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MEMOIRS

OF THE

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Poe Ie
MEN Ath
etic

ee oe ve
e m Mer ite

a

eee . » Plate XV. ,

FE. Greville Del.

MEMOIRS Becsiona Uibry

oe
WAR nino yee 9.

OF THE

WERNERIAN

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. /

Vou. II.

FOR THE YEARS 1817~-18-19~20.

WITH TWENTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS»

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR.
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. EDINBURGH 5
AND HURST, ROBINSON & CO. LONDON.

1821.

'

«ty

ie ds

I.—Observations on the Anatomy of the
Orang Outang. By Dr Thomas

Beare PATE vo ce enccescee ete eek.

I1.—On the Connection between the Pri-
mitive Forms of Crystals, and the
Number of their Axes of Double

Refraction. By Dr Brewster,..........

II.—Description of a Species of Delphi-
nus, which appears to be new. By

the late George Montagu, Esgq............

1V.— Observations on the Mineralogy of
the Neighbourhood of Cork. By

Dr.Fleming;..<...... SA Aker pA AO ‘

V.—Mineralogical Notices and Observa-
tions. By Dr Maeknight...............

V1 CONTENTS.
Page.

VI.— Additional Observations on the Coal
Field of Clackmannanshire, and a
Description of the absolute Shape
or Form of the Coal Fields. By
Robert Bald, Esq... 02... eee 128

VII.—Account of some Sandstone Petrifac-
trons found near Edinburgh. By
the Rev. James Grierson,..........0000 156

VIII—Description of the Simia sagulata,
or Jacketed dis By Dr
EP TAILES, vc csis seco: 5 sen ten tee te 167

IX.— Description of a New Species of Fe-
| he from Guyana. By Dr Traill,...170

X.—-On the Water Rail. By Dr Fle-
PUA ges. nig an eee oad one egeee Beem 174

XI.—An Account of the Change of Plu-
mage exhibited by many Species of
Female Birds, at an advanced pe-
riod of life ; intended as a Supple-
ment to Mr John Hunter's Me-
moir upon that Subject, in the Phi-
losophical Transactions. By Dr J.
Babb eheess oie) 04 YOULL VAS iL CSN i 183

XI.— Account of some Fossil Remains of
the Beaver, (Castor Fiber L.)
found in Perthshire and Berwick-

CONTENTS. Vil
f : ) Pages
shire, proving that that animal was

formerly a native of Scotland. By
os a ETP ay Roan 207

XIIL.—On the Rocks of Sandside in Caith-
ness. By Professor Jameson,......... 220

AXIV.—Geognosy of Hast Lothian. By

Prolessor JAMESON, «.:.62+ dea cuqess>sedee 225

XV.—Account of the Effects of the Juice of
the Papaw Tree (Carica Papaya),
an Intenerating Butchers-meat.
By the late Dr Holder,................. QA5

XVI.— Account of the Travelled Stone near
Castle-Stewart, Inverness-shire.
By Thomas Lauder Dick, Esq...... 251

AVIT.—Absitract of a Paper on the Scale of
Being, and particularly on Orga-—
nization and the Living Princi-
ple. By John Campbell, Esq....... 260

XVIIL—On the Nutrition of Cuticle, Nails,
Hair, Feathers, and Plants. By
Dr Dewar ae a a, 272

XIX.—Observations on the Genus Picus of
_ Linneus, with Descriptions of two
New Species from the Interior of

Brazil. By William Swainson, Esq. 288

Will CONTENTS.

5 @ e Page.
XX.— Descriptions of several New or Rare

_ Native Plants, found in Scotland,
chiefly by the late Mr George Don
of Forfar. By Mr David Don,.....294

XXI—On the Rocky Mountain Sheep of
| the Americans. By Professor Ja-

XXII.—On the Bed of the German Ocean,
or North Sea. By Robert Ste-—
VenseN): FQ. ites. oss Thecaahess- eos . 314

XXITL— Additional Observations on the
Connection between the Primitive
Forms of Minerals, and the Num-
ber of their Axes of Double Re-
fraction. By Dr Brewster,............ 337

SXXIV.—An Account of some of the Crypto-
gamous Plants of Devonshire. By
Robert Kaye Greville, Esq........ Barer te

XXV.—Account of a Beluga, or White
Whale, killed in the Frith of Forth.
By Dr Barclay and Mr Neill,.......... 371

XXVI.—Description of a New Species of Fu-
cus, found in Devonshire. By Mr
Greville Of). 222s Rae 396

XXVII.—On the British Species of the Genus
Beroe. By Dr Fleming........... veces 400

CONTENTS. ix

XXVITI.—Descriptions of several new Plants ,
From the Kingdom of Nepaul,
taken from Specimens preserv-
ed in the Herbarium of Ayimer
Bourke vee aie a ae By
WE BG. csouc oid ry Ole ues 407

XXIX.—Description of a New Species of
Potentilla, from the West Coast
of Greenland ; with some Ac-
count of the Arctic Flora. By
Bir Glreyalla soso vicssaiies Sere 416

XXX.— Account of the Lutra vittata, and
of the Viverra Peregoan ave.
ee My UMA cen cpargitvne «nas neaev. 437

XX X1.—On the Leaves, Capsule, and Root
of Buxbaumia aphylla. By Mr
Greville, i dels Citi: teibial vas S dics ai ue se a

XXXII suihetotnt of a Singular F Fossil Ske-
leton, discovered at Whitby, in
February 1819. By the Rev.
George Fomigyrs Ae ee 455
XXXII— Physiological Ni otice concerning the
Early State of the Common Frog.
By James Wilson, Hsq............. 458

XXXIV.—Onthe Luminosity ofthe Sea. By
John Murray, Hsq...................+6 466
i :

* CONTENTS.
Page.

XXXV,.—Explanation of an Apparatus,
suggested by Colonel Yure, for
Discharging Ordnance upon
Mr Forsyrn’s Plan; and an
Account of some Experiments’
performed with it. By Mr John

a

XXXVI— Description of two New Philoso-
phical Instruments. By Mr
Alexander Adie,.........cc.ceeeeee1000- 483

SNC Deacrtction of an Instrument
jor ascertaining . the Specific
Gravity of Bodies, without the
Use of ee or Calculation.
Mr Adie,... tc eecbeavh oxi ack ee

me y At. —Continuation of an Account of
some Experiments performed
with an Apparatus for Dis-
charging Ordnance, without the
Use of a Light or Match-lock ;
an which several Inferences are
drawn with regard to the Nature
and Source of the Flame. By
Mr Peucway. LS eae

ima

ADVERTISEMENT.

Ix laying its Memoirs before the Public, this So-
CIETY does not hold itself as responsible for the
facts or opinions which may be advanced on the va-
rious topics of Natural History that are discussed.
These, accordingly, must be distinctly understood as
resting entirely on the individual authority of the
respective Writers who have favoured the Society
with Communications.

|

Pan Ty

List of Engravings in Vol. LIT.

Pl. I.& II. Anatomy of Orang Outang ; referred to at
pp. 29. 32. |
III. Head of Delphinus truncatus ; referred to at p. 75. &c.
IV.—VIII. Illustrative of Coal-fields, &c. explained at
| p. 153.
TX. Jacketed Monkey; p. 167.
X. Spotless Cat’; p. 170.
X1. Domestic Hen in Male Plumage; p. 196.
XII. Illustrative of structure of Sandstone Rocks,
p- 224.
XIII. Travelled Stone near Castle Stuart, p. 251.
XIV. Chart of the German Ocean, p. 317. &c.
XV, XVI. Fuci, p. 369. & 370.
XVII, XVIII. Beluga, &c. p. 395 :—Beroe, p. 402.
XIX. Lutra vittata, p. 438 :—Fucus, p. 399.
XX. Potentilla Jamesoniana, p. 41’7.
XXI. Buxbaumia aphylla, p. 449.
XXII. Fossil Skeleton, p. 451.
XXIII. Grey-headed Weesel, &c. p. 440. ; also p. 495.
XXIV. Apparatus for discharging Ordnance, p. 500, &c.
XXY. Adie’s Sympiesometer, p. 484, &c. %

MEMOIRS, &c. .

yt Observations on the are of the Orang
' Outang.

By Dr Tuomas Stewart Tralzt, Liverpool.

(Read 7th February 1818.)

AN opportunity of examining the internal struc-
ture of the Orang Outang, so rarely occurs to the
British anatomist, that I eagerly availed myself of
the permission granted by Mr Bullock, proprietor
of the Museum in Piccadilly, to dissect a specimen
of this animal, which was his property, and had re-
cently died at Liverpool. A slight examination of
its external appearance convinced me of the inac-
curacy of the engravings of the Orang Outang in
our best works on Natural History. Under the
name of Orang Outang, or its supposed synonymes,
most naturalists appear to have confounded two
distinct animals, the Indian or Brown Orang, and
the African or black species. The figures published
by Tyson and Buffon, are intended to represent the
VOL, III. A

2 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

latter, which also forms the subject of this paper;
but these representations differ in several important
particulars from the specimen now under considera-
tion. The rude, though (I believe) faithful, deli-
neations of Camper, as well as the more finished en-
gravings of Edwards, Vosmaer and Allamand,
were taken from the Indian Orang, and decidedly
point it out as a different species from the speci-
men before us. The seeming inaccuracy of Dr
Tyson’s figure led me to suspect that some of the
minute details of its internal structure might have
escaped that accomplished anatomist ; and the dis-
crepancies of authors induced Mr Bullock to take
casts and drawings of the animal after death.

_ Anxious to render the examination of its inter-
nal structure as complete as possible, I requested
the assistance of my friend Dr Vose, a very able
and zealous anatomist, who immediately lent his
co-operation ; and we resolved to devote the inter-
vals of our professional avocations to this interesting
subject. The following observations are chiefly
drawn up from notes which we took on that occa-
sion; and a former dissection of the Simia Maimon,
or rib-nosed baboon, enabled us to compare its struc-
ture with that of the Orang Outang. The few
remarks on the manners of this animal, are collect-
ed from conversation with the late Captain Payne,
an intelligent and respectable mariner of this
port, who brought it from the coast of Africa to
Kurope.. : iad

ORANG OUTANG. . g

‘The subject of this paper is a female, and was
procured in the Isle of Princes in the Gulf of
Guinea, from a native trader, who had carried it
thither from the banks of the Gaboon. It was re-
presented as a young animal, far inferior in size to
the specimens often seen in the recesses of its na-
tive forests ; and Captain Payne observed, that it
was at least eight or ten inches lower in stature than
another which he had seen in the Isle of Princes.
_ The natives of Gaboon informed him, that this spe-
cies attains the height of five or six feet; that it
is a formidable antagonist to the elephant, and that
several of them will not scruple to attack the lion
and other beasts of prey, with clubs and stones. It
is dangerous for solitary individuals to travel through
the woods haunted by the Orang Outang; and in-
stances were related to Captain Payne of Negro
girls being carried off by this animal, who have
sometimes escaped to human society, after having
been for years detained by their ravishers in a fright-
ful captivity. ‘These reports confirm the narratives
of the early voyagers, who have often been suspect-
ed of exaggeration *; and similar facts have been
recently stated very circumstantially by gentlemen
who have lived in Western Africa. The general
belief of the Negroes is, that this animal is rational,
aac can speak, but cunningly avoids the exercise

7 AQ

* See Purchas’ Pilgrims, Dampier, Battel, Schoutten, Fro-
ger, Bosman, De la Brosse, &c.

A ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

of this er lest he should be compelled to la-
hour. ty" nee
“ When first our animal came on board, (says
“ Captain Payne,) it shock hands with some of the’
“ sailors, but refused its hand, with marks of anger,:
“to others, without any apparent cause. It speedi-.
““ ly, however, became familiar with the erew, ex-
“cept one boy, to whom it never was reconciled.
“ When the seamen’s mess was brought on deck,
“it was 2 constant attendant ; would go round and
“ embrace each person, while it uttered loud yells,
“ and then seat itself among them, to share the re-
“past.” When angry, it sometimes made a bark-
ing noise like a dog; at other times it would ery
like a pettish child, and scratch itself with great
vehemence. It expressed satisfaction, especially on
receiving sweetmeats, “ by a sound like hem, in a
“ prave tone ;” but it seemed to have little variety
in its voice. In warm latitudes, it was active and
cheerful, but became languid as it receded from the
torrid zone; and on approaching our shores, it shew-
ed a desire to have a warm covering, and would roll
itself carefully up in a blanket when it retired to.
rest. It gencrally walked on all fours; and Captain
Payne particularly remarked, that it never placed
the palm of the hands of its fore extremities to the
ground, but, closing its fists, rested on the knuckles;
a circumstance also noticed by Tyson, which was con-
firmed to me by a young navy officer, who had been
for a considerable time employed in the rivers of

ees

, . ORANG OUTANG. | 5

Western Africa, and had opportunities of observing

the habits of this species. This animal cid not

seem fond of the erect posture, which it rarely af-

fected, though it could run nimbly on two feet for a

short distance. In this case, it appeared to aid the

motion of it legs, by grasping the thighs with its
hands. It had great strength in the four fingers

of its superior extremity ; for it would often swing
by them on a rope upwards of an hour, without in-_

mission. When first procured, it was so thickly

Grex with hair, that the skin of the trunk and

limbs was scarcely visible, until the long black hair
was blown aside. At that period, the skin was free
from any disease: but after it had been some time
at sea, much of its hair fell off, its body was at-
tacked by a scaly eruption, resembling psoriasis

— gutiata, and attended by excessive itching. This

might partly be owing to improper diet, as it was

_ often fed on salted beef and biscuit. It ate readily

every sort of vegetable food; but at first did not
appear to” relish flesh, though it scemed to take
pleasure in sucking the leg-bone of a fowl. At

that time it did not relish wine, but afterwards

seemed to like it, though it never could endure ar-
dent spirits. It once stole a bottle of wine, which

_it uncorked with its teeth, and began to drink. It

shewed a predilection for coffee, and was immode-
rately fond of sweet articles of food. *It learned to
feed itelf with a spoon, to drink out of a glass, and.
shewed a general disposition to imitate the actions

Oo ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

of men. It was attracted by bright metals; seem-
ed to take pride in clothing, and often put a cocked
hat on its head. It was dirty in its habits, and
never was known to wash itself. It was afraid of
fire-arms; and, on the whole, appeared a timid
animal.

It lived with Captain Payne seventeen weeks,
two of which were spent in Cork and Liverpool.
At the former place it was exhibited, for the be-
nefit of the soup-kitchen, for a few days, but seems
to have been there neglected. On coming to Li-
verpool, it languished a few days, moaned heavily,
was oppressed in its breathing, and died tlh con-
vulsive motions of its limbs.

I shall now proceed to describe its

External Appearance.

When erect, this animal is about thirty ches
high. The skin appears of a yellowish-white co.,
lour, and is thinly covered with long black hair on
the front ; but it is considerably more hairy behind. —
The hair on the head is rather thin, and is
thickest on the forehead, where it divides, about
an inch above the orbitar process of the fron-_
tal bone, and running ‘a little backwards, falls
down before the ears, forming whiskers on the
cheeks. Here the hair measures nearly two
inches long, but that on the occiput is mot
above an inch in length. There are a few stiff

ORANG OUTANG. : 7

black hairs on the eye-brows, and a scanty eye-lash:
A few whitish hairs are scattered on the lips, es-
“pecially on the under one. The rest of the face is
naked, and has whitish and wrinkled skin. There is
searcely any hair on the neck; but commencing at
the nape it becomes somewhat bushy on the back.
The abdomen is nearly naked. The hair on the
back of the head, and the whole trunk, front of
the lower extremities, back of the legs, and upper
part of the superior extremities, is directed down-
wards, while that on the back of the thigh and
fore-arms is pointed upwards; appearances well re-
presented in Tyson’s figure. The longest hair is
just at the elbows. There is none on the fingers
or palms of either extremity. Around the anus
and genitals is a patch of whitish hair, which is’
longest just over the anus *.

The ears are remarkably prominent, thin and na-
ked, beating a considerable resemblance in shape to
the human, though broader at the top. The pro-
jection of the process above the eyes, is very con- |
spicuous, but has not been sufficiently marked in
any engraving or drawing which has fallen under
my observation. The nose is quite flat, or rather
appears only as a wrinkle of the skin, with a slight
epress ssion nlong its centre. The nostrils are patu-

GB ae
+ * These Be ions may appear too minute, but several
naturalists have laid much weight on the manner in which the

hair of the Orang Outang is directed.

fl ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

lous, and open upwards, which would be inconve-
nient, did the animal usually assume the erect.
posture. The projection of the jaws is exces-
sive; and though much less so than in the ba-
boon, yet the profile of the face is concave. It
may be remarked, however, that the projection
of the lower jaw is caricatured in the first and se-
cond figures of Camper’s second plate. The mouth
is wide, the lips rather thin, and destitute of that
recurvation of the edges which add so much to the
expression of the human countenance. ‘The whole
contour of the head bears no inconsiderable re-
semblance to some Egyptian figures of the pees
Anubis. — 6

‘The spread of the shoulders is diotiinetly aed
but the width of the lower part of the chest is pro-
portionally greater when compared to the upper,
than in man. The mamme in our subject are
perfectly flat, and the nipples very small, as is al-
so the umbilicus.

From the lower ribs, the diameter of the abdo-
men decreases rapidly to the loins, where the ani-
mal is peculiarly slender ;—a circumstance in which
it approaches the other simiz. The pelvis appears
long and narrow ; another approximation to the rest
of the genus. ‘The genitals present striking peeu-
liarities, which shall be afterwards particularly de-
scribed. There are no callosities on the buttocks.

With regard to the limbs, the chief difference
hetween our specimen and Dr Tyson’s figure, con-

)) ORANG OUTANG. ; Gg

sists in the excessive length of the arms; which in
this animal, descend below the knees, by the whole
length of the phalanges of the fingers, which are
above three inches in length. The same observa-
tion applies to almost every figure of this animal
which I have seen. The proportions in the work
of Camper, approach nearest to the present instance
in this particular. The hand differs from the hu-
man, in having the thumb by far the smallest of
the fingers. ‘The foot is more properly a hand ap-
pended to a tarsus. The thumb of this extremity is
very long, powerful, and capable of great extension.
The legs are certainly furnished with calves; but
they scarcely resemble the human in form, because
they are continued of equal thickness nearly to the
heel. When the animal is erect, the knees appear
considerably bent, as is the case with the other
simie, and it stands with the limbs more apart than

Wa 9 TInternai Structure.

’ In the following observations, our intention is
rather to describe the peculiarities of the Orang
Outang, than to dwell on these circumstances in
which it accords with the human subject; and ac-
cordit ng to the plan most commonly adopted by ana-
tomists, we shall commence with the bones, as the

basis of the body.

10 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

C2, wi hyn aap

The Bones.

The general appearance of the skeleton is pretty
accurately given by Dr Tyson. The chief differ-
ence between his figure and the present specimen, is
the greater length of the arms, the prominence of
the orbitar processes of the frontal and of the max-
illary bones, and the consequent greater concavity
of the profile of the face in the latter.

The Bones of the Head.—The general form of
the head certainly approaches nearer to that of man,
than in any other species of this genus; but the top
of the head is more flat, and the union of the spine
with the head is rather farther back. The differ-
ent pieces of the cranium are united by indented
sutures, that have the same position asin man. In
the lambdoid suture, at its junction with the sagit-
tal, we found an os triquetrum of small size. The
squamous suture of the temporal bone is smaller,
and rather less overlapping than in the human sub. -
ject. The orbitar processes of the os frontis, ] 010
ject about half an inch beyond the general convexi-
ty of that bone; and the orbits of the eyes are , pro-
portionally larger, and rounder than in man. pa d; ;
taking off the upper part of the cranium, the | j ossee
for the lodgment of the brain, seem less strong]
marked than in man, and have fewer inequalities of
surface. The frontal fosse have smoother bases,

~~ @RANG OUTANG. ~ 11

which slope down toward the temporal fosse. The
frontal spine is continued a little farther down, and
the depression which receives the cribriform plate
of the «ethmoid bone, is much deeper and smoother
on the sides; while the apertures in that bone, for.
the passage of the olfactory nerves, are considerably
larger. The crista galli is smaller. The tempo-
ral fosse differ from the corresponding parts in man,
in being much less marked by inequalities, and they
extend more toward the base of the skull. The
pars petrosa is less prominent, and smoother. ‘The
sella turcica is almost in the centre of the cranium ;
the posterior clinoid process being two inches from
the edge of the frontal, and but 2.3 from the occipi-
tal spine ; whereas, in a human skull, the propor-
tions were found to be as 2.5 to 3.8. ‘Though the
cerebellum is large, the fossee which lodge it are-
not very distinctly divided from the posterior fossz,
destined to receive the cerebrum. Indeed, instead
of the well defined boundaries traced in the human
skull by the crucial ridge, we found them marked
by a flat undulation of the occipital bone. The ca-
vity of the cranium measures from the interior edge
of the frontal spine, to the middle of the crucial
ridge, 3.9 inches ; and from side to side 3.5 inches.
The foramen magnum of the occipital bone, is si-
tuated considerably farther back. There is no mas-
toid, and scarcely a vestige of a styloid process.
The situation of the former is marked by a rough-

12 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

ened surface, and the latter is represented by a mi-
nute point on the temporal bone.

The ossa nasi, are nearly similar in shape ships
of man; but they are placed perfectly flat on the
face, so as not to be visible in a profile of the
skull. In the Baboon, there is only one proper
nasal bone, which is applied flat to the upper
part of the nose; and the cavity formed by the
removal of the soft parts of the nose is oval; where-
as in the Orang, it is circular ; and it is triangular
in man. :

The ossa maxille superioris, project considerably
beyond even the remarkable orbitar processes of the
frontal bone, and bring the form of the lower part
of the face more nearly to that of quadrupeds. We
found the ductus incisivus; which occasionally occurs
in man, is very distinct in the rib-nosed baboon,
and is constantly found in the larger quadrupeds.
The teeth strongly resemble the human; but the
alveolar processes of the upper jaw, project the cut-
ting teeth more forward. The incisores are strong,
and placed a little remote from the canine teeth.
When the mouth is shut, the canine teeth lock in-
to each other; those of the lower passing before
those of the upper-jaw. The molares are four on ©
each side of the two jaws, but the two last are still
lodged in the bone. ‘The lower jaw is stronger and
narrower than im man. It is thicker toward the
symphysis, and has a shorter coronoid process.

ORANG OUTANG. | PS

The Bones of the Trunk—The cervical verte-
bre agree in number with the human skeleton ; but
they form a more flat column; their spinous processes
overlap less; the atlas has no spinous process, in
which the Orang Outang agrees with the baboon,
though it differs from the latter in wanting the fora-
mina, which pass obliquely from each side of the
transverse processes of the atlas, to the passage for
the vertebral arteries. The cervical column = 2
inches. ‘The dorsal vertebre are thirteen in num-
ber ; but the inferior oblique processes of the lower
vertebree are only two, as in man, not four, as in the
baboon. In the latter animal, the two last verte-
bree may be said to be without transverse processes.
The length of the dorsal column in the Orang = 5.7
inches. There are only four lumbar vertebre. The
intervertebral cartilages below, differ in thickness
from those of the upper vertebree, more than in the
human body. The cartilage between the thirteenth
dorsal and first lumbar vertebra, measures upwards
of an inch in front, while those between the cervi-
cal vertebree are about 0.2 inch in thickness; but
the general dimensions of the cartilages of the back
and loins, are from 0.2. to 0.3 inch.

The ribs are thirteen on each side; of these eight
are united to the sternum by their proper cartilages,
and five are joined to the cartilages of the superior
ribs. ‘The ribs are placed rather on the body of the
vetrebra, than on the interstices between them, as
is also the case in the Simia Maimon. The carti-

14 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE.

lages of the eighth pair, unite below the last piece
of the sternum, (which was here —_—- as iw
this ile a a.

The sternum consists of five pieces. The figure
of the fourth piece is nearly globular, (as at b).
The different pieces were united by cartilage; the
xiphoid measured 1.3 inch, and the whole sternum
4.2 inches.

The general curvature of the vertebral column
and of the ribs, does not materially differ from the
human subject. The chest appears to be rather
more roomy below, in proportion to its upper diame-
ter; and the lower lumbar vertebrae are more sud-
_ denly inclined backward, to enlarge the brim of the
pelvis. The following are the dimensions of the
thorax.

Circumference of the thorax at its widest part, 15¢he*-

when the skin is removed, ‘ = 18.0
Diameter from the root of xiphoid cartilage,
to the external side of the 8th rib, == fi O

Lateral diameter of the thorax at the 2d false
rib, & om pases 6.5

¥
*

eo Pe

- ORANG OUTANG. 15

_» The pelvis approaches much nearer to that part
in the baboon than in the human skeleton. The

_ ossa ilia, instead of forming a cavity by the incur-

_ vation of their upper portion, are flat anteriorly, and

extend considerably above the sacrum, reaching to

within a short distance of the lowest ribs. The
upper part of the ilia in our specimen, was sur-
rounded by a cartilaginous rim, 0.2 inch in dia-
meter. The brim of the pelvis is much longer from
the pubis to the top of the sacrum, than from side
to side. ‘The ossa pubis, with the ischia, are of a

-more square form than in man; the former is deep-

er at the symphysis; and the foramen thyroideum
has its smallest angle pointing upward. The low-
er aperture of the pelvis is extremely different from
the form in the human body. Itisavery large and
patulous opening, as bounded by the crura of the
pubis, and the tendons stretched between the coccyx
and the tuberosities of the ischia. The sacrum and
coccyx, are placed so high above the tuberosities of
the ischia, that they can scarcely be said to form.
any part of the boundary of the bottom of the pel

vis. This peculiar form of the basin, militates a-
gainst the erect posture being considered as the na-
tural one of this animal; for it would thus be more
liable to abortion in the gravid state. The sacrum
is narrow, like that of the baboon ; and like it con-
sists of five vertebrae, which probably are united in-
to one in the adult animal. The coccyx consists
of three pieces; but two were cartilaginous. In

16 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

the number of pieces in the coccyx, the Orang re-
sembles man. ‘The coccyx of the sisoaniame consists
of at least five pieces. |

The ends of the ossa ilia are united to the pubis
and ischium, by distinct cartilages, which are ful-
ly 0.3 inch in width externally; but though this
shews the youth of the animal now under consider-
ation, the ischia and pubis have no line of separ
tion. ‘The dimensions of the pelvis will be best un-
derstood from the following measurement.

Qs innominatum from the top of ilium to the Inches

tuber “ischit. ii So a a
Os ilium from its junction with the pubis to

its POpyocve, cL Oa HERG]
Diameter of the pelvis across the broadest

part ‘of ‘the “iia,...20.. 1/40)... ALS
Inside diameter of the brim of the pila wis

from’ pubis to sacrum,.......02 VARs 2.5
Inside diameter of do. from side to side, at

the union of ilia and pubis,........0..0h0.0 1.4
Ditto, a little higher between the crura of the |

WML, wien ee he ee 1.6

— from the point of hie coccyx to the inser-
tion of the sacro-sciatic ligament in tuber —
WCHL OE, wold kbs SUR Pde oh Poe ae ee 2.0
— between the tuberosites of the iaekien vale QB
— from the point of the coccyx to imside —
of arch of DUDEK se ill, eS (OR (24

ORANG OUTANG. WN

Ditto from do. to the inside of the upper part Inches.

of'symphysis,.-.-.01 eee — 2.0
Length of the symphysis pubis, --.-..-s.s.-....5. 14
| ae \

- These dimensions differ considerably fromm those
in the pelvis of the baboon, which is extremely nar-
row between the crura of the pubis and tuberosi-
ties of the ischia, so that the point of the finger
cannot be introduced at the most depending part of
the pelvis, even in the skeleton. ‘The union, too,
of its sacrum and ilia, is more towards the centre of
the latter than in the Orang Outang ; and the low-
er parts of the ischia are reflected outward.

The Bones of the Superior Eaxtremity.—The
clavicles present nothing peculiar, except that they —
project rather more forward than in man, at their
junction with the sternum. ‘The scapula is much
narrower, in which it resembles the Baboon; but I
cannot agree with Dr Tyson, who thinks it proba-
ble, that this deviation would be less considerable
in an adult animal; for there is no appearance of
cartilages, that, when converted into bone, could ma-
terially affect the form of the scapula. The Glen-
oid cavity is rather of an oval shape, and the form
of the humerus is less round than in the human
skeleton. ‘The fore-arm and wrist present nothing
remarkable. ‘There are two rows of bones in the
carpus, each consisting of four pieces, but some of
these were cartilaginous in our specimen, by reason

of its time of life. The hand is long and slender;
VOL. IIL. B

1s ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

and has an extremely small thumb, which searcely
reaches down two-thirds of the length of the meta-
earpal bone of the fore finger. When the arm is
hanging by the side, the points of the fingers are
full three inches below the knees. The following
measurements give the proportions of different parts
of the superior extremity.

The whole extremity from top of the humerus !che-

to the top of the middle finger,.......-. .= 18.5
Length of the scapula from the acromion to
Sats base, SAA dank AUN, 4 coos SA ieee Pe en VE
Greatest breadth of the scapula directly across, 1.5
ieee or the humerus,.524.-) see wie 6.6
wepislaan, cs vlna, si ee aces hella baat ama 0.4:
a ete padi; :. i ete eeeenees shay bo epia Hae 6]
—-—— CATPUS,-----reeeerseerececeee Gite, wieieill aie 0.7 |

—.—-..—— hand including the carpus,...-:-5.7
Breadth of the hand across the lower extremi-

ty of metacarpus,- éhue en meee. bes aawishs 1.7
Length of the thumb, Dabcdiicanys 0.9, first
_ phalanx 0.7, second phal. 0.3,) ------.. eeesenees 1.9

2d finger, (metacarp. 2.2, first
ph..1.3, second ph. 0.9, third ph. 0.3,) ...... 4.7

3d finger, (metacarp. 2.1, first

- ph. 1.6, second ph. 1.2, third ph. 0.3.) ---.-. 5.2

. 4th finger, (metacarp. 1.9. first

ph. 1.5, second ph. 1.1. third ph. 0.3,) -.. -. 4.8

— 5th finger, (metacarp. 1.7, first

' ph. 1-1, second ph.. 0.8, third ph. 0.3,)----.-3.9

ORANG OUTANG. 19

The Bones of the Inferior Extremity—The
“struc ture of this part of the Orang Outang, chiefly
iffers , from man in the foot, which is to be consi-
dered as a hand united to a leg and ankle. The
head of the femur is round, as in man, and the
neck terminates below in two distinct trochanters.
The patella is bony. The fibula differs little from
the human, exeept that it is less angular; but the
tibia is contorted at about one-third of its length
from the ankle. The tarsus consists of seven pieces;
which, with the exception of the heel-bone, resem-
ble these parts in man. ‘The os calcis is narrower ;
the projection forming the heel is less broad; the
whole bone is proportionally longer; and the groove
for receiving the flexor tendons is deeper. Its posi-
tion is also different. It lies immediately at the
extremity of the fibula ; and being in a line with it,
is on the owtsede of the upper part of the ankle.
The hand of this limb approaches more nearly to
the human hand than that of the superior extremity;
but the proportion of the thumb in size and strength,
seems rather greater, and the first phalanges of the
fingers, especially of the fore-finger, are much bent.
The metatarsal bone of the fifth or little finger,
projects as in the human foot, beyond the outer
edge of the tarsus.

90 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

Proportions of the Lower Extremity. he,

Length from the top of the great trochanter Inches.

to the tip of the middle finger, ...-......... = 178
Length of leg and thigh from the same point,
to the lower end of fibula, ............. seeees ee 12.0
of femur, following its curvature, ....-----6.8_
a in a straight line, «...-....2-.+« 6.4
Lah of the head and neck of the femur, --..-.1.4
of the CEU Lagim oon tlye oes cutee: ane rt cca 5.7
af the fibula, . 24s scare: ‘acti ae a 4.9
of the foot, from extremity of os calcis

to tip of middle finger, .......-....+-.22sseseeeeees 6s ;

Breadth of the foot across the lower end ofr |

(lie TRE EALAESUS,..<..---<s-.+c--.+c00es queen oe 2 1.4
Length of the foot along its appt nike,

Prota CT OF tIDIA,.-- 20. <> cain Yee aateee- artenvarreaag AA
of the thumb, (metacarp. 1.3, first r

DS, second pli,.0/4), ..-...23:.--7e metas 1 25

— of the 2d finger, leindirt’ 1.6, first vie

ph. 1.0, second ph. 0.5, third ph. 0.2), ......--- ha
of the 3d finger, (metacarp 1.5, first —

ph. 1.2, second ph. 0.7, third ph. 0.2), .-...... : 3.6
——— of the 4th finger, (metacarp 1.5, first

ph. 1.1, second ph. 0.7, third ph. 0.2), ...... Sore es,
——— of the 5th finger, (metacarp 1.6, first

ph. 0.8, secon# ph. 0.5, third ph. 0.9), ......... oy

eat
ae
°

ORANG OUTANG. | 91

The Joints, Ligaments, &c.

Neither the joints nor the ligaments present any
very peculiar appearances. ‘The head is articulat-
ed, as in man, and moves on the tooth-like process
of the second vertebra of the neck. The motions
of the humerus are free on the glenoid cavity; the
joints of the elbows, wrists and fingers, are capable
of. all the varieties of motion we find in the human
body. As our subject was young, the connecting
cartilages of the whole body were large, and those
of the pelvis so shrivelled in drying, as to distort
the form of the basin. The symphysis pubis is more
firmly united than in the Simia Maimon ; where it
was only closed by a broad cartilage of little thick-
ness. The acetabulum is reund, but not quite so
deep asin man. The round ligament is fixed to the
under and inner side of that cavity, but approaches
nearer to its lower edge than in the human subject.
The hip-joimt has a very free motion upward and
outward; and may be easily rolled, so as to bring the
femur parallel with the parietiesof the abdomen; but
the knees cannot be soeasily approximated as in man.
This causes the animal to stand with its feet more
asunder ; and instead of the sight inward curvature
of the knees, which occurs in our bodies, they are bent
outward in the Orang Outang, which must make it
waddle when it walks erect. The motion of the
knee-joint is free backwards; but the animal does

29, ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

not seem capable of perfect extension of this jomt,
from the contraction of the posterior muscles of the .
limb. The tarsus possesses much more freedom of
motion than in man. ‘The ankle may be bent, so-
as to form a very acute angle with the tibia;—a
circumstance favourable to the prone posture of the
animal in walking; and it may be turned very
freely inwards and outwards.

The Muscles.

In examining the muscles of this animal, are
found several which seem to have escaped the re-
searches of ‘Tyson, as well as the more recent obser-
vation of Camper and of Cuvier. How far this
may be owing to peculiarities in our specimen, I
shall not presume to determine; but shall be con-
tented to mark such discrepancies as may be be-
tween what occurred during our dissection of the
Orang Outang, and the descriptions of iis f
ing anatomists ; commencing with |

The Muscles seen on the Front of the Head, —
Neck and Trunk.—We found no trace of an oc-
cipito-frontalis muscle; a remark also made by Dr
Tyson. ‘The orbiculares and recti palpebrarum, as”
well as the muscles about the nose, the most of the
muscles of the lips, with part of the buccinater and
the platysma myoides, had been removed, by the
person who fiayed the animal in order to preserve

/- ORANG OUTANG. 4S

the skin. The muscles which move the eye-ball.
do not differ from the corresponding parts in man.
_ There is a striking similarity between the Orang
: Ou fang and man, in the number and position of
the small muscles about the palate, tongue, pharynx,
and larynx. ‘There is not one wanting in the ape ;
‘but as there is no styloid process in this animal, the
stylo-hyoideus, the stylo-glossus and stylo-pharyn-
geus, take their origin from the base of the pars pe-
trosa of the temporal bone. The temporal and.
masseter muscles are stronger than in man, but not
so powerful as in the Simia Maimon. The princi-
pal peculiarities that we observed about the muscles
of the head, are in the digastricus and mylo-hyoi-
deus.
- "The digastricus has anteriorly a single flat belly,
attached to the lower jaw, for about half an inch on
each side of its symphysis, and passing toward the
larynx ; near which it is bordered by a semicircular
tendon. ‘The extremities of this tendon are carried
to the os hyoides, and attached to it at the insertion
ow the stylo-hyoideus; where, uniting with addition-
l fibres, they form the long round tendons of the
tw 08 maller bellies of the digastric muscle, which
(as t he mastoid process is wanting in this:animal)
are 7 TIE d farther back than in man, and inserted
ong the inequalities at the base of the occipital
7 | ae nearly similar was observed in
astricus of the Simia Maimon. It seems in-
0 give greater power in depressing the jaw

24 = ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

in animals, where the antagonist muscles, the tem-
poralis and masseter, are so powerful. Hderteyath.

On removing the digastric muscle, the peculiar
shape of the mylo-hyoideus is perceived. It is not
composed of two sets of fibres uniting in the centre
of the jaw, and filling up the space between the
sides to the chin, as in man; but has a single set
of very delicate fibres crossing the jaw, and leaving
a space an inch in width, between the symphysis
menti, and the anterior edge of the muscle. This
edge is slightly concave, and bordered by most de-
licate tendinous film. ;

The small muscles about the thyroid, tated
and cricoid cartilages, do not sensibly differ fpem
those of man. ;

The sterno-cleido-mastoideus, resembles the Sac
man, except in being inserted into the pars petrosa.
The sterno-hyoideus and thyroideus, the omo-hyoi-
deus, the longus colli, and the three scaleni, are
quite similar, as is the levator scapule ; but the
latter is assisted in its action by a muscle not ob-
served in man, which Tyson has judiciously named
Elevator clavicule. It arises from the transverse
processes of the second and third vertebrae, and is
broadly inserted into the outer end of the clavicle.
A. wuscle of the same kind was observed in the ba-
boon, and seems to be kad found in quadru-
peds. ugk:

The pectoral ciaide are ach leas fled than
in man; and the P. major does not descend so low

“ORANG OUTANG. 25

upon the ribs. ‘The rectus abdominis is proportion-
ally broader at its upper extremity than in man,
measuring not less than 2.8 at the point of the
xiphoid cartilage. Its three transverse tendons do
not, as in man, penetrate and divide its internal
fibres. In our subject, there existed no pyramida-
lis. The external oblique in its origin from the
cartilages of the eight inferior ribs, its descending
fibres, and its union with its fellow at the linea alba,
resembles that muscle in the human subject. The
same may be said of the internal oblique. Both of
them are extremely thin. The small size of the
umbilicus has been already noticed. It is distant
from the top of the sternum, 8.4 inches, and 3.3
inches from the superior edge of the symphysis pu-
bis. We observed a small quantity of fat on the
site of the mons veneris, |

| The intercostal muscles in both layers, and the
muscular heads of the inferior part of the diaphragm,

_ resemble the corresponding parts in man; but

: ‘the whole of this organ is larger than in man, on ac-

count’ of the greater extent of the lower part of the
thorax in this animal. ‘The psoas magnus, and
‘psoas parvus, present nothing peculiar.

The Muscles secn on the posterior view of
ped Neck and Trunk.—The trapezius and latis-
_ simus dorsi, the rhomboidei, the trachelo. mas-
. toideus, the longissimus dorsi, are situated as
in ma wie'The: splenii capitis et colli resemble the
n in form and insertion; but when the twe

96 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

and continue in union ‘ito achil they orig
the occipital bone. The complexus ar and saero-h
balis, with all the subdivisions enumer: ated by a
tomists, are precisely as in man. Tyson says, thai
the inter spinales colli were wanting in his s speci-
men; but we found in ours distinct interspinales
colli, dorsi et lumborum, with the inter Meneetie.
sales of the neck, back and loins, and the levato-
yes costarum. ‘Tyson also observes, that the qua-
dratus lumborum is /onger in the Orang Outang
than in man; but to us it appeared shorter, cor
responding to the distance between the spine of
the ilium and the ribs, hs a exceeds an
inch. Ae
The recti posteriores capitis differ, in having the
muscles corresponding to the minores in man con- ,
siderably larger than those answering to the ma-
jores ; - that is, they contain more muscular substance
though they are shorter than the latter. The: ae
lative proportions also of the obliqui ¢: ypitis in
animal are reversed, when compared to man; for
obliquus superior is at least double — size
obliquus inferior. = i
Muscles of the Superior Estée —~
toid muscle arises from a larger portion of 1)

riorly ¢ to within an inch of its oe al
supra and infra spinatus, , the teres mi

ORANG OUTANG.

iS

vius, and subscapularis, present little peculiar. The
teres major is very strong, and proportionally broad-
er than in man. The levatores scapule et clavicule,
have been already described. ‘The two last are
united by cellular substance, so as to resemble one
muscle. ‘The biceps flexor and triceps extensor
cubiti, the coraco-brachialis, the brachialis internus
and anconeus, exactly resemble the human. The
same may be said of all the muscles of the fore-
arm, except that there is no opponens pollicis in
this animal, and that the flexor longus pollicis
seems rather a part of the fiexor profundus than a
separate muscle. The palmaris longus, which did
not occur in Dr Tyson’s Orang, was very distinctly
formed in one arm of our animal, but wanting in
the other. The elbow-joint in this animal is ca-
pable of perfect extension, which is not the case in

the baboon. In the latter, it seems to be. chiefly

owing to the manner in which the supinator radii
longus is attached to the external condyle of the
humerus and the neighbouring ridge. The pro-
nation and supination of the hand, with the flexion
and extension of the wrist and fingers, are perform-
ed by a mechanism so similar to the beautiful con-
trivances employed in man, that one might almost
study human anatomy in those parts of the Orang
Outang.

Muscles of the Pelvis and Inferior Eatremity.
—The muscles of the inferior extremity differ more
from the human subject than any other part of this

28 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

animal. The iliacus internus, and insertion of the
psoas magnus, have nothing peculiar, The gluteus
externus, which is called main b. in man, is
much smaller than the medius, ; eing very thin,
while the latter is extremely thick and fleshy. From
the elongated form of the ilia, they also differ
much in form from the human glutei. The exter-
nus does not come so far forward, nor does it arise
from so large a portion of the ilium. Tyson did
not perceive a gluteus minimus; but we found an
extremely thin muscle, answering to it in office,
which might easily be overlooked in a hasty exa-
mination. Its origin is from the posterior edge of
the ischium, instead of the dorsum of the ilium.
Its fleshy fibres are most distinct along the sciatic
notch; and as it descends toward the obturator in-
ternus, it becomes a thin tendinous expansion. It
is attached to the capsular ligament of the hip-joint,
both at the edge of the acetabulum and where it
joins the neck of the femur; the insertion is into
the great trochanter, as in man. This muscle, there-
fore, is to be considered partly as aiding the rota-_
tion of the thigh, pulling it outward, but seems
principally intended to prevent the pinching of the
ligament in the motions of the joint. See fig. G e.
The most remarkable muscle about the top of
the thigh, has not been noticed by T yson, Camper,
Cuvier, or the older anatomists. It is a flat trian-
gular muscle, arising from the whole anterior edge
of the ilium to within half an inch of the aceta-

¥ *. 4
: ; .
# y ys

PLATE. £.

Wernerian. Men’ Vol. I. p.29

W.&D.Lizars Sculp ii

ORANG OUTANG. 4)

Hehum, and is inserted just below ‘he tact of
the great trochanter, between the head of | the crue
ralis and vastus externus, a little below the origin
of the former. It is thin” and fleshy through its
whole extent, except» where it is inserted by a very

short-flattened tendon. At its upper part, at ase
united by cellular substance to the iliacus internus.
The action of this muscle, which > appears to be pe- |
culiar to this animal, is to draw the thigh up toward
the body ; ‘and it seems especially to be intended
to assist in climbing. On this account we propose
to name it the scandens, or Musculus scansorius;
and we are disposed to regard it as one of the
principal peculiarities 1 in the Simia Satyrus. Whe-

ther it exists in any of the other simiz, we are un-— ee a
able to decide, but we did not observe it in the Si- ky

mia Maimon; see fig. G, where a gives a posterior

view of this muscle. The obturator internus is much _
more fleshy than in man, lining the whole internal |
surface of the pubis and ischium. The portion which

becomes external, is more pyramidal, ts tention aa

broader, and it has a few fleshy fibres almost to its
insertion at the root of the great trochanter. The
pyriformis is a strong fleshy muscle as in man. The
gemini, the quadratus femoris, the coceygeus and
levator ani, are similar, to the human, and the ob-
turator externus is larger considerably, as _ ‘might —
be expected from the form of the pubis. The pec-
tinalis is less distinctly marked ; “he rectus fe-
hs eae ee ,

ae Leary Ai

hon dithe ie ees inalicse i,

ipa

in the Simia Maimon. In the latter animal, they

: descend lower on the anterior part 0 f the tibia than
in the Orang, which, in this respect, is a medium
between man and the baboon. ‘The gracilis has
nothing remarkable. The vasti muscles are much
weaker than in man, being thin and flat, especially
toward the patella. The triceps adductor femoris,
and biceps flexor cruris, resemble those parts in the
human subject; but the muscles on the lower part
of the leg are considerably different, especially those
on its front, which overlap the upper part of the
tibia, so as to give the appearance of a convex shin-
bone. This is chiefly owing to the fulness of the
tibialis anticus; the lower part of which is much
larger and more fleshy than in man, though less so
than in the Simia Maimon. The peroneus longus
and brevis, are also rather more fleshy below in both
the simia now under consideration, than in the
man body. The gastrocnemius externus is fatter and
thinner, and its belly descends almost to the heel in
the Orang. The gastrocnemius internus descends
fleshy to the os calcis, giving the animal but little
appearance of a calf to the leg. We found no
plantaris, nor did we perceive a popliteus. The
extensor longus digitorum sends tendons to four of

« : f .

woe Se ed

K _ These two last
in "the oe aaee aa to. ile same muscles

ORANG OUTANG. $1

the fingers, one of which passes to the little finger ;
a circumstance not found in Dr ‘Tyson’s animal.

_ The extensor brevis digitorum sends tendons to all
the fingers ; thus supplying the deficiency of an ex-
tensor brevis pollicis. In Tyson’s subject, the exten-
sor brevis digitorum was wanting, and the extensor
ae seo was peculiarly strong. In our ani-
valid weld a dete extensor of its Bs carpid bone.
These muscles arise in common with the extensor
communis. In these respects, the thumb of
this extremity in the Orang Outang differs from
the great er ivi anne and resembles his pollex

eet dhe toes or fingers of the lower ex-
tremity 1 1 the Orang,-i is accomplished by a curious,
and in some respects a more complicated mechanism
than in man. This structure has not been noticed by
Tyson, nor he any other anatomist, until the time
of Cuvier, by whom it is well described *, as it
occurs in the Mandrell, which appears to differ but
little in this respect from the Orang.

The flexor brevis arises from the heel-bone, by a
strong muscular head, covered by a firm aponeurosis,
and sends strong perforated tendons to the four smal-
lest fingers. The tendon going to the fore-finger, is
continued more directly from the belly of the

* Anatomie Comparée, tom. i. p. 394.

9 ee
mek

SS wie ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

5

eee ash the others, which, howeley are most
firmly united to the aponeurosis of the flexor -bre-

vis; while their action is assisted by some muscu-—
lar slips attached to the body of the muscle, and
descending along these | tl hee. vee for about ‘dil
an inch. j a
The muscle coil Ponditie't to Re |

nis in man, arises from the whole Micro! seit »
the tibia to within an inch of its lower extremity,
and sends off a ie ae sone a

There is no flexor propri 1s]
corresponding muscle arises from *
rior a us the e Aap and ends i in a

| subdivided sabe hee ee reas anatiana distri-
ers sur first and pd is sent to the thumb,

flexor sae the other two forr Bae perforating
tendons of the middle and ring fingers. _ The ten-
dons of the three flexors are all firmly unite i

‘palm, by condensed cellular substance, to each o-
ther, and to the little fleshy appendages: of the
flexor brevis.

a pom
we FS

av

PLATE If, Wemerian Mem‘ Vol. I. P. 32

POSTERIOR EXTREMITY OF THR ARM,

iy

\ \ "
ij
f

a. Flexor brevis
b Mbisadar Skips
Cc. Flexor Communts.

s @. Fleccor Pollicis

TS.Trall del* 24%Octr 1817. W.weD.Lizars Sculp ©

ORANG OUTANG. 33

This complicated structure may be readily un-
derstood from an inspection of the accompanying
drawings, in which each set of tendons is distin-
guished by different colours.
~ The flexor brevis pollicis - is strong, and, as in
the human hand, has a double insertion, forming a
sheath for the reception of the tendon of the
flexor longus. It is intimately united to the ad-
ductor pollicis. The adductor pollicis is a large
muscle extending nearly along the whole length of
the metacarpus of the fore-finger.

‘There is no transversalis pedis in this animal.
Indeed, it was hardly to be expected in an organ so
analogous to a hand. |

The lumbricales, the abductor silat, the ab-
ductor minimi digiti, its flexor parvus, and the in-
terossei, are of a more lengthened form than in
man; but we found neither an indicator muscle
nor a pepe brevis in either extremity of this
The aponeurotic expansions in its palms,
and ches iaiblar ligaments of the wrist and ankle,
are sufficiently marked. —

animal. —

The Brain and Principal Nerves.

On removing the upper part of the cranium in the
usual manner, the brain was observed to fill the cavi-
ty completely. The skull is perhaps thinner than in
man. ‘The dura mater has the same texture. The

vO ML. C

gee

SA ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

convolutions of the brain are externally less strongly

marked ; the pia mater seems less vascular but pe-

netrates deeper into the cerebrum‘than in the hu-—
man subject; the protuberances lodged in the su-

perior fossee of the occipital bone are remarkably
pointed ; the cerebellum bears a larger proportion
to the cerebrum; and the latter appears somewhat
less deep. The veins supplying the great longitu-
dinal sinus run from behind forward, as in man.

In examining the internal parts of the brain, the
usual horizontal sections were employed. Ci

The cineritious matter near the top of the iibiin,
bears rather a larger proportion to the medullary
than in the human body; because the fissures. be-
tween the convolutions are deeper in this animal :
but the proportional quantity of medullary: sub-
stance becomes greater on penetrating to the level
of the corpus callosum, the centre of which is only
0.9 inch below the upper surface of the brain. The
lateral ventricles do not essentially differ from what
is found in man. ‘The corpora striata are less pro-
minent and smaller, as is the choroid plexus. The
fornix, with its pillars, the septum lucidum, and
the corpora quadrigemina, are exactly like the cor-
responding parts in man. ‘The pineal gland is re-
markably large, but is similarly situated behind the
posterior commissure of the cerebrum. It had no
gritty substance in it; a circumstance often noticed
in. the human brain. The glandula pituitaria and
infundibulum are very well marked.

/

het int
. + ae:

: —
its oe ee

, ra ORANG OUTANG. $5

‘The situation and communications of the third
and fourth ventricles, the appearance of the crura

cere ri and corpora albicantia, resemble the same

organs in the human subject; but the pons Varolli
re ther more flat. The cerebellum, as we have
‘said, bears rather a larger proportion to the cere-
brum thanin man. It shews, when laid open, a very
perfect arbor vite. The whole quantity of brain
in this animal is considerable, weighing 11 ounces
avoirdupois*. Unfortunately, the body was not
weighed before dissection, so that I am unable to
state the proportion between it and the brain; but
conjecture that the latter is from f>th to sth part
of the whole body. This proportion approaches
preity: i to that of man, in whom it varies
from 7; to;, +. The quantity of brain, however,
gives no sndiibacion of the intellect of animals, else
monkeys, the mole, the mouse, the dolphin, and
several birds, should be greatly superior to the dog,
the horse and the elephant, which last of all qua-

Re

tate C2

f ? ’
? oe LW

* The brain in Tyson’s animal weighed 11 oz. 7 drachms ;
but the animals dissected by the Parisian anatomists must
have been small monkeys ; for the brain, though “ large in
eons to the body,” is stated only to weigh 24 oz.

A M

ee See. Sarit, Anatomie Comparée, tom. il. p. 149.

36 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

drupeds, seems to have the smallest brain in propor- i
tion to his body. : Auaini ts Figs ik
The position of the falx and tentorium in the |
Orang, have much resemblance to those’ parts in
man; bat the anterior portion of the former reacl
farther down than in man, dividing the two brand
of the olfactory nerve near the crista galli. The
breadth of the falx from the back of the head to
the anterior edge of the tentorium measures 1.4 4
inch ; and from that point to the spine of the -fron- 7
tal bone, in a straight line, = 2.6 inches: propor-
tions somewhat different from those of the human
head. The nerves arising from the brain come off
asin man. ‘The first pair, or olfactory nerve, ‘are
larger and broader than in the human subject.
The second pair, or optic nerve, are considerably
less divergent than in man. The third, fourth
and fifth fpairs, the last of which consists of two
fasciculi in each, and the sixth pair, are precisely
like the corresponding nerves in man. The seventh
or auditory nerve has a portio dura and mollis, with —
the intervening fibrils. The eighth pair, consist-
ing of the glosso-pharyngeus and the small fasci-
culi of the par vagum, aided by the accessory nerves,
present nothing different. The ninth iad consist
each, as in man, of three bundles of fibres. | ec:
In pursuing the course of the nerves, we found
the distribution of the great sympathetic, and the
position of its great ganglion in the: neck, very”
similar: but this ganglion was of | a dee _ ahi CO-

ie
ae
Ae

ORANG OUTANG. 37

bs ing a small lymphatic gland. The
par vagt ‘the descendens noni, the recurrent
branch of the eighth pair, the cardiac and phrenic
nerves, all run in the same manner as in man.
The pes anserinus of the portio dura of the se-
venth pair is extremely well defined. The great
sphlanchnic nerve, with the semilunar ganglion, are
entirely similar to what they appear. in the human
body. The course of the nerves of the extremities
in general, strongly resembles their distribution in »
man. The only perceptible difference is, that
those of the thigh, which, with the bloodvessels
of that extremity, lie much more superficial, pass
over the head of the femur in immediate contact
with the capsular ligament.

The Heart, Lungs, and Principal
| Bloodvessels.

The size and position of the heart and lungs pre-
sent nothing peculiar. The apex of the heart is to-
ward the left side, and the pericardium, as in man
and the baboon, is attached to the diaphragm. The
left lobe of the lungs had been inflamed, and sunk
in water. . “Ihere are three lobes in the right lung,
and two in the left, asin man. The course of the
great arteries, of the vena cava and AZYZOS, are very
like what we meet with in the human subject. The
two carotids and the jugulars, with the subclavian

38 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

and axillary arteries, and the corresponding veins,
are asin man. ‘The external iliac follows i same
course over the femur as the nerves. —

wan a,

Organs of Sense.

The great size of the olfactory nerve, and the
extensive surface of the turbinated bones, lead to
the inference that the animal was endowed “ an
acute sense of smell.

The ball of the eye is full as large, if not more
so, than in man. The iris of a dark hazel colour,
the pupil round. The ball did not project beyond
the orbits of the eyes. We perceived in this ani-
mal, as well as in the Stmia Maimon, a thin exter- .
nal film of black paint, 0.2 inches in diameter, sur-
rounding the junction of the cornea and sclerotic
coat, and easily removeable witha knife. The lens,
the choroides with its black pigment, the insertion
of the optic nerve, are just as they are in. man.
There is a small lachrymal gland, with the usual’
apparatus for disposing of the tears. The suspensor
oculi, which occurs im quadrupeds, is wanting in the
Orang. 3

The internal structure of the ear was not exa-
mined. |
The organs of taste differ little from the hu-
man. ‘The tongue is large and fleshy, as in man,

~ fer ORANG OUTANG. | 39

and | nd its surface is covered with numerous papille.
bs a base are eight papille, rather larger than
the rest, ene arranged in this manner.

be a wk

% * K xX

fea: optisists hi a mushroom-shaped body, sup-

ported on a short pedicle in the centre of a circular
cavity, which they nearly fill up. They are not so
large in the Orang, as three which we found in the
baboon, arranged thus,

ike BY Cali Lay << *
e j

WP he salivary glands, which are intimately con-
nected with the organs of taste, approach to those
of ‘man. The parotid is a longish mass, of a deep-
‘Frcolour than in the human body, and consisting
of large eranulations, imtermixed, as is usual, with
common lymphatic glands. Its duct, and the sub-
maxillary gland, are just as in man.

Me oy
Fs

pnts yt ae Voice.

re passage to the larynx is very similar to that
pe man. The uvula consists of a small single
4 : but i in the baboon, it is composed of twe

40 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ©

equal, but minute bodies, arranged from side to side.
The amygdala and epiglottis are not peculiar.
The os hyoides differs from that of man, in being
anteriorly more prominent and dilated, and by con-
taining in its body a cavity capable of holding a
large pea; a structure still more remarkable in the
baboon. On laying open the posterior part of the
larynx, the two apertures at the base of the epi-
glottis, and leading to the double sac or laryngeal
pouches discovered by Camper, are visible. These
apertures occupy the situation of the ventricles of
the human larynx, between the superior and infe-
rior ligaments of the glottis; are 0.4 inch in length,
and are placed a little obliquely; their posterior
angles being depressed below the level of the ante-
rior, which approximate each other within less than
0.2 inch, and are distant from the free extremity of
the epiglottis 0.8 inch. The above-mentioned li-
gaments of the glottis form the boundaries of these
apertures, and are provided with evident longitu-
dinal muscular fibres, by which the apertures can
be contracted at the will of the animal. The aper-
tures lead to two ventricles, considerably larger than
in man, extending upward and forward to the ca-
vity of the os hyoides, and terminating in two short
membranous tubes, which run between the latter
bone and the top of the thyroid cartilage, form-
ing communications from the larynx to the two
pouches or double sac, so well described by Camper.
In our subject the left sac appeared to be the lar-

ORANG OUTANG. 4]

gest, and communicated freely with the cavity of
the os hyoides, which was separated by membrane
from the right sac. ‘This mechanism, as is well re-
marked by Camper, appears to be intended to aug-
ment the power of the voice. A. structure somewhat
analogous has been detected in most of the other
simiz, and some other animals; but the peculiar
structure of the larynx of the Orang escaped the -
researches of 'T'yson.

The epiglottis of our subject is rather broader
and shorter than in man; and the thyroid cartila-
ges are something more flat anteriorly. The
muscles and ligaments about the larynx and os hy-
oides, have much affinity to the corresponding parts
in the human subject *.

* In the Simia Maimon, the arytenoid cartilages are much
more elevated ; and by their union, form what seems a second
epiglottis, which is smaller than the true one, and has its in-

side remarkably corrugated or fluted. The true epiglottis is
attached to the upper and inner part of the os hyoides, as
in man. Under the base of the epiglottis is a very large cavi-
ty, projecting forward, and communicating with the wpper
part of the larynx. It is about half an inch in length. Its
extremity is rounded, and lies in the os hyoides, which is
hollowed to form it. In the baboon, the os hyoides is'also pe-
culiar, in having a perpendicular triangular projection, which
overlaps the top of the thyroid cartilages. The top of the
larynx seems composed of one piece. There is no thyroid gland;
and the palate, like that of quadrupeds, is much corrugated.
“Not being, at the time of this dissection, familiar with the dis-
eries of | Camper, the pouch connected with the larnyx
was not carefully examined.

4G ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

~The thyroid: gland is somewhat oe its
form. It lies like a small leech along each side of
the thyroid, cricoid, and four first rings of the tra-
chea; and the two portions communicate anteriorly
by a delicate film of glandular substance, which
erosses the upper rings of the trachea, obliquely from
left to right. The trachea is like the human
windpipe.

On reviewing the structure of the organs of
respiration, of the tongue and larynx, there does
not appear any reason why the Orang Outang
should not speak. The organization, as far as
we can judge, seems perfect; yet this animal, ac-
cording to the best evidence, has never been known
to make any attempt at articulate sounds. Indeed,
in this respect it seems inferior to several other ani-
mals, which have been taught to imitate and repeat
words or sentences. If animal organization were
alone necessary to speech, the Orang Outang, from
its striking approach to man, ought to possess-this
faculty in an eminent degree. We must, therefore,
refer its deficiency in this respect, not to corporeal,
but to mental peculiarities. It would be, perhaps,
extremely difficult to point out the exact boundary
between human intellect, and the faculties of the
lower animals; but one grand distinction peculiar |
to the human species, is the possession of the intel-
lectual power, by metaphysicians dcnominat 4
straction. As the expression of ideas by _arbit rary
sounds, implies the exercise of this faculty, which

ORANG OUTANG. 5

wv

does not seem granted to the brute creation, it may
not be going too far to conclude, that the want of
speech in the Orang and other animals, with a
corporeal organization so similar to that of man, is
wholly to be attributed to the absence of the facul-
ty of abstraction.

Chylopoeisc Viscera, &c.

The upper part of the alimentary canal has
nothing peculiar, except, that the pharynx seems
rather more contracted and corrugated than in man.
The stomach resembles the human in form; having
its great curvature toward the left side. Its pylo-
rus seems placed somewhat lower than in the hu-
man body. The stomach measures (when distend-
ed,) from the cardia to the pylorus, along its great

curvature, 14 inches, and 5 inches along its superior
edge. It might contain about a pint and a-half of
fiuid. ‘The intestines were covered by a very thin
omentum, which scarcely contained any fat.

_ The position of the small intestines resembles
what is perceived inman. ‘The biliary and pancre-
atic ducts, penetrate the duodenum nearly at the
same place asin the human subject. In our spe-
cimen, there were a great number of very large
worms, the Ascaris lumbricoides, in the upper part
of the intestines. ‘They completely distended the
duodenum ; and three of them had penetrated by
the ductus communis choledochus, and hepatic duct,

4. ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

to the liver. The head of one was traced through
a ramification of the latter duct, at least half an
inch within the liver; and two had penetrated a
considerable way through the pancreatic duct,
which they completely blocked up. Along with
those observed in the biliary ducts, were several
young ones about half an inch in length,. and of a
pale flesh colour. Linneus and others, have men-
tioned the occurrence of lumbrici in the pancreatic
duct as not uncommon; but their penetration
‘through the biliary ducts is a rare occurrence.
- With respect to these worms, it is difficult to de-
cide, whether they found their way from the intes-
tines after the death of the animal, or contributed
to its dissolution by their unusual situation. ©

In structure, the great intestines generally re-
semble those of man. The cecum is large and
distinct ;,and the appendix vermiformis, which is
wanting in the baboon, is remarkably long. It is

not, however, hanging loose in the abdomen; but is

gathered into spiral convolutions, by a separate
mesenteric expansion peculiar to itself. The ap-
pendix, measured along its convex edge=7.7 inches ;

and the circumference of the great arch of the colon, ,

when inflated moderately = 5.7 inches, while that

of the caput coli, at its greatest diameter = 8 in-’

ches. The attachment of the coecum to the right
side is just as in man; but it is quite free in the
baboon. | any |

se

ORANG OUTANG. _ AS

» The coats of the intestines, the peritonzum, the
glands of the mesentery, with the lacteals and tho-

racic duct, are similar to those parts in man. The
course and termination of the latter, are precisely

c he length of the small intestines, from Feet, Inch,

1 ee a ee = 19:58

Wee tenet of the’ colony. :..60002)....cc cise BS

The .. orsectuny. oy). Atl nt. cON
, nse

Mak ing the length of the whole intestines, — 24 a,
or Uy pwards of nine times the length of the body of
the animal —a proportion fully greater than what
we find in man, even in persons of short stature *.
The liver is a large viscus, situated as in man.
It differs, in a few respects, from the description of
Dr Tyson. The sulci, in our animal, are deeper
than in the human liver ; and, in this respect, more
nearly resemble those of the baboon. The sulcus,
which divides the right arid left lobes, penetrates
through two-thirds of the substance of this organ.

_ The lobulus Spigelii is very distinctly marked ; and

there i is a very small heart-shaped lobule loosely at-
tached to the posterior part of the great fissure on
the concave side of the liver. The left lobe is pro-
Peel smaller than i in man; but the substance

ah i It may not be improper to eo , that the measurements

made by a string applied along the convex edge of the
intestines, after the mesentery was divided.

~~

46 ON THE ANATOMY OF THE

and. colour of the whole viscus exactly resemble the

human. If we omit the small heart-shaped appen-

dix above mentioned, the liver of the Orang may —

be said to consist of three lobes ; but, in the baboon,
we found the liver divided into four distinet mer
tions. — Se
The hepatic duct comes from each great lobe, by
a distinct branch. ‘These two unite close to the li-
ver; and, joining the cystic duct, form the ductus
communis, which penetrates the coats of the duode-
num by a very oblique opening. The spleen is si-
milarly situated to the human; but it is n uch
thinner. i
The pancreas is about two inches long, whitish,
and uneven on its surface, and sends its duct to’ the
duodenum, near the entrance of the hepatic duct.

Urinary Organs.

The kidneys nearly resemble those organs in
man, having distinct cortical and uriniferous por-
tions, papille, infundibula, and pelvis. Their form
is rather rounder, and the fissure at the entrance of
the vessel rather less deep. The glandule renales
are large, and similar to the human. The bladder
is proportional in size ; but is rather more oval than

in man, and the ureters enter it rather nearer to its

cervix.

ORANG OUTANG. A

- The Organs of Generation.

The external organs in the Orang, at the first view,
scarcely bear any resemblance to the female organs in
the human species. It can scarcely be said that there
is ajmons, veneris. The vulva is wholly concealed,
when the animal is in a supine posture, by a pendu-
lous: flap, of a pale fiesh colour, which, on examination,
proves to be an elongated clitoris. It is composed
of two cavernous bodies, firmly united and contain-

ed in a sort of sheath, which is folded at the ex-
tremity. Its general form is cylindrical; but the
divergence of its crura makes it a little broader at
its root, where alone it is attached to the pubis.
Its body hangs quite free for 1.5 inch from the
arch of the pubis, and its extremity is nearly half
an inch in diameter *.

On raising up the clitoris, the labia are visible;
but they are thin, and do not include the base of
the clitoris. The vulva appears circular, with slight
diverging ruge passing from the entrance to the

* The elongation of the clitoris is great in most of the si-
mie, : and has been by some compared to the flap of Hottentot
women: but the latter peculiarity i is now well known to be
produced by an elongation of the nymphe, more frequent
among that race than in any other part of the world.—See
Barrows T’ravels : and Med. Chur. Trans. vol. vii.

AS ON THE ANATOMY, &c.

vagina, toward the circumference of the labia,
which give these parts a considerable resemblance
to the anus. The crura of the labia become ex-
tremely thin as they descend toward the anus,
which is provided with its proper sphincter, and is
divided from the pudenda, by a perineum rather
more than half an inch in breadth. | :

There are no vestiges of nymphe, or labia inter-
na, unless we suppose the labia already described to
correspond to them ; in which case, the labia exter-
na must be considered as wanting in this animal.

At the entrance to the vagina, is a small dupli-
cature or fold of the skin lining the parts, which
perhaps may be considered as a hymen.

The vagina presents nothing peculiar. It leads —

to a very small uterus, which, in form, is just the
human womb reversed. Its fundus is the apex of
the pear, and its greatest diameter is just at the
cervix. ‘The ovaria are large in proportion to the
uterus, and have a greenish-grey colour. The Fal-
lopian tubes are shorter and flatter than in the hu-
man subject, and have their extremities much fim-
briated. The ligaments of the uterus generally re-

semble those that connect the human womb with

the pelvis.

Between the ovaries and the Fallopian tubes, we
found. on each side a small yellowish body of a flat-
tened irregular shape. It is placed in the broad
ligament, and was very tender in its structure,

“ORANG oUTANG. = 49

After the great length to which these observa-
tions have extended, it is not my intention to offer
any general remarks upon the structure of the
Orang Outang. For the tedious prolixity of this
paper, I must offer as an apology, a wish to com-
municate every information in my power respecting
so rare and interesting an animal. :

Taverpoor, March 1817.

va

VOL, II. i

50 ON THE PRIMITIVE: FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

TI. On the Connection between the Primitive:
Forms of Crystals and the Number of thew
Axes of Double Refraction.

By Davip Brewster, LL. D. F. R. 8S. Lond. and Edin.

(Read 20th March 1819.) eae
ee

Iw examining the structure of crystallised bodies,
~mineralogists do not appear to have observed the
slightest connection between their primitive forms
and any of their physical or chemical properties *.
Without the guidance of a general principle, their
determinations have often been at variance, and
even the same observer has at different times as-

* When speaking of doubly refracting crystals, La Piace
makes the following observation :—“ L’Ellipsoide qui leur est
“ relatif, doit étre determinée par l’experience ; et sa position
“ par rapport aux faces naturelles du crystal, peut repandre un
« srand jour sur la nature des molecules integrantes des substances
“ crystallisées ; car ces molecules doivent, chacune, avoir les
“‘ memes proprietés que le crystal entier.’—Mém. de U Institut.
xil. p. 302. It will be seen from the following paper, that the
sagacious conjecture of this illustrious mathematician has been
fully verified, but in a very different way from that which he.
anticipated. ‘The existence of more than one axis had not been
ascertained when his paper was published.

— PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 51

y different nucleus to the same body. In a
ensive examination of the optical constitu-
of minerals and artificial crystals, I was led to
ascertain their ‘number of axes of double refrac-
tion ; and I had proceeded only a short way in this
_ inquiry, when it became obvious, that a very un-
equivocal connection existed between the form of
the primitive nucleus and their number of axes of
double refraction. Every new experiment added to
the truth and generality of this result; and when
I had examined the greater number of those bodies
whose primitive nucleus was known, I had the sa-
tisfaction of observing that all the crystals with
one axis arranged themselves under a certain series
of primitive forms; and that those with two axes
arranged themselves under another series ; while the
remaining primitive forms were occupied by those
crystals whose doubly refracting forces were in equi-
librio by the combined action of three equal and
rectangular axes.
This singular coincidence, to which there is only
one or two exceptions, will be readily seen in the
following Table.

Table

52 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYST AM.

‘ig flie

Table Phecithe the Connection between the Pri
mitive Forms of Crystals, as determined by
Haity*, and the Number of their Ames g
Double Si Biaciinws

IsT CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.

CRYSTALS WITH ONE AXIS.

1. Rhomboid with Obtuse Summit.
Carbonate of lime.
Carbonate of lime and magnesia.
Carbonate of lime and ° sik
Tourmaline. PS Hoss
Rubellite.
24 Ruby Silver +.

2. Rhomboid with Acute Summit.
Corundum. Bournon, Phil. Trans.
Sapphire.
Ruby. |
Cinnabar, Annal. de Chimie, tom. viii. p. 60.
an

* Traité de Mineralogie, tom. i. p. 273. ; and the EpInsuRGH
ENcYCLOPDIA, art. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, vol. vil, p. 474.

+ In the crystals printed in Italics, the number of their axes
has been deduced from an examination of the tints, and not
from the direct exhibition of the system of coloured rings ; so
that it is possible that they may have a different number of axes
from what is here assigned to them.

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 53

3. Regular Hewaedral Prism.
Emerald.
Phosphate of lime.
Nepheline.
Arseniate of Copper. Bournon, Phil. Trans.

wt Octohedron with a widens Base.

Me. < Zarcon.
Mellite.
~ Molybdate of lead.
spay iiside of tin. Philips, Geolog. Prans.
Octohedrite.

Tungstate of lime.

5. Bipyramidal Dodecahedron.
Quartz.
Phosphate of lead.

-TIb CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.
CRYSTALS WITH TWO AXES.

1. Right Quadrangular Prism,—Base a Square.
Sulphate of magnesia.
Chromate of lead.
Mesotype.

- Nadelstein.
Sulphate of zinc. Bournon, Cat. p. 185.
Prussiate of potash. Bournon, Cat. p. 181.
Muriate of barytes. ‘Bournon, Cat. p. 187.

54° ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS oF cRysr. ALS.

2. Right Quadrangular Prism,—Bas e a Rectangle.
Cymophane. Bi et
Peridot. ‘apt
Prehnite.

Stilbite. | sy

Anhydrite. Bournon, Journ. des Mi ines, vol. xiii.
p. 346.

Tartrate of potash. Bournon, Cat. p. 191.

Tesselite or Prismatic apophyllite *. Journ. des
Manes, vol. xxiii. p. 385. :

3. Right Quadrangular Prism Based a Rhomb.
Topaz.
Staurotide.
Datholite. Journ. des Miia vol. xix. p. 362.
Mica.
Tale.
Spodumene.
Sulphate of barytes.
Sulphate of strontian.
Sulphate of soda. Bournon, Cai. p. 183.
Citric acid. Bournon, Cat. p. 194.
Tartrate of potash and soda. Bournon, Cat.
p-. 193.

“ See the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1819, Not.
Pp: 5. ,

i

E PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 55

Right Quadrangular Prism,—Base an Ob-
lique Parallelogram.
Sulphate of lime.
Kpidote.
Axinite.

Fg
* a
re in)

cs

5. Oblique Quadrangular Prism,—Base a Rec-
tangle. |
Borax. |
6. Oblique Quadrangular Prism,— Base aRhomb
Diopside.
Augite.
Glauberite.
Sulphate of iron *. Wollasion Annals of Phal.
vol. xi. p. 284.
_Super-sulphate of potash. }

Acetate of copper. | Bournon, Cut. p- 181,
Tartaric acid. a 190, 191 195.

- Oxaliec acid. |
Sugar.
. Grammatite. |

7. Oblique Quadrangular Prism,— Base an
: Oblique fete :
-Felspar.

Kyanite.
eS Iphate te of copper.

ulphate Be icin a4 bsinapaed by Haiiy and Beudant te
1e acute rhomboid for its primitive form ; but Dr Wol-
aston ha shewn it to be a rhombic prism. Although M. Beu-
dant persists in his first opinion, yet we consider the existence of
two axes as a proof of the correctness of Dr Wollaston’s result.

56 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

8. Octohedron, with a Rectangular Base.
Nitrate of potash.
Topaz.
Arragonite,
Carbonate of lead.
Sulphate of lead *.
Muriate of copper.—Edin. Eneye. vol. vil. p. 478.

9. Octohedron with a Rhombic Base.
Sulphur.
Sphene.
Carbonate of soda.

IIIb CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.
CRYSTALS WITH THREE AXES.

1. Cube.
Muriate of soda.
Boracite.
Leucite.

. Analcime.

9. Regular Octohedron.
Diamond.
Spinelle.
Alum.
Ruby copper.
Fluor spar.
-Muriate of Ammonia.
bio apie

ne ,
Me ce Te 7! » te aes
acs sibilge ee eit

. ¥ Bods : Di
aE Ue BT ary

* Bourno ‘in Philips make the primitive fro, OF this
crystal a right prism with rhombic bases.

Cs

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 57
#6

3. Rhomboidal Dodecahedron.
Garnet.
Blende.

As the preceding table contains all the transpar-
ent crystals whose primitive forms have been deter-
mined, I have not been able to introduce into it a
variety of other crystals, the number of whose axes
I have carefully ascertained. Relying on the cor-
rectness of the general principle which is establish-
ed by the preceding comparison, the crystals which
Ihave examined may be referred to certain classes
of primitive forms, as shewn in the following table ;
and hence, the individual primitive form may be
easily deduced, from an examination of the secon-
dary crystals.

IsT CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.

Mica with Amianthus, and some other kinds of
Mica. See Biot, Mem. Inst. 1816, p. 275.
Read 22d June 1818.

Idocrase*, |

Hydrate of magnesia.

Hydrate of strontites.

Arseniate of copper.

5 Arseniate of potash.
- Muriate of lime.

“a ‘Haiiy makes the primitive form of Jdocrase a right prism

lene nare base ; but as this form is incompatible with one
more aiecly to be ~ same as that of Zircon.

58

10

15

10

‘Sulphate of potash, certain specimens, -

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

Muriate of strontian. + Nee i

Nitrate of soda. sani

Subphosphate of potash. I i ai

Sulphate of nickel, certain jee probably
name:

Super-acetate of copper and lime.

Tee.

Apophyllite surcomposée.

Apophyllite from Uto.

Titanite*.

IID CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.

Dichroite.
Mother of pearl.
Indurated tale.
Sulphate of copper and iron.
—_-—_———. ammonia.
— cobalt.
ammonia and magnesia.
soda and magnesia.
— manganese.
Carbonate of ammonia.
— potash. -
— barytes*. ‘me =
— strontian tf. lana

* Hauy makes ie primitive form of Titanite a x abit anit

with a square base ; but this form is incompatible: with: its op- *
tical structure. | ir @ ‘Bes

+ Hatiy makes the primitive form of the Carbonates of Bary
and Strontian, a hexaedral prism, a form which i is direct! v €

cluded by their having two axes.

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 59

Nitrate of silver.

15 — ammonia.

a cos lina:

—_—_— — strontian, certain specimens.
, — copper.

— zinc. ©

— mercury.

— bismuth.

Muriate of mercury.

20

—magnesia.
Acetate of lead. RS,
25 - — Zific,. |
Hyper-oxmuriate of potash. |
Phosphate of soda.

- Oxalate of ammonia.
" Super-oxalate of potash.

30 Crystallised Cheltenham salts.
Murio-sulphate of magnesia and iron.
Benzoate of Ammonia.

Chromic acid. 3
Benzoic acid.
35 Boracic acid.
Suceinic acid.
Hydrate of Barytes.
‘Super-tartrate of potash.
~-'Tartrate of potash and antimony.

40 Diallage. |
Spermaceti,

Hypo-sulphite of lime *.

g

* See Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, N® I. p. 15.

60 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

tal
IlIp cLass oF PRIMITIVE FORMS. |
yd: hin aaieak ty
Nitrate of lead. Beye

— ri octaheaels erystals,
——_—— — barytes —
Nitrite of lead.
5 Muriate of potash.
Uranite.
Sodalite.
Essonite*.
Sulphate of alumina and ammonia.
10 Cinnamon-stone.

The examination of the optical structure of mi-
nerals, enables us to go still a step farther in ap-
proximating, by exclusion, to their primitive forms.
_ The crystals in the following table, I have ascer-
tained only to possess double refraction, without ha-

* Hatiy makes the primitive form of Essonite a right rhom-
boidal prism, which is quite incompatible with its optical
structure. I would propose to restrict the name of Essonite to
those pure and perfectly transparent Hyacinths, which are
distinguished from the Zirconian Hyacinths, by their being
destitute of double refraction ; and to apply the name of Cin-
namon-stone to a class of Hyacinths, in which I have discover-
ed an imperfect transparency, like that which arises from the
mixture of alcohol and water, or any other fluids of different
refractive powers. The portions of the cinnamon-stone thus
imperfectly combined have a slight depolarising structure ;
and I consider the Essonite to have the same relation to Cin»
namon-stone, as Quartz has to Chalcedony.

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 61

ving been able to discover whether they have one
or two axes. By this property, therefore, they are
excluded from the three primitive forms of the Cube, -
the Regular Octohedron, and the Rhomboidal Do-
decahedron ; and therefore they must belong either
to the first or second class of primitive forms.

Table containing Crystals that must belong either
to the Ist or IId Class of Primitive Forms,

Acetate of nickel.
Euclase.
Pycnite.
Chlorite.

5 Cubizite.
Native orpiment.
Actynolite.
Harmotome.
Macle.

10 Wavellite.
Calamine.
Anthophyllite.
Laumonite.
Asbestos.

15 Serpentine.
‘Steatite.

Tabular spar.
Cryolite.
Carbonate of copper.

62 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

|

«ROX

“Muriate of gold.
— of silver.
—~— of iron.

eS

sei Seaton iid a

25.

30.

35.

40.

Nitrate of magnesia and ammonia.
Acetate of soda. eek aalla ed
- of potash. :
Phosphate of iron.
- of copper.
—_——_—-- of lead.
- of magnesia.
Arseniate of lead.
Calomel.
Oxymuriate of mercury.
Emerald copper.
Topazulite.
Haiiyne.
Meionite.
Wernerite.
Hyposulphite of strontian.
Specular iron.
Petalite.
Subsulphate of alumine.

ee

o

The connection between the external forms of
crystals and their optical properties, naturally leads
us to enquire, if any reason can be assigned, why
particular forms should be distinguished by a oil
cular number of axes. ‘

It appears from the general aman of the reso-
lution and composition of polarising forces which I

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 63

~ have explained in another place*, that a single po-
larising axis may be the resultant of any number of
equal axes of an opposite character.

When the separate axes lie in the same plane,
the single axis may be produced by the joint action
of any odd or even number of equal axes, situated
symmetrically around it; and the polarising force

Kr of the resultant axis, will be Fa2l, , nm being

the number of axes, and f the force of each axis
acting separately. ‘The planes which pass through
each axis cut one another at the poles of the resul-

tant axes, at angles equal to = ay but as the real
angle of the forces, or the eta inclination of the

axes, 1s double of this angle, or anh it follows, that

va Aa, Bb, ie. Dd, are the axes, the action of
Aa,and Bb, at the pole O of the resultant axes, will
not be according to the directions AO, BO, but
according to the directions AO, CO; for, AOB

360° 360°

= On and ROC, = os a Hence it appears that

the virtual dinbinie of the planes passing through

each axis are transferred, as it were, to the real di-
rections of the plane passing through the next axis ;
so that the virtual directions of the axes A a, Bb,
Cc, Dd, instead of being AO, BO, CO, DO, will
be AO, CO, a O,cO, which being all equal and

* See Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 245. + Id. p. 239, 240.

64 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

symmetrical round O, will be 7m equilibrio, or r de.
stroy one another at that point.

A similar result will be obtained when the dpa |

rate axes are not in the same plane, but are all
equally inclined to the resultant axis, provided they
are equal, and symmetrically arranged round that

axes ; or, to view the subject in a still more general

aspect, the action of several separate axes, of the
same character, whatever be their intensity, or

their number, or their inclination, may be resolved

into one axis, either of the same, or of an opposite

character, provided the intensities, the inclinations,
and the directions of the separate axes are all sym-

metrically related to the line which is the og eral
axis.

In the Furst Class of Primitive Forms, the very
nature of the geometrical solids which compose it,

seems to limit them to a single axis, either real, or

resulting from several separate actions,

In theObtuse Rhomboid, the line joining the
- obtuse summits is the only line which can be placed
symmetrically in the solid, and is at the same time
the axis of the crystal, and the axis 4 double re-
fraction. i id

The line joining the acute summits of the Acute

Rhomboid,—the line joining the centres of the hexa-
gonal bases of the Hexaedral Prism,—the line join-
ing the summits of the two pyramids of the Octohe-
dron with a square base,—and the line joining
the apices of the two pyramids which compose the

PRR

PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 66

ON THE

Bi-pyramidal dodecahedron, all enjoy the same
property of being the only lines which can be placed
symmetrically in these different solids, and which
can be regarded as the axes of polarisation *.

In all these forms, however, the axis of the crys-
tal may be the resultant of several axes which pos-
sess the conditions required by the general principle.

In the Oprusr Ruomzon, for example, the sin-
gle axis may be resolved into
_1. Three axes in the direction of lines joining the
six acute solid angles of the rhomb,
which have their inclinations and their
directions symmetrically related to the
short diagonal, or into
®. Three ames, perpendicular to any of the
sic three planes which contain ‘the obtuse
angle; or into
3. Three axes, parallel to the common sections
oi these three planes ; or into
4. Three axes, perpendicular to these common
sections, and bisecting the angles form-
ed by the planes ; or into
5. Three awes, parallel to these common sec-
tions; or into
6. All these axes, taken together, or any number
| -of them taken symmetrically.
These axes will be of the same character as the
single axis, if their inclination to the axis of the

”* There is an exception to the generality of this remark,
which will be presently explained.

VOL. IIT. Fi

66 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

rhomboid is less than 54° 44" 8"; but they will’be
of an opposite character at pei inclinations. cae

The very same results are ‘true of the AcuTE
Ruomesoin, mutatis mutandis.

In the HEXAEDRAL PRIsM, mie iim axis smay
be resolved into eh 9

1. Three axes, perpendicular to its sides ; uP or into

2. Three axes, perpendicular to its edges ; or into

3. Siw axes, joing the opposite angles | of 3 its up-
per and under hexagonal base ; or i nto

4. Siw axes, joining the opposite edges of its up-

per and under hexagonal bases

In the Bi-PyR4 MIDAL dodecahedron, the single

axis may be resolved into :

1. Three axes, perpendicular to the Bi + the
hexagonal base, and lying i in the plane
of it; or into

9. Three axes, joining the opposite angles of the
hexagonal base ; or into |

3. Sia axes, parallel to the faces of the pyramids;

7 | or into
4. Siv axes, parallel to these common sections.

In the OcroHEDRON, with a square base, the
single axis may be resolved into
1. Two aves, perpendicular to the sides of its
"square base, and lying in its plane; ; or
into i it
2, Two axes, coinciding with the diagonals of its
sguare base ; or into

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 67

. eer axLES, perpendicular to the four faces of
a the pyramids ; or into
4, Four awves,parallel to the four faces of the pyra-
_-—~—s mids, and. perpendicular to the sides
__ of the square base ; or into
_ 5. Four aves, parallel to these common sections.
These four axes will be of the same name with
‘the single axis, when their inclination to the result-
ant axis is less than 54°44’ 8’; and of ‘an opposite
name when the inclination is greater.
The very same results are true of the AcuTE
RuHomMBoI with a square base, mutatis mutandis.
~The obtuse and acute octohedron may also have
three axes coinciding with the three rectangular axes
of the solid, and having their intensities propor-
tional to their lengths, as will afterwards be ex-
plgeee. :

vide these cases, all the lines supposed to possess
the dignity of an axis, have a symmetrical position
in the solid ; and it must be allowed to be a singular
fact, that, without a single exception, all the primi-
tive forms which compose the first class, cannot pos-
sibly have more than one axis, whether we consider
this axis as an independent line, or as the resultant
of various other lines, occupying a symmetrical po-
sition around it. yee

If we now extend the same reasonings to the Sr-
COND Crass or Forms, it will be found that if
we give the hypothetical axes a symmetrical position
in the solid, and consider their intensities as re-

Eg

68 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

presented by their lengths, the resultant of these
forces cannot possibly be one axis, but must necessa
rily be the same as two rectangular sxe which
they are known to possess.

The only exception to the generality of ‘this a
servation, is in the case of the Right Prism with
a square base, which, in reference to the general
hypothesis, ought to have had only one axis of
polarisation. Wedo not pretend to explain this
very singular exception, but it is worthy of remark,
that Idocrase, Titanite and Uranite, to which Haiiy
has assigned this as the primitive form, have not
two axes, and therefore that it is within the limits
of probability that all the crystals which are ranked
under this form may have another primitive nal
cleus. da pit

In the Toirp Crass oF Primitive Forms,
the general principle has a very remarkable appli-
cation. All the crystals belonging to this class,
have neither double refraction nor polarisation ; and
I have demonstrated, that if any crystal possesses
three equal and rectangular axes, either all posi-

tive or all negative, the forces which emanate from
them will be in perfect equilibrium in every part

of the crystal, and consequently there can be nei-
ther double refraction nor polarisation. ‘Now, it
is very singular, that the cube, the 7 -egular octo-
hedron, and the rhomboidal dodect hedron, which

*

compose this class, are the only solids in which nei-—

ther more nor less than three such axes can be

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 69

* In the cube, each of the three axes is
sdbpen diculll to three opposite pair of square sur-
faces by which the solid is contained. In the
regular octohedron, each of them coincides with a
line joining the two opposite solid angles of the
figure ; and in the rhomboidal dodecahedron, each
of the three axes coincides with the lines which

1 two of the opposite solid angles of the figure,
are bounded by four acute angles of the rhom-
es. lence the reason is ebvious, why

s belonging to the third class of primitive
have three axes, and consequently have nei-

ther double tefraction nor polarisation.

If we examine the results of the various combina-
tions of three equal axes in the whole series of rhom-
-boids, from the most obtuse to the most acute, we
‘shall find them connected together by a very beauti-
ful law.

Tn the first or most obtuse rhomboid with which
the series commences, the angle of the rhomboidal
planes is 120°, and the three axes perpendicular
to these planes, are parallel to each other, and
consequently form a resultant axis of the same
character, whose intensity is equal to thrice the
intensity of any of the separate axes. As their
angle increases, and the rhomboid becomes less
‘obtuse, the three axes become inclined to the
axis of the rhomboid, and compose a resultant axis

* See pages 71, 72.

70 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CR:

coinciding with the axis of the thor ibo ie and of the’
same character as the separate axes. 'The intensity”
of the resultant axis gradually ait with the
obtuseness of the rhomboid, and from its maximum
intensity of 3 /, it descends to Q, ‘its i: otto’ ree
maining always the same.
' When the angle of the eres planes be-
comes 90°, the rhomboid is converted into the eu
The three axes which were formerly inclined to one
another at an acute angle, are now perpendi cu-
lar to each other: Each of the three is inclined 54°
44! 8’ to the axis of the rhomboid, which is now one
of the diagonals of the cube; and the imtensity of
the resultant axis is 0, the forces being wee 0
in a state of perfect equilibrium: -
The series of obtuse rhomboids having now ter-
minated in the cube, the series of acute rhomboids
commences ; and as the angle of the rhomboidal

planes decreases below 90°, the three axes become

inclmed to one another at an obtuse angle; the in-
tensity of the resultant axis begins to increase from
0; but its character is now changed, and is oppo-
site to that of the three axes by which it is produ-
ed. :

The acute ees terminate in the hexaedral
prism, when the angle of the rhomboidal planes has
become 0. ‘The axes are now all in the same plane, _
and the intensity of their resultant is equal to 14,7,
its character being still of an opposite nature.

a > tui

4
an.
ai see

(ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CkysraLs. 71

_.» The following Table will shew the intensity of the
esul tant. axis in the Rhomboid for different incli-

Nome of the se- Inclination of each separate §_ Intensity and cha-

axis to the resultant axis. racter of the resul-
tant axis.

ee eRe i ah By OM gO? ',« 3 + axes
Maree + axes...) .. 2.02. 28 8 Q + axes
‘Three + axes,...... Oi Nia eh 41° 48’ 1 + axis:
Mere Faxes. 082....54 44 8” 0
eS MAS ae Yo oe axes:
Three ++ axes;.,....... Bris... 90° 0 1) — axis.

It is a singular circumstance, that all the crystals
in our table, which have the obtuse rhomboid, the
acute rhomboid, and the hexaedral prism for their
‘primitive form, have all a negative axis. Hence,
it will follow, if this axis is the resultant of three
axes, that in calcareous spar, bitter spar, carbonate of
Time and iron, and tourmaline, the three axes are ne-
- gative, v while in ruby, sapphire, corundum, cinnabar,
arseniate of copper, apatite, beryl, emerald, and ne-
pheline, the three axes are positive.
A similar law takes place in the octohedral crys-
tals with a square base; and the regular octohe-
dron forms the passage between the acute and the
_ obtuse octohedron, in the very sane manner as the
sube does between the acute and the obtuse rhom-

gid. In tracing this law, we may adopt either of
| » hypotheses. If we consider the octohedral
erystals as having three rectangular axes of the
ein character, coinciding with the three axes of

72 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

the solid, and having their imtensity proportional to
the length of these axes, then in the obtuse octo-
hedron, where the principal axis of the solid is
shorter than the rest, we shall have the resultant
axis coinciding with it, and equal to either of the
other axes, but of an opposite character at the com-
mencement of the series of obtuse rhomboids. The
character of the resultant axis will continue the
same, and its intensity will diminish as the rhom-
boid becomes less obtuse, and when it becomes the.
regular octohedron, by all the three axes becoming
equal, the three axes of polarisation will be 27
equilibrio, or destroy each other. The series: of acute
octohedrons now commences: The principal axls
of the solid is larger than the other two, and.
therefore the resultant axis reappears, but with an
opposite character, and gradually increases as the
rhomboid becomes more acute.

The other hypothesis consists in supposing the
axes to be four in number, and to be of the same
intensity, but placed at right angles to the four
faces of the pyramid, At the commencement of
the obtuse series, these axes will be parallel to one
another, and will form a resultant whose intensity
is 4 f} and of the same character as the separate
axes, As the octohedron becomes less obtuse,
the inclination of the separate ‘AXeS to the Te-
sultant increases, the intensity of the latter di. :
-minishing, and its character remaining the same, _
‘When the inclination becomes 54° 4.4! 8”, which h takes

“ee
¥ ; Ce thy Hey
ier hy fly Re ee "

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF CRYSTALS. “3

; . when the obtuse changes into the regular oc-

tohedron, all the four axes are im equilibrio, or
destroy one another. Beyond this inclination the
acute octohedrons commence. ‘The four axes com-
pose a resultant of an opposite character ; and when
the octohedron terminates in the quadrangular
prism, the intensity of the resultant becomes 2 /-

7

The following Table will shew the intensity of
the resultant axis in the Octohedron for different
inclinations :

Number of the se- Inclination of each separate Intensity and cha-
parate axes, axis to the resultant axes. racter of the resul-
tant axis.
gos ys = snnpeeo- y 0 Oo 4+ axes
Four + axes,...... poopie 24 5 42 3 + axes
) BAe @ axes, .2.... 2. 35 15 52 24+ axes
Four + axes,............... 450° 0 1 + axis
Bear ae es... ............. 54 44 8 0
Four + axes,.,.....,.. wee 65 54 20 1 — axis
Powe a axes, dus. 245-403-556. 90 0 9 2 — axes

The preceding results respecting the rhomboid
and the octohedron, are true, mutatis mutandis, of
all yramids, whatever be the number of their sides.

‘The general law may be expressed in the follow;
ing manner :

si any number N of axes of the same character,
is placed symmetrically round a given line *, then,
ae they form an angle of 0° with that line, or coin-
le with it, t, they will | compose a resultant axis in the

* Two axes can be ate symmetrically only when they
are at right angles to one another,

74 ON THE PAE om

direction of that line, equal in intensity to + N f
(f being the force of each epada npr | of the
same character with each of the separate axes. Aidadbiy
the angle which the axes form velba’ line in
ereases, the intensity of the resultant axis dimi-
nishes. At an inclination of 54° 44° 8’ the angle
which the faces of a cube, a regular octohedron, and
a rhomboidal dodecahedron, form with the axis of
these solids, all the separate axes will be in perfect
equilibrium, or will destroy each other, and the force
of the resultant will be 0. ‘At a greater inelina-
tion, the resultant axis reappears with an opposite
character, and gradually increases in intensity, till
the angle is 90°, when all the axes are in one Plage ;

and the force of the resultant 1 is | gee

This law may be ape by. the ullowing

formule : Q
n .6666 uo,
Sin. 27 Gis Gee = + 2nd eal

n= N Q- 5a ed aie

where N is the number of axes Salhieds n the
number of axes to which the intensity of the re-
sultant is equal, and @ the inclination of each axis
to the resultant., The sign + is to] be cused when

1 is of an opposite character to i
: ‘ fe ‘ ie ; Sie a vi de ‘ &
foci, March 1819. peal’ le dbet ar atts

Bay) ‘
alee
‘
*
\
‘ .
\
* ‘
‘ y .
y
,
*
;
s

PLATE II.

Wernerian ems Vol. IE p. 75

“
MQ
AW
i NY WX
ae
\

AS At
\\ NAYS

\ ‘ bi AY itt
cA \

cia
\ » aA

elonging to difterent parts of the Jaws. Nat sve.

21.2.3. Teeth b

HEAD OF DBLPHINUS TRUNCATUS.

By

—S AA 2
= = = =—- Se WRN ae
TEN ai Sil TNL = -

=—-—
—

NS SS ig =o 7 =
<S= SS

Dizars Sculp*

‘ (1B)
Fg b
he Pee) 3S |
It. Bec. of a Species y Delphinns, which
Mf appears to Oe ik ig |
rn P

as RK moans
1) RS
*,

By the late Guonce Moxtace; Bsa F.L.S. & M. W-S.
p < ?.
Sn Read 20th March 1815. y)

z 4 Dexpuus T) adiatas ie

With numerous Teeth, closely connected, trun-
~~ cated, and on a level with the gums: In
wh ethos + rat t Te “ca |

ait Her any

Is the sun

- mal was exh

- was Failed ee to ‘the genus Delphinus,
_ + but that it possessed some characters which:did not
appear to pee to any of the = ft

Ae. “Pi

re

~_ known,

aS _ As I did not ~e of the circumstance till after

% ~ the animal | had ‘been boiled for obtaining its oil, I
could onl: aie to collect the best information

ing ig and, if possible, obtain its jaws, in
which its principal distinction from Delphinus del-
phis appeared to consist. The first information of
~ the capture of this animal, I received from Mr
Dyer of Totness, and afterwards a more detailed
account of the capture and description of the ani-

¥

"6 DESCRIPTION OF A

mal from Mr James Cornish of the same place.
From the very great resemblance the animal bore

to Delphinus delphis in its form, situation and shape
of its fins, it was generally considered as that spe-
cies; but Mr Cornish very properly doubted it,
from the very different appearance the teeth exhi-
bited from what the dolphin is described to possess.
Mr Cornish describes it to be twelve feet in length,
and about eight feet in circumference in the largest
part ; the colour of the back black, with a purplish
tinge, gradually becoming dusky on the sides, and
sullied white on the belly; the spiracle or blow-
hole was placed between the eyes, it was semi-oval
with the convexity forwards, and was two inches in
length ; its distance from the point of the snout,
fourteen inches and a half. But the remarkable
part of Mr Cornish’s observation was, that the teeth
were numerous in each jaw, placed close together,
with their surfaces circular, perfectly flat and even
with the gums. For a good representation of the con-
tour of the animal, I was referred to the figure of
the Dolphin in Shaw’s Lectures. — |
Being extremely anxious to examine any remains
of the head that could be obtained, Mr Cornish
undertook to recover it, if possible, from the Dart,
into which river the bones of the animal had been
thrown after boiling; and I am happy to say, that
after the indefatigable research of that it gentleman,
by dragging the river, the skull, with the connected
upper jaw, and also the lower jaw, were the fruits

aS

a ee

NEW SPECIES OF DELPHINUS. "7

of his labour, both of which he obligingly sent to
me, accompanied by some teeth *.
The possession of the head is of considerable in-
terest to science, as it obviates all doubt as to the
y of the relation given some time after the
, m of the subject. The appearance of
his wt fully confirms what has already been said
of it,
Thel pagth of the skull, including the upper jaw,
is twenty inches and a half; the breadth of the
jaw across the hinder teeth, is nearly five inches;
on each side there are sockets for twenty feeth, be-
sides a long depression behind the posterior socket,
for some other purpose. ‘The under jaw is some-
what longer, containing twenty-three sockets on
each side, making collectively in both jaws eighty-
six teeth, a number little inferior to what has hi-
therto been noticed in any cetaceous animal descri-
bed +.
‘The sockets are variable in size, without order,
shewing that some teeth were double the size of
others, and the approximation of the sockets evinces

wT —— _

or The teeth of the animal had been all knocked out to satis-
fy the curiosity of the spectators, when it was exhibited as a
show ; and were so distributed, as to render it difficult to ob-
tain many. age?

+t The Delphis is said to have from 88 to 112. The Phoce-
na about 96 at the utmost. The Orca about 60, some only
50. Tn a specimen in the French Museum, each jaw had 22 ;
but Artedi enumerates 40 in the lower jaw,

78 / DESCRIPTION OF A

ontiguity of the tecth, so that the teeth of —
both jaws must have opposed their surfaces to each
other, there being no intermediate space, «as deseri-
bed in the Gtantpind? and Dolphin, for the si i
tion of the teeth of the opposite jaw. All the teeth
I have examined, except one, have nearly a flats ar .
face, ‘some a little sloping or obliquely truncated,
and quite flat; others truncated at right angles, ¢ nd
slightly convex, and one, not half so large as any
other, is obtusely conic; this appears from the cor-
responding sockets to have been a fore-tooth; for
in the upper jaw there are two small sockets in the
front, and in the lower jaw four; but even these
could scarcely protrude beyond the flesh, as not
above ‘a quarter of an inch projects above the jaw-
bone when placed in the socket. The hinder teeth —
appear to have stood nearly perpendicular; others
evidently stood obliquely forwards, both by the ap-
pearance of the teeth and the sockets; and I am
of opinion, that none of the teeth, the six smaller
ones before mentioned excepted, could have beer
scarcely elevated above the gums, both by the ap-
pearance of the teeth themselves, and Kage reyes
them in their sockets.

_ The blow-hole in the skull is situated as scar
bed by Mr Cornish, but a central septum or lon-
gitudinal division, cuts the aperture. into two equal
parts. ae,

By comparing the number, deponteile a shape
of the teeth of this species, with those of the gram-—

NEW SPECIES OF DELPHINUS. #9

pus, the porpesse, and the dolphin, the dissimilarity
is so oreat, that there is no hesitation in deciding the
distinction; all those animals being furnished with
teeth more or less sharp or conic, projecting above
the gums, and sufficiently distant, to admit those of
the opposite jaw to lock in between them, when the
mouth is closed*. In the Delphinus gladiator, (de-
seribed by Ia Cepede in his Histoire des Cetacées,
from a specimen taken in the Thames in the year
1793, , said to have been communitated by Sir Joseph
anks, accompanied by'a drawing, and lately intro-
duced into the British Fauna, in the last edition of
Pennant’s British Zoology,) the snout is said to be
short, and the teeth sharp ; so that any further com-
parison with this species would be us seless to mark a
distinction;

Another species of Delphinus is mentioned by Dr
Shaw in his General Zoology, by the title of ros-
tratus, the j jaws of which appear to be the only parts
that have come under examination. All we obtain
from the description, is, that the jaws are extremely
_ Rarrow in proportion to their length, which is about
two feet, and that the teeth are small, not numer-
ous, distant, and shaped like the molares of quadru-
peds. From this very, imperfect description, no-
thing decisive can be drawn, except that the atte-

> Ue
‘

* A Haare by most authors, but there is some confusion
ut the distance of the teeth. I have seen an instance of the
ies where the teeth could not intersect each other.

80 DESCRIPTION OF A

nuated snout and truncated teeth, are similar cha-
racters to those related of the present species; but
the teeth being distant and not numerous, can-
not belong to the present subject. The teeth of
the delphinus in question, have a perfectly smooth
surface, not irregular, as in‘the molares of quadru-
peds; they are, indeed, formed with annular marks.
or faint concentric circles, which are only apparent.
when closely cxamined, the central one excepted. °

Upon the whole, I do not find any species of
delphinus described, to which this has sufficient af-
finity to induce a reference ; and therefore trust it
will be found to be a nondescript species. It must,
however, be observed, that I have not been able to
consult Cuvier’s dissertation on this tribe of animals.

The Delphinus truncatus was captured on the 3d
of July 1814, in Duncannon Pool, near Stoke Ga-
briel, about five miles up the river Dart. It was
killed with great difficulty, resisting the efforts of
eight men with spears and guns, assisted by dogs,
from nine in the morning till one in the afternoon,
when, being partly exhausted by the loss of blood,
it was secured in a net, and, after receiving another
shot, its throat was cut. When wounded, it made
a bellowing like a bull.

I cannot conclude this subject without noticing,
that there does not appear to be the least similitude
between this species and the ca’ing whale of the
Orkneys, originally described by Mr Neill in his
Tour through the Orkney and Shetland islands ;

NEW SPECIES OF DELPHINUS. 81

and since’ described and figured by Dr. Traill of
Liverpool, in Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxii. No. 97.
under the title of Delphinus melas. The remark-
able length of the pectoral fins or swimming paws
of the Delphinus melas, being above one-third the
length of the whole animal, is sufficient to separate
it from all those hitherto described*. It is worthy
of remark, that amongst a great many of Delphinus
melas, that were stranded at the same time, the
young as well as some of the largest were destitute
‘of teeth. From this and other observations made
by different naturalists, there should appear to be
no criterion of species by the number and situation
of teeth. If we are well informed, the generic
aracters of Physeter and Delphinus do not hold
good ; and, in fact, these should form but one ge-
nus. » Fabricius and. others have declared, that
the former have small teeth in the upper-jaw,.
obscured by the flesh. It has also been said, that
some species of Delphinus have been observed

* There is little doubt of this Delphinus being the same as
is described and figured i in Cuvier’s dissertation on the French
species of Delphinus, under the title of Globiceps. The rounded
front, and slender pectoral fins, are pretty evident characters ;
but the latter are not sufficiently long in the figure. To
Dr Leach I am obliged for outlines of the several Delphini
figured by Cuvier, by whom, I understand, no mention is
made of their teeth ; but none of the figures correspond with
om co eee of this paper.

gl: camel F

82 DESCRIPTION, &¢.

with teeth “in dite jaw a In fact, this class of
mammalia appears to be im great obscurity. Few
naturalists have the means of examining many spe-
cies; and, therefore, their writings are ore
mostly from old and imperfect ‘deseripti tions. Even
the more common species of Delphinus, the tap
Phocena* and Delphis, are by no means sufficient

ly defined to admit of our deciding, that rot are
not some very nearly allied species confounded with
them,—a consideration worth the attention of ah
naturalists as may frequently have the m
examination and comparison of the species. i

io ¥:
e9

* How shall we account for the reversed Pig of the dorsal
fin of the porpesse, originally figured by Jago, and aftert ards
copied into Borlas's History of Cornwall? Surely this 1 mus
be one of the innumerable érrors handed down to: ee verte
infancy of science. Ty ee)

==

By the Rev. Joun neil D.D. F.R. 8. E. &e.

PeK yt!
fa 6s 2d May 1818.)

Tue city of Cork is situated on an extensive al-
luvial deposite, formed from the sediment of the
river Lee. This river runs in a direction from west
, ph bw meets the tide at the city of Cork, and
orming a frith interspersed with numerous
wg empties itself into St George’s Channel,
1 tic miles to the eastward of the city.
he vale in which the Lee flows is parallel with
_ the direction of the hills which occur in the neighbour-
hood. To the north of the city, there is a high con-
tinuous ridge of slaty rocks, which forms the nor-
thern boundary of the river for several miles. To
the south of the eity, there is another ridge, of
lower elevation, consisting chiefly of limestone.
“The strata are nearly vertical, scarcely ever ob-
ser ed declining above ten degrees towards the ho-
tizon. The dip is toward the south. The line
of bearing is by the compass, from W. N. W. to
E. 8. E., and this direction is observed by all the
strata of the district with surprising Aaah
F 2

84 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

In stating the few particulars which I have i
my power to communicate, respecting the minerals
of this district, I shall arrange my observations un-
der three heads, corresponding to the three kinds”
of rocks which chiefly prevail, and to which the
others may be considered as subordinate. These

*

rocks are grey-wacke-slate, limestone, and clay-slate.

I.—Grey-Wacke-Slate.

The rocks which I here denominate Grey-wacke-
slate, occur principally in the ridge to the north of
the city, where, from having been quarried j in seve
ral places, the arrangement of the strat: As very
stinctly exhibited. The rock is termed by ry the in-
habitants Brownstone, from the colour sh it usu-
ally exhibits.

The stratification of ins Be aie to me ‘to
present some peculiarities which deserve to be men-
tioned. I have already stated, that the “alae
nearly vertical, and the direction of the stretch
form; and the structure and fracture corresp md,
usual, with these characters of position. Bu :
sides this primary direction of the strata, : there
_ may frequently be observed another, or seco \dary
direction, at right angles to the former, by which
the vertical strata are divided horizon ally. The
vertical primary strata experience conside able va-

NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. $5

riations in their composition, beds of a harder stone
being included in strata of softer materials, or the
reverse, But the secondary horizontal strata are
uniform, the stratum above being similar to the one
below. Sometimes, however, these horizontal strata
differ a aie in colour for a few yards, but seldom

These ehdalinats horizontal beds are short, the
ines of separation ceasing, and new ones, parallel,
it n epeeinmons, appearing, at short intervals of

irs ewidsiond are carefully attended to by the
quarrymen, whose operations they contribute to fa-
cilitate. .

The appearances which these subordinate strata
exhibit when the section is at right angles to the’
line of bearing, are apt to lead an observer, at first
sight, to conclude that the rock is disposed in true

- horizontal strata; nor will he be convinced of the
mistake, until a more minute examination of the
fracture of the stone has pointed out the true
structure of the beds.

Two forces have been operating upon the matter
of the rock when entering into its present state:
One, disposing the strata to assume a vertical po-
sition, and exercising absolute controul in arranging
the slaty structure and fracture of the stone; while
the second, less powerful in its influence, and irre-
gular in its operations, has given rise to those wa-

fs

}

86 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

ved horizontal divisions which the v tr
exhibit. ore ey ei coal

The colour of this stone is intermediate | ” wee
brownish purple-red and brownish-red
clouded with irregular spots of greenish.

The principal fracture, or rather structure i
case, is irregular curved slaty. "The surface
lamine is often spotted with dend
and is glimmering, owing to scales of mica, w
in general obvious to the eye. The cross frac
is fine earthy and dull. It is easily scratched with
the knife, and the streak is light-coloured and ¢

This Brownstone exhibits several varieties of cha-
racter, according as the siliceous or aluminous earths
prevail. In the formet case, the stone is coarse-
~ prained, thick, slaty and hard, in the latter, it is
fine-grained, softer, and divides into thinner la-
ming. In some portions of the last variety, oe
are galls of a brownish-coloured powder.

This rock is intersected by numerous contempo-
raneous veins of quartz, from the size of a thread
to upwards of a foot in breadth. In the lar-
ger veins, the quartz is compact, but in many of
‘the smaller veins it is parallel fibrous, the direction
of the fibres being perpendicular to the walls of the
veins. This is precisely the manner in which the
fibres of ice are arranged, when water has erystal-
lized in a narrow crevice. In some places the
quartz contains chlorite, and near Mallow site;
T observed small quantities of iron-mica.

| NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CoRK, 87

Where this rock is disposed to. eabsuih any va-
ty colour, it is in re greasy to the feel,

e masses 5 of tl cisay. It is
Idom found as a regular bed of any extent; and,
the line o junction, it coalesces with the preced-
‘ock. ne is readily distinguished, however,
that rock, by its colour and fracture. It is
ish-grey, wiper a tinge of green or black. In the
ki Is, the laminated structure cannot be per-
d the fracture is even, inclining to large
conch [tis dull,—sometimes glimmering from
mixed scales of mica,—fragments indetermi-
‘ angular, rather sharp-edged,—opaque,—-soft
ima t degree,—streak dull, and light coloured,
pa feebly * the tongue,—easily frangible,—
and feels somewhat meagre. This variety is some-
‘times used as a whetstone for the coarser kinds of
cutlery.
a dn many sates this rock becomes fine earthy
its fracture ; glimmering in its lustre; consider-
arder; and the fragments more blunt-edged,
rieties of this sort bear a close resemblance
z rocks which are intermediate between
d slate-clay.
Su te likewise to the Ritihicatiie, ae
cribed, is a rock which may be called Grey-wacke,
although destitute of many of the important. cha-
acters. of that rock. It exhibits two very distinct
varieties.

88 ON THE MINERALOGY OFTHE

- The first has a basis of coarse slate-clays With |
‘mica and iron-pyrites, and contains numerous irre
gular rounded masses of compact limestone. The
limestone is of a dark bluish-grey colour, w’ h
fine splintery fracture, destitute of lustre, and ha-
ving a light-coloured dull streak. These pieces are
of no determinate shape, and pass, by imperceptible
degrees, into the basis in which they are imbedded.
Hence these masses, and the basis, are to be consi-
dered as of contemporaneous formation. =

Perhaps this test of contemporaneously formed
masses, is not much to be depended upon. The
petrifactions of shells which occur in the older rocks,
are often so intimately united with the matter in
which they are imbedded, that they appear to pass
into it by insensible degrees, it being impossible to
detect the line of separation. Yet, in these cases,
‘we do not consider thenr as of contemporaneous for-
‘mation ; but conclude, that some action has taken
place in the matter of the bed, subsequent to its de-
position, which has exerted its influence on the sub-
stance of the imbedded shells. Examples of such
changes may frequently be met with in fletz lime-
stones; and they, perhaps, occur in other rocks con-
taining fragments; although in these last, we have
not the means of determining the original form
of the imbedded masses; and, consequently, cs
not trace the extent of ms changes whiel

have experienced. — ,

The second consists slog a basis of granular ‘quartz,

with irregularly shaped pieces of bluish-black clay.

NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 89

ineamienpirecem ble the finest kind of slate-clay
; mentioned; only they are of a darker co-
a and rather dusaical Its structure in the great
is irregular slaty. It abounds in natural rents, and
SeeeAyemporancous veins and nodules of quartz.
is another variety which approaches to thick
slaty in its fracture, and contains a few scales of mica.
In this are imbedded numerous reed-like films of a
dark colour, and so closely resembling some of the
varieties of sandstone, belonging to the independent
coal formation, as not to be distinguished from
them im hand specimens. The surface of these
reed-like films exhibits rather indistinctly the ap-
pearance of vegetable impressions. ‘The resemblance.
however, to some of the impressions on the sandstone
of our coal-fields was so close, that I was disposed,
without further evidence, to assign to them a vege-
seliie cricin, A more minute examination enabled
me to decide the question.
The surface of these films was often shining,
and the black matter, ignited with nitre, proved to
be glance-coal. A more diligent search, led me to
discover in the rubbish of a quarry, a large cylinder,
upwards of eighteen inches in diameter, consisting
of glance-coal, iron-pyrites and calcareous spar.
Upon breaking the mass, 1t was easy to discover
é its woody texture, by the fibres of the pyrites, and
the concentric circles of which it consisted. When
fresh broken, the pyrites exhibited its usual colour ;
but after exposure for a few days, it changed to

90 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

bronze. The calcareous spar was disti ‘ibuted, s as
to exhibit the concentric layers of g pies andthe |
gilance-coal appeared. chiefly in nadia grains in
the spar, and likewise in the pyrite.
In examining vegetable petrifactions, with the .
view of determining, whether they are’the remains
of monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plants,
must be influenced by the structure of thet win. ae
the arrangement of the nerves of the leaves. ‘The
first of these characters only, was here exhibited;
so that, judging from the concentric layers of growth,
we are disposed to refer this vegetable petrifactior
to the class of dicotyledonous plants. © © |.
These specimens of vegetable sich Aaneigaiaans were
collected, about a mile to the eastward of the city,
on the Glenmire road. About five miles south
from Cork, at Ballenhassig, a variety of the ‘same
rock contains bivalve shells, but too much incorpor-
ated with the rock to exhibit their peculiar charac-

ters, “ an a

The nomenclature which I have ssligualaniiiadn
rocks, is perhaps faulty, as being in some measure
influenced by theoretical views. The striking re-
semblance between some of the rocks here describ-
ed, and those of some of the sandstone districts of
‘Scotland, appeared obvious to me at first sight; and
had I been guided by this analogy, I would have
regarded all these rocks of grey-wacke-slate as Va.
rieties of sandstone and slate-clay. But when we

- NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 9]

attend to their relations and their position, it might,
perhaps, be more convenient to regard them all as
“varieties of grey-wacke, verging to quartz on the
one hand, and to slate-clay on the other. The
occurrence of numerous contemporaneous veins of
quartz, so characteristic of grey-wacke, gives encou-
tagement to the adoption of such a nomenclature.
AEG: in f ia : y

fied > 9 Ye

PULA IY 0s 9 FT Tamestone.

The beds of limestone occur chiefly on the south
side of the Lee. They observe the same line of
bearing as the strata of grey-wacke on the north
side of the river. The limestone is in general com-
pact,—of a bluish grey colour,—of various degrees of
intensity, — massive,—dull, or feebly glimmering,
from an intermixture of calcareous spar,—fracture
compact, even, with a slight tendency to splintery,—
fragments indeterminately angular, rather sharp _
edged,—feebly translucent on the edges,—streak
light coloured, inclining to ash grey. It is universally
used for building, and is sometimes polished as a
marble. In some cases, from an intermixture of
the biownstone, the marble is variegated.
. An some varieties, especially, those containing pe-
trifactions, the fracture is granularly foliated,
and the lustre glistening, ‘Some varieties are dark-
er in the colour, and become fine-grained in the frac-
ture, and pass into common compact lucullite,

92 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

. The beds of limestone are of considerak
tent, appearing on the surface nearly @ mile in a
direction across the strata. These beds are divided
rather indistinctly into semen and. are with difficulty
quarried. 7 | Aven ctout

Subordinate to this gprirpadt limestone, ehionss oc-
curs COMMON COMPACT DOLOMITE, or Magnesian
Limestone ; having the colour intermediate between
yellowish-white and ash-grey,—the lustre glimmer-
ing inclining to glistening,—and the fracture fine
granularly foliated, —it is harder than we bee a
limestone.

In some cases, the detontité appears in the com-
mon limestone in the form of a thick bed, sel-
dom continuing to any great extent. In. other pla-
ces it appears as large Ce arena aed
raneous masses.

‘It is frequently full of drusy cavities, the sides
of which are covered with different kinds of crys-
tals. In this state it is usually siocagge i gus and

yt as

more brittle.

The most common sort of crystals found nail are
of brown-spar, or pearl-spar, of the same colour as the
surrounding rock, sometimes of a brownish orange.
Super-imposed upon these may be observed crystals
of dolomite-spar, in the form of oblique rhe
These crystals are middle-sized,—occur from trans-
parent to opaque, ~— In some cases are eS on ~
surface. ,

NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 93

In the same cavities are found crystals of quartz
intermixed with the brown-spar and the dolomite.
These are either short six-sided prisms, terminat-
ed by six planes, or simply six-sided pyramids. They
are ogi and adhere to the rock on one side.

In some of the larger druses, crystals of ame-
have been found of considerable size and
beauty. ‘Some of these have exceeded two inches
in diameter and four inches in length. In ‘one
place, close by the marshy banks of the river, and
near the town, the best crystals have been found ;
but in consequence of a dispute between the King
and the proprietor of the soil, with respect to the
right of search, all access to the cavity is prevented.

- Returning again to the compact limestone, we
may observe, that besides the contemporaneous mass-
es of dolomite, it is traversed by numerous contem-
poraneous veins of calcareous-spar, and of massive
brown-spar. Both these are pure white, while the
rock in which they occur retains its usual grey colour.
These veins sometimes have a brecciated aspect,
containing portions of the rocks intermixed. In

e place I observed snow-white fine granular
limestone, in the form of a contemporaneous vein.

The calcareous spar at a place called Ballanloch,
occurs in globular distinct concretions, from a few
inches to several yards in diameter. Each concre-
tion consists of numerous angular pieces, diverging
from the centre, and increasing in size to the cir-
eumference. In general, each large concretion con-

94 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

sists of a number of smaller ones. The surface of
the columns is a little rough, and the angles blunt. —
At the same place, there are numerous crystals
of quartz, consisting of six-sided prisms, terminated
by six-sided pyramids, imbedded in the limestone.
These crystals are nearly opaque; dull, and the angles
are blunt, They consist of concentric layers of
quartz and limestone. In one of these crystals,
not more than 4 of an inch im thickness, I have
counted nine different layers, It is obvious, that,
in this case, the matter of the quartz, though in
vety small quantity, has been able to act upon the
calcareous matter, in such a manner, as to impart
its own natural arrangement, instead of the struc.
ture peculiar to calcareous minerals:.—This sub-
ject will be resumed in a vrignie ayes oe of the
paper. bs wegen vis
Not far from the city; and to the south of the
Lunatic Asylum, there is a bed of Hornstone. Tt
varies in colour; being light brownish-red, where res
lated to the brownstone; and bluish-grey, where in-
fluenced by the limestone ; the fracture is fine ‘splin«
tery, ngdatecee to. eee and it is trai
cent. iglod Se Ho
The bed is olay a few feet in thickness, ie et
serves its direction to a considerable distance, and
with great regularity. In its immediate neigh--
bourhood, the limestone is much mixed with silice- —
ous matter; and, in some places, appears in a’ state —

of decomposition, the calcareous portion having

NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 05

been, in a great measure, abstracted, and the silice-
ous matter left behind, in the form of a light po-
rous mass. In this state, my acute friend Mr Davy,
the Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution
of we found the specific gravity of a very porous
to be 2.07, and of a more compact specimen,
; fe has tried its effects as a material for
olishing metals, and had reason to be satisfied with
ain. The siliceous limestone thus decom-
osed, approaches the mineral termed jloat-stone,
sitions to which may frequently be observed
erg weathered fragments of the floetz lime-
stones.
The surface of these Mepostend: rocks is, in many
places, covered with the Lichen immersus of
Withering, the shields of which, by means of some
solvent, are sunk in the rock. In every crevice
warty, the Helix rufescens and virgata, were

>

s possible, and was kindly assisted by Mr

’ the Cork Institution, who has formed
re structive cabinet of these petrifactions.
Many of these have been figured by Sowerby in
his “ Mineral Conchology,” from apreiens sent
‘by Mr Wright.

96 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

Multilocular Univalves. ideas

1. Navriwus. mata species a of are restrict-
ed genus was observed, of an oval form, the pa
tions distant and slightly waved. oe

2. ELLIpsoLirHus,—A_ genus instituted | by ‘
Sowerby, contains two species from this quarter.
E. funatus, Sowerby, tab. 32.. and “k, ovatus,
Sowerby, tab. 37. This species is subject to. con-
siderable variation in shape and markings. at

In my specimens, the partitions are obvious, al-
though they could not be detected in those which
Mr Sowerby possesses.

3. ORTHOCERA.—T wo species occurred in this
district. The first resembles the O. striata of Sow-
erby; tab. 58. In the specimen he describes, the
strie are longitudinal; in the one now before 1 me,
they are transverse, and the pipe somewhat lateral.
The characters of the other species are nearly obli-
terated.

A. AMPLEXUS. —This is a new ; genus instituted
by Sowerby, for the reception of the 4. coralloi-
des, tab. 72., a shell from this district, and one of
a very peculiar character. At first sight, it may
readily be mistaken for one of those corals which,
in this country, are known by the name Fungites.
But the chambers are distinct, although no per-
foration can be observed. We may add, that the
history of this fossil is far from complete, and we

| NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 97

fear that its true structure has not as yet been suf-

Unilocular..Univalves.

5. Evompnaus.—This genus was instituted by
Sowerby. It appears to be nearly related to the ge-
nus Planorbis, s so far as the character depends on the
shell. The E. pentangulatus, tab. 45. fig. 1, 2. is
: not uncommon.

Two or three specimens of other unilocular uni-
valves occurred, but in too imperfect a state to en-
able any one to assign them their true genus.

Bivalves.

is ‘ih Carpium.—One singular species occurs
he re, nearly resembling the recent C. cardissa. It
is f pie by Sowerby under the name C. Hiber-
2. It belongs to the genus Hemicardia of

Mesiveti
7. TEREBRATULA.—The rocks of this district
furnish many species of this genus, one of which,
T. lateralis, is figured by Sowerby, tab. 83. fig. 1.
Many of the species have the valves so strangely
distorted, in comparison of the recent species, as to
lead one at first sight to conclude that they had
been bruised in their present repository. |
-8.Propuctvs. This genuswas likewise instituted
by Sowerby, for the reception of several fossil-shells,
formerly considered as anomie. Some of the species
found here approach near to the character of those
found in the limestone of the independent coal for-
VOL. III. G

"98 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

mation. Indeed, in three species which I have com-
pared, I could not discover any ‘definite specific
difference.

9. Piacrostoma of lice —Some of the spe-
cies of this genus occur more frequently than any

other. hate are readily Wer ma bc the tg

Shine.

- 10. Sprrrrer of Sowerby—The 8. ssapallni .
tab. 120., occurs here. It is the Anomia eus spidata
of Martin, Linn. Trans, vol. iv. P. 45. Merny Brrr:
Et: jp fiagel a A
“There j is one striking character which these pe-
trifactions exhibit, namely, their oval shape, by
which they may be distinguished from the recent
testacea. Neither this oval form, nor the oblique
position of the valves of the terebratule, ~
from any bruise, but is quite natural, as 1 ove
by numerous observations. All feat! sheikh are

much incorporated with the rock, and the matter of
the shell is usually changed into caleareous-spar. —

I observed only one zoophyte, which did not oc-
cur in great abundance. It appeared to be conico-
tubular,—the surface reticulated, the pores ‘round
im one peeves and A agit in — as T could

NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. 99

detail, separated, however, by another extensive
deposit mp of grey-wacke-slate and. subordinate beds
f limes tone. The character of the TOCKS. are well

Sup “The Bee iinip feller of the clay-slate is bluish-

plack, —lustre feebly glistening, —fracture thin
straight slaty. This is quarried and dressed as
roof-slate.

About midway between Cork and Springhill, the
clay-slate may be observed to include some very
thick beds of talc-slate,—of an ochre- yellow colour,
— glistening, somewhat pearly lustre, — straight
slaty fracture,—greasy feel,—and very soft. When
this slate is broken in a slightly oblique direction,
the fractured surface appears splintery. In the col-
lection of Mr Wright, I observed very perfect, rec-’
tangular parallelopepidal crystals of iron-pyrites,
in a rock of this kind, from Glandore, in the west
of the county of Cork.

_ In some cases, this rock becomes thick slaty, dull,
and the fracture inclining to earthy. Some va-
riefihes are light in the colour, being bluish-grey,
clining to smoke-grey. Others are darker in the

our, approaching raven-black. ‘These varieties
are in general harder than the common clay-slate.
Their fracture, lustre, and colour, and appearance
when decomposed, reminded me of black chalk.
Upon inquiry, q found that black chalk occurred
lad

160 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

to the south, near Kinsale, in rocks of a simi

kind, and through the goodness of Mr |

mens Bon that ‘ist atid cae

It is in the thick slaty varieties of the slate-clay
‘that the W aveiite of Ireland is found, and in this
district, at a place called Springhill, near Fraeton
Abbey. ‘The appearances which the wavellite of
this place exhibit, are so minutely detailed by my
friend Dr Fitton, in his “Notes on the Minera-
logy of Dublin,” p. 55., that few observations are
here necessary. It occurs in three distinct states.

1. As a coating on the surface of the natural
joints or rents of the stone. In this situation, it is
diverging, radiated, translucent, nearly colourless,
or with a slight tinge of green.—2 As a) ce-
ment, uniting small angular pieces of the rock,
and exhibiting its natural stellular, radiated ap-
pearance. —3. In the form of contemporaneous veins
in the rock. -In this last ‘situation, it has a ten-
dency to form spherical concretions. These are
sometimes separate, sometimes united im pairs, or
grouped, so as to exhibit hobryotaa and. a.
appearances. ah Nt

These concretions are from the size fe ay | pe ’s
sheadl to an inch and quarter in diameter. They
consist of angular wedge-shaped spiculee, iuichy pro-
‘ceed from the centre to the circumference. The
surface is sometimes smooth, but generally tonal
with the projecting ends of the spicule. Wh:

| NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CORK. bata
Me The globular concretions of wavellite are some-
times homogeneous, or consist of spicule of the
same colour, extending from the centre to the sur-
face; other balls are composed of numerous con-
centric layers, distinguishable from one another, by
bands of a different colour, and of different de-
a of transparency.
_ Sometimes a small portion only of the wavellite
miei observed in the concretion, the remaining
} consisting of the matter of the rock, on which
(unable to bestow a radiated). the wavellite has im-
pressed a fibrous fracture *.

* It appears now to be ascertained, that a certain portion
of one substance, having a tendency to crystallize, is able to
exert an influence over other substances contiguous, and to im-
press upon these its own defmite forms. This is very strik-
ingly examplified in the case of arragonite; the crystals of
calcareous sandstone from Fountainbleau, and the imperfect
crystals of garnets and andalusite in the mica-slate of our own
country.

The specimens sent to ‘the Society, furnish other two very
remarkable examples of the same power ; the quartz influencing
the calcareous matter, in the construction of the crystals in the
limestone ; and the matter of the wavellite giving to the clay-
slate its own peculiar spherical form, and internal stellular
structure.

It is probable, from Pe dieclinittance, that the crystals,
which are termed Swpposititious, instead of being formed in a
space formerly oecupied by a true crystal, are in fact true
erystals, in which the crystalline substance is concealed in the
quantity of foreign matter which it has fashioned.

102 ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE

ct

The wavellite is likewise associated in { hes
temporaneous veins, with common white quartz. In
one mass, which I obtained from a cottager in the
neighbourhood, and which weighs upwards of nine
pounds, the quartz and the wavellite occur in near-
ly equal proportions, indicating a simultaneous for-
mation. |

This mineral passes from nearly colourless, through
greenish-white to apple-green. In one specimen, I
observed it of a deep honey yellow. When exposed
to the weather, it loses its lustre, and decomposes
into a greyish-white powder. |

In the clay-slate, petrified shells are found, be-
longing to the genus orthocera. ‘These, however,
are so much incorporated with the rock, that I could —
not obtain characteristic specimens. They abound
in a quarry a little to the south and west of the
town-of Cove of Cork.

Viewing the characters of the rocks now enume-
rated in connection, I have little hesitation in re-
ferring them to the transition class. They occupy
a considerable portion of the south of Ireland. In
travelling from Cork to Dublin, the same rocks
present themselves throughout the greater part of
the journey. Between Mitchelstown and Cashel,
however, I observed numerous blocks of common
red sandstone conglomerate, with which the sum-
mits of the Galtee mountains appear to be caped. —
But I must here stop, as I am aware the members

IBOURHOOD OF CORK. | Rs

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.

10a MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

ek ea OR Pe ll St
: ERM,
‘ae
cr oe aan
V. Mineralogical Notices and Olervations Wi,
fujollbinn
By the Rev. Tuomas Macxnicut, D. D. F.R.S.E. ~

ie

(Read 4th Jan. 1817. 2

Donine an excursion to the north part of Scot-
land, in 1813, I made some observations on the.

mineralogical structure of the alpine country along

the course I took ; of which the following is a ahah
account.

From many opportunities of examination tieee
have occurred to. me, I have been led to infer, that
the Mica-slate, the prevailing rock of the Southern
Highlands, is covered to a great extent, by an overly-
ing formation, composed of Felspar, in various forms,
both of massive and of crystallized aggregation,
including syenite and porphyry.. Of this descrip-
tion is the range of mountains from Glencoe’ to.
Ben Nevis inclusive, and the country towards the-
head of the Spey. ‘The same appearances may also.
be traced eastward from Ben Nevis, to the distance:
of the highest hills between Braemar and the Spi-
tall of Glenshee, and probably extend still farther
in the same direction. Beyond this line, on the
north-east, Granite appears in the mountains of

’ AND OBSERVATIONS. 105

ar and Cairngouram. At the opposite point
of the alpine range, towards the south-west, we find
it again in the vast mountain of Cruachan, which,
from. its peculiar position, presents a remarkable
and interesting subject of examination to the mi-
neralogist.

‘Cruachan, reckoned the loftiest mountain in Ar-
gyleshire, and evidently an object of great geognostic
euriosity, lies sixteen miles north of Inverary.: It is
generally computed to be about 3500 feet in height;
and is bounded by Loch Etive on the north-west ;
by the river Awe on the south; and by Loch Awe
on the south-east. ‘Towards the north and north-—
east, its boundary is less precisely defined ; but its
circumference at the base, may be estimated at not
less than twenty miles. Facing the inn at Dal- -
maly, the mountain presents, on the east-side, a
sreat hollow, surmounted by a bent and waving
ridge, of which the extremities lie in the direction
of north and south; and the convexity is towards
the* west. “The highest point of this ridge, seen
from Dalmaly, is commonly considered as the top
of the mountain. This, however, is not the fact ;
as the real summit, which is several hundred feet
higher, stands westward, at least a mile and a half
behind the elevation now mentioned, and forms the
termination of another ridge, ascending rapidly
from the former, in a direction nearly at right an-
gles. To the north-west of the highest point, at
the distanee of more than a mile, there is another

106 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

summit, of a conical form, evidently the, on
elevation ; and these two are the tops of the moun-
tain which strike the eye, when Cruachan is viey

at any considerable distance from its base. ald

The country around Cruachan, for. at

as well as the body of the mountain ite thas consists
chiefly of primitive rocks ; although portions }
newer formations occasionally present, themselves.
. Of these rocks, or strata, it is for the most part
atau lg difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain
exactly the relative positions and directions. In
general, however, they correspond, to the ausuak
bearings, and geognostic relations of the H Highland
strata :—with this character to be remarked, that
they exhibit great varieties of dip and inclination,
according to the diversities of base, on which they
rest. :

INVERARY. trata ei our eof in
the direction northward from Inverary, we And, as
the ground rock, mica-slate, with an unusual p:
portion of imperfectly crystallized quartz ; owing
to which, it is extremely hard, and difficultly fran-
gible, like a similar species, found at Loch Katte-
rin, and on Ben Vorlich. One of the substances
in this district, is a clay-stone porphyry, coloure

with hornblende. Clay-slate, sometimes inclining
to andes also Wigh eld Ries various Bi. er

AND OBSERVATIONS. | 107

ward through the alpine district, as Glencroe ; in
which primitive greenstone seems to be abundant,
throughout the mica-slate. )
DatMaA.ty.—At Dalmaly, limestone occurs near
the inn: likewise greenstone, compact chlorite, and
a substance consisting of hornblende and chlorite
mixed. The limestone and greenstone form hills,
containing veins and beds of quartz. But the pre-
~-vailing rock, in situ, is newer mica-slate, and clay-
slate, or clay-slate passing into tale-slate ; including
beds of chlorite, sometimes intermixed with felspar,
and with iron pyrites. The same substances, along
with greenstone and hornblende rock, are found in
the mica-slate, of which Ben Loy, a lofty moun-
tain to the eastward of Dalmaly, is chiefly com-
‘posed ; and which exhibits great variety of struc-
ture, from its different proportions of quartz. Some
wy specimens of it contain iron pyrites, and small —
“portions of hornblende. The strata incline to the
| north-west, at an angle of about 40°.
_ Cruacnan.—Of Cruachan itself, the fundamen-
tal rock, I presume, is granite; which appears also
at the summit ; but, in the lower parts of the moun-
tain, on the south and east, is covered by a variety
of other substances or formations, among which are
syenite, and hornblende rock. Along the base, at
_ the head of the river Awe, we have beds or strata
_ of clay-slate, alternating with chlorite, hornblende,
and greenish-coloured felspar-porphyry, with crystals
of felspar. The clay-slate is found westward, as far

108 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

as Inverawe, where it appears in - the neighbourhoo
of granite, as at Balahulish, india rae ‘this
district of Scotland. Higher up the’ side of the
mountain, the clay-slate passes into a species of
very quartzose and compact micarslate, containing
beds of greenstone, and veins of felspar mixed with
hornblende. Above this, common felspar, and por-
phyry, with base of felspar, sometimes approaching
to hornstone, and decomposed in masses of various
shapes, chiefly tabular and rectangular parallelopi-
peds, occupies a great extent of surface, and forms
some of the highest pots. 'The specimens of gra-
nite, collected towards the summit. of Cruachan,
present considerable varieties of character. Some-
times the ingredients. appear mixed in the usual
proportion. In other places, the crystals of quartz
and felspar are found imbedded in common felspar,
with little mica ;—thus passing into porphyry. Fel-
‘spar, indeed, as already remarked, is, in general, at
this elevation, the prevailing substance of the rocks.
And the compact species, tinged with hornblende,
appears in the same geognostic relations as. it at
in the upper part of Ben Nevis. © 0) i) 4 ye
Bunawe.—On the west side of Cruachan, the
granite and quartzy mica-slate descend to the level
of the sea, and are found accompanied with a varie-
ty of different rocks, at the sides.of Loch Etive,
~ and around Bunawe. In this direction, I observed
the following substances; syenite, quartz, ereenstone, |
serpentine, quartzy felspar, felspar coloured with’

AND OBSERVATIONS. 109

hornblende, felspar-porphyry, containing chlorite,
and light green coloured steatite; and a granular
rock, sometimes slaty and sometimes compact, com-
ree giafelspar and hornblende, or small masses of

ornblende in a base of felspar ; with other subordi-
pron primitive rocks allied to these. ‘The syenite
formation opposite to Bunawe, alternates with por-
phyry and greenstone.

_ Brince or Awe.—At the bridge of Awe, and
within a short distance from the mouth of the river,
there is felspar, both compact and amygdaloidal.
Here also, we observe the commencement of an un-
expected. formation of newer rocks, belonging to the
floetz class; which extend over a considerable range
of country, stretching southward, or south-west. Of
this formation, a great part consists of a species of
. trap clay-stone, or iron-clay, as the base of the
rock. Below the bridge, a mass of conglomerate
rises up, evidently formed by the river itself, from
the debris of the higher rocks, at a period probably
not very remote. It contains rounded and angular
masses of quartz, clay-slate, felspar, &c. in a base of
trap clay-stone. Another rock, with the same kind
of base, is amygdaloidal, including pistacite, calc-
spar, and sometimes hornblende and steatite. Along
with these, a formation occurs of old red sandstone,
variously striped, spotted, and coloured: and the
whole form round-backed elevations, and precipi-
Saiatients, on the right bank of the eaten below

a

ample, at Oban and Beregonium ; and is,

110 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

- Tarnui.t.—Advancing in the direction of south- ©
ae we find, near the inn of Tainuilt, a coarse
compact felspar, approaching to clay-stone, oe con-
taining small portions of steatite. gig

~Connat Frerry.—As we approach the Conn
Ferry, the rocks assume a different aspect. The
felspar becomes more crystalline in its structure,
and appears as a subordinate ingredient in quartz
rock, of a darkish colour: the claystone or iron-

clay, takes a deep violet hue, and is frequently

amygdaloidal, containing innumerable specks or
portions of steatite and calespar. It is also found
passing into clinkstone and slaty compact felspar.
At the Ferry itself, the rock is a hard and dark co-
loured slaty compact felspar, which is brittle and
easily frangible, when exposed to the action of the
air and water. 'Fhis substance occurs sometimes
amyedaloidal. +4 aly %

ConcLoMERATE.—We come now to the line
of coast, where, for many miles from south-west to
north-east, the ground rock is clay-slate, with a
mass of Conglomerate lying over it; and exhibiting
similar geognostic relations, to those of the same
kind of rock on the south-east side of the great
Highland range, which have been noticed in some
late mineralogical descriptions. It occurs, for ex-
orob ably, }
the formation to which the substance “ eady
scribed at the Bridge of Awe may be referred.
The base of this conglomerate, is theovinatt lil stone

AND OBSERVATIONS. lil

/ which has been mentioned ; and its fragments cor-
respond to the neighbouring primitive substances,
namely, clay-slate, quartz, felspar, &c. It must, at
the same time, be acknowledged, that from the
oryctognostic characters of some specimens of this
conglomerate, we might be entitled to conclude,
that it is entirely a chemical deposit.
| BerEeconium.—Beregonium, the reputed an-
‘dient capital of Scotland, if we may judge from any
‘remains that are now to be traced, seems to have
been nothing else, than one of those vitrified forts,
which are observed in different parts of the High-
Jands. This is indicated by the nature of the
ground on which it stands, and of certain substances
taken out of the soil, in the line of what appear to
have been the walls. These substances, it is more
than probable, are pieces of the neighbouring amyg-
daloid, both massive and slaty ; which have been al-
tered by fire, though not partially vitrified like the
other substances, idoni with which they had been
piled up for that purpose, and which submit more
easily to an imperfect vitrification, such as the dif-
ferent kinds of greenstone. Or, perhaps, they may
Kave been a species of clay-slate, containing a great
sortion of lime, similar to that, of which, as we
| Shall poset see, the island of Lismore is compos-
he materials filling the vesicular cavities, be-
' the more fusible or easily driven off, than the rest
2 mass, seem to have yielded to the heat, leay-
‘ing the substance now observed. In some fragments,

Lie MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

the stratified structure may still be discerned; but —
the specimens are porous, resembling pumice-stone; _
and so light, that some of them are isi to swim
in water. | R Wry
That they have salbiqond the action of recy can
hardly be doubted, when it is known, that no such
mineral is found in Scotland except on the site of —
Beregonium, which has many appearances of haying
been a vitrified fort. And to this may be ascribed —
the tradition respecting its destruction by fire; —
not to any voleanic appearance that can be observed 3
on the neighbouring hill. The mistake on this
subject, seems to have been occasioned. by the wild
and rugged aspect of the conglomerate rock, decom-
posing and tumbling down in huge fragments,
It is said, that the remains of wooden pipes have
been discovered under ground, which had conveyed
water to the fort from the hill now mentioned. If
this be fact, we may date the existence of Beregoni-
um as long subsequent to the Roman period of our
history. It had, probably, been distinguished as a
residence or stronghold of some of our kings, while
hostilities subsisted between Ircland and Scotland,
or at the commencement of the Norwegian and Da-
nish invasions of the western isles; and hence, the
origin of the traditionary title it has solongyen. ae
ed. | Heke h sie ide agli’
Beneath the clase of Beregonium, a ssialoed
of extremely compact mica-slate is discoverable, con-

taining hornblende intimately mixed. I found here

~

AND OBSERVATIONS. 113

a fragment of syenite, with large and beautiful
crystals of hornblende, and also very distinct ones of
sphene. Near Lochnell, there is a rock of granular
quartz with a slaty structure, resembling a fine
grained sandstone. A similar rock occurs at Airds
and, Portnacroich, where it is frequently quarried |
for building.

Lismore.—The island of Lismore is composed
of foliated granular limestone, with small crystals
of iron-pyrites, evidently subordinate to, and exhi-
biting the characters of, the great clay-slate forma-
tion, which extends as far as Easdale on the south-
west, and through the district of Appin to Balahu-
lish on the north-east, and even farther in that di-
rection. The rock, in many instances, appears to be
only clay-slate, with a greater than usual proportion
of lime. Lismore seems to have been a favourite
spot in former times, and was long the seat of the
Bishop of the Isles, the remains. of whose esaaients?
are still to be seen.

_ BaLAnuLisH.—But by far the most interesting
field of observation which occurs in this direction,
is the district around Balahulish. Here granite
and syenite appear together, followed by gneiss, mi-
ea-slate and clay-slate, which occur in succession.
The granite and syenite are found to the east and
south-east of the proprietor’s house, and of the inn,
bothsituated on the south side of Loch Levin. I dis
covered the junction of the granite and adjoining
gneiss or mica-slate on the height, about a mile east-

VOL, III. H

114 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

ward of the mansion-house ; and traced ‘it running —

in a direction north-east to a short distance from
the water’s edge. The mica-slate is dark-coloured,
very quartzose and small grained ; it includes mag-
netic pyrites and small garnets; and assumes vari-
ous aspects in the different strata occurring east-

ward, till it passes into the clay-slate of the great —

_ quarry, which presents an object of much interest
and curiosity to the mineralogist. On thé south-

west of the granite mass, and along the road from |

Appin to Balahulish, I observed a similar succes-
sion of rocks, including also tale-slate. The gneiss
that occurs on either side, is but imperfectly cha-
racterised, being very compact, and containing little
felspar. A similar remark applies to the mica-slate.
But the granite and syenite are extremely beautiful ;
and the clay-slate in general, very fine. The sye-
nite contains crystals of sphene. Some specimens
obtained near the inn, may be compared to the ce-
lebrated Egyptian syenite.

In this formation, there are different beds of

>

limestone, quartz, greenstone, and other usual sub-

ordinate rocks. ‘The great vein of greenstone in the
_ slate of the quarry, cannot fail to attract notice.

Fort-WiLL1am.—Of the rocks that occur from 7
Balahulish to Fort-William, I have formerly given ,

a general sketch *. I found, then, that the porphyry ;

and elinkstone of eee are a — ion om

* Wernerian Memoirs, vol. i. p. 319.

AND OBSERVATIONS. | 11S

be c pole with she bptie central mass, reich

ps dhe wl as ish as s Highbridge. feet Hutte:
‘inlay, mica-slate is found passing into gneiss.
But the rock in general, is a mixture of granular
‘ en compact felspar, associated with granite,
and intersected by veins of that substance: the
quartz has a dark greenish colour, and the presence
of mica in some specimens, shews its transition in-
to granite. This continues to be the principal rock,
till we reach Loch-Oich ; where it assumes a singu-
Jar character, that. may be described as a sort of
‘granitic conglomerate, with angular and rounded
masses of felspar, in a base of greenish-coloured
quartz. Here, too, specimens are afforded of a gra-
nite, sesh es ene of reddish TNE, ot
spar. . .
BearAveneras. sulle Fort- Anptithe eneiss,
with a great variety of characters, shewing its trans-
ition into mica-slate, presents itself in abundance ;
and granite occurs to the north-east. as
CorRYARAIK.—Turning now towards the east,
we find a tract of primitive country, reaching to the
mountain of Corryaraik, and along the whole course
of the Spey. On Corryaraik, besides granite and
bast inclining to gneiss, we observe a fine
variety. of syenite.
H 2

TL6 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

GaRVIEMORE.—Near the inn of Garviemore, —
there is in situ a beautiful granite, with large .
crystals of all the ingredients, particularly mica,
and resembling that of Portsoy. A bed of quartay —
compact gneiss at a little distance, having a dark ~ M
bluish colour, has been mistaken, and. dubia to
be quarried for limestone.

THE Srry.—Along the Spey, the same kind of .
granite as that observed at Garviemore, frequently
occurs, particularly at Cluny. Below Laggan, there
is a rock of white coloured granular quartz, beau- —
tifully interspersed or spangled with scales of mica. .
As we advance towards Pitmain, the hills on the
left side of the river, present vast and rugged fronts
of compact gneiss, and mica-slate penetrated with
hornblende, of which the strata, particularly of
gneiss, are piled above each other to a great height ;
and have covered the ground at the foot of the ac-
clivities, with enormous masses‘of debris. The same
substance, associated occasionally with mica-slate,
forms the greatest part of the rocks on the left bank,
‘till we arrive at Aviemore. Here, the mountains
of Cairngouram, situated on the south or opposite
side of the Spey, arrest the attention of aay miner- —
alogist..

CaIrnNGoURAM.—The great mass of Gpivulngnit
cent and extensive range, whose summit appears
little inferior to Ben-Nevis in height, is composed
of granite, in general uncovered with soil, and un-
accompanied with other rocks; but containing

#

AND OBSERVATIONS. | Waly

tich store of the precious stones, so well known by
‘the name of the mountain, where they are found in
veins and drusy eavities, associated chiefly with

rock crystal, of which, indeed, for the most part,

they are only varieties of different colours, as yel-
lowish-white, Glove-brown, or brownish-black, &c.
‘Accordingly, in-traversing this range for a consider-
able distance, I had an opportunity of verifying

Professor Jameson’s conjecture, respecting the ori-

: ginal repository of the Scotch topaz *. I was shewn

4

a number of places, where the crystals had been ex-
tracted from the rock, by means of blowing and the
pick-axe,-&e. ; and could observe many openings in
the rocky fronts, where, if at all accessible, the ad-
venturous searcher would, it is likely, find his la-
bour and risk amply repaid, by valuable treasures of
the same kind.

We can, therefore, now easily understand, how
the topaz of Aberdeenshire (for a particular descrip-
tion of which, I must refer to Mr Jameson’s paper
already quoted,) has so often been found, as well as
amethyst, and precious beryl, in the alluvial soil.
The fact, however, I believe, is, that by far the
greater number ofthese gems, are gatheredamong the
debris of the granite rocks, in the beds or ravines of
the small streams which issue from the mountains
i district. Those who employ themselves in

sae iy yu
* Wernerian Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 452.

118 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

searching for the stones, pay the p proprictors a small
rent for the liberty of searching. The part of the
range which lies to the east, and is called Ben-Aven,
is at present reckoned the most productive; yield-—
ing the proprietor, I was told, about L.150 or
L. 200 a-year. What is properly called Caim-
gouram, opposite to Aviemore, and skirted on the
north by the extensive woods of Rothiemurchus, —
has now been so completely stripped of its products —
in the ordinary track of examination, that a mere
traveller, limited in time, has little chance of meet-
ing with specimens of much value; but the people -
in the neighbourhood, have always a wisi to
offer for sale. |
The granite of Cairngouram, consists chiefly of
quartz and felspar, both compact and crystallized ;
the mica occurs but sparingly. In some places, the
materials of the rock appear to be disposed in lay-
ers or strata, almost horizontal. I remarked, that,
perhaps, there are few instances, in which a mineral
substance, spread over so great an extent of surface,
exhibits so little variety of oryetognostic character,
as the granite of this range. Specimens collected
at the distance of several miles, can often scarcely
be distinguished from each other, by the nature or
appearance of their constituent parts. If the zeal-
ous mineralogist could submit to spend days in tra-
versing the dreary untrodden regions, and to pass
his nights among the bare rocks of Cairngouram,
there is little doubt, that his toil and patience

AND OBSERVATIONS. 119

would be rewarded, by the discovery of many valu-
: le gems and curious minerals.

_ Tur Don.—The country which stretches from
y eae to Grantown, and thence south-eastward
aCKOss, the hills to the course of the Don, has little
variety in the great scale of primitive rocks. But
towards the ancient castle of Kaldrummy, a change
takes place, from gneiss and mica-slate, on the west

or Highland side, to transition rocks, on the east or

lowland direction, where a rock occurs which is evi-
dently grey-wacke. Kildrummy stands near the
junction. On the north side of the ruin, and in
the neighbourhood of the gneiss and mica-slate,
there are beds or strata of a sandstone, which ap-

_ pears to be an intimate granular mixture of quartz

a

and felspar, with small scales of mica. Of this
me Kildrummy seems to have been built; and it
“is still quarried for use. Does it belong to the old
ay sandstone formation ?
_ Corearrr.—Higher up the course of the Don,
yin gneiss contains beds of quartz, and is sometimes
found mixed with hornblende. Near to Corgarff,
there are rocks of hornblende, spotted with crystals
of light coloured felspar. Another is composed of
chlorite and quartz; and a third of quartz and fel-
mately mixed.

ae Tar L JrE.—Crossing the country to the bed of

aim

e Dee, similar mineralogical appearances occur.
the pass of Balater, one of the entrances in-
“to the Highlands from the east, there is on the

120 MINERALOGICAL NOTICES

right or north side, an unusually splendid front of
granite; which indeed is found along the course of
the river for many miles, sometimes finely porphy-
ritic. gaits
GAIRNBRIDGE. — Immediately adjoining the
bridge of the Gairn, one of the tributary streams
of the Dee, a very remarkable and striking junc-
tion of granite and gneiss, on the face of the
bank to the north-east, is laid bare for the inspec-
tion of the curious. I have never, indeed, seen any
thing better calculated to exercise the controversial
talents and ingenuity of geological theorists. There
is a substance, consisting of hornblende, felspar, and
ynica, which, along with syenite, and a fine icine
porphyry, overlies the primitive rock.
— Cuuny waTER.—The mica-slate near iughionhbe
contains much granular quartz. -On the mineralogy
of Braemar, Professor Jameson has lately given us
his observations. Leaving the granite of this dis-
trict, felspar compact and porphyritic, and granular
quartz, are found in beds, alternating to the south-
ward of Castleton. Along the road, by the Water
of Cluny to the Spitall of Glenshee, about seven
miles from Braemar, 1 observed another junction of
the same kind with that of Gairnbridge. Still far-
ther southward, the bed of the stream, near a bridge,
and not far from its source, presents an interesting
alternation of beds of granular quartz, foliated gra-
nular limestone, and felspar compact and porphyri- |
tic. | :

AND OBSERVATIONS. 121

~ Here, it is observable, that the highest rocks ap-
pear to be composed of a felspar similar to that of
Ben Nevis. It passes, in some places, into a small
grained or compact syenite; and, at others, into
greenstone. All these overlie, or are subordinate
to; mica-slate, as the general rock ; which, in many
specimens, seems to contain much hornblende in a
state of intimate penetration. The mica even, in
some places, disappears entirely; leaving only horn-
‘blende and quartz disposed alternately in thin lay-
OMB A if

SPITALL OF GLENSHEE.—Half a mile south
of the inn, I discovered a bed of graphite, as-
sociated with gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende, chlo-
rite, &c.; but I was unable to ascertain the sub-
stances in immediate contact. ‘To the localities,
therefore, of this mineral already noticed, may now
be added the Spitall of Glenshee.

The lower district, till we reach Blairgowrie,
gives the usual indications of primitive, transition,
floetz, and alluvial country. We find mica-slate,
with small garnets, and hornblende with pyrites;
another species with veins of quartz; also chlorite
and tale, near Cally. At the Bridge of Cally,
the rock is clay-slate, inclining to chlorite; with
veins of a dark-coloured felspar, which is porphy-
ritic, and approaches to hornstone.

From the particular localities which have now
been observed and specified, of granite in Scotland,

122, MINERALOGICAL NOTICES.

it appears that this rock traverses the centre of
the great Highland range, in a direction chiefly
marked by the course of the Spey, from Portsoy
and Buchan-Ness on the north-east, to the Island
of Arran on the south-west. On either side of
this line, innumerable portions of the great cen-_
tral mass,—which is nowhere so extensively laid
bare, as in the mountains of Cairngouram,—may
be traced beneath the superincumbent strata of
gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, &e. In the direc-
tion now mentioned, we find along the lower dis-
tricts conglomerate, transition, and floetz-rocks,
skirting the clay-slate, which is succeeded by mi-
~ ca-slate and eneiss, as the rocks in general Aegon
contiguous to the granite.

To the north-west of the granite lime: the same
relations may be discovered ; so far, at least, as my
— observation has extended.

4

. art

( 193)

VI. Additional Observations on the Coal Field of’
Clackmannanshire, and a Description of the
smabaolude Shape or Form of the Coal Fields

‘wy dem Great Britain.

*

By il ite. F.R.S.E, M.W.S, &.G. S.

. “ (Read 1st May 1819.)
; ; , ry ; z vi
A NUMBER of years have elapsed since I had the
honour of submitting to this Society, through the
medium of my friend Mr Neill, several Essays re-
garding the Coal Formation of Clackmannanshire,
Since that period, I have made many additional ob-
servations on the strata of that district, in parti-
cular, at that point where the coal formation joins
the Ochill Mountains. |
In order to bring the whole under review, I shall
recapitulate very briefly the leading points of the
before-mentioned essays, adding, as I go along, such
particulars and observations as have occurred to me
during the last - years.

‘The Coal Field of Clackmannanshire is situated
upon the north-west boundary of the Great Coal

124 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

Field of Scotland, and, according to every obser-
vation, no coals of workable thickness have been
found on the north side of the River Forth, far-
ther than about a mile to the westward of Alloa.
This north line of the Great Coal Field of Scot-
land, extends from near St Andrew’s in Fife, passes
a few miles to the south of Kinross, skirts the face of
the Ochill Mountainsin Clackmannanshire, passesto
the westward of Craig Forth beyond Stirling Castle,
and from thence by the Campsie Hills to the River
Clyde near Dunbarton.

Two sections were formerly produced ; the one
a profile from the top of the Wood Hill of Al-
va to the River Forth, being a distance of six
miles, shewing the chief beds of coal and disloca-
tions of the strata; the other a perpendicular sec-
tion of all the coals and accompanying strata, to the
depth of 703 feet, containing no less than 142 beds
or alternations of strata. These sections were made
from exact measurements taken by myself, and are
now referred to, with additions and alterations. ;

With regard to the alluvial cover, I stated that
it was of two kinds, viz. the Recent Alluvial, formed
by the Rivers Forth and Devon; the other what
is termed the Old Alluvial, which forms the higher
part of the country. The surface of the alluvial
betwixt the Ochill Mountains and the sea, is bold
arable, hill and dale, the ridges and valleys lie pa-
rallel to the Ochill Mountains in an east and west

2

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 195

direction, and the brows of the alluvial hills have
their steep acclivity always to the west, and a long
easy slope in an easterly direction. The alluvial
cover is of very various depth, viz. from a few inches
to many fathoms. At one place to the westward
of Alloa, I found the recent alluvial cover upon the
side of the River Forth, to be 90 feet deep; and
in one place, a little to the north of Alloa, the old
alluvial cover is no less than 162 feet deep. In the
recent alluvial cover of the River Forth, are found
trunks and branches of large trees, beds of sand, with
sea-shells, particularly of the oyster, cockle, mussel,
donax, &c.. These beds of shells not only abound at
and below Alloa, but are found several miles to the
westward of Stirling in the same situation. The oys-
ter-shells are very large, and many of them of uncom-
mon thickness; no recent specimens are now found so
large, nor are any recent oysters ever found above the
Queensferry. Horns of the stag, and bones of
large animals, have also been found, several of which
were produced when the former essays were read.
About three years ago, several very large bones were
found upon the rock-head, under a cover of clay,
in a bed of sand and oyster-shells at the foot of
Clackmannan Hill, which I particularly examined.
Some of these are now produced. Adjoining these
were two teeth, about five inches in length, shaped
like a,cock’s spur, about three-fourths of an inch
diameter at the base, and rounded at the point.

126 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE,

These bones are supposed to belong to the whale
or grampus tribe. Irom the size of the bones, the
animal must have been at least thirty feet in length.
In the recent alluvial cover of the River Devon,
oak-trees of immense size have been occasionally
found; and at the line of junction betwixt the al-
luvial soil of the River Forth and the old alluvial,
a great quantity of drift-wood is found, consisting of
the spray of different trees, and entire hazel-nuts. »
The old alluvial cover, named Till by agricultur-
ists, is a strong heterogeneous mass, composed of
clay, sand, gravel, and large stones, smooth and
rounded; but besides these stones, there are frag:
ments of all the strata which are found in the coal-
field ; and it is worthy of remark, that these frag-
ments of sandstone, slate-clay and coal, have sharp
angles, and have not, in any degree, suffered from
attrition, though comparatively very soft. It is al-
so remarkable, that in this old alluvial cover, no re-
remains of shells, trees, or any of the vegetable
tribes have been found, although the strata of the
coal-field below, and upon which it rests, contain in-
numerable organic remains of both the animal and
vegetable kingdom ; and the recent alluvial, as be-
fore mentioned, also abounds with these. This, I con-
ceive, to be a most remarkable fact, worthy of the
consideration and investigation of the geologist.
- In the former essays, which are inserted in the
first volume of the Transactions of this Society, I
described particularly the dip and rise of the coals,
2

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 197

and each particular stratum which accompaniesthem.
I then described and exhibited the various organic
remains which are found in the strata, the most re-
markable of which are, the oysters contained in the
clay-ironstone, and the forms of exotic reeds in the
on ‘edagil impressions of minute plants are in

ating is one remark Areedltie the stratification
Silerditig particular attention, which is, That the
immediate stratum or pavement on which the beds
of coal rest, is almost, without exception, a greyish-
black rock or fire-clay, which, when made into
bricks, strongly resists the effects of fire. This
fire-clay is found from the thickness of the tenth of
an inch to several fathoms. In no instance have I
seen the coal in direct contact with any other of the
strata, excepting where the coal was intersected
with numerous slips and dislocations: and this
particular observation I have found to hold, in
all the coal-fields I have examined in Great Bri-
tain. When this fire-clay is of any considerable
thickness, it abounds with the remains of the vege-
table kingdom, with a few kidney-shaped pieces of —
clay-ironstone.

The various strata represented in the section, lie
in a very regular manner; and we very seldom find
one of these strata passing gradually into the other
adjoining. In general they are distinct and easily se-
parated at the line of junction, named by miners
the parting. This parting is sometimes composed

128 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE:

of a very thin leaf of clay, or of loose sand. The
strata betwixt the coals, do sometimes vary in thick-
ness, being in one place an inch or two in thickness,
and gradually thickening to many fathoms, forming
a wedge-shaped. bed; but this is by nomeans gene-
ral, : we |
With regard to the profile and section herewith
produced, Fig. 1. Plate [V., made in the crop and
dip-line of the strata, it will be seen from it, that
the main coal-field of Clackmannanshire, consists of
three subordinate coal-fields, formed by two great
slips or dislocations of the strata ; yet, independent-
ly of those great dislocations, the strata continue
perfectly regular, with very little alteration in the
angle of inclination with the horizon. It will be
seen from the section, that the south coal-field dips
northerly, until interrupted by the great south-slip,
which dislocates the coal and accompanying strata
no less than 1230 feet, by which all the coals are
not only thrown up or oud to day, as it is termed
by the miners, but are not found again till we pass
nearly a mile northward, upon the line of the dip
where the same identical coals are found again re-
gularly dipping. ‘These coals of the middle field |
dip regularly northward, until interrupted by the
great north slip which dislocates the strata, and
throws them up 700 feet. Immediately adjoining
which slip, the coals and coal-field commence again
and dip regularly northward, to a much greater ex-
tent than the other two fields, until they arrive at

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 199

the valley of the Devon, at the foot of the Ochill
Mountains, where they form a Trough, as it is term-
ed by the miners, and rise very quickly, nearly in a
vertical direction. ‘There the coals, with the whole
of theit accompanying strata, are found in a con-
forming situation, and parallel with the strata which
compose the Ochill Mountains; which strata lie at
the elevated angle of 73 degrees with the horizon.
The coal strata next the mountains, are denominat-
ed in the miners language Kdge Metals ; that i is,
strata nearly vertical.

In this coal-field, which has been accurately as-
certained by pitting and boring to the depth of 703°
feet, there are no fewer than 142 beds or distinct stra- —
ta, variously alternating, as represented Plate V.
Fig. 1., and minutely described in the first volume
of the Society’s ‘Transactions. Of these, there are 24
beds of coal ; which in thickness, amount to 59 feet 4
inches ; the thinnest bed of coal being only 2 inches,
and the thickest 9 feet. The strata in this sec-
tion contain numerous varieties of sandstone, slate-
clay, bituminous shale, indurated clay or fire-clay,
and clay ironstone. ‘There are neither greenstone,
limestone, nor any of the trap-rocks to be found con-
nected with the workable coals; but an immense
hed of greenstone, named Abbey Craig, is found on
the western boundary of the county next Stizling-
shire, under which are regular strata of slate-clay,
sandstone, thin beds of limestone, and large apee

VOL. IIL. i 4

=
# w ¥ *y
Sty

az se

130 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. —

roidal masses of clay ironstone, with a mixture of
lime. These contain beautiful impressions of bivalve
shells. Underthese strata, a thick bed of red sand-
stone exists; but to what part of the series of the
the coal strata this red sandstone belongs, I have not
yet been able to determine with accuracy. ..I have
no doubt, that there are thin beds of coal alternat-
ing with these strata, the same as observed in the
strata under the high greenstone cliffs of Stirling
Castle, which are also within the range of the Scotch
‘eoal-field, which coal is of the species Glance coal.

In the section of the strata in the Westertown
Glen of Tillicoultry, the junction of the coal forma-
tion with the Ochill Mountains is beautifully dis-
played; and there a bed of greenstone rock, about
100 feet thick, is either the lowest bed of the coal

-formation, or is the first of the Ochill Mountain

“rocks. This Westertown Glen, in particular, and

all the glens in the vicinity, exhibit the most beau-

tiful and distinct sections of the coal formation, and
its junction with the mountain rocks, interesting in
the highest degree to the geologist. .

. With regard to the south coal-field next to the |
river Forth, the strata there have a contrary dip to -
the south in place of the north ; and form the strata —

into the mantle chap or what i is nantes termed 4
.a Saddle. — “ 2

One particular feature in this coal-field, is the!

abundance of red-coloured sandstone, many fathoms _
‘in thickness, which has been frequently mistaken —

a.

8
COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 131

for the old red sandstone; and as it is generally ad-

‘mitted, that no beds of coal of any value have ever
been found in or under the old red sandstone, many
‘mineralogists have considered the valuable beds of

coal found under red sandstone in Clackmannan-

shire as an anomaly in this particular. This. mis-
take originates from not examining the structure of

the red sandstone of this coal-field minutely. When
viewed at a distance as in the mass or in a building, ©
it has a blush-colour, very different from the old
red” sandstone, ‘and is now termed the Blush-colour-
ed Sandstone. On examining it minutely, . the
quartz particles are of a white-colour ; and the red
colour is produced»by a soft red oxyd of iron, dis- »

seminated through the texture of the stone, which

easily rubs off, and soils the clothes and fingers.

The character of this stone is so well known by

those acquainted with the collieries of Scotland, that

in many districts it is considered as the index to
the coal-fields, as at Glasgow. The appearance of
this stone led Dr Mackenzie, a member of this so-

ciety, into a misconception, in his Essay on the Mi-

neralogy of the Ochill Mountains, inserted in the

Wernerian Transactions; for the Doctor having exa-
“mined the old red sandstone in the eastern part of
the Ochill Mountains, concluded, that the red sand-
stone which is so distinctly seen at Harvieston, to

eye of the Westertown Glen, lying above a

ved. of coal, and sr towards the Ochills,

selected wih Hen hinds HE

%
132 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.
passed under these mountains, as is the case with

the Old Red Sandstone on the eastern part of the
range; whereas, in place of passing under the.

Ochills, it rises with the coal and other accompany-"

ing strata at a short distance to the north of where
the coal is seen, and lies in a conforming situation
with the, face of the mountains, at a great angle
with the horizon, exactly similar to the coal strata
adjoining the Woodhill of Alva, as represented in
the section. This blush-coloured sandstone fre-
‘quently contains masses of sandstone of a deep red
colour, with mica: and sometimes these darker co-
loured portions, found in the soft sandstone, are of
adamantine hardness, and are perforated by the
miner with the greatest difficulty. The hardness is so
sreat, that [ have seen twenty-seven steel boring
chisels blunted, in boring a shot-hole 20 inches in

depth. ‘This is a fact worthy of remark. The same

ease occurs in the white and yellow coloured sand-

stone. ‘These hard portions found in beds of sand-—

stone, are named by the miners, Tongues or Yolks,
according to their shape, as represented Fig. IIT.
Plate VI. Granite and greenstone p20 with
these Yolks, are very soft. |
With regard to the great slips vehi dikdicite,
the strata, these lie in the direction of the line of
bearing of the strata, and are nearly parallel with
the Ochill Mountains. ‘The great north slip dislo-
cates or throws down the strata 700 feet ; and the
great south slip dislocates or throws down the strata
3

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 133

no less than 1230 feet, as before mentioned. This
ast is the greatest dislocation I have met with, or
‘know of, in Great Britain. These slips are fissures,
which extend from the surface of the strata or Rock-
head, to an unknown depth; and vary in width
from a small fraction of an inch, to 4 or 5 yards.
The fissure is filled up with heterogeneous matter,
composed of all the rocks composing the strata. In
the fissure of the great north slip, several thin
strata are to be seen lying nearly in a vertical di-
rection. Besides these great slips, there are many
other small slips parallel to these, and many lying
in an oblique direction with the dip and rise line of
the coal. Several of these oblique slips produce also
great dislocations.

With regard to slips in coal-fields, we find that
there is a general law connected with them as to
_ the position of the dislocated strata, which is this:

When a slip is met with in the course of working
the mines,—if, when looking at it, the vertical line
" of the slip or fissure forms an acute angle with the
line of the pavement upon which the observer
stands, we are certain that the strata are dislocated,
or thrown downwards upon the other side of the
fissure. On the contrary, if the angle formed by
the two lines above mentioned is obtuse, we are cer-
tain that the strata are dislocated or thrown up-
wards upon the other side of the fissure. When the
angle is 90°, or a right angle, it is altogether uncer-
tain whether the dislocation throws up or down on

134 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

the opposite side of the ‘slip. When dikes inter- "

sect the strata, they generally only separate the

strata the width of the dike, without any disloca-

tion either up or down; so that if a coal is inter-

cepted by a dike, it is found again, by running a

mine directly forward, corresponding to the angle

or inclination of*the coal with the horizon. =
~The three subordinate coal-fields, before mention-

ed, have all the same general characters ; but the

coals, and the strata-which separate them, vary —

sometimes in thickness. ‘The distinct and lead-
ing characters of these three fields, is the coal
which is 9 feet thick, marked with a stronger line
than the other coals in the section. This coal is
alike thick in all the three fields ; is of the precise
same texture and quality; has bituminous shale in
the roof, with numerous compressed impressions of
oyster shells, named, from. their colour, Zobacco
Leaves by the miners, with regular bands and balls

of fine clay iron-stone. All the coals in the north’
and middle coal-fields are ‘very similar in quality, —

and vary only a little in thickness; whereas, in the
south coal-field, all the coals, except the 9 feet coal,

are thinner than in the other fields: and, in parti- |

cular, the coal marked x, is about 6 feet thick in
the north and middle fields, and is composed of cu-
bical and splint coal; whereas, in the south field,

the corresponding coal, marked x, is uniformly only ©

3 feet thick, without any splint coal, but is propor-
tionally richer, and of finer burning quality. All

es
ES

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 135

the coals of this extensive coal-field are cubical and.
splint coal; no. caking coals’ or glance coals have
been yet found amongst them.

With regard to the Ochill Mountains, the high-
est of these is Bencleuch, about 2400 feet above the
level of the sea. It is immediately north, and ad-.
joining the Wood-hill represented. in the section,
which is about 1800 feet in height above the same
level. They are composed of rocks, which, accord-

ing to the celebrated Werner, belong to the Transi-
tion class. ‘The first of these, upon which the coal
strata rest, is Greenstone, as before mentioned, about
100 feet thick ; the upper part of which is composed
of large globular concretions, which exfoliate very .
much. The lower part» of it is strong compact
- greenstone, with the fissures ‘as usual at right an-
®les to the bed on which it résts. From the vertical
- position of this bed of greenstone, and the fissures
being very distinct, one might. be led to conclude
erroneously, that it was a bed of regularly stratified
greenstone. ‘This greenstone contains many minute
particles of pyrites, which are evidently the cause of
its exfoliation. The next bed in succession, is Clink-
stone, of a darkish green colour, about 140 feet in
- thickness. Next to this, is a very thick bed of
Sienite, in which are found narrow veins, containing
~ fine iron ore, or hematites, exactly similar to the
: ~ Cumberland ore, having a beautiful radiated struc-
ture. Below the sienite, are numerous thick alter-
nating beds of Clinkstone-Porphyry, and Sienite.

1386 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

This range of the Ochill Mountains in Clackman-
nanshire, besides veins of iron-ore, contain veins .
filled with various metals. oe

In the clinkstone porphyry of the Wood-hill, re-
presented in the section, a rich vein of Silver was
wrought many years ago, and silver extracted to the
amount of L. 60,000. Along with the. silver-ore,
peach-blossom coloured Cobalt-ore was found in
abundance. Veins of copper have been wrought to
the westward, at Blairlogie ; and particularly of late
at Airthry, where the vein was found in.a rock of
dark brown-coloured trap-tuff. Veins of lead have
also been wrought to the eastward, in the Gloom
Hill at Castle Campbell.

I have here to remark, that I have examined mi-
nutely the coals and accompanying strata imme-
diately adjoining the Ochill Mountains, and found
that the coal, even within a few fathoms of the
mountain-face, is of good burning quality, similar
to the coals found in the south part of the coal-field.
Fine shistose micaceous sandstone is also found
near the mountain-face, with common clay iron-
stone, abounding with organic remains of reeds and
bivalve shells. The only distinct difference to be
observed in the coal strata at this place, from the
strata in the south part of the field, is, that several
_ of the thin beds of sandstone are exceedingly hard,
and so close-grained, that they have the appearance
of compact quartz; but this circumstance occurs in
other coal-ficlds, particularly in -Glamorganshire,

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 137

South Wales, and at Brora in Sutherlandshire.
In the rocks of the Transition ‘Mountains, imme-
diately adjoining the coal-field, I never could dis-
cover the least appearance of organic remains.

_ The Clackmannanshire coal-field, as represented
in the sections, gives a good example of the ge-
neral form and situation of the coal-fields in Great
Britain, with this exception, that beds of greenstone

are not found overlying any of the thick coals. No
limestone has yet been found ; but I have reason to
conclude it will be found in the lower series of the
strata, at a great depth under the strata which have
been ascertained.

The coal-fields which differ in a very remarkable
manner from all the other coal-fields in Great Bri-
tain, are, the coal-field at Johnstone, near Paisley,
in Renfrewshire ; the coal-field at Brora in Suther-

* landshire ; and the Staffordshire coal-field. Of these
singular and most interesting coal-fields, I have made
several sections. To describe these coal-fields pro-
perly, would require distinct and minute descrip-
tions. We can only remark here, that, in the
Johnstone coal-field, the upper stratum of rock is
compact greenstone, above 100 feet in thickness, not
in conforming position with the coal strata, but over-

lying; then a few fathoms of soft sandstone and
slate-clay, alternating and uncommonly soft. Under
this, in one place, there are no fewer than ten beds
of coal lying one immediately above the other, with
a few divisions of dark-colourcd indurated clay.

138 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

These beds of coal are in thickness; no less than

100 feet: this is a mass of combustible matter, in .

the form of coal, unparalleled in the world, so far as I
know. 'The greater part of this field contains only
five beds of coal; but, at the place where the section

is taken, these five coals have most evidently over-

lapped each other, as represented Plate V. Fig. 3.

The sections, Fig.1. and 2. Plate VII. shew distinct- -

ly all the phenomena of this remarkable coal-field.
The original general section was made by a Mr
Watson from England, and does him great credit,
as being the result of much labour and patient in-
vestigation. Mr Houston of Johnston, the present
proprietor of the colliery, most politely permitted

me to take a copy of the sections. I have been fre- .

quently at this colliery, and have examined all the
mining operations, which are wonderful. Of late,
coals also of great thickness have been discovered
under the high greenstone cliff, represented in the
section, Fig.)2.-Plate V. A section of the Cliff,
and coals thus discovered, is represented Plate VII.
Fig..2. From this recent discovery, we would be
- led to conclude, that the high cliff, and the green-
stone in the lower part of the country, had at one
time been united, and that the coals now discover-

ed, are the same as those pang have been _—

wrought. |

Brora. coal-field is rcidebbiablty not cla in Keita |

far disjoined from the main coal-field of Scotland,

but, in particular, for the few beds or strata above at :

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 139

- + the coal.. The coal is 5 feet thick, with a division of
_ slate-clay.. In the depth of 80 yards, there are only
14 strata; allof them are ofa dark colour, com-
posed of slate-clay and ferruginous. limestone, -in-
durated clay mixed with lime and limestones, and
these contain organic remains in vast. abundance,
in particular, large cornua ammonis, belemnites, bi-
valve shells, from the most minute to a large size,
and great quantities of fossil wood... Kven the coal
is remarkable in its texture and quality, and, when
burning, has the smell of rotten wood, when placed
ina fire. Above the strata exhibited in the section,
and more in the line of dip, thin beds of blue-coloured
limestone first occur, and above these a very thick
+ bed of soft yellow-coloured sandstone. In the sand-
stone, a particular bed is found about 18 inches
- ‘thick, approaching in its texture to compact quartz,
having a conchoidal fracture; under this is a very
soft: sandstone, containing casts of small bivalve
- shells. A section of this coal-field is represented
Plate V. Fig. 4. This coal lies closely adjoin-
ing ‘mountains of red granite.
In the section of the Clackmannanshire . coal-
| field, the strata of the mountains are drawn ac-
cording to the exact angle at which they are found
at the surface; but there is an important fact in
a geological point of view, which has yet to be as-
certained, which is, whether the greenstone and
other rocks of these transition mountains, form a
curve line somewhat parallel to the curvature of

140 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

the coals and their accompanying strata, as repre-
sented by the curved dotted line a a, Fig. 1.
Plate 1V. Upon considering all cireumstances con-
nected with this point, I am inclined:to think, that
these mountain rocks. do form a curve at a consi-
derable depth from the surface, and that the coal
fields represented in the section lie ina pene
situation with the transition rocks. Fe SE

It is of importance here to remark, in peliedle,
‘that. this section of the Clackmannanshire coal-
field and its position with the transition rocks, ex-
actly corresponds with the geological views and
statements of Werner, regarding coal-fields, and
accords precisely with the distinct and clear state-
ments given by Professor Jameson, the President |
of this Society, in his Geognosy.

In taking a general view of the section, and ye
the three coal -fields formed by the two great slips
or dislocations of the strata, we are very naturally
led to conclude, from each coal-field being so nearly
similar to each other as to. the coals and accompany-
ing strata, that the three coal-fields once formed a
connected whole; but. if this was the case, a very
interesting inquiry arises: What has become of all
_ the coals and accompanying strata which must have
then existed betwixt the dip part of the coals ad-
joining the slips in the one coal-field and the crops
of the same coals now found at a great distance
from them ? perhaps the fragments of coal and of
their a companying strata, which are found so abun-

*

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 141

dant in the old alluvial cover, as before mentioned,

are part of the strata which are now awanting ;
and we have further reason to conclude, that the
coals and strata now awanting at the surface, once
existed, as we see the lower coals of the middle field
again formed, though at a much higher level, im-
mediately adjoining and close to the north side of
the great north slip, so that these coals and lower
strata are in one continued stretch, only separated
a foot or two by the width of the slip and vertical
dislocation.

With regard to the absolute shape of the Clack-
mannanshire coal-fields, they are similar to the
shape or form which I have found to exist in all
the coal-fields I have examined in Great Britain,
which is, that every bed of coal, with the accom-
panying strata, is either bason-shaped, or portions
of a bason formed by therdislocations of the strata,
and by the mountain rocks on which the coal-fields
rest. Where the strata assume the mantle-shape,
which is rather an exception to the general form, the
coal-field is then termed the Inverted Bason form.
The most complete and simplest form of a coal-
field, is the entire bason-shape, which we have in
some instances, without a dislocation. A beautiful
example of this is to be seen at Blairengone, in the
county of Perth, immediately adjoining the western
boundary of Clackmannanshire,as represented Fig.3.,
Plate IV. where the elliptical line marked A C BD,
represents the crop or outburst of the lower coal,

142 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

and the inner elliptical line represents. the ‘efop or

outburst of the upper coal. Fig. 4. is the longitu-
dinal section of the line A B, and Fig. 5. the trans-
verse section of the line C D. All the accompany-
ing coal-strata partake of the same form and. paral-
lelism. ‘These basons are generally elliptical, some-
times nearly circular, but are often very eccentric,
being much greater in length than in breadth, and
frequently the one side of the bason upon the nar-

row diameter having a much greater dip than the

other; which circumstance throws the trough or
lower part of the bason much nearer to the one side
than to the other. From this view of an entire
bason-shape, it is evident, that the dip is in every
direction, and all the strata regularly crop out, -
meet the alluvial cover in every point.

“It is from this bason-shape that all the other coal-
fields are formed, which are portions or segments
of a bason produced by slips, dikes or dislocations
of the strata. If the coals Fig. 3. Plate IV. were
dislocated by two slips b c and de, the slip bc
throwing the strata down to the east, and the slip
de throwing them as much up in the same direc-
tion, the crops of the coals would be found in se
form represented in Fig. 6.; of which Fig 7.

the section in the line A B, and Fig. 8. the itn
inthe line C Div oe +4

-The chief difficulty idee arises in exploring: ay

Othe in search of coal, or even where coal-fields
ate known to exist, arises from the great thickness

ao

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 143

of alluvial cover, which completely hides the crop
or outburst of the strata, termed generally by mi-
ners the Rock-head, from our view, and also com-
pletely hides the fissures, dikes and dislocations '
of the strata, which produce such material altera-
tions in the « coal-fields, and which are frequently the
occasion of great loss to. the mining adventurer.
The alluvial cover is to the strata which exist un-
_ derneath, as the fiesh upon the bones in animals:
if the flesh is removed, the whole structure of the
bones, their situation and connection, are at once
discovered ; in the same manner, were the alluvial
covering removed, the whole strata would be dis-
tinctly seen, and the effect of every dislocation im-
mediately ascertained. ‘Though the total removal
of the alluvial cover might, in one view, appear to
be of great advantage, in affording facility in
ascertaining the strata existing in any district, yet
this advantage-weuld be greatly outweighed by
the disadvantages, not only in the want of soil
for cultivation, but by the strata being denuded,
the coal-mines would be deluged with water every
rainy season, whereas the alluvial cover affords pro-
tection, by causing the water to flow along the sur-
face till it join the rivers, which are the great na-
tural drains for the water on the surface of the
earth. pit
. The absolute shape of the coal-fields in Great
Beis, has been ascertained with a precision
beyond that of any other mines in the globe, and

144 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

that for this very obvious reason, that no mineral
whatever has been wrought to such an extent, and
in every direction, as coal; for at whatever depth a
coal-mine is drained of .its water, the mines are
wrought from that depth to the rise of the water-level
line,and each miner perseyeres in carrying forward his

room or working place, until the coal meets the al-.

luvial cover of the crop, or is cut off by a disloca-

tion of the strata. It is from this circumstance we
can state, in a decided manner, the absolute shape
of coal-fields. It is the opinion of many, that the
beds of coal contained in a coal-field are tabular —
masses, which lie evenly between their bounding
planes, like a slab of marble; and this no doubt

appears to be the case, if a partial and limited view
be taken of a bed of coal wrought upon a small
scale; but to form an accurate conception of the
form of a coal-field, it must be viewed in its whole
extent, and in all its bearings, as pomted out and
particularly enforced by Professor Jameson, in his
Lectures. There are, I am informed, instances of

coal being found in the form of insulated tabular

masses; but this occurs in another series of rocks
described by Werner, and not in the Independent
Coal-formation, of which we are now treating. The
Hamilton coal-field, according to what I conceive
of Werner's views, does not belong to the Indepen-

dent Coal-formation, but appears to be of a more re-_
cent formation. The section, Fig. 1. Plate VIT..
shews abrupt endings of the coal, without coming |

oa

y
COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 145

in contact with the alluvial cover; but this coal is
altogether an exception to any other coal-field I
know of. }

It is proper here to make a remark upon.a state-
ment generally given in describing the favourable
situation of coals found in any extensive district of
country, That the coals are found very near the sur-
face; whereas it is evident that every coal whatever,
excepting when cut off by a slip or dike, is found at
the rock-head immediately under the alluvial cover,
perhaps at a few feet from the surface, correspond-
ing exactly to the depth of the alluvial cover; at the
same time, each coal thus found at the rock-head,
is found also at a great depth, according to the
angle at which the strata of the coal-field dips.

Although I have only represented in the section
the two great slips or dislocations of the strata which
form the three subordinate coal-fields, there are
‘many other dislocations comparatively very small,
not only running in a parallel direction with the
great slips, but in every various oblique direction.
These I have not inserted, as they would only have
rendered the section exceedingly intricate, and not
easily understood. The section, however, shews the
great prominent features connected with the natu-
ral phenomena of the coal-field. Fig. 2. Plate IV.
represents a horizontal plan:of the Clackmannan-
shire coal-field, as if the strata at the rock-head
were denuded of the alluvial cover. For the sake of
perspicuity I have only represented two of the beds

VOL. III. K

146 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

of coal in each of the: iccal fel marked a a. At. ;
the same time, all the coals, and all the: very nu- ‘
merous accompanying strata, lie exactly in» the,

same situation. This plan represents the Ochill
Mountains, with the north coal-field, of a long el-
liptical bason-shape, the side next the mountaing.
being very steep, and the south, the east and west
edges of the bason shelving out at a great distance
from the lower part of the bason, which is termed

- byminers the Trough. It is therefore evidentythat

the coals and accompanying strata in. the north coal-

field, dip in every direction to the line of. the »

trough. ‘The middle coal-field, which is formed by

the great north slip, is only the segment of an el-.

liptical bason, as represented in the plan, where the

strata dip in every direction to the middle mark-

ed x, being the deepest part of the segment. ‘The

south coal-field formed by the great south slip, is

also the segment of another elliptical bason, similar ”
in all respects to the middle coal-field. Beyond the
erop of the coals and strata of the south coal-field,
the counter dip of the strata takes place, producing |

Dunmore coal-field in Stirlingshire, to lie in a diree- —

the mantle-shaped form, which causes the coals in the —

tion directly contrary to the coals and accompany- —

shire. pi: 5 (res olga

' ing strata of the south coal- field of Clackmannan- _

B

In order, however, to represent. the effects of —
dikes, great slips lying in the line of bearing of the © ?

:

strata, and of the slips or dislocations in an obliques

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 147

- direction, Fig. 1. Plate VIII. represents an exten-
‘sive district of country, containing a coal-field di-
| vided into numerous subordinate coal-fields, by
‘these dislocations. The lines marked 6 are slips; the
broad lines marked c represent dikes: the former
dislocate the strata, the other, viz. the dikes, only
separate the strata the thickness of the dike from
each other. The two parallel lines marked a, repre-
sent two seams of coal, variously thrown up and
down by the slips ; whereas the dikes pass through
the strata without altering their position. In this
manner, coal-fields extend over a district of country
_ to the extent of many miles in every direction. _

_ The only exception which I have observed from.
this form of the coal-fields in Great Britain, i is the
Inverted Bason-shape, and this comparatively very.
seldom occurs: examples of it, however, are to be
seen in Fife, and in several districts in England ;
but even in extensive coal-fields, the inverted ba-
son-form is only a partial occurrence, or a deviation
from what we conceive to be the general and or-
dinary form. FVig,1. Plate VI. is an example
of this formation of the coal-field, as it exists in
Staffordshire, at the Castlehill, close to the town of
Dudley, upon. which Dudley Castle is built.

Through this hill, canals have been cut for working

_. the great beds of limestone, and in it immense ex-

_ eavations have been made. These beds of lime-

stone are found in the lower series of the strata of

the coal-field, and of course are to be found at many
| K 2

m *
148. COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE, -

miles distance from the Castlehill, and beyond the
crop and outbursts of all the workable coals in the , —
true bason-shaped part of the field ; at the same time, . fi
by this inverted bason-form, these beds of limestone
are found elevated far above the level of the com-
mon surface of the country, and consequently above
the level of all the coals. 'The numerous beds of :
coal, one of which is of the very great thickness. ~
of 30 feet, lie next the Castlehill, in a conforming
situation with the beds of limestone, as represented.

in one side of this section. This hill is of an el-
liptical form, and the coals are found all around it.
Besides the Castlehill thus described, there are two.

~ other hills which, with the-Castlehill, lie ina di- —
rect line through the coal-field : These are named
Wrensnest Hill and Hurst Hill. Fig. 2. Plate VI.
represents Wrensnest Hill, with the same beds of
limestone as found in the Castlehill, which have
also been wrought to a great extent, by means

of a canal cut through the hill, which gave me an ©
opportunity of examining the internal form of the
strata of the hill, as represented in the figure,
which are completely mantle-shaped. This hill is
also of an elliptical form, and the beds of coal with —
their accompanying strata, lie all around it, con-
forming with the beds of limestone, cropping to- 3
wards the summit of the hill. From the truncated — :
figure of the top of the hill, which is now arable
land, it would appear, that at one time it had been '

¥

i “4 1 a
f ny
“ a

iy are a
My aad s rs >

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 149

“much higher; but whether it was ever complete-
ly of a conical shape, is now impossible to determine
Hurst Hill, which lies to the westward of the two
hills before described, is similar in its structure to
those already described. Excepting where these
hills occur, forming the strata into the inverted ba-
son shape, the great Staffordshire coal-field is of the
true bason form. The strata betwixt and under the
beds of limestone, is named by the miners Bavin.
It is a grey-coloured, indurated clay, with a mixture
of lime in its composition, and contains numerous
small bivalve shells. Plate V. No. 5. is a section
of this astonishing coal-field, the upper coal of which
is 30 feet thick; and this coal extends seven miles
in length and four in breadth. Coals of five and six
feet in thickness, are there denominated Thin
Coals. — |
The whole of the strata connected with the beds
of limestone, forming the lower series of the strata
of this most interesting coal-field, abound with nu-
* merous organic remains of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms; in particular, Mollusca, Madrepores,
_ Corals, and casts of a singular animal, termed by the
miners a Locust, but known to naturalists by the
name of Pediculus marinus, or the Dudley Fossil.
‘It is, I believe, only found in that district, and we
know of no recent species now existing. ‘There are ’
also numerous bivalve shells ; aud in the slate-clay, .
more immediately connected with the coal, are .
numerous impressions of Filices, Kquiseta, Reeds,

150 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

and impressions of trees; and in the beds ad-

joining these, bivalve shells of ue Mya genus :

are found*.
We have to remark, that when coals and ih

accompanying strata, are found in a situation alto-

gether vertical, or nearly so, adjoining primitive or
transition mountains, the coals, with their accom-
_panying strata, sometimes for a considerable dis-
tance, run in a line exactly parallel with the face
of the mountains ; and the beds of coal appear to be
_ of a true tabular shape, lying evenly or straight
within their bounding planes, as is clearly exempli-
fied in the Edge-coals, which stretch along the
south side of the Pentland Hills, in the vicinity of

Edinburgh. We have, however, strong reasons for -

concluding, that this tabular form of these beds of
coals, extends only in a limited longitudinal direc-
‘tion, conforming with the face of the mountains ;
for, after many examinations of the strata of the
Mid-Lothian coal-field, Iam led to conclude, that
these edge-coals, at the depth of several hundred

yards from the surface, deflect or bend southward _

* In making my investigations of this most interesting dis-
trict, I was greatly aided by the very polite attention of Fran-

cis Downine, Esq. who not only gave me every facility in

viewing the mines of coal and of limestone, but communicated

e ° ° e : Hf
_to me in the most liberal manner, every information connected

with my inquiries. It is to him I am indebted for the accurate
sections of this mineral field. |

ee ae 5 oe

ee

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 151.

fr a the perpendicular direction, assume the trough
_ form in the Valley of the Esk, and there rise to the
| ‘surface along the side of the rising ground which
“stretches east and west from Dalkeith. These coals
rise there at the rate of one in three,and in their qua-
lity and thickness have a strong resemblance to the
edge-coals pon the north side of the valley. The
flat seams presently working in the middle of the
valley, have a very moderate rise of from 1 in 7 to
1 in 10, and are of a superior quality compared with
the edge-seams. They appear to be a distinct for-
mation or upfilling of the deep trough formed as be-
fore mentioned by the edge-coals; and I have no
doubt; that this trough sweeps round at both extre-
mities, and forms along elliptical bason. Fig. 6.
Plate V., represents the ideas I have formed of
this coal-field. The lines at A and at B, represent
the coals ascertained to a certain depth. The dotted
fines in continuation, are the supposed direction of
the coals forming the bason shape; but. the edge-
coals may be formed by a slip or dislocation, as is
the case with the Quarrelton Coal, at the slip B,
Fig. 2. Plate VIT.

From what has been thus stated, and from the
sections and plans exhibited in elucidation of the
subject in hand, we may legitimately conclude, that
all the coal-fields in Great Britain, of the indepen-
dent coal formation, are of the bason shape, ‘or are
segments of that form: That all beds of coals, and

152 COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

their accompanying strata, consequently rise in alldi-
_ rections, till they meet the alluvial cover at the sur-

face, or are cut off by slips or dislocations: and that

no part of the beds of coal and-their accompanying

strata, are of a straight tabular form, excepting in
very limited portions, particularly when lying along
the face of primitive or transition mountains, as be-
fore stated. _ | |

The bason form of the coal-fields involves theories

which have been brought forward by geologists.

This particular form appears to be connected with

the form of the mountain-rocks upon which the

coal strata rest ; and, perhaps, the great slips or dis-
locations, such as are found in the Clackmannan-
shire coal-field, one of which produces a dislocation
of not less than 410 yards perpendicular, may be oc-
casioned also by the form of the mountain-rocks,
which, we conclude, lie underneath all the coal stra-
ta; and we are warranted to draw this conclusion
from what we so distinctly see to be the case, along
the faces of mountains adjoining coal-fields.
) ; i

Ses

‘ eas «if
o- ~{ ia
on sae PN wt ‘ aN
arent ) + % !
ake et
: ih Bay
me oh s Co
on Swe rn
; ' es \ ray
oa i Pe
‘ > = ara ard , J
at 8 . N
Uc hapalell terete if : A
‘ i 4 4
a eae ;
aA a eaet et sad F f ‘ ft r N
ay | : A
ee ‘ wR : 1 NS sy Woh
' ks vai
Ln 4
a y \ te
Roles y i 4 On
+ maya * ui rT ee
it j

*

Wernerian Memows Vot-IIl. P.153.

SECTION of CLACKMANNAN

South Coal Field

Middle Coal Field

Vartous

Alternation

PLATE IV.

Fig 1.

=e_____ North

North Coal Field

SUHIURIE from the OCHILL MOUNTAINS to the RIVER FORTH.

y

~

Coal Strata

None of the Strata have been ascertained lower than / the Seams of cval above inserted.

Horizontal .Section of the

CLACKMANNAN SHIRE CoaL CouNTRY.

Fig +2.

Great : North sti

Great South slip _

aie

Mantle Shaped Strata formed by a Counterdip

a

Form or Shape of the
BLAIRNGONE COAL FIELD.

Fig .3.
Valley of the Devon

RT Le VOR
— Sooo

Fig 4.
_ Section of the line AB.

a
A

ipa
Section of the line CD.
a
a

Fig.7.-

Sechion of the line AB.

y
el dees of Woodshill

a 2

a

Fig .8.
Section of the line CD,

. Bald M. W. S. Del?

W&D. Lizars Sculpt

INS to th RIVER FORTH.

——§North
¢

wu Field
§

inserted .

nude of Woodshill,

Fig.7-

Section of the tne AB.

a

Fug .8 .

Section of the line CD.
a
a
|
nes ek a EY
ag W.&D. Lizars Sculp

. : PLATE V.

Warnertan Memoirs Vol. ILPT52£.

VERTICAL Section COAL PTHLDS.

3, Quarrelton, Renfrew Shire. N? 4. Brora, Sutherland Shire. N? 5. Dudley Stafford Shire,

1 oon TON Ceo,
N? 2. Clackmannan Shire. ; , 3.

Fig.1. Fig .3. Fug.4. Pig. 5.

Blush coloured sandstone Greenstone

Greenstone Coal 30 Feet thick

|Merpating Strata of”

Coat igen stone & Slate clay Various Alternations of

Slaty Clay Sandstone

Coal

Coal

Coal
Coal
Slate Clay & Ironstone

AMternating Strata of
sandstone & Slate clay

Coal

Ferugineus Limes tone
Bilummeus Shale Slate
Clay with mumerous or=
-ganie remuns the Beds
av general many yards

— Coal
WOE

Slate clay 27 In. thick im thickness
Coal ~oal Y

Coal

UL

Divisvon of the 5 coals

Coal Coal
late Clay 27 In. thick

Coal

Alternating Coal Strata

Indurated or Fire Coal 15 teet thich
Clay alternating with

Slate Clay .

= (pal

aqDos

Ny LOSE

IL

szerion Shewing the Ideas which have been
formed of the Shape of the Great Lothtan Coal Field

Fig 6.

$3>

\Pentland Hills

\Edge Coals

Valley of the Esk

» of Lime stone are found in the lower series of Strata under the thick Coals.

ai

|

R Bald MW, S. Delt

. : ; . ; We&D. Lizars Seulp?

.
1
2
4
2
4
|
n
ww
\
\
|
F
.

therland Shire.

Ne. Dudley Stafford Shire.

ie

Various Alternations of
Slaty Clay Sandstone
ferugmeus Limes tone

taommeus Shale Slate
Clay wth numerous or-=
-ganie remuns the Beds
a general many yards
a thickness

Coal
= ‘oal

Indurated or Fire,
Clay alternating wilh
Slate Clay °

Wwe been
wa Coal Freld

bE>

R. Bak

W. &D. Lizars Sculp?

PLATE VI.

Wernerian Memoirs Vol. il. PR 15¢.

SECTION of the Castle-hill of Dudley Statiordstare.
Reg 1,

SzCTION of Wrens-nest-hill Dudley Stattord-share.

« Pig soe

STRATUM of Sandstone with portions of tt ot uncommon hardness.
Fig. 3.

Wad Lies Soulp!

Rivaldo Dele

tet ®t i

Nya’ ON ‘
tyes Tyme nee

i iy
pu fe gedo|

’ Ai : re

wait »
Pia road eas WY seg | ae

oe Fie bah ow a
\

SECTION of the QUARRELLTON COAL im the COUNTY of RENE REV.

fa

‘
7
so
sf
»
4
= 2
:
re
* ye
* *
*
ae
& “

ae

sta

Moots bi ceed

: oy t
PLATE VI.
Wernerian Memorws Vol. I. P1155

HORIZONTAL SECTION of a COAL COUNTRY.

Fig. 1.

Ri. Bald M.W, S. Delt

-» GOAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. 153
one
It may be convenient to the reader to have the

; a Sections represented in Plates IV. V. VI. VII.
and VIIL, here explained in one ta ae view.

Prats IV.

Fig. l.isa frais of Clackmannanshire from ihe
summit of the Woodhill of Alva, one of the
Ochill Mountains, southward to the River
Forth, the line being nearly at right angles to
the general bearing of the strata, comprehend-
ing a space of six miles and sixty-three yards.
It also contains a section of the beds of coal,
and great slips or dislocations of the strata, in
so far as they have been ascertained. This sec-

tion comprehends the main coal-field of Clack-
-mannanshire. _

Fig. 2. is a horizontal section of the Clackmannan-

shire coal-fields, shewing their junction with the

4
ge

be Ochill Mountains, the direction of the great
slips or dislocations, and the form of the coal-
fields.

Fig 3. is the Blairngone | coal-field, of an entire -
bason-shape.
‘Fig. 6. is a plan shewing the effect edited upon
a coal-field of a bason-shape, by two slips or
dislocations of the strata.

Hh

*
#

‘

154 COAL-FIELD oF CLACKMANNANSHIRE.

PLATE V.

Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. are vertical sections of coal-fields.
No. 1. corresponds with the ordinary arrange-
ment of coals in the coal-fields of Great Britain.
Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. are sections of coal-fields,
which differ much from No. 1. | |

Fig. 6. Section of the a coal-ficld of the Lo-

thians.
PuiateE VI.
Fig. 1. Section of the Castlehill, Dudley, Stafford-
shire.

Fig. 2. Section of Wren’s-nest Hill, Dudley, Staf-
fordshire.

Fig. 3. Stratum of sandstone, with por art it of
uncommon hardness.

Puate VII.

Fig. 1. Section of the Quarrelton coal, in the coun-
ty of Renfrew, shewing the overlapped coal
and the double coal, with the thick bed of green-
stone overlying the coal-field.

a, Alluvial cover.

b, Bed of greenstone.

c, Alternating ah strata.

d, Coals.

€, Position of greenstone not ascertained,

*

COAL-FIELD OF CLACKMANNANSHIRE. ~ 155

J; Strata in which no coals have been found.
g, The overlapped coal.
h, The double coal.

Priate VIII.

Fig. 1. is the horizontal section of a coal-country,
_ shewing the effects produced by dikes, slips and
dislocations of the strata, by which coal-fields
are extended over a great district of country,
which prevent the coal running out (as it is
termed), or dipping to an unfathomable depth.

Eprnzurcu, 1st May 1819.

( 156 °)

VIL.—Account of some Sandstone Petrifactions
found near pata ae

By the Rev. James Grirrson, M. D. M. W. S.
(Read 16th May 1818.) os

My chief object at present is to mention to the
Society, some recently discovered sandstone petri-
‘factions which have been found in this neighbour-
hood. The occurrence of such substances in our
common sandstone quarries is, we know, not un-

usual ;—particularly petrifactions of a sort of flat-

tened reed, of a gigantic size. These I have fre-
quently seen, both in the sandstone of Ayrshire,

-and of Mid-Lothian, viz. in the coal formation —

sandstone of these districts. The originals of
the petrifactions alluded to, are thought by many
to have been of the palm tribe. But this, I be-

lieve, no one has‘yet fully ascertained. With _

respect to the coal formation in general, it is ob-
served by our President, in one of his many inte-
resting and valuable publications, that it is well
characterized by the great number and variety of
its vegetable petrifactions. He informs us, that

these are principally of such plants as flourish in

SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS. 157

marshes and woods, and that they occur abundant-
ly in the sandstone of this formation.

An instance is given by Habel, in his Natural
History of Nassau, of a petrified vegetable stem, as
having been seen by him rising 40 feet through
coal formation rocks, and measuring a foot in dia-
meter at one of its extremities. Now, though
the petrifactions to which I allude, are not nearly
of so great a length as this, they are of a diameter
still greater ; one of them being 3 feet 10 inches in
circumference at the thickest extremity.

They were found on the 9th of February last, a little
way from Harvieston, ten miles to the south of Hdin-
burgh, by some workmen, while engaged in making a
drain. They were in a horizontal position, imbedded »
in amass of what I would call sandy-clay, about 3
feet below the surface. ‘The petrifactions are three
in number, and have evidently been the trunks of
trees) They were lying with their tops towards
the east, and in a conformable position to the strata,

which are here coal-sandstone, and dip gently to
the west. One.of the trunks is 5 feet 9 inches
long; and, as already said, 3 feet 10 inches in cir-
cumference at the bottom; it tapers rather sud-
denly, being 2 feet 2 inches in girth at the middle,
and 1 foot 6 inches at the upper end. About 18
inches from the top, there has issued a large branch.
This petrifaction is somewhat flattened or compres-_
sed, as all those generally are, which lie conformably
to the strata. It has, when set on end, and viewed

--

158 SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS..

ata few yards distance, completely the appearance |

of the decayed stump of a tree. From the shape,
I should pronounce it an oak; but the bark has ra-
ther more of a dotted appearance than is usual in
the oak. The large branch going off about 4 feet

from the root, strongly characterizes it as the trunk —

of a tree. The next largest petrifaction is 2 feet
7 inches long, and 3 feet 1 inch in circumference at
the bottom, having much the same appearance on
the surface as the first. But the third, which is in
length 2 feet 6 inches, and in girth at the bottom,
3 feet 5 inches, has the very appearance of a peeled
oak ; in so much, that any person whose eye is fa-
miliar with such objects, would at once refer it to
this tree. 1a ess hy |

The sandstone into which these vegetables have
been converted, is rather fine-grained, and so hard
as to approach the kind commonly called Quartzy
Sandstone. It may be thought rather singular, that
the petrifactions themselves should be so much harder

a ed Ow Ae Pe Tm ot
at oe

"ey i es
>

———s

{a

4

ae ai

and more solid than the stratified matter in which |

they were imbedded. This, as I said before, is a soft —

loose mixture of sand and clay. I remember some

years ago, meeting with a petrifaction of this sort,

in the firm sand, on the sea-shore, to the west of
St Andrew’s, in Fife. It was the stock of a tree
seemingly zn situ, about 20 inches diameter, laid
bare by the ‘waves, and the roots running nearly
horizontally in all directions. It appeared to have
been cut over by the surface of the ground. TI can-

Ae

co oad

+

SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS. 159

not pretend to say, whether the great African De-

sart is of the same formation with that in which the
petrifactions I have been speaking of are found ; but
it appears from travellers, particularly Mr Horne-
man, that this immense sandy deposit is, in many
places, full of innumerable fragments of petrified
wood. ‘Trunks of trees 12 feet in girth are men-
tioned : and Horneman says, that though these pe-
trifactions are generally black, yet, in some cases,
they are ash-grey, and resemble natural wood so en-
tirely, that they are sometimes brought in by mis-
take for fuel.

By what process of Nature does the wood, on
such, occasions, disappear, and particles of quartz,
cemented by clay, or marl, or other quartz, take its

place? This appears to me to be a matter by no

means easily accounted for, on any principles at

present recognized. And the difficulty is augment-

ed in a very high degree, when we adopt the com-
monly received doctrine of the mechanical forma-
tion of sandstone. For how can we conceive, that
small pieces of quartz, so large, however, as to be
sufficiently discernible by the naked eye, should
make their way into the densest parts of an oak
tree, and in time so completcly displace all its
woody fibres, as that nothing of these should ap-
pear, but the whole become a uniform mass of these
little pieces of quartz, connected together as before
stated ? We cannot admit, certainly, that a parti-
cle of sand, or piece of quartz, so large as to be vi-

~~.
160 SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS.

sible by the naked eye, should at once make its way
into the interior of the wood, and there take up its
residence, accompanied or followed by other pieces of
the same kind. No expansion of the vegetable pore
that we can conceive, would be adequate to allow
this. And, therefore, if the petrifaction of the wood
takes place by means of the gradual accumulation
and cementation of particles of sand already form-
ed; or, in other words, small pieces of quartz al-
ready formed, we must suppose the process to go on
in some such manner as the following. The wood
dissolves in the surrounding medium, whatever that
medium may be; and there can be no doubt, that
the outer parts of it, as being most exposed to the
action of the medium, will dissolve first. The par-
ticles of sand then take the places of the particles
of the wood, and are deposited exactly in the same

situation. Moreover, we must suppose, that they

are at the same time fixed together by the cement,
be this what it will, clay, or marl, or other quartz ;

for, if that were not the case, how could the places —

of the sandy particles be so exactly preserved? But
if they are cemented together as soon as they are
deposited, a close coating of sandstone will thus be
formed all around the tree ; and how shall the inte-
rior of it afterwards be petrified ? The particles of
sand can no longer reach it. ‘They cannot make
their way through the sandstone already formed.
And though we might thus, in some sort, see how
a thin coating of sandstone might be deposited

*

SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS. 161

round a piece of wood, or other organized matter,
we cannot possibly see how the inner part of it
should be petrified. But when we inspect the pe-
trifactions of which I am speaking, we find the in-
ner parts of them equally solid, and equally con-
verted into stone with the exterior :—nay, if any
difference, more so. It also appears to me, to be
difficult to apprehend how the particles of sand
should penetrate the lower parts of the wood equal-
ly with the upper, contrary to the law of gravity ;
though, perhaps, the principle of pressure may help

_ us out here.
But if we reject the opinion of sandstone being
a mechanical deposit, and conceive it to be a chemi-
cal precipitate, in the same way as some other stony
substances undoubtedly are, then, I think, the ex-
planation of sandstone petrifactions, though by no
means divested of difficulty, will be very much fa-
cilitated. For, on the supposition that the quartzy
or siliceous matter of which the particles of sand-
_ stone are composed, were dissolved in a fluid, then
_ we can more readily form an idea of the manner in
which thissolution, having penetrated the wood, might
_ there precipitate its contents, and so produce the
_ appearances we observe. And though even here a
o difficulty presents itself, (for what becomes of the car-
e m and other indestructible parts of the vegetable ?)
_ yet the difficulty is not, I think, so great as when we
suppose the mechanical formation of the sandstone.
Wa keow that all the different parts of wood ex-_
VOL. HI. Bb

162 SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS.

cept the carbon, can be resolved into gaseous bodies,
and even it, by combining with oxygen, becomes
gaseous also. In this way, therefore, the vegetable
matter may all escape, andthe quartzy or siliceous
take its place. And if it be asked, whence the
carbon should receive the oxygen, to render 2 ga-
seous, or to form carbonic acid ? the answer is ob-
vious—from the water; for water seems always
to be present during the petrifying process.

Few, I believe, will now be startled at the idea
of sandstone being a chemical deposit. Our Pre-
sident’s two ingenious papers, “ On the Mineralogy
of the Pentland Hills,” and “ On Conglomerated
Rocks,” published several years ago in the Memoirs
of this Society, have rendered it familiar to us, and
have, I think, proved that sandstone is, in some in-
stances at least, a chemical ‘deposit. The Profes-
sor has there shewn, that what have been taken for
fragments of previously existing rocks cemented by
a basis, are in fact contemporaneously formed con-
eretions, as much as the masses of felspar, of quartz
and of mica in granite, or of the quartz itself in
granular quartz, and other crystalline rocks. I shall
not attempt to go over the ingenious arguments by
which this position is made out, and by which it is
shewn to be very highly probable, that grey-wacke —
also and trap-tuff, and in maw@y cases sandstone, as '
well as conglomerated rocks of the primitive class, _
such as granite, gneiss, mica-slate, porphyry,and lime-
stone, have had a chemical origin, and’ are not, ‘ae 7

SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS. 163

has been commonly thought, made up of water-

worn or fractured pieces agglutinated by a basis.
‘I shall only observe, that one of the strongest of
_ these arguments appears to me to be the gradual
_ passage of the apparent fragments into the basis

by which they appear to be cemented; and_ this, I
think, indeed, so ‘strong, that scarcely any thing
more is wanted. But as abundance of evidence

can .do no harm, I would take the liberty to

suggest, that the occurrence of petrifactions in
the situation of those I have before described,
seems to me to form an additional proof of the
correctness of Mr Jameson’s opinion. I have at-
tempted to shew, that these appearances may be
accounted for on the hypothesis of sandstone being
-a chemical deposition, but that they are quite mex-
plicable, on the supposition of its being a mechani-
eal formation. ‘Now, the argument stands thus:
Sandstone petrifactions do occur; but these cannot
have been formed mechanically. They must, there-
fore, have been formed chemically ; and hence sand-
stone has, in them at least, had a chemical origin.
But if it has had a chemical origin in one instance,
it may have had the same in another.

The importance of the study of petrifactions will
not now be disputed. For as it was owing to the
observation of these in the strata in which they oc-
eur, that people were first led to speculate on the
manner on which these strata must have been form-
ed, (and hence our different Theories of the Karth,)

L3

164 SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS.

so it is only by the study of petrifactions that we are
likely to be able to account for the formation of strata,
or to ascertain the relative ages of the mineral
masses of the crust of the earth. If there had |
not existed any petrifactions or fossil remains of or-
ganized bodies, it is not easy to see how a theory of
the earth should ever have been thought of. Philo-
sophers would naturally have rested satisfied (as the
vulgar do,) with the notion that all things were ori-
ginally formed in the state in which they now are.
But when they observed the remains of organized
bodies in situations in which, beforehand, they could —
not have been expected to be; when they ob-
served sea-shells many hundred miles distant from
the sea, and some thousands of feet above its level ;
when they found those and other fossil remains —
many fathoms below the surface of the ground, and
imbedded in vast masses of solid mountain rock;
nay, when the remains of animals were discovered,
of which no prototypes now appear, or whose species.
we have every reason to conclude have been long ago
extinguished ; what philosopher would not spe-
culate on the causes of such surprising effects ?
Hence arose, as I already noticed, our various theo-
ries of the earth. But it was the celebrated WER-
NER, the great Founder, we may say, of Experimen-
tal Mineralogy, that first pointed out with precision,
the importance of the study of the fossil remains of ©
organized bodies, towards enabling us to arrive at —
any thing like a rational theory. It was he who >

SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS. 165

first observed,—and the observation is of the utmost
importance,—that different petrifactions characterise
different Formations.

But on this subject I shall not at present enlarge,
as I may, perhaps, at a future period, trouble the
society with some observations on it in a different
shape.

Cuvier has done much in this department, and
apparently without knowing what Werner had done
before him. He has demonstrated, not only that,
without the existence of petrifactions or extraneous
fossils, we never could have known, or in all proba-
bility never would have suspected, that there were
successive formations or depositions of the strata and
other enormous masses which compose the crust of
the Globe ; but that by observing these, we pursue
the track which is alone likely to conduct us to a
knowledge of the causes of these depositions: Or
rather (in more precise language, perhaps), which is
likely to lead us to the knowledge of the real order
of their succession. ©

It is his opinion, however, that other causes be-
sides those which we at present observe to operate
in nature, must have then existed. But this is evi-
dently giving up the question ; it evidently amounts
to the assertion, That the laws of the physical world
were formerly different from what they now are.
And if so, then I am afraid we never can under-
stand how these laws operated. It is the same
thing as to tell us, that petrifactions were formed, we

166 SANDSTONE PETRIFACTIONS.

know not how. For a law of nature different from
any that we at present know, is, I apprehend, to all
intents and purposes, the same thing to us as no
law at all. On this principle, therefore, we must for
ever despair of being able to account for petrifica-
tions; or to refer them to any lawof nature now known
to exist. With all deference, however, to this very
great man, I would not so readily abandon the hope
that the presently existing laws of nature may be
found sufficient, under certain modifications, to ac-
count for all the phenomena we observe. I would
not yet say with him, that “ in physical history the
“ thread of operation is here broken, the march of
“ Nature is changed, and none of the agents that
« she now employs were sufficient for the produc-
“tion of her ancient works.” I would rather join
with him ina hope which he elsewhere expresses;
«that a Newton may arise in Natural History as ~
“well as in Astronomy,” and think it probable
that some principle, as little suspected of the pewer
of doing so, as Gravity once was of the power of
explaining the planetary motions, may one day
enable us to explain all the phenomena of Geology.
At any rate, let us not too hastily cut the Gordian
knot, especially after M. Cuvier himself has done —
so much towards enabling us to untie it.

%

hd

PLATE TX.

LL? 164,

Wernertanr Mem’ Vol.

“AWM MUN OVW Aa LAMY ep

SY
* S

Ji

mo Ne

a wi =) NR cnwiresinn ll (

DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMIA SAGULATA. 167

earded ; tail not

‘ black hairs, clavi-
back y ell clothed with

bub, the

respects ;

ail, and the

0 dy. Though it
be found i in oreat numbers e forests of Deme-

rary, it appears to have hitherto escaped the notice
of our writers on natural history.

The skin of the face is black; and there are a

few straggling hairs of the same colour on the

-/168 DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMIA SAGUDATA.

cheeks and lips. The hair on the scalp divides, as in

_ man, at the crown, whence it passes down in every

direction ;—a circumstance not common in the mon-
key tribe. A small tuft of hair rises from the up-
per part of the nose for about! half an inch, and
meets the descending hair of the front. A bushy
beard of glossy black hair descends from below the
ears, and clothing the sides of the face, meets below
the chin. The nose is slightly prominent; the nostrils
are placed flatly on the face, at its base, and present
circular apertures. The canine teeth are very large
and strong. The ears are naked,, black, thin, lie
flat on the head, and in oF resemble the corre-
pean human-orgamg. 8 le |
The fur is thickly set on the pode ' the si

and its general colour may be reckoned black. ‘lhe
head and tail are of & jetty blackness. The lower
parts of the body of a nearly similar tint. The
four extremities, with the exception of the backs of
the hands, are blackish-brown ; but the shoulders
and back present a strong contrast to the other
parts, and give this animal the appearance of being
covered with a jacket ; from which the proposed tri-
vial name is derived. ‘The colour is brightest on
the shoulders, where it is intermediate between
wood-brown ‘and yellowish-brown ; and, on the back —
and sides, passes into the latter. The back of
each hand is of a ferruginous brown, as in the
Preacher monkey. The fingers of all the extre.
mities are very slender; and the thumbs the small-

DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMIA SAGULATA. 169

est and least powerful of all the phalanges. The
nails are much compressed, and sharp-pointed.

The tail is long, but not prehensile. It is thick-
ly covered all round with jet black hairs, and is
club-shaped, or thickest toward the extremity. ‘The
tip of the tail in the Simia Beelzebub, is reddish-
brown, in which it differs from this species.

This description is equally applicable to five dif-
- ferent specimens brought to this country in 1817,
by my friend Charles Edmonston, Esq. from the
_ anterior of the colony of Demerary.

° ° e °
Dimensions of Simia sagulata.
Feet. Inches,

From the point of the nose to shoulder over

Pie cromioreie head,...,4..... isi 6.0... 1 ae,
From shoulder to root of tail,...............00008 ja pes |
Length of the tail,......... Bing 0 lt ly Bi ea

Q Ill

Circumference of it ers, ree noe 4
Height of shoulders when the palms are at
the ground, about................ ees
Length of hair on shoulders and beard, about 0 — 1
Baia, tails SOW be cine nny oostihors ap ener iw 1

%

\

170 ACCOUNT OF A NEW SPECIES OF FELIS.

IX.— Description of a New Species of Felis from
Guyana. | :

By Tuomas Stewart Trait, M.D. F.R.S.E. M’G.S. &e.

~

(Read 27th November 1819. ii
Fex1s Unicotor.—SprotLess Car. (PI. ix.)

Cuar. SPECIF.

Felis cauda elongata ; toto corpore immacilato,
ex fusco rubescente. ae

Cat with a long tail; the whole body spotless, and
of a clear reddish- brown colour.

AX comparison of the character just given, and
that of the Puma in our best systematic authors,
might lead to a suspicion that there is but little dif-’
ference between the two animals. This, however, is’
a consequence of the imperfection of the systematic”
character usually prefixed to descriptions of the Pu-
ma. In the Gmelinian Edition of Linnzus, the lat-
ter is defined, “ £elis cauda elongata, corpore im-
maculato fulvo ;? to which Shaw has added, “ subtus
“ albido ;” and Brisson characterizes it as, “ Felis
“ew flavo rufescens, mento et infimo ventre albi-

W

Rernerian Memoirs

VoL. Li? paie.

PLATE xX

SSS
‘\;
hiNy

i
1)
(I
UU
Wat

\

Zo

a

W &

31(

>

<=
= ewrmont

D. Lizars Secu ip t

Tite SPOTLESS CAT.

fc FELIS UNICOLOR 2

ih
7
1
\
i
‘
i
He
é
ie
”
‘
sh n
a 4
\
ry

ACCOUNT OF A NEW SPECIES OF FELIS. 171

“ cantibus.” At the time when these general cha-
racters were given, it might have been objected, that
they did not sufficiently distinguish the Puma from
the lioness ; but the discovery of the animal now
under consideration, renders the definition as unap-
propriate, as the trivial name concolor, imposed on
the Puma by Linnezus. ‘This designation has been
altered by Shaw; but to prevent the confusion
which might arise from the application of any name,
already appropriated by the illustrious author of the
Systema Nature, to a new species, I-propose to give
this the trivial name unicolor, as expressive of its
~ remarkable uniformity of colour.

The general hue of this new species, is a beauti-
ful glossy reddish-brown. ‘The colour of the whole
" upper part of the body, including the head and tail,

has a considerable resemblance to that of a very dark
~ bay horse ; ‘the tint becomes gradually paler on the
sides and under part of the neck, and passes by im-
__ perceptible shades into an ochry brown on the belly.
When closely examined, the darker colour of the -
back is partly owing to an intermixture of blackish
brown hairs with the rest of the fur. The hair over
the body is rather short, like that usually seen on a
smooth Spanish pointer. The only species of felis
with which this animal can be confounded, is the
Puma; but a short comparison will shew, that they
are totally different. ‘The specimen from which
this description is drawn up, was brought from De-

- :
172 ACCOUNT OF A NEW SPECIES OF FELIS. ©.

merary, by my friend Charles Edmonston, Esq. who,
during a residence of near forty years in that part of.
America, has devoted a considerable portion of his
time to the practical study of Zoology. He repre-
sents this as a full grown animal. ‘The recent skin
had been very well stuffed by the person who killed
the animal*; and a comparison of its dimensions
with that of a Puma prepared by the same ‘individ-
ual, will serve to mark the difference between the
two species. ke Heigl

Spotless Cat. Puma.

Ft. In. Ft. In.
Length of the body from nose to tail,...2 85 4.9
Lecftath. of the, tatlyk isi sc5 Ther constmc oye gee 1.8 (ee
Toenetlof thor ib . .. <5 parton 0,62 Oddi,
Extreme: Len ett is ob pe neserig <a ciemendioemel 4 te de B .
Circumference behind the shoulders, ....1 4 a 4y
Height at the shoulders,..... ihe dittag tan 0 10 t iaohiy'

The head of the Spotless Cat is much more point-
ed, its nose more elevated, and its limbs are much
more slender, in proportion to its size, than in the
Puma. The strength of the jaws and size of the -
teeth, are likewise proportionally less. In the Pu-
ma, the backs of the ears are black ; in our animal,

&

* In this specimen, as in many others prepared under Mr
Edmonston’s eye, the bones of the head and feet are preserv-
ed, and the greatest attention paid, to mark the general habit
of the living animal. 3

e
r

‘

- ACCOUNT OF A NEW SPECIES OE FELIS. 173

they are of the same colour as the adjacent parts.
The tail of the Puma is claviform, or appears thick-
est towards the tip, which is black; but the tail of
the Spotless Cat is nearly of one thickness through-
out; and it wants the conspicuous black tip, which
appears constantly in the Puma. ‘The general co-
lour of the two animals is also different. This new
/species is of a clear but deep reddish-brown: the
colour of the Puma is of a fulvous hue; and when
about the size of the animal in question, the young
Puma is marked on the body with many black spots,
which disappear as the animal advances to maturity.
Even in its earliest stage, the tip of the tail in the
Puma is black. The eyes of this new species, which
are large, are said to havea pale yellowish iris. The
beard is slender and scanty; the teeth sharp and
long. |
What I have been able to collect of the habits of
this animal, is, that it is an inhabitant of the deep
recesses of the forests, that it climbs trees to prey up-
on birds, monkeys, &c. but that it will boldy attack
the larger quadrupeds.

Laverpoot, March 1819.

174 ON THE WATER-RAIL. ,

X.—On the Water-Rail.

By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D.D.F.R.S. E. & M.W.S.

<4 «

(Read 27th November 1819. )

1 ES examining the characters of our native birds, as
they are delineated in the works on British Zoology,
we find reason to lament the want of original de-
scriptions, Few naturalists have examined, with
their own eyes, the discriminating marks of the ge-
neva and species, or have attempted to supply the
deficiencies and correct the errors of their predeces-
sors. To the labours of Willoughby, Ray, and
Montagu, we are almost exclusively indebted for
the mmutest and most accurate descriptions of the
species which we possess. The two first named
naturalists laid the foundation of British Ornitho-
logy; and their writings, variously modified, have
furnished our popular authors with their most valu-
“able materials. Hiven Pennant, whose name ranks
so high in public opinion, in the compilation of his
British Zoology, has copied so largely from these

ON THE WATER-RAIL. “195

sources, that the original matter which he commu-
nicated, bears but a small proportion to the borrow-
ed contents of his work. We are in this case
tempted to quote the mortifying interrogatory of
the Roman satyrist, “ Expende Annibalem : quot
libras in duce summo invenies ?” But many of our
systematical naturalists, in borrowing from these
sources, have omitted those characters which relate
to structure, and which these Fathers of the Science
were so anxious to ascertain, and have almost ex-
clusively retained those only, which relate to co-
lour and form. ‘The progress of the science has
thus been retarded: nay, we have reason to deplore
its retrogression.

Having been engaged, for many years, in the
examination of our native animals, I have often felt
the evils here complained of, especially when at-
tempting to ascertain the specific differences be-
tween nearly allied species. I have, therefore,
been in the habit of writing out descriptions, more
or less complete, according to the condition of the
specimens of the individuals of those species which
have come under my inspection.

As these descriptions may be of use to those who
are engaged in similar pursuits, by furnishing stand-
ards of comparison, I hope that a few pages of the
Wernerian Natural History Society’s Memoirs may
not be considered as improperly occupied in occa-
sionally recording them.

176 ON THE WATER-RAILL.

The Water-Rail was considered by the older na-
turalists, as belonging to a different genus from the:
Corncrake. Linneus, however, included both in
the same genus, Rallus; but his example in this
case, has been followed by few ornithologists. ‘The
Corncrake has been restored to its proper place ;
and the Water-Rail is now regarded as the type of |
the genus Rallus, now characterized by the follow-
ing marks: i

Bill slender, lengthened, slightly arched, compres-.
sed at the base, rounded towards the tips where the
edges of the two mandibles are incurved. —

Nostrils, pervious, linear, placed at the inferior
margin, towards the base of a groove which ex-
tends two-thirds the length of the upper mandible.

Tongue narrow, nearly the length of the bill,
and jagged at the ends.

Legs and claws compressed, and the outer toe at
the first joint united with the middle one by the
rudiment of a web.

The Water-Rail bears a near resemblance to the
Corncrake, in the remarkable compressed shape of
the body; but it differs in the superior length of
the bill and toes, and in the structure of the nos-
trils. It differs in another circumstance still more
remarkable, the bastard wing being armed with a
spine about an eighth of an inch in length.

This last character appears to have been hitherto
overlooked by naturalists, although it is by no means
difficult to detect. Cuvier, indeed, in his late ad-

ON THE WATER-RAIL. 177

mirable work, “ Le Regne Animal distribue d’aprés
son Organisation,” t. i. p. 500, has placed the genus
-Rallus in the second section of his family Macro-
DACTYL#, and which includes those birds whose
wings are not armed with spines.’ But, since this
character has now been detected in the Water-rail,
the genus’ Rallus must be removed to the first sec-
tion of ‘the family, distinguished by spinous wing-
lets, and associated with the genera Parra and Pala
media, ‘Theresis but one British sprains of this re-
stricted genus. |

1. R. aquaticus.—Water-rail. ii nde of
the bill and irides, orange; breast ash-coloured ;
wings dusky, with the base white ; sides black, with
white bars; beneath the eye, a pale spot; length
from 9 to 10 inches; breadth from 14 to 16 inches;
en from 3 to 41 ounces.

_ This species is known by the following each
names in» England :— Runner, Velvet Runner,
Qar-cock, Bill-cock, Brook-ouzel, and Skiddy-cock.

Ralla-anglor, the Rail, or King of the Quails,

Merret’s Pinax, p. 173.“

Rallus aquaticus. Will. Orn. p. 234.
— Ray. Syn. Av. 113.

_ Water-rail. Penn. Brit. Zool. vol. ii. p. 284.
Sek tab. Ixxv. 214.

_ The bill is an inch and three quarters in sar oth

in the gape. The upper side of the upper mandi-

ble, and the tip of the under mandible, dusky black ;

the remaining part of the latter, and the edges of the
VOL. IIT. M

178 ON THE WATER-RAIL:

former, orange-red ; the upper mandible is the long-
est; and, at the base, it is depressed, slightly wrinkled
across, with the feathers forming a projecting angle
on each ‘side ; ; the irides are reddish-orange, and
the tarsi are narrow, and greenish black ; the legs
are pale-dusky, and bare for about three quarters
of an inch above the knee ; the toes are long, slight-
ly webbed at the base of the two external ones ; the
skin on the soles is loose, and slightly carinated,
and they.are furnished with two, three, mie: and
_ five joints. cad *

The plumage above, is black ; but.as stale feather
is bordered with olive-brown, the dark colour ap-
pears in irregular stripes; the tips of the shafts of
the feathers on the front, are destitute of webs,
and are even a little swollen and spinous,—a cir-
cumstance in which this species resembles the Corn-
crake; the chin, a spot under each eye, and a
stripe from the base of the bill, towards the eyes,
are greyish-white; the breast, throat, cheeks, sides
of the neck, and breast, are of a deep bluish-grey ;
—the feathers on the throat, with pale edges, and
the ear-coverts slightly tinged with olive-brown ;
on the fore part of the neck, there are several
_ white hairs mixed with the feathers; belly; deep
orange-white ; the sides black, barred with white, —
and tipped with orange-white; the wings are
dusky, with the outer webs broad; the» margin —
of the wing is white, and the under coverts pale —
dusky, barred with white; the bastard wing con+ ra.

ON THE WATER-RAIL. 179

si sts of four feathers: and, as already noticed, is
armed with a projecting spine, about an eighth of
an inch in length; the tail, which is fan-shaped,
eonsists of twelve feathers, about two inches in
- Iength, dusky, with olive-brown margins ; the un-
der coverts white; the oil-bag is prominent, =
surrounded with a tuft of pale feathers. 7"

- The inside of the bill is reddish-orange; the
ise pale. Willoughby says, “ Vesicula fellea
grandis, longa, recurva. Porus biliarius magnus.
Appendices long, excrementis replete. Ventricu-
lus musculosus.”

‘The bird described above, was a male. The fe-
male, according to Montagu, has a shorter bill, of a
paler colour; and the young ones bear a near resem-
blanee to the adult birds. |
This species is subject to slight variations ”
plumage, as appears from another specimen which
we have examined, in which a few of the upper
‘wing-coverts were barred with white, and the edges
of the feathers on the neck and breast, were edged
with white. Montagu, in his description, states,
that the middle tail-feathers were wholly olivaceous
brown.
© The nest,” according to the observations of
Montagu, “is rarely found. It is made of sedge
and coarse grass, amongst the thickest aquatic
plants; frequently in, willow-beds. In such a si«
tuation, we found one with six eggs, of a spotless
white, and very smooth, rather larger than that of

M 2

| a
180 ON THE WATER-RAIL.

a blackbird; the . eo a short’ irs with: both
ends nearly alike.” Ww Late

The food of shi species consists wre worms, ee |
: aad insects. We have seen the stomach filled ex-
- clusively with the fry of the. Helix lucida, a snail

which likewise furnishes the family of Thrushes
a an agreeable repast. , we ,

The Water-rail is not often met with, as it is a
very shy bird. It frequents the ‘margins of pools
and. rivulets, and secretes itself among the rank
grass. “Like the other species of the natural family
to which it belongs, it runs nimbly, and, even when
pursued by dogs, seldom takes wing, until its rapid.
and complicated evolutions among the reeds, have
failed to secure it protection. It flies slowly, with
its legs hanging down, and generally alights at no
great distance from the place where it first arose.
When running, it flirts up its tail, and thus exhi-°
bits the under tail-coverts, in the form of a white’
spot. _ It wades in the water, and swims, and even
dives occasionally. at

On the continent of Europe, it is conshddeaclla a
summer bird of passage, and has been observed
crossing the Mediterranean Sea in the spring, g0-
ing northwards, and in autumn retiring southwards.” :
It has, on many occasions, been found inthe At.
lantic Ocean, far from land, and in an exhausted |
condition,—a situation into which it had probably
been driven by stress of weather, = =) “fl

i o
ae BRR, doe Ay ; Oo
’ \ 7 * tas
* h me
_

ti,
¥
|

)

%
ON THE WATER-RAIL. 181

According to Montagu, it remains in England

- throughout the year.

o

The Reverend Dr Stuart of Luss, in his valu-
able catalogue of the animals found in his parish,
(Statistical Account, yol. xvii. p. 247.), considers
this bird as migratory. It is probable, however,
that its scarcity in his country, and its shy habits,
have occasioned it to be considered as a summer
visitant only. In support of this conjecture, we

_ may mention, that three specimens have occurred

to us during the winter season; the first on the
16th November 1803; the second, 25th November
1807; and the third, 23d January 1818. We are,
therefore, disposed to consider it as one of our resi-
dent species.

This species is a native of the Old World. It
was first noticed, as an English bird, by Merret;
and, as a native of Scotland, by Pennant. Sibbald,
indeed, in his Scotia I[llustrata, enumerates the
Rallus aquaticus among our northern birds; but

_ the description which he subjoins, obviously belongs

to the common gullinule.

I shall conclude these observations, by adding a
synoptical view of the British species of the family
Macrodactyle.

A. Winglets furnished with a spine.
1. Rallus. Rail.
1. Rallus aquaticus. Water-rail.

182 ON THE WATER-RAIL.
B. Winglets without spines.
a. Front, without a fleshy plate. ™
2. Ortygometra. Crake.
1.0, Crex. Cornerake. _ r
2.0. Porzana. Spotted crake.
3. O. Minuta. Little crake, » ih
4. O. Folgambei. Olivaceous crake.
b, Front, with a fleshy plate. |
1. Toes bordered.
3. Gallinula. Geallinule.

1. G. Chloropus. Common gallinule..

2. Toes lobed.

4, Fulica. Coot.
1. T. atra. Common Coot.

CHANGE OF PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDs. 188 |

XI.—An account of the change of Plumage eaha-
bited by many Species of Female Birds, at an
advanced period of life; intended as a Supple-
ment to Mr John Hunter’s Memoir upon that —
‘Subject, in the Philosophical Transactions.

By Joun Burren, ¥.L.S. M. W.S., Member of the
Royal College of Surgeons in London, and Surgeon to
the South Devon Militia at Plymouth.

(Read 10th January 1818, and 15th January 1820.)

/

W uenever any circumstances hitherto unobserv-
ed, or at least not generally known, are brought
forward, regarding the original form and character
stamped upon all animals by Nature, we are too apt
_ to bestow on them the term “ monstrous.” Mr Hun-
ter has begun his description of an extraordinary
Pheasant, in the paper above alluded to, which
~ has been reprinted and published in his Animal
Economy, in the following words; “ Every devia-

184 -') 9 ON THE CHANGE OF

aoe

“ tion from that original form and structure, which
gives the distinguishing character to the produc-
tion of Nature, may not improperly be called Mon-
strous *.” ts
The object of the present short memoir, is to en-
deavour to shew, by means of such facts as I have
been enabled to collect, that the remarkable change
of plumage, which takes place in certain hen-birds
at an advanced period of their lives, so as to make
them resemble the cock of their own species, As not
a monstrous, but a perfectly natural occurrence. I
may observe, that I consider the illustration of
this subject as more necessary, because it, is evi-
dent, from a perusal of his’ observations, that Mr
Hunter doubted whether the instances which he

adduced, really deserved to be considered “mons-
trous” or natural in their occurrence.

The Hen-pheasant and Pea-hen, are the only two
examples of female-birds assuming the plumage of
the male, in old age, given by that great physiologist.
Had Mr Hunter been acquainted with any imstances
of a similar nature, occurring in other hen-birds, he
would, of course, have described them; for it cannot
well be supposed, that he would have omitted to

notice the common Domestic Hen, if he had been
aware, that at a certain advanced notibdl of her life, .
‘she regularly discards her dusky pa for ie |

more beautiful attire of the cock. . dec Aas

* Vide Animal Economy, p. 75. tf Lbs a.

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 185

_ In drawing more particular attention to this sub-

ject, I shall briefly relate such instances of the

change of plumage in the females of the domestic
fowl, as have fallen within my own knowledge.

~ Mr Corham, who resides at Compton near Ply-
mouth, has, for a long series of years, possessed an
excellent: breed of game-fowls; the cocks of which
are of a fpasiatifullye dark-red colour, and the hens of
a 0 04 brown.

~ One hen of this breed was is allowed to live as long
as possible, because her chickens became so renown-
ed in the battles of the cock-pit. When, however,
she had attained the age of fifteen years, she was
observed, after moulting, to have acquired some
arched cock’s feathers in her tail, whilst others
(old feathers) remained straight and brown as form-
erly. By degrees, and during one moulting season,
the whole of her dusky plumage was thrown off,
andsucceeded by a covering of red and more beau-
tiful feathers, quite ike those of the cocks of her
‘own breed. In the course of the single season, the
change was so fully accomplished, that, as she walk-
‘ed about, any stranger might have pronounced her
rather to have been a cock than a hen. Spurs
likewise sprouted out on her legs; she acquired a
comb and wattles on her head, and even crowed
hoarsely, not unlike a young cock.
’ » Her wattles were, however, cut off afterwards, for
the purpose of making her look like a fighting-cock.

186 ON THE CHANGE OF

After the completion of this change of plumage, she
discontinued to lay eggs; and lived no very consi-
derable time to enjoy her recently acquired, but
splendid costume. She was found dead one morning
under her roost, from which she had fallen.

The novelty of the fact, induced Mr Corham to
have the hen stuffed ; and the person who prepared
the specimen, informed me, that he found within -
the body three consolidated eggs.

The truth of this history cannot be questioned ;
for the hen was well known throughout Mr Cor-
ham’s family, and the change is exactly described by
them all. Mr Corham had never observed nor heard
of such an instance before ; but he never kept any
fowl to so great an age as this... The wirrie is
now at Plymouth in my collection.

Mrs Adams of Bowdon near Totness, sefiero of
this circumstance, very obligingly sent to me one of
her hens, which had partly assumed. the cock’s plum-
age, : | iy

Although the change in this hen was quite decid-
ed, not only in the arched feathers of the tail, but also.
in the comb and spurs, which had sprouted out, yet
I thought that the male feathers might come out in
greater perfection, provided that the hen could be
kept over another moulting season; and I, there-
fore, returned her to Mrs Adams, making that re-
quest. Unfortunately, however, a turkey-cock too
such a dislike to this hen after her re that he |

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 187

attacked and killed her, whilst the change of plu-
‘mage was every day becoming more like that of a
cock. The hen, after death, was again sent to me;
but in such a mangled state, that I could not pre-
serve her by stuffing. I dissected the body, how-
ever, and found the perfect organs of a hen, with an
ovyarium and oviduct, me flaccid, ‘but destitute of
* WeOSSS-
I expressed my opinion to Mrs Adams, that this
' change was merely the effect of age, and as confor-
mable to the established laws of nature, as the differ-
ences of plumage existing between the cock and hen
at a more early period of life. With all that ready
_ kindness which invariably distinguishes the conduct
of this lady, she offered to keep some of her oldest
hens for me, in order to ascertain if my surmises were
well founded ; and I have been lately favoured with
a letter from her upon this subject, which I shall
transcribe in part, as it is written with the utmost
clearness, and illustrative of a similar change which
took place in another of her old hens.
| “Twill, most readily give you every information
in» my power, on the subject of my two curious
hens, although I fear it will not be so particular as
you require. One was fifteen years old, the other
thirteen.. I bought them both ‘when pullets.
They were of the common domestic breed, and ex-
cellent layers, which was the reason I kept them
so long.

188 ON THE CHANGE OF

“ T first observed the change in them, after an ab-
sence of five months, when I enquired of ‘my dairy-
maid, from whence came those two voung cocks,
for such they appeared to me in their plumage and
crowing. I was greatly surprised at being inform-
ed, that they were my two old hens. The appear-
ance of cock’s feathers in their tails, and the change

*

of their voices, were the first signs of their altera~

tion. ‘They had laid no eggs for two years; and
how long they might have lived it is impossible

for me to say; for that sent to you was killed by

a turkey-cock, and the other by a servant, (un-
known to me), who thought it right to get rid of
any thing so useless. She told me that on draw-
ing it, the bag containing the eggs was quite closed,

and become a hard substance. T'wo of my servants,

who have lived in farm-houses, inform me, that

this change of plumage is by no means uncom- |

mon; but that, as soon as it is’ observed, the hen —

is immediately killed, because it is looked upon as

an omen of ill-luck to any family, Hines the me

cr ow.”

stuffed Mr Corham’ s hen, as far as regards the state
of the cloac, oviduct, &c. after death. *

~ Tregret that I could discover nothing of the sort
in the cloac of the hen which I dissected ; the sea-
son of the year might possibly account for the diffe-

There is some esi between this account of ,
Mrs ‘Adams's servant, and that of the person who

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 189

rence 5 but upon this point I am not prise to
speak decidedly.

In a work entitled “ Ornithologia Danmonien-
“ sis,” commenced by A. G. C. Tucker, Esq. of
Ashburton, there is given a brief account of a do-
mestic hen, which changed her feathers after moult-
ing, to those of the cock; but as the dissection is
not furnished, little positive inference can be drawn
from it, except that it adds another fact to those be-
fore stated. I may likewise remark, that I have not
found this circumstance mentioned in any other
English work which I have consulted.

- It is somewhat remarkable, that our ornithological
writers have not extended their observations upon
this subject, beyond the pheasant and pea-hen; at
least almost all who speak of the changes of plu-
mage in the pheasant, &c. and who make allusions to
Mr Hunter’s paper, fail to notice those changes in
the domestic hen that I have now described.

White, in his Natural History of Selbourne, after
describing what he calls a Hybrid Pheasant, asks,
if it be not likely, that it is an old hen-pheasant, just
beginning to assume the plumage of the cock. Mr
Latham also observes, that pea-hens, after they have
done laying, sometimes assume the plumage of the
male-bird, and gives a figure of a male-feathered pea-
en, which was then to be seen in the Leverian Mu-
eum. Bewick quotes Mr Hunter’s paper on this
subject when speaking of the pheasant ; but none of

190 ‘ON THE CHANGE OF

these writers, nor Shaw nor Pennant, alhudeieven: to
the probability of the change taking paat in old do-
mestic fowls. Ba

_ Buffon, with his usual rare enters lnigely
into the varieties and descriptions of common fowls,
but does not notice their age, nor any changes they
undergo like those in question , nor does he men-
tion, in any of the editions of his works that I have
seen, the fact, .of old hen pheasants changing their
_ plumage for that of the male ; and yet there are spe-
cimens to be seen in almost every collection of birds.

The circumstances which I have now advanced, I
have been in the habit of mentioning tomany of my
friends and acquaintances,—gentlemen well versed
in the science of zoology ; and I have learnt, that no
facts similar to those now detailed, exist in thewritings
of British naturalists; or at least that those authors
who have given a history of the sexual characters,
varieties and peculiarities of the different species of
British birds, have not remarked, that the common
hen ever assumes the plumage of the cock, whereas
this change in the female pheasant ws seldom
omit to mention. HF Tek
_ In the spring of 1817, as I was passing cough ;
London to the Continent, my much valued friend,
Dr Leach, introduced me to Sir Joseph Banks, to
whom I mentioned such facts as I had ascertained.
respecting the changes in old domestic hens ; ; and
remarked, that they seemed not to have been gene-

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS 191

rally known. Mr Brown, however, being present,
had the kindness to refer me to a work, (the title of
which I have forgotten), in which it was recorded,
that female “ Gallinz” exchanged their feathers at an
advanced period of life for those of the cock.
When I was at Paris, I conversed with MM.
Cuvier, Blainville, and other distinguished zoolo-
gists upon this subject; all of whom seemed to be per-
fectly well acquainted with the change of plumage
known to take place in old hen-pheasants, and some
other gallinac eous birds, but had not observed that
common hen-fowls ever adopted in their old age a si-
milar change. Neither could I see a specimen of the
_ sort in the fine collection of birds at the Garden
of Plants, nor in any Museum at Turin, at Florence,
: Milan, Naples, or Geneva. I have also exami-
~ ned the British and the Hunterian Museums both
in London and Glasgow, and not found any spe-
cimen of a domestic hen with the cock’s plumage,
though there are such examples of hen pheasants.
If I remember correctly, Mr Bullock told me, in
the year 1817, that in his collection there was
‘not a specimen of this sort, nor had he ever seen
one. , |
_ My late correspondent, Colonel Montagu of
Kingsbridge, has temarked in his Ornithological
Dictionary, that female pheasants in confinement
sometimes assumed the plumage of the male, and
at that time became barren, and were equally buf-

192 ON THE CHANGE OF.

‘feted by both sexes; yet he did not consider that |
this change was merely the effect of age; for he |

speaks of having been assured by Lord Caernar-
von, who had many pheasants in this state, that it
takes place at three or four years old. How far
these alterations in wild birds may be expedited or
changed by confinement, I cannot venture to say ;
but of this I am satisfied, that all hen-pheasants, as
well as common hen-fowls, would assume the plumage
of the cock, to a certain degree, if they were kept

to a proper age. The sexes in partridges (vide.

Montagu, Dictionary and Supplement) have a
more early disposition to resemble each other in
plumage ; for after the third year, the hen cannot
be distinguished from the male, by what is termed
the Horse-shoe mark ; as, after that time, this mark
is equally strong in both sexes.

If I remember correctly, Colonel Monidens has
also stated, that he once shot nine partridges be-
longing to the same covey, late in the season, and
that every one had the horse-shoe mark, on the

breast, characteristic of the male sex, but that
on dissection, several of them proved to be fe- -

males. I may here mention, that I once shot
several partridges in the month of December, with
the horse-shoe mark on the breast, and found
one, which I dissected and stuffed, to be a fo
male bird. In winter, therefore, it should seem
that the distinctions between male and female

ol

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 198

partridges are not so visible as in summer. The
same observation may apply to other birds.

Upon the whole, therefore, I am disposed to
conclude, that this change of plumage in old hens,
is not alone confined to one, two, nor three dif-
ferent species, but that probably the same dispo-
sition is common to numbers of the feathered race,
the variations and changes of whose plumage, as
influenced by age, climate, food, confinement, or
disease, have not yet occupied a sufficient share of
attention ; and that the change is almost always
natural, produced either by the effects of age, of
sterility, or other causes, which tend to work some
changes in the constitution of birds. |
Tam disposed to allow with Mr Hunter, that
something similar takes place in the human species ;
for that increase of hair, observable in the faces of
many women advanced in life, is certainly an ap-
proximation towards a beard, which is one of the
most distinguishing secondary properties of men.—
To this observation I may likewise add another,
viz. That mares, when old, approach the form of
the entire horse, by rising more fully at their necks.

Without seeking to multiply these observations,
by going farther into the animal creation, I think
that I have advanced enough to warrant the follow-
ing conclusions.

_ Ist, That in order to separate and distinguish the
sexes, Nature has affixed certain external characters
proper to each.

VOL. IIT. N

194 ON THE CHANGE OF)

2d, That in early life, the. differences between
the male and female, are scarcely observable, but
that at a.certain period the male. assumes charac-
teristic distinctions, denominated: by Mr Hunter,
* Secondary Properties,” which the female then
wants. Kyo ache

3d, That the female seldom apa an advance
towards these secondary properties, until her powers
of procreation are gone, when an inclination: to. re-
semble the masculine form takes place. ‘Thus we
see that the males and females of animals in ge-
neral, and of birds in particular, closely resemble
each other for some time after their birth; that to-
wards the middle or more vigorous period of their
lives, Nature gradually stamps upon the former cer-
tain external characters expressive of the sex to
which they belong; and that after the chief pur-
poses of life have been fulfilled, the latter (females)
also converge into an imitation of those external
marks previously assumed by the males. The prin-
ciple, therefore, appears to me just as clear and well
established, as that death should ultimately resolve
each into the same elementary substances.

One observation I have made upon old birds is,
that they die soon after they change the colour of
their feathers, and cease to lay eggs. bth

I therefore repeat, that the change is never a mons-
trous occurrence, but always the natural result of age
and time. It would be idle, however, to cavil about
words, as it is my desire that this paper should

. PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 195

forin’a sort of supplement to that of Mi° Hunter,

se object ever was to illustrate truth by ration-
al inquiry, and to display his own information as
far as he thought it correct.

"Nature, no doubt, admits of occasional lusi, but T
believe that her changes are neither so frequent ‘nor
so extraordinary as people imagine. Many persons
may traverse her fields without discovering any thing ©
unknown, or even the regular order and course of her
proceedings ; whilst patient observation will some-
times point out phenomena which might have escap-
ed general notice, but which, nevertheless, do not
deviate from the established laws of nature. sid

Plymouth, December 1817.

January 1820.

SINCE December 1817, when I had the honour of
laying before the Wernerian Natural History So-
ciety, some observations relating to such changes of
plumage as t had observed to take place in several
old domestic hens, I have been enabled to get a
drawing made of the stuffed fowl in my possession,
by a very ingenious young lady, residing in the.
neighbourhood of Plymouth ; and I have had much.
pleasure in forwarding it to the Society as a corro-
borative proof of the observations I once made on
this fowl—See Plate XI.

N 2

£4 !

196 ON THE CHANGE OF

The result of, my subsequent inquiries are, that.
many persons haye noticed the circumstance of old
domestic hens beginning to crow when they get
very old, and likewise that their feathers are a ot SP

change in colour. ‘These changes have genera
teen considered as a signal of its being ,

perfect, depending

sae i Iting and other cir-
a ever so complete,
ian slumage to that
He nore straight beak
e tish her from
re bape the
4

with great fidelity iu care, W ill satisfactorily illus-
trate the appearance of the ‘stuffed hen in my pos-
session, with the cock’s plumage, arched feathers in
the tail, spurs, &. The comb and wattles were cut
off by the owner, previously to the death of the bird,
as I have already stated. "

PLATE Ae:

Wernertan Mem Vol. ULP.196.

LOT LOS OT CEM

oy
C

RAEN OES

AREAS

= ——

SSS

TOVINOTd AIVIN HALIM NAH OLLS wIvod

BECO ETE

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 197

” With the view, however, of exciting more gene-
ral investigation into this subject, and of bringing
together as many species as have been known to
undergo this change, I subjoin a small list of such
female birds as have, in advanced life, assumed the
plumage of the male, with the names of those au-
thors who have noticed the fact.

Class Il —Aves,—Birds.

Orp. 4.—GaLitina.—Domestic Birds.

Rien Ea Wavy, PCA ee. il. ds Galleldclelas aviv al vesosesceree LAUER.
2. Meleagris, Turkey............+1+0+sseeesesseennse Bechstein.

8. Phasianus colchicus, Pheasant, common............ Hunter.
pictus, golden...... Blumenbach.
— gallus, Fowl, domestic....... Aristotle,

; [ Tucker, Butter. |

4. Tetrao Perdrix, Partridge...............+++sss-Montagu.
5. Columba, Pigeon..............ceceeceoesceteccevone L CCCEMANN.

Orp. 5.—GraLtia.—Waders.

2d Family, Prepirostres, Gen. 1. Otis, Bustard...... Tiedemann.
3d Cultrirostres, 3d Tribe, Gen. 4. Plata-
oe er i earl ei 8 Catesby.

Orv. 6.—Patmipepa.— Web-footed.

4th Family, Lamellirostres, soft skin on the beak,
Gen. 1. Anas, Duck, (Common and Wild)....... Tiedemann.

* Platalea aiaia—Enl. 165.—* A le visage nu, et des
teintes rose-vif de diverses nuantes sur le plumage, qui de-
viennent plus intenses avec l’age ; elle est propre a l’ Amerique
meridionale.” P. 482. t. 1. Regne Animal.

In this species, the young bird has its head and neck
covered with feathers, the old one bare, not peculiar to either
sex.

198 ON THE CHANGE OF

~The species contained in this list are’ arranged
according to the system of Cuvier, in his “ Regne
Animal,” published in 1817, which is certainly the
most complete arrangement of the animal kingdom
that has ever yet been offered to the world. ©

‘When the foregoing observations were made, I was
not acquainted with the information which had been
published on this subject by various authors, parti-
cularly by Aristotle, Schneider, — Ausonius,
Blumenbach, &c..

Tcould only judge of the novelty of these facts,

by the inquiries I made of other persons, who had
directed their attention more particularly to the ha-
bits, economy; and peculiarities of birds, than I my-
self had done. Through the kindness of Mr James
Wilson, of Edinburgh, I was favoured with a com-
munication last year, (1818), from him, containing
the result of his knowledge, which appeared to be
very extensive, on this subject; and also with an
extract from the writings of Schneider *. This ex:
tract I shall take the liberty of transcribing, as it
has enabled me to add some species to pete list
which I had before made.
© Aves viduas dictas domi altas pee anno
plumagium mutare vidit clarissimus Gallus; ver-
nalis quidem mutatio maribus colorem plumarum

_ * The writings here alluded to, are appended by Schneider,

in the form of notes and illustrations to the last edition of the
treatise “ De Arte Venandi cum Avibus,” by Emperor Frede*
rick IT.

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. — 199

ypulchriorem et pennas caude longas addit, quas au
tumnalis mutatio pallidas reddit et prorsus adimit.
Foeminz senescentes maribus magis magisque si-
miles efficiuntur ; quod item accidere foeminis pha-
sianarum, cum ovare aut desierunt aut pauca modo
ova edunt, annotavit. cl. Mauduyt, p. 3. sub voce,
“ Faisan.” Plumarum colorem tum induunt eundem —
cum maribus, sed pallidiorem, et a venatoribus
“ Faisans coquars” appellantur. HKandem rem ob-
servare licet in foeminis senescentibus phasiani au-
rei. Prioris speciei feemine cultro anatomico sub-
jectz, oviductus manifestos, ovaria vero aut plane
nulla aut fere oblitterata, monstrabant. In galli-
nis vulgaribus et pavonibus, eandem Aristotelis
observationem et Ausonii, pluribus veterum et re-
centiorum, imprimis Joanni Hunteri testimonio
confirmatam, illustrare atque explicare conatus sum,
in Promptuario Lipsiensi anni 1786, quibus exem-
plis nunc phasianorum foeminarum, anatum qua-
rundam et viduarum exempla accedunt. Denique,
in Pelecano Americano, Catesby, 1. tab. 81. se-
_ nectute caput et colli due tertie partes calve mem-
brana crassa teguntur, in juventute vero plumis
‘vestiuntur.—Sub voce Couricaca.”
_. The protection which man affords to many galli-
naceous birds, may make some difference in their con-
_ stitutions; but neither climate, food, nor captivity,
has ever been proved to work the changes I have
described as peculiar to the plumage of old hen-
“birds. The circumstance, therefore, is wholly natu-

200 ON THE CHANGE OF

ral. Willoughby has said, that hens may be brought
into an “ effete or barren state in three years,” by for-
cing them to lay eggs oftener than they would na-
turally do, by the practice of removing their eggs
as fast as laid, and dipping the hens in cold water
when they cluck, or shew a disposition to hatch their
eggs by sitting; but he does not speak of having
observed any changes in their plumage at this time.
It is evident, however, from the following quota-
tion, that Aristotle had observed changes similar to
those already mentioned, to take place in old do-
mestic hens; but ornithological writers subsequent
to him, (especially in England), have seldom or ne-
ver adverted to the circumstance in their writings.
For a knowledge of Aristotle’s remarks, as well as
those of many other authors, I am indebted to the
kindness of Professor Jameson, who has favoured me
with the following extract from his Lectures, which
are rendered. most interesting to all classes of persons,
from the abundance of facts they contain, and which
have afforded me the most important and useful
information in the various departments of Natural
History, during my residence at the University
of Edinburgh. “ Gallinz cum vicerint gallos, eu-_
currunt, maresque imitandi subagitare conantur.
Attollitur etiam crista ipsis, simul et clunes (uropy- —
gium); adeo ut non jam facile dignoscantur, an
foomine sint. Quibusdam etiam calcaria parva sur-

riguntur.”—Aristotle, His. Anim. lib, ix. ¢. 36...
¢

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 201

»Blumenbach mentions, that the female of the
common and golden pheasant, when old, occasion-
ally assume the plumage, and voice of the male—
Blumenbach, Commentatio de Anomalis et vitiosis
quibusdam Nisus formativi aberrationibus. —Gottin-
gen, 1813, p. 8.

It may here be mentioned, that an example of
the golden hen-pheasant taking on the male plu-
mage in old age, lately occurred at Dalkeith, in the
pheasantry of the Duke of Buccleugh.

Tiedemann mentions the same of the domestic
pigeon, bustard and domestic duck ; and Bechstein,
in his Natural History of the Animals in Germany,
informs us that the old Turkey-hen sometimes as-
sumes the tuft of hair on the breast, which cha-
racterizes the male-—Vide Bechstsein, in Natur-

geschichte Deutchlands, b. 3. s. 116.

- L have also been informed by Mr James Wilson,
that Mr Falconer of Carlowrie, a member of the
Wernerian Society, is acquainted with a change of
plumage, like that already described, having taken
place in the common domestic duck. A nobleman
in Devonshire, whose name I am not at liberty to
mention, assured me, not long ago, that a wild
duck, which was kept in his park, had assumed the
A plumage of the drake.

Imay also mention, that a pea-hen, beginning toas-
| sume the male plumage, has been lately presented by
Lord Glenlee to th® Museum of the University of
Edinburgh. It is not so good a specimen of the sort

202 ON THE CHANGE OF

as I have seen in other collections, but still it:
trates the principle very well, and corroborates. my
‘observation, viz. that old hen-birds die soon after they
have assumed the plumage of the male, .My. friend
Mr Tucker of Ashburton, Devon, a. most;acute ob-
server of the habits and economy of birds, has lately
‘made known to me another instance of a common
hen, besides the one described in his “ Ornithologia
~Danmoniensis,” which took on the male plumage in
old age. These facts I mention just in the order of |
their, occurring to me.

. If-L had not confined myself almost exclusively
es birds in this paper, I might have mentioned that
the coat of every young grey horse becomes of a
milk-white colour in advanced life. The same re-
mark may apply to the major part of the human
race; but this change in the colour of the hair only
illustrates the effects of age*, and not the disposi-
tion of the female to resemble the male.

Most authors have observed, that birds. change

their plumage, as well as animals their hair, twice
a-year ; but no one, as far as my information. goes,

* Grief is also said to turn human hair grey at an early pe-
riod of life. How far grief or fright may operate upon birds
in confinement, and. dispose them to exhibit the characteristic
marks of age sooner than they might do if allowed to range
without restraint, I am not prepared to say ; ; but I deem eg
subject worth inquiring into, by those persons who are em’
lous of advancing this: art of our rari of the animal
‘economy. ee ‘ad

”

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 203

has clearly remarked, that feathersthemselves change
colour after having been maturely formed, until late-
ly; and yet it is a well known fact, that many birds
have their feathers mottled or grey in summer, and
white in winter; \the summer covering being thin
and light, the winter thick. The Ptarmigan
and Hare are examples. In volume XII. of the
Linnean Transactions, there is an interesting paper

by the Reverend William Whitear of Sterston,

Norfolk, stating, that in some birds, the full grown
feathers themselves change colour, without being re-
placed by new ones. From this paper it is to be in-
ferred, that a change in the colour of the plumage
of birds, does not always arise from the change of
feathers, but sometimes proceeds from the feathers
themselves assuming at one season of the year a
different colour from that which my have at ano-
ther *.

It seems to be probable, that birds gaining theit
winter plumage, have their feathers partly changed in
this way. The colour of the feathers, therefore, may
be formed at two different times, viz. either when the
feathers themselves are growing, or after the feathers
‘have been properly formed ; in the one instance, the

_ colour is co-existent with the growth of the feather ;

«

"in the other, superadded to its structure. In the
changes of old age, the colour «accompanies the
growth of the feathers, because it appears with or

* Vide. p- 526. Vol. 12. Part ii. Trans. Lin. Soc.

204 ON THE CHANGE OF

soon after moulting. The differences of colour in
the plumage of many birds in winter and summer,
“Mr Whitear supposes may be referable to the
second way, or the acquirement of colour after the
structure of the feather itself has been completed.
I should, however, conceive, for example, when a
Ptarmigan changes the mottled colour of its plu-

mage to white, as it does in autumn, that a second

:
> Saag

crop of white-feathers grow out; and that those |

which previously existed in a mottled colour, also
become white. Therefore I infer, that the colour
in this instance may both accompany the growth
of some, and be changed after it has actually been
exhibited upon the substance of other feathers.° —
The. mottled-ashed colour of the spring-crop of
feathers, probably accompanies their growth, which
takes place whilst the winter or white plumage is
casting off; and the autumnal crop seems to become
white from both processes, viz. the one forming with
the feather, the other after it has been matured.
Mr Whitear’s observations, therefore, may not, on
reflection, seem so novel as they appear. at first
sight; for no remark is more common, than that
the plumage of birds and coats of animals inhabiting
Arctic Regions, become thicker and whiter on. the
approach of winter, without either feathers or sii
being shed at this period.
Respecting the changes of fintpasied in Sa ay

some good remarks will be found in the same volume -

of the Linnean Transactions, by Captain Sabine,

PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS. 905

who accompanied the late expedition to Greenland.
As the colour of the feathers of many birds, in win-
ter and summer, is still involved in much confusion,
sO we may suppose, when the same bird is some-
times described as two distinct species (Tringa,
Cinelus and Alpina, were described as distinct spe-
cies, until Montagu shewed them to be the same
bird, in its winter and summer plumage) ; and as the
changes peculiar to the plumage of certain female
birds, seem not to have met with a sufficient: share
of attention, I have dwelt longer upon the subject
than I had intended ; and now quit it with the hope,
that some other person will more satisfactorily prose-
cute the investigation, by making an addition of
other facts and observations to those which I have
been enabled to collect. |

Age of Domestic Fouls.

Some inferences may perhaps be drawn from the
foregoing remarks as to the age of fowls. Natural his-
toriansseem tohave greatly overlooked this point. Al-
drovandus, however, supposed, that the domestic fowl
seldom or never exceeded ten years of age. In the
instances given of Mrs Adams’s hens, one lived to the
age of thirteen, and the other to fifteen years, and
both were killed.

~ Mr Corham’s hen died a natural death, in the
fifteenth or sixteenth year of her age.

206 CHANGE OF PLUMAGE IN HEN-BIRDS.

Professor Jameson, in his lectures, gives a well:
attested instance from the writings of Tiedemann, of
a domestic cock which lived twenty-five years. 9

The computed age of a fowl, correspondent to
that of man, whose days are said to be three score
years and ten, I. would average at 15 years, viz. as
about 1 to 5, or 15 to 72.

Most fowls would probably die under that age,.
by accident or disease ; but some few may live to the
extraordinary age of 25, as old Parr lived to 152, and
Henry Jenkins (both of whom died in the county of
York) to 169 years of age. yaeet' fies T

opivaay t viel

ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 207

XII.—Account of some Fossil Remains of the
Beaver, (Castor Fiber LE.) found in Perthshire
Pht Berwickshire, proving that that animal
was formerly a native of Scotland.

By the Secretary.

(Read 1st May 1819.)

Ty. has generally been believed, that the beaver
was once indigenous to different. parts of Britain,
particularly Wales and Scotland. I shall first no-
tice the evidence of the existence, in former times,
of the beaver in Wales; for, in this way, as will
presently appear, some light may be thrown on the
question of its having likewise been one of the na-
tive quadrupeds of Scotland. — |

_ The earliest written authority on this subject, is
contained in a document of the 9th century, which
has been published in the Leges' Wallice of Dr
Wotton. In Book iii. § 11, 12. of the Laws of

908 ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND.

Hywel Dha, where the prices of furs are regulat-
ed,

The Marten’s skin is valued at................-. 24d.

The Otter’s (Ddyfrgi or Lutra) at............. 12d.

The Beaver’s (Llosdlydan or Castor) at no less

than 120 d. or at five times the price of the marten’s

fur, and ten times the price of the otter’s. It thus
appears, that the beaver was then ‘hunted in Wales

for the sake of its fur; that this skin was held in
high estimation; and that the beaver had already,

before the close of the 9th century, become a scarce

animal in this country.

The next authority is contained in the “ tine.
rarium Cambrie” of Giraldus de Barri. This wri-
ter, it may be remarked, made his journey into
Wales, towards the end of the 12th century, as the
attendant of Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury,
whose zeal led him personally to excite the Welch-
men to join in the projected crusades. That Giral-
dus was inclined to be an observer of nature, is prov-
ed by the single fact, that when he arrives on the
confines of the river Teivi in Cardiganshire, he im:
mediately makes a long digression on the natural
history of the beaver. Although he rehearses some
of the exploded fables of the ancients, yet other parts
of his account are very accurate, and may be consi-
dered as bearing the marks of a description made
from actual observation. In the simple and bold
language of a man who knew the truth of what
he was- writing, he says of the Teivi, ‘ Inter uni-

ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 209.

versos Cambrie seu etiam Llegriz fluvios, solus hic
castores habet ;” and adds, “ In Albania quippe, ut
fertur, fluvio similiter unico habentur, sed rari *.”
We may perhaps infer from this cautious mode of
expression, that the author intended to contrast the
nature of his evidence, and to intimate, that the fact
previously mentioned depended on surer grounds, or
on his own observation. But the very cautiousness
of the language in which the report relative to Al-
bania is repeated, ought, perhaps, to increase our re-
liance on-its authenticity. It would appear, there-
fore, that in the 12th century, the beaver probably
‘ still existed in Scotland, but was then a scarce ani-
mal.
‘The! first of the native incor and Midori
_ans of Scotland whose works assumed a printed form,

and have come down to us, is Hector Boece, who
_wrote his Description and History towards the end

of the 15th century. After describing the dimen-
sions of Loch Ness, he says, “ Ad lacus latera,
propter ingenta nemora ferarum ingens copia est,
cervorum, equorum indomitorum, capreolorum : ad
hee, marterelle, fovine ut vulgo vocantur, vulpes,
mustele, fibre lutreeque, incomparabile numero, quo-
Tum tergora extere gentes ad luxum immenso pretio

; ‘coémunt . ” Here the fibri are enumerated with
_ such perfect confidence among the other quadrupeds

whose furs were in request for exportation, that we
(MOLI. O

* Itin. Camb. lib. ii. cap. 3. + Boethius, Scot. Hist.

210 on THE sian OF BOORL/AND.

damit that beavers were still to be found at Loch —

, Ness, i in the time of the author. But the “ incom-
parable number” of Boethius, may well stagger our
belief; and forms a singular contrast with the “ single
river” and “rarity” mentioned by Giraldus wiikey
centuries before. Sh
It may further be remarked, that Bellenden, i in
‘the translation of Boethius which he undertook
(probably about the year 1536) at the request of
King James V., while he omits the cervi, ‘capreoli,
and even the lutra, mentions bevers without the
pact hesitation. His words are: “ ne

great price amang uncouth (foreign) etal Ne ui
It must be confessed, however, that the ackine &
of the translation, as evinced by the very. passage in

question, detracts from the conclusiveness of Bellen- 4

den’s testimony; for it seems at least fully ¢ as proba-
‘ble that there’ were fallow-deer and roes in the fo-
rests of Loch Ness, as that there were wild horses
there ; ang it admits of no doubt whatever cc ot-

for they ai are so to this day. od "
After dihgent inquiry, I have not ih

* Bellenden, Croniklis of Scotland. igh

or Y THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 211

has i, P surca in the neighbourhood of Loch
_ What is more remarkable, 1 in the extensive
tions along the line of the Caledonian Canal,
iverness to Corpach, and in the course of
leepen: ng, ‘by means of a dredging-machine, the
5 d. of Loch Dochfour, no bones of the beaver have
a enue
The accuracy both of Boece and of Bellenden
seems to be strongly impugned by this important
fact, that no mention of beavers occurs in any of
the public records of Scotland now extant.. In an
act dated June 1424, c. 22. * Of the custome of
fur ingis,” - mertricks, fowmartes (pole-cats), otters,
and tods, are specified; but not a word is said of
beavers, although these, had they existed, must
* h ave been the most valuable of all, not only for
~ their furs, but for the substance called castor, which
in those days still retained its repute asa medicine.
As it is pretty plain from their writings, that nei-
ther the historiographer nor his translator had the
sli y htest claim to the character of being naturalists,
and as both give abundant proofs of their nationali-
ty, in boasting beyond measure of the products of
r yee country, it may be considered as not improba-
ble that the beaver had been exterminated in Scot-
Pana before their time, although the tradition re-
garding its existence in former days was so strong
and general, as to lead them to enumerate it with-
out hesitation among the wild animals of the coun-
try.

Oo 2

a ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND.

Sir Robert Sibbald does not, on this topic, s show
any of that precision, and zeal for inquiry, which:
characterize many other parts of his writings. ath
contents himself with referring to Boece, in prool of
the beaver having formerly been found i in Scotland,
and adds, with seeming indifference, «“ An nune zt
periatur nescio *.” Te!

No modern writer on the natural history of Scot-
land, seems to have examined the subject. The.
late Dr Walker, Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh, in his “ Mammalia
Scotica +,” merely says, that beavers formerly ex-
isted in this country, but are not now to be found. »
In his lectures, however, the Doctor used to men-—
tion, that the Scots Highlanders still retai: a ye ;
dition, a peculiar Gaelic name for the animal. - 3
In order to satisfy myself with regard to the va- —
lue of this traditionary evidence, I applied to the
venerable and learned Dr Stuart of Luss,—a gen-
tleman distinguished both as a naturalist anda C el. 9
tic scholar,—and the friend and fellow traveller ¢ lof...
Pennant and of Lightfoot in their principal exeur-
sions through Scotland. From him I received a
confirmation of Dr Walker’s statement, that 1 he {
ancient Gaelic name of the beaver is still known t
the Highlanders in the remote western districts of

(eae

* Scotia Ilustrata, Pars II. lib. iii p- 10. ) a or ,

+ Posthumous Essays on Natural History &e.
edited by Mr Charles Stewart. a aka

>

94
=

ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 213

and. “ The name (says the Doctor) is Los-

a riv a] from los, the tail, point or end of a

hi ing, and leathan, broad ; or Dobhran losleathan,

the broad-tailed otter.” The similarity between
this Gaelic name, handed down by tradition to the
19th century, and the Welsh name (Llosdlydan)
recorded in the Leges Wallice of the 9th century,
is very striking: the etymology of the names is evi-
dently the same; and indeed they may be regarded

- as identical. Dr Stuart adds, that he recollects

& “to have heard of a tradition among the Highland-

ers, which he thinks is probably still preserved in

the country, that the “ beaver or broad-tailed otter
onee abounded in Lochaber.”

I have now to state, that the evidence, written
and traditionary, which has just been detailed, tend-
ing to show that beavers formerly inhabited .Scot-

land, has received the most ample confirmation,
from the occurrence of unaltered fossil remains of

_ the animal on two occasions ; first to the north, and
next to the south of the Forth.

_. The first instance I have to mention, occurred a

_ good many years ago. From an entry in the mi-
nutes of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
dated 16th December 1788, it appears, that “ Dr
Farquharson presented to the Society the fossil
skeleton of the head and one of the haunch-bones
of a beaver,” dug up in Perthshire. These bones
are still preserved in the Museum of the Society ;
and I was liberally allowed to examine them, and

214 ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLRND. |

compare them with others.

cranium is gone ; and the svonkasteliaaae it eft a

orbit is shattered ; a part of one side of the lower
jaw-bone is likewise broken ; of the incisores, only
some remains of those of the lower jaw now exist.
The “ haunch-bone,” or left os innominatum of the
pelvis, is quite entire. All the bones are dyed of a
deep chocolate-colour.. From the state of the su-
tures of the cranium, and from the size of the bones

of the nose, which are complete, this animal appears ~ %

to have been of full growth, but not aged. ban

The remains were found in the parish of Kin.
loch, near the foot of the Grampian _ Mountains.
The Loch of Marlee, on the property of Mr Far-
quharson of Invereauld, is the last or lowest of a
series. of small lakes, extending almost from Dun-
keld to Blairgowrie, nearly in the direction of the
high road between these places, This loch had
been partly drained, for the sake of the marl which
it contained. In one of the marl-pits on the mar-
gin of this loch, under a covering of peat-mdss be-

tween five and six feet thick, the beaver’s skeleton.

#

was discovered. The bones already mentioned, be-

ing the firmest and most perfect, were found by the
workmen ; and being accidentally seen by Dr Far-
quharson, were carried by him to Edinburgh, and
presented, as already mentioned, ‘to the Antiqua-
rian Society.

Tn a neighbouring marl-pit, a pair of deer’s horns,
of large dimensions, and branched, were found near-

ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 215

ly at the same time; and, along with these, two
*leg-bones, so deeply grooved as to appear like
dor ble bones.” These last, it has been suggested
to me by Dr Barclay, were probably the metatarsal
Be bones of a large species of deer, which appears to
have been contemporary with the beaver, and per-
| haps to have been exterminated much about the
same | period with that animal.

__ The second instance occurred so lately as October
1818, on the estate of Kimmerghame, in the parish
of Edrom, near the head of that district of Ber-
wickshire called the Merse. Since this estate was
acquired by the present proprietor Mr Bonar, bank-
er in Edinburgh, he has made important improve-
ments. In the course of these, he drained a mo-
rass called Middlestot’s Bog. Under the peat-moss
here, a layer of shell-marl occurs, varying in thick-
s from four to eight feet. Different marl-pits

have been opened; and in one of these, the re-
: main ins of the beaver were found. They were si-

tuated at the depth of seven feet from the surface,

under a layer of peat-moss of that thickness. It

is remarked in a letter from Mr Thomas Dickson,
_overseer at Kimmerghame, to Mr Bonar junior
(who took a lively interest in this investigation),
that a layer of a kind of loose whitish substance,
erally occurs between the bed of compact peat-
oss and the bed of marl. From a specimen sent
inburgh, this substance appears to consist of
ral musci which grow in marshy situations,

7

Des

216 | ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND.

much decayed, but among which Sphagnum latifo-
lium, 8. capillifolium, and Hypnum cuspidatum can
be readily distinguished. The bones of the beaver
were imbedded partly in this loose and spongy mate
ter, and partly in the marl below. Only the hard
bones of the cranium and face, and the jaw-bones, .
retained enough of their firm texture to fit them
for being removed and preserved in a dry state.
Around these, however, dispersed in rather a pro-
miscuous manner, were many bones, which, from
their size and appearance, evidently belonged to the
same animal. Several of the long bones and ver-
tebre, while they remained zn situ, seemed perfect ; )
but on being touched, they were found to be nearly

in a state of dissolution; and though some were _
carefully taken out, they speedily mouldered down

on being exposed to the air, and becoming dry.
The apparent dislocation of the skeleton is not to
be ascribed to violence, but to the gradual SCD
tion of the parts by unequal subsidence. The ap-
pearance of the marl, in which delicate sh Is, of
the genera Lymnea and Succinea, could be traced, ,
indicates a long continued state of tranquillity.

Mr Bonar junior having carried the skull we 4
lower jaw-bone to Edinburgh, presented them ii.
Professor Jameson, for the College Museum ; and
at his request I have drawn up this notice. Nia.
Bonar subsequently transmitted specimens of the ed
different layers of the peat-moss, and of the vege-
table remains | which - occur in it, and also of the

_ ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 217

Among the vegetable remains, common fil-
its, or at least the shells of the nuts, were
abundant. A large specimen of Boletus suberosus
s0 greatly resembled the hoof of some animal, that
i. it had been laid aside as such by the workmen;
but the tubes and pores are sufficiently distinct to
afford characters. ‘The overseer mentions in his
letter, that the fossil-wood which is found, is “ prin-
cipally birch and alder; with some oak, though not
much of it; but no kind of fir-cones have been ob-
served.”

Mr Bonar has in his possession a pair of horns
belonging to the large species of deer already men-
tioned, of great size, and with fine antlers, found
in the same marl-pit, and near the same spot, only

N vo days before the occurrence of the beaver’s re-
mains.

“The head of the beaver from Berwickshire is in
a much more perfect state than that from Perth-
shire. The cranium and bones of the face are en-
tire; so is the lower jaw-bone ; all the four incisores
are perfect, retaining the peculiar kind of coloured
enamel which clothes the outer half of the circum-
_ ference of the tooth; the cutting edges remain fully
as sharp as in recent specimens from Hudson’s Bay.

“The molares are also complete: It is considered as
Imost characteristic of the beaver that the grinders
re Wi thout distinct fangs; but in this specimen,
‘o0t-like b: as 28 are seen projecting from some of the

teeth, through ‘their sockets into the orbits. The

218 ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. —

bones are dyed of a brownish hue, but not > nearly i
x erlor ena- pe

so dark as those from Perthshire: the ex
mel above mentioned, which in recent specimens

of a brownish-yellow or dull orange coleany) has bes

come almost jet black. ste a haw? ”

On comparing these fossil heads scishaniele ones
from Hudson’s Bay and Canada, in the possession
of Professor Jameson and of Dr Barclay, it appears
that they all belong to the same species of Castor;
but although there seem to be no sufficient specific
distinctions, it may be mentioned, that the two fos-
sil specimens have a greater resemblance to each
other in general shape and proportions, than to any
of four recent specimens with which they have been
compared. In the fossil specimens, in particular,

the nasal bones are proportionally larger than the:

same parts in the recent specimens. .
Both the fossil heads appear to have clasgell to

full grown animals. This opinion rests on two

grounds: 1, On a comparison, in regard to general

dimensions, with recent specimens from Hudson’s

Bay, brought home by Mr Auld of Leith, and

known to have belonged to full grown beavers ; and,
2. On the state of the sutures and ridges of the

cranium. In the Perthshire specimen, the squa-

mous sutures of the parietal bones are partly ob-
literated; and in the Berwickshire gy i 7

though these sutures are distinct, yet the crest

Ho 2

ridge between the two temporal muscles, in the

course of the sagittal suture, is considerably raised ;, ‘i

ON THE BEAVERS OF SCOTLAND. 919

and in the Hudson’s Bay skulls, both these charac-
ters are known equally to indicate the adult or per-
fect state. Neither of the fossil skulls, however,
had belonged to an old animal; for, in a Canadian
specimen in Dr Barclay’s collection, not only are
several of the sutures nearly obliterated, but the

component pieces of the cuneiform bone, and the
- cuneiform process of the occipital bone, are united ;

_ while in both the fossil specimens, the divisions re-

main evident; circumstances which satisfactorily
show that this Canadian specimen had been older
than any of the others, although it is certainly not
of larger dimensions.

The Scottish specimens, it may be remarked,
seem very much to agree with a fossil beaver’s head
described and figured by M. Cuvier, in his “ Re-
cherches sur les Ossemens fossiles de Quadrupédes,”

vol. iv. sect. De rongeurs fossiles, This specimen
was found by M. Traullé, in a peat-moss in the
moles of the Somme in Picardy. The same peat-
arerded, as with us, large horns of deer.
ip ‘igen

220 ON THE ROCKS OF SANDSIDE

PPA i
fe er

XIIL.—On the Rocks of Sandside in Caithness.

By Professor JAMESON.
¢

>

(Read 24th December 1819.)

, “e

Tas crust of the earth is almost entirely compo-
sed of five simple minerals, viz. Quartz, Felspar,
Mica, Limestone, and Hornblende*. These, ei-
ther variously aggregated, or in simple unmixed
masses, form the various kinds of mountain-rocks.
All the other simple minerals described in Systems
of Mineralogy, occur in comparatively small quan-

tities, distributed through these mountain-rocks, in
the form of beds, veins, imbedded masses, disse-

minated, or in drusy cavities. Of the five simple
minerals already enumerated, the most generally and
widely distributed are quartz and felspar; lime-
stone is more abundant than mica and hornblende

iae

“ Under this title I also include, in a geognostic sense,

IN CAITHNESS. 991

nd therefore these two latter are the least frequent.
Quartz, which is probably the most abundant mi-
neral in nature, is met with in all the rock-forma-
tions, from granite to the newest alluvial deposites ;

and in many regions, in the form of quartz-rock,

‘sandstone, gravel and sand, it occupies districts of
immense extent. This quartz-rock passes into
oneiss, mica-slate, porphyry and granite; and sand-

stones which, in a general view, are to be considered
as members of the quartz series, also occasionally pass
into granite. This transition of quartz or sand-
stone into highly crystallized rocks of the nature
of granite, although very interesting, has not hi-
therto been much noticed by geologists. I shall
therefore now lay before the Society a short ac-
count of an appearance of this description which oc-
curs in Sandside Bay, on the north-west corner of
Caithness. |

_ The Bay of Sandside is situated in the parish
of Reay, and near the confines of Sutherland. It
is open to the north; but on the south there are se-
veral low rugged hills, and on the east and west
precipitous sea-cliffs. Three rivulets flow into the
bay; one on the east is named Isald ; the second,
in the middle, is Reay-burn ; and the western, the
Burn of Sandside. We walked several miles up
the burn of Sandside, and found the rocks in every

“place where we had an opportunity of examining

= to be syenite, granite, hornblende-rock and

299 ON THE ROCKS OF SANDSIDE

gneiss. -Of these the syenite appeared to bet he most
abundant. The granite occurred in veins and masses
in the syenite; and the gneiss was only observable
in large and small cotemporaneous masses imbedded
in the syenite, The hornblende-rock; like the gnei s.
did not appear forming regular beds or strata,
only disposed in masses imbedded in the sy
Many blocks of red-sandstone, and of granitic con-
glomerate, were observed in the’ bed and on the
sides of the burn, but we did not discover them 2 in
situ. We crossed eastwards over some low hills: of
syenite and gneiss, to Reay Burn, and traced it to”

its termination in the bottom of the bay. - Every al

where in its bottom, sides, and neighbourh ood
where, rocks could be seen, these were iti, it
with hornblende-rock and gneiss. by
beds or masses of the syenite, liad a ieee wh
conglomerated structure, from the numerous rouen¢

ish, blunt and pap angeles aan of hori e-

and Bollea Ria the east ‘ide of the bay,, dee
Isald Burn; but, owing to the deep: cover of | i
blowing sand, we did not discover any consider;
fixed rocks, until near the mouth of the bur, when
strata of grey quartzy sandstone, slate-clay, often
inclining to clay-slate, and coarse grey ecules Ie

fl Be

frequently variously convoluted, made their apj
ance. ‘These strata continued to the extremit
the bay, where they formed lofty precipices a
cliffs, facing the Pentland Frith.

*

ae

Phi

* See

IN GAITHNESS. 223

~ On walking up the course of the burn, a bed of
syenite was observed rising from under the lime-
stone; and, in the limestone, were numerous por-
tions of the syemte, varying from the size of a
fist to several feet'in diameter. The syenite con-
tains much hornblende, with flesh-red felspar, small
scales of mica, and grains of grey quartz. The
limestone resting on it, and intermixed with it, is
tid, and’ contains small disseminated grains of
Hiolksayritd Farther up the burn, the syenite, in
several places, assumes the conglomerated charac-
ter. There are two varieties of this conglomerate :
in the one, the ovoidal and roundish masses are con-
nected together by a basis of smaller granular syenite;
in the other, they are immediately joined together,
without any basis or ground. Another variety of
syenite-conglomerate was observed a little distance
from those just described, in which the apparent
fragments were of syenite, and of a coarse sandstone,
of the same variety as that which occurs in strata In-
termixed with, and passing into these conglomerates,
there i is a fourth variety, in which both the roundish
and ovoidal masses, and the basis or eround in
which they are imbedded, are of red granite. These
four kinds of conglomerate, do not form separate
and distinct beds. On the contrary, they appear
to be mutually imbedded in each other, in masses
of greater or less extent; and all of them are includ-
ed in a general and greater mass or bed of compact
syenite, which is either of a red or grey colour.

994 = ON THE ROCKS OF SANDSIDE

In the vicinity of these conglomerated syenites, we
observed a fine section of the rocks, displaying a
transition from the syenite and granite into conglo-
merate, and from this latter rock into sandstone. _
The lowest. rock in this section is: compact syenite,
in.some places passing into the conglomerated varie-.
ty; and above it, is a mass.of pure conglomerated

e syenite. Over these is a thick bed, the lower part

of which is very coarse granular red granite, which
gradually passes into a superincumbent conglome-
rated granite; and this graduates intoa fine granu-
lar sandstone conglomerate, forming the upper part
of the bed. The highest rock of the section, is the
common sandstone of Caithness, which, in its lower
part, has the same characters as the upper part of
the subjacent bed. |

The facts just stated shew, that. these syenites, gra-
nites, conglomerates, sandstones and limestones, pass
into each. other; and are, therefore, to be considered
members of the same formation.

The syenite is traversed by veins of ek r
heavy-spar, which contain disseminated leadglance; $ .

and. both the yep and the pga = a 1

| visckecipdie nevith setites of titanium: ae atin
aie them. a ie

“

PLATE XM.

Structures of Sandstone

Trap ut? with veins and balls
of ui and of basatt.

WEDLtzars Sculp*

GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN. 225

XIV.—Geognosy of East Lothian *,

By Professor Jamzson.

ME 0 a (Read 11th March 1815.)

Au that part of Scotland which lies to the south —
of the Frith of Forth, is denominated the Southern

Division; and the tract betwixt the Frith of Forth

_ and the chain of lakes which extends from Inver-
ness to Fort William, the Middle Division. It is

_ my intention to lay before the Society, in a series

of papers, observations on several of the districts
that occur in these divisions.
Weshall begin with the Mineralogy of ihe South-

ern Division.—This division of Scotland is more

_ simple in its structure, and its mountains and val-

ve leys are, on a general view, less elevated, and less
tugged, than those that occur in the middle divi-

sion. Its rivers also are smaller, and its lakes fewer
Agnjmber, and inferior in magnitude, to those that

ee

-* See Memoirs of Wernerian Sociale os; ii. p. 618.

VOL. 1. | ree pa

226 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

occur to the north of the Frith of Forth. The rock
formations belong to the Transition, Secondary or
fleetz, and Alluvial classes. The transition rocks
are Granite, gneiss, syenite, porphyry, trap, lime-
stone, clay-slate, sandstone, and grey-wacke: the
secondary or floetz rocks, are Red Sandstone, with
its accompanying porphyry, pitchstone, tuff, amyg-.
daloid, basalt, greenstone, clinkstone, limestone,
slate, coal, and conglomerate ; and the coal forma-
tion, with its various subordinate beds and strata
of coal, limestone, sandstone, slate, basalt, amygda-— i
loid, tuff, greenstone, &c.; and the alluvial rocks,
are rolled masses, gravel, ceils clay, loam, perk and
calcareous tuffa. : or ue
These classes of rocks present many very impor-
tant mineralogical relations, some of which are con-
fined to particular limited districts: others extend _
through more extensive tracts of country, and many > 4
of them occur in similar formations in a — of
the globe: cea eh
We shall begin with an account of the minera-
Nosy of Kast Lothian. ) | a ae

"%

*

ets

East Lothian." ey

well chad iid: ‘its a anseeadl pers i 1
pect, has been frequently described. We sh
here, therefore, confine ourselves entirely to its mi-
neralogical structure. ee .

\OGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN. 227

9 fixed primitive rocks have hitherto been dis-
red. in this part of Scotland. The oldest of the
s are those of the transition class, of which
g species have been observed ; granite,
0 phy’ greenstone, tana orey=

ah Weséidaectnaition rocks having ni lsd de-
scribed by a member. of our Society, it will not be
necessary to enter into any further details in regard
to them. We shall, now, therefore, proceed to give
an account of the Secondary rocks.
ee Gen ae
Hy age sie geri ae SANDSTONE.
gh fivst of these is Red Sandstone. | This rock
: Pensiaaile portion of the county; and,
ere its junctions can. be observed, it is found
ee reall on transition rocks, and to be covered with
the coal formation. Its most frequent colours are
red, inclining to brown; and sometimes it is yel-
or greyish white. Its principal ingredient
, which is in grains; and these are either
together, without a basis or ground, or they
re mbedded in a red-coloured clay. It alternates
from very fine to very coarse granular, thus passing
~ into conglomerate. It is distinctly stratified, and
the strata vary from a few inches to several yards
in thickness. The strata are either horizontal or in-
: . but the angle of inclination seldom exceeds
. "The general direction is from N. E. to 8. W.,
ne the dip varies. It contains, as subordinate beds,
P 2

©

: a 4

es i

228 GEOGNOSY Or EAST LOTHIAN.

mt PPL ak G ‘ iy
A | ae mart Med-coloduedt lay -ironst

, ine. é
A ae, view of " telatio
rocks of this formation to each other, v
ed by attending to the following he
strata, as they occur along the coast 0
from the neighbourhood of Dunbar t ;
of North Berwick.

Be %

s. Ww. By dip to the S. i. This 1 r
iron-shot porphyritic greenstone, is beav

lumnar, and the structure is. well seen all around
the ri aba: but nlpte on the north-we est si

My more dee If we oil aig the s]
from the harbour, towards the south
we mect with is a red conglome
: which i is immediately under Mr Ha
‘It extends N. E. and S. W.; and,
the harbour, dips to the S.E. Iti
bed of red coloured trap tuffa, I
rection and dip. The next bed is a
like sandstone. It is of a reddish :

Mean DUNBAR. se 299

. aa ile at first sae appear to be

but, on close examination, we find
them gradually passing into the basis in which
they are contained; and even the red-coloured sand-
stone, in some places, presents the conglomerated
Tieciegents which shew that these are not

‘sive, as see ed in Fig. 6. Pl. xii. This cu-
rious sandstone is succeeded by a greenstone rock,
which is partly porphyritic, partly tuffaceous. It
is much intermixed with the red conglomerated
sandstone, and is traversed by veins several inches
wide, of white quartzy sandstone ;—facts which
shew that here the sandstone and tuff are of co-
temporaneous formation. This tuffaceous rock is
succeeded by a red-coloured sandstone, which is
sometimes very clayey and soft, and even appears to
pass into a sandy red coloured slate-clay. All the
varieties are marked with beautiful celandine or
mountain-green coloured spots, from half an inch to
two inches and upwards in diameter. They vary in
shape, being either circular or oval, and sometimes
we observe them of an irregular form ; and not un-
often this red sandstone contains layers of a green-
coloured clayey variety of the same rock. As we
_ advance along the shore, the red sandstone be-

J comes more compact; and, in several places, is
% |

oe

230 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

quaeanans asa hoes stone, =

come more inclined; at length are nearly vertical,
and are succeeded by a bed of porphyritic basaltic
greenstone. ‘The red sandstone does not appear
beyond this point, its place being hanlaepio by
a greyish-white sandstone, which is disposed in
nearly horizontal strata, and contains beds of lll ;
stone. The lower strata of sandstone are e calcareous, _
contain vegetable and animal impressions, and in- |
clude large cotemporancous’ masses: of bluish-gre
compact splintery limestone. This — limestone de-
cays yellow. In the sandstone there are numerous ~
supposed vegetable moulds, and some varieties of
the sandstone are entirely composed of these. This
latter fact would intimate, that these are crystalli- »
zations of the sandstone, and not true casts of orga-
nic bodies.—Such are-the rocks that occur imme-
diately to the south and south-east of the harbour.
Let us next describe those that extend from the
north-west side of the harbour. Immediately under _
the ironshot porphyritic greenstone pillars, already "
described, a bed of red-coloured sity. esis is to be ob-
served, having the same direction as the bed of trap
in which the harbour is situated, and, like it, dip-
ping to the south-east. It rests on strata of sand-
stone, which have the same dip and direction. i
The sandstone in some places is of a red colour,
but it is mori Brey: spotted with red. Wey

DUNBAR. 231

en contains reddish-brown-coloured spots; and
ese are sometimes so numerous, as to give the
: a deep brownish-red tint of colour.
Sometimes the deep red portions are in the
bs ’ form of veins, which run in every direction, and
/ present a variety of curious. appearances ; and in
_ other instances, the imbedded. red sandstone is not —
in veins, but in masses, that vary in size and shape.
‘a Whenthe softer yellowish-grey sandstone decays and
falls out, the remaining mass acquires a singular ca-
vernous or cellular aspect. This sandstone forms
low ledges of rock covered at high-water, which are
succeeded. by rugged and lofty rocks of the trap se-
ries, on which are situated the ruins of the old Cas-
tle of Dunbar. These rocks are very steep, and in
some places completely perforated by the action of
i the waves, forming beautiful natural arches. They
are not composed of one variety of the trap series,
it of several, viz. red-coloured trap-tuff, amygdaloid
d of a basalt, which contain red diallage and oli-
ine, which, by the action of the weather, has ac-
quired ared colour. They form one inclined bed of
great thickness, which rises above the lower super-
ncumbent and subjacent red sandstone.
Advancing along the shore from these high trap-
k , we find . the sandstone forming a number of low
ledges, which are partly covered. at high-water,
xtend onwards to striking clifis of red-coloured
trap-tuff. ‘The strata have the same direction and
dip as those already mentioned ; and the sandstone

239 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN. )

has the usual characters. Nearly i in the middle of | i,
the tract, there is a pyramidal mass of trap-rock, |

which appears to rise through the sandstone strata. q
It is partly tuff, ipatly basiius ee to sete 7
stone. e Tee oc it 4
The strata of sandstone inhaiteailsisly in — j
with the mass of trap, are curved, and inclined to-
wards it. This fact, of a mass of trap rising through 1
the strata of sandstone, will be viewed by some as i
favourable to the volcanic theory of its formadion, ,
while others will be inclined to consider it as illus- _
trative of its Neptunian origin, tas ee .

The rocks and cliffs of trap-tuff continue along
the shore, until they are succeeded by cliffs, and 4
then by ledges of red and white sandstone. The

tuff is in general fine granular, here and there !
formed into concretions, from the size of an apple =~
to that of a man’s head, and upwards. ‘These con= .
cretions are, in general, round; and at first sight v
appear like balls of basalt. It is sometimes tr: ve é

ed by veins of very hard and compact tuff, sev:
inches wide, and also by veins of compact foleparjnif
the same magnitude. In some places the tuff is”
quarried for oven-stones, and is known tothe mi arry-
men by the name of Leckstone. It is worthy
mark, that varieties of tuff are quart i
same purpose, in other parts of Scotland; and in some
districts on the Rhine, this stone is quarried to a —
vast extent, and is gia to Holland, - oth r 4 :
ey 2h ee Oe ere

yr on AND SCOUGAL. 233

; atten of this rock continue onwards to Belha-
_ ven Bay, where they disappear under the loose
sand, which extends onwards from thence to Whit-

Ina low cliffof the sandstone, we observed an oval
~ eonerction of the same rock; and, in many places,
the sandstone was observed to alternate with slate-
day and thick beds of bright red clay-ironstone,
like that in the red sandstone at the Cock of Arran.
The ledges of sandstone at Wilkiehaugh, are tra-
“by veins of greenstone and amygdaloid.
trap rocks contain amethyst, either in veins,
ed; and one variety is particularly beauti-
“fil, ‘having a dark coloured ground, with beautiful
- yiolet-blue coloured imbedded portions of ainethyst:
From Belhaven Bay, to the commencement of
the rocky coast which extends from Mr Brodie’s, at
_ Scougal,’ to North Berwick, the coast is sandy, with
the exception of Whitberry and Ravensheugh,
which are of trap and sandstone. These points I
had not an slain of spe but Mac-

234 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHI

- Immediately below Mr Brodie’s hou
coast terminates, and the rocks, in the
and of ledges,running into the seamaketh
ance. The first rocks are of red colo rec t
which contains ae bei ah rH

variety of tuff. The limestone dan creo are f 01
a few inches to 3 feet and upwards in length ; nd,
at their junction, are frequently intermixed with the 4
tuff. oy red tuff is —— yn a re the

sts sd and thes appear + traversed “ei veins ¢ sof hae
salt and greenstone. (oi fla gee
The cliffs of tuff, which extend for several hun-
dred yards, are succeeded by ledges and low cliffsof _
sandstone. The sandstone is stratified, and. ‘some- A
times saddle-shaped ; but the direction of the strata a
is still S. W. and N. E. It is sometimes of a dark-.
red, sometimes of a bright-red colour. The yc
red variety is the most highly impregnated with ll
and contains abundance of green. circula ots,
which appear in some degree to chanel 4 |
sandstone of this formation. It frequently ¢ contains
globular and tuberose shaped coneretions of red 4

ree.

districts, appear : as mountain masse
hills. bee eh a hg mn

‘TANTALLAN CASTLE. | 235

succeeded by, and alternates with, a greyish and red
~ spotted sandstone, which contains imbedded por-
tions, and also beds of clay and cotemporaneous por-
tions of compact grey limestone. Another interest-
_ ing fact in regard to the sandstone on this part of
the coast, is the occurrence of large masses of hard
_ sandstone in the softer. The imbedded masses are
go hard as to resist the influence of the weather,
whilst the softer are carried away. Such compact
or hardened sandstones, when in contact with green-
stone, have been improperly considered as proofs
of the volcanic origin of trap rocks. About 50
yards beyond this, the red sandstone is to be seen
alternating with red coloured trap-tuff, and the tuff
and sandstone are intermixed at.their line of junc-
tion. In the tuff, imbedded portions of foliated
granular brown-coloured limestone occur ; and some
varieties of it are so fine granular, that they might
. be mistaken for red sandstone. A little to the
north-west of Sea Cliff, immediately beside the rocks
we have been describing, there is a.cliff about 40
or 50 feet in height. It is a bed of amygdaloid,
containing much green-earth, and cotemperancous
portions and veins of calcareous spar. Over it
rest several strata of red sandstone, and rocks of
the same kind probably run underneath it.
. As we continue our journey along the shore
towards Tantallan Castle, the cliffs become high,
rugged and romantic. Long ledges of rock run
from the cliffs into the sea, and isolated rocks or

&

936 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

stacks rise above the water at some distance from the mH
cliffs. The cliffs, ledges and stacks a are formed of red

sandstone and red. trap-tuff, which are intermingled
in various ways. The cliffs continue to be prin-
cipally of red tuff, until nearly opposite Sheep

Craig, when the colour changes to greenish-grey, ‘ :
and vast cliffs of this variety extend along the —

coast, and form the rock on which are situated the
striking ruins of Tantallan Castle. Veins of tuff
of a cotemporaneous nature traverse the tuff of
which the cliffs are composed, and in the same rocks
there are many veins of calcareous ironstone, vary-
ing from a few inches to two feet in width, and red
and white zeolite and amethyst *, and jaspers of va-
rious descriptions. Tantallan Bay is bounded, on
both sides, by lofty cliffs of trap-tuff; but, on the

beach, a number of sandstone strata, in a nearly ho-

rizontal position, are to be observed. These strata,

where they appear on the north side of the bay,
when examined at low-water, can be traced a con-
siderable distance, until at length they disappear

under the tuff. The tuff on the north side of the fe

bay is sometimes very coarse ; and in it, in one place, a
there is a mass of yellowish-grey sandstone, several
fathoms in extent, and five or six feet thick ; and,
in another, a cotemporaneous bed of columnar basalt,

terminating on both extremities in the form of

* Mr Sligo eae of Seacliff, informs me he has collected.
fine specimens of red zeolite, and also of amethyst, in these
cliffs.

rae

= == ae ae

CANTY-BAY. 937

lve. The tuff continues onward around the
coast to Canty Bay, forming cliffs of considerable
magnitude. At Canty Bay, the tuff alternates
with basaltic greenstone, and is traversed by veins
green and red coloured tuff. The tuff is to be
. erve gradually passing into a red sandstone,
which alternates with white sandstone. This sand-
stone exhibits much variety in structure; alternates
with beds of red and green coloured clay; and is
r traversed, i in some places, by veins of amygdaloid.
“The sandstone at Canty Bay, and along the coast,
for some distance, varies, not only in colour, but also
in structure. In some places it is reddish brown;
in others, yellowish or greyish white, or of a moun-
tain-green colour. Quartz is the predominating
constituent part ; and felspar and mica are occasion-
ally intermixed with it. The basis, or cementing
material, is clay, or calcareous marl, or the quartzy
particles are immediately joined together, without
any perceptible basis. Frequently, beautiful cireu-
lar spots are to be observed in the sandstone. These
are either of green coloured clay, or of particles of
felspar and quartz joined together, without a basis,
thus forming a variety of granitic rock *. They vary

* Masses of this description, when they appear in the
great scale, form mountain masses or hills of granite in sand-
t In the primitive slaty rocks, as gneiss and mica-
late, there is a series of the same description, formed by im-
dedded ‘cotemporaneous masses of granite, varying from the
size of a nut to several fathoms or miles in extent.

238 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

in size from a quarter of an inch to upwards of twe *
inches in diameter. Sometimes the sandstone has —
a conglomerated aspect, appearing, at first sight, as
if se 2s aaa of a contained a +

that ahis curious srealatisia of siti is not brecei siat ute

on the contrary, the fragments are cotempora am a
portions of sandstone, of a harder or softer nature 7
than the basis in which they are included. —

size, being spherical, oval, ve i
cular, and tuberose; and are from an inch to seve-
ral vie in length = breadthe Iti ‘Is megs rly

massive noted pork ineweik varicties. Figen sah ame r
Pl. xii. represent lamine of slaty-sandstone t mii 4
nating on massive and hard sandstone. Viewing the j
sandstone as a chemical formation, this appearance —

shews how the slaty, and consequently the stratifi ed.
structures, may be frequently unaffected by the rock

they surround. Veins of sandstone occasionally oc-

cur, traversing all the varieties of that rock
terminate in the rock, and are intermixed with
the line of junction; hence are of cotemporane
formation with it. The strata vary in thickness
from a foot to several yards, and have the general
dip and direction of the rocks already de ribed.
The individual strata often exhibit great variety in
structure, being waved, disposed in zig-zag lines,

NORTH BERWICK. 939

in concentric lamine, like basalt, and in apparent
BF rocmte Fig. 5. Pl. xii. represents several of
. varieties of structure. In the same stratum
of sandstone, one part will be red, and very com-
pact ; and another grey, and rather loose in its
texture; and the two varieties, at their lines of
junction, present differences in form. These re-
semble the appearances that frequently occur at the
_ junction of granite and gneiss, and are probably
to be explained on the same principle, viz. that of
eotemporaneous formation. Fig. 7. Pl. xii. repre-
sents a bed of compact red sandstone contained in
another of a grey colour; and, at same time, shews
the waved line of junction of the two rocks.

But we have not yet described all the different
kinds of structure exhibited by the strata of sand-
stone in this district. In some places, the sandstone,
within a short space, exhibits so great a variety in
dip and direction, that we are puzzled whether to
ascribe the appearances to changes induced in the
strata after their formation, or to refer them to
original formation. ‘These perplexities, however,
vanish, if we view these different dips and direc;
ons, not as belonging to different strata, but as
1€ § structure of a stratum, or set of rocks, composed
of distinct concretions. Fig. 3. 4. and 5. Pl. xii.
represent several of these structures.

Many slips are to be observed in these strata, and
these vary from a few inches to some yards. It is
worthy of remark, that these changes occur in the

me GS

940 GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

structure of individual strata, and also in masses of
strata; and hence incline us to consider many of G
them as original varieties of structure, and there-
fore not produced by the action of any after me-
chanical cause. These various structures of the
. sandstone, afford interesting views in regard to the
formation of strata in general ; and are particularly
valuable, as illustrating the connection of sandstone,
in a chemical point of view, with quartz-rock and
granite. phy 1%
From Canty Bay, the cliffs along the shite: be-
come lower, and are often covered with sand. The
rocks of which they are composed, are principally
trap-tuff, which contains cotemporaneous masses
and veins of basalt, or basaltic greenstone. Rather
more than half a mile from North Berwick, and a
short distance from the shore, there is-a quarry of
that kind of limestone named Stinkstone, which is
wrought to a considerable extent, and burnt into
lime. It appears to form a great bed in the red sand-
stone. From the quarry, which is named Rhodes
Quarry, to North Berwick, the prevailing rocks, both
on the shore, and in the country, are red sandstone,
and red tuff, containing beds and imbedded ma se:
of a basaltic greenstone. The rock at. the harbour of
North Berwick is amygdaloid. Immediately to the
westward of the harbour, the amygdaloid is succeeded
by a sandy beach, in which a few ledges of red sand-
stone and red tuff are to be observed. ‘These ledges
are succeeded by beds of compact greenstone, seve-

NOR TH BERWICK-LAW. 941

‘yalfathoms thick, in which the direction is N. E.
and 8. W. The greenstone is sometimes amygda-
loidal, and the amygdaloidal portions are of calca-
reous spar. Strata of white sandstone and of clink-
stone follow the greenstone ; and these are succeeded
by a great bed of porphyritic greenstone. These
‘various greenstone-beds are observed running into
the sea, and rising above its surface in different
parts, forming the rocks named Craig Leith, and
the Lamb. |

North Berwick- Law.

nicky above the town of North Barwick,
Alte beautiful conical hill named North-Ber-
wick-Law, whose summit is 500 feet above the
level of the sea. The district around the hill is
| Oem. and slightly undulated, so that it forms a
i. triking and very beautiful object to the surround-
ing country. The lowest rock visible, is a variety of
trap-tuff. Higher up, is amygdaloid. The middle
and upper parts of the hill are of a beautiful and
very sonorous variety of clinkstone-porphyry ; and
the summit rock is clinkstone-porphyry, intermixed
with crystals of augite; thus forming a transition
into greenstone *. The clinkstone is, in some

i a ae

ee: Vi ie Dr Ogilvy’s inter mestili Bhsemuntiene in his Paper on

the Trap Formation of East a vol. i. p. 469. Wern.
Mem.

VOL. III. Q

949 = $G@EOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN.

places, columnar, and forms cliffs of considerable
“magnitude *.

But we naturally inquire, What are the relations
of the rocks of this hill to those of the surrounding
and lower country ? In no place did we observe any
junction of the trap rocks of the Law with the sur-
rounding sandstone; nor was sandstene visible in
any part of the body of the hill. This being the
case, we must rest satisfied, at present, with what
_ may appear as the most plausible conjecture in re-
gard to its geognostic situation. The sandstone
strata, if not altered in their direction, would cun
under the hill, and appear again emerging from the
opposite side, and thus the rocks of the Law would
rest over them, in an overlying position. But we
are not always to infer an overlying position from
the circumstance of the strata appearing to shoot
under, and emerging on the opposite side of the
hill; because the mass of the hill may be a great
mass contained in the strata. Is it probable that
North Berwick Law is such a mass? Ata former
meeting, I described a considerable cotemporaneous
mass of trap, which occurs in the red sandstone

“ This, and other similar porphyries, it is probable, may one
day become of great importance, in an economical point of
view, as it contains about 9 per cent. of mineral. alkali or na-
tron. Should a cheap mode be discovered of separating the alkali
from the other constituents of the rock, this hill alone would
afford alkali sufficient to supply Great Britain for a long series
of years.

NORTH BERWICK-LAW. 243

Dunbar. It appears rising through the sand- _
stone, and, had its junction with the neighbouring —
3s been hid by debris, it would have been a mi-

niature representation of North Berwick Law.

_ The hard sandstone contained in the soft sand-
_ stone, presents a similar appearance. There we ob-
gerve the hard sandstone rising through the soft,
and standing in the form of small eminences above
the softer stone. Had the line of junction of the
two sandstones been concealed, we would have been
inclined to believe that the hard sandstone was a
different formation from the soft, and rested upon
Wixi

But appearances of this kind are not confined to
sandstone districts. ‘They are common in moun-
tains composed of primitive and transition rocks.
Of these, we shall now mention an example, by way
of illustration of our idea in regard to the geognostic
position of North Berwick Law.

Near Portsoy in Banffshire, there are several hills
of quartz, that rise rapidly from the surrounding
flat country, which is composed of highly inclined
strata of gneiss, hornblende rock, granite, &. When
we trace these strata from the shore to the base of
_ the quartz hills, we observe them apparently shoot-
ing under them; thus leading to the notion of these
hills being overlying masses over the highly inclin-
ed strata. But the same quartz occurs in other places,
in beds, and these beds varyin magnitude and extent,

Q 2

oe Se

44, GEOGNOSY OF EAST LOTHIAN,

and often appear as mountain masses in the stra-~

ta, and terminating in the rock at the extremi-

ties ;—a fact which leads us to infer, that the quartz —
hills are large cotemporaneous masses contained in

the strata, not resting over them. ow
We have now stated examples of trap rising

through sandstone, and forming small eminences; —

of hard sandstone rising through soft, giving rise
to large projecting masses; and, lastly, we have
shewn, that quartz is arranged in a similar man-
ner in the older rocks.

These facts lead me to suppose, that North Ber-

wick Law does not overly the sandstone, but rather

vises through it, and may be the upper yee ce a

great imbedded. mass. . we

~

»
ab
aye
Sg
a it
ic a MATEY bt
7 Y
Dae auear
st LN ae a a
MERE ar mew
af ‘tet iy a :

+

EFFECTS OF THE JUICE OF THE PAPAW. 245

XV.—Account of the Effects of the Juice of the
_ Papaw Tree, (Carica Papaya), in I ntenerating
_ Butcher’s-meat.

_ By the late Dr Hoxper.

( Read 30th March 1816.)

Pur effects of the juice of the Carica Papaya,

or Papaw Tree, whether of the fruit, stem, or leaves,
or even of the exhalation from the plant, in lessen-

~ ing the cohesion of the muscular fibre, and acting
on the fibrin of the blood, are matters of common

observation in the Island of Barbadoes; the inha-

bitants availing themselves of this property, to ren-

der more delicate, when thought necessary, the beef,
mutton, pork, and poultry of their tables. If the

milky juice, which is readily procurable by incision

into the tree, or unripe fruit, be thoroughly rubbed

on the flesh of a tough or old animal, and the ani-

946 ON THE EFFECTS OF THE

mal be cooked by roasting, the fibres so completely —
lose their cohesion, that the flesh will fall from the ’
bones, or be separated by the slightest force.” If a
smaller quantity of the juice be used, the flesh will —
be rendered tender; but so great is the effect, and
so difficult is it to ascertain the degree to which it
may be carried, if the milky juice be directly ap-
plied to the flesh, that another and more certain —
mode has been resorted to, for procuring the inte-
neration of the flesh of different animals. By sim-
ply suspending the animal to a bough of: the tree,
for a space of time proportioned to the size of the
animal, or of the joint of meat, the flesh is found to
be sufficiently intenerated. A particular friend of
mine, was in the constant habit of having his meat
so prepared for his table, and was particular enough, —
(or thought it necessary), to use his watch to regu-
late the time of suspension.

This quality of destroying the cohesion of the °
muscular fibre, probably resides chiefly in the milky
juice, or in the vapour, which, I conjecture, is ex-
haled from the tree, since the boiled fruit, when ©
given to animals, does not produce this effect to
such a degree as to be sensible. The fruit is used
by all ranks of people ; cooked in its unripe state,
as a vegetable; or served up, when ripe, as part of
the dessert, with perfect impunity.

_ It is a common practice with some of the farmers
of the Island. of Barbadoes, to give an infusion of
the raw fruit ; or, to speak more exactly! a diffusion |

JUICE OF THE PAPAW TREE. Qa

of the milky juice in water, extracted from the
a fit, to horses, with a view, as they express it, “of
_ breaking down the blood;” and it is a fact, well
7 "established, that if given to a horse, whose blood
exhibits the cupped buffy coat, .it will, after some
time, produce a loose coagulum, and reduce the in-
flammatory symptoms which gave rise to it. I un-

_ derstood, from my friend, the late Dr Jones of Bar-
_ badoes, well known in this University, by the pub-
lication of an ingenious experimental Thesis, that he
had ascertained this to be the effect of the papaw
juice on a horse, which had cough, and whose blood
was buffy ; and this account has very recently been
confirmed to me, by a near connection of Dr Jones’s,

a gentleman who formerly lived with him, and whe

is at present a residenter in this city, as a student

_ of medicine.

That this remarkable effect is independent of pu-

_ trefaction, or of a process verging to putrefaction, is
rendered extremely probable, by the fact, that it is
not confined to dead muscular fibre, but is produced
_ on the circulating bloed; or, at least, on one of its
i constituent parts. At the same time, the conse.
ee quence of this effect will no doubt be, by its me-
Pec chanical operation, to promote and hasten putrefac-
: - tion, on account of its destroying the cohesion of the
‘e flesh, and separating the fibres. ‘This is a fact so
well known to the housewives of the colony, that
they will not purchase, for salting, pork which has
been partly fattencd on the boiled fruit of the pa-

248 ON THE EFFECTS OF THE

paw, (a practice commonly followed by the negroes:
of the colony), on account of the flesh not being suf-

ficiently firm for salting; or, at least, because they ?

find, by experience, that, after having undergone the

process of salting, it will not keep as long, or as well

as flesh of hogs which have been fattened on any
other aliment. What is remarkable, this effect is
- observable, although the flesh of a recently killed
animal, fed on a boiled papaw fruit, is not sensi-_
bly intenerated: For a society of gentlemen, who

were in the habit of dining periodically with the late _
Governor of Barbadoes, Sir George Beckwith, fed ,
several animals in this way, with a view to ascer- —

tain the effect on the flesh. We found, that when
the animals so fattened, were served up, their flesh
was not, to the taste, more tender than that of other
animals at the table, fed in the common mode.
The health of animals fed on ihe ae is not
a by that diet. a ee
I oe add, that the juice of the p NE ap v has bee

very curious results : from them, he Fire wt |
lowing conclusions. nite oi sis

« | think,” says he, + that Gube cannot be any
dowbt that the juice of the papaw is a highly ani- _

malized substance; at least it possesses all the cha-
yacters, and yields all the products of one. I cons — *

eh

f
i ats

ie

4 JUICE OF THE PAPAW TREE. 249

Speer
-
”

sss that it has no perfect similitude Sith any
known animal matter. Nevertheless, I believe that
which it: resembles most, is animal albumen; since
. dried, it dissolves, like it, in water. Its solution is
coagulated by heat, by the acids, by the alkalies,
the metallic solutions, and the infusion of nut-galls.
And, in fine, because, by distillation, it yields the
; same products as any animal substances whatever.
_ It is not the animal nature of this substance which
ought to surprise us; for the juices of almost all
plants contain some of it ; but its abundance and its
purity in that of the papaw.”

tc ("To the > preceding account, I may add, that since
. ‘it was written I have had confirmed to me, a fact
respecting the effect of the fruit of the Papaw in
its unripe state, (when eaten uncooked), on the mus-.
cular fibre of animals, which I did not mention, as
I was in some doubt respecting it. I have been in-
_. formed by a gentleman of the first respectability of
the island of Barbadoes, who happened to be passing
through ‘Edinburgh, that he knew two instances of
animals which had taken the Papaw in its uncooked
state into their stomachs; and the flesh of which
was thereby so much intenerated, as to be unpleas-
ant to himself and others, who partook of it. This
» fact’ learly shews, that the effect of the Papaw | juice
. ; is the same on the muscular fibre, whether taken in-

, padi ut
4 ba yh"

aw 4

. to ‘the animal when recently kil

Osmes has been cubed we m

M
4

\
”

ra) »

mally y by the living animal, or ap

this effect is so general, as to extend
ly to every muscular part of the t
fibrin of the blood of a living ani
pens to take it internally in its
and that the same effect is not sensibly cL
the flesh of animals which may eat the Pape )

ve
‘ a
PLATE XIIL. Nernerian Mem? Vol MLL
ol ax) i
| es
q L j Wy Hane WA
’ i Gee My
= ites lide \\" Mlndirn

Ayu

me (A

\
h )

eo
ee
} MS Bard Lect

ON
oat) ss

ON THE TRAVELLED STONE, &. 251

r *

XVI.— Account of the Travelled Stone near Cas-
tle Stuart, Inverness-shire.

By Tuomas Lauper Dick, Esq.

In a Letter to Professor JamEson, communicated through the
late Dr Joun Gorpvon.

(Read 17th May 1817.)

My Dear Sir,

I HAVE many apologies to offer, for not having
earlier fulfilled a promise I made you when last in
Edinburgh, of examining into the circumstances
which attended the transportation of the Travelled
Stone near Castle-Stuart, in Inverness-shire; and
of satisfying that curiosity which I appeared to have
awakened in your mind, by the imperfect account I

was at that time enabled to give you of it from re-
port; by transmitting to you a more accurate and

particular detail of the phenomena accompanying
that event, from my own personal research. It was

‘on this very day of last year, that I had an oppor-

952 _ ON THE TRAVELLED STONE

tunity of visiting the spot; and now, without tres-
passing on your patience by an enumeration of the
various sources of procrastination which have produ-

ced so considerable a delay between the period of.

my investigation, and. my present communication,
I shall proceed to offer you the result of my inqui-
ries and remarks made on the spot. __

This stone is a large mass of conglomerate, being
a concretion composed of distinct irregular fragments

of granite, gneiss, quartz, and other rocks of the pri-

mitive series, cemented together by a highly indura-

ted and ferruginous claystone. It is, apparently the |

very same conglomerate, as that forming the rocks
through which the romantic burn of Cawdor cuts
its deep and narrow’ bed, near Cawdor Castle in
Nairnshire; nor am I aware, that any rock of the
same nature with that of the Travelled Stone, ex-
ists much nearer to it than seven or eight miles. Its
present situation is on the sands, in the little bay
near Castle-Stuart, on the Moray Firth; and as

it is left entirely dry by every retreating tide, aa

the sea retiring a great way beyond it, it ‘is

easily approached over the sands at low-water. Its
size is very considerable; being, as near as 1 could.
guess, above five feet high at its most elevated poir ib,

calculating from the surface of the sand, and being,

to all appearance, about one foot imbedded in it. In
its two horizontal diameters, it may probably mea-
sure between five and six feet one way, by six or
seven the other. Its shape, which is very particular,

NEAR CASTLE-STUART. 953

ig peculiarly well adapted to admit of the mode of

transportation it underwent, as it has a projecting
ledge running all around it, (marked AA. in the
accompanying pen-and-ink sketch) *, the lower edge
of which is above a foot in perpendicular height
from the surface of the sand; and from this edge
downwards, the stone is suddenly bevelled off, in a
form something resembling that part of the bottom
of a boat which is under the belly, and approaching

the keel. The upper surface of the stone is gradu-

ally rounded into a ridge, rising into a peak towards
the one extremity. ‘The annexed sketch, taken

- from the south-side, will give a tolerable idea of this

mass, which, on a rough calculation, (formed by weigh- |
ing about a square inch of the stone), may weigh
about eight tons. é

This large mass is remarkable, for having been
removed from a situation which it formerly oc-
eupied, about 260 yards farther to the E. 8. E.
by natural means, and in the course of one
night, to the position where it now stands. It had
formerly served as a boundary stone (or as it is —
called in Scotland, a march-stone) between the pro-
perties of Castle-Stuart and Culloden; the former
belonging to the Earl of Moray, and the latter to
Duncan Forbes, Esq. As it is too ponderous to

, have been moved by human power, at least in that

t of the country, it must have been originally de-

‘ posited in that, its first place of rest, by causes si-

* Plate XIII., etched by Miss Baird, Ramsay Lodge,

» B54 ON THE TRAVELLED STONE

miliar to those which have covered whole countries
with boulders, the nature of which bespeaks their
having belonged to rocks nowhere existing én situ
in their entire and native state, in the vicinity

of their present place of repose. The stranger ea-

sily recognises the spot from which it was last re-
moved, (just within flood-mark), it being marked by
a wooden-post, which the two contiguous proprietors
were under the necessity of erecting, m order to sup-
ply the place of the stone, and to serve as an object
for defining the line of march. At the fishing vil-

lage of Artirloss, situated on a point above a mile to —
the westward of the stone, I learned several parti-

culars regarding its extraordinary migration; but it

was recommended to me to call on the miller of the

Sea-mill of Petty for a fuller detail of the facts, who,
living much nearer the:stone, and having had it¢on-

stantly in his view for a long series of years, not

only recollected every circumstance about it, but was
the first person who, on the ensuing morning, noti-
ced that it had been removed during the night.
I lost no time, therefore, in visiting this old man,
whose name is Alexander Macgillivray; and J was
lucky enough to find him at home. His. informa-
tion on the subject, and his replies +o my interro-
gatories, were in every respect perfectly distinct and

satisfactory. He informed me, that this remarkable —

circumstance took place on the night between Fri-
day the 19th and Saturday the 20th February, of
the year 1799. ‘There had been a long continued

NEAR CASTLE-STUART. 255

and severe frost ; and the greater part of the little
bay had been for some time covered with ice, which
was probably formed there the more readily, owing
to the quantity of fresh water from the stream run-
ning near to Castle-Stuart, emptying itself into
- this inlet of the sea in the immediate neighbour-
hood. ‘The stone was by this means fast secured, by
the ledge I have already described, being bound
round by a vast cake of ice, of many yards in ex-
tent, which, being frozen hard under the projection
(A A), must have produced an admirable mechani-
cal means for its elevation, for which purpose it
afforded an extensive raft. ‘The miller told us he
had measured some of this ice, and found it no less
than 18 inches thick. The stone was thus sur-
rounded, when the sea left it at its ebb, and the
whole of the circumjacent sand was left covered by
this extensive, solid, and unbroken glacier. It is
evident, that as the sea began again to flow, this
would be naturally enough buoyed up in some de-
gree by the returning water insinuating itself un-
derneath it. On the night between the 19th and
20th of February, already noticed, the tide, which
happened to be remarkably high, was full about
12. o'clock. About this hour, the wind began to
blow a hurricane, which the miller described as ha-
ving been perfectly unparalleled in the memory of
the oldest men living, accompanied at the same
time by a furiously drifting snow. The old man
stated, that this tremendous storm blew directly

256 ‘ON. THE TRAVELLED STONE

from Dolcross Castle, an ancient building conspicu-

ously situated on the ridge of the country at some
miles distance ; and accordingly I found, on exa-
mination, that by placing myself at the stone, and
looking at Dolcross, the post marking the former si-
tuation of the mass, appeared quite in the line be-
tween these two points, andon trying the bearing with
a pocket-compass, I found that the direction of the
wind must have been from the E. 8. K., and that
the straight line or furrow described by the stone in
the course of its voyage across the sands, lay in a
direction from E. 8. E. to W.N. W.

When the old miller got up on the morning of Sa-
turday the 20th, the storm, and the drifted snow,
were such, that he could hardly make his way to his
barns, though they are but a few yards distant from
his dwelling-house. He found all his doors blockad..
ed, and buried under the wreathes of snow, so much
so indeed, that there was not the vestige of an en-
trance left to any of them, and the drift still con-

tinued to be so very violent, that he, and a boy who.
was with him, had nearly lost themselves in return-

ing again to the dwelling-house. When the weather
had moderated in some degree, and the storm and
snowhad cleared away, so that he could see across the
little bay, he remarked to his wife with much asto-

nishment, and no inconsiderable alarm, “ that the —

> 99

mickle stane was awa’,” and the good woman could

hardly believe her eyes when she looked out and |

saw that it was in reality gone from the spot it had

ee
=>

NEAR CASTLE-STUART. 257

occupied the day preceding, and that it had been
removed much nearer to the low-water mark, to the
position where it now remains. General surprise
and curiosity were now excited, which were no
doubt mingled with various superstitious fancies,
and the neighbours flocked out to see and examine
the subject of so extraordinary a prodigy. 'To their
astonishment, the hole in which it had been for so
many ages embedded, still remained to mark dis-
tinctly its yesterday’s site, whilst its track across
the flat oozy sand was very perceptible, extending
in a ee all the way from its seal to its new si-
tuation

Th HAbition to these particulars, eineued from
the miller of Petty, I have since understood from
my friend Mr Brodie of Brodie, that he visited the

i stone either that day (the 20th) or the day after,
__ when he found all these traces remaining quite ap-
parent, and that an extensive cake of ice was still

adhering to the stone being attached to its surround-
ing ledge.

Tt is evident, that this vast mass of stone must
have been so far rendered specifically lighter than

the water, by the great cake of ice within which

it was bound, and by which it was supported, as to

ye in some degree buoyed up; and that, whilst in
this state, it was carried forward by the outgoing
tide, assisted by the impelling force of a tremen-
d ous hurricane from the E.S.E. So very uncom-
mon was the violence of this storm, that the 20th
VOL. III. R

258. ON THE TRAVELLED STONE

February 1799, is still called in the language of

the country, “ The Blowing Saturday.”

_ By the circumstances just detailed, we are fur-
nished with a comparatively recent and perfectly
well attested example of one mode by which large
masses of detached rock may be carried. to consi-
derable distances. For, although the waters of the
tide which fill the bay in question were, on account
of their shallowness, incapable of buoying up the
extensive float of ice supporting the stone, so per-

fectly as to prevent the keel of it from ploughing ‘
the sand in the course of its progress over it; yet

there is no reason to doubt, that if it had been

once fairly carried into deeper water, it might have

been ultimately transported to a much greater, dis-
tance. And if we can suppose the float of ice to
have been sufficiently tough and tenacious, we may

even conceive it possible that the stone might have —

been deposited upon some remote shore, where no
rock of the same nature was to be found, and
where it might have furnished future geologists
with subject for most interesting speculations. These
would have been naturally the more puzzling, that
its peculiar mode of transportation would have to-

tally precluded all chance of its acute angular pro-—

jections being destroyed by attrition, and so would
have prevented the possibility of its exhibiting
those appearances of having been rounded and po-
lished, so manifestly displayed by most of those

stones denominated Boulders. How far the causes

alae

i

i
a Te,
#

"NEAR CASTLE-STUART. 259

0 tally with the relative situation of cine masses
bebotties places which cannot be so easily traced to
their parent rock, or to ascertain whether such means
_ may not have had some share in transporting these
_ to their new situations, may perhaps merit inves-
tigation ; and with such a view, an accurate and
well attested narration of the particulars of the
conveyance of the Travelled Stone near Castle-
Stuart, from its former to its present place of qui-
escence, cannot be considered as altogether useless

in the pursuit of geology. Yours, we.

_ Relugas,
_ 3d May 1817.

R 3

Pe WORK

tw hy Flaten ;

Puan agit a!
As

bese atten: “a

IL —Abstract Gi a Paper o on t

nit Living Prin A i 5 ri 28
bit eae pth ye tbe: sativa: rat shi

ry , abs.
‘By Jo oHN ‘Campsets, Esq. of | ca Fr. R. S.E ei
| BME WS cea tied
Z PY
be%5 é (Read 6th March 1819.)
i, hy ur peak Tene , TS, c
eee that Aa of cone
’ an ave endless variety, binds ues dif

ties which are exhibited, by anima
responsible soul, which, with or»
nee identifies Mat Mies

Seale, and, noticing. ¥ very ag :

eet

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. 261

a

: points i in ‘the gradation, enter more at large into
the characters which distinguish the Living Princi-
» ple from Organization and Instinct, which have
been generally blended together in one common
‘confusion. ‘The main object of this paper, indeed,
is the extrication of these from their entanglement,
and the fixing them respectively in their proper places
in the Scale of Being. .

Immediately connected with the individual par-
s of matter which lie at the bottom of the scale,
ds the principle of aggregation ;—a principle
altogether dependent on gravity. Its operation is
not without a tendency to determinate form; but
as that tendency is not sufficiently strong to resist
the surrounding counteracting attractions, the mere-

_ ly ageregated masses are amorphous.
Stratification succeeds. All stratified rocks are
more er less crystallized; but the regularity with
which, amidst all their anomalies, and occasional in-
subordination, these great masses are deposited, and
_ the mighty preparation required for dissolving and
re-forming the whole exterior of the globe, and that
without destroying the homogeneity of the strata,
lead us to a higher agency than mere gravity and af-
_ finity; and while we admit the operation of these
principles, and the efficacy of that operation, in cir-
cumstances adapted to the attainment of the end, we
a an only, in the spirit of sound philosophy, refer
full accomplishment of the work to their
mey under the direct and controlling influence

a

262 ~ ON ORGANIZATION
:, a

of that Almighty Word which comm: nded matter .
itself into existence. vie & sig a

Crystallization, the next point. pol Scale, is
a principle more precise in its operation, depending
chiefly on chemical affinity. Under its influence,
matter always assumes determinate forms. Its
adherence to this law, indeed, is so unbending,
that the ingenuity of man has not yet been able,
by any intermixture or management, to produce the i
slightest change on the angle appropriate to any —
one crystal. There is an analogy between the pe-
culiar angles of crystals, and. the peculiar angle
at which the buds and branches of plants are pro-
truded: but in plants, the law is ammoaiified by. a
number of circumstances.

We now arrive on debatable ais for, on
ascending the step to Organization, we come into
collision with the opinions of my distinguished |
friends Dr Barclay and Dr Thomson; and it is
with no small degree of diffidence that I venture to
oppugn their philosophy. Referring to Dr Bar-
clay’s paper on Organization, the opinions expressed
by that learned gentleman may be stated to be,
That the principle of organization is a Being which
discriminates, which forms the organs, keeps them in
repair, and of design « deserts them altogether, when
they become irreparable *. And nearly to the same _
effect with regard to the discriminating faculty of
abe agent, Dr Thomson appears to have expre

dt

* Wernerian Traneseions: vol. il. p. 543.

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. 268

sed his opinion as to the principle which aassi-
milates the food, and repairs the waste in the ani-
mal frame*. That the phenomena of digestion
and assimilation are wonderful; that they exhi-
bit evidence of the operation of mind possessing
infinite power, can scarcely escape the perception of
% the most stupid insensibility ; though the reason
H aeiy heey are so arranged, and not otherwise, must
Named to the pleasure of Him who made them
It must also be at once conceded, that the
o nges which take place in the living body, re-
quire, in order to account for them, something more
shan the mere existence of chemical affinities. But
4 it ‘is another, and a very different question, Whe-
ther that Being who has confessedly formed matter,
has introduced a thinking principle into the animal
frame, with the charge of superintending the che-
mical changes to which its different parts are conti-
_nually subjected? That the living principle is not
= soul, seems decisively proved by the fact, that
"-wegetables, which (except with poets) have no souls,

_ have unquestionably the living principle; the pro-
_ cess of digestion going on in the laboratories of the
leaves. The whole difficulty seems to arise from
-ascription of a discrimenating power to that
ngement by which the food is assimilated, and
breaches and injuries of the frame counteracted
id repaired. But there seems to be no necessity

-_ * Thomson’s Chemistry, 5th edit. vol. iv. p. 638, et seg.

264 ON ORGANIZATION

for the introduction of any such power. It is ad- —
mitted, that all the changes produced, are chemical
changes, and that they are proximately produced by —
chemical affinities: but it is asked, in the tone of a 4
negative assertion, How do the digestive powers —
adapt themselves to varied circumstances ? How are
the elements of the different substances forwarded
through their successive stages, cand preserved, un- °
altered, through all the windings of their devious q
course, till brought within the sphere of chemical
action, exactly at the places where their decomposi
tion and new combinations are useful ? _ Yet bie
should we hesitate about these things? Th
not more inexplicable than many other phecinsinsriay | | |
which, though calculated to excite the admiration of
every intelligent observer, do not suggest to him the
necessity of introducing the faculties of mind to ac-
count for their appearance. ‘The naturalization of
exotic plants is quite analogous to that alteration
in the digestive process, produced by a change nb
food on carnivorous or granivorous animals, and

which appears to Dr Thomson to be so inconsistent .
with material functions. But it is “~ is

in Bic Hae ome as the inpsclibel tna vase the
ingredients. themselves. — It is prac, that animal

the vegetable. But azote not poisonous ; and, t
the granivorous tribe, will be merely superfluous

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. 265

lphur, and other extraneous substances
5 whilst the want of this ingredient in ve-
s, will be made up by a supply from the at-
- mo; phere, and other sources, to such carnivorous ani-
seveth as require it. It agrees with all the analogy of
a we, however, that it should require frequent repe-
dtaeheneeo effectuate this change. And a satisfactory
4 reason why it should do so, is suggested by the very
‘ nature of the thing. All the organs and secretions by
_ which the food is digested, are compounded of ma-
terials proportioned to the nature of the accustomed
_ food. A change in the proportions of the food,
must, therefore, gradually change the proportions
of the organs and juices. There can be no doubt
but it does so. By the selection of the food, the
gt can, to a very considerable degree, lay on
at or flesh on his stock as he pleases. Now, the
‘00d he gives them, differs only in the proportions
: the ingredients ; but these differences are suffi-
| _ ciently influential to determine the particular sub-
stance which is to be formed. It is to be remem-
a bered, that it is the feeder of the cattle who makes
_ the choice; and therefore we must conclude, that
_ the digestive operation is a necessary one, like me.
chanical attraction, or chemical affinity ; and that,
opi it may be produced by neither of these,
no occasion to look for its immediate cause
he agency of a law of matter.
is it more unaccountable, that the bile
ix only with one part of the food which

266 ON ORGANIZATION

leaves the stomach; and that, when mixed with
bile, that particular portion should not comb
with chyle, though in mechanical connection with
it. It is only necessary to sippeweaaieaniin not ‘
only possible, but very probable, that at whatever —
point in its progress, a change takes ieuitiintae
food, there is placed at that spot, by the original —
constitution of the frame, some new chemical agent,
by whose peculiar affinity with the chyle, the new :
combination is formed. But this agent has no ©
power of direction. It is a mere principle, like all
the organs and principles of the material world, ac-
complishing the determinate object for which it is
constructed or impressed. wa 8 |
The reasoning applicable to the phew of as- F
similation, goes far to explain the manner in which |
the waste of the body may be supplied; the frac-
tures repaired ; and, in some instances, its disorgani- __
zation counteracted or corrected. When the vessels a
are emptied by the daily waste, it is apparent, that _
they will be fitted to take up more of those particles
with which the juices lodged in them have a tendency
to combine, than when these juices are already’sa-
turated, and the vessels full; hence, a constant sup-
ply will be secured, as long as food is presented, and
the vessels are in condition to secrete the juices, and
perform their functions for disposing of the supply
The very same explanation may suffice, for the cure
of wounds and fractures, where an extra in

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. 267

‘may be supposed to augment the secretions, and,
consequently, the depositations.

These are simple views, and draw but little on the
imagination for their support. There is, however, a
greater difficulty remaining ; not as to the existence
of a thinking or discriminating power, but as to a
living principle, distinct from sentient existence, and
from mere mechanical and chemical agency. We
ean comprehend how the chyle and the blocd may,

in their progress from stage to stage, supply all the
varied demand of membrane, muscle and bone; but
it remains unexplained, by any of the principles
with which we are familiar, in what way are gene-
rated or continued, those motions which carry the
nourishment to these different stages, and expel
what is either superfluous or unfit for use. The pe-
ristaltic motion, the pulsation of the heart, and the
involuntary movements of the muscles, exhibit phe-
nomena inconsistent with the idea of inert matter,
and equally distant from the effects of attraction or
repulsion. ‘These motions may all, indeed, be refer-
red to muscular motion; and it seems also to be
true, that all muscular motion depends on nervous
energy or iuritability ; but this only leads us to a
more wonderful contemplation. ‘The whole animal
frame is ramified with nerves; and their universal
efficiency is proved, by the immediate destruction of
those parts, the nervous fabric of which is destroyed.
How the nerves communicate information we do
not know; but in whatever way effected, the change

268 ON ORGANIZATION

of state of the smallest nerve being communicated

at that point, from whence all the nerves originate,
and where they are all concentrated and united, an
action may naturally, and must be produced on the
whole system, corresponding to each peculiar excite-
ment. That thisis the very mode in which the ani-
mal machinery works, we by no means assert.
While the operations are in progress, they are be-
yond our observation ; and whilst we are in doubt,
whether the nerves contract or vibrate, or contain a

fluid, or are altogether solid, it is not to be expect-

ed, that we can offer proof of the manner in which
their active agency is exerted. Yet we may hazard
an opinion, that whatever be their peculiar compo-
sition, or their means of communicating over the
whole, an impulse applied to one particular point,
it must be by some such connection as we have at-
tempted to describe, that the principle does operate ;
and that, though a law or principle sui generis, it
is still only a taw or quality impressed on matter ™*.
In pursuing this investigation, one can scarcely
avoid perceiving the distinctive characters, which
prove that there is a structure peculiar to the or-
gans ; and that it is inaceurate to a ii ating ‘he

* From Dr Ure’s description of the phenomena an ited,
on the application of the galvanic stimulus to the ney ves of
Clydesdale the murderer, after his death, we have reason to
suppose, that, under such influence, muscular motion and se-
cretion, and consequently assimilation, might be produced and

continued. a”

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. 269

living principle which determines that structure.

“What we have contemplated is the fact, that by
the structure of these organs, actuated by a living
principle, certain functions are performed, which,
without such structure, or such living energy, nei-
ther the one nor the other alone, could have
accomplished. The structure is the organiza-
tion; the living principle is something else.
They are intimately connected together, no doubt ;
but so is the mind with the body. The one
is the substance moved; the other the moving
power. Holding, then, organization to refer to the
structure of the organs, we may perceive, that,
though more complex and delicate in its arrange-
ments than crystallization, it maybe equally resolved.
into a principle or law, impressed on matter, for the
application of mechanical power, and the evolution
of chemical affinities.
There is one point of view, however, in which
erystals and organized bodies materially differ.
The original specific character of each animal
and vegetable, in the thousand and ten thou-
sand varieties that overspread the earth, is no ef-
fect of chemical affinity. The peculiar character
of each of these, could only be impressed by that
Great Being, who, when he commanded the world
into existence, willed, that the tribes of the animal
and ieee kingdoms, should each be brought
forth after their kind. The parent, therefore, in
ach: of these, in reproducing the species, has not to

270 ON ORGANIZATION

create, but to continue the specific character already:
created ; and as that specific character can alone de-
pend on the difference in combination, in propor-

tion, in quantity, and in position of the few ingre-

dients of which all are composed, there can be no
difficulty, we apprehend, in forming an idea of such a

structure of the organs, as may fit them for being

mechanically and chemically employed in the assi-

milation and deposition of food, for the continuance

of life, and reproduction of the species.

Dr Barclay does not seem to me to have suffi-
ciently attended to this important circumstance. He
appears to hold the opinion, that the origin of the
animal foetus, is an unorganized fluid, with a little ac-
tive being inclosed in it, which forms the organs. But
that the animal rudiment is a fluid, is by no means
clear; the presumptions, to my mind, lie quite the
other way. The thing itself, of which this is the
origin, is not fluid, but solid ; and all our ideas con-
nected with its nature, relate to solid body. That it
is immersed in fluid, is true; this isa wise provision
for preserving it in safety. In plants, where in many
cases it must be scattered by the winds to become
productive, the pollen is a dry solid body, which flies
like dust; but in that case, nature has provided a
fluid in the pistil, to facilitate its passage into the
interior of the seed-vessel. If any thing on this
subject admits of being concluded upon as certain,
it seems to me to be the proposition, that in the
animal, as well as in the vegetable tribes, the parent

ait

a
&,
#3, ‘aj

Sees
=

AND THE LIVING PRINCIPLE. O71

produces the organized foetus or seed. It may be,
that some of the organs are perceptibly developed
sooner than others. It is natural to suppose, that
those immediately employed in secreting the nou-
rishment, should be first displayed, especially in those
animals which are hatched without deriving subsis-
tence from the mother. But in all cases, the direct
conclusion from analogy is, that the parent prepares
the organized rudiment of its offspring, which re-
quires only the common operation of its organs to
complete the animal.

From organization, then, which is a lower point
in the seale, we ascend to the Living Principle or
vis vitce ;—terms which may be safely adopted, pro-
vided we keep in view, that it is not by this princi-
ple the soul lives; and that when our bodies shall
be mouldering in the dust, and our souls existing
in a disembodied state, this living principle shall
have ceased to live. A concomitant only on animal
and vegetable life, it must vanish with it, like the
corresponding portion of gravity, which would cease
to exist on the annihilation of the particles of mat-
ter on which it was impressed.

QTR ON THE NUTRITION OF

XVIII.—On the Nutrition of Cuticle, Nails, .
Hair, Feathers and Plants.

By H. Dewar, M.D. F.R.S.E. & M. W.S.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of EdiAbursh,

Honorary Member of the Historical Society of New-
York, and Lecturer on Medicine and Chemistry .

(Read 26th February 1820.) Ni

Tur object of the present Essay is, to bring to-
gether a few physical considerations which may as-
sist us in forming rational conceptions of the mode
of nutrition of some descriptions of animal organs
which physiologists have in this respect either, ne-_
glected or misunderstood. ‘
The group of phenomena implied in este ‘
tion presents two aspects, which vie with one an-
other in their claims on our admiration. ‘The one
aspect consists in the great variety and extent of

‘i 4

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 273

the subject. It comprehends the whole range of
animal and vegetable life, exhibiting varieties com-
mensurate not only with the enumerated species of
plants and animals, but with the product of this
number multiplied by that of the organs, and the
sorts of texture which occur, together with those
casual deviations which arise from rarer combina-
tions of circumstances, and go tmder the name of
morbid or preternatural.

The other aspect which the facts. of assimila-
tion present consists in the recondite nature of
the process by which it is accomplished. The
change induced is chemical. Certain affinities are
brought into action, which nothing short of life
can develope. For this reason, we ascribe them

to a peculiar set of agents. But the effects are

more or less persistent after life is extinguished.
Though the changes do not continue, the altered
state remains, or is followed by changes of a nature
totally different from all that occurs in matter
which has never been subjected. to the influence of
life. The properties thus developed belong to mat-
ter as such, but they are not capable of being eli-
cited by matter alone. Whatever opinions may be
held relative to the connection between a substance

vand its properties, or between matter and the agen-

cies which are constantly found attached to it, and

which have sometimes occasioned perplexity to the

ambition of philosophic subtlety, a clear distinc-
VOL. III. S

274 ‘ON THE NUTRITION OF

tion presents itself between those properties which’
matter always exhibits, and those which’ only ap-
pear on particular occasions, and which the mere
eontact or influence of cone matter is’ not ou
quate to produce. 7 ‘ if
» In attending to the chemical siicoledalat of lifes
and, we may add, all the other phenomena, more tri-
vial or more stupendous, which are conjoined with
life from its lowest to its highest forms, one’ fact
ought never to be lost sight of,—and the considera-
tion of it will never fail to insinuate a degree of
salutary influence into the views of the most rigid
and the most sceptical reasoners,—that the’ pro-
perties of life do not necessarily reside in any por-
tion of matter’ whatever. ‘There are no elements
in a living body which we do not find in dead mat-
ter. The perpetuity of particular specimens of liv-
ing form and function depends on laws which are
not attached to matter, and which might cease to
operate though all the materials of the organs re-
mained. The extinction of a whole species is an event
which we easily conceive, as the effect of the cessa-
tion of coincidences which we may eall fortuitous ;
and, on the occurrence of such an event, which even
human co-operation seems competent to accomplish,
none of the existing powers connected with all the
matter known to us, (even that which has been ani-
mated by the numerous individuals of the extin-
guished pattern), and no combination of these

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 275°

powers, is adequate to reproduce a similar set of in-
dividuals. — Every species of living beings owes its:
origin to a series of events connected together as
cause and effect, operating intimately on matter,
and yet liable to be easily removed from the whole
material world: ‘There is no visible law of necessary
operation, affording security for the permanence of
any organized species. ‘The mode of its introduc-
tion in the former history of things, or of its sup-
posable re-introduction at a future epoch, eludes
inquiry, excepting in so far as the history of organic
remains shews that organization, in its forms and
laws, has undergone revolutions which force us to—
recognize the operation of causes to us unseen, be-
ing removed from the range of all that we can dis-
cover by the most acute reflections on si sna as
fall within our view. pang ees) Leva
The naturalist, herdeti: in exturidliaks ike scicynti
ties, dwells at greatest leisure on. objects which his
senses can discover. Eivery thing else is general.
These alone are particular. In these inquiries, he
can only make more or less near approaches to a
knowledge of the nature of organic assimilation.
He cannot reach this knowledge itself. He can-
not any farther estimate the functions of the parts,
than by observing them in a stage as near as possi-
ble to the accomplishment of their object, and by
instituting a due examination of the nature of the
change that is effected. mp 3]
S 2

246 ON THE NUTRITION OF

This humble occupation derives a dignity and
an excellence, from placing the inquirer in the

porch of the great temple of Creation and Provi- —

dence, the penetralia of which he is forbidden to
enter, and procuring for him a knowledge of many
facts of which the more distant and careless specta=
tor remains ignorant.
It is thus that the physiologist and the naturalist
study the function of nutrition. The physiologist
traces those general facts which are found to accom-
pany the process, calling to his aid the minutiz of
anatomy, and sometimes chemical research. He
surveys the results, that he may see the extent of
the changes effected, aud draw from them such lead-
ing inferences as they are fitted to furnish: while
the naturalist records and arranges the facts ‘then
selves, for the purpose of enjoying the magnificent
spectacle which they exhibit. The easiest, and ap-
parently the most satisfactory subjects for this part
of physiological investigation, occur in the soft or-
gans of the human species, and of those animals
which differ least from man in the texture of the
organs. Here we perceive the progress of the nu-
triment in the alimentary canal, in the chyliferous
vessels, and in the sanguiferous system. In this
last, we follow the course of it, now fully prepar-
ed, to its ultimate destination in the extremities
of the arteries; in which vessels, or in their im-
mediate vicinity, nutrition is, in every such or-

psa A=:

’

ae
ee CP
Ay : b A

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 277

an, ac complished. — But whether does the nutri-
tious matter, in this final stage, add to the animal
texture by attaching itself to the interior surfaces
of the vessels which convey it, and of which the
different textures ultimately consist ? Or is it passed.
through small orifices to the outsides of the vessels,
there to be expended on its proper object? Or is
there a looseness of fabric at this stage of structure,
by virtue of which the minutely divided blood
passes and re-passes, to supply the place of what-
ever is decayed, leaving full room for the decayed
particles to proceed to the veins, to the contents of
which they move, either in consequence of mechani-
cal or of chemical arrangements, in order to be ex-
pelled from the body? These are points which we
cannot determine. If the texture is thus loose,
the degree of its looseness is exquisitely adjusted to
the purposes of nutrition, as well as to the other

ends to which the organs are respectively adapted. —
It is of such a determinate nature, that no room is
left for the transit of other matter across their sub-
stance. This adjustment is not purely mechanical,
nor purely chemical, nor a mixture of the two. It
is chiefly vital, and immediately dependent on the
activity of the functions ; for the same organs which
thus accurately perform their part, are quickly
changed at death ;—an event which deprives the
vessels of the power of retaining their fluids, and
allows transudation to take place in all directions.

api.

278 - ON THE NUTRITION OF |

The circumstance to which I wish chiefly to call
the attention of the Society, is, That physiologists
seem to have had their views in some degree fetter-
ed, by entertaining too'strict ideas of’ the” connec-
tion between the circulation of fluids and nutrition.
It is in cases in which the circulating apparatus is
clearly traced, that the conveyance‘of aliment to
the organs is most satisfactorily observed ; and they
seem to have been unable to conceive any other
mode by which this purpose could be effected. * But,
when we attend to some organs, particularly hair
and feathers, we find them too dry to’ admit the
supposition that fluids are circulated through ‘every
part of their substance. Physiologists must’ always
have supposed that, in these organs, the ‘propor-
tion of the fluid to the solid matter is much smaller
than in the muscular and nervous substance; but
they have not supposed. that there was any limit to
the tenuity of vessels by which fluids are conveyed.
This view is sometimes applied to the physiology of
the smallest'insects. ‘They are described as possessed
of vessels equally numerous as in larger animals,
and carrying to every organ the nutritious fluid in
streams which obey the same vital and hydraulic
laws. : 5 | | Hin

We shall, find, however, that, in the laws of ca-

pillary attraction, limits are set to the tenuity of ©
sanguiferous vessels. In consequence of these laws, ‘—

a small portion of the area of the contajned fiui

Bs

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 279

adheres to the parietes. This attraction is not, in-
_ deed, incompatible with a relative motion among
’ the particles. A drop of fluid adhering by capil-
lary attraction to the end of a glass rod often ex-
hibits intestine motions from the admixture of mi-
-nute particles of dust, or from containing animalcu-
la. But it retards and restrains such motions ; and
«there undoubtedly is a minute distance from the
surface of the solid, at which motion becomes im-
possible. The motions of fluids encounter greatest
impediments from this cause in the smallest vessels
of any animal, ‘This circumstance counteracts the
-effect of the more ample space provided for the
blood in that set of vessels, the sum of the areas of
which always much exceeds that of the trunks and
larger branches. Capillary adhesion contracts that
part of the calibre in which the motion is free, and
must always bear the greatest proportion where the
calibre itself is smallest. Hence the motions of the
_ blood form only a minute stream in the axes of these
vessels. There is unquestionably a point of minute-
ness at which the practicability of circulation ceases ;
and nothing except the want of attention to this
_ eonsideration, or the absence of any other hypothesis,
could have led physiologists to believe in the exis-
_ tence of a circulation in situations in which neither
vessels nor fluids can be discovered.
~® It has been supposed, that a circulation is con-
ducted in the minutest animals, exactly similar to

z _

Py

280 ON THE NUTRITION OF

that of large ones, and that the minuteness of this _
system bears some proportion to the diminutive —

size of the whole body. It is taken for granted, —

that the circulation may be equally brisk and free
as in larger ones. This seems to have been simply
inferred from the indefinite divisibility of matter;
and it is true that we are not authorized to set any
limits to our conceptions of the minuteness of orga-
nic texture. But when we turn our attention to

aqueous fluids, we find them governed by this law —

of capillary attraction, which: is susceptible of ad-
measurement, and which must impose a limit on —
the minuteness of the vessels through which streams
of such fluids can be transmitted. When hard
“pressed, indeed, a reasoner who is unwilling to:
give up such opinions might allege that the circu-
lating fluids, in such cases, are not aqueous, but
consist of a more tenuious matter, more allied to —
spirit, governed by a capillary attraction which’

x

operates at much smaller distances, or altogether »

exempt from that influence. Aqueous and oleagi-

nous humours, however, are the only ones on which.

we are entitled to pronounce as existing in animal ©
bodies. Where they differ from pure water, it is
not in possessing greater tenuity ; but, on the con-.
trary, in deriving a greater viscidity from the ani-+
mal matters with which they are impregnated.
If any other supposition, therefore, can be main-
tained, it may be fairly concluded from these consi-»

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 981

derations, that we are not entitled to believe in the
“necessity of a circulation of fluids, for the ae
i of nutrition.

Before stating the hypothesis which I propose to
substitute on this subject, I shall briefly recall a
few prominent facts, relative to the growth of Hair,
Nails, and Feathers.

It is well known that no vessels can be traced in
many of their parts. If there is something like
bloodvessels in the soft ends of feathers, near to the
body of the animal to which they belong, there are
certainly no traces of such an apparatus towards the
extremities. Many of the organs now mentioned
are too dry to allow us to believe in a circulation,
even while their growth is most vigorous.
At-the same time, it must be remarked, that
there are facts which forbid us to suppose, that
these organs are mere secretions formed at their
roots, or the parts by which they are attached to the _
animal body. Mere secretion and successive propul-
sion, never could have been maintained to constitute
the growth of feathers; because it is well known
that a developement takes place over all the extent
of their expanded substance, each pinion and each
serrature receiving a proportional enlargement dur-
ing growth. But while physiologists confine their
attention to the hair and the nails, they are somc- .
waren disposed to conclude that these organs are

@ secretions or depositions; and that their

282 ON THE NUTRITION OF § 9)

growth consists entirely in a successive propulsion

of the existing parts, by the new parts succeedi

at the root or point of secretion. Thigeidon: re-

ceives some countenance from the circumstance,
that a scratch on the nail of one of the fingers,
gradually changes its situation, by proceeding in
a direction from the root to the extremity of that

=

substance. In the hair, however, no such ap- ©

pearances have been observed; and ‘there is this
fact adverse to such a supposition, that, when the

hair changes from dark to grey, we do not find the —
change beginning at the root, and proceeding to- —

ward the extremity of the hair, but taking pee sl-
multaneously over its whole length, =»...

Another fact is,-that the hairs havea maximum ~

length at which the growth is arrested: and this —

differs in different individuals, and still more in dif-
ferent parts of the same body. ‘That of the head ap-
pears somewhat vague, because the ¢out ensemble
presents no marked outline, the whole falling down
in one flaccid congeries ; but that of the eye-brows,
and that of the eye-lids, have a determinate length,
which contributes at once to utility and to the high-
est elegance. When. cut short, it quickly reaches
‘its full length, and there invariably stops. These
circumstances shew, that each hair has.a particular
constitution, by which all its parts, from the root to
the extremity, exercise a regulated pap one wee

ence. -We cannot suppose that the case is different

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 283

with the nails of the fingers and toes. Weare never
_ told that those personages in the East who preserve
the nails of the fingers without paring receive a
constant accession to the length of these organs du-
_ ring the whole of their lives. Indeed, we find that,
when the paring of the nails of the toes is utterly
neglected, although their length becomes inconve-
nient, it reaches a ne plus ultra. In these particu-
lars, therefore, the nutrition of hair, nails and fea-
thers, must be concluded to obey similar laws.

The only question which remains is, How can we
suppose the nutriment to be conveyed to all the
parts of these organs?—The answer which I return to
this question, is, that this matter is sent to the
parts by vaporization, and appropriated by hy-
grometric attraction. ‘The halitus is maintained,
and prevented from escaping by various circumstan-
ces. RR geais : : |

In some of these organs, itis kept up by the close
apposition of all their parts to organs which are per-
_vaded by flowing liquids. 'Thisis the case with the
cuticle and the — which lie flat upon the cutis

~oera. ial

In those organs shill are connected with the
body by a minute area, such as hairs and feathers,
_ the halitus is retained partly by hygrometric attrac-

' tion, and partly by the close envelope afforded by

their own most superficial stratum. These two pro-

perties bear an inverse proportion to one another;

284 _ ON THE NUTRITION OF

where the one is in a small degree, the other makes
up for the deficiency, by being in itself more consi-
derable. The sum-total of retentive powers of mois-
ture thus possessed, may not be strictly equal in all,
but proportioned to the degree of adaptation of the
different substances to circumstances of external
condition. -

We are, therefore, to conceive, on the whole, that
there is in the interior of all such organs, a constant
dampness without any flowing liquidity; and that
this dampness contributes to the transmission of all
nutritious impregnations ; in the same manner in
which we find, that the presence of moisture pro-
motes the evolution of those exhalations which an-
nounce to the sense of smell certain differences of
character in the properties of different animal -sub-
stances. The quantities of matter thus conveyed
must be more minute than those which pass in the
state of blood. But the transmission is constant ;
the assimilating functions of the nourished parts are
always active; and we are not authorised to pro-
nounce on the maximum of the proportion which is
taken from the transmitted substance for the Due
pose of assimilation.

The structure, though thus open, eae not ae
conceived to be indeterminate. ‘There are passages
of various qualities, through some of which the hali-
tus is conveyed more readily, and through others less.
These passages differ not only in width, but in the

ag

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 285

constitution of their parietes, both with respect to
hygrometric properties, and to the degree and kind
of their assimilating power. In short, we are war-
ranted to conceive a.nutrition to go on in this man-
ner with as exquisite niceness and as rich variety, as
by means of circulating liquids. Here, however,
we must stop. The particular laws by which the
ultimate minutie of the process are accomplish-
ed, elude our inquiry. But they are not more mys-
_ terious in the epidermis, in nails, in hair, and in
feathers, on the doctrine which I have ventured to
advance, than in the organs in which the circulating
apparatus is traced in the most satisfactory man-
ner. ,

This doctrine, it is obvious, may be also called in
to the aid of the physiology of insects and of that
of plants. To many of the latter, it will be found in-
dispensably requisite ; as, for example, those of the
class Cryptogamia, and more especially the tribe of
lichens. |

If it should occur to any person as an objection,
that we know the process of nutrition to be conduct-
ed in substances, which show that they possess no
hygrometric power, since they rapidly dry, as soon as
a communication with the animal body or the vege-
table root is cut off; I have only to observe, that
this hygrometric power is to be considered as regu-
lated by the living activity, and for the most part de-
pending entirely upon it. This supposition is equal-

286 ON THE NUTRITION OF iter)

ly admissible with any other facts of secretion and.
assimilation, in which we have chemical qualities

and effects which owe their existence to living —

agency. : SEO SEE,

Ay ; TERN:

A doctrine somewhat analogous may be extend-
ed to many substances, both animal and vegetable,
which are wholly immersed*in fluids, of which we
have a good exemplification in the submarine tribe of
fuci. It is not incumbent on us to presume that, in
all such species, a mechanical propulsion of the nu-
tritious fluid must take place, similar to that which
obtains in the sanguiferous system of large animals,
or even to that which some scanty experiments are
considered as having substantiated in certain vege-
tables. The transmission may be conducted by so-
lution and precipitation alone. ‘The motions may
be exactly similar to those in which a saline matter,
taken up from the concrete state at the bottom of a
liquid solvent, gradually ascends during solution,
while the liquid remains steady, its particles either
suffermg no change of place, or such a change as we
may call chemical because it is strictly corpuscu-
lar, arising from chemical attraction and communi-

cation. It would be unphilosophical to say that —
nutrition is nothing else than solution and precipi-
tation ; yet the local transmission of the nutriment
is sufficiently accounted for by this set of causes;
and the mechanical propulsion of a body of fluid is

CUTICLE, NAILS, HAIR AND FEATHERS. 287.

not wanted for the completion of our physiological
| explanations. That such a propulsion in any case
occurs, is to be proved by particular experiments,
and not inferred from the general nature of the sub-
ject.

Ph

“it ie) +

OBS Gs ACCOUNT OF TWO

XITX.—Observations on the Genus Pieus of
Lanneus, with Descriptions of two New Spe-
cies from the Interior of Brazil.

By Wittiam Swainson, F. L. 8.

(Read 25th March 1820.)

Tne birds composing the Linnean Genus Picus
or Woodpecker, form, like a few others, a Natural
Group, distinguishable to the most casual obser-
ver, and possessing such marked and decided cha-
racters, that the best modern ornithologists have
refrained from separating them. The Picus tri-
dactylus of Linneus, it is true, possesses only three
toes, and on that account has been made a distinct
genus by Mr Stevens, in the 9th volume of “ Ge-
neral Zoology ;? but I am assured by Professor

Temminik, whose works must place him among 2
the first ornithologists of the age,—that, from an —

NEW SPECIES OF PICUS. 889

attentive inspection of a large number of this fa-
mily in his superb collection, he has found the
inner hind-toe to vary so much in size, that in
many species it is almost obsolete,—thus tracing
the affinity, he considers this character by no means’
constant; and it is remarkable, that Mr Stevens’
Tridactyla undata should be described by Brisson
with three toes, and figured by Buffon with four *.
Future observations, however, will confirm or elear
up this point. In the mean time, the descriptions
of the two following species of genuine Pici, will
add to our knowledge of this interesting family.

PICUS curysosterNvus.—Golden-breasted
Woodpecker.

Specific Character.

P. griseus, albido-fasciatus, capitis lateribus, collo,
et pectore aureis, vertice et jugulo nigris.

Grey Woodpecker, banded with whitish, sides of
the head, neck and breast, golden-yellow, crown
and throat black.

VOL. III. T

* The Alcedo tribrachys of Shaw, (Azure Kingfisher of
Latham) has likewise only three toes, but in all other respects
might serve as a type of the genus Alcedo, though, by the
same principle of artificial classification, this bird should
stand in a genus by itself.

290. ACCOUNT OF TWO —

Description.

Total length 124 inches; bill near 14 inches,
wedged, smooth, black,' straight ; crown deep glos-’
sy-black, which extends to the hind-head, and —
there ends in a point. At the nostrils begins a
whitish stripe, which includes the eye, and then
becomes a rich orange-yellow, uniting behind the
head, and spreading over the sides and lower part
of the neck and breast. A black patch occupies
the chin, and throat freckled near the bill with
white. Upper part of the body, including the
wing-covers, greyish-brown, transversely striated
with greyish-white; quills the same, but darker
and immaculate; near their tips, the Ist, 2d and
3d shorter than the 4th; the shafts of all golden-
yellow; inner wings pale-yellow; rump white;
under part of the plumage grey, with brown ar-
row-shaped lines pointing downwards, two on each
feather ; upper and under tail-covers equally band-.
ed with black and whitish; tail 43 inches long, —
and black ; the two middle feathers partially band-
ed with dirty yellow; the two outermost pair the
same on the exterior web only; the shafts of the
last golden in the middle; legs and ee” obscure
olive. ‘This was a female. tie i

I only observed this rare bird in the ay and
arid tracts of table-land in the Sertem or inland —

hr NEW SPECIES OF PICUS. 201

country of the Province of Bahia. Unlike the rest
__ of its tribe, it has a short plaintive ery while flying,
and: frequently perches on the tops of the strag-
a - gling stunted trees, which afford such a contrast to
_ the luxuriant vegetation of the coast. In size,
and in the beautiful golden colour of the quill-
“ Pacts it resembles Picus melanochloros and cay- |
anensis, near which it should be placed. I have
seen it in no other collection than my own. |

PICUS Brazi.iENsts.—Brazilian Woodpecker.

Specific Character.

P. olivaceus, subtus flavescens, nigro-fasciatus, ca-
pite subcristato supra rubra, utrinque lineis oli-.
vaceis, fulvis, et rubris. |

Olive Woodpecker, beneath tawny, with trans-

_ verse black striae, head sub-crested above red,
, the sides with olive, yellow, and red streaks.

Description.

_ Total length 9 inches; bill, near one inch,
black, very straight, the sides angulated; irides
yellow ; head above, as far as the nape, crimson ; or-
bits and cheeks olive-brown ; beneath this, and com-

T 2

: 292 ACCOUNT OF TWO a

mencing from the nostrils, is a narrow line of gol-

den-yellow, terminating with the neck; below this _

is another stripe, crimson at the base of the lower

mandible, and olive beyond, ending with the fo

er, leaving the chin and throat yellow; all the <a |

per parts of the plumage are yellowish-olive, the —
inner shafts of the quills being black, except the
edge, which is pale, rufous, almost their entire
length; tail 3: inches long; the feathers black
and Bacau late, tinged with olive at their base ;
breast, body and under parts, tawny-yellow, trans-
versely banded with blackish lines; feet and legs
olivaceous ; inner wing-covers tawny.

Inhabits the same situations as the former; the
only specimen I have found was a male. In classi-

,

fication, it’ will come near to P-. ictero-cephalus, —

under which name, by the way, two very distinct
birds are placed.

The Genus’ Dendrocolaptes’ of Illiger * (1 a4

Picacule of the French) have, in all the species I
found in South America, precisely the same man-
ners and habits as the Pici, climbing the trees with
even greater facility, although their feet are those
termed ambulatorit. The type of this excellent

genus is Gracula cayennensis of Linneus. M. Vi- |

ellot, some years after, without — ay notice

ead £3 z seh |
i

* Caroli lligeri Prodromus Systematis. Mamnalium et

Avium, Berolini; 1814. 4

ction given to thes 2 birds by
genus Dendrocopus, a name
rom . Iliger ; nor i is this the only
tted by an ornithologist whose in-
requires no such dubious aid to in-
die, OE ayret WAC

wate hibit ( oWoseliy Hea,

| ‘gas ya ebds haat m erg | ot

af eoctoan |

lity oe) 3! 5 A Oa ee
“lia Vee IN) Ber int, eRe

» waren e | Hes! bi Mh) 199 ida Wa
a ; ?
yews eee ie Cali ee rr he

i ve wet ‘ RETA atl f int
: “Alves Pe a eo ae
“Hise ing Ch a 4
oY ,

Bai

* ide
wy YS

odes. js lke
“aie : v : My ‘ geen: f Oe? 18 (5% vue | ef ry pore

“3 mets ery Varney

i Bo My
POR LBA

ii ey tic
ath ae ay dyptet

4

294 DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL |

* ae i

KX Be PED of Mah, Ae ew or - Rare Na-
tive Plants, found in Scotland, chiefly by ed Pr

late Mr apr ae Don of Forfar.

By Davip Down. © :
(Read 8th April 1820. aha

Aurioven a few additions to the Flora of one

of the regions of Europe, whose vegetable produc-

tions are already well known, may not be interest- _
ing to botanists in general, yet they nevertheless —
deserve regard from the botanist who confines him-
self to the study of the plants of that particular
country. ‘To him they are highly interesting, not
perhaps on account of their varied beauty and sin-
gular form, qualities in which plants - more fa- i

certain points of bobanedl sousanite ae t 16 mh
lations which the plants of other countries S

NEW OR RARE SCOTTISH PLANTS. 295

«

in the same zone bear to those of his own. ‘Those

- who are well acquainted with the peculiar ha-

bitats of plants, will observe some which are
- confined to a very narrow space, and are some-
- times even almost solitary. This curious fact has

not hitherto been sufficiently explained. This
circumstance, however, occasionally occurs in eve-
ry region of the globe, in both hemispheres,

within the tropics, as well as in the temperate

and frigid zones. Chaerophyllum aromaticum,

anative of Austria, Silesia, and other parts of Ger-

many, has also been found in Scotland, although
only in one spot, and there but sparingly, The late
Mr George Don of Forfar first observed this habitat
about twenty-five years ago. Lychnis alpina, which
is found on the Alps of Lapland, Siberia, Switzer-
land, and the Pyrenees, has also been detected in
Scotland. Although it has hitherto only been ob-
served in one spot, yet I have no doubt that here-
after it will be met with in other parts, considering
the many relations which these countries have in
common. Potentilla opaca, which is found on
Mount Baldo, the mountains of Switzerland, Aus-

_tria, and Germany, is also found in considerable

plenty on the Braes of Balquhidder, and other hills

ae Perthshire.
Many alpine plants were formerly regarded by

tanists,as only varietiesof those foundin the plains,

‘ “altered by their elevated situations ; but, by gradu-
ally becoming more minutely acquainted with their

5

256 DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL —

characters, we are enabled to establish/them, with

propriety, as distinct species. ‘Thus, for example,

Myosotis rupicola, was at first considered only as a

variety of M. scorpioides,—a heterogeneous species

which has very justly been subdivided into several
species. Among the pedatifid- leaved Saxifrage,
we are apt to confound many very distinct species,
merely on account of the similarity in their exter-
nal appearance. ‘Thus, for example, in Scotland,
Saxifraga hypnoides has been confounded with
S. elongella, and with other two new species, (as I
shall have an opportunity of shewing elsewhere).

_ The Graminee form a tribe whose general ap-

pearance is very much alike, and on that account
many real species have been regarded as mere
varieties. ‘The Poa alpina glomerata of Hull’s
British Flora, discovered by the late Mr G. Don,
on rocks by the side of the river Esk, about
six miles north of Forfar, Angusshire, is the Poa
Badensis of Willdenow’s “ Species Plantarum.”
Although regarded by Wahlenberg as only a va-
riety of Poa alpina, yet I have no doubt it will
soon be admitted as a distinct species. — ta

Bes

Lega Ry

=< s
=. sie *®
= ee

Without further preface, I shall now diane

several new or rare plants, most of which were first
observed by my late Father. The descriptions of
these, I have drawn up from the original native spe-
cimens preserved in my father’s herbarium; and I

may mention, that I have seen all of them in a re-

-

NEW AND RARE SCOTCH PLANTS. 297 |

cent state, when originally brought home by him
—_ their native habitats.

i 1.—VERONICA SETIGERA.

Caule repente, racemis lateralibus tenuifloris ; pe-
_ dicellis rectis brevibus; capsula apice integer-
rima; stylo persistente.

Tota planta pilis rigidis patentibus tecta; caules
-repentes humi patentes radicantes, florigeris ascen-
dentibus ; folia opposita brevi-petiolata ovata u-
trumque acuta integra medio serrata; racemi la-
terales stricti tenuiflori, pedicelli recti breves
bracteis minutis instructi; flores pallide rosei ner-
vis violaceis striati, segmento superiore et infe-
-riore lineare duobus lateralibus latioribus, foliola
, cealyeina elliptica acuta margine ciliata duo, supe-
-riora breviora; capsule subrotunde apice integra
nec emarginate stylo persistente coronate.

This species approaches near to V. officinalis,
from which I should have been disinclined to se-
parate it, had not the entire capsule crowned with
the persistent style warranted it, notwithstanding
it has many other points of distinction from that
— ; but as distinctions in the fruit are of the
ee rs epg in so intricate a genus, wa are

298 _ DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL

size of V. officinalis; the flowers are also’ much
smaller and paler, and when in flower is beset’ with
stiff rigid spreading hairs. In cultivation, it some-
times alters in size, but its other characters are al-
ways permanent. It was found some years ago
on dry hilly pastures in Angusshire, by Mr James
Smith, nurseryman et Monkswood Grove, near
Ayr, a very diligent practical botanist. Mr Hop-
kirk has described and figured it in his Flora Glot-
tiana under the name of V.. harsuta.

9.—POA STRICTA.

Panicula ramosa, spiculis 3-floris ovatis; glumis
lanceolatis trinervibus subzequalibus mucronatis —
carinatis, paleis quinquenerviis. apice truncatis
-flosculis basi villosis. )

Culmus erectus bipidalis gracilis teres glaber
articulatus ; folia radicalia anguste-liniaria glaber-
rima pallide viridia striata margine inermia, cau-
lina brevia pungentia longe vaginantia, vaginis le-
vibus striato sulcatis; ligula brevissima apice ob-
scindenti lacerato-ciliata; panicula compacta ra-
mosa fusco-rubra ramulis pedicellisque spinuloso
asperis, spiculi 3-flori conferti ovati, glume sub-
zequales lanceolate trinerves mucronate carinatee
{carina aspera) margine ciliate, palez 5-nerv:
apice truncate margine scariose; flosculi basi villis

longis retrofractis tecti. Affinis Pox pratensi, at. m4

ie! rein ad
¥

NEW OR RARE SCOTTISH PLANTS: 299

tamen posterior videtur distincta, spiculos 4-flores,
glumas ovato-lanceolatas, 5-nervias, paleas acutius-
culas nec truncatas, folia latiora, spicules majores
_habere. | :

This species was discovered: many years ago in
pastures in Angusshire, by the late Mr G. Don of
Forfar.

te etatnieimemenl

3.—Poa LEPTOSTACHY A?

Panicula contracta eile tease sudiealls bre-
vissimis glaberrimis, flosculis 2-floris, glumis lan-
ceolatis mucronatis equalibus trinervibus, apice
incurviis, paleis lanceolatis apice acutiusculis.

Radix fibrosa perennis cespitosa; culmi decum-
bentes geniculati teretes levissimi; folia brevia li-
niaria, plana nervosa leete-viridia glaberrima mar-
gine inermia basi vaginantia, vaginis foliis longio-
ribus glabris striatis ; panicula contracta subracemo-
sa depauperata, ramis brevibus, pedicellis brevissi-
mis glaberrimis ; spicule 2-flore, glume lanceolata:
mucronate equales trinerves (nervis nigrescentibus
conspicuis) apice incurve dorso carinate carina sub
microscopum spinuloso aspera, palez lanceolate apice
acutiuscule, flosculis nudis.

This Poa is totally distinct from any British spe-
seies, and there is none with which it has a near af-
finity. Found on the banks of the Tay, to the west

300 DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL

of Dundee, by the late Mr G. Don of Forfar, who
cultivated it many years, under the name of P, de-
pauperata,—a name whieh I should have wished to
retain ; but as it is already applied to a very distinet
species, found by Humboldt and Bonpland in Equi-
noctial America, and described under that name in
their “ Nova Genera et Species Plantarum,” I kaise
_ been obliged nawillingly to alter it. 48

ik tot a AROMATICUM,—Jacq. Aust.
t. 150. Matt. Sil. p. 209. Hoftm. Germ. 104
Willd. Sp. pl. 3. p. 1654.

Foliis radicalibus subbipinnatis, pinnis lateo-vatis

duplici-serratis, pedicellis involucello brevioribus,
fructibus fuciformibus cylindricis obscure striatis.

Caulis erectus ramosus bi vel tri pedalis firmus,
foliosus, sulcato-angulatus, hispidus maculatus ge-
niculatus, geniculis tumidiusculis; folia radicalia
subbipinnata petiolata, petiolis angulatis supra ca-
naliculatis dorso carinatis, pinnis oppositis imis
pinnatis externis simplicibus, late-ovatis acuminatis
basi cordatis subtus hirsutis supra rugoso-venosis
nudiusculis margine subduplici serratis (serraturis
aristatis); caulinis petiolatis, petiolis basi ramis va-
ginantibus, vaginis subcylindrico-angulatis glabris ;
umbella laxa plana medio subconcava; pedunculi
striati glaberrimi, pedicelli involucello breviores ;
involucella lanceolata cuspidata (cuspis longis aris-
teformibus) margine membranaceo lacerato-ciliato

pare) et

NEW OR RARE SCOTTISH PLANTS. 301

_ purpurascenti, medio viridi uninervo, nervo albo;

| petala subrotunda alba extus viridia apice fissa ;
fructus fuciformis cylindricus obscure striatus, stylis
brevibus persistentibus coronatus. —

This species, hitherto undescribed as a British
plant, is found near the village of Guthrie, near
the margin of the road leading from Forfar to Ar-
broath, in Angusshire, where it was first observed
by the late Mr G. Don of Forfar. It agrees, in

every point, with the figure of it given by Jacquin
in his Flora Austriaca. Although the circumstanee
of the persistent styles crowning the seed after ma-
turity, giving it the appearance of having two awns,
is recorded by authors in their specific character ;
yet it ought not to be admitted, as the same
‘thing is often observed in other species of this
genus. ‘The bruised leaves and stem, emit a heavy
aromatic odour.

Ais : ,
5.—ORoBUS TENUIFOLIUS. Roth. Germ. i. 305,
i. 170. Hoffm. Germ. 253.

Foliis impari-pinnatis, pinnis anguste liniaribus
supra canaliculatis apice mucronatis; stipulis lan-
ceolatis mucronatis, posticibus bidentatis ; race-
mis paucifloris.

Radix tuberosa, caules decumbentes debiles an-
gulati angulis alatis, folia alterna impari-pinnata,
pinnis anguste liniaribus supra canaliculatis nervo-

302 DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL ‘ie

sis subtus hirsutis apice mucronatis externo minu- —
tissimo ; stipulee semisagittate lanceolate mucrona-

te margine ciliate, posticibus bidentatis ; racemi
axillares pauciflori; flores lilacini, vexillo bein.
striatis. ire. ae

This plant is very nearly allied to Orobus cube,
sus, and is considered by Willdenow as only a va-
riety of it; but as it never changes its characters
and habit in cultivation, I have here given it as a
distinct species. Orobus tuberosus is distinguished’
from it, by having lanceolate flat pinnae, stipule
ovate, posterior lobes with 3 or 4 teeth ; plant 5 a
er and stronger, more erect, flowers larger.

This plant was first observed by the late Mr G..
Don of Forfar, near Kinnaird, in Angusshire.

6.—Lycunis aLPIna. Linn. Sp. Pl. 626. Lam.
Encycl. iii. p. 613. Willd. u. p. 809. Ait.
Kew. ii. p. 117. E. B. xxxii. t. 2254. LL, pe-
talis bifidis fl. corymbosis, F'l. Suec. ii, p. 410.
L. petalis bifidis fl. tetragynis, Oed. Dan. Ixv.
Silene Lapponica alpina, facie viscariz, B l. Lapp.
N. 185.

' Floribus congesto-capitatis, petalis bifidis, ungui-
bus petalorum membranis destitutis glabris ;
calycibus levibus.

Planta dense cxspitosa. Radix crassiuscula ra-
mosa fibris tenuissimis numerosis tecta ; caules erecti

NEW OR RARE SCOTTISH PLANTS. 303

4 rigidi glabri cylindrici geniculati; folia radicalia

‘

liniaria canaliculata (ante anthesin plana) glaberri-
ma, apice acuta basi parum ciliata, caulina opposita’ -
basi connata vaginantia, vaginis brevibus; flores

- subsessiles congesto-capitati bracteati, bracteis flori-

bus subzqualibus ; calyx levis, dentibus calycinis.
scariosis membranaceis; petala apice bifida, ungui-
bus membranarum destitutis glabris; squame co-
ronate brevissime bi vel tri dentate.

Lychnis viscaria differs from this species in the
following characters: Radical leaves, much longer,
apices obtuse, stem much taller, flowers thin-spiked
on short peduncles; bractez twice as short as the
flowers; calyx rugose; petals entire; claws of the
petals furnished with longitudinal membranes at
their margins; margins ciliated; squame of the
crown larger. :

This beautiful little plant was discovered many
years ago, bythe late Mr G. Donof Forfar,who found.
it on the highest mountains of Clova, Angusshire,
on rocks facing the south, near their summits, but
very sparingly. The Scotch plant exactly agrees
with the figure in Flora Danica, except in the num-
ber of pistils, the Scottish specimens having uni-
formly five: I am fully convinced, that a specific
character, taken from the numbers of pistils, must.
be inadequate. The figure of this species, in Eng-
lish Botany, is telerably good, considering its ha-
ving been taken from a dried specimen; the repre-

304 DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL

sentation in the Botanical Magazine conveys noidea _

of the plant.

7.—PotTENTILLA OpACA. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 2. i.
p. 713. Willd. Sp. pl. ii. p. 1103. Decand.

Flor. Fran. iv. p. 460. Spreng. Fl. Hall. p. 148.

Wahlenb. Fl. Carpath. p. 155. M. A. Bie-
berst. Fl, Taur. Caucas. 1. p. 408. Nestler, Mo-
nog. p. 55. HK. B. vol. xxxv. t. 2449.

Caule decumbente filiformi ; foliis radicalibus sep-
tennato-digitatis. Foliolis oblongo-cuneiformi-
bus profunde serratis rugoso-venosis pilis setosis
patentibus adspersis ; stipulis lanceolatis ; pedun-
culis elongatis subunifioris; petalis obcordatis
calyce subaequalibus.

Radix ramosa, fibris lignosis instructa; planta
cespitosa ; caules plurimi decumbentes filiformes
teretes rubescentes ramosissimi piloso-setosi; folia ra-

dicalia septennato-digitata longe petiolata reeti-
uscula ; petiolis pilis rigidis patentibus tectis ; foliola

oblonge-cuneiformia profunde serrata rugosa venosa
utrinque pilis setosis adspersa; folia caulina infe-
riora alterna quinata petiolata, superiora opposita
subsessilia; stipule lanceolate apice obtusiuscula ;
pedunculi elongati axillares subuniflore ; segmenta
calycina exteriora lanceolata acutiuscula ante an-
thesin laxe patentia, interiora late-ovata acutiuscula
ante anthesin imbricata; petala aurea obcordata

NEW OR RARE SCOTTISH PLANTS. 305

multinervia (nervis ramosissimis) calyce subequa-
lia.

This species of potentilla was first discovered in

Britain by the late Mr G. Don of Forfar, who
found it on the Braes of Balquhidder, and other
hills in Perthshire, in considerable plenty.
_ This species has often been confounded with P.
verna, although the habits of the plants are widely
different. Potentilla verna is three times smaller,
always spreading flat on the ground ; the stems are
very short and thick ; the petals are much shorter ;
the leaves are quinate, the leaflets obovate, slightly
serrated, shining on the upper surface, never rugose ;
the stem-leaves all alternate, never opposite; stipules
ovate, smooth, obtuse ; segments of the calyx short-
er; petals smaller and paler; the whole plant is
slightly clothed with very fine adpressed hairs.
The figure given of it in English Botany, is ex-
tremely good and accurate. Willdenow is wrong in
quoting Hudson for a synonym of P. opaca, Hud-
son’s plant being nothing else than P. verna.

VOL. UI. | v

306 | ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP

7

XXI—On the Rocky Mountam Sheep ” me
Americans.

By Professor Jameson.

( Read 18th April 1819.)

Tar Spanish missionaries in California, so early as
1697, make particular mention of a “ remarkable
species of sheep” as oecurring in that country ; and
it is again noticed by Venegas, in his History of Ca-
lifernia. Lewis and Clarke also heard of it, and ob-
tained some skins from the Rocky Mountains. I
now present to the Society, a skin’ of this animal,
which was sent from Hudson’s Bay, by Mr Auld,
formerly of that country, and who obtained it
from the Rocky Mountains. It appearstobe the
Rocky Mountain Sheep of the Americans. A sim-
ple inspection of the specimen before us, proves that
it cannot be a species of the genus Ovis, and the

))o* OF THE AMERICANS. 307

form of the horns, and shape of the body, will not
allow of its being placed with the Capre or goats ;
while its form, beard, and fur, remove it from the
genus Antelope. We are of opinion, that it forms
a species of a genus intermediate between the ante-
lope and goat. On examining the fleece, I was
particularly struck with its uncommon fineness; and
it occurred to me, that an animal inhabiting the
temperate regions of the Rocky Mountains, with so
valuable a fleece, might be easily procured, and
readily introduced into this country, and form a
valuable addition to otr wool-bearing animals.
Strongly impressed with this view, I now beg leave
to suggest to the Society, providing they agree
with me in opinion as to the value of this animal,
to take steps for procuring live specimens from
America, in order to make the experiment of in-
troducing it into Scotland. |

ee

The Society having taken this proposal into con-
sideration, appointed a committee of its members
to consult with the Directors of the Highland So-
ciety of Scotland, on this important proposal; and
also to request Mr Thomas Laurie, whe has long
been distinguished for his intimate aquaintance
with rural affairs, to report as to the value of the —
wool, &c.

The following is the report of Mr Laurie. | |

wu 2

308 ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP

Remarks for the Wernerian Society on the Skiv.
of the Rocky Mountain Sheep.

| Ta 3 GL

THE skin submitted to us, is, in the minutes of
the Society, denominated that of “ The Rocky
Mountain Sheep ;” and, from the wool with which
it 1s covered, it may certainly be considered as near-
ly allied to that genus of quadrupeds, though, had
it wanted this woolly covering, we would probably
have been inclined to consider it as more allied to
the goat. The general figure of this skin is very
different from that of any sheep’s skin I have ever
seen. The difference is perhaps most remarkable
in the length and figure of the neck, which, in no
slight degree, resembles that of a thorough bred
horse. The general structure of the head, exter-
nally viewed, does not appear to vary from that of
other sheep, more than might be ascribed to acci-
dental circumstances. To this remark, however,
the horns form a remarkable exception. Their po-
sition is. very different from what is observed in the
common sheep. Their curvature is also different,—
circumstances which deserve more particular notice,
on account of their being connected with other im-
portant diversities of character : These are the
smoothness of the horns, and their circular, or ra-
ther conical shape,—two particulars in which they
differ from the horns of every species of sheep with
which either history or observation has made us ac-

i
ed
i

OF THE AMERICANS. 309

quainted. ~The blackness of the horns, compared
with the whiteness of the wool, may also be men-
tioned, though, in other circumstances, unworthy of
notice. The legs, too, of this skin, are covered
with longer and coarser hair than what is to be
found on those of the common sheep. ‘The horns
resemble those of a common goat, more than of
a sheep, in regard to position, colour, and texture.
But the goats horns are flat on the under part,
or that next the neck, so as to form the side of a
pyramid. In other respects they are conical. The
horns of the Rocky Mountain Sheep are com-
pletely conical, and in shape resemble the horns of
an ox more than those of either a goat or any of
the varieties of sheep.

There is another circumstance of apparent resem-
blance to the goat, which may be noticed. The
skin exhibited has a ridge of hair along the back,
considerably longer than the general covering,
which is continued up the neck, in the form of a
mane, thicker and longer than that on the back. .
It has also a thick long beard, and a space on each
quarter covered with long shaggy hair. In these
particulars, there is a resemblance to the male of
the common goat; and I think it probable the
skin belongs to the male sex. In the length of the
neck, compared with that of the body, there is also

‘a resemblance to the common goat. But, in all

these points of resemblance, there are specific diffe-

4 rences, which a comparison would best illustrate.

a
310. _ ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP

The wool forming the principal covering of» the
skin, is a strong reason for not classing the animal
with the family of goats. It is no ee true, that
the goat of the Kast, yields a fur in many respects
resembling wool; and it may be difficult, in some
cases, to distinguish between hair and wool, espe-
cially from small specimens. But, in judging from
any considerable quantity, such as the covering of a
whole skin, there would be little difficulty in deter-
mining whether the substance should be called. hair
or wool; and, so far as I know, there is no good
authority for any species of goat ever having been
found with a covering wholly or chiefly of wool.

It may be unnecessary to enlarge farther upon
the classification of the animal, as the question can-
not. be satisfactorily decided without the possession
of a living specimen.

‘ ‘The skin seems to be that of a fall grown animal.
A number of observations might be offered in illus-
tration of this opinion. But it may suffice to state,
that the horns and general aspect of the head, have
all the appearances of maturity. The teeth, in par-
ticular, are evidently fully grown, and such as are
observed in a sheep upwards of three years old.
Four of them, on one side, are more or less broken,
which may have occurred either from aniaill or
age. | hice

The wool, which forms the chief covering of the
skin, is fully an inch and a half long, and is of the
very finest quality. It is unlike the fleece of the

Hb

OF THE AMERICANS. $11

common sheep, which contains a variety of different
_kinds, suitable to the fabrication of articles very dis-
- similar in their nature, and requires much care to
distribute them in their proper order. The fleece
under consideration is wholly fine. That on the
fore part of the skin has all the apparent qualities
of fine wool. On the back part, it very much re-
-sembles cotton. The whole fleece is much mixed
with hairs; and, on those parts where the hairs are
long and pendant, there is almost no wool. ,
_ The wool, if separated from the hairs, would, I
think, be adapted for the finest purposes of manu-
facture. But, in its present state, it could not be
so applied, though many of the hairs would fly off
in the manufacturing processes. It is, however,
highly probable, that, by a careful selection of
breeding stock; the hairs might, in a great measure,
or perhaps entirely disappear in the course of a
very few generations. It has always been observed,
that where sheep have been neglected, their wool
has been comparatively coarse ; and wherever they
have been properly treated, and due advantage ta-
ken of the accidental finer varieties, the quality of
their wool has been proportionally ameliorated.
Indeed the improvement in the qualities of wool
has uniformly been marked as keeping pace with
the progress of arts and civilization. Iam, there-
fore, of opinion, that the wool of the Rocky
_ Mountain Sheep would soon become a great acquisi-
tion to the manufacturers of this country, were the

°

312 ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP

animal which yields it, to experience the judicious
treatment of many British flocks ; and there can be
no doubt, that such an experiment would be well
worth trying. Under this impression, I cannot
help expressing a wish, that the Society, to whose
consideration these remarks are submitted, would —
exert their influence for accomplishing an object
which may prove of national importance.

_At the same time, it is proper to observe, that
sheep are not to be considered as valuable for their
fleece alone. They merit attention as furnishing
food as well as clothing to man, and any particular
race is of value only in so far as these important
objects are combined. How far the Rocky Moun-
tain Sheep might prove useful as furnishing food,
I have had no opportunities of ascertaining. As
to the value of the wool, if obtained in purity,
there seems no room for doubt; and I may state,
that I have shewn specimens to different wool-
dealers, all of whom expressed their admiration of
their quality, and even an anxiety to purchase.
From these specimens, however, it may be fair to
add, the hairs had been in a great measure ex-
tracted. eth

It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that it can-
not be known from the skin exhibited, whether or
not the Rocky Mountain Sheep produces what deal-
ers would call Jong wool. The longest observed on
the skin is searcely exceeding two inches, being
about one-half the usual length of the full-grown

OF THE AMERICANS. 313

fleeces of the mountain sheep of Great Britain, or
what i is called the carding and clothing wool, which
is even much shorter than the combing sort used for
worsted stuffs, &c. The comparative shortness, how-
ever, of the wool under consideration, proves no-
thing. Sheep cast their wool annually, if not
shorn, and a new coat springs up. This generally
takes place in this country about the month of
June. If, therefore, the animal which produced the
wool under consideration, was killed soon after cast-
ing its old wool, the new wool would not be at its
full growth. This, too, is a point which could best
be determined by procuring living specimens of
the animal, and observing their habits and chan-
ste

_ STOCKBRIDGE,
16th Pm 1818.

THomas LAURIE.

Professor Jameson’s proposal having been submit-
— ted to the Directors of the Highland Society, they
expressed their willingness to co-operate, and ap-
pointed a Committee to confer with a Committee
of the Wernerian Society on the business; and it
is in contemplation, to communicate with the
Right Honourable the Earl of Dalhousie, (a Vice-
President of the Society, and now Governor-Gene-
ral of Canada), and request the good offices of that
patriotic nobleman towards the sending home of
living | specimens of the animal.

Olé ON THE BED OF THE

XXII.—On the Bed of the German Ocean, or
North Sea. .

By Rosert Stevenson, Esq. F. B.S. E. & M. W.S.

Civil Engineer.

(Read 8th April 1820.)

Ina former paper, I had the honour of: laying
before the Society, a pretty full account of the
wasting effects of the sea upon the margin of the
~ Tand, on all the shores of Great Britain, and a part
of Ireland. From personal observation since the
date of that paper, (read 2d May 1816, and insert-
ed in vol. ii. p. 464. of the Society's Memoirs)
I have been enabled to add many striking exam-
ples bearing upon the same point, not only on the
British coast, but as referable to all quarters of the
globe ; the result of which is, that the encroach-
ment of the sea upon the land, may be received as
a general principle. On account of the details al-
ready given in the former paper, it might appez ‘a

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. $15

tedious and unnecessary to enumerate these addi-
tional instances ; and I shall therefore content my-
self with referring to it, in {so far as regards the
wasting effects of the sea, and proceed to notice the
particular tendency of these upon the bed of the
German Ocean or North Sea; and endeavour to ac-
count, agreeably to the laws of Nature, for the im-
mense quantity of water which must thus be dis-
placed by the deposition of debris, and the conse-
quent elevation of the bottom of the sea.

We are therefore to view the ocean as the great
receptacle for the waste of the globe, produced not
only by the direct effects of the sea on the margin
of the land, but also by the more latent effects
arising from the changes of the atmosphere, ‘acting,
to a certain extent, in mouldering away the firm
ground, which is afterwards transferred to the bed
of the ocean. At first sight, the deposition arising
from this process, may appear to be a trivial quan- —
tity, compared with the great expanse of the ocean ;
but if we confine our attention to the bed of the
North Sea, we find, inthe course of our inquiries, that
it is by no means so inconsiderable. Great Britain
alone, is estimated to contain about 20,000,000 acres
of cultivated land; and it is further estimated to
possess an extent of about 25,000 miles of prin-
cipal roads, which expose a surface of upwards
_of 1000 acres to the constant action of the
_ weather, and to the wearing of carriages. Now,
when we consider that every river and rill of water,

316 ON THE BED OF THE

after the slightest shower of rain, is charged with
mud, and that the furrows of every field are silted
up with the finer particles of the soil, the quantity
of debris which is annually carried from all quar-
ters of the globe into the ocean must be altogether
astonishing. We cease, therefore, to be surprised,
when we come to calculate the contents of the va-
rious extensive sand banks which are found almost
universally to pervade and encumber the bottom of
the North Sea. |
Our knowledge of the bottom of the ocean, how-
ever, remains still very imperfect ; and, with little
exception, the simple apparatus of the mariner, con-
sisting of a plummet and line, continues to be
chiefly in use for ascertaining the depth of the sea,
and the nature of the ground. With these, and
the addition of a little grease applied to the lower
extremity of the plummet, which «strikes against
the bottom, we learn the quality of the soil, though
imperfectly, by the particles which adhere to the
erease —What the navigator has yet been able to
discover regarding the depth, and the nature of the
bottom of the German Ocean, I shall now endea-
your to notice, being myself enabled to offer the
result of a pretty extensive acquaintance with vis
field of inquiry. 0
It may be necessary to premise, in état of ¢ a
subject so extensive, and in comparing great things
with small, that we are obliged to speak of the
North Sea as a bay or basin, and of the immense

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es 0 ‘of the
h = NORTH SEA or GERMAN OCEAN |}
\ aovahiiaiae: with SECTIONS of the
DEPTHS of WATER
CHANWE tf. TMustrative of Observations
i
Robert Sterenson
Cinl Engineer
1820.
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GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 317

collection of debris which we meet with, extending
over a great proportion of its bottom, under the
‘common appellation of Sand-Banks. We must
also be allowed to consider the undulating line, or
the irregularities of the bottom, to arise chiefly
from the accumulation of deposited matters; and,
in most of the situations connected with these
banks, we are supported and borhe out in this con-
clusion, by their local positions relatively to the
openings of friths, and the line of their direction in
regard to the set or current of the ebb-tide.

The accompanying Map (P]. XIV.) of the eastern
coast of Great Britain, with the opposite Continent,
though upon a small scale, exhibits numerous
soundings of the depth of the German Ocean ; and
the sections delineated on it, will perhaps be found
to give a pretty distinct view of the subject. This
chart extends from the coast of France, in latitude
50° 57’ to 61° N. On the east, this great basin is
bounded by Denmark and Norway, on the west by
the British Isles, on the south by Germany, Hol-
land and France, and on the north by the Shetland
Islands, and the Great Northern or Arctic Ocean.
The term German Ocean, though in very com-
mon use, is certainly not so comprehensive in its
application to this great basin, as that of North -
Sea, now more generally used by the navigator.
The extent of this sea from south to north, between
the parallels of latitude quoted above, is 233 leagues,

318 - ON THE BED OF THE

and its greatest breadth from west to east, reckon-
ing from St Abb’s-Head, on the coast of Scotland,
to Ring Kiobing Froid, on the opposite shore of
Denmark, is 135 leagues. The greatest depth of
the water in this basin, seems to be upon the Nor-
wegian side, where the soundings give 190 fathoms;
but the mean depth of the whole may be stated at
only about 31 fathoms.

To be more particular with regard to the depth
of the German Ocean, or North Sea, it will be ob-
served by the sections and soundings marked upon
the chart, that the water gradually deepens as we
sail from south to north. The first of these sec-
tions which we shall notice, is on the parallel of 3
degrees of east longitude, running from Ostend to
the latitude of the northmost of the Shetland Is-
lands, being an extent of 227 leagues. ‘The depth,
as will be seen from this section, (which, to’ avoid’
confusion in the body of the chart, is traced along
the western side of it,) varies rather after an irre-
gular progression, from ]20 fathoms towards the
northern extremity of this sectional line, to 58, 38,
24 and 18 fathoms, as we proceed southwards, to
within five miles of the shore, nearer which we do
not approach in our remarks regarding the sound- |
ings. Notwithstanding the irregularity of the
depth, from the occurrence of numerous sand-banks,
it is curious to observe the increase upon the whole,
as we proceed from south to north, by which this

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 319

‘sea exhibits all the characteristic features of a great
bay, encumbered with numerous sand-banks.

In the same manner, though not strictly con-
nected with our present purpose, we may observe,
that the English Channel deepens progressively
from Dover to its entrance, formed by the Land’s-
‘End of England and the Isle of Ushant, on the
coast of France; so that the Strait between Dover
and Calais may be said to form a point of partition
between two great inclined planes, forming the
bottom of these seas.

Besides the longitudinal, or north and oaths sec-
tional line described above, we have. also six other
sections delineated in an easterly and westerly di-
rection, across the accompanying chart, which are
as follow. One between the Shetland Islands and
the coast of Norway ; a second between Tarbetness
in Ross-shire and the Naze of Norway; a third ex-
tends from the Frith of Forth to the coast of Den-
mark; a fourth from the mouth of the river Tyne
to Sylt Island, also in Denmark; a fifth from
Flamborough-Head, in Yorkshire, to the mouth of
the river Elbe; and the sixth is from Yarmouth to
Egmond-op-Zee, on the coast of Holland.

On examining the accompanying cross sections,
of the depths of water on the same parallel, they
will be found to vary considerably. It may, how-
ever, be stated as a general conclusion, that there
is a greater depth of water on the eastern and
western sides of the German Ocean, than its cen

320 ON THE BED OF THE

tral parts, and that, upon the whole, it is deeper
on the British, than on the continental “ea the
coast of Norway excepted. Laat

We have already observed, that this oy is much —
encumbered with sand-banks, or great accumulations
of debris, especially in the middle or central parts,
and also along the shores towards what may be
termed the apex of the bay, extending from the
river Thames, along the shores of Holland, &e. to
the Baltic. One of these great central banks, deli-
neated on the chart, and known to mariners as the
Long Forties, trends north-east in the direction
of the ebb-tide from the entrance of the Frith of
Forth, no less than 110 miles, while the Denmark
and Jutland banks may also be traced on the chart
from the entrance of the Baltic, upwards of 105
miles in a north-western direction. Besides these,
we have also another great central range of banks,
which is crossed by no fewer than four of our sec-
tional lines: These are known under the common
appellation of the Dogger Bank, which is subdivid-
ed by the navigator into the Long-Bank, the White-
Bank, and the Well-Bank, including an cxtent of
upwards of 354 miles from north to south. . There
are also a vast number of shoals and sand-banks,
lying wholly to the southward of our section, be-
tween Flamborough Head and Heligoland. A
gether, therefore, the superficies of these. extensive
banks is found to occupy no inconsiderable portion
of the whole area of the German Ocean ; the sur-

:

; me
x

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. i

face of which, in making these investigations, has
been estimated to contain about 153,709 square
miles, while the aggregate superficial contents of
the sand-banks alone, amount to no less than
27,443 square miles, or include an area of about
52 of the whole surface of the North Sea.

But to render these dimensions a little more fa-
miliar by comparison, we may notice, that the Island
of Great Britain contains about 77,244 square miles,
being not quite one-half of the area of the North
Sea; so that the area of the Sand-banks bears a
proportion equal to about one-third of the whole
terra firma of England and Scotland; and they
are, therefore, perhaps, far more considerable in their
extent than has been generally imagined.

In speaking of the dimensions of sand-banks si-
tuate in the middle of the ocean, we are aware that
great allowance must be made in forming a proper
estimate of their extent, especially in speaking of
their cubical contents. From a vast number of ob-
servations and comparisons relative to this sub-
ject, I have, however, been enabled to determine,
that the average height of these banks measures
about 78 feet, from a mean taken of the whole. In
ascertaining their height above the surrounding
bottom, the measurement has been taken from the
general depth around each respectively. Now, up-
on taking the aggregate cubical contents of the

whole of these immense collections of debris, sup-
| VOL. III. “af

322 ON THE BED OF THE |

posing the mass to be uniformly the same through-
out, it is found to amount to no less a quantity than
2,241,248,563,110 of cubic yards, being equal to
about 14 feet of the depth of the whole German
Ocean, or to a portion of the firm ground of Great
Britain, on a level with the sea, taken 28 feet in

perpendicular height or depth, supposing the surface

to be a level plane.

These calculations at least all to eel dae an
immense body of water must be displaced, in conse-
quence of these banks occupying so very consider-
able a proportion of the bed of the North Sea, the

unavoidable effect of which must give a direct ten- _

dency to the tidal waters, and the flux produced by
storms in the Atlantic, to overflow the bed of the
German Ocean, in the same manner as if stones or
other matter were thrown into a vessel already near-
ly brimful of water. This may further be illustrat-
ed by considering the actual state of any of the great
inland lakes, as those of Geneva, Lochness, Loch-
lomond, &c. which for ages past have been receiving
the debris of the surrounding mountains. We must
doubtless allow that they contain a smaller portion
of water, or are actually of a less depth than they
were at an earlier period of the history of the globe.

Accordingly, from inquiries, which, in the prosecu-
tion of this subject, I have been led to make re-
garding the two last mentioned lakes, it has satis-

factorily appeared that their waters are subject to —

overflow or rise upon their banks. On Lochlomond,

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 323

in particular, the site of a house at the village of
Luss was pointed out to me, which is now perma-
nently under the swmmer-water-mark, while the
gable of another house in its neighbourhood is in
danger of being washed down by the increase of the
waters of the loch. Whether this striking appear-
ance (an account of which I laid before the Society
in the session of 1818,) is to be attributed wholly
to natural causes, or partly to artificial operations
upon the bed of the River Leven, flowing from the
loch, I have had no opportunity of inquiring. But
the great bench or flat space around the margin of
the loch, which is left partly dry during summer,
fosms altogether such a receptacle for debris, as to
be sufficient to affect the surface of the loch, and in-
deed permanently to raise its waters. We also in- |
fer, though by a different process, that the constant
deposition going forward in the bed of the German
Ocean, must likewise displace its waters, and give
them a tendency to enlarge their bed and to over-
flow their banks or boundary.

In this view of the subject, it will appear that we
have not only to account for the supply of an im-
mense quantity of debris, but we must also dispose
of the water displaced by the process of deposition
which is continually going forward at the bottom of
the ocean.

_ With regard, then, to the supply of the debris of

which these banks are composed.—We find that a

very great portion of it consists of siliceous matters
xX 2

394 ON THE BED OF THE

in the form of sand, varying in size from the: finest

grains to coarse bulky particles, mixed with coral

and pounded shells, the quantity of these caleare-
ous matters being altogether astonishingly great; —

op

and being specifically lighter than the particles of

sand, the shells generally cover the surface of these —

sunken banks. With regard to the vast collection

of siliceous particles connected with the banks, our -

surprise ceases when we consider the receptacle
which the North Sea forms, to an almost unlimited
extent of drainage from the surrounding countries,

as before noticed, on which the change of the sea
sons, and the succession of rain and of drought up-—

on the surface of the earth, are unceasingly produ

cing their destructive effects. All have remarked

the quantity of mud and debris with which every
rill and river is charged, even after the gentlest
shower, especially wherever the hand of the agri-
culturist is to be found. His labours in keeping
up the fertilizing quality of the ground, consist in a

great measure in preparing a fresh matrix for the

chemical process or the germination of the seeds ot
the earth, in liew of that portion of the finely pul-
verised soil which the rains are perpetually cary
ing to the sea, as the grand receptacle and store

house of nature for these exuvize of the globe. From
the effect of rills and rivulets, we should, perhaps,
be apt to expect a greater deposition in the bed os
sheltered bays and arms of the sea, tha: we
observe. So that we can readily believe that the

2 > really }

nee

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA, 325

quantity of debris, even for a single year, along such
an extent of coast, may bear some oc in
‘respect to the bed of the German Ocean; what,
then, must these effects amount ce in the lapse of
ages ?

Whatever. be the cause, the fact is certain, that
on almost every part of the shores of Great Britain
and Ireland, and their connecting islands, from the

| : northmost of the Shetland to the southernmost of
i the Scilly Islands, and also upon the shores of Hol-

land, and part of France, particularly in the neigh-
bourhood of Cherbourg, this wasting effect is going
forward. These shores I have myself examined.
But my inquiries have not been confined to the
coasts which I have personally visited, having also,
through the kind attention of some nautical friends,
been enabled to extend my investigations even to
the remotest parts of the globe. The general re-
sult has been, that, equally in the most sheltered
seas, such as the Baltic and Mediterranean, and on
the most exposed points and promontories of the
coasts of North and South America, and the West
India islands, abundant proofs occur, all tending to
shew the general waste of the land by the encroach-
ments of the sea. Such wasting effects are quite
familiar to those locally acquainted with particular

_ portions of the shores; and I have often received

_ their testimony to these facts, as the sad se See

| ** the removal of buildings, and the inundation of

ies.

326 ON THE BED OF THE

extensive tracts of land by the encroachment of the
sea.

Indeed, by a closer inquiry into _ ilegiitbnent
of the subject, we shall, perhaps, find ourselves ra-_
ther at a loss to account for the smallness of the
quantity of this deposition, considering the waste
which is constantly going forward in the process of
nature, and even be led to seek for its wider distri- ;
bution over the whole expanse of the bed of the —
ocean, as has been supposed in that theory of the —
globe, so beautifully and so ably defended by our
late illustrious countryman Professor Playfair.

One of the most striking and general examples
of this kind may perhaps be found in the abrupt

and precipitous headlands and shores which we
every where observe along the coast, and which we
suppose to have once been of the same sloping form
and declining aspect with the contiguous land: In
the production of these effects alone, an immense
quantity of debris must have been thrown into the
bed of the ocean. ° The channels which are cut by
the sea in the separation of parts of the mainland,
and the formation of islands, no doubt make way
for a considerable portion of the displaced fluid ;
but still these channels, when filled with water,
come far short, in point of bulk, when compared
with the portions of the elevated land which are ©
thus removed. Now, it has been alleged by some,
that while the land is wasting at certain points, it
is also gaining in others; and this is a state of a

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 327

_ things which is freely admitted to take place in va-

¥ious quarters; yet these apparent acquisitions are

—— |

, e ‘fo more to be compared with the waste alluded to,
___than the drop is to the water of the bucket. But

accurate observations regarding the formation of ex-

tensive sand-banks, and the accumulation of the de-

bris, of which they are formed, are not to be made
in a few years, perhaps not in a century, nor indeed
in several centuries; for although the short period —
of the life of man is sufficient to afford the most
incontrovertible proofs of the waste of the land
where we become observers, yet when we extend our
views to the depths of the ocean, and speak of the
events and changes which are there going forward,
we must not be supposed to set limits to time.

We have many convincing proofs in the natural
history of the globe, that the sea has at one time
occupied a much higher elevation than at present.
On the banks of the Frith of Forth, near Borrow-
stounness, for example, I have seen a bed of marine
shells, which is several feet in thickness, and has
been found to extend about three miles in length,
and which is now situate many feet above the pre-
sent level of the waters of the Forth. A recent
illustration of this subject occurred also in the re-
markable discovery of the skeleton of a large whale,
found on the lands of Airthrey, near Stirling. The
present surface of the ground where the remains of
this huge animal were deposited, having been as-
certained (by my assistants, when lately in that

328 ON THE BED OF THE

neighbourhood) to be no less that 24 feet 9 inches

above the present level of the Frith of Forth at —

high water of spring-tides. | Now, whether we are
to consider these as proofs of the higher elevation of
the waters of the ocean in the most general accepta-
tion of the word, at a former period, I will not
here attempt to enquire. But aside from these ano-
malous appearances, there is reason for thinking,
that the-watcrs of the higher parts of the Frith of
Forth, like those of the Murray Frith, may at one
time have formed a succession of lakes, with distinct
barriers, as we find in the case of Lochness, and the
other lakes forming the track of the Caledonian

Canal. My object on the present occasion, however,

is simply to notice the wasting effects of the North
Sea upon the surrounding land, its deposition in the
bottom of the sea, and the consequent production of
surplus waters at the surface, and to endeavour to
account for these-appearances consistently with the
laws of nature. The opinion accordingly which I
have formed, and the theory which I have humbly
to suggest, (for I am not aware that this subject has
been before particularly noticed), is, that the silting
up of the great basin of the North Sea, has a di-
rect tendency to cause its waters to overflow fea
banks.

Referring to the cent) we find that the North
Sea is surrounded with land, excepting at two in-
lets or apertures, the one extending about 100

leagues between the Orkney Islands and the Ner-

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 329

-wegian coast, and the other between Dover and
_ Calais, which is of the width of 7 leagues. The
aggregate water-way of these two passages forms
the track for the tidal waters, and also for the sur-
plus waters produced during storms which affect
the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. It is also obvious
that this water-way must remain nearly the same,
and admit a constant quantity ; or, to speak more
correctly, by allowing these inlets to follow the ge-
neral law, they must be enlarged by the waste or
wearing of their sides, in a ratio perhaps greater
than the silting up of the bottom in those particu-
lar parts, while the anterior and central portions of
the German Ocean are continually acquiring ad-
ditional quantities of debris, along with the drain-
<n water of the widely surrounding countries.
c Be. therefore the same, or a greater quantity of tidal
and surplus waters continue to be admitted from
the Atlantic and Arctic Seas into this great basin,
where the deposition is constantly going forward, it~
is evident that the surface of the German Ocean ©
must be elevated in a temporary and proportionate
degree, and hence the production of those wasting
and destructive effects which are every where ob-
servable upon its shores.

This reasoning is also applicable, in a greater or
less degree, to all parts of the world; for as the
sail cause every where exists, the same effects,

hen narrowly examined, must every where be
produced. In the Southern or Pacific Qcean, we

330 ON THE BED OF THE

have wonderful examples of great masses of land
formed by madrepores and extensive coral banks, —
which in time assume all the character istic features
of islands. ‘These occupy considerable portions of
the watery bed of the ocean, and displace corre-
sponding portions of the fluid. Immense quanti-
ties of mud are also said to be deposited in the
Yellow Sea of China, in the great deltas formed
at the mouths of the Ganges, the Plate, the Ama-
zons, the Missisippi, the St Lawrence, the Nile,
the Rhine, and other large rivers, whose joint ope-
ration both at the surface and bottom of the ocean,
are continually carrying forward the same great
process of displacing the waters of the ocean; for
it matters not to this question whether the debris
of the higher country which are carried down by the
rains and rivers, or are occasioned by tbe direct waste
produced by the ocean itself on the margin of the
land, be deposited at the bottom or surface of the
ocean; they must still be allowed to displace an equal
or greater bulk of the fluid, and have therefore a
direct tendency to produce the derangement bie
we are here endeavouring to describe. |

A striking illustration of this doctrine say ie
drawn from M. Girard’s able and ingenious obser-
vations on the delta of Egypt, made in 1799, and
published in the Mem.de Acad. for 1817, in a
memoir Sur la Vallée d Heypte, et sur Pewhausse-
ment séculaire du Sol qui la recowore. Yt ap-
pears that the whole soil of the “ Valley of the

zl

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH sEA. _— 391

Nile” is very considerably increased by the allu-
viuim deposited annually by the inundations of the
river, as ascertained by the marks ‘on some ancient
nilometers and statues, the dates of which have
been traced and compared ‘by Girard, with the cor-
responding historical periods. In the quarter of
Thebes, where the statue of Memnon is erected,
the increase of the soil since the commencement of
the Christian era, is 1.924 (6 feet 3.7 inches), or
this process may be stated as going forward at the
rate of 0™.106 (4:17 inches), in the course of each
century. The magnitude of the deposites at the
mouths of the Nile in the bed of the Mediterra-
nean appears to be no less surprising. It is re-
marked, that the Isle of Pharos, which, in the
time of Homer, was a day’s journey from the coast,
is now united to the continent.

If, then, we compare these effects with the same
process, going forward in a certain proportionate
rate over all parts of the globe, and where the same
facilities for these depositions being made on firm
ground are not afforded, we shall find that the
quantity of deposite in the bottom of the ocean
must be so considerable as to affect the level of the
waters of the ocean.

- In thus disposing of the waste of the surround-
ing land beyond the accumulation of the sunken
banks of the German Ocean, we are not left at any
loss for a distributing cause, as this is provided by
the tides and currrents of the sea; and with regard

B30 ON THE BED OF THE

a

to their action, we have many proofs, even at very

considerable depths, by the breaking up of the
wrecks of ships, the occasional drift of sea-weed,
and also drift timber, nuts, &. into regions far dis-
tant from those in which they are spontaneously
produced. The dispersion of fishes, evinced by
their disappearance from the fishing grounds in
stormy weather, tends to shew the disturbance of
the waters of the ocean to the depth of 30 or 40
fathoms. This observation I have frequently had
an opportunity of making near the entrance of the
Frith of Forth. Numerous proofs of the sea being
disturbed to a considerable depth have also occur-
red since the erection of the Bell Rock Light-
house, situate upon a sunken rock in the sea, 12
miles off Arbroath, in Forfarshire. Some drift
stones of large dimensions, measuring upwards of
30 cubic feet, or more than two tons weight, have,
_ during storms, bcen often thrown upon the rock
from the deep water. These large boulder-stones
are so familiar to the lightkeepers at this station,
as to be by them termed ¢ravellers. It is there-
fore sais ampiies probable, that a large po ‘ah the

the higher country, as before noticed, and vibes
ly washed out of the North Sea 1 into he —
of the ocean. - |

The question which naturally arises as to the re-

sult of all this waste or transposition of the so- ;

lid matters of a large portion of the globe, 1s,

eas

ei | i

tak hey

" oy a) +

i Breer Tal
y e*

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 333

What has become of the body of water displa-
eed by this wasting process? Without attempt-
ing to go into all the minutie of this part of the
subject, I shall here briefly observe, that there
seems to exist (if I may be allowed so to express
myself) a kind of compensating arrangement be-
tween the solid or earthy particles of the globe in
the one case, and the waters of the ocean in the
other. ‘Thus by the process of evaporation, and the
universal application of water, which enters so large- '
ly, in its simple or chemical state, into the whole
animate and inanimate creation, the surface of the
ocean may be kept nearly at a uniform level. Phe-
nomena of this description are, no doubt, difficult
in their solution upon the great scale, being met
by the process of decomposition, which resolves
bodies into their constituent parts, and also by our
theory of the atmosphere, by which its limits
and operations are determined. But were we to
abstract our attention from the more general view
of the subject, and confine our inquiries to the
German Ocean, the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the
Red Sea, or to any other inland and circumscribed
parts of the ocean, this difficulty seems to be les-
sened. Indeed, the probability is, and it is a pretty
generally received opinion, that a greater quantity
of water is actually admitted at the Straits of Gib-
raltar and of Babelmandel, than flows out of the
Mediterranean and Red Seas. We consider water,
therefore, as the great pabulum of nature, which,

334 ON THE BED OF THE

as before noticed, enters cither simply or chemi-
cally into the constitution of all bodies, and ap-
pears to be held, almost exclusively, in solution, in
the formation and maintenance of the whole ani-
mal and vegetable kingdoms, and is found to exist
largely i in the composition of all mineral substances.
The quantity of water, consequently, that is re-
quired, and is continually supplied from the ocean
by the process of evaporation, both for the support
and reanimation of nature, must be immense, and
may of course be supposed permanently to absorb
avery large proportion of the surplus waters of
these circumscribed seas, while the remaining por-
tion of surplus water, if not thus wholly account-
ed for, may be distributed over the general expanse
of the ocean.

But if we suppose with some, that in nature
there is neither an excess nor diminution of the
waters of the globe, and that the united and coun-
terbalancing processes of evaporation, condensation,
decomposition, and regeneration, so completely e-
qualize each other, that the surplus waters, arising
from the displacement of a portion of the solid sur-

face of the globe, must again be wholly distributed —

and intermixed with the waters of the ocean, the
portion of water remaining thus to be accounted
for becomes more considerable, and, upon the great
scale, must be permanently disposed of, itapete
dently of the process of evaporation.

GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. 335

ee view has been. suggested as applicable
to the distribution of the surplus waters produced
by the gradual filling up of the bed of the ocean.
These waters, in place of being elevated in any
sensible degree, may be naturally disposed to find
their level in the great Polar Basins, or oblate por-
tions of the surface of the globe which are known
to exist next the poles.. The oblate figure of the
earth at the poles makes these imaginary. points
the nearest to the centre of the earth, and. conse-
sequently, with regard to level, they are also the
lowest. It therefore appears to follow, that any
filling up of the bed of the sea near the equator,
or at a distance from the poles, will have the effect
of promoting the retiring of the surplus waters to
the polar regions by their own gravity, while the
centrifugal force occasioned by the earth’s diurmal
motion, will prevent their being farther removed
from the equator, without a corresponding eleva-
tion of the waters in the great polar basons.

In this manner, such an accumulation of water
may, at a former period of time, have taken place
at the then Poles of the Globe, as to have altered
the position of these points, and given rise to the
Flood or temporary general overflowing of the wa-
ters over the earth’s surface, producing a change in.
the beds of the seas or oceans of former times. In
this way may have been produced many of the
phenomena observable in the crust of the earth,

336 ON THE BED OF THE NORTH SEA.

which are otherwise with much difficulty accounted
for.

Of what has now been advanced, regarding the
waste of the land by the operations of the sea, it
will be proper to notice, that much consists with
my own personal observation. The consequences
of this process must be the deposition of debris,
and a tendency to raise the bottom of the ocean,
and produce a proportional elevation of the water.
With regard, however, to the distribution of the
surplus waters that is produced, what I have now
said is offered with much deference, in hopes that
some one better qualified than myself will turn his
attention to this curious subject.

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. 337

XXIII.—Additional Observations on the Con-

nection between the Primitive Forms of Mi-

_nerals and the Number of their Aaes of
Double Refraction.

By Davin Brewster, LL. D. F.R.S. Lond. and
Sec. R. S. Edin.

(Read 5th August 1820.)

Ina paper printed in another part of this volume,
I have pointed out the connection between the primi-
tive forms of Crystals, as determined by Haiiy, and
the number of their axes of double refraction.

In attempting to assign a reason why particular
forms should be distinguished by a particular num-
ber of axes, I found that the only exception to the
generality of the principle existed in the case of
the Right Prism with a square base, which, in re-
ference to the general hypothesis, ought to have
had only one axis of double refraction and pola-

-risation. As most of the crystals, however, to
which Haiiy assigned this as the primitive form,

VOL. II. ay

338 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

such as Chromate of Lead, Mesotype, Sulphate of
Magnesia, &e. had actually two axes, while Ido-
erase and Titanite had only oNE, I was compelled
to suppose that these two last crystals must belong
to a different primitive form, though I at the same
time remarked, on the strength of the general prin-
ciple, “ That it was within the limits of pro-
bability that all the crystals which I had ranked
under the Right Prism might have another Pri-
mitive Nucleus.”

This opinion ceased to be a conjecture, ‘i L
found that the primitive form of Mesotype and
Needlestone was a Right Prism with a Rhombic
Base ; and it acquires additional probability when
Chromate of Lead was found by M. Soret to have
an Oblique Rhomboidal Prism for its fandamental
Crystal *.

As all the mineral bodies, therefore, which I had
arranged under the Right Prism with a Square
Base, have been removed to other primitive forms,
the general explanation which I have given in
my former paper +, is now without an exception ;
and the First Class of Primitive Forms will now
include the Right Prism with a foaion Rboo,
and will stand thus :

* This had formerly been the opinion of Bournon ; (see
his Catalogue, p. 355.) and Hatiy now considers it as correct.
See Annales des Mines, 1818, tom. iil. p. 479.

+ See page 68. 3

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. 339

FIRstT CLASS OF PRIMITIVE FORMS.
CRYSTALS WITH ONE AXIS.

1. Rhomboid with obtuse Summit,

Carbonate of Lime. |

Carbonate of Lime and Magnesia.
Carbonate of Lime and Iron.
Carbonate of Manganese.
Tourmaline.

Rubellite.

Ruby Silver.

9. Rhomboid with acute summit.
Corundum.
Sapphire.
Ruby.
Cinnabar.

3. Regular Hexahedral Prism,
Emerald.

Beryl.

Phosphate of Lime.
Nepheline.

Arseniate of Copper.

4, Octohedron with a Square Base.
Zircon. |
Mellite.

Y2

340 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

Molybdate of Lead.

Oxide of Tin.

Octohedrite.

Tungstate of Lime. ! .

5. Right Prism with a Square Base.

Tdocrase.

Titanite.

Meionite.

Uranite*. :
W ernerite.

6. Bipyramidal Dodecahedron.

Quartz.
Phosphate of Lead.

As Crystals with one axis of Double Refraction
are divisible into two great classes, viz. Positive and
Negative, according to the nature of the action
which they exercise upon the extraordinary ray, I
was anxious to ascertain if any relation existed be-
tween this character and their primitive form. AlI-
though no general relation has presented itself, yet
it is worthy of remark, that not one positive crys-
tal is found in the three first primitive forms ;
and that the three last contain both positive and
negative crystals.

* This mineral has a very weak double refraction. In con-
sequence of its imperfect transparency, I was formerly obliged
to use very thin plates of it; and as its axis is perpendicular
to the lamine, the double refraction was not then perceptible,

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM GF CRYSTALS. 341

The new and beautiful system of crystallography,
proposed by Professor Mohs of Freyberg, and of
which a general account has been published in the
5th number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Jour-
nal, harmonises in a very singular manner with the
optical arrangement of minerals*.

M. Mohs divides crystals into four great Series,
V14.

1. The Rhomboidal system.
2. The Pyramidal system.
3. 'The Prismatic system.
4, The Tessular system.

None of these forms are capable of being derived
from one another, and therefore each of them, as
well as their combinations, must remain entirely
‘distinct from the rest.

The following Table will point out the relation
between the Primitive Forms of Haiiy, the Funda-
mental Forms of Mohs, and the classes derived
from the number of axes of Double Refraction.

® It is peculiarly remarkable, that M. Mohs’ system ren-
ders it necessary, that the right quadrangular prism with a
square base should be transferred to the First Class of Primi-
tive Forms, and placed beside the octohedron with a square

, ae
Tabular

342 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

Tabular Comparison of Hauy’s Primitive Forms, with Mous’s
Fundamental Forms, and the Classes derwed from the num-
ber of Axes of Double Refraction.

————————— Ch oO nc

>)
Havy’s Primitive Forms. Mous’ Funpamen-| Oprticat Sys-

TaL Forms. TEM.
1. Rhomboid, alan j
ae 1.—Rhomboidal |
2. Regular Hexaedral Prism, einen ‘
3. Bipyramidal Dodecahedron, y if Hepes with
onE axis of Dou-

4. Octohedron, With a square \ II.—Pyramidal j | ble Refraction.
5, Right Prism, base, System, }

Base a Rectangle,
6. Right Base a Rhomb,

Prism, Base an oblique
parallelogram,
Base a Rectangle, 1 | I1I.—Prismatic eocypbainee lo
‘ XES 0 -
4. Oblique } Base a Rhomb, System, ay. es apna ed
Prism, Base an oblique par- . fi
allelogram, ny a

Base a Rectangle. }
8. Octohedron, ue? ,
Base a Rhomb, J {II.--Crystals with

' THREE Rectangu-|
9. ee lar axes in a state
10. Regular Octohedron, 1V.—Tessular
11. Rhomboidal Dodecahedron System ofequilibripan, &
ae ) y " therefore produ-
- cing no double

refraction.

It appears from this Table, that the First Class
of the Optical System includes Mohs’s jfirst and
second systems of fundamental forms. Although
the system of crystallizations deduced from these
two forms appears at present to be different, yet
we» think that some mode of connecting them
together may still be discovered. Therhomboidal —
and the pyramidal systems resemble one another, in

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. 343

so far as they have both only one axis symmetrically
situated in the solid; and even if this resemblance
had not been strengthened by their having both
only one axis of double refraction, it might entitle
us to unite them into one class, and thus identify
_ the crystallographic with the optical system.

The agreement between Mohs’ System of Fun-
damental Forms, and that which is derived from
optical structure, will appear still more striking, if
we compare the individual determinations of primi-
tive forms which each of them have furnished ; and
as the forms which Haiiy has ascribed to several
minerals are incompatible with their optical struc-
ture, we shall thus be able to estimate the relative
values of the French and the German systems of

crystallography.

The following ‘Table will point out the deviations
of Haiiy’s primitive forms from those which I have
given in this and a former paper.

844 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS,

LIST OF MINERALS

Which ought to have a Primitive Form different from
that assigned to them by Havy.

True Fundamental
Form, as predicted from
to Havy. their Optical Structure.

Names of Minerals. Form according

LT ES

Sulphate of Magnesia, ) |Right Prism
Chromate of Lead, with a Square | > Prismatic System.

Mesotype, base,

Tolite, Prism,

Cryolite,
qe: ) Obtuse Rho

jHarmotome, Prismatic Syutein,
5 boid,

Chabasie,

Acute Rhom-
boid,

Sulphate of ron i Prismatic System.

Carbonate of Barytes,
of Strontites, } |Hexaedral Prismatic System. !

Essonite, Tessular Sy stem.

Right Rhom-
boidal Prism

pO SE

——

The following Table contains the fundamental
forms, as ascertained by Mohs, of those transparent
and translucent crystals, in almost all of which I
have determined the number of axes of double re-
fraction.

‘ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. 345

TaB.E of the Fundamental Forms of Minerals as deter-
mined by Professor Mous of Freyberg *.

RHOMBOIDAL SYSTEM.

Carbonate of Lime.

Oligist Iron-ore.

o—— —— of Limeand Mag- Spinellane.
nesia. Ruby Silver.
of Lime and Iron. Cinnabar.
— of Manganese. Tourmaline.
of Zinc. Rubellite.
Phosphate of Lime. Dioptase.
of Lead. Chabasie.
Rhomboidal mica. Tolite.
Nepheline. Quartz.
Beryl, - Specular Iron-ore.
Emerald.
Corundum, ) »
Ruby,
Sapphire.,

* The results in this Table are taken from a work newly
published, and entitled Die Charactere der Klassen, Ordnun-
gen, Geschlechier und Arten oder die characteristik des Naturhis-
torischen Mineral-Systemes, von FriepERIcH Mons. Dresden,
1820. ‘This interesting work has been translated into Eng-
lish, and is now publishing in Edinburgh.

346 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. |

PyraMIDAL SYSTEM.

Tungstate of Lime.
Molybdate of Lead.
Oxide of Tin.
Apophyllite.
Meionite.
Wernerite.
Idocrase.

Zircon.
Mellite.

Uranite.

'Titanite.
Octohedrite.
Sulphate of Zinc.

PRISMATIC SYSTEM.

Carbonate of Soda.

Sulphate of Soda.

Nitrate of Potash.

Sulphate of Lime.

of Iron.

, of Copper.

— of Barytes.
of Strontian.

oe of Lead.

of Magnesia,

Borate of Soda.

Glauberite.

Cryolite.

Anhydrite.

Arragonite..

Carbonate of Strontian.

rae

—— of Barytes.
of Lead.
of Copper.
Chromate of Lead.

Phosphate of Iron.
Tale. 7
Diallage.

Electric Calamine,
Amblygonite.
Aphrite.
Diaspore.
Hauyne.
Kyanite.
Spodumene.
Prehnite.
Datholite.
Harmotome.
Laumonite.

@

_ Mesotype.

Stilbite.
Petalite.
Felspar.
Augite.
Epidote.

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

Tabular Spar.
Cymophane, _
Axinite.
Peridote.
Essonite.
Staurotide.
Sphene.

Euclase.
Red oxide of Zinc.
Tantalite.

Oxide of Manganese.

Sulphur.
Muriate of Copper.
Wavellite.

TESSULAR SYSTEM.

Muriate of Soda.
Muriate of Ammonia.
Diamond.

Boracite.

Garnet.

Arseniate of Iron.
Helvin.

Aplome.

Spinelle.
Ceylanite.
Alum.
Fluor-Spar.
Blende.
Sodalite.
Ruby Copper.

347

When we examine the determinations contained
in the preceding Table, we cannot but be struck,
with the coincidence which almost universally ob-
tains between Mohs’s results and those which I
have deduced from the optical structure of minerals.
No fewer than nine out of the eleven minerals
which constitute the exceptions to Haiiy’s Table,
(see page 344.), have been found by Mohs to have
the same primitive forms which I assigned to them ;
and the other two minerals, namely, Jolite and

348. ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

Essonite, he will no doubt find, upon re-examina-
tion, to belong to the Prismatic System *.

An agreement so striking between the results of
a system purely Crystallographic, and a system
purely Optical, cannot fail to be regarded as a de-
monstration of the principles upon which both of
them are founded.

I shall now conclude this supplementary paper,
with a Table of the Primitive Forms of Minerals
and Crystals, which I have determined from their.
optical structure. |

Lance of the Primitive Forms of Minerals and
Crystals hitherto undetermined.

I. & I.—Ruomszorpar on Pyramipa System.

Hydrate of Magnesia. Nitrate of Soda.

Arseniate of Copper. Subphosphate of Potash. _
Mica from Kariak, &c. Sulphate of Nickel, ) Certain
Apophyllite from Uton. AEE Potash» }> speci- :

— surcomposée. —— Zinc. J mens.
Muriate of Lime. . Superacetate of Copper and
— of Strontian. lime. | .
Arseniate of Potash. Ice.

* I have reason to believe that Mohs did not examine these
two minerals himself, but adopted the primitive forms assign; ‘
ed to them by Haiy. |

ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

349

Il].—Prismatic System.

Tolite.

Diallage.

Carbonate of Barytes.
Strontian.

——_———— Ammonia.
Potash.
——— Copper.
Petalite.
Harmotome.
Chromate of Lead.
Apophylhite from Faroe.
Mesotype from. Auvergne.
—— Iceland.
Glenarbuck.
Nadelstein from Faroe.
Chabasie.
Indurated Talc.
Sulpho-carbonate of Lead
Sulphate of Copper and
Tron.
—_—— Ammonia.
‘Cobalt.

———— Ammonia and

nae)

ee

Magnesia.
Soda and Mag-

nesia.
Manganese.
Zinc, (certain

specimens.)

ae

ST ae

Nitrate of Silver.

Ammonia.

Lime.

———— Strontian, (certain

specimens. )

Copper.

——_—— Zinc.

——— Mercury.

Bismuth.

Nitrite of Lead, (certain spe-
- cimens. )

Muriate of Mercury.

— Magnesia.

Barytes.

Acetate of Lead.

Zinc.

Hyper-oxymuriate of Potash.

Phosphate of Soda.

Tron.

- Oxalate of Ammonia.

Super-oxalate of Potash.

Super-chromate of Potash.

Crystallized Cheltenham
Salts.

Murio-sulphate of Magnesia
and Iron.

_ Benzoate of Ammonia.

Chromic Acid.
Benzoic Acid.

3

350 ON THE PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS.

Boracic Acid. Camphor.
Succinic Acid. Comptonite.
Hydrate of Barytes. Electric Calamine.
Super-tartrate of Potash. Lepidolite.
Tartrate of Potash and Anti- Realgar.

mony. Yellow Orpiment.
Spermaceti.

TESSULAR SYSTEM.

Essonite. Nitrate of Barytes.

Haiiyne. Nitrite of Lead, (certain spe-
Sodalite. ccimens.)

Cinnamon Stone. Muriate of Potash.

Nitrate of Lead. Sulphate of Alumina and
---——— of Strontian,(octahe- § Ammonia.

dral crystals.)

XXIV.

PeStibin |

XXIV.—An Account of some of the Cryptoga-
mous Plants of Devonshire.

By Rogvert Kaye Grevitie, Esq. M. W.S.

(Read 5th August 1820.)

Tur county of Devon has been always regarded,
even from the days of our earliest botanical writers,
as particularly favourable to the growth of many
extremely rare plants; and the face of the country
is, indeed, admirably adapted to such as are found
in peculiar habitats. The high and extensive tract
of Dartmoor, yielding a great variety of mountain
scenery, affords a considerable number of alpine
species; and the warm and shaded valleys in the
lower parts of the country, are equally prolific in
characteristic productions; whilst the sea-coast,
abounding with the most beautiful bays, and the:

352 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

boldest cliffs, is more favourable to marine botany,
than any other coast in the kingdom. ‘The great
variety of soil, also, resulting from numerous modi-
fications of granite, slate, limestone, sandstone,
&c. all favourable to particular vegetable produc-
tions, bestows upon this county a pre-eminence in
a botanical point of view, which is farther confirm-
ed by its humid atmosphere and southern latitude.
All these advantages taken into consideration,
along with its great extent and acknowledged bo-
tanical riches, render it a singular circumstance
that no Flora of it has been published. ‘There are
many private individuals, who have done much to-
wards an undertaking of this kind; but they, un-
fortunately, want either leisure or inclination, to
give their labours to the public. The indefatiga-
ble industry, and the acuteness of Mrs Griffiths,
have, however, been made known to the world,
through the medium of the Historia Fucorum, and
of the singular plant which so mina” bears her
name. 3

The following Phceenogamous Plants, which
may be considered as almost peculiar to Devon-
shire, will contribute to shew the value ? that
county to the botanist :

Scirpus holoscheenus.
Cynoglossum omphalodes.
Oxalis corniculata.

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 35%

Polycarpum tetraphyllum.

Bupleurum odontites.

Lobelia urens, &e.

Erica vagans, has been also found near Ax~
minster.

A few years only have elapsed, since Cryptoga-
mous Botany began to engage general attention.
It is still in its infancy ; but at the present moment, |
is, perhaps, advancing with more rapid strides, than
most other branches of botany. Besides many emi-
nent Continental Cryptogamists, we have one* re-
cently appointed Professor of Botany in the College
of Glasgow, who is devoting his time to, and exercis-
ing his unrivalled acuteness, upon the recondite trea-
sures of this department ; and has already present-
ed to the world above 170 new musc?, many of
them collected in the recesses of Nepal,—many in
the wilds of South America,—the former by the
Honourable D. Gardner, the latter by the in-
defatigable Humboldt and Bonpland. Minute and
worthless as this part of the vegetable creation may
appear to be in the eyes of the multitude, those
who have particularly studied them, have been
amply repaid for their trouble. Cuz bono hec om-
mia? We might, indeed, be contented to answer

* Dr Witiiam Jackson Hooker, author of Recollections
of a Tour in Iceland, a Monograph on the British Jungermannw,
Musei exotici, &c. &c., and who is now engaged not only im
continuing the Flora Londinensis, but in a Flora Seotica.

VOL. III. Z

345 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

with our valuable countryman DiLLENtus, “ Ut

cognoscamus sapientiam Creatoris, que in mini-

mis non minus elucet, quam in magnis plantis ;”

for we find in these diminutive objects, the most

beautiful and the most unexpected structures, ad-

mirably fitted for their respective functions. ‘We

find external habit as strongly marked in the slen-
der Hypnum,—in the almost invisible Phascum, as

in the Lord of the Forest, the old Oak grown hoary
‘in many centuries. We find them various in their
fruit and in their foliage, each fitted to its peculiar

residence, and changing their character like the
higher vegetables, as they approach the southern or
northern hemisphere. Yet we will not be content-—
ed with mere beauty and fitness: Uses have been
discovered in these obscure tribes of plants that
were unlooked for; and we may reasonably con-
clude, that other uses will still be found, perhaps im-
portant ones, from the influx of new species.

TI now proceed to lay before the Society, an enu-
meration of such Cryptogamous Plants as fell under
my notice, during a three months residence in De-
vonshire. In the form of notes, I shall insert oc-
casional observations, with a few new facts relative
to some of the Fuci of that county,—a tribe of
plants, of which I hope to be able to publish a Sy-
nopsis at no very distant period.

In order to render a part of my enumeration
more complete, I shall introduce a few plants

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. ic

that I neither saw nor gathered myself, but in every
instance shall annex my authority.

MUSCI.

Andreea Rothii.

Sphagnum latifolium.
acutifolium.
cuspidatum.

Phascum alternifolium.

axillare.

muticum var. £. {

cuspidatum.

G fpr smtsbaty viridissimum.
truncatulum. ves )
fasciculare.
pyriforme.

Anictangium ciliatum.

Schistostega pennata, (2.) |

Splachnum ampullaceum. |

Polytrichum undulatum.
piliferum.
commune.
urnigerum.
aloides.
nanum. (3.)

iesiedls rigida.

muralis.
ruralis.

Abundant on Cawsand, the
highest part of Dartmoor.

Common. —

Ditto.

On Cawsand.

Near Torquay, rare.

About Exeter.

Near Torquay, — Hooker,
Muse. Britt.

Torquay, Ilfracombe, &e.

About Exeter. _

Common.

- Foot of Cawsand.

About Exeter. —

Dartmoor.

Between Zele and South Taw-
ton,—Mr Newberry.

Between Sidmouth and Exe-

_ ter,— T'urner.

Common.

Haldon and Dartmoor.
Common.
On Haldon and Dartmoor.

Ditto do.
Ditto do.
Babbacombe.

Common.

Ditto,

Z%

356 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

Tortula subulata. North Bovey, near Exeter.
eed. its Torpoint, &c. —
Hooker.
tortuosa. Babbacombe. i
unguiculata. About Exeter. mr
Grimmia apocarpa. Common.
maritima. —_—- +I\}fracombe.
pulvinata. ~Common.
Pterogonium Smithii. (4.) | Maidencombe, Torabbey &e.
gracile. . Lustleigh Cleve.
Weissia starkeana. Near Torquay.
lanceolata. Near Exeter.
cirrhata. -.» Torabbey.
controversa. Common.
Dicranum bryoides. — Ditto.
adiantoides. — Dartmoor,-Lidford Waterfall
taxifolium. » Near Exeter,—North eget
glaucum. On Dartmoor.
flexuosum. Dartmoor.
flavescens. Lidford Waterfall.
pellucidum Near Lidford.
- scoparium. Common. —
-varium. Near Exeter.
heteromallum. Near Dartmoor.
Trichostomum lanugmosum. Haldon,—Dartmoor.
heterostichum. Ditto do.
microcarpon. Ditto do.
aciculare. Ditto do.

fasciculare. Haldon.

- (Abundant in Ugbrook Park,
covering most of the trees,
but I could find. no scale,

Leucodon sciuroides.
) sules.

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 357

Didymodon purpureum. Common.

. ! rigidulum. Ilfracombe.
heteromallum. On Cawsand.

Funaria hygrometrica. Common.

Orthotricum anomalum. Babbacombe,—South Tawton.
crispum. Haldon,—Lidford Fall.
affine. | Common.
diaphanum. ~ South Tawton, near Exeter.
striatum. About Exeter.

Near North Bovey; near Oke-
Lyelli. (5.) | hampton, and near Lid-
ford Waterfall.
Neckera. crispa. Not unfrequent.
pumila. Ditto.
Anomodon curtipendulum. Dartmoor.
On the wall of Ugbrook Park,

viticulosum,

abundant.

Daltonia heteromalla. — Not unirequent.
Fontinalis squamosa. (6.) Lustleigh Cleve-—No. Bovey.
Bartramia pomiformis. Common.

fontana. Dartmoor.

: , On Cawsand, and near Lid-
i OE ieee ford Fall abundantly.

Hookeria lucens. -Lidford Waterfall.
Hypnum trichomanoides. _ Ditto.

complanatum. = Common.

undulatum. — Dartmoor.

denticulatum. About Exeter.

medium. Near Exeter.

( On the wall of Ugbrook Park,

near the gateway, and ona
tenellum. wall by the foot-path lead-
ing from Torquay to Tor-
abbey Sands.

ee

ie

be.

358 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE
Hypnum serpens. Common.
schreberi. Haldon and ll ke,
murale. . Frequent.
purum. Ditto.
fluitans. Dartmoor.
sericeum. Common.
lutescens. Ditto.
aepsetirutd. South Tawton, — Lustleigh
Cleve.
dendroides. Dartmoor.
curvatum. Common.
myosuroides. Near Torquay.
splendens. Common.
proliferum. _ Near Torquay, &c.
prelongum. Common.
rutabulum. Ditto.
velutinum. Ditto.
ruscifolium. Dartmoor.
striatum. Common. :
cuspidatum. Dartmoor.
loreum. Ditto.
- triquetrum. Common.
squarrosum. Dartmoor.
filicinum. South Tawton lime quarries,
aduncum, et var. | Dar alas
revolvens. .
commutatum. Ditto. —
cupressiforme, Common.
molluscum. Lidford Waterfall.
Bryum palustre. Dartmoor.
argenteum. Common.
roseum. North Bovey, &e. no fruit.

capillare. Common.

Bryum cespititium.
nutans.
punctatum.
ligulatum.
hornum.

cuspidatum.

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE.

359

Common.

On Cawsand.

Lidford Fall.

Ahout Dartmoor.

Lustleigh Cleve.

In a little wood at South
Tawton quarries.

MUSCI HEPATICZ.

J ungermannia julacea.
furcata.
epiphylla.
asplenoides.
complanata.
albicans.
bidentata.
dilatata.
tamariscl.
tomentella.

platyphylla

Dartmoor,— Newberry.
Common. )

- Dartmoor.

Near Exeter.
Common.

About Dartmoor.
Common.
Lustleigh Cleve.
Common.

| Lidford Waterfall,

Lustleigh Cleve. -

- FILICES.

Osmunda regalis.
Polypodium phegopteris.
Aspidium aculeatum.
spinulosum.
dilatatum.
Gramitis ceterach.
Asplenium marinum.
Hymenophyllum Tunbrid-
giense.
Pilularia globulifera.

Foot of Cawsand.

Lidford Fall.

\ Near Torquay.

Lidford Fall.
Babbacombe.
Coast, — Hudson.

\ Dartmoor.
Blackdown,—Polwhele,

$60 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

FUCI.

Fucus sinuosus. Exmouth, Torquay, &c.
ruscifolius. Ditto, rejectamenta.
hypoglossum. (8.) Ditto, Torquay.
palmetta. Torquay, rejectamenta.
membranifolius. Ditto.
sales Grows at Torquay, and II-

fracombe.
tenuissimus. Torbay,—Mrs Griffiths,
dasyphyllus, Ditto, do.
obtusus. Ditto, do.
siliquosus. Ditto,—Exmouth.
abrotanifolius. Near Torquay.
tamariscifolius. Ditto. _. do.
Arne! Ditto, near Tei and Il-
fracombe.
ligulatus. Torbay,—Mrs Griffiths.
serratus. Torbay, &c.
vesiculosus. Common.
ceranoides, River Dart,—Mrs Griffiths.
membranaceus. (9.) Sidmouth, do.
alatus. Torquay, &c.
era. Torquay and Exmouth, re-
jectamenta.
laciniatus. (10.) -—-—- Ditto, do.
reniformis. Torquay, rejectamenta.
ulvoides ? — Mrs Griffiths.
i ¢ Exmouth, Torquay, ang Il-
ciliatus.
fracombe.
palmatus. Common.
edulis. Torquay.
saccharinus. Ditto, &c. &e.
digitatus. | Common.
bulbosus. Torquay.

Fucus rubens.

norvegicus.
crispus.
mammillosus.
canaliculatus.
loreus.
nodosus.
pygmeus.
aculeatus.

" pinnatifidus.
corneus.

coronopifolius.

coccineus.
plumosus.
tomentosus.
bursa.
tuberculatus.
rotundus.
lumbricalis.
plicatus.
confervoides.

flagelliformis 8.

filum.
pinastroides.
purpurascens.
_ pedunculatus.
capillaris.
kaliformis.
articulatus.
opuntia.
amphibius.

_ fruticulosus.
viridis.
crinalis.
rhizodes.

———

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 361

Torquay,—Exmouth.
Ditto.

Common.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Torquay.

Not unfrequent.
Common.
Ilfracombe,—Torquay.
Torquay, &c.
Torquay, Ifracombe, &c.
Ditto, rejectamenta.
Ditto, Exmouth, &c.
Ditto, do.

Ditto, do.

Ditto,—Mrs Griffiths.
Ilfracombe,— Hudson.
Torquay and Ilfracombe.
Common.

Ilfracombe, &c.

Torquay and Ilfracombe, &c.
Sidmouth,—Mrs Griffiths.
Exmouth, rejectamenta.
‘Torquay.

Ditto.

Mrs Griffiths.

Hudson.

Torquay.

Common.

Near ‘Torquay.

River Dart,—Mrs Griffiths.

Mrs Griffiths.

362 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

Fucus Griffithsiz.

glandulosus.

Ulva pavonia.
atomaria.
dichotoma.
plumosa.
plantaginea.
coccinea.
filiformis.
rubens.
umbilicalis..

Torquay.
Ditto.

ULVE.

Torquay,—Mrs Griffiths. :
Ditto. :

Ditto.

Ditto.

Dawlish,
\ Turner’s Bo-

Plymouth, 3
Ilfracombe, tanist’s Guide.

Torbay,—Mrs Griffiths.
Teignmouth.

NOTES anp OBSERVATIONS.

(1.) Gymnostomum truncatulwm.

In the course of last. summer, I gathered a tuft
of Gymnostomum truncatulum, deviating so much
from its usual appearance, that I was at first indu-
ced to consider it as a new species, until a more ac-
curate investigation discovered my mistake.

Instead of the very simple stem belonging to
Gymnostonum truncatulum in its proper type, the
plants I found, were much branched, each branch
producing a capsule; so that, on some plants, there
were five or six capsules. In December following, —
I found a considerable number of specimens near
Exeter, some bearing as many as eight capsules,

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 363

a)

The branches had not the character of innovations,

Vid. Hedw. St. Cr. vol. 1. Tab. 5. Fig. 7. for

they all produced fruit at the same time. For
‘ distinction’s sake, this variety may be called Aamo-

sum. It is a strong instance of the absolute neces-
_ sity of attending most closely to the generative or-
gans.

(2.) Schistostega pennata.

Very little about this curicus moss appears to be
hitherto: known. Hedwig mentions, that it was
found in Germany not long after its discovery by
Mr Newberry in Devonshire, and subsequent
publication by Dickson. Vid. Hedw. St. Cr. vol. 1.
Tab. 29. At Fig. 11., he gives so magnified a re-
presentation of the laciniated structure of the oper-
culum, that few would imagine it did not actually
exist. Yet I am informed by Dr Hooker, that this
structure is now denied by German botanists; and
if they are correct, the plant must be carried back
to the genus Gymnostomum, from which Mohr re-
moved it. ,

(3.) Polytrichum nanum,

The excellent authors of the Muscologia Britan-
nica, (p. 28.) have already signified their readiness
to consider P. aloides and P. nanum, as the same
species; an opinion in which I heartily concur,

364 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

though Mr Hobson of Manchester, who possesses
an extensive acquaintance with our British mosses,
still continues to think them distinct. I have ex-
amined no trifling number of each, and can detect
no permanent distinguishing characters. As a va-
riety, P. nanum will always be remarkable for its —
sub-globose capsule, larger — and smaller
calyptra,

(4.) Pteregonium Smithit.

‘This beautiful moss is*of rare occurrence even in
the southern counties. It is most abundant’ in
Devonshire, but is confined apparently to a few dis-
tricts. At Maidencombe, a small village on the
coast, about three miles south of Teignmouth, it be-
gins to be plentiful, and, continuing along the coast,
may be gathered a few miles south of Torabbey ; but
although I travelled, chiefly on foot, between 300
and 400 miles in various parts of the country, I
never met with it in any other place. if

(5.) Orthotricum Lyellia.

For an account of this fine Orthotricum, vide
Musc. Britt. p.76. I thought myself peculiarly
fortunate in discovering this rarity in Devonshire,
where it does not appear to be of very unfre-
quent occurrence,—producing fruit however spa-
ringly. :

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 365

(6.) Fontinalis squamosa.

Much doubt, for a long time, existed, whether
this plant was truly entitled to its place as a good
species. Its general character is so different from
that of Fontinalis antpyretica, that it is noticed
by early writers. Bawhan calls it EF’. minor lucens,
from its beautifully glistening appearance, and
Dillenius, who gives a figure, Tab. 33. fig. 3.
FE’, squamosa, tenuis sericea atro-virens. All
doubt promises at length to be dispelled, and Fon-
tinalis squwamosa will probably be soon ‘regarded as
an established species, and not of that, extreme ta-
rity that was formerly imagined. Among the hills
above Buxton in Derbyshire, I found it in a state —
well adapted for investigation. There had been
no rain of any consequence for many weeks, so that
the young plants I gathered had not been exposed
to any strong current, but so far from it, not unfre-
quently grew in small pools formed by the floods
of the preceding winter. These young plants
were from 2 to 4 inches long, and had leaves as
large as those figured in Hing. Bot. t. 1801; be-
ing very luxuriant, they were more open to ob-
servation and accurate examination. After a pa-
tient search, I could find not the least trace of a
keel in any of the leaves. From the period of
germination, these plants had not been subject to
any attrition, but every part had been gradually

366 ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE

and perfectly evolved. Along with the young, were
old plants having the usual appearance of F. squa-
mosa, but rather more luxuriant, very long, and in
fine fructification. I may here mention a circum-
stance that I have hitherto uniformly observed “in
this moss, viz. that when dry it has a strong smell,
not very unlike that of some woollen cloths before
the oil is washed out. ‘This smell I never could
find in F. antipyretica.

In Devonshire, I gathered the same plant in the
stream in which Dr Hooker had before found it ;
it was most abundan, but produced no fruit.

¥ f ; ;
(7.) Bartramia arcuata.

This splendid Bartramia, peculiar to this coun-
try, produces iruit in the greatest abundance, on a
bank on the left-hand side of the road, as you go
from the village of Lidford to the Water-fall. The
bank is a few yards on the opposite side of the
stream which crosses the road, and supplies the
fall. ‘This moss produces capsules also on Caw-
sand, but not freely. )

(8. ) Fucus hypoglossum.

Mr Turner, in his Synopsis of the British Hui,
as well as in his admirable Historia Mucorum,
seems to have fallen into an error in supposing
that this plant appears only at a certain time

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 367

of the pid, trons June to Septoditber He adds,
that this circumstance is another distinctive mark
between F'. hypoglossum and F’. ruscifolius; Sy-
nop. vol.t. p. 9., and Hist. Puc. vol. 2. p. 28.
T have no doubt that F. hypoglossum may be ga-
thered in the months above named; but I have to
observe, that among the rejectamenta of the sea
at Exmouth, I could have collected many hundred |
specimens in the months-of December and Ja-
nuary, and many of them in fruit. In February,
I found it growing at Torquay. I. ruscifolius I
met with at the same time, retaining all Mr Tur-
ner’s characters of discrimination attached to it.

(9.) Fucus membranaceus.

I have here an opportunity, from the valuable
information I derived through the kindness of Mrs
Griffiths, of correcting an error relative to this un-
common plant, in the Hist. Puc. vol. i. p. 42.,
undoubtedly arising from the well-known difficulty
of describing marine plants from specimens not
perfectly recent.

_ Mr Turner describes the root as a callous disk;
but Mrs Griffiths assures me, that it is an exten-
sion of a soft spongy substance, somewhat resem-
bling the root of TF. tomentosus, and me the
rocks in the same manner.

From this account, it would appear, that F. mem-
branaceus, in regard to its root, bears some relation
to F. tomentosus and F. bursa, of which a new

368 ACCOUNT OF SQME OF THE

Genus has been constituted by Olivi, under the

name of Lamarkia, with the following character :

L. stirps radicata sub-coriacea mollis, composita
utriculis in axw perpendicularibus. The na-

ture of the frond in F. membranaceus, would not

lead any one to expect a root of so dissimilar a
structure ; yet if we consider the many anomalies
in the vegetable kingdom, such an occurrence ap-
pears far from impossible.

(10.) Fucus laciniatus.

A curious circumstance has been observed by

Mrs Griffiths respecting this Fucus, which places
it among those species which bear two kinds of
fructification. In the common mode of fructifica-
tion in Fucus laciniatus, the seeds are contained in
tubercles situated in the marginal processes; but
many instances occur where these processes are en-

tirely wanting, and it is in such cases that Mrs.
Griffiths has remarked a narrow line of a darker.

_ colour than the rest of the frond, to be continued -

along the whole margin. This line, under the mi-
croscope, is evidently formed by very minute seeds,"
apparently single, and immersed in the substance ,

of the frond. This mode of fructification Mrs

Griffiths has found to take place in many hundred -
plants that she has examined. I have since obser-
ved the same arrangement, and I have many in my
_ possession presented to me by her, as well as many .

CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE. 369

of my own collecting, which -illustrate the disco-
very. | i
st Vide Pl. XV. |
) Fig. 1. Plant of Fucus laciniatus, with the
. common fructification.
2. A portion of the frond with the fruc-
tification, magnified. —
3. A tubercle highly magnified.
4. Plant of. F. laciniatus with the second
mode of fructification.
5. Portion of the frond with seeds mag- —
nified.
. Do. highly magnified.
7. Seeds.

op)

(11.) Fucus rubens.

Of this plant Mrs Griffiths gave me specimens
to examine, bearing’ very curious bodies on pe-
duncles, resembling some of the microscopic fungi,
and not unlike the urceolate pods of Fucus den-
tatus in their young state, (for at first they are not
urceolate). After the most minute scrutiny, I am
utterly unable to decide whether they are seed-
vessels or zoophytic productions. They vary in
their shape, some being obovate, some peziziform,
and some globular, sessile at first, afterwards sup-
ported upon peduncles, tapering downwards; the
substance is cartilaginous, and a section shows no-
thing but an obscure radiated structure; when

VOL. III. Aa

370 CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS OF DEVONSHIRE.

forcibly removed, the frond does not appear to be
lacetated, which would support the opinion that
they are zoophytic. But in dried specimens we
must be careful in our decisions. Some learned
botanists on the Continent are of opinion, that
the urceolate pods observed on Fucus dentatus are
of a zoophytic nature; but here I certainly differ
from them, having traced them from an early pe-
riod of growth to maturity, and examined them mi-
nutely in the most recent state.

Vide Pl. XVI.

Fig. 1. Fucus rubens with the small bodies on
peduncles,
2. Portion of the frond magnified with
ditto.
3. One of the bodies more highly mag-
nified.
4, Section of do. do.

Plate KVI.

C 97% :)

XXV.—Account of a Beluga or White Whale,
killed in the Frith of Forth.

By Dr Barctay and Mr Nett.

(Read {th and 21st December 1816.)

I.—Notice regarding the Capture of the Animal, and De-

scription of some of its External Characters.—By Mr
NEILL.

Ox the 7th of June 1815, I received a letter from
Mr Robert Bald of Alloa, saying, that “ for about
three months past, an animal of singular appear-
ance has very frequently passed and repassed this
harbour, apparently of the grampus kind, but very
white. It was often observed at Kincardine also,
and many attempts were made to kill it, but with-
out effect. I heard, however, at an early hour this
morning (6th June,) that it was killed near Stir-
ling. I set off immediately, and found this to be
the case. It is, indeed, a very singular animal, al-
together white,” &c.

Aag®

Sie ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

Mr Bald proceeds to mention that he had pur-
chased the specimen, and that it was on the way for
Professor Jameson. It accordingly arrived at Leith
by the Alloa Packet on the afternoon of the 7th.
The absence of a dorsal fin, at once proved the animal |
to be (what Mr Bald’s description led us to suspect) —
the Beluga of naturalists.

Great praise is due to Mr Bald, for tis ready at-
tention to the interests of natural history on this
occasion. Ina letter of the 9th, he says, “ I am
highly gratified to find, that the beluga I sent is so
rare. It was most fortunate I went direct to Stir- .
ling; for had I put off but two hours longer, it
would either have been off to Glasgow, or cut to
“mince-meat for a soap-work adjoining ved it
la

th still a subsequent letter Mr Bald infor wie,
that the animal generally passed upwards when the
tide was flowing, and returned down the frith with
the ebb: this sometimes happened every day, and
sometimes once in the two or three days: it came |
frequently to the surface, and was well known for
about three months by the name of the White
Whale. It was supposed to run up the river in
pursuit of salmon, and it was at last killed by the
salmon-fishers near the Abbey of Cambusken- 4
neth. |

The animal had been sttached? both with fire- —
arms and spears. A musket ball had entered the —

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 373

lungs, and was found lodged in them by Dr Bar-
clay in the course of dissecting ; and several gashes,
made with some pointed weapon, appeared in dif-
ferent parts of the body.

' It was a male, and seemed to be ncarh? at full |
growth.

‘I shall now give an account of the dimensions
and general exterior appearance of the animal. The
measurements were taken with a measurer’s line,
while the animal was lying on one side, and while
all the soft parts were quickly passing into a state
of putrefactive fermentation. Of course the mea-
surements are given only as nearly correct; butthey
are sufficiently so for the purposes of the naturalist.

The shape of the animal was highly symmetrical,
and at once suggested the idea of perfect adaptation
to rapid progressive motion in the water. It re-
sembled generally a double cone, one end of which
was considerably shorter than the other. The head
was small and lengthened; but over the forehead,
as in the narwhal and porpesse, was a thick round
cushion of flesh and fat:—the body continued to
swell as far as the pectoral fins ; and from this point
gradually diminished to the setting on of the tail
or organ of motion, On the middle of the back, as
in other whales, there was a longitudinal ridge, part-
ly bony, partly soft. ,

The extreme length of the animal, in a straight
line, as it lay on the floor, (the line being measured
on the floor,) was 13 feet 4 inches.

374 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

_ ‘When measured along the side, from the tip of

the snout to the cleft of the tail, the length was
found to be 13 feet 6 inches. Aint O10

From the tip of the upper jaw, along the back
to the beginning of the dorsal nde menvenay 6
feet 33 inches.

From the same point, along the curvature of
the back to the root of the tail, the mea- FF. In.

SUTCMENt PAVE,.........c0ssvasouscocsses tun VMOMEOMIL ES PINS
To the cleft of the tail. wanton a ae i 1
13. 9f

To the end of the lobe of the tail, addi-
Ga bas aioe isin neice UE aii tea phillies te 0 7%

Giving as the total length of the super-

The hard part of the dorsal ridge measured in
length 1 foot 4 inches; and the soft part extended
nearly 3 inches farther at both extremities. The
hard part of the ridge where highest, _ projected
about an inch.

The tail was, as in other cete, horizontal, and.
divided into two lobes: the breadth from tip to tip
of the tail, was 3 feet and 3 inch nearly.

The curvature of the lower part of the body was
somewhat greater than that of the back, although

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 375

it did not appear so to the eye; for, from the tip of
the lower jaw, along the middle of the belly to the
cleft of the tail, measured 13 feet 91 inches, while
the measurement along the back gave only 13 feet
6 inches. |

From the upper edge of the pectoral fin or swim-

ming-paw, to a point opposite'to the anus, measur-
ed 7 feet 84 inches; and from the anus to the pe-
nis 8 inches. )
_ The fin or paw, from the root to the apex, along
its exterior margin, measured 2 feet. Its greatest
breadth was 1 foot 1 inch; where narrowest, at its
root, it was 63 inches. Jt was, therefore, of an oval
shape. Five interior bones, analogous to fingers,
could be felt; and after the animal had lain for
two or three days, they could easily be traced by the
eye, the putrefactive process having gone on with
remarkable rapidity. There was likewise a small
projection at the point of each bone.

From the angle of the mouth to the root of the
fins measured 2 feet nearly. From the angle of
the mouth to the eye, 22 inches. From the angle
of the mouth to the tip of the upper jaw, following
the curvature, 10 inches; and to the tip of the lower
jaw, the same. :

_ In the common whale, the head forms about a

third of the whole bulk of the animal; in the be-
luga, as alrcady noticed, it is small. From the
blow-hole to the tip. of the upper jaw, measured 1
foot 10 inches ; and from the blow-hole to the eye,

376 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

measuring in somewhat an oblique i the distance
was 112 piblrekt :

‘In circumference, the specimen tinneticl near |

the eyes and blow-holes, 4 feet 4 inches ;—a very
little in front of the fins, 7 feet 2 inches ;—almost
immediately behind the fins, at what appeared to
be the thickest part of the body, 8 feet 11 inches ;

—at the termination of the ridge on the back, 8
feet 10 inches:—at the anus, 4 feet 4 inches; and
at the root of the tail, 1 foot 7 inches.

The colour of the whole animal was a cream q

white ; this colour depending on a white rete mu-
cosum, in many places about half an inch thick,
_ and which is covered with a thin transparent cuti-

‘ele. | : | Stra p
Next to the muscles was a layer of blubber,. in
general about three inches thick; so that, between
the rete and fat, the animal is pretty well prepared ;
against the rigour of the Arctic Seas.

There was no visible external ear; nor were we
‘successful in tracing any kind of meatus auditorius.
The: eyes and the mouth were small in proportion
‘to the size of the animal.

‘In the under jaw were six teeth on te side,
broad and blunt. In the upper jaw there were —
nine on each side, but none immediately in front ;
the three backmost sharp, and without any to match
them in the lower jaw. | |
_. The penis was not oe bat wholly composed of
soft substance,

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 377

+ Very few other remarks remain to be made by
‘me.
- -Linneus ranked the beluga under his general
and ill-defined genus Balena, by the title of B.
albicans. Otho Fabricius, in the Fauna Groénlan-
dica, very properly transferred it to the genus
Delphinus, retaining the specific name albicans.
Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnean System,
placed it also under the genus Delphinus, but dis-
tinguished it by the specific name leucas. He ob-
serves, that it seldom ascends rivers, is gregarious,
of a white colour; but, when young, “ parumper
nigricans.” De la Cepede considered the want of
a dorsal fin in the beluga as a sufficient generic
mark of distinction, and therefore constituted a
mew genus, entitled Delphinapterus, which is an
expressive name, signifying Dolphin without a fin,
‘or back-fin. He describes two species; D. beluga,
with the opening of the mouth small, the teeth ob-
4use at their points; and D. senedetta, with a
large mouth, and the teeth pointed. Our speci-
men belongs to the former. |

M. De La Cepede has collected from books
almost every previous notice concerning the history
‘of the beluga. To his ample details only a few
gleanings can be added.

It may very generally be observed, that it is a
native of high northern latitudes ; it abounds in the
seas near Disco Island in Greenland, and is not
uncommon off Spitzbergen, in latitude 77°. Mr

378 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

Scoresby never observed it lower than Jan Mayen’s
Land. That gentleman informs me, that it is very
‘seldom seen among the ice; but frequents places
where the water is clearest and smoothest. Thirty
or forty belugas are often observed in a herd toge-
ther. They are very seldom pursued by the whale-
fishers, because they find it difficult to strike them,
on account of the great rapidity of their motions,
and because, to our adventurers, they are compara-
tively of little value when killed,

Sir Charles Giesecké, in the article Greenland,
lately published in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia,
gives some particulars concerning the beluga. It
comes in herds to the coast of West Greenland
every year about the end of November, its arrival
being hastened by the prevalence of storms from
the south-west. It is, next to the seal, the most
useful animal ta the Greenlanders. The flesh is
said to be somewhat similar to that of beef, though
oily ; and the “ skin,” we are told, is “ eaten either
raw, dried, or boiled :’ By skin, however, is proba-
bly meant the thick white substance analogous to a
rete mucosum above mentioned*. The belugas
are described as “ not shy,” but often tumbling
themselves. round near the Greenlanders’ boats.”

Py: Sat

~

* Crantz evidently uses the term in this sense, when he

says, “ The white wrinkled skin is the thickness of a finger.”
Crantz, Svo. edit: vol. i. p. 114.

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 379

They are, however, very rapid in their motions,
“ darting along with the velocity of an arrow.”
These animals may occasionally stray to the
‘southward in pursuit of fish, or be impelled far in
that direction by long-continued north easterly
winds. When they happen to get entangled
‘among the drift-ice, if the wind prevail in ‘one di
rection for several days, a straggler may be led so
very far from his haunts as to be unable to rejoin
his party. Several healed wounds, the scars of
which were quite distinguishable, indicated that
this individual had probably been struggling among
drift-ice. In some places, the cuticle and rete mu-
cosum remained in a divided state, while the true
skin had healed.
It may be remarked, that Mr Pennant intimates
a suspicion that the beluga occasionally visits our
seas; and he was right. Colonel Imrie of this So-
ciety informs me, that in August 1793, he saw two
young belugas which had been cast upon the beach
of the Pentland Firth, some miles to the east of
Thurso. The length of the one, from the front of
the forehead to the tip of the tail, was seven feet ;
and of the other, seven feet and a half. They were
both males. “ The principal colour of their skin,”
(I quote the words of the Colonel’s description ta-
ken on the spot at the time,) “ was white, but that
was mottled with a brownish-grey colour.” It will
be observed, that Fabricius, Crantz, Giesecké, and
others, who have seen the young animals, describe

380 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

them as blackish, mottled, dusky, or pearl-grey, be-
coming white as they advance to maturity.

I have only to add, that, at the request of Pro-
fessor Jameson, Mr Syme, our painter, took a
sketch of the animal, when entire, and in a fresh
state, and afterwards made the beautiful finished
drawing now on the table. Dr Barclay examined
the interior of the animal, aud the structure of its
various organs; and Mr Lizars, took a sketch of
the abdominal viscera nm situ.

_TL—Account of the Dissection of the i —By Dr

BaRrcLay.

I have to regret that the following account of the
dissection of the beluga is so very incomplete, ow-
ing to the putrid state of the body, and the short-
ness of the time which I had to examine it.

Integuments.

The epidermis, about the thickness of common
writing paper, of a whitish colour, and somewhat
transparent, was in many, places separated by pu-
trefaction. When put in spirits, it became opaque,
_ and when dried, rigid like horn, transparent, brit-
tle and elastic. ie: |
- Beneath it, was a soft substance of about the
consistency of new cheese when taken from the
press. It was formed of two layers of equal thick-
ness, not easily separable, but distinguished by their

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 381

colour: When taken together, they measured in’
thickness rather more than one-third of an inch.
Of the two, the one next to the epidermis was
white as milk, and exhibited nothing of either a fi-
brous or a membranous structure; the one beneath,
of a darker shade, displayed both. Its fibres were
observed at right angles to the stratum above and
the cutis beneath; and united laterally, formed
lamine or membranes, which were seen running
at small distances in undulated lines, uniting and
separating, and leaving cellular interstices between —
them, extending through the whole depth of the
stratum. The two substances here described oc-
cupied a place corresponding to that which is as-
signed to the rete mucosum, and which, in the
negro, is also divisible into two layers.

Beneath the cutis, which was thick and strong,
was found every where a stratum of blubber; and,
in several places, some inches deep. ‘This was the
adipose substance of the animal, of a greenish co-
lour, arising from a fiuid and limpid oil, that, in-
_ stead of adeps, was here diffused in large quanti-
ties, through that part of the cellular texture inter-
posed between the cutis and muscles. In other
parts of the cellular texture, whether from natural
or accidental causes, it seemed to be wanting: nor
did this circumstance occasion surprise, as different
species have their adipose substance differently dis-
posed, of different colours, consistencies and quali-

382 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

ties. The most similar I have seen to the blubber —
of this animal is the adipose edi, or the schol
fat, of turtle. -

Tongue, Alimentary Canal, &c.

In its general appearance, the tongue was simi-
Jar, in many respects, to that of a great number of
fishes; short and thick; situated far back in the
mouth ; fixed down to a given position; and with —
little or no freedom of motion. |

The cesophagus, when very moderately inflated,
was twenty-one inches in circumference ; and its far-
ther extremity, where it was approaching towards
the stomach, was lined with a coat as white as milk,
of a brittle texture, and somewhat like that which
lines the cardiac extremity of the stomach of a
horse.

The stomachs were four ; and the white coat lin-
ing the last part of the csophagus was continued
through the whole of the first stomach, exhibiting
every where numbers of ruge. Before I saw it, it
had been separated by putrefaction, from which cir-
cumstance it was removed almost entire, and pre-
served in spirits, where it still continues to retain’
its ruge. The central coat of the second stomach,
was of a brownish colour, not separable from the one
peripherad, but raised into a number of tumours or
eminences by extricated air, though the cellular

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 383

substance between it and the ambient coat was no
where destroyed. ‘The tumours, in general, were
about the size of a walnut ; and, from the laxness of ©
the cellular substance that appeared within them,
it was supposed that, in their natural state, they
might have formed ruge. The central coat of the
third stomach was similar in colour, but presented
neither eminences nor ruge; and it seemed to be
continued without any change through the whole
of the last stomach, which was the least of the four,
and somewhat of a cylindrical form. Where it ter-
minated in the intestine, it was, with a moderate
inflation, about nine inches in circumference.

The intestines were twenty-eight yards and a
half in length, and without a colon or cecum ; and,
with moderate dilatation, between four and five in-
ches in circumference. Neither they nor the sto-
machs contained any thing, but here and there a
very small quantity of thin brownish matter.

A spleen was attached to the first stomach, on
the left side, but not larger than the sai size
of a human spleen.

The omentum was large, and chiefly interposed
between the stomachs and the intestines, a small
portion only being found between the intestines and
abdominal parietes.

The pancreas was found stretching across from
left to right, but extremely putrid, and every where
blown up into cells by extricated air.

884 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

The diver was situated on the right side as in ©
man and quadrupeds. It had become a mere mass
of putrefaction. We sought for the gall bladder,
but were disappointed.

In a large liquid mass of putr id bath as the
kidneys did not obviously obtrude themselves,
amidst our pressure for time, our search after them
was unfortunately omitted, and has since been re-
gretted. |

The testicles we found within the precinct wm
an oblong shape, and lying close by the sides of the
intestine, near its extremity. They were four in-
ches in length, and the same in circumference. .

The penis was conical; at the apex an inch and
a half in circumference, but four in circumference
towards the base, near to which it exhibited a sig-
moid flexure, owing to two very powerful muscles
that seemed to have performed the office of retrac-
tors. ‘Through its whole extent it was soft and
flexible, without either a bone or a cartilage.

Heart and Bloodvessels.

The heart presented nothing remarkable in its
shape; the columne carnee within the ventricles
were proportioned to its size; and the pectinated
muscles within the auricles proportionally large.
The valvular apparatus, at the commencement

3

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 385

of the two ventricles, was but slightly noticed,
not presenting any thing that was obviously strik-
ing or peculiar. A considerable portion, how-
ever, of the two great arteries, with their semi-
lunar valves, was separated from the ventricles,
and afterwards preserved as dried preparations.
The coats of these arteries were divisible into a-
number of strata, though the least minute and
easiest division was into four, which is still illus-
trated by -a preparation preserved in spirits. In its
dried state, the circumference of the aorta opposite
to the valves, was nine inches and a half; beyond the
valves, where the diameter was suddenly diminish-
ed, the cireumference was seven and a half. From
that point, the diameter increased to the middle of
the arch, where the greatest circumference was thir-
teen inches. From the middle of the arch, de-
creasing gradually to the place where it rested on
the dorsal vertebra, its circumference was diminish-
ed to six inches and a half. |
The circumference of the pulmonic artery over

the valves, was eleven inches and a half. Immedi-
ately beyond the valves, nine inches and a third;
at its greatest diameter, eleven inches and a half.

Our limited time did not permit us to examine
the veins. >».

VV Obpait. | Bb

hay

386 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

Os Hyoides, Larynx, Trachea and Lungs. :

The first three of these organs are preserved in a
dried state. ‘The body of the os hyoides is of a tri-
angular shape, somewhat like the first bone of the hu-
man sternum. ‘The base points towards the larynx.
To each of the angles at the base, which are obtrun-
cated, is joined by suture an osseous cornu, extend-
ing sacrad and laterad four inches. From the at-
lantal angle spring other two cornua, which, di-
verging laterad and atlantad, continue cartilaginous
for four inches, and then become osseous, flattened. .
and curved; in strength equal to the human clavi-
ele, and in length five and a half inches each. There
were likewise cartilages continued from these bones,
but inadvertently removed.

The cartilages of the larynx are tiie’ the cri-
coid, thyroid, the two arytenoid, and the epiglottis.
What is called their depth in the following mea-
surements, is their extent from above downwards,
or from their atlantal to their sacral aspect. The
depth of the larynx on the sternal aspect, is
four inches and a quarter. On this aspect the car-
tilaginous structure of the cricoid is interrupted
at the mesial plane, and the deficiency sup-
plied by membrane. On the dorsal aspect, it
is similar in appearance to that of man, and
two and a third inches in depth. The depth
of the thyroid cartilage sternad, is likewise two

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 887

inches and a third, but suddenly diminishes in depth
as it extends dorsad. The arytenoid cartilages, as
in man, appeared at first view to rest on the atlan-*
tal margin of the cricoid ; but, on opening the
larynx, were observed to enter more than an inch
within the cricoid, and: to form the fissure which
corresponds to our Kima Gloitidis. From the at-
lantal margin of the cricoid, they gradually con-
verged till they came into contact and inclined
dorsad ; their length was seven inches. The epi-
glottis was six inches in length, inclining dorsad
to the arytenoids: the three meeting with a mem-
brane interposed, formed a tube that crossed the
pharynx, and pointed to the orifice of the spiracula
in the roof of the mouth, through which this spe-
cies of animal breathes. At this extremity, the
orifice of the tube was somewhat like a fissure from
right to left, and thickened at its margin by what
appeared to be a glandular substance.

The trachea was four inches in circumference, and
- composed of thin cartilages, overlapping one another
at several places, and few or none of them preser-
ving any uniformity in their breadth. A number
of these cartilages near to the cricoid, were imper-
fect rings, the deficiency of cartilage being supplied
by membrane. Before the trachea advanced half way
to its general division into two branches, it sent off
a branch from its right side on the dorsal aspect, in
some respects analogous to the azygous bronchial

: BbQ

388 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

branch in the cow and the deer, two species which, —
like this animal, have also four stomachs. The ra-
mifications of this branch, and the other two of
the general division, were not traced far into the
lungs, but traced at the same time until they di-
minished to less than the eighth of an inch in dia-
meter ; but we should certainly have traced them
farther had we been only aware of a circumstance
which we learned afterwards, that the rings of
which they are formed are complete, and entirely
osseous. The lungs in which they terminated were
in two lobes, a right and a left, without any subdi-.
visions.

Spies

ie ee
Ry ae a

Ag bis

The Head, Vertebral Column, and Ribs of the

Skeleton, which have been preserved. — Aner

The head, measuring along the base from the
foramen magnum, which is situated between the
inial and basilar aspect of the cranium, is, to the
farther extremity of the jaws, twenty-one inches: the
breadth of the upper jaw from right to left, at the
spiractla, eleven inches; at its farther extremity,
two and a half. Its depth from the facial plane
to the palate, three inches at the spiracula; at
its farther extremity, scarcely one inch. The low-
er jaw is without a ramus or coronoid process, —
very thin from right to left, across the alveolar pro-

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 389

cesses, and always the thinner the nearer to the
articulation. Its depth from the line of the alveo-
lar processes to the base, is, near the articulation,
about four inches and three quarters; at its farther
extremity, two inches and a half. There are no al-
veoli in the front part of the upper jaw, and I sus-
pect there were no teeth, which, if it was the case,
would, besides the azygous branch of the trachea, be
another analogy between this animal and the rumi-
nating animals that have four stomachs. [I once ob-
served the front teeth in the lower jaw, but before
we procieded to the dissection, some person had
secretly extracted them; the alveoli, however, in
which they were lodged, are large and distinct, and
are what causes the depth of this jaw to exceed so
much that of its fellow at its narrowest extremity.
The other teeth do not extend iniad or backwards
above two-thirds of the length of either jaw; are
flat on the corona; have each but one fang, and
stand at small distances, nearly a quarter of an inch
from one another; from which circumstance they
remind those who have seen both, of the scattered
teeth in the morse or walrus.

The bones composing the vertebral column are
obviously distinguished into Cervical, Dorsal, Lum-
bar and Caudal. The cervical are seven in number ;
the dorsal, eleven; the lumbar, thirteen: but the
caudal vertebre have not been enumerated, as part
of them was carried away with the cutis.

The cervical vertebra, excepting the atlas, have

390 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA

no well marked transverse processes, and, except-
ing the atlas, are all uncommonly thin at the sides,
in the space between their bodies and articular pro-
cesses. The bodies, too, from above downwards,
have so little depth, that, with the assistance of
intervertebral substance, the whole neck, measuring
longitudinally, does not exceed, even at the ‘ut-
most, seven inches. In an animal of much larger
size of the same order, if not of the same genus,
whose vertebral column I procured last season from
the Island of Inchcolm, the length of the neck,
consisting of seven distinct vertebra, the first three
of which are, however, anchylosed, does not amount
even to six inches; and, what is more, excepting
the atlas, the sides extending between their bodies
and articular processes, are not thicker than the
edge of a half-crown piece. ‘This fact should teach
us to be cautious how we proceed to general con-
clusions, in transferring our reasonings from a single
individual to a whole species, or from a species to’ a
whole genus.

The dorsal vertebre are principally winapi
ed by articular surfaces at the extremities of their
transverse processes, where they join with the ribs.
Many of the ribs are likewise articulated with the
bodies of the vertebra, as in quadrupeds and birds;
but in this animal the three last ribs on each side
are articulated only with the extremities of trans-
verse processes. |

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 391

The lumbar vertebra are distinguished by the
want of articular surfaces at the extremity of their
transyerse processes, and could be otherwise easily
distinguished in the beluga, by these transverse
processes increasing in breadth at their extremity ;
but this probably is merely a character belonging
to the species, as it is wanting in the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebra of the ether ani-
mal to which I have alluded. |

The caudal vertebre are distinguished by pro-
cesses projecting sternad, and bifurcated at the
base, leaving a pasage in their bifurcations for the
transmission of the large bloodvessels. ‘The first
of these vertebra is likewise distinguished from all
the rest, by the largeness of its size, and by deep
grooves upon the lateral and dorsal aspects, for
lodging the tendons that pass towards the tail.

All the spinous processes of the cervical and dor-
sal vertebrae, have a distinct inclination sacrad, and
several from the last of the dorsal vertebra, as
well as the whole arising from the lumbar and cau-
dal vertebra, are placed at such distances from one
another, that not one-half of the spinal canal is
covered at the sides, ner at the back in the caudal
region, by these processes. In the caudal region,
no oblique or articular processes are to be observed;
and even in the lumbar, and the sacral half of the
dorsal region, we discover only two for each verte-
bre, and these originating from the atlantal mar-
gin of the spinous processes, and in some cases, .as

392 ACCOUNT OF A BELUGA |

in the loins, near to their extremity, receiving’ be-
tween them the sacral margin of the spinous pro-
cess, immediately before. In this structure, as in
that of a great number of fishes, where the gene-
ral appearance is somewhat similar, the spinal mar-
zow may be examined, without disturbing the ver-
tebre or their processes, In this animal, a consider-
able portion was taken out from the lumbar verte-
bra, and was found to be covered with a semicylin-
drical mass on each side, formed of a tough, spongy,
elastic substance, with large bloodvessels running
through it, and anastomosing frequently and freely
at very small distances. From the elasticity of
this substance, the mouths of the bloodvessels re-
mained quite open on a transverse section; and from
that circumstance were very easily discovered and

injected, although they might have been easily tra-

ced without such assistance. These two semi-
cylinders occupied by far the greater part of the
spinal canal; the medullary cord, where we exami-
ned it, not being larger than that of a man at the
middle of the neck. |

The intervertebral ligaments, though deeper, are
in structure similar te that of man and of various
quadrupeds, composed of a number of concentric
layers, and these layers of a fibrotis structure, the
fibres of the contiguous layers decussating like the
layers of the intercostal muscles. In the centre of
these ligaments was a soft substance resembling a
mixture of jelly and cartilage. In the back and

ei
B

a

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. ~— 893

in the loins, the surfaces which the bodies of the
vertebra: opposed to one another, was somewhat
concave towards the centre, but in the cau-
dal vertebre convex, as we see in the last coccy-
geal vertebre of many quadrupeds. The true ribs
continued to the sternum, are six on each side; and
the false five. The sternum is broad and flat, but
becomes narrower as it advances towards the false
ribs. Instead of sternal cartilages, we have’ here,
_as in birds, sternal ribs, which are articulated with
the vertebral ribs by synchondrosis. In the ster-
num of the other animal of the same order, to which
I have alluded, there was a large oval foramen in
the middle, its greatest diameter between right and
left, and not far from its atlantal aspect. The scapu-
la, the only part we have yet procured of the atlantal
extremity, is without any spinous process, but the
base and superior costa meet at an angle that resem-
bles a process ; besides, a considerable process arises
from the superior costa opposite to the cervix, and
another in the same line close to the margin of the
glenoid cavity, and which, without any strained
analogy, might be named the Coracoid Process.

Organs of Sense.
The brain was putrid ;—the eyes not so large as

the human; and if the tongue was the organ of
taste, the food must have entered far into the mouth

— B94

b dae reached ‘it.

v

os tia that mi
Taf us, oer

:

n font pak aut tout “f" nerfs ol-

rs

ifs.” He ought to have said,

les » Deuplleal ! ns,

4

- ramified “upon thei -spiracula, are 0
course nor in their pene n aoalie

ral gentlemen, far an xiao
tige of one could be found. |

PLATE XVI.

mi
yy)” is

Ht)

y ‘2
Hs

a

Y 4
PACA
+ AY) \\

a

‘Z
LLL,

g,

Z

LY,

\

é

KILLED IN THE FRITH OF FORTH. 395

Explanation of Plates XVIT. & XVIII.
f

PiLate XVII.

Fig. 1. Sketch of the Beluga.
A The Penis

Fig. 2. Dissection of the Beluga.
A Trachea.
B Oesophagus.
Cc Lungs.
D First Stomach.
FE Second Stomach.
F Third Stomach.
G Fourth Stomach.
H H H H Intestines.

Prater XVIII.

Fig. 1. & 2.
A CE&sophagus.
B First Stomach.
C Second Stomcch.
D Third Stomach.
E Fourth Stomach.
F Intestines.

Pe

XXVI.—Description ofa New Species of Fucus,
Sound in Devonshire.

By Rozert Kaye GrevILLE, Esq. M. W.S.

(Read 5th August 1820. ) |

#ucus fronde cartilaginea, enervi, dichotoma; ra-
mis linearibus, integerrimis, apice rotundatis ;
tuberculis sphericis, ad apices, immersis.

Fucus Devoniensis. Frond cartilaginous, nerveless,
dichotomous ; branches linear, entire, rounded

at the apices; tubercles spherical, situated at
the apices and immersed.

Hab. In Torbay, Devonshire. Mrs Griffiths.

Desc. Root, A small expanded callous disk.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF FuUCUS. 397

_ Fronds numerous from the same base, nerveless,
from two or four inches long, linear, about two
lines wide. At first they are cylindrical, and about
the thickness of a sparrow’s quill, but at two or
three lines distance from the base, the stem be-
comes flat and expands into the frond, which is
dichotomous, the distance between the dichotomies
being very irregular, sometimes more than half an
inch, often so small that three branches appear
to spring from the same centre. The branches
are patent, with their apices rounded ; those pro-
ducing fructification are rather narrower than the
barren ones; the extreme dichotomies producing
tubercles, are sometimes so crowded as to give the
summits a palmated appearance. ‘The fruetifica-
tion consists of spherical tubercles, immersed in the
substance of the frond, and scarcely so large as
small poppy seeds. ‘They contain a mass of very
minute red seeds, surrounded by a semitransparent
mucus, The substance is cartilaginous, tough,
but less coriaceous than that of #. Norvegicus.
Colour deep blood-red, turning in decay to a yellow-
ish or greenish white. In drying, it assumes a re-
markable tinge of purple, and does not adhere to
paper. )

Duration. Perennial.

This is one of the many additions to the British
Flora, for which we are indebted to the acuteness

$98 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF FUCUS..

and indefatigable industry of Mrs Griffiths, from
whom I received specimens in April 1820. In its.
mode of growth, F. Devoniensis most nearly re-
sembles F’. Norvegicus, and might be easily mis-
taken for it; but upon a closer investigation, an es-
sential difference is immediately discernible in its
crowded and smaller tubercles, which appear to be
confined to the apices, and are equally prominent
on both sides the frond; a sufficient character to
distinguish it from F. Norvegicus, the only plant
with which it is liable to be confounded, unless,
perhaps, we except some of the varieties of F’. cris-
pus, from which Mrs Griffiths observes, its sub-
stance and mode of ramification sufficiently distin-
guish it, independent of its totally different fruc-
tification. F. Devoniensis appears to have a strong
proliferous tendency ; and, after suffering an injury,
will throw out three or four new fronds from the same
extremity. From one specimen in my possession,
I am inclined to believe, that an old frond may pro-
duce new stems from its summit, without any pre-
vious injury ; for I have detected capsules in the
centre of the plant, that were once evidently at the
extremity. .

Mrs Griffiths, to whom I am indebted for many
of the above observations, discovered this plant on
Waldon rocks, fe hi on the 14th of February
1820.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF FUCUS. 399

Explanation of Prare XTX.

Fig. 1. Plant natural size.
2. Portion of frond,

3. A tubercle, . ciecdaueh ve
4. A tubercle divided, |

Buccievucn Pract, Edinburgh,
7th June 1820.

ne
eh.

*
4 ¥
mA

XXVII.—On the. British Species of the Genus
Beroe.

By Dr Fremine of Flisk.

(Read Nov. 18. 1820. )

As none of the species of the genus Beroe have
hitherto found a place in the systematical works on
British zoology, any information concerning their
occurrence in our seas, cannot fail to be acceptable
to those who are investigating the physical and geo-
graphical distribution of animals, or who are desir-
ous of extending the limits of our native Fauna *.
The Beroe which forms the subject of the present
communication, was found a few days ago in the
Frith of Tay, in a pool left by the tide. It was in

* In reference to the British Fauna, I may here men-
tion, that I have lately found, in this neighbourhood, the
Hirudo tessulata and H. lineata of Miller, Hist. Verm.
173. and 169.

BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE. 401

an exhausted state,—a circumstance which I much
regret, as it prevented me from obtaining satisfac-
tory information regarding the structure and uses
of the internal organs.

The body was of an orbicular form, slightly de-
pressed at the summit, and a little protuberant at
the base. There were eight vertical bands or ribs,
extending from the summit to the’ base. ‘These
were natrow, denticulated on the margin, con-
fined to the surface, and of a denser substance than
the gelatinous interior. From the central surface
of the ribs, a number of filaments proceeded,
which were lost in the substance of the body.
The mouth, or the opening at the base, had
some appearance of having its margin divided into
four lobes. The tube which conducts from the
mouth to the centre of the body, and is prolonged
in its axis to the summit, had on each side a com-
pressed organ adhering to its walls. These termi-
nated in the centre, each in an ovate head, appa-
rently containing air. Immediately below each
head, there were numerous twisted vessels, some of
which contained a reddish fiuid. The tube which
descended from the summit, as it approached the
centre, suddenly expanded, and sent off a branch to
a vesicle on each side; after which it appeared to
unite with the one from the mouth. Each of the
lateral vesicles terminated below in a blind cavity,
which contained a glandular body, to the upper
surface of which, several white threads were attach-

VOL. III. eKe

402 BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE.

ed. ‘The upper extremity of each vesicle was open,.
and terminated on the surface, on each side, in the
space between two ribs. From each side of the ve-
sicle, near its connection with the central vessel,.
there arose a tube, which, after dividing, sent’ a
branch to each contiguous rib. The cavity of these
tubes, at their union with the ribs, appeared to be
filled with a whitish-coloured pulp. Each rib is
furnished with a tube, uniting with it near the mid-—
dex sx

In consequence of this peculiar structure, I could
easily observe the water enter the tube at the sum-
mit, pass into the lateral vesicles, and go out at their
external openings; and, in some cases, the motion of
the current was reversed. There did not appear to
be any external opening at the extremity of the
tubes joining with the ribs, although water obvi-
ously moved backwards and forwards in them.
While the animal was active, there were numerous
small spaces in the different tubes where the con-
tained fluid circulated in eddies. This was parti-
cularly observable towards the centre, and in the
tube which descends from the summit. I was un-
able to detect, with the naked eye, any structure in
the tubes which could produce these partial motions ;
and the orbicular form of the animal prevented the
application of high magnifiers. The outline of the
body, given in Plate XVIII. fig. 3. and of the in-
ternal vessels, fig. 4. will convey to the reader an
idea of the parts described.

BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE. 403

The species here described, approaches, in many
respects, to the Beroe ovata of Baster ; Opuscula
Subseciva, vol. i. p. 123. tab. xiv. f. v. It differs,
however, in having only eight ribs, apparently
smooth on the surface, with denticulated margins;
whereas the species which Baster notices, has nine
ribs, thickly set with moveable hairs *.- The season
in which ours was found, would likewise intimate
that it is distinct from Baster’s specics, provided we
attach much importance to his remarks. “ In nos-
tris hee Beroe invenitur littoribus, et in ipsis hujus
urbis portubus, Aprili potissimum mense; singula-
ris enim) variarum medusz specierum proprietas est,
quodaliz aliis frequentissime inveniuntur mensibus.”

Ellis appears to have been acquainted with this
species, when he says, “ The Beroe is a marine ani-
mal found on our coasts ; of a gelatinous transparent
nature ; and of an oval or spherical form ; about half
an inch to an inch diameter ; divided, like a melon,
into longitudinal ribs, each of which is furnished
with rows of minute fins, by means of which this —
animal, like the animalia infusoria, can swim in all
directions, with great swiftness.” —- Phil. Trans,
vol. lix. p. 144.

* It is not improbable that the ribs may have been fur-
nished with’ ciliz, and that the exhausted state of the ani-
mal prevented it from displaying their presence by their
motion.

ccg

404 BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE.

The Beroe fulgens, described and figured by Mr
Macartney, in the Philosophical Transactions for
1810, p. 264. tab. xv. f. '7.-8., probably belongs to —
the same genus as the one whose characters we have
attempted to deliniate.

“This most elegant creature is of a colour chan-

- ging between purple, violet, and pale blue ; the body
is truncated before, and pointed behind; but the
form is difficult to assign, as it is varied by partial
contractions, at the animal’s pleasure. I have re-
presented the two extremes of form that I have
seen this creature assume. The first is somewhat
that of a cucumber, which, as being the one it takes
when at rest, should perhaps be considered as its
proper shape. The other resembles a pear, and is
the figure it has in the most contracted state. The
body is hollow, or forms internally an infundibular
cavity, which has a wide opening before; and ap-
pears also to have a small aperture, posteriorly,
through which it discharges its excrement. ‘The
posterior two-thirds of the body are ornamented with
eight longitudinal ciliated ribs, the processes of
which are kept in such a rapid rotatory motion,
while the animal is swimming, that they appear
like the continual passage of a fiuid along the ribs.
The ciliated ribs have been described by Professor
Mitchell, as arteries in a luminous beroe, which I
suspect was no other than the species I am now
giving an account of.

BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE. 4.05,

“ When the Beroe fulgens swam gently near the
surface of the water, its whole body became occa-
sionally illuminated in a slight degree; during its
contraction, a stronger light issued from the ribs ;
and when a sudden shock was communicated to the
water, in which several of these animals were placed,
a vivid flash was thrown out. If the body were
broken, the fragments continued luminous for some
seconds; and, being rubbed on the hand, left a
light like that of phosphorus. ‘This, however, as
well as every other mode of emitting light, ceased
after the death of the animal.”

Mr Macartney observed this species in Hearne
Bay, on the northern coast of Kent, in October
1804. None were to be found in the same place in
the month of September, in the following year, al-
though some medusze occurred which had been the
companions of the beroe in the preceding season.

There is a third animal, nearly related to the ge-
nus beroe, which is figured by the late Reverend
Charles Cordiner of Banff, in his “ Remarkable
Ruins,” No. xi. Patella, fig. @ G. The magnified
representation which he has given, appears to inti-
mate a subcylindrical animal, open at both ends,
with a raised disk near one end, surrounded with
diverging spines, and exhibiting two spots, whence
probably issue tentacula. The author has failed in
this, as in many other instances, to give descrip-
tions, in illustration of the designs of his pencil.

406 BRITISH SPECIES OF BEROE.

‘ The last species which has a claim to a place in
the British Fauna is the Beroe pileus of natura-
lists. ‘The late George Montagu, Esq. in a letter
to me, dated 22d November 1812, says, “ I have
lately added Beroe pileus to the British Fauna.”
My friend, Dr Leach, who subsequently met with
the same animal, sent me, last year, an outline draw-
ing of its form. It differs very remarkably from the
others already described, in possessing two long,
flexible, ciliated tentacula.

This species is figured and described by Baster,
in the work quoted above, vol. i. p. 124. tab. xiv.
fig. 6.; and by Scoresby, in his “ Arctic Regions,”
vol. i. p. 549. tab. xvi. fig. 4, It is true, that these
figures do not bear a very close resemblance; but
when we consider the mutability of its forms, we
can scarcely expect an agreement in the representa-
tions given of it by different authors.

The necessity of separating the species with long
ciliated tentacula, from such as are destitute of these
organs, and forming them:into a separate genus, ap-
pears to be generally acknowledged ; and if no other
term has been proposed to designate the new cate-
gory, Pleuro-brachia may be adopted.

Manse oF Fuisx, ).
— August 1820.

PA MOT H9

XXVITT—Descripiions of several new Plants

_ from the Kingdom of Nepaul, taken from Spe-
cimens preserved in the Herbarium of Ayvimen
Bovrxe Lameenr, Esq. |

Communicated by Mr Davip Don.

( Read 18th November 1820.)

Tur KXingdom of Nepaul, which has only of late
begun to excite the attention of Europe, promises
to be highly interesting, not only to the Geogra-
pher, but likewise to the Geologist and Botanist.
The extent of its surface, the size of its valleys,
and the elevation of its mountains, (some of which
exceed the height of Chimborazo,) give it a more
varied and mixed Flora than perhaps any other
country on earth. Its plains, which extend into
those of Hindostan, present the rich Flora of India.
In its extensive valleys, are to be found the peculiar
forms of the North American, Japanese, and Chi-
nese Floras; and on the flanks of its lofty moun-
tains, plants possessing the types cf those of the
North of Tartary, Siberia and Europe, make their
appearance. But notwithstanding the striking si-
militude of its plants with those of the above-men-
tioned countries, they are found, on examination, to

468 NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL.

form very distinct species. ‘The extensive Herba-
rium of the celebrated Professor Pallas, collected
in various parts of the Russian Empire, now in the
possession of Mr Lambert, has afforded me an op-
portunity of comparing the different plants of these
countries with those of Nepaul. Without such aid
it would be almost impossible to ascertain satisfac-
torily the limits of the various species. The bo-
tanical world is wholly indebted for a knowledge of
its vegetable productions, to Dr Francis Hamilton
(formerly Buchanan), and more recently to the ex-
ertions of Dr Nathaniel Wallich, the excellent
superintendant of the Calcutta Botanic Garden,
who has sent several able collectors, at the expence
of the Kast India Company, to explore its vege-
table treasure.

~ Without further notice, I shall now venture to
give specific characters and detailed descriptions of
several new Nepaul plants.

1, RHODODENDRON setosum, ramulis undique
setosis ; foliis ovalibus obtusissimis subtus
marginibusque setosis; pedicellis glandu-
loso-setosis lacintis calycinis brevissimis nudis.

Habitat in Alpe i immensa nivosa, Gossaignsthan
Nepalensium dicta. D. Wallich. bh.

Frutex A parvus ramosissimus, rami flexuosi
subfastigiati (cortice tuberculato-rugoso deciduo) ra-
- muli setis patentibus densé suppediti ; folia ovalia
obtusissima brevissimé petiolata, punctis nitidis re-
sinosis utrinque instructa, subtus marginibusque

a
se

NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL. 469

‘densé setosa; flores capitati; pedicelli brevissimi,
setis et glandulis intermixtis dense suppediti: laci-
niz calycine brevissime nude: corolla purpurea
tubo brevissimo, fauce nudo, laciniis ovatis obtusis
crenulatis ; genitalia exserta, filamenta basi bar-
bata; pistillum filiforme longissimum, stigmate
capitato. Folia turionesque contrita aromam gra-
tissimam spirant, qua de causa domine in India Ori-
entali iis in suffimentis utuntur.

Rhododendron /irsutum ab eo differt, ramulis
junioribus pilosiusculis ; foliis ovatis mucronulatis
ciliatis supra glabris; pedunculis plus elongatis ;
laciniis calycinis linearibus aristatis ciliatis; corol-
lz laciniis ovatis acutiusculis; stylo villoso, stig-
mate excavato. |

2. RHODODENDRON anthopogon, ramulis den-
sé pubigeris; foliis ovalibus subtus dense
tomentosis: floribus capitatis; corolla sub-
hypocrateriformi fauci barbato, genitalibus
inclusis.

Habitat in Alpe immensa nivosa, Gossaignsthan

Nepaliensium dicta. D. Wallich. bh.

Frutex A pedalis fasciculatim ramosissimus, ra-
mis fastigiatis; cortex rugosus, rimosus, deciduus,
ramulis pube brevissimo ferrugineo densé instruc-
tis; folia ovalia petiolata subretusa coriacea supra
nuda anastomosanti venosa, subtus densé ferru-
gineo-tomentosa: Flores capitati; pedunculi bre-
vissimi resinosi ; laciniz calycine breves rotundate
margine villose; corolla subhypecrateriformis ro-

410 NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL.

seo-purpurea, tubo cylindrico, laciniis rotunda-
tis crispato-crenulatis, fauce villo tortuoso candido
barbato ; genitalibus tubo inclusis ; filamenta plana
glabra; stylus superne crassior staminibus du-
plo brevior; stigma depressum.

Rhododendron Dawricum, ab supera primo dis-
eriminatur foliis tenuioribus deciduis nudis utrin-
que punctis resinosis crebré instructis; floribus
paucis lateralibus, corollis subrotatis tubo vix ullo
fauce nudo; genitalibus longé exsertis; stigmaté
eapitato. |

3. RHODODENDRON campanulatum, ramulis
glabris: foliis ellipticis mucronulatis supra
glabris subtus tomentosis, petiolis peduncu-
lisque glabris; corolla campanulata, laci-
niis planis integerrimis ; germinibus glabris.

Habitat Alpes Gossaingsthan. D. Wallich. »*.
Fyutex A, magnitudine R. Cataubiensis; cortex
rugosa decidua; ramuli juniores glabri, folia late
elliptica mucronulata coriacea supra nuda nitida
-subtus tomento brevissimo fusco instructa, basi ro-
tundata, petiolis glabris; flores corymbosi ter-
minales ; pedunculi alterni glabri; lacinie caly-
cine brevissime rotundate glabre; corolle cam-
panulate magnitudine illorum R. Pontice rosee
impunctatz late, laciniis late rotundatis planis mar-
gine integerrimis; filamenta plana basi villosa pis-
tillo longiora ; stylus angulatus, stigmate excava-
to; germinibus glabris.

NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL. . ALL

_ Ab precedente differt R. Cataubiense ramulis
petiolisque densissimé tomentosis; foliis subtus ni-
-veis; laciniis corolle crenulatis. |

R. arboreum ‘etiam differt foliis lanceolatis a-
cutis subtus niveis basi subacutis; floribus glo-
meratis ; pedunculis calycibusque densé tomentosis;
—corollis majoribus intus maculatis: laciniis emar-
ginatis crispato-crenulatis; pistillo staminibus lon-
giore, stigmate depresso subcapitato; germinibus
dense tomentosis. |

4, ANDROMEDA cupressiformis, precumbens ;
foliis quadrifario-imbricatis ovatis trigonis
margine scarioso-membranaceo, apice dia-
phano-aristatis ; pedunculis villosis, segmen-
tis calycinis oblongis aristatis.

A. cupressiformis W allich in literis.

Habitat in Alpibus Nepalensibus. D. Wallich. »-

Frutex A procumbens ramosissimus; ramis as-
cendentibus, ap:cibus acutis: folia quadrifario-im-
bricata ovata trigona glabra nitida ; margine scarioso-
membranacca, apicibus mucrone tenui diaphano in-
structis: pedunculi solitares axillarcs uniffori villo
longo tortuoso tecti; segmenta calycina oblonga
diaphano-aristata extus nervosa corollas campanu-
latas equantia.

A. tetragona ab eo discrepat, ramis brevioribus
obtusis ; foliis obtusis marginibus apicibusque nu-
dis; pedunculis longioribus glabris; laciniis caly-
einis brevibus ovatis acutis muticis corolla duplo
brevioribus.

A12 NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL.

A. ericoides etiam discrepat, ramis confertis
gracilioribus attenuatis; foliis lineari-oblongis tri-
' gonis marginibus apicibusque ciliis setosis instruc-
tis; pedunculis glabris, laciniis calycinis muticis.

5 Litium Nepalense, caule simplicissimo 1-flo-
ro scabriusculo ; foliis lanceolatis sparsis acu-
minatis floralibus verticillatis; fiore campa-
nulato cernuo, petalis subunguiculatis.

Topho ab indigenis dicta.

Habitat in Nepalia. D. Wallich.

Caulis erectus simplicissimus teres uniflorus sca-
briusculus ; folia sparsa lanceolata acuminata nervo-
sa utrinque glabra, floralia verticillata; flos campa-
uulatus cernuus pedunculatus pedunculo nudo;
-petala lanceolata acuta subunguiculata rosea? ner-
vosa, apicibus patentibus. |

Lilium Japonicum ad quem proxime affine, ab co
differt, caule glabro; foliis omnibus sparsis lineari-
bus acutis longioribus ; floribus erectis, petalis sessi-
libus. <

6. Dre.ruinium scabriflorum, petiolis longissi-
mis basi non dilatatis; foliis basi cordatis
5-lobo palmatis segmentis cuneatis inciso-lo-
batis hirsutis ; bracteolis pedicellis calycibusque
scabri pilosis; calcaribus curvatis obtusis, pedi-
cellis longioribus ; capsulis glabris.

Habitat in Alpibus Nepalie. D. Wallich. 2.

NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL. 413

Radix perennis; caules subgraciles 4-pedales sub-
simplices teretes erecti basi leves, superné pilosi ;
folia radicalia longissimé petiolata, (petiolis subte-
retibus pilosis,) 5-lobo palmata, segmentis cuneatis
inciso-lobatis utrinque preecipué nervis pilosis, lobu-
_ lis mucronatis ; caulina pauca remota 5-partita, seg-
mentis lanceolatis inciso-lobatis mucronatis utrin-
que pilosis ; racemi stricti pauciflori ; bracteoli linea-
res obtusiusculi pedicellique et calyces valdé scabré
pilosi; calearibus curvulatis obtusis pedicellis longio-
ribus; foliola perianthii ovata obtusa multinervosa,
margine crispato-undulata, extus virescentia, intus
marginesque obscure coerulez ; petala exteriora cal-
earata, apice glabra bifida lobulis obtusis, interiora
lamina patente barbata profundi bifida, lobulis ob-
tusis crenulatis; filamenta basi membranaceo-di-
Jatata; ovarii tres glabri, styli recti; flores obscuré
virescente-ceerulei; faciem Aconiti ochroleuci re-
fert.

4. LEONTODON erlopodum, foliis linearibus run-
cinaté glabris intra folia densé lanigeris; scapo
foliis breviore undique lanigero ; pappo tenuis-
simo serrulato, brevissime stipitato.

Habitat in Nepalie Alpibus. D. Wallich. x.

Radix crassa fusiformis. Planta cespitosa in-

tra folia lana tortuosa fulva densé instructa; folia
pluria patentia linearia runcinata utrinque glabra,
—lobulis obtusis; scapi plures foliis breviores 1-flori

AL4 NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL.

teretes inanes lana candida undique tecti; antho-
dium magnitudine ejus Apargize autumnalis, squa-
mz exteriores patentes ovato-oblonge, interiores
erect lineari-lanceolate obtusiuscule basi membra-
naceo-dilatate ; semina ovata levia ; pappo tenuissi-
mo serrulato equali albo stipite brevi.

8. Tragoprocon gracile, caule erecto flexuoso,
1-floro; foliis superne angusté linearibus cari-
natis, basi dilatatis ; anthodiis 6-phyllis ; pap-
po inzequali breve stipitato.

Habitat in Nepalie Alpibus. D. Wallich. 4¥-

Radix fusiformis, caules plures graciles fle-
xuosi 1-flori foliosi leves vix foliis longiores; folia
radicalia erecta angusté lincaria obtusiuscula nervo-
sa subtus carinata glabra intus preecipué ad basin
lanigera, caulina superne anguste linearia basi dila-
tata amplexicaulia intus lanigera ; anthodium mag-
nitudine ecorum Lactuce perennis, 6-phyllum, squa-
mis lanceolatis cuspidatis glabris; flosculi pauci li-
neares lutei; semina levia; pappus inzqualis breve
stipitatus,

9. SaussurnEa* gosstpiphora, caule simplici lani-
gero foliis lineari-lanceolatis acutis, dentatis
lana occultis; floribus aggregato-capitatis ses-—
silibus involucratis lana longissima velatis. _

Cnicus gossipinus Wallich in literis.

* Pro charactere hujus generis, confer Annales du Museum,
tom. 16.

NEW PLANTS FROM NEPAUL. 415

Habitat in Alpe excelsa Gossaingsthan Nepa-
lensium dicta. D. Wallich. +.

Planta ob formam singularem mirifica est, mo-
lem parvam lane referens ; radix fibris longis sim-
plicibus crassis composita; caules palmares soli-
tarii simplices lana longissima gossipina densissimé
obtecti; folia lineari-lanceolata acuta coriacea reti-
culatim nervosa dentata in lana longissima occulta ;
flores in caput densum convexum obsiti, involucrati
bracteis exterior linearibus, interior ovatis acumina-
tis quadruplo-brevioribus lana velatis ; anthodiis ova-
tis sessilibus imbricatis, squamis inermibus omnibus
acutis, receptaculum setosum, sete breves scariose ;

semina parva angulata PEPPOses pappo ingente
plumoso sessili.

Lonnov,|
September 1820. t

[ 416 ]

XXIX.—Description of a New Species of Poten- ‘ ‘

&

tilla, from the West Coast of Greenland; with
some Account of the Arctic Flora. ig i

By Rosert KayEe Grevitye, Esq. M. W. S.

(Read 18th November 1820.)

Ix submitting the following paper to the notice of
the Society, I have not merely been actuated by the =~
pleasure common to all lovers of Natural History, — :
that of delineating and describing a new object;
nor have I confined myself to the additional and
pleasing task, of rendering that public homage to a
brother-labourer in the same field, that every libe-
ral mind delights to acknowledge. The state of
botanical knowledge, as confined to the Arctic Re-
gions, is yet very limited; and, above all, the gene-
ral as well as particular geographical distribution
of plants, is a subject that has only been noticed by.
a few individuals. ‘Whatever contributions, then,

/ oi POTENTILILA JAMESONLANA

if
: f
: , i ie . es
; ve y
é *
*
y . - :
+ LEK Greville.aad nat: dein. a ‘
4 - \,
’ 5 ae ; ; i
if *
i ; .
ye - 4 Yr. ’

oe ee

‘DESCRIPTION OF A NEW POTENTILLA. 414

that can be added to our stock of information on

_ these subjects, it is presumed will not be unworthy
of public attention : and it is under this impression
_ that Ihave drawn up the following short paper,

which, Iam well aware, derives a value it would

not otherwise possess, from the figure and descrip-

tion of the interesting little plant; so recently dis-
covered by Mr Jameson:

PotENTILLA foliis ternatis, apice incisis, utrinque
sericeis; caule simplici, erectiusculo, sub-bifloro ;
calycis segmentis inequalibus.

PoTENTILLA Jamesoniana. Leavesternate, gashed
at the apices, silky on each side. Stem simple,
nearly erect, scarcely two-flowered ; segments of
the calyx unequal.

oS
Class and Order, Icosandria Polygynia.
Nat. ord. Rosacea, Juss. Decand:.

See Plate xX:
Description:
Root. I have not seen;

Stem about four inches, siniple, rough at the hottotii,

with the remains of old stipules, which form a

series of hard reddish scales, that increase in

number with the age of the plant; and, together
“OVOL. IL : pd :

418 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW POTENTILLA.

_ with the radical leaves, form a thick turf. They
probably assist in protecting it from the rigour of
winter. The upper or herbaceous part, is hairy
and tomentose, a silky beneath | -
calyx.
Leaves ternate, silky, particularly the upper sur-
face, less so underneath, and of a paler colour ;
leaflets ob-ovate, the two outer trifid, the cen-
tre one irregularly quinquefid. The radical
leaves are on short footstalks, scarcely longer
than the leaves themselves. The footstalks are
covered with fine silky hairs. Stem-leaf, (for
there is seldom more than one) sessile, three-
lobed, middle lobe trifid.
Stipules broad, embracing the stem.
Calyx hairy and tomentose ; the segments unequal.
Flowers terminal, solitary, large, rarely two on the
same stem.
Petals emarginate, inversely kidney-shaped, of a
deep yellow colour, slightly tinged with buff.
Anthers on very short filaments, and few in num-
ber.

Seeds. I have not seen.

Duration perennial. Hab. West Coast of Green-
land. Altitude 300 feet. Time of flowering,
June and July. Se t

This elegant little plant was discovered on Hare
Island, (or as it is sometimes called, Waygat Island),
in lat. 70°30’, on the -22d of June 1818, by

William. Jameson, Esq. surgeon, who kindly com--

oe |

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 419.

municated it to me, with a request that I would
give a figure and description of it to the world.
In so doing, I have, at the same time, conferred
upon this delicate arctic stranger, the name of its
finder ;—a name, that I trust will be continued by
future botanists, as a reward for that love of science
and:general observation, which enabled Mr Jame-
son to add to the already extensive genus Poten-
tilla, another and so beautiful a species. It would
be well; if other individuals, possessing similar op-
portunities, were actuated by an equally praiseworthy
curiosity, to explore the half-untrodden shores of
Greenland and Spitzbergen.

Wahlenberg, by his Flora Lapponica, has con-
tributed more than any other individual, to illus-
trate the Arctic Flora; and his work deservedly
ranks among the first of its class. But there is a
great mass of information still to be obtained, from
the more inaccessible parts of the erctic circle, which
becomes interesting, in proportion to the difficulty
of procuring it. Were this subject better understood,
the Physiology of Botany would receive a consider-
able addition of interest. We should, then, be en-
abled to show, in amore general manner, the change
of habit in such plants as are common to many de-
grees of latitude,—to illustrate the geographical dis-
tribution of vegetation, and to trace in a more beau-
tiful point of view, the gradual descent of many
plants from the mountains to the plains, as they ap-
proach the pole; and the effects of climate upon

| pd2

420 THE ARCTIC FLORA.

such as are common to the plains both here and in
higher latitudes. |

Salix herbacea is with us an Alpine plant ; ape in
Lapland, (lat. 671°-70°), placing the limits of per-
petual snow at 3300 feet, in which Humboldt and
Wahlenberg agree, Salix herbacea is found to
grow at from 2100 to 2400 feet of elevation. On the
west coast of Greenland, (lat. 70° 40’=71°), Mr Ja-
meson gathered the same plant at an elevation of on-
ly 300 feet. Tn latitude 74°, he again met with it ;
but it had then entirely lost its character, as an al-
pine plant, and was growing upon a small low island.
It was also brought to Mr Jameson by a sailor, from
the level coast of Labrador, (lat. 76°) adhering to a
specimen of Papaver nudicaule. 'This little salix,
with one or two others, the largest of which do not
exceed three or four inches, are the only trees to be
seen in these dreary regions.

Aceording to Humboldt*, the most common
plants “ im montibus nivosis zone frigide,” are
CARYOPHYLLEE (Stellaria, Cerastium,) Enri-
cIN& (Andromeda,) and RanuNcULACEm. — In
Spitzbergen, however, (lat. 79° 10/,) Captain Scores-
by found SaxiIFRAGz not uncommon ; and Mr Ja-
meson obtained several CRucIFERz and Rosacea,
with a few GramInE#, from Greenland.

* Vid. Humzouprt, de Distributione Geographiae | Plan-
Ean,

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 4AQ1

- The following account of the plants Mr Jameson
gathered in Greenland, with the altitudes at which
they occur, I cannot do better than give in his own
words.

* On the sea-shore we found aeihienis officinalts,
Statice armeria; and in one or two places, where
the soil is sandy, Arundo arenaria. Immediately
above this, Lychnis dioica, Alopecurus alpinus, Po-
tentilla sericea, Empetrum nigrum; and among
the large stones detached from the higher ground,
Stellaria humafusa. 'The banks of those periodical
streams which run down the sides of the mountains,
produce Eriophorum angustifolum, Saxifraga stella-
ris, S. cernua, Stellaria graminea, Rumex digynus,
Arabis alpina, Draba alpina, var. flore albo, and
Ranunculus nzvalis. 'These occur at a very mode-
rate elevation.

. “ Higher up, or about the altitude of 300 feet, and
growing among debris, Papaver nudicaule, Ceras-
tium latifolium, Silene acaulis, Potentilla sp. nov.,
Saxifraga Greenlandica, 8. tricuspidata, S. opposi-
tifolia, Pedicularis hirsuta, P. flammea, P. recutt-
ta? Draba alpina, D. stellata, Stellaria biflora,
Azalea Lapponica, and Salix herbacea. 'Three
plants remain to be mentioned, which, taken
together, constitute the greater proportion of
the vegetation of the country. These are Vac-
cinium uwlginosum, Andromeda tetragona, and
Dryas integrifolia. The two former, in par-

ticular, cover extensive tracts of land, and oc-

422 THE ARCTIC FLORA.

cupy the same situations there, as. the common
heath does in Scotland. They occur from a
little above the sea-mark, to an elevation of about
800 feet, when they become very much stunted,
and rarely produce flowers. Above this point we
found a profusion of Lichens, chiefly Cetraria ni-
valis, and various species of Gyrophora incrusting
the rocks. The only phanogamous plant: observed:
here, was Saxifraga tricuspidata, its succulent ha-
bit adapting it to situations where age ang
other plant will grow. .

* On one of the Duck sland’ ay white’ is identity.
ly flat, and situated in lat. 74°, I only noticed the |
following plants: Potentilla frigida ? Andromeda
tetragona, Cerastium latifolium, Silene acaulis,
Stellaria humifusa, Papaver nudicaule, Salix?
S. herbacea, a Festuca, probably vivipara, and a —
Carex, probably rigida.”

on Grvihiged catalogue of the slate peony
brought by Captain Scoresby from Spitzbergen, and
by ‘Mr Jameson from Greenland, will not, it is
hoped, be uninteresting to those who are curious —
respecting the economy of Nature in so dreary and
inhospitable a country, where the whole process of
vegetation is often completed within the short. pee
of a month or six weeks.

96 They are three in number.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. : 423

A catalogue of the plants found in. Spitzbergen,

_ Iat.'79° 10’ by Captain Scoresby, and named by
Robert. Brown, Esq. to which I have added as

. many habitats as I haye been able to obtain, in
order to give a general idea of their geographi-
cal distribution.

HEXANDRIA.. aye. Tove
Luzula campestris. Juncus campestris, L. Hab.

in pascuis siccioribus totius fere Europe. Lapponia

(Wahl.) Islandia (Hook.)

DECANDRIA.

Andromeda tetragona. Linné. Hab. in Lap-
ponia,(Wahl.) Siberia,(Pers.) Groenlandia, (Jam.

‘Saxifraga oppositifolia, EL. Hab. in Helvetia,
Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith.) Montibus Carpa-
ticis, (Wahl). Islandia, (Hook.) Lapponia,
(Wahl.) Greenlandia, (Jam.)

_ 8. cernua, L. Hab. in Helvetia, (Schleich).
Britannia, (Smith). Islandia, (Hook.) Lappo-
nia, (Wahl.) Groenlandia, (Jam.) a

S. var. nivalis, EL. Hab. in Britannize summis
alpibus, (Smith). Lapponia, (Wahl.) — Islandia,.
~ (Hook). 2} |

'S. cespitosa 3 Grenlandica. Wahlen. lapp.
119. In Greenlandia, (Jam.)

Cerastium alpinum, « hirsutum. Wahlen. lapp.
136. Hab. in alpibus totius fere Europe.

424, THE ARCTIC FLORA,

IcosANDRIA. |
Dryas octopetala, L. Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith.) Montibus Carpa-
ticis, (Wahl.) Islandia, (Hook.) Lapponia,
(Wahl.) 4 THT.

‘PoLyaNnpRIA. ;
Papaver radicatum. Rottb. vix diversum e
P. nudicaule, L. Meet
Ranunculus sulphureus. Soland. in Phapp's
voyage. Hab. in montibus excelsis Kurope, Asie-
que borealis et frigidissime. Finmarkia, io!
Siberia, (Laxan. patrin.)

DipyNamia.

Pedicularis hirsuta, L. Hab. in Lidoeti
(Wahl.) Siberia, (Pallas.) Groenlandia, (Jam.)

TETRADYNAMIA. |

Cochlearia Grenlandica? vel C. Anglica, Wahl.
lapp.

Cardamine bellidifolia, L. Hab. in sieibed Sco-
ticis, (Smith.) Lapponia, (Wahl.) Siberia, (Pal-
las.) Islandia, (Hook.)

Draba adpina, L, Hab. in alpibus Europe bo-
realis, (Pers) Lapponia, (Wahl,) Groenlandia,
(Jam.)

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 495
DIcc!Ia.

~ Salix polaris, Wahlenb. lapp. 261. tab. 13. fig. 1.
Hab. in Finmarkia et ad lacum Tornensem inter

Sphagnum Cel, Liljeblad.

- CRYPTOGAMIA.

Trichostomum lanuginosum.
Hypnum dendroides.
rufescens ?
Bryum ventricosum. Smith brit.
— ligulatum ?
Dicrani species ?
Andrea alpina,
Ulva ?
_. Fucus forsan nov. sp. prope alatum sed
_.» absque fructificatione. :
— plumosus,
sinuatus *.
Conferva ?
nigra ?
Conomyce furcata, Achar. syn. 276.
pocillum. Jd. 253.
Solorina cracea. Id. 8.
Alectoria jubata, B chalybeiformis. Id. 291.
Lecanora murorum, var. Id. 181.

* I presume sinwosus is here intended.

426 — THE ARCTIC FLORA.

Lecidea atravirens. Id. 24.
CAREPOR hirsuta. Id. 69. .
erosa. Id. 65...
proboscidea. dd. 64.
Endocarpum sinopicum. ‘Id. 98.
Spherophoron coralloides. Id. 287.
Parmelia stygia. Id.
recurva. Id. 206?
sp. nov. ? sed absquie fructific.
Peltidea canina ?
Cetraria nivalis. Id. 228.
Cornicularia aculeata, B spadicea. Id. 300.”
Usnea? prope U. melaxantham. Id. 303.
Stereocaulon paschale. Id. 284%, —

A. Catalogue of the Plants collected by William
Jameson, Esq. surgeon, on the West Coast of

Greenland, betwixt latitudes se and 71°, in
1818 and 1820.

TRIANDRIA. | .
Eriophorum polystachion. Wahl. Fl. lapp. 18.
EK, angustifolium, (Smith.) Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith.) Montibus Carpa-_
ticis, (Wahl.) Lapponia, (Wahl.) Islandia,
(Hook.) | ' iis

* Vide Stlatcey’ s Account of the Arctic ae vol. 1 1:
Append. No. 5. p. 75.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. ! 4Q74

Alopecurus alpinus. Smith. Hab. in alpibus
Scoticis.

Arundo arenaria, L. Hab. in America, (Mi-
chaux.) Britannia, (Smith.) Lapponia, (Wahl.)
Islandia, (Hook.)

Festuca vivipara ? Hab. in alpibus Britannicis,
(Smith.)

PENTANDRIA.

Statice Armeria, L. Hab. in Britannia, (Smith)
Siberia, (Pallas.) Swedia, (Linn.) Lapponia, var.
@(Wahl.) Islandia, (Hook.)

Rhododendron lapponicum, Wahl. — F'\. lapp.
104. Azalea lapponica, L. Hab. in Swedia,
(Linn.) Russia, eee Lapponia, vette

Eek owt

— Rheum d@igynwn. Wahl. F'. lapp. 101. tab. 9.
fig. 2. Rumex digynus, LZ. Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith) Montibus Carpa-
ticis, (Wahl.) Swedia, (Linn.) Siberia, (Pallas.)
Islandia, (Hook.) | , )

_ Tofieldia palustris. Huds. 'Tofieldia borealis,
Wahl. Fl. lapp. Hab. in Helvetia, (Hall. An-
thericum filamentis glabris ?) In America, (Mich.
Narthecium alpinum.) Swedia, (Linn.) Britannia,
(Smith). Islandia, (Hook.) Lapponia, (Wahl.)
Siberia, (Pallas.) Non est 7‘ pusilla Nutt. et
Pursh ? Vid. Hooker in FI. Lond. :

AIS THE ARCTIC FLORA.

OcTANDRIA,

Vaccinium ulictnosum, L. Hab. in Telvetic,
(Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith.) Montibus Carpa-
ticis ad 6600 pedum elevationem, (Wahl.) Ame-
rica, (Mich,) Swedia, (Linn.) Siberia, (Pallas.)
Kamtschatka, (Arct. Zool.) Islandia, (Hook,)
Lapponia, ( Wahl, )

DEcANDRIA,!

Andromeda tetragona, LE. . Hab. in Spitabergia,
(Scoresby.) _ Vid. supra.

Pyrola secunda, L. Hab.in Helvetia, (Schleich.)
Montibus Carpaticis in sylvis fere omnibus usque ad
terminum abietis ubique, (Wahl.) Britannia,
(Smith.) America, (Mich,) Islandia, (Hook.)
Siberia, (Pallas.) Lapponia, (Wahl.)

Saxifraga stellaris, I.. Hab. in alpibus Europe
ad latera rivulorum. Siberia, (Gmel.) Swedia, —
(Linn.) Islandia, (Hook.) Lapponia, (Wahl.)

S. tricuspidata. Retz. scand. Hab. in Green-
landia, (Pers. )

S. cernua, L. Hab. in Spitzbergia, (Scoresby.)
Vid. supra.

S. Grenlandica, L. Hab. in Spitzbergia, (Scores-
by.) Vid. supra.

5. oppositifolia, L. Hab. in Spitzbergia, (Scores-
by.) Vid. supra.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 429

Stellaria humifusa *. Swartz. Hab. in alpibus
Suecie et Norvegie, ( Pers.)

S. graminea, L: Hab. in dumosis totius fere
Europe. Lapponia, (Wahl.) Siberia, (Gmel.)

Alsine biflora, (Wahl.) Fl. lapp. 128. Stella-
ria biflora, Z. Hab. in Swedia, (Linn.) Siberia,
(Pallas.) Islandia, (Hook.)

Silene acaulis, L. Hab.in Helvetia, (Schleich.)
Britannia, (Smith). Montibus Carpaticis, (Wahl.)
Swedia, (Linn.) Lapponia, (Wahl.) Islandia,
(Hook.)

Lychnis dioica, L. Hab. in Britannia, (Smith.)
Montibus Carpaticis, (Wahl.) Swedia, (Linn.)
Lapponia, ( Wahl.) |

Cerastium latifolium, L. Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Var. @ in Montibus Carpaticis ad latera
abscondita alpium altissimarum, (Wahl.) Britan-
nia, (Smith) Islandia, (Hook.) |

IcosaNDRIA.
Dryas integrifoliat. Pers. Syn. pars secund.
p. 57. Hab. in Norvegia, (herb. Juss.)

* There appears to be much confusion respecting this
plant. . Vide Wahlenberg’s FL. lap. p. 124.-5., at Stellaria
crassifolia ; and p. 129.-130., at Arenaria humifusa. Mr.
Jameson’s plant agrees, in every respect, with the charac-
ter given in Pers. Syn. p. 501. I have not seen the N.
Act. Holm. in which Swartz published it.

+ At Dryas octopetala, in FI. lapp. Wahlenberg has
the following observation: ‘‘ Dr. integrifoliam a cl. Per-

430 THE ARCTIC FLORA.

Potentilla frigida*? Vill. som 3. ei — Pers.
Syn. p. 56.

P. Jamesoniana, ig nov. i in Groene.
dia (Jat) « | al

P. sericea + ? Willd. Hab. in Siri, (Pers)

Polen -,

Papaver nudicaule. Hab. in Siberia, (Pers.)
Islandia, (Hook.) Spitzbergia ? (Scoresby).

Ranunculus nivalis, L. Hab. in Lapponia,
(Wahl.) Swedia, (Linn.) Norvegia, (Gunn.) Spitz-
bergia, (Mart.) Islandia, (Hook). |

DIDYNAMIA.

Pedicularis fammea, L. Hab. in Alpibus Hel-
vetize, (Hall.) Islandia, (Hook.) Lapponia (Wahl).

soon, in Synops. p. 57. pro Norwegica planta perperam
exhibitam, nonnisi e Groenlandia habuit, cel: Vahl. secun-
dum. Act. Hist. Nat. Hafn.”

* P. foliis omnibus ternatis, inciso-serratis hirsutis. This,
surely, cannot be Schleicher’s P. frigida, which Wahlen-
berg says belongs to his P. verna? Persoon’s P. frigida,
in Synops. p. 56., answers to our Greenland plant, even
to the radix crassa. Vid. Wahlenb. m Flora Carpato-
rum Principal. p. 156. Brown’s P. Groenlandica, in
Ross’s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 193. marked nov. sp.? nimis
affinis P. frigide: et Brownian, is probably our plant. —

+ This, if not sericea, will be Brown’s P. pulchella,
nov. sp. Vide Brown, in Ross’s Voyage to Baflin’s is
vol. ii. p, 193.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 431%

P. hirsuta, L. Hab. in Swedia, (Linn.) Spitz-
bergia, (Scoresby) vid. supra.

P. recutita ? L. Hab. in Helvetia, (Schleich.)
in summis Alpibus.

TETRADYNAMIA.

_ Draba alpina, L. Hab. in Spitzbergia, (Scores-
by), vid. supra.

D. hirta‘var. B alpicola, Wahl. lapp. 175, tab.11.
fig. 1. D. stellata, Jacg. Hab. in Britannia, (Smith),
Lapponia, (Wahl).

D. muricella, Wahl. Fl. lapp. 174. tab. 11.
fig. 2. D. nivalis, Lilebl. Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Lapponia, (Wahl).

Arabis alpina, L. Hab. in Helvetia, (Schleich.)
in Alpibus Europe ; et in Barbaria, (Pers.) Islan-
dia, (Hook.) Lapponia, (Wahl.).

‘Cochlearia officinalis, L. Hab. in Helvetia,
(Schleich.) Britannia, (Smith), Montibus Carpati-
cis, (Wahl.) Swedia, (Linn.) Siberia,(Gmel.) Is-
landia, (Hook.) Lapponia, (Wahl.).

SYNGENESIA.

Gnaphalium alpinum, L. Hab. in Alpibus Eu-
rope. Swedia,(Linn.) Siberia, (Pallas.) Islandia,.
(Hook.) | Lapponia, (Wahl...

A32 THE ARCTIC FLORA.

Diacta.

Salix * 2 Hab. Duck Islands, lat. 74°.

S. herbacea; L. Hab. in summis Alpibus Eu-
rope. In Russia et Siberia, (Pallas). Swedia, (Lin.)
Lapponia, (Wahl.) Duck Island, lat. 74°. (Jam.).

Empetrum nigrum, L. Hab. in locis montosis
totius Europe. America, (Mich.) Siberia, (Pallas).
Kamtschatka, (Arct. Zool.) Islandia, (Hook.) Lap-
ponia, (Wahl.).

CRYPTOGAMI4. |

Splachnum mnioides, var. « minus, Hook. Muse.
Brit.

Hypnum cupressiforme, H ook. Muse. Brit.

Dicrani species.

Cetraria Islandica. Achar. Syn. 229. Physca
Islandica. Decand,

C. nivalis, Achar. Syn. 228.

Lecanora tartarea y frigida. Achar. Syn. 172:
Lichen tartareus @ frigidus. Wahl. Fl. lapp. p.403.
Patellaria tartarea, De Cand.

L. murorum var. ?

* It is probable that this may turn out to be the
“¢ Salix arctica, nov. sp.” of Brown. Vide Voyage to Baf-
- fin’s Bay, by Ross, vol. u. p. 194.

There are living specimens brought from Duck Islands
by Mr Jameson, in the Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, and.
also in the collection of Mr Neill‘at Canonmills, near. that
city; so that, in another year, we may be able to ascer-
tain the characters of the species.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 433

Cenomyce rangiferina, var. Achar. Syn.

Cenomyce ?

_ Gyrophora erosa, Achar. Syn. 65.
Cornicularia ? prope.C. aculeata.
Usnea ? nov. sp. ?

‘Stereocaulon paschale, Ach. Syn. 284.
Sphzrophoron coralloides. Id. 287.

Besides the above catalogues, there is another
that remains to be noticed, containing several very
interesting discoveries. This consists of those
plants which were collected by various gentlemen
who accompanied Captain Ross in his Voyage of
Discovery to Baffin’s Bay; from latitude 70°30 to
76°12’, on the east side, and in lat. 73° on the
west side. This collection, like that of Captain
Scoresby, was arranged by Robert Brown, Eisq.—
a circumstance, of itself, sufficient to stamp a va-
lue upon it.

From this list, I sliall only extract such plants
as have not enriched the two former; “not omit-
ting, however, to make similar additions to illus.
trate their geographical distribution.

TRIANDRIA. |
Agrostis algida, Phipps’s Ve oyage, p. 200. Wahl.
Lapp. p. 25.t.1. Gramen sui generis, Brown.
Hab. in stillicidio aque nivalis ad latus septentrio-
nale alpis Raste-kaisse Finmarchie orientalis ; ubi
VOL. III. Ee

434 THE ARCTIC FLORA.

adeo ab aqua inundata fuit ut spica tantum emi- —
nuit. Lecta florens, d. 27 Julii 1802, Wahl.

A. paradoxa, Brown, nov. sp. vix hujus, forsan
proprii generis, Brown.

Poa laxa, Willd. sp. pl. 1. p. 386. Hab. in
Helvetia (Schleich.), Montibus Carpaticis (Wahl).
—P. laxa, Wahl. Fl. Lapp., est P. flexuosa, Smith,
Fl. Brit. et Fl. principal. Carpat. Wahl.

DECANDRIA.

Pyrola rotundifolia, L.? absque Big haud
determinanda. :

Saxifraga propingua, Brown, nov. sp. S. hir-
culo, cui proxima, minor, et diversa presertim ca-
lycibus nudis et petalis inappendiculatis. Brown.

S. flagellaris, Sternberg, saxifr. p. 25. t. 6. 8. se-
tigera, Pursh. Amer. 1. p. 312. —

S. petiolaris, Brown, nov. sp. proxima §,Yivu- —

lari. j

Lychnis apetala, L. Hab. in Swedia, (Linn.)
Lapponia, (Wahl.) Siberia, (Gmel. Pers.), _

} ie triflora, Brown, nov. sp.

JIcosaNDRIA.

Potentilla pulchella, Brown, nov. ES dl ea se-
ricee affinis.

P. Groenlandica, Brown, nov. sp.? nimis affi-
nis. P. frigide et Brownane.

: it eMart.
Draba oblongata, Brown, nov. sp.

THE ARCTIC FLORA. 435

D. corymbosa, Brown, nov. sp.? precedenti
valde affinis, et amb D. rupestri, (Hort. Kew. 4,
p- 91.) proxime, Brown.

Cochlearia fenestrata, Brown, nov. Sp. A C.
Anglica et Danica, quibus valde propinqua, dif-
fert valyulis subaveniis et dissepimento elliptico-
_ Ianceolati axi dehiscente. Brown.

SYNGENESIA.

Leontodon faraxacum, L.? varietatis nana?
vix species distincta. Brown,
Monaicia.

Carex compacta, Brown, nov. sp. ©. pullee af.
finis.
Diccia. |

Salix arctica, Brown, nov. sp.
S. _.? specimen mancum dubie speciei
precedenti proxime. Brown.

POLYGAMIA.

Hierochloe alpina Br. Holcus alpinus, Wahl.
Lapp. p. 31 *.

* A curious plant, first discovered by Liljeblad, (sv. flor.
ed. 2. p. 41.) ad Tornea-trisk in alpe Karpile, and made
by him an Aira. Vide an excellent description of it by
Wahlenberg, Fl. Lapp. p. 32.

Ee

436 THE ARCTIC FLORA,

CRYPTOGAMIA. '

Lycopodium selago, L.

Polytrichum juniperinum. Muse. Brit p28.
— Orthotricum cupulatum. Id. 72.) hieeetie >.
~ Dicranum scoparium. Id. 57.

~Mnium turgidum. Wahl. Lapp.p.. B51 ihe

Bryum — , absque capsulis.
Hypnum clean, DL.
Jungermannia fructificatione nulla.

Cenomyce fimbriata. sti Syn. p. tant :

Dufurea ? rugosa, Brown, nov. sp. :
Cornicularia bicolor. Achar. Syn. p. 301.
Usnea ?__——, nov. sp. ? absque scutellis,
Ulva crispa. Lightf. Seot. 972 ?

Algarum genus ? ? Confervis simplicissimis et
Tremelle cruente (Zing. Bot. 1800.) quodammo-
do affine? ? Minute globules, the colouring ‘mat-
ter of the red snow, of which extensive patches

were seen in lat. se 25" N. and long. 65° W.

Brown *. ie «aN

* Vid. Ross's Voyage to ‘Baffin’ Bay, vol. ih p. 191.
et seq.

Epinpurcn, 25. Buccleuch-Place, )_
October 23. 1820. BA

, bi ¢

4

( 437 )

XKX.—<Account of the Lutra vitiata, and of
ah the Viverra poliocephalus.

By Tuos. Stewart Trait, M.D. F.R. SE. & M. W.S.

reo

(Read 27th November 1819.)

Tue animal to which I apply the name of Lutra
vittata, appears to me to be that described by Buf-
fon under the name of Le Fouine de la Guiane, or
Martin of Guyana ; which, if not the same, is near-
ly allied to the Viverra vittata of systematic, writ-
ers.

Mr Pennant, and some other naturalists, have
judiciously separated the Otters from the Mustela
of Linnzus, and united the rest of this genus to the
Viverre of the Linnean system: but this animal,
I presume from careless examination, has been
hitherto permitted to remain among the Weesels ;
though the structure of its feet, which are all per-
fectly webbed, shews that it must be classed among

438 LUTRA VITTATA.

the Otters. The name Lutra vittata is proposed,
as characteristic of the conspicuous white band or
vitta, which passes across its forehead, to the sides
of its neck. I am disposed to consider Viverra vit-
tata of Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Nature
and of Shaw, the Grison of ‘Allamand and. Buffon,
as a young specimen of this animal. The only mark-
ed differences seem to be in the proportions of the
limbs and tail. The general habits of the two ani-
mals do not materially differ.

The specimen from y ich this destin and
figure are taken, was killed in Demerara by Charles

Edmondston, Esq. and brought to this country by~

him in 1817.

TRA VITTATA:

ps Sa

itta alba pet sree

Neel the Prehnal and « ears, to te Mould.
ers. Pl. XIX. fig. 5.

The upper part of the body, and thewholetail, have
a pee dingy grey hue, produced by the yellowish
b Sage’ an thi vitta passes just
ies the - ; f an. inch broad on
the forehead; includes the ears, wl share round
and small; dilates a little at 1]

= part of the

PLATE NIX 3 Wernerian Mem. Yol IM page BIS,

Lutra vittata .

Figs 12.3.4. Drawn by RK. Greville Fit Enaraved by WiLLizars

LUTRA VITTATA. 439

appear rlos cay ‘black, in a direct ‘ight, but of a a
very dark ‘eiibcaBie: brown, when seen obliquely.
The belly is of a darker grey colour than the back.
- The limbs are short and. strongly formed ; the toes
of all the feet are perfectly webbed, (PI) XIX.
fig. 6.); the claws are long and sharp; the tail ap-
- pears flattened, from the hair dividing on its upper
surface, and passing off sidewise, leaving a narrow
space in the centre rather bare. The teeth are strong
and large; the eyes are said to be of a reddish hue.
The dimensions of this specimen (which seemed to
be very well stuffed), are as follows:

FEET. INCH.
Extreme length, ........ wi Re. ae
Length of ead,’ ..@jpagpud...i%-. O°. GE
of bade pi Ray ta eal | 74
Of a ee iO. ,..9
from nose to eye,.......0 18
from eye to ear, ......0 1
Circumference of body, ...... 1 9
—~ of head#s: 24... 0 10
Height at shoulder, ............ 0 54

4g igs NS oge 0 6

440 VIVERRA POLIOCEPHALUS,

The Weesel described shortly by Buffon under >
the name La Grande Marte de Guiane, i is. mention-
ed as a doubful species by Shaw. A well stuffed
‘specimen of this animal having been brought by
Mr Edmondston to England, TI have described and
foie it. PL ae AS. 1.

VIVERA POLIOCEPHALUS.

» Grey-headed Weesel. ? is cc
oo
"Chovibier i. corpore nigro ; capite colloque

. griseis jugulo macula flavescenti angulari nl-
gro, margine circumscripta notato. ee

Weed with a black body; head and neck: dark
_ grey; the throat marked with a yellowita an
gular = “— with black.

‘The habit of hak inal is slender ; its limbs.
longer 1 than in most of the genus ; its claws and teeth.
are uncommonly large. ‘he canine teeth projec
much from the upper jaw, and give the animal a.
fierce appearance. ‘he ears are prominent; the "
eyes large. The hair of the whole trunk, the limb:
and the tail, is of a glossy black. That on the
tail is very full and long; but the hair which co-
vers the head and neck, is dull, and of a dark iron-
grey colour, The disposition of the hair on the
neck is rather peculiar. From behind the ears:

Genus . ae
hu
ae ate

ii es
ol avd 3
shine. ~ SRW

ae
“eee ‘
— % £.

Vol ML Page #0

Hernertan Memows

WH Mazars. Scalp

PLATE XXII

i

|

SS

)

NY
Mt

Is

aby
TS aL. CLALCLY aL AC AL)

| ==

(Ne
l=

|

VIVERRA POLIOCEPHALUS. 441

to the nape of the neck, the hairs point upwards,
forming a slight ridge. At the nape, the hair is
partly deflected downward, as in the figures. ‘The
jugular spot is of considerable size, of an ochry-
yellow colour, and an irregular hexangular form, sur-

‘rounded by a border of jet-black. The hair is short

on the whole fore-part of the body, and gradually
lengthens on the hind-parts.

The dimensions are as follows : FT. IN.
Extreme length of the animal............. 3 8
Length of the body (along the back),...2 3
Bapaieth of ath scsvitess.. chasis sa se... 1. 2

The specimen here described, was brought to |
England from Demerara, by Charles Edmonston,
Esq.

[ 442 ]

iid ee 4

FOXY 3

ep

es a FS vibe ie :

XX XI.—On the Leaves, Capsule wa Root of ,
Buaxbaumia aphylla. sige | 4
By Rosert KayrE Grevit_e, Esq. M. W.S. &c. ;
(Read 2d December 1820.) a

a opaee so much has been written respecting
this highly curious moss, and many excellent figures
of it published, there are several peculiarities in its 4
structure that have escaped the observation of mus-
cologists, not even excepting the accurate Hooker ;
—a circumstance that can be owing to nothing but
its rarity.

This singular plant is named after its ‘inset eee, |
the “ modest Buxbaum,” as Haller calls him. It
was found by him about the year 1712, on the
banks of the Wolga, near Astracan, and publish-
ed in his Centuric, 2. p. 8. t.4.f.2. Since which
time, the “Regina Muscorum” has been figu-
red and described, either as a moss or a a

ON THE BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA, 443

by a great number of authors, but particularly by
Schmiedel, who “ Buxbaumiam in Dissertatione
Academica pulchre et egregie explicavit.”

In the fourth number of the Flora Londinensis
(new series), the reader will find the best and most
recent account of Buaxbaumia aphylla. It is
there minutely described, and its history admirably
detailed by Dr Hooker, who had first the good for-
tune to detect it in Great Britain, at Sprowston,
near Norwich.

In 1818, Mr Stewart, lecturer on Botany in E-
dinburgh, was so fortunate as to find a habitat for
this very rare plant,.on the hills in the neigh-
bourhood of Peebles; from whence he procured a
considerable number of specimens, on some of
which he detected leaves, and described them as
being very minute, reticulate, laciniate, or deeply
cleft into four or five segments, and situated on the
sides and summit of the bulb. Mr Stewart also
stated, in a paper read before the W ernerian Society *,
that he had observed more than one fruit-stalk to
arise occasionally from the same bulb; and in one
instance so many as three: of which one was de-
cayed, another still retaining the calyptra, and a
third intermediate. This circumstance naturally
induced Mr Stewart to consider the plant as peren-
nial. I have not yet been so fortunate as to find a
completely satisfactory instance of this; for though
I have received specimens with the fruit-stalks in

* 11th December 1819).

Aad ON ‘Titk BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA.

apparent contact, I have not been able to trace the
connection on dissecting the bulb; but from the
nature of the root, it is extremely probable that
the plant is perennial; and what greatly contri-
butes to confirm me in this opinion is, that the
greater part of the tomentose or hairy appearance
of the bulb, seems to be produced by the remains
of old leaves; not indeed such as Mr Stewart no-
ticed, but similar to some that I have recently dis-
covered, and shewn to that gentleman *.
The leaves that I observed appeared to me to be
of two kinds. j
The first (Pl. XCXI. fig. 3.) is formed, as far as I
could ascertain, entirely of conferva-like filaments,
closely united from the base; to somewhat less than
half the length of the leaf; they then separate from
each other; are continued sometimes singly, and
sometimes collected into small bundles converging

* Since this paper was written, the scientific world
has suffered a serious loss in the death ($d November
1820) of this very intelligent and indefatigable bota-
nist, who, from the natural energy of his mind, promised
to hold a conspicuous place in the pursuit not only of na-
tural history but of general literature. A few days pre-
vious to his death, he completed the laborious office he
had undertaken, of editing the Lectures of the late Dr
Brown, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. He had also just finished the article
Musci in Dr Brewster’s Encyclopedia, but did not live to’
‘complete the correction of the last sheet.

3

ON THE BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA. 445

at the summit. Before the filaments separate, they
appear to be frequently jointed; more rarely so
afterwards. |
_. The second kind of leaf (fig. 4.) is more common
than the first, as far as I have hitherto experienced;
but the structure is no less singular. The lower
part is strongly reticulated,—the reticulations very
irregular, and the bars or cellular divisions remark-
able,—being uniform in their diameter, which is
considerable, smooth, semitransparent, and of a pe-
culiar inflated appearance, difficult to describe or
represent. Before the leaf begins to contract, the
reticulations cease, and a number of conferva-like
filaments are produced, which seem to be seldom,
if ever, jointed, but are long, and generally much
entangled ; so that it is difficult to obtain a leaf for
examination, free from a mass of filaments, belong-
ing either to old or adjoining leaves. In conse-
quence of this entanglement, added to their mi-
nuteness, I have not yet been able to discover the
true form of the leaves of Buxbaumia; all that I
have examined having been more or less damaged,
The colour of all the leaves is a light green, tin-
ged with a brown that increases in age; but the
filaments are even then generally diaphanous, and
exactly resemble the dark-coloured filaments that
are to be met with on every specimen, towards the
upper part of the bulb. I regret exceedingly, that
I was not able to show the first kind of leaf to Mr
Stewart, having lost the one I made the drawing

446 ON THE BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA.

from, and never succeeded in finding another: of
the kind last described he saw several. These
little objects are so minute, that they may be easily
overlooked, even when under the microscope, from
the well-known difficulty of managing that instru-
ment when high powers are used.

In Hedwig’s * highly magnified section of the
capsule of Buxbaumia, the little pillar or duct be-
tween the small globe and seminal bag, is repre-
sented as curved. ‘This was also the case in the
capsule of which I have given a section, (fig. 6.).
In the young capsule, (fig. 7.) this duct is straight,
as is also the seminal bag; but as the latter en-
larges, and in some degree follows the oblique di-
rection of the capsule, the duct necessarily becomes
curved in the direction of the gibbous portion of
the capsule, In making the dissection given at
fig. 6., I was so fortunate as to divide the little
globe, the cervix or little column which supports
it, and a part of the duct; these are evidently hol-
low, and communicate with each other. The
cervix above mentioned is connected with the sides
of the apophysis, by numerous fibrille, which, to-
wards the little globe, graduate into a spongy or
cellulose texture, forming a sort of delicate septum,

between the capsule and apophysis. ‘This is much |

too strongly marked in the figure borrowed from

* Fundament, Hist. Nat. Musc. Frond. Pars 11. t. 3.
£10.

ON THE BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA. 4A

Schmiedel, in the Ameenitates Academice of Lin-
neus,. (fig. f.).

_ In examining avery young plant, only just emer-
ged. from the bulb, with the pistil on its summit, I
found the bulb evidently hollow to a certain degree,
as well as the pistil itself. This hollow perichz-
tium terminated in a fleshy root, and might belong
to an old plant. I could not, however, detect any
thing like an internal bulb in any of the specimens
which I dissected; and what Schmiedel has figured
as the Bulbus ex villo exemptus, which is copied
into the Ameen. Acad. (fig. /.), I cannot but conceive
to exist more in imagination than in reality. The
cavity is gradually filled up; and this seems to take
place by the mere thickening of the seta, as the
plant advances to maturity.

The character of the root of Buabaumia, I have
found to be uniform in every individual I have exa-
mined. Its length is from a line, to a line and
quarter. Its thickness considerable, to where it
branches off, into three or four divisions. Its sub-
stance is fleshy and brittle. The bulb of this moss
exists, therefore, in appearance, rather than in fact,
and chiefly receives its external character from what
J take to be the remains of old leaves, which pro-
duce the same effect as the accumulation of old sti-
pules in many phnogamous plants. The root it-
self, being very brittle, is easily lost ; and being, be-
sides, often tortuous, and generally passing off ob-
liquely from the bulb, it is more liable to injury.

Ay alta in Oh Daicsks Fabhatae we pa roo J)
7) ‘ He considerably thicker than the seta. toma iG
' upper part, the root is generally solid,
the extremity, hollow, (fig. 8.)
dn order to avoid pe disadvantages

Pa ills to a aa that of Buxbaunalelialiha
to some, it may appear absurd to call a plant aphyl-
lous, when leaves have been actually detected up n
i At the same time, these leaves ; are so lesen i

‘ity almost eaihees: “Should waaihet trinidllandaneal
however, be considered essential, Buaxbaumia acau-
lis, would be as appropriate as was B. aphylla ori,
ginally. a

Evinsurcn, 25. Bucctgucu Prace, }
she tk 30. 1s | at

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a the hollows ie eee between the
cervix, the globe, and the duct supporting the ©
_ seminal bag. :

ve Section of a young capsule just beginning to as-
sume the gibbous character. When under the
microscope, the duct appeared to be continued

in the form of something like a columella, to ite ” ‘
_ nearly the summit of the seminal bag, which —
seemed to be enclosing it. It was also more

_ transparent than the rest.

Section of the root, shewing the seta passing down

i and. losing itself in the substance of the root;

also the hollowness of the root towards its extre-

i) Dee

mity, and its division into a few large branches. ee

." 9, View of a pistil growing by the side of an old seta, Pas

( “natural size. it | '

lants of Buxbeumig, in diferent stages of gon

natural size. Rr Be,

%

The s same mage

XXXII. — Account of a Sinipubal™ Fo: il ne

Tene have fen sine to belone to an :

FOSSIL SKELET

rs

ton, ese ahi at Whitby, i in February 1

tele

th

By ade Rev. Gienee pias A. M. Whitby, York 7

Or the éxtraneous fossils occurring in n the 5 :

of aluminous schistus on pe by ae
the crocodile family. A ne. Sf this kin d, t
iyS8. on

Philosophical ‘Heahendticns =
the eats S Rccreg

the copes of the ii

Pi
i

eS

+4
PLATE Xx ae Wermerion Meme. Vor Mi Page 452

J, Bird. del?

j NEAR WHITBY. ee,

of the same bina; was found i in n Febreapptace?
d is now in the possession. of Mr George Watson
sige The bh ect of this Wa ei is to —

se Plate XXII. 335 ae

a i diss f
A tie
cs fh AMES. a

i : ia Gath by 1 by the sides and covered at chia
; water, abot al a mile east from the entrance of

" tic upper ait of the great shee pot which
i here eens below ec. mark, % ts position 2 y

iicarance. This rust is. ic legs
2 years, as it is considerably og
ation of loose stones, over —
having both concealed the —

uted by their rolling to’ wear

wis %, ee Bis <a
i i

m, (Fig. 1. A) a
F Ff? a |

452 ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL SKELETON

even this has been much compressed, and shatter-
ed; the sockets for the eyes (D D,) being flatten-
ed, and the jaws distorted; so that the upper jaw
projects over the under, on the right side; leaving
part of the inner surface of the under jaw exposed
on the left side, at C. ‘The teeth, which are near-
ly conical, but swell a little in the middle, and have
a gentle bend inwards, have been almost all broken
or displaced ; so that they are lying in various posi-
tions, and a few of them are even found beneath the
cranium, in the cavity between the two diverging
sides of the lower jaw, immediately under that part
of the upper jaw marked N. The head is three
feet long, and tapers towards the anterior extremity
in the form of a bird’s beak, being near fourteen
inches broad at the thickest part; while the snout,
_ for a considerable space, would measure only about
three inches in breadth, were the one jaw laid di-
rectly over the other.

_ The rest of the skeleton consists of portions of the
spine, with a few broken and mutilated ribs. One
portion, H, K, I, consisting of twenty-one vertebre,
and extending two feet in length, was found behind
the cranium, nearly in the pane position, but
twisted to one side; so that the spinal pr
instead of rising perpendicularly, appear in a hori-
zontal position*on the right side. Some of the verte-
bree at H, were separated in taking up the skeleton ;
and as the head was removed before any other part
was discovered, it is uncertain. whether the curious

cesses KK,

FOUND NEAR WHITBY. 453

bone marked G, which is fixed in the cranium, and
seems to be the atlas, was in contact with the ver-
tebree H ; or whether some thinner cervical verte-
bre, that are now lost, might intervene.. At any
rate, it was obvious, from inspecting the bed where
the skeleton was found, that the interval between
the bone G and the vertebre H, if any, must have
been very small.

Another portion of the spine, (L), consisting of
six vertebra, was found diverging from the portion
H, K, I, on the left side. These two fragments of
the spine are represented in the drawing as attach-
ed to a portion of their aluminous matrix, with
some broken ribs lying across them. The ribs seem
to be slender for an animal of such size.

A third fragment of the spine (M), consisting of
nine vertebre, has been thrown much more out of
place, being immediately before the cranium, ex-
tending from the point of the snout on the left at
right angles. The end of the snout at B, is not
only in contact with part of these vertebra, but has
been crushed into their substance ; both being much
compressed at the point of contact.

The place where this skeleton was embedded, has
been carefully examined all around, but nothing
more belonging to it has been found, except a few
more broken ribs, and two vertebre. The latter
were found in the direction of the fragment L, at
the distance of three feet, and, like the vertebrae M,
are longer than those found behind the cranium,

454 ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL SKELETON

and may therefore have belonged to _ pile of

the spine.

To what class of animals this atnatl iad
found at Whitby, should be assigned, ‘it is difficult
to determine. They appear, however, to have little
or no alliance with the crocodile family. No por:
tion of any crustaceous covering has been found
with them, nor any part of the bones of the feet.
The teeth, indeed, resemble those of the crocodile,
“but differ from them materially in the regularity of
their size and their arrangement. ‘The cranium is
totally unlike that of the crocodile, as the writer
found by comparing the drawing with a specimen
of the latter in Dr Barclay’s Museum. Besides,
the vertebra are evidently those of a fish, each being
in the form of a concave lens, hollow on both sides.
It further appears, that the animal has had a pec-
toral fin, similar to that in the drawing, fig. 2., which
is a correct representation of a fossil fin in the pos-
session of Mr Bird, found about two years ago, not

far from the spot where the large skeleton has since

been discovered. In the general search, occasioned
by the discovery of the latter, some vertebree of an
animal of the same description, but much smaller,
were found ; and, along with these, some fragments
of a pectoral fin, the same with fig. 2., but also
much smaller. Hence it may be inferred, that the
larger animal must also have had pectoral fins ; and it
is by no means unlikely, that the fin represented in
the drawing was one of them. It is somewhat im-

.

FOUND NEAR WHITBY. 455

perfect, especially on the upper side ; but is, on the
whole, an interesting animal remain. Some portions
of pyrites adhere to it, particularly three pyritous bi-
valvesof the genus Tellina. It may be remarked, that
some parts of the large skeleton are also pyritous.

From the exact correspondence between this pec-
toral fin and that figured in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1816, at p. 320., and from the gene-
ral resemblance which this Whitby petrifaction bears
to that in Bullock’s Museum, described by Sir Eve-
rard Home in the Philosophical Transactions for
1814 and 1816, there can be no doubt that the ani-
mals of which these are the remains, have belonged
_ to the same genus, though they appear to be of
different species.’

Sir Everard Home considers the Charmouth ani-
mal as allied to the shark family ; particularly in re-
gard to the conformation of its pectoral fin, which
he compares with that of the Squalus acanthus ; but
the animal of Whitby, and even that which he de-
scribes, may be viewed as more nearly connected
with the cetacea, especially those of the genus Del-
phinus. On comparing the cranium of the Delphi-
nus vulgaris, (fig. 3.) with the fossil cranium, (fig. 1.)
it will be seen, that, notwithstanding the compres-
sed and distorted state of the latter, there is a con-
siderable resemblance between them. They are si-
milar in the elongated form of the snout, and in the
number and shape of the teeth. The depressions
in the upper part of the cranium (F F) are nearly

456 ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL SKELETON

alike. The aperture at E, in the fossil skeleton, cor-
responds, in some respects, with the blow-hole K,
though it has not its semilunar form ; and the groove
running from the blow-hole to the point of the snout,
which, in the recent animal, is filled: with cartilagi-
nous matter, is distinctly observed in the fossil.
animal. Perhaps if the fossil cranium were compar-—
ed with that of the dolphin, which La Cepede has
denominated Le Danphin Nesarnack, a more
striking conformity might be perceived *. |

- No opportunity has occurred of comparing the
fossil pectoral fin, (fig. 2.) with that of the dolphin ;
but the descriptions of the latter, by Cuvier and
La Cepede, furnish sufficient ground for econ
them as analogous f.

* La Cepede, Hist. Nat. de Cétacées, p. 307.—Fossil
heads have been found at Whitby, bearing a stronger re-
semblance to that of the Charmouth animal, and perhaps
to that of the Dol phin, than the present fossil cranium.
_ An interesting specimen of this kind, found near Whitby,
about two years ago, is now in the possession of ‘Thomas
Hinderwell, Esq. Scarborough. In that fossil animal, the
top of the cranium is elevated, and the sockets for the eyes
are remarkably distinct. An engraving of that fossil ani-
mal, and of other interesting specimens, will be given in
the Geology of the Yorkshire Coast, about to be published
by the writer of this paper, in conjunction with Mr Bird.

+ “ The bones Be the carpus in the Dolphins, and other
eetacea, are very much flattened ; almost all of a hexagonal

FOUND NEAR WHITBY. 457.

After all, it must be acknowledged, that, in the
conformation of the pectoral fin, and other particu-
lars, this fossil animal differs from all living crea-
tures hitherto described. It is not unlikely, how-
ever, that as the science of Natural History en-
larges its bounds, some animal of the same genus
may be discovered in some parts of the world.
Brown, in his late Travels in Egypt, could not,
among all the fishes of the Nile, identify more than
one or two, as corresponding exactly with any of the
European fishes; and when the seas and large rivers
of our globe shall have been more fully explored,
many animals may be brought to the knowledge of
the naturalist, which at prevent are known only in
the state of fossils. ,

figure, and form, by their union, a compact surface, resem-
bling a pavement.”—Cuvier’s Comparative Anatomy, vol. i.
p- 319.—See also his Descriptions of the Metacarpus and
Phalanges, pp. 320.-327.

- © TYailleurs, cet humérus, les deux os de l’avant-bras
qui sont trées-comprimés, ceux du carpe dont l’aplatissement
est trés-grand, les os du métacarpe trés-déprimés et soudés
ensemble, les deux phalanges trés-aplaties du pouce et du
dernier doigt, les huit phalanges semblables du second
doigt, les six du troisiéme et les trois du quatriéme, parois-
sent unis de maniere 4 ne former qu’un seul tout, dont les
parties sont presque immobiles les unes relativement aux

int °—La Cepede, Mist. Nat. de Cétacées, p. 265.

PY esi

458 ON THE EARLY STATE

XX XIIL—Physiological Notice concerning the
Early State of the Common Frog. —

By James Witson, Esq. M. W.S.

(Read 24th January 1818.)

/

Ox procuring the spawn of the frogs last spring,

(1817), I was struck with a peculiarity which I had
never heard mentioned by any one, or read of in the
writings of naturalists. It is well known, that the
young tadpoles are enclosed in pellucid globular

bodies for some days. These bodies are deposited

by the frog in one connected string, to the number
of many hundreds; but, in the water, they have the
| appearance of a compact gelatinous mass. This
gelatinous substance nourishes the young, and upon
it they have been supposed to feed even after their

exclusion from the egg, as they are observed to rest

2

OF THE COMMON FROG. 459

upon it, never quitting it for some days, during
which their size is considerably augmented.

In the course of my observations on these ani-
mals, having occasion, a few days after their exclu-
sion, to remove a mass of the gelatinous matter
in which they had been contained, from one vessel
to another, I was surprised at perceiving that the
tadpole still adhered to it, at the same time ap-
pearing to make frequent struggles to effect its
liberty, and in which, in the course of a short time,
it succeeded. On examining another, under like
circumstances, with the assistance of a lens, I per-
ceived that this was caused by a transparent. fila-
ment or cord, proceeding from the centre of the
globule, and attached to the belly or under-side of
the animal.

The idea of the umbilical cord, by means of which
the foetuses of mammiferous animals are nourished
in the placenta of the mother, immediately occurred
to me, and I was curious to know, whether, in the
ease of the tadpole, this apparently similar structure
might not be subservient to the same end.

As this might be ascertained by cutting the
connecting cord immediately after the exclusion of
the tadpole from the centre of the gelatinous body,
and observing the rapidity or the slowness of its in-
crease, compared with the growth of such as remain
attached to it, I resolved to institute a course of ex-
periments to that effect. In consequence, however,
of one of those unfortunate mishaps which occasion-

460 ON THE EARLY STATE

ally interrupt the investigations of the naturalist,
I was deprived, for that season, of the power of
drawing any conclusion regarding this supposed
analogy. (The vessel in which my young brood
were contained, was overturned and broken, and its
inhabitants were destroyed.) The observation it-
self, however, in so far as I know, has not been pre-
viously made ; and it may possibly lead to some cu-
rious results connected with the eer of the
lower classes of animals.

I find that the fact of frogs and insects deriving
their nourishment from the mouth, and never by
means of any umbilical vein, is insisted upon by the
older naturalists, as forming a physiological distine-
tion between these animals and such as strictly be-
long to the viviparous classes. In proof of this, I
may adduce the following passage from the writings
of Swammerdam, in which he treats of the changes
of the frog. |

“ De plus on doit observer que de méme que
les insectes, qu’on trouve renfermez dans les fruits,
dans le fromage, et dans la chair qui se gate, pren-
nent leur aliment par la bouche, e¢ jamais par
quelque veine umbilicalc: de méme aussi les pe-
tits de grenoiiilles ne sont point joints ni unis 4
leur aliments par aucune sorte de veine; mais ils
prennent de méme leur nourriture par la bouche:
et a la maniere des autres insectes, ils ne commen-
fent a manger, qu’apres quils se sont depouillez de

OF THE COMMON FROG. 461

la membrane, dont ils etoient revetus.”-— Histoire
generale des Insectes, p. 199.

Though ignorant of the cause, Swammerdam
seems, however, to have been aware of the circum-
stance of the tadpole reposing on this gelatinous
substance for some time after its exclusion from it.
This he attributes, not to any necessity resulting
from its present ‘organization, but to the desire of
rest. Thus, in the passage immediately preceding
that which I have just — he expresses him-
self as follows :

« Et il faut bien remarquer ici que les petits de
_ grenoitilles ne consument jamais tout leur aliment,
(by which last word he means the gelatinous bodies
formerly mentioned), mais lorsque les parties sont
separées les unes des autres par le moien de l'eau,
qui sy est insinuée, et que cet aliment n’a plus que
la forme d’un nuage, qui flotte sur leau, il ne s’en
sert plus que pour se reposer. Aussi nous voyons
que lorsqu’il est las de nager, il se renferme incon-
tinent dans ce nuage pour se reposer doucement.”

I have troubled the Society with this inconclu-
sive notice on the subject at this time, lest any of
its members, more able than myself to form an opi-
nion, should feel inclined to make the experiments
alluded to, during the ensuing spring.

The time of their appearance is regulated by the
state of the season, and the nature of the situation
in which the spawn has been deposited. The
sreater number are excluded by the end of the first

462 ON THE EARLY STATE

week in May. I have found, that the favourite
food of tadpoles, as soon as they are entirely de-
tached from the transparent globules, is the com-
mon duckweed, (Lemna gibbosa and minor) so; fre-
quent in most ponds. ‘They do not, however, refuse
other kinds of food. On one occasion, in particular,
I observed that several of their own species having
been wounded by the fierce larva Of a large dystiscus,
were immediately attacked and devoured by their
more vigorous companions. ‘The enormous crowds of
these creatures which may be seen in spring, has
often been a subject of wonder, more particularly
when they are considered in relation to the greatly
diminished numbers of the perfect animal. Few
out of the millions produced, ever attain maturity,
most of them serving as food to the different spe-
cies of aquatic insects. I once observed an aqua-
tic larva transfix and devour thirteen in the course
of a few hours. |

The tadpole state generally continues about two
months; but I have found, that the period of
transformation is hastened by their confinement
within doors. ‘The hinder legs are the first of the
external members which are perfected. In those
whose progress I attended to, they appeared about,
the 8th of June. They are at first. small and pen-
dant, and of no benefit to the animal in assisting
its locomotion. From that day to the 23d of the
same month, they continued to increase in size, and
upon the 24th, they were employed as organs of

OF THE COMMON FROG. 463

motion. After the 20th, the animals themselves
rarely remained under water above a few minutes
without coming to the surface, and carrying down
a small globule of air, and from this time they
swam with less rapidity and ease than formerly,
_ from the motion of the legs interfering with and
counteracting the action of the tail. On the 25th
of the same month, the fore-legs of several made
their appearance. With regard to these, I may
remark, that although the growth of the hinder ex-
tremities is exceedingly gradual, yet the fore-legs
make their appearance at once, nearly in a state of
- perfection. Of this I discovered the reason, on a
more close examination. ‘The growth of the an-
terior limbs is in fact internal, that is, they are con-
cealed in a hollow, under the lower jaw, near its
posterior angle; and when the tadpole swims with
one side a little elevated, their motion, if carefully
observed, may be distinctly seen through the filmy
integument by which they are covered, some days
previous to their appearance externally. This I
had an opportunity of ascertaining, by means of
such as remained in a less advanced state. About
the 25th, also, the progress of ossification became
very visible, through the transparent skin of the
back. :

The body of the tadpole decreases in size, and
assumes the appearance of being emaciated before
the completion of all its limbs, at which time the
bony parts are easily discernible, from the acute-

44.6 ON THE EARLY STATE

ness of the angles. The tail, likewise, when
compared with the other parts, is of a more gela-
_ tinous appearance, and the difference of its texture
and colour is then very visible at its jusistion with
the body.
Upon the 28th of June, being a few “ou peri
_ two months from the time of their first appearance,
several quitted their native element, and were found
upon the dry ground. On being replaced in the
water, they dived once or twice, but seemed, during
their short stay on land, to have nearly lost their
former power of swimming ;—their specific gravity,
too, was changed, as it now required some little
exertion to prevent their rising to the surface of
the water, when unassisted by weeds or otherwise
from below. ‘The tail still adhered, though some-
what altered in its appearance. ‘The filmy upper
and under border was wanting, and had either fallen
off or contributed to increase the growth of the
central part, which, although considerably shorter,
was now thicker and rounder in its form than it
had hitherto been. On the 30th of June, the tail
had contracted into a small rounded protuberance,
a few Jines in length, and the animals themselves
_ then exercised the faculty of leaping with agility.
On the Ist of July, this protuberance was scarcely
discernible, and the only apparent difference, ex-
clusive of size, between the young frog and the
adult individual, consisted in the body of the form-

OF THE COMMON FROG. 465

er being terminated by a salient instead of a re-
entering angle.

I may add, that the singular faculty of repro-
duction of members of the body, is well exempli-
fied in these animals. If, during their existence in
the tadpole state, the tail be separated from the
body by a pair of scissars, it is reproduced in the
course of a week or two. I have observed, however,
that this experiment prevents the appearance of
the hinder extremities at the usual period, and I
presume that the ‘exertion of the reproductive
power may probably exhaust those fluids of the
body which are required for the increment of the
limbs.

January 1818.

VOL, III. : G g

( 466 )

XXXIV.—On the Luminosity of the Sea.
‘By Joun Murray, Esq. Lecturer on Chemistry, &e.

(Read 29th Deceinber 1819.)

Aran early period, the phenomenon of luminous
animals arrested the attention of naturalists; and
among these observers, we find Linnzus and Pliny.
Not confined to the Lampyris, it is clearly ascer-
tained, that the property of emitting light obtains
in other animals, as the Scolopendra electrica,
Fulgora lanternaria, and others.

The phosphorescence exhibited by vegetable and
animal matter in their decomposition, and that
of some gems and minerals, by exposure to light and
heat, should be ever carefully discriminated from
the luminous vestiture of living beings; and which
appears to me to have but a slight analogy with the
former. | :

ON THE LUMINOSITY OF THE skA. 467

Whether the luminous phenomenon is to be as-
cribed to electric energies, or an effect connected
with nervous influence, or dependent on something
peculiar and insulated from these, is a question
which has not yet been determined, nor perhaps
‘can be, in the present state of human knowledge.
Experiment seems, however, to decide, that glow-
worms are not more luminous in oxygen than in
atmospheric air; neither is the luminosity extin-
guished in carbonic acid gas. ‘This would appear
to countenance the belief, that it is not connected
with any thing like combustion. When Mr Mac-
cartney applied electrical stimuli, he succeeded in
inducing light in the case of the Lampyris ; but
the concomitant circumstances clearly proved, that
its action was entirely mechanical.

- The light of the sea has been ascribed to various
causes. ‘To phosphorescence,—the effect of animal
decomposition,—to the imbibing of solar light, ana-
logous to the diamond,—and to an electric effect in-
_ duced by friction. While others have more plau-
sibly assigned it to the presence of luminous ani-
mals; and of these, the Cancer fulgens, Medusa
pellucens, hemispherica, &e. Limulus noctilucus,
Salpee, &c. have been described.

_ I remember to have taken up a luminous medusa
on the coast of Norfolk, where the river New dis-

embogues itself into the sea.
~ On my voyage from Leghorn to Civita Vecchia,
I scsi that the Mediterranean was particular-

Gg 2

468 ON THE LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA.

ly refulgent, prior to a storm which we encountered ;
and this circumstance led me to ahs the
phenomenon on our own shores:

I was struck with the luminosity which ithe sea
presented a few evenings ago. It was succeeded by
a gale; and may be, perhaps, considered its presage.
The sea sparkled with great brilliancy ; and seemed
to reflect from its bosom the celestial scene. A
more attentive survey appeared to present at least
two distinct phenomena of this description. One
seemed to ana and was minute; while the
other exhibited an ‘undulatory movement of the
phosphoric kind, apparently. commencing at the
centre, and diverging in concentric circles to the
edge of the discs, which seemed sometimes an inch
in diameter. Immediately before the gale, I saw
a solitary occasional gleam; but cuinang its conti-
nuance could discover none.

_ From the edge of the pier now constructing here,
I took up a small portion of sea-water, including
some luminous substance. It was some time, in-
deed, before I could recognise the existence of any
foreign body, to which I could attribute the lumi-
nous effect ; however, I clearly perceived, that there
was no phosphorized oleaginous matter on the surface
of the water. I saw, at length, the shadow of an ani-
mal in rapid movement, depicted on the bottom of the
basin ; and itself was transparent as the medium in
whichit floated. It seemed to be a Beroe, and identi-
eal with the species called fulgens, by Mr Maccart-

ON THE LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 469

ney, (Philosoph. Trans. p. 260, for 1810.) The
animal when at rest, exhibited a somewhat crescent
form. ‘The ciliary processes of the ribs, which in
swimming described a kind of tortuous motion,
seemed. to be those parts from whence the light was
derived, but of which the whole body occasionally
partook. ‘The Beroe died a few minutes after I
~ had received it, which I attributed to the ght of
the candle, rather than to increment of tempera-
ture in the medium. When taken up on the point
of a probe, it had the appearance, and nearly the
consistency, of jelly; it was diaphanous, and present-
ed a spherical figure of about one-sixth of an inch
in diameter.

‘The late Professor Smith of Christiana considers
that the luminous appearance which diffuses itself
over the whole surface of the sea in the Atlantic,
arises from a dissolvedj slimy matter; and that the
most minute glittering particles, when highly mag-
nified, had the appearance of solid spherical bodies.
I cannot doubt, but that these luminous particles
originated. with some of the mollusca and crustacea
adverted to ; and that they had been detached by the
action of the waves, or friction, the consequence of
other causes, as may appear in the sequel.

Another quantity of sea-water presented me the
Medusa, perhaps the species called scéntilans. I
could discover no other kinds. ‘The medusa was
about three-fourths of an inch diameter. It died
very shortly after I brought it home; and perhaps

470 (ON THE LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA.

the light, as in the former case, ‘was the cause. It.
is supposed, that the Scolopendra electrica, is de-

stroyed by exposure to solar light; and Mr Mac-
cartney observes, that the meduse always retreated
from the surface as soon as the moon rose; and he
also states, that exposure to day-light deprived them
of the power of shining.

_ By stirring the salt-water containing the medusa,
occasional gleams were exhibited. I then transfer-
red it to a basin of fresh water, when it sunk to the
bottom like a falling star. The effect here, was of the
most beautiful description. There appeared. strings
of minute beads of fire, like a chain illuminated by

electricity. By stirring the fluid, these luminous

points were disentangled, and exhibited a pretty
hemisphere of stars. ‘These floating fires soon ceas-
ed to lighten the fluid mass; agitation could not
restore the effect, though a few drops of acid caused
a solitary gem to twinkle. The medusa was trans-
parent and gelatinous like the other. There can

be no doubt, but that it was the tendrils or feelers ©

which were vested with this brilliant and beautiful
ornament; and I presume, that these living fires
originated here as in the ciliary processes of the
beroe ; and that they were, subsequently, by some
peculiar mechanical impulse, transfused over the
transparent membranous sac or disc. _

We dare scarcely speculate, touching the design
of the primary distinction. This much we know,
that Almighty Goodness has made nothing super-

ON THE LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 471

fluous or in vain. For aught we know, it may be
to allure its prey, or to subserve the purposes of coi-
tion. The visitation of luminous animals, would
seem connected with meteorological phenomena ;
and it would be interesting to ascertain, from dif-
ferent parts of the coasts, whether they or others
generally contribute to the effect. Meantime, I shall
anxiously watch their return, for some experiments I
have in prospect.

Stranraer, 30th November 1819.

—_

472, APPARATUS FOR

XXXV.— Explanation of an Apparatus, sug-
gested by Colonel Yure, for Discharging Ord-
nance upon Mr Forsyrn’s Plan; and an Ac-
count of some Experiments performed with it.

By Mr Joun Devcnar, Lecturer on Chemistry. a

(Read 16th December 1820.)

I, is proposed, in the present paper, first to explain
an apparatus some time ago suggested by Colonel
Yule, for applying Mr Forsyth’s plan to the dis-
charging ordnance, without either the use of a light,
or the usual prime; and, secondly, to give a very
brief account of several experiments which I have
performed with it,

I. The apparatus has first to be noticed.—This is
very simple. It consists of a thick brass tube, (Plate
XXIV, fig. 1. A B), fifteen inches long, which is
meant to represent the touch-hole of the gun. The
diameter of the bore of this tube, (as is shewn in
fig. 6.) is about the 18th or 20th part of an inch.

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 473)

It terminates at the top (A), in a cup (fig. 3. d) ;
at the bottom of which, the bore of the tube is di-
vided into three very small holes, (see fig. 4.), to
prevent the powder falling into the tube. Into this
cup, about one grain of the new composition, after-
wards alluded to, is put, when the apparatus is to
be used. At the top of the apparatus, is a bar of
brass (C D), which, at the one end (D), turns up-
on a joint ; and, at the other (C), is supplied with a
cap, in the centre of which is a steel projection, or
hammer, (fig. 2. €). The cap covers the whole of
the raised part (A), at the top of the tube (A B);
and the hammer nearly fits the cup (fig. 3. d), and
is made to strike flat upon the bottom of it (fig. 4.
d). Between the joint of the bar (D), and the top
of the tube (A), is placed a piece of cork (I), or any
elastic substance, to prevent the steel hammer (e)
coming too close upon the composition, before firing,
and to make it spring up again after the discharge.
The apparatus is united at the top by a frame of
brass (G H), which, to prevent its being injured by
the firing, is screwed upon another frame of wood
(EF). ‘The tube screws into four pieces; and it
was into the hollows left at the joinings of these
(a b and c), by only half screwing them, that the dif.
ferent substances were put, which are noticed in the
experiments. | | |

AT APPARATUS FOR

Eaplanation of Plate XXIV.

Fig. 1. represents the whole apparatus on a scale
of four-tenths to one inch.
Fig. 2. gives a section of the cap C, and steel

hammer e, which strikes upon the powder at the |

top of the tube A B.

Fig. 3. gives a section of the top A of the tube,
and the cup d for holding the powder.

Fig. 4. shews the bottom of the cup, which screws
into A, from below, as shewn in fig. 3. The hole
through the tube from B to A, divides into three
smaller openings.

Fig. 5. shews the end of one of the divisions of
the tube A B, and the size of the screw which unites
them at a, b, and c.

Fig. 6. shews the bore of the tube at a, 0, c, and
B.

Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, shew the parts of the ap-

paratus of the full size; and for fig. 1. there is a

scale given.

ee

I may mention a few advantages of this mode of
firmg ordnance of every description. These are
principally extracted from a communication on the
subject, with which Colonel Yule has favoured me.

© Ist, The instantaneous inflammation of the

whole of the powder contained in the cartridge.”

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. ATS

The expansion of the aériform fluids produced,
must act with more force than in the old method:
of course, less powder will be required for any pro-
posed result; and, as none of the charge is forced
out uninflamed, any given quantity of gunpowder
will afford its fullest possible effect.

© 2d, The removal of all danger of explosions aris-
ing from the cartridges and loose powder coming in
contact with lighted matches in the gun-decks of
men of war in time of action.” The whole process is
performed without the necessity of using a match-
light of any description ; nor is there any inflamed
substance forced from the touch-hole during the
discharge.

“ 3d, 'The removal, in a great degree, of the in-
convenience arising from the accumulation of smoke
in the gun-decks of men of war, or in casement bat-
teries in time of action.” In the proposed method,
there is not the slightest production of smoke at
the touch-hole ; and as neither prime nor prime-tube
is required, it is also free from any risk of accident
by the discharge of these, and this, at sea, is a con-
siderable advantage.

“ 4th, The removal of all inconvenience arising
from the priming being blown away by high winds,
or washed off by heavy rains, or the shipping of a
sea.” The cap at the top of the new apparatus
covers the touch-hole, and prevents any of these 1 in-
conveniences of the old mode.

A476 APPARATUS FOR

“ 5th, A saving of the whole amount at present
applied to the manufacture or purchase of quick
matches, priming-tubes, flints, and various other ar-
ticles now in use both in the navy and in the field.”

Another advantage of this mode deserves particu-
larly to be noticed; namely, the rapidity with which
the whole is performed. This facilitates the execu-
tion of a charge, by the effect being almost instan-
taneous with the pointing of the gun, It also saves
much of the time at present spent in applying pri-
ming-tubes, or trains of powder; for, with Colonel
Yule’s apparatus, the time that is required is very
trifling.

wrreirJ00rrwive

II. Having now stated all that is necessary with
regard to the apparatus itself, it remains for me, in
the concluding part of this paper, to direct the at-
tention of the Society to several experiments per-
formed with it, which present rather extraordinary
results. |
At the request of Colonel Yule, I commenced,
about the beginning of July last, a number of ex-
periments, with the view of discovering a powder
which should never miss inflaming the cartridge ;

and I was fortunate enough to hit upon one. All
the usual fulminating powders were first tried, ati
out success. The fulminating mercury, when the
fifth part of a grain only was used, rent asunder
the steel plate at the top, (marked D), and yet did
not reach as far as the gunpowder (placed at B).
Some of the antimonial preparations were found

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. ATT

sometimes to fire the gunpowder; but they left a
cake of crocus behind, which stopped. up the holes,
and could not easily be removed. ‘The following
substances, and a variety of other inflammables,
were used, mixed with an equal weight of super-
oxymuriate of potassa :

Golden sulphuret of antimony;
Black sulphuret of antimony ;
Red precipitate of mercury ; —
Chinese vermilion ;

Muriate of mercury ;

Red oxide of mercury ;
Aithiops mineral ;

Red oxide of lead ;

Flowers of sulphur ;

Rosin;

Gum Arabic;

Gum gamboge.

None of these, however, produced any regular ef-
fect ; and several of them gave no inflammation at
all. I shall now add a list of powders, all of which
occasionally pierced the flannel, and inflamed the

gunpowder below it. Very few of them, however,
did so twice successively.

1. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 5
Sublimed sulphur, - - 2
Charcoal powder, - - 1

This and No. 3. are the worst on the list.

478

2

APPARATUS FOR

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 12
Flowers of sulphur, —- - = 4
Charcoal powder, - = = 2
Gum Arabic powder, - 1

This and No. 9. are fourth best.

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 18
Flowers of sulphur, bs a 3
Gum Arabic, - - - ae ee |

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 45
Flowers of sulphur, _—_- # 1.5
Charcoal powder, - - - 1.5
Nitre, - - - = 2.5

This and Nos. 5. and 8. are the third
best. |

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 4.0
Flowers of sulphur, - ngs TO
Charcoal powder, | 1.0

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 1.0
Sulphuret of antimony, - 1.0

This and No. 7. are fifth bas but
they leave a hard cake of crocus of an-
timony, which adheres very strongly
to the apparatus. !

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 1.0
Sulphuret of antimony, - - 1.0

The proportions of this powder were ta-
ken by volume. :

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 2.0
Dried charcoal powder, - 1.0

. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, 4 1.0
Dried charcoal powder, - 1.0

Sala hn acy, 3
ae ee ne a ee ge ee eed me

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 479

10, Super-oxymuriate of potassa, - 3.0

Dried gunpowder, > - - 2.0
This is the best.

11. Super-oxymuriate of potassa, aetits

Gunpowder in fine powder, - 1.0

This is the second best.

After numerous trials with these, their compara-
tive regularity in producing the desired effect was
calculated to be nearly as has been noted in the
above list; but I found that even No. 10. was not
so uniform as was necessary for Colonel Yule’s ob-
ject. I had now, however, almost doubted of success,
when it occurred to me to try the composition
which has since been found to succeed for more than
an hundred successive times, without leaving any
residuum to stop the firmg. Of the composition of
this powder, and some cautions necessary to be at-
tended to in its preparation, an account will be
given in a future paper.

It was with this powder that I performed the ex-
periments which presented those striking results, of
which I have now to give a brief account.

I was led to these, with the hope of elucidating,
still farther than I had previously done, a particu-
lar view of caloric, of which I have, for six years
past, given an account in my chemical classes. I
availed myself of the use of Colonel Yule’s appa-
ratus, to commence the investigation; and I am
still occupied with it. At present, therefore, it is

480 APPARATUS FOR

only i in my power to notice a few of the Sees:
in a detached form. |

The first experiments were performed le firing
the new composition (using about one. grain, or ra-
ther less, at each trial,) through a piece of cartridge
flannel tied over the hole at the bottom (B) of the
apparatus, when it inflamed a quantity of gun-
powder fixed in a tin-case below the flannel. ‘This
was repeated successively, for many times, without
cleaning the apparatus, and the flame never failed
to pierce the flannel and fire the gunpowder. .

Should this succeed as regularly when applied to
the gun itself, there could remain no doubt but
that it would possess all the proposed advantages.
There was therefore fixed to a six-pounder an ap-
paratus similar to the one described, excepting that
it wanted the long tube (A B), for which the pri-
ming hole of the gun became a substitute. It was
charged with cartridge, and, in several of the trials,
with ball and cartridge; and upon the same ex-
periments being repeated with it, it gave the same
uniform results.

The next experiments were with the view of
ascertaining how the results stood related to Sir
Humphry Davy’s theory regarding the impervious
nature of wire-gauze to flame. Wire-gauze, of
different degrees of fineness, was, m_ successive
trials, put in the interior of the joinings of the
tube, (a, bor c) so as to cover the hole completely.
When the coarser wire-gauze was employed, the

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 48k

flame was found to pass through and set off the
gunpowder ; but the same result never took place
with wire-gauze as fine as that used in Sir Hum-
phry Davy’s safety-lamp, unless when the flame
seemed to have burst a passage through the gauze.
But when these experiments were performed with-
out the powder and flannel at the bottom (B), it
was found that the flame went through even three
pieces of the wire-gauze at once.

The next experiments, and probably the most
surprising of the whole, were with gunpowder
placed in one of the divisions of the apparatus
(a, b, orc). In some of the trials, I found that
the flame had passed through the gunpowder, (at
a, b, or c), without inflaming it ; although, in other
trials, I found it did not do so. 7

This, at first, appeared to be an objection to the
proposed application of the apparatus. But after
repeated trials, 1 found that the above curious re-
sult only took place when the stroke with the
hammer was slight; for, when a smart blow was
given, inflammation always took place.

In a few of the experiments, I put gunpowder
at two divisions of the apparatus (a and b), and
found, that the flame sometimes went through both
without firing either portion ; at other times, one
portion was inflamed, and one left unaltered.

In performing these experiments, I first put a
small piece of flannel upon the hole of the joining
of the tube, and upon this I poured the gunpowder,

VOL, III. nh

482 APPARATUS FOR DISCHARGING ORDNANCE.

using; 2, 3, 4, and sometimes even 5 grains at onte,
After all of the trials, I found a brownish scorched
mark in the centre of the flannel, about the size. of
the hole of the tube. ~

A variety of experiments were also performed, |
with flannel, paper, and other substances, placed be-
tween the joinings; in all which cases it was found,
that the flame had been forced through, generally
leaving a hole in the substance used, anda pale-
coloured flame was observed to dart to a consider-
able distance below the bottom (B) of the tube.

In a future paper, I hope to have the honour of
laying before the Society a fuller account of these
curious experiments. In that paper, I propose to
enter upon the cause of the results which present
themselves; and to notice more fully the nature of
the flame whilst in rapid motion, the alteration of
effect upon substances, by retarding its movement,

and the canse of its apparent inaction uPgp the
gunpowder.

a gid et a Ta , ies

a XXXVI. setbescdilion of 160 — Philosophi

‘i = “3 yy ies ort wes
A Instruments.
a ie a if of a i n ¢ th k

PRR ae 2

By ALEXANDER pa F.R.S. E. & M. W. S.
(Read 8d April 1819. )

Is the fallowilt paper I propose ‘to describe, jist,
A new instrument under the name of Sympiesome-
ter, for ascertaining the changes in the pressure of
the atmosphere; and, 2dly, A Hygrometer, in
which the smallest variation of moisture and ay
ness are indicated.
t
I.—Sympiesometer.

My attention was first directed to the improve-
ment of the Barometer, with the view of rendering
it, susceptible of indicating any of those minute
on in the —— of the tage which

be

4.84. ACCOUNT OF

might be supposed to arise from the action of the
Sun and Moon. A very sensible instrument was
obviously necessary for such a purpose; and I was
therefore led to the idea of measuring the pressure
of the atmosphere by its effects in compressing a
column of common air, Upon constructing an in-
strument of this kind *, however, I found that the — *
air was absorbed by the fluid with which it wasin-
closed, and that a good and permanent barometer
could not be made upon such a principle till this
radical defect was removed. 1 therefore directed
- my attention particularly to this object, and suc-
ceeded beyond my most sanguine expectation, in
freeing the Air Barometer from this great source of
inaccuracy. :

The name of Sympiesometer which 1 have given
to this improved instrument, is derived from the
Greek words. cv~mieZw to compress, and pergov a
measure, denoting the property it possesses of mea-
suring the weight of the atmosphere by the com-
pression of a gaseous column.

The principle of the Sympiesometer, which is re-
presented in one of its forms, in Plate II. Fig. 2.,

;
;
i]
y
‘
f
:

* When I constructed this instrument, I was not aware
that Dr Hooke had employed the compression of a column
of air to measure the weight of the Atmosphere. The
Sympiesometer, however, will be found to have no resem-
blance to his instrument but im this particular.

Wernerian Memoos VoIP, 483

5 : XN
& = —— —_— —_ = = ™ -= _ = =
= =
= =
a.
A — =
: S =
i a g
a = = = = A
- A CSI ; LS = g = R 5 3 5 3, 5 Ca 8
A sSas==
= 7 = 2 3 RS | 5 SiS 7
> ah = ~ = 5 KO)
SSS Nes 5 = = = x = is S
= —— S 5 S e &, 8 + 5. Cas —— a= ew ae ==
= : SS 4 wy
p = : — (3) Ry z
fe

“

THE en 485

a, onsists in employing 2 ‘ clastic fluid or gas, diffe-
~ rent from air, and : any liquid, excepting quicksilver;
_ which neither acts upon the gas which it confines,
‘nor is perceptibly aeted upon by the air, to the con-
— tact of which it is in some measure exposed. Hy-
drogen gas, azotic gas, or any of the gases not lia-
ble to be absorbed by. the inclosing fluid, may be
used; but I prefer hydrogen gas as superior to any —
other that I have tried. The liquid which answers
best isan unctuous oil, or a mixture.of unctuous
and volatile oils.. I consider almond oil, coloured
By 5X mith anchusa root, as the most eligible. .
~The Sympiesometer consists of a tube of glass A
B C, of about 18 inches long, and 0.7 of an inch
diameter inside, terminated above by a bulb A,
_ about two inches long inside, and half an inch dia-
meter, (but this will vary, as the instrument is re-
‘quired to have a: greater or lesser range); and ha-
| hee the lower extremity B bent upward, and ex-
peng into an oval cistern C, open at top. |
q The bulb A at the upper end of the tube-is
9 | Pik to a slender thread, and is at first left open.
7 — In order to introduce the. gas and oil, I fill the bulb
and tube with quicksilver : Then holding the tube
horizontal, a communication is formed between a
gasometer, containing the gas to be used, and the

a oe mnie? at A oot fthe bulb A, he means of

it) 4
i
fa
acy
fe
_

$
hi
;

A Tasteiy

486 ACCOUNT OF

and the gas enters to supply its place. ‘The'slen-»
der pipe is then to be sealed hermetically close to
the bulb A, by a touch of the flame of a blowpipe.

The tube A BC is now to be inverted, and the
mercury poured out of the cistern C, allowing the
column which occupies the tube to run’ towards the
bulb, to prevent the escape of the gas. _'The tube
being again turned into a vertical position, the por-
tion of quicksilver which remains is removed,» by
pouring some of the oil over it, and heating the gas
until, by its expansion, it forces the columu of quick-
silver which is left at the lower end of the tube, in-
to the cistern ; then, holding the tube nearly hori-
zontal, the oil will enter as the gas cools, and the
remaining quickerives may Hf gee out — _ cis-
ten C.

The inclosed gas which has thus been teitidhded,
changes its bulk, or occupies more or less space, ac-
cording to the pressure of the atmosphere upon the
surface of the oil in the cistern C. The scale m2
for measuring the change in the bulk of the gas oc-
casioned by achange of pressure, is formed experi-
mentally, by placing the instrument in an air-tight
glass-case, along witht 2 an accurate heirtneiete? boon
thermometer,

The glass-case 1 is furnished with a ciel
exhausting syringe, by which any density may be
given to the inclosed gas, so as to support a column
of quicksilver in the barometer of 28, 29, 30, or any
other required number of inches. The height of

THE SYMPIESOMETER. 487

the oil in the tube of the Sympiesometer correspond-
‘ing to these points being marked on its scale, and
the spaces between being divided into an hundred
“parts, these parts correspond with hundredths of an
inch, on the scale of the mercurial ‘barometer.

As the bulk of the gas is altered by any change
that takes place in the temperature of the atmos-
‘phere, it is necessary to apply a correction on this
account. For this purpose the principal or barome-
‘tric scale mn, is made to slide upon another scale
op, placed either below it or on one side of it,
which is divided into degrees and parts, so as to re-
present the change of bulk in the gas produced by
achange of temperature under the same pressure,
-and corresponding to the degrees of a common Ther-
-mometer attached to the instrument. |

This scale is constructed in the same manner as
the scale of a common thermometer, by changing
the temperature of the bulb. while the pressure is
the same, and noting: range of the oil occasion-
ed by it.

In using the instrument, observe the temperature
by the thermometer, and set the index which is.up-
on the sliding Sympiesometer scale, opposite to the
degree of temperature upon the fixed scale; and
then the height of the oil, as indicated-on the slid-
ing scale, will be the pressure of the air required.

When the height of one place above another is
to be measured by the diminution of the pressure
of the atmosphere, another correction is necessary to

488 ACCOUNT OF.

Ansure perfect accuracy in all instruments indicating
this change, because the pressure of a column of air
of a given.altitude varies according to its humidity
.or moisture. .I have therefore added to the Sym-
piesometer a new Hygrometer, which is - afterwards
described in p. 492. rar

In some of the Sympiesometers whieh’ I hate
made, the scale is divided into parts corresponding
to the increase in bulk which takes place in. the gas,
by the diminished pressure of the atmosphere on as-
cending a given height, the temperature being 32°
of Fahrenheit. This scale is also formed by expe-
_ riment, as follows: The instrument being placed in
the glass-case as before described, increase the den-
sity of the inclosed air, until it support:a column of
quicksilver of 31 inches, the temperature being 32°.
Mark this point zero; then, from the logarithm of
31 substract .0100, and find the corresponding num-
ber, which is 30.294; regulate the density of the
air to. support a column of quicksilver of this length ;
number this point on the scale 100, and divide-the
space into 100 parts; each part will equal the in-
crease of bulk or fall of the oil in the tube by as-
cending one fathom. In the above manner proceed,
by subtracting .0100 from the logarithm last found,
and marking the points corresponding to these den-
sities, until the scale is complete. i"

By the above scale, the approximate height will
be given without the aid of a table of logarithms,
by subtracting the number of fathoms indicated by

THE SYMPIESOMETER. 489

the Sympiesdmeter, at the under station from that
indicated at the upper station, the difference being
the number of fathoms which the one station is

_ above the other. |
_ Previous to laying this instrument before the pu-
blic, I wished to have it submitted to a fair trial,
by comparing it with observations made in the same
ship with the Marine Barometer. For this pur-
pose Quintin Leitch, Esq. of Greenock, the proprie-
tor of the ship Buckinghamshire, obligingly sent one
of the first which I had made with this ship on her
voyage from the Clyde to the Kast Indies, in the
year 1816; and the following is the report given of
the instrument by the late Captain Christian, the
commander, on his return.
_ “Iam glad to say that I consider your Barome-

ter a valuable instrument at sea, having given it a
fair trial on the outward passage to India, by keep-
ing a correct register of it, as well as of the common
Marine Barometer, taken every third hour, night
and day, during the passage; and I not only found |
that it was fully as sensible of the changes of the
atmosphere as the other barometer, but that it had
a great advantage over all barometers I have ever
seen used at sea, namely, that of not being in the
smallest degree affected by the motion of the. ship,
which will often make the quicksilver in the com-
mon tube plunge, or rise and fall, in such a degree
as to make it very difficult to come within at least
one or two tenths of an inch of the truth, even in

490 ACCOUNT OF

the largest ships. On the passage home I also
found it very correct in the indication of ihe winds
and weather.”

An opportunity of trying the S yicppanibet in
a very different climate ocurred last year, when the
- Expedition under Captain Ross sailed to the Are-
tic Regions. Lieutenant Robertson of the Isabel-
la kindly undertook the charge of this instrument,
and regular observations were made every four
hours with the Sympiesometer and Marine Baro-
meter, the results of which were highly satisfactory.
The observation scommenced on the 24th of April,
in North latitude 51° 39’ and longitude 1° 7’ E. ; and
were continued to the latitude of 76° 50’ N., and du-
ring the return of the Expedition to Deptford till

the 13th of November. These observations, in the

form of a graphical representation of the progress of
the Sympiesometer and Marine Barometer, have
been published in Captain Ross’s Account of the
expedition, and will enable navigators to form a cor-
rect estimate of the relative value of the: tr. in-
Phioni Kea

The following is Captain Ross’s official report up-
on the Sympiesometer: —

“ This instrument acts as a marine. barometer,
and is certainly not inferior in its powers. “It has
also the advantages of not being affected by the
ship’s motion, and of taking up very ‘little ‘room i in

the cabin. Iam of opinion, that: the instrument —

:
‘
:
:
|
i

THE SYMPIESOMETER. 491

will supersede the Marine es aes when it is
better known.”

.Lieutenant Robertson, in a letter to the Hon-
nourable Captain Napier of Merchistoun, has
spoken of it in the following manner:

© The Sympiesometer is a most excellent instru-
ment, and. shews the weather far better than the
Marine Barometer. In short, the barometer is of
no use compared to it. If it has any fault, it is
that of being too sensible of small changes, which
might frighten a reef in when there was no occasion
for it; but, take it altogether, in my opinion it sur-
passes the mercurial barometer as much as the ba-—
rometer is superior to having none at all.”

I have also had it in my power to make trial of
the Sympiesometer on coasting voyages, through the
favour of my friend Mr Stevenson, engineer to the
Scots Lighthouse board, who placed one of them in
the cabin of the Lighthouse Yacht beside a good
marine barometer. Along with a register of both
instruments, extracted from the ship’s log-book, he
has’ favoured me with a communication, which
states, that, “after an experience of two years, the
Sympiesometer affords the most delicate and correct
indications of the weather ;” and that “ it is a great
favourite on board, being commodious even for the
smallest cabin, and | at sa same time easily read

off.” , | :

‘« The master, mate, and isan of the Light-
house Yacht, (Mr Stevenson adds,) give such ac-

492 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HYGROMETER.

counts of the utility and conveniency of the Sym-
plesometer, as are well calculated to recommend it to
the attention of those sailing in vessels of the smal-
lest burden. 1t is now in use in the service of the
Commissioners of the Northern Lights, on board
the Light-house Yacht, of 80 tons register, and the
Pharos, or Bell Rock Tender, of 45 tons.”

Il.—New Hygrometer.

In the winter of 1816, I made many trials of dif-
ferent substances, for the purpose of ascertaining
their hygrometric powers, in order, if possible, to find
one which should possess sufficient sensibility, and,
at the same time, not to be liable to change the ex-
tent of its contraction between the extremes of dry-
ness and humidity. Among the various substances
which I tried, those that changed their bulk in a
considerable degree by a change of humidity, were
Rottenstone, Chalk, unbaked Clay made very thin,
and Mountain Cork. Though, from the friable na-
ture of the three first, it was found difficult to use
them, yet I am of opinion, that they may be advan-
tageously employed in the construction. of hygrome-

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HYGROMETER. 495

ters, and there is reason to think that they will not
be subject to any alteration in their scales.

Charcoal, from its known durability, likewise pre-
sented itself as a proper substance for the above
purpose ; and it was found, upon trial, to be sensi-
bly hygrometric, although its range was very limit-
eth ont ,

Most of the above substances were formed into
hollow cylinders, and cemented to the end of ther-
mometer tubes; and their expansibility was tried
by filling the cylinder and tube with mercury, in
the usual manner.

But the substance which was found to possess by
far the most delicate sensibility, and extensive range,
was the internal membrane of the Arundo Phrag-
mites. A small bag, made of this membrane, is at-
tached to the lower end of a thermometer tube, so
as to form, as it were, its bulb. It is then nearly
filled with quicksilver, which rises and falls, in con-
sequence of the contraction and dilatation of the
membrane, by any change of moisture; and these
changes are indicated upon a scale attached to the
tube, the zero of this scale marking absolute humi-
dity, and the other extremity of the scale absolute
dryness. ‘I'he lower end of the glass tube, instead
of being merely inserted into the top of the bag,
may pass through it, the quicksilver in the bag
communicating with that in the tube by one or
more openings made through the sides of the tube.
By this means, the bag is supported by the glass,

494 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HYGROMETER.

and prevented from being injured by any slight ac-
cident; and the instrument is also less affected by
any change of temperature.

A convenient portable hygrometer may: w Hie nl
by employing aslip of this membrane, and attaching
its extremities to the end of a lever, somewhat like
the small pocket metallic thermometers. The ex-
ternal appearance of one of these instruments is
shewn at the bottom of the Patent Sympiesometer,
represented in Plate X XV. Fig. 1.

Although this membrane is not entirely free froth
the change to which all animal and vegetable sub-
stances are liable, yet hygrometers made of it pos-
sess a considerable degree of uniformity amongst
themselves; and, in point of sensibility, this’ mem-
brane exceeds every other substance that I have
met with,

hake i Weegee)

XXX VIL—Description of an I. nstrument jor
ascertaining the Specific Gravity of Bodies,
_ without the Use of Weights or Calculation.

- By Avexanper Ante, F.R.S.E.& M. W.S.

(Read 16th December 1820.)

"Tuts instrument isa simple lever of a square form,
balanced on a centre. One arm of the lever is
made considerably longer than the other, to allow a
greater range of division. On the long arm, a sli-
der and hook, A, (as represented in Plate XXIII.
Figure 1.,) moves freely; the upper part of the.
slider is opened, to show the divisions on the
upper surface of the lever; and there is-an index-
line in the centre of the opening. The divisions
are numbered from 1.1 up to 22; and each prime
division as far as 4, which is the useful part of
the scale, is subdivided into 10, and numbered
1.1, 1.2, &. The fixed cylindrical weight at the
extremity of the short arm is merely to counter-

496 NEW INSTRUMENT FOR

terpoise the long arm. Each division of the scale de-
notes the'portion of the arm which lies between it and
the extremity marked by the line S. G. (specific gra-
vity) ; and their place is found by dividing the whole
length of the arm from the centre to the line S. G.
by their numbers, so that the divison marked 4 will
be one-fourth from the extremity, 3 will be one-
third, &e. When the specific gravity of a body is
to be ascertained, it is to be suspended by a horse-
hair from the short arm, and moved along until it
is balanced ; the index on the slider having been
previously set to the line 8.G.; the body is now to
be immersed in water, and the equilibrium resto-
red by moving the slider towards the centre; the
number of the division on the scale opposite to the
index on the slider, will be the specific gravity of
the body required. Supposing the index to be be-
twixt the third and fourth small division from 2)5,
the specific gravity of the body will be 2.57, each
small division being equal to two hundredths.

Thus far the above instrument corresponds with
that already described by Dr B. H. Coates, in the
Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences at
Philadelphia. But the scale of this instrument be-
comes very minute,when the specific gravity exceeds4,
and almost uselessin higher numbers. In addition,
therefore, to the scale already described, there is
another scale on the side of the beam, numbered
from 0 to 1000, and divided into 500 equal parts ;

ASCERTAINING SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 497

these parts are again subdivided into 10, by a Ver-
neer scale on the slider, which divides the whole
length of the arm into 5000 parts. Near to the
extremity of the short arm, there is an additional cen-
tre and steel-hook, which convert the lever into the
common steelyard. To the hook a small weight is
suspended, to balance the beam when the index of
the verneer is at 0, the beginning of the scale; and
the slider is so regulated, that when it is moved to
the outer end of the scale marked 1000 grains, it
exactly balances 1000 grains weight, hung at the
hook of the short arm. From this arrangement, it
is evident, that the value of every division of the
verneer, will be equal to two-tenths of a grain ; and
each division of the scale itself, will be equal to
two grains. The substance of which the specific
gravity is to be found, must not exceed 1000 grains
in weight. It is to be suspended by a hair from
the hook at the short arm, and balanced by moving
the slider along the beam. Note the number on
the scale, as shown by the verneer ; suppose it to be
4.75, which is its weight in grains; the body is now
to be immersed in water in the usual way ; move the
slider towards the center, until it again equiponde-
rate: suppose the weight now indicated by the ver-
neer to be 290.8 grains, the first weight divided by
the difference of the two weights already found,
gives the S. G. being in this case 2.578. This
differs in nothing from the common method of
VOL. III. 11

498 NEW INSTRUMENT FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

finding specific gravities, except in its not requiring
the use of weights; and the advantage it possesses
over the former scale is, that it will give the spe-
cific gravity of platinum with as much accuracy as
that of the lightest mineral.

ws

iad he Bae Ny
Be by

CANAAN ame Suis 0 lg
Ath Dec. 1820. ait

N ature Bod rec of the Flame.

de i

By Joun Deucuar, M. W.S., P. A. R.P.S.;
Lecturer on Chemistry in Edinburgh.

a ( Read 10th February 1821.)

% i
ey Nie ; Pipi an
at, Ba, : i ay
a ea. ie jena on eb
v3 yea ape Pa:

I wave now to lay before the Society, a continua-
tion of the account of my experiments with Colo-
nel Yule’s apparatus for discharging ordnance.
Since last hazarding a few observations on this
curious subject, I have not been able to allot to it
that time which the investigation deserves; yet
still the facts at which I have arrived, may proba- '
bly justify the consumption of the Society’s time for
a little longer. From these facts 1 have endeavour-
ed to draw several conclusions with regard to the

112

500 APPARATUS FOR

source of the flame, and the nature of caloric in
general.

I. I first directed my attention to such experiments
as I thought most satisfactory im proving the ap-
plication of the apparatus to the firing of ordnance
of every description ; and for this purpose the fi irs
seven experiments have beer selected.

Experiment 1.—A piece of flannel was put over
the bottom of a tube 15 inches long (see Pl. XXTV.
fig. 1. B.), and immediately below, and close to it,
was tied two folds of paper, with a quantity of gun-
powder. Upon exploding a grain of the new ful-
minating powder at the top (A), the flame was for-
ced down the whole tube, and the gunpowder was
fired. When the gunpowder is wrapped in a single
piece of thin paper, it generally happens that the
flame forces through without firmg it. When this
takes place, the whole or a part of the gunpowder i is
scattered about, and the paper is rent asunder, with-
out any appearance of combustion.

Experiment 2.—A_ piece of flannel, as in the
first experiment, was put at the bottom of a tube
15 inches long, and below this was tied another
piece of flannel, containing gunpowder. Upon ex-
ploding the fulminating powder at the top, the
flame pierced the flannel, and inflamed the gun-
powder.

Both these experiments prove, that the flame of
the new fulminating powder can descend through

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ia | DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE, 500
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a tube 15 inches deep, pierce a piece of flannel, and

; fire gunpowder. And supposing the tube to re-

present the touch -hole of a gun, and the flannel and
gunpowder to be a substitute for the cartridge, then
mn would be discharged,
10ugh the cartridge were 15 inches distant from

| thes fulminating powder, which will never occur,
oa in the largest pieces of ordnance. An objec:
a tion, however, arises to the above conclusion; that
it may be owing to the tying being very close, and

the flame having no room to spread, that the. gun-
powder was inflamed in experiments first and -se-
cond, and that when applied to the gun the flame
may be lost over the surface of the cartridge. It

becomes necessary to answer this objection, and
this is done by the two following experiments.

Experiment 3.—A quantity of gunpowder was

‘scattered, over the jottom of a circular tin canister.

8 inches deep, and nearly 3

in dia Over the powder was laid a piece of
cartridge flannel. The tube (A B) was made to

descend into the canister, to within 2 inches of the
flannel; and then a grain of the fulminating pow-
der was exploded at the top. The result was quite
satisfactory, the flame pierced the loose ee and

fired the gunpowder.

Eaperiment 4.—A_ ‘tube 14 inches ‘long, 1 was

bent at the 10th inch Pon the top, so as to present

4 inches out of the straight line in which. the flame
ferment proceeded, and through which it must now

Ws

Ser te
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Be te

502 APPARATUS FOR

pass before it could issue from the under end. Up-
on exploding the powder as before, the flame issued
from the bent end of the tube. When this expe- ~
riment was tried with flannel, gunpowder, paper,
&e. at the bottom, several peculiar circumstances
presented themselves, which may induce me after-
wards to atest more capi the _
nomena.

Experiment 5.—In order to ascertain whether
the apparatus were apt to clog up, or miss firing
from repeated use, it was discharged for 130 suc- —
cessive times, and never failed to produce the pro-
per effect ; and still the apparatus ce not Pe:
to be cleaned for future use. : |

Experiment 6.—As it appeared of importance
to know the temperature at which the new fulmi-
nating powder would spontaneously explode, a num-
ber of experiments were made with it for that pur-
pose. In one of these there were placed ‘upon a
circular tin plate, at three situations, with 2 inches
intervening, forming, as it were, the points: of an
equilatural triangle, sulphur, gunpowder, | and the
fulminating mixture, one grain of each ; below the
centre of this triangle, there was a taper, the flame
of which was so near as to spread a little upon the
tin-plate. In one minute the sulphur began to
melt, and in 25 seconds more it was all melted;
at the end of 10 minutes, neither of the powders
appeared, to be altered, but nearly one-half of the

a

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 508

sulphur was converted into vapour; at this time
the plate was too hot to be touched by the hand.

Experimeut 7.—A grain of the fulminating
powder, and the same quantity of gunpowder, were
put upon a tin-plate, at 2 inches distance; and at
‘the centre below was put a spirit-lamp. The fol-
lowing is the result of the time of explosion in se-
veral trials.

Fulminating Powder. A ‘Gunpowder.

in 32 seconds. ‘in 46 seconds.
28 AA
95 —— Go ———
29 —— 62 ——
40, — mo—
45 85 ——
FT 0a 2 2
40 —— 60) (jee
Bd fe deers GO. pxient
60. - 92...

In obtaining these results, the distance at which
the spirit-lamp was put below the tin-plate some-
times varied considerably, but it was always so
near as to spread a little upon its surface. This,
however, so far accounts for the great difference
between the periods of explosion in the same pow-
der.

Eaperiment 8.—A. piece of cartridge flannel
was tied over the under part (B) of the tube, and

504 APPARATUS FOR

about one grain of the new powder was exploded
at the top (A). The flame was seen to dart
through the flannel. ‘The flannel, when examined
after the discharge, had not the slightest appear-
ance of having been scorched; it was, however,
blackened a little at the spot. icone which the
flame had passed. sage

Hixpermment 9.—The sth pee was re-
peated with several pieces of flannel at once. Af-
ter each discharge with the flannel doubled, the in-
terior piece was a very little scorched, but the ex-
terior one appeared as formerly.. When three
pieces of the flannel were put at the bottom of the

tube, the flame seemed with difficulty to pierce

them ; the interior flannel was more scorched than
took place with the two pieces only, and part was
entirely gone; the middle flannel was also slightly
scorched. When four pieces of flannel were used,
the interior two were much burnt, and the third a
little ; but the flame did not pierce through the
fourth piece. When this last was several times re-

peated in a very dark situation, there could not be |

discovered the slightest appearance of the flame at
the bottom of the tube. _ |

EHaperiment 10.— When two pieces of shin
coarse paper were put at the bottom of the tube
_ (B), and the powder was exploded as before, the
flame passed through, making a rent in the paper,
without burning it in the least. When the paper
was examined, it presented, on each side of the

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 505

hole, the separated threads, as if it had been torn
with the hand. When four pieces of paper were
used, the flame did not pass through them.
When paper and flannel were used at the same
time, it was found that the interior one was always
a little scorched.

From several of these results it would appear,
that when the flame proceeds with great velocity, its
power of acting upon inflammables or other substan-
ces is so prevented ; but wherever we, by any means,
retard that motion, we facilitate its action. In the
eighth experiment noticed, when one piece only of
flannel was used, the flame passed through without
scorching it; but we find, in the ninth experiment,
that as we add to the resistance by additional pieces
of flannel, we have the more of the scorched effect.
The same was illustrated in the tenth experiment,
when a piece of paper was put below one piece of
flannel, and when the flannel was put below the pa-
per. This was also proved by the phenomena of the
four first experiments.

Eaperiment 11.—Independent of the proposed
application of the apparatus, it appeared of consi-
derable importance to ascertain the distance to
which fiame could thus be propelled. On this ac-
count I affixed to the apparatus a tube 26 inches
long ; after numerous trials with this, and with
tubes of decreasing lengths, I found that no flame
appeared at the bottom, till the tube was shortened

506 APPARATUS FOR

to 23% inches, and then it appeared very feeble, and
of a pale blue colour.

Experiment 12.—The next circumstance which
seemed. to claim inquiry, was the distance at which
the flame could explode the gunpowder. When
the gunpowder was put immediately in contact
with the lower aperture of a tube 232 inches long,
it was fired; but when a piece of flannel interven-
ed it was not acted upon. Thus it appeared, that
although the flame, at 23 inches distance from the
source of its production, could inflame a quantity
of powder, yet it had not force enough to pierce
even one piece of flannel. The tube was now gra-
dually shortened, and trials made at each change,
till it was reduced to between 19 and: 20 inches,
when it fired the gunpowder through the flan-
nel. pis :

I have repeated more extensively the experi-
ments with wire-gauze, which I noticed at a former
meeting ; and although it often happens that a
part of the finest kind is forced away or rent asun-
der by the flame, I find I was mistaken in my last
paper, when I imagined that the flame could not
pass through without injuring the texture of the
gauze.

_ The first trials iia wire-gauze were wiudle very
hurridly; but the chief mistake arose from using
_ the gauze upon the assurance of the manufacturer,
that it was the same as used in thesafety lamp, with-

- DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 507

out myself counting the number of meshes which it
contained.

The five following experiments are meant to re-
move any misconception on this part of the investi-
gation. I have confined my notices to two kinds of
gauze ; the one considerably coarser than the other.
A square inch of the coarser gauze contained 1296
meshes, being 36 wires in the length ; and the same
quantity of the finer gauze contained 4900 meshes
in the square, being 70 wires in the length. Now,
upon examining two of Sir Humphry Davy’s lamps,
one for magnetic purposes with copper gauze, and
another for common work with iron gauze, I find,
that an inch of the gauze of the former contains
only 26 meshes in the length, and 676 in the
square ; and that the gauze of the latter contains
28 meshes in the length, and 784 in the square ;
shewing, that even the coarsest wire-cloth which I
have used, is finer than what is employed in the
safety lamp; and that my results acquire additional
strength in proving, that the wire-gauze is not im-
pervious to the flame extricated by the explosion of
the fulminating powder.

Experiment 13.—A tube, which could be sepa-
rated into six pieces of nearly the same length, was
screwed to the apparatus, making the distance from
the top (A) to the bottom, fully 23 inches. A
piece of the coarser wire-gauze already described,
was put upon the hole at the joining a, when the
fulminating powder was exploded at A, the flame

508 APPARATUS FOR THE |

passed through the gauze, and appeared at the bot-
tom of the tube. The same kind of wire-gauze was
next placed at a and b, and then at a, b and c, at
the same time; and the flame passed through all
the pieces. This effect was also obtained, when si-
milar pieces of wire-gauze were put. at all the five
_joinings of the tube at once. In this last result,
the first piece of wire-gauze was 44 inches from the
top (A); the second 84; the third 12; the fourth
16; and the fifth 20; and the flame appeared at
the bottom, after a passage of 23% inches through
five pieces of the wire-cloth.

Experiment 14.—As J could not get the flame
to pass through the whole of the tube, when I en-
creased the joinings beyond 233 inches, it was im-
possible to try an additional number of pieces of
wire-gauze, by adding them in the same way. I
therefore increased the number, by putting more
than one at the same joining. I found, upon re-
peated trials in this way, using the tube 15 inches
long, as shewn on Plate XXIV. Fig. 1. that the
flame could pass through 3, 6, 9 and 12 pieces at
once ; these being placed 1, 2, 3 and 4 pee at
each of the joinings a, b, and c.

Eaperiment 15.—Although, by the two last ex-
periments, it was proved that the flame could pass
through the coarser wire-gauze when increased even
to 12 pieces, yet it did not follow that it was not
thereby altered somewhat in its nature. A probable
change was, that it might become innert with re-

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 509

gard to inflammables, as takes place in the several
safety lamps, and particularly that of Sir Humphry
Davy. Several experiments were tried, to ascer-
tain if this suggestion were correct; first, the wire-
gauze was putat a; then at aand 0; and lastly, at
a,b and c; placing at the same time, during each
trial, a quantity of gunpowder in a piece of flannel
at the bottom of the tube; and in all of these I
found the gunpowder to be inflamed, and the wire-
gauze not to be in the least injured.

Eaperwment 16.—I next tried the result of firing
the fulminating powder, with the finest wire-gauze
placed first at a, then at a and 6, and then at a, 5b
and c, and found that the flame still appeared at the
bottom (B) ; shewing that the gauze, although much
finer than that used in Sir Humphry Davy’s safe-
ty lamp, was not impervious to this flame. In some
of the experiments I found a hole had been made
in the centre of the wire-gauze, and sometimes the
parallel wires were forced wider. This was very
often the case, when a piece of wire-gauze was put
at all the joinings, a, b and c, and then it was the
gauze at a which was torn, or otherwise injured.

Experiment 17.--In order to ascertain if the
flame still remained unaltered, notwithstanding its
having passed through the finest gauze, a quantity
of gunpowder in flannel was affixed to the bottom of
the apparatus, and it was inflamed through one, two,
and even three pieces of the gauze. Here the same
oceasional appearance, noticed in the last experi-

510 APPARATUS FOR THE

ment, deshieidy with regard to the oe piece of
wire-gauze. |

II. When we look for the cause of these phenome-
na there are two explanations which at once suggest
themselves. The one, ascribing the whole to elec-
tricity ; and the other, to condensed caloric.

The circumstances which lead to the electrical
explanation of the phenomena, are, |

1st, The rapidity of the result. This takes place
before the least vibration is conveyed to the under
end, as is proved by the following experiment.

Experiment 18.--A tin cup, loosely fitted to
the bottom of the tube, was filled with gunpowder,
and a quantity of the fulminating powder was ex-
ploded in the usual way at the top; in this case,
the motion of the flame was so instantaneous with
the percussion, that the gunpowder was fired be-
fore the vibration from the blow could act upon the
tin-cup. This was tried in various other way with
the same result.

2dly, The colour of the flame much woe
electric light. It is slightly bluish. |

_ 8dly, There being some similarity in the darting
of the light from the bottom of the tube, and the
passing of an electric spark from a discharge. _

_Athly, The odour resembling some of those which
arise from actions which have often been called
electrical. And,

ee AO nn

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 511

5thly, The fulminating powder employed, con-.
taining an electric, which we were entitled to sus-
pect had been brought into rapid excitation by the
percussion.

Such, then, being the corresponding appearances
of the electric fluid and the flame in question, a
number of experiments were tried, with the view of
either establishing or overturning this apparent
identity. As the results were all unfavourable to
the electric theory, I shall content myself with stat-
ing only three of them.

Experiment 19.—A_ brass chain was fixed, so
as to unite the tube with the ground; under this
arrangement, were the flame electric, it must have
been conveyed silently by means of the chain to
the ground ; but this did not take place: the flame
still continued to dart forward as formerly at each
discharge.

Experiment 20.—W hen, again, a tube, 30 inches
in length, was attached to the apparatus, I found,
that the discharges of the fulminating powder did
not force the flame to the bottom of that tube. Now,
had this been the electric fluid, it should have pas-
sed along any length of tube with equal facility.

Experiment 21.—A. chain was attached to the
tube of the apparatus when its length was varied ;
and this chain was made to communicate with a
Leyden phial. After several trials, during each of
which repeated discharges of the fulminating powder
were made to pass into the tube, it was found, that

512 APPARATUS FOR THE

there was not the slightest indication of the presence
of electric fluid in the Leyden phial. _
; PG! OE

Having found that the first hypothesis does not
hold true, we are led to adopt the second, which as-
cribes the phenomena to condensed caloric...

Under this view of the subject, we have a more
complicated agent to trace. In the electric theory, —
we had only one source of the fluid, in an ingredi-
ent of the fulminating powder, and we had ready
tests for its nature and presence: but we have vari-
ous sources from which the caloric may arise; and
our means for ascertaining its nature and presence
are sometimes rather inconclusive. In the present
case the caloric may arise from one or more of five
different sources.

1. It may be disengaged from the fulminating

powder, by a change of capacity induced by the blow
of the hammer; or probably from a_ partial decom-
position of the union of the substances with their
natural caloric. |

2. It may arise from the combustion of the ingre-
dients of the powder, in contact iaain the compress-
ed air.

3. The air of the tube may give out caloric, being
condensed by the gasseous bodies liberated at the
top. 1

4. The air in the cap at the top of the tube, may
give out caloric, when compressed between the cap

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 513

in the one direction, and the gaseous ingredients of
the powder in the other direction. And,

5. The caloric may arise from the rapid move-
ment of the gaseous substances along the brass
‘Such are the probable sources from which the ca-
loric may be derived ; and we may admit that they
all so far unite to disengage it.

But, again, vdien we sitesidies the nature of the
caloric, the simplicity of the electric fluid is also
lost. The condensed caloric may be attached to some
disengaged gaseous fluid; it may proceed by vi-
brations; or it may exist by itself, quite distinct
for the momentary period of its being visible, as it
were in an insulated form, somewhat analogous to

From the various results I have obtained in my
experiments, and particularly in those undertaken
for the express purpose, I am rather inclined to
adopt the last of these conjectures regarding the
state in which the caloric exists during its rapid
movement. It would be encroaching too much on
the time of the Society, to detail the whole of the
experiments which seem to prove this. I shall
therefore content myself with one which, of anh
seems conclusive.

Experiment 22.—W hen we put a piece of tinder
into a condensing syringe, and force down the pis-
ton, the tinder is inflamed; from this fact I con-
cluded, that in the case of Colonel Yule’s appara-

VOL, III. Kk

514 APPARATUS FOR

tus, were the flame accompanied by moving air, or
were it the result. or quality of compressed ait, it
would inflame a piece of tinder put in any of the
joinings of the tube: I therefore repeatec ly tried
the experiment, using the finest German tinder,
_ but no inflammation took place. To render the
experiment more complete, I tried if the flar
would act upon the tinder when in contact with ‘the
air at the bottom of the tube, and found. that it
did so.

From this conclusion, if allowed to be correct,
we have an additional argument, did the state’ of
the question require it, for the moa» of ca-
lone 3 + hig dia

| | ne

£ Hleicelinacins 23.—I tried to collect some of the
air at the bottom of the tube, both in a water and a
mercurial trough, but found that not above two or
three bubbles of it could be obtained at each dis-
charge,—too small a quantity to arise from the ful-
minating powder. I have not yet collected enough
to ascertain its nature; it is very likely that it may
be a little of the air of the tube forced out by the
rapid movement of the flame, and the pressure of
the expansion which occurs at the top.

Edinburgh, 9th February 1821.

Conchision of the Bixperiments upon the Nature
of Flame ; to which are added several sugges:
‘is tions for future Inquiry:

MRE Gee Bi
Uae af (fat

WV HEN first I offered a few remarks upon the
experiments performed with the new fulminating
powder, I promised to examine the cause of the
various phenomena which I then stated had occur-
red, with the view of laying the whole before the
Society. I have already done so with regard to all
the experiments, except those which exhibited the
very unexpected result of the flame occasionally
passing through some gunpowder without firing it.
I have now; therefore, to notice more fully this cir-
eumstance:

| Haperinient 24.—I1 have repeated the experi-
ments mentioned in my former paper, which pre-
sented this curious result of the flame passing
through a quantity of gunpowder placed at a, b,
orc, without inflaming it. ‘The result, however, is
by no means regular in its occurrence ; sometimes
I found it to succeed in three successive trials; at
other times I have failed four or five times before F
Kk2

516 APPARATUS FOR

have produced the effect. In all these cases I
careful to make the powder cover the whole tdiaee
of the piece of flannel upon which it was poured.
This variety of effect seems to take place from some
accidental circumstances, which have as yet. escaped
my notice. At some times I have apparently suc-
ceeded best when I used gunpowder, the grains a :
which were large, and at other times again the
small-grained gunpowder was most uniform.

_ The principal cause we may adduce for the pow-
der remaining uninflamed, under the above circum-
stances, is the rapid motion of the flame. We are
entitled to draw this conclusion from lie pheno-
mena which occurred in the Ist, 8th, and 10th expe-
riments ; in these we found that the flame did n r

act upon the substances through which it passed,

when the resistance was feeble. But in the 9th and
10th experiments, when the resistance to which it
was opposed was increased, then its effect upon the
substances was more apparent. ‘The same change
of effect seems also to take place with regard to
the gunpowder; when the resistance is increased,
the powder is always inflamed, and the apparent
inertness only takes place when the motion of the
flame is left almost wholly free. ‘The failure of
effect alluded to in several of the trials in the 24th
experiment, may have occurred from the flannel ha-
ving been too thick and compact, or from too large a
body of flame having passed down. the tube at one
discharge.

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 517

’ Another cause may be assigned for the gunpow-
der at the joinings a, b or c, remaining uninflamed,
There is scarcely any air contained in the space.
a, b orc; the flannel and gunpowder nearly fill the
whole, so far as the tube is unscrewed, and the tube
itself contains little air. Now, a certain quantity
of air may be necessary to enable the caloric, in the
insulated and condensed form in which we may >
assume it to jexist during this rapid motion, to
display fully its usual effects upon substances.
When this supply of air is not present, then the
caloric passes through the gunpowder and other
substances, without inflaming, or otherwise affecting
them ; but when we put resistance at the bottom
B, we facilitate the concentration of the air con-
tained in the tube, and therefore promote the ac-
tion ; or when we leave a quantity of air at a, b, or
¢, we in like manner assist the inflammation.
fe ae he above explanation will appear in a still clearer
point of view, when we consider the nature of those
affinities which often take place between bodies,
when in a nascent state, although every attempt
has failed to unite them, after they have assumed
their separate forms. The same may occur with
regard to flame. When propelled in an insulated
form, it may not act upon inflammables placed at a
distance from the point of its disengagement ; but,
when it meets with resistance, in contact with such
substances, or when it is presented to them in its
nascent state, then its full energy may be displayed,

‘

818 APPARATUS FOR

ial Ais.
played, were it to carry long with it, ve quand of

through the tube and a air in a sepatate fort ae
But, upon the whole, we must allow it to hi a,

subject of considerable obscurity, and, further trials

may be necessary properly to elucidate the cause,

Te concluding this stilt re may iad; a Seiiex:,
‘ periments, the result of which I have not yet. been
able to examine with sufficient care. I state them,
therefore, as suggestions for. iyiure cpamination,

It has been found in exjiedights Il and 14, that
the flame does not pass through a tube above 23% in-
ches long. Now, this may be explained, either upon
the supposition that the ealoric is merely a property
of a quantity of air or gas, which i is forced. along the
tube by the explosion; or upon the hypothesis I
have suggested, that the flame exists so fa 3
dent of the air, and is rather, for the short
its motion, im an insulated form. Tf hold the
first of these to be correct, then we will be inclined
to maintain, that the flame ceased to appear at the.
bottom of a longer tube, because the velocity of the
air was exhausted before it could reach that poin nt,
and that, therefore, its excess of caloric was given
out to the interior of the tube. Tf, again, we adopt
the second Ol ieoaiin premuily a ma tigity of

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 519

caloric, then we will maintain that the flame,
though capable of insulation to a certain extent,
yet has a strong attraction for all kinds of matter,
and has a tendency to extend itself from particle to
particle of such bodies as come in contact with it.
Its particles, too, have a strong repulsion for each
other, and facilitate the diffusion. Hence as we
lengthen the tube, we increase the surface of attrac-
tion, till we entirely diffuse the flame. It is so far
favourable to this supposition, that air does not be-
come luminous, when united with a great quantify
of caloric; and it has even been observed, that air
has remained invisible, although heated to such a —
degree as to inflame substances upon which it was
allowed to act. The following experiments seem
calculated to elucidate one or other of these theo-
ries with regard to caloric.

EKaperiment 25.—Let a tube be affixed to the
apparatus, of such a length only as just admits
of the flame passing out at the bottom. Let the
interior be made quite resplendent, by wiping away
the smoke, moisture, &c. from its surface. Let a
given weight of the fulminating powder, say exactly
one grain, be used at each trial, and regulate the
blow as well as possible, that it may be nearly of the
same force each time. Examine, in several dis-
charges, cleaning the interior of the tube each time,
if the flame passes through the whole length, and
appears at the bottom. Then try the following:

520 _ APPARATUS FOR

_ Haperiment 26.—Take the same tube used in
the last experiment, and let the inner surface of it
be blackened by means of smoke, or any other sub-
stance. Let the same quantity, one grain, of the
fulminating powder, be discharged by a similar stroke
to that given in the previous trials; and observe if
the flame still issues from the bottom of the whole
of the tube. If it does not appear, gradually shorten
the tube, till the flame is seen to dart from the bot-
tom. This will shew if the difference be great. The
tube must be cleaned, and again baae for hires
trial.

Laxperiment 27.—Take a tube, she interior re-
splendent, of the greatest length that will allow the
flame to force its way through a piece of paper, tied
tight upon the bottom. Try the effect repeatedly
with one grain of the fulminating powder, observing
if the flame dart through the paper.

Haperiment 28.—Let the tube used in the 27th
experiment be blackened in the interior, and then
discharge one grain of the powder, as before, with
a piece of paper at the bottom. In this case we are
to observe if the same result still takes place, or if ©
the paper now remains whole.

Now, should the result of these experiments shew
that the flame uniformly passes through a longer re-
splendent tube, than it does through a blackened
one, and that the paper at the bottom is not torn
when the interior of the long tube is blackened,
then we have a strong argument in favour of the

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE. 521

materiality of the flame, independent of the air.
The ear surface reflects the flame, and, therefore,
does not retard its motion; the blackened surface
absorbs the flame, and therefore retards its motion :
but the air is affected nearly in the same degree by
both surfaces; therefore, it should produce the same
mechanical effects upon the paper at the bottom,
whether the interior be resplendent or blackened.
If the flame passes through the same length of the
tube, without any regard to the colour of the sur-
face, then we may maintain that it is the power of
the combination that prevents the flame leaving the
air, to display its natural character of absorption by
a black surface ; at the same time also, the velocity of
the flame itself may have a tendency to retain it in an
insulated form. But if we find, that, by blackening
the inner surface, we stop the progress of the flame,
we are entitled to assume, even although the air
still pass from the bottom of the tube and tear the
paper, that there has here been a quantity of free
caloric passing along, quite independent of the quan-
tity retaining in the constitution of the air. But,
again, if we find, upon trying Experiments 27, and
28, that the paper at the bottom is torn, at a great-
er distance from the top, when the interior is re-
splendent than takes place when it is blackened,
then we have it clearly shewn that the flame has
been producing these effects in an insulated form ;
for had the tearing of the paper been the effect of
the motion of a quantity of air, then we should have

529 APPARATUS FOR

expected no change oferasal: ae salle place, whether
the surface were black or resplendent. ‘ a;

Experiment 29.—Let a tube be taken of the
~ greatest length that will admit the flame to pass en
tirely through it. Add to this as much more tube
as will prevent the flame appearing at the bottom :
try if, by discharging a grain of the powder, a piece
of paper tied over the under part will be torn ; if it
be not torn, then heat as much of the tube as can
be conveniently done, and discharge as before the
same quantity of powder; and observe if the flame
be now forced through a longer tube than it was be-
fore, when the tube was cold.

Should this last experiment prove to us, “ that
the flame will pass through a longer hot tube than
it will through a cold one,” then we have the possi-
bility of the caloric existing in a free independent
state, still more strikingly shewn. We have here
taken a tube so long that the air cannot pass to the
bottom of it; the air stops merely because the
power of its motion is exhausted, by the opposition
of the air in the tube; there is no attraction of ab-
sorption or any other nature exerted, which could
be weakened by applying heat. But, on the, other
hand, all matter has a tendency to receive caloric,
and the lower the temperature is the more is this
tendency encreased ; therefore, when a tube which,
at a low temperature, does not admit the flame to.

DISCHARGING OF ORDNANCE, 323

pass through, is heated, the surrounding powers of
attraction are weakened, and the flame is enabled
to proceed ta a greater distance.

Although I have thus for the present brought
this curious investigation to a close, yet should any
other important circumstances connected with the
apparatus, occur at a future period, I shail not. hesi-
tate ta fulfil my duty to the Society, by laying the
whole before them, - :

R4th February 1823

, A 4 ‘ bs

eee
a Wes oO

aay y

&

( 525 )

APPENDIX.
HISTORY
| be i
SOCIETY.
vt al from Vol. II. p. 662.)

—__———

Tus Secretary read a communication from Mr
Alexander Hood, surgeon in Kilmarnock, giving a
more particular description of the Fossil Tusks, &c.
found in tirring a sandstone quarry in the parish of
Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, mentioned at the meeting of
7th June last, accompanied with a part of one of
the tusks, which he presented to the Society,

Professor Jameson read a paper on the Geognos-
tical Characters of Simple Minerals, and on the
Vegetable Origin of the Diamond, in particular
cases. ‘The Secretary read a communication from
Mr Butter, surgeon, shewing that the Change of
_ Plumage in the Females of some Geallinaceous
Birds, to that which resembles the Males, depends
on age only.

1517."
Dec. 20,
Mr Hood’s |
Account of

the Fossil
Elephant of
Ayrshire.

1818.

Jan. 10.
Professor
Jameson on
the Geognos-
tic Charac-
ters of
Gems, &c.
Mr Butter
on Female
Galline as-
suming Male
Plumage.

isis.

Jan. 24,
Mr James
Wilson on
the Early
State of the
Tadpole.
Mr Adie’s
newly con=
trived Inz
strument
hamed Sym-
piesometer,
described

18is.
Feb. 7.
Dr Traill’s
Account of
the Orang
Outang of
Afr

1818.
Feb. 21.
Conclusion
of Dr Traill’s
Account of
the Orang
Outang.

526 | APPENDIX:

The Seeretary read a communication from Jaines
Wilson, Esq. on the Karly State of the Tadpole,
shewing its connection with the globular egg, by
means of a filament, analogous to an umbilical cord:
Mr Adie afterwards exhibited and explained his
new instrument called thes Sympiesometer, or Mea-
suret of Compression ; in. which the moveable co:
lumn consists of oil, enclosing, in a glass tube, a
portion of azote, which changes its bulk according
to the density of the atmosphere. A sliding scale
is attached, to ascertain the temperature.

The Secretary read 4 ¢otmmunicationi from Dr
Traill of Liverpool, giving an account of the Disa
section of a specimeii of the Orang Outang of Africa;
which died lately at Liverpool, illustrated with
drawings, and containing also some notices concern:
ing 3 its manners and habits during the voyage.

The L Media read the remaindet of Dr Traill’s
account of the Orang Outang. Mr Bullock of
London being present, exhibited a specimen of the
Anser ruficollis; shot neat Berwick ; being the first

- known instance of the occurrence of that bird in

Britain, during the last thirty years. At the same
meeting, a valuable collection of the Ferns of Tris-
tan d’Acunha was presented by Captain Car-

michael, who had himself gi them on that -

remote island. -

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 527

The Secretary read a notice concerning a new
animal, allied to the Goat and Sheep, which in-

habits the Stony Mountains to the south-west of.

Hudson’s Bay, two skins of which were some time

pol rg to Professor Jameson by Mr Auld of

irchhill Fort, , Hudson’ Bay; together with a

m Mr Laurie, on the quality of the wool

which coves eos prt of the animal. Professor

Jameson then communicated to the Society a series

of new views concerning the formation of Mountains

and Valleys on the surface of the earth, on the ge-
neral principles of Crystallization.

The Secretary read a report from Mr Thomas
Laurie, relative to the fleece of the Rocky Moun-
tain Sheep, sent from Hudson’s Bay by Mr Auld.
Also a communication from Captain Carmichael, of
notices connected with the Natural History of Birds
and Fishes, observed in warm latitudes, and a Re-
gister of the Temperature of the Sea and Atmo-
sphere, kept in a voyage from the Cape of Good
Hope to Bengal, and back again. Professor Jame-
son then communicated to the Society, some re-
marks on the probable state of the Polar Ice,
founded on the observations of Captain Scoresby,
and on the paramount pretensions of that scientific
navigator to the consideration of the Government
of the country in the projected voyage of discovery
to the North Pole. Mr Bullock exhibited to the
Society, a specimen of the Rose-coloured Thrush,

1818, -

March 7.
Secretary’s —
Report on-
the Stony
Mountain
Sheep ; and
Professor
Jameson on
the Forma-
tion of
Mountains
and Valleys
by Crystalli-
zation,’

1818.
March 21.

Mr Laurie’s
Report on
Rocky
Mountain
Sheep.

Captain Car-
michael,
Natural His-
tory No-

_ tices, and

Journal of
Tempera-
ture of Sea
and Air,

Professor
Jameson on
the Polar
Ice.

Specimen of
the Rese-
coloured

Thrush,
caught at
Hoy in Ork-
ney.

1818.
April 4,
Captain
Scoresby’s
Account of a
New Magne-
tical Instru-
ment 3; and
Dr Fleming
on the Tran-
spiration of
Dew-like
“Drops on
leaves of
Corn.

. 1818.
April 18.

Mr Steven- .

son on Fill-
ing up of
Fresh-water
Lakes.

A Commit-
tee appoint-
ed to meet
with the Di-
rectors of the
Highland
Society, in
regard to the
introduction
of the Rocky
Mountain
Sheep into-
Scotland.

|

528 APPENDIX.

Turdus roseus, (the female,) taken by Mr Hamilton
of Hoy, 3 in Orkney, 3 in his hoe 5 a ee of

starlings.

_ The Secretary read an abstract. f ¢
Captain Scoresby to Professor Jam
account of an instrument for shewing .
tude, founded on a hitherto unknown principle in
Magnetism. Also a notice from Dr Fleming of
Fisk, relative to the Drops of Moisture observe
on the tops of the leaves of young shoe ae of Corn,
which have generally been considered as Dew, but
which Dr Fleming shewed to be a pt transpired
by the plant.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr
Stevenson, civil engineer, on the Encroachment. of
the Water of Loch Lomond, and other fresh water ©
Lakes, on their banks, and the tendency to fill up
in the middle. Likewise an extract of a letter
from Mr Bald, now at Newcastle, describing some
of the Collieries there, and illustrating the import-
ance and efficacy of the Wire-gauze Safety-Lamp.
A report by Mr Laurie on the Rocky Mountain
Sheep having been presented, the following gentle-
men were appointed a committee to communicate
with the Directors of the Highland Society of
Scotland, and to request their attention to the
importance of endeavouring to introduce a breed
of the animal into this country, and their assistance

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 529°

in effecting this object, viz. Robert Stevenson, Esq. ;
Dr Barclay; C. 8. Monteith, Esq. of Closeburn ;
and David Falconar, Esq. of Carlowrie.

Professor Jameson read a communication from
Dr Fleming, describing the Rocks in the vicinity
of Spe |

Professor Jameson read a communication from
Dr Grierson of Cockpen, on the Casts or Petrifac-
tions of Trees found in the Sandstone of the Coal
Formation in Mid- Lothian, illustrated with speci-
mens and sketches.

Professor Jameson communicated to the Society
an account of the Series of Rocks which cccur on
the south-east coast of Fife, between Macduff’s Cave
and the Ely; with notices of particular appearances
in their disposition and arrangement.

Professor Jameson communicated to the Society
an account, illustrated by specimens, of the Geog-
nostic Structure of the chain of hills stretching be-
tween Table Bay and False Bay, at the Cape of
Good Hope, by Dr Adams.

Captain Scoresby read a paper on the size of the
Mysticetus or Greenland Whale, shewing that this
animal is found in the present day of equal dimen-
sions as in former times. Mr Sivright communi-

VOL. III. 14k

1818.
May 2.
Dr Fleming
on the Rocks

of Cork.

1818.
May 16.
Dr Grierson -
on Petrifac-
tion in Sand-
stone of Coal

Formation.

1818.

May 30.
Professor
Jameson on
the Rocks of
the Ely in
Fifeshire.

1818.
Nov. 21.
Dr Adams
on the Geos —
logy of the
Cape of
Good Hope

r

1818.
Dec. 19.
Captain
Scoresby on
the Size of
the Green-
land Whale;

and Mr Siv-

right on Glos.

bules of Air
and Water
in Topaz,
&e.

1819,

Jan. 9.
Professor
Jameson on
the Geogno-
sy of the
Grampians.

Jan. 23.
Dr Hibbert
on the Rocks
of Shetland.

Feb. 6.
Continua-
tion of Pro-
fessor Jame-
son’s Geog-
nosy of the
Grampians..

Feb. 20.
Continua-
tion of Dr
Hibbert’s
Geognosy of
Shetland.

March 6.
Mr Camp-
bell on the
Living Prin-
ciple ; and
contin, of Dr
Hibbert on
the Geog. of

Shetand.

March 20.
Dr Brewster
on the Optic.
Prop, of Mi-
nerals $ and
Dr Hibbert’s
contin. of the
Geognosy of
Shetland.

530° APPENDIX.

cated to the Society a notice respecting the frequent
occurrence of Globules of Air and Water in Scotch
Topaz, Heavy-spar, wc. peey

Professor Jameson read the first part of an ac-

count of the Geognostic Structure of the Gram-
pians.

Dr Hibbert read to the Society his Observations
on the Stratification of the Shetland Islands.

Professor Jameson continued his Mineralogical
Account of the range of the Grampian Mountains,
illustrating his descriptions by numerous sections
of the country.

Dr Hibbert read the second part of his account
of the Geognosy of the Shetland Islands, consisting
chiefiy of observations on the Relations of the Quartz

and Sandstone of the Western part of the country.

Mr Campbell of Carbrook read a paper on the
Gradations in the Seale of Being, and particularly
on the Living Principle. Dr Hibbert read a pa-
per on the Serpentine District of Shetland, —

Professor Jameson read a communication by Dr

Brewster, on the Optical Properties of Minerals.

Dr Hibbert read the continuation of his Account.
of the Geognosy of Shetland.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 531

The Secretary read a communication from Cap-
tain Scoresby, on the Means of overcoming some of
the Difficulties to Discoveries in the Arctic Seas:
and Dr Hibbert gave a description of the Sienite
District of Shetland, in continuation of his general
aecount:of the Geognosy of these Islands.

Dr Hibbert gave an account of the Granite and
Sandstone Districts of Shetland; and completed his
view of the Geognosy of these Islands, by some re-
marks on Papa Stour.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr
Stewart, containing remarks on the Germination of
some kinds of Cryptogamous Plants, and a list of
some of the rarer Cryptogamous Plants which have
been.lately found in the neighbourhood of Edin-
burgh, Likewise a description, illustrated by draw-
ings, of the Fossil Remains of a Cetaceous Ani-
mal found in slate-clay near Wibuthy, by the Reve-
rend George Young.

The Secretary read a memoir regarding the Evi-
dence of the Existence of the Beaver as a native
Quadruped of Scotland in former ages: and Mr
Bald read a paper on the Form of the Coal Forma-
tion in Great Britain, illustrated by numerous sec-
tions and specimens.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr
Stewart, Lecturer on Botany, giving an account of
L12

1819.

April 3.
Captain
Scoresby on
Overcoming
Difficulties
to Discove-
ries in the
Arctic Seas 3
and Dr Hib-
bert’scontin.
of his Acount
of Shetland.

April 10.
Conclusion
of Dr Hib-
bert’s Geog-
nosy of Shet-
land.

April 24.
Mr Stewart

on the Ger-

mination‘of
Cryptoga-
mous Plantss
and Rev. Mr
Young ona
Fossil Ani-
mal found
at Whitby. _

May 1.
Mr Neill on |
the former
existence of.
the Beaver
in Scotland $
and Mr Bald
on the Coal
Fortnation.

Dec. 1 kh
Mr Stewart.
on Buxbau..
Tia aphyl-

la ; and M
Stevensonon
the Forma-
tion of Hol-
sand.

Dec. 29.
Professor
Jameson on
the Rocks of
Sandside ;
and Mr J.
Murray on

the Lumino-

sity of the
Sea.
1820.
Jan. 15,
Mr Trevel-
yan on the
Rocks of

Bamborough’

Mr Butter
on the
Change of
Plumage of
Female
Birds. Prof.
Jameson on
Change of
Plumage on
the approach
of Winter.

Jan, 29.
Professor
Jameson on
Whin-dikes3;
and on the
Spines on
the Wings
of Birds..

532 APPENDIX.

his having found and examined many specimens of
the rare moss Buxbaumia aphylla, and giving rea-
sons for believing it to be a plant of longer duration
than botanists have hitherto thought. Likewise a
paper by Mr Stevenson, on the Original Formation
of the Land now constituting the territory of the
United Dutch Provinces.

Professor Jameson read an account of the Rocks
of Sandside in Sutherland, and illustrated the de-
scription by sections and specimens: and a paper
on the Luminosity of the Sea, by Mr John Murray, |
Lecturer on Chemistry, was read.

Professor Jameson laid before the Society, a no-
tice of some of the Mineralogical appearances at
Bamborough Castle, communicated by Mr Trevelyan
of Wallington. Mr Butter read a communication
on the Change of Plumage which is sometimes ob-
served in aged Female Birds, to that of the Male,
being a supplement to the paper formerly read by
him on the same subject. Professor Jameson read
a short paper on the Mode in which the Change of
Colour in some Birds is accomplished on the ap-

proach of winter.

Professor Jameson communicated to the Society,,
his observations on the Similarity frequently exist-
ing between what are called Whin-dikes, and Veins
and Beds of Quartz and Sandstone, illustrating them

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 533
by sketches. He likewise communicated a short
notice regarding the Spines to be observed on the
fifth bone of the wings of the Water-rail, Coot,
Water-hen, and some other water birds; the notice
being accompanied by an exhibition of specimens.

Dr Yule laid before the Society, a notice regard-

ing a collection of rare Plants, in a living state, re-
ceived from Dr Wallich of Calcutta; and on the
means of Transporting Plants and Seeds safely from
distant tropical countries. Professor Jameson read
a paper on Rocks formed by mud-volcanoes, hot
springs, &c.

Dr Dewar read a paper on the Mode of Nutri-
tion of the Hair, Feathers, and Nails of Animals.
Professor Jameson read:a letter from Dr Boué, con-
taining an account of the Resemblance of the Rocks
of Auvergne and the Vivarais, to some of those in
this country.

Mr Stewart read ‘a paper describing a collection
of Cryptogamous Plants chiefly received from North
America. Professor Jameson communicated his
reason for differing from the Volcanists in their
views in regard to the formation of 'Trap-rocks.

The Secretary read the first part of a paper by
Mr Stevenson, :on the bottom of the German Ocean
er North Sea, illustrated by beautiful plans and sec-

1820.
Feb. 12.
Dr Yule on |
a Collection
of Plants
from India 5
and Profes-
sor Jameson
on Mud Vol-
canoes, &c.

Feb. 26.
Dr Dewar on
the Mode of
Nutrition of
Hair, Fea-
thers, and
Nails: and
Dr Boué on
the Rocks of
Auvergne,

March 11,
Professor
Jameson on
Formation of
Trap-rocks.

March 25.
Mr Steven-
son on the
Bottom of
the North

|

Sea; Mr
Swainson on
a New Spe-
cies of Picus3
and Mr
Stewart on
the Germi-
nation of
Ferns.

April 8.
Conclusion
of Mr Ste-
venson on
the Bottom
of the Ger-
man Ocean ;
and Mr Da-
vid Don on
New Scoteh
Plants.

August 3.
Mr Sivright
on Silica in
Teak-wood ;
and Mr Gre-
ville on rare
Devonshire
Fuci.

‘Nov. 18.
Dr Barne’s
Biography of
an Old Gen-
tleman who
has comple-
ted his 115
year ; Pre-
fessor Jame-
son on the
Arctic Expe-
dition; Mr

_ Greville on
the Aretic
Flora ; and

‘Mr Don on
the Plants of
Nepaul.

7

534 APPENDIX.

tions. Likewise a communication from, Mr Swain-
son of Liverpool, describing Two New Species of
Picus. Mr Stewart then read a paper on the Ger-
mination of some of the Fern tribe. ibe WY

The Secretary read the remainder of Mr Steven-
son’s paper on the Bed of the German Ocean, or
North Sea. He then read a communication from
Mr David Don, London, describing several xare
Plants found in Scotland, and which are new to the
Scottish klora. :

Professor Jameson communicated to the Society,
a notice by Mr Sivright, regarding the existence of
a very considerable quantity of Pure Silica in the
Teak-wood of the East Indies. And the Secretary
read a communication from Mr Greville on some
rare Fuci found on the shores of Devonshire.

The Reverend Mr Russel read a communication
from Dr Barnes, to Professor Jameson, giving an
account of an old gentleman, now alive, who had
completed his 115th year. The Proféssor then gave
a general account of the progress of the Discovery
Ships through Barrow’s Straits; their wintering in
a bay in Melville Island; the animals met with,
&e. derived from conversations with the Officers
of the Hecla, lately in Leith Roads. Hg likewise
read extracts from two botanical communica-
tions; one by Mr Greville, on the Plants of the

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 535

Arctic Regions, and describing a New Species of
Potentilla, brought home by Mr Jameson, surgeon ;
and the other by Mr David Don, describing seve-
ral new Plants from the Nepaul Mountains.

Professor Jameson read an account of the Over- 382°.
land Arctic Expedition : and he, at the same time, Professor
laid before the Society, a Map of the Country, on ag
the west and north sides of Hudson’s Bay, drawn Overland
by a Native Esquimaux. He then read the first pes ae es
part of a Voyage to Baffin’s Bay, by Mr William 2™%0"'s

Voyage to
Jameson. > ‘Baffin’s Bay.

_ The Seeretary read the concluding part of Mr W. _,, De 16.
Jameson’s narrative of his Voyage into Baffin’s Bay. of Metis
Mr Adie then laid before the Society, his Improved to Batis,
Instrument, or Beam, for facilitating the determin- pe :
‘ing of Specific Gravities of Minerals, &c. the prin- fi 4"
ument

cipal advantages of which are, that no weights or os
ie : mining the
calculations-are necessary ; that the whole operations Specific Gra-
: vity of Mi-
may be performed in a few minutes; and that the nerals; and

ie ‘ : ° account of
instrument 1s easily portable, and 1s not expensive. Colotiel

Mr Deuchar, Lecturer on Chemistry, communicated ae 1h :

to the Society, an account of Colonel Yule’s im- for Pischa
‘ P ging Ord-

proved Apparatus for Discharging of Ordnance; and __ nance.

mentioned ‘some results that have occurred as to the .
nature and properties of Flame.

‘The Secretary read two notices from Dr Colla- _,1**}.

don; one relative to Cinchonin and Quinin, or the Dr Colla-
‘ don’s Notice.

of Mr Adie’s .

1821.
of Cinchonin
and Quinin ;
and of Spix’s
Expedition :
and Profes-
sor Jameson
on the use of
Todine in the

Cure of Goi- —

tre, and of
its existence
in Peat.

536 APPENDIX.

Alkaline Substances existing in Cinchona; the other
relative to the Travels in Brazil, of Messrs Spix
and Martins, sent thither by the king of Bavaria.
Professor Jameson also read a notice in regard to
the use of Iodine in the cure of Goitre, and of the
existence of Iodine in the Peat of this country, and
in eryptogamous land plants. The Professor then
exhibited, 1. A preserved head of a New Zealand
Chief, having the skin and tattooing of the face in
a very perfect condition. 2. A section of a log of
Elm, containing the nest of a titmouse, completely
encircled by the solid wood of the tree, the speci-
men having occurred in one of the Royal Dock-
yards, and been sent by Lord Melville to Professor
Jameson, for the Regius Museum of the Univer-
sity.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 537

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1821.

Office-Bearers elected at the Meeting on the
2d December 1820.

President.

~ Rosert Jamzson, Esq. Prof. Nat. Hist. Edin. &c.

Vice-Presidents.

Sir Patrick WALKER, Rozert STEVENSON, Esq.
‘Tuo. Mackenzie, Esq. M. P.| Davin Fatconar, Esq.

Secretary, Pat. NEILL, Esq.
Treasurer, WitL1aM E tis, Esq.
Lnbrarian, JaMEs Witson, Esq.
Painter, P. Symx, Esq.

Council.
‘FHOMAS SivRicutT, Esq. Col. Davin WILLIAMSoNn.
Dr James Grecory jun., | WiiL1am Newsiceine, Esq,
Capt. Tuomas Brown. Dr Samvuet Hizserv.

Patrick SMALL Kerr, Esq| Roperr Bap, Esq.

538 APPENDIX.

List of Members of the Wernerian Naturat
History Society of Edinburgh,—continued
From Volume Second.

HONORARY.

1819.
Nov. 27. His Royal Highness I Parxce LEOPOLD of

SaxrE Cosouge.

1820.
Aug. 5. The Count Irrersure of Sweden.

~ RESIDENT.

1817.
Dec. 20. Captain Tuomas Brown, (formerly Non-Resi~
dent, January 8. 1814.) |
SAMUEL ae M.D.
1818.
April 15. Grorcre Berry, Esq. Edinburgh,
Joun Innes Crawrorp, Esq. Edinburgh.
Rosert Liston, Esq. Surgeon, Edinburgh.
Patrick SMALL Kerr, Esq. of Kinmonth.
The Rev. Tuomas Netson, Edinburgh. .
Dec. 5. Colonel Davin Srewarr of Garth.
Joun AiTKEN, M. D. Edinburgh.

1818.

1819.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 539

iy

The Rev. Micuar. Russert, D. D. Leith.
Dr Wi.Li1am Macponatp of Ballishare.

April 15. AnprEew Suiten; Bea, § Staff Surgeon.

1819.
Dec. 29.

1820.

Joun Giiiizs, M. D. Edinburgh.

Capt. Joun Witson CarmicnakE. Edinburgh.

Henry Dewanz, M. D. Edinburgh.

James Rozinson Scott, Esq. Lecturer on Bo-
tany.

Sir James Sruart, Bart. of Allanbank.

Anprew WavpEL1, Esq. Leith.

Professor Grorce Dunzar, Edinburgh.

Dr Watter Oupney, Surgeon. R. N.

The Rev. Epwarp Cratic, Edinburgh.

JouHN Stewart, Esq. Lecturer on Botany.

Rozert Kaye Grevitte, Esq. Edinburgh.

Anprew Cxrason, Esq. Edinburgh.

Jonn Crawrorp, Esq. Edinburgh.

Dr James Fisner, Edinburgh.

Wiriram Granam, M. D. Edinburgh.
Joun Devcnar, Esq. Lecturer on Chemistry,
Edinburgh.

Dec. 2. Wittr1am Jarpine, Esq. younger of Applegirth.

1821.

Mar. 10.

Martuew Miturr, Esq. Gleniee.

Gitsert Innes, Esq. of Stow.

James Hay, Esq. Leith. |
Wii1amM Dryspae, Esq. Edinbnrgh. |
Witiram Marsuatt, Esq. Edinburgh.

James Maitianp Hoe, Esq. Newliston.

540 APPENDIX.
NON-RESIDENT.
1818. | |

April 15. Witi1am Cieiianp, Esq. Glasgow.
JamzEs Murriesury, M. D. Bath,

Dec. 5. Dr Samvet Srrovutt, Bombay.
Epwarp Srymour, Esq. A. B.

1819.

April15. Sir James Macexecor, Bart. °
PripEavux Joun SEvBy, Esq. of Twizell-House.
SAMUEL Parkes, Esq. London. |
Rosert Fraser, Esq. Civil Engineer.
Captain Wess, Nepaul.
Dr Wit11am Gorpon, Jamaica.
ALEXANDER Larpiaw, Esq. Nepaul.
Hewry Hevranp, Esq. London. |
Captain CarmicHaEL, formerly of Tristan

d’Acunha.

Dec. 29. Witt1am Swarnson, Esq. Liverpool.

Watter CaLvertey TREVELYAN, Esq. B. A.
M.G.S. Wallington.
JosEPH Harrison Fryer, Esq. of Lyzick-Hall.
Joun Murray, Esq. Lecturer on Chemistry,
Aberdeen,

Aug. 5. Dr Rozert WIi11I1s.
Dec. 2. Anprew G. C. Tucker, Esq. Ashburton.

Mar. 10. Dr Grorce Macratu, Plymouth.

FOREIGN.

1818. | |
April15. Dr James MEass, Philadelphia. : a
_ Professor LALLEMENT, Paris.

1819.

April 15.

Dec. 29.

1820.

HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 541

Dr Tuomas HorsFiExp, Java,

Professor Griscom, New-York.

Dr G. F. W. Meyer of Gottingen.

Mr A. Risso of Nice.

Dr Amir Bovr, Hamburgh.

Dr Avcust VERDEIL, Lausanne.

Count Breunner, Hereditary High Chamber-
lain of Lower Austria, &c.

Professor De Wotre, Niirnberg.

Dr Meyer, Counsellor of State, Offenbach.

Mr Konrap Jaxos TEmmMInick, Haarlem.

Mr Joun MEncE of Hanau.

M. Louis Durresne, Jardin du Roi, Paris.

M. LECuHEvVALIER GEOFF ROY ST HILalRE, Paris.

Aug. 5. Baron Porurr of Switzerland.

Dec. 2.

1821.

Mar. 10.

Dr Lovis Turopore FrepErick CoLtiapon of
Geneva.
M. Justizcommissar KEFERSTEIN, Halle.

M. Avcuste Pyramus DEcanDOLLE, Geneva.

M. Herserskxt1, Professor of Medicine, Wilna.

Dr L. H. Bosanus of Wilna.

Dr Biasivs MErreo, Professor of Natural His-
tory, Marburg.

Professor H. F. Liyx, Director of ie Botanic
Garden, Berlin.

Dr Dantet Drake, Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. K. Am. Kiiun, Professor of Geognosy and
Mining, Freyberg.

M. Harpincer of Vienna, now at Freyberg,
Saxony.

wy chee

4 "ts ae, :
ath wevty alt
AS MET ft Cees

6 ts

wee ond ts “a BDU, Mid t

+ a

vbw ; ai "

Ricaah Rete

a afl Ae yi

\

( 543)

— INDBX

1: "4 ¥
eS a

VOLUME THIRD.

VBVIVAVVVOVBWUVS

A
Page.
Aggregation, principle of, - - 261
Amethyst, crystals of, found in drusy cavities in Dolomite,
near Cork, = - 93
at Wilkiehaugh, in trap-rocks, imbedded and in
veins, = - 233
Analysis, chemical, of the Juice of the Papaw Tree, 248

Anatomy of the Orang Outang, observations on the, by Dr
Thomas Stewart Traill, 1.—The Indian and
African Ourang mistaken by Naturalists for
the same species.—-The present subject is the
latter, (a female), 2.—Account of its habits, 3.
—External appearance, 6.—Internal structure,
9.—Bones.—Of the head, 10.—Trunk, 13.—
Upper extremity, 17.—Lower extremity, 19.
—Joints and ligaments, 21.—Muscles, 22.—
Brain and nerves, 33.—Heart, lungs, and
bloodvessels, 37.—Organs of sense, 38.—Or-
gans of voice, 39.—Chylopoétic viscera, 43.—
Urinary organs, 46.—Organs of generation,
AT.

544 INDEx.
Page,

Anatomy of the Beluga, - = 380
Axes of Double Refraction, their Number, connected with

the Primitive Forms of Crystals, 50,-337

Single, may be resolved into several, 63

B

Bald, Robert, Esq. on the Coalfield of Clackmannanshire
and the Form of Coalfields in Great B Britain, 128

Barclay, Dr, his Account of the Dissection of a Beluga, 371

Basalt, columnar, bed of, in tuff, - ae) 236

Beaver, Account of some Fossil Remains of the, found in
Scotland, by Patrick Neill, Esq. 207.—Its exis-
tence in Wales proved by the evidence of early
writers, ibid.—Probable existence in Scotland in
the twelfth century, 209.—On the authority of
Bellenden, about the year 1536, 210,—Beavers
not mentioned in the public records of Scot-
land, 211.—Gaelic name still retained, 212.—Fos-
sil remains discovered in 1I788, 213.—Also in
1818, 215.—Peat-moss composed of musci, re-
taining their distinct characters, 216.—Organic
remains in ditto, 217.

Being, Abstract of a Paper on the Scale of, and on ee
zation and the Living Principle, by John Camp-

hell, Esq. 260.—Principle of Aggregation.—

Stratification, 261.—Crystallization.—Organiza-
tion, 262.—Living principle different from the
organization, 269.

Beluga, or White Whale, Account of a, killed in the Frith
of Forth, by Dr Barclay, and Patrick Neill, Esq.
371.—Capture, 372.—Description and dimen-
sions, 373.—The flesh eaten in Greenland, 378.
—Dissection, 380.—Tongue.—Alimentary canal,
382. — Spleen. — Omentum.— Pancreas, 383.—

. ‘INDEX. 545

Page.
Liver. — Testicles. —Penis.— Heart and blood-
vessels, 348. — Os hyoides.— Larynx.— Trachea
and lungs, 386.—Breathing of these animals
elucidated, 387.—Bones of the head, 388.—Ver-
tebral column, 389.—Ribs.—Organs of sense,
393. | :
Beroe, on the British species of the Genus, by Dr Fleming
of Flisk, 400.—Description of the one under
consideration, 401.—Different from the Beroe
ovata of Baster, 403.—Beroe fulgens, 404.—Be-
roe pileus, 406.
Birds, Change of Plumage in many species of Female, in
advanced age, - - 1838
Breathing, mode of, explained in the Beluga, - 371
Brewster, Dr, on the connection between the Primitive
Forms of Crystals, and the Number of their
Axes of Double Refraction, ~ - 50
Additional Observations on the Primitive
Forms of Crystals, - - ~ 337
Butter, John, Esq. on the Change of Plumage in many old
Female Birds, V8 - 183
Buxbaumia aphylla, on the Leaves, Capsule, and Root of,
by Robert Kaye Greville, Esq. 442.—First found
in Great Britain, by Dr Hooker.—Leaves disco-
vered by the late Mr Stewart, 443.—Other leaves
ascertained, 444.—Capsule, 446.—Root, 447.

C

Caloric, Experiments on the Nature of, 510.—Its power
diminished by Velocity, 505.
Campbell. John, Esq. on Organization and the Living Prin-

ciple, — - - - - 260
Canty Bay, rocks of, described, ii - 237
Carica Papaya, effects of the juice of, - ~ 245

VOL. IFt., Mm

540 INDEX:

Page.
Castor Fiber, L. Fossil Remains of the, found in Scotland, 207
Cat, new species of, | 170
Clackmannanshire, observations on the Coal-field of, 123
Clinkstone, columnar, - - | 241

Goal-field of Clackmannanshire, sitive sicdieiaiis on,
by Robert Bald, Esq. 123.—Recapitulation, «bid.
—Bones suppesed te belong to the Whale or »
Grampus tribe, 1%5.—Oak trees found in the re-
cent alluvial cover of the river Devon.—No or-
ganic remains in the old alluvial cover, though
plentiful in the coal beneath, 126.—Beds of coal
rest always on a stratum of fire-clay, 127.—Dip
and dislocation of the Coal-field, 128.——-Number
of strata, 129.—Contrary dip of the south Coal-
field, 130.—Extreme hardness of some masses of
Sandstone, 132.—Ochill Mountains, 135.—John-
stone Coal-field.—Brora Coal-field,—and Staf-
fordshire Coal-field, exceptions to the general -
form, 135.—Absolute form of Coal-fields, 14.1.—
Organic remains, 149.—Tabular beds of coal,
150..
Cork, Observations on the Mineralogy of its neighbour-

ied

hood, - 25 83

Crystals, on the Connection between the Primitive Forms
of, and the Number of their Axes of: Double Re-
fraction, by David Brewster, LL. Dy, 50.—Crys-
tals arrange themselves according to the num-
ber of their axes, under a certain series of primi- ~~
tive forms, 51.—Table shewing this connection,.
52.—Table containing other crystals, the num-
ber of whose axes are ascertained, and which may
be referred to certain classes of primitive forms.
—lst Class, 57.—2d Class, 58.—3d Class, BA
Table of those crystals possessing double refrac-
tion, whose number of axes is not determined,

INDEX. : 547

Page.

61.—A single polarising axis may be the resultant

of any number of equal axes of an opposite cha-

racter, 63.—Resolution of the single axis into dif-
ferent numbers of axes, 65.—The same principle
applied to the 2d and 3d classes of primitive
forms, 67.—Intensity of the resultant axis in the

Rhemboid, for different inclinations, 71.—Ditto

in the Octohedrcn, 7 3.—General law represent-

ed by formule, 74.

Crystals, Additional Observations on the Primitive Forms
of, by David Brewster, LL. D., 337.—The right
prism, with a square base, included in the Ist
class of primitive forms, 328.—1st Class of pri-
mitive forms, 339.—Crystals with one axis divid-
ed into positive and negative, 340.—System of
Professor Mohs, 341. Comparative view of

.*, Haiiy’s primitive forms, with Mohs’s fundamental
forms, and the optical system, 342.—Minerals
which ought to have a different primitive form
from that assigned them by Haty, 344.—Fun-
damental forms of minerals determined by Mohs,
345.—Primitive forms of minerals and crystals
not determined, 348.

With one axis divided into positive and negative, 340
Crystallization, principle of = - 262
Cuticle, Nails, Hair, Feathers, and Plants, on the nutrition

, of, by Henry Dewar, M. D., 272.—All the ele-
ments of a living body, to be found in dead mat-
ter, 274.—No evident law for securing the per-

manence of organized species of Being, 275.—

Inquiry concerning the progress of nutriment,

270.—Vessels may be of too minute calibre to

admit of circulation, 278.—No trace of vessels at

the extremity of feathers, 281.—Nourished by a

halitus, 283.
Mm 2

BAS. INDEX...

Page.
D

Deoris, effects of, on the bettom of the Ocean, 320.—In in-
land lakes, 322.

Deer, horns of, in peat-moss, = »» *Q14; 217, 219

Delphinus, description of a new species of, by the late
George Montagu, Esq., 75.—Teeth numerous,.
close, flat, and even with the gums, 76.—Capture
in. the river Dart, 80.

Deuchar, Mr John, on a plan for discharging Ordnance, 472

his Experiments on the same continued, 499.

Devonshire, Account of some of the Cryptogamous Plants
of, by Robert Kaye Greville, Esq., 351.—Musci,
355.—Musci hepatice.—Filices, 359.—F uci, 360.
—Ulvz, 363.—Gymnostomum truncatulum, var.
ramosum.—Polytrichum aloides and nanum, the:
same species, 363.—Pterogonium Smithii abun-
dant in one district only, 364.—Fontinalis, squa-
mosa, a good species, 365.—Fucus hypoglos-
sum found in January, 346.—Fucus laciniatus
with two modes of fructification,. 368.—Zoophy-
tic productions on Fucus rubens, 369.

Dewar, Dr, on the Nutrition. of Cuticle, Nails, Hair,
Feathers, and Plants, - = O72

Diallage, Red, in Trap-tuff, Amygdaloid, and Basalt; 2381

Dick, Thomas Lauder, Ena his Account of the Travelled —
Stone, - - 251

Dislocation of Coal-fields, - - 128
Don, Mr David, his Account of New or Rare Scotch Biri 204
his Description of several New Plants from Ne-

paul, - 407

Dunbar, Rocks in the N Ligaehood of, described, 228
E

Earth, Crust of the, composed ‘of five simple minerals, 220:

Fast Lothian.—See Lothian. |

INDEX. 545

Feathers, nutrition of, - = 272
Felis, description of a New Species of, by Thomas Stewart
Traill, M. D., 170.—Its dimensions, 172.

Flame, the power of, diminished by velocity, - 505
— Experiments on the nature of, 510
Fleming, Rev. Dr John, on the Mineralogy of the Neigh-
bourhood of Cork, - 82
aaa on the Water-Kail, ~ 174
his description of the British Spe-
_ cies of Beroe, t - 400
Flora, Arctic, some account of, “s i 416
-Fontinalis squamosa, remarkable smell of, - 366
Forms, primitive of Crystals, connected with the number
of their axes of double refraction, - 52
Form, absolute, of Coal-fields in Great Britain, with excep-
tions, - i c 141
Fossil Skeleton, account of a, i 450
Fowls, domestic, age of, d " 905

change of plumage in the female, in age, 184

Frog, common, physiological notice concerning the early
‘state of, by James Wilson, Esq., 458.—The young
tadpoles supposed to be nourished by the gela-
tinous mass in which they were inclosed, even
after their exclusion, 458.—Umbilical cord pro-
ceeding from each globule, and attached to the
belly of the tadpole, 459.—Duration of the tad-
pole state, 462.—Fore legs protruded, in a per-
fect state, from the sac in which they are formed.
—Progress of the tadpole to maturity, 463.

Fucus, description of a New Species of, by Robert Kaye

Greville, Esq. : se 396
laciniatus, found to possess two modes of fructifi-
cation, - Le Sips 368

—— hypoglossum, found in winter as well as summer, 367

550 INDEX.

Page.
G
Geognosy of East Lothian, ALE ET eip
Graphite, discovered at the Spittal of ‘Ghetiatied™ by the Rev.

Dr Thomas Macknight, = 121
Greenstone, columnar, ss 228
Greville, ‘Robert Kaye, Esq. on the Chyneoadediie plants of

Devonshire, te 351

—— his description of a New Fucus, 396
his description of a New Species —
ef Potentilla, and account of the

- 9 Arctic Fiora, - 416
. on the Leaves, Capsule, and Root
of Buxbaumia aphylla, 442
Grierson, Rev. Dr James, his Account of some Sandstone
Petrifactions, - 156
Gymnostomum truncatulum, var. of, - 363
H
Hair, nutrition of, « - ate
Halitus, the supposed mode of nourishment for cuticle,
nails, and feathers, _ 283
Haiy’s primitive forms, compared with Mohs’ fundamental
forms, and the optical system, - 342

Hen, domestic, change of plumage in the, 184.—Age of
ditto, 205.

History of the Society, - - 525
Holder, Dr. on the intenerating effects of the Juice of the
Papaw Tree, - Si 245

Horns of Deer.—See Deer. |
Hygrometer, New, ~ - - 4.02

INDEX. | 551

Page.
i

Instruments, Description of two new philosophical, by Mr
Adie, - = - 483

Instrument, Description of one for ascertaining Specific
Gravities, without the use of weights or caleu-
lation, by Mr Adie, - ee © 405

J

Jameson, Professor, on the Rocks of Sandside in Caithness, 220
—_— ———_——— on the Geognosy of East Lothian, 225
on the Rocky Mountain Sheep of the
Americans, - - 306
Jameson, William, Esq. Plants found by, in Greenland, 426

L

Laurie, Mr Thomas, his Report on the subject of introdu-
cing the Rocky Mountain Sheep of America into
~ Scotland, : 4 307
Law, North Berwick, Rocks of described, 241.—Supposed
to be a mass contained in the surrounding strata;
242. |
Living Principle, Observations on, - 260
Lothian East, Geognosy of, by Professor Jameson, 225.—
Scotland divided into three parts, 225.—No fix-
ed primitive rocks in East Lothian.—Secondary
Rocks.—Red Sandstone, 227.—Subordinate beds
to ditto—Rocks at Dunbar.—Columnar Green-
stone, 228.—Curious Conglomerated-like Sand-
stone, 229.—Rocks on the north-west side of the
Harbour described, 230.—Red Diallage and Oli-
‘vine in Trap-tuff, Amygdaloid, and Basalt, 231.
—TJrap-rock rising through Sandstone strata.—

552 . INDEX.

Page.
Compact-tuff quarried for Oven-stones, 232.—

Stratified Red-tuff with veins of Basalt and Green-
stone, 234.—Red Sandstone containing imbedded
portions of Clay and Compact Limestone.—Masses
of hard Sandstone contained in the softer, 235.—
Tantallan Bay.—Red and White Zeolite and Ame-
thyst in tuff—Bed of columnar Basalt in ditto,
236.—Canty Bay, 238.—Termination of the la-
minz of the slaty varieties of Sandstone on Mas-
sive Sandstone, 238.—Slips in Sandstone strata,
239.—North Berwick-Law.—Columnar Clink-
stone, 241.—Rocks of the Law probably rising
through the Sandstone, 242. ;
Luminosity of the Sea, - - 466
Lutra vittata, and Viverra poliocephalus, account of, by
Thomas Stewart Traill, M. D., 437.—Lutra vit-
tata, 438.—Viverra poliocephalus, 440.

M

-Macknight, the Rev. Dr Thomas, his Mineralogical Notices

- and Observations, - = - 104
Macrodactyle, Synopsis of the British species of the family
of, = - ~ 181

Mineralogy of the Neighbourhood of Cork, Observations on,
by the Rev. Dr Fleming, 83.—I. Grey-wacke
Slate, 84.—Subordinate Rocks, 8'7.—Remains of
Dicotyledonous Vegetables, 89.—II. Limestone,
91. — Floatstone, 95.— Remains of Testaceous
Mollusca.— Nautilus. — Ellipsolithus.—Orthoce-
ra.—Amplexus.—Euomphalus.—Cardium.—Te-
rebratula. — Productus. — Plagiostoma.—Spini-
fer, 96.—ITI. Clay-slate, 98.—Talc-slate, 99.—
Wavellite, 100. :

INDEX. 553

Page.
Mineralogical Notices and Observations, by the Rev. Dr
Macknight, 104.—Mica-slate covered by an over-
lying formation of Felspar, 104.—Observations
at Inverary, 106.—Dalmaly.—Cruachan, 107.—
Bunawe, 108.—Bridge of Awe, 109.—Tainuilt,
—Connal Ferry.—Conglomerate lying over Clay-
slate, 110.—Beregonium, 111.—Mica-slate, con-
taining Hornblende beneath Clay-slate, 112.—
Lismore.—Balahulish, 113.—Fort-William, 114.
— Fort-Augustus.—Corrygaraik, 115.— Garvie-
more. — The Spey.—Cairngorum, 116. — Scotch
Topaz, 117.—The Don.—Corgarff.—The Dee,
119.—Gairnbridge.—Cluny Water, 120.—Spittal
of Glenshee.—Graphite, 121. |
Minerals, Additional Observations on the Connection be-
tween the Primitive Forms of, and the Number
of their Axes of Double Refraction, by Dr
Brewster, - - - 357
Mohs, Fundamental Forms of Minerals determined by, 345
Mollusca, Testaceous, remains of, in limestone near Cork, 95

Monkey, Jacketed, description of, - - 1607
Montagu, the late George, his description of a New Spe-
cies of Delphinus, - - 75
Mosses, Various Species, ascertained in Peat, at a great
depth, - - 216
N
Nails, Nutrition of, - - 272
Neill, Mr Patrick, on some Fossil Remains of the Beaver,
found in Scotland, tas 207
—_—____—_—_——— on the Beluga or White Whale, 371
Nepaul, Several New Plants from, described, ~ 407

Nutriment, the Progress of, in the Animal Body, 276

ook INDEX.

Page.
O

Ocean, ‘German, on the Bed of the, by Robert Stevenson,
Esq. 314.—Sea encroaching on the Land, a ge-
neral principle, 314.—The Ocean, the great re-
ceptacle for the waste of the Globe, 315.—
Soundings and Extent of the German Ocean,
317.—Dimensions of the Sandbanks, 320.—In-
land Lakes subject to the same alteration, from
Debris, 322.—Wasting effect of the Ocean very
general, 325.—Disproportion between the Land
gained and lost, 326.—Sea formerly much high-
er than at present, 327.—Water of the Ocean dis-
placed by various causes, 330.—Agitated to a
great depth, 332.—Surplus Water supposed to
find its level at the Polar Basins, 335.

‘Ochill Mountains, Mineralogical View of, as connected

with the Coalfield in Clackmannanshire, 135
Olivine, in Trap-tuff, Amygdaloid, and Basalt, - 231
Orang Outang, Anatomy of, - ‘. 1

Ordnance, Plan for Discharging, on Forsyth’s Principle,
with several Experiments, by Mr John Deuchar,
472.—Advantages of this mode, 474.—Fulmina-
ting Powders, 477 .—F lame made to pass through
flannel and explode Gunpowder, 480.—Experi-
ment with the Safety Lamp.—Flame made to
pass through Gunpowder without inflaming it,
481. |
Plan for Discharging continued, by Mr John
Deuchar, 499. —Power of Flame diminished by
Velocity, 505 _—Causes of the Phenomena obser-
ved in the experiments, 510.—Sources by which
the Caloric might be disengaged, 512.—Conclu-
sion of the experiments on the Nature of Flame,
515.—Experiments elucidating the Nature of

Caloric, 519. -

INDEX. | 556

Page.
Organiza‘ ‘Jon, Observations on, - ry 260
Principle of, - - 262

Pp

Papaw-Tree, Account of the Effects of the Juice of the, in
_ intenerating Butcher’s meat, by Dr Holder, 245.

Well known in Barbadoes, 245.—The fruit, when

cooked, not deleterious, 246.—Appears to reduce
inflammatory symptoms, 247.—Conclusions from

the Chemical Analysis, 248.—The uncooked

fruit has the same effect, when eaten by animals,

as the juice, when applied to butcher’s meat, 249

Petrifaptions, Account of some Sandstone, found near Edin-
burgh, by the Rev. George Grierson, 156.—Great
Length and Diameter of some petrified vegeta-
ble Stems, 157.—Similar phenomena observed in
Africa.—Inquiry into the process of Petrifaction,
159.—Sandstone, in some instances, a chemical
deposite, 162.—Importance of the study of Pe-
trifactions, 163.

Pheasant-Hen, assumes the Male Plumage very early in

confinement, = . 191

Picus, Observations on the Genus, with descriptions of two
New Species, by William Swainson, Esq. 288.—
Picus chrysosternus, 289.—Picus Braziliensis,
291.
Plants, Remains of, in Slate-clay, - =
descriptions of New or Rare Native, found in Scot-
land, by Mr David Don, 294.—Veronica seti-
gera, 297.—Poa stricta, 298.—Poa leptastachya,
299.—Cherophyllum aromaticum, 300.—Orobus
tenuifolius, 301.—Lychnis alpina, 302.—Poten-
tilla opaca, 304.

89

556 INDEX.

Page.
Plants, New, descriptions of several from Nepaul, ‘4y Mr :
David Don, 407.—Rhododendron setosum, 408.
—R. anthopagon, 409.—R. campanulatum, 410.
—Andromeda cupressiformis, 411.—Lilium Ne-
palense.—Delphinium scabriflorum, 412.—Leon-
todon eriopodum, 413.—Tragopogon gracile} —
Saussurea gossipiphora, 414. .
Cryptogamous, some account of the Devonshire, 351
Nutrition of - ~ = 272
Plumage, Account of the Change of, in many species of Fe-
male Birds in advanced age, by John Butter,
Esq. 183.—Hen Pheasant and Pea~-Hen.—Do-
mestic Hen, 184.—The Change completed in a
single season, 185.—Instances in Domestic Hens,
186,-187.—Not noticed by Buffon, 190.—Fe-
male Pheasants assume the Male Plumage very
early in a state of confinement, 191.—Female
Partridge changes its Plumage early, 192.—
Increase of hair on the Faces of Women, in ad-
vanced age, perhaps analogous.—Conclusions,
193.—List of those Birds which have assumed
the Male Plumage, 197.—Various instances from
authors, 200.—Age of Domestic Fowls, 205.
Polytrichum, aloides and nanum, the same species, 363
Potentilla, New Species of, described, with some ‘ace
count of the Arctic Flora, by Robert Kaye Gre-
ville, Esq. 416.— Plants found by Captain
Scoresby in Spitzbergen, 423.— By William
Jameson, Esq. in Greenland, 426.—By Captain ©
Ross on the shores of Baffin’s Bay, 433,

Powders, Fulminating, - - ATT
Philosophical Instruments, description of Two New, by
- Mr Adie, ' - TON 483

INDEX. 557

<\ Page
Q
Quartz, transition of, into crystallized granitic rocks, 22k
R
Refraction, Number of the Axes of Double, connected with
Primitive Forms of Crystals, - - 50
Rocks of Sandside, observations on the, - - 220
Ross, Captain, Plants found by, on the shores of Baffin’s
Bay, ame, - - 433
Ss
Sandstone, extraordinary hardness of some masses of, in
Coal-fields, - - 132
—— hard masses of, contained in the softer, 235
Petrifactions, account of some, - 156
in some cases, a chemical deposite, - 162
Red, containing imbedded portions of clay and
compact limestone, | - - 235
Curious conglomerated-like, ~ 289
Sandbanks, dimensions of, in the German Ocean, 320

Sandside, in Caithness, on the Rocks of, by Professor
Jameson, 220.—Crust of the Earth, composed ~
of five simple minerals, ibid.— Transition of
Quartz into Crystallized Granite Rocks, 221.—
Syenites, Granites, Conglomerates, Sandstone,
and Limestone, members of the same formation,

224,

Scoresby, Captain, Plants found by, in Spitzbergen, 423

Sea, on the Luminosity of the, by John Murray, Esq.
466.—Causes assigned for it, 467.—Luminous
Beroe, 468.—Medusa, 470.

Sea, North, on the Bed of, - - 314

558 INDEX.

he® Page.

Sheep, on the Rocky Mountain of the Americans, by ’ro- i
fessor Jameson, 306.—Not a Species cf the Ge-
nus Ovis, nor to be ranked with the Capre,
306.—Report of Mr Thomas Laurie on the pro-
priety of introducing it into Scotland, 7 ide
Wool remarkably fine, 310.

Simia sagulata, or Jacketed Monkey, description of, by
Thomas Stewart Traill, M. D. - 167

Skeleton, Fossil, account of a singular, found at Whitby, _
by the Reverend George Young, 450.—Imbed-
ded in the Alum Rock.—Description of its re-
mains, 451.—Genus to which it belongs, uncer-
tain, 454: :

Society, History of the, Sa “ 525

Stevenson, Mr Robert, on the Bed of the German Ocean, 314

Stone, travelled, account of the, near Castle-Stewart, by’

Thomas Lauder Dick, Esq. . 251-
Stratification, Principle of, - - “ih 261
Swainson, Mr William, on Two New Species of Picus, 288°
Sympiesometer, description of the, . 483°

‘iT
Tadpole, description of the state of. 9 alia of the Tad-

pole state, - =) » 462
-—__———— Young, nourished by an Umbilical Cord, 459
Tantallan Bay, Rocks of described, - =i Yo 236
Traill, Dr Thomas Stewart, on the Anatomy of the Orang

~ Outang, ee: 1
- his description of the Simia
sagulata, - PT

his description of a New Spe-
cies of Felis from Guyana, 170
his account of the Lutra vit-
tata, and. Viverra aii
phalus, 2 90 437

*

INDEX. | 559

V

Vauquelin, his Analysis of the Juice of the Papaw Tree, 248
Vegetables, remains of Dicotyledonous, in Slate-clay, near

Cork, - - 89.

: in Peat-moss, - 217

Viverra poliocephalus, account of the, - 437
WwW

Water-rail, on the, by the Reverend Dr Fleming, 174.—
Specific marks, 176.—Spines detected on the
wings.—General description, 177.—Eggs, 179.—
Food.—Hahits, 180.—Probably not migratory.
—Synopsis of the British Species of the family
Macrodactyle, 181.

Water of the Ocean, displaced by many causes, 330.—Agi-
tated to a great depth, 332.

Wavellite, - - - 100
Whale, skeleton of, found near Stirling, - 327
Whale, White, account of a, - - 371

Wilson, Mr James, on the EarlyState of the Common Frog, 458

~ Women, increase of Hair on the Faces of, in advanced age,

to what analogous, » - a 193
Y
Young, the Reverend George, his account of a Fossil Ske-
leton, found at Whitby, - 450°
Z
Zeolite, Red, and White, in tuff, at Tantallan Bay, 236

END OF VOLUME THIRD.

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