope, when
large, to be respectively as 108 to 87 in strength, and when

1360 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

smaller, as 65 is to 60. In the same paper (‘Transactions
of the Society of Arts, vol. 11.), he says, ‘‘ Coir is certamly
the very best material yet known for cables, om account of
its great elasticity and strength.”

The natives sew the planks together which compose their
boats with coir-yarns. When twisted into yarns adapted
for being manufactured into cordage, it is valued in Ceylon
at about L.2 per candy (500 lb.) Large quantities of this
substance are exported to the different ports im India.
Under the Dutch Government about 3,000,000 Ib. were
annually manufactured in the island. The quantity of
coir exported from Ceylon in 1813, amounted to 4,048}
candies, and each candy may be valued at 28 rix dollars,
total amount rix dollars 137,649. Very lately a manufac-
tory for the making of coir-cordage has been established
upon a large scale at Recif, near to Pernambuco, on the
coast of Brazil.

Coir is much used in India in place of hair te stuff mat-
tresses, cushions for couches, saddles, &c. It is also em-
ployed to make brooms and brushes to white-wash houses.

The kernel of the ripe coco-nut is not unlike the sub-
stance of an almond either in taste or consistence*. It is

“ The following chemical analysis of the kernel of the coco-nut I have
extracted from the Journal de Pharmacie, tom. ii. p. 100:—

«La partie charnue a le consistance de nos noix fraiches ; mais elle est
plus tenace, d’un blanc éclatant, et d’une saveur douceatre.”

‘¢ Il resulte que le noyau, ou la partie charnue de la noix, est compose de
beaucoup Whuile grasse, se figeant aisément, ce qui peut engager a lui
donner lenom de beurre végétal, d’un liquide aqueux, d’albumine, et de sucre
liquide (mucoso-sucré).”

‘¢ En jetant un coup d’ceil sur cette analyse, nous voyons que la noix du
cocotier est une substance trés nourrissante ; car l’albumine est connue
comme nourrissante quand méme elle ne servirait ici qu’a animaliser les
autres matiéres vegetales. Le sucre et lhuile sont egalement connus comme

v

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 137

eaten by the natives, and frequently along with jagery.
The natives of the Ladrone Islands eat it in lieu of bread,
with meat and fish. Sometimes it is rasped into very small
pieces, and mixed with dressed rice, to give it a peculiar
flavour ; and occasionally it is pounded into meal, of which
fritters and small cakes are made. In India this fruit is
generally allowed to be very nutritious, and many suppose
that it possesses the quality of inducing corpulence.

By a little pressure the kernel may be made to yield a
white fluid resembling milk. When the milk of cows or
buffaloes cannot be procured, Europeans sometimes add
this liquid to tea asa substitute. Another substitute for
milk may be obtained by rasping a kernel, and mixing the
scrapings with some of the liquid contained in a nut:
this mixture requires to be strained. We are informed
by Dr Prycxagp, in his Notes on the West Indies, that
puddings are made of coco-nuts in Barbadoes. The ker-
nel is sometimes pressed with honey and sugar, and used
to make preserves, |

When mature, the nut is much used in Ceylon, to fur-
nish an oleaginous fluid required to prepare curry, a dish
in very general use among all ranks and classes in India.
For this purpose, the kernel is finely rasped by means of
an iron instrument called a homeny, which resembles the
rowel of a spur, and the raspings are washed with a small
quantity of water, which is subsequently filtered. ‘The
emulsion thus formed is boiled along with the meat, fish,
or vegetable substance intended to be “ curried,” and

des principes, nourrissans, Le noyau a beaucoup d’analogie avec le lait
animal. Ce qui constitue dans le lait la matiere caseuse, est remplacé ici
par le mucoso-sucre, et Phuile epaisse peut presenter le beurre du lait ani-

ial. On peut separer ici Vhuile de la meme maniére qu’on sépare le beurre
du lait.”

138 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

thereby supplies the-oily fluid necessary in the composition
of curry. A due proportion of spices is added to the mix-
ture before it is removed from the fire. When coco-nuts
cannot be procured, ghee (clarified butter) is used as a
_ substitute in the preparation of this delicious dish. In
Bengal, and, I believe, over great part of the peninsula of
India; curry is chiefly prepared with butter or ghee. The
Ceylon or coco-nut curry possesses much of the flavour of
the nut; it has a light-yellow colour, and is easily digested,
the oily part of the mixture being seldom too abundant.

But the chief product of the kernel of the coco-nut is an
excellent oil: and, to extract it, two different processes are
employed; namely, decoction and expression. When the
former process is followed, the fresh kernel is finely rasped ;
the raspings are next washed with water, which assumes a
milky appearance ; and, by decoction, yields a limpid oil. If
the emulsion be exposed for a night, it separates spontane-
ously into an oily and a watery portion, and the oily part 1s
purified by a very short boiling. To separate the oil, the
operator, who is generally a female, lays the palm of her left
hand flat upon the surface of the fluid; a portion of oil
adheres to the hand, which is brushed off into a vessel by
the right hand. The oil made in this manner ts nearly as
colourless as water, and when newly prepared does not smell
offensively. In the course of a few days, particularly if
exposed to the atmosphere, it emits a disagreeable odour.
On an average ten nuts are stated by Mr Barroracct to
yield about a quart of oil; but Koster, who made the
experiment, says, that thirty-two nuts rendered him only
8 |b. of pure oil.

Compression is the process. chiefly adopted when coco-
riut oil is prepared in the large way. After clearing the nut
of the husk, the kernel is exposed, which is effected by
breaking the shell with a crooked knife, an operation which

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 139

is generally performed by one stroke.. The watery part of
the kernel is dissipated by exposing it to the sun for a few
days, during which period it acquires a considerable degree
of rancidity. In this state the kernel is called copra, or
copperas. The oil is extracted from copra by grinding it
in a very clumsy mill, which is worked by bullocks. Oil
has for some years past been extracted from copra in large
quantities at Colombo, by means of the power of a steam-
engine. ‘The value of copperas exported from Ceylon, in
1813, amounted to 27,9'75 rix dollars.

The substance which remains after the oil has been ex-
tracted from copra is called taur, os serves well to feed
pigs, poultry, &c.

Ceylon exports annually a great quantity of coco-nuts,
chiefly to India. In 1809, the number amounted to
2,977,275. The medium price may be stated at about
3s. 6d. per hundred, or nearly one halfpenny a-piece.
According to Kostrer, the value of coco-nuts in Brazil
is about 5s. 6d. per hundred, or a little more than
ths of a penny each. In Ceylon they pay an export
duty of 5 per cent. These nuts are sometimes brought
to this country from the West Indies. The captains
of ships use them instead of wedges of timber, to fill up
the vacua between the casks and other packages which
compose their cargoes. On this account, the freightage of
the nuts adds little to their original value. They are there-
fore now said to be as common in the shops and streets of
London as the orange. I know they may be procured
in great abundance at Liverpool.

Coco-nut oil may be exported from Colomba, at about
1s. Gd. per gallon; and, at this price, a large quantity is
annually sent to different parts of India. In Java, where
it is an article of importation, the market price 1s usually
about six Spanish dollars a-picul, which is equal to about

3

140 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

1s. 9d. per gallon. - Within these few years it has been
imported into Great Britain, where the same quantity has
been sold as high as from 5s. to 6s. The quantity exported
from Ceylon, in 1813, amounted to 27,265 measures, each
measure about two pints; value in rix dollars 7952.

In Ceylon this oil is universally used both by Europeans
and the indigenous inhabitants, as a lamp-oil. The natives
burn it in a section of the coco-nut shell, or in a small
earthen-ware vessel. Some of the upper ranks have brass
lamps four or five feet high, which have several flat basins,
with projecting beaks, affixed to a vertical stalk. The oil
is introduced into the basins, the beaks of which are fur-
nished with cotton-wicks. Torches are prepared in Siam,
by drying elephants’ dung, soaking it in coco-nut oil, and
then covering the mass with long dry leaves tied at short
distances, with shreds of bamboo.

The Singalese, and indeed a great proportion of the in-
habitants of Asia, use considerable quantities of this oil, for
the purpose of external inunction. It is not easy to ascer-
tai precisely the benefits they expect to result from this
practice. Some of the Orientals say, that inunction is used
for the purpose of preserving their skins from the sun and
wind. ‘They sometimes anoint their bodies previously to
going into the bath, probably for the purpose of diminish-
ing the shock they might feel by a sudden reduetion of the
temperature of the skin: more commonly, however, the
inunction takes place upon emerging from the water. The
oil is applied with a considerable degree of friction; or, as
-Damprer describes the process, “ Chafing it for half an
hour into hair and skin;” and the whole surface of the
body, from the crown of the head to the soles of the feet,
is generally anointed. It is perhaps more frequently ap-
plied to the hair of the head than to any other part of the
body. I cannot, however, learn that they intend to destroy

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 144 —

vermin by this means, although, in all probability, it may
have such an effect. The Asiatics, without much exception
as to rank, do not seem to consider this source of disquie-
tude as either uncomfortable or disgraceful. Captain Lyon,
who seems to have practised the munction of oil, while in
Northern Africa, says, “‘ It is very refreshing, after a long
day’s journey, to be well oiled over.”

Coco-nut oil is a good substitute for olive oil, in the
composition of pharmaceutical preparations, such as oint-
ments, plasters, &c. In the laboratory at Colombo, it is
employed in a number of the preparations where olive-oil is
directed to be used by the different pharmacopceias. One
of the editors of the Journal de Pharmacie, says, respect-
ing coco-nut oil, “ J’ai aussi observé que cette huile divi-
sait mieux le mercure qu’aucune autre huile végétale.”"—
(Tom. 1. p. 101.)

Mixed with dammer (a species of resin) aaa the com-
pound melted, a substance is formed which is much used
in India to pay the seams of boats and ships, in place of
pitch. “The same compound is employed to protect the
corks of wine and beer bottles from the depredations of
white ants.

In this country, it has been employed as a lamp-oil, and
in the manufacture of cloth, instead of olive-oil. ‘Soap and
excellent candles are made of it; and I am mformed the
glass-blowers prefer this oil to all others in their operations.

Hitherto the importation of coco-nut oil into Europe has
been attended with much waste by leakage, in consequence
of having been imported in casks, the wood of which per-
mits the contents to pass through in large quantities. Be-
tween the tropics, the temperature of the cabin or cuddy
of a ship, is frequently as high as from 83° to 86° Fahren. ;
that of the hold must be considerably higher. Coco-nut oil
does not freeze until the temperature be reduced to 73°

142 NATURAL AND ECONOMICAL HISTORY

Fahren. Hence it is in a fluid condition during the greater
part of the voyage from India.

The shells of coco-nuts are manufactured into beads for
rosaries. ‘They are also used as drinking-vessels, and for
various other -domestic purposes. Occasionally they are
polished by the natives, who cut figures in relief upon them.
When thus ornamented, they are sometimes employed by
the English as sugar-basins. In the neighbourhood of
Monte Video, in South America, the ladies drink an infu-
sion of an herb called matte (Paraguay tea) from highly
ornamented coco-nut cups. 'They*extract the tea from thé
cup by sucking it through a long silver tube. The com
mon ladie used in great part of India and in the Brazils,
is formed of a part of a nut, to which a long wooden handle
is fixed. In America they have even given a name to
the instrument, for ladles made of silver are cailed silver
cocos. By the inhabitants of some of the Oriental Islands,
they are employed as a measure for ascertaining the quan-
tity of both dry and fluid substances. ‘Their capacity is
known by the number of cowries (Cyprea moneta) they will
contain. Hence there are cocos of 500 or 1900 cowries,
and so on. | :

They are used as fuel by the goldsmiths; and, when
converted into charcoal, they are mixed with lime, and em-
ployed to colour the walls of houses.

As an article of the Materia medica, the natives of India
recommend a decoction of the roots of the coco tree, mixed
with ginger, as an excellent febrifuge. The juice expressed
from young branches, combined with oil, is said to be a use-
ful application to hemorrhoids. In chronic inflammation of
the bladder, and gonorrhcea, they recommend a mixture of
the expressed juice of the flower of the coco-tree and sugar.
The oil is said to be useful, if applied to ulcers or pustules
on the head. Mixed with salt, and drank to the quantity

OF THE COCO-NUT TREE. 143

of eight ounces, it is said to expel worms from the intes-
tines. Particular virtues have been attributed to cups
made of the shell of the nut. They have been supposed
to give an antiapoplectic quality to intoxicating liquors.
Many other virtues are ascribed to different parts of the
tree, of which it is not necessary here to take notice.

When coco-nuts are intended for seed, they are placed
close to one another, with the holes uppermost, and covered
with a small quantity of earth. In a short time, the aque-
ous fluid is absorbed, and the cavity becomes filled with a
spongy-white substance. “Through the largest of the three
holes the plumula passes, and sometimes along with it the
radicles, which run downwards on the outside of the shell.
The seedlings are allowed to remain in this state for about
a year before they are transplanted. Holes of about 2 feet
deep and from 25 to 30 feet distant from each other, are
dug in the field intended for a coco-nut garden, and the
young shoots put into them. A little earth is put round
the nut; and, in dry weather, the plants are watered.
They require to be protected from cattle, and particularly
from elephants.

144 ON THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION, &c.

VIII. — Observations on the Organs of Di-
gestion and their Appendages, and on the
Organs of Respiration and Circulation, in
the Ornithorynchus paradoxus *.

By Rozert Knox, M.D.

Member of the Wernerian Natural History Society, and of the
Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh.

(Read 26th April 1823.)

Memoir II.

So extremely accurate, generally speaking, are the de-
scriptions of the celebrated Cuvier, so just and profound
the views he has adopted of the animal creation, that those
pursuing the same route can hope to add but little to any

* The specimen of Ornithorynchus, examined by Dr Knox, was trans-
mitted to the Royal Museum of the University of Edinburgh by His Excel-
Jency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir THomas Barisgane, Baronet.
It it highly gratifying to learn, that this distinguished individual is actively
employed in forming an extensive collection of the natural productions of the
vast country over which he rules; and that the numerous, uncommon, ma-
yine animals of the neighbouring coasts and seas, which have so much ex-
cited the curiosity of European naturalists, also engage his particular atten-
tion, so that, ere long, we trust, many of these will reach our National Mu-
geum of Scotland, and thus afford opportunities for interesting investigations

and discoveries.— prt,
a
J

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 145

individual portion of anatomical science to which the un-
divided attention of that distinguished author has been
directed. 'This observation will explain the brevity of this
and the’succeeding Memoirs on the anatomy of the Orni-
thorynchus, for most of the internal organs, which now fall
to be described, have been already submitted by him to a
minute dissection.

It has been already remarked, that, properly sane
there 1s no ascending branch of the lower jaw in the Orni-
thorynchus, instead of which there is found only a slight
_ curvature; the coronoid process is small, though sufficiently
distant from the condyle; and the genera! disposition of the
glenoid cavity, for receiving the condyle, seemed to me such
as to admit of extensive motion from before, backwards,
and also horizontally. This agrees with the configuration
of the mouth and palate, and with the total absence of all
cutting or incisive teeth. Whatever be the food swallowed,
whether insects or aquatic vegetable matter, it must be sub-
mitted to a certain degree of trituration in the mouth, and,
to effect this completely, is conveyed into two large bags
or cheek-pouches placed on each side of the head, and the
only entrance into which is between the large grinding-
teeth. ‘This was essential to the existence of the animal,
and results from the structure of its stomach, which, being
totally without that strong cuticle and powerful muscles by
which the food is triturated in birds and some other animals
(as in the Myrmecophaga capensis), required that the
whole of the functions of mastication, the complete tritura-
tion of the food, and its reduction to a pulpy mass fit for
the immediate action of the gastric juices, should be per-
formed in the mouth. The cheek-pouches, situated a little
behind the angles of the mouth, are capable of containing
a considerable quantity of food ; they are lined by a strong
cuticle, and have posteriorly a gland, which evidently pours

VOL. V. K

146 ON THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION, &c.

its secretions into the corresponding pouch, and must be
considered as the parotid. ‘They are formed chiefly by
the buccinator muscle, and are supplied by branches of the
facial nerve. i |
The teeth of the Ornithorynchus have generally been
~ described as four in number, that is, four large grinding-
teeth, placed two in either jaw, at the entrance of the
cheek-pouches: but some anatomists seem to have over-
looked four narrow, horny bodies, placed over the maxil-
lary bones, in the same line with the grinding-teeth, but
anteriorly to them. They are about ;%ths of an inch in
leneth, and ‘3th where broadest. They are composed of
a horny substance, and are evidently of the same nature
with the true grinding teeth: they are to be considered as
corresponding to the smaller grinders of the Mammalia *.
The structure of the larger grinding teeth has been con-
sidered by M. Cuvier as the most extraordinary amongst
quadrupeds. ‘They are said to be composed of a great
number of small, straight, and parallel tubes, so that the
surface of a transverse section resembles absolutely that of
a bamboo-cane (jonc a canne): these tubes are not closed,
and the tissue of the tooth is compact only at the triturat-
ing surface: there is no large cavity in the interior of the
tooth. These peculiarities in structure, described from the
teeth of the Orycteropus, may readily be distinguished in
the larger grinding teeth of the Ornithorynchus. These
on their grinding surface were very much hollowed out,
instead of being tubercular; they may be fairly considered
as connected with the integuments only, since their struc-
ture is so different from the teeth of all other animals, and

-® Thave made no mention here of the two teeth which are implanted
into the tongue, and which were described with that organ in a former
memoir

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 147

the alveolar cavity, into which they are received, is lined
throughout by the true dermis; they are simply analogous
therefore to cuticle, horn, &c., and have nothing osseous
in their composition.

The salivary glands need not detain us long. The paro-
tid has been already described. The only other salivary
gland which I remarked, was the maxillary, situated on
either side, over the great nerves and bloodvessels, high in
the neck, and close to the lower jaw. From this there pro-
ceeded a long canal passing over and through the muscles
going to the tongue, and running parallel to that organ;
near its termination it becomes very zigzag, and diminishes
in caliber; it pierces the membrane of the mouth at the
sides of the anterior portion cf the tongue, and near the
union of the branches of the lower jaw-bone. These
maxillary glands are large, but not remarkably dispropor-
tioned to the size of the animal, as is said to be the case in
the Echidna, in which animal the parotids are wanting.

It could scarcely be interesting to the Society to detail
the observations made on the muscles of the tongue, palate,
and of those connected with the os hyotdes, as it would be
but a repetition of what has been already so well described
by M. Cuvier. The larynx itself is composed of the usual
cartilages and muscles, sufficiently distinct ; the epiglottis
and arytenoids are weil marked, and I thought the thyro-
arytenoids rather strong: the glottis is formed partly by
the arytenoidei cartilages, and partly by the true vocal liga-
ment; between which and the superior margin of the cri-
coid cartilage there is a considerable cavity or ventricle.
Immediately above the vocal ligament and thyro-arytenoi-
dei muscles, a small ligamentous and partly muscular cord,
stretched from the base of the epiglottis to the anterior part
of the arytenoid cartilages, running parallel with the true
vocal cords, and immediately outside this, is a much lar-

KQ

148 ON THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION, &c.

ger muscular fasciculus, arising from the anterior part of
the base of the epiglottis (or, anterior and superior, sup-
posing the epiglottis to be laid down upon the glottis),
and running parallel with the preceding, to be fixed into
the base of the arytenoid cartilages. These cords cor-
respond with the superior or anterior vocal ligaments of
the Mammalia, and there even appeared to be a small ca-
vity or ventricle situated between them and the true vocal
cord.

The anatomy of the stomach, intestines, and liver, was
found to coincide with the details in the Anatomie Com-
paréex. ‘The following table will give an idea of the pro-
portional length of the intestinal canal in the Ornithoryn-
chus, Echidna, and Fourmilier.

Length of Small
Total length of the |
Intestinal Canal.
Ratio of the length |
of the Body to the
Smail Intestines. |

Intestines.
Length of Colon

Length of the
and Rectum.

Length of the

Fourmilier, C. } 0.162 | 0. 0.004 | 0.081

| Echidna, C. 0.370 A 0.022 | 0.580

Ornithoryne. C.} 0.215 P 0.020 | 0.243

j Ornithorync. 0.410 0.023 | 0.256
R. K. 163 in. (39 inch.| 1 inch |10 inch,

It is evident, I think, that the viscus called ca@cum, in
the Ornithorynchus and Kchidna, is merely an appendi
vermiformis. A number of dark-coloured glands are situ-
ated at the base of this appendix, and betwixt its tunics.

" The spleen seemed to me to be bilobular, and measured nearly 43
inches in length; it was regular as to situation.

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 149

The internal lamina of the small intestines is known to be
very peculiar; it forms a number of circular and parallel

laminz close to each other, which diminish greatly the

diameter of the canal. They are so incredibly numerous,
as to give to the internal lamina of the intestines an extent,
which I should scarcely think to be equalled comparatively
in any other animal. . These folds disappear near the ter-
mination of the small intestines in the colon. The pecu-
liarities in the termination of the rectum, in the structure

of the cloaca, and anus, have been already noticed; the .

most ample details relative to this part of the anatomy of

the animal, and more particularly as regards the distribu-

_tion of the suspensor muscle of the cloaca, as being more

connected with a systematic work, will be found in the third

volume of the Anatomie Comparée.

There is little peculiar in the structure of the trachea
and lungs; the cartilaginous rings of the former are incom-
plete, as in the Mammalia. The trachea divides at an
acute angle into two bronchial tubes, which pass imme-
diately to each lung: the whole inner surface of the wind-
Pipe is studded with small transparent cartilaginous bodies,
like millet-seeds. A number of small glandular bodies were
found close to the upper part of the trachea, and precisely
in the situation of the thyroid gland, nor could any other
be discovered. The elasticity of the lungs is considerable,
_and the capacity of the chest shewed that the quantity of
_ air taken in at each inspiration must be very great in pro-
portion to the bulk of the animal. :

_ here is undoubtedly something of an ornithological
character in the structure of the heart; the valves placed
at the entrance of the venze cave into the right auricle
seemed to me in a great measure muscular; and the right
auriculo-ventricular valve was much more muscular than
membranous. The bloodvessels had suffered so much by

150 ON THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION, &c.

maceration, that nothing could be made of this part of the
dissection; the blood was every where coagulated into
small, white, rounded, friable masses. The sinus placed
between the liver and diaphragm, and which is known to
be so large in most aquatic mammalia and in diving birds,
was of considerable size in the Ornithorynchus. I need
scarcely mention that the foramen ovale of the heart was
closed, and that the ductus arteriosus had disappeared

The delicate tendinous-looking fibres, which pass from one
paries of the right ventricle to the other, have not escaped
the notice of M. Cuvier. After what I have said of the
strictly mammiferous character of most of the organs cle-
scribed in this memoir, it may be hardly necessary to men-
tion, that there existed no appearance whatever of an infe-
rior larynx.

The numerous lymphatic glands found in various parts
of the body, shew a very completely organised system; a
string of lymphatic glands exist in the lower and anterior
part of the neck; they are about the size of small peas,
and of a dark-red colour, occasioned probably by the spirit
in which the animal had been preserved. Numerous lym-
phatic glands are found likewise in the axilla, in the course
of the jugular vein, and under the splenius muscle. The
mesenteric glands were present, and sufficiently numerous.

The accompanying drawing of the abdominal viscera, by
Mr Watson, will enable the members of the Society to
comprehend the general appearance and distribution of
these organs.

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 151

Memoir IIf.

On the Kidneys, Urinary Bladder, and Organs
of Generation, in the Male of the Ornithoryn-
chus paradoxus.

Tue kidneys had suffered so much by long maceration
in spirits, that they were reduced to a pulpy, homogeneous
mass, which gave way under the smallest pressure. No-
thing could be made of their internal structure. It is stated
in the Anatomie Comparée, that the medullary portion of
the kidneys in the Echidna terminates by four papillee, and
that the pelvis of the kidney is confounded with the calices.
Two ureters, very distinct in the Ornithorynchus, conduct
the urine into a urinary bladder, thin in its parietes, but
quite proportioned to the size of the animal. Air blown
into the bladder by the blowpipe readily passed into the
ureters, which I imagine to be rather a rare circumstance,
_as I do not remember to have found it so in any other ani-
mal. It is stated in the Anatomie Comparée, that the in-
sertion of the ureters is placed in all animals at a certain
distance from the neck of the bladder, excepting in the
Echidna and Ornithorynchus, in which this insertion takes
place beyond a little swelling (dourrelet), which seems to
_ separate the bladder from the urethra, in such a way, that
the ureters open into this latter canal, rather. than into the
bladder *; nevertheless, by insertmg the blowpipe into

* On slitting up the urinary bladder somewhat farther than is represented
in the drawing, I do not find this to be borne out by the appearance of the
parts.

152 ON THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, &c.

either of the ureters, the urinary bladder may be readily
distended, and will remain so, though no compression of
the urethra be employed.

I did not satisfactorily make out the supra-renal glands,
but I am willing to ascribe this apparent exception to a
very general law, to the state of the organs, which did not
permit me to distinguish them from the kidneys.

The dissection of the organs of generation in the male
Ornithorynchus was performed with a care proportioned
to the usual intricacy of the parts, and to my knowledge
of the very extraordinary contradictions existing in the
writings of authors of the highest merit. The errors which
anatomists had committed in their descriptions of the or-
gans of defence, the poison-gland and spur, I am still im-
clined to consider as purely an omission on their part; for
such was the distribution of the gland and duct, as exhi-
bited in drawings to the Society, so easy its display, that
the merest student in anatomy could, with sufficient pa-
tience, have made out the structure of the whole; but
every anatomist knows, that the organs of generation are,
generally speaking, the most complex of the frame, and re-
quire, in order to be unravelled, the most delicate dissec-
tion. The result of the inquiry is as follows.

The preparatory male organs, that is, the testicles, are
placed in the abdomen near the kidneys, and they seemed
to me to be constantly fixed there. The epididymis was
proportionally large, but I could perceive nothing very
remarkable in the vasa deferentia, which proceeded direct-
ly, without any dilatation, but rather a slight contraction,
to terminate in the urethra, close to the entrance of the
urinary bladder, into the same canal. The small longitu-
dinal holes, by which they open into the urethra, are di-
rected upwards, so that on introducing the tube of an
ANEL’s syringe into the vas deferens near the epididymis,

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 153

the contained fluid passed out perpendicularly upwards, and
not in the direction of the vas deferens itself: a small mu-
cous papilla is placed near the orifice of each vas deferens *.
But previous to our proceeding farther with the description
of these organs, we must revert to the more external parts,
and describe the cloaca itself.

It is well known that, externally, one orifice only is seen
in the male ornithorynchus, which is to serve for the pas-
sage of the solid and liquid excrement, and of the penis.
This orifice, situated at about 44 inches from the extremity
of the tail, opens into a considerable cavity, generally called
the cloaca. When this cavity is slit open very carefully,
we perceive three orifices of different dimensions, the uses
of which are easily discovered. The highest up, which is
also the largest, is the extremity of the rectum‘; the se-
cond, at about ;4,ths of an inch from the ‘nian is the
opening of die urinary urethra; and the third, situated
close to the former, passes into a sheath, in which the penis
is entirely concealed. On the surface of the cloaca, near
the termination of the rectum, are five or six small dark-
coloured orifices, by which a few very small glands pour
their secretions into the cloaca. If the urethra be now laid
open from behind, that is, on the side which regards the

® The description taken at the time of the dissection, is as follows :—
*¢ These ducts open close to the entrance of the urethra into the bladder, by
a narrow linear aperture, the lower edge of which forms a sort of valve.”

+ It is to be regretted that this name of Cloaca was adopted, taken as it
is from the class of birds. The same structure exists in the beavers and
hence we see evidently the impropriety of the name ‘* Monotremes,” given
by some French naturalists to the Echidna and Ornithorynchus ; under which
appellation, they ought also to include the Castor tribe.

+ The length of the cloaca, from its external orifice to the opening of
the rectum, is about ] 7 oth inches.

154 ON THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, &c.

rectum, and the incision extended to the urmary bladder,
there will now appear a circular orifice, situated at about
1,4,th inches from the opening into the bladder, and pre-
cisely 1,%,th inches from the orifices of the seminal ducts
or vasa deferentia, which have been already described
as entering the urethra close to the orifice of the bladder.
' The urethra itself is composed, as M. Cuvier well re-
marks, of a muscular portion only, included chiefly
within the pelvis, and wants that which we call vascular.
Its length from the openings of the vasa deférentia to
the cloaca is about 1,%th mches; it is united to the
lower surface of the rectum, and inclosed with the last. by
a common censtrictor muscle. A layer of muscular fibres,
very strong throughout its whole extent, strengthens its pa-
rietes. ‘The penis is withdrawn during its relaxed state
into a particular pouch, and passes out at the time of erec-
tion by an orifice formed in the lower paries of the cloaca,
under that which is peculiar to the urine. It is short,
‘nearly cylindrical, and terminated on each side by two small
rounded lobes corresponding with the glans penis, each in
‘a great measure covered by its respective prepuce. When
this prepuce is opened, four smail conical papillae, or nip-
ples, appear on the surface of either glans. ‘The surface of
the penis is extremely rugose, and more particularly the
anterior half; these rugosities terminate in very small coni-
cal papille, which might at first sight be mistaken for small
bristles. Ifthe sheath containing the penis be now slit up,
the anatomy of the whole parts becomes distinct; the ori-
fice on the lower surface of the urethra is proved to be the
opening by which the seminal fluid passes from the com-
mon urethra into the canal of the penis, destined for the
transmission of the seminal flind, and that secreted by the
glands of Cowper only. To make this evident, we must

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 155

refer to the situation of the glands of Cowper, which are
placed close to the anus, outside the pelvis, and may rea-
dily be discovered by removing the skin of the permeum,
and the muscles by which they are closely enveloped.
These glands are comparatively of very large size, a fact
readily accounted for, by considering that all the other or-
gans generally found in animals as appendages to the male
generative organs, such as prostate, seminal vesicles, acces-
sory vesicles, &c. have disappeared. ‘The duct proceeding
from each of these glands is about an inch in length; they
unite in a common cavity of small dimension, but distinct,
placed close to the urethra, and into which enters the very
short canal from the urethra, (whose orifice I have de-
scribed as situated on the surface of the urethra, at about
154th inches from the entrance of the urethra into the
bladder, and 1,2,th mches from the termination of the
oasa deferentia m the common urethra); and from which
arises the long seminal canal or urethra of the penis,
a duct destined for the transmission of the seminal fluid,
and which entirely escaped the notice of the French anato-
mists. This duct or canal passes through the centre of the
penis towards its anterior extremity, but divides, before
‘terminating, into two ducts, destined for the separate bun-
dles of papillse, in which the bifurcated or double glans of
the penis terminates. When the point of one of these pa-
pillze is cut off, it is found to lead into a common cavity
placed at the base of the small bundle of papillez, and into
which enters the seminal urethra already described. I now
- introduced the tube of a syringe into the open orifice of
the papilla or nipple-like termination of the glans, which
had been cut across, and found that the injected fluid re-
turned by the orifices of the remaining papille, which had
been left untouched, shewing that the resistance offered by

156 ON THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, &c.

the seminal urethra contained within the body of the penis
was greater than that offered by the papille themselves.
When the pipe was pushed farther on, so as to enter the
branch communicating with the main canal in the body of
the penis, the fluid passed out most readily by a small ori-
fice, which had been intentionally made in one of the ducts
leading from Cowper’s glands, shewing thereby the very
free and direct communication between the seminal urethra
of the penis and the ducts and glands of Cowper. Having
now secured the duct of Cowper, so as to prevent the fluid
passing out by the artificial opening, the whole of the fluid
injected into the seminal urethra by the open papilla passed
readily out by the common orifice on the lower surface of
the urethra, the orifice by which the seminal fluid passes
from the common urethra, to that contained within the
body of the penis; but the fluid passed out in such a way
as shewed that it had entered a common cavity, and that —
having no longer an exit by the ducts of Cowper, it became
necessarily effused into the common urethra by the orifice
above described. Lastly, having introduced the tube of the
syringe into the orifice by which the seminal fluid passes
out of the urinary urethra into the little cavity at the base
of the penis, and compressing the opening around the nozzle
of the tube, the fluid, whether water or quicksilver, readily
passed out by all the papillz situated in either glans of the
penis.

The physiology of these very intricate organs becomes
now exceedingly simple, and serves to throw considerable
light on some of the accessory organs connected with those
of generation. 'The whole of the accessory organs have
disappeared, excepting the glands of Cowper,—a fact suf-
ficient of itself to give an importance to these glands, which
has hitherto been denied them, But they are moreover

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 157

connected. with the seminal canal peculiar to the penis it-
self, and wholly unconnected, or nearly so, with the urinary
or true urethra *. The passage and course of the seminal
fluid may be readily understood : it is first poured into
the common urethra, close to the bladder, by the vasa de-
Jferentia ; passes along this canal, until it reaches the sur-
face of the urethra placed over the base of the penis, and
where the opening of the seminal urethra of the penis is
placed ; the remainder of the urinary canal being shut
during erection, partly by muscular contraction, and partly
by the efflux of blood into the body and base of the penis,
no other passage is left for the seminal fluid, but that open-.
ing into the common cavity situated at the base of the penis,
and into which are also poured the secretions from the glands
of Cowper. But, as fluids readily pass from the ducts of
these glands + into the seminal canal of the penis, and vice
versa, so these secretions are readily transmitted with the
seminal fluid along the seminal canal, to the four small
conical papille situated on either glans, with which this
animal is furnished. ‘These papille, I have already stated,
are hollow, and perforated at their extremity. |
The penis is about an inch in length, in its relaxed state,

_ ® In most animals, the ducts of Cowper’s glands are so situated as to
render it impossible for the seminal fluid to pass along these ducts towards
the glands themselves. This is not absolutely the case with the same organs
in the ornithorynchus, but I do not think that there arises from this the least
doubt relative to the nature of these bodies called Cowper’s Glands. I be-
lieve them to be essentially glandular; and not receptacles for the seminal
fluid, but destined to secrete a fluid of importance in the act of generation,

+ By a strange oversight, the hedge-hog is stated in the Anatomie Com-
parée, not to have the glands of Cowper; but the fact is, that they are res
markably large in that animal, whose generative organs merit a more careful
analysis than has hitherto been made.

158 ON THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, &c.

but it is evident that this measurement is not to be depended
on. It terminates anteriorly on either side, by four white,
conical elastic papille, resembling nipples.. These may be
considered as the terminating points of a double glans,
though this, during the relaxed state, 1s by no means very
distinct. When the penis is cut across, or opened into, it
is found to possess a structure resembling the usual corpora
cavernosa, and to be almost entirely composed of numerous
vessels of comparatively large caliber. ‘The parietes are
dense and strong.

It will no doubt be expected of me, by many of the
gentlemen who have done me the honour to listen to this,
and to the preceding memoirs, that I should explain how
the anatomy of parts apparently easily made out, should
have been so singularly misunderstood by the French ana-
tomists; and how, after the observations of Sir EVERARD
Home, which partly coincide with the above, the same er-
rors should have been repeated in the “ Regne Animal,”
published so late as 1817; that is, fifteen years after the
publication of Sir Everarp Homer’s observations in the
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. ‘The an-
swering these questions I consider as a duty I owe as well
to the Society before which I read this memoir, as to the
distinguished naturalist who intrusted me with the dissec-
tion, and who, now for a long time, with unexampled libe-
rality, has forwarded, to the utmost of his power, my re-
searches into comparative anatomy.

To the first question I reply, that the account of the
anatomy of the organs of generation in the male Ornitho-
rynchus, contaimed in the fifth volume of the Anatomie
Comparéc, page 104., could not have been taken from any
dissection by the immortal author of that work, but from
one performed by an assistant. I shall therefore omit
copying it into this memoir, well aware that it will not re-

IN THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 159

appear in a second edition of the work alluded to. The
following brief account, extracted from the Regne Animal,
will give a sufficient idea of the extent of the error :—* The
third tribe of the edentata comprises the animals which
Mr Grorrroy designates by the name of “* Monotremes *,”
because they have only one external opening for the seminal
fluid, the urine, and other excrements. Their organs of
generation present extraordinary anomalies. The vasa de-
Jerentia pass into the urethra, which opens into the cloaca,
at the base of the penis, which is solid, and has not even a
furrow to conduct the seminal fluid +.”
On examining Plate LI., contained in the fifth volume
of the Anatomie Comparée, we readily perceive the cause
of these errors. In Fig. 3. the common urethra is left un-
opened; and the penis consequently appears without any
aperture. The glands of Cowper are depicted with their
ducts, but no mention is made of the mode in which they
terminate, except by saying that they join the little canal -
or tube by which the urethra opens into the cloaca. In
Fig. 2. the urethra has been opened in such a way as to
destroy the entrance of the ducts of Cowper, the cavity
into which they pass, and the orifices by which this cavity
communicates with the true urethra and with the penis.
It is true, that these engravings refer more particularly to
the Mchidna ; but we know, from the dissections of others,
that these animals do not differ essentially from each other.
It only remains for me to explain how these errors
should have been repeated in the Regne Animal, published
in 1817, and so long after better descriptions of these or-
gans had been given to the world, in the Transactions of

* J have already remarked on the impropriety of this name,
+ Tom. i. p. 224.

160 ON THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, &c.

the Royal Society of London. 'The only reasons I have
yet found out for this omission are, that, m these ‘* Obser-
vations,” the urethra is said to open into the rectum *,
which is not the case; and the two glands of Cowper are
described as terminating by six or seven orifices upon the
surface of the rectum, instead of which, these canals termi-
nate in a small cavity which communicates with the urethra,
and with the seminal canal of the penis. ‘Che anatomy and
physiology of these glands have been in consequence entire-
ly misunderstood ; at the same time, the true situation and
anatomy.of the orifice by which the seminal fluid passes
into the canal or duct of the penis, though described, is not
depicted. Ina subsequent paper on the anatomy of the
Ornithorynchus Hystrix, contained in the same volume of
the Philosophical Transactions, most of these errors have
been corrected. The true anatomy of the glands and ducts
of Cowper had been discovered, and this led to a more ac-
curate description of the whole: but it must be evident, that
these seemingly contradictory statements might have led the
French naturalists to disregard dissections which, in other
respects, were extremely accurate +. I shall endeavour to
submit to the Society, at a future period, a few opinions
relative to the place which the Ornithorynchus is entitled
to, in the scale of animals. In the mean time, it must be
evident, that the speculations relative to the analogy of the
Ornithorynchus with birds, so far as regards the male or-
gans of generation, are entirely erroneous.

® Page 79. 1802.

+ I have caused drawings of the parts described in this memoir to be laid
before the Society, which, in addition to the diagram, and the inspection of
the parts themselves, will, I trust, render the anatomy of the whole suffi-
ciently distinct. The engraving (Plate V.) is from a pencil sketch by Mr
THOMSON.

3

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 161

Memoir IV.

On the Osseous, Muscular, and Nervous SyS<
tems of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus.

I expertencep the greatest difficulty in drawing up the
following memoir on the bones and muscles, because it is in.
these, and more particularly in the former, that the Orni-
thorynchus deviates most from the usual structure of the
Mammalia, and approaches nearest to the class of Reptiles.
Moreover, in order to have examined the osteology of the
head minutely and accurately, it was necessary to have
suffered the head to macerate so long as to present all the
sutures in their most distinct state. Now, this I was un-
willing to risk with the single specimen in my possession.
Lastly, it is evident from the state of the bones, and more
particularly from the obliteration of the sutures of the cra-
nium, that the animal had arrived at its full growth, and
consequently was unfit, in certain respects, for the purpose
of osteological inquiries. I was obliged, therefore, to
content myself with a general and rather superficial view
of these very important organs.

From the previous description of the organs of sense, and
from the skeleton which I have the honour to submit to
the Society, for the inspection of the members, the general
elongated form of the head will be readily understood.
The extension of the superior maxillary and mtermaxillary
bones is very remarkable. The zygomatic arch is broad
and strong; but the osseous orbit, as in most other animals,
is incomplete. The prolongation of the nares backwards:

VOL. V. : L

162 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

and the great comparative size of the superior maxillary
bones, seem to me to have lessened the importance of the
palate-bones in the formation of the floor of the nostrils,
and to have reduced the pterygoid processes of the sphe-
noidal bones to a rudimentary state, by throwimg them out
_ laterally, so that they are articulated with the upper maxil-
lary bones by a hinge-like joint, capable of considerable
motion. They are placed horizontally; that is, on the
same line with the osseous palate, and are connected with
the malleus in the manner described in a former memoir.
The cranium is articulated to the spinal column by two
large condyles. The cervical vertebra are seven in num-
ber, and thus shew a decided mammiferous character.
The ailas is very large, and its processes strongly marked.
The same observation may be applied to the dentata ; and,
more particularly, to its spinous processes. ‘The remaining
cervical vertebre gradually decrease in size: the develop-
ment of these vertebrae corresponds with the great strength
of the muscles which arise from, or are connected with, their
processes. The total number of vertebre is forty-nine ; of
which seven are cervical; seventeen strictly dorsal, having
ribs implanted into them ;’one lumbar ; three sa¢ral, articu-
lated with the ossa ili; and twenty-one caudal. ‘The spi-
nous processes of the dorsal vertebree are much sloped to-
wards the tail. ‘The four anterior dorsal vertebra have
spinous processes on their interior surface, which are
strong, of a square form, and gently sloped towards the
neck. ‘The same processes in the last dorsal, in the lumbar,
and in about one-half the caudal vertebree, are strong and
vertical. In the remaining caudal vertebrae, they gradually
decrease in strength, and slope towards the back. ‘The
caudal vertebrze strongly resemble those of the beaver, in
the length and breadth of the transverse processes, and in
having spinous processes placed on their inferior surface.

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 163

Of the ribs, which are seventeen in number, the first is |
attached to the sternum, apparently by cartilage; the suc-
ceeding four by bone, the cartilage beng removed towards
the centre of the rib; the succeeding ten terminate in broad
osseous plates, extensively moveable, though connected
with each other. Of the two remaining to be described,
one is attached by ligament to the preceding mb, but they
do not terminate in bony plates, and may be considered as
floating ribs.

There is perhaps nothing more singular in the structure
of the ornithorynchus, than the formation of the clavicle
and scapula, which have altogether the appearance of the.
same bones in reptiles; and, as seems to me, more particu-
larly in the animal called Tupinambis. From a scarcity
of specimens in my possession, I am by no means prepared.
_ to enter on the inquiry to which class precisely the bones
composing this very complicated clavicle and scapula ought
to be referred. We readily distinguish a clavicle composed
of a broad flat portion, articulated with the anterior, that.
is, upper edge of the sternum, and a small horizontal branch,
evidently incomplete in its mesial part, and intimately con-
nected with a parallel branch of the flattened portion of the
clavicle *. ‘These latter branches are jomed with that por-

* The fossil animal described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1818,
has a sternum and clavicle very analogous to the Ornithorynchus. This
analogy, which has been very beautifully pointed out by Sir E. Home and
Mr Curr, is even more perfect than these gentlemen suppose; for I per-
ceive, by the accompanying drawing (Phil. Trans, 1818, Part I. Plate II.)
that the two small bones just described by me, as being present in the Or-
nithorynchus paradoxus, have escaped their observation. Hence the distin-
guishing marks between the bones composing the sternum and shoulder in
these two animals does not consist in the fossil animal having a clavicular
bone, which is wanting in the Ornithorynchus paradoxus, but rather in this
clavicular bone or fourchette being united throughout its whole length with

the scapula in the one, and with the clavicle or upper bone of the sternum
1,9

aa fe

164 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

tion of the scapula which, from a very obvious analogy, I
should call its acromial process. ‘The scapula itself is shaped
hike that of a bird ; and, in addition to its acromial process,
by which it is connected to the clavicle, sends a very strong
process backwards and inwards, towards the upper bone of
the sternum, with which it is articulated: and it is even
somewhat connected with the bone which I have called the
flat portion of the clavicle. Along the whole inner margin
of the process of the scapula joming the sternum (and which
bears so great a resemblance to the true clavicle in birds),
is placed a thin flat semicircular plate of bone, which, run-
ning up behind the broad clavicular bone, performs exten-
sive circular motions during the action of the anterior ex-
tremities, as well by reason of the laxity of its connection
with the clavicular bones, as by its loose hinge-like joint
with the scapula. It is exceedingly difficult to decide on a
name for this very singular bone, and to trace its analogies
throughout the range of vertebral animals. In the mean
time, until that be satisfactorily done, it must be evident, I
think, to all, that its analogies ought to be sought for in
the class of Reptiles: for, in most species of this class,
there would seem to prevail an analogous structure, though
occasionally very complex, and with difficulty to be made
out. ‘The extreme laxity of the articulation of the scapula.
in the Ornithorynchus, and its anomalous bone or process,

in the other. ‘There are several other differences sufficiently remarkable.
The peculiar flat semicircular bone forms a great portion of the glenoidal
cavity in the fossil animal, and the scapula does not seem to be in any
way articulated with the sternum, unless we consider the bone marked 6
(see the drawing) as the anterior bone of the sternum. Neither of these cir-
cumstances holds with regard to the Ornithorynchus paradoxus. ‘There is a
considerable resemblance between the shoulder-bones of the fossil animal
and the common Chameleon, a skeleton of which I have placed before the
Society.

a ’ Q
a

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 165

explain sufficiently its functions; for, by this, the humeral
part of either extremities is enabled to approach the other ;
and thus the whole of the anterior extremities can approxi-
mate much more than if the articulation of the lower pro-
cess of the scapula had been attached to the sternum with
the same degree of fixity as the upper or acromial process.
In addition to the extensive rotatory motion which the dis-
tance of the acromion from the joint enables the humerus,
and consequently the extremity, to perform, another kind
of motion is performed, by means of a moveable articula-
tion, found only in reptiles and fishes; I mean the sliding
semicircular motion performed by the squamous part of the
scapula upon the flattened portion of the clavicle *.

Some exceedingly ingenious attempts have been made
to reduce the whole assemblage of bones composing the
shoulder, ciavicle, and sternum of the ornithorynchus to
their analogous bones in birds and reptiles, but these at-
tempts have not as yet been very successful, and the rea-
son of this appears to be sufficiently obvious; for the bones
of the sternum in reptiles are in general so anomalous as to
defy classification, founded on analogy with other vertebral
animals ; whilst the analogies endeavoured to be established
between the same parts in birds, and the mammaliia, are by
no means generally agreed to. In the ornithorynchus, we
find, as it were, a compound of the three classes Mammalia,
Aves and Reptilia. The dorsal part of the scapula re-
sembles the same part in birds. The acromia! process ap-
proaches that of the Mammalia; the glenoid cavity of the
joint is placed at the union of the dorsal part of the sca-
pula and the process extending to the sternum, which pro-

* In Plate V., will be found an accurate sketch of the assemblage of
bones composing the shoulder and sternum of the Ornithorynchus, accom-
panied by one of the fossil animal alluded to in the text.

166 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

cess bears a close resemblance to the clavicle in birds;
whilst the bones I have called Clavicle (three in number)
are very analogous to the fork or merry-thought found in
the same class of animals. With regard to the flat, moving,
squamous bones situated behind the clavicle, and fixed to
the sternal portion of the scapula, it is evident that their
analogy is to be found only amongst reptiles. ~ Perhaps,
then, we might say, that the scapula has a dorsal plate and
acromial and coracoid processes; that the acromial is to-
lerably regular as to situation and distribution, but that
the coracoid, which, in Man, is rudimentary, 1s, in the Or-.
nithorynchus, extended to the sternum*. We may next
suppose the flat and broad portion of what I have hitherto
called the clavicle, to be actually the anterior bone of the
sternum; which, in this view, would come to be composed
of five instead of three bones, placed the one immediately
behind the other, whilst the two thin and long bones
firmly united to the anterior extremities of them, might be
considered as analogous to the merry-thought in birds f.
But there still remain to be accounted for, the osseous
squamous plates, articulated with what I have just called
the coracoid process of the scapula, and which M. St. H1-
LATRE considers as analogous to a small process of bone found
immediately at the base of the true clavicle in birds, and to

* I ought to mention here, that that most excellent naturalist, M. Gror-
rroy St Hinarre, considers the bone we call Clavicle in birds, as the cora-
coid process of the scapula; which idea is very beautifully supported by the
form of the scapula in the Ornithorynchus.

+ The fourth of these, counting from the epigastrium, is constantly di-
vided into two in the Ornithorynchus.

+ These are considered by M. Grorrroy as the acromial processes of the
scapula greatly elongated. It is to be remarked, however, that they are con-
nected to the scapula not by bone, but by a very perfect moveable articula-
tion, with a capsule,-and I am not sure that M. Grorrroy is aware of this
fact.

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 167

which he has given the name.of ‘ Os Episternal.” The
principal distinguishing characteristic of this ‘‘ os episternal,”
is said to be, that it is placed always on the coracoid pro-
cess; but this rule does not seem to hold true with regard
to the frog, and perhaps with some other reptiles. We are
compelled, therefore, to consider these bones as strictly
belonging to the class Reptiles, and that. their presence in
the Ornithorynchus may depend either on the extraordinary
anomalies which undoubtedly exist in this animal, or that
it is connected with the aquatic habits of the animal, and
intended to facilitate the movements of the anterior extre-
‘mity, and to extend them so far as was consistent with the
safety of the shoulder-jomt. In short, it seems intended
to permit the coracoid process of the scapula considerably
to change its position, and to approximate or recede from its
_ fellow, at the will of the animal, and thereby very much to
extend the movements of the anterior extremity, and to con-
_vert it into an oar of the most perfect description.
It is sufficiently curious, that, whilst so much has been-
written to prove the analogy of the bones entering into the
composition of the sternum, clavicle, and scapula through-
out the animal kingdom, no attempt, so far as I know, has
been made to name the bones which may be supposed ana-
logous to the marsupial bones of the pelvis, and which are
not peculiar to the ornithorynchus, but found in a very con-
siderable number of animals *. The truth is, that these
bones are quite ‘peculiar to the class, and created by Na-
ture apparently for a particular purpose, viz. of supporting
the marsupium, or abdominal pouch, in which the young
-of these animals are contained, from the period of their
imperfect birth, until they are capable of providing tor

* Since writing the above, I find that an attempt has been made to com-
pare the marsupial bones with the os peniale found in certain animals, as the

168 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

their own wants and safety. Yet these bones are present
in the Ornithorynchus and Echidna, which are said not to
have a marsupium ; and the fact has been brought forward
by Professor BLuMENBACH, as a proof of what he calls an
“union of the teleological and mechanical principles in
the function of generation,—principles which were formerly
thought to be incompatible with each other.” The forma-
tion of this anomalous pair of bones (he observes) for the
purpose of supporting the abdominal pouch of the female,
is a clear instance of the teleological principle; that is, it
shews a peculiar part formed for a certain purpose. Their
existence in the male (and of course in the Ornithorynchus)
where the end and purpose of their formation do not exist,
shews the mechanical principle, as if they had been merely
framed in compliance with some general model for the
structure of the species *.

The bones of the extremities may be described together,
as they so much resemble each other. ‘The os humeri is —
strong, and peculiarly formed with regard to its processes,
which are very prominent, and afford a powerful point of
attachment to the various muscles; it is perforated near its
radial extremity, as in many other animals, for the trans-
mission of bloodvessels. ‘The olecranon of the ulna is much
developed, and of considerable breadth. In the posterior
extremity, the fibula bears a strong resemblance to the ulna,
and has a remarkably strong process for the insertion of
muscles extending upwards towards the pelvis and tail.
The tarsal and metatarsal and digital bones of the posterior
extremities, and the corresponding bones of the anterior
extremity, do not require any particular description. We
shall therefore only remark, that, in the construction and
perfect organisation of the bones of the extremities, the Orni-
thorynchus differs most remarkably from Birds and Reptiles.

eco

# A Short System of Comparative Anatomy, p. 41.

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS.’ 166

I intend saying but little on the muscular system, be-
cause the muscles being simply the moving powers of the
bones, an inspection of the skeleton will readily explain any
peculiarities which may exist in the former.

The muscles situated on the neck, connecting the head,
trunk, and cervical vertebrae, are very powerful, and seemed

“to me regular. ‘Those of the back and tail are distributed

much as in the Beaver. The marsupial bones have two
muscles connected with them, which proceed from their
whole inner edge upwards towards the sternum: these may
be considered as analogous to the pyramidales in man.
The recti, and other abdominal muscles, are present, and
regular. The pectoral muscles, which are divided into two,
arise from the whole upper edge and mesial line of the
complex clavicles, and from the linea alba of the abdomen,

nearly as low as the pubis: these muscles are inserted se-

parately into the h umerus; the superior or anterior one is
perforated by a strong muscle (the deltoid), arising from
the dorsum and acromial process of the scapula, to be in-

-serted into the os humeri.

When the external pectcral muscles are removed, two
broad muscles are found immediately beneath, arising from
the whole surface of the peculiar squamous bone (described

at considerable length above, under the name of the Squa-

mous Process of the Scapula ;) and inserted the one into the
mmner tuberosity of the os humeri; the other into the same
bone, but much nearer the fore-arm. These may be con-
sidered as analogous to the coraco-brachialis of the Mam-
malia; or we may prefer giving the name of Coraco-brachia-

~ lis to two long muscles of a rounded form, which arise from

the coracoid process itself, and are inserted into the os hu-
mert. From the same squamous bone, and from the semi-
civeular edge of the peculiar clavicle, arises a long slip of
mae, which, proceeding downwards, is inserted into the

170 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

aponeurosis covering the rectus muscle, nearly midway be-
twixt the sternum and pubes.

Another short but powerful muscle arises from the whole
inner surface of the squamous process of the scapula, and
is inserted most extensively into the broad imner surface of
the os humeri; and close to it is a muscle having a similar
origin, but is inserted into the first rib*. The muscles con-
necting the dorsal portion of the scapula with the spine,
and the former with the os humeri, are tolerably regular,
and at least as numerous as in any of the Mammalia. The
extensors of the fore-arm seemed to me powerful: the same
observation is applicable to the other muscles of the fore-
arm and leg, the extent and nature of whose motions may
be judged of, by observing the bones, and, more particu-
larly, the development of the radius and tibia.

The sterno-mastoid is fixed into the small horizontal
bone, which M. Grorrnroy calls the acromial process, and
into the horizontal branch of the clavicle immediately con-
nected with it. It thus becomes either a sterno-mastoid,
cleido-mastoid, or scapulo-mastoid muscle, according to the
view adopted relative to these bones: at the same time, the
omo-hyoideus, which is much more developed proportion-
ally than in the human subject, arises from the scapula,
close to where it 1s connected with the horizontal branch of
the clavicle, and followimg the regular course of the muscle
is inserted into the os hyoides. ;

These are all the details relative to the muscles with
which I have thought fit to trouble the Society.

The brief account I propose giving the Society of the
Nervous System, cannot be expected to be either minute

* From the number and strength of the muscles connected with this
anomalous bone, may be judged its importance in the movements of the
shoulder, and its influence even over the thorax itself.

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 171

or accurate, since I had no opportunity of viewing the brain
and spinal marrow, those great central organs of sensation,
with which all the nerves of the body, directly or indirect-
ly, communicate; and I could not trace any nerve very
completely to its termination, for fear of. destroying other
important parts. | :

The first, second, third, fourth, and sixth pairs of cere-
bral nerves, I either did. not see at all, or only ina partial
way. I have-not the least doubt of their being quite regu-
lar in their distribution. The fifth has been already de-
scribed, whilst speaking of the organs of touch and taste.
The auditory nerve was not seen; the facial, which I pre-
fer calling by the name of the portio dura of the seventh
pair, to any other yet invented, was regular as to its pre-
‘sence and size. Its distribution was chiefly to the cheek-
pouches, and back and side of the head, around the exter-
nal orifice of the ears; but it did not approach the nostrils,
for a very obvious anatomical reason, and, consequently, in
this animal at least, has nothing to do with the organs of
respiration. The eighth, or par vagum, the ninth, with
the nerve called the descendens noni, the spinal accessory,
and the cervical portion of the sympathetic nerve, were
very strictly as in the Mammalia. I also remarked, that
the sympathetic nerve, in its passage down the neck, was
more distinctly marked and detached from the par vagum,
than in many animals supposed to stand much higher in
the scale of the animal creation. The superior cervical
ganglion was very small, but at this point the sympathetic
branch united with the par vagum. Immediately above
‘this union the nerves were again distinct, and three
branches belonging to the sympathetic nerve could be
traced proceeding towards the fifth pair. The inferior cer-
vical ganglion was large, but there did not exist any middle
one. ‘The cervical nerves were large and regular. No-

172 OSSEOUS, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

thing struck me more forcibly than this strict accordance
of hie nervous system with that of the Mammalia in gene-
ral: the same observation is applicable to the bones and mus-
cles, so that the analogy supposed to exist between the Or-
nithorynchus and Birds is reduced to the resemblance of the
ossicula of the ear, and to the female organs of generation,
which I have not as yet had an opportunity of examining.

I could easily have swelled out these memoirs to a much
greater length, by entering into the minute anatomical
details, which were carefully taken down during the dis-
section; but I cannot think that these would in the least
interest the Society, since they do not lead to any general
physiological results.

Eaplanation of Plate V.

Fig. 1. Gives a front view, from nature, of the complex cla-
vicle and scapule of the Ornithorynchus. The
bones are represented of their natural size.

a, Marks the upper or anterior bones of the ster-
num, the Entosternal of Mons. GEorrroy St
Hiratre. To these bones the anterior pair of
ribs are attached at a.

b, The clavicle, (F'urculaire of M. GEOFFROY.)

c, The process of the scapula joinmg the clavicle,
and which I consider, with M. Grorrroy, as
analogous to the coracoid process in Man, and
the true clavicles in Birds.

d, The glenoid cavity of the shoulder-joint.

ce, The peculiar, flat, and highly moveable bone,
articulated by a moveable joint, with the coracoid
process of the scapula ; it passes up behind the
clavicle, and its upper or anterior edge may be
seen at e,¢. It is this bone which meee an eX.

, 1
PLAT Dy Vv . Wer, Mtr, Vot.\, prige MTZ,

OF THE ORNITHORYNCHUS PARADOXUS. 173

tensive sweeping semicircular motion, and thereby
enables the whole shoulder to alter very much its
relative situation to the clavicle and sternum. It
is the episternal of GEorFroy.

ff The dorsal portion of the scapula.

g, Uhe little process, I have considered in the text
as the acromion scapulee. Here there 1s a move-
able articulation of the clavicle 6, and of two
bones marked h, h, considered by me as analogous

to the fourchette or merry-thought in birds. They
are named Acromial Processes by GEorrroy.
They are intimately united to the horizontal
branch of the clavicle, and are articulated to the
scapula, by means of a joint admitting a certain
degree of motion. They have been omitted in
the very spirited drawing of this part of the osse-
ous system of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus, by
Mr Cutrt, and published in the Philosophical
‘Transactions for 1792. |

2. Represents an anterior view of these bones; the
letters h and f refer, as in the preceding figures,
to the merry-thought and dorsal portion of the
scapula; ¢ marks the articulation between these
bones at the part I have called acromion.

3, Is taken from a figure in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1818, Part I. Plate II. It is a re-
presentation of the bones entering into the com-
position of the shoulder, in a fossil animal de-
scribed in the same work. —

a, Two flat bones, peculiar to the sternum of this ani-
mal and the Ornithorynchus.

6, A flat bone, behind which is concealed the union
of the edges of the two flat bones just mentioned.
(This is considered by Sir E. Home as the ster-

num of the animal, and is called so at-e.)

174 OSSEOUS SYSTEM, &e.

c, c, Two processes from this bone, by means of which
it is united to the scapulee.

d, d, 'The scapule, which, united to the flat bones,
form the glenoidal cavities of the shoulder-joints.

e, ێ, A slender curved bone, crossing the upper end
of the sternum, and uniting the scapulz to each
other.

SF; Os humeri.

4, Engraved from a pencil sketch, by Mr R.M‘Innes,
of the organs of generation in the male Ornitho-
rynchus.

a, The testicles.

b, The epididymis.

c, The bladder of urine.

d, The orifices of the seminal vessels (vasa deferentia)
entering the urethra close to the opening into the —
bladder.

é, The urethra laid open.

SJ; The rectum; partly laid open at o.

h, 'The common surface cf the cloaca slit up.

2, The opening by which the seminal fluid passes
into the canal peculiar to the penis. This open-
ing leads into a small cavity, mto which enter the
ducts from Cowper’s glands, marked x, and from
which arises the canal of the penis, admitting the
seminal fluid, and that from Cowper's glands only.

J, The orifices of a number of small blackish mucous
glands, which pour their fluids into the cloaca,
close to the entrance of the rectum.

m, ‘The body of the penis.

mn, Marks the four small conical papillee in which each
glans terminates: these papille are hollow and
pervious.

PLATE VI. Nern. Ment.Vot.V.page 114:

| See P. 174.)

4

AN

HLL 22ers Se edo &

WAG)

IX.—An Account of a series of Thermometrical
Observations, made hourly at Leith, during
Twenty-four Successive Hours, and once every
Month, from July 1822 to July 1823.

By Mr Joun Corpstream.

(Read 14th July 1823.)

2

"Tue best and most valuable plan for the keeping of a
thermometrical register, would undoubtedly be, to make
observations at the end of short and regular intervals; for
instance, every hour, or every two hours: because, the
first and main object of the meteorologist, in keeping such
registers, bemg to ascertain the average temperature of
each day, as nearly as possible, it is evident, he cannot
fix this point better, than by calculating the mean of very
frequent observations, which will, of course, always ap-
proach nearer and nearer to the true average temperature
of the whole twenty-four hours, in proportion to the nuim-
ber of observations.

However desirable the s csanile siecle of such a plan
might be, yet its inconvenience, nay, general impracticabi-
lity, is abundantly obvious.

176 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

It becomes, therefore, a2 matter of no small moment, to
find out, at what hour or hours, the average temperature of
the day, for the most part, occurs; that the meteorologist
may be furnished with accurate information, for the proper
conducting of his observations, and a long-agitated question
in physical science, finally answered.

During those ages which immediately followed the in-
vention of the He aletoe philosophers were guided by
mere whim and caprice, in settling their hours for observing
the indications of that instrument. But, since the great
subject of the mean temperature of the globe has been
started for discussion, and since the high importance of
meteorological registrations to the best interests of mankind
has been generally acknowledged, men of science have all
agreed in admitting the necessity there is for thetr observa-
tions being at least synchronous one with the other. This
is, however, not sufficient for the purposes of philosophy.
If the mean temperature of the day is not ascertained by
all, the synchronism of the observations matters but little.
Many different hours have been proposed as the best suited
for the attainment of the object desired, but perhaps too fre-
quently on unstable grounds. After the maximum and mi-
nimum thermometers had deservedly come into general use,
the hours of 10 a. m. and 10 p. m. were confidently stated
as the preferable ones for observation; the mean of these
agreeing with the mean of the extremes indicated by the
instruments alluded to; that, again, being supposed by
many, palpably to demonstrate the true average temperature
of the twenty-four hours.

The only mode, however, that can be adopted, defini-
tively to settle the disputed point, plainly is, to make a
continued series of observations for a considerable period of
time, at the lapse of very short intervals,—as for two or
three years, at the end of every half hour, day and night,—

MADE HOURLY AT LEITH. Te

a task that might be accomplished, in particular situations,
_ by the co-operation of many, although it never could be
done by a single individual.

As far as our information extends, a prolonged series of
this kind has never been instituted in Britain ; but it is pro-
posed, at present, to give an account of such a set of obser-
vations, on a small scale, lately carried on m Leith, and
which have been productive of results, that prove well the in-~
terest and importance of the subject.

In the twelfth number of the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, Dr Brewster, at the conclusion of some remarks
on a set of like observations carried on by Dr Dewey, at
Wiiliamston, in the United States of America, mentioned,
that “ it would be desirable to possess a series of observa-
tions made in. Scotland for every hour of the day, for a
small number of days;” and that ‘“ he begged leave ear-
nestly to suggest such a series of experiments, to some of
those active meteorologists who have undertaken to keep
regular registers of the thermometer in Scotland *.”

Immediately on reading the above quoted suggestion, I
set about a series of hourly observations, and continued
them for six successive days, beginning on the Ist April
1822. Not being so well satisfied with the manner in which
this series was conducted, I take no notice at present of
the results obtained. Soon after, I began those observa-
tions which form the subject of the present communication.
I proposed to myself to observe the thermometer for
twenty-four successive hours every month, commencing on

_ the lst July, and this plan, with the occasional assistance
of a friend, I continued regularly throughout the year.
The following is a copy of the journal of this series.

* It appears from the notice of Dr Dewey’s paper, here alluded to, that
| he observed for thirty days, at different times of the year, twenty-four times
| a-day.

VOL. V. M

HOUR. |THER.

8 p. M. 57,0
Qe 56:0
10— | 56,0
54,0

52,5

.| 52,5

52,0

51,0

52,0

52,0

54,0

56,0

58,0

60,0

62,0

63,5

63,0

| 64,0

64,0

64,0

69,0

64,0

63,0

60,0

WEATHER, &c.

Dullish 5 strong wind.
Do. do. pleasant.
Wind incr.; large cum.
Dull; do. do.

Do. do. do.

Do. do. do.

Clear dawn ; very fine.
Do. do.

Sunshine, wind incr.
Do. very fine.

Rather dull.

Fine, pleasant.
Dullish.

Bright sunshine, fine.
Do. do.

Dullish.

Cloudy, pleasant.

Do. do.

Do. do.

Do. do,

Fine sunshine.

Do. do,

Do. do.

Dullish, very pleasant.

RESULTS,

. Average temperature of the

24. hours,

. Maximum (at 4 p. m.)
3. Minimum (at 3 a. m.)
4. Range of observed temp.

5. Mean of the

6, Average rise per hour,
7. Average fall do, 2

58,31-4
69,00
51,00
18,00
60,00
2.10
2,62

extremes,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Auvcust 1. 1822.

HOUR. |THER-

la. u.| 48,0
2— |48,0
3— |47,0
4— | 46,0
5— |46,0
6— | 48,0
7— | 52,0
8— |54,0
9 15600
51,0
59,5
64,0
64,0
62,0
67,5
69.0
67,2
63,0
62,0
58,0
56,0
54,0
51,5

12— [48,5

WEATHER, &c.

Clear, fine. Moon obsc.
Rather dull.

Clear cloudless dawn.
Very fine, sunshine.
Do. do.

Do. do.

Do, do,

Do. do.

Do. do.

Do. do.

Do. do.

Cloudy, dull.
Sunshine,

Cloudy ; very pleasant.
Bright sunshine,

Do.

Cloudy.

Sunshine.

Do.

Do.

Clear, pleasant.
Bright moonshine,
Do.

Do.

RESULTS.

1. Average temperature of the

24 hours,

2. Maximum (at 4 p. m.)
3. Minimum (at 4 a. m.)

4. Range of observed temp.
5. Mean of the extremes, =
6. Average rise per hour, -
7. Average fall do. =

56,17+
- 69,00
- 46,00
- 23,00
57,50
2,318
- 2,336

8. Average temperature of the day| 8. Average temperature of the day
occurred at 8 a. m. and 8 p, m.

occurred at 9 a. m. and 9 p. m.

Nortre—Sun rose at 3 h. 20 min. a. m.|] Note—Sun rose at 4 h. 5 min. a. m.

set

8 h. 46 min. p.m.

set

8h. 7 min, p. m.

MADE HOURLY AT LEITH. 17S

SEPTEMBER 2. 1822. OctToser lL. 1822.

HOUR. |THER.|- WEATHER, &C.

HOUR. |THER. WEATHER, &c.

1a. M. 50,0 Dullish, moon obsc.

1 a.m. 60,0 Clear moonshine.

2— | 60,5) Dull; flying cumuli, | 2—- | 50,5} Do. do.
3— | 60,5| Do., wind incr., SW. | 3— | 51,0} Do. do.
4:— | 60,0} Dullish, pleasant. 4.— |50,0| Do. do.
5— | 60,0) Very pieas., wind str.{ 5— |49,8] Do. do.
6— | 60,5} Dullish, fine. 6— {50,0} Do. do.
7— | 61,0! Do. do. 7 — |50,0 | Sunshine.

8— |52,4) Dull. Cumuli.

9— |54,0| Very dull.Wind E bN.
10— | 66,0] Do. 10— |53,8| Do. do.

11 — | 66,0} Do. 1] —. | 54,0} A little rain,

12— | 64,0) Dull, windy, not unplj12— | 56,0/ Dullish, pleasant.

8— | 61,0} Do. do.
9— | 64,0) Bright sunshine.

1 p. u.| 63,0) Do. : do. 1 p. w.| 57,5 | Do. do.

2— | 64,0) Do. do. 2— |58,0} Do, do.

3— | 66,5) Sunshine, fine. 3— |56,5| Do. do.

4.— |65,0| Rather dull. 4— |56,0 | Clear, fine.

5— | 60,0! Do. 5— |54,0} Dullish ; strati,
6— | 58,0| Do. Wind abated. 6— | 53,5} Do. -do.

7— | 56,5) Dullish, fine. | %— |53,0] Do. intervals of sunsh.

8— | 56,0; Moon obscured. 8 — /|52,0| Very finesmoon bright.

9— | 54,1) Clear&bright moonsh.| ‘9 — | 52,0} Do: dull at intervals. ;
10 — | 54,0} Do. do. 10 — | 52,0} Do, clear moonshine.
11 — | 53,0| Dullish, fine. 11— | 50,5) Do. do.

53,0 12— /|49,8) Do. do.

Clear moonshine.

RESULTS.

RESULTS.

1. Average temperature of the
| 24 hours, - - 60,27+ 24 hours, = - 52,75

{2. Maximum (at 3 p. m.) 66,50 | 2. Maximum (2 p, m.) 58,00

13. Minimum (at il p.m.) 53,00 | 3. Minimum (5a. m.)_ - 49,80 }
_ {4. Range of observed temper, 13,50 | 4. Range of observed temper. 8,20
5. Mean of the extremes, 59.75 | 5. Mean of the extremes, 53,90 |
| 6. Average rise per hour, 1,42+) 6. Average rise per hour, 1,04
| |t Average fall per do. - 4,6 7. Average fall per hour, 0,925

1. Average temperature of the

cured at 6 a. m. and 5 p.m. curred at 8 a. m. and 8 p.m.

Nortrz—Sun rose at 5h. 7 min. a. m}| Nore—Sun rose at 6 h. 4 min. a. m.
set 6 52 p. m. set 5 36 p. mf

i
0

EE AN EL

M 2

180 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

NovemBer 1. 1822. “Dpqamen a. 1822,
HOUR. |THER. WEATHER, &c. — # HouR. |THER. WEATHER, he
1a. M. 52,0 Dullish 3. strati. | la. m.|39,5| Very heavy rain, very}
2— | 49,5| Clear moonshine. | 2— |40,0} Do. do. | {dull-
3— | 50,0] Clear, wind increas. | 3—~ |40,0| Do. do.
4— |49,0| Do. do. | 4—- |40,0| Do. do.

5— | 48,0] Do. do. ; 5— | 41,0] Rain abated, Wind W,
6— | 48,0} Dullish. 6— | 40,0| Fair, wind continuing.|
7— | 50,0| Do. | 7— |41,0] Do.s dullish
8— | 52,0| Clear sunshine. | 8— 1|41,0| Do. do. | ;
9'— | 54,5] Dullish, fine. | 9— | 40,0} Clear, cumulo-strati. |
10— | 56,0] Do. do. f10— |45,0] Do.
jll1—. | 56,5| Do. do. yll1— | 44,0] Do. cirri, nancy.
¢12__ | 57,0} Do.: do. H12— |44,0| Dullish,
1 p. m.| 58,0 | Fine, interr. sunshine, 1 p. m.| 44,5) Bright sunshine.
2— | 59,0] Dull, strat. # 2— | 42,0} Rather dull.
| 3— | 59,5] Dullish, wind blowing] 3— | 42,0] Clear, pleasant.
,4— | 59,5 (er from SW.{ 4— | 42,0) Dullish.
; O— | 58,5] Do.s a little rain. f 5— |41,0} Do.
6— | 58,0} Do., wind increasing.§ 6 — | 40,0} Do.
7 — | 59,0} Intervals of moonsh: | 7— |39,5| Do.
8— | 59,5} Do. wind very strong.) 8— |39,5]| Do.
' 9— | 60,5] Do, do. _ | 9— |39,0! Do, wind rather str. |
}10— | 60,5} Do. do. 110 — | 39,5} Do.
111— | 60,0} Do. do. pll—. | 40,0) Do..
12— | 60,0} Do. wind boisterous. | 12 — {39,0} Do.

RESULTS. RESULTS.

| 1. Average temperature of the , I. Average temperature of the
24. hours, - = - 55, 6444 24 hours, - - - 40,97 |
| 2. Maximum (9: p. m.) - 60,50 | 2. Maximum (1 p. m.) = 44,50
} 3. Minimum (5 a. m.) - 48,00 | 3. Minimum (9 p. m.) - 39,00 }
| 4. Range of observed temp. 12,50 j 4. Range of observed temp. 5,50
| 5. Mean of the extremes, - 54,25 { 5. Mean of the extremes, - 41,75 |
,; 6. Average rise per hour, - 1,29 | 6. Average rise per hour, - 1,28
| 7. Average fall per hour, - 1,07 § % Average fall per hour, - 0,94 |

8. Average temperature. of the. day) 8. Average temperature of the day|

occurred at 10.a, mx occurred at 8 a. m. and 5 p. m.
| Notre—Sun rose 7 h. 9 mim. a. m. Nore—Sun rose 8 h. 11 min. a. m- |
set 4h. 19 min. p,m. § set 3h. 28 min. p.m. |

BE, 15 GCI RT SOLEIL ETI LT RISD AIS MALTS

“MADE HOURLY AT LEITH. 181

JANUARY 1. 1823. Frsrvuary 1. 1823.

HouR. |THER.

WEATHER, &c. HOUR. |THER. WEATHER, &c.

1a. m.| 32,0| Dull; wind gentle. | 1 a m./36,5| Very dull, wind str.
2— |32,0| Do. do. 2— |36,5| Do. wind E.
3— |32,0| Do. do. 3— | 36,5|.Do. wind rising.
4— |32,0| Do. do. | 4— |36,5}| Do. do,
5— |31,5| Do. do, | 5— |36,5| Do. wind very strong.
6 — | 28,0} Clear moonshine, fine.} 6— | 37,0} Do. |
T— |28,0| Do. 7— {38,0} Dull.
8— | 28,0) Do. sunshine, pleasant} 8— | 38,0| Do.
9— | 29,0) Do, do. | 9— | 36,0| Do.
10— |30,0] Do. do. |10— |36,0| Large nimbi from E. |
11 — | 32,0| Dullish, pleasant. 111 — | 36,0| Unpleasant, wind str,
12— {33,0 | Do. do. f12— | 34,0) Do. as
1 p. m.| 34,0 | Do. do. 1 p. m.| 36,0| Very dull, showers of
2— | 34,0| Do. do. | 2— |35,5| snow from the EK.
3— | 34,0 | Sunshine at intervals.| S3— | 35,0
4— |34,0} Very dull,not unpleas.| 4— | 34,0 | Dreadful storm.
5— {34,0} Do. do. 5— |34,0| Do.
6— | 34,0 |Do. rather disagreeable; 6— | 34,0| Do.
Y— |34,0| Do. do, G— | 34,0} Do.
8— | 34,0| Do. wind increasing. | 8— | 34,0 | Do.
9— | 34,0! Do, do. 9— | 34,0 | Do.
10— | 34,0| Do. unpleasant. 10— | 34,0 | Do.
11 — | 33,5) Do. do, 33,0 | Do.
12—- | 33,5)| Do. do. 33,0 | Do. snow drifting.
RESULTS. | RESULTS.

j, Average temperature of the , 1. Average temperature of the

o

24 hours, = - - 32,27+}) - 24 hours, - = - 35,3
| 2. Maximum (1 p, m.) > 34,00 | 2. Maximum (8 a. m.) - 38,00.
13. Minimum (6a,m.) ~~ = 28,00 {| 3, Minimum (12 p. m.) - 33,00:

| 4.. Range of observed temp. 6,00 | 4. Range of observed temp. - 5,00 |

1 5. Mean of the extremes, - 31,00 | 5. Mean of the extremes, - 35,50
6.-Average rise per hour, - 1,20 }|6. Average rise per hour, - 1,50
| 7. Average fall per hour, - 1,50 | 7. Average fall per hour, - 1,16

8. Average temperature of the day} 8. Average. temperature of

the day
occurred at many hours.

occurred at 11 a.m.,2 p. m.

Notr—Sun rose 8 h. $4 min. a, m.
set Sh. 34 min. p. m. |

Nors—-‘Sun rose 7 h. 58 min. a.m. §
set 4h. 30 min. p. m. |

ATR eM P=

182 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Marcu 8. 1823. ApriIL 7. 1823.

HOUR. |THER. WRATHER, &e. HOUR. |THER. WEATHER, &e.

la. m. 43,0 Very dark ; windy. la. M. 40,5 Very dark, not unplea-

2— |42,5]| Do. do. 2— | 41,0 [sant.
3— |42,0| Do. do. 3— | 40,0; Do. do.

4, |42,0| Do. wind abated. 4— |41,5} Dull; cloudy.

§— |41,5| Dullishjnot unpleasant} 5— | 40,0} Very splendid dawn.
6— {40,0} Do. 6— | 40,0] Clear sunshine.

7— |42,0| Fine; dim sunshine. | 7— |40,0| Very fine.

8— {42,0} Dull. 8—~ | 44,0; Do.

9— |43,0| Pleasant. 9— | 46,0} Do.

10-— |44.5) Fine sunsh., pleasant.
1] — |45,0) Rather dull,

12— | 45,0} Dullish, fine.

I p. u.| 46,0} Fine.

2— |50,0} Dullish.

3— | 50,0] Do.

4— |51,0| Do, wind increasing.
5— |50,0| Do.

6— |50,0| Str. gale. Bar. 29.07.
7— |45,0| Do.

10— | 46,0} Do.
11 — | 50,0} Cloudy, very pleasant.
i2— | 50,0} Do,
Lp. u.} 52,0
2— | 52,0] Fine sunshine.
3— | 52,0} Do.
4— | 54,0) Do.
5— | 52,0} Do.
6— | 49,5} Do-
7— |45,0) Very fine, clear, starry.

8— |42,0| Wind increasing, 8— | 44,0) Do. do.
| 9— |39,5) Dull; no rain. §9— | 43,5] Do. do.
{10— |39,0| Do. 10— | 41,5} Do. do.

11— |38,0| Blowing a very stiff }11—~ | 40,5] Do. do.
12— {38,0 [gale. }12— | 40,0! Do. do.

IODIDE PLETAL ESTELLE IOS,

RESULTS. RESULTS.

I. Average temperature of the ,
: 24 hours, - = - 43,79
‘| 2, Maximum (4 p. m.) - 51,00
3. Minimum (12 p. m.) - 38,00
4. Range of observed temp. - 13,00
15. Mean of the extremes, - 44,50
{| 6. Average rise per hour, - 1,57
7. Average fall per hour, - 1,50
8. Average temperature of the day
occurred at 9 a, m. and 8 p. m.

1. Average temperature of the , ©
24 hours, - ~ 45,18+
2. Maximum (4 p. m.) - 54,00 —
3. Minimum (5 a. m.) = 40,00
4, Range of observed temp. 14,00
5. Mean of the extremes, - 47,00
6. Average rise per hour, - 2,28
7, Average fall per hour, - 1,70
8. Average temperature of the day
occurred at 8 a. m. and 7 p. m, -

Notr—Sun rose 6 h. 50 min. a. m.
set 5h. 34 min. p. m.

Notr—Sun rose 5 h, 19 min. a. m.
set 6h, 46 min. p. m.

rE OT ET

MADE HOURLY AT LEITH. 183

May 3. 1823. JUNE 4. 1823.
HOUR, |THER. WEATHER, &c. HOUR. |THER. WEATHER, &c.
1 a. M. 48,0 Clear, very fine. la. m. 42,5 Fine dawn.
2— |46,0;} Do. do. 2— |43,01| Do. very beautiful.

| 3— |46,0/ Do. do. 3— | 44,0] Do.

4.— |45,0} Fine sunshine. 4— |45,0| Do, bright sunshine.
5— |44,5| Extremely pleasant. 5— | 46,0} Do. do.
6— | 48,0} Do. 6— | 48,0] Very fine.

| T— | 50,0] Do. 7— |51,0| Do.

8— |50,0| Do. wind E. gentle. | 8— | 52,0] Dullish, pleasant.

9— | 52,0| Do. 9— | 55,0} Do. do.
}10— | 53,0} Do. 10— | 56,5] Do. do.
11— | 56,0} Do. 11— | 56,0| Do. do.

112— |57,0| Very fine uninterrupt-|12—- | 59,5| Dull, not unpleasant. |
1p. m.| 57,0 [ed sunshine] 1 p. u.| 58,5] Do.
2— |57,0| Do. do. 2— |60,0| Fine sunshine.

3— | 58,5) Do. do. 3— |64,5| Do,
| 4——_ | 61,0} Do. do. | 4—_ | 62,0} Dullish.
5— | 58,0| Do. do. 5— | 60,0] Sunshine, very fine.
6— | 53,5| Do. do. 6— | 60,0} Do. - do.
%— | 51,5) Very fine, clear. Y— |58,0]| Do. do,
8— | 48,0} Do. do. 8— | 54,0] Do. do.
9— | 48,0} Do. NO. 9— | 50,0} Clear, fine, few clouds,
10—. | 46,0] Do. do. 10— | 48,5} Do. do.
LL— {45,0} Do. do. 11— |48,0| Do. do.
12——_ {45,0} Do. do. 12— |47,0| Do. do.
RESULTS. RESULTS.
1. Average temperature ofthe , 1. Average temperature of the ,
24 hours, - 51,00 24 hours, - - 52,87+

2. Maximum (4 p. m.) -e 61,00 | 2. Maximum (3 p. m.) - 64,50
-3. Minimum (5 a. m.) = 44.50 | 3. Minimum (1 a. m.) - 42,50
14. Range of observed temp. - 16,50 | 4. Range of observed temp. 22,00
5. Mean of the extremes, - 52,75 | 5. Mean of the extremes, - 57,50

| 6. Average rise per hour, - 2,06 | 6. Average rise per hour, - 1,95
7%. Average fall per hour, - 2,31 | '% Average fall perhour, - 1,80
8. Average temperature of the day | 8. Average temperature of the day
occurred at 8.a.m. and 7 p. m. occurred at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m.

‘Norr—Sun rose 4h. 16 min. a. m. | Nore—Sun rose 3 h. 22 min. a. m.
set 7h. 38 min. p. m. ’ set 8h, 33 min. p. m.

184 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

The results of the preceding journal I shall now state,
confining myself at present to the recording of the simple
facts as they appeared on calculation. Dr BrewsTER sug-
gested to me the best mode of drawing the most interesting
results, which I followed with all possible care and atten-
uon. | , .
Having taken the averages of each twenty-four hours’
observations (which were as follows) :—

1822, July, 58.314
August, : : ; 56.17+
September, . ‘ : 60.27
October, 3 Ses < 52.75
November, . : ; 55.644
December, . : : 40,97 +

1823, January, Z 5 ehys 32.27
‘February, . : . 35.33--
March, A ° ; 43.79 +-

April, : : as 45.18+
May, Pe 4 < 51.00. -
June, ‘ 52.87 +

and the mean of these, (which ce to be 48°.71 +), I cal-
culated the average temperature of each hour in the twenty-
four, as it occurred throughout the twelve divisions of the
series ‘his gave

Laem 45.374 | Oa. mw. 491294 | 5 P.M. 52,764
2 — 45.12+ 110 — 50.48+ | 6 — 51.334
— 45.0 11 — 51.544 | 7 — 49.75

—. 44.914. | 12 — 52.20+ |] 8 — 4917—
44.73 1 p.m. 52.874+ | 9 — 47.00+
a) AG 294) 2) LY 58194 410 Se eagsae ae
— 4658+ | 3 — 54.16 Vy 4s Cr
AS ee | a SGT 18) 45 07

OD & & OO
|

The mean of these temperatures, again, is 48°.73+-
varying only .02+ from the mean of the whole, obtained
by taking the average of the mean temperature of each
twenty-four hours” observations. In this manner, I got
data for future calculations, the final results of which I
shall now state. In domg so, I propose to use the mean

MADE HOURLY AT LEITH. 185

temperature of the whole observations, as derived by the
last mentioned plan, for the general standard of comparison.
It was, 2 5 > 48.73-4

Mean of the maximum and minimum averages, 49.69-+-
— — — la m.and Ip.m,, - 49.12

— — — 2am — 2pm, - 49,12
—i— -. 3am. — 3p.m, . 49.58
—_ — — fam — 4pm, - 49.83+
— — — Sam — 5pm, ~ 48.74
— — — Gam — 6pMm., - 48.31
—_ — — Tam — Tp. m., - 48.16--
— — — Sam — Spm, > 48,16+
— — =< 9am — Ip.m., - 48,06+

— — — 10am. — 10p.m., » 48,53+
— — —tllam. — llp.m., 5 48.60

— — — 12 noon — 12 midnight, . 48.63

— — — Tam, 2 p.m. and 9 p. m. *, 48.90+
— — — 8amtipm — 6p.m.+, 50.79+
— — — Tamip.m —10p.mz, 48.68+
— —5a.m.10a.m.3p.m. and 10 p. m., 48.744

Here, then, are many hours which afford a near approxi-
mation to the average temperature assumed as the standard
of comparison ; and many others might be combined to give
the same result ; but this were needless.

From what has been already recorded, it appears, finally,

First, 'That no single hour approaches, more nearly, in
its temperature, to the true average temperature of the
day, than does eight in the morning, or eight in the even-
ing, (for, according to the preceding calculations, their
temperatures seem to be exactly the same). The difference

-between the true mean of the day, and the temperature at

eight o'clock, was about ,°,4, of a degree.

‘* Hours proposed by Dr Dewey,
+ Hours proposed by the Philosophical Society of New-York,

Hours which I myself found to approach nearer, in their mean tem-

perature, than any other three hours, to the average temperature of the day.

186 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Secondly, That the mean of the maxima and minima
differs ,°6, from the average of the twenty-four hours.
(The mean of the means of the maxima and minima which
occurred during the series was 49°.28 varying only 555
from the standard of comparison.)

Thirdly, That of the averages of the temperatures of
two hours, those of 5 a.m. and 5 p. Mm. noon and midnight,
11 a.m. and 11 v.m., 10 a.m. and 10. m. approach
nearest to the mean of the day. ‘The average of 5 and 5,
differing from it only 1940 of a degree; of 12 and 12,
vo of 11 and 11, 3, ; of 10 and 10, }.

Fourthly, That of the averages of the temperatures of
three hours, those of 7 a. M., 1 vp. m. and 10 Pp. M., ap-
proximate most closely to the average of the whole twenty-
four, the mean of the former differing ,1, from the latter.

Fifthly, Of all the combinations of hours I tried, none
gave the true mean temperature of the day so well as the
mean of 5 a.m. 10 a. mM. 3p. M. and 10 Pp. M., Hite cor-
responded «att the average of the day ithin steno Of a

degree.

Such are the simple facts regarding the most important
results to be obtained from this series of observations :—I
abstain from farther remarks at present, and shall now con-
clude by mentioning the other results, less important, de-
rived from the same source.

1. At an average, the maximum of temperature occurred
at 4 p. M. and the minimum at 5 a. Mo.

2. The average daily range was 9.93, its maximum be-
ing 23°, which happened in August. Its minimum 5° in
February.

3. The temperatures of 7 a. m. and 10 P. m. were ex-
actly the same.

LEITH,
July 1828.

X—WNotice of a“ Journal of a Voyage from Rio
de Janeiro to the Coast of Peru, by Mr Wi1-
LIAM JAMESON, Surgeon, Corresponding Mem-
ber of the Wernertian Natural History Society.”

By G A. Wanker Aryort, Esq. A. M. F.R.S. E.
M.W.S5., &c.

(Read 26th April 1823.)

ee

On the evening,” says Mr Jameson, “ of the 9th
March 1822, we re-embarked on board the Fifeshire Pac-
ket, having determined to go to sea early the following
morning. At 4 o'clock a. M. we accordingly got under-
weigh, and proceeded down the harbour of Rio de Janeiro.
At 7, the land-breeze having failed, and the tide setting
against us, we were obliged to anchor abreast of Porto
Fogo Bay. At 10, the sea-breeze having, as usual, com-
menced, we again got under-weigh, and cleared the entrance
of the harbour, after making several short tacks. Wind
ESE. At 4. m. passed Round Island. Evening, light
variable winds, occasionally calm.”

On the 20th, having reached Lat. 85° 23’, and Long.
51° 20’, Mr Jameson appears to have commenced obser-
vations, which he continued during the voyage, once a day,
on the temperature of the sea; and at 10 in the morning,
and the same hour in the evening, on that of the air. The
hygrometer (LEsiiz’s) was not forgot. Of the states of
these, a very neat table is given at the close of the Journal.

On the 26th, they “ passed many floating bunches of
Fucus giganteus,” (Macrocystis pyrifera of AGArpny’s

188 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

Species Algarum); several Albatrosses (Diomedea exulans)
were also seen. Lat. 39° 20’, Long. 54° 13’.

On the 27th, “‘ Moderate breezes from NE., with clear
weather. Passed considerable quantities of Fucus gigan-
teus*. At 10 a. m. temperature of the air 58°, ocean 52°,
hygrometer 15°.5, barometer 28°.27. Evening, strong
breeze.

‘“« Here several currents exist ; for we frequently observed
the sea, within a limited distance, as smooth as a river,
with a rippling on the surface. Temperature of the air at
10 p. om. 58°, humidity 8°.5. Lat. by observations at noon
41° 10'S., Long. by chronometers, 56° 17’ W., and by
dead reckoning 56° 24’.”

“« 28th. Strong westerly breeze, with a clear and cloud-
less sky. ‘The surface of the sea presents the same appear-
ance as yesterday ; and, indeed, the existence of a current |
from the southward is evinced, lst, By the daily and pro-
gressive difference of longitude, as afforded by the daily.
range and chronometers; 2d, By the sudden diminution in
the temperature of the water, being no less than 23°, and,
lastly, By the very great quantities of floatmg Fucus gi-
ganteus, which vegetates only in high southern latitudes.
The influence of the current is not felt beyond the parallel
of 40° S., for it is there checked in its progress by the coast
of Paraguay extending NW. and SE., as well as by an
opposite current flowing from the entrance to the Rio.de
la Plata. A new impulse is thus communicated, which will
occasion the current to take a westerly direction.

“< Temperature of the ocean 53°, air 59°, hygrometer
14°.5. A great many moths (Phalene) were driven on
board during the day. Wind WSW., strong. Long. by
chronometers 58° 20’, and by dead reckoning 59° '7’; Lat. by

* The terminal part of the frond of this Fucus appears to be invariably
confluent.

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 189

observations at noon 42° 45’ S. Evening clear, occasionally
squally. ‘Temperature of the air 55°, humidity 9°.5.”

On the 29th, several penguins (Aptenodytes) were seen,
but Mr Jameson does not mention what species. Lat.
43° 35’. Long. 58° 50’.
80th. « Temperature of the ocean 48°.8. Still passing
quantities of floating Fucus. Albatrosses, and three differ-
ent species of petrels (Procellaria), flying about.” Lat.
44° 31’. Long. 59° 44’.”

On the 2d April they “ passed much Fucus,” and on
the 3d in Lat. 48° 50’, Long. 62° 1’, “ sounded in 80
fathoms, fine green sand; saw many whales, and great
numbers of oceanic birds, apparently petrels.”

On the 5th they were in the parallel, and a little west,,
of Falkland Islands, and saw many petrels.

6th. A “light air from the NNE., with a clear atmo-
sphere. Sea very smooth, and teeming with vast numbers
of a species of cancer (Asiacus), of a dark-red colour,
and about an inch in length. ‘This remarkable appearance
we observed for about an hour, the vessel sailing at the rate.
of two knots.” Lat. 52° 25’. Long. 64° 9’... Mr Jameson
has added on the margin of his journal a sketch of this
species of Cancer,.from which, if correct, it appears to:
have only six legs: in this respect it differs essentially, not.
only from the reduced genus Cancer of Luacu, but from
every division and genus in the order Macroura of the
subclass Malacostraca in the Annulose. All the known
divisions of the Macroura have at least ten legs: to this:
order it must, however, certainly be referred, its tail being

furnished with appendices at the extremity.

On the 7th, “ At 8a. m., Cape St John, the most east-.
erly pomt of Staten Island, bore SSE., distant 15’. The
northern coast of this island, about New Year's Harbour,
is very mountainous, with peaked summits. Although late
m the season, no trace of snow could be observed; and in-
deed, the sides of the mountains exhibited in many places.

190 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

an appearance of verdure.”-—‘‘ A strong current appears
to set round the east point of Staten Island, the sea being
very turbulent and broken.” Several penguins, Cape pi-
geons, and fulmars, were seen.

On the 13th, Lat. 57° 57’, Long. 64° 43’, he remarks,
that ‘ two species of the petrel tribe, Procellaria glacialis
and Pr. » were very common: the former is well
known; but the latter is seldom, I believe, seen in the At-
lantic Ocean beyond the parallel of 30° 8.” We have to
regret that the species is not mentioned.

On the 22d, 23d, 24th, 26th, and 28th, they experi-
enced occasional showers of snow: this was betwixt Lat.
58° and 56°. On the 28th a luminous meteor was observed
at the mast head, and much lightning in the SW.

May 8th. Lat. 38° 24’, Long. 83° 34’, they were again
surrounded by numbers of the oceanic birds (Procellaria).

On the 11th, they passed about 20 miles to the west of
the little island of Massafuero, to the north of which they
reached about half a degree the next day. Here Mr
JAMESON remarks, that “ those birds named Cape Pigeons
(Procellaria) begin to diminish in number.”

On the 16th, Lat. 27° 53’, Long. '75° 35’, they saw
some sea-weed, and a few birds, ‘ probably of the genus
Pelecanus.”

On the 18th, Lat. 24° 47’, Long. 73° 36’, they passed
some “ floating patches of Mucus.” Several small birds
(Procellarie), flying-fish (Exocetus volitans), and a small
species of the cuttle-fish (Sepia), were observed.

* 20th. Light SE. breeze, and cloudy. This morning
we had a nearer view of the coast. Its surface is very ir-
regular, without the least appearance of vegetation. A very
high mountain, named Morro de Mexillones, rises to a
great elevation. A few altitudes of the sun’s lower limb,
with the corresponding times, as indicated by the chrono-
meters, gave for their mean longitude 70° 38’ 4” W., a
very near approximation to the true place of the ship.

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 191

At 12, Lat. by observation 22° 54’ S. Temperature of the
sea 68°.5. At 4 o'clock pv. m., being about 12 miles to the
NW.., the colour of the sea had changed from a dark-blue
to a bottle-green. Temperature 65°, a difference of $°.5,
distance from the coast about 20 miles. At 4, altered our
course to NE., with the intention of entering the port of
Cobijo. At 8 p. m. hove to about three leagues distance
from the coast. Evening clear. ‘Temperature of the air at
10 v. m. 66°.5, hygrometer 21°.”

We should remark, in addition to this outline, that Mr
Jameson has added two tables at the end of his journal :
one of these, we have already said, is metecrological, con-
taining the state of the thermometer in the air at 10 morn-
ing and evening, and the temperature of the sea. This
last, he observes in an accompanying letter to Professor

JAMESON, was daily ascertained at 12 o’clock, in the usual
way, by immersing a thermometer in a bucket of water
fresh-drawn. In this table the humidity of the atmosphere
is also noted, as observed at 10 morning and evening ;
“‘ this was determined by two delicate centigrade thermo-

“meters, each degree of which is divided decimally; and the
differences betwixt the dry and humid bulb exposed freely
to the air, were daily registered.” The state of the weather
and the wind, as well as the latitudes and longitudes, are
also inserted in this first table. |

The second shews the daily differences and rates of three
chronometers kept by Mr Jameson himself on board the
packet. In one column are the differences between Brown’s.
and Barraun’s chronometers, in another between Brown’s
and Grant’s, and in another between Barravp’s and
Grant's: thus the relative rates of each could be ascer-
tained without great difficulty. Mr Jamzson also gives

‘here the mean temperature of each day, in case that should
affect the instruments.

These tables we here insert.

192 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

Merxorotocicat Journat from the Mouth of the Rio de la Plata,
to the Coast of Peru.

LEsLIE’s Hyero-
METER.

10 | 10 | Daily
A. M.| P. M. range.

THERMOMETER.

° 10 10 Daily Sea.

Lat. S. |Lonag.W WInps.
-|A. M.| P. M. |range.

[ REE AR EA EEEETED | PRR ERS MEST

20] 76,5|73,0| 3,5] 74,0136,0|35,5| 0,5 | 35°23’ | 51° 20’ | NE,

21] 72,0 | 68,5| 3,5] 74,0] 28,0/17,0| 11,0} 35 38 | 52 32 | SSE.

22181,5 | 71,0 | 10,5 | 74,0! 23,9] 16,5| 7,4|36 18 | 53 10 | WNW.

23 | 69,0 0,5| 75,0] 20,0|17,5| 2,5} 36 38 | 53 20 | Calm.

241 78,0 9,0 | 75,0} 36,5] 11,5 | 25,0| 37 8 | 53 20 | ENE,

25 | 70,0 2,5 17,0} 3,0| 9,0| 38 42 | 53 57 | W.

26 | 62,0 6,0 10,0} 3,0] 7,0} 39 20 | 54 13 | NW. very hazy.

27| 61,0 3,0 | 52,0] 15,5] 8,5] 7,0) 41 10 | 56 17

28 | 59,0 4,0| 53,0) 14,5| 9,5| 5,0; 42 45/58 20 | WNW. clear.

29 | 52,5 0,0 | 52,0|17,0119,5| 2,5)43 35 | 58 50 | WNW. rain.

30} 58,0 7,0|48,8118,0] 5,5|12,5| 44 35 | 60 51 | W.

31 | 54,5 3,5 | 49,0| 20,5] 4,51} 16,0] 45 21 | 59 18 | NE. cloudy.
Ap. 1] 48,7 0,7|49,0| 5,5| 5,5| 0,0|46 20/61 52 | SE. hazy.

2} 54,0 0,0} 50,2! 5.5} 8,5| 3,0|47 21 | 62 25 |S. hazy. NNW.

3| 53,8 3,3/49,0;10,0| 4,0| 6,0} 48 50/62 1 |S. hazy.

4) 55,5 5,5148,0} 9,0] 6,0| 3,0|49 57 | 61 26 | NW. b W.

5| 49,5 4,51 47,0] 9,0] 5,5| 3,5)51 8 | 62 29 | ESE.

6} 49,7 2,71 47,0] 20,0] 8,5| 11,5] 52 25 | 64 29 | NE.

7| 47,0 2,0/ 45,5! 8,5| 5,5| 3,0| 54 46 | 63 26 |S.

8 | 44,8 1,8| 39,8; 7,0] 5,0] 2,0] 55 44 | 64 20 | W.

9| 41,5 1,5|39,5} 7.5|11,0| 3,5) 56 45 | 65 45 | SW. squally,

10] 40,8 0,8/ 36,3) 3,0] 2,0] 1,0|56 57 | 63 Lo ) WSW.

11] 43,0 2,0 | 37,0} 2,0} 2,5] 0,5 56 59 | 64 13 | WNW,

12'| 42,0 2,0|.39,5| 7,5/10,5| 3,0| 57 26 | 64 31 | Calm. NW.

13 | 44,5 2,5/39,0) 9,0] 5,5| 3,5] 57 57 | 64 43 | NW.

14] 46,0 3,0 |39,0| 11,0] 45] 6,5|58 0]65 41 | W.bN.

15.| 44,0 2,0|389,0| 8,0} 3,0| 5,0] 58 36 | 67 57 | Calm. SE. squal

16 | 33,0 41,0| 5,5 57 40171 21 | SSE. S. SW.

17 | 32,0 41,0} 4,5 56 24 172 46 | S.b W. squally.

18] 35,0 6,0 56 21 | 72 53 | WSW.

19] 38,0 3,0 7,0| 5,5| 1,5| 56 28173 55 | N.

20) 44,5 4,5)/ 49,0] 5,6| 3,0] 2,6] 56 41 |74 57 | WNW.

21} 39,0 57 2/75 45 | West.

22| 40,0 6,0 57 54/75 § | WNW.

23 | 33,0 41,01 4,0 58 52 | 76 21 | WSW.

24| 38,0 | 36,0] 2,0] 41,0| 3,0 3,0} 58 21/76 41 | Calm, NE, b E.

251 36,0 | 33,5] 2,5 10,0} 4,0] 6,0)58 0O| 77 43 | W.

26|35,5| 33,0} 2,5 11,0| 5,5| 5,5) 57 22 | 79 53 | SE. bE.

27 | 40,5 | 37,0] 3,5 19,0} 10,0] 9,0} 56 19 | 81 30 | W.

28] 43.0] 41,5] 1,5 14,0/12,5| 1,5| 55 25 | 80 56 | SSW. squally.

29] 43,0] 42,0] 1,0 10,0] 9,0] 1.0] 54 53 | 81 18 | W.bS. squally.

30 54.13 | 81 23 | SW.

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 193

JOURNAL continued.

Lesxie’s Hyero-}
METER.

THERMOMETER.

10 | Daily) seq. | 10 pa

. | P- M. |range.

10 | Daily]
Ace Me} Pe Mo range.}

VOL. V,

wv we

beet feed =! OD kt eet
vw YS OV wp we

5
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
5
0

reserrs

v

.)

ecoermownaeo

wy

joot
mort OW ODNAMH

Omromronrook

~)

Orr OOM OMSs

7

wo

-

Be tS OS i 20

ww

f 03° 53/
| Sl
| 49
| 46
|) 44,
) 41
4 39
1 38
137
35
E32
; 390
| 29
f 23
1 27
1 26
p 24
| 23

| 22

80° 57’ ”

NW. calm, SE.

82
83
83

83
83
83
83

82

78
78
77
76
75
T4
73
71
70

30
32
55

12
23

34:

17
16

54

+z,

SE. fresh breeze. {
SW. cloudy, rain.}
NW, Ev. WSW.}
S. cloudy. F
SW.rain, S.clear.;
SSE. S, ’
WNW.
West. ;
A\NW. bN. clear, |
NW. cloudy. i
4,\K. clear.
12 |#. clear.
00 |E. clear sky.
A5|ESE. variable. |
SE. SW, cloudy. |
HSE. clear.
4 |ESE. stre breeze. |
30 SE.
4 |S, SE.

194 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

Table shewing the Daily Differences and Rates of three
Chronometers kept on board the Fifeshire Packet, in
the passage from Rio Janeiro to the Coast of Peru.

a [ 2 o a

1 wm a ' A a S)

“ p PB 5 Sii4

léua es eco ae ee a= Fe

28 |: psa) | 123

ro | a pa 8 ) mye § |

fe 4 4u\4 ° lo I Nee “

4 26 15 4 47 45

3 53 14/33 1) of4 0/4 22 53115 S}0

843 6 Ig Ig 25 0

8 19 52133 14113]8 8 40 12/15 19] 4
14, [3 55 45 [3 3 27 10

[3 22 24/33 21) 7/3 3 42 23/1513] 1

3 55 10 3 3 26 50

3 21 39133 3110/3 3 42 6115 16 3 |

4 A5 10 la47 5 {417 10 hg 3.)

4 11 31/33 39] 8]4 28 42118 23 ]4 32 2815 18] 2] :
7 5 4 30 B la 35 35

14. 30 4033 501114 |4 50 58115 23] 5 | :

4 410 [4 Is 34 35 Wea

[3 30 9134 111]3 47 : 13 50 3/15 281 5 |

Ce ee ee ee eee
i

213 40 24/34 4611113 58 11/19 9] 814 Oo 1815 3s] 3] TL7

ER ae

: 4 56 20 |
83517) 8|4 11 1819 27] T}4 12 ons || 68.7

|

Go =

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 195

Table sta st ices continued.

Bannavo’s|
and

GRANT’S.

Difference.

Brown’s
and fl
| BaRRAUD’S.}
mean.

Thermom. |

I Ce a ed ee
apap eran y E

ee ences |rcrrenemrme | er ener ene | omemereeesens | mo See ee

t

4 20
3 43 43/36 37\12}4 2 5/20 5) 614 3 42/16 32);

2 ee ee ee | eee eee eee ee ee

4 16 15/36 55/10]4 37 14/20 16] 6/4 38 10/16 40 | p27

g {4 14 00 |
3 36 29/37 31]11}3 55 0/20 30} 2

196 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

T'able of Differences continued.

Barravup’s. |
Brown’s
and
GRantT’s.
Difference.
BaRRaun’s
and

GRANTS.
Difference.

Brown’s
and

See:

] “a

§ 10
8 33/20 37] 2 |

reece, | ee. | ee | Hf

4 35 i
4 37 57120 38| 1]
5 3 40 15 6 30 14 30 30
4 25 40138 00] 4/4 45 52/20 38/00]4 47 S3lL7 23) 5]
1441 10 4 5 10 !
[4 20 34/20 36\-2|4 22 43|17 31] 8 |
| [5 26 30 |4 50 20 el
15 6 56/2034/2]5 7 S87 38} 7]
[5 6 40 430 10 ae
1446 6/20 34/00|4 47 55l17 45] 7]

Pome || SS eeectemeee | ees |S fe | ee | ee ee | ences | cm ee |

58/17 18) 6 |

ee ee

=

i5 59 31120 39] 1]
15 12 20 | :
14 51 49/20 3si-1 |

[5 8 40 |
| 4 48 2120 38/00 Iz
5 36 10 5 38 40 |
15 18 2/20 38/00
5 -3 20 I4 26 50
4 42 52120 38100}4 44 24/18 14] 6] 39.01
4 32 40
4 51 0O0l18 20] 6 | 40.0
15 37 45 Beto |
15 17 3/20 42/4415 19 35l18 25] 5| 33.0]

5 210 |
2114 33 19/38 51] 4]
15 9 45
14 49 7/20 38|o0

ee |

15 22 30 445 50
5 1 48/20 42/0015 AQ

5
3

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 197

Table of Differences continued.

Difference.
Difference.
BaRRauD’s
and
GRANT’S.
Difference

Sie

o8 4

[o-} mM .
April 4 5G AO de e
25 0015 15 19118 39] 7

a7 6 25 50
5 46 18/39 32) 716 7 57/20 43/+ 116 9 58/18 48) 5) 38.8]

ag lo 27 16 . 1 ‘Con
4 47 37/39 38] 6 | 20 43/6015 9 6I18 56] 8] 42.20

15 3 27/20 43/00]5 7 oo|t9 00| 4] 42.

14 44 50

Settee A ee ee |

15 59 5520 55/216 1 56/19 31) 5] 51.3]

6 31 30

815 50 32/40 58/1116 11 44/21 11) 5]6 14 36]19 46) 44

g |® 27 10 16 28 50 5 54-10
546 241 810/6 7 332117) 616 14 21/19 52) 6}

198 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

Table of Differences continued.

) eos
eX 2 1s
Oo} A ist Ze

mm mm | ff) cere ery Ce | ee | re

Is 51 12/20 2 4] 63.0

pr ff rte | eres | A ere

le 22 10
T4175 40 18|44 52.

21 42

7|6 2 20/20 10) 5] 61.9

comes | meee) eee | eee | St | ee

JANERIO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 199

Previous to Mr Jateson’s quitting Rio Janeiro, he had
made one or two botanical excursions, the muscological
fruits of which he transmitted to us. He writes, that they
are specimens of all that he could collect at Rio de Janeiro.
This he, however, adds, was probably owing to his being
obliged to limit his walks within a few miles of the capital.
It is a district hitherto little examined for the Cryptogamic
department of Botany ; and, therefore, as might have been
anticipated, there are some new species in the packet.

We have to regret, that the imperfect state of some of
them renders full descriptions impossible. We have, how-
ever, endeavoured to give such as we hope may serve in
future to distinguish the plant. :

. LYCOPODINEZ.

1. Lycopodium rupestre, Lr.

Var. Tenuior, caule ramisque subsimplicibus filiformi-
bus ; foliis lanceolato-subulatis, vix apice piliferis.

Has. Ad rupes intra portis introitum Rio de Janeiro:

Forte a L. rupestri species distincta, sed fructu non viso
separare nequeo.

2. Lycopodium convolutum, nox. Foliis bifariis im-
bricatis secundis ovatis acutis ciliato-dentatis, superficiali-
bus minoribus geminis, caule erecto distiche, et alternatim
ramoso, ramulis dichotome ramosis apicibus convolutis.

Has. In subalpinis aridis in Rio Janeiro.

LL. circinali proximum, sed ut supra differt. Fructus
non observatus.

200 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

Musct.

3. Gymnostomum Jamesoni, nos. Foiiis late lineari-
lanceolatis margine convolutis integerrimis, siccitate iIncurvo-
tortuosis, nervo excurrente, theca turbinata ore amplo, oper-
culo rostrato theca longiore. |

Has. In collibus in Rio de Janeiro.

Caulis quatuor ad octo, seta vix ultra duas lineas longa:
annulus nullus. G. ¢oréilis varietatibus majoribus satis
refert, sed foliis, thecee et operculi figura facile distinguitur.

4. Dicranum bryoides, Hoox.
Has. Rio de Janeiro.

Plants: Kuropzeze omnino similis.

5. Dicranum flecuosum, Hepw. Caule subsimplici, fo-
lus erectiusculis rigidis lanceolato-subulatis acuminatis, ner-
vo latissimo, seta subflexuosa, theca ovata striata estrumosa
calyptra basi ciliata.

Hias. var. 8, In collibus in Rio de Janeiro.

Tres varietates hujusce speciel enumero:

#, Caule stricto, foliis lanceolato-subulatis rariter pilosis
marginibus subincurvis, e basi vaginante, seta flexu-
osa, (Campylopus flexuosus, C. pilifer, et C. peni-
céllutus, Brip. Meth., Dicranum capillaceum, Bri.
Meth., D. saxicola, Ws. et Mour.)

B, Foliis lanceolate-acuminatis pilo cano terminatis e basi
Vix vaginante, seta incurva.—da, caule strictiusculo,

| (Dicer. introfierum, Hepw.)—b, caule ascendenti-ra-
moso (Polyirichum nigricans, Ricu. Campylopus Rt-
chardi, Brip. Meth. Thesanomitrion Richardt, Scuw.
Suppl. tab. 118. haud bene.)

y, Caule strictissimo simplici, foliis e basi late vaginante
subulatis, seta mcurva (Dicr. jiliforme, Bravv. et
Scuw. Supp. t. 122. Weissta volcanica, Bri.)

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 901

Omnes hee varietates setam juniorem plus minusve ma-
dore flexuosam ; thecam effoetam plus minus striatam, ad
basin tamen semper rugis acutis prominulisque scabram,
calyptramque fimbriatam dimidiatam habent.

6. Tortula cirrhata, nox. Folis patentibus linear lan-
ceolatis margine undulatis, siccitate tortuosis, nervo valido
excurrente, perichzetialibus minoribus, theca cylindracea
erectiuscula, operculo conico-rostrato. (T'richostomum bar-
bula, Scuw. Supp. tab. 86. Trich. barbuloides, Brip. Sp.
Muse. Tortula lusitanica, Brip. Sp. Musc.)

Has. In collibus in Rio de Janeiro.

Peristomii dentes leniter torti, et ad basin membrana
brevi connexi ; operculum thece trientem longitudine zequat.
_ Folia siccitate tortuosa, nitentia. Caulis 1 ad 9 lineas longa.

7. Bryum argenteum, Lin. ,
Has. Ad muros vetustos in Rio de Janeiro.

8. Bryum turbinatum, Scuw.
Var. minus, Hoox. in Humes.

9. Bryum roseum, Scuw.

Has. In subalpinis aridis in Rio de Janeiro.

Mnium truncorum et, Domingense, Brip., vix diversa
suspicor, attamen non mihi visa fateor.

10. Orthotrichum Jamesoni, Nop. Caule repente, ramis
erectis, ramosis, foliis ellipticis longitudinaliter plicatis, ners _
_ vo breviter excurrente, seta longiuscula, theca ovato-oblonga
levi, calyptra campanulata levi, basi integra appendicibus-
que latis aucta.

Has. Sylvis in Rio de Janeiro.

O. rugifolio habitu proxime refert, differt tamen foliis
non rugosis aliisque notis. Peristomium exterius e denti-
bus 8 rubris linearibus geminatis fissisve, siccitate revolven-

902 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

tibus constat: interius membranaceo-lacerum, Calyptra
basi non fissa, sed laciniis latis aucta, haeque laciniz statu
juniore calyptram intus sursum duplicate sunt. Folia ma-
dore patenti-recurva, siccitate spiraliter quasi mm funem tor-
quata; pericheetialia longiora. ‘Theca junior inferne qua-
drisulcata, superne levissima, brunnea*. Genus Schlo-
theimia vix stabilitum est: potius cum cseteris, Orthotricht
sectio secundo caule repente insignita constitu: debet.

V1. Neckera undulata, Hepw.

Has. In arborum truncis in Rio de Janeiro.

Calyptra mihi mitriformis atque pilosa videtur: cilia
etiam, non e membrana interna, sed e dentium lateribus
progrediuntur ; haec species itaque ad Daliontam Hooxenrt,
vel Crypheam Mourt pertinet.

12. Hookeria tomentosa.

Has. In sylvis in Rio de Janeiro.

Hookeria vera est calyptra mitriformi: thecze autem et
operculi figura ab Hookeriarwm omnium aliarum longe di-
versa. Hzec species eadem est ac Hypnum tomentosum,
Hepw. MHuic generi referenda est H. tamarisci vel rotu-
lata, eadem enim est species,

13. Hookeria albicans, Hook.
Has. In sylvis circa Rio de Janeiro.

14. Hookeria affinis, Nos. Caule procumbente ramoso
subcompresso, foliis undique imbricatis, oblongis acuminu-
latis, nervis duobus divergentibus ante apicem evanescenti-
bus, emarginatis integerrimis, theca recta horizontali, oper-

%

* Due altere species O. rugifolium et Swainsoni, ‘* prope Rio Janeiro.”
crescentes jamdudum ab ill. Hooxero descripte sunt.

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 203

culo conico rostrate, scta levi, calyptra glabra basi multi-
fida.

Has. In sylvis circa Rio de Janeiro.

Hee species plerasque Hookerias simulat ; a H. depressa
operculo longiore, calyptra basi multifida, et, an sit bona
Hepwicit tabula, cellularum magnitudine, differt: a H.
scabriseta seta levi; et a H. pendula calyptra levi.

15. Hookeria prelonga, nos. Caule reptante pinna-
tim ramoso, ramis simplicibus laxe foliosis, folis distichis
subrotundis acuminatis integerrimis, enervibus.

Caulis longus repens; foliorum textura laxa ut in
Hooxerits, sed fructus non visa.

16. Hypnum loxense, Hoox.

Has. fio de Janeiro.

Ad specimina Humboldtiana exacte congruens, quanquam
ex “ sylvis Cinchone, regione temperata, juxta Loxam et
Gonzonanam, alt. 1080 hexap.” allata.

17. Hypnum imbricatum, Scuw.

Has. In sylvis umbrosis in Rio de Janeiro, ad arbo-
rum truncos ramulosque, et ad rupes. |

Fructus non adest. Forte ab hac specie non differt H.
hexastichum, Scuw.

18. Hypnum minutulum, Hepw.

19, Hypnum subsecundum, woz. Caule repente sub-
pinnato brevi inferne nudiusculo, foltis sursum patentibus,
ovatis acuminulatis concavis, margine recurvis, integerri-
mis, enervibus, theca erecta ovata, operculo hemispherico-
rostrato.

Has. In sylvis mn Rio de Janeiro.

HT, crassiusculo habitu et magnitudine proximum; dif.

204 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE FROM RIO DE

fert foliis late ovatis, valde concavis, operculo non subulato,
theca erecta zequali. Folia sursum solummodo spectant,
certe autem non ad tribum foliis falcatis seu secundis de-
sionitam pertinet, omnes enim hee species folia deorsum
spectantia habent. ‘Thecam vix maturam possideo, sed de
genere non dubito; peristomi dentes externi sordide lutet,
interni lutescentes. Folia ratione plantae magna, reticuli
areolis ut in plurimis Péerogonit speciebus. Forte mera
varietas H. crassiusculi m quo etiam foliorum margines
subrecurvas video.

20. Hypnum amenum, Hepw.

Has. Ad arborum truncos in Rio de Janeiro.

Ab hac specie non differt H. recurvans ex America bo-
reali, nec video quomodo distinguitur a H. cupressiformi
variabili thecze forma insigni. )

Q1. Fontinalis squamosa, Lin. var.

Has. Rio de Janeiro. | .

Vix duabus uncis Jongior: fortasse in locis aqua in z-
state deficiente crescit, itaque robusta. Folia crassa cana-
liculata margine versus apicem involuta.

HEPATIC.

22. Jungermanmea patula.

Has. In sylvis in Rio de Janeiro.

Folia solummedo apice dentata: igiturque ab hac specie
removeri debet Carpolepidum dichotomum, Breavv. ; habet
enim folia non solum apice dentata, sed tota margine ciliato-
serrata, secundum exemplaria in herbario Belvisiano conser-
vata: ad J. adianthoidem itaque allocanda; sed, ut bene
dixit WEBERus, “* num J. patule satis a J. adianthoide,
foliis vix, nisi apice, dentatis differat, peritioribus est diju-

JANEIRO TO THE COAST OF PERU. 205

dicandum.” Habitus eadem, et nisi discrimina levia supra
notata, nihil plane interest. :

23. Jungermannia bracchiata? Sw.

Has. In collibus prope Lima, unde inter muscos ex
Rio de Janeiro misit J AMESONUS.

J. filiform valde similis: differt tamen foliis apice rariter
denticulatis, stipulisque foliis multo minoribus. J. brachia-
tam vix cognosco ; exemplaria Swartziana dicta ab amicis
recepta descriptionem Swartzianam certe non quadrant, folia
enim obtusa integerrima, et stipula oblonga videntur.

24. Jungermannia Tamarisci? WHoox. Caule pro-
cumbente ramoso, foliis ineequaliter lobatis, lcbis superiori-
bus ovatis concavis integerrimis ; inferioribus linearibus
vel clavatis integerrimis, stipulis subrotundis apice etate
bifidis. :

Hap. Ad arborum truncos in Rio de Janeiro.

Caules stricti, ramosi ramulis subcurvatis: folia arefac-
tione retro circa caulem convoluta. Sub nomine Hypni?
recepi, sed potius Anictangium ciliatum var. filiforme pri-
mo intuitu refert.

Fructus non visus.

25. Jungermannia platyphylla, Lin. Var. tenuior.

26. Jungermannia multifida, Lin.
Has. Rio de Janeiro. :
Huc certe allocari debent J. palmata et bipinnata. Sw.

206 ON THE ORIGIN, &c. OF THE NATIVE RACES

XI.—Inquiry into the Origin and Characteristic
Differences of the Native Races inhabiting the
Extra-tropical Part of Southern Africa.

By Rosert Knox, M.D.

Member of the Wernerian Natural History Society, and of the
Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh.

(Read 19th April 1823.)

—Se

Tue best apology I can offer for attempting the Inquiry
I have now the honour to lay before the Society, is, that
no similar one, relative to the country I speak of, has ever
been instituted. Many travellers have described, with a
minuteness proportioned to their talent for observation, the
Peninsula of Southern Africa, and have given to the world
valuable works on its natural history, political relations, &c.;
but, so far as I know, none has ever viewed the savage
races inhabiting this Peninsula in an anatomical point of
view, and hence have arisen ill-founded conjectures, and
positive errors, too numerous to be criticised. I have en-
deavoured to correct those more immediately connected
with our inquiry, but have carefully avoided general cri-
ticism, as leading me from the subject. The Society will

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 207

readily imagine the difficulties I experienced in avoiding
frequent conjecture, and the impossibility of doing so alto-
gether; but recourse has been had to conjecture rarely,
and, though some of the conclusions may, from insufficient
data, or other causes, prove erroneous, I shall still feel suf-
ficiently recompensed for my labour, should the facts I have
collected be found serviceable to those engaged in writing
the Natural History of Man.

The part of Africa situated to the south of the Tropic,
contains at least three distinct races of men. ‘Those met
with in proceeding from Cape Point northerly, are intru-
ders; they constitute the Anglo-Dutch colony of the Cape,
and are a mixture of almost all the modern nations of Ku-
rope, the Dutch preponderating. The colonists dwelling
in the remoter districts attain a gigantic size, owing, no
doubt, to their descent from a race naturally tall; and mm
perfecting which, as to stature, much has been effected by
climate, food, and other localities. ‘This race, at present,
extends from Cape Point northward to the banks of the
Gariep, or Orange River, and eastward as far as the Keis-
kamma River. They have pushed before them, and partly
exterminated, the race of Hottentots, or Bosjeman (for I
shall consider them as the same), who are now found only
in small numbers, either as servants to the colonists, or still
preserving a sort of savage independence in that vast tract
of almost desert country, extending from the chain of
mountains out of which the Gariep and Great Kei rivers
rise, westward to the shores of the Southern Atlantic. On
the verge of the Tropic, and close to the western shore, the
Damaras are found (a Negro race, as I have been assured),
who extend towards Benguela and Congo; so that the
Bosjeman race, if they exist much to the north of the
Gariep River, must occupy a central stripe of Africa,

208 ON THE ORIGIN, &c. OF THE NATIVE RACES

bounded, on one hand, by the Damara and Benguela coun-
tries, and, on the other, by the Kaffer nations.

These latter extend from the Keiskamma eastward along
the coast towards Inhambane; but previous to reaching
this point, they become inland, and possess the mountain-
country, which, there is every reason to suppose, may eX-
tend from the sources of the Gariep and Great Kei rivers,
to the Equator. It would appear from the Journal of
Van REENEN, that the Temboo is the last of the Kaffre
tribes found on the coast of Natal, and that beyond them,
in about Lat. 26° S., are found the Hamboonas, a race
totally different from the Kaffres. They are thus de-
scribed: ‘Ce peuple a la peau jaunatre avec de longs che-
veux fort epais et frisés, qui sont relevés sur le sommet de
la téte en forme de turban*.” At the point of coast where
the Hamboonas disappear, the Negro race commences, and,
extending around Sofala, Inhambane, and Mozambique,
furnish the Portuguese with the most ample means of car-
rying on a traffic the most revolting to the feelings of man-
kind. The mountain-country, inhabited by the Kaffre
race, cannot be of any great breadth, limited as it is on the
east by the Negro country of Mozambique, and to the
west by the vast and unknown deserts supposed to be in-
habited by the wandering Macasses. It is unfortunate for
our present inquiry, that two geographical problems of
much interest remain to be solved. The Kaffre races have
been conjectured to be Arabian, and the Bosjeman tribes
have been considered by some of Chinese origin, by others

* I consider the Hamboonas (if they really exist) as descended from a
race of shipwrecked Chinese or Malay mariners, modified by intermarriage
with Negro or Kaffre tribes. It is, however, quite possible that they may
he a race from Madagascar. |

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 209

of Egyptian; they have even been compared to the Tro-
glodytes or Pygmies of Heroporus, that dwelt in the de-
serts to the south of Barca and Syrene. We shall presently
see that the Kaffres are not Bedouin Arabs, and, moreover,
that they cannot be traced to any European or Caucasian
stock ; but the question of origin, as regarding the Bosje-
man, is of far more difficult solution. It were highly de-
sirable, as well for geographical science as for the natural
history of Man, that the extent of country occupied by the
Kaffre race, from the Keiskamma northwards and east-
wards,—in other words, the boundaries of Kaffraria Proper,
-——-were correctly ascertained. We know that the race ex-
tends on either side the mountain-country stretching from
the sources of the Gariep towards the Equator, inhabiting
the valleys and slopes of the mountains: their progress
westward was probably arrested by the existence of great
central deserts, and by their natural dislike to such coun-
tries; whilst eastward, that is, towards the Indian Ocean,
numerous Negro tribes were im possession of the country.
That they have long been an imland race, is evident from
their total ignorance of the use of boats or canoes: more:
over, the Portuguese, in their ardent search after gold, re-
ceived some severe checks from the black races inhabiting
the mountains to the westward of their settlements: now,
it is probable that these were Kaffre tribes, for Negroes are
naturally timid, and easily subdued.

It is much more difficult to guess with any shew of pro-
bability at the extent of the Bosjeman nations, partly from
their total dissumilarity to all surrounding tribes, and partly
from the extremely defective state of our knowledge rela-
tive to the geography of Central Africa. It is well known
that they originally extended to Cape Point, and have been
found to the northward as far as Europeans have yet pene-
trated. Beyond this all is profound obscurity: How, then,

VOL. V. O

210 ON THE ORIGIN, &c. OF THE NATIVE RACES

are the aborigines of Southern Africa to be traced to the
primitive races of the ancient world? In the absence of all
historical detail relative to the affiliation of these races, and
until some future Park shall make us acquainted with
Central Africa, as well to the south as to the north of the
Line, both being equally unknown, we shall bring together
the results presented by anatomical inquiry, which, being
a method founded on fixed and general physical laws, will,
if it attain not the truth, at least approximate to it.

We may view the human race as derived originally from
one stock, to which the arbitrary name of Caucasian has
been given. This species, influenced by chmate and civiliza-
tion, assumed, at a very early period, five distinct forms,
which have also been arbitrarily designated by the names
of Caucasian, Mongolic, Ethiopian, American, and Malay *.
We cannot hesitate referring the Kaffre nations to the
Ethiopian, not so much from their position, as from their
close resemblance; whilst the Bosjeman may be arranged,
for the present, with the Mongolic, until further investiga-
tion shall have shewn a more intimate relation with some
unknown African tribes, or until the race shall have been
fairly traced through Central Africa to the Valley of the

* I shall here take the liberty of remarking,. that the Malay race seems
to me an artificial variety, and has no existence in nature as a distinct race
of men. I am inclined to refer the whole inhabitants of the innumerable
islands scattered over the Great South Sea (including New Holland) to the
American variety. In Southern India they have mixed with the Mongolie
and Caucasian races, and form consequently a mixed or mulatto breed; but
they may be traced tolerably pure as high as Sumatra, in which island seve-
ral tribes are found much resembling the native Americans, and retaining
all their customs, even to the pretended flattening of the head by artificial

means. It is probable that in this race only are found the anthropophagous
tribes.

ih Wes

oie

Se

PLATE VIL. Wern Memows Vol V. page 2,

if
Hii HN WY

Female ture sculptured in the Cave of Li lephanina Tt Ltda supposed by
D? Ancarville to have been vormed about 2HO years prior to the present aa

ne ne AFRICA. 211

Var. E\rurop.

Karrre, including Temboo, Briquas,
Boshuanas Bed ae &e. ae

ack, and, as it is called, wool- Hair

12 ve less of the
Ethiopian plysiceam

Upper jaws elongated forwards. The osseous development of the up-
per jaw nearly as great as in the
‘Negro. ;
The superior incisors obliquely pro- i Hardly the case in the Kaffre.
_jecting. : { { | i Be
Excessive fulness of the lips. | _ Nearly as in the Negro.
Retreating chin. | 7 / Not so much so as in the Negro.

Many bandy-legged. “A certain diffi Never the case in the Kaffre. His
culty in maintaining the upright lower extremities are finely propor-
position ; the knees slightly bent, tioned, and frequently of Herculean
and the heels constantly tending strength; the upper extremities
to quit the ground. The gastroc- _ weak and disproportioned ; whilst

‘nemii muscles placed too near the the lower limbs, pelvis, and loins,
ham. are superior even to the European:

bf

drawn from one in my possession, with a cranium of the Caucasian variety.

02

: neatly asin

* Compare the accompanying sketch of the Kaffre cranium (Plate VIT.)

et eo so oF

912 ON THE ORIGIN, &c. OF THE NATIVE RACES

The cranium of the Kaffre is inferior in most of its mea-
surements to the European. The temporal bones are flat
and compressed, and the squamous suture often straight,
instead of being semicircular, as in the European *. ‘They
are nice in the choice of their food, and reject fish, fowls,
and generally whatever by the Levitical law is deemed un-
clean; yet they eat the mner parts of animals, as the in-
testines, stomach, lungs, &¢. raw, torn from the animal just
dead. :

From a careful consideration of the habits and configu-
ration of this race, I believe them to be closely allied to the
Negro, and that the observable differences are attributable
to the different climates they inhabit. The Kaffres, in a
word, are the Negroes of the mountains; they are Negroes
changed by inhabiting an extra-tropical climate; like all
mountaineers, they are hardy, bold, and fond of liberty.

In intellect they are superior to the Negro, and I believe
them capable of a very considerable degree of civilization.
The remarkable disproportion observable between the up-
per and lower extremities of the Kaffre + may, perhaps, be
owing to the very unequal degree of exertion to which
these separate parts of the body are exposed. The Kaffre
never labours, and hence his arms are weak; but he is
strongly exercised in the chase and in predatory excursions,
-by which means his limbs become muscular, and occasion-

® Some Kaffre skulls have been shewn me, in which the malar bones
were remarkably large, and the face very broad; but this is not the usual
Kaftre physiognomy. Such anomalies exist amongst all nations and races,
but cannot be supposed sufficient to refute the general position, that each
_ race has a form of cranium and face peculiar to itself.

-++ Of twenty-two ivory armlets, taken indiscriminately from the arms of
Kaffres, four only were found which could admit the arm of a moderately
muscular European.

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 213

ally altogether Herculean. The excess of nutrition gives
rise, no doubt, to the enormously swelled legs to which
many of them are liable, when, through indolence, or the
infirmities of age, they are disinclined to continue the same
life of activity. Circumcision and polygamy they practise
with almost all African nations.

According to the relations of modern and ancient travel-
lers, tribes similar to the Kaffre race are found scattered
over Africa, apparently unconnected with each other. We
are told of a nation of Negroes, called Nubee, inhabiting the
country to the west of the Nile, near the confluence of the
Abyssinian and true Nile: they are described as being
mild in character, and of small features, though the nose
be flat, and the hair weolly: they speak a soft sonorous
language, differing in these points from their neighbours.
Travellers describe the Ababdes, living to the east of the
Nile, as being Blacks, with European features. But as few
travellers have been anatomists, their accounts cannot alto-
gether be depended on.

A very general belief prevails, that, by oon means,
. and more particularly by pressure, the human cranium
and form generally may be modified, arid permanently al-
tered, and that this may at last become hereditary. It is
asserted, for example, that the more remarkable craniolo-
gical differences amongst nations are occasioned by external
pressure; that the flatness of the African nose arises from
the same cause; that Negroes are bandy-legged, because
they are carried during infancy on their nurses’ back; and
- that the large feet of the Kafire, and the small ones of the
Bosjeman, are owing to an abundant supply of food to the
former, and a deficient one to the latter *. All such asser-

* BLuMENBACH de Nat. Variet.

214 ON THE ORIGIN, &. OF THE NATIVE RACES

tions are constantly refuted by an appeal to facts. The feet
and hands of the Kaffre and Bosjeman are strictly and
beautifully proportional: though they be carried during
infancy in the same manner as the Negro, they are never
bandy-legged or deformed. The African nose is flat, inde-
pendent of any mechanical skill exercised by the nurse;
and human crania are fashioned all over the world by the
hands of Nature, and not by man.

Var. Moncou.

True Moncor inhabiting the deserts
of Central Asia.

Colour yellow, or of an olive tinge.

Hair black,
scarce.

coarse, straight, and

Head of a square form.

Face broad, flat, depressed, the fea-
tures being therefore, as it were,
confluent. Ne

Forehead smooth and flat.

Nose small and flat.

Aperture of the eye-lids narrow and
linear,

Chin somewhat projecting.

Arrican Bosseman, including the
numerous Hottentot tribes, as Na-
maquas, &c. &c.

Colour light yellow, or olive; it is
difficult to describe, and varies in
intensity amongst the Hottentots ;
but is pretty uniform amongst the
true Bosjeman.

Hair black, usually short, though
sometimes growing to a consider-
able length, and is scattered over
the scalp in detached tufts, as In
the Kaffre.

General outline of the head much re-
sembles the Mongol, that is, broad
and square.

Face having a considerable resem-
blance to the true Mongol ; $ the
lips are full.

As in the Mongol.

\

As in the Mongol. The angle at the
internal canthus of the eye is quite
rounded away.

Chin very small and pointed, but no¢
projecting.

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 215

In addition to these characters of the races, I may re-
mark, that in the Bosjeman there is the finest symmetry of
the whole frame: their stature is remarkably diminutive ;
I should conjecture the average to be about 4 feet 6 inches
in the male population. The females have remarkably pro-
minent nates and elongated nymphze; both these peculiari-
ties are removed by a single cross with the Kaft're or Euro-
pean. ‘The Bosjeman have uncommon powers of vision ;
this also is lost by intermarriage with another race. The
cranium is finely formed, and thin; the nasal processes of
the superior maxillary bones large and broad: these give to
the Mongol and Bosjeman the appearance of breadth at the
root of the nose. The foramina for the transmission of the
hypoglossal nerves, are very large*. The cranium, viewed
vertically, is nearly equal to the well-formed European
head. The parietal bones bulge out very much, and the
cranium is at this point broadest. It agrees with the Mon-
gol in having the occipital foramen larger than in the other
races. The floor of the orbit does not encroach so much
on the cavity as in the Mongol; this affects the physio-
gnomy to a considerable extent, in so far as regards the
direction of the eyes.

The habits of the Bosjeman race have been described by
most African travellers with sufficient accuracy, and I shall
therefore limit my remarks to a few points of resemblance
between the true Mongol and Bosjeman races. This con-
sists, first, in the countries they inhabit, which, in either
case, are vast elevated sandy deserts, nearly destitute of
herbage and water: secondly, in the partiality both races

* These foramina are decidedly larger in the Black than in the White
races, but more particularly in the Negro. They clearly indicate the passage

of a proportionally large nerve,

216 ON THE ORIGIN, &c. OF THE NATIVE RACES

have for horse-flesh as an article of diet, preferring it to
every other sort of food ; they strictly merit the appellation
of Hippophagi: lastly, in the acuteness of their vision,
which almost exceeds belief. I have found their sight to
be equal to that of most Europeans when aided by excel-
lent hand-telescopes of the best construction. The Bosje-
man is ingenious, clever, and neat-handed ; his powers of
mimickry are great, his understanding good. He readily
acquires languages, and his speed of foot is almost prover-
bial.

The origin of the race, by which I mean the mode of
their descent, and separation from one or other of the more
extended varieties of the human race, is:one of the most
interesting inquiries which the natural history of Man pre-
sents. To connect the Bosjeman with the Mongolin variety,
we must step at once from the Peninsula of Southern Aim-
ca, to the great central deserts of Asia; the intermediate
links are lost,—the intervening races unknown. History,
though not altogether to be depended on in the considera-
tion of events so remote, must not in the present instance
be despised. Though surcharged and disfigured with fable,
there is one fact to which such constant allusion is made,
as almost to put it beyond a doubt,—lI allude to the fre-
quent descents of the northern Asiatic races on the south-
ern states of Europe and Asia. The valuable monuments
of antiquity, stall preserved in the Cave of Elephantina, in
Peninsular India, attest the predominating presence of the
Mongol race, at a period removed from the birth of our
Saviour by more than 2000 years *, and that, at that time,

* Compare the annexed drawing (Plate VII.) of the female figure sculp-
tured in the Cave of Elephantina, and copied from the ‘* Recherches sur
VOrigine des Arts,” with the beautiful and expressive portraits of the Bos-
jeman and Hottentot races by Mr Dantetts in his “ African Scenery.” -

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. 217

the Mongol physiognomy bore the strongest resemblance to
the present Chinese and Bosjeman races. The early intro-
duction of the Mongol or Northern Asiatic races into Pe-
ninsular India is further attested by their influence on the
modern Hindoo; for though the excellent BLumEnBacH
assures us that the Hindvo cranium is quite equal in beauty
and proportions to that of the Turk, and consequently re-
fers the race to the Caucasian variety, yet, in the Hindoo
heads I have examined, the development of the upper jaw
has not been strictly Caucasian *.

The vast antiquity of the Mongol hordes of Asia is fur-
ther proved by the early establishment of the Chinese em-
pire; and though I am fully persuaded of the still greater
antiquity of those of Hindostan and of Egypt, yet many
passages in HERoportus point out that the Mongolic tribes,
with a rapidity even exceeding the Caucasian, rapidly as-
sumed the form of great and warlike nations.

It would seem, then, from a hasty examination of histo-
ric records, of the remains of antiquity, and of the laws and
religious ceremonies transmitted from generation to genera-
tion, that at a very early period the Mongol races penc-
trated into Europe? and southern Asia; and there is no-
thing improbable in the supposition, that they may have

* The inspection of a fine collection of skulls, collected on the Banks of
the Ganges, and which, through the kindness of Professor Jameson, I was
enabled to examine immediately on their arrival, has confirmed me in this
opinion. In these skulls, which, with the exception of one Negro head, seem
’ all to be of the Caucasian race, the cranium is quite equal to any European,
and its longitudinal diameter shorter than in most: but there is a develop-
ment and strength in the upper maxillary bone which, I should think, will
not be found to exist in any Turkish, Syriac, or Jewish head.

+ The peculiar Mongol face is very strongly marked in many families
now inhabiting the Highlands of Scotland, and more particularly the He-
brides.

218 ON THE ORIGIN, &&. OF THE NATIVE RACES

modified by their presence some of the races of central
Africa.

Lest it might seem an omission that I have not described
the Mongol race as having penetrated into the wilds of
America, I shall here state, that the few Esquimaux crania
examined by me, have proved to be strictly American, nor
have I ever seen the slightest approach to the Mongol
head in any native American race. I have only further to
observe, that most of the opinions offered in this memoir
are founded not on theory or conjecture, but on an anato-
mical examination of the crania of numerous races of men.
For the opportunity of doing so, I am in a great measure
indebted to Professor JaMEson, and to Doctors Monro
and Bagcuay, through whose politeness I was allowed to
examine whatever specimens their valuable museums con-
tained. I beg leave to offer my thanks to these gentlemen.

The annexed table gives a comparative view of the mea-
surements of the head in several remarkable varieties of the
human race.

EDINBURGH,
March 1. 1822.

219

INHABITING PART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.

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XII.—A Monograph of the Genus Pyrola.

By Mr Davin Don, Librarian of the Linnean Society,
| M. W.S.

(Read 21st April 1821.)

W Hen we contemplate the great increase of new spe-
cies which Botany is daily acquiring, Monographs are ren-
dered indispensably necessary to the exact knowledge of
the species which compose particular genera, and more
especially of such whose species are nearly related to each
other. The genus Pyrola, although far from being nu-
merous in species, has nevertheless been hitherto involved
in much confusion. I have corrected the synonymes, and
endeavoured to improve the specific characters of the older
species; but, considering tne great difficulty which attends
such a task, I fear, in the latter point, I have not in many
instances been successful. For the new or rare species con-
tained in the following pages, I am indebted to the kind-
ness of Mr Lampert, and Mr Brown. The last distin-
guished botanist, who is now in possession of the Banksian
Herbarium, has with great liberality permitted me to ex-

MONOGRAPH OF HE GENUS PYROLA. 221

amine the several new species contained in that splendid
collection.

The genus Pyrola belongs to the natural order Ericea,
as now constituted, comprizing the Hvice and Rhododen-
dra of Jussixu, and to the section of true Evicee, from
which it would be unnatural to exclude the Vaccinee of M.
Dr Canpotie. The Monotropea, another section of Eri-
ce@, first proposed by Mr Nurratt, in his Genera of North
American Plants, consist of Monotropa and Hypopithys
(which ought tobeagain united to Monotropa, being not sufli-
ciently distinct from it),and his new genus Pterospora. 'These
in many respects approach near to Pyrola, both in habit and
characters, and especially as there is a leafless species of Py-
rola ; but the manner of emitting their pollen is totally dif-
ferent, not being by pores, but by lateral fissures. The
- anthers of Monotropa are not, as Mr Nutrtaut has sup-
posed, unilocular, although, after shedding their pollen,
and from the peculiar mode of emitting it, they appear to
be so: they are flat and circular, furnished with two very
short obtuse horns at their base, and emit their pollen
by two transverse fissures on their internal surface. Those
of Pierospora, on the contrary, shed their pollen by longi-
tudinal fissures, and have two very long subulate horns at
their base. ‘This plant appears to be the link between these
two sections. ;

The whole genus being Sane natural, I have pre-
ferred retaining it entire. I have separated the whole into
two divisions, and these I have again subdivided into sec-
tions. The first division contains the largest portion of the
- species, consisting of those the valves of whose capsules be-
gin first to open at the base, with their margins connected
with an intricate fine tomentum, with alternate leaves, and

999 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

flowers disposed in racemes. The second division consists
of such as have the valves of their capsule beginning to
open first at the top, and their margins unconnected by any
kind of tomentum ; with verticillate leaves; flowers solitary;
or corymbose. ‘This division contains only four species,
subdivided into two sections. To the first section belongs
P. uniflora ; and to the second belong P. umbellata, ma-
culata, and a new species P. Menziesii. These three last
constitute the genus Chimaphila of Pursu, the Chimaza
of Mr Brown. I have, however, preferred considering
them as a section rather than a distinct genus. They differ
chiefly from the other species by their stipitate filaments,
by the valves of their capsule opening first at the top,
with their margins destitute of the connecting tomentum,
and the lobes of the receptacle being bipartite: these two
last characters they have in common with P. wnifiora.
The style, which, in P. wmbellata, is immersed in the
germen, is very short in maculata, so as to be just
distinguished from it; but, in P. Menziesti, which is
very nearly related to the last, it 1s perfectly distinct
from the germen. Their general habit has been much
msisted on as a just reason for their separation; but this
difference in habit is not near so striking in them as in P.
uniflora and aphylla, and yet the flowers of the latter are
so like those of the rotundifolia, that unless for a slight
difference in the lacinize of the calyx, they might readily
be confounded.

The species of this genus are extensively diffused through
the northern Hemisphere. In the Temperate Zones they are
chiefly met with in mountainous situations, some of the spe-
cies, such as P. uniflora and secunda, extending to consider-
able elevations: in ie Frigid Zones, on the contrary, they
are only to be found in bho! lowest and narrowest plains ad-
jacent to the sea, and are never met with in these regions

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 293

beyond the limit of trees. Most of the species extend across
the Continents of Asia, Europe, and America. ‘There are
specimens of secunda and wniflora in the Banksian Herba-
rium, from the islands on the north-west coast of America:
The P. picta of Smit is found on the north-west coast of
America, and in mountainous situations in Japan. Some
species, however, are of more limited diffusion: thus, P.
asarifolia, maculata, and elliptica, have only been found in
- North America. The P. dentata, Menziesii, and occidenta-
lis, are still more confined, being only found in particular
districts.

Their favourite places of growth are woods, especially
old pine and birch forests, and bushy places, and moun-
tainous heaths, in a dry light soil, particularly that formed
from decayed vegetables, mixed with a great proportion of
siliceous earth.

All the Pyrolze are possessed of a strong astringent qua-
lity, and were formerly much esteemed for supposed heal-
ing properties: they are now wholly disused. The P. ma-
culata, however, is deserving of the attention of physicians,
and is held in great esteem among the Indians of North
America, who call it, according to Mr Pursn, Sip-tisewa.
This botanist tells us, that he has witnessed the beneficial
effects of a decoction of this plant, in a very severe case of
hysterics; and I am credibly informed its decoction has
proved very serviceable in scrofulous diseases.

994 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA-

<a
PYROLA, TYournef. Linn. Juss.
CuimMaPHILa, Pursh; Cuimaza, Brown.
Linn. Syst. DEcANDRIA MONOGYNIA.
Nat. Ord. Ericka. § 1. Hricece vere.

Cuar. Essent. Calyx 5-partitus. Petala 5. Anthere
basi foraminibus 2 hiantes. Stigma 5-lobum. Capsula 5-
locularis. Placente lunate. Semina anguste scobiformia,
utrinque alata. Embryo transversus.

Character prolatus Generis.

Calyx parvus, 5-partitus, persistens. Petala 5, hypogyna,
imbricatim conniventia, caduca. Stamina 10: filamenta
subulata, hypogyna, raro (in Chimaphila) stipitata: an-
there 2-lcculares, foraminibus 2, seepitis tubulatis, ad basin.
hiantes, postmodd inverse. Pistillum 1: ovariwm globo-
sum: stylus simplex, seepius clongatus, nune raro vix ullus:
stigma 5-lobum. Capsula globosa, 5-locularis, 5-valvis,
medio loculorum singulorum 5-fariam dehiscens: valvts
margine tomento tenuissimo seepius intricate connexis. Pla-
cente 5, lunatae, spongiosee, simplices v. bipartite, axi cen-
trali 5-angulo inserts. Dissepimenta axis centralis angulis
adnata. S‘emina numerosissima, minuta, angusté scobifor-
mia, basi apiceque alata, funiculo umbilicali per medium
placentis adnata: testa simplex, reticulata, membranacea,
laxa, fuscescens: albwmen carnosum, subrotundum, album.
Embryo transversus, minutus, niveus, in albuminis extre-
mitate umbilicali: cotylcdones breves, crassee, obtuse: ra-
dicula brevissima, crassa, obtusa, umbilicum spectante.

Hab. veget, — Herb vel suffrutices, sempervirentes,
humiles, radicibus late repentibus. +Folia’ petiolata, alterna,

MONOG GRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA: 225

terna, vel rarids verticillata, glabra, sepiis nitida, coriacea,
crenulata, dentata aut serrata. Scapi crecti, squamis paucis
sparsis instructi, sepiis triquetri vel 4-anguli, convoluti.
Flores pedicellati, bracteati, pendult, globosi vel campanu-
lati, s. rard patuli, albi aut roset, im racemis stve corym-
bis terminalibus dispositi, raro (in P. uniflora) solitarie.

CONSPECTUS SPECIERUM.

Divisio Il.—Capsule valvarum marginibus, tomento te-
nuissimo intricate connexis, a basi dehiscentibus. Fo-
his aliernis. Floribus racemosis.

Ws 1 — Stamina ote ade qua: Stylus declinatus, pe-
talis longior. Stigma annulatum.
Scapi erecti. Flores campanulati, racemosi, pendult,
undique versis v. rarius subsecundi.

1. P. rotundifolia, foliis subrotundis integerrimis crenu-
latisve coriaceis petiolo dilatato brevioribus, scapo triquetro,
laciniis calycinis lanceolatis acutis, stigmate clavato obtusé
5-dentato.

2, P. asari ifolia, foliis reniformibus coriacels repando-
_ crenatis petiolo dilatato duplo brevioribus, scapo acute tri-
quetro, racemo multifloro, laciniis calycinis ovatis acumina-
tis appressis, stigmate clavato: disco elongato 5-dentato.

8. P. chlorantha, foliis orbiculatis retusis obsoleté cre-'
nulatis petiolo angusto duplo brevioribus, racemo pauci-
floro, laciniis calycinis brevissimis obtusis, petalis oblongis,
foraminibus antherarum tubulosis, stigmate clavato: disco
elongate 5-lobo.

VOL. ¥. Pp

296 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

A. P. occidentalis, foliis subrotundis membranaceis ob-
soleté denticulatis petiolo simplici duplo longioribus, racemo
paucifloro, laciniis calycinis oblongis obtusis, stigmatis disco
5-lobo.

5. P. elliptica, felis ellipticis ovatisve membranaceis ser-
rulatis petiolo dilatato lengioribus, racemo paucifloro, brac-
teis lanceolato-subulatis apice recurvis, laciniis calycinis
brevissimis: mucronulo recurvo, petalis ovalibus, stigmate
clavato: disco elongato 5-lobo.

6. P. dentata, foliis cuneato-oblongis coriaceis basi acutis
margine remoté dentatis integerrimisve petiolo angusto du-
plo longioribus, racemo elongato multifloro subsecundo,
petalis ovalibus, stigmatis disco elongato 5-lobo.

7. P. picta, folus ovalibus mucronulatis coriaceis subser-
ratis petiolo angusto equantibus subtus rubris supra fas-
clis pallidis, racemo plurifioro undiqué verso, petalis subro-
tundis, stigmate clavato: disco 5-lobo.

8. P. aphylla, aphylla; scapo angulato basi crebré squa-
moso, racemo multifloro subsecundo, laciniis calycinis ovatis
acutis crenulatis, petalis subrotundis, stigmatis disco elon-
gato 5-crenato.

Sect. 2.—Stamina erecta, versus pistillum inflexa. Sty-
lus decurvus, petalis longior. Stigma exannulatum.

Scapi erecti. Flores racemosi, globosi, penduli, un-
diqué versi.

9. P. media, foliis orbiculatis subrotundo-ovalibusve cre-
nulatis coriaceis petiolo dilatato aquantibus, scapo acuté
triquetro spirali, racemo multifloro, laciniis calycinis ovatis

acutis, stylo decurvo, stigmate capitato obtuse 5-lobo.
ay

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 297

SECT. 3.— Stamina erecta. Stylus rectus. Stigma exan-
nulatum.
Scapi erecti. Flores penduli, racemost.

10. P. minor, foliis subrotundis ovalibusve coriaceis re-
pando-crenulatis petiolo dilatato longioribus, racemo spi-
cato, bracteis pedicellis multo longioribus, laciniis calycinis
brevissimis, stylo incluso, stigmate planiusculo 5-lobo.

11. P. secunda, folius ovatis acutis membranaceis arguteé
serratis petiolo angusto longioribus, racemo unilaterali, la-
ciniis calycinis rotundatis, petalis oblongis, stylo exserto,
stigmate planiusculo 5-lobo.

Divisio 11.—Capsule valvarum, marginibus tomento
destitutis, ab apice dehiscentibus. Foliis ternis verti-
cillatisve. Floribus solitariis, corymbosis umbellatisve.

Sect. 1.—Petala patentia. Stamina patentia, per paria
approximata, petalis opposita. Pistillum rectum.
Folia ¢erna. Scapi wniflori.

‘12. P. unifiora, flore solitario, antherarum foramimibus
clongato-tubulosis, stigmate acute TNS foliis orbicu-
latis serratis.

Sect. 2.—Chimaphila (Chimaza, Brown). Petala re-
flexo-patula. Filamenta stipitata: stipitibus in mem-
branam circinatam superné dilatatis. Antheraruwm_fo-
raminibus elongatis, tubulosis. Stylus brevissimus aut
ovario immersus. Stigma late orbiculatum: disco 5-

‘ fisso.
i PQ

228 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

Suffrutices. Folia ferna vel quaterna, sive pluria
verticillata. Flores corymbesi.

13. P. wmbellata, foliis cuneato-lanceolatis serratis qua-
ternis senisve, pedunculo pubescente corymbifero, brac-
teolis lineari-subulatis, appendicibus filamentorum ciliatis,
stylo immerso. :

14. P. maculata, foliis lanceolatis acuminatis inciso-
serratis discoloribus oppositis ternisve, pedunculo pubes-
cente corymbifero, bracteolis linearibus, appendicibus fila-
mentorum lanatis, stylo brevissimo.

15. P. Menziesii, folus alternis ternisve lanceolatis acu-
minatis serratis discoloribus, pedunculo glabro bifloro, brac-
teolis laté rotundatis, laciniis calycinis ellipticis acutis, stylo
distincto.

HISTORIA SPECIERUM.

Divisio PrRima-
Srcr. I.

1. P. rotundifolia, folus subrotundis integerrimis crenu-
latisve petiolo dilatato brevioribus, scapo triquetro, laciniis
calycinis lanceolatis acutis, stigmate clavato obtuse 5-den-

tato.

P. rotundifolia, Linn. Sp. Plant. 567. — Pall. it. 3. p. 287.—Poll. pal.
n. 395.—Georgii Fl. baikal. p. 214,.—F]. Kamtsch. in Arct. Zool. p.
195...\§%Retz Obs. l. p, 17.—Hoffm. germ. 143.—Krocker Siles. 2.
p- 12.—Roth. germ. 1. 181. 11. 462.—Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 621. (ex-
clus. synon. Fl. Dan, et Blackw. t. 594.)—Smith, brit. 2. p. 444. (ex.
clus. synon. F]. Dan. et Raii Synop.)—Eng. Bot. t. 213.—-Lam. En-
cycl, 5. p. 741,—Illust. t. 367. fig. 1. (mala).—Mich. Amer. 1. p. 251.
—-Persoon, Syn. 1. 483.<.Wahlenb. lappon. 110. ejusd. Fl. Carpath.:
144,.—-Pursh, Amer. Sept. ]. p, 299..eDe Card. Syn. Fl. Gall. 249..

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 229

P. grandiflora, Rad. Diss. p. 27, t. 3, f. 2.

P. staminibus adscendentibus, pistillo declinato, Linn. Suec. 330.——Mat.
Med. 212.—Ameen. Acad. 1. p. 156.—Gmel. Sib. 4, p. 128. n, 15.

P. staminibus et pistillis declinatis, Fl, Lapp. 169.

P. foliis subrotundis, tubis recurvis, Hall. Helv. n. 1010.

P. foliis integerrimis, Vir. cliff. 37.—Roy. lugdb. 440.

P. foliis subrotundis, scapo racemoso, Hort. Cliff. 162.

P. rotundifolia major, Bauh. pin. 191. Hist. 3. p. 2. 535.

Pyrola, Ger. em. 408.—-Camer. Epit. 723.

P. folio rotundo, Riv. t. 137. (bene), et t. 136. fig. 2. (optima).

P. vulgatior, Clus. Hist. 2. 116.—Moris. sect. 12, t. 10. f. Je

Limonium, Fuchs. Hist. 467.

Limonium sylvestre, Frag. Hist. 707.

Round-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat in dumetis ac sylvis antiquissimis montosis Asiz,
Kurope, et Americe Borealis. ¥Y. (v. v.c. ets. sp.)

Radix late repens. Folia pluria, alterna, erecta, subro-
tunda vel subrotundo-ovalia, obtusissima, coriacea, integer-
-yima s. remote crenulata, glabra, lucida. Petiola dilatati,
2-3 pollices longi, margine membranacei, pagina foliorum
seepius duplo longiores. Scapi solitari, palmares v. spi-
thamei, s, rarius ultra, erecti haud convoluti, triquetri,
squamis 2-3 lanceolatis acutis muniti. Racemus erectus,
elongatus, 10-16-florus, Pedicelli subremoti, recurvati, un-
dique versi. Bractee ovato-lanceolate, mucronate, scario-
see, fuscze, pedicellis longiores. Flores campanulati, majus-—
ceuli, lactei. Calycis lacinie lanceolatee, acute, petalis paulo
breviores. Petala orbiculata, subecarnosa. Stamina adscen-
dentia, petalis breviora: filamenta glabra, albo-virescentia,
basi laté dilatata: anthere flavee, foraminibus sessilibus
aperientes. Pistidlum petalis duplo longius; stylus decli-
natus, incrassatus, recurvus: stigma superne assurgens,

annulatum : disco convexo, subrotato, obtuse 5-dentato,

The present species is much the largest of the whole ge-
nus. ‘The leaves are round, or roundish-oval, coriaceous,
entire, or crenulated ; the petioles are flat, and dilated oftea

230 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

twice the length of the leaves. ‘The scape is triquetrous,
never convolute. The raceme is erect, elongated, 12 to 16
flowered ; flowers distant, cernuous, white, without any tinge
of red, larger than those of P. media, emitting a fragrant
smell, particularly in serene warm weather. The P. rotundi-
JSolia has very frequently been confounded with the media of
Swartz, which is much the most common, at least in Great
Britain. The figures of Flora Danica, and BuacKkweE tt, and
the synonym of Ray, and perhaps also those of Hupson and
WitTHERING, belong to P. media. 'The P. rotundi iolia is
certainly not found in the places enumerated by the two
last-mentioned authors, but only P. media and minor. It
differs from media by its longer stamens, which are directed
to the upper part of the corolla; its style bemg twice longer,
declined, with a thickened recurved apex ; the stigma being
annulate, with a 5-toothed disk ; the lacinize of the calyx be-
ing lanceolate; the petals being white, without any tinge
of red. ‘The scape is never convolute, as in media. The
leaves often scarcely exceed in length the half of the petioles.
In the figure in English Botany, the flowers are erro-
neously made to spread too much, and the petals acute:
the ees also are quite too short.

2. P. asarifolia, foliis reniformibus coriaceis repando-
crenatis petiolo dilatato duplo brevioribus, scapo acuté tri-
quetro, racemo multifloro, laciniis calycinis ovatis acumina-
tis appressis, stigmate clavato: disco elongato 5-lobo.

P. asarifolia, Mich. Amer. I. p. 251.—Lam. Encycl. 5. p. 743.—Per-
~ soon, Synop. 1. 483,—Pursh, Amer. Sept. 1. p. 299.

Asarum-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat m pinetis Canadz (Micuaux, Pursn), im sylvis
fagorum montosis Pennsylvanie. Pursu. ¥%. (v.s. in

Herb. Lamb.)

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 231

Radix repens. Folia pluria, seepius reniformia, coriacea,
glabra, lucida, repando-crenata. Petioli 2~-3-unaales, dila-
tati, margine membranacei, pagina foliorum duplo longiores.
Scapi palmares, acute triquetri v. spithamei, squamis paucis
scariosis convolutis instructi. Racemus elongatus, multiflorus.
Pedicellt, remoti, undique versi. Bractee lanceolate, acu-
minatee, pedicellorum longitudine. lores globosi, cernui,
albo-virentes, magnitudine P. rotundifolia. Calycis lacinie
ovate, acutee, appressee. Petala orbiculata. Stamina ad-
scendentia, petala sequantia: jfilamenta glabra, alba, basi
dilatata: antheree flavee, basi vix fissee: foraminibus sessi-
libus. Pistillum stamimibus duplo longius: stylus declina-
tus: apice adscendens, clavatus, annula cinctus. Stigmatis
discum elongatum 5-dentatum.

The leaves of this species appear to me to be subject to
some slight variations ; but in the true state they-are of a
reniform shape, nearly about the size and form of those of
Asarum europeum: this remarkable character, if constant,
would alone have been sufficient to distinguish it from
every other species, The plant itself, is about the size of
P. rotundifolia, which it greatly resembles in the figure and
disposition of its flowers, which are of a greenish-white
colour. 'The above description is taken from very fine spe-
cimens, collected in Upper Canada by the late Mr Pursu,
author of the Flora of North America, during his travels
in 1815. It is but justice to his memory, as a botanist, to
state, that, if he had lived, he intended to publish a Flora
of Canada, for which he had collected ample materials :
_ these are now in the possession of A. B. Lambert, Esq.
Mr Norra tt, in his little work, has erroneously confound-
ed it with the following species.

3. P. chlorantha, folis orbiculatis retusis obsoleté crenu-

232 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

latis petiolo angusto duplo brevioribus, racemo paucifloro,

eee ee bs Cha ° e ° ° ‘
laciniis calycinis brevissimis obtusis, petalis oblongis, fora-
minibus antherarum tubulosis, stigmate clavato: disco elon-

gato 5-lobo.

P. chlorantha, Swartz, Stock. Trans. 1810. p. 190. t. o.—Nutt. Gen.
Amer. 1. p. 273.—Bart. Fl. Phil. p. 202.

P, convoluta, Bart, Prod. Fl. Phil, p, 50,

P, asarifolia, Rad. Diss, p. 23, t. 4. f, 1. (exclus. synon. Mich. yt

Vege rotundifolia, 6 nummularia, Muhl. bat.

P. minor, Eae=b, MSS. et forté FI. Amer. Sept. 1. p. 299.

Small-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat in Suecié (Swartz), in Canada Superiore, Pursu.
%. (v. s.in Herb. Pursh. nunc in Mus. Lamb.)

Radix repens. Folia patentia, subcoriacea, orbiculata,
seepe omnium minima, glabra, lucida, margine obsoleté cre-
nulata, apice retusa. Petiolt anguste lieares, pagina folio-
rum duplo longiores. Scapi stricti, palmares, tetragoni,
nudi, totum Poa squama minuta solitarié medio instructi.
Racemus brevis, 5-G-florus. Pedicelli decurvati, bracteis
Janceolatis acutis longiores, undique versi. Flores campanu-
lati, magnitudine P. elliptice, albo-virentes, penduli. Calycis
dentibus brevissimis, semi-ovatis, obtusis, appressis. Petala
oblongo-ovalia, staminibus longiora. Stamina adscenden-
tla: filamentis glabris, basi dilatatis : antheris basi bilobis,
foraminibus elongatis tubulosis aperientes. Pistillwm sta-
minibus duplo longius : stylus declinatus, adscendens, su-

perne incrassatus : stigma annulatum, disco elongatum, 5.
lobum.

4. P. occidentalis, foliis subrotundis membranaceis ob-
soleté denticulatis petiolo simplici duplo Jongioribus, race-
mo paucifloro, laciniis calycinis oblongis obtusis, sligmatis

disco 5-lobo.

P. occidentalis, Brown in Herb. Banks.

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 9333

Habitat in ore occidentalis Americz borealis Insula

wig dicta. Netson ¥. (v.s. in Herb. Banks.)

Radix repens. Folia numerosa, Beroruna: membrana-
cea, obsolete denticulata, reticulatim venosa, duplo minora
quam P. minore, utrinque viridia. Petioli sesquipollicem
longi, paginam foliorum duplo excedentes. Scapus erectus,
gracilis, filiformis, 5-pollicaris, triqueter. Racemus 3—5-
florus. Pedicelli decurvati, bracteam ovato-oblongam acu-
tam equantes. Flores globosi, pendull, lactei1, magnitudine
P. rotundifolia. Calycis lacinie oblonge, obtuse, petalis
fere duplo breviores. Petala orbiculata, reticulatim venosa,
staminibus longiora. Stamina erectiuscula: jilamenta gra-
cilia: anthere breves, foraminibus sessilibus hiantes. Pis-
tillum petalis mults longius: stylus declinatus, apice incur-
vus: stigma annulatum: disco brevi, 5-lobo.

The above species has been determined, and named by
Mr Brown, in the Banksian Herbarium; from excellent
specimens collected in Sledge Island, on the north-west
coast of America, by Mr Davin NEtson, an industrious
botanist, who accompanied Captain Coox in his third
voyage, and who has enriched the Banksian Herbarium
with numerous specimens of new plants, collected by him in
those regions. It resembles P. minor in general habit, but
is much smaller, and possesses characters widely different.
It cannot be confounded with P. chlorantha. The long tu-
bular pores of the anthere of the latter, with its oblong
petals, and very short lacinize of its calyx, as well as its co+
riaceous orbicular retuse leaves, and other enumerated dis-
tinctive marks, abundantly separate it.

5. P. elliptica, folis ellipticis ovatisve membranaceis ser-
rulatis petiolo dilatato longioribus, racemo paucifloro, brac-
teis lanceolato-subulatis apice recurvis, laciniis calycinis

\

934 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

brevissimis: mucronulo recurvo, petalis ovalibus, stigmate
clavato: disco elongato 5-lobo.

P. elliptica, Nuttall, Pl. Amer. bor. 1. p. 273.—Rad. Diss. p. 81. t. 5. f. 1.
P. ovalifolia, Pursh, MSS.

Oval-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat in Americ Septentrion, sylvis, nempe in Phi-
Jadelphia et Nova Sarniaé (Nutratt), in Canadia utraque
Pursu. ¥. (v.s. in Herb. Lamb.)

Radix prorepens. Folia patentia, oblongo-ovalia, obtusa
aut rarius ovata, mucronulata, membranacea, tenuiter ser
rulata, glabra, lucida, basi attenuata. Petiole unciales, aut —
sepius ultra, pagina foliorum multo breviores, margine
membranaceo-dilatati. Scapus erectus, gracilis, acute tri-
queter, 5-pollicaris, nudus, nunquam convolutus, squama 1
scariosaé juxta basin instructus. Racemus 5—-6-florus. Brac-
tee lanceolato-subulate, pedicellis breviores, apice recur-
vate. Pedicelli decurvi, undique versi, distantes. lores
campanulati, minores P. rotundifolia, albi, odorem gra-
tum spirantes. Calycis lacinie brevissime, semi-ovate,
mucronulatee: mucronulo recurvo. Petala ovalia, stamina
subzequantia. Stamina adscendentia: filamenta glabra, basi
late dilatata: anthere flavee, basi vix fissee: foraminibus
sessilibus. Pestillwm staminibus duplo longius: stylus de-
clinato-adscendens, superne incrassatus: stigma clavatum
annula cinctum, disco elongatum 5-lobum.

The present species is much smaller than P. rotundifolia.
The leaves are membranaceous, finely serrulated, oblong-
oval, sometimes ovate, with an attenuated base, much longer
than the petioles. Scape very slender, generally about 5 or
6 inches high. Raceme few-flowered. Lacinize of the calyx
very short, semi-ovate; apices of them, as well as of the
bracteze, mucronulate, recurved. Petals oval, equal to the

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 235

stamens in length, which are all directed to the upper part
of the corolla. Anthers yellow, opening at the base by two
sessile pores. Style declined, apex ascending, double the
length of the stamens. Stigma clavate, annulate; with an

elevated 5-lobed disk.

6. P. dentata, folis cuneato-oblongis coriaceis basi acutis
margine remote dentatis integerrimisve petiolo angusto du-
plo longioribus, racemo elongato multifloro subsecundo, pe-
talis ovalibus, stigmatis disco elongato Blobe.

P. dentata, Smith in Rees’ Encycl: “4

Cuneiform-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat in Insula orz occidentalis Americe Borealis,

Nootka dicté. Menzies. 7/. (v.s. in Herb. Banks.)

_ Radix repens. Folia conferta, erecta, oblongo-cuneata,
coriacea, glabra, nitida, basi acuta utrinque viridia: mar-
ginibus remote dentatis integerrimisve. Petioli angusté li-
neares, pagina foliorum duplo terve breviores. Scapi
erecti, palmares pedalesve, angulosi, nudi. acemus elon-
gatus, 12-16-florus, secundus, apice cernuus. Pedicelli de-
curvati, bracteas ovato-Janceolatas acutas superantes. Flores
campanulati, cernui, lactei. Calycis lacinie breves, ovate,
acutiuscule. Petala laté ovalia. Stamina petalis longiora,
adscendentia: filamenta plana, basi dilatata: anthera lu-
teze, foraminibus sessilibus urceolatis aperientes. Pistillum
staminibus longius: stylus declinatus, apice incurvus: stig-
ma annulatum, disco elongatum, 5-lobum.

This species varies both with entire and dentated leaves.
The figure of its leaves alone 1s sufficient to distinguish it

from every other species of the section.

Y. P. picta, foliis ovalibus mucronulatis coriaceis subser-
yatis petiolo angusto aqualibus subtis rubris supra fas-

236 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

ciis pallidis, racemo plurifloro undique verso, petalis subro-
tundis, stigmate clavato: disco 5-lobo.
P. picta, Smith in Rees’ Encyel.

Two-coloured-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat in Insula ore occidentalis Americze Septentrio-
nalis, Nootka dicta (Mrnztss), in montosis Japoniz, prope
urbem Nagasacki. 7. (v. s. in Herb. Banks. et Lamb.)

Radix repens. Folia ovalia, coriakea, cron AEE sub-
serrata, glabra, subtus rubra, supra intense viridia, ad
venas fascié pallida notata. Petiols angusti, sesqui v. bi-
unciales, paginam foliorum subsequantes. Scapus erectus,
palmaris, acute triqueter, rubicundus, nunquam convolutus,
squamis scariosis munitus. Jacemus pluriflorus. Pedicellt
recurvi, undique versi, bracteis lanceolatis acutis breviores ;
inferioribus remotis. Flores globosi, campanulati, penduli,
albi. Calycis laconic ovate, acute, appressze. Petala sub-
rotunda, concava, carnosa. | Stamina adscendentia, petalis
breviora: filamenta alba, glabra, basi late dilatata: anther@
flavee, basi parum fissee, foraminibus sessilibus dilatatis
hiantes. istillwm staminibus duplo longius: stylus decli-
nato-adscendens, superne crassior: stigma clavatum, annu-
latum: disco vix elongato, 5-lobo. | |

It differs from the preceding, with which it has consider-
able resemblance ; by the form of its leaves, which are oval,
mucronulate, red underneath, dark-green on the upper sur-
face, and marked along the veims with whitish bands, as in
P. maculata ; those of the preceding are oblong, cuneiform,
toothed towards the apex, or quite entire, green on both
sides. The petioles are much longer, equal, and sometimes
exceeding the length of the pagina or dilated portion of the
leaf. The scape is acutely. triquetrous, mostly about a span
high. The raceme is fewer flowered. The pedicels are

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 237

shorter than the bracteze. The teeth of the calyx are longer
and more acute. ‘The petals broader, and shorter.

The specimens of this species, in the Banksian Herba-
rium, are from Nootka Island, on the north-west coast of
America, where they were collected, along with several
other new species, in VaNncouver’s Voyage, by my kind
friend A. Menzixs, Esq., an acute and industrious botanist.
Those in the Lambertian Herbarium are from Japan, and
were taken in a Dutch prize, whose cargo was sold in Lon-
don: these appear to me not to differ in any material points
from those in the Banksian Herbarium.

8. P. aphylla, aphylla; scapo angulato basi crebré squa-
moso, racemo multifloro subsecundo, laciniis calycinis ova-
tis acutis crenulatis, petalis subrotundis, stigmatis disco
elongato 5-crenato.

P. aphylla, Smith in Rees’ Encycl. ~~ + »

Leafless Wintergreen.

Habitat in Insula ore occidentalis Americe Borealis,
Nootka dicta. Menzies. y. (v. 8. in Herb. Banks.)

Radix repens; superne divisa. Scapi plures, crassiusculi,
palmares s. ultra, erecti, glabri, angulati. Folia nulla, nisi
squame numerose, foliaceze, alternze, lanceolate, acute,
virides, coriaceze, integerrime; alie scariosee, per scapum
remoté sparse. Racemus 8—12-florus, subsecundus. Pedi-
celli decurvatt bracteas ovato-lanceolatas acuminatas sub-
gquantes. Flores globusi, penduli, lactei. Calycis lacinié
ovate, acute, crenulate. Petala subrotunda. Stamina
adscendentia, petalis multo longiora: filamenta plana, bast
dilatata: anthere oblongee, flavee, foraminibus dilatatis
breve tubulosis aperientes. Pistidlwm staminibus longius :.
stylus declinato-adscendens : stigma annulatum, disco elon-
gatum, 5-lobum.

938 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

This remarkable species, although wholly destitute of
real leaves, is not, strictly speaking, leafless; their place is
supplied by a kind of foliaceous scales, of a greenish colour,
coriaceous, lanceolate, acute, entire. In some of the fine
specimens preserved in the Banksian Herbarium, an ap-
proach to leaves may be distinctly observed. ‘This cireum-
stance appears to me to confirm the opinion entertained by
some botanists respecting the nature of the scales on the
scapes of Monotropu, Orobanche, Orchides, &c. consider-
ing them as analogous to leaves, or, more properly, abortive
ones.

Sect. 2.

9. P. media, foliis orbiculatis subrotundo-ovalibusve cre-
nulatis coriaceis petiolo dilatato gequantibus, scapo acute
triquetro spirali, racemo multifloro, lacints calycinis ovatis
acutis, stylo decurvo, stigmate capitato obtuse 5-lobo.

P. media, Swartz in Act. Holm. 1804, p. 257. t. 7.— Engl. Bot. t. 1945.
(bona).—-Smith, Comp. Fl. Brit. 65.—Rad. Diss, p, 21. t. 3.

P. rotundifolia, FJ. Dan.t. 110.—Blackw. t. 594.—Huds. Angl. p. 175.
—Lightf. Scot. 1. p. 218.—With. Brit. 1. p. 400.

Pyrola, Raii Synop. 363.

Pyrola folio obtuso, Riv. t- 138. (bona).

Intermediate Wintergreen.

Habitat in dumetis et sylvis Suecize, et Angliz borealis ;
necnon in ericetis, sylvis et dumetis presertim montosis
Scotize copiosissimé. Y. (v. v. sp.)

Radix late repens. Folia numerosa, patentia, orbiculata
vel subrotundo-ovalia, plana, crenulata, coriacea, glabra,
nitida. Petiolt plani, dilatati, paginam foliorum equantes.
Scapus erectus, acute triqueter,- spiraliter convolutus pree-
sertim versus apicem, seepius palmaris. acemus brevis,
densus, 12—16 florus. Pedicelli decurvati, undique versi,

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 239

bracteis lancealatis acutis longiores. Flores globosi, pen-
duli, albi, roseo tincti, multo majores P. minore. Caly-
cis lacinie ovate, acuts. Petala lata, orbiculata. Stamina
erecta, versus pistillum semper inflexa, petalis breviora:
jilamenta subulata, basi non dilatata: anthere ovate,
flavee, foraminibus sessilibus dilatatis hiantes. Pistillum
petalis longius: stylus decurvus nunquam adscendens:
stigma capitatum, obtuse 5-lobum, disco depressum.

This plant, which the older botanists, and some of our
modern writers, confounded sometimes with mnor, some-
times with rotundifolia, was first ascertained by the accurate
Swartz, who has given an excellent description and figure
of it in the Steckholm Transactions for 1804. Notwith-
standing the length of time since, and the accurate descrip-
tion and figure there given, very few botanical writers have
adopted it since that period. ‘This is the more remarkable,
as no species can be more distinct. It differs from rotwndi-

Solia by its shorter style, which is curved downwards, not
declined and ascending as in rotundifolia, of an equal thick-
ness. The stigma is exannulate, capitate, 5-lobed, depressed
m the centre. ‘The stamens are erect, shorter than the pe-
tals, and regularly flected towards the style. The petals
are white, tinged with pink. The laciniee of the calyx are
ovate, acute. ‘The flowers are globose, in a much closer
and shorter raceme. 'The scape is acutely triquetrous, and

spirally twisted. The petioles seldom exceed the length of
the leaf.

Sect. 9.

10. P. minor, folus subrotundis ovalibusve coriaceis re-
pando-crenulatis petiolo dilatato longioribus, racemo spicato
bracteis pedicellis multo longioribus, laciniis calycinis bre-
vissimis, stylo incluso, stigmate planiusculo 5-lobo.

940 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

P. minor, Linn. Sp. Plant. 567.—Gort. Ingr. 65.—Georgii FI: Baik.
p> 214.—Scop. Carn. 484.— Poll. Pal. 396.—Fl, Dan. t. 55. (fig. med.)
—Kniph. Cent. 2. 82.—Hoffm. Germ. 143.—Mat. Sil. 1. 293.—
Krocker. Siles. 2. p. 13.—Roth. Germ. I. 181. II. 463.—Willd. Sp.
Pl. 2. p: 621.—With. Britt. 401.—Smith, Brit. 2. p, 444.— Engl. Bot.
t. 158. (pessima.)—Huds. Angl. 176,—Lam. Encycl. 5. p. 742.—Retz
Obs. 1. p. 17.—Lam. Fl. France. 2. p. 580.—Persoon Synop. I. 483.
—Marsch. a Bieb. FI. Taur. Cauc. I. p. 312,—Wahl, Lappon. p. 110,
ejusd. Fl. Carpath. p. 115.—Rad, Diss. p. 15. t, 1.

P. rosea, Engl. Bot. 2543. (bona), Smith.—Comp. FI. Brit. 65.—Rad,
Diss, p. 18, t. 2.

P. rotundifolia, Pall. Ind. Taur.

P, floribus racemosis dispersis, staminibus pistillisque rectis, Linn, FI.
Gotl, 206. Suec. 331.—Gmel. Sib. 4. p. 128. n. 16. t. 56. f. 1.

P. foliis subrotundis, scapo undique racemoso, genitalibus rectis, Aet-
Stockh. 1741, p. 192.

P. foliis subrotundis, tubis rectis, Hall. Helv. n. 1009.

P. minor, Riv. t. 136. fig. 1. (bona.)—Dill. in Raii Synop. 363.

Lesser Wintergreen.
Habitat in Europe frigidioris ericetis, dumetis atque syl-
vis; m Asia septentrional, rarius. 7. (v. v. sp.)

Radix laté repens. Folia numerosa, patentia,; subro-
tundo-ovalia vel elliptica, coriacea, glabra, lucida, viridia,
margine repando-crenulata, apice mucronulata. Pedicli un-
ciales aut seepits ultra, dilatati, pagina foliorum breviores,
margine membranacei. Scapi erecti, 3—4-pollicares, qua-
drangulares, medio squama lanceolata membranacea in-
structi, haud convoluti. Hacemus spicatus, densus, 12-14.
florus. Pedicellt decurvi, bracteis lanceolatis acuminatis
multd breviores. Flores globosi, penduli, albi roseo tincti :
ore coarctato. Calycis lacinie brevissime, semiovate, acu-
te. Petala orbiculata, genitalibus longiora, Stamina primé
basi reclinata, demtm erectentia: filamenta brevia, alba,
-eequalia: anthere subcordatee, flavee, foraminibus sessili-
bus latissimis approximatis apertentes. Péstillwm stamina
eequans: stylus rectus, brevis: stigma peltatum, planius-
culum, retato-5-lobum.

The P. minor is readily distinguished from P. media by
its straight style, equal the length of the stamens, and

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. Q41

shorter than the petals ; by its spiked and closer raceme ; the
pedicels being twice or three times shorter than the bracteze;
the scape being straight, not convolute; the petioles being
shorter than the leaves, which are repandly crenate.

The acute Rivin has given very accurate figures of the
different species of Pyrola, far surpassing those of his pre-
decessors, and even those of most of the modern botanical
writers who have noticed them. He was the first who dis-
tinguished the P. media, of which he has given a very cha-
racteristic figure, under the name of P. folio obtuso.

The figure of P. minor, in English Botany, possesses
many glaring faults; the flowers are exhibited as spread-
ing, and the petals acute. ‘These mistakes are the more
remarkable, as we know of no Pyrola with acute petals,
and very few with spreading flowers. The P. rosea of the
same work, however, is a very good representation of the
present plant. :

11. P. secunda, folus ovatis acutis membranaceis arguté
serratis petiolo angusto longioribus, racemo unilaterali, laci-
niis calycinis rotundatis, petalis oblongis, stylo exserto,
stigmate planiusculo 5-lobo.

F. secunda, J.inn.—Sp. Plant. 567.—Pall. it. Sib. 3, p. 319.—Falk. Rus-
sis. Topog. 2. p. 177.—Scop. Carn. n, 485.—Poll. Pal. n. 397.—Fl.
Dan. t. 402. {mala.)—Huds. Angl. 176.— Lightf. Scot. p. 219,—-Olaus
it. Island. p. 814.—Hoffm. Germ. 143.—Mat. Siles. 1. 293.—Krocker,
Siles. 2. p. 13.—Roth. Germ. I. 181. 11. 463.— Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 621.
—With. Brit. 401.—Smith Brit. 2. p. 445.—Engl. Bot. t. 517. (media.
—Mich. Amer. 1. p. 250.—Lam. Fl. Fr. 2. p. 529,—Lam. Encycl. 5.
p- 742.—Persoon Syn. 1. 483.—Marsch. a Bieb. Fl. Taur.-Cauc. 1.
p. 313.—Geners. Elench. n. 361.—Besser. Galiz. n. 489.—Wahlenb.
Lapp. p. 110. ejusd. Fl. Carpath. p. 115.—Pursh Amer. Sept. 1. p. 299.

P. racemo unilaterali, Linn. Suec. 332.—Hall. Helv. n. 1008.—-Gmel.
Sib. 4. p. 129. t. 56. f. 2. (pessima.)

P. floribus uno versu sparsis, Linn. Lappon. 168.

P. folio mucronato, Riv. t. 138. f. 2.

P. folio mucronato serrato, C. Bauh. Pin. 181.—Tournef. Inst, 256.—

_ Raii Synop. 363.—-Moris. Hist. 1. sect. 12. t. 10. f, 4.

P. folio serrato, J. Bauh. Hist. 3. p. 2. 536. -

P. secunda tenerior, Clus. Hist. 2. p. 117, (fig. bené.)—Ger. em. 408.

Ambrosia montana, Dalech. Hist, 1148.

VOL V. , Q

2942 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

Serrated-leaved Wintergreen.

Habitat mm dumetis et sylvis alpmis presertim pinetis
muscosis siccis, Europe, Asiz et Americe boreales copiose.
bh: (v. v. sp.)

Radix repens. Caules plures, 3—4-unciales, sublignosi.
Folia ovata, acuta cum mucronulo, tenuitér ac arguté ser-
rata, submembranacea, glabra, supra lucida, venis reticulatis
conspicua, nunc basi acuta, nune rotundata. Petiolt uncia-
Jes, angusté lineares, simplices, pagina foliorum breviores.
Pedunculus erectus, obtuse angulatus, 3—86 - pollicaris,
squamis 4 v. 5 oblongo-ovatis margine scariosis crispulatis
instructus. acemus elongatus, multiflorus. Pedicellt uni-
laterales, decurvato-penduli, bracteis oblongis acutis vix
longiores. Flores campanulati, albi, viridi pallido tincti.
Calycis lacinia brevissimx, rotundate, obtuse, margine
membranacex, lacerate. Pectala oblonga, stamma sub-
zequantia. F%ilamenta subulata, alba, primo bicurvata, de-
mum erectentia. Anthere subtetragonee, 4-sulcze, foramini-
bus sessilibus latissimis aperientes. Stylus semper porrec-
tus, staminibus petalisque longior. Stigma planwsculum,
5-lobum, disco depressum. tas

Divisio SECUNDA,
Sect. I.

12. P. unifiora, flore solitario, antherarum foraminibus
elongato-tubulosis, stigmate acute 5-dentato, folis orbicu-

latis serratis.

P, uniflora, Linn.— Sp. Plant. 568.— Pall. it. 3. p. 287.— Gort. Ingr. 66.
—Georgi Fl. Baikal. p. 124.—Scop. Carn. n. 486.— Poll. Pal. n. 399.
—F]. Dan. t. 8. (bona.)—Hoffm. Germ. 144.— Mat. Siles. 1. 296.—
Krocker Siles. 2. p. 15.—Roth. Germ. I. 181. I]. 464.— Willd. Sp,
Pl. 2. p. 622.—With. Brit. 401.—Smith Brit. 2. p. 446.— Engl. Bot.
t. 146. (media.)—Mich. Amer. 1. p. 251.--Lam. FI. Frane. 2. p. 529.
—Lam, Encycl. 5, p. 743,—Persoon Synop. 1. 483.—Geners., Elench.

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 243

n. 363. Besser. Galiz. n. 490.—Wahlenb. Lappon. p. 110. ejusd. Fl.
Carpath. p. 115.—Pursh Amer. Sept. 1. p. 299. —

P. scapo unifloro, Linn. Fl. Lapp. 167.—Suec. 334.—Gmel. Sib. 4.
p- 129. n. 19,—Hall. Helv. 1011. it. Hercyn. n. 21,

P. rotundifolia minor, C. Bauh. Pin. 191.

P, minima alpina, J. Bauh. Hist. v, 3. p. 2. 536,

P, singulari fore ampliore, Moris. Hist. 3. p. 505. sect 12. t. 10. £.2.(bené.)

P. flore singulari, Riv. Pent. Irreg. t. 139. f. 1. (bona.)

P. quarta minima, Clus. Hist. v. 2. 118.—Ger. em. 408.

Single-flowered Wintergreen.

Habitat im sylvis alpinis muscosis Europze, Asize et Ame-
ricee Septentrionalis copiose. Y%. (v. sp.)

Planta omnibus minor. Radix repens. Folia patentia,
terna raritis quaterna, orbiculata, membranacea, glabra,
serrata, reticulatim venosa, petiolo dilatato longiora. Sca-
pus erectus, filiformis, gracilis, 3-4 pollicaris, squama ovata
supra medium instructus. Flos magnus, solitarius, cernuus,
albus, odore fragrantissimo gaudens. Calycis lacinie ovales,

_ obtusze, petalis triplo breviores. Petala laté ovalia, patentia,

multinervosa, staminibus duplo longiora. Stamina per pa-
ria, approximata, recumbentia, petalis opposita: filumenta
dilatata: antheree farcte : foraminibus elongatis, tubulosis,
incurvis. Pistillum staminibus longius: stylus rectus, cras-
sus: stigma magnum, acuté 5-dentatum.

Sect. 2. CHIMAPHILA.

13. P. wmbellata, folus cuneato-lanceolatis serratis qua-
ternis senisve, pedunculo pubescente corymbifero, brac-
teolis lineari-subulatis, appendicibus filamentorum ciliatis,
stylo immerso.

- P, umbellata, Linn.—Sp. Plant. 568.—-Poll. Pal. n, 398.—Hoffm. Germ.

144.—Mat. Siles. 1. n. 295.—Krocker Siles. 2. p. 14.——Roth. Germ.
1. 151. II. 464.— Willd. Sp. Plant. 2. p. 622.—Mich. Amer. I. p. 251.
—Lam. Encycl. 5. p. 744.—Bot. Mag. t. 778. (optima.)—~Persoon Sy-
nop. 1. 483.

Chimaphila corymbosa, Pursh Amer. Sept. 1. p. 300,

Chimaza umbellata, Brown in Herb. Banks,

P. pendunculis subumbellatus, Linn. Suec. 333.—Gmel. Sib. 4. p. 129.
Sib, 4. p. 129. n, 18,

P. folio arbuti, Riv. Pent. t. 139, f. 2. (bona.)

a2

244 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS P¥ROLA.

P. fruticans arbuti folio, C. Bauh. Pin. 191,—Tournef. Inst. 256.—
Moris. Hist. 3. sect. 12. t. 10. f. 5.

P. fruticans, J. Bauh. 2. p. 536. (icone.)

P. 3. fruticans, Clus. Stirp. Pann. 507.—Hist. p. 117. (icone bené.)

Umbel-flowered Wintergreen.

Habitat in sylvis glareosis et sabulosis Europe, Asie et
e gaia 33 a2 ye x EY > 4 : 4
Americe frigidioris. ,. (v. v. c. ets. sp.)

Planta frutescens, sempervirens. fadiw prorepens. Cau-
les erecti, 4_pollicares v. seepe palmares, teretes, glabri, viri-
des. Folia 4—6-verticillata, utrinque viridia, cuneato-lan-
ceolata, coriacea, glabra, lucida, reticulatim venosa, mareme
e medio ad apicem acute ac distanter serrata, petiolis sexies
longiora. — Pedunculi recti, rubescentes, teretes, 3—4-pol-
heares, 5-6-flori, pube brevissima undiqué densé tecti-
Flores corymbosi, penduh, demum erectentes, viridi-albi,
rubro tincti. Calycis lacinie rotundatee, margine fimbriatee.
Petala 6, orbiculata, concava, imbricatim conniventia, mar-
gine tenuissimeé ciliata. Stamina brevia: filamenta subu-
lata, purpurea, stipitata: stipitem disco plano circimato,
margine ciliato: anthera violacese : foraminibus tubulosis
ora revoluta. Ovariwm viride: stylus ovario mamersus :
stigma virens, late dilatatum, convexum: disco 5-fisso.

14. P. maculata, foltis lanceolatis acuminatis mciso-ser-
ratis discoloribus oppositis ternisve, pedunculo pubescente
corymbifero, bracteolis lmearibus, appendicibus filamento-
rum lanatis, stylo brevissimo.

P. maculata, Linn. Sp. Plant. 568.— Mill. Dict. n..4.— Willd. Sp. Plant,
2. p. 622.— Mich. Amer. It. p. 251.—Lam. Eneycl. 5. p. 743.— Per-
soon Synop, 1. 483.—Bot. Mag. t. 897. (optima.)

© €himaphila maculata, Pursh Amer. Sept. 1. p. 300.— Nuttall Gen. Plant.
“Amer. bor. 1. p. 275.
~ Chimaza maculata, Brown in Herb. Banks.

P. petiolis apice bifloris vel trifloris, Gron. Virg. 48.

‘P. Marilandica minor, folio mucronato arbuti, Pet, Mus. 675.

P. Mariana, arbuti foliis angustioribus, trifoliata ad medium nervum ti-
nea alba utrinque per longitudinem discurrente, Pluk. Mant. 197. t.
349. f. 4.

Spotted Wintergrcen.

MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA. 246

Habitat im Americ: borealis sylvis arenosis. h. (Vv. v.'c.
et s. spont.)

Planta suffrutescens, sempervirens. ftadia prorepens.
Caules procumbente - adscendentes, 8—4 pollices longi,
plabri, teretes, rubri. Folia opposita aut Gen one breve
petiolata, lanceolata, acuminata, basi obtusa, raritis ovato-
lanceolata, coriacea, glabra, lucida, margine inciso-serrata,
serraturis distantibus, acutis; pugind superiore fascia alba
ad nervum medium et venas notata; inferiore rubra. “Pe
dunculus cylindricus, pubescens e medio foliorum ‘ortum
ducens, 3—4-pollicaris. Uibella varius corymbus, Q-3-
flora. Pedicelli uniflori, calycesque rubri, pube brevi glut
nos4 tecti, bracteolis linearibus ad medium instructi. F'lo-
res penduli, candidi. Petala subrotunda, concava, ad ex-
pansionem reflectentia, margine tenuissime fimbriata. La-
comic calycine rotundato-ovatee, ciliate. Filamenta bre-
via, subulata, viridia stipitata: stipetwm disco.circinato, vil-
losissimo. Antherw lute: foraminibus tubulosis ora’ re-
voluta. Ovarium globosum, viride: stylus brevissimus dis-
tinctus: stigma virens, orbiculatum, convexum: disco 5-
fisso. a Vareaula

15 P. Menziesti, foliis alternis ternisve lanceolatis acu-
minatis serratis discoloribus, pedunculo glabro bifloro, brae-
teolis late rotundatis, laciniis calycinis ellipticis acutis, stylo
distincto.

P. Menziesii, Brown in Herb. Banks.

Menzies’s Wintergreen.

Habitat 1» Americ ora boreali-occidentali. Mrnzrigs,
h. (v.s. in Herb. Banks. et Lamb.)

Planta suffrutescens, sempervirens. Radix repens. Cau-
les superne adscendentes, 2--3 pollices longi, teretes, gla-
bri, rubm. Folia lanceolata, acuminata, coriacea, gla-

¥

2946 MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS PYROLA.

bra, nitida, brevissimeé petiolata, basi subacuta, margine
approximato-serrata, supra intensé viridia, immaculata,
subtus rubra. Pedunculus erectus, gracilis, filiformis, ses-
qui v. biuncilis, glaberrimus, ruber, apice dichotomus,
Q-florus. Pedicelli glabri, gracillimi, uniflori, bracteolo laté —
rotundato infra medium instructi. Flores penduli, candidi.
Lacinia calycine ellipticee, acute, glabre. Petala ovalia
ad expansionem reflectentia, Filamenta brevia, viridia:
stipitum disco circinato, barbato. Antheree oblonge : fora-
minibus tubulosis, ora recta haud revoluta: stylus viridis,
brevis precedente duplo longior: stigma virens, hemis-
_ phericum: disco 5-fisso.

In the Lambertian Herbarium, I had ascertained this to
be a species distinct from P. maculata; and on examining
the genus in the Banksian Herbarium, I was glad to find
it confirmed as such, by its being previously determined
and named by Mr Brown.

It certainly has a striking resemblance to P. maculata,
and without careful examination might readily be over-
looked for that species. The plant, however, is much
smaller. The leaves are somewhat acute at the base, never
spotted on the upper surface, and often alternate,—a cir-
cumstance which I have never remarked in maculata. ‘The
peduncles are much slenderer and shorter, quite smooth,
never bearing more than two flowers. The laciniz of the
calyx are oblong-ovate, acute, quite smooth, as well as the
pedicels. ‘The bracteze are very different from those of
maculata, being broad and round. The petals are oval.
The appendage of the filaments is not so hairy. The
tubular pores of the antherze have a straight margin, never
revolute as in P. umbellata and maculata. The style is
much longer, and somewhat elongated from the germen.
The stigma is smaller, and hemispherical.

XITI.—Descriptions, Characters, and Synonyms
of the different Species of the Genus Larus,
with Critical and Haplanatory Remarks.

By W. Macciuuivray, A. M.,
‘Member of the Medical Society of Aberdeen, and Corresponding Member of
the Wernerian Society.

(Head 10th January 1824.)

oareE NES

a nee

Tuere is scarcely a genus of birds im which more
confusion has reigned than in that which forms the subject
of the present memoir. To those versed in the study of
birds, and especially to those who have laboured to acquire
a knowledge of the species which are found in our own
country, no apology is necessary for an attempt to dissipate
the uncertainty and doubt which every one experiences on
comparing the specimens which he may have precured with
the descriptions of authors. ‘T’o the student alone, it may
be necessary to observe, that the species of gulls, forming
a very natural genus, and being, in many cases, most close-
ly allied in manners, in colour, and in size,—and, moreover,
presenting much particular diversity, chiefly with respect
to plumage at different ages, in the same species, together
with a strong general resemblance in different species dur-
ing the first years,—are very difficult to distinguish by a

248 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

mere examination and comparison of specimens, and, still
more so, by attempting to refer them to the species esta-
blished by naturalists.

My object being to exhibit the subject in as clear a light
as possible, I shall, in the first place, give a short but cir-
cumstantial account of the genus considered individually,
and then proceed to the particular species. But previous
to this, it will be proper to observe, that the paper, such as
it is, Owes its existence to Professor JamMEson, who, aware
of the uncertainty that prevails in this very interesting ge-
nus, wished me to attempt its elucidation. The specimens,
which have furnished the principal materials of this neces-
sarily imperfect memoir, form part of the splendid collec-
tion of birds in the Museum of the University; the de-
scriptions are in all cases taken from actual specimens, and
the specific characters elaborated without any reference to
those of authors. For the variations exhibited in the young
birds, as well as information on other points, I have trusted
unplicitly to 'TeEmmincx and Montacu: wherever infor-
mation has been derived from other sources, it will be faith-

a acknowledged.

Larus, GuLL.

Natural: Generic Character.—Beak of moderate length,
straight, compressed, the sides rounded, the edges bent in-
wards and sharp; the upper mandible declinato-incurvate
at the end, sharpish ; under mandible forming a prominent
angle near the end, at the junction of its crura, obliquely
truncate and grooved internally at the tip. °

Nostrils lateral, mesial, longitudinal, linear, with the fore-
end rounded, open, perforated.

THE GENUS LARUS. 240

Feet rather slender, moderately long, bare above the
knee: tarsi squarish, plates anteriorly, covered behind and
at the knee with hexagonal scales: toes, three hefore, the
middle one of moderate length, all palmate to the end, hind
toe (sometimes wanting) very small, elevated ; claws slightly
arcuate, shortish, bluntish, increased interiorly into an edge.

Wings long, the first quill longest, the second nearly
equal ; nae: longish. 3

Tail equal or slightly rounded, of twelve facies,

Note.—In the larger species the beak is very deep, and
the knob or protuberance of the lower mandible very dis-
tinct; the beak becomes shallower and more attenuated,
and the knob nearly disappears in the smaller species.
With regard to the tail, there are two remarkable and op-
posite exceptions; the one existing in the Larus Sabini,
which has the tail furcate, like tisk of a Tern; the other-
in L. roseus *, in which it is subcuneate, the middle feathers
being considerably longer, the rest graduated.

Physiognomy.—In their general appearance, the Gulls
are intermediate between the diving aquatic birds and the
Grallz, and their manners correspond with this character.
The head is large, the beak moderately long, the neck
shortish, the body deeper than broad, the wings long, the
tail moderate, the feet somewhat slender, and bare a little
above the knee. They are clothed with a very fine elastic
plumage, plentifully supplied with down. The predominat-
ing colours are pure white, pale greyish-blue tinged with
purple, deep slate-purple, and various tints of brown.
There is no difference between the sexes in point of colour :
the females are somewhat smaller.

* The name given pro tempore to a new species of gull, discovered by the
last Arctic expedition, but which is to receive its proper designation from
Dr Rrcwarpson. —

250 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

Manners.—The gulls are in general voracious, noisy and
timid birds, which seek their subsistence along the shores
or on the surface of the sea. They are incapable of diving,
although they swim with ease; and their appearance upan
the water is much more elegant than on shore, owing to
their peculiar lightness, and the superior agility which they
then display. They are much upon the wing; their flight
is strong and buoyant ; and, when flying, they utter a loud
cry, more or less deep or shrill, according to the sizeof the
species, and divided by short intervals. In their state of
repose, they contract the neck, and generally draw one foot
up. They perform a singular action with their feet upon
the sands, patting then repeatedly with considerable cele-
rity, and at the same time retirmg backwards: the object
of this action is not well understood, though it may be pre-
sumed to be the discovery of worms or other animals con-
cealed in the sand. In winter they congregate in large
flocks, at the mouths of rivers, or on the sands, as well as
in the breeding season, when they form a more promiscuous
assemblage.

Food.—T heir food consists of every thing indiscriminate-
ly that they can obtain, without the exercise of courage or
address, from the flesh of dead cetacea to the smallest worm.
They break open the shells of crabs with their beaks, and
those of cockles, by letting them fall from a sufficient height
in the air. As they do not swim, their mode of catching
fishes is by darting upon them as they approach the sur-
face; for this purpose they pursue the shoals of herrings
and sand-eels (Ammodytes Tobianus’ ; but their usual sup-
ply of fish is derived from those which are casually thrown
upon the beach. Young birds also fall a prey to the larger
species. In stormy weather gulls sometimes leave their
ordinary haunts, and proceed inland, especially in spring-

THE GENUS LARUS. 251

time, to pick up the larve and worms exposed by the

plough.

Breeding.—Nothing is known with precision in regard
to the period of incubation. Their nests are composed of
dried grass, arranged in a slovenly manner, and deposited
in a superficial cavity in the turf, or not unfrequently on
the bare rock. ‘The number of eggs is generally three,
The young are at first covered with a very fine thick down:
they leave the nest very soon after exclusion, and secrete
themselves in crevices, or behind stones; but they do not
take to the water till they are fully fledged. The young
birds are mottled with dull-grey, and brownish; the beak
and feet, as well as the iris, are at first dark, and become
lighter as the bird advances in age: the full and perma-
nent plumage is not acquired in general till the third year.
After this, at the autumnal moulting, the head and neck
in many become streaked with pale brown lines, which dis-
appear in spring.

Country.—This genus is not confined to any particular
portion of either the Old or New Continent, being found
everywhere, along the shores, from the frozen regions of
the North to those of the South Pole, and appearing equally
in the Torrid Zone. Their partial and general migrations
have not been sufficiently explained.

Uses.—In the economy of Nature, one of the principal
uses of these birds may be to clear the coast of animal re-
mains, which would otherwise produce a noxious effect. by
putrefaction ; in the same manner as the vultures, crows,
and eagles, perform this office in the interior of the conti-
nents and islands. ‘This may in some degree explain their
general diffusion. . With regard to man, they do not seem

952, ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

to be of much immediate importance. Their flesh is tough,
generally lean, and disagreeable in taste and flavour: the
young and the smaller species, however, are eaten occasion-
ally in the outer Hebrides, and probably in other countries.
Their plumage, if it could be procured in sufficient quan-
tity, is much superior to that of most other aquatic birds,
for the ordinary purposes to which feathers are applied.

A ffinities.—However the Gulls may be placed in the sys-
tems of ornithologists, their true position in the system of
Nature is evidently between the Petrels or Albatrosses and
Terns. There is a striking affinity, on the one hand, be-
tween the Diomedca exulans, or Procellaria glaciahs, and
the Larus marinus, or argenteus ; and, on the other, be-
tween the Larus Sabini and minutus, and the Sterna hi-
rundo and minuta. The four genera, in fact, form a very
natural family, closely allied in aspect and in manners.
The genus Lestris, which is by many considered as identi-
cal with the present, and by others as at least most closely
allied to it, I would net even place within several degrees
of affinity. ,

It has been customary to divide the species of this genus
into large and small, giving the former the name of Goe-
lands, and the latter that of Mouettes, terms which have
their equivalents in the English words Gulls and Mews.
This division, altogether arbitrary, and having no founda-
tion in nature, I would reject. Perhaps a better mode of
division might be derived from the prevailing colour of the
mantle or back,—or, which would be more eligible, from
the form of the tail, which is even, or furcate, or cuneate.
In the latter case, however, the second and third divisions
would contain but a single species each. It is better to
consider the whole as one undivided genus, commencing
with the short and deep-billed species, such as L. bathy-

THE GENUS LARUS. 953

rinchus and marinus, which are also among’ the largest,—
and endmg with those in which the bill is most attenuated,
such as L. minutus and roseus, which are the smallest spe-
cles of the genus. :

1. Larus bathyrinchus, Great-billed Gull.

L.. rostro pone apicem utrinque gibbo, rubro, dorso alis-
que ardcisiaceis |, remigibus caudzeque sub apice fas-
cid nigris. :

Adult.—Beak shortish *, very deep, much compressed,
eibbous in the lateral view both above and below beyond
the middle, ochre-yellow to the fore part of the nostrils,
bright-red at the end: length 23 inches, depth at the knob
Linch. ‘ Irides and corner of the mouth bright scarlet.
Feet ereenish-yellow ?,” claws blackish-brown; tarsus 2%
inches long, middle-toe * 2% inches. Wings reaching to a
little beyond the tip of the tail, Total length 242 inches,
extent 52 inches. Back and wings slate-purple; primaries
brownish-black, from the seventh primary to the last se-
condary quill the tips white, forming a terminal bar, which
is broadest in the middle; the rest of the plumage snow-
white, with the exception of a band of brownish-black
across the tail near the end, including the whole of the
feathers, excepting the outer, which have only the shaft
~shghtly marked. Variations dependent upon age, incuba-
tion, manners, uses, &c. unknown.

1 Brown, with a little ash-grey and red, upon a blackish basis.
2 Not quite so long as the head.

3 Parkinson.

4 Yncluding the nail.

954 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
Country.—Coasts of New Holland.

Distinctive Characters.—'This species, although one of
three that are equally black or purple backed, is easily dis-
tinguished by the remarkable depth and gibbosity of the
beak, as well as by the dark band across the tail.

Synonyms.—Larus leucomelas, ''umm. Man. d’Ornith.
P. 1. p. 760, note.—L. marinus, Latuam, Ind. Orn.
i. p. 813.—Black-backed Gull, Latu. Gen, Syn. vi.
p- 871: it bemg in all probability the species which
ParKINSON mentions in his Journal, as occurring up-
on the coast of New Holland; and which LatHaM,
being unacquainted with the L. bathyrinchus, as above
characterised, naturally supposed to be the followmg
species. Parkinson’s words are, “ a large black and
white Gull, with a bright yellow beak, on the gibbous
part of which was a spot of scarlet; the corners of its
mouth and.irides of the eyes were of a bright scarlet
colour, the legs and feet a greenish yellow.” Parxtn-
son’s Journal, p. 145.

Remarks.—The above description is taken from a spe-
cimen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, and
agrees in all essential respects with that given by 'T=m-
MINCK, from a specimen in his own possession. It may
not be amiss to subjoin the character as given by himself.
« Larus leucomelas, ViEitLt. Beak very strong, short, sud-
denly bulging toward the end; nostrils ovoidal; the whole
plumage of a pure white; mantle and wing black; the
tail white, having toward the extremity a broad band of a
deep-black colour; primary quills all black; beak yellow,
point reddish; feet yellow; length of the tarsus 3 inches.
Total length 23 inches.” Man. d’Ornith. p. '760, note.

THE GENUS LARUS. 955

The name lewcomelas is evidently improper, bemg equal-
ly applicable to this and the two following species, which
are all Asuxopcauves; bathyrinchus expresses the most essen-
tial characteristic of the species, and is therefore a better
name. |

2. Larus marinus, Carrion Gull.

L. rostro superne leniter aucto, dorso alisque ardoisia-
cels, pennis apice albis, prioribus quinque (vel inter-
dum sex) nigricantibus, alis cauda brevioribus.

Adult, Winter Plumage.——Beak, shortish, very deep,
much compressed, slightly gibbous above, wine - yellow
tinged with gamboge, a bright orpiment spot at the knob
of the lower mandible; length 2$ inches, depth at the
knob jths. Naked margin of the eyes red, iris yellow
marbled with brown. Feet flesh-colour, claws brownish-
black ; tarsus 3 inches, middle-toe 3 inches. Wings a little
shorter than the tail; total length 28 inches, extent 60
inches. Back and wings slate-purple; quills white at the
end; first quill nearly all blackish-brown, this colour ex-
tending obliquely inwards to the fifth quill, a small spot
on the outer web of which only is black; a whitish mark
on the inner webs within the black; shaft of first quill
nearly white to the middle, of the others corresponding
with the colour of the webs. The rest of the plumage
snow-white. A few short longitudinal pale brownish streaks
on the back of the head and neck; a number of black

bristles about the fore-part of the eye.

Adult, Summer Plumage. — Beak bright yellow, an
orange spot on the lower mandible, irides fine yellow, eye-
lids red-orange, legs flesh-coloured; head and neck pure
white; the rest of the plumage as in summer.

250 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

N. B. The above description of the adult im winter is
from a specimen in the Museum. There is commonly a
black bar across the white, at the end of the second quill.
The markings of the first primaries vary somewhat, the
oblique bar of blackish extending sometimes to the fourth,
&e. In one specimen, the largest that I have seen, and
apparently a very old bird, the beak was 3 inches long, 14
deep at the knob; tarsus 32, toe 32; total length 28, ex-
tent 62.

Nidification, &c.—Lreeds along the shores, sometimes
(in the outer Hebrides at least) retirig mland to a con-
siderable distance from the sea, to nestle in the islands of
lakes. Nest generally made in a superficial cavity in the
turf, or sometimes on the bare rock, composed of grass and
sea-weeds, with occasionally a few feathers. Eggs, accord-
ing to TEmMincx, three or four, of a very deep olive-green,
marked with some large and small spots of dark-brown. I
have never seen more than three eggs in a nest. In the
Islands of Harris, the nests are commonly constructed of
the cespitose roots of Statice Armeria and dried grass, and
’ are usually pretty perfect.

Young Bird, fully fledged.—Beak deep black ; iris and
naked circle brown; feet of a livid colour; head and fore-
neck greyish-white, with numerous brown spots, largest
upon the neck; feathers of the upper parts dark-brown in
the middle, edged and tipped with reddish-white; trans-
verse bars of this colour on the wing-coverts, lower parts
dull grey, with broad zigzag lines and spots of brown;
middle tail-feathers with more black than white, lateral
black toward the end, all edged and tipped with whitish ;
quills blackish, a little white at the tip. TEm™.

|

THE GENUS LARUS. 957

First Winter Plumage.—Beak bluish black ; the extreme
tip, and a small portion of the base of the under mandible
dusky horn-colour ; iris and naked circle brown; feet flesh-
colour, tinged with pale blue, inclining to verdigris green
about the knee; claws blackish-brown. Head light grey,
streaked with pale brown; throat greyish-white: ocular
bristles blackish ; back confusedly mottled with hair-brown,
on a brownish-white basis, tinged with yellow, in patches
increasing in size and deepness of tint downwards; wings
mottled m the same manner, but the brown deeper, ap-
proaching to liver-brown ; primaries, primary-coverts, and

_ secondaries, blackish-brown. ‘The arrangement of dark

colour on the back is in single spots on each feather, which
also. prevails on the wing-coverts; but the quill-coverts have
the immer webs brown, with processes to the number of four

shooting into the light colour of the outer webs, the inter-
- vals ash-grey. The bases of the back feathers are pale

ash; their edges and tips of the ground colour described
above. On the rump and tail-coverts, white predominates ;
tail-feathers white at the base, with irregular spots and
blotches ; deep-brown predominates at the end, but is irre-
gularly encroached upon ; the side-feathers nearly all white.
The whole under-surface whitish, tinged with ash and yel-

low, with very pale brown spots; under-wing-coverts mottled,

brownish-ash and pale brown; axillaries brownish-ash at.
the base, with irregular bands of pale brown towards the
end. The specimen from which this description is taken,
is in the possession of Mr Joun Witsoy, and was killed in
January 1824.

Second Winter Plumage.—Beak deep-brown, tinged with
blue toward the end, the tip horn-colour, the base, espe-
cially of the under mandible, yellowish, tinged with brown ;
angle of the mouth, and naked margins of the eyes yellow-

VOL. V. ae

958 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

ish; feet more decidedly flesh-colour; fore part and sides
of: the head, fore part of the neck, ‘and under surface in
general pure white ; a few pale brown’spots still remaining
on the sides, the axillaries, and’ under-wing-coverts: nearly
as before ; ground-colour of the head and hind neck white, -
slightly tinged -with ash, streaked with pale brown ; ocular
bristles black ; back confusedly mottled with pale brown and
yellowish-white, tinged with ash and purplish-brown, having
somewhat of a transverse direction; there bemg several
bars on-each feather, the tips still whitish, those of the sca-
pulars white to a considerable extent; wings deeper than
the back, hair-brown, tinged with grey and a little purple,
the spots arranged in irregular bars; the tips and. inter-’
vals reddish-white, tinged with brown ; primaries blackish-
brown; secondaries pale brown, tinged with grey, and
tipped with white; the proximal ones barred with deep
brown and: whitish at the end ; rump and tail-coverts
whitish, shghtly mottled with pale brown ; tail-coverts near-
ly all white, with a few very deep brownish-black spots and
patches ; an irregular bar of the same deep brown at the
end, the tips whitish. This description is also taken from
a specimen, for which I'am indebted to Mr Jonn Wixson.

At the age of two years.—After the autumnal moulting,
the back and wings begin to assume their deep colour;
they are’ then of a deep purplish-brown, variegated with
irregular brown and grey spots; the tail is marbled with
brownish ; the beak assumes the red spot, with black in the
middle; the rest is a livid yellow, patched with black.
TEMM.

At the third autumnal moulting, the plumage is com-
pleted. Trmm.

Country.—Inhabits the north of Europe and America,

THE GENUS LARUS. 259

extending from the Arctic Circle to the Temperate regions,
Very abundant in the Hebrides, Orkney and Zetland
Islands. T’emminck observes, that it is common on the
coasts of Holland, France, and England, on its passage ;
but Montacu remarks, that it occurs on the coast of
Wales at all seasons, which it also does in the Hebrides.
According to TEmMinck, it is seen, though not abundant,
on the Mediterranean; and LatuHam makes it extend to
the Cape of Good Hope, and even to New Holland; but
whatever the Cape bird may be, the New Hela one is
undoubtedly the L. bathyrinchus.

Manners and Food.—It is oAataally shy, unless when
enticed by food, or in the breeding season. Like the other
species, it is commonly seen along the shores, and, when
reposing, takes care to choose a place where it cannot rea-
dily be surprised, such as a rocky eminence, the middle of
an extensive beach, or the bosom of the sea, at a little dis-
tance behind the breakers. It flies strongly, and, when
soaring, utters a sort of loud, somewhat hoarse cackle, not
unlike the sounds of a short Jaugh. Its common food is
fish; but scarcely any thing comes amiss to it, and it also
devours young birds. In the outer Hebrides, where it is
very abundant, and where its indiscriminating voracity is
proverbial, it is often seen searching the hills and heaths
for carrion, which it eats in company with the eagle and
raven. According to Montacu, it is a great enemy to the
fishermen, and will tear and devour the largest fish from
the hooks, when left dry by the ebbing tide.

Distinctive Characters.—It is distinguished from the
preceding species by its superiority in size, by the different
form of bill, the want of the black bar on the tail, &c. For

R2

260 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

its comparison with the following spectes, I refer to the
distinctive characters of this latter.

Adult Synonyms.—Larus marinus, Lin. Syst. Nat. 1.
p- 225; Gmel. Syst. 1. p. 598; Fab. Fauna Green.
p- 102; Lath. Ind. Orn. nu. p. 813; var. «; Temm.
Man. d@’Orn. ii. p. 760.— Black-headed Gull, Lath. Genl.
Syn. vi. p. 371; Penn. Brit. Zool. u. p. 172; Arct.
Zool. 1. p. 527.—Great Black-backed Gull, Mont.
Orn. Dict.—Young. Wagel Gull, Lath. Syn. vi. p.
375, Penn. Brit. Zool. uu. p. 182; Arct. Zool. 1. p.
528.—Larus nevius, Gmel. Syst. 1. p. 598.—Larus
marinus, var. y, Lath. Ind. i. p. 814.

Remarks.—The specific name marinus, usually applied
to this gull, is a very absurd one, all gulls being essentially
marini, and this having no claim to a peculiar appropria-
tion of the term. ‘The English name of Black-backed is
also a very unfortunate one, as may be seen by referring to
the description of the preceding and following species.

3. Larus fuscus. Dusky Gull.

L. rostro superne leniter aucto, dorso alisque cmeras-
centi-ardoisiaceis, pennis apice albis, prioribus quin-
que nigris, extera sub apice albo notata, alis cauda
longioribus.

Adult, Winter-Plumage.—Beak moderate, deep, much
compressed, slightly gibbous above, as well as below, lemon-
yellow, a bright orprment spot at the knob; length 24
inches, depth of the knob §ths. Naked circle of the eyes
red- -orange, iris very pale yellow. Feet bright gamboge-
yellow, claws brownish-black ; tarsus 2? eS toe 93.

THE GENUS LARUS. 261

Wings about 2 inches longer than the tail. Total length
23 inches, extent 46 inches. Back and wings deep brownish-
purple, with a tinge of ash-grey. Four first primaries
brownish-black, this colour extending, but diminished in
extent, to the sixth or seventh; shafts corresponding with
the colour of the webs; a white spot near the end of the
first ; the rest of the primaries tinged with grey ; the whole
with more or less white on the tip, sometimes obsolete on
the first and second, and very narrow on the next three;
secondaries, and some of the scapularies, white at the end ;
the rest of the plumage pure white; a few longitudinal
short streaks of very pale brown on the head and back of
the neck.

- Adult, Summer Plumage.—The same as in winter, only
that the brown streaks have disappeared. TEmm.

Note.—The greater part of the quills are often truncate,
with the shaft exserted, in which case the white tip of the
primaries is reduced to a mere line. Most authors, and
with the rest Temminck, LatHam, and Monracu, de-
scribe a spot of white near the end of the first and second
quills. In the specimens which I have seen, it was only
the first that had this spot.

Nidification.—Nest composed of withered plants, and
placed in situations similar to those chosen by the preced-
ing species ; according to Tremmincx on the sands also, or
on sand-banks. Eggs two or three, brownish-grey, spot-
ted with black; according to Montacu, they are so like
those of the L. argenteus as not to be distinguishable; that
is, dark olive-brown, with dusky blotches. The young,
according to Montagu, are covered with brown down, mot-

tled with dusky.

962 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

Young Bird of the first year—Beak brown at the base, .
and black toward the tip; feet dull ochre-yellow. Throat
and fore part of the neck whitish, with longitudinal streaks
of pale brown; neck and under parts whitish, almost en-
tirely covered with large spots of very deep brown; upper
parts and wings, with the feathers blackish-brown in the
middle, margined with a narrow yellowish band; tail-fea-
thers at the base pale grey marbled with black, the rest
blackish-brown, excepting the tips, which are whitish;
quills deep black. TEmm. 3

Other stages not known with certainty, though sie may
be inferred to be analogous to those of the preceding spe-
cies.

Country.—This species is found in summer im all the
northern parts of Europe and America; in England, and
on the Baltic. In autumn, on its passage southward, is seen
on the coasts of France and Holland; more common on the
Mediterranean than the preceding species. TEM.

Manners and Food.—The manners of this species are
pretty similar to those of the last. Like it, also, it some-
times proceeds to a considerable distance inland in quest of
food. Montacu observes, that it is much less numerous
than the preceding species.

Distinctive Characters.—In the adult state this species
is distinguished from the preceding, by its great inferiority
of size, by the greater proportional elongation of the beak,
by the bright yellow colour of the feet, those of the other
being pale flesh-colour, by the different tint of the back and
wings. We have as yet no good distinctive characters be-
tween the young of this species and of the L. angenteus,
which are nearly equal in size. Monracu professes to be

' YLHE GENUS LARUS. 263

unable to discriminate between them; and TEemmincKk
passes over the subject 'in silence. The young of all the
large gulls known by the older writers have been variously
confounded by them, and indifferently described under
various names, such as Wagel, L. neevius, &e.; all which
it were better entirely to forget.

Synonyms.—Adult. Larus fuscus, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii.
') qpo8155 \would,appear te be var. 6 of L. marinus of
» the same author, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 814; Temm. Man.

»POrn. 1. -p. 767.—Less Black-backed Gull, - Mont.
Orn.-Dict.—Silvery Guill, Lath. Syn. vi. p..375.

Remarks.—The term argentatus signifies properly, not
silvery, but silvered ; that is, denotes, not the.colour of -
silver, but a deep brown or. blackish colour, with a shade
or washing of whitish or light grey upon it. In this sense
itis commonly taken by the French naturalists; take, for
example, le Renard argentée (Canis argentatus), the fur
of which is described as ‘‘ de couleur noir, a laquelle se. mele
guelque peu de blanc.” Dusmar. Looking, upon the word
argentatus in this light, some have applied it as.a specific
name to the present species. . Others, considering it as ex-
pressive of a tint resembling that of silver, and observing
that this tint does not belong to the species in question,
have applied the name of argentatus to. another species,
giving to the present that of fuscus. This difference of
opinion with regard to the true signification of the term,
has given rise to a good deal of confusion. The name of
argentatus is fully as applicable to the. present, species as
that of fuscus; but as Temmincx retains the latter, after
Linnavs and others, it may as well remain.

264 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF.

4. Larus argenteus. Selvery Gull.

L. rostro superne leniter aucto, dorso alisque coerulescenti-
perlaceis, pennis apice albis, rectricibus quinque ni-
gris, alis cauda longioribus.

Adult, Summer Plumage.—Beak moderate, deep, com-
pressed, slightly gibbous above, gamboge-yellow along the
edge of the upper mandible, diaphanous at the tip and
margins of both mandibles, the rest wine-yellow, a deep
reddish - orange spot on the under; angle bright red;
length 2 inches, depth §ths. Iris pale yellow, margin
of the eyes yellow. Feet flesh-colour, claws blackish-
brown ; tarsus 24 inches long, middle toe 2%. Wings about
an inch and a half longer than the tail. Total length 24
inches, extent 50. Back and upper surface of the wings
pearl-grey, with a good deal of blue; a broad oblique
blackish-brown band passing over the five first quills, se
large on the outer as to include nearly the whole, dimiish-
ing to the fifth, on which there is merely a bar near the
end; second quill with a black bar across the white of the
tip; the colour of the shafts corresponding with that of the
webs. ‘The rest of the plumage snow-white.

Adult, Winter Plumage.—Head and neck marked with
longitudinal streaks of pale brown; in other respects the
same as in summer.

Nidification, &c.—Nest in a superficial cavity in the turf,
or on the bare rock, along the shores, and especially in
rocky islets, composed of withered grass, and sometimes a
few feathers, commonly pretty perfect. Eggs 3, placed ir-
regularly, olive-green, sometimes with a good deal of ash-

THE GENUS LARUS. 265

grey, blotched and spotted with brownish : there is a con-
siderable variation in the ground-colour, as well as in the
form of the markings and their tints.

It has not been the custom with ornithologists to observe
the young birds before they have left the nest. I have be-
fore me a specimen (the examination of which I owe to the
liberality of Dr Ricuarpson), from the last. expedition
under Captain Parry, which is about a week old, and is
marked “ Young of L. argentatus, 17th August 1821,
Duke of York’s Bay ;” the tip of both mandibles is wine-
yellow, the rest of the beak pale brown; the feet dusky,
the claws yellowish. The whole body is closely invested
with a dense, long, and very soft down, greyish-white on
the breast and belly, of a deeper tint on the rest, mottled
with brownish-grey, the spots on the head deepest.

Young Bird, fully fledged.i—Head, neck, and under
parts, deep grey, variegated with numerous spots of pale
brown; feathers of the upper parts pale brown in the
middle, edged with a narrow reddish band, tail-feathers
more brown than white, of the latter colour at the base, all
terminated by reddish-yellow; quills blackish-brown, a
little white on the tip; beak blackish-brown, iris and circle
of the eyes brown; feet of a livid brown. TEmm.

From the first year to the autumn of the second year,
all these colours become paler, and the white more extend-
ed; the bill remains dusky, the irides get somewhat paler.
Temm. and Mont.

After the second ‘autumnal moulting, the bluish feathers
of the back make their appearance; the irides get lighter,
inclining to yellow ; the beak becomes yellowish at the base,
the tail mottled with the terminal bar as at first ; the head,
neck, and under parts of the body whitish, streaked with
dusky. Tremm. and Mont.

266 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

At the second spring moulting, the blue of the back and
wings is perfected. ‘TEMm.

After the third autumnal moulting, the head and neck
still streaked with dusky, and the tail marked with a little
dusky down the shafts of the middle feathers. Mownr.

At the fourth autumnal moulting, the tail is perfected,
and the adult winter plumage complete. TEmm.

At the fourth spring moulting, nothing remained to be
perfected, in a specimen kept by Montacu, but the point
of the bill, which was a little dusky; the head and neck
became pure white, as it should do at that season, in the
adult. Mont.

Country.—Abundant in all the cold and temperate parts
of Europe and America, along the shores, and occasionally
appearing along the rivers and on the lakes.

Manners and Food.—This species is more allied in its
manners to the smaller than to the larger species, and does
not, like the latter, feed upon carrion, but pursues, with
the L. canus, and others, the shoals of herrings, and fre-
quents the sands, where it picks up worms, asterize, cockles,
and sand-eels.

Distinctive Characters.—In the adult state, this species
can only be confounded with the L. arcticus, to which I
refer for a minute diagnostic description. The young, be-
fore the blue colour of the back appears, are liable to be
confounded with those of L. fuscus and L. marinus, though
they may always be distinguished from the latter by
their inferiority in size. TEMMINcK does not appear in-
clined to enter upon this subject, and Monracu confesses
his inability to distinguish them in a satisfactory manner.
This therefore remains one of the desiderata in the history
of the genus.

THE GENUS LARUS. 267

Synonyms.—Larus argentatus, ‘Yemm. Man. d’Orn. pt.
i. p. 764.— Herring Gull, Mont. Orn. Dict.

I am sorry that no more synonyms can be given with
certainty : authors have so confounded this, and the L.
Juscus, as well as others, that it were to little purpose to
exhibit a critical view of their blunders.

Remarks.—The adult birds of this species vary consider-
ably in size; the largest which I have seen were 25 inches
in length, and the smallest 22. ‘There is also considerable
variation in the markings of the outer primaries: in some

specimens the black bar of the primaries extends to the
sixth, there being a spot on its outer web, but it usually
terminates on the fifth. A large portion of the ends of the
first and second quills being white, in other specimens
there is a spot of black on the outer web of the first, and a
bar across the second. In a specimen from the last Arctic
Expedition, the primaries are but slightly tipped with
white, excepting the first, of which two inches are white,
with a small brown mark at the end of the inner web, and
a white spot near the end of the second quill. In another
specimen, from the same Expedition, the first quill has a
large spot of white near the end, beyond which a narrow
bar of black, and the tip white; and there is a white spot
on the inner web of ithe second near the end.

The name of argentatus, or silvered, signifying a dark
colour, with a superficial tinge of white, cannot with any
propriety be applied to this species; that of argenteus, or
silvery, I have chosen, as nearly allied to the preceding in
sound, and, although not by any means peculiarly appli-
cable to this species, yet as sufferable as that of marinus
applied to another species, and much for the same reascn.

268 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

5. Larus arcticus. Northern Gull.

L. rostro inferne solum aucto, dorso alisque ccerulescenti-
perlaceis, pennarum versus apicem spatio magno albo,
prioribus quinque albescentibus, alis caudam zequanti-
bus (tarso digitoque 23 pollicum longis).

Adult, Summer Plumage.—Beak moderate, deep, com-
pressed, the upper outline without any prominence beyond
the nostrils, upper mandible exceeding the under by about
5ths of an inch; wine-yellow, diaphanous at the tip and
edges, an orpiment-orange spot at the knob; length 23
inches, depth 3ths. Feet pale flesh-colour ; tarsus 23 inches,
middle toe 23. Wings reaching exactly to the end of the
tail. Total length 253 inches, extent 50. Back and upper
surface of wings pure pearl-grey, with a good deal of blue ;
the outer primaries nearly all white, as well as their shafts,
and the tips of all the quills. The rest of the plumage
white.

Note.—The above description is from a fine specimen
brought by Captain Scorressy junior, from the coast of
Greenland, in the autumn of 1822, and now im the Mu-
seum.

Adult, Winter Plumage, unknown, although from ana-
logy it may be presumed to be distinguished from the sum-
mer only by longitudinal streaks of pale brown upon the

head and neck.

Young.—There is a specimen in the Museum, which
would seem to be the young of this bird; it is from Ork-
ney, and its description 1s as follows:

Beak 17 in. long, {ths deep, black at the end, dusky,

THE GENUS LARUS. 269

with yellow tints at the base. ‘Tarsus 23 long, toe 2%,
yellowish, claws brownish-black. Wings a little longer than
the tail. Total length 23 inches. The plumage is yellowish-
grey, marked with longitudinal streaks of pale brown on
the head and neck, transverse zigzags on the back and
wings, partly substituted on the tail by irregular spots, and
wanting on the first five quills, which are whitish. The
under parts are a confused mixture of ash-grey with pale
brown and yellowish-white.

_ Synonyms.—Larus argentatus, Captain Sabine, Memoir
on the Birds of Greenland, Lin. ‘Trans. vol. xii. pt. 1.

p. 546; Temm. Man. d’Orn. pt. 11. p. 764.

Remarks.—1 can only refer to the above authors with
certainty for synonyms. Mr Enmonpston, in the Memoirs
of the Wernerian Society, vol. iv. p. 501, seems to describe
the present species under the name of Iceland Gull, and,
in fact, exhibited the bird supposed above to be the young
of the first year, as the young of his bird ; which, however,
differs from mine, and 'Tremminck’s and SaBine’s Arctic
varieties, as they consider them, of the Silvery Gull, in
being much smaller in all its proportions. The specimen
described above was considered by Mr ScorEssy as the
true Burgomaster, and named so by him in his last publi-
cation; and it is more than probable that the present spe-
cies is the Burgomaster of navigators, as well as the Larus
glaucus of Fazricius, Laruam, and others. For a fuller
discussion of this point, I refer to the remarks upon the
following species. .

Distinctive Characters.—In point of size, as well as in
regard to proportions, this species is nearly allied to the
preceding, insomuch that it has been considered by Tem-

870 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

MINCK as merely an Arctic variety of it. It differs, how-
ever, in the following particulars. The bill has little or no
protuberance above, which the L. argenteus has, although
in a slighter degree; in L. argenteus, the upper mandible
is very little longer than the under, in L. arcticus it 1s
considerably ; the nostrils are lmear m the former, in the
latter much wider, and almost pyriform; the wings are
longer than the tail in argenteus, of equal length in arcti-
cus; in the former, the five first primaries are more or less
brownish-black, as well as the shafts, the tips abruptly
white; in the latter they are whitish, the bluish colour of
the base decreasing gradually, so that a large portion of
the tips is pure white, as well as the shafts. There is a
much more striking affinity between the present and follow-
ing species, than between it and the preceding: the distin-
suishing characters will be pointed out in the next article.

The young of this species are distinguished from those
of the following, chiefly by their great inferiority im point —
of size; they are distinguished from those of all the other
' great gulls by having no black on the quills or tail, by the
greater lightness of the tints and markings, which agree
with those of the following species.

6. Larus glacialis. Greenland Gull.

L. rostro inferne solum aucto, dorso alisque ccerulescenti-
perlaceis, pennarum versus apicem spatio magno albo,
prioribus quinque albescentibus, alis cauda breviori-
bus (tarso digitoque 3 pollicum longis).

Adult, Winter Plumage.—Beak longish, less compressed
than in the preceding species, without gibbosity above,
wine-yellow, diaphanous at the tip and edges, an orpiment-

THE GENUS LARUS. 271

orange spot at the protuberance of the lower mandible;
leneth 3 inches, depth jths. Iris pale yellow, angle of
the mouth bright red, circle of the eyes straw - yellow.
Legs and feet livid flesh - colour, claws blackish - brown ;
tarsus 3 inches long, toe 3 inches. Total length 31 inches,
extent 62. Wings about two inches shorter than the tail.
Back and upper surface of wings pearl-grey, with a good
deal of blue. Edge of the wing, a considerable portion of
the first primaries, and the ends of all the other quills,
white; shaft of first primary pure white, of the rest gra-
dually tinged with ash. The rest of the plumage snow-
white, Head and neck longitudinally streaked with very
pale brown, being alone the shaft near the end of the fea-
ther. |

Note.—The dimensions of the above are from a specimen
in the Museum. As this individual is not perfectly adult,
having still some pale brown markings on the tail and lower
neck, and being thus probably a bird of three years, I have
rectified the description of the plumage by the examination
of another specimen belonging to Mr Tuomas Torztr.
Both these are from Shetland, and were shet, and presented
by Mr Epmonpston. The dimensions of this latter speci-
men are, beak 2¢ inches long, {ths deep; tarsus 23, toe 23 ;
total length 28 inches.

Adult, Summer Plumage.—According to Capt. SaBine,
whose description agrees with the above, the head and neck
are pure white. |

Young. Beak horn-colour to the fore parts of the nostril,
the rest brownish-black, length 23, depth $ths. (Feet flesh-
colour,) claws lightish-brown ; tarsus 27, toe 27. Total
length 30 inches, extent 60. 'The general ground-colour of
the plumage is pale ash-grey, with a little brown and yellow.
Head and neck marked with longitudinal streaks of very

272 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

pale brown, each of the feathers being of this colour along
the shaft near the end. Upper surface in general marked
with transverse irregular zigzags of pale brown, deepening
toward the tail, each feather being marked with several
alternate bands of whitish tinged with ash and yellow, and
of pale brown, the tip whitish-yellow. On the tail the bars
are partially substituted by irregular spots. Primary quills
irregularly marked with small spots. Under surface con-
fusedly mottled with very pale brown, tinged with aia
and _ yellowish-white.

Note.—The above description is made up from a com-
parison of three different specimens, two of which are in
the Museum, and the third is from the last Expedition
under Captain Parry. The two first are British specimens,
one of them from Shetland, the other supposed to be from
Orkney. _ In another specimen, also from Shetland, in the
possession of Mr Tuomas Toraiz, to whom it was pre-
sented by Mr Kpmonpston, the dimensions and tints were
as follows:

Beak 28 long, {ths deep; tarsus 27, toe 27; length 31,
extent 63. In this specimen there is a greater predominance
of ash-grey in the tints of the plumage, the inner webs of
the quills are nearly pure pearl-grey, and the outer webs
of the four first primaries are nearly free of spots. Beak
wine-yellow along the edges, tinged with dusky above and
below, and. brownish-black toward the end.

It is not known whether the above descriptions of the
young birds, be of the first or second winter plumage, al-
though from analogy they might be supposed to be of the
second, on account of the large proportion of light colour
on the beak.

Manners and food.—The only account we have of the
manners of this species is that given by Mr EpMonpston

THE GENUS LARUS. 973

of Shetland, in two papers in the fourth volume of the
Memoirs of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, where
he describes it under the name of Iceland Gull. Accord-
ing to his account, it only makes its appearance among the
Shetlaad Isles in winter, coming, as he supposes, from the
Arctic regions, about the middle of autumn, and departing
toward the end of spring. Its favourite resorts are the en-
trances of the more exposed bays, or the ocean, a few miles
off the land. It is greedy and voracious to a proverb, and
seems peculiarly fond of carrion, occasionally entering the -
bays in quest of it. In its usual deportment it exhibits
little of the characteristic vivacity of the smaller species, (a
remark which is equally applicable to the LZ. marinus) ;
and does not hover about the sportsman, like them, when
shot at, but, when once alarmed, commonly flies off: Mr
Epmonpston as above.—Its food consists of fish, carrion
of all sorts, and young birds: one specimen, Capt. Sabine
says, disgorged a little auk when shot, and on dissection
another was found in the stomach.

Country.— According to Captam Saziner, they were
found very common throughout Davis’ Straits and Baffin’s
Bay, by the Expedition under Captain Ross, in 1818.
According to Temminck, it inhabits the most northern
countries in general, but in greater numbers toward the
east; said to be very common in Russia. It appears in
winter in the Shetland Islands, as above. It not being by
any means certain that this is the L. elaucus of Fasricius,
&c. little more can be said of its diffusion.

Distinctive Characters.— In a mature state, this species
can only be confounded with the preceding, from which it
differs chiefly in size, as may be seen by comparing the di-
mensions given in the descriptions. ‘There is a striking

VOL. V. S

OTA ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF

similarity, however, between the two, so great, indeed,
that, at first sight, one might readily take them for the
same species. ‘The beak is of nearly the same form, being
in-both without protuberance on the upper mandible, which
is considerably less curved than in any of the other large
gulls. The principal points of difference are the following :
The nostrils are much narrower than in L. arcticus, the
whole habit more robust, the head and neck in particular
proportionally larger, the bill more elongated, and the
wings shorter. It is m the dimensions, however, that we
are to look for the most decisive characters; the present
bearing to the preceding species much the same relation in
this respect that the Raven bears to the Carrion Crow.
The young also can only be confounded with those of the
preceding species, from which they differ chiefly in size,
being much paler than those of any other large species,
and without the dark quills and tail of the others.

Synonyms.—Larus glaucus, Temminck, Man. d’Ornith.
pt. i. p. 757. Iceland Gull, Mr Epmonpston, in
Memoirs of Wernerian Society, vol. iv. JL. glaucus,
Capt. SapinE, in Linn. Trans, vol. xii. pt. 1. p. 527.

These are the only synonyms to which I can refer with

eertainty. Temminck and Saprne have thought proper to
extend the list. I would remark, in general, of their syno-
nyms, that we cannot be in the slightest degree certain that
the authors whom they quote, did not describe the L. arc-
ticus. Fapricius’s account of his L. elaucus, for example,
accords in all things with our L. arcticus ; and it is very
probable that Latuam, by his Glaucous Gull, means it
also, or has confounded the two; and it is plain that he
had no distinct conception of it, from his remark regarding
a bird with the primaries black at the end, and from his
quoting Brisson, who, in his Larus cinereus, has assuredly

THE GENUS LARUS. 975

described the summer plumage of L. argenteus. The
Burgomaster of voyagers is probably more often the arcti-
cus than the elacialis, and, in many cases, it may signify
both. It is therefore a hopeless task to search for syno-
nyms, and highly improper to apply the history of any
Glaucous Gull of the older writers to the present species.

Remarks.—The first satisfactory account that we find of
this interesting species, is that given in a Memoir on the
Birds of Greenland, by Captain Epwarp Sasinz, in which
he enumerates the species observed by the Expedition un-
der Captain Ross, in 1818. Linn. Trans. vol. xii. p. 527.
He there describes it under the name of Larus glaucus,
Glaucous Gull, observing that it is unquestionably the
Burgomaster Gull of the Dutch. This description is suffi-
Gently accurate and circumstantial to remove all doubt with
regard to the species. He observes, that from specimens
in his brother’s possession, he is enabled to render the his-
tory of the plumage complete, and, at the same time, to
add it to the British Fauna; from which we have to infer
that one or more specimens in Mr Sazinr’s collection are
from Shetland or Orkney. ‘This part of the volume was
‘published in 1818.

The very celebrated Tzmmincx, in the second edition of
his Manuel 2Ornithologie, published in 1820, gives a full
account of the species, under the name of Larus glaucus,
describing it with his usual accuracy and precision, but
only in its summer plumage. ‘The length he says is 26
inches, while he also remarks that it is the largest of all the
gulls known, yet the length of the L. marinus he states at
from 26 to 27 inches. Of all the specimens which I have
seen, two of which are adult, and four young, there is none
so small as this.

A. full account of the bird in a mature and young state,
52

876 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES, &c. -

in winter plumage, was afterwards given in the fourth vo-
lume of the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, by Mr
EpmonpstTow, a zealous ornithologist of Shetland. Mr E.
has two papers on+the subject, the first read on the 24th
March 1821, the other.on the 23d March 1822.. His de-
scription. is fuller than Captain SBine’s, and he also de-
scribes its manners as observed in Shetland, In the first
memoir, he introduces it as a new species; and in the last
remarks definitively, that although it might have previously
been obscurely known, it was now for the first time de-
-scribed as a British species; and from the circumstances
detailed, it may with propriety receive the name of Larus
Fslandicus, which he had proposed, as both designative of
its “ Arctic haunts,” and commemorative of the “ vulgar
appellation by which it is known in the Zetland Islands.”
This Part was published in 1822; but Mr Epmonpston
alludes to a description made in.1814, which I have not
been able to see..

It is still necessary: to add a few words with regard to
the names-of this and the preceding species. It being un-
dersteod:.that. the Glaucous Gull of the older authors may
signify either or beth, it would be necessary to restrict the —
name of Glaucous to one of them, were its application in-
dispensable. But this term Glaucous. bemg equally appli-
cable: to three of the larger gulls, and a multitude of the
smaller ones, and being, moreover,.liable to lead into error,
is it not better. to adopt names free of all these faults? Of
this kind, then, it 1s- presumed, are the names proposed.
With regard to the outcry against change of names, I have
only to observe, that names, as well as descriptions, must

continue to fluctuate until they be rendered of such a na-
ture as to be harmonized with common sense and sound
judgment.

ae

“XIV.—Sketch of the Geographical Distribution
of Plants.an Yorkshire.

‘By J. Arxtnson, Esq. F.L.S. &c. Leeds.

(ead 31st May 1823.)

Tus county of York, situate in parallel 53° and 54° N.,
is not less distinguished for its:size than for its varied sur-
face, possessing almost every variety of soil ‘to ‘be found
from the level of the sea to the altitude of 2368 feet. Its
‘Flora consists of about 1400 species, of which upwards of
600.are Phenogamous, the remainder Cryptogamous. They
anay be arranged under the following Natural Orders.

Alismacee, = 15
Apocynee, - 2
Amaranthacex, 2

Amentacee,- 3
Amaryllidez,
Aroidez, =
Asphodelee,
Aristolochiz,

Acerze, = =
Berberides, -

1 2 et CO GC H =

Boraginee, - 14
Capparides, = .
Cistl, = = - 1

‘Crucifere, - 34

Cichoracee, - 24
Cynarocephale, 14
Corymbifere, 40
Cyperacee, - 34
Cucurbitacee, 1
Conifere, - 1

Chenopodez, 13

‘Cacti, -- = 4
Caryophyllez, 37

Caprifolie, - 9
Convolvulaceze, 4
Campanulacee, 6
Dipsaceez, = Q
Ericew, - = 11
Euphorbiacee, 9
Filices, - - 28

2”8 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Graminee, - 65
Gentianee, - 9
Geraniz, - 14
Hypericine, - 8
Hydrocharidez, 2
Iridee, - - 2
Juncer, ~ - 7
Lentibulariz, 11
Lycopodinee, 5

Onagrarie, - 7
Orobanchee, = 3
Orchidexe, - 18

Portulacee, = 2.

Pediculares, - 1
Papaveracez, - 8
Polygonee, - 12
Plantaginee, = 5
Primulacee, - 14

Scrophularine, 24
Smilacex, = 4
Saxifragez, - 12
Sempervive, 13
Salicariz, - 2
Thymeleze, - 1
Tiliaceze, - 1
Umbelliferex, 36
Violee, - = 8

Verbenacee, - 1
Musci, = - 200
Lichenes, - 207
Hepatice, = 24
« 100
290

Plumbaginee, 1
Rhamni, - - 3
=- 11
= 40
Ranunculacez, 28
Solanee, - = 7

Leguminose, 44
Labiate, - 47
Malvacee, = 5
Melanthacee, 1
Naiades, - 12
Oleinez, - = @

Rubiacee, -
Rosacez, =
Alge, =
Fungi, -

May not the general type of the vegetation of a country
be considered as indicative of its geology? —Were the Ericz
ever found upon Chalk or Limestone ?—Are not the follow~_ :
ing species always found upon these? Chlora perfoliata,
Astragalus glycyphyllos and hypoglottis, Neottia spiralis,
Orchis pyramidalis, Cistus helianthemum, &c.? Is not
Arenaria verna found on every lead-mine in England?
Does not the Pinguicula vulgaris, Vaccinium oxycoccos,
Empetrum nigrum, &c. indicate Sandstone? Where can
we find a single rare plant on Alluvial soil?

Beginning at the Spurn, and following the coast of York-
‘shire as far as Bridlington, and proceeding up the Humber
to a little above Hull, including the whole of Holderness—
the vale of ‘York, and from South Cave to Selby, as well
as part of the plain of Cleveland to the Tees, the whole
country is composed of Allwvial soil: here the botany pre-
sents nothing peculiar, having the same plants as the Low-

ands of other parts of England. We no sooner cross the

“OF PLANTS IN YORKSHIRE. ‘278

-river Ouse, at Selby, than we approach an extensive Mag-
nesian Limestone Formation, extending across the county,
from Doncaster, Ferrybridge, Kippax, Thorparch, Knares-
bro’ by Rippon, tothe county of Durham: this district is
‘nich in botany. At Kippax may be found, in about «a
“square mile, Orchis morio, mascula,ustulata, militaris, py-
ramidalis, maculata, conopsea; Habenaria viridis; Ophrys
apifera, muscifera ; Neottia spiralis; Listera ovata; Allium
-arenarium, oleraceum; Anthyllis vulneraria; Astragalus
-glycyphyllos, hypoglottis; Carlina vulgaris; Cerastium ar-
-vense; Chironia centaureum; Chlora perfoliata; Cistus
‘helianthemum; Colchicum autumnale; Daphne laureola;
‘Erigeron acre ; Galeopsis versicolor; Gentiana amarella;
Hedysarum onobrychis : Ornithogalum umbellatum; Po-
-tentilla verna; Rhamnus catharticus; Sanguisorba officina-
lis; Sedum telephium; Pimpmella magna; Antirrhinum
minus; Circa lutetiana; Campanula glomerata, latifolia ;
Caucalis daucoides; Parnassia palustris, &c. &c. Through-
-out the whole of this district, most of the above plants are
to be found more or less abundant. At Thorparch, a few
ware ones maybe added; such as, Anemone pulsatilla;
“Silene noctiflora; Galium tricorne; Asperula cynanchica ;
Narcissus biflorus; Pyrus aria; \Hpipactis nidus avis; Ac-
teea spicata; Melica nutans; Chichorium intybus; Carduus
-eriophorus; Atropa. belladonna; Ophrys aranifera? and
apifera; Ornithogalum luteum, &c. &c. About Knares-
bro’, Chara flexilis, hispida; Dipsacus pilosus; Geranium
-sanguineum; Lepidium latifolium; Silene nutans; Helle-
borus viridis, &c. Passing over this limestone, which may
extend about 10 miles in breadth, from Selby, we approach
‘Leeds; the immediate vicinity of which is all clay. A few
‘plants, not very common, may be found towards Knostrop,
near the river Aire, such as, Sisymbrium sylvestre ; Carda-
‘nime amara; Stellaria nemorum,.and Hottonia palustris.

286 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Passing Leeds, to the north, the Sandstone Formation be-
gins. (It contains, in the neighbourhood of Bramley, Wood-
house, Chapelton, &c. many organic remains of vegetables :
we have noble specimens of the Phytolithus verrucosus,
parmatus, stellatus, striaticulmis, sulciculmis, cancellatus,
imbricatus, and tessellatus.) The Sandstone Formation
occupies an extensive district, by Otley, as far as Green-
how Hall, where it meets the Compact Limestone: it then
passes south, forming a range of alpme moors, by Ilkley,
Keighley, and Halifax, to meet the range of the like for-
mation dividing Yorkshire from Lancashire. Many of
these heaths are of considerable elevation, as, Bardon Fell,
1663 feet ; Draughton Moor, 1074 feet; Foxstone’s Moor,
1513 feet; Otley Chevin, 921 feet; Cow Rock Rumbles
Moor, 860 feet. ‘The rarer plants are, Botrychium luna-
ria; Osmunda regalis; Polypodium phegopteris, dryopteris;
Aspidium oreopteris, aculeatum, lobatum, dilatatum; As-
plenium viride, trichomanes, adiantum nigrum, ruta mu-
raria, Blechnum boreale, Pteris crispa, Cyathea fragilis,
Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense, and 80 Musci, all near
Halifax: Veronica montana, Scandix odorata, Narcissus
pseudo-Narcissus, Pyrola media and minor, Prunus padus,
Rubus ideus, chamzemorus; 'Trollius europaeus, Geranium
pyrenaicum, Eprpactis latifolia, Crocus nudiflorus, &c.

The moors, in general, are clothed with the three species
of heath: the Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium oxycoccos,
and Vitis idea, are also common; the more elevated parts
furnishing the Rubus chamzmorus, saxatilis, Lycopodium
clavatum, selago, alpmum; and, at the highest part, Ar-.
butus uva. ursi.

Retracing our steps to Greenhow Hill, and proceeding
north-west, we come to the mountain district of Craven,
chiefly consisting of compact limestone. Here we are pre-
sented with many most magnificent scenes, equally pleasing

OF PLANTS IN YORKSHIRE. 281

to the lover of landscape and to the botanist. The rocks at
Gordale Scar and Malham Cove, rising several hundred
feet perpendicular, are probably not to be equalled in Eng-
land. 'The mountains are of great elevation: Ingleborough
2368 feet, Pennigent 2281 feet, Great Whernside 2309
feet, West Simon-Seat 1593 feet, Beamsley Rock 1310
feet, Spode Hill Bank 1223 feet, Sutton Crag 1161 feet.
Many of the summits of the higher parts of these moun-
tains are covered with sandstone, producing ling and other
plants common on that soil. The undisturbed woods, par-
ticularly about Bolton Abbey, afford a rich harvest for the
botanist. Here trees of great age, and immense magnitude,
may be seen literally covered with a profusion of crypto-
gamous plants, resembling a garden in miniature; Lichens
hang in festoons from the branches, whilst the bark is hid-
den from view by innumerable mosses, on which vegetate
Hepatice and Filices. The plants upon or near Ingle-
borough are, Rubus chamzemorus, Acteea spicata, Sedum
villosum, Sesleria coerulea, Poa glauca, Festuca vivipara,
Primula farinosa, Polemonium eceruleum, Ophrys cordata,
Serapias longifolia, Rhodiola rosea, Convallaria polygona-
tum, Saxifraga stellaris, oppositifolia; Thalictrum minus,
Draba muralis, Thlaspi arvense, Cochlearia officinalis, Gera-
nium sylvaticum, sanguineum, Gnaphalium dioicum, Solida
virgo aurea 7, Serapias ensifolia, and rubra. In the district
are found, Chara hispida, Galium boreale, Viola lutea,
Gentiana campestris, Ornithogalum luteum, Convallaria
multiflora, Epilobium alpinum, Polygonum viviparum,
Saxifraga aizoides, hypnoides, Stellaria nemorum, Arena-
_ ria verna, Potentilla aurea, Geum rivale, Dryas octopetala,
Acteea spicata, Thalictrum minus, majus, Trollius euro-
pzeus, Draba incana, muralis, Thlaspi alpestre, Cochlearia
officinalis, Cardamine impatiens, ‘Turritis hirsuta, Gera-
nium pheum, sylvaticum, sanguineum, Hieracium palu-

98% ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

dosum, Hypocheeris maculata, Carduus heterophyllus, Se-
mecio sarracenicus, Satyrium albidum, Ophrys nidus avis,
Cypripedium calceolus, Salix myrsinites, herbacea, reticu-
lata; Taxus baccata, Osmunda lunaria, Lycopodium sela-
ginoides, inundatum, alpmum; Asplenium viride, Scolo-
pendrium ceterach, Pteris crispa, ee Lee tun-
bridgense, &c.

The high range of hills called the Yorkshire Wolds,
beginning at the coast near Bridlington, is composed of
chalk. 'This formation extends by Dritheld, forming a bow
betwixt Beverley and Pocklington to the Humber. In this
part the Ericze are not found. The only rare plants are a
few common to limestone, viz. Festuca pumilis, bromoides,
Gentiana amarella g, Chlora perfoliata, Astragalus hypo-
glottis. Passing the Vale of Pickering (lately rendered
notorious by the fossil bones discovered in the Kirkdale
Cave), we come to the Odlite, extending from Scarborough,
by Kirkby Moorside, Hemsley, to meet the Alluvium near
Easingwold ; it then takes a turn to the east, and passes
Malton, and we find on it the following plants: Chara his-
pida, flexilis, Veronica montana, Utricularia minor, Sche-
nus mariscus, albus, Scirpus pauciflorus, acicularis, sylva-
ticus, Bromus pinnatus, Arundo epigejos, calamagrostis,
Lolium arvense, Elymus europzeus, Galium tricorne, Pota-
mogeton gramineum, Viola hirta, lutea, Gentiana pneumo-
nanthe, Bupleurum rotundifolium, Caucalis daucoides,
Pimpinella magna, Linum perenne, Drosera Anglica, lon-
gifolia, Paris quadrifolia, Pyrola rotundifolia, Potentilla
wverna, Geum rivale, Papaver hybridum, Ranunculus lin-
gua, parviflorus, &c. ‘

The only district which I have not been able to examine
is the Alum-shale, rising on the coast, from Whitby to the
‘Tees, including the Vale of Esk. The small line of Basalt
found in Yorkshire, passes through the above.

OF PLANTS IN YORKSHIRE,

283

Plants found in the southern counties of Eng-
land, which are not in Yorkshire :

Clematis vitalba.

Campanula patula.

Orobanche minor. trachelium.
Tamarix Gallica.
Northern plants, not found : :

Ligusticum scoticum.
Cerastium tetrandrum.

Aira levigata.
Sagina maritima.

Plants which appear to have reached their north-

ern limits:

Butomus umbellatus.

Viscum album.

Plants which appear to have reached their south-

ern limits :

Trientalis europea.

Native Swiss plants, found in Yorkshire:

Malaxis paludosa.
Cistus marifolius.
Geum rivale.
Ribes petreum.
Thalictrum majus.
Sedum villosum.
Epilobium alpinum.
‘Pyrus aria.
Pyrola rotundifolia.
minor.
Stellaria nemorum.
Geranium lucidum.
sanguineum.

Gentiana pneumonanthe.

Osmunda regalis.

Impatiens noli tangere.
Arenaria verna.
Campanula latifolia.
Thlaspi alpestre.
Solidago virgaurea.
Ornithogalum luteum.
Melica nutans.

Sedum Telephium.
Allium arenarium. —
Convallaria majalis.
Fumaria claviculata.
Thalictrum minus.
Astragalus hypoglottis.
Lepidium latifolium.

984 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Rare plants, natives of Lapland and Yorkshire :

Rubus chameemorus.

Draba incana.
Rhodiola rosea.
Tofieldia palustris.

Salix rosmarinifolia.
Thalictrum alpinum.
Andromeda polifolia.

Rare plants, natives of Switzerland and York-

shire :
Cerastium alpinum.
Potentilla aurea.
Bartsia alpina.
Gentiana verna.
Viola lutea.

Salix herbacea.
- %Galium boreale.

Lathreea squamaria.

Rubus idzus.
saxatilis.
Trientalis europza.
Salix pentandra.
Ophrys cordata.

Serratula alpina.
Dryas octopetala.
Aspidium lonchitis.
Polygonum viviparum.
Saxifraga stellaris.
aizoides.
Equisetum hyemale.
Scandix odorata.
Ribes alpinum.
Asplenium viride.

Circzea alpina.

Epilobium angustifolium.
Narthecium ossifragum.

Rare plants, natives of Lapland, Switzerland,
and Yorkshire: :

Papaver cambricum. Asplenium adiantum ni-

Salix crowana. grum.

Alisma natans. Hymenophyllum .tunbrid-
Scolopendrium ceterach. gense,

Bartramia arcuata. &e.

Plants indicative of great altitude ;
Arbutus uva ursi,

Hutchin Moor, near Todmordon, Yorkshire.
Cronkley Fell, ba Z Do.

Kinder Scout, - - Derbyshire.

OF PLANTS EN YORKSHIRE. 985

Dale Head, - : ° Westmoreland.
Near Hexham, . - Northumberland.
Martindale, Dale Head, - Cumberland.
Savxifraga oppositifolia,
Ingleborough, Himklehaugh, and |
Malham Cove, if - Yorkshire:
Cader Idris, and other high moun-
tamsin ss = = - - Wales.
In a ravine of dic Screes, near
- Wastwater, — = - Cumberland.
Rubus chamemorus,
Ingleborough, Hinklehaugh, Kirby ,
Fell, &c. = = - Yorkshire.
Mountains of Wales, Nic teorland, Cumberland,
and Durham.

Plants extremely local.

Dryas octopetala—On Arncliff, Clowder, in Littendale ;
and near Settle, Yorkshire ; and Cronkley Fell *.

Gentiana verna—Found in Teesdale in most surprising
quantities, and, luckily, cannot be extirpated, in conse-
quence of its sending out innumerable runners, each of
which becomes a plant on digging up specimens. Garden-
ers from all parts of England have visited this spot, and
attempted its destruction, after removing quantities for sale.

Goths indeed !

Cypripedium Calceolus—In several parts of Craven, Y ork-
shire; Castle Eden Dean, Durham; Borough Hall Park,
Lancashire..

* Cronkley: Fell: is often cited as in Durham, but certainly on ce York
side of the Tees.

~

986 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, &c.

The Ladies’ Slipper used to be found in tolerable plenty
about Ingleborough ; the greediness of florists has, however,
rendered it scarce. The great secret in its cultivation ap-
pears to be rest. A poor man, in Craven, has made a
considerable sum annually by the sale of this plant: he
possesses a small garden surrounded. with gooseberry trees ;
in the centre, he planted some years ago some plants of the
Cypripedium calceolus ; they were left undisturbed for a
long period, and have filled the garden, flowering freely,
and flourishing under the partial shade of the gooseberry-
bushes.

LEEps,
October 1823.

eV ear iy

XV.—On a new British Species of Spatangus.

By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D. D.
Minister of Flisk.

(Read 21st March 1824.):

Tur portion of the animal which I am now about to
. describe, and which appears to constitute an addition to
the British Fauna, has been in my possession nearly four-
teen years. I formerly alluded to it in the ‘* Contributions
to the British Fauna,” inserted in the second volume of the
Memoirs of this Society, p. 247, as a species nearly allied
to the common sort found on all parts of the coast. In-
deed, I entertained some suspicions that it might prove
only a variety ; but having since examined many examples
of the common species, and never perceived any approach:
by gradation to the characters which it exhibits, I can now
with some degree of confidence announce it as distinct..

Spatangus ovatus. Groove between the mouth and ver-
tex obsolete. Leske, ap. Klein Ech. p. 252, tab. xlix. f. 12..
-13.—Only one specimen occurred in a fishing-boat from
the deep sea cod-fishery, Zetland, 1809.—See Plate VI.,

lower figure.

-

988 ON A NEW BRITISH SPECIES OF SPATANGUS. —

Derse. Vertex nearly even. Oviducts approximate, with
the punctured space behind. Vent transversely ovate.
Enclosed space beneath cordiform, with single lateral
pores. Primary spines supported on tubercies, with a
central ligament, and surrounded by a moniliform
ring. Spaces between the pairs of pores in the avenues
rough. Colour purple. About an inch and a quarter

in length.

I have adopted the appellation from Lrskr with very
considerable doubt. ‘The Zetlandic species is more globu-
lar than expressed in Lesxr’s figure, and the line from the
oviducts to the mouth is flat, instead of being carinate. In
other respects, however, there is considerable general re-
semblance.

The following list contains all the species of Echini which
are known to reside in our seas:

I. Genus, Ciparis.
1. papillata.
Il. ——— Ecuinus.
2. esculentus.
3. miliaris.
4, subangularis.
III. —-— ScutTEeya.
5. placenta.

FIsuLARIa.

6. pusilla.

Vi. amas SPATANGUS.
7%. cordatus.
8. ovatus.
9. purpureus.

Manse oF FLIsk,
Feb. 6, 1824.

ae %
Mg, #

MEMOIRS

WERNERIAN
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

For THE YEARS 1824—5.

V.O0. L,Y.
PART II.

WITH TEN ENGRAVINGS.

EDINBURGH:
ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH ;

AND LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, & GREEN,
LONDON.

1826.

P. NEILL, Printer.

CONTENTS
OF

PART II. or VOL. V.

Page

KV 144 0n tomb Fossil Shela fond in the Gawilghur

Range of Hills, in ag 1823. By H. W. Va-

sey, Hsq. - - A - 289
AXVII.—On the Geological ‘Structure of the Hill of

Seetabuldee, Nagpoor, and its immediate Vicinity.

By H. W. Vasey, Esq. - - - 298
XVIII.—Description of Plumularia bullata, a new

species, collected by the Arctic Expedition under

Capt. Parry, in Hudson's Strait, 1821. By the

Rev. Dr Fleming. - - - - 303
~XIX.—Commentary on the Herbarium Amboinense.
By Dr Hamilton. - - - - 807

XX.—On the Power possessed by the Spider of pro-
pelling its Threads, and on the Ascent of that In-
sect into the Atmosphere. By John Murray, Esq.
Weds. : : 2 . - 384
XXI.—Observations on the Migrations, or occasional

Migrations, of the Golden-crested Regulus, or
Wren. By J. P. Selby, Esq. - : - 397

1V CONTENTS.

Page.
XXII.—General Observations on Geology and Geo-

gnosy, and the Nature of these respectioe Studies.

By the Rev. Dr Grierson. - “ - 401
X XITI.—On the Mode of Growth, Reproduction, and

Structure of the Poison-Fangs in Serpents. By

Dr Knox. - - - - - 411
XXIV.—On the Superficial Strata of the Forth Dis-
trict. By A. Blackadder, Esq. - - 424

XXV.—WNotice regarding Fossil Bones of a Whale
discovered in the District of Monteith. By E. E.
Drummond, Esq. - - - - 440

XXVI.—Tentamen Methodi Muscorum; or, 4 New
Arrangement of the Genera of Mosses, with Cha-
racters, and Observations on their Destribution,
History, and Structure. By Dr Greville, and
G. A. W. Arnott, Esq. - - - 442

XX VIT.—WWotice in regard to the Trap Rocks in the
Mountain Districts of the West and North-west
of the Counties of York, Durham, Westmoreland,
Cumberland, and Northumberland. By Wenry

— Witham, Esq. - : 4 - - 475

XXVIII.— Description of Two New Species of
Musci, belonging to the Genera Neckera and Hyp-
num. By Dr Greville. - - - 481

XXIX.—Account of the Method of Drawing Crys-
tals in True Perspective, followed in the Treatise
on Mineralogy of Professor Mohs. By W. Hai-
dinger, Esq. - - : = = 485

XXX.—Account of some Fishes observed during
Capt. Franklin and Dr Richardson's Journey to
the Polar Sea. By Dr Richardson. =

CONTENTS. V

Page.
XXXI.—Observations on the Habits, Appearance,

and Anatomical Structure of the Bird named The

Trumpeter, Psophia crepitans of Linneus, Agami

of Cuvier. By Dr Trail. - - - 523
XXXII.—Memoir on the Classification and Division

of Gnaphalium and Xeranthemum of Linneus.

By Mr David Don. - - ° - 533
APPENDIX.
History of the Society, - - - - 565
List of Office-Bearers for 1826, . - - 580
List of Members, continued from Vol. IV. - - 581
Index, e = ae - - 585
ss

a

List of Engravings in Part II. of Vol. V.

Piate VIII. Sketches of Fossil Shells found in the Gawil-

IX.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVII.

ghur Range of Hills, East Indies; de-
scribed at p. 297.
Representation of Plumularia bullata, na-

tural size, and magnified; described at
p: 308.

- Tooth of the Rattle-Snake in different stages

of growth, and Cranium of the Coluber
Naja; illustrative of Dr Knox’s paper on
the Poison-Fangs of Serpents; explained
at p. 422.

Map of the River-district of the Forth from
Borrowstounness to Gartmore, described
at p. 425.

Sketches illustrative of the Alluvial Strata
in the River-district of the Forth; ex-
plained at p. 429, et seq.

Figures illustrative of Messrs Greville and
Arnott’s New Arrangement of the Ge-
nera of Musci. Splachnum described at
p- 461; Dissodon at p. 469; Tayloria at
p. 474.

Neckera Americana and Hypnum remoiti-
foliwm, described at p. 481.

XVI. Diagrams illustrative of Mr Haidin-
ger’s method of Drawing Crystals in true
Perspective ; see p. 485, e¢ seq.

Bronchial Tubes and Trachea of the Trum-
peter; described at p. 529.

ADVERTISEMENT.

Ix laying its Memoirs before the Public, this Socizty
does not hold itself responsible for the facts or opinions
which may be advanced on the various topics of Natural
History that are discussed. ‘These, accordingly, must be
distinctly understood as resting entirely on the individual
authority of the respective Writers who have favoured the
Society with Communications.

ee
i noe RS
ae AT

XVL—On some Fossil Shells found in the Gawil-
ghur Range of Hills, in April 1828.

By H. W. Vaysey, Esq.

Surgeon to the Trigonometrical Survey, East Indies.
(Communicated by Sir James Macaricor, President of Army Medical Board.)
(Read 6th March 1824.)

oo Ee

Tus remarkable range of hills is called by Arrow-
sMiITH, in his last map, the Bindeh, or Bindachull Hills.
The same name is, however, given to a lofty range of hills
on the left bank of the Godavery, as it passes through
Goudwana, and also to those near Gualior. I shall there-
fore distinguish them by the name of the Gawilghur Range,
particularly as, after repeated inquiries, I have never been
able to discover that they were so designated either by the
inhabitants of those hills, or of the neighbouring plains.
They take their rise at the confluence of the Poorna and
Taptee rivers, and, running nearly E. and by N., terminate
at short distances beyond the sources of the Taptee and.
Wurda. To the southward they are bounded by the valley
of Berar, and to the north by the course of the Taptee.
The length of the range is about 160 English miles, and
average breadth from 20 to 25 miles. :

VOL V. x

290 BED CONTAINING FOSSIL SHELLS

On the south side, they mse abruptly from the exten-
sive plain of Berar,.the average height of which is 1000
feet above the level of the sea, and tower above it to the
height of 2000 and 3000 feet. The descent to the bed of
the 'Taptee is equally rapid, although the northern is less
elevated than the southern side of the range. The outline
of the land’ is generally flat, but much broken by ravines,
and by groupes of flattened summits, and isolated conoidal
frusta. ‘The summits and the flat land are for the most part
remarkably destitute of trees, but they are thickly covered
with long grass. In the ravines and passes of the moun-
tains the forest is very thick, and in many places almost
impervious. ‘The inhabitants are principally Goauds, whose
language, manners and customs, differ remarkably from
those of the Hindoos, At present their chief occupation is
hunting, and cultivating small patches of land, which pro-
duce a coarse rice and millet.. In former years the culti-
vation must have been very extensive, since there are the
ruins. of numerous. hill-forts and villages, which derived
their chief subsistence from the surrounding lands. Many
epportunities are afforded of studying the nature of this
mountainous range in the numerous ravines and precipitous
descents which. abound in every part. A Wernerian would
not hesitate in: pronouncing them to be of the newest flcetz
trap formation; a Huttonian would call them overlying
rocks; and a modern geologist would pronounce that they
owed their origin to submarine volcanoes. 7

I shall not give them any other name than the general
one of 'Trap-rocks, but proceed to. describe them, and state,
with diffidence, the inferences which I think obviously pre-
sent themselves, on an attentive study of their phenomena.

I. The principal part of the whole range is formed: of-
compact basalt, very much resembling that of the Giant’s
Causeway. It is found columnar in many places; and at

IN THE GAWILGHUR HILLS. PALE I

Gawilghur it appears stratified, the summits of several ra-
‘vines presenting a continued stratum of many thousand
yards in length.

2. The basalt frequently and suddenly changes into a
wacke of all degrees of induration, and I may say of every
variety of composition usually found among trap-rocks. It
changes,

3. Into a rock, which may be named indifferently No-
dular Wacke or Nodular Basalt, composed of nuclei of
basalt, usually of great specific gravity, surrounded by
concentric layers of a loose earthy mass resembling wacke,
but without cohesion, which, on a superficial view, conveys
to the mind every idea of a fluid mass of earth, having in
its descent from some higher spot involved in its course all
the rounded masses it encountered, and subsequently be-
came consolidated by drying. A very slight inspection is
sufficient to detect the true cause of this appearance, which
Is owing to the facility of decomposition of the outer crust,
depending on difference of structure and composition. In
none of the conglomerates or puddingstones do we observe
any traces of this structure; and as it is common to the
most crystallime greenstone, porphyritic greenstone, and
those rocks usually denominated syenitic, there can be little
doubt that it is owing to the development of a peculiar con-
cretionary structure by decomposition.

In a small ravine, near the village of Saulminda, 2000
feet above the sea, I saw basalt of a perfectly columnar
structure, and vertical, closely connected with a cclumnar
mass, formed of concentric lamellie, enclosing a heavy and
- hard nucleus. Perhaps these last were the ends of columns
lying in a horizontal position.

‘Near this ravine I had also an opportunity of observing
the’ gradual and perfect passage of the columnar basalt into
that which has been called Stratified, from the parallelism

sine

292 BED CONTAINING FOSSIL SHELLS

of its planes, the composition being identical, and, without
doubt, contemporaneous. ‘i'hese changes. and passages of
one rock into the other, are so frequent and various, as to
_render it difficult to refer the most of them to. either of the
rocks I have above mentioned as types. I shall therefore
proceed to describe those which are distinctly marked, and
their accompanying minerals. In external appearance, the
columnar and semi-columnar basalt closely resembles that
of the Giant’s Causeway, possessing the same fracture, in-
ternal dark colour, and external brown erust. It is equally
compact and sonorous. It, however, contains more fre-
quently crystals of olivine, of basaltic hornblende, and of
carbonate of lime. The fusibility of each is the same. Per-
haps the basalt of the Gawilghur Range more nearly re-
sembles in every’respect that of the Pouce Mountai in the
Mauritius. This is, however, of very little importance,
since every body who has travelled much in trap countries,
knows well what great changes in composition and structure
occur even in continuous masses. Among the minerals,
calcedony and the different species of zeolite, are rarely
found in the columnar basalt, but they are of frequent oc-
currence in that which is semicolumnar.

The wacke or indurated clay is as various in character and
composition as the basalt, and, unfortunately, I have no type
with which to compare it, as in the case of the basalt of the
Giant’s Causeway: Its colour varies with its constituents,
but is most usually grey. It is easily frangible, very fre-
quently friable, and is almost always porous and amygda-
loidal. It appears to be composed of earthy felspar and
hornblende, with a considerable proportion of oxide of iron.
It is always easily fusible into a black scoria or glass, ac-
cording with the quantity of zeolite which it contains. Of
all the trap rocks it abounds the most in simple minerals. »

IN THE GAWILGHUR HILLS. 993

“They are Quartz and Amethyst-quartz.

‘Calcedony, and Caleedonic Agates, inclosing
crystals of carbonate of lime.

‘Cachalong.

“Common Opal and Semi-Opal.

Heliotrope.

Plasma, or transparent Helictrope.

‘Stilbite.

_Analcime.

Natrolite.

Ichthyophthalmite.

Felspar.

Carbonate of lime and Green-earth.

I have never been able to discover in it either augite or
hornblende in distinct crystals. ‘When the surface of the
- land is strewed with these minerals, it is a certain indication
that the rock beneath is wacke. With regard to the situa-
tion of this rock, I think I have rarely seen it on the sum-
mits of hills, but much more frequently at their bases, and
forming flat elevated plains. I shall have occasion to ad-
vert to this rock again when I proceed to describe the fos-
sil shells. |

‘The nodular basalt is perhaps the most common form of
trap m this mountain-range, as well as in other parts of
India. It more commonly forms the surface than either of
the other recks, and is as frequently seen on the summits
as it is at the bases of the mountains. It rarely abounds in
minerals of any kind. It is the principal source of the rich
black diluvial soil, commonly called «* Black cotten soil”: of
India. I have little to add to the former description of it
Its internal structure is sometimes beautifully developed
‘by decomposition, since, in a mass of about six inches dia-
meter it is possible to count above twelve concentric layers,

294 BED CONTAINING FOSSIL SHELLS

and, on striking the nucleus a slight blow with a hammer,
one or two more layers are broken off. _ It is owing to this
facility of decomposition that the annual rains carry down
such vast quantities of alluvial soil from its surface, which
is, moreover, always strewed with an abundance of nuclei,
in various stages of decomposition, It 1s owing to the dif-
ficulty with which the roots of trees penetrate this rock, that
they are so rare on its surface, and never grow to any size.
Yet this circumstance does not prevent the Andropogon
contortum and nardus from growing in the most luxuriant
manner, which sufficiently proves the fertility of the soil.
On ascending from the Taptee (in April 1823), I observed

in a nullah a group of basaltic columns, one of which was
two feet in diameter, and six-sided. When near the summit
of the flat table-land of Jillar, I entered a pass, formed on
one side by a perpendicular section of the rock from 25 to 30
feet, and on the other by a rapid descent of 40 or 50. The
lower part of the section, as well as the pathway, is com-—
posed of the wacke or indurated clay of the kind before
mentioned, of about 10 feet in thickness. Lying on it is a
stratum of earthy clay, of different degrees of induration
and purity, 20 yards in length, and about 2 feet im thick-
ness, containing great numbers of entire and broken shells.
This possesses all the characters of a stratum, since the hori-
zontal fissures are parallel, and are prolonged, with a few
interruptions, through the whole extent. ‘The accompany-
ing sketch (PlateVIII. bottom) will serve to give a tolerably
correct idea of the mode in which the stratum appears to
overlie the lower rock, and to have been depressed by that
which is supermmcumbent. ‘The upper rock consists of
about 15 feet in thickness of the nodular basalt or wacke,
the nuclei being of all sizes. ‘The vertical fissures which
are so remarkable in trap-rocks, are prolonged from both
the upper and lower rocks into the shelly stratum, although

Wern: MemiVol, Vi page)

PLATE VIL

SS

BASS

Ry
SSS

S

SY

x
SSS
SS

WS
SS SS

if hiff

ASIN

YY Nee
yf Yy

Witt cota
willl .

{)
fl
pil |
at (!

Y
hij
Wi aupy,

RTLL RAPS Soins dtl

ae

IN THE GAWILGHUR HILLS. 295

there is no intermixture of substance. The stratum is com-
posed of a highly indurated clay, fusible before the blow-
‘pipe, into a fine black glass; and neither it, nor the shells
it contains, effervesce in acids. ‘The shells are for the most
part flattened, and belong either to the genus Conus or
‘Voluta. It is not possible to conceive that:so fragile a sub-
_~stance as a thin land-shell should have been so completely
flattened, without fracture, unless it had been previously
-softened by some means, which, at the same time, produced
-@ sufficient degree.of pressure to effect its flattening.

I have attempted in the sketches of the shells (Plate VIII.
fig. 3, 6, '7,) to give a representation of the degree of flatten-
ang, but I fear that it can only be well understood by ex-
samining the specimens themselves. Neither the reck nor its
shells effervesce in acids. Westward, the ground is covered.
by the debris of .a shelly conglomerate, much more indur-
sated and impregnated with green-earth*. Some of the shells
care entire, but these are rarely flattened. ‘The matrix ap-
-peai's to be siliceous, and in some cases approaches to im-
perfect‘heliotrope. It is not fusible before the blowpipe.
I may here mention, that, in:a report to the Marquis of
‘Hastings, in June 1819, I mentioned the existence of shells
an trap-rocks at Medcondah, at a height of 2000 feet above
the sea. The hill was composed.of nodular trap; and lying
“on its surface were numerous pieces of siliceous stone, con-
‘taining shells -of the genera Turbo and Cyclostoma. The —
‘specific gravity of the stone varied from 2 to 2.5. The
‘shells did not. effervesce in acids, although. some of them
preserve their external polish. Internally, some of the

_ stones appeared to pass into flint, particularly those of small
‘specific gravity, whilst their external surface effervesced in

‘© Exhibiting cavities and shells in «relief. From:the shape of the
_ former, there can be no doubt of their having once contained shells

-

206 BED OF FOSSIL SHELLS

acids. Some of the small shells are completely changed.
into calcedony. Specimens of these shells are lodged with.
the Asiatic Society. |

It is a remarkable fact, that the only remains of animals.
hitherto discovered in India, should be found in trap-rocks,
and under such peculiar circumstances. 1mo, They are
found in situations where there are no indications of the
former existence of lakes; 2do, Both the shells and matrix
are destitute of carbonic acid; 3ti0, The former are in
many instances squeezed flat, without fracture, and in some
cases commixed with their matrix.

These effects could only have been produced by the
agency of heat, and consequently the modern theory of
submarine or subaqueous volcanoes will best serve to ex-
plain the phenomena. ‘These shells were deposited in the.
stratum of clay in which they are now found, and when
forced up by the mass of wacke beneath, they were most _
probably at the same time covered by the nodular basalt..
Thus we have heat to drive off the carbonic acid, and
soften these shells, under a pressure which assisted the pro-
cess, and at the same time flattened them.

I have numerous collateral proofs of the intrusion of the
trap-rocks, in this district, amongst the gneiss, which do
not allow me to doubt of their volcanic origin. I shall take
an early opportunity of completing the history of the trap-
rocks of India, for which I have been collecting materials
for several years past. |

HYDERABAD, }
July 24, 1823.

IN THE GAWILGHUR HILLS. 297

Explanation of Plate VILL.

Fig. 1. View of a shell much contorted by pressure, ad-
al hering to the matrix. ;

AA the shell.

BB the matrix.

. Petrified shell. :
. Side-view of shell Fig. 2.
. 5. Other petrified ceils
. Side-view of Fig. 4.
. Side-view of Vig. 5.

“I OB O 2°

The sketch at the bottom of the plate represents the re-
lative position of the beds of wacke, and clay contain-
ing the shells, and of overlying nodular trap.

A A Stratum of clay containing the fossil shells.

BB Bed of nodular trap.

CC Bed of wacke.

DD Trees of Ficus Indica.

E Surface of trap, covered with Andropogon contor-

_ tum and nardus.

298 ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

XVITI.— On the Geological Structure of the
Hill of Seetabuldee, Nagpoor, and zts imme-
dhiate Vicinity.

By H. W. Vaysry, Esq.

Surgeon to the Trigonometrical Survey, East Indies.

«Communicated by Sir James Macertcor, President: of Army Medical Board.)

(Read 6th March 1824.)
ie

Tue Hill of Seetabuldee, although agreemg in form
and interior structure with other basaltic hills in its neigh-
bourhood, merits a more particular description, on account
of some peculiarities in the composition of the main rock,
hitherto unnoticed by geologists, and for the opportunities
afforded by its extensive quarries of studying the varied
structure of the rocks of the Trap family, which is rarely
to be seen im so distinct a manner.

The mass of the hill is composed of porous basalt, with
a semi-columnar appearance, derived from numerous verti-
cal fissures. It passes, at some places ina gradual, and at
others in an abrupt manner, into a coarse porous wacke or
indurated clay, which in its turn changes, in a similar
manner, to the nodular basalt or wacke, of which the
northern and southern summits of the hill are composed.

OF THE HILL OF SEETABULDEE. 299

At the junction of these rocks, the passage is sometimes so
gradual, as to give the intermediate rock an indeterminate
character, partaking of the nature of both. At others, it is
abrupt; yet, notwithstanding the abruptness of the change,
the vertical and horizontal fissures are prolonged into each
other, and cross the line of junction. I shall not here enter
into a more minute detail of these appearances, but shall
content myself with observing, that the most satisfactory
explanation of these phenomena is derived from that theory
which ascribes to the trap-rocks an igneous origin, under
pressure of a great body of water.

The semi-columnar basalt, forming the greater part of
the hill, is very porous, containing numerous amygdaloidal
cavities, which are for the most part merely lined with a
peculiar mineral, which I presume to name Conchoidal
Augite. Sometimes, however, they are nearly filled with it,
or with calcedony, semi-opal, or carbonate of lime; the
calcedony being usually covered with a coating of green
earth. The rock itself is composed of hornblende and fel-
spar, with the augite so profusely disseminated, that it
ought to be considered, in some cases, as a constituent of
the reck. The rock 1s fusible, and is of considerable spe-
cific gravity, notwithstanding its porosity. The vertical
and horizontal fissures are not always straight, but are at.
times waved; they are also sometimes lined wiih an infil-
tration of calcedony coated with clay and chlorite.

This rock is succeeded by an indurated clay or wacke,
which, at its junction with the basalt, frequently partakes
of its semi-columnar structure, the vertical fissures being
_prolonged into the wacke, and the schistose structure of the
latter extending into the basalt. These changes may be
very favourably seen in the fosse which surrounds the for-
tification.

300 ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

The indurated clay or wacke seems to form but a small
proportion of the hill, as it‘1s not seen in the hollow be-
tween the greater and lesser elevation, the semi-columnar
basalt being there uncovered by any rock. It also contains
crystallised carbonate of lime and semi-opal, but calcedony
coated with green earth is the most common mmeral found
an it. ; |

This rock passes into the nodular wacke, which, on a
casual inspection, appears to be a collection of stones
rounded by attrition, and involved in a matrix of clay;
when examined more carefully, it is evident that this ap-
pearance is owing to a peculiar modification of the concre-
tionary structure, developed by decomposition. Nuclei, of
various sizes, are enveloped by concentric lamella, which
peel off, as decomposition destreys their cohesion. They
are consequently seen in various states of decay, and of
sizes varying from several feet in diameter to several inches.
But their true nature is easily discovered by the mutual
mdentation of the different lamellze which surround their
respective nuclei, the centres from which this pseudo-crys-
tallisation has proceeded. The existence of the vertical and
waved fissures need scarcely be adduced as farther proof
that they are not the product of alluvial detritus.

It appears most probable that they owe their forms to
molecular magnetic attraction, since they conta a very
large proportion of oxide of iron (nearly 25 per cent.), as
may be perceived by the great specific gravity of hand
specimens.

‘The nodular wacke or basalt is one of the most common
forms of trap in the extensive districts composed of the
rocks of this family south of the Nerbuddah.

It occurs perpetually in the extensive and lofty range of
mountains situate between the Poorna and Taptee rivers,
and appears to form their principal mass. It is found

OF THE HILL OF SEETABULDEE. 304

equally abundant: throughout the whole of Berar, part of
the provinces of Hyderabad, Beeder, and Sholapoor, and
appears to form the basis of the great western range of
trap-hills which separate the Konkan from the interior of
the Deckan.

It is probably one of the main sources, when decomposed,,
of the black diluvial soil, to which Hindostan owes so much
of its fertility. The valley or extended plain of Berar,
that of Hoshungabad, of Seronge, of Irundiala south of
the Kistnah, of the Palnad bordering the Kistnah, and
numerous others, all lie near the course of rivers, which at
some former period have covered these plains, and formed
their extensive ceposites of alluvium. Wheiher the deposi-
tion originated in some sudden and partial inundation, or
whether it was owing to the gradual subsidence of the -wa-.

ters of the great deluge, I think may be determined by
cautious investigation. Iam at present inclined to think
that the most probable cause was the latter.

The hill of Seetabuldee offers favourable opportunities,
if the quarries are extended, of ascertaining positively,
whether the basalt is merely a superficial deposite, or is
deeply connected with a mass beneath. It is surrounded
on all sides by gneiss or slaty granite, which is found at
the base of the hill a few feet deep. Perhaps Nagpoor af-
fords more opportunities than any other part of India, of
studying the geological history of these rocks, as it is situate
near the junction of the primary and overlying rocks.
Numerous opportunities must arise during the excavation
of wells and baths, of ascertaining the connection of the
strata beneath. A well, in Mr A. Gorpon’s garden, near
the base of the hill, of about 40 feet depth, penetrates
through three or four feet of black soil, succeeded by a
magnesian siliceous clay, which appears to owe its origin

$02 HILL OF SEETABULDEE.

to decomposition of the gneiss, by which it is immediately
followed, and which continues to the bottom of the well.

From the summit of the hill of Seetabuldee, the differ-
ence in the outlme of the rocks eastward is very perceptible.

The flattened summits, and long flat outline, with the
numerous gaps of the trap-hills, are exchanged for the
ridgy, peaked, sharp, outline of the primary rocks*. At
Ramteak and its vicinity, the rocks are of granite and
gneiss. At Doonguree, at Pullorah and Parsoonee, are
found crystallised marbles passing into gneiss, capable of
receiving a fine polish. ‘* Foliated black manganese ore,”
in large quantity, 1s found here (Jameson’s Mineralogy,
third edition): some of the marbles contain a small quan-
tity of magnesia. At Khoraree, a dolomite, or magnesian
marble, is found, also in gneiss. At Nyakoond Pasonee,
bed of the Pesh, granite and gneiss of various kinds, quartz-
rock, and sandstone, occur. .

P.S. J have lately had an opportunity of fusing a large
piece of the Seetabuldee basalt in a steel-furnace. The pro-
duct, after an hour’s fusion, was a fine black opake stone,
resembling porous obsidian. Glass-bottles are commonly
made in the Mediterranean from basalt, and that of Seeta-
buldee seems to be of an equally favourable nature for that
purpose.

® Captain Bayley’s plates of the battle of Seetabuldee give a very cor-
rect idea of the first outline of the basaltic trap-hills at Nagpoor.

NaAGPooR,
May 31. 1823.

( 308 }

XVITI.—Deseription of Plumularia bullata, «
new Species, collected by the Arctic Expedition
under Capt. Parry, in Hudson’s Strait, 1821-

By the Rev. Joon Fremrne, D.D. F.R.S.E.
M.W.S. &c. .

(ead 20th March 1824.).
—— EE

Tus eoralline * is irregularly branched. Each branclx
arises from a cell (or denticle), which has enlarged into ar
ovate vesicle, slightly wrinkled across. From the top of
this vesicle a tubular stem proceeds, thinly covered on one
side with a row of cells, some of which are enlarged into:
vesicles supporting other branches.. The base of the vesicle |
is united with the mouth of the cell; but the line of sepa-
ration is distinct, in censequence of the cell (and branch:
with which it 1s connected) being of a denser substance.
In the younger branches, the communication between the
central tube of the stem and the cavity of the vesicle is:
free ; in the older portions, however, this connection’ ceases:.
At the external base of the vesicle, from one to three tubu-
lar radicles take their rise; and descend along the-support=
ing stem, and others which are inferior to it, closely adher=

® See Plate IX. |

304 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES

ing to the surface. These ‘allies are, like the stems and
branches, destitute of joimts. Each cell is short, scarcely
the diameter of the stem which supports it, with a hori-
zontal or slightly oblique mouth, and destitute of lateral
or inferior processes. In all the cells I observed portions
of a thin membrane connected or continuous with the mar-
gin, and more’or less cup-shaped, which appeared to be the
remains of vesicles, similar to those which give rise to the
branches. Their nature was likewise poinied out by the
remains of the tubular radicles still in connection with some
of the largest portions. ‘To some of the cells cylindrical
bodies were attached, which, after maceration, appeared of
the consistence of the body of the polypi of several Sertu-
lariee ; but, instead of terminating in a tentacular head, be-
came contracted, and gave rise to branches, bearing cells.

In some cases, two contiguous cells supported each a vesicle
bearing a branch.

The preceding description will ase to shew, that this.

coralline differs from all those described by Exuis, among
his Vesiculated Corallines; by Lamarck, in his genus Plu-
mularia; or by Lamovrovux, in his genus Aglaophenia.
But the mutilated condition of the specimen leaves much
to be desired in the characters of the species. I have ob-
served in other vesiculated corallmes* a capability, when
placed in circumstances unfavourable for ordinary growth,
of converting the polypi in the cells, into branches bearing
cells. ‘The anomalous appearances of this species seem to
indicate that it had recently been placed in a condition
where the exertion of similar energies was requisite in con-
verting both polypi and ovaria into branches, thereby ex-
hibiung a curious example of viviparous reproduction or
extension.

" See Edin, Phil. Jour. vol. ii. p, 86.

OF PLUMULARIA BULLATA. 305

The marine plants which were collected during the last
Arctic Expedition under Captain Parry, were consigned
to the care of Dr Hooxerr, for examination. There were
a few zoophytes among them, which that distinguished
botanist requested me to name. ‘Though they were all
found on the surface of the sea, about the middle of Hud-
son’s Strait, 29th July 1821, they were, with few excep-
tions, such as Extis has described, as inhabitants of our
own shores, differing, however, somewhat in habit. Among
the Sertulariadae, one occurred which, from the preceding
description, seems to be new, and the structure of which
serves to throw considerable light on the physiology of the
tribe. ‘The drawing, which is now transmitted, will serve
to exhibit the different stages of its growth. (Plate IX.)

Judging from the structure of the whole specimen, there
seems to be ground for entertaining the belief, that each

. branch, in ordinary circumstances, takes its rise from an

organ, which in many other species serves the purpose of
an ovarium, and was termed by Ettis a Vesicle. In this
manner we can conceive each colony, the individuals of
which are connected together either mechanically or orga-
nically, increasing to an indefinite size, and the common
base acquiring proportional strength by the tubular radicles
each new branch protrudes. But in what manner are new
colonies formed? The specimen examined throws no light
on this part of the history of the species; but analogy leads
to the conclusion, that some of the vesicles may, at times,
perform their function of ovoviviparous reproduction. The
appearances exhibited by this coralline lead us to infer,
that those “ little regular arch-like risings,” which Exuts
observed on his specimen of Sertularia myriophyllum, and
which is common to the species, may be vesicles supporting
branches similar to our species.

In the Plumularia budlata the bodies of the polypi them-

VOL. V. U

306 DESCRIPTION, We.

selves appear in progress towards the formation of branclies.
This curious circumstance may be accounted for, by taking
ito consideration the condition in which the specimen was
found,—detached, and. floating along with sea-weeds. It
may have been brought from a considerable distance, and,
in its new station, have suffered from several external
agents. Hence it appears to have acted im a manner simi-
lar to what we have witnessed in the Sertularia gelatinosa
of Patias,—by absorbing the tentacula of its polypi, and
enlarging their bodies into branches.

These observations have been brought together, as ser-
ving to illustrate the organisation of the zoophytes, a sub-
ject which has been but imperfectly considered. ‘The ex-
terior covering of these animals is frequently, but errone-
ously, viewed as similar to the extravascular dwellings of
the bee, or the subextravascular shells of the Mollusca ;
while, in its mode of growth, it is analogous to bone, a cir-
cumstance on which its apparent vegetating power depends.

Plate IX. Fig 1. Natural size.
2, A portion magnified.

- Manse oF Fisk,
March 12. 1824.

Ss
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XX.—Commentary on the Herbarium Ambot-
NENSE. we BA

a

By Francis Hamitton, M. D.,
Fellow of the Royal Societies, and Societies of Antiquaries of London and

Edinburgh; of the Linnzan Society of London; and of the
Asiatic Society of Calcutta.

(Read 14th June 1823, &c.)

LIBER PRIMUS.

Caprut I. If. IIT. & IV.
Palma indica major, p. 1, t. 1, 2, 3.

Tuts is the best account that I have seen of what mo-
dern botanists call the Cocos nucifera. In the second
chapter are enumerated thirteen species, which seem to be
of the nature which botanists call Varieties, as arising in the
kinds of plants that are much cultivated. The only one
that may perhaps be a distinct species, seems to be the 12th,
or Terri, (p. 12.) ; concerning which, however, I know no-
thing farther than what Rumphius states.

Caput V. & VI.
Pinanga domestica, p. 26.

This is the Areca Catechu of modern botanists, concern-

ing which I may refer to my Commentary on the first part
u 2

308 COMMENTARY ON

of the “ Hortus Malabaricus;” and I must remark, that
Rumphius is as free as Rheede from the error of suppos-
ing that Catechu (kath) is made from this palm; and from
this error the authors of the Encyclopedie (i. 240) are also
exempt. Rumphius mentions four principal varieties, and
several others of less note; but none of these seem to be
what botanists call distinct species.

Carur VII.
Pinange sylvestres, p. 39.

The authors of the Encyclopedie first introduced these
into the,system of modern botany, and were followed by
Willdenow; but I suspect that both followed Rumphius
entirely, without having seen the plants; and that Will-
denow, in forming the specific characters from the stipites,
has not always understood the meaning of his author. I
shall now enter into particulars, the different kinds enu-
merated by Rumphius being not mere varieties of cultivat-
ed plants, but distinct species.

Pinanga sylvestris globosa, p. 38, t. 5, f. 1, A.

This the authors of the Encyclopedie (i. 241) call Areca
spicata, a name adopted also by Willdenow (Sp. PI. iv,
595); but Geertner (De Semin. 1. 24, t. 9, f. 3) considers.
it as of a different genus, and calls it Euterpe globosa. I
doubt much of the propriety of founding new genera of
Palms merely from differences in the situation of the em-
bryo, and suspect that the practice will lead to an arrange-
ment altogether unnatural. Few palms are more different
than the Coryphas and Pinange sylvestres, that have been
united to form the genus Euterpe (Ene. Meth, Sup. ii.
623).

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 309

Pinanga sylvestris glandiformis prima, p. 38, t. 6.

In the Encyclopedie (i. 241), and by Willdenow (Sp.
Pl. iv. 595), this is called Areca glandiformis.

Pinanga sylvestris glandiformis secunda, p. 39.

I think that in the Andaman Islands I have found this
palm, the nuts of which were used, instead of the betel-nut,
by the convicts.confined on the island. I call it

Areca laxa foliolis binerviis, caudice incurvo, floribus

triandris.

The following account I have extracted from notes taken
on the spot..

Caudex szepius incurvus, nunquam ut in Catechu strictus,
pedes 20—30 altus, annulatus, inermis, apicem versus politus,
viridis, tumidus.

Frondes cum impari pinnate. Pinne lanceolate, acute, in-
tegerrimze, plicis quatuor binervie, e medio stipitis laterum
superiorum enate, equidistantes. Stipes inermis. Rachis tri-
angularis, latere inferiore convexo.

Spatha nuda, monophylla, ex apice trunci annulati infra par-
tem tumentem enata, lanceolata, acuta, extra convexa, intra
concaya, marginata, integerrima, decidua, interius dehiscens.
Spadix decompositus, interne planus, nudus ; externe convexus,
ramosus. Rami angulati, ramosi. Ramuli hinc leves, inde den-
ticulati.
~ Masculini flores plurimi, minuti, sessiles, bini singulis ramu-
lorum denticulis insidentes. Calyx triphyllus, rigidus, foliolis
lanceolatis, acutis, conniventibus. Filamenta vix ulla. Antherze
tres oblonge. Pistilli ruadimentum. nullum.

Foeminine flores pauce, solitarie, ad basin ramulorum ra-
mis adnate, masculinis centies majores. Calyx triphyllus, con-
volutus foliolis ovatis, concavis. Petala tria viridia, ovata, acu-
minata, circa germen arcte convoluta, calyce longiora, ovata, con-
cava. Germen obsolete trigonum, ovatum, acuminatum. Sty-
lus nullus. Stigma acutum. ;

Pericarpium non vidi.

In the woods of Chatigang and Rangpur I found an-
other Palm very nearly allied to this of Rumphius, and

310 ~ COMMENTARY ON

which, in the former, was called Ram Gua, or Wild Betel-
nut, while, in the latter, it was called Runi Supari. I sent
plants to Dr Roxburgh, thinking it might be the Areca
alba; but Dr Roxburgh was of a different opinion, and
called it Areca triandra, a name not very appropriate, as
applicable to several species.

Areca triandra pinnis lateralibus falcatis, acutis ; terminali
bifurca, preemorsa.

Areca triandra, Hort. Beng. 68.

Areca alba, Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. 596? Encye. Meth. Sup.
v. 44] P

Ram Gua

Runi supari

Habitat in sylvis Camrupe et Tripuree. :

Caudex strictus, 12-20 pedes altus, annulatus, inermis ; apice
levi, viridi, tumente. Stipites laves, longitudine fere frondis
subteretes, basi dilatato amplexicaules, Rachis communis sub-
anceps, supra carinata.

Frondes cum impari pinnate. Pinne sessiles, longitudinali-

ter decurrentes, integerrime, nude, ad nervos 6—12 plicate ;
laterales falcatee, acutee ; terminalis bifurca lobis divergentibus,
premorsis.

Spatha ex apice caudicis annulati infra partem tumentem ena-
ta. Spadix ramosissimus, erectus.

Flores omnino ut in A. laxa, sed anthere sagittate ; stigma
trilobum.

Bacca magnitudine amy edali shinee: utrinque acumine ob-
tuso terminata, glabra, pulpa molli rubra tenui tecta. Semen
bacca conforme, integumento crasso lignoso fibroso tectum.
Albumen absque cavitate ruminatum. Embryo in bast seminis
positus, conicus.

\ Bengalensium.

Very nearly allied to this last is a small Palm, which I
found near Goyalpara, and which is probably the Areca
gracilis of the Hortus Bengalensis (68), as Dr Roxburgh
received his plant from the neighbouring territory (Sylhet),
and as the name is very applicable; but I did not observe
the plant in the garden at Calcutta. I should have consi-
dered it as the same with the next plant described by
Rumphius, on account of its éruncus gracilissimus et te-

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 311

nuissimus (p. 41, § 2.); but its fruit is too large. I shall
here content myself by giving a few notices concerning: this
palm.

Caudices aggregati, pollice vix crassiores, pedes 8 vel 9 longi.

Frondes omnino ut in A. triandra.

Flores non vidi.

Spice fructiferee simplices, recurvatz, angulate, undique
asperse baccis calyci marcescenti insidentibus.

Bacca ovata utrinque acumine obtuso terminata, parva, gla-
bra. Caro fibrosa, tenuis, undique semini adherens. Semen
ovale, fundo baccz absque funiculo umbilicali adherens, Al-
bumen ruminatum, nulla cavitate in medio insculptum. Em-
bryo conicus, albidus, in basi seminis nidulans.

Pinanga nee oryzeformis, p. 40, tab. 5, fig. 2
et lit. B. C. & D.

- ‘The authors of the Encyclopedie (i. 241), and, after
them Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 596), call this Areca globuli-
Jera; while Gertner (De Sem. i. 19, t. 7, f. 2.) calls it
A. oryzeformis, which seems the preferable name, being
‘that first given.

Pinanga sylvestris Saleyt dicta, p. 41.

In modern systems this remains entirely unplaced.

Pinanga sylvestris saxatilis, p. 42, t. 7.

Willdenow calls this the Areca humilis (Sp. Pl. iv. 595.)
Loureiro imagined that he had seen the plant in Cochin-
china, and called it Borassus caudata, in which he is fol-
lowed by the Encyclopedie (vi. 258); but then there is
gr eat reason to suspect that the plant which Loureira saw
_is quite different from that of Rumphius, .as the author of
the Encyclopedie, copying from Loureiro, describes an
undivided spadix, and three nuts in each fruit, while
Rumphius represents the spadix as branched, and the fruit
as resembling that of the Pinanga oryzcformis, which has

312 COMMENTARY ON

only one seed. The compiler of the Supplement to the
Encyclopedie (i. 140), with his usual candour and judg-
ment, has abandoned this plant of Loureiro, at least as
being the same with the Pinanga sylvestris saxatilis, and
adopts the name Areca humilis of Willdenow.

Carut VIII.
Saribus, p. 42, t. 8.

This is the Corypha rotundifolia of the Encyciopedie
Gu. 131), and of Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 1. 201); but its be-
longing to the genus Corypha is extremely doubtful, and
rests entirely on the comparison which Rumphius draws
between it and the Codda Pana of the Hortus Malabricus,
—* que quoad folia magnam cum Saribo nostra habet
convenientiam—verum tantum differt, ut diversa sit ha-
benda species,” (44). The Saribus is therefore as likely to
be a Chamerops or Rhapis, and still more likely to be a
Licualia than a Corypha. I cannot, indeed, help wonder-
ing, that Geertner (De Sem. i. 18) should have confounded
it as a species with the Codda pana of the Hortus Mala-
baricus. 'This renders what he says concerning the fruit of
the Corypha quite uncertain, as no one can tell whether he
described the fruit of the Codda pana, or that of the Sari-
bus; yet I suspect that most of the recent generic charac-
ters given of the Corypha are derived from this uncertain
source. .

Limalia arbor, p. 44, t. 9.

The authors of the Encyclcpedie (u. 201) called this at
first the Corypha licwala, and it has perhaps as good a
claim to remain in that genus as the Saribus; but Thun-
berg has made it a distinct genus; and it is now the Li-
cualia spinosa of Willdenow (Sp. Pl. i. 201), a name

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 313

adopted in the Supplement of the Encyclopedie (iui. 450),
and by most recent botanists.

When in Chatigang, I observed a species very nearly
allied to this, and sent specimens, and a description, to Sir
Joseph Banks; and, on the 24th April 1798, I sent seeds
to Dr Roxburgh. I have since found the same plant on
the hills of the Rangpur district; and Dr Roxburgh pro-
cured it from his son, for the Botanical Garden of Calcutta,
where it is called Licualia peltata. I annex a description
taken from my Notes.

Licualia peltata stipite aculeato, frondi flabelliformi, stamini-
bus distinctis.

Kurup et Kurkuti Bengalensium.
Habitat in montibus ultra Gangem.

Caudex 3—5 pedes altus, crassitie brachii humani curvus,
teres, levis, apicem versus stipitum rudimentis exasperatus,
plerumque simplicissimus, sed aliquando vidi ramos paucos ut
’ i Cyeis, *”

Frondes 5 seu 6 confertissime, sparse, horizontales, peltate,
subrotunde, 8—12 partitz laciniis cuneiformibus, ad latera
integerrimis, apice preemorsis, nitidis, glabris, ad nervos longi-
tudinaliter plicatis, pedem unum vel alterum longis. Stipes
trigonus, longus, patens, imberbis, utrinque aculeis rectis hori-
zontalibus validis armatus. Stipulee retiformes, lacerze, basin
stipitis investiunt.

Spadix erectus, foliis longior, interruptus articulis ad basin
compressis lzvibus, apicem versus incrassatis tomentosis. Spice
simplices, teretes, ex apice singulorum articulorum solitarie,
secunde, resupinate, pedem longe, multiflore. Pedunculus
communis compressus, angulatus, tomentosus. Flores plurimi,
sparsi, magnitudine florum hyacinthi. Spathe vaginantes, le-
ves, teretes, laxce, basin articulorum spadicis singulorum te-
gentes, ore oblique-truncato, indefinite dentato.

Calyx monophyllus, subcylindricus, inferus, ore tridentato.
Corolla monopetala, calyce duplo longior, persistens, trifida la-
‘ciniis ovatis acutis patulis. Filamenta sex, ovata, acuta, plana,
distincta. Anthere sagittatz, erect, corolla breviores. Germen
_oblongum, truncatum. Stylus subulatus, staminibus longior.
Stigma simplex.

Bacca aurantii colore oblonga, basi attenuata, stigmate coro-
nata, unilocularis. Cuticula punctata. Caro succulenta, fibrosa,

314 COMMENTARY ON

undique semini adherens. Semen unicum, grande, forma bacce
leve. Integumentum duplex; exterius crustaceum, durum,
tenue ; interius membranaceum, utrumque arctissime adnatum.
Albumen semini conforme, cartilagineum, cavitate obliqua,
utrinque attenuata, apicem prope et basin seminis hinc inde
attingente perforatum. Embryo ovalis, semini prope basin
(cavitatis extremitati inferiori oppositus) immersus, utrinque
obtusus, lacteus.

Caprut IX.
Lontarus domestica, p. 45, t. 10.

Jussieu (Gen. Pl. 45) proposes to restore the name Lon-
tarus, im place of Borassus, the name given by Linneus,
and since adopted by most botanists, but derived from the
name of a part (spatha) common to most palms. The
name domestica is well chosen, as I have never seen the
palm except near villages; while flabelliformis, the specific
name usually given since the time of Linneeus, is applicable
to every species which can be considered nearly related to
the same genus. I consider, therefore, that Geertner was
perfectly justifiable in having (De Sem. i. 21) restored to
this palm the name Lontarus domestica. Indeed, it may
be observed, that Linnzeus very commonly changed the
names given by Rumphius for the worse, and that the
plan of making the generic name a substantive, agreeing
with an adjective for a specific appellation, seems to have
been borrowed from the venerable Dutch Governor, al-
though Linnzus has generally received credit for the in-
vention. No doubt, however, Linnzus followed the rule
almost universally, while Rumphius only adopted it in a
great proportion of instances.

Caput X.
Lontarus sylvestris, p. 53, t. 11.

_ In the Encyclepedie (11. 181) this 1s considered as a spe-
cies of Corypha, and has the barbarous specific name wtaz.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 315

‘Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 25) adopted the same names,
and is an excellent authority for placing it in the same ge-
nus with the Corypha described by Rheede, having ex-
amined the fructification of both palms.

Lontarus sylvestris Yhur dicta, p. 54.

This is evidently a palm, with leaves shaped like a fan,
and which produces a sago; but to what genus it belongs,
no'one can say, from any thing that Rumphius states.

Lontarus sylvestris Cabang, p. 55.

This is a palm very nearly allied to the Licualia peltata,
already described, but distinguishable by the smaller num-
ber of sections into which its leaves are divided. It serves,
however, similar purposes, and probably belongs to the
Same genus. :

Carut XI. |
Lontarus sylvestris altera, p. 56, t. 12... .

From the fruit contaming three or four nuts, and from
the general appearance of the plant, I consider it probable
that this palm is a species of Borassus or Lontarus.

Capur XII. & XITI.
Palma indica vinaria secunda, p. 57, t..13.

Burman, im his Commentary, considered this is a Cha-
meerops; and the authors of the Encyclopedie (vi. 258),
misled by Loureiro, looked upon it as a Borassus, which
obtained the specific name gomutus. Both Chameerops
and Borassus having fan-shaped leaves, while those of the
palm in question are pimnated, these arrangements were
quite unnatural, no circumstance in this natural order pro-
ducing such a change of appearance as the form of leaf.
Dr Roxburgh, accordingly, (Hort. Beng. 68), with great

316 COMMENTARY ON

propriety, considered this as not belonging to any Linnean
genus, and, adopting one of the names used by Rumphius,
called it Saguerus Rumphu; which I think preferable to
the name Arenga given to it by Labillardiere (Enc. Meth.
Supp. 1. 441), and probably derived from Aren of the
Japanese.

Arbor Tsiang, p. 63.
This palm, Rumphius says, has an appearance interme-
diate between the Saguerus and Saribus, one having pin-
nated, and the other fan-shaped leaves. On this account,

it may be perhaps considered as nearly allied to the Levis-
tonia of Brown (Nov. Holl. 1. 267).

Caput XIV.
Seguaster major, p. 64, t. 14.

This is usually quoted by botanists for the Caryota
urens; but, in my Commentary on the First Part of the
Hortus Malabaricus, I have expressed a doubt whether
this be the same with the Schunda pana, and to that Com-
mentary I must here refer.

CarutT XV.
Seguaster minor, p. 67, t. 15.

I do not find that any modern botanist quotes this palm ;
and Burman in his Commentary seems quite wrong in con-
sidering it as a Caryota, as it has simply pinnated leaves.
It is more probably an Areca, and seems in particular very
nearly allied to the Areca humilis of Willdenow, which has
been already mentioned in this Commentary. It would
appear that each fruit has only one seed, otherwise, from
the form of the leaves, I should have thought that it be-
longed to the same genus with what Dr Roxburgh (Hort.
Beng. 68) called Wrightia caryototdes; and as the two

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 317

seeds of the Wrightia adhere closely, forming as it were
one body, I am still inclined to think that this may be the
case. I shall therefore give here some account of the
Wrightia of Dr Roxburgh, as probably belonging to the
same genus with the Seguaster minor. As another plant,
however, has been called Wrightia by Mr Brown (Nov.
Holl. 1. 467), this palm should obtain another name. In
the year 1798, I found it in Chatigang, but only in leaf,
and sent specimens of these to Sir Joseph Banks. At the
same time I sent roots to Dr Roxburgh, but it would ap-
pear that these did not succeed; and he afterwards pro-
cured plants from Mr Peirard. ‘The name of this plant,
as given to the last mentioned gentleman by the Bengalese,
is Chilpata; but to me they called it Harina, a name I
would propose for the genus. The fugitives from Aracan,
or Rakhain, then in the district of Chatigan, called it
Mu-zha Ma-tan Raik. I have since found the plant on
the hills near Goyalpara.

Harina caryotoides.
Habitat in montibus Bengale orientalis.

Radix fibrosa. Caudex nulla. Stipites radicales, congesti,
obsolete trigoni, erecti, leves, octo pedes longi, pollicem crassi,
indivisi. Frondes 6—8 pedes longe, cum impari pinnate.
Pinne laterales inferiores sepius hinc inde 2 vel 3 approxi-
matze ; superiores solitarie, alterne, pedes 2 longee, semipedem
latee, ad basin cuneatee, integerrimee, apicem versus truncato-
lobatz lobis apice preemorsis ; terminalis flabelliformis, parva,
premorsa: omnes nervose, supra nitide, subtus albide. Ra-
chis communis subtus retundatus, supra canaliculatus. Stipule
fibrosze, reticulatee stipites infra mvolunt.

Spadix cubitum longus, erectus, intrafoliaceus, spicas breves
habet paucas, sparsas, erectas, rigidas. Rachis communis obtus
angulus, squamulosus, foveis unifloris aspersus. Flores parvi,
-apice rubicundi: spice: apicem versus masculini pauci, basin
versus foeminine plurime.

M. Calyx crassus, subrotundus, truncatus, subtriphyllus fo-
liolis concavis, altero marginum exteriore imbricatis. Petala
tria, calyce longiora, unguibus latis subcoalita. Stamina sex,
corolla breviora.

318 COMMENTARY ON

F. Calyx et corolla ut in Masculino. Stamina abortives tria,
petalis alterna. Germen magnum, ovatum, superum. Stylus
nullus. Stigma emarginatum.
~ Bacca dura, sicca, ovata, bilocularis. Semina solitaria, mag-
tudine semen Coffeze paulo exsuperantia, hinc plana, inde con-
vexa, ovata. Albumen forma seminis. Embryo parvus, centri-
_ petus, in dorso seminis convexo nidulans.

Seguaster minor e qua latrones Sargile hastas for-
mant, p. 68.

Whether this be a mere variety, or a different species, is
uncertain ; but the latter seems the most probable.

Sezuaster minor forma foliorum et ramorum diversa,
p. 68.

Rumphius says expressly, ‘* una habenda est species cum
seguastro minore ;” yet, from the account which he gives,
the difference seems very great. |

Caput XVI.
Nypha, p. 69, t. 16.

This is the Nipa,fruticans of Willdenow (iv. 597), and
of the Encyclopedie (Sup. iv. 98). It is exceedingly com-
mon on the muddy banks of the Gangetic estuaries, from
whence it is often washed away, and floats entire into the
sea, where sailors mistake it for the Coco-nut palm.

Carut XVII. XVIII.
Sagus seu Palma farinaria, p. 72.

Rumphius first describes at great length the habit of
this genus, which, after him, is now generally called Sagus,
although an attempt has been made to call it Metroxylon;
but this attempt has luckily proved abortive. Rumphius
then proceeds to mention four kinds, which seem to be dis-
tinct species, although they all produce sago; but this, or

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 319

an analogous substance, 1s produced from the stem of se-
veral other palms.

Sagus genuina, p. 75, t. 17 & 18.

Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 68) called this Sagus iner-
mis ; but it is certainly the Sagus Rumphit of Willdenow
(Sp. Pl. iv. 404). As it is from this that by far the greater
part of sago, and that of the best quality, is prepared, I
think that the name of Rumphius is by far the most appro-
priate. The author of the Supplement to the Encyclopedie
(v. 13) doubts, whether this Sagus genuina be a different
species from the Sagus farinifera of that work (vi. 394) ;
but this doubt seems unnecessary, as the sago of the Sagus

Jarinifera is the worst of all others. It is to the Sagus
genuina, probably, that we should refer the Arbor Zagoe
Amboinensis of Seba, which Burman (Hor. Ind. 240), and

- Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 844), have referred to the Cycas

circinalis ; for I may venture to affirm, that sago never
was procured from the stem of the Todda pana of the
Hortus Malabaricus (iu. 9), although the nuts of this tree,
when bruised, give a flour, that is used in Malabar as an
aliment. This error, clearly pointed out by Rumphius (p.
92), seems to have arisen from Rheede’s having mistaken
his 'Toddo pana, one of the most common trees in Malabar,
for the Soteetsou of Japan. It must farther be observed,
that Rumphius, far from describing various kinds of the
Olus calappoides, that produce sago, as the younger Bur-
man asserts, describes the sago to be the produce of a total-
ly different plant, as here mentioned; and it is, to be la-
mented that the younger Burman did not attend to the ex-
cellent observation of his father on this subject, contained
in this volume of Rumphius, p. 78.

320 COMMENTARY ON

Sagus sylvestris, p. 75.

This species has not been taken up by any author that
I have seen.

Sagus longissima, p. 75.

This is the Sagus farinifera of Geertner (De Sem.11.186),
and of the Encyclopedie (vi. 394), a name not so well cho-
sen as that of Rumphius; for sago is not a farina, and, if
it were, this species produces the worst sago of any enume-
rated by Rumphius. On this account, it is probably not
the Metroxylon sagu of Rottbol, who, according to the
Hortus Kewensis (v. 281), meant the Sagus genwina.

Sagtis levis, p. 76.
This name Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 68) has changed
to Sagus spinosa, an alteration not for the better, as all the
four kinds mentioned by Rumphius are spinous. I do not
find this plant taken up by any other recent author.

Caput XIX.
Sagus filaris, p. 84, t. 19.

This would seem to belong to a different genus from thes
four species of Sagus described by Rumphius in the two
preceding chapters.

Bisula, p. 85.

A palm resembling the Lontarus sylvestris already men-
tioned, and therefore nearly allied to the Corypha, Licualia,
and Borassus; but nothing is said to enable us to judge to
which it is most nearly allied, except that its fruit, beng
compared to that of the Pinanga (Areca) or Betel-nut,
probably contains only one nut, and it therefore should not
be a Borassus.

.THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 32)

CapuT XX.
Olus calappoides, p. 86, t. 20, 21.

The younger Burman (FI. Ind. 240) quotes the Olus
calappoides (p. 86) for the Cycas circinalis of Linneus,
by which this great naturalist meant the Palma furinifera
Japonica, Setitson Japonensibus of Breynius (Fl. Zeyl.
393), as producing sago, although he quotes as synony-
mous the Palma prunifera Japonica of the Hortus Mala-
baricus (iii. 9, t. 13-21). Now, this quotation is errone-
ous; for, in the places referred to, Rheede describes the
Todda panna, one of the most common productions of the
coast of Malabar; and although he alleges that it also
grows in Japan (p. 12), where its stem produces sago
(p. 13), I have no doubt that this is an entire mistake, (see
the Commentary on the Sagus genuwina, and Buchanan’s

_ Mysore, ii. 469) ; for Thunberg refers the Tessio, or Sotits,
of the Japanese, if that be the same with the Soteetsou,

Setitsou, or Sotectsou, to the Tetsice of Rumphius, which
will be afterwards mentioned. 2

But farther, the proper Olus calappoides of Rumphius,
described in page 86, is not figured in the tables 22 and
23, as Burman would have it. The male plant is repre-
sented in tables 20 and 21, and Rumphius gives no figure
of the female; but it is from the form of the female spadix
chiefly, that the species of Cycas can best be determined.
In the text, however (p. 87), Rumphius describes this very
clearly,—‘** Extremum petioli, e quo fructus dependent,
emulatur planum pueri manum seu cristam galli;” from
whence we may probably conclude, that the Olus calap-
poides (p. 86, t. 20, 21) is nearly related to the Cycas re-

voluta, as described by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Linnean ©

Transactions (vi. 312, t. 29, 30); but this, it is admitted,
is the Olus calappoides sinensis (p. 92, t. 24), which Rum.
VOL. V. x

$22 COMMENTARY ON

phius clearly distinguishes from the Olus calappoides, as he
also (p. 90) does the Todda pana of Rheede. If the figure
of Rumphius could be depended on, we might readily dis-
tinguish these species, as it represents the stipites of the.
Olus calappoides as unarmed; but in the description (p. 86),
he says, ** Rami (stipites) a trunco usque ad foliorum or-
tum ad margines brevibus obsiti spinibus.”

On the hills which bound Bengal to the east, I have
found the female of a Cycas, which may be the plant of
Rumphius, and which I shall here describe.

Cycas pectinata stipitibus aculeatis; spadicibus foemininis
mucronatis, utrinque pectinatis.
Cycas angulata, Brown, Nov. Holl. 1. 348.?
Olus calappoides, Herb. Amb. i. 86, t. 20 et 21.
Ban Khejur Bengalensium.
Habitat in Camrupez orientalis sylvis.

Truncus 7—10 pedes altus, subramosus, teres, annulatus.

Frondes in trunci apices conferte, pinnate. Pinne zquidis-
tantes, subopposite, decurrentes, lineares, acuta, margine re-
voluto integerrime, avenes, uninerves junioribus tomentosis.
Stipites ancipites, tomentosi, aculeis utrinque pectinati.

Flores dioici; in arbore feeminina capitulum terminale, or-
biculatum, depressum, arctissime spadicibus ferrugineo-tomen-
tosis imbricatum, undique intus gummi scatens, squamis spa-
thaceis tomentosis pluribus brevibus cinctum. Spadix basi
anceps, apice dilatatus in squamam crassam, incurvam, ovatam,
mucrone rigido acuminatissimam, utrinque pectinatam. Flos-
culi utrinque 2 vel 3 foveis totidem in basi spadicis utrinque
insculptis nidulantes.

Calyx vel petala nulla. Germen compressum. Stylus nullus.
Stigma acutum.

Capitulum fructiferum arcte spadicibus acutissimis imbrica-
tum.

Drupa obliqua, obovata, magnitudine ovi compressa, basi
hylo notata, nuda, rugosa. Cortex tenuis, papyraceus, arcte
adherens. Caro tenuis, fungosa, ossiculo adnata. Putamen
forma fructus osseum, tenue, leve, basi acuminatum, et poro
perforatum. Receptaculum nullum, semine ad apicem putami-
nis adherente. Semen unicum fructu forma conforme. Integu-
mentum intus nitidum, spadiceum, membranaceum, putamini
adherens, ab interioribus facile secedens, apicem incrassatum

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 323

intra hilam albuminis immittens. Albumen semine conforme,
oblique compressum, obsolete sulcatum, carnosum, album.
Embryo oblongus, utrinque acutus, verticalis, ex apice albumi-
nis poris nonnullis pertuso ramentis umbilicalibus contortupli-
catis dependens.

Oxs. Quod ego embryenem vocavi, Brownius (Nov. Holl. 1
347) pro vitello embryonem includente habuit.

Differt a C. circinali spadicibus feemininis profundius incisis,
fructiferis erectis, incurvis.

Olus calappoides, e Celebe cujus feeminina Lagogo
et masculina Patuka vocantur, p. 87; ut et illa
ex Insulis Ulasseriensibus, p. 89, t. 22 et 23.

The account of these plants given by Rumphius is not
very distinct. He seems especially to have been uncertain
whether or not the Lagogo and Patuka of Celebes were
different from the Olus calappoides figured in plates 20
and 21, and in Amboina called Nuvel and Utta Nuer.
Perhaps they are really the same, although, in the explana-
tion (p. 91), tables 22 and 23 are referred to the Lagogo
and Patuka. The explanation of the plates, however, seems
to have been written by Burman with little care; and it
may be suspected that these two plates represent the palms
which were brought to Rumphius from the Uliasser Islands.
They, no doubt, represent the 'odda panna of the Hortus
Malabaricus, and are therefore justly quoted by Burman
(Fl. Ind. 240), Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 844), Roxburgh
(Hort. Beng. 71), and the Compilers of the Eneyclopedie
(ii. 23), for the Cycas circinalis; while the description
given of the female spadix of the Olus calappoides (tables
20 and 21) renders it certain that the latter figures repre-
sent a totally different plant, notwithstanding the assertion
of Loureiro (Enc. Meth. Supp. ii. 425).

The Cycas circinalis is a very common plant in Malabar,
and I suppose must have been mistaken for the Sagus ra-

Ses

— 824 .. COMMENTARY ON

phia; and a report of this circumstance must have led the
Compiler of the Encyclopedie (vi. 393) to make this a na
tive of India, especially of Malabar. But having travelled
much through this latter country, as well as through India
in general, if this name is confined to Hindusthan, I may
venture to say, that neither produces any species of Sagus,
and the Todda panna is the only plant of Malabar that
could be mistaken for such. Willdenow seems therefore
perfectly right in confining the Sagus raphia, which he calls
Ruffia (Sp. Pl. iv. 403), to Madagascar, although it may
probably be found in other parts of Africa.

Pianta Osmunde genere Pappa dicta, p. 89.

We have no figure of this plant, which is a native of
Celebes; nor are we even certain of its not being actually
a Fern; but it is more probably a Cycas.

Arbor calappoides sinensis, p. 92, t. 24.

All modern authors agree in calling this the Cycas re-
voluta, the female fructificaticn of which has been most ac-
curately described and delineated in the 6th volume of the
Linnean ‘Transactions, by my worthy friend Sir J. E.
Smith. A very great difficulty occurs in Thunberg making
this the tree, the stem of which produces a most nutritious
substance, so precious, that it is a capital crime to export
the tree from Japan, while its fruit is an esculent drupe.
The drupe probably may be used as a wretched aliment in
times of scarcity, as is the case in Malabar with that of the
Cycas circinalis (Buchanan’s Mysore, 11. 469) ; or in times
of mourning, as, according to Rumphius (p. 90), is done
in Tamboca: but this intelligent and inquisitive author
denies his ever having heard that a nutritious substance

like sago could be procured from the stem of the Olus ca-

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. ‘325

dappoides sinensis (p. 92), and he says that it is cultivated
by the Chinese and Japonese as an ornament,—* ob plu-
mosam ejus formam.” Rumphius spells its Chinese name
Titsjiu, which is no doubt the same with Tessio, the more
learned name of the Cycas revoluta, which is called Sotits,
and Sodots, by the vulgar in Japan. I am inclined to sus-
pect that the resemblance, however imperfect, between
these latter names and. Setitsou, Sotectsou, and Soteetsou,
is the only foundation for supposing that the Cycas circi-
nalis produces the most valuable kind of sago; and I am
inclined to think that the Setitson is not, as Rheede sup-
posed, a Cycas, but a.real Sagus.

Carut XXI.
Manga domestica, p. 93, t. 25.

This is the Mangifera Indica of Linneus and subsequent
authors, a name as improper, as if we were to call the apple-
tree Malifera Europawa. ‘The species of Manga mentioned
by Rumphius are varieties, in a botanical sense; and, in
fact, the varieties cultivated in India are fully as numerous
as those of the apple found in Europe.

Manga Pau in Banda vocata, p. 96, t. 26.

In neither description nor figure can I discover any es-
sential difference between this and the Manga domestica.

Manga sylvestris prima, p. 97.

Manga sylvestris secunda, p. 97.
. Table 27 is said to represent the Manga sylvestris, but
No notice is given to which of the species it should be re-
ferred. If we might venture to judge from the position of
the leaves in the figure, this should be the Mangifera oppo-
sitifolia of the Hortus Bengalensis (18), of which I trans-

326 COMMENTARY ON ©

mitted an account from Ava, which was given to Sir Joseph
Banks under the name of Mangifera Marian, the latter
word being its name in the language of Ava.

Arbor ramis angulatis ; foliis -oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis,
integerrimis, acuminatis, venosis, nitidis, nudis. Petiolus bre-
vissimus, supra concavus, estipulaceus.

Spice simplicissimz, folio multum longiores, axillares et
terminales. Pedunculus tetragonus, acutangulus. Flores ter-
minales terni; laterales oppositi, solitarii, sessiles, remoti: ex-
planatos non vidi.

Drupa compressa, flava, pulcherrima, glabra, figura et sapore
mangiferee indice, ossiculo fibroso solitario monospermo.

From the inflorescence, as above described, it will ap-
pear, that, however nearly allied by the singular position
of the leaves, the Marian must be different from the plants
of Rumphius, which have the flowers disposed in panicles.
The two kinds of this author seem distinct species, which
may be thus distinguished from each other, and from the
Marian. The name given to this latter by Dr Roxburgh
is now improper, being equally applicable to two other
species.

1. Mangifera Mariana foliis oppositis, floribus spicatis, pe-

dunculo tetragono.

Mangifera oppositifolia, Hort. Beng. 18.
Ma-ri-an Burmanorum.
Habitat in regno Peguensi.

2. M. Utana foliis oppositis, floribus paniculatis, fructu gla-
bro.

Mangifera sylvestris prima, Herb. Amb. 1. 97, t. 27?
Habitat in Amboina et Insulis vicinis, |

3. M. Taipa foliis oppositis, floribus paniculatis, fructu pi-
loso.
Mangifera sylvestris altera, Herk. Amb. i. 97.
Habitat in Amboina et Insulis vicinis.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSF. 327

Caput XXIII.
Manga feetida, p. 98, t. 22.

On the authority of Loureiro this has been described in
the Encyclopedie (Sup. i. 583) under the name of Man-
gifera fetida. The acrimony of the juice, in its bark, shews
a strong affinity with the genus which I called Holigarna,
a name adopted by Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 22).

Caput XXIV.
Durio, p. 99, t. 29.
This is the Durio zibethinus of modern botanists. The

species mentioned by Rumphius are merely such varieties
as occur in plants much cultivated.

Carut XXV.
Saccus arboreus major, p. 104, t. 30.

I think there can be no doubt that this is the same with
the 'Tsjaca maram of the Hortus Malabaricus. I know no
tree better, and every word that Rumphius says, so far as
I can judge, I consider applicable to the common Jaca tree
of India. Notwithstanding this, Willdenow, for his Arto-
carpus integrifolia, does not quote this account, which,
in my opinion, is better than that of Rheede; and the
Compilers of the Kncyclopedie consider it as a distinct spe-
cies, calling it Artocarpus heterophylla, while the Tsjaca
Maram they call A. Jaca. It is true, that they quote this
plant of Rumphius with doubt, and therefore their A. he-
terophylla may be a real species: but I would observe,
that, some of the leaves being entire and others lobed, is
no proof whatever of a distinct species; all the species of
Artocarpus that I know, the Bread-fruit excepted, having
the leaves on their young plants lobed, while those on the

328 COMMENTARY ON

adult plants are entire. The names integrifolia and hetero-
phylta are therefore ill applied to any particular species.

If, however, the Artocarpus heterophylla be really a dis-
tinct species, the plant of Rumphius is wrong quoted in the
Encyclopedie (111. 209), and I have no doubt is identically
the same with the Tsjaca Maram of the Hortus Malabari-
cus (i. 17, t. 26, 27, 28) ; nor does it form even.a variety,
as Willdenow would have it (Sp. Pl. iv. 189). The dif-
ferent species mentioned by Rumphius are the real varie-
ties which occur in this, as well as in all other plants, that
are much cultivated.

Burman, in his observation on this plant, I suppose, is
in an error, when he refers to the Waal mendya of Her-
man as being the same. I believe there can be little doubt
of the Waal mendya being the Grewia orientalis (Lin. FI.
Zeyl. 324). Inthe Supplement to the Encyclopedie (v.
619) is some farther account of this tree, under the name
Choopada. ‘The proposal of Geertner and Commerson to
place this tree in a separate genus from the Bread-fruit-tree
seems to me unnecessary, and to rest upon circumstances
too minute, where the number of species 1s moderate, the
plants nearly resembling each other in general appearance,
and the characters distinguishing from other genera clearly
marked.

Capor X XVI.
Saccus arboreus minor, p. 107, t. 31.

The Compilers of the Encyclopedie (an. 210) consider
this as a variety of the Artocarpus Jaca, in which they are
followed by Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 189); but there is rea-
son to think that it is a very distinct species, the pubescence
on the leaves, and the different forms of the amenta, being
sufficient marks of distinction. I have, however, never seen
any plant that I could refer to this species.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 329

It must be observed, that Wilidenow considers the
Rademachia integra of Thunberg as the same with the
Tsjaca maraum of Rheede, which, as I have said, is the
Saccus arboreus major of Rumphius ; while the Compilers
of the Encyclopedie (iii. 210) consider it as the same with
the Saccus arboreus minor, and as being the original Arto-
carpus integrifolia of the younger Linnzeus.

Saccus arboreus minor alterus, p. 108.
Saccus arboreus minor tertius, p. 108.

From the short notices given of these plants in the text,
it is impossible to say whether or not they should be con-
sidered as varieties, or as species. In plants, however, so
little cultivated as these would seem to be, the latter opinion

is the most probable.

Angelyquen vel Caju Bandaa, p. 109.

Burman in his observation wonders that Rumphius
should have confounded his Saccus arboreus minor with
the Ansielt of the Hortus Malabaricus (i. t. 32); but he
seems to have read no more of Rumphius than the title of
the chapter, for the latter nowhere says any such thing.
Towards the end of the chapter, after having described
three kinds of the Saccus arboreus minor, he proceeds to
state, that, in Malabar, there is still another kind of Saccus
arboreus, with a small fruit, which is there called Angely-
quen; and afterwards, in an appendix, he adds, that the
same kind is found in Java, where it is called Caju Bandaa,
and that it is the same with the Ansieli of the Hortus Ma-
labaricus. Now, this is a very distinct species, which the
Compilers of the Encyclopedie (ii. 210) called Artocarpus
hirsuta. Willdenow chose (Sp. Pl. iv. 189) to call this
plant Artocarpus pubescens, quoting the Encyclopedie with

330 COMMENTARY ON

doubt, but the Hortus Malabaricus without reserve. Why
he did so, I cannot exactly say. He indeed calls the leaves
** subtus pubescentia,” while the Compilers of the Encyclo-
pedie call them “ inferne aspera ;” but in this they are com-
pletely justified by Rheede, who says “ folia inferne aspera
et manui tangenti adheerentia.” Both authors, I suspect,
have fallen into an error, copying from the drawing of
Rheede, and attributing to the plant “ amenta mascula
pendula.” Neither Rheede nor Rumphius mention this
circumstance, and the appearance in the plate I consider as
originating in the specimen, from which the drawing was
taken, having been kept until the parts became somewhat
flaccid. :

In 1801, I found a tree in Malabar, and the adjacent
territory, which I have scarcely any doubt is the Ansieli;
and I took specimens and a drawing, which in 1806 I gave
to Sir J. E. Smith, and the following description was taken
on the spot.

Artocarpus hirsuta, Enc. Meth. iii. 210.

Artocarpus pubescens, Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. 189.
Caju Bandaa vel Angelyquen, Herb. Amb. i. 109.
Ansieli, Hort. Mal. iii, 25, t, 32.

Heb Helasu Carnate.

Aiony Malyale, Buchanan’s Mysore, ii. 436.

Habitat in Malyalz sylvis et ad pagos.

Arbor inter altissimas, lintribus conficiendis apta. Rami tere-
tes, lactescentes, ad folia annulo cincti, pilis fuscis appressis
hispidi. Folia alterna; in adulta planta magnitudine Artocarpi
integrifoliz foliorum, margine revoluto integerrima, integra,
nervis supra depressis costata, venosissima, supra nitida, subtus
nisi ad costas hispidas glabra: in plantis junioribus maxima,
incisa. Petiolus brevissimus, depressus, pilis fuscis appressis
hispidus. Stipules gemmacez, caduce, hispida, gemine, ut in
afinibus disposite.

Pedunculi axillares plerumque gemini, erecti, teretes, hispidi,
petiolo duplo longiores, ebracteati, uniflori. Masculinum amen-
tum teres, longitudine folii erectum, undique floribus imbrica-

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 331

tum. Foemininum sepe in eadem cum masculino axilla posi-
tum, magnitudine nucis juglandis globosum.

M. Calyx monophyllus, cyathiformis, ore irregulari dehis-
cens. Filamentum unicum, teres, calyce duplo longius. An-
thera parva, rotunda.

F. Germina plurima, teretia, pilosa. Styli brevissimi. Stig-
mata acuta.

Fructum non vidi.

In the part of the country north from Malabar, I found
a tree very nearly allied to that above described, and, in
Tulava, called Pe Jaca; but I did not see any part of
its fructification. Its leaves were very scabrous above, and
very slightly mdented on the edges. Notwithstanding this,
I am, however, inclined to think, that it may be the same
with the Chama of the Bengalese, which I found on the
hills near Goyalpara, and which is probably the same with
the Chaplasha of Chatigang, which I sent to Dr Roxburgh
in. the year 1798, but of which I preserved no description.
The following is an account of the Chama.

Artocarpus Chama foliis plante adultz integris, subrotundis,
basi emarginatis, utrinque hispidis; amentis masculinis
orbiculatis, compressis.

Artocarpis Chaplasha, Hort. Beng. 66?
Chama Bengalensium.
Habitat in Camrupe orientalis sylvis.

Arbor excelsa, lactescens. Ramuli teretes, annulati, hispidi.
Folia decidua, alterna, subrotunda, basi profunde emarginata,
mucronata, integerrima, utrinque hispida, supra et scabra, cos-
tata, reticulatissima: plantis junioribus maxima, pinnatifido-
sinuata, serrata. Petiolus brevissimus, depressus, hispidus. Sti-
pulz gemmacez, geminze, carinate, decidue, pilis sericeis pu-
bescentes, foliis in gemmee conduplicatis.

Pedunculus masculinus, quatenus ego vidi, ex axilla folii
anni preteriti, unde facie infrafoliaceus, flore multo longior,
teres, solitarius, hispidus, erectus. Amentum suborbiculatum,
magnitudine cerasi compressum. Pedunculus foemininus mas-
culino similis, amento subrotundo compresso obliquo.

332 COMMENTARY ON >

Caput XXVII.
Soccus lanosus, p. 110, t. 32.

Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 188) calls this Artocarpus incisa
8, considering it as a cultivated variety of the following
plant; and in the Encyclopedie both are quoted, without
distinction, for the Artocarpus incisa (11. 207), while the
Soccus sylvestris is considered the variety 8: but these
suppositions seem to me devoid of foundation, and I agree
with Rumphius in considering the three species distinct.
This is distinguished by its smooth leaves; and Rumphius
enumerates several different kinds, some of which are spon-
taneous, but still different from the Soccus sylvestris or
Soccus gvanosus. ‘These kinds are, however, I think, to
be considered as varieties, arising as usual from cultivation.
See Sookoon, under the head Chospatlt (Suppl. v. pee in
the Encyclopedie.

Carurt XXVIII.
Soccus granosus, p. 112, t. 33

This, as mentioned in the Commentary on the foregoing
plant, is the Artocarpus incisa. «, of Willdenow (Sp. Pl.
iv. 188), from which it may readily be distinguished by
having its leaves scabrous above, and woolly beneath. . Of
this also Rumphius enumerates both cultivated and spon-
taneous varieties,—a proof of its being a species really dis-
tinct from the preceding.

Caprut XXIX.
Soccus sylvestris, p. 114, t. 33.

The Compilers of the Encyclopedie (i. 208) call chia
Artocarpus incisa @; but they suspect that it may be a
distinct species, in which I entirely agree with them. Its

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 333

leaves are so bristly that they can scarcely be handled, or
even touched.

Soccus sylvestris celebica, p. 115.

This is evidently an Artocarpus, with entire leaves,
which, together with the footstalk and fruit, are covered
with hairs. It may very possibly be the same with the
Artocarpus Lacucha of Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 66), a
tree very generally diffused over India. 'The account given
by Rumphius is too imperfect to admit with certainty of
the plant of Celebes being considered the same with the
Lacucha; but he says nothing to contradict this opinion,
as will appear from the following description of the Lacucha
taken by me in Ava during the year 1795, from whence I
sent specimens, now in the collection of the late Sir Joseph
- Banks.

The tree is called Lacucha in the Sanskrita, Baral in
the Hindwi, Dephal in the Bengalese, and To Pi-neh, or
Wood-Jaca, in the language of Ava.

Arbor mediocris. Ramuli viridescentes, pilis fuscis dense
tecti, lactescentes. Folia alterna, internodiis multo longiora,
ultra 6 pollices longa, oblonga, basi cordata, cum acumine
brevi obtusa, Geaticilis parvis remotis serrata, utrinque hispi-
da, supra nitida, venis reticulata, costata. Petiolus brevis, te-
res, villosus. Stipule gemmacee, gemine, subulate, caduce,
villosz, petiolo dimidio breviores.

- Amenta masculina magnitudine fabe arvensis pedicellata,
axillaria, plerumque gemina.

Fructus subrotundus, magnitudine pugni, forma irregularis,
flavescens, cortice tenui pubescenti rudimentis stigmatum no-
tato sed non areolato tectus, succo lacteo scatens, pulposus.

Semina ovata, compressa, albida, arillo carnoso tecta, recepta-
culo centrali lignoso tereti insidentia.

Soccus sylvestris feemina, p. 15.

"This also is undoubtedly an-Artocarpus; but I have seen
nothing resembling it. :

$34 COMMENTARY ON

Carut XXX.
Prunum stellatum angulosum, p. 115, t. 35.

This fruit was noticed by very early botanical writers ;
but seems very inferior in ancient India, where I have seen
it, to what it would seem to be in the Indian Archipelago,
as described by Rumphius. Rheede (Hort. Mal. in. 51,
t. 43 & 44) gives a good account of it, as found in ancient
India. Plukenet then mentions it in two places; first,
(Alm. 238) under Ray’s name, “‘ Malus Indica pomo an-
guloso Carambolas dicta ;” and, secondly, (Mant. 36), un-
der the name of ‘‘ Carambola, Malabarorum Tamaratonga
Horti Malabarici.” The elder Burman (Thes. Zeyl. 148)
calls it ** Malus Indica, foltis sennze occidentalis, fructu
acido, pentagono, sulcato, floribus rubris.” He also gives
the synonyma of preceding authors with tolerable care;
and mentions the true Indian name, Kama-ranga, derived
from Karma-ranga of the Sanskrit; but his explanation of
this name is totally absurd. ‘The description of Rumphius
comes next in order, and is excellent. ‘The sweet and sour
_ kinds mentioned by him are varieties, such as occur in all
plants much cultivated. Linneeus, in publishing the Flora
Zeylanica, established the genus Averrhoa, and made this
one of the species (178), as is usual in that work, quoting
the synonyma with admirable care. In the Species Planta-
rum it obtained the specific name Carambola, and continues
to be called by this appellation in all subsequent authors
of note; yet this name is of very doubtful origin. It is
true, that Rheede asserts it to be the name in use with the
Brahmans of Malabar; but he adds also, and with the
Portuguese, a coincidence that would be remarkable; but
the Sanskrita name is Karma-ranga, m the vulgar dialects
of the north corrupted into Kama-ranga, a name which
extends from the Ganges even to Ceylon; and I suspect

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 335

that even the Tamaratonga, which Rheede says is the vul-
gar name in Malabar, is a mere corruption, by errors in
copiers and printers, of the same word. As for Carambola,
it is, I suspect, one of those productions of careless travel-
lers, which are considered as Indian words by Europeans,
and as European words by the Indians.

Carut XXXI.
Blimbingium teres, p. 118, t. 35.

The synonyma of older authors may be found in the
elder Burman (Thes. Zeyl. 147), and in the Flora Zeyla-
nica of Linneus (177). This great author, in his Species
Plantarum, called it Averrhoa bilimbi, preferring the un-
couth name of Rheede, corrupted from the Malay; while
Rumphius afforded two good specific names, stellatum and
teres, for the two species of Averrhoa, which he described.
The names of Rheede, however, continue to be used by all
recent authors of note.

, Carut XXXII.
Jambosa domestica, p. 121, t. 37.
This is undoubtedly the Eugenia Malaccensis of all bo-

tanists since the time of Linnzus; and, for what I have to
say on the subject, I may refer to my Commentary on the
First Part of the Hortus Malabaricus, (Lin. Trans. xiii.
481). I have here, however, to add, that this fruit, in its
native country, the Eastern Archipelago, has a superior
quality to what it possesses as an exotic in ancient India.
I believe also, that all the kinds mentioned by Rumphius,
even the Jambosa calapparia (p. 122), are merely such
varieties as occur in all plants that are much cultivated.

”

336 COMMENTARY ON

Jambo d’Agoa Rosada, p. 123.

This, as I have mentioned in the Commentary on the
Hortus Malabaricus (1. c.), seems to me the Eugenia Jam-
bos, the Portuguese name being a mere translation of Gu-
lab Jamba, the Hindwi name of this fine tree. Burman’s
observation on the Jambosa domestica (p. 124) is full of
errors, mentioned in my Commentary on the Hortus Ma-
labaricus, Part i. p. 27.

Carut XXXITI.
Jambosa nigra, p. 125, t. 38, f. 1.
This is quoted by Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 1. 959), along

with the former, for the Eugenia Malaccensis; but it
seems a distinct species, and, without being certain, I be-
lieve that it is the Eugenia purpurea of the Hortus Ben-
galensis (p. 35), introduced there by Mr Colebrooke, who,
I suppose, gave it this name, which I find in no botanical
writer. The plant of Rumphius is not, however, quoted
in the Hortus Bengalensis. The observation of the elder
Burman, at the end of this chapter, is, in my opinion, to-
tally erroneous, no one of the plants quoted being the same.

Carut XXXIV.
Jambosa aquea, p. 126, t. 38, f. 2.

In the Encyclopedie (i. 200) this is quoted with doubt
for the Eugenia Javanica; but as the fruit of the latter
has not been described, nothing certain concerning this
question can be determined. In the Hortus Bengalensis
(37), without quoting Rumphius, this elegant species has
been called Eugenia aquea. It was brought, along with the
preceding, by the fieet of Admiral Raynier, after the cap-
ture of Amboina; and, in the year 1800, I saw both in the

a

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 337:

garden of the late worthy Dr Anderson, at Madras. The
Bengalese name given to the Jambosa aquea is perfectly
generical, and it has been called Jamb by the gardeners,
just as any foreign species of Quercus might by a common
labourer be called Oak. Considering the deserved high
authority of this work respecting the native names of plants,
I think this explanation necessary; as a Bengalese name
might imply the plant being a native of that country. The
kind with a white fruit, mentioned by Rumphius, seems a
mere variety, the effect of cultivation.

Caput XXXV.
Jambosa silvestris alba Utan Puti, p. 128, t. 39.

In my Commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus (P. 1.
fol. 27), I have mentioned the mistake into which modern

botanists have fallen, in quoting this for the Eugenia jam-

bos. I have no doubt of its being a totally different species,
which hitherto has not been properly applied to any plant
recently described.

Jambosa silvestris alba Biawas, p. 128.

It is impossible to say, from any thing mentioned by
Rumphius, whether this should be considered as a distinct
species, or as a mere variety of the foregoing. If Burman
was wrong in comparing these two plants to the Malacca .
Schambu of Rheede, which is at least of the same genus,
he erred much more in comparing them to the Catu
Tsiambu (Hort. Mal. iv. t. 8), which does not seem to be-
long to the same family.

Jambosa silvestris parvifolia, p. 129.

In the Actuarium or Appendix to this Work (cap. 6)
we are informed that a transposition of plates has taken

VOL. V. x

338 COMMENTARY ON

place; and that the plate representing this Jambosa 1s
given in vol. 11. tab. 40; while the 40th plate of this first
volume represents the Radix Deipare spuria, described in
vol. ii. p. 127. After this we can only account for the
Jambosa silvestris parvifolia beng quoted for the Gme-
- Jina Asiatica in Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iii. 313), by supposing,
that he looked merely at the drawing, without reading the
description. 'The Compilers of the Encyclopedie (11. 739)
noticed the discrepancy between the description and figure
prefixed, but do not seem te have consulted the Actuarium,
so as to refer the figures to their proper places. IT have
no doubt of the Jambosa silvestris parvifolia being an
Eugenia, and cannot see any resemblance between it and
the Blatti of the Hortus Malabaricus (ii. t. 40), or Sone-
ratia acida, with which Burman in his observation com-
pares it.

Jambosa silvestris Jamboe aha Utan dicta, p. 129.

When in the north-west parts of Mysore, in the cool
moist woods bordering on the lower sea-coast, I observed
a tree which seemed to have a great resemblance to this
plant of Rumphius; only, from not having seen the fruit,
I remain doubtful. I shall, however, describe what I saw,
of which Sir J. E. Smith has the specimens that I brought
home in 1806.

Eugenia leta foliis ellipticis, acuminatis, non punctatis ; pe-
dunculis unifloris terminalibus, subgeminis.

Habitat in Carnatz occidentalis sylvis.

Arbuscula ramis teretibus, glabris. Folia opposita, elliptica,
acuminata, integerrima, glabra, absque nervo marginali sub-
costata, venosa. Petiolus brevissimus, estipulaceus.

Pedunculi terminales, seepius gemini, uniflori, petiolo multo-
ties longiores, incrassati, in medio articulati, nudi. Flores

magni, squamula ad ealycis basin bracteati, staminibus 1 incar=
natis albi.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. $39

Calyx quadripartitus laciniis subrotundis. Petala quatuor,
ealyce multo majora, subrotunda, caduca. Stamina plura, peri-
gyna, petalis longiora. Germen inferum, oblongo-turbinatum.
Stylus unicus.

What Rumphius says of a verruca growing below the
leaves, and spreading out into a substance resembling the
Cupressus marinus, seems either to relate to some Viscum
or Psilotum, or to some disease similar to that which we
observe in Europe on the Betula alba.

Carut XXXVI.
Jambosa ceramica, p. 130, t. 41.

Linneus, in the Flora Zeylanica (182-186), described
as species of Myrtus five plants, which he acknowledges
searcely belong to that genus, and which should rather be
considered as forming one, that should be called Myvcia,
and of which he gives the natural characters at full length.
More modern botanists have availed themselves of this hint,
and Swartz adopted this genus, but chose to give it the
hard Greek name Calyptranthes. One of these five plants,
which Linneus at.first (FI. Zeyl. 185) called Myrtus foliis
lanceolato-ovatis, he afterwards, in the Species Plantarum,
called Myrtus cumini. ‘The synonyma, which Linneus
quoted for this, were, the Arbor Zeylanica cuminum redo-
lens of the elder Burman (Thes. Zeyl. 27), and the Anka-
enda of Herman (Mus. Zeyl. 23). We are indebted to the
late Dr Dryander (Linn. Trans. 11. 232) for having here
pointed out an error in Herman; and that in his Herba-
rium the tickets of the Madan and Ankaenda must have
been changed. ‘The synonyma, therefore, of Linnzeus are
totally wrong, as he described the plants of Ceylon from
the collection of Herman. The Arbor Zeylanica Cuminum
redolens and the Ankaenda belong therefore to the Jambo-
lifera of Linnzeus (Fl. Zeyl. 139); while the Prunus Jn-

y2

340 COMMENTARY ON

dica fructu nigro (Burm. Thes. Zeyl. 197), the Jambulo-
nes (C. B. P. 466), the Jambolous (Acost. Aromat. 209),
and the Madan (Herm. Mus. Zeyl. 8), are really the plant
(Fl. Zeyl. 185) which Linneeus afterwards called Myrtus
Cumini. As the generic name Jambolifera, and the specific
name Cumini, are thus totally founded in error, Gzertner
has done perfectly nght in changing the former to Cymi-
nosina (De Sem. 1. 280, t. 58, f. 6); and Willdenow should
have transferred ail the synonyma, given by mistake in the
Flora Zeylanica, to the Calyptranthes Jambolana, which,
without any doubt, is the same plant with the Myrtus Cx-
mini. An unfortunate error, however, in the younger
Burman, has led Willdenow into still greater mistakes.
The former quoted, as synonymous with the Myrtus Cw-
mini, the Jambosa ceramica, of which I am now treating ;
and the latter, joining this with some of the synonyma
which Linnzeus by mistake had given to the Jambolifera
or Cyminosma, made it inte a species, which he called
Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia, a name which he borrowed
from a mistake in the Encyclopedie. In this valuable work
(ui. 198), the Perin Niara of the Hortus Malabaricus (v.
57, t. 29) is considered as different from the Jambolana
described by Rumphius in the next chapter, because the
painter of the latter, in attempting awkwardly to represent
the leaves in proper perspective with their points bending
a little backward, “ folia rotundo terminantia cum brevi
apice, quee deorsum inflectitur,” has represented them as
deeply emarginated ; but, on a careful examination of the
descriptions of both authors, with a tree most perfectly
known to me, I have not the smallest doubt that the Perin
Niara and Jambolana are quite the same, and that Will-
denow is wrong in referring the Jambosa ceramica to this
species. In the Encyclopedie, it is considered, with some
doubt, as belonging to the Eugenia cymosa of that work

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 341

(ui. 199). This doubt arises from its having been quoted
as the Myrtus Cumini of Linneus; but the deep division
of the calyx, very evident in the figure of Rumphius, and
his having described the real Myrtus Cuminz under the
name Jambolana, removes all doubt from my mind. I
think that, in the woods of Chatigang and Goyalpara, I
have seen the tree; but as I have not seen the fruit, I am
uncertain, in a genus the species of which are so difficult to
determine. In 1798 I sent specimens to Sir Joseph Banks,
under the name of Eugenia calyptrata, and I now shall
mention what I quoted on the spot.

Eugenia cymosa, Enc. Meth. ii. 199.
_ Jambosa ceramica, Herb. Amb. i. 130, t. 41."

Bara Jamba Bengalensium.
Habitat in Camrupe, Tripure, et Indize aquose sylvis.

_ Arbor mediocris. Folia magna, coriacea, ovalia vel ovata,
_ sepius utrinque obtusa cum acumine ad apicem obsoleto, cos-
- tata, venosa, costis et venis sensim evanescentibus, odore aro-

matico.
Panicule ex anni preteriti ramulo infra folia nova enate ra-

mis tetragonis.
Calyx quadrilobus. Petala quatuor, apicibus acutis conniven-
tibus intra stamina incurva insertis, simul caduca, operculum

peltatum. mentientia.
Fructum non vidi, sed dicitur malum magnitudine equare.

Jambosa silvestris Lahunensis, p. 130.

This seems evidently to be an Eugenia; but I know no-
thing farther of it than is here mentioned by Rumphius.

CapuTt XXXVII.
Jambolana, p. 131, t. 42.

Most of what I had to say concerning this plant has been
anticipated in the Commentary on the Jambosa ceramica.
It now remains to give what I consider the true synonyma,
and a description; and I must do justice to Burman in

342 COMMENTARY ON ©

stating, that the synonyma which he gives to this plant seem
correct.

Eugenia Jambolana, Enc. Meth. iii. 198 ; Hort. Beng. 37.

Eugenia caryophyllifolia, Enc. Meth. ii. 198.

Calyptranthes Jambolana, Willd. Sp. Pl. ii. 975 ; Hort-
Kew. iii, 191.

Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia, Willd. Sp. Pl. ii. 975,
exclusis synonymis Rumphii et Burmanni.

Myrtus Cumini, Burm. Fl. Ind. 115, exclusis synony-
mis Rumphii et Burmanni.

Myrtus foliis lanceolato-ovatis, Lin, Fl. Zeyl. 185, ex-
clusis synonymis.

Prunus Indica, fructu nigro, Olive igen Jam-
bulous Acoste, Madan Zeylonensibus, Burm. Thes.
fork 197, exclusis synonymis Plukenetii, Sloani, et

ayi.

Jambolana, Herb. Amb. i. 131, t. 42.

Caryophyllus, languescente vi aromaticus, Malabaren-
sis folio et fructu maximo, Pluk. Alm. 88; _-Phyt.
t. 274, f. 2: Mant. 39.

Perin Niara, Hort. Mal. v. 57, t. 29.

Jati Jam Bengaliensium.

Jamun Hindice. :

Habitat ubique ad Indiz pagos.

Arbor mediocris. Folia rigida, oblonga, basi seepius obtusi-
uscula, apice reflexo plerumque acuminata, venis parallelis in
venam submarginalem desinentibus, reticulata, poris minutis
perforata, odore languido aromatico amara. Petiolus ae
folii partem longitudine attingens, obtusangulus.

Panicule nunc axillares, tunc terminales, sepius tamen in
vamuli parte foliis nudata.

Calyx truncatus. Bacca Olive magnitudine utrinque obtusa,
sed apicem versus szepius Ccrassior, umbilico profundo rimo
semper obliquo coronata, nigra, monosperma. Caro crassa,
succo tingente scatens, ex purpurascente alba. Receptaculum
nullum. Semen oblongum, utrinque obtusum, bacca multoties
minus. Integumentum crustaceum, friabile. Albumen nullum.
Cotyledones. crasse, hinc plane, inde convexe, transverse.
Radicula unum latus versus inter cotyledones nidulans.

In the woods of Behar, or Magadha, I found a tree dif-
fering in no respect from the above description, except that

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 343

the fruit was much smaller, and the leaves sharp towards
the footstalk. It was called Janggali (sylvestris) Jamun
(Myrcia) by the natives, and I consider it as the spontane-
ous kind of this species, while the large fruit I consider as
the effect of cultivation. It must be observed, that the
name Janggali Jamun is given also to another species,
which I call Calyptranthes ¢enuis, although I think Myr-
cia tenuis would be a more Linnean and proper denomina-
tion.

Carut XXXVITI.
Mangostana, p. 132, t. 43.

This is the Garcinia Mangostana of all modern botanists.

Mangostana celebica, p. 134, t. 44.

Linnzeus, in the first edition of the Species Plantarum,
called this Garcinia celebica, and was imitated by Burman
(FI. Ind. 109), Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 11. 848), and the Com-
pilers of the Encyclopedie Gu. 700). Loureiro having
observed that the flower of the Folium acidum majus of
Rumphius (iii. 58) differed somewhat from that of the
Mangostana, established it for a new genus, which he
called Oxycarpus. It was afterwards discovered by M. du
Petit-Thouars, that the Garcinia celebica belonged to the
same genus; but he chose to give this a new name, Brin-
donia, from Brindones, the appellation by which Garcias, _
John Bauhin, and other old botanists, knew its fruit. This —
innovation the Compiler of the Supplement to the Ency-
clopedie (iv. 258) properly rejects, and calls the plant
Oxycarpus celebica; but he rejects all the synonyma of
these ancient authors, transferring them to the Oxycarpus
indica. This he has done with great propriety, because
the Mangostana celebica has a white juice, while that of the

344 COMMENTARY ON

Mundo and Brindoma is yellow, changing into an imper-
fect gamboge. |

In the woods, south from the Ganges in Magadha, I
have found a tree, which, as its fruit has only four seeds,
I should have taken to be the Brindone; but the juice of
the tree is limpid, or white, like that of the Mangostana or
Oxycarpus celebica ; and the figure and account given by
Rumphius of this agree so well with the Gangetic plant,
that I should have considered them as the same, did it not
appear clear that the Mangostana celebica is dicecious, ha-
ving male-trees that preduce no fruit. This, so far as I
know, is not the case with the Gangetic plant, which pro-
duces both male and hermaphrodite flowers on the same
stem. It may, however, have trees producing male flowers
alone, although such escaped my notice in travelling ; for
I found the tree in no other place. I shall here, however,
describe it as the Oxycarpus gangetica, leaving it to be
determined by farther observation, whether or not it be
really distinct from the Oxycarpus celebica.

Oxycarpus Gangetica foliis lanceolatis, floribus in eadem ar-
bore masculinis et hermaphroditis, bacca tetrasperma.

Habitat in Magadhe sylvis.

Arbor magna. Ramuli glabri, teretes, succo aqueo scatentes.
Folia opposita, lato-lanceolata, utrinque acuta, glabra, nitida,
integerrima, uninervia, venosa, acida. Petiolus brevissimus,
glaber, marginatus. Stipule nulle.

Flores parvi, flavi, monoici. Masculini laterales, hermaphro-
diti terminales. Pedunculus flore brevior, teres, glaber, uni-
florus; hermaphroditus solitarius.

M. Calyx tetraphyllus foliolis ovalibus, concavis, coloratis,
exterioribus duobus minoribus. Petala quatuor, erecta, ovata,
obtusa, calyce longiora. Receptaculum centrale tetragonum,
antheris angulatis subsessilibus tectum.

H. Calyx et corolla ut in Masculo. Filamenta quatuor, mul-
tifida. Antherz plures, angulate. Germen utrinque attenua-
tum, apice quadrisulum, quadriloculare. Stylus brevissimus.
Stigma quadrilobum, lacerum,

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 345

Maturum fructum non vidi; immaturus succi flavi pauxillo
tantum preeditus. :

Very nearly allied to the above is another tree, which I
have seen at Goyalpara, which the natives call Sopsopiya,
and which has a fruit that is not very bad for eating. Of
this also I shall here give some account, although I have
not seen the flower.

Oxycarpus ? Sopsopia foliis ellipticis obtusis, baccis oblongis
4 seu 5 locularibus, pedunculis multifloris,
Sopsopiya Bengalensium.
Habitat in Camrupe sylvis.

Arbuscula ramulis glabris, compressis. Folia elliptica utrin-
que obtusiuscula, custata, venosa, glabra, acida cum amaritu-
dine quadam. Petiolus teres, marginatus, brevissimus, estipu-
laceus.

-Pedunculi terminales, gemini, tetragoni, articulati baccas ge-
runt tres vel quatuor cum aliorum rudimentis, unde forte
flores sunt duorum parium lateralium cum quinto terminali.

Bacca levis, fructus juglandis magnitudine oblongiuscula,
stigmate peltato orbiculato crenato coronata, calyce minimo te-
traphyllo insidens. Foliola obtusa alternis minoribus. Cortex
in fructu maturo tenuis, intus ramentaceus, membranaceus; in
immaturo succo flavo turgidus, coriaceus. Loculi 4 seu 5 pulpo
sapido farcti, dissepimentis interjacentibus tenuissimis ramenta-
ceis. Receptacula nulla. Semina solitaria, oblonga, compressa,
hine obtusa, inde angustiora, sinu hinc extremitatem versus
crassiorem excavata. Integumentum duplex: exterius mem-
branulis intertextis pulpo repletis farctum ; interius tenue, se-
mini adherens. Seminis substantia alba, carnosa, firma, in qua
nullam ferruminationem, embryonem, radiculam, neque aliam
ullam partium divisionem perspicere possum.

Arbor Mundo dicta, p. 135.

Rumphius, in the text, considers the Mundo as the same
with, or at least very nearly allied to, the Panitsjica of the
Hortus Malabaricus (ii. 45), which Burman in his obser-
vation on the Mangostana (p. 134 ad initiwm) considers
very nearly allied to that tree, and the same with the Man-

346 COMMENTARY ON

gostana celebica. Burman is certainly wrong, for there can
be no doubt, I think, that the Panitsjica is a Diospyros,
which Gertner, mistaking the position of the calyx, called
Embryopteris. Further, what Rumphius states concerning
the juice of the Mundo, which he says is yellow, is by no
means reconcilable with the Panitsjica, the juice in the un-
ripe fruit of which is, as Rheede expresses it, “ humor giu-
tinosus aqueo pellucidus.” I am, however, inclined to think,
that the Mundo, although quite different from the Fanits-
jica, is really of the same genus with the Mangostana cele-
bica ; for I know a tree, which I take to be the Mundo,
and which Dr Roxburgh for some time took to be the
Garcinia celebica, but which, on farther consideration, he
called Garcinia pictoria. I found it ma garden at Barui-
pur, where it probably had been imported from abroad,
and sent it to Dr Roxburgh in 1799. I also sent a de-
scription and drawing to Sir J. KE. Smith, coloured with its

own gum, that is, the flowers were coloured entirely with |
this substance, while indigo was added for the green parts.
This pigment is, however, very different from true gam-
boge, being less readily soluble in water, and its colour re-
maining unchanged when mixed with potass. I am inclined,
however, on account of this yellow juice, to think, that this
is the Kanna Gorakha of the Cingalese, or the Carcapuli
of Linscot, which Caspar Bauhin, and after him Burman
(Thes. Zeyl. 27), Linneus (FI. Zey!. 195), and the Com-
piler of the Encyclopedie (ai. 701), confounded with the
Carcapuli of Acosta, or Gorakha of the Cingalese, as Her-
mans, in a letter to Syen (Hort. Mal. 1. 42), clearly points
out. Although Burman says (Thes. Zeyl. 28) that the
fruit of his plant has only four seeds, and although this
number of seeds is found in what I have called Oxycarpus
gangetica, and a greater number in that which J am now
describing, yet the juice of the Oxycarpus gangetica is not

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 347

a yellow pigment ; and the number of seeds, owing to abor-
tion, is very variable, a circumstance little attended to by
many of the older botanists. I have, at any rate, very little
doubt that the Garcinia tinctoria of Dr Roxburgh is the
Oxycarpus indica of the Encyclopedie (Sup. iv. 257), al-
though the Compiler says that the hermaphrodite-flowers
are solitary. ‘This, indeed, is sometimes the case in the
plant which I saw; although, in more perfect specimens,
three, or even five, flowers at the end of the branch are
more common. The flowers are also said by the Compiler
to be small; but this is by no means the case with the tree
seen by me, and which I shall therefore describe, as being
the Mundo.

Arbuscula erecta ramis confertis, levibus, deflexis. Folia
opposita, petiolata, lanceolato-oblonga, integerrima, acuminata,

glabra, venosa, plana, pollices quatuorlonga, sesquipclicem lata.
_Petiolus compressus, supra planus, marginatus, brevissimus,

glaber, estipulaceus.

Flores dioici polygami, magni, flavi, terminales, fasciculati,
squamis vagis ovatis obtusis concavis brevibus bracteati. In
masculina arbore fasciculus justus constat e pedunculo centrali
trifloro, cum lateralibus unifloris sex, sed flos unus vel alter
spe deficit; m hermaphrodita arbore justus fasciculus habet
pedunculum centralem uniflorum cum duobus vel quatuor la-
teralibus, sed laterales aliquando deficiunt.

M. Calyx tetraphyllus, coloratus, foliolis subrotundis, con-
cavis, obtusis, patulis, alternis majoribus carinatis. Petala qua-

tuor, assurgentia ovalia, carnosa, calyce duplo longiora margine

tenuissimo reflexo. Filamenta plurima, crassa, brevissima, re-
ceptaculum undique tegentia. Anthere clavate, tetragone.
Pistillum nullum. Receptaculum superum, maximum, con-
vexum, quadrilobum.

H. Calyx et corolla ut in masculinis. Filamenta quatuor,
petalis alterna, brevia, 3—7-fida, ramis antheriferis. Antherz
oblong, nescio an fertiles! Germen subrotundum, magnum,
superum, striis depressis 9-12 notatum, 9-12 loculare. Stylus
2 plliai Stigma maximum, peltatum, 9-12 lobum, lobis
aceris.

348 COMMENTARY ON

Carut XXXIX.
Anona, p. 136, t. 45.

Rumphius considered this as the same with the Anona
Maram of the Hortus Malabaricus (iu. 23, t. 30, 31); and
the elder Burman, in his observation on this chapter, al-
though he admits that the figures are somewhat different,
persists in the same opinion, adding, as synonymous, the
Anona maxima, ‘ foliis oblongis angustis, fructu maximo,
luteo, conoide, cortice glabro, in areolis distincto ” of Sloane,
which is the Anona Oviedi of Clusius, Parkinson, and J.
Bauhin, and which is also quoted by Catesby and Ray for
a plant described by them. Burman also added as syno-
nymous the Anona indica angustifolia, “ fructu cceruleo,
cortice squamato glabro” of Plukenet (Alm. 32; Phyt.
t. 134, f. 4). Now, I see no very great objection to the
first set of synonyma, although Rumphius alleges, that the
‘plant of Oviedo differs much from his; but the plant of
Plukenet, having a blue scaly fruit, cannot be that of
Rumphius, having a yellowish or reddish fruit, like a pome-
granate in colour. The plant of Plunkenet may, however,
be the same with that of the Hortus Malabaricus, of which
‘“‘ fructus non, uti Atamaram, e compactile lignosarum
squamarum strue compositi, sed undique glabro, hyacin-
thino ac tenui nitente cortice obducti sunt.” If by this
Rheede means that the fruit is purple, like a hyacinth,
such a plant is totally unknown to me. In other respects,
his account of the fruit agrees very well with that of a
plant very common in India, and which I take to be the
Anona of Rumphius, although I must confess that its fruit
does not exactly resemble either that delineated in the
Herbarium Amboinense, or Hortus Malabaricus; nor do°
the figures of the fruit, in these two works, resemble each
other.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 349

It must also be observed, that Rumphius himself doubted
of his plant being the same with the Anona of Oviedo, which
Plukenet says (Alm. 32) is the Cachima of the Caribbaean
Islands, that is, the Anona muricata.

When the elder Burman published his Thesaurus Zey-
lanicus, he considered it likely (21) that the plant of Rum-
phius is the same with the Anona sylvestris of Herman, or
Ahughas of the Ceylonese (misprinted Alughas in Burman,
a way of spelling carefully since copied), an indigenous
plant, now called Anona asiatica (Willd. Sp. PI. 1. 1267) ;
but since Linnzeus first introduced the species (FI. Zey]l.
225), several synonyma have been added, and especially
the Guanabanus fructu purpureo, an American plant, very
possibly the same with the Anona of the Hortus Malaba-
ricus. I must admit, that the plant, which I consider as
the one meant by Rumphius, is chiefly found about vil-
_lages, and may therefore perhaps be an exotic, while the
_name Nona, by which it is usually called in the Gangetic
provinces, savours much of being derived from Anona, a
Mexican word, as Rumphius alleges: yet the plant, accord-
ing to him, differs so much from the descriptions of the
American Anona, that I am inclined to think it indigenous,
aad that it may be the Anona asiatica, as constituted by
Linnezus (FI. Zeyl. 225). This I judge to be the case,
the more especially, because it is much more generally dif-
fused than the Anona squamosa, no doubt an American
plant; while its fruit is execrable, and totally unworthy of
transportation, and that of the Anona squamosa is deli-
cious.

_. However this may be, Linnzeus, in the Species Planta-
rum, under the name Annona reticulata, joined the plant
of Rumphius with the West Indian plant already men-
tioned; and if they be different, which I think probable,
I cannot say which he really meant. He took no notice of

350 COMMENTARY ON

the Anona of the Hortus Malabaricus, deterred probably
by the figure of the fruit, which is not reticulata, but im-
bricata.

In the Encyclopedie, the plant of Catesby alone was
joined with that of Rumphius, and annexed to the Anona
reticulata of Jacquin, to form the Anona reticulata a,
while the plant of Sloane, notwithstanding the difference
in the colour of the fruit, was joined with the Anona of the
Hortus Malabaricus, to form the Anona reticulata 6; and
an observaticn is made, that the latter seems nearly allied
to the Anona asiatice. So far the author is certainly nght,
that the Anona of Rumphius has an undoubted claim to
be preferred to the name reticulata, having been mentioned
as such by Linneeus.

Soon afterwards Willdenow divided, in a similar manner,
the Anona reticulata into two varieties; but, according to
him, the first is the plant of Jacquin, united with that of
Sloane, Catesby, and Ray, with that of the Hortus Mala-
baricus, and with a new synonymon from Plumier, Guana-
banus fructu aureo et molliter aculeato, which, even from
this short character, seems different from either the plant
of Rheede or that of Rumphius. The second variety joms
the Anona of Rumphius with the Anona mucosa of Jac-
quin (considered in the Encyclopedie as the Anona glabra),
and excludes all other synonyma. .

In the Hortus Kewensis (ii. 334), the Anona of the
Hortus Malabaricus alone is quoted for the Anona reticu-
lata, and no notice is taken of the Anona of Rumphius.
Amidst such confusion I do not wonder at neither being
quoted in the Hortus Bengalensis; but the plant which is
there (p. 23) called Anona reticulata, is that which I have
considered as the Anona of Rumphius, although I must
admit, that our plant agrees much better with the descrip-
tion of Rumphius than with his figure; for I have never

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 351

seen its fruit reticulated in any manner like what this re-
presents.

I may venture to say, that there are only two species of
Anona in any manner common in the gardens of India.
The one is the plant which will be next mentioned, about
which there is no difficulty. The other is the Nona of the
Gangetic provinces, called Anona reticulata by Dr Rox-
burgh, which entirely agrees with the description of Rum-
phius; and, notwithstanding the figure of the fruit in this
author has no resemblance to that of our plant, I think he
meant no other; and I strongly suspect, notwithstanding
the differences both in the figure and description given in
the Hortus Malabaricus, that the same plant is there meant,
and that Rumphius was right in considermg his Anona
and that of Rheede as the same. I am also inclined to think
that this is indigenous, and that we have no American
Anona common in India, except the sgwamosa.. I am not,
however, by any means clear that Burman was night in
considering the Indian Anona as the same with the Anona
asiatica of Linnzeus. I never heard of its root being used
as a dye; and, on this account, I have some suspicion that
the Ahughas (Lin. Fl. Zeyl. 225), or Anona asiatica, is a
Morinda. In the forests, however, bounding Bengal on the
east, there has been found another indigenous species of
Anona, named Suriffa by Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 43),
which may be the Anona asiatica, although I suppose it
to be rather the Khi of Rumphius, to be immediately
mentioned. :

Anona mas, p. 137.

Perhaps our Anona?

352 COMMENTARY ON |

Fructus chinensis Khi dicta, p. 137.

This is perhaps the Anona fructu rubicundissimo of
Linnezus (FI. Zey]. 509) and Burman (Thes. Zeyl. 21),
excluding all the synonyma of American plants. It may, .
however, more likely be the Anona sariffa of Dr Roxburgh,
the plants of Southern China having a great affinity with
those from the north-east of Bengal.

Carut XL.
Anona tuberosa, p. 138, t. 46.

There can be no doubt that this and the Ata Maram of
the Hortus Malabaricus (i. 21, t. 29) are the same, and
that they are the Anona squamosa of Linnzeus, and subse-
quent authors. Notwithstanding what Plukenet says (Alm.
32), this is what the English abroad call Custard-apple ;
nor either in the East or West Indies did I ever hear it
called Sweet Sop, as the Hortus Kewensis alleges (i. 334)
on the authority of Plukenet (Alm. 32). It is indeed 1m-
possible that any person could compare the fruit of our
other species of Anona to a custard, or any thing tolerable.
The Sweet Sop, m Jamaica at least, I believe to be the
Anona muricata, called Cachiman in the French Islands.

Carur XLI.
Cujavus domestica, p. 140, t. 47.

Caput XLII.
Cujavus agrestis, p. 142, t. 48.

Since the time of Linnezeus, the former of these has been
called Psidium pyriferwm, and the latter P. pomiferum ;
and Willdenow has placed no less than four species be-
tween them: but there is no real difference of species, in

————. —-——

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 353

the sense usually adopted by botanists, the two plants dif-
fering much less than many kinds of Apple (Pyrus malus).
Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng. 37) did not distinguish them
by the form, but by the colour of the fruit, calling those
Psidium pyriferum which have a white fruit, and those
P. pomiferum which have a red fruit. This, however, does
not appear to have been the distinction of Rumphius, who
considered the kinds that are acid, and approach the crab
or unimproved plant, as the Cujavus agrestis; and the
kind with a sweet fruit, much improved by cultivation, as
the Cujavus domestica. ‘There are a great many varieties,
of both colours and forms, that have an excellent flavour,
and must be considered as belonging to the latter. In
India, although an exotic, the Cujavus agrestis, like the
Pyrus malus in Scotland, has become a perfect forest or
wood tree, the seeds having been scattered by birds, as they

powerfully resist the organs of digestion.

Cujavus silvestris, p. 144.
Probably a variety of the Cujavus agrestis.

Carut XLILII.
Cujavillus, p. 145, t. 49.

Burman, in his Flora Indica (114), called this Psidium
cujavillus ; but it was unnoticed by Linnzus. The Com-
pilers of the Encyclopedie received from M. Sonnerat spe-
cimens of a plant, which they called Psidium angustifolium,
as synonymous for which they quoted the cujavillus, with,
however, some doubt. Vahl, as usual, changed the name
of Burman into Psidium pumilum, quoting, without hesi-
tation, the cwjavillus for the plant he meant. Willdenow

prefers the name of Vahl to both that of Burman and that

VOL, V. Z

354 COMMENTARY ON

of the Encyclopedie, and quotes both without any doubt
of the plants they describe bemg the same; yet I suspect
that the plant of Rumphius. is not different from the Psi-
dium decaspermum of Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 1. 958), which
Forster considered as a distinct genus, in which he is sup-
ported by Gertner, the former calling it Decaspermum /ru-
ticosum (Gen. Nov. N. 37), and the latter Nelitris jambc-
sella (De Sem. 1. 135, t. 27, f. 5).

Caput XLIV.
Papaja Mas et Femina, p. 145, t. 50, 51.

Ever since the time of Linnzeus this plant has been

called Carica papaya; nor does any commentary seem to
be required.

Papaja silvestris, p. 149, t. 53, f. 1.

This is quoted by Willdenow (Sp. PI. i. 549) as the
Bergera Koenigii; but I agree with the Compiler of the
Encyclopedie (Sup. 1. 620) in thinking them very different
plants. From the description of the fruit in Rumphius,
“¢ post flosculos sequuntur fructus, qui pallide et rotunde
sunt baccee, minores granis Oryzz, superius planze, ibique
formantes coronulam ex quinque filamentis reflexis compo-
sitam, ac ipsis baccis plane incumbentibus, in qua albicans
siccaque locatur medulla in quinque loculos divisa,” I in-
fer, that the fruit is “ bacca pentasperma, calyce penta-
phyllo coronata ;” which, together with its habit, persuades
me that the plant belongs to the order of the Aralic.

Papaja litorea, p. 150, +t. 52.
This also seems evidently to me to be a plant of the or-
der of Araliz, and M. Poiret (Ene. Meth. v. i) considers
it as a species of Panax; but this seems doubtful, as no-

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. $55

_ thing is said in Rumphius, the only authority, to enable us
to determine its genus.

Papaja Atehu, p. 150, t. 53, f. 2.

This also is evidently one of the Aralix; and, if it has
really eight petals, as Rumphius says, it is probably a
Gastonia; but it is possible that his “octo petala” may
include the divisions of the calyx, as well as those of the
- corolla.

Carut XLV.
Lansium domesticum album et rubrum, p. 151,
t. 54.

Mr Correa, according to the Encyclopedie (Sup. 11. 299),
considers this as nearly allied to the Cookia, in which I
_ entirely coincide. It differs from the Cookia in having the
seeds covered by a succulent arillus. It seems also to have
a considerable affinity with Nyalel of the Hortus Malaba-
ricus (iv. 37, t. 16); which, however, has its flower divid-
ed into five, and only two seeds in each berry. ‘The two
kinds mentioned by Rumphius seem such varieties as occur
in all cultivated plants.

Carut XLVI.
Lansium silvestre primum et secundum, p. 153,
t. 5d.

Rumphius gives no mark, except the colour of the wood,
by which these trees could be distinguished, and this will
scarcely be accepted by botanists: nor does he mention to
which his figure belongs.

Lansium montanum, p. 154, t. 56.
No reference is made to this plant by any author that I

know.
z 2

856 COMMENTARY ON

Carut XLVII.
Cussambium, p. 154, t. 57.

In the observation annexed to this chapter, Burman
compares the Cussambium to the Pongam of the Hortus
Malabaricus (iv. ‘73, t. 35). The Compilers of the Ency-
clopedie (ii. 235) admit a certain resemblance, but point
out the remarkable difference in the structure of their fruits.
I must say that I see no resemblance; for the leaves of the .
Pongam are simple, and those of the Cussambium are pin-
nated: the former probably belongs to the Urticee, and the
latter to the Terebintaceze. I have found the name Kusam
very widely diffused in India, and applied in Kankana in
the southern peninsula, and in Magadha on the Ganges,
to trees like the Cussambium, having a very hard heavy
timber, alternate abruptly pinnated leaves, small flowers
disposed in racemes, and a drupa containing one nut. This
genus approaches to the Schinus, but the structure of the
drupa is very different, the nut almost entirely resembling
the Koon of Geertner (De Sem. i. 486), which he takes te
be an Ochna; but, as he never saw the nuts united, we
may suspect a mistake. Besides the plant of Rumphius,
which I have not seen, I have observed two species of this
genus, and I thus distinguish the three:

1. Cussambiam spinosum drupis spinulosis, Herb. Amb. i. 157,
e Rumphii Actuario.
Cussambium, Herb. Amb. i. 154, t. 57.
Habitat in India aquosa.

2. Cussambium glabrum, drupis inermibus, foliis glabris
Linkeng, Herb. Amb. i. 157. ?
Kusam Hindice.
Habitat in sylvis Magadhe.
Arbor elata ligno duro, utili. Ramuli nudi, cicatricibus ob-
cordatis obtusangulis exasperati. Folia alterna, decidua, abrupte

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 357

pinnata; foliola sepius trijuga, opposita, sessilia, oblonga, ob-
tusiuscula, nuda, integerrima, costata, venis minute reticulata,
latere anteriore basin versus angustato obliqua, superioribus
longioribus. Petiolus basi incrassatus, brevis, nudus, teretius-
culus. Rachis teretiusculus, nudus, non mucronatus. Stipule
nullee.

Flores dioici. In masculina racemi axillares vel infrafoliace1,
folio breviores, erecti, pedunculati, aliquando ramosi rachi pu-
bescente angulato. Pedicelli 3—4-flori, brevissimi. Flores vi-
rides, parvi.

Calyx quinque-partitus, minimus, fundo tectus disco carnose
maximo. Filamenta 7 vel 8 pilosa, disco inserta, calyce multo-
ties longiora. Antherze magne, oblonge, quadrisulce. Germen
nullum. Styli rudimentum in floris centro.

Foemininam arborem florentem non vidi.

Drupa rudis, inermis, magnitudine Cerasi utrinque acuta,
cortice crasso fungoso. Arillus duplex; exterior membranaceus,
tenuis ; interior succulentus, edulis, crassus, e basi seminis ena-
tus, semen totum tegens, apice lacerus. Nux basi derasa, levis,
obovata, compressa, monosperma. Integumentum membrana-
ceum. Semen incurvum, teretiusculum, septum
- dimidiatum e basi testee enatum amplectens. AI-
bumen nullum. Embryon incurvum: radicula
infera ; cotyledones magne semiteretes, exteriore
crassiore.

3. Cussambium pubescens drupis inermibus, foliis pilosis,
Koon Gert. De Sem. ii. 486. ?

Shaguda, Kiandalay, vel Shandalay Carnate.
Kussum Cancane.
Habitat in Indiz australis sylvis.

Arbor mediocris ligno duro. Ramuli obtusanguli, pubescen-
tes. Folia decidua, alterna, abrupte pinnata. Foliola opposita,
2 vel 3-juga, oblonga, sessilia, integerrima, costata, venosa,
pilosa, ima brevia, subovata, obtusa cum acumine brevi ; supe-~
riora elongata, latere inferiore longiore latiore obliqua, retusa
cum acumine. Petiolus basi incrassatus, obsolete trigonus, pi-
losus, estipulaceus, mediocris, Rachis utrinque sulcatus.

- Flores parvi virides dioici.

Hermaphroditz arboris panicule infrafoliacee, longitudine
foliorum decomposite, pedicellis fasciculatis. Florum fasciculi
squamula suffulti.

358 COMMENTARY ON

Calyx quinque-partitus, minimus, fundo tectus disco carnoso
maximo. Filamenta 6—10, sepius 8, pilosa, disco inserta. An-
there bilobz, nescio an fertiles? Germen superum, subpedi-
cellatum, longitudine stammum. Stylus subulatus. Stigmata
duo vel tria, crassa, pubescentia, revoluta.

Maris paniculee folio breviores, composite e racemulis bre-
vissimis 4—6-floris. Pedunculus angulatus, pilosus.

Calyx ut in hermaphrodita. Filamenta 7—8, pilosa, subu-
lata, patentia, calyce multo longiora. Anthere magne, oblon-
gee, quadrisulee. Germen nullum. Styli rudimentum simplex
in disci medio.

Linkeng, p. 157.

This seems evidently to be a Cussambium, very nearly
allied to my C. glabrum, above described, if it be really
different; but being cultivated, its fruit is probably more
succulent than that which grows wild in India, although
this also is esculent.

Carur XLVITI.
Pomum draconum domesticum, p. 157, t. 58.

This seems pretty clearly to be a Spondias, but it is not
mentioned by any recent author, so far as I know.

Carur XLIX.

Pomum draconum silvestre, p. 159, t. 59.

This also seems to be a Spondias. “4

Rau Genrang, p. 159.

Seems to be still another Spondias.

Carut L.
Condondum, p. 161, t. 60.

In a commentary on the First Part of the Hortus Mala-
baricus, I have explained several errors that have arisen

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 359

from that of Rumphius in confounding the Condondum
with the Ambalam, and from the erroneous synonyma
given in the observation of Burman. While the Ambalam
is clearly a Spondias, I have little doubt of the Condondum
being the Mangifera pinnata of the younger Linnzus,, of
which I have presented a specimen to the Company’s col-
lection. styl o

Carut LI.
Condondum Malaccense, p. 162, t. 61.

Whether or not this be the same with the Cat ambolam
of the Hortus Malabaricus (1. 93), as Burman in his ob-
servation asserts, I cannot say, as the account of the Caé
ambolam is remarkably imperfect; but the plant here de-
scribed by Rumphius seems clearly to belong to the same
genus with the Mangifera pinnata, quite different from a
Spondias; nor can I perceive any thing, except the leaves,
to distinguish the Condondum from the Mangifera indica.

Capour LIL
Cynomorium, p. 163, t. 62.
This was called Cynometra by Linneeus, and subsequent
authors have adopted the same name, although not a little
objectionable.

Carut LILI.

Cynomorium silvestre, p. 167, t. 63.
Linneeus, following the observation of Burman, joined
this with the Iripa of the Hortus Malabaricus (iv. 65,
t. $1), to form the Cynometra ramifiora ; and as usual has
been followed, without comment, by more recent writers.
I am very doubtful, however, concerning the identity of

360 COMMENTARY ON

these plants; for the leaves are described by Rumphius as
very acute, ‘ folia longiora, magisque acuminata ;” while
those of the Iripa are blunt, “ oblongo-rotunda;” and, in
the figure, appear as if even retuse. In Ava I found a
tree called Mreen-ga, which agreed with the specific cha-
racter of the Cynometra ramiflora, as given by Linnzus;
but I did not compare it with the figures and descriptions
of the two great Indian botanists. Specimens, however,
were transmitted to Sir Joseph Banks, and may serve to
throw more light on the subject. :

Caput LIV.
Sandoricum domesticum, p. 167, t. 64.

The Compiler of the Encyclopedie (iii. 69), copied by
Willdenow (Sp. Pl. u. 556), quoted this, with doubt, as
being the same with the Hantol of Camelli and Ray, which
the French botanist called Sandoricum zndicum; but it
must be observed, that the figure of Rumphius represents ©
the flower without any thing like the cylindrical nectarium,
which in the Hantol supports the antherse. No great stress
can, however, be laid on this circumstance.

Sandoricum silvestre, p. 168.

Whether this is a distinct species from the preceding, or
whether it is merely the plant in an uncultivated state, I
cannot take upon myself to determine, although I think
that I have seen the plant in Pegu; but unfortunately,
like the specimen of the Sandoricum indicum, which the
French botanist procured, the trees which I found were in
fruit. In the language of Ava it is called Sit-to, and spe-
cimens were sent to Sir Joseph Banks. At the time I con-
sidered it as nearly allied to the Crateeva fapia, which, with

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 361

Dr Roxburgh, I then called a Capparis. The following
note I took on the spot.

Arbor ramis teretibus, pubescentibus, fuscis, elevato-puncta-
tis, sulco e petiolorum basi decurrente utrinque exaratis. Folia
maxima, alterna, petiolata, ternata; foliola _ petiolata, integra,
integerrima, supra nitida, subtus tomentosa, venis reticulata,
plana; lateralia oblonga, acuminata, ad basin posterius gibbo-
siora ; terminale latius, obtusum. Petiolus communis mediocris,
ey versus incrassatus, apicem versus semiteres, pubescens:
partialium Jaterales brevissimi; terminalis mediocris, teres,
utrinque incrassatus. Stipule nulle.

Pedunculus fructiferus axillaris, solitarius, fructu terminali
indivisus, rudimentis quasi flosculorum abortivorum plurium
lateralium notatus. Bacca supera, calyce deciduo nudata, glo-
bosa, striata, corticosa, unilocularis. Nucicule quinque.pulpo
filamentoso arillatz.

From this it would seem that it differs from the descrip-
tion of Willdenow, in having the flowers disposed in un-
divided racemes, or perhaps spikes, while his plant has
panicles.

Cajim-gulur, p. 168.

This may be another Sandoricum.

Carut LV.
i Gajanus, p. 170, t. 65.
By Thunberg and Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 11. 604) this was

considered as the Inocarpus edulis of the younger Linneus ;
but the Compiler of the Encyclopedie (11. 576, and i. 253),
on account of the form of the fruit, as represented by
Rumphius, doubted of the accuracy of this quotation, and
considered the tree as related to the Aleurites, or Euphor-
biz. On farther consideration, however, it would seem
that the Compiler was satisfied of the quotation having
been proper, as he repeats it in the Supplement (im. 151).

362 COMMENTARY ON

I must notwithstanding say, that the figure of Rumphius
has little or no resemblance to that of the Inocarpus eduhs
given by Geertner (De Sem. iii. 114, t. 199, 200), and still
less to that given in the Encyclopedic (Ill. Gen. t. 362).
I suspect therefore some mistake, and this perhaps in the
figure of Rumphius, which in some respects does not agree
with his description ; for he says of the fruit, “forma lunz
crescentis,” which agrees somewhat with that of Geertner,
but by no means with that in the Herbarium Amboinense.
Burman in his observation seems totally wrong in compar-
ing either description or drawing to the Tani of the Hor-
tus Malabaricus (iv. t. 10), which is no doubt a Terminalia,
or Myrobalanus.

Carut LVI.
Atunus, p. 171, t. 66.
The Compiler of the Encyclopedie (1. 329), in mention-

ing this tree, does not venture to point out its place in the
system. If it belong to the same genus with the Atunus
hitorea (ui. 95), I suspect that it may be a Niota, as I shall
endeavour to point out on a future occasion.

Atun Puti, p. 172.

This has pinnated leaves, while the preceding tree has
them simple. They probably therefore belong to different
genera. is

Carvut LVII.
Vidoricum domesticum, p. 173.
Vidoricum silvestre primum, p. 173, t. 67.

These trees probably belong to the same genus; and if
Gertner (De Sem. i1..105) is right in considering the Vi-

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 363

doricum sylvestre secundum (Herb. Amb. in. 184) as a
Bassia, these also may belong to the same genus, although
they also strongly resemble the genus Diospyros; but to
this subject I shall again have occasion to return. I need
scarcely mention that Burman, in his observation on this
plant, is totally wrong in considering it as of the same ge-
nus with the Caniram of Rheede (Hort. Mal. i. 67, t. 37),
which is the Strychnos nua vomica.

Caput LVITI.
Catappa domestica, p. 174, t. 68.

Why Linnzeus chose to give the name Terminalia to the
genus to which this tree belongs, Rumphius having previ-
ously applied it to a totally different plant; and why, still
farther, he did not give even the specific name catappa to
the same tree that Rumphius called so, xa’ sox, I cannot
say; but this is not the Terminalia catappa, nor does Lin-
nzeus seem ever to have seen it. M. Lamarck (Enc. Meth.
i. 349) seems first to have introduced it into the modern
system of botany, under the name of ‘Terminalia moluccana,
a name properly retained by Willdenow (Sp. Pl. iv. 968),
although Forster had called it Terminalia glabrata; and
Dr Roxburgh, probably in a private communication to
Willdenow, had given it the name of Terminalia elandu-
losa. My worthy friend, however, before his death, adopted
the name of Lamarck (Hort. Beng. 33).

Catappa litorea, p. 175.

- Seems also no doubt to be a Terminalia.

Catappa silvestris, p. 175.

This, I have little doubt, is the Terminalia catappa of
botanists, the Ada maram of Rheede (Hort. Mal. iv. 5),

364 COMMENTARY ON

because Rumphius states as follows :—< Ore foliorum an-
gustate fere ad petiolorum ortum, qui obducti quoque sunt
tenul, rufa, et molli lanugine, quali itidem ramuli virides
surculique obteguntur.” The kernel, however, in the plant
of Malabar, probably from cultivation, is superior in size to
what it would appear to be in the wild plant of the eastern
islands, fully equalling what Rumphius describes that of
the Catappa domestica to be. ‘The leaves, so far as I have
observed, are quite entire, so that the only difference be-
tween the plants of Malabar and Molucca arises from the
leaves of the former being hairy beneath, while im the latter
they are smooth. The resemblance to this fruit mentioned
by Plukenet (Mant. 156, cum Alm. 306 collata) appears
to me far-fetched, and, notwithstanding the author’s pru-
dery, could only have arisen from a prurient imagination.

Caput LIX.
Cassuvium, p. 177, t. 69.

This plant, originally a native of America, has now
spread itself, through most warm countries, in sandy places
near the sea; but, in India at least, is seldom found in
_ other situations. Its origmal name, Acajou, variously writ-
ten and corrupted, seems to have followed the tree every-
where, and is known in Old India, the Eastern Archipelago,
and China. ‘The name Kapa Mava, given to it in the
Hortus Malabaricus (au. 65, t. 54), I never heard among
the natives of Malabar, and suspect some mistake in
Rheede.

Caspar Bauhin considered this tree as of the same genus
with the Anacardium of the East, and therefore most pro-
perly called it Anacardn alia species. Linnzus, who knew
no other kind, in imitation of Bauhin, called the West In-
dian plant Anacardium occidentale; but his son, having

|
THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 365

obtained the original Anacardium of the East, and, finding
some slight difference in the number of the sexual parts,
made it a distinct genus; while, in place of reserving for
this the name Anacardium given to it by the earliest bota-
nical writers, he called it Semecarpus. Although this no-
menclature is adhered to by Willdenow (Sp. Pl. i. 1476,
et 11. 486), and many other most eminent botanists ; yet, if
the plants are to be considered as belonging to different
genera, I must prefer the nomenclature adopted by La-
marck, followed by Jussicu and other French writers, who
have restored the name of Rumphius to the Anacardii alta
species of Bauhin, and the name Anacardium to the plant
originally so called. As, however, I consider that both
plants belong in fact to the same genus, I would call the
former Anacardium cassuvium, and the latter Anacardium
_semecarpus.

Carut LX.
Cassuvium silvestre, p. 179, t. 70.

Willdenow does not quote this plant; but in the Ency-
clopedie (i. 140) it is considered as a variety of the Ana-
cardium longifolium, which Willdenow calls Semecarpus
anacardiwm (Sp. Pl. i. 1476). Dr Roxburgh, on the con-
trary (Hort. Beng. 22), having procured plants from the
Moluccas, considered it as a distinct species, which he called
Semecarpus cassuvium ; nor, indeed, did Rumphius sup-
pose that his plant was the Anacardium of the shops, the
nuts differing very considerably, in shape at least, being
reniform in the Cassuvium silvestre, while in the Anacar-
dium orientale they are ovate, with a slight notch, on one
side, under the point, which is oblique.

In India there is still another species very nearly allied
to the Anacardium orientale, and in fact confounded with
it by the natives under the common name Bhela of the

366 COMMENTARY ON

Hindwi and Bengalese lancuages, and San-bho Sa-reek in
that of Ava. This want of distinction 1s of no great con-
sequence, as both species possess the same qualities; nor in
this respect would the plant of Rumphius appear to differ
in any material point. J shall, however, give an account
of this third species, hitherto little known, although in the
woods of Gangetic India it is a very common tree. —

Anacardium cuneifolium foliis obovatis, subtus tomentosis.

Semicarpus cuneifolium, Hort. Beng. 22.
Anacardium latifoluum, Ene. Meth. i. 139. ?
Habitat in sylvis Ave et Indic Gangetice.

Rami teretes, pubescentes, cicatricibus magnis notati. Folia
alterna, seepe sesquipedem longa, obovata, basi acutiuscula,
apice obtusissima, immo aliquando retusa, integerrima, costata,
venis minutissime reticulata, subtus albido-tomentosa, supra
pilosa, rigida. Petiolus brevissimus, semiteres, pubescens. Sti-
pulee nulle.

Arbores dioice. Masculine panicula terminalis, vasta, foliis
longior, ramosissima, divaricata. Rami obtusanguli, pubescen-
tes. Bractea obtuse, parve, plane, ad panicule ramificationes
adnate. Flores parvi, viridescentes, fasciculati, vix pedicellati.

Calyx minimus, quinque-partitus. Petala 5, calyce majora,
ungue lato patentia, obtusa. Filamenta 5 petalis alterna, his-
que paulo longiora. Antherz subrotunde. Germinis in calycis
fundo rudimentum pilosum, quinquesulcum. :

Foemininze arboris flores non vidi.

Receptaculum fructus turbinatum, pulposum, crassitie bre-
vius sua. Nux erecta, oblonga, compressa, receptacula longior
sed angustior, oblique mucronata, latere rectiore apicem prope
emarginato.

Anacardium cuneifolium. Anacardium semecarpus.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 367

Carur LXNI.

Gnemon domestica mas, p. 181, t. 71.
Gnemon domestica femina, p. 181, t. 72.

Botanists have usually quoted these as forming only one
species; and, as the tree is cultivated, and thence probably
assumes different appearances, this may be the case, the
male and female kinds, as Rumphius calls them, bemg
what recent botanists call varieties: for they are not, as
Jussieu supposed, the male and female of a dioicious plant,
as both produce fruit. Burman, in his observation on this
plant, has confounded it with the Mala elengi of the Hor-
tus Malabaricus (v. t. 55), which I consider as being a
Chionanthus. Linnzeus, taking Gnemon for a specific ap-
pellation, called it Gnetum, in which he has been followed
by subsequent writers, although I am at a loss to know

from whence he took the word. ‘The synonyma quoted by

Rumphius himself are more correct than those given since,
this plant having been brought early into notice by Sir
Francis Drake, who found it on the island Beretina, from
whence it was called Fructus beretinus. It was afterwards
introduced into the botanical system by C. Bauhin, under
the name of Laurifolia terenatensis ; and it seems surpris-
ing that these synonyma should not have been quoted by
moderns.

. Carut LXII.
Gnemon silvestris, p. 183, t. 73.

This is the Gnetum ovalifolium of the Encyclopedie
(Sup. 1. 810). The plant of the Hortus Malabaricus (v. 51,
t. 26) called Mail Ombi or Kombi, which Burman thought
the same with this, is probably an Antidesma.

368 COMMENTARY GN

Capur LXITILI.

Morunga mas, p. 184, t. 74.
Morunga femina, p. 184, t. 75.

Some confusion here exists in the account of Rumphius ;
for he says, ‘“‘ Flores maris omnes pereunt, nec fructus re-
linquunt ; feminee autem flores excrescunt in ingentem si-
liquam ;” from which we ought to infer, that the tree is
dioicious: but in the plates both male and female are re-
presented as producing fruit ; and besides, from their leaves,
the plants sc called would appear to be different species,
although in the description no notice is taken of this differ-
ence.

The older botanists noticed only one kind of Morunga,
as is especially the case with Rheede (Hort. Mal. vi. 19,
t. 11). Several of these authors noticed the resemblance of
this plant to the Balanus myrepsica, or Nux Been of the
druggists, although im general they mentioned an essential
difference in its having winged seeds. Plukenet (Alm. 253)
commenced a system of error respecting this plant, by con-
sidering it as the same with the Lignum nephriticum of
America, an opinion which the Compiler of the Eneyclo-
pedie (Sup. i. 659) properly rejects; for the wood of the
Morunga gives no blue colour to water in which it is in-
fused.

The elder Burman endeavoured to establish two species
of Morunga; the Morunga mas of Rumphius he called
Moringa Zeylanica, pinnis rarioribus, flore minore (Thes.
Zeyl. 164), distinguished by having only five stamina:
while the Morunga femina of Rumphius he called Moringa
Zeylanica, flore majore, fructu anguloso (Thes. Zeyl. 162,
t. 75), distinguished by ten stamina. The character de-
rived from the number of stamina, could we depend on the ©
accuracy of Burman, would be excellent; but in the plant

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 369.

so common about the villages of India, although there are
ten filaments, five only of them have anthere, as described.
by Rheede, “ colus in decem staminula e viridi albula ex-
trorsum flexa, divisus, quorum paria (sing wla éntellige) uno
grandiusculo flavescente obteguntur apice :” and it is pos-
sible that Burman may have thought that some of the: an-
therze had fallen by accident from his specimen, and that
in their natural state all the filaments were fertile. I have,,
however, séen two kinds of this tree, one growing near vil-
lages, and the other in woods, and answering to the Wattu
(hortensis) Murungu, and Katu (sylvestris) Murungha of.
the Ceylonese; and, as I have not seen the flowers'of the
kind growing spontaneously in woods, it may have only:
five filaments, as Burman describes: I shall, however, eoune
return to this distinction.

_ Linnzeus, in the Flora Zeylonica (155), not only adopted:
the error of Plukenet, im considering the Moringa as the
same with the Lignum nephriticum ; but still farther, he
considered it, not only as belonging to the same genus with:
the Balanus myrepsica or Nux behen, but as being the
same plant, an error from which Plukenet escaped. How
Linnzeus came to place the Moringa in the same genus with
the Bonduc of preceding authors, I cannot say; as, in my.
opinion, notwithstanding his eminent authority joined to
that of Jussieu, I must agree with Gertner in thinking
that it cannot belong even to the same natural order (Le-
guminose), but seems to- approach nearer to the Rutaces:;
although even this arrangement is'not satisfactory, and it
seems. to belong to a genus rejecting a close affinity with all.
others.

The error of Linnzeus, in joming the Moringa with the
Bonducs, to form the new genus. Guilandina, having: be-
come evident, Jussieu and other French botanists have
most properly restored the name Moringa given by John

VOL. V. A@

$370 COMMENTARY ON

Bauhin. Neither this, however, nor the still more simple
Anoma of Loureiro, has satisfied the modern taste for ses-
quipedalian Greek, from which Vahl and others have given
us Hyperanthera,—a term applied by Forskal. to a genus,
which I suppose is very different, being really ene of the
Leguminose, with a calyx of one leaf, and a fruit consist-
ing of two valves, to one edge of which the seeds are an-
nexed ; while in the Moringa there are three valves, sup-
porting the seeds by their middle.. Excluding the two spe-
cies, which properly belong to the Hyperanthera of Fors-
kal, or to the Gymnocladus of Lamarck, we shall have in
Willdenow, as well as in Rumphius and Burman, two spe-
cies of Moringa. Loureiro has also: two species, a Moringa
and a Morunga; but the latter, although jomed by the
Compiler of the Encyclopedie (Sup. i. 391), and by Will-
denow, with the Morunga of Rumphius, having opposite
leaves, must be a totally different plant. ‘The synonyma,
imdeed, annexed to the Hyperanthera moringa by Willde-
now, belong to four, or perhaps rather to five, different
plants ;. and those referred to the Moringa oleifeéra in the
Encyclopedie G. 398), refer to two or three; and. I find it
impossible to say which of these plants were really meant..
Both authors include the two species of Rumphius, te which
the Encyclopedie adds a plant of Egypt and Arabia, the
Balanus myrepsica, or Glans unguentarius of old writers
(the Moringa aptera of Gertner, De Sem. ii. 315); and
Willdenow still farther adds, the American: Lignum pere-
grinum aquam ceruleam reddens of Bauhin, by severals.
called Lignum nephriticum, and the Anoma morunga of
Cochinchina, described by Loureiro, and in the Encyclo-
pedie (Sup. i. 391), as having opposite leaves.

‘Now, to return to the Morunga mas et femina of Rum-
phius ; neither of which, I am persuaded, grows naturally
in Egypt nor America, and which, if not distinct species,

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 371.

as Burman supposed, are at least remarkable. varieties.
The only reason, I suppose, which Willdenow had for
stating that this species belongs to the class Polygamia di-
cecia, consisting of two different kinds of hermaphrodite
plants, was the confounding the two species of Rumphius
together. With much more reason he would have referred
the Morunga femina to his Hyperanthera decandra, which,
he says, has ten fertile stamina, as Rumphius represents in
his figure, and this is the very character by which Burman
distinguished it from the Morunga mas. In the Supple-
ment to the Encyclopedie this change has accordingly been
made; but then the Anoma moringa cannot be the Gui-
landina moringa of Linneus, which is not the Hyperan-
thera decandra, but the Hyperanthera moringa.

Like Rumphius and Burman, as has already been men-
tioned, I have found two kinds of this plant. Perhaps the
differences between them arise from the one being cultivated,
and the other remaining wild ; but this remains to be ascer-
tamed: and I am not able to verify whether or not the
wild kind be the Hyperanthera decandra, as I did not see
the flowers. I am by no means satisfied that either is the
Morunga femina of Rumphius; for I do not think that I
have ever seen a species with leaves so regularly bipinnated.
I shall, however, mention what I have observed concerning
the two species or varieties which L have seen. I reject the
specific name pierygosperma, given by Gertner, because
_ he includes both species of Rumphius, and it is impossible
to say which he meant.

1. Moringa domestica floribus semidecandris, foliis bipimnatis,
pinnulis imis aliquando ternatis, foliolis utrinque obtusis
nudis, seminibus alatis.

Hyperanthera Morunga, Hort. Beng. 32.
Hyperanthera Moringa, Hort. Kew. iii, 32.

aa®

372. COMMENTARY ON

Morunga mas, Herb. Amb. i. 184, t. 74. ?
Mourungu, Hort. Mal. vi. 19, t. 11.
Mitha (dulcis) Sojana Hindice.
Dan-sa-lun Barmanorum.

Colitur ubique ad Indiz pagos.

Arbor mediocris ramis nudis fragilibus. Folia alterna, bi-
pinnata, pinnularum imarum una vel altera ternata. Foliola
oblonga, utrinque obtusa, petiolata, integerrima, subvenosa,
nuda, terminali majore obovato. Rachis nudus, supra carina-
tus, articulatus, ad divisiones incrassatus. Glandule pedicel-
latee, caduce, ad singulas folii divisiones supra posite. Loco
stipularum tubercula duo, oblonga, obliqua.

Panicula axillaris, ramis alternis multifloris folio brevior.
Bracteze squamezeformes, vagee, in panicule ramos sparse. Flo-
res albi, mediocres.

Calyx ultra medium quinquefidus laciniis linearibus, obtusis,
coloratis, obliquis. Petala quinque forma et magnitudine laci-
niarum calycis, calyci inserta. Filamenta decem calyce brevi-
ora, declinata, subulata, basi pilosa, alternis longioribus antheri-
feris inequalia. Germen pubescens, oblongum, superum. Sty-
lus subulatus, declinatus. Stigma acutum.

Fructus omnino ut capsula Moringe pterygosperme a Gert-
nero (De Sem. ii. 214) delineata est.

Although I have quoted Rumphius with doubt, because
his figure represents the small leaves (foliola) as sharp-
pointed, and the leaves as abruptly pinnated, yet every
thing he says respecting the growth, cultivation, and uses
of the plant, as usual, is excellent, and applicable to the
plant I have described. I do not quote Linnzus, the
younger Burman, Willdenow, nor the Encyclopedie, be-
cause several plants are included by each among the syno-
nyma of the Guilandina moringa, or Hyperanthera mo-
ringa, or Moringa oleifera, and it is impossible for me to
determine which they really meant. I do not quote either
plant of the elder Burman, because his second plant (‘Thes.
Zeyl. 164), which he considers as the same with the Mo-
ringa mas, is said to have a small flower, which would not
appear to be the case with that of Rumphius; nor is it the

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 378

ease with my plant. Farther, his first plant (Thes. Zey]l.
162) is said to have ten stamina, all of which in the figure
are represented as provided with anthers; and, besides, the
figure is a very bad representation of the plant which I
have described. I have, however, very little doubt of this
being the Wattu or garden Moringa of the Ceylonese, as
in every part of India it is the plant most common about

villages.

2. Moringa sylvestris foliis subtripinnatis, pubescentibus ;
seminibus alatis.
Katu Murungha Ceylonensium, Burm. Thes. Zeyl. 163?
Tita (amara) Sojana Hindice.
Habitat in Magadhe sylvis, et rarius ad seepes plantatur.

Rami, rachides, folia pilosa. Folia subtripinnata, id est pin-
nularum imz quinato-pinnate, intermedize ternatee, superiores
simplices. Flores non vidi. Fructus simillimi Moringe do-

-mesticee.

This tree I have seen nowhere, but near Patna and
Mungher. Its fruit is too bitter to be eaten in curries, as
that of the domesticated species is; and is used only as a
medicine. Having very strong sensible qualities, it proba-
bly possesses considerable power on the human body; and
was probably that used by the Dutch physicians in Ceylon
(Burm. Thes. Zey]. 164), although some parts of even the
cultivated kind would seem to afford a valuable medicine.

Carut LXIV.
Turia, p. 188, t. 76.

In a Commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus (i. 93),
when treating of the Agaty, I have mentioned the botani-
cal history of this plant, which is the same. As Rumphius
says, that the Malabar name is Abati, we may conclude

that either Agaty or Abati is a typographical error. In
the observation following this chapter, Burman is quite

374 COMMENTARY ON

wrong in considering this as the same with the Kedangu
of the Hortus Malabaricus (vi. 49, t. 27), which has flowers
not larger than those of the bean (Faba).

Turia rubra, p. 189.

This is probably a mere variety, such as usually takes
place in plants that are much cultivated. At one time I
thought that it might be the Aischynomene, or Coronilla
coccinea (Willd. Sp. Pl. ii. 1146); but that being the Tari
mera of Rumphius, is a sufficiently distinct species, which
I have never seen. I suspect that in reality Willdenow
fell into a similar error, as he says, ‘ simillima preecedenti
(Coronillz grandiflore). Flores ejusdem magnitudinis sed
rubri:” but Rumphius, treating of the Teri mera, says,
“¢e rachidis ala petiolus excrescit in binos sese dividens
minores, quorum quisque ingentem gerit florem paulo mi-
norem quam preecedentis, id est C. grandifiore.”

Turia striata, p. 189.

This is probably another variety of the same elegant tree,
with variegated flowers, not very common in India.

Toeri mera, p. 190, f. 77.

In treating of the Turia rubra, I have noticed this plant,
which, by Forskal and the younger Linneeus, was called
ffischynomene coccinea. Burman in his annotation is to-
tally wrong in considering this as the same with his Emerus
siliguis geminatis longissimis (Thes. Zeyl. 93, t. 41),
which, I have little doubt, is the same with the Kedangu
of the Hortus Malabaricus, and has not scarlet flowers.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 875

Carut LXV.
Olus album domesticum, p. 191, t. 78.

Burman (Obs. p. 192) seems quite right in considering
this as the same with the Bem manja of Rheede (Hort.
Mal. v. 113, t. 57). The name Naravolo, which, according
‘to this author, the Brahmans of Malabar give to this tree,
I found to be the name given in Carnata to a species of
‘Cordia, called angustifolia by Dr Roxburgh (Hort. Beng.
17); but the two plants seem to have no affinity. It is
singular that neither of our two great Indian botanists saw
‘either flower or fruit of this tree. The leaf seems to have
some reserablance to the Acacias folio conjugato pinnato ;
but this is all the resemblance that I can trace; and the
Compiler of the Encyclopedie, who mentions Rheede’s ac-
count (Sup. i. 613), gives no conjecture concerning its affi-
nities. Neither is Plukenet, who mentions the tree (Alm.
66), more explicit; and he quotes Ray, who also describes
it as producing neither flower nor fruit: but this excellent
botanist, in callmg the leaves alata, supports the opinion of
its being an Acacia; although what I shall observe on the
following plant seems to contradict this opinion beyond a

doubt.

Carur LXVI.
Olus album insulare, p. 193, t. 79, f. 1.

The leaf of this has still more resemblance to that of an
Acacia than that of the preceding plant, there being evi-
dently a large gland on the common petiolus; but the de-
‘scription of the flower and fruit seems irreconcileable with
this opinion, and the description of Rumphius would seem
-to imply, in the Linnean phraseology, ‘“ calyx superus,
quinquifidus. Petala alba. Stamina octo vel.decem. Drupa
sicca, ovata, pilosa, venosa.”

376 COMMENTARY ON

Utta Pela seu Sajor Bagnala, p. 194, t. 79, f. 2.

Linnzus confounded this with two American plants of
the same genus, which Plumier called Plukenetia. These
were finally separated by Smith, and the plant of Rumphius
is now called Plukenetia corniculata (Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. 515;
-Enc. Meth. Sup. v. 20).

Caput LXVII.
Eriophoros Javana, p. 195, t. 80.

Pliny mentions two different plants that contain in their
fruit a wool fit for clothing. The one (lib. xu, cap. 10, 11)
he calls Arbor gossampinus, the other he calls (lib. xix,
cap. 1) Frutex gossipion, forming thus two natural genera;
and as botanists have usually written in Latin, they should
have preserved the names thus judiciously given by their
Roman precursor. I agree with Rumphius in thinking
that the Arbores Gossampini include the Eriophoros java-
nica and several kindred species; while the Gossipion in-
cludes the plants now in more common use for producing
cotton-wool.

The older botanists, such as C. Bauhin and Plukenet,
considered all the plants producing cotton-wool as forming
one genus, and preferred the name Gossipion; probably,
however, judging themselves better Latinists than the Ro-
man Consul, they changed this name into Gossypium,
to which orthography their successors carefully adhere.
Tournefort rejects the name altogether, and prefers Xylon,
which indeed Pliny mentions as being a more common
name than Gossipion, for the shrub bearing wool; and so
far, therefore, the French botanist was entirely justifiable ;
and so might even the elder botanists be held, who, con-
sidering all the wool-bearing trees as belonging to one ge-
nus, gave the classical name Gossypium to the whole.

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. B77

_ Linneus was, I believe, the first to renew the idea of
Pliny, in dividmg these plants into two genera: but in do-
ing so, while he continued the term Gossypium for the
‘Gossipion of the Roman, he bestowed Xylon, another term
for the same plant, to Pliny’s Gossampinus. This was in
the earliest :part-of his course, when he published the Hor- .
tus Cliffortianus and Flora Zeylanica. Soon after he seems
to have become sensible that the term Xylon was ill-applied
to the Gossampinus of Pliny, and he therefore abandoned
it im the first edition of the Species Plantarum; but, in
place of restoring the name of Pliny, or adopting Eriopho-
ros used by Rumphius, or Ceiba applied by Plumier to
plants of the same genus, he used the word Bombax, of
‘which I do not know the origin. It has, however, been
adopted by all modern botanists, except Gertner, who
might perhaps have been justified in resuming the Gossam-
pinus of Pliny; but the Bombax of Linnzeus is surely as
good as the Ceiba of Plumier. Perhaps the Bombax of
Linnzus should be left to one of the species earliest de-
scribed by him, the Bombax gossypinum or conga, which
is quite different from the others, does not belong to the
‘same natural order, but rather to the Tiliacese, and is not
an Arbor lanigera. In this case, the classical name Gos-
sampinus should be restored to the other species of Bom-
bax, the authority of Gaertner being scarcely sufficient to
introduce Ceiba. _

Rumphius, and the elder Burman in his annexed obser-
vation, seem to have considered the Eriophoros javanica
as being the same with the Pania or Paniala and Moul
Elavou of the Hortus Malabaricus (iu. 59, t. 49, 50, 51,
et 61, t. 52); but this is evidently a mistake, as the sta-
mina of the Moul Elavou distinguish it clearly from the
Eriophoros Javanica. The Pania was quoted by Plukenet
(Alm. 172) as his “* Gossipium seu Xylon arbor Orientale

378 COMMENTARY ON

digitatis foliis levibus, fructu quinquecapsulari, aloa et ni-
tente lanugine farcto;” but unless the figure (Phyt. t. 188,
f. 4) be very bad, he must have been mistaken, as it repre-
sents numerous stamina; on which account, his plant is
quoted by Willdenow for the Bombax heptaphyllum, al-
though in other respects it has but little resemblance to
that tree. The synonyma, however, which Plukenet gave,
probably all belong to the Pania or Eriophorus Javanica,
although he quotes the former erroneously, as if Pania
Paniala had been one name, an error copied by several
subsequent writers.

Linnzeus, in the Hortus Cliffortianus and Flora Zeyla-
nica, endeavoured to distinguish the species of this genus
by the presence or absence of prickles on the stem; and
indeed Rheede takes no notice of the prickles on the Pania,
while he mentions these of the Moul EHlavou, the very
word Moul implying prickles. Linnzeus, however, soon
afterwards learned, that the stems of the younger trees of
the Pania are prickly, as is stated by Rumphius; and he
therefore had recourse to other distinguishing marks, with-
out, however, altering the synonyma, which his former de-
fective characters had induced him to adopt, in considering
two American trees as the same with the two plants of
Asia, because one had a smooth, and the other a prickly
stem.

Carut LXVIII.
Bilacus Tellor, p. 167, t. 81.

Into the explanation of either this or the following plate
some error has crept. The fruit represented at A is said
to be that of the Bilacus taurinus, but this again is said
to be represented in plate 82. The fruit marked B is said
to be the Bilacus ovalis or tellor, and the fruit C is said

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 379

4o be that of the Bilacus minimus or Kitsitl; but no such
species is mentioned in the text: and the third kind de-
scribed there is the Bilacus Pissang, which, as Rumphius
“says, ‘ nomen obtinuit ab oblonga forma instar. Muse Pi-
-sangh dicte ;” but the fruit C is shaped like a pear, and
cannot represent such a Bilacus, as is described. ‘These
three fruits, I think, represent three varieties in form of
the Bilacus tel/or, which may indeed be called maximus,
-ovalis, and minimus ; but these are merely such varieties
as occur 1n all cultivated plants; while the Bilacus tawrinas,
if it be represented in plate 82, and Bilacus Pissang, are
probably distinct species. On this subject, however, I must,
for a farther account, refer the reader to the Commentary
on the Bilacus taurinus.

The Bilacus ¢ellor and its varieties were early noticed by
‘Dotanists under the name Marmelos, corrupted from the
“Marmeleira of the Portuguese, given to it because this
people seem to have prepared a marmalade from its fruit ;
on which account the older botanists compared it to the
Cydonia, a tree resembling it in no other respect. In the
Hortus Malabaricus (in. 57, t. 37) it was described under
the name Covalam; but the commentator, Commeline,
still adhered to the shght resemblance with the Cydonia.
Plukenet seems to have been sensible of the absurdity in
_this comparison ; but he was little more fortunate in calling
it “ Cucurbitifera trifolia, spmosa, Indica, fructus pulpa
Cydonii zmula,” (Alm. 125; Phyt. t. 170, f. 5). Now
his Cucurbitiferas include Crescentia, Strychnos, and other
plants equally dissimilar. The elder Burman (Thes. Zeyl.
84) continued to class it with the Cydonia, but gives the
synonyma of preceding writers with sufficient accuracy.
‘In the Flora Zeylonica, Linnzeus was equally unfortunate
with his predecessors, and united this plant with the Tapia
of Margrave, which he supposed to be the Niirvala of the

380 COMMENTARY ON

Hortus Malabaricus (iii. 49, t. 42), to form a new genus,
which he called Crateva, the Nurvala being scarcely distinct
from a Capparis, while the Bilacus belongs to the tribe of
Aurantiz. Things respecting the Bilacus continued in this
‘state, only the name Crateva was changed into Cratzva,
and the Bilacus was called Bilanus (Willd. Sp. Pl. 11.853),
until Dr Roxburgh proposed that it should be called Cor-
rea; but, another plant having obtained this name, the
Bilacus by Persoon was called Aigle marmelos, the appel-
lation that it still retains.

In every part of India this tree is common. The natives
of Ava call it Oush-shit; those on the banks of the Ganges,
in the spoken dialects, call it Bel, corrupted from the Vilva
cf the sacred tongue: but as the fruit is dedicated to the
god Siva, it is usually called Sriphula, or the Sacred fruit.
In the Hortus Bengalensis it is stated, that a variety, with
a small fruit, is the Sriphula; and I have often heard the
natives distinguish the Sriphula from the Bel; but on re-
questing a Pandit, attached to my survey, to bring me the
Sriphula, he brought me a fruit im shape and size exactly
resembling that marked A im Rumphius. The fruit of this
tree I shall here describe on the plan of Gertner, and this,
I believe, will be new to the European botanist.

Fructus obovatus, magnitudine ovi anserini, levis, glandu-
loso-punctatus, odoratus, absque rudimento vel calycis vel stig-
matis, apice subumbilicatus, parietibus lignosis crassis unilocu-
laris, farctus pulpo subfarinaceo, fibris paucis intermixto, 10
seu 12 loculari. Loculi verticales, remoti. Semina in singulis
loculis quina seu sena, uno super alterum posito, gelatino pauco
pellucido tecta, ovalia, magnitudine pisi compressa, pilis longis
involuta. Integumentum simplex, membranaceum, crassum,
intus politum, ex embryone facile secedens. Perispermum nul-
lum. Embryo forma seminis. Cotyledones crass, maxime,
albze, hinc convexe, inde plane. Radicula parva inter cotyle-

donum margines nidulans, nunc ad extremitatem, tunc versus
Jatera posita. :

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 381

The kind called Bel by the Pandit was in flower, which

was as follows:

Calyx planus, parvus, quadrilobus. Petala quatuor, calyce
alterna, oblonga, obtusa, patentia, crassa, ungue lato disco ca-
lycino inserta. Filamenta plura, mdefinita, ibidem inserta,
brevia. Anthere longitudine filamentorum lineares, quadri-
sulce, acute, longitudinaliter ad latera dehiscentes, bilocu-
lares. Germen pyramidale, tetragonum. Stylus brevis, teres.
Stigma magnum, incrassatum, obtusum.

From this having only four divisions in the flower, if this
mark were constant, the Bel may be a distinct species from
the plant of Rheede (Hort. Mal. ii. 37), described by Dr
Roxburgh, which has five divisions in the flower, and
which, the Commentator on the Hortus Malabaricus justly
says, is the Sriphula (Scrifole) of the Bengalese, as this
also has five divisions in the flower; and the same seems to.

be the case with the Bilacus ¢ellor, to judge from the
figure. ;

The fructification of the variety of the Bilacus tedlor, with
the large globular fruit, I thus described in Ava:

Calyx inferus, persistens, planiusculus, quinque vel rarius
quadrifidus laciniis ovatis. Petala quinque vel rarius quatuor
zqualia, calyce multo longiora, revoluta, coriacea, oblonga,
obtusa, sessilia, pellucido-punctata. Filamenta plura, ad basin
quinquefariam approximata, hypogyna, subulata, patula, corolla,
triplo breviora. Antherz patentes, lineares longitudine fere
filamentorum. Germen receptaculo orbiculato insidens, ova-
tum, octo vel decem sulcis exaratum. Stylus brevissimus, cras-
sus. Stigma clavatum, apice obliquum, umbilieatum. Bacca

globosa, parietibus lignosis intus pulpo farcta. Semina plura
ovata, plana, sparsa, nidulantia, pilosa.

From this it would appear, that, m this variety, the
number of divisions in the flower is not fixed; and I am
therefore led to consider, that a proper distinctive character
cannot be founded on this circumstance.

$82 COMMENTARY ON

Bilacus Madia Pissang, p. 199.

Whether this be a mere variety of the Auigle marmelos,
or a different species, I cannot take upon myself to say.
As I have already mentioned, the fruit C, in table 81, can
scarcely have been meant to represent that of this plant,
which has a fruit like that of the Musa, at least m external
shape. :

Carut LXIX.
Bilacus taurinus, p. 199, t. 82 ?

It seems strange that Rumphius should say, “ flores ig-
noti mihi hactenus sunt,” and that, notwithstanding this,
they should be fully represented in the 82d plate, which
in the explanation is called Bilacus tawrinus. I am there-
fore inclined to think, that the plate may represent the fol-
lowing plant, the more especially as it has no thorns. In
this case, the fruit A, table 81, as stated in the explana-
tion of that figure, may, in fact, represent the Bilacus taw-
rinus, which, on this supposition, would be a mere variety
of the gle marmelos, and the most common form indeed,
which this tree assumes in the Gangetic provinces; and,
according to Rheede, it is the Slymappel of the Dutch,
which 1s the Covalam of Malabar. It must, however, be
confessed, that the interior structure of the fruit, as I have
described it, agrees entirely with that of the Bilacus ¢ellor,
as given by Rumphius; but not at all with that of the
Bilacus ¢awrinus, which has only four or five seeds in each
fruit, in which circumstance, also, it by no means agrees
with table 82.

Bilacus Amboinensis silvestris, p. 200, t. 82 ?

For the reasons mentioned in the Commentary preced-
ing, I suspect that this is the plant represented in table 82,

THE HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. 388

although the contrary is stated in the explanation of that
plate. It seems, at any rate, to represent an Avgle differ-
ent from the marmelos, and hitherto unnoticed in modern
systems.

P. §. In enumerating the synonyma of the Eugenia
Jambolana, it escaped my notice, that it is the Caryophyl-
lus aromaticus g of Burman (F1. Ind. 122).

Since writing the Commentary on the Lansium domesti-
cum, Mr Jack has published an account of this tree (Lin.
Trans. xiv. 115), to which I beg here to refer; only ob-
serving, that he classes it with the Melize, an order which
requires much revision, as it depends on the flower alone.

384. ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

XXI.—On the Power possessed by the Spider
of propelling its Threads, and on the Ascent
of that Insect into the Atmosphere.

By Joun Murray, F.S.A. F.L.S. F.H.S. &c. &e:

(Read 20th March 1824.)

Ir the business of the entomologist be confined to the
collection of a portfolic of butterflies, or the technicalities
of mere nomenclature, we may consent to the praise of di-
ligence and labour, but cannot approve the soundness of
his views as a naturalist. Confined within these unenviable
limits, entomology is but dull and unprofitable.

- I do hold, however, that the entomologist may reason-
ably assume higher vantage ground, and lay claim to
nobler pursuits; and if the physiology of insects be taken
into the estimate,—their curious structure and mechanism,
—their habits,—their amusements,—their cares and sor-
rows, the study expands in interest and importance. In
this last pleasing department, Messrs Kirby and Spence
have high claims on our grateful respect.

After we have bewildered ourselves in computing the —
movements and revolutions of those wondrous orbs that

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 385

float in fearful sublimity in the boundless sky,—marvelled
at their mighty structures, and wandered wearily from
planet to sun, and from star to star, till we have been lost
in the exceeding majesty of the scene, it is refreshing to the
exhausted spirit to descend from the celestial excursion,
and join the ranks of the botanist, or the entomologist, and
to feel assured that the goodness of the Drtry has not
been exhausted on those unmeasured worlds, but that his
beneficence is extended to the lowest of his creatures.
Among the varicus phenomena presented to the research
of the entomologist, there does not seem one more curious
and interesting than the ascent of the wingless Spider into
the atmosphere,—a fact unquestionable and unquestioned.
It is one, however, recorded without a solitary attempt to-
ward its solution. I have consulted authorities in vain;

_ among others, Linnzeus, Shaw, and Donovan.

The gossamer-web was formerly believed to be a tissue
of “scorched dew ;” hence Spenser—

The fine-net which oft we woven see
Of scorched dew.

Even Dr Hooke said that the gossamer only “ much re-
sembled a cobweb,” and believed that “the great white
clouds that appear all the summer time might be the
same substance.”

-Swammerdam and De Geer ridiculed the idea of the
flight of spiders.

Dr Hulse first observed the property which particular
spiders possess, of propelling their threads into the air.

_ Dr Martin Lister discovered that spiders were wafted
aloft on this airy vehicle; and in fine weather (in Septem-
ber) he found, more than once, a spider which, from its
flight, he called “The Bird.” Afterwards, he noticed that
the insect, by elevating the anus, darted a thread from
thence, and thus rose into the atmosphere.

VOL, V. Bb

386 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

From the highest point of the Cathedral of York, Dr
Lister beheld the gossamer-webs floating far above him. |

Mr White of Selborne confirms, by actual observation,
Dr Lister’s account. He noticed a spider dart off from the
page he was then perusing, and, though the atmosphere
was tranquil, it rapidly ascended.

_ It has been considered that this property is not peculiar
to one species, but that several spiders, when young, can
so elevate themselves.

Mr White conceived that spiders in their transit through
the atmosphere could coil up their threads, and descend
ad libitum from their aérial excursions, altering in this
manner their specific gravity. i

I am not aware that any have attempted to describe the
gossamer-spider as a distinct and peculiar species, Bechstein
and Starck excepted; but they seem to describe different
species.

Thus the former describes it as being the size of a small
pin’s head, having eight eyes disposed in a: circle; body of
a dark-brown colour, and light-yellow legs.

_ Starck describes his one as extending more than two

lines in length, eyes in the form of a square, tw. on each
side, in contact with each other; thorax of a deep-brown
colour, with paler streaks; the under side of the abdomen
of a dull white, and a dark copper-brown colour above,
having a dentated white spot running longitudinally down
the middle. |

Dr Starck imprisoned: several of these under a bell-glass,
on a grass-plat, and he tells us they existed two months
without food, though they took water greedily.

Mr White observed a remarkable phzenomenon on 21st
September 1'741. Early in the morning the whole country”
was: enveloped in a coat of cobweb, wet with dew. His
dogs (being on a shooting excursion) were blinded by them.

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 387

A delightful day succeeded. About 9 o’clock a. m. fell
a shower of these webs, (not single threads, but formed of
flakes), some nearly an inch Lsrbaedy and 5 or 6 inches long ;
and such flakes continued to fall during the entire day.
Baskets-full might be collected from the hedges; and from
the velocity of their fall, it was evident that they were con-
: siderably heavier than the medium through which they
descended.

The small spider with which these remarks are Loge ent
has its eyes disposed in a circle somewhat elongated, .:

the body and legs, examined with a lens, are hairy, palpi
bifid, and protuberant at the end; tarsus forked or clawed;

legs, &c. somewhat translucent ; abdomen and thorax glos-

sy, and of a dark ferruginous colour; anal processes 9;

the femur and tibia have each two articulations.

Several of these spiders, included in a crow-quill, were
transmitted to Professor Jameson. Those called ‘“‘ Money
Spiders” by the reapers in some parts ef England, I pre-
sume to be the same insect.

The Reverend Mr Kirby writes me, that he thinks the
Aranea obstetrix of Starck is that now spoken of: but the
one described by Starck under this name is striped, and
the eyes are arranged in the form of a square, which are
sufficient distinctions. The subject of this communication
approxmnates more nearly to Bechstein’s A. obstetria.

I shall take leave to call it “ Aranea aéronautica,” be-
cause, under the name Aranea obstetria the German natu-
ralists describe two different insects; and I, moreover, be-
heve Starck’s A. obstetrix to be (perhaps) the young of the
Aranea geometrica, met with in hedges. 'The chief reason,
however, for my proposing the assigned name, is the fact I
have discovered, that its ascent and movement in the atmo-
sphere are essential to its very existence.

Bh2

388 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

I know well that the Aranea geometrica does possess
the power of propelling threads into the atmosphere, and
of thus changing its locality or making its escape; and
perhaps, too, the young of this insect may possess the
‘power of taking an aérial excursion occasionally. Now, if
so, I am persuaded it is a very rare event. The other is
distinct and peculiar, and the numbers that occur in the
atmosphere are such as sufficiently to account for the gos-
samer, and its beautiful and interesting phenomena. It
cannot therefore be doubted, that those threads which glis-
ten in the sun-beam, and float in the air from the hedges
and hedge-rows, and the reticular tissue on grass, which,
when sparkling with dew, refracts so beautifully the tints
of the rainbow, are the work of the aéronautic spider.

As a proof that these wingless “‘ birds” are more numer-
ous than may be generally suspected, I may merely men-
tion, that, in the month of July 1822, on the top of the
coach from Kidderminster to Stourbridge (a distance of
only nine miles), there fell on me, or near me, thirteen
aéronautic spiders, all of which I caught, and imprisoned
in chip-boxes, which I carried with me for that purpose.
This species of spider may be frequently met with in coach-
offices, having alighted on the passengers, or on their lug-
gage. :
Connected with this question, I may mention a curious
phenomenon that I witnessed on the 16th September last
year, at Bewdley, Worcestershire. Between the hours of
11 «a. m. and 2 p. m. the whole atmosphere seemed to be-a
tissue of cobwebs ; they continued to fall in great numbers,
and in quick succession. ‘The temperature was 72° Fahren-
heit. Some of these were single, others branched filaments,
occasionally seen to extend from 40 to 50 feet in length.
Others were woolly films, or flocculi. Some fell slowly, and
others more rapidly. This was first noticed in the market-
place, at Bewdley; and, on repairing to the adjoining fields,

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 389

I found the same phenomenon, and my clothes were most
curiously invested with a net-work of spiders’ threads.

In a communication to the Reverend J. J. Freeman of
Kidderminster, I remarked this circumstance; and the fol-.
lowing is an extract from his letter to me, dated 18th Sep-
tember 1822:—‘* The fall of cobwebs was also observed
here on Monday. <A gentleman told me he was obliged to
wipe his face several times while walking in his garden
about 12 or 1 o’clock, such quantities continued to fall on
him.”

On the 19th of July 1822 (the anniversary of the Royal
Coronation), the yeomanry, at 1 o’clock p. m. were drawn
up in the market-place at Kidderminster, and fired a. feu-
de-joie on the occasion. This had the effect of bringing
great numbers of the Aranea aéronautica from the aérial
regions; very many I picked up from the pavement, when
the yeomanry had withdrawn; and several took refuge on
_the table where I was engaged reading, near the window of
the hotel, and which was then partly open.

I have stated that a free and unrestrained privilege of
ascent into the atmosphere is a condition essential to the
very being of these remarkable insects.

The Blaps mortisaga, it is known, will live three years
shut up, and without food. I have kept the Aranea dia-
dema two months under similar circumstances. An ento-
mologist informed me he had kept a spider three months

without food; and indeed this insect has been preserved
alive upwards of a year confined, and wanting nutriment.

The Aranea aéronautica, however, I have invariabl y
found, is impatient of confinement, and will die, whether
imprisoned in a chip-box or glass-tube (shewing that light
does not affect the question), sometimes in twenty hours,
or at most in two or three days.

J introduced one of the aéronautic spiders under water ;

390 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

but though it remained there upwards of a minute, it did
not appear injured thereby; and when withdrawn, soon
let itself fall from a point, by means of a thread.

Posited gently on water, at 66° Fahrenheit, it remained
on its surface, without attempting to escape by the propul-
sion of a thread. It took repeated springs. forward, and
then receded, patting the water rapidly with its tarsus, m
the manner of the squirrel.

In water at 67° Fahrenheit, it was quiescent. When re-
posing at the bottom of a tumbler of water, there issued
from between the palpi an air-bell, which, expanding, car-
ried the spider to the surface; the aérial appendage thus
diminishing the specific gravity of the aggregate, and af-
fording a striking elucidation of the habits of the Aranea
aquatica.

An aéronautic spider being put into water at 94° Fah-
renheit, remained at the bottom of the vessel, sometimes at
rest, sometimes locomotive. It projected a thread upward,
and by that means, satlor-like, wound itself, resting at in-
tervals, to the surface of the water. At the close of the ex-
periment the temperature of the fluid had fallen to 86° F.

One of these spiders, by candle-light, darted instantane-
ously a thread to the ceiling of the room (eight feet high);
it described an angle of about 80° with the horizon. By
means of the combined act of the tibia and tarsus, “ guid-
ing them wittingly,” the thread was made to spin with
great rapidity on its axis; and during this period it moved
gradually toward the vertical plane, and, being thus highly
twisted, formed a stronger medium of escape.

During my stay at Chester, while I was experimenting
with an aéronautic spider, during a warm day, and brilliant
sunshine, about noon; when my room-door was a-jar, and
the insect in the act of propelling its threads in all diree-
tions, it suddenly darted toward the door, in the direction

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 391

of the influx-current, a thread perfectly horizontal, and in
length 10 feet.

The angle of vision being particularly fa-
vourable, I observed an extraordinary aura or atmosphere
round the thread, and which I cannot doubt was elec-
tric.

"There are many phenomena that dispose us to believe
the thread to be electrified.

The following diagram will

afford a representation of one of my experiments made in a

room. ‘The deflection from the vertical plane in the direc-
tion of the dotted diagonal line, is, I think, to be ascribed
to the attraction obtaining between the wall as the conduc-
tor and the electrified thread. ‘The aéronautic spider threw
out two threads toward the ceiling, one perpendicular, and
the other inclined; and then let itself fall from the end of

a quill, resting at a woolly ball, and from thence projecting
_ a horizontal thread, subsequently descending.

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392 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

I first began my experiments and observations on this
curious subject on the 2d of June 1822. One of these spi-
ders alighted on me, and glanced off from my hand with
considerable rapidity : thermometer 77° in the shade.

It is impossible to walk in the fields without being sa-
luted by several of these insects; they will be chiefly no-
ticed by alighting on the hat, and descending by a thread
before the face: in this way they are easily caught, as they
will drop into a chip-box, and may be secured. Received
on a pencil, or the like, they will soon be perceived to
oscillate like the pendulum; oftentimes rising from the
perpendicular into the horizontal plane, at each ascent pro-
jecting a thread into the atmosphere; and, finally, by a
twitch or jerk, the insect breaks from its anchorage, and
ascends. It is difficult to determine whether the insect
bites off the connecting thread, or breaks it off by main
physical strength; but from the sudden twitch which ap-
pears to detach it, I am inclined to believe that the latter
is the fact.

Sometimes the aéronautic spiders will take their flight
immediately from the surface on which they alight, if the
day be warm and sultry; but generally they descend. to
from 6 to 18 inches, perhaps the better to insulate them,
and that, suspended by a pliant thread in free space, they
may more freely propel their threads into the atmosphere.

Not unfrequently the propulsion of a solitary thread will
bear them aloft, but the air must then be very warm, and
its electric character be high. Sometimes the ascent is rapid,
and cannot be followed by the eye; at other times it is slow
and majestic. Occasionally the ascent is quite vertical, and
at other times the animal sails on the bosom of the air, ei-
ther in the horizontal plane, or at angles more or less acute.

It will be also found that there are particular seasons of
the year best calculated for this singular exhibition: spring

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 393

and autumn are those periods. In summer I have fre-
quently found it utterly impracticable to determine their
ascent. When they detached themselves, after several vi-
brations, they have fallen to the ground like a dead weight.
One day last summer (May) this remarkable fact was de-
termined in the case of nearly a dozen which I picked up,
—all that I experimented with on that day.

The insect would seem to be aware when the threads are
sufficient for its ascent: perhaps the temporary suspension
in the horizontal plane may communicate that information.

The aéronautic spiders make their appearance early in
the season. One fell on me in the beginning of March last
(1823), while I was perambulating the streets of Bath.

I have frequently shewn the phznomena of the aéro-
nautic spider to my friends, and to Mr T. Hopkins of Kid-
derminster, and Mr T. Brown of Cirencester. To the lat-
ter, indeed, I one morning, in a very short period, pointed
out the phenomena in five or six different instances.

Several circumstances concur to shew the phenome-
non of ascent to be electric. 'The propelled threads do not
interfere with each other; they are divellent, and this di-
vergence seemed to proceed from their being imbued with
similar electricity ; and the character of that electricity ap-
peared to me to be an interesting subject for subsequent
research. |

The aéronautic spider, brought near a candle, descends
by its vertical thread, winds it up, and descends again very
rapidly and repeatedly. ‘The flame seemed not to attract
a short upright thread, though the finger brought near,
did. Placed nearer to the flame, the animal seemed inca-
pable of descending farther, but moved circularly.

The point of a gold wire was brought near to the verti-
cal thread, in one experiment, and above the spider in the
act of escape to the ceiling of the room. It evidently dis-

394 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER

concerted its progress, and the animal seemed agitated and
unable to ascend. On removing the point the insect soon
made its escape.

- When the conducting wire is brought near to the thread
by which it suspends itself, but, above all, to the floceuli
or wool-balls, the thread is considerably deflected from the
perpendicular, and the horizontal fibre is attracted by the
point.

When a metallic conductor is brought near to the sus-
pended spider, it disarranges its projectiles, and the insect,
conscious of some counteracting agency, promptly coils up
its threads.

When a stick of excited sealing-wax is brought near the
thread of suspension, it is evidently repelled ; consequently
the electricity of the thread is of a negative character. The
descent of the thread is instantly determined by bringing
over it the excited sealing-wax; and if strongly excited,
and the spider let fall on its surface, it bounds from it with
considerable energy.

On the 3d of July 1822, at 4 v. m., thermometer 66°
Fahrenheit, two aéronautic spiders, on separate threads,
were brought near to each other ; a mutual repulsion super-
vened ; and when one was brought in momentary contact
with the other, it immediately fell lower in the perpendi-
cular plane.

An excited glass-tube brought near, seemed to atiract
the thread, and with it the aéronautic spider. When the
insect was thus positively electrified, the rapidity which
marked its descent, and extent of thread spun out, and
which I frequently coiled up, was truly astonishing, being
at least 30 feet in length.

_ In one experiment made, the ascent of the insect was so
slow and tranquil, from the humidity of the lower atmo-
sphere and wetness of the terrestrial surface, that I could

INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 395

easily catch the insect by following its progress: it moved
in a plane parallel to the point of departure. —

On the 4th August 1822, at 3 p. m., thermometer 66°,
the ascent was slow and beautiful, the little aéronaut rising
regularly in the vertical plane. It was distinctly perceived
from the steady fixation of the eye, and favourable angle
of vision, until it had attamed an elevation of 30 feet at
least, and was finally lost in the vanishing point of eleva-
tion. | :

A variety of other phenomena unite their testimony in
favour of the conclusions which I have formed, and from
what I consider the direct method of induction.

Were the thread not electrical, I do not see how it
should be propelled through the atmosphere in the vertical
plane, and remain there, contrary to the laws of gravitation.
It is indeed remarkable, that the threads should remain
in the precise plane in which they are propelled, nor ever
swerve from that path. The constant relative separation
finds an analogy in similarly electrified pith-balls, or the
divergence of the filaments in the case of a glass plume,
&c., placed on the conductor of an excited electrical ma-
chine. ‘The undulations of an agitated atmosphere disturb
rather than favour the ascent of the little aéronaut. The
electric or calorific state of the atmosphere will be found
always to modify the phenomena. The transit of the thread
through a resisting medium, without its suffering deflection
im its path, proves it to be imbued with a power superior
to, and able to combat with or overcome, that resistance *.
The instantancousness of the propulsion of the projectile

* The friction sustained in its sudden propulsion through the resisting
atmosphere would alone be capable of investing it with electricity. I have
seen, in the case of a fibre of very fine-spun glass suddenly drawn upward,
that it continued vertical, and I found it electrical.

396 ON THE ASCENT OF THE SPIDER, &e.

can find no reasonable cause but in the subtilty of electri-
city and excitation of that mighty power. An illustration
somewhat connected with the question is found in the pro-
pulsion of fine threads from melted wax connected with the
conductor of the electrical machine in action, the threads
being received on the surface of paper.

When the superior regions of the atmosphere are charzed
with positive electricity, while the threads are imbued with
negative electricity, ascent into the atmosphere becomes a
necessary consequence.

It is difficult to ascertain what part this ascent into the
atmosphere subserves in the economy of Nature. Whether
the spider becomes food for other insects, remains a ques-
tion; but I have, in several instances, found that, while it
oscillated, some prowling Vespa, or wandering Musca, has
snapt up and carried off my ‘‘ Aranea aéronautica.”

MAccLESFIELD,
October 31. 1823.

(397. )

X XI1.— Observations on the Migrations, or oc-
casional Migrations, of the Golden-crested
Regulus, or Wren.

By P. J. Setzy, Esq. of Twizell-House, Belford,
M.W.S. &c.

(Read 20th March 1824.)

In the course of my ornithological observations, I had
for some years remarked, that the Golden-crested Regulus,
or Wren, (Sylvia Regulus of Latham and Temminck), at
a particular period of the year, suddenly became more
numerous and abundant than I could account for, from the
quantity annually produced in my immediate neighbour-
hood. ‘The time I allude to has usually been towards the
close of October, or beginning of November. At first, I
thought the influx might come from the northern parts of
Scotland, and probably consisted of the young of the year,
which at that season were impelled to seek a warmer winter
residence: I found, however, on extending my observations,
that the same fact occurred along a great extent of the
eastern coast of Scotland, and that their arrival there was
simultaneous with those in Northumberland and the coasts
of the adjoining counties. I was also aware that it had al-
ways been esteemed indigenous in Scotland and its islands,
and a permanent resident of its native localities. I there-
fore abandoned this supposition, and felt convinced that
the strangers came from countries still more distant, and in
which they were a regular migratory species. This con-

398 ON THE MIGRATION OF THE

jecture received strong and satisfactory confirmation in the
autumn of 1822, when I had the satisfaction of witness-
ing their arrival upon the coast, fatigued and spent by their
distant and, for so diminutive and to appearance delicate a
bird, almost incredible flight. This happened after a se-_
vere gale, which commenced on the 24th of October 1822,

at NE., and continued during the whole of the 25th; but

which, for some hours previous to its conclusion, veered

about to the E. and S. of E. On the morning of the 26th

they were seen to arrive by hundreds upon the beach, so

fatigued ar d overcome by the unfavourable change of wind,

the lengta of their journey, or both combined, as to drop

the moment they reached land, unable to make any further

exertions. Great numbers were in consequence at first taken

by the hand, unable to rise or escape their pursuers. Some

idea may be formed of the incredible numbers which came

over in this flight, furnished in all probability by the forests

of the northern parts of Europe, when I mention that I
have traced it to have extended from beyond Berwick

northwards, along the whole line of coast as far as Whitby

in Yorkshire; but how much farther to the north or south
of these points I have not. yet ascertained.

With the same gale we received a great importation of
Redwings and Fieldfares, and a very abundant flight of
Woodcocks, all known as emigrants from the northern
parts of Europe; but none of these appeared to have suf-
fered from fatigue to the same extent as their diminutive
companions. As soon as they were a little recovered from
the effects of their distant’ flight,. they spread themselves
over the country adjoming the coast, and at first filled
every hedge and plantation; but they appeared still desir-
ous to move southwards, and their numbers rapidly and
daily decreased; and I remarked that, about Christmas,
scarcely more than the annual average quantity remained.

GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. 399

Hitherto I had always considered, and indeed had
found, the Regulus to be a permanent resident, even du-
ring the severest winters; but what took place last sea-
son, proves, that even those species which under usual cir-
cumstances, constantly inhabit their native localities, are
compelled, by unusual and peculiar contingencies, to vary
their habits, and become subject to those laws which direct
the migratory movements of the feathered race. As I be-
fore mentioned, about Christmas their numbers appeared
reduced to the usual standard, and they remained subject
to observation till after the first severe snow-storm, which
we experienced in the beginning of January 1823. ‘They
appear, however, to have had some presentiment of what
was about to follow, as they left the country tc a bird,
during the short interval of thaw which took place previous
to the commencement of the second storm, so severely felt
throughout. the northern parts of England, and a great
part of Scotland. Expecting their return in spring, at the
usual time they begin to breed, I looked for their re-
appearance with considerable interest; not a single pair,
however, could I discover in all their accustomed haunts,
long after the usual time of nidification, and when our
plantations are wont to be alive with the stridulous song of
the male; nor was a single Regulus visible in any part of
Northumberland till October last, when a few arrived at
the time I have before stated the strangers annually make
their appearance, some of which I. perceive still remain
with us.

During an excursion in Scotland, in August and Sep-
tember 1823, I did not neglect to look for them in every
likely locality, and im places where I had previously seen
them. very plentiful, but without success. 'Titmice I found
abundant, particularly the Parus ater (Cole-mouse), which
inhabits all the fir-forests and plantations; but I could not

400 ON THE MIGRATION, &e.

discover the P. cristatus (Crested Titmouse), said to in-
habit the Forest of Glenmore. This unexpected and un-
wonted desertion in all probability proceeded from some
instinctive feeling, which impelled them to fly from ap-
proaching danger; but what causes prevented their return
to their native habitats after the severity of the season was
past, is a question not so easily solved. Among various
surmises, it has occurred to me, that the late period of
the season, or rather early part of the year, at which this
migration took place, as well as the distance to which it ex-
tended, may have combined to prevent their return to their
native haunts in sufficient numbers, or at the usual period
they begin to breed; and that thus situated, they have
been obliged to yield to the imperative demands of nature
in those parts, or on their return from those regions to
which they had been driven under such unwonted cireum-
stances. What favours this supposition is, the very early
period at which the Regulus begins to feel the influence of
love, and to breed, for they very frequently pair towards —
the end of February. ‘Their migration did not take place
till the last week in January, which allows but a short in-
terval to elapse before the amorous propensities would be
in action, and these probably accelerated by the mildness
of the climate in which they had taken refuge. I have not
yet ascertained whether the Reguli of the southern parts of
England were likewise observed to migrate, or if they were
known to breed in their usual or in greater numbers during
the last season, viz. that immediately following their migra-
tion from the north. Few, I am afraid, will be found to
have paid the attention necessary to establish these facts,
particularly as the object is of so diminutive a complexion,
and offers but little to excite attention or remark, except
to those ardently engaged in ornithological pursuits.

January 20. 1823.

ee ae

XXII].—General Observations on Geology and
Geognosy, and the Nature of these respective
Studies. .

By the Rev. James Grizrson, M. D.

(Read Tth February 1824.)

SomME have thought that, in studying the sciences, the
ancient Greeks had a considerable advantage over us mo-
derns, on account of the peculiar terms by which scientific
ideas are expressed, being mostly taken from their own
language instead of a foreign one, and consequently more
familiar to them. Thus the words Geology, Geognosy,
Geography, Astronomy, Astrology, for example, are all
we may say Greek, and would be as easily understood by
a Greek novice when entering on the study of any one of
‘those sciences, as Discourse of the Earth, Knowledge of the
‘Earth, Delineation of the Earth, Laws of the Stars, Speech
of the Stars, would be by an Englishman when he is enter-
ine on the same study. Now, whatever be in this (and we
do apprehend there is not much in it), no doubt can be
entertained, that the multiplication of terms unnecessarily,

VOL. V. cc

402 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

and the inaccurate or vague use of them, are among the
greatest obstacles to the advancement of true science. This
remark has been thought to be peculiarly applicable to the
science in which we are more immediately interested, and
which it is the object of the Wernerian Society more par-
ticularly to advance. The introduction of many new terms
has been objected to, as tending only to overload and per-
plex the nomenclature. Iam far from allowing that the
objection is in general well-founded, though there may,
perhaps, be found a few instances in which it is; but my
object at present is to shew, that the word Geognosy, as
introduced by Werner into the department of Mineralogy
(and which has been much exclaimed against as unnecessary-
and superfluous), is by no means so. We all know, that,
previously to him, there had been numerous attempts made
to account for the present arrangement and state of tae
materials of which the globe of the earth is composed, or
to show what particular agent or agents had operated, in
the way of natural causes, to bring into their present form
and situation the substances of the mineral kingdom,
These attempts, which have been called Theories of the
Earth, had, before the age of Werner, proceeded upon
by far too limited a knowledge of minerals, and had taken
for granted a thousand things which the authors of the re-
spective theories could by no means prove. They were, in
fact, little more than fancies,—a sort of philosophical ro-
mances, which might amuse the imagination, but conveyed
no real knowledge. :

As was not unlikely to happen, the first theorists turned
their attention more particularly to a great and remarkable
event recorded in history (in the oldest history by far now
extant), and of which we have also traditional accounts,
more or less distinct, in almost every part of the world,
They supposed the Earth to have been created in a certein

ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGNOSY. AQS

state (some of them in one, some in another), and then they
set themselves to account for the changes which, in their
opinion, a deluge ef water would produce upon it.

Burnet, for example, in 1681, supposed the Harth to
have been an immense abyss of water, covered by a smooth
crust, which, being broken and deranged at the Deluge,
produced, by its fragments, mountains, islands, and all the
great irregularities we now perceive on the globe. Wood-
ward, in 1702, fancied that, at the Flood, a suspension for
a short time of the attraction of cohesion took place among
the particles of all mineral substances, and that the globe,
beimg thus, as it were, dissolved and converted into a soft
paste, shells sunk into it, and so are now found in the
heart of solid rocks, and at a great depth below ground.
Whiston, in 1708, imagined that the Earth was formed
from the atmosphere of a comet, and that the Deluge was
produced by the tail cf another! Others, paying less at-
tention, or we may say no attention at all, to the accounts
we have in Scripture, said the world was an extinguished
sun, or a vitrified globe, on which, as it cooled, the vapours
gradually condensed, forming seas and lakes, which after-
wards deposited calcareous matter. Such were the fancies
of Leibnitz and Descartes in 1683 and 1749. But a stil.
more extraordinary fancy (Quid tam absurdum quod non
dictum fuerit ab aliquo Geologo?) was that of Demaillet,
who imagined the Earth to have been entirely covered with
water for some thousands of years, and that men were then
a sort of fishes, and lived in that element. Buffon’s ima-
gination seems to have been guided in its flight very much
by that of Leibnitz. Both held the Earth to have been
originally a fiery mass, gradually cooled down, and ar-
ranged so as to be at last rendered a fit habitation for
plants and animals. Only Leibnitz will have it to have
been an entire sun, while Buffon tells us it was only a

cc 2

LOL GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

part of one knocked off by a comet. ‘These are, no doubi,,
very fine specimens of closet world-building, worthy of be-
img preserved in the cabinets of the curious. Delightful
romances! But we have some still better—we have higher
flights of the imagination yet on this subject. Later writers
have supposed that every thing was originally fluid, and
that this fluid was inhabited by an infinitely great number
of infinitely small and simple animals and vegetables, which,
by their exuvice, in a course of ages, produced calcareous
matter and other substances, forming the solid body of the
Earth; so that the mmeral kingdom, according to them,
is no more than the debris or exuvie of the animal and
vegetable. The original or infinitely small monadic animals
and vegetables, Lamarck, and others, who hold the same
system, tell us, gradually acquired different habits, became
larger and more diverse from one another; and hence all
the animals and vegetables we now have. Others, again,
such. as Kepler and his followers, not content with peopling
the globe with an infinite number of small monadic animals,
and settmg their debris and that of vegetables to form
mountains and the other solid parts of it, have told us that
the globe itself is one great animal, possessing sensation
and volition, digestive and respiratory organs, im short, all
the qualities of a living being! Fine examples these, we
see, of geological speculation, which, if they do not evince
much power of observation, or great accuracy of deduction,
certainly shew no deficiency in power of fancy. But, wm-
brarum hic locus est; let us leave these purely imaginative
philosophers for others of a more sober cast,—others, who
would lcok upon themselves as degraded,—indeed, as grossly
insulted, to be placed among what we may call the pretty
novelistic geologers. And yet it does appear that some of
_ these, even of these soberer ones, hold opinions little, if at all,
less strange than certain of those we have already enume-

‘ON*GEOLOGY AND GEOGNOSY. £05

vated. Delametherie, for instance, thinks that almost every
thing was formed by crystallization. Dolomieu will have it
that immense currents, of many hundred fathoms deep, swept
at various periods the bottom of the ocean, and from thence
throwing up sand and shells and other substances, deposited
them upon the continents, to form hills and mountains.
M. de Marschall, as late even as 1802, has informed us, that
the superficies or outer crust.of our globe is made up of a
variety of fragments, which at different times fell down from
heaven in the way of meteoric stones, and, as a proof of
the same, refers us to the exuvise of the unknown animals
now found in the strata.

In the very same year with this discovery, the scientific
world was called upon to believe a truly sublime and beauti-
ful doctrine, namely, That there exists in the central parts

-of the earth an immense fire, or source of heat, which at cer-
tain periods breaks out, and acts with intense and irresistible
violence, after having lain dormant for an indefinite number
of ages;—that the matter of the different continents and
islands over the world being constantly washed down by
the rams, and other wasting processes of the atmosphere,
into the rivulets and rivers, is.by them conveyed to the sea,
and ultimately to the deepest parts of it; and that, when
this is sufficiently accomplished, and-an abundant stock of

mud and other things is there deposited (which probably
takes place in some millions of millions of years), the great
fire begins to burn, and, under the immense pressure of the
waters of the ocean, bakes, as we may call x, the stuff,

melting or at least softening it ;—that then the fire for a
time ceases or goes out, permitting the materials to cool,
and so form strata;—that when this has happened, and the
strata are sufficiently hardened or consolidated, the fire
lights itself up anew, and, in a far more furious and irresis-

tible form than before; not waiting, as it did in time past,

406 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

to melt or soften the materials on which it acts, but vio-
lently heaving them up in a broken and dislocated state,
along with fluid granite and trap, through the ocean,
thereby causing, of course, its waters to flow off towards
the former land ;—that this takes place with such mcon-
ceivable force and fury as to turn the whole of the former
continents with their inhabitants into the bottom of the
sea;——a new continent, or continents, and islands, are
thus formed out of the elevated bottom of the ocean, and
the fishes and apoda turned off from their former quarters,
to frisk about on that portion of the earth’s surface which
formerly belonged to the terrestrial animals, the fate of
which may be easily conjectured :

‘¢ Occupat hic collem ; cymba sedet alter adunco 5
Nat lupus inter oves: fulvos vehit unda leones,
‘ Unda vehit tigres: nec vires fulminis apro,
Crura nec ablato prosunt velocia cervo.”

Such was the creed of the late celebrated Dr Hutron of
this place, as illustrated by the late, no less celebrated,
Professor PLAYFAIR,—a gentleman, this last, remarkable.
for his many and valuable accomplishments, but fer none
more than for the elegance and felicity with which he al-
ways expressed himself when he wrote on subjects of natu-
val science. His master in geology (I mean Hurron) had
sublime and extensive views, but he could not clearly ex-
hibit them to the minds of others. No man ever stoed
more in need of an illustrator, and no man ever found a
more admirable one than he did in the person of his pupil.
But what proof have we that a central fire exists? And
what proof have we that the materials carried down by the
rivulets and rivers are ultimately deposited in the bottom
of the ocean? I can perceive none,—not even of this latter
position. Everywhere do we see holms, and carses, and
bars, and deltas, thus formed at the mouths of rivers, but

ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGNOSY. 407

no, evidence can I perceive that the materials go farther.
The first principles, therefore, of this theory are, like those
of the others at which we have been looking, in my opinion,
purely gratuitous.

Werner, as I have already hinted, and as is well known
and acknowledged, was the first to introduce into this sub-
ject what may be called the truly inductive method. He
taught us, that, before drawing conclusions, we should look
at the objects before us, and should make ourselves ac-
-quainted with their distinguishing properties, before we
attempt to explain their formation: in short, that we

should become mineralogists before becoming geologists,
-or know of what the earth is made, before we pretend to
‘tell how it was made. On these principles of true and
legitimate mineralogical philosophy, so happily introduced
‘by him, and now so generally acted upon by his numerous,
I had almost said innumerable, pupils throughout the
world, the science is making such unprecedented and rapid
advances, as that it may be expected soon to comprehend
a pretty complete knowledge of the unorganised kingdom,
at least as far as this ever can come under our observation.
Nowhere, however, I think I may, without an approach to
flattery, say, have the Wernerian, or truly scientific me-
thods of investigation in this department of nature, been
followed with more ability, and attended with greater suc-
cess, thap in our own country; and when I say so, no one
can fail to perceive that I allude to our President. But
though Werner and he, and the immediate successor of
WERNER, not to mention any more, have indisputably put
us on the right road, and also conducted us a great way
along it, surely it would be rash to affirm that every thing
has been accounted for, and that the science of mineralogy
is already perfect. Certainly no. Many things, after all
that has been achieved, still remain unexplained, and there

408 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

is abundant room for future discovery. I do not, however,

look upon the great merit of the system of Werner and his

disciples as arising from the satisfactory manner in which

it enables us to explain the formation of minerals (though

in this respect, also, it certainly appears to me to be greatly

superior to every other that has yet been introduced); 1

consider its merit as arising chiefly from the facility and
certainty with which it enables us to distinguish the objects
of the mmeral kingdom from one another, or to arrange
and classify them. ‘This is the principal pomt. No doubt,
it would be satisfactory, aye, mexpressibly gratifying and
delightful, to know the particular way in which every ob-
ject in the mineral, as well as in the other two kingdoms of
nature, was formed. ‘ Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere
causas,” is a principle deeply seated in the human breast,

and of which we all very powerfully feel the influence.

But I am afraid the desire of gratifying it not unfrequently
leads us astray. What but this desire, operating in an ex-
cessive manner, led to all the fanciful theories and singu-
larly extravagant positions, which I have already taken no-
tice of, with a great many more of the same sort, too tedi-
ous to mention ?

Mineralogy and Geognosy have, I think, abundant in-
terest in their investigations, independent of the manner in
which the objects about which they are conversant were
formed. To know and distinguish these, to arrange or
classify them ; ascertain their properties and relations, so
as that when we find one, we may in some degree know
where to look for another; to ascertain their uses; to find
whether there is any order in the structure of the earth on
the great scale, and if so, what it is ;—these, I should think,
are subjects sufficiently attractive and interesting to any
philosophic mind, and this is perhaps all the length we
shall ever be able with certainty to go in the path of the

ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGNOSY. 409

- science of which I now speak. For the subjects about
_ avhich we reason are so hid from our view, and so com-
pletely beyond the reach of any thing like a thorough ino-
vestigation, that it is nearly as unlikely we shall ever fully
ascertain the manner of their formation, as it is unlikely we
shall ascertain whether there are inhabitants in the moon
or no. ‘The subject, however, certainly has abundant in-
terest without this, without any speculations and conjec-
tures about the modes of original formation ;—as much
interest, I believe, as Botany has, or Zoology, or even
_ Astronomy itself. Now, what botanist, or what zoologist,
when he finds a new plant, or a new animal, puzzles him-
self and his readers, by endeavouring to ascertain how it
was formed, or how it came to be in the place in which he
found it? It is sufficient for him to know what place in
his system the plant or the animal is to be referred to, what
are its distinguishing properties, what are its uses, econo-
mical, medical, or ornamental. So in Mineralogy. — It is
sufficient, I conceive, to ascertain the distinguishing pro-
perties and uses of a simple or compound mineral, of a
rock or a mountain, a stratum er a vein. Why speculate,
and fancy, and suppose, and take for granted, and bring
our science into contempt, by what are called Theories of
the Earth? Werner, in the comprehensiveness of his
mind, seems to have felt this impropriety, and, in order to
avoid it, introduced the term Geognosy, by which he meant
to distinguish the legitimate and useful department of the
science of Mineralogy, or rather of Geology, from the pure-
ly fanciful and useless part of it, which consists in pretend-
ing to explain how the Earth was at first formed, and how
the successive changes it may have, as a whole, from time
to time, undergone, took place. Geology he leaves to ex-
press this, which it had been too often understood to do
(though Geogony is the more appropriate term); and

ALO OBSERVATIONS ON GEOLOGY, &c.

Geognosy is understood by him to indicate the distinguish-
ing, grouping, or classifying, on the great scale, the various
substances which constitute the exterior parts or crust of
the globe, that is, all that portion of it of which we ever
an ‘come to the certain knowledge. For that we should
pretend to speak of what is at the centre, or in the interior
of the Earth, is nearly as absurd, I think, as it would be
(according to the shrewd observation of a worthy gentle-
man, now no more) to pretend to tell what is in the inside
of an orange by slightly scratching the rmd. The-deepest
mines have certainly not penetrated to any thing like a mile
into the Earth, and though they had reached thus far, it
would be only about the four thousandth part of the dis-
tance from the surface to the centre. But I believe the
deepest mines have not gone down more than a quarter of
a mile, or about the sixteen-thousandth part of the earth’s
semidiameter. ‘Therefore we can no more know by all our
investigations what is at the centre of the earth, than we
could know what is at Glasgow or Perth (if we had never
been at either of those places, or had any information con-
cerning them), by moving four or five yards from the place
in which we now are. I certainly think it of much conse-
quence that the object of mineralogical study should be
rightly understood; for I have met with not a few who
seemed to undervalue or avoid it, merely because they had
formed a wrong notion of the subject ; and, instead of con-
sidering this science as the means of becoming acquainted
with the qualities, relations, and uses of the substances of
the mineral kingdom, looked upon it as nothing more than
a tissue of vain and unprofitable conjectures about the ori-
ginal formation of the world.

XXIV —On the Mode of Growth, Reproduction,
and Structure of the Poison-Fangs in Ser-
pents.

By Dr Knox, F. B.S. E.

Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
Edinburgh.

(Read 24th January 1824.)

At an early period of my researches into comparative
anatomy, I was led to examine with considerable care the
anatomy of a class of animals, dangerous and terrible in
their nature, and against which man has declared perpetual
war. Dwelling for a long time in a country abounding
with these reptiles, and where, during a great portion of
the year, by infesting our gardens, houses, and fields, they
formed a subject of daily conversation, I was naturally led
to inquire into their structure, and even, so far as was
practicable, to pay attention to their natural history; but
my researches were chiefly of a practical nature, and di-
rected more towards detecting the presence of those organs
which have procured for their possessors the hatred of every
living animal. Minute and careful dissections, performed
lately, have shewn me, that a few facts, in the anatomy and
physiology of the poisonous teeth of serpents, had escaped

sD ee ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

my notice ; and viewing the subject as one of general in-
terest, I have ventured to call the attention of the Society
to the following brief history of these organs.

All anatomists are aware that the serpents called poison-
ous possess two kinds of teeth; viz. numerous simple teeth,
implanted in rows into the lower maxillary bone, and into
the palate-bones of the upper jaw,—and, in certain species,
to be described afterwards, into the upper maxillary bone
itself; these are employed by the animal! in laying hold of
its prey. ‘These teeth have, I believe, generally been con-
sidered permanent; but this opinion I do not consider cor-
rect, because they are found to vary in number even in the
same varieties, and because I have observed wnattached
simple teeth in the rattle-snake,—that is, simple teeth of
rather a soft texture, placed obliquely betwixt the fixed
teeth, and attached to the maxillary or palate benes by soft
parts only.

In several innoxious snakes now lying befere me, there
exist two distinct rows of simple teeth, attached only by
soft parts to the maxillary and palate bones, running pa-
rallel with those already fixed into the bone. These sup-
plementary rows of teeth are placed internally with regard
to the fixed ones in the maxillary bones, but externally to
the same in the palate-bones. ‘They seem to me in a per-
petual state of growth, and advance to supply the place of
those which the animal casts by a regular process of nature,
analogous, no doubt, to the mode of dentition so long ago
observed in certain fishes, as the shark, &c. Moreover, the
lower maxillary and palate bones, around the bases of the
tooth, have the same loose, cellular and vascular appear-
ance as that portion of bone to which the fangs are attached,
and which will be described more particularly in a future
part of the paper. A section of the jaw-bone demonstrates,
that, when once the tooth has become fixed, its mode of

OF THE POISON-FANGS IN SERPENTS. 413:

nutrition alters, as it now receives its nourishing vessels.
from the centre of the bone itself, through which may be
traced a canal filled with soft parts, and communicating by
a large orifice with each of the fixed teeth. The periods
at which the animal casts or sheds these teeth are unknown
to me, but one would naturally conjecture that it may be
annual: the subject 1s open to the inquiries of the natural-
ist.

It has been already observed, that the simple teeth, even
i poisonous serpents, are not confined to the lower maxil-
lary bone and to the palate-bones in the upper jaw, but
are found in certain serpents, implanted also into the supe-
rior maxillary bone. Mr Schreider first noticed them in
the Hydrus or Water-Snake; and they have also been
found in the Boa fasciata, Boa lineaia, &c.; likewise in
the serpents called T'rimeresures by the Count Lacepede. -
These have with propriety been separated from the other
venomous serpents, or those which have only poison-fangs
in the upper maxillary bone, and which have been arranged
by. naturalists under the classes Crotalus and Vipera. The
essential character of this class is, their having only poison-
ous fangs in the superior maxillary bone, and, consequent-
ly, in having the simple teeth confined to the palate-bones
in the upper jaw, and in the lower to the inferior maxillary
‘bone. I have found this character uncquivocal and con-
stant in all the poisonous serpents I examined in Africa ;
in the Rattle-Snake, in the common Viper of this country :
but I was surprised to find that several varieties of snakes,
“described by Mr Russel as varieties of the celebrated Naja,
or Spectacle-Snake of India, have simple teeth implanted
in the superior maxillary bone. [I first observed this fact
in a specimen of a snake given me as a Cobra, and which
belonged to an Indian collection sent to the Museum. On
observing that there existed a simple tooth in each of the

ALA ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

upper maxillary bones, in addition to the regular poison-
fang, I was inclined to think, that, in consequence of the
specimen having been somewhat mutilated, its real charac-
ter might have been mistaken, and that it probably be-
longed to the Trimeresures of Lacepede. On appealing,
however, to the specimens in the Museum, I found that the
Indian snakes called Cobras, and which agree very accu-
rately with the descriptions given by Mr Russel of certain
varieties of the Coluber Naja, or Spectacle-Snake, uniformly
possess simple teeth, growing on the upper maxillary bone;
and hence these serpents can no longer be arranged with
the vipers, but ought either to form a distinct genus, or be
classed with the pseudo Boas, or T'rimeresures*. Ina
real Pseudo Boat, now in the Museum, I find three
simple teeth in the upper maxillary bone. In a common
variety of the Coluber Naja, there 1s only one fixed simple
tooth belonging to the same bone. In the Hydrus (which
I have not yet examined) there are several. All these spe-
cies are East Indian, or at least belonging either to the conti-
nent itself, or to the islands scattered over the Indian Ocean.
It would be interesting to know, if the circumstance of
having both kinds of teeth in the upper maxillary bone be
confined to serpents from these countries only {.

* The variety examined by me, and of which there exist several speci-
mens in the Museum, is the Nella Tas Pam of Russell. I have not yet
had an opportunity of examining a specimen of that variety whence the
whole family derives its name. It has appeared to me that the Indian
snakes generally have the poison-fangs much smaller than the African and
American ; but this does not seem to have any influence over the terrible
poison destined to pass through them.

‘+ Called in Bengal “* Bungarum-pamma.”

~ I have placed on the table the crania of three species of snakes, ar-
ranged according to their teeth, viz. the cranium of a perfectly harmless
snake having simple teeth only ; that of a Cobra or Spectacle-snake, and the
cranium of a truly poisonous one, said to have come from the East Indies,
but which bears the closest resemblance to the common Puff-adder of Africa.

OF THE POISON-FANGS IN SERPENTS. 415

The other kind of tooth with which the poisonous serpent
is armed, is the fang, placed in the upper jaw on either
side, and firmly fixed into a small moveable bone, generally
considered as the superior maxillary. Two muscles moving
this bone, and so contributing to give motion to the fangs,
pass through the poison-gland, situated immediately below
and behind the eye, so that by one and the same action the
fangs are driven into the animal or object attacked, and the
poison is forced from the central cavity or collection of
cells in the gland imto the duct by which it is conveyed to
the base of the fang, and thence into the canal of the tooth.
The structure of the bones, into which the fixed or active
fangs are inserted, 1s very peculiar; nor do I remember to
have found its analogy any where, excepting in some fishes.
The lower surface of the bone, or that which regards the
mouth, and into which the fang is fixed, presents a con-
siderable cavity, divided, as it were, into two portions, ito
one of which a poisonous fang is fixed,—the other cavity
beine reserved for the supplementary tooth intended to fill
it at some future period. ‘The edges of the bone are un-
equal; and its base exceedingly vascular, dark-coloured,
and, as it were, cellular, and is apparently undergoing a
perpetual decay and renovation on its margin. A very
remarkable, and so far as I have observed, a constant ap-
pearance is, that, on one side of the jaw, the cavity for re-
eeiving the supplementary tooth is external, whilst on the
other side it is internal ; or, which comes to the same thing,
the poisonous fang is fixed on one side into the external
portion of the upper maxillary bone, whilst on the opposite
side it is fixed into the internal portion of the correspond-
ing bone.

I have already remarked, that there is always ample
room for two fangs, though most generally there is but one
fixed on either side. In a future part of the paper, I have

416 ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

taken notice of the head of a common viper, in which I
found two poison-fangs fixed into either maxillary bone;
but such an occurrence must be exceedingly rare, for of
the vast number of poisonous snakes I have examined in
this and in other countries, the viper alluded. to is the only
instance in which I have met with it.

Whatever be the situation of the fixed fang, there will
always be found a rudimentary one, partly attached to the
bone, and preparing to occupy the vacant space described
above, and to replace the old tooth, whenever by age or
other causes the latter may have been detached from its
socket, and separated from the animal. But previous to
describing the mode in which we may suppose this process
of decay and renovation to be effected, it 1s essential to ex-
plain to the Society the real structure of the fangs them-
selves. |
It is, I think, sufficiently well known, that, in addition
to the fixed poisonous teeth, serpents possessing these dan-
gerous organs have others which may be called rudiment-
ary; that is, they have on either side, close to the fixed
fang, and suspended to the upper jaw, a certain number of
teeth, intended by nature to supply the deficiency in the
fixed teeth, whenever these shall have been shed or lost.
The rudimentary teeth I speak of, are entirely surrounded
by soft parts, each inclosed in a separate sheath, and cannot
be seen without dissection. ‘They seem to me to be ina
constant state of growth, and indeed present a regular se-
ries, from a mere horny point to a tooth, nearly equalling
in size, strength, and hardness, the one actually employed,
and at the time fixed. We may either consider the tooth
as it first appears, tracing it through its various stages to
the full-grown tooth, or vice versa. 'The first mode seems
the most natural, and it is the one I shall adopt.

At whatever time a poisonous serpent 1s examined, there

OF THE POISON-FANGS IN SERPENTS. 417

will generally be found a rudimentary fang, so small, that
it is nearly of the same form and structure as one of the
common palatine or maxillary teeth ; that is, it is composed
of a horny substance, or enamel, and has a single cavity,
in which is contained the nourishing pulp, or model, as it
were, of the tooth. The tooth itself is exceedingly soft.
The rudimentary fang, which we shall consider as next in
succession, because next in size, has already assumed a dif-
ferent appearance. At its base may be seen a part of the
anterior opening, or that through which the poisonous
fluid is afterwards to pass: this little cavity or opening al-
ready contains a pulp. The third tooth, reckoning always ©
by the increasing size, shews a much more complex struc-
ture, for the tooth growing continually from its base, the
anterior opening is entirely formed. ‘The external and
convex cortex of the tooth has become consolidated imme-
diately behind the opening; but near the base a line may
readily be perceived, extending to the soft parts at the base
of the tooth itself. This line, in some teeth, strongly re-
sembles a fissure; but I have never found it to be really
so, in the rattle-snake, or in the fangs of those serpents
which, by reason of their size, could be easily examined.
It is not improbable that, during the very early and soft
state of the tooth, it may be partly open. As the tooth
grows, the enamel on its convex external surface closes
constantly behind the anterior opening, and advances gra-~
dually towards its base; whilst, at the same time, there
arises a firm, horny, or osseous lamina, which, proceeding
from the convex surface of the poison-canal, divides the
external cavity, or that containing the nourishing pulp of
the tooth, at this point, and, indeed, throughout its whole
length, into two equal parts. A section, therefore, of a
tooth, at this stage of growth, will present a variety of ap-
pearances, depending on the situation of the section. If
VOL. V. nd

418 ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE °

made at a short distance from the anterior opening towards
the base of the tooth, there will be seen, first, the central
osseous canal, the future channel for the poison, but which
is in the present stage filled with its nourishing and forma-
tive pulp or mould; 2d, A circular space surrounding the
poison-canal, inclosed by the external parietes of the tooth,
and containing also its nourishing pulp; 3d, A vertical os-
seous or horny lamina, proceeding from the convex side of
the tooth to the poison-canal, and dividing this cavity, supe-
riorly, into two equal parts. But immediately behind the

anterior aperture, the convex part of the poison-canal has

united so firmly and closely with the parietes of the tooth
itself, that the vertical lamina is scarcely discernible. ‘The
reason of this is, simply because the poison-canal presents

throughout a calibre of nearly equal dimensions, whilst the —

tooth itself is constantly becoming more and more tapered
towards the point; the parietes, consequently, of the respec-
tive canals soon approach each other, and at last are united ;
the cavity, also, for containing the nourishing pulp of the
tooth, becomes gradually less and less, and is more confined
to the concave side of the tooth. If the section be made
near the base of the tooth, that is, where the enamel has
not become consolidated, the vertical lamina is quite carti-
laginous, and very thin, but always exists; so that the ex-
ternal nourishing pulp at no period of the growth, unin-
terruptedly surrounds the poison-canal. Moreover, it is
here to be remarked, that the potson-canal is never open
on its convex surface; but that, on the contrary, its parie-
tes form at all times a completely circular canal, contain-
ing at an early period its formative pulp, and, afterwards,
poisonous fluid itself. The fissure which, at a very early
period of the growth of the tooth, may be seen on its con-
vex side, is quite closed, even in the rudimentary fangs,
long previous to the formation of the aperture at the base;

OF THE POISON-FANGS IN SERPENTS. 419

and the vertical or ascending lamina 1s in consequence
completely formed. The convex surface, moreover, of the
poison-canal is at all times stronger and more compact than
the lateral or concave portions. In one of the preparations
now before me, there is an appearance indicating that the
vertical lamina becomes first ossified on the side of the
poison-canal.

The opening at the base, by which the poison is at a fu-
ture period to pass into the poison canal, is formed in a si-
_ milar way with the anterior aperture or-outlet, yet there
are certain differences arising out of the functions which
the tooth must afterwards perform. 'The principal of these
is the imperfect state of the aperture at its base, which can
scarcely be called complete, and, indeed, is in some mea-
sure rendered so only by its insertion into the maxillary
bone. Anterior to, and on the sides of, the aperture, at the
base of the fang, the external parietes of the tooth becomes
very strong; they are firmly united to the edges of the poi-
son canal, and consequently, the greater portion of the
nourishing pulp of the tooth is thrown towards the concave
side; but there still exists a very thin layer of pulp on the
sides and lateral convex aspect, excepting always in the site
of the vertical lamina, or uniting plate of the two canals. As
the fixed fang is detached by a process which I shall imme-
diately endeavour to describe, the rudimentary one, which
has now attained its full growth (though not its hardness),
becomes gradually fixed into the cavity on the lower sur-
face of the upper maxillary bone, externally or internally,
and by adhering to the edge of this bone, and, at the same
time, advancing forwards, the source of nourishment of the
pulp belonging to the poison canal is cut off, the portion of
pulp at the time in the canal dies and wastes away ; and thus,
for the first time, the osseous tube destined to give passage
to the poisonous secretion becomes pervious.
pd2

420. ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

But it is carefully to be kept in mind, that this osseous
tube has neither furrow nor fissure, but is at all times com-
plete. It is probable that, in the mean time, the other
tooth is detached, in order to be thrown off, by a process
exactly similar to that by which the poison canal is formed :
but the process of decay and renovation, or the loss of one
tooth and its replacement by another, does not seem to be
m any way influenced by mechanical laws, or to be neces-
sarily connected with each other as cause and effect, for I.
discovered and carefully preserved the head of a common
viper, in which there are two fangs firmly implanted into
one maxillary bone. It would seem that the replacement
of the teeth takes place at fixed, though unknown, periods.
The sections of the full grown tooth present certain differ-
ences from those described in the rudimentary ones; if we"
commence, for example, near the base, and cut the tooth
across, in the situation of the opening at the base *, it will
seem as if the poison canal. opened on the convex surface ;
but:at every point anterior to this, or towards the point of
the fang, the section will present a complete central hollow
tube or canal, nearly. circular, surrounded, excepting at one
point, by a pulpy matter (itself inclosed by the external pa-
rietes of the tooth), and therefore not continuous, being
separated on the convex side of the tooth by an osseous
vertical lamina, connecting the poison canal and external
containing case of the tooth together.

The rudimentary teeth are found to vary in number,
which may probably depend on the age of the animal. In
the common Viper of this country, and in the Puff-Adder
of Africa, I have generally found five; in other venemous
serpents, four; in the Rattle-Snake, five; in some Cobras,

* See the Figures in Plate X.

OF THE POISON-FANGS IN SERPENTS. 421

three; &c. It is chiefly in the teeth of the Rattle-Snake *
that I have observed the facts detailed in this paper, but I
have also noticed the same appearances in some others, more
particularly in the head of a large serpent, said to be In-
dian, but closely resembling the African Puff-Adder. In
some of the larger Cobras, the same appearances present
themselves, but it is more difficult distinctly to make them
out, by reason of the smallness of the poison fangs com-
pared with those of the Rattle-Snake. F have thought,
from some specimens examined ‘by me lately, and more par-
ticularly, from the one I now present to the Society, that
the apparent fissure extending along the convex surface of
the fangs in the Rattle-Snake may be ferced open mechani-
cally, even in the fixed fang, (for I do not suppose that there
is ever actually a fissure in the fang of the Rattle-Snake); still
there is no appearance of the poison canal ever being open
on its convex surface+. The teeth in this serpent are ex-
tremely brittle, and split longitudinally, whenever we at-
tempt to cut them.

The figures in the attached drawing are mtended to ex-
plain most of the anatomical facts mentioned in the paper :
they were sketched from preparations now ‘in my posses-
sion.

* Crotalus durissus.

+ It is easy to satisfy one’s self of the accuracy of this, by paring away the
concave part of the tooth, and of the poison-canal, and examining the inner
surface of the remaining convex portion; it will.then be quite evident that
‘the poison-canal is never open on its convex'side, excepting in the situation
of the openings, for the entrance and escape of the poison. The vertical la-
mina, and its firm union with the parietes of the tooth and of the poison-
canal, is best seen by paring away the sides of the tooth, and leaving the
convex part and the whole of the poison-canal entire.

A22 ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

Haeplanation of Plate X.

Fig. 1. Shews the tooth of the Rattle-Snake at an carly
stage of its formation. ‘The line marked a, on the
dorsal or convex side of the tooth, is already com-

pletely ossified. : |

Fig. 2. The tooth farther advanced in its growth. The
line, or supposed fissure, is firmly ossified at a, that
is. near the anterior aperture of the poison-canal ;
but even at 0, where the parietes of the tooth are
quite. cartilaginous and soft, the line is net’ open, but
perfectly closed. c marks the soft parts at the base
of the tooth. |

Fig. 3. A portion of the external parietes of the tooth

has been removed, by which the cavity (a) contain-
ing its pulp is exposed. 6 marks the vertical or
ascending lamina, uniting the poison-canal on its
convex side to the inner surface of the parietes of the
tooth. At no peried is the poison-canal open, but at
its extremities.

Fig. 4. The tooth of the Rattle-Snake im a still more
advanced state of growth. The aperture at the base,
for the admission of the poison, is just formed; but
the line on the convex surface is closed throughout,
“even at b, immediately anterior to the aperture.

Fig. 5. The tooth fully formed, but not yet fixed. A
portion of the external parietes and..pulp has been

: remoyed, exposing the poison-canal, a. ‘The nourish-
ing and formative pulp of the teoth is found chiefly
on the concave side, at 6. c marks the aperture at
the base.

iP LA T E x. 5 Wer. Mem.Vol. Vp. yay

Lizars se.

Gartmore « Carin

Frae Carse Clay
| Sand & Gravel

XI.

Eng 2 ior the Wern.Memoirs Vol.V.P #25

10 1508

Scale of British Miles

2) Z 7 F

M A P
SHEWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITES
IN THE

DISTRICT or TH FORTH

WIL trans soutp!

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. 495

traversing with rapid currents the old red-sandstone, as ex-
pressed on the annexed Map (Plate XI.) enter the margin
of the clay about one mile before they join the Forth. The
former transmits about as much water as the Forth, the
latter considerably more than that river *.

The district of the Forth may be divided into upper
and lower, separated by the gorge at Stirling, formed by
approximation of the hills, narrowing the carse-ground or
valley to one mile. 'The rocky substratum of the upper
district consists, probably throughout, of the old red-sand-
stone, which, dipping southwards, is lost under the clay
and subordinate gravel, which occupy the valley. ‘This
arrangement is presented by the sections formed by the
‘Teath, Allan, and Forth, and tributary streams; also at ex-
cavating the ornamental river, and in forming the elevated
aqueduct at Blair-Drummond, passing from the higher
marginal gravel, and proceeding into the clay of the valley.

This extensive upper district presents to the eye one
uniform plain, the central parts occupied with mosses,
whereof large portions have been floated off to the river
by means of water introduced for that purpose, into which
the peat-earth is thrown, so as to leave the clay fit for the
purposes of agriculture. During these and other operations
the nature of these mosses and subsoils has been unfolded.
The clay of this district, presenting a uniformity of surface,
is of varied quality. In so far as exhibited, by a very few
deeper operations, its depth does not exceed twenty feet.
Stones and pebbles of any description are unknown through

“its whole extent, but it reposes on small gravel, sand, red

'* This map is formed on the principles pointed out in a paper by the

President of the Society, printed in Vol. I. of their Transactions; the ex-

terior line, of a deeper tint on the margin of each colour, expressing that
the particular stratum reposes on the one contiguous.

426 ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA

dill, or red tilly earth, as the case may be, which rest on)
the old:red’sandstone. —~

The mosses alluded to have preserved the remains of an
ancient forest, chiefly oak-trees, which had occupied the
plain but little above the surface of the river during ordi-
nary floods, part whereof appears to have been lower and
marshy, across which a road had been formed of trees laid
longitudinally, with a second layer transversely. The depth
of Blair-Drummond Moss (in which this road/occurs), prior
to the operations, was eight feet, extending to fourteen to-
wards the upper extremity. Some of*the roots of the trees
were very large, and occupied their natura] position in the
soul, their trunks being extended horizontally, many retain-
ing distinct impressions of the axes employed in felling
them ;—an operation commonly referred to the period of
the Roman Conquest *.

These remarks on the upper district apply equally to the
lower district and its mosses. But although the carse-clay
soil presents in both the appearance of an extensive level
plain, it is perhaps nowhere perfectly horizontal. It con-
tains depressions, elevations, and inclined planes, which, to
a certain extent, seem to have modified the course of the
Forth, assisting in the formation of those meanderings
which distinguish it, and which, particularly on the exte-
rior margin of its numerous circular sweeps, encroach on
the higher banks, presenting perpendicular sections on that
‘side, and leaving low ground on the opposite, commonly
embanked against the higher tides. In the lower district, _
the carse-clay has been remarked from 30 to 70 feet in
thickness, at sinking wells near Stirling and Bothkennar.
It reposes on sand, gravel, dark-blue zi//, or immediately
on rocks of the Coal Formation. In both districts, the

* See “* Encyelopsedia Britannica,” article ‘ Moss.’

7

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. 427

sand, gravel, and till-clays, emerge from under the carse-
clay at its margin on all sides, ascending often to an eleva-
tion considerably above it, forming knolls, ridges, and in-
clined planes. On the Map, the carse-grounds are expressed
by yellow, the sands and gravels by pink. 'The bounding
line is discontinued at those points of the last, where parti-
cular observation has not been extended.

On digging these wells sundry vegetable remains were
observed, consisting of wood, hazel-nuts, and leaves of trees,
in good preservation, occurring at various depths, interstra-
tified with large gravel, clay, sandy clay, and sand, the
last furnishmg abundance of water, to which the clay may
be considered as impervious. ‘There are similar appear-
ances at Drip, in the upper district, in passing fourteen feet
through the clay into sand, reposing on the margin of a
knoll of red sandstone. At Alloa, also, timber and other
land products occur in sinking pit-shafts through the carse-
clay to the coal-rocks. In that quarter, and at the mouth
of the Carron, some transference of the soil may be sup-
posed to have occurred, and a portion of the soft clay, or
sludge, uncovered at every tide, may have been deposited
in natural hollows. At Alloa, the tides form rapid currents
during a portion of every efflux and reflux. But in other
places, where the surface presents small depressions, not
exposed to be flooded by any considerable stream, the clay
immediately under the vegetable mould is a fine tint of blue,
indicating that it had suffered no disturbance or mixture.
Of this description, at B on the Map, occupying a small
plain on the margin of the Carse, slightly depressed, is
that in which the skeleton of the whale was imbedded, at
Airthry. Hardly above the level of the river, from which
it Is separated by more elevated ground, a small rill passes
from the adjoming hill, which, stagnating, may have pro-
duced the covering of peat-earth, much thinner than the

498 ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA

mosses of either district. I have particularised these hol-
lows, because in the points which were at all seasons free
from flooding, the roots of vegetables, with the operations
of insects, producing a more spongy texture, and affording
access to the influence of the sun and air, a more equivocal
description of clay is presented, approaching to vegetable
mould. Undisturbed clay is further indicated by alternat-
ing thin parallel layers of blue and brownish clay, in which
occur, in both districts, many extensive deposits of marine
shells, disposed conformably to the layers. ‘Their localities,
with other remarks applicable to the general subject, shall
next be noticed.

Sr. 1.—Below Polmaise, the south bank of the river
presents sundry sections of the carse-clay. Near Fall-in, is
a section of 14 feet: under the soil-cover, 8 feet of the alter-
nating stratification, formed by extra proportion of quartz-
grains, oxide of iron, and mica-scales; declination E. 5°.
Beneath this, a layer of shells occupies the clay, from 6 to 8
inches in thickness, same as in specimen. It also contains
in abundance the roots of paddock-pipes (the Equisetum),
which plant is frequent in the surrounding fields. These
roots do not appear under this layer. Some of them pene-
trate into the interior of the shells. Under this hes a con-
formable stratum of peat-earth (14 inches), sides parallel,
containing numerous fragments of the rind of an aquatic
reed, compressed longitudinally ; also small pieces of wood,
and fraements of bark ; but no trace of the moss-plants, or
bog-plants, which form the superficial mosses of the valley.

Sp. 2. is from this stratum, situate 6 feet above high-
water mark: under it lies a more compact and bluer clay.
Eastward 300 yards, the bank presents a similar disposi-
tion, with declination E. 3°. In all these the shells con-
sist of the kinds most common in the Frith and sea-coast.
Many of the bivalves occur shut and empty, excepting a

a
PLATE XI. : Worm Memoirs Voli |
| i S|

A?

ELA,

ae s
/ oe

Jase

ee

- SGF

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. 429

minute portion of orange-coloured matter. Similar remarks
apply to the shells of the upper district.

Sp. 3, Clay immediately over the shell-iayer. The gene-
ral features of this lamellated clay under high-water mark
are shewn in Fig. 1. Plate XII.

Sp. 4.—Clay from a a being darker when recent, than
the adjoming. ‘The colours refer to its appearance, when
moist, Fig. 1.

Sp. 5.—Shells from clay-section of 10 feet, formed by
the river at Ross, opposite Meiklewood, upper district, m-
cluded in eight parallel layers of the clay, occupying about
as many inches. ‘The layer immediately under, so closely
resembles clay-ironstone in colour, and angular fracture (if
the term be admissible), that it might be, at first sight,
mistaken for it, although but little harder than the others.
Dip 3° N.; declination 2° E., descending more rapidly at

the east end, where it presents the following general fea-

tures: Fig. 2.
a, Position of shell-layers.

Sp. 6.—Shells found in abundance in surface-drains at
Drip farm. Shells similar to these are found in the carse-clay
at many other places, some of them ten miles farther up the
valley : Also in the lower district, at Grangemouth, in strata
12 inches in thickness, which crop out in sundry places.

=

The following Specimens and Remarks relate to the Sand
and Gravel Deposits which appear on the margin of the
_ Carse-Clay of the Lower District.

At Ballasthill sand-pit, near Canal-bridge, Falkirk, a
knoll of sand and gravel is wrought for ballast, and pre-
sents a section about 40 feet by 300 in length. Towards the

A430 ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA

right it is in depth 20 feet, and passes into blackish clayey
earth, the upper part ochreous. ‘Twelve yards farther, its
upper portion passes into clayey till, and its under into very
compact till; colour almost black, without pebbles, and im-
pervicus, naturally dividing into rock-like fragments,

Sv. '7.—Into this ddd the orange-coloured ochreous mat-
ter passes horizontally, 1, 2, and 3 feet, in veins, which,
commencing 2ths or 3ths of an mch in thickness, with well-
defined edges, proceed in an angular or zigzag course, ta-
pering to their extreme points. In dimensions, shape, and
common direction, they correspond; but their angles are
-_ all dissimilar.

Sp. 8.—A selection of pebbles from the knoll, including
the varieties. There are no traversing veins or slips. Many
of the stones are rolled spheroids, chiefly soft coarse sand-
stone, of an earthy-brown colour; and from six to twelve
inches in diameter. Yet the interior features of this knoll
are manifestly regular.

Sp. 9.—Fine sand from the knoll.

Sr. 10.—Sharp sand from the knoll, grains larger.

The following sketches, taken on the spot, will serve to
shew the general structure presented by the remainder of
this section. The lines express the larger features, paral-
lel to which the filmy aggregation of the materials is ar-
ranged. Some of the pebbles are enveloped in a thin cal-
careous crust, attaching those contiguous. |

Fig. 3. Near centre of section.
a, Soil.
6, Small gravel and ochre; brown earth.
c, Sand; alternate layers, ferruginous.
d, Small clean gravel.
e, Sand and clayey sand.
J; Large gravel.

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. ASL

g, Clean small sand.
h, Large gravel.
4, Sharp large-grained sand. Sp. No. 10.
k, Sand and clayey sand-belts.
/, Clean small gravel.
Fig. 4. To right of preceding, at transition into tilly earth.
a, a, Sand.
6, Gravel.

c, Gravel.
d, Gravel.

Fig. 5. To right of preceding.
a, Sand and gravel.
6, 6, Gravel and sand. -

¢, c, Sharp sand.
d, Fine sand.

Eastward from this point there are similar knolls of gra-
vel, on both sides of the Edinburgh road, for some miles
beyond Falkirk: Likewise on the opposite margin of the
valley, along the foot of the Ochil Hills.

Sp. 11. & 12.—The sand-pits of Carron Company are
of considerable dimensions. ‘The following is a sketch of
He west of Carron-House, depth 10 feet.

Fig. 6.
a, Small gravel and sand, with coal, bia size of a pea
to an inch.
b, Sp. No. 11.
c, Sp. No. 12.

_ To the west it passes into fine blue clay; which again
passes into dark-blue till, a compact gravelly clay, described
in the paper already referred to. North of Carron-House
is a large pit; the upper stratum contains semicircular
curved lines; open side uppermost; diameter 5 feet, pass-

432, ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA

ing into small gravel-cover. The scarp of the ridge, formed
by these knolls, fronts S. This sand-ridge, reposing on
impervious fidl, is traversed by oozing hollows, in which
some peat-earth has been formed, and is accumulating,
from decay of moss-plants. Its recesses assume the form
of small bays, one of which contains the Carron Foundry’s
reservoir. No shifts nor traversing veins have been re-
marked, and the layers are nearly horizontal.

At Spittalcroft, on the south side of Stirling, there is an
extensive sand-pit. The same kind of sand extends to the
greenstone rock at the town-walls.

Sp. 13. from gravel cover.

Sp. 14. sand immediately under. Like those already no-
ticed, this sand contains granular coal, and exhibits shifts
at veins traversing the layers. ‘The matters of which it is
composed serve to shew its relations. Its predominant colour
is reddish-brown.

SANDS AND GRAVELS OF THE Urrer District or

THE Forru.

Sr. 15. Above the village of Doune, the gravel exhibits
calcareous incrustations. At Ashmill Bridge, south of
Teath Bridge, a small knoll presents all the general fea-
tures of the sand-hills of Edinburgh. Depth of section 8
feet.

Sr. 16. Small-gravel cover, mixed with ochreous earth.

Sp. 17. Clean gravel and sand under the cover.

Sr. 18. Sharp large-grained sand.

Sp. 19. Finer under it.

Sp. 20. Very fine from bottom of section. All these are
separated by well-defined lines of contact, and are not hori-

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. 433

yontal nor parallel. ‘The sand under the gravel cover ex-
hibits the counterpart of those peculiar wavy horizontal
Jines remarked in corresponding situations in the Edinburgh
‘pits. A mile farther, on the banks of the Teath, and 20
to 30 feet above its surface, the sand occurs similarly ar-
ranged. Here the river flows rapidly over red sandstone.
Sp. 21. A little east of Ashmill, at Merlin’s Ford, in
Blair-Drummond policy, a bank of fine micaceous sand
‘skirts the valley. The small-gravel cover under the vege-
table mould is of several feet. It passes in sundry places
into the subjacent sand betwixt two traversing veims, the
section presenting the trumpet-form, mouth upwards. M1-
nute shifts are common, at traversing veins. The general
form is knolled. It reposes on red till, and the traversing
hollows are spongy. The common dip is SW., being con-
trary to the surface in that direction, which rises into con-
siderable swells of red till, reposing on red sandstone.
‘Twenty feet lower, is an oblong level field of 100 acres,
with a shght declination to SW. On the N. is a steep scarp,
20 to 30 feet, the substratum gravel, composed chiefly of
spheroidal sandstone, sometimes united by a black or pitchy
base. ‘This substratum transmits much water in spring.
At the upper extremity of this field, the gravel terminates
betwixt two ridges of old red sandstone, covered with red
till, clayey earth, sand, and small eravel. Its opposite ex-
tremity passes under the carse-clay. The river Teath here
forms the north boundary of a tongue of: higher land, ter-
minating at Blair-Drummond; the southern bank, stretch.
ing westward on the margin of the carse-clay, is composed
of zl, high and precipitous, surmounted with small-grained.
micaceous sand, many yards in depth, passing on the north
into siliceous sand and gravel, exhibiting the common forms
of arrangement. (This bank thus forms the counterpart
of the one which passes by Merlin’s Ford).. Three or four

VOL. V. _ £S

ABA ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA

miles farther west, the quarries of old red sandstone on the
margin of the valley shew, reposing on the rock, fine sand
with the usual regular forms; over which,- under the soil,.
a few feet. of wafer-like scales of the sandstone, with sand
intermixed.

In general, it may be remarked, that the granular coal,.
bituminous shale, and other products of the coal-formation,
do not appear among the sands and gravels of this upper
district, which have new been described. But the specimens:
manifest the presence of sundry pebbles of the transition.
rocks ; alsa of mica-slate..

Oty Rep SanpsToneE oF Upper District oF THE
Fortu.

This appears, on its lower boundary, at Airthrey Mines,.
Bridge of Allan, Cruives of Craigforth, Dripfarm, and

Redhall. It also forms Naad Knowe, a conical knoll,.

elevated above the Carse. ‘The common dip and direction.
of the sandstone at all these points corresponds with that

exhibited in the channel of the Teath and the Allan. This-
rock appears-also within a few yards of Craig-forth, a mass:
of greenstone,. which, rising through the Carse,. presents, om
one side, a perpendicular precipice. Here the sandstone 1s:
traversed by veins of greenstone, which may be seen in the

bed of the Forth, and onthe north side they were several
yards in thickness, in the quarries for the roads. These

last veins were of several yards in thickness.
The writer of the article Perthshire, in. the Edinburgly

Encyclopsedia, states his opinion, that the: Transition red

sandstone is bounded on the south by the Ochil and Camp-

_ sie Hills. I have marked on the map what appears to be; .
its course on the south. From Redhall, in the direction. of

OF THE FORTH DISTRICT. 435

KKippen, the red sandstone stretches along the north front of
the Campsie Hills, commonly called Gargunnock Hills.
_ At Boquhan, it is traversed by a torrent of that name, at a
natural ravine, cutting it obliquely to a considerable depth.
(Similar sections at Leckie and Gargunnock.) This red
sandstone, like that on the north side of the valley, 1s cc-
vered by red till or tilly earth, with dip and direction also
conformable. It presents a precipitous front to N, and the
rivulet exhibits the succession ‘of strata betwixt it and the
perpendicular front of the Campsie Hills, over which it
is precipitated at Balloch Leam. ‘The rocks of the inter-
vening hollow are conformable to the sandstone, of varied
characters, and alternating until they reach the foot of the
mural precipice of greenstone, which is rudely columnar.
They are traversed by veins of greenstone connected with
this stratum of greenstone.

Sp. 22. is from these strata. I was therefore led to the
conclusion, that this red sandstone is a continuation of that
on the north side of the valley,—that it passes wnder the
Campsie range, at a small dip,—that the superincumbent
strata accompany it,—and that, in place of the Campsie
Hills reposing on coal (as supposed by Colonel Imare),
that substance will only be found recumbent on their south-
ern and eastern extremities. The diagram, Fig. 7. will
assist the description.

a, North front of Campsie Hills *, —
6, Subordinate parallel strata.

* The view from the north side of these hills is singularly beautiful.
Rising perpendicularly, the valley appears as beneath the feet; beyond
which its wide margin (braes) appear expanded and converging, studded
with the seats of landholders, and strewn with farm-steads, as far as the eye
can distinguish ; the cultivated uplands extending northwards till they meet

Ee2

436 ON THE SUPERFICIAL STRATA, Kc.

c, Stratum of red sandstone.

d, Alveus of Forth.

e,. Carse-clay resting on sand and gravel.
J; f. Red sandstone, as supposed.

The Map contains a genera! delineation of the boundaries
of the carse-clay, gravels, and old. red sandstene.

Sp. 23. consists of carse-clays. The lamellar is from the
section on the Teath, near its junction with the Forth. Si-
milar appearances are presented at other points ; the thin
filmy layers of clay,. with still thinner of fine quartz-sand
interposed, admitting of separation, when recent. The ex-
terior boundaries and relations of the tills have not yet been
fully examined.

28th October 1823.

those of Strathearne ;. towards: the left, the Grampian range of mountains
crowns the prospect, here presenting their boldest front. In very clear wea-
ther the eye penetrates into the dark-blue and deep recesses of their many
narrow glens, contemplating every feature of their varied, erect, and magni-
ficent forms, so closely grouped as to suggest the idea of an immense forest
of mountazns, rather than the more common and cumbrous aspect of hills, and
particularly when their lofty summits, elevated from 3000 to 4000 feet
above the valley, are capped with snow.

On the right, are Stirling Castle, and the finely shaped Ochils, whereof
Dunmyat, the most westerly, has been justly noted for its fine prospect, al+
though probably in some respects inferior to this.

(437)

APPENDIX,

sui “REGARDING BONES OF WHALE RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN
UPPER DISTRICT.

(Read 4th December 1824.)

Teste bones have occurred seven miles west from those
‘found at Airthrey, at A in the Map, on the estate of
‘Blair-Drummond, and fifteen miles farther up the valley
than those recently discovered in the clay at Dunmore. I
am authorised to state, that they will be presented to the
Museum when fully traced. Meantime, it may be re-
marked, that they were situated within 400 yards of the
margin of the carse-clay, in which they were imbedded at
-a depth of 4 feet.

- Under this clay, there is a stratum of black spongy peat-
‘earth, closely resembling that already described at Fall-in.
‘It is specifically heavier than water. Its colour nut-brown,
changing to deep-black, within five minutes after exposure.
In drying it shrinks greatly, and, being smoothed, presents
a glossy surface. Exposed to a red-heat it emits a penetrat-
ing odour, and is slowly reduced to ashes, which are ponder-
ous, and promptly obey the magnet. This peat-earth is here
6 feet in thickness, and is penetrated vertically by the roots
of the Equisetwm. It rests on clay, containing a large pro-
‘portion of fine sand. The organic remains in this earth
consist of pieces of fibrous vegetable matter, the same as
observed in the corresponding mossy stratum already no-
ticed ; these are an inch to two inches in length, and from
one-fourth to an inch in breadth. ‘Their general position is
horizontal or parallel with the stratum, and they are com:

438 FOSSIL BONES DISCOVERED

pressed in that direction. Some are placed obliquely, and
are, in like manner, flattened. Their surfaces are smooth
and glossy. Longitudinally, they are somewhat tough;
and, under their black hue, a tinge of greenish-yellow may
be perceived. Many of these fragments include joints, from
one extremity of which, frequently, slender roots extend ;
which marks them, according to my apprehension, as beng
the same with one of the aquatic reeds common in the dis-
trict, which sends out roots in a similar manner from the
lower joints. Fragments of small branches and twigs of
birch are also apparent,—of the last, the cortical and medul-
lary portions only remaining; also alder, or perhaps pop-
lar, and thicker portions of another, soft and destitute of
bark, resembling the roots of furze. Small, vesicular, flat,
oval, greyish seeds, have been detected,—with others of
same form, black, attenuated, and opened; considered by
botanists to belong to the genus Pedicularis. A specimen
of the stratum is herewith sent, and also of the superin-
cumbent clay, with moss, from the lowest layer of Blair-
Drummond, and of the common superficial moss of the
valley. (Sp. 24, 25, and 26.) In superficial mosses, the
lowest layer is most decomposed, more compact, and of a
deeper black. The imbedded bones emit a strong odour by
heat, as of rancid fish-oil, The stratum of black spongy
earth on which the bones reposed, dips gently towards the
east; and, in this particular also, agrees with the stratum
at Fall-in. No trace nor odour of the contiguous clay is
discernible. A few hundred yards to the west, it crops
out; and, till lately, formed an obstruction to cultiva-
tion, after the superficial moss which covered it had been
removed; but it has been rendered arable by a judicious
use of wedge-drains, adapted to afford an exit for the water
which proceeds from the substratum of sandy clay. The
tenant remarked, that all this last is jotnted like a rock, and

IN THE FORTH DISTRICT. 439

dransmits water upwards through the seams. The rock-
like structure of this substratum corresponds with what
was remarked at Fall-in; and the specimens from that
quarter exhibit a similar redundance of sand. It also cor-
responds with what appears at every deeper section of this
extensive clay-field, which probably all reposes on sand and
small gravel.

At this point, the surface of the clay declines towards its
margin. The same has been frequently remarked along all
the verge of the Carse districts, and is particularly apparent
where the form of the adjacent rising grounds presents the
resemblance.of small bays on the margin of the valley. In
these the clay-soil is observed to be of a superior quality,
for agricultural purposes.

Atan-Park, STIRLING,
15th October 1824.

(440)

XXV.— Notice regarding Fossil Bones of a W hale
discover eds in the District oe Monteith.

By H. H. Draumaonp, Esq. of Blair-Drummond.

(Read 4th December 1824.)

I N October 1824, the remains of a whale were found in
the barony of Burnbank, which forms part of the estate of
Blair-Drummond, at a place about three-fourths of a mile
distant from the parish-church of Kincardine, in Monteith,
and nearly a mile from the present course of the river
Forth. The ground where the bones were found had been
originally covered with peat-moss, which was a good many
years ago floated into the Forth, in the course of the im-
provements of that nature which have been so successfully
and so extensively practised on that estate. The soil under
this moss, is what is very well known by the description of
Carse-clay, and it was in digging a ditch in the clay that
the bones were found. The clay at this place is only four
feet deep, as it 1s near the outer edge of the carse-land
where it approaches ihe surrounding banks, which, in the
language of the country, are all termed “ dryfield,” of
whatever description of soil they may consist, 1n contradis-

FOSSIL BONES. AAT

tinction to the carse-land, which, from its flatness and re-
tentive quality, is naturally wet and swampy, until drained,
for the purposes of agriculture. In general, as the carse-
latid recedes from the Forth, and approaches the dryfield,

the stratum of clay becomes gradually thinner; and in
many places a stratum of moss comes to the surface, near
the margin of the dryfield, which dips under the clay to-
wards the Forth. It was upon the surface of this second
and lower stratum of moss, below the clay, that the bones
were found. ‘They were embedded in the clay, and did
not penetrate at all into the moss below.

The bones found, and which are now deposited in the
Museum of the College of Edinburgh, consist principally
of a large portion of the cranium, comprising the occipital
bone and foramen, frontal, a part of the superior maxillary,
&c. There were also a scapula and several vertebree, though
in a mutilated state. |

It is a very singular circumstance that, along with these
bones, there should have been found a fragment of a stag’s
horn, similar to that found along with the Airthrey whale,
and having a similar round hole bored through it. This
piece of horn is also deposited in the Museum. A speci-
men of the stratum of peat-moss under the clay has been
sent to the Museum, along with the bones in which the re-
mains of wood, particularly alder, and of various water-—
plants, will be distinctly seen. The stratum was found to
be six feet deep, and under it bluish sand was found, with
little or no admixture of clay. ,

(rege 9

XXVIL—TENTAMEN MEtTHODI Muscorum;
OR,

A New Arrangement of the Genera of Mosses,
with Characters, and Observations on their
Distribution, History, and Structure.

By R. K. Grevittr, LL.D. F.R.S. E. M.W.S. &e.,
AND >

G. A. Watxer Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.R.S. E.
(Continued from p. 89.)

(Read 22d January 1825.)

Memoir III.
SPLACHNOIDE, Gen. (11—13.)

Caar. Caryrrra mitreeformis, basi thecam arcte cingens,
mox dimidiata, levis, glabra, tenerrima, fugax, basi in-
tegra. Seta terminalis. Theca apophysata. Operculum
obtusum. Peristomium simplex; dentes varie geminan-
tes. Columella apice dilatato-globosa.

Cuar. Calyptra mitriform, closely embracing the theca, at
length dimidiate, even in surface, smooth, thin, evanes-
cent, entire at the base. Seta terminal. Theca with an
apophysis. Operculum obtuse. Peristome simple; the
teeth variously geminating. Columella capitate.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 443,

Oss. So strongly and so conspicuously do the individuals
composing this well-marked group resemble each other,
not only in external habit, but also, for the most part, in
intimate structure, that it is extremely difficult to establish
genera, or subgenera, referable to it, upon well-grounded
characters. Various ones have been proposed by the most
eminent botanists, as, in the progress of their examinations,
they have detected different situations, arrangements or
directions, of the teeth of the peristome, or some other appa-
rent peculiarity connected with the fructification. Thus we
have Aplodon* of Brown, in the Appendix to Parry’s first
voyage; also Cyrtodon+ of the same author, proposed in
the observations under Aplodon in the same work ; both of
which are removed from Splachnum. Mr Brown has also
suggested that Splachnum Frelichianum and S. Wulfenia-

num might with propriety form a subgenus, on account of
their inclined capsule and erect teeth.

In the present paper we have carefully examined almost
every recorded species and variety in the Order; and
though we do not pretend to any original discovery, we
have endeavoured, by generalizing our observations upon
well-crounded data, to establish our genera on what we con-
ceive to be more tenable, and even more natural, characters.
The whole has been done under the highest respect for the
talents of those able botanists and philosophers who have
conferred additional importance on muscology, by devoting
their time and knowledge to its illustration.

* This genus was formed to receive a single species, the Splachnum
Wormskioldit of HorNEMANN.

+ This genus is composed only of Weissta Splachnoides of THunsERG
and of Scaw&GRICHEN.

Add NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

It is necessary to state, that our views respecting the
structure of the peristome are essentially the same as those
which Mr Brown has so admirably detailed in the twelfth
volume of the Linnean Transactions, p. 577, et seq. ‘That
excellent muscologist has there expressed his opinion, that
the semi-pellucid lines, or longitudinal striz, at least de-
note a “ tendency to division in the teeth where they are
found.” He also considers the prevailing number of teeth
in the outer peristome of mosses to be thirty-two ; “ though,
by a coalescence, more or less complete, they are frequently
reduced to sixteen, in some cases to eight, and in a few
even to four.” |

‘** According to this view,” continues the same learned
author, “ a single longitudinal line in the axis of a tooth,
indicates the confluence of two teeth; three equidistant
lines, one being central, the coalescence of four; and seven
Ines, similarly disposed, that of eight.” :

** Nearly the whole of these modifications exist in that
natural subdivision of the order, which may be named
Splachnee, consisting of Splachnum, Systylium, Tayloria,
Splachnum squarrosum”™ of Hooxer, and Weissia Splach-
noides.” :

“The number of teeth in Splachnee is thirty-two;
which, however, are never entirely distinct, and at the same

* This plant has been subsequently published, and figured, by Dr Hooker,
as Octoblepharum serratum. However, from the calyptra of O. albtdum be-
ing dimidiate, it must now retain the name of Orthodon, given to the genus
by Bory pe Sr Vincent. Mr Brown has drawn up its generic character
in Linn. Trans. vol. 12. p. 597.

As we have had occasion to notice this species here, we may take the
epportunity to mention, that we do not conceive it to belong very satisfacto-
rily to the Splachnoidee, and therefore we shall defer what we have to say
concerning it to a future memoir.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 4A

time equidistant, but approximated or united in various
degrees in the different genera and species of the section.” -
_ As it is most desirable in every science, and especially in
that of muscology, to have the technical terms well defined,
and their meaning limited to their respective objects, we
shall here explam what we hold to be signified by the
terms, dentes geminati, dentes geminantes, dentes fissi, and
dentes per paria approximati *.

‘The dens geminaius is a tooth which appears to be #
single one, but which is marked by a longitudinal semi-
pellucid line, denoting a tendency to separation, and often
actually producing a separation; the line must therefore
extend from the apex to the very base, and might be called
with propriety the linea separabilis. 'There are thus ac-
tually two teeth, which, when united, are called a once-ge-'
minate tooth, and, when separated, two geminating teeth.

The dentes gemimantes are a greater or less number of
teeth longitudinally coalescmg, the number of teeth so
united: being shown by the semi-pellucid longitudinal strize.
The whole is called a tooth, which is farther characterised
by bemg once, or twice, or four times, geminated.

The dens fissus is not provided with a linea separabilis :

* From the confusion that has been created in consequence of the want
of a general understanding. on this point, the reader will readily concur in
the necessity of a reformation of terms. The uncertainty of the present no- +
menclature may be exemplified in a few words. Herpwic, ScuweGRicHEN, -
and. others, describe the teeth of a Splachnum as “+ 8-geminatz.” Bripex, at -
first, as “‘ 8-pariu,” and afterwards (as in S. Magellanicum), “ 16-gemznatz.”’ .
While several authors apply ‘‘ dentes geminatz”’ to Splacknum,, they use the .
phrase «© sedecem paria”’ to Systylium, and ‘* 16 per paria approximati” to .
Zygodon and Orthotrichum, the structure of the teeth in all being the same.._
At the same time, also, “16 paria,” or ‘16 per paria approximati,” are,
attributed to Didymodon, Trichostomum, and Leucodon, genera having a,
péristome of a totally different nature.

446 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

it is a single tooth, cleft or divided more or less from the
apex downwards, sometimes even nearly to the base; but
at whatever point.the division stops, there is n® line visible
below that point, by which the separation could be conti-
nued. 'The dens fissus is often perforated in such a man-
ner, as to prove, that, in many instances, the division is the
result of a series of lacunee. A dens fissus should be con-
sidered as unity; a dens geminatus as a compound. ‘The
latter might be called dens separabilis, or dens fissilis; the
former simply dens fissus.

The denies per paria approximati are at no period of
their growth longitudinally united; they are understood to
be always separate, although not equidistant. ‘Thus they
must not be confounded with the dens geminatus, which is
often divided to the very base by the linea separabilis.

To illustrate this a little farther, we will take a peri-
stome of a Splachnum for examination; and suppose (as
often takes place) that two or four of the thirty-two pri-
mary teeth are united by longitudinal cohesion. These
teeth we would term wni- or bi-geminantes ; and the tooth
formed by this gemination, wni- or bi-geminatus. In seve-
ral genera, as S'plachnum, Orthotrichum, &c. this structure
of the teeth forms a leading character *.

* We are aware, that, in the present state of muscology, we are liable
to censure for the introduction of new terms and definitions, and the more
so, that it is extremely difficult to define our ideas in express words. Thus
several mosses are represented as having a longitudinal line down the middle
of their teeth, and yet we have several reasons for doubting if they be really
geminated ; though a geminated tooth may be only partially divided, and is
marked by a line, still we do not intend to assert, in every case where such a
line is figured, that the tooth is geminated. It is therefore to be much wished
that such as make drawings of the peristomes of mosses, would pay parti-
cular. attention to this point:

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. AAG

When the dens fissus is cleft to the base, or nearly so, it
becomes difficult to distinguish it from two teeth per paria
approximati ; and it is not improbable that the latter are,
m some instances, nothing more than dentes fissi ; but little
or no confusion can arise from using two names to denote
different states of the same structure.

Weser and Mour (Handbuch, p. 10.) have some ob-
servations under Splachnum, much to our purpose. “* Hu-
jus et Orthotrichorum quorundam dentes non tam per
paria approximati, sed principio adglutinati observantur.
Posthac, imprimis si dentes reflectantur, nexus inter gemi-
nos tollitur, et tum primum 16 distinctos reperis. Hae

’dentium coheesione et in sicco statu reflexilitate maximopere
jam hi musci a Didymodontibus peristomio semi-completo:
gaudentibus, quorum e numero in nostra Flora est inclina-
tum, discrepant, quippe quibus dentes ab initio omnes inter
se liberi sunt, et nunquam teflexi. Quare Splachnorum et
horum Orthotrichorwm dentes 8 geminati,, Didymodontiwm
per paria approximati dicuntur.”

We have now, finally, to remark, that, in our opinion, it
will always be found, when a gemination of the teeth ac-
tually takes place, that the peristome, in the young state,.
forms.ene uniform undivided, but longitudinally striated,
submembranous substance *, which is usually arched over
the orifice of the theea; the tendency to split into a definite
number of teeth being afterwards developed and regulated
by the laws of nature. This idea appears to be corroborated
by the fact, that, in the same tuft of specimens, we have re-
peatedly observed peristomes with six, eight, or twelve teeth,

* This structure, which we attribute both to the Splachnoidee and Ortho-
trichoidee, will certainly exclude from these orders any of the other species
to which some have attributed a geminating line down the teeth.

448 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

and this in several species of Splachnum; the longitudinal
lines, however, invariably denoting the total number of teeth
to be thirty-two.

The Splachnoidee differ from ip Or eyed Hee by cise
capitate columella, by their scariose and. fugacious calyptra,
which is moreover without furrows, and closely adapted
to the theca, until it splits longitudinally, and falls off; the
base also is not lacerated. In the Orthotrichoidee, the
calyptra is permanently mitriform, loose about the theca,
generally furrowed, and pilose; or, if glabrous, it is either
laciniated at the base, or with four or five large triangular

appendages.

Gen. XI. SpLacnnum, Montin. Linn. Hedw.

~Fruct. Calyptra primo mitriformis postea succrescenda
theca latere rumpens seu dimidiata, albida vel fuscescens,
scariosa, tenera, levis, glabra, valde fugax. Seta termina-
lis, levis, plerumque rigida et stricta, quandoque autem
tenera, succulenta, pallida; longitudine valde varians sed
pericheetio semper longior, seepius solitaria, in una specie
aggregata. Apophysis matura colorata, vel theca subsequa-
lis. vel amplior; obconica cylindrica aut globosa, aut etiam:
umbraculiformis; plerumque levis quandoque rugosa,
glabra. T'heca integra, subcylindrica, apophysi brevior, :
semper estriata, ore absque annulo elastico. Operculum
deciduum, thece subconcolor, obtusum, vel conicum vel
hemispheericum umbonatumque. Peristomium simplex e
dentibus geminantibus siccitate arcte reflexis constans:
dentes primarii (quousque nobis observare licei) 32, ma-

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 44,9

dore zquidistantes, in membranam cupulatam quasi, in-
curvi, uni- vel bi- vel quadri-geminantes transversim stria~
ti; horum geminati siccitate interdum eequidistantes, ple-
rumque per paria quasi approximati. Columiella exsicca-
tione plerumque exserta, stricta, rigida, apicem versus di-
latata obtusa vel membrane opercularis rigiditate acuta.
Sporule grisex, minute, globose, pellucidee.

Cuan. Dirr. Seta terminalis. Theca apophysata. Pe-
ristomium simplex e dentibus geminantibus siccitate arcte
reflexis. Columella apice dilatata. Calyptra lovis, bast in-

legra, fugax.

Fruct. Calyptra at first mitriform, at length, from the
enlargement of the capsule, bursting on one side, or dimi-
diate, whitish or brownish, scariose, tender, even, glabrous,
very fugacious. ruit-stalk terminal, smooth, mostly rigid
and straight, sometimes flexible, succulent, pale; in length
varying extremely, but always longer than the perichetium,
generally solitary, being aggregated in one species only.
Apophysis coloured, when mature either about equal to the
capsule in diameter, or larger, obconical, cylindrical or
globose, or even umbraculiform, glabrous, mostly even,
very rarely rugose. T'heca entire, subcylindrical, shorter
than the apophysis, never striated, the mouth destitute of
an elastic ring. Lid deciduous, nearly of the same colour
as the theca, obtuse, either conical or hemispherical and
umbonate. Peristome simple, composed of geminating teeth,
closely reflexed when dry: the primary teeth (as far as our
observations have enabled us to decide) are thirty-two m
number, and, when in a moist state, equidistant, but so
close as to form, as it were, a cupulate membrane over the
mouth of the theca; transversely striated, 1- or 2- or 4-
geminating: the geminations sometimes equidistant when

Vole Vs. rf

450 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

dry, but mostly approximated, as it were, in pairs. Colu-
metla, in the dry state, mostly exserted, straight, rigid, di-
lated at the apex, obtuse, or, from the rigidity of the oper-
cular membrane, acute. Sporules grey, minute, globose,

pellucid.

Dirr. Cuan. Fruit-stalk terminal. Theca with an
apophysis. Peristome simple, of geminating teeth closely
reflexed when dry. Coluwmella dilated at the apex. Calyptra
even, entire. at the base, fugacious.

Vec. The stems vary much in length, and are generally
simple, rather slender, sometimes succulent, always erect.
The leaves are inserted on all sides, more or less numerous,
vasculose,. diaphanous, the reticulation extremely lax; in
form they have a range from lanceolate-acuminate to broadly
ovate: they are also serrated, or entire, usually acute, but
in S. vasculosum obtuse : all are furnished with a single
nerve, disappearing before it reaches the point. ‘The peri-
cheetial leaves scarcely differ from the cauline ones, except
in being somewhat more attenuated.

Oss. We have already stated, in our observations om
the present group, how nearly related are all the genera
contained: in it. Nevertheless there are no mosses (the
Orthotrichoidese alone excepted) which vary so much in the:
apparent configuration of the peristome, or rather, in the:
combinations of its primary parts, when in the dry state.
When moist, on the contrary, there are no mosses, the pe-
-ristomes of which so remarkably resemble each other. In.
this state, all the teeth are united, as it were, into one mass,.
usually arched over the orifice of the theca, and divided,
longitudinally by.a definite number of equidistant striae,
by means of which,. it 1s easy, m almost every instance, to,

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 4AdSL

calculate that the total number of teeth is thirty-two:
but it is very difficult, if not impossible, to say where the
separations are to commence, or how many are actually to
take place. This is remarkably illustrated in S. spheri-
cum, in which the line down each geminated tooth, or the
linea separabilis, appears as strong as that by which actual
separation is produced. ‘This structure sufficiently accounts
for the different combinations observable in the teeth of the
peristome, not only in the different species, but even in the
same species. As few, or indeed any, plates exist which
give a correct representation of the peristomes of the
Splachna, and as most descriptions are equally erroneous
(or at least only partially correct), we subjoin the result of
our own extended observations.

1. S. ampullaceum. In this species the teeth are, in some
specimens, 16 unigeminated, and geminating in
pairs: in others (and more usually) 8, equidistant,
bigeminated. |

2. 8. vasculosum presents the same variation. Hrepwic’s
figure of both species is incorrect. That of the pre-
sent one, extremely so, except in the leaves.

3. S. sphericum. This varies more than any other in
the combinations of the teeth. There are in gene-
ral 8, equidistant, either entire or slit down to the
middle, and each of the divisions marked with a
semipellucid line. Sometimes there are only 4, equi-
distant, each made up of 8 parts. In other speci-
mens, again, there are 16 teeth, in the dry state,
geminating in pairs, each with a longitudinal semi-
pellucid line.

A: S. Wormskioldi. Peristome more regular; consist-

“ing, according to Brown’s observations and our
own, of 16 equidistant unigeminated teeth. The

FfQ2

452, NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

original figure of this plant, in “ Flora Danica,” re-
presents them as placed in pairs.

5. S. tenue. In very recent specimens there appear to
be 8 equidistant, bigeminated teeth; but the pro-
cess of drying (without pressure) produces a divi-
sion into 16, geminating in pairs, each with a lon-
gitudinal line, denoting simple gemination; this
line is somewhat obscure,. from the thick substance,
and consequent greater opacity, of the teeth. ‘The

i figures in Weper and Mour, Tasch, t. 7. f. 2.,
and in “ English. Botany,” t. 1133, are correct.

6. S. octoblepharum. From Dr Hooxer’s figure and
description in ‘* Musci Exotici,” there exists in this
species the proper number of primary teeth. They
are, however, permanently compounded into 8,
each of which is marked by three longitudinal lines.
Our own specimens have lost. their peristomes; but.
from Brown (in the Appendix to Parry’s first
Voyage, p. ccc) placing it in the genus Splach-
num, ‘* dentibus reflexilibus,” we are inclined to do-
the same, as that gentleman, the discoverer of the
species, must have had more numerous opportuni-
ties of examination than any other. We suspect
our friend Dr Hooxer has inadvertently transposed
the words siccitate and madore, in describing the
teeth; ‘* siccitate (madore ?) incurvis, madore (sic-
citate?) erectis vel etiam reflexis.”

7%. S. Magellanicum. Of this plant, BripEt says it pos-
sesses 16 geminate teeth; but from his remaining
description, we suspect he intended 16 geminating,.
or, in other words, 8 geminated ones. We have
ascertained that there are 16, resulting from the 8
teeth having divided: they are geminating in pairs,.

each tooth having a longitudinal line, which seems.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 453

~to have escaped the penetrating eye of Mr Brown.
(Parry’s First Voyage, Append.)

‘8. S. mnioides. In native specimens of this species we
have had no difficulty in observing ‘either 8 equi-
distant bigeminate teeth, or 16 unigeminate ones,
geminating in pairs. In specimens which we regard
as belonging to this species, brought from the Arc-
tic regions by Captain Parry, the teeth are ex-
tremely pellucid, and the line down each of the 16
teeth either very faint or invisible. None of the
published figures of the peristomes are correct.

9. S. urceolatum. Hevwtice, and also Sturm in“ Deutsch-

ands Flora,” figure a-peristome of 8 once geminated
teeth. In “ Flora Danica,” t. 1361, there are re-
presented 16 single equidistant teeth. We have
found 8 equidistant, marked with 3 lines, at none
of which have we observed any ultimate separation.

10: S. angustatum. Brown, in Parry’s Voyage (Ap-
pendix), has observed the peristome to consist of 4
bigeminate teeth. We have also seen it of 4 teeth,

but m our specimens they are satisfactorily quadri-
geminate. We find it, however, still more frequent-
ly of 16 unigeminated, the line more obscure than
in many other species.

U1. 'S. luteum. ‘Teeth 16, unigeminated, and so closely
geminating in pairs as often to appear like 8 equi-
distant bigeminated ones. The only good repre-
sentation of the peristome is in ScoHwacGRICHEN’s

_ figure of S. melanocaulon (Suppl. 2.), which we do
- not consider different.
12. S. rubrum. Peristome in every respect similar to the

preceding.

From the above detail of facts and remarks, it appears,

454 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

lst, That every Splachnum, according to our view of
the genus, has $2 primary teeth, placed in twos, in fours,
or in eights, (or even sometimes irregularly ).’ In this place
we must notice the four additional species constituted by
Brown, in the Appendix to Parry’s first Voyage, to all
of which that profound botanist attributes 16 teeth for the
primary number. We cannot confirm this, as we do -not
possess authenticated specimens of any of them; but con-
ceive so remarkable an exception should be very cautiously
admitted into physiological reasoning. That 16 teeth, how-
ever, were only visible in the peristomes examined by Mr
Browy, is a fact not to be questioned on his authority.

2Qdly, With the exception of S. Wormskioldit, whenever
the teeth present the appearance of bemg 16 once gemi-
nated, they are also placed in pairs, though not equally so
in every species, for we have observed them almost equi~
distant in specimens of S. sphericum; and Mr Brown
also mentions, that, in S. longicollum of Dickson (a plant
of North America), the teeth are ‘‘ vix manifeste per paria
approximati.” In §. Wormskioldtt these teeth are equi-
distant, the main character, we apprehend, on which Mr
Brown has founded his genus Aplodon.

It should be recollected, however, that the 16 teeth of
S. Wormskioldit are each composed of two united ones;
or, in other words, they are gemimate. We candidly con-
fess, that those species which have 8 equidistant teeth, ap-
pear to us equally deserving of generic distinction, seeing
that they are equidistant, though fewer in number, and
composed of the same primary parts, each tooth being bi-
geminate. Taking, therefore, into consideration the great
variety of combinations of these teeth, and the laws which
the combinations seem to follow*, we have relinquished all

* The teeth are found to unite either in twos, in fours, or in eights. In

S, Wormskioldiz they are in twos.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 459

hope of forming genera of the Splachnoidee on characters
thus derived.

From the remarks we have brought.forward, it will be
xeadily perceived that we can scarcely coincide with Mr
Brown in his views regarding S. Wormskioldii. At first
sight it bears a strong resemblance to S. sphwricum, so
strong, indeed, that the indifferent, though original and
authentic, specimens we received of the “ Flora Danica”
plant, we were at first tempted to consider as.a mere va-
riety of that species. ‘Those brought home by Captain
Parry proved them to be sufficiently distinct, the principal
difference, however, seeming still to reside in the peristome.
The fruit-stalk of SS. Wormskioldit is certainly remarkably
vasculose and succulent ; but we have a very near approxi-
mation to the same structure in S. sphwricum, especially
in that variety of it which has been called gracile. It is
also seen in a somewhat less degree in S. vasculosum. In
regard to the peristome, we have already shown that, in
the moist state, there is no difference in the peristomes of
any of the plants we have here brought together. When
dry, it is true, the 16 geminated teeth of S. Wormskioldi
are equidistant, though the other Splachna have them
piaced in pairs. Yet on this character Mr Brown has ob-
served, “ Transitus ab Aplodonte ad S'plachnum facilis est
per S. longicollum, cui dentes vix manifeste per paria ap-
preximati, qua nota differt a §. tenue valde affine sed
dentibus geminatis reflexilibus instructo.”. When such in-
termediate gradations exist, we submit, with the utmost
deference, whether it be not desirable to keep together
plants so intimately united by structure as well as habit.

There is one point of difference between 8. Wormskioldiz
and other Splachna, which we have omitted to notice. The
columella is nearly simple, or not nearly so capitate as in
the rest. This, however, 1s a subordinate distinction, and

456 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

of less importance, when we consider that there is almost:
every gradation from the broad and tabular termination of
this part in S. rubrum and lutewm, to the simpler one in
SS. Wormskioldii. We have, however, even in this last, seen
it dilated at the apex ; but they were rare instances.

In our character of the genus we have described the
theca as subcylindrical. This is true in a general point of
view, but in particular instances liable to variation. Thus,
in S. tenue, it is occasionally oblong, or even subglcbose :
in S. Wormskioldit often contracted both at its orifice and
base, and in the arctic North American specimens so as
to be almost globose. The apophysis assumes various ap-
pearances, though nearly constant in each individual spe-
cies. Its colour is almost always green in the young state,
and as constantly changes in maturity. In 8. vasculosum
its surface is singularly rugose or undulated, a character
altogether omitted in Hepwic’s figure (St. Crypt.), and
even not sufficiently indicated in HooxEr’s supericr repre-
sentation (in Musc. Brit.) This remarkable feature we
have observed in another plant we have found on Ben
Lawers, of which the plate of S. rugoswm, im “ English
Botany” (t. 2094.), is so faithful and characteristic, that
we have no doubt whatever in referring it to that species.

In most species the apophysis is of a sufficiently rigid
nature to retain its form to the last. SS. rubrum and luteum,
however, are possessed of one so large, and, at the same
time, of so delicate and membranaceous a structure, that it
speedily becomes collapsed, and the base of the apophysis
is brought into contact with the base of the capsule.

The sporular sac in the Splachna (and probably in all
other genera, as already mentioned under Diphysciwm) is,
in the young state, supported by a pillar formed, as it were,
by an internal continuation of the fruit-stalk. This must,
in Splachna, pass, of course, through the apophysis, and is

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. AST

correctly enough represented by Hepwie in his figure of
S. ampullaceum (St. Crypt. v. 2. f. 14.)

The calyptra in all our British species is whitish: in
S. Wormskioldit of a brownish hue. As far as we have
seen, it is truly mitriform in its young state, and becomes
dimidiate only by the enlargement of the capsule, when it
is almost immediately deciduous. Our excellent corre-
spondent, Professor Hornscuucn, is of the same opinion,’
and even observes, “‘ mehrere Splachna haben eine calyptra
campanulata multifissa die en die C. dimidiata ubergeht*.”

Haz. The Splachna are widely distributed throughout
the alpine and the northern parts of Europe and North
America. Species have been found also in the Straits of
Magellan and in New Holland. Their places of growth
are most remarkable, the greater number being found upon
the dung of various animals. We ourselves have gathered
SS. mnioides attached to the long exposed bones of an ox.
A friend of ours, who received the skull of a musk-ox,
brought by Captain Parry from Melville Island, disco-
vered a luxuriant specimen of the same species (if we mis-
take not), lodged in the bones of the nose. Our esteemed
friend Dr Ricuarpson mentions that he always found it
in arctic America, enveloping with its roots the bones of
some small animalt. But though most prefer some animal
substance or other, there are exceptions; a few growing on
the ground or in wet springy places, and one alone (S. octo-
blepharum) on the rotten trunks of trees.

_Hist. The original Splachnum, or =xaxyxzvev, has been
usually rendered in Latin by viscus, and it is no easy mat-

* Hornscuucu in Litt.
+ Ricwarpson in Franxuin’s Journal, Append. p. 755.

458 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

ter to perceive how Dioscortpes* and GaLENn y could
have applied it to mosses. DitiEnius {, however, throws
some light on this question, when he traces the plant of
Dioscoripes to belong to the genus Usnea. Nevertheless,
with all the want of connexion between it and the true
mosses, we find that Laur. Monti, in the second volume
of the “‘ Ameenitates Academicz,” p. 248, bestowed the
name upon the present genus, with the following character :
** Calyx calyptrata, operculata, receptaculo membranaceo,
colorato, maximo, imposita.” After which we have these
remarks: ‘ Genericis itaque characteribus propositis, no-
men antiquum, Splachnum, hine adjungam, mutatum a
DioscoripE, qui Muscis hoc imposuit. Nomen genericum
characterem essentialem exprimens in promtu quidem me
habuisse non erit diffitendum; sed, ne mori a botanicis re-
cepto contrarius viderer, suadente etiam Fund. Bot. § 241.
vagum illud certo generi preefigere volui. Origo hujus
nominis omnino est Greeca, a voce ZzAuayyxvor, abjecta litera
y, suos ducat natales.” We regret, however, that Montin
did not adopt another name. :

The species observed to be natives of Great Britain be-
fore the time of D1iieNius, and represented by him, are,
S. ampullaceum, sphericum, and mnioides. A fourth,
S. rubrum, from Lapland, is inserted in the Appendix. ©
Mont!y, in the essay we have quoted, unites the three first,
and adds S. Juwtewm under the name of flavum. Since,
then, other species have been described from time to time.
Hepwice, in his “ Stirpes Cryptogame,” has three species,
not known to Linnezus, 8S. Frelichianum, urceolatum, and

* Driosce. 1. 1. c. 20.
+ GaLen, toy xara tor. 1. Lic. I.
{ Dixx, Hist. Muse. p. 240.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 459

Brewerianum, and in the “ Species Muscorum,” the addi-
tional ones of §. ovatwm and serratum; several of the
above, however, we consider as mere varieties. Scuwaz-
GRICHEN, 1n his first Supplement, enumerates in the whole
fifteen species; of which, however, we regard S, gracile
and S$. ovatum as varieties of S. spharicum, and S. Breweri-
anum as a variety of S. mnioides. In his second Supple-
ment, he has described S. melanocaulon, which is, in our
opinion, merely a dwarf variety of S. luteum. Sir J. E.
Suir has still another species, in “ English Botany,” S.
rugosum of Dickson. We are ignorant whether this be
really Dicxson’s plant or not. The authors of “ Musco-
logia Britannica” state, that, from an examination of Dicx-
SON’S Own specimens, they refer it to S. sphwricum. Be all
this as it may, we have assuredly found the plant so well
represented in “ English Botany,” and consider it specifi-
cally distinct from S. vasculosum, to which it is nearly
allied. Dicxsen, who is the original authority for many
species taken up by Hepwic and Smitu, has described
another species, about which much doubt has arisen: this
is S. longicollum, a plant which has been referred by Doc-
tors Hooxer and Taytor to S. tenue. Brown, on the
other hand, says that it has never been found in this coun-
try, ‘* Americee occidentali nec Scotize indigenum *,” and
that it is different from S. tenwe.

We have now a few recent works to notice. Out of the
seven species contained in the ‘* Muscologia Britannica,”
we have referred S'. Frelichianum to the next genus (Dis-
_sodon nobis). In Hooxer’s “ Musci Exotici” are two spe-
cies, S. octoblepharum and S. scabrisetum, the latter of
which we also refer to Dissodon. NHornscuucu, in the

* Parry's first Voyage, Append. p. ccxcix

460 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

“© Hore Physicz Berolenses,” has figured the beautiful S.
Adamsonianum, of which we have no authentic specimens.
A plant has been recently communicated to us by Dr
Hooxrr, brought home by Captain Parry in his second
Expedition, and which is no way different from the Kamt-
schatka one: Dr Hooxer at the same time mentioned that
he considered this identical with the S. paradoxum of
Brown. It appears a good species, intermediate between
S. tenue and mnioides. We can scarcely presume to judge
of S. arcticum, propinquum, and exsertum, of Brown,
in the Appendix to Parry’s first Voyage, as we have not
specimens; but we cannot resist the suggestion that they
may be different states of that polymorphous species S.
mnioides,—nor do we even venture thus far, without having
examined very many varieties of what we consider .S. mni-
oides, presented to us by Mr Epwarps, and other gentle-
men who accompanied Captain Parry on his second voy-
age. :

After subtracting from the twenty-two species, described
by BeiveEt, those which are mere varieties, and some spe-
cies belonging to other genera, and adding to the remainder,
S'. octoblepharum (Hoox.), S. Wormskiolditi (Hornem.),
S.longicollum(Dicxs.), and. §. Adamsonianum (Hornscz#.),
we shall count sixteen well-established species °.

* Of those we reject, S. Wulfenianum is Orthotrichum Ludwigii
(ScuwacK.)—S. Frelichianum we place under Dissodon (excluding, of course,
Gymnostomum Griffithianum, confounded with it by Barpex and Swarrz).—
S. lingulatum is our Dissodon splachnotdes.—S. serratum and flagellare are
varieties of S. tenue.—S. Brewerianum, a variety of S. mniotdes.—S. seta-
ceum, certainly only a variety of S. angustatum.—S. ovatum and gracile,
varieties of S. sphericum.—S. pusillum, according to Patuisot’s Herbarium,
is S. vasculosum.—S. Turnerianum does not differ from S. ampullaceum.—
As to S. Juress?, we have not seen it, and know not what to make of it.

i
‘
fA

PLATE XH Werr. Mem. Vol, e ,
- SPLACHNUM DISSODON TAYLORIA

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 461

PLATE XIII.

. Theca of Splachnum ampullaceum. 2. 'The teeth,

'. when 8, bigeminate. 3. Do., when 16, unige-

10.

16.
21.

25.

30.

minate.

. Theca of S. vasculosum. 5. The teeth when bi-

geminate. 6. Do. when 16, unigeminate.

. Upper leaf of S. rugosum (Eng. Bot.) 8. Lower

do. 9. Sporules.

Thecze of JS. spharicum. 11. One of the teeth when
quadrigeminate. 12. One do. when bigeminate.
13. Teeth when 16, unigeminate. 14. Sporules.

15. Appearance of the fruit-stalk when highly
magnified.

A dry theca of S. Wormskioldii. 17. A moist one.
18. The operculuny 19. The teeth. 20. The
fruit-stalk highly magnified.

Theca of S. tenue. 22. Theca of do. in aie dry
state. 23. Calyptra of do. 24. Teeth when 16,
unigeminate. |

Theca, with the operculum, of S. angustatum.
26. One of the teeth when quadrigeminate. 27.
Teeth when 16, unigeminate. 28. Sporules,
which are larger than in the other species, and
of a yellow colour. 29. Leaf.

Theca of SS. lutewm. 81. Teeth. 382. Summit of
columella. 33. Structure of the apophysis high-
ly magnified.

SSD

Gen. XII. Dissopon nobis.

Froucr. Calyptra primo mitriformis, mox szepius dimi-
diata, albida, scariosa, tenera, levis, glabra, basi integra,

462 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

valde fugax. Seéa terminalis, plerumque levis (in una tamen
scabra), rigida, seepius breviuscula, stricta, quandoque elon-
gata et subflexuosa, e luteo rubescens. Apophysis matura,
obconica, thecze paullo angustior et concolor, levis. Theca
integra, ovata, apophysi longitudine subzequalis, levis, ore
paullum contracto, absque annulo elastico. Opercudwm thecee
subconcolor, breveconicum, obtusum, in quibusdam speciebus
interne columella adnatum et diu persistens. Peristomium
simplex, e dentibus primarius $2, unigeminantibus, sicci-
tate strictis, plus minusve erectis, nunquam reflexis con-
stans: dentes geminati siccitate vel equidistantes vel per
paria geminantes at madore ut in Splachno. Columella
plus minusve exserta, stricta, rigida, apice dilatato-globosa.
Sporule ut in Splachno.

Cuar. Dirr. Seta terminalis. Theca apophysata. Peri-
stomium simplex e dentibus geminantibus, siccitate erectis,
strictis. Columella apice dilatata. ‘Calyptra levis, basi in-

tegra, fugax.

Frucr. Calyptra at first mitriform, at length mostly
dimidiate, whitish, scariose, tender, even, glabrous, very
fugacious. Fruit-stalk terminal, mostly even (in one spe-
cies rough), rigid, generally rather short, straight, some-
times elongated, and subflexuose, yellowish or reddish.
Apophysis when mature obconical, a little narrower than
the theca, nearly the same colour, and smooth. Theca en-
tire, ovate, about equal in length to the apophysis, even,
shghtly contracted at the mouth, and without an elastic
ring. Lid nearly of the same colour as the capsule, shortly
conical, obtuse; in some species, internally adnate with the
columella, and remaining a considerable time. Peristome
simple, of 32 primary, once geminating teeth ; which, when
dry, are straight, more or less erect, never reflexed: these

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 463

geminated teeth, when dry, are either equidistant, or gemi-
nating in pairs; when moist, they are the same as in
Splachnum. Columella more or less exserted, straight, ri-
gid, dilated in a globose manner at the summit. Sporwles
as in Splachnum.

Dirr. Cuar. Fruit-stalk terminal.- Capsule with an
upophysis. Peristome simple, of geminating teeth, which
when dry are erect and straight. Calumella dilated at the
apex. Calyptra even, entire at the base, fugacious.

Vec. Stems forming dense tufts, erect, more or less
elongated, nearly simple: (in our D. Splachnoides they
often occur 2—3 inches in length, deeply imbedded in the
ground), Leaves imbricated pretty closely on all sides of
the stem, suberect or patent, especially towards the summit
of the stem. They are all highly vasculose and reticulated,
green when growing, but sometimes gaining a yellowish
hue in drying. They are nearly uniform in shape, between
ovate and lingulate, all remarkably rounded and obtuse at
the extremity, and concave. There is no appearance of
serratures, and the nerve in every instance disappears a
little below the summit. The perichetial leaves do not
differ from the rest, except in being perhaps more patent.

Oss. For the institution of this genus, as well as. the
alterations of the preceding one, we solicit the indulgence
of muscologists,—at least till what we have advanced has
been submitted to a fair examination. It may be urged
against us that we rest too strongly upon the appearance of
the peristome ina dry state. We do believe that, in this
genus, the main generic distinctions are to be taken from
the characters then exhibited. We have shown that, when
moist, nearly all the peristomes of the Splachnoidee have

AO4 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

a wonderful resemblance to each other; that, in short, ne
generic marks can then be collected from them.

When, on the other hand, we note the direction of the
teeth in a dry state, and find that they constitute more ob-
vious distinctive features ;—that all those species which have
reflexed teeth form a natural group, even to the acute form
of the leaves (except in §. vasculoswum alone);—that all
those which have erect teeth * (not reflexed) agree still
more beautifully in habit, their capsule of a different shape,
their apophysis narrower than the capsule, and of the same
colour, their leaves all agreeing most strikingly in their ob-
tuse form and texture ;—that, farther, when we see equally
forcible characters taken from the direction of the teeth in
the dry state of Tayloria, we cannot help flattering our-
selves, that, for the tribe of mosses now under considera-
tion, these are the only tangible generic characters. ‘Those
we have discarded seem only of importance, inasmuch as
they indicate affinity and similarity of structure. |

The peristome of Dissodon varies much in the same
manner as that of Splachnum : 1st, In one species, the teeth
are 16, once geminated, and equidistant; besides which,
each tooth, when mature, is divided at the line of gemina-
tion, either to the middle or to the base. 2dly, In another
species, the teeth, though 16, and also equidistant, remain
permanently once geminated. $dly, In the other species,
they are 16 once geminated, and also geminating in pairs*+.

* Mr Brown seems to consider erect teeth as worthy to constitute a
subgeneric character, and thinks §S. Fralichianum and S. Wulfenianum
might be placed together on that account, joined to the inclined capsule
Parry’s First Voy. App. p. ccci-

-+ We have in our possession, through the kindness of our friend Dr
Hooker, a plant which we consider to belong to this genus: but as it has
only a manuscript name attached to it, we refrain from noticing it farther.
It assimilates with the rest in every character. bea

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 465

OF the first mentioned of these we have the genus Systy-
hum of Hornscuucu, on account of the teeth being rather
short, erect, geminating in pairs, and the lid connate with the
columella. Of the second, we have the genus Cyrtodon of
Brown, on account of the teeth being long and incurved
at the apex. Of one of the last, Mr Brown observes,
*¢ Splachnum Frelichianum et forsan S. Wulfenianum *,
capsula inclinata et dentibus erectis a Splachnis genuinis
distinguitur, et subgenus efformat.” Under Aplodon, the
same author shows, nevertheless, how near his Cyrtodon is
allied to S. Frelichianum: ‘‘ Diversa preesertim dentibus
erectis apicibus incurvis, ideoque S. L’ralichiano dentibus
erectis, sed geminatis affinis.”. Upon these principles, we
fear, genera might be constituted of several more species
of Splachnum ; for instance, Dissodon scabrisetum (Siplach-
num scabrisetum, Hoox.) has the teeth involute in a re-
markable degree, when moist --, and in this circumstance
differing from all the rest ; this is, we apprehend, as valid a
generic character as some of the above,—but, at the same
time, of as little consequence.

Of all the plants we have brought together under this
genus, Systyliwm seems, at first sight, to have the greatest
claims to be kept apart, and that, on account of the long
persistent lid. We agree with Brown, however, that this
ean scarcely form a generic character. Under Aplodon, he
observes, “ In hoc enim cohzrentia operculi cum columella
ex analogia cum Gymnostomis quibusdam, pro charactere
specifici tantum valoris habenda sit.” Besides, the lid even-
tually separates from the columella: but a stronger reason

* This plant is Orthotrichum Ludwigii.

+ We do not mean to say that the teeth were involute before the oper-
eulum dropt off, but only after having been exposed to the action of the at~
mosphere.

VOL. V. &

466 — NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

still against its being retained as a generic character, is,
that a similar circumstance exists, in a less'degree, in recent
specimens of Dissodon Splachnoides (Weissia Splachnoides,
Auct.) The lid is here very frequently adnate with the
columella for a considerable time, and is so represented
both by Dr Hooxer in “ FI. Lond.” and Dr GrevitLE mn
“¢ Crypt. Fl.:” it is therefore at least exactly intermediate,
in this respect, between Hornscuucn’s Systilium and the
rest of our Dissodontes.

Two very remarkable points, common to all our species,
are, the ovate form of the theca, and the obconical apophy-
sis: the latter tapering downwards from the base of the
eapsule, renders the shape of the whole more or less ob-
ovate, and affords a fructification very different, at first
sight, from that of Splachnuwm; more especially when we
take into consideration the equally remarkable fact, that,
in Splachnum, the apophysis is coloured, whereas, in Dis-
sodon, it is of the same colour as the capsule. ‘Thus, not
only in habit, but m every character of importance, do all
the species of the latter genus agree.

Has. We are not aware that any of the species are pro-
duced on any decomposing substances, as are most of the
last genus. One is found among rocks; another in a firm,
wet sward, intermixed with grass and cther plants; a third
in the crevices of rocks. As to the fourth, we do not cer-
tainly -know on what it was found growing. ‘Three are pe-
culiar to the alpine parts of Europe. ‘The other occurs in
South America.

Hist. We have already mentioned that one of our spe-
cies had previously constituted a genus under the name of
Systylium, and that of another was formed Cyrtodon. As
these names imply a peculiarity of structure not common

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 467

to all the plants we have brought together, we have been
obliged to reject both, although, from respect to Mr Brown,
and friendship for our correspondent Dr Hornscnucn, we
would gladly have avoided it, if possible: Had not the
name Orthodon been preoccupied, it would have been pre-
cisely that we should have taken for the present genus;
which we have denominated Dissodon, a word at least ex-
pressing a character common to all the species. The first
known of our species was described and figured by Hep-
wic, and about the same time discovered in this country by
Dickson on the Scottish alps. Dickson seems to have dis-
covered the next, and published it as a Splachnum; but
Swartz, almost immediately following, described it as a
Weissia, the generic name of which it has retained ever
since, till Brown gave it that of Cyrtodon. Of this plant,
we may here remark, that, from the imperfection of the
specimens existing in herbaria, no correct figure had been
given till the year 1824, when both Dr Heoxer and Dr
Grevitte published ample analyses of the different parts.
The geminated structure of each tooth was observed some
years ago by Mr Arnort, in specimens procured from the
Reverend Mr Macrircute of Clunie, and urged with se-
veral muscologists as a proof how incorrectly it had been
allowed to remain in the genus Weissia. Mr Brown, how-
ever, has the first claim for the publication of this structure.
To Dr Hornscuucn we freely expressed our opinion that
his Systyliwm could not be separated as a genus from the
same plant. Along with additional specimens for examina-
tion, he obliged us, in return, with the following remarks :
—* Ich night glaube dass es mit Weissia Splachnoides in
ein genus vereinigt werden kann, da der Bau der Taehne
gar zu bedeutentend abweicht, wie Ihnen die Untersuchung
zeigen wird, auch ist die Verwachsung des operculi mit der
Columella so standhaft und ausgezeichnet dass sie nach

Gg2

468 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

meinen dafirhalten immer als Merkmaal bey Aufstellung
des Gattungscharackters mit zu Hiilfegenommen werden
kann.” We have examined the specimens he kindly sent
to us, and regret to say we still cannot coincide with him
on the importance of the characters which he draws from
the peristome and columella, above alluded to. As we
have united several genera in the formation of Dissodon, -
we conceive that characters of the species may not be un-
acceptable.

1. Dissodon Splachnoides ; foliis patentibus, lingulatis,
obtusis, concavis; peristomii dentibus 16 gemina-
tis, integris, sequidistantibus apice incurvis; seta
levi.

Weissia splachnordes, Swartz. Schwegr. Suppl. 1. p. 63. t. 17.—
Hook. et Tayl. Musc. Brit. t. 14. Fl. Lond. (New Series) t. 192.
—Grev. Crypt. Fl. t. 145.—Funck Deutschl. Moose. t. 9.

Splachnum lzngulatum, Dicks. Cr. fasc. 4. p. 4. t. 10. f. 6.—Smith,
Engl. Bot. t. 2095.— Brid. Meth. p. 105.

Grimmia splachnoides, Smith, Engl. Bot. t. 2164. (excl. fig. fol-, et
synon. Dicks. ac FI. Brit.)

Cyrtodon, Brown in Parry’s First Voyage, Append. p. cexcix.

Has. Scotland, Germany, Lapland, etc.: in turf-bogs at a con-
siderable elevation.

The 16 geminated teeth are of a yellow colour. The
columella is often much exserted, and the lid frequently
adnate with its apex.

2. D. Hornschuchit, folus erectis, appressis, ovato-lingu-
latis, obtusis, concavis; peristomi dentibus 16 ge-
minatis, per lineam separabilem solventibus, zequi-
distantibus, rectis: seta laevi.

Systylium splachnoides, Hornsch. in Comment. de Voit. et Syst. p.
14. t. 2.—Hook. Musc. Exot. t. 98.—Schwzegr. Supp. 2. t. 107.
Funck, Deutschl. Moose. t. 6.

Has. On a micaceous rock in the Carinthian Alps.

"he teeth are short, and bright red, and usually so deeply
divided at the line of gemination as almost to present the

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 4.69

appearance of 32 teeth placed in pairs. ‘The last species
has the seta elongated: in the present one it is short and
thick.

3. D. Frelichianum, foliis erectis, appressis, ovato-lin-
gulatis, obtusis, concavis; peristomi dentibus 16
geminatis et per paria geminantibus.

Splachnum Freelichianum, Hedw: Stirps. Crypt. 3. p. 99. t. 40.—
Schwezegr. Suppl. 1. pt.. 1, p. 51.— Brid. Meth. p. 105.—Schkukr,
t. 18.—Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. fasc. 15.—Funck Deutschl. Moose.
t. 7.

Splachnum reticulatum, Swartz. Smith Engl. Bot. t..2507- (quoad
folia mala).

Bryum retzculatum, Dicks. Cr. fase. 2. p, 4. t. 4. f. 6.

Has. Fissures of rocks in Switzerland, Germany, Scotland, and
Sweden,

Many foreign botanists have, till lately, confounded this
with Gymnostomum Griffithianum ; a mistake which orl-
ginated from the latter not having been seen by them.

4. D. scabrisetum, folus subpatentibus, lingulatis, obtu-
sis, subconcavis, dentibus 16 geminatis et per paria
geminantibus, madore involutis; seta scabra.

Splachnum scabrisetum, Hook. Musc, Exot. t. 32.

Has. Province of Jaen de Bracomoros, South America, at an al-
titude of about 6400 feet.

This species has the teeth erect when dry, at least in our
specimens, received from Humpotpr and Kunryu. When
moist, they are remarkably involute. The leaves are less
concave than in the rest, and slightly undulated.

PLATE XIII.
Fig. 34. Capsule of Dissodon Hornschuchii, with the oper-

eulum. 35. Operculum, with a portion of. the
adnate columella. 36. Portion of the peristome.
37. Two of the geminate divided teeth, all united
at the base. 38. Leaf.

470 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

39. Capsule of D. splachnoides, with the operculum.
40, The same dissected, and showing the colu-
mella adnate with the operculum. 41. Calyptra.
42. Three of the 16 geminate teeth, all united
at the base. 43. Leaf. 44. Sporules.

45. Capsule of D. Frelichianum, with the operculum.
46. Four of the 16 geminate teeth, all united at
the base. 47. Leaf. :

48. Capsule of D. scabrisetum, with the operculum.
49. Two of the involute (when moist) geminate
teeth united at the base. 50. Leaf.

att

Gen. XIII. Taytoria, Hooker.

Frucr. Calyptra mitriformis, albida, scariosa, tenera, —
levis, glabra, valde fugax. Seta terminalis, elongata, leevis,
rigida, strictiuscula, aurantiaca. Apophysis matura obco-
nica, theca longior et angustior, subconcolor, levis. Theca
integra, oblongo-cylindrica, levis, pallide brunnea, ore ru-
bescente. Operculwm conico-elongatum,obtusum, theca sub-
eequalis, paullo incurvum, concolor. Peristomium simplex
e dentibus 32 unigeminantibus, infra marginem thecze in-
tus insertis, longissimis, attenuatis, rubris, transversim stria-
tis; madore intra thecam involutis, siccitate, “ erecti diffusi,
halitu observantis tacti singuli spiraliter, sed laxe se con-
torquentes et, rursus evolventes, semina dispergentes, conti-
nuo tremuli et mobiles, simili quodam motu ut fila, Equi-
seti germen cingentia,” (Scuwzcr.) Columella valde ex-
serta, stricta, rigida, globoso-capitata. Sporue......

Cuar. Divr. Seta terminalis. Theca apophysata. Pe-
ristomium simplea, e dentibus 32 geminantibus, longiss?-

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 471

mis, siccitate diffusis, tortuosis. Columella apice globoso-
capitata. Calyptra levis, fugax.

Frucr. Calyptra mitriform, white, scariose, tender,
even, smooth, very fugacious. /’rutt-stalk terminal, elon-
gated, even, rigid, straight, of a reddish-orange colour.
Apophysis, when mature, obconical, longer and narrower
than the capsule, nearly of the same colour, even. Theca
entire, oblong-cylindrical, even, pale brown, the mouth
reddish. Lid conical, elongated, obtuse, nearly equal in
length to the theca, and of the same colour, somewhat
curved. Peristome simple, of 32 unigeminating teeth, very
long, attenuated, transversely striated, inserted a little be-
low the inner margin of the orifice: when moist they are
highly involute, and concealed within the capsule: when
dry, erect, diffuse, spirally twisting together in a lax man-
ner under the influence of the moist breath or touch, and
again becoming evolved, scattering the sporules, and pre-
serving a constant tremulous motion, similar to that of the
filaments which embrace the germen of the Eguiseti. Co-
lumella much exserted, straight, rigid, globoso-capitate.
Sporules......

Dirr. Cuar. Fruit-stalk terminal. Capsule with an
apophysis. Peristome sumple, of 32 very long geminating
teeth, which when dry are diffuse and tortuose. Columella
globoso-capitate. Calyptra even, fugacious.

Vrec. Stems for the most part tufted, about an inch
long, either simple, or branched with innovations, the lower
parts covered with a ferruginous down. The lower leaves
are smaller than the upper ones; the latter more closely
arranged; they are all imbricated, green, erecto-patent,
ovato-lanceolate, acute, with a serrated margin towards the

472 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF

apex: them substance is tender, pellucid, loosely reticu-
lated, as in the Splachna. 'The nerve disappears beneath
the summit. The perichetial leaves are four or five in
number, and are considerably smaller than the cauline
ones.

Oxs. No plant that has come under our observation has
so great a resemblance to this species as Splachnum tenue :
the likeness is indeed so strong, that, to the naked eye,
there is no difference, except in the lid, which, if it be
wanting, leaves the microscope alone to determine between
the two. With the assistance of that instrument there is
no difficulty, if the peristome be present.

Dr Hooxer has figured this moss more correctly than
any one else, and represented the approximation, or rather
-gemination, of the teeth with more truth than Scuwaeri-
CHEN. They are of a very fine red, most remarkably long,
longer even than the theca itself; in the dry state they be-
come reflexed, and tortuous in an extraordinary degree,
contracting and expanding themselves with great rapidity
on the application of the slightest degree of moisture or
warmth. The fruit-stalk varies from one to two inches in
length, and is smooth, solitary, erect, or slightly flexuose.
The theca, when growing, is almost cylindrical, but in the
process of drying often becomes nearly hemispherical *.
‘The apophysis tapers so gradually downwards from the
theca, that, being of the same colour, it seems at first sight
a continuation of that part.

Has. On wet rocks in Norway, Switzerland, the south-
ern Tyrolese Alps, and the summits of the Carinthian
mountains.

* This also takes place not unfrequently in Splachnum tenue.

THE GENERA OF MOSSES. 473

Hisr. Under this head we have little to say, there be-
ing only one species in the genus, and that one recently
introduced to the notice of muscologists. We believe it to
have been discovered by the lamented Professor Scumipt
of Christiana, the same who accompanied Captain Tuckry
in his expedition to the Congo river. We know not if he
bestowed on ita name. In 1814, Dr Hooker found it on
the Grimsel, close to the Glacier du Rhone, at an altitude
of about 5000 feet ; and he soon after constituted the pre-
sent genus, in order to receive it, in Branpe’s Journal of
Science and the Arts*. In the mean time, ScHLEICHER
and SERINGE also gathered it in Switzerland, and transmit-
ted specimens to SchwaericHEN, under the manuscript
name of Hookeria. Thus while Hooxer dedicated it to
his friend, and future coadjutor in the Muscologia Britan-
nica, it was named on the Continent after himself ;—a sin-
gular and interesting coincidence. It so happened that
both names were made public in the same year (1816).
Tayloria, however, had the precedence of some months;
yet it is a strange circumstance that, till recently, it has
been discarded by every continental botanist, and Hookeria
substituted in its place, although that name was preoccu-
pied by Sir J. E. Smiru, in favour of another genus, also

. of mosses. We rejoice to find at length the justice of the
claim of T'ayloria acknowledged. Our friends NeEs von
Esexsecx and Hornscuucn have taken up both it and
Hookeria of Smiru in their excellent ‘“ Bryologia Germa-
nica;” and we are acquainted with no muscologists pos-
sessed of more liberal feelings, or who are so well able to
establish both genera as firmly on the Continent, as they
have long been in this country. SprENGEL has also adopted

* No. 3. p. 146.

AT 4 NEW ARRANGEMENT OF MOSSES.

Hookeria*. It must be confessed, that, when our friend
Professor Scuw#cRICHEN thus expressed his opinion cen-
cerning Smiru’s Hookeria, “ Quam proposuit SMirHius
in Actis Societatis Linneanze, v. 9. p. 272, Hookeria in
systemate Fedwigiano genus proprium esse nequit,” he
should at least have left the field open, and the name other-
wise unappropriated ;—Sir J. E. Smiru being besides a
warm supporter, and no less an able one of the Hedwigian
school.

PLATE XIII.

Fig. 51. Capsule of T'ayloria, with the operculum.
52. Summit of the capsule, shewing the exserted co-
lumella, and the teeth in the involute state, within the
capsule. 53. Four of the 32 geminating teeth, as ap-
pearing in the dry state, when they are spreading
from the orifice in all directions.

a

* «¢ Neue Entdeckungen,” vol. 3.

XXVII.— Notice in regard to the Trap Rocks
in the Mountain Districis of the West and
North-west of the Counties of York, Durham,
Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Northumber-
land.

By Henry Wiruam, Esq. of Lartington.

(Head 3d May 1824.)

Tue various opinions which have been entertained. at
different periods respecting the origin of the Trap Forma-
tion, by the most distinguished geologists, gives a pecu-
liar interest to its geognostical history, and confers on those
districts where it occurs a high degree of importance. Some
geologists, as is well known, maintain, that secondary trap
rocks owe their origin to the action of subterranean heat ;
which power, it is alleged, was instrumental in giving them
their mineralogical characters, and present position in the
crust of the Earth. This immeasurable power, according to
the igneous theory, forced them from their birthplace, very
deep in the bowels of the earth—even under gneiss and
mica-slate, through every variety of primitive and transition
rock, to their present place in the formations of the second-
ary class. These secondary traps, then, if this explanation

476 ON THE TRAP-ROCKS IN YORKSHIRE, &e. —

is the true one, are placed deeper in the crust of the Earth
than gneiss and other primitive rocks. But this Huttonian
explanation is opposed, and with much mgenuity and force
of argument, and detail of fact, by the Neptunians, who
Insist on the deposition of trap from aqueous solution
and suspension. We do not pretend to advocate either
opinion, but maintain, that these rival hypotheses have
been eminently useful, and that, without their aid, geology
would have long remained stationary. Can we believe
those to be in earnest who assert, that opinions, which have
been the means of calling into action the zeal and acuteness
of such observers as Hatt, Jameson, and BuckLanpb,
and which have afforded opportunities for splendid displays
of the powers of Hutron, Werner, Piayrair, and
CuviEr, have been not only useless, but even pernicious ?

On visiting the districts enumerated above, my attention
was forcibly arrested by the phenomena exhibited by the
trap-rocks, and it is of these I now propose to lay a
notice before the Society. But as these are considered by
geologists as forming part of the same general series with
those of Derbyshire, we shall first mention shortly the
Derbyshire stratification.

In the metalliferous strata of Derbyshire, it appears there
are nine different alternations ; namely, grit-rock 120 yards,
limestone-shale 160 yards, first limestone-rock 50 yards, first
toadstone or amygdaloid 20 yards, second limestone-rock 50
yards, second toadstone or amygdaloid 30 yards, fourth lime-
stone-rock 130 yards; making a total thickness of 650 yards.
Here we perceive the beds of metalliferous limestone are se-
parated by beds of trap rocks, called Toadstone. When a
vein of lead is worked through the first limestone down to
the toadstone, it ceases to contain ore, and often entirely
disappears. On sinking through the toadstone to the second
limestone, the ore is again found, but cut off by a lower

ON THE TRAP-ROCKS IN YORKSHIRE, &c. 477

bed of toadstone, under which it again appears in the third
limestone. In a few instances strings and short branches
of ore have been discovered, but the few veins which pass
through this substance contain no ore. How to account
for this unequalled stratified arrangement must require no
small share of ingenuity. It has been maintained, that the
toadstone and limestone, with the metallic veins of this
district, are of contemporaneous formation, but the differ-
ent organic remains in the upper and lower beds of lime-
stone preclude the possibility of such simultaneous forma-
tion. Cuvier has very justly observed, that the existence
of different organic remains, offers irresistible proof, that
the upper and lower stratain which they were found, were
formed in succession. ‘The rapid progress of the science
of chemistry, will, it is to be hoped, ere long, dispel the
darkness, and furnish a solution to this hitherto unex-
plained phenomenon. -

The great trap mass of 'Teesdale shews itself on the south
bank of that river, just opposite to Middleton, in Tees-
dale, and extends to a great breadth to the Chain-bridge,
where it forms the bed of the river, which has worn
a deep chasm through it.. At the Highforce (a waterfall
of 70 feet perpendicular) the river has worn its bed com-
pletely through it, and shews it resting on the encrinite
lumestone, and dipping regularly to the NE. at an angle
of not more than 12° with the horizon. Here may be dis-
tinctly seen, on the nght side of the waterfall, the great
Marbeck vein, intersecting both the trap and the lime-
stone. This fact is interesting, as to the relative age of
this trap, shewing it must have been in existence previous
to the formation of the veins which pass uninterruptedly
from the other strata through it. I am informed by miners
this is always the case, and that they very frequently bear
ore. At Maisebeck, in Tyne Bottom, there is a rib of

478 ON THE TRAP-ROCKS IN YORKSHIRE, &e.

solid ore of four inches, which intersects the trap.
The specimens I have now the honour of laying before the
Society, are from a vein which runs east and west in the
basalt, which extends over this district immediately at the
foot of Crossfell, and is at present working at the pomt
where Troutbeck, coming from the south-west, joims the
river Tees. ‘The vein from which I obtamed: these speci-
mens is supposed to be a prolongation of one at present
working in Harwood. If this could be ascertained, I
think it might lead to some very interesting speculations
on the subject. My friend Mr Josiine of Newtonhall,
to whose kindness I am indebted for much useful infor-
mation, 1s not aware there are at present any veins. raising
ore in this district, but there are many old workings in
the basalt.

The trap rises to a considerable elevation, and in prodi-
- gious masses, from the Highforce to the south of Croakley
and Croakley Fell, and at Cauldron Snout, about six miles
NW. from the Highforce, where it again interrupts the pro-
gress of the Tees, and gives rise to a succession of beautiful
cascades, to the height of 200 feet. Here it rests on the same
limestone, and is covered to the NE. by a white and highly
crystalline quartz-rock, which is intersected im every direc-
tion by bearing lead-veims, which the miners say penetrate
the trap, but, owing to the hardness of the substance, has
not been profitable to work. The colour of the trap (of
which you have here a specimen) is bluish-grey, a mixture
of augite and white felspar in small crystals. It is extreme-
ly hard and tough, and the fracture inclined to conchoidal.
It sometimes inclines to the columnar form, particularly at the
Highforce, and other interesting sections in the neighbour-
hood, ‘The dip of the trap corresponds with that ‘of the
other strata NE. The most intelligent miners are of opi-
nion that this rock may be traced for above thirty miles to

ON THE TRAP-ROCKS IN YORKSHIRE, &e. 479

the south of the above described boundaries. ‘They con-
sider it as perfectly stratified, and estimate its depth from
12 to 18 fathoms. The extent of this field of trap is of
prodigious magnitude. Its length from N. to S. must
exceed 70 miles, and in many situations its breadth is from
12 to £5 miles.

From what source this great trap-range is to be traced,
isa subject upon which the most highly enlightened geolo-
gists, mineralogists, and chemists, are as yet at variance.
By some it is believed that this immense mass of greenstone
has been poured out from that singularly extensive and
curious whin-dike (commonly called the Bolam, or York-
shire Dike), which may be seen marked in all the geologi-
eal maps. It may be distinctly traced from the German
Ocean, near Whitby, a distance of above 70 miles, into the
field under consideration. By cthers, it is contended, that
it is the production of a vast volcanic eruption from the al-
pine chain atitshead. To others, again, there appear strong
reasons to suspect either of these possibilities: ist, The
source from which it is supposed to flow, is not known to
contain any metallic ores; 2diy, 'The substance in this great
extent appears to have no tendency to vesicular concre-
tions, or any vitreous appearance; and, 3di/y, Its regular
stratification for so great a distance, induces belief, that its
formation has been in contemporanecus succession with the
various strata forming the successive and curious alterna-
tions in this interesting district of the lead-measures.

The vast extent of this mass of trap or greenstone, its
stratification, its ves of galena, its relations with the
neighbouring strata, render it highly deserving of the at-
tention of the geologist and the miner.

The present notice, although very imperfect, will, I
trust, lead to a farther examination of the trap-rocks of

480 ON THE TRAP-ROCKS IN YORKSHIRE, We.

the north of England, and also to a comparison of the
phenomena of their various junctions, alternations, and
intermixtures with those exhibited in other parts of Eng-
land and particularly in Scotland, a country eminently dis-
tinguished for the varied and highly interesting displays
of the formations of the trap-rocks.

PLATE XIV Ween, Mean. Vol. Ve Pa}

Lunes ppseep De Ny aent ony ne
NOT OC STNA COG

RK Greville dole

( 481 )

XXVIII.—Descriptions of Two New Species of
Musci, belonging to the Genera Neckera and
Hypnum.

By Ropert Kaye Grevitte, LL.D. F.R.S.E. &c.

)

(Read 30th April 1825.)

NECKERA AMERICANA, Grev.

N. Americana ; caulibus repentibus, ramis erectis ; foliis
patentibus, integris, ovato-oblongis, apicibus rotunda-
tis, nervo apicem versus evanescenti; theca oblonga,
erecta, seta elongata. Tab. XIV.

Has. Trunks of trees (and on rocks ?) in the United States. D. B.
Greene, Esq.

Stems creeping, much entangled, throwing up numerous, erect, near-
_ly simple branches about an inch or more in height. Leaves very
numerous and closely set, spreading horizontally, ovate-oblong, or,
sometimes, almost cordate-ovate, somewhat undulate, entire at the
margin, much rounded at the extremity, the nerve strong, and dis
appearing at some distance from the summit. Substance very soft,
thick, dense, and injured by the slightest touch in dissecting.
Colour rather pale, of an opake and pleasant green, brownish on the
lower part of the branches. Perichetial leaves—outer ones short,
broadly ovate at the base, concave, contracted above into a short
lingulate obtuse apex; innermost ones with their upper portion
longer, and nearly linear, the nerve disappearing beneath the point.
Frwit-stalk lateral, about three-fourths of an inch in length, pale
yellow, slender. Capsule oblong; ld conical and rostrate. Pere
stome I have not seen.

VOL. V. uh

ASQ TWO NEW SPECIES OF MUSCI

Taz. XIV. Fig. 1. Plant natural size. 2. Part of a plant magnified.
3. Cauline leaves. 4. Summit of a cauline leaf. 5. Outer peri-
chetial leaf. 6. Inner do.—All magnified, except Fig. 1.

This interesting Moss unquestionably belongs to the ge-
nus Anomodon of Drs Hooxer and Taytor. Not feeling,
however, perfectly convinced of the expediency of that ge-
nus, I have preferred, for the present, placing this new
species in the genus Neckera, at the expence of which
Anomodon itself was constituted. -Neckera Americana 1s
very nearly related to N. viticuwlosa (Anomodon viticulosum,
Muse. Brit.), and has the same peculiar habit, and mode of
growth, leaves of the same dense and fragile texture, and
a fruitstalk and capsule nearly similar. In size, however,
it is much smaller, the leaves are little more than half the
length, rounded at the extremity, and the nerve disappears
at a considerable distance from the summit. The capsule
is also shorter.

The great resemblance between these two mosses cannot
escape the most careless muscological observer, and may
suggest to many the existence, though in an inferior degree,
of the same relation between some of the Cryptogamous
plants of Europe and North America that has been detected
between numerous Phzenogamous plants. It would be
hazardous, in the present state of muscology, to dilate on
this subject, any more than on the general geographical re-
lations of mosses ; especially as from what we do know, we
find. the observation to be correct, that the lower we de-
scend i in the scale of vegetation, the less the distribution of
plants : over the surface of the globe seems to be regulated
by the laws that influence the more perfect vegetable forms.
Nevertheless, we do not find in the mosses a disposition to
a matked geographical distribution altogether abandoned.
The curious genera Phascum Voitia and Tetraphis seem
to be confined to temperate and cold regions, and are

OF THE-GENERA NECKERA AND HYPNUM. 483

‘mostly limited to Northern’ Europe. On the other hand,

Calymperes-vequires.a considerable temperature ; ; and the
genus, Hookeria containing, ‘according. to Dr Hooker and
myself thirty species, » ‘besides doubtful ones, 1s, with the
exception of two. species, wholly extra-european. — It is alse
“worthy of notice, that, in the extensive genus Orthotrichum,
_of which we have published fifty-nine species, all those not
found in Europe and North America, possess a peculiarity
of habit at once recognisable, and for the most part also a
difference in structure. That singular group, too, of
mosses, denominated Leptostomum by Mr Brown, has hi-
therto been only found in New Holland, Van Dieman’s
Land, New Zealand, and at Cape Horn. From these few
facts alone, selected from various others that might have
been brought forward, we have some reason for Cone
ing that, at a future period, the distribution of the mosses
will be found to be a more interesting subject than we at
present anticipate; and that, even in those large genera,
‘which now appear to scatter species indiscriminately over
every country of the globe, sectional groups will be found,

affecting perhaps different temperatures and latitudes from
the rest.

HIyPNUM REMOTIFOLIUM, Grev.

H. remotifolium ; caule vage ramoso decumbenti, ramis
elongatis, laxis; foliis subpatentibus, remotis, late-
ovatis, acuminulatis, subconcavis, per totam longitu-
dinem serratis nervo infra apicem evanescenti; theca
cernua, operculo, conico, oblique rostrato.

Has. South America, on the ground; communicated by Professor
J AMESON.

Plant of a yellow or pale green colour, reddish-brown towards the
base. Stems 2—4 inches in length, decumbent, variously divided,

Hh@

ASA TWO NEW SPECIES OF MUSCI.

the branches elongated, lax, attenuated towards their extremities,
and irregularly set with lax spreading ramuli. Leaves shining, re-
motely and loosely set on the stem, spreading almost horizontally,
broadly ovate, with a small acumination, somewhat concave, sharp-
ly serrate from the very base to the apex; nerve disappearing be-
low the summit. Perichetial leaves erect, broadly ovate below,
suddenly contracting, and terminating in a lanceolate apex, entire
and nerveless, and very pellucid. fruzt-stalk nearly an inch in
length, smooth, red. Capsule short, cernuous, deep red. Ld short-~
ly conical, with an acute suboblique rostrum.

This species is at first sight so remarkable for the remote
and lax manner in which its leaves are set on the stem,
that I have given it a name expressive of this character.
It is also well marked, by the cauline leaves being serrated
from the point of insertion to the apex; those of the peri-
chetium being quite entire and destitute of a nerve.

Hypnum remotifolium was sent with some other mosses
as packing in a chest of geological specimens, which the
President of this Society received from South America.
It is a proof how easy a thing it is, under some circum-
stances, to assist scientific investigation, by communicating
what appears to be the commonest objects from a distant
country. I can assure those gentlemen who have occasion
to send packages of minerals and other things from differ-
ent parts of the world, that, by using mosses, lichens, ¢c.
as materials for packing, they may greatly enrich the col-
lection of the muscologist, and forward the progress of this
department of natural history.

EpINsuRGH,
May 5. 1825. -

( 485)

XXIX.— Account of the Method of Drawing
Crystals in True Perspective, followed in the
Treatise on Mineralogy of Professor Mous.

Pe W. Harpincer, Esq. of Vienna, F.R.S.E. Member
of the Wernerian Society, &c.

(Read 14th May 1825.)

ALL those who have devoted their atterition to the study
of Crystallography, must have experienced many difficulties
arising from the want of a proper method of drawing the
projections of crystals, an object which, at the same time,
should be effected with perfect ease, and with sufficient
accuracy. ‘Those who already possess the required crys-
tallographic knowledge, will, mdeed, very soon be capable
to draw up rules for themselves; but this knowledge is not
yet so generally diffused as it deserves, both for the influ-
ence it is likely to take in the progress of the science, and
for the wonderful regularity of nature which it displays.
The very attempt of drawing crystalline forms is insepar-
able from a close examination of these, and therefore a step
forwards in studying crystallography ; we may acquiesce
m giving a vague verbal description of a crystal, but a
vague representation of its figure seems ta imply some 1m-

486 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

possibility for any person who is accustomed to accurate
investigations. It is.to.a. great extent the use of correct
figures which has given Haiiy’s crystallographic method
that great superiority which it has always enjoyed over the
Wernerian method, bothin accuracy. and elegance; and to
the study of Haiiy’s plates, far more than to the study of
his writings, we must look as the point from which the sub-
sequent labours of crystallographers started. .

By far the greater number of the figures in the first edi-
tion of Haiiy’s J'raité are executed with care, and according
to the best method which could possibly have been adopted.
Since the appearance of that work, most of the authors of
crystallographic publications have followed the same plan, |
while others have more or less deviated from it. Many of
the figures contained in the works of the present day, it
must be owned, are much inferior to Haiiy’s, in point of
correctness. It is, however, but very lately, that an intro-
duction to a method of projections has been thought wor-
thy to receive a place m systematic works on crystallogra-
phy, and of these I shall only mention here the T'raité de
Crystallographie by Abbé Haiiy, and the Introduction to
Crystallography by Mr Brooke. ‘The graphic method,
which it is the object of this paper to develop, is that. fol-.
lowed by Professor Mohs; it is equally distinguished by the
easiness in its application, and the accuracy of which it is
susceptible.

A. useful representation of a crystal must contain every.
thing remarkable and requisite, for identifying it with the
original in nature. Its chief object is, therefore, to express
the relative position of the faces, and consequently the pa-
rallelism of those edges, which are parallel in. the crystals
themselves. This object can only be attained, if we sup-.
pose the eye of the observer to be at an infinite distance
from the solid which is to be represented, in order to have

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 487

all those lines parallel which may be drawn from the eye to
any of its points whatever. Suppose, now, a plane to cut
all these lines, or the visual ray, at right angles ; draw per-
pendicular lines from every solid angle of the solid upon
that plane, the intersections with it will be the projections
of the solid angles; join these points by straight lines with
each other, the result will be a figure representing the crys-
tal itself.

In the art of drawing in perspective, this method is called
the Orthographic Projection, on account of the right angle,
which the visual ray includes with the plane upon which the
solid is represented. Herein it differs from the method fol-
lowed by several modern authors, in which it is supposed that
the eye of the observer is at once in two different places; but
it agrees with the method employed in the works of Haiiy.
If the relations of the simple forms among each other be
known, according to the crystallographic methods of Haiiy,
of Weiss, and others, but, particularly, if attention be given
to the derivation of the simple forms from one another,
and the laws of their combination, as proposed in the me-
thod of Professor Mohs, it will not be attended with the
slightest difficulty to draw the figures of the most compli-
cated crystals which may occur, if only the projection of
one of the simple forms contained in them, have been pre-
viously completed ; because the situation of the edges in the
compound forms depends solely upon the intersection of
the faces of the simple ones, and upon the ratios of certain
lines similarly disposed in the single forms, which enter in-
to the combination.

The first object to be attained, will therefore consist in
projecting the figure of a form that may answer this pur-
pose; and as the most appropriate, we may select the hexa-
hedron, or, in the purely geometrical mode of considering
it, the right rectangular four-sided prism, whose sides are

438 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

squares. (Plate XV. Fig. 1.*) It will form the first mem-
ber of a series of problems, to be considered in two sections,
referring to the method of projecting the simple forms, and
the combinations, in which they are found in nature.

Section I.
OF THE PROJECTIONS OF SIMPLE FORMS.
Problem I. Zo draw a Hexahedron.

Suppose one of the faces of the hexahedron (Fig. 1.) to
be perpendicular to the visual ray. Its projection upon
another plane perpendicular to the same line will also be a
square, equal to the above mentioned face of the hexahe-
dron. Suppose this square (Fig. 2.) to revolve round a line
MN, parallel to CD; the points A and B will appear de-
pressed in the lines AC and BD, while the length of C D
remains unaltered ; the projection of the square, therefore,
assumes the appearance of a rectangular parallelogram.
But in the hexahedron (Fig. 1.) at the same time, the face
C DEF is turned round C D, and the projection of the
two faces assumes the figure of two parallelograms (Fig. 3.)
If we still continue to revolve the solid in the same way, the
projection of A C and BD will diminish in length, while
that of C E and DF increases till it becomes equal to C D,
when the face CDEF (Fig. 4.) is brought into a plane
perpendicular to the visual ray.

If the horizontal line M N is not parallel to C D, Fig. 5.,

the revolution round it cannot give rise to any rectangular

* For the figures which accompany this paper I have been indebted to
Robert Allan, Esq. younger of Laurieston. They have been carefully exe-
cuted in conformity to the rules which they serve to illustrate.

*

PLATE Xv. :

Eng" tor the Wern. Memoirs Vol V. 7p. 488.

: Wa Lixars sc

‘ x =
NNN EEE EEE

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 489

figures; for while B moves downwards in the direction of
B B™, A is depressed in that of A A™, and D in that of
DD". The limits of this change are, the coincidence of
B with B™, of A with A™, and of D with D™, which makes
the projection of the angle BAC = BDC = 9, that of
the angle ACD = ABD = 180°. It is evident that the
ratio of A A™ to AT A™ must be equal to that of B B™ to
B! B™, and of DD*™ to D? D™, because we may imagine
the square A BC D to be part of a rectangular triangle
revolving round one of its sides; a triangle produced in the
above figure by lengthening MN till it is intersected by
BA and BD. But the ratio of At’ At: At’ A™ being
equal to that of A™ A : A™! A™, it will also be equivalent
to that of A™ C : A™ D", for the equality and similarity of
the triangles BA™ A, A A™C, C D™ D, and DD™ B.

‘The ratio of A™C to A™ D"™, and that of B'B™ to AND",
depend therefore entirely upon the choice of the position
in which the hexahedron is to be represented ; but the ra-
tio of A'VA™ to At A™ is a consequence of the two suppo-
sitions. If, for instance, we suppose A7'C = 4A™ DD", and
AW A™ — +A™D"™, the projection of the square upon a
plane perpendicular to the visual ray will be that repre-
sented Fig. 6., denoted A’B!D!C. This is the position
adopted in M. Mohs’ Works, for the figures of crystals
belonging to the pyramidal and tessular systems.

The projection of the square A BC D having thus been
obtained, upon a plane perpendicular to the visual ray, it
is required to find the length of those lines which in the
projection appear vertical, and represent the lateral edges
of the hexahedron. |

Suppose Fig. '7. to be a vertical section, in the plane of
the visual ray. The line B B™ in this figure will be the
projection of the face BAC D in Fig. 6. If this line be
turned round the pomt B™ (which is the projection of the

430 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

line A™D") till BU L (Fig. 7.) becomes equal to A™ ATV
(Fig. 6.), the edges of the hexahedron BK!, B™ Gt will
assume the situation of B!K; B™G, and the line B™ H,
which is determined by drawing GH at right angles upon
the continuation of BB", will be the required length of the
perpendicular lines in the projection.

By the length B™ H, taken upon A™ A™, C'C, B B®,
D'™! D", from the angles A1, C, B', D* of the projection
of the square, 1s determined the place of the four other
solid angles of the hexahedron, which is thus completed,
similar to Fig. 1.

In order to express these processes analytically, let
. A™D"™, the distance of the two extreme edges, be = a;
A™ (©, the distance of one of these from the adjacent inte-

: a seek
rior one, = —; A'Y A™, the height of the projection of the
n
: Epes
terminal square, = — ; and, moreover, the length of an
ra NN A.

edge of the hexahedron = 6.
From the rectangular triangle D C D™ follows,

ee 2 fy oe 12 2).
b= oN (m2? (n—1)* +”);
And from the similarity of the triangles B’ L Bt and
BU E.G,’ Fig: 7.,
Bins =
If, as in M. Mohs’ Works, A™C is — 7 MAY Ak =
or m = 8, and n = 4, we have
37
—a Jf 6a and
BUH —3 Va = N08 x37 axe “ 37

Thus it appears that this method a pr tec may, with

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 491%

the greatest. facility, be subjected to. such calculations as
should be rendered necessary by some particular question ;
but it will be always found more convenient to follow the
graphic process developed above, in which the only thing
required for attaining the greatest precision, is some accu-
racy in employing rulers and compasses.

Having succeeded in projecting the hexahedron, we find
ourselves enabled to resolve a great many problems respect-
ing crystallographic drawings, some of which may here be
considered, in order to attach to them a few observations
relative to certain advantages in executing the projection.

Problem II. Yo draw a regular Octahedron.

If the octahedron and the hexahedron are brought into a
parallel position, the only one in which they are produced
by nature in one and the same crystal, the pyramidal axes of
one of these forms coincide with the pyramidal axes of the
other, and consequently there will exist an octahedron,
whose size is exactly such, that its solid angles touch the
faces of the hexahedron in their centres. Hence, determine
the centres of these faces C, C1, C¥, C™™, Ct’, and CY,
Fig. 8., and join them by straight lines, the result will be
the octahedron,

Problem III. Jo draw a given Isosceles Four-sided Py-
_ramid, for instance, P of Pyramidal Zircon.

According to Mohs, ain this species is = ./0.8204,* that
is to say, the axis of the pyramid P is = ,/0.8204, the side

* ¢ Treatise on Mineralogy,’ vol. ii. p. 368. ‘The measurements upon
which this quantity depends, were taken upon the small, but beautifully
formed, crystals which accompany the native platina, and agree exactly with
the results obtained by Dr Wollaston, and Messrs Brooke and Phillips.

492 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

of its horizontal projection being = 1. Draw A B the ver-
tical pyramidal axis of the hexahedron, Fig. 9. Take
A B= A B,/0.8204, CD= Ct Dt = C™ DU = Cm D™
— 1A B 0.8204, and join the lateral angles D, Dt, D™,
D'" by straight lines with the apices A and B! of the py-
ramid; the result is the required eae P of 1 oe

Zircon.

Problem IV. T'o draw the Pyramid (P)° of Pyramidal

Zircon.

We obtain an eight-sided pyramid by the following pro-
cess. 1. Produce the axis of the four-sided pyramid on
both sides to an indefinite, but equal length; 2. Enlarge
the faces of that four-sided pyramid from which the eight-
sided one is to be derived; 3. Draw triangles upon them,
equal and similar to those of the pyramid, the bases of the _
triangles coinciding with the base of the pyramid; 4. Join
the lower points thus determined with the upper apex, the
upper points with the lower apex of the lengthened axis;
and, 5. Pass planes through every one of these lines and
the adjacent lateral solid angles of the original pyramid.

The rule for drawing the figure of an eight-sided pyramid
will therefore be thus. Project the four-sided pyramid as
above. Lengthen the axis A X (Fig. 10) till A'X1is =3 A X,
the pyramid required being (P)°. Draw C A™ BE equal,
similar, and opposite to C A B? in the prolongation of its
plane ; ; in like manner C X"™ BY, C XU™B, CA™B, &c.
Jon AM, A™, &c. with AT; X™, X™, &c. with X!'; B, C,
B, X! with both A! and X4, and also with the intersections
S, St, &c. produced by the lines At A™ with X1 X™,
At A™ with X*X™, &c. The result will be the projection
of the pyramid (P)?.

The same pyramid will also be obtained by proceeding

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 493

upon the following rule. Project the isosceles four-sided
pyramid A BC B'C! X (Fig. 11.) as above.. Bisect its la-
teral edges, BC in D, C B! in E, &c. In the continuation
of MD, M £, &c. take SD = 43 MD, S'E =2iME, &c.
and join all the pomts S, C, S', B', &c. by straight lines
with the terminal points A‘ and. X! of the lengthened axis,
and the adjacent ones among themselves.

. The latter process, being shorter, is preferable to the
former one. It depends upon the property of the eight-
sided pyramids, that SD (Fig. 12.) is always equal to
m—1
m+1
ramid. For, let AX be =a, A!1X!'—=m.a, A! M will

be =5-4, and A! X = a a.

. MD, m being the number of derivation of the py-

Now, AIM: MS = ATX: AM,

and MS = A'MxX AME
AIX
m+1

But A'M = =a, X AM — 29MD, and AIX = 3

therefore MS = Gane Ne D,
m+

and SD = SM—MD =(~"_1)M D =n MD.
on 1
In the ae case, m being = — 38, SDis= 341° MD

=5. M D. The values of m most generally occurring in

—.MD

Ou GS

crystals, besides 3, are 4 and 5; these make 8 D =

, Q
for (P)*, and =: M D for (P)>.

494 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

Problem V. Yodraw a Sculene Four-sided Pyramid,
for instance, that of Prismatic Topaz.

According to Mohs, the ratio of the axis, and the two
diagonals of the base in this species, or a: b: ¢ is

= 1: f4.440 : 1.938, or Ea see ig a

Draw the pyramidal axes A X, B B? and C C! of the
is 1
o e I = IVM— M o ST,
hexahedron (Fig.13.). Take ATM=X A if atin

C'M—C™M—CM ioe

A'B CUBIC! X! by straight lines, the result will be the
projection of the required pyramid. The numerical values
must be expressed in decimals, and taken from a scale.

, and join the six points

Problem VI. To draw a Right Rhombic Prism.

It is evident, that the projection of any oblique-angular
four-sided prism will be as easily obtained as the projection
of a scalene four-sided pyramid, 1f we suppose it, in a si-
milar manner, to be inscribed into the hexahedron. The
prism being a pyramid, one of the axes of which only is
infinite, the present case forms a corollary of the preceding
one.

Let, for instance, the prism (Fig. 14.) which is to be
represented, be that, whose transverse section is similar to
the base of P-in prismatic Topaz;-or P+-o. The line
MC =MC = MECC? = M!CU* omilijne: equal ce
AE Cie frees. |

4.440

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 495

Problem VII. Zo draw a regular six-sided Prism.
If MC be = MC’V. + the real transverse section of

the prism will be a rhomb of 120° and 60°; and the prism
itself may be transformed into a regular six-sided one, by
truncating its more acute lateral edges B' B™, and BB"
(Fig. 15.), and allowing the planes of truncation to pass
through the centres D1, D1", E™!, E1, &c. of the respective
lines CBiVC? BY, CBE, C™ BA) &c.

That this must give a correct result, appears, if we con-
sider (Fig. 16.) the projection upon a plane parallel to the
rhomb BC B'C. The angle D*™ Bt D! is — 60°, the
triangle D™* BD? is therefore equilateral; now, in the
regular hexagonal prism C' D™ must be = D™! D', and
therefore likewise = D™! BE = 3 C1 Bt.

Problem VIII. Yo draw.a regular six-sided Prism,
whose lateral Planes are Squares.

- From:the known equality of B B!.and BB ™ in Fig.
14. inasmuchvas these projections have been obtained from a
hexahedron, it will not be difficult. to find the length of
C C?. required. for:transforming GC C™E'D?, and conse-
quently:-all the lateral faces of the six-sided prism into
squares. |

~ Suppose B B' to be = 1; Eien in the solid itself, will
be = oh and CD! therefore —.. The portion B! BY’,
that must be taken from that lme B! B™!, in order to trans-
form C D'H G into a square, must be to that line in the

1, or B'B'Y —=CG must be = cL
243’

ratio of a
2

RLATH XVI.

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. AQ]

A.B must always be = CD = DE = FG. In the figures
of Professor Mohs’ Treatise on Mineralogy it is = } AG.
It is evident; that if R'W =! RW, also P'X must be

n
1 1
ye x, and Q'U=—7QU. The ratio of ON : OG is

dependent upon that of A B : AG, and is found by draw-
ing perpendicular lines from all the angles of the hexagon
upon the line OG, which is situated in a plane parallel to
the visual ray. If AB: AD=1: 3, we obtam ON: OK
a || oy (

The apparent length of the lateral edges of the prism,
the faces being squares, is found in the following way.
Draw AB perpendicular to BD (Fig. 3.), BD being a
vertical section of the plane upon which the figure is to be
represented. Take BC = O'G! (Fig. 2.), and AC
= TD, Fig.]. Draw CE perpendicular to AC, and
equal in length to P E (Fig. 1.); from the point E draw
ED perpendicular to BD, the line CD will be the required
length of the lateral edges of the hexagonal prism, which,
applied to the projection of the terminal hexagon in Fig. 2.,
yields Fig. 4. the projection of the hexagonal prism itself.

This method of projecting a regular six-sided prism may
likewise be conceived in analytical terms.

From the ratio of AB: A D (Fig. 1. Plate XVI.) being
known, it will be possible to deduce that of ON: OK.

LeAD tela OK 3 a'p =e One W “ead
m

PE- -Ei= — 1S =c. We derive the following equations :

PE? — —PB4BE?; EKV?=—EG’?+GI?; ba IN?+NS2, or

HG) tre () HOB ee (D)

VOL. v. ta

498 — ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

and consequently, by eliminating ¢ from the two first we
obtain
jas (1 —2n)m

2 2 ae) 1A ee
‘from the two last,
(2 — n) m?
PONE Sc iy LEER
ics (1 — 2m) n* ais
(l—2n)m_ (2—n) m? |
(2—m)n? ~~ (1 —2m)n’
which being resolved, gives

mn? —2m?n—2mn? +2m+2n—)1 = 0,

ne gle VCD a ee

Ei n (n — 2)

— m—l t+ Jl — 2m +38 m? —2m?* + m*)
ae m (m — 2) :

mi a

and therefore

For n = 3, m becomes = = 1 or 5, the former of

which is excluded by comparing ihe result with the figure,
and the oe value left for mis = 5. The line ON, there-
fore, is = 10K =106. The ratio of the lines a and 6
themselves, being ex d b a as cA Bl is
; g expressed by | = (2—m) rn?

SA ODE nl Die Ont One

The apparent length C D of the edge CE, parallel to
the axis of the six-sided prism, 1s obtained from the simi-
larity of the triangles CE D and ACB, and found to be

i. Hi (eS

length of one of the sides of the regular hexagon. Since, es:
by the preceding formule, c, as well as }, may be expressed P .
by a and 2, it will not be difficult also to express the length _|
C D by means of the same quantities, although the expres- i
sion thus obtained will not be so simple as that stated |
above. *

, if we suppose BC 4 and c the real

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. AQ9

The projection of a regular hexagonal prism, which is a
member of the rhombohedral system, allows of a similar
application in regard to forms of the same system, as the
projection of the hexahedron in the forms of other systems.

Problem X. Jo draw a We ombohedron.

Let, for instance, this rhombohedron be the one whose
terminal edge is = 104° 28’ 40”, the same which Abbé
Haiiy considered as the primitive form of calcareous spar.
Its axis is = 1.5 — 2.95.°

Draw the regular hexagonal prism, whose sides are
squares, in the position fixed upon, Fig. 5. Produce the la-
teral edges, till A A™ is = 3 A A‘, equal to the given axis
of the rhombohedron. Take one-third of the length of these
lateral edges alternately from the upper and the lower
hexagon, and join the points A™, Bt, C™, D!, H™, FY
thus determined among each other and with the centres
M, Mt‘ of the adjacent terminal hexagons by straight lines
The result will be the projection of the given rhombo-
hedron. The projection of the actual fundamental rhombo- 7
hedron of rhombohedral lime-haloide is obtained, if, in-
stead of taking A A™ = 3 A A*, we substitute the value
<= /2.1895 A Al

If MM'or AA™is= AA!. ,/45, the projected solid
is the hexahedron.

If O'G', in Fig. 2., is = 0, the method of drawing a
rhombohedron becomes very simple, since it requires only
to draw the vertical lines representing the projections of
the lateral sides and the axis of the hexagonal prism at the
regular distances (at equal distances, for A’ P? = 3A? G?, in
Fig. 2.) from each other, and cross them at right angles
by four equidistant horizontal lines, whose intersections

Lice

500 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

with the former determine the situation of the angles of
the rhombohedron, as it appears from the inspection of the

6th figure.

Problem XI. Jo draw a Scalene Six-sided Pyramid,
Sor instance, (P)* of rhombohedral Lime-haloide, or
the * variété métastatique” of Haiiy.

Having completed the projection MABCDEFM=*
(Fig. 7.) of the rhombohedron R, take NM = M M*
= M'™N', because here the number of derivation is = 3,
which requires NN! tobe =3MMI!._ Join the ends of
the lengthened axis with the lateral angles of the rhombo-
hedron by straight lines; the result will be the projection
of the required scalene six-sided pyramid. :

Problem XII. Yo draw an Isosceles Six-sided Pyramid,
Jor stance, P, or that which belongs to the Rhombo-
hedron R of the same species.

Project (Fig. 8.) the rhombohedron A BB'BUCCIC™X,
and take AM = X'X. Draw CC™, C1C1", C™CY pa-
rallel to the axis AX, and lengthen the lines B M, B' M,
B™ M, till they intersect the former in C!Y, CY, C™. Join
the points B, C™!, Bt, Ct’, B™, CY, with each other, and
with the points A and X%, equidistant from M, the result
will be the projection of the isosceles six-sided pyramid P,
as it is represented in Fig. 9.

The preceding cases will suffice for obtaining the pro-
jection of any simple form we may desire, if the rules laid ?
down in this respect be properly seconded by a knowledge _

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 501

of the relations of the forms themselves, and of the rela-
tions they bear to each other. It will be useful, however,
to illustrate, by a few examples, the method of drawing the
figures of combinations.

Section II.

Or tue PROJECTIONS oF CompouND Forms.

Compound forms or combiations, in general, are those
crystalline figures, which at the same time shew the faces
of two or more simple forms. Every one of these may be
obtained by sufficiently enlarging those faces which, in the
compound form, are equal and similar to each other. The
form of the combination may be defined to be the space
included at the same time within all the forms. entering
into the combination. Hence the method of representing
them in its greatest generality, will require to lay down, in
the parallel position, the figures of all those simple forms
which the combination contains, and to determine that part
of them which, if they intersect each other, is not excluded
by any one of these simple forms. In most cases we may
dispense with proceeding upon this long and very often
tedious way, but it will be necessary to shew it in an ex-
ample.

Problem I. To draw the Combination of the Hexahedron
and the Octahedron.

Project the two simple forms in parallel position, so that
their centres may coincide in M, Fig. 10.

If we draw EF parallel to DB, and IK parallel to LP,
through the centres of the respective edges of the hexahe-

5O2 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

dron, these lines will determine the situation of the points
N, N™, and Nt, N™ in which the edges contiguous to
one of the angles of the octahedron rise from the planes
within which the hexahedron is contained. The part
ANN'N"™N"®, situated beyond the face TU V W of the
hexahedron, will therefore be cut off by this face, and not
appear in the combination at all. The same will be the case
with all the other solid angles of the octahedron, and the
combination itself will be contained under eight hexagons,
the residue of the faces of the octahedron, and six squares,
being the residue of the faces of the hexahedron.

The same result may be obtained by a shorter process,
thus:

Project the figure of the octahedron, take A N' = Rt L
= AL, AN = 5 2 = ~ AB, 1h su B=-—LB,
and draw NI N®, S S", R3 R™, which are the intersections
of the face A BL of the octahedron with the three adja-
cent faces of the hexahedron. ‘The same process applied
to all the edges of the octahedron gives the intersections of
all the faces of the two solids, which being expressed by
straight lines, jeele the projection of the combination
wanted.

Having obtained the figure of a double combination, it
will be easy to add the faces of a third, then of a fourth
simple form, and so on; and here, as well as in the pro-
jection of the simple forms themselves, we may often take
advantage of many circumstances, which will offer them-
selves to our attention in the practical attempt of laying
down the representations of crystals, in the proportion of
our actual information in regard to the various departments

of crystallography.

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 503

Problem II. Vo draw the Rhombohedral Combination
R. (P)>. R+2, of the Species of Rhombohedral Lime-
haloide.

Before all, it is necessary to fix the relative extent which
ithe faces belonging to the different forms are meant to pos-
sess, in order to ascertain which of the simple forms is to be
projected first, and the others applied to it, according to the
rules of derivation and of combination. Nothing is more
easy, if the combination contains only a few simple forms;
but it requires some practice to find out the best order in
which one of the simple forms is to be added after the
other, if the combination contains a great number of them.
A short time, however, devoted to the projections of the
simple forms themselves, is the best assistance for those
who intend to occupy themselves with representing combi-
nations. In the present case, it will be most advisable to
begin with the scalene six-sided pyramid (P)*, and the
process itself will therefore be as follows.

Project the pyramid (P)* or ABC DEFG X, Fig. 11,
according to the rules given above (Sect. I. Probl. XI.)
The edges of combination between R and (P)* are paral-
lel to the opposite terminal edges of the rhombohedron,
and to the lateral edges of the pyramid. ‘The poimt Ct! in
‘which one of the faces of R intersects the edge A C of the
pyramid, and consequently the ratio of A Ct to A C having
been determined, it is required to draw the edge of combi-
nation C1 D parallel to the lateral edge C D of the pyra-
mid, and likewise C1 Bt parallel to CB. By this process
the ratio of A Bt : AB becomes equal to that of AC7: AC,
and so all round, till all the points B! C! D' E! F' G! have
been determined, and those lines drawn which join these

points with each other, and represent the edges of combi-

304 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

nation between R and (P)°. A line M!NI parallel to
C? D*, or C D, or to MN, the edges of the rhombohedron
R, and passing through the point B, denotes the direction
of one of the terminal edges of R; its intersection with the
axis A X, or At, is the apex of the rhombohedron itself,
which enters into the combination. The lines A! Dt, A! F!
joming this apex with the upper solid angles of the combi-
nation, complete the figure on this side of the centre; on
the opposite side of which the same process must be gone
through.

The third form to be combined with the combination of
R and (P)* is R+2, an acute rhombohedron, whose
edges of combination with (P)* are parallel to the more
acute terminal edges of the pyramid. A face of this
rhombohedron, passing through an arbitrary point O of
the obtuse terminal edge A C of the pyramid, will there- —
fore produce the edges of combination O P and OQ,
being the intersections of that plane with those of the
pyramid A BC, and ACD. In order to find the point §,
where the face of R+2 intersects the lower opposite edge
C X, take PR = RQ, and draw OR, which, duly length-
ened, will intersect C X in 8. The face OPS Q will re-
present one of the faces of R+2, as it appears in the com-
bination. There are six of these faces, three of them in-
clined to the upper apex, the three others inclmed to the
lower apex; one of the latter is O' P'S! Q! in the figure.
But the faces OP SQ and O! P'S'Q! intersect each other
in the line Z Z1, which line is the lateral edge of R+2,
and, as such, parallel to O P and O' P', the edges of com-
bination between this rhombohedron and the pyramid (P)*,
or A B and X E the terminal edges of the latter form it-
self. The result, in completing the combination, by draw-
ing the four remaining faces of R+2, is the form repre-
sented in Fig. 12.

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 505

Problem ue To draw the Pyramidal Combination P.
(P)°>. P+3. P+o, of the Species of Pyrami-
dal Zircon.

Project the hexahedron ABC DA" BUC" D® (Fig. 13.)
according to the rules given above (Sect. I. Probl. I.).
Take A A'=3A A™. 0.8204 = CC'= DD! = BB.
By joining the points A with D, and B with C, determine
the situation of M, the centre of the square ACDB; and,
finally, draw the lines M Bt, M At, &c. and Bt Al, A? C},
&e. The result M Bt AC! D! is one part of the isosceles
four-sided pyramid required, which, if likewise applied on
the opposite side of the axis M M?, will complete the com-
bination of P with P+-o. The length A'A™, &c. is quite
indifferent, and depends upon the relative size of the same
lines in those natural combmations which are to be repre-
sented.

The next form to be added is (P)>.

Rake © Oj=2CM,. C1 P= HCtAl, CLP) = 3-0) DI,

; 1
and C'Q = 2 CC’, or in general CO=—CM, Cir

= = Cr AY cr == De and C.Q =~. CC.” and
draw the lines OP, OQ, OP, and PQ, HH Q; the faces
OPQ, OPQ will be those parts of the faces of (P)°,
which appear in the combination. This becomes quite
evident, if we consider the dimensions of that eight-sided
pyramid, and its relations to P. Since (P)* belongs imme-
diately to this four-sided pyramid P, the edges of combina-
tion between the two forms must be parallel to the opposite
terminal edges of the latter, O P therefore parallel to M A‘;
and if this edge of combination be supposed to coincide

506 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS

with the terminal edge M A‘, that part M M™ of the axis,
which corresponds to its terminal edge MC™, must be
equal to three times the part M M!, which corresponds to
the terminal edge M C! of the four-sided pyramid. ‘The
last is indicated by the exponent 3 in the sign of the eight-
sided pyramid. If the same process, by which the faces
OPQ and OP'Q have been obtained contiguous to the
angle C1, be applied to every one of the other solid angles
similarly situated, all the faces of (P)*, sixteen in number,
will be produced, and thus the triple combination P. (P)°.
P+ o completed, as it 1s represented in Fig. 14. |
The fourth and last of the ell forms to be added to

P+3. The axis of

the preceding combination is = 72

P+3 is = 2,/2.a, a being the axis of P; that of —— ai P+3
therefore = 3.a. <A face of this form, passing through
the point C™, or through the horizontal line A2™ C™, will
at the same time pass through the line M C1™!, which is one
of the terminal edges of (P)°. The edges of combination
between these two forms are therefore parallel to the alter-
nating terminal edges of the eight-sided pyramid, and also
to the terminal edges of the four-sided pyramid. Hence
the quadrangle RSU T in Fig. 14. will be one of its
faces, the angles of which are determined by taking WS
= Iwy, vr—vx, VT Mea i, and WU ae
n n n n
The junction of these points by straight lines gives the out-
line of the face. If repeated on all the homologous edges,
this process finally yields the 15th figure for the pyramidal

combination of P. (P)°. P+3. P+ oo, in the species

3
2/2
of pyramidal Zircon.

IN TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 507

It would be superfluous to give here a greater number
of examples for the process of representing complicated
forms of crystals, as it is exactly similar, in every instance,
also in the remaining systems of crystallisation. In many
cases it may be useful, beside the actual representation of
a crystal im perspective, according to the rules developed
above, to sketch the horizontal projection, or the elevation
of the crystal upon a certain plane, determined in respect
to the axes of the combinations; it will be particularly im-
portant to make use of this method in hemi-prismatic and
tetarto-prismatic forms, m which we are compelled to seek
for symmetry, as referred to certain planes; while, in the
other systems, it possesses an absolute and persistent cha-
racter. In the latter, indeed, as Haiiy cbserved, it would
have the effect of monotony; but it cannot be too much

recommended to those, who already possess some know-
ledge of forms, for studying certain classes of the more
difficult crystals m nature.

The result of applying the rules of projection to a parti-
cular case, is the representation of a variety given, or ob-
served in nature upon a plane, without the auxiliary lines,
which it was necessary to make use of for arriving at this
result. To this end, we copy the points determined by the
intersection of the lines, by means of the fine point of a
needle, and join the points transferred in this way from one
sheet of paper upon another, by means of straight lines,
according to the indications of the origimal drawing. One
original may thus serve for a great number of projections,
since it may be copied whenever a new form is added; and
the degree of attention bestowed upon the first outline is
amply repaid by the exactness of the copies.

It has been the custom of Haiiy and subsequent crystal-
Jographers, and it deserves to be retained, to draw the front
edges in full lines, hke AB, Fig. 16.; the back edges, like

508 ON DRAWING CRYSTALS, We.

C D, in dotted lines; to express lines drawn upon the sur-
face of forms in interrupted lines E F’; and lines in their
interior by alternating dots and short lines, like G H.
Very often it occurs, particularly with beginners, who
are not yet accustomed to judge rightly of the probable
size of a form, to be obtained by several successive pro-
cesses, that the result is either smaller or larger than is
wished for, and a method is therefore desirable for enlar-
ging or reducing it to a more convenient size. Draw to this
end from any determined point, within or without the
figure, towards every solid angle of the figure, a straight line,
and take respectively equal parts of the whole upon these; the
points determined will be the analogous points of the new
figure. If, for instance, the hexahedron A F (Fig. 17.) is so
much to be reduced, that the edge of the new figure becomes
equal to two-fifths of the edge of the original, it will be
necessary to draw N A, NB, NC, ND, &c. and to take
upon these limes NA'=2NA, NB'=2NB, NC!
- NC, ND'=2ND, &c. The hexahedron is now
completed by joining these points by the straight limes
A! B', B' Dt, D! C1, C A’, &c. In most cases, however,
it will be more expeditious to draw the axes, like AF, BE,
&c., or other lines, through the centre of the solid, and
take upon these the same relative distances A’ M= 2A M,
&e., which will likewise yield a hexahedron, the side of
which is equal to two-fifths of the side of the original form.

( 509 )

(ER GRASS | Is ET ESCs
etenemeeiatcementeninemeens

XXX.— Account of some Fishes observed du-
ring Capt. FRANKLIN and Dr RicHaRDSON’s
Journey to the Polar Sea.

(Read 24th January 1824.)

By Dr Jouw Ricuarpson, M. W.S. &c.

Tue following zoological notices were originally drawn
up, to be inserted im the Appendix to Captain Franklin’s
Narrative of a Journey to the Polar Sea; but to prevent
that part of his work from swelling to an undue size, it
was found advisable to exclude them, together with the
detailed accounts of all the other species that were not
deemed to have been previously undescribed. As the fol-
lowing descriptions, however, were taken from the exami-
nation of a great many recent specimens, and as they con-
tain some details which have not hitherto been made pub-
lic, and relate to species which may not soon come under
the inspection of a naturalist, they are respectfully submit-
ted to the Society.

510 ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES

* COREGONUS ALBUS. White Fish.

Tuis fish has been long known to the fur-traders by the
appellations of Poisson blanc, White Fish, or Tittymeg,
the latter corrupted from the word Attihhawmeg, the name
given to it by the Cree Indians. The Chepewyans and
Copper Indians term it Thlooch. It is noticed: by Hearne
under the name of Tickomeg ; and Pennant, in Arctic
Zoology, perhaps from the imperfection of his specimens,
has confounded it with the Salmo lavareius or Guiniad of
British Zoology+. Very lately M. Le Sueur discovered
it in the large lakes which bound the United States to the
northward, and, adopting Artedi’s genus of Coregonus,
has described it correctly as a distinct species under the
name of Coregonus albus{. 'This description, however,
being merely intended for identification, is so brief, that I
have been induced to record the following particulars,
drawn up from the dissection and comparison of many in-
dividuals.

Shape.—The body 1s compressed, and, when viewed la-
terally, nearly ovate, tapering to form the tail. The back
is arched, and in a fat individual very gibbous before the
dorsal fin. The depth of a full-grown fish may be stated
at one-third of its length; when fat it exceeds, and when
lean falls short of, that proportion.

The lateral line, running nearly midway between the
back and the belly, is arched under the first dorsal, from
whence it runs perfectly straight to the caudal fin.

* Genus Salmo, Linn.; Coregonus, Artedi.—Subgenus Coregonus; Les
Ombres, Cuvier, ‘Regne Animale,’ vol. xi. p. 162.

+- ‘ Arctic Zoology,’ Introd. p. ccxviii. and vol. xi. p. 393.

~ Le Sueur, ‘ Journal of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia,’ vol. i.
p. 232, with a figure.

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 511

The colour is bluish-grey on the back, lighter on the
sides, and on the belly white. There are no spots on the
body.

The scales are orbicular, with an even margin, and ra-
ther large, being half an inch in diameter. They are of
equal size on the back and belly, and possess a bright
pearly lustre. .The opercula, cheeks, and irides, have the
same lustre with the scales.

The head is small, compressed, and ete in an obtuse
snout, which appears more pointed when viewed laterally.
The infra-orbitar bones cover all the cheek. The vertex
is clothed with a soft smooth skin.

The eyes are large, and the orbit is about one-third

nearer to the extremity of the snout than to the posterior
margin of the operculum.
_ The nostrils are double, and placed immediately before
the anterior superior angle of the orbit. The membranous
margin of the anterior opening answers as an operculum to
the posterior one.

. The mouth is small, and when shut its angles are de-
pressed. It is somewhat four-sided when open. The supe-
rior and inferior maxillary bones form the principal part of
its border; the intermaxillary bones are small, and very
thin, and, through the medium of a cartilaginous articula-
tion with the end of the snout, give an obscure motion to
the upper lip, which descends obliquely. ‘The maxillaries
having a semi-elliptical figure, form the sides of the mouth
with their curved edges. They are connected with the
intermaxillaries through the medium of membrane, and are
articulated with the snout by their rather pointed upper
extremities: their lower extremities are rounded, and play
upon the lower jaw, being aided in their motions by a
small, loose, thin, ovate process. The Jaws are of equal

51g ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES
ength, and when the mouth is open project..beyond the
snout.

The tongwe is cordiferm, firm, and armed bel extreme-
ly minute scattered teeth. There are also.a few teeth. on
the jaws, but they are seen with difficulty,» and. are,too
slender to be felt. The palate is quite smooth. 3

The branchiostegous membranes are thick, oe the
quantity of muscle, and a shining membrane, which. line
their eight flat curved rays, and at their union with each
other, on the throat, they form a few plice... The rays are
narrower and. smaller, the nearer they are to the mesial
ventral line. he innermost are very slender. The branchial
arches almost encircle the cesophagus, their posterior ends
being nearly in contact with each other, at their insertion
into the basilary process. Each arch has a single row. of
erect subulate processes, about one-fourth of an inch long,
which are rough on their inner surfaces... There are no
pharyngeal bones.

On opening the abdomen, a multitude of ceca se ee
themselves, involved in the folds of a membrane which is
generally loaded with fat. This membrane is a production
of the peritonzum, and bears a strong resemblance to an
omentum. It descends about half-way down the abdomen,
and conceals the stomach and liver, being closely attached
to the former viscus by numerous vessels. A long spleen
is attached to its right border.

The alimentary canal descends from the pharynx: for
about five inches, in form of a straight wide tube. The
lining in this tube is disposed in six longitudinal rugze, and
is of a red colour, except an inch at its commencement,
which is white, presents the appearance of a glandular
structure, and may be considered as cesophagus. The
red part of the tube, which may be named the upper part
of the stomach, makes a sudden turn to cross the liver,

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 513

and, bending upwards, terminates in what may be deno-
minated the proper stomach. The latter, an uniform sac,
22 inches in diameter, bears, in its shape, and in the thick-
ness of its coats, a strong resemblance to the gizzard of a
fowl, but does not exhibit the same muscular structure.
It consists, first, of a thin peritonzeal coat,—then of a firm
coat, of a clear gelatinous appearance, which forms the
principal part of the thickness of its parietes, and when
boiled separates into layers: next to this, there is a very
firm, almost cartilaginous, layer; and the inner membrane
of the whole is of a grey colour, and thick spongy sub-
stance, differing in appearance from the lining of the nar-
row part of the viscus. The rugze of the cesophagus are
continued into the dilated part of the stomach, but from
their expansion they become nearly obsolete.

_~ The pylorus 1s placed in the fundus of the oviform part,
where it is nearly in contact with the thoracic septum o
_ diaphragm.

The coats of the first intestine are thin, and the internal
one exhibits a few longitudinal rugee. A short way below
the pylorus, it is encircled by the czeca, which continue to
be inserted into it for about two-thirds of its length down-
wards. ‘There are about 150 of them, an inch long, of a
conical figure, and generally filled with a yellowish mucus.
They ave too slender to admit the grosser contents of the
Stomach. |

The first intestine ends in a rectum. There is no valve
at their junction, but the latter is easily distinguished by
the well-marked folds of its internal membrane encircling
the canal.

The first intestine is in proportion to the length of the
body, as 9 to 16; the first and second together, as 12 to
16; and the whole alimentary canal as 19 to 16. These
proportions, however, are only approximations, as the

VOL. V. K k

514 ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES

length of the canal was found ‘to vary considerably in dif-
ferent individuals. Teeter

The liver is small, obtusely triangular, seat lobes,
and les over the cesophagus, and behind the czeca, and
convolutions of the first intestine. ‘The eystie duct has re-
markably thick coats, and terminates in the first intestine,
about half an inch below the stomach.

The air-bladder is large, extends the whole iength of the
abdomen, and sends a pretty wide tube ito the’ mere part
of the stomach.

The kidneys lie along the spine, the whole length of the
air-bladder. |

The dorsal fin, placed in the middle of the body, is silt
quadrangular, diminishing in height as it proceeds back-
wards. It contains twelve ravs, the two first nearly simple,
the posterior ones becoming gradually more forked; two
small rays support the base of the first one. The adipose
fin is acinaciform, or somewhat faleate in shape, with a
broad attachment opposite the anal fin. The pectorals
have sixteen rays, more or less forked, the interior ones
becoming gradually shorter, which gives the fins a some-
what pointed acinaciform appearance. ‘The ventrals, placed
opposite the dorsal, are fan-shaped, and have eleven rays,
all much forked. The outer ray is supported by a short one.
The anal fin has twelve rays, is subquadrangular, higher —
anteriorly, and leaves a portion of naked tail behind 1t,
equal to the length of its own insertion.

‘he caudal fin is crescentic: a quadrangular~portion at
its base is covered with scales. B. 8, P.16;°V. 11; A. 12,
D. 12, C.18 § rays. This fish weighs in general about
3 lb., but those of & Ib. are not uncommon, and they
have been known to reach even 20 lb. When very fat, its
shape is somewhat distorted, as it acquires a hump imme-
diately behind the head. The very large fish increase

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 515

principally in circumference, thew length suffering little
augmentation. The ordinary length is about 16 or 18
uachies. iy.)

o/Lhe Attihhawmegh seems to prey on insects. Its sto-
mach, however, is generally filled with earth, mixed with a
few slender; rects of vegetables, and some smali white
worms. It has been known, though rarely, to take a hook
baited with a small piece of meat.

Some fine Attihhawmegh were caught at the mouth of
the Copper-Mine River, and in Bathurst’s Inlet, and they
abound in every river and lake in the country. They form
a most delicious food, and at many parts are used as the
sole article of diet, for years together, without producing
satiety. . It spawns in the month of October.

We observed. no difference in external appearance be-
tween the males and females.

* COREGONUS ARTEDI.

-scoLe Sueur, in the Journal of the Academy of Sciences,
notices:a fish under the name of Coregonus Ariedi, or Her-
ring Salmon, as occurring in the same lakes with Corego-
nus albus. ‘The description there given is not sufficient to
enable us absolutely to identify the one we are about. to
-mention with his species, but, at the same time, the coinci-
denees of character and habitat render it unadvisable for
us to attempt to describe them as distinct.

- Our fish-is known to the fur-traders by the name of
Tuillibee, a corruption of its Cree appellation, Otionneebees.

It bears a very strong resemblance to the Coregonus

* Genus Salmo, Linn.; Coregonus, Artedi.—Subgenus Coregonus; Les
Ombres, Cuvier ; Coregonus Artedi.—Le Sueur, ‘Journal of the Academy of
Sciences, Philadelphia,’ VO Ie Da cols
eee nk

516 ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES

albus, or Attihhawmeg, their general figure, and the shape
of their fins bemg nearly alike. It is, however, a more
delicate-looking fish, from the comparative smallness of its
organs. |

Its body, viewed laterally, is broadly oblong, tapering ra-
ther suddenly to form the tail. Its back is straighter than
that of the Attihhawmegh, and seldom gibbous. . Its depth
is one-third of its length. The body is compressed; the
belly is obtuse; the back rather more acute; the greatest
diameter near the lateral lme. The daieral line is straight,
until it nearly reaches the adipose fin, when it makes a very
slight curvature upwards.

The colour of the whole body, when held opposite to thie
light, is silvery, with much lustre. In the shade, the back
is greenish-grey, the belly white, and the sides of interme-
diate colours. The fins are bluish-grey; the opercula,
cheeks, and irides, silvery. The scales are oblong, half an
inch long, and of nearly uniform size over the whole body.
The vertex is covered with a soft, smooth, bluish-grey skin.

The head is small, and, when viewed sideways, appears
conical. The snout is short, and, when the jaws are open,
appears truncated. In a dried specimen it looks rather
pointed.

The mouth is smaller ; and the lips, when open, project
in a‘still less degree beyond the snout than those of the
Attihhawmegh.. Its orifice is transverse. The lower jaw
is very slightly longer than the upper one, and has a small
knob at its:symphysis.in the male, which is received into a
depression,. produced. in the upper one by the smaliness and
recession of the intermaxillary. bones.

The teeth on the jaws, if any, are too small to be felt:
The tongue is heart-shaped). soft on the edges; but there
is.a small plate in its centre set with minute teeth.

fey

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 517

The bronchial arches are set with solitary rows of long
awl-shaped cartilaginous processes, serrated on their inner
sides with two rows of minute teeth. The central processes
of the upper arch are half an inch long, those en the other
arches are smaller.

The cesophagus is short, and distinguished from the sto-
mach by its white colour, and glandular appearance. Its
internal membrane forms six large longitudinal ruge. The
stomach descends in a straight line from the cesophagus, for
about an inch and a half; it is then bent upon itself, and
runs upwards towards the septum, and terminates in the
first intestine. The descending portion of the stomach is
slender, the ascending part more dilated; both are lined
by a continuation of the internal membrane of the cesopha-
gus, and exhibit the same number of ruge. This mem-
brane is thick, and forms a projecting ring at the pylorus,
where it evidently terminates. The ascending portion of
the stomach differs remarkably from the same part in the
Attihhawmegh, in the comparative thinness ef its coats.
Beyond the pylorus there is a sac of the same diameter
with the fundus of the stomach, and like it directed up-
wards. It is lined by a firm, somewhat glandular mem-
brane, perforated by the orifices of numerous ceca. At
the bottom of this sac, the alimentary canal is again bent

upon itself, and runs downwards in a straight line to the
anus. In the upper part of this course the canal is slender,
with delicate coats, and no rug: in the lower part, its
diameter becomes greater, and its lining is disposed in cir-
cular plicze, of a bright red colour, similar to the same part
of the Attihhawmegh. About an inch of intestine next the
anus is smooth, and somewhat dilated. There is no PaGEET
valve at the rectum.

There are about 120 caca inserted into the sac above
mentioned, and into the gut a short way below it. The

518 ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES

liver is triangular, with the apex directed downwards, and
a small lobe at the upper end. The gall-bladder is large,
being nearly half the size of the liver. The gall-bladder is
a little dilated at its termination, and terminates in the sac
with the caeca. The spleen is long and large. The milt is
of a wood-brown colour. |

Ba8sPol6y V. 123.) AbI2) Delay,

Dimensions of an individual of the ordinary size.

Length, exclusive of caudal fin, - - 14 inches.
from snout toanus, - - - 114
Depth where greatest, - - - - - 943
Length of gut from pylorus to anus, - 9
of stomach and cesophagus, - 24.
Whole length of intestinal canal, - - 114

The habits and food of this fish appear to differ but
little from those of the Attihhawmegh, notwithstanding the
great difference in the structure of their stomachs. It is
inferior to that fish as an article of food, and 1s compara-
tively rare. | gies

It is found in most of the lakes, and we caught some
very fine ones in the sea at the mouth of the Copper-Mine
River.

Hiopon Cropauis. Gold Hye.

The Canadian voyagers have long known this fish by
the name of Naccaysh, the English fur-traders by that of
Gold Eye; yet, from its being confined to the mland lakes,
it does not appear to have been sent to Forster or Hearne,
to whose investigations we owe all that is known respecting
the Hudson’s Bay fish. Its Cree name is Oweepeetcheesees.
M. Le Sueur having met with it im the northern parts of
the United States, constructed a new generic character *

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 519

_ for its reception,—a distinction which it well merits, as the
‘want of an adipose fin, exclusive of differences in internal
structure, keep it separate from the already heterogeneous
Linnean genus ‘Salmo; and its organisation renders it
equally unfit to unite with E'sow, the only other genus with
which it has any affinity.

Shape.—When viewed laterally, the outline of the fish,
exclusive of the tail, is nearly oval, the curvature of the
belly being a little greater than that ef the back. The tail
lies nearer the plane of the back than of the belly, and is
much narrower than the body ; hence it is-connected at the
anus with the curve of the belly by a sudden and very con-
siderable slope, the whole of which is occupied by the anal
fin. The body is greatly compressed. Its greatest thick-
ness is just above the lateral line, or near the back. ~'The
belly has a very acute edge, free from serratures; the back
is also acute, but in a less degree.

The lateral line lies nearer to the back than to the belly.
It continues straight from the operculum till it passes the
dorsal fin, when it is slightly deflected.

Colour.—The body has a silvery colour, with much
lustre.

The scales are irregularly orbicular, and large, being
about half an inch in diameter. The membrane that covers
their bases has a bluish-grey colour.

The head is much compressed, and sideways appears
conical, with an obtuse snout. There are no scales on the
vertex, but the occiput is covered with a large scale on each
side. The irides and sides of the head are tinged with
honey-yellow, and have much nacry lustre. ‘The infra-
orbitar bones have in the aggregate a nearly circular out-

* Hiodon, Ve Sueur, ‘ Journal of Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia,’
vol. i. p. 367. tab. 14.

520 ACCOUNT OF SOME FISHES

line, and cover the whole cheek. The pree-operculum tri-
angular, larger and stronger than the operculum, curves
down upon the bronchiostegous membrane, and has a pearly
lustre. A narrow, somewhat cartilaginous, border forms
the posterior rounded margin of the operculum.

The eye is large, and its orbit approaches. very near the
margin. of the mouth.

The nostrils are double, and placed above the Lah, of
the eye, near the extremity of the snout. The valve of the
posterior nostril is formed out of the membranous border of
the anterior one. 2

The mouth is large for the size of the Head, -and its orl-
fice descends obliquely downwards.. When the jaws are
extended, the upper one is nearly vertical, forming an angle
of 70° with the lower one, which stands horizontally, and
consequently appears the longer of the two. The maxil-
laries enter rather more largely into the composition of the
margin of the mouth than the intermaxillaries. Both are
narrow: the former linear, nearly immoveable, and articu-
lated. with the latter, whose somewhat dilated: extremities,
project a little over the lower jaw, and move slightly for-
wards when the mouth opens.

Leeth.— The upper jaw is armed with a single row of
conical teeth, the intermaxillary ones being considerably
the largest. The lower jaw is strong, Sardi armed: with a
double row of conical teeth, having their points directed
backwards. Betwixt these two rows there is a narrow, bony:
surface, rough, with minute teeth. The vomer projects
from the roof of the mouth, and is armed, like the lower
jaw, with rows of strong conical teeth, and intermediate
card-like plates. The palatine bones are rough, with mi-
nute teeth. The largest teeth of all are hook-shaped, and.
situate upon the margin of the tongue.. The centre of the

OBSERVED IN THE NORTH POLAR SEA. 521

tongue is covered with small hook-shaped teeth, simul
crowded. | |

The bronchiostegous membranes are thick, and the left
one overlaps the right at their insertion into the root of the
tongue ; they contain each nine small cylindrical rays. The
gill-openings are large. The bronchial arches are furnished
with double rows of club-shaped cartilaginous processes,
rough with teeth. ‘The posterior extremities of the arches
are connected by soft membrane, the anterior ones by car-
tilages. At both extremities there are slight plates covered
with small teeth.

Intestines. —The cesophagus, an inch long, is distin-
guished. from the stomach by its more delicate and whiter
rugz. The stomach is a long sac, which makes a curve at
its fundus. Its internal membrane forms nine or ten large
longitudinal rugee, of a reddish colour. The pylorus is
very distinct, bemg much contracted. The gut is nearly
of equal diameter throughout, except immediately below
the pylorus, where it is dilated. Into this dilated part the |
gall-duct opens on the one side, and a short, wide, obtuse .
czecum on the other. This solitary caecum is three-fourths
of an inch long. ‘The internal membrane of the gut is soft
and villous, without regular rugze or plicee. There is no
distinct rectum. The intestines make one convolution. ‘The
faeces have a honey-yellow colour. The liver is lingue-
form, lies on the right side, with a small lobe on the left,
and has a reddish-orange colour. There are two small
spleens. ‘The air-bladder is capacious, and communicates
with the cesophagus. ‘The kidneys are thickly spotted with
dark-brown specks on a bluish-grey ground. 'The lining
of the abdomen is of a pearly colour, the roe of a pure
white. |

Fins.—The dorsal jin, placed where the back slopes
down to form the tail, and beginning opposite to the com.

522 FISHES OF THE NORTH POLAR SEA.

mencement of the anal fin, is somewhat quadrangular, more
elevated, however, anteriorly. It contains eleven rays, the
first of which is short and simple; the second, which is the
tallest in the fin, is also simple; the rest become gradually
more forked and shorter as they recede backwards; the
last is divided nearly to the base. The pectorals are some-
what pointed, and have twelve rays, of which. the first is
longer and stronger than the others, the posterior ones be-
coming gradually smaller. The ventrals somewhat fan-
shaped, and of a moderate size, have seven forked rays.
The anal fin is long, and occupies the long slope which the
tail forms to unite with the belly at the anus. It becomes
gradually narrower posteriorly, has a slightly waved mar-
gin, and contains thirty-four rays, of which the first is short,
and covers the base of the second, which is the longest in
the fin. They are all, except the first, more or less forked.
The caudal fin is crescentic: the lower lobe rather larger
than the upper one. It contains eighteen rays, the base of
the outer ones supported on each side by six or seven
smaller ones. |

Prd 2, Delly cde S4ic Vs Vy Ge Bah
Dimensions of an individual.

Length, exclusive of the caudal fin, - 14 inches.
¢~—.tO ANUS, jhe 7 Seale a
Depth, - ? - - - 455) 4
This fish resembles the small trouts in its habits. It is
caught, at Cumberland House only in the spring. The
specimens we saw there agree very weil in general with the

figure of Le Sueur above quoted, but the tail of his speci-
mens appears to have been more forked, the mouth does
not dreop so much, and. section, Fig. 2. 1s much more ob-
tuse, both above and below, than in ours. In the Owee-
peetcheesees the belly is much compressed, and very acute.

CTL a

XXXI.—Observations on the Habits, Appear-’
ance, and Anatomical Structure of the: Bird
named The Trumpeter, Psophia ee of

Lixnaus, Agami of Cuvier.

By. Bab ats pain Trait, M.D. E. R. 8. E.
M. W.5. &c. :

(Read 12th November 1825.)

A LIVING specimen of this simgular bird having been:sent
from Demerara by my friend Charles 8. Parker junior,
Esq., a zealous and accomplished naturalist, I had a favour-
able opportunity, in the summer of 1824, of noticing its
habits. An accident which caused its death soon enabled
me to examine its internal structure; and I detected so
-remarkable a peculiarity in the formation of its bronchial
tubes, that I laid an account of it before the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Liverpool, at the first meeting in
October. Unwilling, however, to publish an account of
this remarkable structure from a single dissection, I wrote
toa young friend in Demerara to procure living specimens
of the bird, and two were lately sent to me from that colo-
ny. Of these one died on the passage, and was immediate-
ly put into a small cask with rum; the other lived until
the ship arrived, but died’ on that day, and was examined

524 HABITS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE

a few hours after death. The most careful dissection of the ©
organs of respiration in both birds, in which I was assisted
by Dr Williams, completely confirmed the discovery which
I had made, a year ago, of the direct communication be-
tween the trachea and great air-cells in the Trumpeter.
This structure I shall fully explain, after a few remarks on
the general appearance of the living bird.

The external appearance differs little from the concise
descriptions given by Latham and Cuvier; but Latham’s
figure represents the bird much too erect; for it usually
carried its neck arched below, and its shoulders elevated
above the bend of the neck, something in the manner of a
heron. :

In the first specimen examined, I found the beak of a
deep-brown colour, and the upper mandible a little shorter
than the lower; but this was evidently the effect of a hurt
it had received some time before. . The beaks of the other
two specimens were dark-brown, streaked with deep-green.
The upper mandible projected beyond the lower about ith
of an inch; it was arched and pointed, but the extremity. _
was a little rounded, though with sharp edges. The nos:

trils are large, oval, pervious, and slightly covered above
and behind by a blackish membrane. The eye is large,
and of aclear bluish-black colour. Dr Latham describes
_ the iris as of a luteous-brown, but in my specimens it was
not. so; the iris, im the living and in the recently dead
bird, beimg with difficulty distinguishable from the pupil.

‘The shield of brilliant feathers on the breast was con-
spicuous in them all, though two were females; but the
colour had more of the iridescent hues of tempered steel
than of the golden tint described by some authors. The
feathers of the head and neck are velvet-black, soft and
curled; the feathers on the shoulders, and breast below the
shield, are long, slender, and more coarse! The scapulars

» OF THE TRUMPETER BIRD. 595

descend considerably on the back, and near their extremi-
ties partake of that rufous ash colour which has been bY
some ornithologists termed testaceous.

The wings are short and’ concave.. The spurious wing
has four stout feathers. The primaries are 14, of a deep-
brown colour, with blackish shafts; but they are nearly
equalled by the ten secondary feathers, which are of a fine
ash-erey, and, folding over the upper parts of the bird,
give its back and rump this colour, when the wings are
closed. ‘The wing covers are black.

The tail is sie, consisting of ten black feathers, ae
longest of which do not exceed four inches.

The feathers on the back, rump, and whole under parts
of the bird, are black, long and narrow. ‘The feathers de-
scend on the legs to within 13 inch of the tarsal joint, com-
monly called the knee of a bird.

The tarsus is long and slender; and the bone, though
strong, breaks into many fragments when fractured. The
legs and feet are covered by a dense skin, of a fine apple-
ereen colour. The hind part of the tarsus is protected by
large scales, which are clouded with deep brown spots. The
inner toe is connected to the middle one, by a strong mem-
brane extending to the first jomt. The hind toe is rather
small. The claws are blackish, incurved, compressed, and
sharp; the middle one, which, measured along its curva-
ture, is fully half an inch in length, is slightly grooved on
the inside of its lower surface, and has a sharp edge.

The social habits of this bird made the living specimen
a favourite with its owner. It often accompanied the
different members of the family in their walks; and, if any
one attempted to avoid it by running, it speedily overtook
_ the fugitive, aiding the action of its long legs by flapping
its wings. It would eat from the hand, and readily fed on

bread, boiled potatoes, or seeds; but it seemed most eager

1

526 HABITS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE

inits search after msects and worms. \ This occupation it
pursued with such intensity, while the gardener was turn-
ing up the soil,as sometimes to endanger its:head from the
stroke of the spade. It delighted to wade in pools of water;
and was often observed to plunge its head below the: sur-
face, seemingly in quest of prey. 7

Latham has placed the Psophia among sat: Gicdielbonils
but Cuvier, with greater propriety, has included: it in his
order of Echassiers, the Gralle of Linnzeus; to which: the
habits of the bird, and its external form (with the excep-
tion of its head), are more analogous. ‘his idea acquires
further confirmation from the very little fat between. the
skin and muscles of this bird, as well as the extreme diffi-
culty I found in separating them. In all my specimens,
though apparently healthy, there was no fat te be seen be-
tween the skin and muscles, except a. very little about, the
rump; yet in two of them there was a considerable accu-
mulation of fat among the intestines, shewing that they were
not emaciated.

The gullet of the Psophia is strongly muscular; its gi
zard small, muscular, and, when recent, its mternal coat is
rugous, and is lined with a grass-green viscid fluid. The
liver is large, covering the greatest part of the other viscera.
The intestines are cylindrical, and nearly equal the narrow-
est part of the gullet in diameter ; the cloaca is but slightly
dilated. The coats of the intestines are thick and strong;
they come off at right angles from the middle of the nght
side of the gizzard. In the two females the oviducts were
short; the ovaries distinct, but not developed.

The transparent partitions of the great air-cells are re-
markably tough in this bird, and communicate with each
other in the usual manner. The external surfaces, of the
lungs are perforated by holes visible to the naked eye, and
pervious to air.

OF THE TRUMPETER BIRD. 527

The very.peculiar cryiof this bird has long been known
to naturalists::) When caressed, the living individual, from
which this description is taken, uttered a deep basso sound,
which may be tolerably represented by the — syllables
ouz, out, ot, and which seemed to proceed from the inte-
rior of its body. This cry was occasionally preceded by a
shriller note, which appeared to proceed from the mouth ;
but it was almost always followed by the deep internal
sound above mentioned, that may be considered as the
ordinary voice of the bird. During its emission, the man-
dibles were slightly separated, and the muscles of the belly
were observed to be thrown into strong action, though
without any convulsive effort.

It can only be from inattention that any naturalist could
describe the sounds as emitted per anum, an idea from
which the bird has derived its absurd trivial name. This
appellation I would propose to change for a more suitable
name, viz, Psophia loricata, or P. clypeata, in allusion to
the breastplate or shield of beautiful feathers, so conspicu-
‘ous on this bird:- ‘The voice is formed within the body,
and seems to’ proceed from its interior ; so that the Psophia
may be'considered as a true ventriloquist.

Though the extraordinary sounds emitted by the Tal
peter have attracted notice, I am not aware that any ana-
tomist has hitherto investigated the structure of its organs
of voice. ‘I therefore readily availed myself of the first op-
portunity of examining its internal structure, and have found
my first observations confirmed, after the interval of a year,
by two other dissections.

On carefully dividing the ribs, and raising up the ster-
num, the respiratory organs were exposed to view; and I
soon perceived that the’ bronchial tubes, instead of being
united all round to the lower end of the trachea, so as to
form with it continuous tubes, had each a considerable

528 HABITS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE

aperture on their approximate sides; which opening com-
municated directly with the great air-cells of the cavity
containing the heart and other viscera of the bird.

This deviation from the usual structure is not very ob-
vious to the eye, until the attachment of one of the bron-
chial tubes to the lungs 1s divided, and turned back ; when
the septum of the lower end of the trachea is distinctly seen,
fringed with a firm but delicate membrane, which is quite
separated from that forming the approximate sides of the
bronchial tubes; and a probe can be at once passed into
the bronchial tubes, without the rupture of any membrane.
In dissecting the recent specimen, on 6th August 1825,
when the lungs and bronchial tubes were still a sttu, and
merely exposed to view, I placed the whole under the sur-
face of water; and on blowing into the trachea, the air was
seen to pass through these openings on the inner sides of
the bronchial tubes. A fine bristle, blunted at the extre-
mity by burning, was introduced into these openings, and
afterwards they were found sufficient to admit a large silver
probe. On 13th August the specimen preserved in spirits
was carefully opened, in the presence of Dr Williams, in a
somewhat different manner. After exposing the inside of
the thorax, the heart was dissected away, and the bronchial
tubes remained in their natural situation. We found a
small cell freely communicating with the great air-cells,
formed by a transparent membrane stretched over the
bronchial tubes ; while through it we could distinctly per-
ceive the patulous openings in the bronchial tubes, kept
distended by the rings of these tubes, so as to receive a
portion of either air or water passing from the trachea; as
we ascertained by placing the whole in a basin with water.

It would not be easy to represent in a drawing these
apertures in the natural position of the bronchial tubes;
but their appearance, when the tubes and trachea are m-

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OF THE TRUMPETER BIRD. 529

verted, is shewn at Fig. 2., and still better at Fig. 3. Plate
XVI. The drawing, ie 1., is of the size of nature; the
parts are seen in their true position, having been taken while
the subject was recent, and before the tubes were displaced.

The glottis or upper larynx of the 'l'rumpeter presents
nothing remarkable. The general form of the trachea is
conical,—a shape (as remarked by Cuvier in his admirable
Dissertation on the Voice of Birds) which is usually the
index of an unmusical voice; whereas the cylindrical tra-
chea belongs to songsters, and other birds possessing what
he calls une voix jlutée. The windpipe of the Trumpeter
is very slightly dilated, about an inch before it enters the
thorax, when it contracts a little, and rather suddenly.
Each ring, when closely examined, consists of two carti-
lages joined firmly together at the sides of the trachea,—a
structure not readily detected, until the wimdpipe has been
macerated in water for some time. The rings are firm, and
lie close to each other; yet the trachea is capable of con-
siderable elongation, from the simultaneous action of the
mylo-hyoideus, sterno-trachealis, and upsilo - trachealis
muscles. On emerging from the thorax, the trachea first
passes along the front, and then to the right side of the
lower curvature of the neck, for about four inches; when
it again stretches toward the forepart of the neck, before it
reaches the head of the bird.

The lowest cartilage of the trachea is firm, almost bony ;
its lateral portions have an obtuse triangular form, with
minute projections at the extremities, where they meet the
bony septum of the lower larynx. This septum is thin,

ts

and about ,';th of ar an inch in depth, dividing the extremity

Oo 0 tw : 0 acutely oval foramina, rather more

than 0. 8 inch in length, and 0.1 inch in their ereatest dia-

_ meter. Each side of the septum supports a thin, strong,

~ membranous plate or fringe, about 0.1 inch i in breadtle
VOL. V. 3 Wl ee l

530 HABITS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE

which appears to be a continuation of the membrane lining
the trachea; but which is quite divided from the membrane
forming the approximate sides of the bronchial tubes *.
The bronchial tubes have slender cartilages, that do not
extend more than two-thirds around their circumference,
even at their upper extremity. ‘The approximate side of
each tube, as is usually the case m birds, consists of a thin
membrane, which is named by Cuvier membrane tympani-
forme ; but in the Psophia it can scarcely deserve that ap-
pellation, for, mstead of uniting the trachea and bronchial
tubes into continuous canals, as in other birds, the upper
edge of the membrane forming the bronchial tubes is not
continued to the end of the trachea, but allows an opening
into each tube, sufficient to admit with ease a common
probe,——by which a portion of the air passing from the
trachea can find its way into the great air-cells, without

previously passing through the lungs. The elasticity of the

bronchial cartilages is sufficient to keep these openings so
distended, that air at the same time passes into the lungs
through the bronchial tubes: as may be seen in the pre-
paration I have made of one of the birds. '

It seems probable, from a consideration of the structure.
of the organs of voice and respiration in the Trumpeter,
that the living bird has the power of regulating, in some
degree, the relative quantity of air which shall pass in either
direction, by the action of the sterno-trachealis and upsilo-
trachealis muscles, aided by the contractility of a very mi-
nute pair of muscles (represented in Fig. 1. 4, 6), arising
from the lower rings of the trachea, and inserted into the

* I may remark, that the whole lower larynx of the Trumpeter, with

the exception of the apertures in the bronchial tubes, has a striking resem-
blance to the corresponding organs in the Whimbrel, Scolopax iaopisitd
specimen of which I dissected about the same time as the first Trumpeter.”

OF THE TRUMPETER BIRD. 534

upper cartilage of the bronchial ‘tubes. The bronchial
tubes perforate the lungs in the usual manner; and the
surface of the lungs exhibits to the eye numerous small
perforations communicating with the great air-cells.

The extraordinary structure of the lower larynx in the
Psophia, cannot fail to have much influence on its voice.
The excellent description which Cuvier has given of the
mechanism of the organs of voice in birds, and his very
decisive experiments, leave it not doubtful that the lower

larynx is the organ by which the sound is produced, al-

though the modifications of its tone are influenced by the
length and form of the trachea, and the contractions and

dilatations of the upper larynx. The lower larynx may be

considered, in relation to the organs of voice in birds, as
the mouth-piece to the clarionet or flageolet,—the part
where the sounds are formed ; while the elongation of the
trachea, or the contraction of the rima glottidis, merely

vary the intensity of the intonation ; just as lengthening a

flute, by means of its sliding joint, deepens its tone; or as
the hand of the player introduced mto the expanded ex-

tremity of a French horn, affects the tension of the notes of

that instrument.

In the bird now under consideration, the division of the
aérial current must weaken its force, and the vibrations of
the membranes of the lower larynx will therefore be less

quickly performed, and, consequently, the voice of the bird
reduced to a lower key, than if the current of air had acted
in an undivided stream.

The ventriloquism of the Psophia appeared to'me to be

: performed during inspiration; and it has been alleged,

that persons who have acquired this curious faculty, utter

their words during the act of receiving air into the lungs,

whenever they wish to exhibit their art. The powerful
Eig

532 HABITS, &c. OF THE TRUMPETER.

action of the muscles of the bird, when it uttered its pecu-
liar cry, rendered it very difficult to ascertain this poimt
with certainty ; but it is not difficult to conceive how the
voice, formed deeply within the body, would be materially

affected by the direct communication of the windpipe with |

the great air-cells of this simgular bird.
eer

Description of the Drawing, Plate XVI.

Fig. I. Opened thorax of the Ronan , of the natural —

size.
a, Dilated portion of the trachea.
5, 6, A small muscle tending to draw up fe
~ bronchial tubes.
c, c, 'The bronchial tubes.
d, The heart in satu.
2, The inverted trachea and bronchial tubes, shew-
ing the openings into the bronchial tubes,
3. Magnified view. of the two bronchial tubes, ¢, e.
J; The membrane forming their aro
sides.
8, 8, The bony septum dividing shee lower part
of the trachea.

kh, The membranous plates which fringe je

sides of the septum.

LivERPooL,

August 13. 1825..

4s,» olan a Raliass

( 533)

XXXI1.— Memoir on the Classification and Di-
vision of Gnaphalium and Xeranthemum of

DLINNAUS.

By Mr Davin Don,

‘Librarian to the Linnean Society, &c. &c.

Tv ust be admitted, that, notwithstanding the highly
important labours of Brown, Cassini, Decandolle, and
Kunth, much still remains to be done in the class of}
plants denominated Composite. In extensive genera, it
very frequently happens, that numbers of species are in-
cluded, having little affinity with those on which the genera
were founded. This is eminently the case with Gnapha-
lium and Xeranthemum. We are not to be surprised, if our
great master, Linnaus, has fallen sometimes into this error,
—if we consider the scanty materials he had to work on,
often being obliged to have recourse to figures, and these
not the most faithful; but there is no reason why botanists
Should still continue these unnatural arrangements. The
characters given by Linnzus himself of Gnaphalium and
Aecranthemum will be found to apply to a few only of the
species which have been referred to these two genera,

5384 ‘CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

The adoption by Willdenow of the genus Elichrysum of
‘Tournefort, so far from lessening, only served to increase
the confusion previously existing. Willdenow assumed, as
the basis of his genus, an erroneous character, namely,
“ receptaculum nudum,” which can only refer to a very
small portion of his Hiichrysa. Our distinguished coun-
fryman Mr Brown was the first to attempt a proper limita-
tion of these genera, in a paper entitled, “ Observations on
the natural Family of Plants called Composite,” mserted
in the 12th volume of the Transactions of the Linnean
Society. The reading of this admirable paper first led me
to an examination of these genera, and the divisions I shall
have to propose in the sequel, are the result of that investi-
gation ; but convinced that the subject is not yet exhausted,
I give some of these divisions, with considerable diffidence,
and I shall feel happy, if such of my botanical readers as
possess the opportunities, will extend the research, and con-
firm the observations which I have made.

Before entering on the particular subject of this memorr,
it will be perhaps advantageous to give some remarks illus-
trative of Composite in general. The Composite of all
known families of plants are the most natural, and the most
extensively distributed over the surface of the globe. In the
Flora of almost every country, whether situate without or
within the Tropics, they are found to constitute nearly a
tenth of the Phanogamous Vegetation *. From this exten-
sive distribution of the Composite has resulted the apparent
necessity of dividing them into divers separate groups or
families; and hence we find in the writings of the earliest
systematic botanists, from Czesalpinus down to the present
time, that various attempts have been made to divide them.

* In tropical countries possessing great diversity of surface, such, for ex-
ample, as South America, the proportion is considerably greater.

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 535

Even a superficial observer cannot but be struck with the
apparent discrepancies between certain groups of the Com-
posite ; but let him examine these groups in detail, and
these differences at once vanish: for in no class is a uniform
chain of natural affinities so beautifully exemplified as in
the Composite. . Here we observe no breaks in the series
of natural affinities. If interruptions, therefore, in the
chain of affinities exist, and we know they do exist in other
families, they are not to be found in this, where the various
groups are so intimately connected, so blended together at
their extremities, that it is next to impossible to define their
limits. . This is universally the case in all truly natural
families. 'The more a family becomes known, the more
difficulty attends its separation into groups.
3 The end of all divisions in extensive families being prac-
tical utility, it 1s not merely necessary to group together
the various genera according to their respective affinities to
a particular genus, which is assumed as the type of each
separate group; but it is likewise necessary, in order to
render such divisions subservient to practical use, that each
group be limited by certain characters peculiar to each,
Keeping this in view, therefore, we observe that, whatever
divisions are adopted in the Composite, they can only,
strictly speaking, be regarded as merely artificial. The
amportant labours of M. Henri Cassini have thrown great
light on this class of plants. If this distinguished botanist
+has erred, it is in forming too many divisions, and in sepa-
rating genera, which nature evidently intended should not
tbe disjoined. That Gnaphalium, which M. Cassini has
yplaced among his Jnulee, and Xeranthemum, of which
the same distinguished botanist has constituted a distinct
group, named by him Yeranthemee, possess all the es-
sential characters of the Carduacee, must be evident te
every one who has turned his attention to the subject.
All of them possess tubular florets, bicaudate anthers,

5386 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

alternate leaves, anda large proportion of them havea:
paleaceous receptacle, and the rays: of the pappus con-
nected at the base,—all of which appear: imcontestibly to.
prove that they cannot with propriety ‘be ‘removed from
the Carduacee.; but it is, however, to be observed, that:
the latter have the tube of their: florets suddenly con-
tracted from near the middle downwards; while in Gna
phalium and Helichrysum, and im the other genera which
have been separated from them, the tube of the florets 1s |
nearly equal, or gradually narrowed downwards from the
summit to the base, as in the Carlinee of M. Cassini.
This character, although perhaps of generic importance,
cannot be assumed as the foundation of a separate group,
being liable to considerable variation. Thus, for example,
Cnicus Acarna, Carduus cernuus *, Carthamus tinctorius,
and Carduus uniflorus, agree with the Carlinece in the form
of their florets; and in Cnicus serratuloides, Carduus cya-
nodes and palustris, the contraction of the tube is scarcely
perceptible. In Xeranthemum and Chardinia the tube of
the florets is widened towards the base, and contracted up-
wards. Had the form and structure of the stigmas in Heli-
chrysum, Gnaphahum, &c. been uniformly constant, they
would have assisted materially in distinguishing them as a
separate group. ‘The genus Carlina agrees in its stigma
with Xeranthemum, and with Astelma of Brown, in having
the rays of its feathery seed-crown united into bundles for
a considerable way above the base. he similarity of the
pappus of Acarna to that of Metalasia, is equally striking.
In Carlina acaulis and simplex, as well as in Atractylis
gummifera, which really belongs to Carlina, the rays of
the pappus are so remarkably thickened at their extremi-

* This plant M. Cassini has constituted into a genus, named by him dl-
freca, and has arranged it among the Carlinec,

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 537

ties, that they might readily be mistaken for. the stigmas,
which are far iar conspicuous. ‘This isalso the case with:
the Carlina echinus, the Echinus mutans: of Cassini; but.
in it the rays of the pappus are unconnected. at ithe base,
and the figure of the. florets, as in Cnicus, Carduus, &e.
In the Carlina vulgaris and corymbosa, the. rays of the
pappus end in a naked: thorny pomt.. The Jnulee of M.
Cassini, limited to Znwla and Coryza, will possess sufficient
marks in their herbaceous involucrum, and:in having ligu-
late florets in the ray, to keep them distinct. Bupthalmum,
referred by M. Cassini. to Inulee, belongs to: the Heian.
thee, and Carpesium to the dainbsiesdaie i a
We have seen, therefore, the intimate affinity that exists
between the true Carduacee and the plants referred. to
Gnaphalium and Xeranthemum of Linnzus... In compar-
ing the Eupatoree of Cassini, to which the Vernoniacee of |
the same distinguished botanist must be reduced, with the
_ Carduacee, we shall find the affinity almost. equally inti-
mate. The former group differs from the latter im the,ab-
sence of setze at the base of the anthers. In Liatris and
Pieronia, which belong to the Eupatoree, the involucrum
is analogous, especially in Liairis elegans, where it is fur-
nished with long, lanceolate, acute, purple rays, like those
of Xeranthemum. In Liatris also, the rays of the feathered
seed-crown are united at the base; and both it and Picronsa
have lanceolate stigmas analogous to those of some species
of Serratula. If we turn our investigation. to the Labiati-
_ flore, we shall meet with similar results... Let us compare,
for example, Xeranthemwm, in which the marginal florets
are evidently bilabiate, the anthers bicaudate at the base,
and we shall find. how closely these characters. bri ing it to
the Labiatiflore *, The genus Catananche, which belongs

“ In some of the normal group of Carduacee, we find the limb of the

florets irregular,—and in Carduus Martanus, the genus Silybum of Mench,
it is evidently bilabiate.

538 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

undoubtedly to the Cichoracew, agrees in every respect,
both in habit and character, with Xeranthemum, except in
the florets being all ligulate. The anthers, although not
bicaudate at the base, cannot be regarded as entirely naked,
being furnished with two small teeth. This is more dis-
tinctly observable in Scolymus, which, although belonging
sto the Cichoracce, has the habit of Carlina, The genus
Xeranthemum, therefore, brings these three groups cose
to each other, as it were, at right angles.
‘Although divisions im the extensive class of iConisositie
are absolutely necessary, in order to facilitate a knowledge
‘of the genera of which it is composed, yet, by the forego.
ing remarks, I have endeavoured, and I trust satisfactorily,
‘to shew that these divisions are to be regarded inno other
tight than as artificial; but although artificial, we must
_ savoid the unnatural division of genera. Reserving to a fu-
‘ture time the observations I have to make on the other
‘groups of Composite, I shall now proceed. to give charac-
ters of the genera I have to propose, adding at the end of
‘each such remarks in elucidation as may appear necessary.

XERANTHEMUM, Gerin. Desf.
XERANTHEMI sp. Linn. Willd.

Involucrum wnabricatum, scariosum, coloratum ; squamis
inierioribus simplici serie longe radiatis. Heceptaculum
planum: palets distinctis, crebris, ensiformibus. FVoscult
her maphroditt tubulosi, 5-dentati basi dilatataé coriacea ;
freminei paucissimi in ambitu, tubo coriaceo, 5-fidi, bila-
biati; Jabio eaxteriore bipartito, breviore. ’tlamenta om-
nino libera. Anthere basi setis 2 plumosis instructe. Stig-
ma clavatum, emarginatum. Achenia oblonga, tereti-angu-
lata, sericea ; Hosculis foemineis glabra, apice calva. Pappus
hermaphroditis hexaphyllus, paleaceus: padeis distinctis,
ex ovata basi cuspidatis, serrulatis.

Herbee (Europew) erect, TAMOsa, nies Tanabe vadice

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 539

anwud. Folia alterna, lanceolata, wntegerrima, uninervia.
Flores solitarii, pedunculati, magni, albi v. rosei. Stigma
flosculis feemineis integrum, longée exsertum.

_ To this genus belong Xeranthemum annuum and im-
aipertum of Willdenow, considered by Linneus as varieties
of one and the same species.

Although I have for the present followed the fatdlen,
in regarding these as distinct, yet I am very much inclined
to believe that they will be found to resolve into a single
species. J have already pointed out the numerous points
of agreement between this genus and Catananche, and that
the stigma has a striking analogy to the same organ in
Carlina, a circumstance which has been before observed. by
M. Cassini*. The tube of the florets in the Carduacee@ is
in general of an uniform consistence; but in this and the
following genus, the lower half of the tube is of a green
colour, thick and coriaceous, and the upper half thin, and
of a white colour. M. Desfontaines, although he notices it
in Chardinia, does not seem to have been aware of its ex-
istence in this genus. Although apparently a character of
cousiderable importance, M. Cassini does not notice it in his
character of the tribe Xeranthemee.

CHARDINIA, Desf:
XERANTHEMI sp.: Willd.

“”"Tncolucrum imbricatum, scariosum, coloratum, non ra-
dians. Receptaculum planum : paleis distinctis, Seal ell-
‘siformibus. Flosculi hermaphrodite tubulosi, 5-dentati:
tubus fere eequalis, ultra dimidium coriaceus ; Seeminet mar-
ginales, filiformes, tridentati. Wilamenta parte coriacea tubi
“connata, ultra eam libera ac monadelpha. Anthere@ basi
‘setis 2 plumosis instruct. Stigma clavatum, bilobum.

* Journ. Phys. 82. p. 127.

540 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

Achenia difformia; flosculis hermaphroditis oblonga, tere-
tia, sulcata, paleis pluribus (9-10) lanceolatis cuspidatis
coronata; foemineis obcordata, trialata, alis serratis mucro-
natis. i

» Herba (Orientalis) Janata, ramosa, radice annud. Folia
sparsa, elliptica, dentata. Flores magni, solitarit, pedun-
culati, albi. Wheel

This genus consists of but a solitary species, namely,
C. Xeranthemoides of Desfontaines, the Xeranthemum
ortentale of Willdenow, and the Xeranthemum orientale,

Sructu maximo of 'Tournefort. So little was it known to
Linnzus, that he did not even allow it the rank of a spe-
cies, being his variety y of Xeranthemum annuum. Al-
though these too genera have many points in common, yet
they severally possess abundant characters to keep them
distinct. 'The rayless involucrum, the form of the female
florets and seeds, the stamens being united to the tube of -
the florets, and the polyphyllous pappus, are the distinguish-
ing features of Chardinia. ‘The genus was established by
M. Desfontaines, who has given a very clear and satisfac-
tory account of it, as well as of Xeranthemum, in the third
volume of the “ Memoires du Muséum d’Histoire Natu-
relle.” The name is intended to commemorate the famous
Chardin, celebrated for his travels in Persia; and therefore
the old specific appellation orientale ought to be adopted,
in preference to the one proposed by M. Desfontaines. The
plant is a native of Armenia.

- LEUCOSTEMMA.
_Exicuryst sp. Gertn. Willd.
- XERANTHEMI sp. Linn.

Involucrum globosum, imbricatum, scaricsum, cclora-
tum: squamis omnibus subsequalibus, lanceolatis, acutis,

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. ‘Al

longé radiantibus. Receptaculum hemispheericum : paleis
- distinctis, lanceolatis, mucronatis, crebris.. 2 osculi: omnes
‘hermaphrodit, tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere. setis 2. plu-
mosis basi instructze. Stigma bipartitum : Jaciniis limea-
‘ribus, medio ‘canaliculatis, ‘apice ‘incrassatis’ truncatisque.
‘Achenia tetragona, papilloso-micantia. » Pappus radiis .ca-
pillaceis, basi in annulum connexis, apice incrassatis, dentt-
culatis. .. |

_ Frutices pale sustialien es ea tees Palin al-
terna, coriacea, marginata, sessilia. Pedunculi. squamis
-scariosis niveis Ularum. mvolucrt instar imstructt. — Flores.
_terminales, solitarii, magni, speciosi, papyracer, nitidt. ;

| A, LL. -vestitum, foliis linearibus acutis.
| Xeranthemum vestitum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1201.

Gnaphalium vestitum, Thunb. Prod. 148.
Elichrysum vestitum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1903.

Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spel. “Thunberg, Masadn.
Labillardiere, Niven. . (v. v.c. et s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

2. L. lingulatum, foliis lmgulatis obtusis.

Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Labillardiere. h. (v.
“gs, sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

_ Preecedenti affine, at folus triplo latioribus differt.

This beautiful and very distinct genus agrees with, the
two preceding genera, in having the receptacle thickly beset
with lanceolate, distinct, poimted paleze; but its capillary
_pappus, its parted stigma, and the uniformity and texture
of its florets, distinguish it essentially from both. The
brilliant white heads of flowers has suggested the name of
_Leucostemma, which I have applied to the genus. It is de-
rived from Asuxes, albus, and creepen, COrONA.

542 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION Or

ASTELMA, Brown.
GNAPHALII et XERANTHEMI sp. Linn.
Exicurysi sp. Willd.

Involucrum imbricatum, scariosum, coloratum, connivens
vy. radians. teceptaculum convexum, fayosum vy. subpalea-
tum. osculi omnes hermaphroditi, tubulosi, 5-dentati.
Anthere basi biplumate. Stigma bipartitum: lacinids li-
neari-lingulatis, obtusis. Pappus radiis plumosis, inferne
connatis.

Frutices (Africe australis) dense nivco-lanati. Folia al- —
terna, sessilia, integerrima, plana. Flores terminales, so-
litari v. corymbosi, magni, Speciosi, niver V. purpureo-
cocciner, aut aurer.

* Involucris conniventibus.
J. A. eximium, toliis ovatis acutis, corymbo simplici mul-
tifloro, involucris globosis: sguamis ovalibus obtusissimis. |

Astelma eximium, Brown in Bot, Reg. t. 532.
Gnaphalium eximium, Linn. Mant. 573.—Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. -p, 1849.

_ Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Edmundus Lambert,
Niven, Joannes Roxburgh. h. (v. v. c. et s. sp. in Herb.

Lamb.)
Involucra globosa, purpureo-coccinea, nitida. Recepta-
culum favosum.

‘This plant, Mr Lambert informs me, flowered for the
first time in England, at Mr Lee’s, Hammersmith, im the

year 1794.

2. A. milleflorwm, foliis ovato-lanceolatis mucronatis, co-
rymbis compositis patentissimis, involucris oblongts: squa-
mis oblongis apice rotundatis.

Gnaphalium milléflorum, Linn, Suppl. 362. — Thunb, Prod. 152. —
Willd, Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1860.

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 543

Hab. im planitie arida, ad ripas fluminis magni, in Pro-
montorio Bone Spe. Thunberg, Niven. h. (v.s. sp. in
Herb. Lamb.)

Planta 3-6-pedalis, ramosa, densé niveo-lanata. Corym-
bus amplus, indefinite multiflorus. Involucra oblonga, ni-
vea. Heceptaculum maxime favosum.

8. A. Stahelina, foliis lanceolatis basi attenuatis niveo-
tomentosis, pedunculis elongatis solitariis nudiusculis, invo-
lueri squamis ellipticis obtusis.

Xeranthemum Stehelina, Linn. Syst. Veg. 624.—Thunb. Prod. 153.
Elichrysum Stahelina, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1910.

Hab. in Promontorio Bonz Spei. Thunberg, Labillar-

diere, Jounnes Roxburgh. . (vy. s. sp. im Herb. Lamb.}

Involucra oblonga, aurea. Receptaculum subpaleatum.

4. A. orassifolium, folus ellipticis basi dilatatis niveo-
tomentosis, pedunculis elongatis solitariis nudiusculis, invo-
lucri squamis rotundatis.

Hab. in Promontorio Bonz Spei. Niven, Joannes Rox-
burgh. h. (v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Precedenti affine. Receptaculum etiam subpaleatum. *

** Involucris radiatis.

5. A. proteoides, foliis lanceolatis uninerviis, floribus soli-
tariis sessilibus, involucri squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis.
Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Joannes Roxburgh.
bh. (v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) iL9Y

y

Fruéex facie omnino Protea: v. Leucadendri, densé niveo-
lanatus. Fola bi- vy. tripollicaria. Flores magni, nivei

544 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

6. A. speciosissimum, foliis lanceolatis subtrinerviis;. pe-
dunculis elongatis solitarius nudiusculis, mvolucri squamis
ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis.

Xeranthemum speciosissimum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1202.—Thunb. Prod.-153.
Elichrysum speciosissimum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3, p. 1904.

Hab. in Montis Tabularu locis glareosis ad Promonto-
rium Bone Spei. Thunberg, Menzies, Niven, Joannes

Roxburgh. h. (v. v. c. et s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Flores maximi, nivel.

7. A. lineare, foliis lmearibus uninerviis utrinque lutes-
cente-lanatis, pedunculis elongatis solitartis nudiusculis, in-
volucri squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei. Joannes Rowburgh.
h. (v.s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Precedenti afiine. lores minores, nivei.

8. A. variegaium, folius lanceolatis acutis carinatis laxis-
~ @ % ry e e oy e ° oR
sime imbricatis saepiusque tortis margine apiceque rufis,
pedunculis solitariis, involucri squamis oblongis obtusis
‘apice extus atro-sanguineis. 3

Xeranthemum variegatum, J.inn. Syst. Veg. 624.—-Thunb. Prod. 153.
Elichrysum variegatum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1911.

f£ spirale, floribus majoribus.

Elichrysum spirale, Andrew’s Rep. t. 262.— Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1903.

Hab. in planitie sterili prope Caput Bonze Spei. Menzies,
Niven, Joannes Roxburgh. h. (v. v. c et s. sp. in Herb.
Lamb.)

- Rami seepe flexuosi. Jnvolucra maxima, nivea, extiis
preesertim apices squamarum versus atro-sanguinea. He-
ceptaculum planum, favoso-paleaceum.

9. A. imbricatum, foliis lanceolatis imbricatis tomentosis,
pedunculis solitariis squamosis, involucri squamis ovatis acu-
minatis,

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 545

Xeranthemum imbricatum, Linn, Ameen. Acad. 6. p- 100.—Thunb.
Prod. 153.
Elichrysum imbricatum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1905.

_ Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei. Thunbderg, Labil-
lardiere, Menzies, Joannes Roxburgh. h. (v. s. sp. in
Herb. Lamb.) ;

Involucra rosea. Receptaculum hemisphericum, proces-
sibus numerosis, subcarnosis mollibus instructum.

10. A. canescens, foliis ovatis imbricatis tomentosis, pe-
- dunculis solitariis squamosis, involucri squamis ovatis acutis.
Xeranthemum canescens, Linn. Amen, Acad. 6. p. 100,
Elichrysum canescens, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3, p. 1906.
Hab. m Promontorio Bone Spei. Menzies, Joannes
Roxburgh. bh. (v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

ficceptaculum ut in precedente, cui planta maxime affi-
nis est.

Mr Brown first constituted as a distinct genus, under the
name of Astelma, the Gnaphalium eximium of Linnzeus ;
but as the character given by Mr Brown, in the Botanical
Register, appears to be constructed solely from eximium, I
have found it necessary to give a new one, in order to in-
clude Gnaphalium milleflorum, and several species of Eli-
chrysum, which cannot be removed from this genus. ‘The
receptacle of Astelma eximium is by no means naked, but
it is distinctly honey-combed ; and the involucrum, in an
advanced state, becomes radiant like the 4. variegatum,
_although less decidedly so. There are many genera, which
are’ truly natural, included in this family, which afford nu-
merous instances, tending to shew that the involucrum,
whether radiant or connivent, is not a character of generic
importance in this tribe of plants. ‘The fundamental cha-
racter of Astelma, therefore, is to be found in the plumose

VOL. V M M1

546 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

pappus, whose rays are united for a considerable way above
the base, like that of Carlina, as we have already remarked.
I have placed at the end of the species A. imbricatum and
canescens, as they appear to form the link between Astelma
and the following genus.

APHELEXIS.

_ XERANTHEMI sp. Linn.
Evicurysi sp. Willd.

Involucrum campanulatum, laxé imbricatum, scariosum,
coloratum, longé radiatum. Receptaculwm planum, crebré—
paleaceum: palets rigidis, mucronatis, simplicibus, aut bi-
tripartitisve. FJosculi omnes hermaphroditi, tubulosi, 5-
dentati. Anthere basi biplumatee. Stigma bipartitum : laci-
niis recurvatis, apice incrassatis truncatisque. Pappi radiis
plumosis, basi connexis.

Suffrutices (Africee australis) ramosissimi. Rami vir-
gati, filiformes, unifiori niveo-lanati. Folia acerosa, supra
sulco exarata, nudiuscula, basi dilatata, sepius imbricata.
Flores solttarit, magni, nivei, purpuret v. sulphurei.

1. A. sesamoides, foliis omnibus trigonis adpressis, flori-
bus sessilibus, involucri squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis,
paleis linearibus simplicibus.

Xeranthemum sesamoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1203.—Thunb. Prod. 152.
Elichrysum sesamoides, Willd. Sp. PL 3. p. 1909.
& floribus purpureis.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei. Thunberg, Masson,
Niven, E. Lambert, Joannes Roxburgh. hh. (v. v.c. e
s. sp. « et @ in Herb. Lamb.)

Rami virgati, filiformes. Flores nivei, maximi.

2. A. fasciculata, foliis inferioribus filiformibus patulis;

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 547

rameis adpressis trigonis, pedunculis squamosis, involucri
squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis, paleis lanceolatis carinatis.

Xeranthemum fasciculatnm, Andrew’s Rep. t. 242.
Elichrysum fasciculatum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1909.
& floribus argenteis, Andr. 1. c. ¢. 279.

y floribus roseis.

Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Masson, Niven,
Joannes Roxburgh. h. (v. v. ¢. et &. sp. «, 8, ety, in
Herb. Lamb.)

Rami virgati, filiformes. Sola inferiore patula, 2-3-
pollicaria. Flores citrini. Palee simplices, aut bi- v. tri-
partitee.

3. A. filiformis, folus inferioribus filiformibus patulis;
rameis adpressis trigonis, floribus subsessilibus, involucri
squamis ellipticis obtusis, paleis lanceolatis carmatis.

Elichrysum filiforme, Hortulanis.
@ floribus roseis.
y floribus citrinis,

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei. Niven, Joannes
Roxburgh. h. (v. v. c. et s. sp. ¢, 6 et y in Herb. Lamb.)
Rami virgati, filiformes. Folia inferiora patula, 3-4-
pollicaria. Flores omnibus minores, argentei. Palee sim-
plices v. divise.

4. A. humilis, foliis teretibus erecto-patulis rigidis basi
laté dilatatis, pedunculis squamosis, involucri squamis ova-

tis acutis, receptaculo favoso.

Elichrysum humile, Andrew’s Rep. t. 652,
@ floribus niveis. ;

Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Masson, Labillardiere,
Niven. h. (v. v. c. et s. sp. @ et @ in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex humilior, rigidior. Folia breviora ac latiora, ri-
gida, erecto-patula. Flores rosei, speciosi.

Mm 2

548 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

The peculiar habit of the species which compose this
genus, would seem of itself sufficient to warrant its separa-
tion from the preceding. The shortness of the florets, when:
compared with the length of the scales, composing the bell-
shaped involucrum, and the receptacle being beset with ri-
gid, pointed pales, will serve to confirm the separation.
The rays of the seed-crown are merely united at the base.
The colour of the involucrum varies in the different species
from white to purple and yellow. The generic name, which
is intended to denote the remarkable simplicity of form ob-
servable in all the : species of this genus, I have derived from
aQerns, simplex, and ec, habitus.

EKUCHLORIS.
GNAPHALII sp. Linn.

Involucrum subrotundum, imbricatum, scariosum, colo-
ratum, connivens: sqwamis rotundo-ovalibus, membrana- -
ceis. Receptaculum paleis angulatis, retusis, rigidis, in co-
num conniventibus, basi coalitis crebré tectum. F¥oscult
omnes hermaphroditi, tubulosi, 5-dentati. -Anthere bast
biplumate. Stigma bipartitum: daciniis linearibus,. trun-
catis. Pappi radiis basi connexis, apice peniculatis.

Herba (Africze australis) perennis, sempervirens, nuda.
Caulis erectus, simplex, firmus, teres, superné aphyllus,
sesquipedalis. Folia, elliptico-oblonga, obtusa, 5-nervia, in-
tegerrima, uiringue nuda, viridia, coriacea, 3—4-pollicaria,
petiolata ; caulina amplexicaulia. Flores terminales, nume-
rosissimi, composite corymbosi, magnitudine Anteanarise
peak ee eu NEVER»

die, picifoles.
Gnaphalium nudifolium, Linn.

Hab. in Promontorio Bonz Spe. Roxburgh. Y. (v.s
sp. 10 Herb, Lamb.)

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 549

This plant is perfectly green, and entirely destitute of
‘the woolliness so peculiar to this tribe of plants. ‘The form
and disposition of the pales are sufficient to distinguish it.
The pappus resembles very much in structure that of the
male of Leontopodium, and of some species of Antennaria.
The generic name alludes to the smooth and green appear-
ance of the plant, and is derived from <, belle, and xaaeis,
viridis.

HELICHRYSUM.
HLIcuRysi et GNaPHALI sp. Walld.

Involucrum imbricatum, scariosum, coloratum, conni-
vens v. radiatum. eceptaculum nudum. flosculi omnes
hermaphroditi, tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere basi biplu-
mate. Stigma bipartitum: laciniis linearibus, apice in-
‘crassatis truncatisque. Pappi radiis capillaceis denticulatis
Vv. apice peniculatis, basi connexis v. solutis.

Herbee v. Frutices (Asie, Africee et Americee) plerum-
que niveo-tomentosi. Folia alterna, sessilia, patula. Flores
terminates, solitarie v. corymbosi, aurei, rosei, aut niver.

The genus Helichrysum, as here limited, is distinguished
by a naked receptacle, and a capillary seed-crown. It will
thus include a large proportion-of the Linnzean Gnaphalia.
In my Prodromus Flore Nepatensis, I had inadvertently
united with this genus the Astelma of Brown, although the
character there given could not include the latter genus.
In several species belonging to Helichryswm we find the
pappus has a striking analogy to the male pappus of Leon-

_topodiwm, and to some species of Antennaria. I have fol-

|
|
|

‘lowed Persoon in restoring the aspiration to the name; E/z-
chrysum, adopted by Willdenow, being contrary to analogy.
“The following are the species belonging to this genus, viz.

550 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

Elichrysum fulgidum Willd., bellidioides Willd., dealbatum
and. scorpioides Labill., bracteatwm and rigidum Andr.,
Helichrysum stoloniferum and elegans Prod. F1. Nep., Gna-
phaliwm arboreum L., srandifiorum L., fruticans 1... con-
gestum L., patulum L., ignescens L., Stachas L., petiola-
tum L., crassifolium L., capitellatum Thunb., ortentale 1..,
arenarium L., lavendulefolium Willd., rutilans L., cymo-
sum L., apiculatum Labill. ‘These are all of the published
species I have yet determined, owing to the vagueness of the
descriptions given by authors, and the want of good figures
to determine precisely the plants they intend. ‘There are,
besides, a great number of unpublished species from New
Holland and the Cape of Good Hope.

PENTATAXIS.

Involucrum oblongum, pauciflosculosum, pentagonum:
squamis coloratis, obtusis, adpressé 5-fariam imbricatis,
supra torum brevem digestis. Receptaculum parvum, fa-
vosum. Flosculi 5, hermaphrediti, tubulosi, 5-dentati. An-
there basi biplumate. Stigma bifidum, inclusum : laciniis
semicylindricis, truncatis. Pappus capillaris, serrulatus:
radiis basi connexis,

Suffrutex (Africae australis) erectus, ramosus, niveo-
lanatus. Rami elongati. Folia alterna, lanceolata, acuta,
amplexicaulia, margine integerrima, crispata. Corymbus
compositus, glomeratus, Achyranthis facie. Flores parv,
niver.

1. P. micrantha.

Hab. in Promontorio Bonz Spei. Labillardiere. h. (v.
s. sp. m Herb. Lamb.)

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 551

This genus is closely allied, both in habit and character,
to Cassinia of Brown, a genus peculiar to New Holland
and New Zealand. It differs, however, in having a honey-
combed receptacle, which in Cassinia is clothed with paleze,
resembling the mner scales of the involucrum. In Mr
Brown’s Ozothamnus, a genus very nearly related both to
Cassinia and Pentataxis, the receptacle is quite naked.
The curious arrangement of the scales of the involucrum in
our genus is also found in Cassinia quinquefaria of Brown,
and there the scales are likewise disposed in five series. To
this curious disposition of the scales of the involucrum, the
name I have given is intended to apply. It is composed of
mur, quinque, and rakes, series.

SPIRALEPIS.
GNnaPHALI sp. Thunb., Willd.

Involucrum polyphyllam, imbricatum ; sqguamis interio-
vibus in acumen longum subulatum recurvato-tortuosum
canaliculatum desinentibus, et radium revolutum, coloratum
efformantibus. Receptaculum parvum, nudum, scrobicula-
tum. Filosculi omnes hermaphroditi, tabulosi, 5-dentati.
Anthere basi biplumate. Stigma bipartitum: daciniis
apice incrassatis truncatisque. Pappus capillaris, niveus,
denticulatus, persistens: radiis basi solutis.

- Herbee (Africee australis) perennes, procumbentes, rame-
se, niveo-lanate. Folia alterna, sessilia, integerrima. F\c-
res glomerati, bracicati, albi, roses v. purpuret.

1. S. squarrosa, foliis lingulatis obtusis, capitulis con-
gestis multifloris, caule assurgente.

Gnaphalium squarrosum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1197.—Thunb. ‘Prod. 151
Jacq. Fragm. p. 6, t. 3. f. 4. (bona).—Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1877.

Hab. m Promontorio Bone Spei. Thunberg, Joannes
Roxburgh. ¥%. (v.s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

552 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

2. §. glomerata, foliis spathulatis petiolatis, capitulis fo-
liosis, caule diffuso: ramis elongatis.

Gnaphalium glomeratum, Linn. Ameen. Acad. 6, p. 99.—Thunb. Prod.
151.— Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1891.

Hab. in planitie arida prope Caput Bone Spel. Thun-
berg, Niven. ¥. (v.s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

3. S. tincta, foliis cuneato-rotundatis, capitulis pauci-
floris, caule prostrato radicante.

Gnaphalium tinctum, Thunb. Prod. 151..-Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1877.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bonz Spei. Labillardiere. Y.
(v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

4A, iS. rotundifolia, foliis cuneato-rotundatis rugosissimis,
capitulis globosis, caule procumbente.
Gnaphalium rotundifolium, Thunb. Prod. 152.—Willd. 1. c, 3. p. 1901.
Hab. in Capite Bonz Spei. J. Roxburgh. ¥. (v.s. sp
in Herb. Lamb.)

I have separated this genus from Helichrysum, on ac-
count of the peculiar structure of its involucrum, whose
scales are nearly of equal length, and terminated by a long
twisted point, to which the generic name alludes. The spe-
cies agree so well in habit and character, that, although
perfectly distinct, they are with difficulty characterised, so
as to be easily known. The generic name is composed of
THEE, Spira, and AemG, SQUAMA.

PETALACTE.
GNAPHALII sp. Linn., Willd.

Involucrum cylindraceum, simplici serie polyphyllum:
Joliolis linearibus, distinctis, eequalibus, apice lamina peta-
loidea orbiculata scariosa colorata patula radiatis. Recepta-

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 553

culum parvum, favosum. /losculé omnes hermaphroditi,
tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere basi bisetee: setis obtusis,
nudis. Stigmata linearia, truncata. Pappus niveus, cadu-
cus: pedibe basi solutis, apice penicillatis.

Frutices (Africe australis) humiles, lanati, erecti. Folia
sparsa, mucronulata, integerrima, sessilia, coriacea. Flo-
res terminales, fasciculato-corymbosi, pulchri, albt aut pur-
purer.

1. P. coronata, foliis lanceolatis, radio concolor.

Gnaphalium coronatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1191.—Thunb. Prod. 149.—-
Willd. 1. ¢. 3. p. 1854.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei, i in declivitate Montis
Tabularii. Niven, Joannes Roxburgh. . Floret Octobri
et Novembri. (v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

_ Fruticulus ceespitosus, palmaris. Flores fasciculatim co-
rymbosi: radio niveo. ,

2. P. bicolor, folus spathulatis, radio bicolori.

Hab. in Capite Bonz Spel. J. Roxwburgh. '). (v. s. sp.
im Herb. Lamb.)

Precedenti similis. Involucri radius purpureus et ni-
veus.

The genus Petalacte is essentially distinguished by ha-
ving a simple involucrum, whose leafits are of equal length,
and furnished at the top with a broad, orbicular, coloured
lamina, which give the flowers some distant resemblance to
those of Achillea Piarmica. 'The pappus is caducous, with
the rays unconnected at the base. The setze at the base of
the anthers are naked and obtuse. The name alludes to
the petaliform rays of the involucrum, and is derived from
merara, petalum, and axrn, radius.

554 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

PHANOCOMA.
Exicurysi sp. Willd.
XERANTHEMI sp. Linn.

Involucrum globosum: squamis lanceolatis, mucronatis,
basi adpressis ; 2nterioribus multiplici serie radiatis, longis,
erectis, coloratis. Receptaculum conicum, nudum. Floscult

Jeminei marginales, filiformi-tubulosi, fauce coarctati, ob-
tusé 5-dentati, rudimentis staminum nullis; mascult nume-
rosissimi, tubulosi, supra medium ventricosi, fauce coarcta-
ta, obtuse 5-dentati. Antheree basi bisetosze: setis tenuis-
simis, nudis. Stigma masculis inclusum, indivisum, trun-
catum ; foemineis bipartitum, exsertum: Jacinits linearibus
recurvatis, truncatis emarginatisque. Achenia difformia ;
foemineis ovali-oblonga, undique villosissima; masculis li-
nearia, glabra. Pappus uniformis: radiis apice penicula-
tis, basi leviter connexis.

Frutex habitu anomalus, erectus, rigidissimus, proliferé
vamosissimus, lanugine nived appressa tectus. Ramuli_ folii-

Seri, brevissimis (nunc semiunciales) conferti, patuli. Folia
minuta, granulata, adpressée 5-fariam imbricata, nuda, ni-
tida. Flores magni, terminales, solitarit, sessiles, purpureo-
coccinei, splendidissimz.

1. P. prolifera.

Xeranthemum proliferum, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1202.—Thunb. Prod, 152.
Elichrysum proliferum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1905.

Jab. ad Promontorium Bone Spel. Thunders, Masson,
Labillardiere, Niven. }. (v. v. ¢. et s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

This is one of the most splendid plants that can well be
imagined. Its anomalous and almost leafless lrabit, and its
large magnificent flowers, form a striking object. It could
not therefore fail to attract the attention of the earliest

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 555

voyagers to the Cape of Good Hope; but, although it has
been so long known to botanists, there are few plants that
have been less understood than it. The female florets being
five-toothed and tubular, and the naked slender setze at the
base of the anthers, together with the uniformity of the
pappus in both the male and female florets, as well as the
naked conical receptacle, will serve at once to distinguish it.
This genus agrees in several respects with Yeranthemum.
The name is derived from @asvos, splendidus, and xoue, coma,
and is intended to denote its brilliant coloured involucrum.

CARPHOLOMA.

Involucrum oblongum, cylindraceum, imbricatum, lana-
tum, nec scariosum, nec radiatum: sqgwamis adpressis, apice
-spinosis, patulis. Receptaculum planum, in peripheria sola
paleis distinctis setaceis instructum. Joscult omnes herma-
phroditi, tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere basi bisetze: setis
puberulis. Stigma bipartitum: Jactntis angustis, apice in-
crassatis truncatisque. Pappus pilosus, serrulatus: radiis
basi fasciculatim connexis.

_ Frutex (Africee australis) erectus, rigidus, ramosissimus,
niveo-lanatus. Folia fasciculata, brevia, teretiuscula, ob-
tusa. Flores terminales, soktari, purpurascentes.

1. C. rigidum.

Hab. in Promontorio Bone Spei. Labillardiere. . (v.
s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

- This isa very distinct and well-marked genus, on account
of its spinose, truncate involucrum, which is neither scariose
nor coloured, and flat receptacle, whose circumference is
furnished with several slender paleze. ‘The resemblance be-
tween the involucrum of our plant and that of the true

556 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

Carduwacea, is another proof in support of the opinions I
have advanced in the preface. We have here the involu-
crum of the Carduacee united with the florets and trun-
cated stigmas of Gnaphalium. ‘The name is derived from
xeeQos, paled, and rAwua, margo, in allusion to the paleaceous
margin of the receptacle.

MetTaxtasia, Brown.
ANTENNARIZ sp. Gorin.
GNAPHALII sp. Linn., Willd.

Involucruwm cylindraceum, adpresse imbricatum: squa-
mis intimis scariosis, coloratis, seepe radiatis. Receptaculum
minutum, scrobiculatum. /losculi omnes hermaphroditi,
tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere basi biplumate. Stigma bi-
partitum: daciniis apice incrassatis truncatisque. Pappi
radiis basi solutis, setaceis v. plerumque subulatis, planis,
superne dilatatis, margine tenuissime serrulatis.

Frutices (Africae australis) aridi, rigidi, facie sepée ju-
niperind, ramosissimt. Folia sparsa v. fasciculata, rigida,
plerumque tortuosa, quast resupinata, pungenti-mucronata.
Flores terminales, glomerati v. solitarii, albi, rosei, aut
auret.

* Fotis fasciculatis tortis, quasi resupinatis.

1. M. umbellata, folius ovato-lanceolatis subulatisve mu-
cronatis patulis, floribus aggregatis sessilibus fastigiatis la-
natis, involucri radiis intimis ovalibus obtusis integris, pappo
subulato acuto.

Gnaphalium umbellatum, Linn. Suppl. 363.—Thunb. Prod. 147,—
Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1861.

_ Hab. m Capite Bonz Spe. Thunberg, Masson. fy. (v.
sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex nigidissimus, divaricato-ramosissimus: vamis di-

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 557

chotomis. olia primaria ovato-lanceolata ; Sascieulorum
subulata.. Involucri squamis roseis.

2. M. muricata, folus lineari-subulatis pungentibus de-
flexis, involucri radiis intimis ovalibus obsoleté 3-dentatis,
pappo subulato obtuso.

Gnaphalium muricatum, Linn. Sp. Pl, 1192.—-Thunb. Prod. 148.—
Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1856.

fZab. in Capite Bonze Spei. Thunberg, Labillardiere. th.
(v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Foka duplo longiora quam in precedente.

3. M. divergens, folus limeari-lanceolatis pungentibus
deflexis, floribus aggregatis sessilibus, radiis intimis invo-
lucri lanceolatis acutis, pappo subulato obtuso.

Gnaphalium divergens, Thunb. Prod. 148.—Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1857.

Hab. in Capite Bone Spei. Thunberg, Labillardiere. h.
(v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Folia uncialia. Capitula minora.

4, M. fasciculata, folus lineari-lanceolatis mucronatis,
corymbo composito patulo, radius involucri lanceolatis apice
dentatis, pappo subulato, ramis erectis fastigiatis.

Gnaphalium fasciculatum, ‘Thunb. Prod. 148,—Willd, Sp. Pl. 3. p.
1858.

fab. in Capite Bonee Sper. Thunberg, Labillardiere. h.
(v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

5. M. fastigiata, foliis lanceolatis mucronatis, corymbo
composito patulo, radiis involucri lanceolatis mucronatis,
pappo subulato, ramis patulis.

Gnaphalium fastigiatum, Thunb. Prod, 148,—Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1859,

Hab. ad Caput Bone Spei. Thunberg. h. (v.s. sp. in
Herb. Lamb.) 3

558 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

6. M. aurea, foliis subulatis pungentibus, capitulis co-
rymbosis fastigiatis, involucri squamis imtimis rotundatis
disco sequalibus, pappo subulato obtuso.

Hab. in planitie arida ad Promontorium Bone Spei juxta
ripas fluminis Camtas dicti. Niven. h. (v. s. sp. in Herb.
Lamb.)

Frutex 4-pedalis, rigidissimus, #Jores aurei. Involucra
cylindrica, semiuncialia.

{. M. hispida, folis lineari-subulatis mucronatis ciliato-
hispidis, capitulis aggregatis subsessilibus, involucri radiis
oblongis obtusis.

Gnaphalium hispidum, Linn, Suppl. 363.—Thunb. Prod. 148,— Willd.
Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1857.

Hab. ad Caput Bone Spei. Thunberg. h.

8. M. polyanthos, foliis lineari-subulatis mucronatis, co-
rymbo composito paniculato, radiis involucri lanceolatis
acutis. :

| Gnaphalium polyanthos, Thunb. Prod. 147.-——-Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1859.

Hab. in Capite Bonze Spei. Thunberg. b.

9. M. seriphioides, foliis lmeari-subulatis mermibus, flo-
ribus lateralibus sessilibus.

Gnaphalium seriphioides, Berg. cap. 267. (exclus. synon. Pet
Prod. 148,.—Willd, Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1860.

Hab. in Promontorio Bonze Spei. Thunberg. bh.

** Foliis sohtartis strictis, nec resupinatis.
10. M. pungens, foliis ovato-lanceolatis mucronatis laxe
quadrifariam imbricatis, umbellis capitatis, involucri radiis
ovatis mucronatis, pappo subulato obtusiusculo.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei. Niven. h. (v. &
sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 559

11. M, uniflora, folus ovatis mucronatis laxé quadrifa-
riam imbricatis, floribus subsolitariis, mvolucri radiis lan-
ceolatis mucronatis, pappo setaceo colorato basi coalito.

Hab. ad Caput Bonz Spei. Labillardiere. h. (v.s. sp.
in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex erectus, rigidus, Diosme imbricate facie. Flores
5-plo omnibus majores, radio niveo.

12. M. phylicoides, foliis ovali-oblongis obtusé mucronu-
latis villosis 4-fariam imbricatis subtus concavis, capitulis
globosis, involuecri radiis ovalibus obtusis, pappo capillari
basi soluto,

Gnaphalium phylicoides, Niven MSS.
Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spel, in locis siccis elevatis.
Niven. bh. (v. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.)

Frutex pedalis, erectus, rigidus, Phylice facie. Flores
capitati, radio niveo.

The genus Metalasia was separated by Mr Brown* from
Antennaria, in which it had been included by Geertner.
Its habit and character are so widely different from Anten-
naria, as limited by Mr Brown, that we are surprised so
distinguished a botanist as Geertner should have united
them. The leaves of most of the species of this genus are
convex and smooth underneath, and concave and woolly on
the upper surface, but by a peculiar twisting they become
as if resupmate. That it 1s the upper surface which is con-
cave and woolly, and not the under, will be at once seen,
by examining the situation of the young leaves. In M. pun-
gens the leaves have no twisting, and there the natural po-
sition of the leaves is evident.

* Linn. Trans, vol. 12, p. 122,

560 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

I have placed at the end two doubtful species, namely,
M. uniflora-and phylicoides, both of which differ very ma-
terially from the other species in the structure of their pap-
pus. ‘The former has leaves very similar to those of M.
pungens, and agreeing with them also in their position ; but
the latter has the leaves truly concave on the under surface,
and convex above. |

ANTENNARIA, Brown.
ANTENNARIE sp. Geertn.
GNAPHALII sp. Linn.

Involucrum polyphyllum, imbricatum, scariosum, colora-
tum; foemineis connivens. Receptaculum planum, epalea-
tum, scrobiculatum. Flosculi dioici; mascult tubulosi, 5-
dentati ; famine? tenuissimi, filiformes: limbo minuto, obli-
quo, 3-denticulato. Anthere basi biplumate. Stigma ex-
sertum, bipartitum laciniis obtusis; masculis inclusum, in-
divisum. Pappus difformis; masculus radiis apice v. m-
crassatis planis v. peniculatis; famineus capillaris, denticu-
latus, involucro multo longior, penicillatus.

Herbee perennes, cespitose, niveo-lanate ; masculine
longé robustiores ac pulchriores. Caules simplices. Folia
alterna, sessilia, integerrima, sepé basi decurrentia; radi-
calia sepe maxima, patentia. Flores terminales, corymbosi,
albi 0. rarids rosei.. Prod. Fl. Nepal. p. 174. (charactere
paulo mutato.)

There are several remarkable peculiarities relating to the —
flowers of the different sexes, some of which appear to me not
to have been before remarked. The first is, that the imvolu-
cra of the male flowers, those most frequently described, are
more highly coloured, generally spherical, with the scales
bread, obtuse, loosely umbricated or spreading, the inner-
most ones forming a ray considerably longer than the florets
and pappus. ‘The florets are also shorter than the pappus,

\
i

|
|

GCNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 561]

_the rays of which are spreading. In the second place, the
female involucra, on the contrary, are longer, cylindrical,
_ with elongated, adpressed, mostly pointed, scales, the imner-
most series cennivent, and shorter than the pappus, which
is closely pressed together, and has a striking resemblance

to a camel-hair-pencil. ‘The circumstance of the scales of
the female involucrum being uniformly longer, and gene-

rally pointed, has given rise to frequent mistakes in charac-
terising the species. In the common Anfennaria dioica
_the scales of the male involucrum are broad and rounded,
_ while those of the female are lanceolate and pointed. ‘The
‘same will be found to be the case with the Antennaria
alpina, the female of which has always been described.
There are specimens both of the male and female of this
\plant in the herbarium of the late Earl of Bute, now in
_Mr Lambert’s possession. They were collected on the Swiss

Alps by M. Garcin. ‘The pappus appears to me to afford

the most satisfactory specific characters.

LEontToropiumM, Grown.
ANTENNARIE sp. Geertn,
GNAPHALII sp. Linn.

Involucrum hemispheericum, imbricatum, lanosum, trun-
catum: sqwamws apice sphacelatis. Receptaculum planum,
favosum. Flosculi polygami; masculi tubulosi, 5-dentati ;
feeminet filiformes: limbo obliquo, 3-denato. Anthere
basi setis 2, tenuissimis nudis instructee. Stigma foemineis
bipartitum exsertum: dacinis linearibus, obtusis. Pappus
difformis, basi connexis; masculus densissimus radiis apice
peniculatis, involucro zqualibus, quasi truncatis ; faemineus
sapillaris, denticulatus, involucro vix longior.

Herbze perennes, dense niveo-lanate, caspitose. Folia
alterna, ntegerrima ; radicalibus maximis. Flores termé-
| wor. ¥. Nn

|

562 CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION OF

nales, numerosi, in capitulum planum collocati, sessiles,
bracteis numerosis lanceolatis lanosis radiatim patulis in-
volucrati. Involucra centralia sepids mascula. Flosculi
mascult foemineis v. neutris, et foeminet masculis internuxte.

1. L. alpinum, capitulis solitartis sessilibus.

Gnaphalium Leontopodium, Lam. Encycl, 2. p. 751.—Scop. Carn. 2.
p. 150.—Jacq. Austr. 1. t. 86.—Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1892. —
Filago Leontopodium, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1312.

flab, in Alpibus Helveticis, Austriacis, Valeriacis, Ca-
rinthiacis, et Delphinatus. ¥%. (v.s. sp. in Herb. illustriss.
Comitis de Bute, nunc in Mus. Lamb.)

2. L. sibiricwm, capitulis pluribus pedunculatis.

Gnaphalium Leontopodioides, Willd. Sp. Pl. 3. p. 1893.
Filago Leontopodium, Pallas MSS.

Hab. in Sibiria orientali, ubi legit ann. 1789. D. Merk.
y. (v.s. sp. in Herb. Pallas. nunc in Mus. Lamb.)

Caulis altior. Folia radicalia lanceolata, petiolata. Capi-_
tula plura, pedunculata.

In my ‘ Prodromus Flore Nepalensis,’ I had proposed
to unite this genus to Gnaphaliwm, although it would cer- —
tainly have been much more natural to have placed it with
Antennaria, in which it had been included by Geertner.
The truncate polygamous flowers, the hemispherical, non-
scariose, rayless involucrum, and the simple sete at the
base of the anthers, alone distinguish it from Antennaria ;
but as these characters, jommed to the remarkable bractezx,
appear to warrant such a separation, I have willingly fol-
lowed Mr Brown in the expediency of keeping them distinct.
Both species are polygamous; that is, they have either se-
parate stalks bearing male and female heads of flowers from
the same root, or the centre involucrum in each head is
male, and surrounded by several female ones. ‘The female
involucra are constantly furnished with some male florets,
and the male involucra with either female, or neuter ones.

GNAPHALIUM AND XERANTHEMUM. 563

GNAPHALIUM, Brown. —
GNAPHALII sp. Linn.

Involucrum polyphyllum, imbricatum, scariosum, colo-
ratum, connivens. eceptaculum planum, nudum (rard
favosum). Flosculi marginales foeminei, numerosi, fili-
formes, tenuissimi: limbo minuto, obliquo, 3-denticulato ;
centrales masculi, pauci, tubulosi, 5-dentati. Anthere co-
alitae, basi bisetosze. Stioma bifidum, in masculis inclusum,
ac incompletum. Pappus tenuissimus, capillaris, denticu-
latus, utriusque sexus consunilis.

Herbee (plereque annue et extra tropic), humiles, ra-
mose, niveo-lanate. Folia alterna, sessilia, integra. Flores
terminales, corymbosi.v. glomerati, albi aut auret. Prod.

Fl. Nepal. 172.

. The genus Gnaphalium, as now limited, forms a very
natural and distinct group. It is abundantly characterised
by having its male and female florets in the same involu-
crum, and by the uniformity of its pappus in both sexes.
In the structure of its flowers, Gnaphalium has a striking
analogy to Mrigeron, as constituted by me in the ¢ Prodyo-
mus Florz Nepalensis ;’ but the latter differs essentially in
‘the anthers being destitute of setae at their base. This ge-
nus forms, through the Conyzce, the transition to the Aste-
re@, the family to which Erigeron belongs. ‘The species
belonging to this genus are, Gnaphalium germanicum Sm.,
arvense Willd., montanum Willd., gallicum Sm., pyrami-
datum Willd. (all included by Linnzeus in his genus Pila-
go), uliginosum L., minimum Sm., fuscum Scop., pusillum
Henke Sudet., supinum L., multicaule Willd., america-
num Sw., verticillatum Thunb., sylvaticum L., purpureum
L., obtusifolium L., undulatum L., sanguineum L., luteo
album L., affine ¥). Nepal., Busua F1. Nepal., factidum L.
Joponicum 'Thunb., polycephalum Mich., Lagopus Willd.

nn2

( 564 )

Addendum to Dr Grevitze’s Article, p. 483.

THE moss described under the name of Neckera Ameri
cana I have, since the article was printed, found to be pre-
viously described. It is the Neckera minor of Scuwzer.
Suppl. 1. 2. p. 149, and the var. g of N. viticulosa, Hevw.
Sp. p. 210. The reader is therefore requested to substi-
tute the specific name of minor for that of Americana ;
though it is unaccountable how I could pass this over when
describing the moss, yet the fact may serve to confirm the
species, which appears to be very distinct, notwithstanding
its great affinity with N. viticulosa.

AGP? IGN. DT X,.

HISTORY
OF THE

OC Wir oY

(Continued from Vol. IV. p. 585.)

Vir Secretary read a memoir on the Geographical Dis-
tribution of Plants in Yorkshire, by Mr Atkinson ; also, a
Biographical Notice of Mary Noble of Penrith, in the
107th year of her age; with some Remarks on Longevity,
by Dr Thomas Barnes: and a Description of a New Spe-
cies of Regulus from Brazil, accompanied with a Drawing,
by Dr Traill. Professor Jameson then read the Reverend

-H. F. Borgesen’s Description of Vettie’s Giel, a striking

scene in Norway.

The Secretary read, Ist, The Continuation of Dr Fle-
ming’s Voyage round the North of Scotland, in 1821; 2d,
Notice regarding the Migration of the Woodcock, by Ma-
jor Morrison ; 3d, The first part of a Paper on the power
possessed by some species of Spiders of ascending into the

air, by Mr John Murray, F.L. S., Lecturer on Chemistry.

1823.
May Sl.

June 14,

om
i

1823.
Nov. 15.

1823.
Nov. 29,

566 APPENDIX.

There were then communicated to the Society the Results
of a Series of ‘Thermometrical Observations, made hourly
at Leith, during twenty-four successive hours, once every
month, from July 1822 to July 1823, by Mr Coldstream.
Professor Jameson communicated Dr Boué’s answer to M.
Beudant’s opinion regarding the Crystalline Rocks of the
Red-sandstone formation, as explained in the 3d volume
of his Voyages en Hongrie ; also the first part of Dr Francis
Hamilton’s Commentary on the Herbarium Amboinense.

The Secretary read a paper by the Reverend Mr Dun-

bar of Applegarth, confirming Shirach and Huber’s doc-

trine of the occasional conversion of the larvee of working
bees into queen bees: also, a Notice from Dr Cumin of
Glasgow, regarding the Formation of Young Tubers within
the substance of a large Potato, with the original specimen,
and a Drawing of it by Mr P. Syme. Dr Knox then gave
an account of the Foramen centrale of Soemmering, as dis-
covered by him in the Hyes of certain Reptiles, illustrating
his communication by anatomical preparations. ‘The Se-
cretary read Extracts from a Paper by Mr Marshall, on
the Natural and Economical History of the Cocoa Nut-tree.
Mr Parry exhibited to the meeting Colonel Miller’s newly
invented Percussion-Shell, and gave an account of some
successful experiments made with it near Leith Fort. Mr
Nicol repeated, in presence of the meeting, Dobereiner’s
remarkable experiment, shewing the ignition of the fine
powder of platina, when exposed to a stream of hydrogen
gas in atmospheric air.

Dr Knox read a Paper on the Organs of Digestion, Res-
piration, and Circulation, of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus,
illustrating his description by stuffed specimens and a natu-

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 567

ral skeleton. ‘The Secretary read the concluding part of
Dr Fleming’s Gleanings of Natural History, on a Voyage
round the North of Scotland, in 1821: also a Notice of
Remarkable Hailstones, of a pyramidal form, which fell in
Aberdeen in June last, by Mr Robert Lindsay of Aber-
deen. Mr Parry exhibited some Drawings made from
carvings in oak, executed before the time of Henry VIII:
and Professor Jameson laid before the meeting a chart,
shewing the route pursued by Captain Parry through
various parts of Baflin’s Bay, during the three preceding
summers.

Dr Knox read a Paper on the Kidneys, Urinary Blad-
der, and Organs of Generation in the Male of the Ornitho-
rynchus paradoxus, illustrating his descriptions by Sketches.
Dr Yule gave an Account of the Changes produced on
some Tallow Candles, which had been accidentally preserved.
in a dry state for near a century ; and exhibited specimens.
Mr Greville then read an Account of Mr Cormack’s Jour-
ney across Newfoundland in 1822; and a short Paper nar-
rating an instance of misdirected instinct in the common
Frog, during the coupling season, communicated by Mr
’ Burd. Professor Jameson gave an Account of Thermo-
metrical and Hygrometrical Observations made at Port
Callao, in South America, by Mr William Jameson, sur-
geon; and also read Extracts from a. Letter, written from
Funcal, by Mr Bowdich, the African traveller.

Mr Greville read an Account of a Stembart or Stone-axe,
said to have been found imbedded in a layer of compact clay,
under several beds of limestone, in Staffordshire; with Re-
marks on the geological consequences of this fact, if ascer-
tained to be correct. Dr Knox read some Account of the

1823,
Dec. 13.

Dec. 27.

1824,
Jan. 10.

Jan. 24,

Feb. 7.

508 APPENDIX.

Quadrupeds met with on the Shores of the Inlets of Hud-
son’s Bay, in Captain Parry’s last Voyage, communicated

by Dr Richardson.

Dr Richardson read the first part of an Account of the
Animals collected and seen durmg the Overland Arctic
Expedition, illustrating his remarks by shewing prepared
Specimens of the Animals. Mr Arnott communicated a
Paper by himself on some Species of Mosses.

Dr Richardson read the concluding part of his Account
of Animals collected during the Overland Arctic Expedi-
tion, and exhibited Specimens. Dr Knox read a Paper on
the mode of Growth, Reproduction, and Structure of the
Poison-fangs of Serpents, illustrating his description by Pre-
served Specimens, Anatomical Preparations, and Sketches.
Mr Menteath of Closeburn presented a Specimen of a Larch
Plank, shewing the manner in which the Larch ‘Tree begins
to decay at the base of the trunk, when twenty or thirty
years old, if planted over sandstone.

Professor Jameson read the introductcry part of a Mo-
nograph on the genus Larus, by Mr Macgillivray ; speci-
mens of six of the species described were exhibited. The
Secretary read an Account, contained in a letter to Profes-
sor Jameson, from Lieutenant Lamont, of the 91st Regi-
ment, of the capture, in the West Indies, of an enormous
Ray, popularly called the “ Sea Devil,” measuring fifteen
feet in breadth, and almost as much in length. Dr Grier-
son of Cockpen read his General Observations on Geology,
Geognosy, Oryctognosy, and Mineralogy, and on the Na-
ture of these respective Studies.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 569

Dr Knox read a Memoir on the Osseous, Muscular, and
Nervous Systems of the Ornithorynchus paradoxus, illus-
trating his description of the osseous structure by a perfect
skeleton of the animal. The Secretary read a deposition
by three Shetland fishermen, Daniel and William Manson,
and John Henderson, emitted on oath before Arthur Ni-
cholson, Esq. of Lochend, Justice of the Peace, relative to
a small cetaceous animal, of very uncommon appearance,
which they had accidentally captured at the deep sea fish-
ing, and taken into their boat, but soon afterwards released,
from superstitious feelings, they having believed it to be a
mermaid.

Professor Jameson read an Account of Petrified Shells
found in the Gawilghur range of hills, and of the Structure
of the Hull of Seetabuldee-Nagpoor, in the Kast Indies, by
Mr Vaysey. A live Rattle-snake, newly arrived from South
Carolina, and in a vigorous state, was exhibited to the
meeting. Mr Parry read the first part of his Paper on the
Management of Young Plantations, recommending, in the
fir tribe, the practice of disbudding with the thumb, at a
very early period, instead of pruning with the knife and
“saw at later times.

The Secretary read the second part of a Paper by Mr
John Murray, F. L. S., on the Ascent of some species of
Spiders into the air, shewing that this depends on their fine
gossamer threads being peculiarly affected by the electric
fluid of the atmosphere. Also two Papers by the Rey. Dr
Fleming of Flisk ; the one containing an Account of a New
British Species of Spatangus; and the other a Description
of a New Species of Plumularia, collected in the late expe-
dition under Captain Parry; with some Remarks on the

1824.
Feb. 21.

Mar. 6,

Mar. 20.

1824.
April 3.

April 17.

May 1.

570 APPENDIX.

Sertulariadee found in Hudson’s Straits. Mr Arnott then
read a communication from Prideaux John Selby, Esq. of
Twizel House, containing some curious particulars in the

Natural History of the Golden Regulus.

Mr Parry read a continuation of Notices regarding the
Management of Young Plantations. Dr Knox then com-
municated some Remarks on the supposed Discoveries of
Professor Tiedemann, and Dr Fohmann, relative to the
non-existence, in the Phoca vitulina, of the vasa efferen-
tia.

Dr Knox read a short Paper on the Colymbus septen-
trionalis, or Red-throated Diver, shewing that the bones
are black or dark-coloured, and that this coloration depends
on the periosteum. Mr Deuchar communicated some Re-
marks on Meteoric Stones, and proposed a theory to ac-_
count for their formation. At the same meeting, there was
laid before the Society the first part of a Memoir on the
Sandfield in the vicinity of Ediburgh, by Mr Alexander
Blackadder.

The Secretary read a communication sent to the Society,
entitled, Observations and Experiments on the Formation
of Pearls. Also, Notice of a Substitute for Cork, in Tro-
pical Climates, being the central part of the scape of Agave
vivipara; by the Reverend Lansdown Guilding of St Vin-
cent; with Specimens of the Prepared Agave-Cork. And

likewise an Account of William Dempster, who accidental-

ly swallowed a large 'Table-knife, at Carlisle in November
last, by Dr Barnes of Carlisle. Professor Jameson read a
Notice of the Discovery of some Fossil Remains of a Whale
found near the seat of Lord Dunmore, on the banks of the

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 57)

Forth, and at several hundred yards distance from the pre-
sent bed of the river; communicated by Mr Alexander
Blackadder, Allan-Park. <A stuffed specimen of the Dog
of New South Wales, presented to the Museum by Gover-
nor Brisbane, was then exhibited, and described by Pro-
fessor Jameson.

Professor Jameson communicated Mr A. Blackadder’s
Observations on the Alluvial Strata of the Forth District,
illustrated by a Geognostical Map. Mr Witham of Lar-
tington read a Memoir on some peculiarities existing in the
Trap Rocks in the west and north-west of the counties of
York, Durham, Westmoreland, and Northumberland. The
Secretary read a Notice regarding the Pernicious Effects on
Fruit-trees, of the layer of bog-iron-ore immediately under
_ the surface-soil in Aberdeenshire, provincially termed pan;
communicated by Mr Stevenson, Civil-Engineer. Mr F. A.
Parry exhibited a remarkable stalagmite or deposition
formed at the bottom of one of the tanks of lime-water at
Canongate of Edinburgh, through which the coal-gas is
passed with a view to its purification. Mr Deuchar then
communicated his view of the comparative merits of the
different Theories of Galvanic Action.

The Secretary read, 1st, A Notice of the incarceration
of a live Toad (Rana verrucosa) in the wall of Fort-Wil-
liam Barracks, Calcutta, for the period of fifty-four years ;
communicated by Major-General Hardwick ; 2d, Account
of the Monocotyledonous and Acotyledonous Plants found
between the 4th and 11th degrees of north latitude, on the
western coast of Africa; by Mr George Don; 3d, Notice
of a viviparous variety of Juncus lampocarpus ; communi-

cated by Mr Parry.

1824.
May 15.

Nov. 13.

1824.
Dec. 4.

Dec. 18.

1825.
Jan. 8.

Jan. 22.

572 APPENDIX.

The Secretary read two communications relative to the
discovery of the Bones of a Grampus or Small Whale, in
the carse-clay, lying over black peat-moss, on the estate of
Blair Drummond ; the one communication by Henry Home
Drummond, Esq. M. P., and the other from Mr A. Black-
adder, surveyor. There were likewise laid before the meeting,
Meteorological Observations made at Guayaquil, from Ja-
nuary to June 1824, by Wilham Jameson, Esq. surgeon ;
and Barometrical Observations between the Pacific Ocean
and Mendoza, in the year 1821, by Dr Gillies. Dr Bar-
clay presented a letter from Dr Mease of Philadelphia, ac-
companying a specimen of the Siren lacertina, for the So- |
ciety’s collection.

The Secretary read, 1st, A communication from Dr
Treviranus of Bremen, on the Cochlea of the Internal Ear
of Birds ; 2d, A Notice by Mr J. W. Reddoch of Falkirk,
regarding the Bones of a Quadruped, found in a bed of
clay, and of razor-shells found in a bed of sand under the
clay, near Camelon, ninety feet above the present level of
the Forth ; 3d, The description, by Dr 'Traill of Liverpool,
of a New Species of Silurus, S. Parkeri, found in the river
at Demerara, in 1821.

Dr Knox read a short communication, shewing that the
bones found in a bed of clay near Camelon, and nimety feet
above the present level of the Forth, were those of a full
grown seal, of the species still inhabiting the Frith of Forth.
The first part of Dr Richardson’s Remarks on the Climate
and Vegetable Productions of the Hudson’s Bay Countries,
was then read.

The Secretary read Dr Richardson’s Observations on the

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 573

Climate at Fort Enterprize, Lat. 64° 28’ N., Long. 116° 0’
W.; with an Account of the Progress of Spring and Sum-
mer, at that station, in the year 1821. Dr Greville read
extracts from, and gave a general account of, the third me-
moir, by himself and Mr Arnott, on a New Arrangement
of the Musci. ‘The Secretary then read an Account of a
New Species of Ornithorynchus (O. crispus), by Mr Mac-
gillivray ; specimens of this, and the other species, being, at
the same time, placed on the table. Professor Jameson
gave an Account of the Sea-Leopard ; an animal of the ge-
nus Phoca, from the lately discovered islands of New South
Orkney ; and of the Eared Seal from New South Shetland ;
both animals brought home by Captain Weddel.

The Secretary read the concluding part of Dr Richard-
son’s Observations on the Botany of the Hudson’s Bay
Countries. Mr Witham read a Notice of the occurrence,
in Primitive rocks, in Ross-shire, of Mineral Pitch, which
has hitherto been observed associated only with secondary
rocks ; specimens were also laid upon the table. The Se-
cretary read Mr John Baird’s Account of Fossil Trees,
found in Secondary Trap-rocks, at Cleghorn, in Lanark-
‘shire; and specimens were likewise produced. Professor
Jameson read a communication from Mr A. Blackadder,
Allan Park, tending to shew that the Rhinoceros Horns of
Blair-Drummond may probably be regarded as having
occurred in the blue clay of that district. Professor Jame-
son also read an Account, communicated by Mr David
Mylne, of some remarkable Fossilized Trunks and Branches
of Trees, found in a quarry near Coldstream; and fine
Specimens of these were exhibited. Mr David Blackadder,
of Edinburgh, laid before the meeting samples from Blair-
Drummond Moss, 1st, Of the peat beneath the blue clay ;
2d, Of the clay itself; and, 3d; Of the surface peat.

1825.
Feb. 5.

1825.
Feb. 19.

Mar. 5.

574 APPENDIX.

The Secretary gave a General Account, 1st, Of Tables
of Summer Temperature observed in Spitzbergen, by Cap-
tain Franklin and Captain Buchan ; and, 2dly, Of a Table
of the Temperature of the Sea, at various depths, made
during Capt. Franklin’s voyage to Spitzbergen. There was
then read a Notice in regard to the Fossil Trees, &c. found
imbedded in the clay strata near Harwich, contained in a
letter from Mr William Knott, Landguard Fort ; and a.
specimen of the fossil wood was exhibited. Likewise a No-
tice in regard to a collection of Buried Trees, apparently
native kinds, lately found in draining a peat-moss in West
Lothian ; in a letter from Mr Logan of Clarkstone to Mr
A. Blackadder. Observations made during a voyage to
the East Indies and China, in 1817 and 1818, by Captain
Charles Stewart of the Honourable East India Company’s
ship General Harris, were laid on the table. Professor Ja-
meson gave an Account of a Specimen of a Large Fossil
Tree lately dug out of the Coal Formation at Cullalo, in
Fyfe, which was exhibited to the meeting. Dr Grant then
read the first part of a Memoir containing a series of Ob-
servations and Experiments on the Natural History of
Sponges, which he illustrated by Specimens.

Professor Jameson read the Reverend George Young’s
Account of the remains of a genuine though extinct species
of Crocodile, 18 feet long, lately found imbedded in the
secondary rocks at Whitby in Yorkshire; and, at the same
time, exhibited a correct Drawing of it, executed by Mr
Bird. Dr Grant read the conclusion of his first Memoir,
containing a series of Observations and Experiments on the
Natural History of Sponges. A fine Specimen of Organic
Vegetable Remains, found in Craig-Leith quarry, was ex-
hibited and described by Professor Jameson.

|
|

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 575

The Secretary read a Notice of the effects produced by
the presence of the Larva of an Insect in the Human Sto-
mach ; communicated by Dr Yule. He then gave an Ac-
count of Mr George Cheyne’s Journal from Madeira to
Lat. 18° 06’ N. and Long. 38° 20’ W., and presented to

_ the meeting a commentary on the Second Book of the Her-

barium Amboinense, by Dr Francis Hamilton. A letter
from Mr James Fotheringham, Gairny Bridge, was then
read, giving a general Account of the Shower of Fishes
supposed to have fallen in the west of Fifeshire last summer.
Mr Deuchar exhibited a very singular experiment with com-
pressed inflammable gas; and likewise the application of
Mr Gordon’s portable lamp apparatus as a blowpipe.

The Secretary read a Notice regarding Specimens of

Peat Moss, of different qualities and densities, from a moss

at Jardine-Hall, Dumfries-shire. Likewise a short Notice
regarding the Magnetism of the Earth, by the late Lieu-
tenant Mathew Miller; which Mr Adie illustrated by
an experiment, shewing the effect of Magnetic Bars,
placed with N. and S. ends together, upon a compass
passed over them. Professor Jameson read an Account of
the recent discovery of a Tusk of the Mammoth, in a bed
of old alluvium, containing also Marine Shells, and situated
near to Kilmarnock, in Ayrshire. Dr Grant then read an
Account of a Particular Organ, observed by him in the
cuttle-fish (Sepia loligo), and which he regards as analogous
to the pancreas: Specimens were also laid on the table.

‘There was laid before the meeting a Description and
Drawing of a Species of Cephalus, nearly allied to Tetro-
don truncatus of Cuvier; communicated by Dr Traill of
Liverpool. Professor Jameson communicated to the So-

1825.
Mar. 19.

April 2.

April 16.

1825.
April 30.

May 14.

5706 APPENDIX.

ciety Mr David Mylne’s Descriptive Account of the Strati-
fication on the right bank of the Whitadder. Dr Grierson
of Cockpen read his Account of the Explosion of Stobbs
Gunpowder Mills, on the 17th of February last : And the
Secretary read a short Additional Notice by Mr Hutcheson
of Dalkeith Mills, communicated by Mr Burd. 'The Se-
cretary then read Mr Alexander Blackadder’s Report re-
garding the Buried Forest of Lawrence Park, near Lin-
lithgow. Mr Deuchar communicated his Observations on
Magnetic stimuli ; illustrating some of his remarks by re-
peating several of Professor Oersted’s experiments. ‘There
were exhibited by Professor Jameson to the meeting, 1s,
The cast of a remarkable and supposed Antediluvian Skull ;
2dly, 'The cast of a Jaw-bone of the Mammoth,—both from
the Great Valley of Austria; Sdly, 'T'wo Specimens of the
Ancient Bricks of Babylon, containing inscriptions in an —
unknown character.

Dr Grant read a Paper on the Existence of a Pancreas
in Gasteropodous Animals, and shewed dissected Speci-
mens of the Doris Argo, with the pancreas poimted out.
The Secretary then read a communication from Mr Black-

- adder, staff-assistant surgeon, on Unusual Atmospherical

Refraction, or Misage, as observed in this neighbourhood ;
and laid before the meeting some Account of Capt. Frank-
lin’s ‘T'rigonometrical Observations made in India. Dr
Greville gave an Account of Two New Species of Musci,
of the genera Neckera and Hypnum.

Mr Haidinger read a Paper on Drawing the Figures of
Crystals in True Perspective. ‘The Secretary read Mr
Blackadder’s Account of the Luminous Arch which lately
accompanied the appearance of the Aurora Borealis at

2

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 577

Edinburgh. Dr Knox exhibited Bones pf Various Ani-
mals, found in the Caves of Oreston, near Plymouth, be-
ing chiefly bones of large oxen and very large deer. A let-
ter from Henry Home Drummond, Esq. M. P. was then
read, accompanied by a plug of wood, which was found
inserted in a circular perforation existing in the great stag’s
horn. discovered in the Blair-Drummond peat moss, and
which would mtimate that the stag had been in the hands
of the former inhabitants of the district. Professor Jame-
son gave a general account of a long communication re-
ceived from a correspondent, on the chances for and against
Captam Parry’s succeeding in his present attempt to reach
the South Sea, by Icy Cape; the opinions of the author
being unfavourable to his success. He also exhibited the
tusk of the Fossil Elephant or Mammoth lately found near
Kilmarnock.

Mr Witham read a Notice of the occurrence of the Com-
mon Cockle (Cardium edule) in a living state, in Fresh
Water Ditches, at Cocklesbury, in Yorkshire, at a great
distance from the sea, and much above its present le-

vel. A Memoir by Mr David Don, on the Classification of

' the genera Gnapbalium and Xeranthemum of Linnzus, was

laid on the table. There was then read the first part of a
sketch of the Comparative Anatomy of the Organ of Hear-
ing, containing Remarks on the Structure of the Ear in the
Shark-tribe, illustrated by Preserved Specimens; by Mr
Thomas Buchanan. There was next read a communica-
tion regarding the existence of a Rock of Conglomerate in

the Gravel Beds near Edinburgh; and Specimens of the

rock were exhibited. Professor Jameson gave an Account
of a Table of Colours, arranged for Naturalists, by the
Reverend Lansdown Guilding of St Vincent’s.

VOL. V. 00O

1825.
Nov. 19

1825.
Dec. 3.

Dee. 17.

Gyo. APPENDIX.

The Secretary read Dr Traill’s Remarks on the Anato-
my of the Trumpeter Bird, Psophia crepitans. Dr Grant
then made some Observations on the Habits of the Trito-
nia arborescens, particularly the power possessed by that
animal of producing a peculiar and very audible sound ;
and at the same time exhibited living Specimens. Prof.
Jameson communicated some Remarks on the existence of
many Mineral Substances, in very minute quantities, in the
Ocean and in the Atmosphere. He then laid before the
meeting a Letter from Count Sternberg, accompanied with
a New Fasciculus of his Work on Fossil Remains of Plants.
And the Secretary read a Letter from Dr J. Miller of
Kingston, Jamaica, expressing the wish of the Agricultural
Society of Jamaica to correspond with the Wernerian So-
ciety ; to which the Secretary was authorised to reply, assur-
mg the Jamaica Society that it will afford this Society much
satisfaction to be able, in any way, to promote the objects. of
the Jamaica Institution.

The Secretary read a Paper by Mr John Murray, Lec-
turer on Chemistry, containing Experiments and Observa-
‘tions on the varying Temperature of the Chameleon, as
connected with the Changes of Colour exhibited by the
animal. Professor Jameson communicated a Notice of Zir-
con found in Primitive Rocks in the Island of Scalpay,
Harris ; by Mr William Nicol, Lecturer on Natural Philo-
sophy. The Secretary then read a Notice by Mr P. J.
Selby, regarding a specimen of the rare Larus minutus,
shot in Galloway, and sent to the Museum by Lieutenant
Macculloch, Barholm House. Likewise a communication
from Dr Traill regarding the use of Oil of Turpentine for
preserving Zoological Specimens in Cabinets: This sub-
stance, it was stated by Professor Jameson, had been em-

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 579

ployed, for several years past, in the Museum here, with
the same view, and with great success. Professor Jameson
then read the first part of Mr William Macgillivray’s Ac-
count of the Animals of the classes Cirripeda, Conchifera,
and Mollusca, observed in the Island of Harris. And he
also communicated a Letter from Mr Meynell, of Yarm, in
Yorkshire, mentioning that he had, for four years past,
kept the smelt or spirling (Salmo Eperlanus, L1y.), in a
fresh-water pond, havmg no communication with the sea,
by means of the Tees, or otherwise, and that the smelts had
continued to thrive, and breed as freely, as when they en-
joy intercourse with the sea.

580 APPENDIX.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1826.

Office-bearers elected at ths Meeting on 3d December 1825.

President,
Rozert Jameson, Esq. Prof. Nat. Hist. Edin. &c.

Vice-Presidents,

Rosert Bap, Esq. Dr Rosert GRranam,
Sir Wo. Jarpine, Bart. | Rev. Dr Brunton.

Secretary, Patrick NEILL, Esq.
Treasurer, A. G. Exxis, Esq.
Librarian, James Witson, Esq.
Painter, P. Symx, Esq.

Council.
Wittiiam Dryspate, Esq. | Dr ANDREW CovENTRY.
GiLBerT INNEs, Esq. JoHN Starx, Esq.
Dr Rozert Knox. Dr R. E. Grant.

G. A. W. Arnort, Esq. Dr Joun Bocert.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 581

Last of Members of the Wernerian Natural His-
tory Society of Hdinburgh,—continued from
Vol. IV.

1823.

RESIDENT.

Noy. 29. Joun ALEXANDER CamERon, Esq. Edinburgh.

1824.
Jan. 10.

April 3.

1825.
Feb. 5.

Henry Wirtnam, Esq. of Lartington.

Epwarp Wititiam Aurio: Hay, Esq. A. B.
Oxon.

The Rev. ALEXANDER Brunton, D. D. Profes-

sor of Oriental Languages in the University of
Edinburgh.

Tuomas ALEXANDER Fraser of Lovat, Esq.
Cuar_es Macatister, Esq.
JoHN WItson ANDERSON, Esq.
Witiiam Dun tor, Esq. Surgeon, and Lecturer
on Forensic Medicine.
JamrEs Syme, Esq. Surgeon, and Lecturer on
Anatomy, Edinburgh.

Henry ENcierietp, Esq.
Wi1L1aM Gisson 'THomson, Esq.

582 APPENDIX.

NON-RESIDENT.

1824.
Feb. 7. Sir Witi1am Purvis Hume CAMPBELL, Bart.

Ricuarp Dosson, M. D. .

April 3. Joun Epwarps, Esq. Surgeon.
Dec. 18. Sir Davip Moncreirre, Bart. of Moncreiffe .
House.
JacoB VERZFELD, Esq. of Cape Town.
1825.
Feb. 5. Corrn Rocers, M.D.

Ricuarp DaviE, Esq.

JosErH MircuHeE 1, Esq. General Superintendant
of Parliamentary Roads in the Highlands of
of Scotland. :

May 14. James B. Kirk, M. D. of Greenock.

JaMEs Wooprorp, M. D.

FOREIGN.

1823.
April 26. M. Norpensktoip of Abo, in Finland.
Nov. 29. The Rev. Tuomas MacCuttocn of Pictou,

| Nova Scotia.

1824.
April 3. Professor Retcuensacn of Dresden.
Dec. 18. Professor Krysrr of Christiania.

1825.
Feb. 5. Professor Hansteen of Christiania.

Professor RatHKE of Christiania.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 333

CORRESPONDING.

®

1823.
Noy. 29. Mr Witiam Macetttivray, Edinburgh.
1824.
Jan. 10. ‘The Rev. Wittiam Dounpar of Applegarth.
- Tuomas Horron James, Esq. London.

May 15. Tuomas Barnes, M.D. Carlisle.

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INDEX

VOLUME FIFTH.

A

Arrica, Southern, Dr Knox’s inquiry into the origin and
characteristic differences of the native Races inhabit-
ing, p. 206; three distinct races, 207; Anglo-Dutch
colony intruders, 207; Hottentots, or Bosjesmans, 207 ;
Damaras, 207 ; Kaffres, 208; Kaffre nations referred
to the Ethiopian race, 210 ; Bosjesman nations referred
to the Mongolic, 210; comparative table of the cha-
racters of the Negro and Kaffre, 211; table of the
characters of the Mongol and Bosjesman, 214; com-

parative measurements of the head in several varieties
of the human species, - = -
Anictangium, generic characters of, - _
Animals collected on Captain Franklin’s Expedition, Dr
Richardson’s account of the, auifles
Antennaria, generic characters of, = i
Arnott, G. A. W. Esq. his account of several species of
Hepatice from Rio de Janeiro, 204—Notice of Mr
Jameson’s Journal of a voyage from Rio de Janeiro to
the coast of Peru, 187—Account of two species of Ly-
copodinez, from Rio de Janeiro, 199—New arrange-
ment of the genera of Mosses, 42; continued, 442—

Account of several species of Musci found at Rio de
Janeiro, = = -

Page

218
61

568
28

200

586 INDEX.

Astelma, generic characters of, = “ -
Atkinson, J. Esq. his sketch of the geographical distri-
bution of plants in Yorkshire, ~ - -
Atmospherical refraction, Mr Blackadder’s account of un-
usual, — = - - - - =
Auk, black-billed, Mr Edmondston’s observations on it,
8—identical with Alca torda, 13—account of its habits,
Aurora borealis, Mr Blackadder’s account of the luminous
arch accompanying its appearance, - = =

B

Bees, Rev. Mr Dunbar, on the conversion of were into
Queens, - - = = - “
Blackadder, Alexander, Esq. on the superficial strata of the
Forth District, 424—on the bones of whales discovered

in the upper district of the Forth, - - 2
Bones, Mr Blackadder’s notice regarding those of a whale
found in the upper district of the Forth, - ~
fossil, of a whale, discovered in the district of Mon-
teith, Mr Drummond’s notice regarding, - =
of a quadruped found near Falkirk, Mr Reddoch’s
| notice regarding, 572—Dr Knox’s determination of the
species to which they belonged, - a 2
Bosjesmans, one of the races inhabiting Southern Africa,
207—their characters compared with those of the true

Mongols, - - - - : a
Boué, Dr, his answer to Mr Beudant’s opinions regarding
the crystalline rocks of the Red sandstone, - s

Bryum argenteum, turbinatum, and roseum, described, - 2

Buried trees found in West Lothian, Mr Logan’s account of,

Buxbaumia, generic characters of, - -
Buxbaumoidee, characters of the family of, =
C

Carpholoma, generic characters, and description of a spe-
cies of, = = - = = : =

Page
542

QT
576
22

576

566

5595

Soe a

INDEX. 587

Chameleon, Mr J. Murray’s experiments and observations
on its temperature, as connected with the changes of
its colour, - - . = = ~

Chardinia, generic characters of, - - -

Chronometers, table of the daily differences, and rates of
three, on a voyage from Rio de Janeiro to the coast of

Peru, - = - = - =
Cochlea of the ear of birds, Dr Treviranus’s communica-
tion on the, - - 2 . <

Cockle, common, Mr Witham’s notice regarding its oceur-
rence in fresh water ditches in Yorkshire, - -
Coco-nut tree, Mr Marshall’s contribution to its natural
and economical history, 107—lIts description, 107—
Supposed medical uses, 110—Habitat and distribution,
112—Synonyms, 115—Uses, 116—Mode of extracting
toddy from the flower, 122—Distillation of arrack from
the juice, 126—Extraction of sugar, 128—Manufacture
of coir, 184—-Coco-oil, n= “ 2 a

- Coldstream, Mr John, his thermometrical observations

made hourly at Leith, during twenty-four successive
hours, and once every month, from July 1822 to July

1823, - = = = - =
Colours, Rev. L. Guilding’s table of, - - ~

’ Conchiferous animals observed in Harris, - =
Coregonus albus, described, _—- “ . =

3 - Artedi, described, - < Bi -
Corfu, Mr Miller’s register of the weather at, during part
of 1821, -~ = = = a

Cork, Rev. D. Guilding’s notice of a substitute for it, —-
Crocodile, Rev. G. Young’s account of one found in secon-
_ dary rocks at Whitby, - - -
Crystals, Mr Haidinger’s account of the method of draw-
ing them in true perspective, 485—Excellence of
Haiy’s figures, 486—The method developed is that
followed by Mohs, 486-—General principles, 487—Pro-
jections of simple forms, 488—Method of drawing a
hexahedron, 488—A regular octahedron, 491—A given

Page

578
540
194
572

577

138

175
577
579
510
515

90
570

O74

588 INDEX.

Page
isosceles four-sided pyramid, 491—The pyramid (P)s

~ of pyramidal zircon, 492—Scalene four-sided pyramid,
494—Right rhombic prism, 494—Regular six-sided
prism, 495—Regular six-sided prism, whose lateral
planes are squares, 495—-Regular six-sided prism, whose
sides are squares, 496—Rhombohedron, 499—Scalene
six-sided pyramid, 500 Projections of compound
forms, 501—Combination of the hexahedron and octa-
hedron, 501—Rhombohedral combination R. (P)3.
R+2, of the species of rhombohedral. lime-haloide,

3

503—The pyramidal combination P. (P)5. OE P+3.

P-+ co, of the species of pyramidal zircon, - = 505
DD:

Dempster, William, Dr Barnes’s account of his swallowing

a table-knife, ~ ~ - - ST = DEO
Dicranum bryoides, flexuosum, and cirrhatum, described, 201
Diphyscium, generic characters of, - = = 73
Dissodon, generic characters of, tis - - 461
Diver, red-throated, its bones of a dark colour, - 570
Don, Mr David, his classification of the genera Gnapha-

lium and Xeranthemum of Linnzus, 533—Monograph

of the genus Pyrola, - = - 220
Drawing crystals in true perspective, Mr Haidinger’s ac-

count of the method of, - = - 485
Drummond, Henry Home, Esq. his notice regarding bones

of a whale discovered in the district of Monteith, - 440

E

Edmondston, Laurence, Esq. his observations on the
Lesser Guillemot and Black-billed Auk, proving them
to be identical with the Foolish Guillemot and Com-
mon Auk, “ ~ ~ - §
Explosion of Stobbs Gunpowder Mills, Dr Grierson’s ac-
count of the, 576—Additional notice regarding it, = 576

INDEX. 589

¥

Fishes observed during Captain Franklin and Dr Richard-
son’s Journey to the Polar Sea, Dr Richardson’s account
of some, 509—Coregonus albus, 510—Coregonus Ar-

tedi, 515—Hiodon clodalis, = 2 e
— Mr J. Fotheringham’s account of a shower of, sup-
posed to have fallen in Fifeshire, Z A

Fleming, Dr John, his description of a new species of
Plumularia, from the Arctic Expedition, 303—Account
of a new British species of Spatangus, =

Fontinalis squamosa, a variety of it described, - 4

Foramen centrale of the Retina, Dr Knox’s account of it
as seen in reptiles, 1—in Lacerta superciliosa, 4—L.
scutata, 6—L. calotes, 6—Chameleon, Z a

. Forth district, Mr Blackadder, on the superficial strata of

the, 424—Upper district, 425—Lower district, 426—
Clay of this district described, 425—Peat-mosses, 426
—Vegetable remains found in the clay, 427—Descrip-
tion of the strata, 428—Sand and gravel deposits on
the margin of the carse-clay of the lower district, 429
—Sands and gravel of the upper district, 432—Old
red sandstone of the upper district, 434—-Bones of
whales discovered in the upper district, — - -

’ Fossil bones of a whale discovered in the district of Mon-

teith, Mr Drummond’s notice regarding, - =
- shells, Mr Vaysey’s account of some found in the
Gawilghur Range in India, 289—Geological nature of
the Range, 290—The only remains of animals dis-
covered in India, have been found in trap rocks, ~
- tree found at Cullalo, in Fifeshire, = -
- trees found near Harwich, Mr W. Knott’s notice of,
574—F ound in trap rocks in Lanarkshire, Mr J. Baird’s
account of, ed ~ - -
- trunks and branches found near Coldstream, Mr D.
Mylne’s account of, - - - ~

Page

518

575

287
204

104

437

4.4.0

206
574

590 INDEX.
Page
Frog, Mr Burd’s notice respecting an instance of mis-
directed instinct in it, = = - 567
Fruit-trees, Mr Stevenson on the prejudicial effects of a
layer of bog iron-ore upon, - - - 571

G

Gawilghur Range of Hills, Mr Vaysey’s account of some
fossil shells found in it, 289—Geographical account of
these hills, 289—Of the newest Floetz Trap Forma-
tion, 290—Results of their investigation, 290—The
principal part compact basalt, 290—Wacke, 291—No-
dular wacke or basalt, 291—Columnar basalt, 291—
Simple minerals contained in the wacke, 293—The
shells belong either to the genus Conus or Voluta, and
are flattened, 295—The rocks containing them inferred
to be of igneous origin, - - - 206

Geology and Geognosy, Dr Grierson’s general observa-
tions on their nature, 401—Account of the principal
theories of geologists, 403—Huttonian theory, 405—.
Wernerian theory, 407—Legitimate objects of Mine-
ralogy and Geology, 408—The term Geognosy intro-
duced by Werner, to distinguish the truly useful from
the merely speculative part of mineralogy, - 409

Gnaphalium and Xeranthemum of Linnzeus, Mr Don’s
memoir on the classification and division of, 533—Re-
marks illustrative of the family of Composite, 534—
Characters of the genus Xeranthemum, 538—Chardi-
nia, 539—Leucostemma, 540—Astelma, 542—Aphe-
lexis, 546—Euchloris, 548—Helichrysum, 549—Pen-
tataxis, 550—Spiralepsis, 551—-Petalacte, 552—Phz-
nocoma, 554—Carpholoma, 555—Metalasia, 556—An-
tennaria, 560—Leontopodon, 561—Gnaphalium, 563
—Characters of the genus, - - - 563

Greville, Robert Kaye, Esq. his new Arrangement of the
Genera of Mosses, 42—continued, 442.—Descriptions
of two new species of Mosses from America, 481—Ad-
dendum, - - - - - 564

INDEX.

Grierson, Rev. Dr. his observations on Geology and Geo-
enosy, = - = = “
Guillemot, Lesser, Mr Edmondston’s observations on it,
8—Identical with the Foclish Guillemot, 13—Account

of its habits, = - - -
Gymnostoidez, characters of the families of, - “
Gymnostomum, characters of the genus, 43—-G. Jamesoni
described, a be ae ii
H

Haidinger, W. Esq. his account of the method of drawing
crystals in true Perspective, = - = a
Hamilton, Dr Francis, his Commentary on the Herbarium
Amboinense of Rumphius, - - -
Head, measurement of it, in several varieties of the human
race; - - - - -
Hedwigia, generic characters of, - = -
Helichrysum, generic characters of, aS S

Hepatice, description of four species of, from Rio de
Janeiro, - = - ce u
Herbarium Amboinense, Dr Francis Hamilton’s Commen-
tary on the, 307—Palma Indica major, or Cocos nuci-
fera, 307—-Pinanga domestica, or Areca catechu, 307
—Pinangz sylvestres, various species of Areca, 308—
Saribus, Corypha rotundifolia, Encyclopedie, 312—
Limalia arbor, Licualia spinosa, Willd. 312—Descrip-
tion of Licualia peltata, 313—-Lontarus domestica, 314
—L. sylvestris, 314—L. sylvestris Yhur dicta, 315—
L. sylvestris Eabang, 315—L. sylvestris altera, 315
Palma indica vinaria secunda, 315—Arbor Tsiang, 316
—Seguaster major, 316—S. minor, 316—Description
of Hauria caryotoides, 317—Nypha, or Nipa fruticans,
Willd. 318—Sagus seu Palma farinaria, 318—S. genui-
na, or Sagus Rumphii, Willd. 319—Sagus sylvestris,
S. longissima, S. levis, §. filaris, 320—Bisula, 320—
Olus calappoides, 321—-O. calappoides e Celebe, ut et

591
Page

401
ae
42

200

485
307
218
67
045

204

hod

59)

02 INDEX.

illa ex Insulis Ulasseriensibus, 323—Planta Pappa dic-
ta, 324—-Arbor calappoides sinensis, 324—-Manga do-
mestica, or Mangifera indica, Linn. 325—Manga Pau-
marga sylvestris, 325—-Manga feetida, 327—Durio, or
Durio zibethinus, 327—-Saccus arboreus major, T'sjaca
Maram. Hort. Mal. 32'7—Saccus arboreus minor, 328
—Angelyquen vel Caju Bandaa, 329—Soccus lanosus,
S. granosus, 8. sylvestris, 332—S. sylvestris celebica,
S. sylvestris foemina, 333—-Prunum stellatum angulo-
sum, 334—Blimbingium teres, 335—Jambosa domes-
tica, $35—Jambo d’Agoa Rosada, 336—Jambosa nigra,
J. aquea, 336—J. sylvestris alba Utan Puti, J. sylves-
tris alba Biawas, J. sylvestris parvifolia, 337—J. syl-
vestris, Jamboe Ayer Utan dicta, 338—J. ceramica,
339—J. sylvestris Lahunensis, 341—Jambolana, 341—
Mangostana, M. celebica, 343—Arbor Mundo dicta,
345—Anona, 348—Fructus Chinensis Khi dicta, 352
—Anona tuberosa, 352—Cujavus domestica, C. agres-
tis, 352—C. sylvestris, 353—Cujavillus, 353—Papaja
mas et femina, P. sylvestris, P. litorea, 354-——P. Atehu,
355—Lansium domesticum album et rubrum, L, syl-
vestre primum et secundum, L. montanum, 355—Cus-
sambium, 356—Linkeng, 358—-Pomum draconum do-
mesticum, P. draconum sylvestre, 358—Rau Genrang,
358—Condondum, 358—Condondum Malaccense, 359
—Cynomorium, C. sylvestre, 359—Sandoricum domes-
ticum, S. sylvestre, 360—Cajim-gulur, 361—Sajanus,
361—Atunus, 362—Atun Puti, 362—Vidoricum do-
mesticum, V. sylvestre primum, 362—Catappa domes-
tica, C. litorea, C. sylvestris, 363—Cassuvium, 177—
Cassuvium sylvestre, 365—-Gnemon domestica mas
et femina, G. sylvestris, 367—Morunga mas et femi-
na, 368—Turia, 373—Turia rubra, T. striata, 374—
Teri mera, 374—Olus album domesticum, O. album
insulare, 375—Utta pela seu Sagor Bagnala, 376—Eri-
ophoros Javana, 376—Bilacus Tellor, 378-—Bilacus

Page

Madia Pissang, B. taurinus, B. Amboinensis sylvestris, 382

INDEX. 593

Hippophagi, Mongol and Bosjeman races strictly merit

the appellation of, “ » a
History of the Society, - - -
Hookeria tomentosa, albicans, prolonga, described, -
Hudson’s Bay countries, Dr Richardson’s remarks on their

climate and vegetable productions, ~ 4
Hypnum loxense, imbricatum, minutulum, subsecundum,

amcenum, described, ~ - oa

— remotifolium, a new species, described, ~

: J
Jameson, Mr W. notice ot a Journal of a voyage from Rio
de Janeiro to the coast of Peru, by him, “

Journal of a voyage from Rio de Janeiro to the coast of
Peru, by Mr William Jameson, Mr Arnott’s notice of
it, 187—-Meteorological journal kept on the voyage,
192—Table of the daily differences and rates of three
chronometers, 194—Account of mosses, &c. collected
at Rio de Janeiro, 199—Lycopodinee, Lycopodium
rupestre, and convolutum, 199—Musci, Gymnostomum
Jamesoni, Dicranum bryoides, D. flexuosum, Tortula
citrhata, Bryum argenteum, turbinatum and roseum,
Orthotrichum Jamesoni, Hookeria affinis, Hookeria
prolonga, Hypnum loxense, imbricatum, minutulum,

_ subsecundum, and amcenum, and Fontinalis squamosa,
200—Hepatice, Jungermannia, patula, brachiata, Ta-

marisci, platyphylla, and multifida, = n=

Juncus lampocarpus, Mr Parry’s notice regarding a vivi-

parous variety of, ~ - -

Jungermannia, several species of, described, :
K

Kaffre, characters of the, compared with those of the Negro,
Knox, Dr Robert, his account of the Foramen centrale of
the Retina, as seen in the eyes of certain reptiles, 1—
Additional observations on the same subject, 104—

VOL. V. Pp

216
565
202
572

203
483

187

204

571
204

2ll

594 INDEX

Observations on the anatomy of the Ornithorynchus
paradoxus, 26, 144, 151, 161—Inquiry into the origin
and differences of the native races inhabiting Southern
Africa, 206—On the mode of growth, reproduction
and structure of the poison-fangs in serpents, ~ All

L
Larus, Mr Macgillivray’s descriptions, characters and sy-~
nonyms of the different species of the genus, 247—
General remarks, 24'7—Generic characters, 248—La-
rus bathyrinchus, 253—L. marinus, 255—L. fuscus,
260-—L,. argenteus, 264—L. arcticus, 268—L. glacialis, 270
—— minutus, Mr Selby’s account of one shot in Gallo-

way, = ~ - «= 578
Larva, Dr Yule’s account of the effects produced by the —

presence of one in the human stomach, = 575
Leontopodon, characters of the genus, - - 561
Leucostemma, characters of the genus, - ~ 540
Lycopodinez, description of two species of, - 199
Lycopodium rupestre and convolutum described, ~ 199

M

Macgillivray, Mr W. his monograph of the genus Larus, 247
Magnetic stimuli, Mr Deuchar’s observations on, - 576
Magnetism of the Earth, Mr M. Miller’s notice ies it,
Mammoth tusk found near Kilmarnock, - = 575
Marshall, Mr Henry, his contribution to the natural and

economical history of the Coco-nut Tree, ~ 107
Members of the Society, list of, - = pel
Mermaid, deposition of three Shetland fishermen respect-

ing one, - - - - 569
Metalasia, generic characters of, = - 556
Meteoric stones, Mr Deuchar’s remarks on, -~ 560
Meteorological Journal, kept on a voyage from Rio de Ja-:

neiro to the coast of Peru, = = 102

Migration of the Golden-crested Régulus, Mr Selby’s ob-
servations on the, = 4 - 397

INDEX. 595

Miller, Mathew, Esq. his register of the weather at Corfu,

during part of 1821, - - -
Mineral pitch, Mr Witham’s account of its occurrence in
Ross-shire, = - =
Mongol, characters of the, compared with those of the
Bosjeman, “ - - .

Mosses, Messrs Greville and Arnott’s New Arrangement
of the Genera of, 42—Characters of the Gymnostomoi-
deze, 42—Of the genus Gymnostomum, 43—Schisto-
stega, 55—Anictangium, 61—Hedwigia, 67—Bux-
baumoidez, 72—Diphyschium, 73—Buxbaumia, '79—
Subject continued, 442—Splachnoidez, 442—Splach-
num, 448—Dissodon, 461—Tayloria, — - “=

Murray, John, Esq. his observations on the ascent of the
Spider into the atmosphere, - -

Musci, Mr Arnott’s account of several species of, from Rio

de Janeiro, 200—Dr Greville’s description att two new
species from America, oe t f

N

Neckera americana, a new species, described, 481—Not

new, but found to be N. minor, Schwegr. -
Neckera undulata described, = =
Negro, characters of the, compared with those of the Kaffre,

_ Newfoundland, account of Mr Cormack’s journey across it,

Noble, Mary, Dr Barnes's biographical account of, ~

O

Office-bearers for 1823-—4—5, list of, s ‘3
Organ of hearing in the Shark tribe, Mr Buchanan’s ac-
count of it, - é o
Ornithorynchus paradoxus, Dr Knox’s observations on its
anatomy, 26—Organs of sense described, 26—Poison-
gland and spur, 37—Organs of digestion, respiration,
and circulation, 144—Kidneys, urinary bladder, and
organs of generation, 151—-Osseous, muscular and ner-
vous systems, ~ -

96
573

214

A70

384

AS

504
202
211
5607
565

582

S77

161

596 INDEX.

Ornithorynchus, a new species of it described, - 573
Orthotrichum Jamesoni described, . - ~ 201
P

Pancreas, Dr Grant’s account of its occurrence in Sepia
Loligo, 575—In gasteropodous animals, - 576
Pentataxis, generic characters of, - = 550
Petalacte, generic characters of, 4 - 552
Phznocoma, generic characters of, - - 554
Plantations, Mr Parry on the management of young, - 569

Plants, Mr Atkinson’s sketch of the geographical distribu-
tion of, in Yorkshire, 277—General observations, 277
Enumeration of particular species, - = 278
Plumularia bullata, Dr Fleming’s description of, - 308
Psophia crepitans, Dr Traill’s observations on its habits,
appearance, and anatomical structure, 523—Descrip-
tion, 524—Erroneously placed among the Gallinaceze,
526—Intestinal canal, ib.—Lungs, ib.—Cry described,
527—Specific name absurd, and proposed to be altered
into Loricata or Clypeata, 52'7—Psophia a true ventri-
loquist, 527—Trachea described, = - 528
Pyrola, Mr Don’s monograph of the genus, 220—General
observations, 220—Generic character, 224—-Conspectus
of the species, 225—P. rotundifolia, 228—P. asari-
folia, 230—P. chlorantha, 231—P. occidentalis, 232—
P. dentata, P. picta, 235—P. aphylla, 237—P. media,
238—P. minor, 239—P. secunda, 241—P. uniflora, 242
—P, umbellata, 243—P. maculata, 244—-P. Menziesii, 245

Q
Quadrupeds of Hudson’s Bay, Dr Richardson’s account of
the, = = - 568
R

Races inhabiting Southern Africa, Dr Knox’s inquiry into
their origin and differences, - - 206

INDEX. 597

Register of the weather at Corfu, during part of 1821, + 90
Regulus, Golden-crested, Mr? Selby’s observations on its
migrations, 397—Its arrival on the coast, from Berwick
to Whitby, along with Thrushes and Woodcocks, 398
—Disappeared entirely in the winter of 1822, 399—
Not seen in Scotland in the summer of 1823, - 899
Reptiles, existence of the foramen centrale of the retina in
certain species of, 1-—In Lacerta superciliosa, 4—L.
scutata, 6—L. calotes, 6—Chameleon, - 104
Retina, Dr Knox’s account of the discovery of the foramen
centrale of the, in the eyes of reptiles, ae aan |
Rhinoceros horns of Blair-Drummond, Mr Blackadder's
communication regarding them, = = 573
Richardson, Dr John, his account of some fishes observed
during Captain Franklin’s journey to the polar sea, - 509

; Ss

Schistostega, description of the genus, - 2 55
Sea-devil, Mr Lamont’s account of the capture of one in

the West Indies, = = - 568
Seetabuldee, a hill in India, Mr ee account of its

geological structure, . - 298
Selby, P. J. Esq. his observations on the migrations of the

Golden-crested Regulus, - Sie 807

Serpents, Dr Knox on the mode of growth, reproduction
and structure of the poison-fangs, 41—Observations
on the simple teeth of serpents, 412—the fangs, 415—
A single fixed one only, in general, on each side, 415

—Progressive growth of the fangs, - - 416
Shells, Mr Vaysey’s account of some fossil ones found in

the Gawilghur Range in India, - - 289
Silurus Parkeri, described by Dr Traill, —- - 572
Skull, supposed antediluvian, - - 576
Smelts kept for four years in fresh water, - - 579

Spatangus, Dr Fleming’s account of a new British species of, 287
Spider, Mr Murray, on the power possessed by it of pro-
pelling its threads, and ascending into the air, 384—

398 INDEX.

General remarks, 384—Gossamer, 385—Shower of
spider’s webs, 387—-Aranea aéronautiea described, 387
—Remarks on Aranea geometrica, 388—Atmosphere
full of cobwebs, 388—Fall of A. aéronautica after a
discharge of fire-arms, 389-—-Experiment on spiders,

389—Propulsion of the thread, 390—Thread electri-

fied, 391—Various experiments and observations on

the subject, - - -
Spiralepis, generic characters of, = =
Splachnoidez, characters of the family of, - -
Splachnum, generic characters of, ° -

Sponges, Dr Grant’s memoir on the natural history of, -
Stone-axe, account of one said to have been found imbed-

ded in compact clay under limestone, : a

T
Tallow-candles, Dr Yule’s account of the changes pro-
duced in, i = .
Tayloria, characters of the genus, : -

Thermometrical observations made hourly at Leith, during
twenty-four successive hours, and once every month,
from July 1822 to July 1823, Mr John Coldstream’s, -

Toad imprisoned for fifty-four years, Major-General Hard-
wick’s account of one, - ~

Tortula cirrhata described, = «

Traill, Dr Thomas Stewart, his observations on the habits,
appearance and structure of the Psophia crepitans, -

Trap Rocks of the counties of York, Durham, Westmore-

- land, Cumberland, and Northumberland, Mr Witham’s
notice regarding the, 475—Opinions respecting the
origin of trap, 475—Strata of Derbyshire, 4'76—De-
scription of the trap rocks in question, -

Tyritonia arborescens, Dr Grant’s observations on its habits,

Trumpeter, Dr Traill’s observations on its habits, appear-
ance and structure, : a "

Turpentine, rectified oil of, Dr Traill’s communication re-
garding its use fur preserving zoological specimens, -

INDEX. 599

V

Vaysey, H. W. Esq. his account of some fossil shells
found in the Gawilghur Range, 289—Account of the
geological structure of the hill of Seetabuldee, Nag-

poor, and its immediate vicinity, - - 298
Vegetable remains found in Craig-Leith Quarry, ~ 574
Ww

Weather, Mr Miller’s register of it, at Corfu, during part
of 1821, - a ~ 90

Whale, Mr H. Drummond’s notice regarding bones of one
discovered in the district of Monteith, 440—Mr Black-
adder’s notice regarding bones of one, discovered in the

upper district of the Forth, = - 487
Whitadder, Mr D. Mylne’s account of the stratification on
its right bank, - - - 576

Witham, Henry, Esq. his notice regarding the trap rocks
of the counties of York, Durham, Westmoreland,
Cumberland, and Northumberland, 475—Regarding

live cockles found in fresh-water ditches, - 577
xX
Xeranthemum and Gnaphalium of Linneus, Mr Don’s
memoir on the classification and division of, = 533
generic characters of, - - 538
Z
Zircon found in the Island of Scalpay, ~ - 578

END OF VOL. V.

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